,,ontario ,,normal ,,school ,,manuals ,,science ,,of ,,education ,,authorized ,,by ,,the ,,minister ,,of ,,education ,,toronto ,,the ,,ryerson ,,press ,,copyright1 ,,canada1 #aiae1 ,,by ,,the ,,minister ,,of ,,education ,,for ,,ontario ,second ,printing1 #aiai4 ,third ,printing1 #aibc4 ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,education ,,chapter ,i ,,page ,,nature ,,and ,,purpose ,,of ,,education #a ,conditions of ,growth and ,development #b ,worth in ,human ,life #d ,factors in ,social ,efficiency #f ,,chapter ,,ii ,,forms ,,of ,,reaction #i ,instinctive ,reaction #i ,habitual ,reaction #aj ,conscious ,reaction #aa ,factors in process #ab ,experience #ac ,relative value of experiences #ae ,influence of ,conscious ,reaction #ag ,,chapter ,,iii ,,process ,,of ,,education #ai ,conscious ,adjustment #ai ,education as ,adjustment #ai ,education as ,control of ,adjustment #bb ,requirements of the ,instructor #bd ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,school ,,curriculum #be ,purposes of ,curriculum #be ,dangers in ,use of ,curriculum #bh ,,chapter ,v ,,educational ,,institutions #cd ,the ,school #cd ,other ,educative ,agents #ce ,the church #ce ,the home #cf ,the vocation #cf ,other institutions #cf ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,school #ch ,civic ,views #ch ,individualistic ,views #dj ,the ,eclectic ,view #dc ,,chapter ,,vii ,,divisions ,,of ,,educational ,,study #df ,control of ,experience #df ,the ,instructor's ,problems #dh ,general method #di ,special methods #di ,school management #ej ,history of education #ej ,,part ,,ii ,,methodology ,,chapter ,,viii ,,general ,,method #eb ,subdivisions of ,method #eb ,method and ,mind #ec ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,lesson ,,problem #ee ,nature of ,problem #ee ,need of ,problem #eg ,pupil's ,motive #ei ,awakening ,interest #fa ,knowledge of ,problem #fg ,how to ,set ,problem #fi ,examples of ,motivation #ga ,,chapter ,x ,,learning ,,as ,a ,,selecting ,,activity #ge ,the ,selecting ,process #gg ,law of ,preparation #hb ,value of preparation #hc ,precautions #hd ,necessity of preparation #he ,examples of preparation #hf ,,chapter ,,xi ,,learning ,,as ,a ,,relating ,,activity #hi ,nature of ,synthesis #ij ,interaction of ,processes #ia ,knowledge unified #id ,,chapter ,,xii ,,application ,,of ,,knowledge #ie ,types of ,action #if ,nature of ,expression #ig ,types of ,expression #ii ,value of ,expression #ajj ,dangers of ,omitting #ajb ,expression and ,impression #ajc ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,forms ,,of ,,lesson ,,presentation #ajf ,the ,lecture ,method #ajf ,the ,text-book ,method #aji ,uses of text-book #aaa ,abuse of text-book #aac ,the ,developing ,method #aac ,the ,objective ,method #aaf ,the ,illustrative ,method #aah ,precautions #aai ,modes of ,presentation ,compared #aba ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,classification ,,of ,,knowledge #abb ,acquisition of ,particular ,knowledge #abb ,through senses #abb ,through imagination #abb ,by deduction #abc ,acquisition of ,general ,knowledge #abd ,by conception #abd ,by induction #abe ,applied knowledge general #abf ,processes of ,acquiring ,knowledge ,similar #abg ,,chapter ,,xv ,,modes ,,of ,,learning #abi ,development of ,particular ,knowledge #abi ,learning through senses #abi ,learning through imagination #aca ,learning by deduction #acc ,examples for study #acg ,development of ,general ,knowledge #aci ,the conceptual lesson #aci ,the inductive lesson #adj ,the formal steps #ada ,conception as learning process #adc ,induction as learning process #add ,further examples #ade ,the inductive-deductive lesson #adh ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,lesson ,,unit #aej ,whole to ,parts #aea ,parts to ,whole #aed ,precautions #aee ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,lesson ,,types #aef ,the ,study ,lesson #aeg ,the ,recitation ,lesson #afj ,conducting recitation lesson #afa ,the ,drill ,lesson #afb ,the ,review ,lesson #afe ,the topical review #aff ,the comparative review #afi ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,questioning #aga ,qualifications of ,good ,questioner #aga ,purposes of ,questioning #agc ,socratic ,questioning #agd ,the ,question #agg ,the ,answer #agi ,limitations #aha ,,part ,,iii ,,educational ,,psychology ,,chapter ,,xix ,,consciousness #ahc ,value of ,educational ,psychology #ahf ,limitations #ahf ,methods of ,psychology #ahg ,phases of ,consciousness #ahi ,,chapter ,,xx ,,mind ,,and ,,body #aib ,the ,nervous ,system #aib ,the ,cortex #aih ,reflex ,acts #aii ,characteristics of ,nervous ,matter #bjb ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,instinct #bjg ,human ,instincts #bji ,curiosity #bad ,imitation #bag ,play #bba ,play in education #bbc ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,habit #bbf ,formation of ,habits #bcj ,value of ,habits #bca ,improvement of ,habits #bcd ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,attention #bcg ,attention ,selective #bdj ,involuntary ,attention #bdc ,non-voluntary ,attention #bde ,voluntary ,attention #bdf ,attention in ,education #bea ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,feeling ,,of ,,interest #beg ,classes of ,feelings #beh ,interest in ,education #bfa ,development of interests #bfd ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,sense ,,perception #bfg ,genesis of ,perception #bgj ,factors in ,sensation #bgc ,classification of ,sensations #bgd ,education of the ,senses #bgf ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,memory ,,and ,,apperception #bhb ,distinguished #bhc ,factors of ,memory #bhd ,conditions of ,memory #bhe ,types of ,recall #bhh ,localization of ,time #bij ,classification of ,memories #bij ,memory in ,education #bia ,apperception #bic ,conditions of ,apperception #bid ,factors in ,apperception #bif ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,imagination #bih ,types of ,imagination #bii ,passive #bii ,active #cjj ,uses of ,imagination #cja ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,thinking #cjd ,conception #cje ,factors in concept #cji ,aims of conceptual lessons #caj ,the definition #cac ,judgment #cae ,errors in judgment #cag ,reasoning #cbj ,deduction #cbj ,induction #cbc ,development of ,reasoning ,power #cbh ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,feeling #ccj ,conditions of ,feeling ,tone #cca ,sensuous ,feelings #ccd ,emotion #ccd ,conditions of emotion #cce ,other ,types of ,feeling #cdj ,mood #cdj ,disposition #cdj ,temperament #cdj ,sentiments #cda ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,the ,,will #cdb ,types of ,movement #cdb ,development of ,control #cdc ,volition #cde ,factors in volitional act #cdf ,abnormal ,types of ,will #cdh ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,child ,,study #ceb ,methods of ,child ,study #cee ,periods of ,development #ceh ,infancy #ceh ,childhood #cei ,adolescence #cfa ,individual ,differences #cfc ,,appendix ,,suggested ,,readings #cfi ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education ,,part ,i4 ,,principles ,,of ,,education ,,chapter ,i ,,nature ,,and ,,purpose ,,of ,,education ,value of ,scientific ,knowledge4--,in the practice of any intelligent occupation or art1 in so far as the practice attains to perfection1 there are manifested in the processes certain scientific principles and methods to which the work of the one practising the art conforms4 ,in the successful practice1 for example1 of the art of composition1 there are manifested the principles of rhetoric2 in that of housebuilding1 the principles of architecture2 and in that of government1 the principles of civil polity4 ,in practising any such art1 moreover1 the worker finds that a knowledge of these scientific principles and methods will guide him in the correct practice of the art1--a knowledge of the science of rhetoric assisting in the art of composition2 of the science of architecture1 in the art of housebuilding2 and of the science of civil polity1 in the art of government4 ,the ,science of ,education4--,if the practice of teaching is an intelligent art1 there must1 in like manner1 be found in its processes certain principles and methods which may be set forth in systematic form as a science of education1 and applied by the educator in the art of teaching4 ,assuming the existence of a science of education1 it is further evident that the student-teacher should make himself acquainted with its leading principles1 and likewise learn to apply these principles in his practice of the art of teaching4 ,to this end1 however1 it becomes necessary at the outset to determine the limits of the subject-matter of the science4 ,we shall1 therefore1 first consider the general nature and purpose of education so far as to decide the facts to be included in this science4 ,,conditions ,,of ,,growth ,,and ,,development ,a4 ,physical ,growth4--,although differing in their particular conception of the nature of education1 all educators agree in setting the child as the central figure in the educative process4 ,as an individual1 the child1 like other living organisms1 develops through a process of inner changes which are largely conditioned by outside influences4 ,in the case of animals and plants1 physical growth1 or development1 is found to consist of changes caused in the main through the individual responding to external stimulation4 ,taking one of the simplest forms of animal life1 for example1 the amoeba1 we find that when stimulated by any foreign matter not constituting its food1 say a particle of sand1 such an organism at once withdraws itself from the stimulating elements4 ,on the other hand1 if it comes in contact with suitable food1 the amoeba not only flows toward it1 but by assimilating it1 at once begins to increase in size1 or grow1 until it finally divides1 or reproduces1 itself as shown in the following figures4 ,hence the amoeba as an organism is not only able to react appropriately toward different stimuli1 but is also able to change itself1 or develop1 by its appropriate reactions upon such stimulations4 ,in plant life1 also1 the same principle holds4 ,as long as a grain of corn1 wheat1 etc41 is kept in a dry place1 the life principle stored up within the seed is unable to manifest itself in growth4 ,when1 on the other hand1 it is appropriately stimulated by water1 heat1 and light1 the seed awakens to life1 or germinates4 ,in other words1 the seed reacts upon the external stimulations of water1 heat1 and light1 and manifests the activity known as growth1 or development4 ,thus all physical growth1 whether of the plant or the animal1 is conditioned on the energizing of the inherent life principle1 in response to appropriate stimulation of the environment4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,simple amoeba4 ,b4 ,an amoeba developing as a result of assimilating food4 ,c4 ,an amoeba about to divide1 or propagate4 ,b4 ,development in ,human ,life4--,in addition to its physical nature1 human life has within it a spiritual law1 or principle1 which enables the individual to respond to suitable stimulations and by that means develop into an intelligent and moral being4 ,when1 for instance1 waves of light from an external object stimulate the nervous system through the eye1 man is able1 through his intelligent nature1 to react mentally upon these stimulations and1 by interpreting them1 build up within his experience conscious images of light1 colour1 and form4 ,in like manner1 when the nerves in the hand are stimulated by an external object1 the mind is able to react upon the impressions and1 by interpreting them1 obtain images of touch1 temperature1 and weight4 ,in the sphere of action1 also1 the child who is stimulated by the sight of his elder pounding with a hammer1 sweeping with a broom1 etc41 reacts imitatively upon such stimulations1 and thus acquires skill in action4 ,so also when stimulated by means of his human surroundings1 as1 for example1 through the kindly acts of his mother1 father1 etc41 he reacts morally toward these stimulations and thus develops such social qualities as sympathy1 love1 and kindness4 ,nor are the conditions of development different in more complex intellectual problems4 ,if a child is given nine blocks on which are printed the nine digits1 and is asked to arrange them in the form of a square so that each of the horizontal and the vertical columns will add up to fifteen1 there is equally an inner growth through stimulation and response4 ,in such a case1 since the answer is unknown to the child1 the problem serves as a stimulation to his mind4 ,furthermore1 it is only by reacting upon this problem with his present knowledge of the value of the various digits when combined in threes1 as #a1 #f1 #h2 #e1 #g1 #c2 #i1 #b1 #d2 #a1 #e1 #i2 etc41 that the necessary growth of knowledge relative to the solution of the problem will take place within the mind4 ,,worth ,,in ,,human ,,life ,but the possession of an intellectual and moral nature which responds to appropriate stimulations implies1 also1 that as man develops intellectually1 he will find meaning in human life as realized in himself and others4 ,thus he becomes able to recognize worth in human life and to determine the conditions which favour its highest growth1 or development4 ,the ,worthy ,life not a ,natural ,growth4--,granting that it is thus possible to recognize that life is not a blank1 but that it should develop into something of worth1 it by no means follows that the young child will adequately recognize and desire a worthy life1 or be able to understand and control the conditions which make for its development4 ,although1 indeed1 there is implanted in his nature a spiritual tendency1 yet his early interests are almost wholly physical and his attitude impulsive and selfish4 ,left to himself1 therefore1 he is likely to develop largely as a creature of appetite1 controlled by blind passions and the chance impressions of the moment4 ,until such time1 therefore1 as he obtains an adequate development of his intellectual and moral life1 his behaviour conforms largely to the wants of his physical nature1 and his actions are irrational and wasteful4 ,under such conditions the young child1 if left to himself to develop in accordance with his native tendencies through the chance impressions which may stimulate him from without1 must fall short of attaining to a life of worth4 ,for this reason education is designed to control the growth1 or development1 of the child1 by directing his stimulations and responses in such a way that his life may develop into one of worth4 ,character of the ,worthy ,life4--,if1 however1 it is possible to add to the worth of the life of the child by controlling and modifying his natural reactions1 the first problem confronting the scientific educator is to decide what constitutes a life of worth4 ,this question belongs primarily to ethics1 or the science of right living1 to which the educator must turn for his solution4 ,here it will be learned that the higher life is one made up of moral relations4 ,in other words1 the perfect man is a social man and the perfect life is a life made up of social rights and duties1 wherein one is able to realize his own good in conformity with the good of others1 and seek his own happiness by including within it the happiness of others4 ,but to live a life of social worth1 man must gain such control over his lower physical wants and desires that he can conform them to the needs and rights of others4 ,he must1 in other words1 in adapting himself to his social environment1 develop a sense of duty toward his fellows which will cause him to act in co-operation with others4 ,he must refuse1 for instance1 to satisfy his own want by causing want to others1 or to promote his own desires by giving pain to others4 ,secondly1 he must obtain such control over his physical surroundings1 including his own body1 that he is able to make these serve in promoting the common good4 ,in the worthy life1 therefore1 man has so adjusted himself to his fellow men that he is able to co-operate with them1 and has so adjusted himself to his physical surroundings that he is able to make this co-operation effective1 and thus live a socially efficient life4 ,,factors ,,in ,,social ,,efficiency ,a4 ,knowledge1 a ,factor in ,social ,efficiency4--,the following simple examples will more fully demonstrate the factors which enter into the socially efficient life4 ,the young child1 for instance1 who lives on the shore of one of our great lakes1 may learn through his knowledge of colour to distinguish between the water and the sky on the horizon line4 ,this knowledge1 he finds1 however1 does not enter in any degree into his social life within the home4 ,when on the same basis1 however1 he learns to distinguish between the ripe and the unripe berries in the garden1 he finds this knowledge of service in the community1 or home1 life1 since it enables him to distinguish the fruit his mother may desire for use in the home4 ,one mark of social efficiency1 therefore1 is to possess knowledge that will enable us to serve effectively in society4 ,b4 ,skill1 a ,factor in ,social ,efficiency4--,in the sphere of action1 also1 the child might acquire skill in making stones skip over the surface of the lake4 ,here1 again1 however1 the acquired skill would serve no purpose in the community life1 except perhaps occasionally to enable him to amuse himself or his fellows4 ,when1 on the other hand1 he acquires skill in various home occupations1 as opening and closing the gates1 attending to the furnace1 harnessing and driving the horse1 or playing a musical instrument1 he finds that this skill enables him in some measure to serve in the community life of which he is a member4 ,a second factor in social efficiency1 therefore1 is the possession of such skill as will enable us to co-operate effectively within our social environment4 ,c4 ,right ,feeling1 a ,factor in ,social ,efficiency4--,but granting the possession of adequate knowledge and skill1 a man may yet fall far short of the socially efficient life4 ,the machinist1 for instance1 may know fully all that pertains to the making of an excellent engine for the intended steamboat4 ,he may further possess the skill necessary to its actual construction4 ,but through indifference or a desire for selfish gain1 this man may build for the vessel an engine which later1 through its poor construction1 causes the loss of the ship and its crew4 ,a third necessary requisite in social efficiency1 therefore1 is the possession of a sense of duty which compels us to use our knowledge and skill with full regard to the feelings and rights of others4 ,thus a certain amount of socially useful knowledge1 a certain measure of socially effective skill1 and a certain sense of moral obligation1 or right feeling1 all enter as factors into the socially efficient life4 ,,formal ,,education ,assuming that the educator is thus able to distinguish what constitutes a life of worth1 and to recognize and in some measure control the stimulations and reactions of the child1 it is evident that he should be able to devise ways and means by which the child may grow into a more worthy1 that is1 into a more socially efficient1 life4 ,such an attempt to control the reactions of the child as he adjusts himself to the physical and social world about him1 in order to render him a more socially efficient member of the society to which he belongs1 is described as formal education4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,forms ,,of ,,reaction ,,instinctive ,,reaction ,since the educator aims to direct the development of the child by controlling his reactions upon his physical and social surroundings1 we have next to consider the forms under which these reactions occur4 ,even at birth the human organism is endowed with certain tendencies1 which enable it to react effectively upon the presentation of appropriate stimuli4 ,our instinctive movements1 such as sucking1 hiding1 grasping1 etc41 being inherited tendencies to react under given conditions in a more or less effective manner for our own good1 constitute one type of reactive movement4 ,at birth1 therefore1 the child is endowed with powers1 or tendencies1 which enable him to adapt himself more or less effectively to his surroundings4 ,because1 however1 the child's early needs are largely physical1 many of his instincts1 such as those of feeding1 fighting1 etc41 lead only to self-preservative acts1 and are1 therefore1 individual rather than social in character4 ,even these individual tendencies1 however1 enable the child to adjust himself to his surroundings1 and thus assist that physical growth without which1 as will be learned later1 there could be no adequate intellectual and moral development4 ,but besides these1 the child inherits many social and adaptive tendencies--love of approbation1 sympathy1 imitation1 curiosity1 etc41 which enable him of himself to participate in some measure in the social life about him4 ,instinct and ,education4--,our instincts being inherited tendencies1 it follows that they must cause us to react in a somewhat fixed manner upon particular external stimulation4 ,for this reason1 it might be assumed that these tendencies would build up our character independently of outside interference or direction4 ,if such were the case1 instinctive reactions would not only lie beyond the province of formal education1 but might even seriously interfere with its operation1 since our instinctive acts differ widely in value from the standpoint of the efficient life4 ,it is found1 however1 that human instincts may not only be modified but even suppressed through education4 ,for example1 as we shall learn in the following paragraphs1 instinctive action in man may be gradually supplanted by more effective habitual modes of reaction4 ,although1 therefore1 the child's instinctive tendencies undoubtedly play a large part in the early informal development of his character outside the school1 it is equally true that they can be brought under the direction of the educator in the work of formal education4 ,for that reason a more thorough study of instinctive forms of reaction1 and of their relation to formal education1 will be made in ,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,habitual ,,reaction ,a second form of reaction is known as habit4 ,on account of the plastic character of the matter constituting the nervous tissue in the human organism1 any act1 whether instinctive1 voluntary1 or accidental1 if once performed1 has a tendency to repeat itself under like circumstances1 or to become habitual4 ,the child1 for example1 when placed amid social surroundings1 by merely yielding to his general tendencies of imitation1 sympathy1 etc41 will form many valuable modes of habitual reaction connected with eating1 dressing1 talking1 controlling the body1 the use of household implements1 etc4 ,for this reason the early instinctive and impulsive acts of the child gradually develop into definite modes of action1 more suited to meet the particular conditions of his surroundings4 ,habit and ,education4--,furthermore1 the formation of these habitual modes of reaction being largely conditioned by outside influences1 it is possible to control the process of their formation4 ,for this reason1 the educator is able to modify the child's natural reactions1 and develop in their stead more valuable habits4 ,no small part of the work of formal education1 therefore1 must consist in adding to the social efficiency of the child by endowing him with habits making for neatness1 regularity1 accuracy1 obedience1 etc4 ,a detailed study of habit in its relation to education will be made in ,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,conscious ,,reaction ,an ,example4--,the third and highest form of human reaction is known as ideal1 or conscious1 reaction4 ,in this form of reaction the mind1 through its present ideas1 reacts upon some situation or difficulty in such a way as to adjust itself satisfactorily to the problem with which it is faced4 ,as an example of such a conscious reaction1 or adjustment1 may be taken the case of a young lad who was noticed standing over a stationary iron grating through which he had dropped a small coin4 ,a few moments later the lad was seen of his own accord to take up a rod lying near1 smear the end with tar and grease from the wheel of a near by wagon1 insert the rod through the grating1 and thus recover his lost coin4 ,an analysis of the mental movements involved previously to the actual recovery of the coin will illustrate in general the nature of a conscious reaction1 or adjustment4 ,factors ,involved in ,process4--,in such an experience the consciousness of the lad is at the outset occupied with a definite problem1 or felt need1 demanding adjustment--the recovering of the lost coin1 which need acts as a stimulus to the consciousness and gives direction and value to the resulting mental activity4 ,acting under the demands of this problem1 or need1 the mind displays an intelligent initiative in the selecting of ideas--stick1 adhesion1 tar1 etc41 felt to be of value for securing the required new adjustment4 ,the mind finally combines these selected ideas into an organized system1 or a new experience1 which is accepted mentally as an adequate solution of the problem4 ,the following factors are found1 therefore1 to enter into such an ideal1 or conscious1 reaction3 #a4 ,the ,problem4--,the conscious reaction is the result of a definite problem1 or difficulty1 presented in consciousness and grasped by the mind as such--,how to recover the coin4 #b4 ,a ,selecting ,process4--,to meet the solution of this problem use is made of ideas which already form a part of the lad's present experience1 or knowledge1 and which are felt by him to have a bearing on the presented problem4 #c4 ,a ,relating ,process4--,these elements of former experience are organized by the child into a mental plan which he believes adequate to solve the problem before him4 #d4 ,application4--,this resulting mental plan serves to guide a further physical reaction1 which constitutes the actual removal of the difficulty--the recovery of the coin4 ,significance of ,conscious ,reactions4--,in a conscious reaction upon any situation1 or problem1 therefore1 the mind first uses its present ideas1 or experience1 in weighing the difficulties of the situation1 and it is only after it satisfies itself in theory that a solution has been reached that the physical response1 or application of the plan1 is made4 ,hence the individual not only directs his actions by his higher intelligent nature1 but is also able to react effectively upon varied and unusual situations4 ,this1 evidently1 is not so largely the case with instinctive or habitual reactions4 ,for efficient action1 therefore1 there must often be an adequate mental adjustment prior to the expression of the physical action4 ,for this reason the value of consciousness consists in the guidance it affords us in meeting the demands laid upon us by our surroundings1 or environment4 ,this will become more evident1 however1 by a brief examination into the nature of experience itself4 ,,experience ,its ,value4--,in the above example of conscious adjustment it was found that a new experience arises naturally from an effort to meet some need1 or problem1 with which the mind is at the time confronted4 ,our ideas1 therefore1 naturally organize themselves into new experiences1 or knowledge1 to enable us to gain some desired end4 ,it was in order to effect the recovery of the lost coin1 for example1 that conscious effort was put forth by the lad to create a mental plan which should solve the problem4 ,primarily1 therefore1 man is a doer and his ideas1 or knowledge1 is meant to be practical1 or to be applied in directing action4 ,it is this fact1 indeed1 which gives meaning and purpose to the conscious states of man4 ,hour by hour new problems arise demanding adjustment2 the mind grasps the import of the situation1 selects ways and means1 organizes these into an intelligent plan1 and directs their execution1 thus enabling us3 ,not without aim to go round ,in an eddy of purposeless dust4 ,its ,theoretic or ,intellectual ,value4--,but owing to the value which thus attaches to any experience1 a new experience may be viewed as desirable apart from its immediate application to conduct4 ,although1 for instance1 there is no immediate physical need that one should learn how to resuscitate a drowning person1 he is nevertheless prepared to make of it a problem1 because he feels that such knowledge regarding his environment may enter into the solution of future difficulties4 ,thus the value of new experience1 or knowledge1 is often remote and intellectual1 rather than immediate and physical1 and looks to the acquisition of further experience quite as much as to the directing of present physical movement4 ,beyond the value they may possess in relation to the removal of present physical difficulty1 therefore1 experiences may be said to possess a secondary value in that they may at any time enter into the construction of new experiences4 ,its ,growth3 ,a4 ,learning by ,direct ,experience4--,the ability to recall and use former experience in the upbuilding of an intelligent new experience is further valuable1 in that it enables a person to secure much experience in an indirect rather than in a direct way1 and thus avoid the direct experience when such would be undesirable4 ,under direct experience we include the lessons which may come to us at first hand from our surroundings1 as when the child by placing his hand upon a thistle learns that it has sharp prickles1 or by tasting quinine learns that it is bitter4 ,in this manner direct experience is a teacher1 continually adjusting man to his environment2 and it is evident that without an ability to retain our experiences and turn them to use in organizing a new experience without expressing it in action1 all conscious adjustments would have to be secured through such a direct method4 ,b4 ,learning ,indirectly4--,since man is able to retain his experiences and organize them into new experiences1 he may1 if desirable1 enter into a new experience in an indirect1 or theoretic1 way1 and thus avoid the harsher lessons of direct experience4 ,the child1 for example1 who knows the discomfort of a pin-prick may apply this1 without actual expression1 in interpreting the danger lurking in the thorn4 ,in like manner the child who has fallen from his chair realizes thereby1 without giving it expression1 the danger of falling from a window or balcony4 ,it is in this indirect1 or theoretic1 way that children in their early years acquire1 by injunction and reproof1 much valuable knowledge which enables them to avoid the dangers and to shun the evils presented to them by their surroundings4 ,by the same means1 also1 man is able to extend his knowledge to include the experiences of other men and even of other ages4 ,relative ,value of ,experiences4--,while the value of experience consists in its power to adjust man to present or future problems1 and thus render his action more efficient1 it is to be noted that different experiences may vary in their value4 ,many of these1 from the point of their value in meeting future problems or making adjustments1 must appear trivial and even useless4 ,others1 though adapted to meet our needs1 may do this in a crude and ineffective manner4 ,as an illustration of such difference in value1 compare the effectiveness and accuracy of the notation possessed by primitive men as illustrated in the following strokes3 #a1 #aa1 #aaa1 #aaaa1 #aaaaa1 #aaaaaa1 etc41 with that of our present system of notation as suggested in3 #a1 #aj1 #ajj1 #ajjj1 #ajjjj1 #ajjjjj1 #ajjjjjj1 etc4 ,in like manner to experience that ice is cold is trivial in comparison with experiencing its preservative effects as seen in cold storage or its medicinal effects in certain diseases2 to know that soda is white would be trivial in comparison with a knowledge of its properties in baking4 ,man ,should ,participate in ,valuable ,experiences4--,of the three forms of human reaction1 instinctive1 habitual1 and conscious1 or ideal1 it is evident that1 owing to its rational character1 ideal reaction is not only the most effective1 but also the only one that will enable man to adjust himself to unusual situations4 ,for this reason1 and because of the difference in value of experiences themselves1 it is further evident that man should participate in those experiences which are most effective in facilitating desired adjustments or in directing right conduct4 ,it is found1 moreover1 that this participation can be effected by bringing the child's experiencing during his early years directly under control4 ,it is held by some1 indeed1 that the whole aim of education is to reconstruct and enrich the experiences of the child and thereby add to his social efficiency4 ,although this conception of education leaves out of view the effects of instinctive and habitual reaction1 it nevertheless covers1 as we shall see later1 no small part of the purpose of formal education4 ,,influence ,,of ,,conscious ,,reaction ,a4 ,on ,instinctive ,action4--,before concluding our survey of the various forms of reaction1 it may be noted that both instinctive and habitual action are subject to the influence of conscious reaction4 ,as a child's early instinctive acts develop into fixed habits1 his growing knowledge aids in making these habits intelligent and effective4 ,consciousness evidently aids1 for example1 in developing the instinctive movements of the legs into the rhythmic habitual movements of walking1 and those of the hands into the later habits of holding the spoon1 knife1 cup1 etc4 ,greater still would be the influence of consciousness in developing the crude instinct of self-preservation into the habitual reactions of the spearman or boxer4 ,in general1 therefore1 instinctive tendencies in man are subject to intelligent training1 and may thereby be moulded into effective habits of reaction4 ,b4 ,on ,habitual ,action4--,further new habits may be established and old ones improved under the direction of conscious reaction4 ,when a child first learns to represent the number four by the symbol1 the problem is necessarily met at first through a conscious adjustment4 ,in other words1 the child must mentally associate into a single new experience the number idea and certain ideas of form and of muscular movement4 ,although1 however1 the child is conscious of all of these factors when he first attempts to give expression to this experience1 it is clear that very soon the expressive act of writing the number is carried on without any conscious direction of the process4 ,in other words1 the child soon acquires the habit of performing the act spontaneously1 or without direction from the mind4 ,inversely1 any habitual mode of action1 in whatever way established1 may1 if we possess the necessary experience1 be represented in idea and be accepted or corrected accordingly4 ,a person1 for instance1 who has acquired the necessary knowledge of the laws of hygiene1 may represent ideally both his own and the proper manner of standing1 sitting1 reclining1 etc41 and seek to modify his present habits accordingly4 ,the whole question of the relation of conscious to habitual reaction will1 however1 be considered in ,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,education ,,conscious ,,adjustment ,from the example of conscious adjustment previously considered1 it would appear that the full process of such an adjustment presents the following characteristics3 #a4 ,the ,problem4--,the individual conceives the existence within his environment of a difficulty which demands adjustment1 or which serves as a problem calling for solution4 #b4 ,a ,selecting ,process4--,with this problem as a motive1 there takes place within the experience of the individual a selecting of ideas felt to be of value for solving the problem which calls for adjustment4 #c4 ,a ,relating ,process4--,these relevant ideas are associated in consciousness and form a new experience believed to overcome the difficulty involved in the problem4 ,this new experience is accepted1 therefore1 mentally1 as a satisfactory plan for meeting the situation1 or1 in other words1 it adjusts the individual to the problem in hand4 #d4 ,expression4--,this new experience is expressed in such form as is requisite to answer fully the need felt in the original problem4 ,,education ,,as ,,adjustment ,example from ,writing4--,an examination of any ordinary educative process taken from school-room experience will show that it involves in some degree the factors mentioned above4 ,as a very simple example1 may be taken the case of a young child learning to form capital letters with short sticks4 ,assuming that he has already copied letters involving straight lines1 such as ,a1 ,h1 etc41 the child1 on meeting such a letter as ,c or ,d1 finds himself face to face with a new problem4 ,at first he may perhaps attempt to form the curves by bending the short thin sticks4 ,hereupon1 either through his own failure or through some suggestion of his teacher1 he comes to see a short1 straight line as part of a large curve4 ,thereupon he forms the idea of a curve composed of a number of short1 straight lines1 and on this principle is able to express himself in such forms as are shown here4 ,illustration ,illustration ,in this simple process of adjustment there are clearly involved the four stages referred to above1 as follows3 #a4 ,the ,problem4--,the forming of a curved letter by means of straight sticks4 #b4 ,a ,selecting ,process4--,selecting of the ideas straight and curved and the fixing of attention upon them4 #c4 ,a ,relating ,process4--,an organization of the selected ideas into a new experience in which the curve is viewed as made up of a number of short1 straight lines4 #d4 ,expression4--,working out the physical expression of the new experience in the actual forming of capitals involving curved lines4 ,example from ,arithmetic4--,an analysis of the process by which a child learns that there are four twos in eight1 shows also the following factors3 #a4 ,the ,problem4--,to find out how many twos are contained in the vaguely known eight4 #b4 ,a ,selecting ,process4--,to meet this problem the pupil is led from his present knowledge of the number two1 to proceed to divide eight objects into groups of two2 and1 from his previous knowledge of the number four1 to measure the number of these groups of two4 #c4 ,a ,relating ,process4--,next the three ideas two1 four1 and eight are translated into a new experience1 constituting a mental solution of the present problem4 #d4 ,expression4--,this new experience expresses itself in various ways in the child's dealings with the number problems connected with his environment4 ,example from ,geometry4--,taking as another example the process by which a student may learn that the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the two interior and opposite angles1 there appear also the same stages1 thus3 #a4 ,the ,problem4--,the conception of a difficulty or problem in the geometrical environment which calls for solution1 or adjustment--the relation of the angle a to the angles b and c in ,figure #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c #b4 ,a ,selecting ,process4--,with this problem as a motive there follows1 as suggested by ,figure #b1 the selecting of a series of ideas from the previous experiences of the pupil which seem relative to1 or are considered valuable for solving the problem in hand4 #c4 ,a ,relating ,process4--,these relative ideas pass into the formation of a new experience1 as illustrated in ,figure #c1 constituting the solution of the problem4 #d4 ,expression4--,a further applying of this experience may be made in adjusting the pupil to other problems connected with his geometric environment2 as1 for example1 to discover the sum of the interior angles of a triangle4 ,,education ,,as ,,control ,,of ,,adjustment ,the examples of adjustment taken from school-room practice1 are found1 however1 to differ in one important respect from the previous example taken from practical life4 ,this difference consists in the fact that in the recovery of the coin the modification of experience took place wholly without control or direction other than that furnished by the problem itself4 ,here the problem--the recovery of the coin--presents itself to the child and is seized upon as a motive by his attention solely on account of its own value2 secondly1 this problem of itself directs a flow of relative images which finally bring about the necessary adjustment4 ,in the examples taken from the school1 on the other hand1 the processes of adjustment are1 to a greater or less extent1 directed and regulated through the presence of some type of educative agent4 ,for instance1 when a student goes through the process of learning the relation of the exterior angle to the two interior and opposite angles1 the control of the process appears in the fact that the problem is directly presented to the student as an essential step in a sequence of geometric problems1 or adjustments4 ,the same direction or control of the process is seen again in the fact that the student is not left wholly to himself1 as in the first example1 to devise a solution1 but is aided and directed thereto1 first1 in that the ideas bearing upon the problem have previously been made known to the student through instruction1 and secondly1 in that the selecting and adjusting of these former ideas to the solution of the new problem is also directed through the agency of either a text-book or a teacher4 ,a conscious adjustment1 therefore1 which is brought about without direction from another1 implies only a process of learning on the part of the child1 while a controlled adjustment implies both a process of learning on the part of the child and a process of teaching on the part of an instructor4 ,for scientific treatment1 therefore1 it is possible to limit formal education1 so far as it deals with conscious adjustment1 to those modifications of experience which are directed or controlled through an educative agent1 or1 in other words1 are brought about by means of instruction4 ,,requirements ,,of ,,the ,,instructor ,formal education being an attempt to direct the development of the child by controlling his stimulations and responses through the agency of an instructor1 we may now understand in general the necessary qualifications and offices of the teacher in directing the educative process4 #a4 ,the teacher must understand what constitutes the worthy life2 that is1 he must have a definite aim in directing the development of the child4 #b4 ,he must know what stimulations1 or problems1 are to be presented to the child in order to have him grow1 or develop1 into this life of worth4 #c4 ,he must know how the physical1 intellectual1 and moral nature of the child reacts upon these appropriate stimulations4 #d4 ,he must have skill in presenting the stimuli1 or problems1 to the child and in bringing its mind to react appropriately thereon4 #e4 ,he must1 in the case of conscious reactions1 see that the child not only acquires the new experience1 