,illu/ration3 ,dunes at ,ipswi* ,light1 ,massa*usetts4 ,note ! effect ( bu%es 9 arre/+ ! movem5t ( ! w9d-bl[n s&4 ,,outl9es ,,( ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,hi/ory ,a ,,popul> ,,/udy ,,9 ,,physiography ,,by ,,na?aniel ,,s\?gate ,,%al] ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,geology ,,9 ,,h>v>d ,,univ]sity ,,dean ,,( ,,lawr5ce ,,sci5tific ,,s*ool ,,illu/rat$ ,,) ,,index ,,new ,,york ,,& ,,london ,d4 ,,appleton ,,& ,,company #ahih1 #aiaj ,,preface4 ,! object ( ?is book is to provide ! beg9n] 9 ! /udy ( ! e>?'s hi/ory ) a g5]al acc\nt ( ^? actions :i* c be readily und]/ood & :i* w af=d him cle> und]/&+s z to ! nature ( ! processes :i* h made ?is & o!r cele/ial sph]es4 ,x has be5 ! writ]'s purpose to select ^? s]ies ( facts :i* s]ve to %[ ! cont9u\s op]ations ( en]gy1 s t ! read] might be help$ to a tru] conception ( ! nature ( ?is sph]e ?an he c obta9 f ord9>y text-books4 ,9 ! usual me?od ( pres5t+ ! elem5ts ( ! e>?'s hi/ory ! facts are set =? 9 a mann] :i* leads ! /ud5t to conceive t hi/ory z 9 a way complet$4 ,! natural prepossession to ! effect t ! visible univ]se repres5ts some?+ done1 r ?an some?+ endlessly do+1 is ?us re-en=c$1 ) ! result t "o may fail to ga9 ! l>ge/ & mo/ educative impression :i* physical sci5ce c af=d him 9 ! s5se ( ! swift & un5d+ procession ( ev5ts4 ,x is well kn[n to all :o are acqua9t$ ) ! hi/ory ( geology t ! /atic conception ( ! e>?--! idea t its exi/+ condition is ! f9i%$ product ( =ces no long] 9 action--l$ to prejudices :i* h long ret>d$1 & inde$ /ill ret>d1 ! progress ( t sci5ce4 ,?is fact indicates t at ! outset ( a /ud5t's "w 9 ?is field he %\ld be gu>d$ aga9/ su* misconceptions4 ,! only way to atta9 ! end is by br++ to ! und]/&+ ( ! beg9n] a cle> idea ( successions ( ev5ts :i* are caus$ by ! =ces op]at+ 9 & on ?is sph]e4 ,( all ! *apt]s ( ?is great /ory1 t :i* relates to ! hi/ory ( ! "w done by ! heat ( ! sun is ! mo/ int]e/+ & awak5+4 ,!re=e an ef=t has be5 made to pres5t ! great successive /eps by :i* ! sol> en]gy acts 9 ! processes ( ! air & ! wat]s4 ,! int]e/ ( ! beg9n] 9 geology is sure to be ar\s$ :5 he comes to see h[ v f> ! hi/ory ( ! e>? has influ5c$ ! fate ( m54 ,!re=e ! aim has be51 :]e possible1 to %[ ! ways 9 :i* geological processes & results are relat$ to ourselves2 h[1 9 a ^w1 ?is e>? has be5 ! well-appo9t$ nurs]y ( our k9d4 ,all ^? :o are engag$ 9 tea*+ elem5t>y sci5ce le>n ! ne$ ( limit+ ! /ory !y h to tell to ^? tru?s :i* c be easily und]/ood by beg9n]s4 ,x is sometimes be/1 z 9 /at+ su* difficult matt]s z ^? conc]n+ ! tides1 to give explanations :i* are f> f complete1 & :i*1 z to _! mode ( pres5tation1 w\ld be op5 to criticism 7 x n = ! fact t any m elaborate /atem5ts w\ld mo/ likely be incompreh5sible to ! novice1 ?us defeat+ ! tea*]'s aim4 ,x w be obs]v$ t no acc\nt is "h giv5 ( ! geological ages or ( ! successions ( organic life4 ,*apt]s on ^! subjects 7 prep>$1 b 7 omitt$ = ! reason t !y made ! /ory too long1 & also because !y c>ri$ ! read] into a field ( mu* great] difficulty ?an t :i* is f\nd 9 ! physical hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,n4,s4,s4 ,m>*1 #ahih4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4--,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,nature #a ,,ii4--,,ways ,,& ,,means ,,( ,,/udy+ ,,nature #i ,,iii4--,,! ,,/ell> ,,realm #ca ,,iv4--,,! ,,e>? #ha ,v4--,,! ,,atmosph]e #ig ,,vi4--,,glaci]s #bjg ,,vii4--,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,und]gr\nd ,,wat] #bej ,,viii4--,,! ,,soil #cac ,,ix4--,,! ,,rocks ,,& ,,_! ,,ord] #cdi ,,li/ ,,( ,,full-,,page ,,illu/rations4 ,,fac+ ,,page ,dunes at ,ipswi* ,light1 ,massa*usetts ,frontispiece ,seal ,rocks ne> ,san ,francisco1 ,cali=nia #cc ,lava /ream1 9 ,hawaiian ,isl&s1 fl[+ into ! sea #gb ,wat]fall ne> ,gadsd51 ,alabama #ij ,s\? %ore1 ,m>?a's ,v9ey>d1 ,massa*usetts #aba ,pocket ,creek1 ,cape ,ann1 ,massa*usetts #afc ,muir ,glaci]1 ,alaska #bjg ,front ( ,muir ,glaci] #bdj ,m\nt tna1 se5 f ne> ,catania #bja ,m\nta9 gorge1 ,himalayas1 ,india #ccj ,,outl9es ,,( ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,hi/ory4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,nature4 ,! object ( ?is book is to give ! /ud5t :o is ab\t to ent] on ! /udy ( natural sci5ce "s g5]al idea z to ! conditions ( ! natural realm4 ,z ?is field ( inquiry is va/1 x w be possible only to give ! m]e/ outl9e ( its subject-matt]1 not+ ^? features alone :i* are ( surpass+ int]e/1 :i* are dem&$ = a l>ge und]/&+ ( man's place 9 ?is _w1 or :i* p]ta9 to 8 duties 9 life4 ,9 ent]+ on any field ( inquiry1 x is mo/ desirable t ! /ud5t %\ld obta9 "s idea z to ! ways 9 :i* m5 h be5 l$ to ! k :i* !y possess conc]n+ ! _w ab\t !m4 ,!re=e x w be well briefly to sket* ! /eps by :i* natural sci5ce has come to be :at x is4 ,by s do+ we %all p]ceive h[ mu* we owe to ! /ud5ts ( o!r g5]ations2 & by not+ ! difficulties :i* !y enc\nt]$1 & h[ !y avoid$ !m1 we %all m easily f9d our own way to k4 ,! primitive savages1 :o 7 ! ance/ors ( all m51 h[ev] civiliz$ !y may be1 7 /ud5ts ( ,nature4 ,! remnants ( ^! l[ly p :o 7 left 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w %[ u t man 0 n long 9 exi/5ce be=e he began to devise "s explanation conc]n+ ! c\rse ( ev5ts 9 ! out] _w4 ,see+ ! sun rise & set1 ! *anges ( ! moon1 ! alt]nation ( ! seasons1 ! incessant movem5t ( ! /reams & sea1 & ! o!r m or less ord]ly successions ( ev5ts1 our primitive =efa!rs 7 driv5 to inv5t "s explanation ( !m4 ,?is1 indep5d5tly1 & 9 _m diff]5t times & places1 !y did 9 a simple & natural way by suppos+ t ! _w 0 controll$ by a ho/ ( intellig5t be+s1 ea* ( :i* _h "s "p 9 ord]+ mat]ial ?+s4 ,sometimes ^! invisible p[]s 7 believ$ to be ! spirits ( great *iefta9s1 :o 7 active :5 on e>?1 & :o aft] dea? cont9u$ to ex]cise _! p[] 9 ! l>g] realms ( ,nature4 ,aga91 & p]haps m commonly1 ^! movem5ts ( ,nature 7 suppos$ to be due to ! action ( great ?\gh invisible bea/s1 mu* l ^? :i* ! savage f\nd ab\t him4 ,?us among our ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians ! w9ds are expla9$ by ! supposition t ! air is fann$ by ! w+s ( a great unse5 bird1 ^: duty x is to set ! atmosph]e into motion4 ,t no "o has ev] se5 ! bird do+ ! "w1 or t ! task is too great = any conceivable bird1 is to ! simple1 uncultivat$ man no objection to ?is view4 ,x is long1 inde$1 be=e education br+s m5 to ! po9t :]e !y c criticise _! fir/ explanations ( ,nature4 ,z m5 9 _! advance come to see h[ mu* nobl] are _! own natures ?an ^? ( ! l[] animals1 !y gradually put aside ! explanation ( ev5ts by ! actions ( bea/s1 & acc\nt = ! ord] ( ! _w by ! supposition t ea* & e important detail is controll$ by "s immortal creature ess5tially l a man1 ?\gh mu* m p[]ful ?an ^? ( _! own k9d4 ,?is /age ( und]/&+ is p]haps be/ %[n by ! my?ology ( ! ,greeks1 :]e !re 0 a great god ov] all1 v p[]ful b n omnipot5t2 & b5ea? him1 9 endless successions ( comm&1 subord9ate p[]s1 ea* ) a less range ( duties & capacities ?an ^? ( high] e/ate1 until at ! bottom ( ! sy/em !re 7 m9or deities & demigods *>g$ ) ! managem5t ( ! trees1 ! fl[]s1 & ! spr+s--creatures diff]+ little f man1 except t !y 7 immortal1 & g5]ally invisible1 ?\gh !y1 l all ! o!r deities1 might at _! w display !mselves to ! human be+s ov] :om !y wat*$1 & ^: pa? 9 life !y guid$4 ,among only "o p d we f9d t ! process ( advance l$ beyond ?is e>ly & simple me?od ( acc\nt+ = ! processes ( ,nature1 br++ m5 to an und]/&+ su* z we n[ possess4 ,?is great task 0 accompli%$ by ! ,greeks alone4 ,ab\t tw5ty-five hundr$ ye>s ago ! philosoph]s ( ,greece began to p]ceive t ! e>ly notion z to ! guidance ( ! _w by creatures ess5tially l m5 c\ld n be accept$1 & mu/ be replac$ by "s o!r view :i* w\ld m effectively acc\nt = ! facts4 ,?is end !y atta9$ by /eps :i* c n well be relat$ "h1 b :i* l$ !m to suppose sep>ate p[]s beh9d ea* ( ! natural s]ies--p[]s hav+ no relation to ! qualities ( mank9d1 b ev] act+ to a def9ite end4 ,?us ,plato1 :o repres5ts mo/ cle>ly ?is advance 9 ! int]pretation ( facts1 imag9$ t ea* p>ticul> k9d ( plant or animal _h its %ape inevitably det]m9$ by some?+ :i* he t]m$ an idea1 a %ape-giv+ p[] :i* exi/$ be=e ! object 0 creat$1 & :i* w\ld rema9 aft] x _h be5 de/roy$1 ev] ready aga9 to br+ matt] to ! p>ticul> =m4 ,f ?is /age ( und]/&+ x 0 b a %ort /ep to ! mod]n view ( natural law4 ,?is la/ important advance 0 made by ! great philosoph] ,ari/otle1 :o1 ?\gh he di$ ab\t tw5ty-two hundr$ ye>s ago1 des]ves to be acc\nt$ ! fir/ & 9 _m ways ! greate/ ( ! anci5t m5 ( sci5ce :o 7 in=m$ ) ! mod]n _s4 ,) ,ari/otle1 z ) all 8 intellectual successors1 ! op]ations ( ,nature 7 conceiv$ z to be acc\nt$ = by ! action ( =ces :i* we commonly designate z natural laws1 ( :i* p]haps ! mo/ famili> & univ]sal is t ( gravitation1 :i* impels all bodies to move t[>d ea* o!r ) a degree ( int5sity :i* is measur$ by _! weight & ! di/ance by :i* !y are sep>at$4 ,= _m c5turies /ud5ts us$ ! t]m law 9 some:at ! same way z ! m philosophical believ]s 9 poly!ism spoke ( _! gods1 or z ,plato ( ! ideas :i* he conceiv$ to control ,nature4 ,we see by ?is in/ance h[ h>d x is to get rid ( old ways ( ?9k+4 ,ev5 :5 ! new h be5 adopt$ we v (t5 f9d t some?+ ( ! anci5t & disc>d$ notions cl+ 9 our phrases4 ,! m advanc$ ( our mod]n philosoph]s are cle> 9 _! m9d t all we "k z to ! ord] ( ,nature is t1 giv5 c]ta9 conditions1 c]ta9 consequ5ces inevitably foll[4 ,al?\gh ! limitations :i* mod]n m5 ( sci5ce p]ceive to be put ^u _! lab\rs may seem at fir/ sight calculat$ to conf9e our und]/&+ )9 a n>r[ field ( ?+s :i* c be se51 or 9 "s way di/9ctly prov$ to exi/1 ! effect ( ?is limitation has be5 to make sci5ce :at x is--a realm ( ?+s kn[n z di/9ct f ?+s :i* may be imag9$4 ,all ! diff]5ce betwe5 anci5t sci5ce & mod]n consi/s 9 ! fact t 9 mod]n sci5ce inquir]s dem& a bus9esslike me?od 9 ! int]pretation ( ,nature4 ,among ! ,greeks ! philosoph] :o taught explanations ( any feature 9 ! mat]ial _w :i* int]e/$ him 0 cont5t if he c\ld imag9e "s way :i* w\ld acc\nt = ! facts4 ,x is ! mod]n cu/om n[ to t]m ! supposition ( an explanation a work+ hypo!sis1 & only to give x ! "n ( !ory aft] a v c>eful se>* has %[n t all ! facts :i* c be ga!r$ are 9 accordance ) ! view4 ,?us :5 ,newton made 8 great sugge/ion conc]n+ ! law ( gravitation1 :i* 0 to ! effect t all bodies attract$ ea* o!r 9 proportion to _! masses1 & inv]sely z ! squ>e ( _! di/ance f ea* o!r1 he did n re/ cont5t1 z ! old ,greeks w\ld h done1 ) ! probable tru? ( ! explanation1 b c>efully explor$ ! movem5ts ( ! planets & satellites ( ! sol> sy/em to see if ! facts accord$ ) ! hypo!sis4 ,ev5 ! p]fect correspond5ce :i* he f\nd did n entirely cont5t inquir]s1 & 9 ?is c5tury v important exp]im5ts h be5 made :i* h s]v$ to %[ t a ball susp5d$ 9 front ( a precipice w be attract$ t[>d ! /eep1 & t ev5 a mass ( lead "s tons 9 weight w attract t[>d itself a small body susp5d$ 9 ! mann] ( a p5dulum4 ,x is ?is incessant revision ( ! facts1 9 ord] to see if !y accord ) ! assum$ rule or law1 :i* has giv5 mod]n sci5ce ! s\nd foot+ t x lack$ 9 e>li] days1 & :i* has p]mitt$ our le>n+ to g on /ep by /ep 9 a safe way up ! heights to :i* x has climb$4 ,all explanations ( ,nature beg9 ) ! "w ( ! imag9ation4 ,9 common phrase1 !y all are guesses :i* h at fir/ b little value1 & only atta9 importance 9 proportion z !y are v]ifi$ by long-cont9u$ criticism1 :i* has = its object to see :e!r ! facts accord ) ! !ory4 ,x is 9 ?is ef=t to secure pro( t mod]n sci5ce has ga!r$ ! enorm\s /ore ( well-asc]ta9$ facts :i* con/itutes its true weal?1 & :i* di/+ui%es x f ! e>li] imag9ative & to a great ext5t unprov$ views4 ,9 ! orig9al /ate ( le>n+1 natural sci5ce 0 conf\nd$ ) political & social tradition1 ) ! precepts ( duty :i* con/itute ! law ( ! p1 z well z ) _! religion1 ! :ole be+ 9 ! possession ( ! prie/s or wise m54 ,s long z natural action 0 suppos$ to be 9 ! imm$iate control ( num]\s gods & demigods1 s long1 9 a ^w1 z ! explanation ( ,nature 0 :at we t]m poly!i/ic1 ?is association ( sci5ce ) o!r =ms ( le>n+ 0 n only natural b inevitable4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 z ! conception ( natural law replac$ ! e>li] idea z to ! int]v5tion ( a _s1 sci5ce dep>t$ f o!r =ms ( lore & came to possess a field to itself4 ,at fir/ x 0 "o body ( le>n+4 ,! naturali/s ( ,ari/otle's "t1 & f 8 day d[n to ne> our own1 g5]ally conc]n$ !mselves ) ! :ole field ( ,nature4 ,= a "t x 0 possible = any "o able & labori\s man to "k all :i* _h be5 asc]ta9$ conc]n+ a/ronomy1 *emi/ry1 geology1 z well z ! facts relat+ to liv+ be+s4 ,! m1 h[ev]1 z obs]vation accumulat$1 & ! /ore ( facts increas$1 x became difficult = any "o man to "k ! :ole4 ,h5ce x has come ab\t t 9 our own "t natural le>n+ is divid$ into _m di/9ct prov9ces1 ea* ( :i* dem&s a lifetime ( lab\r f ^? :o w\ld "k :at has already be5 done 9 ! field1 & :at x is n[ important to d 9 ! way ( new inquiries4 ,! l>ge divisions :i* naturali/s h usually made ( _! tasks re/ 9 ! ma9 on ! natural p>titions :i* we may readily obs]ve 9 ! ph5om5al _w4 ,fir/ ( all comes a/ronomy1 includ+ ! ph5om5a exhibit$ 9 ! heav5s1 beyond ! limits ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,second1 geology1 :i* takes acc\nt ( all ^? actions :i* 9 process ( "t h be5 develop$ 9 our own sph]e4 ,?ird1 physics1 :i* is conc]n$ ) ! laws ( en]gy1 or ^? conditions :i* affect ! motion ( bodies1 & ! *anges :i* are impress$ ^u !m by ! diff]5t natural =ces4 ,f\r?1 *emi/ry1 :i* seeks to int]pret ! pr9ciples :i* det]m9e ! comb9ation ( atoms & ! molecules :i* are built ( !m "u ! influ5ce ( ! *emical aff9ities4 ,fif?1 biology1 or ! laws ( life1 a /udy :i* p]ta9s to ! =ms & /ructures ( animals & plants1 & _! wond]ful successions 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,six?1 ma!matics1 or ! sci5ce ( space & numb]1 t deals ) ! pr9ciples :i* und]lie ! ord] ( ,nature z express$ at once 9 ! human und]/&+ & 9 ! mat]ial univ]se4 ,by its use m5 7 made able to calculate1 z 9 ari?metic1 ! problems :i* conc]n _! ord9>y bus9ess1 z well z to compute ! movem5ts ( ! cele/ial bodies1 & a ho/ ( actions :i* take place on ! e>? t w\ld be inexplicable except by ! aid ( ?is sci5ce4 ,la/ ( all among ! prim>y sci5ces we may "n t ( psy*ology1 :i* takes acc\nt ( m5tal op]ations among man & 8 l[] k9dr$1 ! animals4 ,9 addition to ! sev5 sci5ces above m5tion$1 :i* re/ 9 a great measure on ! natural divisions ( ph5om5a1 !re are _m1 inde$1 indef9itely num]\s1 subdivisions :i* h be5 made to suit ! conv5i5ce ( /ud5ts4 ,?us a/ronomy is (t5 sep>at$ into physical & ma!matical divisions1 :i* take acc\nt ei!r ( ! physical ph5om5a exhibit$ by ! heav5ly bodies or ( _! motions4 ,9 geology !re are half a doz5 divisions relat+ to p>ticul> bran*es ( t subject4 ,9 ! realm ( organic life1 9 *emi/ry1 & 9 physics !re are _m p>ts ( ^! sci5ces :i* h receiv$ p>ticul> names4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t ^! sci5ces h ! indep5d5ce ( ea* o!r :i* _! sep>ate names w\ld imply4 ,9 fact1 ! /ud5t ( ea*1 h[ev]1 f> he may succe$ 9 sep>at+ 8 field f t ( ! o!r naturali/s1 z we may fitly t]m all /ud5ts ( ,nature1 is compell$ f "t to "t to call 9 ! aid ( 8 bre?r5 :o cultivate o!r bran*es ( le>n+4 ,! mod]n a/ronom] ne$s to "k mu* ( *emi/ry1 or else he c n und]/& _m ( 8 obs]vations on ! sun4 ,! geologi/s h to %>e _! "w ) ! /ud5t ( animal & vegetable life1 ) ! physici/s2 !y mu/1 moreov]1 "k some?+ ( ! cele/ial sph]es 9 ord] to int]pret ! hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,9 fact1 day by day1 ) ! advance ( le>n+1 we come m cle>ly to p]ceive t all ! processes ( ,nature are 9 a way relat$ to ea* o!r1 & t 9 proportion z we und]/& any "p ( ! great me*anism1 we are =c$ 9 a mann] to compreh5d ! :ole4 ,9 o!r words1 we are com+ to und]/& t ^! divisions ( ! field ( sci5ce dep5d ^u ! limitations ( our k1 & n ^u ! ord] ( ,nature itself4 ,= ! purposes ( education x is important t e "o %\ld "k some?+ ( ! great tru?s :i* ea* sci5ce has disclos$4 ,no mortal man c compass ! :ole realm ( ?is k1 b e "o c ga9 "s idea ( ! l>g] tru?s :i* may help him to und]/& ! beauty & gr&eur ( ! sph]e 9 :i* he dwells1 :i* w enable him ! bett] to meet ! ord9>y duties ( life1 t 9 almo/ all cases are relat$ to ! facts ( ! _w ab\t u4 ,x has be5 ( late ! cu/om to t]m ?is body ( g5]al k :i* takes acc\nt ( ! m evid5t facts & important s]ies ( t]re/rial actions physiography1 or1 z ! t]m implies1 a description ( ,nature1 ) ! und]/&+ t ! k *os5 = ! acc\nt is t :i* mo/ intimately conc]ns ! /ud5t :o seeks in=mation t is at once g5]al & important4 ,!re=e1 9 ?is book ! ef=t is made fir/ to give an acc\nt z to ! ways & means :i* h l$ to our und]/&+ ( sci5tific problems1 ! me?ods by :i* ea* p]son may make himself an inquir]1 & ! outl9e ( ! k t has be5 ga!r$ s9ce m5 fir/ began to obs]ve & criticise ! revelations ! univ]se may af=d !m4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,ways ,,& ,,means ,,( ,,/udy+ ,,nature4 ,x is desirable t ! /ud5t ( ,nature keep well 9 m9d ! means :]eby he is able to p]ceive :at goes on 9 ! _w ab\t him4 ,he %\ld und]/& some?+ z to ! nature ( 8 s5ses1 & ! ext5t to :i* ^! capacities enable him to disc]n ! op]ations ( ,nature4 ,man1 9 common ) 8 l[] k9dr$1 is1 by ! me*anism ( ! body1 provid$ ) five some:at diff]5t ways by :i* he may le>n some?+ ( ! ?+s ab\t him4 ,! simple/ ( ^! capacities is t ( t\*1 a faculty t is common to ! g5]al surface ( ! body1 & :i* in=ms u :5 ! surface is affect$ by contact ) "s ext]nal object4 ,x also enables u to disc]n diff]5ces ( temp]ature4 ,next is ! s5se ( ta/e1 :i* is limit$ to ! m\? & ! p>ts ab\t x4 ,?is s5se is 9 a way relat$ to t ( t\*1 = ! reason t x dep5ds on ! contact ( our body ) mat]ial ?+s4 ,?ird is ! s5se ( smell1 s closely relat$ to t ( ta/e t x is difficult to draw ! l9e betwe5 ! two4 ,yet ?r\gh ! app>atus ( ! nose we c p]ceive ! microscopically small p>ts ( matt] borne to u ?r\gh ! air1 :i* c\ld n be appreciat$ by ! n]ves ( ! m\?4 ,f\r? 9 ord] ( scope comes ! he>+1 :i* gives u an acc\nt ( ^? waves ( matt] t we und]/& z s\nd4 ,?is p[] is mu* m f> rang+ ?an ^? be=e not$2 9 "s cases1 z 9 t ( ! volcanic explosions f ! isl& ( ,krakatoa1 9 ! eruption ( #ahhc1 ! convulsions 7 audible at ! di/ance ( m ?an a ?\s& miles away4 ,! great] cannon ( mod]n days may be he>d at ! di/ance ( m ?an a hundr$ miles1 s t :ile ! s5se ( t\*1 ta/e1 & smell dem& contact ) ! bodies :i* we appreciate1 he>+ gives u in=mation conc]n+ objects at a consid]able di/ance4 ,la/ & highe/ ( ! s5ses1 va/ly ! mo/ important 9 all t relates to our und]/&+ ( ,nature1 is sight1 or ! capacity :i* enables u to appreciate ! movem5t ( ^? v small waves ( e!r :i* con/itute light4 ,! em95t peculi>ity ( sight is t x may give u in=mation conc]n+ ?+s :i* are inconceivably f> away2 x enables u to disc]n ! light ( suns probably millions ( times z remote f u z is ! c5tre ( our own sol> sy/em4 ,al?\gh mu* ( ! pleasure :i* ! _w af=ds u comes ?r\gh ! o!r s5ses1 ! basis ( almo/ all our accurate k is report$ by sight4 ,x is true t :at we h obs]v$ ) our eyes may be set =? 9 words1 & ?us f9d its way to ! und]/&+ ?r\gh ! e>s2 also t 9 _m in/ances ! s5se ( t\* conveys in=mation :i* ext5ds our p]ceptions 9 _m important ways2 b sci5ce re/s practically on sight1 & on ! insight t comes f ! tra9+ ( ! m9d :i* ! eyes make possible4 ,! e>ly inquir]s _h no res\rces except ^? _! bodies af=d$2 b man is a tool-mak+ creature1 & 9 v e>ly days he began to inv5t in/rum5ts :i* help$ him 9 inquiry4 ,! e>lie/ delib]ate /udy 0 ( ! />s4 ,sci5ce began ) a/ronomy1 & ! fir/ in/rum5ts :i* m5 contriv$ = ! purpose ( inve/igation 7 a/ronomical4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is se>* ! />s 7 /udi$ 9 ord] to measure ! l5g? ( ! ye>1 & also = ! reason t !y 7 suppos$ 9 "s way to control ! fate ( m54 ,s f> z we "k1 ! fir/ pieces ( app>atus = ?is purpose 7 inv5t$ 9 ,egypt1 p]haps ab\t f\r ?\s& ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,^! in/rum5ts 7 ( a simple nature1 = ! magnify+ glass 0 n yet contriv$1 & s ! telescope 0 impossible4 ,!y consi/$ ( arrangem5ts ( /raight edges & divid$ circles1 s t ! obs]v]s1 by sight+ along ! in/rum5ts1 c\ld 9 a r\gh way det]m9e ! *anges 9 di/ance betwe5 c]ta9 />s1 or ! height ( ! sun above ! horizon at ! v>i\s seasons ( ! ye>4 ,x is likely t ea* ( ! great pyramids ( ,egypt 0 at fir/ us$ z an obs]vatory1 :]e ! prie/s1 :o _h "s k ( a/ronomy1 f\nd a /ation = ! app>atus by :i* !y made ! obs]vations t s]v$ z a basis = ca/+ ! horoscope ( ! k+4 ,9 ! progress ( sci5ce & ( ! me*anical inv5tion att5d+ its gr[?1 a great numb] ( inv5tions h be5 contriv$ :i* va/ly increase our vision & add inconceivably to ! precision x may atta94 ,9 fact1 some?+ l z mu* skill & lab\r has be5 giv5 to ! developm5t ( ^? inv5tions :i* add to our le>n+ z to ^? :i* s]ve an imm$iate economic end4 ,by f> ! greate/ ( ^! sci5tific inv5tions are ^? :i* dep5d ^u ! l5s4 ,by comb9+ %ap$ bits ( glass s z to control ! direction 9 :i* ! light waves move ?r\gh !m1 naturali/s h be5 able to create ! telescope1 :i* 9 effect may br+ di/ant objects "s ?\s& times ne>] to view ?an !y are to ! nak$ eye2 & ! microscope1 :i* s enl>ges m9ute objects z to make !m visible1 z !y 7 n be=e4 ,! result has be5 enorm\sly to increase our p[] ( vision :5 appli$ to di/ant or to small objects4 ,9 fact1 = purposes ( le>n+1 x is safe to say t ^? tools h altoge!r *ang$ man's relation to ! visible univ]se4 ,! nak$ eye c see at be/ 9 ! "p ( ! heav5s visible f any "o po9t n m ?an ?irty ?\s& />s4 ,) ! telescope some:]e ne> a hundr$ million are br\ght )9 ! limits ( vision4 ,)\t ! help ( ! microscope an object a ?\s&? ( an in* 9 diamet] appe>s z a m]e po9t1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* we c det]m9e only "u fav\rable circum/ances4 ,) t in/rum5t ! object may reveal an ext5d$ & complicat$ /ructure :i* x may require a va/ lab\r = ! obs]v] fully to explore4 ,next 9 importance to ! aid ( vision above not$ come ! sci5tific tools :i* are us$ 9 weigh+ & measur+4 ,^! balances & gauges h atta9$ su* precision t int]vals s small z to be q invisible1 & weights z slight z a t5-?\s&? ( a gra91 c be accurately measur$4 ,f ^! in/rum5ts h come all ^? precise exam9ations on :i* ! accuracy ( mod]n sci5ce intimately dep5ds4 ,all ^! in/rum5ts ( precision are ! inv5tions ( mod]n days4 ,! simple/ telescopes 7 made only ab\t two hundr$ & fifty ye>s ago1 & ! e>li] comp\nd microscopes at a yet lat] date4 ,accurate balances & o!r =ms ( gauges ( space1 z well z good means ( divid+ "t1 su* z our accurate a/ronomical clocks & *ronomet]s1 are only ab\t a c5tury old4 ,! in/rum5ts h made sci5ce accurate1 & h imm5sely ext5d$ its p[]s 9 ne>ly all ! fields ( inquiry4 ,al?\gh ! mo/ /rik+ mod]n discov]ies are 9 ! field :i* 0 op5$ to u by ! l5s 9 its manifold applications1 x is 9 ! *emi/'s laboratory t we f9d t bran* ( sci5ce1 long cultivat$1 b rapidly advanc$ only )9 ! la/ two c5turies1 :i* has done ! mo/ = ! ne$s ( man4 ,! anci5ts guess$ t ! sub/ances :i* make up ! visible _w 7 m complicat$ 9 _! organization ?an !y appe> to our vision4 ,!y ev5 sugge/$ ! great tru? t matt] ( all k9ds is made up ( inconceivably small indivisible bits :i* !y & we t]m atoms4 ,x is likely t 9 ! classic days ( ,greece m5 began to make simple exp]im5ts ( a *emical nature4 ,a c5tury or two aft] ! "t ( ,mohamm$1 ! ,arabians ( 8 fai?1 a p :o _h acquir$ ,greek sci5ce f ! libr>ies :i* _! conque/s gave !m1 conduct$ ext5sive exp]im5ts1 & nam$ a good _m famili> *emical products1 su* z alcohol1 :i* /ill be>s its ,arabic "n4 ,^! *emical /udies 7 cont9u$ 9 ,europe by ! al*emi/s1 a "n also ( ,arabic orig91 a set ( inquir]s :o 7 to a great ext5t drawn away f sci5tific /udies by va9 ?\gh un5d+ ef=ts to *ange ! bas] metals into gold & silv]1 z well z to f9d a comp\nd :i* w\ld make m5 immortal 9 ! body4 ,by ! inv5tion ( ! accurate balance1 & by pati5t weigh+ ( ! matt]s :i* !y submitt$ to exp]im5t1 by ! inv5tion ( hypo!ses or guesses at tru?1 :i* 7 c>efully te/$ by exp]im5t1 ! maje/ic sci5ce ( mod]n *emi/ry has come =? f ! confus$ & my/ical /udies ( ! al*emi/s4 ,we h le>n$ to "k t !re are sev5ty or m primitive or app>5tly un*angeable elem5ts :i* make up ! mass ( ?is _w1 & probably con/itute all ! cele/ial sph]es1 & t ^! elem5ts 9 ! =m ( _! sep>ate atoms may gr\p !mselves 9 almo/ inconceivably v>i$ comb9ations4 ,9 ! inanimate realm ^! associations1 compos$ ( ! atoms ( ! diff]5t sub/ances1 =m+ :at are t]m$ molecules1 are g5]ally compos$ ( b few units4 ,?us c>bonic-acid gas1 z x is commonly call$1 is made up ( an aggregation ( molecules1 ea* compos$ ( "o atom ( c>bon & two ( oxyg52 wat]1 ( two atoms ( hydrog5 & "o ( oxyg52 ord9>y iron oxide1 ( two atoms ( iron & ?ree ( oxyg54 ,9 ! realm ( organic life1 h[ev]1 ^! comb9ations become va/ly m complicat$1 & ) ea* ( !m ! prop]ties ( ! sub/ance ?us produc$ diff] f all o!rs4 ,a di/+ui%$ *emi/ has e/imat$ t 9 "o gr\p ( *emical comp\nds1 t ( c>bon1 x w\ld be possible to make su* an array ( sub/ances t x w\ld require a libr>y ( _m ?\s& ord9>y volumes to conta9 _! names alone4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( *emical sci5ce t x takes acc\nt ( actions :i* are almo/ entirely invisible4 ,no contrivances h be5 or are likely to be inv5t$ :i* w %[ ! obs]v] :at takes place :5 ! atoms ( any sub/ance dep>t f _! previ\s comb9ation & ent] on new arrangem5ts4 ,we only "k t "u c]ta9 conditions ! old atomic associations break up1 & new ones are =m$4 ,b ?\gh ! processes are hidd51 ! results are manife/ 9 ! *anges :i* are br\ght ab\t ^u ! masses ( mat]ial :i* are subject$ to ! alt]+ conditions4 ,gradually ! *emi/s ( our day are le>n+ to build up 9 _! laboratories m & m complicat$ comp\nds2 already !y h succe$$ 9 produc+ _m ( ! mat]ials :i* ( old c\ld only be obta9$ by extract+ !m f plants4 ,?us a numb] ( ! p]fumes ( fl[]s1 & _m ( ! dye-/uffs :i* a c5tury ago 7 extract$ f vegetables1 & 7 !n suppos$ to be only obta9able 9 t way1 are n[ readily manufactur$4 ,9 "t x seems likely t important articles ( food1 = :i* we n[ dep5d ^u ! se$s ( plants1 may be directly built up f ! m9]al k+dom4 ,?us ! result ( *emical inquiry has be5 n only to %[ u mu* ( ! va/ realm ( actions :i* g on 9 ! e>?1 b to give u control ( _m ( ^! movem5ts s t we may turn !m to ! ne$s ( man4 ,animals & plants 7 at an e>ly day v naturally ! subjects ( inquiry4 ,! anci5ts p]ceiv$ t !re 7 diff]5ces ( k9d among ^! creatures1 & ev5 9 ,ari/otle's "t ! sci5ces ( zology & botany _h atta9$ ! po9t :]e !re 7 consid]able treatises on ^? subjects4 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 until a little m ?an a c5tury ago t m5 began accurately to describe & classify ^! species ( ! organic _w4 ,s9ce ! "t ( ,l9nu ! gr[? ( our k has gone =w>d ) amaz+ swiftness4 ,)9 a c5tury we h come to "k p]haps a hundr$ times z mu* conc]n+ ^! creatures z 0 le>n$ 9 all ! e>li] ages4 ,?is k is divisible into two ma9 bran*es3 9 "o ! inquir]s h tak5 acc\nt ( ! diff]5t species1 g5]a1 families1 ord]s1 & classes ( liv+ =ms ) su* effect t !y h %[n ! exi/5ce at ! pres5t "t ( _m hundr$ ?\s& di/9ct species1 ! va/ assemblage be+ arrang$ 9 a classification :i* %[s some?+ z to ! relation%ip :i* ! =ms be> to ea* o!r1 & fur!rmore t ! k9ds n[ liv+ h n be5 long 9 exi/5ce1 b t at ea* /age 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>? ano!r assemblage ( species peopl$ ! wat]s & ! l&s4 ,at fir/ naturali/s conc]n$ !mselves only ) ! ext]nal =ms ( liv+ creatures2 b !y soon came to p]ceive t ! way 9 :i* ^! organisms work$1 _! physiology1 9 a ^w1 af=d$ matt]s = ext5d$ inquiry4 ,^! rese>*es h develop$ ! sci5ce ( physiology1 or ! laws ( bodily action1 on _m acc\nts ! mo/ mod]n & ext5sive ( our new acquisitions ( natural le>n+4 ,?r\gh ^! /udies we h come to "k some?+ ( ! laws or pr9ciples by :i* life is h&$ on f g5]ation to g5]ation1 & by :i* ! gradations ( /ructure h be5 advanc$ f ! simple creatures :i* appe> l bits ( animat$ jelly to ! body & m9d ( man4 ,! greate/ contribution :i* mod]n naturali/s h made to k conc]ns ! orig9 ( organic species4 ,! /ud5ts ( a c5tury ago believ$ t all ^! diff]5t k9ds _h be5 sudd5ly creat$ ei!r ?r\gh natural law or by ! imm$iate w ( ,god4 ,we n[ "k t f ! beg9n+ ( organic life 9 ! remote pa/ to ! pres5t day "o k9d ( animal or plant has be5 9 a natural & ess5tially gradual way conv]t$ into ! species :i* 0 to be its successor1 s t all ! va/ & complicat$ assemblage ( k9ds :i* n[ exi/s has be5 d]iv$ by a process ( *ange f ! =ms :i* 9 e>li] ages dwelt ^u ?is planet4 ,! exact mann] 9 :i* ^! alt]ations 7 produc$ is n yet det]m9$1 b 9 l>ge "p x has evid5tly be5 br\ght ab\t by ! me?od indicat$ by ,mr4 ,d>w91 ?r\gh ! survival ( ! fitte/ individuals 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,until m5 came to h a cle> conception z to ! sph]ical =m ( ! e>?1 x 0 impossible = !m to beg9 any intellig5t inquiries conc]n+ its /ructure or hi/ory4 ,! ,greeks knew ! e>? to be a sph]e1 b ?is k 0 lo/ among ! e>ly ,*ri/ian p1 & x 0 n until ab\t f\r hundr$ ye>s ago t m5 aga9 came to see t !y dwelt ^u a globe4 ,on ! basis ( ?is und]/&+ ! sci5ce ( geology1 :i* _h 9 a way be5 f\nd$ by ! ,greeks1 0 reviv$4 ,z ?is sci5ce dep5ds ^u ! k :i* we h ga9$ ( a/ronomy1 physics1 *emi/ry1 & biology1 all ( :i* bran*es ( le>n+ h to be us$ 9 expla9+ ! hi/ory ( ! e>?1 ! advance :i* has be5 made has be5 relatively sl[4 ,geology z a :ole is ! lea/ p]fectly organiz$ ( all ! divisions ( le>n+4 ,a special difficulty peculi> to ?is sci5ce has also s]v$ to h9d] its developm5t4 ,all ! o!r bran*es ( le>n+ deal ma9ly1 if n altoge!r1 ) ! conditions ( ,nature z !y n[ exi/4 ,9 ?is alone is x necess>y at e /ep to take acc\nt ( actions :i* h be5 p]=m$ 9 ! remote pa/4 ,x is an easy matt] = ! /ud5ts ( to-day to imag9e t ! e>? has long endur$2 b to our =efa!rs1 :o 7 educat$ 9 ! view t x _h be5 br\ght f no?+ness into exi/5ce ab\t sev5 ?\s& ye>s ago1 x 0 mo/ difficult & = a "t impossible to believe 9 its real antiquity4 ,endeav\r+1 z !y naturally did1 to acc\nt = all ! wond]ful revolutions1 ! hi/ory ( :i* is writt5 9 ! pages ( ! great /one book1 ! e>ly geologi/s suppos$ ?is planet to h be5 ! seat ( frequ5t & viol5t *anges1 ea* ( :i* revolutioniz$ its %ape & de/roy$ its liv+ t5ants4 ,x 0 only v gradually t !y became conv9c$ t a hundr$ million ye>s or m h elaps$ s9ce ! dawn ( life on ! e>?1 & t 9 ?is va/ p]iod ! m>* ( ev5ts has be5 /eadfa/1 ! *anges tak+ place at ab\t ! same rate 9 :i* !y are n[ go+ on4 ,z yet ?is conception z to ! hi/ory ( our sph]e has n become ! g5]al prop]ty ( ! p1 b ! fact ( x is recognis$ by all ^? :o h att5tively /udi$ ! matt]4 ,x is n[ z well asc]ta9$ z any ( ! o!r tru?s :i* sci5ce has disclos$ to u4 ,x is in/ructive to note ! hi/oric outl9es ( sci5tific developm5t4 ,! mo/ conspicu\s tru? :i* ?is hi/ory discloses is t all sci5ce has _h its orig9 & almo/ all its developm5t among ! peoples belong+ to ! ,aryan race4 ,?is body ( folk appe>s to h tak5 on its race *>act]i/ics1 acquir$ its orig9al language1 its modes ( action1 & ! f\ndations ( its religion 9 t "p ( nor!rn ,europe :i* is ab\t ! ,baltic ,sea4 ,!nce ! body ( ?is p appe> to h w&]$ t[>d c5tral ,asia1 :]e aft] ages ( pa/oral life 9 ! high table l&s & m\nta9s ( _! c\ntry x s5t =? bran*es to ,india1 ,asia ,m9or & ,greece1 to ,p]sia1 & to we/]n ,europe4 ,x seems ev] to h be5 a *>act]i/ic ( ^! ,aryan peoples t !y _h an extreme love = ,nature2 moreov]1 !y cle>ly p]ceiv$ ! ne$ ( acc\nt+ = ! ?+s t happ5$ 9 ! _w ab\t !m4 ,9 g5]al !y incl9$ to :at is call$ ! pan!i/ic explanation ( ! univ]se4 ,!y believ$ a supreme ,god 9 _m diff]5t =ms to be embodi$ 9 all ! ?+s !y saw4 ,ev5 _! own m9ds & bodies !y conceiv$ z manife/ations ( ?is supreme p[]4 ,among ! ,aryans :o came to dwell 9 ,europe & along ! ea/]n ,m$it]ranean ?is me?od ( expla9+ ,nature 0 9 "t *ang$ to "o 9 :i* humanlike gods 7 suppos$ to control ! visible & invisible worlds4 ,9 t m>vell\s c5tre ( culture :i* 0 develop$ among ! ,greeks ?is conception ( humanlike deities 0 9 "t replac$ by t ( natural law1 & 9 _! be/ days ! ,greeks 7 m5 ( sci5ce ess5tially l ^? ( to-day1 except t !y _h n le>n$ by exp]i5ce h[ important x 0 to criticise _! !ories by pati5tly comp>+ !m ) ! facts :i* !y s\ght to expla94 ,! la/ ( ! important ,greek m5 ( sci5ce1 ,/rabo1 :o 0 alive :5 ,*ri/ 0 born1 has left u writ+s :i* 9 quality are ess5tially l _m ( ! able works ( to-day4 ,b = ! int]ruption 9 ! developm5t ( ,greek le>n+1 natural sci5ce w\ld probably h be5 fifte5 hundr$ ye>s ahead ( its pres5t /age4 ,?is int]ruption came 9 two ways4 ,9 "o1 ?r\gh ! conque/ ( ,greece & ! de/ruction ( its intellectual life by ! ,romans1 a p :o 7 s+ul>ly incapable ( appreciat+ natural sci5ce1 & :o _h no o!r int]e/ 9 x except n[ & !n a vacant & unpr(itable curiosity z to ! processes ( ! natural _w4 ,a second de/ructive influ5ce came ?r\gh ! fact t ,*ri/ianity1 9 its en]getic prote/ aga9/ ! s9s ( ! pagan civilization1 absolutely neglect$ & 9 a way despis$ all =ms ( sci5ce4 ,! e>ly indiff]5ce ( ,*ri/ians to natural le>n+ is p>tly to be expla9$ by ! fact t _! religion 0 develop$ among ! ,hebrews1 a p rem>kable = _! lack ( int]e/ 9 ! sci5tific aspects ( ,nature4 ,to !m x 0 a suffici5t explanation t "o omnipot5t ,god rul$ all ?+s at 8 w1 ! heav5s & ! e>? alike be+ held 9 ! holl[ ( 8 h&4 ,f9d+ ! c5tre ( its developm5t among ! ,romans1 ,*ri/ianity came ma9ly into ! control ( a p :o1 z we h be=e rem>k$1 _h no sci5tific int]e/ 9 ! natural _w4 ,?is condition prolong$ ! sep>ation ( our fai? f sci5ce = fifte5 hundr$ ye>s aft] its beg9n+4 ,9 ?is "t ! records ( ,greek sci5tific le>n+ mo/ly disappe>$4 ,! writ+s ( ,ari/otle 7 pres]v$ 9 "p = ! reason t ! ,*ur* adopt$ _m ( 8 views conc]n+ que/ions 9 moral philosophy & 9 politics4 ,! re/ ( ,greek le>n+ 01 s f> z ,europe 0 conc]n$1 q neglect$4 ,a l>ge "p ( ,greek sci5ce :i* has come d[n to u owes its pres]vation to a v s+ul> incid5t 9 ! hi/ory ( le>n+4 ,9 ! n9? c5tury1 aft] ! ,arabs _h be5 conv]t$ to ,mohamm$anism1 & on ! basis ( t fai? _h swiftly organiz$ a great & cultivat$ empire1 ! s*ol>s ( t folk became deeply int]e/$ 9 ! remnants ( ,greek le>n+ :i* _h surviv$ 9 ! mona/ic & o!r libr>ies ab\t ! ea/]n ,m$it]ranean4 ,s greatly did !y prize ^! records1 :i* 7 contemn$ by ! ,*ri/ians1 t x 0 _! frequ5t cu/om to weigh ! old manuscripts 9 paym5t aga9/ ! co9 ( _! realm4 ,9 a/ronomy1 ma!matics1 *emi/ry1 & geology ! ,arabian /ud5ts1 build+ on ! anci5t f\ndations1 made notable & = a "t mo/ important advances4 ,9 ! t5? c5tury ( our era !y seem$ fairly 9 ! way to d = sci5ce :at we/]n ,europe began five c5turies lat] to accompli%4 ,9 ! f\rte5? c5tury ! c5tre ( ,mohamm$an /r5g? 0 transf]r$ f ! ,arabians to ! ,turks1 f a p naturally giv5 to le>n+ to a folk ( ano!r race1 :o despis$ all su* culture4 ,!nce=? 9 place ( ! m5 :o _h treasur$ & deciph]$ ) inf9ite pa9s all ! records ( e>li] le>n+1 ! foll[]s ( ,mohamm$ zeal\sly de/roy$ all ! records ( ! old5 days4 ,"s ( ^! records1 h[ev]1 surviv$ among ! ,arabs ( ,spa91 & o!rs 7 pres]v$ by ! ,*ri/ian s*ol>s :o dwelt 9 ,byzantium1 or ,con/ant9ople1 & 7 br\ght into we/]n ,europe :5 t city 0 captur$ by ! ,turks 9 ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,already ! advance ( ! f9e arts 9 ,italy & ! g5]al t5d5cy t[>d ! /udy ( ,nature1 su* z pa9t+ & sculpture indicate1 _h made a beg9n+1 or r a prop] field = a beg9n+1 ( sci5tific inquiry4 ,! result 0 a new int]e/ 9 ,greek le>n+ 9 all its bran*es1 & a v rapid awak5+ ( ! sci5tific _s4 ,at fir/ ! ,roman ,*ur* made no opposition to ?is new int]e/ :i* develop$ among its foll[]s1 b 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s1 animat$ ) ! fe> t sci5ce w\ld lead m5 to d\bt _m ( ! dogmas ( ! ,*ur*1 x und]took /]nly to repress ! "w ( all inquir]s4 ,! conflict betwe5 ^? ( ! ,roman fai? & ! m5 ( sci5ce cont9u$ = above two hundr$ ye>s4 ,9 g5]al1 ! "p :i* ! ,*ur* took 0 "o ( remon/rance1 b 9 a few cases ! _s ( fanaticism l$ to ! p]secution ( ! m5 :o did n obey its m&ates & disav[ all belief 9 ! new op9ions :i* 7 deem$ contr>y to ! tea*+s ( ,scripture4 ,! la/ in/ance ( su* oppression occurr$ 9 ,france 9 ! ye> #agef1 :5 ! great ,buffon 0 requir$ to recant c]ta9 op9ions conc]n+ ! antiquity ( ! e>? :i* he _h publi%$ 9 8 "w on ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,?is he promptly did1 & 9 almo/ s]vile language )drew all ! op9ions to :i* ! fa!rs _h object$4 ,a l conflict betwe5 ! foll[]s ( sci5ce & ! cl]ical au?orities occurr$ 9 ,prote/ant c\ntries4 ,al?\gh 9 no case 7 ! m5 ( sci5ce physically tortur$ or execut$ = _! op9ions1 !y 7 nev]!less subject$ to great religi\s & social pressure3 !y 7 almo/ z effectively discipl9$ z 7 ^? :o fell "u ! ban ( ! ,roman ,*ur*4 ,"s hi/orians h criticis$ ! action ( ! cl]ical au?orities t[>d sci5ce z if ! evil :i* 0 done _h be5 p]=m$ 9 our own day4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t 9 ! e>li] c5turies ! *ur*es reg>d$ !mselves z b\nd to protect all m5 f ! dang]s ( h]esy4 ,= c5turies 9 ! e>ly hi/ory ( ,*ri/ianity ! def5d]s ( ! fai? _h be5 engag$ 9 a life-&-dea? /ruggle ) paganism1 ! foll[]s ( :i* held all t 0 kn[n ( ,nature4 ,q naturally ! prie/ly class fe>$ t ! revival ( sci5tific inquiry w\ld br+ ) x ! evils f :i* ! _w _h suff]$ 9 pagan times4 ,!re is no d\bt t ^! p]secutions ( sci5ce 7 done "u :at seem$ ! obligations ( duty4 ,!y may prop]ly be expla9$ p>ticul>ly by m5 ( sci5ce z "o ( ! symptoms ( developm5t 9 ! day 9 :i* !y 7 done4 ,x is well = ^? :o h>%ly criticise ! relations ( ! ,*ur* to sci5ce to rememb] t 9 our own c\ntry1 ab\t two c5turies ago1 among ! mo/ enlight5$ & religi\s p ( ! "t1 ,quak]s 7 griev\sly p]secut$1 & wit*es hang$1 all 9 ! mo/ dutiful & ,god-fe>+ way4 ,9 consid]+ ^! relations ( sci5ce to our fai?1 ! matt] %\ld be dealt ) 9 a philosophical way1 & ) a s5se ( ! diff]5ces betwe5 our own & e>li] ages4 ,to ! /ud5t ( ! relations betwe5 ,*ri/ianity & sci5ce x mu/ appe> d\btful :e!r ! criticism or ! o!r consequ5ces :i* ! m5 ( sci5ce _h to meet f ! ,*ur* 0 h>mful to _! "w4 ,! e>ly naturali/s1 l ! ,greeks :om !y foll[$1 7 greatly giv5 to speculations conc]n+ ! processes ( ,nature1 :i*1 ?\gh int]e/+1 7 unpr(itable4 ,!y also %[$ a curi\s t5d5cy to m+le _! sci5tific speculations ) anci5t & base sup]/itions4 ,!y 7 (t5 giv5 to ! absurdity commonly kn[n z ! black art1 or wit*craft1 & held to ! prepo/]\s notions ( ! a/rologi/s4 ,ev5 ! immortal a/ronom] ,kepl]1 :o liv$ 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 0 a pr(essional a/rolog]1 & /ill held to ! notion t ! />s det]m9$ ! de/9y ( m54 ,_m o!r ( ! fam\s inquir]s 9 ^? ye>s :i* u%]$ 9 mod]n sci5ce believ$ 9 wit*craft4 ,?us = a "t natural le>n+ 0 9 a way associat$ ) anci5t & p]nici\s beliefs :i* ! ,*ur* 0 seek+ to ov]?r[4 ,"o result ( ! cl]ical opposition to ! advancem5t ( sci5ce 0 t its vot>ies 7 driv5 to prove e /ep :i* l$ to _! conclusions4 ,!y 7 =c$ to ab&on ! loose speculation ( _! intellectual guides1 ! ,greeks1 & to betake !mselves to obs]vation4 ,?us a "p ( ! labori\s fact-ga!r+ habit on :i* ! mod]n advance ( sci5ce has absolutely dep5d$ 0 due to ! c>e :i* m5 _h to ex]cise 9 face ( ! religi\s au?orities4 ,9 our own "t1 9 ! latt] "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ! conflict betwe5 ! religi\s au?ority & ! m5 ( sci5ce has practically ceas$4 ,ev5 ! ,roman ,*ur* p]mits almo/ ev]y:]e an untrammell$ tea*+ ( ! e/abli%$ le>n+ to :i* x 0 at "o "t oppos$4 ,m5 h come to see t all tru? is accordant1 & t religion has no?+ to fe> f ! fai?ful & devot$ /udy ( ,nature4 ,! advance ( sci5ce 9 g5]al 9 mod]n times has be5 greatly due to ! developm5t ( me*anical inv5tions4 ,among ! anci5ts1 ! tools :i* s]v$ 9 ! arts 7 few 9 numb]1 & ^! ( exce$+ simplicity4 ,s f> z we c asc]ta91 9 ! five hundr$ ye>s dur+ :i* ! ,greeks 7 9 _! intellectual vig\r1 n m ?an half a doz5 new ma*9es 7 inv5t$1 & ^! 7 exce$+ly simple4 ,! fact seems to be t a tal5t = me*anical inv5tion is ma9ly limit$ to ! peoples ( ,france1 ,g]many1 & ( ! ,engli%-speak+ folk4 ,! fir/ advances 9 ^! contrivances 7 made 9 ^? c\ntries1 & all our consid]able ga9s h come f _! p4 ,?us1 :ile ! _s ( sci5ce 9 g5]al is cle>ly limit$ to ! ,aryan folk1 t p>ticul> "p ( ! motive :i* leads to ! inv5tion ( tools is re/rict$ to we/]n & nor!rn ,europe1 to ! p to :om we give ! "n ( ,teutonic4 ,me*anical inv5tions h aid$ ! developm5t ( our sci5ces 9 sev]al ways4 ,!y h furni%$ inquir]s ) in/rum5ts ( precision2 !y h help$ to develop accuracy ( obs]vation2 be/ ( all1 !y h s]v$ ev] to br+ be=e ! att5tion ( m5 a spectacle ( ! conditions 9 ,nature :i* we t]m cause & effect4 ,! influ5ce ( ^! inv5tions on ! developm5t ( le>n+ has be5 p>ticul>ly great :]e ! ma*9es1 su* z our w9d & wat] mills1 & our /eam eng9e1 make use ( ! =ces ( ,nature1 subjugat+ !m to ! ne$s ( man4 ,su* in/rum5ts give an un5d+ illu/ration z to ! pres5ce 9 ,nature ( en]gy4 ,!y h help$ m5 to und]/& t ! ma*9]y ( ! univ]se is propell$ by ! un5d+ application ( p[]4 ,x 01 9 fact1 ?r\gh su* ma*9es t m5 ( sci5ce fir/ came to und]/& t en]gy1 manife/$ 9 ! natural =ces1 is some?+ t et]nally endures2 t we may *ange its =m 9 our arts z its =m is *ang$ 9 ! op]ations ( ,nature1 b ! p[] endures =ev]4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ! fir/ obs]vation :i* l$ to ?is mo/ important sci5tific conclusion t en]gy is inde/ructible h[ev] mu* x may *ange its =m1 0 made by an ,am]ican1 ,b5jam9 ,?ompson1 :o left ?is c\ntry at ! "t ( ! ,revolution1 & aft] a curi\s life became ! executive (fic]1 & 9 effect k+1 ( ,bav>ia4 ,:ile engag$ 9 sup]9t5d+ ! manufacture ( cannon1 he obs]v$ t 9 bor+ out ! b>rel ( ! gun an am\nt ( heat 0 produc$ :i* evaporat$ a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat]4 ,he !re=e conclud$ t ! en]gy requir$ to d ! bor+ ( ! metal pass$ into ! /ate ( heat1 & ?us only *ang$ its /ate1 9 no wise disappe>+ f ! e>?4 ,o!r /ud5ts pursu+ ! same l9e ( inquiry h cle>ly demon/rat$ :at is call$ ! law ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 :i* m ?an any?+ has help$ u to und]/& ! l>ge op]ations ( ,nature4 ,?r\gh ^! /udies we h come to see t1 :ile ! univ]se is a place ( ceaseless *ange1 ! quantities ( en]gy & ( matt] rema9 unalt]$4 ,! =ego+ brief sket*1 :i* sets =? "s ( ! important conditions :i* h affect$ ! developm5t ( sci5ce1 may 9 a way s]ve to %[ ! /ud5t h[ he c himself become an int]pret] ( ,nature4 ,! evid5ce indicates t ! p ( our race h be5 9 a way *os5 among all ! v>ieties ( mank9d to lead 9 ?is great task ( compreh5d+ ! visible univ]se4 ,! facts1 moreov]1 %[ t discov]y usually beg9s ) ! int]e/ :i* m5 feel 9 ! _w imm$iately ab\t !m1 or :i* is pres5t$ to _! s5ses 9 a daily spectacle4 ,?us ,b5jam9 ,frankl91 9 ! mid/ ( a busy life1 became deeply int]e/$ 9 ! ph5om5a ( lightn+1 & by a v simple exp]im5t prov$ t ?is wond] ( ! air 0 due to electrical action su* z we may ar\se by rubb+ a /ick ( seal+-wax or a piece ( amb] ) a clo?4 ,all discov]ies1 9 a ^w1 h _h _! necess>y beg9n+s 9 an int]e/ 9 ! facts :i* daily exp]i5ce discloses4 ,?is desire to "k some?+ m ?an ! fir/ sight exhibits conc]n+ ! actions 9 ! _w ab\t u is native 9 e human s\l--at lea/1 9 all ^? :o are born ) ! h]itage ( our race4 ,x is commonly /rong 9 *ildhood2 if cultivat$ by use1 x w gr[ ?r\gh\t a lifetime1 &1 l o!r faculties1 becomes ! /rong] & m effective by ! ex]tions :i* x inspires4 ,x is !re=e mo/ important t e "o %\ld obey ?is in/9ctive comm& to inquiry1 & organize 8 life & "w s t he may n lose b ga9 m & m z "t goes on ( ?is noble capacity to int]rogate & und]/& ! _w ab\t him4 ,x is be/ t all /udy ( ,nature %\ld beg9 n 9 laboratories1 nor ) ! ?+s :i* are remote f u1 b 9 ! field ( ,nature :i* is imm$iately ab\t u4 ,! /ud5t1 ev5 if he dwell 9 ! unfav\rable conditions ( a great city1 is surr\nd$ by ! _w :i* has yield$ immeasurable ri*es 9 ! way ( le>n+1 :i* he c appropriate by a little /udy4 ,he c readily come to "k some?+ ( ! movem5ts ( ! air2 ! build+s w give him access to a great _m diff]5t k9ds ( /one2 ! smalle/ p>k1 a little g>d51 or ev5 a few pott$ plants & captive animals1 may tell him mu* conc]n+ ! =ms & actions ( liv+ be+s4 ,by /udy+ 9 ?is way he c come to "k some?+ ( ! diff]5ces betwe5 ?+s & _! relations to ea* o!r4 ,he w ?us h a /&>d by :i* he c measure & make famili> ! body ( le>n+ conc]n+ ,nature :i* he may f9d 9 books4 ,f pr9t$ pages alone1 h[ev] well !y be writt51 he c nev] hope to cat* ! _s t animates ! real inquir]1 ! true lov] ( ,nature4 ,on _m acc\nts ! mo/ attractive way ( beg9n+ to =m ! habit ( ! naturali/ is by ! /udy ( liv+ animals & plants4 ,to all ( u life adds int]e/1 & gr[? has a *>m4 ,!re=e x is well = ! /ud5t to />t on ! way ( inquiry by wat*+ ! actions ( birds & insects or by re>+ plants4 ,x is =tunate if he c d bo? ^! agreeable ?+s4 ,:5 ! habit ( tak+ an acc\nt ( t mo/ important "p ( ! _w :i* is imm$iately ab\t him has be5 develop$ 9 ! /ud5t1 he may pr(itably proce$ to acquire ! k ( ! invisible univ]se :i* has be5 ga!r$ by ! ho/ ( inquir]s ( 8 race4 ,h[ev] f> he j\rneys1 he %\ld return to ! home _w t lies imm$iately & famili>ly ab\t him1 = !re alone c he acquire & pres]ve t p]sonal acqua9tance ) ?+s :i* is at once ! inspiration & ! te/ ( all k4 ,along ) ?is /udy ( ! famili> objects ab\t u ! /ud5t may well comb9e "s read+ :i* may s]ve to %[ him h[ o!rs h be5 successful 9 ?us deal+ ) ,nature at fir/ h&4 ,= ?is purpose !re are1 un=tunately1 b few works :i* are well calculat$ to s]ve ! ne$s ( ! beg9n]4 ,p]haps ! be/ naturali/ book1 ?\gh its =m is some:at anci5t1 is ,:ite's ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,selborne4 ,hugh ,mill]'s works1 p>ticul>ly 8 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & ,my ,s*ools & ,s*oolma/]s1 %[ well h[ a man may become a naturali/ "u difficulties4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock's /udies on ,wasps1 & ,d>w9's "w on ,animals & ,plants "u ,dome/ication are also admirable to %[ h[ obs]vation %\ld be made4 ,dr4 ,asa ,gray's little treatise on ,h[ ,plants ,gr[ w also be useful to ! beg9n] :o wi%es to approa* botany f its mo/ attractive side--t ( ! developm5t ( ! creature f ! se$ to se$4 ,!re is ano!r k9d ( tra9+ :i* e beg9n] 9 ! art ( obs]v+ ,nature %\ld obta91 & :i* _m naturali/s ( repute w\ld d well to give !mselves--namely1 an education 9 :at we may call ! art ( di/ance & geographical =ms4 ,) ! primitive savage ! capacity to rememb] & to picture to ! eye ! %ape ( a c\ntry :i* he kn[s is native & in/9ctive4 ,accu/om$ to range ! woods1 & to tru/ to 8 recollection to guide him ?r\gh ! wild]ness to 8 home1 ! primitive man develops an important art :i* among civiliz$ p is g5]ally dormant4 ,9 fact1 9 our well-trodd5 ways p may g = _m g5]ations )\t ev] be+ call$ ^u to use ?is natural s5se ( geography4 ,! easie/ way to cultivate ! geographic s5se is by practis+ ! art ( mak+ sket* maps4 ,?is ! /ud5t1 h[ev] untra9$1 c readily d by tak+ fir/ 8 own dwell+ h\se1 on :i* he %\ld practise until he c readily f memory make a tol]ably correct & proportional plan ( all its rooms4 ,!n on a small] scale he %\ld beg9 to make also f recollection a map %[+ ! di/ribution ( ! roads1 /reams1 & hills ) :i* 8 daily life makes him famili>4 ,f "t to "t ?is "w f memory %\ld be comp>$ ) ! facts4 ,at fir/ ! record w be f\nd to be v poor1 b ) a few mon?s ( occasional endeav\r ! obs]v] w f9d t 8 m9d takes acc\nt ( geographic features 9 a way x did n be=e1 &1 moreov]1 t 8 m9d becomes enri*$ ) impressions ( ! c\ntry :i* are cle> & di/9ct1 9 place ( ! %ad[y recollections :i* he at fir/ possess$4 ,:5 ! /ud5t has atta9$ ! po9t :]e1 aft] walk+ or rid+ ov] a c\ntry1 he c readily recall its physical features ( ! simpl] sort1 he w f9d x pr(itable to und]take ! me?od ( mapp+ ) cont\r l9es--t is1 by p5cill+ 9 indications to %[ ! exact %ape ( ! elevations & depressions4 ,! pr9ciple ( cont\r l9es is t ea* ( !m repres5ts :]e wat] w\ld come aga9/ ! slope if ! area 7 sunk /ep by /ep bel[ ! sea level--9 o!r words1 ea* cont\r l9e m>ks ! int]section ( a horizontal plane ) ! elevation ( ! c\ntry4 ,practice on ?is some:at difficult task w soon give ! /ud5t "s idea z to ! complication ( ! surface ( a region1 & af=d him ! basis = a bett] und]/&+ ( :at geography means ?an all ! read+ he c d w effect4 ,x is mo/ desirable t tra9+ su* z has be5 describ$ %\ld be a "p ( our ord9>y s*ool education4 ,v few p h cle> ideas ( di/ances4 ,ev5 ! m5 ^: trade requires "s su* k are (t5 )\t t :i* a little tra9+ c\ld give !m4 ,)\t "s capacity 9 ?is direction1 ! /ud5t is always at a disadvantage 9 8 contact ) ,nature4 ,he c n make a record ( :at he sees z long z ! elem5t ( horizontal & v]tical di/ance is n cle>ly 9 m9d4 ,to atta9 ?is end ! /ud5t %\ld beg9 by pac+ "s l5g? ( road :]e ! di/ances are well kn[n4 ,9 ?is way he w le>n ! l5g? ( 8 /ep1 :i* ) a gr[n man g5]ally ranges betwe5 two & a half & ?ree feet4 ,le>n+ ! av]age l5g? ( 8 /ride by frequ5t c\nt+1 x is easy to repeat ! trial until "o c almo/ unconsci\sly keep ! c\nt z he walks4 ,prop]ly to secure ! tra9+ ( ?is sort ! obs]v] %\ld fir/ att5tively look across ! di/ance :i* is to be det]m9$4 ,he %\ld notice h[ h\ses1 f5ces1 p1 & trees appe> at t di/ance4 ,he w quickly p]ceive t ea* hundr$ feet ( additional int]val some:at *anges _! aspect4 ,9 tra9+ soldi]s to measure ) ! eye ! di/ances :i* !y h to "k 9 ord] effectively to use ! mod]n weapons ( w>1 a common device is to take a squad ( m51 or sometimes a company1 "u ! comm& ( an (fic]1 :o halts "o man at ea* hundr$ y>ds until ! deta*m5t is /rung out ) t int]val z f> z ! eye c see !m4 ,! m5 !n walk to & fro s t ! troops :o are wat*+ !m may note ! effects ( increas$ di/ance on _! appe>ance1 :e!r /&+ or 9 motion4 ,at ?ree ?\s& y>ds a man appe>s z a m]e dot1 :i* is n readily di/+ui%able4 ,s*oolboys may f9d ?is exp]im5t amus+ & in/ructive4 ,aft] ! /ud5t has ga9$1 z he readily may1 "s s5se ( ! divisions ( di/ance )9 ! range ( ord9>y vision1 he %\ld try to =m "s notion ( great] int]vals1 z ( t51 a hundr$1 & p]haps a ?\s& miles4 ,! task becomes m difficult z ! l5g? ( ! l9e increases1 b mo/ p]sons c ) a little address manage to br+ be=e _! eyes a tol]ably cle> image ( a hundr$ miles ( di/ance by look+ f "s elevation :i* comm&s a great l&scape4 ,x is d\btful1 h[ev]1 :e!r ! be/-tra9$ man c get any cle> notion ( a ?\s& miles--t is1 c pres5t x to himself 9 imag9ation z he may readily d ) %ort] int]vals4 ,! mo/ difficult "p ( ! g5]al education :i* ! /ud5t has to give himself is begun :5 he und]takes to picture long int]vals ( "t4 ,space we h opportunities to measure1 & we come 9 a way to appreciate x1 b ! longe/ liv$ ( m5 exp]i5ces at mo/ a c5tury ( life1 & ?is is too small a measure to give any notion z to ! duration ( su* great ev5ts z are involv$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?1 :]e ! p]iods are to be reckon$ by ! millions ( ye>s4 ,! only way 9 :i* we c get any aid 9 pictur+ to ourselves great lapses ( "t is by express+ !m 9 units ( di/ance4 ,let a /ud5t walk away on a /raight road = ! di/ance ( a mile2 let him call ea* /ep a ye>2 :5 he has won ! fir/ mile/one1 he may consid] t he has gone backw>d 9 "t to ! p]iod ( ,*ri/'s bir?4 ,two miles m w take him to ! /ation :i* w repres5t ! age :5 ! olde/ pyramids 7 built4 ,he is /ill1 h[ev]1 9 ! lat] days ( man's hi/ory on ?is planet4 ,to atta9 on ! scale ! "t :5 man began1 he might well h to walk fifty miles away1 :ile a j\rney :i* w\ld ?us by successive /eps describe ! ye>s ( ! e>?'s hi/ory s9ce life appe>$ ^u its surface w\ld probably require him to circle ! e>? at lea/ f\r times4 ,we may accept x z impossible = any "o to deal ) su* va/ durations save ) figures :i* are nev] really compreh5d$4 ,x is well1 h[ev]1 to enl>ge our view z to ! age ( ! e>? by su* ef=ts z h j be5 indicat$4 ,:5 we g beyond ! e>? into ! realm ( ! />s all ef=ts t[>d und]/&+ ! ranges ( space or ! durations ( "t are q beyond ! ef=ts ( man4 ,ev5 ! di/ance ( ab\t two hundr$ & =ty ?\s& miles :i* sep>ates u f ! moon c n be grasp$ by ev5 ! great] m9ds4 ,no human intellig5ce1 h[ev] cultivat$1 c conceive ! di/ance ( ab\t n9ety-five million miles :i* sep>ates u f ! sun4 ,9 ! cele/ial realm we c only deal ) relations ( space & "t 9 a g5]al & comp>ative way4 ,we c /ate ! di/ances if we please 9 millions ( miles1 or we c reckon ! ampl] spaces by us+ ! int]val :i* sep>ates ! e>? f ! sun z we d a foot rule 9 our ord9>y "w1 b ! dep?s ( ! />ry spaces c only be s\nd$ by ! w+$ imag9ation4 ,al?\gh ! /ud5t has be5 advis$ to beg9 8 /udies ( ,nature on ! field :]eon he dwells1 mak+ t /udy ! basis ( 8 mo/ valuable communications ) ,nature1 x is desirable t he %\ld at ! same "t ga9 "s idea z to ! range & scope ( our k conc]n+ ! visible univ]se4 ,z an aid t[>d ?is end ! foll[+ *apt]s ( ?is book w give a v brief survey ( "s ( ! mo/ important tru?s conc]n+ ! heav5s & ! e>? :i* h rew>d$ ! /udies ( sci5tific m54 ,( remot] ?+s1 su* z ! bodies 9 ! /ell> spaces1 ! acc\nt w be brief1 = t :i* is kn[n & important to ! g5]al /ud5t c be briefly told4 ,s1 too1 ( ! e>li] ages ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 al?\gh a va/ deal is kn[n1 ! great] "p ( ! k is ( int]e/ & value ma9ly to geologi/s :o cultivate t field4 ,t :i* is mo/ /rik+ & mo/ important to ! mass ( mank9d is to be f\nd 9 ! exi/+ /ate ( our e>?1 ! conditions :i* make x a fit abode = our k9d1 & replete ) lessons :i* he may /udy ) 8 own eyes )\t hav+ to travel ! difficult pa?s ( ! high] sci5ces4 ,al?\gh physiography necess>ily takes "s acc\nt ( ! ?+s :i* h be51 ev5 9 ! remote pa/1 & ?is = ! reason t ev]y?+ 9 ?is day ( ! _w dep5ds on ! ev5ts ( e>li] days1 ! acc5t ( its tea*+ is on ! imm$iate1 visible1 z we may say1 liv+ _w1 :i* is a "p ( ! life ( all its inhabitants4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,/ell> ,,realm4 ,ev5 be=e m5 came to take any c>eful acc\nt ( ! ,nature imm$iately ab\t !m !y began to conjecture & 9 a way to inquire conc]n+ ! />s & ! o!r heav5ly bodies4 ,x is difficult = u to imag9e h[ h>d x 0 = /ud5ts to ga9 any adequate idea ( :at ^? lights 9 ! sky really are4 ,at fir/ m5 imag9$ ! cele/ial bodies to be1 z !y seem$1 small objects n v f> away4 ,among ! ,greeks ! view grew up t ! heav5s 7 =m$ ( cry/al sph]es 9 :i* ! lights 7 plac$1 mu* z lant]ns may be hung ^u a ceil+4 ,^! sph]es 7 conceiv$ to be "o above ! o!r2 ! planets 7 on ! l[] ( !m1 & ! fix$ />s on ! high]1 ! sev]al cry/al ro(s revolv+ ab\t ! e>?4 ,s long z ! e>? 0 suppos$ to be a flat & limitless expanse1 =m+ ! c5tre ( ! univ]se1 x 0 impossible = ! /ud5ts ( ! heav5s to atta9 any m rational view z to _! plan4 ,! fact t ! e>? 0 globul> 9 =m 0 und]/ood by ! ,greek m5 ( sci5ce4 ,!y may1 inde$1 h d]iv$ ! op9ion f ! ,egyptian philosoph]s4 ,! discov]y re/$ ^u ! readily obs]v$ fact t on a giv5 day ! %ad[ ( objects ( a c]ta9 height 0 long] 9 high latitude ?an 9 l[4 ,)9 ! tropics1 :5 ! sun 0 v]tical1 !re w\ld be no %ad[1 :ile z f> nor? z ,a!ns x w\ld be ( consid]able l5g?4 ,! conclusion t ! e>? 0 a sph]e appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ l>ge discov]y made by our race4 ,x 01 inde$1 "o ( ! mo/ important intellectual acquisitions ( man4 ,und]/&+ ! globul> =m ( ! e>?1 ! next & mo/ natural /ep 0 to le>n t ! e>? 0 n ! c5tre ( ! planet>y sy/em1 mu* less ( ! univ]se1 b t t c5tre 0 ! sun1 ar\nd :i* ! e>? & ! o!r planets revolv$4 ,! ,greeks appe> to h _h "s idea t ?is 0 ! case1 & _! _s ( inquiry w\ld probably h l$ !m to ! :ole tru? b = ! ov]?r[ ( _! ?\ght by ! ,roman conque/ & ! spread ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,x 0 !re=e n until aft] ! revival ( le>n+ t a/ronom]s won _! way to our mod]n und]/&+ conc]n+ ! relation ( ! planets to ! sun4 ,) ,galileo ?is op9ion 0 affirm$4 ,al?\gh = a "t ! ,*ur*1 re/+ its opposition on ! int]pretation ( c]ta9 passages ( ,scripture1 resi/$ ?is view1 & ev5 puni%$ ! m5 :o held x1 x /eadfa/ly made its way1 & = m ?an two c5turies has be5 ! f\ndation ( all ! great discov]ies 9 ! /ell> realm4 ,yet long aft] ! fact t ! sun 0 ! c5tre ( ! sol> sy/em 0 well e/abli%$ no "o und]/ood :y ! planets %\ld move 9 _! ceaseless1 ord]ly procession ar\nd ! c5tral mass4 ,to ,newton we owe ! /udies on ! law ( gravitation :i* br\ght u to our pres5t l>ge conception z to ! orig9 ( ?is ord]4 ,/>t+ ) ! view t bodies attract$ ea* o!r 9 proportion to _! weight1 & 9 dim9i%+ proportion z !y are remov$ f ea* o!r1 ,newton proce$$ by mo/ labori\s /udies to criticise ?is view1 & 9 ! end def9itely prov$ x by f9d+ t ! motions ( ! moon ab\t ! e>?1 z well z ! pa?s ( ! planets1 exactly agre$ ) ! supposition4 ,! la/ great pa?-break+ discov]y :i* has help$ u 9 our und]/&+ ( ! />s 0 made by ,fraunh(] & o!r physici/s1 :o %[$ u t sub/ances :5 9 a heat$1 gase\s1 or vapor\s /ate produc$1 9 a way :i* x is n easy to expla9 9 a "w su* z ?is1 c]ta9 d>k l9es 9 ! spectrum1 or /reak ( divid$ light :i* we may make by means ( a glass prism1 or1 z 9 ! ra9b[1 by drops ( wat]4 ,c>efully /udy+ ^! v num]\s l9es1 ^? naturali/s f\nd t !y c\ld ) s+ul> accuracy det]m9e :at sub/ances !re 7 9 ! flame :i* gave ! light4 ,s accurate is ?is det]m9ation t x has be5 made to s]ve 9 c]ta9 arts :]e !re is no bett] means ( asc]ta9+ ! conditions ( a flam+ sub/ance except by ! l9es :i* its light exhibits "u ?is k9d ( analysis4 ,?us1 9 ! manufacture ( iron by :at is call$ ! ,bessem] process1 x has be5 f\nd v conv5i5t to judge z to ! /ate ( ! molt5 metal by su* an analysis ( ! flame :i* comes =? f x4 ,illu/ration3 ,seal ,rocks ne> ,san ,francisco1 ,cali=nia1 %[+ slight effect ( waves :]e !re is no bea*4 ,no soon] 0 ! spectroscope inv5t$ ?an a/ronom]s ha/5$ by its aid to explore ! *emical con/itution ( ! sun4 ,^! /udies h made x pla9 t ! light ( our sol> c5tre comes =? f an atmosph]e compos$ ( highly heat$ sub/ances1 all ( :i* are kn[n among ! mat]ials =m+ ! e>?4 ,al?\gh = v>i\s reasons we h n be5 able to recognise 9 ! sun all ! elem5ts :i* are f\nd 9 our sph]e1 x is c]ta9 t 9 g5]al ! two bodies are alike 9 composition4 ,an ext5sion ( ! same me?od ( inquiry to ! fix$ />s 0 gradually ?\gh ) difficulty atta9$1 & we n[ "k t _m ( ! elem5ts common to ! sun & e>? exi/ 9 ^? di/ant sph]es4 ,/ill fur!r1 ?is me?od ( inquiry has %[n u1 9 a way :i* x is n wor? :ile "h to describe1 t among ^! remot] suns !re are _m aggregations ( matt] :i* are n consolidat$ z are ! sph]es ( our own sol> sy/em1 b rema9 9 ! gase\s /ate1 receiv+ ! "n ( nebul4 ,along ) ! gr[? ( obs]vational a/ronomy :i* has tak5 place s9ce ! discov]ies ( ,galileo1 !re has be5 develop$ a view conc]n+ ! physical hi/ory ( ! /ell> _w1 kn[n z ! nebul> hypo!sis1 :i*1 ?\gh n yet fully prov$1 is believ$ by mo/ a/ronom]s & physici/s to give u a tol]ably correct notion z to ! way 9 :i* ! heav5ly sph]es 7 =m$ f an e>li] condition ( matt]4 ,?is maje/ic conception 0 fir/ advanc$1 9 mod]n times at lea/1 by ! ,g]man philosoph] ,immanuel ,kant4 ,x 0 develop$ by ! ,fr5* a/ronom] ,laplace1 & is (t5 kn[n by 8 "n4 ,! ess5ce ( ?is view re/s ^u ! fact previ\sly not$ t 9 ! realm ( ! fix$ />s !re are _m fa9tly %9+ aggregations ( matt] :i* are evid5tly n solid aft] ! mann] ( ! bodies 9 our sol> sy/em1 b are 9 ! /ate :]e _! sub/ances are 9 ! condition ( du/like p>ticles1 z are ! bits ( c>bon 9 flame or ! elem5ts :i* compose ! atmosph]e4 ,! view held by ,laplace 0 to ! effect t n only our own sol> sy/em1 b ! c5tres ( all ! o!r simil> sy/ems1 ! fix$ />s1 7 orig9ally 9 ?is gase\s /ate1 ! mat]ial be+ dissem9at$ ?r\gh\t all p>ts ( ! heav5ly realm1 or at lea/ 9 t portion ( ! univ]se ( :i* we are p]mitt$ to "k some?+4 ,9 ?is anci5t /ate ( matt] we h to suppose t ! p>ticles ( x 7 m sep>at$ f ea* o!r ?an are ! atoms ( ! atmosph]ic gases 9 ! mo/ p]fect vacuum :i* we c produce ) ! air-pump4 ,/ill we h to suppose t ea* ( ^! p>ticles attract ! o!r 9 ! gravitative way1 z 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! univ]se !y inevitably d4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ! gravitative attraction ! mat]ials ( ?is realm ( vap\r inevitably t5d$ to fall 9 t[>d ! c5tre4 ,if ! process _h be5 p]fectly simple1 ! result w\ld h be5 ! =mation ( "o va/ mass1 includ+ all ! matt] :i* 0 9 ! orig9al body4 ,9 "s way1 no "o has yet be5 able to make a reasonable sugge/ion ( j h[1 !re 7 develop$ 9 ! process ( conc5tration a great _m sep>ate c5tres ( aggregation1 ea* ( :i* became ! beg9n+ ( a sol> sy/em4 ,! /ud5t may =m "s idea ( h[ readily local c5tres may be produc$ 9 mat]ials dissem9at$ 9 ! vapor\s /ate by wat*+ h[ fog or ! ?91 ev5 mi/y cl\ds ( ! sunrise (t5 ga!r into ! sep>ate %apes :i* make :at we t]m a mack]el sky4 ,x is difficult to imag9e :at makes c5tres ( attraction1 b we readily p]ceive by ?is in/ance h[ !y might h occurr$4 ,:5 ! mat]ials ( ea* sol> sy/em 7 ?us set ap>t f ! orig9al mass ( /> du/ or vap\r1 !y began an indep5d5t developm5t :i* l$ /ep by /ep1 9 ! case ( our own sol> sy/em at lea/1 & presumably also 9 ! case ( ! o!r suns1 ! fix$ />s1 to ! =mation ( planets & _! moons or satellites1 all mov+ ar\nd ! c5tral sun4 ,at ?is /age ( ! explanation ! nebul> hypo!sis is m difficult to conceive ?an 9 ! p>ts ( x :i* h already be5 describ$1 = we h n[ to und]/& h[ ! planets & satellites _h _! matt] sep>at$ f ea* o!r & f ! sol> c5tre1 & :y !y came to revolve ar\nd t c5tral body4 ,^! problems are be/ und]/ood by not+ "s famili> in/ances connect$ ) ! movem5t ( fluids & gases t[>d a c5tre4 ,fir/ let u take ! case ( a bas9 9 :i* ! wat] is all[$ to fl[ out ?r\gh a hole 9 its c5tre4 ,:5 we lift ! /opp] ! fluid = a mom5t falls /raight d[n ?r\gh ! op5+4 ,v quickly1 h[ev]1 all ! p>ticles ( ! wat] />t to move t[>d ! c5tre1 & almo/ at once ! mass beg9s to :irl r\nd ) su* spe$ t1 al?\gh x is work+ t[>d ! middle1 x is by its movem5t pu%$ away f ! c5tre & =ms a conical depression4 ,z (t5 z we try ! exp]im5t1 ! effect is always ! same4 ,we ?us see t !re is "s pr9ciple :i* makes p>ticles ( fluid t t5d t[>d a c5tre fail directly to atta9 x1 b w9 _! way !reto 9 a devi\s1 sp9n+ movem5t4 ,al?\gh ! fact is n s readily made visible to ! eye1 ! same pr9ciple is illu/rat$ 9 :irl+ /orms1 9 :i*1 z we %all h]eaft] note ) m detail1 ! air next ! surface ( ! e>? is mov+ 9 t[>d a k9d ( *imney by :i* x escapes to ! upp] regions ( ! atmosph]e4 ,a /udy ( cyclones & tornadoes1 or ev5 ( ! little air-:irls :i* 9 hot wea!r lift ! du/ ( our /reets1 %[s t ! p>ticles ( ! atmosph]e 9 ru%+ 9 t[>d ! c5tre ( upw>d movem5t take on ! same :irl+ motion z d ! molecules ( wat] 9 ! bas9--9 fact1 ! two actions are p]fectly comp>able 9 all ess5tial reg>ds1 except t ! fluid is mov+ d[nw>d1 :ile ! air fl[s upw>d4 ,briefly /at$1 ! reason = ! movem5t ( fluid & gas 9 ! :irl+ way is z foll[s3 ,if e p>ticle on its way to ! c5tre mov$ on a p]fectly /raight l9e t[>d ! po9t ( escape1 ! fl[ w\ld be directly conv]g+1 & ! pa?s foll[$ w\ld resemble ! spokes ( a :eel4 ,b :5 by *ance "o ( ! p>ticles sways ev] s little to "o side ( ! direct way1 a slight lat]al motion w\ld necess>ily be e/abli%$4 ,?is movem5t w\ld be due to ! fact t ! p>ticle :i* pursu$ ! curv$ l9e w\ld press aga9/ ! p>ticles on ! out-curv$ side ( its pa?--or1 9 o!r words1 %ove !m a little 9 t direction--to ! ext5t t !y dep>t$ f ! direct l9e !y w\ld 9 turn communicate ! %ov+ to ! next beyond4 ,:5 two p>ticles are ?us %ov+ on "o side ( _! pa?s1 ! action :i* makes = revolution is d\bl$1 &1 z we readily see1 ! :ole mass may 9 ?is way become quickly affect$1 ! p>ticles driv5 out ( _! pa?1 mov+ 9 a curve t[>d ! c5tre4 ,we also see t ! action is accumulative3 ! m curv$ ! pa? ( ea* p>ticle1 ! m effectively x %oves2 & s1 9 ! case ( ! bas91 we see ! :irl+ rapidly develop$ be=e our eyes4 ,9 fall+ 9 t[>d ! c5tre ! p>ticles ( /> du/ or vap\r w\ld no m h be5 able "o & all to pursue a p]fectly /raight l9e ?an ! p>ticles ( wat] 9 ! bas94 ,if a man %\ld sp5d 8 lifetime 9 fill+ & empty+ su* a vessel1 x is safe to say t he w\ld nev] fail to obs]ve ! :irl+ movem5t4 ,z ! p>ticles ( matt] 9 ! nebul> mass :i* 0 to become a sol> sy/em are inconceivably great] ?an ^? ( wat] 9 ! bas91 or ^? ( air 9 ! atmosph]ic :irl1 ! *ance ( ! :irl+ tak+ place 9 ! heav5ly bodies is s great t we may assume t x w\ld inevitably occur4 ,z ! vap\rs 9 ! old5 day t5d$ 9 t[>d ! c5tre ( our sol> sy/em1 & ! mass revolv$1 !re is reason to believe t r+like sep>ations took place 9 x4 ,:irl+ 9 ! mann] indicat$1 ! mass ( vap\r or du/ w\ld flatt5 into a disk or a body ( circul> %ape1 ) mu* ! great] diamet] 9 ! plane ( its :irl+4 ,z ! process ( conc5tration w5t on1 ?is disk is suppos$ to h divid$ into r+like masses1 "s approa* to :i* we c disc]n 9 ! exi/+ nebul1 :i* "h & !re among ! f>!r fix$ />s appe> to be und]go+ su* /ages ( developm5t t[>d sol> sy/ems4 ,x is reasonably suppos$ t aft] ^! r+s _h be5 develop$ !y w\ld break to pieces1 ! matt] 9 !m ga!r+ into a sph]e1 :i* 9 "t 0 to become a planet4 ,! out]mo/ ( ^! r+s l$ to ! =mation ( ! planet f>!/ f ! sun1 & 0 probably ! fir/ to sep>ate f ! p>5t mass4 ,!n 9 succession r+s 7 =m$ inw>dly1 ea* lead+ 9 turn to ! creation ( ano!r planet1 ! sun itself be+ ! remnant1 by f> ! great] "p ( ! :ole mass ( matt]1 :i* did n sep>ate 9 ! mann] describ$1 b conc5trat$ on its c5tre4 ,ea* ( ^! planet>y aggregations ( vap\r t5d$ to develop1 z x :irl$ ^u its c5tre1 r+s ( its own1 :i* 9 turn =m$1 by break+ & conc5trat+1 ! satellites or moons :i* att5d ! e>?1 z !y d all ! planets :i* lie f>!r away f ! sun ?an our sph]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4--,saturn1 ,jan4 #bf1 #ahhi 7,antoniadi74 ,z if to prove t ! planets & moons ( ! sol> sy/em 7 =m$ some:at 9 ! mann] 9 :i* we h describ$ x1 "o ( ^! sph]es1 ,saturn1 reta9s a r+1 or r a b& :i* appe>s to be divid$ obscurely into sev]al r+s :i* lie betwe5 its gr\p ( satellites & ! ma9 sph]e4 ,h[ ?is r+ has be5 pres]v$ :5 all ! o!rs h disappe>$1 & :at is ! exact con/itution ( ! mass1 is n yet well asc]ta9$4 ,x seems cle>1 h[ev]1 t x c n be compos$ ( solid matt]4 ,x is ei!r 9 ! =m ( du/ or ( small sph]es1 :i* are free to move on ea* o!r2 o!rwise1 z computation %[s1 ! /ra9s due to ! attraction :i* ,saturn itself & its moons ex]cise ^u x w\ld s]ve to break x 9 pieces4 ,al?\gh ?is r+ !ory ( ! =mation ( ! planets & satellites is n completely prov$1 ! occurr5ce ( su* a /ructure z t :i* girdles ,saturn af=ds presumptive evid5ce t x is true4 ,tak5 9 connection ) :at we "k ( ! nebul1 ! pro( ( ,laplace's nebul> hypo!sis may fairly be reg>d$ z complete4 ,x %\ld be said t "s ( ! fix$ />s are n isolat$ suns l our own1 b are compos$ ( two great sph]es revolv+ ab\t "o ano!r2 h5ce !y are t]m$ d\ble />s4 ,! motions ( ^! bodies are v peculi>1 & _! conditions %[ u t x is n well to suppose t ! sol> sy/em 9 :i* we dwell is ! only type ( ord] :i* prevails 9 ! cele/ial families2 !re may1 inde$1 be o!r v>iations z yet undetect$4 ,/ill1 ^! diff]5ces ?r[ no d\bt on ! ess5tial tru? ( ! !ory z to ! process ( developm5t ( ! cele/ial sy/ems4 ,?\gh !re is mu* room = debate z to ! details ( ! "w !re1 ! g5]al tru? ( ! !ory is accept$ by ne>ly all ! /ud5ts ( ! problem4 ,a peculi> advantage ( ! nebul> hypo!sis is t x s]ves to acc\nt = ! en]gy :i* appe>s z light & heat 9 ! sun & ! fix$ />s1 z well z t :i* /ill abides 9 ! mass ( our e>?1 & d\btless also 9 ! o!r l>ge planets4 ,:5 ! matt] ( :i* ^! sph]es 7 compos$ 0 dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! realms ( space1 x is suppos$ to h _h no positive temp]ature1 & to h be5 d>k1 realiz+ ! conception :i* appe>s 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ,g5esis1 )\t =m1 & void4 ,) ea* /age ( ! fall+ 9 t[>d ! sol> c5tres :at is call$ ! en]gy ( position ( ?is orig9al matt] became conv]t$ into light & heat4 ,to und]/& h[ ?is took place1 ! read] %\ld consid] c]ta9 simple yet noble g5]alizations ( physics4 ,we readily recognise ! fact t :5 a hamm] falls (t5 on an anvil x heats itself & ! metal on :i* x /rikes4 ,^? :o h be5 able to obs]ve ! desc5t ( meteoric /ones f ! heav5s h rem>k$ t :5 !y came to ! e>? !y 71 on _! surfaces at lea/1 exce$+ly hot4 ,any "o may obs]ve %9+ meteors n[ & !n fla%+ 9 ! sky4 ,^! are kn[n commonly to be v small bits ( matt]1 probably n l>g] ?an gra9s ( s&1 :i*1 ru%+ into our atmosph]e1 are s heat$ by ! friction :i* !y enc\nt] t !y burn to a gas or vap\r be=e !y atta9 ! e>?4 ,z we "k t ^! p>ticles come f ! />ry spaces1 :]e ! temp]ature is some:]e ne> #ejj bel[ #j ,fahr41 x is evid5t t ! light & heat are n br\ght ) !m into ! atmosph]e2 x c only be expla9$ by ! fact t :5 !y ent] ! air !y are mov+ at an av]age spe$ ( ab\t tw5ty miles a second1 & t ! en]gy :i* ?is motion repres5ts is by ! resi/ance :i* ! body enc\nt]s conv]t$ into heat4 ,?is fact w help u to und]/& h[1 z ! orig9al /> du/ fell 9 t[>d ! c5tre ( attraction1 x 0 able to conv]t :at we h t]m$ ! en]gy ( position into temp]ature4 ,we see cle>ly t e su* p>ticle ( du/ or l>g] bit ( matt] :i* falls ^u ! e>? br+s ab\t ! developm5t ( heat1 ev5 ?\gh x does n actually /rike ^u ! solid mass ( our sph]e4 ,! conception ( :at took place 9 ! consolidation ( ! orig9ally dissem9at$ mat]ials ( ! sun & planets c be some:at help$ by a simple exp]im5t4 ,if we fit a pi/on closely into a cyl9d]1 & !n sudd5ly drive x d[n ) a heavy bl[1 ! compress$ air is s heat$ t x may be made to communicate fire4 ,if ! pi/on %\ld be sl[ly mov$1 ! same am\nt ( heat w\ld be g5]at$1 or1 z we may bett] say1 lib]at$ by ! compression1 ?\gh ! effect w\ld n be s /rik+4 ,a ho/ ( exp]im5ts %[ t :5 a giv5 mass ( matt] is br\ght to occupy a less space ! effect is 9 practically all cases to increase ! temp]ature4 ,! en]gy :i* kept ! p>ticles ap>t is1 :5 !y are driv5 toge!r1 conv]t$ into heat4 ,^! two classes ( actions are some:at diff]5t 9 _! nature2 9 ! case ( ! meteors1 or ! equival5t /> du/1 ! com+ toge!r ( ! p>ticles is due to gravitation4 ,9 ! exp]im5t ) ! cyl9d] above describ$1 ! compression is due to me*anical en]gy1 a =ce ( ano!r nature4 ,!re is reason = believ+ t all our planets1 z well z ! sun itself1 & also ! myriad o!r orbs ( space1 h all pass$ ?r\gh ! /ages ( a transition 9 :i* a cont9ually conc5trat+ vap\r1 drawn toge!r by gravitation1 became progressively hott] & m d5se until x assum$ ! condition ( a fluid4 ,?is fluid gradually p>t$ ) its heat to ! cold spaces ( ! heav5s1 & became m & m conc5trat$ & ( a l[] temp]ature until 9 ! end1 z 9 ! case ( our e>? & ( o!r planets1 x ceas$ to gl[ on ! outside1 ?\gh x rema9$ int5sely heat$ 9 ! inn] p>ts4 ,x is easy to see t ! rate ( ?is cool+ w\ld be 9 "s proportion to ! size ( ! sph]e4 ,?us ! e>?1 :i* is relatively small1 has become relatively cold1 :ile ! sun itself1 because ( its va/ly great] mass1 /ill reta9s an exce$+ly high temp]ature4 ,! reason = ?is c readily be conceiv$ by mak+ a comp>ison ( ! rate ( cool+ :i* occurs 9 _m ( our ord9>y exp]i5ces4 ,?us a vial ( hot wat] w quickly come d[n to ! temp]ature ( ! air1 :ile a l>ge jug fill$ ) ! fluid at ! same temp]ature w reta9 its heat _m times z long4 ,! reason = ?is re/s ^u ! simple pr9ciple t ! cont5ts ( a sph]e increase ) its enl>gem5t m rapidly ?an ! surface ?r\gh :i* ! cool+ takes place4 ,! mod]n /udies on ! physical hi/ory ( ! sun & o!r cele/ial bodies %[ t _! orig9al /ore ( heat is con/antly fl[+ away into ! empty realms ( space4 ,! rate at :i* ?is =m ( en]gy goes away f ! sun is va/ beyond ! p[]s ( ! imag9ation to conceive2 ?us1 9 ! case ( our e>?1 :i* view$ f ! sun w\ld appe> no m ?an a small />1 ! am\nt ( heat :i* falls ^u x f ! great c5tre is en\gh ea* day to melt1 if x all c\ld be put to su* "w1 ab\t eight ?\s& cubic miles ( ice4 ,yet ! e>? receives only #a_/b1agj1jjj1jjj "p ( ! sol> radiation4 ,! great] "p ( ?is sol> heat--9 fact1 we may say ne>ly all ( x--slips by ! few & relatively small planets & disappe>s 9 ! great void4 ,! de/9y ( all ! cele/ial sph]es seems 9 "t to be t !y %all become cool$ d[n to a temp]ature f> bel[ any?+ :i* is n[ exp]i5c$ on ?is e>?4 ,ev5 ! sun1 ?\gh its heat w d\btless endure = millions ( ye>s to come1 mu/ 9 "t1 s f> z we c see1 become d>k & cold4 ,s f> z we "k1 we c p]ceive no c]ta9 me?od by :i* ! life ( ! sl[ly decay+ suns c be re/or$4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 sugge/$ t 9 _m cases a planet>y sy/em :i* has atta9$ ! lifeless & lightless /age may by collision ) "s o!r association ( sph]es be by ! bl[ re/or$ to its previ\s /ate ( vap\r1 ! jo9t mass ( ! collid+ sy/ems once aga9 to resume ! process ( conc5tration ?r\gh :i* x _h gone be=e4 ,n[ & !n />s h be5 se5 to fla% sudd5ly into great brilliancy 9 a way :i* sugge/s t possibly _! heat _h be5 refre%$ by a collision ) "s great mass :i* _h fall5 into !m f ! cele/ial spaces4 ,!re is room = mu* speculation 9 ?is field1 b no c]ta9ty appe>s to be atta9able4 ,! anci5ts believ$ t light & heat 7 emanations :i* 7 giv5 (f f ! bodies t yield$ !m sub/antially z od\rs are giv5 =? by _m sub/ances4 ,s9ce ! days ( ,newton inquiry has =c$ u to ! conviction t ^! effects ( temp]ature are produc$ by vibrations hav+ ! g5]al "* ( waves1 :i* are s5t ?r\gh ! spaces ) great cel]ity4 ,:5 a ray ( light dep>ts f ! sun or o!r lum9\s body1 x does n convey any "p ( ! mass2 x transmits only motion4 ,a conception ( ! action c p]haps be/ be =m$ by susp5d+ a numb] ( balls ( ivory1 /one1 or o!r h>d sub/ance ea* by a cord1 ! s]ies s arrang$ t !y t\* ea* o!r4 ,!n /rik+ a bl[ aga9/ "o end ( ! l9e1 we obs]ve t ! ball at ! f>!r end ( ! l9e is set 9 motion1 sw++ a little away f ! place x occupi$ be=e4 ,! movem5t ( ! int]m$iate balls may be s slight z to escape att5tion4 ,we ?us p]ceive t en]gy c be transmitt$ f "o to ano!r ( ^! little sph]es4 ,close obs]vation %[s u t "u ! impulse :i* ! bl[ gives ea* sep>ate body is made to sway )9 itself mu* 9 ! mann] ( a bell :5 x is rung1 & t ! movem5t is transmitt$ to ! object ) :i* x is 9 contact4 ,9 pass+ f ! sun to ! e>?1 ! light & heat trav]se a space :i* we "k to be sub/antially de/itute ( any su* mat]ials z make up ! mass ( ! e>? or ! sun4 ,judg$ by ! /&>ds :i* we c apply1 ?is space mu/ be ess5tially empty4 ,yet because motions g ?r\gh x1 we h to believe t x is occupi$ by some?+ :i* has c]ta9 ( ! prop]ties ( matt]4 ,x has1 inde$1 "o ( ! mo/ important prop]ties ( all sub/ances1 9 t x c vibrate4 ,?is practically unkn[n ?+ is call$ e!r4 ,! fir/ important obs]vational "w done by ! anci5ts l$ !m to p]ceive t !re 0 a v *>act]i/ic diff]5ce betwe5 ! planets & ! fix$ />s4 ,!y not$ ! fact t ! planets w&]$ 9 a ceaseless way across ! heav5s1 :ile ! fix$ />s %[$ little trace ( *ang+ position 9 relation to "o ano!r4 ,= a long "t x 0 believ$ t ^!1 z well z ! remot] fix$ />s1 revolv$ ab\t ! e>?4 ,?is error1 ?\gh great1 is p]fectly compreh5sible1 = ! evid5t appe>ance ( ! movem5t is sub/antially :at w\ld be br\ght ab\t if !y really c\rs$ ar\nd our sph]e4 ,x 0 only :5 ! true nature ( ! e>? & its relations to ! sun 7 und]/ood t m5 c\ld correct ?is fir/ view4 ,x 0 n1 inde$1 until relatively mod]n times t ! sol> sy/em came to be p]ceiv$ z some?+ indep5d5t & widely deta*$ f ! fix$ />s sy/em2 t ! spaces :i* sep>ate ! memb]s ( our own sol> family1 inconceivably great z !y are1 are b trifl+ z comp>$ ) ! int]vals :i* "p u f ! ne>] fix$ />s4 ,at ?is /age ( our k m5 came to ! noble sugge/ion t ea* ( ! fix$ />s 0 itself a sun1 ea* ( ! myriad probably att5d$ by planet>y bodies su* z exi/ ab\t our own lum9>y4 ,x w be well = ! /ud5t to take an imag9>y j\rney f ! sun =? into space1 along ! plane 9 :i* ext5ds t va/ aggregation ( />s :i* we t]m ! ,milky ,way4 ,let him suppose t 8 j\rney c\ld be made ) some?+ l ! spe$ ( light1 or1 say1 at ! rate ( ab\t two hundr$ ?\s& miles a second4 ,x is fit t ! imag9ation1 :i* is free to g ?r\gh all ?+s1 %\ld essay su* excursions4 ,on ! fanci$ outgo+1 ! obs]v] w\ld pass ! int]val betwe5 ! sun & ! e>? 9 ab\t eight m9utes4 ,x w\ld require "s h\rs be=e he atta9$ to ! out] limit ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,on 8 direct way he w\ld pass ! orbits ( ! sev]al planets4 ,"s w\ld h _! c\rses on "o side or ! o!r ( 8 pa?2 we %\ld say above or bel[1 b = ! fact t we leave ^! t]ms beh9d 9 ! cele/ial realm4 ,on ! m>g9 ( ! sol> sy/em ! sun w\ld appe> %runk5 to ! /ate :]e x 0 h>dly great] ?an ! m brilliant ( ! o!r fix$ />s4 ,! onw>d pa? w\ld !n lead ?r\gh a void :i* x w\ld require ye>s to trav]se4 ,gradually ! sun :i* happ5$ to lie mo/ directly 9 8 pa? w\ld gr[ l>g]2 ) ne>] approa*1 x w\ld disclose its planets4 ,suppos+ t ! way l$ ?r\gh ?is sol> sy/em1 !re w\ld d\btless be reveal$ planets & satellites 9 _! ord] some:at resembl+ ^? ( our own sol> family1 yet !re w\ld d\btless be _m surprises 9 ! view4 ,arriv+ ne> ! fir/ sun to be visit$1 ?\gh ! heav5s w\ld h *ang$ _! %ape1 all ! exi/+ con/ellations hav+ alt]$ ) ! *ange 9 ! po9t ( view1 !re w\ld /ill be "o famili> elem5t 9 t ! new-f\nd planets w\ld be ne> by1 & ! ne>e/ fix$ />s f> away 9 ! firmam5t4 ,) ! spe$ ( light a /ell> voyage c\ld be tak5 along ! pa? ( ! ,milky ,way1 :i* w\ld endure = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,?r\gh all ! c\rse ! j\rney] w\ld p]ceive ! same va/ girdle ( />s1 fa9t because !y 7 f> away1 :i* gives ! dim light ( our galaxy4 ,at no po9t is x probable t he w\ld f9d ! sep>ate suns mu* m aggregat$ or greatly f>!r ap>t ?an !y are 9 t "p ( ! ,milky ,way :i* our sun n[ occupies4 ,look+ =? on ei!r side ( ! galactic plane1 !re w\ld be ! same scatt]+ ( />s :i* we n[ behold :5 we gaze at "r angles to ! way we are suppos+ ! _s to trav]se4 ,z ! =m ( ! ,milky ,way is irregul>1 ! mass1 inde$1 hav+ c]ta9 curi\s divisions & bran*es1 x well might be t ! suppos$ pa? w\ld occasionally pass on "o or ! o!r side ( ! va/ /> lay]4 ,9 su* positions ! eye w\ld look =? into an empty firmam5t1 except t !re might be 9 ! f> away1 t5s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s p]haps at ! rate t light travels away f ! obs]v]1 o!r galaxies or ,milky ,ways ess5tially l t :i* he 0 trav]s+4 ,at "s po9t ! j\rney] w\ld atta9 ! m>g9 ( our /> /ratum1 :5ce aga9 he w\ld look =? into ! unpeopl$ heav5s1 ?\gh ev5 !re he might disc]n o!r remote /> gr\ps sep>at$ f 8 own by great void int]vals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! revelations ( ! telescope %[ u c]ta9 features 9 ! con/itution & movem5ts ( ! fix$ />s :i* n[ dem& our att5tion4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is pla9 t n all ( ^! bodies are 9 ! same physical condition4 ,?\gh ! great] "p ( ^! di/ant lum9\s masses are evid5tly 9 ! /ate ( aggregation display$ by our own sun1 _m ( !m reta9 m or less ( t vapor\s1 x may be du/like1 "* :i* we suppose to h be5 ! anci5t /ate ( all ! matt] 9 ! univ]se4 ,"s ( ^! masses appe> z fa9t1 almo/ indi/+ui%able cl\ds1 :i* ev5 to ! greate/ telescope & ! be/-tra9$ vision %[ no di/9ct features ( /ructure4 ,9 o!r cases ! nebul\s appe>ance is h>dly m ?an a mi/ ab\t a tol]ably di/9ct c5tral />4 ,yet aga91 & mo/ beautifully 9 ! great nebula ( ! con/ellation ( ,orion1 ! cl\dy mass1 ?\gh h>dly visible to ! nak$ eye1 %[s a division into _m sep>ate p>ts1 ! :ole appe>+ z if 9 process ( conc5tration ab\t _m di/9ct c5tres4 ,! nebulas are reasonably believ$ by _m a/ronom]s to be examples ( ! anci5t condition ( ! physical univ]se1 masses ( matt] :i* = "s reason z yet unkn[n h n progress$ 9 _! consolidation to ! po9t :]e !y h tak5 on ! *>act]i/ics ( suns & _! att5dant planets4 ,_m ( ! fix$ />s1 ! incomplete li/ ( :i* n[ am\nts to sev]al hundr$1 are curi\sly v>iable 9 ! am\nt ( light :i* !y s5d out to ! e>?4 ,sometimes ^! v>iations are app>5tly irregul>1 b 9 ! great] numb] ( cases !y h fix$ p]iods1 ! /> wax+ & wan+ at int]vals v>y+ f a few mon?s to a few ye>s4 ,al?\gh "s ( ! sudd5 fla%+s =? ( />s f app>5t small size to ne> ! greate/ brilliancy may be due to cata/rophes su* z might be br\ght ab\t by ! sudd5 fall+ 9 ( masses ( matt] ^u ! lum9\s sph]es1 x is m likely t ! *anges :i* we obs]ve are due to ! fact t two suns revolv+ ar\nd a common c5tre are 9 diff]5t /ages ( ext9ction4 ,x may well be t "o ( ^! orbs1 presumably ! small]1 has s f> lo/ temp]ature t x has ceas$ to gl[4 ,if 9 its revolution x regul>ly comes betwe5 ! e>? & its lum9\s companion1 ! effect w\ld be to give ab\t su* a *ange 9 ! am\nt ( light z we obs]ve4 ,! supposition t a bright sun & a relatively d>k sun might revolve ar\nd a common c5tre ( gravity may at fir/ sight seem improbable4 ,! fact is1 h[ev]1 t imp]fect z our obs]vations on ! />s really are1 we "k _m in/ances 9 :i* ?is k9d ( revolution ( "o /> ab\t ano!r takes place4 ,9 "s cases ^! />s are ( ! same brilliancy1 b 9 o!rs "o ( ! lights is mu* bright] ?an ! o!r4 ,f ?is condition to ! /ate :]e "o ( ! />s is s ne>ly d>k z to be invisible1 ! transition is b slight4 ,9 a ^w1 ! evid5ce goes to %[ t :ile we see only ! lum9\s orbs ( space1 ! d>k bodies :i* p ! heav5s are p]haps z num]\s z ^? :i* s5d u light1 & !re=e appe> z />s4 ,besides ! great] sph]es ( space1 !re is a va/ ho/ ( less] bodies1 ! meteorites & comets1 :i* appe> to be 9 "p memb]s ( our sol> sy/em1 & p]haps ( o!r simil> sy/ems1 & 9 "p w&]]s 9 ! va/ realm :i* int]v5es betwe5 ! sol> sy/ems4 ,( ^! we w fir/ consid] ! meteors1 ( :i* we "k by f> ! mo/2 ?\gh ev5 ( !m1 z we %all see1 our k is limit$4 ,f "t to "t on any />ry night1 & p>ticul>ly 9 c]ta9 p]iods ( ! ye>1 we may behold1 at ! di/ance ( fifty or m miles above ! surface ( ! e>?1 :at are commonly call$ %oot+ />s4 ,! mo/ ( ^! fla%+ meteors are evid5tly v small1 probably n l>g] ?an t9y s& gra9s1 possibly no great] ?an ! fragm5ts :i* w\ld be t]m$ du/4 ,!y ent] ! air at a spe$ ( ab\t ?irty miles a second4 ,!y are s small t !y burn to vap\r 9 ! v great heat aris+ f _! friction on ! air1 & d n atta9 ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,^! are s num]\s t1 on ! av]age1 "s hundr$s ( ?\s&s probably /rike ! e>?'s atmosph]e ea* day4 ,f "t to "t l>g] bodies fall--bodies :i* are ( suffici5t bulk n to be burn$ up 9 ! air1 b :i* desc5d to ! gr\nd4 ,^! may be f ! smalle/ size :i* may be obs]v$ to masses ( _m hundr$ p\nds 9 weight4 ,^! are f> less num]\s ?an ! du/ meteorites2 x is probable1 h[ev]1 t sev]al hundr$ fragm5ts ea* ye> atta9 ! e>?'s surface4 ,!y come f v>i\s directions ( space1 & !re is z yet no means ( det]m9+ :e!r !y 7 =m$ 9 "s mann] )9 our planet>y sy/em or :e!r !y w&] to u f remot] realms4 ,we "k t !y are 9 "p compos$ ( metallic iron comm+l$ ) nickel & c>bon 7sometimes z v small diamonds7 9 a way r>ely if ev] f\nd on ! surface ( our sph]e1 & hav+ a /ructure sub/antially unkn[n 9 its deposits4 ,9 "p !y are compos$ ( mat]ials :i* some:at resemble c]ta9 lavas4 ,x is possible t ^! fragm5ts ( iron & /one :i* con/itute ! meteorites h be5 ?r[n into ! planet>y spaces by ! volcanic eruption ( our own & o!r planets4 ,if hurl$ =? ) a suffici5t en]gy1 ! fragm5ts w\ld escape f ! control ( ! attraction ( ! sph]e :5ce !y came1 & w\ld become indep5d5t w&]]s 9 space1 mov+ ar\nd ! sun 9 v>i$ orbits until !y 7 aga9 drawn 9 by "s ( ! great] planets4 ,z !y come to u ^! meteorites (t5 break up 9 ! atmosph]e1 ! bits be+ scatt]$ sometimes ov] a wide area ( c\ntry4 ,?us1 9 ! case ( ! ,cocke ,c\nty meteorite ( ,t5nessee1 "o ( ! iron species1 ! fragm5ts1 p]haps ?\s&s 9 numb]1 :i* came f ! explosion ( ! body 7 scatt]$ ov] an area ( "s ?\s& squ>e miles4 ,:5 !y rea* ! surface 9 _! natural =m1 ^! meteors always h a curi\s wa/$ & ind5t$ appe>ance1 :i* makes x seem likely t !y h be5 subject to frequ5t collisions 9 _! j\rneys aft] !y 7 =m$ by "s viol5t r5d+ action4 ,9 "s app>5t k9%ip ) ! meteorites may be class$ ! comets4 ,! peculi>ity ( ^! bodies is t !y appe> 9 mo/ cases to be m or less completely vapor\s4 ,ru%+ d[n f ! dep?s ( ! heav5s1 ^! bodies commonly appe> z fa9tly %9+1 cl\dlike masses4 ,z !y move 9 t[>d ! sun long trails ( vap\r /ream back f ! some:at consolidat$ head4 ,sw++ ar\nd t c5tre1 !y j\rney aga9 into ! out] realm4 ,z !y retreat1 _! tail-l /ream]s appe> to ga!r aga9 ^u _! c5tres1 & :5 !y fade f view !y are aga9 consolidat$4 ,9 "s cases x has be5 suspect$ t a "p at lea/ ( ! comet>y mass 0 solid4 ,! evid5ce goes to %[1 h[ev]1 t ! matt] is 9 a du/like or vapor\s condition1 & t ! weight ( ^! bodies is relatively v small4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4--,! ,great ,comet ( #ahaa1 "o ( ! _m v>i$ =ms ( ^! bodies4 ,ow+ to _! /range appe>ance1 comets 7 to ! anci5ts om5s ( calamity4 ,sometimes !y 7 conceiv$ z flam+ swords2 _! =ms1 inde$1 l5d !mselves to ?is imag9+4 ,!y 7 ?\ght to presage w>1 fam9e1 & ! dea? ( k+s4 ,aga91 9 m mod]n times1 :5 !y 7 n reg>d$ z port5ts ( calamity1 x 0 fe>$ t ^! w&]]s mov+ vag>i\sly ?r\gh our sol> sy/em might by *ance come 9 contact ) ! e>? ) disa/r\s results4 ,su* collisions are n impossible1 = ! reason t ! planets w\ld t5d to draw ^! errant bodies t[>d !m if !y came ne> _! sph]es2 yet ! *ance ( su* collisions happ5+ to ! e>? is s small t !y may be disreg>d$4 ,,motions ,,( ,,! ,,sph]es4 ,al?\gh little is kn[n ( ! motions :i* occur among ! cele/ial bodies beyond ! sph]e ( our sol> family1 t :i* has be5 asc]ta9$ is ( great importance1 & s]ves to make x likely t all ! suns 9 space are ^u swift j\rneys :i* 9 _! spe$ equal1 if !y d n exce$1 ! rate ( motion among ! planet>y sph]es1 :i* may1 9 g5]al1 be reckon$ at ab\t tw5ty miles a second4 ,our :ole sol> sy/em is j\rney+ away f c]ta9 />s1 & 9 ! direction ( o!rs :i* are situat$ 9 ! opposite "p ( ! heav5s4 ,! pro( ( ?is fact is f\nd 9 ! obs]vations :i* %[ t on "o side ( u ! />s are app>5tly com+ clos] toge!r1 :ile on ! o!r side !y are go+ f>!r ap>t4 ,! ph5om5on1 9 a ^w1 is "o ( p]spective1 & may be made real to ! und]/&+ by not+ :at takes place :5 we travel d[n a /reet along :i* !re are lights4 ,we readily note t ^! lights appe> to close 9 beh9d u1 & wid5 _! int]vals 9 ! direction 9 :i* we j\rney4 ,by su* evid5ce a/ronom]s h become conv9c$ t our sph]e1 along ) ! sun :i* controls x1 is ea* second a score ( miles away f ! po9t :]e x 0 be=e4 ,!re is yet o!r & mo/ curi\s evid5ce :i* s]ves to %[ t c]ta9 ( ! />s are j\rney+ t[>d our "p ( ! heav5s at great spe$1 :ile o!rs are mov+ away f u by _! own prop] motion4 ,^! indications are d]iv$ f ! /udy ( ! l9es 9 ! light :i* ! spectrum reveals to u :5 critically exam9$4 ,! position ( ^! cross l9es is1 z we "k1 affect$ by ! motion ( ! body :5ce ! light comes1 & by close analysis ( ! facts x has be5 pretty well det]m9$ t ! di/ortion 9 _! positions is due to v swift motions ( ! sev]al />s4 ,x is n yet c]ta9 :e!r ^! movem5ts ( our sun & ( o!r sol> bodies are 9 /raight l9es or 9 great circles4 ,x %\ld be not$ t1 al?