----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,transcriber's ,note                    
,nine printer errors have been          
corrected1 all of them wrong or         
missing full-stops or commas4 ,also1 in 
the completion tests which      start at
 line #eigb1 the words to be omitted1   
which were italicised     in the        
original1 have instead been surrounded  
by curly brackets        to aid         
readability4  ,in all other cases1      
italics are denoted by                  
underscores and bold by equals signs4   
----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,teacher ,training ,series              
,,edited ,,by                           
,w4 ,w4 ,,charters       ,professor of  
,education1 ,carnegie ,institute of     
,technology                             
,,the ,,science ,,of                    
,,human ,,nature                        
,a ,,psychology ,,for ,,beginners       
,,by                                    

,,william ,,henry ,,pyle                
,,professor ,,of ,,educational          
,,psychology                            
,,university ,,of ,,missouri            
,,silver1 ,,burdett  ,,company          
,,boston  ,,new ,,york  ,,chicago       
,,copyright1 #aiag1                     
,,by ,,silver1 ,,burdett  ,,company4    
,,author',s ,,preface   ,this book is   
written for young students in high      
schools and normal schools4 ,no         
knowledge can be of more use to a young 
person than a knowledge of himself2 no  
study can be more valuable to him than a
 study of himself4 ,a study of the laws 
of human behavior1--that is the purpose 
of this book4  ,what is human nature    
like8 ,why do we act as we do8 ,how can 
we make ourselves different8 ,how can we
 make others different8 ,how can we make
 ourselves more efficient8 ,how can we  
make our lives more worth while8 ,this  
book is a manual intended to help young 
people to obtain such knowledge of human
 nature as will enable them to answer   

these questions4  ,i have not attempted 
to write a complete text on psychology4 
,there are already many such books1 and 
good ones too4 ,i have selected for     
treatment only such topics as young     
students can study with interest and    
profit4 ,i have tried to keep in mind   
all the time the practical worth of the 
matters discussed1 and the ability and  
experience of the intended readers4     
,,to ,,the ,,teacher  ,this book can be 
only a guide to you4 ,you are to help   
your students study human nature4 ,you  
must1 to some extent1 be a psychologist 
yourself before you can teach           
psychology4 ,you must yourself be a     
close and scientific student of human   
nature4 ,develop in the students the    
spirit of inquiry and investigation4    
,teach them to look to their own minds  
and their neighbor's actions for        
verification of the statements of the   
text4 ,let the students solve by        
observation and experiment the questions
 and problems raised in the text and the

 exercises4 ,the exercises should prove 
to be the most valuable part of the     
book4 ,the first two chapters are the   
most difficult but ought to be read     
before the rest of the book is studied4 
,if you think best1 merely read these   
two chapters with the pupils1 and after 
the book is finished come back to them  
for careful study4  ,in the references1 
,i have given parallel readings1 for the
 most part to ,titchener1 ,pillsbury1   
and ,muensterberg4 ,i have purposely    
limited the references1 partly because a
 library will not be available to many  
who may use the book1 and partly because
 the young student is likely to be      
confused by much reading from different 
sources before he has worked out some   
sort of system and a point of view of   
his own4 ,only the most capable members 
of a high school class will be able to  
profit much from the references given4  
,,to ,,the ,,student  ,you are beginning
 the study of human nature4 ,you can not
 study human nature from a book1 you    

must study yourself and your neighbors4 
,this book may help you to know what to 
look for and to understand what you     
find1 but it can do little more than    
this4 ,it is true1 this text gives you  
many facts learned by psychologists1 but
 you must verify the statements1 or at  
least see their significance to you1 or 
they will be of no worth to you4        
,however1 the facts considered here1    
properly understood and assimilated1    
ought to prove of great value to you4   
,but perhaps of greater value will be   
the psychological frame of mind or      
attitude which you should acquire4 ,the 
psychological attitude is that of       
seeking to find and understand the      
causes of human action1 and the causes1 
consequences1 and significance of the   
processes of the human mind4 ,if your   
first course in psychology teaches you  
to look for these things1 gives you some
 skill in finding them and in using the 
knowledge after you have it1 your study 
should be quite worth while4  ,w4 ,h4   

,,pyle4     ,,editor',s ,,preface       
,there are at least two possible        
approaches to the study of psychology by
 teacher-training students in high      
schools and by beginning students in    
normal schools4  ,one of these is       
through methods of teaching and subject 
matter4 ,the other aims to give the     
simple1 concrete facts of psychology as 
the science of the mind4 ,the former    
presupposes a close relationship between
 psychology and methods of teaching and 
assumes that psychology is studied      
chiefly as an aid to teaching4 ,the     
latter is less complicated4 ,the plan   
contemplates the teaching of the simple 
fundamentals at first and applying them 
incidentally as the occasion demands4   
,this latter point of view is in the    
main the point of view taken in the     
text4  ,the author has taught the       
material of the text to high school     
students to the end that he might       
present the fundamental facts of        
psychology in simple form4  ,w4 ,w4 ,c4 

,,contents                              
,,page    ,,chapter    ,i4              
,,introduction                          
#a    ,,chapter   ,,ii4 ,,development   
,,of ,,the ,,race ,,and ,,of ,,the      
,,individual    #ah    ,,chapter  ,,iii4
 ,,mind ,,and ,,body                    
#cd    ,,chapter   ,,iv4 ,,inherited    
,,tendencies                            
#ej    ,,chapter    ,v4 ,,feeling ,,and 
,,attention                             
#gc    ,,chapter   ,,vi4 ,,habit        
#hg    ,,chapter  ,,vii4 ,,memory       
#abd    ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,thinking    
#aeb    ,,chapter   ,,ix4 ,,individual  
,,differences                           
#agf    ,,chapter    ,x4 ,,applied      
,,psychology                            
#baj    ,,glossary                      
#bbc    ,,index                         
#bbg     ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,human   
,,nature     ,,chapter ,i               
,,introduction   ,science4 ,before      
attempting to define psychology1 it will
 be helpful to make some inquiry into   

the nature of science in general4       
,science is knowledge2 it is what we    
know4 ,but mere knowledge is not        
science4 ,for a bit of knowledge to     
become a part of science1 its relation  
to other bits of knowledge must be      
found4 ,in botany1 for example1 bits of 
knowledge about plants do not make a    
science of botany4 ,to have a science of
 botany1 we must not only know about    
leaves1 roots1 flowers1 seeds1 etc41 but
 we must know the relations of these    
parts and of all the parts of a plant to
 one another4 ,in other words1 in       
science1 we must not only know1 we must 
not only have knowledge1 but we must    
know the significance of the knowledge1 
must know its meaning4 ,this is only    
another way of saying that we must have 
knowledge and know its relation to other
 knowledge4  ,a scientist is one who has
 learned to organize his knowledge4 ,the
 main difference between a scientist and
 one who is not a scientist is that the 
scientist sees the significance of      

facts1 while the non-scientific man sees
 facts as more or less unrelated things4
 ,as one comes to hunt for causes and   
inquire into the significance of things1
 one becomes a scientist4 ,a thing or an
 event always points beyond itself to   
something else4 ,this something else is 
what goes before it or comes after      
it1--is its cause or its effect4 ,this  
causal relationship that exists between 
events enables a scientist to prophesy4 
,by carefully determining what always   
precedes a certain event1 a certain type
 of happening1 a scientist is able to   
predict the event4 ,all that is         
necessary to be able to predict an event
 is to have a clear knowledge of its    
true causes4 ,whenever1 beyond any      
doubt1 these causes are found to be     
present1 the scientist knows the event  
will follow4 ,of course1 all that he    
really knows is that such results have  
always followed similar causes in the   
past4 ,but he has come to have faith in 
the uniformity and regularity of nature4

 ,the chemist does not find sulphur1 or 
oxygen1 or any other element acting one 
way one day under a certain set of      
conditions1 and acting another way the  
next day under exactly the same         
conditions4 ,nor does the physicist find
 the laws of mechanics holding good one 
day and not the next4  ,the scientist1  
therefore1 in his thinking brings order 
out of chaos in the world4 ,if we do not
 know the causes and relations of things
 and events1 the world seems a very     
mixed-up1 chaotic place1 where anything 
and everything is happening4 ,but as we 
come to know causes and relations1 the  
world turns out to be a very orderly and
 systematic place4 ,it is a lawful      
world2 it is not a world of chance4     
,everything is related to everything    
else4  ,now1 the non-scientific mind    
sees things as more or less unrelated4  
,the far-reaching causal relations are  
only imperfectly seen by it1 while the  
scientific mind not only sees things1   
but inquires into their causes and      

effects or consequences4 ,the           
non-scientific man1 walking over the top
 of a mountain and noticing a stone     
there1 is likely to see in it only a    
stone and think nothing of how it came  
to be there2 but the scientific man sees
 quite an interesting bit of history in 
the stone4 ,he reads in the stone that  
millions of years ago the place where   
the rock now lies was under the sea4    
,many marine animals left their remains 
in the mud underneath the sea4 ,the mud 
was afterward converted into rock4      
,later1 the shrinking and warping       
earth-crust lifted the rock far above   
the level of the sea1 and it may now be 
found at the top of the mountain4 ,the  
one bit of rock tells its story to one  
who inquires into its causes4 ,the      
scientific man1 then1 sees more         
significance1 more meaning1 in things   
and events than does the non-scientific 
man4  ,each science has its own         
particular field4 ,zooelogy undertakes  
to answer every reasonable question     

about animals2 botany1 about plants2    
physics1 about motion and forces2       
chemistry1 about the composition of     
matter2 astronomy1 about the heavenly   
bodies1 etc4 ,the world has many        
aspects4 ,each science undertakes to    
describe and explain some particular    
aspect4 ,to understand all the aspects  
of the world1 we must study all the     
sciences4  ,a ,scientific ,law4 ,by law 
a scientist has reference to            
uniformities which he notices in things 
and events4 ,he does not mean that      
necessities are imposed upon things as  
civil law is imposed upon man4 ,he means
 only that in certain well-defined      
situations certain events always take   
place1 according to all previous        
observations4 ,the ,law of ,falling     
,bodies may be cited as an example4 ,by 
this law1 the physicist means that in   
observing falling bodies in the past1 he
 has noticed that they fall about       
sixteen feet in the first second and    
acquire in this time a velocity of      

thirty-two feet4 ,he has noted that1    
taking into account the specific gravity
 of the object and the resistance of the
 air1 this way of falling holds true of 
all objects at about the level of the   
sea4  ,the more we carefully study the  
events of the world1 the more strongly  
we come to feel that definite causes1   
under the same circumstances1 always    
produce precisely the same result4 ,the 
scientist has faith that events will    
continue to happen during all the future
 in the same order of cause and effect  
in which they have been happening during
 all the past4  ,the astronomer1 knowing
 the relations of the members of the    
solar system--the sun and planets--can  
successfully predict the occurrence of  
lunar and solar eclipses4 ,in other     
fields1 too1 the scientist can predict  
with as much certainty as does the      
astronomer1 provided his knowledge of   
the factors concerned is as complete as 
is the knowledge which the astronomer   
has of the solar system4 ,even in the   

case of human beings1 uncertain as their
 actions seem to be1 we can predict     
their actions when our knowledge of the 
factors is sufficiently complete4 ,in a 
great many instances we do make such    
predictions4 ,for example1 if we call a 
person by name1 we expect him to turn1  
or make some other movement in response4
 ,our usual inability to make such      
predictions in the case of human beings 
is not because human beings are not     
subject to the law of cause and effect1 
it is not that their acts are due to    
chance1 but that the factors involved   
are usually many1 and it is difficult   
for us to find out all of them4  ,the   
,science of ,psychology4 ,now1 let us   
ask1 what is the science of psychology8 
,what kind of problems does it try to   
solve8 ,what aspect of the world has it 
taken for its field of investigation8   
,we have said that each science         
undertakes to describe some particular  
aspect of the world4 ,human psychology  
is the science of human nature4 ,but    

human nature has many aspects4 ,to some 
extent1 our bodies are the subject      
matter for physiology1 anatomy1         
zooelogy1 physics1 and chemistry4 ,our  
bodies may be studied in the same way   
that a rock or a table might be studied4
 ,but a human being presents certain    
problems that a rock or table does not  
present4 ,if we consider the differences
 between a human being and a table1 we  
shall see at once the special field of  
psychology4 ,if we stick a pin into a   
leg of the table1 we get no response4   
,if we stick a pin into a leg of a man1 
we get a characteristic response4 ,the  
man moves1 he cries out4 ,this shows two
 very great differences between a man   
and a table4 ,the man is sensitive and  
has the power of action1 the power of   
moving himself4 ,the table is not       
sensitive1 nor can it move itself4 ,if  
the pin is thrust into one's own leg1   
one has pain4 ,human beings1 then1 are  
sensitive1 conscious1 acting beings4    
,and the study of sensitivity1 action1  

and consciousness is the field of       
psychology4 ,these three characteristics
 are not peculiar to man4 ,many1 perhaps
 all1 animals possess them4 ,there is1  
therefore1 an animal psychology as well 
as human psychology4  ,a study of the   
human body shows us that the            
body-surface and many parts within the  
body are filled with sensitive          
nerve-ends4 ,these sensitive nerve-ends 
are the sense organs1 and on them the   
substances and forces of the world are  
constantly acting4 ,in the sense organs1
 the nerve-ends are so modified or      
changed as to be affected by some       
particular kind of force or substance4  
,vibrations of ether affect the eye4    
,vibrations of air affect the ear4      
,liquids and solutions affect the sense 
of taste4 ,certain substances affect the
 sense of smell4 ,certain organs in the 
skin are affected by low temperatures2  
others1 by high temperatures2 others1 by
 mechanical pressure4 ,similarly1 each  
sense organ in the body is affected by a

 definite kind of force or substance4   
,this affecting of a sense organ is     
known technically as stimulation1 and   
that which affects the organ is known as
 the stimulus4  ,two important          
consequences ordinarily follow the      
stimulation of a sense organ4 ,one of   
these is movement4 ,the purpose of      
stimulation is to bring about movement4 
,to be alive is to respond to           
stimulation4 ,when one ceases to respond
 to stimulation1 he is dead4 ,if we are 
to continue alive1 we must constantly   
adjust ourselves to the forces of the   
world in which we live4 ,generally      
speaking1 we may say that every nerve   
has one end in a sense organ and the    
other in a muscle4 ,this arrangement of 
the nerves and muscles shows that man is
 essentially a sensitive-action machine4
 ,the problems connected with           
sensitivity and action and the relation 
of each to the other constitute a large 
part of the field of psychology4  ,we   
said just now1 that a nerve begins in a 

sense organ and ends in a muscle4 ,this 
statement represents the general scheme 
well enough1 but leaves out an important
 detail4 ,the nerve does not extend     
directly to a muscle1 but ordinarily    
goes by way of the brain4 ,the brain is 
merely a great group of nerve cells and 
fibers which have developed as a central
 organ where a stimulation may pass from
 almost any sense organ to almost any   
muscle4  ,but another importance        
attaches to the brain4 ,when a sense    
organ is stimulated and this stimulation
 passes on to the brain and agitates a  
cell or group of cells there1 we are    
conscious4 ,consciousness shifts and    
changes with every shift and change of  
the stimulation4  ,the brain has still  
another important characteristic4 ,after
 it has been stimulated through sense   
organ and nerve1 a similar brain        
activity can be revived later1 and this 
revival is the basis of memory4 ,when   
the brain is agitated through the medium
 of a sense organ1 we have sensation2   

when this agitation is revived later1 we
 have a memory idea4 ,a study of        
consciousness1 or mind1 the conditions  
under which it arises1 and all the other
 problems involved1 give us the other   
part of the field of psychology4  ,we   
are not merely acting beings2 we are    
conscious acting beings4 ,psychology    
must study human nature from both points
 of view4 ,we must study man not only   
from the outside2 that is1 objectively1 
in the same way that we study a stone or
 a tree or a frog1 but we must study him
 from the inside or subjectively4 ,it is
 of importance to know not only how a   
man acts1 but also how he thinks and    
feels4  ,it must be clear now1 that     
human action1 human behavior1 is the    
main field of psychology4 ,for1 even    
though our main interests in people were
 in their minds1 we could learn of the  
minds only through the actions4 ,but our
 interests in other human beings are not
 in their minds but in what they do4 ,it
 is true that our interest in ourselves 

is in our minds1 and we can know these  
minds directly2 but we cannot know      
directly the mind of another person1 we 
can only guess what it is from the      
person's actions4  ,the ,problems of    
,psychology4 ,let us now see1 in some   
detail1 what the various problems of    
psychology are4 ,if we are to understand
 human nature1 we must know something of
 man's past2 we must therefore treat of 
the origin and development of the human 
race4 ,the relation of one generation to
 that preceding and to the one following
 makes necessary a study of heredity4   
,we must find out how our thoughts1     
feelings1 sensations1 and ideas are     
dependent upon a physical body and its  
organs4 ,a study of human actions shows 
that some actions are unlearned while   
others are learned or acquired4 ,the    
unlearned acts are known as instincts   
and the acquired acts are known as      
habits4 ,our psychology must1 therefore1
 treat of instincts and habits4  ,how   
man gets experience1 and retains and    

organizes this experience must be our   
problem in the chapters on sensations1  
ideas1 memory1 and thinking4 ,individual
 differences in human capacity make     
necessary a treatment of the different  
types and grades of intelligence1 and   
the compilation of tests for determining
 these differences4 ,we must also treat 
of the application of psychology to     
those fields where a knowledge of human 
nature is necessary4  ,applied          
,psychology4 ,at the beginning of a     
subject it is legitimate to inquire     
concerning the possibility of applying  
the principles studied to practical     
uses1 and it is very proper to make this
 inquiry concerning psychology4         
,psychology1 being the science of human 
nature1 ought to be of use in all fields
 where one needs to know the causes of  
human action4 ,and psychology is        
applicable in these fields to the extent
 that the psychologist is able to work  
out the laws and principles of human    
action4  ,in education1 for example1 we 

wish to influence children1 and we must 
go to psychology to learn about the     
nature of children and to find out how  
we can influence them4 ,psychology is   
therefore the basis of the science of   
education4  ,since different kinds of   
work demand1 in some cases1 different   
kinds of ability1 the psychology of     
individual differences can be of service
 in selecting people for special kinds  
of work4 ,that is to say1 we must have  
sometime1 if we do not now1 a psychology
 of professions and vocations4          
,psychological investigations of the    
reliability of human evidence make the  
science of service in the court room4   
,the study of the laws of attention and 
interest give us the psychology of      
advertising4 ,the study of suggestion   
and abnormal states make psychology of  
use in medicine4 ,it may be said1       
therefore1 that psychology1 once        
abstract and unrelated to any practical 
interests1 will become the most useful  
of all sciences1 as it works out its    

problems and finds the laws of human    
behavior4  ,at present1 the greatest    
service of psychology is to education4  
,so true is this that a department has  
grown up called educational psychology1 
which constitutes at the present time   
the most important subdivision of       
psychology4 ,while in this book we treat
 briefly of the various applications of 
psychology1 we shall have in mind       
chiefly its application to education4   
,the ,science of ,education4 ,owing to  
the importance which psychology has in  
the science of education1 it will be    
well for us to make some inquiry into   
the nature of education4 ,if the growth1
 development1 and learning of children  
are all controlled and determined by    
definite causal factors1 then a         
systematic statement of all these       
factors would constitute the science of 
education4 ,in order to see clearly     
whether there is such a science1 or     
whether there can be1 let us inquire    
more definitely as to the kind of       

problems a science of education would be
 expected to solve4  ,there are four    
main questions which the science of     
education must solve3 7#a7 ,what is the 
aim of education8 7#b7 ,what is the     
nature of education8 7#c7 ,what is the  
nature of the child8 7#d7 ,what are the 
most economical methods of changing the 
child from what it is into what it ought
 to be8  ,the first question is a       
sociological question1 and it is not    
difficult to find the answer4 ,we have  
but to inquire what the people wish     
their children to become4 ,there is a   
pretty general agreement1 at least in   
the same community1 that children should
 be trained in a way that will make them
 socially efficient4 ,parents generally 
wish their children to become honest1   
truthful1 sympathetic1 and industrious4 
,it should be the aim of education to   
accomplish this social ideal4 ,it should
 be the aim of the home and the school  
to subject children to such influences  
as will enable them to make a living    

when grown and to do their proper share 
of work for the community and state1    
working always for better things1 and   
having a sympathetic attitude toward    
neighbors4 ,education should also do    
what it can to make people able to enjoy
 the world and life to the fullest and  
highest extent4 ,some such aim of       
education as this is held by all our    
people4  ,the second question is also   
answered4 ,psychological analysis       
reveals the fact that education is a    
process of becoming adjusted to the     
world4 ,it is the process of acquiring  
the habits1 knowledge1 and ideals suited
 to the life we are to live4 ,the child 
in being educated learns what the world 
is and how to act in it--how to act in  
all the various situations of life4     
,the third question--concerning the     
nature of the child--cannot be so       
briefly answered4 ,in fact1 it cannot be
 fully answered at the present time4 ,we
 must know what the child's original    
nature is4 ,this means that we must know

 the instincts and all the other        
inherited capacities and tendencies4 ,we
 must know the laws of building up      
habits and of acquiring knowledge1 the  
laws of retention and the laws of       
attention4 ,these problems constitute   
the subject matter of educational       
psychology1 and at present can be only  
partially solved4 ,we have1 however1 a  
very respectable body of knowledge in   
this field1 though it is by no means    
complete4  ,the answer to the fourth    
question is in part dependent upon the  
progress in answering the third4        
,economical methods of training children
 must be dependent upon the nature of   
children4 ,but in actual practice1 we   
are trying to find out the best         
procedure of doing each single thing in 
school work2 we are trying to find out  
by experimentation4 ,the proper way to  
teach children to read1 to spell1 to    
write1 etc41 must be determined in each 
case by independent investigation1 until
 our knowledge of the child becomes     

sufficient for us to infer from general 
laws of procedure what the procedure in 
a particular case should be4 ,we venture
 to infer what ought to be done in some 
cases1 but generally we feel insecure   
till we have proved our inference       
correct by trying out different methods 
and measuring the results4  ,education  
will not be fully scientific till we    
have definite knowledge to guide us at  
every step4 ,what should we teach8 ,when
 should we teach it8 ,how should we     
teach it8 ,how poorly we answer these   
questions at the present time6 ,how     
inefficient and uneconomical our        
schools1 because we cannot fully answer 
them6 ,but they are answerable4 ,we can 
answer them in part now1 and we know how
 to find out the answer in full4 ,it is 
just a matter of patient and extensive  
investigation4 ,we must say1 then1 that 
we have only the beginnings of a science
 of education4 ,the problems which a    
science of education must solve are     
almost wholly psychological problems4   

,they could not be solved till we had a 
science of psychology4 ,experimental    
psychology is but a half-century old2   
educational psychology1 less than a     
quarter-century old4 ,in the field of   
education1 the science of psychology may
 expect to make its most important      
practical contribution4 ,let us1 then1  
consider very briefly the problems of   
educational psychology4  ,educational   
,psychology4 ,educational psychology is 
that division of psychology which       
undertakes to discover those aspects of 
human nature most closely related to    
education4 ,these are 7#a7 the original 
nature of the child--what it is and how 
it can be modified2 7#b7 the problem of 
acquiring and organizing                
experience--habit-formation1 memory1    
thinking1 and the various factors       
related to these processes4 ,there are  
many subordinate problems1 such as the  
problem of individual differences and   
their bearing on the education of       
subnormal and supernormal children4     

,educational psychology is not1 then1   
merely the application of psychology to 
education4 ,it is a distinct science in 
itself1 and its aim is the solving of   
those educational problems which for    
their solution depend upon a knowledge  
of the nature of the child4  ,the       
,method of ,psychology4 ,we have        
enumerated the various problems of      
psychology1 now how are they solved8    
,the method of psychology is the same as
 that of all other sciences2 namely1 the
 method of observation and experiment4  
,we learn human nature by observing how 
human beings act in all the various     
circumstances of life4 ,we learn about  
the human mind by observing our own     
mind4 ,we learn that we see under       
certain objective conditions1 hear under
 certain objective conditions1 taste1   
smell1 feel cold and warm under certain 
objective conditions4 ,in the case of   
ourselves1 we can know both our actions 
and our mind4 ,in the case of others1 we
 can know only their actions1 and must  

infer their mental states from our own  
in similar circumstances4 ,with certain 
restrictions and precautions this       
inference is legitimate4  ,we said the  
method of psychology is that of         
observation and experiment4 ,the        
experiment is observation still1 but    
observation subjected to exact          
methodical procedure4 ,in a             
psychological experiment we set out to  
provide the necessary conditions1       
eliminating some and supplying others   
according to our object4 ,the experiment
 has certain advantages4 ,it enables us 
to isolate the phenomena to be studied1 
it enables us to vary the circumstances 
and conditions to suit our purposes1 it 
enables us to repeat the observation as 
often as we like1 and it enables us to  
measure exactly the factors of the      
phenomena studied4  ,a ,psychological   
,experiment4 ,let us illustrate         
psychological method by a typical       
experiment4 ,suppose we wish to measure 
the individual differences among the    

members of a class with respect to a    
certain ability2 namely1 the muscular   
speed of the right hand4 ,psychological 
laboratories have delicate apparatus for
 making such a study4 ,but let us see   
how we can do it1 roughly at least1     
without any apparatus4 ,let each member 
of the class take a sheet of paper and a
 pencil1 and make as many strokes as    
possible in a half-minute1 as shown in  
,figure ,i4 ,the instructor can keep the
 time with a stop watch1 or less        
accurately with the second hand of an   
ordinary watch4 ,before beginning the   
experiment1 the instructor should have  
each student taking the test try it for 
a second or two4 ,this is to make sure  
that all understand what they are to do4
 ,when the instructor is sure that all  
understand1 he should have the students 
hold their pencils in readiness above   
the paper1 and at the signal1 ,begin1   
all should start at the same time and   
make as many marks as possible in the   
half-minute4 ,the strokes can then be   

counted and the individual scores       
recorded4 ,the experiment should be     
repeated several times1 say six or      
eight1 and the average score for each   
individual recorded4  ,illustration3    
,,figure ,i4--,,strokes ,,made ,,in     
,,thirty ,,seconds ,a test of muscular  
speed  ,whether the result in such a    
performance as this varies from day to  
day1 and is accidental1 or whether it is
 constant and fundamental1 can be       
determined by repeating the experiment  
from day to day4 ,this repetition will  
also show whether improvement comes from
 practice4  ,if it is decided to repeat 
the experiment in order to study these  
factors1 constancy and the effects of   
practice1 some method of studying and   
interpreting the results must be found4 
,elaborate methods of doing this are    
known to psychologists1 but the beginner
 must use a simpler method4 ,when the   
experiment is performed for the first   
time1 the students can be ranked with   
reference to their abilities1 the       

fastest one being called first1 the     
second highest1 second1 and so on down  
to the slowest performer4 ,then after   
the experiment has been performed the   
second time1 the students can be again  
ranked4  ,a rough comparison can then be
 made as follows3 ,determine how many   
who were in the best half in the first  
experiment are among the best half in   
the second experiment4 ,if most who were
 among the best half the first time are 
among the best half in the second       
experiment1 constancy in this           
performance is indicated4 ,or we might  
determine how many change their ranks   
and how much they change4 ,suppose there
 are thirty in the class and only four  
improve their ranks and these to the    
extent of only two places each4 ,this   
would indicate a high degree of         
constancy4 ,two different performances  
can be compared as above described4 ,the
 abilities on successive days can be    
determined by taking the average rank of
 the first day and comparing it with the

 average rank of the second day4  ,if   
the effects of practice are to be       
studied1 the experiments must be kept up
 for many days1 and each student's work 
on the first day compared with his work 
on succeeding days4 ,then a graph can be
 plotted to show the improvement from   
day to day4 ,the average daily speed of 
the class can be taken and a graph made 
to show the improvement of the class as 
a whole4 ,this might be plotted in black
 ink1 then each individual student could
 put on his improvement in red ink1 for 
comparison4 ,a group of thirty may be   
considered as furnishing a fair average 
or norm in this kind of performance4    
,in connection with this simple         
performance1 making marks as fast as    
possible1 it is evident that many       
problems arise4 ,it would take several  
months to solve anything like all of    
them4 ,it might be interesting1 for     
example1 to determine whether one's     
speed in writing is related to this     
simple speed in marking4 ,each member of

 the class might submit a plan for      
making such a study4  ,the foregoing    
simple study illustrates the procedure  
of psychology in all experimentation4 ,a
 psychological experiment is an attempt 
to find out the truth in regard to some 
aspect of human nature4 ,in finding out 
this truth1 we must throw about the     
experiment all possible safeguards4     
,every source of error must be          
discovered and eliminated4 ,in the above
 experiment1 for example1 the work must 
be done at the same time of day1 or else
 we must prove that doing it at         
different times of day makes no         
difference4 ,nothing must be taken for  
granted1 and nothing must be assumed4   
,psychology1 then1 is like all the other
 sciences1 in that its method of getting
 its facts is by observation and        
experiment4    ,,summary4 ,science is   
systematic1 related knowledge4 ,each    
science has   a particular field which  
it attempts to explore and describe4    
,the   field of psychology is the study 

of sensitivity1 action1 and             
consciousness1 or briefly1 human        
behavior4 ,its main problems are        
development1 heredity1 instincts1       
habits1 sensation1 memory1   thinking1  
and individual differences4 ,its method 
is observation and   experiment1 the    
same as in all other sciences4   ,,class
 ,,exercises  #a4 ,make out a list of   
things about human nature which you     
would like to know4 ,paste your list in 
the front of this book1 and as you find 
your questions answered in this book1 or
 in other books which you may read1     
check them off4 ,at the end of the      
course1 note how many remain unanswered4
 ,find out whether those not answered   
can be answered at the present time4    
#b4 ,does everything you do have a      
cause8 ,what kind of cause8  #c4 ,human 
nature is shown in human action4 ,human 
action consists in muscular contraction4
 ,what makes a muscle contract8  #d4    
,plan an experiment the object of which 
shall be to learn something about       

yourself4  #e4 ,enumerate the           
professions and occupations in which a  
knowledge of some aspect of human nature
 would be valuable4 ,state in what way  
it would be valuable4  #f4 ,make a list 
of facts concerning a child1 which a    
teacher ought to know4  #g4 ,make a     
complete outline of ,chapter ,i4        
,,references ,,for ,,class ,,reading    
,m,ue,n,s,t,e,r,b,e,r,g3 ,psychology1   
,general and ,applied1 ,chapters ,i1    
,,ii1 and ,v4  ,,pillsbury3 ,essentials 
of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,i4  ,,pyle3   
,the ,outlines of ,educational          
,psychology1 ,chapter ,i4  ,,titchener3 
,a ,beginner's ,psychology1 ,chapter ,i4
     ,,chapter ,,ii  ,,development ,,of 
,,the ,,race ,,and ,,of ,,the           
,,individual   ,racial ,development4    
,the purpose of this chapter is to make 
some inquiry concerning the origin of   
the race and of the individual4 ,in     
doing this1 it is necessary for us first
 of all to fix in our minds the idea of 
causality4 ,according to the view of all

 modern science1 everything has a cause4
 ,nothing is uncaused4 ,one event is the
 result of other previous events1 and is
 in turn the cause of other events that 
follow4 ,yesterday flowed into to-day1  
and to-day flows into to-morrow4 ,the   
world as it exists to-day is the result 
of the world as it existed yesterday4   
,this is true not only of the inorganic 
world--the world of physics and         
chemistry--but it is true of living     
things as well4 ,the animals and plants 
that exist to-day are the descendants of
 others that lived before4 ,there is    
probably an unbroken line of descent    
from the first life that existed on the 
earth to the living forms of to-day4    
,not only does the law of causality hold
 true in the case of our bodies1 but of 
our minds as well4 ,our minds have      
doubtless developed from simpler minds  
just as our bodies have developed from  
simpler bodies4 ,that different grades  
and types of minds are to be found among
 the various classes of animals now upon

 the earth1 no one can doubt1 for the   
different forms certainly show different
 degrees of mentality4 ,according to the
 evidence of those scientists who have  
studied the remains of animals found in 
the earth's crust1 there is a gradual   
development of animal forms shown in    
successive epochs4 ,in the very oldest  
parts of the earth's crust1 the remains 
of animal life found are very simple4   
,in later formations1 the remains show  
an animal life more complex4 ,the       
highest forms of animals1 the mammals1  
are found only in the more recent       
formations4 ,the remains of man are     
found only in the latest formations4    
,putting these two facts together--7#a7 
that the higher types of mind are found 
to-day only in the higher types of      
animals1 and 7#b7 that a gradual        
development of animal forms is shown by 
the remains in the earth's crust--the   
conclusion is forced upon us that mind  
has passed through many stages of       
development from the appearance of life 

upon the earth to the present time4     
,among the lower forms of animals to-day
 one sees evidence of very simple minds4
 ,in amoebas1 worms1 insects1 and       
fishes1 mind is very simple4 ,in birds1 
it is higher4 ,in mammals1 it is higher 
still4 ,among the highest mammals below 
man1 we see manifestations of mind      
somewhat like our own4 ,these grades of 
mentality shown in the animals of to-day
 represent the steps in the development 
of mind in the animals of the past4  ,we
 cannot here go into the proof of the   
doctrine of development4 ,for this      
proof1 the reader must be referred to   
zooelogy4 ,one further point1 however1  
may be noted4 ,if it is difficult for   
the reader to conceive of the           
development of mind on the earth similar
 to the development of animals in the   
past1 let him think of the development  
of mind in the individual4 ,there can   
certainly be no doubt of the development
 of mind in an individual human being4  
,the infant1 when born1 shows little    

manifestation of mentality2 but as its  
body grows1 its mind develops1 becoming 
more and more complex as the individual 
grows to maturity4  ,the ,world as      
,dynamic4 ,the view of the world        
outlined above1 and held by all         
scientific men of the present time1 may 
be termed the dynamic view4 ,man        
formerly looked upon the world as       
static1 a world where everything was    
fixed and final4 ,each thing existed in 
itself and for itself1 and in large     
measure independent of all other things4
 ,we now look upon things and events as 
related and dependent4 ,each thing is   
dependent upon others1 related to       
others4  ,man not only lives in such a  
world1 but is part of such a world4 ,in 
this world of constant and ceaseless    
change1 man is most sensitive and       
responsive4 ,everything may affect him4 
,to all of the constant changes about   
him he must adjust himself4 ,he has been
 produced by this world1 and to live in 
it he must meet its every condition and 

change4 ,we must1 then1 look upon human 
nature as something coming out of the   
past and as being influenced every      
moment by the things and forces of the  
present4 ,man is not an independent     
being1 unaffected by everything that    
happens2 on the contrary1 he is affected
 by all influences that act upon him4   
,among these influences may be mentioned
 weather1 climate1 food1 and social     
forces4  ,the condition of the various  
organs of a child's body determine1 to  
some extent1 the effect which these     
various forces have upon it4 ,if a      
child's eyes are in any way defective1  
making vision poor1 this tremendously   
influences his life4 ,not only is such a
 child unable to see the world as it    
really is1 but the eyestrain resulting  
from poor vision has serious effects on 
the child1 producing all sorts of       
disorders4 ,if a child cannot hear well 
or is entirely deaf1 many serious       
consequences follow4 ,in fact1 every    
condition or characteristic of a child  

that is in any way abnormal may lead on 
to other conditions and characteristics1
 often of a serious nature4 ,the growth 
of adenoids1 for example1 may lead to a 
serious impairment of the mind4 ,poor   
vision may affect the whole life and    
character of the individual4 ,the       
influence of a parent1 teacher1 or      
friend may determine the interest of a  
child and affect his whole life4 ,the   
correct view of child life is that the  
child is affected1 in greater or less   
degree1 by every influence which acts   
upon him4  ,significance of ,development
 and ,causality4 ,what are the          
consequences of the view just set forth8
 ,what is the significance of the facts 
that have been enumerated8 ,it is of    
great consequence to our thinking when  
we come to recognize fully the idea of  
causality4 ,we then fully accept the    
fact that man's body and mind are part  
of a causal and orderly world4  ,let us 
consider1 for example1 the movement of a
 muscle4 ,every such movement must be   

caused4 ,the physiologist has discovered
 what this cause is4 ,ordinarily and    
normally1 a muscle contracts only when  
stimulated by a nerve current4 ,tiny    
nerve fibrils penetrate every muscle1   
ending in the muscle fibers4 ,the       
nerve-impulse passing into the fibers of
 the muscles causes them to contract4   
,the nerve stimulus itself has a cause2 
it ordinarily arises directly or        
indirectly from the stimulation of a    
sense organ4 ,and the sense organs are  
stimulated by outside influences1 as was
 explained previously4  ,not only are   
our movements caused1 but our           
sensations1 our ideas1 and our feelings 
follow upon or are dependent upon some  
definite bodily state or condition4 ,the
 moment that we recognize this we see   
that our sensations1 ideas1 and feelings
 are subject to control4 ,it is only    
because our minds are in a world of     
causality1 and subject to its laws1 that
 education is possible4 ,we can bring   
causes to bear upon a child and change  

the child4 ,it is possible to build up  
ideas1 ideals1 and habits4 ,and ideas1  
ideals1 and habits constitute the man4  
,training is possible only because a    
child is a being that can be influenced4
 ,what any child will be when grown     
depends upon what kind of child it was  
at the beginning and upon the influences
 that affect it during its early life   
while it is growing into maturity4 ,we  
need have no doubt about the outcome of 
any particular child if we know1 with   
some degree of completeness1 the two    
sets of factors that determine his      
life--his inheritance and the forces    
that affect this inheritance4 ,we can   
predict the future of a child to the    
extent that we know and understand the  
forces that will be effective in his    
life4  ,the notion of causality puts new
 meaning into our view of the training  
of a child4 ,the doctrine of development
 puts new meaning into our notion of the
 nature of a child4 ,we can understand  
man only when we view him genetically1  

that is1 in the light of his origin4 ,we
 can understand a child only in the     
light of what his ancestors have been4  
,as these lines are being written1 the  
greatest1 the bloodiest war of history  
is in progress4 ,men are killing men by 
thousands and hundreds of thousands4    
,how can we explain such actions8       
,observation of children shows that they
 are selfish1 envious1 and quarrelsome4 
,they will fight and steal until they   
are taught not to do such things4 ,how  
can we understand this8 ,there is no way
 of understanding such actions until we 
come to see that the children and men of
 to-day are such as they are because of 
their ancestors4 ,it has been only a few
 generations1 relatively speaking1 since
 our ancestors were naked savages1      
killing their enemies and eating their  
enemies' bodies4 ,the civilized life of 
our ancestors covers a period of only a 
few hundred years4 ,the pre-civilized   
life of our ancestors goes back probably
 thousands and thousands of years4 ,in  

the relatively short period of          
civilization1 our real1 original nature 
has been little changed1 perhaps none at
 all4 ,the modern man is1 at heart1 the 
same old man of the woods4  ,the        
improvements of civilization form what  
is called a social heritage1 which must 
be impressed upon the original nature of
 each individual in order to have any   
effect4 ,every child has to learn to    
speak1 to write1 to dress1 to eat with  
knife and fork2 he must learn the       
various social customs1 and to act      
morally as older people dictate4 ,the   
child is by nature bad1 in the sense    
that the nature which he inherits from  
the past fits him better for the        
original kind of life which man used to 
live than it does for the kind of life  
which we are trying to live now4 ,this  
view makes us see that training a child 
is1 in a very true sense1 making him    
over again4 ,the child must be trained  
to subdue and control his original      
impulses4 ,habits and ideals that will  

be suitable for life in civilized       
society must be built up4 ,the doctrine 
of the ,bible in regard to the original 
nature of man being sinful1 and the     
necessity of regeneration1 is           
fundamentally correct4 ,but this        
regeneration is not so much a sudden    
process as it is the result of long and 
patient building-up of habits and       
ideals4  ,one should not despair of this
 view of child-life4 ,neither should one
 use it as an excuse for being bad1 or  
for neglecting the training of children4
 ,on the contrary1 taking the genetic   
view of childhood should give us certain
 advantages4 ,it makes us see more      
clearly the necessity of training4      
,every child must be trained1 or he will
 remain very much a savage4 ,in the     
absence of training1 all children are   
much alike1 and all alike bad from our  
present point of view4 ,the chief       
differences in children in politeness   
and manners generally1 in morals1 in    
industry1 etc41 are due1 in the main1 to

 differences in training4 ,it is a great
 help merely to know how difficult the  
task of training is1 and that training  
there must be if we are to have a       
civilized child4 ,we must take thought  
and plan for the education and training 
of our children4 ,the task of education 
is in part one of changing human nature4
 ,this is no light task4 ,it is one that
 requires1 in the case of each child1   
some twenty years of hard1 patient1     
persistent work4  ,individual           
,development4 ,heredity is a corollary  
of evolution4 ,individual development is
 intimately related to racial           
development4 ,indeed1 racial development
 would be impossible without heredity in
 the individual4 ,the individual must   
carry on and transmit what the race     
hands down to him4 ,this will be evident
 when we explain what heredity means4   
,by heredity we mean the likeness       
between parent and offspring4 ,this     
likeness is a matter of form and        
structure as well as likeness of action 

or response4 ,animals and plants are    
like the parents in form and structure1 
and to a certain extent their responses 
are alike when the individuals are      
placed in the same situation4 ,a robin  
is like the parent robins in size1      
shape1 and color4 ,it also hops like the
 parent birds1 sings as they do1 feeds  
as they do1 builds a similar nest1 etc4 
,but the likeness in action is dependent
 upon likeness in structure4 ,the young 
robin acts as does the old robin1       
because the nervous mechanism is the    
same1 and therefore a similar stimulus  
brings about a similar response4  ,most 
of the scientific work in heredity has  
been done in the study of the           
transmission of physical                
characteristics4 ,the main facts of     
heredity are evident to everybody1 but  
not many people realize how far-reaching
 is the principle of resemblance between
 parent and offspring4 ,from horses we  
raise horses4 ,from cows we raise cows4 
,the children of human beings are human4