but that he is also able to apply it effectively4 ,in other words1 he must see that the child acquires not only knowledge1 but also skill in the use of knowledge4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,school ,,curriculum ,valuable ,experience3 ,race ,knowledge4--,since education aims largely to increase the effectiveness of the moral conduct of the child by adding to the value of his experience1 the science of education must decide the basis on which the educator is to select experiences that possess such a value in directing conduct4 ,now a study of the progress of a nation's civilization will show that this advancement is brought about through the gradual interpretation of the resources at the nation's command1 and the turning of these resources to the attainment of human ends4 ,thus there is gradually built up a community1 or race1 experience1 in which the materials of the physical1 economic1 political1 moral1 and religious life are organized and brought under control4 ,by this means is constituted a body of race experience1 the value of which has been tested in its direct application to the needs of the social life of the community4 ,it is from the more typical forms of this social1 or race1 experience that education draws the experience1 or problems1 for the educative process4 ,in other words1 through education the experiences of the child are so reconstructed that he is put in possession of the more typical and more valuable forms of race experience1 and thus rendered more efficient in his conduct1 or action4 ,,purposes ,,of ,,curriculum ,represents ,race ,experiences4--,so far as education aims to have the child enter into typical valuable race experiences1 this can be accomplished only by placing these experiences before him as problems in such form that he may realize them through a regular process of learning4 ,the purpose of the school curriculum is1 therefore1 to provide such problems as may1 under the direction of the instructor1 control the conscious reactions of the child1 and enable him to participate in these more valuable race experiences4 ,in this sense arithmetic becomes a means for providing the child with a series of problems which may give him the experiences which the race has found valuable in securing commercial accuracy and precision4 ,in like manner1 constructive work provides a series of problems in which the child experiences how the race has turned the materials of nature to human service4 ,history provides problems whose solution gives the experience which enables the pupil to meet the political and social conditions of his own time4 ,physics shows how the forces of nature have become instruments for the service of man4 ,geography shows how the world is used as a background for social life2 and grammar1 what principles control the use of the race language as a medium for the communication of thought4 ,classifies ,race ,experience4--,without such control of the presentation of these racial experiences as is made possible through the school and the school curriculum1 the child would be likely to meet them only as they came to him in the actual processes of social life4 ,these processes are1 however1 so complex in modern society1 that1 in any attempt to secure experience directly1 the child is likely to be overwhelmed by their complex and unorganized character4 ,the message boy in the dye-works1 for example1 may have presented to him innumerable problems in number1 language1 physics1 chemistry1 etc41 but owing to the confused1 disorganized1 and mingled character of the presentation1 these are not likely to be seized upon by him as direct problems calling for adjustment4 ,in the school curriculum1 on the other hand1 the different phases of this seemingly unorganized mass of experiences are abstracted and presented to the child in an organized manner1 the different phases being classified as facts of number1 reading1 spelling1 writing1 geography1 physics1 chemistry1 etc4 ,thus the school curriculum classifies for the child the various phases of this race experience and provides him with a comprehensive representation of his environment4 ,systematizes ,race ,experience4--,the school curriculum further presents each type of experience1 or each subject1 in such a systematic order that the various experiences may develop out of one another in a natural way4 ,if the child were compelled to meet his number facts altogether in actual life1 the impressions would be received without system or order1 now a discount experience1 next a problem in fractions1 at another time one in interest or mensuration4 ,in the school curriculum1 on the other hand1 the child is in each subject first presented with the simple1 near1 and familiar1 these in turn forming basic experiences for learning the complex1 the remote1 and the unknown4 ,thus he is able in geography1 for example1 on the basis of his simple and known local experiences1 to proceed to a realization of the whole world as the background for human life4 ,clarifies ,race ,experience4--,finally1 when a child is given problems by means of the school curriculum1 the experiences come to him in a pure form4 ,that is1 the trivial1 accidental1 and distracting elements which are necessarily bound up with these experiences when they are met in the ordinary walks of life are eliminated1 and the single type is presented4 ,for instance1 the child may every day meet accidentally examples of reflection and refraction of light4 ,but these not being separated from the mass of accompanying impressions1 his mind may never seize as distinct problems the important relations in these experiences1 and may thus fail to acquire the essential principles involved4 ,in the school curriculum1 on the other hand1 under the head of physics1 he has the essential aspects presented to him in such an unmixed1 or pure1 form that he finds relatively little difficulty in grasping their significance4 ,thus the school curriculum renders possible an effective control of the experiencing of the child by presenting in a comprehensive form a classified1 systematized1 and pure representation of the more valuable features of the race experience4 ,in other words1 it provides suitable problems which may lead the child to participate more fully in the life about him4 ,through the subjects of the school curriculum1 therefore1 the child may acquire much useful knowledge which would not otherwise be met1 and much which1 if met in ordinary life1 could not be apprehended to an equal degree4 ,,dangers ,,in ,,use ,,of ,,curriculum ,while recognizing the educational value of the school curriculum1 it should be noticed that certain dangers attach to its use as a means of providing problems for developing the experiences of the child4 ,it is frequently argued against the school that the experiences gained therein too often prove of little value to the child in the affairs of practical life4 ,the world of knowledge within the school1 it is claimed1 is so different from the world of action outside the school1 that the pupil can find no connection between them4 ,if1 however1 as claimed above1 the value of experience consists in its use as a means of efficient control of conduct1 it is evident that the experiences acquired through the school should find direct application in the affairs of life1 or in other words1 the school should influence the conduct1 or behaviour1 of the child both within and without the school4 ,a4 ,child may not see ,connection with ,life4--,now the school curriculum1 as has been seen1 in representing the actual social life1 so classifies and simplifies this life that only one type of experience--number1 language1 chemistry1 geography1 etc41 is presented to the child at one time4 ,it is evident1 however1 that when the child faces the problems of actual life1 they will not appear in the simple form in which he meets them as represented in the school curriculum4 ,thus1 when he leaves the school and enters society1 he frequently sees no connection between the complex social life outside the school and the simplified and systematized representation of that life1 as previously met in the school studies4 ,for example1 when the boy1 after leaving school1 is set to fill an order in a wholesale drug store1 he will in the one experience be compelled to use various phases of his chemical1 arithmetical1 writing1 and bookkeeping knowledge1 and that perhaps in the midst of a mass of other accidental impressions4 ,in like manner1 the girl in her home cooking might meet in a single experience a situation requiring mathematical1 chemical1 and physical knowledge for its successful adjustment1 as in the substitution of soda and cream of tartar for baking-powder4 ,this complex character of the problems of actual life may prove so bewildering that the person is unable to see any connection between the outside problem and his school experiences4 ,thus school knowledge frequently fails to function to an adequate degree in the practical affairs of life4 ,how to ,avoid ,this ,danger4--,to meet this difficulty1 school work must be related as closely as possible to the practical experiences of the child4 ,this would cause the teacher1 for example1 to draw his problems in arithmetic1 his subjects in composition1 or his materials for nature study from the actual life about the child1 while his lessons in hygiene would bear directly on the care of the school-room and the home1 and the health of the pupils4 ,moreover1 that the work of the school may represent more fully the conditions of actual life1 pupils should acquire facility in correlating different types of experience upon the same problem4 ,in this way the child may use in conjunction his knowledge of arithmetic1 language1 geography1 drawing1 nature study1 etc41 in school gardening2 and his arithmetic1 language1 drawing1 art1 etc41 in conjunction with constructive occupations4 ,value of ,typical ,forms of ,expression4--,a chief cause in the past for the lack of connection between school knowledge and practical life was the comparative absence from the curriculum of any types of human activity4 ,in other words1 though the ideas controlling human activity were experienced by the child within the school1 the materials and tools involved in the physical expression of such ideas were almost entirely absent4 ,the result was that the physical habits connected with the practical use of knowledge were wanting4 ,thus1 in addition to the lack of any proper co-ordinating of different types of knowledge in suitable forms of activity1 the knowledge itself became theoretic and abstract4 ,this danger will1 however1 be discussed more fully at a later stage4 ,b4 ,curriculum ,may ,become ,fossilized4--,a second danger in the use of the school curriculum consists in the fact that1 as a representation of social life1 it may not keep pace with the social changes taking place outside the school4 ,this may result in the school giving its pupils forms of knowledge which at the time have little functional value1 or little relation to present life about the child4 ,an example of this was seen some years ago in the habit of having pupils spend considerable time and energy in working intricate problems in connection with ,british currency4 ,this currency having no practical place in life outside the school1 the child could see no connection between that part of his school work and any actual need4 ,another marked example of this tendency will be met in the ,history of ,education in connection with the educational practice of the last two centuries in continuing the emphasis placed on the study of the ancient languages1 although the functional relation of these languages to everyday life was on the decline1 and scientific knowledge was beginning to play a much more important part therein4 ,while the school curriculum may justly represent the life of past periods of civilization so far as these reflect on1 and aid in the interpreting of1 the present1 it is evident that in so far as the child experiences the past without any reference to present needs1 the connection which should exist between the school and life outside the school must tend to be destroyed4 ,c4 ,may be ,non-progressive4--,as a corollary to the above1 is the fact that the school1 when not watchful of the changes going on without the school1 may fail to represent in its curriculum new and important phases of the community life4 ,at the present time1 for example1 it is a debatable question whether the school curriculum is1 in the matter of our industrial life1 keeping pace with the changes taking place in the community4 ,it is in this connection that one of the chief dangers of the school text-book is to be found4 ,the text is too often looked upon as a final authority upon the particular subject-matter1 rather than being treated as a mode of representing what is held valuable and true in relation to present-day interests and activities4 ,the position of authority which the text-book thus secures1 may serve as a check against even necessary changes in the attitude of the school toward any particular subject4 ,d4 ,may ,present ,experience in too ,technical ,form4--,lastly1 the school curriculum1 even when representing present life1 may introduce it in a too highly technical form4 ,so far at least as elementary education is concerned1 each type of knowledge1 or each subject1 should find a place on the curriculum from a consideration of its influence upon the conduct and1 therefore1 upon the present life of the child4 ,there is always a danger1 however1 that the teacher1 who may be a specialist in the subject1 will wish to stress its more intellectual and abstract phases1 and thus force upon the child forms of knowledge which he is not able to refer to his life needs in any practical way4 ,this tendency is illustrated in the desire of some teachers to substitute with young children a technical study of botany and zoology1 in place of more concrete work in nature study4 ,now when the child approaches these phases of his surroundings in the form of nature study1 he is able to see their influence upon his own community life4 ,when1 on the other hand1 these are introduced to him in too technical a form1 he is not able1 in his present stage of learning1 to discover this connection1 and the so-called knowledge remains in his experience1 if it remains at all1 as uninteresting1 non-significant1 and non-digested information4 ,in the elementary school at least1 therefore1 knowledge should not be presented to the child in such a technical and abstract way that it will seem to have no contact with daily life4 ,,chapter ,v ,,educational ,,institutions ,,the ,,school ,as man1 in the progress of civilization1 became more fully conscious of the worth of human life and of the possibilities of its development through educational effort1 the providing of special instruction for the young naturally began to be recognized as a duty4 ,as this duty became more and more apparent1 it gave rise1 on the principle of the division of labour1 to corporate1 or institutional1 effort in this direction4 ,by this means there has been finally developed the modern school as a fully organized corporate institution devoted to educational work1 and supported as an integral part of our civil or public obligations4 ,origin of the ,school4--,to trace the origin of the school1 it will be necessary to look briefly at certain marked stages of the development of civilization4 ,the earliest and simplest forms of primitive life suggest a time when the family constituted the only type of social organization4 ,in such a mode of life1 the principle of the division of labour would be absent1 the father or patriarch being the family carpenter1 butcher1 doctor1 judge1 priest1 and teacher4 ,in the two latter capacities1 he would give whatever theoretic or practical instruction was received by the child4 ,as soon1 however1 as a tribal form of life is met1 we find the tribe or race collecting a body of experience which can be retained only by entrusting it to a selected body4 ,this experience1 or knowledge1 is at first mainly of a religious character1 and is possessed and handed on by a body of men forming a priesthood4 ,such priestly bodies1 or colleges1 may be considered the earliest special organizations devoted to the office of teaching4 ,as civilization gradually advanced1 a mass of valuable practical knowledge relative to man's environment was secured and added to the more theoretic forms4 ,as this practical knowledge became more complex1 there was felt a greater need that the child should be made acquainted with it in some systematic manner during his early years4 ,thus developed the conception of the school as an instrument by which such educative work might be carried on more effectively4 ,on account of the constant increase of practical knowledge and its added importance in directing the political and economic life of the people1 the civil authorities began in time to assume control of secular education4 ,thus the government of the school as an institution gradually passed to the state1 the teacher taking the place of the priest as the controlling agent in the education of the young4 ,,other ,,educative ,,agents ,the ,church4--,but notwithstanding the organization of the present school as a civic institution1 it is to be noticed that the church still continues to act as an educative agent4 ,in many communities1 in fact1 the church is still found to retain a large control of education even of a secular type4 ,even in communities where the church no longer exercises control over the school1 she still does much1 though in a more indirect way1 to mould the thought and character of the community life2 and is still the chief educational agent concerned in the direct attempt to enrich the religious experiences of the race4 ,the ,home4--,while much of the knowledge obtained by the child within his own home necessarily comes through self1 or informal1 education1 yet in most homes the parent still performs in many ways the function of a teacher1 both by giving special instruction to the child and by directing the formation of his habits4 ,in certain forms of experience indeed1 it is claimed by the school that the instruction should be given by the parent rather than by the teacher4 ,in questions of morals and manners1 the natural tie which unites child and parent will undoubtedly enable much of the necessary instruction to be given more effectively in the home4 ,it is often claimed1 in fact1 that parents now leave too much to the school and the teacher in relation to the education of the child4 ,the ,vocation4--,another agent which may directly control the experiences of the young is found in the various vocations to which they devote themselves4 ,this phase of education was very important in the days of apprenticeship4 ,one essential condition in the form of agreement was that the master should instruct the apprentice in the art1 or craft1 to which he was apprenticed4 ,owing to the introduction of machinery and the consequent more complex division of labour1 this type of formal education has been largely eliminated4 ,it may be noted in passing that it is through these changed conditions that night classes for mechanics1 which are now being provided by our technical schools1 have become an important factor in our educational system4 ,other ,educational ,institutions4--,finally1 many clubs1 institutes1 and societies attempt1 in a more accidental way1 to convey definite instruction1 and therefore serve in a sense as educational institutions4 ,prominent among such institutions is the modern ,public ,library1 which affords opportunity for independent study in practically every department of knowledge4 ,our ,farmers' ,institutes also attempt to convey definite instruction in connection with such subjects as dairying1 horticulture1 agriculture1 etc4 ,many ,women's ,clubs seek to provide instruction for young women1 both of a practical and also of a moral and religious character4 ,various societies of a scientific character have also done much to spread a knowledge of nature and her laws and are likewise to be classed as educational institutions4 ,such movements as these1 while taking place without the limits of the school1 may not unreasonably claim a certain recognition as educational factors in the community and should receive the sympathetic co-operation of the teacher4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,school ,,civic ,,views ,since the school of to-day is organized and supported by the state as a special corporate body designed to carry on the work of education1 it becomes of public interest to know the particular purpose served through the maintenance of such a state institution4 ,we have already seen that the school seeks to interpret the civilized life of the community1 to abstract out of it certain elements1 and to arrange them in systematic or scientific order as a curriculum of study1 and finally to give the child control of this experience1 or knowledge4 ,we have attempted to show further that by this means education so increases the effectiveness of the conscious reactions of the child and so modifies his instincts and his habits as to add to his social efficiency4 ,as1 however1 many divergent and incomplete views are held by educators and others as to the real purpose of public instruction1 it will be well at this stage to consider briefly some of the most important types of these theories4 ,aristocratic ,view4--,it may be noted that the experience1 or knowledge1 represented in the curriculum cannot exist outside of the knowing mind4 ,in other words1 arithmetic1 grammar1 history1 geography1 etc41 are not something existing apart from mind1 but only as states of consciousness4 ,text-books1 for instance1 do not contain knowledge but merely symbols of knowledge1 which would have no significance and give no light without a mind to interpret them4 ,some1 therefore1 hold that the school1 in seeking to translate this social experience into the consciousness of the young1 should have as its aim merely to conserve for the future the intellectual and moral achievements of the present and the past4 ,this they say demands of the school only that it produce an intellectual priesthood1 or a body of scholars1 who may conserve wisdom for the light and guidance of the whole community4 ,thus arises the aristocratic view of the purpose of education1 which sees no justification in the state attempting to provide educational opportunities for all of its members1 but holds rather that education is necessary only for the leaders of society4 ,democratic ,view4--,against the above view1 it is claimed by others that1 while public education should undoubtedly be conducted for the benefit of the state as a whole2 yet1 since a chain cannot be stronger than its weakest link1 the efficiency of the state must be measured by that of its individual units4 ,the state1 therefore1 must aim1 by means of education1 to add to its own efficiency by adding to that of each and all of its members4 ,this demands1 however1 that every individual should be able to meet in an intelligent way such situations as he is likely to encounter in his community life4 ,although carried on1 therefore1 for the good of the state1 yet education should be democratic1 or universal1 and should fit every individual to become a useful member of society4 ,these ,views ,purely ,civic4--,it is to be noted that though the latter view provides for the education of all as a duty of the state1 yet both of the above views are purely civic in their significance1 and hold that education exists for the welfare of the state as a whole and not for the individual4 ,if1 therefore1 the state could be benefited by having the education of any class of citizens either limited or extended in an arbitrary way1 nothing in the above conception of the purpose of state education would forbid such a course4 ,,individualistic ,,views ,opposed to the civic view of education1 many hold1 on the other hand1 that education exists for the child and not for the state1 and therefore1 aims primarily to promote the welfare of the individual4 ,by these educators it is argued that1 since each child is created with a separate and distinct personality1 it follows that he possesses a divine right to have that personality developed independently of the claims of the community to which he belongs4 ,according to this view1 therefore1 the aim of education should be in each case solely to effect some good for the individual child4 ,these educators1 however1 are again found to differ concerning what constitutes this individual good4 ,the ,culture ,aim4--,according to the practice of many educators1 education is justified on the ground that it furnishes the individual a degree of personal culture4 ,according to this view1 the worth of education is found in the fact that it puts the learner in possession of a certain amount of conventional knowledge which is held to give a polish to the individual2 this polish providing a distinguishing mark by which the learned class is separated from the ignorant4 ,it is undoubtedly true that the so-called culture of the educated man should add to the grace and refinement of social life4 ,in this sense1 culture is not foreign to the conception of individual and social efficiency4 ,a narrow cultural view1 however1 overlooks the fact that man's experience is significant only when it enables him to meet the needs and problems of the present1 and that1 as a member of a social community1 he must apply himself to the actual problems to be met within his environment4 ,to acquire knowledge1 therefore1 either as a mere possession or as a mark of personal superiority1 is to give to experience an unnatural value4 ,the ,utilitarian ,aim4--,others express quite an opposite view to the above1 declaring that the aim of education is to enable the individual to get on in the world4 ,by this is meant that education should enable us to be more successful in our business1 and thus live more comfortable lives4 ,now1 so far as this practical success of the individual can be achieved in harmony with the interests of society as a whole1 we may grant that education should make for individual betterment4 ,indeed it may justly be claimed that an advancement in the comfort of the individual under such conditions really implies an increase in the comfort of society as a whole2 for the man who is not able to provide for his own welfare must prove1 if not a menace1 at least a burden to society4 ,if1 however1 it is implied that the educated man is to be placed in a position to advance his own interests irrespective of1 or in direct opposition to1 the rights and comforts of others1 then the utilitarian view of the end of education must appear one-sided4 ,to emphasize the good of the individual irrespective of the rights of others1 and to educate all of its members with such an end in view1 society would tend to destroy the unity of its own corporate life4 ,the ,psychological ,aim4--,according to others1 although education aims to benefit the child1 this benefit does not come from the acquisition of any particular type of knowledge1 but is due rather to a development which takes place within the individual himself as a result of experiencing4 ,in other words1 the child as an intelligent being is born with certain attributes which1 though at first only potential1 may be developed into actual capacities or powers4 ,thus it is held that the real aim of education is to develop to the full such capacities as are found already within the child4 ,moreover1 it is because the child has such possibilities of development within him1 and because he starts at the very outset of his existence with a divine yearning to develop these inner powers1 that he reaches out to experience his surroundings4 ,for this reason1 they argue that every individual should have his own particular capacities and powers fully and harmoniously developed4 ,thus the true aim of education is said to be to unfold the potential life of each individual and allow it to realize itself2 the purpose of the school being primarily not to make of the child a useful member of society1 but rather to study the nature of the child and develop whatever potentialities are found within him as an individual4 ,because this theory places such large emphasis on the natural tendencies and capacities of the child1 it is spoken of as the psychological aim of education4 ,limitations of the ,aim4--,this view evidently differs from others in that it finds the justification for education1 not primarily in the needs or rights of a larger society of which the child is a member1 but rather in those of the single individual4 ,here1 however1 a difficulty presents itself4 ,if the developing of the child's capacities and tendencies constitute the real purpose of public education1 may not education at times conflict with the good of the state itself8 ,now it is evident that if a child has a tendency to lie1 or steal1 or inflict pain on others1 the development of such tendencies must result in harm to the community at large4 ,on the other hand1 it is clear that in the case of other proclivities which the child may possess1 such as industry1 truthfulness1 self-sacrifice1 etc41 the development of these cannot be separated from the idea of the good of others4 ,to apply a purely individual aim to education1 therefore1 seems impossible2 since we can have no standard to distinguish between good and bad tendencies1 unless these are measured from a social standpoint or from a consideration of the good of others1 and not from the mere tendencies and capacities of the individual4 ,moreover1 to attempt the harmonious development of all the child's tendencies and powers is not justifiable1 even in the case of those tendencies which might not conflict with the good of others4 ,as already noted1 division of labour has now gone so far that the individual may profitably be relieved from many forms of social activity4 ,this implies as a corollary1 however1 that the individual will place greater stress upon other forms of activity4 ,,the ,,social1 ,,or ,,eclectic1 ,,view ,moreover1 because1 as already noted1 the child is by his very nature a social being1 it follows that the good of the individual can never in reality be opposed to the good of society1 and that whenever the child has in his nature any tendencies which conflict with the good of others1 these do not represent his true1 or social1 nature4 ,for education to suppress these1 therefore1 is not only fitting the child for society but also advancing the development of the child so far as his higher1 or true1 nature is concerned4 ,thus the true view of the purpose of the school and of education will be a social1 or eclectic1 one1 representing the element of truth contained in both the civic and the individualistic views4 ,in the first place1 such a view may be described as a civic one1 since it is only by considering the good of others1 that is of the state1 that we can find a standard for judging the value of the child's tendencies4 ,moreover1 it is only by using the forms of experience1 or knowledge1 that the community has evolved1 that conditions can be provided under which the child's tendencies may realize themselves4 ,secondly1 the true view is equally an individualistic view1 for while it claims that the child is by his nature a social being1 it also demands a full development of the social or moral tendencies of the individual1 as being best for himself as well as for society4 ,this ,view ,dynamic4--,in such an eclectic view of the aim of education1 it is to be noted further that society may turn education to its own advancement4 ,by providing that an individual may develop to his uttermost such good tendencies as he may possess1 education not only allows the individual to make the most of his own higher nature1 but also enables him to contribute something to the advancement1 or elevation1 of society itself4 ,such a conception of the aim of education1 therefore1 does not view the present social life as some static thing to which the child must be adapted in any formal sense1 but as dynamic1 or as having the power to develop itself in and through a fuller development of the higher and better tendencies within its individual members4 ,a ,caution4--,while emphasizing the social1 or moral1 character of the aim of education1 it is to be borne in mind by the educator that this implies more than a passive possession by the individual of a certain moral sentiment4 ,man is truly moral only when his moral character is functioning in goodness1 or in right action4 ,this is equivalent to declaring that the moral man must be individually efficient in action1 and must likewise control his action from a regard for the rights of others4 ,there is always a danger1 however1 of assuming that the development of moral character consists in giving the child some passive mark1 or quality1 without any necessity of having it continually functioning in conduct4 ,but this reduces morality to a mere sentiment4 ,in such a case1 the moral aim would differ little from the cultural aim mentioned above4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,divisions ,,of ,,educational ,,study ,,control ,,of ,,experience ,significance of ,control4--,from our previous inquiry into the nature of education1 we may notice that at least two important problems present themselves for investigation in connection with the educative process4 ,our study of the subject-matter of education1 or the school curriculum1 has shown that its function as an educational instrumentality is to furnish for the child experiences of greater value1 this enhanced value consisting in the greater social significance of the race experiences1 or knowledge1 embodied within the curriculum1 when compared with the more individual experiences of the average child4 ,it has been noted further1 however1 that the office of education is not merely to have the child translate this race experience into his own mind1 but rather to have him add to his social efficiency by gaining an adequate power of control over these experiences4 ,it is not1 for instance1 merely to know the number combinations1 but to be able to meet his practical needs1 that the child must master the multiplication tables4 ,control of experience1 however1 as we have seen from our analysis of the learning process1 implies an ability to hold an aim1 or problem1 in view1 and a further ability to select and arrange the means of gaining the desired end4 ,in relation to the multiplication table1 therefore1 control of experience implies that a person is able to apprehend the present number situation as one that needs solution1 and also that he can bring1 or apply1 his knowledge of the table to its solution4 ,nature of ,growth of ,control4--,the young child is evidently not able at first to exercise this power of control over his experiences4 ,when a very young child is aroused1 say by the sound proceeding from a bell1 the impression may give rise to certain random movements1 but none of these indicate on his part any definite experience or purpose4 ,when1 however1 under the same stimulation1 in place of these random movements1 the child reacts mentally in a definite way1 it signifies on his part the recognition of an external object4 ,this recognition shows that the child now has1 in place of the first vague image1 a more or less definite idea of the external thing4 ,before it was vague noise2 now it is a bell4 ,but a yet more valuable control is gained by the child when he gives this idea a wider meaning by organizing it as an element into more complex experiences1 as when he relates it with the idea of a fire1 of dinner1 or of a call to school4 ,before it was merely a bell2 now it is an alarm of fire4 ,so far1 however1 as the child is lacking in the control of his experiences1 he remains largely a mere creature of impulse and instinct1 and is occupied with present impressions only4 ,this implies also an inability to set up problems and solve them through a regular process of adjustment1 and a consequent lack of power to arrange experiences as guides to action4 ,in the educative process1 however1 as previously exemplified1 we find that the child is not a slave to the passing transient impressions of the present1 but is able to secure a control over his experience which enables him to set up intelligent aims1 devise plans for their attainment1 and apply these plans in gaining the end desired4 ,growth of control takes place1 therefore1 to the extent to which the child thus becomes able to keep an end in view and to select and organize means for its realization4 ,elements of ,control4--,in the growth of control manifested in the learning process1 the child1 as we have noticed1 becomes able to judge the value1 or worth1 of experience4 ,in other words1 he becomes able to distinguish between the important and the trivial1 and to see the relative values of various experiences when applied to practical ends4 ,further1 he gains right feeling or an emotional warmth toward that which his intelligence affirms to be worthy1 or grows to appreciate the right4 ,thirdly1 he secures a power in execution that enables him to attain to that which his judgment and feeling have set up as a desirable end4 ,in fine1 the educative process implies for the child a growth of control by which he becomes able 7#a7 to select worthy ends2 7#b7 to devise plans for their attainment2 and 7#c7 to put these plans into successful execution4 ,,the ,,instructor',s ,,problems ,the end in any learning process being to set the pupils a problem which may stimulate them to gain such an efficient control of useful experience1 or knowledge1 we may note two important problems confronting the teacher as an instructor3 #a4 ,problem of ,matter4--,the teacher must be so conversant with the subject-matter of the curriculum and with its value in relation to actual life1 that he may select therefrom the problems and materials which will enable the child to come into possession of the desirable experiences4 ,this constitutes the question of the subject-matter of education4 #b4 ,problem of ,method4--,the teacher must further be conversant with the process by which the child gets command of experience or with the way in which the mind of the child1 in reacting upon any subject-matter1 selects and organizes his knowledge into new experience and puts the same into execution4 ,in other words1 the teacher must fully understand how to direct the child successfully through the four stages of the learning process4 7a7 ,general ,method4--,in a scientific study of education it is usually assumed that the student-teacher has mastered academically the various subjects of the curriculum4 ,in the professional school1 therefore1 the subject-matter of education is studied largely from the standpoint of method4 ,in his study of method the student of education seeks first to master the details of the process of education outlined in the opening ,chapters under the headings of problem1 selecting process1 relating process1 and application4 ,by this means the teacher comes to understand in greater detail how the mind of the child reacts upon the presented problems of the curriculum in gaining control over his experiences1 or1 in other words1 how the process of learning actually takes place within the consciousness of the child4 ,this sub-division is treated under the head of ,general ,method4 7b7 ,special ,methods4--,in addition to ,general ,method1 the student-teacher must study each subject of the curriculum from the standpoint of its use in setting problems1 or lessons1 which shall enable the child to gain control of a richer experience4 ,this sub-division is known as ,special ,methods1 since it considers the particular problems involved in adapting the matter of each subject to the general purpose of the educative process4 #c4 ,problem of ,management4--,from what has been seen in reference to the school as an institution organized for directing the education of the child1 it is apparent that in addition to the immediate and direct control of the process of learning as involved in the method of instruction1 there is the more indirect control of the process through the systematic organization and management of the school as a corporate institution4 ,these more indirect problems connected with the control of education within the school will include1 not only such topics as the organization and management of the pupils1 but also the legal ways and means for providing these various educational instrumentalities4 ,these indirect elements of control constitute a third phase of the problem of education1 and their study is known as ,school ,organization and ,management4 #d4 ,an ,historic ,problem4--,it has been noted that the corporate institution known as the school arose as the result of the principle of the division of labour1 and thus took to itself duties previously performed under other less effective conditions4 ,thus the school presents on its organic side a history with which the teacher should be more or less familiar4 ,on its historical side1 therefore1 education presents a fourth phase for study4 ,this division of the subject is known as the ,history of ,education4 ,,summary ,the facts of education1 as scientifically considered by the student-teacher1 thus arrange themselves under four main heads3 #a4 ,general ,method #b4 ,special ,methods #c4 ,school ,organization and ,management #d4 ,history of ,education ,the third and fourth divisions of education are always studied as separate subjects under the above heads4 ,in dealing with ,special ,methods1 also1 it is customary in the study of education to treat each subject of the curriculum under its own head in both a professional and an academic way4 ,there is left1 therefore1 for scientific consideration1 the subject of ,general ,method1 to a study of which we shall now proceed4 ,,part ,,ii4--,,methodology ,,chapter ,,viii ,,general ,,method ,meaning of ,method4--,in the last ,chapter it was seen that1 in relation to the child1 education involves a gaining of control over experiences4 ,it has been seen further1 that the child gains control of new experience whenever he goes through a process of learning involving the four steps of problem1 selecting activity1 relating activity1 and expression4 ,finally it has been decided that the teacher in his capacity as an instructor1 by presenting children with suitable problems1 may in a sense direct their selecting and relating activities and thus exercise a certain control over their learning processes4 ,to the teacher1 therefore1 method will mean an ability to control the learning process in such a way that the children shall1 in their turn1 gain an adequate control over the new experience forming the subject-matter of any learning process4 ,thus a detailed study by student-teachers of the various steps of the learning process1 with a view to gaining knowledge and skill relative to directing pupils in their learning1 constitutes for such teachers a study of ,general ,method4 ,subdivisions of ,method4--,for the student-teacher1 the study of general method will involve a detailed investigation of how the child is to gain control of social experiences as outlined