\gh ! evid5ce f ! spectroscope s]ves to %[ t ! matt] 9 ! />s is ak9 to t ( our own e>?1 !re is reason to believe t ^? great sph]es diff] mu* f ea* o!r 9 magnitude4 ,we h n[ set =? "s ( ! important facts exhibit$ by ! /ell> univ]se4 ,! body ( details conc]n+ t realm is va/1 & ! conclusions drawn f x important2 only a "p1 h[ev]1 ( ! matt] ) :i* x deals is ( a nature to be appreh5d$ by ! /ud5t :o does n approa* x 9 a some:at pr(essional way4 ,we %all !re=e n[ turn to a description ( ! portion ( ! />ry _w :i* is f\nd 9 ! limits ( our sol> sy/em4 ,!re ! influ5ces ( ! sev]al sph]es ^u our planet are matt]s ( vital importance2 !y 9 a way affect1 if !y d n control1 all ! op]ations :i* g on ^u ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,,! ,,sol> ,,sy/em4 ,we h se5 t ! matt] 9 ! visible univ]se ev]y:]e t5ds to ga!r into va/ associations :i* appe> to u z />s1 & t ^! orbs are engag$ 9 ceaseless motion 9 j\rneys ?r\gh space4 ,9 only "o ( ^! aggregations--t :i* makes our own sol> sy/em--are ! bodies suffici5tly ne> to our eyes = u1 ev5 ) ! res\rces ( our telescopes & o!r in/rum5ts1 to div9e some?+ ( ! details :i* !y exhibit4 ,9 /udy+ :at we may conc]n+ ! family ( ! sun1 ! planets1 & _! satellites1 we may reasonably be assur$ t we are trac+ a hi/ory :i* ) _m diff]5ces is 9 g5]al repeat$ 9 ! developm5t ( ea* /> 9 ! firmam5t4 ,!re=e ! inquiry is "o ( va/ range & import4 ,foll[+1 z we may reasonably d1 ! nebul> hypo!sis--a view :i*1 ?\gh n :olly prov$1 is em95tly probable--we may reg>d our sol> sy/em z hav+ begun :5 ! matt] ( :i* x is compos$1 !n 9 a f9ely divid$1 cl\dy /ate1 0 sep>at$ f ! simil> mat]ial :i* w5t to make ! neighb\r+ fix$ />s4 ,! p]iod :5 our sol> sy/em began its individual life 0 remote beyond ! possibility ( conception4 ,naturali/s are pretty well agre$ t liv+ be+s began to exi/ ^u ! e>? at lea/ a hundr$ million ye>s ago2 b ! beg9n+s ( our sol> sy/em mu/ be plac$ at a date v _m times z remote f ! pres5t day4#a ,footnote #a3 ,"s a/ronom]s1 p>ticul>ly ! di/+ui%$ ,pr(essor ,newcomb1 hold t ! sun c n h be5 supply+ heat z at pres5t = m ?an ab\t t5 million ye>s1 & t all geological "t mu/ be ?us limit$4 ,! geologi/ believes t ?is reckon+ is f> too %ort4 ,accord+ to ! nebul> !ory1 ! orig9al vap\r ( ! sol> sy/em began to fall 9 t[>d its c5tre & to :irl ab\t t po9t at a "t long be=e ! mass _h %runk to ! pres5t limits ( ! sol> sy/em z def9$ by ! pa? ( ! out]mo/ planets4 ,at successive /ages ( ! conc5tration1 r+s aft] ! mann] ( ^? ( ,saturn sep>at$ f ! disklike mass1 ea* break+ up & consolidat+ into a body ( nebul\s matt] :i* foll[$ 9 ! same pa?1 g5]ally =m+ r+s :i* became by ! same process ! moons or satellites ( ! sph]e4 ,9 ?is way ! sun produc$ eight planets :i* are kn[n1 & possibly o!rs ( small size on ! out] v]ge ( ! sy/em :i* h elud$ discov]y4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 ! planet>y masses 7 born 9 succession1 ! f>!/ away be+ ! olde/4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 held by an able au?ority t ! mass ( ! sol> sy/em w\ld fir/ =m a r flat disk1 ! sev]al r+s =m+ & break+ into planets at ab\t ! same "t4 ,! conditions 9 ,saturn1 :]e ! inn] r+ rema9s p>t$1 fav\rs ! view j /at$4 ,be=e mak+ a brief /atem5t ( ! sev]al planets1 ! a/]oids1 & ! satellites1 x w be well to consid] 9 a g5]al way ! motions ( ^! bodies ab\t _! c5tres & ab\t ! sun4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic & inv>iable ( ^! movem5ts is t by :i* ea* ( ! planet>y sph]es1 z well z ! satellites1 describes an orbit ar\nd ! gravitative c5tre :i* has ! mo/ influ5ce ^u x--! sun4 ,to conceive ! nature ( ?is movem5t1 x w be well to imag9e a s+le planet revolv+ ar\nd ! sun1 ea* ( ^! bodies be+ p]fect sph]es1 & ! two ! only memb]s ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,9 ?is condition ! attraction ( ! two bodies w\ld cause !m to circle ar\nd a common c5tre ( gravity1 :i*1 if ! planet 7 n l>g] or ! sun small] ?an is ! case 9 our sol> sy/em1 w\ld lie )9 ! mass ( ! sun4 ,9 proportion z ! two bodies might approa* ea* o!r 9 size1 ! c5tre ( gravity w\ld come ! ne>] to ! middle po9t 9 a l9e connect+ ! two sph]es4 ,9 ?is condition ( a sun ) a s+le planet1 :atev] 7 ! relative size ( sun & planet1 ! orbits :i* !y trav]se w\ld be circul>4 ,9 ?is /ate ( affairs x %\ld be not$ t ea* ( ! two bodies w\ld h its plane ( rotation p]man5tly 9 ! same position4 ,ev5 if ! sph]es 7 m or less flatt5$ ab\t ! poles ( _! axes1 z is ! case ) all ! planets :i* we h be5 able c>efully to measure1 z well z ) ! sun1 provid$ ! axes ( rotation 7 precisely p>allel to ea* o!r1 ! mutual attraction ( ! masses w\ld cause no di/urbance ( ! sph]es4 ,! same w\ld be ! case if ! pol> axis ( "o sph]e /ood precisely at "r angles to t ( ! o!r4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! sph]es 7 some:at flatt5$ at ! poles1 & ! axes incl9$ to ea* o!r1 !n ! pull ( "o mass on ! o!r w\ld cause ! pol> axes to keep up a con/ant movem5t :i* is call$ nutation1 or nodd+4 ,! reason :y ?is nodd+ movem5t ( ! pol> axes w\ld occur :5 ^! l9es 7 incl9$ to ea* o!r is n difficult to see if we rememb] t ! attraction ( masses ^u ea* o!r is inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance2 ea* sph]e1 pull+ on ! equatorial bulg+ ( ! o!r1 pulls mo/ effectively on ! "p ( x :i* is ne>e/1 & t5ds to draw x d[n t[>d its c5tre4 ,! result is t ! axes ( ! attract$ sph]es are giv5 a wobbl+ movem5t1 su* z we may note 9 ! sp9n+ top1 ?\gh 9 ! toy ! cause ( ! motion is n t :i* we are consid]+4 ,if1 n[1 9 t excell5t field = ! exp]im5t we are essay+1 ! m9d's eye1 we add a second planet outside ( ! s+le sph]e :i* we h s f> suppos$ to j\rney ab\t ! sun1 or r ab\t ! common c5tre ( gravity1 we p]ceive at once t we h introduc$ an elem5t :i* leads to a complication ( mu* importance4 ,! new sph]e w\ld1 ( c\rse1 pull ^u ! o!rs 9 ! measure ( its gravitative value--i4e41 its weight4 ,! c5tre ( gravity ( ! sy/em w\ld n[ be det]m9$ n by two di/9ct bodies1 b by ?ree4 ,if we conceive ! second planet to j\rney ar\nd ! sun at su* a rate t a /raight l9e always connect$ ! c5tres ( ! ?ree orbs1 !n ! only effect on _! gravitative c5tre w\ld be to draw ! fir/-m5tion$ planet a little f>!r away f ! c5tre ( ! sun2 b 9 our own sol> sy/em1 & probably 9 all o!rs1 ?is supposition is inadmissible1 because ! planets h long] j\rneys to g & also move sl[]1 ! f>!r !y are f ! sun4 ,?us ,m]cury completes ! circle ( its ye> 9 eighty-eight ( our days1 :ile ! out]mo/ planet requires sixty ?\s& days 7m ?an "o hundr$ & sixty-f\r ye>s7 = ! same task4 ,! result is n only t ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! sy/em is some:at displac$--itself a matt] ( no great acc\nt--b also t ! orbit ( ! orig9al planet ceases to be circl$ & becomes elliptical1 & ?is = ! evid5t reason t ! sph]e w be drawn some:at away f ! sun :5 ! second planet happ5s to lie 9 ! "p ( its orbit imm$iately outside ( its position1 9 :i* case ! pull is away f ! sol> c5tre2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! new planet 0 on ! o!r side ( ! sun1 its pull w\ld s]ve to int5sify ! attraction :i* drew ! fir/ sph]e t[>d ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,z ! pull+ action ( ! ?ree bodies ^u ea* o!r1 z well z ^u _! equatorial protub]ances1 w\ld v>y ) e *ange 9 _! relative position1 h[ev] slight1 ! v>iations 9 ! =m ( _! orbits1 ev5 if ! sph]es 7 b ?ree 9 numb]1 w\ld be v important4 ,! consequ5ces ( ^! p]turbations w appe> 9 ! sequel4 ,9 our sol> sy/em1 ?\gh !re are b eight great planets1 ! gr\p ( a/]oids1 & p]haps a score ( satellites1 ! v>iety ( orbital & axial movem5t :i* is develop$ taxes ! comput+ g5ius ( ! able/ a/ronom]4 ,! pa? :i* our e>? foll[s ar\nd ! sun1 ?\gh x may 9 g5]al & = conv5i5ce be describ$ z a v>iable ellipse1 is1 9 fact1 a l9e ( su* complication t if we %\ld essay a diagram ( x on ! scale ( ?is page x w\ld n be possible to repres5t any consid]able "p ( its deviations4 ,^!1 9 fact1 w\ld elude depiction1 ev5 if ! draughtsman _h a %eet = 8 draw+ z l>ge z ! orbit itself1 = e p>ticle ( matt] 9 space1 ev5 if x be lodg$ beyond ! limits ( ! f>!/ />s reveal$ to u by ! telescope1 ex]cises a c]ta9 attraction1 :i*1 h[ev] small1 is effective on ! mass ( ! e>?4 ,sci5ce has to r5d] its conclusions 9 g5]al t]ms1 & we c safely take !m z su*2 b 9 ?is1 z 9 o!r in/ances1 x is well to qualify our acceptance ( ! /atem5ts by ! memory t all ?+s are inf9itely m complicat$ ?an we c possibly conceive or repres5t !m to be4 ,we h next to consid] ! rotations ( ! planet>y sph]es ^u _! axes1 toge!r ) ! simil> movem5t1 or lack ( x1 9 ! case ( _! satellites4 ,?is rotation1 accord+ to ! nebul> hypo!sis1 may be expla9$ by ! movem5ts :i* w\ld set up 9 ! %>e ( matt] :i* 0 at fir/ a r+ ( ! sol> nebula1 & :i* aft]w>d ga!r$ into ! planet>y aggregation4 ,! way ( x may be briefly set =? z foll[s3 ,su* a r+ d\btless _h a diamet] ( "s million miles2 we readily p]ceive t ! p>ticles ( matt] 9 ! out] "p ( ! belt w\ld h a swift] movem5t ar\nd ! sun ?an ^? on ! inside4 ,:5 by "s di/urbance1 z possibly by ! passage ( a great meteoric body ( a consid]able gravitative p[]1 ?is r+ 0 brok5 9 two1 ! p>ticles compos+ x on ei!r side w\ld1 because ( _! mutual attraction1 t5d to draw away f ! brea*1 wid5+ t gap until ! matt] ( ! brok5 r+ 0 aggregat$ into a sph]e ( ! /> du/ or vap\r4 ,:5 ! nebul\s matt] orig9ally 9 ! r+ became aggregat$ into a sph]ical =m1 x w\ld1 on acc\nt ( ! diff]5t rates at :i* ! p>ticles 7 mov+ :5 !y came toge!r1 be ! sur] to fall 9 t[>d ! c5tre1 n 9 /raight l9es1 b 9 curves--9 o!r words1 ! mass w\ld necess>ily take on a movem5t ( rotation ess5tially l t :i* we h describ$ 9 sett+ =? ! nebul> hypo!sis4 ,9 ! /ages ( conc5tration ! planet>y nebul might well repeat ^? ?r\gh :i* ! great] sol> mass proce$$4 ,if ! volume ( ! mat]ial 7 great1 subord9ate r+s w\ld be =m$1 :i* :5 !y broke & conc5trat$ w\ld con/itute second>y planets or satellites1 su* z our moon4 ,= "s reason z yet unkn[n ! out] planets--9 fact1 all ^? 9 ! sol> sy/em except ! two inn]1 ,v5us & ,m]cury & ! a/]oids--=m$ su* att5dants4 ,all ^! satellite-=m+ r+s h brok5 & conc5trat$ except ! inn] ( ,saturn1 :i* rema9s z an intellectual treasure ( ! sol> sy/em to %[ ! hi/ory ( its developm5t4 ,to ! /ud5t :o is n seek+ ! fulness ( k :i* a/ronomy has to (f]1 b desires only to acqua9t himself ) ! m critical & important ( ! heav5ly ph5om5a :i* help to expla9 ! e>?1 ^! features ( planet>y movem5t %\ld prove especially int]e/+ = ! reason t !y %ape ! hi/ory ( ! sph]es4 ,z we %all h]eaft] see1 ! ma*9]y ( ! e>?'s surface1 all ! life :i* x be>s1 its w9ds & ra9s--ev]y?+1 inde$1 save ! actions :i* g on 9 ! dep?s ( ! sph]e--is det]m9$ by ! heat & light :i* come f ! sun4 ,! conditions "u :i* ?is vivify+ tide is receiv$ h _! orig9 9 ! planet>y motion4 ,if our e>?'s pa? ar\nd ! c5tre ( ! sy/em 0 a p]fect circle1 & if its pol> axis lay at "r angles to ! plane ( its j\rney1 ! %>e ( light & heat :i* w\ld fall ^u any "o po9t on ! sph]e w\ld be p]fectly uni=m4 ,!re w\ld be no v>iations 9 ! l5g? ( day or night2 no *anges 9 ! seasons2 ! w9ds ev]y:]e w\ld bl[ ) exce$+ /ead9ess--9 fact1 ! pres5t atmosph]ic confusion w\ld be r$uc$ to some?+ l ord]4 ,f age to age1 except s f> z ! sun itself might v>y 9 ! am\nt ( en]gy :i* x radiat$1 or l&s rose up into ! air or sunk d[n t[>d ! sea level1 ! climate ( ea* region w\ld be p]fectly /able4 ,9 ! exi/+ conditions ! influ5ces br+ ab\t un5d+ v>iety4 ,fir/ ( all1 ! incl9$ position ( ! pol> axis causes ! sun app>5tly to move across ! heav5s1 s t x comes 9 an ov]head position once or twice 9 ! ye> 9 q half ! area ( ! l&s & seas4 ,?is app>5t sway+ to & fro ( ! sun1 due to ! incl9ation ( ! axis ( rotation1 also affects ! wid? ( ! climatal belts on ei!r side ( ! equator1 s t all p>ts ( ! e>? receive a consid]able %>e ( ! sun's influ5ce4 ,if ! axis ( ! e>?'s rotation 7 at "r angles to ! plane ( its orbit1 !re w\ld be a n>r[ belt ( high temp]ature ab\t ! equator1 nor? & s\? ( :i* ! heat w\ld grade (f until at ab\t ! p>allels ( fifty degrees we %\ld f9d a cold s consid]able & uni=m t life w\ld probably fade away2 & f ^? p>allels to ! poles ! conditions w\ld be ^? ( p]man5t fro/1 & ( days :i* w\ld d>k5 into ! endur+ night or twilight 9 ! realm ( ! f> nor? & s\?4 ,?us ! wide habitability ( ! e>? is an effect aris+ f ! incl9ation ( its pol> axis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,incl9ation ( ,planet>y ,orbits 7f ,*amb]s74 ,z ! mo/ valuable impression :i* ! /ud5t c receive f 8 /udy ( ,nature is t s5se ( ! ord] :i* has made possible all life1 includ+ 8 own1 x w be well = him to imag9e1 z he may readily d1 :at w\ld be ! effect aris+ f *anges 9 relations ( e>? & sun4 ,br++ ! e>?'s axis 9 imag9ation into a position at "r angles to ! plane ( ! orbit1 he w see t ! effect w\ld be to int5sify ! equatorial heat1 & to rob ! high latitudes ( ! %>e :i* !y n[ h4 ,on mov+ ! axis gradually to positions :]e x approa*es ! plane ( ! orbit1 he w note t ea* /age ( ! *ange wid5s ! tropic belt4 ,br++ ! pol> axis d[n to ! plane ( ! orbit1 "o hemisph]e w\ld receive unbrok5 sun%9e1 ! o!r rema9+ 9 p]petual d>kness & cold4 ,9 ?is condition1 9 place ( an equatorial l9e we %\ld h an equatorial po9t at ! pole ne>e/ ! sun2 !nce ! temp]atures w\ld grade away to ! pres5t equator1 beyond :i* half ! e>? w\ld be 9 m refrig]at+ condition ?an are ! poles at ! pres5t day4 ,9 consid]+ ! movem5ts ( our planet1 we %all see t no great *anges 9 ! position ( ! pol> axis c h tak5 place4 ,on ?is acc\nt ! sugge/$ alt]ations ( ! axis %\ld n be tak5 z o!r ?an imag9>y *anges4 ,x is easy to see t ) a circul> orbit & ) an incl9$ axis w9t] & summ] w\ld normally come always at ! same po9t 9 ! orbit1 & t ^! seasons w\ld be ( p]fectly ev5 l5g?4 ,b1 z we h be=e not$1 ! e>?'s pa? ar\nd ! sun is 9 its =m greatly affect$ by ! attractions :i* are ex]cis$ by ! neighb\r+ planets1 pr9cipally by ^? great sph]es :i* lie 9 ! realm )\t its orbit1 ,jupit] & ,saturn4 ,:5 ^! attract+ bodies1 z is ! case f "t to "t1 ?\gh at long int]vals1 are br\ght toge!r some:]e ne> to t "p ( ! sol> sy/em 9 :i* ! e>? is mov+ ar\nd ! sun1 !y draw our planet t[>d !m1 & s make its pa? v elliptical4 ,:51 h[ev]1 !y are s di/ribut$ t _! pull+ actions neutralize ea* o!r1 ! orbit returns m ne>ly to a circul> =m4 ,! range 9 its ecc5tricity :i* c be br\ght ab\t by ^! alt]ations is v great4 ,:5 ! pa? is mo/ ne>ly circul>1 ! diff]5ce 9 ! major & m9or axis may am\nt to z little z ab\t five hundr$ ?\s& miles1 or ab\t "o "o hundr$ & eighty-six? ( its av]age diamet]4 ,:5 ! v>iation is greate/ ! diff]5ce 9 ^! measurem5ts may be z mu* z ne> ?irte5 million miles1 or ab\t "o sev5? ( ! mean wid? ( ! orbit4 ,! fir/ & mo/ evid5t effect aris+ f ^! *anges ( ! orbit comes f ! diff]5ce 9 ! am\nt ( heat :i* ! e>? may receive accord+ z x is ne>] or f>!r f ! sun4 ,z 9 ! case ( o!r fires1 ! ne>] a body is to x ! l>g] ! %>e ( light & heat :i* x w receive4 ,9 an orbit made elliptical by ! planet>y attraction ! sun necess>ily occupies "o ( ! foci ( ! ellipse4 ,! result is1 ( c\rse1 t ! side ( ! e>? :i* is t[>d ! sun1 :ile x is ?us br\ght ! ne>] to ! lum9>y1 receives m en]gy 9 ! =m ( light & heat ?an come to any "p :i* is expos$ :5 ! sph]es are f>!r away f ea* o!r 9 ! o!r "p ( ! orbit4 ,computations cle>ly %[ t ! total am\nt ( heat & ! att5dant light :i* ! e>? receives 9 a ye> is n affect$ by ^! *anges 9 ! =m ( its pa?4 ,:ile x is true t x receives heat m rapidly 9 ! half ( ! ellipse :i* is ne>e/ ! s\rce ( ! inundation1 x obta9s less :ile x is f>!r away1 & ^! two v>iations j balance ea* o!r4 ,al?\gh ! alt]ations 9 ! ecc5tricity ( its orbit d n v>y ! annual supply ( heat :i* ! e>? receives1 !y are capable ( *ang+ ! "* ( ! seasons1 & ?is 9 ! way :i* we w n[ endeav\r to set =?1 ?\gh we mu/ d x at ! co/ ( consid]able att5tion on ! "p ( ! read]1 = ! facts are some:at complicat$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we mu/ note t ! ellipticity ( ! e>?'s orbit is n develop$ on fix$ l9es1 b is endlessly v>i$1 z we c readily imag9e x w\ld be = ! reason t its =m dep5ds ^u ! w&]+ ( ! out] planet>y sph]es :i* pull ! e>? ab\t4 ,! long] axis ( ! ellipse is itself 9 con/ant motion 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! e>? travels4 ,?is movem5t is sl[1 & at an irregul> rate4 ,x is easy to see t ! effect ( ?is action1 :i* is call$ ! revolution ( ! apsides1 or1 z ! ^w means1 ! movem5t ( ! poles ( ! ellipse1 is to br+ ! e>?1 :5 a giv5 hemisph]e is turn$ t[>d ! sun1 sometimes 9 ! "p ( ! orbit :i* is ne>e/ ! s\rce ( light & heat1 & sometimes f>!r away4 ,x may ?us well come ab\t t at "o "t ! summ] season ( a hemisph]e arrives :5 x is ne>e/ ! sun1 s t ! season1 ?\gh hot1 w be v %ort1 :ile at ano!r "t ! same season w arrive :5 ! e>? is f>!/ f ! sun1 & receives mu* less heat1 :i* w\ld t5d to make a long & relatively cool summ]4 ,! reason = ! diff]5ce 9 l5g? ( ! seasons is to be f\nd 9 ! relative swiftness ( ! e>?'s revolution :5 x is ne>e/ ! sun1 & ! sl[ness :5 x is f>!r away4 ,!re is a fur!r complication aris+ f t curi\s ph5om5on call$ ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 :i* has to be tak5 into acc\nt be=e we c suffici5tly compreh5d ! effect ( ! v>y+ ecc5tricity ( ! orbit on ! e>?'s seasons4 ,to und]/& ?is feature ( precession we %\ld fir/ note t x means t ea* ye> ! *ange f ! w9t] to ! summ]--or1 z we phrase x1 ! passage ( ! equ9octial l9e--occurs a little soon] ?an ! ye> be=e4 ,! cause ( ?is is to be f\nd 9 ! attraction :i* ! heav5ly bodies1 practically altoge!r ! moon1 ex]cises on ! equatorial protub]ance ( ! e>?4 ,we "k t ! diamet] ( our sph]e at ! equator is1 on ! av]age1 some?+ m ?an tw5ty-six miles great] ?an x is ?r\gh ! poles4 ,we "k1 fur!rmore1 t ! position ( ! moon 9 relation to ! e>? is su* t x causes ! attraction on "o half ( ?is protub]ance to be great] ?an x is ^u ! o!r4 ,we readily p]ceive t ?is action w cause ! pol> axis to make a c]ta9 revolution1 or1 :at comes to ! same ?+1 t ! plane ( ! equator w con/antly be alt]+ its position4 ,n[1 z ! equ9octial po9ts 9 ! orbit dep5d = _! position ^u ! attitude ( ! equatorial plane1 we c conceive t ! effect is a *ange 9 position ( ! place 9 t orbit :]e summ] & w9t] beg94 ,! actual result is to br+ ! seasonal po9ts backw>d1 /ep by /ep1 ?r\gh ! orbit 9 a regul> measure until 9 tw5ty-two ?\s& five hundr$ ye>s !y return to ! place :]e !y 7 be=e4 ,?is cycle ( *ange 0 ( old call$ ! ,annus ,magnus1 or great ye>4 ,if ! e>?'s orbit 7 an ellipse1 ! major axis ( :i* rema9$ 9 ! same position1 we c\ld readily reckon all ! effects :i* arise f ! v>iations ( ! great ye>4 ,b ?is ellipse is ev] *ang+ 9 =m1 & 9 ! measure ( its dep>ture f a circle ! effects on ! seasons di/ribut$ ov] a great p]iod ( "t are exce$+ly irregul>4 ,n[ & !n1 at int]vals ( hundr$s ( ?\s&s or millions ( ye>s1 ! orbit becomes v elliptical2 !n aga9 = long p]iods x may 9 =m approa* a circle4 ,:5 9 ! /ate ( extreme ellipticity1 ! precession ( ! equ9oxes w cause ! hemisph]es 9 turn ea* to h _! w9t] & summ] alt]nately ne> & f> f ! sun4 ,x is easily se5 t :5 ! summ] season comes to a hemisph]e 9 ! "p ( ! orbit :i* is !n ne>e/ ! sun ! p]iod w be v hot4 ,:5 ! summ] came f>!/ f ! sun t "p ( ! ye> w\ld h ! temp]ature mitigat$ by its removal to a great] di/ance f ! s\rce ( heat4 ,a correspond+ effect w\ld be produc$ 9 ! w9t] season4 ,z long z ! orbit rema9$ ecc5tric ! t5d5cy w\ld be to give alt]nately int5se seasons to ea* hemisph]e ?r\gh p]iods ( ab\t twelve ?\s& ye>s1 ! o!r hemisph]e hav+ at ! same "t a relatively slight v>iation 9 ! summ] & w9t]4 ,at fir/ sight x may seem to ! read] t ^! /udies we h j be5 mak+ 9 matt]s conc]n+ ! %ape ( ! orbit & ! att5dant circum/ances :i* regulate ! seasons 7 ( no v great consequ5ce2 b1 9 ! op9ion ( "s /ud5ts ( climate1 we are to look to ^! processes = an explanation ( c]ta9 climatal *anges on ! e>?1 includ+ ! ,glacial p]iods1 accid5ts :i* h _h ! utmo/ importance 9 ! hi/ory ( man1 z well z ( all ! o!r life ( ! planet4 ,x is n[ "t to give "s acc\nt z to :at is kn[n conc]n+ ! g5]al conditions ( ! sol> bodies--! planets & satellites ( our own cele/ial gr\p4 ,= our purpose we ne$ att5d only to ! g5]al physical /ate ( ^! orbs s f> z x is kn[n to u by ! /udies ( a/ronom]s4 ,! ne>e/ planet to ! sun is ,m]cury4 ,?is little sph]e1 less ?an half ! diamet] ( our e>?1 is s close to ! sun t ev5 :5 mo/ fav\rably plac$ = obs]vation x is visible = b a few m9utes be=e sunrise & aft] sunset4 ,al?\gh x may )\t mu* difficulty be f\nd by ! ord9>y eye1 v few p h ev] se5 x4 ,to ! telescope :5 x is 9 ! full moon /ate x appe>s z a brilliant disk2 x is held by mo/ a/ronom]s t ! surface :i* we see is made up altoge!r ( cl\ds1 b ?is1 z mo/ else t has be5 /at$ conc]n+ ?is planet1 is d\btful4 ,! sph]e is s ne> to ! sun t if x 7 possess$ ( wat] x w\ld inevitably be> an atmosph]e full ( vap\r4 ,"u any conceivable conditions ( a planet plac$ z ,m]cury is1 provid$ x _h an atmosph]e to reta9 ! heat1 its temp]ature w\ld necess>ily be v high4 ,life z we "k x c\ld n well exi/ ^u su* a sph]e4 ,next beyond ,m]cury is ,v5us1 a sph]e only a little less 9 diamet] ?an ! e>?4 ,( ?is sph]e we "k m ?an we d ( ,m]cury1 = ! reason t x is f>!r f ! sun & s appe>s 9 ! d>k5$ sky4 ,mo/ a/ronom]s hold t ! surface ( ?is planet app>5tly is almo/ completely & cont9ually hidd5 f u by :at appe>s to be a d5se cl\d envelope1 ?r\gh :i* f "t to "t c]ta9 spots appe> ( a d>k col\r4 ,^!1 x is claim$1 reta9 _! place 9 a p]man5t way2 x is1 inde$1 by obs]v+ !m t ! rotation p]iod ( ! planet has1 accord+ to "s obs]v]s1 be5 det]m9$4 ,x !re=e seems likely t ^! spots are ! summits ( m\nta9s1 :i*1 l _m ( our own e>?1 rise above ! cl\d level4 ,rec5t obs]vations on ,v5us made by ,mr4 ,p]cival ,l[ell appe> to %[ t ! previ\s det]m9ations ( ! rotation ( t planet1 z well z reg>ds its cl\d wrap1 are 9 error4 ,accord+ to ^! obs]vations1 ! sph]e moves ab\t ! sun1 always keep+ ! same side turn$ t[>d ! sol> c5tre1 j z ! moon does 9 its motion ar\nd ! e>?4 ,moreov]1 ,mr4 ,l[ell has fail$ to discov] any traces ( cl\ds ^u ! surface ( ! planet4 ,z yet ^! results h n be5 v]ifi$ by ! "w ( o!r a/ronom]s2 re/+1 h[ev]1 z !y d on /udies made ) an excell5t telescope & 9 ! v transluc5t & /eady air ( ! ,flag/aff ,/ation1 !y are m likely to be correct ?an ^? obta9$ by o!r /ud5ts4 ,if x be true t ,v5us does n turn ^u its axis1 su* is likely to be ! case also ) ! planet ,m]cury4 ,next 9 ! s]ies ( ! planets is our own e>?4 ,z ! details ( ?is planet are to occupy u dur+ ne>ly all ! rema9d] ( ?is "w1 we %all = ! pres5t pass x by4 ,beyond ! e>? we pass fir/ to ! planet ,m>s1 a sph]e :i* has already reveal$ to u mu* conc]n+ its peculi>ities ( =m & physical /ate1 & :i* is likely 9 ! future to give m in=mation ?an we %all obta9 f any o!r ( our companions 9 space1 except p]haps ! moon4 ,m>s is n only ne>] to u ?an any o!r planet1 b x is s plac$ t x receives ! light ( ! sun "u fav\rable conditions = our vision4 ,moreov]1 its sky appe>s to be g5]ally almo/ cl\dless1 s t :5 9 its orbital c\rse ! sph]e is ne>e/ our e>? x is "u fav\rable conditions = telescopic obs]vation4 ,at su* times !re is reveal$ to ! a/ronom] a surface :i* is cov]$ ) an amaz+ numb] ( %ad+s & m>k+s :i* z yet h be5 incompletely int]pret$4 ,! fa9t nature ( ^! indications has l$ to v contradictory /atem5ts z to _! =m2 no two maps :i* h be5 drawn agree except 9 _! g5]alities4 ,!re is reason to believe t ,m>s has an atmosph]e2 ?is is %[n by ! fact t 9 ! appropriate season ! region ab\t ei!r pole is cov]$ by a :ite coat+1 presumably sn[4 ,?is cov]+ ext5ds r less f> t[>d ! planet's equator ?an does ! sn[ %eet on our cont95ts4 ,tak+ into acc\nt ! col\r ( ! coat+1 & ! fact t x disappe>s :5 ! summ] season comes to ! hemisph]e 9 :i* x 0 =m$1 we are1 9 fact1 =c$ to believe t ! deposit is froz5 wat]1 ?\gh x has be5 sugge/$ t x may be froz5 c>bonic acid4 ,tak5 9 connection ) :at we h %ortly to note conc]n+ ! app>5t seas ( ?is sph]e1 ! presumption is ov]:elm+ly to ! effect t ,m>s has seasons n unlike our own4 ,! exi/5ce ( sn[ on any sph]e may safely be tak5 z evid5ce t !re is an atmosph]e4 ,9 ! case ( ,m>s1 ?is supposition is borne out by ! appe>ance ( its surface4 ,! ruddy light :i* x s5ds back to u1 & ! appe>ance on ! m>g9 ( ! sph]e1 :i* is some:at dim1 appe>s to indicate t its atmosph]e is d5se4 ,9 fact1 ! exi/5ce ( an atmosph]e mu* d5s] ?an t ( our own e>? appe>s to be dem&$ by ! fact t ! temp]atures are su* z to p]mit ! com+ & go+ ( sn[4 ,x is well kn[n t ! temp]ature ( any po9t on ! e>?1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 is proportionate to ! dep? ( atmosph]e above its surface4 ,if ,m>s _h no m air ov] its surface ?an has an equal area ( ! e>?1 x w\ld rema9 at a temp]ature s l[ t su* seasonal *anges z we h obs]v$ c\ld n take place4 ,! planet receives "o ?ird less heat ?an an equal area ( ! e>?1 & its lik5ess to our own temp]ature1 if su* exi/s1 is d\btless br\ght ab\t by ! great] d5sity ( its atmosph]e1 t s]ves to reta9 ! heat :i* comes ^u its surface4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ?is is effect$ w be set =? 9 ! /udy ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--,m>s1 ,augu/ #bg1 #ahib 7,guiot71 ! :ite pat* is ! suppos$ ,pol> ,sn[ ,cap4 ,z is %[n by ! maps ( ,m>s1 ! surface is occupi$ by %ad+s :i* seem to indicate ! exi/5ce ( wat] & l&s4 ,^? portions ( ! area :i* are tak5 to be l& are v mu* divid$ by :at appe> to be n>r[ seas4 ,! g5]al geographic conditions diff] mu* f ^? ( our own sph]e 9 t ! p>ts ( ! planet ab\t ! wat] level are n gr\p$ 9 great cont95ts1 & !re are no l>ge oceans4 ,! only lik5ess to ! conditions ( our e>? :i* we c p]ceive is 9 a g5]al po9t+ ( ! some:at triangul> masses ( :at appe>s to be l& t[>d "o pole4 ,z a :ole1 ! conditions ( ! ,m>tial l&s & seas z reg>ds _! =m1 at lea/1 is m l t ( ,europe ?an t ( any o!r "p ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,europe 9 ! e>ly ,t]ti>y times _h a configuration ev5 m l t ( ,m>s ?an x exhibits at pres5t1 = 9 t p]iod ! l& 0 v mu* m divid$ ?an x n[ is4 ,if ! l&s ( ,m>s are fram$ z are ^? ( our own e>?1 !re %\ld be ridges ( m\nta9s con/itut+ :at we may t]m ! backbones ( ! cont95t4 ,z yet su* h n be5 disc]n$1 :i* may be due to ! fact t !y h n be5 c>efully look$ =4 ,! only peculi> physical features :i* h z yet be5 disc]n$ on ! l&s ( ,m>s are c]ta9 long1 /raight1 r n>r[ crevicelike op5+s1 :i* h receiv$ ! "n ( canals4 ,^! features are v indi/9ct1 & are j on ! limit ( visibility4 ,z yet !y h be5 c>efully obs]v$ by b few /ud5ts1 s t _! features are n yet well record$2 z f> z we "k !m1 ^! fissures h no lik5ess 9 ! exi/+ conditions ( our e>?4 ,x is difficult to und]/& h[ !y are =m$ or pres]v$ on a surface :i* is evid5tly subject$ to ra9falls4 ,x w require mu* m effici5t telescopes ?an we n[ h be=e x w be possible to beg9 any satisfactory /udy on ! geography ( ?is m>vell\s planet4 ,we c n hope z yet to obta9 any indications z to ! details ( its /ructure2 we c n see closely en\gh to det]m9e :e!r riv]s exi/1 or :e!r !re is a coat+ :i* we may int]pret z vegetation1 *ang+ its hues 9 ! diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>4 ,an advance 9 our in/rum5ts ( rese>* dur+ ! com+ c5tury1 if made ) ! same spe$ z dur+ ! la/1 w p]haps enable u to int]pret ! nature ( ?is neighb\r1 & !reby to ext5d ! conception ( planet>y hi/ories :i* we d]ive f our own e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,comp>ative ,sizes ( ! ,planets 7,*amb]s74 ,beyond ,m>s we f9d "o ( ! mo/ s+ul> features ( our sol> sy/em 9 a gr\p ( small planet>y bodies1 ! numb] ( :i* n[ kn[n am\nts to "s two hundr$1 & ! total may be f> great]4 ,^! bodies are evid5tly all small2 x is d\btful if ! l>ge/ is ?ree hundr$ & ! small] m ?an tw5ty miles 9 diamet]4 ,s f> z x has be5 det]m9$ by ! effect ( _! aggregate mass 9 attract+ ! o!r sph]es1 !y w\ld1 if put toge!r1 make a sph]e f> less 9 diamet] ?an our e>?1 p]haps n m ?an five hundr$ miles ?r\gh4 ,! =ms ( ^! a/]oids is z yet unkn[n2 we !re=e c n det]m9e :e!r _! %apes are sph]oidal1 z are ^? ( ! o!r planets1 or :e!r !y are angul> bits l ! meteorites4 ,we are ?us n 9 a position to conjecture :e!r _! indep5d5ce began :5 ! nebul\s matt] ( ! r+ to :i* !y belong$ 0 9 process ( consolidation1 or :e!r1 aft] ! aggregation ( ! sph]e 0 accompli%$1 & ! matt] solidifi$1 ! mass 0 brok5 into bits 9 "s way :i* we c n yet conceive4 ,x has be5 conjectur$ t su* a solid sph]e might h be5 driv5 asund] by a collision ) "s w&]+ cele/ial body2 b all we c conceive ( su* actions leads u to suppose t a bl[ ( ?is nature w\ld t5d to melt or conv]t mat]ials subject$ to x into ! /ate ( vap\r1 r ?an to drive !m asund] 9 ! mann] ( an explosion4 ,! f\r planets :i* lie beyond ! a/]oids give u relatively little in=mation conc]n+ _! physical condition1 ?\gh !y af=d a wide field = ! philosophic imag9ation4 ,f ?is po9t ( view ! read] is advis$ to consult ! writ+s ( ! late ,r4,a4 ,proctor1 :o has br\ght to ! task ( int]pret+ ! planet>y conditions ! skill ( a well-tra9$ a/ronom] & a rem>kable con/ructive imag9ation4 ,! planet ,jupit]1 by f> ! l>ge/ ( ! *ildr5 ( ! sun1 appe>s to be /ill 9 a /ate :]e its int]nal heat has n s f> escap$ t ! surface has cool$ d[n 9 ! mann] ( our e>?4 ,:at appe> to be good obs]vations %[ t ! equatorial "p ( its area1 at lea/1 /ill gl[s f its own heat4 ,! sph]e is cl\d-wrapp$1 b x is d\btful :e!r ! envelope be ( wat]y vap\r2 x is1 inde$1 q possible t besides su* vap\r x may conta9 "s "p ( ! _m sub/ances :i* occupy ! atmosph]e ( ! sun4 ,if ! ,jovian sph]e 7 no l>g] ?an ! e>?1 x w\ld1 on acc\nt ( its great] age1 long ago h p>t$ ) its heat2 b on acc\nt ( its great size x has be5 able1 not)/&+ its antiquity1 to reta9 a measure ( temp]ature :i* has long s9ce pass$ away f our e>?4 ,9 ! case ( ,saturn1 ! cl\d b&s are some:at less visible ?an on ,jupit]1 b !re is reason to suppose 9 ?is1 z 9 ! la/-nam$ planet1 t we d n behold ! m solid surface ( ! sph]e1 b see only a cl\d wrap1 :i* is probably due r to ! heat ( ! sph]e itself ?an to t :i* comes to x f ! sun4 ,at ! di/ance ( ,saturn f ! c5tre ( ! sol> sy/em a giv5 area ( surface receives less ?an "o n9etie? ( ! sun's heat z comp>$ ) ! e>?2 !re=e we c n conceive t any d5sity ( ! atmosph]e :atev] w\ld suffice to hold 9 en\gh temp]ature to produce ord9>y cl\ds4 ,moreov]1 f "t to "t bright spots appe> on ! surface ( ! planet1 :i* mu/ be due to "s =m ( eruptions f its int]ior4 ,beyond ,saturn ! two planets ,uranus & ,neptune1 :i* occupy ! out] "p ( ! sol> sy/em1 are s remote t ev5 our be/ telescopes disc]n little m ?an _! pres5ce1 & ! fact t !y h att5dant moons4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( a/ronomical sci5ce1 ! out]mo/ planet ,neptune1 ( peculi> int]e/ = ! reason t x 01 z we may say1 discov]$ by computation4 ,a/ronom]s _h = _m ye>s rem>k$ ! fact t ! next inn] planet>y sph]e exhibit$ peculi>ities 9 its orbit :i* c\ld only be acc\nt$ = on ! supposition t x 0 subject$ to ! attraction ( ano!r w&]+ body :i* _h escap$ obs]vation4 ,by skilful computation ! place 9 ! heav5s 9 :i* ?is di/urb+ elem5t lay 0 s accurately det]m9$ t :5 ! telescope 0 turn$ to ! giv5 field a brief /udy reveal$ ! planet4 ,no?+ else 9 ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce ( a/ronomy1 unless x be ! computation ( eclipses1 s cle>ly & popul>ly %[s ! accuracy ( ! me?ods by :i* ! "w ( t sci5ce may be done4 ,z we %all see h]eaft]1 9 ! *apt]s :i* are devot$ to t]re/rial ph5om5a1 ! physical condition ( ! sun det]m9es ! c\rse ( all ! m important ev5ts :i* take place on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,x is !re=e fit t 9 ?is prelim9>y /udy ( ! cele/ial bodies1 :i* is especially design$ to make ! e>? m int]pretable to u1 we %\ld give a some:at special att5tion to :at is kn[n "u ! title ( ,sol> ,physics4 ,! read] has already be5 told t ! sun is "o ( _m million simil> bodies :i* exi/ 9 space1 &1 fur!rmore1 t ^! aggregations ( matt] h be5 develop$ f an orig9al nebul\s condition4 ,! facts indicate t ! natural hi/ory ( ! sun1 z well z t ( its att5dant sph]es1 exhibits ?ree mom5t\s /ages3 ,fir/1 t ( vap\r2 second1 t ( igne\s fluidity2 ?ird1 t 9 :i* ! sph]e is s f> congeal$ t x becomes d>k4 ,nei!r ( ^! /ates is %>ply sep>at$ f ! o!r2 a mass may be p>tly nebul\s & p>tly fluid2 ev5 :5 x has be5 conv]t$ into fluid1 or possibly into ! solid /ate1 x may /ill reta9 on ! ext]ior "s %>e ( its orig9al vapor\s condition4 ,9 our sun ! conc5tration has long s9ce pass$ beyond ! limits ( ! nebul\s /ate2 ! la/ ( ! successively develop$ r+s has brok51 & has =m$ itself into ! smalle/ ( ! planets1 :i* by its di/ance f ! sun seems to indicate t ! process ( division by r+s long ago atta9$ 9 our sol> sy/em its end1 ! rema9d] ( its nebul\s mat]ial conc5trat+ on its c5tre )\t sign ( any rema9+ t5d5cy to produce ^! planet-mak+ circles4 ,,! ,,con/itution ,,( ,,! ,,sun4 ,be=e ! use ( ! telescope 9 a/ronomical "w1 :i* 0 begun by ! illu/ri\s ,galileo 9 #afjh1 a/ronom]s 7 unable to approa* ! problem ( ! /ructure ( ! sun4 ,!y c\ld disc]n no m ?an c be se5 by any "o :o looks at ! great sph]e ?r\gh a bit ( smok$ glass1 z we "k ?is reveals a disklike body ( v uni=m appe>ance4 ,! only v>iation 9 ?is simple aspect occurs at ! "t ( a total eclipse1 :5 = a m9ute or two ! moon hides ! :ole body ( ! sun4 ,on su* occasions ev5 ! unaid$ eye c see t !re is ab\t ! sph]e a broad1 r bright field1 ( an aspect l a v ?9 cl\d or fog1 :i* rises 9 /ream] l projections at po9ts to a qu>t] ( a million miles or m above ! surface ( ! sph]e4 ,! appe>ance ( ?is %9+ field1 :i* is call$ ! corona1 rem9ds "o ( ! aurora :i* gl[s 9 ! region ab\t ei!r pole ( ! e>?4 ,"o ( ! fir/ results ( ! inv5tion ( ! telescope 0 ! revelation ( ! curi\s d>k objects on ! sun's disk1 kn[n by ! "n ( spots f ! "t ( _! discov]y1 or1 at lea/1 f ! "t :5 x 0 cle>ly p]ceiv$ t !y 7 n planets1 b really on ! sol> body4 ,! int]e/ 9 ! con/itution ( ! sph]e has increas$ dur+ ! la/ fifty ye>s4 ,?is int]e/ has rapidly gr[n until at ! pres5t "t a va/ body ( le>n+ has be5 ga!r$ = ! solution ( ! _m problems conc]n+ ! c5tre ( our sy/em4 ,z yet !re is great div]g5ce 9 ! views ( a/ronom]s z to ! int]pretation ( _! obs]vations1 b c]ta9 po9ts ( great g5]al int]e/ h be5 tol]ably well det]m9$4 ,^! may be briefly set =? by an acc\nt ( :at w\ld meet ! eye if an obs]v] 7 able to pass f ! surface ( ! e>? to ! c5tral "p ( ! sun4 ,illu/ration3 ,lava /ream1 9 ,hawaiian ,isl&s1 fl[+ into ! sea4 ,note ! ropy "* ( ! half-froz5 rock on ! sides ( ! ne>e/ rivulet ( ! lava4 ,9 pass+ f ! e>? to a po9t ab\t a qu>t] ( a million miles f ! sun's surface--a di/ance ab\t t ( ! moon f our sph]e--! obs]v] w\ld trav]se ! uni=mly empty spaces ( ! heav5s1 :]e1 b = ! r>e *ance ( a pass+ meteorite or comet1 !re w\ld be no?+ t we t]m matt]4 ,arriv+ at a po9t "s two or ?ree hundr$ ?\s& miles f ! body ( ! sun1 he w\ld ent] ! realm ( ! corona2 "h he w\ld f9d scatt]$ p>ticles ( matt]1 ! bits s f> ap>t t !re w\ld p]haps be n m ?an "o or two 9 ! cubic mile2 yet1 z !y w\ld gl[ int5sely 9 ! c5tral light1 !y w\ld be suffici5t to give ! illum9ation :i* is visible 9 an eclipse4 ,^! p>ticles are mo/ likely driv5 up f ! sun by "s electrical action1 & are con/antly 9 motion1 mu* z are ! /ream]s ( ! aurora4 ,bel[ ! corona & %>ply sep>at$ f x ! obs]v] f9ds ano!r body ( v d5se vap\r1 :i* is t]m$ ! *romosph]e1 & :i* has be5 reg>d$ z ! atmosph]e ( ! sun4 ,?is lay] is probably sev]al ?\s& miles ?ick4 ,f ! mann] 9 :i* x moves1 9 ! way ! air ( our own planet does 9 great /orms1 x is n easy to believe t x is a fluid1 yet its %>ply def9$ upp] surface leads u to suppose t x c n well be a m]e mass ( vap\r4 ,! spectroscope %[s u t ?is *romosph]e conta9s 9 ! /ate ( vap\r a numb] ( metallic sub/ances1 su* z iron & magnesium4 ,to an obs]v] :o c\ld behold ?is envelope ( ! sun f ! di/ance at :i* we see ! moon1 ! spectacle w\ld be m magnific5t ?an ! imag9ation1 guid$ by ! sight ( all ! relatively trifl+ fractures ( our e>?1 c possibly conceive4 ,f ! surface ( ! fi]y sea va/ upru%es ( heat$ matt] rise to ! height ( two or ?ree hundr$ ?\s& miles1 & !n fall back ^u its surface4 ,^! jets ( heat$ matt] h ! aspect ( flames1 b !y w\ld n be su* 9 fact1 = ! mat]ials are n burn+1 b m]ely kept at a high temp]ature by ! heat ( ! great sph]e b5ea?4 ,!y spr+ up ) su* en]gy t !y at times move ) a spe$ ( "o hundr$ & fifty miles a second1 or at a rate :i* is atta9$ by no o!r matt] 9 ! visible univ]se1 except t /range1 w&]+ /> kn[n to a/ronom]s z ,grombridge1 #ahcj1 :i* is trav]s+ ! firmam5t ) a spe$ ( n less ?an two hundr$ miles a second4 ,bel[ ! *romosph]e is ! photosph]e1 ! l[] envelope ( ! sun1 if x be n inde$ ! body ( ! sph]e itself2 f ?is comes ! light & heat ( ! mass4 ,?is1 too1 c n well be a firm-set mass1 = ! reason t ! spots appe> to =m 9 & move ov] x4 ,x may be reg>d$ z an extremely d5se mass ( gas1 s weigh$ d[n by ! va/ attraction ( ! great sph]e bel[ x t x is 9 effect a fluid4 ,! ne>-at-h& obs]v] w\ld d\btless f9d ?is photosph]e1 z x appe>s 9 ! telescope1 to be %>ply sep>at$ f ! ?9n] & m vapor\s envelopes--! *romosph]e & ! corona--:i* are1 inde$1 s ?9 t !y are invisible ev5 ) ! telescope1 except :5 ! full blaze ( ! sun is cut (f 9 a total eclipse4 ,! fact t ! photosph]e1 except :5 brok5 by ! s-call$ spots1 lies l a great smoo? sea1 ) no p>ts :i* lie above ! g5]al l9e1 %[s t x has a v diff]5t /ructure f ! envelope :i* lies ^u x4 ,if !y 7 bo? vapor\s1 !re w\ld be a gradation betwe5 !m4 ,on ! surface ( ! photosph]e1 almo/ altoge!r )9 ?irty degrees ( ! equator ( ! sun1 a field correspond+ approximately to ! tropical belt ( ! e>?1 !re appe> f "t to "t ! curi\s di/urbances :i* are t]m$ spots4 ,^! appe> to be upru%es ( matt] 9 ! gase\s /ate1 ! upw>d movem5t be+ ^u ! m>g9s ( ! field & a d[nw>d motion tak+ place 9 ! middle ( ! irregul> op5+1 :i* is d>k5$ 9 its c5tral "p1 ?us giv+ x1 :5 se5 by an ord9>y telescope1 ! aspect ( a black pat* on ! gl[+ surface4 ,^! spots1 :i* are f "s hundr$ to "s ?\s& miles 9 diamet]1 may endure = mon?s be=e !y fade away4 ,x is cle> t !y are mo/ abundant at int]vals ( ab\t elev5 ye>s1 ! la/ p]iod ( abundance be+ 9 #ahic4 ,! next to come may ?us be expect$ 9 #aijd4 ,9 ! times ( lea/ spott+ m ?an half ! days ( a ye> may pass )\t ! surface ( ! photosph]e be+ brok51 :ile 9 p]iods ( pl5ty no day 9 ! ye> is likely to fail to %[ !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--,ord9>y ,sun-spot1 ,june #bb1 #ahhe4 ,x is d\btful if ! close/ see+ w\ld reveal ! cause ( ! sol> spots4 ,! /udies ( ! physici/s :o h devot$ ! mo/ skill to ! matt] %[ little m ?an t !y are tumults 9 ! photosph]e1 att5d$ by an upru% ( vap\rs1 9 :i* iron & o!r metals exi/2 b :e!r ^! movem5ts are due to outbreaks f ! deep] p>ts ( ! sun or to "s action l ! :irl+ /orms ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e is unc]ta94 ,x is also unc]ta9 :at effect ^! convulsions ( ! sun h on ! am\nt ( ! heat & light :i* is p\r$ =? f ! orb4 ,! common op9ion t ! sun-spot ye>s are ! hotte/ is n yet fully v]ifi$4 ,bel[ ! photosph]e lies ! va/ unkn[n mass ( ! unse5 sol> realm4 ,x 0 at "o "t suppos$ t ! d>k col\r ( ! spots 0 due to ! fact t ! photosph]e 0 brok5 ?r\gh 9 ^? spaces1 & t we look$ d[n ?r\gh !m ^u ! surface ( ! slightly illum9at$ c5tral "p ( ! sph]e4 ,?is view is unt5able1 & 9 its place we h to assume t = ! eight hundr$ & sixty ?\s& miles ( its diamet] ! sun is compos$ ( matt] su* z is f\nd 9 our e>?1 b ?r\gh\t 9 a /ate ( heat :i* va/ly exce$s t kn[n on or 9 our planet4 ,ow+ to its heat1 ?is matt] is possibly n 9 ei!r ! solid or ! fluid /ate1 b 9 t ( v compress$ gases1 :i* are kept f becom+ solid or ev5 fluid by ! v high temp]ature :i* exi/s 9 !m4 ,?is view is app>5tly support$ by ! fact t1 :ile ! pressure ^u its matt] is tw5ty-sev5 times great] 9 ! sun ?an x is 9 ! e>?1 ! weight ( ! :ole mass is less ?an we %\ld expect "u ^! conditions4 ,z = ! temp]ature ( ! sun1 we only "k t x is hot en\gh to turn ! metals into gases 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ?is is done 9 a /rong electric arc1 b no satisfactory me?od ( reckon+ ! scale ( ?is heat has be5 devis$4 ,! probabilities are to ! effect t ! heat is to be c\nt$ by ! t5s ( ?\s&s ( degrees ,fahr5heit1 & x may am\nt to hundr$s ( ?\s&s2 x has1 inde$1 be5 reckon$ z high z a million degrees4 ,?is va/ dis*>ge is n due to any k9d ( burn+ action--i4e41 to ! combu/ion ( sub/ances1 z 9 a fire4 ,x mu/ be produc$ by ! gradual fall+ 9 ( ! mat]ials1 due to ! gravitation ( ! mass t[>d its c5tre1 ea* p>ticle conv]t+ its en]gy ( position into heat1 z does ! meteorite :5 x comes into ! air4 ,x is well to close ?is v imp]fect acc\nt ( ! le>n+ :i* relates to ! sun ) a brief tabul> /atem5t %[+ ! relative masses ( ! sev]al bodies ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,x %\ld be und]/ood t by mass is meant n ! bulk ( ! object1 b ! actual am\nt ( matt] 9 x z det]m9$ by ! gravitative attraction :i* x ex]cises on o!r cele/ial bodies4 ,9 ?is te/ ! sun is tak5 z ! measure1 & its mass is = conv5i5ce reckon$ at #a1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,,table ,,( ,,relative ,,masses ,,( ,,sun ,,& ,,planets4#b ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,! sun #a1jjj1jjj1jjj ,m]cury #bjj ,v5us #b1cec ,e>? #c1jfj ,m>s #cci ,a/]oids 8 ,saturn #bhe1ehj ,jupit] #ied1cje ,uranus #dd1bej ,neptune #ea1fjj ,comb9$ mass ( ! f\r inn] planets #e1ieb ,comb9$ mass ( all ! planets #a1cda1fhg ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,footnote #b3 ,see ,newcomb's ,popul> ,a/ronomy1 p4 #bcd4 ,h>p] ,bro!rs1 ,new ,york4 ,x ?us appe>s t ! mass ( all ! planets is ab\t "o sev5 hundr$? t ( ! sun4 ,^? :o wi% to make a close /udy ( cele/ial geography w d well to procure ! int]e/+ set ( diagrams prep>$ by ! late ,james ,freeman ,cl>ke1 9 :i* transp>5cies plac$ 9 a conv5i5t lant]n %[ ! gr\p+ ( ! important />s 9 ea* con/ellation4 ,! advantage ( ?is arrangem5t is t ! little maps c be consult$ at night & 9 ! op5 air 9 a v conv5i5t mann]4 ,aft] ! /ud5t has le>n$ ! position ( a doz5 ( ! con/ellations visible 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 he c rapidly advance 8 k 9 ! admirable me?od inv5t$ by ,dr4 ,cl>ke4 ,hav+ le>n$ ! con/ellations1 ! /ud5t may well proce$ to f9d ! sev]al planets1 & to trace !m 9 _! app>5t pa? across ! fix$ />s4 ,x w be well = him "h to ga9 if he c ! conception t _! app>5t movem5t is comp\nd$ ( _! motion ar\nd ! sun & t ( our own sph]e2 t x w\ld be v diff]5t if our e>? /ood /ill 9 ! heav5s4 ,at ?is /age he may well beg9 to take 9 m9d ! evid5ce :i* ! planet>y motion supplies t ! e>? really moves r\nd ! sun1 & n ! sun & planets r\nd ! e>?4 ,?is discov]y 0 "o ( ! great feats ( ! human m9d2 x baffl$ ! wits ( ! be/ m5 = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,!re=e ! inquir] :o works ov] ! evid5ce is tread+ "o ( ! fam\s pa?s by :i* 8 race climb$ ! /eeps ( sci5ce4 ,! /ud5t mu/ n expect to f9d ! evid5ce t ! sun is ! c5tre ( ! sol> sy/em v easy to int]pret2 & yet any y\? ( mod]ate curiosity1 & t int]e/ 9 ! _w ab\t him :i* is ! f\ndation ( sci5tific insight1 c see ?r\gh ! matt]4 ,he w be/ beg9 8 inquiries by gett+ a cle> notion ( ! fact t ! moon goes r\nd ! e>?4 ,?is is ! simple/ case ( movem5ts ( ?is nature :i* he c see 9 ! sol> sy/em4 ,not+ t ! moon occupies a diff]5t place at a giv5 h\r 9 ! tw5ty-f\r1 b is evid5tly at all times at ab\t ! same di/ance f ! e>?1 he readily p]ceives t x circles ab\t our sph]e4 ,?is ! p knew ( old1 b !y made ( x an evid5ce t ! sun also w5t ar\nd our sph]e4 ,"h1 !n1 is ! critical po9t4 ,:y does ! sun n behave 9 ! same mann] z ! moon8 ,at ?is /age ( 8 inquiry ! /ud5t be/ notes :at takes place 9 ! motions ( ! planets betwe5 ! e>? & ! sun4 ,he obs]ves t ^? s-call$ inf]ior planets ,m]cury & ,v5us are nev] v f> away f ! c5tral body2 t !y appe> to rise up f x1 & !n to g back to x1 & t !y h phases l ! moon4 ,n[ & !n ,v5us may be obs]v$ z a black spot cross+ ! disk ( ! sun4 ,a little consid]ation w %[ t on ! !ory t bodies revolve r\nd ea* o!r 9 ! sol> sy/em ^! movem5ts ( ! inn] planets c only be expla9$ on ! supposition t !y at lea/ travel ar\nd ! great c5tral fire4 ,n[1 tak+ up ! out] planets1 we obs]ve t !y occasionally appe> v bright1 & t !y are !n at a place 9 ! heav5s :]e we see t !y are f> f ! sol> c5tre4 ,gradually !y move d[n t[>d ! sunset & disappe> f view4 ,"h1 too1 ! movem5t1 ?\gh less cle>ly s1 is be/ reconcilable ) ! idea t ^! bodies travel 9 orbits1 su* z ^? :i* are trav]s$ by ! inn] planets4 ,! wond] is t ) ^! simple facts be=e !m1 & ) ample "t to ?9k ! matt] ov]1 ! e>ly a/ronom]s did n le>n ! great tru? ab\t ! sol> sy/em--namely1 t ! sun is ! c5tre ab\t :i* ! planets circl$4 ,_! difficulty lay ma9ly 9 ! fact t !y did n conceive ! e>? z a sph]e1 & ev5 aft] !y atta9$ t conception !y believ$ t our globe 0 va/ly l>g] ?an ! planets1 or ev5 ?an ! sun4 ,?is misconception kept ev5 ! ?\ghtful ,greeks1 :o knew t ! e>? 0 sph]ical 9 =m1 f a cle> notion z to ! /ructure ( our sy/em4 ,x 0 n1 inde$1 until ma!matical a/ronomy atta9$ a consid]able advance1 & m5 began to measure ! di/ances 9 ! sol> sy/em1 & until ! ,newtonian !ory ( gravitation 0 develop$1 t ! planet>y orbits & ! relation ( ! v>i\s bodies 9 ! sol> sy/em to ea* o!r c\ld be p]fectly disc]n$4 ,c>e has be5 tak5 9 ! above /atem5ts to give ! /ud5t indices :i* may assi/ him 9 work+ out = himself ! evid5ce :i* may prop]ly lead a p]son1 ev5 )\t ma!matical consid]ations ( a =mal k9d1 to con/ruct a !ory z to ! relation ( ! planets to ! sun4 ,x is n likely t he c g ?r\gh all ! /eps ( ?is argum5t at once1 b x w be mo/ useful to him to pond] ^u ! problem1 & gradually w9 8 way to a full und]/&+ ( x4 ,) t purpose 9 m9d1 he %\ld avoid read+ :at a/ronom]s h to say on ! matt] until he is satisfi$ t he has done z mu* z he c ) ! matt] on 8 own acc\nt4 ,he %\ld1 h[ev]1 /ate 8 obs]vations1 & z f> z possible draw ! results 9 8 note-book 9 a diagrammatic =m4 ,he %\ld endeav\r to see if ! facts are reconcilable ) any o!r supposition ?an t ! e>? & ! o!r planets move ar\nd ! sun4 ,:5 he has done 8 task1 he w h pass$ ov] "o ( ! mo/ difficult roads :i* 8 pr$ecessors _h to trav]se on _! way to an und]/&+ ( ! heav5s4 ,ev5 if he fail he w h help$ himself to "s l>ge und]/&+s4 ,! /ud5t w f9d x useful to make a map ( ! heav5s1 or r make sev]al repres5t+ _! condition at diff]5t times 9 ! ye>4 ,on ?is plot he %\ld put d[n only ! />s ^: places & names he has le>n$1 b he %\ld plot ! position ( ! planets at diff]5t times4 ,9 ?is way1 ?\gh at fir/ 8 ef=ts w be v awkw>d1 he w soon come to "k ! g5]al geography ( ! heav5s4 ,al?\gh ! possession or at lea/ ! use ( a small a/ronomical telescope is a great advantage to a /ud5t aft] he has made a c]ta9 advance 9 8 "w1 su* an in/rum5t is n at all necess>y1 or1 inde$1 desirable at ! outset ( 8 /udies4 ,an ord9>y op]a-glass1 h[ev]1 w help him 9 pick+ out ! />s 9 ! con/ellations1 9 id5tify+ ! planets1 & 9 gett+ a bett] idea z to ! =m ( ! moon's surface--a matt] :i* w be treat$ 9 ?is "w 9 connection ) ! /ructure ( ! e>?4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,e>?4 ,9 beg9n+ ! /udy ( ! e>? x is important t ! /ud5t %\ld at once =m ! habit ( keep+ 9 m9d ! sph]ical =m ( ! planet4 ,_m p]sons1 :ile !y may bl9dly accept ! fact t ! e>? is a sph]e1 d n ?9k ( x z hav+ t =m4 ,p]haps ! simple/ way ( secur+ ! correct image ( ! %ape is to imag9e h[ ! e>? w\ld appe> z se5 f ! moon4 ,9 its full condition ! moon is apt to appe> z a disk4 ,:5 x is new1 & also :5 9 its wan+ /ages x is visible 9 ! daytime1 ! sph]ical =m is v app>5t4 ,imag9+ himself on ! surface ( ! moon1 ! /ud5t c well p]ceive h[ ! e>? w\ld appe> z a va/ body 9 ! heav5s2 its eight ?\s& miles ( diamet]1 ab\t f\r times t ( ! satellite1 w\ld give an area sixte5 times ! size :i* ! moon pres5ts to u4 ,on ?is scale ! cont95ts & oceans w\ld appe> v mu* m pla9 ?an d ! relatively slight irregul>ities on ! lun> surface4 ,) ! t]re/rial globe 9 h&1 ! /ud5t c readily con/ruct an image :i* w repres5t1 at lea/ 9 outl9e1 ! appe>ance :i* ! sph]e he inhabits w\ld pres5t :5 se5 f a di/ance ( ab\t a qu>t] ( a million miles away4 ,! cont95t ( ,europe-,asia w\ld ( itself appe> l>g] ?an all ! lun> surface :i* is visible to u4 ,e cont95t & all ! great] isl&s w\ld be cle>ly indicat$4 ,! sn[ cov]+ :i* 9 ! w9t] ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e wraps s mu* ( ! l& w\ld be se5 to come & g 9 ! *anges ( ! seasons2 ev5 ! p]man5t ice ab\t ei!r pole1 & ! great] regions ( glaci]s1 su* z ^? ( ! ,alps & ! ,himalayas1 w\ld appe> z brilliant pat*es ( :ite amid fields ( d>k] hue4 ,ev5 ! *anges 9 ! aspect ( ! vegetation :i* at "o season clo!s ! wide l& ) a gre5 mantle1 & at ano!r assumes ! dun hue ( w9t]1 w\ld be1 to ! unaid$ eye1 v di/9ct4 ,x is probable t all ! great] riv]s w\ld be traceable z l9es ( light across ! relatively d>k surface ( ! cont95ts4 ,by su* ex]cises ( ! con/ructive imag9ation--inde$1 9 no o!r way--! /ud5t c acquire ! habit ( consid]+ ! e>? z a va/ :ole4 ,f "t to "t z he /udies ! e>? f ne> by he %\ld endeav\r to assemble ! ph5om5a 9 ! g5]al way :i* we h indicat$4 ,! read] has d\btless already le>n$ t ! e>? is a slightly flatt5$ sph]e1 hav+ an av]age diamet] ( ab\t eight ?\s& miles1 ! av]age section at ! equator be+ ab\t tw5ty-six miles great] ?an t f pole to pole4 ,9 a body ( su* l>ge proportions ?is diff]5ce 9 measurem5t appe>s n important2 x is1 h[ev]1 mo/ significant1 = x ?r[s light ^u ! hi/ory ( ! e>?'s mass4 ,computation %[s t ! measure ( flatt5+ at ! poles is j :at w\ld occur if ! e>? 7 or _h be5 at ! "t :5 x assum$ its pres5t =m 9 a fluid condition4 ,we readily conceive t a s(t body revolv+ 9 space1 :ile all its p>ticles by gravitation t5d$ to ! c5tre1 w\ld 9 turn+ ar\nd1 z our e>? does ^u its axis1 t5d to bulge out 9 ^? p>ts :i* 7 remote f ! l9e ^u :i* ! turn+ took place4 ,?us ! flatt5+ ( our sph]e at ! poles corroborates ! op9ion t its mass 0 once molt5--9 a ^w1 t its anci5t hi/ory 0 su* z ! nebul> !ory sugge/s4 ,al?\gh we h = conv5i5ce t]m$ ! e>? a flatt5$ sph]oid1 x is only su* 9 a v g5]al s5se4 ,x has an inf9ite numb] ( m9or irregul>ities :i* x is ! prov9ce ( ! geograph] to trace & t ( ! geologi/ to acc\nt =4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 its surface is occupi$ by a great array ( ridges & holl[s4 ,! l>g] ( ^!1 ! oceans & cont95ts1 fir/ des]ve our att5tion4 ,! diff]5ce 9 altitude ( ! e>?'s surface f ! height ( ! cont95ts to ! deepe/ "p ( ! sea is probably betwe5 t5 & elev5 miles1 ?us am\nt+ to ab\t two fif?s ( ! pol> flatt5+ be=e not$4 ,! av]age diff]5ce betwe5 ! ocean floor & ! summits ( ! neighb\r+ cont95ts is probably r less ?an f\r miles4 ,x happ5s1 mo/ =tunately = ! hi/ory ( ! e>?1 t ! wat] ^u its surface fills its great concavities on ! av]age to ab\t f\r fif?s ( _! total dep?1 leav+ only ab\t "o fif? ( ! relief project+ above ! ocean level4 ,we h t]m$ ?is arrangem5t =tunate1 = x insures t ra9fall visits almo/ all ! l& areas1 & !reby makes ^? realms fit = ! uses ( life4 ,if ! ocean _h only half its exi/+ area1 ! l&s w\ld be s wide t only _! fr+es w\ld be f]tile4 ,if x 7 "o fif? great] ?an x is1 ! dry areas w\ld be r$uc$ to a few scatt]$ isl&s4 ,f all po9ts ( view ! mo/ important feature ( ! e>?'s surface arises f its division into l& & wat] areas1 & ?is = ! reason t ! physical & vital "w ( our sph]e is inevitably det]m9$ by ?is di/ribution4 ,! %ape ( ! seas & l&s is fix$ by ! positions at :i* ! upp] level ( ! great wat] comes aga9/ ! ridges :i* fret ! e>?'s surface4 ,^! elevations are s dispos$ t ab\t two ?irds ( ! h>d mass is at ! pres5t "t cov]$ ) wat]1 & only "o ?ird expos$ to ! atmosph]e4 ,?is proportion is incon/ant4 ,ow+ to ! endless up-&-d[n go+s ( ! e>?'s surface1 ! place ( ! %ore l9es v>ies f ye> to ye>1 & 9 ! geological ages great revolutions 9 ! =ms & relative area ( wat] & l& are br\ght ab\t4 ,not+ ! great] divisions ( l& & wat] z !y are %[n on a globe1 we readily p]ceive t ^? p>ts ( ! cont95tal ridges :i* rise above ! sea level are ma9ly accumulat$ 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e--9 fact1 f> m ?an half ! dry realm is 9 t "p ( ! _w4 ,we fur!rmore p]ceive t all ! cont95ts m or less di/9ctly po9t to ! s\?w>d2 !y are1 9 a ^w1 triangles1 ) _! bases to ! nor?w>d1 & _! apices1 usually r acute1 direct$ to ! s\?w>d4 ,?is =m is v well indicat$ 9 ?ree ( ! great l&s1 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica & ,africa2 x is m indi/9ctly %[n 9 ,asia & 9 ,au/ralia4 ,z yet we d n cle>ly und]/& ! reason :y ! cont95ts are triangul>1 :y !y po9t t[>d ! s\? pole1 or :y !y are ma9ly accumulat$ 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,z /at$ 9 ! *apt] on a/ronomy1 "s trace ( ! triangul> =m appe>s 9 ! l& masses ( ! planet ,m>s4 ,!re1 too1 ^! triangles appe> to po9t t[>d "o pole4 ,besides ! great] l&s1 ! seas are frett$ by a ho/ ( small] dry areas1 t]m$ isl&s4 ,^!1 z inquiry has %[n1 are ( two v div]se natures4 ,ne> ! cont95ts1 practically nev] m ?an a ?\s& miles f _! %ores1 we f9d isles1 (t5 ( great size1 su* z ,madagasc>1 :i* 9 _! /ructure are ess5tially l ! cont95ts--t is1 !y are built 9 "p or 9 :ole ( non-volcanic rocks1 s&/ones1 lime/ones1 etc4 ,9 mo/ cases ^! isl&s1 to :i* we may apply ! t]m cont95tal1 h at "s "t be5 connect$ ) ! neighb\r+ ma9l&1 & aft]w>d sep>at$ f x by a depression ( ! surface :i* p]mitt$ ! sea to fl[ ov] ! l[l&s4 ,geologi/s h trac$ _m cases :]e 9 ! pa/ elevations :i* are n[ p>ts ( a cont95t 7 once isl&s next its %ore4 ,9 ! deep] seas f> remov$ f ! m>g9s ( ! cont95ts ! isl&s are made up ( volcanic ejections ( lava1 pumice1 & du/1 :i* has be5 ?r[n up f crat]s & fall5 ar\nd _! m>g9 or are =m$ ( coral & o!r organic rema9s4 ,next aft] ?is g5]al /atem5t z to ! division ( sea & l& we %\ld note ! peculi>ities :i* ! e>?'s surface exhibits :]e x is ba!d by ! air1 & :]e x is cov]$ by ! wat]4 ,beg9n+ ) ! be/-kn[n region1 t ( ! dry l&1 we obs]ve t ! surface is normally made up ( cont9u\s slopes ( v>y+ declivity1 :i* lead d[n f ! high po9ts to ! sea4 ,"h & !re1 ?\gh r>ely1 ^! slopes c5tre 9 a bas9 :i* is occupi$ by a lake or a dead sea4 ,on ! deep] ocean floors1 s f> z we may judge ) ! defective in=mation :i* ! plumb l9e gives u1 !re is no su* cont9uity 9 ! d[nw>d slop+ ( ! surface1 ! area be+ ca/ into num]\s bas9s1 ea* ( great ext5t4 ,:5 we exam9e 9 "s detail ! %ape ( ! l& surface1 we readily p]ceive t ! cont9u\s d[n slopes are due to ! cutt+ action ( riv]s4 ,9 ! bas9 ( a /ream ! wat]s act to we> away ! orig9al heights1 fill+ !m into ! holl[s1 until ! :ole area has a cont9u\s d[n grade to ! po9t :]e ! wat]s dis*>ge into ! ocean or p]haps into a lake4 ,on ! bottom ( ! sea1 except ne> ! m>g9 ( ! cont95t1 :]e ! floor may 9 rec5t geological times h be5 elevat$ into ! air1 & ?us expos$ to riv] action1 !re is no su* ag5t work+ to produce cont9u\s d[n grades4 ,look+ ^u a map ( a cont95t :i* %[s ! diff]5ces 9 altitude ( ! l&1 we readily p]ceive t ! area is r cle>ly divid$ into two k9ds ( surface1 m\nta9s & pla9s1 ea* k9d be+ %>ply di/+ui%$ f ! o!r by _m important peculi>ities4 ,m\nta9s are *>act]i/ically made up ( di/9ct1 m or less p>allel ridges & valleys1 :i* are gr\p$ 9 v elongat$ belts1 :i*1 9 ! case ( ! ,am]ican ,cordill]as1 ext5d f ! ,arctic to ! ,ant>ctic ,circle4 ,only 9 r>e in/ances d we f9d m\nta9s occupy+ an area :i* is n v di/9ctly elongat$1 & 9 su* cases ! elevations are usually ( no great height4 ,pla9s1 on ! o!r h&1 commonly occupy ! l>g] "p ( ! cont95t1 & are di/ribut$ ar\nd ! flanks ( ! m\nta9 sy/ems4 ,!re is no rule z to _! %ape2 !y normally grade away f ! bases ( ! m\nta9s t[>d ! sea1 & are (t5 prolong$ bel[ ! level ( ! wat] = a consid]able di/ance beyond ! %ore1 =m+ :at is commonly kn[n z ! cont95tal %elf or belt ( %all[s along ! coa/ l9e4 ,we w n[ consid] "s details conc]n+ ! =m & /ructure ( m\nta9s4 ,9 almo/ any m\nta9 region a glance ov] ! surface ( ! c\ntry w give ! read] a clew to ! pr9cipal factor :i* has det]m9$ ! exi/5ce ( ^! elevations4 ,:]ev] ! b$ rocks are reveal$ he w recognise ! fact t !y h be5 mu* di/urb$4 ,almo/ ev]y:]e ! /rata are turn$ at high angles2 (t5 _! slopes are /eep] ?an ^? ( h\se ro(s1 & n infrequ5tly !y /& 9 attitudes :]e !y appe> v]tical4 ,"u ! surface ( pla9s b$d$ rocks g5]ally reta9 ! ne>ly horizontal position 9 :i* all su* deposits are mo/ likely to be f\nd4 ,if ! obs]v] w att5tively /udy ! details ( position ( ^! tilt$ rocks ( m\nta9\s di/ricts1 he w 9 mo/ cases be able to p]ceive t ! b$s h be5 flex$ or fold$ 9 ! mann] indicat$ by ! diagram4 ,sometimes1 ?\gh r>ely1 ! tops ( ^! fold+s or ar*es h be5 pres]v$1 s t ! nature ( ! movem5t c be cle>ly disc]n$4 ,m commonly ! upp] p>ts ( ! upw>d-ar*+ /rata h be5 cut (f by ! action ( ! decay-br++ =ces--fro/1 fl[+ wat]1 or creep+ ice 9 glaci]s--s t only ! d[nw>d po9t+ folds :i* 7 =m$ 9 ! m\nta9-mak+ are well pres]v$1 & ^! are almo/ inv>iably hidd5 )9 ! e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--,section ( m\nta9s4 ,rockbridge & ,ba? c\nties1 ,va4 7f ,dana74 ,! numb]s indicate ! sev]al =mations4 ,by walk+ across any consid]able m\nta9 *a91 z1 = in/ance1 t ( ! ,alleghanies1 x is g5]ally possible to trace a numb] ( ^! p>allel up-&-d[n folds ( ! /rata1 s t we readily p]ceive t ! orig9al b$s _h be5 pack$ toge!r into a mu* less space ?an !y at fir/ occupi$4 ,9 "s cases we c\ld prove t ! %ort5+ ( ! l9e has am\nt$ to a hundr$ miles or m--9 o!r words1 po9ts on ! pla9 l&s on ei!r side ( ! m\nta9 range :i* n[ exi/s may h be5 br\ght a hundr$ miles or s ne>] toge!r ?an !y 7 be=e ! elevations 7 produc$4 ,! read] c make = himself a conv5i5t diagram %[+ :at occurr$ by press+ a numb] ( leaves ( ?is book s t ! %eets ( pap] are ?r[n into ridges & furr[s4 ,by ?is exp]im5t he also w see t ! easie/ way to acc\nt = su* fold+s z we obs]ve 9 m\nta9s is by ! supposition t "s =ce resid+ 9 ! e>? t5ds to %ove ! b$s into a small] space ?an !y orig9ally occupi$4 ,n only are ! rocks compos+ ! m\nta9s mu* fold$1 b !y are (t5 brok5 ?r\gh aft] ! mann] ( masonry :i* has be5 subject$ to e>?quake %ocks1 or ( ice :i* has be5 /ra9$ by ! expansion t affects x z x becomes w>m$ be=e x is melt$4 ,9 fact1 _m ( our small lakes 9 ,new ,engl& & 9 o!r c\ntries ( a long w9t] %[ 9 a m9iature way dur+ times ( ?aw+ ice folds :i* mu* resemble m\nta9 ar*es4 ,at fir/ geologi/s 7 dispos$ to attribute all ! ph5om5a ( m\nta9-fold+ to ! progressive cool+ ( ! e>?4 ,al?\gh ?is sph]e has already lo/ a l>ge "p ( ! heat ) :i* x 0 9 ! beg9n+ end[$1 x is /ill v hot 9 its deep] p>ts1 z is %[n by ! ph5om5a ( volcanoes4 ,?is int]nal heat1 :i* to ! pres5t day at ! dep? ( a hundr$ miles bel[ ! surface is probably great] ?an t ( molt5 iron1 is con/antly fl[+ away into space2 probably en\gh ( x goes away on ! av]age ea* day to melt a hundr$ cubic miles or m ( ice1 or1 9 m sci5tific phrase1 ! am\nt ( heat r5d]$ lat5t by melt+ t volume ( froz5 wat]4 ,j4,r4 ,mey]1 an em95t physici/1 e/imat$ ! quantity ( heat s escap+ ea* day ( ! ye> to be suffici5t to melt two hundr$ & =ty cubic miles ( ice4 ,! effect ( ?is loss ( heat is con/antly to %r9k ! volume ( ! e>?2 x has1 inde$1 be5 e/imat$ t ! sph]e on ?is acc\nt contracts on ! av]age to ! am\nt ( "s in*es ea* ?\s& ye>s4 ,= ! reason t almo/ all ?is heat goes f ! dep?s ( ! e>?1 ! cool out] portion los+ no consid]able "p ( x1 ! contraction t is br\ght ab\t affects ! int]ior portions ( ! sph]e alone4 ,! inn] mass con/antly %r9k+ z x loses heat1 ! out]1 cold "p is by its weight =c$ to settle d[n1 & c only accompli% ?is result by wr9kl+4 ,an analog\s action may be se5 :]e an apple or a potato becomes dri$2 9 ?is case ! h>d out] r9d is =c$ to wr9kle1 because1 los+ no wat]1 x does n dim9i% 9 its ext5t1 & c only accommodate itself to ! int]ior by a wr9kl+ process4 ,9 "o case x is wat] :i* escapes1 9 ! o!r heat2 b 9 bo? contraction ( ! "p :i* suff]s ! loss leads to ! fold+ ( ! outside ( ! sph]oid4 ,al?\gh ?is loss ( heat on ! "p ( ! e>? acc\nts 9 "s measure = ! developm5t ( m\nta9s1 x is n ( itself suffici5t to expla9 ! ph5om5a1 & ?is = ! reason t m\nta9s appe> 9 no case to develop on ! floors ( ! wide sea4 ,! av]age dep? ( ! ocean is only fifte5 ?\s& feet1 :ile !re are hundr$s1 if n ?\s&s1 ( m\nta9 cre/s :i* exce$ t height above ! sea4 ,!re=e if m\nta9s grew on ! sea floor z !y d ^u ! l&1 !re %\ld be ?\s&s ( peaks ris+ above ! pla9 ( ! wat]s1 :ile1 9 fact1 all ( ! isl&s except ^? ne> ! %ores ( cont95ts are ( volcanic orig9--t is1 are l&s ( totally diff]5t nature4 ,:5ev] a consid]able m\nta9 *a9 is =m$1 al?\gh ! actual fold+ ( ! b$s is limit$ to ! usually n>r[ field occupi$ by ^! di/urbances1 ! elevation takes place ov] a wide belt ( c\ntry on "o or bo? sides ( ! range4 ,?us if we approa* ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s f ! ,mississippi ,valley1 we beg9 to m\nt up an incl9$ plane f ! "t we pass we/w>d f ! ,mississippi ,riv]4 ,! b$s ( rock z well z ! surface rises gradually until at ! foot ( ! m\nta92 ?\gh ! rocks are /ill )\t fold+s1 !y are at a height ( f\r or five ?\s& feet above ! sea4 ,x seems probable--inde$1 we may say almo/ c]ta9--t :5 ! cru/ is brok51 z x is 9 m\nta9-build+1 by ext5sive folds & faults1 ! matt] :i* lies a few score miles bel[ ! cru/ creeps 9 t[>d ^? fractures1 & s lifts up ! c\ntry on :i* !y lie4 ,:5 we exam9e ! =ms ( any ( our cont95ts1 we f9d t ^! elevat$ portions ( ! e>?'s cru/ appe> to be made up ( m\nta9s & ! table-l&s :i* fr+e ^? elevations4 ,!re is n1 z "s ( our writ]s suppose1 two diff]5t k9ds ( elevation 9 our great l&s--! cont95ts & ! m\nta9s :i* !y be>--b "o process ( elevation by :i* ! fold+s & ! massive uplifts :i* con/itute ! table-l&s are simultane\sly & by "o process =m$4 ,look+ ^u cont95ts z ! result ( m\nta9 gr[?1 we may say t "h & !re on ! e>?'s cru/ ^! dislocations h occurr$ 9 su* association & ( su* magnitude t great areas h be5 uplift$ above ! pla9 ( ! sea4 ,9 g5]al1 we f9d ^! gr\ps ( elevations s arrang$ t !y produce ! triangul> =m :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! great l&s4 ,x w be obs]v$1 = in/ance1 t ! =m ( ,nor? ,am]ica is 9 g5]al det]m9$ by ! position ( ! ,appala*ian & ,cordill]an sy/ems on its ea/]n & we/]n m>g9s1 ?\gh !re are a numb] ( small] *a9s1 su* z ! ,laur5tians 9 ,canada & ! ice-cov]$ m\nta9s ( ,gre5l&1 :i* h a measure ( influ5ce 9 fix+ its %ore l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,wat]fall ne> ,gadsd51 ,alabama4 ,! upp] %elf ( rock is a h>d s&/one1 ! l[] b$s are s(t %ale4 ,! conditions are ^? ( mo/ wat]falls1 su* z ,niag>a4 ,! hi/ory ( pla9s1 z well z t ( m\nta9s1 w h fur!r light ?r[n ^u x :5 9 ! next *apt] we come to consid] ! effect ( ra9 wat] on ! l&4 ,we may "h note ! fact t ! level surfaces :i* are above ! sea%ores are divisible into two ma9 gr\ps--^? :i* h be5 rec5tly lift$ above ! sea level1 compos$ ( mat]ials laid d[n 9 ! %all[s next ! %ore1 & :i* h n yet %>$ 9 m\nta9-build+ di/urbances1 & ^? :i* h be5 slightly tilt$ 9 ! mann] be=e indicat$ 9 ! case ( ! pla9s :i* bord] ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s on ! ea/4 ,! great s\!rn pla9 ( ea/]n & s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates1 ext5d+ f ne> ,new ,york to ,mexico1 is a good specim5 ( ! level l&s common on all ! cont95ts :i* h rec5tly em]g$ f ! sea4 ,! table-l&s on ei!r side ( ! ,mississippi ,valley1 slop+ f ! ,alleghanies & ! ,cordill]as1 repres5t ! m anci5t type ( pla9 :i* has already %>$ 9 ! elevation :i* m\nta9-build+ br+s ab\t4 ,9 r>] cases pla9s ( small area are =m$ :]e m\nta9s =m]ly exi/$ by ! complete mov+ d[n ( ! orig9al ridges4 ,!re is a common op9ion t ! cont95ts are liable 9 ! c\rse ( ! geologic ages to v great *anges ( position2 t :at is n[ sea may give place to new great l&s1 & t ^? already exi/+ may utt]ly disappe>4 ,?is op9ion 0 inde$ g5]ally held by geologi/s n m ?an ?irty ye>s ago4 ,fur!r /udy ( ! problem has %[n u t :ile p>ts ( ea* cont95t may at any "t be depress$ b5ea? ! sea1 ! :ole ( its surface r>ely if ev] goes bel[ ! wat] level4 ,?us1 9 ! case ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 we c readily note v great *anges 9 its =m s9ce ! l& began to rise above ! wat]4 ,b always1 f t anci5t day to our own1 "s portion ( ! area has be5 above ! level ( ! sea1 ?us provid+ an ark ( refuge = ! l& life :5 x 0 di/urb$ by inundations4 ,! /ronge/ evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! op9ion t ! exi/+ cont95ts h endur$ = _m million ye>s is f\nd 9 ! fact t ea* ( ! great l&s pres]ves _m di/9ct gr\ps ( animals & plants :i* h desc5d$ f anci5t =ms dwell+ ^u ! same t]ritory4 ,if at any "t ! relatively small cont95t ( ,au/ralia _h gone b5ea? ! sea1 all ( ! curi\s p\*$ animals ak9 to ! opossum & kang>oo :i* ab\nd 9 t c\ntry--creatures belong+ 9 ! anci5t life ( ! _w--w\ld h be5 ov]:elm$4 ,we h already not$ ! fact t ! uplift+ ( m\nta9s & ( ! table-l&s ab\t !m1 :i* appe>s to h be5 ! basis ( cont95tal gr[?1 has be5 due to /ra9s 9 ! rocks suffici5tly /rong to di/urb ! b$s4 ,at ea* /age ( ! m\nta9-build+ movem5t ^! compressive /ra9s h _h to cont5d ) ! v great weight ( ! rocks :i* !y _h to move4 ,^! l&s are n to be reg>d$ z firm set or rigid ar*es1 b z highly ela/ic /ructures1 ! %apes ( :i* may be det]m9$ by any actions :i* put on or take (f burd54 ,we see a pro( ( ?is fact f num]\s obs]vations :i* geologi/s are n[ engag$ 9 mak+4 ,?us dur+ ! la/ ice epo*1 :5 almo/ all ! nor!rn "p ( ?is cont95t1 z well z ! nor!rn "p ( ,europe1 0 cov]$ by an ice %eet sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick1 ! l&s sank d[n "u _! load1 & to an ext5t r\ghly proportional to ! dep? ( ! icy cov]+4 ,:ile ! nor!rn regions 7 ?us tilt$ d[n by ! weight :i* 0 ^u !m1 ! s\!rn section ( ?is l&1 ! region ab\t ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 0 elevat$ mu* above its pres5t level2 x seems likely1 inde$1 t ! p59sula ( ,florida rose to ! height ( sev]al hundr$ feet above its pres5t %ore l9e4 ,aft] ! ice pass$ away ! movem5ts 7 rev]s$1 ! nor!rn region ris+ & ! s\!rn s9k+ d[n4 ,^! movem5ts are atte/$ by ! position ( ! old %ore l9es =m$ dur+ ! lat] /ages ( ! ,glacial epo*4 ,?us ar\nd ,lake ,ont>io1 z well z ! o!r ,great ,lakes1 ! bea*es :i* m>k ! high] positions ( ^? inl& seas dur+ ! clos+ /ages ( ! ice "t1 & :i*1 ( c\rse1 7 :5 =m$ horizontal1 n[ rise to ! nor?w>d at ! rate ( f two to five feet = ea* mile ( di/ance4 ,rec5t /udies by ,mr4 ,g4,k4 ,gilb]t %[ t ?is movem5t is /ill 9 progress4 ,o!r evid5ce go+ to %[ ! ext5t to :i* ! movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ are affect$ by ! weight ( mat]ials are f\nd 9 ! fact t :]ev] along ! %ores ?ick deposits ( s$im5ts are accumulat$ ! t5d5cy ( ! region :]e !y lie is gradually to s9k d[nw>d1 s t /rata hav+ an aggregate ?ickness ( t5 ?\s& feet or m may be accumulat$ 9 a sea :i* 0 always %all[4 ,! ocean floor1 9 g5]al1 is ! "p ( ! e>?'s surface :]e /rata are con/antly be+ laid d[n4 ,9 ! great res]voir ( ! wat]s ! dbris wa%$ f ! l&1 ! du/ f volcanoes1 & t f ! /ell> spaces1 along ) ! va/ accumulation ( organic rema9s1 almo/ ev]y:]e lead to ! /eadfa/ accumulation ( s$im5t>y deposits4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! realms ( ! surface above ! ocean level are con/antly be+ worn away by ! action ( ! riv]s & glaci]s1 ( ! waves :i* beat aga9/ ! %ores1 & ( ! w9ds :i* bl[ ov] des]t regions4 ,! result is t ! l&s are we>+ d[n at ! geologically rapid av]age rate ( some:]e ab\t "o foot 9 five ?\s& ye>s4 ,all ?is heavy matt] goes to ! sea bottoms4 ,probably to ?is cause we owe 9 "p ! fact t 9 ! wr9kl+s ( ! cru/ due to ! contraction ( ! int]ior ! l&s exhibit a prevail+ t5d5cy to uprise1 :ile ! ocean floors s9k d[n4 ,9 ?is way ! cont95ts are ma9ta9$ above ! level ( ! sea despite ! p[]ful =ces :i* are con/antly we>+ _! sub/ance away1 :ile ! seas rema9 deep1 al?\gh !y are cont9ually be+ burd5$ ) import$ mat]ials4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,diagram %[+ ! effect ( ! position ( ! fulcrum po9t 9 ! movem5t ( ! l& masses4 ,9 diagrams ,i & ,,ii1 ! l9es a b repres5t ! l& be=e ! movem5t1 & a' b' its position aft] ! movem5t2 s1 s1 ! position ( ! %ore l9e2 p1 p1 ! pivotal po9ts2 l1 s1 ! sea l9e4 ,9 diagram ,,iii1 ! curv$ l9e designates a %ore2 ! l9e a b1 connect+ ! pivotal po9ts p1 p1 is p>tly "u ! l& & p>tly "u ! sea4 ,x is easy to see t if ! sea floors t5d to s9k d[nw>d1 :ile ! cont95tal l&s uprise1 ! movem5ts :i* take place may be comp>$ ) ^? :i* occur 9 a lev] ab\t a fulcrum po9t4 ,9 ?is case ! sea end ( ! b> is desc5d+ & ! l& end asc5d+4 ,n[1 x is evid5t t ! fulcrum po9t may fall to ! seaw>d or to ! l&w>d ( ! %ore2 only by *ance & "h & !re w\ld x lie exactly at ! coa/ l9e4 ,by ref]5ce to ! diagram 7,fig4 #h71 x w be se5 t1 :ile ! po9t ( rotation is j at ! %ore1 a consid]able movem5t may take place )\t alt]+ ! position ( ! coa/ l9e4 ,:]e ! po9t ( no movem5t is inl& ( ! coa/1 ! sea w ga9 on ! cont95t2 :]e1 h[ev]1 ! po9t is to seaw>d1 b5ea? ! wat]1 ! l& w ga9 on ! ocean4 ,9 ?is way we c1 9 "p at lea/1 acc\nt = ! endless *anges 9 ! attitude ( ! l& along ! coa/al belt )\t hav+ to suppose t ! cont95ts cease to rise or ! sea floors to s9k d[nw>d4 ,x is evid5t t ! b> or section ( ! rocks f ! int]ior ( ! l& to ! bottoms ( ! seas is n rigid2 x is also probable t ! matt] 9 ! dep?s ( ! e>?1 :i* moves ) ! motions ( ?is b>1 w\ld *ange ! position ( ! fulcrum po9t f "t to "t4 ,?us x may well come ab\t t our coa/ l9es are sway+ up & d[n 9 ceaseless v>iation4 ,9 v rec5t geological times1 probably s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ ,glacial p]iod1 ! region ab\t ! ,dismal ,swamp 9 ,virg9ia has sway$ up & d[n ?r\gh f\r alt]nat+ movem5ts to ! ext5t ( f fifty to "o hundr$ feet4 ,! coa/ ( ,new ,j]sey is n[ s9k+ at ! rate ( ab\t two feet 9 a hundr$ ye>s4 ,! coa/ ( ,new ,engl&1 ?\gh rec5tly elevat$ to ! ext5t ( a hundr$ feet or m1 at a yet lat] "t sank d[n1 s t at "s score ( po9ts betwe5 ,new ,york & ,ea/port1 ,me41 we f9d ! rema9s ( =e/s ) ! roots ( _! trees /ill /&+ bel[ high-tide m>k 9 positions :]e ! trees c\ld n h gr[n4 ,along all ! m>9e coa/s ( ! _w :i* h be5 c>efully /udi$ f ?is po9t ( view !re are simil> evid5ces ( slight or great mod]n *anges 9 ! level ( ! l&s4 ,at "s po9ts1 p>ticul>ly on ! coa/ ( ,alaska & along ! coa/ ( ,p]u1 ^! uplifts ( ! l& h am\nt$ to a ?\s& feet or m4 ,9 ! p59sul> di/rict ( ,sc&9avia ! sway+s1 sometimes up & sometimes d[n1 :i* are n[ go+ on h consid]ably *ang$ ! position ( ! %ore l9es s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! hi/orical p]iod4 ,!re are o!r causes :i* s]ve to modify ! %apes & sizes ( ! cont95ts :i* may be/ be consid]$ 9 ! sequel2 = ! pres5t we may pass f ?is subject ) ! /atem5t t our great l&s are relatively p]man5t features2 _! =ms *ange f age to age1 b !y h rema9$ = millions ( ye>s habitable to ! ho/s ( animals & plants :i* h adapt$ _! life to ! conditions :i* ^! fields af=d !m4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,atmosph]e4 ,! firm-set portion ( ! e>?1 compos$ ( mat]ials :i* became solid :5 ! heat s f> disappe>$ f ! sph]e t rocky matt] c\ld pass f its previ\s fluid condition to ! solid or froz5 /ate1 is wrapp$ ab\t by two great envelopes1 ! atmosph]e & ! wat]s4 ,( ^! we %all fir/ consid] ! light] & m univ]sal air2 9 tak+ acc\nt ( its peculi>ities we %all h to make "s m5tion ( ! wat] ) :i* x is greatly involv$2 aft]w>d we %all consid] ! /ructure & functions ( t fluid4 ,atmosph]ic envelopes appe> to be common features ab\t ! cele/ial sph]es4 ,9 ! sun !re is1 z we h not$1 a v deep envelope ( ?is sort :i* is 9 "p compos$ ( ! elem5ts :i* =m our own air2 b1 ow+ to ! high temp]ature ( ! sph]e1 ^! are comm+l$ ) _m sub/ances :i* 9 our e>?--at lea/ 9 its out] p>ts--h ent]$ 9 ! solid /ate4 ,"s ( ! planets1 s f> z we c disc]n _! conditions1 seem also to h gase\s wraps2 ?is is c]ta9ly ! case ) ! planet ,m>s1 & ev5 ! little we "k ( ! o!r l sph]es ju/ifies ! supposition t ,jupit] & ,saturn1 at lea/1 h a l con/itution4 ,we may reg>d an atmosph]e1 9 a ^w1 z repres5t+ a normal & long-cont9u$ /ate 9 ! developm5t ( ! heav5ly orbs4 ,9 only "o ( ^! consid]able bodies ( ! sol> sy/em1 ! moon1 d we f9d tol]ably cle> evid5ce t !re is no atmosph]e4 ,! atmosph]e ( ! e>? is compos$ ma9ly ( v volatile elem5ts1 kn[n z nitrog5 & argon4 ,?is is comm+l$ ) oxyg51 also a volatile elem5t4 ,into ?is mass a numb] ( o!r sub/ances ent] 9 v>y+ b always relatively v small proportions4 ,( ^! ! mo/ consid]able are wat]y vap\r & c>bon dioxide2 ! =m] ( ^! r>ely am\nts to "o p] c5t ( ! weight ( ! air1 consid]+ ! atmosph]e z a :ole1 & ! latt] is nev] m ?an a small fraction ( "o p] c5t 9 am\nt4 ,z a :ole1 ! air envelope ( ! e>? %\ld be reg>d$ z a mass ( nitrog5 & argon1 :i* only r>ely1 "u ! influ5ce ( conditions :i* exi/ 9 ! soil1 ent]s into comb9ations ) o!r elem5ts by :i* x assumes a solid =m4 ,! oxyg51 ?\gh a p]man5t elem5t 9 ! atmosph]e1 t5ds con/antly to ent] into comb9ations :i* fix x tempor>ily or p]man5tly 9 ! e>?1 9 :i* x =ms1 inde$1 9 its comb9$ /ate ab\t "o half ! weight ( all ! m9]al sub/ances we "k4 ,! c>bon dioxide1 or c>bonic-acid gas1 z x is commonly t]m$1 is a mo/ important sub/ance1 z x af=ds plants all t "p ( _! bodies :i* disappe> on burn+4 ,x is con/antly return$ to ! atmosph]e by ! decay ( organic matt]1 z well z by volcanic action4 ,9 addition to ! above-not$ mat]ials compos+ ! air1 all ( :i* are imp]atively necess>y to ! wond]ful "w accompli%$ by t envelope1 we f9d a ho/ ( o!r sub/ances :i* are accid5tally1 v>iably1 & always 9 small quantities conta9$ 9 ?is realm4 ,?us ne> ! sea%ores1 & inde$ = a consid]able di/ance into ! cont95t1 we f9d ! air conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( salt s f9ely divid$ t x floats 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,s1 too1 we f9d ! air1 ev5 on ! m\nta9 tops amid et]nal sn[s1 *>g$ ) small p>ticles ( du/1 :i*1 ?\gh n evid5t to ! unassi/$ eye1 become at once visible :5 we p]mit a sl5d] ray ( light to ent] a d>k *amb]4 ,x is commonly ass]t$ t ! atmosph]e does n effectively ext5d above ! height ( =ty-five miles2 we "k t x is d5se/ on ! surface ( ! e>?1 ! mo/ s 9 ^? depressions :i* lie bel[ ! level ( ! sea4 ,?is is prov$ to u by ! weight :i* ! air imposes ^u ! m]cury at ! op5 end ( a b>ometric tube4 ,if we c\ld deep5 ^! cavities to ! ext5t ( a ?\s& miles1 ! pressure w\ld become s great t if ! pit 7 kept free f ! heat ( ! e>? ! gase\s mat]ials w\ld become liquefi$4 ,upw>d f ! e>?'s surface at ! sea level ! atoms & molecules ( ! air become f>!r ap>t until1 at ! height ( some:]e betwe5 =ty & fifty miles1 ! quantity ( !m conta9$ 9 ! e!r is s small t we c trace little effect f !m on ! rays ( light :i* at l[] levels are some:at b5t by _! action4 ,at yet high] levels1 h[ev]1 meteors appe> to inflame by friction aga9/ ! p>ticles ( air1 & ev5 at ! height ( eighty miles v fa9t cl\ds h at times be5 disc]n$1 :i* are possibly compos$ ( volcanic du/ float+ 9 ! v r>efi$ m$ium1 su* z mu/ exi/ at ?is great elevation4 ,! air n only exi/s 9 ! region :]e we di/9ctly recognise x2 x also occupies ! wat]s & ! "u e>?4 ,9 ! wat]s x occurs z a me*anical mixture :i* is br\ght ab\t z ! ra9 =ms & falls 9 ! air1 z ! /reams fl[ to ! sea1 & z ! waves roll ov] ! deep & beat aga9/ ! %ores4 ,9 ! realm ( ! wat]s1 z well z on ! l&1 ! air is necess>y = ! ma9t5ance ( all animal =ms2 b = its pres5ce su* life w\ld vani% f ! e>?4 ,ow+ to c]ta9 peculi>ities 9 its con/itution1 ! atmosph]e ( our e>?1 & t d\btless ( myriad o!r sph]es1 s]ves z a m$ium ( communication betwe5 diff]5t regions4 ,x is1 z we "k1 9 ceaseless motion at rates :i* may v>y f ! spe$ 9 ! greate/ tempe/s1 :i* may move at ! rate ( some:]e a hundr$ & fifty miles an h\r1 to ! v sl[ movem5ts :i* occur 9 cav]ns1 :]e ! transf] is sometimes effect$ at an almo/ microscopic rate 9 ! space ( a day4 ,! motion ( ! atmosph]e is br\ght ab\t by ! action ( heat "h & !re1 & 9 a trifl+ way1 by ! heat f ! int]ior ( ! e>? escap+ ?r\gh hot spr+s or volcanoes1 b almo/ altoge!r by ! heat ( ! sun4 ,if we c imag9e ! e>? cut (f f ! sol> radiation1 ! air w\ld cease to move4 ,we (t5 note h[ ! v>iable w9ds fall away 9 ! nighttime4 ,^? :o 9 seek+ = ! ,nor? ,pole h sp5t w9t]s 9 ! long-cont9u$ d>k ( t region h not$ t ! w9ds almo/ cease to bl[1 ! air be+ di/urb$ only :5 a /orm orig9at$ 9 ! sunlit realm =c$ its way into ! circumpol> d>kness4 ,! sun's heat does n directly di/urb ! atmosph]e2 if we c\ld take ! solid sph]e ( ! _w away1 leav+ ! air1 ! rays w\ld g /raight ?r\gh1 & !re w\ld be no w9ds produc$4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! air p]mits ! direct rays ( heat1 su* z come f ! sun1 to pass ?r\gh x ) v slight resi/ance4 ,9 an arial globe su* z we h imag9$1 ! rays imp++ ^u its surface w\ld be slightly ?r[n out ( _! pa? z !y are 9 pass+ ?r\gh a l5s1 b !y w\ld j\rney on 9 space )\t 9 any consid]able measure w>m+ ! mass4 ,com+1 h[ev]1 ^u ! solid e>?1 ! heat rays w>m ! mat]ials on :i* !y are arre/$1 br++ !m to a high] temp]ature ?an ! air4 ,!n ^! heat$ mat]ials radiate ! en]gy into ! air2 x happ5s1 h[ev]1 t ?is radiant heat c n j\rney back into space z easily z x came 92 !re=e ! p>ticles ( air next ! surface acquire a relatively high temp]ature4 ,?us a !rmomet] next ! gr\nd may rise to ov] a hundr$ degrees ,fahr5heit1 :ile at ! same "t ! fleecy cl\ds :i* we may obs]ve float+ at ! height ( five or six miles above ! surface are compos$ ( froz5 wat]4 ,! effect ( ! heat$ air :i* acquires its temp]ature by radiation f ! e>?'s surface is to produce ! w9ds4 ,?is x br+s ab\t 9 a v simple mann]1 ?\gh ! details ( ! process h a c]ta9 complication4 ,! be/ illu/ration ( ! mode 9 :i* ! w9ds are produc$ is obta9$ by wat*+ :at takes place ab\t an ord9>y fire at ! bottom ( a *imney4 ,z soon z ! fire is lit1 we obs]ve t ! air ab\t x1 s f> z x is heat$1 t5ds upw>d1 draw+ ! smoke ) x4 ,if ! air 9 ! *imney be cold1 x may n draw well at fir/2 b 9 a few m9utes ! draught is e/abli%$1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! heat$ l[] air breaks its way up ! %aft1 gradually pu%+ ! cool] matt] out at ! top4 ,9 /ill air we may obs]ve ! column f ! flue ext5d+ ab\t ! *imney-top1 sometimes to ! height ( a hundr$ feet or m be=e x is brok5 to pieces4 ,x is well "h to note ! fact t ! en]gy ( ! draught 9 a *imney is1 ) a giv5 heat ( fire & am\nt ( air :i* is p]mitt$ to ent] ! %aft1 directly proportionate to ! height2 ?us 9 v tall flues1 betwe5 two & ?ree hundr$ feet high1 :i* are sometimes con/ruct$1 ! upru% is at ! spe$ ( a gale4 ,:5ev] ! air next ! surface is s f> heat$ t x may ov]come ! in]tia ( ! cool] air above1 x =ces its way up ?r\gh x 9 ! g5]al mann] indicat$ 9 ! *imney flue4 ,:5 su* a place ( upru% is e/abli%$1 ! hot air next ! surface fl[s 9 all directions t[>d ! %aft1 jo9+ ! exp$ition to ! heights ( ! atmosph]e4 ,ow+ to ! conditions ( ! e>?'s surface1 :i* we %all n[ proce$ to trace1 ^! asc5ts ( heat$ air belong 9 two di/9ct classes--^? :i* move upw>d ?r\gh m or less cyl9drical *imneys 9 ! atmosph]e1 %afts :i* are imp]man5t1 :i* v>y 9 diamet] f a few feet to fifty or p]haps a hundr$ miles1 & :i* move ov] ! surface ( ! e>?2 & ano!r :i* consi/s ( a broad1 beltlike %aft 9 ! equatorial regions1 :i* 9 a way girdles ! e>?1 rema9s 9 ab\t ! same place1 cont9ually endures1 & has a wid? ( hundr$s ( miles4 ,( ^! two classes ( upru%es we %all fir/ consid] ! greate/1 :i* occurs 9 ! c5tral portions ( ! tropical realm4 ,"u ! equator1 ow+ to ! fact t ! sun = a consid]able belt ( l& & sea ma9ta9s ! e>? at a high temp]ature1 !re is a g5]al updraught :i* began _m million ye>s ago1 probably be=e ! orig9 ( life1 9 ! age :5 our atmosph]e assum$ its pres5t conditions4 ,into ?is region ! cool] air f ! nor? & s\? necess>ily fl[s1 9 "p press$ 9 by ! weight ( ! cold air :i* ov]lies x1 b aid$ 9 its motion by ! fact t ! p>ticles :i* asc5d leave place = o!rs to occupy4 ,ov] ! surfaces ( ! l& )9 ! tropical region ?is draught t[>d :at we may t]m ! equatorial *imney is p]turb$ by ! irregul>ities ( ! surface & _m local accid5ts4 ,b on ! sea1 :]e ! conditions are uni=m1 ! air mov+ t[>d ! po9t ( asc5t is m>k$ 9 ! trade w9ds1 :i* bl[ ) a /eadfa/ sweep d[n t[>d ! equator4 ,_m slight actions1 su* z ! movem5t ( ! hot & cold curr5ts ( ! sea1 ! local air movem5ts f ! l&s or f deta*$ isl&s1 some:at p]turb ! trade w9ds1 b !y rema9 among ! mo/ p]man5t features 9 ?is *angeable _w4 ,x is d\btful if any?+ on ?is sph]e except ! atoms & molecules ( matt] h v>i$ z little z ! trade w9ds 9 ! c5tre ( ! wide ocean4 ,s /eadfa/ & uni=m are !y t x is said t ! helm & sails ( a %ip may be set ne> ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica & be left un*ang$ = a voyage :i* w c>ry ! navigator 9 _! belt across ! wid? ( ! ,pacific4 ,ris+ up f ! e>? 9 ! tropical belt1 ! air atta9s ! height ( sev]al ?\s& feet2 x !n beg9s to curve (f t[>d ! nor? & s\?1 & at ! height ( some:]e ab\t ?ree to five miles above ! surface is aga9 mov+ horizontally t[>d ei!r pole2 atta9+ a di/ance on t j\rney1 x gradually settles d[n to ! surface ( ! e>?1 & ceases to move t[>d high] latitudes4 ,if ! e>? did n revolve ^u its axis ! c\rse ( ^! w9ds along ! surface t[>d ! equator1 & 9 ! upp] air back t[>d ! poles1 w\ld be made 9 :at we may call a squ>e mann]--t is1 ! p>ticles ( air w\ld move t[>d ! po9t :]e !y beg9 to rise upw>d 9 due nor? & s\? l9es1 accord+ z !y came f ! s\!rn or nor!rn hemisph]e1 & ! upp] curr5ts or c\nt] trades w\ld retrace _! pa?s also p>allel ) ! m]idians or longitude l9es4 ,b because ! e>? revolves f we/ to ea/1 ! c\rse ( ! trade w9ds is oblique to ! equator1 ^? 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e bl[+ f nor!a/ to s\?we/1 ^? 9 ! s\!rn f s\!a/ to nor?we/4 ,! way 9 :i* ! motion ( ! e>? affects ! direction ( ^! curr5ts is n difficult to und]/&4 ,x is z foll[s3 ,let u conceive a p>ticle ( air situat$ imm$iately ov] ! e>?'s pol> axis4 ,su* an atom w\ld by ! rotation ( ! sph]e accompli% no motion except1 inde$1 t x might turn r\nd on its own c5tre4 ,x w\ld acquire no velocity :atev] by virtue ( ! e>?'s movem5t4 ,!n let u imag9e ! p>ticle mov+ t[>d ! equator ) ! spe$ ( an ord9>y w9d4 ,at e /ep ( its j\rney t[>d l[] latitudes x w\ld come into regions hav+ a great] movem5t ?an ^? :i* x _h j left4 ,ow+ to its in]tia1 x w\ld ?us t5d cont9ually to lag beh9d ! p>ticles ( matt] ab\t x4 ,x w\ld ?us fall (f to ! we/w>d1 &1 9 place ( mov+ due s\?1 w\ld 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e drift to ! s\?we/1 & 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e t[>d ! nor?we/4 ,a good illu/ration ( ?is action may be obta9$ f an ord9>y turn-table su* z is us$ ab\t railway /ations to rev]se ! position ( a locomotive4 ,if ! obs]v] w /& 9 ! c5tre ( su* a table :ile x is be+ turn$ r\nd he w p]ceive t 8 body is n sway$ to ! "r or left4 ,if he w !n try to walk t[>d ! p]iph]y ( ! rotat+ disk1 he w readily note t x is v difficult1 if n impossible1 to walk along ! radius ( ! circle2 he naturally falls beh9d 9 ! movem5t1 s t 8 pa? is a curv$ l9e exactly su* z is foll[$ by ! w9ds :i* move t[>d ! equator 9 ! trades4 ,if n[ he re/s a mom5t on ! p]iph]y ( ! table1 s t 8 body acquires ! velocity ( ! disk at t po9t1 & !n endeav\rs to walk t[>d ! c5tre1 he w f9d t aga9 he c n g directly2 8 pa? deviates 9 ! opposite direction--9 o!r words1 ! body cont9ually go+ to a place hav+ a less rate ( movem5t by virtue ( ! rotation ( ! e>?1 on acc\nt ( its mom5tum is ev] mov+ fa/] ?an ! surface ov] :i* x passes4 ,?is exp]im5t c readily be tri$ on any small rotat+ disk1 su* z a pott]'s :eel1 or by roll+ a m>ble or a %ot f ! c5tre to ! circumf]5ce & f ! circumf]5ce to ! c5tre4 ,a little reflection w %[ ! inquir] h[ ^! illu/rations cle>ly acc\nt = ! oblique ?\gh opposite sets ( ! trade w9ds 9 ! upp] & l[] p>ts ( ! air4 ,! dom9at+ effect ( ! tropical heat 9 controll+ ! movem5ts ( ! air curr5ts ext5ds1 on ! ocean surface1 9 g5]al ab\t z f> nor? & s\? z ! p>allels ( =ty degrees1 consid]ably exce$+ ! limits ( ! tropics1 ^? l9es :]e ! sun1 because ( ! incl9ation ( ! e>?'s axis1 at "s "t ( ! ye> comes j ov]head4 ,betwe5 ^! belts ( trade w9ds !re is a /rip or belt "u ! region :]e ! atmosph]e is ris+ f ! e>?1 9 :i* ! w9ds are irregul> & h little en]gy4 ,?is region ( ! doldrums or frequ5t calms is "o ( mu* tr\ble to sail+ %ips on _! voyages f "o hemisph]e to ano!r4 ,9 pass+ ?r\gh x _! sails are fill$ only by ! airs ( local /orms1 or w9ds :i* make _! way into t "p ( ! sea f ! neighb\r+ cont95ts4 ,beyond ! trade-w9d belt1 t[>d ! poles1 ! movem5ts ( ! atmosph]e are dep5d5t 9 "p on ! c\nt] trades :i* desc5d to ! surface ( ! e>? 9 latitudes high] ?an t 9 :i* ! surface or trade w9ds fl[4 ,?us along our ,atlantic coa/1 & ev5 9 ! body ( ! cont95t1 at times :5 ! air is n controll$ by "s local /orm1 ! c\nt] trade bl[s ) consid]able regul>ity4 ,! effect ( ! trade & c\nt]-trade movem5ts ( ! air on ! di/ribution ( temp]ature ov] ! e>?'s surface is mom5t\s4 ,9 "p _! influ5ce is due to ! direct heat-c>ry+ p[] ( ! atmosph]e2 9 l>g] measure x is br\ght ab\t by ! movem5t ( ! ocean wat]s :i* !y induce4 ,atmosph]ic air1 :5 depriv$ ( ! wat] :i* x ord9>ily conta9s1 has v little heat-conta9+ capacity4 ,practically ne>ly all ! p[] ( convey+ heat :i* x possesses is due to ! vap\r ( wat] :i* x conta9s4 ,by virtue ( ?is moi/ure ! w9ds d a good deal to transf] heat f ! tropical or sup]heat$ portion ( ! e>?'s surface to ! circumpol> or und]heat$ realms4 ,at fir/1 ! relatively cool air :i* j\rneys t[>d ! equator along ! surface ( ! sea con/antly ga9s 9 heat1 & 9 t process takes up m & m wat]1 = precisely ! same reason t causes any?+ to dry m rapidly 9 air :i* has be5 w>m$ next a fire4 ,! result is t be=e x beg9s to asc5d 9 ! tropical updraught1 be+ mu* moi/ure-lad51 ! atmosph]e /ores a good deal ( heat4 ,z x rises1 r>efies1 & cools1 ! moi/ure desc5ds 9 ! torr5tial ra9s :i* ord9>ily fall :5 ! sun is ne>ly v]tical 9 ! tropical belt4 ,"h comes 9 a v int]e/+ pr9ciple :i* is ( importance 9 und]/&+ ! nature ( great /orms1 ei!r ! cont9u\s /orm ( ! tropics or ! local & irregul> :irl+s :i* occur 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,:5 ! moi/ure-lad5 air />ts on its upw>d j\rney f ! e>? x has1 by virtue ( ! wat]y vap\r :i* x conta9s1 a /ore ( en]gy :i* becomes appli$ to promot+ ! updraught4 ,z x rises1 ! moi/ure 9 ! air ga!rs toge!r or cond5ses1 & 9 s do+ p>ts ) ! heat :i* caus$ x to evaporate f ! ocean surface4 ,= a giv5 weight ( wat]1 ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to effect ! evaporation is v great2 ?is we may r\ghly judge by obs]v+ :at a cont9u\s fire is requir$ to s5d a p9t ( wat] into ! /ate ( /eam4 ,?is en]gy1 :5 x is releas$ by ! cond5sation ( wat] into ra9 or sn[1 becomes aga9 heat1 & t5ds some:at1 z does ! fire 9 ! *imney1 to accel]ate ! upw>d passage ( ! air4 ,! result is t ! wat] :i* asc5ds 9 ! equatorial updraught becomes :at we may t]m fuel to promote ?is important elem5t 9 ! e>?'s arial circulation4 ,trades & c\nt] trades w\ld d\btless exi/ b = ! effici5cy ( ?is updraught1 :i* is caus$ by ! cond5sation ( wat]y vap\r1 b ! movem5t w\ld be mu* less ?an x is4 ,,:irl+ ,,/orms4 ,9 ! region ne> ! equator1 or ne> ! l9e ( highe/ temp]ature1 :i* = v>i\s reasons does n exactly foll[ ! equator1 !re is1 z we h notic$1 a some:at cont9u\s upru%+ curr5t :]e ! air passes upw>d ?r\gh an asc5d+ *imney1 :i* 9 a way girdles ! sea-cov]$ "p ( ! e>?4 ,9 ?is region ! movem5ts ( ! air are to a great ext5t "u ! control ( ! great cont9u\s updraught4 ,z we g to ! nor? & s\? we ent] realms :]e ! air at ! surface ( ! e>? is1 by ! heat :i* x acquires f contact ) t surface1 m or less impell$ upw>d2 b !re be+ no p]man5t updraught = its escape1 x f "t to "t breaks ?r\gh ! ro( ( cold air :i* ov]lies x & makes a tempor>y *annel ( passage4 ,go+ pol>w>d f ! equator1 we fir/ enc\nt] ^! local & tempor>y upca/+s ( ! air ne> ! m>g9 ( ! tropical belt4 ,9 ^! di/ricts1 at lea/ ov] ! w>m] seas1 dur+ ! "t ( ! ye> :5 x is midsumm]1 & 9 ! regions :]e ! trade w9ds are n /rong en\gh to sweep ! w>m & moi/ure-lad5 air d[n to ! equatorial belt1 ! upw>d t5d+ /ra9 ( ! atmosph]e next ! e>? (t5 becomes s /rong t ! ov]ly+ air is displac$1 =m+ a *annel ?r\gh :i* ! air swiftly passes4 ,z ! moi/ure cond5ses 9 ! way be=e not$1 ! en]gy set free s]ves to accel]ate ! updraught1 & a hurricane is begun4 ,at fir/ ! movem5t is small & ( no great spe$1 b z ! am\nt ( air t5d+ upw>d is likely to be great1 z is also ! am\nt ( moi/ure :i* x conta9s1 ! arial *imney is rapidly enl>g$1 & ! spe$ ( ! ris+ air increas$4 ,! atmosph]e next ! surface ( ! sea fl[s 9 t[>d ! *annel ( escape2 its passage is m>k$ by w9ds :i* are bl[+ t[>d ! c5tre4 ,on ! p]iph]y ( ! movem5t ! p>ticles move sl[ly1 b z !y w9 _! way t[>d ! c5tre !y travel ) accel]at+ velocity4 ,on ! pr9ciple :i* det]m9es ! :irl+ movem5t ( ! wat] escap+ ?r\gh a hole 9 ! bottom ( a bas91 ! p>ticles ( ! air d n move on /raight l9es t[>d ! c5tre1 b j\rney 9 spiral pa?s1 at fir/ along ! surface1 & !n asc5d+4 ,we h not$ ! fact t 9 a bas9 ( wat] ! direction ( ! :irl+ is :at we may t]m accid5tal--t is1 dep5d5t on conditions s slight t !y elude our obs]vation--b 9 hurricanes a c]ta9 fact det]m9es 9 an arbitr>y way ! direction 9 :i* ! sp9 %all take place4 ,z soon z su* a movem5t ( ! air atta9s any consid]able diamet]1 al?