 ,not only is this true1 but the        
offspring of horses are of the same     
stock as the parents4 ,not only are the 
colts of the same stock as the parents1 
but they resemble the parents in small  
details4 ,this is also true of human    
beings4 ,we expect a child to be not    
only of the same race as the parents1   
but to have family resemblances to the  
parents--the same color of hair1 the    
same shape of head1 the same kind of    
nose1 the same color of eyes1 and to    
have such resemblances as moles in the  
same places on the skin1 etc4 ,a very   
little investigation reveals likenesses 
between parent and offspring which we   
may not have expected before4  ,however1
 if we start out to hunt for facts of   
heredity1 we shall perhaps be as much   
impressed by differences between parent 
and child as we shall by the            
resemblances4 ,in the first place1 every
 child has two parents1 and it is often 
impossible to resemble both4 ,one       
cannot1 for example1 be both short and  

tall2 one cannot be both fair and dark2 
one cannot be both slender and heavy2   
one cannot have both brown eyes and     
blue4 ,in some cases1 the child         
resembles one parent and not the other4 
,in other cases1 the child looks        
somewhat like both parents but not      
exactly like either4 ,if one parent is  
white and the other black1 the child is 
neither as white as the one parent nor  
as black as the other4  ,the parents of 
a child are themselves different1 but   
there are four grandparents1 and each of
 them different from the others4 ,there 
are eight great grandparents1 and all of
 them different4 ,if we go back only    
seven generations1 covering a period of 
perhaps only a hundred and fifty years1 
we have one hundred and twenty-eight    
ancestors4 ,if we go back ten           
generations1 we have over a thousand    
ancestors in our line of descent4 ,each 
of these people was1 in some measure1   
different from the others4 ,our         
inheritance comes from all of them and  

from each of them4  ,how do all of these
 diverse characteristics work out in the
 child8 ,in the first place1 it seems   
evident that we do not inherit our      
bodies as wholes1 but in parts or units4
 ,we may think of the human race as a   
whole being made up of a great number of
 unit characters4 ,no one person        
possesses all of them4 ,every person is 
lacking in some of them4 ,his neighbor  
may be lacking in quite different ones4 
,now one parent transmits to the child a
 certain combination of unit characters2
 the other parent1 a different          
combination4 ,these characteristics may 
not all appear in the child1 but all are
 transmitted through it to the next     
generation1 and they are transmitted    
purely4 ,by being transmitted purely1 we
 mean that the characteristic does not  
seem to lose its identity and disappear 
in fusions or mixtures4 ,the essential  
point in this doctrine of heredity is   
known as ,mendelism2 it is the principle
 of inheritance through the pure        

transmission of unit characters4  ,an   
illustration will probably make the     
,mendelian principle clear4 ,let us     
select our illustration from the plant  
world4 ,it is found that if white and   
yellow corn are crossed1 all the corn   
the first year1 resulting from this     
crossing1 will be yellow4 ,now1 if this 
hybrid yellow corn is planted the second
 year1 and freely cross-fertilized1 it  
turns out that one fourth of it will be 
white and three fourths yellow4 ,but    
this yellow consists of three parts3 one
 part being pure yellow which will breed
 true1 producing nothing but yellow2 the
 other two parts transmit white and     
yellow in equal ratio4 ,that is to say1 
these two parts are hybrids1 the result 
of crossing white with yellow4 ,it is   
not meant that one can actually         
distinguish these two kinds of yellow1  
the pure yellow and the hybrid yellow1  
but the results from planting it show   
that one third of the yellow is pure and
 that the other two thirds transmit     

white and yellow in equal ratio4  ,the  
main point to notice in all this is that
 when two individuals having diverse    
characteristics are crossed1 the        
characteristics do not fuse and         
disappear ultimately1 but that the two  
characteristics are transmitted in equal
 ratio1 and each will appear in         
succeeding generations1 and will appear 
pure1 just as if it had not been crossed
 with something different4 ,the first   
offspring resulting from the            
cross--known as hybrids--may show either
 one or the other of the diverse        
characteristics1 or1 when such a thing  
is possible1 even a blending of the two 
characteristics4 ,but whatever the      
actual appearance of the first          
generation of offspring resulting from  
crossing parents having diverse         
characteristics1 their germ-cells       
transmit the diverse characteristics in 
equal proportion1 as explained above4   
,when one of the diverse characteristics
 appears in the first generation of     

offspring and the other does not appear1
 or is not apparent1 the one that       
appears is said to be dominant1 while   
the one not appearing is said to be     
recessive4 ,in our example of the yellow
 and white corn1 yellow is dominant and 
white recessive4 ,and it must be        
remembered that the white corn that     
appears in the second generation will   
breed true just as if it had never been 
crossed with the yellow corn4 ,one third
 of the yellow of the second generation 
would also breed true if it could be    
separated from the other two thirds4    
,it is not here claimed that ,mendelism 
is a universal principle1 that all      
characteristics are transmitted in this 
way4 ,however1 the results of the       
numerous experiments in heredity lead   
one to expect this to be the case4 ,most
 of the experiments have been with lower
 animals and with plants1 but recent    
experiments and statistical studies show
 that ,mendelism is an important factor 
in human heredity1 in such              

characteristics as color of hair and    
eyes and skin1 partial color blindness1 
defects of eye1 ear1 and other important
 organs4  ,the studies that have been   
made of human heredity have been1 for   
the most part1 studies of the           
transmission of physical                
characteristics4 ,very little has been  
done that bears directly upon the       
transmission of mental characteristics4 
,but our knowledge of the dependence of 
mind upon body should prepare us to     
infer mental heredity from physical     
heredity4 ,such studies as throw light  
on the question bear us out in making   
such an inference4  ,the studies that   
have been more directly concerned with  
mental heredity are those dealing with  
the resemblances of twins1 studies of   
heredity in royalty1 studies of the     
inheritance of genius1 and studies of   
the transmission of mental defects and  
defects of sense organs4 ,the results of
 all these studies indicate the         
inheritance of mental characteristics in

 the same way that physical             
characteristics are transmitted4 ,not   
only are human mental characteristics   
transmitted from parent to offspring1   
but they seem to be transmitted in      
,mendelian fashion4  ,feeble-mindedness1
 for example1 seems to be a ,mendelian  
character and recessive4 ,from the      
studies that have been made1 it seems   
that two congenitally feeble-minded     
parents will have only feeble-minded    
children4 ,feeble-mindedness acts in    
heredity as does the white corn in the  
example given above4 ,if one parent only
 is feeble-minded1 the other being      
normal1 all of the children will be     
normal1 just as all of the corn1 in the 
first generation after the crossing1 was
 yellow4 ,but these children whose      
parents are the one normal and the other
 feeble-minded1 while themselves normal1
 transmit feeble-mindedness in equal    
ratio with normality4 ,it works out as  
follows3 ,if a feeble-minded person     
marry a person of sound mind and sound  

stock1 the children will all be of      
sound1 normal mind4 ,if these children  
take as husbands and wives men and women
 who had for parents one normal and one 
feeble-minded person1 their children    
will be one fourth feeble-minded and    
three fourths of them normal4  ,to      
summarize the various conditions3 ,if a 
feeble-minded person marry a            
feeble-minded person1 all the children  
will be feeble-minded4 ,if a            
feeble-minded person marry a sound1     
normal person 7pure stock71 all the     
children will be normal4 ,if the        
children1 in the last case1 marry others
 like themselves as to origin1 one      
fourth of their offspring will be       
feeble-minded4 ,if such hybrid children 
marry feeble-minded persons1 one half of
 the offspring will be feeble-minded4   
,it is rash to prophesy1 but future     
studies of heredity may show that       
,mendelism1 or some modification of the 
principle1 always holds true of mind as 
well as of body4  ,little can be said   

about the transmission of particular    
definite mental traits1 such as the     
various aspects of memory1 association1 
attention1 temperament1 etc4 ,before we 
can speak with any certainty here1 we   
must make very careful experimental     
studies of these mental traits in       
parents and offspring4 ,no such work has
 been done4 ,all we have at the present 
time is the result of general           
observation4  ,improvement of the ,race4
 ,eugenics is the science of improvement
 of the human race by breeding4 ,while  
we can train children and thereby make  
them much better than they would be     
without such training1 this training    
does not improve the stock4 ,the        
improvement of the stock can be         
accomplished only through breeding from 
the best and preventing the poor stock  
from leaving offspring4 ,this is a      
well-known principle in the breeding of 
domestic animals4  ,it is doubtless just
 as true in the case of human beings4   
,the hygienic and scientific rearing of 

children is good for the children and   
makes their lives better1 but probably  
does not affect their offspring4 ,we    
should not forget that all the social   
and educational influences die with the 
generation that receives them4 ,they    
must be impressed by training on the    
next generation or that generation will 
receive no influence from them4 ,the    
characters which we acquire in our      
lifetime seem not to be transmitted to  
our children1 except through what is    
known as social heredity1 which is      
merely the taking on of characteristics 
through imitation4 ,our children must go
 through all the labor of learning to   
read1 write1 spell1 add1 multiply1      
subtract1 and divide1 which we went     
through4 ,moral traits1 manners and     
customs1 and other habits and ideals of 
social importance must be acquired by   
each successive generation4  ,heredity  
versus ,environment4 ,the question is   
often asked whether heredity or the     
influence of environment has the most to

 do with the final outcome of one's     
life4 ,it is a rather useless question  
to ask1 for what a human being or       
anything else in the world does depends 
upon what it is itself and what the     
things and forces are that act upon it4 
,heredity sets a limitation for us1     
fixes the possibilities4 ,the           
circumstances of life determine what we 
will do with our inherited abilities and
 characteristics4 ,hereditary influences
 incline us to be tall or short1 fat or 
lean1 light or dark4 ,the               
characteristics of our memory1          
association1 imagination1 our learning  
capacity1 etc41 are determined by       
heredity4 ,of course1 how far these     
various aspects develop is to some      
extent dependent upon the favorable or  
unfavorable influences of the           
environment4 ,what is possible for us to
 do is settled by heredity2 what we may 
actually do1 what we may have the       
opportunity to do1 is largely a matter  
of the circumstances of life4  ,in      

certain parts of ,new ,england1 the     
number of men who become famous in art1 
science1 or literature is very great    
compared to the number in some other    
parts of our country4 ,as far as we have
 any evidence1 the native stocks are the
 same in the two cases1 but in ,new     
,england the influences turn men into   
the direction of science1 art1 and      
literature4 ,everything there is        
favorable4 ,in other parts of the       
country1 the influences turn men into   
other spheres of activity4 ,they become 
large landowners1 men of business and   
affairs4  ,the question may be asked    
whether genius makes its way to the     
front in spite of unfavorable           
circumstances4 ,sometimes it doubtless  
does4 ,but pugnacity and perseverance   
are not necessarily connected with      
intellectual genius4 ,genius may be as  
likely to be timid as belligerent4      
,therefore unfavorable circumstances may
 crush many a genius4  ,the public      
schools ought to be on the watch for    

genius in any and all kinds of work4    
,when a genius is found1 proper training
 ought to be provided to develop this   
genius for the good of society as well  
as for the good of the individual       
himself4 ,a few children show ability in
 drawing and painting1 others in music1 
others in mechanical invention1 some in 
literary construction4 ,when it is found
 that this ability is undoubtedly a     
native gift and not a passing whim1     
special opportunity should be provided  
for its development and training4 ,it   
will be better for the general welfare1 
as well as for individual happiness1 if 
each does in life that for which he is  
by nature best fitted4 ,for most of us1 
however1 there is not much difference in
 our abilities4 ,we can do one thing as 
well as we can many other things4 ,but  
in a few there are undoubted special    
native gifts4    ,,summary4 ,this is an 
orderly world1 in which everything has a
 cause4   ,all events are connected in a
 chain of causes and effects4 ,human    

beings live in this world of natural law
 and are subject to it4   ,human life is
 completely within this world of law and
 order and is a   part of it4 ,education
 is possible only because we can change 
human   beings by having influences act 
upon them4    ,individuals receive their
 original traits from their ancestors1  
probably as parts or units4 ,mendelism  
is the doctrine of the pure             
transmission of unit characters4        
,eugenics is the science of   improving 
the human race by selective breeding4   
,an individual's life   is the result of
 the interaction of his hereditary      
characteristics   and his environment4  
,,class ,,exercises  #a4 ,try to find   
rock containing the remains of animals4 
,you can get information on such matters
 from a textbook on geology4  #b4 ,read 
in a geology about the different        
geological epochs in the history of the 
earth4  #c4 ,make a comparison of the   
length of infancy in the lower animals  
and in man4 ,what is the significance of

 what you find8 ,what advantage does it 
give man8  #d4 ,what is natural         
selection8 ,how does it lead to change  
in animals8 ,does natural selection     
still operate among human beings8 7,see 
a modern textbook on zooelogy47  #e4 ,by
 observation and from consulting a      
zooelogy1 learn about the different     
classes of animal forms1 from low forms 
to high forms4  #f4 ,by studying        
domestic animals1 see what you can learn
 about heredity4 ,enumerate all the     
points that you find bearing upon       
heredity4  #g4 ,in a similar way1 make a
 study of heredity in your family4      
,consider such characteristics as       
height1 weight1 shape of head1 shape of 
nose1 hair and eye color4 ,can you find 
any evidence of the inheritance of      
mental traits8  #h4 ,make a complete    
outline of ,chapter ,,ii4   ,,references
 ,,for ,,class ,,reading  ,,davenport3  
,heredity in ,relation to ,eugenics4    
,,kellicott3 ,the ,social ,direction of 
,human ,evolution4     ,,chapter ,,iii  

,,mind ,,and ,,body   ,gross            
,dependence4 ,the relation of mind to   
body has always been an interesting one 
to man4 ,this is partly because of the  
connection of the question with that of 
life after death4 ,an old idea of this  
relation1 almost universally held till  
recently1 was that the mind or spirit   
lived in the body but was more or less  
independent of the body4 ,the body has  
been looked upon as a hindrance to the  
mind or spirit4 ,science knows nothing  
about the existence of spirits apart    
from bodies4 ,the belief that after     
death the mind lives on is a matter of  
faith and not of science4 ,whether one  
believes in an existence of the mind    
after death of the body1 depends on     
one's religious faith4 ,there is no     
scientific evidence one way or the      
other4 ,the only mind that science knows
 anything about is bound up very closely
 with body4 ,this is not saying that    
there is no existence of spirit apart   
from body1 but that at present such     

existence is beyond the realm of        
science4  ,the dependence of mind upon  
body in a general way is evident to     
every one1 upon the most general        
observation and thought4 ,we know the   
effect on the mind of disease1 of good  
health1 of hunger1 of fatigue1 of       
overwork1 of severe bodily injury1 of   
blindness or deafness4 ,we have1        
perhaps1 seen some one struck upon the  
head by a club1 or run over by an       
automobile1 and have noted the          
tremendous consequences to the person's 
mind4 ,in such cases it sometimes       
happens that1 as far as we can see1     
there is no longer any mind in          
connection with that body4 ,the most    
casual observation1 then1 shows that    
mind and body are in some way most      
intimately related4  ,finer ,dependence4
 ,let us note this relation more in     
detail1 and1 in particular1 see just    
which part of the body it is that is    
connected with the mind4 ,first of all1 
we note the dependence of mind upon     

sense organs4 ,we see only with our     
eyes4 ,if we close the eyelids1 we      
cannot see4 ,if we are born blind1 or if
 injury or disease destroys the retinas 
of the eyes or makes the eyes opaque so 
that light cannot pass through to the   
retinas1 then we cannot see4            
,similarly1 we hear only by means of the
 ears4 ,if we are born deaf1 or if      
injury destroys some important part of  
the hearing mechanism1 then we cannot   
hear4 ,in like manner1 we taste only by 
means of the taste organs in the mouth1 
and smell only with the organs of smell 
in the nose4 ,in a word1 our primary    
knowledge of the world comes only       
through the sense organs4 ,we shall see 
presently just how this sensing or      
perceiving is accomplished4  ,dependence
 of ,mind on ,nerves and ,brain4 ,we    
have seen how in a general way the mind 
is dependent on the body4 ,we have seen 
how in a more intimate way it is        
dependent on the special sense organs4  
,but the part of the body to which the  

mind is most directly and intimately    
related is the nervous system4 ,the     
sense organs themselves are merely      
modifications of the nerve ends together
 with certain mechanisms for enabling   
stimuli to act on the nerve ends4 ,the  
eye is merely the optic nerve spread out
 to form the retina and modified in     
certain ways to make it sensitive to    
ether vibrations4 ,in addition to this1 
there is1 of course1 the focusing       
mechanism of the eye4 ,so for all the   
sense organs2 they are1 each of them1   
some sort of modification of            
nerve-endings which makes them sensitive
 to some particular force or substance4 
,let us make the matter clear by an     
illustration4 ,suppose ,i see a picture 
on the wall4 ,my eyes are directed      
toward the picture4 ,light from the     
picture is refracted within the eyes1   
forming an image on each retina4 ,the   
retina is sensitive to the light4 ,the  
light produces chemical changes on the  
retina4 ,these changes set up an        

excitation in the optic nerves1 which is
 conducted to a certain place in the    
brain1 causing an excitation in the     
brain4 ,now the important point is that 
when this excitation is going on in the 
brain1 we are conscious1 we see the     
picture4  ,as far as science can        
determine1 we do not see1 nor hear1 nor 
taste1 nor smell1 nor have any other    
sensation unless a sense organ is       
excited and produces the excitation in  
the brain4 ,there can be no doubt about 
our primary1 sensory experience4 ,by    
primary1 sensory experience is meant our
 immediate1 direct knowledge of any     
aspect of the world4 ,in this field of  
our conscious life1 we are entirely     
dependent upon sense organs and nerves  
and brain4 ,injuries to the eyes        
destroying their power to perform their 
ordinary work1 or injuries to the optic 
nerve or to the visual center in the    
brain1 make it impossible for us to see4
  ,these facts are so self-evident that 
it seems useless to state them4 ,one has

 but to hold his hands before his eyes  
to convince himself that the mind sees  
by means of eyes1 which are physical    
sense organs4 ,one has but to hold his  
hands tight over his ears to find out   
that he hears by means of ears--again1  
physical sense organs4  ,but simple and 
self-evident as the facts are1 their    
acceptance must have tremendous         
consequences to our thinking1 and to our
 view of human nature4 ,if the mind is  
dependent in every feature on the body  
with its sense organs1 this must give to
 this body and its sense organs an      
importance in our thought and scheme of 
things that they did not have before4   
,this close dependence of mind upon body
 must give to the body a place in our   
scheme of education that it would not   
have under any other view of the mind4  
,we wish to emphasize here that this    
statement of the close relation of the  
mind and body is not a theory which one 
may accept or not4 ,it is a simple      
statement of fact4 ,it is a             

presupposition of psychology4 ,by       
presupposition is meant a fundamental   
principle which the psychologist always 
has in mind4 ,it is axiomatic1 and has  
the same place in psychology that axioms
 have in mathematics4 ,all explanations 
of the working of the mind must be      
stated in terms of nerve and brain      
action1 and stimulation of sense organs4
  ,since the sense organs are the       
primary and fundamental organs through  
which we get experience1 and since the  
sensations are the elementary           
experiences out of which all mental life
 is built1 it is necessary for us to    
have a clear idea of the sense organs1  
their structure and functions1 and of   
the nature of sensations4  ,vision4 ,the
 ,visual ,sense ,organs4 ,the details of
 the anatomy of the eye can be looked up
 in a physiological textbook4 ,the      
essential principles are very simple4   
,the eye is made on the principle of a  
photographer's camera4 ,the retina      
corresponds to the sensitive plate of   

the camera4 ,the light coming from      
objects toward which the eyes are       
directed is focused on the retina1      
forming there an image of the object4   
,the light thus focused on the retina   
sets up a chemical change in the        
delicate nerve tissue2 this excitation  
is transmitted through the optic nerve  
to the occipital 7back7 part of the     
brain1 and sets up brain action there4  
,then we have visual sensation2 we see  
the object4  ,the different colors that 
we see are dependent upon the vibration 
frequency of the ether4 ,the higher     
frequencies give us the colors blue and 
green1 and the lower frequencies give us
 the colors yellow and red4 ,the        
intermediate frequencies give us the    
intermediate colors blue-green and      
orange4 ,by vibration frequencies is    
meant the rate at which the ether       
vibrates1 the number of vibrations a    
second4 ,if the reader wishes to know   
something about these frequencies1 such 
information can be found in a textbook  

on physics4  ,it will be found that the 
vibration rates of the ether are very   
great4 ,it is only within a certain     
range of vibration frequency that       
sunlight affects the retina4 ,slower    
rates of vibration than that producing  
red do not affect the eye1 and faster   
than that producing violet do not affect
 the eye4 ,the lightness and darkness of
 a color are dependent upon the         
intensity of the vibration4 ,red1 for   
example1 is produced by a certain       
vibration frequency4 ,the more intense  
the vibration1 the brighter the red2 the
 less intense1 the darker the red4      
,when all the vibration frequencies     
affect the eyes at the same time1 we see
 no color at all but only brightness4   
,this is due to the fact that certain   
vibration frequencies neutralize each   
other in their effect on the retina1 so 
far as producing color is concerned4    
,red neutralizes green1 blue neutralizes
 yellow1 violet neutralizes yellowish   
green1 orange neutralizes bluish green4 

,all variations in vision as far as     
color and brightness are concerned are  
due to variations in the stimulus4      
,changes in vibration frequency give the
 different colors4 ,changes in intensity
 give the different brightnesses3 black1
 gray1 and white4 ,all explanations of  
the many interesting phenomena of vision
 are to be sought in the physiological  
action of the eye4  ,besides the facts  
of color and light and shade1 already   
mentioned1 some further interesting     
visual phenomena may be mentioned here4 
,visual ,contrast4 ,every color makes   
objects near it take on the antagonistic
 or complementary color4 ,red makes     
objects near appear green1 green makes  
them appear red4 ,blue makes near       
objects appear yellow1 while yellow     
makes them appear blue4 ,orange induces 
greenish blue1 and greenish blue induces
 orange4 ,violet induces yellowish      
green1 and yellowish green induces      
violet4 ,these color-pairs are known as 
antagonistic or complementary colors4   

,each one of a pair enhances the effect 
of its complementary when the two colors
 are brought close together4 ,in a      
similar way1 light and dark tints act as
 complementaries4 ,light objects make   
dark objects near appear darker1 and    
dark objects make light objects near    
seem lighter4  ,these universal         
principles of contrast are of much      
practical significance4 ,they must be   
taken account of in all arrangements of 
colors and tints1 for example1 in dress1
 in the arrangement of flowers and      
shrubs1 in painting4  ,color-,mixture4  
,if1 on a rotating motor1 disks of      
different colors--say red and           
yellow--are placed and rotated1 one sees
 on looking at them not red or yellow   
but orange4 ,this phenomenon is known as
 color-mixture4 ,the result is due to   
the simultaneous stimulation of the     
retina by two kinds of ether vibration4 
,if the colors used are a certain red   
and a certain green1 they neutralize    
each other and produce only gray4 ,all  

the pairs of complementary colors       
mentioned above act in the same way1    
producing1 if mixed in the right        
proportion1 no color1 but gray4 ,if     
colored disks not complementary are     
mixed by rotation on a motor1 they      
produce an intermediate color4 ,red and 
yellow give orange4 ,blue and green give
 bluish green4 ,yellow and green give   
yellowish green4 ,red and blue give     
violet or purple1 depending on the      
proportion4 ,mixing pigments gives1 in  
general1 the same results as mixing by  
means of rotating the disks4 ,the       
ordinary blue and yellow pigments give  
green when mixed1 because each of the   
two pigments contains green4 ,the blue  
and yellow neutralize each other1       
leaving green4  ,visual ,after-,images4 
,the stimulation of the retina has      
interesting after effects4 ,we shall    
mention here only the one known as      
negative after-images4 ,if one will     
place on the table a sheet of white     
paper1 and on this white paper lay a    

small piece of colored paper1 and if he 
will then gaze steadily at the colored  
paper for a half-minute1 it will be     
found that if the colored paper is      
removed one sees its complementary      
color4 ,if the head is not moved1 this  
complementary color has the same size   
and shape as the original colored piece 
of paper4 ,the negative after-image can 
be projected on a background at         
different distances1 its size depending 
on the distance of the background4 ,the 
after-image will be found to mix with an
 objective color in accordance with the 
principles of color-mixture mentioned   
above4  ,after-image phenomena have some
 practical consequences4 ,if one has    
been looking at a certain color for some
 time1 a half-minute or more1 then looks
 at some other color1 the after-image of
 the first color mixes with the second  
color4  ,adaptation4 ,the fact last     
mentioned leads us to the subject of    
adaptation4 ,if the eyes are stimulated 
by the same kind of light for some time1

 the eyes become adapted to that light4 
,if the light is yellow1 at first       
objects seem yellow1 but after a time   
they look as if they were illuminated   
with white light1 losing the yellow     
aspect4 ,but if one then goes out into  
white light1 everything looks bluish4   
,the negative after-image of the yellow 
being cast upon everything makes the    
surroundings look blue1 for the         
after-image of yellow is blue4 ,all the 
other colors act in a similar way1 as do
 also black and white4 ,if one has been 
for some time in a dark room and then   
goes out to a lighter place1 it seems   
unusually light4 ,and if one goes from  
the light to a dark room1 it seems      
unusually dark4  ,hearing or ,audition4 
,just as the eye is an organ sensitive  
to certain frequencies of ether         
vibration1 so the ear is an organ       
sensitive to certain air vibrations4    
,the reader should familiarize himself  
with the physiology of the ear by       
reference to physiologies4 ,the         

drum-skin1 the three little bones of the
 middle ear1 and the cochlea of the     
inner ear are all merely mechanical     
means of making possible the stimulation
 of the specialized endings of the      
auditory nerve by vibrations of air4    
,as the different colors are due to     
different vibration frequencies of the  
ether1 so different pitches of sound are
 due to differences in the rates of the 
air vibrations4 ,the low bass notes are 
produced by the low vibration           
frequencies4 ,the high notes are        
produced by the high vibration          
frequencies4 ,the lowest notes that we  
can hear are produced by about twenty   
vibrations a second1 and the highest by 
about forty thousand vibrations a       
second4  ,other ,sense ,organs4 ,we need
 not give a detailed statement of the   
facts concerning the other senses4 ,in  
each case the sense organ is some       
special adaptation of the nerve-endings 
with appropriate apparatus in connection
 to enable it to be affected by some    

special thing or force in the           
environment4  ,in the case of taste1 we 
find in the mouth1 chiefly on the back  
and edges of the tongue1 organs         
sensitive to sweet1 sour1 salt1 and     
bitter4 ,in the nose we have an organ   
that is sensitive to the tiny particles 
of substances that float in the air     
which we breathe in through the nose4   
,in the skin we find several kinds of   
sense organs that give us the sensations
 of cold and warmth1 of pressure and    
pain4 ,these are all special and        
definite sensations produced by         
different kinds of organs4 ,the sense of
 warmth is produced by different organs 
from those which produce the sense of   
cold4 ,these organs can be detected and 
localized on the skin4 ,so1 also1 pain  
and touch or pressure have each its     
particular organ4  ,within the body     
itself we have sense organs also1       
particularly in the joints and tendons  
and in the muscles4 ,these give us the  
sensations which are the basis of our   

perception of motion1 and of the        
position of the body and its members4   
,in the semicircular canals of the inner
 ear are organs that give us the sense  
of dizziness1 and enable us to maintain 
our equilibrium and to know up from     
down4  ,the general nature of the sense 
organs and of sensation should now be   
apparent4 ,the nervous system reaches   
out its myriad fingers to every portion 
of the surface of the body1 and within  
the body as well4 ,these nerve-endings  
are specially adapted to receive each   
its particular form of stimulation4     
,this stimulation of our sense organs is
 the basis or cause of our sensations4  
,and our sensations are the elementary  
stuff of all our experience4 ,whatever  
thoughts we have1 whatever ideas or     
images we have1 they come originally    
from our sensations4 ,they are built up 
out of our sensations or from these     
sensations as they exist in memory4     
,defects of ,sense ,organs4 ,the organs 
of sight and hearing are now by far the 

most important of our sense organs4     
,they enable us to sense things that are
 at a distance4 ,we shall therefore     
discuss defects of these two organs     
only4 ,since sensations are the primary 
stuff out of which mind is made1 and    
since sight and hearing are the most    
important sense organs1 it is evident   
that our lives are very much dependent  
on these organs4 ,if they cannot do     
their work well1 then we are            
handicapped4 ,and this is often the     
case4  ,the making of the human eye is  
one of the most remarkable achievements 
of nature4 ,but the making of a perfect 
eye is too big a task for nature4 ,she  
never makes a perfect eye4 ,there is    
always some defect1 large or small4 ,to 
take plastic material and make lenses   
and shutters and curtains is a great    
task4 ,the curvature of the front of the
 eye and of the front and back of the   
crystalline lens is never quite perfect1
 but in the majority of cases it is     
nearly enough perfect to give us good   

vision4 ,however1 in about one third of 
school children the defect is great     
enough to need to be corrected by       
glasses4  ,the principle of the         
correction of sight by means of glasses 
is merely this3#a ,when the focusing    
apparatus of the eye is not perfect1 it 
can be made so by putting in front of   
the eye the proper kind of lens4 ,there 
is nothing strange or mysterious about  
it4 ,in some cases1 the eye focuses the 
light before it reaches the retina4     
,such cases are known as nearsightedness
 and are corrected by having placed in  
front of the eyes concave lenses of the 
proper strength4 ,these lenses diverge  
the rays and make them focus on the     
retina4 ,in other cases1 the eye is not 
able to focus the rays by the time they 
reach the retina4 ,in these cases1 the  
eyes need the help of convex lenses of  
the proper strength to make the focus   
fall exactly on the retina4  #a ,the    
teacher should explain these principles 
and illustrate by drawings4 ,consult a  

good text in physiology4 ,noyes'        
,university of ,missouri ,extension     
,bulletin on eye and ear defects will be
 found most useful4  ,another defect of 
the eye1 known as astigmatism1 is due to
 the fact that the eye does not always  
have a perfectly spherical front        
7cornea74 ,the curvature in one         
direction is different from that in     
others4 ,for example1 the vertical      
curvature may be more convex than the   
horizontal4 ,such a condition produces a
 serious defect of vision4 ,it can be   
corrected by means of cylindrical lenses
 of the proper strength so placed before
 the eye as to correct the defect in    
curvature4  ,still another defect of    
vision is known as presbyopia or        
farsightedness due to old age4 ,it has  
the following explanation3 ,in early    
life1 when we look at near objects1 the 
crystalline lens automatically becomes  
thicker1 more convex4 ,this adjustment  
brings the rays to a focus on the       
retina1 which is required for good      

vision4 ,as we get old1 the crystalline 
lens loses its power to change its      
adjustment for near objects1 although   
the eye may see at a distance as well as
 ever4 ,the old person1 therefore1 must 
wear convex glasses when looking at near
 objects1 as in reading and sewing4     
,another visual defect of a different   
nature is known as partial color        
blindness4 ,the defects described above 
are due to misshapen eyes4 ,partial     
color blindness is due to a defect of   
the retina which makes it unable to be  
affected by light waves producing red   
and green4 ,a person with this defect   
confuses red and green4 ,while only a   
small percentage of the population has  
this defect1 it is nevertheless very    
important that those having it be       
detected4 ,people having the defect     
should not be allowed to enter          
occupations in which the seeing of red  
and green is important4 ,it was recently
 brought to the author's attention that 
a partially color-blind man was selling 

stamps in a post office4 ,since two     
denominations of stamps are             
distinguished by red and green colors1  
this man made frequent mistakes4 ,he was
 doing one of the things for which he   
was specially unfitted4 ,it is easy to  
detect color blindness by simple tests4 
,so great is the importance of good     
vision in school work and the later work
 of life1 that every teacher should know
 how to make simple tests to determine  
visual defects4 ,children showing any   
symptoms of eyestrain should be required
 to have their visual defects corrected 
by a competent oculist1 and should be   
warned not to have the correction made  
by a quack4 ,there is great popular     
ignorance and even prejudice concerning 
visual defects1 and it is very important
 that teachers have a clear             
understanding of the facts4  ,defects of
 ,hearing4 ,hearing defects are only    
about half as frequent as those of      
sight4 ,they are nearly all due to      
catarrhal infection of the middle ear   

through the ,eustachian tube4 ,the      
careful and frequent medical examination
 of school children cannot1 therefore1  
be too strongly emphasized4 ,the        
deafness or partial deafness that comes 
from this catarrhal infection can seldom
 be cured2 it must be prevented by the  
early treatment of the troubles which   
cause it4    ,,summary4 ,the mind is    
closely related to the body4 ,especially
 is it   dependent upon the brain1      
nerves1 and sense organs4 ,the sense    
organs   are special adaptations of the 
nerve-ends for receiving impressions4   
,each sense organ receives only its     
particular type of impression4    ,the  
main visual phenomena are those of      
color-mixture1 after-images1            
adaptation1 and contrast4 ,since        
sensation is the basis of mental   life1
 defects of the sense organs are serious
 handicaps and should   be corrected if 
possible4 ,visual defects are usually   
due to a   misshapen eyeball and can be 
corrected by proper glasses1 which      

should be fitted by an oculist4 ,hearing
 defects usually arise from   catarrhal 
trouble in the middle ear4   ,,class    
,,exercises  #a4 ,make a study of the   
relation of the mind to the body4       
,enumerate the different lines of       
evidence which you may find indicating  
their close relationship4  #b4 ,can you 
find any evidence tending to show that  
the mind is independent of the body8    
#c4 ,color-,mixture4 ,colored disks can 
be procured from ,c4 ,h4 ,stoelting     
,company1 ,chicago4 ,if a small motor is
 available1 the disks can be rotated on 
the motor and the colors mixed4 ,mix    
pairs of complementary colors1 also     
pairs of non-complementary colors1 and  
note the result4 ,a simple device can be
 made for mixing colors1 as follows3 ,on
 a board stand a pane of glass4 ,on one 
side of the glass put a colored paper   
and on the other side of the glass put a
 different color4 ,by looking through   
the glass you can see one color through 
transmitted light and the other color   

through reflected light4 ,by inclining  
the glass at different angles you can   
get different proportions of the        
mixture1 now more of one color1 now more
 of the other4  #d4 ,negative           
,after-,images4 ,cut out pieces of      
colored paper a half inch square4 ,put  
one of these on a white background on   
the table4 ,with elbows on the table1   
hold the head in the hands and gaze at  
the colored paper for about a           
half-minute1 then blow the paper away   
and continue to gaze at the white       
background4 ,note the color that        
appears4 ,use different colors and      
tabulate the results4 ,try projecting   
the after-images at different distances4
 ,project the after-images on different 
colored papers4 ,do the after-images mix
 with the colors of the papers8  #e4 ,an
 interesting experiment with positive   
after-images can be performed as        
follows3 ,shut yourself in a dark closet
 for fifteen or twenty minutes to remove
 all trace of stimulation of the retina4

 ,with the eyes covered with several    
folds of thick black cloth go to a      
window1 uncover the eyes and take a     
momentary look at the landscape1        
immediately covering the eyes again4    
,the landscape will appear as a positive
 after-image1 with the positive colors  
and lights and shades4 ,the experiment  
is best performed on a bright day4  #f4 
,adaptation4 ,put on colored glasses or 
hold before the eyes a large piece of   
colored glass4 ,note that at first      
everything takes on the color of the    
glass4 ,what change comes over objects  
after the glasses have been worn for    
fifteen or twenty minutes8 ,describe    
your experience after removing the      
glasses4 ,plan and perform other        
experiments showing adaptation4 ,for    
illustration1 go from a very bright room
 into a dark room4 ,go from a very dark 
room to a light one4 ,describe your     
experience4  #g4 ,contrast4 ,take a     
medium gray paper and lay it on white   
and various shades of gray and black    

paper4 ,describe and explain what you   
find4  #h4 ,color ,contrast4 ,darken a  
room by covering all the windows except 
one window pane4 ,cover it with         
cardboard4 ,in the cardboard cut two    
windows six inches long and one inch    
wide4 ,over one window put colored glass
 or any other colored material through  
which some light will pass4 ,by holding 
up a pencil you can cast two shadows on 
a piece of paper4 ,what color are the   
shadows8 ,one is a contrast color       
induced by the other2 which one8        
,explain the results4  #i4 ,make a study
 of the way in which women dress4 ,what 
do you learn about color effects8  #aj4 
,from the ,stoelting ,company you can   
obtain the ,holmgren worsteds for       
studying color blindness4  #aa4         
,defective ,vision4 ,procure a          
,snellen's test chart and determine the 
visual acuity of the members of the     
class4 ,seat the subject twenty feet    
from the chart1 which should be placed  
in a good light4 ,while testing one eye1

 cover the other with a piece of        
cardboard4 ,above each row of letters on
 the chart is a number which indicates  
the distance at which it can be read by 
a normal eye4 ,if the subject can read  
only the thirty-foot line1 his vision is
 said to be #bj_/cj2 if only the        
forty-foot line1 the vision is #bj_/dj4 
,if the subject can read above the      
twenty-foot line and complains of       
headache from reading1 farsightedness is
 indicated4 ,if the subject cannot read 
up to the twenty-foot line1             
nearsightedness or astigmatism is       
indicated4  #ab4 ,hearing4 ,by          
consultation with the teacher of        
physics1 plan an experiment to show that
 the pitch of tones depends on vibration
 frequency4 ,such an experiment can be  
very simply performed by rotating a     
wheel having spokes4 ,hold a light stick
 against the spokes so that it strikes  
each spoke4 ,if the wheel is rotated so 
as to give twenty or thirty strokes a   
second1 a very low tone will be heard4  

,by rotating the wheel faster you get a 
higher tone4 ,other similar experiments 
can be performed4  #ac4 ,acuity of      
hearing can be tested by finding the    
distance at which the various members of
 the class can hear a watch-tick4 ,the  
teacher can plan an experiment using    
whispering instead of the watch-tick4   
7,see the author's ,examination of      
,school ,children47  #ad4 ,by using the 
point of a nail1 one can find the cold  
spots on the skin4 ,warm the nail to    
about #dj degrees ,centigrade and you   
can find the warm spots4  #ae4 ,by      
touching the hairs on the back of the   
hand1 you can stimulate the pressure    
spots4  #af4 ,by pricking the skin with 
the point of a needle1 you can stimulate
 the pain spots4  #ag4 ,the sense of    
taste is sensitive only to solutions    
that are sweet1 sour1 salt1 or bitter4  
,plan experiments to verify this point4 
,what we call the taste of many things  
is due chiefly to odor4 ,therefore in   
experiments with taste1 the nostrils    

should be stopped up with cotton4 ,it   
will be found1 for example1 that quinine
 and coffee are indistinguishable if    
their odors be eliminated by stopping   
the nose4 ,the student should compare   
the taste of many substances put into   
the mouth with the nostrils open with   
the taste of the same substances with   
the nostrils closed4   ,,references     
,,for ,,class ,,reading  ,,colvin ,,and 
,,bagley3 ,human ,behavior1 ,chapters   
,,vii and ,,xii4                        
,m,ue,n,s,t,e,r,b,e,r,g3 ,psychology1   
,general and ,applied1 ,chapters ,,iii1 
,,iv1 ,,vi1 and ,,vii4  ,,pillsbury3    
,essentials of ,psychology1 ,chapters   
,,ii1 ,,iii1 and ,,iv4  ,,pyle3 ,the    
,outlines of ,educational ,psychology1  
,chapter ,,ii4  ,,titchener3 ,a         
,beginner's ,psychology1 ,chapter ,i1   
par4 #c2 also ,chapter ,,ii4            
,,chapter ,,iv  ,,inherited ,,tendencies
   ,stimulus and ,response4 ,we have    
learned something about the sense organs
 and their functions4 ,we have seen that

 it is through the sense organs that the
 world affects us1 stimulates us4 ,and  
we have said that we are stimulated in  
order that we may respond4  ,we must now
 inquire into the nature of our         
responses4 ,we are moving1 active       
beings4 ,but how do we move1 how do we  
act when stimulated8 ,why do we do one  
thing rather than another8 ,why do we do
 one thing at one time and a different  
thing at another time8  ,before we      
answer these questions it will be       
necessary for us to get a more definite 
and complete idea of the nature of      
stimulus and response4 ,we have already 
used these terms1 but we must now give a
 more definite account of them4 ,it was 
said in the preceding chapter that when 
a muscle contracts1 it must first       
receive a nerve-impulse4 ,now1 anything 
which starts this nerve-impulse is      
called the stimulus4 ,the muscular      
movement which follows is1 of course1   
the response4 ,the nervous system forms 
the connection between the stimulus and 

response4  ,the stimulus which brings   
about a response may be very simple4    
,or1 on the other hand1 it may be very  
complex4 ,if one blows upon the eyelids 
of a baby1 the lids automatically close4
 ,the blowing is the stimulus and the   
closing of the lids is the response4    
,both stimulus and response are here    
very simple4  ,but sometimes the        
stimulus is more complex1 not merely the
 simple excitation of one sense organ1  
but a complicated stimulation of an     
organ1 or the simultaneous stimulation  
of several organs4 ,in playing ball1 the
 stimulus for the batter is the         
on-coming ball4 ,the response is the    
stroke4 ,this case is much more complex 
than the reflex closing of the eyelids4 
,the ball may be pitched in many        
different ways and the response changes 
with these variations4  ,in piano       
playing1 the stimulus is the notes      
written in their particular places on   
the staff4 ,not only must the position  
of the notes on the staff be taken into 

account1 but also many other things1    
such as sharps and flats1 and various   
characters which give directions as to  
the manner in which the music is to be  
played4 ,the striking of the notes in   
the proper order1 in the proper time1   
and with the proper force1 is the       
response4  ,in typewriting1 the stimulus
 is the copy1 or the idea of what is to 
be written1 and the response is the     
striking of the keys in the proper      
order4 ,speaking generally1 we may say  
that the stimulus is the force or forces
 which excite the sense organs1 and     
thereby1 through the nervous system1    
bring about a muscular response4  ,this 
is the ordinary type of action1 but we  
have already indicated a different type4
 ,in speaking of typewriting we said the
 stimulus might be either the copy or   
ideas4 ,one can write from copy or      
dictation1 in which the stimulus is the 
written or spoken word1 but one can also
 write as one thinks of what one wishes 
to write4 ,the latter is known as       

centrally initiated action4 ,that is to 
say1 the stimulus comes from within1 in 
the brain1 rather than from without4    
,let us explain this kind of stimulation
 a little further4 ,suppose ,i am       
sitting in my chair reading4 ,i finish a
 chapter and look at my watch4 ,i notice
 that it is three o'clock1 and recall   
that ,i was to meet a friend at that    
time4 ,the stimulus in this case is in  
the brain itself2 it is the nervous     
activity which corresponds to the idea  
of meeting my friend4 ,if we disregard  
the distinction between mind and body1  
we may say that the stimulus for a      
response may be an idea as well as a    
perception1 the perception arising from 
the immediate stimulation of a sense    
organ1 and the idea arising from an     
excitation of the brain not caused by an
 immediate stimulation of a sense organ4
  ,instincts and ,habits4 ,in human     
action it is evident that there is      
always a stimulus to start the          
nerve-impulse which causes the action4  

