,,non-,,violent ,,action ,,in ,,tension ,,areas3 ,series ,,iii3 ,number #a ,july #aidd4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,non-,,violence ,by ,,theodore ,,paullin ,,the ,,pacifist ,,research ,,bureau #abja ,,chestnut ,,street ,,philadelphia #g1 ,,pennsylvania ,,members ,,of ,,the ,,pacifist ,,research ,,bureau ,charles ,boss1 ,jr4 ,isidor ,b4 ,hoffman ,henry ,j4 ,cadbury ,john ,haynes ,holmes ,allan ,knight ,chalmers ,e4 ,stanley ,jones ,abraham ,cronbach ,john ,howland ,lathrop ,albert ,e4 ,day ,frederick ,j4 ,libby ,dorothy ,day ,a4 ,j4 ,muste ,edward ,w4 ,evans ,ray ,newton ,jane ,evans ,mildred ,scott ,olmsted ,f4 ,burt ,farquharson ,kirby ,page ,harry ,emerson ,fosdick ,clarence ,e4 ,pickett ,harrop ,a4 ,freeman ,guy ,w4 ,solt ,elmer ,a4 ,fridell ,douglas ,v4 ,steere ,richard ,gregg ,dan ,west ,harold ,hatch ,norman ,whitney ,e4 ,raymond ,wilson ,,financial ,,support ,the ,pacifist ,research ,bureau is financed entirely by the contributions of organizations and individuals who are interested in seeing this type of research carried on4 ,we trust that you may desire to have a part in this positive pacifist endeavor to aid in the formulation of plans for the world order of the future4 ,please make contributions payable to ,the ,pacifist ,research ,bureau1 #abja ,chestnut ,street1 ,philadelphia #g1 ,pennsylvania4 ,contributions are deductible for income tax purposes4 ,,director',s ,,foreword ,when ,i use a word1 ,humpty ,dumpty said1 in a rather scornful tone1 it means just what ,i choose it to mean--neither more nor less4 ,the question is1 said ,alice1 whether you can make words mean different things4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the writings of pacifists and non-pacifists concerning theories of and experiences with non-violence1 there is a clear lack of uniformity in the use of words4 ,the present booklet1 introducing the ,bureau's new series on ,non-,violent ,action in ,tension ,areas1 distinguished by green covers1 critically examines pacifist terminology4 ,but it does more1 for it analyzes various types of non-violence1 evaluates examples of non-violence referred to in previous literature1 and points to new sources of case material4 ,dr4 ,theodore ,paullin1 ,assistant ,director of the ,bureau1 is the author of this study4 ,the manuscript has been submitted to and reviewed by ,professor ,charles ,a4 ,ellwood and ,professor ,hornell ,hart1 both of the ,department of ,sociology1 ,duke ,university2 and by ,richard ,b4 ,gregg1 author of several works on the philosophy and practice of non-violence4 ,their criticisms and suggestions have proved most helpful1 but for any errors of interpretation the author is responsible4 ,the ,pacifist ,research ,bureau frankly bases its work upon the philosophy of pacifism3 that man should exercise such respect for human personality that he will employ only love and sacrificial good will in opposing evil and that the purpose of all human endeavor should be the creation of a world brotherhood in which cooperative effort contributes to the good of all4 ,a list of pamphlets published or in preparation appears on the back cover4 ,,harrop ,a4 ,,freeman1 ,executive ,director ,any organization ordering #ejj or more copies of any pamphlet published by the ,pacifist ,research ,bureau may have its imprint appear on the title page along with that of the ,bureau4 ,the prepublication price for such orders is #ge4jj for each #ejj copies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,i4 ,,introduction3 ,,on ,,terms #a ,definition of ,terms #e ,,ii4 ,,violence ,,without ,,hate #i ,revolutionary ,anarchism #aj ,abraham ,lincoln #aa ,the ,church and ,war #aa ,,iii4 ,,non-,,violence ,,by ,,necessity #ab ,non-,violent ,resistance to ,invaders #ac ,chinese ,boycotts ,against ,foreigners #ae ,egyptian ,opposition to ,great ,britain #af ,,iv4 ,,non-,,violent ,,coercion #ag ,the ,labor ,strike #ai ,the ,boycott #ba ,non-,violent ,coercion by the ,american ,colonies #bb ,irish ,opposition to ,great ,britain ,after #aijj #bc ,strikes with ,political ,purposes #bd ,non-,violence in ,international ,affairs #bd ,v4 ,,satyagraha ,,or ,,non-,,violent ,,direct ,,action #be ,the ,origins of ,satyagraha #bf ,the ,process of ,satyagraha #bg ,the ,philosophy of ,satyagraha #bi ,the ,empirical ,origins of ,gandhi's ,method #ca ,non-,cooperation #cb ,fasting #cc ,the ,american ,abolition ,movement #cd ,,vi4 ,,non-,,resistance #cf ,the ,mennonites #cg ,the ,new ,england ,non-,resistants #ci ,tolstoy #da ,,vii4 ,,active ,,goodwill ,,and ,,reconciliation #dc ,action in the ,face of ,persecution #dd ,coercion or ,persuasion8 #df ,ministering to ,groups in ,conflict #dg ,the ,power of ,example #dh ,work for ,social ,reform #di ,political ,action and ,compromise #ej ,the ,third ,alternative #ea ,,viii4 ,,conclusions #ed 99 99 99 99 99 ,,preface ,the purpose of the present study is to analyze the various positions found within the pacifist movement itself in regard to the use of non-violent techniques of bringing about social change in group relationships4 ,in its attempt to differentiate between them1 it makes no pretense of determining which of the several pacifist positions is ethically most valid4 ,hence it is concerned with the application of non-violent principles in practice and their effectiveness in achieving group purposes1 rather than with the philosophical and religious foundations of such principles4 ,it is hoped that the study may help individuals to clarify their thinking within this field1 but the author has no brief for one method as against the others4 ,each person must determine his own principles of action on the basis of his conception of the nature of the universe and his own scale of ethical values4 ,the examples chosen to illustrate the various positions have been taken largely from historical situations in this country and in ,europe1 because our traditional education has made us more familiar with the history of these areas than with that of other parts of the world4 ,it also seemed that the possibilities of employing non-violent methods of social change would be more apparent if it was evident that they had been used in the ,west1 and were not only applicable in ,oriental societies4 ,it is unfortunate that this deliberate choice has eliminated such valuable illustrative material as the work of ,kagawa in ,japan4 ,the exception to this general rule in the case of ,satyagraha has been made because of the wide-spread discussion of this movement in all parts of the world in our day4 ,i want to acknowledge with great appreciation the suggestions ,i have obtained from the preliminary work done for the ,pacifist ,research ,bureau in this field by ,russell ,curtis and ,haridas ,t4 ,muzumdar4 ,,theodore ,,paullin ,july #a1 #aidd 99 99 99 99 99 ,,introduction ,,to ,,non-,,violence 99 99 99 99 99 ,i4 ,,introduction3 ,,on ,,terms ,in the storm we found each other4 ,in the storm we clung together4 ,these words are found in the opening paragraphs of ,hey6 ,yellowbacks6 ,the ,war ,diary of a ,conscientious ,objector4 ,ernest ,l ,meyer uses them to describe the psychological process by which a handful of men--a few professors and a lone student--at the ,university of ,wisconsin grew into unity because they opposed the ,first ,world ,war1 when everyone around them was being carried away in the enthusiasm which marked the first days of ,american participation4 ,if there had been no storm1 they might not have discovered their affinity1 but as it was1 despite the disparity of their interests and backgrounds1 they found themselves in agreement on the most fundamental of their values1 when all the rest chose to go another way4 ,by standing together they all gained strength for the ordeals through which each must go1 and they were filled with the spirit of others before them and far removed from them1 who had understood life in the same way4#a ,the incident may be taken as symbolic of the experience through which pacifists have gone in this ,second ,world ,war1 too4 ,men and women of many creeds1 of diverse economic backgrounds1 of greatly divergent philosophies1 with wide variations in education1 have come together in the desire to sustain one another and aid one another in making their protest against war4 ,each in his own way has refused to participate in the mass destruction of human life which war involves1 and by that refusal has been united by the strongest bonds of sympathy with those of his fellows who have done likewise4 ,but it is the storm that has brought unity4 ,when the skies clear1 there will be a memory of fellowship together1 but there will also be a realization that in the half light we have seen only one aspect of each other's being1 and that there are enormous differences between us4 ,our future hope of achieving the type of world we want will demand a continuation of our sense of unity1 despite our diversities4 ,at present pacifism is no completely integrated philosophy of life4 ,most of us would be hard pressed to define the term pacifist itself4 ,despite the fact that according to the ,latin origins of the word it means peace maker1 it is small wonder that our non-pacifist friends think of the pacifist as a negative obstructionist1 because until the time came to make a negative protest against the evil of war we ourselves all too often forgot that we were pacifists4 ,in other times1 if we have been peace-makers at all1 we have thought of ourselves merely as doing the duty of citizens1 and1 in attempting to overcome some of the causes of conflict both within our domestic society and in the relations between nations1 we have willingly merged ourselves with other men of goodwill whose aims and practices were almost identical to ours4 ,since the charge of negativism strikes home1 many pacifists defend themselves by insisting that they stand primarily for a positive program1 of which war-resistance is only a pre-requisite4 ,they oppose war because it is evil in itself1 but they oppose it also because the type of human brotherhood for which they stand can be realized only when war is eliminated from the world4 ,their real aim is the creation of the new society--long and imperfect though that process of creation may be4 ,they share a vision1 but they are still groping for the means of moving forward towards its achievement4 ,they are generally convinced that some means are inappropriate to their ends1 and that to use such means would automatically defeat them2 but they are less certain about the means which will bring some measure of success4 ,one section of the pacifist movement believes that it has discovered a solution to the problem in what it calls non-violent direct action4 ,this group derives much of its inspiration from ,gandhi and his non-violent movement for ,indian independence4 ,for instance1 the ,fellowship of ,reconciliation has a committee on non-violent direct action which concerns itself with applying the techniques of the ,gandhi movement to the solution of pressing social issues which are likely to cause conflict within our own society1 especially discrimination against racial minorities4 ,as a textbook this group has been using ,krishnalal ,shridharani's analysis of the ,gandhi procedures1 ,war ,without ,violence4#b ,the advocates of non-violent direct action believe that their method can bring about the resolution of any conflict through the ultimate defeat of the forces of evil1 and the triumph of justice and goodwill4 ,in a widely discussed pamphlet1 ,if ,we ,should ,be ,invaded1 issued just before the outbreak of the present war1 ,jessie ,wallace ,hughan1 of the ,war ,resisters ,league1 maintained that non-violent resistance would be more effective even in meeting an armed invasion than would reliance upon military might4#c ,many pacifists have accepted the general thesis of the advocates of non-violent direct action without analyzing its meaning and implications4 ,others have rejected it on the basis of judgments just as superficial4 ,much confusion has crept into the discussion of the principle and into its application because of the constant use of ill-defined terms and partially formulated ideas4 ,it is the purpose of the present study to analyze the positions of both the friends and opponents of non-violent direct action within the pacifist movement in the hope of clarifying thought upon this vitally important question4 ,before we can proceed with our discussion1 we must make a clear distinction between non-violence as a principle1 accepted as an end in itself1 and non-violence as a means to some other desired end4 ,much of the present confusion in pacifist thought arises from a failure to make this distinction4 ,on the one hand1 the absolute pacifist believes that all men are brothers4 ,therefore1 he maintains that the supreme duty of every individual is to respect the personality of every other man1 and to love him1 no matter what evil he may commit1 and no matter how greatly he may threaten his fellows or the values which the pacifist holds most dear4 ,under no circumstances can the pacifist harm or destroy the person who does evil2 he can use only love and sacrificial goodwill to bring about conversion4 ,this is his highest value and his supreme principle4 ,though the heavens should fall1 or he himself and all else he cherishes be destroyed in the process1 he can place no other value before it4 ,to the pacifist who holds such a position1 non-violence is imperative even if it does not work4 ,by his very respect for the personality of the evil-doer1 and his insistence upon maintaining the bond of human brotherhood1 he has already achieved his highest purpose and has won his greatest victory4 ,but much of the present pacifist argument in favor of non-violence is based rather upon its expediency4 ,here1 we are told1 is a means of social action that works in achieving the social goals to which pacifists aspire4 ,non-violence provides a moral force which is more powerful than any physical force4 ,whether it be used by the individual or by the social group1 it is1 in the long run1 the most effective way of overcoming evil and bringing about the triumph of good4 ,the literature is full of stories of individuals who have overcome highwaymen1 or refractory neighbors1 by the power of love4#d ,more recent treatments such as ,richard ,gregg's ,power of ,non-,violence#e present story after story of the successful use of non-violent resistance by groups against political oppression4 ,the history of the ,gandhi movement in ,india has seemed to provide proof of its expediency4 ,even the argument in ,aldous ,huxley's ,ends and ,means1 that we can achieve no desired goal by means which are inconsistent with it1 still regards non-violent action as a means for achieving some other end1 rather than an end in itself4#f ,so prevalent has such thinking become among pacifists1 that it is not surprising that ,john ,lewis1 in his closely reasoned book1 ,the ,case ,against ,pacifism1 bases his whole attack on the logic of the pacifist position upon the theory that pacifists must1 as he does1 hold other values above their respect for individual human personalities4 ,even in speaking of absolute pacifism he says1 ,the most fundamental objection to war is based on the conviction that violence and the taking of human life1 being themselves wrong1 cannot lead to anything but evil4#g ,thus he defines the absolute pacifist as one who accepts the ends and means argument of ,huxley1 which is really an argument based upon expediency1 rather than defining him correctly as one who insists that violence and the taking of human life are the greatest evils1 under any conditions1 and therefore cannot be justified1 even if they could be used for the achievement of highly desirable ends4 ,maintaining as ,lewis does that respect for every human personality is not their highest value1 non-pacifists attack pacifism almost entirely on the ground that in the present state of world society it is not expedient--that it is impractical4 ,probably much of the pacifist defense of the position is designed to meet these non-pacifist arguments1 and to persuade non-pacifists of goodwill that they can really best serve their highest values by adopting the pacifist technique4 ,such reasoning is perfectly legitimate1 even for the absolutist1 but he should recognize it for what it is--a mere afterthought to his acceptance of non-violence as a principle4 ,the whole absolutist argument is this3 7#a7 ,since violence to any human personality is the greatest evil1 ,i can never commit it4 7#b7 ,but1 at the same time1 it is fortunate that non-violent means of overcoming evil are more effective than violent means1 so ,i can serve my highest value--respect for every human personality--and at the same time serve the other values ,i hold4 ,or to say the same thing in positive terms1 ,i can achieve my other ends only by employing means which are consistent with those ends4 ,on the other hand1 many pacifists do in fact hold the position that ,john ,lewis is attacking1 and base their acceptance of pacifism entirely on the fact that it is the best means of obtaining the sort of social or economic or political order that they desire4 ,others1 in balancing the destruction of violent conflict against what they concede might be gained by it1 say that the price of social achievement through violent means is too high--that so many of their values are destroyed in the process of violence that they must abandon it entirely as a means1 and find another which is less destructive4 ,different as are the positions of the absolute and the relative pacifists1 in practice they find themselves united in their logical condemnation of violence as an effective means for bringing about social change4 ,hence there is no reason why they cannot join forces in many respects4 ,only a relatively small proportion1 even of the absolutists1 have no interest whatever in bringing about social change1 and are thus unable to share in this aspect of pacifist thinking4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,ernest ,l4 ,meyer1 ,hey6 ,yellowbacks6 7,new ,york3 ,john ,day1 #aicj71 #c-f4 #b ,krishnalal ,shridharani1 ,war ,without ,violence 7,new ,york3 ,harcourt ,brace1 #aici72 ,selections from ,war ,without ,violence was published by the ,fellowship of ,reconciliation1 #bibi ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 as a pamphlet1 in #aida4 #c ,jessie ,wallace ,hughan1 ,if ,we ,should ,be ,invaded3 ,facing a ,fantastic ,hypothesis 7,war ,resisters ,league1 ,new ,york1 #aici74 ,a new edition with the title ,pacifism and ,invasion was issued in #aidb4 #d ,many later writers have selected their examples from the large number presented by ,adin ,ballou1 ,christian ,non-,resistance3 ,in ,all ,its ,important ,bearings 7,philadelphia3 ,universal ,peace ,union1 #aiaj72 first published in #ahdf4 #e ,richard ,b4 ,gregg1 ,the ,power of ,non-,violence 7,philadelphia3 ,lippincott1 #aicd74 ,a new and revised edition of this book is to be published by ,fellowship ,publications1 ,n4 ,y41 #aidd4 #f ,aldous ,huxley1 ,ends and ,means3 ,an ,inquiry into the ,nature of ,ideals and the ,methods ,employed for ,their ,realization 7,new ,york3 ,harpers1 #aicg74 #g ,john ,lewis1 ,the ,case ,against ,pacifism 7,london3 ,allen and ,unwin1 #aidj71 #bc4 ,definition of ,terms ,both in pacifist thought and in the criticisms of pacifism1 a great deal of confusion arises because of the inexact use of terms4 ,we have already seen that pacifists of many shades of opinion are united in their refusal to participate in war4 ,in this objection there is a negative quality4 ,the very word non-violence used in the title of this study suggests this same negative attitude1 and it was not long ago that pacifists were generally known as non-resistants4 ,although some of those who oppose participation in war still insist upon calling themselves non-resistants#h many of the modern pacifists disclaim the term because it is negative1 and insist that the essence of pacifism is the element of active goodwill toward all men4#i ,yet when confronted with evil1 even he who thinks of his pacifism as a positive attitude must decide not only what means he will use to oppose evil1 but what means he will not use4 ,at the moment when the society of which he is a part insists that every one of its members participate in an enterprise to employ these proscribed means1 the pacifists of all shades of opinion become conscientious objectors4 ,to what is it exactly that they object8 ,most answers to this question would say that they oppose the use of force1 violence1 coercion1 or in some cases1 any resistance to evil whatever4 ,but pacifists themselves have not been agreed upon the meanings and implications of these terms1 and the opponents of pacifism have hastened to define them in such a way as to deny validity to the pacifist philosophy4 ,before we can proceed with our discussion we must define these terms for ourselves1 as we shall use them in the present study4 ,force we may define as physical or intangible power or influence to effect change in the material or immaterial world4 ,coercion is the use of either physical or intangible force to compel action contrary to the will or reasoned judgment of the individual or group subjected to such force4 ,violence is the willful application of force in such a way that it is physically or psychologically injurious to the person or group against whom it is applied4 ,resistance is any opposition either physical or psychological to the positive will or action of another4 ,it is the negative or defensive counterpart of coercion4 ,the very diversity of terms used to describe the pacifist position shows that none of them satisfactorily expresses the essence of the pacifist philosophy4 ,among those commonly used are3 7#a7 non-resistance1 7#b7 passive resistance1 7#c7 non-violent resistance1 7#d7 super-resistance1 7#e7 non-violent non-cooperation1 7#f7 civil disobedience1 7#g7 non-violent coercion1 7#h7 non-violent direct action1 7#i7 war without violence1 and 7#aj7 ,satyagraha or soul force4#aj ,of these terms only non-resistance implies acquiescence in the will of the evil-doer2 all the rest suggest an approval of resistance4 ,every one of them1 even non-resistance itself1 contemplates the use of some intangible moral force to oppose evil and a refusal to take an active part in committing evil4 ,at least the last five indicate the positive desire to change the active policy of the evil-doer1 either by persuasion or by compulsion4 ,as we shall see1 in practice they tend to involve a coercive element4 ,only in their rejection of violence are all these terms in agreement4 ,perhaps we are justified in accepting opposition to violence as the heart of the pacifist philosophy4 ,under the definition of violence which has been suggested1 this would amount to virtually the same thing as saying that the pacifist has such respect for every human personality that he cannot1 under any circumstances whatsoever1 intentionally inflict permanent injury upon any human being either physically or psychologically4 ,this statement deserves further examination4 ,all pacifists approve the use of force1 as we have defined it1 and actually do use it1 since it includes such things as the force of love1 the force of example1 or the force of public opinion4#aa ,there are very few pacifists who would draw the line even at the use of physical force4 ,most of them would approve it in restraining children or the mentally ill from injuring themselves or others1 or in the organized police force of a community under the proper safeguards of the courts and law4#ab ,many pacifists are also willing to accept coercion1 provided it be non-violent4 ,the strike1 the boycott1 or even the mass demonstration involve an element of coercion as we have defined that term4 ,shridharani assures us that despite ,gandhi's insistence to the contrary1 ,in the light of events in ,india in the past twenty years as well as in the light of certain of ,gandhi's own activities1 444 it becomes apparent that ,satyagraha does contain the element of coercion1 if in a somewhat modified form4#ac ,since to some people coercion implies revenge or punishment1 ,shridharani would1 however1 substitute the word compulsion for it4 ,gandhi himself and many of his followers would claim that the techniques of ,satyagraha are only a marshalling of the forces of sympathy1 public opinion1 and the like1 and that they are persuasive rather than coercive4 ,at any rate a distinction1 on the basis of the spirit in which they are undertaken1 between types of action which are outwardly similar seems perfectly valid4 ,there are other pacifists who would even accept a certain element of violence1 as we have defined it1 provided it were not physical in nature4 ,some persons with boundless good will feel that even physical violence may be justified on occasion if it is not accompanied by hatred toward its object4#ad ,however1 there would be few who consider themselves pacifists who would accept such a position4 ,we are again forced to the conclusion that it is violence as we have defined it to which the pacifist objects4 ,at this point1 the chief difference between the pacifist and the non-pacifist is that the latter defines violence as does ,clarence ,case1 as the unlawful or unregulated use of destructive physical force against persons or things4#ae ,under such a definition1 war itself1 since it is sanctioned by law1 would no longer involve violence4 ,thus for the non-pacifist it is ethically acceptable to use lawful violence against unlawful violence2 for the pacifist1 violence against any personality is never ethically justified4#af ,on the other hand1 a very large group of pacifists insist upon discarding these negative definitions in favor of one that is wholly positive4 ,maurice ,l4 ,rowntree has said3 ,the ,pacifist way of life is the way that brings into action all the sense and wisdom1 all the passion of love and goodwill that can be brought to bear upon the situation4#ag ,in this study1 no attempt will be made to determine which of the many pacifist positions is most sound ethically4 ,before any person can make such a determination for himself1 however1 it is necessary that he understand the differences between the various approaches to the problem of influencing other people either to do something which he believes should be done1 or to refrain from doing something which he feels ought not to be done4 ,it might be helpful for us in our thinking to construct a scale at one end of which we place violence coupled with hatred1 and at the other1 dependence only upon the application of positive love and goodwill4 ,in the intermediate positions we might place 7#a7 violence without hatred1 7#b7 non-violence practiced by necessity rather than because of principle1 7#c7 non-violent coercion1 7#d7 ,satyagraha and non-violent direct action1 and 7#e7 non-resistance4 ,we need1 at the outset1 to recognize that we are speaking primarily of the relationships between social groups rather than between individuals4 ,as ,reinhold ,niebuhr has so ably pointed out1 our ethical concepts in these two areas are greatly at variance with one another4#ah ,the pacifist principles are already widely accepted as ideals in the affairs of individuals4 ,every ethical religion teaches them in this area1 and the person who rejects them is definitely the exception in our western society1 until the violent man is regarded as subject to the discipline of society in general4 ,our real concern in this study is with non-violent means of achieving group purposes1 whether they be defensive and conservative in character1 or whether they be changes in the existing institutions of the social order4 ,the study is not so much concerned with the religious and ethical bases of these techniques as it is with a consideration of their application in practice1 and their effectiveness in achieving the purposes which the group in question has in view4 ,we shall begin at one end of our scale and proceed to discuss each type of action in turn4 ,,footnotes3 #h ,guy ,f4 ,hershberger makes a definite distinction between non-resistance and pacifism4 ,he says that the former term describes the faith and life of those ,who cannot have any part in warfare because they believe the ,bible forbids it1 and who renounce all coercion1 even nonviolent coercion4 ,he goes on to say1 ,pacifism1 on the other hand1 is a term which covers many types of opposition to war4 ,some modern so-called pacifists are opposed to all wars1 and some are not4 ,some who oppose all wars find their authority in the will of ,god1 while others find it largely in human reason4 ,there are many other differences among them4 ,biblical ,nonresistance and ,modern ,pacifism1 ,the ,mennonite ,quarterly ,review1 ,,xvii1 7,july1 #aidc71 #aaf4 ,hershberger is here defining pacifism broadly to include the ,european meaning of opposition to war1 but not necessarily a refusal to take part in it4 ,in the ,united ,states1 and generally in ,great ,britain1 the term is ordinarily applied only to those who actually refuse participation in war4 #i ,see ,devere ,allen1 ,the ,fight for ,peace 7,new ,york3 ,macmillan1 #aicj71 #eca-edj4 #aj ,on the origins of these terms see ,haridas ,t4 ,muzumdar1 ,the ,united ,nations of the ,world 7,new ,york3 ,universal1 #aidb71 #bja-bjc4 #aa ,john ,haynes ,holmes1 using the older term rather than pacifist1 has said1 ,the true non-resistant is militant--but he lifts his militancy from the plane of physical1 to the plane of moral and spiritual force4 ,new ,wars for ,old 7,new ,york3 ,dodd1 ,mead1 #aiaf71 xiii4 #ab ,cecil ,john ,cadoux1 ,christian ,pacifism ,re-examined 7,oxford3 ,basil ,blackwell1 #aidj71 #ae-af2 ,leyton ,richards1 ,realistic ,pacifism 7,chicago3 ,willett1 ,clark1 #aice71 #c4 #ac ,shridharani1 ,war ,without ,violence1 #bib4 #ad ,john ,lewis says1 ,we must draw a sharp distinction between the use of violence to achieve an unjust end and its use as police action in defence of the rule of law4 ,case ,against ,pacifism1 #he4 #ae ,clarence ,marsh ,case1 ,non-,violent ,coercion 7,new ,york3 ,century1 #aibc71 #cbc4 ,italics mine4 #af ,c4 ,j4 ,cadoux has clearly stated his position in these words3 ,he the pacifist will confine himself to those methods of pressure which are either wholly non-coercive or are coercive in a strictly non-injurious way1 foregoing altogether such injurious methods of coercion as torture1 mutilation1 or homicide3 that is to say1 he will refrain from war4 ,christian ,pacifism1 #fe-ff4 #ag ,maurice ,l4 ,rowntree1 ,mankind ,set ,free 7,london3 ,cape1 #aici71 #hj-ha4 ,,ii4 ,,violence ,,without ,,hate ,occasions may arise in which a man who genuinely abhors violence confronts an almost insoluble dilemma4 ,on the one hand he may be faced with the imminent triumph of some almost insufferable evil2 on the other1 he may feel that the only available means of opposing that evil is violence1 which is in itself evil4#ai ,in such a situation1 the choice made by any individual depends upon his own subjective scale of values4 ,the pacifist is convinced that for him to commit violence upon another is itself the greatest possible evil4 ,the non-pacifist says that some other evils may be greater1 and that the use of this lesser evil to oppose them is entirely justified4 ,john ,lewis bases his entire ,case ,against ,pacifism upon this latter assumption1 and says that in such a conflict of values1 pacifists continue to be pacifists either because there is no serious threat1 or because they do not expect to lose anything1 or perhaps even because they do not value what is threatened4#bj ,the latter charge is entirely unjustified4 ,the pacifist maintains his opposition to violence in the face of such a threat1 not because he does not value what is threatened1 but because he values something else more4 ,cadoux has phrased it1 ,pacifism is applicable only in so far as there exist pacifists who are convinced of its wisdom4 ,the subjective differences are of vital importance1 yet are usually overlooked in arguments on the subject4#ba ,this means that our problem of considering the place of violence and non-violence in human life is not one of purely objective science1 since the attitudes and beliefs of pacifists 7and non-pacifists7 themselves become a factor in the situation4 ,if enough people accepted the pacifist scale of values1 it would in fact become the true basis for social interaction4#bb ,in our western society1 the majority even of those who believe in the brotherhood of man1 and have great respect for the dignity of every human personality1 will on occasion use violence as a means to attempt the achievement of their goals4 ,since their attitude is different from that of the militarist who would place violence itself high in his scale of values1 it would pay us to consider their position4 ,,footnotes3 #ah ,reinhold ,niebuhr1 ,moral ,man and ,immoral ,society 7,new ,york3 ,scribner's1 #aicb74 ,see especially his consideration of coercion and persuasion in the two realms of individual and social conduct1 pages xxii-xxiii4 #ai ,as ,cadoux puts it1 ,broadly speaking1 almost the whole human race believes that it is occasionally right and necessary to inflict injurious coercion on human beings1 in order to prevent the perpetration by them of some intolerable evil4 ,christian ,pacifism ,re-examined1 #ig4 #bj ,lewis1 #fb4 ,revolutionary ,anarchism ,the revolutionary ,anarchists belong essentially in this group4 ,as ,alexander ,berkman has put it1 ,the teachings of ,anarchism are those of peace and harmony1 of non-invasion1 of the sacredness of life and liberty2 or again1 ,it ,anarchism means that men are brothers1 and that they should live like brothers1 in peace and harmony4#bc ,but to create this ideal society the ,anarchist feels that violence may be necessary4 ,berkman himself1 in his younger days1 was able to justify his attack upon the life of ,frick at the time of the ,homestead ,strike in #ahic in these words3 ,but to the ,people belongs the earth--by right1 if not in fact4 ,to make it so in fact1 all means are justifiable2 nay advisable1 even to the point of taking life4444 ,human life is1 indeed1 sacred and inviolate4 ,but the killing of a tyrant1 of an enemy of the ,people1 is in no way to be considered as the taking of a life4444 ,to remove a tyrant is an act of liberation1 the giving of life and opportunity to an oppressed people4#bd ,later1 ,berkman insisted that a successful revolution must be non-violent in nature4 ,it must be the result of thoroughgoing changes in the ideas and opinions of the people4 ,when their ideas have become sufficiently changed and unified1 the people can stage a general strike in which they overthrow the old order by their refusal to co-operate with it4 ,he maintains that any attempt to carry on the revolution itself by military means would fail because government and capital are too well organized in a military way for the workers to cope with them4 ,but1 says ,berkman1 when the success of the revolution becomes apparent1 the opposition will use violent means to suppress it4 ,at that moment the people are justified in using violence themselves to protect it4 ,berkman believes that there is no record of any group in power giving up its power without being subjected to the use of physical force1 or at least the threat of it4#be ,thus in effect1 ,berkman would still use violence against some personalities in order to establish a system in which respect for every personality would be possible4 ,actually his desire for the new society is greater than his abhorrence of violence4 ,,footnotes3 #ba ,cadoux1 ,christian ,pacifism ,re-examined1 #aaf-aag4 #bb ,the way in which a whole social order can differ from that of the ,west1 merely because it chooses to operate on the basis of different assumptions concerning such things as the aggressive nature of man is well brought out in the study of three ,new ,guinea tribes living in very similar environments4 ,margaret ,mead1 ,sex and ,temperament in ,three ,primitive ,societies 7,london3 ,routledge1 #aice74 #bc ,alexander ,berkman1 ,what ,is ,communist ,anarchism8 7,new ,york3 ,vanguard1 #aibi71 x-xi1 #agf4 #bd ,alexander ,berkman1 ,prison ,memoirs of an ,anarchist 7,new ,york3 ,mother ,earth ,publishing ,association1 #aiab71 #g4 #be ,berkman1 ,communist ,anarchism1 #bag-bbi1 #bdg-bdh1 #bij4 ,abraham ,lincoln ,abraham ,lincoln represented the spirit of moderation in the use of violence4 ,he led his nation in war reluctantly and prayerfully1 with no touch of hatred toward those whom the armies of which he was ,commander-in-,chief were destroying4 ,he expressed his feeling in an inspiring way in the closing words of his ,second ,inaugural ,address1 when the war was rapidly drawing to a victorious close3 ,with malice toward none2 with charity for all2 with firmness to do the right1 as ,god gives us to see the right1 let us strive on to finish the work we are in2 to bind up the nation's wounds2 to care for him who shall have borne battle1 and for his widow1 and his orphan--to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves1 and with all nations4 ,the ,church and ,war ,the statements of ,british and ,american churchmen during the present war call to mind these words of ,lincoln4 ,at ,malvern1 in #aida1 members of the ,church of ,england declared3 ,god himself is the sovereign of all human life2 all men are his children1 and ought to be brothers of one another2 through ,christ the ,redeemer they can become what they ought to be4 ,in ,march1 #aidb1 ,american ,protestant leaders at ,delaware1 ,ohio1 asserted3 ,we believe it is the purpose of ,god to create a world-wide community in ,jesus ,christ1 transcending nation1 race and class4#bf ,yet the majority of the men who drew up these two statements were supporting the war which their nations were waging against fellow members of the world community--against those whom they professed to call brothers4 ,like ,lincoln they did so in the belief that when the military phases of the war were over1 it would be possible to turn from violence and to practice the principles of ,christian charity4#bg ,there is little in human history to justify their hope4 ,there is much to make us believe that the violent attitudes of war will lead to hatred and injustice toward enemies when the war is done4 ,the inspiring words of ,lincoln were followed by the orgy of radical reconstruction in the ,south4 ,there is at least as grave a doubt that the spirit of the ,christian ,church will dominate the peace which is concluded at the end of the present war4 ,the question arises insistently whether violence without hate can long live up to its own professions4 ,,footnotes3 #bf number of these religious statements are conveniently brought together in the appendix to ,paul ,hutchinson's ,from ,victory to ,peace 7,chicago3 ,willett1 ,clark1 #aidc74 ,for a statement of a point of view similar to the one we are discussing here1 see also ,charles ,clayton ,morrison1 ,the ,christian and the ,war 7,chicago3 ,willett1 ,clark1 #aidb74 #bg ,bernard ,iddings ,bell has expressed the attitude of such churchmen3 ,evil may sometimes get such control of men and nations1 they have realized1 that armed resistance becomes a necessity4 ,there are times when not to participate in violence is in itself violence to the welfare of the brethren4 ,but no ,christian moralist worth mentioning has ever regarded war per se as other than monstrous1 or hoped that by the use of violence anything more could be accomplished than the frustration of a temporarily powerful malicious wickedness4 ,war in itself gives birth to no righteousness4 ,only such a fire of love as leads to self-effacement can advance the welfare of mankind4 ,will the ,christian ,church ,survive8 ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,vol4 #agj1 ,october1 #aidb1 #aji4 ,,iii4 ,,non-,,violence ,,by ,,necessity ,the use of non-violent resistance does not always denote devotion to pacifist principles4 ,groups who would gladly use arms against an enemy if they had them often use non-violent means simply because they have no others at their disposal at the moment4 ,in contrast to the type of action described in the preceding section1 such a procedure might be called hate without violence4 ,it would probably be better to call it non-violence by necessity4 ,the group using non-violence under such circumstances might have in view one of three purposes4 ,it might hope through its display of opposition and its own suffering to appeal to the sense of fair play of the group that was oppressing it4 ,however1 such a hope can exist only in cases where the two opposing parties have a large area of agreement upon values1 or homogeneity1 and would have no basis when the oppressing group looked upon the oppressed as completely beneath their consideration4 ,it is unlikely that it would have much success in changing the policy of a nation which consciously chose to invade another country1 although it might affect individual soldiers if their cultural background were similar to that of the invaded people4#bh ,an invader usually desires to gain something from the invaded people4 ,in order to succeed1 he needs their cooperation4 ,a second way of thwarting the will of the