\gh 9 its beg9n+ x may h spun 9 a direction br\ght ab\t by local accid5ts1 x w be affect$ by ! div]se rates ( travel1 by virtue ( ! e>?'s rotation1 ( ! air on its equatorial & pol> sides4 ,on ! equatorial side ?is air is mov+ m rapidly ?an x is on ! pol> side4 ,by obs]v+ ! wat] pass+ f a bas9 ?is pr9ciple1 ) a few exp]im5ts1 c be made pla94 ,! result is to cause ^! great :irlw9ds ( ! hurricanes ( high] latitudes to :irl r\nd f "r to left 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e & 9 ! rev]se way 9 ! s\!rn4 ,! g5]al sy/em ( ! air curr5ts /ill fur!r affects ^!1 z o!r :irl+ /orms1 by driv+ _! c5tres or *imneys ov] ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,! pr9ciple on :i* ?is is done may be readily und]/ood by obs]v+ h[ ! air %aft above a *imney1 ?r\gh :i* we may obs]ve ! smoke to rise dur+ a "t ( calm1 is drawn (f to "o side by ! slight curr5t :i* exi/s ev5 :5 we feel no w9d2 x may also be disc]n$ 9 ! little du/ :irls :i* =m 9 ! /reets on a summ] day :5 ! air is n mu* di/urb$4 ,:ile !y sp9 !y move on 9 ! direction ( ! air drift4 ,9 ?is way a hurricane orig9at+ 9 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico may gradually j\rney "u ! influ5ce ( ! c\nt] trades across ! ,antilles1 or ov] s\!rn ,florida1 & !nce pursue a devi\s nor!rly c\rse1 g5]ally ne> ! ,atlantic coa/ & 9 ! pa? ( ! ,gulf ,/ream1 until x has travell$ a ?\s& miles or m t[>d ! ,nor? ,atlantic4 ,! f>!r x goes nor?w>d ! less effectively x is f$ ) w>m & moi/ure-lad5 air1 ! feebl] its movem5t becomes1 until at l5g? x is brok5 up by ! v>iable w9ds :i* x enc\nt]s4 ,a v int]e/+ &1 f ! po9t ( view ( ! navigator1 important peculi>ity ( ^! :irls is t at _! c5tre !re is a calm1 simil> 9 orig9 & nature to ! calm "u ! equator betwe5 ! trade-w9d belts4 ,bo? ^! areas are 9 ! field :]e ! air is asc5d+1 & !re=e at ! surface ( ! e>? does n affect ! sails ( %ips1 ?\gh if m5 ev] come to use fly+ ma*9es & sail ?r\gh ! tropics at a good height above ! sea x w be s5sible en\gh4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! doldrum ( ! equator & t ( ! hurricane1 besides _! relative areas1 is t "o is a belt & ! o!r a disk4 ,if ! seaf>] happ5s to sail on a pa? :i* leads him ?r\gh ! hurricane c5tre1 he w fir/ disc]n1 z f ! untr\bl$ air & sea he approa*es ! p]iph]y ( ! /orm1 ! horizon t[>d ! di/urbance beset by tr\bl$ cl\ds1 all mov+ 9 "o direction4 ,ent]+ b5ea? ?is pall1 he f9ds a /eadily increas+ w9d1 :i* 9 tw5ty miles ( sail+ may1 & 9 a hundr$ miles surely w1 compel him to take 9 all b 8 /orm sails1 & is likely to br+ 8 %ip into grave p]il4 ,! mo/ furi\s w9ds ! m>9] kn[s are ^? :i* he enc\nt]s z he approa*es ! /ill c5tre4 ,^! trials are made ! m appall+ by ! fact t 9 ! furi\s "p ( ! :irl ! ra91 cond5s+ f ! asc5d+ air1 falls 9 torr5ts1 & ! electricity g5]at$ 9 ! cond5sation gives rise to vivid lightn+4 ,if ! /orm-beset %ip c ma9ta9 h] way1 9 a score or two ( miles ( j\rney t[>d ! c5tre1 g5]ally v quickly1 x passes into ! calm disk1 :]e ! w9ds1 bl[+ upw>d1 cease to be felt4 ,9 ?is area ! %ip is n out ( dang]1 = ! waves1 roll+ 9 f ! di/urb$ areas on ei!r side1 make a torm5t ( cross seas1 :]e x is h>d to control ! movem5ts ( a sail+ vessel because ! impulse ( ! w9ds is lo/4 ,pass+ ?r\gh ?is disk ( calm1 ! %ip re-enc\nt]s 9 rev]se ord] ! furi\s portion ( ! :irl1 aft]w>d ! less5+ w9ds1 until x escapes aga9 into ! airs :i* are n involv$ 9 ! great torm5t4 ,9 ! old days1 be=e ,dove's /udies ( /orms _h %[n ! laws ( hurricane movem5t1 unhappy %ipma/]s 7 likely to be caught & reta9$ 9 hurricanes1 & to battle ) !m = weeks until _! vessels 7 beat5 to pieces4 ,n[ ! ,sail+ ,directions1 :i* are ! m>9]'s guide1 enable him1 f ! direction ( ! w9ds & ! kn[n laws ( motion ( ! /orm c5tre1 to sail out ( ! dang]1 s t 9 mo/ cases he may escape calamity4 ,x is o!rwise ) ! p :o dwell ^u ! l& ov] :i* ^! atmosph]ic convulsions sweep4 ,=tunately1 :]e ^! great :irlw9ds trespass on ! cont95t1 !y quickly die out1 because ( ! relative lack ( moi/ure :i* s]ves to /imulate ! upru% :i* creates !m4 ,?us 9 _! m viol5t =ms hurricanes are only felt ne> ! sea1 & g5]ally on isl&s & p59sulas4 ,!re ! hurricane w9ds1 by ! swiftness ( _! movem5t1 :i* (t5 atta9s a spe$ ( a hundr$ miles or m1 apply a great deal ( en]gy to all ob/acles 9 _! pa?4 ,! pressure ?us produc$ is only less de/ructive ?an t :i* is br\ght ab\t by ! tornadoes1 :i* are next to be describ$4 ,!re is ano!r effect f hurricanes :i* is ev5 m de/ructive to life ?an t caus$ by ! direct action ( ! w9d4 ,9 ^! :irl+s great diff]5ces 9 atmosph]ic pressure are br\ght ab\t 9 contigu\s areas ( sea4 ,! result is a sudd5 elevation 9 ! level ( "o "p ( ! wat]4 ,^! di/urbances1 :]e ! %ore l&s are l[ & ?ickly peopl$1 z is ! case along ! we/]n coa/ ( ! ,bay ( ,b5gal1 may produce inundations :i* are t]ribly de/ructive to life & prop]ty4 ,!y are kn[n also 9 s\!rn ,florida & along ! isl&s ( ! ,c>ibbean1 b 9 t region are n s (t5 damag+ to mank9d4 ,=tunately1 hurricanes are limit$ to a v small "p ( ! tropical di/rict4 ,!y occur only 9 ^? regions1 on ! ea/]n faces ( tropical l&s1 :]e ! g5]al we/]ly set ( ! w9ds fav\rs ! accumulation ( great bodies ( v w>m1 moi/ air next ! surface ( ! sea4 ,! we/]n portion ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico & ! ,c>ibbean1 ! ,bay ( ,b5gal1 & ! s\!a/]n portion ( ,asia are especially liable to _! visitations4 ,!y sometimes develop1 ?\gh ) less fury1 9 o!r p>ts ( ! tropics4 ,on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica & ,africa1 :]e ! oceans are visit$ by ! dry l& w9ds1 & :]e ! wat]s are cool$ by curr5ts sett+ 9 f high latitudes1 !y are unkn[n4 ,only less 9 ord] ( magnitude ?an ! hurricanes are ! circul> /orms kn[n z cyclones4 ,^! occur on ! cont95ts1 especially :]e !y af=d broad pla9s little int]rupt$ by m\nta9 ranges4 ,!y are p>ticul>ly well exhibit$ 9 t "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica nor? ( ,mexico & s\? ( ,hudson ,bay4 ,l ! hurricanes1 !y appe> to be due to ! inru% ( relatively w>m air ent]+ an updraught :i* _h be5 =m$ 9 ! ov]ly+1 cool] portions ( ! atmosph]e4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 mu* less en]getic1 & (t5 ( great] size ?an ! hurricane :irl4 ,! lack ( en]gy is probably due to ! comp>ative dryness ( ! air4 ,! great] wid? ( ! asc5d+ column may p]haps be acc\nt$ = by ! fact t1 orig9at+ at a consid]able height above ! sea1 !y h a less ?ickness ( air to break ?r\gh1 & s ! upw>d sett+ column is readily made broad4 ,! cyclones ( ,nor? ,am]ica appe> g5]ally to orig9ate 9 ! region ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ?\gh x is probable t 9 "s in/ances1 p]haps 9 _m1 ! upw>d set ( ! air :i* beg9s ! /orm orig9ates 9 ! ocean along ! ,pacific coa/4 ,!y ga!r en]gy z !y desc5d ! great slop+ pla9 lead+ ea/w>d f ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s to ! c5tral portion ( ! great cont95tal valley4 ,!nce !y move on across ! c\ntry to ! ,atlantic coa/4 ,n infrequ5tly !y cont9ue on ov] ! ocean to ! ,european cont95t4 ,! ea/w>d passage ( ! /orm c5tre is due to ! prevail+ ea/w>d movem5t ( ! air 9 its upp] "p ?r\gh\t t portion ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,commonly !y incl9e some:at to ! nor?w>d ( ea/ 9 _! j\rney4 ,9 all cases ! w9ds appe> to bl[ spirally into ! common /orm c5tre4 ,!re is ! same doldrum area or calm field 9 ! c5tre ( ! /orm t we note betwe5 ! trade w9ds & 9 ! middle ( a hurricane disk1 ?\gh ?is area is less def9$ ?an 9 ! o!r in/ances1 & ! =w>d motion ( ! /orm at a consid]able spe$ is 9 mo/ cases *>act]i/ic ( ! di/urbance4 ,on ! front ( "o ( ^! /orms 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ! w9ds commonly beg9 9 ! nor!a/1 !nce !y ve] by ! ea/ to ! s\?we/4 ,at ?is /age 9 ! movem5t ! /orm c5tre has pass$ by1 ! ra9fall commonly ceases1 & cold1 dry w9ds sett+ to ! nor?we/w>d set 94 ,?is is caus$ by ! fact t ! asc5d+ air1 hav+ atta9$ a height above ! e>?1 settles d[n beh9d ! /orm1 =m+ an anticyclone or mass ( dry air1 :i* presses aga9/ ! retreat+ side ( ! great :irlw9d4 ,9 front ( ! /orm ! w>m & g5]ally moi/ relatively w>m air1 press+ 9 t[>d ! po9t ( uprise & ov]laid by ! upp] cold air1 is br\ght into a condition :]e x t5ds to =m small subord9ate %afts up ?r\gh :i* x :irls on ! same pr9ciple1 b ) f> great] int5sity ?an ! ma9 asc5d+ column4 ,! reason = ! viol5ce ( ?is movem5t is t ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature ( ! air next ! surface & t at ! height ( a few ?\s& feet is great4 ,z might be expect$1 ^! local sp9n+s are mo/ apt to occur 9 ! season :5 ! air next ! e>? is relatively w>m1 & !y are apte/ to take place 9 ! half ( ! advanc+ front ly+ betwe5 ! ea/ & s\?1 = ! reason t !re ! highe/ temp]atures & ! greate/ humidity are likely to coexi/4 ,9 t "p ( ! field1 dur+ ! "t :5 ! /orm is advanc+ f ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s to ! ,atlantic1 a doz5 or m ( ^! sp9n+ upru%es may be produc$1 ?\gh few ( !m are likely to be ( l>ge size or ( great int5sity4 ,! second>y /orms ( cyclones1 su* z are above not$1 receive ! "n ( tornadoes4 ,!y are frequ5t & t]rible visitations ( ! c\ntry f nor!rn ,texas1 ,florida1 & ,alabama to ab\t ! l9e ( ! ,great ,lakes2 !y are r>ely develop$ 9 ! region we/ ( c5tral ,kansas1 & only occasionally d !y exhibit mu* en]gy 9 ! region ea/ ( ! pla9-l&s ( ! ,ohio ,valley4 ,al?\gh kn[n 9 o!r l&s1 !y n[h]e1 s f> z our obs]vations g1 exhibit ! p>oxysmal int5sity :i* !y %[ 9 ! c5tral portion ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t4 ,!re ! air :i* !y affect acquires a spe$ ( movem5t & a fury ( action unkn[n 9 any o!r atmosph]ic di/urbances1 ev5 9 ^? ( ! hurricanes4 ,! obs]v] :o has a *ance to note f an advantage\s position ! developm5t ( a tornado obs]ves t 9 a tol]ably /ill air1 or at lea/ an air unaffect$ by viol5t w9ds--g5]ally 9 :at is t]m$ a sultry /ate ( ! atmosph]e--! /orm cl\ds 9 ! di/ance beg9 to =m a k9d ( funnel-%ap$ dep5d5ce1 :i* gradually ext5ds until x appe>s to t\* ! e>?4 ,z ! cl\ds are l[1 ?is d[nw>d-gr[+ column probably 9 no case is obs]v$ = ! height ( m ?an ?ree or f\r ?\s& feet4 ,z ! funnel desc5ds1 ! cl\ds above & ab\t x may be se5 to take on a :irl+ movem5t ar\nd ! c5tre1 & "u fav\rable circum/ances an upru% ( vap\rs may be not$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! sway+ %aft4 ,z ! :irl comes ne>]1 ! ro> ( ! di/urbance1 :i* at a di/ance is (t5 comp>$ to ! s\nd made by a ?re%+ ma*9e or to t ( di/ant musketry1 increases 9 l\dness until x becomes ov]:elm+4 ,:5 a /orm su* z ?is /rikes a build+1 x is n only likely to be raz$ by ! =ce ( ! w9d1 b x may be explod$1 z by ! action ( gunp[d] fir$ )9 its walls1 ?r\gh ! sudd5 expansion ( ! air :i* x conta9s4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! column1 al?\gh x r>ely has a diamet] ( m ?an a few hundr$ feet1 ! upru% is s swift t x makes a p>tial vacuum4 ,! air1 /riv+ to get into ! space :i* x is eag] to occupy1 is :irl+ ab\t at su* a rate t ! c5trifugal motion :i* x ?us acquires re/ra9s its entrance4 ,9 ?is way !re may be1 z ! column rapidly moves by1 a diff]5ce ( pressure am\nt+ probably to :at ! m]cury ( a b>omet] w\ld indicate by f\r or five in*es ( fall4 ,unless ! /ructure is small & its walls /rong1 its ro( & sides are apt to be bl[n ap>t by ?is diff]5ce ( pressure & ! consequ5t expansion ( ! conta9$ air4 ,9 "s cases :]e wood5 build+s h )/ood ?is curi\s action ! out] clapbo>ds h be5 bl[n (f by ! expansion ( ! small am\nt ( air conta9$ 9 ! int]spaces betwe5 t cov]+ & ! la? & pla/] )9 7see ,fig4 #i74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--,%[+ effect ( expansion ( air conta9$ 9 a holl[ wall dur+ ! passage ( ! /orm4 ,! bl[ ( ! air due to its rotative :irl+ has 9 sev]al cases prov$ suffici5t to ?r[ a heavy locomotive f ! track ( a well-con/ruct$ railway4 ,9 all cases :]e x is int5se x w ov]turn ! /ronge/ trees4 ,! asc5d+ w9d 9 ! c5tre ( ! column may sometimes lift ! bodies ( m5 & ( animals1 z well z ! bran*es & trunks ( trees & ! timb] ( h\ses1 to ! height ( hundr$s ( feet above ! surface4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ exhibitions ( ! upsuck+ action 9 a tornado is af=d$ by ! effect :i* x produces :5 x crosses a small %eet ( wat]4 ,9 c]ta9 cases :]e1 9 ! ,nor?we/]n ,/ates ( ?is c\ntry1 ! pa? ( ! /orm lay ov] ! pool1 ! :ole ( ! wat] f a bas9 acres 9 ext5t has be5 entirely c>ri$ away1 leav+ ! surface1 z describ$ by an obs]v]1 app>5tly dry en\gh to pl\gh4 ,=tunately = ! int]e/s ( man1 z well z ^? ( ! l[] organic life1 ! pa?s ( ^! /orms1 or at lea/ ! portion ( _! track :]e ! viol5ce ( ! air movem5t makes !m v de/ructive1 (t5 does n exce$ five hundr$ feet 9 wid?1 & is r>ely z great z half a mile 9 diamet]4 ,9 mo/ cases ! l5g? ( ! j\rney ( an individual tornado does n exce$ ?irty miles4 ,x r>ely if ev] am\nts to twice t di/ance4 ,9 e reg>d except _! small size & _! viol5ce ^! tornadoes closely resemble hurricanes4 ,!re is ! same broad disk ( air next ! surface spirally revolv+ t[>d ! asc5d+ c5tre1 :]e its motion is rapidly *ang$ f a horizontal to a v]tical direction4 ,! en]gy ( ! upru% 9 bo? cases is increas$ by ! en]gy set free ?r\gh ! cond5sation ( ! wat]1 :i* t5ds fur!r to heat & ?us to exp& ! air4 ,! small] size ( ! tornado may be acc\nt$ = by ! fact t we h 9 _! orig9at+ conditions a relatively ?9 lay] ( w>m1 moi/ air next ! e>? & a relatively v cold lay] imm$iately ov]ly+ x4 ,?us ! t5sion :i* s]ves to />t ! movem5t is int5se1 ?\gh ! masses involv$ are n v great4 ,! %ort life ( a tornado may be expla9$ by ! fact t1 ?\gh x app>5tly t5ds to gr[ 9 wid? & en]gy1 ! c5tral sp\t is small1 & is apt to be brok5 by ! movem5ts ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* 9 ! front ( a cyclone are 9 all cases irregul>4 ,on ! w>m] seas1 b (t5 beyond ! limits ( ! tropics1 ano!r class ( sp9n+ /orms1 kn[n z wat]sp\ts1 may (t5 be obs]v$4 ,9 g5]al appe>ance ^! air :irls resemble tornadoes1 except t !y are 9 all cases small] ?an t gr\p ( :irl+s4 ,z 9 ! tornadoes1 ! wat]sp\t beg9s ) a funnel1 :i* desc5ds f ! sky to ! surface ( ! sea4 ,up ! tube vap\rs may be se5 asc5d+ at great spe$1 ! :ole appe>+ l a gigantic pill> ( swiftly revolv+ smoke4 ,:5 ! :irl rea*es ! wat]1 x is said t ! fluid leaps up into ! tube 9 ! =m ( d5se spray1 an ass]tion :i*1 9 view ( ! fact ( ! action ( a tornado on a lake z be=e describ$1 may well be believ$4 ,l ! tornadoes & du/ :irls1 ! life ( a wat]sp\t appe>s to be brief4 ,!y r>ely endure = m ?an a few m9utes1 or j\rney ov] ! sea = m ?an two or ?ree miles be=e ! column appe>s to be brok5 by "s sway+ ( ! atmosph]e4 ,z ^! peculi> /orms are likely to damage %ips1 ! old-fa%ion$ sailors 7 accu/om$ to fire at !m ) cannon4 ,x has be5 claim$ t a %ot w\ld break ! tube & end ! little convulsion4 ,?is1 9 view ( ! fact t !y appe> to be easily brok5 up by relatively trifl+ air curr5ts1 may readily be believ$4 ,! dang] :i* ^! di/urbances br+ to %ips is probably n v s]i\s4 ,! special atmosph]ic conditions :i* br+ ab\t ! =mation ( wat]sp\ts are n well kn[n2 !y d\btless include1 h[ev]1 w>m1 moi/ air next ! surface ( ! sea & cold air above4 ,j :y ^! /orms nev] atta9 great] size or endurance is n yet kn[n4 ,^! di/urbances h be5 se5 = c5turies1 b z yet !y h n be51 9 ! sci5tific s5se1 obs]v$4 ,_! picturesqu5ess attracts all behold]s2 x is int]e/+ to note ! fact t p]haps ! e>lie/ description ( _! ph5om5a--"o :i* takes acc\nt 9 ! sci5tific _s ( all ! features :i* !y pres5t--0 writt5 by ! poet ,camons 9 ! ,lusiad1 9 :i* he /rangely m+les fancy & obs]vation 9 8 acc\nt ( ! great voyage ( ,vasco da ,gama4 ,! poet ev5 notes t ! wat] :i* falls :5 ! sp\t is brok5 is n salt1 b fre%--a po9t :i* cle>ly proves t n mu* ( ! wat] :i* ! tube conta9s is d]iv$ f ! sea4 ,x is1 9 fact1 wat]y vap\r drawn f ! air next ! surface ( ! ocean1 & cond5s$ 9 its asc5t ?r\gh ! tube4 ,9 ?is & o!r descriptions ( ,nature ,camons %[s m ( ! sci5tific _s ?an any o!r poet ( 8 "t4 ,he 0 9 ?is reg>d ! fir/ ( mod]n writ]s to comb9e a spiritual admiration = ,nature ) "s s5se ( its sci5tific mean+4 ,9 treat+ ( ! atmosph]e1 meteorologi/s base _! /udies l>gely on *anges 9 ! weight ( t m$ium1 :i* !y det]m9e by b>ometric obs]vations4 ,9 fact1 ! sci5ce ( ! air _h its beg9n+ 9 ,pascal's admirable obs]vation on ! *anges 9 ! height ( a column ( m]cury conta9$ 9 a b5t tube z he asc5d$ ! volcanic peak kn[n z ,puy de ,dome1 9 c5tral ,france4 ,z be=e not$1 x is to ! di/urbances 9 ! weight ( ! air1 br\ght ab\t ma9ly by v>iations 9 temp]ature1 t we owe all its curr5ts1 & x is ^u ^! w9ds t ! features we t]m climate 9 l>ge/ measure dep5d4 ,e movem5t ( ! w9ds is n only br\ght ab\t by *anges 9 ! relative weight ( ! air at c]ta9 po9ts1 b ! w9ds !mselves1 ow+ to ! mom5tum :i* ! air atta9s by !m1 s]ve to br+ ab\t alt]ations 9 ! quantity ( air ov] diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?1 :i* are m>k$ mo/ di/9ctly by b>ometric v>iations4 ,^! *anges are exce$+ly complicat$2 a full acc\nt ( !m w\ld dem& ! space ( ?is volume4 ,a few ( ! facts1 h[ev]1 %\ld be pres5t$ "h4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we note t ea* day !re is normally a range 9 ! pressure :i* causes ! b>omet] to be at ! l[e/ at ab\t f\r o'clock 9 ! morn+ & f\r o'clock 9 ! aft]noon1 & highe/ at ab\t t5 o'clock 9 ^? divisions ( ! day4 ,?is *ange is suppos$ to be due to ! fact t ! motes ( du/ 9 ! atmosph]e 9 ! night1 becom+ cool$1 cond5se ! wat] vap\r ^u _! surfaces1 ?us dim9i%+ ! volume ( ! air4 ,:5 ! sun rises ! wat] evaporat$ by ! heat returns f ^! little /oreh\ses into ! body ( ! atmosph]e4 ,aga9 9 ! ev5+ ! cond5sation sets 92 at ! same "t ! air t5ds to drift 9 f ! region to ! we/w>d1 :]e ! sun is /ill high1 t[>d ! field :]e ! b>omet] has be5 ?us l[]$2 ! curr5t gradually atta9s a c]ta9 volume1 & s br+s ab\t ! rise ( ! b>omet] ab\t t5 o'clock at night4 ,9 ! w9t] "t1 p>ticul>ly on ! well-deta*$ cont95t ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 we f9d a prevail+ high b>omet] 9 ! int]ior ( ! c\ntry & a correspond+ l[ /ate ( pressure on ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,9 ! summ] season ^! conditions are on ! :ole rev]s$4 ,"u ! tropics1 9 ! doldrum belt1 !re is a zone ( l[ b>omet] connect$ to ! asc5d+ curr5ts :i* take place along t l9e4 ,?is is a cont9u\s manife/ation ( ! same action :i* gives a l>ge area ( a disklike =m 9 ! c5tre or eye ( ! hurricane & 9 ! middle portion ( ! tornado's :irl4 ,9 g5]al1 x may be said t ! weight ( ! air is greate/ 9 ! regions f :i* x is bl[+ t[>d ! po9ts ( upw>d escape1 & lea/ 9 & ab\t ^? places :]e ! sup]9cumb5t air is ris+ ?r\gh a tempor>y or p]man5t l9e ( escape4 ,9 o!r words1 asc5d+ air means g5]ally a relatively l[ b>omet]1 :ile desc5d+ air is accompani$ by great] pressure 9 ! field ^u :i* x falls4 ,9 almo/ e "p ( ! e>? :i* is affect$ by a p>ticul> physiography we f9d t ! movem5ts ( ! atmosph]e next ! surface are qualifi$ by ! condition :i* x enc\nt]s4 ,9 fact1 if a p]son 7 possess$ ( all ! k :i* c\ld be obta9$ conc]n+ w9ds1 he c\ld probably det]m9e z by a map ! place :]e he might *ance to f9d himself1 provid$ he c\ld ext5d 8 obs]vations ov] a t]m ( ye>s4 ,9 o!r words1 ! regim5 ( ! w9ds--at lea/ ^? ( a sup]ficial nature--is almo/ z *>act]i/ic ( ! field ov] :i* !y g z is a map ( ! c\ntry4 ,( ^! special w9ds a numb] ( ! m important h be5 not$1 only a few ( :i* we c adv]t to4 ,fir/ among ^! may well come ! l& & sea breezes :i* are rem>k$ ab\t all isl&s :i* are n cont9u\sly swept by p]man5t w9ds4 ,"o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic in/ances ( ^! alt]nate w9ds is p]haps t af=d$ on ! isl& ( ,jamaica4 ,! isl& ( ,jamaica is s situat$ )9 ! bas9 ( ! ,c>ibbean t x does n feel ! full influ5ce ( ! trades4 ,x has a range ( high m\nta9s ?r\gh its middle "p4 ,9 ! daytime ! surface ( ! l&1 :i* has ! sun ov]head twice ea* ye>1 & is always expos$ to ne>ly v]tical radiation1 becomes int5sely hot1 s t an upcurr5t is =m$4 ,! =mation ( ?is curr5t is fav\r$ by ! m\nta9s1 :i* apply a "p ( ! heat at ! height ( ab\t a mile above ! surface ( ! sea4 ,?is action is p>allel to t we notice :51 9 ord] to create a draught 9 ! air ( a *imney1 we put a tor* "s di/ance up above ! fireplace1 ?us dim9i%+ ! height ( ! column ( air :i* has to be set 9 motion4 ,x is fur!r %[n by ! fact t :5 m9]s s\ght to make an upcurr5t 9 a %aft1 9 ord] to lead pure air into ! work+s ?r\gh o!r op5+s1 !y f\nd aft] mu* exp]i5ce t x 0 bett] to h ! fire ne> ! top ( ! %aft r ?an at ! bottom4 ,! asc5d+ curr5t be+ induc$ up ! m\nta9 sides ( ,jamaica1 ! air is =c$ 9 f ! sea to ! relatively free space4 ,be=e noon ! curr5t1 aid$ 9 its spe$ by a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! cond5sation ( ! wat]y vap\r be=e describ$1 atta9s ! proportions ( a /rong w9d4 ,z ! sun beg9s to s9k1 ! e>?'s surface p\rs =? its heat2 ! radiation be+ assi/$ by ! ext5d$ surfaces ( ! plants1 cool+ rapidly takes place4 ,mean:ile ! sea1 because ( ! great heat-/or+ p[] ( wat]1 is v little cool$1 ! asc5t ( ! air ceases1 ! tempor>y *imney ) its updraught is replac$ by a d[nw>d curr5t1 & ! w9ds bl[ f ! l& until ! sun comes aga9 to rev]se ! curr5t4 ,9 _m cases ^! movem5ts ( ! daily w9ds fl[+ into & f isl&s induce a c]ta9 precipitation ( moi/ure 9 ! =m ( ra94 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 _! effect is m]ely to ameliorate ! heat by br++ alt]nately curr5ts f ! relatively cool sea & f ! upp] atmosph]e to less5 ! o!rwise excessive temp]ature ( ! fields :i* !y trav]se4 ,al?\gh *>act]i/ic sea & l& w9ds are limit$ to regions :]e ! sun's heat is great1 !y are traceable ev5 9 high latitudes dur+ ! p]iods ( long-cont9u$ calm att5d$ ) cle> skies4 ,?us on ! isl& ( ,m>?a's ,v9ey>d1 9 ,massa*usetts1 ! writ] has not$1 :5 ! atmosph]e 0 9 su* a /ate1 di/9ct night & day1 or sea & l&1 breezes com+ 9 _! regul> alt]nation4 ,dur+ ! night :5 ^! alt]nate w9ds prevail ! c5tral portion ( ! isl&1 at ! di/ance ( ?ree miles f ! sea1 is rem>kably cold1 ! l[ temp]ature be+ due to ! desc5d+ air curr5t4 ,to ! same physical cause may be attribut$ ! frequ5t insets ( ! sea w9ds t[>d midday along ! cont95tal %ores ( v>i\s c\ntries4 ,?us along ! coa/ ( ,new ,engl& 9 ! summ] season a cle>1 /ill1 hot day is c]ta9 to lead to ! creation ( an +o+ tide ( air1 :i* rea*es "s miles into ! int]ior4 ,?is /ream f ! sea ent]s z a ?9 w$ge1 x (t5 be+ possible to note next ! %ore :5 ! movem5t beg9s a diff]5ce ( t5 degrees ( temp]ature betwe5 ! surface ( ! gr\nd to :i* ! po9t ( ! w$ge has atta9$1 & a position tw5ty feet high] 9 ! air4 ,?is is a beautiful example to %[ at once h[ ! relative weight ( ! atmosph]e1 ev5 :5 ! diff]5ces are slight1 may br+ ab\t motion1 & also h[ masses ( ! atmosph]e may move by or ?r\gh ! re/ ( ! m$ium 9 a way :i* we d n readily conceive f our obs]vations on ! transp>5t mass4 ,v few p h any idea h[ g5]al is ! tru? t ! air1 ev5 9 cont9u\s w9ds1 t5ds to move 9 m or less individualiz$ masses4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is made v evid5t by wat*+ ! gu/s ( a /orm or ! w&]+ pat*es ( w9d :i* di/urb ! surface ( an o!rwise smoo? sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,s\? %ore1 ,m>?a's ,v9ey>d1 ,massa*usetts1 %[+ a *>act]i/ic s& bea* ) long slope & l[ dunes4 ,note ! ?ree l9es ( break]s & ! spla% fl[s cutt+ little bays 9 ! s&4 ,among ! notable local w9ds are ^? :i* f _! lik5ess to ! ,fhn ( ! ,swiss valleys receive t "n4 ,fhns are produc$ :]e a body ( air bl[+ aga9/ ! slope ( a cont9u\s m\nta9 range is lift$ to a consid]able height1 &1 on pass+ ov] ! cre/1 falls aga9 to a l[ position4 ,9 its asc5t ! air is cool$1 r>efi$1 & to a great ext5t depriv$ ( its moi/ure4 ,9 desc5d+ x is recond5s$1 & by ! process by :i* its atoms are br\ght toge!r its lat5t heat is made s5sible4 ,!re be+ b little wat]y vap\r 9 ! mass1 ?is heat is n mu* call$ = by t heat-/or+ fluid1 & s ! air is w>m$4 ,s f> ,fhn w9ds h only be5 rem>k$ z conspicu\s features 9 ,switz]l& & on ! ea/]n face ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,9 ! region ab\t ! head wat]s ( ! ,miss\ri & to ! nor?w>d _! influ5ce 9 :at are call$ ! ,*9ook w9ds is di/9ctly to ameliorate ! sev]e w9t] climate ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 almo/ all great des]t regions1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! typical ,sah>a1 we f9d a v>iety ( /orm belong+ to ! :irlw9d gr\p1 :i*1 ow+ to ! nature ( ! c\ntry1 take on special *>act]i/ics4 ,^! des]t /orms take up f ! v]dureless e>? great quantities ( s& & o!r f9e dbris1 :i* (t5 s cl\ds ! air z to br+ ! d>kness ( night at midday4 ,_! :irl+s appe> 9 size to be great] ?an ^? :i* produce tornadoes or wat]sp\ts1 b less ?an hurricanes or cyclones4 ,little1 h[ev]1 is kn[n ab\t !m4 ,!y h n be5 well obs]v$ by meteorologi/s4 ,9 "s ways !y are important1 = ! reason t !y s]ve to c>ry ! des]t s& into regions previ\sly v]dure-clad1 & ?us to ext5d ! b\nds ( ! desolate fields 9 :i* !y orig9ate4 ,:]e !y bl[ (f to ! seaw>d1 !y convey l>ge quantities ( du/ into ! ocean1 & ?us s]ve to we> d[n ! surface ( ! l& 9 regions :]e !re are no riv]s to effect t action 9 ! normal way4 ,not)/&+ its swift motion :5 impell$ by diff]5ces 9 weight1 ! movem5ts ( ! air h _h b little direct & imm$iate influ5ce on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,! great] "p ( ! "w :i* x does1 z we %all see h]eaft]1 is done ?r\gh ! wat]s :i* x impels & be>s ab\t4 ,yet :]e w9ds bl[ ov] v]dureless surfaces ! effect ( ! s& :i* !y sweep be=e !m is (t5 consid]able4 ,9 regions ( arid m\nta9s ! w9ds (t5 drive tra9s ( s& ?r\gh ! valleys1 :]e ! %>p p>ticles cut ! rocks almo/ z effectively z torr5ts ( wat] w\ld1 di/ribut+ ! we>+ ov] ! wid? ( ! valley4 ,! du/ ?us bl[n1 f a des]t region may1 :5 x atta9s a c\ntry cov]$ ) vegetation1 gradually accumulate on its surface1 =m+ v ?ick deposits4 ,?us 9 nor?we/]n ,*9a !re is a wide area :]e du/ accumulations bl[n f ! arid di/ricts ( c5tral ,asia h gradually heap$ up 9 ! c\rse ( ages to ! dep? ( ?\s&s ( feet1 & ?is al?\gh mu* ( ! dbris is cont9ually be+ borne away by ! action ( ! ra9 wat]s z !y j\rney t[>d ! sea4 ,su* du/ accumulations occur 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! di/ricts ab\t ! upp] ,mississippi & 9 ! valleys ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 b n[h]e are !y s conspicu\s z 9 ! region fir/ m5tion$4 ,:]e prevail+ w9ds f ! sea1 f great lakes1 & ev5 f consid]able riv]s1 bl[ aga9/ s&y %ores or cliffs ( ! same nature1 l>ge quantities ( s& & du/ are (t5 driv5 inl& f ! coa/ l9e4 ,9 mo/ cases ^! w9d-borne mat]ials take on ! =m ( dunes1 or heaps ( s&1 v>y+ f a few feet to sev]al hundr$ feet 9 height4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ^! hills ( bl[n s& t !y move across ! face ( ! c\ntry4 ,"u fav\rable conditions !y may j\rney scores ( miles f ! %ore4 ,! m>*+ ( a dune is effect$ ?r\gh ! roll+ up ( ! s& on ! w9dw>d side ( ! elevation1 :5 x is impell$ by ! curr5t ( air to ! cre/ :]e x falls into ! lee or %elt] :i* ! hill makes to ! w9d4 ,9 ?is way 9 ! c\rse ( a day ! c5tre ( ! dune1 if ! w9d be bl[+ furi\sly1 may advance a measurable di/ance f ! place x occupi$ be=e4 ,by fits & />ts ?is ongo+ may be indef9itely cont9u$4 ,a notable & picturesque in/ance ( ! m>* ( a great dune may be _h f ! case 9 :i* "o ( !m ov]:elm$ 9 ! la/ c5tury ! village ( ,eccles 9 s\!a/]n ,engl&4 ,! advanc+ s& gradually crept into ! hamlet1 & 9 ! c\rse ( a decade dispossess$ ! p by bury+ _! h\ses4 ,9 "t ! summit ( ! *ur* spire disappe>$ f view1 & = _m ye>s !reaft] all trace ( ! hamlet 0 lo/4 ,( late ye>s1 h[ev]1 ! onw>d m>* ( ! s&s has disclos$ ! *ur* spire1 & 9 ! c\rse ( ano!r c5tury ! place may be reveal$ on its orig9al site1 un*ang$ except t ! m>*+ hill w be on its o!r side4 ,9 ! region ab\t ! head ( ! ,bay ( ,biscay ! quantity ( ^! m>*+ s&s is s great t at "o "t !y jeop>diz$ ! agriculture ( a l>ge di/rict4 ,! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t has n[ succe$$1 by c>efully plant+ ! surface ( ! c\ntry ) grasses & o!r h]bs :i* w gr[ 9 su* places1 9 *eck+ ! movem5t ( ! w9d-bl[n mat]ials4 ,by s do+ !y h m]ely ha/5$ ! process by :i* ,nature arre/s ! m>* ( dunes4 ,z ^! heaps creep away f ! sea1 !y g5]ally come into regions :]e a great] v>iety ( plants fl\ri%2 moreov]1 _! s& gra9s become decay$1 s t !y af=d a bett] soil4 ,gradually ! mat ( vegetation b9ds !m d[n1 & 9 "t cov]s !m ov] s t only ! exp]t eye c recognise _! true nature4 ,only 9 des]t regions c ! m>* ( ^! heaps be ma9ta9$ = great di/ances4 ,*>act]i/ic dunes occur f po9t to po9t all along ! ,atlantic coa/ f ! ,/ate ( ,ma9e to ! nor!rn coa/ ( ,florida4 ,!y also occur along ! coa/s ( our ,great ,lakes1 be+ p>ticul>ly well develop$ at ! s\!rn end ( ,lake ,mi*igan1 :]e !y =m1 p]haps1 ! mo/ notable accumulations )9 ! limits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,:5 bl[n s&s invade a =e/ & ! deposit is rapidly accumulat$1 ! trees are (t5 buri$ 9 an undecay$ condition4 ,9 ?is /ate1 ) c]ta9 *emical reactions :i* may take place 9 ! mass1 ! woody matt] is apt to become replac$ by silex dissolv$ f ! s&1 :i* p5etrates ! tissues ( ! plants4 ,9 ?is way salicifi$ =e/s are produc$1 su* z are f\nd 9 ! region ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 :]e ! trunks ( ! trees1 n[ v h>d /one1 s p]fectly pres]ve _! orig9al /ructure t :5 cut & poli%$ !y may be us$ = decorative purposes4 ,conspicu\s z is ?is "w ( ! dunes1 x is 9 a geological way mu* less important ?an t accompli%$ by ! f9] du/ :i* drifts f "o region ( l& to ano!r or into ! sea4 ,because ( _! weight1 ! s& gra9s j\rney ov] ! surface ( ! e>?1 except1 inde$1 :]e !y are uplift$ by :irl /orms4 ,!y ?us c n travel v fa/ or f>4 ,du/1 h[ev]1 rises into ! air1 & j\rneys = indef9ite di/ances4 ,we ?us see h[ slight diff]5ces 9 ! weight ( sub/ances may pr(\ndly affect ! conditions ( _! deportation4 ,,! ,,sy/em ,,( ,,wat]s4 ,! envelope ( air wraps ! e>? completely ab\t1 &1 ?\gh v>y+ 9 ?ickness1 is ev]y:]e pres5t ov] its surface4 ,t ( ! wat]s is mu* less equally di/ribut$4 ,because ( its weight1 x is ma9ly ga!r$ 9 ! dep?s ( ! e>?1 :]e x lies 9 ! int]/ices ( ! rocks & 9 ! great realm ( ! seas4 ,only a v small portion ( ! fluid is 9 ! atmosph]e or on ! l&4 ,p]haps less ?an a t5 ?\s&? "p ( ! :ole is at any "o "t on ?is r\nd f ! seas ?r\gh ! air to ! l& & back to ! great res]voir4 ,! great wat] /ore ( ! e>? is conta9$ 9 two di/9ct realms--9 ! oceans1 :]e ! fluid is conc5trat$ 9 a quantity :i* fills some?+ l n9e t5?s ( ! holl[s =m$ by ! corrugations ( ! e>?'s surface2 & 9 ! rocks1 :]e x is /or$ 9 a f9ely divid$ =m1 p>tly betwe5 ! gra9s ( ! /ony matt] & p>tly 9 ! sub/ance ( its cry/als1 :]e x exi/s 9 a comb9ation1 ! precise nature ( :i* is n well kn[n1 b is call$ wat] ( cry/allization4 ,on ! av]age1 x seems likely t ! mat]ials ( ! e>?1 :e!r "u ! sea or on ! l&1 h sev]al p] c5t ( _! mass ( ! fluid4 ,x is n yet kn[n to :at dep? ! wat]-be>+ section ( ! e>? ext5ds2 b1 z we %all see m p>ticul>ly h]eaft] :5 we come to consid] volcanoes1 ! lavas :i* !y s5d up to ! surface are full ( conta9$ wat]1 :i* passes f !m 9 ! =m ( /eam4 ,! v high temp]ature ( ^! volcanic ejections makes x necess>y = u to suppose t !y come f a great dep?4 ,x is difficult to believe t !y orig9ate at less ?an a hundr$ miles bel[ ! e>?'s surface4 ,if1 !n1 ! rocks conta9 an av]age ( ev5 five p] c5t ( wat] to ! dep? ( "o hundr$ miles1 ! quantity ( ! fluid /or$ )9 ! e>? is great] ?an t :i* is conta9$ 9 ! res]voir ( ! ocean4 ,! oceans1 on ! av]age1 are n m ?an ?ree miles deep2 spread ev5ly ov] ! surface ( ! :ole e>?1 _! dep? w\ld be less ?an two miles1 :ile ! wat] 9 ! rocks1 if x c\ld be add$ to ! seas1 w\ld make ! total dep? sev5 miles or m4 ,z we %all note h]eaft]1 ! processes ( =mation ( /rata t5d to imprison wat] 9 ! b$s1 :i* 9 "t is return$ to ! e>?'s surface by ! =ces :i* op]ate )9 ! cru/4 ,al?\gh ! wat] 9 ! seas is1 z we h se51 probably less ?an "o half ( ! /ore :i* ! e>? possesses1 ! "p x plays 9 ! economy ( ! planet is 9 ! highe/ measure important4 ,! und]gr\nd wat] op]ates solely to promote c]ta9 *anges :i* take place 9 ! m9]al realm4 ,its effect1 except 9 volcanic processes1 are br\ght ab\t b sl[ly1 & are limit$ 9 _! action4 ,! movem5ts ( ?is buri$ wat] are exce$+ly gradual2 ! =ces :i* impel x ab\t & :i* br+ x to d its "w orig9ate 9 ! e>?4 ,9 ! seas ! fluid has an exce$+ fre$om ( motion2 x c obey ! v>i$ impulses :i* ! sol> en]gy imposes ^u x4 ,! rle ( ^! wond]ful actions :i* we are ab\t to trace includes almo/ ev]y?+ :i* goes on ^u ! surface ( ! planet--t :i* relates to ! developm5t ( animal & vegetable life1 z well z to ! va/ geological *anges :i* ! e>? is und]go+4 ,if ! surface ( ! e>? 7 uni=mly cov]$ ) wat] to ! dep? ( t5 ?\s& feet or m1 e p>ticle ( fluid w\ld1 9 a measure1 obey ! attraction ( ! sun1 ( ! moon1 &1 !oretically1 also ( all ! o!r bodies 9 space1 on ! pr9ciple t e p>ticle ( matt] 9 ! univ]se ex]cises a gravitative effect on e o!r4 ,z x is1 ow+ to ! divid$ condition ( ! wat] on ! e>?'s surface1 only t :i* is 9 ! ocean & l>g] seas exhibits any measurable influ5ce f ^! di/ant attractions4 ,9 fact1 only ! tides produc$ by ! moon & sun are ( det]m9able magnitude1 & ( ^! ! lun> is ( great] importance1 ! reason be+ ! ne> position ( our satellite to our own sph]e4 ,! sol> tide is f\r t5?s z great z ! lun>4 ,! wat] d\btless obeys 9 a slight way ! attraction ( ! o!r cele/ial bodies1 b ! motions ?us imp>t$ are too small to be disc]n$2 !y are lo/ 9 ! great v>iety ( influ5ces :i* affect all ! matt] on ! e>?4 ,al?\gh ! tides are due to ! attraction ( ! sol> bodies1 ma9ly to t ( ! moon1 ! mode 9 :i* ! result is br\ght ab\t is some:at complicat$4 ,x may briefly & some:at incompletely be /at$ z foll[s3 ,ow+ to ! fact t ! attract+ p[] ( ! e>? is ab\t eighty times great] ?an t ( ! moon1 ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! two bodies lies )9 ! e>?4 ,ab\t ?is c5tre ! sph]es revolve1 ea* 9 a way sw++ ar\nd ! o!r4 ,at ?is po9t !re is no c5trifugal motion aris+ f ! revolution ( ! pair ( sph]es1 b on ! side ( ! e>? opposite ! moon1 "s six ?\s& miles away1 ! c5trifugal =ce is consid]able1 becom+ con/antly great] z we pass away f ! turn+ po9t4 ,at ! same "t ! attraction ( ! moon on ! wat] becomes less4 ,?us ! tide opposite ! satellite is =m$4 ,on ! side t[>d ! moon ! same c5trifugal action op]ates1 ?\gh less effectively ?an 9 ! o!r case1 = ! reason t ! turn+ po9t is ne>] ! surface2 b ?is action is re-en=c$ by ! great] attraction ( ! moon1 due to ! fact t ! wat] is mu* ne>] t body4 ,9 ! exi/+ conditions ( ! e>?1 :at we may call ! normal run ( ! tides is greatly int]rupt$4 ,only 9 ! s\!rn ocean c ! wat]s obey ! lun> & sol> attraction 9 any?+ l a normal way4 ,9 t "p ( ! e>? two sets ( tides are disc]nible1 ! "o & great] due to ! moon1 ! o!r1 mu* small]1 to ! sun4 ,z ^! tides travel r\nd at diff]5t rates1 ! movem5ts :i* !y produce are sometimes add$ to ea* o!r & sometimes subtract$--t is1 at times !y come toge!r1 :ile aga9 ! elevation ( "o falls 9 ! holl[ ( ! o!r4 ,once aga9 suppos+ ! e>? to be all ocean cov]$1 computation %[s t ! tides 9 su* a sea w\ld be v broad waves1 hav+1 inde$1 a diamet] ( half ! e>?'s circumf]5ce4 ,^? produc$ by ! moon w\ld h an altitude ( ab\t "o foot1 & ^? by ! sun ( ab\t ?ree in*es4 ,! geological effects ( ^! sway+s w\ld be v slight2 ! wat] w\ld pass ov] ! bottom to & fro twice ea* day1 ) a maximum j\rney ( a hundr$ or two feet ea* way f a fix$ po9t4 ,?is movem5t w\ld be s sl[ t x c\ld n /ir ! f9e s$im5t2 its only influ5ce w\ld p]haps be to help fe$ ! animals :i* 7 fix$ ^u ! bottom by draw+ ! nurture-br++ wat] by _! m\?s4 ,al?\gh ! divid$ condition ( ! ocean p]turbs ! action ( ! tides1 s t except by *ance _! waves are r>ely ) _! c5tres :]e ! attract+ bodies t5d to make !m1 ! influ5ce ( ^! divisions is greatly to increase ! geological or *ange-br++ influ5ces aris+ f ^! movem5ts4 ,:5 f ! s\!rn ocean ! tides />t to ! nor?w>d up ! bays ( ! ,atlantic1 ! ,pacific1 or ! ,indian ,ocean1 !y h1 z be=e not$1 a height ( p]haps less ?an two feet4 ,z !y pass up ! n>r[+ spaces ! waves become compress$--t is1 an equal volume ( mov+ wat] has less horizontal room = its passage1 & is =c$ to rise high]4 ,we see a tol]ably good illu/ration ( ! same pr9ciple :5 we obs]ve a w9d-made wave ent] a small recess ( ! %ore1 ! sides ( :i* conv]ge 9 ! direction ( ! motion4 ,) ! dim9i%$ room1 ! wave ga9s 9 height4 ,x ?us comes ab\t t ! tide ?r\gh\t ! ,atlantic bas9 is mu* high] ?an 9 ! s\!rn ocean4 ,on ! same pr9ciple1 :5 ! tide rolls 9 aga9/ ! %ores e embaym5t ( a di/9ct k9d1 ^: sides conv]ge t[>d ! head1 packs up ! tidal wave1 (t5 increas+ its height 9 a rem>kable way4 ,:5 ^! bays are wide-m\!d & ( elongate triangul> =m1 ) deep bottoms1 ! tides :i* on _! out] p>ts h a height ( t5 or fifte5 feet may atta9 an altitude ( =ty or fifty feet at ! apex ( ! triangle4 ,we h already not$ ! fact t ! tide1 su* z runs 9 ! s\!rn ocean1 ex]cises little or no influ5ce ^u ! bottom ( ! sea ov] :i* x moves4 ,z ! height ( ! conf9$ wat]s increases1 ! range ( _! j\rney ov] ! bottom z ! wave comes & goes rapidly increases4 ,:5 !y h an elevation ( t5 feet !y c probably /ir ! f9] mud on ! ocean floor1 & 9 %all[ wat] move yet heavi] p>ticles4 ,9 ! embaym5ts ( ! l&1 :]e a great body ( wat] j\rneys l an alt]nat+ riv] into ext5sive bas9s1 ! tidal action becomes int5se2 ! curr5t may be able to sweep along l>ge /ones q z effectively z a m\nta9 torr5t4 ,?us ne> ,ea/port1 ,me41 :]e ! tides h a maximum rise & fall ( ov] tw5ty feet1 ! wat]s ru% 9 places s swiftly t at c]ta9 /ages ( ! movem5t !y are z mu* tr\bl$ z ^? at ! rapids ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce4 ,9 su* portions ( ! %ore ! tides d important "w 9 c>v+ *annels into ! l&s4 ,along ! %ores ( ! cont95ts ab\t ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 :]e ! tides act 9 a vigor\s mann]1 we almo/ ev]y:]e f9d an und]wat] %elf ext5d+ f ! %ore ) a declivity ( only five to t5 feet to ! mile t[>d ! c5tre ( ! sea1 until ! dep? ( ab\t five hundr$ feet is atta9$2 f ?is po9t ! bottom desc5ds m /eeply into ! ocean's dep?4 ,x is probable t ! l>g] "p ( ! mat]ial compos+ ^! cont95tal %elves has be5 br\ght to its position by tidal action4 ,ea* "t ! tidal wave sweeps 9 t[>d ! %ore x urges ! f9] p>ticles ( s$im5t along ) x4 ,:5 x moves out x drags !m on ! return j\rney t[>d ! dep?s ( ! sea4 ,if ?is %elf 7 p]fectly horizontal1 ! two j\rneys ( ! s& & mud gra9s w\ld be ( ! same l5g?2 b z ! movem5t takes place up & d[n a slope1 ! bits w travel f>!r "u ! impulse :i* leads !m d[nw>d ?an "u t :i* impels !m up4 ,! result w be t ! p>ticles w travel a little f>!r out f ! %ore ea* "t x is swung to & fro 9 ! alt]nat+ movem5t ( ! tide4 ,! effect ( tidal movem5t 9 nurtur+ m>9e life is v great4 ,x aids ! animals fix$ on ! bottoms ( ! deep seas to obta9 _! provision ( food & _! %>e ( oxyg5 by draw+ ! wat] by _! bodies4 ,all regions :i* are visit$ by /rong tides commonly h 9 ! %all[s ne> ! %ores a ?ick gr[? ( seawe$ :i* furni%es an ample provision ( food = ! fi%es & o!r =ms ( animal life4 ,a peculi> effect aris+ f tidal action is believ$ by /ud5ts ( ! ph5om5a to be f\nd 9 ! sl[+ ( ! e>?'s rotation on its axis4 ,! tides rotate ar\nd ! e>? f ea/ to we/1 or r1 we %\ld say1 ! solid mass ( ! e>? rubs aga9/ !m z x sp9s f we/ to ea/4 ,z !y move ov] ! bottom & z !y /rike aga9/ ! %ores ?is pu% ( ! great waves t5ds 9 a slight measure to use up ! orig9al sp9n+ impulse :i* causes ! e>?'s rotation4 ,computation %[s t ! am\nt ( ?is action %\ld be great en\gh gradually to l5g!n ! day1 or ! "t occupi$ by ! e>? 9 mak+ a complete revolution on ! pol> axis4 ,! effect ought to be great en\gh to be measurable by a/ronom]s 9 ! c\rse ( a ?\s& ye>s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! records ( anci5t eclipses appe> pretty cle>ly to %[ t ! l5g? ( ! day has n *ang$ by z mu* z a second 9 ! c\rse ( ?ree ?\s& ye>s4 ,?is evid5ce does n require u to ab&on ! supposition t ! tides t5d to dim9i% ! e>?'s rate ( rotation4 ,x is m likely t ! effect ( ! r$uction 9 ! e>?'s diamet] due to ! loss ( heat :i* is cont9ually go+ on c\nt]balances ! influ5ce ( ! tidal friction4 ,z ! diamet] ( a rotat+ body dim9i%es1 ! t5d5cy is = ! mass to sp9 m rapidly2 if x exp&s1 to turn m sl[ly1 provid$ 9 ea* case ! am\nt ( ! impulse :i* leads to ! turn+ rema9s ! same4 ,?is c be directly obs]v$ by :irl+ a small weight atta*$ to a /r+ 9 su* a mann] t ! cord w9ds ar\nd ! f+] ) ea* revolution2 x w be not$ t z ! l9e %ort5s ! revolution is m quickly accompli%$4 ,we c readily conceive t ! e>? is made up ( weights ess5tially l t us$ 9 ! exp]im5t1 ea* be+ drawn t[>d ! c5tre by ! gravitative /ress1 :i* is l t appli$ to ! weight by ! cord4 ,! fact t ! days rema9 ( ! same l5g? ?r\gh va/ p]iods ( "t is probably due to ?is balance betwe5 ! effects ( tidal action & ^? aris+ f ! loss ( heat--9 o!r words1 we h "h "o ( ^? delicate arrangem5ts 9 ! way ( c\nt]poise :i* s]ve to ma9ta9 ! balanc$ conditions ( ! e>?'s surface amid ! great conflicts ( div]se en]gies :i* are at "w 9 & ^u ! sph]e4 ,x %\ld be und]/ood t ! effects ( ! attraction :i* produces tides are mu* m ext5sive ?an !y are se5 to be 9 ! movem5ts ( ! sea4 ,s long z ! sol> & planet>y sph]es rema9 fluid1 ! :ole ( _! masses p>take ( ! movem5t4 ,x is a consequ5ce ( ?is action1 z ! computations ( ,pr(4 ,george ,d>w9 has %[n1 t ! moon1 once ne>] ! e>? ?an x is at pres5t1 has by a curi\s action ( ! tidal =ce be5 pu%$ away f ! c5tre ( our sph]e1 or r ! two bodies h repell$ ea* o!r4 ,an ,am]ican /ud5t ( ! problem1 ,mr4 ,t4,j4,j4 ,see1 has %[n t ! same action has s]v$ to give to ! d\ble />s ! exce$+ ecc5tricity ( _! orbits4 ,al?\gh ^! rec5t /udies ( tidal action 9 ! cele/ial sph]e are ( ! utmo/ importance to ! !ory ( ! univ]se1 = !y may lead to *anges 9 ! nebul> hypo!ses1 !y are z yet too incomplete & are1 moreov]1 too ma!matical to be pres5t$ 9 an elem5t>y treatise su* z ?is4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we n[ turn to ano!r class ( waves :i* are ( ev5 m importance ?an ^? ( ! tides--to ! undulations :i* are produc$ by ! action ( ! w9d on ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,:ile ! tide waves are limit$ to ! op5 ocean1 & to ! seas & bays :i* af=d !m free entrance1 w9d waves are produc$ ev]y:]e :]e wat] is subject$ to ! friction ( air :i* fl[s ov] x4 ,:ile tidal waves come ^u ! %ores b twice ea* day1 ! w9d waves ( ord9>y size :i* roll 9 f ! ocean deliv] _! bl[s at int]vals ( f ?ree to t5 seconds4 ,al?\gh ! tidal waves sometimes1 by a pack+-up process1 atta9 ! height ( fifty feet1 _! av]age altitude :]e !y come 9 contact ) ! %ore probably does n mu* exce$ f\r feet2 usually !y come 9 g5tly4 ,x is likely t 9 a g5]al way ! ocean surges :i* beat aga9/ ! coa/ are ( great] altitude4 ,w9d waves are produc$ & p]=m _! "w 9 a mann] :i* we %all n[ describe4 ,:5 ! air bl[s ov] any resi/+ surface1 x t5ds1 9 a way :i* we c h>dly af=d "h to describe1 to produce motions4 ,if ! p>ticle is free to move "u ! impulse :i* x communicates1 x be>s x along2 if x is l9k$ toge!r 9 ! mann] ( l>ge masses1 :i* ! w9d c n transport1 x t5ds to set x 9 motion 9 an alt]nat+ way4 ,! s\nds ( our musical in/rum5ts :i* act by w9d are due to ^! alt]nat+ vibrations1 su* z all air curr5ts t5d to produce4 ,an olian h>p illu/rates ! action :i* we are consid]+4 ,mov+ ov] matt] :i* has ! qualities t we d5ote by ! t]m fluid1 ! sway+s :i* ! air produces are ( a peculi> sort1 ?\gh !y mu* resemble ^? ( ! fiddle /r+4 ,! surface ( ! liquid rises & falls 9 :at we t]m waves1 ! size ( :i* is det]m9$ by ! measure ( fluidity1 & by ! en]gy ( ! w9d4 ,?us1 because fre% wat] is consid]ably light] ?an salt1 a giv5 w9d w produce 9 a giv5 di/ance = ! run ( ! waves heavi] surges 9 a lake ?an x w 9 ! sea4 ,= ?is reason ! surges 9 a great /orm :i* roll on ! ocean %ore1 because ( ! wide wat] ov] :i* !y h ga!r$ _! impetus1 are 9 size v mu* great] ?an ^? ( ! l>ge/ lakes1 :i* d n af=d room = ! developm5t ( great undulations4 ,to ! eye1 a wave 9 ! wat] appe>s to indicate t ! fluid is borne on be=e ! w9d4 ,exam9ation1 h[ev]1 %[s t ! am\nt ( motion 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! w9d is bl[+ is v slight4 ,we may say1 inde$1 t ! ess5tial feature ( a wave is f\nd 9 ! transmission ( impulse r ?an 9 ! movem5t ( ! fluid matt]4 ,a /rip ( c>pet :5 %ak5 s5ds ?r\gh its l5g? undulations :i* are almo/ exactly l wat] waves4 ,if we imag9e ourselves plac$ 9 a p>ticle ( wat]1 mov+ 9 ! sway+s ( a wave 9 ! op5 & deep sea1 we may conceive ourselves c>ri$ ar\nd 9 an ellipse1 9 ea* revolution return+ ?r\gh ne>ly ! same orbit4 ,n[ & !n1 :5 ! p>ticle came to ! surface1 x w\ld exp]i5ce ! slight drift :i* ! cont9ual friction ( ! w9d imposes on ! wat]4 ,if ! wave 9 :i* ! j\rney 0 made lay 9 ! trade w9ds1 :]e ! long-cont9u$1 /eadfa/ bl[+ _h set ! wat] 9 motion to great dep?s1 ! orbit trav]s$ w\ld be mov+ =w>d ) "s rapidity2 :]e also ! w9d 0 /rong en\gh to bl[ ! tops ( ! waves ov]1 =m+ :ite-caps1 ! advance ( ! p>ticle v ne> ! surface w\ld be spe$y4 ,not)/&+ ^! corrections1 waves are to be reg>d$ ea* z a /ore ( en]gy1 urg+ ! wat] to sway mu* 9 ! mann] ( a c>pet /rip1 & by ! sway+ convey+ ! en]gy 9 ! direction ( ! wave movem5t4 ,! rate ( movem5t ( w9d waves increases ) _! height4 ,slight undulations g =w>d at ! rate ( less ?an half a mile an h\r4 ,! great] surges ( ! deeps :5 swept by ! /ronge/ w9ds move ) ! spe$ :i*1 ?\gh n accurately det]m9$1 has be5 e/imat$ by ! pres5t writ] z exce$+ =ty miles an h\r4 ,z ^! surges (t5 h a l5g? transv]se to ! w9d ( a mile or m1 a wid? ( ab\t an eigh? ( a mile1 & a height ( f ?irty-five to =ty-five feet1 ! am\nt ( en]gy :i* !y transmit is v great4 ,if x c\ld be effectively appli$ to ! %ores 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! en]gy ( explod+ gunp[d] is appli$ by cannon %ot1 x is d\btful :e!r ! l&s c\ld h ma9ta9$ _! position aga9/ ! assaults ( ! sea4 ,b !re are reasons /at$ bel[ :y ! ocean waves c use only a v small "p ( _! en]gy 9 r5d+ ! rocks aga9/ :i* !y /rike on ! coa/ l9e4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we %\ld note t w9d waves h v little influ5ce on ! bottom ( ! deep sea4 ,if an obs]v] c\ld /& on ! sea floor at ! dep? ( a mile bel[ a po9t ov] :i* ! greate/ waves 7 roll+1 he c\ld n ) 8 unaid$ s5ses disc]n t ! wat] 0 tr\bl$4 ,he w\ld1 inde$1 require in/rum5ts ( "s delicacy to f9d out t x mov$ at all4 ,mak+ ! same obs]vations at ! dep? ( a ?\s& feet1 x is possible t he w\ld note a slight sway+ motion 9 ! wat]1 en\gh s5sibly to affect 8 body4 ,at five hundr$ feet 9 dep? ! movem5t w\ld probably be suffici5t to di/urb f9e mud4 ,at two hundr$ feet1 ! rasp+ ( ! surge on ! bottom w\ld d\btless be suffici5t to pu% p>ticles ( co>se s& to & fro4 ,at "o hundr$ feet 9 dep?1 ! passage ( ! surge w\ld be /rong en\gh to urge consid]able pebbles be=e x4 ,!nce up ! slope ! driv+ action w\ld become m & m int5se until we atta9$ ! po9t :]e ! wave broke4 ,x %\ld fur!rmore be not$ t1 :ile ! movem5t ( ! wat] on ! floor ( ! deep sea z ! wave passes ov]head w\ld be to & fro1 ) e advance 9 ! %all[+ & consequ5t increas$ friction on ! bottom1 ! =w>d elem5t 9 ! movem5t w\ld rapidly increase4 ,ne> ! coa/ l9e ! effect ( ! waves is cont9ually to %ove ! detritus up ! slopes ( ! cont95tal %elf4 ,"h we %\ld note ! fact t on ?is %elf ! waves play a "p exactly ! opposite ( t effect$ by ! tides4 ,! tides1 z we h not$1 t5d to drag ! p>ticles d[n ! slope1 :ile ! waves op]ate to roll !m up ! declivity4 ,z ! wave 9 advanc+ t[>d ! %ore ord9>ily comes into cont9ually %all[+ wat]1 ! friction on ! bottom is ev]-increas+1 & s]ves to dim9i% ! en]gy ! surge conta9s1 & !re=e to r$uce its proportions4 ,if ?is action op]at$ alone1 ! subtraction :i* ! friction makes w\ld cause ! surf waves :i* roll 9 ov] a cont95tal %elf to be v l[1 probably 9 height less ?an half t :i* !y n[ atta94 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 !re is an influ5ce at "w to increase ! height ( ! waves at ! exp5se ( its wid?4 ,not+ t ! friction rapidly increases ) ! %all[+1 x is easy to see t ?is resi/ance is greate/ on ! advanc+ front ( ! wave1 & lea/ on its seaw>d side4 ,! result is t ! front moves m sl[ly ?an ! re>1 s t ! wave is =c$ to ga9 9 height2 b = ! fact t ! total friction :i* ! wave enc\nt]s takes away mo/ ( its impetus1 we might h comb]s a hundr$ feet high roll+ ^u ! %elv+ %ores :i* almo/ ev]y:]e face ! seas4 ,z ! wave %ort5s its wid? & ga9s 9 relative height1 ?\gh n 9 actual elevation1 ano!r action is introduc$ :i* has mom5t\s consequ5ces4 ,! wat] 9 ! bottom ( ! wave is greatly ret>d$ 9 its ongo+ by its friction ov] ! sea floor1 :ile ! upp] "p ( ! surge is mu* less affect$ 9 ?is way4 ,! result is t at a c]ta9 po9t 9 ! advance1 ! place ( :i* is det]m9$ by ! dep?1 ! size1 & ! spe$ ( ! undulation1 ! front swiftly /eep5s until x is v]tical1 & ! top %oots =w>d to a po9t :]e x is no long] support$ by und]ly+ wat]1 :5 x plunges d[n 9 :at is call$ ! surf or break]4 ,9 ?is "p ( ! wave's "w ! application ( ! en]gy :i* x transmits diff]s /rik+ly f ! "w previ\sly done4 ,be=e ! wave breaks1 ! only geological task :i* x accompli%es is effect$ by =c+ mat]ials up ! slope1 9 :i* movem5t !y are slightly gr\nd ov] ea* o!r until !y come )9 ! batt]+ zone ( ! %ore1 :]e !y may be fur!r divid$ by ! action ( ! mill :i* is !re 9 op]ation4 ,:5 ! wave breaks on ! %ore x op]ates 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,fir/1 ! ov]turn+ ( its cre/ s5ds a great mass ( wat]1 x may be f ! height ( t5 or m feet1 d[n ^u ! %ore4 ,?us fall+ wat] has n only ! =ce due to its drop f ! summit ( ! wave1 b x has a %>e ( ! impulse due to ! velocity ) :i* ! surge mov$ aga9/ ! %ore4 ,x acts1 9 a ^w1 l a hamm] swung d[n by a /rong arm1 :]e ! bl[ repres5ts n only ! =ce ) :i* ! weight w\ld fall ( itself1 b ! impell+ p[] ( ! man's muscles4 ,any "o :o w expose 8 body to ?is bl[ ( ! surf w recognise h[ viol5t x is2 he may1 if ! bea* be pebbly1 note h[ x drives ! /ones ab\t2 fragm5ts ! size ( a man's head may be hurl$ by ! /roke to ! di/ance ( tw5ty feet or m2 ^? z l>ge z ! fi/ may be ?r[n cle> beyond ! limits ( ! wave4 ,s vigor\s is ?is /roke t ! s\nd ( x may sometimes be he>d t5 miles inl& f ! coa/ :]e x is deliv]$4 ,mov+ =w>d up ! slope ( a g5tly incl9$ bea*1 ! fragm5ts ( ! wave are likely to be ( suffici5t volume to p]mit !m to rega!r into a second>y surge1 :i*1 l ! fir/1 ?\gh mu* small]1 aga9 rises into a wall1 =m+ ano!r break]4 ,"u fav\rable conditions z _m z f\r or five ( ^! successive dim9i%+ surf l9es may be se54 ,! pres5t writ] has se5 9 c]ta9 cases z _m z a doz5 9 ! great procession1 ! l[e/ & inn]mo/ only a few in*es high1 ! out] ( all ) a height ( p]haps tw5ty feet4 ,along ) ! direct be>+ action ( ! surf goes a to-&-fro movem5t1 due to ! ru%+ up & d[n ( ! wat] on ! bea*4 ,?is swa%+ affects n only ! brok5 "p ( ! waves1 b all ! wat] betwe5 ! out] break] & ! %ore4 ,^! sway+s 9 ! surf belt (t5 sw+ ! dbris on ! inn] m>g9 ov] a range ( a hundr$ feet or m1 ! movem5t tak+ place ) great swiftness1 affect+ ! pebbles to ! dep? ( sev]al in*es1 & gr9d+ ! bits toge!r 9 a viol5t way4 ,li/5+ to ! turmoil ( a /orm1 we c on a pebbly bea* di/9ctly he> ! s\nd ( ! d[nw>d /roke1 a cra%+ tone1 & ! ro> ( ! roll+ /ones4 ,z waves are among ! int]e/+ ?+s 9 ! _w1 p>tly on acc\nt ( _! liv+ quality & p>tly because ( _! imm$iate & (t5 exce$+ int]e/ to man1 we may "h note "o or two peculi> features 9 _! action4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z ! read] :o has ga9$ a s5se ( ! *anges 9 =m ( action may readily p]ceive1 ! beat+ ( waves on ! %ore conv]ts ! en]gy :i* !y possess into heat4 ,?is probably w>ms ! wat] dur+ great /orms1 s t by ! h& we may note ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature next ! coa/ l9e & 9 ! op5 wat]s4 ,?is relative w>m? ( ! surf wat] is p]haps a matt] ( "s importance 9 limit+ ! developm5t ( ice along ! %ore l9e2 x may also fav\r ! protection ( ! coa/ life aga9/ ! sev]e cold ( ! w9t] season4 ,! waves :i* successively come aga9/ ! %ore 9 any giv5 "t1 p>ticul>ly if a viol5t w9d is bl[+ on to ! coa/1 are usually ( ab\t ! same size4 ,:51 h[ev]1 9 times ( calm an old sea1 z x is call$1 is roll+ 91 ! surges may occasionally und]go v great v>iations 9 magnitude4 ,n infrequ5tly ^! occasional waves are great en\gh to ov]:elm p]sons :o are ^u ! rocks next ! %ore4 ,^! great] surges are probably to be acc\nt$ = by ! fact t 9 ! op5 sea waves produc$ by w9ds bl[+ 9 diff]5t directions may run on ) _! div]se c\rses & v>i$ int]vals until !y come ne> ! %ore4 ,runn+ 9 toge!r1 x v well happ5s t two ( ! surges belong+ to diff]5t sets may comb9e _! =ces1 ?us d\bl+ ! swell4 ,! dang] :i* ^! conjo9$ waves br+ is obvi\sly greate/ on cliff %ores1 :]e1 on acc\nt ( ! dep? ( wat]1 ! waves d n break until !y /rike ! /eep4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hav+ consid]$ 9 a g5]al way ! action ( waves z !y roll 9 to ! %ore1 be>+ ) !m ! sol> en]gy :i* 0 contribut$ to !m by ! w9ds1 we %all n[ take up 9 "s detail ! "w :i* goes on along ! coa/ l9e--"w :i* is ma9ly accompli%$ by wave action4 ,on mo/ coa/ l9es ! obs]v] readily notes t ! %ore is divid$ into two diff]5t k9ds ( faces--^? :]e ! inn] m>g9 ( ! wave-swept belt comes aga9/ rocky /eeps1 & ^? bord]$ by a /r& altoge!r compos$ ( mat]ials :i* ! surges h ?r[n up4 ,^! may be t]m$ = conv5i5ce cliff %ores & wall-bea* %ores4 ,we %all beg9 our inquiry ) cliff %ores1 = 9 ^? sections ( ! coa/ l9e ! sea is do+ its mo/ *>act]i/ic & important "w ( assault+ ! l&4 ,if ! /ud5t has an opportunity to approa* a set ( cliffs ( h>d rock 9 "t ( heavy /orm1 :5 ! waves h some:]e _! maximum height1 he %\ld seek "s headl& :i* may (f] him safe foo?old :5ce he c behold ! movem5ts :i* are tak+ place4 ,if he is s =tunate z to h 9 view1 z well may be ! case1 cliffs :i* ext5d d[n into deep wat]1 & o!rs :i* are bord]$ by rude & g5]ally /eeply slop+ bea*es cov]$ ) l>ge /ones1 he may p]ceive t ! waves come 9 aga9/ ! cliffs :i* plunge into deep wat] )\t tak+ on ! break] =m4 ,9 ?is case ! undulation /rikes b a mod]ate bl[2 ! wave is n greatly brok54 ,! "p next ! rock may %oot up z a ?9 %eet to a consid]able height2 x is evid5t t :ile ! ongo+ wave applies a good deal ( pressure to ! /eep1 x does n deliv] its en]gy 9 ! effective =m ( a bl[ z :5 ! wave ov]turns1 or 9 ! consequ5t ru% ( ! wat] up a bea* slope4 ,x is easy to p]ceive t firm-set rock cliffs1 ) no bea*es at _! bases1 c almo/ indef9itely )/& ! assaults4 ,on ! /eep & /ony bea*1 because ( its relatively great declivity1 ! break] or surf =ms f> 91 & ev5 9 its fir/ plunge (t5 atta9s ! base ( ! precipice4 ,! bl[ ( ! ov]fall+ z well z t ( ! inru% moves ab\t /ones ( great size2 ^? ?ree feet or m 9 diamet] are (t5 hurl$ by ! action aga9/ ! base ( ! /eep1 /rik+ bl[s1 ! %>p note ( :i* c (t5 be he>d above ! g5]al ro> :i* ! commotion produces4 ,! ne$lelike crags =m+ isles /&+ at a di/ance f ! %ore1 su* z are (t5 f\nd along h>d rock coa/s1 are s+ul>ly protect$ f ! action ( effective waves4 ,! surges :i* /rike aga9/ !m are un>m$ ) /ones1 & ! wat] at _! bases is s deep t x does n sway ) ! motion ) suffici5t en]gy to move !m on ! bottom4 ,:]e a cliff is 9 ?is condition1 x may endure until an elevation ( ! coa/ l9e br+s its base ne> ! level ( ! sea1 or until ! process ( decay has deta*$ a suffici5t quantity ( /one to =m a talus or incl9$ plane rea*+ ne> to ! wat] level4 ,z be=e not$1 x is ! pres5ce ( a slop+ bea* rea*+ to ab\t ! base ( ! cliff :i* makes x possible = ! waves to /rike at ) a hamm] in/ead ( ) a s(t h&4 ,batt]+ at ! base ( ! cliff1 ! surges cut a crease along ! /rip on :i* !y /rike1 :i* gradually ent]s s f> t ! ov]hang+ rock falls ( its own weight4 ,! fragm5ts ?us deliv]$ to ! sea are 9 turn brok5 up & us$ z batt]+ in/rum5ts until !y are worn to pieces4 ,we may note t 9 a few mon?s ( heavy wea!r ! /ones ( su* a fall h all be5 r$uc$ to rudely sph]ical =ms4 ,obs]vations made on ! ea/]n face ( ,cape ,ann1 ,mass41 :]e ! seas are only mod]ately heavy1 %[ t ! /orms ( a s+le w9t] r$uce ! fragm5ts ?r[n into ! sea f ! granite qu>ries to sph]oidal %apes1 m ?an half ( _! weight commonly be+ remov$ 9 ! =m ( s& & small pebbles :i* h be5 worn f _! surfaces4 ,we c be/ p]ceive ! effect ( batt]+ action :i* ! sea applies to ! cliffs by not+ ! po9ts :]e1 ow+ to "s *ance features 9 ! /ructure 9 ! rock1 x has prov$ mo/ effective4 ,:]e a jo9t or a dike1 or p]haps a s(t] lay]1 if ! rocks be b$d$1 causes ! we> to g on m rapidly1 ! waves soon excavate a recess 9 :i* ! pebbles are reta9$1 except 9 /ormy wea!r1 9 an unmov$ condition4 ,:5 ! surges are heavy1 ^! /ones are kept 9 cont9u\s motion1 rec$+ z ! wave goes back1 & ru%+ =w>d ) its impulse until !y /rike aga9/ ! firm-set rock at ! end ( ! *asm4 ,9 ?is way !y may drive 9 a cut hav+ ! l5g? ( a hundr$ feet or m f ! face ( ! precipice4 ,9 mo/ cases ! ro(s ov] ^! sea caves fall 91 s t ! /ructure is kn[n z a *asm4 ,occasionally ^! ro(s rema91 9 :i* case1 = ! reason t ! floor ( ! cutt+ incl9es upw>d1 an op5+ is made to ! surface at _! upp] end1 =m+ :at is call$ 9 ,new ,engl& a sp\t+ horn2 f ! inl& end ( ! tunnel ! spray may be ?r[n f> into ! air4 ,z long z ! cave is clos$ at ?is inn] end1 & is n s high b t x may be buri$ b5ea? a heavy wave1 ! inru%+ wat] compresses ! air 9 ! re> p>ts ( ! op5+4 ,:5 ! wave beg9s to retreat ?is air bl[s out1 s5d+ a gu/ ( spray be=e x1 ! action resembl+ ! dis*>ge ( a great gun f ! face ( a =tification4 ,x (t5 happ5s t two *asms conv]g+ sep>ate a rock f ! cliff4 ,!n a l[]+ ( ! coa/ may br+ ! mass to ! /ate ( a column> isl&1 su* z ab\nd 9 ! ,hebrides & along v>i\s o!r %ores4 ,if a cliff %ore retreats rapidly1 x may be driv5 back into ! %ore1 & its face assumes ! curve ( a small bay4 ,) e /ep 9 ?is *ange ! bottom is sure to become %all[]1 s t ! waves lose m & m ( _! en]gy 9 friction ov] ! bottom4 ,moreov]1 9 ent]+ a bay ! friction :i* ! waves enc\nt] 9 runn+ along ! sides is great] ?an t :i* !y meet 9 com+ 9 ^u a headl& or a /raight %ore4 ,! result is1 ) ! inw>d retreat ( ! /eep x ent]s on conditions :i* dim9i% ! effectiv5ess ( ! wave /roke4 ,! embaym5t also is apt to hold detritus1 & s =ms 9 "t a bea* at ! foot ( ! cliff1 ov] :i* ! waves r>ely are able to m\nt ) su* en]gy z w enable !m to /rike ! wall 9 an effective mann]4 ,) ?is sket* ( ! conditions ( a cliff %ore1 we w n[ consid] ! fate ( ! brok5-tip rock :i* ! waves h produc$ on t section ( ! coa/ l&4 ,by obs]vation ( sea-beat5 cliffs ! /ud5t readily p]ceives t a great am\nt ( rocky matt] has be5 remov$ f mo/ cliff-fac$ %ores4 ,n uncommonly x c be %[n t su* sea faces h retreat$ = sev]al miles4 ,! "q n[ arises1 ,:at becomes ( ! matt] :i* has be5 brok5 up by ! wave action8 ,9 "s "p ! rock1 :5 pulv]iz$ by ! p\nd+ to :i* x is subject$1 has dissolv$ 9 ! wat]4 ,probably n9ety p] c5t ( x1 h[ev]1 reta9s ! visible /ate1 & has a fate det]m9$ by ! size ( ! fragm5ts ( :i* x is compos$4 ,if ^! be z f9e z mud1 s t !y may float 9 ! wat]1 !y are readily borne away by ! curr5ts :i* are always creat$ along a /orm-swept %ore1 p>ticul>ly by ! und]t[ or bottom outcurr5t--! sea-puss1 z x is sometimes call$--t sweeps along ! bottom f e %ore1 aga9/ :i* ! waves =m a surf4 ,if z co>se z s& gra9s1 or ev5 v small pebbles1 !y are likely to be drawn out1 roll+ ov] ! bottom to an indef9ite di/ance f ! sea m>g94 ,! co>s] /ones1 h[ev]1 ei!r rema9 at ! foot ( ! cliff until !y are beat5 to pieces1 or are driv5 along ! %ore until !y f9d "s embaym5t into :i* !y ent]4 ,! j\rney ( su* fragm5ts may1 :5 ! w9d /rikes obliquely to ! %ore1 cont9ue = _m miles2 ! waves1 runn+ ) ! w9d1 drive ! fragm5ts 9 oscillat+ j\rneys up & d[n ! bea*1 sometimes at ! rate ( a mile or m a day4 ,! effect ( ?is action c (t5 be se5 :]e a vessel load$ ) brick or coal is wreck$ on ! coa/4 ,9 a mon? fragm5ts ( ! mat]ials may be /ret*$ along = ! di/ance ( _m miles on ei!r side ( ! po9t :]e ! c>go came a%ore4 ,ent]+ an embaym5t deep en\gh to re/ra9 _! fur!r j\rney1 ! fragm5ts ( rock =m a b\ld] bea*1 :]e ! bits roll to & fro :5ev] !y are /ruck by heavy surges4 ,! great] portion ( !m rema9 9 ?is mill until !y are gr\nd to ! /ate ( s& & mud4 ,n[ & !n "o ( ! fragm5ts is toss$ up beyond ! rea* ( ! waves1 & is contribut$ to ! wall ( ! bea*4 ,9 v heavy /orms ^! pebbles :i* are ?r[n inl& may am\nt 9 weight to _m tons = ea* mile ( %ore4 ,! /udy ( a pebbly bea*1 drawn f cre/ to ! deep wat] outside1 w give an idea z to ! hi/ory ( its "w4 ,on ei!r horn ( ! cresc5t by :i* ! pebbles are import$ into ! pocket we f9d ! l>ge/ fragm5ts4 ,if ! %ore ( ! bay be long1 ! inn]mo/ "p ( ! recess may %[ ev5 only v small pebbles1 or p]haps only f9e s&1 ! co>s] mat]ial hav+ be5 worn out 9 ! j\rney4 ,on ! bottom ( ! bay1 ne> l[ tide1 we beg9 to f9d "s s& produc$ by ! gr9d+ action4 ,yet f>!r out1 bel[ high-tide m>k1 !re is commonly a lay] ( mud :i* repres5ts ! f9] products ( ! mill4 ,b\ld] bea*es are s quick 9 answ]+ to e slight *ange 9 ! conditions :i* affect !m t !y seem almo/ alive4 ,if by any *ance ! supply ( detritus is increas$1 !y fill 9 betwe5 ! horns1 dim9i% ! incurve ( ! bay1 & s cause its bea* to be m expos$ to heavy waves4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! supply ( gri/ to ! mill is dim9i%$1 ! bea* becomes m deeply incurv$1 & ! wave action is proportionately r$uc$4 ,we may say1 9 g5]al1 t ! curve ( ^! bea*es repres5ts a balance betwe5 ! consumption & supply ( ! pebbles :i* !y gr9d up4 ,! supply ( pebbles br\ght along ! %ore by ! waves is 9 _m cases greatly add$ to by a curi\s action ( seawe$s4 ,if ! bottom ( ! wat] (f ! coa/ is cov]$ by ^! fragm5ts1 z is ! case along _m coa/ l9es )9 ! old glaciat$ di/ricts1 ! spores ( alg are prone to take root ^u !m4 ,fa/5+ !mselves 9 ^? positions1 & gr[+ upw>d1 ! seawe$s may atta9 consid]able size4 ,be+ provid$ ) floats1 ! plant ex]cises a c]ta9 lift+ p[] on ! /one1 & f9ally ! tugg+ action ( ! waves on ! fronds may deta* ! fragm5ts f ! bottom1 mak+ !m free to j\rney t[>d ! %ore4 ,obs]v+ f ne> at h& ! /raight wall ( ! wave 9 times ( heavy /orm1 ! pres5t writ] has se5 9 "o view z _m z a doz5 ( ^! plant-borne /ones1 sometimes six in*es 9 diamet]1 hang+ 9 ! walls ( wat] z x 0 ab\t to topple ov]4 ,z soon z !y /rike ! wave-beat5 "p ( ! %ore ^! /ones are apt to become sep>at$ f ! plants1 ?\gh we c (t5 notice ! rema9s or pr9ts ( ! atta*m5ts adh]+ to ! surface ( ! rock4 ,:]e ! pebbles (f ! %ore are pl5ty1 a rocky bea* may be produc$ by ?is process ( importation ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( seawe$s )\t any supply be+ br\ght by ! waves along ! coa/ l9e4 ,return+ to s& bea*es1 we ent] ! mo/ int]e/+ field ( contact betwe5 seas & l&s4 ,probably n9e t5?s ( all ! coa/ l9es ( ! op5 ocean are =m$ ( ar5ace\s mat]ial4 ,9 g5]al1 s& consi/s ( f9ely brok5 cry/als ( silica or qu>tz4 ,^! bits are commonly di/9ctly facet$2 !y r>ely h a sph]ical =m4 ,n only d accumulations ( s& bord] mo/ ( ! %ore l9e1 b !y protect ! l& aga9/ ! assaults ( ! sea1 & ?is 9 ! foll[+ curi\s mann]3 ,:5 %ore waves beat pebbles aga9/ ea* o!r1 !y rapidly we> to bits2 we c he> ! s\nd ( ! we>+ action z ! wave goes to & fro4 ,we c (t5 see t ! wat] is discol\r$ by ! mud or p[d]$ rock4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! waves tumble on a s&y coa/1 !y make b a muffl$ s\nd1 & produce no mud4 ,9 fact1 ! p>ticles ( s& d n t\* ea* o!r :5 !y receive ! bl[4 ,betwe5 !m !re lies a ?9 film ( wat]1 drawn 9 by ! attraction kn[n z capill>ity1 :i* sucks ! fluid into a sponge or betwe5 plates ( glass plac$ ne> toge!r4 ,! /roke ( ! waves slightly compresses ?is capill>y wat]1 b ! faces ( ! gra9s are kept ap>t z %eets ( glass may be obs]v$ to be re/ra9$ f contact :5 wat] is betwe5 !m4 ,if ! read] w\ld conv9ce himself z to ! condition ( ! s& gra9s & ! wat] :i* is betwe5 !m1 he may d s by press+ 8 foot on ! wet bea* :i* ! wave has j left4 ,he w obs]ve t x :it5s & s9ks a little "u ! pressure1 b returns 9 good "p to its orig9al =m :5 ! foot is lift$4 ,9 ! exp]im5t he has pu%$ a "p ( ! conta9$ wat] aside1 b he has n br\ght ! gra9s toge!r2 !y d n make ! s\nd :i* he w (t5 he> :5 ! s& is dry4 ,! result is t ! s& on ! sea%ore may we> m 9 go+ ! di/ance ( a mile 9 ! dry s& dune ?an 9 travell+ = hundr$s along ! wet %ore4 ,if ! rock matt] 9 ! /ate ( s& wore z rapidly "u ! heat+ ( ! waves z x does 9 ! /ate ( pebbles1 ! cont95ts w\ld d\btless be mu* small] ?an !y are4 ,^? coa/s :i* h no o!r protection ?an is af=d$ by a l[ s& bea* are (t5 bett] gu>d$ aga9/ ! inroads ( ! sea ?an ! rock-girt p>ts ( ! cont95ts4 ,x is on acc\nt ( ?is rem>kable endurance ( s& ( ! action ( ! waves t ! /ratifi$ rocks :i* make up ! cru/ ( ! e>? are s ?ick & are to su* an ext5t compos$ ( s& gra9s4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! dbris-mak+ influ5ces along ! coa/ l9e is to fill 9 ! irregul>ities :i* normally exi/ !re2 to batt] (f ! headl&s1 close up ! bays & h>b\rs1 & g5]ally to r$uce ! %ores to /raight l9es4 ,:]e ! tide has access to ^! inlets1 x is con/antly at "w 9 dragg+ out ! detritus :i* ! waves make & ?ru/ into ! recesses4 ,^! two actions cont5d ) ea* o!r1 & det]m9e ! conditions ( ! coa/ l9e1 :e!r !y af=d ports = comm]ce or are seal$ 9 by s& b>s1 z are _m coa/ l9es :i* are n tide-swept1 z t ( nor!rn ,africa1 :i* faces ! ,m$it]ranean1 a ne>ly tideless sea4 ,! same is ! case ) ! fre%-wat] lakes2 ev5 ! great] ( !m are (t5 s+ul>ly de/itute ( %elt]s :i* c s]ve ! use ( %ips1 & ?is because !re are no tides to keep ! bays & h>b\rs op54 ,,! ,,ocean ,,curr5ts4 ,! sy/em ( ocean curr5ts1 ?\gh x exhibits mu* complication 9 detail1 is 9 ! ma9 & prim>ily dep5d5t on ! action ( ! con/ant air /reams kn[n z ! trade w9ds4 ,) ! brea? f ! lips ov] a bas9 ( wat] we c readily make an exp]im5t :i* %[s 9 a g5]al way ! me?od 9 :i* ! w9ds op]ate 9 produc+ ! circulation ( ! sea4 ,bl[+ ^u ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! bas91 we f9d t ev5 ?is slight impulse at once sets ! upp] "p 9 motion1 ! movem5t be+ ( two k9ds--pulsat+ movem5ts or waves are produc$1 & at ! same "t ! friction ( ! air on ! surface causes its upp] "p to slide ov] ! "u4 ,) little floats we c %ortly note t ! /ream :i* =ms passes to ! f>!r side ( ! vessel1 !re divides1 & returns to ! po9t ( beg9n+1 =m+ a d\ble circle1 or r two ellipses1 ! long] sides ( :i* are p>allel ) ! l9e ( ! air curr5t4 ,wat*+ m closely1 aid+ ! sight by ! p>ticles :i* float at v>i\s di/ances bel[ ! surface1 we note ! fact t ! motion :i* 0 at fir/ imp>t$ to ! surface gradually ext5ds d[nw>d until x affects ! wat] to ! dep? ( "s in*es4 ,9 ! trade-w9d belt ! ocean wat]s to ! dep? ( "s hundr$s ( feet acquire a cont9u\s movem5t 9 ! direction 9 :i* !y are impell$ by ^? w9ds4 ,?is motion is mo/ rapid at ! surface & ne> ! tropics4 ,x dim9i%es d[nw>dly 9 ! wat]1 & also t[>d ! pol> sides ( ! trade-w9d di/ricts4 ,?us ! trades produce 9 ! sea two broad1 sl[-mov+1 deep curr5ts1 fl[+ 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e t[>d ! s\?we/1 & 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e t[>d ! nor?we/4 ,com+ d[n ^u ea* o!r obliquely1 ^! broad /reams meet ab\t ! middle ( ! tropical belt4 ,"h1 z be=e not$1 ! air ( ! trade w9ds leaves ! surface & rises upw>d4 ,! wat]s be+ reta9$ on _! level1 =m a curr5t :i* moves t[>d ! we/4 ,if ! e>? )9 ! tropics 7 cov]$ by a univ]sal sea1 ! result ( ?is movem5t w\ld be ! in/itution ( a curr5t :i*1 fl[+ "u ! equator1 w\ld girdle ! sph]e4 ,) a girdl+ equatorial curr5t1 because ( ! int5se heat ( ! tropics & ! extreme cold ( ! p>allels beyond ! =tie? degree ( latitude1 ! e>? w\ld be ess5tially un9habitable to man1 & h>dly s to any =ms ( life4 ,its surface w\ld be visit$ by fi]ce w9ds induc$ by ! v great diff]5ces ( temp]ature :i* w\ld !n prevail4 ,ow+1 h[ev]1 to ! b>ri]s :i* ! cont95ts int]pose to ! motions ( ^! w9dw>d-sett+ tropical curr5ts1 all ! wat] :i* !y be>1 :5 x /rikes ! oppos+ %ores1 is div]t$ to ! "r & left1 z 0 ! /ream 9 ! exp]im5t ) ! bas9 & ! brea?1 ! divid$ curr5ts seek+ ways t[>d high latitudes1 convey+ _! /ore ( heat to ! circumpol> l&s4 ,s effective is ?is transf] ( temp]ature t a v l>ge "p ( ! heat :i* ent]s ! wat]s 9 ! tropical region is tak5 out ( t division ( ! e>?'s surface & di/ribut$ ov] ! realms ( sea & l& :i* lie beyond ! limits ( ! v]tical sun4 ,?us ! ,gulf ,/ream1 ! nor!rn bran* ( ! ,atlantic tropical curr5t1 by fl[+ into ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 contributes to ! temp]ature ( ! region )9 ! ,arctic ,circle m heat ?an actually comes to t di/rict by ! direct influx f ! sun4 ,! above /atem5ts z to ! climatal effect ( ! ocean /reams %[ u h[ important x is to obta9 a suffici5t conception z to ! way 9 :i* ^! curr5ts n[ move & :at we c ( _! hi/ory dur+ ! geologic ages4 ,?is task c n yet be adequately done4 ,! fields ( ! sea are yet too imp]fectly explor$ to af=d u all ! facts requir$ to make out ! :ole /ory4 ,only 9 ! case ( our ,gulf ,/ream c we =m a full conception z to ! j\rney :i* ! wat]s und]go & ! consequ5ce ( _! motion4 ,9 ! case ( ?is curr5t1 obs]vations cle>ly %[ t x arises f ! junction ne> ! equatorial l9e ( ! broad /ream creat$ by ! two trade-w9d belts4 ,unit+ at ! equator1 ^! produce a we/]ly sett+ curr5t1 hav+ ! wid? ( "s hundr$ miles & a dep? ( sev]al hundr$ feet4 ,its velocity is some:at great] ?an a mile an h\r4 ,! c5tre ( ! curr5t1 because ( ! great] /r5g? ( ! nor!rn z comp>$ ) ! s\!rn trades1 is consid]ably s\? ( ! equator4 ,:5 ?is great sl[-mov+ /ream comes aga9/ ! coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 x enc\nt]s ! project+ %\ld] ( t l& :i* t]m9ates at ,cape ,/4 ,roque4 ,!re x divides1 z does a curr5t on ! b[s ( an an*or$ %ip1 a "p--r m ?an "o half--( ! /ream turn+ to ! nor?w>d1 ! rema9d] pass+ t[>d ! s\!rn pole2 ?is nor!rly portion becomes :at is aft]w>d kn[n z ! ,gulf ,/ream1 ! hi/ory ( :i* we %all n[ briefly foll[4 ,fl[+ by ! nor?we/]ly coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! nor!rn %>e ( ! tropical curr5t1 be+ press$ 9 aga9/ ! l& by ! trade w9ds1 is n>r[$1 & !re=e acquires at once a swift] fl[1 ! increas$ spe$ be+ due to conditions l ^? :i* add to ! velocity ( ! wat] fl[+ ?r\gh a hose :5 x comes to ! con/riction ( ! nozzle4 ,atta9+ ! l9e ( ! s\!a/]n or ,less] ,antilles1 (t5 kn[n z ! ,w9dw>d ,isl&s1 a "p ( ?is curr5t slips ?r\gh ! int]spaces betwe5 ^! isles & ent]s ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,ano!r portion1 fail+ to f9d suffici5t room ?r\gh ^! passages1 skirts ! ,antilles on _! ea/]n & nor!rn sides1 passes by & among ! ,bahama ,isl&s1 !re to rejo9 ! "p ( ! /ream :i* ent]$ ! ,c>ibbean4 ,?is ,c>ibbean portion ( ! tide spreads widely 9 t broad sea1 is con/rict$ aga9 betwe5 ,cuba & ,yucatan1 aga9 exp&s 9 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 & is f9ally p\r$ =? ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,florida z a /ream hav+ ! wid? ( =ty or fifty miles1 a dep? ( a ?\s& feet or m1 & a spe$ ( f ?ree to five miles an h\r1 exce$+ 9 its rate ( fl[ ! av]age ( ! greate/ riv]s1 & convey+ m wat] ?an d all ! l& /reams ( ! e>?4 ,9 ?is "p ( its c\rse ! deep & swift /ream f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 aft]w>d to be nam$ ! ,gulf ,/ream1 receives ! contribution ( sl[] mov+ & %all[] curr5ts :i* skirt$ ! ,antilles on _! ea/]n v]ge4 ,! conjo9$ wat]s !n move nor?w>d1 ve]+ t[>d ! ea/1 at fir/ z a swift riv] ( ! sea hav+ a wid? ( less ?an a hundr$ miles & ( great dep?2 ) ea* /ep t[>d ! pole ?is /ream wid5s1 dim9i%+ proportionately 9 dep?2 ! spe$ ( its curr5t decreases z ! orig9al impetus is lo/1 & ! baffl+ w9ds set its surface wat]s to & fro 9 an irregul> way4 ,:]e x passes ,cape ,hatt]as x has already lo/ a l>ge %>e ( its mom5tum & mu* ( its heat1 & is greatly wid5$4 ,al?\gh ! curr5t ( ! ,gulf ,/ream becomes m languid z we g nor?w>d1 x = a v long "t reta9s its di/9ction f ! wat]s ( ! sea ?r\gh :i* x fl[s4 ,sail+ ea/w>d f ! m\? ( ! ,*esapeake1 ! navigator c (t5 obs]ve ! mom5t :5 he ent]s ! wat]s ( ?is curr5t4 ,?is is notable n only 9 ! temp]ature1 b 9 ! hue ( ! sea4 ,nor? ( t l9e ! %>pness ( ! p>t+ wall becomes less di/9ct1 ! /ream spreads out broadly ov] ! surface ( ! ,atlantic1 yet its !rmometric effects are di/9ctly traceable to ,icel& & ,nova ,zembla1 & ! tropical driftwood :i* x c>ries af=ds ! pr9cipal timb] supply ( ! inhabitants ( ! fir/-nam$ isle4 ,atta9+ ?is circumpol> realm1 & f9ally los+ ! impulse :i* bore x on1 ! wat] ( ! ,gulf ,/ream p>tly returns to ! s\?w>d 9 a relatively slight curr5t :i* be>s ! fluid along ! coa/ ( ,europe until x re-ent]s ! sy/em ( tropical w9ds & ! curr5ts :i* !y produce4 ,a l>g] portion /agnates 9 ! circumpol> region1 9 "t sl[ly to return to ! tropical di/rict 9 a mann] aft]w>d to be describ$4 ,al?\gh ! ,gulf ,/ream 9 ! region nor? ( ,cape ,hatt]as is s indi/9ct t its pres5ce 0 n di/9ctly recognis$ until ! facts 7 subject$ to ! ke5 eye ( ,b5jam9 ,frankl91 its effects 9 ! way ( climate are s great t we mu/ attribute ! fitness ( nor!rn ,europe = ! uses ( civiliz$ man to its action4 ,b = ! heat :i* ?is /ream br+s to ! realm ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 ,great ,brita9 w\ld be z /]ile z ,labrador1 & ! ,sc&9avian region1 ! cradle-l& ( our race1 z un9habitable z ! bleake/ p>ts ( ,sib]ia4 ,x is a notewor?y fact t :5 ! equatorial curr5t divides on ! cont95ts aga9/ :i* x fl[s1 ! sep>ate /reams1 al?\gh !y may foll[ ! %ores = a c]ta9 di/ance t[>d ! poles1 soon div]ge f !m1 j z ! ,gulf ,/ream passes to ! seaw>d f ! ea/]n coa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! reason = ?is movem5t is readily f\nd 9 ! same pr9ciple :i* expla9s ! oblique fl[ ( ! trades & c\nt] trades 9 _! passage to & f ! equatorial belt4 ,! p>ticle ( wat] "u ! equator1 ?\gh x fl[s to ! we/1 has1 by virtue ( ! e>?'s rotation1 an ea/w>d-sett+ velocity ( a ?\s& miles an h\r4 ,/>t+ t[>d ! poles1 ! p>ticle is ev] com+ into regions ( ! sea :]e ! fluid has a less ea/]ly movem5t1 due to ! e>?'s rotation on its axis4 ,consequ5tly ! j\rney+ wat] by its mom5tum t5ds to move (f 9 an ea/]ly c\rse4 ,atta9+ high latitudes & los+ its mom5tum1 x abides 9 ! realm long en\gh to become cool$4 ,we h already not$ ! fact t only a portion ( ! wat]s s5t nor?w>d 9 ! ,gulf ,/ream & ! o!r curr5ts :i* fl[ f ! equator to ! poles is return$ by ! surface fl[ :i* sets t[>d ! equator along ! ea/]n side ( ! bas9s4 ,! l>ge/ %>e ( ! tide effects its return j\rney 9 o!r ways4 ,"s portion ( ?is rema9d] sets equatorw>d 9 local cold /reams1 su* z t :i* p\rs =? ?r\gh ,davis ,/rait into ,baff9 ,bay1 fl[+ "u ! ,gulf ,/ream wat]s = an unkn[n di/ance t[>d ! tropics4 ,!re are sev]al ( ^! local z yet little kn[n /reams1 :i* d\btless br+ ab\t a c]ta9 am\nt ( circulation betwe5 ! pol> regions & ! tropical di/ricts4 ,_! effect is1 h[ev]1 probably small z comp>$ ) t massive drift :i* we h n[ to note4 ,! tropical wat]s :5 !y atta9 high latitudes are con/antly cool$1 & are ov]laid by ! w>m] contributions ( t tide1 & are ?us br\ght l[] & l[] 9 ! sea4 ,:5 !y />t d[nw>d !y h1 z obs]vations %[1 a temp]ature n mu* above ! freez+ po9t ( salt wat]4 ,!y d n congeal = ! reason t ! salt ( ! ocean l[]s ! po9t at :i* ! wat] solidifies to ne> #bh ,fahr4 ,! effect ( ?is action is gradually to press d[n ! surface cold wat] until x atta9s ! v bottom 9 all ! circumpol> regions4 ,at ! same "t ?is desc5d+ wat] drifts along ! bottom ( ! ocean tr\ghs t[>d ! equatorial realm4 ,z ?is cold wat] is heavi] ?an t :i* is ( high] temp]ature & ne>] ! surface1 x has no t5d5cy to rise4 ,be+ bel[ ! di/urb+ influ5ces ( any curr5t save its own1 x does n t5d1 except 9 a v small measure1 to m+le ) ! w>m] ov]ly+ fluid4 ,! result is t x cont9ues its j\rney until x may come )9 ! tropics )\t hav+ ga9$ a temp]ature ( m ?an #ce ,fahr41 ! increase 9 heat be+ due 9 small measure to t :i* x receives f ! e>?'s int]ior & t :i* x acquires f ! ov]ly+ w>m] wat]4 ,atta9+ ! region ( ! tropical curr5t1 ?is drift wat] f ! poles gradually rises1 to take ! place ( t :i* goes polew>d1 becomes w>m1 & aga9 />ts on its surface j\rney t[>d ! arctic & ant>ctic regions4 ,no?+ is kn[n z to ! rate ( ?is bottom drift f ! pol> di/ricts t[>d ! equator1 b1 f "s computation :i* he has made1 ! writ] is ( ! op9ion t sev]al c5turies is d\btless requir$ = ! j\rney f ! ,arctic ,circle to ! tropics4 ,! spe$ ( ! movem5t probably v>ies2 x may at times require "s ?\s& ye>s = its accompli%m5t4 ,! effect ( ! bottom drift is to )draw f seas 9 high latitudes ! v cold wat] :i* !re =ms1 & to convey x b5ea? ! seas ( middle latitudes to a realm :]e x is well plac$ = ! reheat+ process4 ,if all ! cold wat] ( circumpol> regions _h to j\rney ov] ! surface to ! equator1 ! p]turb+ effect ( its fl[ on ! climates ( v>i\s l&s w\ld be f> great] ?an x is at pres5t4 ,:]e su* cold curr5ts exi/ ! effect is to *ill ! air )\t add+ mu* to ! ra9fall2 :ile ! curr5ts sett+ nor?w>d n only w>m ! regions ne> :i* !y fl[1 b by s do+ s5d f ! wat] surfaces l>ge quantities ( moi/ure :i* fall z sn[ or ra94 ,?us ! ,gulf ,/ream1 directly & indirectly1 probably contributes m ?an half ! ra9fall ab\t ! ,atlantic bas94 ,! lack ( ?is influ5ce on ! nor!rn "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,asia causes ^? l&s to be /]iliz$ by cold1 al?\gh de/itute ( p]man5t ice & sn[ ^u _! surfaces4 ,we readily p]ceive t ! effect ( ! oceanic circulation ^u ! temp]atures ( diff]5t regions is n only great b widely contra/$4 ,by tak+ f ! equatorial belt a l>ge "p ( ! heat :i* falls )9 t realm1 x l[]s ! temp]ature to ! po9t :i* makes ! di/rict fit = ! occupancy ( man1 p]haps1 inde$1 t5able to all ! high] =ms ( life4 ,?is same heat remov$ to high latitudes temp]s ! w9t]'s cold1 & ?us makes a va/ realm inhabitable :i* o!rwise w\ld be lock$ 9 almo/ endur+ fro/s4 ,fur!rmore1 ?is di/ribution ( temp]atures t5ds to r$uce ! total w9d en]gy by dim9i%+ ! trades & c\nt] trades :i* are due to ! v>iations ( heat :i* are enc\nt]$ 9 pass+ pol>w>d f ! equator4 ,/ill fur!r1 b = ?is circulation ( wat] 9 ! sea1 ! oceans ab\t ! poles w\ld be froz5 to _! v bottom1 & ?is va/ %eet ( ice might be ext5d$ s\?w>d to )9 ! p>allels ( fifty degrees nor? & s\? latitude1 al?\gh ! wat]s "u ! equator might at ! same "t be un5durably hot & unfit = ! occupancy ( liv+ be+s4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! difficulties :i* geologi/s enc\nt] 9 endeav\r+ to acc\nt = ! *anges ( ! pa/ arise f ! evid5ces ( great climatal revolutions :i* ! e>? has und]gone4 ,9 "s *apt]s ( ! great /one book1 ^: leaves are ! /rata ( ! e>?1 we f9d x pla9ly writt5 9 ! impressions made by fossils t all ! l&s beyond ! equatorial belt h und]gone *anges :i* c only be expla9$ by ! supposition t ! heat & moi/ure ( ! c\ntries h be5 subject$ to sudd5 & rem>kable *anges4 ,?us 9 relatively rec5t times ?ick-leav$ plants :i* reta9$ _! vegetation 9 a r t5d] /ate ?r\gh\t ! ye> h fl\ri%$ ne> to ! poles1 :ile %ortly aft]w>d an ice %eet1 su* z n[ cov]s ! great] "p ( ,gre5l&1 ext5d$ d[n to ! l9e ( ! ,ohio ,riv] at ,c9c9nati4 ,al?\gh ^! *anges ( climate are1 z we %all h]eaft] note1 probably due to entangl$ causes1 we mu/ look ^u ! modifications ( ! ocean /reams z "o ( ! mo/ important elem5ts 9 ! causation4 ,we c ! m readily imag9e su* *anges to be due to ! alt]ations 9 ! c\rse & volume ( ! ocean curr5t :5 we note h[ trifl+ peculi>ities 9 ! geography ( ! %ores--features :i* are likely to be alt]$ by ! endless *anges :i* occur 9 ! =m ( a cont95t--affect ! run ( ^! curr5ts4 ,?us ! gr[? ( coral reefs 9 s\!rn ,florida1 &1 9 g5]al1 ! =mation ( t p59sula1 by n>r[+ ! exit ( ! great curr5t f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 has probably increas$ its velocity4 ,if ,florida %\ld aga9 s9k d[n1 t curr5t w\ld g =? into ! ,nor? ,atlantic ) ! spe$ ( ab\t a mile an h\r1 & w\ld n h mom5tum en\gh to c>ry its wat]s ov] half ! va/ region :i* !y n[ trav]se4 ,if ! l&s ab\t ! we/]n bord] ( ! ,c>ibbean ,sea1 p>ticul>ly ! ,i/hmus ( ,d>i51 %\ld be depress$ to a consid]able dep? bel[ ! ocean level1 ! tropical curr5t w\ld ent] ! ,pacific ,ocean1 add+ to ! temp]ature ( its wat]s all ! preci\s heat :i* n[ vitalizes ! ,nor? ,atlantic region4 ,su* a geographic accid5t w\ld n only pr(\ndly alt] ! life conditions ( t "p ( ! _w1 b x w\ld make an end ( ,european civilization4 ,9 ! *apt] on climatal *anges fur!r att5tion w be giv5 to ! action ( ocean curr5ts f ! po9t ( view ( _! influ5ce on ! heat & moi/ure ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w4 ,we n[ h to consid] ! la/ important influ5ce ( ocean curr5ts--t :i* !y directly ex]cise on ! developm5t ( organic life4 ,! mo/ /rik+ effect ( ?is nature :i* ! sea /reams br+ ab\t is caus$ by ! ceaseless transportation to :i* !y subject ! eggs & se$s ( animals & plants1 z well z ! bodies ( ! mature =m :i* are mov$ ab\t by ! fl[+ wat]s4 ,b = ! exi/5ce ( ^! nor? & s\? fl[+ curr5ts1 due to ! pres5ce ( ! cont95tal b>ri]s1 ! liv+ t5ants ( ! seas w\ld be borne along ar\nd ! e>?1 always 9 ! same latitude1 & !re=e expos$ to ! same conditions ( temp]ature4 ,9 ?is /ate ( affairs ! influ5ces :i* n[ make = *ange 9 organic species w\ld be f> less ?an !y are4 ,j\rney+ 9 ! great :irlpools :i* ! cont95tal b>ri]s make out ( ! we/w>d sett+ tropical curr5ts1 ^! organic species are ev] be+ expos$ to alt]ations 9 _! temp]ature conditions :i* we "k to be fav\rable to ! creation ( ^? v>iations on :i* ! advance ( organic life s intimately dep5ds4 ,?us ! ocean curr5ts n only help to v>y ! e>? by produc+ *anges 9 ! climate ( bo? sea & l&1 break+ up ! uni=mity :i* w\ld o!rwise *>act]ize regions at ! same di/ance f ! equator1 b !y induce1 by ! consequ5ces ( ! migrations :i* !y en=ce1 *anges 9 ! organic t5ants ( ! sea4 ,ano!r imm$iate effect ( ocean /reams arises :]e _! curr5ts ( w>m wat] come aga9/ %ores or %all[s ( ! sea4 ,at ^! po9ts1 if ! wat] h a tropical temp]ature1 we inv>iably f9d a va/ & rapid developm5t ( m>9e animals & plants1 ( :i* ! coral-mak+ polyps are ! mo/ important4 ,9 su* positions ! gr[? ( =ms :i* secrete solid skeletons is s rapid t great walls ( _! rema9s accumulate next ! %ore1 ! mass be+ built outw>dly by successive gr[?s until ! realm ( ! l& may be ext5d$ = scores ( miles into ! deep4 ,9 o!r cases va/ m\nds ( ?is organic dbris may be accumulat$ 9 mid ocean until its surface is int]sp]s$ ) myriads ( isl&s1 all ( :i* m>k ! "w due to ! comb9$ action ( curr5ts & ! m>9e life :i* !y n\ri%4 ,probably m ?an f\r fif?s ( all ! isl&s 9 ! tropical belt are due 9 ?is way to ! life-su/a9+ action ( ! curr5ts :i* ! trade w9ds create4 ,!re are _m second>y influ5ces ( a less important nature :i* are due to ! ocean /reams4 ,! read] w f9d on mo/ wall-maps ( ! _w c]ta9 areas 9 ! c5tral "p ( ! oceans :i* are not$ z ,s>gassum seas1 ( :i* t ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 we/ & s\? ( ! ,azore ,isl&s1 is "o ( ! mo/ conspicu\s4 ,9 ^! tracts1 :i* 9 ext5t may almo/ be comp>$ ) ! cont95ts1 we f9d great quantities ( float+ seawe$1 ! entangl$ fronds ( :i* (t5 =m a mass suffici5tly d5se to slightly re/ra9 ! spe$ ( %ips4 ,:5 ! m5 on ! c>avels ( ,columbus ent]$ ?is tangle1 !y 7 al>m$ le/ !y %\ld be unable to escape f its toils4 ,x is a curi\s fact t ^! we$s ( ! sea :ile float+ d n reproduce by spores ! /ructures :i* answ] to ! se$s ( high] plants1 b gr[ only by budd+4 ,x seems c]ta9 t !y c\ld n ma9ta9 _! place 9 ! ocean b = ! action ( ! curr5ts :i* convey ! bits r5t (f f ! %ores :]e ! plant is truly at home4 ,?is va/ gr[? ( plant life 9 ! ,s>gassum bas9s d\btless contribut$ consid]able & important deposits ( s$im5t to ! sea floors b5ea? ! wat]s :i* x inhabits4 ,c]ta9 anci5t /rata1 kn[n z ! ,devonian black %ale1 occupy+ ! ,ohio valley & ! neighb\r+ p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica to ! ea/ & nor? ( t bas91 appe> to be accumulations :i* 7 made b5ea? an anci5t ,s>gassum sea4 ,! ocean curr5ts h greatly fav\r$ & 9 _m in/ances det]m9$ ! migrations n only ( m>9e =ms1 b ( l& creatures z well4 ,float+ timb] may be> ! eggs & se$s ( _m =ms ( life to great di/ances until ! rafts are ca/ a%ore 9 a realm :]e1 if ! conditions fav\r1 ! creatures may f9d a new seat = _! life4 ,se$s ( plants incas$ 9 _! (t5 d5se envelopes may1 because !y float1 be indep5d5tly c>ri$ great di/ances4 ,s x comes ab\t t no soon] does a coral or o!r isl& rise above ! wat]s ( ! sea ?an x becomes occupi$ by a v>i$ array ( plants4 ,! migrations ( p1 ev5 d[n to ! "t ( ! voyages :i* discov]$ ,am]ica1 h 9 l>ge measure be5 controll$ by ! run ( ! ocean /reams4 ,! tropical set ( ! wat]s to ! we/w>d help$ ,columbus on 8 way1 & enabl$ him to make a j\rney :i* b = _! assi/ance c\ld h>dly h be5 accompli%$4 ,?is same curr5t 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,gulf ,/ream oppos$ ! passage ( %ips f nor!rn ,europe to ! we/w>d1 & to ?is day affects ! spe$ ) :i* _! voyages are made4 ,,! ,,circuit ,,( ,,! ,,ra94 ,we h n[ to consid] ^? movem5ts ( ! wat] :i* dep5d ^u ! fact t at ord9>y temp]atures ! sea yields to ! air a cont9u$ & l>ge supply ( vap\r1 a contribution :i* is made 9 less5$ proportion by wat] 9 all /ages ( coldness1 & ev5 by ice :5 x is expos$ to dry air4 ,?is evaporation ( ! sea wat] is proportional to ! temp]ature & to ! dryness ( ! air :]e x re/s ^u ! ocean4 ,x probably am\nts on ! av]age to some:]e ab\t ?ree feet p] annum2 9 regions fav\rably situat$ = ! process1 z on ! we/ coa/ ( nor!rn ,africa1 x may be ?ree or f\r times z mu*1 :ile 9 ! cold & humid air ab\t ! poles x may be z little z "o foot4 ,:5 contribut$ to ! air1 ! wat] ent]s on ! /ate ( vap\r1 9 :i* /ate x t5ds to diffuse itself freely ?r\gh ! atmosph]e by virtue ( ! motion :i* is develop$ 9 p>ticles :5 9 ! vapor\s or gase\s /ate4 ,! great] "p ( ! wat] evaporat$ f ! seas probably f9ds its way z ra9 at once back into ! deep1 yet a consid]able portion is borne away horizontally until x enc\nt]s ! l&4 ,! precipitation ( ! wat] f ! air is prim>ily due to ! cool+ to :i* x is subject$ z x rises 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,ov] ! sea ! asc5t is accompli%$ by ! simple diffusion ( ! vap\r or by ! uprise ?r\gh ! arial %aft1 su* z t ne> ! equator or ov] ! c5tres ( ! :irl+ /orms4 ,x is :5 ! air /rikes ! slopes ( ! l& t we f9d x br\ght into a condition :i* mo/ decid$ly t5ds to precipitate its moi/ure4 ,lift$ upw>d1 ! air z x asc5ds ! slopes is br\ght into cool] & m r>efi$ conditions4 ,los+ temp]ature & exp&+1 x p>ts ) its wat] = ! same reason t x does 9 ! asc5d+ curr5t 9 ! equatorial belt or 9 ! *imneys ( ! :irl /orms4 ,a g5]al consequ5ce ( ?is is t :]ev] moi/ure-lad5 w9ds f ! sea imp+e ^u a cont95t !y lay d[n a consid]able "p ( ! wat] :i* !y conta94 ,if all ! l&s 7 ( ! same height1 ! ra9 w\ld g5]ally come 9 l>ge/ proportion ^u _! coa/al belt1 or ^? portions ( ! %ore-l9e di/ricts ov] :i* ! sea w9ds swept4 ,b z ^! w9ds v>y 9 ! am\nt ( ! wat]y vap\r :i* !y conta91 & z ! surface ( ! l& is v irregul>1 ! ra9fall is ! mo/ v>iable feature 9 ! climatal conditions ( our sph]e4 ,ne> ! coa/s x ranges f two or ?ree in*es 9 arid regions--su* z ! we/]n "p ( ! ,sah>a & portions ( ! coa/ regions ( ,*ili & ,p]u--to eight hundr$ in*es ab\t ! head wat]s ( ! ,brahmapootra ,riv] 9 nor!rn ,india1 :]e ! high m\nta9s are swept ov] by ! moi/ure-lad5 airs f ! neighb\r+ sea4 ,"h & !re deta*$ m\nta9\s masses produce a s+ul> local increase 9 ! am\nt ( ! ra9fall4 ,?us 9 ! lake di/rict 9 nor?we/]n ,engl& ! ra9fall on ! seaw>d side ( m\nta9s1 n ov] f\r ?