,if we make inquiry concerning the      
connection between the stimulus and     
response2 if we ask how it has come     
about that a particular stimulus causes 
a particular response rather than some  
other possible response1 we find two    
kinds of causes4 ,in one case the causal
 connection is established through      
heredity2 in the other1 the causal      
connection is established during a      
person's lifetime through training4  ,a 
chicken1 for example1 hides under some  
cover the first time it hears the cry of
 a hawk2 it scratches the first time its
 feet touch sand or gravel2 it pecks the
 first time it sees an insect near by4  
,an infant closes its eyes the first    
time it feels cold wind blow upon them2 
it cries the first time it feels pain2  
it clasps its fingers together the first
 time a touch is felt inside them4 ,the 
child's nervous system is so organized  
that1 in each of the cases named1 the   
stimulus brings forth the particular1   
definite response4 ,these acts do not   

have to be learned4  ,but it is quite   
different in typewriting and piano      
playing4 ,one must learn what keys on   
the piano to strike in response to the  
various situations of the notes as      
written in the music4 ,one must also    
learn the keys on the typewriter before 
he can operate a typewriter4 ,and in the
 case of other habits1 we find1 for     
example1 that one does not respond by   
saying #ha for #i times #i2 nor #ac for 
#f plus #g2 nor #h for #ae minus #g2 nor
 #h for the square root of #fd2 nor #add
 for the square of #ab1 etc41 until one 
has learned in each case4  ,some        
connections between stimulus and        
response we have through inheritance2   
all others are built up and established 
in one's lifetime1 particularly in the  
first thirty years of one's life4  ,we  
have spoken of bonds between stimulus   
and response1 but have not explained    
just what can be meant by a bond4 ,in   
what sense are stimulus and response    
bound together8 ,a bond is a matter of  

greater permeability1 of less resistance
 in one direction through the nervous   
system than in other directions4 ,nerves
 are conductors for nerve-currents4     
,when a nerve-current is started in a   
sense organ1 it passes on through the   
path of least resistance4  ,now1 some   
nerves are so organized and connected   
through inheritance as to offer small   
resistance4 ,this forms a ready-made    
connection between stimulus and         
response4 ,muscular responses that are  
connected with their stimuli through    
inherited bonds1 by inherited nerve     
structure1 are called instincts4 ,those 
that are connected by acquired bonds are
 called habits4 ,sucking1 crying1       
laughing1 are instinctive acts4 ,adding1
 typewriting1 piano playing1 are habits4
  ,the term instinct may be given to the
 act depending upon inherited structure1
 an inherited bond1 or it may be given  
to the inherited bond itself4           
,similarly1 the term habit may be given 
to an act that we have had to learn or  

to the bond which we ourselves establish
 between response and stimulus4 ,in this
 book we shall usually mean by instinct 
an action depending upon inherited      
structure and by habit an act depending 
upon a bond established during lifetime4
 ,a good part of our early lives is     
spent in building up bonds between      
stimuli and responses4 ,this            
establishing of bonds or connections is 
called learning4  ,appearance of        
,inherited ,tendencies4 ,not all of our 
inherited tendencies are manifested     
immediately after birth1 nor indeed in  
the earliest years of childhood1 but    
appear at different stages of the       
child's growth4 ,it has already been    
said that a child1 soon after birth1    
will close its eyelids when they are    
blown upon4 ,the lids do not close at   
this time if one strikes at them1 but   
they will do this later4 ,the proper    
working of an instinct or an inherited  
tendency1 then1 depends upon the child's
 having reached a certain state of      

development4  ,the maturing of an       
instinct depends upon both age and use1 
that is to say1 upon the age of the     
animal and the amount of use or exercise
 that the instinctive activity has had4 
,the most important factor1 however1    
seems to be age4 ,while our knowledge of
 the dependence of an instinct upon the 
age of the animal is not quite so       
definite in the case of human instincts1
 the matter has been worked out in the  
case of chickens4  ,the experiment was  
as follows3 ,chickens were taken at the 
time of hatching1 and some allowed to   
peck from the first1 while others were  
kept in a dark room and not allowed to  
peck4 ,when the chickens were taken out 
of the dark room at the end of one1 two1
 three1 and four days1 it was found that
 in a few hours they were pecking as    
well as those that had been pecking from
 birth4 ,it seems probable1 if we may   
judge from our limited knowledge1 that  
in the human child1 activities are for  
the most part dependent upon the age of 

the child1 and upon the state of        
development of the nervous system and of
 the organs of the body4  ,significance 
of ,inherited ,tendencies4 ,although    
human nature is very complex1 although  
human action nearly always has some     
element of habit in it1 nevertheless1   
inborn tendencies are throughout life   
powerful factors in determining action4 
,this will at once be apparent if we    
consider how greatly we are influenced  
by anger1 jealousy1 love1 fear1 and     
competition4 ,now we do not have to     
learn to be jealous1 to hate1 to love1  
to be envious1 to fight1 or to fear4    
,these are emotions common to all       
members of the human race1 and their    
expression is an inborn tendency4       
,throughout life no other influences are
 so powerful in determining our action  
as are these4 ,so1 although most of our 
detailed actions in life are habits     
which we learn or acquire1 the          
fundamental influences which decide the 
course of our action are inherited      

tendencies4  ,classification of         
,instincts4 ,for convenience in         
treatment the instincts are grouped in  
classes4 ,those instincts most closely  
related to individual survival are      
called individualistic instincts4 ,those
 more closely related to the survival of
 the group are called socialistic4      
,those individualistic tendencies       
growing out of periodic changes of the  
environment may be called environmental 
instincts4 ,those closely related to    
human infancy1 adapting and adjusting   
the child to the world in which he      
lives1 may be called adaptive4 ,there is
 still another group of inherited       
tendencies connected with sex and       
reproduction1 which are not discussed in
 this book4  ,we shall give a brief     
discussion of the instincts falling     
under these various classes4 ,it must be
 remembered1 however1 that the          
psychology of the instincts is          
indefinite and obscure4 ,it is difficult
 to bring the instincts into the        

laboratory for accurate study4 ,for our 
knowledge of the instincts we are       
dependent1 for the most part1 on general
 observation4 ,we have had a few careful
 studies of the very earliest years of  
childhood4 ,however1 although from the  
theoretical point of view our knowledge 
of the instincts is incomplete1 it is   
sufficient to be of considerable        
practical value4  ,the ,individualistic 
,instincts4 ,man's civilized life has   
covered but a short period of time1 only
 a few hundred or a few thousand years4 
,his pre-civilized life doubtless       
covered a period of millions of years4  
,the inborn tendencies in us are such as
 were developed in the long period of   
savage life4 ,during all of man's life  
in the time before civilization1 he was 
always in danger4 ,he had many enemies1 
and most of these enemies had the       
advantage of him in strength and natural
 means of defense4 ,unaided by weapons1 
he could hardly hold his own against any
 of the beasts of prey4 ,so there were  

developed in man by the process of      
natural selection many inherited        
responses which we group under the head 
of fear responses4  ,just what the      
various situations are that bring forth 
these responses has never been carefully
 worked out4 ,but any situation that    
suddenly puts an individual in danger of
 losing his life brings about           
characteristic reactions4 ,the most     
characteristic of the responses are     
shown in connection with circulation and
 respiration4 ,both of these processes  
are much interfered with4 ,sometimes the
 action is accelerated1 at other times  
it is retarded1 and in some cases the   
respiratory and circulatory organs are  
almost paralyzed4 ,also the small       
muscles of the skin are made to         
contract1 producing the sensation of the
 hair standing on end4 ,just what the   
original use of all these responses was 
it is difficult now to work out1 but    
doubtless each served some useful       
purpose4  ,whether any particular       

situations now call forth inherited fear
 responses in us is not definitely      
established4 ,but among lower animals   
there are certain definite and          
particular situations which do call     
forth fear responses4 ,on the whole1 the
 evidence rather favors the idea of     
definite fear situations among children4
 ,it seems that certain situations do   
invariably arouse fear responses4 ,to be
 alone in the dark1 to be in a strange  
place1 to hear loud and sudden noises1  
to see large1 strange animals coming in 
threatening manner1 seem universally to 
call forth fear responses in children4  
,however1 the whole situation must      
always be considered4 ,a situation in   
which the father or mother is present is
 quite different from one in which they 
are both absent4 ,but it is certain that
 these and other fears are closely      
related to the age and development of   
the child4 ,in the earlier years of     
infancy1 certain fears are not present  
that are present later4 ,and it can be  

demonstrated that the fears that do     
arise as infancy passes on are natural  
and inherited and not the result of     
experience4  ,few of the original causes
 of fear now exist4 ,the original danger
 was from wild animals chiefly4 ,seldom 
are we now in such danger4 ,but of      
course this has been the case for only a
 short time4 ,our bodies are the same   
sort of bodies that our ancestors had1  
therefore we are full of needless fears4
 ,during the early years of a child's   
life1 wise treatment causes most of the 
fear tendencies to disappear because of 
disuse4 ,on the other hand1 unwise      
treatment may accentuate and perpetuate 
them1 causing much misery and           
unhappiness4 ,neither the home nor the  
school should play upon these ancestral 
fears4 ,we should not try to get a child
 to be good by frightening him2 nor     
should we often use fear of pain as an  
incentive to get a child to do his work4
  ,man has always been afraid1 but he   
has also always been a fighter4 ,he has 

always had to fight for his life against
 the lower animals1 and he has also     
fought his fellow man4 ,the fighting    
response is connected with the emotions 
of anger1 envy1 and jealousy4 ,a man is 
angered by anything that interferes with
 his life1 with his purposes1 with      
whatever he calls his own4 ,we become   
angry if some one strikes our bodies1 or
 attacks our beliefs1 or the beliefs of 
our dear friends1 particularly of our   
families4 ,the typical responses        
connected with anger are such as faster 
heart-beat1 irregular breathing1        
congestion of the blood in the face and 
head1 tightening of the voluntary       
muscles1 particularly a setting of the  
teeth and a clinching of the fists4     
,these responses are preparatory to     
actual combat4  ,anger1 envy1 and       
jealousy1 and the responses growing out 
of them1 have always played a large part
 in the life of man4 ,a great part of   
history is a record of the fights of    
nations1 tribes1 and individuals4 ,if   

the records of wars and strifes1 and the
 acts growing out of envy and jealousy  
and other similar emotions should be    
taken out of history1 there would not be
 much left4 ,much of literature and art 
depict those actions of man which grew  
out of these individualistic aspects of 
his nature4 ,competition1 which is an   
aspect of fighting1 even to the present 
day1 continues to be one of the main    
factors in business and in life         
generally4 ,briefly1 fighting responses 
growing out of man's selfishness are as 
old as man himself1 and the inherited   
tendencies connected with them are among
 the strongest of our natures4  ,in the 
training of children1 one of the most   
difficult tasks is to help them to get  
control over the fighting instinct and  
other selfish tendencies4 ,these        
tendencies are so deeply rooted in our  
natures that it is hard to get control  
of them4 ,in fact1 the control which we 
do get over them is always relative4    
,the best we can hope to do is to get   

control over our fighting tendencies in 
ordinary circumstances4  ,it is doubtful
 whether it would be good for us if the 
fighting spirit should disappear from   
the race4 ,it puts vim and determination
 into the life of man4 ,but our fighting
 should not be directed against our     
fellow man4 ,the fighting spirit can be 
retained and directed against evil and  
other obstacles4 ,we can learn to attack
 our tasks in a fighting spirit4 ,but   
surely the time has come when we should 
cease fighting against our neighbors4   
,social ,tendencies4 ,over against our  
fighting tendencies we may set the      
socialistic tendencies4 ,cooeperative   
and sympathetic actions grow out of     
original nature1 just as truly as do the
 selfish acts4 ,but the socialistic     
tendencies are not1 in general1 as      
strong as are the individualistic ones4 
,what society needs is the strengthening
 of the socialistic tendencies by use1  
and a weakening of at least some of the 
individualistic tendencies1 by control  

and disuse4  ,socialistic tendencies    
show themselves in gangs and clubs      
formed by children and adults4 ,it is1  
therefore1 a common practice now to     
speak of the gang instinct4 ,human      
beings are pleased and content when with
 other human beings and not content1 not
 satisfied1 when alone4 ,of course      
circumstances make a difference in the  
desires of men1 but the general original
 tendency is as stated4  ,the gang of   
the modern city has the following       
explanation3 ,boys like to be with other
 boys4 ,moreover1 they like to be       
active2 they want to be doing something4
 ,the city does not provide proper means
 for the desired activities1 such as    
hunting1 fishing1 tramping1 and boating4
 ,it does not provide experiences with  
animals1 such as boys have on the farm4 
,much of the boy's day is spent in      
school in a kind of work not at all like
 what he would do by choice4 ,there is  
not much home life4 ,usually there is   
not the proper parental control4 ,seldom

 do the parents interest themselves in  
planning for the activities of their    
children4 ,the result is that the boys  
come together on the streets and form a 
club or gang4 ,through this organization
 the boy's nature expresses itself4     
,without proper guidance from older     
people1 this expression takes a         
direction not good for the future       
character and usefulness of the boy4    
,the social life of children should be  
provided for by the school in           
cooeperation with the home4 ,the school 
or the schoolroom should constitute a   
social unit4 ,the teacher with the      
parents should plan the social life of  
the children4 ,the actual work of the   
school can be very much socialized4     
,there can be much more cooeperation and
 much more group work can be done in the
 school than is the case at present4    
,and many other social activities can be
 organized in connection with the school
 and its work4 ,excursions1 pageants1   
shows1 picnics1 and all sorts of        

activities should be undertaken4  ,the  
schoolhouse should be used by the       
community as the place for many of its  
social acts and performances4 ,almost   
every night1 and throughout the summer  
as well as in the winter1 the people1   
young and old1 should meet at the school
 for some sort of social work or play4  
,the ,boy ,scouts should be brought     
under the control of the school to help 
fulfill some of its main purposes4      
,environmental ,instincts4 ,in this     
class there are at least two tendencies 
which seem to be part of the original   
nature of man2 namely1 the wandering and
 the collecting tendencies4  ,wandering4
 ,the long life that our ancestors lived
 free and unrestrained in the woods has 
left its effect within us4 ,one of the  
greatest achievements of civilization   
has been to overcome the inherited      
tendencies to roam and wander1 to the   
extent that for the most part we live   
out our lives in one home1 in one       
family1 doing often but one kind of work

 all our lives4 ,originally1 man had    
much more freedom to come and go and do 
whatever he wished4  ,truancies and     
runaways are the result of original     
tendencies and desires expressing       
themselves in spite of training1 perhaps
 sometimes because of the lack of       
training4 ,in childhood and youth these 
original tendencies should1 to some     
extent1 be satisfied in legitimate ways4
 ,excursions and picnics can be planned 
both for work and for play4 ,if the     
child's desires and needs can be        
satisfied in legitimate ways1 then he   
will not have to satisfy them           
illegitimately4 ,the teaching itself can
 be done better by following1 to some   
extent1 the lead of the child's nature4 
,much early education consists in       
learning the world4 ,now1 most of the   
world is out of doors and the child must
 go out to find it4 ,the teacher should 
make use of the natural desires of the  
children to wander and explore1 as a    
means of educating them4 ,the school    

work should be of such a nature that    
much outdoor work will need to be done4 
,collecting4 ,it is in the nature of    
children to seize and1 if possible1     
carry away whatever attracts attention4 
,this tendency is the basis of what is  
called the collecting instinct4 ,if one 
will take a walk with a child1 one can  
observe the operation of the collecting 
tendency1 particularly if the walk is in
 the fields and woods4 ,the child will  
be observed to take leaves1 flowers1    
fruits1 seeds1 nuts1 pebbles1 and in    
fact everything that is loose or can be 
gotten loose4 ,they are taken at first  
aimlessly1 merely because they attract  
attention4 ,the original1 natural       
response of the child toward that which 
attracts attention is usually to get it1
 get possession of it and take it along4
 ,it is easy to see why such tendencies 
were developed in man4 ,in his savage   
state it was highly useful for him to do
 this4 ,he must always have been on the 
lookout for things which could be used  

as food or as weapons4 ,he had to do    
this to live4 ,but one need not take a  
child to the woods to observe this      
tendency4 ,one can go to the stores4    
,till a child is trained not to do it1  
he seizes and takes whatever attracts   
attention4  ,just as the wandering      
tendencies can be used for the benefit  
of the child1 so can the collecting     
tendencies4 ,not only should the        
children make expeditions to learn of   
the world1 but specimens should be      
collected so that they can be used to   
form a museum at the school which will  
represent the surrounding locality4     
,geological1 geographical1 botanical1   
and zooelogical specimens should be     
collected4 ,the children will learn much
 while making the collections1 and much 
from the collections after they are     
made4  ,education could profit greatly  
by making large demands upon the        
collecting instinct4 ,it seems clear    
that in their childhood is the time when
 children should be sent forth to the   

fields and woods1 to study what they    
find there and to gather specimens4 ,the
 children can form naturalists' clubs   
for the purpose of studying the natural 
environment4 ,such study should embrace 
rocks1 soils1 plants1 leaves1 flowers1  
fruits1 and specimens of the wood of the
 various trees4 ,birds and insects can  
be studied and collected4 ,the work of  
such a club would have a twofold value4 
7#a7 ,the study and collecting acquaint 
the child with his natural environment1 
and in doing it1 afford a sphere for the
 activity of many aspects of his nature4
 ,they take him out of doors and give an
 opportunity for exploring every nook   
and corner of the natural environment4  
,the collecting can often be done in    
such a way as to appeal to the group    
instincts4 ,for example1 the club could 
hold meetings for exhibiting and        
studying the specimens1 and sometimes   
the actual collecting could be done in  
groups4 7#b7 ,the specimens collected   
should be put into the school museum1   

and the aim of this museum should be to 
represent completely the local          
environment1 the natural and physical   
environment1 and also the industrial1   
civil1 and social environment4 ,the     
museum should be completely illustrative
 of the child's natural1 physical1 and  
social surroundings4 ,the museum would  
therefore be educative in its making1   
and when it is made1 it would have      
immense value to the community1 not only
 to the children but to all the people4 
,in this museum1 of course1 should be   
found the minerals1 rocks1 soils1       
insects1--particularly those of economic
 importance1--birds1 and also specimens 
of the wild animals of the locality4 ,if
 proper appeal is made to the natural   
desire of the children1 this instinct   
would soon be made of service in        
producing a very valuable collection4   
,the school museum in which these       
specimens are placed should also include
 other classes of specimens4 ,there     
should be specimens showing industrial  

evolution1 the stages of manufacture of 
raw material1 specimens of local        
historical interest1 pictures1          
documents1 books4 ,the museum should be 
made of such a nature that parents would
 go there nearly as often as the        
children4 ,the school should be for the 
instruction of all the people of the    
community4 ,it should be the experiment 
station1 the library1 the debating club1
 the art gallery for the whole          
community4#b  #b ,pyle's ,outlines of   
,educational ,psychology1 pp4 #hd-hf4   
,imitation4 ,one of the fundamental     
original traits of human nature is the  
tendency to imitate4 ,imitation is not  
instinctive in the strict meaning of the
 word4 ,seeing a certain act performed  
does not1 apart from training and       
experience1 serve as a stimulus to make 
a child perform a similar act4 ,hearing 
a certain sound does not serve as a     
stimulus for the production of the same 
sound4 ,nevertheless1 there is in the   
human child a tendency or desire to do  

what it sees others doing4  ,a few hours
 spent in observing children ought to   
convince any one of the universality and
 of the strength of this tendency4 ,as  
our experience becomes organized1 the   
idea of an act usually serves as the    
stimulus to call it forth4 ,however1    
this is not because the idea of an act1 
of necessity1 always produces the act4  
,it is merely a matter of the stimulus  
and the response becoming connected in  
that way as the result of experience4   
,our meaning is that an act can be      
touched off or prompted by any stimulus4
 ,our nervous organization makes this   
possible4 ,the particular stimulus that 
calls forth a particular response       
depends upon how we have been trained1  
how we have learned4 ,in most cases our 
acts are coupled up with the ideas of   
the acts4 ,we learn them that way4  ,in 
early life particularly1 the connection 
between stimulus and response is very   
close4 ,when a child gets the idea of an
 act1 he immediately performs the act1  

if he knows how4 ,now1 seeing another   
perform an act brings the act clearly   
into the child's consciousness1 and he  
proceeds to perform it4 ,but the act    
must be one which the child already     
knows how to perform1 otherwise his     
performance of it will be faulty and    
incomplete4 ,if he has never performed  
the particular act1 seeing another      
perform the act sets him to trying to do
 it and he may soon learn it4 ,if he    
successfully performs an act when he    
sees it done by another1 the act must be
 one which he already knows how to      
perform1 and for whose performance the  
idea has already served as a stimulus4  
,now if imitation were instinctive in   
the strict sense1 one could perform the 
act for the first time merely from      
seeing another do it1 without any       
previous experience or learning4 ,it is 
doubtful whether there are any such     
inherited connections4 ,it is1 however1 
true that human beings are of such a    
nature that1 particularly in early life1

 they like to do and want to do what    
they see others doing4 ,this is one of  
the most important aspects of human     
nature1 as we shall see4  ,function and 
,importance of ,imitation in ,life4     
,natural selection has developed few    
aspects of human nature so important for
 survival as the tendency to imitate1   
for this tendency quickly leads to a    
successful adjustment of the child to   
the world in which he lives4 ,adult men 
and women are successfully adjusted to  
their environment4 ,their adjustment    
might be better1 but it is good enough  
to keep them alive for a time4 ,now1 if 
children do as they see their parents   
doing1 they will reach a satisfactory   
adjustment4 ,we may1 therefore1 say that
 the tendency to imitate serves to      
adjust the child to his environment4 ,it
 is for this reason that imitation has  
been called an adaptive instinct4 ,it   
would perhaps be better to say merely   
that the tendency to imitate is part of 
the original equipment of man4          

,imitation is distinctively a human     
trait4 ,while it occurs in lower animals
 it is probably not an important factor 
in adjusting them to their environment4 
,but in the human race it is one of the 
chief factors in adjustment to          
environment4 ,imitation is one of the   
main factors in education4 ,usually the 
quickest way to teach a child to do a   
thing is to show him how4  ,through     
imitation we acquire our language1      
manners1 and customs4 ,ideals1 beliefs1 
prejudices1 attitudes1 we take on       
through imitation4 ,the tendency to     
imitate others coupled with the desire  
to be thought well of by others is one  
of the most powerful factors in         
producing conformity4 ,they are the     
whips which keep us within the bounds of
 custom and conventionality4 ,the       
tendency to imitate is so strong that   
its results are almost as certain as are
 those of inherited tendencies4 ,it is  
almost as certain that a child will be  
like his parents in speech1 manners1    

customs1 superstitions1 etc41 as it is  
that he will be like them in form of    
body4 ,he not only walks and talks and  
acts like his parents1 but he thinks as 
they do4 ,we1 therefore1 have the term  
social heredity1 meaning the taking on  
of all sorts of social habits and ideals
 through imitation4  ,the part that     
imitation plays in the education of a   
child may be learned by going to a      
country home and noting how the boy     
learns to do all the many things about  
the farm by imitating his father1 and   
how the girl learns to do all the       
housework by imitating her mother4      
,imitation is the basis of much of the  
play of children1 in that their play    
consists in large part of doing what    
they see older people doing4 ,this      
imitative play gives them skill and is a
 large factor in preparing for the work 
of life4  ,dramatization4 ,dramatization
 is an aspect of imitation1 and is a    
means of making ideas more real than    
they would otherwise be4 ,there is      

nothing that leads us so close to       
reality as action4 ,we never completely 
know an act till we have done it4       
,dramatization is a matter of carrying  
an idea out into action4 ,ideas give to 
action its greatest fullness of meaning4
  ,dramatic representation should1      
therefore1 have a prominent place in the
 schools1 particularly in the lower     
grades4 ,if the child is allowed to     
mimic the characters in the reading     
lesson1 the meaning of the lesson       
becomes fuller4 ,later on in the school 
course1 dramatic representation of the  
characters in literature and history is 
a means of getting a better conception  
of these characters4 ,in geography1 the 
study of the manners and customs and    
occupations of foreign peoples can be   
much facilitated through dramatic       
representation4 ,children naturally have
 the dramatic tendency2 it is one aspect
 of the tendency to imitate4 ,we have   
only to encourage it and make use of it 
throughout the school course4           

,imitation in ,ideals4 ,imitation is of 
importance not only in acquiring the    
actions of life but also in getting our 
ideals4 ,habits of thinking are no less 
an aspect of our lives than are habits  
of acting4 ,our attitudes1 our          
prejudices1 our beliefs1 our moral1     
religious1 and political ideals are in  
large measure copied from people about  
us4 ,the family and social atmosphere in
 which one lives is a mold in which     
one's mind is formed and shaped4 ,we    
cannot escape the influence of this     
atmosphere if we would4 ,one takes on a 
belief that his father has1 one clings  
to this belief and interprets the world 
in the light of it4 ,this belief becomes
 a part of one's nature4 ,it is a mental
 habit1 a way of looking at the world4  
,it is as much a part of one as red hair
 or big feet or a crooked nose4         
,probably no other influence has so much
 to do with making us what we are as    
social beings as the influence of       
imitation4  ,play4 ,play is usually     

considered to be a part of the original 
equipment of man4 ,it is essentially an 
expression of the ripening instincts of 
children1 and not a specific instinct   
itself4 ,it is rather a sort of         
make-believe activity of all the        
instincts4 ,kittens and dogs may be seen
 in play to mimic fighting4 ,they bite  
and chew each other as in real fighting1
 but still they are not fighting4  ,as  
the structures and organs of children   
mature1 they demand activity4 ,this     
early activity is called play4 ,it has  
several characteristics4 ,the main one  
is that it is pleasurable4 ,play        
activity is pleasurable in itself4 ,we  
do not play that we may get something   
else which we like1 as is the case with 
the activity which we call work4 ,play  
is an end in itself4 ,it is not a means 
to get something else which is          
intrinsically valuable4  ,one of the    
chief values of play comes from its     
activity aspect4 ,we are essentially    
motor beings4 ,we grow and develop only 

through exercise4 ,in early life we do  
not have to exert ourselves to get a    
living4 ,play is nature's means of      
giving our organs the exercise which    
they must have to bring them to         
maturity4 ,play is an expression of the 
universal tendency to action in early   
life4 ,without play1 the child would not
 develop1 would not become a normal     
human being4  ,all day long the child is
 ceaselessly active4 ,the value of this 
activity can hardly be overestimated4   
,it not only leads to healthy growth1   
but is a means through which the child  
learns himself and the world4           
,everything that the child sees excites 
him to react to it or upon it4 ,he gets 
possession of it4 ,he bites it4 ,he     
pounds it4 ,he throws it4 ,in this way  
he learns the properties of things and  
the characteristics of forces4 ,through 
play and imitation1 in a very few years 
the child comes to a successful         
adjustment in his world4  ,play and     
imitation are the great avenues of      

activity in early life4 ,even in later  
life1 we seldom accomplish anything     
great or worth while until the thing    
becomes play to us1 until we throw our  
whole being into it as we do in play1   
until it is an expression of ourselves  
as play is in our childhood4 ,the proper
 use of play gives us the solution of   
many of the problems of early education4
  ,play has two functions in the school3
 7#a7 ,motor play is necessary to       
growth1 development1 and health4 ,the   
constant activity of the child is what  
brings about healthy growth4  ,in the   
country it is not difficult for children
 to get plenty of the proper kind of    
exercise1 but in the larger cities it is
 difficult4 ,nevertheless1 opportunity  
for play should be provided for every   
child1 no matter what the trouble or    
expense1 for without play children      
cannot become normal human beings4      
,everywhere parents and teachers should 
plan for the play life of the children4 
7#b7 ,in the primary grades play can    

have a large place in the actual work of
 the school4 ,the early work of         
education is to a large extent getting  
the tools of knowledge and thought and  
work--reading1 spelling1 writing1       
correct speech1 correct writing1 the    
elementary processes of arithmetic1 etc4
 ,in many ways play can be used in      
acquiring these tools4  ,one aspect of  
play particularly should have a large   
place in education2 namely1 the         
manipulative tendencies of children4    
,this is essentially play4 ,children    
wish to handle and manipulate everything
 that attracts their attention4 ,they   
wish to tear it to pieces and to put it 
together4 ,this is nature's way of      
teaching1 and by it children learn the  
properties and structures of things4    
,they thereby learn what things do and  
what can be done with them4 ,teachers   
and parents should foster these         
manipulative tendencies and use them for
 the child's good4 ,these tendencies are
 an aspect of curiosity4 ,we want to    

know4 ,we are unhappy as long as a thing
 is before us which we do not           
understand1 which has some mystery about
 it4 ,nature has developed these        
tendencies in us1 for without a         
knowledge of our surroundings we could  
not live4 ,the child therefore has in   
his nature the basis of his education4  
,we have but to know this nature and    
wisely use and manipulate it to achieve 
the child's education4    ,,summary4    
,instincts are inherited tendencies to  
specific actions4   ,they fall under the
 heads3 individualistic1 socialistic1   
environmental1 adaptive1 sexual or      
mating instincts4 ,these inherited      
tendencies are to a large extent the    
foundation on which we build            
education4 ,the educational problem is  
to control and guide them1   suppressing
 some1 fostering others4 ,in everything 
we undertake for a   child we must take 
into account these instincts4   ,,class 
,,exercises  #a4 ,make a study of the   
instincts of several animals1 such as   

dogs1 cats1 chickens4 ,make a list      
showing the stimuli and the inherited   
responses4  #b4 ,make a study of the    
instincts of a baby4 ,see how many      
inherited responses you can observe4    
,the simpler inherited responses are    
known as reflexes4 ,the closing of the  
eyelids mentioned in the text is an     
example4 ,how many such reflexes can you
 find in a child8  #c4 ,make a special  
study of the fears of very young        
children4 ,how many definite situations 
can you find which excite fear responses
 in all children8 ,each member of the   
class can make a list of his own fears4 
,it may then be seen whether any fears  
are common to all members of the class  
and whether there are any sex           
differences4  #d4 ,similarly1 make a    
study of anger and fighting4 ,what      
situations invariably arouse the        
fighting response8 ,in what definite1   
inherited ways is anger shown8 ,do your 
studies and observations convince you   
that the fighting instinct and other    

inherited responses concerned with      
individual survival are among the       
strongest of inherited tendencies8 ,can 
the fighting instinct be eliminated from
 the human race8 ,is it desirable to    
eliminate it8  #e4 ,make a study of     
children's collections4 ,take one of the
 grades and find what collections the   
children have made4 ,what different     
objects are collected8  #f4 ,outline a  
plan for using the collecting instinct  
in various school studies4  #g4 ,with   
the help of the principal of the school 
make a study of some specific cases of  
truancy4 ,what does your finding show8  
#h4 ,make a study of play by watching   
children of various ages play4 ,make a  
list of the games that are universal for
 infancy1 those for childhood1 and those
 for youth4 7,consult ,johnson's ,plays 
and ,games47  #i4 ,what are the two main
 functions of play in education8 ,why   
should we play after we are mature8     
#aj4 ,study imitation in very young     
children4 ,do this by watching the      

spontaneous play of children under six4 
,what evidences of imitation do you     
find8  #aa4 ,outline the things we learn
 by imitation4 ,what is your opinion of 
the place which imitation has in our    
education8  #ab4 ,make a study of       
imitation as a factor in the lives of   
grown people4 ,consider styles1         
fashions1 manners1 customs1 beliefs1    
prejudices1 religious ideas1 etc4  #ac4 
,on the whole1 is imitation a good thing
 or a bad thing8  #ad4 ,make a plan of  
the various ways in which dramatization 
can be profitably used in the schools4  
#ae4 ,make a study of your own ideals4  
,what ideals do you have8 ,where did you
 get them8 ,what ideals did you get from
 your parents8 ,what from books8 ,what  
from teachers8 ,what from friends8  #af4
 ,show that throughout life inherited   
tendencies are the fundamental bases    
from which our actions proceed1 on which
 our lives are erected4  #ag4 ,make a   
complete outline of the chapter4        
,,references ,,for ,,class ,,reading    

,,colvin and ,,bagley3 ,human ,behavior1
 ,chapters ,,iii1 ,,viii1 ,,ix1 and ,x4 
,,kirkpatrick3 ,fundamentals of ,child  
,study1 ,chapters ,,iv-,,xiii4          
,m,ue,n,s,t,e,r,b,e,r,g3 ,psychology1   
,general and ,applied1 pp4 #ahd-ahg4    
,,pillsbury3 ,essentials of ,psychology1
 ,chapter ,x4  ,,pyle3 ,the ,outlines of
 ,educational ,psychology1 ,chapters    
,,iv-,,ix4  ,,titchener3 ,a ,beginner's 
,psychology1 ,chapter ,,viii4           
,,chapter ,v  ,,feeling ,,and           
,,attention   ,the ,feelings4 ,related  
to the instincts on one side and to     
habits on the other are the feelings4   
,in ,chapter ,,iii we discussed         
sensation1 and in the preceding chapter1
 the instincts1 but when we have        
described an act in terms of instinct   
and sensation1 we have not told all the 
facts4  ,for example1 when a child sees 
a pretty red ball of yarn1 he reaches   
out to get it1 then puts it into his    
mouth1 or unwinds it1 and plays with it 
in various ways4 ,it is all a matter of 

sensation and instinctive responses4    
,the perception of the ball--seeing the 
ball--brings about the instinctive      
reaching out1 grasping the ball1 and    
bringing it to the mouth4 ,but to       
complete our account1 we must say that  
the child is pleased4 ,we note a change 
in his facial expression4 ,his eyes     
gleam with pleasure4 ,his face is all   
smiles1 showing pleasant contentment4   
,therefore we must say that the child   
not only sees1 not only acts1 but the   
seeing and acting are pleasant4 ,the    
child continues to look1 he continues to
 act1 because the looking and acting    
bring joy4  ,this is typical of         
situations that bring pleasure4 ,we want
 them continued2 we act in a way to make
 them continue4 ,we go out after the    
pleasure-giving thing4  ,but let us     
consider a different kind of situation4 
,a child sees on the hearth a glowing   
coal4 ,it instinctively reaches out and 
grasps it1 starts to draw the coal      
toward it1 but instinctively drops it4  

,this is not1 however1 the whole story4 
,instead of the situation being         
pleasant1 it is decidedly unpleasant4   
,the child fairly howls with pain4 ,his 
face1 instead of being wreathed in      
smiles1 is covered with tears4 ,he did  
not hold on to the coal4 ,he did not try
 to continue the situation4 ,on the     
contrary1 he dropped the coal1 and      
withdrew the hand4 ,the body contracted 
and shrank away from the situation4     
,these two cases illustrate the two     
simple feelings1 pleasantness and       
unpleasantness4 ,most situations in life
 are either pleasant or unpleasant4     
,situations may sometimes be neutral2   
that is1 may arouse neither the feeling 
of pleasantness or unpleasantness4 ,but 
usually a conscious state is either     
pleasant or unpleasant4 ,a situation    
brings us life1 joy1 happiness4 ,we want
 it continued and act in a way to bring 
about its continuance4 ,or the situation
 tends to take away our life1 brings    
pain1 sorrow1 grief1 and we want it     

discontinued1 and act in a way to       
discontinue it4  ,these two simple forms
 of feeling perhaps arose in the        
beginning in connection with the act of 
taking food4 ,it is known that if a drop
 of acid touches an amoeba1 the animal  
shrinks1 contracts1 and tries to        
withdraw from the death-bringing acid4  
,on the other hand1 if a particle of a  
substance that is suitable for food     
touches the animal1 it takes the        
particle within itself4 ,the particle is
 life-giving and brings pleasure4  ,the 
,emotions4 ,pleasure and displeasure are
 the simple feelings4 ,most situations  
in life bring about very complex feeling
 states known as emotions4 ,the emotions
 are made up of pleasure or displeasure 
mixed or compounded with the sensations 
from the bodily reactions4  ,the        
circulatory system1 the respiratory     
system1 and nearly all the involuntary  
organs of the body form a great sounding
 board which instantly responds in      
various ways to the situations of life4 

,when the youth sees the pretty maiden  
and when he touches her hand1 his heart 
pumps away at a great rate1 his cheeks  
become flushed1 his breathing is        
paralyzed1 his voice trembles4 ,he      
experiences the emotion of love4 ,the   
state is complex indeed4 ,there is      
pleasantness1 of course1 but there is in
 addition the feeling of all the bodily 
reactions4  ,when the mother sees her   
dead child lying in its casket1 her head
 falls over on her breast1 her eyes fill
 with tears1 her shoulders droop1 her   
chest contracts1 she sobs1 her breathing
 is spasmodic4 ,nearly every organ of   
the body is affected in one way or      
another4 ,the state is unpleasant1 but  
there is also the feeling of the        
manifold bodily reactions4  ,so it is   
always4 ,the biologically important     
situations in life bring about1 through 
hereditary connections in the nervous   
system1 certain typical reactions4      
,these reactions are largely the same   
for the same type of situation1 and they

 give the particular coloring to each   
emotion4 ,it is evident that the        
emotions are closely related to the     
instincts4 ,the reflexes that take place
 in emotions are of the same nature as  
the instincts4 ,each instinctive act has
 its characteristic emotion4 ,there are 
fear instincts and fear emotions4 ,fear 
is unpleasant4 ,in addition to its      
unpleasantness there is a multitude of  
sensations that come from the body4 ,the
 hair stands on end1 the heart throbs1  
the circulation is hastened1 breathing  
is interrupted1 the muscles are tense4  
,this peculiar mass of sensations1      
blended with the unpleasantness1 gives  
the characteristic emotion of fear4 ,but
 we need not go into an analysis of the 
various emotions of love1 hate1 envy1   
grief1 jealousy1 etc4 ,the reader can do
 this for himself4#c  #c ,see ,james'   
,psychology1 ,briefer ,course1 ,chapter 
,,xxiv4  ,nearly every organ of the body
 plays its part in the emotions3 the    
digestive organs1 the liver1 the        

kidneys1 the throat and mouth1 the      
salivary glands1 the eyes and tear      
glands1 the skin muscles1 the facial    
muscles1 etc4 ,and every emotion is made
 up of pleasantness or unpleasantness   
and the sensations produced by some     
combination of bodily reactions4  ,it is
 well for us to remember the part that  
bodily conditions and states play in the
 emotional life4 ,the emotional state of
 a man depends upon whether he has had  
his dinner or is hungry1 whether the    
liver is working normally1 and upon the 
condition of the various secreting and  
excreting organs and glands4 ,in a word1
 it is evident that our emotions fall   
within a world of cause and effect4 ,our
 feeling states are caused4  ,importance
 in ,life4 ,our feelings and emotions   
are the fountains from which nearly all 
our volitional actions flow4 ,feeling is
 the mainspring of life4 ,nearly        
everything we do is prompted by love1 or
 hate1 or fear1 or jealousy1 or rivalry1
 or anger1 or grief4 ,if the feelings   

have such close relation to action1 then
 the schools must take them into        
account1 for by education we seek to    
control action4 ,if the feelings control
 action1 then we must try to control the
 feelings4 ,we must get the child into a
 right state of mind toward the school1 
toward his teacher1 and toward his work4
 ,the child must like the school1 like  
the teacher1 and want to learn4         
,moreover1 we must create the right     
state of mind in connection with each   
study1 each task4 ,the child must come  
to feel the need and importance of each 
individual task as well as of each      
subject4 ,the task is then desirable1 it
 is to be sought for and worked at1 it  
is important for life4  ,this is merely 
enlisting the child's nature in the     
interest of his education4 ,for motive1 
we must always look to the child's      
nature4 ,the two great forces which pull
 and drive are pleasure and pain4       
,nature has no other methods4 ,formerly 
the school used pain as its motive      

almost exclusively4 ,the child did his  
tasks to escape pain4 ,for motive we now
 use more often the positive influences 
which give pleasure1 which pull instead 
of drive4 ,what will one not do for the 
loved one8 ,what will one not do to the 
hated one8 ,the child who does not love 
his teacher gets little good from school
 while under that teacher4 ,moreover1   
school work is often a failure because  
it is so unreal1 has so little relation 
to an actual world1 and seems foreign to
 any real needs of the child4 ,no one is
 going to work very hard unless the work
 is prompted by desire4 ,our desires    
come from our needs4 ,therefore1 if we  
are to enlist the child's feelings in   
the service of his education1 we must   
make the school work vital and relate   
it1 if possible1 to the actual needs of 
the child4  ,it must not be forgotten1  
however1 that we must build up permanent
 attitudes of respect for authority1    
obedience1 and reverence for the        
important things of life4 ,neither must 

it be forgotten that we can create needs
 in the child4 ,if in the education of  
the child we follow only such needs as  
he has1 we will make a fine savage of   
him but nothing else4 ,it is the        
business of the school to create in the 
child the right kind of needs4 ,as was  
pointed out in our study of the         
instincts1 we must make the child over  
again into what he ought to be4 ,but    
this cannot be a sudden process4 ,one   
cannot arouse enthusiasm in a           
six-year-old child over the beauties of 
higher mathematics4 ,it takes ten or    
fifteen years to do that1 and it must be
 done little by little4  ,control of the
 ,emotions4 ,without training1 we remain
 at the mercy of our baser emotions4    
,the child must be trained to control   
himself4 ,here is where habit comes in  
to modify primitive action4 ,the child  
can be trained to inhibit or prevent the
 reactions that arise in hatred1 envy1  
jealousy1 anger1 etc4 ,for a fuller     
discussion of this point we must wait   

till we come to the discussion of habit 
and moral training4  ,mood and          
,temperament4 ,a mood is a somewhat     
extended emotional state continuing for 
hours or days4 ,it is due to a          
continuance of the factors which cause  
it4 ,the state of the liver and         
digestive organs may throw one for days 
into a cross and ugly mood4 ,when the   
body becomes normal1 the mood changes or
 disappears4 ,similarly1 one may for    
hours or days be overjoyed1 or          
depressed1 or morose1 or melancholy4    
,parents and teachers should look well  
to the matter of creating and           
establishing continuous and permanent   
states of feeling that are favorable to 
work and development4  ,some people are 
permanently optimistic1 others          
pessimistic4 ,some are always joyful1   
others as constantly see only the dark  
side of life4 ,some are always serious  
and solemn1 others always gay1 even     
giddy4 ,these permanent emotional       
attitudes constitute temperament1 and   

are due to fundamental differences      
within the body that are in some cases  
hereditary4 ,crossness and moroseness1  
for example1 may be due to a dyspeptic  
condition and a chronically bad liver4  
,the happy dispositions belong to bodies
 whose organs are functioning properly1 
in which assimilation is good--all the  
parts of the body doing their proper    
work4  ,poor eyes which are under a     
constant strain1 through the reflex     
effects upon various organs of the body1
 are likely to develop a permanently    
cross and irritable disposition4        
,through the close sympathetic relation 
of the various organs1 anything         
affecting one organ and interfering with
 its proper action is likely to affect  
many other organs and profoundly        
influence the emotional states of the   
body4 ,in growing children particularly1
 there are many influences which affect 
their emotions1 things of which we      
seldom think1 such as the condition of  
vision and hearing1 the condition of the

 teeth1 nose1 and throat1 and the       
condition of all the important vital    
organs of the body4 ,when a child's     
disposition is not what we think it     
ought to be1 we should try to find out  
the causes4  ,training the ,emotions4   
,the emotions are subject to training4  
,the child can be taught control4       
,moreover1 he can be taught to          
appreciate and enjoy higher things than 
mere animal pleasure2 namely1 art1      
literature1 nature1 truth4 ,the child   
thereby becomes a spiritual being       
instead of a mere pig4 ,the ideal of the
 school should be to develop men and    
women whose baser passions are under    
control1 who are calm1 self-controlled1 
and self-directed1 and who get their    
greatest pleasure from the finer and    
higher things of life1 such as the      
various forms of music1 the songs of    
birds1 the beauties and intricate       
workings of nature4  ,this is a         
wonderful world and a wonderful life1   
but the child may go through the world  

without seeing it1 and live his life    
without knowing what it is to live4 ,his
 eyes must be opened1 he must be trained
 to see and to feel4 ,it is not the     
place here to tell how this is to be    
done4 ,this is not a book on methods of 
teaching4 ,we can only indicate here    
that the business of the school is not  
merely to teach people how to make a    
living1 but to teach them how to enjoy  
the living4 ,there are many avenues from
 which we get the higher forms of       
pleasure4 ,there are really many        
different worlds which we may           
experience3 the world of animals1 the   
world of plants1 the mechanical world1  
the chemical world1 the world of        
literature and of art1 the world of     
music4 ,it is the duty of the schools to
 open up these worlds to the children1  
and make them so many possibilities of  
joy and happiness4  ,the emotions and   
feelings1 then1 are not lawless and     
causeless1 but are a part of a world of 
law and order4 ,they are themselves     

caused and therefore subject to control 
and modification4  ,attention4          
,attention1 too1 is related to inherited
 tendencies on the one side and to      
habits on the other4 ,if one is walking 
in the woods and catches a glimpse of   
something moving in the trees1 the eyes 
instinctively turn so that the person   
can get a better view of the object4 ,if
 one hears a sudden sound1 the head is  
instinctively turned so that the person 
can hear better4 ,one stops1 the body is
 held still and rigid1 breathing is slow
 and controlled--all to favor better    
hearing4  ,the various acts of attention
 are reflex and instinctive4 ,but what  
is attention8 ,by attention we mean     
sensory clearness4 ,when we say we are  
attentive to a thing or subject1 we mean
 that perceptions or ideas of that thing
 or subject are clear as compared to    
other perceptions and ideas that are in 
consciousness at the same time4 ,the    
contents of one's consciousness1 the    
perceptions and ideas that constitute   

one's mind at any one moment are always 
arranged in an attentive pattern1 some  
being clear1 others unclear4 ,the       
pattern constantly changes and shifts4  
,what is now clear and in the focus of  
consciousness1 presently is unclear and 
may in a moment disappear from          
consciousness altogether1 while other   
perceptions or ideas take its place4    
,the first question that arises in      
connection with attention is1 ,what are 
the causes of attention8 ,the first     
group of causes are hereditary and      
instinctive4 ,the child attends to loud 
things1 bright things1 moving things1   
etc4 ,but as we grow older1 the basis of
 attention becomes more and more habit4 
,an illustration will make this clear4  
,i once spent a day at a great          
exposition with a machinist4 ,he was    
constantly attending to things          
mechanical1 when ,i would not even see  
them4 ,he had spent many years working  
with machinery1 and as a result1 things 
mechanical at once attracted him4       

,similarly1 if a man and a woman walk   
along a street together and look in at  
the shop windows1 the woman sees only   
hats1 dresses1 ribbons1 and other       
finery1 while the man sees only cigars1 
pipes1 and automobile supplies4 ,every  
day we live1 we are building up habits  
of attending to certain types of things4
 ,what repeatedly comes into our        
experience1 easily attracts our         
attention to the exclusion of other     
things4  ,the ,function of ,attention4  
,attention is the unifying aspect of    
consciousness4 ,there are always many   
things in consciousness1 and we cannot  
respond to all at once4 ,the part of    
consciousness that is clear and focal   
brings about action4 ,the things to     
which we attend are the things that     
count4  ,in later chapters we shall     
learn that in habit-formation1 attention
 is an important factor4 ,we must attend
 to the acts we are trying to make      
habitual4 ,in getting knowledge1 we must
 attend to what we are trying to learn4 