invader is to refuse that cooperation1 and be willing to suffer the penalties of such refusal4 ,since the invaded territory would then have no value1 the invader might leave of his own accord4 ,a third possibility is for the invaded people to employ sabotage and inflict damage upon the invader in the belief that his invasion can be made so costly that it will be impossible for him to remain in the conquered territory4 ,such sabotage easily merges into violence4 ,in the preceding paragraphs1 the enemy of the group using non-violence has been referred to as the invader1 because our best examples of this type of non-violent opposition are to be found in the histories of conquered people opposing the will of occupying forces4 ,a similar situation may exist between a colonial people and the home government of an imperial power1 since in most cases their position is essentially that of a conquered people1 except that their territory has been occupied for a longer period of time4 ,,footnote3 #bh ,franklin ,h4 ,giddings said1 ,in a word1 non-aggression and non-resistance are an outcome of homogeneity4 ,the ,gospel of ,non-,resistance1 in ,democracy and ,empire 7,new ,york3 ,macmillan1 #aijj71 #cef4 ,see also ,case1 ,non-,violent ,coercion1 #bdh2 ,lewis1 ,case ,against ,pacifism1 #ahe-ahf4 ,non-,violent ,resistance to ,invaders ,stories of the use of this sort of non-violence occur in our press every day1 as they find their way out of the occupied countries which are opposing the ,nazi invaders with every means at their disposal4 ,in these countries the vast majority of the people are agreed in their determination to rid themselves of ,nazi control4 ,such common agreement is the first requisite for the success of this method of resistance4 ,when the people of the territory refuse to inform the police about individuals who are committing unlawful acts against the invaders1 it is virtually impossible for the latter to check the expansion of non-cooperation or sabotage4 ,similarly1 if the whole population refuses to cooperate with the invader1 it is impossible for him to punish them all1 or if he did1 he would be destroying the labor force whose cooperation he desires1 and would have defeated himself in the very process of stamping out the opposition to his regime4 ,hitler himself has discovered that there is a difference between military occupation and actual conquest4 ,in his ,new ,year's proclamation to the ,german people in #aidd1 he attempted to explain the ,nazi reverses in ,north ,africa and ,italy in these words3 ,the true cause of the difficulties in ,north ,africa and the ,balkans was in reality the persistent attempts at sabotage and paralyzation of these plutocratic enemies of the fascist people's ,state4 ,their continual sabotage not only succeeded in stopping supplies to ,africa and1 later on1 to ,italy1 by ever-new methods of passive resistance1 thus preventing our soldiers and the ,italians standing at their side from receiving the material wherewithal for the conduct of the struggle1 but also aggravated or confused the situation in the ,balkans1 which had been cleared according to plan by ,german actions4#bi ,opposition to the ,german invader has taken different forms in different countries4 ,in ,denmark1 where there was no military resistance to the initial invasion1 the subtle opposition of the people has made itself felt in innumerable ways4 ,there are many stories such as that of the ,king's refusal to institute anti-,jewish laws in ,denmark on the ground that there was no ,jewish problem there since the ,danes did not feel themselves to be inferior to the ,jews4 ,such ideological opposition makes the ,nazis angry1 and it also makes them uncomfortable1 since they do hold enough values in common with the ,danes to understand perfectly the implications of the ,danish jibes4 ,such psychological opposition merges into sabotage very easily4 ,for instance when the ,germans demanded ten torpedo boats from the ,danish navy1 the ,danes prepared them for delivery by taking all their guns and equipment ashore1 and then burning the warehouse in which these were stored4 ,the ,nazis even forbade the press to mention the incident1 lest it become a signal for a nationwide demonstration of solidarity4#cj ,other occupied countries report the same type of non-violent resistance4 ,there are strikes of parents against sending their children to ,nazi-controlled schools1 strikes of ministers against conforming to ,nazi decrees1 demonstrations1 malingering1 and interference with internal administration4 ,such events may appear less important than military resistance1 but they make the life of an occupying force uneasy and unhappy4#ca ,calls for non-violent preparation for the day of delivery go out constantly in the underground press4 ,while urging solidarity in illegal acts among the ,french population at home1 one ,french appeal even gave instructions to ,frenchmen who might go to work in ,germany3 ,if you respond to ,laval's appeal1 ,i know in what spirit you will do so4 ,you will wish to slow down ,german production1 establish contacts with all the ,frenchmen in ,germany1 and create the strongest of ,fifth ,columns in the enemy country4#cb ,over a long period of time such action cannot help having an effect upon the success of the invader4 ,since the grievance of the peoples of the occupied countries is a continuous one1 there is no prospect that their resistance will relax until they have freed themselves of their oppressors4 ,,footnotes3 #bi ,new ,york ,times1 ,jan4 #a1 #aidd1 page #d1 columns #b-g4 #cj ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,hasselriis1 ,nothing ,rotten in ,denmark1 in ,the ,new ,republic1 ,june #g1 #aidc1 ,vol4 #ajh3 #gfj-gfa4 #ca ,the publications of the various governments in exile are filled with such stories4 ,see such periodicals as ,news of ,norway and ,news from ,belgium1 which can be obtained through the ,united ,nations ,information ,service1 #faj ,fifth ,avenue1 ,new ,york ,city4 #cb ,resistance1 ,feb4 #ag1 #aidc1 reprinted in ,free ,world1 ,july1 #aidc1 ,vol4 #f1 #gg4 ,chinese ,boycotts ,against ,foreigners ,we can find many other examples of the use of these non-violent methods under similar circumstances4 ,the ,chinese made use of the boycott repeatedly to oppose foreign domination and interference in their internal affairs in the years before the outbreak of the present war against ,japan4 ,clarence ,case lists five significant ,chinese boycotts between #aijf and #aiai4 ,the last one was directed against foreigners and the ,chinese government to protest the action of the ,peace ,conference in giving ,japan a predominant interest in ,shantung4 ,as a result the government of ,china was ousted1 and the provisions of the treaty revised4 ,japan felt the effects of the boycott more than any other country4 ,case says of the ,japanese reaction3 ,as for the total loss to ,japanese trade1 various authorities have settled upon #ej1jjj1jjj1 which we may accept as a close approximation4 ,at any rate the pressure was great enough to impel the ,japanese merchants of ,peking and ,tientsin1 with apparent ruin staring them in the face1 to appeal to their home government for protection4 ,they insisted that the boycott should be made a diplomatic question of the first order and that demands for its removal should be backed by threats of military intervention4 ,to this the government at ,tokio 'could only reply that it knew no way by which the ,chinese merchants1 much less the ,chinese people1 could be made to buy ,japanese goods against their will4'#cc ,this incident calls to mind the experience of the ,american colonists in their non-violent resistance to ,great ,britain's imperial policy in the years following #agfc1 which we shall discuss more at length in the next section4 ,egyptian ,opposition to ,great ,britain ,another similar example is that of the ,egyptian protest against ,british occupation of the country in #aiai4 ,people in all walks of life went on strike4 ,officials boycotted the ,british mission under ,lord ,milner1 which came to work out a compromise4 ,the mission was forced to return to ,london empty handed1 but finally an agreement was reached there with ,saad ,zagloul ,pasha1 leader of the ,egyptian movement1 on the basis of independence for the country1 with the ,british retaining only enough military control to safeguard their interest in the ,suez ,canal4 ,after the acceptance of the settlement in #aibb1 friction between ,egypt and ,great ,britain continued1 but ,egypt was not sufficiently united1 nor were the grievances great enough to lead to the same type of successful non-cooperation practiced in #aiai4cd ,it must be recognized that in most cases such as those we have been considering1 violence would be used by the resisters if they had it at their disposal4 ,however1 the occasional success of non-violence even under such circumstances is proof of the possible expediency of this method4 ,when it has failed1 it has done so because the resisters were not sufficiently committed to their purpose to carry it out in the face of possible death4 ,it appears from this experience that complete solidarity and commitment is required for the success of non-violent methods when used in this way1 just as they are if such methods are used as a matter of principle4 ,it must be recognized that the self-discipline necessary for the success of a non-violent movement must be even more rigorous than the imposed discipline of a military machine1 and also that there is a chance that the non-violent resisters will fail in their endeavor1 just as there is a virtual certainty that one side in a military conflict will be defeated4#ce ,,footnotes3 #cc ,case1 ,non-,violent ,coercion1 #ccj-cci4 ,the last sentence is quoted from ,the ,christian ,science ,monitor1 ,april #g1 #aibj4 #cd ,a4 ,fenner ,brockway1 ,non-,co-operation in ,other ,lands 7,madras3 ,tagore and ,co41 #aiba71 #be-ci2 ,charles ,e4 ,mullett1 ,the ,british ,empire 7,new ,york3 ,holt1 #aich71 #fbb-fbg4 ,pacifist literature has also made much of the ,hungarian independence movement in the #ahfj's under ,francis ,deak1 which refused to pay taxes to the ,austrian government1 or to co-operate in other ways4 ,however1 it would appear that outside pressures were as important in the final settlement establishing the ,dual ,monarchy in #ahfg as was the ,hungarian movement of non-cooperation4 ,the pacifist writers generally follow the account in ,brockway1 ,non-,co-operation1 #a-bd4 ,he in turn follows the book of ,arthur ,griffith1 ,the ,resurrection of ,hungary1 published in #aijd in order to induce the ,irish to use non-co-operation in their struggle against the ,english4 ,for some of the other factors involved see ,a4 ,j4 ,p4 ,taylor1 ,the ,hapsburg ,monarchy #ahae-aiah 7,london3 ,macmillan1 #aida71 #aja-aea4 #ce ,on the discipline required see ,gregg1 ,power of ,non-,violence1 #bff-bid4 ,lewis1 to prove the ineffectiveness of non-violence1 quotes ,joad3 ,there have been only too many occasions in history in which the meeting of violence by non-violence has led not to the taming of the violent1 but to the extinction of the non-violent4 ,the ,case ,against ,pacifism1 #ahd4 ,,iv4 ,,non-,,violent ,,coercion ,in the last section we were considering the non-violent resistance of groups which had no choice in their means of opposing the will of an invader1 but who would have chosen violence if the weapons of violence had been available to them4 ,in those cases there was no question but that the choice rested upon the expediency of the moment rather than upon principle4 ,in the cases of non-violence by necessity the purposes of the resisting groups were defensive and negative1 designed to induce the withdrawal of the invader rather than to induce him to follow actively a different policy4 ,in this section we are concerned with the action of groups designed to modify the conduct of others in order to promote their own ideals4 ,we are concerned with people who presumably have a possible choice of methods to accomplish their purposes4 ,they might rely upon persuasion and education of their opponents through emotional or intellectual appeals2 but such action would have no coercive element in it1 so we shall consider it in a later section4 ,or they might attempt to coerce their opponents1 either by violent or non-violent means4 ,for the present we are interested only in the latter through its usual manifestations3 the strike1 the boycott1 or other organized movements of non-cooperation4#cf ,at first sight such methods do not appear to be coercive in nature1 since they involve merely an abstention from action on the part of the group offering the resistance4 ,actually they are coercive1 however1 because of the absolute necessity for inter-group cooperation in the maintenance of our modern social1 economic1 and political systems4 ,under modern conditions the group against whom the resistance is directed must have the cooperation of the resisting group in order to continue to survive4 ,when that cooperation is denied1 the old dominant group is forced to make concessions1 even against its will1 to the former subordinate group in order to regain the help that they have refused to render under the old conditions4#cg ,the non-violent resisters themselves are also dependent upon inter-group cooperation4 ,hence the outcome of this type of struggle usually depends upon which of the two parties to the conflict can best or longest dispense with the services of the other4 ,if the resisters are less able to hold out than the defenders1 or if the costs of continued resistance become in their eyes greater than the advantages which might be gained by ultimate victory1 they will lose their will to resist and their movement will end in failure4 ,in all such struggles1 both sides are greatly influenced by the opinions of parties not directly concerned in the immediate conflict1 but who might give support or opposition to one side or the other depending upon which could enlist their sympathies4 ,because of the deep-seated dislike of violence1 even in our western society1 the side that first employs it is apt to lose the sympathy of these third parties4 ,as ,e4 ,a4 ,ross has put it3 ,disobedience without violence wins1 if it wins1 not so much by touching the conscience of the masters as by exciting the sympathy of disinterested onlookers4 ,the spectacle of men suffering for a principle and not hitting back is a moving one4 ,it obliges the power holders to condescend to explain1 to justify themselves4 ,the weak get a change of venue from the will of the stronger to the court of public opinion1 perhaps of world opinion4#ch ,the stakes in such a struggle may be great or small4 ,they range all the way from the demand of a labor union for an increase of five cents an hour in wages1 to that of a whole people demanding political independence from an imperial master1 or a revolutionary change in the economic or political power of the community4 ,the decision of the resisters to use non-violent means of opposition to gain their ends may be based either upon principle or upon expediency4 ,in the former case they would say that the purposes they have in mind would not be worth attaining if their achievement were to involve physical violence toward other human beings2 in the latter they would act on the basis of the conclusion that in view of all the factors involved their purposes could best be served by avoiding violence4 ,these factors would include the likelihood of counter-violence1 an estimate of the relative physical strength of the two parties to the conflict1 and the attitude of the public toward the party that first used violence4 ,in practice the action of those who avoid violence because they regard it as wrong is very little different from that of those who avoid it because they think that it will not serve their ends4 ,but since there is a moral difference between them1 we shall postpone the consideration of ,satyagraha1 or non-violent direct action on the basis of principle1 until the next section4 ,it would deserve such separate treatment in any case because of the great amount of attention which it commands in pacifist circles all over the world4 ,at the outset it is necessary to dispel the idea that non-violent resistance is something esoteric and oriental1 and that it is seldom used in western society4 ,this type of action is used constantly in our own communities1 and the histories of western peoples present us with a large number of examples of the use of non-violent action in political and revolutionary conflicts4 ,in the following discussion1 the point of view is that of the ,west4 ,,footnotes3 #cf ,clarence ,marsh ,case1 ,friends and ,social ,thinking in ,s4 ,b4 ,laughlin 7,ed471 ,beyond ,dilemmas 7,philadelphia3 ,lippincott1 #aicg71 #acj-acg2 ,cadoux1 ,christian ,pacifism ,re-,examined1 #bd-be1 and the chart on page #de4 #cg ,case1 ,non-,violent ,coercion1 #ccj4 ,john ,lewis says1 ,non-violence can be as completely coercive as violence itself1 in which case1 while it has the advantage of not involving war1 it cannot be defended on spiritual grounds4 ,case ,against ,pacifism1 #aaj4 #ch ,in his ,introduction to ,case1 ,non-,violent ,coercion4 ,the ,labor ,strike ,the most common type of non-violent conflict is the ordinary labor strike4 ,in a strike1 the workers withdraw their cooperation from the employer until he meets their demands4 ,he suffers1 because as long as they refuse to work for him it is impossible for him to produce the goods or services upon the sale of which his own living depends4 ,usually he is fighting for no principle during such a strike1 so that he is apt to calculate his monetary loss from it against the advantages he would have to surrender in order to reach an agreement4 ,when he concludes that it would be cheaper to give in1 it is possible for the management and the strikers to arrive at a settlement4 ,if the employer does feel that the principle of control of an enterprise by its owner is at stake1 he may hold out longer1 until he actually loses more by the strike than he would by conceding the demands of the strikers1 but even then he balances psychological cost against monetary cost1 and when the latter overweighs the former he becomes receptive to a settlement4 ,during the strike the workers are going through much the same process4 ,a strike from their point of view is even more costly than it is to the employer4 ,it is not to be entered upon lightly1 since their very means of sustenance are at stake4 ,they too have to balance the monetary costs of their continued refusal to cooperate against the gains that they might hope for by continued resistance1 and when the cost becomes greater than the prospective gain they are receptive to suggestions for compromise4 ,they too may be contending for the principle of the right of organization and control over their own economic destinies1 so that they may be willing to suffer loss for a longer period than they would if they stood to gain only the immediate monetary advantages1 but when immediate costs more than overweigh ultimate psychological advantages1 they too will be willing to capitulate4 ,in the meantime the strikers have to see to it that the employer does not find someone else with whom he can cooperate in order to eliminate his dependence upon them4 ,hence they picket the plant1 in an attempt to persuade others not to work there4 ,if persuasion is not effective1 they may resort to mass picketing1 which amounts to a threat of violence against the persons who would attempt to take over their jobs4 ,on occasion the threat to their jobs becomes so great that in order to defend them they will resort to violence against the strikebreaker4 ,at this point1 the public1 which is apt to be somewhat sympathetic toward their demands for fair wages or better working conditions1 turns against them and supports the employer1 greatly adding to his moral standing and weakening that of the strikers1 until the strikers1 feeling that the forces against them are too great1 are apt to give way4 ,the employer will find the same negative reaction among the public if he tries to use violence in order to break the strike4 ,hence1 if he does decide to use violence1 he tries to make it appear that the strikers are responsible1 or tries to induce them to use it first4 ,it is to their advantage not to use it1 even when it is used against them4 ,labor leaders in general understand this principle and try to avoid violence at all costs4 ,they do so not on the basis of principle1 but on the basis of expediency4#ci ,in the great wave of enthusiastic organization of