\s& feet high1 is v mu* great] ?an x is on ! o!r slope1 less ?an a score ( miles away4 ,^! local v>iations are common all ov] ! _w1 ?\gh !y are b little obs]v$4 ,9 g5]al1 ! c5tral p>ts ( cont95ts are likely to receive mu* less ra9fall ?an _! p]iph]al portions4 ,?us ! c5tral di/ricts ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,asia1 & ,au/ralia--?ree out ( ! five cont95tal masses--h :at we may call int]ior des]ts4 ,africa has "o su*1 ?\gh x is nor? ( ! c5tre1 & ext5ds to ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ! ,atlantic4 ,! only cont95t )\t ?is c5tral ne>ly ra9less field is ,s\? ,am]ica1 :]e ! sole *>act]i/ic arid di/rict is situat$ on ! we/]n slope ( ! ,cordill]an range4 ,9 ?is case ! peculi>ity is due to ! fact t ! /rong we/]ly sett+ w9ds :i* sweep ov] ! c\ntry enc\nt] no high m\nta9s until !y /rike ! ,&ean *a94 ,!y j\rney up a long & r gradual slope1 :]e ! precipitation is gradually induc$1 ! process be+ complet$ :5 !y /rike ! m\nta9 wall4 ,pass+ ov] its summit1 !y appe> z dry w9ds on ! ,pacific coa/4 ,ev5 :ile ! w9ds frequ5tly bl[ 9 f ! sea1 z along ! we/]n coa/ ( ! ,am]icas1 !y may come ov] wat] :i* is prevail+ly cold] ?an ! l&4 ,?is is *>act]i/ically ! case on ! we/]n faces ( ! ,am]ican cont95t1 :]e ! sea is cool$ by ! curr5ts sett+ t[>d ! equator f high latitudes4 ,su* cool sea air enc\nt]+ ! w>m l& has its temp]ature rais$1 & !re=e does n t5d to lay d[n its burd5 ( moi/ure1 b seeks to take up m4 ,on ?is acc\nt ! ra9fall 9 c\ntries plac$ "u su* conditions is commonly small4 ,by no means all ! moi/ure :i* comes ^u ! e>? f ! atmosph]e desc5ds 9 ! =m ( ra9 or sn[4 ,a v>iable1 l>ge1 ?\gh yet undet]m9$ am\nt falls 9 ! =m ( dew4 ,dew is a precipitation ( moi/ure :i* has n ent]$ ! peculi> /ate :i* we t]m fog or cl\d1 b has rema9$ invisible 9 ! air4 ,x is br\ght to ! e>? ?r\gh ! radiation ( heat :i* cont9ually takes place1 b :i* is mo/ effective dur+ ! d>k5$ half ( ! day1 :5 ! action is n c\nt]balanc$ by ! sun's rays4 ,:ile ! sun is high & ! air is w>m !re is a con/ant absorption ( moi/ure 9 l>ge "p f ! gr\nd or f ! neighb\r+ wat] areas1 probably 9 "s "p f ^? susp5d$ /ores ( wat]1 ! cl\ds1 if su* !re be 9 ! neighb\rhood4 ,we c readily notice h[ cl\ds drift+ 9 f ! sea (t5 melt into ! dry air :i* !y enc\nt]4 ,late 9 ! aft]noon1 ev5 be=e ! sun has sunk1 ! radiation ( heat f ! e>?1 :i* has be5 go+ on all ! :ile1 b has be5 less consid]able ?an ! incurr5t ( temp]ature1 9 a way ov]takes t influx4 ,! air next ! surface becomes cool$ f its contact ) ! refrig]at+ e>?1 & p>ts ) its moi/ure1 =m+ a coat+ ( wat] ov] ev]y?+ x t\*es4 ,at ! same "t ! moi/ure escap+ f ! w>m$ "u e>? likewise drops back ^u its cool$ surface almo/ z soon z x has escap$4 ,! ?9 %eet ( wat] precipitat$ by ?is me?od is quickly return$ to ! air :5 x becomes w>m$ by ! morn+ sun%9e1 b dur+ ! night quantities ( x are absorb$ by ! plants2 v (t51 inde$1 ) ! l[li] vegetation x trickles d[n ! leaves & ent]s ! e>? ab\t ! base ( ! /em1 s t ! roots may appropriate x4 ,our maize1 or ,indian corn1 af=ds an excell5t example ( a plant :i*1 hav+ develop$ 9 a l& ( dr\ghts1 is well contriv$1 ?r\gh its capacities = ga!r+ dew1 to protect itself aga9/ arid conditions4 ,9 an ord9>y dew-mak+ night ! leaves ( a s+le /em may ga!r z mu* z half a p9t ( wat]1 :i* fl[s d[n _! surfaces to ! roots4 ,s effici5t is ?is dew supply1 ?is nocturnal cl\dless ra91 t on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica & else:]e1 :]e ! ord9>y supply ( moi/ure is almo/ want+1 _m important plants are able to obta9 f x mu* ( ! wat] :i* !y ne$4 ,! effect is p>ticul>ly /rik+ along sea%ores1 :]e ! air1 al?\gh x may n h ! humidity necess>y = ! =mation ( ra91 /ill conta9s en\gh to =m dew4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ! quantity ( dew :i* falls ^u an area is g5]ally proportion$ to ! am\nt ( liv+ vegetation :i* x be>s4 ,! surfaces ( leaves are v effici5t ag5ts ( radiation1 & ! tangle :i* !y make (f]s an am\nt ( heat-radiat+ area _m times z great z t af=d$ by a surface ( b>$ e>?4 ,moreov]1 ! gr\nd itself c n well cool d[n to ! po9t :]e x w wr+ ! moi/ure out ( ! air1 :ile ! ?9 membranes ( ! plants readily become s cool$4 ,?us vegetation by its own /ructure provides itself ) means :]eby x may be 9 a measure indep5d5t ( ! accid5tal ra9fall4 ,we %\ld also note ! fact t ! dewfall is a concomitant ( cl\dless skies4 ,! quantity :i* is precipitat$ 9 a cl\dy night is v small1 & ?is = ! reason t :5 ! heav5s are cov]$ ! heat f ! e>? c n readily fly (f into space4 ,"u ^! conditions ! temp]ature ( ! air r>ely desc5ds l[ en\gh to fav\r ! precipitation ( dew4 ,hav+ not$ ! process by :i* 9 ! ra9 circuit ! wat] leaves ! sea & ! conditions ( di/ribution :5 x returns to ! e>?1 we may n[ trace 9 m detail ! /eps 9 ?is great r\nd4 ,fir/1 we %\ld take note ( ! fact t ! wat] aft] x ent]s ! air may come back to ! surface ( ! e>? 9 ei!r ( two ways--directly 9 ! mann] ( dewfall1 or 9 a long] circuit :i* leads x ?r\gh ! /ate ( cl\ds4 ,z yet we are n v well in=m$ z to ! law ( ! cl\d-mak+1 b c]ta9 features 9 ?is picturesque & mo/ important process h be5 tol]ably well asc]ta9$4 ,ris+ upw>d f ! sea1 ! vap\r ( wat] commonly rema9s transp>5t & invisible until x atta9s a consid]able height above ! surface1 :]e ! cool+ t5ds to make x assume aga9 ! visible /ate ( cl\d p>ticles4 ,! =mation ( ^! cl\d p>ticles is n[ believ$ to dep5d on ! fact t ! air is full ( small du/ motes1 exce$+ly small bits ( matt] d]iv$ f ! _m actions :i* t5d to br+ comm9ut$ solid matt] into ! air1 z1 = in/ance1 ! combu/ion ( meteoric /ones1 :i* are greatly heat$ by friction 9 _! swift c\rse ?r\gh ! air1 ! ejections ( volcanoes1 ! smoke ( =e/ & o!r fires1 etc4 ,^! t9y bits1 float+ 9 ! air1 because ( _! solid nature radiate _! heat1 cool ! air :i* lies aga9/ !m1 & !reby precipitate ! wat] 9 ! mann] ( dew1 exactly z d ! leaves & o!r /ructures on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,9 fact1 dew =mation is ess5tially l cl\d =mation1 except t 9 ! "o case ! wat] is ga!r$ on fix$ bodies1 & 9 ! o!r on float+ objects4 ,ea* little du/ raft ) its c>go ( cond5s$ wat] t5ds1 ( c\rse1 to fall d[nw>d t[>d ! e>?'s surface1 &1 except = ! w9ds :i* may bl[ upw>d1 does s fall1 ?\gh ) exce$+ sl[ness4 ,its rate ( desc5t may be only a few feet a day4 ,x 0 fall+ be=e x took on ! load ( wat]2 x w fall a little m rapidly ) ! add$ burd51 b ev5 9 a /ill air x might be mon?s or ye>s be=e x w\ld come to ! gr\nd4 ,! reason = ?is sl[ desc5t may n at fir/ sight be pla91 ?\gh a little consid]ation w make x s4 ,if we take a %ot ( small size & a fea!r ( ! same weight1 we readily note t _! rate ( fall+ ?r\gh ! air may v>y 9 ! proportion ( t5 to "o or m4 ,x is easy to conceive t ?is diff]5ce is due to ! v mu* less friction :i* ! small] body enc\nt]s 9 its motion by ! p>ticles ( air4 ,) ?is po9t 9 m9d1 ! /ud5t %\ld obs]ve t ! surface pres5t$ by solid bodies 9 relation to _! solid cont5ts is ! great] ! small] ! diamet]4 ,a r\gh1 ?\gh n v satisfactory1 in/ance ( ?is pr9ciple may be _h by comp>+ ! surface & int]ior cont5ts ( two boxes1 "o t5 feet squ>e & ! o!r "o foot squ>e4 ,! l>g] has six hundr$ feet ( surface to "o ?\s& cubic feet ( int]ior1 or ab\t half a squ>e foot ( out] surface to ! cubic foot ( cont5ts2 :ile ! small] box has six feet ( surface = ! s+le cubic foot ( int]ior1 or ab\t t5 times ! proportion ( ext]ior to cont5ts4 ,! result is t ! small] p>ticles enc\nt] m friction 9 mov+ t[>d ! e>?1 until1 9 ! case ( f9ely divid$ matt]1 su* z ! p>ticles ( c>bon 9 ! smoke f an ord9>y fire1 ! rate ( d[n-fall+ may be s small z to h little effect 9 ! turbul5t conditions ( atmosph]ic motion4 ,illu/ration3 ,pocket ,creek1 ,cape ,ann1 ,massa*usetts4 ,note ! relatively ev5 size ( ! pebbles1 & ! spla% wave :i* sets !m 9 motion4 ,! little drops ( wat] :i* ga!r r\nd du/ motes1 fall+ b sl[ly t[>d ! e>?1 are free to obey ! attractions :i* !y ex]cise ^u ea* o!r--impulses :i* are p>tly gravitative & p>tly electrical4 ,we h no precise k conc]n+ ^! movem5ts1 fur!r ?an t !y s]ve to aggregate ! myriad little floats into cl\d =ms1 9 :i* ! rafts are br\ght ne> toge!r1 b d n actually t\* ea* o!r4 ,!y are possibly kept ap>t by electrical repulsion4 ,9 ?is /ate ( association )\t union ! divid$ wat] may und]go ! curi\sly modifi$ aggregations :i* give u ! v>i$ =ms ( cl\ds4 ,z yet we "k little z to ! cause ( cl\d %apes4 ,we rem>k ! fact t 9 ! high] ( ^! agglom]ations ( cond5s$ vap\r1 ! cl\ds :i* float at an elevation ( f tw5ty to ?irty ?\s& feet or m1 ! masses are g5]ally ?91 & arrang$ m or less 9 a leaflike =m1 ?\gh ev5 "h a t5d5cy to produce sph]ical cl\ds is app>5t4 ,9 ?is high realm float+ wat] is probably 9 ! froz5 /ate1 answ]+ to ! =m ( dew1 :i* we call ho> fro/4 ,! l[] cl\ds1 ga!r+ 9 ! /ill air1 %[ v pla9ly ! t5d5cy to agglom]ate into sph]es1 :i* appe>s to be *>act]i/ic ( all vapor\s mat]ial :i* is free to move by its own impulses4 ,x is probable t ! sph]ical %ape ( cl\ds is m or less due to ! same conditions z ga!r$ ! /ell> matt] f ! anci5t nebul> *aos into ! cele/ial sph]es4 ,^u ^! sph]ical aggregations ( ! cl\ds ! w9ds act 9 extremely v>i$ ways4 ,! cl\d may be rubb$ betwe5 opposite curr5ts1 & s flatt5$ out into a long /ream]2 x may take ! same =m by be+ c>ri$ (f by a curr5t 9 ! mann] ( smoke f a fire2 ! sph]es may be kept toge!r1 s z to =m ! pat*work :i* we call mack]el sky2 or !y may be actually conf\nd$ ) ea* o!r 9 a va/ common cl\d-heap4 ,9 g5]al1 :]e ! process ( aggregation ( two cl\d bodies occurs1 *anges ( temp]ature are induc$ 9 ! masses :i* are mix$ toge!r4 ,if ! temp]ature result+ f ?is association ( cl\d masses is an av]age increase1 ! cl\d may become light]1 & 9 ! mann] ( a balloon move upw>d4 ,ea* ( ! motes 9 ! cl\d ) its *>ge ( vap\r may be comp>$ ) ! balla/ ( ! balloon2 if !y are w>m$1 !y s5d =? a "p ( _! load ( cond5s$ wat] aga9 to ! /ate ( invisible vap\r4 ,ris+ to a po9t :]e x cools1 ! vap\r ga!rs back on ! rafts & t5ds aga9 to weight ! cl\d d[nw>d4 ,! balla/ ( an ord9>y balloon has to be ?r[n away f its c>2 b if "s arrangem5t = cond5s+ ! moi/ure f ! air c\ld be contriv$1 a balloon might be br\ght into ! adju/able /ate ( a cl\d1 go+ up or d[n accord+ z x 0 heat$ or cool$4 ,:5 ! =mation ( ! drop ( wat] or sn[flake beg9s1 ! mass is v small4 ,if 9 desc5d+ x enc\nt]s great ?ickness ( cl\d1 ! bit may gr[ by fur!r cond5sation until x becomes relatively l>ge4 ,g5]ally 9 ?is way we may acc\nt = ! div]sities 9 ! size ( ra9drops or sn[flakes4 ,x (t5 happ5s t ! p>ticles aft] tak+ on ! =m ( sn[flakes enc\nt] 9 _! desc5t air s w>m t !y melt into ra9drops1 or1 if only p>tly melt$1 rea* ! surface z sleet4 ,or1 />t+ z ra9drops1 !y may freeze1 & 9 ?is simple /ate may rea* ! e>?1 or aft] freez+ !y may ga!r o!r froz5 wat] ab\t !m1 s t ! hail/one has a complicat$ /ructure :i*1 f ! po9t ( view ( classification1 is betwe5 a ra9drop & a sn[flake4 ,9 ! process ( cond5sation--inde$1 9 ! /eps :i* prec$e ! =mation ( ra9 & sn[--!re is (t5 m or less trace ( electrical action2 9 fact1 a "p ( ! en]gy :i* 0 involv$ 9 ! vap\rization ( wat]1 on its cond5sation1 ev5 on ! du/ motes appe>s to be conv]t$ into electrical action1 :i* probably op]ates 9 "p to keep ! little aggregates ( wat] asund]4 ,:5 !y coalesce 9 drops or flakes1 ?is electricity (t5 assumes ! =m ( lightn+1 :i* repres5ts ! swift passage ( ! electric /ore f a region :]e x is mo/ abundant to "o :]e x is less s4 ,! v>iations 9 ?is process ( convey+ ! electricity are probably great4 ,9 g5]al1 x probably passes1 mu* z an electric curr5t is convey$1 ?r\gh a wire f ! batt]y :i* produces ! =ce4 ,9 o!r cases1 :]e ! t5sion is high1 or1 9 o!r words1 :]e ! dis*>ge has to be ha/5$1 we h ! ph5om5a ( lightn+ 9 :i* ! curr5t burns its way along its pa?1 z x may trav]se a sl5d] wire1 vap\riz+ x z x goes4 ,9 g5]al1 ! lightn+ fla% exp5ds its =ce on ! air conductors1 or l9es ( ! moi/ atmosph]e along :i* x breaks its pa?1 its en]gy return+ into ! vap\r :i* x =ms or ! heat :i* x produces 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ! air4 ,9 "s cases1 probably n "o 9 ! ?\s& ( ! fla%es1 ! *>ge is s heavy t x is n us$ up 9 its desc5t t[>d ! e>?1 & s electrifies1 or1 z we say1 /rikes1 "s object atta*$ to ! e>?1 ?r\gh :i* x passes to ! und]ly+ moi/ure1 :]e x f9ds a conv5i5t place to take on a quiet =m4 ,almo/ all ^! hurri$ movem5ts ( electrical en]gy :i* int5sely heat & light ! air :i* !y trav]se fly f "o "p ( a cl\d to ano!r1 or cross f cl\d sph]e to cl\d sph]e2 ( ^? :i* />t t[>d ! e>?1 _m are exhau/$ be=e !y rea* its surface1 & ev5 ^? t /rike convey b a portion ( _! orig9al impulse to ! gr\nd4 ,! we>+-out effect ( lightn+ 9 its j\rney along ! air conductors 9 its flam+ passages is well illu/rat$ by :at happ5s :5 ! *>ge /rikes a wire :i* is n l>ge en\gh freely to convey x4 ,! wire is heat$1 g5]ally made :ite hot1 (t5 melt$1 & p]haps scatt]$ 9 ! =m ( vap\r4 ,9 do+ ?is "w ! electricity may1 & (t5 is1 utt]ly dissipat$--t is1 *ang$ into heat4 ,x has be5 propos$ to take advantage ( ?is pr9ciple 9 protect+ build+s f lightn+ by plac+ 9 !m _m ?9 wires1 along :i* ! curr5t w try to make its way1 be+ exhau/$ 9 melt+ or vaporiz+ ! metal ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,!re are c]ta9 o!r =ms ( lightn+1 or at lea/ ( electrical dis*>ges1 :i* produce light & :i* may be/ be describ$ 9 ?is connection4 ,x occasionally happ5s t ! e>? becomes s *>g$ t ! curr5t proce$s f its surface to ! cl\ds4 ,m r>ely1 & "u conditions :i* we d n und]/&1 ! electric en]gy is ga!r$ into a ball-l =m1 :i* may move sl[ly along ! surface until x sudd5ly explodes4 ,x is a common feature ( all ^! =ms ( lightn+ :i* we h not$ t !y ord9>ily make 9 _! movem5t consid]able noise4 ,?is is due to ! sudd5 displacem5t ( ! air :i* !y trav]se--displacem5t due to ! action ( heat 9 sep>at+ ! p>ticles4 ,x is 9 all ess5tial reg>ds simil> to ! s\nds made by projectiles1 su* z meteors or swift cannon %ots1 z !y fly ?r\gh ! air4 ,x is ev5 m comp>able to ! s\nd produc$ by explod+ gunp[d]4 ,! fir/ s\nd effect f ! lightn+ /roke is a s+le r5d+ note1 :i* endures no long]--inde$1 n z long--z ! explosion ( a cannon4 ,he>d ne> by1 ?is note is v %>p1 rem9d+ "o ( ! s\nd made by ! break+ ( glass4 ,! roll+1 cont9u\s s\nd :i* we commonly he> 9 ?und] is1 z 9 ! case ( ! noise produc$ by cannon1 due to e*o f ! cl\ds & ! e>?4 ,?und] is ord9>ily mu* m prolong$ & impressive 9 a m\nta9\s c\ntry ?an 9 a region ( pla9s1 because ! /eeps ab\t ! he>] rev]b]ate ! orig9al s+le cra%4 ,! di/ribution ( ?und]/orms is z yet n well und]/ood1 b x appe>s 9 _m cases t !y are att5dants on ! advanc+ face ( cyclones & hurricanes1 ! area 9 front ( ^! great :irl/orms be+ subject$ to ! cond5sation & irregul> air movem5ts :i* lead to ! developm5t ( mu* electrical en]gy4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! e>? :i* are p>ticul>ly subject$ to lightn+ fla%es4 ,!y are common 9 ! region ne> ! equator1 :]e ! asc5d+ curr5ts br+ ab\t heavy ra9s1 :i* mean a rapid cond5sation & consequ5t lib]ation ( electrical en]gy4 ,!y dim9i% 9 frequ5cy t[>d ! arctic regions4 ,an obs]v] at ! pole w\ld probably fail ev] to p]ceive /rong fla%es4 ,= ! same reason ?und]/orms are m frequ5t 9 summ]1 ! "t :5 ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! surface & ! upp] air is greate/1 :51 !re=e1 ! upru%es ( air are likely to be mo/ viol5t4 ,!y appe> to be m common 9 ! night ?an 9 ! daytime1 = ! reason t cond5sation is fav\r$ by ! cool+ :i* occurs 9 ! d>k half ( ! day4 ,x is r>e1 inde$1 t a ?und]/orm occurs ne> midday1 a p]iod :5 ! air is 9 mo/ cases tak+ up moi/ure on acc\nt ( ! swiftly increas+ heat4 ,!re are o!r =ms ( electrical dis*>ges n di/9ctly connect$ ) ! !n exi/+ cond5sation ( moi/ure4 ,:at ! sailors call ,/4 ,elmo's fire--a bru% ( electric light f ! ma/ tops & o!r projections ( ! %ip--indicates ! passage ( electrical en]gy betwe5 ! vessel & ! atmosph]e4 ,simil> lights are said sometimes to be se5 ris+ f ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,su* ph5om5a are at pres5t n satisfactorily expla9$4 ,p]haps 9 ! same gr\p ( actions comes ! s-call$ ,jack-o'-lant]n or ,w-o'-!-wisp fires fla%+ f ! e>? 9 m>%y places1 :i* are (t5 describ$ by ! common p1 b h nev] be5 obs]v$ by a naturali/4 ,if ?is class ( illum9ations really exi/s1 we h to af=d !m "s o!r explanation ?an t !y are emanations ( self-inflam$ phosphorett$ hydrog51 a me?od ( acc\nt+ = !m :i* illogically f9ds a place 9 _m treatises on atmosph]ic ph5om5a4 ,a gas ( any k9d w\ld disp]se itself 9 ! air2 x c\ld n dance ab\t z ^! lights are said to d1 & !re is no *emical means kn[n :]eby x c\ld be produc$ 9 suffici5t purity & quantity f ! e>? to produce ! effects :i* are describ$4#c ,footnote #c3 ,! pres5t writ] has made an ext5d$ & c>eful /udy ( m>% & swamp ph5om5a1 & is v famili> ) ! aspect ( ^! fields 9 ! nighttime4 ,he has nev] be5 able to see any sign ( ! ,jack-o'-lant]n light4 ,look+ fix$ly into any d>kness1 su* z is af=d$ by ! dep?s ( a wood1 ! eye is apt to imag9e ! appe>ance ( fa9t lights4 ,^? :o h _h to d ) outpo/ duty 9 an army "k h[ ! anxi\s s5try1 p>ticul>ly if he is new to ! soldi]'s trade1 w (t5 imag9e t he sees lights be=e him4 ,sometimes ! pickets w be s conv9c$ ( ! fact t !y see lights t !y w fire ^u ! fiction ( ! imag9ations4 ,^! facts make x seem probable t ! ,jack-o'-lant]n & 8 companion1 ! ,w-o'-!-wisp1 are /ories ( ! ov]cr$ul\s4 ,9 ! upp] air1 or p]haps ev5 beyond ! limits ( ! field :i* des]ves ! "n1 9 ! regions ext5d+ f ! poles to ne> ! tropics1 !re occur electric gl[+s commonly kn[n z ! aurora borealis4 ,?is ph5om5on occurs 9 bo? hemisph]es4 ,^! illum9ations1 ?\gh 9 "s way ak9 to ^? ( lightn+1 & ?\gh d\btless due to "s =m ( electrical action1 are peculi> 9 t !y are (t5 att5d$ by gl[s z if f cl\ds1 & by pulsations :i* indicate movem5ts n at electric spe$4 ,z yet b little is kn[n z to ! precise nature ( ^! curi\s /orms4 ,x has be5 claim$1 h[ev]1 t !y are relat$ to ! sun spots2 ^? p]iods :5 ! sol> spots are pl5ty1 at int]vals ( ab\t elev5 ye>s1 are ! times ( auroral dis*>ges4 ,/ill fur!r1 x seems probable t ! magnetic curr5ts ( ! e>?1 t circl+ en]gy :i* encompasses ! sph]e1 mov+ r\nd 9 a g5]al way p>allel to ! equator1 are int5sifi$ dur+ ^! illum9ations ( ! circumpol> skies4 ,,geological ,,"w ,,( ,,wat]4 ,we turn n[ to ! geological "w :i* is p]=m$ by fall+ wat]4 ,:]e ! ra9 or sn[ returns f ! cl\ds to ! sea1 ! en]gy ( position giv5 to ! wat] by its elevation above ! e>? ?r\gh ! heat :i* x acquir$ f ! sun is return$ to ! air ?r\gh :i* x falls or to ! ocean surface on :i* x /rikes4 ,9 ?is case ! circuit ( ! ra9 is %ort & )\t geological consequ5ce :i* x is wor? :ile to consid]1 except to note t ! heat ?us return$ is likely to be deliv]$ 9 ano!r realm ?an t 9 :i* ! fall+ wat] acquir$ ! /ore1 ?us 9 a small way modify+ ! climate4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! precipitation occurs on ! surface ( ! l&1 ! drops ( froz5 or fluid wat] apply a "p ( _! en]gy 9 important geological "w1 ! l ( :i* is n done :]e !y return at once to ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,%[+ ! div]se action ( ra9 on wood$ & cle>$ fields1 a1 wood$ area2 b1 till$ gr\nd4 ,we %all fir/ consid] :at takes place :5 ! wat] 9 ! =m ( drops ( ra9 comes to ! surface ( ! l&4 ,desc5d+ z !y d ) a consid]able spe$1 ^! ra9drops apply a c]ta9 am\nt ( en]gy to ! surface on :i* !y fall4 ,al?\gh ! beat ( a ra9drop is prov]bially light1 ! /roke is n ineffective4 ,obs]v+ :at happ5s :]e ! action takes place on ! surface ( b>e rock1 we may notice t ! gra9s ( s& or small pebbles :i* g5]ally ab\nd on su* surfaces1 if !y be n too /eeply incl9$1 dance ab\t "u ! bl[s :i* !y receive4 ,if we c\ld cov] h>d plate glass1 a mu* firm] mat]ial ?an ord9>y /one1 ) su* bits1 we %\ld soon f9d t its surface w\ld become scrat*$ all ov] by ! friction4 ,moreov]1 ! ra9drops p]ceptibly urge ! small deta*$ bits ( /one d[n ! slopes t[>d ! /reams4 ,if all ! e>?'s surface 7 b>e rocks1 ! bl[ ( ! ra9drops w\ld des]ve to be reckon$ among ! important influ5ces :i* lead to ! we>+ ( l&4 ,z x is1 :5 a c\ntry is 9 a /ate ( ,nature1 only a small "p ( its surface is expos$ to ?is k9d ( we>+4 ,:]e !re is ra9 en\gh to effect any damage1 !re is sure to be suffici5t vegetation to int]pose a liv+ & self-r5ew$ cov]+ betwe5 ! rocks & ! ra94 ,ev5 ! li*5s :i* coat :at at fir/ sight (t5 seems to be b>e rock af=d an ample cov]+ = ?is purpose4 ,x is only :]e man b>es ! field by /ripp+ away & ov]turn+ ?is protect+ vegetation t ! ra9drops cut away ! e>?4 ,! effect ( _! action c (t5 be not$ by obs]v+ h[ on pl\gh$ gr\nd a flat /one or a pot%]d comes aft] a ra9 to cap a little column4 ,! geologi/ sometimes f9ds 9 s(t s&/ones t ! same action is repeat$ 9 a l>g] way :]e a ?9 fragm5t ( h>d rock has protect$ a column _m feet 9 height aga9/ ! ra9 "w :i* has %orn d[n ! surr\nd+ rock4 ,:5 wat] /rikes ! moi/5$ surface x at once loses ! droplike =m :i* all fluids assume :5 !y fall ?r\gh ! air4#d ,footnote #d3 ,?is pr9ciple ( ! sph]oidal =m 9 fall+ fluids is us$ 9 mak+ ord9>y bird %ot4 ,! melt$ lead drops ?r\gh sievelike op5+s1 ! result+ sph]es ( ! metal be+ all[$ to fall into wat] :i* *ills !m4 ,iron %ot1 us$ 9 cutt+ /one1 :]e !y are plac$ betwe5 ! saw & ! surface ( ! rock1 are also made 9 ! same mann]4 ,! desc5d+ fluid divides into drops because x is drawn out by ! ev]-increas+ spe$ ( ! fall+ p>ticles1 :i* soon make ! /ream s ?9 t x c n hold toge!r4 ,:5 ! ra9drops coalesce on ! surface ( ! e>?1 ! rle ( :at we may call l& wat] beg9s4 ,!nce=w>d until ! fluid arrives at ! surface ( ! sea x is cont9ually at "w 9 effect+ a great range ( geological *anges1 only a few ( :i* c well be trac$ by ! g5]al /ud5t4 ,! "w ( l& wat] is due to ?ree classes ( prop]ties--to ! en]gy ) :i* x is end[$ by virtue ( its height above ! sea1 a p[] due to ! heat ( ! sun2 to ! capacity x has = tak+ sub/ances into solution2 & to its prop]ty ( giv+ "s "p ( its own sub/ance to o!r mat]ials ) :i* x comes 9 contact4 ,! fir/ ( ^! gr\ps ( prop]ties may be call$ dynamical2 ! o!rs1 *emical4 ,! dynamic value ( wat] :5 x falls ^u ! l& is ! am\nt ( en]gy x c apply 9 go+ d[n ! slope :i* sep>ates x f ! sea4 ,a ton ( ! fluid1 su* z may ga!r 9 an ord9>y ra9 on a ?\s& squ>e feet ( gr\nd 9 ! highl&s ( a c\ntry--say at an elevation ( a ?\s& feet above ! sea--exp5ds be=e x comes to re/ 9 ! great res]voir z mu* en]gy z w\ld be requir$ to lift t weight f ! ocean's surface to ! same height4 ,! ways 9 :i* ?is en]gy may be exp5d$ we %all n[ proce$ 9 a g5]al way to trace4 ,z soon z ! wat] has be5 ga!r$1 f its drop to its %eet /ate--a process :i* takes place z soon z x falls--! fluid beg9s its d[nw>d j\rney4 ,on ?is way x is at once p>t$ into two di/9ct divisions1 ! surface wat] & ! gr\nd wat]3 ! =m] c\rses m or less swiftly1 g5]ally at ! rate ( a mile or m an h\r1 9 ! light ( day2 ! latt] ent]s ! int]/ices ( ! e>?1 sl[ly desc5ds !re9 to a great] or less dep?1 & f9ally1 j\rney+ p]haps at ! rate ( a mile a ye>1 rejo9s ! surface wat]1 escap+ ?r\gh ! spr+s4 ,! proportion ( ^! two classes1 ! surface & ! gr\nd wat]1 v>ies greatly1 & an int]mixture ( !m is cont9ually go+ on4 ,?us on ! surface ( b>e rock or froz5 e>? all ! ra9 may g away )\t ent]+ ! gr\nd4 ,on v s&y fields ! heavie/ ra9fall may be tak5 up by ! por\s e>?1 s t no /reams are f\nd4 ,on su* surfaces ! pres5t writ] has obs]v$ t a ra9fall am\nt+ to six in*es 9 dep? 9 two h\rs produc$ no /reams :atev]4 ,we %all fir/ foll[ ! hi/ory ( ! surface wat]1 aft]w>d consid]+ ! "w :i* ! und]gr\nd movem5ts effect4 ,if ! /ud5t w obs]ve :at takes place on a level pl\gh$ field--:i*1 aft] all1 w n be p]fectly level1 = all fields are m or less undulat+--he w note t1 ?\gh ! surface may h be5 smoo!d by a roll] until x appe>s l a floor1 ! fir/ ra91 :]e ! fall takes place rapidly en\gh to produce surface /reams1 w create a s]ies ( little *annels :i* gr[ l>g] z !y conjo91 ! :ole appe>+ to ! eye l a v detail$ map1 or r model1 ( a riv] sy/em2 x is1 inde$1 su* a sy/em 9 m9iature4 ,if he w wat* ! process by :i* ^! /reamlet b$s are c>v$1 he w obta9 a tol]ably cle> idea z to t mo/ important "w :i* ! great] /reams d 9 c>v+ ! face ( ! l&s4 ,! wat] is no soon] ga!r$ into a %eet ?an1 guid$ by ! slighte/ irregul>ities :i* x enc\nt]s1 x beg9s to fl[4 ,at fir/ ! motion is s sl[ t x does n di/urb its b$1 b at "s po9ts 9 ! bottom ( ! %eet ! movem5t soon becomes swift en\gh to drag ! gra9s ( s& & clay f _! adhesions1 be>+ !m onw>d4 ,z soon z ?is beg9n+ ( a *annel is =m$ ! wat] moves m swiftly 9 ! cle>] way2 x !re=e cuts m rapidly1 deep5+ & enl>g+ its *annel1 & mak+ its motion yet m free4 ,! t9y rills jo9 ! great]1 all _! *annels sway to & fro z direct$ ?is way & t by *ance irregul>ities1 until some?+ l riv] bas9s are c>v$ out1 ^? g5tle slopes :i* =m broad valleys :]e ! c>v+ has be5 due to ! w&]+s ( _m /reams4 ,if ! field be l>ge1 consid]able ?\gh tempor>y brooks may be creat$1 :i* cut *annels p]haps a foot 9 dep?4 ,at ! end ( ?is m9iature /ream sy/em we always f9d "s "p ( ! wa/e :i* has be5 c>v$ out4 ,if ! /reamlet dis*>ges into a pool1 we f9d ! t9y repres5tative ( deltas1 :i* =m su* an important feature on ! coa/ l9e :]e l>ge riv]s ent] seas or lakes4 ,along ! l9es ( ! /ream we may obs]ve "h & !re little b5*es1 :i* are ! equival5t 9 all save size ( ! t]races t are g5]ally to be obs]v$ along ! great] /reams4 ,9 fact1 ^! accid5ts ( an acre help 9 a mo/ effective way ! /ud5t to und]/& ! great] & m complicat$ processes ( cont95tal erosion4 ,a normal riv]--9 fact1 all ! great] /reams ( ! e>?--orig9ates 9 high c\ntry1 g5]ally 9 a region ( m\nta9s4 ,"h1 because ( ! elevation ( ! region1 ! /reams h cut deep gorges or ext5sive valleys1 all ( :i* h slopes lead+ /eeply d[nw>d to torr5t b$s4 ,d[n ^! incl9$ surfaces ! p>ticles worn (f f ! h>d rock by fro/ & by *emical decay gradually "w _! way until !y atta9 ! b$ ( ! /ream4 ,! ag5ts :i* assi/ gravitation 9 be>+ ?is detritus d[nw>d are _m1 b !y all "w toge!r = ! same end4 ,! /roke ( ! ra9drop accompli%es some?+1 ?\gh b little2 ! direct wa%+ action ( ! brooklets :i* =m dur+ times ( heavy ra91 b dry out at ! close ( ! /orm1 d a good deal ( ! "w2 ?aw+ & freez+ ( ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! mass ( detritus help ! movem5t1 =1 al?\gh ! ?ru/ is 9 bo? directions1 x is mo/ effective d[nhill2 ! w$ges ( tree roots1 :i* (t5 p5etrate betwe5 & "u ! /ones1 & !re exp& 9 _! process ( gr[?1 likewise assi/ ! d[nw>d motion4 ,! result is t on ord9>y m\nta9 slopes ! lay] ( fragm5ts con/itut+ ! rude soil is (t5 creep+ at ! rate ( f "s in*es to "s feet a ye> t[>d ! torr5t b$4 ,if !re be cliffs at ! top ( ! slope1 z is (t5 ! case1 v ext5sive falls ( rock may take place f x1 ! masses desc5d+ ) su* spe$ t !y directly atta9 ! /ream4 ,if ! /eeps be l[ & ! rock divid$ into v]tical jo9ts1 especially :]e !re is a s(t lay] at ! base ( ! /eep1 deta*$ masses f ! precipice may move sl[ly & /eadfa/ly d[n ! slope1 s little di/urb$ 9 _! j\rney t trees gr[+ ^u _! summits may cont9ue to develop = ! ?\s&s ( ye>s be=e ! mass ent]s ! /ream b$4 ,al?\gh ! fall ( rocks f precipices does n (t5 take place 9 a conspicu\sly l>ge way1 all great m\nta9 regions :i* h long be5 inhabit$ by man ab\nd 9 traditions & hi/ories ( su* accid5ts4 ,)9 a c5tury or two !re h be5 a doz5 or m cata/rophes ( ?is nature 9 ! inhabit$ valleys ( ! ,alps4 ,z ^! accid5ts are at once in/ructive & picturesque1 x is well to note c]ta9 ( !m 9 "s detail4 ,at ,yvorgne1 a little p>i% on ! nor? %ore ( ! ,rhne1 j above ! lake ( ,g5eva1 tradition tells t an anci5t village ( ! "n 0 ov]:elm$ by ! fall ( a great cliff4 ,! va/ dbris =m+ ! /eep slope :i* 0 ?us produc$ n[ be>s fam\s v9ey>ds1 b ! v9tn]s fancy t !y f "t to "t he> deep 9 ! e>? ! r++ ( ! bells :i* belong$ to ! ov]:elm$ *ur*4 ,9 #ahjf ! di/rict ( ,goldau1 j nor? ( ,lake ,luc]ne1 0 buri$ b5ea? ! ru9s ( a peak :i*1 re/+ ^u a lay] ( clay1 slipp$ away l a laun*+ %ip on ! surface ( ! s(t mat]ial4 ,! dbris ov]:elm$ a village & _m deta*$ h\ses1 & p>tly fill$ a consid]able lake4 ,! w9d produc$ by ?is va/ ru% ( fall+ rock 0 s great t p 7 bl[n away by x2 "s1 inde$1 7 kill$ 9 ?is s+ul> mann]4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ field ( ^! ,swiss m\nta9 falls is a high m\nta9 valley ( amphi!atrical =m1 kn[n z ! ,diabl]ets1 or ! devil's own di/rict4 ,?is great circus1 :i* lies at ! height ( ab\t f\r ?\s& feet above ! sea1 is wall$ ar\nd on its nor!rn side by a precipice1 above :i* re/1 or r once re/$1 a numb] ( m\nta9 peaks ( great bulk4 ,! region has long be5 valu$ = ! excell5t pa/urage :i* ! head ( ! valley af=ds4 ,two co/ly roads1 inde$1 h be5 built into x to af=d footpa?s = ! flocks & h]ds & _! keep]s 9 ! summ] season4 ,?r\gh ?is human exp]i5ce ) ! valley1 we h a record ( :at has gone on 9 ?is "p ( ! m\nta9 wild]ness4 ,)9 ! p]iod ( hi/ory & tradition1 ?ree v great m\nta9 falls h occurr$ 9 ?is field1 ea* hav+ made its memory good by widespread disa/] :i* x br\ght to ! p ( ! *alets4 ,! la/ ( ^! 0 br\ght ab\t by ! fall ( a great peak :i* spread itself out 9 a va/ field ( ru9s 9 ! valley bel[4 ,! belt ( de/ruction 0 ab\t half a mile wide & ?ree miles long4 ,:5 ! pres5t writ] la/ saw x1 a qu>t] ( a c5tury ago1 x 0 /ill a wild]ness ( great rocks1 b "h & !re ! process ( _! decay 0 giv+ a foo?old = h]bage1 & 9 a few c5turies ! field w d\btless be s v]dure-clad t its /ory w n be told on its face4 ,x is likely1 h[ev]1 to be pres]v$ 9 ! memory ( ! p1 & ?is ?r\gh a s+ul> & pa!tic tradition :i* has gr[n up ab\t ! place1 "o :i*1 if n true1 comes at lea/ among ! leg5ds :i* we %\ld l to believe4 ,z told ! pres5t writ] by a native ( ! di/rict1 x happ5$ :51 9 ! nighttime ! m\nta9 came d[n1 ! h]dsm5 & _! c[s ga!r$ 9 ! *alets--/\t build+s :i* are prep>$ to resi/ avalan*es ( sn[4 ,9 "o ( ^!1 :i* 0 protect$ f cru%+ by ! position ( ! /ones :i* cov]$ x1 a solit>y h]dsman f\nd himself alive 9 8 unh>m$ dwell+4 ,) him 9 ! d>kness 7 ! c[s1 a /ore ( food & wat]1 & 8 provisions = ! long summ] season4 ,) no?+ b hope to animate him1 he set to "w burr[+ upw>d among ! rocks1 /or+ ! dbris 9 ! room ( ! *alet4 ,he toil$ = "s mon?s1 b f9ally em]g$ to ! light ( day1 blan*$ by 8 long imprisonm5t 9 ! d>kness1 b ) ! /r5g? to be> him to 8 home4 ,9 place ( ! expect$ w>m welcome1 ! unhappy man f\nd himself receiv$ z a gho/4 ,he 0 exorcis$ by ! prie/ & driv5 away to ! di/ance4 ,x 0 only :5 long aft]w>d 8 pa? ( escape 0 discov]$ t 8 hi/ory became kn[n4 ,return+ to ! acc\nt ( ! dbris :i* desc5ds at v>i$ spe$ into ! torr5ts1 we f9d t :5 ! detritus enc\nt]s ! action ( ^! vigor\s /reams x is rapidly gr\nd to pieces :ile x is pu%$ d[n ! /eep *annels to ! l[] c\ntry4 ,:]e ! /ones are ( su* size t ! /ream c urge !m on1 !y move rapidly2 at lea/ 9 times :5 ! torr5t is rag+4 ,!y beat ov] ea* o!r & aga9/ ! firm-set rocks2 ! m !y we>1 ! small] !y become1 & ! m readily !y are urg$ =w>d4 ,:]e ! masses are too l>ge to be /irr$ by ! viol5t curr5t1 !y lie unmov$ until ! p\nd+ ( ! roll+ /ones r$uces !m to ! proportions :]e !y may jo9 ! great procession4 ,ord9>ily ^? :o visit m\nta9s behold _! torr5ts only 9 _! %runk5 /ate1 :5 ! wat]s /ir no /ones1 & fail ev5 to be> a *>ge ( mud1 all deta*able mat]ials hav+ be5 swept away :5 ! /reams c\rse ) m vig\r4 ,9 /orm seasons ! conditions are q o!rwise2 !n ! swoll5 torr5ts1 _! wat]s fill$ ) clay & s&1 be> ) !m great quantities ( b\ld]s1 ! collisions ( :i* are audible above ! muffl$ ro> ( ! wat]s1 atte/+ ! v great en]gy ( ! action4 ,:5 ! wa/e on a m\nta9 slope lies at a /eep angle1 p>ticul>ly :]e ! accumulation is due to ! action ( anci5t glaci]s1 x n infrequ5tly happ5s t :5 ! gr\nd is s(t5$ ) fro/ great masses ( ! mat]ial ru% d[n ! slope 9 ! mann] ( l&slides4 ,! obs]v] readily notes t 9 _m m\nta9 regions1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s ( ,new ,hamp%ire1 ! /eep slopes are (t5 seam$ by ! pa?s ( ^! great l&slides4 ,_! movem5t1 inde$1 is (t5 begun by slid+ sn[1 :i* gives an impulse to ! rocks & e>? :i* x enc\nt]s 9 its desc5t4 ,at a place kn[n z ! ,wylie ,not*1 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s1 9 ! e>ly "p ( ?is c5tury1 a family ( t "n 0 buri$ b5ea? a mass ( glacial wa/e :i* _h hung on ! m\nta9 slope f ! anci5t days until a heavy ra91 foll[+ on a p]iod ( ?aw1 impell$ ! mass d[n ! slope4 ,al?\gh !re h be5 few su* cata/rophes not$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 x is because our m\nta9s h n be5 mu* dwelt 94 ,z !y become ?ickly inhabit$ z ! ,alps are1 m5 are sure to suff] f ^! accid5ts4 ,z ! volume ( a m\nta9 torr5t increases ?r\gh ! junction ( _m tribut>ies1 ! en]gy ( its mov+ wat]s becomes suffici5t to sweep away ! fragm5ts :i* come to its b$4 ,be=e ?is /age is atta9$ ! /ream r>ely t\*es ! solid "u rock ( ! m\nta91 ! base ( ! curr5t re/+ ^u ! l>g] loose /ones :i* x 0 unable to /ir4 ,9 ?is pebble-pav$ section1 because ! /ream c\ld n attack ! f\ndation rock1 we f9d no gorges--9 fact1 ! :ole ( ?is upp] section ( ! torr5t sy/em is peculi>ly condition$ by ! fact t ! /reams are deal+ n ) b$-rock1 b ) b\ld]s or small] loose fragm5ts4 ,if !y cut a little *annel1 ! mat]ials f ei!r side slip ! fa/]1 & soon repave ! b$4 ,b :5 ! /reams h by a junction ga9$ /r5g?1 & c keep _! b$s cle>1 !y soon c>ve d[n a gorge ?r\gh :i* !y desc5d f ! upp] m\nta9 realm to ! l>g] valleys1 :]e _! conjo9$ wat]s take on a riv]like aspect4 ,x %\ld be not$ "h t ! cutt+ p[] ( ! wat] mov+ 9 ! torr5t or 9 ! wave1 ! capacity x has = abrad+ rock1 resides altoge!r 9 ! bits ( /one or cutt+ tools ) :i* x is arm$4 ,pure wat]1 because ( its fluidity1 may move ov] or aga9/ firm-set /ones = ages )\t we>+ !m2 b 9 proportion z x moves rocky p>ticles ( any size1 ! l>g] !y are1 ! m effective ! "w1 x we>s ! rock ov] :i* x fl[s4 ,a capital in/ance ( ?is may be f\nd :]e a /ream f a hose is us$ 9 wa%+ w9d[s4 ,if ! wat] be pure1 !re is no effect ^u ! glass2 b if x be turbid1 conta9+ bits ( s&1 9 a little :ile ! surface w appe> cl\dy f ! multitude ( l9e scrat*es :i* ! h>d bits impell$ by ! wat] h inflict$ ^u x4 ,a some:at simil> case occurs :]e ! w9d be>s s& aga9/ w9d[ panes or a bottle :i* has long la9 on ! %ore4 ,! glass w soon be deeply c>v$ by ! action1 assum+ ! appe>ance :i* we t]m gr\nd4 ,?is pr9ciple is made use ( 9 ! arts4 ,glass vessels or %eets are prep>$ = c>v+ by pa/+ pap] cut into figures on _! surfaces4 ,! mat]ial is !n expos$ to a jet ( air or /eam-impell+ s& gra9s2 9 a %ort "t all ! surface :i* has n be5 protect$ by pap] has its poli% de/roy$ & is no long] transluc5t4 ,! passage f ! torr5t to ! riv]1 ?\gh n 9 a geographical way di/9ct1 is indicat$ to ! obs]vant eye by a simple feature--namely1 ! appe>ance ( alluvial t]races1 ^? m or less level heaps ( wat]-borne dbris :i* accumulate along ! banks ( riv]s1 :i*1 inde$1 con/itute ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^? /reams & torr5ts4 ,:]e ! m\nta9 wat]s move swiftly1 !y manage to be> onw>d ! wa/e :i* !y receive4 ,ev5 :]e ! blocks ( /one cl+ 9 ! b$1 x is only a %ort "t be=e !y are aga9 set 9 motion or gr\nd to pieces4 ,if by *ance ! detritus accumulates rapidly1 ! slope is /eep5$ & ! "w ( ! torr5t made m effici5t4 ,z ! torr5t comes t[>d ! base ( ! m\nta9s1 :]e x nei!r f9ds nor c create /eep slopes ov] :i* to fl[1 its spe$ necess>ily dim9i%es4 ,) ea* r$uction 9 ?is feature its c>ry+ p[] v rapidly dim9i%es4 ,?us wat] fl[+ at ! rate ( t5 miles an h\r c urge /ones f\r times ! mass t x c move :5 its spe$ is r$uc$ to half t rate4 ,! result is t on ! l[l&s1 ) _! relatively g5tle slopes1 ! comb9$ torr5ts1 despite ! increase 9 ! volume ( ! /ream aris+ f _! conflu5ce1 h to lay d[n a l>ge "p ( _! load ( detritus4 ,if we wat* :]e a torr5t ent]s a m\nta9 riv]1 we obs]ve t ! ma9 /ream 9 a way sorts ov] ! wa/e contribut$ to x1 be>+ on only ^? portions :i* its rate ( fl[ w p]mit x to c>ry1 leav+ ! rema9d] to be built into ! bank 9 ! =m ( a rude t]race4 ,?is accumulation may n ext5d f> bel[ ! po9t :]e ! torr5t :i* import$ ! dbris jo9s ! ma9 /ream2 a little f>!r d[n1 h[ev]1 we are sure to f9d ano!r su* junction & a second accumulation ( t]race mat]ial4 ,z ^! contributions increase1 ! t]race accumulations soon become cont9u\s1 ly+ on "o side or ! o!r ( ! riv]1 sometimes bord]+ bo? banks ( ! /ream4 ,9 g5]al1 x c be said t s long z ! rate ( fall ( ! torr5t exce$s "o hundr$ feet to ! mile x does n usually exhibit ^! %elves ( detritus4 ,bel[ t rate ( desc5t !y are apt to be =m$4 ,mu*1 h[ev]1 dep5ds ^u ! am\nt ( detritus :i* ! /ream be>s & ! co>s5ess ( x2 moreov]1 :]e ! wat] goes ?r\gh a gorge 9 ! mann] ( a flume ) /eep rocky sides1 x c urge a l>g] am\nt be=e x ?an :5 x trav]ses a wide valley1 ?r\gh :i* x passes1 x may be1 9 a w9d+ way4 ,at fir/ sight x may seem r a f9e di/9ction to sep>ate torr5ts f riv]s by ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( t]races4 ,z we foll[ d[n ! /ream1 h[ev]1 & /udy its action 9 relation to ^! t]races1 & ! peculi> hi/ory ( ! detritus ( :i* !y are compos$1 we p]ceive t ^! latt] accumulations are v important features4 ,beg9n+ at fir/ ) small & imp]fect alluvial pla9s1 ! riv]1 z x desc5ds t[>d ! sea1 ga9+ 9 /ore ( wat] & 9 ! am\nt ( dbris :i* comes ) t wat] f ! hills1 :ile ! rate ( fall & consequ5t spe$ ( ! curr5t are dim9i%$1 soon comes to a /age :]e x is engag$ 9 an endless /ruggle ) ! t]race mat]ials4 ,9 times ( flood1 ! walls ( ! t]races compel ! tide to fl[ ov] ! tops ( ^! accumulations4 ,ow+ to ! relative ?9ness ( ! wat] beyond ! b$1 & to ! gr[? ( vegetation !re1 ! curr5t moves m sl[ly1 & !re=e lays d[n a consid]able deposit ( ! silt & s& :i* x conta9s4 ,?is may result dur+ a s+le flood 9 lift+ ! level ( ! t]race by "s in*es 9 height1 /ill fur!r s]v+ to re/rict ! *annel4 ,along ! banks ( ! ,mississippi & o!r l>ge riv]s ! mo/ ( ?is detritus falls ne> ! /ream2 a little ( x p5etrates to ! f>!r side ( ! pla9s1 :i* (t5 h a wid? ( t5 miles or m4 ,! result is t a broad elevation is con/ruct$1 a sort ( natural mole or levee1 9 a measure damm+ ! flood wat]s1 :i* c n[ only ent] ! back swamps ?r\gh ! *annels ( ! tribut>y /reams4 ,ea* ( ^! back swamps normally dis*>ges into ! ma9 /ream ?r\gh a little riv] ( its own1 along ! banks ( :i* ! natural levees d n develop4 ,we h n[ to note a curi\s sw++ movem5t ( riv]s :i* 0 fir/ well obs]v$ by ! skilful eng9e]s ( ,briti% ,india4 ,?is movem5t c be/ be illu/rat$ by its effects4 ,if on any riv] :i* w9ds ?r\gh alluvial pla9s a jetty is s con/ruct$ z to deflect ! /ream at any po9t1 ! c\rse :i* x foll[s w be alt]$ dur+ its subsequ5t fl[1 x may be1 = ! di/ance ( hundr$s ( miles4 ,x w be p]ceiv$ t 9 its movem5ts a riv] normally /rikes fir/ aga9/ "o %ore & !n aga9/ ! o!r4 ,its wat] 9 a g5]al way moves z does a billi>d ball :5 x flies f "o cu%ion to ano!r4 ,x is true t 9 a torr5t we h ! same conditions ( motion2 b !re ! banks are ei!r ( h>d rock or1 if ( detritus1 !y are cont9ually mov+ into ! /ream 9 ! mann] be=e describ$4 ,9 ! case ( ! riv]1 h[ev]1 its po9ts ( collision are (t5 on s(t banks1 :i* are readily und]m9$ by ! wa%+ action ( ! /ream4 ,9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( ev5ts1 ! riv] beg9n+1 we may imag9e1 ) a /raight *annel1 _h its curr5t deflect$ by "s ob/acle1 x may be ev5 by ! slight pressure ( a tribut>y /ream1 is driv5 aga9/ "o bank2 !nce x reb\nds & /rikes ! o!r4 ,at ea* po9t ( imp+e x cuts ! alluvium away4 ,x c be> on only a small portion ( t :i* x ?us obta9s2 ! great] "p ( ! mat]ial is deposit$ on ! opposite side ( ! /ream1 b a little l[] d[n1 :]e x makes a %all[4 ,on ^! %all[s wat]-lov+ plants & ev5 c]ta9 trees1 su* z ! will[s & popl>s1 f9d a foo?old4 ,:5 ! /ream rises1 ! s$im5t settles 9 ?is tangle1 & soon ext5ds ! alluvial pla9 f ! neighb\r+ bank1 or 9 r>] cases ! riv] comes to fl[ on ei!r side ( an isl& ( its own con/ruction4 ,! natural result ( ?is billi>d-ball movem5t ( ! wat]s is t ! pa? ( ! /ream is s9u\s4 ,! less its rate ( fall & ! great] ! am\nt ( silt x obta9s f its tribut>ies1 ! m w9d+ its c\rse becomes4 ,?is ga9 9 ^? p>ts ( ! riv]'s curv+s :]e deposition t5ds to take place may be accel]at$ by tree-plant+4 ,?us a skilful own] ( a tract ( l& on ! s\? bank ( ! ,ohio ,riv]1 by assidu\sly plant+ will[ trees on ! front ( 8 prop]ty1 ga9$ 9 ! c\rse ( ?irty ye>s m ?an an acre 9 ! wid? ( 8 arable l&4 ,:5 told by ! pres5t writ] t he 0 robb+ 8 neighb\rs on ! o!r side ( ! /ream1 he claim$ t _! ignorance ( ! laws ( riv] motion 0 suffici5t evid5ce t !y did n des]ve to own l&4 ,9 ! primitive /ate ( a c\ntry ! wat]-lov+ plants1 p>ticul>ly ! trees :i* fl\ri% 9 excessively humid conditions1 g5]ally make a c]ta9 def5ce aga9/ ^! incursions ( ! /reams4 ,b :5 a riv] has ga9$ an op5+ 9 ! bank x c1 dur+ a flood1 ext5d its wid? (t5 to ! di/ance ( hundr$s ( feet4 ,dur+ ! inundations ( ! ,mississippi ! riv] may at times be se5 to eat away acres ( l& 9 a s+le day along "o ( ! outcurves ( its banks4 ,! und]m9$ =e/s fall+ into ! flood jo9 ! great procession ( drift timb]1 compos$ ( trees :i* h be5 simil>ly uproot$1 :i* occupies ! middle "p ( ! /ream4 ,?is driftwood belt (t5 has a wid? ( ?ree or f\r hundr$ feet1 ! entangl$ /ems & bran*es mak+ x difficult = a boat to pass f "o side ( ! riv] to ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,oxb[s & cut-(f4 ,%[+ ! *anges 9 ! c\rse ( a riv] 9 its alluvial pla94 ,:5 ! curves ( a riv] h be5 develop$ to a c]ta9 po9t 7see ,fig4 #aa71 :5 !y h atta9$ :at is call$ ! oxb[ =m1 x (t5 happ5s t ! /ream breaks ?r\gh ! i/hmus :i* connects "o ( ! p59sulas ) ! ma9l&4 ,:]e1 z is n infrequ5tly ! case1 ! b5d has a l5g? ( t5 miles or m1 ! wat] j above & bel[ ! new-made op5+ is apt to diff] 9 height by "s feet4 ,plung+ d[n ! declivity1 ! /ream1 fl[+ ) great velocity1 soon enl>ges ! *annel s t its :ole tide may take ! easi] way4 ,:5 ?is result is accompli%$1 ! old curve is des]t$1 s& b>s are =m$ across _! m\?s1 :i* may gradually gr[ to broad alluvial pla9s1 s t ! long-surviv+1 cresc5t-%ap$ lake1 ! remnant ( ! riv] b$1 may be se5 f> f ! pres5t c\rse ( ! ev]-*ang+ /ream4 ,gradually ! accumulations ( vegetable matt] & ! silt br\ght 9 by floods efface ?is moat or oxb[ cut-(f1 z x is s commonly t]m$4 ,z soon z ! riv] breaks ?r\gh ! neck ( a p59sula 9 ! mann] above describ$1 ! curr5t ( ! /ream becomes mu* swift] = _m miles bel[ & above ! op5+4 ,sl[ly1 h[ev]1 ! slopes are re>rang$ ?r\gh\t its :ole c\rse1 yet = a "t ! /ream ne> ! seat ( ! *ange becomes /raight] ?an be=e1 & ?is = ! reason t its swift] curr5t is bett] able to dispose ( ! dbris :i* is suppli$ to x4 ,! effect ( a *ange 9 ! curr5t produc$ by su* new *annels z we h describ$ z =m+ across ! i/hmuses ( b5ds is to p]turb ! c\rse ( ! /ream 9 all its subsequ5t d[nw>d l5g?4 ,?us an oxb[ cut-(f =m$ ne> ! junction ( ! ,ohio & ,mississippi may t5d m or less to alt] ! sw+s ( ! ,mississippi all ! way to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,al?\gh ! sway+s ( ! /reams to & fro 9 _! alluvial pla9s w give ! read] "s idea z to ! /ruggle :i* ! great] riv]s h ) ! dbris :i* is committ$ to !m1 ! full measure ( ! "w & its consequ5ces c only be appreciat$ by ^? :o h /udi$ ! ph5om5a on ! gr\nd4 ,a riv] su* z ! ,mississippi is endlessly endeav\r+ to be> its burd5 to ! sea4 ,if its slope 7 a uni=m incl9$ plane1 ! task might readily be accompli%$2 b 9 ?is1 z 9 almo/ all o!r l>ge wat] ways1 ! slope ( ! b$ is ev] dim9i%+ ) its onw>d c\rse4 ,! same wat] :i* 9 ! m\nta9 torr5t ( ! ,appala*ians or ,cordill]as roll$ along /ones sev]al feet 9 diamet] d[n slopes ( a hundr$ feet or m to ! mile c 9 ! l[] rea*es ( ! /ream move no pebbles :i* are m ?an "o f\r? ( an in* 9 diamet] ov] slopes :i* desc5d on ! av]age ab\t half a foot 9 a mile4 ,?us at e /age f ! torr5t to ! sea ! detritus has f "t to "t to re/ )9 ! alluvial banks1 !re await+ ! decay :i* sl[ly comes1 & :i* may br+ x to ! /ate :]e x may be dissolv$ 9 ! wat]1 or divid$ into fragm5ts s small t ! /ream may be> !m on4 ,a computation :i* ! pres5t writ] has made %[s t1 on ! av]age1 x requires ab\t =ty ?\s& ye>s = a p>ticle ( /one to make its way d[n ! ,mississippi to ! sea aft] x has be5 deta*$ f its orig9al b$4 ,( c\rse1 "s bits may make ! j\rney /raight=w>dly2 o!rs may require a f> great] "t to accompli% ! c\rse :i* ! wat] itself makes at mo/ 9 a few weeks4 ,?is long delay 9 ! j\rney ( ! detritus--a delay caus$ by its frequ5t re/s 9 ! alluvial pla9--br+s ab\t important consequ5ces :i* we w n[ consid]4 ,z an alluvial pla9 is con/ruct$1 we g5]ally f9d at ! base pebbly mat]ial :i* fell to ! bottom 9 ! curr5t ( ! ma9 /ream z ! %ores grew outw>d4 ,above ?is level we f9d ! deposits laid d[n by ! flood wat]s conta9+ no pebbles1 & ?is = ! reason t ^? weighti] bits rema9$ 9 ! /ream b$ :5 ! tide fl[$ ov] ! pla94 ,z ! alluvial deposit is laid d[n1 a good deal ( vegetable matt] 0 built into x4 ,g5]ally ?is has decay$ & disappe>$4 ,on ! surface ( ! pla9 !re has always be5 gr[+ abundant vegetation1 ! rema9s ( :i* decay$ on ! surface 9 ! mann] :i* we may obs]ve at ! pres5t day4 ,?is decompos+ vegetable matt] )9 & ^u ! por\s alluvial mat]ial produces l>ge quantities ( c>bonic acid1 a gas :i* readily ent]s ! ra9 wat]1 & gives x a peculi> p[] ( break+ up rock matt]4 ,act+ on ! dbris1 ?is gas-*>g$ wat] rapidly br+s ab\t a decay ( ! fragm5ts4 ,mu* ( ! mat]ial passes at once into solution 9 ?is wat]1 & dra9s away ?r\gh ! multitud9\s spr+s :i* bord] ! riv]4 ,z ?is matt] is completely dissolv$1 z is sug> 9 wat]1 x goes /raight away to ! sea )\t ev] aga9 ent]+ ! alluvium4 ,9 _m1 if n mo/1 cases ?is dissolv+ "w :i* is go+ on 9 alluvial t]races is suffici5t to r5d] a l>ge "p ( ! mat]ials :i* !y conta9 into ! /ate :]e x disappe>s 9 an unse5 mann]2 ?us :ile ! annual floods are con/antly lay+ d[n accumulations on ! surface ( ^! pla9s1 ! spr+s are be>+ x away f bel[4 ,9 ?is way1 ?r\gh ! decomposition :i* takes place 9 !m1 all ^? riv] t]races :]e mu* vegetable matt] is m+l$ ) ! m9]al sub/ances1 become laboratories 9 :i* sub/ances are br\ght into solution & committ$ to ! seas4 ,we f9d 9 ! wat] ( ! ocean a great array ( dissolv$ m9]al sub/ances2 x1 inde$1 seems probable t ! sea wat] conta9s "s %>e1 ?\gh usually small1 ( all ! mat]ials :i* riv]s enc\nt] 9 _! j\rney ov] & "u ! l&s4 ,z ! wat]s ( ! sea obta9 b little ( ?is dissolv$ matt] along ! coa/1 x seems likely t ! great] %>e ( x is br\ght into ! /ate ( solution 9 ! natural laboratories ( ! alluvial pla9s4 ,"h & !re along ! sides ( ! valleys 9 :i* ! riv]s fl[ we commonly f9d ! rema9s ( anci5t pla9s ly+ at m or less consid]able heights above ! level ( ! /reams4 ,g5]ally ^! deposits1 :i* f _! =m are call$ t]races1 repres5t ! /ages ( d[n-we>+ by :i* ! /ream has c>v$ out its way ?r\gh ! rocks4 ,! great] "p ( ^! anci5t alluvial pla9s has be5 remov$ ?r\gh ! ceaseless sw++ ( ! /ream to & fro 9 ! valley :i* x has excavat$4 ,9 all ! /ates ( alluvial pla9s1 :e!r !y be ! f]tile deposits ne> ! level ( ! /reams :i* built !m1 or ! poor] & rud] surfac$ high] t]races1 !y h a great value to mank9d4 ,m5 e>ly le>n$ t ^! l&s 7 ( s+ul>ly uni=m goodness = agricultural use4 ,!y are s light t !y 7 easily delv$ ) ! anci5t po9t$ /icks or /one hoes1 or turn$ by ! old51 wood5 pl\gh4 ,!y n only give a ri* return :5 fir/ subjugat$1 b1 ow+ to ! dep? ( ! soil & ! frequ5cy ) :i* !y are visit$ by f]tiliz+ inundations1 !y yield ri* h>ve/s )\t f]tiliz+ = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,x is !re=e n surpris+ t we f9d ! peoples :o dep5d$ ^u tillage = subsi/5ce fir/ develop$ on ! great riv] pla9s4 ,!re1 inde$1 7 laid ! f\ndations ( our high] civilization2 !re alone c\ld ! /ate :i* dem&s ( its citiz5s fix$ abodes & cont9u\s lab\r take rise4 ,9 ! conditions :i* ^! fields ( abundance af=d$1 d5se populations 7 possible1 & all ! arts :i* lead t[>d culture 7 greatly fav\r$4 ,?us x is t ! civilization ( ,*9a1 ,india1 ,p]sia1 & ,egypt1 ! beg9n+s ( man's high] developm5t1 began ne> ! m\?s ( ! great riv] valleys4 ,^! fields 71 moreov]1 mo/ fav\rably plac$ = ! in/itution ( comm]ce1 9 t ! arts ( navigation1 orig9at+ 9 ! %elt]$ rea*es ( ! /reams1 readily f\nd its way ?r\gh ! e/u>ies to ! op5 sea4 ,pass+ d[n ! rea*es ( a great riv] z x approa*es ! sea1 we f9d t ! alluvial pla9s usually wid5 & become l[]4 ,at l5g? we atta9 a po9t :]e ! flood wat]s cov] ! surface = s l>ge a "p ( ! ye> t ! gr\nd is swampy & untillable unless x is artificially & at great exp5se ( lab\r won to agriculture 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ?is task has be5 effect$ 9 ! l[] portion ( ! ,rh9e ,valley4 ,/ill f>!r t[>d ! sea1 ! pla9 gradually dips d[nw>d until x passes bel[ ! level ( ! wat]s4 ,?r\gh ?is mud-flat section ! /ream cont9ues to cut *annels1 b ) ! ev]-progressive sl[+ ( its motion ! burd5 ( f9e mud :i* x c>ries drops to ! bottom1 & con/antly closes ! pa?s ?r\gh :i* ! wat] escapes4 ,e few ye>s !y t5d to break a new way on "o side or ! o!r ( _! =m] pa?4 ,"s ( ! greate/ eng9e]+ "w done 9 mod]n times has be5 accompli%$ by ! eng9e]s engag$ 9 controll+ ! exits ( l>ge riv]s to ! sea4 ,! outbreak ( ! ,yell[ ,riv] 9 #ahhg1 9 :i* ! /ream1 h9d]$ by its own accumulations1 =c$ a new pa? across its alluvial pla9s1 de/roy$ a va/ deal ( life & prop]ty1 & made ! new exit sev5ty miles f ! pa? :i* x ab&on$4 ,bel[ ! surface ( ! op5 wat] ! alluvial deposits spread out into a broad fan1 :i* slopes gradually to a po9t :]e1 9 ! mann] ( ! cont95tal %elf1 ! bottom desc5ds /eeply into deep wat]4 ,x is ! cu/om ( naturali/s to divide ! l[] section ( riv] deposits--t "p ( ! accumulation :i* is ne> ! sea--f ! o!r alluvial pla9s1 t]m+ ! l[] portion ! delta4 ,! ^w orig9ally came into use to describe t "p ( ! alluvium accumulat$ by ! ,nile ne> its m\?1 :i* =ms a f]tile t]ritory %ap$ some:at l ! f\r? lett] ( ! ,greek alphabet4 ,al?\gh ! def9ition is good 9 ! ,egyptian in/ance1 & has a c]ta9 use else:]e1 we be/ reg>d all ! detritus 9 a riv] valley :i* is 9 ! /ate ( repose along ! /ream to its utmo/ bran*es z =m+ "o great :ole4 ,x is1 inde$1 "o ( ! mo/ unit$ ( ! l>ge features :i* ! e>? exhibits4 ,! /ud5t %\ld consid] x z a cont9u\s incl9$ plane ( dim9i%+ slope1 ext5d+ f ! base ( ! torr5ts to ! sea1 & ( c\rse ramify+ into ! sev]al bran*es ( ! riv] sy/em4 ,he %\ld fur!r be> 9 m9d ! fact t x is a va/ laboratory :]e rock mat]ial is br\ght into ! soluble /ate = deliv]y to ! seas4 ,! div]sity 9 ! =m ( riv] valleys is exce$+ly great4 ,almo/ all ! v>iety ( ! l&scape is due to ?is impress ( wat] action :i* has op]at$ on ! surface 9 pa/ ages4 ,:5 fir/ elevat$ above ! sea1 ! surface ( ! l& is b little v>i$2 at ?is /age 9 ! developm5t ! riv]s h b %all[ valleys1 :i* g5]ally cut r /raight away ov] ! pla9 t[>d ! sea4 ,x is :5 ! surface has be5 uplift$ to a consid]able height1 & especially :51 z is usually ! case1 ?is uplift+ action has be5 associat$ ) m\nta9-build+1 t valleys take on _! acc5t$ & picturesque =m4 ,! reason = ?is is easily p]ceiv$3 x lies 9 ! fact t ! rocks ov] :i* ! /ream fl[s are guid$ 9 ! cutt+ :i* !y effect by ! div]sities ( h>dness 9 ! /rata t !y enc\nt]4 ,! "w :i* x does is p]=m$ by ! h>d sub/ances t are impell$ by ! curr5t1 pr9cipally by ! s& & pebbles4 ,^! mat]ials1 driv5 along by ! /ream1 become erod+ tools ( v consid]able en]gy4 ,z w be se5 :5 we %ortly come to describe wat]falls1 ! po?oles =m$ at ^? po9ts af=d excell5t evid5ce z to ! capacity ( /ream-impell$ bits ( /one to cut away ! firme/ b$ rocks4 ,naturally ! ease ) :i* ?is c>v+ "w is done is proportionate to ! en]gy ( ! curr5ts1 & also to ! relative h>dness ( ! mov+ bits & ! rocks ov] :i* !y are driv54 ,s long z ! rocks lie horizontally 9 _! natural con/ruction attitude ! c\rse ( ! /ream is n mu* influ5c$ by ! v>iations 9 h>dness :i* ! b$ exhibits4 ,:]e ! /rata are v firm !re is likely to be a n>r[ gorge1 ! /eeps ( :i* rise on ei!r side ) b slight alluvial pla9s2 :]e ! b$s are s(t ! valley wid5s1 p]haps aga9 to contract :]e 9 ! c\rse ( its desc5t x enc\nt]s ano!r h>d lay]4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 ! b$s h be5 subject$ to m\nta9-build+1 & h be5 ?r[n into v v>i$ attitudes by fold+ & fault+1 ! /ream n[ "h & n[ !re enc\nt]s b$s :i* ei!r re/ra9 its fl[ or give x fre$om4 ,! /ream is !n =c$ to cut its way accord+ to ! positions ( ! v>i\s und]ly+ /rata4 ,?is effect ^u its c\rse is n only due to ! peculi>ities ( uplift$ rocks1 b to manifold accid5ts ( o!r nature3 ve9s & dikes1 :i* (t5 int]lace ! b$s ) h>d] or s(t] p>titions ?an ! c\ntry rock2 local h>d5+s 9 ! mat]ials1 due to cry/allization & o!r *emical processes1 (t5 create indescribable v>iations :i* are m or less completely express$ 9 ! pa? ( ! /ream4 ,:5 a l& has be5 newly elevat$ above ! sea !re is (t5--we may say1 inde$1 g5]ally--a v great diff]5ce betwe5 ! height ( its head wat]s & ! ocean level4 ,9 ?is condition ( a c\ntry ! riv]s h :at we may call a new aspect2 _! valleys are commonly n>r[ & r /eep1 wat]falls are apt to ab\nd1 & ! alluvial t]races are relatively small 9 ext5t4 ,/age by /age ! torr5ts cut deep]2 ! wa/e :i* !y make emb>rasses ! c\rse ( ! l[] wat]s1 :]e no great am\nt ( d[n-cutt+ is possible = ! reason t ! b$ ( ! /ream is ne> sea level4 ,at ! same "t ! alluvial mat]ials1 build+ out to sea1 ?us dim9i% ! slope ( ! /ream4 ,9 ! extreme old age ( ! riv] sy/em ! m\nta9s are eat5 d[n s t ! torr5t section disappe>s1 & ! /ream becomes ( some?+ l a uni=m slope2 ! high] alluvial pla9s gradually wa/e away1 until 9 ! end ! valley has no sali5t features4 ,at ?is /age 9 ! process1 or ev5 be=e x is atta9$1 ! valley is likely to be subm]g$ b5ea? ! sea1 :]e x is buri$ b5ea? ! deposits =m$ on ! floor2 or a fur!r uplift ( ! l& may occur ) ! result t ! /ream is rejuv5at$2 or once m end[$ ) ! p[] to create torr5ts1 build alluvial pla9s1 & d ! o!r int]e/+ "w ( a normal riv]4 ,x r>ely1 if ev]1 happ5s t a riv] valley atta9s old age be=e x has sunk b5ea? ! sea or be5 refre%$ by fur!r uplift+s4 ,9 ! un/able conditions ( ! cont95ts1 "o or ! o!r ( ^! processes1 sometimes 9 diff]5t places bo? toge!r1 is apt to be go+ on4 ,?us if we take ! case ( ! ,mississippi & its pr9cipal tribut>ies1 ! ,ohio & ,miss\ri1 we f9d t = _m geological ages ! m\nta9s ab\t _! s\rces h frequ5tly1 if n con/antly1 gr[n upw>d1 s t _! torr5t sections1 ?\gh !y h worn d[n t5s ( ?\s&s ( feet1 are /ill high above ! sea level1 p]haps on ! av]age z high z !y h ev] be54 ,at ! same "t ! slight up-&-d[n sway+s ( ! %ore l&s1 am\nt+ 9 g5]al to less ?an five hundr$ feet1 h greatly affect$ ! *annels ( ! ma9 riv] & its tribut>ies 9 _! l[] p>ts4 ,n long ago ! ,mississippi betwe5 ,cairo & ! ,gulf fl[$ 9 a r /eep-sid$ valley probably "s hundr$s ( feet 9 dep?1 :i* _h a wid? ( _m miles4 ,!n at ! close ( ! la/ ,glacial p]iod ! region sank d[n s t ! sea flood$ ! valley to a po9t above ! pres5t junction ( ! ,ohio ,riv] ) ! ma9 /ream4 ,s9ce !n alluvial pla9s h fill$ ?is e/u>y to ev5 beyond ! orig9al m\?4 ,9 _m o!r ( our ,s\!rn riv]s1 z along ! %ore f ! ,mississippi to ! ,hudson1 ! /reams h n br\ght 9 en\gh detritus to fill _! dr[n$ valleys1 :i* h n[ ! "n ( bays1 ( :i* ! ,delaw>e & ,*esapeake on ! ,atlantic coa/1 & ,mobile ,bay on ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 are good examples4 ,! failure ( ,*esapeake & ,delaw>e ,bays to fill ) dbris 9 ! measure exhibit$ by ! m s\!rn valleys is due to ! fact t ! /reams :i* fl[ into !m to a great ext5t dra9 f a region ?ickly cov]$ ) glacial wa/e1 a mass :i* holds ! flood wat]s1 yield+ ! supply b sl[ly to ! torr5ts1 :i* !re h b a slight cutt+ p[]4 ,9 our sket* ( riv] valleys no att5tion has be5 giv5 to ! ph5om5a ( wat]falls1 ^? accid5ts ( ! fl[ :i*1 z we h not$1 are p>ticul>ly apt to *>act]ize riv]s :i* h n yet cut d[n to ne> ! sea level4 ,:]e ! normal uni=m desc5t :i* is *>act]i/ic ( a riv]'s b$ is int]rupt$ by a sudd5 /eep1 ! fact always indicates ! occurr5ce ( "o ( a numb] ( geological actions4 ,! commone/ cause ( wat]falls is due to a sudd5 *ange 9 ! "* ( horizontal or at lea/ ne>ly level b$s ov] :i* ! /ream may fl[4 ,:]e aft] c\rs+ = a di/ance ov] a h>d lay] ! /ream comes to its edge & drops on a s(t or easily erod$ /ratum1 x w cut ?is latt] b$ away1 & create a m or less *>act]i/ic wat]fall4 ,tumbl+ d[n ! face ( ! h>d lay]1 ! /ream acquires velocity2 ! dbris :i* x conveys is hurl$ aga9/ ! bottom1 & !re=e cuts p[]fully1 :ile be=e1 be+ only rubb$ ov] ! /one z x mov$ along1 x cut b slightly4 ,masses ( ice h ! same effect z /ones4 ,bits dropp+ f ! l$ge are (t5 swept r\nd & r\nd by ! eddies1 s t !y excavate an op5+ :i* prev5ts _! *ance escape4 ,9 ^! conf9$ spaces !y "w l aug]s1 bor+ a deep1 well-l cavity4 ,z ! bits ( /one we> out !y are replac$ by o!rs1 :i* fall 9 f above4 ,work+ 9 ?is way1 ! fragm5ts (t5 develop regul> well-l depressions1 ! cavities ( :i* "w back "u ! cliffs1 & by ! und]m9+ process deprive ! face ( ! wall ( its support1 s t x tumbles 9 ru9 to ! base1 !re to supply m mat]ial = ! po?ol+ action4 ,wat]falls ( ! type above describ$ are by f> ! commone/ ( ^? :i* occur out ( ! torr5t di/ricts ( a great riv] sy/em4 ,t ( ,niag>a is an excell5t specim5 ( ! type1 :i*1 ?\gh r>ely manife/$ 9 any?+ l ! dignity ( ! great fall1 is pl5tifully %[n ?r\gh\t ! ,mississippi ,valley & ! bas9 ( ! ,great ,lakes4 ,)9 a hundr$ miles ( ,niag>a !re are at lea/ a hundr$ small wat]falls ( ! same type4 ,probably ?ree qu>t]s ( all ! l>g] accid5ts ( ?is nature are due to ! conditions ( a h>d b$ ov]ly+ s(t] /rata4 ,falls are also produc$ 9 v _m in/ances by dikes :i* cross ! /ream4 ,s1 too1 ?\gh r>ely1 only "o /rik+ in/ance be+ kn[n1 an anci5t coral reef :i* has become buri$ 9 /rata may af=d rock ( su* h>dness t :5 ! riv] comes to cross x x =ms a cascade1 z at ! ,falls ( ! ,ohio1 at ,l\isville1 ,ky4 ,x is a *>act]i/ic ( all o!r falls1 except ^? fir/ m5tion$1 t !y r>ely plunge ) a clean d[nw>d leap ov] ! face ( a precipice :i* rec$es at its base1 b move d[nw>d ov] an irregul> slop+ surface4 ,9 ! torr5t di/rict ( riv]s wat]falls are commonly v num]\s1 & are g5]ally due to ! v>y+ h>dness 9 ! rocks :i* ! /reams enc\nt]4 ,"h1 :]e ! cutt+ action is go+ on ) great rapidity1 slight diff]5ces 9 ! resi/ance :i* ! rocks make to ! "w w lead to great v>iations 9 ! =m ( ! b$ ov] :i* !y fl[1 :ile on ! m g5tly slop+ bottoms ( ! riv]s1 :]e ! dbris moves sl[ly1 su* v>iations w\ld be unimportant 9 _! effect4 ,:5 ! torr5ts escape into ! ma9 riv] valleys1 9 regions :]e ! great /reams h cut deep gorges1 !y (t5 desc5d f a great v]tical height1 =m+ wond]ful wat]falls1 su* z ^? :i* occur 9 ! fam\s ,laut]brunn5 ,valley ( ,switz]l& or 9 t ( ! ,yosemite 9 ,cali=nia4 ,?is gr\p ( cascades is peculi> 9 t ! /eep ( ! fall is made n by ! /ream itself1 b by ! action ( a great] riv] or ( a glaci] :i* may h "s "t tak5 its place4 ,wat]falls h an economic z well z a picturesque int]e/ 9 t !y af=d s\rces ( p[] :i* may be a v great advantage to manufactur]s4 ,?us along ! ,atlantic coa/ ! /reams :i* come f ! ,appala*ian highl&s1 & :i* h h>dly escap$ f _! torr5t section be=e !y atta9 ! sea1 af=d num]\s cat>acts :i* h be5 develop$ s t !y af=d a va/ am\nt ( p[]4 ,betwe5 ! ,james on ! s\? & ! ,/e4 ,croix on ! nor? m ?an a hundr$ ( ^! ,appala*ian riv]s h be5 turn$ to economic use4 ,! indu/rial arts ( ?is "p ( ! c\ntry dep5d mu* ^u !m = ! p[] :i* drives _! ma*9]y4 ,! :ole ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 because ( ! consid]able size ( its riv]s & _! relatively rapid fall1 is ri*ly end[$ ) ?is s\rce ( en]gy1 :i*1 orig9at+ 9 ! sun's heat & convey$ ?r\gh ! ra91 may be made to s]ve ! ne$s ( man4 ,9 view ( ! fact t rec5t inv5tions h made x possible to conv]t ?is en]gy ( fall+ wat] into ! =m ( electricity1 :i* may be convey$ to great di/ances1 x seems likely t our riv]s w 9 ! future be a great s\rce ( national weal?4 ,we mu/ turn aga9 to riv] valleys1 !re to trace c]ta9 actions less evid5t ?an ^? already not$1 b ( great importance 9 det]m9+ ^! features ( ! l&4 ,fir/1 we h to note t 9 ! valley or region dra9$ by a riv] !re is ano!r degrad+ or d[n-we>+ action ?an t :i* is accompli%$ by ! direct "w ( ! visible /ream4 ,all ov] su* a valley ! und]gr\nd wat]s1 soak+ ?r\gh ! soil & p5etrat+ ?r\gh ! und]ly+ rock1 are con/antly remov+ a portion ( ! m9]al matt] :i* !y take into solution & be> away to ! sea4 ,9 ?is way1 depriv$ ( a "p ( _! sub/ance1 ! rocks are cont9ually settl+ d[n by und]we> ?r\gh\t ! :ole bas91 :ile !y are locally be+ cut d[n by ! action ( ! /ream4 ,h5ce 9 "p x comes ab\t t 9 a riv] bas9 we f9d two contra/$ features--! g5]al & (t5 slight slope ( a c\ntry t[>d ! ma9 /ream & its great] tribut>ies1 & ! %>p ind5tation ( ! gorge 9 :i* ! /reams fl[1 ^! latt] caus$ by ! imm$iate & rec5t action ( ! /reams4 ,if n[ ! read] w conceive himself /&+ at any po9t 9 a riv] bas91 pref]ably beyond ! realms ( ! torr5ts1 he may ) ! guidance ( ! facts previ\sly not$1 ) a little use ( ! imag9ation1 behold ! va/ p]ceptive :i* ! hi/ory ( ! riv] valley may unfold to him4 ,he /&s on ! surface ( ! soil1 t dbris ( ! rocks :i* is j ent]+ on its way to ! ocean4 ,9 ! same region t5 ?\s& ye>s ago he w\ld h /ood ^u a surface f "o to t5 feet high] ?an ! pres5t soil cov]+4 ,a million ye>s ago 8 /ation w\ld h be5 p]haps five hundr$ feet high] ?an ! surface4 ,t5 million ye>s 9 ! pa/1 a p]iod less ?an ! lifetime ( c]ta9 riv]s1 su* z ! ,fr5* ,broad ,riv] 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ! soil 0 probably five ?\s& feet or m above its pres5t plane4 ,!re are1 inde$1 cases :]e riv] valleys appe> to h work$ d[n )\t int]ruption f ! subsid5ce ( ! l& b5ea? ! sea to ! dep? ( at lea/ two miles4 ,look+ upw>d ?r\gh ! space :i* ! rocks once occupi$1 we c conceive ! action ( ! =ces 9 _! h>moni\s co-op]ation :i* h br\ght ! surface sl[ly d[nw>d4 ,we c imag9e ! ceaseless corrosion due to ! gr\nd wat]1 br++ ab\t a con/ant ?\gh sl[ desc5t ( ! :ole surface4 ,aga9 & aga9 ! /reams1 sw++ to & fro "u ! guidance ( ! und]ly+ rock1 or f ! ob/acles :i* ! dbris !y c>ri$ impos$ ^u !m1 h cross$ ! surface4 ,n[ & !n p]haps ! we>+ 0 int5sifi$ by glacial action1 = an ice %eet (t5 cuts ) a spe$ _m times z great z t :i* fluid wat] c accompli%4 ,on ! :ole1 ?is ex]cise ( ! con/ructive imag9ation 9 conceiv+ ! hi/ory ( a riv] valley is "o ( ! mo/ enl>g+ tasks :i* ! geologi/ c und]take4 ,:]e 9 a riv] valley !re are _m lat]al /reams1 & especially :]e ! process ( solution c>ri$ on by ! und]gr\nd wat]s is mo/ effective1 z comp>$ ) erosive "w done 9 ! b$ ( ! ma9 riv]1 we commonly f9d ! valley slop+ g5tly t[>d its c5tre1 ! riv]s hav+ b slight /eeps ne> _! banks4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :]e1 z occasionally happ5s1 a consid]able /ream f$ by ! ra9 & sn[ fall 9 its torr5t section c\rses = a great di/ance ov] high1 arid pla9s1 on :i* ! gr\nd wat] & ! tribut>ies d b little "w1 ! bas9 may slope ) v slight declivity to ! riv] m>g9s1 & !re desc5d to great dep?s1 =m+ v deep gorges1 ( :i* ! ,colorado ,caon is ! mo/ p]fect type4 ,z in/ances ( ^! contra/$ conditions1 we may take1 on ! "o h&1 ! upp] ,mississippi1 :]e ! grades t[>d ! ma9 /ream are g5tle & ! valley gorge b slightly exhibit$2 on ! o!r1 ! above-m5tion$ ,colorado1 :i* be>s a great tide ( wat]s drawn f ! high & relatively ra9y region ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s across ! va/ plateau ly+ 9 an almo/ ra9less c\ntry4 ,9 ?is section ne>ly all ! d[n-we>+ has be5 br\ght ab\t 9 ! direct pa? ( ! /ream1 :i* has worn ! elevat$ pla9 into a deep gorge dur+ ! sl[ upris+ ( ! table-l& to its pres5t height4 ,9 ?is way a defile ne>ly a mile 9 dep? has be5 creat$ 9 a prevail+ly r flat c\ntry4 ,?is gorge has embran*m5ts :]e ! few great tribut>ies h done l "w1 b1 on ! :ole1 ?is riv] fl[s 9 an almo/ unbrok5 *annel1 ! excavation ( :i* has be5 due to its swift1 pebble-be>+ wat]s4 ,! t5d5cy ( a newly =m$ riv] is to cut a m or less di/9ct caon4 ,z ! bas9 becomes anci5t1 ?is elem5t ( ! gorge t5ds to disappe>1 ! reason = ?is be+ t1 :ile ! riv] b$ is high above ! sea1 ! curr5t is swift & ! d[n-cutt+ rapid1 :ile ! sl[ subsid5ce ( ! c\ntry on ei!r side--a process :i* goes on at a uni=m rate--causes ! surface ( t region to be left beh9d 9 ! race = ! sea level4 ,z ! /ream b$ comes ne>] ! sea level its rate ( desc5t is dim9i%$1 & s ! outly+ c\ntry gradually ov]takes x4 ,9 regions :]e ! w9t]s are v cold ! effect ( ice on ! developm5t ( ! /ream b$s bo? 9 ! torr5t & riv] sections ( ! valley is important4 ,?is "w is accompli%$ 9 sev]al div]se ways4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 :]e ! /ream is cle> & ! curr5t does n fl[ too swiftly1 ! /ones on ! bottom radiate _! heat ?r\gh ! wat]1 & ?us =m ice on _! surfaces1 :i* may atta9 consid]able ?ickness4 ,z ice is consid]ably light] ?an wat]1 ! effect is (t5 to lift up ! /ones ( ! b$ if !y be n too l>ge2 :5 ?us deta*$ f ! bottom1 !y are easily float$ d[n /ream until ! ice melts away4 ,! ice :i* =ms on ! surface ( ! wat] likewise imprisons ! pebbles along ! banks1 & dur+ ! subsequ5t ?aw may c>ry !m hundr$s ( miles t[>d ! sea4 ,x seems likely1 f c]ta9 obs]vations made by ! writ]1 t consid]able /ones may ?us be c>ri$ f ! ,alleghany ,riv] to ! ma9 ,mississippi4 ,p]haps ! mo/ important effect ( ice on riv] *annels is accompli%$ :5 9 a "t ( flood ! ice field :i* cov]$ ! /ream1 p]haps to ! dep? ( "s feet1 is brok5 up into va/ floes1 :i* drift d[nw>d ) ! curr5t4 ,:51 z on ! ,ohio1 ^! fields sometimes h ! area ( sev]al hundr$ acres1 !y (t5 collide ) ! %ores1 especially :]e ! /ream makes a %>p b5d4 ,urg$ by _! mom5tum1 ^! ice floes pack into ! semblance ( a dam1 :i* may h a ?ickness ( tw5ty1 ?irty1 or ev5 fifty feet4 ,beg9n+ on ! %ore1 :]e ! collision takes place1 ! dam may swiftly develop cle> across ! /ream1 s t 9 a few m9utes ! way ( ! wat]s is completely block$4 ,! on-com+ ice %oots up ^u ! accumulation1 increases its height1 & ext5ds x up /ream1 s t 9 an h\r ! mass completely b>s ! curr5t4 ,! wat]s !n heap up until !y break _! way ov] ! ob/acle1 wa%+ its top away1 until ! :ole is light en\gh to be =c$ d[n ! /ream1 :]e1 by ! friction x enc\nt]s on ! bottom & sides ( ! *annel1 x is brok5 to pieces4 ,x is easy to see t su* mov+ dams ( ice may sweep ! b$ ( a riv] z ) a great broom4 ,sometimes :]e ! gorges d n =m a /ation>y dam l>ge cakes ( ice become turn$ on edge & pack toge!r s t !y roll d[n ! /ream l great :eels1 gr9d+ ! b$ rock z !y g4 ,9 high nor!rn c\ntries1 z 9 ,sib]ia1 ! riv]s1 ev5 ! deepe/1 (t5 become s f> froz5 t _! *annels are entirely ob/ruct$4 ,:]e1 z 9 ! case ( ^! ,sib]ian riv]s1 ! fl[ is f s\? to nor?1 x (t5 happ5s t ! spr+ ?aw sets 9 be=e ! m nor!rn b$s ( ! ma9 /ream are releas$ f _! bondage ( fro/4 ,9 ?is case ! inundations h to f9d new pa?s on ei!r side ( ! ob/ruct$ way4 ,! result is a type ( valleys *>act]iz$ by v irregul> & *angeable /ream b$s1 ! riv]s hav+ no *ance to organize !mselves into ! %apely curves :i* !y ord9>ily foll[4 ,! supply :i* f9ds its way to a riv] is compos$1 z has be5 already incid5tally not$1 9 "p ( ! wat] :i* c\rses und]gr\nd = a great] or less di/ance be=e x em]ges to ! surface1 & 9 "p ( t :i* moves directly ov] ! gr\nd4 ,^! two %>es ( wat] h some:at diff]5t hi/ories4 ,on ! %>e ( ^! two dep5ds ! /ability ( ! fl[4 ,:]e1 z 9 ,new ,engl& & o!r glaciat$ c\ntries1 ! surface ( ! e>? is cov]$ ) a ?ick lay] ( s& & gravel1 :i*1 except :5 froz51 readily admits ! wat]2 ! ra9fall is to a v great ext5t absorb$ by ! e>?1 & only yield$ sl[ly to ! /reams4 ,9 ^! cases floods are r>e & ( no great de/ructive p[]4 ,aga91 :]e also ! riv] bas9 is cov]$ by a d5se mantle ( =e/s1 ! gr\nd b5ea? :i* is coat$1 z is ! case 9 primeval woods1 ) a lay] ( decompos+ vegetation a foot or m 9 dep?1 ?is spongy mass reta9s ! wat] ev5 m effectively ?an ! op5-textur$ glacial deposits above ref]r$ to4 ,:5 ! woods1 h[ev]1 are remov$ f su* an area1 ! ra9 may desc5d to ! /reams almo/ z spe$ily z x f9ds its way to ! gutt]s f ! h\se ro(s4 ,x ?us comes ab\t t all regions1 :5 r$uc$ to tillage1 & :]e ! ra9fall is en\gh to ma9ta9 a good agriculture1 are1 except :5 !y h a coat+ ( glacial wa/e1 exce$+ly liable to de/ructive inundations4 ,unhappily1 ! risk ( riv] floods is peculi>ly great 9 all ! regions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ly+ mu* to ! ea/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 except 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,great ,lakes & 9 ! di/rict ( ,new ,engl&1 :]e ! preval5ce ( glacial s&s & gravels af=ds ! protection :i* we h not$4 ,?r\gh\t ?is region ! ra9fall is heavy1 & ! l>g] "p ( x is apt to come aft] ! gr\nd has become deeply sn[-cov]$4 ,! result is a succession ( deva/at+ floods :i* already are v damag+ to ! works ( man1 & promise to become m de/ructive z "t goes on4 ,m ?an 9 any o!r c\ntry1 we ne$ ! protection :i* =e/s c give u aga9/ ^! disa/r\s outgo+s ( our /reams4 ,,lakes4 ,9 consid]+ ! j\rney ( wat] f ! hilltops to ! sea1 we %\ld take "s acc\nt ( ^? pauses :i* x makes on its way :5 = a "t x falls into ! bas9 ( a lake4 ,^! arre/s 9 ! d[nw>d motion ( wat]1 :i* we t]m lakes1 are exce$+ly num]\s2 _! prop] discussion w\ld1 inde$1 require a consid]able volume4 ,we %all "h note only ! m important ( _! features1 ^? :i* are ( int]e/ to ! g5]al /ud5t4 ,! fir/ & mo/ notewor?y diff]5ce 9 lakes is t :i* sep>ates ! gr\p ( dead seas f ! liv+ bas9s ( fre% wat]4 ,:5 a /ream atta9s a place :]e its wat]s h to exp& into ! lakelike =m1 ! curr5t moves 9 a sl[ mann]1 & ! broad surface expos$ to ! air p]mits a l>ge am\nt ( evaporation4 ,if ! bas9 be l>ge 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( ! incurr5t wat]1 ?is evaporation may exce$ ! supply1 & produce a sea ) no outlet1 su* z we f9d 9 ! ,dead ,sea ( ,judea1 9 t at ,salt ,lake1 ,utah1 & 9 a ho/ ( o!r less important bas9s4 ,if ! rate ( evaporation be yet great] 9 proportion to ! fl[1 ! lake may altoge!r dry away1 & ! riv] be evaporat$ be=e x atta9s ! bas9 :]e x might accumulate4 ,9 t case ! riv] is said to s9k1 b1 9 place ( s9k+ into ! e>?1 its wat]s really rise into ! air4 ,_m su* s9ks occur 9 ! c5tral portion ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 di/rict4 ,x is important to note t ! process ( evaporation we are describ+ takes place 9 ! case ( all lakes1 ?\gh only "h & !re is ! air s dry t ! evaporation prev5ts ! bas9 f ov]fl[+ at ! l[e/ po9t on its rim1 =m+ a riv] :i* goes !nce to ! sea4 ,ev5 9 ! case ( ! ,great ,lakes ( ,nor? ,am]ica a consid]able "p ( ! wat] :i* fl[s into !m does n g to ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce & !nce to ! sea4 ,z long z ! lake f9ds an outlet to ! sea its wat]s conta9 b little m dissolv$ m9]al matt] ?an t we f9d 9 ! riv]s4 ,b because all wat] :i* has be5 9 contact ) ! e>? has "s dissolv$ m9]al sub/ances1 :ile t :i* goes away by evaporation is pure wat]1 a lake )\t an outlet gradually becomes s *>g$ ) ^! mat]ials t x c hold no m 9 solution1 b proce$s to lay !m d[n 9 deposits ( t comp\nd sub/ance :i* f its pr9cipal +r$i5t we "n salt4 ,! wat] ( dead seas1 because ( ! additional weight ( ! sub/ances :i* x holds1 is extraord9>ily buoyant4 ,! swimm] notes a diff]5ce 9 ?is reg>d 9 ! wat]s ( riv]s & fre%-wat] lakes & ^? ( ! sea1 due to ?is same cause4 ,b 9 ^? ( dead seas1 saturat$ ) sal9e mat]ials1 ! human body c n s9k z x does 9 ! ord9>y conditions ( imm]sion4 ,x is easy to und]/& h[ ! salt deposits :i* are m9$ 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w h g5]ally1 if n 9 all cases1 be5 =m$ 9 su* dead seas4#e ,footnote #e3 ,9 "s relatively r>e cases salt deposits are =m$ 9 lagoons along ! %ores ( arid l&s1 :]e ! sea occasionally breaks ov] ! bea* into ! bas91 af=d+ wat]s :i* are evaporat$1 leav+ _! salt beh9d !m4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t almo/ all ! kn[n dead seas h 9 rec5t geological times be5 liv+ lakes--t is1 !y p\r$ ov] _! brims4 ,9 ! ,cordill]as f ! l9e betwe5 ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates to c5tral ,mexico !re are sev]al ( ^! bas9s4 ,all ( ^? :i* h be5 /udi$ %[ by _! old %ore l9es t !y 7 once brimful1 & h only %runk away 9 mod]n times4 ,^! conditions po9t to ! conclusion t ! ra9fall 9 diff]5t regions v>ies greatly 9 ! c\rse ( ! geologic ages4 ,fur!r confirmation ( ?is is f\nd 9 ! fact t v great salt deposits exi/ on ! coa/ ( ,l\isiana & 9 nor!rn ,europe--regions 9 :i* ! ra9fall is n[ s great 9 proportion to ! evaporation t dead seas are impossible4 ,turn+ n[ to ! "q ( h[ lake bas9s are =m$1 we note a great v>iety 9 ! conditions :i* may br+ ab\t _! con/ruction4 ,! greate/ ag5t1 or at lea/ t :i* op]ates 9 ! con/ruction ( ! l>ge/ bas9s1 are ! irregul> movem5ts ( ! e>?1 due to ! m\nta9-build+ =ces4 ,:]e ?is "w goes on on a l>ge scale1 bas9-%ap$ depressions are inevitably =m$4 ,if all ^? :i* h exi/$ rema9$1 ! l>ge "p ( ! l&s w\ld be cov]$ by !m4 ,9 mo/ cases1 h[ev]1 ! cutt+ action ( ! /reams has be5 suffici5t to br+ ! dra9age *annels d[n to ! bottom ( ! tr\gh1 :ile ! influx ( s$im5ts has s]v$ to fur!r ! "w by fill+ up ! cavities4 ,?us at ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod !re 0 a *a9 ( lakes ext5d+ along ! ea/]n base ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 con/itut+ fre%-wat] seas probably z l>ge z ! s-call$ ,great ,lakes ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,b ! riv]s1 by cutt+ d[n & till+ up1 h long s9ce oblit]at$ ^! wat] areas4 ,9 o!r cases ! tilt+s ( ! cont95t1 :i* sometimes oppose ! fl[ ( ! /reams1 may = a "t conv]t ! upp] "p ( a riv] bas9 :i* orig9ally slop$ g5tly t[>d ! sea into a cavity4 ,sev]al cases ( ?is description occurr$ 9 ,new ,engl& 9 ! clos+ /ages ( ! ,glacial p]iod1 :5 ! gr\nd rose up to ! nor?w>d4 ,we h already not$ ! fact t ! bas9 ( a dead sea becomes 9 c\rse ( "t ! seat ( ext5sive salt deposits4 ,^! may1 inde$1 atta9 a ?ickness ( _m hundr$ feet4 ,if n[ 9 ! lat] hi/ory ( ! c\ntry ! tract ( l& ) ! salt b5ea? x 7 trav]s$ by a /ream1 its und]gr\nd wat]s may dissolve out ! salt & 9 a way re/ore ! bas9 to its orig9al unfill$ condition1 ?\gh 9 ! second /ate t ( a liv+ lake4 ,x seems v probable t a portion at lea/ ( ! areas ( ,lakes ,ont>io1 ,erie1 & ,huron may be due to ?is removal ( anci5t salt deposits1 rema9s ( :i* lie buri$ 9 ! e>? 9 ! region bord]+ ^! bas9s4 ,by f> ! commone/ cause ( lake bas9s is f\nd 9 ! irregul>ities ( ! surface :i* are produc$ by ! occupation ( ! c\ntry by glaci]s4 ,:5 ^! great %eets ( ice lie ov] a l&1 !y are 9 motion d[n ! slopes on :i* !y re/2 !y we> ! b$ rocks 9 a vigor\s mann]1 cutt+ !m d[n 9 proportion to _! h>dness4 ,z ^! rocks g5]ally v>y 9 ! resi/ance :i* !y oppose to ! ice1 ! result is t :5 ! glaci] passes away ! surface no long] exhibits ! cont9u$ d[n slope :i* ! riv]s develop1 b is w>p$ 9 a v complicat$ way4 ,^! depressions af=d natural bas9s 9 :i* lakes ga!r2 !y may v>y 9 ext5t f a few squ>e feet to _m squ>e miles4 ,:5 a glaci] occupies a c\ntry1 ! melt+ ice deposits on ! surface ( ! e>? a va/ quantity ( rocky dbris1 :i* 0 conta9$ 9 its mass4 ,?is detritus is irregul>ly accumulat$2 9 "p x is dispos$ 9 ! =m ( mora9es or rude m\nds made at ! m>g9 ( ! glaci]1 9 "p z an irregul> %eet1 n[ ?ick1 n[ ?91 :i* cov]s ! :ole ( ! field ov] :i* ! ice lay4 ,! result ( ?is action is ! =mation ( innum]able pools1 :i* cont9ue to exi/ until ! /reams h cut *annels ?r\gh :i* _! wat]s may dra9 away1 or ! bas9s h become fill$ ) detritus import$ f ! surr\nd+ c\ntry or by peat accumulations :i* ! plants =m 9 su* places4 ,d\btless m ?an n9e t5?s ( all ! lake bas9s1 especially ^? ( small size1 :i* exi/ 9 ! _w are due to irregul>ities ( ! l& surface :i* are br\ght ab\t by glacial action4 ,al?\gh ! great] "p ( ^! small bas9s h be5 oblit]at$ s9ce ! ice left ?is c\ntry1 ! numb] /ill rema9+ ( suffici5t size to be m>k$ on a good map is inconceivably great4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica alone !re are probably ov] a hundr$ & fifty ?\s& ( ^! glacial lakes1 al?\gh by f> ! great] "p ( ^? :i* exi/$ :5 ! glacial %eet disappe>$ h be5 oblit]at$4 ,yet ano!r int]e/+ gr\p ( fre%-wat] lakes1 or r we %\ld call !m lakelets f _! small size1 owes its orig9 to ! curi\s und]gr\nd excavations or cav]ns :i* are =m$ 9 lime/one c\ntries4 ,! wat] ent]s ^! cav]ns ?r\gh :at are t]m$ s9k holes--bas9s 9 ! surface :i* slope g5tly t[>d a c5tral op5+ ?r\gh :i* ! wat] fl[s into ! dep?s bel[4 ,! cups ( ! s9k holes r>ely exce$ half a mile 9 diamet]1 & are usually mu* small]4 ,_! bas9s h be5 excavat$ by ! solv5t & cutt+ actions ( ! ra9 wat] :i* ga!rs 9 !m to be dis*>g$ into ! cav]n bel[4 ,x (t5 happ5s t aft] a s9k hole is =m$ "s slight accid5t closes ! d[nw>d-lead+ %aft1 s t ! bas9 holds wat]2 ?us 9 p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re are ?\s&s ( ^! ne>ly circul> pools1 :i* 9 c]ta9 di/ricts1 z 9 s\!rn ,k5tucky1 s]ve to v>y ! l&scape 9 mu* ! same mann] z ! glacial lakes ( m nor!rn c\ntries4 ,"s ( ! mo/ beautiful lakes 9 ! _w1 ?\gh none m ?an a few miles 9 diamet]1 occupy ! crat]s ( ext9ct volcanoes4 ,:5 = a "t1 or p]man5tly1 a volcano ceases to d its appo9t$ "w ( p\r+ =? /eam & molt5 rock f ! dep?s ( ! e>?1 ! pit 9 ! c5tre ( ! cone ga!rs ! ra9 wat]1 =m+ a deep circul> lake1 :i* is wall$ r\nd by ! precipit\s faces ( ! crat]4 ,if ! volcano reawak5s1 ! wat] :i* blocks its passage may be bl[n out 9 a mom5t1 ! dis*>ge spread+ 9 "s cases to a great di/ance f ! cone1 to be accumulat$ aga9 :5 ! v5t ceases to be op54 ,! mo/ beautiful ( ^! volcanic lakes are to be f\nd 9 ! region to ! nor? & s\? ( ,rome4 ,! orig9al seat ( ! ,lat9 /ate 0 on ! %ores ( "o ( ^! crat] pools1 s\? ( ! ,et]nal ,city4 ,lago ,bols5a1 :i* lies to ! nor?w>d1 & is "o ( ! l>ge/ kn[n bas9s ( ?is nature1 hav+ a diamet] ( ab\t eight miles1 is a crat] lake4 ,! volcanic cone to :i* x belongs1 ?\gh l[1 is ( great size1 %[+ t 9 its "t ( activity1 :i* did n endure v long1 ?is crat] 0 ! seat ( mighty ejections4 ,! noble/ specim5 ( ?is gr\p ( bas9s is f\nd 9 ,crat] ,lake1 ,oregon1 n[ conta9$ 9 "o ( ! national p>ks ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,inclos$ bodies ( wat] are =m$ 9 o!r ways ?an ^? describ$2 ! li/ above giv5 includes all ! important classes ( action :i* produce ^! int]e/+ features4 ,we %\ld n[ note ! fact t1 unlike ! seas1 ! lakes are to be reg>d$ z tempor>y features 9 ! physiography ( ! l&4 ,"o & all1 !y endure = b brief geologic "t1 = ! reason t ! /reams "w to de/roy !m by fill+ !m ) s$im5t & by c>v+ out *annels ?r\gh :i* _! wat]s dra9 away4 ,! nature ( ?is action c well be conceiv$ by consid]+ :at w take place 9 ! c\rse ( "t 9 ! ,great ,lakes ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,z ,niag>a ,falls cut back at ! av]age rate ( sev]al feet a ye>1 x w be b a brief geologic p]iod be=e !y beg9 to l[] ! wat]s ( ,lake ,erie4 ,x is v probable1 inde$1 t 9 tw5ty ?\s& ye>s ! wat]s ( t bas9 w be to a great ext5t dra9$ away4 ,:5 ?is occurs1 ano!r fall or rapid w be produc$ 9 ! *annel :i* leads f ,lake ,huron to ,lake ,erie4 ,?is 9 turn w g ?r\gh its process ( retreat until ! =m] expanse ( wat]s disappe>s4 ,! action w !n be cont9u$ at ! outlets ( ,lakes ,mi*igan & ,sup]ior1 & 9 "t1 b = ! int]position ( "s actions :i* recreate ^! bas9s1 _! floors w be conv]t$ into dry l&4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t lakes owe 9 a mann] ! pres]vation ( _! bas9s to an action :i* !y br+ ab\t on ! wat]s t fl[ into !m4 ,^! riv]s or torr5ts commonly convey great quantities ( s$im5t1 :i* s]ve to rasp _! b$s & ?us to l[] _! *annels4 ,9 all b ! small] lakelets ^! turbid wat]s lay d[n all _! s$im5t be=e !y atta9 ! outlet ( ! bas94 ,?us !y fl[ away ov] ! rim rock 9 a p]fectly pure /ate--a /ate 9 :i*1 z we h not$ be=e1 wat] has no capacity = abrad+ firm rock4 ,?us :]e ! ,niag>a ,riv] passes f ,lake ,erie its clean wat] h>dly affects ! /one ov] :i* x fl[s4 ,x only beg9s to d cutt+ "w :]e x plunges d[n ! precipice ( ! ,falls & sets 9 motion ! fragm5ts :i* are con/antly fall+ f t rocky face4 ,^! ,falls c\ld n h begun z !y did on ! m>g9 ( ,lake ,ont>io except = ! fact t :5 ! ,niag>a ,riv] began to fl[1 z 9 relatively mod]n times1 x f\nd an old precipice on ! m>g9 ( ,lake ,ont>io1 =m$ by ! waves ( ! lake1 d[n :i* ! wat]s fell1 & :]e !y obta9$ cutt+ tools ) :i* to und]m9e ! /eep :i* =ms ! ,falls4 ,_m great lakes1 p>ticul>ly ^? :i* we h j be5 consid]+1 h repeat$ly *ang$ _! outlets1 accord+ z ! surface ( ! l& on :i* !y lie has sway$ up & d[n 9 v>i\s directions1 or z glacial %eets h b>r$ or unb>r$ ! orig9al outlets ( ! bas9s4 ,?us 9 ! ,laur5tian ,lakes above ,ont>io ! geologi/ f9ds evid5ce t ! dra9age l9es h aga9 & aga9 be5 *ang$4 ,= a "t dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod1 :5 ,lake ,ont>io & ! valley ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce 0 possess$ by ! ice1 ! dis*>ge 0 s\?w>d into ! upp] ,mississippi or ! ,ohio4 ,at a lat] /age *annels 7 =m$ lead+ f ,georgian ,bay to ! ea/]n "p ( ,ont>io4 ,yet lat]1 :5 ! la/-nam$ lake 0 b>$1 an ice dam appe>s to h rema9$ 9 ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 :i* held back ! wat]s to su* a height t !y dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! valley ( ! ,mohawk into ! ,hudson4 ,fur!rmore1 at "s "t be=e ! ,glacial p]iod1 we d n "k j :51 !re appe>s to h be5 an old ,niag>a ,riv]1 n[ fill$ ) drift1 :i* ran f ,lake ,erie to ,ont>io1 a diff]5t *annel f t occupi$ by ! pres5t /ream4 ,! effects ( lakes on ! riv] sy/ems ) :i* !y are connect$ is 9 _m ways mo/ important4 ,:]e !y are ( consid]able ext5t1 or :]e ev5 small !y are v num]\s1 !y s]ve to reta9 ! flood wat]s1 deliv]+ !m sl[ly to ! excurr5t /reams4 ,9 ris+ "o foot a lake may /ore away m wat] ?an ! riv] by its consequ5t rise at ! po9t ( outfl[ w c>ry away 9 _m mon?s1 & ?is = ! simple reason t ! lake may be _m hundr$ or ev5 ?\s& times z wide z ! /ream4 ,moreov]1 z be=e not$1 ! s$im5t ga!r$ by ! /ream above ! level ( ! lake is deposit$ 9 its bas91 & does n affect ! l[] rea*es ( ! riv]4 ,! result is t great riv]s1 su* z dra9 f ! ,laur5tian ,lakes1 fl[ cle> wat]1 are exempt f floods1 are ess5tially )\t alluvial pla9s or t]races1 & =m no delta deposits4 ,9 all ^! features ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,riv] af=ds a wond]ful contra/ to ! ,mississippi4 ,moreov]1 ow+ to ! cle> wat]s1 ?\gh x has fl[$ = a long "t1 x has nev] be5 able to cut away ! slight ob/ructions :i* =m its rapids1 b>ri]s :i* probably w\ld h be5 remov$ if its wat]s _h be5 *>g$ ) s$im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,muir ,glaci]1 ,alaska1 %[+ crevasses & du/ lay] on surface ( ice4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,glaci]s4 ,we h already not$ ! fact t ! wat] 9 ! cl\ds is v commonly 9 ! froz5 /ate2 a l>ge "p ( t fluid :i* is evaporat$ f ! sea atta9s ! solid =m be=e x returns to ! e>?4 ,nev]!less1 9 desc5d+1 at lea/ n9e t5?s ( ! precipitation returns to ! fluid /ate1 & does ! k9d ( "w :i* we h not$ 9 our acc\nt ( wat]4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 ! wat] arrives on ! e>? 9 ! froz5 condition1 x ent]s on a rle totally diff]5t f t foll[$ by ! fluid mat]ial4 ,beg9n+ its desc5t to ! e>? 9 a sn[flake1 ! little mass falls sl[ly1 s t :5 x comes aga9/ ! e>? ! bl[ :i* x /rikes is s slight t x does no effective "w4 ,9 ! /ate ( sn[1 ev5 9 ! sep>ate flakes1 ! froz5 wat] conta9s a relatively l>ge am\nt ( air4 ,x is ?is air inde$1 :i*1 by divid+ ! ice into _m flakes t reflect ! light1 gives x ! :ite col\r4 ,?is important po9t c be demon/rat$ by break+ transp>5t ice into small bits1 :5 we p]ceive t x has ! hue ( sn[4 ,mu* ! same effect is giv5 :]e glass is p[d]$1 & = ! same reason4 ,z ! sn[flakes accumulate lay] on lay] !y imb$ air betwe5 !m1 s t :5 ! mat]ial falls 9 a fea!ry %ape--say to ! dep? ( a foot--m ?an n9e t5?s ( ! mass is tak5 up by ! air-conta9+ spaces4 ,z ^! cells are v small1 ! circulation 9 !m is slight1 & s ! lay] becomes an admirable non-conductor1 hav+ ?is quality = ! same reason t fea!rs h x--i4e41 because ! cells are small en\gh to prev5t ! circulation ( ! air1 s t ! heat :i* passes has to g by conduction1 & all gases are v poor conductors4 ,! result is t a sn[ coat+ is 9 effect an admirable blanket4 ,:5 ! sun %9es ^u x1 mu* ( ! heat is reflect$1 & z ! temp]ature does n p5etrate x to any dep?1 only ! sup]ficial "p is melt$4 ,?is molt5 wat] takes up 9 ! process ( melt+ a great deal ( heat1 s t :5 x trickles d[n into ! mass x readily refreezes4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! heat go+ out f ! e>?1 ! /ore accumulat$ 9 its sup]ficial p>ts 9 ! la/ w>m season1 toge!r ) ! small %>e :i* fl[s out f ! e>?'s int]ior1 is held 9 by ?is blanket1 :i* x melts b sl[ly4 ,?us x comes ab\t t 9 regions ( long-endur+ sn[fall ! gr\nd1 ?