above1 and how the teacher may bring about the same through instruction4 ,tn such an investigation1 he must examine in detail the various steps of the educative process to discover3 #a4 ,how the knowledge1 or social experience1 contained in the school curriculum should be presented to the child4 ,this will involve an adequate study of the first step of the learning process--the problem4 #b4 ,how the mind1 or consciousness1 of the child reacts during the learning process upon the presented materials in gaining control of this knowledge4 ,this will embrace a study of the second and third steps of the process--the selecting and relating activities4 #c4 ,how the child is to acquire facility in using a new experience1 or in applying it to direct his conduct4 ,this involves a particular study of the fourth step of the process--the law of expression4 #d4 ,how the teacher may use any outside agencies1 as maps1 globes1 specimens1 experiments1 etc41 to assist in directing the learning process4 ,this involves a study of various classes of educational instrumentalities4 #e4 ,how the principles of general method are to be adapted to the different modes by which the learner may gain new experience1 or knowledge4 ,this will involve a study of the different kinds of lessons1 or a knowledge of lesson types4 ,,method ,,implies ,,knowledge ,,of ,,mind ,before we proceed to such a detailed study of the educative process as a process of teaching1 it should be noted that the existence of a general method is possible only provided that the growth of conscious control takes place in the mind of the child in a systematic and orderly manner4 ,all children1 for instance1 must be supposed to respond in the same general way in the learning process when they are confronted with the same problem4 ,without this they could not secure from the same lesson the same experiences and the same relative measure of control over these experiences4 ,but if our conscious acts are so uniform that the teacher may expect from all of his pupils like responses and like states of experience under similar stimulations1 then a knowledge on the part of the teacher of the orderly modes in which the mind works will be essential to an adequate control of the process of learning4 ,now a full and systematic account of mind and its activities is set forth in the ,science of ,psychology4 ,as the ,science of ,consciousness1 or ,experience1 psychology explains the processes by which all experience is built up1 or organized1 in consciousness4 ,thus psychology constitutes a basic science for educational method4 ,it is essential1 therefore1 that the teacher should have some knowledge of the leading principles of this science4 ,for this reason1 frequent reference will be made1 in the study of general method1 to underlying principles of psychology4 ,the more detailed examination of these principles and of their application to educational method will1 however1 be postponed to a later part of the text4 ,each of the four important steps of the learning process will now be treated in order1 beginning in the next ,chapter with the problem4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,lesson ,,problem ,problem1 a ,motive4--,the foregoing description and examples of the educative process have shown that new knowledge necessarily results whenever the mind faces a difficulty1 or need1 and adjusts itself thereto4 ,in other words1 knowledge is found to possess a practical value and to arise as man faces the difficulties1 or problems1 with which he is confronted4 ,the basis of conscious activity in any direction is1 therefore1 a feeling of need4 ,if one analyses any of his conscious acts1 he will find that the motive is the satisfaction of some desire which he more or less consciously feels4 ,the workman exerts himself at his labour because he feels the need of satisfying his artistic sense or of supplying the necessities of those who are dependent upon him2 the teacher prepares the lessons he has to present and puts forth effort to teach them successfully1 because he feels the need of educating the pupils committed to his care2 the physician observes symptoms closely and consults authorities carefully1 because he feels the need of curing his patients2 the lawyer masters every detail of the case he is pleading1 because he feels the need of protecting the interests of his client4 ,what is true of adults is equally true of children in school4 ,the pupil puts forth effort in school work because he feels that this work is meeting some of his needs4 ,nature of ,problem4--,it is not to be assumed1 however1 that the only problem which will prompt the individual to put forth conscious effort must be a purely physical need1 such as hunger1 thirst1 or a distinct desire for the attainment of a definite object1 as to avoid danger or to secure financial gain or personal pleasure4 ,nor is it to be understood that the learner always clearly formulates the problem in his own mind4 ,indeed1 as will be seen more fully later1 one very important motive for mastering a presented problem is the instinct of curiosity4 ,as an example of such may be noted a case which came under the observation of the writer1 where the curiosity of a small child was aroused through the sight of a mud-turtle crawling along a walk4 ,after a few moments of intense investigation1 he cried to those standing by1 ,come and see the bug in the basket4 ,here1 evidently1 the child's curiosity gave the strange appearance sufficient value to cause him to make it an object of study4 ,impelled by this feeling1 he must have selected ideas from his former experience 7bug--crawling thing2 basket--incasing thing71 which seemed of value in interpreting the unknown presentation4 ,finally by focusing these upon this strange object1 he formed an idea1 or mental picture1 which gave him a reasonable control over the new vague presentation4 ,such a motive as curiosity may not imply to the same degree as some others a personal need1 nor does it mean that the child consciously says to himself that this new material or activity is satisfying a specific need1 but in some vague way he knows that it appeals to him because of its attractiveness in itself or because of its relation to some other attractive object4 ,in brief1 it interests him1 and thus creates a tendency on the part of an individual to give it his attention4 ,in such situations1 therefore1 the learner evidently feels to a greater or less degree a necessity1 or a practical need1 for solving the problem before him4 ,,need ,,of ,,problem ,knowledge ,gained ,accidentally4--,it is evident1 however1 that at times knowledge might be gained in the absence of any set problem upon which the learner reacts4 ,for example1 a certain person while walking along a road intent upon his own personal matters observed a boy standing near a high fence4 ,on passing further along the street1 he glanced through an opening and observed a vineyard within the inclosure4 ,on returning along the street a few minutes later1 he saw the same boy standing at a near by corner eating grapes4 ,hereupon these three ideas at once co-ordinated themselves into a new form of knowledge1 signifying stealing-of-fruit4 ,in such a case1 the experience has evidently been gained without the presence of a problem to guide the selecting and relating of the ideas entering into the new knowledge4 ,in like manner1 a child whose only motive is to fill paper with various coloured crayon may accidentally discover1 while engaged on this problem1 that red and yellow will combine to make orange1 or that yellow and blue will combine to make green4 ,here also the child gains valuable experience quite spontaneously1 that is1 without its constituting a motive1 or problem1 calling for adjustment4 ,learning without ,motive4--,in the light of the above1 a question suggests itself in relation to the lesson problem1 or motive4 ,granting that a regular school recitation must contain some valuable problem for which the learning process is to furnish a solution1 and granting that the teacher must be fully conscious both of the problem and of its mode of solution1 the question might yet be asked whether a problem is to be realized by the child as a felt need at the beginning of the lesson4 ,for example1 if the teacher wishes his pupils to learn how to compose the secondary colour purple1 might he have them blend in a purely arbitrary way1 red and blue1 and finally ask them to note the result8 ,or again1 if he wishes the pupils to learn the construction of a paper-box or fire-place1 would he not be justified in directing them to make certain folds1 to do certain cutting1 and to join together the various sections in a certain way1 and then asking them to note the result8 ,if such a course is permissible1 it would seem that1 so far at least as the learner is concerned1 he may gain control of valuable experience1 or knowledge1 without the presence of a problem1 or motive1 to give the learning process value and direction4 ,problem ,aids ,control4--,it is true that in cases like the above1 the child may gain the required knowledge4 ,the cause for this is1 no doubt1 that the physical activity demanded of the pupil constitutes indirectly a motive for attending sufficiently to gain the knowledge4 ,but in many cases no such conditions might exist4 ,it is important1 therefore1 to have the pupil as far as possible realize at the outset a definite motive for each lesson4 ,the advantage consists in the fact that the motive gives a value to the ideas which enter into the new knowledge1 even before they are fully incorporated into a new experience4 ,for example1 if in a lesson in geometrical drawing1 the teacher1 instead of having the child set out with the problem of drawing a pair of parallel lines1 merely orders him to follow certain directions1 and then requests him to measure the shortest distance between the lines at different points1 the child is not likely to grasp the connections of the various steps involved in the construction of the whole problem4 ,this means1 however1 that the learner has not secured an equal control over the new experience4 ,pupils ,feel ,its ,lack4--,a further objection to conducting a lesson in such a way that the child may find no motive for the process until the close of the lesson1 is the fact that he is himself aware of its lack4 ,in school the child soon discovers that in a lesson he selects and gives attention to various ideas solely in order to gain control over some problem which he may more or less definitely conceive in advance4 ,for this reason1 if the teacher attempts1 as in the above examples1 to fix the child's attention on certain facts without any conception of purpose1 the pupil nevertheless usually asks himself the question3 ,what does the teacher intend me to do with these facts8 ,indeed1 without at least that motive to hold such disconnected ideas in his mind1 it is doubtful whether the pupil would attend to them sufficiently to organize them into a new item of knowledge4 ,when1 therefore1 the teacher proposes at the outset an attractive problem to solve1 he has gone a long way toward stimulating the intellectual activity of the pupil4 ,the setting of problems1 the supplying of motives1 the giving of aims1 the awakening of needs--this constitutes a large part of the business of the teacher4 ,,pupil',s ,,motive ,pupil's ,problem versus ,teacher's4--,but it is important that the problem before the pupil at the beginning of the lesson should really be the pupil's and not the teacher's merely4 ,the teacher should be careful not to impose the problem on the pupils in an arbitrary way1 but should try to connect the lesson with an interest that is already active4 ,the teacher's motive in teaching the lesson and the pupil's motive in attending to it are usually quite different4 ,the teacher's problem should1 of course1 be identical with the real problem of the lesson4 ,thus in a literature lesson on ,hide and ,seek 7,ontario ,third ,reader71 the teacher's motive would be to lead the pupil to appreciate the music of the lines1 the beauty of the images1 and the pathos of the ideas2 and in general1 to increase the pupil's capacities of constructive imagination and artistic appreciation4 ,the pupil's motive might be to find out how the poet had described a familiar game4 ,in a nature study lesson on ,the ,rabbit1 the teacher's motive would be to lead the pupil to make certain observations and draw certain inferences and thus add something to his facility in observation and inference4 ,the pupil's motive in the same lesson would be to discover something new about a very interesting animal4 ,in general1 the teacher's motive will be 7#a7 to give the pupil a certain kind of useful knowledge2 7#b7 to develop and strengthen certain organs2 or 7#c7 to add something to his mechanical skill by the forming of habitual reactions4 ,in general1 the pupil's motive will be to learn some fact1 to satisfy some instinct1 or perform some activity that is interesting either in itself or because of its relation to some desired end4 ,that is1 the pupil's motive is the satisfaction of an interest or the promotion of a purpose4 ,pupil's ,motive ,may ,be ,indirect4--,it is evident from the foregoing that the pupil's motive for applying himself to any lesson may differ from the real lesson problem1 or motive4 ,for instance1 in mastering the reading of a certain selection1 the pupil's chief motive in applying himself to this particular task may be to please and win the approbation of the teacher4 ,the true lesson problem1 however1 is to enable the learner to give expression to the thoughts and feelings of the author4 ,when the aim1 or motive1 is thus somewhat disconnected from the lesson problem itself1 it becomes an indirect motive4 ,while such indirect motives are undoubtedly valuable and must often be used with young children1 it is evident that when the pupil's motive is more or less directly associated with the real problem of the lesson1 it will form a better centre for the selecting and organizing of the ideas entering into the new experience4 ,relation to ,pupil's ,feeling4--,a chief essential in connection with the pupil's motive1 or attitude1 toward the lesson problem1 is that the child should feel a value in the problem4 ,that is1 his apprehension of the problem should carry with it a desire to secure a complete mastery of the problem from a sense of its intrinsic value4 ,the difference in feeling which a pupil may have toward the worth of a problem would be noticed by comparing the attitude of a class in the study of a military biography or a pioneer adventure taken from ,canadian or ,united ,states sources respectively4 ,in the case of the former1 the feeling of patriotism associated with the lesson problem will give it a value for the pupils entirely absent from the other topic4 ,the extent to which the pupil feels such a value in the lesson topic will in most cases also measure the degree of control he obtains over the new experience4 ,,awakening ,,interest ,,in ,,problems ,as will be seen in ,chapter ,,xxix1 where our feeling states will be considered more fully1 feeling is essentially a personal attitude of mind1 and there can be little guarantee that a group of pupils will feel an equal value in the same problem4 ,at times1 in fact1 even where the pupil understands fairly well the significance of a presented lesson problem1 he may feel little personal interest in it4 ,one of the most important questions of method is1 therefore1 how to awaken in a class the necessary interest in the lesson problem with which they are being presented4 #a4 ,through ,physical ,activity4--,it is a characteristic of the young child to enjoy physical activity for the sake of the activity itself4 ,this is true even of his earliest acts1 such as stretching1 smiling1 etc4 ,although these are merely impulsive movements without conscious purpose1 the child soon forms ideas of different acts1 and readily associates these with other ideas4 ,thus he takes a delight in the mere functioning of muscles1 hands1 voice1 etc41 in expressive movements4 ,as he develops1 however1 on account of the close association1 during his early years1 between thought and movement1 the child is much interested in any knowledge which may be presented to him in direct association with motor activity4 ,this fact is especially noticeable in that the efforts of a child to learn a strange object consist largely in endeavouring to discover what he can do with it4 ,he throws1 rolls1 strikes1 strives to open it1 and in various other ways makes it a means of physical expression4 ,whenever1 especially1 he can discover the use of an object1 as to cut with knife or scissors1 to pound with a hammer1 to dip with a ladle1 or to sweep with a broom1 this social significance of the object gives him full satisfaction1 and little attention is paid to other qualities4 ,for these reasons the teacher will find it advantageous1 whenever possible1 to associate a lesson problem directly with some form of physical action4 ,in primary number work1 for example1 instead of presenting the child with mere numbers and symbols1 the teacher may provide him with objects1 in handling which he may associate the number facts with certain acts of grouping objects4 ,it is in this way that a child should approach such problems as3 ,how many fours are there in twelve8 ,how many feet in a yard8 ,how many quarts in a peck8 etc4 ,the teaching of fractions by means of scissors and cardboard2 the teaching of board measure by having boards actually measured2 the teaching of primary geography by means of the sand-table2 the teaching of nature study by excursions to fields and woods2 these are all easy because we are working in harmony with the child's natural tendency to be physically active4 ,the more closely the lesson problem adjusts itself to these tendencies1 the greater will be the pupil's activity and hence the more rapid his progress4 #b4 ,through ,constructive ,instinct4--,the child's delight in motor expression is closely associated with his instinctive tendency to construct4 ,when1 therefore1 new knowledge can be presented to the child in and through constructive exercises1 he is more likely to feel its value4 ,thus it is possible1 by means of such occupations as paper folding or stick-laying1 to provide interesting problems for teaching number and geometric forms4 ,in folding the check-board1 for example1 the child will master necessary problems relating to the numbers1 #b1 #d1 #h1 and #af4 ,in learning colour1 it is more interesting for the child to study different colours through painting leaves1 flowers1 and fruits1 than to learn them through mere sense impressions1 or even through comparing coloured objects1 as in the ,montessori chromatic exercises4 ,a study of the various kindergarten games and occupations would give an abundance of examples illustrative of the possibility of presenting knowledge in direct association with various types of constructive work4 ,a4 ,activity must be ,directly ,connected with ,problem4--,it may be noted1 however1 that certain dangers associate themselves with these methods4 ,one danger consists in the fact that1 if care is not taken1 the physical activity may not really involve the knowledge to be conveyed1 but may be only very indirectly associated with it4 ,such a danger might occur in the use of the ,montessori colour tablets for teaching tints and shades4 ,in handling those1 kindergarten children show a strong inclination to build flat forms with the tablets4 ,now unless these building exercises involve the distinguishing of the various tints and shades1 the constructive activity will be likely to divert the attention of the pupil away from the colour problem which the tablets are supposed to set for the pupils4 ,b4 ,not too much ,emphasis on ,manual ,skill4--,again1 in expressive exercises intended merely to impart new knowledge1 it may happen that the teacher will lay too much stress on perfect form of expression4 ,in these exercises1 however1 the purpose should be rather to enable the child to realize the ideas in his expressive actions4 ,when1 for example1 a child1 in learning such geographical forms as island1 gulf1 mountain1 etc41 uses sand1 clay1 or plasticine as a medium of expression1 too much striving after accuracy of form in minor details may tend to draw the pupil's attention from the broader elements of knowledge to be mastered4 ,in other words1 it is the gaining of certain ideas1 or knowledge1 and not technical perfection1 that is being aimed at in such expressive movements4 #c4 ,instinct of ,curiosity as ,motive4--,the value of the instinct of curiosity in setting a problem for the young child has been already referred to4 ,from what was there seen1 it is evident that to the extent to which the teacher awakens wonder and curiosity in his presentation of a lesson problem1 the child will be ready to enter upon the further steps of the learning process4 ,for example1 by inserting two forks and a large needle into a cork1 as illustrated in the accompanying ,figure1 and then apparently balancing the whole on a small hard surface1 we may awaken a deep interest in the problem of gravity4 ,in the same manner1 by calling the pupils' attention to the drops on the outside of a glass pitcher filled with water1 we may have their curiosity aroused for the study of condensation4 ,so also the presentation of a picture may arouse curiosity in places or people4 ,illustration #d4 ,ownership as ,motive4--,the natural pleasure which children take in collection and ownership may often be associated with presented problems in a way to cause them to take a deeper interest in the knowledge to be acquired4 ,for example1 in presenting a lesson on the countries of ,europe1 the collection of coins or stamps representative of the different countries will add greatly to the interest1 compared with a mere outline study of the political divisions from a map4 ,a more detailed examination of the instincts and tendencies of the child and their relation to the educative process will1 however1 be found in ,chapter ,,xxi4 #e4 ,acquired ,interest as ,motive4--,finally1 in the case of individual pupils1 a knowledge of their particular1 or special1 interests is often a means of awakening in them a feeling of value for various types of school work4 ,as an example1 there might be cited the experience of a teacher who had in his school a pupil whom it seemed impossible to interest in reading4 ,thereupon the teacher made it his object to learn what were this pupil's chief interests outside the school4 ,using these as a basis for the selecting of simple reading matter for the boy1 he was soon able to create in him an interest in reading for its own sake4 ,the result was that in a short time this pupil was rendered reasonably efficient in what had previously seemed to him an uninteresting and impossible task4 #f4 ,use of ,knowledge as ,motive4--,in the preceding cases1 interest in the problem is made to rest primarily upon some native instinct1 or tendency4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that as the child advances in the acquisition of knowledge1 or experience1 there develops in him also a desire for mental activity4 ,in other words1 the normal child takes a delight in the use of any knowledge over which he possesses adequate control4 ,it is to be noted further1 that the child masters the new problem by bringing to bear upon it suitable ideas selected out of his previously acquired experiences4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that1 when a lesson problem is presented to the child in such a way that he sees a connection between it and his present knowledge and feels1 further1 that the problem may be mastered by a use of knowledge over which he has complete mastery1 he will take a deeper interest in the learning process4 ,when1 on the other hand1 he has imperfect control over the old knowledge from which the interpreting ideas are selected1 his interest in the problem itself will be greatly reduced4 ,owing to this fact1 the teacher may adapt his lesson problems1 or motives1 to the stage of development of the pupils4 ,in the case of young children1 since they have little knowledge1 but possess a number of instinctive tendencies1 the lesson problem should be such as may be associated with their instinctive tendencies4 ,since1 however1 the expressing of these tendencies necessarily brings to the child ideas1 or increases his knowledge1 the pupil will in time desire to use his growing knowledge for its own sake4 ,here the child becomes able to grasp a problem consciously1 or in idea1 and1 so far as it appeals to his past experience1 will desire to work for its solution4 ,thus any problem which is recognized as having a vital connection with his own experience constitutes for the child a strong motive4 ,for older pupils1 therefore1 the lesson problem which constitutes the strongest motive is the one that is consciously recognized and felt to have some direct connection with their present knowledge4 ,,knowledge ,,of ,,problem ,relation to ,pupil's ,knowledge4--,since the conscious apprehension of the problem by the pupil in its relation to his present knowledge constitutes the best motive for the learning process1 a question arises how this problem is to be grasped by the pupil4 ,first1 it is evident that the problem is not a state of knowledge1 or a complete experience4 ,if such were the case1 there would be nothing for him to learn4 ,it is this partial ignorance that causes a problem to exist for the learner as a felt need1 or motive4 ,on the other hand it is not a state of complete ignorance1 otherwise the learner could not call up any related ideas for its solution4 ,when1 for example1 the child1 after learning the various physical features1 the climate1 and people of ,ontario1 is presented with the problem of learning the chief industries1 he is able by his former knowledge to realize the existence of these industries sufficiently to feel the need of a fuller realization4 ,in the same way the student who has traced the events of ,canadian ,history up to the year #agia1 is able to know the ,constitutional ,act as a problem for study1 that is1 he is able to experience the existence of such a problem and to that extent is able to know it4 ,his mental state is equally a state of ignorance1 in that he has not realized in his own consciousness all the facts relative to the ,act4 ,in the orderly study of any school subject1 therefore1 the mastery of the previous lesson or lessons will in turn suggest problems for further lessons4 ,it is this further development of new problems out of present knowledge that demands an orderly sequence of topics in the different school subjects1 a fact that should be fully realized by the teacher4 ,recognition of ,problem3 ,a4 ,prevents ,digressions4--,an adequate recognition of the lesson problem by the pupil in the light of his own experience is useful in preventing the introduction of irrelevant material into the lesson4 ,young children are particularly prone 7and1 under certain circumstances1 older students also7 to drag into the lessons interesting side issues that have been suggested by some phase of the work4 ,as a rule1 it is advisable to follow closely the straight and narrow road that leads to the goal of the lesson and not to permit digressions into attractive by-paths4 ,if a pupil attempts to introduce irrelevant matter1 he should be asked what the problem of the lesson is and whether what he is speaking of will be of any value in attaining that end4 ,the necessity of this will1 however1 be seen more fully in our consideration of the next division of the learning process4 ,b4 ,organizes the ,lesson ,facts4--,the adequate recognition of the lesson problem is valuable in helping the pupil to organize his knowledge4 ,if you take a friend for a walk along the streets of a strange city engaging him in interesting conversation by the way1 and if1 when you have reached a distant point1 you tell him that he must find his way back alone1 he will probably be unable to do so without assistance4 ,but if you tell him at the outset what you are going to do1 he will note carefully the streets traversed1 the corners turned1 the directions taken1 and will likely find his way back easily4 ,this is because he had a clearly defined problem before him4 ,the conditions are much the same in a lesson4 ,when the pupil starts out with no definite problem and is led along blindly to some unknown goal1 he will be unable to retrace his route2 that is1 he will be unable to reproduce the matter over which he has been taken4 ,but with a clearly defined problem he will be able to note the order of the steps of the lesson1 their relation to one another and to the problem1 and when the lesson is over he will be able to go over the same course again4 ,the facts of the lesson will have become organized in his mind4 ,,how ,,to ,,set ,,lesson ,,problem ,precautions4--,if the teacher expects his pupils to become interested in a problem by immediately recognizing a connection between it and their previous knowledge1 he must avoid placing the problem before them in a form in which they cannot readily apprehend this connection4 ,the teacher who announced at the beginning of the grammar lesson1 ,to-day we are going to learn about ,mood in verbs started the problem in a form that was meaningless to the class4 ,the simplest method in such a lesson would be to draw attention to examples in sentences of verbs showing this change and then say to the class1 ,let us discover why these verbs are changed4 ,similarly1 to propose as the problem of the history lesson the development of parliamentary government during the ,stuart period would be to use terms too difficult for the class to interpret4 ,it would be better to say3 ,we are going to find out how the ,stuart kings were forced by ,parliament to give up control of certain things4 ,instead of saying1 ,we shall study in this lesson the municipal government of ,ontario1 it would be much better to proceed in some such way as the following3 ,a few days ago your father paid his taxes for the year4 ,now we are going to learn by whom1 and for what purposes1 these taxes are spent4 ,similarly1 ,let us find out all we can about the cat1 would be inferior to1 ,of what use to the cat are his sharp claws1 padded feet1 and rough tongue8 ,on the other hand1 it is evident that1 in attempting to present the problem in a form in which the pupils may recognize its connection with their previous experiences1 care must be taken not to tell outright the whole point of the lesson4 ,in a lesson on the adverb1 for instance1 it would not do to say3 ,you have learned how adjectives modify1 or change the meaning of1 nouns4 ,to-day we shall study words that modify verbs4 ,a more satisfactory way of proceeding in such a lesson would be to have on the black-board two sets of sentences exactly alike except that the second would contain adverbs and the first would not4 ,then ask3 ,what words are in the second group of sentences that are not in the first8 ,let us examine the use of these words4 ,in the same way1 to state the problem of an arithmetic lesson as the discovery of how to add fractions by changing them to equivalent fractions having the same denominator is open to the objection of telling too much4 ,in this case a better method would be to present a definite problem requiring the use of addition of fractions4 ,the pupil will see that he has not the necessary arithmetical knowledge to solve the problem and will then be in the proper mental attitude for the lesson4 ,,examples ,,of ,,motivation ,a few additional examples1 drawn from different school subjects1 are here added to illustrate further what is meant by setting a problem as a need1 or motive4 ,a4 ,history4--,the members of a ,form ,,iv class were about to take up the study of the influence of ,john ,wilkes upon parliamentary affairs during the reign of ,george ,,iii4 ,as most of the pupils had visited the ,canadian ,parliament ,buildings and had watched from the galleries the proceedings of the ,house of ,commons1 the teacher took this as the point of departure for the lesson4 ,first1 he obtained from the class the facts that the members of the ,commons are elected by the different constituencies of the ,dominion and that nobody has any power to interfere with the people's right to elect whomsoever they wish to represent them4 ,the same conditions exist to-day in ,england1 but this has not always been the case there4 ,there was a time when the people's choice of a representative was sometimes set aside4 ,the teacher then inquired regarding the men who sit in the gallery just above the ,speaker's chair4 ,these are the parliamentary reporters for the important daily newspapers throughout the ,dominion4 ,they send telegraphic despatches regarding the debates in the ,house to their respective newspapers4 ,these despatches are published the following day1 and the people of the country are thus enabled to know what is going on in ,parliament4 ,nobody has any right to prevent these newspapers from publishing what they wish regarding the proceedings1 provided1 of course1 the reports are not untruthful4 ,these conditions prevail also in ,england now1 but have not always done so4 ,the work of the lesson was to see how these two conditions1 freedom of elections and liberty of the press1 have been brought about4 ,the pupils were thus placed in a receptive attitude to hear the story of ,john ,wilkes4 ,b4 ,arithmetic4--,a ,form ,,iv class had been studying decimals and knew how to read and write1 add and subtract them4 ,the teacher suggested a situation requiring the use of multiplication1 and the pupils found themselves without the necessary means to meet the situation4 ,for instance1 ,mary's mother sent her to buy #b4be lb4 tea which cost 4#cge per lb4 ,what would she have to pay for it8 ,or1 ,mr4 ,brown has a field containing #h4gb acres4 ,last year it yielded #ba4cge bushels of wheat to the acre4 ,wheat was worth #ig4e cents per bushel4 ,what was the crop from the field worth8 ,the pupils saw that1 in order to solve these questions1 they must know how to multiply decimals4 ,multiplication of decimals became the problem of the lesson1 the goal to be attained4 ,c4 ,grammar4--,the teacher wished to show the meaning of case as an inflection of nouns and pronouns4 ,he had written on the black-board such sentences as3 ,i dropped my book when ,john pushed me4 ,when the man passed1 he had his dog with him4 ,he asked the pupils what words in these sentences refer to the same person1 and obtained the answer that ,i1 my1 and me all refer to one person1 and he1 his1 and him to another4 ,then1 he proposed the problem1 ,let us find out why we have three different forms of a word all meaning the same person4 ,the problem was adapted to animate the curiosity of the pupils and call into activity their capacity for perceiving relationships4 ,d4 ,literature4--,the teacher was about to present the poem1 ,hide and ,seek1 to a ,form ,,iii class4 ,he said1 ,you have all played 'hide and seek4' ,how do you play it8 ,you will find on page #ej of your ,ontario ,third ,reader a beautiful poem describing a game of 'hide and seek' that is rather a sad one4 ,let us see how the poet has described this game4 ,the pupils were at once interested in what the poet had to say about what was to them a very familiar diversion1 and1 while the lesson was in progress1 their capacity for sympathy and for artistic appreciation was appealed to4 ,e4 ,geography4--,a ,form ,,iii class was to study some of the more important commercial centres of ,canada4 ,speaking of ,montreal1 the teacher proposed the problem1 ,do you think we can find out why a city of half a million people has grown up at this particular point8 ,the pupils' instinct of curiosity was here appealed to and their capacity for perceiving relationships was challenged4 ,f4 ,composition4--,the teacher wished to take up the writing of letters of application with a class of ,form ,,iv pupils4 ,he wrote on the black-board an advertisement copied from a recent newspaper1 for example1 ,wanted--,a boy about fifteen to assist in office2 must be a good writer and accurate in figures2 apply by letter to ,martin ,kelly1 #h ,central ,chambers1 ,city4 ,then he said1 ,some day in the near future many of you will be called upon to answer such an advertisement as this4 ,now what should a letter of application in reply to this contain8 ,the class at once proceeded1 with the teacher's assistance1 to work out a satisfactory letter4 ,here1 a purpose for the future was the principal need promoted4 ,g4 ,nature ,study4--,the pupils of a ,form ,,ii class had been making observations regarding a pet rabbit that one of their number had brought to school4 ,after reporting these observations1 the pupils were asked1 ,what good do you think these long ears1 large eyes1 strong hind legs1 split upper lip1 etc41 are to the rabbit8 ,here the problem set was related to the children's instinctive interest in a living animal1 appealed to the instinct of curiosity1 and challenged their capacity to draw inferences4 ,,chapter ,x ,,learning ,,as ,a ,,selecting ,,activity ,,or ,,process ,,of ,,analysis ,knowledge ,obtained ,through ,use of ,ideas4--,as already noted1 the presented problem of a lesson is neither a state of complete knowledge nor a state of complete ignorance4 ,on the other hand1 its function is to provide a starting-point and guide for the calling up of a number of suitable ideas which the pupil may later relate into a single experience1 constituting the new knowledge4 ,take1 for example1 a person without a knowledge of fractions1 who approaches for the first time the problem of sharing as found in such a question as3 ,divide #ae between ,john and ,william1 giving ,john #c as often as ,william gets #b4 ,in gaining control of this situation1 the pupil must select the ideas #c and #b1 the knowledge that #c and #b #e1 and the further knowledge that #ae contains #e three times4 ,these various ideas will constitute data for organizing the new experience of #i for ,john and #f for ,william4 ,in the same manner1 when the student in grammar is first presented with the problem of interpreting the grammatical value of the word driving in the sentence1 ,the boy driving the horse is very noisy1 he is compelled to apply to its interpretation the ideas noun1 adjectival relation1 and adjective1 and also the ideas object1 objective relation1 and verb4 ,in this way the child secures the mental elements which he may organize into the new experience1 or knowledge 7participle71 and thus gain control of the presented word4 ,interpreting ,ideas ,already ,known4--,it is to be noticed at the outset that all ideas selected to aid in the solution of the lesson problem have their origin in certain past experiences which have a bearing on the subject in hand4 ,when presented with a strange object 7guava71 a person fixes his attention upon it1 and thereupon is able1 through his former sensation experiences1 to interpret it as an unknown thing4 ,he then begins to select1 out of his experiences of former objects1 ideas that bear upon the thing before him4 ,by focusing thereon certain ideas with which he is perfectly familiar1 as rind1 flesh1 seed1 etc41 he interprets the strange thing as a kind of fruit4 ,in the same way1 when the student is first presented in school with an example of the infinitive1 he brings to bear upon the vague presentation various ideas already contained within his experience through his previous study of the noun and the verb4 ,to the extent also to which he possesses and is able to recall these necessary old ideas1 will he be able to adjust himself to the new and unfamiliar presented example 7infinitive74 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that a new presentation can have a meaning for us only as it is related to something in our past experience4 ,further ,examples4--,the mind invariably tries to interpret new presentations in terms of old ideas4 ,a newspaper account of a railway wreck will be intelligible to us only through the revival and reconstruction of those past experiences that are similar to the elements described in the account4 ,the grief1 disappointment1 or excitement of another will be appreciated only as we have experienced similar feelings in the past4 ,new ideas are interpreted by means of related old ideas2 new feelings and acts are dependent upon and made possible by related old feelings and acts4 ,moreover1 the meaning assigned to common objects varies with different persons and even with the same person under different circumstances4 ,a forest would be regarded by the savage as a place to hide from the attacks of his enemies2 by the hunter as a place to secure game2 by the woodcutter as affording firewood2 by the lumberman as yielding logs for lumber2 by the naturalist as offering opportunity for observing insects and animals2 by the artist as a place presenting beautiful combinations of colours4 ,this ability of the mind to retain and use its former knowledge in meeting and interpreting new experiences is known in psychology as apperception4 ,a more detailed study of apperception as a mental process will be made in ,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,selecting ,,process ,learner's ,mind ,active4--,a further principle of method to be deduced from the foregoing is1 that the process of bringing ideas out of former experiences to bear upon a presented problem must take place within the mind of the learner himself4 ,the new knowledge being an experience organized from elements selected out of former experiences1 it follows that the learner will possess the new knowledge only in so far as he has himself gone through the process of selecting the necessary interpreting ideas out of his own former knowledge and finally organizing them into new knowledge4 ,this need for the pupil to direct mental effort1 or attention1 upon the problem in order to bring upon it1 out of his former knowledge1 the ideas relative to the solution of the question before him1 is one of the most important laws of method4 ,from the standpoint of the teacher1 this law demands that he so direct the process of learning that the pupil will clearly call up in consciousness the selected interpreting ideas as portions of his old knowledge1 and further feel a connection between these and the new problem before him4 ,learner's ,experience ,analysed4--,the second stage of the learning process is found to involve also a breaking up of former experience4 ,this appears in the fact that the various ideas which are necessary to interpret the new problem are to be selected out of larger complexes of past experience4 ,for example1 in a lesson whose problem is to account for the lack of rainfall in the ,sahara desert1 the pupil may have a complex of experiences regarding the position of the desert4 ,out of this mass of experience he must1 however1 select the one feature--its position in relation to the equator4 ,in the same way1 he may have a whole body of experience regarding the winds of ,africa4 ,this body must1 however1 be analysed1 and the attention fixed upon the ,north-east trade-wind4 ,again1 he may know many