labor that swept over the ,united ,states in #aicf and #aicg1 ,american labor copied a variant of the strike1 which had been used earlier in ,hungary and in ,france4#dj ,instead of leaving the property of the employer and trying to prevent others from entering it to take their places1 workers remained on a sit down strike within the plants1 so that the employer would have been forced to use violence to remove them in order to operate the factory4 ,these strikes were based in part upon the theory that the worker had a property right to his job1 just as the employer did to his capital equipment4 ,such strikes were for a time more successful than the older variety1 because strike-breaking was virtually impossible4 ,however1 it was not long before public opinion forced the abandonment of the technique4 ,it was revolutionary in character1 since it threatened the old concept of private property4 ,the fear of small property holders that their own possessions would be jeopardized by the success of such a movement1 made them support the owners of the plants against the strikers1 who were then forced to give way4 ,in this case the public's fear of revolutionary change was greater than their dislike of violence1 so they even supported the use of physical force by the employers and the police authorities to remove the strikers from the plants4 ,the very effectiveness of the method which labor was employing brought about its defeat1 because the public was not yet persuaded to accept the new concept of the property right of the laborer to his job4 ,,footnotes3 #ci ,a4 ,j4 ,muste1 ,non-,violence in an ,aggressive ,world 7,new ,york3 ,harper1 #aidj71 #gj-gb4 #dj ,barthelemy de ,ligt1 ,the ,conquest of ,violence3 ,an ,essay on ,war and ,revolution 7,new ,york3 ,e4 ,p4 ,dutton1 #aich71 #aca-acb4 ,the ,boycott ,the boycott is a more indirect type of non-cooperation than the strike1 in most cases4#da ,this word originated in ,ireland in #ahhj when a ,captain ,boycott1 an agent for an ,irish landlord1 refused the demands of the tenants on the estate4 ,in retaliation they threatened his life1 forced his servants to leave him1 tore down his fences1 and cut off his food supplies4 ,the ,irish ,land ,league1 insisting that the land of ,ireland should belong to its people1 used this method of opposition in the years that followed4 ,its members refused to deal with peasants or tradesmen who sided with the government1 but they used acts of violence and intimidation as well as economic pressure4 ,the government employed #ae1jjj military police and #dj1jjj soldiers against the people1 but they succeeded only in filling the jails4 ,the struggle might well have won land for the ,irish peasant1 if ,parnell1 who had become leader of the ,irish movement1 had not agreed to accept the ,gladstone ,home ,rule ,bill of #ahhf in exchange for calling off the opposition in ,ireland4 ,the ,bill was defeated in ,parliament and the ,irish problem continued4#db ,in later usage1 the word boycott has been applied almost exclusively to the refusal of economic cooperation4 ,organized labor in ,america used the boycott against the goods of manufacturers who refused to deal with unions1 and it is still used in appeals to the public not to patronize stores or manufacturers who deal unfairly with labor4 ,the idea of economic sanctions1 which played so large a part in the history of the ,league of ,nations in its attempts to deal with those who disregarded decisions of the ,league1 is essentially similar to the boycott4 ,in fact much of the thinking of the pacifist movement between the two wars maintained that economic sanctions would provide a non-violent but coercive substitute for war1 in settling international controversies4#dc ,,footnotes3 #da ,the boycott is a form of passive resistance in all cases where it does not descend to violence and intimidation4 ,the fact that it is coercive does not place it beyond the moral pale1 for coercion 444 is a fact inseparable from life in society4 ,case1 ,non-,violent ,coercion1 #cai4 #db ,de ,ligt1 #aad-aag2 ,carleton ,j4 ,h4 ,hayes1 ,a ,political and ,cultural ,history of ,modern ,europe 7,new ,york3 ,macmillan1 #aicf71 ,,ii1 #dif4 #dc ,de ,ligt1 #bah-bda4 ,non-,violent ,coercion by the ,american ,colonies ,the western world has repeatedly employed non-violent coercion as a political as well as an economic technique4 ,strangely enough1 many ,americans who are apt to scoff at the methods of the ,indian independence movement today forget that the ,american colonists used much the same methods in the early stages of their own revolt against ,england4 ,when ,england began to assert imperial control over the colonies after #agfc1 the colonists answered with protests and refusals to cooperate4 ,against both the ,stamp ,act of #agfe and the ,townshend ,duties of #agfg1 they adopted non-importation agreements whereby they refused to import ,british goods4 ,to be sure1 the more radical colonists did not eschew violence on the basis of principle1 and the direct action by which they forced colonial merchants to respect the terms of the non-importation agreements was not always non-violent4 ,the loss of trade induced ,british merchants to go to ,parliament on both occasions and to insist successfully upon the repeal of the ,stamp ,act in #agff and the ,townshend ,duties in #aggj4 ,in the face of non-cooperation practiced by the vast majority of the colonists1 the ,british government had been forced to give way in order to serve its own best interests4#dd ,in #aggd1 when the ,continental ,congress established the ,continental ,association in order to use the same economic weapon again1 the issues in the conflict were more clearly drawn4 ,many of the moderate colonists who had supported the earlier action1 denounced this one as revolutionary1 and went over to the loyalist side4 ,the radicals themselves felt less secure in the use of their economic weapon1 and began to gather arms for a violent rebellion4 ,the attempt of the ,british to destroy these weapons led to ,lexington and ,concord4#de ,what had been non-violent opposition to ,british policy had become armed revolt and civil war4 ,it was a war which would probably have ended in the defeat of the colonists if they had not been able to fish in the troubled waters of international politics and win the active support of ,france1 who sought thus to avenge the loss of her own colonies to ,great ,britain in #agfc4 ,we have here an example of the way in which non-violent resistance1 when used merely on the basis of expediency1 is apt to intensify and sharpen the conflict1 until it finally leads to war itself4#df ,,footnotes3 #dd ,curtis ,nettels says of the ,stamp ,act opposition1 ,the most telling weapons used by the colonists were the non-importation agreements1 which struck the ,british merchants at a time when trade was bad4 ,the ,roots of ,american ,civilization 7,new ,york3 ,crofts1 #aich71 #fcb4 ,later he says1 ,the colonial merchants again resorted to the non-importation agreements as the most effectual means of compelling ,britain to repeal the ,townshend ,acts4 ,ibid41 #fce4 ,for a good account of this whole movement see also ,john ,c4 ,miller1 ,origins of the ,american ,revolution 7,boston3 ,little1 ,brown1 #aidc71 #aej-afd1 #bce-bha4 #de ,miller1 #cee-daa4 #df ,case1 ,non-,violent ,coercion1 #cjh-cji4 ,irish ,opposition to ,great ,britain ,after #aijj ,after centuries of violent opposition to ,british occupation1 the ,irish tried an experiment in non-violent non-cooperation after #aijj4 ,arthur ,griffith was inspired to use in ,ireland the techniques employed in the ,hungarian independence movement of #ahff-ahfg4 ,his ,sinn ,fein party1 organized in #aijf1 determined to set up an independent government for ,ireland outside the framework of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,when the ,home ,rule ,act of #aiad was not put into operation because of the war1 ,sinn ,fein gained ground4 ,in the elections of #aiah1 three fourths of the successful ,irish candidates were members of the party1 so they met at ,dublin as an ,irish parliament rather than proceeding to ,westminster4 ,in #aiba1 after a new ,home ,rule ,act had resulted only in additional opposition1 the ,british government negotiated a settlement with the representatives of the ,irish ,republic1 which set up the ,irish ,free ,state as a self-governing dominion within the ,british ,commonwealth4 ,the ,irish accepted the treaty1 and the ,irish problem was on its way to settlement1 although later events were to prove that ,ireland would not be satisfied until she had demonstrated that the new status made her in fact independent4 ,her neutrality in the present war should dispel all doubts4#dg ,,footnote3 #dg ,brockway1 ,non-,co-operation1 #ga-ib2 ,william ,i4 ,hull1 ,the ,war ,method and the ,peace ,method3 ,an ,historical ,contrast 7,new ,york3 ,revell1 #aibi71 #bbi-bca2 ,hayes1 ,modern ,europe1 ,,ii1 #dih-eja1 #hgf-hgi1 #ieb-iec4 ,strikes with ,political ,purposes ,british workers themselves have made use of strikes with political significance4 ,in #aibj1 transport workers refused to handle goods destined to be used in the war against the ,bolshevik regime in ,russia1 and thus forced ,britain to cease her intervention4#dh ,in #aibf1 the general strike in ,britain had revolutionary implications which the ,government and the public recognized only too well4 ,hence the widespread opposition to it4 ,the leaders of the strike were even frightened themselves1 and called it off suddenly1 leaving the masses of the workers completely bewildered4#di ,in ,germany1 non-cooperation has also been used successfully4 ,in #aibj1 a general strike defeated the attempt of the militarists to seize control of the state in the ,kapp ,putsch4 ,in #aibd1 when the ,french ,army invaded the ,ruhr1 the non-violent refusal of the ,german workers to mine coal for ,france had the support of the whole ,german nation4 ,as the saying was at the time1 ,you can't mine coal with bayonets4 ,finally the ,french withdrew from their fruitless adventure4#ej ,,footnotes3 #dh ,allen1 ,fight for ,peace1 #fcc-fcd2 ,huxley1 ,ends and ,means1 #afi-agj4 #di ,berkman1 ,communist ,anarchism1 #bdg-bdh4 #ej ,oswald ,garrison ,villard's ,preface to ,shridharani1 ,war ,without ,violence1 xiv-xv4 ,non-,violence in ,international ,affairs ,in the international field1 we also have examples of the use of non-violent coercion4 ,thomas ,jefferson1 during the struggle for the recognition of ,american neutral rights by ,britain and ,france1 attempted to employ the economic weapons of pre-revolutionary days4 ,his embargo upon ,american commerce and the later variants on that policy1 designed to force the belligerents to recognize the ,american position1 actually were more costly to ,american shippers than were the depredations of the ,french and the ,british1 so they forced a reversal of ,american policy4 ,the war against ,england that followed did not have the support of the shipping interests1 whose trade it was supposedly trying to protect4 ,it was more an adventure in ,american imperialism than it was an attempt to defend neutral rights1 so it can hardly be said to have grown out of the issues which led to ,jefferson's use of economic sanctions4 ,the whole incident proves that the country which attempts to use this method in international affairs must expect to lose its own trade in the process4 ,the cause must be great indeed before such undramatic losses become acceptable4#ea ,the same principle is illustrated in the attempt to impose economic sanctions on ,italy in #aice and #aicf4 ,the nations who made a gesture toward using them actually did not want to hinder ,italian expansion1 or did not want to do so enough to surrender their trade with ,italy4 ,the inevitable result was that the sanctions failed4 ,the success of non-violent coercion is by no means assured in every case4 ,it depends upon 7#a7 the existence of a grievance great enough to justify the suffering that devolves upon the resisters1 7#b7 the dependence of the opposition on the cooperation of the resisters1 7#c7 solidarity among a large enough number of resisters1 and 7#d7 in most cases1 the favorable reaction of the public not involved in the conflict4 ,when all or most of these factors have been present1 non-violent coercion has succeeded in our western society4 ,on other occasions it has failed4 ,but one who remembers the utter defeat of the ,austrian socialists who employed arms against ,chancellor ,dolfuss in #aicd must admit that violent coercion also has its failures4#eb ,,footnotes3 #ea ,louis ,martin ,sears1 ,jefferson and the ,embargo 7,durham1 ,n4 ,c43 ,duke ,university1 #aibg72 ,julius ,w4 ,pratt1 ,expansionists of #ahab 7,new ,york3 ,macmillan1 #aibe74 #eb ,de ,ligt1 #aca4 ,for other statements concerning the virtual impossibility of violent revolution today see ,de ,ligt1 #ha-hb1 #afb-afc2 ,horace ,g4 ,alexander1 ,great ,possessions in ,gerald ,heard1 et4 al41 ,the ,new ,pacifism 7,london3 ,allenson1 #aicf71 #hi-ia2 ,huxley1 ,ends and ,means1 #agh-agi2 ,lewis1 ,case ,against ,pacifism1 #aab-aac4 ,v4 ,,satyagraha ,,or ,,non-,,violent ,,direct ,,action ,there is a distinction between those who employ non-violent methods of opposition on the basis of expediency and those who refuse to use violence on the basis of principle4 ,in the minds of many pacifists the movement for ,indian independence under the leadership of ,mohandas ,k4 ,gandhi stands out as the supreme example of a political revolt which has insisted on this principle1 and hence as a model to be followed in any pacifist movement of social1 economic1 or political reform4 ,gandhi's ,satyagraha1 therefore1 deserves careful analysis in the light of pacifist principles4 ,western critics of ,gandhi's methods are prone to insist that they may be applicable in the ,orient1 but that they can never be applied in the same way within our western culture4 ,we have already seen that there have been many non-violent movements of reform within our western society1 but those that we have examined have been based on expediency4 ,undoubtedly the widespread ,hindu acceptance of the principle of ahimsa1 or non-killing1 even in the case of animals1 prepared the way for ,gandhi more completely than would have been the case in western society4 ,the ,origins of ,satyagraha ,shridharani has traced for us the origins of this distinctive ,hindu philosophy of ahimsa4 ,it arose from the idea of the sacrifice1 which the ,aryans brought to ,india with them at least #aejj years before ,christ4 ,from a gesture of propitiation of the gods1 sacrifice gradually turned into a magic formula which would work automatically to procure desired ends and eliminate evil4 ,in time the ,hindus came to believe that the most effective type of sacrifice was self-sacrifice and suffering1 accompanied by a refusal to injure others1 or ahimsa4#ec ,only the warrior caste of ,kshatriyas was allowed to fight4 ,in his autobiography1 ,gandhi brings out clearly the pious nature of his home environment1 and the emphasis which was placed there upon not eating meat because of the sacred character of animal life4#ed ,it is not surprising that a logical mind reared in such an environment should have espoused the principle of non-killing4 ,in his western education ,gandhi became acquainted with ,the ,sermon on the ,mount1 and the writings of ,tolstoy and ,thoreau1 but he tells us himself that he was attracted to these philosophies because they expressed ideas in which he already believed4#ee ,in fact1 the ,hindese have long employed the non-violent methods of resistance which ,gandhi has encouraged in our own day4 ,in #ahcj1 the population of the ,state of ,mysore carried on a great movement of non-cooperation against the exploitation by the native despot1 during which they refused to work or pay taxes1 and retired into the forests4 ,there was no disorder or use of arms4 ,the official report of the ,british ,government said3 ,the natives understand very well the use of such measures to defend themselves against the abuse of authority4 ,the method most in use1 and that which gives the best results1 is complete non-co-operation in all that concerns the ,government1 the administration and public life generally4#ef ,in about #aijj there was a great movement of non-cooperation under the leadership of ,aurobindo ,ghose against the ,british ,government in ,bengal4 ,ghose wanted independence and freedom from foreign tribute4 ,he called upon the people to demonstrate their fitness for self-government by establishing hygienic conditions1 founding schools1 building roads and developing agriculture4 ,but ,ghose had the experience ,gandhi was to have later4 ,the people became impatient and fell back on violence2 and the ,british then employed counter-violence to crush the movement completely4#eg ,the term ,satyagraha itself was1 however1 a contribution of ,gandhi4 ,it was coined about #aijf in connection with the ,indian movement of non-violent resistance in ,south ,africa4 ,previously the ,english term passive resistance had been used1 but ,gandhi tells us that when he discovered that among ,europeans1 it was supposed to be a weapon of the weak1 that it could be characterized by hatred and that it could finally manifest itself as violence1 he was forced to find a new word to carry his idea4 ,the result was a combination of the ,gujerati words ,sat1 meaning truth1 and ,agraha1 meaning firmness--hence truth force1 or as it has been translated since1 soul force4#eh ,,footnotes3 #ec ,shridharani1 ,war ,without ,violence1 #afe-afg4 #ed ,m4 ,k4 ,gandhi1 ,the ,story of ,my ,experiments with ,truth1 translated by ,mahadev ,desai and ,pyrelal ,nair 7,ahmedabad3 ,navajivan ,press1 #aibg-aibi71 the earlier portions of ,vol4 ,i4 #ee ,ibid41 ,i1 #cbb2 ,shridharani1 #afg4 #ef ,quoted by ,de ,ligt1 ,conquest of ,violence1 #hi4 #eg ,ibid41 #hi-ij4 #eh ,gandhi1 ,experiments with ,truth1 ,,ii1 #aec-aed4 ,the ,process of ,satyagraha ,shridharani1 who considers himself a follower of ,gandhi1 has given us a comprehensive analysis of ,satyagraha as a mass movement4 ,he begins his discussion with this statement of the conditions under which it is possible3 ,satyagraha1 as an organized mass action1 presupposes that the community concerned has a grievance which practically every member of that community feels4 ,this grievance should be of such large proportions that it could be transformed1 in its positive side1 into a ',cause' rightfully claiming sacrifice and suffering from the community on its behalf4#ei ,this necessity for community solidarity is often overlooked by followers of ,gandhi who advocate reforms by means of non-violent direct action in our western society4 ,given the grievance of ,british rule1 ,shridharani believes that the ,hindese were willing to accept ,satyagraha first because1 unarmed under ,british law1 no other means were available to them1 and then because they were predisposed to the method because of the ,hindu philosophy of non-violence and the mystic belief that truth will triumph eventually since it is a force greater than the physical4#fj ,the first step in ,satyagraha is negotiation and arbitration with the adversary4 ,under these terms ,shridharani includes the use of legislative channels1 direct negotiations1 and arbitration by third parties4#fa ,in reading his discussion one gets the impression that under the ,american system of government the later stages of ,satyagraha would never be necessary1 since the ,satyagrahi must first exhaust all the avenues of political expression and legislative action which are open to him4 ,if any sizeable group in ,american society displayed on any issue the solidarity required for successful use of this method1 their political influence would undoubtedly be great enough to effect a change in the law1 imperfect though ,american democracy may be4 ,the second step in ,satyagraha is agitation1 the purpose of which is to educate the public on the issues at stake1 to create the solidarity that is needed in the later stages of the movement1 and to win acceptance1 by members of the movement1 of the methods to be employed4#fb ,according to ,fenner ,brockway1 the failure of ,satyagraha to achieve its objectives is an indication that the people of ,india had not really caught and accepted ,gandhi's spirit and principles4#fc ,this means that on several occasions the later stages of ,satyagraha have been put into action before earlier stages of creating solidarity on both purpose and method have been fully completed4 ,despite ,gandhi's tremendous influence in ,india1 the movement for ,indian independence has not yet fully