\gh froz5 to ! dep? ( a foot or m at ! "t :5 ! accumulation took place1 may be ?aw$ out & s f> w>m$ t ! vegetation beg9s to gr[ be=e ! protect+ envelope ( sn[ has melt$ away4 ,c]ta9 ( ! e>ly fl[]s ( high latitudes1 inde$1 beg9 to blossom b5ea? ! mantle ( f9ely divid$ ice4 ,9 ^? p>ts ( ! e>? :i* = ! mo/ "p receive only a tempor>y coat+ ( sn[ ! effect ( ?is cov]+ is inconsid]able4 ,! sn[ wat] is yield$ to ! e>?1 f :i* x has help$ to )draw ! fro/1 s t 9 ! spr+time1 ! gr[+ season ( plants1 ! gr\nd conta9s an ample /ore ( moi/ure = _! developm5t4 ,:]e ! sn[fall accumulates to a great ?ickness1 especially :]e x lodges 9 =e/s1 ! influ5ce ( ! icy cov]+ is some:at to protract ! w9t] & ?us to abbreviate ! gr[+ season4 ,:]e sn[ re/s ^u a /eep slope1 & ga!rs to ! dep? ( sev]al feet1 x beg9s to creep sl[ly d[n ! declivity 9 a mann] :i* we may (t5 note on h\se ro(s4 ,?is motion is fav\r$ by ! gradual ?\gh incomplete melt+ ( ! flakes z ! heat p5etrates ! mass4 ,mak+ a section ?r\gh a mass ( sn[ :i* has accumulat$ 9 _m successive falls1 we note t ! top may /ill h ! flaky "*1 b t z we g d[n ! flakes are replac$ by adh]5t %otlike bodies1 :i* h aris5 f ! p>tial melt+ & ga!r+ to _! c5tres ( ! orig9al exp&$ cry/all9e bits4 ,9 ?is process ( *ange ! mass c move p>ticle by p>ticle 9 ! direction 9 :i* gravity impels x4 ,! en]gy ( its motion1 h[ev]1 is slight1 yet x c urge loose /ones & =e/ wa/e d[n hill4 ,sometimes1 z 9 ! cemet]y at ,augu/a1 ,me41 :]e /one monum5ts or o!r /ructures1 su* z iron rail+s1 are entangl$ 9 ! mov+ mass1 x may break !m (f & convey !m a little di/ance d[n ! slope4 ,s long z ! summ] sun melts ! w9t]'s sn[1 ev5 if ! gr\nd be b>e b = a day1 ! rle ( action accompli%$ by ! sn[fall is ( little geological consequ5ce4 ,:5 x happ5s t a portion ( ! deposit holds ?r\gh ! summ]1 ! region ent]s on ! glacial /ate1 & its conditions und]go a great revolution1 ! consequ5ces ( :i* are s mom5t\s t we %all h to trace !m 9 "s detail4 ,=tunately1 ! consid]ations :i* are necess>y are n recondite1 & all ! facts are ( an extremely picturesque nature4 ,tak+ su* a region z ,new ,engl&1 :]e all ! e>? is life-be>+ 9 ! summ] season1 & :]e ! glacial p]iod ( ! w9t] cont9ues b = a %ort "t1 we f9d t "h & !re on ! high m\nta9s ! sn[ endures ?r\gh\t mo/ ( ! summ]1 b t all p>ts ( ! surface h a season :5 life spr+s into activity4 ,on ! top ( ,m\nt ,wa%+ton1 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s ( ,new ,hamp%ire1 9 a cleft kn[n z ,tuck]man's ,rav9e1 :]e ! deposit accumulates to a great dep?1 ! sn[-ice rema9s until midsumm]4 ,x is1 inde$1 evid5t t a v slight *ange 9 ! climatal conditions ( ?is locality w\ld e/abli% a p]man5t accumulation ( froz5 wat] ^u ! summit ( ! m\nta94 ,if ! cre/ 7 lift$ a ?\s& feet high]1 )\t any g5]al *ange 9 ! heat or ra9fall ( ! di/rict1 ?is effect w\ld be produc$4 ,if ) ! same am\nt ( ra9fall z n[ comes to ! e>? 9 t region m ( x fell z sn[1 a l condition w\ld be e/abli%$4 ,fur!rmore1 ) an increase ( ra9fall to some?+ l d\ble t :i* n[ desc5ds ! sn[ bore ! same proportion to ! precipitation :i* x does at pres5t1 we %\ld almo/ c]ta9ly h ! peak above ! p]man5t sn[ l9e1 t level bel[ :i* all ! w9t]'s fall melts away4 ,^! propositions are /at$ ) "s c>e1 = ! reason t ! /ud5t %\ld p]ceive h[ delicate may be--inde$1 commonly is--! balance ( =ces :i* make ! diff]5ce betwe5 a seasonal & a p]5nial sn[ cov]+4 ,z soon z ! sn[ outla/s ! summ]1 ! region :i* x occupies is /]iliz$ to life4 ,f ! "t ! sn[ beg9s to hold ov] ! w>m p]iod until x f9ally disappe>s1 t field has to be reckon$ out ( ! habitable e>?1 n only to man1 b to ! l[lie/ organisms4#f ,footnote #f3 ,9 c]ta9 fields ( p]man5t sn[1 p>ticul>ly ne> _! b\nd>ies1 "s v l[ly =ms ( vegetable life may develop on a froz5 surface1 draw+ _! su/5ance f ! air1 & suppli$ ) wat] by ! melt+ :i* takes place dur+ ! summ]time4 ,^! =ms include ! r>e ph5om5on t]m$ r$ sn[4 ,if ! sn[ 9 a glaciat$ region lay :]e x fell1 ! result w\ld be a con/ant elevation ( ! deposit ye> by ye> 9 proportion to ! annual excess ( deposition ov] ! melt+ or evaporation ( ! mat]ial4 ,b no soon] does ! deposit atta9 any consid]able ?ickness ?an x beg9s to move 9 ! directions ( lea/ resi/ance1 9 accordance ) laws :i* ! /ud5ts ( glaci]s are j beg9n+ to disc]n4 ,9 small "p ?is motion is accompli%$ by avalan*es or sn[ slides1 ph5om5a :i* are 9 a way important1 & !re=e m]it description4 ,imm$iately aft] a heavy sn[fall1 9 regions :]e ! slopes are /eep1 x (t5 happ5s t ! deposit :i* at fir/ clung to ! surface on :i* x lay becomes s heavy t x t5ds to slide d[n ! slope2 a trifl+ action1 ! slipp+1 inde$1 ( a s+le flake1 may beg9 ! movem5t1 :i* at fir/ is gradual & only involves a little ( ! sn[4 ,ga!r+ velocity1 & ) ! mat]ials heap$ toge!r f ! junction ( t already 9 motion ) t ab\t to be mov$1 ! avalan*e 9 slid+ a few hundr$ feet d[n ! slope may become a deep /ream ( sn[-ice1 mov+ ) great cel]ity4 ,at ?is /age x beg9s to break (f masses ( ice f ! glaci]s ov] :i* x may fl[1 or ev5 to move l>ge /ones4 ,arm$ ) ^!1 x r5ds ! und]ly+ e>?4 ,aft] x has fl[$ a mile x may h tak5 up s mu* e>? & mat]ial t x appe>s l a riv] ( mud4 ,ow+ to ! fact t ! en]gy :i* be>s x d[nw>d is ?r\gh friction conv]t$ into heat1 a p>tial melt+ ( ! mass may take place1 :i* conv]ts x into :at we call slu%1 or a mixture ( sn[ & wat]4 ,f9ally1 ! torr5t is precipitat$ into ! bottom ( a valley1 :]e 9 "t ! froz5 wat] melts away1 leav+ only ! /ony matt] :i* x bore z a monum5t to %[ ! t]m9ation ( its fl[4 ,x 0 ! good =tune ( ! writ] to see 9 ! ,swiss ,ob]l& "o v great avalan*e1 :i* came f ! high c\ntry ?r\gh a desc5t ( sev]al ?\s& feet to ! surface ( ! ,upp] ,gr9delwald ,glaci]4 ,! fir/ sign ( ! action 0 a vague tremor ( ! air1 l t ( a great organ pipe :5 x beg9s to vibrate1 b be=e ! pulsations come swiftly en\gh to make an audible note4 ,x 0 impossible to tell :5 ?is tremor came1 b ! w>y guide1 not+ x be=e 8 *>ge c\ld p]ceive any?+ unusual1 made ha/e = ! middle ( ! glaci]4 ,! vibration swell$ to a ro>1 b ! seat ( ! s\nd amid ! e*o+ cliffs 0 indet]m9able4 ,f9ally1 f a valley high up on ! s\!rn face ( ! glaci]1 !re leap$ =? fir/ a great /one1 :i* sprang ) successive reb\nds to ! floor ( ice4 ,!n 9 succession o!r /ones & masses ( ice :i* _h outrun ! flood came ?ick] & ?ick]1 until at ! end ( ab\t ?irty seconds ! /eep front ( ! avalan*e appe>$ l a swift-mov+ wall4 ,atta9+ ! cliffs1 x %ot =? z a great cat>act1 :i* dur+ ! cont9uance ( ! fl[--:i* la/$ = sev]al m9utes--heap$ a great m\nd ( comm+l$ /ones & ice ^u ! surface ( ! glaci]4 ,! mass ?us br\ght d[n ! /eep 0 e/imat$ at ab\t ?ree ?\s& cubic y>ds1 ( :i* probably ! fiftie? "p 0 rock mat]ial4 ,an avalan*e ( ?is volume is unusual1 & ! proportion ( /ony matt] borne d[n exceptionally great2 b by ^! sudd5 motions ( ! froz5 wat] a l>ge "p ( ! sn[ deposit$ above ! zone ( complete melt+ is tak5 to ! l[] valleys1 :]e x may disappe> 9 ! summ] season1 & mu* ( ! erosion accompli%$ 9 ! m\nta9s is br\ght ab\t by ^! falls4 ,9 all ,alp9e regions avalan*es are among ! mo/ dread$ accid5ts4 ,_! occurr5ce1 h[ev]1 be+ dep5d5t ^u ! %ape ( ! surface1 x is g5]ally possible to det]m9e 9 an accurate way ! liability ( _! happ5+ 9 any p>ticul> field4 ,! ,swiss take precaution to protect !mselves f _! ravages z o!r folk d to procure immunity f floods4 ,?us ! au?orities ( _m ( ! m\nta9 hamlets ma9ta9 ext5sive =e/s on ! sides ( ! villages :5ce ! d[nfall may be expect$1 exp]i5ce hav+ %[n t !re is no o!r means s well calculat$ to break ! bl[ :i* ^! great sn[falls c deliv]1 z ?ick-set trees :i*1 ?\gh !y are brok5 d[n = "s di/ance1 gradually arre/ ! /ream4 ,z long z ! region occupi$ by p]man5t sn[ is limit$ to %>p m\nta9 peaks1 relief by ! precipitation ( l>ge masses to ! level bel[ ! sn[ l9e is easily accompli%$1 b manife/ly ?is k9d ( a dis*>ge c only be effective f a v small field4 ,:]e ! relief is n br\ght ab\t by ^! tumbles ( sn[1 ano!r mode ( gravitative action accompli%es ! result1 ?\gh 9 a m r\ndab\t way1 ?r\gh ! me*anism ( glaci]s4 ,we h already not$ ! fact t ! w9t]'s sn[ ^u our hillsides und]goes a movem5t 9 ! direction ( ! slope4 ,:at we h n[ to describe 9 a r long /ory conc]n+ glaci]s re/s ^u movem5ts ( ! same nature1 ?\gh !y are 9 c]ta9 features peculi>ly dep5d5t on ! cont9uity ( ! action f ye> to ye>4 ,x is desirable1 h[ev]1 t ! /ud5t %\ld see t !re is at ! f\ndation no m my/]y 9 glacial motion ?an !re is 9 ! gradual desc5t ( ! sn[ aft] x has la9 a week on a hillside4 ,x is only 9 ! scale & cont9uity ( ! action t ! greate/ glacial envelope exce$s ^? ( our tempor>y w9t]s--9 fact1 :5ev] ! sn[ falls ! e>? x cov]s ent]s ^u an ice p]iod :i* diff]s only 9 degree f t f :i* our hemisph]e is j escap+4 ,:]e ! read] is s =tunate z to be able to visit a region ( glaci]s1 he _h be/ beg9 8 /udy ( _! maje/ic ph5om5a by asc5d+ to ^? upp] realms :]e ! sn[ accumulates f ye> to ye>4 ,he w !re f9d ! natural irregul>ities ( ! rock surface 9 a measure ev5$ ov] by a va/ %eet ( sn[1 f :i* only ! summits ( ! great] m\nta9s rise4 ,he may soon satisfy himself t ?is %eet is ( great dep?1 = "h & !re x is int]sect$ by pr(\nd crevices4 ,if ! visit is made 9 ! season :5 sn[ falls1 :i* is commonly dur+ mo/ ( ! ye>1 he may obs]ve1 z be=e not$ 9 our w9t]'s sn[1 t ! deposit1 ?\gh at fir/ flaky1 atta9s at a %ort di/ance bel[ ! surface a some:at granul> "*1 ?\gh ! %otlike gra9s fall ap>t :5 di/urb$4 ,yet deep]1 ord9>ily a few feet bel[ ! surface1 ^! granules are m or less cem5t$ toge!r2 ! mass ?us loses ! quality ( sn[1 & beg9s to appe> l a :iti% ice4 ,look+ d[n "o ( ! crevices1 :]e ! light p5etrates to ! dep? ( a hundr$ feet or m1 he may see t ! blui% hue some:at increases ) ! dep?4 ,a trace ( ?is col\r is (t5 visible ev5 9 ! surface sn[ on ! glaci]1 & sometimes also 9 our ord9>y w9t] fields4 ,9 a hole made ) a /ick a foot or m 9 dep? a fa9t c]ulean glimm] may g5]ally be disc]n$2 b ! increas$ blu5ess ( ! ice z we g d[n is conspicu\s1 & readily leads u to ! conclusion t ! air1 to :i*1 z we be=e not$1 ! :it5ess ( ! sn[ is due1 is work+ out ( ! mass z ! process ( compaction goes on4 ,9 a glacial di/rict ?is sn[ mass above ! melt+ l9e is call$ ! nv4 ,rememb]+ t ! excess ( sn[ beyond ! melt+ 9 a nv di/rict am\nts1 x may be1 to "s feet ( mat]ial ea* ye>1 we easily come to ! conclusion t ! mass works d[n ! slope 9 ! mann] :i* x does ev5 :]e ! coat+ is imp]man5t4 ,?is supposition is easily confirm$3 by obs]v+ ! field we f9d t ! %eet is ev]y:]e draw+ away f ! cliffs1 leav+ a deep fissure betwe5 ! nv & ! precipices4 ,?is crevice is call$ by ! ,g]man-,swiss guides ! ,b]gs*rund4 ,passage ov] x is (t5 "o ( ! mo/ difficult feats to accompli% :i* ! ,alp9e explor] has to und]take4 ,9 fact1 ! v appe>ance ( ! surface1 :i* is t ( a riv] ) cont9u\s d[n slopes1 is suffici5t evid5ce t ! mass is sl[ly fl[+ t[>d ! valleys4 ,foll[+ x d[n1 we almo/ always come to a place :]e x passes f ! upp] valleys to ! deep] gorges :i* pi]ce ! skirts ( ! m\nta94 ,9 go+ ov] ?is projection ! mass ( sn[-ice breaks to pieces1 =m+ a cr[d ( blocks :i* m>* d[n ! slope ) mu* m spe$ ?an !y j\rney$ :5 unit$ 9 ! high]-ly+ fields4 ,9 ?is condition & 9 ?is "p ( ! movem5t ! sn[-ice =ms :at are call$ ! s]acs1 or curds1 z ! ^w means 9 ! ,fr5*-,swiss dialect4 ,slipp+ & tumbl+ d[n ! /eep slope on :i* ! s]acs develop1 ! ice becomes brok5 into bits1 (t5 ( small size4 ,^! fragm5ts are quickly reknit into ! body ( ice1 :i* we %all h]eaft] t]m ! glaci]1 & 9 ?is process ! expulsion ( ! air goes on m rapidly ?an be=e1 & ! mass assumes a m transp>5t icelike quality4 ,! action ( ! ice 9 ! pressures & /ra9s to :i* x is subject$ 9 jo9+ ! ma9 glaci] & 9 ! fur!r "p ( its c\rse dem& = _! und]/&+ a revision ( ^? notions z to rigidity & pla/icity :i* we d]ive f our common exp]i5ce ) objects4 ,x is h>d to believe t ice c be m\ld$ by pressure into any %ape )\t fractur+1 provid$ ! motion is sl[ly effect$1 :ile at ! same "t x is z brittle z ice to a sudd5 bl[4 ,we see1 h[ev]1 a simil> in/ance ( contra/$ prop]ties 9 ! confection kn[n z molasses c&y1 a /ick ( :i* may be indef9itely b5t if ! flexure is sl[ly made1 b w fly to pieces l glass if %>ply /ruck4 ,ice diff]s f ! sug>y sub/ance 9 _m ways2 especially we %\ld note t :ile x may be squeez$ into any =m1 x c n be drawn out1 b fractures on ! application ( a v slight t5sion4 ,! conditions ( its movem5t we w inquire into fur!r on1 :5 we h se5 m ( its action4 ,ent]+ on ! l[] "p ( its c\rse1 t :]e x fl[s into ! region bel[ ! sn[ l9e1 ! ice /ream is n[ conf9$ betwe5 ! walls ( ! valley1 a *annel :i* 9 mo/ cases has be5 %ap$ be=e ! ice "t1 by a m\nta9 torr5t1 or p]haps by a sl[] fl[+ riv]4 ,9 ?is "p ( its c\rse ! lik5ess ( a glacial /ream to "o ( fluid wat] is manife/4 ,we see t x twi/s ) ! turn ( ! gorge1 wid5s :]e ! conf9+ walls are f> ap>t1 & n>r[s :]e ! space is con/rict$4 ,al?\gh ! surface is "h & !re brok5 by fractures1 x is evid5t t ! movem5t ( ! froz5 curr5t1 ?\gh sl[1 is tol]ably free4 ,by plac+ /akes 9 a r[ across ! axis ( a glaci]1 & obs]v+ _! movem5t f day to day1 or ev5 f h\r to h\r if a good !odolite is us$ = ! purpose1 we note t ! movem5t ( ! /ream is fa/e/ 9 ! middle p>ts1 z 9 ! case ( a riv]1 & t x sl[s t[>d ei!r %ore1 ?\gh x (t5 happ5s1 z 9 a /ream ( molt5 wat]1 t ! spe$ie/ "p ( ! curr5t is ne> "o side4 ,fur!r obs]vations h indicat$ t ! movem5t is mo/ rapid on ! surface & lea/ at ! bottom1 9 :i* ! /ream is also riv]like4 ,x is evid5t1 9 a ^w1 t ?\gh ! ice is n fluid 9 /rict s5se1 ! bits ( :i* x is made up move 9 sub/antially ! mann] ( fluids--t is1 !y freely slip ov] ea* o!r4 ,we w n[ turn our att5tion to "s important features ( a detail$ sort :i* glaci]s exhibit4 ,if we visit a glaci] dur+ ! "p ( ! ye> :5 ! w9t] sn[s are ^u x1 x may appe> to h a v un9t]rupt$ surface4 ,b z ! summ] heat advances1 ! mask ( ! w9t] coat+ goes away1 & we may !n see ! /ructure ( ! ice4 ,fir/ ( all we note 9 all valley glaci]s su* z we are obs]v+ t ! /ream is ov]laid by a quantity ( rocky wa/e1 ! great] "p ( :i* has come d[n ) ! avalan*es 9 ! mann] be=e describ$1 ?\gh a small "p may h be5 worn f ! b$ ov] :i* ! ice fl[s4 ,9 _m glaci]s1 p>ticul>ly z we approa* _! t]m9ation1 ?is %eet ( e>? & rock mat]ials (t5 cov]s ! ice s completely t ! novice 9 su* regions f9ds x difficult to believe t ! ice is "u 8 feet4 ,if ! explor] is m9d$ to take ! r\gh scramble1 he c (t5 walk = miles on ^! masses ( /one )\t see+1 mu* less sett+ foot on any froz5 wat]4 ,9 "s ( ! ,alaskan glaci]s ?is coat+ may be> a =e/ gr[?4 ,9 g5]al1 ?is mat]ial1 :i* is call$ mora9e1 is di/ribut$ 9 b&s p>allel to ! sides ( ! glaci]s1 & ! /rips may am\nt to a half doz5 or m4 ,^? on ! sides ( ! ice h evid5tly be5 d]iv$ f ! precipices :i* !y h pass$4 ,^? 9 ! middle h aris5 f ! union ( ! mora9es =m$ 9 two or m tribut>y valleys4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,map ( glaci]s & mora9es ne> ,mont ,blanc4 ,:]e ! avalan*es fall mo/ pl5tifully1 ! /ones lie buri$ ) ! sn[1 & only melt out :5 ! /ream atta9s ! region :]e ! annual wa/e ( its surface exce$s ! sn[fall4 ,9 ?is section we c see h[ ! progressive melt+ gradually br+s ! rocky dbris into pla9 view4 ,"h & !re we w f9d a b\ld] p]*$ on a p$e/al ( ice1 :i* indicates a rec5t d[n-we>+ ( ! field4 ,a frequ5t s\nd 9 ^! regions arises f ! tumble ( ! /ones f _! p$e/als or ! slipp+ ( ! masses f ! %>p ridge :i* is =m$ by ! protection giv5 to ! ice ?r\gh ! ?ick coat+ ( detritus on its surface4 ,^! movem5ts ( ! mora9es (t5 di/ribute _! wa/e ov] ! glaci]1 s t 9 its l[] "p we c no long] trace ! contributions f ! sev]al valleys1 ! :ole area be+ cov]$ by ! dbris4 ,at ! end ( ! ice /ream1 :]e its =w>d motion is f9ally ov]come by ! w>m? :i* x enc\nt]s1 x leaves 9 a rude heap1 ext5d+ (t5 l a wall across ! valley1 all ! co>se fragm5ts :i* x conveys4 ,?is accumulation1 compos$ ( all ! lat]al mora9es :i* h ga!r$ on ! ice by ! fall ( avalan*es1 is call$ ! t]m9al mora9e4 ,z ! ice /ream itself %r9ks1 a portion ( ! detritus next ! b\nd>y wall is apt to be left cl++ aga9/ ^? slopes4 ,x is f ! pres5ce ( ^! heaps 9 valleys n[ ab&on$ by glaci]s t we obta9 "s in=mation z to ! =m] great] ext5t ( glacial action4 ,! next mo/ noticeable feature is ! crevasse4 ,^! fractures (t5 exi/ 9 v great numb]s1 & con/itute a =midable b>ri] 9 ! explor]'s way4 ,! great] "p ( ^! ruptures bel[ ! s]ac zone run f ! sides ( ! /ream t[>d ! c5tre )\t atta9+ t region4 ,^! are commonly po9t$ up /ream2 _! =mation is due to ! fact t1 ow+ to ! swift] motion 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! /ream1 ! ice 9 t section draws away f ! mat]ial :i* is mov+ m sl[ly next ! %ore4 ,z be=e not$1 ^! ice fractures :5 drawn out naturally =m fissures at "r angles to ! direction ( ! /ra94 ,9 ! middle portions ( ! ice o!r fissures =m1 ?\gh m r>ely1 :i* appe> to dep5d on local /ra9s br\ght ab\t ?r\gh ! irregul>ity ( ! surface ov] :i* ! ice is fl[+4 ,if ! obs]v] is =tunate1 he may 9 8 j\rney ov] ! glaci] h a *ance to see & he> :at goes on :5 crevasses are =m$4 ,fir/ he w he> a deep1 boom+ s\nd b5ea? 8 feet1 :i* m]ges into a m spl9t]+ note z ! crevice1 :i* beg9s at ! bottom or 9 ! di/ance1 comes upw>d or t[>d him4 ,:5 ! s\nd is ov]1 he may n be able to see a trace ( ! fracture1 :i* at fir/ is v n>r[4 ,b if ! break int]sect any ( ! num]\s %all[ pools :i* 9 a w>m summ]'s day are apt to cov] a l>ge "p ( ! surface1 he may note a l9e ( bubbles ru%+ up ?r\gh ! wat]1 m>k+ ! escape ( ! air f ! glaci]1 "s remnant ( t :i* is imprison$ 9 ! orig9al sn[4 ,ev5 :]e ?is indication is want+1 he c sometimes trace ! crevice by ! hiss+ s\nd ( ! air /reams :]e !y issue f ! ice4 ,if he w take "t to note :at goes on1 he c usually 9 an h\r or two behold ! fir/ invisible crack wid5 until x may be half an in* across4 ,he may see h[ ! surface wat] ha/5s d[n ! op5+1 a little riv] sy/em be+ develop$ on ! surface ( ! ice z ! /reams make _! way to "o or m po9ts ( desc5t4 ,9 do+ ?is "w !y excavate a %aft :i* (t5 becomes _m feet 9 diamet]1 d[n :i* _! wat]s ?und] to ! base ( ! glaci]4 ,?is well-l op5+ is call$ a m\l91 or mill1 a "n :i*1 z we %all see1 is well des]v$ f ! "w :i* fall+ wat]s accompli%4 ,al?\gh ! in/itution ( ! m\l9 %aft dep5ds ^u ! =mation ( a crevice1 x (t5 happ5s t z ! ice moves f>!r on its j\rney its walls are aga9 ?ru/ toge!r1 sold]$ 9 ! mann] peculi> to ice1 s t no trace ( ! rupture rema9s except ! %aft :i* x p]mitt$ to =m4 ,l ev]y?+ else 9 ! glaci]1 ! m\l9 sl[ly moves d[n ! slope1 & rema9s op5 z long z x is ! seat ( desc5d+ wat]s produc$ by ! summ] melt+4 ,:5 x ceases to be kept op5 f ! summ]1 its walls are squeez$ toge!r 9 ! fa%ion t ! crevices are clos$4 ,=m+ "h & !re1 & g5]ally 9 consid]able numb]s1 ! crevices ( a glaci] entrap a good deal ( ! mora9al dbris1 :i* falls ?r\gh !m to ! bottom ( ! glaci]4 ,small] bits are wa%$ into ! m\l91 by ! /reams aris+ f ! melt+ ice1 :i* is br\ght ab\t by ! w>m sun ( ! summ]1 & p>ticul>ly by ! w>m ra9s ( t season4 ,on ^? glaci]s :]e1 ow+ to ! irregul>ity ( ! bottom ov] :i* ! ice fl[s1 ^! fractures are v num]\s1 x may happ5 t all ! detritus br\ght ^u ! surface ( ! glaci] by avalan*es f9ds its way to ! floor ( ! ice4 ,al?\gh x is difficult to le>n :at is go+ on at ! "u surface ( ! glaci]1 x is possible directly & indirectly to asc]ta9 mu* conc]n+ ! peculi> & important "w :i* is !re done4 ,! intrepid explor] may "w 8 way 9 ?r\gh ! lat]al fissures1 & ev5 ) c>e safely desc5d "s ( ! fissures :i* p5etrate ! c5tral p>ts ( a %all[ ice /ream4 ,!re1 x may be at ! dep? ( a hundr$ feet or m1 he w f9d a quantity ( /ones1 "s ( :i* may be 9 size l to a small h\se held 9 ! body ( ! ice1 b ) "o side re/+ ^u ! b$ rock4 ,he may be s =tunate z to see ! /one actually 9 process ( cutt+ a groove 9 ! b$ rock z x is urg$ =w>d by ! motion ( ! glaci]4 ,! cutt+ is n altoge!r 9 ! fix$ mat]ial1 = ! b\ld] itself is also worn & scor$ 9 ! "w4 ,small] pebbles are caught 9 ! space betwe5 ! erratic & ! motionless rock & gr\nd to bits4 ,if 9 8 explorations ! /ud5t f9ds 8 way to ! "p ( ! floor on :i* ! wat]s ( a m\l9 fall1 he may h a *ance to obs]ve h[ ! /ones set 9 motion s]ve to cut ! b$ rock1 =m+ elongat$ po?oles mu* z 9 ! case ( ord9>y wat]falls1 or at ! base ( ^? %afts :i* af=d ! beg9n+s ( lime/one cav]ns4 ,! be/ way to p5etrate b5ea? ! glaci] is ?r\gh ! ar* ( ! /ream :i* always fl[s f ! t]m9al face ( ! ice riv]4 ,ev5 9 w9t] "t e l>ge glaci] dis*>ges at its end a consid]able brook1 ! wat]s ( :i* h be5 melt$ f ! ice 9 small "p by ! outfl[ ( ! e>?'s heat2 ma9ly1 h[ev]1 by ! w>m? produc$ 9 ! friction ( ! ice on itself & on its bottom--9 o!r words1 by ! conv]sion ( t en]gy ( position1 ( :i* we h (t5 to speak1 into heat4 ,9 ! summ] "t ?is subglacial /ream is swoll5 by ! surface wat]s desc5d+ ?r\gh ! crevices & ! m\l9s :i* come f !m1 s t ! outfl[ (t5 =ms a consid]able riv]1 & ?us excavates 9 ! ice a l>ge or at lea/ a long cav]n1 ! base ( :i* is ! b$ rock4 ,9 ! autumn1 :5 ! sup]ficial melt+ ceases1 ?is gall]y c (t5 be p5etrat$ = a consid]able di/ance1 & af=ds an excell5t way to ! secrets ( ! "u ice4 ,! obs]v] may "h see quantities ( ! rock mat]ial held 9 ! grip ( ! ice1 & =c$ to a rude j\rney ov] ! b>e f\ndation /ones4 ,n[ & !n he may f9d ! glacial mass 9 l>ge measure made up ( /ones1 ! admixture ext5d+ _m feet above ! bottom ( ! cav]n1 p]haps to ! v top ( ! ar*4 ,he may p]*ance f9d t ^! /ones are cru%+ ea* o!r :]e !y are 9 contact4 ,! result w be br\ght ab\t by ! diff]5ce 9 ! rate ( advance ( ! ice1 :i* moves ! fa/] ! high] x is above ! surface ov] :i* x drags1 & ?us =ces ! /ones on "o level ov] ^? bel[4 ,:]e ! wat]s ( ! subglacial /ream h swept ! b$ rock clean ( dbris its surface is scor$1 groov$1 & "h & !re poli%$ 9 a mann] :i* is accompli%$ only by ice action1 ?\gh "s lik5ess to x is af=d$ :]e /ones h be5 swept ov] = ages by bl[+ s&4 ,"h & !re1 (t5 9 a way :i* int]rupts ! cav]n j\rney1 ! %runk5 /ream1 unable to c>ry =w>d ! dbris1 deposits ! mat]ial 9 ! *amb]1 sometimes fill+ ! ar* s completely t ! wat]s are =c$ to make a det\r4 ,?is action is p>ticul>ly int]e/+1 = ! reason t 9 regions :5ce glaci]s h disappe>$ ! deposits =m$ 9 ! old ice ar*es (t5 af=d s+ul>ly p]fect m\lds ( ^? cav]ns :i* 7 produc$ by ! anci5t subglacial /reams4 ,^! m\lds are t]m$ esk]s4 ,if ! obs]v] be att5tive1 he w note ! fact t ! wat]s em]g+ f b5ea? ! consid]able glaci] are v mu* *>g$ ) mud4 ,if he w take a glass ( ! wat] at ! po9t ( escape1 he w (t5 f9d1 on p]mitt+ x to settle1 t ! s$im5t am\nts to z mu* z "o tw5tie? ( ! volume4 ,:ile ! great] "p ( ?is detritus w desc5d to ! bottom ( ! vessel 9 ! c\rse ( a day1 a portion ( x does n ?us fall4 ,he may also note t ?is mud is n ( ! yell[i% hue :i* he is accu/om$ to behold 9 ! mat]ials laid d[n by ord9>y riv]s1 b has a :iti% col\r4 ,fur!r /udy w reveal ! fact t ! diff]5ce is due to ! lack ( oxidation 9 ! case ( ! glacial detritus4 ,riv] muds =m+ sl[ly & dur+ long-cont9u$ exposure to ! action ( ! air h _! conta9$ iron mu* oxidiz$1 :i* gives !m a "p ( _! d>k5$ appe>ance4 ,moreov]1 !y are some:at col\r$ ) decay$ vegetable matt]4 ,! wa/e f b5ea? ! glaci] has be5 quickly sep>at$ f ! b$ rock1 all ! faces ( ! gra9s are fre%ly fractur$1 & !re is no admixture ( organic matt]4 ,! faces ( ! p>ticles ?us reflect light 9 sub/antially ! same way z p[d]$ glass or pulv]iz$ ice1 & consequ5tly appe> :ite4 ,a little obs]vation w %[ ! /ud5t t ?is v muddy "* ( wat]s em]g+ f b5ea? ! glaci] is ess5tially peculi> to su* /reams z we h describ$4 ,asc5d+ any ( ! pr9cipal valleys ( ,switz]l&1 he may note t "s ( ! /reams fl[ wat]s :i* c>ry little s$im5t ev5 9 times :5 !y are mu* swoll51 :ile o!rs at all seasons h ! :iti% col\r4 ,a little fur!r exploration1 or ! use ( a good map1 w %[ him t ! pellucid /reams receive no contributions ( glacial wat]1 :ile ^? :i* look z if !y 7 *>g$ ) milk come1 9 "p at lea/1 f ! ice ar*es4 ,f "s /udies :i* ! writ] has made 9 ,swiss valleys1 x appe>s t ! am\nt ( erosion accompli%$ on equal areas ( simil> rock by ! desc5t ( ! wat]s 9 ! =m ( a glaci] or 9 t ( ord9>y torr5ts diff]s greatly4 ,mov+ 9 ! =m ( ice1 or 9 ! /ate ( ice-conf9$ /reams1 ! mass ( wat] applies v _m times z mu* ( its en]gy ( position to gr9d+ & be>+ away ! rocks z is accompli%$ :]e ! wat] desc5ds 9 its fluid /ate4 ,! effect ( ! int5se ice action above not$ is rapidly to we> away ! rocks ( ! valley 9 :i* ! glaci] is situat$4 ,?is "w is done n only 9 a l>g] measure b 9 a diff]5t way f t accompli%$ by torr5ts4 ,9 ! case ( ! latt]1 ! /ream b$ is emb>rass$ by ! rubbi% :i* comes into x2 only "h & !re c x attack ! b$ rock by =c+ ! /ones ov] its surface4 ,only 9 a few days ( heavy ra9 ea* ye> is its "w at all effective2 ! great] "p ( ! en]gy ( position ( its wat]s is exp5d$ 9 ! endless twi/+s & turn+s ( its /ream1 :i* result only 9 ! developm5t ( heat :i* flies away into ! atmosph]e4 ,9 ! ice /ream1 ow+ to its sl[ movem5t & to ! detritus :i* x =ces along ! bottom1 a va/ly great] "p ( ! en]gy :i* impels x d[n ! slope is appli$ to rock cutt+4 ,none ( ! b\ld]s1 ev5 if !y are y>ds 9 diamet]1 ob/ruct its motion2 small & great alike are to x good in/rum5ts :]e) to attack ! b$ rocks4 ,! fragm5ts are nev] left to wa/e by atmosph]ic decay1 b are to a v great ext5t us$ up 9 me*anical "w1 :ile ! mo/ ( ! detritus :i* comes to a torr5t is left 9 a co>se /ate :5 x is deliv]$ to ! /ream2 ! l>g] "p ( t :i* ! glaci] transports is worn out 9 its j\rney4 ,to a great ext5t x is us$ up 9 attack+ ! b$ rock4 ,9 mo/ cases ! dbris 9 ! t]m9al mora9e is evid5tly b a small "p ( :at ent]$ ! ice dur+ its j\rney f ! upl&s2 ! great] "p has be5 worn out 9 ! rude exp]i5ces to :i* x has be5 subject$4 ,x is evid5t t ev5 9 ! regions n[ mo/ ext5sively occupi$ by glaci]s ! dra9age sy/ems h be5 %ap$ by ! movem5t ( ord9>y /reams--9 o!r words1 ice action is almo/ ev]y:]e1 ev5 9 ! regions ab\t ! poles1 an incid5tal feature 9 ! "w ( wat]1 com+ 9 only to modify ! topography1 :i* is ma9ly m\ld$ by ! action ( fluid wat]4 ,:51 ow+ to climatal *anges1 a valley su* z ^? ( ! ,alps is occupi$ by a glacial /ream1 ! new curr5t proce$s at once1 accord+ to its evid5t ne$s1 to modify ! %ape ( its *annel4 ,an ord9>y torr5t1 because ( ! swiftness ( its motion1 :i* may1 9 g5]al1 be e/imat$ at f ?ree to five miles an h\r1 c convey away ! precipitation ov] a v n>r[ b$4 ,!re=e its *annel is usually n a hundr$? "p z wide z ! gorge or valley 9 :i* x lies4 ,b :5 ! dis*>ge takes place by a glaci]1 ! spe$ ( :i* r>ely exce$s f\r or five feet a day1 ! ice /ream because ( its sl[ motion has to fill ! tr\gh f side to side1 x has to be "s ?\s& times z deep & wide z ! torr5t4 ,! result is t z soon z ! glacial condition arises 9 a c\ntry ! ice /reams proce$ to *ange ! old ,v-%ap$ torr5t b$s into ^? :i* h a broad ,u-l =m4 ,! practis$ eye c 9 a way judge h[ long a valley has be5 subject$ to glacial action by ! ext5t to :i* x has be5 wid5$ by ?is process4 ,9 ! valleys ( ,switz]l& & o!r m\nta9 di/ricts :i* h be5 att5tively /udi$ x is evid5t t glacial action has play$ a consid]able "p 9 det]m9+ _! =ms4 ,b ! "w has be5 limit$ to t "p ( ! bas9 9 :i* ! ice is abundantly provid$ ) cutt+ tools 9 ! /one :i* h f\nd _! way to ! base ( ! /ream4 ,9 ! region ( ! nv1 :]e ! contributions ( rocky matt] to ! surface ( ! deposit made f ! few b>e cliffs :i* rise above ! %eet ( sn[ is small1 ! sn[-ice does no cutt+ ( any consequ5ce4 ,:]e x passes ov] ! /eep at ! head ( ! deep valley into :i* x dra9s1 & is riv5 into ! s]acs1 su* /ony matt] z x may h ga!r$ is all[$ to fall to ! bottom1 & s comes into a position :]e x may d effective "w4 ,f ?is s]ac section d[nw>d ! n[ di/9ct ice riv]1 be+ 9 g5]al bel[ ! sn[ l9e1 has ev]y:]e cliffs1 on ei!r side f :i* ! contributions ( rock mat]ial are abundant4 ,h5ce ?is "p ( ! glaci]1 ?\gh x is ! wa/+ portion ( its l5g?1 does all ! cutt+ "w ( any consequ5ce :i* is p]=m$4 ,x is !re t ! und]runn+ /reams become *>g$ ) s$im5t1 :i*1 z we h not$1 !y be> 9 surpris+ quantities1 & x is !re=e 9 ?is section ( ! valley t ! impress ( ! ice "w is ! /ronge/4 ,its effect is n only to wid5 ! valley & deep5 x1 b also to advance ! deep section f>!r up ! /ream & its tribut>ies4 ,! /ep 9 ! /ream b$s :i* we f9d at ! s]acs appe>s to m>k ! po9t 9 ! c\rse ( ! glaci] :]e1 ow+ to ! fall+ ( /ones to its base1 z well z to its swift] movem5ts & ! firm] /ate ( ! ice1 x does effective we>+4 ,!re are _m o!r features connect$ ) glaci]s :i* ri*ly repay ! /udy ( ^? :o h a m9d to explore 9 ! mann] ( ! physici/ int]e/$ 9 ice actions ! difficult problems :i* !y af=d2 b z ^! matt]s are n important f ! po9t ( view ( ?is "w1 no m5tion ( !m w "h be made4 ,we w n[ turn our att5tion to t o!r gr\p ( glaci]s commonly t]m$ cont95tal1 :i* n[ exi/ ab\t ei!r pole1 & :i* at v>i\s times 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory h ext5d$ f> t[>d ! equator1 mantl+ ov] va/ ext5ts ( l& & %all[ sea4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ice /reams ( ! m\nta9s & ^? :i* we t]m cont95tal dep5ds solely on ! areas ( ! fields & ! dep? ( ! accumulation4 ,9 an ord9>y ,alp9e region ! nv di/ricts1 :]e ! sn[ ga!rs1 are relatively small4 ,ow+ to ! r /eep slopes1 ! froz5 wat] is rapidly dis*>g$ into ! l[] valleys1 :]e x melts away4 ,bo? 9 ! nv & 9 ! di/9ct glaci] ( ! l[] gr\nds !re are1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! latt]1 project+ peaks1 f :i* quantities ( /one are br\ght d[n by avalan*es or 9 ord9>y rock falls1 s t ! ice is abundantly suppli$ ) cutt+ tools1 :i* "w f its surface d[n to its dep?s4 ,z ! glacial accumulation gr[s 9 dep? !re are few] peaks em]g+ f x1 & ! /reams :i* x fe$s rise ! high] until !y mantle ov] ! divides betwe5 ! valleys4 ,?us by imp]ceptible /ages valley glaci]s pass to ! l>g] =m1 usually b incorrectly t]m$ cont95tal4 ,we c1 inde$1 9 go+ f ! m\nta9s 9 ! tropics to ! poles1 note e /ep 9 ?is transition1 until 9 ,gre5l& we atta9 ! greate/ ice mass 9 ! _w1 unless t ab\t ! s\!rn pole be m ext5sive4 ,9 ! ,gre5l& glaci] ! ice %eet cov]s a va/ ext5t ( :at is probably a m\nta9 c\ntry1 :i* is c]ta9ly ( ?is nature 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! isl&1 :]e alone we f9d portions ( ! e>? n completely cov]$ by ! deep envelope4 ,?anks to ! lab\rs ( c]ta9 h>dy explor]s1 among :om ,nans5 des]ves ! =emo/ place1 we n[ "k some?+ z to ! conditions ( ?is va/ ice field1 = x has be5 cross$ f %ore to %ore4 ,! results ( ^! /udies are mo/ int]e/+1 = !y af=d u a clew z to ! conditions :i* prevail ov] a l>ge "p ( ! e>? dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod f :i* ! planet is j escap+1 & 9 ! e>li] ages :5 glaciation 0 likewise ext5sive4 ,we %all !re=e consid] 9 a some:at detail$ way ! features :i* ! ,gre5l& glaci] pres5ts4 ,/>t+ f ! ea/]n %ore ( t l&1 if we may ?us t]m a region :i* pres5ts itself ma9ly 9 ! =m ( ice1 we f9d next ! %ore a coa/ l9e n completely cov]$ ) ice & sn[1 b "h & !re exhibit+ peaks :i* indicate t if ! froz5 mantle 7 remov$ ! c\ntry w\ld appe> deeply int]sect$ ) fiords 9 ! mann] exhibit$ 9 ! regions to ! s\? ( ,gre5l& or ! ,sc&9avian p59sula4 ,! ice comes d[n to ! sea ?r\gh ! valleys1 (t5 fac+ ! ocean = great di/ances ) its froz5 cliffs4 ,ent]+ on ?is seaw>d portion ( ! glaci]1 ! obs]v] f9ds t = "s di/ance f ! coa/ l9e ! ice is m or less rift$ ) crevices1 ! =mation ( :i* is d\btless due to irregul>ities ( ! rock bottom ov] :i* x moves4 ,^! ruptures are s frequ5t t = "s miles back x is v difficult to f9d a safe way4 ,f9ally1 h[ev]1 a po9t is atta9$ :]e ^! breaks r sudd5ly disappe>1 & !nce inw>d ! ice rises at ! rate ( upw>d slope ( a few feet to ! mile 9 a broad1 ne>ly smoo? incl9e4 ,9 ! c5tral portion ( ! region = a consid]able "p ( ! t]ritory ! ice has v little slope4 ,!nce x decl9es t[>d ! o!r %ore1 exhibit+ ! same features z 7 f\nd on ! ea/]n v]sant until ne> ! coa/1 :5 aga9 ! surface is beset ) crevices :i* cont9ue to ! m>g9 ( ! sea4 ,al?\gh ! explorations ( ! c5tral field ( ,gre5l& are z yet incomplete1 sev]al ( ^! excursions into or across ! int]ior h be5 made1 & ! id5tity ( ! obs]vations is su* t we c safely assume ! :ole region to be ( "o type4 ,we c fur!rmore run no risk 9 assum+ t :at we f9d 9 ,gre5l&1 at lea/ s f> z ! unbrok5 nature ( ! c5tral ice field is conc]n$1 is :at mu/ exi/ 9 e l& :]e ! glacial envelope becomes v deep4 ,9 ,gre5l& x seems likely t ! dep? ( ! ice is on ! av]age m ?an half a mile1 & 9 ! c5tral "p ( ! realm ! %eet may well h a mu* great] pr(undity2 x may be ne>ly a mile deep4 ,! mo/ /rik+ feature--t ( a va/ unbrok5 expanse1 bord]$ by a region :]e ! ice is ruptur$--is traceable :]ev] v ext5sive & presumably deep deposits ( ice h be5 exam9$4 ,z we %all see h]eaft]1 ^! features tea* u mu* z to ! conditions ( glacial action--a matt] :i* we %all h to exam9e aft] we h complet$ our g5]al survey z to ! *anges :i* occur dur+ glacial p]iods4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( t wond]ful complex ( actions :i* we t]m climate1 glaci]s are ev]y:]e1 s f> z our obs]vations enable u to judge1 g5]ally 9 process ( decrease4 ,9 ,switz]l&1 al?\gh ! anci5ts ev5 9 ,roman days 7 9 contact ) ! ice1 !y 7 s unobs]vant t !y did n ev5 rem>k t ! ice 0 9 motion4 ,only dur+ ! la/ two c5turies h we any obs]vations ( a hi/oric sort :i* are ( value to ! geologi/4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 ! signs writt5 on ! rock tell ! /ory1 except = its measurem5t 9 t]ms ( ye>s1 z cle>ly z any records c\ld give x4 ,f ?is te/imony ( ! rocks we p]ceive t 9 ! geological ye/]day1 ?\gh x may h be5 "s t5s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s ago1 ! ,swiss glaci]s1 va/ly ?ick5$1 & ) _! horizontal area imm5sely exp&$1 /ret*$ ov] ! ,alp9e c\ntry1 s t only "h & !re did any ( ! %>p] peaks rise above ! surface4 ,^! va/ glaci]s1 almo/ cont9ually unit$ on _! m>g9s1 ext5d$ s f> t e portion ( :at is n[ ! ,swiss ,republic 0 cov]$ by !m4 ,_! front lay on ! s\!rn l[l&s ( ,g]many1 on ! ,jura di/rict ( ,france2 on ! s\?1 x /ret*$ across ! valley ( ! ,po z f> z ne> ,milan4 ,we "k ?is old ice front by ! accumulations ( rock dbris :i* 7 br\ght to x f ! int]ior ( ! m\nta9 realm4 ,we c recognise ! peculi> k9ds ( /one1 & ) p]fect c]ta9ty trace !m to ! b$ rock :5ce !y 7 riv54 ,moreov]1 we c foll[ back ?r\gh ! same evid5ce ! /ages ( retreat ( ! glaci]s1 until !y lo/ _! broad cont95tal "* & assum$ some?+ l _! pres5t valley =m4 ,up ! valley ( any ( ! great riv]s1 z1 = in/ance1 t ( ! ,rhne above ! lake ( ,g5eva1 we note successive t]m9al mora9es :i* cle>ly indicate /ages 9 ! retreat ( ! ice :5 = a "t x ceas$ to g backw>d1 or ev5 made a slight tempor>y readvance4 ,x is easily se5 t on su* occasions ! /ones c>ri$ to ! ice front w\ld be accumulat$ 9 a heap1 :ile dur+ ! "t :5 day by day ! glaci] 0 retreat+ ! rock wa/e w\ld be left broadca/ ov] ! valley4 ,z we g up f ! c\rse ( ! glacial /reams we note t ! successive mora9es h _! mat]ials 9 a progressively less decay$ /ate4 ,f> away f ! heap n[ =m+1 & 9 proportion to ! di/ance1 ! /ones h 9 a measure rott$1 & ! heaps :i* !y compose are (t5 cov]$ ) soil & occupi$ by =e/s4 ,)9 a few miles ( ! ice front ! /ones /ill h a fre% aspect4 ,:5 we arrive )91 say1 half a mile ( ! mora9e n[ build+1 we come to ! "p ( ! glacial retreat ( :i* we h "s writt5 or traditional acc\nt4 ,?is is 9 g5]al to ! effect t ! wa/+ ( ! glaci]s is go+ on 9 ?is c5tury z x w5t on 9 ! pa/4 ,occasionally p]iods ( heavy sn[ w\ld refre% ! ice /reams1 s t = a little "t !y pu%$ _! fronts f>!r d[n ! valley4 ,! writ] has se5 dur+ "o ( ^! tempor>y advances ! int]e/+ spectacle ( ice de/roy+ & ov]turn+ ! soil ( a small field :i* _h be5 plant$ 9 gra94 ,x %\ld be not$ t ^! tempor>y advances ( ! ice are n due to ! sn[fall ( ! w9t] or w9t]s imm$iately prec$+ ! =w>d movem5t4 ,s sl[ is ! j\rney ( ! ice f ! nv field to ! end ( a long glaci] t x may require c5turies = ! /ore accumulat$ 9 ! upl&s to affect ! t]m9al portion ( ! /ream4 ,we "k t ! bodies ( ! unhappy m5 :o h be5 lo/ 9 ! crevices ( ! glaci] are borne =w>d at a uni=m & tol]ably computable rate until !y em]ge at ! front1 :]e ! ice melts away4 ,9 at lea/ "o case ! rema9s h appe>$ aft] _m ye>s 9 ! dbris :i* is contribut$ to ! mora9e4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is sl[ fe$+ ( ! glacial /ream1 we naturally may expect to f9d1 z we d1 9 fact1 t a great sn[fall ( _m ye>s ago1 & likewise a p]iod :5 ! w9t]'s contribution has be5 slight1 w\ld influ5ce ! position ( ! t]m9al po9t ( ! ice /ream at diff]5t times1 accord+ to its l5g?4 ,if ! l5g? ( ! fl[ be five miles1 x may require tw5ty or ?irty ye>s = ! effect to be evid5t2 :ile if ! /ream be t5 miles long1 ! influ5ce may n be not$ 9 less ?an ?reescore ye>s4 ,?us x comes ab\t t at ! pres5t "t 9 ! same glacial di/rict "s /reams may be advanc+ :ile o!rs are rec$+1 ?\gh1 on ! :ole1 ! ice is g5]ally 9 process ( %r9kage4 ,if ! pres5t rate ( retreat %\ld be ma9ta9$1 x seems c]ta9 t at ! end ( ?ree c5turies ! ,swiss glaci]s z a :ole w n h any?+ l _! pres5t area1 & _m ( ! small] /reams w entirely disappe>4 ,foll[+ ! me?od ( ! illu/ri\s ,l\is ,agassiz1 :o fir/ att5tively trac$ ! evid5ce :i* %[s ! geologically rec5t great ext5sion ( glaci]s by /udy+ ! evid5ce ( ! action 9 fields !y no long] occupy1 geologi/s h n[ inspect$ a l>ge "p ( ! l& areas ) a view to f9d+ ! pro(s ( su* ice "w4 ,s f> z ^! indications are conc]n$1 ! indications :i* !y h _h to trace are g5]ally ( a v unmi/akable "*4 ,r>ely1 inde$1 does a skill$ /ud5t ( su* ph5om5a h to se>* 9 any region = m ?an a day be=e he obta9s indubitable evid5ce :i* w enable him to det]m9e :e!r or n ! field has rec5tly be5 occupi$ by an endur+ ice %eet--"o :i* survives ! summ] season & !re=e des]ves ! "n ( glaci]4 ,! indications :i* he has to consid] consi/ 9 ! direction & mann] 9 :i* ! surface mat]ials h be5 c>ri$1 ! physical conditions ( ^! mat]ials1 ! %ape ( ! surface ( ! und]ly+ rock z reg>ds its g5]al cont\r1 & ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( scrat*es & groov+s on its surface4 ,z ^! records ( ice action are ( fir/ importance 9 deal+ ) ?is problem1 & z !y af=d excell5t subjects = ! /udy ( ^? :o dwell 9 glaciat$ regions1 we %all note !m 9 "s detail4 ,! geologi/ recognises sev]al ways 9 :i* mat]ials may be transport$ on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,!y may be ca/ =? by volcanoes1 mak+ _! j\rney by be+ %ot ?r\gh ! air1 or by fl[+ 9 lava /reams2 x is always easy at a glance1 save 9 v r>e in/ances1 to det]m9e :e!r fragm5ts h ?us be5 convey$4 ,aga91 ! detritus may be mov$ by ! w9d2 ?is action is limit$2 x only affects du/1 s&1 & v small pebbles1 & is easily discrim9at$4 ,! c>riage may be effect$ by riv] or m>9e curr5ts2 "h1 aga91 ! size ( ! fragm5ts mov$ is small1 & ! ord] ( _! arrangem5t di/9ctly traceable4 ,! fragm5ts may be convey$ by ice rafts2 "h1 too1 ! obs]v] c usually limit ! probabilities he has to consid] by asc]ta9+1 z he c g5]ally d1 :e!r ! region :i* he is obs]v+ has be5 bel[ a sea or lake4 ,9 a ^w1 ! be=e-m5tion$ ag5ts ( transportation are ( some:at exceptional influ5ce1 & 9 mo/ cases c1 z explanations ( rock transportation1 be readily exclud$4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! geologi/ f9ds a c\ntry abundantly cov]$ ) s&1 pebbles1 & b\ld]s arrang$ 9 an irregul> way1 he has g5]ally only to inquire :e!r ! mat]ial has be5 c>ri$ by riv]s or by glaci]s4 ,?is discrim9ation c be quickly & critically effect$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 he notes t riv]s only 9 _! torr5t sections c c>ry l>ge fragm5ts ( rock1 & t 9 all cases ! fragm5ts move d[n hill4 ,fur!r1 t :]e deposits are =m$1 !y h m or less ! =m ( alluvial deposits4 ,if n[ ! obs]vations %[ t ! rock wa/e occupy+ ! surface ( any region has be5 c>ri$ up hill & d[n1 across ! valleys1 p>ticul>ly if !re are "h & !re traces ( frontal mora9es1 ! geologi/ is entitl$ to suppose--he may1 inde$1 be sure--t ! c>riage has be5 effect$ by a glacial %eet4 ,important corroborative evid5ce ( ice action is g5]ally to be f\nd by inspect+ ! b$ rock bel[ ! detritus1 :i* indicates glacial action4 ,ev5 if x be some:at decay$1 z is apt to be ! case :]e ! ice %eet long s9ce pass$ away1 ! b$ rock is likely to h a w>p$ surface2 x is ca/ into ridges & furr[s ( a broad1 fl[+ aspect1 su* z liquid wat] nev] produces1 :i*1 inde$1 c only be creat$ by an ice %eet mov+ ov] ! surface1 cutt+ its b$ 9 proportion to ! h>dness ( ! mat]ial4 ,fur!rmore1 if ! b$ rock h a firm texture1 & be n too mu* decay$1 we almo/ always f9d ^u x grooves or scrat*es1 *annels c>v$ by ! /ones emb$d$ 9 ! body ( ! ice1 & drawn by its motion ov] ! fix$ mat]ial4 ,?us ! pro( ( glacial ext5sion 9 ! la/ ice epo* is made s cle> t accurate maps c be prep>$ %[+ ! realm ( its action4 ,?is task is z yet incomplete1 al?\gh x is already f> advanc$4 ,:ile ! /udy ( glaci]s began 9 ,europe1 inquiries conc]n+ _! anci5t ext5sion h be5 c>ri$ fur!r & ) m accuracy 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ?an 9 any o!r "p ( ! _w4 ,we may !re=e well beg9 our description ( ! limits ( ! ice %eets ) ?is cont95t4 ,imag9+ a seaf>] to h approa*$ ,am]ica by ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 z did ! ,sc&9avians1 & t 8 voyage came p]haps a hundr$ ?\s& ye>s or m be=e t ( ,leif ,ericsson1 he w\ld h f\nd an ice front long be=e he atta9$ ! pres5t %ores ( ! l&4 ,?is front may h ext5d$ f s\? ( ,gre5l&1 (f ! %ores ( ! pres5t ,gr& ,banks ( ,newf\ndl&1 !nce & we/w>d to c5tral or s\!rn ,new ,j]sey4 ,?is cliff ( ice 0 =m$ by a %eet :i* lay on ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,on ! ,new ,j]sey coa/ ! ice wall left ! sea & ent]$ on ! body ( ! cont95t4 ,we w n[ suppose t ! explor]1 animat$ ) ! valiant sci5tific _s :i* leads ! m5 ( our day to seek ! poles1 und]took a l& j\rney along ! ice front across ! cont95t4 ,f ! ,new ,j]sey coa/ ! travell] w\ld h pass$ ?r\gh c5tral ,p5nsylvania1 :]e1 al?\gh !re probably deta*$ outly+ glaci]s ly+ to ! s\?w>d z f> z c5tral ,virg9ia1 ! ma9 front ext5d$ we/w>d into ! ,ohio ,valley4 ,9 s\!rn ,ohio a tongue ( ! ice project$ s\?w>dly until x cross$ ! ,ohio ,riv]1 :]e ,c9c9nati n[ lies1 ext5d+ a few miles to ! s\?w>d ( ! /ream4 ,!nce x deflect$ nor?w>dly1 cross+ ! ,mississippi1 & aga9 ! ,miss\ri1 ) a tongue or lobe :i* w5t f> s\?w>d 9 t ,/ate4 ,!n aga9 turn+ to ! nor?we/1 x foll[$ 9 g5]al ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,miss\ri bas9 until x came to )9 sight ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,!re ! ice front ( ! ma9 glaci] foll[$ ! tr5d ( ! m\nta9s at "s di/ance f _! face = an unkn[n ext5t to ! nor?w>d4 ,9 ! ,cordill]as1 z f> s\? z s\!rn ,colorado1 & probably 9 ! ,si]ra ,nevada to s\? ( ,san ,francisco1 ! m\nta9 c5tres develop$ local glaci]s1 :i* 9 "s places 7 ( v great size1 p]haps exce$+ any ( ^? :i* n[ exi/ 9 ,switz]l&4 ,x w ?us be se5 t ne>ly "o half ( ! pres5t l& area ( ,nor? ,am]ica 0 b5ea? a glacial cov]+1 ?\gh1 z be=e not$1 ! region ab\t ! ,gulf ( ,mexico may h sway$ upw>d :5 ! nor!rn portion ( ! l& 0 borne d[n by ! va/ load ( ice :i* re/$ ^u x4 ,not)/&+ ?is possible addition to ! l&1 our imag9>y explor] w\ld h f\nd ! portion ( ! cont95t fit = ! occupancy ( life n m ?an half z great z x is at pres5t4 ,9 ! ,eurasian cont95t !re 0 no su* cont9u\s ice %eet z 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 b ! glaci]s develop$ f a numb] ( diff]5t c5tres1 ea* mov+ out ^u ! l[l&s1 or1 if its position 0 s\!rn1 be+ limit$ to a p>ticul> m\nta9 field4 ,"o ( ^! c5tres includ$ ,sc&9avia1 nor!rn ,g]many1 ,great ,brita9 ab\t z f> s\? z ,london1 & a l>ge "p ( ,irel&1 ! ice cov]+ ! int]m$iate seas & ext5d+ to ! we/w>d1 s t ! passage ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic 0 greatly re/rict$ betwe5 ?is ice front & t ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,ano!r c5tre1 be=e not$1 0 =m$ 9 ! ,alps2 yet ano!r1 ( consid]able area1 9 ! ,pyr5ees2 o!r less /udi$ fields exi/$ 9 ! ,ap5n9es1 9 ! ,caucasus1 ! ,ural1 & ! o!r m\nta9s ( nor!rn ,asia4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 h[ev]1 ! great region ( pla9s 9 ,sib]ia does n appe> to h be5 occupi$ by a cont9u\s ice %eet1 ?\gh ! simil> region 9 ,nor? ,am]ica 0 deeply emb$d$ 9 a glaci]4 ,co9cid5t ) ?is developm5t ( ice 9 ! ea/]n "p ( ! cont95t1 ! ice /reams ( ! ,himalayan ,m\nta9s1 "s ( :i* are among ! greate/ ( our upl& glaci]s1 appe> to h und]gone b a mod]ate ext5sion4 ,_m o!r ( ! ,eurasian highl&s 7 probably ice-b\nd dur+ ! la/ ,glacial p]iod1 b our k conc]n+ ^! local fields is z yet imp]fect4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e ! l&s are ( less ext5t &1 on ! :ole1 less /udi$ ?an 9 ! nor!rn realm4 ,"h & !re :]e glaci]s exi/1 z 9 ,new ,zeal& & 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 obs]vant travell]s h notic$ t ^! ice fields h rec5tly %runk away4 ,:e!r ! "t ( greate/ ext5sion & ( retreat co9cid$ ) t ( ! ice %eets 9 ! nor? is n yet det]m9$2 ! problem1 inde$1 is "o ( "s difficulty1 & may long rema9 undecid$4 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 probable t ! glaci]s ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 l ^? 9 ! nor?1 are 9 process ( retreat4 ,if ?is be true1 !n _! "t ( greate/ ext5sion 0 probably ! same z t ( ! ice %eets ab\t ! s\!rn pole4 ,f c]ta9 imp]fect reports :i* we h conc]n+ evid5ces ( glaciation 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica & 9 ! ,&ean di/rict 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 x seems possible t at "o "t ! upl& ice along ! ,cordill]an *a9 exi/$ f po9t to po9t along t sy/em ( elevations1 s t ! wide/ int]val betwe5 ! fields ( p]man5t sn[ ) _! att5dant glaci]s did n mu* exce$ a ?\s& miles4 ,obs]v+ ! pres5t gradual retreat ( ^? ice remnants :i* rema9 m]e %r$s & pat*es ( ! anci5t fields1 x seems at fir/ sight likely t ! ext5sion & recession ( ! great glaci]s took place ) exce$+ sl[ness4 ,measur$ 9 t]ms ( human life1 9 ! mann] 9 :i* we gauge matt]s ( man's hi/ory1 ?is process 0 d\btless sl[4 ,!re are reasons1 h[ev]1 to believe t ! com+ & go+ 71 9 a geological s5se1 swift2 !y may h1 inde$1 be5 = a "p ( ! "t ( />tl+ rapidity4 ,go+ back to ! "t ( geological ye/]day1 be=e ! ice began its developm5t 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 all ! evid5ce we c f9d appe>s to indicate a temp]ate climate ext5d+ f> t[>d ! nor? pole4 ,! ,mioc5e deposits f\nd )9 twelve degrees1 or a little m ?an sev5 hundr$ miles1 ( ! nor? pole1 & fairly )9 ! realm ( l[e/ temp]ature :i* n[ exi/s on ! e>?1 %[ by ! plant rema9s :i* !y conta9 t ! conditions p]mitt$ ! gr[? ( =e/s1 ! plants hav+ a tol]ably close resemblance to ^? :i* n[ freely develop 9 ! s\!rn portion ( ! ,mississippi ,valley4 ,among !m !re are species :i* _h ! habit ( reta9+ _! broad1 r s(t leaves ?r\gh\t ! w9t] season4 ,! climate appe>s1 9 a ^w1 to h be5 "o :]e ! mean annual temp]ature mu/ h be5 ?irty degrees or m high] ?an ! pres5t av]age ( t realm4 ,al?\gh su* conditions ne> ! sea level are n inconsi/5t ) ! supposition t glaci]s exi/$ 9 ! high] m\nta9s ( ! nor?1 !y cle>ly d5y ! possibility ( ! realm be+ occupi$ by cont95tal glaci]s4 ,al?\gh ! ,plioc5e deposits =m$ 9 high latitudes h to a great ext5t be5 swept away by ! subsequ5t glacial we>+1 !y indicate by _! fossils a climatal *ange 9 ! direction ( great] cold4 ,we trace ?is *ange1 ?\gh obscurely1 9 a progressive mann] to a po9t :]e ! records are int]rupt$1 & ! next int]pretable indication we h is t ! ice %eet _h ext5d$ to some:]e ne> ! limits :i* we h not$4 ,we are !n driv5 to seek :at we c conc]n+ ! soj\rn ( ! ice on ! l& by ! am\nt ( we>+ :i* x has inflict$ ^u ! areas :i* x occupi$4 ,?is evid5ce has a c]ta91 ?\gh1 z we %all see1 a limit$ value4 ,:5 ! /ud5ts ( glacial action fir/ began ! great task ( int]pret+ ^! records1 !y 7 l$ to suppose t ! am\nt ( rock cutt+ :i* 0 done by ! ice 0 v great4 ,obs]v+ :at goes on1 9 ! mann] we h not$1 b5ea? a valley glaci] su* z ^? ( ,switz]l&1 !y saw t ! ice "w w5t on rapidly1 & conclud$ t if ! ice rema9$ long at "w 9 a region x mu/ d a va/ deal ( erosion4 ,!y 7 "r 9 a "p ( _! premises1 b1 z we %all see1 probably 9 ano!r "p wrong4 ,look+ c>efully ov] ! field :]e ! ice has op]at$1 we note t1 ?\gh at fir/ sight ! area appe>s to h lo/ all trace ( its preglacial riv] topography1 ?is aspect is due ma9ly to ! irregul> way 9 :i* ! glacial wa/e is laid d[n4 ,close /udy %[s u t we may g5]ally trace ! old /ream valleys d[n to ^? :i* 7 no l>g] ?an brooks4 ,x is true t ^! *annels are g5]ally & 9 _m places almo/ altoge!r fill$ 9 ) rubbi%1 b a close /udy ( ! "q has conv9c$ ! writ]1 & ?is aga9/ a previ\s view1 t ! am\nt ( erosion 9 ,new ,engl& & ,canada1 :]e ! "w 0 probably z great z any:]e1 has n on ! av]age exce$$ a hundr$ feet1 & probably 0 mu* less ?an t am\nt4 ,ev5 9 ! region nor? ( ,lake ,ont>io1 ov] :i* ! ice 0 deep & rema9$ = a long "t1 ! am\nt ( erosion is s+ul>ly small4 ,?us nor? ( ,k+/on ! little valleys 9 ! lime/one rocks :i* 7 cut by ! preglacial /reams1 ?\gh some:at encumb]$ ) drift1 rema9 almo/ z di/9ct z !y are on simil> /rata 9 c5tral ,k5tucky1 well s\? ( ! field :i* ! ice occupi$4 ,9 fact1 ! ice %eet appe>s to h done ! greate/ "p ( its "w & to h affect$ ! surface mo/ 9 ! belt ( c\ntry a few hundr$ miles 9 wid? ar\nd ! edges ( ! %eet4 ,x 0 to be expect$ t 9 a cont95tal glaci]1 z 9 ^? ( m\nta9 valleys1 ! mo/ ( ! dbris %\ld be accumulat$ ab\t ! m>g9 :]e ! mat]ials dropp$ f ! ice4 ,b :y ! cutt+ action %\ld be greate/ 9 t m>g9al field is n at fir/ sight cle>4 ,to expla9 ?is & o!r features z be/ we may1 we %all n[ consid] ! probable hi/ory ( ! great ice m>* 9 advance & retreat1 & !n take up ! conditions :i* br\ght ab\t its developm5t & its disappe>ance4 ,ice is 9 _m ways ! mo/ rem>kable sub/ance ) :i* ! physici/ has to deal1 & among its em95t peculi>ities is t x exp&s 9 freez+1 :ile ! rule is t sub/ances contract 9 pass+ f ! fluid to ! solid /ate4 ,on ?is acc\nt froz5 wat] acts 9 a unique mann] :5 subject$ to pressure4 ,= ea* additional atmosph]e ( pressure--a weight am\nt+ to ab\t fifte5 p\nds to ! squ>e in*--! temp]ature at :i* ! ice w melt is l[]$ to ! am\nt ( sixte5 ?\s&?s ( a degree c5tigrade4 ,if we take a piece ( ice at ! temp]ature ( freez+ & put ^u x a suffici5t weight1 we inevitably br+ ab\t a small am\nt ( melt+4 ,:]e we c exam9e ! mass "u fav\rable conditions1 we c see ! fluid ga!r along ! l9es ( ! cry/als or o!r bits ( :i* ! ice is compos$4 ,we readily note ?is action by br++ two pieces ( ice toge!r ) a slight pressure2 :5 ! pressure is remov$1 !y w adh]e4 ,! adhesion is br\ght ab\t n by any /ick9ess ( ! mat]ials1 = ! sub/ance has no su* prop]ty4 ,x is accompli%$ by melt+ along ! l9e ( contact1 :i* =ms a film ( wat]1 t at once refreezes :5 ! pressure is )drawn4 ,:5 a firm sn[ball is made by ev5 press+ sn[1 innum]able simil> adhesions gr[ up 9 ! mann] describ$4 ,! fact is t1 giv5 ice at ! temp]ature at :i* x ord9>ily =ms1 pressure ^u x w necess>ily develop melt+4 ,! consequ5ces ( pressure melt+ z above describ$ are 9 glaci]s extremely complicat$4 ,because ! ice is built into ! glaci] at a temp]ature consid]ably bel[ ! freez+ po9t1 x requires a great ?ickness ( ! mass be=e ! sup]9cumb5t weight is suffici5t to br+ ab\t melt+ 9 its l[] p>ts4 ,if we knew ! height at :i* a !rmomet] w\ld h /ood 9 ! surface ice ( ! anci5t glaci] :i* cov]$ ! nor!rn "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 we c\ld ) "s accuracy compute h[ ?ick x mu/ h be5 be=e ! effect ( pressure alone w\ld h br\ght ab\t melt+2 b ev5 !n we %\ld h to reckon ! temp]ature d]iv$ f ! gr9d+ ( ! ice ov] ! floor & ! cru%+ ( rocks !re effect$1 z well z ! heat :i* is con/antly ?\gh sl[ly com+ =? f ! e>?'s int]ior4 ,! result is t we c only say t at "s dep?1 probably less ?an a mile1 ! sl[ly accumulat+ ice w\ld acquire su* a temp]ature t1 subject$ to ! weight above x1 ! mat]ial next ! bottom w\ld become molt51 or at lea/ conv]t$ into a sludgelike /ate1 9 :i* x c\ld n rub aga9/ ! bottom1 or move /ones 9 ! mann] ( ord9>y glaci]s4 ,z fa/ z ! ice assum$ ?is liquid or s(t5$ /ate1 x w\ld be squeez$ out t[>d ! region :]e1 because ( ! ?9n+ ( ! glaci]1 x w\ld ent] a field :]e pressure melt+ did n occur4 ,x w\ld !n resume ! solid /ate1 & !nce j\rney to ! m>g9 ( ! ice 9 ! ord9>y mann]4 ,we ?us c imag9e h[ su* a glaci] z occupi$ ! nor!rn "p ( ?is cont95t c\ld h mov$ f ! c5tral p>ts t[>d its p]iph]y1 z we c n d if we assume t ! glaci] ev]y:]e lay ^u ! b$ rock4 ,!re is no slope f ,lake ,erie to ! ,ohio ,riv] at ,c9c9nati4 ,kn[+ t ! ice mov$ d[n ?is l9e1 !re are b two me?ods ( acc\nt+ = its motion3 ei!r ! slope ( ! upp] surface to ! nor?w>d 0 s /eep t ! mass w\ld h be5 ?us urg$ d[n1 ! upp] p>ts dragg+ ! bottom along ) !m1 or ! ice %eet = ! great] "p ( its ext5t re/$ ^u pressure-molt5 wat]1 or sludge ice1 :i* 0 easily squeez$ out t[>d ! front4 ,! fir/ supposition appe>s inadmissible1 = ! reason t ! ice w\ld h to be _m miles deep at ,hudson ,bay 9 ord] t its upp] surface %\ld h slope en\gh to ov]come ! rigidity ( ! mat]ial & br+ ab\t ! movem5t4 ,we "k t any su* dep? is n supposable4 ,! rec5t /udies 9 ,gre5l& supply u ) /rong corroborative evid5ce = ! support ( ! view :i* is "h urg$4 ,! wide c5tral field ( t area1 :]e ! ice has an exce$+ slight declivity1 & is unruptur$ by crevices1 c n be expla9$ except on ! supposition t x re/s on pressure-molt5 wat]4 ,! ?9n] section next ! %ore1 :]e ! glaci] is brok5 up by ^? irregul> movem5ts :i* its wre/le ) ! bottom inevitably induces1 %[s t !re x is 9 contact ) ! b$ rock1 = x behaves exactly z d ! valley glaci]s ( l ?ickness4 ,! view above sugge/$ z to ! condition ( cont95tal glaci]s enables u to expla9 n only _! movem5ts1 b ! relatively slight am\nt ( we>+ :i* !y br\ght ab\t on ! l&s !y occupi$4 ,beg9n+ to develop 9 m\nta9 regions1 or ne> ! poles on ! l[l&s1 ^! %eets1 z soon z !y atta9$ ! ?ickness :]e ! ice at _! bottom became molt51 w\ld rapidly advance = great di/ances until !y atta9$ di/ricts :]e ! melt+ exce$$ ! supply ( froz5 mat]ial4 ,9 ?is excursion only ! m>g9al portion ( ! glaci] w\ld d erosive "w4 ,?is w\ld evid5tly be cont9u$ = ! greate/ am\nt ( "t ne> ! front or out] rim ( ! ice field1 = !re1 we may presume1 t = ! longe/ "t ! cutt+ rim w\ld re/ ^u ! b$ rock ( ! c\ntry4 ,z ! ice rec$$1 ?is rim w\ld fall back2 ?us 9 ! retreat z 9 ! advance ! :ole ( ! field w\ld be subject$ to a c]ta9 am\nt ( erosion4 ,on ?is supposition we %\ld expect to f9d t ! front ( a cont95tal glaci]1 f$ ) pressure-molt5 wat] f all its int]ior di/rict1 :i* became conv]t$ into ice1 w\ld atta9 mu* w>m] regions ?an ! valley /reams1 :]e all ! fl[ took place 9 ! /ate ( ice1 &1 fur!rmore1 t ! spe$ ( ! go+ on ! m>g9 w\ld be mu* m rapid ?an 9 ! ,alp9e /reams4 ,^! suppositions are well borne out by ! /udy ( exi/+ cont95tal ice %eets1 :i* move ) s+ul> rapidity at _! fronts1 & by ! anci5t glaci]s1 :i* evid5tly ext5d$ into r w>m fields4 ,?us1 :5 ! ice front lay at ! site ( ,c9c9nati1 at six hundr$ feet above ! sea1 !re 7 no glaci]s 9 ! m\nta9s ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ?\gh ^? rise m ?an five ?\s& feet high] 9 ! air1 & are less ?an two hundr$ miles f>!r s\?4 ,x is !re=e evid5t t ! cont95tal glaci] at ?is "t pu%$ s\?w>d into a comp>atively w>m c\ntry 9 a way t no /ream mov+ 9 ! mann] ( a valley glaci] c\ld possibly h done4 ,! cont95tal glaci]s manage 9 _m cases to convey detritus f a great di/ance4 ,?us1 :5 ! ice %eet advanc$ s\?w>dly f ! regions nor? ( ! ,great ,lakes1 !y convey$ quantities ( ! dbris f t section z f> s\? z ! ,ohio ,riv]4 ,9 "p ?is rubbi% 0 dragg$ =w>d by ! ice z ! %eet advanc$2 9 "p x 0 urg$ onw>d by ! /reams ( liquid wat] =m$ by ! ord9>y process ( ice melt+4 ,su* subglacial riv]s appe> to h be5 =m$ along ! m>g9s ( all ! great glaci]s4 ,we c sometimes trace _! c\rse by ! excavation :i* !y h made1 b m commonly by ! long ridges ( /ratifi$ s& & gravel :i* 7 pack$ into ! cav]ns excavat$ by ^! subglacial riv]s1 :i* are kn[n to glaciali/s z esk]s1 or z s]p5t kames4 ,9 _m cases we c trace :]e ^! /reams fl[$ up /ream 9 ! old riv] valleys until !y dis*>g$ ov] _! head wat]s4 ,?us 9 ! valley ( ! ,g5esee1 :i* n[ fl[s f ,p5nsylvania1 :]e x heads aga9/ ! tribut>ies ( ! ,ohio & ,susquehanna1 to ,lake ,ont>io1 !re 0 dur+ ! ,glacial epo* a consid]able riv] :i* dis*>g$ its wat]s into ^? ( ! ,ohio & ! ,susquehanna ov] ! falls at ! head ( its c\rse4 ,illu/ration3 ,front ( ,muir ,glaci]1 %[+ ice ent]+ ! sea2 also small iceb]gs4 ,! effect ( widespread glacial action on a c\ntry su* z ,nor? ,am]ica appe>s to h be51 9 ! fir/ place1 to di/urb ! attitude ( ! l& by be>+ d[n portions ( its surface1 a process :i* l$ to ! upris+ ( o!r p>ts :i* lay beyond ! realm ( ! ice4 ,)9 ! field ( glaciation1 s f> z ! ice re/$ bodily on ! surface1 ! rocks 7 rapidly worn away4 ,a great deal ( ! dbris 0 gr\nd to f9e p[d]1 & w5t f> ) ! wat]s ( ! "u-runn+ /reams4 ,a l>ge "p 0 entangl$ 9 ! ice1 & mov$ =w>d t[>d ! front ( ! glaci]1 :]e x 0 ei!r dropp$ at ! m>g9 or1 dur+ ! recession ( ! glaci]1 0 laid ^u ! surface z ! ice melt$ away4 ,! result ( ?is erosion & transportation has be5 to *ange ! conditions ( ! surface bo? z reg>ds soil & dra9age4 ,z ! read] has d\btless p]ceiv$1 ord9>y soil is1 outside ( ! riv] valleys1 d]iv$ f ! rock b5ea? :]e x lies4 ,9 glaciat$ di/ricts ! mat]ial is commonly br\ght f a consid]able di/ance1 (t5 f miles away4 ,^! ice-made soils are r>ely v f]tile1 b !y commonly h a great endurance = tillage1 & ?is = ! reason t ! e>? is refre%$ by ! decay ( ! pebbles :i* !y conta94 ,moreov]1 :ile ! tillable e>? ( o!r regions usually has a limit$ dep?1 v]g+ d[nw>d into ! semisoil or subsoil :i* repres5t ! little *ang$ b$ rocks1 glacial deposits c g5]ally be pl\gh$ z deeply z may prove desirable4 ,! dra9age ( a c\ntry rec5tly affect$ by glaci]s is always imp]fect4 ,ow+ to ! irregul> erosion ( ! b$ rocks1 & to ! yet m irregul> deposition ( ! detritus1 !re are v num]\s lakes :i* are only sl[ly fill$ up or by erosion provid$ ) dra9age *annels4 ,?\gh sev]al ?\s& ye>s h pass$ by s9ce ! ice disappe>$ f ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! great] "p ( ! area ( ^! fre%-wat] bas9s rema9s1 ! great] numb] ( !m1 mo/ly ^? ( small size1 h become clos$4 ,:]e an ice /ream desc5ds into ! sea or into a l>ge lake1 ! dep? ( :i* is ab\t z great z ! ice is ?ick1 ! relative lightness ( ! ice t5ds to make x float1 & x %ortly breaks (f f ! p>5t mass1 =m+ an iceb]g4 ,:]e1 z is g5]ally ! case 9 ^? glaci]s :i* ent] ! ocean1 a curr5t sweeps by ! place :]e ! b]g is =m$1 x may ent] ^u a j\rney :i* may c>ry ! mass ?\s&s ( miles f its orig94 ,! b]gs sep>at$ f ! ,gre5l& glaci]s1 & f ^? ab\t ! s\? pole1 are (t5 ( v great size2 sometimes1 inde$1 !y are "s ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness1 & h a l5g? ( sev]al miles4 ,x (t5 happ5s t ^! b]gs are =m$ ( ice1 :i* conta9s 9 its l[] "p a l>ge am\nt ( rock dbris4 ,z ! subm]g$ portion ( ! glaci] melts 9 ! sea wat]1 ^! /ones are gradually dropp$ to ! bottom1 s t ! c>go ( "o b]g may be /rew$ along a l9e _m hundr$ miles 9 l5g?4 ,x occasionally happ5s t ! ice mass melts m sl[ly 9 ^? p>ts :i* are 9 ! air ?an 9 its "u-wat] portions4 ,x ?us becomes top-heavy & ov]turns1 9 :i* case su* /ony matt] z rema9s atta9s a position :]e x may be convey$ = a great] di/ance ?an if ! glaci] 7 n capsiz$4 ,x is likely1 inde$1 t n[ & !n fragm5ts ( rock f ,gre5l& are dropp$ on ! ocean floor 9 ! "p ( ! ,atlantic :i* is trav]s$ by /eam]s betwe5 our ,atlantic ports & ,great ,brita94 ,except = ! risks :i* !y br+ to navigators1 iceb]gs h no consid]able importance4 ,x is true !y some:at affect ! temp]ature ( sea & air1 & !y also s]ve to convey fragm5ts ( /one f> out to sea 9 a way t no o!r ag5t c effect2 b1 on ! :ole1 _! influ5ce on ! conditions ( ! e>? is inconsid]able4 ,iceb]gs 9 c]ta9 cases af=d int]e/+ indices z to ! motion ( oceanic curr5ts1 :i*1 ?\gh mov+ swiftly at a dep? bel[ ! surface1 d n manife/ !mselves on ! pla9 ( ! sea4 ,?us 9 ! region ab\t ,gre5l&1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,davis ,/rait1 b]gs h be5 se5 =c+ _! way s\?w>d at consid]able spe$ ?r\gh ord9>y surface ice1 :i* 0 ei!r at re/ or mov+ 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! tra9 ( ^! b]gs1 :i* moves upw>d f ! s\? pol> cont95t1 we/ ( ,patagonia1 indicates also 9 a v emphatic way ! exi/5ce ( a v /rong nor?w>d-sett+ curr5t 9 t "p ( ! ocean4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we h n[ to consid] ! causes :i* c\ld br+ ab\t su* great ext5sions ( ! ice %eet z occurr$ 9 ! la/ ,glacial p]iod4 ,"h aga9 we are ^u ! conf9es ( geological k1 & 9 a field :]e !re are no well-cle>$ ways = ! und]/&+4 ,9 fac+ ?is problem1 we %\ld fir/ note t ^? :o are ( ! op9ion t a ,glacial p]iod means a v cold climate 9 ! regions :]e ! ice atta9$ its ext5sion are probably 9 error4 ,natural z x may seem to look = exce$+ cold z ! cause ( glaciation1 ! facts %[ u t we c n hold ?is view4 ,9 ,sib]ia & 9 ! p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica bord]+ on ! ,arctic ,sea ! av]age cold is s int5se t ! gr\nd is p]man5tly froz5--z x is1 = in/ance1 9 ! ,klondike di/rict--to ! dep? ( hundr$s ( feet1 only ! surface ?aw+ out dur+ ! w>m summ]s4 ,all ?is region is cold en\gh = glaci]s1 b !re is n suffici5t sn[fall to ma9ta9 !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ,gre5l&1 & 9 a less ?\gh conspicu\s degree 9 ,sc&9avia1 :]e ! wat]s ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic some:at dim9i% ! rig\r ( ! cold1 & at ! same "t br+ ab\t a m abundant sn[fall1 ! two actions be+ intimately relat$1 we h v ext5sive glaci]s4 ,su* facts1 :i* c\ld be v mu* ext5d$1 make x cle> t ! climate ( glacial p]iods mu/ h be5 *>act]iz$ by a great sn[fall1 & n by ! mo/ int5se cold4 ,x is evid5t t :at w\ld be necess>y aga9 to envelop ! boreal p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica ) a glacial %eet w\ld n be a consid]able decrease ( heat1 b an increase 9 ! w9t]'s contribution ( froz5 wat]4 ,ev5 if ! heat releas$ by ?is sn[fall elevat$ ! av]age temp]ature ( ! w9t]1 z x d\btless w\ld 9 a consid]able measure1 x w\ld n melt (f ! sn[4 ,t sn[fall t5ds to w>m ! air by sett+ free ! heat :i* 0 engag$ 9 keep+ ! wat] 9 a /ate ( vap\r is famili>ly %[n by ! w>m+ :i* att5ds an ord9>y sn[/orm4 ,ev5 if ! fall beg9 ) a temp]ature ( ab\t #j ,fahr41 ! air is pretty sure to rise to ne> ! freez+ po9t4 ,x is evid5t t no great *ange ( temp]ature is requir$ 9 ord] to br+ ab\t a v consid]able increase 9 ! am\nt ( sn[fall4 ,9 ! ord9>y succession ( seasons we (t5 note ! occurr5ce ( w9t]s dur+ :i* ! precipitation ( sn[ is mu* above ! av]age1 ?\gh x c n be expla9$ by a consid]able climatal *ange4 ,we h to acc\nt = ^! dep>tures f ! normal wea!r by suppos+ t ! atmosph]ic curr5ts br+ 9 m ?an ! usual am\nt ( moi/ure f ! sea dur+ ! p]iod :5 great falls ( sn[ occur4 ,9 fact1 9 expla9+ v>iations 9 ! humidity ( ! l&1 :e!r ^? ( a con/ant nature or ^? t are to be t]m$ accid5tal1 we h always to look to ^? features :i* det]m9e ! importation ( vap\r f ! great field ( ! ocean :]e x ent]s ! air4 ,we %\ld fur!rmore note t ^! peculi>ities ( climate are dep5d5t ^u r slight geographic accid5ts4 ,?us ! sn[fall ( nor!rn ,europe1 :i* s]ves to ma9ta9 ! glaciation ( t region1 &1 curi\sly en\gh1 9 "s measure its g5]al w>m?1 dep5ds ^u ! movem5t ( ! ,gulf ,/ream f ! tropics to high latitudes4 ,if by any geographical *ange1 su* z w\ld occur if ,c5tral ,am]ica 7 l[]$ s z to make a free passage = its wat]s to ! we/w>d1 ! glaci]s ( ,gre5l& & ( ,sc&9avia w\ld disappe>1 & at ! same "t ! temp]ature ( ^? w\ld be greatly l[]$4 ,?us ! mo/ evid5t cause ( glaciation mu/ be s\ght 9 ^? alt]ations ( ! l& :i* affect ! movem5t ( ! oceanic curr5ts4 ,apply+ ?is pr9ciple to ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 we c 9 a way imag9e a *ange :i* w\ld probably br+ ab\t a return ( su* an ice p]iod z t f :i* ! boreal realm is n[ escap+4 ,let u suppose t ! region ( n v high l& ab\t ,b]+ ,/rait %\ld s9k d[n s z to af=d ! ,kuro ,siwo1 or ,nor? ,pacific equival5t ( our ,gulf ,/ream1 an opportunity to ent] ! ,arctic ,sea ) some?+ l ! fre$om ) :i* ! ,nor? ,atlantic curr5t is all[$ to p5etrate to high latitudes4 ,x seems likely t ?is ,pacific curr5t1 :i* 9 volume & w>m? is comp>able to t ( ! ,atlantic1 w\ld s f> elevate ! temp]ature ( ! arctic wat]s t _! wide field w\ld be ! seat ( a great evaporation4 ,not+ once aga9 ! fact t ! ,gre5l& glaci]s1 z well z ^? ( ,norway1 are suppli$ f seas w>m$ by ! ,gulf ,/ream1 we %\ld expect ! result ( ?is *ange w\ld be to develop simil> ice fields on all ! l&s ne> t ocean4 ,apply+ ! data ga!r$ by ,dr4 ,croll = ! ,gulf ,/ream1 x seems likely t ! av]age annual temp]ature induc$ 9 ! ,arctic ,sea by ! free entrance ( ! ,japan curr5t w\ld be betwe5 #bj & #cj ,fahr4 ,?is w\ld conv]t ?is wide realm ( wat]s into a field ( great evaporation1 va/ly increas+ ! annual precipitation4 ,x seems also c]ta9 t ! great] "p ( ?is precipitation w\ld be 9 ! =m ( sn[4 ,x appe>s to ! writ] t ?is cause alone may be suffici5t to acc\nt = ! la/ ,glacial p]iod 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,z to ! probability t ! region ab\t ,b]+ ,/rait may h be5 l[]$ 9 ! mann] requir$ by ?is view1 x may be said t rec5t /udies on ! region ab\t ,m\nt ,/4 ,elias %[ t dur+ or j aft] ! ice epo* ! %ores 9 t portion ( ,alaska 7 at lea/ f\r ?\s& feet l[] ?an at pres5t4 ,z ?is is b a little way f ! l& :i* we %\ld h to suppose to be l[]$ 9 ord] to admit ! ,japan curr5t1 we c\ld fairly conclude t ! requir$ *ange occurr$4 ,z = ! cause ( ! l& movem5t1 geologi/s are /ill 9 d\bt4 ,!y "k1 h[ev]1 t ! attitudes ( ! l& are exce$+ly un/able1 & t ! %ores r>ely = any consid]able "t ma9ta9 _! position4 ,x is probable t ^! sway+s ( ! e>?'s surface are due to ev]-*ang+ comb9ations ( ! weight 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! cru/ & ! /ra9s aris+ f ! contraction ( its inn] p>ts4 ,9 ! l>g] op]ations ( ,nature ! effects :i* we behold1 h[ev] simple1 are r>ely ! products ( a s+le cause4 ,9 fact1 !re are few actions s limit$ t !y c fairly be ref]r$ to "o influ5ce4 ,x is !re=e prop] to /ate t !re are _m o!r actions besides ^? above not$ :i* probably ent] into ^? complicat$ equations :i* det]m9e ! climatal conditions ( ! e>?4 ,to h ^! w\ld c>ry u into difficult & speculative inquiries4 ,z be=e rem>k$1 all ! regions :i* h be5 subject$ to glaciation are /ill ea* ye> br\ght tempor>ily into ! glacial /ate4 ,?is fact s]ves to %[ u t ! *anges necess>y to produce great ice %eets are n necess>ily ( a />tl+ nature1 h[ev] great ! consequ5ces may be4 ,assum+1 !n1 t relatively slight alt]ations ( climate may cause ! ice %eet to come & g1 we may say t all ! influ5ces :i* h be5 sugge/$ by ! /ud5ts ( glaciation1 & v>i\s o!r slight] causes :i* c n be "h not$1 may h co-op]at$ to produce ! peculi> result4 ,9 ?is equation geographic *ange has affect$ ! c\rse ( ! ocean curr5ts1 & has probably be5 ! mo/ influ5tial1 or at lea/ ! commone/1 cause to :i* we mu/ attribute ! ext5sion ( ice %eets4 ,next1 alt]ations ( ! sol> heat may be look$ to z a *ange-br++ action2 un=tunately1 h[ev]1 we h no direct evid5ce t ?is is an effici5t cause4 ,?irdly1 ! v>iations 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 comb9$ ) ! precession ( ! equ9oxes & ! rotation ( ! apsides1 may be reg>d$ z op]ative4 ,! la/ ( all1 *anges 9 ! con/itution ( ! atmosph]e1 h to be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,to ^! mu/ be add$1 z be=e rem>k$1 _m less important actions :i* influ5ce ?is m>vell\sly delicate ma*9e1 ! "w ( :i* is express$ 9 ! ph5om5a assembl$ "u ! "n ( climate4 ,evid5ce is sl[ly accumulat+ :i* s]ves to %[ t glacial p]iods ( great] or less importance h be5 ( frequ5t occurr5ce at all /ages 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>? ( :i* we h a di/9ct record4 ,z ^! accid5ts write _! hi/ory ^u ! gr\nd alone1 & 9 a way imp]man5tly1 x is difficult to trace ! ice times ( anci5t geological p]iods4 ,! scrat*es on ! b$ rocks1 & ! accumulations ( detritus =m$ z ! ice disappe>$1 h alike be5 worn away by ! ag5ts ( decay4 ,nev]!less1 we c trace "h & !re 9 ! old] /rata accumulations ( pebbly matt] (t5 conta9+ l>ge b\ld]s1 :i* cle>ly 7 %ap$ & br\ght toge!r by glacial action4 ,^! are f\nd 9 "s in/ances f> s\? ( ! region occupi$ by ! glaci]s dur+ ! la/ ice epo*4 ,!y occur 9 rocks ( ! ,cambrian or ,silurian age 9 ea/]n ,t5nessee & we/]n ,nor? ,c>ol9a2 !y are also f\nd 9 ,india beyond ! limits to :i* glaci]s h atta9$ 9 mod]n times4 ,9 clos+ ?is inadequate acc\nt ( glacial action1 a /ory :i* = its complete tell+ w\ld require _m volumes1 x is well = ! read] to consid] once aga9 h[ slight are ! *anges ( climate :i* may alt]nately )draw l>ge p>ts ( ! l& f ! uses ( life1 & aga9 quickly re/ore ! fields to ! s]vice ( plants & animals4 ,he may well imag9e t ^! *anges1 by driv+ liv+ creatures to & fro1 pr(\ndly affect ! hi/ory ( _! developm5t4 ,?is matt] w be dealt ) 9 ! volume conc]n+ ! hi/ory ( organic be+s4 ,:5 ! ice w5t (f f ! nor!rn "p ( ?is cont95t1 ! surface ( ! c\ntry1 :i* _h be5 borne d[n by ! weight ( ! glaci]1 /ill rema9$ depress$ to a consid]able dep? bel[ ! level ( ! sea1 ! depression v>y+ f some:]e ab\t "o hundr$ feet 9 s\!rn ,new ,engl& to a ?\s& feet or m 9 high latitudes4 ,ov] ?is region1 :i* lay b5ea? ! level ( ! sea1 ! glaci]1 :5 x became ?9 en\gh to float1 0 d\btless brok5 up into iceb]gs1 9 ! mann] :i* we n[ behold along ! coa/ ( ,gre5l&4 ,:]e ! %ore 0 swept by a /rong curr5t1 ^! b]gs d\btless drift$ away2 b along ! mo/ ( ! coa/ l9e !y appe> to h la9 ?ickly gr\p$ next ! %ores1 gradually deliv]+ _! loads ( /ones & f9] dbris to ! bottom4 ,^! masses ( float+ ice 9 _m cases seem to h prev5t$ ! sea waves f atta9+ ! %ore1 & ?us h9d]$ ! =mation ( ^? bea*es :i* 9 _! pres5t elevat$ condition enable u to int]pret ! old position ( ! sea along coa/ l9es :i* h be5 rec5tly elevat$4 ,"h & !re1 h[ev]1 f ,new ,j]sey to ,gre5l&1 we f9d bits ( ^! anci5t %ores :i* cle>ly tell ! /ory ( t d[n-s9k+ ( ! l& b5ea? ! burd5 ( ! ice :i* is su* an in/ructive feature 9 ! hi/ory ( t p]iod4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,und]gr\nd ,,wat]4 ,we h already not$ two means by :i* wat] f9ds its way und]gr\nd4 ,! simple/ & l>ge/ me?od by :i* ?is action is effect$ is by build+ 9 ! fluid z ! gra9s ( ! rock are laid d[n on ! floors ( seas or lakes4 ,! wat] ?us imprison$ is firmly inclos$ 9 ! int]/ices ( ! /one1 x 9 "t takes up into its mass a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! m9]al mat]ials :i* are conta9$ 9 ! deep-buri$ rocks4 ,! o!r portion ( ! gr\nd wat]--t ) :i* we are n[ to be specially conc]n$--arises f ! ra9 :i* desc5ds into ! crevices ( ! e>?2 x is !re=e peculi> to ! l&s4 ,= conv5i5ce we %all t]m ! orig9al emb$d$ fluid rock wat]1 & t :i* orig9ates f ! ra9 crevice wat]1 ! two =m+ ! mass ( ! e>? wat]4 ,! crevice wat] ( ! e>?1 al?\gh =m+ at no "t m ?an a v small fraction ( ! hidd5 fluid1 is an exce$+ly pot5t geological ag5t1 do+ "w :i*1 ?\gh unse51 yet af=ds ! v f\ndations on :i* re/ ! life alike ( l& & sea4 ,:5 ?is wat] ent]s ! e>?1 ?\gh x is purifi$ ( all m9]al mat]ials1 x has already begun to acquire a %>e ( a gase\s sub/ance1 c>bonic acid1 or1 z *emi/s n[ t]m x1 c>bon dioxide1 :i* enables ! fluid to beg9 its rle ( m>vell\s activities4 ,9 its desc5t z ra91 probably ev5 be=e x 0 ga!r$ 9 drops 9 ! cl\d realm1 ! wat] absorbs a c]ta9 portion ( ?is gas f ! atmosph]e4 ,ent]+ ! realm ( ! soil1 :]e ! decay+ organic matt] pl5tifully gives =? c>bon dioxide1 a fur!r /ore ( ! gas is acquir$4 ,at ! ord9>y pressure ( ! air1 wat] may take 9 _m times its bulk ( ! gas4 ,! imm$iate effect ( c>bonic acid :5 x is absorb$ by wat] is greatly to increase ! capacity :i* t fluid has = tak+ m9]al matt]s into solution4 ,:5 *>g$ ) ?is gas1 9 ! measure 9 :i* x may be 9 ! soil1 wat] is able to dissolve ab\t fifty times z mu* lime/one z x c 9 its p]fectly pure =m take up4 ,a famili> in/ance ( ?is peculi> capacity :i* ! gas gives may (t5 be se5 :]e ! wat] f a soda-wat] f\nta9 drips ^u ! m>ble slab b5ea?4 ,9 a few ye>s ?is slab w be consid]ably corrod$1 ?\gh pure wat] w\ld 9 ! same "t h _h no effect ^u x4 ,! fir/ & by f> ! mo/ important effect ( crevice wat] is ex]cis$ ^u ! soil1 :i* is at once ! product ( ?is action1 & ! laboratory :]e ! l>g] "p ( ! "w is done4 ,p5etrat+ betwe5 ! gra9s ( ! detrital cov]+1 held 9 l>ge quantities 9 ! coat+1 & cont9ually 9 sl[ motion1 ! gas-*>g$ wat] takes a ho/ ( sub/ances into solution1 & br+s !m into a condition :]e !y may react ^u ea* o!r 9 ! *emical mann]4 ,^! mat]ials are con/antly be+ (f]$ to ! roots ( plants & br\ght 9 contact ) ! und]ly+ rock :i* has n pass$ into ! /ate ( soil4 ,! *anges induc$ 9 ?is /ony matt] lead to its break+ up1 or at lea/ to its s(t5+ to ! po9t :]e ! roots c p5etrate x & complete its de/ruction4 ,?us x comes ab\t t ! wat] :i* to a great ext5t divides ! rocks into ! /ate ( soil1 :i* is cont9ually we>+ away ! mat]ial on ! surface1 or lea*+ x out ?r\gh ! spr+s1 is also at "w 9 re/or+ ! lay] f b5ea?4 ,! great] "p ( ! wat] :i* ent]s ! soil does n p5etrate to any great dep? 9 ! und]ly+ rocks1 b f9ds its way to ! surface aft] no long j\rney 9 ! =m ( small spr+s4 ,g5]ally ^? sup]ficial spr+s d n em]ge ?r\gh di/9ct *annels1 b move1 ?\gh sl[ly1 9 a massive way d[n ! slopes until !y ent] a wat] c\rse4 ,along ! banks ( any riv]1 h[ev] small1 or along ! %ores ( ! sea1 a pit a few in*es deep j above ! level ( ! wat] w be quickly fill$ by a fl[ f ?is %eet :i* und]lies ! e>?4 ,at a di/ance f ! /ream ?is %eet spr+ is 9 contact ) ! b$ rocks1 & may be _m feet bel[ ! surface1 b x comes to ! level ( ! riv] or ! sea ne> _! m>g9s4 ,"h & !re ! %ape ( ! b$ rocks1 be+ l conv]g+ h\se ro(s1 causes ! sup]ficial spr+s to =m small pipelike *annels = ! escape ( _! ga!r$ wat]s1 & ! fl[ em]ges at a def9ite po9t4 ,almo/ all ^! s\rces ( consid]able fl[ are due to ! action ( ! wat] on ! und]ly+ rock1 :]e we %all n[ foll[ t portion ( ! crevice wat] :i* p5etrates deeply into ! e>?4 ,almo/ all rocks1 h[ev] firm !y may appe> to be1 are divid$ by crevices :i* ext5d f ! soil level x may be to ! dep?s ( ?\s&s ( feet4 ,^! r5ts are 9 "p due to ! /ra9s ( m\nta9-build+1 :i* t5d to disrupt ! firme/ /one1 leav+ op5 fractures4 ,!y are also =m$ 9 o!r ways1 z by ! imp]fectly und]/ood ag5cies :i* produce jo9t planes4 ,x (t5 happ5s t :]e rocks are highly tilt$ wat] f9ds its way d[nw>d betwe5 ! lay]s1 :i* are imp]fectly sold]$ toge!r1 or a b$ ( co>se mat]ial1 su* z s&/one or conglom]ate1 may af=d an easy way by :i* ! wat] may desc5d = miles b5ea? ! surface4 ,pass+ ?r\gh rocks :i* are n readily soluble1 ! wat]1 already to a great ext5t suppli$ ) m9]al matt] by its j\rney ?r\gh ! soil1 may n d mu* excavat+ "w1 & ev5 aft] a long "t may only slightly enl>ge ! spaces 9 :i* x may be /or$ or ! *annels by :i* x dis*>ges to ! surface4 ,h5ce x comes ab\t t 9 _m c\ntries1 ev5 :]e ! wat]s p5etrate deeply1 !y d n af=d l>ge spr+s4 ,x is o!rwise :]e ! crevice wat]s ent] lime/ones compos$ ( mat]ials :i* are readily dissolv$4 ,9 su* places we f9d ! ra9 s readily ent]+ ! und]ly+ rock t no "p ( ! fall goes at once to ! brooks1 b all has a long und]gr\nd j\rney4 ,9 any lime/one di/rict :]e ! b$s ( ! mat]ial are ?ick & tol]ably pure--z1 = in/ance1 9 ! cav]n di/rict ( s\!rn ,k5tucky--! travell] :o ent]s ! region notes at once t ! usual small /reams :i* 9 e region ( consid]able ra9fall he is accu/om$ to see int]sect+ ! surface ( ! c\ntry are entirely abs5t4 ,9 _! place he notes ev]y:]e pitlike depressions ( b[l-%ap$ =m1 ! s9k holes to :i* we h already adv]t$4 ,?r\gh ! op5+s 9 ! bottom ( ^! ! ra9 wat]s desc5d into ! dep?s ( ! e>?4 ,al?\gh ! mo/ ( ^! depressions h b small op5+s 9 _! bottom1 n[ & !n "o occurs ) a v]tical %aft suffici5tly l>ge to p]mit ! explor] to desc5d into x1 ?\gh he ne$s to be l[]$ d[n 9 ! mann] ( a m9] :o is ent]+ a %aft4 ,9 fact1 ! j\rney is ne>ly always "o ( "s haz>d2 x %\ld n be und]tak5 save ) _m precautions to insure safety4 ,:5 "o is l[]$ away ?r\gh an op5 s9k hole1 ?\gh ! desc5t may at fir/ be some:at tortu\s1 ! explor] soon f9ds himself sw++ freely 9 ! air1 x may be at a po9t "s hundr$ feet above ! base ( ! bottle-%ap$ %aft or dome into :i* he has ent]$4 ,commonly ! neck ( ! bottle is =m$ :]e ! wat] has work$ its way ?r\gh a r s&y lime/one1 a rock :i* 0 n readily dissolv$ by ! wat]4 ,9 ! pure & !re=e easily cut lime/one lay]s ! cavity rapidly exp&s until ! light ( ! lant]n may n disclose its walls4 ,f>!r d[n !re is apt to be a %elf compos$ ( ano!r impure lime/one1 :i* ext5ds (f ne> ! middle ( ! %aft4 ,if ! explor] c l& ^u ?is %elf1 he is sure to f9d t f ?is imp]fect floor ! cav]n ext5ds (f 9 "o or m horizontal gall]ies1 :i* he may foll[ = a great di/ance until he comes to ! po9t :]e !re is aga9 a well-l op5+ ?r\gh ! h>d lay]1 ) ano!r dome-%ap$ base b5ea?4 ,return+ to ! ma9 %aft1 ! explor] may cont9ue 8 desc5t until he atta9s ! base ( ?is v]tical section ( ! cave1 :]e he is likely to f9d himself deliv]$ 9 a pool ( wat] ( no great dep?1 ! bottom ( :i* is occupi$ by a quantity ( small1 h>d /ones ( a fl9ty nature1 :i* h evid5tly come f ! upp] p>ts ( ! cav]n4 ,! close obs]v] w h not$ t "h & !re 9 ! lime/one !re are fl9ty bits1 su* z ^? :i* he f9ds 9 ! pool4 ,f ! bottom ( ! dome a det]m9$ inquir] c (t5 make 8 way along ! gall]ies :i* lead f t level1 ?\gh x may be aft] a j\rney ( miles to ! po9t :]e he em]ges f ! cav]n on ! banks ( an op5-air riv]4 ,al?\gh a j\rney by way ( ! s9k holes ?r\gh a cav]n sy/em is to be comm5d$ = ! reason t x is ! c\rse ( ! cav]n+ wat]s1 x is1 on ! :ole1 be/ to approa* ! cave ?r\gh _! exits along ! banks ( a /ream or ?r\gh ! *ance op5+s :i* are "h & !re made by ! fall+ 9 ( _! ro(s4 ,"o advantage ( ?is cavity ( entrance is t we c ?us approa* ! cav]n 9 times ( heavy ra9 :5 ! processes :i* lead to _! con/ruction are 9 full activity4 ,com+ 9 ?is way to "o ( ! domes =m$ b5ea? a s9k hole1 we may obs]ve 9 ra9y wea!r t ! wat] fall+ d[n ! deep %aft /rikes ! bottom ) great =ce2 9 _m ( ! ,k5tucky caves x falls f a great] height ?an ,niag>a4 ,at su* times ! /ones 9 ! bas9 at ! bottom ( ! %aft are vigor\sly :irl$ ab\t1 & 9 _! motion !y cut ! rocks 9 ! bottom ( ! bas9--9 fact1 ?is cavity is a great pot hole1 l ^? at ! base ( op5-air cascades4 ,x is n[ easy to int]pret ! g5]al pr9ciples :i* det]m9e ! ar*itecture ( ! cav]n realm4 ,:5 x fir/ ent]s ! e>? all ! "w :i* ! wat] does 9 ! initial /eps ( cav]n =mation is effect$ by solution4 ,z ! crevice enl>ges & deep5s1 ! /ream acquires velocity1 & beg9s to use ! bits ( h>d rock 9 bor+4 ,x works d[nw>d 9 ?is way by ! mix$ me*anical & *emical action until x enc\nt]s a h>d lay]4 ,!n ! wat] creeps horizontally ?r\gh ! s(t /ratum1 do+ mo/ ( its "w by solution1 until x f9ds a crevice 9 ! floor ?r\gh :i* x c excavate f>!r 9 ! d[nw>d direction2 s x goes on 9 ! mann] ( /eps until x burr[s *annels to ! op5 /ream4 ,9 "t ! v]tical fall "u ! s9k hole w cut ?r\gh ! h>d lay]1 :5 ! wat]1 ab&on+ ! fir/ l9e ( exit1 w develop ano!r at a l[] level1 & s 9 "t x comes ab\t t !re may be sev]al /ories ( ! cave1 ! l[e/ be+ ! la/ to be excavat$4 ,( ! total "w ?us done1 only a small "p is accompli%$ by ! fall+ ( ! wat]1 act+ ?r\gh ! bor+ action ( its tools1 ! bits ( /one be=e m5tion$2 ! pr9cipal "p ( ! task is done by ! solv5t action ( ! c>bonat$ wat]s on ! lime/one4 ,9 ! sy/em ( cav]ns kn[n z ! ,mammo? ,cave1 9 ,k5tucky1 ! writ] has e/imat$ t at lea/ n9e t5?s ( ! /one 0 remov$ 9 ! /ate ( solution4 ,:5 fir/ excavat$1 ! *amb]s ( a lime/one cav]n h little beauty to attract ! eye4 ,! curves ( ! walls are sometimes graceful1 b ! aspect ( ! *amb]s1 ?\gh 9 a measure gr&1 is nev] *>m+4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! wat]s h ceas$ to c>ve ! op5+s1 :5 !y h be5 dra9$ away by ! =mation ( *annels on a l[] level1 !re commonly sets 9 a process kn[n z /alactitization1 :i* trans=ms ! sc5e into "o ( s+ul> beauty4 ,we h already not$ ! fact t ev]y:]e 9 ord9>y rocks !re are crevices ?r\gh :i* wat]1 mov+ "u ! pressure ( ! fluid :i* is above1 may f9d its way sl[ly d[nw>d4 ,9 ! lime/one ro(s ( cav]ns1 p>ticul>ly 9 ^? ( ! upp] /ory1 ?is ooze ( wat] passes ?r\gh myriads ( unse5 fissures at a rate s sl[ t x (t5 evaporates 9 ! dry air )\t dropp+ to ! floor4 ,:5 x comes out ( ! rocks ! wat] is *>g$ ) v>i\s salts ( lime2 :5 x evaporates x leaves ! mat]ial beh9d on ! ro(4 ,:]e ! outfl[ is s slight t ! fluid does n ga!r into drops1 x =ms an incru/ation ( limy matt]1 :i* (t5 ga!rs 9 beautiful fl[]like =ms1 or p]haps 9 ! %ape ( a %eet ( alaba/]4 ,:]e drops are =m$1 a small1 p5d5t cone gr[s d[nw>d f ! ceil+1 ov] :i* ! wat] fl[s1 & on :i* x evaporates4 ,?is cone gr[s sl[ly d[nw>d until x may atta9 ! floor ( ! *amb]1 :i* has a height ( ?irty feet or m4 ,if all ! wat] does n evaporate1 t :i* trickles (f ! apex ( ! cone1 /rik+ on ! floor1 is spla%$ out into a ?9 %eet1 s t x evaporates 9 a spe$y mann]1 lays d[n its lime/one1 & ?us builds ano!r & rud] cone1 :i* gr[s upw>d t[>d t :i* is p5d5t above x4 ,f9ally1 !y gr[ toge!r1 enl>g$ by ! process :i* con/ruct$ !m1 until a mighty column may be =m$1 sculptur$ z if by ! h&s ( a fanta/ic ar*itect4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,/alactites & /alagmites on ro( & floor ( a cav]n4 ,! arr[s %[ ! direction ( ! mov+ wat]4 ,all ! :ile t subt]ranean /reams are cutt+ ! cav]ns d[nw>d ! op5-air riv]s into :i* !y dis*>ge are deep5+ _! b$s1 & !reby prep>+ = ! con/ruction ( yet l[] /ories ( caves4 ,^! op5-air /reams commonly fl[ 9 /eep-sid$1 n>r[ valleys1 :i* !mselves 7 caves until ! gall]ies became s wide t !y c\ld no long] support ! ro(4 ,?us we (t5 f9d t = a c]ta9 di/ance ! ro( ov] a l>ge /ream has fall5 91 s t ! wat] fl[s 9 ! op5 air4 ,!n x w plunge "u an ar* & c\rse1 x may be1 = "s miles1 be=e x aga9 arrives at a place :]e ! ro( has disappe>$1 or p]haps atta9s a field occupi$ by rocks ( ano!r "*1 9 :i* cav]ns 7 n =m$4 ,at places ^! old riv] cav]ns are ab&on$ by ! /reams1 :i* f9d o!r c\rses4 ,!y =m natural tunnels1 :i* are n infrequ5tly ( consid]able l5g?4 ,"o su* 9 s\?we/]n ,virg9ia has be5 made useful = a railway pass+ f "o valley to ano!r1 ?us sp>+ ! exp5se ( a co/ly excavation4 ,:]e ! remnant ( ! ar* is small1 x is commonly kn[n z a natural bridge1 ( :i* t 9 ,rockbridge ,c\nty1 9 ,virg9ia1 is a v noble example4 ,ar*es ( ?is sort are n uncommon 9 _m cav]n c\ntries2 five su* exi/ 9 ,c>t] ,c\nty1 ,k5tucky1 a di/rict 9 ! ea/]n "p ( t ,/ate :i* ab\nds 9 cav]ns1 ?\gh none ( !m are ( conspicu\s height or beauty4#g ,footnote #g3 ,x is report$ t "o ( ^! natural bridges ( ,c>t] ,c\nty has rec5tly fall5 d[n4 ,?is is ! natural end ( ^! features4 ,z be=e rem>k$1 !y are b ! remnants ( mu* m ext5sive ro(s :i* ! processes ( decay h br\ght to ru94 ,at ?is /age ( 8 /udies on cav]n "w ! /ud5t w readily conceive t1 z ! surface ( ! c\ntry ov]ly+ ! cave is incessantly we>+ d[n1 ! upp] /ories ( ! sy/em are cont9ually disappe>+1 :ile new ones are =m+ at ! pres5t dra9age level ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 fact1 ! att5tive eye c 9 su* a di/rict f9d "h & !re evid5ces ( ?is progressive de/ruction4 ,n only d ! caves we> out f above1 b _! ro(s are con/antly fall+ to _! floors1 a process :i* is greatly aid$ by ! gr[? ( /alactites4 ,=m+ 9 ! crevices or jo9ts betwe5 ! /ones1 ^! rock gr[?s sometimes prize (f great blocks4 ,9 o!r cases ! weight ( ! p5d5t /alactite drags ! ill-support$ masses ( ! ro( to ! floor4 ,9 ?is way a gall]y orig9ally a hundr$ feet bel[ ! surface may "w its way upw>d to ! light ( day4 ,! entrance by :i* ! ,mammo? ,cave is approa*$ appe>s to h be5 =m$ 9 ?is mann]1 & at sev]al po9ts 9 t sy/em ( cav]ns ! effect ( ?is action may be di/9ctly obs]v$4 ,we mu/ n[ g a /ep fur!r on ! way ( subt]ranean wat]1 & trace its action 9 ! dep?s bel[ ! plane ( ord9>y caves1 :i*1 z we h not$1 d n ext5d bel[ ! level ( ! ma9 /reams ( ! cav]n di/rict4 ,! fir/ gr\p ( facts to be att5d$ to is t exhibit$ by artesian wells4 ,^! occur :]e rocks h be5 fold$ d[n into a bas9like =m4 ,x (t5 happ5s t 9 su* a bas9 ! rocks ( :i* x is compos$ are "s ( !m por\s1 & o!rs imp]vi\s to wat]1 & t ! por\s lay]s outcrop on ! high m>g9s ( ! depression & h wat]-tight lay]s ov] !m4 ,^! conditions c be well repres5t$ by suppos+ t we h two sauc]s1 "o )9 ! o!r1 ) an int]v5+ lay] ( s& :i* is full ( wat]4 ,if n[ we bore an op5+ 9 ! bottom ( ! upp]mo/ sauc]1 we readily conceive t ! wat] w fl[ up ?r\gh x4 ,9 ,nature we (t5 f9d ^! bas9s ) ! equival5t ( ! s&y lay] 9 ! model j describ$ ris+ hundr$s ( feet above ! valley1 s t ! artesian well1 s nam$ f ! village ( ,artois1 ne> ,p>is1 :]e ! fir/ op5+ ( ?is nature 0 made1 may yield a /ream :i* w m\nt upw>d1 especially :]e pip$1 to a great height4 ,at _m places 9 ! _w x is possible by su* wells to obta9 a l>ge supply ( tol]ably pure wat]1 b 9 g5]al x is f\nd to conta9 too l>ge a supply ( dissolv$ m9]al matt] or sulphurett$ gases to be satisfactory = dome/ic purposes4 ,x may be well to note ! fact t ! great] "p ( ! s-call$ artesian wells1 or bor+s :i* deliv] wat] to a height above ! surface1 are n true artesian s\rces1 9 t !y d n s5d up ! wat] by ! action ( gravitation1 b "u ! influ5ce ( gase\s pressure4 ,:]e1 z 9 ! case ( upturn$ por\s b$s1 ! crevice wat] p5etrates f> bel[ ! e>?'s surface or ! op5-air /reams :i* dra9 ! wat] away1 ! fluid acquires a consid]able increase ( temp]ature1 on ! av]age ab\t "o degree ,fahr5heit = ea* eighty feet ( desc5t4 ,x may1 inde$1 become s heat$ t if x 7 at ! e>?'s surface x w\ld n only bur/ into /eam ) a va/ explosive en]gy1 b w\ld actually %9e 9 ! mann] ( heat$ solids4 ,z ! temp]ature ( wat] rises1 & z ! pressure on x increases1 x acquires a solv5t p[]1 & takes 9 rocky matt] 9 a measure unapproa*$ at ! e>?'s surface4 ,at ! dep? ( t5 miles wat] beg9n+ z in]t ra9 w\ld acquire ! prop]ties :i* we are accu/om$ to associate ) /rong acids4 ,pass+ d[nw>d ?r\gh fissures or por\s /rata 9 ! mann] indicat$ 9 ! diagram1 ! wat] w\ld take up1 by virtue ( its heat & ! gases x conta9$1 a %>e ( _m m9]al sub/ances :i* we commonly reg>d z insoluble4 ,gold & ev5 plat9um--! latt] a mat]ial :i* resi/s all acids at ord9>y temp]atures--ent]s into ! solution4 ,if n[ ! wat] ?us *>g$ ) m9]al /ores f9ds 9 ! dep?s a %ort] way to ! surface ?an t :i* x desc5d$1 :i* may well happ5 by way ( a deep rift 9 ! rocks1 x w 9 its asc5t rev]se ! process :i* x foll[$ on go+ d[n4 ,x w deposit ! sev]al m9]als 9 ! ord] ( _! solubilities--t is1 ! la/ to be tak5 9 w be ! fir/ to be cry/alliz$ on ! walls ( ! fissure ?r\gh :i* ! upfl[ is tak+ place4 ,! result w be ! =mation ( a ve9 belong+ to ! v>iety kn[n z fissure ve9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,diagram ( ve94 ,! diff]5t %ad+s %[ ! v>iations 9 ! nature ( ! deposits4 ,a ve9 deposit su* z we are consid]+ may1 ?