things about these winds1 but here he selects out the single item of their coming from a land source4 ,again1 from the complex of old knowledge which he possesses regarding the land area from which the wind blows1 he must analyse out its temperature1 and compare it with that of the areas toward which the wind is blowing4 ,thus it will be seen that1 step by step1 the special items of old knowledge to be used in the apperceptive process are selected out of larger masses of experience4 ,for this reason this phase of the learning process is frequently designated as a process of analysis4 ,problem as ,object of ,analysis4--,although the second step of the learning process has been described as a selecting of elements from past experience1 it might be supposed that the various elements which the mind has been said to select from its former experiences to interpret the new problem1 come in a sense from the presentation itself4 ,thus it is often said1 in describing the present step in the learning process1 that the presentation embodies a certain aggregate of experience1 which the learner can master by analysing it into its component parts and recombining the analysed parts into a better known whole4 ,analysis ,depends upon ,selection4--,it is not in the above sense1 however1 that the term analysis is to be applied in the learning process4 ,it is not true1 for instance1 when a person is presented with a strange object1 say an ornithorhynchus1 and realizes it in only a vague way1 that any mere analysis of the object will discover for him the various characteristics which are to synthesize into a knowledge of the animal4 ,this would imply that in analysis the mind merely breaks up a vaguely known whole in order to make of it a definitely known whole4 ,but the learner could not discover the characteristics of such an object unless the mind attended to it with certain elements of its former experiences4 ,unless1 for instance1 the person already knew certain characteristics of both birds and animals1 he could not interpret the ornithorhynchus as a bird-beaked animal4 ,in the case of the child and the mud-turtle1 also1 there could have been no analysis of the problem in the way referred to1 had the child not had the ideas1 bug and basket1 as elements of former experience4 ,these characteristics1 therefore1 which enter into a definite knowledge of the object1 do not come out of the object by a mere mechanical process of analysis1 but are rather read into the object by the apperceptive process4 ,that is1 the learner does not get his new experience directly out of the presented materials1 but builds up his new experience out of elements of his former knowledge4 ,in other words1 the learner sees in the new object1 or problem1 only such characteristics as his former knowledge and interest enable him to see4 ,thus while the learner may be said from one standpoint to analyse the new problem1 this is possible only because he is able to break up1 or analyse1 his former experience and read certain of its elements into the new presentation4 ,to say that the mind analyses the unknown object1 or topic1 in any other sense1 would be to confound mental interpretation with physical analysis4 ,a ,further ,example4--,the following example will further show that the learner can analyse a presented problem only to the extent that he is able to put characteristics into it by this process of analysing or selecting from his past experience4 ,consider how a young child gains his knowledge of a triangle4 ,at first his control of certain sensations enables him to read into it two ideas1 three-sidedness and three-angledness1 and only these factors1 therefore1 organize themselves into his experience triangle4 ,nor would any amount of mere attention enable him at this stage to discover another important quality in the thing triangle4 ,later1 however1 through the growth of his geometric experience1 he may be able to read another quality into a triangle1 namely two-right-angledness4 ,this new quality will then1 and only then1 be organized with his former knowledge into a more complete knowledge of a triangle4 ,here again it is seen that analysis as a learning process is really reading into a new presentation something which the mind already possesses as an element of former experience1 and not gaining something at first hand out of the presented problem4 ,problem ,directs ,selection4--,it will be well to note here also that the selecting of the interpreting ideas is usually controlled by the problem with which the mind is engaged4 ,this is indicated from the various ways in which the same object may be interpreted as the mind is confronted with different problems4 ,the round stone1 for instance1 when one wishes to crack the filbert1 is viewed as a hammer2 when he wishes to place his paper on the ground1 it becomes a weight2 when he is threatened by the strange dog1 it becomes a weapon of defence4 ,in like manner the sign x suggests an unknown quantity in relation to the algebraic problem2 in relation to phonics it is a double sound2 in relation to numeration1 the number ten4 ,it is evident that in all these cases1 what determines the meaning given to the presented object is the need1 or problem1 that is at the moment predominant4 ,in the same way1 any lesson problem1 in so far as it is felt to be of value1 forms a starting-point for calling up other ideas1 and therefore starts in the learner's mind a flow of ideas which is likely to furnish the solution4 ,moreover1 the mind has the power to measure the suitability of various ideas and select or reject them as they are felt to stand related to the problem in hand4 ,for example1 when a pupil is engaged in a study of the grammatical value of the word driving in the sentence1 ,the boy driving the horse is very noisy1 it is quite possible that he may think of the horse at his own home1 or the shouting of his father's hired man1 or even perhaps the form of the word driving1 if he has just been viewing it in a writing lesson4 ,the mind is able1 however1 to reject these irrelevant ideas1 and select only those that seem to adjust themselves to the problem in hand4 ,the cause of this lies in the fact that the problem is at the outset at least partly understood by the learner1 which fact enables him to determine whether the ideas coming forward in consciousness are related in any way to this partially known topic4 ,thus in the example cited1 the learner knows the problem sufficiently to realize that it is a question of grammatical function1 and is able1 therefore1 to feel the value1 or suitability1 of any knowledge which may be applied to it1 even before he is fully aware of its ultimate relation thereto4 ,,law ,,of ,,preparation ,control of ,old ,knowledge ,necessary4--,but notwithstanding the direction given the apperceptive process through the aim1 or problem1 it is evident that if the pupil is to select from his former experiences the particular elements which bear upon the problem in hand1 he must have a ready and intelligent control over such former knowledge4 ,it is too evident1 however1 that pupils frequently do not possess sufficient control over the old knowledge which will bear upon a presented problem4 ,in endeavouring1 for example1 to grasp the relation of the exterior angle to the two interior and opposite angles1 the pupil may fail because he has not a clear knowledge of the equality of angles in connection with parallel lines4 ,for this reason teachers will often find it necessary 7before bringing old knowledge to bear upon a new problem7 to review the old knowledge1 or experience1 to be used during the apperceptive process4 ,thus a lesson on the participle may begin with a review of the pupils' knowledge of verbs and adjectives1 a lesson on the making of the colours orange and green for painting a pumpkin with its green stem may begin with a recognition of the standard colours1 red1 yellow1 and blue1 and the writing of a capital letter with a review of certain movements4 ,preparation ,recalls ,interpreting ,ideas4--,it must be noted that this review of former knowledge always implies1 either that the pupil is likely to have forgotten at least partially this former knowledge1 or that without such review he is not likely to recall and apply it readily when the new problem is placed before him4 ,for this reason the teacher is usually warned that his lesson should always begin with a review of such of the pupil's old knowledge as is to be used in mastering the new experiences4 ,,value ,,of ,,preparation ,a4 ,aids the ,understanding4--,the main advantage of this preparatory work is that it brings into clear consciousness that group of ideas and feelings best suited to give meaning to the new presentation4 ,without it1 the pupil may not understand1 or only partially understand1 or entirely misunderstand the lesson4 7#a7 ,he may not understand the new matter at all because he does not bring any related facts from his past experience to bear upon it4 ,multiplication of decimals would in all probability be a merely mechanical process if the significance of decimals and the operation of multiplying fractions were not brought to bear upon it1 the pupil not understanding it at all as a rational process4 7#b7 ,he may only partially understand the new matter because he does not see clearly the relation between his old ideas and the new facts1 or because he does not bring to the new facts a sufficient equipment of old ideas to make them meaningful4 ,the adverbial objective would be imperfectly understood if it were not shown that its functions are exactly parallel with those of the adverb4 ,the pupil would have only a partial understanding of it4 7#c7 ,he may entirely misunderstand the new facts because he uses wrong old experiences to give them meaning4 ,such was evidently the difficulty in the case of the young pupil who1 after a lesson on the equator1 described it as a menagerie lion running around the earth4 ,many of the absurd answers that a pupil gives are due to his failure to use the correct old ideas to interpret the new facts4 ,he has misunderstood because his mind was not prepared by making the proper apperceiving ideas explicit4 ,b4 ,saves ,time4--,there is the further advantage of economy of time1 when an adequate preparation of the mind has been made4 ,when the appropriate ideas are definitely in the forefront of consciousness1 they seize upon kindred impressions as soon as these are presented and give them meaning4 ,on the other hand1 when sufficient preparation has not been made1 time must be taken during the presentation of the new problem to go back in search of those experiences necessary to make it meaningful4 ,frequent interruptions and consequent waste of time will be inevitable4 ,time will be saved by having the apperceiving ideas ready and active4 ,c4 ,provides for ,review4--,one of the most important values of the preparatory step is the opportunity given for the review of old ideas4 ,these have to be revived1 worked over1 and reconstructed1 and in consequence they become the permanent possessions of the mind4 ,the pupil's knowledge of the functions of the adverb is reviewed when he learns the adverb phrase and adverb clause1 and is still further illuminated when he comes to study the adverbial objective4 ,further1 the apperceiving ideas become more interesting to the pupil1 when he finds that he can use them in the conquest of new fields4 ,he has a consciousness of power1 which in itself is a source of satisfaction and pleasure4 ,,precautions ,,regarding ,,preparation ,must not be too ,long4--,two precautions seem advisable in the preparatory step4 ,the first is that too long a time should not be spent over it4 ,there is sometimes a tendency to go back too far and drag forward ideas that are only remotely connected with the new ideas to be presented4 ,under such conditions much irrelevant material is likely to be introduced1 and often a train of associations out of harmony with the meaning and spirit of the lesson is started4 ,this is especially dangerous in lessons in literature and history4 ,only those experiences should be revived which are necessary to a clear apprehension of the ideas or a full appreciation of the emotions to be presented in the new lesson4 ,must ,recall ,vital ,ideas4--,the most active1 vivid1 and powerful ideas in the pupil's mind are those which are closely connected with his life4 ,this suggests the second precaution1 namely1 the use wherever possible of the ideas associated with his surroundings1 his games1 his occupations4 ,when this is done1 not only will the new knowledge have a much greater interest attached to it but it will also be much more vividly apprehended4 ,this will be referred to further in connection with the use of illustrations in teaching4 ,,necessity ,,of ,,preparation ,teachers1 however1 are not always agreed as to the amount of time or emphasis to be given to this preparatory step4 ,if the teacher can assure himself that a lesson is following in easy sequence upon something with which the children are undoubtedly familiar1 he may1 many argue1 safely omit such preparatory work4 ,indeed it is evident that after leaving school the child will have no personal monitor to call up beforehand the ideas that he must apply in solving the problems continually presenting themselves in practical life4 ,on the other hand1 however1 it is to be remembered that the young child is1 at the best1 feeling his way in the process of adjusting himself to new experiences4 ,for this reason1 the first work for the teacher in any lesson is to ascertain whether the pupils are in a proper attitude for the new knowledge1 and1 so far as is necessary1 prepare their minds through the recall of such knowledge as is related to the new experiences to be presented4 ,although1 therefore1 the step of preparation is not an essential part of the learning process1 since it constitutes for the pupil merely a review of knowledge acquired through previous learning processes1 it may be accepted as a step in the teacher's method of controlling the learning process4 ,,examples ,,of ,,preparation ,the following additional examples as to the mode and form of the step of preparation may be considered by the student-teacher3 ,in a lesson in phonic reading in a primary class1 the preparation should consist of a review of those sounds and those words which the pupil already knows that are to be used in the new lesson4 ,in a nature study lesson on ,the ,rabbit1 in a ,form ,,ii class1 the preparation should include a recall of any observations the pupils may have made regarding the wild rabbit4 ,they may have observed its timidity1 its manner of running1 what it feeds upon1 where it makes its home1 its colour during the winter and during the summer1 the kind of tracks it makes in the snow1 etc4 ,all these facts will be useful in interpreting the new observations and in assisting the pupils to make new inferences4 ,in a lesson in a ,form ,,iii class on ,ottawa as a ,commercial ,centre1 the preparation consists of a recall of the pupil's knowledge regarding the position of the city2 the adjacent rivers1 the ,ottawa1 ,gatineau1 ,rideau1 ,livre1 ,madawaska2 the waterfalls of the ,rideau and ,chaudire2 the forests to the north and west1 with their immense supplies of pine1 spruce1 and hemlock2 and the fact that it is the ,dominion capital4 ,all these facts are necessary in inferring the causes of the importance of ,ottawa4 ,in a literature lesson in a ,form ,,iii class on ,the ,charge of the ,light ,brigade1 the preparation would involve a recall of some deed of personal heroism with which the pupils are familiar1 such as that of ,john ,maynard1 ,grace ,darling1 or any similar one nearer home4 ,recall how such a deed is admired and praised1 and the memory of the doer is cherished and revered4 ,then the teacher should tell the story of ,balaklava with all the dramatic intensity he is master of1 in order that the pupils may be in a proper mood to approach the study of the poem4 ,in a grammar lesson on ,the ,adverbial ,objective the preparation should consist of a review of the functions of the adverb as modifying a verb1 an adjective1 and sometimes another adverb4 ,upon this knowledge alone can a rational idea of the adverbial objective be built4 ,in an arithmetic lesson on ,multiplication of ,decimals1 in a ,form ,,iv class1 the preparation should involve a review of the meaning of decimals1 of the interconversion of decimals and fractions 7for example1 4#je #e hundredths2 #bg ten-thousandths 4#jjbg1 etc472 and of the multiplication of fractions4 ,unless the pupil can do these operations1 it is obviously impossible to make his knowledge of multiplication of decimals anything more than a merely mechanical process4 ,,preparation ,,merely ,,aids ,,selection ,before closing our consideration of preparation as a stage of method1 it will be well again to call attention to the fact that this is not one of the four recognized stages of the learning process1 but rather a subsidiary feature of the second1 or apperceptive stage4 ,in other words1 actual advance is made by the pupil toward the control of a new experience1 not through a review of former experience1 but by an active relating of elements selected from past experience to the interpretation of the new problem4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,learning ,,as ,a ,,relating ,,activity ,,or ,,process ,,of ,,synthesis ,learning a ,unifying ,process4--,it has been seen that the learner1 in gaining control of new knowledge1 must organize into the new experience elements selected from former experiences4 ,for instance1 when a person gains a knowledge of a new fruit 7guava71 he not only brings forward in consciousness from his former knowledge the ideas--rind1 flesh1 seed1 etc41--to interpret the strange object1 but also associates these into a single experience1 a new fruit4 ,so long also as the person referred to in an earlier chapter retained in his consciousness as distinct factors three experiences--seeing a boy at the fence1 seeing the vineyard1 and finally1 seeing the boy eating grapes--these would not1 as three such distinct experiences1 constitute a knowledge of grape-stealing4 ,on the other hand1 as soon as these are combined1 or associated by a relating act of thought1 the different factors are organized into a new idea symbolized by the expression1 grape-stealing4 ,examples ,from ,school-room ,procedure4--,a similar relating process is involved when the learner faces a definite school problem4 ,when1 for instance1 the pupil gains a knowledge of the sign 1 he must not only bring forward in consciousness from his former knowledge distinct ideas of a line1 of two dots1 and of a certain mathematical process1 but must also associate these into a new idea1 division-sign4 ,so also a person may know that air takes up more moisture as it becomes warmer1 that the north-east trade-winds blow over the ,sahara from land areas1 and that the ,sahara is situated just north of the equator4 ,but the mind must unify these into a single experience in order to gain a knowledge of the condition of the rainfall in that quarter4 ,,nature ,,of ,,synthesis ,deals with ,former ,experiences4--,this mental organizing1 or unifying1 of the elements of past experiences to secure control of the new experience1 is usually spoken of as a process of synthesis4 ,the term synthesis1 however1 must be used with the same care as was noted in regard to the term analysis4 ,synthesis does not mean that totally new elements are being unified1 but merely that whatever selected elements of old knowledge the mind is able to read into a presented problem1 are built1 or organized1 into a new system2 and constitute1 for the time being1 one's knowledge and control of that problem4 ,this is well exemplified by noting the growth of a person's knowledge of any object or topic4 ,thus1 so long as the child is able to apperceive only the three sides and three angles of a triangle1 his idea of triangle includes a synthesis of these4 ,when later1 through the building up of his geometric knowledge1 he is able to apperceive that the interior angles equal two right angles1 his knowledge of a triangle expands through the synthesis of this with the former knowledge4 ,all ,knowledge a ,synthesis4--,the fact that all knowledge is an organization from earlier experiences becomes evident by looking at the process from the other direction4 ,the adult who has complete knowledge of an orange has it as a single experience4 ,this experience is found1 however1 to represent a co-ordination of other experiences1 as touch1 taste1 colour1 etc4 ,moreover1 each of these separate characteristics is an association of simpler experiences4 ,experiencing the touch of the orange1 for instance1 is itself a complex made up of certain muscular1 touch1 and temperature sensations4 ,from this it is evident that the knowledge of an orange1 although a unity of experience in adult life1 is really a complex1 or synthesis1 made up of a large number of different elements4 ,what is true of our idea of an orange is true of every other idea4 ,whether it be the understanding of a plant1 an animal1 a city1 a picture1 a poem1 an historical event1 an arithmetical problem1 or a scientific experiment1 the process is always the same4 ,the apperceptive process of interpreting the new by selecting and relating elements of former experience1 or the process of analysis-synthesis1 is universal in learning4 ,expressed in another form1 what is at first indistinct and indefinite becomes clear and defined through attention selecting1 for the interpretation of the new presentation1 suitable old ideas and setting up relationships among them4 ,analysis1 or selection1 is incomplete without an accompanying unification1 or synthesis2 synthesis1 or organization1 is impossible without analysis1 or selection4 ,it is on account of the mind's ability to unify a number of mental factors into a single experience1 that the process of unification1 or synthesis1 is said to imply economy within our experiences4 ,this fact will become even more evident1 however1 when later we study such mental processes as sense perception and conception4 ,,interaction ,,of ,,processes ,it is to be noted1 however1 that the selecting and the relating of the different interpreting ideas during the learning process are not necessarily separate and distinct parts of the lesson4 ,in other words1 the mind does not first select out of its former knowledge a whole mass of disconnected elements1 and then later build them up into a new organic experience4 ,there is1 rather1 in almost every case1 a continual interplay between the selecting and relating activity1 or between analysis and synthesis1 throughout the whole learning process4 ,as soon1 for instance1 as a certain feature1 or characteristic1 is noted1 this naturally relates itself to the central problem4 ,when later1 another characteristic is noted1 this may relate itself at once both with the topic and with the formerly observed characteristic into a more complete knowledge of the object4 ,thus during a lesson we find a gradual growth of knowledge similar to that illustrated in the case of the scholar's knowledge of the triangle1 involving a continual interplay of analysis and synthesis1 or of selecting and relating different groups of ideas relative to the topic4 ,this would he illustrated by noting a pupil's study of the cat4 ,the child may first note that the cat catches and eats rats and mice1 and picks meat from bones4 ,these facts will at once relate themselves into a certain measure of knowledge regarding the food of the animal4 ,later he may note that the cat has sharp claws1 padded feet1 long pointed canines1 and a rough tongue2 these facts being also related as knowledge concerning the mouth and feet of the animal4 ,in addition to this1 however1 the latter facts will further relate themselves to the former as cases of adaptation1 when the child notes that the teeth and tongue are suited to tearing food and cleaning it from the bones1 and that its claws and padded feet are suited to surprising and seizing its living prey4 ,example from ,study of ,conjunctive ,pronoun4--,this continuous selecting and relating throughout a process of learning is also well illustrated in the pupil's process of learning the conjunctive pronoun4 ,by bringing his old knowledge to bear on such a sentence as ,the men who brought it returned at once2 the pupil may be asked first to apperceive the subordinate clause1 who brought it4 ,this will not likely be connected by the pupil at first with the problem of the value of who4 ,from this1 however1 he passes to a consideration of the value of the clause and its relation4 ,hereupon1 these various ideas at once co-ordinate themselves into the larger idea that who is conjunctive4 ,next1 he may be called upon to analyse the subordinate clause4 ,this1 at first1 also may seem to the child a disconnected experience4 ,from this1 however1 he passes to the idea of who as subject1 and thence to the fact that it signifies man4 ,thereupon these ideas unify themselves with the word who under the idea pronoun4 ,thereupon a still higher synthesis combines these two co-ordinated systems into the more complex system1 or idea--conjunctive pronoun4 ,illustration ,this progressive interaction of analysis and synthesis is illustrated by the accompanying figure1 in which the word who represents the presented unknown problem2 a1 b1 and c1 the selecting and relating process which results in the knowledge1 conjunction2 a'1 b'1 and c'1 the building up of the pronoun notion2 and the circle1 the final organization of these two smaller systems into a single notion1 conjunctive pronoun4 ,the learning of any fact in history1 the mastery of a poem1 the study of a plant or animal1 will furnish excellent examples of these subordinate stages of analysis and synthesis within a lesson4 ,it is to be noted further that this feature of the learning process causes many lessons to fall into certain well marked sub-divisions4 ,each of these minor co-ordinations clustering around a sub-topic of the larger problem1 the whole lesson separates itself into a number of more or less distinct parts4 ,moreover1 the child's knowledge of the whole lesson will largely depend upon the extent to which he realizes these parts both as separate co-ordinations and also as related parts of the whole lesson problem4 ,,all ,,knowledge ,,unified ,nor does this relating activity of mind confine itself within the single lesson4 ,as each lesson is organized1 it will1 if fully apprehended1 be more or less directly related with former lessons in the same subject4 ,in this way the student should discover a unity within the lessons of a single subject1 such as arithmetic or grammar4 ,in like manner1 various groups of lessons organize themselves into larger divisions within the subject1 in accordance with important relations which the pupil may read into their data4 ,thus1 in grammar1 one sequence of lessons is organized into a complete knowledge of sentences2 another group1 into a complete knowledge of inflection2 a smaller group within the latter1 into a complete knowledge of tense or mood4 ,it is thus that the mind is able to construct its mass of knowledge into organized groups known as sciences1 and the various smaller divisions into topics4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,application ,,of ,,knowledge ,,or ,,law ,,of ,,expression ,practical ,significance of ,knowledge4--,in our consideration of the fourth phase of the learning process1 or the law of expression1 it is necessary at the outset to recall what has already been noted regarding the correlation of knowledge and action4 ,in this connection it was learned that knowledge arises naturally as man faces a difficulty1 or problem1 and that it finds significance and value in so far as it enables him to meet the practical and theoretical difficulties with which he may be confronted4 ,in other words1 man is primarily a doer1 and knowledge is intended to guide the conduct of the individual along certain recognized lines4 ,this being the case1 while instruction aims to control the process by which the child is to acquire valuable social experience1 or knowledge1 it is equally important that it should promote skill by correlating that knowledge with expression1 or should strive to influence action while forming character4 ,to apperceive1 for instance1 the rules of government and agreement in grammar will have a very limited value if the student is not able to give expression to these in his own conversation4 ,it becomes imperative1 therefore1 that as far as possible1 expression should enter as a factor in the learning process4 ,examples of ,expression4--,man's expressive acts are found1 however1 to differ greatly in their form4 ,when one is hurt1 he distorts his face and cries aloud2 when he hears a good speech he claps his hands and shouts approval2 when he reads an amusing story he laughs2 when he learns of the death of a friend he sheds tears2 when he is affronted his face grows red1 his muscles tense1 and he strikes a blow or breaks into a torrent of words2 when he has seen a striking incident he tells some one about it or writes an account to a distant friend4 ,when his feelings are stirred by a patriotic address1 he springs to his feet and sings1 ,god ,save the ,king4 ,the desire that his team should carry the foot-ball to the southern goal causes the spectator to lean and push in that direction4 ,when he conceives how he may launch a successful venture1 the business man at once proceeds to carry it into effect4 ,these are all examples of expression4 ,every impression1 idea1 or thought1 tends sooner or later to work itself out in some form of motor expression4 ,,types ,,of ,,action ,a4 ,uncontrolled ,actions4--,passing to an examination of such physical1 or motor1 activities1 we find that man's expressive acts fall into three somewhat distinct classes4 ,a young child is found to engage in many movements which seem destitute of any conscious direction4 ,some of these movements1 such as breathing1 sneezing1 winking1 etc41 are found to be useful to the child1 and imply what might be termed inherited control of conduct1 though they do not give expression to any consciously organized knowledge1 or experience4 ,at other times1 his bodily movements seem to be mere random1 or impulsive1 actions4 ,these latter actions at times arise in a spontaneous way as a result of native bodily vigour1 as1 for instance1 stretching1 kicking1 etc41 as seen in a baby4 ,at other times these uncontrolled acts have their origin in the various impressions which the child is receiving from his surroundings1 or environment1 as when the babe impulsively grasps the object coming in contact with his hand4 ,although1 moreover1 these instinctive movements may come in time under conscious control1 such actions do not in themselves imply conscious control or give expression to organized knowledge4 ,b4 ,actions ,subject to ,intelligent ,control4--,to a second class of actions belong the orderly movements which are both produced and directed by consciousness4 ,when1 in distinction to the movements referred to above1 a child pries open the lid to see what is in the box1 or waves his hand to gain the attention of a companion1 a conscious aim1 or intention1 produces the act1 and conscious effort sustains it until the aim is reached4 ,the distinction between mere impulsive and instinctive actions on the one hand1 and guided effort on the other1 will be considered more fully in ,chapter ,,xxx4 ,c4 ,habitual ,actions4--,thirdly1 as has been noted in ,chapter ,,ii1 both consciously directed and uncontrolled action may1 by repetition1 become so fixed that it practically ceases to be directed by consciousness1 or becomes habitual4 ,our expressive actions may be classified1 therefore1 into three important groups as follows3 #a4 ,instinctive1 reflex1 and impulsive action #b4 ,consciously controlled1 or directed action #c4 ,habitual action4 ,,nature ,,of ,,expression ,implies ,intelligent ,control4--,it is evident that as a stage in the learning process1 expression must deal primarily with the second class of actions1 since its real purpose is to correlate the new conscious knowledge with action4 ,expression in education1 therefore1 must represent largely consciously produced and consciously directed action4 ,conscious ,expression may ,modify ,a4 ,instinctive ,acts4--,while this is true1 however1 expression1 as a stage in the educative process1 will also have a relation to the other types of action4 ,as previously noted1 the expression stage of the learning process may be used as a means to bring instinctive and impulsive acts under conscious control4 ,this is indeed an important part of a child's education4 ,for instance1 it is only by forming ideas of muscular movements and striving to express them that the child can bring his muscular movements under control4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the expressive stage of the lesson can be made to play an important part in bringing many instinctive and impulsive acts under conscious direction4 ,by expressing himself in the games of the kindergarten1 the child's social instinct will come under conscious control4 ,by directing his muscular movements in art and constructive work1 he gains the control which will in part enable him to check the impulse to strike the angry blow4 ,these points will1 however1 be considered more fully in a study of the inherited tendencies in ,chapter ,,xxi4 ,b4 ,habits4--,further1 many of our consciously directed acts are of so great value that they should be made more permanent through habituation4 ,expression must1 therefore1 in many lessons be emphasized1 not merely to test and render clear present conscious knowledge1 but also to lead to habitual control of action1 or to create skill4 ,this would be especially true in having a child practise the formation of figures and letters4 ,although at the outset we must have him form the letter to see that he really knows the outline1 the ultimate aim is to enable him to form these practically without conscious direction4 ,in language work1 also1 the child must acquire many idiomatic expressions as habitual modes of speech4 ,,types ,,of ,,expression ,since the tendency to express our impressions in a motor way is a law of our being1 it follows that the school1 which is constantly seeking to give the pupil intelligent impressions1 or valuable knowledge1 should also provide opportunity for adequate expression of the same4 ,the forms most frequently adopted in schools are speech and writing4 ,pupils are required to answer questions orally or in writing in almost every school subject1 and in doing so they are given an opportunity for expression of a very valuable kind4 ,in fact1 it would often be much more economical to try to give pupils fewer impressions and to give them more opportunities for expression in language4 ,but written or spoken language is not the only means of expression that the school can utilize4 ,pupils can frequently be required to express themselves by means of manual activity4 ,in art1 they represent objects and scenes by means of brush and colour1 or pencil1 or crayon2 in manual training1 they construct objects in cardboard and wood2 in domestic science1 they cook and sew4 ,the primary object of these so-called new subjects of the school programme is not to make the pupils artists1 carpenters1 or house-keepers1 but partly to acquaint them with typical forms of human activity and partly to give them means of expression having an educative value4 ,in arithmetic1 the pupils express numerical facts by manipulating blocks and splints1 and measure quantities1 distances1 surfaces1 and solids4 ,in geography1 they draw maps of countries1 model them in sand or clay1 and make collections to illustrate manufactures at various stages of the process4 ,in literature1 they dramatize stories and illustrate scenes and situations by a sketch with pencil or brush4 ,in nature study1 they illustrate by drawings and make mounted collections of plants and insects4 ,,value ,,of ,,expression ,a4 ,influences ,conduct4--,in nature study1 history1 and literature1 the most valuable kind of expression is that which comes through some modification of future conduct4 ,that pupil has studied the birds and animals to little purpose who needlessly destroys their lives or causes them pain4 ,he has studied the reign of ,king ,john to little purpose if he is not more considerate of the rights of others on the playground4 ,he has gained little from the life of ,robert ,bruce1 ,columbus1 or ,la ,salle1 if he does not manfully attack difficulties again and again until he has overcome them4 ,he has not read ,the ,heroine of ,verchres1 or ,the ,little ,hero of ,haarlem aright1 if he does not act promptly in a situation demanding courage4 ,he has learned little from the story of ,damon and ,pythias if he is not true to his friends under trying circumstances1 and he has not imbibed the spirit of ,the ,christmas ,carol if he is not sympathetic and kindly toward those less fortunate than himself4 ,from the standpoint of the moral life1 therefore1 right knowledge is valuable only as it expresses itself in right action4 ,b4 ,aids ,impression4--,apart from the fact that it satisfies a demand of our being1 expression is most important in that it tests the clearness of the applied knowledge4 ,we often think that our impression is clear1 only to discover its vagueness when we attempt to express it in some form4 ,people often say that they understand a fact thoroughly1 but they cannot exactly express it4 ,such a statement is usually incorrect4 ,if the impression were clear1 the expression under ordinary circumstances would also be clear4 ,in this connection a danger should be pointed out4 ,pupils sometimes express themselves in language with apparent clearness1 when in reality they are merely repeating words that they have memorized and that are quite meaningless to them4 ,the alert teacher can1 however1 by judicious questioning1 avoid being deceived in this regard4 ,c4 ,adds to ,clearness of ,knowledge4--,not only does expression test the clearness of the apperceived new knowledge1 but at the same time it gives the knowledge greater clearness4 ,we learn to know by doing4 ,a pupil realizes a story more fully when he has reproduced it for somebody else4 ,he images a scene described in a poem more clearly when he has drawn it4 ,he has a clearer idea of the volume of a cord when he has actually measured out a cord of wood4 ,he has a more accurate conception of the difficulties attending the discoveries of ,la ,salle when he has drawn a map and traced the routes of his various expeditions4 ,there is much truth in the statement that one never fully knows some things until he has taught them to somebody else4 ,the teacher in grammar and geography will often have occasion to realize this4 ,greater clearness of impression means1 of course1 greater permanence4 ,we remember best those facts of which our impression was most vivid4 ,,dangers ,,of ,,omitting ,,expression ,a4 ,knowledge not ,practical4--,it is apparent1 then1 that if the pupil is not given opportunity for expression1 his ideas are vague and evanescent4 ,further than this1 his capacities for knowing will be developed but his capacities for doing ignored4 ,his intellectual powers will be exercised and his volitional powers neglected4 ,the pupil is thus likely to develop into a mere theorist2 and as the tendencies of childhood are accentuated in later life1 he becomes an impractical man4 ,there are many men in the world who apparently know a great deal1 but who1 through inability to make practical application of their knowledge1 are unsuccessful in life4 ,it is1 however1 seriously to be doubted whether knowledge is ever real until it has been worked out in practice and conduct4 ,to avoid the danger of becoming impractical1 a pupil should have every opportunity for expression4 ,b4 ,feelings ,weakened4--,a second serious danger of neglecting expression lies in the field of the emotions4 ,to have generous emotions continually aroused and never to act upon them1 to have one's sympathies frequently stirred and never to perform a kindly act1 to experience feelings of love and never to express them in acts of service1 is to cultivate a weakness of character4 ,a classic instance of this is that of the lady who wept bitterly over the imaginary sorrows of the heroine in the play while her coachman was freezing to death outside the theatre4 ,if worthy emotions are ever to be of the slightest moral value to us1 they must be expressed in action4 ,the pupil frequently has his emotions stirred in the lessons in literature1 history1 and nature study1 and there are situations constantly arising in the school room1 on the playground1 on the street1 and in the home1 that afford opportunity for expression4 ,to give a single instance1 there is a story in the ,ontario ,third ,reader by ,elizabeth ,phelps ,ward1 called ,mary ,elizabeth4 ,no pupil could read that story without being stirred with a deep pity and yet profound admiration for the pathetic figure of poor little ,mary ,elizabeth4 ,the natural expression for such emotions would be a more kindly and sympathetic attitude towards some unfortunate child in the school4 ,,relation ,,of ,,expression ,,to ,,impression ,knowledge ,tends ,toward ,expression4--,on account of the evident connection between knowledge and action1 the law of expression has formulated itself into a well-known pedagogical law of method--no impression without expression4 ,like many other educational maxims1 however1 this law may be interpreted in too wide a sense4 ,the law of expression in education claims only that valuable experiences1 or valuable forms of new knowledge1 should not be built up in the child's mind without adequate accompanying expression4 ,in the first case1 as already seen1 many impressions come to us which are never seized upon sufficiently by our consciousness to become intelligent rules for conduct1 or action4 ,it is true1 of course that1 so far as such impressions stimulate us1 they tend toward expression1 and to that extent the maxim is true4 ,for instance1 when a child is impressed1 say1 by a sudden strange sound1 he has a tendency to express himself by straining his attention1 and when the man imagines an enemy is before him1 he finds his arms and fists assuming the fighting attitude4 ,expression at ,times ,inhibited4--,it is to be noted that the child should early learn to form intelligent plans of action and postpone or even condemn them as forms of expression4 ,in other words1 a child should early learn to select and co-ordinate ideas into an orderly system independently of their actual expression in physical action4 ,without this power to suppress1 or inhibit1 expression1 the child would be unable adequately to weigh and compare alternative courses of action and suppress such as seem undesirable4 ,such indeed is the weakness of the man who possesses an impulsive nature4 ,although1 therefore1 it is true that all knowledge is intended to serve in meeting actual needs1 or to function in the control of expression1 it is equally true that not every