succeeded4 ,in view of the fact that so many of the people who have worked for independence have failed to espouse ,gandhi's principles whole-heartedly1 if independence be achieved in the future it will be difficult to tell whether or not it was achieved because the ,indian people fully accepted these principles4 ,many seem to have done so only in the spirit in which the ,american colonists of the eighteenth century employed similar methods during the earlier stages of their own independence movement4#fd ,only after negotiation and arbitration have failed does ,satyagraha make use of the techniques which are usually associated with it in the popular mind4 ,as ,shridharani puts it1 ,moral suasion having proved ineffective the ,satyagrahis do not hesitate to shift their technique to compulsive force4#fe ,he is pointing out that in practice ,satyagraha is coercive in character1 and that all the later steps from mass demonstrations through strikes1 boycotts1 non-cooperation1 and civil disobedience to parallel government which divorces itself completely from the old are designed to compel rather than to persuade the oppressors to change their policy4 ,in this respect it is very similar to the movements of non-violent resistance based on expediency which were considered in the preceding section4 ,,footnotes3 #ei ,shridharani1 #d4 ,italics mine4 #fj ,ibid41 #aib-bji4 #fa ,ibid41 #e-g4 #fb ,ibid41 #g-ab4 #fc ,a4 ,fenner ,brockway1 ,does ,noncoperation ,work8 in ,devere ,allen 7,ed471 ,pacifism in the ,modern ,world 7,garden ,city1 ,n4 ,y43 ,doubleday1 ,doran1 #aibi71 #abf4 #fd ,nehru in his autobiography expresses strong differences of opinion with ,gandhi at many points4 ,in one place he says3 ,what a problem and a puzzle he has been not only to the ,british ,government but to his own people and his closest associates6444 ,how came we to associate ourselves with ,gandhiji politically1 and to become1 in many instances1 his devoted followers8444 ,he attracted people1 but it was ultimately intellectual conviction that brought them to him and kept them there4 ,they did not agree with his philosophy of life1 or even with many of his ideals4 ,often they did not understand him4 ,but the action that he proposed was something tangible which could be understood and appreciated intellectually4 ,any action would be welcome after the long tradition of inaction which our spineless politics had nurtured2 brave and effective action with an ethical halo about it had an irresistible appeal1 both to the intellect and the emotions4 ,step by step he convinced us of the rightness of the action1 and we went with him1 although we did not accept his philosophy4 ,to divorce action from the thought underlying it was not perhaps a proper procedure and was bound to lead to mental conflict and trouble later4 ,vaguely we hoped that ,gandhiji1 being essentially a man of action and very sensitive to changing conditions1 would advance along the line that seemed to us to be right4 ,and in any event the road he was following was the right one thus far2 and1 if the future meant a parting1 it would be folly to anticipate it4 ,jawaharlal ,nehru1 ,toward ,freedom 7,new ,york3 ,john ,day1 #aidb71 #aij-aia4 #fe ,shridharani1 #ab4 ,he lists and discusses #ac steps in the development of a campaign of ,satyagraha1 pp4 #e-dc4 ,the ,philosophy of ,satyagraha ,it seems clear that ,satyagraha cannot be equated with ,christian pacifism4 ,as ,shridharani has said1 ,in ,india1 the people are not stopping with mere good will1 as the pacifists usually do1 but1 on the contrary1 are engaged in direct action of a non-violent variety which they are confident will either mend or end the powers that be1 and1 ,satyagraha seems to have more in common with war than with ,western pacifism4#ff ,gandhi's campaign to recruit ,indians for the ,british army during the ,first ,world ,war distinguishes him also from most western pacifists4#fg ,in an article entitled ,the ,doctrine of the ,sword1 written in #aibj1 ,gandhi brought out clearly the fact that in his philosophy he places the ends above the means1 so far as the mass of the people are concerned3 ,where the only choice is between cowardice and violence ,i advise violence4 ,i cultivate the quiet courage of dying without killing4 ,but to him who has not this courage ,i advise killing and being killed rather than shameful flight from danger4 ,i would risk violence a thousand times rather than the emasculation of the race4 ,i would rather have ,india resort to arms to defend her honour than that she should in a cowardly manner remain a helpless victim of her own dishonour4#fh ,both pacifists and their opponents have noted this inconsistency in ,gandhi's philosophy4 ,lewis calls ,gandhi a strange mixture of ,machiavellian astuteness and personal sanctity1 profound humanitarianism and paralysing conservatism4#fi ,bishop ,mc,connell has said of his non-violent coercion1 ,this coercion is less harmful socially than coercion by direct force1 but it is coercion nevertheless4#gj ,and ,c4 ,j4 ,cadoux has declared3 ,the well-known work of ,mr4 ,gandhi1 both in ,india today and earlier in ,africa1 exemplifies rather the power of non-co-operation than ,christian love on the part of a group2 but even so1 it calls for mention 444 as another manifestation of the efficacy of non-violent methods of restraint4#ga ,gandhi's own analysis of his movement places much emphasis on the mystical ,hindu idea of self-inflicted suffering4 ,in #aibj1 he said1 ,progress is to be measured by the amount of suffering undergone by the sufferer4#gb ,this idea recurs many times in ,gandhi's writings4 ,the acceptance of such suffering is not easy2 hence his emphasis upon the need of self-purification1 preparation1 and discipline4 ,because of the violence used by many of his followers during the first great campaign in ,india1 ,gandhi came to the conclusion that before re-starting civil disobedience on a mass scale1 it would be necessary to create a band of well-trained1 pure-hearted volunteers who thoroughly understood the strict conditions of ,satyagraha4#gc ,,footnotes3 #ff ,ibid41 xxvii1 xxx4 #fg ,speech at ,gujarat political conference1 ,nov41 #aiag1 quoted by ,case1 ,non-violent ,coercion1 #cgd-cge4 ,see also ,shridharani1 #abb1 note4 #fh ,quoted in ,lewis1 ,case ,against ,pacifism1 #ajg4 ,a slightly different version is reprinted in ,nehru1 ,towards ,freedom1 #ha4 #fi ,lewis1 ,case ,against ,pacifism1 #ii4 ,he goes on to say1 ,he is anti-,british more than he is anti-war4 ,he adopts tactics of non-violence because that is the most effective way in which a disarmed and disorganized multitude can resist armed troops and police4 ,he has never suggested that when ,india attains full independence it shall disband the ,indian army4 ,the ,indian ,national ,congress 444 never for one moment contemplated abandoning violence as the necessary instrument of the ,state they hoped one day to command4 ,pp4 #ii-ajj4 #gj ,francis ,j4 ,mc,connell1 ,christianity and ,coercion 7,nashville3 ,cokesbury ,press1 #aicc71 #df4 #ga ,cadoux1 ,christian ,pacifism1 #aji4 #gb ,young ,india1 ,june #af1 #aibj1 quoted by ,shridharani1 #afi4 #gc ,gandhi1 ,experiments1 ,,ii1 #eji-eac4 ,the ,empirical ,origins of ,gandhi's ,method ,gandhi's autobiography brings out the origins of many of his ideas4 ,we have already noted the importance of his ,hindu training4 ,he arrived empirically at many of his specific techniques4 ,for instance1 he describes in some detail a journey he made by coach in #ahic in ,south ,africa1 during which he was placed on the driver's seat1 since ,indians were not allowed to sit inside the coach4 ,later the coachman desired his seat and asked him to sit on the footboard4 ,this ,gandhi refused to do1 whereupon the coachman began to box his ears4 ,he describes the rest of the incident thus3 ,he was strong and ,i was weak4 ,some of the passengers were moved to pity and they exclaimed3 ',man1 let him alone4 ,don't beat him4 ,he is not to blame4 ,he is right4 ,if he can't stay there1 let him come and sit with us4' ',no fear1' cried the man1 but he seemed somewhat crestfallen and stopped beating me4 ,he let go my arm1 swore at me a little more1 and asking the ,hottenot servant who was sitting on the other side of the coachbox to sit on the footboard1 took the seat so vacated4#gd ,he had a similar experience in #ahif when his refusal to prosecute the leaders of a mob which had beaten him aroused a favorable reaction on the part of the public4#ge ,gradually the principle developed that the acceptance of suffering was an effective method of winning the sympathy and support of disinterested parties in a dispute1 and that their moral influence might go far in determining its outcome4 ,on his return to ,india after his successful campaign for ,indian rights in ,south ,africa1 ,gandhi led a strike of mill workers in ,ahmedabad4 ,he established a set of rules1 forbidding resort to violence1 the molestation of blacklegs1 and the taking of alms1 and requiring the strikers to remain firm no matter how long the strike took--rules not too different from those that would be used in a strike by an occidental labor union4#gf ,speaking of a period during this strike when the laborers were growing restive and threatening violence1 ,gandhi says3 ,one morning--it was at a mill-hands' meeting--while ,i was still groping and unable to see my way clearly1 the light came to me4 ,unbidden and all by themselves the words came to my lips3 ',unless the strikers rally1' ,i declared to the meeting1 'and continue the strike till a settlement is reached1 or till they leave the mills altogether1 ,i will not touch any food4' ,gandhi insisted that the fast was not directed at the mill owners1 but was for the purification of himself and the strikers4 ,he told the owners that it should not influence their decision1 and yet an arbitrator was now appointed1 and as he says1 ,the strike was called off after ,i had fasted only for three days4#gg ,the efficacy of the fast was thus borne in on ,gandhi4 ,in the ,kheda ,satyagraha against unjust taxation1 which was the first big movement of the sort in ,india1 ,gandhi discovered that ,when the fear of jail disappears1 repression puts heart into people4 ,the movement ended in a compromise rather than the complete success of ,gandhi's program4 ,he said of it1 ,although1 therefore1 the termination was celebrated as a triumph of ,satyagraha1 ,i could not enthuse over it1 as it lacked the essentials of a complete triumph4#gh ,but even though ,gandhi was not satisfied with anything less than a complete triumph1 he had learned that when a people no longer fears the punishments that an oppressor metes out1 the power of the oppressor is gone4#gi ,,footnotes3 #gd ,ibid41 ,i1 #bfh-bfi4 #ge ,of the incident he says1 ,thus the lynching ultimately proved to be a blessing for me1 that is for the cause4 ,it enhanced the prestige of the ,indian community in ,south ,africa1 and made my work easier4444 ,the incident also added to my professional practice4 ,ibid41 ,i1 #deb-deg4 #gf ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #daa-dac4 #gg ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #dbj-dbd4 #gh ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #dbh-ddj4 #gi ,see the quotation from ,gandhi in ,shridharani1 #bi4 ,non-,cooperation ,it will be impossible for us here to consider in detail the great movements of non-cooperation on which ,gandhi's followers have embarked in order to throw off ,british rule4 ,in #aiai and again in the struggle of #aibj-aibb1 ,gandhi felt forced to call off the non-cooperation campaigns because the people1 who were not sufficiently prepared1 fell back upon violence4#hj ,in the struggle in #aicj1 ,gandhi laid down more definite rules for ,satyagrahis1 forbidding them to harbor anger1 or to offer any physical resistance or to insult their opponents1 although they must refuse to do any act forbidden to them by the movement even at the cost of great suffering4#ha ,the movement ended in a compromise agreement with the ,british1 but the terms of the agreement were never completely carried out4 ,repressive measures and the imprisonment of ,gandhi checked the non-cooperation movement during the present war1 at least temporarily4 ,,footnotes3 #hj ,gandhi1 ,experiments1 ,,ii1 #dhf-ejg2 ,shridharani1 #abf-abi4 #ha ,the rules1 first published in ,young ,india1 ,feb4 #bg1 #aicj1 are given by ,shridharani1 #aed-aeg4 ,fasting ,gandhi also made use of the fast in #aiai1 #aibd1 #aicb1 #aicc1 #aici1 and #aidc to obtain concessions1 either from the ,british government or from groups of ,hindese who did not accept his philosophy4#hb ,of fasting ,gandhi has said3 ,it does not mean coercion of anybody4 ,it does1 of course1 exercise pressure on individuals1 even as on the government2 but it is nothing more than the natural and moral result of an act of sacrifice4 ,it stirs up sluggish consciences and it fires loving hearts to action4#hc ,yet ,gandhi believed that the fast of the ,irish leader1 ,mac,sweeney1 when he was imprisoned in ,dublin1 was an act of violence4#hd ,in practice1 ,satyagraha is a mixture of expediency and principle4 ,it is firmly based on the ,hindu idea of ahimsa1 and hence avoids physical violence4 ,despite ,gandhi's insistence upon respect for and love for the opponent1 however1 his equal insistence upon winning the opponent completely to his point of view leads one to suspect that he is using the technique as a means to an end which he considers equally fundamental4 ,he accepts suffering as an end in itself1 yet he knows that it also is a means to other ends since it arouses the sympathy of public opinion4 ,he regards non-cooperation as compatible with love for the opponent1 yet we have already seen that under modern conditions it is coercive rather than persuasive in nature4 ,despite ,gandhi's distinction between his own fasts and those of others1 they too involve an element of psychological coercion4 ,we are led to conclude that much of ,gandhi's program is based upon expediency as well as upon the complete respect for every human personality which characterizes absolute pacifism4 ,,footnotes3 #hb ,see the list given by ,haridas ,t4 ,muzumdar1 ,gandhi ,triumphant6 ,the ,inside ,story of the ,historic ,fast 7,new ,york3 ,universal1 #aici71 vi-vii4 #hc ,ibid41 #hi4 #hd ,ibid41 #ij4 ,lewis quotes ,gandhi thus3 ,you cannot fast against a tyrant1 for it will be a species of violence done to him4 ,fasting can only be resorted to against a lover not to extort rights1 but to reform him4 ,case ,against ,pacifism1 #aji4 ,the ,american ,abolition ,movement ,the ,west also has had its movements of reform which have espoused non-violence as a principle4 ,the most significant one in the ,united ,states has been the abolition crusade before the ,civil ,war4 ,its most publicized faction was the group led by ,william ,lloyd ,garrison1 who has had a reputation as an uncompromising extremist4 ,almost every school boy remembers the words with which he introduced the first issue of the ,liberator in #ahca3 ,i will be as harsh as truth1 and as uncompromising as justice4444 ,i am in earnest--,i will not equivocate--,i will not excuse--,i will not retreat a single inch--,,and ,i ,,will ,,be ,,heard4 ,he lived up to his promise during the years that followed1 and it is no wonder that ,parrington called him the flintiest character amongst the ,new ,england militants4#he ,in the ,south they regarded him as an inciter to violence1 and barred his writings from the mails4 ,garrison's belief in non-resistance is less often stressed1 yet his espousal of this principle was stated in the same uncompromising terms as his opposition to slavery4 ,in #ahch he induced the ,boston ,peace ,convention to found the ,new ,england ,non-,resistance ,society4 ,in the ,declaration of ,sentiments which he wrote and which the new ,society adopted1 he said3 ,the history of mankind is crowded with evidences proving that physical coercion is not adapted to moral regeneration2 that the sinful dispositions of men can be subdued only by love2 that evil can be exterminated from the earth only by goodness4#hf ,throughout his long struggle against slavery1 ,garrison remained true to his principles of non-resistance4 ,but his denunciations of slavery made more impression on the popular mind1 and aided in stirring up much of the violent sentiment in the ,north which expressed itself in a crescendo of denunciation of the slave owners4 ,in the ,south1 where anti-slavery sentiment had been strong before1 a new defensive attitude began to develop4 ,as ,calhoun said of the northern criticism of slavery3 ,it has compelled us to the ,south to look into the nature and character of this great institution1 and to correct many false impressions that even we had entertained in relation to it4 ,many in the ,south once believed that it was a moral and political evil2 that folly and delusion are gone2 we see it now in its true light1 and regard it as the most safe and stable basis for free institutions in the world4#hg ,in the ,north the violent statements of the abolitionists aroused a physically violent response4 ,mobs attacked abolition meetings in many places1 and on one occasion ,garrison himself was rescued from an angry ,boston mob4 ,this violence in turn aroused many men like ,salmon ,p4 ,chase and ,wendell ,phillips to espouse the anti-slavery cause because they could not condone the actions of the anti-abolitionists4#hh ,garrison himself proceeded serenely through the storms that his vigorous writings precipitated4 ,feelings rose on both sides1 and many who heard and accepted the ,garrisonian indictment of slavery knew nothing of his non-resistance principles4#hi ,others1 who did1 came reluctantly to the conclusion that a civil war to rid the country of the evil would be preferable to its continuance4 ,in time the struggle was transferred to the political arena1 where men acted sometimes on the basis of interest and not always on the basis of moral principles4 ,the gulf between the sections widened1 and civil war approached4 ,as abolitionists themselves began to express the belief that the slavery issue could not be settled without bloodshed1 ,garrison disclaimed all responsibility for the growing propensity to espouse violence4 ,in the ,liberator in #aheh he said3 ,when the anti-slavery cause was launched1 it was baptized in the spirit of peace4 ,we proclaimed to the country and to the world that the weapons of our warfare were not carnal but spiritual1 and we believed them to be mighty through ,god to the pulling down even of the stronghold of slavery2 and for several years great moral power accompanied our cause wherever presented4 ,alas6 in the course of the fearful developments of the ,slave ,power1 and its continued aggressions on the rights of the people of the ,north1 in my judgment a sad change has come over the spirit of anti-slavery men1 generally speaking4 ,we are growing more and more warlike1 more and more disposed to repudiate the principles of peace4444 ,just in proportion as this spirit prevails1 ,i feel that our moral power is departing and will depart4444 ,i will not trust the war-spirit anywhere in the universe of ,god1 because the experience of six thousand years proves it not to be at all reliable in such a struggle as ours4444 ,i pray you1 abolitionists1 still to adhere to that truth4 ,do not get impatient2 do not become exasperated2 do not attempt any new political organization2 do not make yourselves familiar with the idea that blood must flow4 ,perhaps blood will flow--,god knows1 ,i do not2 but it shall not flow through any counsel of mine4 ,much as ,i detest the oppression exercised by the ,southern slaveholder1 he is a man1 sacred before me4 ,he is a man1 not to be harmed by my hand nor with my consent4444 ,while ,i will not cease reprobating his horrible injustice1 ,i will let him see that in my heart there is no desire to do him harm1--that ,i wish to bless him here1 and bless him everlastingly1--and that ,i have no other weapon to wield against him but the simple truth of ,god1 which is the great instrument for the overthrow of all iniquity1 and the salvation of the world4#ij ,yet ,garrison's fervor for the emancipation of the slaves was so great that when the ,civil ,war came1 he said of ,lincoln and the ,republicans3 ,they are instruments in the hand of ,god to carry forward and help achieve the great object of emancipation for which we have so long been striving4444 ,all our sympathies and wishes must be with the ,government1 as against the ,southern desperadoes and buccaneers2 yet of course without any compromise of principle