\gh r>ely1 be compos$ ( a s+le m9]al4 ,mo/ commonly we f9d ! deposit arrang$ 9 a b&$ =m 9 ! mann] indicat$ 9 ! figure 7see diagram #ad74 ,sometimes "o mat]ial w ab\nd 9 ! l[] portions ( ! fissure & ano!r 9 its high] p>ts1 a feature :i* is acc\nt$ = by ! progressive cool+ & rel9qui%m5t ( pressure to :i* ! wat] is subject$ on its way to ! surface4 ,) ea* decrem5t ( ^? prop]ties "s p>ticul> sub/ance goes out ( ! fluid1 :i* may 9 ! end em]ge 9 ! =m ( a w>m or hot spr+1 ! wat] ( :i* conta9s b little m9]al matt]4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 ! temp]ature is high1 "s "p ( ! deposit1 ev5 a little gold1 may be laid d[n j ab\t ! spr+ 9 ! deposits kn[n z s9t]1 :i* are (t5 =m$ at su* places4 ,9 _m cases ! ore deposits are =m$ n only 9 ! ma9 *annel ( ! fissure1 b 9 all ! crevices on ei!r side ( t way4 ,9 ?is mann]1 mu* z 9 ! case ( ! gr[? ( /alactitic matt] betwe5 ! blocks ( /one 9 ! ro(s ( a cav]n1 l>ge fragm5ts ( rock1 kn[n z horses1 are (t5 pu%$ out into ! body ( ! ve94 ,9 "s in/ances ! gr[? ( ! ve9 appe>s to enl>ge ! fissure or place ( ! deposit z ! accumulation goes on1 ! process be+ analog\s to t by :i* a gr[+ root wid5s ! crevice into :i* x has p5etrat$4 ,9 o!r in/ances ! fissure =m$ by ! =ce has rema9$ wide op51 or at mo/ has be5 b p>tly fill$ by ! action ( ! wat]4 ,x n infrequ5tly happ5s t ! asc5d+ wat]s ( hot spr+s ent]+ lime/ones h excavat$ ext5sive caves f> bel[ ! surface ( ! e>?1 ^! cav]ns be+ aft]w>d 9 "p fill$ by ! ores ( v>i\s metals4 ,we c readily imag9e t ! wat] at "o temp]ature w\ld excavate ! cav]n1 & long aft]w>d1 :5 at a l[] heat1 !y might proce$ to fill x 94 ,at a yet lat] /age1 :5 ! surface ( ! c\ntry _h worn d[n _m ?\s&s ( feet bel[ ! orig9al level1 ! m9]al /ores ( ! cav]ns may be br\ght ne> ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,"s ( ! mo/ important metallif]\s deposits ( ! ,cordill]as are f\nd 9 ?is gr\p ( hot-wat] cav]ns4 ,^! cav]ns are ess5tially l ^? produc$ by cold wat]1 ) ! exception ( ! temp]ature ( ! fluid :i* does ! "w & ! opposite direction ( ! fl[4 ,9 foll[+ crevice wat] :i* is free to obey ! impulses ( gravitation f> d[n into ! e>?1 we ent] on a realm :]e ! rock or con/ruction wat]1 t :i* 0 built into ! /one at ! "t ( its =mation1 is pl5tiful4 ,:]e ^! two gr\ps ( wat]s come 9 contact an admixture occurs1 a c]ta9 portion ( ! rock wat] jo9+ t 9 ! crevices4 ,ne> ! surface ( ! gr\nd we commonly f9d t all ! con/ruction wat] has be5 wa%$ out by ?is action4 ,yet if ! rocks be compact1 or if !y h lay]s ( a s(t & clayey nature1 we may f9d ! con/ruction wat]1 ev5 9 v old deposits1 rema9+ ne> ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,?us 9 ! anci5t ,silurian b$s ( ! ,ohio ,valley a bor+ c>ri$ a hundr$ feet bel[ ! level ( ! ma9 riv]s commonly discov]s wat] :i* is cle>ly t laid d[n 9 ! crevices ( ! mat]ial at ! "t :5 ! rocks 7 =m$ 9 ! sea4 ,9 all cases ?is wat] conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( gases d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( v>i\s sub/ances1 b pr9cipally f ! alt]ation ( iron pyrite1 :i* af=ds sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,?us ! wat] is =c$ to ! surface ) consid]able en]gy1 & ! well is (t5 nam$ artesian1 ?\gh x fl[s by gas pressure on ! pr9ciple ( ! soda-wat] f\nta91 & n by gravity1 z 9 ! case ( true artesian wells4 ,! passage betwe5 ! "w done by ! deeply p5etrat+ surface wat] & t due to ! fluid intimately bl5d$ ) ! rock built into ! mass at ! "t ( its =mation is obscure4 ,we are1 h[ev]1 q sure t at great dep?s b5ea? ! e>? ! con/ruction wat] acts alone n only 9 mak+ ve9s1 b 9 br++ ab\t _m o!r mom5t\s *anges4 ,at a great dep? ?is wat] becomes int5sely heat$1 & !re=e t5ds to move 9 any direction :]e a *ance fissure or o!r accid5t may less5 ! pressure4 ,creep+ ?r\gh ! rocks1 & mov+ f zones ( "o temp]ature to ano!r1 ^! wat]s br+ ab\t 9 ! f9e int]/ices *emical *anges :i* lead to great alt]ations 9 ! con/itution ( ! rock mat]ial4 ,x is probably 9 "p to ^! sl[ drift+s ( rock wat] t b$s orig9ally made up ( small1 %apeless fragm5ts1 su* z compose clay slates1 s&/ones1 & lime/ones1 may 9 "t be alt]$ into cry/all9e rocks1 :]e !re is no long] a trace ( ! orig9al bits1 all ! matt] hav+ be5 tak5 to pieces by ! process ( dissolv+1 & re=m$ 9 ! regul> cry/all9e ord]4 ,9 _m cases we may note h[ a cry/al aft] be+ made has be5 9 "p dissolv$ away & replac$ by ano!r m9]al4 ,9 fact1 _m ( our rocks appe> to h be5 aga9 & aga9 made ov] by ! sl[-drift+ wat]s1 ea* p>ticul> /ate 9 _! con/ruction be+ due to "s peculi>ity ( temp]ature or ( m9]al cont5ts :i* ! fluid held4 ,^! metamorphic ph5om5a1 ?\gh important1 are obscure1 & _! elucidation dem&s "s k ( petrographic sci5ce1 t bran* ( geology :i* consid]s ! pr9ciples ( rock =mation4 ,!y w !re=e n be fur!r consid]$ 9 ?is "w4 ,,volcanoes4 ,( old x 0 believ$ t volcanoes repres5t$ ! outp\r+ ( fluid rock :i* came =? f ! c5tral realm ( ! e>?1 a region :i* 0 suppos$ /ill to reta9 ! liquid /ate ?r\gh :i* ! :ole mass ( our e>? has d\btless pass$4 ,rec5t /udies1 h[ev]1 h br\ght ab\t a *ange 9 ! views ( geologi/s :i* is repres5t$ by ! fact t we %all treat volcanic ph5om5a 9 connection ) ! hi/ory ( rock wat]4 ,9 endeav\r+ to und]/& ! ph5om5a ( volcanoes x is v desirable t ! /ud5t %\ld und]/& :at goes on 9 a normal eruption4 ,! writ] may1 !re=e1 be w>rant$ 9 describ+ "s obs]vations :i* he _h an opportunity to make at an eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahhc1 :5 x 0 possible to behold f> m ?an c ord9>ily be disc]n$ 9 su* outbreaks--9 fact1 ! opportunity ( a l nature has probably n be5 enjoy$ by any o!r p]son int]e/$ 9 volcanic action4 ,9 ! w9t] ( #ahhb-'hc ,vesuvius 0 subject$ to a succession ( slight outbreaks4 ,at ! "t ( ! obs]vations ab\t to be not$ ! crat] _h be5 r$uc$ to a cup ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet 9 diamet] & ab\t a hundr$ feet deep4 ,! v]tical %aft at ! bottom1 ?r\gh :i* ! outbur/s 7 tak+ place1 0 ab\t a hundr$ feet across4 ,tak+ advantage ( a heavy gale f ! nor?we/1 x 0 practicable1 not)/&+ ! explosions1 to climb to ! edge ( ! crat] wall4 ,look+ d[n into ! ?roat ( ! volcano1 al?\gh ! pit 0 full ( :irl+ vap\rs & ! heat 0 s great t ! protection ( a mask 0 necess>y1 x 0 possible to see some?+ ( :at 0 go+ on at ! mom5t ( an explosion4 ,! pipe ( ! volcano 0 full ( :ite-hot lava4 ,ev5 9 a day ( sun%9e1 :i* 0 only p>tly obscur$ by ! vap\rs :i* hung ab\t ! op5+1 ! heat ( ! lava made x v brilliant4 ,?is mass ( fluid rock 0 9 cont9u\s motion1 sway+ viol5tly up & d[n ! tube4 ,f f\r to six times a m9ute1 at ! mom5t ( its upsway+1 x w\ld bur/ z by ! explosion ( a gigantic bubble4 ,! upp] portion ( ! mass 0 bl[n upw>d 9 fragm5ts1 ! dis*>ge be+ l t ( %ot f a f[l+ piece2 ! fragm5ts1 v>y+ 9 size f small1 %otlike bits to masses l>g] ?an a man's head1 7 %ot up sometimes to ! height ( fifte5 hundr$ feet above ! po9t ( ejection4 ,! w9d1 bl[+ at ! rate ( ab\t =ty miles an h\r1 drove ! fall+ bits ( rock to ! leew>d1 s t !re 0 no consid]able dang] to be appreh5d$ f !m4 ,"s seconds aft] ! explosion !y c\ld be he>d rattl+ d[n on ! f>!r slope ( ! cone4 ,obs]vations on ! int]val betwe5 ! dis*>ge & ! fall ( ! fragm5ts made x easy to compute ! height to :i* !y 7 ?r[n4 ,at ! mom5t :5 ! lava 9 ! pipe op5$ = ! passage ( ! vap\r :i* creat$ ! explosion ! movem5t1 ?\gh p]=m$ 9 a fraction ( a second1 0 cle>ly visible4 ,at fir/ ! vap\r 0 col\rless2 a few score feet up x began to assume a fa9t1 blui% hue2 yet high]1 :5 x 0 m exp&$1 ! t9t *ang$ to t ( /eam1 :i* soon became ( ! ord9>y aspect1 & ga!r$ 9 swift-revolv+ cl\ds4 ,! wat]y nature ( ! vap\r 0 p]fectly evid5t by its od\r4 ,?\gh comm+l$ ) sulphur\s-acid gas1 x /ill _h ! *>act]i/ic smell ( /eam4 ,= a half h\r x 0 possible to wat* ! successive explosions1 & ev5 to make r\gh sket*es ( ! sc5e4 ,occasionally ! explosions w\ld come 9 quick succession1 s t ! lava 0 bl[n out ( ! tube2 aga91 ! pool w\ld m]ely sway up & d[n 9 a mann] :i* c\ld be expla9$ only by suppos+ t great bubbles ( vap\r 7 work+ _! way upw>d t[>d ! po9t :]e !y c\ld bur/4 ,ea* ( ^! bubbles probably fill$ a l>ge "p ( ! diamet] ( ! pipe4 ,9 g5]al1 ! ph5om5a recall$ ! escape ( ! jet f a geys]1 or1 to take a famili> in/ance1 t ( /eam f ! pipe ( a high-pressure eng9e4 ,:5 ! heat is great1 /eam may (t5 be se5 at ! m\? ( ! pipe ) ! same transp>5t appe>ance :i* 0 obs]v$ 9 ! ?roat ( ! crat]4 ,9 ! cold air ( ! m\nta9 ! vap\r 0 rapidly cond5s$1 giv+ a ra9b[ hue 9 ! cl\ds :5 !y 7 view$ at ! "r angle4 ,! obs]vations 7 int]rupt$ by ! fact t ! w9d s f> di$ away t l>ge balls ( ! eject$ lava began to fall on ! w9dw>d side ( ! cone4 ,^! fragm5ts1 ?\gh cool$ & black5$ on _! outside by _! consid]able j\rney up & d[n ?r\gh ! air1 7 /ill s s(t t !y spla%$ :5 !y /ruck ! surface ( c9d]s4 ,wat*+ ! cone f a di/ance1 "o c\ld note t f "t to "t ! explosions1 increas+ 9 frequ5cy1 f9ally atta9$ a po9t :]e ! action appe>$ to be cont9u\s4 ,! transition 0 comp>able to t :i* we may obs]ve 9 a locomotive :i*1 :5 x fir/ gets "u way1 gives =? occasional jets ( /eam1 b1 sl[ly ga9+ spe$1 f9ally p\rs =? :at to eye & e> alike seem to be a cont9u\s outru%4 ,all ! evid5ce t we h conc]n+ volcanic outbreaks corroborates t j cit$1 & is to ! effect t ! ess5ce ( ! action consi/s 9 ! outbreak ( wat] vap\r at a high temp]ature1 & !re=e end[$ ) v great expansive =ce4 ,along ) ?is /eam !re are _m o!r gases1 :i* always appe> to be b a v small "p ( ! :ole escape ( a vapor\s nature--9 fact1 ! volcanic /eam1 s f> z its *emical composition has be5 asc]ta9$1 has ! composition :i* we %\ld expect to f9d 9 rock wat] :i* _h be5 =c$ out f ! rock by ! t5sions t high temp]ature creates4 ,because ( its conspicu\s nature1 ! lava :i* fl[s f mo/ volcanoes1 or is bl[n out f !m 9 ! =m ( f9ely divid$ a%1 is commonly reg>d$ z ! prim>y feature 9 a volcanic outbreak4 ,su* is n really ! case4 ,volcanic explosions may occur ) v little output ( fluid rock1 & t :i* comes =? may consi/ altoge!r ( ! f9ely divid$ bits ( rock to :i* we give ! "n ( a%4 ,9 fact1 9 all v p[]ful explosions we may expect to f9d no lava fl[1 b great quantities ( ?is f9ely divid$ rock1 :i* :5 x />t$ f ! dep?s ( ! e>? 0 9 a fluid /ate1 b 0 bl[n to pieces by ! conta9$ vap\r z x approa*$ ! surface4 ,if ! /ud5t is s =tunate z to behold a flood ( lava com+ =? f ! flanks ( a volcano1 he w obs]ve t ev5 at ! v po9ts ( issue1 :]e ! mat]ial is :ite-hot & appe>s to be z fluid z wat]1 ! :ole surface gives =? /eam4 ,on a /ill day1 view$ f a di/ance1 ! pa? ( a lava fl[ is m>k$ by a d5se cl\d ( ?is vap\r :i* comes =? f x4 ,ev5 aft] ! lava has cool$ s t x is safe to walk ^u x1 e crevice cont9ues to p\r =? /eam4 ,ye>s aft] ! fl[+ has ceas$1 & :5 ! rock surface has become cool en\gh = ! gr[? ( c]ta9 plants ^u x1 ^! crevices /ill yield /eam4 ,x is evid5t1 9 a ^w1 t a consid]able "p ( a lava mass1 ev5 aft] x escapes f ! volcanic pipes1 is wat] :i* is intimately comm+l$ ) ! rock1 probably ly+ betwe5 ! v f9e/ gra9s ( ! heat$ sub/ance4 ,yet ?is lava :i* has come =? f ! volcano has only a portion ( ! wat] :i* x orig9ally conta9$2 a l>ge1 p]haps ! great] "p1 has gone =? 9 ! explosive way ?r\gh ! crat]4 ,x is reasonably believ$ t ! fluidity ( lava is 9 consid]able measure due to ! wat] :i* x conta9s1 & :i* s]ves to give ! mass ! consi/5ce ( pa/e1 ! p>tial fluidity ( fl\r & rock gra9s be+ alike br\ght ab\t 9 ! same mann]4 ,s mu* ( ! ph5om5a ( volcanoes z has be5 above not$ is int5d$ to %[ ! l>ge "p :i* int]/itial wat] plays 9 volcanic action4 ,we %all n[ turn our att5tion aga9 to ! /ate ( ! deeply buri$ rock wat]1 to see h[ f> we may be able by x to acc\nt = ^! /range explosive actions4 ,:5 s$im5ts are laid d[n on ! sea floor ! mat]ials consi/ ( small1 irregul>ly %ap$ fragm5ts1 :i* lie tumbl$ toge!r 9 ! mann] ( a mass ( bricks :i* h be5 %ot out ( a c>t4 ,wat] is buri$ 9 ! pl5tiful int]spaces betwe5 ^! bits ( /one2 z be=e rem>k$1 ! am\nt ( ?is con/ruction wat] v>ies4 ,9 g5]al1 x is at fir/ n f> f "o t5? "p ( ! mat]ials4 ,besides ! fluid conta9$ 9 ! di/9ct spaces1 !re is a %>e :i* is held z comb9$ wat] 9 ! intimate /ructure ( ! cry/als1 if su* !re be 9 ! mass4 ,:5 ?is wat] is built into ! /one x has ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ! sea bottom4 ,z ! deposit+ actions cont9ue to "w1 o!r b$s are =m$ on ! top ( t :i* we are consid]+1 & 9 "t ! lay] may be buri$ to ! dep? ( _m ?\s& feet4 ,!re are reasons to believe t on ! floors ( ! oceans ?is burial ( b$s conta9+ wat] may h br\ght great quantities ( fluid to ! dep? ( tw5ty miles or m bel[ ! out] surface ( ! rocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,fl[ ( lava invad+ a =e/4 ,a tree 9 ! di/ance is n completely burn$1 %[+ t ! molt5 rock _h lo/ mu* ( its orig9al heat4 ,! effect ( deep burial is to increase ! heat ( /rata4 ,?is result is accompli%$ 9 two diff]5t ways4 ,! direct effect aris+ f ! imposition ( weight1 t d]iv$ f ! mass ( /ratifi$ mat]ial1 is1 z we "k1 to br+ ab\t a d[n-s9k+ ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,9 ! measure ( ?is fall+1 heat is eng5d]$ precisely z x is by ! fall+ ( a trip-hamm] on ! anvil1 ) :i* action1 z is well kn[n1 we may heat an iron b> to a high temp]ature4 ,x is true t ?is d[n-s9k+ ( ! surface "u weight is 9 "p due to ! compression ( ! rocks1 & 9 "p to ! slipp+ away ( ! s(t und]p9n+ ( m or less fluid rock4 ,yet fur!r x is 9 "s measure br\ght ab\t by ! wr9kl+ ( ! cru/4 ,b all ^! actions result 9 ! conv]sion ( en]gy ( position into heat1 & s f> s]ve to raise ! temp]ature ( ! rocks :i* are conc]n$ 9 ! movem5ts4 ,by f> ! l>ge/ s\rce ( heat1 h[ev]1 is t :i* comes =? f ! e>?'s int]ior1 & :i* 0 /or$ !re 9 ! old5 day :5 ! matt] =m+ ! e>? ga!r$ into ! mass ( our sph]e4 ,?is1 :i* we may t]m ! orig9al heat1 is con/antly fl[+ =? into space1 b makes its way sl[ly1 because ( ! non-conductive1 or1 z we may phrase x1 ! blanket+ effect ( ! out] rock4 ,! effect ( ! /rata is ! same z t ex]cis$ by ! non-conductive coat+s :i* are put on /eam boil]s4 ,a m famili> comp>ison may be _h f ! blankets us$ = b$clo?+4 ,if on top ( ! fir/ blanket we put a second1 we keep w>m] because ! temp]ature ( ! l[] "o is elevat$ by ! heat f our body :i* is held 94 ,9 ! cru/ ( ! e>? ea* lay] ( rock resi/s ! outfl[ ( heat1 & ea* addition lifts ! temp]ature ( all ! lay]s bel[4 ,:5 wat]-be>+ /rata h be5 buri$ to ! dep? ( t5 miles1 ! temp]ature ( ! mass may be expect$ to rise to some:]e betwe5 sev5 hundr$ & a ?\s& degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,if ! dep? atta9$ %\ld be fifty miles1 x is likely t ! temp]ature w be five times z great4 ,at su* a heat ! wat] :i* ! rocks conta9 t5ds 9 a v vigor\s way to exp& & pass into ! /ate ( vap\r4 ,?is x c n readily d1 because ( its close imprisonm5t2 we may say1 h[ev]1 t ! t5d5cy t[>d explosion is almo/ z great z t ( ignit$ gunp[d]4 ,su* p[d]1 if held 9 small spaces 9 a mass ( ca/ /eel1 c\ld be fir$ )\t r5d+ ! metal4 ,! gases w\ld be reta9$ 9 a highly compress$1 possibly 9 a fluid =m4 ,if n[ x happ5s t any ( ! /ra9 9 ! rocks su* z lead to ! production ( faults produce fissures lead+ f ! surface into ?is zone ( heat$ wat]1 ! t5d5cy ( ! rocks conta9+ ! fluid1 impell$ by its expansion1 w be to move ) great en]gy t[>d ! po9t ( relief or less5$ pressure :i* ! crevice af=ds4 ,:]e rocks are 9 any way s(t5$1 pressure alone w =ce !m into a cavity1 z is %[n by ! fact t b$s ( tol]ably h>d clay /ones 9 deep coal m9es may be =c$ into ! spaces by ! pressure ( ! rocks :i* ov]lie !m--9 fact1 ! exp5se ( cutt+ out ^! 9-creep+ rocks is 9 "s ,briti% m9es a s]i\s item 9 ! co/ ( ! product4 ,! expansion ( ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! deep-ly+ heat$ rocks probably is by f> ! mo/ effici5t ag5t 9 urg+ !m t[>d ! plane ( escape :i* ! fissure af=ds4 ,:5 ! motion beg9s x p]vades all p>ts ( ! rock at once1 s t an actual fl[ is induc$4 ,s f> z ! movem5t is due to ! sup]9cumb5t weight1 ! t5d5cy is at once to increase ! temp]ature ( ! mov+ mass4 ,! result is t x may be urg$ into ! fissure p]haps ev5 hott] ?an :5 x />t$ f ! orig9al b$ place4 ,9 proportion z ! rocky matt] w9s its way t[>d ! surface1 ! pressure ^u x dim9i%es1 & ! conta9$ vap\rs are fre] to exp&4 ,tak+ on ! vapor\s =m1 ! bubbles ga!r to ea* o!r1 & :5 !y appe> at ! ?roat ( ! volcano !y may1 if ! explosions be infrequ5t1 assume ! "* above not$ 9 ! little eruption ( ,vesuvius4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 ! lava asc5ds rapidly ?r\gh ! *annel1 x (t5 atta9s ! op5 air ) s mu* vap\r 9 x1 & ?is intimately m+l$ ) ! mass1 t ! explosion r5ds ! mat]ials into an impalpably f9e p[d]1 :i* may float 9 ! air = mon?s be=e x falls to ! e>?4 ,) a less viol5t movem5t ! vap\r bubbles exp& 9 ! lava1 b d n r5d x ap>t1 ?us =m+ ! por\s1 spongy rock kn[n z pumice4 ,) a yet sl[] asc5t a l>ge "p ( ! /eam may g away1 s t we may h a fl[ ( lava well+ =? f ! v5t1 /ill giv+ =? /eam1 b ) a vap\r ^: t5sion is s l[]$ t ! matt] is n bl[n ap>t1 ?\gh x may boil viol5tly = a "t aft] x escapes into ! air4 ,al?\gh ! =ego+ relatively simple explanation ( volcanic action c n be said z yet to be g5]ally accept$ by geologi/s1 ! reasons are suffici5t :i* lead u to believe t x acc\nts = ! ma9 features :i* we obs]ve 9 ?is class ( explosions--9 o!r words1 x is a good work+ hypo!sis4 ,we %all n[ proce$ 9 ! mann] :i* %\ld be foll[$ 9 all natural inquiry to see if ! facts %[n 9 ! di/ribution ( volcanoes 9 space & "t confirm or d5y ! view4 ,! mo/ notewor?y feature 9 ! di/ribution ( volcanoes is t1 at ! pres5t "t at lea/1 all active v5ts are limit$ to ! sea floors or to ! %ore l&s )9 ! n>r[ range ( ?ree hundr$ miles f ! coa/4 ,:]ev] we f9d a coa/ l9e de/itute ( volcanoes1 z is ! case ) ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 x appe>s t ! %ore has rec5tly be5 c>ri$ into ! l& = a consid]able di/ance--9 o!r words1 old coa/ l9es are normally volcanic2 t is1 "h & !re h v5ts ( ?is nature4 ,?us ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 ! coa/s ( :i* appe> to h gone inl& = a great di/ance 9 geologically rec5t times1 is non-volcanic2 :ile ! ,pacific coa/1 :i* = a long "t has rema9$ 9 its pres5t position1 has a s+ul>ly cont9u\s l9e ( crat]s ne> ! %ore ext5d+ f ,alaska to ,ti]ra del ,fuego4 ,s un9t]rupt$ is ?is l9e ( volcanoes t if !y 7 all 9 eruption x w\ld v likely be possible to j\rney d[n ! coa/ )\t ev] be+ out ( sight ( ! columns ( vap\r :i* !y w\ld s5d =?4 ,on ! floor ( ! sea volcanic peaks appe> to be v widely di/ribut$2 only a few ( !m--^? :i* atta9 ! surface ( ! wat]--are really kn[n1 b s\nd+s %[ long l9es ( elevations :i* d\btless repres5t cones di/ribut$ along fault l9es1 none ( ! peaks ( suffici5t height to break ! surface ( ! sea4 ,x is likely1 inde$1 t = "o m>9e volcano :i* appe>s z an isl& !re are scores :i* d n atta9 ! surface4 ,volcanic isl&s exi/ & g5]ally ab\nd 9 ! ocean & great] seas2 e n[ & !n we obs]ve a new "o =m+ z a small isl&1 :i* is apt to be wa%$ away by ! sea %ortly aft] ! eruption ceases1 ! disappe>ance be+ spe$y1 = ! reason t ! volcanic a%es ( :i* ^! cones are compos$ drift away l sn[ be=e ! movem5t ( ! waves4 ,if ! wat]s ( ! ocean & seas 7 dra9$ away s t we c\ld inspect ! portion ( ! e>?'s surface :i* !y cov] z readily z we d ! dry l&s1 ! mo/ conspicu\s feature w\ld be ! innum]able volcanic em95ces :i* lie hidd5 9 ^! wat]y realms4 ,:]ev] ! obs]v] pass$ f ! c5tres ( ! pres5t l&s he w\ld note )9 ! limits ( ^? fields only m\nta9s1 mu* modifi$ by riv] action2 hills :i* ! riv]s _h left 9 sc>f+ away ! /rata2 & dales :i* _h be5 c>v$ out by ! fl[+ wat]s4 ,ne> ! %ore l9es ( ! vani%$ seas he w\ld beg9 to f9d m\nta9s1 hills1 & vales occasionally comm+l$ ) volcanic peaks1 ^? /ructures built f ! mat]ials eject$ f ! v5ts4 ,pass+ ! coa/ l9e to ! seaw>d1 ! hills & dales w\ld quickly disappe>1 & be=e long ! m\nta9s w\ld vani% f 8 way1 & he w\ld gradually ent] on a region ( va/ roll+ pla9s beset by volcanic peaks1 g5]ally accumulat$ 9 long ranges1 some:at aft] ! mann] ( m\nta9s1 b diff]+ f ^? elevations n only 9 orig9 b 9 aspect1 ! volcanic set ( peaks be+ altoge!r made up ( conical1 cup-topp$ elevations4 ,a little consid]ation w %[ u t ! fact ( volcanoes be+ 9 ! limit to ! sea floors & to a n>r[ fr+e ( %ore next c]ta9 ocean bord]s is reconcilable ) ! view z to _! =mation :i* we h adopt$4 ,we h already not$ ! fact t ! cont95ts are old1 :i* implies t ! p>ts ( ! e>? :i* !y occupy h long be5 ! seats ( tol]ably cont9u\s erosion4 ,n[ & !n !y h swung d[n p>tly b5ea? ! sea1 & dur+ _! subm]sion !y receiv$ a %>e ( s$im5ts4 ,b1 on ! :ole1 all p>ts ( ! l&s except /rips next ! coa/ may be reckon$ z hav+ be5 subject$ to an excess ( we>+ action f> exce$+ ! depositional "w4 ,!re=e1 z we readily see1 und]nea? su* l& areas !re has be5 no blanket+ process go+ on :i* has s]v$ to increase ! heat 9 ! deep und]ly+ rocks4 ,on ! contr>y1 x w\ld be easy to %[1 & ! read] may see x himself1 t ! progressive cool+ ( ! e>? has probably br\ght ab\t a l[]+ ( ! temp]ature 9 all ! section f ! surface to v great dep?s1 s t n only is ! rock wat] unaffect$ by increase ( heat1 b may be actually los+ temp]ature4 ,9 o!r words1 ! conditions :i* we assume br+ ab\t volcanic action d n exi/ b5ea? ! old l&4 ,b5ea? ! seas1 except 9 _! v greate/ dep?s1 & p]haps ev5 !re1 ! process ( =m+ /rata is cont9ually go+ on4 ,next ! %ores1 sometimes = a hundr$ or two miles away to seaw>d1 ! pr9cipal contribution may be ! s$im5t worn f ! l&s by ! waves & ! riv]s4 ,f>!r away x is to a l>ge ext5t made up ( ! rema9s ( animals & plants1 :i* :5 dy+ give _! skeletons to =m ! /rata4 ,mu* ( ! mat]ials laid d[n--p]haps 9 all m ?an half--consi/ ( volcanic du/1 a%es1 & pumice1 :i* drifts v long times be=e x f9ds its way to ! bottom4 ,we h z yet no data ( a precise k9d = det]m9+ ! av]age rate ( accumulation ( s$im5ts ^u ! sea floor1 b f :at is kn[n ( ! we>+ ( ! l&s1 & ! am\nt ( volcanic wa/e :i* f9ds its way to ! seas1 x is probably n less ?an ab\t a foot 9 t5 ?\s& ye>s2 x is mo/ likely1 inde$1 mu* to exce$ ?is am\nt4 ,f data af=d$ by ! eruptions 9 ,java & 9 o!r fields :]e ! quantity ( volcanic du/ contribut$ to ! seas c be e/imat$1 ! writ] is dispos$ to believe t ! av]age rate ( s$im5tation on ! sea floors is twice z great z ! e/imate above giv54 ,accumulat+ at ! av]age rate ( "o foot 9 t5 ?\s& ye>s1 x w\ld require a million ye>s to produce a hundr$ feet ( s$im5ts2 a hundr$ million to =m t5 ?\s& feet1 & five hundr$ million to create ! ?ickness ( ab\t t5 miles ( b$4 ,at ! rate ( two feet 9 t5 ?\s& ye>s1 ! ?ickness accumulat$ w\ld be ab\t tw5ty miles4 ,:5 we come to consid] ! duration ( ! e>?'s geologic hi/ory1 we %all f9d reasons = believ+ t ! =mation ( s$im5t may h cont9u$ = z mu* z five hundr$ million ye>s4 ,! =ego+ inquiries conc]n+ ! orig9 ( volcanoes %[ t at ! pres5t "t !y are cle>ly connect$ ) "s process :i* goes on b5ea? ! sea4 ,an ext5sion ( ! inquiry indicates t ?is relation has exi/$ 9 e>li] geological times2 =1 al?\gh ! liv+ volcanoes are limit$ to places )9 ?ree hundr$ miles ( ! sea1 we f9d lava fl[s1 a%es1 & o!r volcanic accumulations f> 9 ! int]ior ( ! cont95ts1 ?\gh ! en]gy :i* br\ght !m =? to ! e>?'s surface has ceas$ to op]ate 9 ^? p>ts ( ! l&4 ,9 ^! cases ( cont95tal volcanoes x g5]ally1 if n always1 appe>s t ! cessation ( ! activity att5d$ ! removal ( ! %ore l9e ( ! ocean or ! disappe>ance ( great inl& seas4 ,?us ! volcanoes ( ! ,yell[/one di/rict may h ow$ _! activity to ! imm5se deposits ( s$im5t :i* 7 =m$ 9 ! va/ fre%-wat] lakes :i* dur+ ! lat] ,cretace\s & e>ly ,t]ti>y times /ret*$ along ! ea/]n face ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 =m+ a ,m$it]ranean ,sea 9 ,nor? ,am]ica comp>able to t :i* bord]s s\!rn ,europe4 ,x ?us appe>s t ! arrangem5t ( volcanoes ) ref]5ce to sea bas9s has held = a consid]able p]iod 9 ! pa/4 ,/ill fur!r1 :5 we look backw>d ?r\gh ! successive =mations ( ! e>?'s cru/ we f9d "h & !re evid5ces 9 old lava fl[s1 9 volcanic a%es1 & sometimes 9 ! ru9s ( anci5t cones :i* h be5 buri$ 9 ! /rata1 t igne\s activity su* z is n[ display$ 9 our volcanoes has be51 s9ce ! e>lie/ days ( :i* we h any record1 a *>act]i/ic feature ( ! e>?4 ,!re is no reason to suppose t ?is action has 9 ! pa/ be5 any great] or any less ?an 9 mod]n days4 ,all ^! facts po9t to ! conclusion t volcanic action is due to ! escape ( rock wat] :i* has be5 heat$ to high temp]atures1 & :i* drives along ) x z x j\rneys t[>d a crevice ! rock 9 :i* x has be5 conf9$4 ,we w n[ notice "s o!r explanations ( volcanic action :i* h obta9$ a c]ta9 cr$5ce4 ,fir/1 we may note ! view t ^! ejections f crat]s are =c$ out f a suppos$ liquid int]ior ( ! e>?4 ,"o ( ! difficulties ( ?is view is t we d n "k t ! e>?'s c5tral p>ts are fluid--9 fact1 _m consid]ations indicate t su* is n ! case4 ,next1 we obs]ve t we n infrequ5tly f9d two crat]s1 ea* conta9+ fluid lava1 ) ! fluid /&+ at diff]5ces ( height ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 al?\gh ! cones are situat$ v ne> ea* o!r4 ,if ^! lavas came f a common int]nal res]voir1 ! pr9ciples :i* control ! action ( fluids w\ld cause ! lavas to be at ! same elevation4 ,moreov]1 ?is view does n provide any explanation ( ! fact t volcanoes are 9 "s way connect$ ) actions :i* g on on ! floors ( great wat] bas9s4 ,!re is e reason to believe t ! fractures 9 ! rocks "u ! l& are z num]\s & deep-go+ z ^? b5ea? ! sea4 ,if x 7 a m]e "q ( access to a fluid int]ior1 volcanoes %\ld be equally di/ribut$ on l& & sea floors4 ,la/ ( all1 ?is explanation 9 no wise acc\nts = ! int]mixture ( wat] ) ! fluid rock4 ,we c n well believe t wat] c\ld h =m$ a "p ( ! deep] e>? 9 ! old days ( orig9al igne\s fusion4 ,9 t "t ! wat] mu/ h be5 all above ! e>? 9 ! vapor\s /ate4 ,ano!r supposition some:at ak9 to t m5tion$ is t ! wat] ( ! seas f9ds its way d[n ?r\gh crevices b5ea? ! floors ( ! ocean1 &1 !re com+ 9 contact ) an int]nal molt5 mass1 is conv]t$ into /eam1 :i*1 along ) ! fluid rock1 escapes f ! volcanic v5t4 ,9 addition to ! objections urg$ to ! prec$+ view1 we may say conc]n+ ?is t ! lava1 if x came =? "u ^! circum/ances1 w\ld em]ge by ! %ort way1 t by :i* ! wat] w5t d[n1 & n by ! long] road1 by :i* x may be dis*>g$ t5 ?\s& feet or m above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! =ego+ g5]al acc\nt ( volcanic action %\ld prop]ly be foll[$ by "s acc\nt ( :at takes place 9 *>act]i/ic eruptions4 ,?is hi/ory ( ^! matt]s is s ample t x w\ld require ! space ( a great encyclopdia to conta9 !m4 ,we %all !re=e be able to make only c]ta9 selections :i* may s]ve to illu/rate ! m important facts4 ,by f> ! be/-kn[n volcanic cone is t ( ,vesuvius1 :i* has be5 subject$ to tol]ably complete record = ab\t tw5ty-f\r hundr$ ye>s4 ,ab\t #ejj ,b4,c4 ! ,greeks1 :o 7 ev] on ! se>* = places :]e !y might advantage\sly plant colonies1 settl$ on ! isl& ( ,is*ia1 :i* =ms ! we/]n ( :at is n[ t]m$ ! ,bay ( ,naples4 ,?is isl& 0 well plac$ = tillage z well z = comm]ce1 b ! ent]pris+ coloni/s 7 aga9 & aga9 di/urb$ by viol5t outbreaks ( "o or m volcanoes :i* lie 9 ! int]ior ( ?is isl&2 at "o "t x appe>s t ! p 7 driv5 away by ^! explosions4 ,9 ^! pre-,*ri/ian days ,vesuvius1 !n kn[n z ,monte ,somma1 0 n kn[n to be a volcano1 x nev] hav+ %[n any trace ( eruption4 ,x appe>$ z a regul>ly %ap$ m\nta91 some:at ov] two ?\s& feet high1 ) a c5tral depression ab\t ?ree miles 9 diamet] at ! top1 & p]haps two miles ov] at ! bottom1 :i* 0 pla9like 9 =m1 ) "s lakes ( bitt] wat] 9 ! c5tre4 ,! mo/ we "k ( ?is c5tral cavity is connect$ ) ! insurrection ( ! slaves l$ by ,sp>tacus1 ! army ( ! revolt]s hav+ camp$ = a "t on ! pla9 encircl$ by ! crat] walls4 ,! out] slopes ( ! m\nta9 af=d$ !n a rem>kably f]tile soil2 "s traces1 inde$1 ( ! f]tility h )/ood ! mod]n eruptions :i* h desolat$ its flanks4 ,?is wond]ful ,bay ( ,naples became ! seat ( ! faire/ ,roman culture1 z well z ( a v ext5d$ comm]ce4 ,t[>d ! close ( ! fir/ c5tury ( our era ! region 0 p]haps ri*]1 m beautifully cultivat$1 & ! seat ( a m elaborate luxury ?an any "p ( ! %ore l9e ( ,europe at ! pres5t day4 ,at ! foot ( ! m\nta91 on ! ea/]n bord] ( ! bay1 ! city ( ,pompeii1 ) a population ( ab\t fifty ?\s& s\ls1 0 a consid]able port1 ) an ext5sive comm]ce1 p>ticul>ly ) ,egypt4 ,! *>m+ t[n 0 also a place ( great resort = ri* ,egyptians :o c>$ to dwell 9 ,europe4 ,on ! flanks ( ! m\nta9 !re 0 at lea/ "o l>ge t[n1 ,h]culaneum1 :i* appe>s to h be5 an association ( ri* m5's resid5ces4 ,on ! ea/]n side ( ! bay1 at a po9t n[ kn[n z ,bai1 ! ,roman ,gov]nm5t _h a naval /ation1 :i* 9 ! ye> #gi 0 "u ! comm& ( ! celebrat$ ,pl9y1 a mo/ volum9\s ?\gh unsci5tific writ] on matt]s ( natural hi/ory4 ,) him 9 t ye> !re 0 8 nephew1 commonly kn[n z ! y\ng] ,pl9y1 !n a /ud5t ( eighte5 ye>s1 b aft]w>d himself an au?or4 ,^! facts are /at$ 9 "s detail1 = !y are all involv$ 9 ! great trag$y :i* we are n[ to describe4 ,= _m ye>s !re _h be5 no eruption ab\t ! ,bay ( ,naples4 ,! volcanoes on ,is*ia _h be5 /ill = a c5tury or m1 & ! v>i\s circul> op5+s on ! ma9l& _h be5 s f> quiet t !y 7 n recognis$ z volcanoes4 ,ev5 ! inquisitive ,pl9y1 ) 8 great le>n+1 0 s little ( a geologi/ t he did n "k ! signs :i* indicate ! seat ( volcanic action1 ?\gh !y are among ! mo/ conspicu\s features :i* c meet ! eye4 ,! ,greeks w\ld d\btless h recognis$ ! mean+ ( ^! physical signs4 ,9 ! ye> #fc ! %ores ( ! ,bay ( ,naples 7 subject$ to a di/9ctive e>?quake4 ,o!rs less sev]e foll[$ 9 subsequ5t ye>s4 ,9 an e>ly morn+ 9 ! ye> #gi1 a s]vant ar\s$ ! eld] ,pl9y at ,bai ) ! news t !re 0 a wond]ful cl\d ris+ f ,monte ,somma4 ,! y\ng] ,pl9y /ates t 9 =m x 0 l a p9e tree1 ! common species 9 ,italy hav+ a long trunk ) a cr[n ( foliage on its summit1 %ap$ l an umbrella4 ,?is cr[n ( ! column grew until x spread ov] ! :ole l&scape1 d>k5+ ! field ( view4 ,%ortly aft]1 a despat* boat br\ght a message to ! admiral1 :o at once set =? = ! seat ( ! di/urbance4 ,he invit$ 8 nephew to accompany him1 b ! prud5t "y man relates 9 8 lett]s to ,tacitus1 f :om we "k ! little conc]n+ ! eruption :i* has come d[n to u1 t he pref]r$ to d "s read+ :i* he _h to att5d to4 ,8 uncle1 h[ev]1 w5t /raight =w>d1 int5d+ to l& at "s po9t on ! %ore at ! foot ( ! cone4 ,he f\nd ! sea1 h[ev]1 s high t a l&+ 0 impossible2 moreov]1 ! fall ( rock fragm5ts m5ac$ ! %ip4 ,he !re=e cruis$ along ! %ore = "s di/ance1 l&+ at a /ation probably ne> ! pres5t village ( ,ca/ellam>e4 ,at ?is po9t ! fall ( a%es & pumice 0 v great1 b ! /urdy old ,roman _h 8 d9n] & slept aft] x4 ,!re is te/imony t he snor$ l\dly1 & 0 ar\s$ only :5 8 s]vants began to fe> t ! fall ( a%es & /ones w\ld block ! way out ( 8 b$*amb]4 ,:5 he came =? ) 8 att5dants1 _! heads protect$ by planks re/+ on pill[s1 he set out t[>d ,pompeii1 :i* 0 probably ! place :]e he s\ght to l&4 ,aft] go+ "s di/ance1 ! brave man fell dead1 probably f he>t disease2 x is said t he 0 at ! "t exce$+ly a/hmatic4 ,no soon] 7 8 s]vants satisfi$ t ! life _h pass$ f 8 body ?an !y fl$4 ,! rema9s 7 recov]$ aft] ! eruption _h ceas$4 ,! y\ng] ,pl9y fur!r relates t aft] 8 uncle left1 ! cl\d f ! m\nta9 became s d5se t 9 midday ! d>kness 0 t ( midnight1 & ! e>?quake %ocks 7 s viol5t t wagons br\ght to ! c\rty>d ( ! dwell+ to be> ! memb]s ( ! h\sehold away 7 roll$ ?is way & t by ! quak+s ( ! e>?4 ,save = ! above-m5tion$ few & unimportant details conc]n+ ! eruption1 we h no o!r contemporane\s acc\nt4 ,we h1 inde$1 no m ext5d$ /ory until ,dion ,cassius1 writ+ long aft] ! ev5t1 tells u t ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii 7 ov]:elm$2 b he mixes 8 /ory ) fanta/ic leg5ds conc]n+ ! appe>ance ( gods & demons1 z is 8 fa%ion 9 8 s-call$ hi/ory4 ,( all ! ,roman writ]s1 he is p]haps ! mo/ untru/wor?y4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 we h 9 ! deposits ( a%es :i* 7 ?r[n out at ! "t ( ?is great eruption "s basis = int]pret+ ! ev5ts :i* took place4 ,x is evid5t t = _m h\rs ! ,vesuvian crat]1 :i* _h be5 dormant = at lea/ five hundr$ ye>s1 blew out ) exce$+ fury4 ,x p\r$ =? no lava /reams2 ! en]gy ( ! upru%+ vap\rs 0 too great = t4 ,! molt5 rock 9 _! pa? 0 bl[n into f9e bits1 & all ! h>d mat]ial ca/ =? z free du/4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! eruption1 :i* probably did n endure m ?an two days1 possibly n m ?an tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 a% en\gh 0 p\r$ =? to =m a ?ick lay] :i* spread f> ov] ! neighb\r+ area ( l& & sea floor4 ,x cov]$ ! cities ( ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii to a dep? ( m ?an tw5ty feet1 & ov] a circle hav+ a diamet] ( tw5ty miles ! av]age ?ickness may h be5 some?+ l ?is am\nt4 ,s deep 0 x t1 al?\gh almo/ all ! p ( ^! t[ns surviv$1 x did n seem to !m wor? :ile to und]take to excavate _! dwell+ places4 ,at ,pompeii ! cov]+ did n ov]top ! high] ( ! l[ h\ses4 ,an am\nt ( lab\r :i* may be e/imat$ at n ov] "o ?irtie? ( ! value1 or at lea/ ! co/ :i* _h be5 incurr$ 9 build+ ! city1 w\ld h re/or$ x to a p]fectly inhabitable /ate4 ,! fact t x 0 utt]ly ab&on$ probably indicates a c]ta9 sup]/iti\s view 9 connection ) ! eruption4 ,! fact t ! p _h "t to flee f ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii1 be>+ ) !m _! m valuable effects1 is prov$ by ! excavations at ^! places :i* h be5 made 9 mod]n times4 ,! l>g] "p ( ,pompeii & a consid]able portion ( ,h]culaneum h be5 ?us explor$2 only r>ely h human rema9s be5 f\nd4 ,"h & !re1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! cell>s1 ! lab\r]s engag$ 9 ! "w ( dis9t]r+ ! cities note t _! picks ent] a cavity2 exam9+ ! space1 !y f9d !y h discov]$ ! rema9s ( a human skeleton4 ,x has rec5tly be5 le>n$ t by p\r+ s(t pla/] ( ,p>is into ^! op5+s a m\ld may be obta9$ :i* gives 9 a surpris+ly p]fect mann] ! orig9al =m ( ! body4 ,! explanation ( ?is m\ld is z foll[s3 ,along ) ! fall ( c9d]s 9 an eruption !re is always a great desc5t ( ra91 aris+ f ! cond5sation ( ! /eam :i* p\rs =? f ! volcano4 ,?is wat]1 m+l+ ) ! a%es1 =ms a pa/y mud1 :i* (t5 fl[s 9 va/ /reams1 & is sometimes kn[n z mud lava4 ,?is mat]ial has ! qualities ( cem5t--t is1 x %ortly sets 9 a mann] comp>able to pla/] ( ,p>is or ord9>y mort>4 ,dur+ ! eruption ( #gi ?is mud p5etrat$ all ! l[ places 9 ,pompeii1 cov]+ ! bodies ( ! p1 :o 7 suffocat$ by ! fumes ( ! volcanic emanations4 ,we "k t ^! p 7 n dr[n$ by ! inundation2 _! attitudes %[ t !y 7 dead be=e ! fl[+ matt] p5etrat$ to :]e !y lay4 ,x happ5$ t ,pompeii lay beyond ! influ5ce ( ! subsequ5t great eruptions ( ,vesuvius1 s t x aft]w>d receiv$ only slight a% %[]s4 ,h]culaneum1 on ! o!r h&1 has c5tury by c5tury be5 m & m deeply buri$ until at ! pres5t "t x is cov]$ by _m %eets ( lava4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly to be regrett$1 = ! reason t1 :ile ,pompeii 0 a seaport t[n ( no great weal? or culture1 ,h]culaneum 0 ! resid5ce place ( ! g5try1 p :o possess$ libr>ies1 ! records ( :i* c be 9 _m cases deciph]$1 & f :i* we might hope to obta9 "s ( ! lo/ treasures ( antiquity4 ,! papyrus rolls on :i* ! books ( t day 7 writt51 ?\gh *>r$ by heat & "t1 are /ill int]pretable4 ,aft] ! great explosion ( #gi1 ,vesuvius sank aga9 into repose4 ,x 0 n until #ajef t vigor\s eruptions aga9 began4 ,f "t to "t slight explosions occurr$1 none ( :i* yield$ lava fl[s2 x 0 n until ! date la/ m5tion$ t ?is accompanim5t ( ! eruption began to appe>4 ,9 #afcf1 aft] a repose ( ne>ly a c5tury & a half1 !re came a v great outbreak1 :i* desolat$ a wide ext5t ( c\ntry on ! nor?we/]n side ( ! cone4 ,at ?is /age 9 ! hi/ory ( ! crat] ! volcanic fl[ began to atta9 ! sea4 ,wa%+ ov] ! edge ( ! old orig9al crat] ( ,monte ,somma1 & ?us l[]+ its elevation1 ^! /reams deva/at$1 dur+ ! eruption j m5tion$ & 9 v>i\s o!r outbreaks1 a wide field ( cultivat$ l&1 ov]:elm+ _m villages4 ,! la/ consid]able eruption :i* yield$ l>ge quantities ( lava 0 t ( #ahgb1 :i* s5t its tide = a di/ance ( ab\t six miles4 ,s9ce #afcf ! eruptions ( ,vesuvius h /eadily increas$ 9 frequ5cy1 &1 on ! :ole1 dim9i%$ 9 viol5ce4 ,9 ! e>ly ye>s ( its hi/ory ! great outbreaks 7 usually sep>at$ by int]vals ( a c5tury or m1 & 7 ( su* en]gy t ! lava 0 mo/ly bl[n to du/1 =m+ cl\ds s va/ t on two occasions at lea/ !y caus$ a midnight d>kness at ,con/ant9ople1 ne>ly twelve hundr$ miles away4 ,?is is z if a volcano at ,*icago %\ld completely hide ! sun 9 ! city ( ,bo/on4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( ,vesuvius1 ! cone may be said to be 9 slight1 almo/ cont9u\s eruption4 ,! old c5tral valley :i* exi/$ be=e ! eruption ( #gi1 & cont9u$ to be di/9ct = long aft] t "t1 has be5 fill$ up by a small] cone1 be>+ a relatively t9y crat] ( v5t1 ! orig9al wall be+ visible only on ! ea/]n & nor!rn p>ts ( its circuit1 & "h only ) mu* dim9i%$ height4 ,on ! we/]n face ! slope f ! base ( ! m\nta9 to ! summit ( ! new cone is almo/ cont9u\s1 ?\gh ! tra9$ eye c trace ! outl9e ( ,monte ,somma--its position 9 a k9d ( b5*1 :i* is traceable on t side ( ! long slope lead+ f ! summit ( ! new cone to ! sea4 ,! fact t ! lavas ( ,vesuvius h brok5 out on ! s\?we/]n side1 :ile ! old wall ( ! cone has rema9$ unbrok5 on ! ea/]n v]sant1 has a curi\s explanation4 ,! prevail+ w9d ( ,naples is f ! s\?we/1 be+ ! /rong c\nt] trades :i* belong 9 t latitude4 ,9 ! old days :5 ! ,monte ,somma cone 0 con/ruct$ ^! w9ds caus$ ! l>g] "p ( ! a%es to fall on ! leew>d side ( ! cone1 ?us =m+ a ?ick] & high] wall ar\nd t "p ( ! crat]4 ,f ! nature ( ! rec5t eruptions ( ,vesuvius x appe>s likely t ! m\nta9 is ab\t to ent] on a second p]iod ( inaction4 ,! pipes lead+ ?r\gh ! new cone are small1 & ! mass ( ?is elevation con/itutes a great plug1 clos+ ! old crat] m\?4 ,to give v5t to a l>ge dis*>ge ( /eam1 ! :ole ( ?is great mass1 hav+ a dep? ( ne>ly two ?\s& feet1 w\ld h to be bl[n away4 ,x seems mo/ likely t :5 ! occasion = su* a dis*>ge comes1 ! vap\rs ( ! eruption w seek a v5t ?r\gh "s o!r ( ! _m volcanic op5+s :i* lie to ! we/w>d ( ?is great cone4 ,! hi/ory ( ^! less] volcanoes po9ts to ! conclusion t :5 ! pa? by way ( ,vesuvius is ob/ruct$ !y may give relief to ! /eam :i* is =c+ its c\rse to ! surface4 ,two or ?ree times s9ce ! eruption ( ,pl9y1 dur+ p]iods :5 ,vesuvius _h long be5 quiet1 outbreaks h tak5 place on ,is*ia or 9 ! ,phlgrn ,fields1 a region dott$ ) small crat]s :i* lies to ! we/ ( ,naples4 ,! la/ ( ^! occurr$ 9 #aeeb1 & l$ to ! =mation ( ! beautiful little cone kn[n z ,monte ,nuovo4 ,?is eruption took place ne> ! t[n ( ,puzzuoli1 a place :i* 0 !n ! seat ( a univ]sity1 ! p ( :i* h left u records ( ! accid5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,diagrammatic sections ?r\gh ,m\nt ,vesuvius1 %[+ *anges 9 ! =m ( ! cone4 7,f ,phillips47 ,! outbreak :i* =m$ ,monte ,nuovo 0 slight b v *>act]i/ic4 ,x occurr$ 9 & beside a circul> pool kn[n z ! ,lucr9e ,lake1 itself an anci5t crat]4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! di/urbance ! gr\nd op5$ 9 ragg$ cavities1 f :i* mud & a%es & great fragm5ts ( h>d rock 7 hurl$ high 9 ! air1 "s ( ! /ones asc5d+ to a height ( sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,) slight int]missions ?is outbreak cont9u$ = "s days1 result+ 9 ! =mation ( a hill ab\t five hundr$ feet high1 ) a crat] 9 its top1 ! bottom ( :i* lay ne> ! level ( ! sea4 ,al?\gh ?is volcanic elevation1 be+ made altoge!r ( loose fragm5ts1 is rapidly we>+ d[n1 :ile ! crat] is fill+ up1 x rema9s a beautiful object 9 ! l&scape1 & is also notewor?y = ! fact t x is ! only /ructure ( ?is nature :i* we "k f its beg9n+4 ,9 ! ,phlgrn ,field !re are a numb] ( o!r crat]s ( small size1 ) v l[ cones ab\t !m4 ,^! appe> to h be5 ! product ( brief1 slight eruptions4 ,t kn[n z ! ,solfat>a1 ?\gh n 9 eruption dur+ ! hi/oric p]iod1 is int]e/+ = ! fact t f ! crevices ( ! rocks ab\t x !re comes =? a cont9u$ efflux ( c>bonic-acid gas4 ,?is sub/ance probably arises f ! effect ( heat conta9$ 9 old lavas :i* are 9 contact ) lime/one 9 ! deep "u-e>?4 ,we "k su* lime/ones are cov]$ by ! lavas ( ,vesuvius1 = ! reason t num]\s blocks ( ! rock are ?r[n out dur+ eruptions1 & are (t5 f\nd emb$d$ 9 ! lava /reams4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t ^! crat]s ( ! ,phlgrn ,field1 ly+ betwe5 ! seats ( vigor\s eruption on ,is*ia & at ,vesuvius1 h nev] be5 9 vigor\s eruption4 ,_! slight outbreaks seem to indicate t !y h no p]man5t connection ) ! s\rces :5ce ^? /rong] v5ts obta9 _! supply ( heat$ /eam4 ,! facts disclos$ by ! /udy ( ! ,vesuvian sy/em ( volcanoes af=d ! geologi/ a basis = _m int]e/+ conclusions4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 he notes t ! great] "p ( ! cones1 all ^? ( small size1 are made up ( f9ely divid$ rock1 :i* may h be5 m or less cem5t$ by ! processes ( *ange :i* g on )9 x4 ,x is ?us cle> t ! lava fl[s are uness5tial--inde$1 we may say accid5tal--contributions to ! mass4 ,9 ! case ( ,vesuvius !y c]ta9ly d n am\nt to z mu* z "o t5? ( ! elevation due to ! volcanic action4 ,! %>e ( ! lava 9 ,vesuvius is probably great] ?an ! av]age1 = dur+ ! la/ six c5turies ?is v5t has be5 rem>kably lavig]\s4#h ,obs]vation on ! volcanoes ( o!r di/ricts %[ t ! ,vesuvian gr\p is 9 ?is reg>d n peculi>4 ,( ne>ly two hundr$ cones :i* ! writ] has exam9$1 n m ?an "o t5? disclose di/9ct lavas4 ,footnote #h3 ,i v5ture to use ?is ^w 9 place ( ! phrase lava-yield+ = ! reason t ! t]m is ne$$ 9 ! description ( volcanoes4 ,an inspection ( ! old inn] wall ( ,monte ,somma 9 t portion :]e x is be/ pres]v$1 on ! nor? side ( ! ,atria del ,cavallo1 or ,horse ,gul*--s call$ = ! reason t ^? :o asc5d$ ,vesuvius 7 accu/om$ to leave _! saddle animals !re--we p]ceive t ! body ( ! old cone is to a consid]able ext5t int]lac$ ) dikes or fissures :i* h be5 fill$ ) molt5 lava t has cool$ 9 its place4 ,x is evid5t t dur+ ! ?roes ( an eruption1 :5 ! lava /&s high 9 ! crat]1 ^! r5ts are frequ5tly =m$1 to be fill$ by ! fluid rock4 ,9 fact1 lava dis*>ges1 ?\gh !y may aft]w>d c\rse = long di/ances 9 ! op5 air1 g5]ally break _! way und]gr\nd ?r\gh ! c9d]y cone1 & fir/ are disclos$ at ! di/ance ( a mile or m f ! inn] walls ( ! crat]4 ,_! pa? is probably =m$ by rift+s 9 ! compact$ a%es1 su* z we trace on ! /eep sides ( ! ,atria del ,cavallo1 z be=e not$4 ,= ! fur!r hi/ory ( ^! fissures1 we %all h to ref] to facts :i* are bett] exhibit$ 9 ! cone ( tna4 ,! am\nt ( rock matt] :i* has be5 ?r[n =? f ! volcanoes ab\t ! ,bay ( ,naples is v great4 ,only a portion ( x rema9s 9 ! region ar\nd ^! cones2 by f> ! great] "p has be5 wa%$ or bl[n away4 ,aft] ea* consid]able eruption a wide field is coat$ ) a%es1 s t ! till$ gr\nds appe> z if entirely /]iliz$2 b 9 a %ort "t ! matt] 9 good "p disappe>s1 a portion ( x decays & is lea*$ away1 & ! mo/ ( ! rema9d] wa%es into ! sea4 ,only ! %[]s1 :i* accumulate a deep lay]1 are apt to be reta9$ on ! surface ( ! c\ntry4 ,a great deal ( ?is p[d]$ rock drifts away 9 ! w9d1 sometimes 9 great quantities1 z 9 ^? cases :]e x d>k5$ ! sky m ?an a ?\s& miles f ! cone4 ,moreov]1 ! wat] ( ! /eam :i* br\ght ab\t ! dis*>ges & ! o!r gases :i* accompani$ ! vap\r h left no traces ( _! pres5ce1 except 9 ! deep *annels :i* ! ra9 ( ! cond5s+ /eam h =m$ on ! hillsides4 ,nev]!less1 aft] all ^! subtractions are made1 ! quantity ( volcanic matt] rema9+ on ! surface ab\t ! ,bay ( ,naples w\ld1 if ev5ly di/ribut$1 =m a lay] sev]al hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness--p]haps1 inde$1 a ?\s& feet 9 dep?--ov] ! t]ritory 9 :i* ! v5ts occur4 ,all ?is matt] has be5 tak5 9 relatively rec5t times f ! dep?s ( ! e>?4 ,! surpris+ fact is t no consid]able &1 inde$1 no p]man5t subsid5ce ( ! surface has att5d$ ?is excavation4 ,we c n believe t ?is )drawal ( mat]ial f ! "u-e>? has result$ 9 ! =mation ( op5 und]gr\nd spaces4 ,we "k full well t any su*1 if x 7 ( consid]able size1 w\ld quickly be cru%$ 9 by ! weight ( ! ov]ly+ rocks4 ,we h1 inde$1 to suppose t ^! /eam-impell$ lavas1 :i* are driv5 t[>d ! v5t :5ce !y are to g =? 9 ! /ate ( du/ or fluid1 come und]gr\nd f di/ances away1 probably f b5ea? ! floors ( ! sea to ! we/w>d4 ,al?\gh ! %ores ( ! ,bay ( ,naples h rema9$ 9 g5]al ) un*ang$ elevation = ab\t two ?\s& ye>s1 !y h "h & !re be5 subject$ to slight oscillations :i* are mo/ likely connect$ ) ! movem5t ( volcanic matt] t[>d ! v5ts :]e x is to f9d escape4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ evid5ce ( ?is nature is af=d$ by ! /udies :i* h be5 made on ! ru9s ( ! ,temple ( ,s]apis at ,puzzuoli4 ,?is edifice 0 con/ruct$ 9 pre-,*ri/ian times = ! wor%ip ( ! ,egyptian god ,s]apis1 ^: int]v5tion 0 s\ght by sick p4 ,! fact t ?is div9ity ( ! ,nile f\nd a resid5ce 9 ?is region %[s h[ intimate 0 ! relation betwe5 ,rome & ,egypt 9 ?is anci5t day4 ,! ,s]apeium 0 built on ! edge ( ! sea1 j above its level4 ,:5 9 mod]n days x began to be /udi$1 its floor 0 ab\t on its orig9al level1 b ! few /&+ columns ( ! edifice af=d indubitable evid5ce t ?is "p ( ! %ore has be5 l[]$ to ! am\nt ( tw5ty feet or m & !n re-elevat$4 ,! subsid5ce is prov$ by ! fact t ! upp] "p ( ! columns :i* 7 n protect$ by ! dbris accumulat$ ab\t !m h be5 bor$ by c]ta9 %ellfi%1 kn[n z ,li?odomi1 :i* h ! habit ( excavat+ %elt]s 9 s(t /one1 su* z ^! m>ble columns af=d4 ,at pres5t ! floor on :i* ! ru9 /&s appe>s to be gradually s9k+1 ?\gh ! rate ( movem5t is v sl[4 ,ano!r evid5ce t ! ejections may travel = a great di/ance und]gr\nd on _! way to ! v5t is af=d$ by ! fact t ,vesuvius & tna1 ?\gh ne> ?ree hundr$ miles ap>t1 appe> to ex*ange activities--t is1 _! p]iods ( outbreak are n simultane\s4 ,al?\gh ^! elem5ts ( ! *ronology ( ! two cones may be accid5tal1 tak5 ) simil> facts d]iv$ f o!r fields1 !y appe> to indicate t v5ts1 ?\gh f> sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 may1 s to speak1 be f$ f a common subt]ranean s\rce4 ,x is a s+ul> fact 9 ?is connection t ! volcano ( ,/romboli1 ?\gh situat$ betwe5 ^! two cones1 is 9 a /ate ( almo/ incessant activity4 ,?is probably indicates t ! la/-nam$ v5t d]ives its vap\rs f ano!r level 9 ! e>? ?an ! great] cones4 ,9 ?is reg>d volcanoes probably behave l spr+s1 ( :i*1 inde$1 !y may be reg>d$ z a gr\p4 ,! read] is d\btless aw>e t hot & cold spr+s (t5 escape v ne> toge!r1 ! diff]5ce 9 ! temp]ature be+ due to ! dep? f :i* _! wat]s come =?4 ,z ! accid5ts ( volcanic explosion are ( a nature to be v damag+ to man1 z well z to ! l[] ord]s ( ,nature1 x is fit t we %\ld note 9 g5]al ! effect ( ! ,neapolitan eruptions on ! hi/ory ( civilization 9 t region4 ,z /at$ above1 ! fir/ ,greek settlem5ts 9 ?is vic9ity--^? on ! isl& ( ,is*ia--7 mu* di/urb$ by volcanic outbreaks1 yet ! isl& became ! seat ( a p]man5t & prosp]\s colony4 ,! great eruption ( #gi probably co/ _m hundr$ lives1 & l$ to ! ab&onm5t ( two consid]able cities1 :i*1 h[ev]1 c\ld at small co/ h be5 recov]$ to use4 ,s9ce t day v>i\s eruptions h tempor>ily desolat$ portions ( ! t]ritory1 b only 9 v small fields h ! ravages be5 irrem$iable4 ,:]e ! gr\nd 0 cov]$ ) du/1 x has 9 mo/ places be5 aga9 tillable1 & s rapid is ! decay ( ! lavas t 9 a c5tury aft] _! fl[ has ceas$ v9es c 9 mo/ cases be plant$ on _! surfaces4 ,! city ( ,naples1 :i* lies amid ! v5ts1 ?\gh n imm$iately 9 contact ) any ( !m1 has /eadfa/ly gr[n & prosp]$ f ! pre-,*ri/ian times4 ,x is d\btful if any lives h ev] be5 lo/ 9 ! city 9 consequ5ce ( an eruption1 & no great inconv5i5ce has be5 exp]i5c$ f !m4 ,n[ & !n1 aft] a great a% %[]1 ! volcanic du/ has to be remov$1 b ! lab\r is less s]i\s ?an t impos$ on _m nor!rn cities by a sn[/orm4 ,?r\gh all ^! convulsions ! tillage ( ! di/rict has be5 ma9ta9$4 ,x has ev] be5 ! seat ( z ri* & pr(itable a husb&ry z is af=d$ by any "p ( ,italy4 ,9 fact1 ! a% %[]s1 z !y import f9e divid$ rock v ri* 9 sub/ances necess>y = ! gr[? ( plants1 h 9 a measure s]v$ to ma9ta9 ! f]tility ( ! soil1 & by ?is action h 9 "s degree comp5sat$ = ! injury :i* !y occasionally inflict4 ,comp>+ ! ravages ( ! eruptions ) ^? inflict$ by w>1 unnecess>y disease1 or ev5 bad politics1 & we see t ^! natural accid5ts h be5 mo/ m]ciful to man4 ,_m a tyrant has caus$ m suff]+ & dea? ?an has be5 inflict$ by ^! rude op]ations ( ,nature4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( ! naturali/1 tna is va/ly m int]e/+ ?an ,vesuvius4 ,! bulk ( ! cone is m ?an tw5ty times z great z t ( ! ,neapolitan volcano1 & ! magnitude ( its explosions1 z well z ! range ( ph5om5a :i* !y exhibit1 incomp>ably great]4 ,x happ5s1 h[ev]1 t :ile human hi/ory ( ! record$ k9d has be5 intimately b\nd up ) ! t9y ,vesuvian cone1 p>tly because ! relatively slight nature ( its di/urbances p]mitt$ m5 to dwell beside x1 ! l>g] tna has expell$ culture f ! field ne> its v5t1 & has done ! great] "p ( its "w 9 ! va/ solitude :i* x has creat$4#i ,footnote #i3 ,9 "p ! excell5t record ( ,vesuvius is due to ! fact t s9ce ! e>ly ,*ri/ian c5turies ! prie/s ( ,/4 ,janu>ius1 ! patron ( ,naples1 h be5 accu/om$ to c>ry 8 relics 9 procession :5ev] an eruption began4 ,! cessation ( ! outbreak has be5 writt5 d[n to ! cr$it ( ! sa9t1 & ?us we are provid$ ) a long /ory ( ! successive outbreaks4 tna has be5 9 frequ5t eruption = a v mu* long] "t ?an ,vesuvius4 ,9 ! odes ( ,p9d>1 9 ! six? c5tury be=e ,*ri/1 we f9d records ( eruptions4 ,x is said also t ! philosoph] ,emp$ocles s\ght fame & dea? by ca/+ himself into ! fi]y crat]4 ,!re has ?us 9 ! case ( ?is m\nta9 be5 no su* long p]iod ( repose z occurr$ 9 ,vesuvius4 ,?\gh our records ( ! outbreaks are exce$+ly imp]fect1 !y s]ve to %[ t ! v5t has ma9ta9$ its activity mu* m cont9u\sly ?an is ord9>ily ! case ) volcanoes4 tna is *>act]i/ically a lava-yield+ cone2 ?\gh ! am\nt ( du/ put =? is l>ge1 ! ratio ( ! fluid rock :i* fl[s away f ! crat] is v mu* great] ?an at ,vesuvius4 ,ne>ly half ! cone1 inde$1 may be compos$ ( ?is mat]ial4 ,our space does n p]mit any?+ l a consecutive /ory ( ! tnean eruptions s9ce ! dawn ( hi/ory1 or ev5 a full acc\nt ( its maje/ic cone2 we c only note c]ta9 features ( a p>ticul>ly in/ructive nature :i* h be5 rem>k$ by ! _m able m5 :o h /udi$ ?is /ructure & ! effects ( its outbreak4 ,! mo/ important feature exhibit$ by tna is ! va/ size ( its cone4 ,at its apex its height1 ?\gh v>iable f ! frequ5t de/ruction & rebuild+ ( ! crat] walls1 may be reckon$ z ab\t elev5 ?\s& feet4 ,! base on :i* ! volcanic mat]ial lies is probably less ?an a ?\s& feet above ! sea1 s t ! maximum ?ickness ( ! heap ( volcanic ejections is probably ab\t two miles4 ,! av]age dep? ( ?is coat+ is probably ab\t five ?\s& feet1 &1 z ! cone has an av]age diamet] ( ab\t ?irty miles1 we may conclude t ! cone n[ conta9s ab\t a ?\s& cubic miles ( volcanic mat]ials4 ,great z is ?is mass1 x is only a small "p ( ! eject$ mat]ial :i* has gone =? f ! v5t4 ,all ! matt] :i* 9 its vapor\s /ate w5t =? ) ! eruption1 ! o!r gases & vap\rs ?us dis*>g$1 h disappe>$4 ,s1 too1 a l>ge "p ( ! a% & mu* ( ! lava has be5 swept away by ! /reams :i* dra9 ! region1 & :i* 9 times ( eruption are greatly swoll5 by ! accompany+ torr5tial ra9s4 ,! writ] has e/imat$ t if all ! emanations f ! volcano--solid1 fluid1 & gase\s--c\ld be heap$ on ! cone1 !y w\ld =m a mass ( betwe5 two & ?ree ?\s& cubic miles 9 cont5ts4 ,yet not)/&+ ?is enorm\s outputt+ ( e>?y matt]1 ! e>? on :i* ! tnean cone has be5 con/ruct$ has n only fail$ to s9k d[n1 b has be5 9 process ( cont9u\s1 sl[ upris+1 :i* has lift$ ! surface m ?an a ?\s& feet above ! level :i* x _h at ! "t :5 volcanic action began 9 ?is field4 ,"h1 ev5 m cle>ly ?an 9 ! case ( ,vesuvius1 we see t ! mat]ials driv5 =? f ! crat] are d]iv$ n f j b5ea? its f\ndation1 b f a di/ance1 f realms :i* 9 ! case ( ?is insul> volcano are b5ea? ! sea floors4 ,x is c]ta9 t "h ! migration ( rock matt]1 impell$ by ! expansion ( its conta9$ wat] t[>d ! v5t1 has s f> exce$$ t :i* has be5 dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! crat] t an upris+ ( ! surface su* z we h obs]v$ has be5 br\ght ab\t4 ,illu/ration3 ,m\nt tna1 se5 f ne> ,catania4 ,! imp]fect cones on ! sky l9e to ! left are ^? ( small second>y eruptions4 ,!re are c]ta9 peculi>ities ( ,m\nt tna :i* are due 9 "p to its great size & 9 "p to ! climatal conditions ( ! region 9 :i* x lies4 ,! upp] "p ( ! m\nta9 9 w9t] is deeply sn[-clad2 ! froz5 wat] (t51 inde$1 =ms great drifts 9 ! gorges ne> ! summit4 ,"h x has occasionally happ5$ t a lay] ( a%es has deeply buri$ ! mass1 s t x has be5 pres]v$ = ye>s1 becom+ gradually m inclos$ by ! subsequ5t eruptions4 ,at "o po9t :]e ?is compact sn[--:i* has1 inde$1 tak5 on ! =m ( ice--has be5 reveal$ to view1 x has be5 qu>ri$ & convey$ to ! t[ns ^u ! seacoa/4 ,x is likely t !re are _m su* masses ( ice inclos$ betwe5 ! a% lay]s 9 ! upp] "p ( ! m\nta91 :]e1 ow+ to ! height1 ! climate is v cold4 ,?is curi\s fact %[s h[ p]fect a non-conductor ! a% b$s ( a volcano are to protect ! froz5 wat] f ! heat ( ! rocks ab\t ! crat]4 ,! furi\s ra9s :i* beset ! m\nta9 9 times ( great eruptions excavate deep *annels on its sides4 ,! lava outbreaks :i* att5d almo/ e eruption1 & :i* desc5d f ! base ( ! c9d] cone at ! height ( f five to eight ?\s& feet above ! sea1 naturally f9d _! way into ^! *annels1 :]e !y c\rse 9 ! mann] ( riv]s until ! l[] & less valley$ section ( ! cone is rea*$4 ,su* a lava fl[ naturally beg9s to freeze on ! surface1 ! lava at fir/ becom+ viscid1 mu* 9 ! mann] ( cream on ! surface ( milk4 ,urg$ along by ! m fluid lava und]nea?1 ?is viscid coat+ takes a ropy or corrugat$ =m4 ,z ! freez+ goes deep]1 a firm /one ro( may be =m$ across ! gorge1 :i*1 :5 ! curr5t ( lava ceases to fl[ f ! crat]1 p]mits ! l[] "p ( ! /ream to dra9 away1 leav+ a long cav]n or scries ( caves ext5d+ f> up ! cone4 ,! nature ( ?is action is exactly comp>able to t :i* we may obs]ve :5 on a fro/y morn+ aft] ra9 we may f9d ! empty *annels :i* 7 occupi$ by rills ( wat] ro($ ov] ) ice2 ! ice ro(s are tempor>y1 :ile ^? ( lava may endure = ages4 ,"s ( ^! lava-/ream caves h be5 disclos$1 9 ! mann] ( ord9>y cav]ns1 by ! fall+ ( _! ro(s2 b ! great] "p are naturally hidd5 b5ea? ! ev]-increas+ mat]ials ( ! cone4 ,! lava-/ream caves ( tna are n only int]e/+ because ( _! peculi>ities ( =m1 :i* we %all n und]take to describe1 b also = ! reason t !y help u to acc\nt = a v peculi> feature 9 ! hi/ory ( ! great cone4 ,on ! slopes ( ! volcano1 bel[ ! upp] c9d]y portion1 !re are sev]al hundr$ less] cones1 v>y+ f a few score to sev5 hundr$ feet 9 height4 ,ea* ( ^! has its appropriate crat]1 & has evid5tly be5 ! seat ( "o or m eruptions4 ,z ! great] "p ( ^! cones are anci5t1 _m ( !m be+ almo/ effac$ by ! ra9 or buri$ b5ea? ! ejections :i* h surr\nd$ _! bases s9ce ! "t !y 7 =m$1 we are l$ to believe t _m ?\s&s ( !m h be5 =m$ dur+ ! hi/ory ( ! volcano4 ,! hi/ory ( ^! subsidi>y cones appe>s to be connect$ ) ! lava caves not$ above4 ,^! cav]ns1 ow+ to ! irregul>ities ( _! =m1 conta9 wat]4 ,!y are1 9 fact1 natural ci/]ns1 :]e ! abundant ra9fall ( ! m\nta9 f9ds "h & !re /orage4 ,:51 dur+ ! ?roes ( an eruption1 dikes su* z we "k (t5 to p5etrate ! m\nta91 are riv5 outw>d f ! crat] ?r\gh ! mass ( ! cone1 & fill$ ) lava1 ! heat$ rock mu/ (t5 come 9 contact ) ^! masses ( buri$ wat]4 ,! result ( ?is w\ld inevitably be ! local g5]ation ( /eam at a high temp]ature1 :i* w\ld =ce its way out 9 a brief b vigor\s eruption1 su* z has be5 obs]v$ to take place :5 ^! p]iph]al volcanoes are =m$4 ,sometimes x has happ5$ t aft] ! explosion ! lava has f\nd its way 9 a /ream f ! fissure ?us op5$4 ,t ?is explanation is suffici5t is 9 a measure %[n by obs]vations on c]ta9 effects ( lava fl[s f ,vesuvius4 ,! writ] 0 in=m$ by a v judici\s obs]v]1 a resid5t ( ,naples1 :o _h int]e/$ himself 9 ! ph5om5a ( t volcano1 t ! lava /reams :5 !y p5etrat$ a ci/]n1 su* z !y (t5 enc\nt] 9 pass+ ov] villages or f>m/eads1 vaporiz$ ! wat]1 & gave rise1 ?r\gh ! action ( ! /eam1 to small tempor>y cones1 :i*1 ?\gh g5]ally wa%$ away by ! fur!r fl[ ( ! liquid rock1 are ess5tially l ^? :i* we f9d on tna4 ,su* subsidi>y1 or1 z !y are sometimes call$1 p>asitic cones1 are kn[n ab\t o!r volcanoes1 b n[h]e are !y s *>act]i/ic z on ! flanks ( t wond]ful volcano4 ,a v conspicu\s feature 9 ! tnean cone consi/s ( a great valley kn[n z ! ,val del ,bove1 or ,bull ,holl[1 :i* ext5ds f ! base ( ! mod]n & ev]-*angeable c9d] cone d[n ! flanks ( ! old] /ructure to ne> its base4 ,?is valley has /eep sides1 9 places a ?\s& or m feet high1 & has evid5tly be5 =m$ by ! d[n-settl+ ( portions ( ! cone :i* 7 left )\t support by ! )drawal f b5ea? !m ( mat]ials ca/ =? 9 a "t ( explosion4 ,9 an eruption ?is rem>kable valley 0 ! seat ( a va/ wat] flood1 ! fluid be+ ca/ =? f ! crat] at ! beg9n+ ( ! explosion4 ,9 ! m\?s ( ?is & o!r volcanoes1 aft] a long p]iod ( repose1 great quantities ( wat]1 ga!r+ f ra9s or cond5s$ f ! /eam :i* sl[ly escapes f ^! op5+s1 (t5 p\rs l a flood d[n ! sides ( ! m\nta9s4 ,9 ! great eruption ( ,galongoon1 9 ,java1 su* a mass ( wat]1 ca/ =? by a t]rific explosion1 m+l$ ) a%es1 s t ! mass =m$ a ?ick mud1 0 %ot =? ) su* en]gy t x ravag$ an area ne>ly eighty miles 9 diamet]1 de/roy+ ! =e/s & _! wild inhabitants1 z well z ! p :o dwelt )9 ! range ( ! amaz+ disa/]4 ,s p[]fully 0 ?is wat] driv5 f ! crat] t ! di/ricts imm$iately at ! base ( ! cone 7 9 a mann] ov]%ot by ! va/ /ream1 & escap$ ) relatively little injury4 ,:5 x comes =? f ! base ( ! c9d] cone1 or f "o ( ! small p]iph]al crat]s1 ! lava /ream usually appe>s to be :ite hot1 & to fl[ ) almo/ ! ease ( wat]4 ,x does n really h t measure ( fluidity2 its condition is r t ( ?9 pa/e2 b ! great weight ( ! mat]ial--ne> two & a half times t ( wat]--causes ! movem5t d[n ! slope to be spe$y4 ,! c5tral portion ( ! lava /ream long reta9s its high temp]ature2 b ! surface1 cool+1 is fir/ conv]t$ into a t\gh %eet1 :i*1 ?\gh x may b5d1 c h>dly be said to fl[4 ,fur!r h>d5+ conv]ts ^! outly+ portions ( ! curr5t into h>d1 glassy /one1 :i* is brok5 into fragm5ts 9 a way resembl+ ! ice on ! surface ( a riv]4 ,x ?us comes ab\t t ! advanc+ front ( ! lava /ream becomes cov]$1 & its motion h9d]$ by ! froz5 rock1 until ! rate ( ongo+ may n exce$ a few feet an h\r1 & ! appe>ance is t ( a heap ( /one sl[ly roll+ d[n a slope4 ,n[ & !n a crevice is =m$1 ?r\gh :i* a ?9 /ream ( liquid lava p\rs =?1 b ! mat]ial1 hav+ already p>t$ ) mu* ( its heat1 rapidly cools1 & 9 turn becomes cov]$ ) ! coat+ ( froz5 fragm5ts4 ,9 ?is /ate ( ! /ream ! lava fl[ /&s on all sides high above ! slope :i* x is trav]s+2 x is1 9 fact1 wall$ 9 by its own solidifi$ p>ts1 ?\gh x is urg$ =w>d by ! contribution :i* cont9ues to fl[ 9 ! "u ar*es4 ,9 ?is /ate ( ! movem5t trifl+ accid5ts1 or ev5 human int]f]5ce1 may direct ! curr5t ?is way or t4 ,"s ( ! mo/ int]e/+ *apt]s 9 ! hi/ory ( tna relate to ! ef=ts ( ! p to turn ^! sl[-mov+ /reams s t _! torr5ts might fl[ into wild]ness places r ?an ov] ! fields & t[ns4 ,9 ! great fl[ ( #affi1 :i* m5ac$ ! city ( ,catania1 a l>ge place on ! sea%ore to ! s\!a/ ( ! cone1 a public-spirit$ citiz51 ,seor ,papall>do1 protect+ himself & 8 s]vants ) clo?+ made ( hides1 & ) l>ge %ields1 set =? arm$ ) great hooks ) ! purpose ( div]t+ ! c\rse ( ! lava mass4 ,he succe$$ 9 pull+ away ! /ones on ! flank ( ! /ream1 s t a fl[ ( ! molt5 rock 0 turn$ 9 ano!r direction4 ,! exp$i5t w\ld probably h be5 successful if he _h be5 all[$ to cont9ue 8 lab\rs2 b ! inhabitants ( a neighb\r+ village1 :i* 0 ?reat5$ by ! (f-%oot+ curr5t :i* ,papall>do _h creat$1 took up arms & drove him & 8 reta9]s away4 ,! fl[ cont9u$ until x rea*$ ,catania4 ,! p made ha/e to build ! city walls on ! side ( dang] high] ?an x 0 be=e1 b ! tide m\nt$ ov] its summit4 ,al?\gh ! lavas :i* come =? f ! volcano evid5tly h a high temp]ature1 _! capacity = melt+ o!r rocks is relatively small4 ,!y sc\r ^! rocks1 because ( _! weight1 ev5 m en]getically ?an d p[]ful torr5ts ( wat]1 b !y are relatively ineffective 9 melt+ /one4 ,on tna & else:]e we may (t5 obs]ve lavas :i* h fl[$ ?r\gh =e/s4 ,:5 ! tide ( molt5 rock has pass$ by1 ! trees may be f\nd *>r$ b n entirely burn$ away2 ev5 /ems a few in*es 9 diamet] reta9 /r5g? en\gh to uphold consid]able fr+es & clots ( ! lava :i* has clung to !m4 ,^! facts be> out ! conclusion t ! fluidity ( ! heat$ /one dep5ds 9 consid]able measure on ! wat] :i* is conta9$1 ei!r 9 its fluid or vapor\s /ate1 betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ! mat]ial4 ,if we consid] ! ,italian volcanoes z a :ole1 we f9d t !y lie 9 a long1 discont9u\s l9e ext5d+ f ! nor!rn "p ( ! valley ( ! ,po1 )9 sight ( ! ,alps1 to tna1 & 9 subt]ranean cones p]haps to ! nor!rn coa/ ( ,africa4 ,at ! nor!rn end ( ! l9e we h a beautiful gr\p ( ext9ct volcanoes1 kn[n z ! ,eugean ,m\nta9s4 ,!nce s\?w>d to s\!rn ,tuscany crat]s are want+1 b !re is evid5ce ( fissures 9 ! e>? :i* give =? !rmal wat]s4 ,f s\!rn ,tuscany s\?w>d ?r\gh ,rome to ,naples !re are _m ext9ct crat]s1 none ( :i* h be5 active 9 ! hi/oric p]iod4 ,f ,naples s\?w>d ! cones ( ?is sy/em1 ab\t a doz5 9 numb]1 are on isl&s or close to ! m>g9 ( ! sea4 ,x is a notewor?y fact t ! great] "p ( ^! %ore or insul> v5ts h be5 active s9ce ! dawn ( hi/ory2 sev]al ( !m frequ5tly & furi\sly s1 :ile none ( ^? occupy+ an inl& position h be5 ! seat ( explosions4 ,?is is a /rik+ in/ance go+ to %[ ! relation ( ^! processes to conditions :i* are br\ght ab\t on ! sea bottom4 tna is1 z we h notic$1 a mu* m p[]ful volcano ?an ,vesuvius4 ,its outbreaks are m vigor\s1 its emanations va/ly great] 9 volume1 & ! mass ( its con/ructions _m times z great z ^? accumulat$ 9 any o!r ,european cone4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 a numb] ( volcanoes 9 ! _w :i* 9 c]ta9 features surpass tna z mu* z t crat] does ,vesuvius4 ,( ^! we %all consid] b two--,skapt> ,jokul1 ( ,icel&1 rem>kable = ! volume ( its lava fl[1 & ,krakatoa1 an isl& volcano betwe5 ,java & ,sumatra1 :i* 0 ! seat ( ! greate/ explosion ( :i* we h any record4 ,! :ole ( ,icel& may be reg>d$ z a volcanic mass compos$ ma9ly ( lavas & a%es :i* h be5 ?r[n up by a gr\p ( volcanoes ly+ ne> ! nor!rn end ( ! long igne\s axis :i* ext5ds ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! ,atlantic4 ,! isl& has be5 ! seat ( num]\s eruptions2 9 fact1 s9ce its settlem5t by ! ,nor?m5 9 #ajgj its /urdy inhabitants h be5 almo/ z mu* di/ress$ by ! calamities :i* h come f ! int]nal heat z !y h be5 by ! endur+ ext]nal cold4 ,!y h1 inde$1 be5 betwe5 fro/ & fire4 ,! greate/ record$ eruption ( ,icel& occurr$ 9 #aghc1 :5 ! volcano ( ,skapt>1 ne> ! s\!rn bord] ( ! isl&1 p\r$ =?1 fir/1 a va/ dis*>ge ( du/ & a%es1 & aft]w>d 9 ! languid /ate ( eruption inundat$ a s]ies ( valleys ) ! greate/ lava fl[ ( :i* we h any writt5 record4 ,! du/ p\r$ =? into ! upp] air1 be+ f9ely divid$ & 9 enorm\s quantity1 float$ 9 ! air = mon?s1 giv+ a dusky hue to ! skies ( ,europe1 :i* l$ ! common p & _m ( ! le>n$ to fe> t ! wra? ( ,god 0 ^u !m1 & t ! day ( judgm5t 0 at h&4 ,ev5 ! poet ,c[p]1 a man ( high culture & education1 %>$ 9 ?is unreasonable view4 ,! lava fl[ 9 ?is eruption fill$ "o ( ! consid]able valleys ( ! isl&1 dry+ up ! riv]1 & inundat+ ! pla9s on ei!r side4 ,e/imates :i* h be5 made z to ! volume ( ?is fl[ appe> to indicate t x may h am\nt$ to m ?an ! bulk ( ! ,mont ,blanc4 ,?is great eruption1 by ! direct effect ( ! calamity1 & by ! fam9e due to ! ravag+ ( ! fields & ! fright5+ ( ! fi% f ! %ores :i* x induc$1 de/roy$ ne>ly "o fif? ( ! ,icel&ic p4 ,x is1 9 fact1 to be rememb]$ z "o ( ! ?ree or f\r mo/ calamit\s eruptions ( :i* we h any acc\nt1 &1 f ! po9t ( view ( lava fl[1 ! greate/ 9 hi/ory4 ,j a hundr$ ye>s aft] ! great ,skapt> eruption1 :i* d>k5$ ! skies ( ,europe1 ! isl& ( ,krakatoa1 an isle =m$ by a small volcano 9 ! /raits ( ,java1 0 ! seat ( a vap\r explosion :i* f its int5sity is n only unp>allel$1 b almo/ unapproa*$ 9 all acc\nts ( su* di/urbances4 ,krakatoa _h long be5 recognis$ z a volcanic isle2 x is d\btful1 h[ev]1 if x _h ev] be5 se5 9 eruption dur+ ! ?ree c5turies or m s9ce ,european %ips began to sail by x until ! mon? ( ,may ( ! ye> above m5tion$4 ,!n an outbreak ( :at may be call$ ord9>y viol5ce took place1 :i* aft] a few days s f> ceas$ t obs]v]s l&$ & took acc\nt ( ! *anges :i* ! convulsion _h br\ght ab\t4 ,= ab\t ?ree mon?s !re 7 no fur!r signs ( activity1 b on ! #bi? ( ,augu/ a succession ( va/ explosions took place1 :i* blew away a great "p ( ! isl&1 =m+ 9 its place a subm>9e crat] two or ?ree miles 9 diamet]1 creat+ _w-wide di/urbances ( sea & air4 ,! s\nds ( ! outbreak 7 he>d at a di/ance ( sixte5 hundr$ miles away4 ,! waves ( ! air att5dant on ! explosion ran r\nd ! e>? at lea/ once1 z 0 di/9ctly indicat$ by ! self-record+ b>omet]s2 x is possible1 inde$1 t1 cross+ ea* o!r 9 _! ea/ & we/ c\rses1 ^! atmosph]ic tides twice girdl$ ! sph]e4 ,9 effect1 ! air ov] ! crat] 0 heav$ up to ! height ( "s t5s ( ?\s&s ( feet1 & !nce roll$ (f 9 great circul> waves1 su* z may be obs]v$ 9 a pan ( milk :5 a %>p bl[ pu%es ! bottom upw>d4 ,! viol5t /roke deliv]$ to ! wat]s ( ! sea creat$ a va/ wave1 :i* 9 ! region :]e x orig9at$ roll$ ^u ! %ores ) a surf wall fifty or m feet high4 ,9 a few m9utes ab\t ?irty ?\s& p 7 ov]:elm$4 ,! wave roll$ on beyond its de/ructive limits mu* 9 ! mann] ( ! tide2 its influ5ce 0 felt 9 a %>p rise & fall ( ! wat]s z f> z ! ,pacific coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & 0 indicat$ by ! tide gauges 9 ! ,atlantic z f> nor? z ! coa/ ( ,europe4 ,ow+ to ! viol5ce ( ! eruption1 ,krakatoa p\r$ =? no lava1 b ! du/ & a%es :i* asc5d$ into ! air--or1 9 o!r words1 ! f9ely divid$ lava :i* escap$ into ! atmosph]e--probably am\nt$ 9 bulk to m ?an tw5ty cubic miles4 ,! co>s] "p ( ?is mat]ial1 includ+ mu* pumice1 fell ^u ! seas 9 ! vic9ity1 :]e1 ow+ to its lightness1 x 0 free to drift 9 ! m>9e curr5ts f> & wide ?r\gh\t ! oceanic realm4 ,! f9] p>ticles1 ?r[n high into ! air1 p]haps to ! height ( ne>ly a hundr$ ?\s& feet--c]ta9ly to ! elevation ( m ?an half ?is am\nt--drift$ f> & wide 9 ! atmosph]e1 s t = ye>s ! air ( all regions 0 cl\d$ by x1 ! sunrise & sunset hav+ a peculi> r$ gl[1 :i* ! du/ p>ticles produce by ! light :i* !y reflect4 ,9 ?is p]iod1 at all times :5 ! day 0 cle>1 ! sun appe>$ to be surr\nd$ by a dusky halo4 ,9 "t ! great] "p ( ?is du/ 0 drawn d[n by gravity1 "s portion ( x probably fall+ on e squ>e foot ( ! e>?4 ,s9ce ! disappe>ance ( ! *>act]i/ic ph5om5a :i* x produc$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 ,european obs]v]s h not$ ! exi/5ce ( fa9t cl\ds ly+ 9 ! upp] "p ( ! air at ! height ( a hundr$ miles or m above ! surface4 ,^! cl\ds1 :i* 7 at fir/ di/9ctly visible 9 ! e>lie/ /age ( dawn & 9 ! late/ p]iod ( ! sunset gl[1 seem$ to be 9 rapid motion to ! ea/w>d1 & to be m\nt+ high] above ! e>?4 ,x has be5 n unreasonably suppos$ t ^! %9+ cl\ds repres5t portions ( ! f9e/ du/ f ,krakatoa1 :i* has be5 ?r[n s f> above ! e>?'s attraction t x is sep>at+ itself f ! sph]e4 ,if ?is view be correct1 x seems likely t we may look to great volcanic explosions z a s\rce :5ce ! du/like p>ticles :i* p ! cele/ial spaces may h come4 ,!y may1 9 a ^w1 be due to volcanic explosions occurr+ on ?is & o!r cele/ial sph]es4 ,! "q sugge/$ above z to ! possibility ( volcanic ejections ?r[+ matt] f ! e>? beyond ! control ( its gravitative en]gy is "o ( great sci5tific int]e/4 ,computations 7n altoge!r tru/wor?y7 %[ t a body leav+ ! e>?'s surface "u ! conditions ( a cannon ball fir$ v]tically upw>d w\ld h to possess a velocity at ! />t ( at lea/ sev5 miles a second 9 ord] to g free into space4 ,x w\ld at fir/ sight seem t we %\ld be able to reckon :e!r volcanoes c propel e>? matt] upw>d ) ?is spe$4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 suffici5t data are n obta9able2 we only "k 9 a g5]al way t ! column ( vap\r rises to ! height ( ?irty or =ty ?\s& feet1 & ?is 9 eruptions ( no great magnitude4 ,9 an accid5t su* z t at ,krakatoa1 ev5 if an obs]v] 7 ne> en\gh to see cle>ly :at 0 go+ on1 ! *ance ( 8 surviv+ ! di/urbance w\ld be small4 ,moreov]1 ! asc5d+ vap\rs1 ow+ to _! expansion ( ! /eam 9 ! column1 beg9 to fly out sideways on its p]iph]y1 s t ! upp] "p ( ! c5tral section 9 ! dis*>ge is n visible f ! e>?4 ,x is 9 ! c5tral section ( ! upru%+ mass1 if any:]e1 t ! du/ might atta9 ! height necess>y to put x beyond ! e>?'s attraction1 br++ x fairly into ! realm ( ! sol> sy/em1 or to ! position :]e its own motion & ! attraction ( ! o!r sph]es w\ld give x an indep5d5t orbital movem5t ab\t ! sun1 or p]haps ab\t ! e>?4 ,we c only say t obs]vations on ! height ( volcanic ejections are extremely desirable2 !y c probably only be made f a balloon4 ,an asc5sion ?us made beyond ! cl\d disk :i* ! eruption produces might br+ ! obs]v] :]e he c\ld disc]n en\gh to det]m9e ! matt]4 ,al?\gh ! movem5ts ( ! rocky p>ticles c\ld n be obs]v$1 ! col\r :i* !y w\ld give to ! heav5s might tell ! /ory :i* we wi% to "k4 ,!re is evid5ce t l>ge masses ( /one hurl$ up by volcanic eruption h fall5 sev5 miles f ! base ( ! cone4 ,assum+ t ! masses w5t /raight upw>d at ! beg9n+ ( _! asc5t1 & t !y 7 aft]w>d borne outw>dly by ! expansion ( ! column1 computations :i* h a g5]al b no absolute value appe> to indicate t ! masses atta9$ a height ( f ?irty to fifty miles1 & _h an initial velocity :i*1 if d\bl$1 might h c>ri$ !m into space4 ,la/ ( all1 we %all note ! conditions :i* att5d ! eruptions ( subm>9e volcanoes4 ,su* explosions h be5 obs]v$ 9 b a few in/ances1 & only 9 ^? cases :]e !re is reason to believe t ! crat] at ! "t ( its explosion _h atta9$ to )9 a few hundr$ feet ( ! sea level4 ,9 ^! cases ! ejections1 nev] z yet obs]v$ 9 ! /ate ( lava1 b 9 ! condition ( du/ & pumice1 h occasionally =m$ a l[ isl&1 :i* has %ortly be5 wa%$ away by ! waves4 ,kn[+ z we d t volcanoes ab\nd on ! sea floor1 ! "q :y we d n (t5] see _! explosions di/urb+ ! surface ( ! wat]s is v int]e/+1 b n z yet cle>ly explicable4 ,x is possible1 h[ev]1 t a volcanic dis*>ge tak+ place at ! dep? ( sev]al ?\s& feet bel[ ! surface ( ! wat] w\ld n be able to bl[ ! fluid aside s z to op5 a pipe to ! surface1 b w\ld exp5d its en]gy 9 a hidd5 mann] ne> ! ocean floor4 ,! vap\rs w\ld h to exp& gradually1 z !y d 9 pass+ up ?r\gh ! rock pipe ( a volcano1 & 9 _! sl[ upw>d passage might be absorb$ by ! wat]4 ,! solid mat]ials ?r[n =? w\ld 9 ?is case necess>ily fall close ab\t ! v5t1 & create a v /eep cone1 su*1 inde$1 z we f9d indicat$ by ! s\nd+s (f c]ta9 volcanic isl&s :i* appe> only rec5tly to h ov]topp$ ! level ( ! wat]s4 ,z w be se51 ?\gh inadequately f ! diagrams ( ,vesuvius1 volcanic cones h a regul>ity & symmetry ( =m f> exce$+ t af=d$ by ! outl9es ( any o!r ( ! e>?'s features4 ,:]e1 z is g5]ally ! case1 ! %ape ( ! cone is det]m9$ by ! di/ribution ( ! fall+ c9d]s or divid$ lava :i* con/itutes ! mass ( mo/ cones1 ! slope is 9 g5]al t kn[n z a cat5>y curve--i4e41 ! l9e =m$ by a *a9 hang+ betwe5 two po9ts at "s di/ance f ! v]tical4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ?is graceful outl9e is a reflection or consequ5ce ( ! curve describ$ by ! upru%+ vap\r4 ,! expansion 9 ! asc5d+ column causes x to enl>ge at a some:at /eadfa/ rate1 :ile ! spe$ ( ! asc5t is ev] dim9i%+4 ,precisely ! same action c be se5 9 ! l ru% ( /eam & o!r gases & vap\rs f ! cannon's m\?2 only 9 ! case ( ! gun1 ev5 ( ! greate/ size1 we c n trace ! movem5t = m ?an a few hundr$ feet4 ,9 ?is column ( ejection ! outw>d movem5t f ! c5tre c>ries ! bits ( lava outw>dly f ! c5tre ( ! %aft1 s t :5 !y lose _! asc5d+ velocity !y are drawn d[nw>d ^u ! flanks ( ! cone1 ! am\nt fall+ ^u ea* "p ( t surface be+ 9 a g5]al way proportional to ! ?ickness ( ! vapor\s mass f :i* !y desc5d4 ,! result is1 t ! ?icke/ "p ( ! a% heap is =m$ on ! upp] "p ( ! crat]1 f :i* po9t ! deposit fades away 9 dep? 9 e direction4 ,9 a c]ta9 measure ! conc5tration t[>d ! c5tre ( ! cone is br\ght ab\t by ! draught ( air :i* moves 9 t[>d ! asc5d+ column4 ,al?\gh1 9 g5]al1 ejections ( volcanic matt] take place ?r\gh cones1 t be+ ! inevitable =m produc$ by ! escap+ /eam1 v ext5sive outp\r+s ( lava1 ejections :i* 9 mass probably f> exce$ ^? ?r[n =? ?r\gh ord9>y crat]s1 are occasionally p\r$ out ?r\gh fissures 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,?us 9 ,oregon1 ,idaho1 & ,wa%+ton1 9 ea/]n ,europe1 9 s\!rn ,india1 & at "s o!r po9ts1 va/ fl[s1 :i* app>5tly took place f fissures1 h inundat$ great realms ) lava ejections4 ,! conditions :i* appe> to br+ ab\t ^! fissure eruptions ( lava are n yet well und]/ood4 ,a provisional & v probable acc\nt ( ! action c be _h 9 ! hypo!sis :i* w n[ be set =?4 ,:]e any region has be5 = a long "t ! seat ( volcanic action1 x is probable t a l>ge am\nt ( rock 9 a m or less fluid condition exi/s b5ea? its surface4 ,al?\gh ! outru%+ /eam ejects mu* ( ?is molt5 mat]ial1 !re are reasons to suppose t a yet great] "p lies dormant 9 ! und]gr\nd spaces4 ,?us 9 ! case ( tna we h se5 t1 ?\gh "s ?\s&s ( miles ( rock matt] h come =?1 ! base ( ! cone has be5 uplift$1 probably by ! mov+ to t region ( m or less fluid rock4 ,if n[ a region ?us und]laid by :at we may call incipi5t lavas is subject$ to ! peculi> compressive actions :i* lead to m\nta9-build+1 we %\ld naturally expect t su* s(t mat]ial w\ld be p\r$ =?1 possibly 9 va/ quantities ?r\gh fault fissures1 :i* are s readily =m$ 9 all k9ds ( rock :5 subject to irregul> & p[]ful /ra9s1 su* z are necess>ily br\ght ab\t :5 rocks are mov$ 9 m\nta9-mak+4 ,! great eruptions :i* =m$ ! volcanic table-l&s on ! we/ coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica appe> to h ow$ ! extrusion ( _! mat]ials to m\nta9-build+ actions4 ,?is seems to h be5 ! case also 9 "s ( ^? small] areas :]e fissure fl[s occur 9 ,europe4 ,x is likely t ?is action w expla9 ! great] "p ( ^! massive eruptions4 ,x ne$ n be suppos$ t ! rock b5ea? ^! c\ntries1 :i* :5 =c$ out became lava1 0 necess>ily 9 ! /ate ( p]fect fluidity be=e x 0 =c$ ?r\gh ! fissures4 ,situat$ at great dep? 9 ! e>?1 x 0 "u a pressure s great t its p>ticles may h be5 s br\ght toge!r t ! mat]ial 0 ess5tially solid1 ?\gh free to move "u ! great /ra9s :i* affect$ x1 & acquir+ temp]ature along ) ! fluidity :i* heat induces z x 0 =c$ along by ! m\nta9-build+ pressure4 ,z an illu/ration ( h[ mat]ials may become highly heat$ :5 =c$ to move p>ticle on p>ticle1 x may be well to cite ! case 9 :i* ! iron /r+piece on top ( a wood5 dam ne> ,holyoke1 ,mass41 0 affect$ :5 ! b>ri] w5t away 9 a flood4 ,! iron /r+]1 be+ v well put toge!r1 01 x is said1 drawn out by ! /ra9 until x became s5sibly r$d5$ by ! motion ( its p>ticles1 & f9ally fell hiss+ into ! wat]s bel[4 ,a l heat+ is obs]vable :5 metal is drawn out 9 mak+ wire4 ,?us a mass ( imp]fectly fluid rock might 9 a =c$ j\rney ( a few miles acquire a decid$ increase ( temp]ature4 ,al?\gh ! mo/ /rik+ volcanic action--all su* ph5om5a1 inde$1 z commonly receives ! "n--is exhibit$ f9ally on ! e>?'s surface1 a great deal ( "w :i* belongs 9 ! same gr\p ( geological actions is altoge!r conf9$ to ! deep-ly+ rock1 & leads to ! =mation ( dikes :i* p5etrate ! /rata1 b d n rise to ! op5 air4 ,we h already not$ ! fact t dikes ab\nd 9 ! deep] p>ts ( volcanic cones1 ?\gh ! fissures into :i* !y f9d _! way are seldom riv5 up to ! surface4 ,9 ! same way b5ea? ! gr\nd 9 non-volcanic c\ntries we may discov] at a great dep? 9 ! old]1 mu*-*ang$ rock a va/ numb] ( ^! crevices1 v>y+ f a few in*es to a hundr$ feet or m 9 wid?1 :i* h be5 fill$ ) lavas1 ! rock once molt5 hav+ aft]w>d cool$4 ,9 mo/ cases ^! dikes are disclos$ to u ?r\gh ! d[n-we>+ ( ! e>? t has remov$ ! b$s into :i* ! dikes did n p5etrate1 ?us disclos+ ! realm 9 :i* ! di/urbances took place4 ,:]e1 z is occasionally ! case 9 deep m9es1 or on "s b>e rocky cliff ( great height1 we c trace a dike 9 its upw>d c\rse ?r\gh a long di/ance1 we f9d t we c nev] di/9ctly discov] ! l[] po9t ( its ext5sion4 ,no "o has ev] se5 9 a cle> way ! po9t ( orig9 ( su* an injection4 ,we c1 h[ev]1 (t5 foll[ x upw>d to ! place :]e !re 0 no long] a rift into :i* x c\ld ent]4 ,9 its upw>d pa? ! molt5 matt] appe>s g5]ally to h foll[$ "s previ\sly exi/+ fracture1 a jo9t plane or a fault1 :i* g5]ally runs ?r\gh ! rocks on ^? planes4 ,we c obs]ve evid5ce t ! mat]ial 0 9 ! /ate ( igne\s fluidity by ! fact t x has bak$ ! c\ntry rocks on ei!r side ( ! fissure1 ! am\nt ( bak+ be+ 9 proportion to ! wid? ( ! dike1 & ?us to ! am\nt ( heat :i* x c\ld give =?4 ,a dike six in*es 9 diamet] w sometimes b>ely se> its walls1 :ile "o a hundr$ feet 9 wid? w (t5 alt] ! /rata = a great di/ance on ei!r side4 ,9 "s in/ances1 z 9 ! coal b$s ne> ,ri*mond1 ,va41 dikes occasionally cut ?r\gh b$s ( bitum9\s coal4 ,9 ^! cases we f9d t ! coal has be5 conv]t$ into coke = _m feet ei!r side ( a consid]able injection4 ,! fact t ! dike mat]ial 0 molt5 is /ill fur!r %[n by ! occurr5ce 9 x ( fragm5ts :i* x has tak5 up f ! walls1 & :i* may h be5 p>tly melt$1 & 9 mo/ cases h cle>ly be5 mu* heat$4 ,:]e dikes ext5d up ?r\gh /ratifi$ b$s :i* are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by di/9ct lay]s1 along :i* ! rock is n firmly b\nd toge!r1 x n[ & !n happ5s1 z not$ by ,mr4 ,g4,k4 ,gilb]t1 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 t ! lava has =c$ its way horizontally betwe5 ^! lay]s1 gradually uplift+ ! ov]ly+ mass1 :i* x did n break ?r\gh1 into a dome-%ap$ elevation4 ,^! side fl[s f dikes are t]m$ laccolites1 a ^w :i* signifies ! pool-l nature ( ! /ony mass :i* !y =m betwe5 ! /rata4 ,9 _m regions1 :]e ! e>? has worn d[n s z to reveal ! zone ( dikes :i* 0 =m$ at a great dep?1 ! surface ( ! c\ntry is fairly lac$ ) ^! intrusions4 ,?us on ,cape ,ann1 a rocky isle on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,massa*usetts1 hav+ an area ( ab\t tw5ty squ>e miles1 ! writ]1 ) ! assi/ance ( 8 colleague1 ,pr(4 ,r4,s4 ,t>r1 f\nd ab\t f\r hundr$ di/9ct dikes exhibit$ on ! %ore l9e :]e ! rocks _h be5 swept b>e by ! waves4 ,if ! c5sus ( ^! intrusions c\ld h be5 ext5d$ ov] ! :ole isl&1 x w\ld probably h appe>$ t ! total numb] exce$$ five ?\s&4 ,9 o!r regions squ>e miles c be f\nd :]e ! dikes int]cept$ by ! surface occupy an aggregate area great] ?an t ( ! rocks into :i* !y h be5 intrud$4 ,n[ & !n1 b r>ely1 ! /ud5t ( dikes f9ds "o :]e ! bord]+ walls1 9 place ( hav+ ! clean-cut appe>ance :i* !y usually exhibit1 has its sides greatly worn away & mu* melt$1 z if by ! long-cont9u$ passage ( ! igne\s fluid ?r\gh ! crevice4 ,su* dikes are usually v wide1 & are probably ! pa?s ?r\gh :i* lavas f\nd _! way to ! surface ( ! e>?1 p\r+ =? 9 a volcanic eruption4 ,9 "s cases we c trace _! relation to anci5t volcanic cones :i* h worn d[n 9 all _! "p :i* 7 made up ( incoh]5t mat]ials1 s t !re rema9s only ! c5tral pipe1 :i* has be5 pres]v$ f decay by ! coh]5t "* ( ! lava :i* fill$ x4 ,! hypo!sis t dikes are driv5 upw>d into /rata by ! pressure ( ! b$s :i* ov]lie mat]ials hot & s(t en\gh to be put 9 motion :5 a fissure ent]s !m1 & t _! movem5t upw>d ?r\gh ! crevice is acc\nt$ = by ?is pressure1 makes c]ta9 features ( ^! intrusions compreh5sible4 ,see+ t v long1 sl5d] dikes are f\nd p5etrat+ ! rock1 :i* c\ld n h _h a high temp]ature1 x becomes difficult to und]/& h[ ! lava c\ld h ma9ta9$ its fluidity2 b on ! supposition t x 0 impell$ =w>d by a /rong pressure1 & t ! en]gy ?us transmitt$ ?r\gh x 0 conv]t$ into heat1 we discov] a means :]eby x c\ld h be5 reta9$ 9 ! liquid condition1 ev5 :5 =c$ = long di/ances ?r\gh v n>r[ *annels4 ,moreov]1 ?is explanation acc\nts = ! fact :i* has long rema9$ unexpla9$ t dikes1 except ^? =m$ ab\t volcanic crat]s1 r>ely1 if ev]1 rise to ! surface4 ,! mat]ials conta9$ 9 dikes diff] exce$+ly 9 _! *emical & m9]al "*4 ,^! v>iations are due to ! diff]5ces 9 ,nature ( ! deposits :5ce !y come1 & also 9 a measure to ex*anges :i* take place betwe5 _! own sub/ance & t ( ! rocks betwe5 :i* !y are deposit$4 ,?is process (t5 has importance ( an economic k9d1 = x n infrequ5tly leads to ! =mation ( metallif]\s ve9s or o!r aggregations ( ores1 ei!r 9 ! dike itself or 9 ! c\ntry rock4 ,! way 9 :i* ?is is br\ght ab\t may be easily und]/ood by a famili> example4 ,if fle% be plac$ 9 wat] :i* has ! same temp]ature1 no ex*ange ( mat]ials w take place2 b if ! wat] be heat$1 a circulation w be set up1 :i* 9 "t w br+ a l>ge "p ( ! soluble matt] into ! surr\nd+ wat]4 ,?is movem5t is prim>ily dep5d5t on diff]5ces ( temp]ature1 & consequ5tly diff]5ces 9 ! quantity ( soluble sub/ances :i* ! wat] seeks to take up4 ,:5 a dike is inject$ into cool] rocks1 su* a sl[ circulation is induc$4 ,! wat] conta9$ 9 ! int]/ices ( ! /one becomes *>g$ ) m9]al mat]ials1 if su* exi/ 9 positions :]e x c obta9 possession ( !m1 & z cool+ goes on1 ^! dissolv$ mat]ials are deposit$ 9 ! mann] ( ve9s4 ,^! ve9s are g5]ally laid d[n on ! planes ( contact betwe5 ! two k9ds ( /one1 b !y may be =m$ 9 any o!r cavities :i* exi/ 9 ! neighb\rhood4 ,! =mation ( su* ve9s is (t5 aid$ by ! consid]able %r9kage ( ! lava 9 ! dike1 :i*1 :5 x cools1 t5ds to lose ab\t fifte5 p] c5t ( its volume1 & is ?us likely to leave a crevice next ! b\nd>y walls4 ,ores ?us =m$ af=d "s ( ! commone/ & (t5 ! ri*e/ m9]al deposits4 ,at ,leadville1 9 ,colorado1 ! great silv]-be>+ lodes probably 7 produc$ 9 ?is mann]1 :]e9 lavas1 ei!r ^? ( dikes or ^? :i* fl[$ 9 ! op5 air1 h come 9 contact ) lime/ones4 ,! m9]al mat]ials orig9ally 9 ! once molt5 rock or 9 ! limy b$s 01 we believe1 laid d[n on anci5t sea floors 9 ! rema9s ( organic =ms1 :i* = _! p>ticul> uses took ! mat]ials f ! old sea wat]4 ,! ve9-mak+ action has s]v$ to assemble ^! scatt]$ bits ( metal into ! aggregation :i* con/itutes a workable deposit4 ,9 "t1 z ! rocks we> d[n1 ! mat]ials ( ! ve9s are aga9 tak5 into solution & return$ to ! sea1 !nce p]haps to tread aga9 ! cycle ( *ange4 ,9 c]ta9 dikes1 & sometimes also1 p]haps1 9 lavas kn[n z basalts1 :i* h fl[$ on ! surface1 ! rock :5 cool+1 f ! %r9kage :i* !n occurs1 has brok5 9 a v regul> way1 =m+ hexagonal columns :i* are m or less divid$ on _! l5g? by jo9ts4 ,:5 worn away by ! ag5cies ( decay1 especially :]e ! mat]ial =ms /eep cliffs1 a highly artificial effect is produc$1 :i* is (t5 comp>$1 :]e cut at "r angles to ! columns1 to pavem5ts1 or1 :]e ! division is p>allel to ! columns1 to ! pipes ( an organ4 ,:at we "k ( dikes incl9es u to ! op9ion t z a :ole !y repres5t movem5ts ( s(t5$ rock :]e ! motion-compell+ ag5t is n ma9ly ! expansion ( ! conta9$ wat] :i* gives rise to volcanic ejection1 b r 9 l>ge "p due to ! weight ( sup]9cumb5t /rata sett+ 9 motion mat]ials :i* 7 some:at s(t5$1 & :i* t5d$ to creep1 z d ! clays 9 deep coal m9es4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]2 x is1 moreov]1 q natural1 t dike "w is some:at m+l$ ) t produc$ by ! volcanic =ces2 b :ile ! l9e betwe5 ! two actions is n %>p1 ! discrim9ation is important1 & occurs ) a di/9ctness r unusual on ! b\nd>y l9e betwe5 two adjac5t fields ( ph5om5a4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we h n[ to consid] ! g5]al effects ( ! e>?'s int]ior heat s f> z t body ( temp]ature t5ds to drive mat]ials f ! dep?s ( ! e>? to ! surface4 ,?is gr\p ( influ5ces is "o ( ! mo/ important :i* op]ates on our sph]e2 z we %all %ortly see1 )\t su* action ! e>? w\ld 9 "t become an unfit !atre = ! developm5t ( organic life4 ,to p]ceive ! effect ( ^! movem5ts1 we mu/ fir/ note t 9 ! great rock-con/ruct+ realm ( ! seas organic life is con/antly extract+ f ! wat] sub/ances1 su* z lime1 pota%1 soda1 & a ho/ ( o!r sub/ances necess>y = ! ma9t5ance ( high-grade organisms1 deposit+ ^! mat]ials 9 ! gr[+ /rata4 ,into ^! b$s1 :i* are buri$ z fa/ z !y =m1 goes n only ^! e>?y mat]ials1 b a great /ore ( ! sea wat] z well4 ,! result w\ld be 9 c\rse ( "t a complete )drawal into ! dep?s ( ! e>? ( ^? sub/ances :i* play a necess>y "p 9 organic developm5t4 ,! e>? w\ld become m or less completely wat]less on its surface1 & ! rocks expos$ to view w\ld be compos$ ma9ly ( silica1 ! mat]ial :i* to a great ext5t resi/s solution1 & !re=e avoids ! dissolv+ :i* ov]takes mo/ o!r k9ds ( rocks4 ,"h comes 9 ! ma*9]y ( ! hot spr+s1 ! dikes1 & ! volcanoes4 ,^! ag5ts1 op]at+ "u ! influ5ce ( ! int]nal heat ( ! e>?1 are con/antly engag$ 9 be>+ ! e>?y matt]1 p>ticul>ly its preci\s m solv5t p>ts1 back to ! surface4 ,! hot spr+s & volcanoes "w swiftly & directly1 & return ! wat]1 ! c>bon dioxide1 & a ho/ ( o!r vaporizable & soluble & fusible sub/ances to ! realm ( sol> activity1 to ! liv+ surface zone ( ! e>?4 ,! dikes op]ate less imm$iately1 b 9 ! end to ! same effect4 ,!y lift _! mat]ials miles above ! level :]e !y 7 orig9ally laid1 probably f a zone :i* is r>ely if ev] expos$ to view1 plac+ !m ne> ! surface1 :]e ! erosive ag5ts c readily f9d access to !m4 ,( ! ?ree ag5ts :i* s]ve to export e>? mat]ials f its dep?s1 volcanoes are d\btless ! mo/ important4 ,!y s5d =? ! great] "p ( ! wat] :i* is expell$ f ! rocks4 ,v>i\s computations :i* ! writ] has made indicate t an ord9>y volcano1 su* z tna1 9 times ( mo/ int5se explosion1 may s5d =? 9 ! =m ( /eam "o f\r? ( a cubic mile or m ( wat] dur+ ea* day ( its dis*>ge1 & 9 a s+le great eruption may p\r =? sev]al times ?is quantity4 ,9 its hi/ory tna has probably return$ to ! atmosph]e "s hundr$ cubic miles ( wat] :i* b = ! process w\ld h rema9$ p]man5tly lock$ up 9 its rock prison4 ,! ejection ( rock mat]ial1 ?\gh probably on ! av]age less 9 quantity ?an ! wat] :i* escapes1 is also ( notewor?y importance4 ,! volcanoes ( ,java & ! adjac5t isles h1 dur+ ! la/ hundr$ & tw5ty ye>s1 deliv]$ to ! seas m e>? mat]ial ?an has be5 c>ri$ into ^? bas9s by ! great riv]s4 ,if we c\ld take acc\nt ( all ! volcanic ejections :i* h occurr$ 9 ?is "t1 we %\ld d\btless f9d t ! sum ( ! mat]ials ?us ca/ =? into ! oceans 0 sev]al times z great z t :i* 0 deliv]$ f ! l&s by all ! sup]ficial ag5ts :i* we> !m away4 ,moreov]1 :ile ! mat]ial f ! l&1 except ! small "p :i* is 9 a /ate ( complete solution1 all falls close to ! %ore1 ! volcanic wa/e1 because ( its f9e division or because ( ! blebs ( air :i* its masses conta91 may float = _m ye>s be=e x f9ds its way to ! bottom1 x may be at ! antipodes ( ! po9t at :i* x came f ! e>?4 ,:ile ?us j\rney+ ?r\gh ! sea ! rock matt] f ! volcanoes is apt to become dissolv$ 9 wat]2 x is1 inde$1 d\btful if any consid]able "p ( t :i* ent]s ! ocean goes by gravitation to its floor4 ,! great] portion probably ent]s ! /ate ( solution & makes its way !nce ?r\gh ! bodies ( plants & animals aga9 into ! pond]able /ate4 ,if an obs]v] c\ld view ! e>? f ! surface ( ! moon1 he w\ld probably ea* day behold "o ( ^! /orms :i* ! volcanoes s5d =?4 ,9 ! =tnight ( d>kness1 ev5 ) ! nak$ eye1 x w\ld probably be possible to disc]n at any "t sev]al eruptions1 "s ( :i* w\ld indicate t ! e>?'s surface 0 ravag$ by great cata/rophes4 ,! ne>] view ( ^! actions %[s u t al?