organized experience should find expression in action4 ,part at least of man's efficiency must consist in his ability to organize a new experience in an indirect way and condemn it as a rule of action4 ,while1 therefore1 we emphasize the importance1 under ordinary conditions1 of having the child's knowledge function as directly as possible in some form of actual expression1 it is equally important to recognize that in actual life many organized plans should not find expression in outer physical action4 ,this being the case1 the divorce between organized experience1 or knowledge1 and practical expression1 which at times takes place in school work1 is not necessarily unsound1 since it tends to make the child proficient in separating the mental organizing of experience from its immediate expression1 and must1 therefore1 tend to make him more capable of weighing plans before putting them into execution4 ,this will in turn habituate the child to taking the necessary time for reflection between the acting of a thing and the first purpose4 ,this question will be considered more fully in ,chapter ,,xxx1 which treats of the development of voluntary control4 ,it should be noted in conclusion that the law of expression as a fourth stage of the learning process differs in purpose from the use of physical action as a means of creating interest in the problem1 as referred to on page #fb4 ,when1 for instance1 we set a pupil who has no knowledge of long measure to use the inch in interpreting the yard stick1 expressive action is merely a means of putting the problem before the child in an interesting form on account of his liking for physical action4 ,when1 on the other hand1 the child later uses the foot or yard as a unit to measure the perimeter of the school-room1 he is applying his knowledge of long measure1 which has been acquired previously to this expressive act4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,forms ,,of ,,lesson ,,presentation ,the chief office of the teacher1 in controlling the pupils' process of learning1 being to direct their self-activity in making a selection of ideas from their former knowledge which shall stand in vital connection with the problem1 and lead finally to its solution1 the question arises in what form the teacher is to conduct the process in order to obtain this desired result4 ,three different modes of directing the selecting activity of the student are recognized and more or less practised by teachers4 ,these are usually designated the lecture method1 the text-book method1 and the developing method4 ,,the ,,lecture ,,method ,example of ,lecture ,method4--,in the lecture method so-called1 the teacher tells the students in direct words the facts involved in the new problem1 and expects these words to enable the pupils to call up from their old knowledge the ideas which will give the teacher's words meaning1 and thus lead to a solution of the problem4 ,for example1 in teaching the meaning of alluvial fans in geography1 a teacher might seek to awaken the interpreting ideas by merely stating in words the characteristic of a fan4 ,this would involve telling the pupils that an alluvial fan is a formation on the floor of a main river valley1 resulting from the depositing of detritus carried down the steep side of the valley by a tributary stream and deposited in the form of a fan1 when the force of the water is weakened as it enters the more level floor of the valley4 ,to interpret this verbal description1 however1 the pupil must first interpret the words of the teacher as sounds1 and then convert these into ideas by bringing his former knowledge to bear upon the word symbols4 ,if we could take it for granted that the pupil will readily grasp the ideas here signified by such words as1 formation1 main river valley1 depositing1 detritus1 steep side1 etc41 and at once feel the relation of these several ideas to the more or less unknown object--alluvial fan--this method would undoubtedly give the pupil the knowledge required4 ,the ,method ,difficult4--,to expect of young children a ready ability in thus interpreting words would1 however1 be an evident mistake4 ,to translate such sound symbols into ideas1 and immediately adjust them to the problem1 demands a power of language interpretation and of reflection not usually found in school children4 ,the purely lecture method1 therefore1 has very small place with young children1 whatever may be its value with advanced students4 ,pupils in the primary grades have not sufficient power of attention to listen to a long lecture on any subject1 and no teacher should think of conducting a lesson by that method alone4 ,the purpose of the lecture is merely to give information1 and that is seldom the sole purpose of a lesson in elementary classes4 ,there the more important purposes are to train pupils to acquire knowledge by thinking for themselves1 and to express themselves1 both of which are well-nigh impossible if the purely lecture method is followed4 ,does not ,insure ,selection4--,the weakness of such a method is well illustrated in the case of the young teacher who1 in giving her class a conception of the equator1 followed the above method1 and carefully explained to the pupils that the equator is an imaginary line running around the earth equally distant from the two poles4 ,when the teacher came later to review the work with the class1 one bright lad described the equator as a menagerie lion running around the earth4 ,here evidently the child1 true to the law of apperception1 had interpreted1 or rather misinterpreted1 the words of the teacher1 by means of the only ideas in his possession which seemed to fit the uttered sounds4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that too often in this method the pupils will either thus misinterpret the meaning of the teacher's words1 or else fail to interpret them at all1 because they are not able to call up any definite images from what the teacher may be telling them4 ,when to be ,used4--,it may be noted1 however1 that there is some place for the method in teaching4 ,for example1 when young children are presented with a suitable story1 they will usually have no difficulty in fitting ideas to words1 and thus building up the story4 ,it requires1 in fact1 the continuity found in the telling method to keep the children's attention on the story1 the tone of voice and gesture of the reciter going a long way in helping the child to call up the ideas which enable him to construct the story plot4 ,moreover1 some telling must be done by the teacher in every lesson4 ,everything cannot be discovered by the pupils themselves4 ,even if it were possible1 it would often be undesirable4 ,some facts are relatively unimportant1 and it is much better to tell these outright than to spend a long time in trying to lead pupils to discover them4 ,the lecture method1 or telling method1 should be used1 then1 to supply pupils with information they could not find out for themselves1 or which they could find out only by spending an amount of time disproportionate to the importance of the facts4 ,the teacher must use good judgment in discriminating between those facts which the pupils may reasonably be expected to find out for themselves and those facts which had better be told4 ,many teachers tell too much and do not throw the pupils sufficiently on their own resources4 ,on the other hand1 many teachers tell too little and waste valuable time in trying to draw from the pupils what they do not know1 with the result that the pupils fall back upon the pernicious practice of guessing4 ,the teacher needs to be on his guard against the toil of dropping buckets into empty wells1 and growing old in drawing nothing up4 ,it may be added further that1 in practical life1 man is constantly required to interpret through spoken language4 ,for this reason1 therefore1 all children should become proficient in securing knowledge through spoken language1 that is1 by means of the lecture1 or telling1 method4 ,,the ,,text-,,book ,,method ,nature of ,text-book ,method4--,in the text-book method1 in place of listening to the words of the teacher1 the pupil is expected to read in a text-book1 in connection with each lesson problem1 a series of facts which will aid him in calling up1 or selecting1 the ideas essential to the mastery of the new knowledge4 ,this method is similar1 therefore1 in a general way1 to the lecture method2 since it implies ability in the pupil to interpret language1 and thus recall the ideas bearing upon the topic being presented4 ,although the text-book method lacks the interpretation which may come through gesture and tone of voice1 it nevertheless gives the pupil abundance of time for reflecting upon the meaning of the language without the danger of losing the succeeding context1 as would be almost sure to happen in the lecture method4 ,moreover1 the language and mode of presentation of the writer of the text-book is likely to be more effective in awakening the necessary old knowledge1 than would be the less perfect descriptions of the ordinary teacher4 ,on the whole1 therefore1 the text-book seems more likely to meet the conditions of the laws of apperception and self-activity1 than would the lecture method4 ,method ,difficult for ,young ,children4--,the words of the text-book1 however1 like the words of the teacher1 are often open to misinterpretation1 especially in the case of young pupils4 ,this may be illustrated by the case of the student1 who upon reading in her history of the mettle of the defenders of ,lacolle ,mill1 interpreted it as the possession on their part of superior arms4 ,an amusing illustration of the same tendency to misinterpret printed language1 in spite of the time and opportunity for studying the text1 is seen in the case of the student who1 after reading the song entitled ,the ,old ,oaken ,bucket1 was called upon to illustrate in a drawing his interpretation of the scene4 ,his picture displayed three buckets arranged in a row4 ,on being called upon for an explanation1 he stated that the first represented ,the old oaken bucket2 the second1 ,the iron-bound bucket2 and the third1 ,the moss-covered bucket4 ,another student1 when called upon to express in art his conception of the well-known lines3 ,all at once ,i saw a crowd1 ,a host of golden daffodils2 ,beside the lake1 beneath the trees1 ,fluttering and dancing in the breeze2 represented on his paper a bed of daffodils blooming in front of a platform1 upon which a number of female figures were actively engaged in the terpsichorean art4 ,pupil's ,mind ,often ,passive4--,as in the lecture method1 also1 the pupil may often go over the language of the text in a passive way without attempting actively to call up old knowledge and relate it to the problem before him4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that without further aid from a teacher1 the text-book could not be depended upon to guide the pupil in selecting the necessary interpreting ideas4 ,as with the lecture method1 however1 it is to be recognized that1 both in the school and in after life1 the student must secure much information by reading1 and that he should at some time gain the power of gathering information from books4 ,the use of the text-book in school should assist in the acquisition of this power4 ,the teacher must1 therefore1 distinguish between the proper use of the text-book and the abuse of it4 ,there are several ways in which the text-book may be effectively used4 ,,uses ,,of ,,text-,,book #a4 ,after a lesson has been taught1 the pupils may be required by way of review to read the matter covered by the lesson as stated by the text-book4 ,this plan is particularly useful in history and geography lessons4 ,the text-book strengthens and clarifies the impression made by the lesson4 #b4 ,before assigning the portion to be read in the text-book1 the teacher may prepare the way by presenting or reviewing any matter upon which the interpretation of the text depends4 ,this preparatory work should be just sufficient to put the pupils in a position to read intelligently the portion assigned1 and to give them a zest for the reading4 ,sometimes in this assignment1 it is well to indicate definitely what facts are sufficiently important to be learned1 and where these are discussed in the text-book4 #c4 ,the mastery of the text by the pupils may sometimes be aided by a series of questions for which answers are to be found by a careful reading4 ,such questions give the pupils a definite purpose4 ,they constitute a set of problems which are to be solved4 ,they are likely to be interesting1 because problems within the range of the pupils' capacity are a challenge to their intelligence4 ,further1 these questions will emphasize the things that are essential1 and the pupils will be enabled to grasp the main points of the lesson assigned4 ,occasionally1 to avoid monotony1 the pupils should be required1 as a variation of this plan1 to make such a series of questions themselves4 ,in these cases1 the pupil with the best list might be permitted1 as a reward for his effort1 to put his questions to the class4 #d4 ,in the more advanced classes1 the pupils should frequently be required to make a topical outline of a section or chapter of the text-book4 ,this demands considerable analytic power1 and the pupil who can do it successfully has mastered the art of reading4 ,the ability is acquired slowly1 and the teacher must use discretion in what he exacts from the pupil in this regard4 ,if the plan were followed persistently1 there would be less time wasted in cursory reading1 the results of which are fleeting4 ,what is read in this careful way will become the real possession of the mind and1 even if less material is read1 more will be permanently retained4 ,the facts thus learned from the text-book should be discussed by the teacher and pupils in a subsequent recitation period4 ,this may be done by the question and answer method1 the teacher asking questions to which the pupils give brief answers2 or by the topical recitation method1 the pupils reporting in connected form the facts under topics suggested by the teacher4 ,the teacher has thus an opportunity of emphasizing the important facts1 of correcting misconceptions1 and of amplifying and illustrating the facts given in the text-book4 ,further1 the pupils are given an opportunity of expressing themselves1 and have thus an exercise in language which is a valuable means of clarifying their impressions4 ,,abuse ,,of ,,text-,,book ,as instances of the abuse of the text-book1 the following might be cited3 #a4 ,the memorization by the pupils of the words of the text-book without any understanding of the meaning4 #b4 ,the assignment of a certain number of pages or sections to be learned by the pupils without any preliminary preparation for the study4 #c4 ,the employment of the text-book by the teacher during the recitation as a means of guiding him in the questions he is to ask--a confession that he does not know what he requires the pupils to know4 ,limitation of ,text-book4--,the chief limitation of the text-book method of teaching is that the pupil makes few discoveries on his own account1 and is1 therefore1 not trained to think for himself4 ,the problems being largely solved for him by the writer1 the knowledge is not valued as highly as it would be if it came as an original discovery4 ,we always place a higher estimation on that knowledge which we discover for ourselves than on that which somebody else gives us4 ,,the ,,developing ,,method ,characteristics of the ,method4--,the third1 or developing1 method of directing the selecting activity of the learner1 is so called because in this method the teacher as an instructor aims to keep the child's mind actively engaged throughout each step of the learning process4 ,he sees1 in other words1 that step by step the pupil brings forward whatever old knowledge is necessary to the problem1 and that he relates it in a definite way to this problem4 ,instead of telling the pupils directly1 for instance1 the teacher may question them upon certain known facts in such a way that they are able themselves to discover the new truth4 ,in teaching alluvial fans1 for example1 the teacher would begin questioning the pupil regarding his knowledge of river valleys1 tributary streams1 the relation of the force of the tributary water to the steepness of the side of the river valley1 the presence of detritus1 etc41 and thus lead the pupil to form his own conclusion as to the collecting of detritus at the entrance to the level valley and the probable shape of the deposit4 ,so also in teaching the conjunctive pronoun from such an example as3 ,he gave it to a boy who stood near him2 the teacher brings forward1 one by one1 the elements of old knowledge necessary to a full understanding of the new word1 and tests at each step whether the pupil is himself apprehending the new presentation in terms of his former grammatical knowledge4 ,beginning with the clause who stood near him1 the teacher may1 by question and answer1 assure himself that the pupil1 through his former knowledge of subordinate clauses1 apprehends that the clause is joined adjectively to boy1 by the word who4 ,next1 he assures himself that the pupil1 through his former knowledge of the conjunction1 apprehends clearly the consequent conjunctive force of the word who4 ,finally1 by means of the pupil's former knowledge of the subjective and pronoun functions1 the teacher assures himself that the pupil appreciates clearly the pronoun function of the word who4 ,thus1 step by step1 throughout the learning process1 the teacher makes certain that he has awakened in the mind of the learner the exact old knowledge which will unify into a clearly understood and adequately controlled new experience1 as signified by the term conjunctive pronoun4 ,question and ,answer4--,on account of the large use of questioning as a means of directing and testing the pupils' selecting of old knowledge1 or interpreting ideas1 the developing method is often identified with the question and answer method4 ,but the real mark of the developing method of teaching is the effort of an instructor to assure himself that1 step by step1 throughout the learning process1 the pupil himself is actively apprehending the significance of the new problem by a use of his own previous experience4 ,it is true1 however1 that the method of interrogation is the most universal1 and perhaps the most effective1 mode by which a teacher is able to assure himself that the learner's mind is really active throughout each step of the learning process4 ,moreover1 as will be seen later1 the other subsidiary methods of the developing method usually involve an accompanying use of question and answer for their successful operation4 ,it is for this reason that the question is sometimes termed the teacher's best instrument of instruction4 ,for the same reason1 also1 the young teacher should early aim to secure facility in the art of questioning4 ,an outline of the leading principles of questioning will1 therefore1 be given in ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,other ,forms of ,development4--,notwithstanding the large part played by question and answer in the developing method1 it must be observed that there are other important means which the teacher at times may use in the learning process in order to awaken clear interpreting ideas in the mind of the learner4 ,in so far1 moreover1 as any such methods on the part of the teacher quicken the apperceptive process in the child1 or cause him to apply his former knowledge in a more active and definite way to the problem in hand1 they must be classified as phases of the developing method4 ,two of these subsidiary methods will now be considered4 ,,the ,,objective ,,method ,characteristics of the ,objective ,method4--,one important sub-section of the developing method is known as the objective method4 ,in this method the teacher seeks1 as far as possible1 7#a7 to present the lesson problem through the use of concrete materials1 and 7#b7 to have the child interpret the problem by examining this concrete material4 ,a child's interest and knowledge being largely centred in objects and their qualities and uses1 many truths can best be presented to children through the medium of objective teaching4 ,for example1 in arithmetic1 weights and measures should be taught by actually handling weights and measures and building up the various tables by experiment4 ,tables of lengths1 areas1 and volumes may be taught by measurements of lines1 surfaces1 and solids4 ,geographical facts are taught by actual contact with the neighbouring hills1 streams1 and ponds2 and by visits to markets and manufacturing plants4 ,in nature study1 plants and animals are studied in their natural habitat or by bringing them into the class-room4 ,advantages of the ,objective ,method4--,the advantages of this method in such cases are readily manifest4 ,although1 for instance1 the pupil who knows in a general way an inch space and the numbers #add1 #i1 #cj-a_/d1 #dj1 and #d1 might be supposed to be able to organize out of his former experiences a perfect knowledge of surface measure1 yet it will be found that compared with that of the pupil who has worked out the measure concretely in the school garden1 the control of the former student over this knowledge will be very weak indeed4 ,in like manner1 when a student gains from a verbal description a knowledge of a plant or an animal1 not only does he find it much more difficult to apply his old knowledge in interpreting the word description than he would in interpreting a concrete example1 but his knowledge of the plant or animal is likely to be imperfect4 ,objective teaching is important1 therefore1 for two reasons3 #a4 ,it makes an appeal to the mind through the senses1 the avenue through which the most vivid images come4 ,frequently several senses are brought to bear and the impressions thereby multiplied4 #b4 ,on account of his interest in objects1 the young child's store of old experiences is mainly of objects and of their sensuous qualities and uses4 ,to teach the abstract and unfamiliar through these1 therefore1 is an application of the law of apperception1 since the object makes it easier for the child's former knowledge to be related to the presented problem4 ,limitations of ,objective ,method4--,it must be recognized1 however1 that objective teaching is only a means to a higher end4 ,the concrete is valuable very often only as a means of grasping the abstract4 ,the progress of humanity has ever been from the sensuous and concrete to the ideal and abstract4 ,not the objects themselves1 but what the objects symbolize is the important thing4 ,it would be a pedagogical mistake1 then1 to make instruction begin1 continue1 and end in the concrete4 ,it is evident1 moreover1 that no progress could be made through object-teaching1 unless the question and answer method is used in conjunction4 ,,the ,,illustrative ,,method ,characteristics of the ,illustrative ,method4--,in many cases it is impossible or impracticable to bring the concrete object into the school-room1 or to take the pupils to see it outside4 ,in such cases1 somewhat the same result may be obtained by means of some form of graphic illustration of the object1 as a picture1 sketch1 diagram1 map1 model1 lantern slide1 etc4 ,the graphic representation of an object may present to the eye most of the characteristics that the actual object would4 ,for this reason pictures are being more and more used in teaching1 though it is a question whether teachers make as good use of the pictures of the text-book1 in geography for instance1 as might be made4 ,illustrative ,method ,involves ,imagination4--,in the illustrative method1 however1 the pupil1 instead of being able to apply directly former knowledge obtained through the senses1 in interpreting the actual object1 must make use of his imagination to bridge over the gulf between the actual object and the representation4 ,when1 for example1 the child is called upon to form his conception of the earth with its two hemispheres through its representation on a globe1 the knowledge will become adequate only as the child's imagination is able to picture in his mind the actual object out of his own experience of land1 water1 form1 and space1 in harmony with the mere suggestions offered by the model4 ,it is evident1 for the above reason1 that the illustrative method often demands more from the pupil than does the more concrete objective method4 ,for instance1 the child who is able to see an actual mountain1 lake1 canal1 etc41 is far more likely to obtain an accurate idea of these1 than the student who learns them by means of illustrations4 ,the cause for this lies mainly in the failure of the child to form a perfect image of the real object through the exercise of his imagination4 ,in fact it sometimes happens that he makes very little use of his imagination1 his mental picture of the real object differing little from the model placed before him4 ,the writer was informed of a case in which a teacher endeavoured to give some young pupils a knowledge of the earth by means of a large school globe4 ,when later the children were questioned thereon1 it was discovered that their earth corresponded in almost every particular with the large globe in the school4 ,the successful use of the illustrative method1 therefore1 demands from the teacher a careful test by the question and answer method1 to see that the learner has properly bridged over1 through his imagination1 the gulf separating the actual object from its illustration4 ,for this reason an acquaintance with the mental process of imagination is of great value to the teacher4 ,the leading facts connected with this process will be set forth in ,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,precautions ,,in ,,use ,,of ,,materials ,in the use of objective and illustrative materials the following precautions are advisable3 #a4 ,their use in the lesson should not be continued too long4 ,it should be remembered that their office is illustrative1 and the aim of the teacher should be to have the pupils think in the abstract as soon as possible4 ,to make pupils constantly dependent on the concrete is to make their thinking weak4 #b4 ,the pupils must be mentally active while the concrete object or illustrative material is being used1 and not merely gaze in a passive way upon the objects4 ,it requires mental activity to grasp the abstract facts that the objects or illustrations typify4 ,a tellurion will not teach the changes of the seasons2 bundles of splints1 notation2 nor black-board examples1 the law of agreement2 unless these are brought under the child's mental apprehension4 ,the sole purpose of such materials is1 therefore1 to start a flow of imagery or ideas which bear upon the presented problem4 #c4 ,the objects should not be so intrinsically interesting that they distract the attention from what they are intended to illustrate4 ,it would be injudicious to use candies or other inherently attractive objects to illustrate number facts in primary arithmetic4 ,the objects1 not the number facts1 would be of supreme interest4 ,the teacher who used a heap of sand and some gunpowder to teach what a volcano is1 found his pupils anxious for fireworks in subsequent geography classes4 ,the science teacher may make his experiments so interesting that his students neglect to grasp what the experiments illustrate4 ,the preacher who uses a large number of anecdotes to illustrate the points of his sermon1 would be probably disappointed to know that the only part of his discourse remembered by the majority of his hearers was these very anecdotes4 ,in his enthusiasm for objective teaching1 the teacher may easily make the objects so attractive that the pupils fail altogether to grasp what they signify4 #d4 ,in the case of pictures1 maps1 and sketches1 it is well to present those that are not too detailed4 ,a map drawn on the black-board by the teacher is usually better for purposes of illustration than a printed wall map4 ,the latter shows so many details that it is often difficult for the pupil to single out those required in the lesson4 ,the black-board map1 on the other hand1 will emphasize just those details that are necessary4 ,for the same reason the sketch is often better than the printed picture or photograph4 ,any one who can sketch rapidly and accurately has at his disposal a valuable means of communicating knowledge1 and every teacher should strive to cultivate this power4 ,,modes ,,of ,,presentation ,,compared ,the relative clearness of different modes of presenting knowledge may be seen from the following3 ,if a teacher stated to his pupils that he saw a guava yesterday1 possibly no information would be conveyed to them other than that some unknown object has been referred to4 ,merely to name any object of thought1 therefore1 does not guarantee any real understanding in the mind of the pupil4 ,if the teacher describes the object as a fruit1 fragrant1 yellow1 fleshy1 and pear-shaped1 the mental picture of the pupil is likely to be much more definite4 ,if1 on the other hand1 a picture of the fruit is shown1 it is likely that the pupil will more fully realize at least some of the features of the fruit4 ,if the pupil is given the object and allowed to bring all his senses to bear upon it1 his knowledge will become both more full and more definite4 ,if he were allowed to express himself through drawing and modelling1 his knowledge would become still more thorough1 while if he grew1 marketed1 and manufactured the fruit into jelly1 his knowledge of the fruit might be considered complete4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,classification ,,of ,,knowledge ,before passing to a consideration of the various types or classes into which school lessons may be divided1 it is necessary to note a certain distinction in the way the mind thinks of objects1 or two classes into which our experiences are said to divide themselves4 ,when the mind experiences1 or is conscious of1 this particular chair on the platform1 that tree outside the window1 the size of this piece of stone1 or the colour and shape of this bonnet1 it is said to be occupied with a particular experience1 or to be gaining particular knowledge4 ,,acquisition ,,of ,,particular ,,knowledge ,a4 ,through the ,senses4--,these particular experiences may arise through the actual presentation of a thing to the senses4 ,i see this chair2 taste this sugar2 smell this rose2 hear this bell2 etc4 ,as will be seen later1 the senses provide the primary conditions for revealing to the mind the presence of particular things1 that is1 for building up particular ideas1 or1 as they are frequently called1 particular notions4 ,neither does a particular experience1 or notion1 necessarily represent a particular concrete object4 ,it may be an idea of some particular state of anger or joy being experienced by an individual of the beauty embodied in this particular painting1 etc4 ,b4 ,through the ,imagination4--,secondly1 by an act of constructive imagination1 one may image a picture of a particular object as present here and now4 ,although never having had the actual particular experience1 a person can1 with the eye of the imagination1 picture as now present before him any particular object or event1 real or imaginary1 such as ,king ,arthur's round table2 the death scene of ,sir ,isaac ,brock or ,captain ,scott2 the sinking of the ,titanic2 the ,heroine of ,verchres2 or the many-headed ,hydra4 ,c4 ,by ,inference1 or ,deduction4--,again1 knowledge about a particular individual1 or particular knowledge1 may be gained in what seems a yet more indirect way4 ,for instance1 instead of standing beside ,socrates and seeing him drink the hemlock and die1 and thus1 by actual sense observation1 learn that ,socrates is mortal2 we may1 by a previous series of experiences1 have gained the knowledge that all men are mortal4 ,for that reason1 even while he yet lives1 we may know the particular fact that ,socrates1 being a man1 is also mortal4 ,in this process the person is supposed to start with the known general truth1 ,all men are mortal2 next1 to call to mind the fact that ,socrates is a man2 and finally1 by a comparison of these statements or thoughts1 reason out1 or deduce1 the inference that therefore ,socrates is mortal4 ,this process is1 therefore1 usually illustrated in what is called the syllogistic form1 thus3 ,all men are mortal4 ,socrates is a man4 ,socrates is mortal4 ,when particular knowledge about an individual thing or event is thus inferred by comparing two known statements1 it is said to be secured by a process of deduction1 or by inference4 ,,general ,,knowledge ,in all of the above examples1 whether experienced through the senses1 built up by an act of imagination1 or gained by inference1 the knowledge is of a single thing1 fact1 organism1 or unity1 possessing a real or imaginary existence4 ,in addition to possessing its own individual unity1 however1 a thing will stand in a more or less close relation with many other things4 ,various individuals1 therefore1 enter into larger relations constituting groups1 or classes1 of objects4 ,in addition1 therefore1 to recognizing the object as a particular experience1 the mind is able1 by examining certain individuals1 to select and relate the common characteristics of such classes1 or groups1 and build up a general1 or class1 idea1 which is representative of any member of the class4 ,thus arise such general ideas as book1 man1 island1 county1 etc4 ,these are known as universal1 or class1 notions4 ,moreover1 such rules1 or definitions1 as1 ,a noun is the name of anything2 ,a fraction is a number which expresses one or more equal parts of a whole1 are general truths1 because they express in the form of a statement the general qualities which have been read into the ideas1 noun and fraction4 ,when the mind1 from a study of particulars1 thus either forms a class notion as noun1 triangle1 hepatica1 etc41 or draws a general conclusion as1 ,air has weight1 ,any two sides of a triangle are together greater than the third side1 it is said to gain general knowledge4 ,,acquisition ,,of ,,general ,,knowledge ,a4 ,conception4--,in describing the method of attaining general knowledge1 it is customary to divide such knowledge into two slightly different types1 or classes1 and also to distinguish between the processes by which each type is attained4 ,when the mind1 through having experienced particular dogs1 cows1 chairs1 books1 etc41 is able to form such a general1 or class1 idea as1 dog1 cow1 chair1 or book1 it is said to gain a class notion1 or concept2 and the method by which these ideas are gained is called conception4 ,b4 ,induction4--,when the mind1 on the basis of particular experiences1 arrives at some general law1 or truth1 as1 ,any two sides of a triangle are together greater than the third side2 ,air has weight2 ,man is mortal2 ,honesty is the best policy2 etc41 it is said to form a universal judgment1 and the process by which the judgment is formed is called a process of induction4 ,examples of ,general and ,particular ,knowledge4--,when a pupil learns the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river system as such1 he gains a particular experience1 or notion2 when he learns of river basins1 he obtains a general notion4 ,in like manner1 for the child to realize that here are eight blocks containing two groups of four blocks1 is a particular experience2 but that #d #d #h1 is a general1 or universal1 truth4 ,to notice this water rising in a tube as heat is being applied1 is a particular experience2 to know that liquids are expanded by heat is a general truth4 ,the air above this radiator is rising is a particular truth1 but heated air rises is a general truth4 ,the ,english people plunged into excesses in ,charles ,,ii's reign after the removal of the stern ,puritan rule is particular1 but a period of license follows a period of repression is general4 ,distinction is in ,ideas1 not ,things4--,it is to be noted further that the same object may be treated at one time as a particular individual1 at another time as a member of a class1 and at still another time as a part of a larger individual4 ,thus the large peninsula on the east of ,north ,america may be thought of now1 as the individual1 ,nova ,scotia2 at another time1 as a member of the class1 province2 and at still another time1 as a part of the larger particular individual1 ,canada4 ,only ,two ,types of ,knowledge4--,it is evident from the foregoing that no matter what subject is being taught1 so far as any person may aim to develop a new experience in the mind of the pupil1 that experience will be one or other of the two classes mentioned above4 ,if the aim of our lesson is to have the pupils know the facts of the ,war of #ahab-ad1 to study the rainfall of ,british ,columbia1 to master the spelling of a particular word1 or to image the pictures contained in the story ,mary ,elizabeth1 then it aims primarily to have pupils come into possession of a particular fact1 or a number of particular facts4 ,on the other hand1 if the lesson aims to teach the pupils the nature of an infinitive1 the rule for extracting square root1 the law of gravity1 the classes of nouns1 etc41 then the aim of the lesson is to convey some general idea or truth4 ,,applied ,,knowledge ,,general ,before proceeding to a special consideration of such type lessons1 it will be well to note that the mind always applies general knowledge in the learning process4 ,that is1 the application of old knowledge to the new presentation is possible only because this knowledge has taken on a general character1 or has become a general way of thinking4 ,the tendency for every new experience1 whether particular or general1 to pass into a general attitude1 or to become a standard for interpreting other presentations1 is always present1 at least after the very early impressions of infancy4 ,when1 for instance1 a child observes a strange object1 dog1 and perceives its four feet1 this idea does not remain wholly confined to the particular object1 but tends to take on a general character4 ,this consists in the fact that the characteristic perceived is vaguely thought of as a quality distinct from the dog4 ,this quality1 four-footedness1 therefore1 is at least in some measure recognized as a quality that may occur in other objects4 ,in other words1 it takes on a general character1 and will likely be applied in interpreting the next four-footed object which comes under the child's attention4 ,so also when an adult first meets a strange fruit1 guava1 he observes perhaps that it is pear-shaped1 yellow-skinned1 soft-pulped1 of sweet taste1 and aromatic flavour4 ,all such quality ideas as pear-shaped1 yellow1 soft1 etc41 as here applied1 are general ideas of quality taken on from earlier experiences4 ,even in interpreting the qualities of particular objects1 therefore1 as this rose1 this machine1 or this animal1 we apply to its interpretation general ideas1 or general forms of thought1 taken on from earlier experiences4 ,the same fact is even more evident when the mind attempts to build up the idea of a particular object by an act of imagination4 ,one may conceive as present1 a sphere1 red in colour1 with smooth surface1 and two feet in diameter4 ,now this particular object is defined through the qualities spherical1 red1 smooth1 etc4 ,but these notions of quality are all general1 although here applied to building up the image of a particular thing4 ,,processes ,,of ,,acquiring ,,knowledge ,,similar ,if what has already been noted concerning the law of universal method is correct1 and if all learning is a process of building up a new experience in accordance with the law of apperception1 then all of the above modes of gaining either particular or general knowledge must ultimately conform to the laws of general method4 ,keeping in view the fact that applied knowledge is always general in character1 it will not be difficult to demonstrate that these various processes do not differ in their essential characteristics2 but that any process of acquiring either particular or general knowledge conforms to the method of selection and relation1 or of analysis-synthesis1 as already described in our study of the learning process4 ,to demonstrate this1 however1 it will be necessary to examine and illustrate the different modes of learning in the light of the principles of general method already laid down in the text4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,modes ,,of ,,learning ,,development ,,of ,,particular ,,knowledge ,a4 ,,learning ,,through ,,the ,,senses ,in many lessons in nature study1 elementary science1 etc41 pupils are led to acquire new knowledge by having placed before them some particular object which they may examine through the senses4 ,the knowledge thus gained through the direct observation of some individual thing1 since it is primarily knowledge about a particular individual1 is to be classified as particular knowledge4 ,as an example of the process by which a pupil may gain particular knowledge through the senses1 a nature lesson may be taken in which he would1 by actual observation1 become acquainted with one of the constellations1 say the ,great ,dipper4 ,here the learner first receives through his senses certain impressions of colour and form4 ,next he proceeds to read into these impressions definite meanings1 as stars1 four1 corners1 bowl1 three1 curve1 handle1 etc4 ,in such a process of acquiring knowledge about a particular thing1 it is to be noted that the acquisition depends upon two important conditions3 #a4 ,the senses receive impressions from a particular thing4 #b4 ,the mind reacts upon these impressions with certain phases of its old knowledge1 here represented by such words as four1 corner1 bowl1 etc4 ,analysis of ,process4--,when the mind thus gains knowledge of a particular object through sense perception1 the process is found to conform exactly to the general method already laid down2 for there is involved3 #a4 ,the ,motive4--,to read meaning into the strange thing which is placed before the pupil as a problem to stimulate his senses4 #b4 ,selection1 or ,analysis4--,bringing selected elements of former knowledge to interpret the unknown impressions1 the elements of his former knowledge being represented in the above example by such words as1 four1 bowl1 curve1 handle1 etc4 #c4 ,unification1 or ,synthesis4--,a continuous relating of these interpreting factors into the unity of a newly interpreted object1 the ,dipper4 ,,sense ,,perception ,,in ,,education ,a4 ,gives ,knowledge of ,things4--,in many lessons in biology1 botany1 etc41 although the chief aim of the lesson is to acquire a correct class notion1 yet the learning process is in large part the gaining of particular knowledge through the senses4 ,in a nature lesson1 for instance1 the pupil may be presented with an insect which he has never previously met4 ,when the pupil interprets the object as six-legged1 with hard shell-like wing covers1 under wings membranous1 etc41 he is able to gain knowledge about this particular thing3 #a4 ,because the thing manifests itself to him through the senses of sight and touch4 #b4 ,because he