on our part4#ia ,although ,lincoln insisted that the purpose of the ,north was the preservation of the ,union rather than emancipation1 eventually he did free the slaves4 ,it would seem that ,garrison1 for all his non-resistance declarations1 bore some of the responsibility for the great conflict4 ,in this case1 as in the case of ,satyagraha1 the demand for reform by non-violent means was translated into violence by followers who were more devoted to the cause of reform than they were to the non-violent methods which their leaders proclaimed4 ,,footnotes3 #he ,vernon ,louis ,parrington1 ,main ,currents in ,american ,thought 7,new ,york3 ,harcourt ,brace1 #aicj71 ,,ii1 #ceb4 #hf ,the ,declaration is reprinted in ,allen1 ,fight for ,peace1 #fid-fig4 #hg ,quoted in ,avery ,craven1 ,the ,coming of the ,civil ,war 7,new ,york3 ,scribners1 #aidb71 #afa4 #hh ,jesse ,macy1 ,the ,anti-,slavery ,crusade 7,new ,haven3 ,yale ,university ,press1 #aiai71 #fi-gj4 #hi ,for the many elements in the abolition movement1 see ,gilbert ,hobbs ,barnes1 ,the ,antislavery ,impulse1 #ahcj-ahdd 7,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton-,century1 #aicc74 #ij ,wendell ,phillips ,garrison1 ,william ,lloyd ,garrison 7,new ,york3 ,century1 #ahhi71 ,,iii1 #dgc-dgd4 #ia ,letter to ,oliver ,johnson1 quoted in ,allen1 ,fight for ,peace1 #ddi-dej4 ,,vi4 ,,non-,,resistance ,the preceding section of this study dealt with those who rejected physical violence on principle1 and who felt no hatred toward the persons who were responsible for evil1 but who used methods of bringing about reform which involved the use of non-physical coercion1 and in some cases what might be called psychological violence4 ,these advocates of non-violent direct action not only resisted evil negatively2 they also attempted to establish what they considered to be a better state of affairs4 ,this section will deal with true non-resistance4 ,it is concerned with those who refuse to resist evil1 even by non-violent means1 for the most part basing their belief upon the injunction of ,jesus to resist not evil4 ,for them1 non-resistance becomes an end in itself1 rather than a means for achieving other purposes4 ,they are less concerned with reforming society than they are with maintaining the integrity of their own lives in this respect4 ,if they have a social influence at all1 it is only because by exhortation or1 more especially by the force of example1 they induce others to accept the same way of life4 ,however1 in their refusal to participate directly in such evil as war1 even non-resistants do actually resist evil4 ,the ,mennonites ,the ,mennonites are the largest and most significant group of non-resistants4 ,for over four hundred years they have maintained their religious views1 and applied them with remarkable consistency4#ib ,their church grew out of the ,anabaptist movement1 which had its origins in ,switzerland shortly after #aebj4 ,the ,anabaptists believed in the literal acceptance of the teachings of the ,bible1 and their application as rules of conduct in daily life4 ,since they did not depend for their interpretations upon the authority of any priesthood or ministry1 differences grew up among them at an early date4 ,the more radical wing1 from which the ,mennonites came1 accepting the ,sermon on the ,mount as the heart of the ,gospel1 early refused to offer any physical resistance to evil4#ic ,felix ,manz1 who was executed for his beliefs in #aebg1 declared1 ,no ,christian smites with the sword nor resists evil4#id ,hundreds of other ,anabaptists followed ,manz into martyrdom without surrendering their faith4 ,in a day before conscription had come into general use1 the ,anabaptists suffered more for their heresy and their political views than they did for their non-resistance principles4 ,in their belief in rendering unto ,caesar only those things which were ,caesar's and unto ,god the things that were ,god's1 they came into conflict with the authorities of both church and state4 ,the established church they refused to recognize at all1 and they came to regard the state only as a necessary instrument to control those who had not become ,christians4 ,far in advance of the times they adopted the principle of complete separation of church and state1 which for them meant that no ,christian might hold political office nor act as the agent of a coercive state1 although he must obey its commands in matters which did not interfere with his duty toward ,god4 ,on the basis of direct scriptural authority1 they placed the payment of taxes in the latter category4#ie ,the modern ,mennonites are descended from the followers of ,menno ,simons1 who was born in the ,netherlands in #adif4 ,in #aebd he was ordained as a ,catholic priest1 but he soon came to doubt the soundness of that religion1 and found his way into ,anabaptist ranks1 where he became one of the leading expounders of the radical principles1 placing great emphasis upon non-resistance4 ,in his biblical language1 he thus stated his belief on this point3 ,the regenerated do not go to war1 nor engage in strife4 ,they are the children of peace who have beaten their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks1 and know of no war4 ,they render unto ,caesar the things that are ,caesar's and unto ,god the things that are ,god's4 ,their sword is the sword of the ,spirit which they wield with a good conscience through the ,holy ,ghost4#if ,in time the followers of ,menno ,simons gained in influence1 while branches of the ,anabaptist movement which did not follow the principle of non-resistance died out4 ,here and there other non-resistant groups such as the ,hutterites and the ,moravian ,brethren continued4#ig ,ultimately the ,mennonites found their way into several parts of ,europe1 from the ,north ,sea to ,russia1 in their search for a home where they might be free from persecution4 ,the founding of ,germantown in the new ,pennsylvania colony in #afhc marked the beginning of a migration which in the years that followed brought the more radical of them to ,america4#ih ,with the coming of conscription in ,europe1 those who held most strongly to their non-resistant principles came to the ,united ,states to escape military service4 ,those who remained in ,europe gradually gave up their opposition to war1 but those in ,america have largely maintained their original position4#ii ,today they still refrain from opposing evil1 and believe in the separation of church and state1 which to them means a refusal to hold office and1 in many cases1 to vote or to have recourse to the courts4 ,they pay their taxes and do what the state demands1 as long as it is not inconsistent with their duty to ,god4 ,in case of a conflict in duty1 service to ,god is placed first4 ,since they do not believe that it is possible for the world as a whole to become free of sin1 they maintain that the ,christian must separate himself from it4 ,they make no attempt to bring about reform in society by means of political action or other movements of the sort which we have considered under non-violent direct action4#ajj ,since the term pacifist has come into general use to designate those opposed to war1 the ,mennonites have usually made a distinction between themselves as non-resistants and the pacifists1 who1 they claim1 are more interested in creating a good society than they are in following completely the admonitions of the ,bible4 ,they also disclaim any relationship to such non-resistants as ,garrison or ,ballou1 even though these men reached substantially the same conclusion about the nature of the state1 or with ,tolstoy who even refused to accept the support of the state for the institution of private property4 ,the ,american non-resistants they regard primarily as reformers of human society1 and ,tolstoy as an anarchist who rejected the state altogether1 rather than accepting it as a necessary evil4#aja ,in so far as the ,mennonites have used social influence at all1 it has been through the force of example1 and in their missionary endeavors to win other individuals to the same high principles which they themselves follow4 ,,footnotes3 #ib ,see the pamphlet by ,c4 ,henry ,smith1 ,christian ,peace3 ,four ,hundred ,years of ,mennonite ,peace ,principles and ,practice 7,newton1 ,kansas3 ,mennonite ,publication ,office1 #aich74 #ic ,c4 ,henry ,smith1 ,the ,story of the ,mennonites 7,berne1 ,ind43 ,mennonite ,book ,concern1 #aida71 #i-cj4 #id ,john ,horsch1 ,mennonites in ,europe1 7,scottdale1 ,pa43 ,mennonite ,publishing ,house1 #aidb71 #cei4 #ie ,smith1 ,story of the ,mennonites1 #cj-ce4 #if ,quoted by ,horsch1 #cfc4 #ig ,ibid41 #cfe4 #ih ,smith1 ,story of the ,mennonites1 #ecf-eci4 #ii ,smith1 ,christian ,peace1 #ab-ae4 #ajj ,edward ,yoder1 et al41 ,must ,christians ,fight3 ,a ,scriptural ,inquiry 7,akron1 ,pa43 ,mennonite ,central ,committee1 #aidc71 #ca-cb1 #da-dd1 #ei-fa1 #fd-fe4 #aja ,ibid41 #fb-fc2 and for a full discussion of the attitude see ,guy ,f4 ,hershberger1 ,biblical ,non-resistance and ,modern ,pacifism in ,mennonite ,quarterly ,rev41 ,,xvii 7,july1 #aidc71 #aae-ace4 ,the ,new ,england ,non-,resistants ,the ,mennonites are undoubtedly right in making a distinction between their position and that of the relatively large group of non-resistants which arose in ,new ,england during the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,we have already noted the ,declaration of ,principles written by ,garrison and accepted by the ,new ,england ,non-,resistance ,society in #ahch4 ,despite the fact that ,garrison insisted that an individual ought not to participate in the government of a state which used coercion against its subjects1 his life was devoted to a campaign against the evil of slavery4 ,in the ,declaration itself he said3 ,but1 while we shall adhere to the doctrine of non-resistance and passive submission to enemies1 we purpose1 in a moral and spiritual sense1 to speak and act boldly in the cause of ,,god2 to assail iniquity in high places1 and in low places2 to apply our principles to all existing civil1 political1 legal and ecclesiastical institutions2 and to hasten the time1 when the kingdoms of this world will have become the kingdoms of our ,,lord and of his ,,christ1 and he shall reign forever4#ajb ,garrison was essentially a man of action2 the real philosopher of the non-resistance movement was ,adin ,ballou1 a ,universalist minister of ,new ,england who devoted his whole life to the advancement of its principles4 ,in #ahdf he published his ,christian ,non-,resistance3 ,in ,all ,its ,important ,bearings1 in which he set forth his doctrine1 supported it with full scriptural citations1 and then presented a catalogue of incidents which to his own satisfaction proved its effectiveness1 both in personal and in social relationships4 ,although ,ballou listed a long series of means which a ,christian non-resistant might not use1 he insisted that he had a duty to oppose evil1 saying3 ,i claim the right to offer the utmost moral resistance1 not sinful1 of which ,god has made me capable1 to every manifestation of evil among mankind4 ,nay1 ,i hold it my duty to offer such moral resistance4 ,in this sense my very non-resistance becomes the highest kind of resistance to evil4#ajc ,nor did ,ballou condemn all use of uninjurious1 benevolent physical force in restraining the insane or the man about to commit an injury to another4 ,he finally defined non-resistance as simply non-resistance of injury with injury--evil with evil4 ,rather1 he believed in the essential efficacy of good1 as the counter-acting force with which to resist evil4#ajd ,in applying his principle rigorously1 ,ballou1 like the ,mennonites1 came to the conclusion that the non-resistant could have nothing to do with government4 ,if he so much as voted for its officials1 he had to share the moral responsibility for the wars1 capital punishment1 and other personal injuries which were carried out in its name4 ,he insisted3 ,there is no escape from this terrible moral responsibility but by a conscientious withdrawal from such government1 and an uncompromising protest against so much of its fundamental creed and constitutional law1 as is decidedly anti-,christian4 ,he must cease to be its pledged supporter1 and approving dependent4#aje ,like the ,mennonites1 he saw that the reason that governments were unchristian was that the people themselves were not ,christian2 but unlike the ,mennonites he maintained that they might eventually become so1 and that it was the duty of the ,christian to hasten the day of their complete conversion4 ,this1 he said1 is not to be done by voting at the polls1 by seeking influential offices in the government and binding ourselves to anti-,christian political compacts4 ,it is to be done by pure ,christian precepts faithfully inculcated1 and pure ,christian examples on the part of those who have been favored to receive and embrace the highest truths4#ajf ,the ,mennonites believed that man was essentially depraved2 ,ballou believed that he was perfectible4#ajg ,,footnotes3 #ajb ,allen1 ,fight for ,peace1 #fif4 #ajc ,ballou1 ,christian ,non-,resistance1 #c4 #ajd ,ibid41 #b-be4 #aje ,ibid41 #ah4 #ajf ,ibid41 #bbc-bbd4 #ajg ,perhaps this is the point at which to insert a footnote on ,henry ,thoreau1 whose essay on ,civil ,disobedience is said to have influenced ,gandhi4 ,although he lived in the same intellectual climate that produced ,garrison and ,ballou1 he was not a non-resistant on principle4 ,for instance1 he supported the violent attack upon slave holders by ,john ,brown just before the ,civil ,war4 ,he did come to substantially the same conclusions1 however1 on government4 ,he refused even to pay a tax to a government which carried on activities which he considered immoral1 such as supporting slavery1 or carrying on war4 ,on one occasion he said1 ,they are the lovers of law and order who observe the law when the government breaks it4 ,essentially1 ,thoreau was a philosophical anarchist1 who placed his faith entirely in the individual1 rather than in any sort of organized social action4 ,see the essay on him in ,parrington1 ,,ii1 #djj-dac2 and his own essay on ,civil ,disobedience in ,the ,writings of ,henry ,david ,thoreau 7,boston3 ,houghton ,mifflin1 #aijf71 ,,iv1 #cef-chg4 ,tolstoy ,many people regard the writings of ,count ,leo ,tolstoy as the epitome of the doctrine of non-resistance4 ,tolstoy arrived at his convictions after a long period of inner turmoil1 and published them in ,my ,religion in #ahhd4 ,in the years that followed1 his wide correspondence introduced him to many others who had held the same views4 ,he was especially impressed with the #ahch statement of ,garrison1 and with the writings of ,ballou1 with whom he entered into correspondence directly4#ajh ,however1 he went further than ,ballou1 and even further than the ,mennonites in his theory1 which he formulated fully in ,the ,kingdom of ,god is ,within ,you1 published in #ahic4 ,he renounced the use of physical force completely even in dealing with the insane or with children4#aji ,he severed all relations with government1 and went on to insist that the true ,christian might not own any property4 ,he practiced his own doctrines strictly4 ,tolstoy had quite a number of followers1 and a few groups were established to carry out his teachings4 ,these groups have continued to exist under the ,soviet ,union1 but their present fate is obscure4 ,his works greatly influenced ,peter ,verigin1 leader of the ,dukhobors1 who shortly after #aijj left ,russia and settled in ,canada in order to find a more hospitable environment for their communistic community1 and to escape the necessity for military service4#aaj ,however1 ,tolstoy's theory is so completely anarchistic that it does not lend itself to organization4 ,hence his chief influence has been intellectual1 and upon individuals4 ,we have already noted the great impact that his works made on ,gandhi1 while he was formulating the ideas which were to result in ,satyagraha4 ,neither in the case of ,gandhi1 nor of ,peter ,verigin1 however1 were ,tolstoy's doctrines applied in completely undiluted form4 ,the ,mennonites also disclaim kinship with him on the grounds that he sought a regeneration of society as a whole in this world4#aaa ,for most men the doctrine of complete anarchism has seemed too extreme for practical consideration1 but it would seem that ,tolstoy arrived at the logical conclusion of a system of non-resistance based on the premise that man should not combat evil1 nor have any relationship whatever with human institutions which attempt to restrain men by means other than reliance upon the force of example and goodwill4 ,,footnotes3 #ajh ,aylmer ,maude1 ,the ,life of ,tolstoy1 7,new ,york3 ,dodd1 ,mead1 #aiaj71 ,,ii1 #ced-cfj1 where the letters to and from ,ballou are quoted at length4 ,see also ,count ,leo ,n4 ,tolstoy1 ,the ,kingdom of ,god is ,within ,you1 translated by ,leo ,wiener 7,boston3 ,dana ,estes ,co41 #aije71 #f-bb4 #aji ,in a letter to ,l4 ,g4 ,wilson1 ,tolstoy said3 ,i cannot agree with the concession he ,ballou makes for employing violence against drunkards and insane people4 ,the ,master made no concessions1 and we can make none4 ,we must try1 as ,mr4 ,ballou puts it1 to make impossible the existence of such people1 but if they do exist1 we must use all possible means1 and sacrifice ourselves1 but not employ violence4 ,a true ,christian will always prefer to be killed by a madman1 than to deprive him of his liberty4 ,maude1 ,tolstoy1 ,,ii1 #cee-cef4 #aaj ,j4 ,f4 ,c4 ,wright1 ,slava ,bohu3 ,the ,story of the ,dukhobors 7,new ,york3 ,farrar and ,rinehart1 #aidj71 #ii4 #aaa ,hershberger says of him3 ,he identified the kingdom of ,god with human society after the manner of the social gospel4 ,but since he believed in an absolute renunciation of violence for all men1 ,tolstoy was an anarchist1 repudiating the state altogether4 ,biblical nonresistance declines to participate in the coercive activities of the state1 but nevertheless regards those as necessary for the maintenance of order in a sinful society1 and is not anarchistic4 ,but ,tolstoy found no place for the state in human society at all2 and due to his faith in the goodness of man he believed that eventually all coercion1 including domestic police1 would be done away4 ,mennonite ,qu4 ,rev41 ,,xvii1 #abi-acj4 ,,vii4 ,,active ,,goodwill ,,and ,,reconciliation ,the term resistance has occurred frequently in this study4 ,as has been pointed out1 this word has a negative quality1 and implies opposition to the will of another1 rather than an attempt to realize a positive policy4 ,the preceding section dealt with its counterpart1 non-resistance1 which has a neutral connotation1 and implies that the non-resister is not involved in the immediate struggle1 and that for him the refusal to inflict injury upon anyone is a higher value than the achievement of any policy of his own1 either positive or negative4 ,non-violent coercion1 ,satyagraha1 and non-violent direct action1 on the other hand1 are definitely positive in their approach4 ,each seeks to effectuate a specified change in the policy of the person or group responsible for a situation which those who organize the non-violent action believe to be undesirable4 ,however1 even in such action the negative quality may appear4 ,satyagraha1 for instance1 insofar as it is a movement of opposition or resistance to ,british rule in ,india is negative1 despite its positive objectives of establishing a certain type of government and economic system in that country4 ,the employment of active goodwill is another approach to the problem of bringing about desired social change4 ,its proponents seek to accomplish a positive alteration in the attitude and policy of the group or person responsible for some undesirable situation2 but they refuse to use coercion--even non-violent coercion4 ,rather they endeavor to convince their opponent that it would be desirable to change his policy because the change would be in his own best interest1 or would actually maintain his own real standard of values4 ,many of those who would reject all coercion of an opponent practice such positive goodwill towards him1 not because they are convinced that their action will accomplish the social purposes which they would like to achieve1 but rather because they place such an attitude toward their fellowmen as their highest value4 ,they insist that they would act in the same way regardless of the consequences of their action1 either to the person towards whom they practice goodwill or to themselves4 ,they act on the basis of principle rather than on the basis of expediency4 ,in