,in committing to memory1 we must attend
 to the ideas that we are trying to fix 
and make permanent4 ,in thinking and    
reasoning1 those ideas become associated
 together that are together in          
attention4  ,attention is therefore the 
controlling aspect of consciousness4 ,it
 is the basis of what we call will4 ,the
 ideas that are clear and focal and that
 persist in consciousness are the ideas 
that control our action4 ,when one says 
he has made up his mind1 he has made a  
choice2 that merely means that a certain
 group of ideas persist in consciousness
 to the exclusion of others4 ,these are 
the ideas which ultimately produce      
action4 ,and it is our past experience  
that determines what ideas will become  
focal and persist4  ,training the       
,attention4 ,there are two aspects of   
the training of attention4 7#a7 ,we can 
learn to hold ourselves to a task4 ,when
 we sit down to a table to study1 there 
may be many things that tend to call us 
away4 ,there lies a magazine which we   

might read1 there is a play at the      
theater1 there are noises outside1 there
 is a friend calling across the street4 
,but we must study4 ,we have set        
ourselves to a task and we must hold    
fast to our purpose4  ,the young child  
cannot do this4 ,he must be trained to  
do it4 ,the instruments used to train   
him are pleasure and pain1 rewards and  
punishments that come from parents4     
,gradually1 slowly1 the child gains     
control over himself4 ,no one ever      
amounts to anything till he can hold    
himself to a task1 to a fixed purpose4  
,one must learn to form plans extending 
over weeks1 months1 and years1 and to   
hold unflinchingly to them1 just as one 
must hold himself to his study table and
 allow nothing to distract or to        
interfere4 ,no training a child can     
receive is more important than this1 for
 it gives him control over his life1 it 
gives him control over the ideas that   
are to become focal and determine       
action4 ,it is for this reason that we  

call such training a training of        
attention4 ,it might perhaps better be  
called a training of the will4 ,but the 
will is only the attentive              
consciousness4 ,the idea that is clear1 
that holds its own in consciousness1 is 
the idea that produces action4 ,when we 
say that we will to do a certain thing1 
all we can mean is that the idea of this
 act is clearest and holds its focal    
place in consciousness to the exclusion 
of other ideas4 ,it therefore goes over 
into action4  7#b7 ,the training just   
discussed may be called a general       
training of attention giving us a       
general power and control over our      
lives1 but there is another type of     
training which is specific4 ,as with the
 machinist mentioned above1 so with all 
of us2 we attend to the type of thing   
that we have formed a habit of attending
 to4 ,continued experience in a certain 
field makes it more and more easy to    
attend to things in that field4 ,one can
 take a certain subject and work at it  

day after day1 year after year4 ,by and 
by1 the whole world takes on the aspect 
of this chosen subject4 ,the            
entomologist sees bugs everywhere1 the  
botanist sees only plants1 the mechanic 
sees only machines1 the preacher sees   
only the moral and religious aspects of 
action1 the doctor sees only disease1   
the mathematician sees always the       
quantitative aspect of things4 ,ideas   
and perceptions related to one's chosen 
work go at once and readily to the focus
 of consciousness2 other things escape  
notice4  ,it is for this reason that we 
become crankier every year that we live4
 ,we are attending to only one aspect of
 the world4 ,while this blinds us to    
other aspects of the world1 it brings   
mastery in our individual fields4 ,we   
can1 then1 by training and practice1 get
 a general control over attention1 and  
by working in a certain field or kind of
 work1 we make it easy to attend to     
things in that field or work4 ,this to  
an extent gives us control of our lives1

 of our destiny4  ,interest4 ,the       
essential elements of interest are      
attention and feeling4 ,when a person is
 very attentive to a subject and gets   
pleasure from experience in that        
subject1 we commonly say that he is     
interested in that subject4  ,since the 
importance of attention and feeling in  
learning has already been shown and will
 be further developed in the chapters   
which follow in connection with the     
subjects of habit1 memory1 and thinking1
 little more need be said here4  ,the   
key to all forms of learning is         
attention4 ,the key to attention is     
feeling4 ,feeling depends upon the      
nature of the child1 inherited and      
acquired4 ,in our search for the means  
of arousing interest1 we look first to  
the original nature of the child1 to the
 instincts and the emotions4 ,we look   
next to the acquired nature1 the habits1
 the ideals1 the various needs that have
 grown up in the individual's life4     
,educational writers have overemphasized

 the original nature of the child as a  
basis of interest and have not paid     
enough attention to acquired nature4 ,we
 should not ask so much what a child's  
needs are1 but what they ought to be4   
,needs can be created4 ,the child's     
nature to some extent can be changed4   
,the problem of arousing interest is    
therefore one of finding in the child's 
nature a basis for attention and        
pleasure4 ,if the basis is not to be    
found there1 then it must be built up4  
,how this can be done1 how human nature 
can be changed1 is to some extent the   
main problem of psychology4 ,every      
chapter in this book1 it is hoped1 will 
be found to throw some light on the     
problem4    ,,summary4 ,the two         
elementary feeling states are           
pleasantness and   unpleasantness4 ,the 
emotions are complex mental states      
composed of   feeling and the sensations
 from bodily reactions to the           
situations4   ,feeling and emotion are  
the motive forces of life1 at the bottom

 of   all important actions4 ,the bodily
 reactions of emotions are reflex   and 
instinctive4 ,attention is a matter of  
the relative clearness of   the contents
 of consciousness4 ,the function of     
attention is to unify   thought and     
action4 ,it is the important factor in  
all learning and   thinking1 for it is  
only the attentive part of consciousness
 that is   effective4   ,,class         
,,exercises  #a4 ,make out a complete   
list of the more important emotions4    
#b4 ,indicate the characteristic        
expression of each emotion in your list4
  #c4 ,can you have an emotion without  
its characteristic expression8 ,if1 for 
example1 when a situation arises which  
ordinarily arouses anger in you1 you    
inhibit all the usual motor             
accompaniments of anger1 are you really 
angry8  #d4 ,are the expressions of the 
same emotion the same for all people8   
#e4 ,try to analyze some of your        
emotional states3 anger1 or fear1 or    
grief4 ,can you detect the sensations   

that come from the bodily reactions8    
#f4 ,try to induce an emotional state by
 producing its characteristic reactions4
  #g4 ,try to change an emotional state 
to an opposite emotion2 for example1    
grief to joy4  #h4 ,try to control and  
change emotional states in children4    
#i4 ,name some sensations that for you  
are always pleasant1 others that are    
always unpleasant--colors1 sounds1      
tastes1 odors1 temperatures4  #aj4      
,confirm by observation the statement of
 the text as to the importance of       
emotions in all the important actions of
 life4  #aa4 ,to what extent do you have
 control of your emotional states8 ,what
 have you observed about differences in 
expression of deep emotions by different
 people8 ,in case of death in the       
family1 some people wail and moan and   
express their grief in the most extreme 
manner1 while others do not utter a     
sound and show great control4 ,why the  
difference8  #ab4 ,make an introspective
 study of your conscious states to note 

the difference in clearness of the      
different processes that are going on in
 consciousness4 ,do you find a constant 
shifting8  #ac4 ,perform experiments to 
show the effects of attention in forming
 habits and acquiring knowledge4  7#a7  
,perform tests in learning1 using       
substitution tests as described in      
,chapter ,x4 ,use several different     
keys4 ,in some experiments have no      
distractions1 in others1 have various   
distracting noises4 ,what differences do
 you find in the results8  7#b7 ,try    
learning nonsense syllables1 some lists 
with distractions1 others without       
distractions4  7#c7 ,try getting the    
ideas from stories read to you1 as in   
the logical memory experiment described 
in ,chapter ,x4 ,some stories should be 
read without distractions1 others with  
distractions4  #ad4 ,why are you unable 
to study well when under the influence  
of some strong emotion8  #ae4 ,are you  
trained to the extent that you can      
concentrate on a task and hold yourself 

to it for a long time8  #af4 ,do you see
 that as far as will and attention and  
the emotions are concerned1 your life   
and character are in large measure in   
your own hands8  #ag4 ,make a complete  
outline of the chapter4   ,,references  
,,for ,,class ,,reading  ,,colvin and   
,,bagley3 ,human ,behavior1 ,chapters   
,,iv1 ,v1 and ,,vi4                     
,m,ue,n,s,t,e,r,b,e,r,g3 ,psychology1   
,general and ,applied1 ,chapter ,,xiv1  
also pp4 #ahg-aib and pp4 #cgj-cga4     
,,pillsbury3 ,essentials of ,psychology1
 ,chapters ,v and ,,xi4  ,,pyle3 ,the   
,outlines of ,educational ,psychology1  
,chapter ,,xiv4  ,,titchener3 ,a        
,beginner's ,psychology1 ,chapters ,,iv1
 ,,viii1 and ,,xi4     ,,chapter ,,vi   
,,habit   ,the ,nature of ,habit4 ,we   
now turn from man's inherited nature to 
his acquired nature4 ,inherited         
tendencies to action we have called     
instincts2 acquired tendencies to action
 we shall call habits4 ,we can best form
 an idea of the nature of habit by      

considering some concrete cases4  ,let  
us take first the case of a man forming 
the habit of turning out the basement   
light4 ,it usually happens that when a  
man has an electric light in the        
basement of his house1 it is hard for   
him at first to think to turn out the   
light at night when he retires1 and as a
 consequence the light often burns all  
night4 ,this is expensive and           
unnecessary1 so there is a strong       
incentive for the man to find a plan    
which will insure the regular           
turning-off of the light at bedtime4    
,the plan usually hit upon is the       
following3 ,the electric switch that    
controls the basement light is beside   
the basement stairway4 ,the man learns  
to look at the switch as he comes up the
 stairs1 after preparing the furnace    
fire for the night1 and learns to take  
hold of the switch when he sees it and  
turn off the light4 ,coming up the      
stairs means to look at the switch4     
,seeing the switch means to turn it4    

,each step of the performance touches   
off the next4 ,the man sees that in     
order to make sure that the light will  
always be turned off1 the acts must all 
be made automatic1 and each step must   
touch off the next in the series4 ,at   
first1 the man leaves the light burning 
about as often as he turns it off4      
,after practicing for a time on the     
scheme1 the different acts become so    
well connected that he seldom leaves the
 light burning4 ,we say that he has     
formed the habit of turning off the     
light4  ,for a second illustration1 let 
us take the process of learning that    
nine times nine equals eighty-one4 ,at  
first1 one does not say or write        
eighty-one when one sees nine times     
nine1 but one can acquire the habit of  
doing so4 ,it does not here concern us  
how the child learns what the product of
 nine times nine is4 ,he may learn it by
 counting1 by being told1 or by reading 
it in a book4 ,but however he first     
learns it1 he fixes it and makes it     

automatic and habitual by continuing to 
say or to write1 nine times nine equals 
eighty-one4 ,the essential point is that
 at first the child does not know what  
to say when he hears or sees the        
expression nine times nine1 but after   
long practice he comes to give          
automatically and promptly the correct  
answer4 ,for the definite problem nine  
times nine there comes the definite     
response eighty-one4  ,for a third      
illustration1 let us take the case of a 
man tipping his hat when he meets a     
lady4 ,a young boy does not tip his hat 
when he meets a lady until he has been  
taught to do so4 ,after he learns this  
act of courtesy he does it quite        
automatically without thinking of it4   
,for the definite situation1 meeting a  
lady of his acquaintance1 there comes to
 be established the definite response1  
tipping the hat4 ,a similar habit is    
that of turning to the right when we    
meet a person4 ,for the definite        
situation1 meeting a person on the road 

or street or sidewalk1 there is         
established the definite response1      
turning to the right4 ,the response     
becomes automatic1 immediate1 certain4  
,there is another type of habit that may
 properly be called an intellectual     
habit1 such as voting a certain party   
ticket1 say the ,democratic4 ,when one  
is a boy1 one hears his father speak    
favorably of the ,democratic party4 ,his
 father says1 ,hurrah for ,bryan1 so he 
comes to say1 ,hurrah for ,bryan4 ,his  
father says1 ,i am a ,democrat1 so he   
says he is a ,democrat4 ,he takes the   
side that his father takes4 ,in a       
similar way we take on the same         
religious notions that our parents have4
 ,it does not always happen this way1   
but this is the rule4 ,but no matter how
 we come to do it1 we do adopt the creed
 of some party or some church4 ,we adopt
 a certain way of looking at public     
questions1 and a certain way of looking 
at religious questions4 ,for certain    
rather definite situations1 we come to  

take definite stands4 ,when we go to the
 booth to vote1 we look at the top of   
the ballot to find the column marked    
,democratic1 and the definite response  
is to check the ,democrat column4 ,of   
course1 some of us form a different     
habit and check the ,republican column1 
but the psychology of the act is the    
same4 ,the point is that we form the    
,democratic habit or we form the        
,republican habit2 and the longer we    
practice the habit1 the harder it is to 
change it4  ,in the presidential        
campaign of #aiab1 ,roosevelt bolted    
from the ,republican party4 ,it was hard
 for the older ,republicans to follow   
him4 ,while one occasionally found a    
follower of ,roosevelt who was gray1 one
 usually found the old ,republicans     
standing by the old party1 the younger  
ones joining the ,progressive party4 ,it
 is said that when ,darwin published    
,the ,origin of ,species1 very few old  
men accepted the doctrine of evolution4 
,the adherents of the new doctrine were 

nearly all young men4 ,so there is such 
a thing as an intellectual habit4 ,one  
comes to take a definite stand when     
facing certain definite intellectual    
situations4  ,similar to the type of    
habits which we have called intellectual
 is another type which may be called    
moral4 ,when we face the situation of   
reporting an occurrence1 we can tell the
 truth or we can lie4 ,we can build up  
the habit of meeting such situations by 
telling the truth on all occasions4 ,we 
can learn to follow the maxim ,tell the 
truth at all times1 at all hazards4 ,we 
can come to do this automatically1      
certainly1 and without thought of doing 
anything else4  ,most moral situations  
are fairly definite and clear-cut1 and  
for them we can establish definite forms
 of response4 ,we can form the habit of 
helping a person in distress1 of helping
 a sick neighbor1 of speaking well of a 
neighbor2 we can form habits of         
industry1 habits of perseverance4 ,these
 and other similar habits are the basis 

of morality4  ,the various kinds of     
habits which we have enumerated are     
alike in certain fundamental            
particulars4 ,in all of them there is a 
definite situation followed by a        
definite response4 ,one sees the switch 
and turns off the light2 he sees the    
expression nine times nine and says     
eighty-one2 he sees a lady he knows and 
tips his hat2 in meeting a carriage on  
the road1 he turns to the right2 when he
 has to vote1 he votes a certain ticket2
 when he has to report an occurrence1 he
 tells it as it happened4 ,there is1 in 
every case1 a definite situation        
followed by a definite response4        
,another characteristic is common to all
 the cases mentioned above1 i4e4 the    
response is acquired1 it does not come  
at first4 ,in every instance we might   
have learned to act differently4 ,we    
could form the habit of always leaving  
the light burning2 could just as easily 
say nine times nine equals forty2 we    
could turn to the left2 we could vote   

the ,republican ticket4 ,we can form bad
 moral habits as well as good ones1     
perhaps more easily4 ,the point is1     
however1 that we acquire definite ways  
of acting for the same situations1 and  
these definite ways of acting are called
 habits4  ,habit and ,nerve-,path4 ,it  
has already been stated that a habit is 
a tendency toward a certain type of     
action in a certain situation4 ,the     
basis of this tendency is in the nervous
 system4 ,in order to understand it we  
must consider what the nervous system is
 like4 ,nerves terminate at one end in a
 sense organ and at the other end       
ultimately in a muscle4  ,in ,figure    
,,ii1 ,a is a sense organ1 ,b a nerve   
going from the sense organ to the brain 
,c4 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 and ,h are motor    
nerves going from the brain to the      
muscles4 ,now1 let us show from the     
diagram what organization means and what
 tendency means4 ,at first when the     
child sees the expression nine times    
nine1 he does not say eighty-one4 ,the  

stimulus brings about no definite       
action4 ,it is as likely to go out      
through ,e or ,f as through ,d4 ,but    
suppose we can get the child to say nine
 times nine equals eighty-one4 ,we can  
write the expression on the blackboard  
and have the child look at it and say   
nine times nine equals eighty-one4      
,suppose the act of saying eighty-one is
 brought about by the nerve-current     
going out through nerve-chain ,d4 ,by   
repetition1 we establish a bond4 ,a     
stimulus of a particular kind comes     
through ,a1 goes over ,b to ,c1 and out 
over ,d1 making muscles at ,m bring     
about a very definite action in saying  
eighty-one4  ,illustration3 ,,figure    
,,ii4--,,the ,,organization ,,of        
,,tendencies  ,from the point of view of
 physiology1 the process of             
habit-formation consists in securing a  
particular nerve coupling1 establishing 
a particular nerve path1 so that a      
definite form of stimulation will bring 
about a definite form of response4 ,a   

nerve tendency is simply the likelihood 
that a stimulus will take a certain     
course rather than any other4 ,this     
likelihood is brought about by getting  
the stimulus to take the desired route  
through the nervous system to a group of
 muscles and to continue following this 
route4 ,the more times it passes the    
same way1 the greater is the probability
 that at any given time the stimulus    
will take the accustomed route and bring
 about the usual response4 ,at first any
 sort of action is possible4 ,a nerve   
stimulus can take any one of the many   
routes to the different muscles4 ,by    
chance or by conscious direction1 the   
stimulus takes a certain path1 and by   
repetition we fix and make permanent    
this particular route4 ,this constitutes
 a nerve tendency or habit4             
,plasticity4 ,our discussion should have
 made it clear that habit is acquired   
nature1 while instinct is inherited     
nature4 ,habit is acquired tendency     
while instinct is inherited tendency4   

,the possibility of acquiring habits is 
peculiarly a human characteristic4      
,while inanimate things have a definite 
nature1 a definite way of reacting to   
forces which act upon them1 they have   
little1 if any1 possibility of varying  
their way of acting4 ,water might be    
said to have habits4 ,if one cools      
water1 it turns to ice4 ,if we heat it1 
it turns to steam4 ,but it invariably   
does this4 ,we cannot teach it any      
different way of acting4 ,under the same
 conditions it always does the same     
thing4  ,plants are very much like      
inanimate things4 ,plants have definite 
ways of acting4 ,a vine turns around a  
support4 ,a leaf turns its upper surface
 to the light4 ,but one cannot teach    
plants different ways of acting4 ,the   
lower forms of animals are somewhat like
 plants and inanimate objects4 ,but to a
 very slight extent they are variable   
and can form habits4 ,among the higher  
animals1 such as dogs and other domestic
 animals1 there is a greater possibility

 of forming habits4 ,in man there are   
the greatest possibilities of           
habit-formation4 ,in man the learned    
acts or habits are many as compared to  
the unlearned acts or instincts2 while  
among the lower animals the opposite is 
the case--their instincts are many as   
compared to their habits4  ,we may call 
this possibility of forming habits      
plasticity4 ,inanimate objects such as  
iron1 rocks1 sulphur1 oxygen1 etc41 have
 no plasticity4 ,plants have very little
 possibility of forming habits4 ,lower  
animals have somewhat more1 and higher  
animals still more1 while man has the   
greatest possibility of forming habits4 
,this great possibility of forming      
habits is one of the main               
characteristics of man4 ,let us         
illustrate the contrast between man and 
inanimate objects by an example4 ,if    
sulphur is put into a test tube and     
heated1 it at first melts and becomes   
quite thin like water4 ,if it is heated 
still more1 it becomes thick and will   

not run out of the tube4 ,it also       
becomes dark4 ,sulphur always does this 
when so treated4 ,it cannot be taught to
 act differently4 ,now the action of    
sulphur when heated is like the action  
of a man when he turns to the right upon
 meeting a person in the street4 ,but   
the man has to acquire this habit1 while
 the sulphur does not have to learn its 
way of acting4 ,sulphur always acted in 
this way1 while man did not perform his 
act at first1 but had to learn it by    
slow repetition4  ,everything in the    
world has its own peculiar nature1 but  
man is unique in that his nature can be 
very much changed4 ,to a large extent1 a
 man is made1 his nature is acquired4   
,after we become men and women1 we have 
hundreds and thousands of tendencies to 
action1 definite forms of action1 that  
we did not have when young4 ,man's      
nature might be said to consist in his  
tendencies to action4 ,some of these    
tendencies he inherits2 these are his   
instincts4 ,some of these he acquires2  

these are his habits4  ,what ,habits ,do
 for ,us4 ,we have found out what habits
 are like2 let us now see what they do  
for us4 ,what good do they accomplish   
for us8 ,how are we different after     
forming a habit from what we were       
before8 ,we can best answer these       
questions by a consideration of concrete
 cases4 ,typewriting will serve very    
well the purpose of illustration4 ,we   
shall give the result of an actual      
experiment in which ten university      
students took part4 ,during their first 
half hour of practice1 they wrote an    
average of #abj words4 ,at the end of   
forty-five hours of practice1 they were 
writing an average of #fhj words in a   
half hour4 ,this was an increase of     
speed of #efj per cent4 ,an expert      
typist can write about #cjjj words in a 
half hour4 ,such a speed requires much  
more than forty-five hours practice1 and
 is attained by the best operators only4
  ,illustration3 ,,figure               
,,iii4--,,learning ,,curves ,the upper  

graph shows the improvement in speed of 
a group of students working two half    
hours a day4 ,the lower curve shows the 
improvement of a group working ten      
half-hours a day4  ,in the foregoing    
experiment1 the students improved in    
accuracy also4 ,at the beginning of the 
work1 they made #aae errors in the half 
hour4 ,at the end of the practice1 with 
much faster speed1 they were making only
 #cbg errors in a half hour4 ,the actual
 number of errors had increased #bhj per
 cent4 ,the increase in errors was      
therefore exactly half as much as the   
increase in speed4 ,this1 of course1 was
 a considerable increase in accuracy1   
for while the speed had increased to    
#e4f times what it had been at the      
beginning1 the errors had increased only
 #b4h times4 ,the subjects in this      
experiment paid much more attention to  
speed than they did to accuracy4 ,if    
they had emphasized accuracy1 they would
 have been doing almost perfect work at 
the end of the practice1 and their speed

 would have been somewhat less4         
,practice1 then1 not only develops speed
 but also develops accuracy4  ,there are
 also other results4 ,at the beginning  
of work with the typewriter1 there is   
much waste of energy and much fatigue4  
,the waste of energy comes from using   
unnecessary muscles1 and the fatigue is 
partly due to this waste of energy4 ,but
 even apart from this waste of energy1  
an habituated act is performed with less
 fatigue4 ,the various muscles concerned
 become better able to do their work4   
,as a result of habituation there is1   
then1 greater speed1 greater accuracy1  
less waste of energy1 and less fatigue4 
,if we look not at the changes in our   
work but at the changes in ourselves1   
the changes in our minds due to the     
formation of habits1 we find still other
 results4 ,at the beginning of practice 
with the typewriter1 the learner's whole
 attention is occupied with the work4   
,when one is learning to do a new trick1
 the attention cannot be divided4 ,the  

whole mind must be devoted to the work4 
,but after one has practiced for several
 weeks1 one can operate the typewriter  
while thinking about something else4 ,we
 say that the habituated act sinks to a 
lower level of consciousness1 meaning   
that as a habit becomes more and more   
fixed1 less and less attention is       
devoted to the acts concerned4          
,increased skill gives us pleasure and  
also gives us confidence in our ability 
to do the thing4 ,corresponding to this 
inner confidence is outer certainty4    
,there is greater objective certainty in
 our performance and a corresponding    
inner confidence4 ,by objective         
certainty1 we mean that a person        
watching our performance1 becomes more  
and more sure of our ability to perform1
 and we ourselves feel confidence in our
 power of achievement4  ,now that we    
have shown the results of habituation   
let us consider additional              
illustrations4 ,in piano playing1 the   
stimuli are the notes as written in the 

music4 ,we see the notes occupying      
certain places on the scale of the      
music4 ,a note in a certain place means 
that we must strike a certain key4 ,at  
first the response is slow1 we have to  
hunt out each note on the keyboard4     
,moreover1 we make many mistakes2 we    
strike the wrong keys just as we do in  
typewriting4 ,we are awkward1 making    
many unnecessary movements1 and the work
 is tiresome and fatiguing4 ,after long 
practice1 the speed with which we can   
manipulate the keys in playing the piano
 is wonderful4 ,our playing becomes     
accurate1 perfect4 ,we do it with ease1 
with no unnecessary movements4 ,we can  
play the piano1 after we become skilled1
 without paying attention to the actual 
movements of our hands4 ,we can play the
 piano while concentrating upon the     
meaning of the music1 or while carrying 
on a conversation1 or while thinking    
about something else4 ,as a rule1       
pleasure and confidence come with skill4
 ,playing a difficult piece on the piano

 involves a skill which is one of the   
most complicated that man achieves4 ,it 
is possible only through habituation of 
the piano-playing movements4  ,nailing  
shingles on a roof illustrates well the 
various aspects of habituation4 ,the    
expert carpenter not only nails on many 
more shingles in a day than does the    
amateur1 but he does it better and with 
more ease1 and with much less fatigue4  
,the carpenter knows exactly how much he
 can do in a day1 and each particular   
movement is certain and sure4 ,the      
carpenter has confidence in1 and usually
 prides himself on1 this ability1 thus  
getting pleasure out of his work4  ,the 
operations in arithmetic illustrate most
 of the results of habituation4         
,practice in addition makes for speed   
and accuracy4 ,in a few weeks' time we  
can very much increase our speed and    
accuracy in adding1 or in the other     
arithmetical operations4  ,the foregoing
 examples are sufficient1 although they 
could be multiplied indefinitely4       

,almost any habit one might name would  
show clearly most of the results        
enumerated4 ,the most important aspects 
of habituation may be summed up in the  
one word efficiency4 ,habituation gives 
us speed and accuracy4 ,speed and       
accuracy mean skill4 ,skill means       
efficiency4  ,how ,habits ,are ,formed4 
,it is clear from the foregoing         
discussion that the essential thing in a
 habit is the definiteness of the       
connection between the stimulus and the 
response1 between the situation and the 
reaction to the situation4 ,our question
 now is1 how is this definiteness of    
connection established8 ,the answer is1 
through repetition4 ,let us work the    
matter out from a concrete case1 such as
 learning to play the piano4 ,in piano  
playing the stimulus comes from the     
music as printed on the staff4 ,a note  
having a certain position on the staff  
indicates that a certain key is to be   
struck4 ,we are told by our music       
teacher what keys on the piano          

correspond to the various notes on the  
staff1 or we may learn these facts from 
the instruction book4 ,it makes no      
difference how we learn them2 but after 
we know these facts1 we must have       
practice to give us skill4 ,the mere    
knowledge will not make us piano        
players4 ,in order to be skillful1 we   
must have much practice not only in     
striking the keys indicated by the      
various note positions1 but with the    
various combinations of notes4 ,for     
example1 a note on the second space     
indicates that the player must strike   
the key known as ,a4 ,but ,a may occur  
with any of the other notes1 it may     
precede them or it may follow them4 ,we 
must therefore have practice in striking
 ,a in all these situations4 ,to have   
skill at the piano1 we must mechanize   
many performances4 ,we must be able to  
read the notes with accuracy and ease4  
,we must practice so much that the      
instant we see a certain combination of 
notes on the staff1 our hands           

immediately execute the proper strokes4 
,not only must we learn what keys on the
 piano correspond to the various notes  
of the music1 but the notes have a      
temporal value which we must learn4     
,some are to be sounded for a short     
time1 others for a longer time4 ,we have
 eighth notes1 quarter notes1 half      
notes1 etc4 ,moreover1 the signature of 
the music as indicated by the sharps or 
flats changes the whole situation4 ,if  
the music is written in ,a sharp then   
when ,a is indicated on the staff1 we   
must not strike the white key known as  
,a1 but the black key just above1 known 
as ,a sharp4  ,briefly1 in piano        
playing1 the stimulus comes from the    
characters printed on the staff4 ,the   
movements which these characters direct 
are very complicated and require months 
and years of practice4 ,we must         
emphasize the fact that practice alone  
gives facility1 years of practice4 ,but 
after these years of practice1 one can  
play a piece of music at sight2 that is1

 the first stimulus sets off perfectly a
 very complicated response4 ,this sort  
of performance is one of the highest    
feats of skill that man accomplishes4   
,to get skill1 then1 one must practice4 
,but mere repetition is not sufficient4 
,for practice to be most effective1 one 
must put his whole mind on what he is   
doing4 ,if he divides his attention     
between the acts which he is practicing 
and something else1 the effect of the   
practice in fixing and perfecting the   
habit is slight4 ,it seems that when we 
are building up a new nerve-path which  
is to be the basis of a new habit1 the  
nervous energies should not be divided2 
that the whole available nervous energy 
should be devoted to the acts which we  
are repeating4 ,this is only another way
 of saying that when we are practicing  
to establish a habit1 we should attend  
to what we are doing and to nothing     
else4 ,but after the habit-connection is
 once firmly established1 we can attend 
to other things while performing the    

habitual act4 ,the habitual action will 
go on of itself4 ,we may say1 then1 that
 in order to be able to do a thing with 
little or no attention1 we must give    
much attention to it at first4  ,another
 important factor in habit-formation is 
pleasure4 ,the act which we are         
practicing must give us pleasure1 either
 while we are doing it or as a result4  
,pleasurable results hasten             
habit-formation4 ,when we practice an   
act in which we have no interest1 we    
make slow progress or none at all4 ,now 
the elements of interest are attention  
and pleasure4 ,if we voluntarily attend 
to a thing and its performance gives us 
pleasure1 or pleasure results from it1  
we say we are interested in it4 ,the    
secret of successful practice is        
interest4 ,repeatedly in laboratory     
experiments it happens that a student   
loses interest in the performance and   
subsequently makes little1 if any1      
progress4 ,one of the biggest problems  
connected with habit-formation is that  

of maintaining interest4  ,a factor     
which prevents the formation of habits  
is that of exceptions4 ,if a stimulus1  
instead of going over to the appropriate
 response1 produces some other action1  
there is an interference in the         
formation of the desired habit4 ,the    
effect of an exception is greater than  
the mere neglect of practice4 ,the      
exception opens up another path and     
tends to make future action uncertain4  
,particularly is this true in the case  
of moral habits4 ,forming moral habits  
is usually uphill work anyway1 in that  
we have instincts to overcome4 ,allowing
 exceptions to enter1 in the moral      
sphere1 usually means a slipping back   
into an old way of acting1 thereby      
weakening much the newly-made           
connection4  ,in any kind of practice1  
when we become fatigued we make errors4 
,if we continue to practice when        
fatigued1 we form connections which we  
do not wish to make and which interfere 
with the desired habits4  ,economy of   

,practice4 ,the principles which we have
 enumerated and illustrated are fairly  
general and of universal validity4      
,there are certain other factors which  
we may discuss here under the head of   
economical procedure4 ,to form a habit1 
we must practice4 ,but how long should  
we practice at one time8 ,this is an    
experimental problem and has been       
definitely solved4 ,it has been proved  
by experiment that we can practice      
profitably for as long a time as we can 
maintain a high degree of attention1    
which is usually till we become         
fatigued4 ,this time is not the same for
 all people4 ,it varies with age1 and in
 the case of the same person it varies  
at different times4 ,if ordinary college
 students work at habit-formation at the
 highest point of concentration1 they   
get the best return for a period of     
about a half hour4 ,it depends somewhat 
on the amount of concentration required 
for the work and the stage of fixation  
of the habit1 i4e4 whether one has just 

begun to form the habit or whether it is
 pretty well fixed4 ,for children1 the  
period of successful practice is usually
 much less than a half hour--five1 ten1 
fifteen1 twenty minutes1 depending upon 
the age of the child and the kind of    
work4  ,the best interval between       
periods of practice is the day1         
twenty-four hours4 ,if one practices in 
the morning for a half hour1 one can    
practice again in the afternoon with    
nearly as much return as he would secure
 the next day1 but not quite4 ,in       
general1 practice is better1 gives more 
return1 if spread out4 ,to practice one 
day as long as one can work at a high   
point of efficiency1 and then to        
postpone further practice till the next 
day1 gives one the most return for the  
time put in4 ,but if one is in a hurry  
to form a habit1 one can afford to      
practice more each day even if the      
returns from the practice do diminish   
proportionately4  ,this matter has been 
tried out on the typewriter4 ,if one    

practices for ten half hours a day with 
half-hour rests between1 one does not   
get so much return for his time as he   
would if he should spread it out at the 
rate of one or two half-hour practices a
 day4 ,but by working ten half hours a  
day1 one gets much more efficiency in   
the same number of days than if he      
should practice only one or two half    
hours a day4 ,this point must not be    
misunderstood4 ,we do not mean that one 
must not work at anything longer than a 
half hour a day4 ,we mean that if one is
 forming a habit1 his time counts for   
more in forming the habit if spread out 
at the rate of a half hour or an hour a 
day1 than it does if put in at a faster 
rate4 ,therefore if one is in no hurry  
and can afford to spread out his time1  
he gets the best return by so doing1 and
 the habit is more firmly fixed than if 
formed hurriedly4 ,but if one is in a   
hurry1 and has the time to devote to it1
 he can afford to concentrate his       
practice up to five hours or possibly   

more in a day1 provided that rest       
intervals are interspersed between      
periods of practice4  ,there is one time
 in habit-formation when concentrated   
practice is most efficient4 ,that is at 
the beginning4 ,in a process as         
complicated as typewriting1 so little   
impression is made at the beginning by a
 short period of practice that progress 
is but slight4 ,on the first day1 one   
should practice about four or five times
 to secure the best returns1 a half hour
 each time4  ,what the ,teacher ,can    
,do4 ,now1 let us see how the teacher   
can be of assistance to the pupil in    
habit-formation4 ,the teacher should    
have a clear idea of the nature of the  
habit to be formed and should           
demonstrate the habit to the pupil4     
,suppose the habit is so simple a thing 
as long division4 ,the teacher should   
explain each step in the process4 ,she  
should go to the blackboard and actually
 solve a number of problems in long     
division1 so that the pupils can see    

just how to do it4 ,after this the      
pupils should go to the board and solve 
a problem themselves4 ,the reason for   
this procedure is that it is most       
economical4 ,if the children are left to
 get the method of doing long division  
from a book1 they will not be able to do
 it readily and will make mistakes4 ,a  
teacher can explain a process better    
than it can be explained in a book4 ,by 
giving a full explanation and           
demonstration and then by requiring the 
children to work a few problems while   
she watches for mistakes1 correcting    
them at once1 the teacher secures       
economy of effort and time4 ,the first  
step is to demonstrate the habit to the 
pupils2 the second1 to have them do the 
act1 whatever it is1 correcting their   
mistakes2 the third1 to require the     
pupils to practice till they have       
acquired skill4 ,the teacher must make  
provision for practice4  ,what ,parents 
,can ,do4 ,parents can be of very great 
assistance to children who are forming  

habits4  7#a7 ,they can cooeperate with 
the school1 which is directing the child
 in the systematic formation of a great 
system of habits4 ,the teacher should   
explain these habits to the parents so  
that they may know what the teacher is  
trying to do4 ,quite often the home and 
the school are working at cross         
purposes4 ,the only way to prevent this 
is for them to work in the closest      
cooeperation1 with the fullest          
understanding of what is being          
undertaken for the child4 ,parents and  
teachers should often meet together and 
talk over the work of training the      
children of the community4 ,parents     
should have not merely a general        
understanding of the work of the school1
 but they should know the details       
undertaken4 ,the school often assigns   
practice work to be done at home in     
reading1 writing1 arithmetic4 ,parents  
should always know of these assignments 
and should help the children get the    
necessary practice4 ,they can do this by

 reminding the child of the work1 by    
preparing a suitable place where the    
work may be done1 and by securing quiet 
for the practice4 ,children like play   
and it is easy for them to forget their 
necessary work4 ,parents can be of the  
greatest service to childhood and youth 
by holding the children to their        
responsibilities and duties4  ,few      
parents take any thought of whether     
their children are doing all possible   
for their school progress4 ,few of those
 who do1 make definite plans and        
arrangements for the children to        
accomplish the necessary practice and   
study4 ,this is the parent's duty and   
responsibility4 ,moreover1 parents are  
likely to feel that children have no    
rights1 and think nothing of calling on 
them in the midst of their work to do   
some errand4 ,now1 children should work 
about the house and help their parents1 
but there should be a time for this and 
a separate time for study and practice  
on school work4  ,when a child sits down

 for serious practice on some work1 his 
time should be sacred and inviolable4   
,instead of interfering with the child1 
the parents should do everything in     
their power to make this practice       
possible and efficient4 ,in their       
relations with their children perhaps   
parents sin more in the matter of       
neglecting to plan for them than in any 
other way4 ,they plan for everything    
else1 but they let their children grow  
up1 having taken no definite thought    
about helping them to form their life   
habits and to establish these habits by 
practice4 ,when a child comes home from 
school1 the mother should find out just 
what work is to be done before the next 
day and should plan the child's play and
 work in such a way as to include all   
necessary practice4 ,if all parents     
would do this1 the value to the work of 
the school and to the life of the child 
would be incalculable4  7#b7 ,just as   
one of the main purposes of the teacher 
is to help the child gain initiative1 so

 it is one of the greatest of the       
parents' duties4 ,parents must help the 
children to keep their purposes before  
them4 ,children forget1 even when they  
wish to remember4 ,often1 they do not   
want to remember4 ,the parents' duty is 
to get the child to want to remember1   
and to help him to remember1 whether he 
wants to or not4 ,one of the main       
differences between childhood and       
maturity is that the child lives in the 
present1 his purposes are all immediate 
ones4 ,habits always look forward1 they 
are for future good and use4 ,mature    
people have learned to look forward and 
to plan for the future4 ,they must1     
therefore1 perform this function for the
 children4 ,they must look forward and  
see what the child should learn to do1  
and then see that he learns to do it4   
7#c7 ,parents must help children to plan
 their lives in general and in detail2  
i4e4 in the sense of determining the    
ideals and habits that will be necessary
 for those lives4 ,the parents must do  

this with the help of the child4 ,the   
child must not be a blind follower1 but 
as the child's mind becomes mature      
enough1 the parent must explain the     
matter of forming life habits1 and must 
show the child that life is a structure 
that he himself is to build4 ,life will 
be what he makes it1 and the time for   
forming character is during early years4
 ,the parent must not only tell the     
child this but must help him to realize 
the truth of it1 must help him          
continually1 consistently4  7#d7 ,of    
course it is hardly necessary to say    
that the parent can help much1 perhaps  
most1 by example4 ,the parent must not  
only tell the child what to do but must 
show him how it should be done4  7#e7   
,parents can help in the ways mentioned 
above1 but they can also help by        
cooeperating among themselves in        
planning for the training of the        
children of the community4 ,one parent  
cannot train his children independently 
of all the other people in the          

community4 ,there must be a certain     
unity of ideals and aims4 ,therefore1   
not only is there need for cooeperation 
between parents and teachers but among  
parents themselves4 ,although they      
cooeperate in everything else1 they     
seldom do in the training of their      
children4 ,the people of a community    
should meet together occasionally to    
plan for this common work4  ,importance 
of ,habit in ,education and ,life4 ,a   
man is the sum of his habits and ideals4
 ,he has language habits2 he speaks     
,german1 or ,french1 or ,english4 ,he   
has writing habits1 spelling habits1    
reading habits1 arithmetic habits4 ,he  
has political habits1 religious habits4 
,he has various social habits1 habitual 
attitudes which he takes toward his     
fellows4 ,he has moral habits--he is    
honest and truthful1 or he is dishonest 
and untruthful4 ,he always looks on the 
bright side1 or else on the dark side of
 events4 ,all these habits and many     
more1 he has4 ,they are structures which

 he has built4 ,one's life1 then1 is the
 sum of his tendencies1 and these       
tendencies one establishes in early     
life4  ,this view gives an importance to
 the work of the school which is derived
 from no other view4 ,the school is not 
a place where we get this little bit of 
information1 or the other4 ,it is the   
place where we are molded1 formed1 and  
shaped into the beings we are to be4    
,the school has not risen to see the    
real importance of its work4 ,its aims  
have been low and its achievements much 
lower than its aims4 ,teachers should   
rise to the importance of their calling4
 ,their work is that of gods4 ,they are 
creators4 ,they do not make the child4  
,they do not give it memory or attention
 or imagination4 ,but they are creators 
of tendencies1 prejudices1 religions1   
politics1 and other habits unnumbered4  
,so that in a very real sense1 the      
school1 with all the other educational  
influences1 makes the man4 ,we do not   
give a child the capacity to learn1 but 

we can determine what he shall learn4   
,we do not give him memory1 but we can  
select what he shall remember4 ,we do   
not make the child as he is at the      
beginning1 but we can1 in large measure1
 determine the world of influences which
 complete the task of making4  ,in the  
early part of life every day and every  
hour of the day establishes and         
strengthens tendencies4 ,every year     
these tendencies become stronger4 ,every
 year after maturity1 we resist change4 
,by twenty-five or thirty1 character has
 set like plaster4 ,the general attitude
 and view of the world which we have at 
maturity1 we are to hold throughout     
life4 ,very few men fundamentally change
 after this4 ,it takes a tremendous     
influence and an unusual situation to   
break one up and make him an essentially
 different man after maturity4 ,every   
year a crank becomes crankier4  ,it is  
well that this is so4 ,everything in the
 world costs its price4 ,rigidity is the
 price we pay for efficiency4 ,in order 

to be efficient1 we must make habitual  
the necessary movements4 ,after they are
 habituated1 they resist change4 ,but   
habit makes for regularity and order4   
,we could not live in society unless    
there were regularity1 order1 fixity4   
,habit makes for conservatism4 ,but     
conservatism is necessary for order4 ,in
 a sense1 habit works against progress4 
,but permanent improvement without habit
 would be impossible1 for permanent     
progress depends upon holding what we   
gain4 ,it is well for society that we   
are conservative4 ,we could not live in 
the chaos that would exist without      
habit4 ,public opinion resists change4  
,people refuse to accept a view that is 
different from the one they have held4  
,we could get nowhere if we continually 
changed1 and it is well for us that we  
continue to do the old way to which we  
have become accustomed1 till a new and  
better one is shown beyond doubt4 ,even 
then1 it is probably better for an old  
person to continue to use the accustomed

 methods of a lifetime4 ,although better
 methods are developed1 they will not be
 so good for the old person as those    
modes of action that he is used to4 ,the
 possibility of progress is through new 
methods which come in with each         
succeeding generation4  ,when we become 
old we are not willing to change1 but   
the more reasonable of us are willing   
that our children should be taught a    
better way4 ,sometimes1 of course1 we   
find people who say that what was good  
enough for them is good enough for their
 children4 ,most of us think better1 and
 wish to give our children a better     
bringing up than ours has been4  ,these 
considerations make clear the importance
 of habit in life4 ,they should also    
make clear a very important corollary4  
,if habits are important in life1 then  
it is the duty of parents and teachers  
to make a careful selection of the      
habits that are to be formed by the     
children4 ,the habits that will be      
necessary for the child to form in order

 to meet the various situations of his  
future life1 should be determined4      
,there should be no vagueness about it4 
,definite habits1 social1 moral1        
religious1 intellectual1 professional1  
etc41 will be necessary for efficiency4 
,we should know what these various      
habits are1 and should then set about   
the work of establishing them with      
system and determination1 just as we    
would the building of a house4 ,much    
school work and much home training is   
vague1 indefinite1 uncertain1 done      
without a clear understanding of the    
needs or of the results4 ,we therefore  
waste time1 years of the child's life1  
and the results are unsatisfactory4     
,drill in ,school ,subjects4 ,in many   
school subjects1 the main object is to  
acquire skill in certain processes4 ,as 
previously explained1 we can become     
skillful in an act only by repetition of
 the act4 ,therefore1 in those subjects 
in which the main object is the         
acquiring of skill1 there must be much  

repetition4 ,this repetition is called  
drill4 ,the matter of economical        
procedure in drill has already been     
considered1 but there are certain       
problems connected with drill that must 
be further discussed4  ,drill is usually
 the hardest part of school work4 ,it   
becomes monotonous and tiresome4        
,moreover1 drill is always a means4 ,it 
is the means by which we become         
efficient4 ,take writing1 for example4  
,it is not an end in itself2 it is the  
means by which we convey thoughts4      
,reading is a means by which we are able
 to get the thought of another4 ,in     
acquiring a foreign language1 we have   
first to master the elementary tools    
that will enable us to make the thought 
of the foreign language our own4  ,it   
seems that the hardest part of education
 always comes first1 when we are least  
able to do it4 ,it used to be that      
nearly all the work of the school was   
drill4 ,there was little school work    
that was interesting in itself4 ,in     