is able to bring to bear upon these sense impressions his old knowledge1 represented by such words as six1 wing1 shell1 hard1 membranous1 etc4 ,so far1 therefore1 as the process ends with knowledge of the particular object presented1 the learning process conforms exactly to that laid down above1 for there is involved3 #a4 ,the ,motive4--,to read meaning into the new thing which is placed before the pupil as a problem to stimulate his senses4 #b4 ,selection1 or ,analysis4--,bringing selected elements of former knowledge to interpret the unknown problem1 the elements of his former knowledge being represented above by such words as six1 leg1 wing1 hard1 shell1 membranous1 etc4 #c4 ,unification1 or ,synthesis4--,a continuous relating of these interpreting factors into the unity of a better known object1 the insect4 ,b4 ,is a ,basis for ,generalization4--,it is to be noted1 however1 that in any such lesson1 although the pupil gains through his senses a knowledge of a particular individual only1 yet he may at once accept this individual as a sign1 or type1 of a class of objects1 and can readily apply the new knowledge in interpreting other similar things4 ,although1 for example1 the pupil has experienced but one such object1 he does not necessarily think of it as a mere individual--this thing--but as a representative of a possible class of objects1 a beetle4 ,in other words the new particular notion tends to pass directly into a general1 or class1 notion4 ,b4 ,,learning ,,through ,,imagination ,as an example of a lesson in which the pupil secures knowledge through the use of his imagination1 may be taken first the case of one called upon to image some single object of which he may have had no actual experience1 as a desert1 ,london ,tower1 the sphinx1 etc4 ,taking the last named as an example1 the learner must select certain characteristics as1 woman1 head1 lion1 body1 etc41 all of which are qualities which have been learned in other past experiences4 ,moreover1 the mind must organize these several qualities into the representation of a single object1 the sphinx4 ,here1 evidently1 the pupil follows fully the normal process of learning4 #a4 ,the term--the sphinx--suggests a problem1 or felt need1 namely1 to read meaning into the vaguely realized term4 #b4 ,under the direction of the instructor or the text-book1 the pupil selects1 or analyses out of past experience1 such ideas as1 woman1 head1 body1 lion1 which are felt to have a value in interpreting the present problem4 #c4 ,a synthetic1 or relating1 activity of mind unifies the selected ideas into an ideally constructed object which is accepted by the learner as a particular object1 although never directly known through the senses4 ,nor is the method different in more complex imagination processes4 ,in literary interpretation1 for instance1 when the reader meets such expressions as3 ,the curfew tolls the knell of parting day1 ,the lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea1 ,the ploughman homeward plods his weary way ,and leaves the world to darkness and to me2 the words of the author suggest a problem to the mind of the reader4 ,this problem then calls up in the mind of the student a set of images out of earlier experience1 as bell1 evening1 herd1 ploughman1 lea1 etc41 which the mind unifies into the representation of the particular scene depicted in the lines4 ,it is in this way that much of our knowledge of various objects and scenes in nature1 of historical events and characters1 and of spiritual beings is obtained4 ,imagination ,gives ,basis for ,generalization4--,it should be noted by the student-teacher that in many lessons we aim to give the child a notion of a class of objects1 though he may in actual experience never have met any representatives of the class4 ,in geography1 for instance1 the child learns of deserts1 volcanoes1 etc41 without having experienced these objects through the senses4 ,it has been seen1 however1 that our general knowledge always develops from particular experience4 ,for this reason the pupil who has never seen a volcano1 in order to gain a general notion of a volcano1 must first1 by an act of constructive imagination1 image a definite picture of a particular volcano4 ,the importance of using in such a lesson a picture or a representation on a sand-board1 lies in the fact that this furnishes the necessary stimulus to the child's imagination1 which will cause him to image a particular individual as a basis for the required general1 or class1 notion4 ,too often1 however1 the child is expected in such lessons to form the class notion directly1 that is1 without the intervention of a particular experience4 ,this question will be considered more fully in ,chapter ,,xxvii1 which treats of the process of imagination4 ,c4 ,,learning ,,by ,,inference1 ,,or ,,deduction ,instead of placing himself in ,british ,columbia1 and noting by actual experience that there is a large rainfall there1 a person may discover the same by what is called a process of inference4 ,for example1 one may have learned from an examination of other particular instances that air takes up moisture in passing over water2 that warm air absorbs large quantities of moisture2 that air becomes cool as it rises2 and that warm1 moist air deposits its moisture as rain when it is cooled4 ,knowing this and knowing a number of particular facts about ,british ,columbia1 namely that warm winds pass over it from the ,pacific and must rise owing to the presence of mountains1 we may infer of ,british ,columbia that it has an abundant rainfall4 ,when we thus discover a truth in relation to any particular thing by inference1 we are said to go through a process of deduction4 ,a more particular study of this process will be made in ,chapter ,,xxviii1 but certain facts may here be noted in reference to the process as a mode of acquiring knowledge4 ,an examination will show that the deductive process follows the ordinary process of learning1 or of selecting certain elements of old knowledge1 and organizing them into a new particular experience in order to meet a certain problem4 ,deduction as ,formal ,reasoning4--,it is usually stated by psychologists and logicians that in this process the person starts with the general truth and ends with the particular inference1 or conclusion1 for example3 ,winds coming from the ocean are saturated with moisture4 ,the prevailing winds in ,british ,columbia come from the ,pacific4 ,therefore these winds are saturated with moisture4 ,all winds become colder as they rise4 ,the winds of ,british ,columbia rise as they go inland4 ,therefore1 the winds 7atmosphere7 in ,british ,columbia become colder as they go inland4 ,the atmosphere gives out moisture as it becomes colder4 ,the atmosphere in ,british ,columbia becomes colder as it goes inland4 ,therefore1 the atmosphere gives out moisture in ,british ,columbia4 ,steps in ,process4--,the various elements involved in a deductive process are often analysed into four parts in the following order3 #a4 ,principles4 ,the general laws which are to be applied in the solution of the problem4 ,these1 in the above deductions1 constitute the first sentence in each1 as1 ,the air becomes colder as it rises4 ,air gives out its moisture as it becomes colder1 etc4 #b4 ,data4 ,this includes the particular facts already known relative to the problem4 ,in this lesson1 the data are set forth in the second sentences1 as follows3 ,the prevailing winds in ,british ,columbia come from the ,pacific2 the wind rises as it goes inland1 etc4 #c4 ,inferences4 ,these are the conclusions arrived at as a result of noting relations between data and principles4 ,in the above lesson1 the inferences are3 ,the atmosphere1 or trade-winds1 coming from the ,pacific rise1 become colder1 and give out much moisture4 #d4 ,verification4 ,in some cases at least the learner may use other means to verify his conclusions4 ,in the above lesson1 for example1 he may look it up in the geography or ask some one who has had actual experience4 ,deduction ,involves a ,problem4--,it is to be noted1 however1 that in a deductive learning process1 the young child does not really begin with the general principle4 ,on the contrary1 as noted in the study of the learning process1 the child always begins with a particular unsolved problem4 ,in the case just cited1 for instance1 the child starts with the problem1 ,what is the condition of the rainfall in ,british ,columbia8 ,it is owing to the presence of this problem1 moreover1 that the mind calls up the principles and data4 ,these1 of course1 are already possessed as old knowledge1 and are called up because the mind feels a connection between them and the problem with which it is confronted4 ,the principles and data are thus both involved in the selecting process1 or step of analysis4 ,what the learner really does1 therefore1 in a deductive lesson is to interpret a new problem by selecting as interpreting ideas the principles and data4 ,the third division1 inference1 is in reality the third step of our learning process1 since the inference is a new experience organized out of the selected principles and data4 ,moreover1 the verification is often found to take the form of ordinary expression4 ,as a process of learning1 therefore1 deduction does not exactly follow the formal outline of the psychologists and logicians of 7#a7 principles1 7#b7 data1 7#c7 inference1 and 7#d7 verification2 but rather that of the learning process1 namely1 7#a7 problem1 7#b7 selecting activity1 including principles and data1 7#c7 relating activityinference1 7#d7 expressionverification4 ,example of ,deduction as ,learning ,process4--,a simple and interesting lesson1 showing how the pupil actually goes through the deductive process1 is found in paper cutting of forms balanced about a centre1 say the letter ,x4 #a4 ,problem4 ,the pupil starts with the problem of discovering a way of cutting this letter by balancing about a centre4 #b4 ,selection4 ,principles and ,data4 ,the pupil calls up as data what he knows of this letter1 and as principles1 the laws of balance he has learned from such letters as1 ,a1 ,b1 etc4 #c4 ,organization or ,inference4 ,the pupil infers from the principle involved in cutting the letter ,a1 that the letter ,x 7,fig4 ,a7 may be balanced about a vertical diameter1 as in ,fig4 ,b4 ,repeating the process1 he infers further from the principle involved in cutting the letter ,b1 that this result may again be balanced about a horizontal diameter1 as in ,fig4 ,c4 ,illustration #d4 ,expression or ,verification4 ,by cutting ,figure ,d and unfolding ,figures ,e and ,f1 he is able to verify his conclusion by noting the shape of the form as it unfolds1 thus3 ,illustration ,,further ,,examples ,,for ,,study ,the following are given as further examples of deductive processes4 ,the materials are here arranged in the formal or logical way4 ,the student-teacher should rearrange them as they would occur in the child's learning process4 ,i4 ,,division ,,of ,,decimals #a4 ,principles3 7a7 ,multiplying the dividend and divisor by the same number does not alter the quotient4 7b7 ,to multiply a decimal by #aj1 #ajj1 #ajjj1 etc41 move the decimal point #a1 #b1 #c1 etc41 places respectively to the right4 #b4 ,data3 ,present knowledge of facts contained in such an example as 4#jjbg divided by 4#je4 #c4 ,inferences3 7a7 ,the divisor 74#je7 may be converted into a whole number by multiplying it by #ajj4 7b7 ,if the divisor is multiplied by #ajj1 the dividend must also be multiplied by #ajj if the quotient is to be unchanged4 7c7 ,the problem thus becomes 4#bg divided by #e1 for which the answer is 4#jed4 #d4 ,verification3 ,check the work to see that no mistakes have been made in the calculation4 ,multiply the quotient by the divisor to see if the result is equal to the dividend4 ,,ii4 ,,trade-,,winds #a4 ,principles3 7a7 ,heated air expands1 becomes lighter1 and is pushed upward by cooler and heavier currents of air4 7b7 ,air currents travelling towards a region of more rapid motion have a tendency to lag behind1 and so appear to travel in a direction opposite to that of the earth's rotation4 #b4 ,data3 7a7 ,the most heated portion of the earth is the tropical region4 7b7 ,the rapidity of the earth's motion is greatest at the equator and least at the poles4 7c7 ,the earth rotates on its axis from west to east4 #c4 ,inferences3 7a7 ,the heated air in equatorial regions will be constantly rising4 7b7 ,it will be pushed upward by colder and heavier currents of air from the north and south4 7c7 ,if the earth did not rotate1 there would be constant winds towards the south1 north of the equator2 and towards the north1 south of the equator4 7d7 ,these currents of air are travelling from a region of less motion to a region of greater motion1 and have a tendency to lag behind the earth's motion as they approach the equator4 7e7 ,hence they will seem to blow in a direction contrary to the earth's rotation1 namely1 towards the west4 7f7 ,these two movements1 towards the equator and towards the west1 combine to give the currents of air a direction towards the south-west north of the equator1 and towards the north-west south of the equator4 #d4 ,verification3 ,read the geography text to see if our inferences are correct4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,general ,,knowledge ,the ,conceptual ,lesson4--,as an example of a lesson involving a process of conception1 or classification1 may be taken one in which the pupil might gain the class notion noun4 ,the pupil would first be presented with particular examples through sentences containing such words as ,john1 ,mary1 ,toronto1 desk1 boy1 etc4 ,thereupon the pupil is led to examine these in order1 noting certain characteristics in each4 ,examining the word ,john1 for instance1 he notes that it is a word2 that it is used to name and also1 perhaps1 that it names a person1 and is written with a capital letter4 ,of the word ,toronto1 he may note much the same except that it names a place2 of the word desk1 he may note especially that it is used to name a thing and is written without a capital letter4 ,by comparing any and all the qualities thus noted1 he is supposed1 finally1 by noting what characteristics are common to all1 to form a notion of a class of words used to name4 ,the ,inductive ,lesson4--,to exemplify an inductive lesson1 there may be noted the process of learning the rule that to multiply the numerator and denominator of any fraction by the same number does not alter the value of the fraction4 ,conversion of fractions to equivalent fractions with different denominators ,the teacher draws on the black-board a series of squares1 each representing a square foot4 ,these are divided by vertical lines into a number of equal parts4 ,one or more of these parts are shaded1 and pupils are asked to state what fraction of the whole square has been shaded4 ,the same squares are then further divided into smaller equal parts by horizontal lines1 and the pupils are led to discover how many of the smaller equal parts are contained in the shaded parts4 ,illustration3 #a_/bc_/f #b_/ch_/ab #c_/dae_/bj #c_/eah_/cj ,examine these equations one by one1 treating each after some such manner as follows3 ,how might we obtain the numerator #ah from the numerator #c8 7,multiply by #f47 ,the denominator #cj from the denominator #e8 7,multiply by #f47 #ac #c #bd #h #ce #ae #cf #ah --- -2 --- --2 --- --2 --- --4 #bc #f #cd #ab #de #bj #ef #cj ,if we multiply both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction #c_/e by #f1 what will be the effect upon the value of the fraction8 7,it will be unchanged47 ,what have we done with the numerator and denominator in every case8 ,how has the fraction been affected8 ,what rule may we infer from these examples8 7,multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same number does not alter the value of the fraction47 ,,the ,,formal ,,steps ,in describing the process of acquiring either a general notion or a general truth1 the psychologist and logician usually divide it into four parts as follows3 #a4 ,the person is said to analyse a number of particular cases4 ,in the above examples this would mean1 in the conceptual lesson1 noting the various characteristics of the several words1 ,john1 ,toronto1 desk1 etc42 and in the second lesson1 noting the facts involved in the several cases of shading4 #b4 ,the mind is said to compare the characteristics of the several particular cases1 noting any likenesses and unlikenesses4 #c4 ,the mind is said to pick out1 or abstract1 any quality or quantities common to all the particular cases4 #d4 ,finally the mind is supposed to synthesise these common characteristics into a general notion1 or concept1 in the conceptual process1 and into a general truth if the process is inductive4 ,thus the conceptual and inductive processes are both said to involve the same four steps of3 #a4 ,analysis4--,interpreting a number of individual cases4 #b4 ,comparison4--,noting likenesses and differences between the several individual examples4 #c4 ,abstraction4--,selecting the common characteristics4 #d4 ,generalization4--,synthesis of common characteristics into a general truth or a general notion1 as the case may be4 ,criticism4--,here again it will be found1 however1 that the steps of the logician do not fully represent what takes place in the pupil's mind as he goes through the learning process in a conceptual or inductive lesson4 ,it is to be noted first that the above outline does not signify the presence of any problem to cause the child to proceed with the analysis of the several particular cases4 ,assuming the existence of the problem1 unless this problem involves all the particular examples1 the question arises whether the learner will suspend coming to any conclusion until he has analysed and compared all the particular cases before him4 ,it is here that the actual learning process is found to vary somewhat from the outline of the psychologist and logician4 ,as will be seen below1 the child really finds his problem in the first particular case presented to him4 ,moreover1 as he analyses out the characteristics of this case1 he does not really suspend fully the generalizing process until he has examined a number of other cases1 but1 as the teacher is fully aware1 is much more likely to jump at once to a more or less correct conclusion from the one example4 ,it is true1 of course1 that it is only by going on to compare this with other cases that he assures himself that this first conclusion is correct4 ,this slight variation of the actual learning process from the formal outline will become evident if one considers how a child builds up any general notion in ordinary life4 ,,conception ,,as ,a ,,learning ,,process ,a4 ,in ,ordinary ,life4--,suppose a young child has received a vague impression of a cow from meeting a first and only example2 we find that by accepting this as a problem and by applying to it such experience as he then possesses1 he is able to read some meaning into it1 for instance1 that it is a brown1 four-footed1 hairy object4 ,this idea1 once formed1 does not remain a mere particular idea1 but becomes a general means for interpreting other experiences4 ,at first1 indeed1 the idea may serve to read meaning1 not only into another cow1 but also into a horse or a buffalo4 ,in course of time1 however1 as this first imperfect concept of the animal is used in interpreting cows and perhaps other animals1 the first crude concept may in time1 by comparison1 develop into a relatively true1 or logical1 concept1 applicable to only the actual members of the class4 ,now here1 the child did not wait to generalize until such time as the several really essential characteristics were decided upon1 but in each succeeding case applied his present knowledge to the particular thing presented4 ,it was1 in other words1 by a series of regular selecting and relating processes1 that his general notion was finally clarified4 ,b4 ,in the ,school4--,practically the same conditions are noted in the child's study of particular examples in an inductive or conceptual lesson in the school1 although the process is much more rapid on account of its being controlled by the teacher4 ,in the lesson outlined above1 the pupil finds a problem in the very first word ,john1 and adjusts himself thereto in a more or less perfect way by an apperceptive process involving both a selecting and a relating of ideas4 ,with this first more or less perfect notion as a working hypothesis1 the pupil goes on to examine the next word4 ,if he gains the true notion from the first example1 he merely verifies this through the other particular examples4 ,if his first notion is not correct1 however1 he is able to correct it by a further process of analysis and synthesis in connection with other examples4 ,throughout the formal stages1 therefore1 the pupil is merely applying his growing general knowledge in a selective1 or analytic1 way to the interpreting of several particular examples1 until such time as a perfect general1 or class1 notion is obtained and verified4 ,it is1 indeed1 on account of this immediate tendency of the mind to generalize1 that care must be taken to present the children with typical examples4 ,to make them examine a sufficient number of examples is to ensure the correcting of crude notions that may be formed by any of the pupils through their generalizing perhaps from a single particular4 ,,induction ,,as ,a ,,learning ,,process ,in like manner1 in an inductive lesson1 although the results of the process of the development of a general principle may for convenience be arranged logically under the above four heads1 it is evident that the child could not wholly suspend his conclusions until a number of particular cases had been examined and compared4 ,in the lesson on the rule for conversion of fractions to equivalent fractions with different denominators1 the pupils could not possibly apperceive1 or analyse1 the examples as suggested under the head of selection1 or analysis1 without at the same time implicitly abstracting and generalizing4 ,also in the lesson below on the predicate adjective1 the pupils could not note1 in all the examples1 all the features given under analysis and fail at the same time to abstract and generalize4 ,the fact is that in such lessons1 if the selection1 or analysis1 is completed in only one example1 abstraction and generalization implicitly unfold themselves at the same time and constitute a relating1 or synthetic1 act of the mind4 ,the fourfold arrangement of the matter1 however1 may let the teacher see more fully the children's mental attitude1 and thus enable him to direct them intelligently through the apperceptive process4 ,it will undoubtedly also impress on the teacher's mind the need of having the pupils compare particular cases until a correct notion is fully organized in experience4 ,,two ,,processes ,,similar ,notwithstanding the distinction drawn by psychologists between conception as a process of gaining a general notion1 and induction as a process of arriving at a general truth1 it is evident from the above that the two processes have much in common4 ,in the development of many lesson topics1 in fact1 the lesson may be viewed as involving both a conceptual and an inductive process4 ,in the subject of grammar1 for instance1 a first lesson on the pronoun may be viewed as a conceptual lesson1 since the child gains an idea of a class of words1 as indicated by the new general term pronoun1 this term representing the result of a conceptual process4 ,it may equally be viewed as an inductive lesson1 since the child gains from the lesson a general truth1 or judgment1 as expressed in his new definition--,a pronoun is a word that represents an object without naming it1 the definition representing the result of an inductive process4 ,this fact will be considered more fully1 however1 in ,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,further ,,examples ,,of ,,inductive ,,lessons ,as further illustrations of an inductive process1 the following outlines of lessons might be noted4 ,the processes are outlined according to the formal steps4 ,the student-teacher should consider how the children are to approach each problem and to what extent they are likely to generalize as the various examples are being interpreted during the analytic stage4 #a4 ,,the ,,subjective ,,predicate ,,adjective ,analysis1 or selection3 ,divide the following sentences into subject and predicate3 ,the man was old4 ,the weather turned cold4 ,the day grew stormy4 ,the boy became ill4 ,the concert proved successful4 ,what kind of man is referred to in the first sentence8 ,what part of speech is old8 ,what part of the sentence does it modify8 ,in what part of the sentence does it stand8 ,could it be omitted8 ,what then is its duty with reference to the verb8 ,what are its two duties8 7,it completes the verb was and modifies the subject man47 ,lead the pupils to deal similarly with cold1 stormy1 ill1 successful4 ,comparison1 ,abstraction1 and ,generalization1 or ,organization3 ,what two duties has each of these italicized words8 ,each is called a ,subjective ,predicate ,adjective4 ,what is a ,subjective ,predicate ,adjective8 7,a ,subjective ,predicate ,adjective is an adjective that completes the verb and modifies the subject47 #b4 ,,condensation ,,of ,,vapour ,analysis1 or selection3 ,the pupils should be asked to report observations they have made concerning some familiar occurrences like the following3 7#a7 ,breathe upon a cold glass and upon a warm glass4 ,what do you notice in each case8 ,where must the drops of water have come from8 ,can you see this water ordinarily8 ,in what form must the water have been before it formed in drops on the cold glass8 7#b7 ,what have you often noticed on the window of the kitchen on cool days8 ,from where did these drops of water come8 ,could you see the vapour in the air8 ,how did the temperature of the window panes compare with the temperature of the room8 7#c7 ,when the water in a tea-kettle is boiling rapidly1 what do you see between the mouth of the spout and the cloud of steam8 ,what must have come through that clear space8 ,is the steam then at first visible or invisible8 ,the pupils should be further asked to report observations and make correct inferences concerning such things as3 7#d7 ,the deposit of moisture on the outside surface of a pitcher of ice-water on a warm summer day4 7#e7 ,the clouded condition of one's eye-glasses on coming from the cold outside air into a warm room4 ,comparison1 ,abstraction1 and ,generalization1 or ,organization3 ,in all these cases you have reported what there has been in the air4 ,was this vapour visible or invisible8 ,under what condition did it become visible8 ,the pupils should be led to sum up their observations in some such way as the following3 ,air often contains much water vapour4 ,when this comes in contact with cooler bodies1 it condenses into minute particles of water4 ,in other words1 the two conditions of condensation are 7#a7 a considerable quantity of water vapour in the air1 and 7#b7 contact with cooler bodies4 ,it must be borne in mind that in a conceptual or an inductive lesson care is to be taken by the teacher to see that the particulars are sufficient in number and representative in character4 ,as already pointed out1 crude notions often arise through generalizing from too few particulars or from particulars that are not typical of the whole class4 ,induction can be most frequently employed in elementary school work in the subjects of grammar1 arithmetic1 and nature study4 ,,inductive-,,deductive ,,lessons ,before we leave this division of general method1 it should be noted that many lessons combine in a somewhat formal way two or more of the foregoing lesson types4 ,in many inductive lessons the step of application really involves a process of deduction4 ,for example1 after teaching the definition of a noun by a process of induction as outlined above1 we may1 in the same lesson1 seek to have the pupil use his new knowledge in pointing out particular nouns in a set of given sentences4 ,here1 however1 the pupil is evidently called upon to discover the value of particular words by the use of the newly learned general principle4 ,when1 therefore1 he discovers the grammatical value of the particular word ,provender in the sentence ,provender is dear1 the pupil's process of learning can be represented in the deductive form as follows3 ,all naming words are nouns4 ,provender is a naming word4 ,provender is a noun4 ,although in these exercises the real aim is not to have the pupil learn the value of the individual word1 but to test his mastery of the general principle1 such application undoubtedly corresponds with the deductive learning process previously outlined4 ,any inductive lesson1 therefore1 which includes the above type of application may rightly be described as an inductive-deductive lesson4 ,a great many lessons in grammar and arithmetic are of this type4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,lesson ,,unit ,what ,constitutes a ,lesson ,problem4--,the foregoing analysis and description of the learning process has shown that the ordinary school lesson is designed to lead the pupil to build up1 or organize1 a new experience1 or1 as it is sometimes expressed1 to gain control of a unit of valuable knowledge1 presented as a single problem4 ,from what has been learned concerning the relating activity of mind1 however1 it is evident that the teacher may face a difficulty when he is called upon to decide what extent of knowledge1 or experience1 is to be accepted as a knowledge unit4 ,it was noted1 for example1 that many topics regularly treated in a single lesson fall into quite distinct sub-divisions1 each of which represents to a certain extent a separate group of related ideas and1 therefore1 a single problem4 ,on the other hand1 many different lesson experiences1 or topics1 although taught as separate units1 are seen to stand so closely related1 that in the end they naturally organize themselves into a larger single unit of knowledge1 representing a division1 of the subject of study4 ,from this it is evident that situations may arise1 as in teaching the classes of sentences in grammar1 in which the teacher must ask himself whether it will be possible to take up the whole topic with its important sub-divisions in a single lesson1 or whether each sub-division should be treated in a single lesson4 ,how to ,approach ,associated ,problems4--,even when it is realized that the related matter is too large for a single lesson1 it must be decided whether it will be better to bring on each sub-division as a separate topic1 and later let these sub-divisions synthesise into a new unity2 or whether the larger topic should be taken up first in a general way1 and the sub-divisions made topics of succeeding lessons4 ,in the study of mood in grammar1 for example1 shall we introduce each mood separately1 and finally have the child synthesise the separate facts2 or shall we begin with a lesson on mood in general1 and follow this with a study of the separate moods8 ,in like manner1 in the study of winds in geography1 shall we study in order land and sea breezes1 trade-winds1 and monsoons1 and have the child synthesise these facts at the end of the series2 or shall we begin with a study of winds in general1 and follow this with a more detailed study of the three classes of winds8 ,,whole ,,to ,,parts ,advantages4--,the second of these methods1 which is often called the method of proceeding from whole to parts1 should1 whenever possible1 be followed4 ,for instance1 in a study of such a lesson as ,dickens in the ,camp1 the detailed study of the various stanzas should be preceded by an introductory lesson1 bringing out the leading thought of the poem1 and noting the sub-topics4 ,when1 in an introductory lesson1 the pupil is able to gain control of a large topic1 and see the relation to it of a given number of sub-topics1 he is selecting and relating the parts of the whole topic by the normal analytic-synthetic method4 ,moreover1 in the following lessons1 he is much more likely to appreciate the relation of the various sub-topics to the central topic1 and the inter-relations between these various sub-topics4 ,for this reason1 in such subjects as history1 literature1 geography1 etc41 pupils are often introduced to these large divisions1 or complex lesson units1 and given a vague knowledge of the whole topic1 the detailed study of the parts being made in subsequent lessons4 ,examples4--,the following outlines will further illustrate how a series of lessons 7numbered ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 etc47 may thus proceed from a first study of the larger whole to a more detailed study of a number of subordinate parts4 ,,the ,,st4 ,,lawrence ,,river ,,system ,i4 ,topic4--,the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river3 ,position1 size1 extent of system1 other characteristics4 ,importance--historical1 commercial1 industrial4 ,,ii4 ,sub-topic #a4--;,importance historically3 ,open mouth to ,europe2 ,open door to continent2 ,cartier1 ,champlain4 ,system of lakes and rivers large and small gave lines of communication1 inviting discovery and subsequent development and settlement4 ,,iii4 ,sub-topic #b4--;,importance commercially3 ,large tracts of valuable land1 timber1 etc41 made available4 ,highway--need of such between ,east and ,west4 ,difficulties to be overcome1 canal1 ships4 ,competition of railways1 ,how8 ,classes of goods back and forth4 ,avenue to and from the wheat land4 ,,iv4 ,sub-topic #c4--;,importance industrially3 ,great commercial centres--where located and why8 ,water powers1 elevators1 manufacturing of raw materials made available in the large areas2 ,immigration2 ,fishing4 ,,study ,,of ,,bacteria ,i4 ,topic4--,bacteria3 ,what they are2 relations1 comparisons2 other plants in same class1 or those of higher orders2 size1 shape2 where found2 conditions of growth2 propagation2 modes of distribution2 etc4 ,,ii4 ,sub-topic #a4--,our interest in bacteria1 arising out of the injury or good they do3 7a7 ,injury3 ,decay of fruits1 trees1 tissues1 etc41 diseases--diphtheria1 typhoid1 tuberculosis2 how developed1 conditions1 favourable toxins4 7b7 ,benefits3 ,in soil1 cheese1 butter1 etc42 chemical action1 building new compounds and breaking up other compounds4 ,,iii4 ,sub-topic #b4--,our interest in controlling them2 the methods based on mode and conditions of growth1 etc43 7a7 ,prevention3 ,eliminating favourable conditions2 low temperature1 high temperatures1 cleanliness2 sewerage disposal2 clean cow-stables1 cellars1 kitchens1 etc42 antiseptics--carbolic1 formalin1 sugar for fruit1 sealing up2 quarantine1 vaccination1 antitoxin4 7b7 ,cultures1--alfalfa1 cheese1 butter1 under control4 ,,geography ,,of ,,europe ,i4 ,topic4--,europe3 ,what interest to us2 why we study it2 position1 latitude1 near water1 boundaries1 size2 ,surface features--highlands1 lowlands1 drainage rivers1 coast-line1 etc4 ,climate--temperature 7means1 ,jan41 ,july71 wind1 moisture4 ,,ii4 ,sub-topic #a4--,products 7based on above conditions73 ,vegetation1 animal1 mineral2 vary over area according to physical climatic1 and geological conditions2 ,kinds of products of each class1 in each area1 etc4 ,,iii4 ,sub-topic #b4--,occupations 7based on ,lesson ,,ii73 ,study of operations and conditions favourable and unfavourable under which each product is produced1 gathered1 and manufactured4 ,industries1 arising from work on the raw materials4 ,,iv4 ,sub-topic #c4--,trade and ,commerce 7based on ,lessons ,,ii and ,,iii73 ,transportation1 producers selling and manufacturers buying raw material1 distributed to homes in country and city1 to factories within the region itself1 to regions beyond1 across oceans1 etc4 ,manufactured products sent out1 exports and imports4 ,v4 ,sub-topic #d4--;,civil advantages 7based on ,lessons ,i1 ,,iii1 and ,,iv73 ,conditions of living--homes1 dress1 work and pleasure2 trades1 education1 government1 social1 religious1 etc4 ,,parts ,,to ,,whole ,the method of whole to parts cannot be followed in all cases even where a number of lesson units may possess important points of inter-relation4 ,although1 for instance1 simple and compound addition and addition of fractions are only different phases of one process1 no one would advocate the combining of these into such a unified lesson series4 ,in ,canadian ,history1 also1 although the conditions of the ,quebec ,act1 the coming of the ,united ,empire ,loyalists1 and the passing of the ,constitutional ,act1 have definite points of inter-relation1 it would nevertheless be unwise to attempt to evolve these out of a single complex lesson unit4 ,in such cases1 therefore1 the synthesis of the various parts must be made as the lessons proceed4 ,moreover1 it is well to ensure the complete organization of the elements by means of an outline review at the end of the lesson series4 ,the student-teacher will meet an example of this process under the topical lesson in ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,precautions ,it is evident from the above considerations1 that certain precautions should be observed in deciding upon the particular subject-matter to be included in each lesson topic4 #a4 ,a just balance should be maintained between the difficulty of each lesson unit and the ability of the class4 ,matter that is too easy requires no effort in its mastery and hence is uninteresting4 ,matter that is too difficult discourages effort1 and is1 therefore1 equally uninteresting4 ,it should be sufficiently easy for every pupil to master1 and sufficiently difficult to require real effort4 #b4 ,the amount of matter included should be carefully adjusted to the length of time taken for the lesson and to the attainments of the class4 ,if too much is attempted1 there will be insufficient time for adequate drill and review1 and hence there will be lack of thoroughness4 ,if too little is attempted1 time will be wasted in needless repetition4 #c4 ,each unit of instruction in any subject should1 in general1 grow out of the preceding unit taken in that subject1 and be closely connected with it4 ,it is in this way that a pupil's interest is aroused for the new problem and his knowledge becomes organized4 ,neglect in this regard results in the possession of disconnected and unsystematized facts4 ,each lesson should contain one or more central facts around which the other facts are grouped4 ,this permits easy organization of the material of the lesson1 and ensures its retention by the pupils4 ,further1 the pupils are by this means trained to discriminate between the essential and the non-essential4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,lesson ,,types ,the ,developing ,lesson4--,in the various lesson plans already considered1 the aim has always appeared as an attempt to direct the learning process so that the pupil may both build up a new experience and also gain such control over it as will enable him to turn it to practical use4 ,because in all such lessons the teacher is supposed to direct the pupils through the four steps of the learning process in such a way that they discover for themselves some important new experience1 or develop it out of their own present knowledge1 the lessons are spoken of as developing lessons4 ,moreover1 the two parts of the lesson in which the new experience is especially gained by the pupils1 namely the selecting and relating processes1 are often spoken of as a single step and called the step of development1 the lesson then being treated under four heads3 ,problem1 preparation1 development1 and application4 ,auxiliary ,lessons4--,it is evident1 however1 that there may be lessons in which this direct attempt to have the pupils build up some wholly new experience through a regularly controlled learning process1 will not appear as the chief purpose of the lesson4 ,in the previous consideration of the deductive lesson1 it was pointed out that this type may be used to give a further mastery of general rules previously learned1 rather than a knowledge of particular examples4 ,such would be the case in an ordinary parsing and analysis lesson in grammar4 ,here the primary purpose is1 evidently1 not to give the pupils a grammatical knowledge of the particular words and sentences which are being parsed and analysed1 but rather to give them better control of certain general rules of language which they have partially mastered in previous lessons4 ,so also a lesson in writing may seek1 not to teach the form of some new letter1 but to give skill in writing a letter form which the pupils have already learned4 ,in an exercise in addition of fractions1 also1 the aim is not so much to have the pupil know these particular questions1 as to have him gain a more complete control of the previously learned rule4 ,in other lessons the pupils may be left to secure new knowledge largely for themselves1 and the recitation be devoted to testing whether they have been able to accomplish this successfully4 ,in still other lessons the teacher may merely outline a certain topic or certain topics1 preparatory to such independent study by the pupils4 ,the following outlines will explain and exemplify these auxiliary lesson types4 ,,the ,,study ,,lesson ,purpose of ,study ,lesson4--,the purpose of the ,study ,lesson is the mastery by the pupils of a stated portion of the text-book4 ,ultimately1 however it is the cultivation of the power of gleaning information from the printed page1 of selecting essential features1 and of arranging these in their proper relationships4 ,the main difficulty in connection with the study lesson is the adaptation of the matter to the interests of the pupils4 ,this difficulty is sometimes due to their inability to interpret the language of the book1 and to the difficulty of their distinguishing the salient features from the non-essential4 ,the trouble in this regard is accentuated when they approach the lesson with an inadequate preparation of mind4 ,the study lesson falls naturally into two parts1 the assignment and the seat work4 ,the ,assignment4--,the object of the assignment is to put the pupils in an attitude of inquiry toward the new matter4 ,it corresponds to the conception of the problem and the step of preparation in the development lesson4 ,the most successful assignment is one in which the interest of the pupils is aroused to such a pitch that they are anxious to read more about the subject4 ,in general it will consist of a recall of those ideas1 or a statement of those facts upon which the interpretation of the new matter depends4 ,most of the unsuccessful study lessons are due to insufficient care in the assignment4 ,often pupils are told to read so many pages of the book1 without any preliminary preparation and without any idea of what facts they are to learn4 ,under such conditions1 the result is usually a very slight interest in the lesson1 and consequently an unsatisfactory grasp of it4 ,examples of ,assignment4--,a few examples will serve to illustrate what is meant by an adequate assignment4 ,when a new reading lesson is to be prepared1 the assignment should include the pronunciation and meaning of the different words1 and a general