this regard they are like many of the practitioners of other methods of non-violence2 but unlike them they place their emphasis on the positive action of goodwill which they will use1 rather than upon a catalogue of violent actions which they will not use4 ,to those who practice the method of goodwill all types of education and persuasion are available4 ,in the past they have used the printed and spoken word1 and under favorable circumstances even political action4 ,they hope to appeal to that of ,god in every man1 to bring about genuine repentance on the part of those who have been responsible for evil4 ,if direct persuasion is not effective1 they hope that their exhibition of love towards him whom others under the same circumstances would regard as an enemy may appeal to an aspect of his nature which is temporarily submerged1 and result in a change of attitude on his part4 ,if it does not1 these advocates of goodwill are ready to suffer the consequences of their action1 even to the point of death4 ,action in the ,face of ,persecution ,the practice of positive goodwill is open to the individual as well as to the group4 ,since he does what he believes to be right regardless of the consequences1 he will act before there are enough who share his opinion to create any chance of victory over the well organized forces of the state or other institutions which are responsible for evil4 ,the history of the martyrs of all ages presents us with innumerable examples of men who have acted in this way4 ,socrates is of their number1 as well as the early ,christians who insisted upon practicing their religion despite the edicts of the ,roman empire4 ,jesus himself is the outstanding example of one who was willing to die rather than to surrender principle4 ,it cannot be said of these martyrs that they acted in order to bring about reforms in society4 ,they suffered because under the compulsion of their faith they could act in no other way1 and at the time of their deaths it always looked as though they had been defeated4 ,but in the end their sacrifices had unsought results4 ,the proof of their effectiveness is declared in the old adage that the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church4 ,if we seek examples from relatively recent times1 we may find them in the annals of many of the pacifist sects of our own day4 ,robert ,barclay1 the ,quaker apologist of the late seventeenth century1 stated the position which the members of the ,society of ,friends so often put to the test3 ,but the true1 faithful and ,christian suffering is for men to profess what they are persuaded is right1 and so practise and perform their worship towards ,god1 as being their true right so to do2 and neither to do more than that1 because of outward encouragement from men2 nor any whit less1 because of the fear of their laws and acts against it4#aab ,the early ,quakers suffered severely under the laws of ,england in a day when religious toleration was virtually unheard of4 ,george ,fox himself had sixty encounters with magistrates and was imprisoned on eight occasions2 yet he was not diverted from his task of preaching truth4 ,it has been estimated that #ae1jjj ,quakers suffered under the various religious acts of the ,restoration4#aac ,but they continued to hold the principles which had been stated by twelve of their leaders1 including ,fox1 to ,king ,charles shortly after his return to ,england3 ,our principle is1 and our practice always has been1 to seek peace and ensue it2 to follow after righteousness and the knowledge of ,god2 seeking the good and welfare1 and doing that which tends to the peace of all4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when we have been wronged1 we have not sought to revenge ourselves2 we have not made resistance against authority2 but whenever we could not obey for conscience sake1 we have suffered the most of any people in the nation4444#aad ,these sufferings did not go unheeded4 ,even the wordly ,samuel ,pepys wrote in his diary concerning ,quakers on their way to prison3 ,they go like lambs without any resistance ,i would to ,god they would either conform or be more wise and not be catched4#aae ,in ,massachusetts1 where the ,puritans hoped to establish the true garden of the ,lord1 the lot of the ,quakers was even more severe4 ,despite warnings and imprisonments1 ,friends kept encroaching upon the ,puritan preserve until the ,massachusetts zealots1 in their desperation over the failure of the gentler means of quenching ,quaker ardor1 condemned and executed three men and a woman4 ,even ,charles ,,ii was revolted by such extreme measures1 and ordered the colony to desist4 ,after a long struggle the ,quakers1 along with other advocates of liberty of conscience1 won their struggle for religious liberty even in ,massachusetts4 ,there can be little doubt that their sufferings played an important part in the establishment of religious liberty as an ,american principle4#aaf ,in our own day the conscientious objector to military service1 whatever his motivation and philosophy1 faces a social situation very similar to that which confronted these early supporters of a new faith4 ,for the moment there is little chance that his insistence upon following the highest values which his conscience recognizes will bring an end to war1 because there are not enough others who share his convictions4 ,he takes his individual stand without regard for outward consequences to himself1 because his conviction leaves him no other alternative4 ,but even though his sufferings do not at once make possible the universal practice of goodwill towards all men1 they may in the end have the result of helping to banish war from the world4 ,,footnotes3 #aab ,robert ,barclay1 ,an ,apology for the ,true ,christian ,divinity2 being an ,explanation and ,vindication of the ,principles and ,doctrines of the ,people ,called ,quakers 7,philadelphia3 ,friends' ,book ,store1 #aijh71 ,proposition ,,xiv1 ,section ,,vi1 #dhj4 #aac ,a4 ,ruth ,fry1 ,quaker ,ways3 ,an ,attempt to ,explain ,quaker ,beliefs and ,practices and to ,illustrate them by the ,lives and ,activities of ,friends of ,former ,days 7,london3 ,cassell1 #aicc71 #abf1 #aca4 #aad ,quoted by ,margaret ,e4 ,hirst1 ,the ,quakers in ,peace and ,war3 an ,account of ,their ,peace ,principles and ,practice 7,new ,york3 ,george ,h4 ,doran1 #aibc71 #aae-aaf4 #aae ,quoted in ,fry1 ,quaker ,ways1 #abh-abi4 #aaf ,hirst1 #cbg2 ,rufus ,m4 ,jones1 ,the ,quakers in the ,american ,colonies 7,london3 ,macmillan1 #aibc71 #c-ace4 ,coercion or ,persuasion8 ,a man who is willing to undergo imprisonment and even death itself rather than to cease doing what he believes is right knows in his own heart that coercion is not an effective means of persuasion4 ,the early ,quakers saw this clearly4 ,barclay stated his conviction in these words3 ,this forcing of men's consciences is contrary to sound reason1 and the very law of nature4 ,for man's understanding cannot be forced by all the bodily sufferings another man can inflict upon him1 especially in matters spiritual and super-natural3 ',tis argument1 and evident demonstration of reason1 together with the power of ,god reaching the heart1 that can change a man's mind from one opinion to another1 and not knocks and blows1 and such like things1 which may well destroy the body1 but never can inform the soul1 which is a free agent1 and must either accept or reject matters of opinion as they are borne in upon it by something proportioned to its own nature4#aag ,and ,william ,penn said more simply1 ,gaols and gibbets are inadequate methods for conversion3 this forbids all further light to come into the world4#aah ,other religious groups who went through experiences comparable to those of the ,friends came to similar conclusions4 ,the ,church of the ,brethren1 founded in #agji in ,germany1 took as one of its leading principles that there shall be no force in religion1 and carried it out so faithfully that they would not baptize children1 on the ground that this act would coerce them into membership in the church before they could decide to join of their own free will4 ,the ,brethren have refused to take part in war not only because it is contrary to the spirit of ,christian love1 and destroys sacred human life1 but also because it is coercive and interferes with the free rights of others4#aai ,for the person who believes in the practice of positive goodwill towards all men1 the refusal to use coercion arises from its incompatibility with the spirit of positive regard for every member of the human family1 rather than being a separate value in itself4 ,in social situations this regard may express itself in various ways4 ,it may have a desirable result from the point of view of the practitioner1 but again we must emphasize that he does what he does on the basis of principle2 the result is a secondary consideration4 ,,footnotes3 #aag ,barclay1 ,apology1 ,prop4 ,,xiv1 ,sec4 ,,iv1 #dgj4 #aah ,fry1 ,quaker ,ways4 #ei-fj4 #aai ,d4 ,w4 ,kurtz1 ,ideals of the ,church of the ,brethren1 leaflet 7,elgin1 ,ill43 ,general ,mission ,board1 #aicd872 ,martin ,g4 ,brumbaugh in ,studies in the ,doctrine of ,peace 7,elgin1 ,ill43 ,board of ,christian ,education1 ,church of the ,brethren1 #aici71 #ef2 the statement of the ,goshen ,conference of #aiah and other statements of the position of the church in ,l4 ,w4 ,shultz 7ed471 ,minutes of the ,annual ,conference of the ,church of the ,brethren on ,war and ,peace1 mimeo 7,elgin3 ,bd4 of ,chr4 ,ed41 ,church of the ,brethren1 #aice72 and the pamphlet by ,robert ,henry ,miller1 ,the ,christian ,philosophy of ,peace 7,elgin3 ,bd4 of ,chr4 ,ed41 ,church of the ,brethren1 #aice74 ,ministering to ,groups in ,conflict ,one expression of this philosophy may be abstention from partisanship in conflicts between other groups1 in order to administer impartially to the human need of both parties to the conflict4 ,in this connection much has been made of the story of the ,irish ,quakers during the rebellion in that country in #agih4 ,before the conflict broke into open violence the ,quarterly ,meetings and the ,general ,national ,meeting recommended that all ,friends destroy all firearms in their possession so that there could be no suspicion of their implication in the coming struggle4 ,during the fighting in #agih the ,friends interceded with both sides in the interests of humanity1 entertained the destitute from both parties and treated the wounds of any man who needed care4 ,both the ,government forces and the rebels came to respect ,quaker integrity1 and in the midst of pillage and rapine the ,quaker households escaped unscathed4 ,but ,thomas ,hancock1 who told the story a few years later1 pointed out that in their course of conduct the ,friends had not sought safety4 ,it is1 he said1 to be presumed1 that1 even if outward preservation had not been experienced1 they who conscientiously take the maxims of ,peace for the rule of their conduct1 would hold it not less their duty to conform to those principles2 because the reward of such endeavor to act in obedience to their ,divine ,master's will is not always to be looked for in the present life4 ,while1 therefore1 the fact of their outward preservation would be no sufficient argument to themselves that they had acted as they ought to act in such a crisis1 it affords a striking lesson to those who will take no principle1 that has not been verified by experience1 for a rule of human conduct1 even if it should have the sanction of ,divine authority4#abj ,it is in this same spirit that various pacifist groups undertook the work of relief of suffering after the ,first ,world ,war in friendly and enemy countries alike1 ministering to human need without distinction of party1 race or creed4 ,the stories of the work of the ,american ,friends ,service ,committee and the ,service ,civil founded by ,pierre ,ceresole are too well known to need repeating here4#aba ,it should not be overlooked that in this same spirit the ,brethren and the ,mennonites also carried on large scale relief projects during the interwar years4 ,,footnotes3 #abj ,thomas ,hancock1 ,the ,principles of ,peace ,exemplified in the ,conduct of the ,society of ,friends in ,ireland ,during the ,rebellion of the year #agih1 with some ,preliminary and ,concluding ,observations 7#bnd ed41 ,london1 #ahbf71 #bh-bi4 ,all the important features of the story are summarized in ,hirst1 #baf-bbd4 #aba ,lester ,m4 ,jones1 ,quakers in ,action3 ,recent ,humanitarian and ,reform ,activities of the ,american ,quakers 7,new ,york3 ,macmillan1 #aibi72 ,rufus ,m4 ,jones1 ,a ,service of ,love in ,war ,time 7,new ,york3 ,macmillan1 #aibj72 ,mary ,hoxie ,jones1 ,swords into ,plowshares3 ,an ,account of the ,american ,friends ,service ,committee #aiag-aicg 7,new ,york3 ,macmillan1 #aicg72 ,willis ,h4 ,hall1 ,quaker ,international ,work in ,europe ,since #aiad 7,chambery1 ,savoie1 ,france3 ,imprimeries ,reunies1 #aich74 ,on ,service ,civil1 see ,lilian ,stevenson1 ,towards a ,christian ,international1 ,the ,story of the ,international ,fellowship of ,reconciliation 7,vienna3 ,international ,fellowship of ,reconciliation1 #aibi71 #bg-ca1 and ,alan ,a4 ,hunter1 ,white ,corpuscles in ,europe 7,chicago3 ,willett1 ,clark1 #aici71 #cc-db4 ,the ,power of ,example ,a social group that acts consistently in accordance with the principles of active goodwill also exerts great influence through the force of its example4 ,a study of the ,quaker activities in behalf of social welfare was published in ,germany just before the ,first ,world ,war1 by ,auguste ,jorns4 ,she shows how1 in relief of the poor1 education1 temperance1 public health1 the care of the insane1 prison reform1 and the abolition of slavery1 the ,quakers set about to solve the problem within their own society1 but never in an exclusive way1 so that others as well as members might receive the benefits of ,quaker enterprises4 ,quaker methods became well known1 and in time served as models for similar undertakings by other philanthropic groups and public agencies4 ,many modern social work procedures thus had their origins in the work of the ,friends in a relatively small circle4#abb ,,footnote3 #abb ,auguste ,jorns1 ,the ,quakers as ,pioneers in ,social ,work1 trans4 by ,thomas ,kite ,brown 7,new ,york3 ,macmillan1 #aica74 ,work for ,social ,reform ,the activity of ,quakers in the abolition of slavery both in ,england and ,america1 especially the life-long work of ,john ,woolman in the colonies1 is well known4 ,here too1 the first concerned ,friends attempted to bring to an end the practice of holding slaves within the ,society itself4 ,when they had succeeded in eliminating it from their own ranks1 they could1 with a clear conscience1 suggest that their neighbors follow their example4 ,when the time came1 ,quakers were willing to take part in political action to eradicate the evil4 ,the compensated emancipation of the slaves in the ,british ,empire in #ahcc proved that the reform could be accomplished without the violent repercussions which followed in the ,united ,states4#abc ,horace ,g4 ,alexander has pointed out that the person who voluntarily surrenders privilege1 as the ,american ,quakers did in giving up their slaves1 not only serves as a witness to the falsehood of privilege1 but can never rest until reform is achieved4 ,the very fact1 he says1 that he feels a loyalty to the oppressors as well as to the oppressed means that he can never rest until the oppressors have been converted4 ,it is not their destruction that he wants1 but a change in their hearts4#abd ,such an attitude is based upon a faith in the perfectibility of man and the possibility of the regeneration of society4 ,it leads from a desire to live one's own life according to high principles to a desire to establish similar principles in human institutions4 ,it rejects the thesis of ,reinhold ,niebuhr that social groups can never live according to the same moral codes as individuals1 and also the belief of such groups as the ,mennonites that1 since the world is necessarily evil1 the precepts of high religion apply only to those who have accepted the ,christian way of life4 ,instead1 the conviction of those who hold this ideal that it is social as well as individual in its application leads them into the pathways of social reform1 and even into political action4 ,,footnotes3 #abc ,henry ,j4 ,cadbury1 ,colonial ,quaker ,antecedents to ,british ,abolition of ,slavery1 ,an address to the ,friends' ,historical ,society1 ,march #aicc 7,london3 ,friends ,committee on ,slavery and ,protection of ,native ,races1 #aicc71 reprinted from ,the ,friends' ,quarterly ,examiner1 ,july1 #aicc2 ,jorns1 #aig-bcc4 #abd ,horace ,g4 ,alexander in ,heard1 et al41 ,the ,new ,pacifism1 #ic4 ,political ,action and ,compromise ,the ,quakers1 for instance1 have been noted for their participation in all sorts of reform movements4 ,since every reform in one sense involves opposition to some existing institution1 ,clarence ,case has been led to call the ,quakers non-physical resistants2#abe but since their real objective was usually the establishment of a new institution rather than the mere destruction of an old one1 they might better be called non-violent advocates4 ,they were willing to advocate their reforms in the public forum and the political arena4 ,since1 as ,rufus ,jones has pointed out1 such action might yield to the temptation to compromise with men of lesser ideals1 there has always been an element in the ,society of ,friends which insisted that the ideal must be served in its entirety1 even to the extent of giving up public office and influence rather than to compromise4#abf ,in ,pennsylvania the ,quakers withdrew from the legislature when it became necessary in the existing political situation to vote support of the ,french and ,indian war1 but they did so not because they did not believe in political action1 in which up to that moment they had taken part willingly enough1 but rather because under the circumstances of the moment it was impossible to realize their ideals by that means4#abg ,ruth ,fry1 in discussing the uncompromising attitude of the ,friends on the issue of slavery1 has well described the process of ,quaker reform3 ,one cannot help feeling that this strong stand for the ultimate right was far more responsible for success than the more timid one1 and should encourage such action in other great causes4 ,in fact1 the ideal ,quaker method would seem to be patient waiting for enlightenment on the underlying principle1 which when seen is so absolutely clear and convincing that no outer difficulties or suffering can affect it3 its full implications gradually appear1 and its ultimate triumph can never be doubted4 ,any advance towards it1 may be accepted as a stepping stone1 although only methods consistent with ,quaker ideals may be used to gain the desired end4 ,doing anything tinged with evil1 that good may come1 is entirely contrary to their ideas4#abh ,she goes on to say1 ,as ever1 the exact line of demarcation between methods aggressive enough to arouse the indolent and those beyond the bounds of ,quaker propriety was indeed difficult to draw4#abi ,in such a statement we find a conception of compromise which is different from that usually encountered4 ,in it the advocate of the ideal says that for the time being he will accept less than his ultimate goal1 provided the change is in the direction in which he desires to move1 but he will not accept the slightest compromise which would move away from his goal4 ,,footnotes3 #abe ,case1 ,non-,violent ,coercion1 #ib-ic4 #abf ,rufus ,m4 ,jones1 ,the ,quakers in the ,american ,colonies1 #age-agf4 #abg ,jones1 ,quakers in the ,colonies1 #dei-did2 ,isaac ,sharpless1 ,a ,quaker ,experiment in ,government 7,philadelphia3 ,alfred ,j4 ,ferris1 #ahih71 #bbf-bgf4 #abh ,fry1 ,quaker ,ways1 #aga-agb4 #abi ,ibid41 #agg4 ,the ,third ,alternative ,the logical pursuit of such a principle leads even further than the type of compromise which ,ruth ,fry has described1 to the establishment of a new basis of understanding which may not include any of the principles for which the parties in conflict may have been striving1 and yet which brings about reconciliation4 ,eric ,heyman1 speaking in religious terms1 has said of this process of discovering a new basis of understanding through the exercise of positive goodwill1 even toward an oppressor3 ,that is the way of ,god1 and it is therefore the way of our discipleship as reconcilers2 the way of non-resistance to evil1 of the total acceptance of the consequences of evil in all their lurid destructiveness1 in order that the evil doer may be