revolt against this kind of school1 many
 modern educators have tried to plan a  
curriculum that would be interesting to 
the child4 ,in schools that follow this 
idea1 there is little or no drill1 pure 
and simple4 ,there is no work that is   
done for the sole purpose of acquiring  
skill4 ,the work is so planned that1 in 
pursuing it1 the child will of necessity
 have to perform the necessary acts and 
will thereby gain efficiency4 ,in       
arithmetic1 there is no adding1         
subtracting1 multiplying1 or dividing1  
only as such things must be done in the 
performance of something else that is   
interesting in itself4 ,for example1 the
 child plays store and must add up the  
sales4 ,the child plays bean bag and    
must add up the score4 ,practice gained 
in this indirect way is known as        
incidental drill4 ,direct drill consists
 in making a direct approach2 we wish to
 be efficient at adding1 so we practice 
adding as such and not merely as        
incidental to something else4  ,this    

plan of incidental drill is in harmony  
with the principle of interest          
previously explained4 ,there are several
 things1 however1 that must be          
considered4 ,the proper procedure would 
seem to be to look forward and find out 
in what directions the child will need  
to acquire skill and then to help him   
acquire it in the most economical way   
and at the proper time4 ,nature has so  
made us that we like to do a new trick4 
,when we have taught a child how to add 
and subtract1 he likes to perform these 
operations because the operations       
themselves give pleasure4 ,therefore    
much repetition can be allowed and much 
skill acquired by a direct approach to  
the practice4 ,when interest drags1     
incidental drill can be fallen back upon
 to help out the interest4 ,children    
should be taught that certain things    
must be done1 certain skill must be     
acquired4 ,they should accept some      
things on the authority of elders4 ,they
 should be taught to apply themselves   

and to give their whole attention to a  
thing that must be done4 ,a desire for  
efficiency can be developed in them4    
,the spirit of competition can sometimes
 be effectively used to add interest to 
drill4 ,of course1 interest and         
attention there must be1 and if it      
cannot be secured in one way1 it must be
 in another4  ,experiments have         
abundantly shown the value of formal    
drill1 that is to say1 drill for drill's
 sake4 ,if an arithmetic class is       
divided1 one half being given a few     
minutes' drill on the fundamental       
operations each day but otherwise doing 
exactly the same work as the other half 
of the class1 the half receiving the    
drill acquires much more skill in the   
fundamental operations and1 besides1 is 
better at reasoning out problems than   
the half that had no drill4 ,the        
explanation of the latter fact is       
doubtless that the pupils receiving the 
drill acquire such efficiency in the    
fundamental operations that these cause 

no trouble1 leaving all the energies of 
the pupils for reasoning out the        
problems4  ,it has been shown           
experimentally that a direct method of  
teaching spelling is more efficient than
 an indirect method4 ,it is not to be   
wondered at that such turns out to be   
the case4 ,for in a direct approach1 the
 act that we are trying to habituate is 
brought more directly before            
consciousness1 receiving that focal     
attention which is necessary for the    
most efficient practice in              
habit-formation4 ,if one wishes to be a 
good ball pitcher1 one begins to pitch  
balls1 and continues pitching balls day 
after day1 morning1 noon1 and night4    
,one does not go about it indirectly4   
,if one wishes to be a good shot with a 
rifle1 one gets a rifle and goes to     
shooting4 ,similarly1 if one wishes to  
be a good adder1 the way to do is to    
begin adding1 not to begin doing        
something else4 ,of course any method   
that will induce a child to realize that

 he ought to acquire a certain habit1 is
 right and proper4 ,we must do all we   
can to give a child a desire1 an        
interest in the thing that he is trying 
to do4 ,but there is no reason why the  
thing should not be faced directly4     
,rules for ,habit ,formation4 ,in the   
light of the various principles which we
 have discussed1 what rules can be given
 to one forming habits8 ,the evident    
answer is1 to proceed in accordance with
 established principles4 ,we may1       
however1 bring the most important of    
these principles together in the form of
 rules which can serve as a guide and   
help to one forming habits4  7#a7 ,get  
initiative4 ,by this is meant that a    
person forming a habit should have some 
sustaining reason for doing it1 some end
 that is being sought4 ,this principle  
will be of very little use to young     
children1 only to those old enough to   
appreciate reasons and ends4 ,in        
arithmetic1 for example1 a child should 
be shown what can be accomplished if he 

possesses certain skill in addition1    
subtraction1 and multiplication4 ,it is 
not always possible for a young person  
to see why a certain habit should be    
formed4 ,for the youngest children1 the 
practice must be in the form of play4   
,but when a child is old enough to      
think1 to have ideals and purposes1     
reasons and explanations should be      
worked out4  7#b7 ,get practice4 ,if you
 are to have skill1 you must practice4  
,practice regularly1 practice hard while
 you are doing it4 ,throw your whole    
life into it1 as if what you are doing  
is the most important thing in the      
world4 ,practice under good conditions4 
,do not think that just any kind of     
practice will do4 ,try to make          
conditions such that they will enable   
you to do your best work4 ,such         
conditions will not happen by chance4   
,you must make them happen4 ,you must   
make conditions favorable4 ,you must    
seek opportunities to practice4 ,you    
must realize that your life is in the   

making1 that you are making it1 that it 
is to a large extent composed of habits4
 ,these habits you are building4 ,they  
are built only by practice4 ,get        
practice4 ,when practicing1 fulfill the 
psychological conditions4 ,work under   
the most favorable circumstances as to  
length of periods1 intervals1 etc4  7#c7
 ,allow no exceptions4 ,you should fully
 realize the great influence of         
exceptions4 ,when you start in to form a
 habit1 allow nothing to turn you from  
your course4 ,whether the habit is some 
fundamental moral habit or the          
multiplication table1 be consistent1 do 
not vacillate4 ,nothing is so strong as 
consistent action1 nothing so weak as   
doubtful1 wavering1 uncertain action4   
,have the persistence of a bull dog and 
the regularity of planetary motion4     
,transfer of ,training4 ,our problem now
 is to find out whether forming one     
habit helps one to form another4 ,in    
some cases it does4 ,the results of a   
recent experiment performed in the      

laboratory of educational psychology in 
the ,university of ,missouri1 will show 
what is meant4 ,it was found that if a  
person practiced distributing cards into
 pigeon holes till great proficiency was
 attained1 and then the numbering of the
 boxes or pigeon holes was changed1 the 
person could learn the new numbering and
 gain proficiency in distributing the   
cards in the new way more quickly than  
was the case at first4 ,similarly1 if   
one learns to run a typewriter with a   
certain form of keyboard1 one can learn 
to operate a different keyboard much    
more quickly than was the case in       
learning the first keyboard4  ,it is    
probable that the explanation of this   
apparent transfer is that there are     
common elements in the two cases4       
,certain bonds established in the first 
habit are available in the second4 ,in  
the case of distributing the cards1 many
 such common elements can be made out4  
,one gains facility in reading the      
numbering of the cards4 ,the actual     

movement of the hand in getting to a    
particular box is the same whatever the 
number of the box4 ,one acquires schemes
 of associating and locating the boxes1 
schemes that will work in both cases4   
,but suppose that one spends fifteen    
days in distributing cards according to 
one scheme of numbering1 and then       
changes the numbering and practices for 
fifteen days with the new numbering1 at 
the end of the second fifteen days one  
has more skill than at the close of the 
first fifteen days4 ,in fact1 in five   
days one has as much skill in the new   
method as was acquired in fifteen days  
in the first method4 ,however1 and this 
is an important point1 the speed in the 
new way is not so great as the speed    
acquired in thirty days using one method
 or one scheme all the time4 ,direct    
practice on the specific habit involved 
is always most efficient4  ,one should  
probably never learn one thing just     
because it will help him in learning    
something else1 for that something else 

could be more economically learned by   
direct practice4 ,learning one language 
probably helps in learning another4 ,a  
year spent in learning ,german will     
probably help in learning ,french4 ,but 
two years spent in learning ,french will
 give more efficiency in ,french than   
will be acquired by spending one year on
 ,german and then one year on ,french4  
,if the only reason for a study is that 
it helps in learning something else1    
then this study should be left out of   
the curriculum4 ,if the only reason for 
studying ,latin1 for example1 is that it
 helps in studying ,english1 or ,french1
 or helps in grammar1 or gives one a    
larger vocabulary in ,english on account
 of a knowledge of the ,latin roots1    
then the study of the language cannot be
 justified2 for all of these results    
could be much more economically and     
better attained by a direct approach4   
,of course1 if ,latin has a             
justification in itself1 then these     
by-products are not to be despised4     

,the truth seems to be that habits are  
very specific things4 ,a definite       
stimulus goes over to a definite        
response4 ,we must decide what habits we
 need to have established1 and then by  
direct and economical practice establish
 these habits4 ,it is true that in      
pursuing some studies1 we acquire habits
 that are of much greater applicability 
in the affairs of life than can be      
obtained from other studies4 ,when one  
has acquired the various adding habits1 
he has kinds of skill that will be of   
use in almost everything that is        
undertaken later4 ,so also speaking     
habits1 writing habits1 spelling habits1
 moral habits1 etc41 are of universal   
applicability4 ,whenever one undertakes 
to do a thing that involves some habit  
already formed1 that thing is more      
easily done by virtue of that habit4    
,one could not very well learn to       
multiply one number by another1 such as 
#h1fge1dhi by #dci1heg1 without first   
learning to add4  ,this seems to be all 

there is to the idea of the transfer of 
training4 ,one gets an act1 or an idea1 
or an attitude1 or a point of view that 
is available in a new thing1 thereby    
making the new thing easier4 ,the       
methods one would acquire in the study  
of zooelogy would be1 many of them1     
directly applicable in the study of     
botany4 ,but1 just as truly1 one can    
acquire habits in doing one thing that  
will be a direct hindrance in learning  
another thing4 ,knocking a baseball     
unfits one for knocking a tennis ball4  
,the study of literature and philosophy 
probably unfits one for the study of an 
experimental science because the methods
 are so dissimilar1 in some measure     
antagonistic4  ,habit and ,moral        
,training4 ,by moral training1 we mean  
that training which prepares one to live
 among his fellows4 ,it is a training   
that prepares us to act in our relations
 with our fellow men in such a way as to
 bring happiness to our neighbors as    
well as to ourselves4 ,specifically1 it 

is a training in honesty1 truthfulness1 
sympathy1 and industry4 ,there are other
 factors of morality but these are the  
most important4 ,it is evident at once  
that moral training is the most         
important of all training4 ,this is1 at 
any rate1 the view taken by society2 for
 if a man falls short in his relations  
with his fellows1 he is punished4 ,if   
the extent of his falling is very great1
 his liberty is entirely taken away from
 him4 ,in some cases1 he is put to      
death4 ,moral training1 in addition to  
being the most important1 is also the   
most difficult4 ,what the public schools
 can do in this field is quite limited4 
,the training which the child gets on   
the streets and at home almost          
overshadows it4  ,nature of ,moral      
,training4 ,a good person is one who    
does the right social thing at the right
 time4 ,the more completely and         
consistently one does this1 the better  
one is4 ,what kind of training can one  
receive that will give assurance of     

appropriate moral action8 ,two things   
can be done to give a child this        
assurance4 ,the child can be led to form
 proper ideals of action and proper     
habits of action4 ,by ideal of action1  
we mean that the child should know what 
the right action is1 and have a desire  
to do it4 ,habits of action are acquired
 only through action4 ,as has been      
pointed out in the preceding pages1     
continued action of a definite kind     
develops a tendency to this particular  
action4 ,one's character is the sum of  
his tendencies to action4 ,these        
tendencies can be developed only through
 practice1 through repetition4 ,moral   
training1 therefore1 has the same basis 
as all other training1 that is1 in      
habits4 ,the same procedure that we use 
in teaching the child the multiplication
 table is the one to use in developing  
honesty4 ,in the case of the tables1 we 
have the child say fifty-six for eight  
times seven4 ,we have him do this till  
he does it instantly1 automatically4    

,honesty and truthfulness and the other 
moral virtues can be fixed in the same  
way4  ,home and ,moral ,training4 ,the  
home is the most important factor in    
moral training4 ,this is largely because
 of the importance of early habits and  
attitudes4 ,obedience to parents and    
respect for authority1 which in a large 
measure underlie all other moral        
training1 must be secured and developed 
in the early years of childhood4 ,the   
child does not start to school till     
about six years old4 ,at this age much  
of the foundation of morality is laid4  
,unless the child learns strict         
obedience in the first two or three     
years of life1 it is doubtful whether he
 will ever learn it aright4 ,without the
 habit of implicit obedience1 it is     
difficult to establish any other good   
habit4  ,parents should understand that 
training in morality consists1 in large 
measure1 in building up habits1 and     
should go about it in a systematic way4 
,as various situations arise in the     

early life of a child1 the parents      
should obtain from him the appropriate  
responses4 ,when the situations recur1  
the right responses should be again     
secured4 ,parents should continue to    
insist upon these responses till        
tendencies are formed for the right     
response to follow when the situation   
arises4 ,after continued repetition1 the
 response comes automatically4 ,the good
 man or woman is the one who does the   
right thing as the situation presents   
itself1 does it as a matter of course   
because it is his nature4 ,he does not  
even think of doing the wrong thing4    
,one of the main factors in child       
training is consistency4 ,the parent    
must inflexibly require the right action
 in the appropriate situation4 ,good    
habits will not be formed if parents    
insist on proper action one day but on  
the next day allow the child to do      
differently4  ,parents must plan the    
habits which they wish their children to
 form and execute these plans           

systematically1 exercising constant     
care4 ,parents1 and children as well1   
would profit from reading the plan used 
by ,franklin4 ,farseeing and            
clear-headed1 ,franklin saw that        
character is a structure which one      
builds1 so he set about this building in
 a systematic way4 ,for a certain length
 of time he practiced on one virtue1    
allowing no exceptions in this one      
virtue4 ,when this aspect of his        
character had acquired strength1 he     
added another virtue and then tried to  
keep perfect as to both4#d  #d ,see     
,autobiography of ,benjamin ,franklin4  
,the ,school and ,moral ,training4 ,in  
this1 as in all other forms of training1
 the school is supplementary to the     
home4 ,the teacher should have well in  
mind the habits and ideals that the home
 has been trying to develop and should  
assist in strengthening the bonds4 ,the 
school can do much in developing habits 
of kindness and sympathy among the      
children4 ,it can develop civic and     

social ideals and habits4 ,just how it  
can best do this is a question4 ,should 
moral ideals be impressed systematically
 and should habits be formed at the time
 these ideals are impressed1 or should  
the different ideals be instilled and   
developed as occasion demands8 ,this is 
an experimental problem1 and that method
 should be followed which produces the  
best results4 ,it is possible that one  
teacher may use one method best while a 
different teacher will have better      
success with another method4  ,more     
important than the question of a        
systematic or an incidental method is   
the question of making the matter vital 
when it is taken up4 ,nothing is more   
certain than that mere knowledge of     
right action will not insure right      
action4 ,in a few hours one can teach a 
child1 as matters of mere knowledge1    
what he should do in all the important  
situations of life2 but this will not   
insure that he will henceforth do the   
right things4  ,there are only two ways 

by which we can obtain any assurance    
that right action will come4 ,the first 
way is to secure right habits of        
response4 ,we must build up tendencies  
to action4 ,tendencies depend upon      
previous action4 ,the second way is to  
help the child to analyze moral         
situations and see what results will    
follow upon the different kinds of      
action4 ,there can be developed in a    
child a desire to do that which will    
bring joy and happiness to others1      
rather than pain and sorrow4 ,but this  
analysis of moral situations is not     
enough to insure right moral action2    
there must be practice in doing the     
right thing4 ,the situation must go over
 to the right response to insure its    
going there the next time4 ,the first   
thing in moral training is to develop   
habits4 ,then1 as soon as the child is  
old enough he can strengthen his habits 
by a careful analysis of the problem why
 one should act one way rather than     
another4 ,this adds motive2 and motive  

gives strength and assurance4           
,,summary4 ,habits are acquired         
tendencies to specific actions in       
definite situations4 ,they are fixed    
through repetition4 ,they give us       
speed1 accuracy1 and certainty1 they    
save energy and prevent   fatigue4 ,they
 are performed with less attention and  
become   pleasurable4 ,the main purpose 
of education is to form the             
habits--moral1 intellectual1 vocational1
 cultural--necessary for   life4 ,habits
 and ideals are the basis of our mature 
life and   character4 ,moral training is
 essentially like other forms of        
training1 habit being the basis4        
,,class ,,exercises  #a4 ,practice on   
the formation of some habit until       
considerable skill is acquired4 ,draw a 
learning curve similar to the one on    
page #ie1 showing the increase in skill4
 ,a class experiment can be performed by
 the use of a substitution test4 ,take  
letters to represent the nine digits1   
then transcribe numbers into the letters

 as described on page #aib4 ,keep a     
record of successive five-minute periods
 of practice till all have practiced an 
hour4 ,this gives twelve practice       
periods for the construction of a       
learning curve4 ,the individual         
experiments should be more difficult and
 cover a longer period4 ,suitable       
experiments for individual practice are3
 learning to operate a typewriter1      
pitching marbles into a hole1 writing   
with the left hand1 and mirror writing4 
,the latter is performed by standing a  
mirror vertically on the table1 placing 
the paper in front and writing in such a
 way that the letters have the proper   
form and appearance when seen in the    
mirror4 ,the subject should not look at 
his hand but at its reflection in the   
mirror4 ,a piece of cardboard can be    
supported just over the hand so that    
only the image of the hand in the mirror
 can be seen4  #b4 ,a study of the      
interference of habit can be made as    
follows3 ,take eight small boxes and    

arrange them in a row4 ,number each box 
plainly4 ,do not number them            
consecutively1 but as follows1 #e1 #g1  
#a1 #h1 #b1 #c1 #f1 #d4 ,make eighty    
cards1 ten of each number1 and number   
them plainly4 ,practice distributing the
 cards into the boxes4 ,note the time   
required for each distribution4         
,continue to distribute them till       
considerable skill is acquired4 ,then   
rearrange the order of the boxes and    
repeat the experiment4 ,what do the     
results show8  #c4 ,does the above      
experiment show any transfer of         
training8 ,compare the time for each    
distribution in the second part of the  
experiment1 i4e4 after the rearrangement
 of the boxes1 with the time for the    
corresponding distribution in the first 
part of the experiment4 ,the question to
 be answered is3 ,are the results of the
 second part of the experiment better   
than they would have been if the first  
part had not been performed8 ,state your
 results and conclusions and compare    

with the statements in the text4  #d4 ,a
 study of the effects of spreading out  
learning periods can be made as follows3
 ,divide the class into two equal       
divisions4 ,let one division practice on
 a substitution experiment as explained 
in ,exercise #a1 for five ten-minute    
periods of practice in immediate        
succession4 ,let the other division     
practice for five days1 ten minutes a   
day4 ,what do the results indicate8 ,the
 divisions should be of equal ability4  
,if the first ten-minute practice period
 shows the sections to be of unequal    
ability1 this fact should be taken into 
account in making the comparisons4 ,test
 sheets can be prepared by the teacher1 
or they can be obtained from the        
,extension ,division of the ,university 
of ,missouri4  #e4 ,an experiment       
similar to ,no4 #d can be performed by  
practicing adding or any other school   
exercise4 ,care must be taken to control
 the experiment and to eliminate        
disturbing factors4  #f4 ,try the       

card-distributing experiment with people
 of different ages1 young children1 old 
people1 and various ages in between4    
,what do you learn8 ,is it as easy for  
an old person to form a habit as it is  
for a young person8 ,why8  #g4 ,if an   
old person has no old habits to         
interfere1 can he form a new habit as   
readily as can a young person8  #h4     
,cite evidence from your own experience 
to prove that it is hard for an old     
person to break up old habits and form  
new ones which interfere with the old   
ones4  #i4 ,do you find that you are    
becoming set in your ways8  #aj4 ,what  
do we mean by saying that we are plastic
 in early years8  #aa4 ,have you planned
 your life work8 ,are you establishing  
the habits that will be necessary in it8
  #ab4 ,is it an advantage or a         
disadvantage to choose one's profession 
or occupation early8  #ac4 ,attention   
often interferes with the performance of
 a habitual act4 ,why is this8  #ad4 ,if
 a man removes his vest in the daytime1 

he is almost sure to wind his watch4 ,on
 the other hand if he is up all night1  
he lets his watch run down4 ,why8  #ae4 
,do you know of people who have         
radically changed their views late in   
life8  #af4 ,try to teach a dog or a cat
 a trick4 ,what do you learn of         
importance about habit-formation8  #ag4 
,what branches taught in school involve 
the formation of habits that are useful 
throughout life8  #ah4 ,make a list of  
the moral habits that should be formed  
in early years4  #ai4 ,write an essay on
 ,habit and ,life4  #bj4 ,make a        
complete outline of the chapter4        
,,references ,,for ,,class ,,reading    
,,colvin ,,and ,,bagley3 ,human         
,behavior1 ,chapters ,,xi and ,,xvii4   
,,pillsbury3 ,essentials of ,psychology1
 pp4 #dh-ei2 also ,chapter ,,xv4        
,,pyle3 ,the ,outlines of ,educational  
,psychology1 ,chapters ,x1 ,,xi1 and    
,,xii4  ,,rowe3 ,habit ,formation1      
,chapters ,v-,,xiii4  ,,titchener3 ,a   
,beginner's ,psychology1 p4 #afi1 par4  

#cg4     ,,chapter ,,vii  ,,memory      
,perceptions and ,ideas4 ,in a previous 
chapter1 brief mention was made of the  
difference between perceptions and      
ideas4 ,this distinction must now be    
enlarged upon and made clearer4         
,perceptions arise out of our sensory   
life4 ,we see things when these things  
are before our eyes4 ,we hear things    
when these things produce air vibrations
 which affect our ears4 ,we smell things
 when tiny particles from them come into
 contact with a small patch of sensitive
 membrane in our noses4 ,we taste       
substances when these substances are in 
our mouths4 ,now1 this seeing1 hearing1 
smelling1 tasting1 etc41 is perceiving4 
,we perceive a thing when the thing is  
actually at the time affecting some one 
or more of our sense organs4 ,a         
perception1 then1 results from the      
stimulation of a sense organ4           
,perception is the process of           
perceiving1 sensing1 objects in the     
external world4  ,ideas are our seeming 

to see1 hear1 smell1 taste things when  
these things are not present to the     
senses4 ,this morning ,i saw1 had a     
perception of1 a robin4 ,to-night in my 
study1 ,i have an idea of a robin4 ,this
 morning the robin was present4 ,light  
reflected from it stimulated my eye4    
,to-night1 as ,i have an idea of the    
robin1 it is not here2 ,i only seem to  
see it4 ,the scene which was mine this  
morning is now revived1 reproduced4 ,we 
may say1 therefore1 that ideas are the  
conscious representatives of objects    
which are not present to the senses4    
,ideas are revived experiences4         
,revived experience is memory4 ,since it
 is memory that enables us to live our  
lives over again1 brings the past up to 
the present1 it is one of the most      
wonderful aspects of our natures4 ,the  
importance of memory is at once apparent
 if we try to imagine what life would be
 without it4 ,if our life were only     
perceptual1 if it were only the sights  
and sounds and smells and tastes of the 

passing moment1 it would have little    
meaning1 it would be bare and empty4    
,but instead of our perceptions being   
our whole life1 they are only the       
starting points of life4 ,perceptions   
serve to arouse groups of memory images 
or ideas1 and the groups of ideas enrich
 the passing moment and give meaning to 
the passing perceptions1 which otherwise
 would have no meaning4  ,suppose ,i am 
walking along the street and meet a     
friend4 ,i see him1 speak to him1 and   
pass on4 ,but after ,i have passed on1  
,i have ideas4 ,i think of seeing my    
friend the day before4 ,i think of what 
he said and of what he was doing1 of    
what ,i said and of what ,i was doing4  
,perhaps for many minutes there come    
ideas from my past experience4 ,these   
ideas were aroused by the perception of 
my friend4 ,the perception was          
momentary1 but it started a long train  
of memory ideas4  ,i pass on down the   
street and go by a music store4 ,within 
the store1 a victrola is playing ,jesus1

 ,lover of ,my ,soul4 ,the song starts  
another train of memory ideas4 ,i think 
of the past1 of my boyhood days and     
,sunday school1 my early home and many  
scenes of my childhood4 ,for several    
minutes ,i am so engrossed with the     
memory images that ,i scarcely notice   
anything along the street4 ,again1 the  
momentary perception1 this time of      
sounds1 served to revive a great number 
of ideas1 or memories1 of the past4     
,these illustrations are typical of our 
life4 ,every moment we have perceptions4
 ,these perceptions arouse ideas of our 
past life and experience4 ,one of these 
ideas evokes another1 and so an endless 
chain of images passes along4 ,the older
 we become1 the richer is our ideational
 life4 ,while we are children1 the      
perceptions constitute the larger part  
of our mental life1 but as we become    
older1 larger and larger becomes the    
part played by our memory images or     
ideas4 ,a child is not content to sit   
down and reflect1 giving himself up to  

the flow of ideas that come up from his 
past experience1 but a mature person can
 spend hours in recalling past          
experience4 ,this means that the older  
we grow1 the more we live in the past1  
the less we are bound down by the       
present1 and when we are old1 instead of
 perceptions being the main part of     
mental life1 they but give the initial  
push to our thoughts which go on in an  
endless chain as long as we live4  ,the 
,physiological ,basis of ,memory4 ,it   
will be remembered that the basis of    
perception is the agitation of the brain
 caused by the stimulation of a sense   
organ by an external thing or force4 ,if
 there is no stimulation of a sense     
organ1 there is no sensation1 no        
perception4 ,now1 just as the basis of  
sensation and perception is brain       
activity1 so it is also the basis of    
ideas4 ,in sensation1 the brain activity
 is set up from without4 ,in memory1    
when we have ideas1 the brain activity  
is set up from within and is a fainter  

revival of the activity originally      
caused by the stimulation of the sense  
organ4 ,our ideas are just as truly     
conditioned or caused by brain activity 
as are our sensations4  ,memory presents
 many problems1 and psychologists have  
been trying for many years to solve     
them4 ,we shall now see what they have  
discovered and what is the practical    
significance of the facts4  ,relation of
 ,memory to ,age and ,sex4 ,it is a     
common notion that memory is best when  
we are young1 but such is not the case4 
,numerous experiments have shown that   
all aspects of memory improve with age4 
,some aspects of memory improve more    
than others1 and they improve at        
different times and rates2 but all      
aspects do improve4 ,from the beginning 
of school age to about fourteen years of
 age the improvement of most aspects of 
memory is rapid4  ,if we pronounce a    
number of digits to a child of six1 it  
can reproduce but few of them1 a child  
of eight or ten can reproduce more1 a   

child of twelve can reproduce still     
more1 and an adult still more4 ,if we   
read a sentence to children of different
 ages1 we find that the older children  
can reproduce a longer sentence4 ,if we 
read a short story to children of       
different ages1 and then require them to
 reproduce the story in their own words1
 the older children reproduce more of   
the story than do the young children4#e 
#e ,see age and sex graphs1 pp4 #ahd1   
#ahh1 #ahi4  ,girls excel boys in       
practically all the aspects of memory4  
,in rote memory1 that is1 memory for    
lists of unrelated words1 there is not  
much difference2 but the girls are      
somewhat better4 ,however1 in the       
ability to remember the ideas of a      
story1 girls excel boys at every age4   
,this superiority of girls over boys is 
not merely a matter of memory4 ,a girl  
is superior to a boy of the same age in 
nearly every way4 ,this is merely a fact
 of development4 ,a girl develops faster
 than a boy1 she reaches maturity more  

quickly1 in mind as well as in body4    
,although a girl is lighter than a boy  
at birth1 on the average she gains in   
weight faster and is heavier at twelve  
than a boy of the same age4 ,she also   
gains faster in height1 and for a few   
years in early adolescence is taller    
than a boy of the same age4 ,of course1 
boys catch up and finally become much   
taller and heavier than girls4          
,similarly1 a girl's mind develops      
faster than the mind of a boy1 as shown 
in memory and other mental functions4   
,the ,improvement of ,memory by         
,practice4 ,all aspects of memory can be
 improved by practice1 some aspects     
much1 other aspects little4 ,the memory 
span for digits1 or letters1 or words1  
or for objects cannot be much improved1 
but memory for ideas that are related1  
as the ideas of a story1 can be         
considerably improved4 ,in extensive    
experiments conducted in the author's   
laboratory1 it was found that a person  
who at first required an hour to        

memorize the ideas in a certain amount  
of material1 could1 after a few months' 
practice1 memorize the same amount in   
fifteen minutes4 ,and in the latter case
 the ideas would be better remembered   
than they were at the beginning of the  
experiment4 ,not only could a given     
number of ideas be learned in less time1
 but they would be better retained when 
learned in the shorter time4 ,if a      
person comes to us for advice as to how 
to improve his memory1 what should we   
tell him8 ,in order to answer the       
question1 we must consider the factors  
of a good memory4  ,factors of a ,good  
,memory4 7#a7 ,the first requirement is 
to get a good impression in the         
beginning4 ,memory is revived           
experience4 ,the more vivid and intense 
the first experience1 the more sure will
 be the later recall4 ,so if we wish to 
remember an experience1 we must         
experience it in the first place under  
the most favorable conditions4 ,the     
thing must be seen clearly1 it must be  

understood1 it must be in the focus of  
consciousness4  ,the best teaching is   
that which leads the child to get the   
clearest apprehension of what is taught4
 ,if we are teaching about some concrete
 thing1 a plant1 a machine1 we should be
 sure that the child sees the essential 
points1 should be sure that the main    
principles enter his consciousness4 ,we 
should find out by questioning whether  
he really does clearly understand what  
we are trying to get him to understand4 
,often we think a pupil or student has  
forgotten1 when the fact is that he     
never really knew the thing which we    
wished to have him remember4  ,the first
 requisite to memory1 then1 is to know  
in the first place4 ,if we wish to      
remember knowledge1 the knowledge must  
be seen in the clearest light1 really be
 knowledge1 at the outset4 ,few people  
ever really learn how to learn4 ,they   
never see anything clearly1 they never  
stick to a point till it is apprehended 
in all its relations and bearings2      

consequently they forget1 largely       
because they never really knew in the   
fullest sense4  ,most teaching is too   
abstract4 ,the teacher uses words that  
have no meaning to the pupil4 ,too much 
teaching deals with things indirectly4  
,we study about things instead of       
studying things4 ,in geography1 for     
example1 we study about the earth1      
getting our information from a book4 ,we
 read about land formations1 river      
courses1 erosion1 etc41 when instead we 
should study these objects and processes
 themselves4 ,the first thing in memory1
 then1 is clear apprehension1 clear     
understanding1 vivid and intense        
impression4  7#b7 ,the second thing     
necessary to memory is to repeat the    
experience4 ,first we must get a clear  
impression1 then we must repeat the     
experience if we would retain it4 ,it is
 a mistake to believe that if we have   
once understood a thing1 we will always 
thereafter remember it4 ,we must think  
our experiences over again if we wish to

 fix them for permanent retention4  ,we 
must organize our experience4 ,to       
organize experience means to think it   
over in its helpful relations4 ,in      
memory1 one idea arouses another4 ,when 
we have one idea1 what other idea will  
this arouse8 ,it depends on what        
connections this idea has had in our    
minds in the past4 ,it depends on the   
associations that it has1 and           
associations depend on our thinking the 
ideas over together4  ,teachers and     
parents should help children to think   
over their experiences in helpful1      
practical relations4 ,then in the       
future1 when an idea comes to mind1 it  
brings along with it other ideas that   
have these helpful1 practical relations4
 ,we must not1 then1 merely repeat our  
experiences1 but must repeat them in    
helpful connections or associations4 ,in
 organizing our experience1 we must     
systematize and classify our knowledge4 
,one of the chief differences in men is 
in the way they organize their          

knowledge4 ,most of us have experiences 
abundant enough1 but we differ in the   
way we work over and organize these     
experiences4 ,organization not only     
enables us to remember our experience1  
but brings our experience back in the   
right connections4  ,the advice that    
should be given to a student is the     
following3 ,make sure that you          
understand4 ,if the matter is a lesson  
in a book1 go through it trying to get  
the main facts2 then go through it      
again1 trying to see the relation of all
 the facts4 ,then try to see the facts  
in relation to your wider experience4   
,if it is a history lesson1 think of the
 facts of the lesson in their relation  
to previous chapters4 ,think of the     
details in their bearing on wider and   
larger movements4  ,a teacher should    
always hold in mind the facts in regard 
to memory1 and should make her teaching 
conform to them4 ,she should carefully  
plan the presentation of a new topic so 
as to insure a clear initial impression4

 ,a new topic should be presented orally
 by the teacher1 with abundant          
illustration and explanation4 ,it cannot
 be made too concrete1 it cannot be made
 too plain and simple4  ,then after the 
teacher has introduced and made plain   
the new topic1 the pupil reads and      
studies further4 ,at the next recitation
 of the class1 the first thing in order 
should be a discussion1 on the part of  
the pupils4 ,this will help the pupils  
to get the facts cleared up and will    
help the teacher to find out whether the
 pupils have the facts right4  ,the     
first part of the recitation should also
 be a time for questions4 ,everything   
should now be made clear1 if there are  
any errors or misunderstandings on the  
pupil's part4 ,of course any procedure  
in a recitation should depend upon the  
nature of the material and to some      
extent on the stage of advancement of   
the pupil2 but in general such a        
procedure as that just outlined will be 
most satisfactory and economical3 first 

clear initial presentation by the       
teacher2 then reading and study on the  
part of the pupil1 and third1           
discussions on the following day4       
,teachers should also endeavor to show  
students how to study to the best       
advantage4 ,pupils do not know how to   
study4 ,they do not know what to look   
for1 and do not know how to find it     
after they know what they are looking   
for4 ,they should be shown4 ,of course1 
some of them learn without help how to  
study4 ,but some never learn1 and it    
would be a great saving of time to help 
all of them master the arts of study and
 memorizing4  ,a very important factor  
in connection with memory is the matter 
of meaning4 ,if a person will try to    
memorize a list of nonsense words1 he   
will find that it is much more difficult
 than to memorize words that have       
meaning4 ,this is a significant fact4   
,it means that as material approaches   
nonsense1 it is difficult to memorize4  
,therefore we should always try to grasp

 the meaning of a thing1 its            
significance4 ,in science1 let us always
 ask1 what is the meaning of this fact8 
,what bearing does it have on other     
facts8 ,how does it affect the meaning  
of other facts8  ,kinds of ,memories4   
,we should not speak of memory as if it 
were some sort of power like muscular   
strength4 ,we should always speak of    
memories4 ,memories may be classified   
from several different points of view3  
,a classification may be based on the   
kind of material1 as memory for concrete
 things1 the actual objects of          
experience1 on the one hand1 and memory 
for abstract material1 such as names of 
things1 their attributes and relations1 
on the other4 ,again1 we can base a     
classification on the type of ideation  
to which the material appeals1 as       
auditory memory1 visual memory1 motor   
memory4 ,we can also base a             
classification on the principle of      
meaning4 ,this principle of             
classification would give us at least   

three classes3 memory for ideas as      
expressed in sentences1 logical memory2 
memory for series of meaningful words   
not logically related in sentences1 rote
 memory2 memory for series of           
meaningless words1 a form of rote       
memory4 ,this classification is not     
meant to be complete1 but only          
suggestive4 ,with every change in the   
kind of material1 the method of         
presenting the material to the subject1 
or the manner in which the subject deals
 with the material1 there may be a      
change in the effectiveness of memory4  
,while these different kinds or aspects 
of memory may have some relation to one 
another1 they are to some extent        
independent4 ,one may have a good rote  
memory and a poor logical memory1 or a  
poor rote memory and a good logical     
memory4 ,that is to say1 one may be very
 poor at remembering the exact words of 
a book1 but be good at remembering the  
meaning1 the ideas1 of the book4 ,one   
may be good at organizing meaningful    

material but poor at remembering mere   
words4 ,on the other hand1 these        
conditions may be reversed2 one may     
remember the words but never get the    
meaning4 ,it is of course possible that 
much of this difference is due to habit 
and experience1 but some of the         
difference is beyond doubt due to       
original differences in the nervous     
system and brain4 ,these differences    
should be determined in the case of all 
children4 ,it is quite a common thing to
 find a feeble-minded person with a good
 rote memory1 but such a person never   
has a good logical memory4 ,one can have
 a good rote memory without             
understanding1 one cannot have a good   
logical memory without understanding4   
,let us now ask the question1 why can   
one remember better words that are      
connected by logical relations than     
words that have no such connection8 ,if 
we read to a person a list of twenty    
nonsense words1 the person can remember 
only two or three2 but if a list of     

twenty words connected in a sentence    
were read to a person1 in most cases1   
all of them would be reproduced4 ,the   
reason is that the words in the latter  
case are not new4 ,we already know the  
words4 ,they are already a part of our  
experience4 ,we have had days1 perhaps  
years1 of experience with them4 ,all    
that is now new about them is perhaps a 
slightly new relation4  ,moreover1 the  
twenty words may contain but one1 or at 
most only a few1 ideas1 and in this case
 it is the ideas that we remember4 ,the 
ideas hold the words together4 ,if the  
twenty words contain a great number of  
ideas1 then we cannot remember all of   
them from one reading4 ,if ,i say1 ,i   
have a little boy who loves his father  
and mother very much1 and this boy      
wishes to go to the river to catch some 
fish1 one can easily remember all these 
words after one reading4 ,but if ,i say1
 ,the stomach in all the ,salmonidae is 
syphonal and at the pylorus are fifteen 
to two hundred comparatively large      

pyloric coeca2 although this sentence is
 shorter1 one finds it more difficult to
 remember1 and the main reason is that  
the words are not so familiar4  ,memory 
and ,thinking4 ,what is the relation of 
memory to thinking and the other mental 
functions8 ,one often hears a teacher   
say that she does not wish her pupils to
 depend on memory1 but wishes them to   
reason things out4 ,such a statement    
shows a misunderstanding of the facts2  
for reasoning itself is only the recall 
of ideas in accordance with the laws of 
association4 ,without memory1 there     
would be no reasoning1 for the very     
material of thought is found to be the  
revived experiences which we call ideas1
 memories4  ,one of the first requisites
 of good thinking is a reliable memory4 
,one must have facts to reason1 and     
these facts must come to one in memory  
to be available for thought4 ,if one    
wishes to become a great thinker in a   
certain field1 he must gain experience  
in that field and organize that         

experience in such a way as to remember 
it and to recall it when it is wanted4  
,what one does deplore is memory for the
 mere words with no understanding of the
 meaning4 ,in geometry1 for example1 a  
student sometimes commits to memory the 
words of a demonstration1 with no       
understanding of the meaning4 ,of       
course1 that is worse than useless4 ,one
 should remember the meaning of the     
demonstration4 ,if one has memorized the
 words only1 he cannot solve an original
 problem in geometry4 ,but if he has    
understood the meaning of the           
demonstration1 then he recalls it1 and  
is enabled to solve the problem4 ,if one
 does not remember the various facts    
about the relationships in a triangle1  
he cannot solve a problem of the        
triangle until he has worked out and    
discovered the necessary facts4 ,then   
memory would make them available for the
 solution of the problem4  ,memory and  
,school ,standing4 ,that memory plays a 
large part in our life is evident2 and1 

of course1 it is an important factor in 
all school work4 ,it matters not what we
 learn1 if we do not remember it4 ,the  
author has made extensive experiments to
 determine the relation that memory has 
to a child's progress in school4  ,the  
method used was to give logical memory  
tests to all the children in a school   
and then rank the children in accordance
 with their abilities to reproduce the  
story used in the test4 ,then they were 
ranked according to their standing in   
their studies4 ,a very high correlation 
was found4 ,on the whole1 the pupils    
standing highest in the memory tests    
were found to stand highest in their    
studies4 ,it is true1 of course1 that   
they did not stand highest merely       
because they had good memories1 but     
because they were not only better in    
memory1 but were better in most other   
respects too4 ,pupils that are good in  
logical memory are usually good in other
 mental functions4  ,a test of logical  
memory is one of the best to give us an 

idea of the school standing of pupils4  
,not only is the retention of ideas of  
very great importance itself1 but the   
acquiring of ideas1 and the organizing  
of them in such a way as to remember    
them involves nearly all the mental     
functions4 ,the one who remembers well  
ideas logically related1 is the one who 
pays the closest attention1 the one who 
sees the significance1 the one who      
organizes1 the one who repeats1 the one 
who turns things over in his mind4 ,a   
logical memory test is therefore1 to    
some extent1 a test of attention1       
association1 power of organization as   
well as of memory2 in a word1 it is a   
test of mental power4  ,other things    
being equal1 a person whose power of    
retention is good has a great advantage 
over his fellows who have poor ability  
to remember4 ,suppose we consider the   
learning of language4 ,the pupil who can
 look up the meaning of a word just once
 and remember it has an advantage over  
the person who has to look up the       

meaning of the word several times before
 it is retained4 ,so in any branch of   
study1 the person who can acquire the   
facts in less time than another person1 
has the extra time for learning         
something else or for going over the    
same material and organizing it better4 
,the scientist who remembers all the    
significant facts that he reads1 and    
sees their bearing on his problems1 has 
a great advantage over the person who   
does not remember so well4  ,of course1 
there are certain dangers in having a   
good memory1 just as there is danger in 
being brilliant generally4 ,the quick   
learner is in danger of forming slovenly
 habits4 ,a person who learns quickly is
 likely to form the habit of waiting    
till the last minute to study his lesson
 and then getting a superficial idea of 
it4 ,the slow learner must form good    
habits of study to get on at all4       
,teachers and parents should prevent the
 bright children from forming bad habits
 of study4 ,the person who learns       

quickly and retains well should be      
taught to be thorough and to use the    
advantage that comes from repetition4   
,the quick learner should not be        
satisfied with one attack on his lesson1
 but should study the lesson more than  
once1 for even the brilliant learner    
cannot afford to neglect the advantages 
that come from repetition4 ,a person    
with poor memory and only mediocre      
ability generally can make up very much 
by hard work and by work that takes     
advantage of all the laws of economical 
learning4 ,but he can never compete     
successfully with the person who works  
as hard as he does and who has good     
powers of learning and retention4  ,the 
author has found that in a large class  
of a hundred or more1 there is usually a
 person who has good memory along with  
good mental ability generally1 and is   
also a hard worker4 ,such a person      
always does the best work in the class4 
,a person with poor memory and poor     
mental powers generally cannot hope to  

compete with a person of good memory1   
good mental powers generally1 if that   
person is also a good worker4  ,learning
 and ,remembering4 ,a popular fallacy is
 expressed in the saying ,easy come1    
easy go4 ,the person who is the best    
learner is also the best in retaining   
what is learned1 provided all other     
conditions are the same4 ,this matter   
was determined in the following way3 ,a 
logical memory test was given to all the
 children in a city school system4 ,a   
story was read to the pupils and then   
reproduced by them in writing4 ,the     
papers were corrected and graded and    
nothing more was said about the test for
 one month4 ,then at the same time in   
every room1 the teachers said1 ,you     
remember the story ,i read to you some  
time ago and which ,i asked you to      
reproduce4 ,well1 ,i wish to see how    
much of the story you still remember4   
,the pupils were then required to write 
down all the story that they could      
recall4  ,it was found that1 in general1

 the children who write the most when   
the story is first read to them1 write  
the most after the lapse of a month1 and
 the poorest ones at first are the      
poorest ones at the end of the month4   
,of course1 the correspondence is not   
perfect1 but in some cases1 in some     
grades1 it is almost so4  ,the          
significance of this experiment is very 
great4 ,it means that the pupil who gets
 the most facts from a lesson will have 
the most facts at any later time4 ,this 
is true1 of course1 only if other things
 are equal4 ,if one pupil studies about 
the matter more1 reflects upon it1      
repeats it in his mind1 of course this  
person will remember more1 other things 
being equal4 ,but if neither reviews the
 matter1 or if both do it to an equal   
extent1 then the one who learns the most
 in the first place1 remembers the most 
at a later time4  ,i have also tested   
the matter out in other ways4 ,i have   
experimented with a group of men and    
women1 by reading a passage of about a  

page in length1 repeating the reading   
till the subject could reproduce all the
 facts4 ,it was found that the person   
who acquired all the facts from the     
fewest readings remembered more of the  
facts later4 ,it must be said that there
 is less difference between the subjects
 later than at first4  ,in the          
laboratory of ,columbia ,university a   
similar experiment was performed1 but in
 a somewhat different way4 ,students    
were required to commit to memory       
,german vocabularies and were later     
tested for their retention of the words 
learned4 ,it was found that those who   
learned the most words in a given time1 
also retained the largest percentage of 
what had been learned4 ,it should not be
 surprising that this is the case4 ,the 
quick learner is the one who makes the  
best use of all the factors of          
retention1 the factors mentioned in the 
preceding paragraph--good attention1    
association1 organization1 etc4         
,another experiment performed in the    