understanding of the passage to be read4 ,for a new spelling lesson1 the assignment should include the pronunciation and meaning of the words1 and any special difficulties that may appear in them4 ,in assigning a history lesson on1 say1 the ,capture of ,quebec1 the teacher should discuss with the class the position of ,quebec1 the difficulties that would present themselves to a besieging army1 the character and personal appearance of ,wolfe 7making him stand out as vividly as possible71 and the position seized by the ,british army1 illustrating as far as possible by maps and diagrams4 ,then the class will be in a mental attitude to read with interest the dramatic story of the taking of the fortress4 ,if the pupils were about to study the geography of ,british ,columbia1 the teacher might1 in the assignment1 ask them to note from the map of ,canada the position of the province and the direction of the mountain ranges2 to infer the character and direction of the rivers and their value for navigation2 to infer the nature of the climate1 knowing the direction of the prevailing winds2 to infer the character of the chief industries1 knowing the physical features and climate4 ,with these facts in mind the class will be able to read intelligently what the text-book says about ,british ,columbia4 ,the ,seat ,work4--,however good the assignment may be1 there is always a danger that there will be much waste of time in connection with the seat work4 ,the tendency to mind-wandering is always so great that the time devoted to the preparation of lessons at seats may to a large extent be lost1 unless special precautions are taken in that regard4 ,unfortunately every lesson cannot be made so enthralling that the pupil's mind is kept upon it in spite of distractions4 ,to prevent this possible waste of time1 suggestions have already been made in another connection 7page #aab above74 ,these will bear repetition here4 ,questions upon the matter to be studied might be placed on the black-board and pupils asked to prepare answers for these4 ,the difficulty with this plan is1 that1 unless the questions are carefully thought out by the teacher1 the pupils may get from their reading only a few disconnected facts instead of organized knowledge4 ,the pupils might be asked to prepare lists of questions for themselves1 and the one who had the best list might be permitted to put his questions to the rest of the class4 ,the difficulty here is that most pupils have a tendency to question about what is unimportant and to neglect the important4 ,in the higher classes1 the pupils might be required to make a topical outline of the lesson studied4 ,this requires considerable analytic ability1 and the results at first are likely to be disappointing4 ,however1 it is an ability worth striving for4 ,the individual who can readily outline what he has read has mastered the art of reading4 ,use of ,study ,lessons4--,there is a danger that the study lesson may be used too much or too little4 ,in an ungraded school containing many classes1 the teacher may be tempted to rely solely upon the study lesson as a means of intellectual advancement4 ,used exclusively it becomes monotonous1 and the pupils grow weary of the constant effort required4 ,on the other hand1 in the graded school1 where a teacher has charge of only one class1 there will be a tendency to depend entirely on the oral presentation of lessons1 to the exclusion of the text-book altogether4 ,the result is that pupils do not cultivate the power to obtain knowledge from books4 ,the study lesson should alternate with the oral lesson1 so that monotony may be avoided1 and the pupils will reap the undoubted benefits of both methods4 ,,the ,,recitation ,,lesson ,purpose of the ,recitation ,lesson4--,the recitation lesson is the complement of the study lesson4 ,its purpose is to test the pupil's grasp of the facts he has read during the study period4 ,incidentally the teacher clears up difficulties and corrects misconceptions on the part of the pupil4 ,the facts of the text-book may be amplified from the teacher's stock of information4 ,abstract facts may be illustrated in a concrete way4 ,the important facts may be emphasized and the unimportant ones lightly passed over4 ,the ultimate aim of the recitation lesson is to add something to the pupil's power of interpreting and organizing facts4 ,precautions4--,some precautions are to be noted in connection with the recitation lesson4 7#a7 ,care must be exercised that the pupils are not reciting mere words that have no solid basis of ideas4 ,young children are particularly expert at verbalizing4 7#b7 ,care must also be taken that the pupils have not merely scrappy information1 but have the ideas thoroughly organized4 7#c7 ,the teacher must know the facts to be recited well enough to be independent of the text-book during the recitation4 ,to conduct the lesson with an open book before him is a confession of weakness on the part of the teacher4 ,,conducting ,,the ,,recitation ,,lesson ,there are two methods of conducting the recitation lesson1 namely1 the question and answer method and the topical method4 ,a4 ,the ,question and ,answer ,method4--,this is the easier method for the pupil1 as he is called upon to answer only in a brief form detailed questions asked by the teacher4 ,the onus of the analysis of the lesson rests largely upon the teacher4 ,he must ask the questions in a proper sequence so that1 if the answers of the pupils were written out1 they would form a connected account of the matter4 ,he must be able to detect from the pupils' answers whether they have real knowledge or are merely masquerading with words4 ,to be able to question well is one of the most valuable accomplishments that a teacher can possess4 ,the whole problem of the art of questioning will be considered in the next ,chapter4 ,b4 ,the ,topical ,method4--,the topical recitation consists in the pupil's reporting the facts of the study lesson with a minimum of questioning on the part of the teacher4 ,two advantages are apparent3 7#a7 ,it gives the pupil an excellent training in organizing his materials1 and 7#b7 it develops his language power4 ,it is to be feared that the topical recitation is not so frequently used as its value warrants4 ,the reason is probably that it is a difficult method to follow4 ,poor results are usually secured at first1 teachers grow discouraged1 they stop trying it1 and thereafter put their whole faith in the question and answer recitation4 ,this is unfortunate1 for however good the latter may be1 it is greatly inferior to the topical recitation in helping the pupil to institute relations among his facts1 and in improving his power to use his mother-tongue effectively4 ,successful topical recitations can be secured only at the price of long1 patient1 and persistent effort4 ,the teacher can gradually work towards them from detailed questions to questions requiring the combination of a few sentences in answer1 and thence to the complete outline4 ,in almost every lesson the pupils may be called upon to summarize some topic after it has been gone over by means of detailed questions4 ,in such answers the pupils may reasonably be expected to state the facts in their proper connection and in good language form4 ,in reviews1 also1 in such subjects as history and geography1 the pupils should be frequently called upon to recite topically4 ,,the ,,drill ,,lesson ,purpose of ,drill ,lesson4--,the ,drill ,lesson involves the repetition of matter in the same form as it was originally learned1 in order to fix it in the mind so firmly that its recall will eventually become automatic4 ,in other words1 the function of this type of lesson is habit-formation4 ,it is necessary in those subjects that are more or less mechanical in nature1 and that can be reduced to the plane of habit4 ,the field of the drill lesson will1 therefore1 be largely restricted to spelling1 writing1 language1 and the mechanical phases of art and arithmetic4 ,the ,method4--,as the purpose of the drill lesson is the formation of habit1 the method will involve the application of the principles that lie at the basis of habit-formation4 ,these are1 7#a7 attention to the thing to be done so as to obtain a vivid picture or a clear understanding of it1 and 7#b7 repetition with attention4 ,for instance1 if the writing lesson is the formation of the capital ,e1 the class will examine carefully a model form1 note the parts of which it is composed1 the relative size and position of the parts1 how they are connected1 etc4 ,then will follow the repetition of the form by the pupils1 each time with careful attention to the method of making it1 comparison with the model1 and the noting of defects in their work4 ,this will continue until the letter can be made correctly without attention1 that is1 until the method of making it has been reduced to a habit4 ,if the lesson is on the spelling of difficult words1 the first step will be to observe the pronunciation of each1 the division into syllables1 the difficult part of the word1 and the order of the letters4 ,then the word will be repeated attentively until it can be spelled without effort4 ,in a language lesson on the correct use1 say1 of lie and lay1 the pupils will first be called upon to observe the forms of each1 lie1 lay1 lain1 lying1 and lay1 laid1 laying--as used in sentences on the black-board1 and the meaning of each group--lie meaning to recline and lay meaning to place4 ,the pupils will then repeat attentively the correct forms of the words in sentences1 until they finally reach the stage when they unconsciously use the words correctly1 or as habits of speech4 ,the same principles apply in learning the addition and multiplication tables1 and the tables of weights and measures in arithmetic2 in the memorization of gems of poetry and prose2 in the learning of dates1 lists of events1 and important provisions of acts in history2 and in the memorization of lists of places and products in geography1 where this is desirable4 ,in all the cases mentioned1 it must not be supposed that a single drill lesson will be sufficient for the fixing of the desired knowledge or skill4 ,before instant and unconscious reaction can be depended upon1 repetition will be needed at intervals for some time4 ,danger in ,mere ,repetition4--,in connection with the repetition necessary in the second stage of the drill lesson1 an important precaution should be noted4 ,it is impossible for anybody to repeat anything attentively many times in succession unless there is some new element noted in each repetition4 ,when there is no longer a new element1 the repetition becomes mechanical1 and hence comparatively useless so far as acquisition of knowledge or even habit is concerned4 ,to ask a pupil who has difficulty with a combination in addition1 or a product in multiplication1 or the spelling of a word1 to repeat it many times in succession1 may be not only waste of time1 but even worse1 because a tendency toward mind-wandering may be encouraged4 ,the practice of requiring pupils to write out new words1 or words that have been mis-spelled in the dictation lesson1 five1 ten1 or twenty times successively1 cannot be too strongly condemned4 ,the attention cannot possibly be concentrated upon the work beyond two or three repetitions1 and the fact that pupils frequently make mistakes two or three words down the column and repeat this mistake to the end1 is sufficient proof of the mechanical nature of the process4 ,the little boy who had difficulty with the use of went and gone1 and was commanded by his teacher to write ,i have gone a hundred times on his slate1 illustrates this principle exactly4 ,he had been left to finish his task alone and1 after writing ,i have gone faithfully forty or fifty times1 grew tired of the monotony of the process4 ,turning the slate over1 he wrote on the other side1 ,i have went home and left it on the desk for the teacher's approval4 ,how to ,overcome ,dangers4--,to avoid this difficulty1 some device must be adopted to secure attention to each repetition until the knowledge is firmly fixed4 ,for instance1 instead of asking the pupil many times one after the other1 what seven times six are1 it would be better to introduce other combinations and come back frequently to seven times six4 ,in that way the pupil would have to attend to it every time it came up4 ,similarly1 in learning to spell a troublesome word like separate1 the best plan would be to mix it up with other words and come back to it often4 ,repetition is always necessary in the drill lesson1 but it should always be repetition with attention4 ,,the ,,review ,,lesson ,purpose of ,review ,lesson4--,as the name implies1 a review is a new view of old knowledge4 ,while the drill lesson repeats the matter in the same form as it was originally learned1 the review lesson repeats the matter from another standpoint or in new relations4 ,the function of the review lesson is the organization of the material of a series of lessons into an inter-connected whole1 and incidentally the fixing of these facts in the mind by the additional repetitions4 ,kinds of ,review4--,almost every lesson gives opportunities for incidental reviews4 ,the step of preparation recalls old ideas in new connections1 and may be properly considered a review4 ,a lesson on the gerund in grammar would require a recall of the various relations in which a noun may stand1 and the various ways in which a verb may be completed4 ,it is quite probable that the pupils have never before brought these facts together in an organized way4 ,similarly1 the step of expression affords opportunity for review4 ,the solution of problems in simple interest confronts the pupils with new situations in which this principle can be applied4 ,the reproduction of the matter of the history lesson requires the selection of the important facts from the mass of details given and the placing of these in their proper relationship to one another4 ,but besides the incidental reviews which form a part of nearly all lessons1 there must be lessons which are purely reviews4 ,without these1 the pupil1 because of insufficient repetition1 would rapidly forget the facts he had once learned or would never really know the facts at all1 because he had not seen them in all their connections4 ,there are two methods of conducting these reviews3 7#a7 by means of the topical outline1 7#b7 by means of the method of comparison4 ,,the ,,topical ,,review ,purpose of ,topical ,outlines4--,by this method the pupil gets a bird's-eye view of a whole field4 ,in learning the matter originally1 his attention was largely concentrated upon the individual facts1 and it is quite probable that he has since lost sight of some of the threads of unity running through them4 ,the topical outline will bring these into prominence4 ,it will enable the pupil to keep in his mind the most important headings of a subject1 the sub-headings1 and the individual facts coming under these4 ,whatever may be said against the practice of memorizing topical outlines1 it must be acknowledged that unless it is done the pupil's knowledge of the subject is likely to be very hazy1 indefinite1 and disconnected4 ,illustrations from ,history4--,as an illustration of the review lesson by means of the topical outline1 take the history of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4 ,if the pupil has followed the order of the text-book1 he has probably learned this subject in pieces--a bit here1 another some pages later1 and still another a few chapters farther on4 ,in the multiplicity of other events1 he has probably missed the connections among the facts1 and a topical review will be necessary to establish these4 ,he may be required to go through his history text-book1 reading all the parts relating to the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4 ,he will thus get a grasp of the relationships among the facts1 and this will be made firmer if an outline such as the following is worked out with the assistance of the teacher4 ,,the ,,hudson',s ,,bay ,,company ,i4 ,,early ,,history3 #a4 ,groseilliers and ,radisson interest ,prince ,rupert in possibilities of trade in ,north-,western ,canada4 ,two vessels fitted out for ,hudson's ,bay4 ,report favourable4 #b4 ,charter granted ,hudson's ,bay ,company by ,charles ,,ii1 #afgj4 #c4 ,forts ,nelson1 ,albany1 ,rupert1 and ,hayes attacked and captured by ,de,troyes and ,d',iberville1 #afhf4 ,restored by ,treaty of ,utrecht1 #agac4 ,,ii4 ,,nature ,,of ,,fur-,,trade3 #a4 ,furs gathered by ,indians in winter4 #b4 ,conveyed to forts in summer1 after incredible difficulties4 #c4 ,ceremonies on arrival of ,indians at forts4 #d4 ,articles exchanged for furs at first showy and worthless1 but later more useful and valuable1 for example1 guns1 hatchets1 powder1 shot1 blankets1 etc4 ,,iii4 ,,rivals ,,of ,,hudson',s ,,bay ,,company3 #a4 ,coureurs-de-bois4 #b4 ,scottish traders--ranged from ,michilimackinac to ,saskatchewan4 ,h4,b4 ,co4 built ,cumberland ,house on ,saskatchewan to compete for interior trade4 #c4 ,north-,west ,company1 #aghc-d--;at first friendly to ,h4,b4 ,co41 but later bitter enemies4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,selkirk ,,settlement3 #a4 ,establishment4--,lord ,selkirk1 a ,scottish philanthropist1 and a shareholder in the ,hudson's ,bay ,co41 purchased from the ,company #gj1jjj square miles of land around ,red ,river for ,scotch colonies1 #ahaa4 ,about three hundred settlers came within three years4 ,miles ,macdonell at head of the colony4 #b4 ,trouble with ,north-,west ,company4-- 7a7 ,suspicion of ,n4,w4 ,co4 that colony was established by ,h4,b4 ,co4 to compete for fur trade4 7b7 ,proclamation of ,macdonell that food should not be taken out of settlement4 ,attack on colony by ,metis ,indians encouraged by ,n4,w4 ,co4 ,withdrawal of colonists to ,lake ,winnipeg4 7c7 ,return with reinforcements under ,semple4 ,skirmish at ,seven ,oaks1 #ahaf4 ,semple with twenty others killed4 7d7 ,selkirk's descent upon ,fort ,william4 ,arrest of several ,nor',westers4 ,colony at ,red ,river restored4 7e7 ,nor',westers acquitted of murder of ,semple4 ,selkirk convicted and heavily fined for acts of violence4 ,selkirk withdrew from ,canada in disappointment and disgust4 #c4 ,later ,progress4-- 7a7 ,hardships of pioneer life like those of ,ontario4 7b7 ,a series of disasters--grasshoppers1 floods4 7c7 ,prosperity finally came4 7d7 ,government at first administered by governor of ,h4,b4 ,co41 later assisted by ,council of fourteen members4 ,v4 ,,amalgamation ,,of ,,rival ,,companies3 #a4 ,union4-- ,after withdrawal of ,selkirk1 the ,h4,b4 ,co4 and the ,n4,w4 ,co4 united in #ahba1 under name of former4 #b4 ,subsequent ,progress4-- 7a7 ,governor ,sir ,george ,simpson extended posts westward to ,pacific4 7b7 ,through his energy ,britain was able to retain possession of ,western ,canada in spite of aggression of ,united ,states and ,russia4 ,,vi4 ,,relinquishment ,,of ,,administrative ,,powers3 #a4 ,canadian ,government claimed that the rule of the ,company hindered development of ,western ,canada because it was interested only in trade4 #b4 ,agreement with ,canadian ,government4-- 7a7 ,company sold ,prince ,rupert's ,land and gave up its trade monopoly4 7b7 ,in return4-- 7i7 ,received #cjj1jjj4 7ii7 ,retained one twentieth of land south of the ,saskatchewan4 7iii7 ,retained its posts and trading privileges4 #c4 ,company still exists as a trading organization with many posts in the ,west and large stores in many cities4 ,,vii4 ,,services ,,of ,h4,b4 ,,co4 ,,to ,,canada ,,and ,,the ,,empire3 #a4 ,opened up a valuable trade in ,western ,canada4 #b4 ,explored and opened up the ,west for settlement4 #c4 ,retained for ,britain the territory west of ,rockies when it was in danger of falling into other hands4 ,the subjects of the ,public and ,separate ,school ,course where topical reviews are most necessary are history and geography4 ,,the ,,comparative ,,review ,a thing always stands out most vividly in the mind when the relations of similarity and difference are perceived between it and other things4 ,when we compare and contrast two things1 certain features of each that would otherwise escape our attention are brought to light4 ,we get a clearer idea of both the rabbit and the squirrel when we compare their various characteristics4 ,great ,britain and ,germany are each better understood geographically1 when we set up comparisons between them2 ,pitt and ,walpole stand out more clearly as statesmen when we compare and contrast them4 ,one of the most effective forms of review is that in which the relations of likeness and difference are set up between subjects that have already been studied4 ,for instance1 the geographical features of ,manitoba and ,british ,columbia may be effectively reviewed by instituting comparisons between them in regard to 7#a7 position and size1 7#b7 physical features1 7#c7 climate1 7#d7 industries1 7#e7 products1 7#f7 commercial centres4 ,the careers of ,walpole and ,pitt might be reviewed by comparing and contrasting them with regard to 7#a7 circumstances under which each became ,prime ,minister1 7#b7 domestic policy1 7#c7 foreign policy1 7#d7 circumstances surrounding the resignation of each1 7#e7 personal character4 ,whatever form the review lesson may take1 the teacher should always keep in mind its two main purposes1 namely1 7#a7 the organization of knowledge which comes through the apprehension of new relationships1 and 7#b7 the deeper impression of facts on the mind which comes through attentive repetition4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,questioning ,importance4--,as a teaching device1 questioning must always occupy a place of the highest importance4 ,while it may not be always true that good questioning is synonymous with good teaching1 there can be no doubt that the good teacher must have1 as one of his qualifications1 the ability to question well4 ,a good question is a problem to solve4 ,a stimulating problem arouses and directs mental activity4 ,well-directed mental activity is the prime requisite of all learning and one of the ends which all effective teaching endeavours to realize4 ,questioning is one of the best means of securing that desirable activity of mind without which intellectual progress is impossible4 ,the teacher who would master the technique of his art must study to attain skill in questioning4 ,,qualifications ,,of ,,the ,,good ,,questioner ,a4 ,knowledge of ,subject and of ,mind4--,the most obvious essentials are familiarity with the subject-matter and a knowledge of the mental processes of the child4 ,without the first1 the questions will be pointless1 haphazard1 and unsystematic2 without the second1 they will be ill-adjusted to the interests and attainments of the pupils4 ,a thorough knowledge of the facts of the lesson and a keen insight into the workings of the child mind are indispensable4 ,b4 ,analytic ,ability4--,as an accompaniment of the first of these qualifications1 the good questioner must have analytic ability4 ,the material of the lesson must be analysed into its elements and the relations of these must be clearly perceived if it is to be effectively presented to the pupils4 ,the teacher must further have the power to discriminate between the important and the unimportant4 ,the ability to seize upon the essential features and to give due prominence to these is one of the most valuable accomplishments a teacher can have4 ,c4 ,knowledge of ,pupils' ,experiences4--,as an accompaniment of the second qualification1 the good questioner must have a knowledge of the previous experience and of the capacities of the pupils4 ,good teaching consists largely in the skilful adjustment of the new to the old4 ,the teacher must ascertain what the pupils already know1 what their interests are1 and what matter they may reasonably be expected to apprehend1 if he is to have them assimilate properly the facts of the lesson4 ,he must further show sympathy and tact in order to inspire the pupils to their best effort4 ,he must be able to detect unerringly the symptoms of inattention1 listlessness1 and misbehaviour1 and by a well-directed question to bring back the wandering attention to the subject in hand4 ,faults in ,questioning4--,there are two serious weaknesses that many young teachers exhibit1 namely1 questioning when they ought to tell and telling when they ought to question4 ,to tell pupils what they might easily discover for themselves is to deprive them of the joy of conquest and to miss an opportunity of exercising and strengthening their mental powers4 ,on the other hand1 to question upon matter which the pupils cannot reasonably be expected to know or discover is to discourage effort and encourage guessing4 ,to know just when to question and when to tell requires considerable discrimination and insight on the part of the teacher4 ,,purposes ,,of ,,questioning ,questioning has three main purposes1 namely3 #a4 ,to determine the limits of the pupil's present knowledge in order that the teacher may have a definite basis upon which to build the new material2 #b4 ,to direct the pupil's thought along a prescribed channel to a definite end1 to lead him to make discoveries and form conclusions on his own account2 #c4 ,to ascertain how far he has grasped the meaning of the new material that has been presented4 ,a4 ,preparatory4--,the first of these purposes may be designated as preparatory4 ,here the teacher clears the ground for the presentation of the new matter by recalling the old related facts necessary to the interpretation of the new4 ,in thus sounding the depths of the pupil's previous knowledge1 the teacher should usually ask questions that demand fairly long answers instead of those which may be answered briefly4 ,the onus of the recall should be placed largely upon the pupil4 ,the teacher will do comparatively little talking2 the pupil will do much4 ,b4 ,developing4--,the second purpose may be described as developing4 ,the pupil is led step by step to a conclusion4 ,each question grows naturally out of the preceding question1 the responsibility for this logical connection falling upon the teacher4 ,the pupil has before him a certain set of conditions1 and he is asked to infer the logical result of such conditions4 ,he forms inferences1 makes new discoveries1 sets up new relationships1 and formulates definitions and laws4 ,it should be noted that this form of questioning gives no entirely new information to the pupil4 ,it merely classifies and organizes what is already in his mind in a more or less indistinct and nebulous form4 ,new information cannot be questioned out of a pupil2 it must be given to him directly4 ,c4 ,recapitulation4--,the third purpose of questioning may be described as recapitulatory4 ,the pupil is asked to reproduce what he has learned during the progress of the lesson4 ,at convenient intervals during the presentation and at the close1 he should be asked to summarize in a connected manner the main points already covered4 ,thus the teacher tests the pupil's comprehension of the facts of the lesson4 ,the pupil1 on his side1 as a result of such reproduction1 has the facts more clearly fixed in his mind4 ,as in the first stage of the lesson1 the answers should be of considerable length1 logically connected1 and expressed in good language4 ,the responsibility for this is again thrown largely upon the pupil4 ,he does most of the talking2 the teacher does little4 ,how ,employed in ,lesson4--,it will thus be recognized that questioning is employed for different purposes at the three different stages of the lesson4 ,at the opening of the lesson it prepares the mind of the pupil for what is to follow4 ,during the presentation it leads the pupil to form his own inferences4 ,at the close of the lesson it tests his grasp of the facts and gives these greater clearness and fixity in his mind4 ,the first and third might both be designated as testing purposes1 and the second training4 ,,socratic ,,questioning ,its ,characteristics4--,developing1 or training1 questions1 are sometimes referred to as ,socratic questions4 ,the terms are1 however1 not altogether synonymous4 ,the method of ,socrates had two divisions1 known as irony and maieutics4 ,the former consisted in leading the pupil to express an opinion on some subject of current interest1 an opinion that was apparently accepted by ,socrates4 ,then1 by a series of questions adroitly put1 he drove his pupil into a contradiction or an absurd position1 thus revealing the inadequacy of the answer4 ,this phase of the ,socratic method is rarely applicable with young children4 ,occasionally1 in grammar or arithmetic1 for instance1 an incorrect answer may properly be followed up so as to lead the pupil into a contradiction1 but it is usually not desirable to embarrass him unnecessarily4 ,it is never agreeable to be covered with the confusion which such a situation usually brings about4 ,the other phase of the ,socratic method1 the maieutics1 consisted in leading the pupil1 by a further series of questions1 to formulate the correct opinion of which the first hastily-given answer was only a fragment4 ,this coincides with the developing method and may sometimes be profitably employed with young children4 ,,example ,,of ,,socratic ,,questioning4--,as an example of ,socratic questioning may be noted the following taken from ,plato's ,minos4 ,socrates has questioned his companion concerning the nature of ,law and has received the answer1 ,law is the decree of the city4 ,to show his companion the inadequacy of this definition1 ,socrates engages with him in the following dialogue3 ,socrates3 ,justice and law1 are highly honourable2 injustice and lawlessness1 highly dishonourable2 the former preserves cities1 the latter ruins them8 ,pupil3 ,yes1 it does4 ,socrates3 ,well1 then6 we must consider law as something honourable2 and seek after it1 under the assumption that it is a good thing4 ,you defined law to be the decree of the city3 ,are not some decrees good1 others evil8 ,pupil3 ,unquestionably4 ,socrates3 ,but we have already said that law is not evil8 ,pupil3 ,i admit it4 ,socrates3 ,it is incorrect therefore to answer1 as you did broadly1 that law is the decree of the city4 ,an evil decree cannot be law4 ,pupil3 ,i see that it is incorrect4 ,having shown his pupil the fallacy of his first definition1 ,socrates proceeds to teach him that only what is right is lawful4 ,this part of the dialogue proceeds as follows3 ,socrates3 ,those who know1 must of necessity hold the same opinion with each other1 on matters which they know3 always and everywhere8 ,pupil3 ,yes--always and everywhere4 ,socrates3 ,physicians write respecting matters of health what they account to be true1 and these writings of theirs are the medical laws8 ,pupil3 ,certainly they are4 ,socrates3 ,the like is true respecting the laws of farming1 the laws of gardening1 the laws of cookery4 ,all these are the writings of persons1 knowing in each of the respective pursuits8 ,pupil3 ,yes4 ,socrates3 ,in like manner1 what are the laws respecting the government of a city8 ,are they not the writings of those who know how to govern--kings1 statesmen1 and men of superior excellence8 ,pupil3 ,truly so4 ,socrates3 ,knowing men like these will not write differently from each other about the same things1 nor change what they have once written4 ,if1 then1 we see some doing this1 are we to declare them knowing or ignorant8 ,pupil3 ,ignorant1 undoubtedly4 ,socrates3 ,whatever is right1 therefore1 we may pronounce to be lawful in medicine1 gardening1 or cookery2 whatever is not right1 not to be lawful but lawless4 ,and the like in treatises respecting just and unjust1 prescribing how the city is to be administered4 ,that which is right1 is the regal law2 that which is not right1 is not so1 but only seems to be law in the eyes of the ignorant1 being in truth lawless4 ,pupil3 ,yes4 ,it will be seen from the above examples1 that much of the ,socratic questioning is really explanatory2 the questions1 though interrogative in form1 being often rhetorical1 and therefore assertive in value4 ,,the ,,question ,characteristics of a ,good ,question4--,good questions should seize upon the important features and emphasize these4 ,unimportant details1 though useful in giving vividness to a narrative and enabling the pupil to build up a clear picture of the scene or incident1 may well be ignored in questioning4 ,the teacher must see that the pupil grasps the essentials and must direct his questions towards the attainment of that end4 ,the questions should be arranged in logical sequence1 so that the answers1 if written out in the order given1 would form a connected account of the topic under discussion4 ,further1 the questions should require the expression of a judgment on the part of the pupil4 ,in the main they should not be answerable by a single word or a brief phrase4 ,one of the greatest weaknesses in the answers of pupils is the tendency to extreme brevity4 ,as a result1 it is difficult to get pupils to give a connected and continuous narration1 description1 or exposition in any subject4 ,the remedy for this defect is to ask questions which demand answers of considerable length1 and to avoid those which require only a scrappy answer4 ,form of the ,question4--,it should ever be borne in mind that the teacher's language influences the language habits of his pupils4 ,carelessly worded1 poorly constructed questions are likely to result in answers having similar characteristics4 ,on the other hand1 correctness in the form of the questions asked1 accuracy in the use of words1 simple1 straightforward statements of the thing wanted1 will be reflected1 dimly perhaps1 in the form of the pupils' answers4 ,care must1 therefore1 be exercised as to the form in which questions are asked4 ,they should be stripped of all superfluous introductory words1 such as1 ,who can tell8 ,how many of you know8 etc4 ,such prefaces are not only useless and a waste of time1 but they also put before pupils a bad model if we are to expect concise and direct statements from them4 ,the questions should be so clear and definite in meaning as to admit of only one interpretation4 ,questions such as1 ,what happened after this8 ,what did ,cromwell become8 ,what about the rivers of ,germany8 ,what might we say of this word8 are objectionable on the score of indefiniteness4 ,many correct answers might be given for each and the pupils can only guess at what is required4 ,if the question cannot be so stated as to make what is desired unmistakable1 the information had better be given outright4 ,questions should be brief and usually deal with only one point1 except1 perhaps in asking for summaries of what has been covered in the lesson4 ,in the latter case it is frequently desirable to put a question involving several points in order to ensure definiteness1 conciseness1 and connectedness in the answer2 for example1 ,for what is ,alexander ,mackenzie noted8 ,state his great aim and describe his two most important undertakings connected therewith4 ,but in dealing with matter taken up for the first time or involving original thought1 this type of question1 demanding as it does attention to several points1 would put too great a demand upon the powers of young children4 ,under such conditions it is best to ask questions requiring only one point in answer4 ,,the ,,answer ,form of ,answers4--,the possibility of improving the pupil's language power through his answers has already been referred to4 ,to secure the best results in this regard1 the teacher should insist on answers that are grammatically correct and1 usually1 in complete sentences4 ,it would be pedantic1 however1 to insist always upon the latter condition4 ,for such questions as1 ,what ,british officer was killed at ,queenston ,heights8 or ,what province lies west of ,manitoba8 the natural answers are ,general ,brock1 or ,saskatchewan4 ,to require pupils to say1 ,the ,british officer killed at ,queenston ,heights was ,general ,brock1 or ,the province west of ,manitoba is ,saskatchewan1 would be to make the recitation unnatural and formal4 ,when answers are a mere echo of the question1 with some slight inversion or addition1 they become exceedingly mechanical1 and useless from the point of view of language training4 ,while it is desirable to avoid1 as far as possible1 questions that admit of answers of a single word or short phrase1 such questions are sometimes necessary and are not objectionable4 ,questions should not be thrown into the form of an elliptical statement in which the pupil merely fills a blank1 for example1 ,the capital of ,ontario is4448 ,the first ,english parliament was called by4448 ,nor should they be given in inverted form1 as1 ,montreal is situated where8 ,the ,great ,charter was signed by what king8 ,alternative questions such as1 ,is this a noun or an adjective8 ,was ,charles ,i willing or unwilling to sign the ,petition of ,right8 as well as those questions that are answerable by ,yes or ,no1 require little thought to answer and should be avoided if possible4 ,when they are used1 the pupil should at once be required to give reasons for his answer4 ,neither the form of the question nor the teacher's tone of voice or manner should afford any inkling as to the answer expected4 ,calling for ,answers4--,in order that the attention of the whole class may be maintained1 the question should be proposed before the pupil who is to answer is indicated4 ,no fixed order in calling upon the pupils should be adopted4 ,if the pupils are never certain beforehand who is to be named to answer the question1 they are more likely to be kept constantly on the alert4 ,the questions should be carefully distributed among the class1 the duller pupils being given rather more and easier questions than the brighter ones4 ,one of the temptations that the teacher has to overcome is that of giving the clever and willing pupils the majority of the questions4 ,the question should seldom be repeated unless the first wording is so unfortunate that the meaning is not clear and it is found necessary to recast it4 ,to repeat questions habitually is to put a premium on inattention on the part of the pupils4 ,a bad habit often noted among teachers is that of wording the question in several ways before any one is asked to answer it4 ,methods of ,dealing with ,answers4--,as has been already indicated in another connection1 the answers of the pupils should be generally in complete sentences and frequently should be in the form of a continuous paragraph or series of paragraphs1 especially in summaries and reviews4 ,the continuous answer should be cultivated much more than it is1 as a means of training pupils to organize their information and to express themselves in clear and connected discourse4 ,on the other hand1 however1 children should be discouraged from giving more information than is demanded by the question4 ,while it is desirable that the correctness of an answer should be indicated in some way1 the teacher should guard against forming the habit of indicating every correct answer by a stereotyped word or phrase1 such as1 ,yes or ,that's right4 ,answers should seldom be repeated by the teacher1 unless it is desirable to re-word them for purposes of emphasis4 ,repetition of answers encourages careless articulation on the part of the pupil answering and inattention on the part of the others4 ,one of the worst habits a teacher can contract is the gramophonic repetition of pupils' answers4 ,the answers given by the pupils should almost invariably be individual1 not collective4 ,simultaneous answering makes a noisy class-room1 cultivates a monotonous and measured method of speaking1 and encourages the habit of relying on others4 ,there are always a few leaders in the class that are willing to take the initiative in answering1 and the others merely chime in with them4 ,the method is not suitable for the expression of individual opinion1 for all pupils must answer alike4 ,there is1 further1 the possibility that absurd blunders may pass uncorrected1 because in the general repetition the teacher cannot detect them4 ,,limitations ,though questioning is the most valuable of teaching devices1 it is quite susceptible of being overworked4 ,there is quite as much danger of using it too extensively as there is of using it too little4 ,frequently1 teachers try to question from pupils what they could not be expected to know4 ,further1 it is possible by too much questioning to cover up the point of the lesson rather than reveal it1 and to mystify the pupils rather than clarify their ideas4 ,these are the two main abuses of the device4 ,after all1 it should be remembered that1 important as good questioning undoubtedly is1 it is not the only thing in lesson technique4 ,in teaching1 as elsewhere1 variety is the spice of life4 ,sympathy1 sincerity1 enthusiasm in the teacher will do more to secure mental activity in the pupils than mere excellence in questioning4 ,the energetic1 enthusiastic1 sympathetic teacher may secure better results than the teacher whose ability in questioning is well-nigh perfect1 but who lacks these other qualities4 ,if1 however1 to these qualities he adds a high degree of efficiency in questioning1 his success in teaching is so much the more assured4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,educational ,,psychology ,,chapter ,,xix ,,consciousness ,data of ,psychology4--,throughout the earlier parts of the text1 occasional reference has been made to various classes of mental states1 and to psychology1 as the science which treats of these mental states1 under the assumption that such references would be understood in a general way by the student-teacher4 ,at the outset of a study of psychology as the science of mind1 however1 it becomes necessary to inquire somewhat more fully into the nature of the data with which the science is to deal4 ,mind is usually defined either by contrasting it with the concrete world of matter1 or by describing its activities4 ,it is said1 for instance1 that mind is that which feels and knows1 which hopes1 fears1 determines1 etc4 ,by some1 indeed1 mind is described as merely the sum of these states of knowing and feeling and willing4 ,the practical man says1 however1 ,i know and feel so-and-so1 and my wish is so-and-so4 ,here an evident distinction is drawn between the knower1 or conscious self1 and his conscious activities4 ,while1 however1 we may agree with the practical man that there is a mind1 or self1 that knows and wills and feels2 yet it is evident that the self1 or knower1 can know himself only through his conscious states4 ,it must be understood1 therefore1 that mind in its ultimate sense cannot be studied directly1 but only the conscious states1 or conditions of mind4 ,thus psychology becomes a study of mental states1 or states of consciousness2 and it is1 in fact1 frequently described as the science of consciousness4 ,nature of ,consciousness4--,our previous study of the nature of experience has shown that various kinds of conscious states may arise in the mind1 now the smell of burning cloth1 now the sound of a ringing bell1 now the feeling of bodily pain1 now a remembered joy1 now a future expectation or a resolution4 ,such a conscious state was seen1 moreover1 to