reconciled to ,god4444 ,the whole consequences of his presence1 whether small or great must be accepted with the single realisation that the whole process of the world's redemption rests upon the relationship which the ,christian is able to create between himself and his oppressor4 ,this course has nothing in common with resistance2 it is the opposite of surrender1 for its whole purpose and motive is the triumphing over evil by acceptance of all that it brings4444 ,the resistance of evil1 whether by way of violence or 'non-violence' is the way of this world4 ,resignation to evil is the way of weak surrender1 and yields only a powerless resentment2 at its best it is non-moral1 at the worst sheerly immoral4 ,acceptance of evil is the triumphant answer of the redeemer4 ,in the moment of his acceptance he knows of a certainty that he has overcome the world4#acj ,this process of finding a new basis of relationship has been called a third alternative1 which produces no majority rule and no defeated minority4#aca ,the ,quakers have long used this method in arriving at decisions within their own meetings4 ,they refuse to make motions and take votes which produce clearcut divisions within the group1 but insist that no action shall be taken until all divergent points of view have been expressed1 and a statement drawn up which embodies the sense of the meeting and is acceptable to all4 ,as ,elton ,trueblood has said1 ,the overpowering of a minority by calling for a vote is a kind of force1 and breeds the resentment which keeps the method of force from achieving ultimate success with persons4#acb ,douglas ,steere has described the process in these words3 ,this unshakable faith in the way of vital1 mutual interaction by conciliatory conference is held to be applicable to international and interracial conflict as it is to that between workers and employer1 or between man and wife4 ,but it is not content to stop there4 ,it would defy all fears and bring into the tense process of arriving at this joint decision a kind of patience and a quiet confidence which believes1 not that there is no other way1 but that there is a 'third-alternative' which will annihilate neither party4#acc ,m4 ,p4 ,follett1 twenty years ago1 wrote a book entitled ,creative ,experience1 in which she supported this same conclusion on the basis of scientific knowledge about the nature of man1 society and politics4 ,speaking of the democratic process she said3 ,we have the will of the people ideally when all desires are satisfied4444 ,the aim of democracy should be integrating desires4 ,i have said that truth emerges from difference4 ,in the ballot-box there is no confronting of difference1 hence no possibility of integrating1 hence no creating2 self-government is a creative process and nothing else4444 ,democracy does not register various opinions2 it is an attempt to create unity4#acd ,it might be said that in so far as democracy has succeeded1 it has done so because of its adherence to this principle4 ,the division of a society into groups which are unremittingly committed to struggle against each other1 whether by violent or non-violent means1 until one or the other has been annihilated or forced to yield outwardly to its oppressors for the time being1 will inevitably destroy the loyalty to a common purpose through which alone democracy can exist4 ,the contrast between the ,british and ,american attitudes toward the abolition of slavery presents us with a case in point4 ,in ,great ,britain1 the ,emancipation ,act contained provisions for the compensation of the slave owners1 so that it became acceptable to them4 ,in the ,united ,states the advocates of abolition insisted that since slavery was sin there could be no recognition of the rights of the owners4 ,elihu ,burritt and his ,league of ,universal ,brotherhood were as much opposed to slavery as the most ardent abolitionists1 yet of the ,league ,burritt declared3 ,it will not only aim at the mutual pacification of enemies1 but at their conversion into brethren4#ace ,burritt became the chief advocate of compensated emancipation in the ,united ,states4 ,finally the idea was suggested in the ,senate and hearings had been arranged on the measure4 ,but1 ,burritt said1 just as it had reached that stage at which ,congressional action was about to recognize it as a legitimate proposition1 ',john ,brown's raid' suddenly closed the door against all overtures or efforts for the peaceful extinction of slavery4 ,its extinction by compensated emancipation would have recognized the moral complicity of the whole nation in planting and perpetuating it on this continent4 ,it would have been an act of repentance1 and the meetest work for repentance the nation could perform4#acf ,the country was already too divided to strive for this third alternative1 and1 whether or not slavery was one of the prime causes of the ,civil ,war1 it made its contribution to creating the feeling which brought on the conflict4 ,in the light of the present intensity of racial feeling in the ,united ,states1 it can hardly be said that the enforced settlement of the war gave the ,negro an equal place in ,american society or eliminated conflict between the races4 ,one of the virtues of the method of reconciliation of views in seeking the third alternative is that it can be practiced by the individual or a very small group as well as on the national or international scale4 ,james ,myers has described its use within the local community in the informal conference4 ,in such a conference1 the person or group desiring to create better understanding or to eliminate conflict between elements of the community calls together1 without any publicity1 representatives of various interests for a discussion of points of view1 with the understanding that there will be no attempt to reach conclusions or arrive at any official decisions4 ,james ,myers' experience has indicated that the conferences create an appreciation of the reasons for former divergence of opinion1 and a realization of the possibilities of new bases of relationship which have often resulted in easing tensions within the community and in the solution of racial1 economic and social conflicts4#acg ,even on the international level1 individuals may make some contribution toward the elimination of conflicts1 although1 in the face of the present emphasis upon nationalism1 and the lack of common international values to which appeal may be made1 their labors are not apt to be crowned with success4 ,as in all the cases which we have been considering1 however1 concerned individuals and groups may act in this field because they feel a compulsion to do so1 regardless of whether or not their actions are likely to be successful in producing the desired result of reconciliation1 and the discovery of the third alternative4#ach ,,footnotes3 #acj ,eric ,heyman1 ,the ,pacifist ,dilemma 7,banbury1 ,england3 ,friends' ,peace ,committee1 #aida71 #aa-ab4 #aca ,carl ,heath1 ,the ,third ,alternative in ,heard1 et al41 ,the ,new ,pacifism1 #ajb4 #acb ,d4 ,elton ,trueblood1 ,the ,quaker ,method of ,reaching ,decisions in ,laughlin1 ,beyond ,dilemmas1 #aai4 #acc ,douglas ,v4 ,steere1 ,introduction to ,laughlin1 ,beyond ,dilemmas1 #ah4 #acd ,m4 ,p4 ,follett1 ,creative ,experience 7,new ,york3 ,longmans1 ,green1 #aibd71 #bji4 #ace ,quoted in ,allen1 ,fight for ,peace1 #dbh4 #acf ,quoted in ,ibid41 #dcg4 #acg ,james ,myers1 ,informal ,conferences a ,new ,technique ,in ,social ,education1 ,leaflet 7,new ,york3 ,federal ,council of ,churches of ,christ in ,america1 #aidc74 #ach ,see ,george ,lansbury1 ,my ,pilgrimage for ,peace 7,new ,york3 ,holt1 #aich72 ,bertram ,pickard1 ,pacifist ,diplomacy in ,conflict ,situations3 ,illustrated by the ,quaker ,international ,centers 7,philadelphia3 ,pacifist ,research ,bureau1 #aidc74 ,,viii4 ,,conclusions ,those who do not share the pacifist philosophy are prone to insist that the pacifists place far too much emphasis upon the refusal to employ physical force4 ,these critics maintain that force is non-moral in character1 and that the only moral question involved in its use is whether or not the purposes for which it is employed are good or bad4 ,they fail to realize that these concepts themselves arise from a subjective set of values1 different for every social group on the basis of its own tradition and for every individual on the basis of his own experience and training4 ,the absolute pacifist places at the very apex of his scale of values respect for every human personality so great that he cannot inflict injury on any human being regardless of the circumstances in which he finds himself4 ,he would rather himself suffer what he considers to be injustice1 or even see other innocent people suffer it1 than to arrogate to himself the right of sitting in judgment on his fellow men and deciding that they must be destroyed through his action4 ,for him to inflict injury or death upon any human being would be to commit the greatest iniquity of which he can conceive1 and would create within his own soul a sense of guilt so great that acceptance of any other evil would be preferable to it4 ,the person who acts on the basis of such a scale of values is not primarily concerned with the outward expediency of his action in turning the evil-doer into new ways1 although he is happy if his action does have incidental desirable results4 ,he acts as he does because of a deep conviction about the nature of the universe in which all men are brothers1 and in which every personality is sacred4 ,no logical argument to act otherwise can appeal to him unless it is based upon assumptions arising out of this conviction4 ,those who place their primary moral emphasis upon respect for human personality are led to hold many other values as well as their supreme value of refusing to use violence against their fellow men4 ,except in time of war1 when governments insist that their citizens take part in mass violence1 the absolute pacifist is apt to serve these other values1 which he shares with many non-pacifists1 without attracting the attention which distinguishes him from other men of goodwill4 ,he insists only that in serving these subsidiary values he must not act in any way inconsistent with his highest value4 ,many pacifists1 and all non-pacifists1 differ from the absolutists in that they place other values before this supreme respect for every human personality4 ,the pacifists who do so1 refuse to inflict injury on their fellows not because this is itself their highest value1 but because they believe other less objectionable methods are more effective for achieving their highest purposes1 or because they accept the argument that the means they use must be consistent with the ends they seek4 ,they would say that it is impossible to achieve universal human brotherhood by methods which destroy the basis for such brotherhood4 ,such persons assess non-violence as a tactic1 rather than accepting it as a value in itself4 ,john ,lewis comes to the conclusion that under certain circumstances violence is a more effective method4 ,gandhi believes in non-violence both as a principle and as the most effective means of achieving his purposes4 ,every individual who looks upon non-violence as only a means1 rather than as an end in itself1 will accept or reject it on the basis of his estimate of the expediency of non-violent methods4 ,some come to the conclusion that violence can never be effective and therefore refuse to use it under any circumstances2 others decide on each new occasion whether violence or non-violence will best serve their ends in that particular situation4 ,in such cases the question is one of fact2 the decision must be based upon the available evidence4 ,from the diversity of opinions that exist at the present time it is obvious that the social sciences are not yet ready to give an unequivocal answer to this question of fact4 ,since the values that men hold subjectively are themselves social facts which the scientist must take into account1 and since they vary from age to age1 community to community1 and individual to individual1 it may never be possible to find the final answer4 ,meanwhile the individual facing the necessity for action must answer the question for himself on the basis of the best information available to him4 ,even if he refuses to face the issue for himself and accepts the prevalent idea of our own day that violence is an effective means of achieving desirable purposes1 he has actually answered the question without giving thought to it4 ,the potential tragedy of our generation is that the whole world has been plunged into war on the basis of the prevalent assumption that violence is an effective means of achieving high social purposes4 ,even that part of the planning for peace that is based upon maintaining international order by force rests upon this same assumption4 ,if the assumption be false1 mankind has paid a terrible price for its mistake4 ,another assumption on which the advocates of violence act is that the use of physical force in a noble cause inevitably brings about the triumph of that cause4 ,history gives us no basis for such an assumption4 ,there is much evidence that force sometimes fails1 even when it is used on the right side4 ,although the sense of fighting in a righteous cause may improve the morale and thus increase the effectiveness of an army1 actually wars are won by the stronger side4 ,it is a curious fact that on occasion both opposing armies may feel that they are fighting on the side of righteousness4 ,napoleon summarized the soldier's point of view when he said that ,god was on the side of the largest battalions4 ,during the uncertain process of violent conflict1 the destruction of human life--innocent and guilty alike--goes on4 ,just as there is evidence that violence used in a righteous cause is not always successful1 there is evidence that non-violent methods sometimes succeed4 ,without attempting to give the final answer to the question whether violence creates so much destruction of human values that its apparent successes are only illusory1 we can say that the success or failure of both violence and non-violence is determined by the conditions under which both are used1 and attempt to discover the circumstances under which they have been effective4 7#a7 ,no great social movement can arise unless the grievance against the existing order is great and continuous1 or the demand for a new order is so deeply ingrained in the minds of the people in the movement that they are willing to expend great effort and undergo great sacrifices in order to bring about the desired change4 7#b7 ,the group devoted to the idea of change must be large enough to have an impact on the situation4 ,this is true whether the group desires to use violent or non-violent methods4 ,in any case there will be a balancing of forces between those desiring change and those who oppose it4 ,all of the non-violent techniques we have considered require sufficient numbers so that either their refusal of cooperation1 their participation in politics1 or their practice of positive goodwill has a significant effect upon the whole community4 7#c7 ,the group that has a strong desire to bring about social change may be augmented in strength by the support of other elements in the population who do not feel so strongly on the issue4 ,the less vigorous support of such neutrals may be the element that swings the balance in favor of the group desiring change4 ,this third party group may also remain indifferent to the conflict4 ,in that case the result will be determined solely by the relative strength of the direct participants4 ,in any case1 the group desiring change will be defeated if it alienates the members of the third party so that they join the other side4 ,this latter consideration gives a great advantage to the practitioners of non-violence1 since in our own day people generally are disposed to oppose violence1 or at least unlawful violence1 and to sympathize with the victims of violence1 especially if they do not fight back4 ,a definite commitment on the part of the reformers not to use violence may go far toward winning the initial support of the group neutral in the conflict4 7#d7 ,these conditions of success must be created through the use of education and persuasion prior to taking action4 ,the sense of grievance or the desire for social change must be developed in this way if it does not already exist4 ,even such a violent movement as the ,french ,revolution grew out of a change in the intellectual climate of ,france created by the writers of the preceding century4 ,only when a large enough group has been won over to the cause of reform by such an educational campaign can the second requisite for success be obtained4 ,finally1 much educational work must be done among the less interested third parties in order to predispose them to favor the changes advocated and to sympathize with the group taking part in the movement of reform4 ,the final result of any social conflict is determined by the balancing of forces involved4 ,violence itself can never succeed against a stronger adversary1 so those who desire to bring about social change or revolution by violence have to begin with the process of education to build a group large enough to overcome the violent forces which are likely to be arrayed against them4 ,even a violent revolution must be preceded by much non-violent educational preparation4 ,but even when the group using violence has become large enough to overcome the physical force arrayed against it1 its victory rests upon the coercion of its opponents rather than upon their conversion4 ,though defeated1 the opponents still entertain their old concepts and look forward to the day of retribution1 or to the counter-revolution4 ,a social order so established rests upon a very unstable foundation4 ,revolutionaries have attempted in such circumstances to liquidate all the opposition1 but it is doubtful that they have ever been completely successful in doing so4 ,the ruthless use of violence in the process of liquidation has usually alienated third parties against the regime that uses it1 and thus augmented the group that might support the counter-revolution4 ,advocates of non-violence must start in the same way as the violent revolutionaries to build their forces through persuasion and education4 ,they must assess properly the attitude of the third party and carry on educational work with this group until it is certain that it will not go over to the other side at the moment of action4 ,by the time a revolutionary or reforming group was large enough to use violence successfully1 and to weather the storm of the counter-revolution or reaction1 it would already have won to its side so large a portion of the community that it could probably succeed without the use of violence4 ,this would certainly be true in a country like the ,united ,states4 ,we must ask the question as to whether the energy consumed in the use of violence might not bring better results if it were expended upon additional education and persuasion1 without involving the destruction of human life1 human values1 and property which violence inevitably entails4 ,even most of the ardent advocates of war and violent revolution admit that violence is only an undesirable necessity for the achievement of desirable ends4 ,non-violent methods pursued with the same commitment and vigor would be just as likely to succeed in the immediate situation as violence1 without bringing in their train the tremendous human suffering attendant upon violence4 ,more important is the fact that a social order based upon consent is more stable than one based upon coercion4 ,if we are interested in the long range results of action1 non-violence is much more likely to bring about the new society than is violence1 because it fosters rather than destroys the sense of community upon which any new social order must be founded4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,advertisement ,,introduction ,,to ,,non-,,violence ,,publications ,,of ,,the ,,pacifist ,,research ,,bureau #a4 ,five ,foot ,shelf of ,pacifist ,literature #e;c #b4 ,the ,balance of ,power #be;c #c4 ,coercion of ,states3 ,in ,federal ,unions #be;c #d4 ,coercion of ,states ,in ,international ,organizations #be;c #e4 ,comparative ,peace ,plans9999 #be;c #f4 ,pacifist ,diplomacy in ,conflict ,situations #aj;c #g4 ,the ,political ,theories of ,modern ,pacifism #be;c #h4 ,introduction to ,non-,violence #be;c #i4 ,economics for ,peace99 #be;c #aj4 ,conscientious ,objectors in ,prison99 #be;c 99 ,in ,preparation 9999 ,out of ,print 99 99 99 99 99