author's laboratory bears out the above 
conclusions4 ,a group of students were  
required to commit to memory at one     
sitting a long list of nonsense         
syllables4 ,the number of repetitions   
necessary to enable each student to     
reproduce them was noted4 ,one day      
later1 the students attempted to        
reproduce the syllables4 ,of course they
 could not1 and they were then required 
to say them over again till they could  
just repeat them from memory4 ,the      
number of repetitions was noted4 ,the   
number of repetitions was much less than
 on the first day4 ,on the third day1   
the process was repeated4 ,the number of
 repetitions was fewer still4 ,this     
relearning was kept up each day till    
each person could repeat the syllables  
from memory without any study4 ,it was  
found that the person who learned the   
syllables in the fewest repetitions the 
first time1 relearned them in the fewest
 repetitions on succeeding days4 ,all   
the experiments bearing on the subject  

point to the same conclusion2 namely1   
that the quick learner1 if other things 
are equal1 retains at least as well as  
the slow learner1 and usually retains   
better4  ,transfer of ,memory ,training4
 ,we have said above that there are many
 kinds or aspects of memory4 ,it has    
also been said that we can improve      
memory by practice4 ,now1 the question  
arises1 if we improve one aspect of     
memory1 does this improve all aspects8  
,this is an important question2         
moreover1 it is one to be settled by    
experiment and not by argument4  ,the   
most extensive and thorough experiment  
was performed by an ,english            
psychologist1 ,sleight4 ,the experiment 
was essentially as follows3 ,he took a  
large number of pupils and tested the   
efficiency of the various aspects of    
their memory4 ,he then took half of them
 and trained one aspect of their memory 
until there was considerable            
improvement4 ,the other section had no  
memory training meanwhile4 ,after the   

training1 both groups again had all     
aspects of their memory tested4 ,both   
groups showed improvement in all aspects
 because the first tests gave them some 
practice1 but the group that had been   
receiving the training was no better in 
those aspects not trained than was the  
group receiving no training at all4     
,aspects of memory much like the one    
trained showed some improvement1 but    
other aspects did not4  ,the conclusion 
is that memory training is specific1    
that it affects only the kind of memory 
trained1 and related memories4 ,this is 
in harmony with what we learned about   
habit4 ,when we receive training1 it    
affects only the parts of us trained and
 other closely related parts4  ,learning
 by ,wholes4 ,we do not often have to   
commit to memory verbatim1 but when we  
do1 it is important that we should know 
the most economical way4 ,experiments   
have clearly demonstrated that the most 
economical way is to read the entire    
selection through from beginning to end 

and continue to read it through in this 
way till the matter is learned by heart4
  ,in long selections1 the saving by    
this method is considerable4 ,a pupil is
 not likely to believe this because if  
he spends a few minutes learning in this
 manner1 he finds that he cannot repeat 
a single line1 while if he had          
concentrated on one line1 he could have 
repeated at least that much4 ,this is   
true2 but although he cannot repeat a   
single line by the whole procedure1 he  
has learned nevertheless4 ,it would be a
 good thing to demonstrate this fact to 
a class2 then the pupils would be       
satisfied to use the most economical    
procedure4 ,the plan holds good whether 
the matter be prose or poetry4  ,but    
experiments have been carried on only   
with verbatim learning4 ,the best       
procedure for learning the facts so that
 one can give them in one's own words   
has not yet been experimentally         
determined4  ,cramming4 ,an important   
practical question is whether it pays to

 go over a great amount of material in a
 very short time1 as students often do  
before examinations4 ,from all that has 
been said above1 one could infer the    
solution to this problem4 ,learning and 
memorizing are to some extent a growth1 
and consequently involve time4  ,there  
is an important law of learning and     
memory known as ,jost's law1 which may  
be stated as follows3 ,if we repeat or  
renew associations1 the repetitions have
 most value for the old associations4   
,therefore when we learn1 we should     
learn and then later relearn4 ,this will
 make for permanent retention4 ,of      
course1 if we wish to get together a    
great mass of facts for a temporary     
purpose and do not care to retain them  
permanently1 cramming is the proper     
method4 ,if we are required to pass an  
examination in which a knowledge of many
 details is expected and these details  
have no important permanent value1      
cramming is justified4 ,when a lawyer is
 preparing a case to present to a court1

 the actual1 detail evidence is of no   
permanent value1 and cramming is        
justified4  ,but if we wish to acquire  
and organize facts for their permanent  
value1 cramming is not the proper       
procedure4 ,the proper procedure is for 
a student to go over his work faithfully
 as the term of school proceeds1 then   
occasionally review4 ,at the end of the 
term1 a rapid review of the whole term's
 work is valuable4 ,after one has       
studied over matter and once carefully  
worked it out1 a quick view again of the
 whole subject is most valuable1 and    
assists greatly in making the           
acquisition permanent4 ,but if the      
matter has not been worked out before1  
the hasty view of the material of the   
course1 while it may enable one to pass 
the examination1 has no permanent value4
  ,function of the ,teacher in ,memory  
,work4 ,the function of a teacher is    
plainly to get the pupils to learn in   
accordance with the laws of memory above
 set forth2 but there are certain things

 that a teacher can do that may not have
 become evident to the reader4 ,it has  
been learned in experiments in logical  
memory that when a story is read to a   
subject and the subject attempts to     
reproduce it1 certain mistakes are made4
 ,when the story is read again1 it is   
common for the same mistakes to be made 
in the recall4 ,certain ideas were      
apprehended in a certain way2 and1 when 
the piece is read again1 the subject    
pays no more attention to the ideas     
already acquired and reported1 and they 
are therefore reported wrongly as they  
were in the first place4 ,often the     
subject does not notice the errors till 
his attention is called to them4  ,this 
suggests an important function of the   
teacher in connection with the memory   
work of the pupils4 ,this function is to
 correct mistakes in the early stages of
 learning4 ,a teacher should always be  
on the watch to find the errors of the  
pupils and to correct them before they  
are fixed by repetition4  ,a teacher    

should1 also1 consider it her duty to   
test the memory capacities of the pupils
 and to give each the advice that the   
case demands4  ,some ,educational       
,inferences4--,there are certain        
consequences to education that follow   
from the facts of memory above set forth
 that are of considerable significance4 
,many things have been taught to        
children on the assumption that they    
could learn them better in childhood    
than later1 because it was thought that 
memory and the learning capacity were   
better in childhood4 ,but both of these 
assumptions are false4 ,as children grow
 older their learning capacity increases
 and their memories become better4  ,it 
has particularly been held that rote    
memory is better in childhood and that  
therefore children should begin their   
foreign language study early4 ,it is    
true that as far as speaking a foreign  
language is concerned1 the earlier a    
child begins it the better4 ,but this is
 not true of learning to read the       

language4 ,the sounds of the foreign    
language that we have not learned in    
childhood in speaking the mother tongue 
are usually difficult for us to make4   
,the organs of speech become set in the 
way of their early exercise4 ,in reading
 the foreign language1 correct          
pronunciation is not important4 ,we are 
concerned with getting the thought1 and 
this is possible without pronouncing at 
all4 ,reference to graphs on pages #aij 
and #aia will show that rote memory     
steadily improves throughout childhood  
and youth4 ,the author has performed    
numerous experiments to test this very  
point4 ,he has had adults work side by  
side with children at building up new   
associations of the rote memory type and
 found that always the adult could learn
 faster than the child and retain better
 what was learned4  ,the experience of  
language teachers in college and        
university does not give much comfort to
 those who claim that language study    
should be begun early4 ,these teachers  

claim that the students who have had    
previous language study do no better    
than those who have had none4 ,it seems1
 however1 that there certainly ought to 
be some advantage in beginning language 
study early and spreading the study out 
over the high school period4 ,but what  
is gained does not offset the tremendous
 loss that follows from requiring all   
high school students to study a foreign 
language merely to give an opportunity  
for early study to those who are to go  
on in the university with language      
courses4 ,a mature university student   
that has a real interest in language and
 literature can begin his language study
 in the university and make rapid       
progress4 ,some of the best classical   
scholars whom the author knows began    
their language study in the university4 
,while it would have been of some       
advantage to them to have begun their   
language study earlier1 there are so few
 who should go into this kind of work   
that society cannot afford to make      

provision for their beginning the study 
in the high school4  ,the selection and 
arrangement of the studies in the       
curriculum must be based on other       
grounds than the laws of memory4 ,what  
children make most progress in and need 
most to know are the concrete things of 
their physical and social environment4  
,children must first learn the          
world--the woods and streams and birds  
and flowers and plants and animals1 the 
earth1 its rocks and soils and the      
wonderful forces at work in it4 ,they   
must learn man1--what he is and what he 
does and how he does it2 how he lives   
and does his work and how he governs    
himself4 ,they should also learn to read
 and to write their mother tongue1 and  
should learn something of that great    
store of literature written in the      
mother tongue4  ,the few that are to be 
scholars in language and literature must
 wait till beginning professional study 
before taking up their foreign language2
 just as a person who is to be a lawyer 

or physician must also wait till time to
 enter a university before beginning    
special professional preparation4 ,the  
child's memory for abstract conceptions 
is particularly weak in early years2    
hence studies should be so arranged as  
to acquaint the child with the concrete 
aspects of the world first1 and later to
 acquaint him with the abstract         
relations of things4 ,mathematics should
 come late in the child's life1 for the 
same reason4 ,mathematics deals with    
quantitative relations which the child  
can neither learn nor remember          
profitably and economically till he is  
more mature4 ,the child should first    
learn the world in its descriptive      
aspects4  ,memory and ,habit4 ,the      
discussion up to this point should have 
made it clear to the reader that memory 
is much the same thing as habit4 ,memory
 considered as retention depends upon   
the permanence of the impression on the 
brain2 but in its associative aspects   
depends on connections between brain    

centers1 as is the case with habit4 ,the
 association of ideas1 which is the     
basis of their recall1 is purely a      
matter of habit formation4  ,when ,i    
think of ,george ,washington1 ,i also   
think of the ,revolution1 of the        
government1 of the presidency1 of ,john 
,adams1 ,thomas ,jefferson1 etc41       
because of the connections which these  
ideas have had in my mind many times    
before4 ,there is a basis in the brain  
structure for these connections4 ,there 
is nothing in any idea that connects it 
with another idea4 ,ideas become        
connected because of the way in which we
 experience them1 and the reason one    
idea calls up another idea is because   
the brain process that is the cause of  
one idea brings about another brain     
process that is the cause of a second   
idea4 ,the whole thing is merely a      
matter of the way the brain activities  
become organized4 ,therefore the various
 laws of habit-formation have           
application to memory in so far as      

memory is a matter of the association of
 ideas1 based on brain processes4  ,one 
often has the experience of trying to   
recall a name or a fact and finds that  
he cannot4 ,presently the name or fact  
may come1 or it may not come till the   
next day or the next week4 ,what is the 
cause of this peculiar phenomenon8 ,the 
explanation is to be found in the       
nervous system4 ,when one tries to      
recall the name and it will not come to 
mind1 there is some temporary block or  
hindrance in the nerve-path that leads  
from one center to the other and one    
cannot think of the name till the       
obstruction is removed4 ,we go on       
thinking about other things1 and in the 
meantime the activities going on in the 
brain remove the obstruction2 so when   
the matter comes up again1 the nerve    
current shoots through1 and behold1 the 
name comes to mind4  ,illustration3     
,,figure ,,iv--,,associative            
,,connections ,the diagram represents   
schematically the neural basis of the   

association of ideas4  ,now the only    
preventive of such an occurrence is to  
be found in the law of habit1 for the   
block ordinarily occurs in case of paths
 or bonds not well established4 ,we must
 think together the things we wish to   
have associated4 ,repetition is the key 
to the situation1 repetition which is   
the significant thing in                
habit-formation1 repetition which is the
 only way of coupling two things which  
we wish to have associated together4    
,of course1 there is no absolute        
coupling of two ideas4 ,one sometimes   
forgets his own name4 ,when we are tired
 or ill1 things which were the most     
closely associated may not hang         
together4 ,but those ideas hold together
 in the firmest way that have been      
experienced together most often in a    
state of attention4 ,the diagram on page
 #adg illustrates schematically the     
neural connections and cross-connections
 which are the bases of the association 
of ideas1 the circles ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1   

,e1 and ,f represent brain processes    
which give rise to ideas1 and the lines 
represent connecting paths4 ,note that  
there are both direct and indirect      
connections4    ,,summary4 ,sensation   
and perception give us our first        
experience with   things2 memory is     
revived experience4 ,it enables us to   
live our   experience over again and is 
therefore one of the most important     
human traits4 ,the physiological basis  
of memory is in the brain and   nervous 
system4 ,memory improves with practice  
and up to a certain   point with the age
 of the person4 ,it is better in girls  
than in   boys4 ,good memory depends on 
vivid experience in the first place and 
on organization and repetition          
afterward4 ,the person who learns       
quickly usually retains well also4      
,memory training is specific4 ,the      
extension of the learning process over a
 long time is favorable to   memory4    
,memory ideas are the basis of thinking 
and reasoning4   ,,class ,,exercises    

#a4 ,the teacher can test the auditory  
memory of the members of the class for  
rote material by using letters4 ,it is  
better to omit the vowels1 using only   
the consonants4 ,prepare five groups of 
letters with eight letters in a group4  
,read each group of letters to the      
class1 slowly and distinctly4 ,after    
reading a group1 allow time for the     
students to write down what they recall1
 then read the next group and so proceed
 till the five groups have been read4   
,grade the work by finding the number of
 letters reproduced1 taking no account  
of the position of the letters4  #b4 ,in
 a similar way1 test visual memory1     
using different combinations of letters4
 ,write the letters plainly on five     
large squares of cardboard4 ,hold each  
list before the class for as long a time
 as it took to read a group in          
experiment ,no4 #a4  #c4 ,test memory   
for words in a similar way4 ,use simple 
words of one syllable1 making five lists
 with eight words in a list4  #d4 ,test 

memory for objects by fastening common  
objects on a large cardboard and holding
 the card before the class4 ,put eight  
objects on each card and prepare five   
cards4 ,expose them for the same length 
of time as in experiment ,no4 #b4  #e4  
,test memory for names of objects by    
preparing five lists of names1 eight    
names in a list1 and reading the names  
as in experiment ,no4 #a4  #f4 ,you now 
have data for the following study3 ,find
 the average grade of each student in   
the different experiments4 ,find the    
combined grade of each student in all   
the above experiments4 ,do the members  
of the class hold the same rank in all  
the tests8 ,how do the boys compare with
 the girls8 ,how does memory for objects
 compare with memory for names of       
objects8 ,how does auditory memory      
compare with visual8 ,what other points 
do you learn from the experiments8  #g4 
,the teacher can make a study of the    
logical memory of the members of the    
class by using material as described on 

page #ahd4 ,make five separate tests1   
using stories that are well within the  
comprehension of the class and that will
 arouse their interest4 ,sufficient     
material will be found in the author's  
,examination of ,school ,children and   
,whipple's ,manual4 ,however1 the       
teacher can prepare similar material4   
#h4 ,do the students maintain the same  
rank in the separate tests of experiment
 ,no4 #g8 ,rank all the students for    
their combined standing in all the first
 five tests4 ,rank them for their       
combined standing in the logical memory 
tests4 ,compare the two rankings4 ,what 
conclusions are warranted8  #i4 ,you    
have tested1 in experiment ,no4 #g1     
logical memory when the material was    
read to the students4 ,it will now be   
interesting to compare the results of   
,no4 #g with the results obtained by    
allowing the students to read the       
material of the test4 ,for this purpose1
 select portions from the later chapters
 of this book4 ,allow just time enough  

for the selection to be read once slowly
 by the students1 then have it          
reproduced as in the other logical      
memory experiment4 ,give several tests1 
if there is sufficient time4 ,find the  
average grade of each student1 and      
compare the results with those obtained 
in ,no4 #g4 ,this will enable you to    
compare the relative standing of the    
members of the class1 but will not      
enable you to compare the two ways of   
acquiring facts4 ,for this purpose1 the 
stories would have to be of equal       
difficulty4 ,let the members of the     
class plan an experiment that would be  
adequate for this purpose4  #aj4 ,a     
brief study of the improvement of memory
 can be made by practicing a few minutes
 each day for a week or two1 as time    
permits1 using material that can be     
easily prepared1 such as lists of common
 words4 ,let the members of the class   
plan the experiment4 ,use the best plan4
  #aa4 ,the class can make a study of   
the relation of memory to school        

standing in one of the grades below the 
high school4 ,give at least two tests   
for logical memory4 ,give also the rote 
memory tests described on page #ahi4    
,get the class standing of the pupils   
from the teacher4 ,make the comparison  
as suggested in ,chapter ,i1 page #ae4  
,or1 the correlation can be worked out  
accurately by following the directions  
given in the ,examination of ,school    
,children1 page #eh1 or in ,whipple's   
,manual1 page #ch4  #ab4 ,let the       
members of the class make a plan for the
 improvement of their memory for the    
material studied in school4 ,plan       
devices for learning the material better
 and for fixing it in memory4 ,at the   
end of the course in psychology1 have an
 experience meeting and study the       
results reported4  #ac4 ,prepare five   
lists of nonsense syllables1 with eight 
in a list4 ,give them as in experiment  
,no4 #c1 and compare the results with   
those of that experiment4 ,what do the  
results indicate as to the value to     

memory of meaningful material8 ,what    
educational inferences can you make8 ,in
 preparing the syllables1 put a vowel   
between two consonants1 and use no      
syllable that is a real word4  #ad4 ,a  
study of the effects of distractions on 
learning and memory can be made as      
follows3 ,let the teacher select two    
paragraphs in later chapters of this    
book1 of equal length and difficulty4   
,let the students read one under quiet  
conditions and the other while an       
electric bell is ringing in the room4   
,compare the reproductions in the two   
cases4  #ae4 ,from the chapter and from 
the results of all the memory tests1 let
 the students enumerate the facts that  
have educational significance4  #af4    
,make a complete outline of the chapter4
   ,,references ,,for ,,class ,,reading 
,,colvin and ,,bagley3 ,human ,behavior1
 ,chapter ,,xv4                         
,m,ue,n,s,t,e,r,b,e,r,g3 ,psychology1   
,general and ,applied1 pp4 #afe-agj4    
,,pillsbury3 ,essentials of ,psychology1

 ,chapters ,,vi and ,,viii4  ,,pyle3    
,the ,outlines of ,educational          
,psychology1 ,chapter ,,xiii4           
,,titchener3 ,a ,beginner's ,psychology1
 ,chapter ,,vii4     ,,chapter ,,viii   
,,thinking   ,in ,chapter ,,iii we      
learned about sensation4 ,we found that 
when a sense organ is stimulated by its 
appropriate type of stimulus1 this      
stimulation travels through the sensory 
nerves and sets up an excitation in the 
brain4 ,this excitation in the brain    
gives us sensation4 ,we see if the eye  
is stimulated4 ,we hear if the ear is   
stimulated1 etc4 ,in ,chapter ,,vii we  
learned that after the brain has had an 
excitation giving rise to sensation1 it 
is capable of reviving this excitation  
later4 ,this renewal or revival of a    
brain excitation gives us an experience 
resembling the original sensation1 only 
usually fainter and less stable4 ,this  
revived experience is called image or   
idea4 ,the general process of retention 
and revival of experience is1 as we have

 seen1 known as memory4 ,an idea1 then1 
is a bit of revived experience4 ,a      
perception is a bit of immediate or     
primary experience4 ,i am said to       
perceive a chair if the chair is present
 before me1 if the light reflected from 
the chair is actually exciting my       
retinas4 ,i have an idea of the chair   
when ,i seem to see it1 when the chair  
is not before me or when my eyes are    
shut4 ,these distinctions were pointed  
out in the preceding chapter4 ,let us   
now proceed to carry our study of ideas 
further4  ,association of ,ideas4 ,the  
subject of the association of ideas can 
best be introduced by an experiment4    
,take a paper and pencil1 and think of  
the word horse4 ,write this word down1  
and then write down other words that    
come to mind4 ,write them in the order  
in which they come to mind4 ,do this for
 three or four minutes1 and try the     
experiment several times1 beginning with
 a different word each time4 ,make a    
study of the lists of words4 ,compare   

the different lists and the lists       
written by different students4  ,in the 
case of the writer1 the following words 
came to mind in the first few seconds3  
horse1 bridle1 saddle1 tail1 harness1   
buggy1 whip1 man1 sky1 stars1 sun1      
ocean4 ,why did these words come1 and   
why did they come in that order8 ,why   
did the idea horse suggest the idea     
bridle8 ,and why did bridle suggest     
saddle8 ,is there something in the      
nature of ideas that couples them with  
certain other ideas and makes them      
always suggest the other ideas8 ,no1    
there is not4 ,ideas become coupled     
together in our experience1 and the     
coupling is in accordance with our      
experience4 ,things that are together in
 our experience become coupled together 
as ideas4 ,the idea horse may become    
coupled with any other idea4 ,the       
general law of the association of ideas 
is this3 ,ideas are joined together in  
memory or revived experience as they    
were joined in the original or          

perceptive experience4  ,but the matter 
is complicated by the fact that things  
are experienced in different connections
 in perceptive experience4 ,i do not    
always experience horse together with   
bridle4 ,i sometimes see horses in a    
pasture eating clover4 ,so1 as far as   
this last experience is concerned1 when 
,i think horse ,i should also think     
clover4 ,i sometimes see a horse running
 when a train whistles1 so whistle and  
horse should be coupled in my mind4 ,a  
horse once kicked me on the shoulder1 so
 horse and shoulder should be connected 
in my mind4 ,and so they are4 ,the very 
fact that these various experiences come
 back to me proves that they are        
connected in my mind in accordance with 
the original experiences4 ,the revival  
of various horse experiences has come to
 me faster than ,i could write them     
down1 and they are all bound together in
 my memory4 ,if ,i should write them all
 out1 it would take many hours1 perhaps 
days4  ,not only are these horse ideas  

bound together with one another1 but    
they are bound more or less directly1   
more or less closely1 to everything else
 in my life4 ,i can1 therefore1 pass in 
thought from the idea horse to any other
 idea1 directly or indirectly4 ,now1 in 
any given case1 what idea will actually 
come first after ,i have the idea horse8
 ,this depends upon the tendencies      
established in the nervous system4 ,the 
brain process underlying the idea horse 
has connections with many other         
processes and tends to excite these     
processes4 ,the factors that strengthen 
these tendencies or connections are the 
frequency1 recency1 primacy1 and        
vividness of experience4 ,let us        
consider1 in some detail1 each of these 
factors4  ,primacy of ,experience4 ,a   
strong factor in determining association
 is the first experience4 ,the first1   
the original1 coupling of ideas tends to
 persist4 ,the first connection is      
nearly always a strong one1 and is also 
strengthened by frequent repetition in  

memory4 ,our first experience with      
people and things persists with great   
strength1 across the years1 in spite of 
other associations and connections      
established later4 ,just now there comes
 to mind my first experience with a     
certain famous scientist4 ,it was many  
years ago4 ,i was a student in an       
eastern university4 ,this man gave a    
public lecture at the opening of the    
session4 ,i remember many details of the
 occurrence with great vividness4       
,although ,i studied under this man for 
three years1 no other experience with   
him is more prominent than the first4   
,first experiences give rise to such    
strong connections between ideas that   
these connections often persist and hold
 their own as against other connections 
depending upon other factors4  ,the     
practical consequences of this factor in
 teaching are1 of course1 evident4 ,both
 teachers and parents should take great 
care in the matter of the first         
experiences of children4 ,if the        

idea-connections of first experiences   
are likely to persist1 then these       
connections should be desirable ones4   
,they should not be useless connections1
 nor should they1 ordinarily1 be        
connections that will have to be        
radically undone later4 ,usually it is  
not economical to build up connections  
between ideas that will not serve       
permanently1 except in cases in which   
the immaturity of the mind makes such a 
procedure necessary4  ,recency of       
,experience4 ,the most recent connection
 of ideas is relatively strong1 and is  
often the determining one4 ,but the most
 recent connection must be very recent  
or it has no especial value4 ,if ,i have
 seen a certain friend to-day1 and his  
name is brought to mind now1 to-day's   
experience with him will likely be      
brought to mind first4 ,but if my last  
seeing him was some days or months ago1 
the idea-connection of the last meeting 
has no great value4 ,of course1         
circumstances always alter the matter4  

,perhaps we should say in the last      
instance that1 other things being equal1
 the last experience has no special     
value4 ,if the last experience was an   
unusual one1 such as a death or a       
marriage1 then it has a value due to its
 vividness and intensity and its        
emotional aspects4 ,these factors not   
only add strength to the connections    
made at the time but are the cause of   
frequent revivals of this last          
experience in memory in the succeeding  
days4 ,all these factors taken together 
often give a last experience great      
associative strength1 even though the   
last experience is not recent4          
,frequency of ,experience4 ,the most    
frequent connection of ideas is probably
 the most important factor of all in    
determining future associations4 ,the   
first connection is but one1 and the    
last connection is but one1 while       
repeated connections may be many in     
number4 ,connections which recur        
frequently usually overcome all other   

connections4 ,hence frequency is the    
dominant factor in association4 ,most of
 the strength of first connections is   
due to repetitions in memory later4 ,the
 first experience passes through the    
mind again and again as memory1 and     
thereby becomes strengthened4 ,the fact 
that repetition of connections          
establishes these connections is1 of    
course1 the justification of drill and  
review in school studies4 ,the practical
 needs of life demand that certain ideas
 be associated so that one calls up the 
other4 ,teachers and parents1 knowing   
these desirable connections1 endeavor to
 fix them in the minds of children by   
repetition4 ,the important facts of     
history1 literature1 civics1 and science
 we endeavor1 by means of repetition1 to
 fasten in the child's mind4  ,vividness
 and ,intensity of ,experience4 ,a vivid
 experience is one that excites and     
arouses us1 strongly stimulating our    
feelings4 ,such experiences establish   
strong bonds of connection4 ,when ,i    

think of a railroad wreck1 ,i think of  
one in which ,i participated4 ,the      
experience was vivid1 intense1 and      
aroused my emotions4 ,i hardly knew     
whether ,i was dead or alive4 ,then1    
secondly1 ,i usually think of a wreck   
which ,i witnessed in childhood4 ,a     
train plunged through a bridge and      
eighteen cars were piled up in the      
ravine4 ,the experience was vivid and   
produced a deep and lasting impression  
on me4  ,the practical significance of  
this factor is1 of course1 great4 ,when 
ideas are presented to pupils these     
ideas should be made clear4 ,every      
conceivable device should be used to    
clarify and explain1--concrete          
demonstration1 the use of objects and   
diagrams1 pictures and drawings1 and    
abundant oral illustration4 ,we must be 
sure that the one taught understands1   
that the ideas become focal in          
consciousness and take hold of the      
individual4 ,this is the main factor in 
what is known as interest4 ,an          

interesting thing is one that takes hold
 of us and possesses us so that we      
cannot get away from it4 ,such          
experiences are vivid and have rich     
emotional connections or accompaniments4
 ,ideas that are experienced together at
 such times are strongly connected4     
,mental ,set or ,attitude4 ,another     
influence always operative in           
determining the association of ideas is 
mental set4 ,by mental set we mean the  
mood or attitude one is in1--whether one
 is sad or glad1 well or ill1 fresh or  
fatigued1 etc4 ,what one has just been  
thinking about1 what one has just been  
doing1 are always factors that determine
 the direction of association4 ,one     
often notices the effects of mental set 
in reading newspapers4 ,if one's mind   
has been deeply occupied with some      
subject and one then starts to read a   
newspaper1 one may actually miscall many
 of the words in the article he is      
reading2 the words are made to fit in   
with what is in his mind4 ,for example1 

if one is all wrought up over a wedding1
 many words beginning with w and having 
about the same length as the word       
wedding1 will be read as wedding4       
,mental set may be permanent or         
temporary4 ,by permanent we mean the    
strong tendencies that are built up by  
continued thought in a certain          
direction4 ,one becomes a ,methodist1 a 
,democrat1 a conservative1 a radical1 a 
pessimist1 an optimist1 etc41 by        
continuity of similar experiences and   
similar reactions to these experiences4 
,germans1 ,french1 ,irish1 ,italians1   
,chinese1 have characteristic sets or   
ways of reacting to typical situations  
that may be called racial4 ,these       
prejudicial ways of reacting may be     
called racial sets or attitudes4        
,religious1 political1 and social       
prejudices may all be called sets or    
attitudes4  ,temporary sets or attitudes
 are leanings and prejudices that are   
due to temporary states of mind4 ,the   
fact that one has headache1 or          

indigestion1 or is in a hurry1 or is    
angry1 or is hungry1 or is emotionally  
excited over something will1 for the    
time1 be a factor in determining the    
direction of association4  ,one of the  
tasks of education is to build up sets  
or attitudes1 permanent prejudices1 to  
be constant factors in guiding          
association and1 consequently1 action4  
,we wish to build up permanent attitudes
 toward truth1 honesty1 industry1       
sympathy1 zeal1 persistence1 etc4 ,it is
 evident that attitude is merely an     
aspect of habit4 ,it is an habitual way 
of reacting to a definite and typical   
situation4 ,this habitual way is        
strengthened by repetition1 so that set 
or attitude finally1 after years of     
repetition1 becomes a part of our       
nature4 ,our prejudices become as       
strong1 seemingly1 as our instinctive   
tendencies4 ,after a man has thought in 
a particular groove for years1 it is    
about as sure that he will come to      
certain definite conclusions on matters 

in the line of his thought as that he   
would give typical instinctive or even  
reflex reactions4 ,we know the direction
 association will take for a            
,presbyterian in religious matters1 for 
a ,democrat in political matters1 with  
about as much certainty as we know what 
their actions will be in situations that
 evoke instinctive reactions4  ,thinking
 and ,reasoning4 ,thinking is the       
passing of ideas in the mind4 ,this flow
 of ideas is in accordance with the laws
 of association above discussed4 ,the   
order in which the ideas come is the    
order fixed by experience1 the order as 
determined by the various factors above 
enumerated4  ,in early life1 one's mind 
is chiefly perceptual1 it is what we see
 and hear and taste and smell4 ,as one  
grows older his mind grows more and more
 ideational4 ,with increasing age1 a    
larger and larger percentage of our     
mental life is made up of ideas1 of     
memories4 ,the child lives in the       
present1 in a world of perceptions4 ,a  

man is not so much tied down to the     
present2 he lives in memory and         
anticipation4 ,he thinks more than does 
the child4 ,a man is content to sit down
 in his chair and think for hours at a  
time1 a child is not4 ,this thinking is 
the passing of ideas1 now one1 then     
another and another4 ,these ideas are   
the survivals or revivals of our past   
experience4 ,the order of their coming  
depends on our past experience4  ,as ,i 
sit here and write1 there surge up out  
of my past1 ideas of creeks and rivers  
and hills1 horses and cows and dogs1    
boys and girls1 men and women1 work and 
play1 school days1 friends1--an endless 
chain of ideas4 ,this flow of ideas is  
often started by a perception4 ,for     
illustration1 ,i see a letter on the    
table1 a letter from my brother4 ,i then
 have a visual image of my brother4 ,i  
think of him as ,i saw him last4 ,i     
think of what he said4 ,i think of his  
children1 of his home1 of his boyhood1  
and our early life together4 ,then ,i   

think of our mother and the old home1   
and so on and on4 ,presently ,i glance  
at a history among my books1 and        
immediately think of ,greece and ,athens
 and the ,acropolis1 ,plato1 ,aristotle1
 and ,socrates1 schoolmates and         
teachers1 and friends connected in one  
way or another with my college study of 
,greek4  ,in this description of the    
process of thinking1 ,i have repeatedly 
used the words think of4 ,i might have  
said instead1 there came to mind ideas  
of ,athens1 ideas of friends1 etc4      
,thinking1 then1 is a general term for  
our idea-life4  ,reasoning is a form of 
thinking4 ,reasoning1 too1 is a flow of 
ideas4 ,but while reasoning is thinking1
 it is a special form of thinking2 it is
 thinking to a purpose4 ,in thinking as 
above described and illustrated1 no     
immediate ends of the person are served2
 while in reasoning some end is always  
sought4 ,in reasoning1 the flow of ideas
 must reach some particular idea that   
will serve the need of the moment1 the  

need of the problem at hand4 ,reasoning1
 then1 is controlled thinking1 thinking 
centering about a problem1 about a      
situation that one must meet4  ,the     
statement that reasoning is controlled  
thinking needs some explanation1 for the
 reader at once is likely to want to    
know what does the controlling4 ,there  
is not some special faculty or power    
that does the controlling4 ,the control 
is exercised by the set into which one  
is thrown by the situation which        
confronts one4 ,the set puts certain    
nerve-tracts into readiness to conduct1 
or in other words1 makes certain groups 
of ideas come into mind1 and makes one  
satisfied only if the right ideas come4 
,as long as ideas come that do not      
satisfy1 the flow keeps on1 taking one  
direction and then another1 in          
accordance with the way our ideas have  
become organized4 ,an idea finally comes
 that satisfies4 ,we are then said to   
have reached a conclusion1 to have made 
up our mind1 to have solved our problem4

  ,but the fact that we are satisfied is
 no sure sign that the problem is       
correctly solved4 ,it means only that   
our past experiences1 available at the  
time through association1 say that the  
conclusion is right4 ,or1 in more       
scientific terms1 that the conclusion is
 in harmony with our past experience1 as
 it has been organized and made         
available through association4 ,there is
 not within us a little being1 a        
reasoner1 that sits and watches ideas   
file by and passes judgment upon them4  
,the real judge is our nervous system   
with its organized bonds or connections4
  ,an illustration may make the matter  
clearer3 ,a boy walking along in the    
woods comes to a stream too wide for him
 to jump across4 ,he wishes to be on the
 other side1 so here is a situation that
 must be met1 a problem that must be    
solved4 ,a flow of ideas is started     
centering about the problem4 ,the flow  
is entirely determined and directed by  
past experience and the present         

situation4 ,the boy pauses1 looks about1
 and sees on the bank a pole and several
 large stones4 ,he has walked on poles  
and on fences1 he therefore sees himself
 putting the pole across the stream and 
walking on it4 ,this may be in actual   
visual imagery1 or it may be in words4  
,he may merely say1 ,i will put the pole
 across and walk on it4 ,but1 before    
having time to do it1 he may recall     
walking on poles that turned4 ,he is not
 then satisfied with the pole idea4 ,the
 perception of stones may next become   
clear in his mind1 and if no inhibiting 
or hindering idea comes up1 the stone   
idea carries him into action4 ,he piles 
the stones into the stream and walks    
across4  ,as was mentioned above1 the   
flow of ideas may take different forms4 
,the imagery may take any form but is   
usually visual1 auditory1 motor1 or     
verbal4  ,further discussion of the     
point that reasoning is determined by   
past experience may be necessary4       
,suppose the teacher ask the class a    

number of different questions1 moral1   
religious1 political4 ,many different   
answers to the questions will be        
received1 in some cases as many answers 
to the questions as there are pupils4   
,ask whether it is ever right to steal1 
whether it is ever right to lie1 whether
 it is ever right to fight1 whether it  
is ever right to disobey a parent or    
teacher1 whether oak is stronger than   
maple1 whether iron expands more when   
heated than does copper1 whether one    
should always feed beggars1 etc4 ,the   
answers received1 in each case1 depend  
on the previous experience of the       
pupils4 ,the more nearly alike the      
experiences of the pupils1 the more     
nearly alike will be the answers4 ,the  
more divergent the experiences1 the more
 different will be the answers4  ,the   
basis of reasoning is ultimately the    
same sort of thing as the basis of      
habit4 ,we have repeated experiences of 
the same kind4 ,the ideas of these      
experiences become welded together in a 

definite way4 ,association between      
certain groups of ideas becomes well    
fixed4 ,later situations involving these
 groups of ideas set up definite trains 
of association4 ,we come always to      
definite conclusions from the same      
situations provided that we are in the  
same mental set and the factors involved
 are the same4  ,throughout early life  
we have definite moral and religious    
ideas presented to us4 ,we come to think
 in definite ways about them or with    
them4 ,it therefore comes about that    
every day we live1 we are determining   
the way we shall in the future reason   
about things4 ,we are each day getting  
the material for the solution of the    
problems that will be presented to us by
 future situations4 ,and the reason that
 one of us will solve those problems in 
a different way from another is because 
of having somewhat different            
experiences1 and of organizing them in a
 different way4  ,meaning and the       
,organization of ,ideas4 ,in the        

preceding paragraphs we have several    
times spoken of the organization of     
ideas4 ,let us now see just what is     
meant by this expression4 ,intimately   
connected with the organization of ideas
 is meaning4 ,what is the meaning of an 
idea8 ,the meaning of an idea is another
 idea or group of ideas that are very   
closely associated with it4 ,when there 
comes to mind an idea that has arisen   
out of repeated experience1 there come  
almost immediately with it other ideas1 
perhaps vivid images which have been    
connected with the same experience4     
,suppose the idea is of a horse4 ,if one
 were asked1 ,what is a horse8 ideas of 
a horse in familiar situations would    
present themselves4 ,one may see in     
imagination a horse being driven1       
ridden1 etc41 and he would then answer1 
,why1 a horse is to ride1 or ,a horse is
 to drive1 or ,a horse is a domestic    
animal1 etc4  ,again1 ,what is a cloud8 
,what is the sun8 ,what is a river8     
,what is justice8 ,what is love8 ,one   

says1 ,a cloud is that from which rain  
falls1 or ,a cloud is partially         
condensed vapor4 ,the sun is a round    
thing in the sky that shines by day4 ,a 
river is water flowing along in a low   
place through the land4 ,justice is     
giving to people what they deserve4     
,love is that feeling one has for a     
person which makes him be kind to that  
person4 ,the answer that one gives      
depends on age and experience4  ,but it 
is evident that when a person is asked  
what a thing is or what is the meaning  
of a thing1 he has at once ideas that   
have been most closely associated with  
the idea in question4 ,now1 since the   
most important aspect of a thing is what
 we can do with it1 what use it can be  
to us1 usually meaning centers about    
use4 ,a chair is to sit in1 bread is to 
eat1 water is to drink1 clothes are to  
wear1 a hat is a thing to be worn on    
one's head1 a shovel is to dig with1 a  
car is to ride in1 etc4  ,use is not    
quite so evident in such cases as the   

following3 ,who was ,caesar8 ,who was   
,homer8 ,who is ,edison8 ,what was the  
,inquisition8 ,what were the ,crusades8 
,however1 one has1 in these cases1 very 
closely associated ideas1 and these     
ideas do center about what we have done 
with these men and events in our        
thinking4 ,caesar was a warrior4 ,homer 
was a writer of epics4 ,edison is an    
inventor1 etc4 ,these men and events    
have been presented to us in various    
situations as standing for various      
things in the history of the world4 ,and
 when we think of them1 we at once think
 of what they did1 the place they fill  
in the world4 ,this constitutes their   
meaning4  ,it is evident that an idea   
may have many meanings4 ,and the meaning
 that may come to us at any particular  
moment depends upon the situation4 ,a   
chair1 for example1 in one situation1   
may come to mind as a thing to sit in2  
in another situation1 as a thing to     
stand in the corner and look pretty2 in 
another1 a thing to stand on so that one

 may reach the top shelf in the pantry2 
in another1 a thing to strike a burglar 
with2 in another1 a thing to knock to   
pieces to be used to make a fire4  ,the 
meaning of a thing comes from our       
experience with it1 and the thing       
usually comes to have more and more     
meanings as our experience with it      
increases4 ,when we meet something new1 
it may have practically no meaning4     
,suppose we find a new plant in the     
woods4 ,it has little meaning4 ,we may  
be able to say only that it is a plant1 
or it is a small plant4 ,we touch it and
 it pricks us1 and it at once has more  
meaning4 ,it is a plant that pricks4 ,we
 bite into it and find it bitter4 ,it is
 then a plant that is bitter1 etc4 ,in  
such a way1 objects come to have        
meaning4 ,they acquire meaning according
 to the connections in which we         
experience them and they may take on    
different meanings for different persons
 because of the different experiences of
 these persons4 ,the chief interest we  

have in objects is in what use we can   
make of them1 how we can make them serve
 our purposes1 how we can make them     
contribute to our pleasure4  ,the       
organization of experience is the       
connecting1 through the process of      
association1 of the ideas that arise out
 of our experience4 ,our ideas are      
organized not only in accordance with   
the way we experience them in the first 
place1 but in accordance with the way we
 think them later in memory4 ,of course1
 ideas are recalled in accordance with  
the way we experience them1 but since   
they are experienced in such a multitude
 of connections1 they are recalled later
 in these various connections and it is 
possible in recall to repeat one        
connection to the exclusion of others4  
,organization can therefore be a        
selective process4 ,although horse is   
experienced in a great variety of       
situations or connections1 for our      
purposes we can select some one or more 
of these connections and by repetition  

in recalling it1 strengthen these       
connections to the exclusion of others4 
,herein lies one of the greatest        
possibilities in thinking and reasoning1
 which enables us1 to an extent1 to be  
independent of original experience4 ,we 
must have had experience1 of course1 but
 the strength of bonds between ideas    
need not depend upon original           
experience1 but rather upon the way in  
which these ideas are recalled later1   
and especially upon the number of times 
they are recalled4  ,it is in the matter
 of the organization of experience that 
teachers and parents can be of great    
help to young people4 ,children do not  
know what connections of ideas will be  
most useful in the future4 ,people who  
have had more experience know better and
 can1 by direction and suggestion1 lead 
the young to form1 and strengthen by    
repetition1 those connections of ideas  
that will be most useful later4  ,in the
 various school studies1 a mass of ideas
 is presented4 ,these ideas1 isolated or

 with random connections1 will be of    
little service to the pupils4 ,they must
 be organized with reference to future  
use4 ,this organization must come about 
through thinking over these ideas in    
helpful connections4 ,the teacher knows 
best what these helpful connections are 
and must help the pupil to make them4   
,suppose the topic studied in history is
 the ,battle of ,bunker ,hill4 ,the     
teacher should assist the child to think
 the battle over in many different      
connections4 ,there are various         
geographical1 historical1 and literary  
aspects of the battle that are of       
importance4 ,these aspects should be    
brought to mind and related by being    
thought of together4 ,thinking things   
together binds them together as ideas2  
and later when one idea comes1 the      
others that have been joined with it in 
the past in thought1 come also4         
,therefore1 in studying the ,battle of  
,bunker ,hill1 the pupil not only reads 
about it1 but gets a map and studies the

 geography of it1 works out the causes  
that led up to the battle1 studies the  
consequences that followed1 reads       
speeches and poems that have been made  
and written since concerning the battle1
 the monument1 etc4  ,similarly1 all the
 topics studied in school should be     
thought over and organized with         
reference to meaning and with reference 
to future use4 ,as a result of such     
procedure1 all the topics become        
organized and crystallized1 with all    
related ideas closely bound together in 
association4  ,one of the greatest      
differences in people is in the         
organization of their ideas4 ,of course1
 people differ in original experience1  
but they differ more in the way they    
organize this experience and prepare it 
for future needs4 ,just as in           
habit-formation we should by exercise   
and practice acquire those kinds of     
skill that will serve us best in the    
future1 so in getting knowledge we      
should by repetition strengthen the     

connections between those ideas that we 
shall need to have connected in the     
future4 ,all education looks forward and
 is preparatory4 ,as a result of        
training in the organization of ideas1 a
 pupil can learn how to organize his    
experience1 in a measure1 independent of
 the teacher4 ,he learns to know1       
himself1 what ideas are significant1 and
 what connections of ideas will be most 
helpful4 ,such an outcome should be one 
of the ends of school training4         
,training in ,reasoning4 ,we have       
already mentioned ways in which a child 
can be helped in gaining power and      
facility in reasoning4 ,in this         
paragraph we shall discuss the matter   
more fully4 ,there are three aspects of 
training in reasoning1 one with         
reference to original experience1 one   
with reference to the organization of   
this experience as just discussed1 and  
one with reference to certain habits of 
procedure in the recall and use of      
experience4  7#a7 ,original experience4 