\gh locally & 9 small measure !y are h>mful to ! life ( ! e>?1 !y are 9 a l>ge way b5efic5t4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,soil4 ,! frequ5t m5tion :i* x has be5 necess>y to make ( soil ph5om5a 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s %[s h[ intimately ?is feature 9 ! /ructure ( ! e>? is bl5d$ ) all ! elem5ts ( its physical hi/ory4 ,x is n[ necess>y = u to take up ! ph5om5a ( soils 9 a consecutive mann]4 ,! /udy ( any consid]able riv] bas9 enables u to trace ! m important /eps :i* lead to ! de/ructure & r5ovation ( ! e>?'s detrital coat+4 ,9 su* an int]pretation we note t ev]y:]e ! rocks :i* 7 built on ! sea bottom1 & m or less made ov] 9 ! great laboratory ( ! e>?'s int]ior1 are at ! surface1 :5 expos$ to ! conditions ( ! atmosph]e1 9 process ( be+ tak5 to pieces & return$ to ! sea4 ,?is action goes on ev]y:]e2 e drop ( ra9 helps x4 ,x is aid$ by fro/1 or ev5 by ! *anges ( expansion & contraction :i* occur 9 ! rocks f v>iations ( heat4 ,! result is t1 except :]e ! slopes are /eep1 ! surface is quickly cov]$ ) a lay] ( fragm5ts1 all ( :i* are 9 ! process ( decay1 & ready to af=d "s food to plants4 ,ev5 :]e ! rock appe>s b>e1 x is g5]ally cov]$ ) li*5s1 :i*1 adh]+ to x1 obta9 a %>e ( nutrim5t f ! decay$ mat]ial :i* !y help to hold on ! slope4 ,:5 !y h reta9$ a ?9 %eet ( ! dbris1 mosses & small fl[]+ plants help ! "w ( reta9+ ! detritus4 ,soon ! /rong-root$ bu%es & trees w9 a foo?old1 & by s5d+ _! rootlets1 :i* are at fir/ small b rapidly enl>ge1 into ! crevices1 !y ha/5 ! disruption ( ! /ones4 ,if ! con/ruction ( soil goes on ^u a /eep cliff1 ! quantity reta9$ on ! slope may be small1 b at ! base we f9d a talus1 compos$ ( ! fragm5ts n held by ! vegetation1 :i* gradually increases z ! cliff we>s d[n1 until ! orig9al precipice may be q oblit]at$ b5ea? a soil slope4 ,at fir/ ?is process is rapid2 x becomes gradually sl[] & sl[] z ! talus m\nts up ! cliff & z ! cliff loses its /eepness1 until f9ally a g5tle slope takes ! place ( ! /eep4 ,f ! highe/ po9ts 9 any riv] valley to ! sea level ! brok5-up rock1 :i* we t]m soil1 is 9 process ( cont9u\s motion4 ,ev]y:]e ! ra9 wat]1 fl[+ ov] ! surface or soak+ ?r\gh ! por\s mass1 is convey+ portions ( ! mat]ial :i* is tak5 into solution 9 a spe$y mann] to ! sea4 ,ev]y:]e ! expansion ( ! soil 9 freez+1 or ! movem5ts impos$ on x by ! gr[? ( roots1 by ! ov]turn+ ( trees1 or by ! innum]able bor+s & burr[+s :i* animals make 9 ! mass1 is ?r\gh ! action ( gravitation sl[ly work+ d[n ! slope4 ,e little di/urbance ( ! gra9s or fragm5ts ( ! soil :i* lifts !m up causes !m :5 !y fall to desc5d a little way f>!r t[>d ! sea level4 ,work+ t[>d ! /reams1 ! mat]ials ( ! soil are 9 "t deliv]$ to ^? fl[+ wat]s1 & by !m urg$ spe$ily1 ?\gh 9 mo/ cases int]rupt$ly1 t[>d ! ocean4 ,!re is ano!r elem5t 9 ! movem5t ( ! soils :i*1 ?\gh less appreciable1 is /ill ( great importance4 ,! ag5ts ( decay :i* produce & remove ! detritus1 ! *emical *anges ( ! b$ rock1 & ! me*anical action :i* roots apply to !m1 along ) ! solutional processes1 are con/antly l[]+ ! surface ( ! mass4 ,9 ?is way we c (t5 prove t a soil cont9u\sly exi/+ has work$ d[nw>d ?r\gh _m ?\s& feet ( /rata4 ,9 ?is process ( d[ngo+ ! c\ntry on :i* ! lay] re/s may h greatly *ang$ its =m1 b ! deposit1 "u fav\rable conditions1 may cont9ue to reta9 "s trace ( ! mat]ials :i* x d]iv$ f b$s :i* h long s9ce disappe>$1 _! position hav+ be5 f> up 9 ! spaces n[ occupi$ by ! air4 ,:]e ! slopes are /eep & /reams ab\nd1 we r>ely f9d detritus :i* belong$ 9 rock m ?an a hundr$ feet above ! pres5t surface ( ! soil4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 z on ^? isolat$ table-l&s or buttes :i* ab\nd 9 c]ta9 portions ( ! ,mississippi ,valley1 z well z 9 _m o!r c\ntries1 we f9d a pat* ( soil ly+ on a ne>ly level surface1 :i* = geologic ages has n felt ! effect ( /reams1 we may discov]1 comm+l$ 9 ! dbris1 ! h>d] wreckage d]iv$ f ! decay ( a ?\s& feet or m ( vani%$ /rata4 ,:5 we consid] ! effect ( organic life on ! processes :i* g on 9 ! soil1 we fir/ note ! l>ge fact t ! developm5t ( all l& vegetation dep5ds ^u ! exi/5ce ( ?is detritus--9 a ^w1 on ! sl[ movem5t ( ! decay+ rocky matt] f ! po9t :]e x is disrupt$ to its field ( re/ 9 ! dep?s ( ! sea4 ,! plants take _! food f ! portion ( ?is rocky wa/e :i* is br\ght into solution by ! wat]s :i* p5etrate ! mass4 ,on ! plants ! animals fe$1 & s ?is va/ assemblage ( organisms is ma9ta9$4 ,n only does ! l& life ma9ta9 itself on ! soil1 & give mu* to ! sea1 b x s]ves 9 v>i\s ways to protect ?is detrital coat+ f too rapid de/ruction1 & to improve its quality4 ,to see ! nature ( ?is "w we %\ld visit a region :]e primeval =e/s /ill lie ^u ! slopes ( a hilly region4 ,9 ! body ( su* a wood we f9d next ! surface a coat+ ( decay$ vegetable matt]1 made up ( ! fall+ leaves1 b>k1 bran*es1 & trunks :i* are con/antly desc5d+ to ! e>?4 ,ord9>ily1 ?is lay] is a foot or m 9 ?ickness2 at ! top x is almo/ altoge!r compos$ ( vegetable matt]2 at ! bottom x v]ges into ! true soil4 ,an important effect ( ?is decay$ vegetation is to re/ra9 ! movem5t ( ! surface wat]4 ,ev5 9 ! heavie/ ra9s1 provid$ ! mass be n froz51 ! wat] is tak5 into x & deliv]$ 9 ! mann] ( spr+s to ! l>g] /reams4 ,we c bett] note ! measure ( ?is effect by obs]v+ ! diff]5ce 9 ! gr\nd cov]$ by ?is primeval =e/ & t :i* we f9d ne> by :i* has be5 conv]t$ into till$ fields4 ,) ! same degree ( rapidity 9 ! fl[1 ! di/9ct /ream *annels on ! till$ gr\nd are likely to be f tw5ty to a hundr$ times 9 l5g? :at !y are on ! =e/ b$4 ,! result is t :ile ! brook :i* dra9s ! =e/$ area ma9ta9s a tol]ably con/ant fl[ ( clean wat]1 ! o!r f ! till$ gr\nd c\rses only 9 times ( heavy ra91 & !n is heavily *>g$ ) mud4 ,9 ! virg9 conditions ( ! soil ! d[nwe> is v sl[2 9 its artificial /ate ?is we>+ goes on s rapidly t ! slop+ fields are likely to be worn to bel[ ! soil level 9 a few score ye>s4 ,n only does ! natural coat+ ( vegetation1 su* z our =e/s impose ^u ! c\ntry1 protect ! soil f wa%+ away1 b ! roots ( ! l>g] plants are cont9ually at "w 9 v>i\s ways to increase ! f]tility & dep? ( ! /ratum4 ,9 ! =m ( sl5d] fibrils ^! und]gr\nd bran*es ent] ! jo9ts & b$ planes ( ! rock1 & !re gr[+ !y disrupt ! mat]ials1 giv+ !m a l>g] surface on :i* decay may op]ate4 ,^! bits1 at fir/ ( consid]able size1 are 9 turn brok5 up by ! same action4 ,:]e ! und]ly+ rocks af=d nutriti\s mat]ials1 ! bran*es ( our tap-root$ trees sometimes f9d _! way t5 feet or m bel[ ! base ( ! true soil4 ,n only d !y ?us break up ! /ones1 b ! nutrition :i* !y obta9 9 ! dep?s is br\ght up & deposit$ 9 ! p>ts above ! gr\nd1 z well z 9 ! roots :i* lie 9 ! true soil1 s t :5 ! tree dies x becomes available = o!r plants4 ,?us 9 ! =e/ condition ( a c\ntry ! am\nt ( rock mat]ial contribut$ to ! deposit 9 g5]al s f> exce$s t :i* is tak5 away to ! riv]s by ! und]gr\nd wat] z to insure ! deep5+ ( ! soil b$ to ! po9t :]e only ! /ronge/ roots--^? belong+ to our tap-root$ trees--c p5etrate ?r\gh x to ! b$ rocks4 ,almo/ all =e/s are f "t to "t visit$ by w9ds :i* uproot ! trees4 ,:5 !y are ?us r5t f ! e>?1 ! und]gr\nd bran*es (t5 =m a disk conta9+ a ?ick tangle ( /ones & e>?1 & hav+ a diamet] ( t5 or fifte5 feet4 ,! writ] has frequ5tly obs]v$ a hundr$ cubic feet ( soil matt]1 "s ( x tak5 f ! dep? ( a y>d or m1 ?us uplift$ into ! air4 ,9 ! pa? ( a hurricane or tornado we may sometimes f9d ?\s&s ( acres :i* h be5 subject$ to ?is rude ov]turn+--a natural pl\gh+4 ,z ! roots rot away1 ! dbris :i* !y held falls outside ( ! pit1 ?us =m+ a little hillock along ! side ( ! cavity4 ,aft] a "t ! ?ru/+ action ( o!r roots & ! sl[ motion ( ! soil d[n ! slope re/ore ! surface f its hillocky "* to its orig9al smoo?ness2 b 9 _m cases ! naturali/ :o has le>n$ to disc]n ) 8 feet may note ^! irregul>ities long aft] x has be5 recov]$ ) ! =e/4 ,great z is ! effect ( plants on ! soil1 t influ5ce is almo/ equall$ by ! action ( ! animals :i* h ! habit ( ent]+ ! e>?1 f9d+ !re a tempor>y abid+ place4 ,! numb] ( ^! gr\nd =ms is surpris+ly great4 ,x includes1 inde$1 a ho/ ( creatures :i* are effici5t ag5ts 9 enri*+ ! e>?4 ,! species ( e>?worms1 "s ( :i* occupy =e/$ di/ricts z well z ! fields1 h ! habit ( pass+ ! soil mat]ial ?r\gh _! bodies1 extract+ f ! mass su* nutrim5t z x may conta94 ,9 ?is mann] ! p>ticles ( m9]al matt] become pulv]iz$1 & 9 a measure affect$ by *emical *anges 9 ! bodies ( ! creatures1 & are ?us bett] fitt$ to af=d plant food4 ,sometimes ! am\nt ( ! e>? :i* ! creatures take 9 9 mov+ ?r\gh _! burr[s & void ^u ! surface is suffici5t to =m annually a lay] on ! surface ( ! gr\nd hav+ a dep? ( "o tw5tie? ( an in* or m4 ,x ?us may well happ5 t ! soil to ! dep? ( two or ?ree feet is completely ov]turn$ 9 ! c\rse ( a few hundr$ ye>s4 ,z ! p>ticles :i* ! creatures dev\r are r small1 ! t5d5cy is to accumulate ! f9] portions ( ! soil ne> ! surface ( ! e>?1 :]e by solution !y may contribute to ! ne$s ( ! l[ly plants4 ,x is probably due to ! action ( ^! creatures t small relics ( anci5t m51 su* z /one tools1 are commonly f\nd buri$ at a consid]able dep? b5ea? ! e>?1 & r>ely appe> ^u ! surface except :]e x has be5 subject$ to deep pl\gh+ or to ! action ( runn+ /reams4 ,along ) ! e>?worms1 ! ants lab\r to ov]turn ! soil2 frequ5tly !y are ! m effective ( ! two ag5ts4 ,! common species1 ?\gh !y make no p]man5t hillocks1 h be5 obs]v$ by ! writ] to lay ^u ! surface ea* ye> z mu* z a qu>t] ( an in* ( s& & o!r f9e mat]ials :i* !y h br\ght up f a consid]able dep?4 ,9 _m regions1 p>ticul>ly 9 ^? occupi$ by glacial drift1 & pebbly alluvium along ! riv]s1 ! effect ( ?is action1 l t ( e>?worms1 is to br+ to ! surface ! f9] mat]ials1 leav+ ! co>s] pebbles 9 ! dep?s4 ,9 ?is way !y h *ang$ ! sup]ficial "* ( ! soil ov] great areas2 we may say1 inde$1 ov] a l>ge "p ( ! e>?1 & ?is 9 a way :i* fits x bett] to s]ve ! ne$s ( ! wild plants z well z ! uses ( ! f>m]4 ,_m ?\s& species ( insects1 p>ticul>ly ! l>g] beetles1 h ! habit ( pass+ _! l>val /ate 9 ! "u e>?4 ,"h !y g5]ally excavate burr[s1 & ?us 9 a way delve ! soil4 ,z _m ( !m die be=e rea*+ maturity1 _! /ore ( organic matt] is contribut$ to ! mass1 & s]ves to n\ri% ! plants4 ,if ! /ud5t w c>efully exam9e a section ( ! e>? ei!r 9 its natural or 9 its till$ /ate1 he w be surpris$ to f9d h[ num]\s ! grubs are4 ,!y may (t5 be f\nd to ! numb] ( a score or m ( ea* cubic foot ( mat]ial4 ,_m ( ! species :i* develop und]gr\nd come f eggs :i* h c>efully be5 encas$ 9 organic matt] be=e _! deposition 9 ! e>?4 ,?us "s ( ! c>rion beetles are 9 ! habit ( lay+ _! eggs 9 ! bodies ( dead birds or field mice1 :i* !y !n bury to ! dep? ( "s in*es 9 ! e>?4 ,9 ?is way ne>ly all ! small birds & mammals ( our woods disappe> f view 9 a few h\rs aft] !y are dead4 ,o!r species make balls f ! dung ( cattle 9 :i* !y lay _! eggs1 aft]w>d roll+ ! little sph]es1 x may be = hundr$s ( feet1 to ! *amb]s 9 ! soil :i* !y h previ\sly prep>$4 ,9 ?is way a great deal ( animal matt] is introduc$ into ! e>?1 & contributes to its f]tility4 ,_m ( our small mammals h ! habit ( mak+ _! dwell+ places 9 ! soil4 ,"s ( !m1 su* z ! moles1 normally abide 9 ! subt]ranean realm = all _! lives4 ,o!rs use ! excavations z places ( retreat4 ,9 any case1 ^! excavations s]ve to move ! p>ticles ( ! soil ab\t1 & ! mat]ials :i* ! animals drag into ! e>?1 z well z ! excrem5t ( ! creatures1 act to enri* x4 ,?is habit ( tak+ food und]gr\nd is n limit$ to ! mammals2 x is common ) ! ants1 & ev5 ! e>?worms1 z not$ by ,*>les ,d>w9 9 8 wond]ful essay on ^! creatures1 are accu/om$ to drag into _! burr[s bits ( grass & ! sl5d] leaves ( p9es4 ,x is n kn[n :at purpose !y atta9 by ^! actions1 b x is suffici5tly common some:at to affect ! conditions ( ! soil4 ,! result ( ^! complicat$ works done by animals & plants on ! soil is t ! mat]ial to a consid]able dep? are con/antly be+ suppli$ ) organic matt]1 :i*1 along ) ! m9]al mat]ial1 con/itutes t "p ( ! e>? :i* c support vegetation4 ,exp]im5t w readily %[ t nei!r cru%$ rock nor pure vegetable m\ld w ( itself s]ve to ma9ta9 any b ! l[lie/ vegetation4 ,x requires t ! two mat]ials be mix$ 9 ord] t ! e>? may yield food = ord9>y plants1 p>ticul>ly = ^? :i* are ( use to man1 z crops4 ,on ?is acc\nt all ! processes above not$ :]eby ! wa/e ( plant & animal life is c>ri$ bel[ ! surface are ( ! utmo/ importance 9 ! creation & pres]vation ( ! soil4 ,x has be5 f\nd1 inde$1 9 almo/ all cases1 necess>y = ! f>m] to ma9ta9 ! f]tility ( 8 fields to pl\gh-9 quantities ( su* organic wa/e4 ,by s do+ he imitates ! "w :i* is effect$ 9 virg9 soil by natural action4 ,z ! process is co/ly 9 "t & mat]ial1 x is (t5 neglect$ or imp]fectly done1 ) ! result t ! fields rapidly dim9i% 9 f]tility4 ,! way 9 :i* ! buri$ organic matt] acts ^u ! soil is n yet ?or\ghly und]/ood4 ,9 "p x accompli%es ! results by ! mat]ials :i* on its decay x contributes to ! soil 9 a /ate 9 :i* !y may readily be dissolv$ & tak5 up by ! roots into _! sap2 9 "p1 h[ev]1 x is believ$ t !y bett] ! conditions by af=d+ dwell+ places = a ho/ ( l[ly species1 su* z ! =ms :i* are kn[n z bact]ia4 ,! organisms probably aid 9 ! decomposition ( ! m9]al matt]1 & 9 ! conv]sion ( nitrog51 :i* ab\nds 9 ! air or ! soil1 into nitrates ( pota% & soda--sub/ances :i* h a v great value z f]tiliz]s4 ,"s effect is produc$ by ! decay ( ! =eign matt] br\ght into ! soil1 :i* z x passes away leaves *annels ?r\gh :i* ! soil wat] c m readily pass4 ,by f> ! mo/ g5]al & important effect aris+ f ! decay ( organic matt] 9 ! e>? is to be f\nd 9 ! c>bon dioxide :i* is =m$ z ! oxyg5 ( ! air comb9es ) ! c>bon :i* all organic mat]ial conta9s4 ,z be=e not$1 wat] ?us *>g$ has its capacity = tak+ o!r sub/ances into solution va/ly increas$1 & on ?is solv5t action dep5ds 9 l>ge "p ! decay ( ! b$ rocks & ! solution ( mat]ials :i* are to be appropriat$ by ! plants4 ,hav+ n[ sket*$ ! g5]al conditions :i* lead to ! =mation ( soils1 we mu/ take acc\nt ( c]ta9 important v>iations 9 _! conditions due to diff]5ces 9 ! ways 9 :i* !y are =m$ & pres]v$4 ,^! matt]s are n only ( int]e/ to ! geologi/1 b are ( ! utmo/ importance to ! life ( mank9d1 z well z all ! l[] creatures :i* dwell ^u ! l&s4 ,fir/1 we %\ld note t soils are divisible into ?ree great gr\ps1 :i*1 ?\gh n %>ply p>t$ f ea* o!r1 are suffici5tly peculi> = ! purposes ( classification4 ,:]e ! e>? mat]ial has be5 d]iv$ f ! rocks :i* ne>ly or imm$iately und]lie x1 we h a gr\p ( soils :i* may be entitl$ ^? ( imm$iate d]ivation--t is1 d]iv$ f rocks ne> by1 or f b$s :i* once ov]laid ! level & h s9ce be5 decay$ away4 ,next1 we h alluvial soils1 ^? compos$ ( mat]ials :i* h be5 transport$ by /reams1 commonly f a great di/ance1 & laid d[n on _! flood pla9s4 ,?ird1 ! soils ! m9]al matt]s ( :i* h be5 br\ght into _! position by ! action ( glaci]s2 ^! 9 a way resemble ^? =m$ by riv]s1 b ! mat]ials are g5]ally imp]fectly sort$1 co>se & f9e be+ m+l$ toge!r4 ,la/ ( all1 we h ! soils due to ! accumulation ( bl[n du/ or bl[n s&1 :i*1 unlike ! o!rs1 occupy b a small "p ( ! l& surface4 ,x w\ld be possible1 inde$1 to make yet ano!r division1 includ+ ^? areas :i* :5 em]g+ f ! sea 7 cov]$ ) f9e1 uncem5t$ detritus ready at once to s]ve ! purposes ( a soil4 ,only "h & !re1 & b seldom1 d we f9d soils ( ?is nature4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( soils belong+ to ! gr\p to :i* we h giv5 ! title ( imm$iate d]ivation t !y h accumulat$ sl[ly1 t !y move v gradually d[n ! slopes on :i* !y lie1 & t 9 all cases !y repres5t1 ) a "p ( _! mass at lea/1 levels ( rock :i* h disappe>$ f ! region :i* !y occupi$4 ,! additions made to _! mass are f bel[1 & t mass is con/antly %r9k+1 g5]ally at a pretty rapid rate1 by ! m9]al matt] :i* is dissolv$ & goes away ) ! spr+ wat]4 ,!y also are *>act]i/ically ?9 on /eep slopes1 ?ick5+ t[>d ! base ( ! incl9e1 :]e ! dim9i%$ grade p]mits ! soil to move sl[ly1 & !re=e to accumulate4 ,9 alluvial soils we f9d accumulations :i* are *>act]iz$ by gr[? on _! upp] surfaces1 & by ! di/ant transportation ( ! mat]ials ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,9 ^! deposits ! outlea*+ removes va/ am\nts ( ! mat]ials1 b s long z ! floods f "t to "t visit _! surfaces ! gr[? ( ! deposits is cont9u$4 ,?is gr[? r>ely takes place f ! wa/e ( ! b$ rocks on :i* ! alluvium lies4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( alluvial soils t !y are g5]ally made up ( dbris d]iv$ f fields :]e ! mat]ials h und]gone ! *ange :i* we h not$ 9 ! la/ p>agraph2 !re=e ^! latt] deposits h ?r\gh\t ! "* :i* r5d]s ! m9]al mat]ials easily dissolv$4 ,moreov]1 ! mass z x is con/ruct$ is commonly m+l$ ) a great deal ( organic wa/e1 :i* s]ves to promote its f]tility4 ,on ^! acc\nts alluvial gr\nds1 ?\gh !y v>y consid]ably 9 f]tility1 commonly af=d ! mo/ fruitful fields ( any region4 ,!y h1 moreov]1 ! signal advantage t !y (t5 may be refre%$ by all[+ ! flood wat]s to visit !m1 an action :i* b = ! int]f]5ce ( man commonly takes place once ea* ye>4 ,?us 9 ! valley ( ! ,nile !re are fields :i* h be5 giv+ ri* gra9 h>ve/s probably = m ?an f\r ?\s& ye>s1 )\t any o!r effective f]tiliz+ ?an t d]iv$ f ! mud ( ! great riv]4 ,! gr\p ( glaciat$ soils diff]s 9 _m ways f ei!r ( ^? m5tion$4 ,9 x we f9d ! m9]al matt] to h be5 brok5 up1 transport$1 & accumulat$ )\t ! influ5ce ( ^? conditions :i* ord9>ily s]ve to mix rock dbris ) organic matt] dur+ ! process by :i* x is brok5 into bits4 ,:5 vegetation came to preoccupy ! fields made desolate by glacial action1 x f\nd 9 mo/ places m ?an suffici5t mat]ial to =m soils1 b ! great] "p ( ! matt] 0 9 ! condition ( pebbles ( v h>d rock & s& gra9s1 fragm5ts ( silex4 ,=tunately1 ! brok5-up /ate ( ?is mat]ial1 by expos+ a great surface ( ! rocky matt] to decay1 has enabl$ ! plants to conv]t a portion ( ! mass into e>? fit = ! uses ( _! roots4 ,b z ! "t :i* has elaps$ s9ce ! disappe>ance ( ! glaci]s is mu* less ?an t occupi$ 9 ! =mation ( ord9>y soil1 ?is decay has 9 mo/ cases n yet gone v f>1 s t 9 a cubic foot ( glaciat$ wa/e ! am\nt ( mat]ial available = plants is (t5 only a fraction ( t held 9 ! soils ( imm$iate d]ivation4 ,9 ! great] portion ( ! fields occupi$ by glacial wa/e ! processes :i* lead to ! introduction ( organic matt] into ! e>? h n gone f> en\gh to set 9 effective "w ! great laboratory :i* has to op]ate 9 ord] to give f]tile soil4 ,! pebbles h9d] ! p5etration ( ! roots z well z ! movem5t ( insects & o!r animals4 ,!re has n be5 "t en\gh = ! ov]turn+ ( trees to br+ ab\t a c]ta9 admixture ( vegetable matt] ) ! soil--9 a ^w1 ! process ( soil-mak+1 ?\gh ! fir/ condition1 t ( brok5-up rock1 has be5 accompli%$1 is z yet v incomplete4 ,x ne$s1 inde$1 c>e 9 ! introduction ( organic matt] = its completion4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( glacial soils t !y are indef9itely deep4 ,?is (t5 is a disadvantage\s feature1 = ! reason t ! soil wat] may pass s f> d[n into ! e>? t ! roots are (t5 depriv$ ( ! moi/ure :i* !y ne$1 & :i* 9 ord9>y soils is reta9$ ne> ! surface by ! h>d und]lay]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :]e ! glacial wa/e is made up ( pebbles =m$ f rocks ( v>i$ *emical composition1 :i* conta9 a consid]able %>e ( lime1 pota%1 soda1 & o!r sub/ances :i* are requir$ by plants1 ! v l>ge surface :i* !y expose to decay provides ! soil ) a cont9u\s enri*m5t4 ,9 a cubic foot ( pebbly glacial e>? we (t5 f9d t ! mass (f]s sev]al hundr$ times z mu* surface to ! action ( decay z is af=d$ by ! und]ly+ solid b$ rock f :i* a soil ( imm$iate d]ivation has to w9 its m9]al supply4 ,:]e ! pebbly glacial wa/e is provid$ ) a mixture ( vegetable matt]1 ! process ( decay commonly goes =w>d ) consid]able rapidity4 ,if ! supply ( su* matt] is l>ge1 su* z may be produc$ by pl\gh+ 9 b>ny>d manure or gre5 crops1 ! nutritive value ( ! e>? may be br\ght to a v high po9t4 ,x is a famili> exp]i5ce 9 regions :]e glacial soils exi/ t ! e>? b5ea? ! swamps :5 dra9$ is f\nd to be extraord9>ily well suit$ = f>m+ purposes4 ,on inspect+ ! pebbles f su* places1 we obs]ve t !y are rem>kably decay$4 ,:]e ! masses conta9 l>ge quantities ( feldsp>1 z is ! case 9 ! great] "p ( our granitic & o!r cry/all9e rocks1 ?is mat]ial 9 its decomposition is conv]t$ into kaol9 or feldsp> clay1 & gives ! /ones a peculi> :ite appe>ance1 :i* m>ks ! decomposition1 & indicates ! process by :i* a great v>iety ( valuable soil +r$i5ts are br\ght into a /ate :]e !y may be available = plants4 ,9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! glacial areas1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! region ne> ! m>g9 ( ! ice %eet1 :]e ! glaci] rema9$ 9 "o position = a consid]able "t1 we f9d ext5sive deposits ( silici\s s&1 =m$ ( ! mat]ials :i* settl$ f ! "u-ice /ream1 ne> :]e !y escap$ f ! glacial cav]n4 ,^! kames & s& pla9s1 because ( ! silici\s nature ( _! mat]ials & ! v por\s nature ( ! soil :i* !y af=d1 are commonly /]ile1 or at mo/ r5d] a pr(it to ! till] by d9t ( exce$+ c>e4 ,?us 9 ,massa*usetts1 al?\gh ! fir/ settl]s seiz$ ^u ^! gr\nds1 & plant$ _! villages ^u !m because ! =e/s !re 7 scanty & ! gr\nd free f encumb]+ b\ld]s1 7 soon driv5 to betake !mselves to ^? areas :]e ! drift 0 less silici\s1 & :]e ! pebbles af=d$ a %>e ( clay4 ,v ext5sive fields ( ?is s&y nature 9 s\!a/]n ,new ,engl& h nev] be5 br\ght "u tillage4 ,?us on ! isl& ( ,m>?a's ,v9ey>d !re is a connect$ area conta9+ ab\t ?irty ?\s& acres :i* lies 9 a v fav\rable position = tillage1 b has be5 f\nd sub/antially wor?less = su* use4 ,! f>m]s h f\nd x m advantage\s to cle> away ! b\ld]s f ! co>s] drift 9 ord] to w9 soil :i* w\ld give !m fair returns4 ,^? areas :i* are occupi$ by soil mat]ials :i* h be5 br\ght into _! position by ! action ( ! w9d may1 z reg>ds _! "*1 be divid$ into two v di/9ct gr\ps--! dunes & loess deposits4 ,9 ! =m] gr\p1 :]e1 z we h not$ 7see page #abc71 ! co>se sea s&s or ^? f ! %ores ( lakes are driv5 =w>d z a m>*+ hillock1 ! gra9s ( ! mat]ial are almo/ always silici\s4 ,! fragm5ts 9 ! motion are n tak5 up into ! air1 b are bl[n along ! surface4 ,su* dune accumulations af=d an e>? :i* is ev5 m /]ile ?an t ( ! glacial s& pla9s1 :]e !re is g5]ally a c]ta9 admixture ( pebbles f rocks :i* by _! decomposition may af=d "s elem5ts ( f]tility4 ,=tunately = ! int]e/s ( man1 ^! w9d-borne s&s occupy b a small area2 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 ! aggregate1 !re probably are n m ?an "o ?\s& squ>e miles ( su* deposits4 ,:]e ! rock mat]ial drift$ by ! w9ds is s f9e t x may rise into ! air 9 ! =m ( du/1 ! accumulations made ( x g5]ally af=d a f]tile soil1 & ?is = ! reason t !y are compos$ ( v>i\s k9ds ( rock1 & n1 z 9 ! case ( dunes1 ( ne>ly pure silica4 ,9 "s v r>e cases1 :]e ! sea%ore is bord]$ by coral reefs1 z x is 9 p>ts ( s\!rn ,florida1 & ! /r& is made up ( lime/one bits d]iv$ f ! h>d p>ts :i* ! polyps secrete1 small dunes are made ( limy mat]ial4 ,ow+1 h[ev]1 9 "p to ! relatively heavy nature ( ?is sub/ance1 z well z to ! rapid mann] 9 :i* its gra9s become cem5t$ toge!r1 su* lime/one dunes nev] atta9 great size nor travel any di/ance f _! po9t ( orig94 ,z be=e not$1 du/ accumulations =m ! soil 9 ext5d$ areas :i* lie to ! leew>d ( great des]ts4 ,?us a consid]able "p ( we/]n ,*9a & mu* ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to ! we/ ( ! ,mississippi is cov]$ by ^! w9d-bl[n e>?s4 ,:]ev] ! ra9fall is consid]able ^! loess deposits h prov$ to h a high agricultural value4 ,:]e a region has an e>? :i* has rec5tly pass$ f b5ea? ! sea or a great lake1 ! surface is commonly cov]$ by incoh]5t detritus :i* has escap$ consolidation into h>d rock by ! fact t x has n be5 buri$ & ?us br\ght into ! laboratory ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,:5 su* a region becomes dry l&1 ! mat]ials are imm$iately ready to ent] into ! /ate ( soil4 ,!y commonly conta9 a good deal ( wa/e d]iv$ f ! organic life :i* dwelt ^u ! sea bottom & 0 emb$d$ 9 ! /rata z !y 7 =m$4 ,:]e ^! accumulations are made 9 a lake1 ! l& vegetation at once possesses ! field1 ev5 a s+le ye> be+ suffici5t = x to effect its e/abli%m5t4 ,:]e ! l&s em]ge f ! sea1 x requires a few ye>s = ! salt wat] to dra9 away s t ! e>? c be fit = ! uses ( plants4 ,9 a g5]al way ^! sea-bottom soils resemble ^? =m$ 9 ! alluvial pla9s4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 commonly m s&y1 & _! sub/ances less p5etrat$ by t decay :i* goes on v freely 9 ! atmosph]e because ( ! abundant supply ( oxyg51 & b sl[ly on ! sea floor4 ,moreov]1 ! m>9e deposits are g5]ally made up 9 l>ge "p ( silici\s s&1 a mat]ial :i* is produc$ 9 l>ge quantities by ! disruption ( ! rocks along ! sea coa/4 ,! l>ge/ s+le field ( ^! ocean-bottom soils ( ,nor? ,am]ica is f\nd 9 ! l[l& region ( ! s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates1 a wide belt ( c\ntry ext5d+ along ! coa/ f ! ,rio ,gr&e to ,new ,york4 ,al?\gh ! /reams h *annell$ %all[ valleys 9 ! b$s ( ?is region1 ! l>g] "p ( its surface /ill has ! peculi> features ( =m & composition :i* 7 impress$ ^u x :5 x lay bel[ ! surface ( ! sea4 ,local v>iations 9 ! "* ( ! soil cov]+ are exce$+ly num]\s1 & ^! diff]5ces ( condition pr(\ndly affect ! e/ate ( man4 ,we %all !re=e consid] "s ( ! m important ( ^! conditions1 ) special ref]5ce to _! orig94 ,! mo/ important & di/9ctly m>k$ v>iation 9 ! f]tility ( soils is t :i* is produc$ by diff]5ces 9 ! ra9fall4 ,no p>ts ( ! e>? are entirely lack+ 9 ra91 b ov] consid]able areas ! precipitation does n exce$ half a foot a ye>4 ,9 su* realms ! soil is /]ile1 & ! natural coat+ ( vegetation limit$ to ^? plants :i* c subsi/ on dew or :i* c take on an occasional gr[? at su* times z moi/ure may come ^u !m4 ,) a slight increase 9 precipitation1 ! soil rapidly increases 9 productivity1 s t we may say t :]e z mu* z ab\t t5 in*es ( wat] ent]s ! e>? dur+ ! summ] half ( ! ye>1 x becomes 9 a consid]able measure fit = agriculture4 ,obs]vations indicate t ! conditions ( f]tility are n satisfi$ :]e ! ra9fall is j suffici5t to fill ! pores ( ! soil2 !re mu/ be en\gh wat] ent]+ ! e>? to br+ ab\t a c]ta9 am\nt ( outfl[ 9 ! =m ( spr+s4 ,! reason ( ?is ne$ becomes app>5t :5 we /udy ! evid5t features ( ^? soils :i*1 ?\gh f season to season *>g$ ) wat]1 d n yield spr+s1 b s5d ! moi/ure away ?r\gh ! atmosph]e4 ,:]ev] ^! conditions occur we obs]ve t ! soil 9 dry seasons becomes coat$ ) a deposit ( m9]al matt]1 :i*1 because ( its ta/e1 has receiv$ ! "n ( alkali4 ,! orig9 ( ?is coat+ is z foll[s3 ,! pores ( ! soil1 *>g$ f ye> to ye> ) suffici5t wat] to fill !m1 become /or$ ) a fluid :i* conta9s a v l>ge am\nt ( dissolv$ m9]al matt]--too mu*1 inde$1 to p]mit ! roots ( plants1 save a few species :i* h become accu/om$ to ! conditions1 to d _! appo9t$ "w4 ,9 fact1 ?is wat] is mu* l t ( ! sea1 :i* ! roots ( only a few ( our high] plants c tol]ate4 ,:5 ! dry season comes on1 ! heat ( ! sun evaporates ! wat] at ! surface1 leav+ beh9d a coat+ compos$ ( ! sub/ances :i* ! wat] conta9s4 ,! soil bel[ acts 9 ! mann] ( a lamp-wick to draw up fluid z rapidly z ! heat burns x away4 ,:5 ! soil wat] is z f> z possible exhau/$1 ! alkali coat+ may repres5t a consid]able "p ( ! soluble matt] ( ! soil1 & 9 ! next ra9y season x may return 9 :ole or 9 "p to ! "u-e>?1 aga9 to be drawn 9 ! mann] be=e describ$ to ! upp] level4 ,x is !re=e only :5 a consid]able %>e ( ! gr\nd wat] goes =? to ! /reams 9 ea* ye> t ! alkal9e mat]ials are 9 quantity kept d[n to ! po9t :]e ! roots ( our crop-giv+ plants c make due use ( ! soil4 ,:]e1 9 an arid region1 ! gr\nd c be wat]$ f ! endur+ /reams or f artificial res]voirs1 ! ma9 advantage aris+ f ! process is commonly f\nd 9 ! control :i* x gives ! f>m] 9 ! am\nt ( ! soil wat]4 ,he c add to ! ra9fall suffici5t to take away ! excess ( m9]al matt]4 ,:5 su* soils are fir/ br\ght "u tillage x is necess>y to use a l>ge am\nt ( wat] f ! canals1 9 ord] to wa% away ! old /ore ( alkali4 ,aft] t a comp>atively small contribution w (t5 keep ! soil 9 excell5t condition = agriculture4 ,x has be5 f\nd1 h[ev]1 9 ! irrigat$ l&s beside ! ,nile t :]e too mu* sav+ is practis$ 9 ! irrigation1 ! alkal9e coat+ w appe> :]e x has be5 unkn[n be=e1 & ) x an unfitness ( ! e>? to be> crops4 ,al?\gh ! cru/ ( m9]al matt]s =m$ 9 ! mann] above describ$ is *>act]i/ic ( arid c\ntries1 & 9 g5]al peculi> to !m1 a simil> deposit may "u peculi> conditions be =m$ 9 regions ( great ra9fall4 ,?us on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,new ,engl&1 :]e ! tidal m>%es h "h & !re be5 dik$ f ! sea & br\ght "u tillage1 ! dissolv$ m9]al matt]s ( ! soil1 :i* are excessive 9 quantity1 are drawn to ! surface1 =m+ a coat+ ess5tially l t :i* is s common 9 arid regions4 ,! writ] has obs]v$ ?is cru/ on su* dik$ l&s1 hav+ a ?ickness ( an eigh? ( an in*4 ,9 fact1 ?is alkali coat+ repres5ts m]ely ! extreme op]ation ( a process :i* is go+ on 9 all soils1 & :i* contributes mu* to _! f]tility4 ,:5 ra9 falls & passes d[nw>d into ! e>?1 x conveys ! soluble matt] to a dep? bel[ ! surface1 (t5 to beyond ! po9t :]e our ord9>y crop plants1 su* z ! small gra9s1 c h access to x1 & ?is = ! reason t _! roots d n p5etrate deeply4 ,:5 dry wea!r comes & evaporation takes place f ! surface1 ! fluid is drawn up to ! upp] soil lay]1 & !re1 9 process ( evaporation1 deposits ! dissolv$ mat]ials :i* x conta9s4 ,?us ! m9]al matt] :i* is fit = plant food is con/antly set 9 motion1 & 9 its movem5t passes ! rootlets ( ! plants4 ,x is probably on ?is acc\nt--at lea/ 9 "p--t v wet wea!r is almo/ z unfav\rable to ! f>m] z exce$+ly dry1 ! normal alt]nation 9 ! conditions be+1 z is well kn[n1 be/ suit$ to 8 ne$s4 ,s long z ! e>? is subject$ to conditions 9 :i* ! ra9fall may br+ ab\t a v>iable am\nt ( wat] 9 ! sup]ficial detrital lay]1 we f9d normal fruitful soils1 ?\gh 9 _! m arid conditions !y may be fit = b few species ( plants4 ,:51 by increas+ aridity1 we pass to conditions :]e !re is no tol]ably p]man5t /ore ( wat] 9 ! dbris1 ! mat]ial ceases to h ! qualities ( a soil1 & becomes m]e rock wa/e4 ,at ! o!r extreme ( ! scale we pass to conditions :]e ! wat] is /eadfa/ly ma9ta9$ 9 ! int]/ices ( ! detritus1 & !re aga9 ! *>act]i/ic ( ! soil & its fitness = ! uses ( l& vegetation likewise disappe>4 ,9 a ^w1 true soil conditions dem& ! pres5ce ( moi/ure1 b t 9 insuffici5t quantities1 to keep ! pores ( ! e>? cont9ually fill$2 :]e !y are ?us fill$1 we h ! condition ( swamps4 ,betwe5 ^! extremes ! level at :i* ! wat] /&s 9 ! soil 9 av]age seasons is cont9ually v>y+4 ,9 ra9y wea!r x may rise q to ! surface2 9 a dry season x may s9k f> d[n4 ,z ?is wat] rises & falls1 x n only moves1 z be=e not$1 ! soluble m9]al mat]ials1 b x draws ! air into & expels x f ! e>? ) ea* movem5t4 ,?is atmosph]ic circulation ( ! soil1 z has be5 prov$ by exp]im5t1 is ( great importance 9 ma9ta9+ its f]tility2 ! successive *>ges ( air supply ! ne$s ( ! microscopic und]gr\nd creatures :i* play a l>ge "p 9 enri*+ ! soil1 & ! direct effect ( ! oxyg5 9 promot+ decay is likewise consid]able4 ,a "p ( ! "w :i* is accompli%$ by ov]turn+ ! e>? 9 tillage consi/s 9 ?is introduction ( ! air into ! pores ( ! soil1 :]e x s]ves to advance ! actions :i* br+ m9]al matt]s into solution4 ,illu/ration3 ,m\nta9 gorge1 ,himalayas1 ,india4 ,note ! diff]5ce 9 ! slope ( ! erod$ rocks & ! effect ( erosion ^u !m2 also ! talus slopes at ! base ( ! cliffs :i* ! torr5t is cutt+ away4 ,on ! left ( ! =egr\nd !re is a little b5* %[+ a rec5t high] l9e ( ! wat]4 ,9 ! orig9al conditions ( any c\ntry :i* is ! seat ( consid]able ra9fall1 & :]e ! riv] sy/em is n s f> develop$ z to provide *annels = ! ready exit ( ! wat]s1 we commonly f9d v ext5sive swamps2 ^! conditions ( bad dra9age almo/ inv>iably exi/ :]e a region has rec5tly be5 elevat$ above ! level ( ! sea1 & /ill reta9s ! =m ( an irregul> roll+ pla9 common to sea floors1 & also 9 regions :]e ! "w done by glaci]s has confus$ ! dra9age :i* ! antec$5t /reams may h develop$4 ,9 an old1 well-elaborat$ riv] sy/em swamps are commonly abs5t1 or1 if !y occur1 are due to local accid5ts ( an unimportant nature4 ,= our purpose swamps may be divid$ into ?ree gr\ps--climb+ bogs1 lake bogs1 & m>9e m>%es4 ,! fir/ two ( ^! gr\ps dep5d on ! movem5ts ( ! ra9 wat] ov] ! l&2 ! ?ird on ! action ( ! tides4 ,beg9n+ our acc\nt ) ! fir/ & mo/ exceptional ( ^! gr\ps1 we note ! foll[+ features 9 _! int]e/+ hi/ory3 ,:]ev] 9 a humid region1 on a g5tle slope--say ) an incl9ation n exce$+ t5 feet to ! mile--! soil is possess$ by any species ( plants ^: /ems gr[ closely toge!r1 s t f _! decay$ p>ts a spongelike mass is produc$1 we h ! conditions :i* fav\r ! developm5t ( climb+ bogs4 ,beg9n+ usually 9 ! %ores ( a pool1 ^! plants1 necess>ily ( a wat]-lov+ species1 reta9 s mu* moi/ure 9 ! spongy mass :i* !y =m t !y gradually ext5d up ! slope4 ,?us ext5d+ ! m>g9 ( _! field1 & at ! same "t ?ick5+ ! deposit :i* !y =m1 ^! plants may build a climb+ bog ov] ! surface until /eeps are atta9$ :]e ! incl9ation is s great t ! necess>y am\nt ( wat] c n be held 9 ! spongy mass1 or :]e1 ev5 if s held1 ! :ole coat+ w 9 "t slip d[n 9 ! mann] ( an avalan*e4 ,! great] "p ( ! climb+ bogs ( ! _w are limit$ to ! moi/ & cool regions ( high latitudes1 :]e species ( moss belong+ to ! g5us ,sphagnum pl5tifully fl\ri%4 ,^! plants c only gr[ :]e !y are cont9u\sly suppli$ ) a ba? ( wat] ab\t _! roots4 ,!y develop 9 lake bogs z f> s\? z ,mexico1 b 9 ! climb+ =m !y are h>dly traceable s\? ( ,new ,engl&1 & are n[h]e ext5sively develop$ )9 ! limits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 m nor!rn p>ts ( ?is cont95t1 & 9 nor?we/]n ,europe1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! moi/ climate ( ,irel&1 climb+ bogs occupy great areas1 & hold up _! lakes ( int]/itially conta9$ wat] ov] ! slopes ( hills1 :]e ! surface rises at ! rate ( ?irty feet or m to ! mile4 ,s long z ! deposit ( decay$ vegetable matt] :i* has accumulat$ 9 ?is mann] is ?91 !re=e ev]y:]e p5etrat$ by ! fibr\s roots ( ! moss1 x may cont9ue to cl+ to its slop+ b$2 b :5 x atta9s a consid]able ?ickness1 & ! roots 9 ! l[] "p decay1 ! pulpy mass1 wat]-lad5 9 "s "t ( heavy ra91 break away 9 a va/ torr5t ( ?ick1 black mud1 :i* may inundate ! l[] l&s1 caus+ widespread de/ruction4 ,9 m s\!rn c\ntries1 o!r wat]-lov+ plants lead to ! =mation ( climb+ bogs4 ,( ^!1 ! commone/ & mo/ effective are ! species ( re$s1 ( :i* our ,indian cane is a famili> example4 ,brakes ( ?is vegetation1 pl5tifully m+l$ ) o!r species ( aquatic gr[?1 =m ^? rem>kable climb+ bogs kn[n z ! ,dismal & o!r swamps1 :i* num]\sly occur along ! coa/ l9e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates f s\!rn ,m>yl& to ea/]n ,texas4 ,climb+ bogs are p>ticul>ly int]e/+1 n only f ! fact t !y are em95tly peculi> effects ( plant gr[?1 b because !y give u a vivid picture ( ^? anci5t morasses 9 :i* grew ! plants t =m$ ! b$s ( vegetable matt] n[ appe>+ 9 ! /ate ( coal4 ,ea* su* b$ ( buri$ swamp mat]ial 01 ) r>e exceptions1 :]e ! accumulation took place 9 lakes1 ga!r$ 9 climb+ bogs su* z we h describ$4 ,lake bogs occur 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 b 9 _! be/ developm5t are limit$ to relatively high latitudes1 & ?is = ! reason t ! plants :i* =m vegetable matt] gr[ mo/ luxuriantly 9 cool climates & 9 regions :]e ! level ( ! bas9 is subject to less v>iation ?an occurs 9 ! alt]nat+ wet & dry seasons :i* exi/ 9 ne>ly all tropical regions4 ,! fitte/ conditions are f\nd 9 glaciat$ regions1 :]e1 z be=e not$1 small lakes are usually v abundant4 ,on ! %ores ( "o ( ^! pools1 ( size n s great t ! waves may atta9 a consid]able height1 or 9 ! %elt]$ bay ( a l>g] lake1 v>i\s aquatic plants1 especially ! species ( pond lilies1 take root ^u ! bottom1 & spread _! exp&$ leaves on ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,^! flexible-leav$ & ela/ic-/emm$ plants c endure waves :i* atta9 no m ?an a foot or two ( height1 & by ! friction :i* !y af=d make ! swa% on ! %ore v slight4 ,9 ! quiet wat]1 ru%es take root1 & /ill fur!r protect ! /r&1 s t ! v delicate vegetation ( ! mosses1 su* z ! ,sphagnum1 c fix itself on ! %ore4 ,z soon z ! ,sphagnum mat has begun its gr[?1 ! /r5g? giv5 by its int]lac$ fibres enables x to ext5d (f f ! %ore & float ^u ! wat]4 ,9 ?is way x may rapidly enl>ge1 if n brok5 up by ! waves1 s t its front advances into ! lake at ! rate ( sev]al in*es ea* ye>4 ,:ile gr[+ outw>dly x ?ick5s1 s t ! bottom ( ! mass gradually works d[n t[>d ! floor ( ! bas94 ,at ! same "t ! l[] "p ( ! %eet1 decay+1 contributes a %[] ( s(t peat mud to ! floor ( ! lake4 ,9 ?is way1 gr[+ at its edge1 deep5+1 & contribut+ to an upgr[? f ! bottom1 a few c5turies may s]ve entirely to fill a deep bas9 ) peaty accumulation4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 ! surface ( ! bog closes ov] ! lake be=e ! accumulation has completely fill$ ! %orew>d portions ( ! area4 ,9 ^! conditions we h :at is famili>ly kn[n z a quak+ bog1 :i* c be sway$ up & d[n by a p]son :o quickly /oops & rises :ile /&+ on ! surface4 ,9 ?is /ate ! t\gh & ?ick %eet ( gr[+ plants is suffici5t to uphold a consid]able weight1 b s ela/ic t ! und]ly+ wat] c be ?r[n into waves4 ,long be=e ! bog has completely fill$ ! lake ) ! peaty accumulations ! gr[? ( trees is apt to take place on its surface1 :i* (t5 r$uces ! area to ! appe>ance ( a v level wet wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4--;,diagram %[+ beg9n+ ( peat bog3 ,a1 lake2 ,b1 lilies & ru%es2 ,c1 lake bog2 ,d1 climb+ bog4 ,climb+ & lake bogs 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates occupy a total area ( m ?an fifty ?\s& squ>e miles4 ,9 all ,nor? ,am]ica ! total area is probably m ?an twice z great4 ,simil> deposits are exce$+ly common 9 ! ,eurasian cont95t & 9 s\!rn ,patagonia4 ,x is probable t ! total am\nt ( ^! fields 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w exce$s half a million squ>e miles4 ,^! two gr\ps ( fre%-wat] swamps h an int]e/1 = ! reason t :5 r$uc$ to cultivation by dra9age & by subsequ5t removal ( ! excess ( peaty matt]1 by burn+ or by natural decay1 af=d v ri* soil4 ,! faire/ fields ( nor!rn ,europe1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&1 h be5 ?us won to tillage4 ,9 ! fir/ c5turies ( our era a l>ge "p ( ,engl&--p]haps z mu* z "o t5? ( ! gr\nd n[ till$ 9 t c\ntry--0 occupi$ by ^! l&s1 :i* reta9$ wat] 9 su* measure z to make !m unfit = tillage1 ! great] portion ( ?is area be+ 9 ! condition ( ?9 climb+ bog4 ,= _m c5turies mu* ( ! en]gy ( ! p 0 devot$ to ! reclamation ( ^! valuable l&s4 ,?is task ( w9n+ ! swamp l&s to agriculture has be5 m completely accompli%$ 9 ,engl& ?an else:]e1 b x has gone f> on ! cont95t ( ,europe1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,g]many4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ow+ to ! fact t l&s h be5 *eap1 little ( ?is "w ( swamp-dra9+ has z yet be5 accompli%$4 ,x is likely t ! next great field ( improvem5t to be cultivat$ by ! ent]pris+ p w be f\nd 9 ^! excessively humid l&s1 f :i* ! food-giv+ res\rces = ! support ( _m million p c be won4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4--;,diagram %[+ developm5t ( swamp3 ,a1 rema9s ( lake2 ,b1 surface gr[?2 c1 peat4 ,! gr\p ( m>9e m>%es diff]s 9 _m important reg>ds f ^? :i* are =m$ 9 fre% wat]4 ,:]e ! tide visits any coa/ l9e1 & 9 %elt]$ positions along t %ore1 a numb] ( plants1 mo/ly belong+ to ! gr\p ( grasses1 species :i* h become accu/om$ to hav+ _! roots ba!d by salt wat]1 beg9 ! =mation ( a spongy mat1 :i* resembles t compos$ ( ,sphagnum1 only x is mu* m solid4 ,?is mat ( ! m>9e m>%es soon atta9s a ?ickness ( a foot or m1 ! upp] or gr[+ surface ly+ 9 a position :]e x is cov]$ = two or ?ree h\rs at ea* visit ( ! tide4 ,gr[+ rapidly outw>d f ! %ore1 & hav+ a /r5g? :i* enables x to resi/ 9 a tol]ably effective mann] waves n m ?an two or ?ree feet high1 ?is accumulation makes head aga9/ ! sea4 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t ! waves und]m9e ! front ( ! %eet & break up masses ( x1 :i* !y di/ribute ov] ! %all[ bottom bel[ ! level at :i* ^! plants c gr[4 ,9 ?is deep] wat]1 also1 o!r m>9e animals & plants are cont9ually develop+1 & _! rema9s are add$ to ! accumulations :i* are ev] %all[+ ! wat]1 ?us p]mitt+ a fur!r ext5sion ( ! level1 high]-ly+ m>%4 ,?is process cont9ues until ! gr[? has gone z f> z ! sc\r+ action ( ! tidal curr5ts w p]mit4 ,9 ! end ! bay1 orig9ally ( wide-op5 wat]1 is only su* at high tide4 ,= ! great] "p ( ! "t x appe>s z broad savannas1 ^: brilliant gre5 gives !m ! aspect ( r>e f]tility4 ,ow+ to ! conditions ( _! gr[?1 ! deposits =m$ 9 m>9e m>%es conta9 no di/9ct peat1 ! ne>e/ approa* to t sub/ance be+ ! tangle ( wirelike roots :i* cov]s ! upp] foot or s ( ! accumulation4 ,! great] "p ( ! mass is compos$ ( f9e silt1 br\ght 9 by ! /reams ( l& wat] :i* dis*>ge into ! bas91 & by ! rema9s ( animals :i* dwelt ^u ! bottom or betwe5 ! /alks ( ! plants t occupy ! surface ( ! m>%es4 ,^! int]spaces af=d admirable %elt] to a ho/ ( small m>9e =ms4 ,! result is1 t ! tidal m>%es1 z well z ! l[]-ly+ mud flats1 :i* h be5 occupi$ by ! mat ( vegetation1 af=d admirable e>? = tillage4 ,un=tunately1 h[ev]1 !re are two disadvantages connect$ ) ! r$emption ( su* l&s4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is necess>y to exclude ! sea f ! area1 :i* c only be accompli%$ by consid]able eng9e]+ "w2 9 ! second place1 ! exclusion ( ! tide inevitably results 9 ! silt+ up ( ! passage by :i* ! wat] f\nd its way to ! sea4 ,z ^! op5+s are (t5 us$ = h>b\rs1 ! effect aris+ f _! de/ruction is (t5 r s]i\s4 ,nev]!less1 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w v ext5sive & mo/ f]tile tracts ( l& h ?us be5 won f ! sea2 a l>ge "p ( ,holl& & %ore-l& di/ricts 9 nor!rn ,europe are made up ( fields :i* 7 orig9ally cov]$ by ! tide4 ,ne> ! m\? ( ! ,rh9e1 inde$1 ! p h f\nd ^! sea-bottom soils s pr(itable t !y h gone beyond ! zone ( ! m>%es1 & h dra9$ consid]able seas :i* ( old 7 p]man5tly cov]$1 ev5 at ! l[e/ level ( ! wat]s4 ,on ! coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica m>9e m>%es h an ext5sive developm5t1 & v>y mu* 9 "*4 ,9 ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 :]e ! tides h an altitude ( fifty feet or m1 ! en]gy ( _! curr5ts is su* t ! m>% mat r>ely =ms4 ,its place1 h[ev]1 is tak5 by va/ & ev]-*ang+ mud flats1 ! mat]ials ( :i* are swept to & fro by ! mov+ wat]s4 ,! p ( ?is region h le>n$ an art ( a peculi> nature1 by :i* !y w9 broad fields ( excell5t l& f ! sea4 ,select+ an area ( ! flats1 ! surface ( :i* has be5 br\ght to )9 a few feet ( high tide1 !y inclose x ) a /\t b>ri] or dike1 :i* has op5+s = ! free admission ( ! tidal wat]s4 ,ent]+ ?is bas91 ! tide1 mov+ ) consid]able velocity1 be>s 9 quantities ( s$im5t4 ,9 ! bas91 ! motion be+ arre/$1 ?is s$im5t falls to ! bottom1 & s]ves to raise its level4 ,9 a few mon?s ! %eet ( s$im5t is br\ght ne> ! plane ( ! tidal movem5t1 !n ! gates are clos$ at times :5 ! tide has atta9$ half ( its height1 s t ! gr\nd )9 ! dike is n visit$ by ! sea wat]1 & c be cultivat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,map ( ,ipswi* m>%es1 ,massa*usetts1 =m$ beh9d a b>ri] bea*4 ,along ! coa/ ( ,new ,engl& ! ord9>y m>9e m>%es atta9 an ext5sive developm5t 9 ! =m ( broad-grass$ savannas4 ,) ?is aspect1 ?\gh ) a consid]able *ange 9 ! plants :i* !y be>1 ! fr+e ( savannas cont9ues s\?w>d along ! coa/ to nor!rn ,florida4 ,9 ! region ab\t ! m\? ( ! ,savannah ,riv]1 s nam$ f ! va/ ext5t ( ! tidal m>%es1 ^! fields atta9 _! greate/ developm5t4 ,9 c5tral & s\!rn ,florida1 h[ev]1 :]e ! seacoa/ is admirably suit$ = _! developm5t1 ^! coa/al m>%es ( ! grassy type disappe>1 _! place be+ tak5 by ! peculi> morasses =m$ by ! gr[? ( ! mangrove tree4 ,9 ! mangrove m>%es ! tree :i* gives ! areas _! "n cov]s all ! field :i* is visit$ by ! tide4 ,?is tree gr[s ) its cr[n support$ on /iltlike roots1 at a level above high tide4 ,f its horizontal bran*es !re gr[ (f roots1 :i* rea* d[nw>d into ! wat]1 & !nce to ! bottom4 ,! se$s ( ! mangrove are admirably devis$ s z to enable ! plant to obta9 a foo?old on ! mud flats1 ev5 :]e !y are cov]$ at l[ tide ) a dep? ( two or ?ree feet ( wat]4 ,!y are sev]al in*es 9 l5g?1 & arrang$ ) booklets at _! l[] ends2 float+ ne> ! bottom1 !y ?us cat* ^u x1 & 9 a few weeks' gr[? pu% ! %oot to ! level ( ! wat]1 ?us af=d+ a f\ndation = a new plantation4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ext5d+ ! old =e/s out into ! %all[ wat] ( ! bays1 & =m+ new colonies :]ev] ! wat] is n too deep1 ^! plants rapidly occupy all ! region :i* else:]e w\ld appe> 9 ! =m ( savannas4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,diagram %[+ mode ( gr[? ( mangroves4 ,! tidal m>%es ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 :i* may be 9 "t conv]t$ to ! uses ( man1 probably occupy an area exce$+ tw5ty ?\s& squ>e miles4 ,if ! "w ( reclaim+ su* l&s f ! sea ev] atta9s ! advance 9 ?is c\ntry t x has done 9 ,holl&1 ! area add$ to ! dry l& by eng9e]+ devices may am\nt to z mu* z fifty ?\s& squ>e miles--a t]ritory r great] ?an ! surface ( ,k5tucky1 & ) a food-yield+ p[] at lea/ five times z great z is af=d$ by t f]tile ,/ate4 ,9 fact1 ^! conque/s f ! sea are h]eaft] to be among ! great works :i* w attract ! en]gies ( mank9d4 ,9 ! arid region ( ! ,cordill]as1 z well z 9 _m o!r c\ntries1 ! soil1 ?\gh de/itute ( ^? qualities :i* make x fit = ! uses ( man1 because ( ! abs5ce ( wat] 9 suffici5t am\nt1 is1 z reg>ds its /ructure & dep?1 z well z its m9]al cont5ts1 admirably suit$ to ! ne$s ( agriculture4 ,! developm5t ( soils 9 des]t regions is 9 almo/ all cases to be acc\nt$ = by ! =m] exi/5ce 9 ! realms !y occupy ( a mu* great] ra9fall ?an n[ exi/s4 ,?us 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 c\ntry1 :5 ! deep soils ( ! ample valleys 7 =m$1 ! lakes1 z we h be=e not$1 7 no long] dead seas1 z is at pres5t s g5]ally ! case1 b p\r$ =? great /reams to ! sea4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 we f9d evid5ce t c]ta9 portions ( ! e>? :i* rec5tly _h an abundant ra9fall h n[ become />v$ = ! lack ( t supply4 ,all ! soils ( arid regions :]e ! trial has be5 made h prov$ v f]tile :5 subject$ to irrigation1 :i* c (t5 be accompli%$ by /or+ ! wat]s ( ! brief ra9y season or by div]t+ ^? ( riv]s :i* ent] ! des]ts f well-wat]$ m\nta9 fields4 ,9 fact1 ! soil ( ^! arid realms yields peculi>ly ample returns to ! husb&man1 because ( c]ta9 conditions due to ! exce$+ dryness ( ! air4 ,?is leads to an abs5ce ( cl\dy wea!r1 s t f ! "t ! se$ is plant$ ! gr[? is /imulat$ by un9t]rupt$ & int5se sun%9e4 ,! same dryness ( ! air leads1 z we h se51 to a rapid evaporation f ! surface1 by :i*1 9 a mann] be=e not$1 ! dissolv$ m9]al matt] is br\ght ne> ! top ( ! soil1 :]e x c be/ s]ve ! great] "p ( our crop plants4 ,on ^! acc\nts an acre ( irrigat$ soil c be made to yield a f> great] return ?an c be obta9$ f l& ( l *emical composition 9 humid regions4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ! _w1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! nor!rn & we/]n portions ( ! ,mississippi ,valley1 !re are widespread areas1 :i*1 ?\gh mod]ately well wat]$1 7 9 _! virg9 /ate almo/ )\t =e/s4 ,9 ! prairie region ! e>ly settl]s f\nd ! c\ntry unwood$1 except along ! m>g9s ( ! /reams4 ,on ! bord]s ( ! true prairies1 h[ev]1 !y f\nd consid]able areas ( a prevail+ly =e/$ l&1 ) "h & !re a tract ( prairie4 ,!re 7 sev]al ( ^! op5 fields s\? ( ! ,ohio1 ?\gh ! c\ntry !re is 9 g5]al =e/$2 "o ( ^! prairie areas1 9 ! ,gre5 ,riv] di/rict ( ,k5tucky1 0 sev]al ?\s& squ>e miles 9 ext5t4 ,at fir/ x 0 suppos$ t ! abs5ce ( trees 9 ! op5 c\ntry ( ! ,mississippi ,valley 0 due to "s peculi>ity ( ! soil1 b exp]i5ce %[s t plantations luxuriantly develop1 & t ! timb] w spread rapidly 9 ! natural way4 ,9 fact1 if ! se$s ( ! trees :i* h be5 plant$ s9ce ! settlem5t ( ! c\ntry 7 all[$ to develop z !y seek to d1 x w\ld only be a few c5turies be=e ! region w\ld be =e/-clad z f> we/ z ! ra9fall w\ld p]mit ! plants to develop4 ,probably ! woods w\ld atta9 to ne> ! hundr$? m]idian4 ,9 ! op9ion ( ! writ]1 ! treeless "* ( ! ,we/]n pla9s is ma9ly to be acc\nt$ = by ! habit :i* our ,indians _h ( burn+ ! h]bage ( a l[ly sort ea* ye>1 s t ! l>ge game might obta9 bett] pa/urage4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact to all ^? :o h _h to deal ) cattle on fields :i* are 9 ! natural /ate t fire bett]s ! pa/urage4 ,beg9n+ ?is me?od ( burn+ 9 ! arid regions to ! we/ ( ! orig9al =e/s1 ! natural action ( ! fire has be5 gradually to de/roy ^! woods4 ,al?\gh ! old] & l>g] trees1 on acc\nt ( _! ?ick b>k & ! height ( _! foliage above ! gr\nd1 escap$ de/ruction1 all ! small] & y\ng] memb]s ( ! species 7 con/antly swept away4 ,?us :5 ! old trees di$ !y left no succession1 & ! c\ntry assum$ its prairie "*4 ,t ! prairies 7 =m$ 9 ?is mann] seems to be prov$ by ! te/imony :i* we h conc]n+ ! op5 area be=e m5tion$ z hav+ exi/$ 9 we/]n ,k5tucky4 ,x is said t ar\nd ! timb]less fields !re 0 a wide fr+e ( old fire-sc>r$ trees1 ) no und]gr[? b5ea? _! bran*es1 & t z !y di$ no k9d ( l>ge vegetation took _! place4 ,:5 ! ,indians :o set ^! fires 7 driv5 away1 z 0 ! case 9 ! la/ decade ( ! la/ c5tury1 ! c\ntry at once began to resume its timb]$ condition4 ,f ! m>g9 & f e int]ior po9t :]e ! trees surviv$1 _! se$s spread s t be=e ! op5 l& 0 all subjugat$ to ! pl\gh x 0 necess>y 9 _m places to cle> away a ?ick gr[? ( ! "y =e/-build+ trees4 ,! soils :i* develop on ! lavas & a%es ab\t an active volcano af=d int]e/+ subjects = /udy1 = ! reason t !y %[ h[ f> ! developm5t ( ! lay] :i* supports vegetation may dep5d ^u ! "* ( ! rocks f :i* x is d]iv$4 ,:]e ! mat]ials eject$ f a volcano lie 9 a ra9y di/rict1 ! process ( decay :i* conv]ts ! rock into soil is commonly v rapid1 a few ye>s ( exposure to ! wea!r be+ suffici5t to br+ ab\t ! =mation ( a f]tile soil4 ,?is is due to ! fact t mo/ lavas1 z well z ! s-call$ volcanic a%es1 :i* are ( ! same mat]ial z ! lavas1 only bl[n to pieces1 are compos$ ( v>i$ m9]als1 ! mo/ ( :i* are readily attack$ by ! ag5ts ( decay4 ,n[ & !n1 h[ev]1 we f9d ! mat]ials eject$ f a p>ticul> volcano1 or ev5 ! lavas & a%es ( a s+le eruption1 9 su* a *emical /ate t soils =m ^u !m ) exce$+ sl[ness4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! =ego+ incomplete consid]ations make x pla9 t ! soil-cov]+ ( ! e>? is ! result ( v delicate adju/m5ts1 :i* det]m9e ! rate at :i* ! brok5-d[n rocks f9d _! pa? f _! orig9al b$ places to ! sea4 ,! admirable way 9 :i* ?is movem5t is controll$ is indicat$ by ! fact t almo/ ev]y:]e we f9d a soil-cov]+ deep en\gh = ! use ( a v>i$ vegetation1 b r>ely av]ag+ m ?an a doz5 feet 9 dep?4 ,only "h & !re are ! rocks b>e or ! e>? swa!d 9 a pr(\nd mass ( detritus4 ,?is indicates h[ /eadfa/ & measur$ is ! m>* ( ! rock wa/e f ! hills to ! sea4 ,unhappily1 man1 :5 by 8 ne$s he is =c$ to till ! soil1 is compell$ to break up ?is anci5t & p]fect ord]4 ,he has to /rip ! liv+ mantle f ! e>?1 replac+ x ) gr[? ( ^? species :i* s]ve 8 ne$s4 ,^? plants :i* are mo/ s]viceable--:i* are1 inde$1 indisp5sable 9 ! high] civilization1 ! gra9s--require = _! cultivation t ! e>? be /ripp$ b>e & deeply /irr$ dur+ ! ra9y season1 & ?us subject$ to ! mo/ de/ructive effect ( ! ra9fall4 ,! result is1 t 9 almo/ all gra9 fields ! rate ( soil de/ruction va/ly surpasses t at :i* ! accumulation is be+ made4 ,we may say1 inde$1 t1 except 9 alluvial pla9s1 :]e ! soil gr[s by flood-made additions to its upp] surface1 no field till$ 9 gra9 c )\t exce$+ c>e rema9 usable = a c5tury4 ,ev5 ?\gh ! agriculturi/ returns to ! e>? all ! *emical sub/ances :i* he takes away 9 8 crops1 ! loss ( ! soil by ! wa%+ away ( its sub/ance to ! /ream w inevitably r$uce ! region to /]ility4 ,x is n fanciful to say t ! greate/ mis=tune :i* 9 a l>ge way man has _h to meet 9 8 agriculture arises f ?is peculi> /ress :i* gra9 crops put ^u ! soil4 ,if ^! gra9s grew ^u p]5nial plants1 9 ! mann] ( our l>g] fruits1 ! problem ( man's relation to ! soil w\ld be mu* simpl] ?an x is at pres5t4 ,he might !n manage to till ! e>? )\t br++ ^u x ! inevitable de/ruction :i* he n[ inflicts4 ,z x is1 he %\ld recognise t 8 ne$s imp]il ?is anci5t & preci\s elem5t 9 ! e>?'s /ructure1 & he %\ld endeav\r 9 e possible way to m9imize ! damage :i* he br+s ab\t4 ,?is result he may accompli% 9 c]ta9 simple ways4 ,fir/1 z reg>ds ! f]tility ( ! soil1 z di/+ui%$ f ! ?ickness ( ! coat+1 x may be said t mod]n discov]ies enable u to see ! ways :]eby we may = an indef9ite p]iod avoid ! debasem5t ( our great h]itage1 ! food-giv+ e>?4 ,we n[ "k 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w ext5sive & practically inexhau/ible deposits1 :5ce may be obta9$ ! phosphates1 pota%1 soda1 etc41 :i* we take f ! soil 9 our crops4 ,we also h le>n$ ways 9 :i* ! mat]ials conta9$ 9 our sewage may be kept f ! sea & re/or$ to ! fields4 ,9 fact1 ! rec5t developm5ts ( agriculture h made x n only easy1 b 9 mo/ cases pr(itable1 to avoid ?is wa/e ( mat]ials :i* has r$uc$ s _m regions to pov]ty4 ,we may fairly look =w>d to ! "t1 n long di/ant1 :5 ! old progressive degradation 9 ! f]tility ( ! soil coat+ w no long] occur4 ,x is o!rwise ) ! mass ( ! soil1 t body ( comm+l$ decay$ rock & vegetable matt] :i* mu/ possess a c]ta9 ?ickness 9 ord] to s]ve its ne$s4 ,z yet no consid]able arre/ has be5 made 9 ! processes :i* lead to ! de/ruction ( ?is e>?y mass4 ,9 all c\ntries :]e tillage is g5]al ! riv]s are fl[+ *>g$ ) all !y c be> away ( soil mat]ial4 ,?us 9 ! valley ( ! ,po1 a region :]e1 if ! soil 7 =e/-clad1 ! d[n-we>+ ( ! surface w\ld probably be at no great] rate ?an "o foot 9 five ?\s& ye>s1 ! riv] be>s away ! soil detritus s rapidly t at ! pres5t "t ! d[ngo+ is at ! rate ( "o foot 9 eight hundr$ ye>s1 & ea* decade sees ! soil disappe> f hillsides :i* 7 once f]tile1 b are n[ r$uc$ to b>e rocks4 ,all ab\t ! ,m$it]ranean ! travell] notes ext5sive regions :i* 7 once cov]$ ) luxuriant =e/s1 & 7 aft]w>d ! seats ( prosp]\s agriculture1 :]e ! soil has utt]ly disappe>$1 leav+ only ! b>e rocks1 :i* c\ld n recov] its natural cov]+ 9 ?\s&s ( ye>s ( ! en=c$ fall[4 ,)9 ! limits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! degradation ( ! soil1 ow+ to ! peculi> conditions ( ! c\ntry1 is 9 _m di/ricts go+ =w>d ) />tl+ rapidity4 ,x has be5 ! habit ( our p--a habit fav\r$ by ! wide ext5t ( f]tile & easily acquir$ fronti] gr\nd--recklessly to till _! f>ms until ! fields 7 exhau/$1 & !n to ab&on !m = new gr\nd4 ,by %all[ pl\gh+ on /eep hillsides1 by neglect 9 ! beg9n+ ( ^? gul*es :i* =m 9 su* places1 x is easy 9 ! hill c\ntry ( ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates to h ! soil wa%$ away )9 tw5ty ye>s aft] ! protect+ =e/s h be5 de/roy$4 ,! writ] has e/imat$ t 9 ! ,/ates s\? ( ! ,ohio & ,james ,riv]s m ?an eight ?\s& squ>e miles ( orig9ally f]tile gr\nd h by neglect be5 br\ght into a condition :]e x w no long] be> crops ( any k9d1 & ov] fifte5 hundr$ miles ( ! area h be5 s worn d[n to ! subsoil or ! b$ rock t x may nev] be pr(itable to w9 x aga9 to agricultural uses4 ,hi!rto1 9 our ,am]ican agriculture1 our p h be5 to a great ext5t pione]s2 !y h be5 compell$ to w9 :at !y c\ld 9 ! *eape/ possible way & ) ! rude/ implem5ts1 & )\t mu* reg>d to ! future ( ^? :o 7 9 subsequ5t g5]ations to occupy ! fields :i* !y 7 conqu]+ f ! wild]ness & ! savages4 ,! dang] is n[ t ?is reckless tillage1 9 a way ju/ifi$ ( old1 may be cont9u$ & become habitual ) our p4 ,x is1 inde$1 already a fix$ habit 9 _m p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,s\?1 :]e a small f>m] expects to we> out two or ?ree plantations 9 ! c\rse ( 8 natural life4 ,_m ( !m manage to ru9 f "o to two hundr$ acres ( l& 9 ! c\rse ( half a c5tury ( un9t]rupt$ lab\r4 ,?is sy/em des]ves ! reprobation ( all good citiz5s2 x w\ld be well1 inde$1 if x 7 possible to d s1 to /amp x out by ! law4 ,! same pr9ciple :i* makes x illegal = a man to burn 8 own dwell+ h\se may fairly be appli$ 9 re/ra9+ him f de/roy+ ! l& :i* he tills4 ,!re are a few simple pr9ciples :i*1 if prop]ly appli$1 may s]ve to correct ?is misuse ( our ,am]ican soil4 ,! c>eful till] %\ld note t all soils :atev] :i* lie on declivities hav+ a slope ( m ?an "o foot 9 ?irty inevitably & rapidly wa/e :5 subject to pl\gh tillage4 ,?is in/rum5t t5ds to sme> & consolidate ! lay] ( e>? ov] :i* its heel runs1 s t at a dep? ( a few in*es bel[ ! surface a lay] tol]ably imp]vi\s to wat] is =m$4 ,! result is t ! por\s portion ( ! deposit becomes excessively *>g$ ) wat] 9 times ( heavy ra91 & moves d[n ! hillside 9 a rapid mann]4 ,all su* /eep slopes %\ld be left 9 _! wood$ /ate1 or1 if br\ght into use1 %\ld be reta9$ z pa/ure l&s4 ,:]e1 z is (t5 ! case ) ! f>ms 9 hilly c\ntries1 all ! fields are /eeply incl9$1 x is an excell5t precaution to leave ! upp] "p ( ! slope ) a =e/ cov]+4 ,9 ?is condition n only is ! excessive fl[ ( surface wat] dim9i%$1 b ! moi/ure :i* creeps d[n ! slope f ! wood$ area t5ds to keep ! l[]-ly+ fields 9 a bett] /ate = tillage1 & promotes ! decay ( ! und]ly+ rocks1 & ?us adds to ! body & ri*ness ( ! e>?4 ,on ^? soils :i* mu/ be till$1 ev5 :]e !y t5d to wa% away1 ! aim %\ld be to keep ! detritus op5 to su* a dep? t x may take 9 z mu* z possible ( ! ra9fall1 yield+ ! wat] to ! /reams ?r\gh ! spr+s4 ,?is end c g5]ally be accompli%$ by deep pl\gh+2 x c1 9 almo/ all cases1 be atta9$ by "u-dra9age4 ,! effect ( all[+ ! wat] to p5etrate is n only to dim9i% ! sup]ficial we>+1 b to ma9ta9 ! process ( subsoil & b$-rock decay by :i* ! detrital cov]+ is naturally r5ew$4 ,:]e1 z 9 _m p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 ! wa%+ away ( ! soil c n o!rwise be arre/$1 ! progress ( ! de/ruction c be delay$ by =m+ ) ! skilful use ( ! pl\gh dit*es ( slight declivity lead+ along ! hillsides to ! natural wat]ways4 ,"o ( ! mo/ satisfactory m>ks ( ! improvem5t :i* is n[ tak+ place 9 ! agriculture ( ! cotton-yield+ ,/ates ( ?is c\ntry is to be f\nd 9 ! rapid increase 9 ! use ( ! dit* sy/em "h m5tion$4 ,?is sy/em1 comb9$ ) pl\gh+ 9 ! mann] :]e ! e>? is ) ea* ov]turn+ ?r[n uphill1 w greatly r$uce ! de/ructive effect ( ra9fall on /eep-ly+ fields4 ,b ! only effective protection1 h[ev]1 is accompli%$ by c>efully t]rac+ ! slopes1 s t ! till$ gr\nd lies 9 level b5*es4 ,?is sy/em is ext5sively foll[$ 9 ! ?ickly settl$ portions ( ,europe1 b x may be a c5tury be=e x w be mu* us$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! duty ( ! soil-till] by ! e>? ) :i* he deals may be briefly summ$ up3 ,he %\ld look ^u himself z an ag5t necess>ily int]f]+ ) ! op]ations :i* naturally =m & pres]ve ! soil4 ,he %\ld see t 8 "w br+s two risks2 he may impov]i% ! accumulation ( detrital mat]ial by tak+ out ! plant food m rapidly ?an x is prep>$ = use4 ,?is injuri\s result may be at any "t rep>able by a prop] use ( manures4 ,n s1 h[ev]1 ) ! o!r =m ( de/ruction1 :i* results 9 ! actual removal ( ! soil mat]ials4 ,:]e neglect has br\ght ab\t ?is disa/]1 x c only be repair$ by leav+ ! area to recov] b5ea? ! sl[ly =m$ =e/ coat+4 ,?is process 9 almo/ all cases requires _m ?\s&s ( ye>s = its accompli%m5t4 ,! man :o has wr\ght su* de/ruction has h>m$ ! inh]itance ( life4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,rocks ,,& ,,_! ,,ord]4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ( ?is book ! att5tion ( ! /ud5t has be5 direct$ ma9ly to ! op]ations ( ^? natural =ces :i* act ^u ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,incid5tally ! consequ5ces aris+ f ! applications ( en]gy to ! out] "p ( ! planet h be5 att5d$ to1 b ! ma9 aim has be5 to set =? ! "w :i* sol> en]gy1 op]at+ 9 ! =m ( heat1 accompli%es ^u ! l&s4 ,we h n[ to consid] "o ( ! great results ( ^! actions1 :i* is exhibit$ 9 ! successive /rata t make up ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! mo/ notewor?y effect aris+ f ! action ( ! sol> =ces on ! e>? & _! co-op]ation ) ^? :i* orig9ate 9 our sph]e is f\nd 9 ! de/ruction ( b$s or o!r deposits ( rock1 & ! removal ( ! mat]ials to ! floors ( wat] bas9s1 :]e !y are aga9 aggregat$ 9 /rata1 & gradually br\ght once m into a /able condition )9 ! e>?4 ,?is "w is accompli%$ by wat] 9 its v>i\s /ates1 ! action be+ directly affect$ by gravitation4 ,9 ! =m ( /eam1 wat] :i* has be5 built into rocks & volcanically expell$ by t5sions1 due to ! heat :i* x has acquir$ at great dep?s bel[ ! surface1 bl[s =? great quantities ( lava1 :i* is contribut$ to ! =mation ( /rata1 ei!r directly 9 ! solid =m or indirectly1 aft] hav+ be5 dissolv$ 9 ! sea4 ,act+ z waves1 wat] impell$ by sol> en]gy transmitt$ to x by ! w9ds beats aga9/ ! %ores1 we>+ away great quantities ( rock1 :i* is dragg$ (f to ! neighb\r+ sea bottoms1 !re to resume ! b$d$ =m4 ,mov+ ice 9 glaci]s1 wat] aga9 apply+ sol> en]gy giv5 to x by its elevation above ! sea1 mo/ effectively gr9ds away ! elevat$ p>ts ( ! cru/1 ! dbris be+ deliv]$ to ! ocean4 ,9 ! ra9 ! same "w is done1 & ev5 9 ! w9d ! p[] ( ! sun s]ves to abrade ! high-ly+ rocks1 mak+ new /rata ( _! fragm5ts4 ,z gravity ent]s z an elem5t 9 all ! movem5ts ( divid$ rock1 ! t5d5cy ( ! wa/e worn f ! l& is to ga!r on to ! bottoms ( bas9s :i* conta9 wat]4 ,r>ely1 & only 9 a small way1 ?is process results 9 ! accumulation ( lake deposits2 ! great] "p ( ! "w is done ^u ! sea floor4 ,:5 ! b$s are =m$ 9 lake bas9s1 !y may be accumulat$ 9 ei!r ( two v div]se conditions4 ,!y may be =m$ 9 :at are call$ dead seas1 9 :i* case ! detrital mat]ials are commonly small 9 am\nt1 = ! reason t ! infl[+ /reams are inconsid]able2 9 su* bas9s !re is normally a l>ge %>e ( sal9e mat]ials1 :i* are laid d[n by ! evaporation ( ! wat]4 ,9 ord9>y lakes ! deposits :i* are =m$ are mo/ly due to ! s$im5t t ! riv]s import4 ,^! mat]ials are usually f9e-gra9$1 & ! s& or pebbles :i* !y conta9 are pl5tifully m+l$ ) clay4 ,h5ce lake deposits are usually ( an argillace\s nature4 ,z organic life1 su* z secretes lime/one1 is r>ely develop$ to any ext5t 9 lake bas9s1 limy b$s are v r>ely =m$ b5ea? ^? areas ( wat]4 ,:]e !y occur1 !y are g5]ally due to ! fact t riv]s *>g$ ) limy matt] import su* quantities ( ! sub/ance t x is precipitat$ on ! bottom4 ,z lake deposits are normally =m$ 9 bas9s above ! level ( ! sea1 & z ! dra9age *annels ( ! bas9s are always cutt+ d[n1 ! effect is to leave su* /rata at a consid]able height above ! sea level1 :]e ! erosive ag5ts may readily attack !m4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is condition1 lacu/r9e b$s are r>ely f\nd ( great antiquity2 !y g5]ally disappe> soon aft] !y are =m$4 ,:]e pres]v$1 _! endurance is g5]ally to be attribut$ to ! fact t ! region !y occupy has be5 l[]$ b5ea? ! sea & cov]$ by m>9e /rata4 ,! great laboratory 9 :i* ! s$im5t>y deposits are accumulat$1 ! realm 9 :i* at lea/ n9ety-n9e ( ! hundr$ p>ts ( ^! mat]ials are laid d[n1 is ! oceanic "p ( ! e>?4 ,on ! floors ( ! seas & oceans we h n only ! region :]e ! great] "p ( ! s$im5tation is effect$1 b t 9 :i* ! "w assumes ! greate/ v>iety4 ,! sea bottoms1 z reg>ds ! deposits =m$ ^u !m1 are naturally divid$ into two regions--! "o 9 :i* ! dbris f ! l& =ms an important "p ( ! s$im5t1 & ! o!r1 :]e ! remot5ess ( ! %ores deprives ! s$im5t ( l& wa/e1 or at lea/ ( en\gh ( t mat]ial 9 any su* %>e z c affect ! "* ( ! deposits4 ,:at we may t]m ! littoral or %ore zone ( ! sea occupies a belt ( prevail+ly %all[ wat]1 v>y+ 9 wid? f a few score to a few hundr$ miles4 ,:]e ! bottom desc5ds /eeply f ! coa/1 :]e !re are no /rong (f-%ore sett+ curr5ts1 & :]e ! region is n ne> ! m\? ( a l>ge riv] :i* be>s a great tide ( s$im5t to ! sea1 ! l& wa/e may n affect ! bottom = m ?an a mile or two f ! %ore4 ,:]e ^! conditions are rev]s$1 ! dbris f ! air-cov]$ region may be f\nd ?ree or f\r hundr$ miles f ! coa/ l9e4 ,x %\ld also be not$ t ! incessant up-&-d[n go+s ( ! l& result 9 a con/ant *ange 9 ! position ( ! coa/ l9e1 & consequ5tly 9 ! ext5sion ( ! l& s$im5t1 9 ! c\rse ( a few geological p]iods ov] a f> wid] field ( sea bottom ?an t to :i* !y w\ld atta9 if ! %ores rema9$ /eadfa/4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ! s$im5ts deposit$ )9 ! influ5ce ( ! cont95tal detritus t !y v>y v mu* 9 _! action1 & t ?is v>iation takes place n only horizontally along ! %ores 9 ! same /ratum1 b v]tically1 9 ! succession ( ! b$s4 ,x also may be trac$ d[n ! slope f ! coa/ l9e to deep wat]4 ,?us :]e all ! dbris comes f ! action ( ! waves1 ! deposits =m$ f ! %ore outw>dly w consi/ ( co>se mat]ials1 su* z pebbles ne> ! coa/1 ( s& 9 ! deep] & remot] section1 & ( f9] silt 9 ! "p ( ! deposit :i* is f>!/ out4 ,) ea* *ange 9 ! level ( ! coa/ l9e ! position ( ^! belts w necess>ily be alt]$4 ,:]e a great riv] ent]s ! sea1 ! *anges 9 ! volume ( s$im5t :i* x f "t to "t s5ds =?1 toge!r ) ! alt]nations 9 ! position ( its po9t ( dis*>ge1 l$ to great local complexities 9 ! /rata4 ,moreov]1 ! turbid wat] s5t =? by ! /ream may1 z 9 ! case ( ! tide f ! ,amazon1 be drift$ = hundr$s ( miles along ! coa/ l9e or into ! op5 sea4 ,! mo/ important v>iations :i* occur 9 ! deposits ( ! littoral zone are br\ght ab\t by ! =mations ( rocks m or less compos$ ( lime/one4 ,ev]y:]e ! sea is1 z comp>$ ) lake wat]s1 rem>kably ri* 9 organic life4 ,next ! %ore1 p>tly because ! wat] is !re %all[1 b also because ( its relative w>m? & ! ext5t to :i* x is 9 motion1 organic life1 bo? t ( animals & plants1 commonly develops 9 a v luxuriant way4 ,only :]e ! bottom is compos$ ( drift+ s&s1 :i* d n af=d a foo?old = ^? species :i* ne$ to re/ ^u ! %ore1 d we fail to f9d t surface ?ickly t5ant$ ) v>i$ =ms4 ,^! are arrang$ accord+ to ! dep? ( ! bottom4 ,! species ( m>9e plants :i* are atta*$ to fix$ objects are limit$ to ! dep? )9 :i* ! sunlight effectively p5etrates ! wat]2 9 g5]al1 x may be said t !y d n ext5d bel[ a dep? ( "o hundr$ feet4 ,! animal =ms are di/ribut$1 accord+ to _! k9ds1 ov] ! floor1 b few species hav+ ! capacity to endure any great range 9 ! pressure ( ! sea wat]4 ,only a few =ms1 inde$1 ext5d f l[ tide to ! dep? ( a ?\s& feet4 ,! greate/ developm5t ( organic life1 ! realm 9 :i* ! l>ge/ numb] ( species occur1 & :]e _! gr[? is mo/ rapid1 lies )9 ab\t a hundr$ feet ( ! l[-tide level4 ,"h sunlight1 w>m?1 & motion 9 ! wat] comb9e to fav\r organic developm5t4 ,x is 9 ?is region t coral reefs & o!r great accumulations ( lime/one1 =m$ f ! skeletons ( polyps & mollusks1 mo/ abundantly occur4 ,^! deposits ( a limy nature dep5d ^u a v delicate adju/m5t ( ! conditions :i* fav\r ! gr[? ( c]ta9 creatures2 v slight geographic *anges1 by induc+ movem5ts ( s& or mud1 are apt to int]rupt _! =mation1 br++ ab\t a great & imm$iate alt]ation 9 ! "* ( ! deposits4 ,?us x is t :]e geologi/s f9d consid]able fields ( rock1 :]e lime/ones are int]calat$ ) s&/ones & deposits ( clay1 !y are ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ t ! /rata 7 laid d[n ne> "s anci5t %ore4 ,9 g5]al1 ^! coa/ deposits become m & m limy z we g t[>d ! tropical realms1 & ?is = ! reason t ! species :i* secrete l>ge am\nts ( lime are 9 ^? regions mo/ abundant & atta9 ! mo/ rapid gr[?4 ,! /ony polyps1 ! mo/ vigor\s ( ! lime/one mak]s1 gr[ 9 l>ge quantities only 9 ! tropical realm1 or ne> to x1 :]e ocean /reams ( great w>m? may provide ! creatures ) ! conditions ( temp]ature & food :i* !y ne$4 ,z we pass f ! %ore to ! deep] sea1 ! %>e ( l& detritus rapidly dim9i%es until1 z be=e rem>k$1 at ! di/ance ( five hundr$ miles f ! coa/ l9e1 v little ( t wa/e1 except t f volcanoes1 atta9s ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,by f> ! l>g] "p ( ! contributions :i* g to ! =mation ( ^! deep-sea /rata come f organic rema9s1 :i* are cont9ually fall+ ^u ! sea floor4 ,9 "p1 ?is wa/e is d]iv$ f creatures :i* dwell ^u ! bottom2 9 consid]able measure1 h[ev]1 x is f ! dead bodies ( ^? =ms :i* live ne> ! surface ( ! sea1 & :i* :5 dy+ s9k sl[ly ?r\gh ! int]m$iate realm to ! bottom4 ,ow+ to ! abs5ce ( sunlight1 ! prevail+ly cold wat] ( ! deep] seas1 & ! lack ( vegetation 9 ^? realms1 ! gr[? ( organic =ms on ! deep-sea floor is relatively sl[4 ,?us x happ5s t ea* %ell or o!r contribution to ! s$im5t lies = "s "t on ! bottom be=e x is buri$4 ,:ile 9 ?is condition x is apt to be dev\r$ by "s ( ! _m species :i* dwell on ! bottom & subsi/ f ! rema9s ( animals & plants :i* !y f9d !re4 ,9 all cases ! fossilization ( any =m dep5ds ^u ! accumulation ( s$im5t be=e ! processes ( de/ruction h ov]tak5 !m1 & among ^! processes we mu/ give ! fir/ place to ! creatures :i* subsi/ on %ells1 bones1 or o!r sub/ances ( l nature :i* f9d _! way to ! ocean floor4 ,9 ! absolute d>kness1 ! /ill wat]1 & ! exce$+ cold ( ! deep] seas1 animals f9d difficult conditions = developm5t4 ,moreov]1 9 ?is deep realm !re is no native vegetation1 &1 9 g5]al1 b little mat]ial ( ?is nature desc5ds to ! bottom f ! surface ( ! sea4 ,! result is1 ! animals h to subsi/ on ! rema9s ( o!r animals :i* at "s /ep 9 ! succession h obta9$ _! prov5d] f ! plants :i* belong on ! surface or 9 ! %all[ wat]s ( ! sea4 ,?is limitation ( ! food supply causes ! dep?s ( ! sea to be a realm ( cont9ual hung]1 a region :]e e p>ticle ( organic matt] is apt to be seiz$ ^u by "s ne$y creature4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! fact t little organic matt] on ! deep] sea floors escapes be+ dev\r$1 ! mo/ ( ! mat]ial ( ?is nature :i* goes into /rata ent]s t /ate 9 a f9ely divid$ condition4 ,9 ! gr\p ( worms alone--=ms :i* 9 a great div]sity ( species inhabit ! sea floor--we f9d creatures :i* are specially adapt$ to dige/+ ! dbris :i* ga!rs on ! sea bottom4 ,w&]+ ov] ?is surface1 mu* 9 ! mann] ( our ord9>y e>?worms1 ^! creatures dev\r ! mud1 void+ ! matt] f _! bodies 9 a yet m p]fectly divid$ =m4 ,h5ce x comes ab\t t ! lime/one b$s1 s commonly =m$ b5ea? ! op5 seas1 are g5]ally compos$ ( mat]ials :i* %[ b few & v imp]fect fossils4 ,/udy+ any s]ies ( lime/one b$s1 we commonly f9d t ea* lay]1 9 great] or less degree1 is made up ( r massive mat]ials1 :i* evid5tly came to _! place 9 ! =m ( a limy mud4 ,v (t5 ?is lime has cry/alliz$1 & ?us has lo/ all trace ( its orig9al organic /ructure4 ,"o ( ! conspicu\s features :i* may be obs]v$ 9 any succession ( lime/one b$s is ! p>t+s or divisions into lay]s :i* occur ) v>i$ frequ5cy4 ,sometimes at v]tical int]vals ( n m ?an "o or two in*es1 aga9 ) spac+s ( a score ( feet1 we f9d divisional planes1 :i* indicate a sudd5 *ange 9 ! process ( rock =mation4 ,! lime disappe>s1 & 9 place ( x we h a ?9 lay] ( v f9e detritus1 :i* takes on ! =m ( a clay4 ,exam9+ ^! p>t+s ) c>e1 we obs]ve t on ! upp] surface on ! lime/one ! rema9s ( ! animal :i* dwelt on ! anci5t sea floor are rem>kably well pres]v$1 !y hav+ evid5tly escap$ ! effect ( ! process :i* r$uc$ _! ance/ors1 ^: rema9s con/itute ! lay]1 to mud4 ,fur!rmore1 we note t ! %aly lay] is n only lack+ 9 lime1 b commonly conta9s no trace ( animals su* z might h dwelt on ! bottom4 ,! fossils x be>s are usually ( species :i* swam 9 ! ov]ly+ wat] & came to ! bottom aft] dea?4 ,foll[+ up ?r\gh ! lay] ( %ale1 we note t ! ord9>y bottom life gradually reappe>s1 & %ortly becomes s pl5tiful t ! deposit resumes ! "* :i* x _h be=e ! int]ruption began4 ,(t51 h[ev]1 we note t ! assemblage ( species :i* dwelt on ! giv5 area ( sea floor has und]gone a consid]able *ange4 ,=ms 9 exi/5ce 9 ! l[] lay] may be lack+ 9 ! upp]1 _! place be+ tak5 by new v>ieties4 ,s f> ! orig9 ( ^! divisional planes 9 m>9e deposits has receiv$ little att5tion f geologi/s2 !y h1 inde$1 assum$ t ea* ( ^! alt]ations indicates "s sudd5 di/urbance ( ! life ( ! sea floors4 ,!y h1 h[ev]1 g5]ally assum$ t ! *ange 0 due to alt]ations 9 ! dep? ( ! sea or 9 ! run ( ocean curr5ts4 ,x seems to ! writ]1 h[ev]1 t :ile ^! divisions may 9 c]ta9 cases be due to ! above-m5tion$ &1 inde$1 to a great v>iety ( causes1 !y are 9 g5]al be/ to be expla9$ by ! action ( e>?quakes4 ,wat] be+ an exce$+ly ela/ic sub/ance1 an e>?quake passes ?r\gh x ) mu* great] spe$ ?an x trav]ses ! rocks :i* support ! ocean floor4 ,! result is t1 :5 ! fluid & solid oscillate 9 ! repeat$ sw++s :i* a %ock causes1 !y d n move toge!r1 b rub ov] ea* o!r1 ! indep5d5t movem5ts hav+ ! sw+ ( f a few in*es to a foot or two 9 %ocks ( consid]able en]gy4 ,:5 ! sea bottom & ! ov]ly+ wat]1 vibrat+ "u ! impulse ( an e>?quake %ock1 move pa/ ea* o!r1 ! inevitable result is ! =mation ( muddy wat]2 ! v f9e silt ( ! bottom is %ak5 up into ! fluid1 :i* aft]w>d desc5ds z a %eet to its orig9al position4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t su* muddy+ ( wat]1 9 :i* species accu/om$ to o!r conditions dwell1 inevitably leads to _! dea? by cov]+ _! brea?+ organs & o!rwise di/urb+ ! delicately balanc$ conditions :i* enable !m to exi/4 ,we f9d1 9 fact1 t mo/ ( ! t5ants ( ! wat]1 p>ticul>ly ! =ms :i* dwell ^u ! bottom1 are provid$ ) an array ( contrivances :i* enable !m to cle> away f _! bodies su* small quantities ( silt z may inconv5i5ce !m4 ,?us1 9 ! case ( our common clam1 ! brea?+ organs are cov]$ ) vibratory cilia1 :i*1 act+ l brooms1 sweep (f any =eign matt] :i* may come ^u _! surfaces4 ,moreov]1 ! creature has a long1 d\ble1 sp\tlike organ1 :i* x c elevate "s di/ance above ! bottom1 ?r\gh :i* x draws & dis*>ges ! wat] f :i* x obta9s food & air4 ,o!r =ms1 su* z ! cr9oids1 or sea lilies1 elevate ! brea?+ p>ts on top ( tall /ems ( m>vell\s con/ruction1 :i* br+s ^? vital organs at ! level1 x may be1 ( ?ree or f\r feet above ! zone ( mud4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! peculi> me?od ( gr[?1 ! cr9oids (t5 escape ! damage done by ! di/urbance ( ! bottom1 & ?us =m lime/one b$s ( rem>kable ?ickness2 sometimes1 inde$1 we f9d ^! lay]s compos$ ma9ly ( cr9oidal rema9s1 :i* exhibit only slight traces ( p>t+s su* z we h describ$1 be+ ess5tially unit$ = ! dep? ( t5 or tw5ty feet4 ,:]e ! lay]s h be5 ma9ly accumulat$ by %ellfi%1 _! av]age ?ickness is less ?an half a foot4 ,:5 we exam9e ! p>titions betwe5 ! lay]s ( lime/one1 we commonly f9d t1 h[ev] ?91 !y g5]ally ext5d = an indef9ite di/ance 9 e direction4 ,! writ] has trac$ "s ( ^! = miles2 nev]1 inde$1 has he be5 able to f9d :]e !y disappe>$4 ,?is fact makes x cle> t ! de/ruction :i* took place at ! /age :]e ^! p>t+s 7 =m$ 0 widespread2 s f> z x 0 due to e>?quake %ocks1 we may fairly believe t 9 _m cases x occurr$ ov] areas :i* 7 to be measur$ by t5s ( ?\s&s ( squ>e miles4 ,inde$1 f :at we "k ( e>?quake %ocks1 x seems likely t ! deva/ation may at times h affect$ millions ( squ>e miles4 ,ano!r class ( accid5ts connect$ ) e>?quakes may also sudd5ly di/urb ! mud on ! sea bottom4 ,:51 z else:]e not$1 a %ock orig9ates b5ea? ! sea1 ! effect is sudd5ly to elevate ! wat] ov] ! seat ( ! j>r+ & ! regions !reab\ts to ! height ( "s feet4 ,?is elevation quickly takes ! %ape ( a r+like wave1 :i* rolls (f 9 e direction f its po9t ( orig94 ,:]e ! sea is deep1 ! effect ( ?is wave on ! bottom may be b slight2 b z ! undulation atta9s %all[] wat]1 & 9 proportion to ! %oal+1 ! front ( ! surge is ret>d$ 9 its advance by ! friction ( ! bottom1 :ile ! re> "p1 be+ 9 deep] wat]1 cr[ds ^u ! advanc+ l9e4 ,! action is precisely t :i* has be5 describ$ z occurr+ 9 w9d-made waves z !y approa* ! bea*2 b 9 ?is la/-nam$ gr\p ( undulations1 because ( ! great wid? ( ! swell1 ! effect ( ! %all[+ is evid5t 9 mu* deep] wat]4 ,x is likely t at ! dep? ( a ?\s& feet ! pass+ ( "o ( ^! va/ surges born ( e>?quakes may s /ir ! mud ( ! sea floor z to br+ ab\t a widespread de/ruction ( life1 & ?us give rise to _m ( ! p>titions betwe5 /rata4 ,if we exam9e ) ! microscope ! f9e-gra9$ silts :i* make up ! %aly lay]s betwe5 lime/ones1 we f9d ! mat]ials to be mo/ly ( inorganic orig94 ,x is h>d to trace ! orig9 ( ! m9]al matt] :i* x conta9s2 "s ( ! fragm5ts are likely to prove ( ,volcanic orig92 o!rs1 bits ( du/ f meteorites2 yet o!rs1 du/ bl[n f ! l&1 :i* may1 z we "k1 be convey$ = any di/ance across ! seas4 ,m+l$ ) ?is s$im5t ( an inorganic orig9 we almo/ inv>iably f9d a %>e ( organic wa/e1 d]iv$ n f creatures :i* dwelt ^u ! bottom1 b f ^? :i* inhabit$ ! high]-ly+ wat]s4 ,if1 n[1 we take a portion ( ! lime/one lay] :i* lies above or bel[ ! %ale p>t+1 & c>efully dissolve out ) acids ! limy matt] :i* x conta9s1 we obta9 a residuum :i* 9 g5]al "*1 except s f> z ! p>ticles may h be5 affect$ by ! acid1 is exactly l ! mat]ial :i* =ms ! claylike p>tition4 ,we are ?us readily l$ to ! conclusion t on ! floors ( ! deep] seas !re is con/antly desc5d+1 9 ! =m ( a v sl[ %[]1 a mass ( m9]al detritus4 ,:]e organic life belong+ to ! species :i* secrete h>d %ells or skeletons is abs5t1 ?is accumulation1 proce$+ ) exce$+ sl[ness1 gradually accumulates lay]s1 :i* take on a %aly "*4 ,:]e lime/one-mak+ animals ab\nd1 !y s increase ! rate ( deposition t ! proportion ( ! m9]al mat]ial 9 ! gr[+ /rata is v mu* r$uc$2 x may1 inde$1 become z small z "o p] c5t ( ! mass4 ,9 ?is case we may say t ! deposit ( lime/one grew a hundr$ times z fa/ z ! int]v5+ b$s ( %ale4 ,! =ego+ consid]ations make x tol]ably cle> t ! sea floor is 9 receipt ( two div]se classes ( s$im5t--^? ( a m9]al & ^? ( an organic orig94 ,! m9]al1 or inorganic1 mat]ials pr$om9ate along ! %ores4 ,!y gradually dim9i% 9 quantity t[>d ! op5 sea1 :]e ! supply is ma9ly dep5d5t on ! sub/ances ?r[n =? f volcanoes1 on pumice 9 its massive or its comm9ut$ =m--i4e41 volcanic du/1 /ates ( lava 9 :i* ! mat]ial1 because ( ! vesicles :i* x conta9s1 c float = ages be=e x comes to re/ on ! sea bottom4 ,v>iations 9 ! volcanic wa/e contribut$ to ! sea floor may some:at affect ! quantity ( ! inorganic s$im5ts1 b1 z a :ole1 ! d[nfall+ ( ^! fragm5ts is probably at a s+ul>ly uni=m rate4 ,x is o!rwise ) ! contributions ( s$im5t aris+ f organic =ms4 ,?is v>ies 9 a surpris+ measure4 ,on ! coral reefs1 su* z =m 9 ! mid oceans1 ! proportion ( matt] :i* has n come into ! accumulation ?r\gh ! bodies ( animals & plants may be z small z "o t5? ( "o p] c5t1 or less4 ,9 ! deep] seas1 x is d\btful :e!r ! rate ( animal gr[? is su* z to p]mit ! =mation ( any b$s :i* h less ?an "o half ( _! mass made up ( mat]ials :i* fell ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,9 c]ta9 areas ( ! op5 seas ! upp] "p ( ! wat] is dwelt 9 by a ho/ ( creatures1 mo/ly =am9if]a1 :i* extract lime/one f ! wat]1 &1 on dy+1 s5d _! %ells to ! bottom4 ,?us 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 ev5 :]e ! sea floor is ( great dep? b5ea? ! surface1 !re is con/antly accumulat+ a mass ( limy matt]1 :i* is =m+ v massive lime/one /rata1 some:at resembl+ *alk deposits1 su* z abundantly occur 9 ,great ,brita91 9 ! neighb\r+ p>ts ( ,europe1 9 ,texas1 & else:]e4 ,accumulations su* z ?is1 :]e ! supply is d]iv$ f ! surface ( ! wat]1 are n affect$ by ! accid5ts :i* divide b$s made on ! bottom 9 ! mann] be=e describ$4 ,!y may1 !re=e1 h ! s+ul>ly cont9u\s "* :i* we note 9 ! ,engli% *alk1 :]e1 = ! ?ickness ( hundr$s ( feet1 we may h no evid5t p>titions1 except c]ta9 divisions1 :i* h evid5tly orig9at$ long aft] ! b$s 7 =m$4 ,we h already not$ ! fact t1 :ile ! floors ( ! deep] seas appe> to lack m\nta9\s elevations1 ^? aris+ f ! fold+ ( /rata1 !y are pl5tifully scatt]$ ov] ) volcanic cones4 ,we may !re=e suppose t1 9 g5]al1 ! deposits =m$ on ! sea floor are to a great ext5t affect$ by ! mat]ials :i* ^! v5ts ca/ =?4 ,lava /reams & %[]s repres5t only a "p ( ! contributions f volcanoes1 :i* f9ally f9d _! way to ! bottom4 ,9 l>g] "p1 ! mat]ials ?r[n =? are probably fir/ dissolv$ 9 ! wat] & !n tak5 up by ! organic species2 only aft] ! dea? ( ^! creatures does ! wa/e g to ! bottom4 ,z ho/s ( ^! creatures h no solid skeleton to contribute to ! sea floor1 su* m9]al matt] z !y may obta9 is aft] _! dea? at once re/or$ to ! sea4 ,n only does ! contribution ( organic s$im5t dim9i% 9 quantity ) ! dep? :i* is atta9$1 b ! deep] p>ts ( ! ocean b$ appe> to be 9 a condition :]e no accumulations ( ?is nature are made1 & ?is = ! reason t ! wat] dissolves ! organic matt] m rapidly ?an x is laid d[n4 ,?us 9 place ( lime/one1 :i* w\ld o!rwise =m1 we h only a claylike residuum1 su* z is obta9$ :5 we dissolve lime rocks 9 acids4 ,?is process ( solution1 by :i* ! limy matt] deposit$ on ! bottom is tak5 back into ! wat]1 goes on ev]y:]e1 b at a rate :i* increases ) ! dep?4 ,?is increase is due 9 "p to ! augm5tation ( pressure1 & 9 "p to ! l>g] %>e ( c>bonic dioxide :i* ! wat] at great dep?s holds4 ,! result is1 t explorations ) ! dr$ge seem to indicate t on c]ta9 p>ts ( ! deep] sea floors ! rocks are und]go+ a process ( dissolution comp>able to t :i* takes place 9 lime/one cav]ns4 ,s consid]able is ! solv5t "w t a l>ge "p ( ! inorganic wa/e appe>s to be tak5 up by ! wat]s1 s z to leave ! bottom ess5tially )\t s$im5t>y accumulations4 ,! sea1 9 a ^w1 appe>s to be eat+ into rocks :i* x laid d[n be=e ! depression atta9$ its pres5t great dep?4 ,we %\ld "h note some?+ ( ! conditions :i* det]m9e ! supply ( food :i* ! m>9e animals obta94 ,fir/ ( all1 we may recur to ! po9t t ! ocean wat]s appe> to conta9 some?+ ( all ! e>? mat]ials :i* d n readily decompose :5 !y are tak5 into ! /ate ( solution4 ,^! m9]al sub/ances1 includ+ ! metals1 are obta9$ 9 "p f ! l&s1 ?r\gh ! action ( ! ra9 wat] & ! waves1 b p]haps 9 l>g] %>e f ! volcanic matt] :i*1 9 ! =m ( float+ lava1 pumice1 or du/1 is pl5tifully deliv]$ to ! sea4 ,except d\btfully1 & at mo/ 9 a v small way1 ?is *emical /ore ( ! sea wat] c n be directly tak5 into ! /ructures ( animals2 x c only be imm$iately appropriat$ by ! m>9e plants4 ,^! =ms c only develop 9 t sup]ficial realm ( ! seas :i* is p5etrat$ by ! sunlight1 or say )9 ! dep? ( five hundr$ feet1 mo/ly )9 "o hundr$ feet ( ! surface1 ab\t "o ?irtie? ( ! av]age1 & ab\t "o fiftie? ( ! maximum ocean dep?4 ,on ?is m>9e plant life1 & 9 a small measure on ! vegetable matt] d]iv$ f ! l&1 ! m>9e animals prim>ily dep5d = _! prov5d]4 ,?r\gh ! conditions :i* br+ ab\t ! =mation ( ,s>gassum seas1 ^? areas ( ! ocean :]e seawe$s gr[ afloat1 z well z by ! wat]-logg+ & weight+ d[n ( o!r vegetable matt]1 "s "p ( ! plant rema9s is c>ri$ to ! sea floor1 ev5 to great dep?s2 b ! ma9 dep5d5ce ( ! deep-sea =ms ( animals is ^u o!r animal =ms1 :i* !mselves may h obta9$ _! /ore f yet o!rs4 ,9 fact1 9 any deep-sea =m we might f9d x necess>y to trace back ! food by ?\s&s ( /eps be=e we f\nd ! creature :i* _h access to ! vegetable matt]4 ,x is easy to see h[ su* conditions pr(\ndly limit ! developm5t ( organic be+ 9 ! abysm ( ! ocean4 ,! s$5t>y animals1 or ^? :i* are fix$ to ! sea bottom--a gr\p :i* includes ! l>g] "p ( ! m>9e species--h to dep5d = _! su/5ance on ! movem5t ( ! wat] :i* passes _! /ation4 ,if ! seas 7 p]fectly /ill1 none ( ^! creatures except ! mo/ m9ute c\ld be f$2 !re=e ! curr5ts ( ! ocean g f> by _! spe$ to det]m9e ! rate at :i* life may fl\ri%4 ,at great dep?s1 z we h se51 ^! movem5ts are practically limit$ to t :i* is caus$ by ! sl[ movem5t :i* ! tide br+s ab\t4 ,! am\nt ( ?is motion is proportional to ! dep? ( ! sea2 9 ! deep] p>ts1 x c>ries ! wat] to & fro twice ea* day = ! di/ance ( ab\t two hundr$ & fifty feet4 ,9 ! %all[] wat] ?is motion increases 9 proportion to ! %oal+1 & 9 ! regions ne> ! %ores ! curr5ts ( ! sea :i*1 except ! massive drift f ! poles1 d n usually t\* ! bottom1 beg9 to h _! influ5ce4 ,:]e ! wat] is less ?an a hundr$ feet 9 dep?1 ea* wave contributes to ! movem5t1 :i* atta9s its maximum ne> ! %ore1 :]e e surge sweeps ! wat] rapidly to & fro4 ,x is 9 ?is surge belt1 :]e ! waves are brok51 t m>9e animals are be/ provid$ ) food1 & x is "h t _! gr[? is mo/ rapid4 ,if ! /ud5t w obta9 a p9t ( wat] f ! surf1 he w f9d t x is cl\d$ by fragm5ts ( organic matt]1 ! quantity 9 a p\nd ( ! fluid (t5 am\nt+ to ! fiftie? "p ( its weight4 ,he w ?us p]ceive t along ! %ore l9e1 ?\gh ! provision ( victuals is mo/ abundant1 ! /ore is made f ! animals & plants :i* are gr\nd up 9 ! mill4 ,9 a ^w1 :ile ! coa/ is a place ( rapid gr[?1 x is also a region ( rapid de/ruction2 only 9 ! case ( ! coral animals1 :i* associate _! bodies ) a numb] ( myriads 9 l>ge & elaborately organiz$ communities1 d we f9d animals :i* c make su* head aga9/ ! action ( ! waves t !y c build great deposits 9 _! realm4 ,x %\ld be not$ t a "p ( ! advantage :i* is af=d$ to organic life by ! %ore belt is due to ! fact t ! wat]s are !re subject$ to a con/ant process ( aration by ! :ipp+ into foam & spray :i* occurs :]e ! waves ov]turn4 ,x w be int]e/+ to ! /ud5t to note ! great numb] ( me*anical contrivances :i* h be5 devis$ to give security to animals & plants :i* face ^! difficult conditions aris+ f successive viol5t bl[s ( fall+ wat]4 ,among ^! may be briefly not$ ^? ( ! limpets--mollusks :i* dwell 9 a conical %ell1 :i* faces ! wat] ) a domelike outside1 & :i* at ! mom5t ( ! /roke is drawn d[n ^u ! rock by ! /rong muscle :i* fa/5s ! creature to its f\ndation4 ,! b>nacles1 :i* ) _! w$ge-%ap$ pr[s cut ! wat] at ! mom5t ( ! /roke1 b op5 9 ! pauses betwe5 ! waves1 s t ! creature may ) its bran*+ arms grasp at ! food :i* floats ab\t x2 ! nullipores1 =ms ( seawe$ :i* are fram$ ( lime/one & cl+ firmly to ! rock--af=d yet o!r in/ances ( protective adaptations contriv$ to insure ! safety ( creatures :i* dwell 9 ! field ( abundant food supply4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! facts above pres5t$ w %[ ! read] t ! m>9e s$im5ts are =m$ "u conditions :i* p]mit a great v>iety 9 ! nature ( ! mat]ials ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,z soon z ! deposits are built into rocks & cov]$ by lat] accumulations1 _! mat]ials ent] ! laboratory ( ! "u e>?1 :]e !y are subject$ to progressive *anges4 ,ev5 be=e !y h atta9$ a great dep?1 ?r\gh ! lay+ d[n ( lat] deposits ^u !m1 *anges beg9 :i* s]ve to alt] _! /ructure4 ,! fragm5ts ( a soluble k9d beg9 to be dissolv$1 & are r$eposit$1 s t ! mass commonly becomes mu* m solid1 pass+ f ! /ate ( detritus to t ( m or less solid rock4 ,:5 yet m deeply buri$1 & !reby br\ght into a realm ( great] w>m?1 or p]haps :5 p5etrat$ by dikes & !reby heat$1 ^! *anges g yet fur!r4 ,m ( ! mat]ial is commonly re>rang$ by solution & r$eposition1 s t lime/one may be conv]t$ into cry/all9e m>ble1 granul> s&/ones into firm masses1 kn[n z qu>tzites1 & clays into ! h>d] =m ( slate4 ,:]e ! *anges g to ! extreme po9t1 rocks orig9ally di/9ctly b$d$ probably may be s tak5 to pieces & made ov] t all traces ( _! /ratification may be de/roy$1 all fossils oblit]at$1 & ! /one trans=m$ into mica s*i/1 or granite or o!r cry/all9e rock4 ,x may be inject$ into ! ov]ly+ /rata 9 ! =m ( dikes1 or x may be bl[n =? into ! air ?r\gh volcanoes4 ,involv$ 9 m\nta9-fold+1 aft] be+ m or less *ang$ 9 ! mann] describ$1 ! b$s may become tangl$ toge!r l ! rumpl$ leaves ( a book1 or ev5 ) ! complexity ( sn>l$ ?read4 ,all ^! *anges ( condition makes x difficult = ! geologi/ to unravel ! succession ( /rata s t he may "k ! true ord] ( ! rocks1 & read f !m ! /ory ( ! successive geological p]iods4 ,?is task1 ?\gh incomplete1 has by ! lab\rs ( _m ?\s& m5 be5 s f> advanc$ t we are n[ able to divide ! record into *apt]s1 ! divisions ( ! geologic ages1 & to give "s acc\nt ( ! succession ( ev5ts1 organic & geographic1 :i* h occurr$ s9ce life began to write its records4 ,,e>?quakes4 ,9 ord9>y exp]i5ce we seem to behold ! great] "p ( ! e>? :i* meets our eyes z fix$ 9 its position4 ,a bett] und]/&+ %[s u t no?+ 9 ?is _w is immovable4 ,9 ! realm ( ! inorganic _w ! atoms & molecules ev5 9 solid bodies h to be conceiv$ z end[$ ) ceaseless ?