,before reasoning in any field1 one must
 have experience in that field4 ,there  
is no substitute for experience4 ,after 
having the experience1 it can be        
organized in various ways1 but          
experience there must be4 ,experience   
may be primary1 with things themselves1 
or it may be secondary1 received second 
hand through books or through spoken    
language4 ,we cannot think without      
ideas1 and ideas come only through      
perceptions of one kind or another4     
,originally1 all experience arises out  
of sensations4 ,language makes it       
possible for us to profit through the   
perceptual experience of others4 ,but   
even when we receive our experience     
second hand1 our own primary experience 
must enable us to understand the meaning
 of what we read and hear about1 else it
 is valueless to us4 ,therefore1 if we  
wish to be able to reason in the field  
of physics1 of botany1 of chemistry1 of 
medicine1 of law1 or of agriculture1 we 
must get experience in those fields4    

,the raw material of thought comes only 
through experience4 ,in such a subject  
as physical geography1 for example1 the 
words of the book have little meaning   
unless the child has had original       
experience in the matter discussed4 ,he 
must have seen hills and valleys and    
rivers and lakes and rocks and          
weathering1 and all the various         
processes discussed in physical         
geography2 otherwise1 the reading of the
 text is almost valueless4 ,the same    
thing is true of all subjects4 ,to      
reason in any subject we must have had  
original experience in it4  7#b7 ,the   
organization of experience4 ,after      
experience comes its organization4 ,this
 point has already been fully explained4
 ,it was pointed out that organization  
consists in thinking our experience over
 again in helpful relations4 ,here      
parents and teachers can be of very     
great service to children4  7#c7 ,habits
 of thought4 ,there are certain habits  
of procedure in reasoning1 apart from   

the association of the ideas4 ,one can  
form the habit of putting certain       
questions to oneself when a problem is  
presented1 so that certain types of     
relations are called up4 ,if one is a   
scientist1 one looks for causes4 ,if one
 is a lawyer1 one looks up the court    
decisions4 ,if one is a physician1 one  
looks for symptoms1 etc4  ,one of the   
most important habits in connection with
 reasoning is the habit of caution4     
,reasoning is waiting1 waiting for ideas
 to come that will be adequate for the  
situation4 ,one must form the habit of  
waiting a reasonable length of time for 
associations to run their course4 ,if   
one act too soon1 before his organized  
experience has had time to pass in      
review1 he may act improperly4          
,therefore one must be trained to a     
proper degree of caution4 ,of course1   
caution may be overdone4 ,one must act  
sometime1 one cannot wait always4       
,another habit is that of testing out a 
conclusion before it is finally put into

 practice4 ,it is often possible to put 
a conclusion to some sort of test before
 it is put to the real test1 just as one
 makes a model and tries out an         
invention on a small scale4 ,one should 
not have full confidence in a conclusion
 that is the result of reasoning1 till  
the conclusion has been put to the final
 test of experiment1 of trial4  ,this   
last statement leads us to the real     
function of reasoning4 ,reason points   
the way to action in a new situation4   
,after the situation is repeated for a  
sufficient number of times1 action      
passes into the realm of habit4         
,language and ,thinking4 ,the fact that 
man has spoken and written language is  
of the greatest significance4 ,it has   
already been pointed out that language  
is a means through which we can get     
experience secondhand4 ,this proves to  
be a great advantage to man4 ,but       
language gives us still another         
advantage4 ,without language1 thinking  
is limited to the passing of sensory    

images that arise in accordance with the
 laws of association4 ,but man can name 
things and the attributes of things1 and
 these names become associated1 so that 
thinking comes to be1 in part at least1 
a matter of words4 ,thinking is talking 
to oneself4 ,one cannot talk without    
language4  ,the importance that attaches
 to language can hardly be              
overestimated4 ,when the child acquires 
the use of language1 he has acquired the
 use of a tool1 the importance of which 
to thinking is greater than that of any 
other tool4 ,now1 one can think without 
language1 in the sense that memory      
images come and go1--we have defined    
thinking as the flow of imagery1 the    
passing or succession of ideas4 ,but    
after we have named things1 thinking1   
particularly reasoning1 becomes largely 
verbal1 or as we said above1 talking to 
oneself4  ,not only do we give names to 
concrete things but we give names to    
specific attributes and to relations4   
,as we organize and analyze our         

experiences1 there appear uniformities1 
principles1 laws4 ,to these we give     
names1 such as white1 black1 red1       
weight1 length1 thickness1 justice1     
truth1 sin1 crime1 heat1 cold1 mortal1  
immortal1 evolution1 disintegration1    
love1 hate1 envy1 jealousy1 possible1   
impossible1 probable1 etc4 ,we spoke    
above of meanings4 ,to meanings we give 
names1 so that a single word comes to   
stand for meanings broad and            
significant1 the result of much         
experience4 ,such words as evolution and
 gravitation1 single words though they  
are1 represent a wide range of          
experiences and bring these experiences 
together and crystallize them into a    
single expression1 which we use as a    
unit in our thought4  ,language1        
therefore1 makes thought easier and its 
accomplishment greater4 ,after we have  
studied ,caesar for some years1 the name
 comes to represent the epitome1 the    
bird's-eye view of a great man4 ,a      
similar thing is true of our study of   

other men and movements and things4     
,single words come to represent a       
multitude of experiences4 ,then these   
words become associated and organized in
 accordance with the principles of      
association discussed above1 so that it 
comes about that the older we are1 the  
more we come to think in words1 and the 
more these words represent4 ,the older  
we are1 the more abstract our thinking  
becomes1 the more do our words come to  
stand for meanings and attributes and   
laws that have come out of the          
organization of our experience4  ,it is 
evident that the accuracy of our        
thinking depends upon these words       
standing for the truth1 depends upon    
whether we have organized our experience
 in accordance with facts4 ,if our word 
,caesar does not stand for the real     
,caesar1 then all our thinking in which 
,caesar enters will be incorrect4 ,if   
our word justice does not stand for the 
real justice1 then all our thinking in  
which justice enters will be incorrect4 

,this discussion points to the          
tremendous importance of the            
organization of experience4 ,truth is   
the agreement of our thought with the   
thing1 with reality4 ,we must therefore 
help the young to see the world clearly 
and to organize what they see in        
accordance with the facts and with a    
view to future use4 ,then the units of  
this organized experience are to be     
tagged1 labeled1 by means of words1 and 
these words or labels become the        
vehicles of thought1 and the outcome of 
the thinking depends on the validity of 
the organization of our experience4     
,,summary4 ,thinking is the passing of  
ideas in the mind2 its basis is   in the
 association of memory ideas4 ,the basis
 of association is in   original        
experience1 ideas becoming bound        
together in memory as   originally      
experienced4 ,the factors of association
 are primacy1   recency1 frequency1     
intensity1 and mental set or attitude4  
,reasoning   is thinking to a purpose4  

,we can be trained in reasoning by being
   taught to get vivid experience in the
 first place and in organizing   this   
experience in helpful ways1 having in   
mind future use4   ,,class ,,exercises  
#a4 ,a series of experiments should be  
performed to make clear to the students 
that the basis of the association of    
ideas is in experience and not in the   
nature of the ideas themselves4  7a7    
,let the students1 starting with the    
same word1 write down all the ideas that
 come to mind in one minute4 ,the       
teacher should give the initial idea1 as
 sky1 hate1 music1 clock1 table1 or     
wind4 ,the first ten ideas coming to    
each student might be written on the    
blackboard for study and comparison4    
,are any series alike8 ,is the tenth    
idea in one series the same as that in  
any other8  7b7 ,for a study of the     
various factors of association1 perform 
the following experiment3 ,let the      
teacher prepare a list of fifty         
words--nouns and adjectives1 such as    

wood1 murder1 goodness1 bad1 death1     
water1 love1 angel4 ,read the words to  
the class and let each student write    
down the first idea that comes to mind  
in each case4 ,after the list is        
finished1 let each student try to find  
out what the determining factor was in  
each case1 whether primacy1 frequency1  
recency1 vividness1 or mental set4 ,when
 the study is completed1 the student's  
paper should contain three columns1 the 
first column showing the stimulus words1
 the second showing the response words1 
the third showing the determining       
factors4 ,the first column should be    
dictated and copied after the response  
words have been written4  7c7 ,study the
 data in 7a7 and 7b71 noting the variety
 of ideas that come to different        
students for the same stimulus word4 ,it
 will be seen that they come from a     
great variety of experiences and from   
all parts of one's life from childhood  
to the present1 showing that all our    
experiences are bound together and that 

we can go from one point to any other1  
directly or indirectly4  #b4 ,perform an
 experiment to determine how each member
 of the class thinks1 i4e4 in what kind 
of imagery4 ,let each plan a picnic in  
detail4 ,how do they do it8 ,do they see
 it or hear it or seem to act it8 ,or   
does it happen in words merely8  #c4    
,think of the events of yesterday4 ,how 
do they come to you8 ,do your images    
seem to be visual1 auditory1 motor1 or  
verbal8 ,do you seem to have all kinds  
of imagery8 ,is one kind predominant8   
#d4 ,test the class for speed of free   
association as described on page #aic4  
,repeat the experiment at least five    
times and rank the members of the class 
from the results4  #e4 ,similarly1 test 
speed for controlled association as     
described on page #aie and rank the     
members of the class4  #f4 ,compare the 
rankings in ,nos4 #d and #e4  #g4 ,the  
teacher can extend the controlled       
association tests by preparing lists    
that show different kinds of logical    

relations with one another1 from genus  
to species1 from species to genus1 from 
verb to object1 from subject to verb1   
etc4 ,do the students maintain the same 
rank in the various types of            
experiments8 ,do the ranks in these     
tests correspond to the students' ranks 
in thinking in the school subjects8  #h4
 ,at least two series of experiments in 
reasoning should be performed1 one to   
show the nature of reasoning and the    
other to show the ability of the members
 of the class4  7a7 ,put several        
problems to the class1 similar to the   
following3 ,what happens to a wet board 
laid out in the sunshine8 ,explain4     
,suppose corn is placed in three        
vessels1 #a1 #b1 and #c4 ,number #a is  
sealed up air tight and kept warm8      
,number #b is kept open and warm8       
,number #c is kept open and warm and    
moist4 ,what happens in each case8      
,explain4  ,condensed milk does not sour
 as long as the can remains unopened4   
,after the can is opened1 the milk sours

 if allowed to become warm2 it does not 
sour if kept frozen4 ,why8 ,two bars of 
metal are riveted together4 ,one bar is 
lead1 the other iron4 ,what happens when
 the bars are heated to #aej ,c8 #ejj   
,c8 #ajjj ,c8 #bjjj ,c8 ,answer the     
following questions3 ,is it ever right  
to steal8 ,to kill a person8 ,to lie8   
,which are unwise and mistaken1         
,republicans or ,democrats8  ,in the    
above1 do all come to the same          
conclusion8 ,why8 ,were any unable to   
come to a conclusion at all on some     
questions8 ,why8 ,do the experiments    
make it clear that reasoning is         
dependent upon experience8  7b7 ,let the
 teacher prepare five problems in       
reasoning well within the experience of 
the class1 and find the speed and       
accuracy of the students in solving     
them4 ,compare the results with those in
 the controlled association tests4 ,test
 the class with various kinds of        
mechanical puzzles4  #i4 ,the students  
should study several people to ascertain

 how well those people have their       
experience organized4 ,is their         
experience available8 ,can they come to 
the point immediately1 or1 are they     
hazy1 uncertain1 and impractical8  #aj4 
,it is claimed that we have two types of
 people1 theoretical and practical4     
,this is to some extent true4 ,what is  
the explanation8  #aa4 ,from the point  
of view of ,no4 #aj1 compare teachers   
and engineers4  #ab4 ,if anything will  
work in theory1 will it work in         
practice8  #ac4 ,from what you have     
learned in the chapter and from the     
experiments1 write a paper on training  
in reasoning4  #ad4 ,what are the main  
defects of the schools with reference to
 training children to think8  #ae4 ,make
 a complete outline of the chapter4     
,,references ,,for ,,class ,,reading    
,,colvin and ,,bagley3 ,human ,behavior1
 ,chapters ,,xvi and ,,xviii4  ,,dewey3 
,how ,we ,think1 ,parts ,i and ,,iii4   
,m,ue,n,s,t,e,r,b,e,r,g3 ,psychology1   
,general and ,applied1 ,chapters ,,viii 

and ,,xii2 also pp4 #aib-aie4           
,,pillsbury3 ,essentials of ,psychology1
 ,chapters ,,vi and ,,ix4  ,,pyle3 ,the 
,outlines of ,educational ,psychology1  
,chapter ,,xv4  ,,titchener3 ,a         
,beginner's ,psychology1 ,chapters ,v1  
,,vi1 and ,x4     ,,chapter ,,ix        
,,individual ,,differences   ,physical  
,differences4 ,one never sees two people
 whose bodies are exactly alike4 ,they  
differ in height or weight or color of  
the skin4 ,they differ in the color of  
the hair or eyes1 in the shape of the   
head1 or in such details as size and    
shape of the ear1 size and shape of the 
nose1 chin1 mouth1 teeth1 feet1 hands1  
fingers1 toes1 nails1 etc4 ,the         
anatomist tells us that we differ       
internally just as we do externally4    
,while the internal structure of one    
person has the same general plan as that
 of another1 there being the same number
 of bones1 muscles1 organs1 etc41 there 
are always differences in detail4 ,we   
are built on the same plan1 i4e4 we are 

made after a common type4 ,we vary1     
above and below this type or central    
tendency4  ,weight may be taken for     
illustration4 ,if we should weigh the   
first thousand men we meet1 we should   
find light men1 heavy men1 and men of   
medium weight4 ,there would be few light
 men1 few heavy men1 but many men of    
medium weight4 ,this fact is well shown 
in diagram by what is known as a curve  
of distribution or frequency surface1   
which is constructed as follows3 ,draw a
 base line ,a ,b1 and on this line mark 
off equal distances to represent the    
various weights4 ,at the left end put   
the number representing the lightest men
 and at the right the number            
representing the heaviest men2 the other
 weights come in between in order4 ,then
 select a scale2 we will say a          
millimeter in height above the base line
 represents one person of the weight    
represented on the base1 and in drawing 
the upper part of the figure1 ,a ,c ,b1 
we have but to measure up one millimeter

 for each person weighed1 of the weight 
indicated below on the base4            
,illustration3 ,,figure ,v--,,frequency 
,,surface--,,weight ,the solid line     
represents men1 the broken line1 women4 
,a study of this frequency surface shows
 a tendency for people to be grouped    
about the central tendency or average4  
,there are many people of average weight
 or nearly so1 but few people who       
deviate widely from the average weight4 
,if we measure people with reference to 
any other physical characteristic1 or   
any mental characteristic1 we get a     
similar result1 we find them grouped    
about an average or central tendency4   
,mental ,differences4 ,just as we differ
 physically1 so also we differ mentally1
 and in the various aspects of our      
behavior4 ,the accompanying diagram     
7,free ,association7 shows the          
distribution of a large number of men   
and women with respect to the speed of  
their flow of ideas4 ,when men and women
 are measured with respect to any mental

 function1 a similar distribution is    
found4  ,illustration3 ,,figure         
,,vi--,,frequency ,,surface--,,free     
,,association ,solid line1 men2 broken  
line1 women4 ,the numbers below the base
 represent the number of words written  
in the ,free ,association test1 and the 
numbers at the left represent the number
 of people making the respective scores4
  ,an interesting question is whether   
our mental differences have any relation
 or connection with one another4 ,if one
 mental characteristic is of high order1
 are all the others of high order also8 
,does a good memory indicate a high     
order of attention1 of association1 of  
imagination1 of learning capacity8      
,experiments show that mental           
characteristics have at least some      
degree of independence4 ,but the rule is
 that they generally go together1 a high
 order of ability in one mental function
 indicating a high order of ability in  
at least some others1 and a low order of
 ability in one function indicating a   

low order in other functions4  ,however1
 it seems that abilities that are very  
much specialized1 such as musical       
ability1 artistic ability1 etc41 may    
exist in high order while other mental  
functions may be only mediocre4 ,it is a
 common thing for a musical person to be
 of rather poor ability otherwise4 ,to  
the extent that special abilities       
require specialized differences in the  
structure of brain1 nervous system1 or  
sense organ1 they can exist in some     
degree of independence of other         
functions4 ,musical ability to some     
extent does require some such           
differences and may therefore be found  
either with a high or a low degree of   
ability in other characteristics4  ,it  
is doubtless true that at maturity the  
unequal power of mental functions in the
 same person may be partly due to the   
fact that one function has been         
exercised and others neglected4 ,a      
person having very strong musical       
tendencies is likely to have such a     

great interest in music that he will    
think other activities are not worth    
while1 and will consequently neglect    
these other activities4 ,it will        
therefore turn out that at maturity the 
great differences in mental functions in
 such a person are in part due to       
exercise of one function and neglect of 
others4 ,but there can be no doubt that 
in many cases there are large original1 
inherited differences1 the individual   
being poor in one aspect of mind and    
good in others4 ,feeble-minded people   
are usually poor in all important       
aspects of mind4 ,however1 one sometimes
 finds a feeble-minded person having    
musical or artistic ability1 and often  
such a person has a good rote memory1   
sometimes a good verbal memory4         
,however1 the so-called higher mental   
functions--logical memory1 controlled   
association1 and constructive           
imagination--are all poor in a          
feeble-minded person4  ,each mental     
function may be looked upon as in some  

measure independent2 each is found      
existing in people in varying degrees   
from zero ability up to what might be   
called genius ability4 ,the frequency   
curves in ,fig4 ,,vi show this4 ,take   
rote memory for example4 ,idiots are    
found with practically zero ability in  
rote memory4 ,at the other extreme1 we  
find mathematical prodigies who1 after  
watching a long freight train pass and  
noting the numbers of the cars1 can     
repeat correctly the number of each car4
 ,rote memory abilities can be found    
representing every step between these   
two extremes4 ,this principle of        
distribution holds true in the case of  
all mental functions4 ,we find persons  
practically without them1 and others    
possessing them in the highest order1   
but most people are grouped about the   
average ability4  ,detecting ,mental    
,differences4 ,it has already been said 
that mind has many different aspects and
 that people differ with respect to     
these aspects4 ,now let us ask how we   

can measure the degree of development of
 these aspects or functions of mind4 ,we
 measure them just as we measured       
muscular speed as described in the first
 chapter4 ,each mental function means   
ability to do something--to learn1 to   
remember1 to form images1 to reason1    
etc4 ,to measure these different        
capacities or functions we have but to  
require that the person under           
consideration do something1 as learn1   
remember1 etc41 and measure how well and
 how fast he does it1 just as we would  
measure how far he can jump1 how fast he
 can run1 etc4  ,in such measurements1  
the question of practice is always      
involved4 ,if we measure running        
ability1 we find that some are in       
practice while others are not4 ,those in
 practice can run at very nearly their  
ultimate capacity4 ,those who are not in
 practice can be trained to run much    
faster than they do4 ,to get a true     
measure of running capacity1 we should  
practice the persons to be measured till

 each runs up to the limit of his       
capacity1 and then measure each one's   
speed4 ,the same thing is true1 to some 
extent1 when we come to measure mental  
functions proper4 ,however1 the life    
that children live gives exercise to all
 fundamental functions of the mind1 and 
unless some of the children tested have 
had experience which would tend to      
develop some mental functions in a      
special way1 tests of the various       
aspects of learning capacity1 memory1   
association1 imagination1 etc41 are a   
fairly good measure of original1        
inherited tendencies4  ,of course1 it   
must be admitted that there are         
measurable differences in the influence 
of environment on children1 and when    
these differences are extreme1 no doubt 
the influence is shown in the           
development of the child's mind4 ,a     
child reared in a home where all the    
influences favor its mental development1
 ought to show a measurable difference  
in such development when compared with a

 child reared in a home where all the   
influences are unfavorable4 ,it is      
difficult to know to what extent this is
 true1 for the hereditary and           
environmental influences are usually in 
harmony1 the child of good hereditary   
stock having good environmental         
influences1 and vice versa4 ,when this  
is not the case1 i4e4 when a child of   
good stock is reared under poor         
environmental influences1 or when a     
child of poor stock is reared under good
 influences1 the results seem to show   
that the differences in environment have
 little effect on mental development1 as
 far as the fundamental functions are   
concerned1 except in the most extreme   
cases4  ,each mental function is capable
 of some development4 ,it can be brought
 up to the limit of its possibilities4  
,but recent experiments indicate that   
such development is not very great in   
the case of the elementary1 fundamental 
functions4 ,training1 however1 has a    
much greater effect on complex mental   

activities that involve several         
functions4 ,rote memory is rather       
simple2 it cannot be much affected by   
training4 ,the memory for ideas is more 
complex2 it can be considerably affected
 by training4 ,the original and         
fundamental functions of the mind depend
 upon the nature of the nervous system  
which is bequeathed to us by heredity4  
,this cannot be much changed4 ,however1 
training has considerable effect on the 
cooerdinations and combinations of      
mental functions4 ,therefore1 the more  
complex the mental activities which we  
are testing1 the more likely they are to
 have been affected by differences in   
experience and training4  ,if we should 
designate the logical memory capacity of
 one person by #aj1 and that of another 
by #ae1 by practice we might bring the  
first up to #ae and the second to       
#bba_/b1 but we could not equalize them4
 ,we could never make the memory of the 
one equal to that of the other4 ,in an  
extreme case1 we might find one child   

whose experience had been such that his 
logical memory was working up to the    
limit of its capacity1 while the other  
had had little practice in logical      
memory and was therefore far below his  
real capacity4 ,in such a case1 a test  
would not show the native difference1 it
 would show only the present difference 
in functioning capacity4  ,fairly       
adequate tests for the most important   
mental functions have been worked out4  
,a series of group tests with directions
 and norms follow4 ,the members of the  
class can use these tests in studying   
the individual differences in other     
people4 ,the teacher will find other    
tests in the author's ,examination of   
,school ,children1 and in ,whipple's    
,manual of ,mental and ,physical ,tests4
   ,,mental ,,tests  ,,general          
,,directions  ,the results of the mental
 tests in the school will be worse than 
useless unless the tests are given with 
the greatest care and scientific        
precision4 ,every test should be most   

carefully explained to the children so  
that they will know exactly what they   
are to do4 ,the matter must be so       
presented to them that they will put    
forth all possible effort4 ,they must   
take the tests seriously4 ,great care   
must be taken to see that there is no   
cheating4 ,the work of each child should
 be his own work4 ,in those tests in    
which time is an important element1 the 
time must be carefully kept1 with a stop
 watch if one is available4 ,the papers 
should be distributed for the tests and 
turned face downward on the pupil's     
desk4 ,the pupil1 when all are ready to 
begin1 should take the paper in his hand
 and at the signal begin turn it over   
and begin work1 and when the signal stop
 is given1 should quit work instantly   
and turn the paper over4 ,before the    
work begins1 the necessary information  
should be placed on each paper4 ,this   
information should be the pupil's name1 
age1 grade1 sex1 and school4 ,this      
should be on every paper4 ,when the test

 is over the papers should be           
immediately collected4   ,,logical      
,,memory  ,object4 ,the purpose of this 
test is to determine the pupil's        
facility in remembering and reproducing 
ideas4 ,a pupil's standing in the test  
may serve as an indication of his       
ability to remember the subject matter  
of the school studies4  ,illustration3  
,,figure ,,vii--,,logical ,,memory      
,,willie ,,jones  ,method4 ,the         
procedure in this test is for the       
teacher to read slowly and distinctly   
the story to be reproduced4 ,immediately
 after the reading the pupils are to    
write down all of the story that they   
can recall4 ,they must not begin to     
write till after the reading4 ,ten      
minutes should be allowed for the       
reproduction4 ,this is ample time1 and  
each pupil should be told to use the    
whole time in working on his            
reproduction4 ,at the end of ten        
minutes1 collect the papers4 ,care      
should be taken to see that each pupil  

does his own work1 that there is no     
copying4 ,before reading the story1 the 
teacher should give the following       
instructions3    ,i shall read to you a 
story entitled ,willie ,jones and ,his  
,dog 7or   ,a ,farmer's ,son1 or ,a     
,costly ,temper1 as the case may be74   
,after ,i   have read the story you are 
to write down all you can remember of   
it4 ,you are not to use the exact words 
that ,i read unless you wish4   ,you are
 to use your own words4 ,try to recall  
as much as possible and   write all you 
recall4 ,try to get all the details1 not
 merely the   main facts4  ,material4   
,for grades three1 four1 and five1 use  
,willie ,jones and ,his ,dog2 for grades
 six1 seven1 and eight1 use ,a ,farmer's
 ,son2 for the high school1 use ,a      
,costly ,temper4 ,the norms for the     
latter are based on eighth grade and    
high school pupils4         99       99 
99       99       99   ,,willie ,,jones 
,,and ,,his ,,dog  ,willie  ,jones  was 
a little  boy  only  five years old4    

,he had a dog  whose name was ,buster4  
,buster was a large  dog  with long1    
black1  curly  hair4  ,his fore  feet   
and the tip  of his tail  were white4   
,one day  ,willie's mother  sent him  to
 the store  which was only  a short     
distance away4  ,buster went with him1  
following behind4  ,as ,buster was      
turning  at the corner1  a car  struck  
him  and broke  one  hind  leg  and hurt
  one  eye4  ,willie was  very  sorry   
and cried  a long  time4  ,willie's     
father  came  and carried  the poor  dog
  home4  ,the broken leg  got well  in  
five  weeks  but the eye  that was hurt 
became blind4   ,a ,,farmer',s ,,son    
,will  was a farmer's  son  who attended
 school  in town4  ,his clothes  were   
poor and his boots  often smelled  of   
the farmyard  although he took great    
care of them4  ,since ,will had not gone
 to school  as much  as his classmates1 
he was often  at a disadvantage1        
although his mind  was as good  as      
theirs1-- in fact1 he was brighter  than

 most  of them4  ,james1  the wit  of   
the class1  never lost an opportunity   
to ridicule  ,will's mistakes1  his     
bright  red  hair1  and his patched     
clothes4  ,will  took the ridicule  in  
good part  and never  lost his temper4  
,one ,saturday  as ,will  was driving   
his cows  to pasture1  he met ,james    
teasing  a young  child1  a cripple4    
,will's  indignation  was aroused  by   
the sight4  ,he asked  the bully  to    
stop1  but when he would not1  ,will    
pounced  upon him  and gave him  a good 
beating1  and he would not  let ,james  
go  until he promised  not to tease  the
 crippled  child  again4    ,a ,,costly 
,,temper  ,a man  named ,john  ,murdock 
had a servant  who worried him  much by 
his stupidity4  ,one day  when this     
servant was more  stupid  than usual1   
the angry  master  of the house  threw a
 book  at his head4  ,the servant       
ducked  and the book flew  out of the   
window4   ,now go  and pick that book   
up6  ordered the master4  ,the servant  

started  to obey1  but a passerby  had  
saved him  the trouble1  and had walked 
off  with the book4  ,the scientist     
thereupon  began to wonder  what book   
he had thrown away1  and to his horror1 
discovered  that it was a quaint  and   
rare  little  volume  of poems1  which  
he had purchased  in ,london  for fifty 
dollars4   ,but his troubles  were not  
over4  ,the weeks went by  and the man  
had almost  forgotten his loss1  when1  
strolling  into a secondhand  bookshop1 
he saw1  to his great delight1  a copy  
of the book  he had lost4  ,he asked the
 price4   ,well1  said the dealer1      
reflectively1  ,i guess we can let you  
have it  for forty  dollars4  ,it is a  
very  rare book1  and ,i am sure  that  
,i could get seventy-five  dollars for  
it  by holding on a while4   ,the man of
 science  pulled out his purse  and     
produced the money1  delighted at the   
opportunity of replacing  his lost      
treasure4  ,when he reached home1  a    
card  dropped out  of the leaves4  ,the 

card was his own1  and further          
examination  showed that he had bought  
back  his own property4   ,forty        
dollars'  worth of temper1  exclaimed   
the man4  ,i think ,i shall mend my     
ways4  ,his disposition  afterward      
became so  good  that  the servant      
became worried1  thinking the man  must 
be ill4          99       99       99   
99       99  ,illustration3 ,,figure    
,,viii--,,logical ,,memory--,a          
,,farmer',s ,,son  ,the ,results4 ,the  
material for the test is divided into   
units as indicated by the vertical      
lines4 ,the pupil's written reproduction
 should be compared unit by unit with   
the story as printed1 and given one     
credit for each unit adequately         
reproduced4 ,the norms for the three    
tests are shown in the accompanying     
,figures ,,vii1 ,,viii1 and ,,ix4 ,in   
these and all the graphs which follow1  
the actual ages are shown in the first  
horizontal column4 ,the norms for girls 
appear in the second horizontal column1 

the norms for boys in the column at the 
bottom4 ,by the norm for an age is meant
 the average performance of all the     
pupils of that age examined4 ,age ten   
applies to those pupils who have passed 
their tenth birthday and have not       
reached their eleventh birthday1 and the
 other ages are to be similarly         
interpreted4 ,the vertical lines in the 
graphs indicate birthdays and the scores
 written on these lines indicate ability
 at these exact ages4 ,the column marked
 ten1 for example1 includes all the     
children that are over ten and not yet  
eleven4 ,the graphs show the development
 from age to age4 ,in general1 it will  
be noticed1 there is an improvement of  
memory with age1 but in the high school1
 in the ,costly ,temper test1 there is a
 decline4 ,this may not indicate a real 
decline in ability to remember ideas1   
but a change in attitude4 ,the high     
school pupil probably acquires a habit  
of remembering only significant facts4  
,his memory is selective1 while in the  

earlier ages1 the memory may be more    
parrot-like1 one idea being reproduced  
with about as much fidelity as another4 
,this statement is made not as a fact1  
but as a probable explanation4   ,,rote 
,,memory  ,illustration3 ,,figure       
,,ix--,,logical ,,memory--,a ,,costly   
,,temper  ,object4 ,the object of the   
rote memory tests is to determine the   
pupil's memory span for unrelated       
impressions--words that have no logical 
relations with one another4 ,much school
 work makes demands upon this ability4  
,therefore1 the tests are of importance4
  ,method4 ,there are two lists of      
words1 concrete and abstract1 with six  
groups in each list4 ,the list of       
concrete words should be given first1   
then the abstract4 ,the procedure is to 
pronounce the first group1 cat1 tree1   
coat1 and then pause for the pupils to  
write these three words4 ,then pronounce
 the next group1 mule1 bird1 cart1      
glass1 and pause for the reproduction1  
and so on through the list4             

,illustration3 ,,figure ,x--,,concrete  
,,rote ,,memory  ,give the following    
instructions3    ,we wish to see how    
well you can remember words4 ,i shall   
pronounce   first a group of three      
words4 ,after ,i have pronounced them1  
you   are to write them down4 ,i shall  
then pronounce a group of four   words1 
then one of five words1 and so continue 
with a longer group   each time4 ,you   
must pay very close attention for ,i    
shall pronounce   a group but once4 ,you
 are not required to write the words in 
their   order1 but just as you recall   
them4  ,material4 ,the words for the    
test are given in the following lists3  
,concrete                               
,abstract    #a4 cat1 tree1 coat        
#a4 good1 black1 fast   #b4 mule1 bird1 
cart1 glass           #b4 clean1 tall1  
round1 hot   #c4 star1 horse1 dress1    
fence1 man    #c4 long1 wet1 fierce1    
white1 cold   #d4 fish1 sun1 head1 door1
 shoe1      #d4 deep1 soft1 quick1 dark1
 great1        block                    

dead   #e4 train1 mill1 box1 desk1 oil1 
#e4 sad1 strong1 hard1 bright1          
pup1 bill                               
fine1 glad1 plain   #f4 floor1 car1     
pipe1 bridge1 hand1   #f4 sharp1 late1  
sour1 wide1 rough1        dirt1 cow1    
crank                     thick1 red1   
tight  ,illustration3 ,,figure          
,,xi--,,abstract ,,rote ,,memory        
,results4 ,the papers are graded by     
determining the number of concrete words
 and the number of abstract words that  
are reproduced4 ,no account is taken of 
whether the words are in the right      
position or not4 ,a perfect score in    
each test would therefore be            
thirty-three4 ,the norms are shown in   
,figures ,x and ,,xi4   ,,the           
,,substitution ,,test  ,object4 ,this   
test determines one's ability to build  
up new associations4 ,it is a test of   
quickness of learning4  ,method4 ,the   
substitution test-sheets are distributed
 to the pupils and turned face down on  
the desks4 ,the teacher gives the       

following instructions3    ,we wish to  
see how fast you can learn4 ,at the top 
of the sheet which   has been           
distributed to you there is a key4 ,in  
nine circles are   written the nine     
digits and for each digit there is      
written a letter   which is to be used  
instead of the digit4 ,below the key are
 two   columns of numbers2 each number  
contains five digits4 ,in the five      
squares which follow the number you are 
to write the letters which   correspond 
to the digits4 ,work as fast as you can 
and fill as many   of the squares as you
 can without making mistakes4 ,when ,i  
say   stop1 quit work instantly and turn
 the paper over4  ,before beginning the 
test the teacher should explain on the  
blackboard the exact nature of the test4
 ,this can be done by using other       
letters instead of those used in the    
key4 ,make sure that the pupils         
understand what they are to do4 ,allow  
eight minutes in grades three1 four1 and
 five1 and five minutes above the fifth 

grade4  ,material4 ,for material1 use   
the substitution test-sheets4 ,this and 
the other test material can be obtained 
from the ,university of ,missouri1      
,extension ,division4  ,results4 ,in    
grading the work1 count each square     
correctly filled in as one point1 and   
reduce the score to speed per minute by 
dividing by eight in grades three1 four1
 and five1 and by five in the grades    
above4  ,the norms are shown in ,figure 
,,xii4  ,illustration3 ,,figure         
,,xii--,,substitution ,,test   ,,free   
,,association  ,object4 ,this test      
determines the speed of the free flow of
 ideas4 ,the result of the test is a    
criterion of the quickness of the flow  
of ideas when no restriction or         
limitation is put on this flow4         
,method4 ,the procedure in this test is 
to give the pupils a word1 and tell them
 to write this word down and all the    
other words that come into their minds4 
,make it clear to them that they are to 
write whatever word comes to mind1      

whether it has any relation to the word 
that is given them or not4 ,start them  
with the word cloud4 ,give the following
 instructions3    ,i wish to see how    
many words you can think of and write   
down in   three minutes4 ,i shall name a
 word1 you may write it down and then   
all the other words that come into your 
minds4 ,do not write   sentences1 merely
 the words that come into your minds4   
,work as fast   as you can4             
,illustration3 ,,figure ,,xiii--,,free  
,,association ,,test  ,results4 ,score  
the work by counting the number of words
 that have been written4 ,the norms are 
shown in ,figure ,,xiii4   ,,opposites  
,object4 ,this is a test of controlled  
association4 ,it tests one aspect of the
 association of ideas4 ,all thinking is 
a matter of association of ideas4       
,reasoning is controlled association4   
,the test may therefore be taken as a   
measure of speed in reasoning4          
,illustration3 ,,figure                 
,,xiv--,,opposites ,,test--,,lists ,i   

,,and ,,ii  ,method4 ,distribute the    
lists of opposites to the pupils and    
turn them face down on the desks4 ,use  
,list ,one in grades three1 four1 and   
five1 and ,list ,two in grades above4   
,allow two minutes in grades three1     
four1 and five and one minute in grades 
above4 ,give the following instructions3
    ,on the sheets that have been       
distributed to you are fifty words4     
,after each word you are to write a word
 that has the opposite   meaning4 ,for  
example1 if one word were far1 you could
 write   near4 ,work as fast as you can1
 and when ,i say stop quit work         
instantly and turn your paper over4     
,results4 ,the score is the number of   
opposites correctly written4 ,the norms 
are shown in ,figure ,,xiv4             
,,opposites--,,list ,,no4 #a      #a4   
good         #ah4 up            #ce4    
before     #b4 big          #ai4 thick  
#cf4 winter     #c4 rich         #bj4   
quick         #cg4 ripe     #d4 out     
#ba4 pretty        #ch4 night     #e4   

sick         #bb4 heavy         #ci4    
open     #f4 hot          #bc4 late     
#dj4 first     #g4 long         #bd4    
wrong         #da4 over     #h4 wet     
#be4 smooth        #db4 love     #i4 yes
          #bf4 strong        #dc4 come  
#aj4 high        #bg4 dark          #dd4
 east     #aa4 hard        #bh4 dead    
#de4 top     #ab4 sweet       #bi4 wide 
#df4 wise     #ac4 clean       #cj4     
empty         #dg4 front     #ad4 sharp 
#ca4 above         #dh4 girl     #ae4   
fast        #cb4 north         #di4 sad 
#af4 black       #cc4 laugh         #ej4
 fat     #ag4 old         #cd4 man      
,,opposites--,,list ,,no4 #b      #a4   
strong         #ah4 strange     #ce4    
fine     #b4 deep           #ai4 wrong  
#cf4 plain     #c4 lazy           #bj4  
quickly     #cg4 sharp     #d4 seldom   
#ba4 black       #ch4 late     #e4 thin 
#bb4 good        #ci4 sour     #f4 soft 
#bc4 fast        #dj4 wide     #g4 many 
#bd4 clean       #da4 drunk     #h4     
valuable       #be4 tall        #db4    

tight     #i4 gloomy         #bf4 hot   
#dc4 empty    #aj4 rude           #bg4  
long        #dd4 sick    #aa4 dark      
#bh4 wet         #de4 friend    #ab4    
rough          #bi4 fierce      #df4    
above    #ac4 pretty         #cj4 great 
#dg4 loud    #ad4 high           #ca4   
dead        #dh4 war    #ae4 foolish    
#cb4 cloudy      #di4 in    #af4 present
        #cc4 hard        #ej4 yes       
#ag4 glad           #cd4 bright   ,,the 
,,word-,,building ,,test  ,object4 ,this
 is a test of a certain type of         
inventiveness1 namely linguistic        
invention4 ,specifically1 it tests the  
pupil's ability to construct words using
 certain prescribed letters4            
,illustration3 ,,figure                 
,,xv--,,word-,,building ,,test  ,method4
 ,the pupils are given the letters1 a1  
e1 o1 m1 n1 r1 and told to make as many 
words as possible using only these      
letters4 ,give the following            
instructions3    ,i wish to see how many
 words you can make in five minutes1    

using   only the letters which ,i give  
you4 ,the words must be real ,english   
words4 ,you must use only the letters   
which ,i give you and must not   use the
 same letter more than once in the same 
word4 ,you do not1 of   course1 have to 
use all the letters in the same word4 ,a
 word may   contain one or more letters 
up to six4  ,material4 ,the pupils need 
only sheets of blank paper4  ,results4  
,the score is the number of words that  
do not violate the rules of the test as 
given in the instructions4 ,the norms   
are shown in ,figure ,,xv4   ,,the      
,,completion ,,test  ,object4 ,this is1 
to some extent1 a test of reasoning     
capacity4 ,of course1 it is only one    
particular aspect of reasoning4 ,the    
pupil is given a story that has certain 
words omitted4 ,he must read the story1 
see what it is trying to say1 and       
determine what words1 put into the      
blanks1 will make the correct sense4    
,the meaning of the word written in a   
particular blank must not only make the 

sentence read sensibly but must fit into
 the story as a whole4 ,filling in the  
blanks in this way demands considerable 
thought4  ,method4 ,distribute the      
test-sheets and turn them face down on  
the desks4 ,allow ten minutes in all the
 tests4 ,give the following             
instructions3    ,on the sheets which   
have been distributed is printed a story
 which   has certain words omitted4 ,you
 are to put in the blanks the words     
that are omitted4 ,the words which you  
write in must give the proper   meaning 
so that the story reads correctly4 ,each
 word filled in must   not only give the
 proper meaning to the sentence but to  
the story as   a whole4  ,material4 ,use
 the completion test-sheets1 ,joe and   
the ,fourth of ,july1 for grades three1 
four1 and five2 ,the ,trout for grades1 
six1 seven1 and eight2 and ,dr4         
,goldsmith's ,medicine for the high     
school4  ,results4 ,in scoring the      
papers1 allow one credit for each blank 
correctly filled4 ,the norms are shown  

in ,figures ,,xvi1 ,,xvii1 and ,,xviii4 
,it will be noticed that the boys excel 
in the ,trout story4 ,this is doubtless 
because the story is better suited to   
them on the ground of their experience  
and interest4  ,illustration3 ,,figure  
,,xvi--,,completion ,,test--,,joe ,,and 
,,the ,,fourth ,,of ,,july         99   
99       99       99       99   ,,joe   
,,and ,,the ,,fourth ,,of ,,july  ,joe  
ran#f errands for his mother and took   
care of the baby until by the ,fourth of
 ,july his penny grew to be a dime4 ,the
 day before the ,fourth1 he went down   
town all by himself to get his fire     
works4 ,there were so many kinds he     
hardly knew which to buy4 ,the clerk    
knew that it takes a long time to       
decide1 for he had been a boy himself   
not very long ago4 ,so he helped ,joe to
 select the very best kinds4 ,when are  
you going to fire them off8 asked the   
clerk4 ,i will fire them very early     
to-morrow1 said the boy4 ,so that night 
,joe set the alarm clock1 and the next  

morning got up early to fire his        
firecrackers4  #f ,the italicized words 
and letters are left blank in the test  
sheets4   ,,the ,,trout  ,the trout is a
 fine fish4 ,once a big trout lived in a
 pool close by a spring4 ,he used to    
stay under the bank with only his head  
showing4 ,his wide-open eyes shone like 
jewels4 ,i tried to catch him4 ,i would 
creep up to the edge of the pool where  
,i could see his bright eyes looking up4
  ,i caught a grasshopper and threw it  
over to him4 ,then there was a splash in
 the water and the grasshopper was gone4
 ,i did this two or three times4 ,each  
time ,i saw the rush and splash and saw 
the bait had been taken4  ,so ,i put the
 same bait on my hook and threw it over 
into the water4 ,but all was silent4    
,the fish was an old one and had grown  
very wise4 ,i did this day after day    
with the same luck4 ,the trout knew     
there was a hook hidden in the bait4    
,illustration3 ,,figure                 
,,xvii--,,completion ,,test--,,the      

,,trout   ,,doctor ,,goldsmith',s       
,,medicine  ,this is a story of good    
medicine4 ,most medicine is bad to take1
 but this was so good that the sick man 
wished for more4  ,one day a poor woman 
went to ,doctor ,goldsmith and asked him
 to go to see her sick husband4 ,he is  
very sick1 she said1 and ,i can not get 
him to eat anything4  ,so ,doctor       
,goldsmith went to see him4 ,the doctor 
saw at once that the reason why the man 
could not eat was because he was so poor
 that he had not been able to buy good  
food4  ,then he said to the woman1 ,come
 to my house this evening and ,i will   
give you some medicine for your husband4
  ,the woman went in the evening and the
 doctor gave her a small paper box tied 
up tight4 ,it is very heavy1 she said4  
,may ,i see what it looks like8 ,no1    
said the doctor1 wait until you get     
home4 ,when she got home1 and she and   
her husband opened the box so that he   
could take the first dose of            
medicine1--what do you think they saw8  

,the box was filled with silver money4  
,this was the good doctor's medicine4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,importance of ,mental ,differences4    
7#a7 ,in school work4 ,one of the       
important results that come from a      
knowledge of the mental differences in  
children is that we are able to classify
 them better4 ,when a child enters      
school he should be allowed to proceed  
through the course as fast as his       
development warrants4 ,some children can
 do an eight-year course in six years2  
others require ten years2 still others  
can never do it4 ,the great majority1 of
 course1 can do it in eight years4      
,illustration3 ,,figure                 
,,xviii--,,completion ,,test--,,dr4     
,,goldsmith',s ,,medicine  ,norms for   
adults1 as obtained from university     
students1 are3    ,,test                
,,men      ,,women   ,substitution ,test
                          #bi4a         
#cb4b   ,rote ,memory1 ,concrete        
#bh4e     #bh4f   ,rote ,memory1        

,abstract                      #bh4d    
#bg4i   ,free ,association              
#ea4e     #di4c   ,completion1 ,dr4     
,goldsmith's ,medicine     #dh4a        
#di4j   ,word ,building                 
#bj4e     #bj4a   ,logical ,memory1     
,costly ,temper            #fd4j        
#fi4f  ,illustration3 ,,figure          
,,xix--,,frequency                      
,,surfaces--,,comparing ,,fourth ,,grade
 ,,with ,,high ,,school  ,the numbers   
along the base represent mental age2    
those at the left1 the number of pupils 
of the respective ages4  ,it may be     
thought that a child's success in school
 branches is a sufficient measure of his
 ability and that no special mental     
measurements are needed4 ,this is a     
mistake4 ,many factors contribute to    
success in school work4 ,ability is only
 one of these factors1 and should be    
specially and independently determined  
by suitable tests4 ,children may fail in
 school branches because of being poorly
 started or started at the wrong time1  

because of poor teaching1 sickness1     
moving from one school to another1 etc4 
,on the other hand1 children of poor    
ability may succeed at school because of
 much help at home4 ,therefore special  
mental tests will help in determining to
 what extent original mental ability is 
a factor in the success or failure of   
the different pupils4  ,as far as       
possible1 the children of the same grade
 should have about the same ability2 but
 such is seldom the case4 ,in a recent  
psychological study of a school system1 
the author found wide differences in    
ability in the same grade4 ,the         
distribution of abilities found in the  
fourth grade and in the high school are 
shown in ,figure ,,xix4 ,it will be seen
 that in the fourth grade pupils are    
found with ability equal to that of some
 in the high school4 ,of course to some 
extent such a condition is unavoidable1 
for a pupil must establish certain      
habits and acquire certain knowledge    
before passing from one grade to        

another4 ,however1 much of the wide     
variation in ability now found in the   
same grade of a school could be avoided 
if the teacher had accurate knowledge of
 the pupils' abilities4 ,when a teacher 
learns that a child who is doing poorly 
in school really has ability1 she is    
often able to get from that pupil the   
work of which he is capable4 ,it has    
been demonstrated by experience that    
accurate measures of children's         
abilities are a great help in gradation 
and classification4  ,a knowledge of    
mental differences is also an aid in the
 actual teaching of the children4 ,the  
instance mentioned at the close of the  
last paragraph is an example4 ,a        
knowledge of the differences among the  
mental functions of the same pupil is   
especially helpful4 ,it has been pointed
 out that the different mental functions
 in the same pupil are sometimes        
unequally developed4 ,sometimes         
considerable differences exist in the   
same pupil with respect to learning     

capacity1 the different aspects of      
memory1 association1 imagination1 and   
attention4 ,when a teacher knows of     
these differences1 she can better direct
 the work of the pupils4  ,for example1 
if a pupil have a very poor memory1 the 
teacher can help him by aiding him to   
secure the advantage that comes from    
close and concentrated attention1       
frequent repetitions1 logical           
organization1 etc4 ,on the other hand1  
she can help the brilliant student by   
preventing him from being satisfied with
 hastily secured1 superficial knowledge1
 and by encouraging him to make proper  
use of his unusual powers in going      
deeper and more extensively into the    
school subjects than is possible for the
 ordinary student4 ,in many ways a      
teacher can be helpful to her pupils if 
she has an accurate knowledge of their  
mental abilities4  7#b7 ,in life        
occupations4 ,extreme variations in     
ability should certainly be considered  
in choosing one's life work4 ,only      

persons of the highest ability should go
 into science1 law1 medicine1 or        
teaching4 ,many occupations demand      
special kinds of ability1 special types 
of reaction1 of attention1 imagination1 
etc4 ,for example1 the operation of a   
telephone exchange demands a person of  
quick and steady reaction4 ,the work of 
a motorman on a street car demands a    
person having the broad type of         
attention1 the type of attention that   
enables one to keep in mind many details
 at the same time4 ,scientific work     
demands the type of concentrated        
attention4 ,as far as it is possible1   
occupations demanding special types of  
ability should be filled by people      
possessing these abilities4 ,it is best 
for all concerned if each person is     
doing what he can do best4 ,it is true  
that many occupations do not call for   
special types of ability4 ,and          
therefore1 as far as ability is         
concerned1 a person could do as well in 
one of these occupations as in another4 

,the time will sometime come when we    
shall know the special abilities        
demanded by the different occupations   
and professions1 and by suitable tests  
shall be able to determine what people  
possess the required qualifications4    
,the schools should always be on the    
lookout for unusual ability4 ,children  
that are far superior to others of the  
same age should be allowed to advance as
 fast as their superior ability makes   
possible1 and should be held up to a    
high order of work4 ,such superior      
people should be1 as far as possible1 in
 the same classes1 so that they can the 
more easily be given the kind and amount
 of work that they need4 ,the schools   
should find the children of unusual     
special ability1 such as ability in     
drawing1 painting1 singing1 playing     
musical instruments1 mechanical         
invention1 etc4 ,some provision should  
be made for the proper development and  
training of these unusual abilities4    
,society cannot afford to lose any spark

 of genius wherever found4 ,moreover1   
the individual will be happier if       
developed and trained along the line of 
his special ability4  ,subnormal        
,children4 ,a small percentage of       
children are of such low mentality that 
they cannot do the ordinary school work4
 ,as soon as such children can be picked
 out with certainty1 they should be     
taken out of the regular classes and put
 into special classes4 ,it is a mistake 
to try to get them to do the regular    
school work4 ,they cannot do it1 and    
they only waste the teacher's time and  
usually give her much trouble4 ,besides1
 they waste their own time2 for while   
they cannot do the ordinary school work1
 they can do other things1 perhaps work 
of a manual nature4 ,the education of   
such people should1 therefore1 be in the
 direction of simple manual occupations4
  ,for detecting such children1 in      
addition to the tests given above1      
elaborate tests for individual          
examination have been devised4 ,the most

 widely used is a series known as the   
,binet-,simon tests4 ,a special group of
 tests is provided for the children of  
each age4 ,if a child can pass the tests
 for his age1 he is considered normal4  
,if he can pass only the tests three    
years or more below his age1 he is      
usually considered subnormal4 ,but a    
child's fate should not depend solely   
upon any number or any kind of tests4   
,we should always give the child a trial
 and see what he is able to achieve4    
,this trial should cover as many months 
or years as are necessary to determine  
beyond doubt the child's mental status4 
,,summary4 ,just as we differ in the    
various aspects of body1 so also   we   
differ in the various aspects of mind4  
,these differences can be   measured by 
tests4 ,a knowledge of these differences
 should aid us in   grading1            
classifying1 and teaching children1 as  
well as in the   selection of occupation
 and professions for them4 ,mental      
traits have   some degree of            

independence2 as a result a high degree 
of one trait   may be found with low    
degree of some others4   ,,class        
,,exercises  #a4 ,many of the tests and 
experiments already described should    
have shown many of the individual       
differences of the members of the class4
 ,the teacher will find in the author's 
,examination of ,school ,children a     
series of group tests with norms which  
can be used for a further study of      
individual differences4  #b4 ,the       
tapping experiment described in the     
first chapter can now be repeated and   
the results taken as a measure of       
reaction time4  #c4 ,you should now have
 available the records of all the tests 
and experiments so far given that show  
individual differences4 ,make out a     
table showing the rank of each student  
in the various tests4 ,compute the      
average rank of each student for all the
 tests4 ,this average rank may be taken 
as a measure of the intelligence of the 
students1 as far as such can be         

determined by the tests used4 ,correlate
 this ranking with standing in the high 
school classes4 ,it will give a positive
 correlation1 not perfect1 however4 ,why
 not8 ,if your measures of intelligence 
were absolutely correct1 you still would
 not get a perfect correlation with high
 school standing4 ,why not8  #d4 ,if you
 had a correct measure of intelligence  
of #ajj mature people in your city1     
selected at random1 would this measure  
give you an exact measure of their      
success in life8 ,give the reason for   
your answer4  #e4 ,of all the tests and 
experiments previously described in this
 book1 which gives the best indication  
of success in high school8  #f4 ,if the 
class in psychology is a large one1 a   
graph should be prepared showing the    
distribution of abilities in the class4 
,for this purpose1 you will have to use 
the absolute measures instead of ranks4 
,find the average for each test used4   
,make these averages all the same by    
multiplying the low ones and dividing   

the high ones4 ,then all the grades of  
each student can be added4 ,this will   
give each test the same weight in the   
average4 ,the use of a slide rule will  
make this transference to a new average 
very easy4 ,a more accurate method for  
this computation is described in the    
author's ,examination of ,school        
,children1 p4 #fe4  ,the students should
 make a study of individual differences 
and the distribution of ability in some 
grade below the high school4 ,the tests 
described in this chapter can be used   
for that purpose4  #g4 ,is it a good    
thing for high school students to find  
out how they compare with others in     
their various mental functions8 ,if you 
have poor ability1 is it a good thing   
for you to find it out8 ,if the teacher 
and students think best1 the results of 
all the various tests need not be made  
known except to the persons concerned4  
,the data can be used in the various    
computations without the students'      
knowing whose measures they are4  #h4   

,to what extent is ability a factor in  
life8 ,you find people of only ordinary 
ability succeeding and brilliant people 
failing4 ,why is this8  #i4 ,none of the
 tests so far used measures ideals or   
perseverance and persistence4 ,these are
 important factors in life1 and there is
 no very adequate measure for any of    
them4 ,the students might plan some     
experiments to test physical and mental 
persistence and endurance4 ,the tapping 
experiment1 for example1 might be       
continued for an hour and the records   
kept for each minute4 ,then from these  
records a graph could be plotted showing
 the course of efficiency for the hour4 
,mental adding or multiplying might be  
kept up continuously for several hours  
and the results studied as above4  #aj4 
,we have said that ideals and           
persistence are important factors in    
life4 ,are they inherited or acquired8  
#aa4 ,do you find it to be the rule or  
the exception for a person standing high
 in one mental function to stand high in

 the others also8  #ab4 ,make a complete
 outline of the chapter4   ,,references 
,,for ,,class ,,reading                 
,m,ue,n,s,t,e,r,b,e,r,g3 ,psychology1   
,general and ,applied4 ,chapter ,,xvi4  
,,pyle3 ,the ,examination of ,school    
,children4  ,,pyle3 ,the ,outlines of   
,educational ,psychology4 ,chapter      
,,xvii4  ,,titchener3 ,a ,beginner's    
,psychology1 pp4 #cji-caa4     ,,chapter
 ,x  ,,applied ,,psychology   ,the      
,general ,field4 ,psychology has now    
reached that stage in its development   
where it can be of use to humanity4 ,it 
can be of use in those fields which     
demand a knowledge of human nature4 ,as 
indicated in the first chapter1 these   
fields are education1 medicine1 law1    
business1 and industry4 ,we may add     
another which has been called culture4  
,we cannot say that psychology is able  
yet to be of very great service except  
to education1 law1 and medicine4 ,it has
 been of less service to the field of   
business and industry1 but in the       

future1 its contribution here will be as
 great as in the other fields4 ,while   
the service of psychology in the various
 fields is not yet great1 what it will  
eventually be able to do is very clear4 
,it is the purpose of this chapter to   
indicate briefly1 the nature and        
possibilities of this psychological     
service4  ,education4 ,throughout the   
preceding chapters1 we have emphasized  
the educational importance of the facts 
discussed4 ,there is little left to say 
here except to summarize the main facts4
 ,since education is a matter of making 
a child over into what he ought to be1  
the science of education demands a      
knowledge of the original nature of     
children4 ,this means that one must know
 the nature of instincts1 their         
relations to one another1 their order of
 development1 and the possibilities of  
their being changed1 modified1          
developed1 suppressed4 ,it means that   
one must know the nature of the child's 
mind in all its various functions1 the  

development and significance of these   
functions1--memory1 association1        
imagination1 and attention4 ,the science
 especially demands that we understand  
the principles of habit-formation1 the  
laws of economical learning1 and the    
laws of memory4  ,this psychological    
knowledge must form the ground-work in  
the education of teachers for their     
profession4 ,in addition to this general
 preparation of the teacher1 psychology 
will render the schools a great service 
through the psycho-clinicist1 who will  
be a psychological expert working under 
the superintendents of our school       
systems4 ,his duty will be to supervise 
the work of mental testing1 the work of 
diagnosis for feeble-mindedness and     
selection of the subnormal children1 the
 teaching of such children4 ,he will    
give advice in all cases which demand   
expert psychological knowledge4         
,medicine4 ,in the first place1 there is
 a department of medicine which deals   
with nervous diseases1 such as insanity1

 double personality1 severe nervous     
shock1 hallucination1 etc4 ,this entire 
aspect of medicine is wholly            
psychological4 ,but psychology can be of
 service to the general practitioner    
both in the diagnosis and treatment of  
disease4 ,a thorough psychological      
knowledge of human nature will assist a 
physician in diagnosis4 ,often the best 
way to find out what ails a patient's   
body is through the patient's mind1 and 
the doctor must know how to get the     
truth from the patient's mind even in   
those cases in which the patient is     
actually trying to conceal the truth4 ,a
 profound practical knowledge of human  
nature is necessary1--a knowledge which 
can be obtained only by long and careful
 technical study as well as practice and
 experience4  ,psychology can be of     
service in the treatment of disease4    
,the physician must understand the      
peculiar mental characteristics of his  
patient in order to know how to deal    
with him4 ,in some cases1 hypnotism is a

 valuable aid in treatment1 and in many 
cases1 ordinary normal suggestion can be
 of considerable service4 ,the state of 
mind of a sick person has much to do    
with his recovery4 ,the physician must  
know this and must know how to induce   
the desired state of mind4 ,indeed1 a   
patient's trouble is often imaginary1   
exists in the mind only2 in such cases1 
the treatment should be wholly mental1  
i4e4 through suggestion4 ,of course1 the
 best physicians know these facts and   
make use of them in their practice1 but 
preparation for this aspect of their    
work should be a regular part of their  
medical education4 ,they should not be  
left to learn these facts from their    
practice as best they may1 any more than
 they should be expected to learn their 
physiology and anatomy in this way4     
,law4 ,the service of psychology to law 
can be very great1 but owing to the     
necessary conservatism of the courts1 it
 will be a long time before they will   
make much use of psychological          

knowledge4 ,perhaps the greatest service
 will be in determining the credibility 
of evidence4 ,psychology can now give   
the general principles in this matter4  
,witnesses go on the stand and swear to 
all sorts of things as to what they     
heard and saw and did1 often months and 
even years previously4 ,the expert      
clinical psychologist can tell the court
 the probability of such evidence being 
true4 ,experiments have shown that there
 is a large percentage of error in such 
evidence4 ,the additional value that    
comes from the oath has been measured4  
,the oath increases the liability of    
truth only a small percentage4          
,experiments have also shown that one's 
feeling of certainty is no guarantee of 
truth4 ,sometimes the point we feel     
surest about is the one farthest from   
the truth4 ,in fact1 feeling sure of a  
thing is no guarantee of truth4  ,in a  
particular case in court1 the           
psychologist can determine the          
reliability of the evidence of a        

particular witness and enable the judge 
and the jury to put the proper value on 
such witness's testimony4 ,for example1 
a witness may swear to a certain point  
involving the estimation of time and    
distance4 ,the psychologist can measure 
the witness's accuracy in such          
estimates1 often showing that what the  
witness claims to be able to do is an   
impossibility4 ,a case may hinge on     
whether an interval of time was ten     
minutes or twelve minutes1 or whether a 
distance was three hundred or four      
hundred feet4 ,a witness may swear      
positively to one or both of these      
points4 ,the psychologist can show the  
court the limitations of the witness in 
making such estimates4  ,psychology can 
be of service in the examination of the 
criminal himself4 ,through association  
tests and in other ways1 the guilt or   
innocence of the prisoner can often be  
determined1 and his intellectual status 
can also be determined4 ,the prisoner   
may be insane1 or feeble-minded1 or have

 some other peculiar mental disorder4   
,such matters fall within the realm of  
psychology4 ,after a prisoner has been  
found guilty1 the court should have the 
advice of the clinical psychologist in  
deciding what should be done with him4  
,it should be added that the court and  
not the attorneys should make use of the
 psychologist4 ,whenever a psychologist 
can be of service in a case in court1   
the judge should summon such assistance1
 just as he should if expert chemical1  
physical1 physiological1 or anatomical  
knowledge should be desired4  ,a        
knowledge of human nature can be of much
 service to society in the prevention of
 crime4 ,this will come about from a    
better knowledge of the psychological   
principles of habit-formation and moral 
training1 through a better knowledge of 
how to control human nature4 ,a large   
percentage of all crime1 perhaps as much
 as forty per cent1 is committed by     
feeble-minded people4 ,now1 if we can   
detect these people early1 and give them

 the simple manual education which they 
are capable of receiving1 we can keep   
them out of a life of crime4  ,studies  
of criminals in reform schools show that
 the history of many cases is as        
follows3 ,the person1 being of low      
mentality1 could not get on well at     
school and therefore came to dislike    
school1 and consequently became a       
truant4 ,truancy led to crime4 ,crime   
sent the person to the court1 and the   
court sent the person to the state      
reformatory4  ,the great duty of the    
state is the prevention of crime4       
,usually little can be done in the way  
of saving a mature criminal4 ,we must   
save the children before they become    
criminals1 save them by proper          
treatment4 ,society owes it to every    
child to do the right thing for him1 the
 right thing1 whether the child is an   
idiot or a genius4 ,merely from the     
standpoint of economy1 it would be an   
immense saving to the state if it would 
prevent crime by the proper treatment of

 every child4  ,business4 ,the          
contribution of psychology in this      
field1 so far1 is in the psychology of  
advertising and salesmanship1 both      
having to do chiefly with the selling of
 goods4 ,students of the psychology of  
advertising have1 by experiment1        
determined many principles that govern  
people when reading newspapers and      
magazines1 principles having to do with 
size and kind of type1 arrangement and  
form1 the wording of an advertisement1  
etc4 ,the object of an advertisement is 
to get the reader interested in the     
article advertised4 ,the first thing is 
to get him to read the advertisement4   
,here1 various principles of attention  
are involved4 ,the next thing is to have
 the matter of the advertisement of such
 a nature that it creates interest and  
remains in memory1 so that when the     
reader buys an article of that type he  
buys the particular kind mentioned in   
the advertisement4  ,in salesmanship1   
many subtle psychological principles are

 involved4 ,the problem of the salesman 
is to get the attention of the customer1
 and then to make him want to buy his   
goods4 ,to do this with the greatest    
success demands a profound knowledge of 
human nature4 ,other things being equal1
 that man can most influence people who 
has the widest knowledge of the nature  
of people1 and of the factors that      
affect this nature4 ,the successful     
salesman must understand human feelings 
and emotions1 especially sympathy2 also 
the laws of attention and memory1 and   
the power of suggestion4 ,a mastery of  
the important principles requires years 
of study1 and a successful application  
of them requires just as many years of  
practice4  ,the last paragraph leads us 
to a consideration of the general       
problem of influencing men4 ,in all     
occupations and professions1 one needs  
to know how to influence other men4 ,we 
have already discussed the matter of    
influencing people to buy goods4 ,people
 who employ labor need to know how to   

get laborers to do more and better work1
 how to make them loyal and happy4 ,the 
minister needs to know how to induce the
 members of his congregation to do      
right4 ,the statesman needs to know how 
to win his hearers and convince them of 
the justice and wisdom of his cause4    
,whatever our calling1 there is scarcely
 a day when we could not do better if we
 knew more fully how to influence       
people4  ,industry4 ,the service of     
psychology here is four-fold3 7#a7      
,finding what men are fitted for4 7#b7  
,finding what kinds of abilities are    
demanded by the various trades and      
occupations4 7#c7 ,helping the worker to
 understand the psychological aspects of
 his work4 7#d7 ,getting the best work  
out of the laborer4  ,finding what men  
are fitted for4 ,in the preceding       
chapter1 we discussed the individual    
variations of men4 ,some people are     
better fitted physically and mentally   
for certain types of work than they are 
for other types of work4 ,the           

determination of what an individual is  
fitted for and what he is not fitted for
 is the business of psychology4 ,in some
 cases1 the verdict of psychology can be
 very specific2 in others1 it can be    
only general4 ,much misery and          
unhappiness come to people from trying  
to do what they are not fitted by nature
 to do4 ,there are many professions and 
occupations which people should not     
enter unless they possess high general  
ability4 ,now1 psychology is able to    
measure general ability4 ,there are many
 other occupations and professions which
 people should not enter unless they    
possess some special ability4 ,music1   
art1 and mechanics may be mentioned as  
examples of occupations and professions 
demanding specific kinds of ability4 ,in
 industrial work1 many aspects demand   
very special abilities1 as quick        
reaction1 quick perception1 fine        
discrimination1 calmness and            
self-control1 ingenuity1 quick          
adaptation to new situations4           

,psychology can aid in picking out the  
people who possess the required         
abilities4  ,the different abilities    
demanded4 ,it is the business of        
psychology to make a careful analysis of
 the specific abilities required in all 
the various works of life4 ,there are   
hundreds of occupations and often much  
differentiation of work within an       
occupation4 ,it is for the psychologist 
of the future to make this analysis and 
to classify the occupations with        
reference to the kinds of abilities     
demanded4 ,of course1 many of them will 
be found to require the same kind of    
ability1 but just as surely1 many will  
be found to require very special        
abilities4 ,it is a great social waste  
to have people trying to fill such      
positions unless they possess the       
specific abilities required4  ,it should
 be the work of the high school and     
college to explain the possibilities1   
and the demands in the way of ability1  
of the various occupations of the       

locality4 ,by possibilities and demands 
are meant the kinds of abilities        
required and the rewards that can be    
expected1 the kind of life which the    
different fields offer4 ,it is the      
further duty of the high school and     
college to find out1 as far as possible1
 the specific abilities of the students4
 ,with this knowledge before them1 the  
students should choose their careers1   
and then make specific preparation for  
them4 ,the schools ought to work in     
close cooeperation with the industries1 
the student working for a part of the   
day in school and a part in the         
industries4 ,this would help much in    
leading the student to understand the   
industries and in ascertaining his own  
abilities and interests4  ,the          
psychological aspects of one's work4    
,all occupations have a psychological   
aspect4 ,they involve some trick of     
attention1 of association1 of memory4   
,certain things must be looked for1     
certain habits must be formed1 certain  

movements must be automatized4 ,workmen 
should be helped to master these        
psychological problems1 to find the most
 convenient ways of doing their work4   
,workmen often do their work in the most
 uneconomical ways1 having learned their
 methods through imitation1 and never   
inquiring whether there is a more       
economical way4  ,securing efficiency4  
,securing efficiency is a matter of     
influencing men1 a matter which we have 
already discussed4 ,securing efficiency 
is quite a different matter from that   
treated in the preceding paragraph4 ,a  
workman may have a complete knowledge of
 his work and be skilled in its         
performance1 and still be a poor        
workman1 because he does not have the   
right attitude toward his employer or   
toward his work4 ,the employer must     
therefore meet the problem of making his
 men like their work and be loyal to    
their employer4 ,the laborer must be    
happy and contented if he is to do good 
work4 ,moreover1 there is no use in     

working1 or in living either1 if one    
cannot be happy and contented4  ,we have
 briefly indicated the possibilities of 
psychology in the various occupations   
and professions4 ,there is a further    
application that has no reference to the
 practical needs of life1 but to        
enjoyment4 ,a psychological knowledge of
 human nature adds a new interest to all
 our social experience4 ,the ability to 
understand the actions and feelings of  
men puts new meaning into the world4    
,the ability to understand oneself1 to  
analyze one's actions1 motives1         
feelings1 and thoughts1 makes life more 
worth living4 ,a knowledge of the       
sensations and sense organs adds much   
pleasure to life in addition to its     
having great practical value4 ,briefly1 
a psychological knowledge of human      
nature adds much to the richness of     
life4 ,it gives one the analytical      
attitude4 ,experiences that to others   
are wholes1 to the psychologist fall    
apart into their elements4 ,such        

knowledge leads us to analyze and see   
clearly what otherwise we do not        
understand and see only darkly or not at
 all4 ,literature and art1 and all other
 creations and products of man take on a
 wholly new interest to the             
psychologist4    ,,summary4 ,psychology 
is of service to education in           
ascertaining the   nature of the child  
and the laws of learning2 to law1 in    
determining   the reliability of        
evidence and in the prevention of crime2
 to   medicine1 in the work of diagnosis
 and treatment2 to business1 in         
advertising and salesmanship2 to the    
industries1 in finding the man   for the
 place and the place for the man2 to    
everybody1 in giving a   keener insight 
into1 and understanding of1 human       
nature4   ,,class ,,exercises  #a4      
,visit a court room when a trial is in  
progress4 ,note wherein psychology could
 be of service to the jury1 to the      
judge1 and to the attorneys4  #b4 ,to   
test the reliability of evidence1       

proceed as follows3 ,take a large       
picture1 preferably one in color and    
having many details2 hold it before the 
class in a good light where all can see 
it4 ,let them look at it for ten or     
fifteen seconds1 the time depending on  
the complexity of the picture4 ,the     
students should then write down what    
they saw in the picture1 underscoring   
all the points to which they would be   
willing to make oath4 ,then the students
 should answer a list of questions      
prepared by the teacher1 on various     
points in the picture4 ,some of these   
questions should be suggestive1 such as1
 ,what color is the dog8 supposing no   
dog to be in the picture4 ,the papers   
giving the first written description    
should be graded on the number of items 
reported and on their accuracy4 ,the    
answers to the questions should be      
graded on their accuracy4 ,how do girls 
compare with boys in the various aspects
 of the report8 ,what is the accuracy of
 the underlined points8  #c4 ,let the   

teacher1 with the help of two or three  
students1 perform before the class some 
act or series of acts1 with some        
conversation1 and then have the students
 who have witnessed the performance     
write an account of it1 as in ,no4 #b4  
#d4 ,divide the class into two groups4  
,select one person from each to look at 
a picture as in ,no4 #a4 ,these two     
people are then to write a complete     
account of the picture4 ,this account is
 then read to another person in the same
 group1 who then writes from memory his 
account and reads to another4 ,this is  
to be continued till all have heard an  
account and written their own4 ,you will
 then have two series of accounts of the
 same picture proceeding from two       
sources4 ,it will be well for the two   
who look at the picture to be of very   
different types1 let us say1 one        
imaginative1 the other matter-of-fact4  
,do all the papers of one series have   
some characteristics that enable you to 
determine from which group they come8   

,what conclusions and inferences do you 
draw from the experiment8  #e4 ,does the
 feeling of certainty make a thing true8
 ,see how many cases you can find in a  
week1 of persons feeling sure a         
statement is true1 when it is really    
false4  #f4 ,in the following way1 try  
to find out something which a person is 
trying to conceal4 ,prepare a list of   
words1 inserting now and then words     
which have some reference to the vital  
point4 ,read the words one by one to the
 person and have him speak the first    
word suggested by those read4 ,note the 
time taken for the responses4 ,a longer 
reaction time usually follows the       
incriminating words1 and the subject is 
thrown into a visible confusion4  #g4   
,talk to successful physicians and find 
out what use they make of suggestion and
 other psychological principles4  #h4   
,spend several hours visiting different 
grades below the high school4 ,in how   
many ways could the teachers improve    
their work by following psychological   

principles8  #i4 ,could the qualities of
 a good teacher--native and acquired--be
 measured by tests and experiments8     
#aj4 ,visit factories where men do      
skillful work and try to learn by       
observation what types of mind and body 
are required by the different kinds of  
work4  #aa4 ,does the occupation which  
you have chosen for life demand any     
specific abilities8 ,if so1 do you      
possess them in a high degree8  #ab4    
,could parents better train their       
children if they made use of            
psychological principles8  #ac4 ,in how 
many ways will the facts learned in this
 course be of economic use to you in    
your life8 ,in what ways will they make 
life more pleasurable8  #ad4 ,make a    
complete outline of this chapter4       
,,references ,,for ,,class ,,reading    
,m,ue,n,s,t,e,r,b,e,r,g3 ,psychology1   
,general and ,applied1 ,chapter         
,,xxvii-,,xxxiii4                       
,m,ue,n,s,t,e,r,b,e,r,g3 ,the           
,psychology of ,industrial ,efficiency4 

,,alphabetical ,,list ,,of ,,references 
,,for ,,class ,,reading   ,,colvin1 ,s4 
,s41 and ,,bagley1 ,w4 ,c43 ,human      
,behavior4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1    
#aiac4  ,,davenport1 ,c4 ,b43 ,heredity 
in ,relation to ,eugenics4 ,henry ,holt 
,company1 #aiaa4  ,,dewey1 ,j43 ,how ,we
 ,think4 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath  ,company1      
#aiaj4  ,,kellicott1 ,w4 ,e43 ,the      
,social ,direction of ,human ,evolution4
 ,d4 ,appleton  ,company1 #aiaa4        
,,kirkpatrick1 ,e4 ,a43 ,the            
,fundamentals of ,child ,study4 ,the    
,macmillan ,company1 #aiab4             
,m,ue,n,s,t,e,r,b,e,r,g1 ,h43           
,psychology1 ,general and ,applied4 ,d4 
,appleton  ,company1 #aiad4             
,m,ue,n,s,t,e,r,b,e,r,g1 ,h43 ,the      
,psychology of ,industrial ,efficiency4 
,houghton ,mifflin ,company1 #aiac4     
,,pillsbury1 ,w4 ,b43 ,essentials of    
,psychology4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1  
#aiaf4  ,,pyle1 ,w4 ,h43 ,outlines of   
,educational ,psychology4 ,warwick and  
,york1 #aiab4  ,,pyle1 ,w4 ,h43 ,the    

,examination of ,school ,children4 ,the 
,macmillan ,company1 #aiac4  ,,rowe1 ,s4
 ,h43 ,habit-,formation and the ,science
 of ,teaching4 ,longmans1 ,green1       
,company1 #aiaa4  ,,titchener1 ,e4 ,b43 
,a ,beginner's ,psychology4 ,the        
,macmillan ,company1 #aiaf4             
,,glossary   ,most of the terms given   
below are explained in the text1 but it 
is hoped that this alphabetical list    
with brief definitions will prove       
helpful4 ,it is a difficult task to make
 the definitions scientific and at the  
same time brief1 simple1 and clear4     
,abnormal4 ,having mental or physical   
characteristics widely different from   
those commonly found in ordinary people4
  ,acquired nature4 ,those aspects of   
habit1 skill1 knowledge1 ideas1 and     
ideals that come from experience and are
 due to experience4  ,action4 ,muscular 
contractions usually producing motion of
 the body or of some part of the body4  
,adaptation4 ,adjustment to one's       
surroundings4  ,adaptive4 ,readily      

changing one's responses and acquiring  
such new responses as enable one to meet
 successfully new situations2 also      
having tendencies or characteristics    
which enable one to be readily          
adjustable4  ,after-images4 ,images that
 follow immediately after stimulation of
 a sense organ1 and resulting from this 
stimulation4  ,association4 ,binding    
together ideas through experiencing them
 together4  ,attention4 ,relative       
clearness of perceptions and ideas4     
,attitude4 ,the tendency toward a       
particular type of response in action or
 a particular idea or association in    
thought4  ,bond4 ,the connection        
established in the nervous system which 
makes a certain response follow a       
certain stimulus or a certain idea      
follow another idea or perception4      
,capacity4 ,the possibility of learning1
 achieving1 etc4  ,color blindness4     
,inability to experience certain colors1
 usually red and green4  ,complementary 
color4 ,complementary colors are those  

which1 mixed in the right proportion1   
produce gray4  ,congenital4 ,inborn4    
,connection4 ,the nerve-path through    
which a stimulus produces a response or 
through which one idea produces or      
evokes another4  ,conscious4 ,having    
consciousness1 or accompanying          
consciousness or producing              
consciousness4  ,consciousness4 ,the    
mental states--perceptions1 ideas1      
feelings--which one has at any moment4  
,low level of consciousness4 ,conscious 
processes not so clear as   others      
existing at the same time4    ,high     
level of consciousness4 ,conscious      
processes that are clear as   compared  
to others existing at the same time4    
,contrast4 ,the enhancing or            
strengthening of a sensation by another 
of opposite quality4  ,correlation4 ,the
 relation that exists between two       
functions1 characteristics1 or          
attributes that enables us1 finding one1
 to predict the presence of the other4  
,development4 ,the appearance1 or       

growth1 or strengthening of a           
characteristic4  ,emotion4 ,the         
pleasure-pain aspect of experience plus 
sensations from characteristic bodily   
reactions4  ,environment4 ,the objects  
and forces about us which affect us     
through our senses4  ,environmental     
instincts4 ,instincts which have        
originated1 at least in part1 from the  
periodic changes in man's environment4  
,eugenics4 ,the science of race         
improvement through selective breeding  
or proper marriages or in some cases    
through the prevention of marriage4     
,experience4 ,what we learn of the world
 through sensation and perception4      
,fatigue4 ,inability to work produced by
 work and which only rest will cure4    
,feeble-minded4 ,having important mental
 traits only poorly developed or not at 
all4  ,feeling4 ,the pleasure-pain      
aspect of experience or of ideational   
states4  ,function4 ,the use of a thing 
or process1 also any mental process or  
combination of processes considered as a

 unit4  ,genetic4 ,having reference to  
origin and development4  ,habits4       
,definite responses to definite stimuli 
depending upon bonds established by use 
after birth4  ,heredity4 ,transmission  
of characteristics from parent to       
offspring4  ,human nature4 ,the         
characteristics and tendencies which we 
have as human beings1 with particular   
reference to mind and action4  ,ideals4 
,definite tendencies to act in definite 
ways4 ,ideas of definite types of action
 with tendency toward the actions2 ideas
 of definite conditions1 forms1 and     
states together with a desire to        
experience or possess them4  ,ideas4    
,revived perceptions4  ,images4 ,revived
 sensations1 simpler than ideas4        
,imitation4 ,acting as we see others    
act4  ,impulse4 ,tendency to action4    
,individualistic instincts4 ,those      
instincts which more immediately serve  
individual survival4  ,individual       
differences4 ,the mental and physical   
differences between people4  ,inherited 

nature4 ,those aspects of one's nature  
due directly to heredity4  ,instincts4  
,definite responses produced by definite
 stimuli through hereditary connections 
in the nervous system4  ,intellectual   
habits4 ,definite fixed connections     
between ideas2 definite ways of meeting 
typical thought situations4  ,intensity4
 ,the amount or strength of a sensation 
or image1 how far it is from nothing4   
,interest4 ,the aspect given to         
experience or thinking by attention and 
pleasure4  ,learning4 ,establishing new 
bonds or connections in the nervous     
system2 acquiring habits2 gaining       
knowledge4  ,memory4 ,the retention of  
experience2 retained and reproduced     
experience4  ,mental set4 ,mental       
attitude or disposition4  ,mind4 ,the   
sum total of one's conscious states from
 birth to death4  ,nerve-path4 ,the     
route traversed by a nerve-stimulus or  
excitation4  ,original nature4 ,all     
those aspects of mind and body directly 
inherited4  ,perceive4 ,to be aware of a

 thing through sensation4  ,perception4 
,awareness of a thing through sensation 
or a fusion of sensations4  ,plasticity4
 ,modifiability1 making easy the        
formation of new bonds or               
nerve-connections4  ,presupposition4 ,a 
theory or hypothesis on which an        
argument or a system of arguments or    
principles is based4  ,primary4 ,first1 
original1 elementary1 perceptive        
experience as distinguished from        
ideational experience4  ,reaction4 ,the 
action immediately following a stimulus 
and produced by it4  ,reasoning4        
,thinking to a purpose2 trying to meet a
 new situation4  ,reflex4 ,a very simple
 act brought about by a stimulus through
 an hereditary nerve-path4  ,response4  
,the act following a stimulus and       
produced by it4  ,retention4 ,memory2   
modification of the nervous system      
making possible the revival of          
experience4  ,science4 ,knowledge       
classified and systematized4            
,sensation4 ,primary experience2        

consciousness directly due to the       
stimulation of a sense organ4  ,sense4  
,to sense is to have sensation1 to      
perceive4 ,a sense is a sense organ or  
the ability to have sensation through a 
sense organ4  ,sense organ4 ,a modified 
nerve-end with accompanying apparatus or
 mechanism making possible a certain    
form of stimulation4  ,sensitive4       
,capable of giving rise to sensation1 or
 transmitting a nerve-current4          
,sensitivity4 ,property of1 or capacity 
for being sensitive4  ,sensory4         
,relating to a sense organ or to        
sensation4  ,situation4 ,the total      
environmental influences of any one     
moment4  ,socialistic instincts4 ,the   
instincts related more directly to the  
survival of a social group4             
,stimulation4 ,the setting up of a nerve
 process in a sense organ or in a nerve 
tract4  ,stimulus4 ,that which produces 
stimulation4  ,subnormal4 ,having       
characteristics considerably below the  
normal4  ,tendency4 ,probability of a   

nerve-current taking a certain direction
 due to nerve-organization4  ,thinking4 
,the passing of images and ideas4       
,thought4 ,thinking2 an idea or group of
 ideas4  ,training4 ,establishing nerve 
connection or bonds4  ,vividness4       
,clearness of sensations1 perceptions1  
images1 and ideas4     ,,index          
,abilities1 specialized1 #agi  ,ability1
 unusual1 #bjf  ,adaptation of vision1  
#da  ,after-images1 visual1 #dj         
,ancestors1 #bb f4  ,anger1 #eh         
,appearance of instincts1 #ed  ,applied 
psychology1 #h-i1 #baj ff4  ,association
 of ideas1 #aeb  ,astigmatism1 #dd      
,attention1 #hj ff42   and will1 #hb4   
,attitude1 #aeg   ,behavior1 #g  ,bodily
 conditions1 #gf  ,brain1 #g            
,brightness1 sensation of1 #ch          
,business1 #bae   ,causality1 #ah1 #ba  
,centrally initiated action1 #ea        
,child1 nature of1 #aa  ,cold1 sense of1
 #db  ,collecting instinct1 #fb         
,college1 function of1 #bag  ,color     
blindness1 #de  ,color mixture1 #ci     

,color1 sensation of1 #ch  ,completion  
test1 #aih  ,concentrated practice1 #ajb
  ,consciousness1 #g  ,conservatism1    
#aji  ,costly ,temper test1 #ahf        
,cramming1 #ada  ,criminal1 the1 #bac f4
  ,curriculum1 #ade   ,darwin1 #hi      
,defects of sense organs1 #dc           
,development1 individual1 #bd ff42      
racial1 #ah-ba2   significance of and   
causality1 #ba-bd  ,direct method1 #aab 
,dizziness1 organs that give us sense   
of1 #db  ,dramatization1 #fg  ,drill in 
school subjects1 #aaj-aab  ,dynamic1    
world as1 #bj   ,economical practice1   
#aja ff4  ,education1 #baj2   aim of1   
#aj2   preparatory1 #afg2   science of1 
#i ff4  ,educational inferences1 #adc   
,educational psychology1 #i ff4         
,efficiency1 #ih1 #ajh  ,emotions1 #gd  
ff4  ,environment1 #ca  ,environmental  
instincts1 #fa  ,envy1 #eh  ,evolution1 
#ai ff4  ,exceptions1 #aja1 #aad        
,excursions1 #fa  ,experience1 #h2      
organization of1 #afi  ,experiment1 #ac 
ff4  ,eye1 the1 #cg  ,eye defects1 #dc  

ff4  ,eyestrain1 #bj   ,farsightedness1 
#dd  ,fatigue1 #aja  ,fear1 #ef         
,feeble-mindedness1 #bi  ,feeling1 #gc  
ff4  ,fighting instincts1 #eh  ,formal  
drill1 ,,iii1 #aab  ,free association   
frequency surface1 #agh  ,free          
association test1 #aic  ,frequency of   
experience1 #aef   ,gang instinct1 #fj  
,genetic view of childhood1 #bd         
,genius1 #ca   ,habit1 #hg ff42   and   
nerve path1 #ia2   how formed1 #ih ff42 
importance in life1 #ajg2               
intellectual1 #hi2   moral1 #ij2   of   
thought1 #afi2   results of1 #id2       
specific1 #aaf  ,hearing1 #da2   defects
 of1 #de  ,heredity1 #bd ff4  ,heredity 
vs4 ,environment1 #ca  ,heritage1       
social1 #bc  ,high school and fourth    
grade abilities compared1 #bjc  ,high   
school1 function of1 #bag  ,home and    
moral training1 #aah   ,idea1 #eb       
,ideas1 #abd  ,imitation1 #fd ff4       
,imitation in ideals1 #fg  ,incidental  
drill1 #aaa  ,individual development1   
#bd ff4  ,individual differences1 #agf  

ff4  ,individualistic instincts1 #ef    
,industry1 #baf  ,influencing men1 #bae 
,inheritance1 #bb  ,inherited           
tendencies1 #ej ff4  ,initiative1 #aac  
,instincts1 #eb ff42   classification   
of1 #ee2   significance of1 #ee         
,interest1 #hd  ,intervals between      
practice1 #ajb   ,jealousy1 #eh         
,joints1 sense organs in1 #db  ,jost's  
law1 #adb   ,language and thinking1 #agj
 ff4  ,language study1 #add  ,latin1    
#aaf  ,law1 service of psychology to1   
#bab  ,learning and remembering1 #ach   
,learning by wholes1 #ada  ,life        
occupations1 #bje  ,logical memory1 #ahd
 ff4   ,meaning1 #afc ff4  ,medicine1   
#baa  ,memories1 kinds of1 #acb         
,memory1 #abd ff42   and age and sex1   
#abg2   and habit1 #adf2   and school   
standing1 #ace2   and thinking1 #acd2   
factors of1 #abh ff42   good1 dangers   
resulting from1 #acg2   kinds of1 #acb  
,mendelian principle1 #bf  ,mental      
development1 #ai  ,mental differences1  
#agh2   detection of1 #ahj2   importance

 of1 #bja ff4  ,mental functions        
developed1 #ahb  ,mental set1 #aeg      
,mental tests1 #ahc ff4  ,mind and body1
 #cd ff4  ,mood1 #gh  ,moral training1  
#aag ff4  ,motive1 #gg  ,muscular speed1
 #ad  ,museum1 school1 #fb ff4  ,musical
 ability1 #agi   ,nearsightedness1 #dd  
,needs of child1 #gg  ,nerve tendency1  
#ib  ,norms in mental tests1 #ahd ff4   
,occupations1 #bje  ,opposites test1    
#aie ff4  ,organization of experience1  
#afc ff4   ,pain sense1 #db  ,parents1  
and habit-formation of children1 #ajd   
ff41 #aai  ,perception1 #abd            
,physiological basis of memory1 #abf    
,piano playing1 #ea1 #ig  ,pitch1 #da   
,plasticity1 #ic  ,play1 #fh  ,pleasure 
and habit1 #aja  ,pleasure1 higher forms
 of1 #hj  ,practice1 #ii1 #aac  ,primary
 experience1 #aed  ,psychology and      
culture1 #bah  ,psychology defined1 #e2 
method of1 #ac2   problems of1 #h       
,race1 development of1 #ah ff42         
improvement of1 #cj  ,ranking students1 
#ae  ,reasoning1 #aei2 training in1 #afh

  ,recalling forgotten names1 #adf      
,recency of experience1 #aee            
,regeneration1 #bc  ,repetition1 #ii    
,respect for authority1 #gg             
,resemblance1 #be  ,retina1 the1 #cg f4 
,revived experience1 #abe  ,rigidity1   
#ajh  ,rote memory1 #ahi  ,rules for    
habit-formation1 #aac   ,salesmanship1  
#bae  ,school1 and habit1 #ajh2   and   
moral training1 #aai f4  ,schoolhouse1  
community center1 #fj f4  ,science1 #a  
,scientific law1 #c  ,scientist1 #a ff4 
,securing efficiency1 #bah  ,selecting  
habits1 #aji  ,sense organs1 affects of 
stimulating1 #f1 #g2   knowledge        
through1 #ce  ,sleight's experiment1    
#adj  ,smell1 #db  ,social life of      
children1 #fj  ,social tendencies1 #ei  
,stimulation1 #f  ,stimulus and         
response1 #ej  ,study1 learning how to1 
#acb  ,subnormal children1 #bjf         
,substitution test1 #aib   ,taste1 #db  
,teacher1 function of in memory work1   
#adb2   function of in habit-formation1 
#ajc  ,teaching too abstract1 #abi      

,temperament1 #gh  ,tendons1 sense      
organs in1 #db  ,thinking1 #aeb ff41    
#aei  ,touch1 #db  ,transfer of         
training1 #aad ff41 #adj  ,truancies1   
#fa  ,typewriting1 #ea1 #id ff4         
,vision1 #cg2 importance of1 #de        
,visual contrast1 #ci  ,vividness and   
intensity of experience1 #aef           
,wandering1 #fa  ,warmth1 sense of1 #db 
,weight1 diagram showing frequency      
surface of1 #agg  ,word-building test1  
#aig  ,work and psychology1 #bah