\gh ord]$ motions4 ,ev5 :5 matt] is built into ! solid rock1 x is d\btful :e!r any gra9 ( x ev] comes really to re/4 ,"u ! /ra9s :i* arise f ! contraction ( ! e>?'s int]ior & ! *emical *anges :i* ! rocks und]go1 ea* bit is subject to ev]-*ang+ ?ru/s1 :i* some:at affect its position4 ,if we 9 any way c\ld br+ a gra9 ( s& f any /ratum "u a microscope1 s t we c\ld p]ceive its *anges ( place1 we %\ld probably f9d t x 0 endlessly sway+ ?is way & t1 ) ref]5ce to an ideally fix$ po9t1 su* z ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,b ev5 t c5tre1 :e!r ( gravity or ( figure1 is probably nev] at re/4 ,e>? movem5ts may be divid$ into two gr\ps--^? :i* arise f ! bodily %ift+ ( matt]1 :i* conveys ! p>ticles ?is way or t1 or1 z we say1 *ange _! place1 & ^? :i* m]ely produce vibration1 9 :i* ! p>ticles1 aft] _! vibratory movem5t1 return to _! orig9al place4 ,= purposes ( illu/ration ! fir/1 or translatory motion1 may be comp>$ to t :i* takes place :5 a bell is c>ri$ along ^u a locomotive or a %ip2 & ! second1 or vibratory movem5t1 to :at takes place :5 ! bell is by a bl[ made to r+4 ,x is ) ^! r++ movem5ts1 z we may t]m !m1 t we f9d ourselves conc]n$ :5 we und]take ! /udy ( e>?quakes4 ,x is desirable t ! read] %\ld preface 8 /udy ( e>?quakes by not+ ! great &1 at ! same "t1 v>iable ela/icity ( rocks4 ,9 ! extreme =m ?is ela/icity is v well %[n :5 a toy m>ble1 :i* is made ( a close-textur$ rock1 su* z t f :i* x d]ives its "n1 is ?r[n ^u a pavem5t compos$ ( l d5se mat]ial4 ,exp]im5t w %[ t ! little sph]e c (t5 be made to b\nce to ! height ( tw5ty feet )\t break+4 ,if1 !n1 ) ! same en]gy ! m>ble is ?r[n ^u a brick floor1 ! reb\nd w be v mu* dim9i%$4 ,x is well to consid] :at happ5s to produce ! reb\nd4 ,:5 ! sph]e /rikes ! floor x *anges its %ape1 becom+ %ort] 9 ! axis at "r angles to ! po9t :i* 0 /ruck1 & at ! same in/ant exp&$ along ! equator ( t axis4 ,! flatt5+ rema9s = only a small fraction ( a second2 ! sph]e vibrates s t x /ret*es along ! l9e on :i* x previ\sly %ort5$1 &1 z ?is movem5t takes place ) great swiftness1 x may be said to propel itself away f ! floor4 ,at ! same "t a simil> movem5t goes on 9 ! rock ( ! floor1 &1 :]e ! rate ( vibration is ! same1 ! two kicks are co9cid5t1 & s ! sph]e is impell$ viol5tly away f ! po9t ( contact4 ,:]e ! m>ble comes 9 contact ) brick1 9 "p because ( ! less] ela/icity ( t mat]ial1 due to its r por\s /ructure1 & p>tly because x does n vibrate at ! same rate z ! m>ble1 ! expell+ bl[ is mu* less /rong4 ,all rocks :atev]1 ev5 ^? :i* appe> z incoh]5t s&s1 are m or less set into vibratory motion :5ev] !y are /ruck by a bl[4 ,9 ! cru/ ( ! e>? v>i\s accid5ts occur :i* may produce t sudd5 motion :i* we t]m a bl[4 ,:5 we h exam9$ into ! orig9 ( ^! impulses1 & ! way 9 :i* !y are transmitt$ ?r\gh ! rocks1 we obta9 a basis = und]/&+ e>?quake %ocks4 ,! commone/ cause ( ! j>r+s 9 ! e>? is f\nd 9 ! =mation ( fractures1 kn[n z faults4 ,if ! read] has ev] be5 ^u a froz5 lake at a "t :5 ! wea!r 0 gr[+ cold]1 & ! ice1 !re=e1 0 %r9k+1 he may h not$ ! r5d+ s\nd & ! slight vibration :i* comes ) ! =mation ( a crack trav]s+ ! %eet ( ice4 ,at su* a "t he feels a movem5t :i* is an e>?quake1 & :i* repres5ts ! simpl] =m ( ^? tremors aris+ f ! sudd5 rupture ( fault planes4 ,if he has a m9d to make ! exp]im5t1 he may hang a bullet by a ?read f a small frame :i* re/s ^u ! ice1 & note t z ! vibration occurs ! little p5dulum sways to & fro1 ?us indicat+ ! oscillations ( ! ice4 ,! same in/rum5t w move 9 an id5tical mann] :5 affect$ by a quak+ 9 ! rocks4 ,:]e ! rocks are set 9 vibration by a r5t :i* is =m$ 9 !m1 ! ph5om5a are m complicat$1 & (t5 on a va/ly l>g] scale ?an 9 ! simple conditions af=d$ by a %eet ( ice4 ,! rocks on ei!r side ( ! rupture g5]ally slide ov] ea* o!r1 & ! oppos+ masses are r5t 9 _! friction ^u "o ano!r2 ! result is1 n only ! fir/ j> =m$ by ! initial fracture1 b a great _m successive movem5ts f ! o!r breakages :i* occur4 ,aga91 9 ! deep] p>ts ( ! cru/1 ! fault fissures are (t5 at ! mom5t ( _! =mation fill$ by a viol5t inru% ( liquid rock4 ,?is1 z x swiftly moves along1 te>s away masses f ! walls1 & :5 x /rikes ! end ( ! op5+ deliv]s a bl[ :i* may be ( great viol5ce4 ,! nature ( ?is /roke may be judg$ by ! famili> in/ance :]e ! relatively sl[-fl[+ /ream f a hydrant pipe is sudd5ly *ok$ by clos+ ! /opcock4 ,unless ! plumb] provides a cu%ion ( air to dim9i% ! en]gy ( ! bl[1 x is (t5 /rong en\gh to %ake ! h\se4 ,aga91 :5 /eam or o!r gases are by a sudd5 dim9ution ( pressure enabl$ to exp&1 !y may deliv] a bl[ :i* is exactly l t caus$ by ! explosion ( gunp[d]1 :i*1 ev5 :5 x ru%es aga9/ ! s(t cu%ion ( ! air1 may cause a j>r+ t may be felt z well z he>d to a great di/ance4 ,su* movem5ts v frequ5tly occur 9 ! eruptions ( volcanoes2 !y cause a quiv]+ ( ! e>?1 :i* may be felt = a great di/ance f ! imm$iate seat ( ! di/urbance4 ,:5 by any ( ! sudd5 movem5ts :i* h be5 above describ$ a j> is appli$ to ! rocks1 ! wave flies ?r\gh ! m or less ela/ic mass until ! en]gy involv$ 9 x is exhau/$4 ,?is may n be br\ght ab\t until ! motion has travell$ = ! di/ance ( hundr$s ( miles4 ,9 ! great e>?quake ( #agee1 kn[n z ! ,lisbon %ock1 ! records make x seem probable t ! movem5t 0 felt ov] "o eigh? "p ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,su* great di/urbances probably br+ ab\t a motion ( ! rocks ne> ! po9t ( orig91 :i* may be express$ 9 oscillations hav+ an amplitude ( "o to two feet2 b 9 ! great] numb] ( e>?quakes ! maximum sw+ probably does n exce$ ! t5? ( t am\nt4 ,v s5sible %ak+1 ev5 su* z may produce consid]able damage to build+s1 are caus$ by %ocks 9 :i* ! e>? vibrates ) less ?an an in* ( sw+4 ,:5 a %ock orig9ates1 ! wave 9 ! rocks due to ! compression :i* ! bl[ inflicts runs at a spe$ v>y+ ) ! ela/icity ( ! sub/ance1 b at ! rate ( ab\t fifte5 hundr$ feet a second4 ,! movem5ts ( ?is wave are at "r angles to ! seat ( ! orig9at+ di/urbance1 s t ! %ock may come to ! surface 9 a l9e =m+ any angle betwe5 ! v]tical & ! ne>ly horizontal4 ,:]e1 z 9 a volcanic eruption1 ! %ock orig9ates ) an explosion1 ^! waves g (f 9 circles4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 z is g5]ally ! case1 ! %ock orig9ates 9 a fault plane1 :i* may h a l5g? & dep? ( _m miles1 ! movem5t has an elliptical =m4 ,if ! e>?quake wave ran ?r\gh a uni=m & highly ela/ic sub/ance1 su* z glass1 x w\ld move ev]y:]e ) equal spe$1 &1 9 ! case ( ! great] di/urbances1 ! motion might be felt ov] ! :ole surface ( ! e>?4 ,b z ! motion takes place ?r\gh rocks ( v>y+ ela/icity1 ! rate at :i* x j\rneys is v irregul>4 ,mov+ ?r\gh mat]ials ( "o d5sity1 & ) a rate ( vibration det]m9$ by ^? conditions1 ! impulse is ) difficulty communicat$ to /rata :i* naturally vibrate at ano!r spe$4 ,9 _m cases1 z :]e a %ock pass+ ?r\gh d5se cry/all9e /rata enc\nt]s a mass ( s(t s&/one1 ! wave1 9 place ( go+ on1 is reflect$ back t[>d its po9t ( orig94 ,^! e>?quake e*oes sometimes give rise to v de/ructive movem5ts4 ,x (t5 happ5s t be=e ! orig9al tremors ( a %ock h pass$ away f a po9t on ! surface ! reflex movem5ts ru% 91 mak+ a v irregul> motion1 :i* may be comp>$ to t ( ! waves 9 a cross-sea4 ,! =ego+ acc\nt ( e>?quake action w s]ve to prep>e ! read] = an und]/&+ ( ^? v curi\s & important effects :i* ^! accid5ts produce 9 & on ! e>?4 ,bel[ ! surface ! s5sible action ( e>?quake %ocks is limit$4 ,x has (t5 be5 obs]v$ t p 9 m9es h>dly note a sway+ :i* may be v conspicu\s to ^? on ! surface1 ! reason = ?is be+ t und]gr\nd1 :]e ! rocks are firmly b\nd toge!r1 all ^? sw++s :i* are due to ! unsupport$ position ( su* objects z build+s1 column> rocks1 trees1 & ! wat]s ( ! e>?1 are abs5t4 ,! effect ( ! movem5ts :i* e>?quakes impress on ! "u e>? is ma9ly due to ! fact t 9 almo/ e "p ( ! cru/ t5sions or /ra9s ( o!r k9ds are cont9ually =m+4 ,^! may = ages prove )\t effect until ! e>? is j>r$1 :5 motions w sudd5ly take place :i* 9 a mom5t may alt] ! conditions ( ! rocks ?r\gh\t a wide field4 ,9 a ^w1 a great e>?quake caus$ by ! =mation ( an ext5sive fault is likely to produce any numb] ( slight dislocations1 ea* ( :i* is 9 turn %ock-mak+1 s5d+ its little wave to complicate ! great oscillation4 ,nor does ! p]turb+ effect ( ^! j>r+ movem5ts cease ) ! fractures :i* !y set up & ! new /ra9s :i* are 9 turn develop$ by ! motions :i* !y induce4 ,! alt]ations ( ! rocks :i* are involv$ 9 *emical *anges are fav\r$ by su* motions4 ,x is a famili> exp]i5ce t a vessel ( wat]1 if kept 9 ! /ate ( repose1 may h its temp]ature l[]$ ?ree or f\r degrees bel[ ! freez+ po9t )\t becom+ froz54 ,if ! side ( ! vessel is !n tapp$ ) ! f+]1 s z to s5d a slight quake ?r\gh ! mass1 x w in/antly congeal4 ,molecul> re>rangem5ts are ?us fav\r$ by %ocks1 & ! consequ5ces ( ^? :i* run ?r\gh ! e>? are1 f a *emical po9t ( view1 probably important4 ,! read] may help himself to und]/& some?+ ( ! complicat$ problem ( e>? t5sions1 & ! correspond+ movem5ts ( ! rocks1 by consid]+ c]ta9 homely illu/rations4 ,he may obs]ve h[ ! soil cracks z x %r9ks 9 times ( dr\ght1 ! op5+s clos+ :5 x ra9s4 ,9 a simil> way ! froz5 e>? breaks op51 sometimes ) a %ock :i* is (t5 c\nt$ z an e>?quake4 ,aga91 ! a%es 9 a sift] or ! gravel on a sieve %[ h[ ea* %ak+ may relieve c]ta9 t5sions e/abli%$ by gravity1 :ile !y create o!rs :i* are 9 turn to be releas$ by ! next %ock4 ,an ord9>y dwell+ h\se sways & /ra9s ) ! alt]nations ( temp]ature & moi/ure to :i* x is subject$ 9 ! r\nd ( climatal alt]ations4 ,n[ & !n we note ! movem5ts 9 a crack+ s\nd1 b by f> ! great] "p ( !m escape obs]vation4 ,) ?is sket* ( ! me*anism ( e>?quake %ocks we n[ turn to consid] _! effects ^u ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,f a geological po9t ( view1 ! mo/ important effect ( e>?quake %ocks is f\nd 9 ! movem5t ( rock masses d[n /eep slopes1 :i* is induc$ by ! %ak+4 ,ev]y:]e on ! l& ! ag5ts ( decay & erosion t5d to br+ heavy masses into position :]e gravitation naturally leads to _! d[nfall1 b :]e !y may rema9 long susp5d$1 provid$ !y are n di/urb$4 ,?us1 :]ev] !re are high & /eep cliffs1 great falls ( rock are likely to occur :5 ! e>?quake movem5ts trav]se ! "u e>?4 ,9 m ?an "o in/ance obs]v]s1 s plac$ t !y comm&$ a view ( di/ant m\nta9s1 h notic$ ! d[nfall ( precipices 9 ! pa? ( ! %ock be=e ! trembl+ affect$ ! gr\nd on :i* !y /ood4 ,9 ! fam\s e>?quake ( #aghc1 :i* deva/at$ s\!rn ,italy1 ! ,pr9ce ( ,scylla p]suad$ 8 p to take refuge 9 _! boats1 hop+ t !y might !reby escape ! de/ruction :i* ?reat5$ !m on ! l&4 ,no soon] 7 ! unhappy folk on ! wat] ?an ! fall ( neighb\r+ cliffs ne> ! sea produc$ a great wave1 :i* ov]:elm$ ! vessels4 ,:]e ! soil lies ^u /eep slopes1 9 positions 9 :i* x has accumulat$ dur+ ages ( tranquillity1 a great %ock is likely to s5d x d[n into ! valleys 9 va/ l&slides4 ,?us1 9 ! e>?quake ( #afib1 ! ,blue ,m\nta9s ( ,jamaica 7 s viol5tly %ak5 t ! soil & ! =e/s :i* /ood on x 7 precipitat$ into ! riv] b$s1 s t _m tree-clad summits became fields ( b>e rock4 ,! effect ( ?is action is imm5sely to increase ! am\nt ( detritus :i* ! /reams convey to ! sea4 ,aft] ! great ,jamaica %ock1 above not$1 ! riv]s = a :ile ceas$ to fl[1 _! wat]s be+ /or$ 9 ! masses ( loose mat]ial4 ,!n = weeks !y p\r$ =? torr5ts ( mud & ! dbris ( vegetation--mat]ials :i* _h to be swept away z ! /reams =m$ new *annels4 ,9 all regions :]e e>?quake movem5ts are frequ5t1 & ! %ock ( consid]able viol5ce1 ! tra9$ obs]v] notes t ! surfaces ( b>e rock are s+ul>ly ext5sive1 ! fact be+ t _m ( ^! areas1 :]e ! slope lies at angles ( f t5 to ?irty degrees1 :i* 9 an un%ak5 region w\ld be ?ickly soil-cov]$1 are depriv$ ( ! coat+ by ! d[nw>d movem5t ( ! wa/e :i* ! di/urbances br+ ab\t4 ,a famili> example ( ?is action may be _h by wat*+ ! workm5 engag$ 9 sift+ s&1 by ca/+ ! mat]ial on a slop+ grat+4 ,! "w c\ld n be done b = an occasional bl[ appli$ to ! sift]4 ,an arrangem5t = su* a j>r+ motion is commonly f\nd 9 v>i\s ore-dress+ ma*9es1 :]e ! object is to move fragm5ts ( matt] ov] a slop+ surface4 ,ev5 :]e ! e>? is s level t an e>?quake %ock does n cause a slid+ motion ( ! mat]ials1 su* z above describ$1 o!r consequ5ces ( ! %ak+ may readily be not$4 ,z ! motion runs ?r\gh ! mass1 provid$ ! movem5t be "o ( consid]able viol5ce1 crevices sev]al feet 9 wid?1 & sometimes hav+ ! l5g? ( miles1 are (t5 =m$4 ,9 mo/ cases ^! fissures1 op5$ by "o pulsation ( ! %ock1 are likely to be clos$ by ! return movem5t1 :i* occurs ! in/ant !reaft]4 ,! consequ5ces ( ?is action are (t5 s+ul>1 & 9 cases con/itute ! mo/ frightful elem5ts ( a %ock :i* ! suff]] beholds4 ,9 ! great e>?quake ( #ahaa1 :i* ravag$ ! section ( ! ,mississippi ,valley betwe5 ! m\? ( ! ,ohio & ,vicksburg1 ^! crevices 7 s num]\sly =m$ t ! pione]s protect$ !mselves f ! dang] ( be+ caught 9 _! jaws by fell+ trees s t !y lay at "r angles to ! direction 9 :i* ! r5ts ext5d$1 build+ on ^! timb]s plat=ms to support _! tempor>y dwell+ places4 ,! records ( e>?quakes supply _m in/ances 9 :i* p h be5 caught 9 ^! e>? fissures1 & 9 a s+le case x is record$ t a man :o disappe>$ into ! cavity 0 9 a mom5t ca/ =? 9 ! ru% ( wat]s :i* 9 ?is1 z 9 _m o!r cases1 sp\ts =? z ! walls ( ! op5+ come toge!r4 ,sometimes ^! r5ts are att5d$ by a dislocation1 :i* br+s ! e>? on "o side mu* high] ?an on ! o!r4 ,! /ep ?us produc$ may be _m miles 9 l5g?1 & may h a height ( tw5ty feet or m4 ,x ne$s no argum5t to %[ t we h "h ! top ( a fault su* z produc$ ! %ock1 or x may be "o ( a second>y nature1 su* z any e>?quake is likely to br+ ab\t 9 ! /rata :i* x trav]ses4 ,9 c]ta9 cases two faults conjo9 _! action1 s t a portion ( ! surface disappe>s b5ea? ! e>?1 entomb+ :atev] may h /ood on ! vani%$ site4 ,?us 9 ! great %ock kn[n z t ( ,lisbon1 :i* occurr$ 9 #agee1 ! /one quay along ! h>b\r1 :]e _m ?\s& p _h s\ght refuge f ! fall+ build+s ( ! city1 sudd5ly sank d[n ) ! multitude1 & ! wat]s clos$ ov] x2 no trace ( ! p or ( ! /ructure 0 to be f\nd aft] ! %ock 0 ov]4 ,!re is a /ory to ! effect t dur+ ! same e>?quake an ,arab village 9 nor!rn ,africa sank d[n1 ! e>? on ei!r side clos+ ov] x1 s t no trace ( ! habitations rema9$4 ,9 bo? ^! in/ances ! cata/rophes are be/ expla9$ by ! diagram4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,diagram %[+ h[ a portion ( ! e>?'s surface may be sunk by fault+4 ,fig4 ,a %[s ! orig9al position2 ,b1 ! position aft] fault+2 b b' & c c' ! planes ( ! faults2 ! arr[s ! direction ( ! movem5t4 ,9 ! e>?quake ( #ahaa ! alluvial pla9s on ei!r side ( ! ,mississippi at _m po9ts sank d[n s t arable l& 0 conv]t$ into lakes2 ! area ( ^! depressions probably am\nt$ to "s hundr$ squ>e miles4 ,! writ]1 on exam9+ ^! sunk5 l&s1 f\nd t ! subsid5ces _h occurr$ :]e ! old moats or ab&on$ *annels ( ! great riv] _h be5 fill$ 9 ) a mixture ( decay+ timb] & riv] silt4 ,:5 viol5tly %ak51 ?is loose-textur$ dbris naturally settl$ d[n1 s t x =m$ a bas9 occupi$ by a cresc5t-%ap$ lake4 ,! same process ( settl+ pl5tifully goes on :]ev] ! rocks are /ill 9 an uncem5t$ /ate4 ,! result is (t5 ! production ( *anges :i* lead to ! expulsion ( gases4 ,?us1 9 ! ,*>le/on e>?quake ( #ahhc1 ! surface ov] an area ( _m hundr$ squ>e miles 0 pitt$ ) small crat]s1 =m$ by ! upru% ( wat] impell$ by its conta9$ gases4 ,^! little wat] volcanoes--= su* we may call !m--sometimes occur to ! numb] ( a doz5 or m on ea* acre ( gr\nd 9 ! viol5tly %ak5 di/rict4 ,!y indicate "o result ( ! physical & *emical alt]ations :i* e>?quake %ocks br+ ab\t4 ,z e>?quakes increase 9 viol5ce _! effect ^u ! soil becomes cont9ually great]1 until 9 ! mo/ viol5t %ocks all ! loose mat]ials on ! surface ( ! e>? may be s %ak5 ab\t z to de/roy ev5 ! b\nd>ies ( fields4 ,aft] ! fam\s e>?quake ( ,riobamba1 :i* occurr$ on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica 9 #agig1 ! p ( ! di/rict 9 :i* ! t[n ( t "n 0 situat$ 7 =c$ to r$ivide _! l&1 ! orig9al b\nd>ies hav+ disappe>$4 ,=tunately1 %ocks ( ?is description are exce$+ly r>e4 ,!y occur 9 only a few p>ts ( ! _w4 ,c]ta9 effects ( e>?quakes :]e ! %ock em]ges b5ea? ! sea h be5 /at$ 9 ! acc\nt ( volcanic eruptions 7see page #bii74 ,we may !re=e note "h only c]ta9 ( ! m g5]al facts4 ,:ile pass+ ?r\gh ! deep seas1 ?is wave may h a height ( n m ?an two or ?ree feet & a wid? ( "s score miles4 ,z x rolls 9 ^u ! %ore ! front ( ! undulation is ret>d$ by ! friction ( ! bottom 9 su* a measure t its spe$ is dim9i%$1 :ile ! foll[+ "p ( ! waves1 be+ less *eck$1 cr[ds up t[>d ?is =w>d "p4 ,! result is1 t ! surge m\nts ev] high] & high] z x draws ne> ! %ore1 ^u :i* x may roll z a va/ wave hav+ ! height ( fifty feet or m & a wid? q unp>allel$ by any wave produc$ f w9d action4 ,waves ( ?is description are mo/ common 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,al?\gh b occasional1 ! damage :i* !y may inflict is v great4 ,z ! movem5t approa*es ! %ore1 vessels1 h[ev] well an*or$1 are dragg$ away to seaw>d by ! great back la% ( ! wave1 a ph5om5on :i* may be p]ceiv$ ev5 9 ! case ( ! ord9>y surf4 ,?us =c$ to seaw>d1 ! crews ( ! %ips may f9d _! vessels drawn out = ! di/ance ( "s miles1 until !y come ne> ! face ( ! advanc+ bill[4 ,?is1 z x approa*es ! %ore1 /raight5s up to ! wall-front$ =m1 & !n topples ^u ! l&4 ,^? vessels :i* are n at once cru%$ d[n by ! bl[ are g5]ally hurl$ f> inl& by ! ru% ( wat]s4 ,9 ! great ,jamaica e>?quake ( #afib a ,briti% man-(-w> 0 borne ov] ! tops ( c]ta9 w>eh\ses & deposit$ at a di/ance f ! %ore4 ,ow+ to ! fact t wat] is a highly ela/ic mat]ial1 ! %ocks transmitt$ to x f ! bottom are s5t onw>d ) _! en]gy b little dim9i%$4 ,:ile ! impulse is v viol5t1 ^! oscillations may prove damag+ to %ipp+4 ,! log-books ( m>9]s ab\nd 9 /ories ( h[ vessels 7 disma/$ or o!rwise badly %ak5 by a sudd5 bl[ receiv$ 9 ! mid/ ( a quiet sea4 ,! impression commonly convey$ to ! sailors is t ! craft has /ruck ^u a rock4 ,! explanation is t an e>?quake j>1 9 trav]s+ ! wat]1 has deliv]$ its bl[ to ! %ip4 ,z ! spe$ ( ?is j>r+ movem5t is v mu* great] ?an t ( any ord9>y wave1 ! bl[ :i* x may /rike may be mo/ de/ructive4 ,!re seems1 inde$1 little reason to d\bt t a portion ( ! vessels :i* are ev] disappe>+ 9 ! wild]ness ( ! ocean are lo/ by ! cru%+ effect ( ^! quak+s :i* pass ?r\gh ! wat]s ( ! deep4 ,we h already spok5 ( ! e>?quake %ock z an oscillation4 ,x is a quality ( all bodies :i* oscillate "u ! influ5ce ( a bl[1 su* z orig9ates 9 e>?quake %ocks1 to sw+ to & fro1 aft] ! mann] ( ! metal 9 a bell or a tun+ =k1 9 a succession ( movem5ts1 ea* less ?an ! prec$+1 until ! impulse is worn out1 or r1 we %\ld 9 /rict s5se say1 *ang$ to o!r =ms ( en]gy4 ,! result is1 t ev5 9 ! slighte/ e>?quake %ock ! e>? moves n once to & fro1 b v _m times4 ,9 a consid]able %ock ! successive dim9i%+ sw++s am\nt to doz5s be=e !y become s slight z to elude p]ception4 ,al?\gh ! fir/ sway+ is ! /ronge/1 & g5]ally ! mo/ de/ructive1 ! quick to-&-fro motions are apt to cont9ue & to complete ! deva/ation :i* ! fir/ br+s ab\t4 ,! vibrations due to any "o %ock take place ) great rapidity4 ,!y may1 inde$1 be comp>$ to ^? movem5ts :i* we p]ceive 9 ! m>g9 ( a l>ge bell :5 x has receiv$ a heavy bl[ f ! clapp]4 ,! read] has p]haps se5 t = a mom5t ! rim ( ! bell vibrates ) su* rapidity t x has a mi/y look--t is1 ! motions elude ! sight4 ,x is easy to see t a %ak+ ( ?is k9d is p>ticul>ly calculat$ to disrupt any bodies :i* /& free 9 ! air & are support$ only at _! base4 ,9 :at we may call ! natural ar*itecture ( ! e>?1 ! p9nacles & obelisks1 su* z are =m$ 9 _m high c\ntries1 ! effect ( ^! %ak+s is de/ructive1 &1 z we h se51 ev5 ! firm]-plac$ objects1 su* z ! /rong-wall$ cliffs & /eep slopes ( e>?1 break d[n "u ! assaults4 ,x is !re=e no matt] ( surprise t ! build+s :i* man erects1 :]e !y are compos$ ( masonry1 suff] greatly f ^! trembl+s4 ,9 almo/ all cases human edifices are con/ruct$ )\t reg>d to o!r problems ( /r5g? ?an ^? :i* may be measur$ by _! weight & ! resi/ance to fracture f gravitation alone4 ,!y are n built ) expectation ( a quak+1 b ( a firm-set e>?4 ,! damage :i* e>?quakes d to build+s is 9 mo/ cases due to ! fact t !y sway _! walls out ( plumb1 s t !y are no long] 9 position to support ! weight :i* !y h to be>4 ,! am\nt ( ?is sway+ is naturally v mu* great] ?an t :i* ! e>? itself exp]i5ces 9 ! movem5t4 ,a build+ ( any height ) its walls unsupport$ by neighb\r+ /ructures may f9d its ro( rock$ to & fro ?r\gh an arc :i* has a l5g? ( feet1 :ile its base moves only ?r\gh a l5g? ( in*es4 ,! read] may see an example ( ?is nature if he w poise a ?9 book or a bit ( plank a foot long on top ( a small table2 !n j>r+ ! table s t x sw+s ?r\gh a di/ance ( say a qu>t] ( an in*1 he w see t ! column> object sw+s at its top ?r\gh a mu* great] di/ance1 & is pretty sure to be ov]turn$4 ,:]e a build+ c>ries a load 9 its upp] p>ts1 su* z may be af=d$ by its heavy ro( or ! /ores :i* x conta9s1 ! effect ( an e>?quake %ock su* z c>ries ! e>? to & fro becomes mu* m de/ructive ?an x might o!rwise be4 ,?is weight lags beh9d :5 ! e>? slips =w>d 9 ! fir/ movem5t ( ! oscillation1 ) ! effect t ! walls ( ! build+ are pretty sure to be ?ru/ s f> beyond ! p]p5dicul> t !y give way & are c>ri$ d[n by ! weight :i* !y bore4 ,x has (t5 be5 rem>k$ 9 e>?quake %ocks t tall columns1 ev5 :]e compos$ ( _m blocks1 survive a %ock :i* ov]turns l[] build+s :]e ?9 walls support sev]al floors1 on ea* ( :i* is accumulat$ a consid]able am\nt ( weight4 ,9 ! case ( ! column1 ! /ra9s are ev51 & ! :ole /ructure may rock to & fro )\t toppl+ ov]4 ,z ! en]gy ( ! undulations dim9i%1 x gradually rega9s ! quiet /ate )\t damage4 ,9 ! ord9>y edifice ! irregul> disposition ( ! weight does n p]mit ! uni=m movem5t :i* may insure safety4 ,?us1 if ! city ( ,wa%+ton %\ld ev] be viol5tly %ak51 ! great obelisk1 not)/&+ t x is five hundr$ feet high1 may survive a di/urbance :i* w\ld wreck ! l[] & m massive edifices :i* lie ab\t x4 ,:]e1 z is =tunately r>ely ! case1 ! great %ock comes to ! e>? 9 a v]tical direction1 ! effect ^u all movable objects is 9 ! highe/ measure disa/r\s4 ,9 su* a case build+s are cru%$ z if by ! /roke ( a giant's h&4 ,! ro(s & floors are at "o /roke ?r[n to ! f\ndations1 & all ! p>ts ( ! walls :i* are n support$ by /rong masonry cont9u\s f top to bottom are brok5 to pieces4 ,9 su* cases x has be5 rem>k$ t ! bodies ( m5 are (t5 ?r[n consid]able di/ances4 ,x is ass]t$1 inde$1 t 9 ! ,riobamba %ock !y 7 ca/ upw>d to ! height ( m ?an n9ety feet4 ,x is relat$ t ! solo survivor ( a congregation :i* _h ha/5$ at ! outset ( ! di/urbance into a *ur* 0 ?r[n by ! greate/ & mo/ de/ructive %ock upw>d & ?r\gh a w9d[ ! base ( :i* 0 at ! height ( m ?an tw5ty feet f ! gr\nd4 ,x is readily und]/ood t an e>?quake %ock may ent] a build+ 9 any direction betwe5 ! v]tical & ! horizontal4 ,z ! movem5t exhau/s itself 9 pass+ f ! place ( its orig91 ! horizontal %ocks are usually ( lea/ en]gy4 ,^? :i* are accurately v]tical are only exp]i5c$ :]e ! edifices are plac$ imm$iately ov] ! po9t :]e ! motion orig9ates4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t ! de/ructive "w ( e>?quakes is ma9ly p]=m$ 9 t "p ( ! field :]e ! motion is1 z reg>ds its direction1 betwe5 ! v]tical & ! horizontal--a position 9 :i* ! edifice is likely to receive at once ! de/ructive effect aris+ f ! %>p upw>d ?ru/ ( ! v]tical movem5t & ! oscillat+ action ( t :i* is 9 a horizontal direction4 ,aga9/ /ra9s ( ?is description1 :]e ! movem5ts h an amplitude ( m ?an a few in*es1 no ord9>y masonry edifice c be made p]fectly safe2 ! only tol]able security is atta9$ :]e ! build+ is ( well-fram$ timb]1 :i* by its ela/icity p]mits a good deal ( motion )\t de/ructive consequ5ces4 ,ev5 su* build+s1 h[ev]1 ^? ( ! /ronge/ type1 may be ru9$ by ! great] e>?quakes4 ,?us1 9 ! ,mississippi ,valley e>?quake ( #ahaa1 ! log huts ( ! fronti]sm51 :i* are ab\t z /rong z any build+s c be made1 7 %ak5 to pieces by ! %>p & reit]at$ %ocks4 ,x is by no means surpris+ to f9d t ! /yle ( ar*itecture adopt$ 9 e>?quake c\ntries diff]s f t :i* is develop$ 9 regions :]e ! e>? is firm-set4 ,! p g5]ally le>n t :]e _! build+s mu/ meet ! trials ( e>?quakes !y h to be l[ & /rong1 fram$ 9 ! mann] ( =tifications1 to )/& ! assault ( ?is enemy4 ,we obs]ve t ,go?ic ar*itecture1 :]e a great weight ( masonry is c>ri$ ^u sl5d] columns & walls divid$ by tall w9d[s1 ?\gh x became ! dom9ant /yle 9 ! relatively /able l&s ( nor!rn ,europe1 nev] ga9$ a firm foo?old 9 ^? regions ab\t ! ,m$it]ranean :i* are frequ5tly visit$ by sev]e convulsions ( ! e>?4 ,!re ! ,grecian or ! ,romanesque /yles1 :i* are ( a mu* m massive type1 reta9 _! places & are ! fa%ions to ! pres5t day4 ,ev5 ?is mann] ( build+1 ?\gh af=d+ a c]ta9 security aga9/ slight trembl+s1 is n safe 9 ! great] %ocks4 ,aga9 & aga9 l>ge areas 9 s\!rn ,italy h be5 almo/ swept ( _! build+s by ! de/ructive movem5ts :i* occur 9 t realm4 ,! only p :o h sy/ematically adapt$ _! ar*itectural me?ods to e>?quake /ra9s are ! ,japanese1 :o 9 c]ta9 di/ricts :]e su* risks are to be enc\nt]$ con/ruct _! dwell+s ( wood1 & place !m ^u roll]s1 s t !y may readily move to & fro z ! %ock passes b5ea? !m4 ,9 a measure ! p ( ,san ,francisco h also provid$ aga9/ ?is dang] by avoid+ dang]\s weights 9 ! upp] p>ts ( _! build+s1 z well z ! excessive height to :i* ^! /ructures are lift$ 9 "s ( our ,am]ican t[ns4 ,e>?quakes ( s5sible en]gy appe> to be limit$ to p>ticul> p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! regions1 inde$1 :]e )9 ! p]iod ( human hi/ory %ocks ( deva/at+ en]gy h occurr$ d n include m ?an "o fifte5? "p ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,!re is a common notion t ^! movem5ts are mo/ apt to happ5 9 volcanic regions4 ,x is1 inde$1 true t s5sible %ocks commonly att5d ! explosions f great crat]s1 b ! records cle>ly %[ t ^! movem5ts are v r>ely ( de/ructive en]gy4 ,?us 9 ! regions ab\t ! base ( ,vesuvius & ( tna1 ! two volcanoes ( :i* mo/ is kn[n1 ! %ocks h nev] be5 productive ( ext5sive disa/]4 ,9 fact1 ! reit]at$ slight j>r+s :i* att5d volcanic action appe> to prev5t ! =mation ( ^? great & sl[ly accumulat$ /ra9s :i* 9 _! dis*>ge produce ! mo/ viol5t trembl+s ( ! e>?4 ,! greate/ & mo/ cont9u\s e>?quake di/urbances ( hi/ory--t be=e not$ 9 ! e>ly days ( ?is c5tury1 9 ! ,mississippi ,valley1 :]e %ocks ( consid]able viol5ce cont9u$ = two ye>s--came ab\t 9 a field v f> remov$ f active volcanoes4 ,s1 too1 ! di/urbances b5ea? ! ,atlantic floor :i* orig9at$ ! %ocks t l$ to ! de/ruction ( ,lisbon1 & _m o!r simil> ?\gh less viol5t movem5ts1 are develop$ 9 a field app>5tly remote f liv+ volcanoes4 ,ea/]n ,new ,engl&1 :i* has be5 ! seat ( sev]al consid]able e>?quakes1 is ab\t z f> away f active v5ts z any place on ! habitable globe4 ,we may !re=e conclude t1 :ile volcanoes necess>ily produce %ocks result+ f ! dis*>ge ( _! gases & ! intrusion ( lava into ! dikes :i* are =m$ ab\t !m1 ! great] "p ( ! important %ocks are 9 no wise connect$ ) volcanic explosions4 ,) ! exception ( ! e>?quake 9 ! ,mississippi ,valley1 all ! great %ocks ( :i* we h a record h occurr$ 9 or ne> regions :]e ! rocks h be5 ext5sively di/urb$ by m\nta9-build+ =ces1 & :]e ! indications lead u to believe t dislocations ( /rata1 su* z are compet5t to rive ! b$s asund]1 may /ill be 9 progress4 ,?is1 tak5 9 connection ) ! fact t _m ( ^! %ocks are att5d$ by ! =mation ( fault planes1 :i* appe> on ! surface1 lead u to ! conclusion t e>?quakes ( ! /rong] k9d are g5]ally =m$ by ! riv+ ( fissures1 :i* may or may n be develop$ upw>d to ! surface4 ,?is view is support$ by _m c>eful obs]vations on ! effect :i* c]ta9 great e>?quakes h ex]cis$ on ! build+s :i* !y h ravag$4 ,! di/+ui%$ obs]v]1 ,mr4 ,*>les ,mallet1 :o visit$ ! seat ( ! e>?quake :i*1 9 #ahed1 occurr$ 9 ! prov9ce ( ,calabria 9 ,italy1 ) great lab\r & skill det]m9$ ! direction 9 :i* ! %ock mov$ ?r\gh "s hundr$s ( edifices on :i* x left ! m>ks ( its passage4 ,platt+ ^! l9es ( motion1 he f\nd t !y 7 all ref]r$ to a v]tical plane ly+ at ! dep? ( "s miles b5ea? ! surface1 & ext5d+ = a great di/ance 9 a nor? & s\? direction4 ,?is me?od ( inquiry has be5 appli$ to o!r fields1 ) ! result t 9 ! case ( all ! in/ances :i* h be5 subject$ to ?is inquiry ! seat ( ! %ock has be5 trac$ to su* a plane1 :i* c be/ be acc\nt$ = by ! supposition ( a fault4 ,! me?od pursu$ by ,mr4 ,mallet 9 8 /udies ( ! orig9 ( e>?quakes1 & by ^? :o h cont9u$ 8 inquiry1 may be briefly indicat$ z foll[s3 ,exam9+ disrupt$ build+s1 x is easy to det]m9e ^? :i* h be5 wreck$ by a %ock t em]g$ f ! e>? 9 a v]tical direction4 ,9 ^! cases1 ?\gh tall walls may rema9 /&+1 ! ro(s & floors are ?r[n into ! cell>s4 ,) a doz5 su* in/ances ! plane ( :at is call$ ! seismic v]tical is e/abli%$ 7seismos is ! ,greek = e>?quake74 ,!n on ei!r side ( ?is plane1 :i* indicates ! l9e b n ! dep? ( ! di/urbance1 o!r obs]vations may be made :i* give ! clew to ! dep?4 ,?us a build+ may be f\nd :]e ! nor?we/ corn] at its upp] "p has be5 ?r[n (f4 ,su* a rupture 0 cle>ly caus$ by an upw>d b oblique movem5t1 :i* 9 ! fir/ half ( ! oscillation heav$ ! /ructure upw>dly into ! nor?we/1 & !n 9 ! second half1 or reb\nd1 drew ! mass ( ! build+ away f ! unsupport$ corn]1 all[+ t "p ( ! masonry to fly (f & fall to ! gr\nd4 ,con/ruct+ a l9e at "r angles to ! plane ( ! fracture1 x w be f\nd to int]sect ! plane1 ! position ( :i* has be5 9 "p det]m9$ by f9d+ ! l9e :]e x int]sects ! e>?1 or ! seismic v]tical be=e not$4 ,multiply+ su* obs]vations on ei!r side ( ! la/-m5tion$ l9e1 ! attitude ( ! und]gr\nd p>ts ( ! plane1 z well z ! dep? to :i* x atta9$1 c be approximately det]m9$4 ,x is wor? :ile to consid] ! ext5t to :i* e>?quake %ocks may affect ! g5]al quality ( ! p :o dwell 9 c\ntries :]e ^! di/urbances occur ) su* frequ5cy & viol5ce z to influ5ce _! lives4 ,!re c be no "q t :]ev] e>?quakes occur 9 su* a measure z to produce widespread t]ror1 :]e1 recurr+ f "t to "t1 !y develop 9 m5 a s5se ( abid+ insecurity1 !y become pot5t ag5ts ( degradation4 ,all ! be/ :i* m5 d 9 creat+ a civilization re/s ^u a s5se ( confid5ce t _! ef=ts may be accumulat$ f ye> to ye>1 & t ev5 aft] dea? ! "w ( ea* man may rema9 z a h]itage to 8 k9d4 ,x is likely1 inde$1 t 9 c]ta9 realms1 z 9 s\!rn ,italy1 a "p ( ! failure ( ! p to advance 9 culture is due to _! long exp]i5ce ( su* calamities1 & ! natural expectation t !y w f "t to "t recur4 ,9 a simil> way ! ,spani% settlem5ts 9 ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica1 :i* lie mo/ly 9 l&s t are subject to disa/r\s %ocks1 may h be5 ret>d$ by ! despair1 z well z ! loss ( prop]ty & life1 :i* ^! accid5ts h s frequ5tly inflict$ ^u !m4 ,x w n d1 h[ev]1 to attribute too mu* to su* t]re/rial influ5ces4 ,by f> ! mo/ important elem5t 9 det]m9+ ! de/9y ( a p is to be f\nd 9 _! native quality1 t :i* !y owe to _! ance/ors ( di/ant g5]ations4 ,9 ?is connection x is well to consid] ! hi/ory ( ! ,icel&ic p1 :]e a small folk has = a ?\s& ye>s be5 expos$ to a range & sev]ity ( trials1 su* z e>?quakes1 volcanic explosions1 & de>? ( h>ve/s may produce1 & all ^! 9 a measure t few if any o!r c\ntries exp]i5ce4 ,not)/&+ ^! mis=tunes1 ! ,icel&]s h develop$ & ma9ta9$ a civilization :i* 9 all else1 except its mat]ial results1 on ! av]age transc5ds t :i* has be5 won by any o!r folk 9 mod]n times4 ,if a p h ! det]m9+ _s :i* leads to high liv+1 !y c successfully face calamities f> great] ?an ^? :i* e>?quakes inflict4 ,x 0 long suppos$ t ! regions :]e e>?quakes are n noticeable by ! unaid$ s5ses 7 exempt f all su* di/urbances4 ,! obs]vations :i* seismologi/s h made 9 rec5t ye>s po9t to ! conclusion t no "p ( ! e>?'s surface is q exempt f movem5ts :i*1 ?\gh n readily p]ceiv$1 c be made visible by ! use ( appropriate in/rum5ts4 ,) an app>atus kn[n z ! horizontal p5dulum x is possible to obs]ve vibrations :i* d n exce$ 9 amplitude ! hundr$? "p ( an in*4 ,?is me*anism consi/s ess5tially ( a sl5d] b> support$ ne> "o end by two wires1 "o f above1 ! o!r f bel[4 ,x may readily be conceiv$ t any measurable movem5t w cause ! long] end ( ! rod to sway ?r\gh a consid]able arc4 ,:]ev] su* a p5dulum has be5 c>efully obs]v$ 9 any di/rict1 x has be5 f\nd t x indicates ! occurr5ce ( slight tremors4 ,ev5 c]ta9 *anges ( ! b>omet]1 :i* alt] ! weight ( ! atmosph]e t re/s ^u ! e>? to ! am\nt indicat$ by an in* 9 ! height ( ! m]cury column1 appe>s 9 all cases to create su* tremors4 ,_m ( ^! slight %ocks may be due to ! effect ( m viol5t quak+s1 :i* h run p]haps = ?\s&s ( miles f _! po9t ( orig91 & h ?us be5 r$uc$ 9 ! amplitude ( _! movem5t4 ,o!rs are probably due to ! slight motion br\ght ab\t ?r\gh ! *emical *anges ( ! rocks1 :i* are cont9u\sly go+ on4 ,! ease ) :i* ev5 small motions are c>ri$ to a great di/ance may be judg$ by ! fact t :5 ! gr\nd is froz5 ! horizontal p5dulum w indicate ! j>r+ due to a railway tra9 at ! di/ance ( a mile or m f ! track4 ,9 connection ) ! e>? j>r+1 x w\ld be well to note ! occurr5ce ( ano!r1 ?\gh physically diff]5t1 k9d ( movem5t1 :i* we may t]m e>? sway+s1 or massive movem5ts1 :i* sl[ly dislocate ! v]tical1 & d\btless also ! horizontal1 position ( po9ts ^u its surface4 ,x has m ?an once be5 rem>k$ t 9 m\nta9 c\ntries1 :]e accurate sights h be5 tak51 ! heights ( po9ts betwe5 ! extremities ( a long l9e appe> some:at to v>y 9 ! c\rse ( a t]m ( ye>s4 ,?us at a place 9 ! ,ap5n9es1 :]e two build+s sep>at$ by "s miles ( di/ance are commonly int]visible ov] ! cre/ ( a neighb\r+ peak1 x has happ5$ t a *ange ( level ( "s "o ( ! po9ts has made x impossible to see ! "o edifice f ! o!r4 ,kn[+ z we d t ! l9e ( ! seacoa/ is ev]-*ang+1 upris+ tak+ place at "s po9ts & d[n-s9k+ at o!rs1 x seems n unlikely t ^! irregul> sway+s are ( v common occurr5ce4 ,moreov]1 a/ronom]s are beg9n+ to rem>k ! fact t _! obs]vatories appe> n to rema9 p]man5tly 9 ! same position--t is1 !y d n h exactly ! same latitude & longitude4 ,c]ta9 ( ^! *anges h rec5tly be5 expla9$ by ! discov]y ( a new & hi!rto unnot$ movem5t ( ! pol> axis4 ,x is n improbable1 h[ev]1 t ! irregul> sway+ ( ! e>?'s cru/1 due to ! fold+ ( /rata & to ! alt]ations 9 ! volume ( rocks :i* are cont9ually go+ on1 may h "s %>e 9 br++ ab\t ^! dislocations4 ,measur$ by ! de/ruction :i* 0 wr\ght to ! int]e/s ( man1 e>?quakes des]ve to be reckon$ among ! dire/ calamities ( ,nature4 ,s9ce ! dawn ( hi/ory ! records %[ u t ! de/ruction ( life :i* is to be attribut$ to !m is to be c\nt$ by ! millions4 ,a catalogue ( ! loss ( life 9 ! accid5ts ( ?is description :i* h occurr$ dur+ ! ,*ri/ian era has l$ ! writ] to suppose t probably ov] two million p]sons h p]i%$ f ^! %ocks 9 ! la/ n9ete5 c5turies4 ,nev]!less1 z comp>$ ) o!r ag5ts ( de/ruction1 su* z prev5table disease1 w>1 or fam9e1 ! loss :i* has be5 inflict$ by e>? movem5ts is really trifl+1 & almo/ all ( x is due to an ob/9ate c>elessness 9 ! con/ruction ( build+s )\t ref]5ce to ! risks :i* are kn[n to exi/ 9 e>?quake-ridd5 c\ntries4 ,al?\gh all our exact k conc]n+ ! di/ribution ( e>?quakes is limit$ to ! imp]fect records ( two or ?ree ?\s& ye>s1 x is commonly possible to measure 9 a g5]al way ! liability to su* accid5ts :i* may exi/ 9 any c\ntry by a c>eful /udy ( ! details ( its topography4 ,9 almo/ e l>ge area ! process ( erosion naturally leaves quantities ( rock1 ei!r 9 ! =m ( deta*$ columns or z detrital accumulations deposit$ on /eep slopes4 ,^! features are ( relatively sl[ =mation1 & x is (t5 possible to det]m9e t !y h be5 9 _! positions = a "t :i* is to be measur$ by ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,?us1 on inspect+ a c\ntry su* z ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]e ! hi/oric records cov] b a brief "t1 we may on inquiry det]m9e :i* portions ( its area h long be5 exempt f p[]ful %ocks4 ,:]e natural obelisks & /eep taluses ab\nd--features :i* w\ld h disappe>$ if ! region _h be5 mov$ by great %ocks--we may be sure t ! field "u inspection has = a great p]iod be5 exempt f p[]ful %ak+4 ,judg$ by ?is /&>d1 we may safely say t ! region occupi$ by ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s has be5 exempt f s]i\s tr\ble4 ,s1 too1 ! section ( ! ,cordill]as ly+ to ! ea/ ( :at is commonly call$ ! ,great ,bas91 betwe5 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & ! ,si]ra ,nevada1 has also enjoy$ a long reign ( peace4 ,9 glaciat$ c\ntries ! record is naturally less cle> ?an 9 ^? p>ts ( ! _w :i* h be5 subject$ to long-cont9u$1 sl[ decay ( ! rocks4 ,nev]!less1 9 ^? fields b\ld]s are (t5 f\nd pois$ 9 position :i* !y c\ld n h ma9ta9$ if subject$ to viol5t %ak+4 ,judg$ by ?is evid5ce1 we may say t a l>ge "p ( ! nor!rn section ( ?is cont95t1 p>ticul>ly ! area ab\t ! ,great ,lakes1 has be5 exempt f consid]able %ocks s9ce ! glaci] pass$ away4 ,! %ores :i* are subject to ! visitations ( ! great m>9e waves1 caus$ by e>?quake %ocks occurr+ b5ea? ! bottom ( ! neighb\r+ ocean1 are s swept by ^? viol5t inundations t !y lose _m features :i* are (t5 f\nd along coa/s t h be5 exempt$ f su* visitations4 ,?us :]ev] we f9d ext5sive & delicately m\ld$ dunes1 pois$ /ones1 or sl5d] p9nacl$ rocks along a coa/1 we may be sure t s9ce ^! features 7 =m$ ! di/rict has n be5 swept by ^! great waves4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,pois$ rocks indicat+ a long exemption f /rong e>?quakes 9 ! places :]e su* features occur4 ,ar\nd ! nor!rn ,atlantic we almo/ ev]y:]e f9d ! glacial wa/e "h & !re accumulat$ ne> ! m>g9 ( ! sea 9 ! complicat$ sculptur$ outl9es :i* are assum$ by kame s&s & gravels4 ,f a /udy ( ^! features j above ! level ( high tide1 ! writ] has become conv9c$ t ! ,nor? ,atlantic di/rict has long be5 exempt f ! assaults ( o!r waves ?an ^? :i* are produc$ dur+ heavy /orms4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! waves =m$ by e>?quakes appe> to be ( de/ructive viol5ce only on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 :]e !y roll 9 f a region ( ! ,pacific ly+ to ! s\? ( ! equator & a few hundr$ miles f ! %ore ( ! cont95t1 :i* appe>s to be ! seat ( exce$+ly viol5t %ocks4 ,a simil> field occurs 9 ! ,atlantic betwe5 ! ,less] ,antilles & ! ,spani% p59sula1 b no great waves h come !nce s9ce ! "t ( ! ,lisbon e>?quake4 ,! bas9 ( ! ,c>ibbean & ! region ab\t ,java appe> to be also fields :]e ^! di/urbances may be expect$1 ?\gh 9 ea* b "o wave ( ?is nature has be5 record$4 ,!re=e we may reg>d ^! second>y results ( a subm>9e e>?quake z seldom ph5om5a4 ,,duration ,,( ,,geological ,,"t4 ,al?\gh x is beyond ! p[] ( man to conceive any su* lapses ( "t z h tak5 place 9 ! hi/ory ( ?is e>?1 x is int]e/+1 & 9 c]ta9 ways pr(itable1 to det]m9e z ne> z possible 9 ! measure ( ye>s ! duration ( ! ev5ts :i* are record$ 9 ! rocks4 ,"s a/ronom]s1 bas+ _! conclusions on ! heat-conta9+ p[] ( matt]1 & on ! rate at :i* en]gy 9 ?is =m fl[s f ! sun1 h come to ! conclusion t our planet c\ld n h be5 9 indep5d5t exi/5ce = m ?an ab\t tw5ty million ye>s4 ,! geologi/1 h[ev]1 re/+ 8 conclusions on ! records :i* are ! subject ( 8 inquiry1 comes on _m diff]5t l9es to an op9ion :i* trav]ses t ent]ta9$ by "s di/+ui%$ a/ronom]s4 ,! ways 9 :i* ! /ud5t ( ! e>? arrives at ?is op9ion w n[ be set =?4 ,by not+ ! am\nt ( s$im5t c>ri$ =? to ! sea by ! riv]s1 ! geologi/ f9ds t ! l&s ( ! e>?--^?1 at lea/1 :i* are protect$ by _! natural envelopes ( vegetation--are we>+ d[n at a rate :i* pretty c]ta9ly does n exce$ "o foot 9 ab\t five ?\s& ye>s1 or two hundr$ feet 9 a million ye>s4 ,discov]+ at _m places on ! e>?'s surface deposits :i* orig9ally _h a ?ickness ( five ?\s& feet or m1 :i* h be5 worn d[n to ! dep?s ( ?\s&s ( feet 9 a s+le r brief section ( geological "t1 ! /ud5t readily f9ds himself prep>$ to claim t a p]iod ( f five to t5 million ye>s has (t5 be5 requir$ = ! accompli%m5t ( b a v small "p ( ! *anges :i* he kn[s to h occurr$ on ?is e>?4 ,z ! geologi/ foll[s d[n ?r\gh ! sections ( ! /ratifi$ rocks1 & f ! rema9s ( /rata det]m9es ! erosion :i* has borne away ! great] "p ( ! ?ick deposits :i* h be5 expos$ to erosion1 he comes ^u "o ( ^? breaks 9 ! succession1 or enc\nt]s :at is call$ an uncon=mity1 z :5 horizontal /rata lie aga9/ ^? :i* are tilt$4 ,9 _m cases he may obs]ve t at ?is "t !re 0 a great int]val unrepres5t$ by deposits at ! place :]e 8 obs]vations are made1 yet a great lapse ( "t is indicat$ by ! fact t a l>ge am\nt ( erosion took place 9 ! int]val betwe5 ! two sets ( b$s4 ,putt+ toge!r ! bits ( record1 & assum+ t ! rate ( erosion accompli%$ by ! ag5ts :i* op]ate on ! l& has always be5 ab\t ! same1 ! geologi/ comes to ! conclusion t ! section ( ! rocks f ! pres5t day to ! l[e/ /rata ( ! ,laur5tian repres5ts 9 ! "t requir$ = _! =mation n less ?an a hundr$ million ye>s2 m likely twice t duration4 ,to ?is argum5t objection is made by "s naturali/s t ! ag5ts ( erosion may h be5 m active 9 ! pa/ ?an !y are at pres5t4 ,!y sugge/ t ! ra9fall may h be5 mu* great] or ! tides high] ?an !y n[ are4 ,grant+ all t c be claim$ on ?is score1 we note ! fact t ! rate ( erosion evid5tly does n increase 9 any?+ l a proportionate way ) ! am\nt ( ra9fall4 ,:]e a c\ntry is protect$ by its natural coat+ ( vegetation1 ! ra9 is deliv]$ to ! /reams )\t mak+ any consid]able assault ^u ! surface ( ! e>?1 h[ev] l>ge ! fall may be4 ,moreov]1 ! tides h little direct cutt+ p[]2 !y c only remove detritus :i* o!r ag5ts h br\ght into a condition to be borne away4 ,! direct cutt+ p[] ( ! tidal movem5t does n seem to be mu* great] 9 ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 :]e ! maximum height ( ! waves am\nts to fifty feet1 ?an on ! s\!rn coa/ ( ,massa*usetts1 :]e ! range is n m ?an five4 ,s f> z ! obs]v] c judge1 ! climatal conditions & ! o!r influ5ces :i* affect ! we> ( rocks h n greatly v>i$ 9 ! pa/ f :at !y are at ! pres5t day4 ,n[ & !n !re h be5 p]iods ( excessive erosion2 aga91 ages 9 :i* l>ge fields 7 9 ! conditions ( exce$+ dr\ght4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a fair presumption t ^! p]iods 9 a way balance ea* o!r1 & t ! av]age /ate 0 mu* l t :i* we f9d at pres5t4 ,if aft] /udy+ ! erosive ph5om5a exhibit$ 9 ! /ructure ( ! e>? ! /ud5t takes up ! /udy ( ! accumulations ( /rata1 & endeav\rs to det]m9e ! "t requir$ = ! lay+ d[n ( ! s$im5ts1 he f9ds simil> evid5ce ( ! e>?'s great antiquity4 ,al?\gh ! process ( deposition1 :i* has giv5 u ! rocks visible 9 ! l& masses1 has be5 v mu* int]rupt$1 ! section :i* is made by gr\p+ ! obs]vations made 9 v>i\s fields %[s t some?+ l a maximum ?ickness ( a hundr$ & fifty ?\s& feet ( b$s has be5 accumulat$ 9 t "p ( geologic "t dur+ :i* /rata 7 be+ laid d[n 9 ! fields t are subject$ to our /udy4 ,al?\gh 9 ^! rocks !re are _m sets ( b$s :i* 7 rapidly =m$1 ! great] "p ( !m h be5 accumulat$ ) exce$+ sl[ness4 ,_m f9e %ales1 su* z ^? :i* pl5tifully occur 9 ! ,devonian b$s ( ?is c\ntry1 mu/ h requir$ a ?\s& ye>s or m = ! deposition ( ! mat]ials t n[ occupy an in* 9 dep?4 ,9 ^? sections a s+le foot ( ! rock may well repres5t a p]iod ( t5 ?\s& ye>s4 ,9 _m ( ! lime/ones ! rate ( accumulation c\ld h>dly h be5 m spe$y4 ,! reckon+ has to be r\gh1 b ! impression :i* su* /udies make ^u ! m9d ( ! unprejudic$ obs]v] is to ! effect t ! ?irty miles or s ( s$im5t>y deposits c\ld n h be5 =m$ 9 less ?an a hundr$ million ye>s4 ,9 ?is reckon+ x %\ld be not$ t no acc\nt is tak5 ( ^? great int]vals ( unrecord$ "t1 su* z elaps$ betwe5 ! close ( ! ,laur5tian & ! beg9n+ ( ! ,cambrian p]iods4 ,!re is a ?ird way 9 :i* we may seek an int]pretation ( duration f ! rocks4 ,9 ea* successive /age ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 9 diff]5t measure 9 ! v>i\s ages1 m\nta9s 7 =m$ :i* 9 "t1 dur+ _! exposure to ! conditions ( ! l&1 7 worn d[n to _! roots & cov]$ by deposits accumulat$ dur+ ! succe$+ ages4 ,a score or m ( ^! successively con/ruct$ s]ies ( elevations may readily be obs]v$4 ,( old1 x 0 believ$ t m\nta9 ranges 7 sudd5ly =m$1 b !re is1 h[ev]1 ample evid5ce to prove t ^! di/urb$ portions ( ! /rata 7 v gradually dislocat$1 ! rate ( ! m\nta9\s gr[? hav+ be51 9 g5]al1 no great] 9 ! pa/ ?an x is at ! pres5t day1 :51 z we "k full well1 ! movem5ts are go+ on s sl[ly t !y escape obs]vation4 ,only "h & !re1 z an att5dant on e>?quake %ocks or o!r relat$ movem5ts ( ! cru/1 d we f9d any trace ( ! upw>d m>* :i* produces ^! elevations4 ,al?\gh n a subject = exact measurem5ts1 ^! features ( m\nta9 gr[? indicate a va/ lapse ( "t1 dur+ :i* ! elevations 7 =m$ & worn away4 ,yet ano!r & v diff]5t me?od by :i* we may obta9 "s gauge ( ! dep?s ( ! pa/ is to be f\nd 9 ! /eps :i* h l$ organic life f its l[e/ & e>lie/ kn[n =ms to ! pres5t /ate ( advancem5t4 ,tak+ ! *anges ( species :i* h occurr$ s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ ice epo*1 we f9d t ! *anges :i* h be5 made 9 ! organic life h be5 v small2 no naturali/ :o has obta9$ a cle> idea ( ! facts w "q ! /atem5t t !y are n a ?\s&? "p ( ! alt]ations :i* h occurr$ s9ce ! ,laur5tian "t4 ,! writ] is ( ! op9ion t !y d n repres5t ! t5 ?\s&? "p ( ^? va/ *anges4 ,^! *anges are limit$ 9 ! ma9 to ! disappe>ance ( a few =ms1 & to slight modifications 9 ^? previ\sly 9 exi/5ce :i* h surviv$ to ! pres5t day4 ,s f> z we c judge1 no consid]able /ep 9 ! organic s]ies has tak5 place 9 ?is la/ great p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 al?\gh x has be5 a p]iod :51 z be=e not$1 all ! conditions h comb9$ to induce rapid modifications 9 bo? animals & plants4 ,if1 !n1 we c det]m9e ! duration ( ?is p]iod1 we may obta9 a gauge ( "s g5]al value4 ,al?\gh we c n measure 9 any accurate way ! duration ( ! ev5ts :i* h tak5 place s9ce ! la/ ,glacial p]iod began to wane1 a /udy ( ! facts seems to %[ t less ?an a hundr$ ?\s& ye>s c n well be assum$ = ?is int]val4 ,"s ( ! /ud5ts :o h approa*$ ! subject are dispos$ to all[ a p]iod ( at lea/ twice ?is l5g? z necess>y = ! p]spective :i* ! tra9 ( ev5ts exhibits4 ,reckon+ on ! l[e/ e/imate1 & c\nt+ ! organic *anges :i* take place dur+ ! age z am\nt+ to ! ?\s&? "p ( ! organic *anges s9ce ! ,laur5tian age1 we f9d ourselves 9 face once aga9 ( t inconceivable sum :i* 0 indicat$ by ! physical record4 ,"h1 aga91 ! critics ass]t t !re may h be5 p]iods 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>? :5 ! *anges ( organic life occurr$ 9 a f> swift] mann] ?an 9 ?is la/ section ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,?is supposition is inadmissible1 = x re/s on no k9d ( pro(2 x is1 moreov]1 contra9dicat$ by ! evid5t fact t ! advance 9 ! organic s]ies has be5 m rapid 9 rec5t "t ?an at any /age ( ! pa/4 ,9 a ^w1 all ! facts ) :i* ! geologi/ deals are decid$ly aga9/ ! assumption t t]re/rial *anges 9 ! organic or ! inorganic _w ev] proce$ 9 a spasmodic mann]4 ,"h & !re1 & f "t to "t1 local revolutions ( a viol5t nature und\bt$ly occur1 b1 s f> z we may judge f ! aspect ( ! pres5t or ! records ( ! pa/1 ^! accid5ts are /rictly local2 ! e>? has gone =w>d 9 its *anges mu* z x is n[ advanc+4 ,its revolutions h be5 ^? ( ord] r ?an ^? ( accid5t4 ,! fir/ duty ( ! naturali/ is to take ,nature z he f9ds x4 ,he mu/ avoid suppos+ any me?ods ( action :i* are n cle>ly indicat$ 9 ! facts t he obs]ves4 ,! hi/ory ( 8 own & ( all o!r sci5ces cle>ly %[s t dang] is always incurr$ :]e suppositions z to peculi> me?ods ( action are introduc$ into ! int]pretation4 ,x requir$ _m c5turies ( lab\r be=e ! /ud5ts ( ! e>? came to adopt ! pr9ciple ( expla9+ ! problems ) :i* !y _h to deal by ! evid5ce t ! e>? submitt$ to !m4 ,:]ev] !y tru/$ to _! imag9ations = guidance1 !y fell into error4 ,^? :o endeav\r to abbreviate our conception ( geologic "t by suppos+ t 9 ! old5 days ! ord] ( ev5ts 0 o!r ?an t we n[ behold are go+ c\nt] to ! be/ traditions ( ! sci5ce4 ,al?\gh ! aspect ( ! record ( life s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! ,cambrian "t indicates a p]iod ( at lea/ a hundr$ million ye>s1 x mu/ n be suppos$ t ?is is ! limit ( ! "t requir$ = ! developm5t ( ! organic s]ies4 ,all ! important types ( animals 7 already 9 exi/5ce 9 t anci5t p]iod ) ! exception ( ! v]tebrates1 ! rema9s ( :i* h app>5tly n[ be5 trac$ d[n to ne> ! ,cambrian level4 ,9 o!r words1 at ! /age :]e we fir/ f9d evid5ce ( liv+ be+s ! s]ies to :i* !y belong _h already climb$ v f> above ! level ( lifeless matt]4 ,few naturali/s w "q ! /atem5t t half ! "w ( organic advance _h be5 accompli%$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,cambrian rocks4 ,! writ] is ( ! op9ion t ! developm5t :i* took place be=e t age mu/ h requir$ a mu* long] p]iod ?an has elaps$ f t epo* to ! pres5t day4 ,we ?us come to ! conclusion t ! measurem5t ( duration af=d$ by organic life indicates a yet m l5g!n$ claim ( ev5ts1 & dem&s m "t ?an appe>s to be requir$ = ! =mation ( ! /ratifi$ rocks4 ,! index ( duration af=d$ by ! organic s]ies is probably m tru/wor?y ?an t :i* is f\nd 9 ! s$im5t>y /rata1 & ?is = ! reason t ! records ( ^? /rata h be5 subject$ to num]\s & immeasurable breaks1 :ile ! developm5t ( organic life has ( necessity be5 p]fectly cont9u\s4 ,! "o record c at any po9t be brok5 )\t int]rupt+ ! sequ5ces2 ! o!r does n admit ( any brea*es 9 ! cont9uity4 ,,! ,,moon4 ,set ov] aga9/ ! e>?--relat$ to1 yet contra/$ ) x 9 _m ways--! moon (f]s a mo/ pr(itable object to ! /ud5t ( geology4 ,he %\ld (t5 turn to x = ^? lessons :i* w be briefly not$4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( _! mutual hi/ory ! mat]ials ( e>? & moon d\btless =m$ "o vapor\s body :i* _h be5 p>t$ f ! conc5trat+ mass ( ! sun 9 ! mann] not$ 9 ! sket* ( ! hi/ory ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,aft] ! e>?-moon body _h ga!r$ into a nebul\s sph]e1 x is mo/ likely t a r+ resembl+ t /ill exi/+ ab\t ,saturn 0 =m$ ab\t ! e>?1 :i* 9 "t consolidat$ into ! satellite4 ,!nce=? ! two bodies 7 p>t$1 except = ! gravitative attraction :i* impell$ !m to revolve ab\t _! common c5tre ( gravity1 & except = ! light & heat !y might ex*ange ) "o ano!r4 ,! fir/ /ages aft] ! p>t+ ( ! sph]es ( e>? & moon appe> to h be5 ess5tially ! same 9 ea* body4 ,conc5trat+ ^u _! c5tres1 !y became 9 "t fluid by heat2 fur!r on1 !y ent]$ ! rigid /ate--9 a ^w1 !y froze--at lea/ 9 _! out] p>ts4 ,at ?is po9t 9 _! exi/5ce _! hi/ories utt]ly div]ge2 or r1 we may say1 ! developm5t ( ! e>? cont9u$ 9 a va/ unfold+1 :ile t ( ! moon appe>s to h be5 absolutely arre/$ 9 ways :i* we w n[ describe4 ,) ! nak$ eye we see on ! moon a consid]able v>iation 9 ! light ( diff]5t p>ts ( its surface2 we disc]n t ! d>k] pat*es appe> to be rudely circul>1 & t !y run toge!r on _! m>g9s4 ,see+ ?is little1 ! anci5ts fanci$ t our satellite _h seas & l&s l ! e>?4 ,! fir/ telescopes did n dispel _! fancies2 ev5 d[n to ! e>ly "p ( ?is c5tury !re 7 a/ronom]s :o believ$ ! moon to be habitable2 inde$1 !y ?\ght to f9d evid5ce t x 0 ! dwell+ place ( intellig5t be+s :o built cities1 & :o tri$ to signal _! intellectual k9dr$ ( ?is planet4 ,:51 h[ev]1 /rong glasses 7 appli$ to ! exploration1 ^! pleas+ fancies 7 rudely dispell$4 ,se5 ) a telescope ( ! bett] sort1 ! moon reveals itself to be 9 l>ge "p made up ( circul> depressions1 ea* surr\nd$ by a r+like wall1 ) ne>ly level b r\gh places betwe54 ,! l>ge/ ( ^! wall$ areas is "s f\r hundr$ miles 9 diamet]2 !nce !y grade d[n to ! smalle/ pits :i* ! glass c disclose1 :i* are probably n ov] z _m feet across4 ,! writ]1 f a c>eful /udy ( ^! pits1 has come to ! conclusion t ! wid] are ! old] & ! small] ! la/ =m$4 ,! rude elevations ab\t ^! pits--"s ( :i* rise to ! height ( t5 ?\s& feet or m--con/itute ! pr9cipal topographic reliefs ( ! lun> surface4 ,besides ! pits above m5tion$1 !re are num]\s fractures 9 ! surface ( ! pla9s & r+like ridges2 on ! mo/ ( ^! ! walls h sep>at$1 =m+ tr5*es n unlike :at we f9d 9 ! case ( "s t]re/rial breaks su* z h be5 not$ ab\t volcanoes & else:]e4 ,x may be t ! s-call$ canals ( ,m>s are ( ! same nature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,lun> m\nta9s ne> ! ,gulf ( ,iris4 ,! mo/ curi\s feature on ! moon's surface are ! b&s ( light] col\r1 :i*1 radiat+ f c]ta9 ( ! volcanolike pits--^? ( less] size & probably ( late/ orig9--ext5d 9 "s cases = five hundr$ miles or m across ! surface4 ,^! light b&s h nev] be5 adequately expla9$4 ,x seems mo/ likely t !y are /a9s along ! sides ( cracks1 su* z are sometimes obs]v$ ab\t volcanoes4 ,! em95t peculi>ity ( ! moon is t x is de/itute ( any k9d ( gase\s or aque\s envelope4 ,t !re is no di/9ct atmosph]e is cle>ly %[n by ! p]fectly %>p & sudd5 way 9 :i* ! light ( a /> disappe>s :5 x goes beh9d ! moon & ! cle> l9es ( ! edge ( ! satellite 9 a sol> eclipse4 ,! same evid5ce %[s t !re is no vap\r ( wat]2 moreov]1 a c>eful se>* :i* ! writ] has made %[s t ! surface has none ( ^? cont9u\s d[n grades :i* m>k ! "w ( wat] fl[+ ov] ! l&4 ,ne>ly all ( ! surface consi/s ( %all[ or deep pits1 su* z c\ld n h be5 =m$ by wat] action4 ,we !re=e h n only to conclude t ! moon is wat]less1 b t x has be5 9 ?is condition ev] s9ce ! "p t is turn$ t[>d u 0 %ap$4 ,z ! moon1 except = ! slight movem5t t]m$ its libration1 always turns ! same face to u1 s t we see 9 all only ab\t f\r sev5?s ( its surface1 x has naturally be5 conjectur$ t ! unse5 side1 :i* is probably "s miles l[] ?an t turn$ t[>d u1 might h a diff]5t "* f t :i* we behold4 ,!re are reasons :y ?is is improbable4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we see on ! extreme bord] ( ! moon1 :5 ! libration turns "o side ! f>!/ ar\nd t[>d ! e>?1 ! edge ( a numb] ( ! great wall$ pits su* z are s pl5ty on ! visible area2 x is fair to assume t ^! r+s are complet$ 9 ! invisible realm4 ,on ?is basis we c p>tly map ab\t a ?ird ( ! hidd5 side4 ,fur!rmore1 !re are c]ta9 b&s ( light :i*1 ?\gh appe>+ on ! visible side1 evid5tly conv]ge to "s po9ts on ! o!r4 ,x is reasonable to suppose t1 z all o!r b&s radiate f wall$ pits1 ^! also />t f su* topographic features4 ,9 ?is way c]ta9 lik5esses ( ! hidd5 area to t :i* is visible is e/abli%$1 ?us mak+ x probable t ! :ole surface ( ! satellite has ! same "*4 ,cle>ly z ! great] "p ( ! moon is reveal$ to u--s cle>ly1 inde$1 t x is possible to map any elevation ( its surface t atta9s ! height ( five hundr$ feet--! int]pretation ( its features 9 ! light ( geology is a matt] ( v great difficulty4 ,! ma9 po9ts seem to be tol]ably cle>2 !y are z foll[s3 ,! surface ( ! moon z we see x is t :i* 0 =m$ :5 t body1 pass+ f ! /ate ( fluidity f heat1 =m$ a solid cru/4 ,! pits :i* we obs]ve on its surface are ! depressions :i* 7 =m$ z ! mass gradually ceas$ to boil4 ,! lat] =m$ ( ^! op5+s are ! small]1 z w\ld be ! case 9 su* a sl[+ d[n ( a boil+ process4 ,z ! diamet] ( ! moon is only ab\t "o f\r? ( t ( ! e>?1 its bulk is only ab\t "o sixte5? ( t ( its planet2 consequ5tly1 x mu/ h cool$ to ! po9t ( solidification ages be=e ! l>g] sph]e atta9$ t /ate4 ,x is probable t ! same *angeless face t we see look$ d[n = millions ( ye>s on an e>? :i* 0 /ill a see?+1 fi]y mass4 ,9 a ^w1 all t va/ hi/ory :i* is traceable 9 ! rocks b5ea? our feet--:i* is 9 progress 9 ! seas & l&s & is to endure = an inconceivable "t to come--has be5 d5i$ our satellite1 = ! reason t x _h no air ) :i* to entrap ! sol> heat & no wat] to apply ! sol> en]gy to evolution>y processes4 ,! heat :i* comes ^u ! moon z l>ge a %>e = ea* equal area z x comes ^u ! e>? flies at once away f ! airless surface1 at mo/ giv+ x a tempor>y w>m?1 b in/itut+ no geological "w unless x be a little movem5t f ! expansion & contraction ( ! rocks4 ,dur+ ! ages 9 :i* ! moon has rema9$ ?us lifeless ! e>?1 ow+ to its air & wat]1 has appli$ a va/ am\nt ( sol> en]gy to geological "w 9 ! developm5t & r$evelopm5t ( its geological features & to ! processes ( organic life4 ,we ?us see ! fundam5tal importance ( ! volatile envelopes ( our sph]e1 h[ absolutely !y h det]m9$ its hi/ory4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to consid] ! causes :i* l$ to ! abs5ce ( air & wat] on ! moon1 b ?is matt] is "o ( ! mo/ debatable ( all t relates to t sph]e2 we %all !re=e h to cont5t ourselves ) ! above brief /atem5ts z to ! va/ & f>-act+ effects :i* h aris5 f ! non-exi/5ce ( ^? envelopes on our ne>e/ neighb\r ( ! heav5s4 ,,me?ods ,,9 ,,/udy+ ,,geology4 ,s f> z possible ! prec$+ pages1 by ! me?od adopt$ 9 ! pres5tation ( facts1 w s]ve to %[ ! /ud5t ! ways 9 :i* he may be/ und]take to trace ! ord] ( ev5ts exhibit$ 9 ! ph5om5a ( ! e>?4 ,foll[+ ! plan pursu$1 we %all n[ consid] c]ta9 special po9ts :i* ne$ to be not$ by ^? :o w\ld adopt ! me?ods ( ! geologi/4 ,at ! outset ( 8 /udies x may be well = ! inquir] to note ! fact t famili>ity ) ! _w ab\t him leads ! man 9 all cases to a c]ta9 neglect & contempt ( all ! famili> pres5tations ( ,nature4 ,we inevitably =get t ^? po9ts ( light 9 ! firmam5t are va/ suns1 & we ov]look ! fact t ! soil b5ea? our feet is n m]e dirt1 b a m>vell\s /ructure1 m complicat$ 9 its processes ?an ! *emi/'s laboratory1 f :i* ! su/5ance ( our own & all o!r lives is drawn4 ,we feel our own bodies z de> b commonplace possessions1 ?\gh we %\ld und]/& !m z inh]itances f ! inconceivable pa/1 :i* h come to u ?r\gh t5s ( ?\s&s ( diff]5t species & hundr$s ( millions ( individual ance/ors4 ,we mu/ ov]look ^! ?+s 9 our common life4 ,if we c\ld take !m into acc\nt1 ea* s\l w\ld c>ry ! univ]se z an intellectual burd54 ,x is1 h[ev]1 well f "t to "t to contemplate ! tru?1 & to =ce ourselves to see t all ?is app>5tly simple & ord9>y m$ley ( ! _w ab\t u is a "p ( a va/ procession ( ev5ts1 com+ =? f ! d>kness ( ! pa/ & mov+ on beyond ! light ( ! pres5t day4 ,ev5 9 8 pr(essional "w ! naturali/ ( necessity falls into ! commonplace way ( reg>d+ ! facts ) :i* he deals4 ,if he be an a/ronom]1 he catalogues ! />s ) little m s5se ( ! imm5sities ?an ! man :o keeps a %op takes acc\nt ( 8 w>es4 ,nev]!less1 ! real pr(it ( all le>n+ is 9 ! l>g5ess ( ! und]/&+ :i* x develops 9 man4 ,! p]iods ( gr[? 9 k are ^? 9 :i* ! m9d1 enri*$ by its /ore1 enl>ges its conception :ile x escapes f commonplace ways ( ?\ght4 ,) ?is brief m5tion ( :at is by f> ! mo/ important pr9ciple ( guidance :i* ! /ud5t c foll[1 we w turn to ! que/ions ( me?od t ! /ud5t ne$ foll[ 9 8 ord9>y "w4 ,) almo/ all /ud5ts a difficulty is enc\nt]$ :i* h9d]s !m 9 acquir+ any l>ge views z to ! _w ab\t !m4 ,?is is due to ! fact t !y c n make & reta9 9 memory cle> pictures ( ! ?+s !y see4 ,!y rememb] words r ?an ?+s--9 fact1 ! tra9+ 9 language1 :i* is s l>ge a "p ( an education1 t5ds ev] to dim9i% ! elem5t ( visual memory4 ,! fir/ task ( ! /ud5t :o w\ld become a naturali/ is to take 8 k f ! ?+1 & to rememb] x by ! m5tal picture ( ! ?+4 ,9 all education 9 ,nature1 :e!r ! /ud5t is guid$ by 8 own und]/&+ or t ( ! tea*]1 a fir/ & v cont9u\s aim %\ld be to en=ce ! habit ( recall+ v di/9ct images ( all objects :i* x is desir$ to rememb]4 ,to ?is end ! /ud5t %\ld practise himself by look+ int5tly ^u a l&scape or any o!r object2 !n1 turn+ away1 he %\ld try to recall :at he has beheld4 ,aft] a mom5t ! impression by ! sight %\ld be repeat$1 & ! /udy ( ! memory r5ew$4 ,! writ] kn[s by 8 own exp]i5ce t ev5 9 middle-ag$ p1 :]e x is h>d to bre$ new habits1 su* delib]ate tra9+ c greatly increase ! capacity ( ! memory = tak+ 9 & reproduc+ images :i* are deem$ ( importance4 ,practice ( ?is k9d %\ld =m a "p ( e naturali/'s daily r\t9e4 ,aft] a c]ta9 "t1 x ne$ n be consci\sly done4 ,! movem5ts ( ?\ght & action w1 inde$1 become z automatic z ^? :i* ! tra9$ f5c] makes ) 8 foil4 ,along ) ! habit ( visualiz+ memories1 & ( /or+ !m )\t ! use ( words1 ! /ud5t %\ld und]take to enl>ge 8 p[]s ( conceiv+ spaces & directions z !y exi/ 9 ! field ab\t him4 ,among savages & animals bel[ ! grade ( man1 ?is und]/&+ ( spacial relations is v cle> & /rong4 ,x enables ! primitive man to f9d 8 way ?r\gh ! trackless =e/1 & ! c>ri] pigeon to recov] 8 mate & dwell+ place f ! di/ance ( hundr$s ( miles away4 ,9 civiliz$ m51 h[ev]1 ! habit ( ! home & /reet & ! disuse ( ! anci5t fre$om has dull$1 & 9 "s in/ances almo/ de/roy$1 all s5se ( ?is %ape ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,! be/ tra9+ to recov] ?is preci\s capacity w n[ be set =?4 ,! /ud5t %\ld beg9 by draw+ a map on a true scale1 h[ev] r\ghly ! "w may be done1 ( ^? features ( ! e>? ab\t him ) :i* he is necess>ily mo/ famili>4 ,! task may well be begun ) 8 own dwell+ or 8 s*oolroom4 ,!nce x may be ext5d$ s z to include ! plan ( ! neighb\r+ /reets or fields4 ,at fir/1 only directions & di/ances %\ld be platt$4 ,aft] a "t to ^! indications %\ld be add$ on ! map l9es indicat+ 9 a g5]al way cont\rs or ! l9es =m$ by horizontal planes int]sect+ ! area subject to del9eation4 ,aft] atta9+ c]ta9 rude skill 9 su* "w1 ! /ud5t may advantage\sly make excursions to di/ricts :i* he c see only 9 a hurri$ way4 ,z he goes1 he %\ld endeav\r to note on a sket* map ! positions ( ! hills & /reams & ! directions ( ! roads4 ,a ye> ( holiday practice 9 su* "w w1 if ! tasks occupy some:]e ab\t a hundr$ h\rs ( 8 "t1 s]ve greatly to ext5d or reawak5 :at may be call$ ! topographic s5se1 & enable him to place 9 t]ms ( space ! obs]vations ( ,nature :i* he may make4 ,9 8 m detail$ "w ! /ud5t %\ld select "s p>ticul> field = 8 inquiry4 ,if he be specially int]e/$ 9 geologic ph5om5a1 he w be/ beg9 by not+ two classes ( facts--^? exhibit$ 9 ! rocks z !y actually appe> 9 ! /ate ( repose z %[n 9 ! outcrops ( 8 neighb\rhood1 & ^? %[n 9 ! active manife/ations ( geological "w1 ! decay ( ! rocks & ! transportation ( _! wa/e1 or1 if ! conditions fav\r1 ! complicat$ ph5om5a ( ! sea%ores4 ,z soon z ! /ud5t beg9s to obs]ve1 he %\ld beg9 to make a record ( 8 /udies4 ,to ! novice 9 any sci5ce writt51 & p>ticul>ly sket*$1 notes are ( ! utmo/ importance4 ,^!1 :e!r 9 words or 9 draw+s1 %\ld be made 9 face ( ! facts2 !y %\ld1 inde$1 be set d[n at ! close ( an obs]vation1 ?\gh n until ! obs]v] feels t ! object he is /udy+ has yield$ to him all :i* x c at t "t give4 ,x is well to rem>k t :]e a record is made at ! outset ( a /udy ! /ud5t is apt to feel t he is 9 "s way pl$g$ to %ape all he may see to fit t :i* he has fir/ writt54 ,9 8 e>ly exp]i5ce z a tea*]1 ! writ] 0 accu/om$ to h /ud5ts comp>e _! "w ( obs]vation & del9eation ) t done by tra9$ m5 on ! same gr\nd4 ,x n[ seems to him be/ = ! beg9n] at fir/ to avoid all su* ref]5ce ( 8 own "w to t ( o!rs4 ,s great is ! ne$ ( develop+ indep5d5t motive t x is bett] at ! outset to make _m blund]s ?an to secure accuracy by tru/ 9 a lead]4 ,! skilful tea*] c give fitt+ words ( caution :i* may help a /ud5t to f9d ! true way1 b any ref]5ce ( 8 und]tak+s to ma/]pieces is sure to bre$ a s]vile habit4 ,!re=e su* comp>isons are fitt+ only aft] ! habit ( free "w has be5 well =m$4 ,! /ud5t :o c af=d ! help ( a ma/]1 or1 bett]1 ! assi/ance ( _m1 su* z "s ( our univ]sities (f]1 %\ld by all means avail himself ( ?is res\rce4 ,m ?an any o!r sci5ce1 geology1 because ( ! complexity ( ! consid]ations ) :i* x has to deal1 dep5ds ^u me?ods ( lab\r :i* are to a great ext5t traditional1 & :i* c n1 inde$1 be well transmitt$ except 9 ! p]sonal way4 ,9 ! di/9ctly limit$ sci5ces1 su* z ma!matics1 physics1 or ev5 ^? :i* deal ) organic bodies1 ! me?ods ( "w c be s f> set =? 9 pr9t$ directions t ! /ud5t may to a great ext5t acquire s\nd ways ( "w )\t ! help ( a tea*]4 ,al?\gh !re is a va/ & important lit]ature conc]n+ geology1 ! great] "p ( x is ( a v special nature1 & w convey to ! beg9n] no sub/antial in=mation :atev]4 ,x is n until he has become famili> ) ! field ) :i* he is enabl$ to deal 9 ! actual way t he c transf] exp]i5ce ?us acquir$ to o!r gr\nds4 ,!re=e beyond ! pleas+ views :i* he may obta9 by read+ c]ta9 g5]al works on ! sci5ce1 ! /ud5t %\ld at ! outset ( 8 inquiry limit 8 "w z f> z possible to 8 field ( practice1 us+ a good text-book1 su* z ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology1 z a s\rce ( sugge/ions z to ! problems :i* 8 field may af=d4 ,! ma9 aim ( ! /ud5t 9 ?is1 z 9 o!r bran*es ( inquiry1 is to ga9 practice 9 foll[+ out ! natural s]ies ( actions4 ,to ! primitive man ! ph5om5al _w pres5ts itself z a m]e phantasmagoria1 a va/ %[ 9 :i* ! ?+s se5 are only relat$ to ea* o!r by ! fact t !y come at once into view4 ,! end ( sci5ce is to div9e ! ord] ( ?is ho/1 & ! ways 9 :i* x is m>%all$ 9 its onw>d movem5t & ! ends to :i* its m>* appe>s to be direct$4 ,s f> z ! /ud5t obs]ves well1 & ?us ga9s a cle> notion ( sep>at$ facts1 he is 9 a fair way to ga!r ! data ( k :i* may be useful2 b ! real value ( ^! disc]nm5ts is n ga9$ until ! obs]vations g toge!r1 s z to make some?+ ) a p]spective4 ,until ! /ore ( sep>ate facts is ?us arrang$1 x is m]ely crude mat]ial = ?\ght2 x is n 9 ! true mean+ sci5ce1 any m ?an a /ore ( /one & mort> is ar*itecture4 ,:5 ! /ud5t has develop$ an appetite = ! appreciation ( ord] & s\rces ( en]gy 9 ph5om5a1 he has pass$ 8 novitiate1 & becomes "o ( t happy body ( m5 :o n only see :at is p]ceiv$ by ! mass ( _! fell[s1 b are enabl$ to look ?r\gh ^? *a9s ( action :i*1 :5 compreh5d$1 s]ve to rationalize & ennoble all t ! s5ses ( man1 aid$ by ! in/rum5ts :i* he has devis$1 tell u conc]n+ ! visible _w4 ,,index4 tna1 ,m\nt1 #cha4 ,agriculture1 ,am]ican1 #cdf2 9 ,engl&1 w9n+ swamp l&s =1 #cce2 rec5t developm5ts (1 #cde4 ,alaska1 *anges on ! coa/ (1 #if4 ,ants tak+ food und]gr\nd1 #cai2 "w ( !1 on ! soil1 #cah4 ,apsides1 revolution ( !1 #fa1 #fb4 ,arabians1 *emical exp]im5ts ( !1 #ac4 ,ar*es1 natural1 9 cav]n di/ricts1 #beh4 ,artesian wells1 #beh1 #bei4 ,arts1 advance ( ,italian f9e1 #ai4 ,a/]oids1 #ec2 motions (1 ab\t _! c5tres & ab\t ! sun1 #ec4 ,a/ronom]s1 ! sol> sy/em & ! e>ly1 #gi4 ,a/ronomy1 #ca-hj2 gr[? (1 s9ce ! "t ( ,galileo1 #cc1 #cd2 ! fir/ sci5ce1 #aj4 ,atmosph]e1 #ig-bjf2 along ! tropical belt1 #ajb2 z a m$ium ( communication betwe5 diff]5t regions1 #ii2 depriv$ ( wat]1 conta9+ little heat1 #aje2 beg9n+ ( ! sci5ce ( !1 #aag2 c\nt]-trade movem5ts ( !1 #aje2 envelope ( ! e>?1 #ih2 expansion (1 9 a holl[ wall dur+ ! passage ( a /orm1 #aad2 heat-c>ry+ p[] ( !1 #aje2 heights to :i* x ext5ds1 #ii2 9 wat]1 #ii2 movem5ts no direct influ5ce on ! surface ( ! e>?1 #abb2 movem5ts ( !1 qualifi$ by ! condition :i* x enc\nt]s1 #aah2 ( m\nta9s1 #ih2 ( ! sea%ore1 #ih2 ( ! e>?1 #ih2 ( ! sun1 #gc2 sn[ z an evid5ce (1 #fe2 supply+ ne$s ( und]gr\nd creatures1 #cca2 upru%es (1 #aja1 #ajb2 upw>d /ra9 ( !1 next ! e>?1 #ajg2 weight & motion ( !1 #abj1 #aba4 ,atmosph]ic circulation ( ! soil1 #ccj1 #cca2 envelopes1 #ig4 ,aurora borealis1 #afh4 ,avalan*es1 #baj-bac2 dread$1 9 ! ,alp9e regions1 #bab2 great1 9 ! ,swiss ,ob]l&1 #baa1 #bab2 rocky1 #age-agg4 ,axis1 imag9>y *anges 9 ! e>?'s1 #ei2 ( ! e>?'s rotation1 #eh2 pol>1 incl9$ position (1 #eh2 pol>1 nodd+ movem5t ( ! axes1 #ed2 rotations ( ! planet>y sph]es on _! axes1 #ef4 ,b>omet]1 causes ( *anges 9 !1 #aag1 #aah4 ,basalts1 #cji4 ,bea*es1 #ic1 #adb1 #add2 b\ld]1 #adb1 #adc2 pebbly1 #adb2 s&1 #add4 ,beetles1 "w (1 on ! soil1 #cah1 #cai4 ,belief ( ! e>ly a/ronom]s ab\t ! sol> sy/em1 #gi4 ,b]gs*rund1 !1 #bad4 ,birds & mammals contribut+ to ! f]tility ( ! soil1 #cai4 ,blanket+1 #bfi4 ,bogs1 climb+1 #cca-ccd2 lake1 #cca-ccc2 peat1 #ccd1 #cce2 quak+1 #ccd4 ,botany1 rapid advance 91 #ad1 #ae4 ,b\ld]s1 #bag1 #bbj4 ,break]s1 #ace1 #acg1 #aci4 ,bridges1 natural1 #beg1 #beh4 ,canals ( ,m>s1 #fg4 ,caon1 newly =m$ riv] cutt+ a1 #aie4 ,cat>acts1 #aic4 ,caves1 #bec-beh1 #bfa2 ar*itecture (1 #bee-beh2 hot-wat]1 #bfa2 mammo? cave1 #beh2 /alactites & /alagmites on ! ro( & floor (1 #beg4 ,*asms1 #adj1 #ada4 ,*emi/ry1 #f1 #ab1 #ad2 advance (1 #ab2 mod]n1 evolv+ f ! /udies ( al*emi/s1 #ac1 #ad4 ,*romosph]e1 #gc4 ,civilization ( ! ,icel&]s1 #chd4 ,cliffs1 sea-beat51 #acb1 #ada1 #adb4 ,climate1 *anges (1 due to modifications ( ! ocean /reams1 #aec2 effect ( ! ocean on !1 #adg2 ( ! ,gulf ,/ream1 #adi1 #aej4 ,cl\ds1 #aei2 =mation (1 #afb1 #afc2 %ape (1 #afc2 wat] (1 usually froz51 #bjg2 cl\d-mak+1 laws (1 #afa1 #afb4 ,coa/1 *anges on ! ,sc&9avian1 #if2 l9e1 effect ( tide on !1 #ade2 ( ,gre5l&1 #bbf2 ( ,new ,j]sey s9k+1 #ie2 m>9e1 *anges 91 #ie4 ,cold 9 ,sib]ia1 #bdc4 ,comets1 #dg1 #ej2 collisions (1 #ej2 k9%ip ( meteorites &1 #dh2 om5s ( calamity to ! anci5ts1 #ej2 ! great1 ( #ahaa1 #di1 #ej4 ,cones4 ,see "u ,,volcanoes4 ,conflict betwe5 religion & sci5ce1 #bj1 #bb2 betwe5 ! ,prote/ant c\ntries & ! foll[]s ( sci5ce1 #bj4 ,cont95tal %elves1 #abe4 ,cont95ts & oceans1 #hc2 *anges 9 position (1 #ia2 cyclones ( !1 #aaa2 =ms (1 #ij2 pro(s t !y h endur$ = _m ye>s1 #ib2 %ape (1 #hd1 #if4 ,coral reefs1 #aec1 #cec4 ,corona1 realm ( !1 #gc4 ,crat]s4 ,see "u ,,volcanoes4 ,crevasse1 a b>ri] to ! explor]1 #bah4 ,crevice wat]1 #bej4 ,curds1 #bad4 ,curr5ts1 coral reefs 9 ,florida affect+ ! velocity (1 #aec2 equatorial1 #aej2 ( ! ,gulf ,/ream1 #adg-adi2 hot & cold1 ( ! sea1 #ajb2 ocean1 #ade2 oceanic action ( trade w9ds on1 #ade2 effect on migration (1 #aeg2 iceb]gs indicat+1 #bdc2 surface1 hi/ory (1 #agb2 upru%+1 ne> ! equator1 #ajf4 ,cyclones1 #aaa2 cause (1 #aaa2 ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 #aaa2 second>y /orms (1 #aab4 ,deltas1 #agc1 #ahg4 ,deposits1 ve91 #bfj1 #bfa4 ,des]ts1 int]ior1 #aeh4 ,dew1 #aei1 #afj2 a concomitant ( cl\dless skies1 #afj1 & vegetation1 #afj2 =mation (1 #aei-afa4 ,diabl]ets1 #agd4 ,diagram ( a ve91 #bfj2 %[+ developm5t ( swamp1 #cce2 h[ a portion ( ! e>?'s surface may be sunk by fault+1 #cgd2 gr[? ( mangroves1 #cdj2 ! effect ( ! position ( ! fulcrum po9t 9 ! movem5t ( ! l& masses1 #id4 ,diamet] ( our sph]e at ! equator1 #fb2 ( ! e>?1 #hb4 ,dikes1 #aib1 #bic2 #cje-caj2 ab\nd+ 9 volcanic cones1 #cje2 cutt+ ?r\gh coal1 #cjf2 driv5 upw>d1 #cjg2 =mation (1 #cje1 #caj2 mat]ial (1 #cjg1 #cjh2 repres5t+ movem5ts ( s(t5$ rock1 #cji2 _! relation to volcanic cones1 #cjg2 v>iations ( ! mat]ials (1 #cjg1 #cjh2 wat]falls produc$ by1 #aib2 zone (1 #cjf4 ,dismal ,swamp1 #ie1 #ccc4 ,di/ances1 g5]al idea (1 #bg2 good way to /udy1 #bg1 #bh2 tra9+ soldi]s to measure1 #bh4 ,doldrums1 #ajd1 #aji2 doldrum ( ! equator1 #aji2 ( ! hurricane1 #aji4 ,dra9age1 imp]fect1 ( a c\ntry affect$ by glaci]s1 #bdb4 ,dunes1 #abc1 #abd1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #chg2 m\ld$1 #chg4 ,duration ( geological "t1 #chi4 ,du/ accumulations f w9d1 9 ,*9a1 #abb4 ,e>?1 a flatt5$ sph]e1 #hb2 air envelope ( !1 #ih2 am\nt ( heat fall+ f ! sun on !1 #da2 antiquity ( !1 #cia2 atmosph]e ( !1 #ih2 attract+ p[] ( !1 #abg2 axis ( ! rotation ( !1 #eh2 composition ( ! atmosph]e ( !1 #ih2 cru/ ( !1 affect$ by weight1 #ic2 deviation ( ! pa? 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( !1 ar\nd ! sun1 #ee1 #ef1 #ei1 #fj2 revolv+ f ea/ to we/1 #ajc2 %r9k+ ( !1 f daily escape ( heat1 #hi2 soil-cov]+ ( !1 #cdc2 /udy ( !1 #ha-if2 sway+1 #che2 t5sions1 problem (1 #cga2 tremors1 caus$ by *emical *anges 9 ! rocks1 #che2 tropical belt ( !1 #gd2 view$ f ! surface ( ! moon1 #caa1 #cab2 wat] /ore ( !1 #abe4 ,e>?quakes1 #bgg1 #bgh1 #bhj1 #cef1 #ceh1 #cgj-chd1 #chh-cij2 accid5ts (1 #ceh2 action (1 #cef2 ag5ts ( degradation1 #chc1 #chd2 basis (1 #cfg2 c]ta9 limitations to1 #chj1 #cha2 ,*>le/on1 ( #ahhc1 #cgd1 #cge2 c\ntries1 ar*itecture 91 #cha2 e*oes1 #cfi1 #cgj2 damages (1 #cgg1 #cij2 effect (1 on ! soil1 #cge2 ! surface ( ! e>?1 #cga2 =m$ by riv+ ( fissures1 #chb2 great1 occurr+ :]e rocks h be5 di/urb$ by m\nta9-build+1 #cha1 #chb2 ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii de/roy$ by an1 #bgg1 #bhj2 ,italian1 9 #aghc1 #cga1 #cgb2 important1 n connect$ ) volcanic explosions1 #cha2 ,jamaica1 9 #afib1 #cgb1 #cgf2 ,lisbon1 9 #agee1 #cfh1 #cfi1 #cgc1 #cgd1 #cha2 maximum sw+ (1 #cfi2 measur+ ! liability to1 #chf1 #chg2 me*anism (1 #cgj1 #cga2 me?od ( ! /udy (1 foll[$ by ,mr4 ,*>les ,mallet1 #chb1 #chc2 ,mississippi1 9 #ahaa1 #cgc1 #cgd1 #chj1 #cha2 movem5t ( ! e>? dur+1 #cgg2 orig9at+ f a fault plane1 #cfg1 #cfi1 #cgj2 orig9at+ f ! seas1 #ceh1 #cge2 oscillation (1 #cgf2 pois$ rocks indicat+ a long exemption f /rong1 #chh2 ,riobamba1 9 #agig1 #cge2 %ocks (1 & _! effect ^u p1 #chc2 ! direct calamities ( ,nature1 #chf2 waves (1 #chi4 ,e>?worms1 #cag-cai2 tak+ food und]gr\nd1 #cai4 ,eclipses1 record ( anci5t1 #acj4 ,electrical action 9 ! =mation ( ra9 & sn[1 #afd4 ,elevations ( seas & l&s1 #hc4 ,en]gy inde/ructible1 #bc4 ,envelope1 l[]1 ( ! sun1 #gd4 ,equator1 diamet] ( our sph]e at !1 #fb2 doldrum ( !1 #aji2 updraught "u !1 #ajb2 upru%+ curr5t ne> !1 #ajf4 ,equ9oxes1 precession ( !1 #fa1 #fb4 ,esk]s1 #bba4 ,expansion ( air conta9$ 9 a holl[ wall dur+ ! passage ( ! /orm1 #aad4 ,exp]im5t1 illu/rat+ consolidation ( dissem9at$ mat]ials ( ! sun & planets1 #dj4 ,falls4 ,see ,,wat]falls4 ,fault planes1 #chb4 ,feldsp>1 #cbd4 ,floods1 #ahj1 #aig2 r>ity (1 9 ,new ,engl&1 #aba2 riv]1 frequ5t ea/ ( ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 #aih4 ,fhns1 #aba4 ,=e/s1 salicifi$1 #abd4 ,fossilization1 #ced-cef4 ,fulcrum po9t1 #ie4 ,galactic plane1 #de4 ,galongoon1 eruption (1 #bid4 ,geological "w ( wat]1 #afh-bjf4 ,glacial action 9 ! valleys ( ,switz]l&1 #bbd2 p]iods1 #fc1 #bdc1 #bdf2 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 #bdf2 wa/e1 #cbd4 ,glaciation1 effect (1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 #bda2 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica1 #bcd2 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #bcd4 ,glaci]s1 #bjg-bdi2 action ( ice 9 =m+1 #bcj-bcb2 ,alaskan1 #baf2 cont95tal1 #bbe1 #bci1 #bdj2 dis*>ge (1 #bbj2 explor+1 #bbj2 ext5sive1 9 ,gre5l& & ,sc&9avia1 #bdd2 =m]1 ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 #bcb1 #bcd2 map (1 & mora9es ne> ,mont ,blanc1 #bag2 motions (1 #bac2 retreat ( !1 #bbh1 #bcj1 #bce2 secrets ( ! "u ice (1 #bba2 spe$ ( a1 #bbd2 /udy (1 9 ! ,swiss valleys1 #bbb2 te/imony ( ! rocks reg>d+1 #bbh2 :5 cov]$ ) w9t] sn[s1 #baf2 valley1 #baf4 ,gombridge1 #ahcj1 #gd4 ,gravitation1 law (1 #d4 ,greeks' idea ( ! heav5s1 #ca2 n me*anically inv5tive1 #bb4 ,gulf ,/ream1 curr5t ( !1 #adg4 ,heat1 am\nt (1 daily escap+ f ! e>?1 #hi2 am\nt (1 fall+ f ! sun on ! e>?1 #da2 belief ( ! anci5ts reg>d+1 #db2 dom9at+ effect on air curr5ts ( tropical1 #ajd2 en]gy ) :i* x leaves ! sun1 #da2 int]nal1 ( ! e>?1 #hh1 #hi2 ( ! e>?'s int]ior1 #cji1 #caj2 sun1 effect on ! atmosph]e ( !1 #ajj2 ,pr(4 ,newcomb's belief reg>d+ !1 ( ! sun1 #eb2 radiation ( ! e>?'s1 caus+ w9ds1 #aja2 sol>1 #da2 tropical1 & air curr5ts1 #ajd4 ,hills1 s&1 #abc4 ,horizontal p5dulum1 #chd4 ,horse latitudes1 #ajd4 ,horses1 #bfa4 ,hurricanes1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #cag2 comm5cem5t (1 #ajg2 doldrum (1 #aji2 felt ne> ! sea1 #aaj2 9 ! tropics1 #aaj4 ,hypo!sis1 nebul>1 #cd1 #ce1 #ci1 #eb1 #ef2 work+1 #d1 #e4 ,ice action1 effect ( int5se1 #bbb1 #bbc2 9 =m+ glaci]s1 #bcj1 #bcb2 rec5t /udies 9 ,gre5l& (1 #bci2 dep? (1 9 ,gre5l&1 #bbg2 effect (1 on riv] *annels1 #aif2 effect (1 on /ream b$s1 #aif2 exp&+ :5 freez+1 #bcg2 epo*1 #ib1 #ic1 #bdf2 float+1 #bdb2 made soils r>ely f]tile1 #bda2 mass1 greate/1 9 ,gre5l&1 #bbf1 #bbg2 m\ld$ by pressure1 #bae2 /reams1 cont95tal1 #bbe1 #bbf2 ( ! m\nta9s1 #bbe2 ( ! ,himalayan ,m\nta9s1 #bcd4 ,iceb]gs1 #bdb1 #bdc2 indicat+ oceanic curr5ts1 #bdc4 ,icel&1 volcanic eruptions 91 #big1 #bih4 ,in/rum5ts1 fir/1 a/ronomical1 #aj1 #aa4 ,inv5tions1 me*anical1 aid+ sci5ce1 #bb4 ,isl&s1 #hd1 #bgb2 cont95tal1 #hd2 9 ! deep] seas made up ( volcanic ejections1 #bgb2 volcanic1 #bgb4 ,jack-o'-lant]n1 #afg4 ,jupit]1 gase\s wraps (1 #ig2 pa? ( ! e>? affect$ by1 #ei1 #fj2 ! l>ge/ planet ( ! sun1 #fi4 ,kames1 #cbe4 ,kant1 ,immanuel1 & nebul> hypo!sis1 #cd4 ,kaol91 #cbd4 ,klondike di/rict1 cold 91 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,krakatoa1 eruption (1 #bih-cjj2 effect (1 on ! sea1 #bii2 effect (1 on ! sun1 #cjj4 ,lacolites1 #cjf4 ,lacu/r9e b$s1 #cea4 ,lagoons1 salt deposits f\nd 91 #bjj4 ,lake bas9s1 =mation (1 #bjj1 #bja2 bogs1 #cca1 #ccc1 #ccd2 deposits1 #cej1 #cea4 ,lakes1 #aii-bjf2 effect (1 on ! riv] sy/em1 #bje2 fre%-wat]1 #ade2 =m$ f cav]ns1 #bjb2 great1 *ang+ _! outlets1 #bje2 ( ext9ct volcanoes1 #bjc2 tempor>y features ( ! l&1 #bjc2 volcanic1 #bjc4 ,l&s1 great1 relatively un*angeable1 #if2 table1 #ia2 movem5ts result+ 9 *ange ( coa/ l9e1 #cea1 #ceb2 %ape ( ! seas &1 #hc1 #hd2 acc\nt+ = ! *anges 9 ! attitude ( !1 #ie2 & wat]1 divisions (1 #hd2 dry1 surface (1 #he2 g5]al /atem5t z to ! division ( !1 #hc1 #hd2 surface1 %ape ( !1 #he2 triangul> =ms ( great1 #ij4 ,latitudes1 horse1 tr\blesome to m>9]s1 #ajd4 ,laplace & nebul> hypo!sis1 #cd4 ,lava1 #bff-bfh1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bib1 #bic1 #bie1 #bif1 #cjc1 #cjd2 fl[ (1 invad+ a =e/1 #bfh2 f ,vesuvius1 #bic2 ( #affi1 #bie1 #bif2 temp]ature (1 #bie1 #bif2 incipi5t1 #cjd2 outbreaks (1 #bib1 #cjc2 /ream eaves1 #bib1 #bic4 ,law1 natural1 ,ari/otle &1 #c2 ( gravitation1 #d2 ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 #bc4 ,leaves1 radiation (1 #afj4 ,l5g? ( days affect$ by tidal action1 #aca4 ,level surfaces1 #ia4 ,life1 organic1 evolution (1 #ae1 #af4 ,light1 belief ( ! anci5ts reg>d+1 #db4 ,lightn+1 #bd1 #afd-afh2 noise f1 #aff2 proce$+ f ! e>? to ! cl\ds1 #afe2 protection ( build+s f1 #afe2 /roke1 we>+-out effect (1 #afe4 ,lime/ones1 #cec1 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cfj1 #cfd2 =mation (1 #ceg1 #cfj4 ,lisbon1 e>?quake (1 #agee1 #cfh1 #cfi4 ,l[ell1 ,mr4 ,p]cival1 obs]vations on ,v5us1 #fd4 ,lun> m\nta9s ne> ! ,gulf ( ,iris1 #cig4 ,mack]el sky1 #ce4 ,mallet1 ,mr4 ,*>les1 & ! /udy ( e>?quakes1 #chb1 #chc4 ,man z an inv5tor ( tools1 #aj4 ,mangroves1 #cdj2 diagram %[+ mode ( gr[?1 #cdj2 m>%es (1 #cci4 ,map ( glaci]s & mora9es ne> ,mont ,blanc1 #bag2 ( ,ipswi* m>%es1 #cch4 ,mapp+ ) cont\r l9es1 #bg4 ,maps1 desirable1 = ! /udy ( cele/ial geography1 #gg2 geographic sket*1 #bf1 #bg4 ,m>*+ s&s jeop>diz+ agriculture1 #abc4 ,m>9e animals1 su/5ance (1 #cfa-cfc2 deposits1 #cbe-cbg1 #cdi1 #cef2 m>%es1 #ccf-cdj2 waves caus$ by e>?quakes1 #chg4 ,m>s1 #fe-fg1 #hd1 #ig2 belief t x has an atmosph]e1 #fe2 canals (1 #fg2 gase\s wraps (1 #ig2 m effici5t telescopes requir$ = ! /udy (1 #fg2 ne>] to ! e>? ?an o!r planets1 #fe4 ,m>%es1 mangrove1 #cci2 map ( ,ipswi*1 #cch2 m>9e1 #ccf-cdj2 deposits f\nd 91 #ccf2 ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 #ccg2 on ! coa/ ( ,new ,engl&1 #cci2 ph5om5a (1 #afg1 #afh2 tidal1 good e>? = tillage1 #ccg2 tidal1 ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 #cdj4 ,m]cury1 #ee1 #fc1 #gh2 ne>e/ to ! sun1 #fc2 "t 9 :i* x completes ! circle ( its ye>1 #ee4 ,meteorites1 #dg1 #dh2 k9%ip ( comets &1 #dh4 ,meteors1 #dg2 fall+1 #dg2 composition (1 #dh2 fla%+1 #ci1 #dj1 #dg2 spe$ (1 #dg2 inflam$ by friction ) air1 #ii4 ,me?ods 9 /udy+ geology1 #djj4 ,milky ,way1 #de2 voyage along ! pa? ( !1 #dd1 #de4 ,m9]al cru/s1 #cbh1 #cbi2 deposits1 #cjh4 ,moon1 #ch1 #cie-djj2 abs5ce ( air & wat] on !1 #cii2 att5d$ by satellites1 #eg2 attraction :i* x ex]cises on ! e>?1 #fb2 curi\s feature ( !1 #cig2 de/itute ( gase\s or aque\s envelope1 #cig2 diamet] ( !1 #cii2 imag9>y view ( ! e>? f !1 #ha2 libration ( !1 #cih2 made up ( circul> depressions1 #cif1 #cig2 movem5ts ( !1 #gh2 no atmosph]e 9 !1 #ig2 p>t+ ( ! e>? &1 #cif2 position ( !1 9 relation to ! e>?1 #fb2 tidal action & !1 #aca2 tides ( !1 #abf1 #abg2 :y does ! sun n act 9 ! same mann] z !1 #gh4 ,mora9es1 #baf1 #bah1 #bbi1 #bcj2 map ( glaci]s &1 ne> ,mont ,blanc1 #bag2 movem5ts ( !1 #baf-bah2 t]m9al1 #bbh4 ,m\l91 #bai4 ,m\nt tna1 #bhh-caj2 lava yield+1 #bij1 #bic1 #bid2 lava /ream caves (1 #bib1 #bic2 m p[]ful ?an ,vesuvius1 #big2 peculi>ities (1 #bia1 #bib2 size (1 #bhi-bia2 turn+ ( ! torr5ts (1 #bie4 ,m\nta9-build+1 #ij-ic1 #cjd2 fold+1 #hf1 #hg1 #ij1 #cfe2 attribut$ to cool+ ( ! e>?1 #hh2 gr[?1 #cib2 ,swiss falls1 #agd2 torr5ts1 en]gy (1 #agg4 ,m\nta9s1 #he1 #hf1 #hi1 #ij-ic2 #agd-agh2 =m & /ructure (1 #hf2 p>tly caus$ by escape ( heat f ! e>?1 #hi2 sections (1 #hg4 ,m\nt ,nuova1 =mation (1 #bhd4 ,m\nt ,vesuvius1 #bfc-bhe1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #bic1 #cjb1 #cha2 description ( ! eruption (1 9 ,a4,d4 #gi1 #bgg-bhj2 diagrammatic sections ?r\gh1 %[+ *anges 9 ! =m ( ! cone1 #bhc2 eruption (1 9 #ajef1 #bha2 9 #ahhb-'hc1 #bfd1 #bff2 eruption (1 9 #ahgb1 #bhb2 eruptions (1 increas$ s9ce #afcf1 #bhb2 fl[ ( lava f1 #bhe2 likely to ent] on a p]iod ( inaction1 #bhb1 #bhc2 outbreak (1 9 #ahhb-'hc1 #bfd1 #bff4 ,naples1 prosp]ity ( ! city1 #bhi4 ,nebul> hypo!sis1 #cd1 #ce1 #ci1 #eb4 ,neptune1 #gj4 ,nv1 !1 #bad2 no ice-cutt+ 9 ! region ( !1 #bbd4 ,newcomb's 7,pr(47 belief reg>d+ ! heat ( ! sun1 #eb4 ,niag>a ,falls1 #aia1 #aib1 #bjd2 cutt+ back (1 #bjd4 ,nor? ,am]ica1 *anges 9 ! =m (1 #ia1 #ib2 triangul> =m (1 #ij4 ,ocean1 av]age dep? ( !1 #hi2 climatal effect ( !1 #adg2 curr5ts1 #ade2 effect (1 on migration1 #aef2 effect (1 on organic life1 #aed2 floor1 #he1 #ic2 hot & cold curr5ts ( !1 #ajb2 s9k+ ( !1 #ic1 #id2 ! laboratory ( s$im5t>y deposits1 #cea2 dep? ( !1 #hi1 #abf4 ,oceanic circulation1 effect (1 on ! temp]ature1 #aeb4 ,oceans & cont95ts1 #hc4 ,orbit1 alt]ations ( !1 & ! seasons1 #fj1 #fa2 *ang+ ( !1 #ei-fc2 %ape ( !1 #fa-fc4 ,organic life1 #cae1 #cag1 #cba1 #ceb1 #cec1 #cfc2 action (1 on ! soil1 #cag1 #cba2 advantages ( ! %ore belt to1 #cfc2 developm5t ( 9 ! sea1 #ceb1 #cec2 effect ( ocean curr5ts on1 #aed2 processes (1 9 ! soil1 #cae2 decay (1 9 ! e>?1 #cba4 ,orion1 #df4 ,oscillations ( ! %ores ( ! ,bay ( ,naples1 #bhg4 ,oxb[ ( a riv]1 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,oxb[s & cut-(f1 #ahb4 ,pebbles1 action ( seawe$s on1 #adc2 action ( ! waves on1 #adb1 #add4 ,photosph]e1 #gd4 ,pla9s1 #hf2 alluvial1 #ia1 #agi1 #ahb1 #ahd-ahf1 #cbe2 hi/ory (1 #ia2 s&1 #cbe4 ,planets1 #ch2 att5d$ by satellites1 #eg2 comp>ative sizes ( !1 #fh2 exp]im5ts illu/rat+ consolidation ( dissem9at$ mat]ials ( ! sun &1 #dj2 gase\s wraps (1 #ig2 important obs]vations by ! anci5ts ( fix$ />s & planets1 #dc2 movem5ts (1 #eg-fa2 out]1 #gh2 table ( relative masses ( sun &1 #gg4 ,plant life 9 ! ,s>gassum bas9s1 #aef4 ,plants & animals1 protection (1 by me*anical contrivances1 #cfd2 & trees1 "w ( ! roots (1 on ! soil1 #caf1 #cag2 wat]-lov+1 #aha2 =m+ climb+ bogs1 #ccb4 ,pol> axes1 nodd+ movem5t (1 #ed4 ,pol> sn[ cap1 #ff4 ,polyps1 #aee1 #cec4 ,pools1 circul>1 #bjc4 ,prairies1 #cdj1 #cdb4 ,radiation ( heat1 #aei4 ,ra91 #aeb1 #aef1 #afd1 #afh1 #agj1 #cbh1 #ccj2 circuit ( !1 #aef-afh2 drops1 =ce (1 #afi1 #agj2 sph]oidal =m (1 #agj2 electrical action 9 ! =mation ( sn[ &1 #afd2 "w ( !1 #aga4 ,realm1 unse5 sol>1 #ge4 ,re$s1 #ccb4 ,religion1 conflict betwe5 sci5ce &1 #bj1 #bb2 /ruggle betwe5 paganism &1 #ba4 ,riv]s & dbris1 #ahc2 *anges 9 ! c\rse (1 9 alluvial pla91 #ahb2 deposition (1 accel]at$ by tree-plant+1 #aha2 great1 always cle>1 #bje2 inundation ( ! ,mississippi1 eat+ away l&1 #ahb2 muds1 #bbb2 newly =m$1 cutt+ a caon1 #aie2 ( sn[-ice1 #baa2 orig9 ( a normal1 #agc2 oxb[ ( a1 #ahb1ahc2 s9k+ (1 #aii2 sw++ movem5t (1 #agi-aha2 riv]-valleys1 #aic1 #aid2 div]sity 9 ! =m ( #ahh-aia4 ,rocks1 #ade2 accid5ts f fall+1 #agd2 cut away by s&/ones1 #ahh2 divid$ by crevices1 #beb2 duration ( ev5ts record$ 91 #chi1 #cij1 ejection (1 mat]ial1 #caa2 fall+ (1 #agd-agf2 =mation (1 #bfb1 #bfc2 f ! pres5t day to ! /rata ( ! ,laur5tian1 #cij2 migration (1 #bia2 pois$1 indicat+ a long exemption f /rong e>?quakes1 #chh2 r5ts 91 #beb1 #bec2 /ratification (1 #cdi1 #cej1 #ceb1 #cfe1 #cij2 te/imony ( !1 9 reg>d to glaci]s1 #bbh2 "u volcanoes1 #cjc2 v>iable ela/icity (1 #cff2 vibration (1 #cfg1 #cfh2 rock-wa/e1 m>* ( !1 #cdc2 wat]1 #bej1 #bfg4 ,rotation ( ! e>? affect$ by tides1 #acj2 ( ! planet>y sph]es on _! axes1 #ef4 ,salicifi$ =e/s1 #abd4 ,salt deposits =m$ 9 lagoons1 #bjj2 f\nd 9 lakes1 #aii-bjj4 ,s& b>s1 #ahc2 endurance (1 aga9/ ! waves1 #ade2 hills1 travell+ (1 #abc2 m>*+1 #abc2 silici\s /ones cutt+ away rooks1 #ahh4 ,satellites1 #ec1 #ed2 motions (1 ab\t _! c5tres & ab\t ! sun1 #ec1 #ed4 ,saturn1 #ch1 #ec1 #eg1 #cif2 cl\d b&s (1 #gj2 gase\s wraps (1 #ig2 pa? ( ! e>? affect$ by1 #ei1 #fj4 ,savages1 primitive1 /ud5ts ( ,nature1 #a4 ,sc&9avia1 *anges on ! coa/s (1 #if4 ,sci5ce1 advance (1 due to me*anical inv5tions1 #bb2 a/ronomy beg9n+ )1 #aj2 *emical1 *>act]i/ics (1 #ad2 conflict betwe5 religion &1 #bj1 #bb2 conflict betwe5 ! ,roman fai? &1 #bj2 me*anical inv5tions z aids to1 #bb1 #bc2 mod]n & anci5t1 #d2 natural1 #e1 #f2 ( botany 9 ,ari/otle's "t1 #ad2 ( physiology1 #ae2 ( zology 9 ,ari/otle's "t1 #ad2 re/+ practically on sight1 #aj4 ,sci5tific developm5t1 hi/oric outl9es (1 #ag2 tools us$ 9 measur+ & weigh+1 z an aid to vision1 #ab4 ,sea1 batt]+ action ( !1 #adj2 coa/ ev] *ang+1 #che1 #chf2 effect ( volcanic eruptions on !1 #bii2 floor deposits ( !1 affect$ by volcanoes1 #cfj1 #cfa2 9 receipt ( organic & m9]al matt]1 #cei2 hot & cold curr5ts ( !1 #ajb2 littoral zone ( !1 #cea1 #ceb2 puss1 #adb2 ri* 9 organic life1 #ceb1 #cec2 solv5t action ( !1 #cfa2 /rata1 =mation (1 #ced2 wat]1 m9]als 91 #ahe2 we$s1 #aee1 #aef4 ,seas1 dead1 orig9ally liv+ lakes1 #bjj2 wat] (1 buoyant1 #aii2 ev5tually ! seat ( salt deposits1 #aii-bja2 g5]al /atem5t z to division (1 #hc1 #hd2 %ape ( !1 #hc1 #hd4 ,sea%ore1 air ( !1 #ih4 ,seasons1 *ang+ ! "* ( !1 #fa1 #fb4 ,s5se ( he>+1 #i1aj2 ( sight1 #aj2 ( smell1 #i1 #aj2 ( ta/e1 #i1 #aj2 ( t\*1 #i1 #aj4 ,s]acs1 #bad4 ,%ocks1 e>?quake4 ,see "u ,,e>?quakes4 ,%ore l9es1 v>iation (1 #hc1 #hd4 ,%ores1 cliff1 #ach-adb4 ,s9k holes1 #bjb2 9 lime/one di/ricts1 #bec1 #bed4 ,skapt>1 eruption (1 #big1 #bih2 lava f ! eruption (1 #bih4 ,sky1 mack]el1 #ce4 ,sn[1 #bjg-bbe1 #bdd2 z an evid5ce ( atmosph]e1 #fe2 blankets1 e>ly fl[]s beg9n+ to blossom "u1 #bjh2 cov]+1 diff]5ce betwe5 an annual & p]5nial1 #baj2 effect (1 on plants1 #bjh2 electrical action 9 ! =mation ( ra9 &1 #afd2 flakes1 =mation (1 #afd2 r$1 #baj2 slides1 #baj2 slides1 ph5om5a (1 #baj1 #baa4 ,soil1 alluvial1 #cba1 #cbb2 atmosph]ic circulation (1 #ccj1 #cca2 conditions lead+ to =mation (1 #cac1 #cca2 cont9u\s motion ( !1 #cad2 cov]+ ( ! e>?1 #cdc2 decay ( !1 #cad1 #cae2 degradation ( !1 #cdd-cdh2 means = correct+1 #cdf-cdh2 de/ruction 9 gra9 fields great] ?an ! accumulation1 #cdd2 develop+ on lava & a%es an int]e/+ /udy1 #cdc2 developm5t (1 9 des]t regions1 #cdj2 effect ( animals & plants on !1 #cag-cbj2 effect ( e>?quakes on !1 #cge2 f]tility ( !1 di/+ui%$ f ! coat+1 #cdd1 #cde2 f]tility (1 affect$ by ra91 #cbg2 =mation (1 #cad-cba2 glacial1 *>act]i/ics (1 #cbd2 glaciat$1 #cbc1 #cbd2 irrigation ( !1 #cbh-ccj2 local v>iation (1 #cbg2 m9]al1 #cba2 ( arid regions f]tile :5 subject$ to irrigation1 #cda2 ( du/ or bl[n s&1 #cba2 ( imm$iate d]ivation1 #cba1 #cbb2 ph5om5a1 #cac2 processes ( organic life 9 !1 #cae2 v>iation 91 #cba-cca2 vegetation protect+ !1 #caf1 #cag2 wa%+ away ( !1 #cdf1 #cdg2 w9n+1 f ! sea1 #ccg2 "w ( ants on !1 #cah2 till]1 duty ( !1 #cdh4 ,sol> bodies1 g5]al conditions ( !1 #fc-ga2 =ces1 action (1 on ! e>?1 #cdi2 sy/em1 #eb1 #ef2 indep5d5t f ! fix$ />s sy/em1 #dc2 orig9al vap\r (1 #eb1 #ec2 s+ul> features ( our1 #fh2 tide1 #abg4 ,sph]es1 diff]5ce 9 magnitude (1 #ea2 motions ( !1 #ej1 #ea2 planet>y1 rotation (1 on _! axes1 #ef4 ,spots1 sun1 #gb4 ,sp\t+ horn1 #ada4 ,spr+s1 =mation ( small1 #beb4 ,/alactitization1 #bef4 ,/alagmites & /alactites on ! ro( & floor ( a cav]n1 #beg4 ,/>s z d>k bodies 9 ! heav5s1 #dg2 discov]y ( ,fraunh(] & o!rs on1 #bc1 #ch2 d\ble1 #ci2 & tidal action1 #aca2 e>lie/ /udy (1 #aj2 fix$1 important obs]vations by ! anci5ts ( planets &1 #dc2 n isolat$ suns1 #ch1 #ci2 v>iation 9 ! light (1 #df2 limit (1 se5 by ! nak$ eye1 #aa2 revolution ( "o /> ab\t ano!r1 #df1 #dg2 %oot+1 #dg2 spe$ ( c]ta91 #ea2 /udy (1 #ca-hj2 sudd5 fla%+ =? 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