represent on the part of the mind1 not a mere passive impression coming from some external source1 but an active attitude resulting in definite experience4 ,it signifies1 in other words1 a power to react in a fixed way toward impressions1 and direct our conduct in accordance with the resulting states of consciousness4 ,consciousness in the individual implies1 therefore1 that he is aware of phenomena as they are experienced1 and is able to modify his behaviour accordingly4 ,types of ,consciousness4--,although allowable1 from the standpoint of the learning process1 to describe a conscious state as an attitude of awareness in which the individual grasps the significance of an experience in relation to his own needs2 it must be recognized that not all consciousness manifests this meaningful quality1 or this relation to a felt aim1 or end4 ,while lying1 for instance1 in a vague1 half-awake state1 although one is conscious1 the mental condition is quite devoid of the meaningful quality referred to1 and entirely lacks the feeling of reaction1 or of mental effort4 ,in this case there is no distinct reference to the needs of the self1 and a lack of that focusing of attention necessary to give the consciousness a meaning and purpose in the life of the individual4 ,all such passive1 or effortless1 states of consciousness1 which make up those portions of mental existence in which no definite presentation seems to hold the attention1 although falling within the sphere of the scientific psychologist1 may nevertheless be left out of consideration in a study of educational psychology4 ,learning involves apperception1 and apperception is always giving a meaning to new presentations by actively bringing old knowledge to bear upon them4 ,for the educator1 therefore1 psychology may be limited to a study of the definite states of consciousness which arise through an apperceiving act of attention1 that is1 to our states of experience and the processes connected therewith4 ,for this reason1 psychology is by some appropriately enough defined as the science of experience4 ,consciousness a ,stream4--,although we describe the data of psychology as facts1 or states1 of consciousness1 a moment's reflection will show that our conscious life is not made up of a number of mental states1 or experiences1 completely separated one from the other4 ,our consciousness is rather a unified whole1 in which seemingly disconnected states blend into one continuous flow of conscious life4 ,for this reason1 consciousness is frequently compared to a stream1 or river1 moving onward in an unbroken course4 ,this stream of consciousness appears as disjointed mental states1 simply because the attention discriminates within this stream1 and thus in a sense detaches different portions one from the other1 or1 as sometimes figuratively put1 it creates successive waves on the stream of consciousness4 ,a mental state1 or experience1 so-called1 is such a discriminated portion of this stream of consciousness1 and is1 therefore1 itself a process1 the different processes blending in a continuous succession or relation to make up the unbroken flow of conscious life4 ,for this reason psychology is frequently described as a study of conscious processes4 ,,value ,,of ,,educational ,,psychology ,within the school the child secures a control of experience only by passing through a process of mental reconstruction1 or of changes in consciousness4 ,moreover1 to bring about these mental changes1 it is found necessary for the teacher's effort to conform as far as possible to the interests and tendencies of the child4 ,so far1 therefore1 as the teacher's office is to direct and control the children's effort during the learning process1 he must approach them primarily as mental1 or conscious1 beings4 ,for this reason the educator should at least not violate the general principles governing all mental activity4 ,by giving him an insight into the general principles underlying conscious processes1 psychology should aid the teacher to control the learning process in the child4 ,,limitations ,,of ,,educational ,,psychology ,psychology ,cannot ,give3 ,a4 ,knowledge of ,subject-matter4--,it must not be assumed1 however1 that knowledge of psychology will necessarily imply a corresponding ability to teach4 ,psychology1 for instance1 cannot decide what should be taught to the child4 ,this1 as we have seen1 is a problem of social experience1 and must be decided by considering the types of experience which will add to the social efficiency of the individual1 or which will enable him best to do his duty to himself and to others4 ,all1 therefore1 that psychology can do here is to explain the process by which experience is acquired1 leaving to social ethics the problem of deciding what knowledge is of most worth4 ,b4 ,love for ,children4--,again1 psychology will not necessarily furnish that largeness of heart and sympathy for childhood1 without which no teacher can be successful4 ,indeed1 it is felt by many that making children objects of psychological analysis will rather tend to destroy that more spiritual conception of their personality which should constitute the teacher's attitude toward his pupils4 ,while this is no doubt true of the teacher who looks upon children merely as subjects for psychological analysis and experimentation1 it is equally true that a knowledge of psychology will enable even the sympathetic teacher to realize more fully and deal more successfully with the difficulties of the pupil4 ,c4 ,acquaintance with the ,individual ,child4--,again1 the teacher's problem in dealing with the mental attitude of the particular child cannot always be interpreted through general principles4 ,the general principle would be supposed to have an application to every child in a large class4 ,it is often found1 however1 that the character and disposition of the particular child demands1 not general1 but special treatment4 ,here1 what is termed the knack of the sympathetic teacher is often more effective than the general principle of the psychologist4 ,admitting so much1 however1 it yet may be argued that a knowledge of psychology will not hinder1 but rather assist the sympathetic teacher in dealing even with special cases4 ,,methods ,,of ,,psychology ,a4 ,introspection4--,a unique characteristic of mind is its ability to turn attention inward and make an object of study of its own states1 or processes4 ,for instance1 the mind is able to make its present sensation1 its remembered state of anger1 its idea of a triangle1 etc41 stand out in consciousness as a subject of study for conscious attention4 ,on account of this ability to give attention to his own states of consciousness1 man is said both to know and to know that he knows4 ,this reflective method of studying our own mental states is known as the method of ,introspection4 ,b4 ,objective ,method4--,facts of mind may1 however1 be examined objectively4 ,as previously noted1 man1 by his words1 acts1 and works1 gives expression to his conscious states4 ,these different forms of expression are accepted1 therefore1 as external indications of corresponding states of mind1 and afford the psychologist certain data for developing his science4 ,one of the most important of these objective methods is known as ,child ,study4 ,here1 by the method of observing the acts and language of very young children1 data are obtained concerning the native instincts of the child1 concerning the genesis and development of the different mental processes1 and the relation of these to physical development4 ,a brief statement of the leading principles of ,child ,study will be found in ,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,c4 ,experimental ,method4--,a third method of studying mind is known as the ,experimental method4 ,here1 as in the case of the ordinary physical experimenter1 the psychologist seeks to control certain mental processes by isolating them and regulating their action4 ,this may be effectively done in the study of certain processes4 ,for instance1 by passing the two points of a pair of compasses over different parts of the body1 the tactile sensibility of the skin may be compared at these different parts4 ,by this means it may be shown that the tip of the finger can detect the two points when only one twelfth of an inch apart1 while on the middle of the back they may require to be two and a half inches apart to give a double impression4 ,the experimental method is often used in connection with the objective method in ,child ,study4 ,,phases ,,of ,,consciousness ,a4 ,knowledge4--,although1 as previously stated1 the stream of consciousness must at all times be looked upon as a unity1 it will be found upon analysis to present three more or less distinct phases4 ,a state of consciousness implies1 in the first place1 being aware of something as an object of attention4 ,in other words1 something is seized upon by consciousness as a presentation1 and to the extent to which one is aware of this object of consciousness1 he is said to recognize1 or to know it4 ,a state of consciousness is always1 therefore1 a state of knowledge1 or of intelligence4 ,thus1 whether we perceive this chair1 imagine a mermaid1 recall the looks of an absent friend1 experience the toothache1 judge the weight of this book1 or become angry1 our conscious state is a state of knowledge4 ,b4 ,feeling4--,a conscious state is also a state of feeling4 ,every conscious state has its feeling side1 since it is a personal state1 or since the mind itself is affected toward its own state4 ,two men1 for instance1 may know equally well the taste of a particular food1 but the taste may affect each one quite differently4 ,to one the experience is pleasant1 to the other it may be even painful4 ,two boys may know equally that a point has been scored by the visiting team1 but the personal attitude of each toward the experience may be quite different4 ,the one finds in it a quality of joy2 the other a quality of sorrow4 ,in the same way the mind always feels more or less pleased or displeased in its present state of consciousness4 ,to speak of any particular experience as painful1 joyous1 sorrowful1 etc41 is1 therefore1 to refer to it as a state of feeling4 ,c4 ,will4--,consciousness is a state of effort1 or will4 ,it was especially pointed out above1 that the purposeful consciousness always implies a straining or focusing of consciousness in order to attain a fuller control of the experience4 ,this element of exertion manifest in consciousness may appear as a directing of attention1 as the making of a choice1 as determining upon a certain action1 etc4 ,this aspect of any conscious state is spoken of as a state of will1 or volition4 ,in the unity of the conscious life1 therefore1 there are three attitudes from which consciousness may be viewed3 #a4 ,it is a state of ,knowledge1 or of ,intelligence4 #b4 ,it is a state of ,feeling4 #c4 ,it is a state of ,will4 ,on account of this threefold aspect of mental states1 consciousness has been represented in the following form3 ,illustration ,the significance of comparing the threefold aspect of consciousness to the three sides of a triangle consists in the fact that if any side of a triangle is removed no triangle remains4 ,in like manner1 none of the three attributes of consciousness could be wanting without the conscious state ceasing to exist as such4 ,no one1 for instance1 could feel the pressure of a tight shoe without at the same time knowing it1 and fixing his attention upon it4 ,neither could a person at any particular time know that the shoe was pinching him unless he was also attending to and feeling the experience4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,mind ,,and ,,body ,relation of ,mind to ,bodily ,organism4--,notwithstanding the antithesis which has been affirmed to exist between mind and matter1 yet a very close relation exists between mind and the material organism known as the body4 ,there are many ways in which this intimate connection manifests itself4 ,mental excitement is always accompanied with agitation of the body and a disturbance of such bodily processes as breathing1 the beating of the heart1 digestion1 etc4 ,such mental processes as seeing1 hearing1 tasting1 etc41 are found also to depend upon the use of a bodily organ1 as the eye1 the ear1 the tongue1 without which it is quite impossible for the mind to come into relation with outside things4 ,moreover1 disease or injury1 especially to the organs of sense or to the brain1 weakens or destroys mental power4 ,the size of the brain1 also1 is found to bear a certain relation to mental capacity2 the weight of the average brain being about #dh ounces1 while the brain of an idiot often weighs only from #bj to #cj ounces4 ,,the ,,nervous ,,system ,illustration3 ,brain and ,spinal ,cord ,divisions of ,nervous ,system4--,this intimate connection between mind and body is provided for through the existence of that part of the bodily organism known as the nervous system1 and it is this part1 together with its associated organs of sense1 that chiefly interests the student of psychology4 ,a study of the character and functions of the various parts of the nervous system1 and of the nervous substance of which these parts are composed1 belongs to physiology rather than to psychology4 ,as the student-teacher is given a general knowledge of the structure of the nervous system in his study of physiology1 a brief description will suffice for the present purpose4 ,the nervous system consists of two parts1 7#a7 the central part1 or cerebro-spinal centre1 and 7#b7 an outer part--the spinal nerves4 ,the central part1 or cerebro-spinal centre1 includes the spinal cord1 passing upward through the vertebrae of the spinal column and the brain4 ,the brain consists of three parts3 ,the cerebrum1 or great brain1 consisting of two hemispheres1 which1 though connected1 are divided in great part by a longitudinal fissure2 the cerebellum1 or little brain2 and the medulla oblongata1 or bulb4 ,the spinal nerves consist of thirty-one pairs1 which branch out from the spinal cord4 ,each pair of nerves contains a right and left member1 distributed to the right and the left side of the body respectively4 ,these nerves are of two kinds1 sensory1 or afferent1 7in-carrying7 nerves1 which carry inward impressions from the outside world1 and motor1 or efferent1 7out-carrying7 nerves1 which convey impulses outward to the muscles and cause them to contract4 ,there are also twelve pairs of nerves connected with the eye1 ear1 nose1 tongue1 and face1 which1 instead of projecting from the spinal cord1 proceed at once from the brain through openings in the cranium4 ,these are1 therefore1 known as cerebral nerves4 ,in their general character1 however1 they do not differ from the projection fibres4 ,illustration3 ,pair of ,spinal ,nerves ,nervous ,substance4--,nervous substance is divided into two kinds--grey1 or cellular1 substance and white1 or fibrous1 substance4 ,the greater part of the grey matter is situated as a layer on the outside of the cerebrum1 or great brain1 where it forms a rind from one twelfth to one eighth of an inch in thickness1 known as the cortex4 ,it is also found on the surface of the cerebellum4 ,diffuse masses of grey matter are likewise met in the other parts of the brain1 and extending downward through the centre of the spinal cord4 ,the function of the grey matter is to form centres to which the nerve fibres tend and carry in stimulations1 or from which they commence and carry out impulses4 ,the ,neuron4--,the centres of grey matter are composed of aggregations1 or masses1 of very small nerve cells called neurons4 ,a neuron may range from #a_/cjj to #a_/cjjj of an inch in diameter1 and there are several thousand millions of these cells in the nervous system4 ,a developed neuron consists of a cell body with numerous prolongations in the form of white1 thread-like fibres4 ,the neuron with its outgoing fibres is the unit of the nervous system4 ,neurons are supposed to be of three classes1 sensory to receive stimulations1 motor to send out impulses to the muscles1 and association to connect sensory and motor centres4 ,illustration3 ,a ,neuron in ,stages of ,development ,these neurons1 as already noted1 are collected into centres1 and the outgoing fibres give connection to the cells1 the number of connections for each neuron depending upon its outgoing fibres4 ,some of these connections are already established within the system at birth1 while others1 as we shall see more fully later1 are formed whenever the organism is brought into action in our thinking and doing4 ,to speak of such connections being formed between nerve centres by means of their outgoing fibres does not necessarily mean a direct connection1 but may imply only that the fibres of one cell approach nearly enough to those of another to admit of a nervous impulse passing from the one cell to the other4 ,this is often spoken of as the establishment of a path between the centres4 ,the ,nerve ,fibres4--,the nerve fibres which transmit impressions to and from the centres of grey matter average about #a_/fjjj of an inch in thickness1 but are often of great length1 some extending perhaps half the length of the body4 ,large numbers of these fibres unite into a sheath or single nerve4 ,it is estimated that the number of fibres in a single nerve number in most cases several thousand1 those in the nerve of sight being estimated at about one hundred thousand4 ,the fibres in the white substance of the brain are estimated at several hundred million4 ,classes of ,fibres4--,these fibres are supposed to be of four classes1 as follows3 #a4 ,sensory ,cerebral and ,spinal ,fibres ,these have already been referred to as spreading outward from the brain and spinal cord to different parts of the body4 ,their office is1 therefore1 to carry inward to the centres of grey matter impressions received from the outside world1 thus setting up a connection between the various senses and the cortex of the brain4 #b4 ,motor ,cerebral and ,spinal ,fibres ,these fibres connect the centres of grey matter directly with the muscles1 and thus provide a means of communication between these muscles and the cortex of the brain4 #c4 ,association ,fibres ,these connect one part of the cortex with another within the same hemisphere4 #d4 ,commissural ,fibres ,these connect corresponding centres of the two hemispheres of the cerebrum4 ,illustration ,function of ,parts4--,because the various cells are thus brought into relation1 the whole nervous system combines into a single organism1 which is able to receive impressions and provides conditions for the mind to interpret these impressions and1 if necessary1 react thereon4 ,when1 for instance1 a stimulus is received by an end organ 7the eye71 it will be transmitted by a sensory nerve directly inward to a sensory centre1 or cell1 in the cortex of the brain4 ,in such a case it may be interpreted by the mind and a line of action decided upon4 ,then by means of associating cells and fibres a motor centre may be stimulated and an impulse transmitted along an outgoing motor nerve to a muscle1 whereupon the necessary motor reaction will take place4 ,a pupil may1 for instance1 receive the impression of a word through the ear or through the eye and thereupon make a motor response by writing the word4 ,the arrows in the accompanying figure indicate the course of the stimulus and the response in such cases4 ,,the ,,cortex ,cortex the ,seat of ,consciousness4--,experiments in connection with the different nerve cords and centres have demonstrated that intelligent consciousness depends upon the nerve centres situated in the cortex of the cerebrum4 ,for instance1 a sensory impulse may be carried inward to the cells of the spinal cord and upward to the cerebellum without any resulting consciousness4 ,when1 however1 the stimulus reaches a higher centre in the cortex of the brain1 the mind becomes conscious1 or interprets the impression1 and any resulting action will be controlled by consciousness1 through impulses given to the motor nerves4 ,it is for this reason that the cortex is called the seat of consciousness1 and that mind is said to reside in the brain4 ,localization of ,function4--,in addition1 however1 to placing the seat of consciousness in the cortex of the brain1 psychologists also claim that different parts of the cortex are involved in different types of conscious activity4 ,sensations of sight1 for instance1 involve certain centres in the cortex1 sensations of sound other centres1 the movements of the organs of speech still other centres4 ,some go so far as to claim that each one of the higher intellectual processes1 as memory1 imagination1 judgment1 reasoning1 love1 anger1 etc41 involves neural activity in its own special section of the cortex4 ,there seems no good evidence1 however1 to support this view4 ,the fact seems rather that in all these higher processes1 quite numerous centres of the cortex may be involved4 ,the following figure indicates the main conclusions of the psychologists in reference to the localization of certain important functions in distinct areas of the cortex4 ,illustration3 ,,reflex ,,acts ,nature of ,reflex ,action4--,while a lower nerve centre is not a seat for purposeful consciousness1 these centres may1 in addition to serving as transmission points for cortical messages1 perform a special function by immediately receiving sensory impressions and transmitting motor impulses4 ,a person1 for instance1 whose mind is occupied with a problem1 may move a limb to relieve a cramp1 wink the eye1 etc41 without any conscious control of the action4 ,in such a case the sensory impression was reported to a lower sensory centre1 directly carried to a lower motor centre1 and the motor impulse given to perform the movement4 ,in the same way1 after one has acquired the habit of walking1 although it usually requires conscious effort to initiate the movements1 yet the person may continue walking in an almost unconscious manner1 his mind being fully occupied with other matters4 ,here1 also1 the complex actions involved in walking are controlled and regulated by lower centres situated in the cerebellum4 ,in like manner a person will unconsciously close the eyelid under the stimulus of strong light4 ,here the impression caused by the light stimulus1 upon reaching the medulla along an afferent nerve1 is deflected to a motor nerve and1 without any conscious control of the movements1 the muscles of the eyelid receive the necessary impulse to close4 ,actions which are thus directed from a lower centre without conscious control1 are usually spoken of as reflex acts4 ,acts directed by consciousness are1 on the other hand1 known as voluntary acts4 ,the difference in the working of the nervous mechanism in consciously controlled and in reflex action may be illustrated by means of the accompanying figures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #a ,illustration3 ,,fig #b ,the heavy lines in ,figure #a on the opposite page show that the sensory-motor arc is made through the cortex1 and that the mind is1 therefore1 conscious both of the sense stimulus and also of the resulting action4 ,figure #b shows the same arc through a lower centre1 in which case the mind is not directly attending to the impression or the resulting action4 ,function of ,consciousness4--,the facts set forth above serve further to illustrate the purposeful character of consciousness as man interprets and adjusts himself to his surroundings4 ,so long1 for instance1 as the individual walks onward without disturbance1 his mind is free to dwell upon other matters1 cortical activity not being necessary to control the process of walking4 ,if1 however1 he steps upon anything which perhaps threatens him with a fall1 the rhythmic interplay between sensory and motor activity going on in the lower centres is at once disturbed1 and a message is flashed along the sensory nerve to the higher1 or cortical1 centres4 ,this at once arouses consciousness1 and the disturbing factor becomes an object of attention4 ,consciousness thus appears as a means of adaptation to the new and varying conditions with which the organism is confronted4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,nervous ,,matter ,a4 ,plasticity4--,one striking characteristic of nervous matter is its plasticity4 ,the nature of the connections within the nervous system have already been referred to4 ,mention has also been made of the fact that numerous connections are established within the nervous system as a result of movements taking place within the organism during life4 ,in other words1 the movements within the nervous system which accompany stimulations and responses bring about changes in the structure of the organism4 ,the cause for these changes seems to be that the neurons which chance to work together during any experience form connections with one another by means of their outgrowing fibres4 ,by this means1 traces of past experiences are in a sense stored up within the organism1 and it is for this reason that our experiences are said to be recorded within the nervous system4 ,b4 ,retentiveness4--,a second characteristic of nervous matter is its retentive power4 ,in other words1 the modifications which accompany any experience1 besides taking on the permanent character referred to above1 pre-dispose the system to transmit impulses again through the same centres4 ,moreover1 with each repetition of the nervous activity1 there develops a still greater tendency for the movements to re-establish themselves4 ,this power possessed by nervous tissue to establish certain modes of action carries with it also an increase in the ease and accuracy with which the movements are performed4 ,for example1 the impressions and impulses involved in the first attempts of the child to control the clasping of an object1 are performed with effort and in an ineffective manner4 ,the cause for this seems to be largely the absence of proper connections between the centres involved1 as referred to above4 ,this absence causes a certain resistance within the system to the nervous movements4 ,when1 however1 the various centres involved in the movements establish the proper connections with one another1 the act will be performed in a much more effective and easy manner4 ,from this it is evident that the nervous system1 as the result of former experiences1 always retains a certain potential1 or power1 to repeat the act with greater ease1 and thus improve conduct1 or behaviour4 ,this property of nervous matter will hereafter be referred to as its power of retention4 ,c4 ,energy4--,another quality of nervous matter is its energy4 ,by this is meant that the cells are endowed with a certain potential1 or power1 which enables them to transmit impressions and impulses and overcome any resistance offered4 ,different explanations are given as to the nature of this energy1 or force1 with which nervous matter is endowed1 but any study of these theories is unnecessary here4 ,d4 ,resistance4--,a fourth characteristic to be noted regarding nervous matter is that a nervous impulse1 or current1 as it is transmitted through the system1 encounters resistance1 or consumes an amount of nervous energy4 ,moreover1 when the nervous current1 whether sensory or motor1 involves the establishment of new connections between cells1 as when one first learns combinations of numbers or the movements involved in forming a new letter1 a relatively greater amount of resistance is met or1 in other words1 a greater amount of nervous energy is expended4 ,on the other hand1 when an impulse has been transmitted a number of times through a given arc1 the resistance is greatly lessened1 or less energy is expended2 as indicated by the ease with which an habitual act is performed4 ,education and ,nervous ,energy4--,it is evident from the foregoing1 that the forming of new ideas or of new modes of action tends to use up a large share of nervous energy4 ,for this reason1 the learning of new and difficult things should not be undertaken when the body is in a tired or exhausted condition2 for the resistance which must be overcome1 and the changes which must take place in the nervous tissue during the learning process1 are not likely to be effectively accomplished under such conditions4 ,moreover1 the energy thus lost must be restored through the blood1 and therefore demands proper food1 rest1 and sleep on the part of the individual4 ,it should be noted further that nervous tissue is more plastic during the early years of life4 ,this renders it imperative1 therefore1 that knowledge and skill should be gained1 as far as possible1 during the plastic years4 ,the person who wishes to become a great violinist must acquire skill to finger and handle the bow early in life4 ,the person who desires to become a great linguist1 if he allows his early years to pass without acquiring the necessary skill1 cannot expect in middle life to train his vocal organs to articulate a number of different languages4 ,cortical ,habit4--,in the light of what has been seen regarding the character and function of the nervous system1 it will now be possible to understand more fully two important forms of adjustment already referred to4 ,when nervous movements are transmitted to the cortex of the brain1 they not only awaken consciousness1 or make the individual aware of something1 but the present impression also leaves certain permanent effects in the nervous tissue of the cortex itself4 ,since1 however1 cortical activity implies consciousness1 the retention of such a tendency within the cortical centres will imply1 not an habitual act in the ordinary sense1 but a tendency on the part of a conscious experience to repeat itself4 ,this at once implies an ability to retain and recall past experiences1 or endows the individual with power of memory4 ,cortical habit1 therefore1 or the establishment of permanent connections within the cortical centres1 with their accompanying dynamic tendency to repeat themselves1 will furnish the physiological conditions for a revival of former experience in memory1 or will enable the individual to turn the past to the service of the present4 ,physical ,habits4--,the basis for the formation of physical habits appears also in this retentive power of nervous tissue4 ,when the young boy1 for instance1 first mounts his new bicycle1 he is unable1 except with the most attentive effort and in a most laboured and awkward manner1 either to keep his feet on the pedals1 or make the handle-bars respond to the balancing of the wheel4 ,in a short time1 however1 all these movements take place in an effective and graceful manner without any apparent attention being given to them4 ,this efficiency is conditioned by the fact that all these movements have become habitual1 or take place largely as reflex acts4 ,in school also1 when the child learns to perform such an act as making the figure #b1 the same changes take place4 ,here an impression must first proceed from the given copy to a sensory centre in the cortex4 ,as yet1 however1 there is no vital connection established between the sensory centres and the motor centres which must direct the muscles in making the movement4 ,as the movement is attempted1 however1 faint connections are set up between different centres4 ,with each repetition the connection is made stronger1 and the formation of the figure rendered less difficult4 ,so long1 however1 as the connection is established within the cortex1 the movement will not take place except under conscious direction4 ,ultimately1 however1 similar connections between sensory and motor neurons may be established in lower centres1 whereupon the action will be performed as a reflex act1 or without the intervention of a directing act of consciousness4 ,this evidently takes place when a student1 in working a problem1 can form the figures1 while his consciousness is fully occupied with the thought phases of the problem4 ,thus the neural condition of physical habit is the establishment of easy passages between sensory and motor nerves in centres lower than the cortex4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,instinct ,definition of ,instinct4--,in a foregoing section1 it was seen that our bodily movements divide into different classes according to their source1 or origin4 ,among them were noted certain inherited spontaneous1 but useful1 complex movements which follow1 in a more or less uniform way1 definite types of stimuli presented to the organism4 ,such an inherited tendency on the part of an organism to react in an effective manner1 but without any definite purpose in view1 whenever a particular stimulus presents itself1 is known as instinct1 and the resulting action is described as an instinctive act4 ,as an example of purely instinctive action may be taken the maternal instinct of insects whose larv require live prey when they are born4 ,to provide this the mother administers sufficient poison to a spider or a caterpillar to stupefy it1 and then bears it to her nest4 ,placing the victim close to her eggs1 she incloses the two together1 thus providing food for her future offspring4 ,this complex series of acts1 so essential to the continuance of the species1 and seemingly so full of purpose1 is nevertheless conducted throughout without reference to past experience1 and without any future end in view4 ,instinct may1 therefore1 be defined as the ability of an organism to react upon a particular situation so as to gain a desirable end1 yet without any purpose in view or any previous training4 ,characteristics of ,instinct4--,an instinctive act1 it may be noted1 is distinguished by certain well marked characteristics3 #a4 ,the action is not brought about by experience or guided by intelligence1 but is a direct reaction on the part of the organism to definite stimulation4 #b4 ,although not the result of reason1 instinctive action is purposeful to the extent that it shows a predisposition on the part of the organism to react in an effective manner to a particular situation4 #c4 ,an instinctive movement is a response in which the whole organism is concerned4 ,it is the discomfort of the whole organism1 for instance1 that causes the bird to migrate or the child to seek food4 ,in this respect it differs from a mere reflex action such as the winking of the eye1 breathing1 coughing1 etc41 which involves only some particular part of the organism4 #d4 ,although not a consciously purposed action1 instinct nevertheless involves consciousness4 ,in sucking1 for instance1 sensation accompanies both the discomfort of the organism giving rise to the movements and also the instinctive act itself4 ,in this respect it differs from such automatic actions as breathing1 the circulation of the blood1 and the beating of the heart4 ,origin of ,instinct4--,the various instinctive movements with which an organism is endowed1 not being a result of experience or education1 a question at once arises as to their source1 or origin4 ,instinct has its origin in the fact that certain movements which have proved beneficial in the ancestral experience of the race have become established as permanent modes of reaction1 and are transmitted to each succeeding generation4 ,the explanation of this transmission of tendencies is1 that beneficial movements are retained as permanent modifications of the nervous system of the animal1 and are transmitted to the offspring as a reactive tendency toward definite stimuli4 ,the partridge family1 for instance1 has preserved its offspring from the attacks of foxes1 dogs1 and other enemies only by the male taking flight and dragging itself along the ground1 thus attracting the enemy away from the direction of the nest4 ,the complex movements involved in such an act1 becoming established as permanent motor connections within the system1 are transmitted to the offspring as predispositions4 ,instinct would thus seem a physiological habit1 or hereditary tendency1 within the nervous system to react in a fixed manner under certain conditions4 ,in many respects1 however1 instincts seem to depend more largely upon bodily development than upon nervous structure4 ,while the babe will at first instinctively suck2 yet as soon as teeth appear1 the sucking at once gives way to the biting instinct4 ,the sucking instinct then disappears so completely that only a process of education will re-establish it later4 ,birds also show no instinctive tendency to fly until their wings are developed1 while the young of even the fiercest animals will flee from danger1 until such time as their bodily organism is properly developed for attack4 ,from this it would seem that instinctive action depends even more upon general bodily structure and development than upon fixed co-ordinations within the nervous system4 ,,human ,,instincts ,on account of the apparently intelligent character of human actions1 it is often stated that man is a creature largely devoid of instincts4 ,the fact is1 however1 that he is endowed with a large number of impulsive or instinctive tendencies to act in definite ways1 when in particular situations4 ,man has a tendency1 under the proper conditions1 to be fearful1 bashful1 angry1 curious1 sympathetic1 grasping1 etc4 ,it is only1 moreover1 because experience finally gives man ideas of these instinctive movements1 that they may in time be controlled by reason1 and developed into orderly habits4 ,classification of ,human ,instincts4--,various attempts have been made to classify human instincts4 ,for educational purposes1 perhaps the most satisfactory method is that which classifies them according to their relation to the direct welfare of the individual organism4 ,being inherited tendencies on the part of the organism to react in definite ways to definite stimuli1 all instinctive acts should naturally tend to promote the good of the particular individual4 ,different instincts will be found to differ1 however1 in the degree in which they involve the immediate good of the individual organism4 ,on this basis the various human instincts may be divided into the following classes3 #a4 ,individualistic ,instincts4--,some instincts gain their significance because they tend solely to meet the needs of the individual4 ,examples of these would be the instincts involved in securing food1 as biting1 chewing1 carrying objects to the mouth2 such instinctive expressions as crying1 smiling1 and uttering articulate sounds2 rhythmical bodily movements2 bodily expression of fear1 etc4 #b4 ,racial ,instincts4--,these include such instinctive acts as make for the preservation of the species1 as the sexual and parental instincts1 jealousy1 etc4 ,the constructive instinct in man1 also1 may be considered parallel to the nesting instinct in birds and animals4 #c4 ,social ,instincts4--,among these are placed such instinctive tendencies as bashfulness1 sympathy1 the gregarious instinct1 or love of companionship1 anger1 self-assertion1 combativeness1 etc4 #d4 ,instincts of ,adjustment4--,included among man's native tendencies are a number of complex responses which manifest themselves in his efforts to adjust himself to his surroundings4 ,these may be called instinctive so far as concerns their mere impulsive tendency1 which is no doubt inherited4 ,in the operation of these so-called instincts1 however1 there is not seen that definite mode of response to a particular stimulus which is found in a pure instinct4 ,since1 however1 these are important human tendencies1 and since they deal specifically with the child's attitude in adapting himself to his environment1 they rank from an educational standpoint among the most important of human instincts4 ,these include such tendencies as curiosity1 imitation1 play1 constructiveness and acquisitiveness4 ,human ,instincts ,modified by ,experience4--,although instinctive acts are performed without forethought or conscious purpose1 yet in man they may be modified by experience4 ,this is true to a degree even in the case of the instincts of the lower animals4 ,young spiders1 for instance1 construct their webs in a manner inferior to that of their elders4 ,in the case of birds1 also1 the first nest is usually inferior in structure to those of later date4 ,in certain cases1 indeed1 if accounts are to be accepted1 animals are able to vary considerably their instinctive movements according to the particular conditions4 ,it is reported that a swallow had selected a place for her nest between two walls1 the surfaces of which were so smooth that she could find no foundation for her nest4 ,thereupon she fixed a bit of clay to each wall1 laid a piece of light wood upon the clay supports1 and with the stick as a foundation proceeded to construct her nest4 ,on the whole1 however1 there seems little variation in animal instincts4 ,the fish will come a second time to take food off the hook1 the moth will fly again into the flame1 and the spider will again and again build his web over the opening1 only to have it again and again torn away4 ,but whatever may be the amount of variation within the instincts of the lower animals1 in the case of man instinctive action is so modified by experience that his instincts soon develop into personal habits4 ,the reason for this is quite evident4 ,as previously pointed out1 an instinctive act1 though not originally purposeful1 is in man accompanied with a consciousness of both the bodily discomfort and the resulting movements4 ,although1 therefore1 the child instinctively sucks1 grasps at objects1 or is convulsed with fear1 these acts cannot take place without his gradually understanding their significance as states of experience4 ,in this way he soon learns that the indiscriminate performance of an instinctive act may give quite different results1 some being much more valuable to the individual than others4 ,the young child1 for instance1 may instinctively bite whatever enters his mouth1 but the older child has learned that this is not always desirable1 and therefore exercises a voluntary control over the movement4 ,instincts ,differ in ,value4--,the fact that man's instinctive tendencies thus come within the range of experience1 not only renders them amenable to reason1 but also leaves the question of their ultimate outcome extremely indefinite4 ,for this reason many instincts may appear in man in forms that seem undesirable4 ,the instinct to seek food is a natural one1 yet will be condemned when it causes the child to take fruit from the neighbour's garden4 ,in like manner1 the instinct to know his surroundings is natural to man1 but will be condemned when it causes him to place his ear to the keyhole4 ,the tendency to imitate is not in itself evil1 yet the child must learn to weigh the value of what he imitates4 ,one important reason1 therefore1 why the teacher should understand the native tendencies of the child is that he may direct their development into moral habits and suppress any tendencies which are socially undesirable4 ,education of ,instincts4--,in dealing with the moral aspects of the child's instinctive tendencies1 the educator must bear in mind that one tendency may come in conflict with another4 ,the individualistic instinct of feeding or ownership may conflict with the social instinct of companionship2 the instinct of egoism1 with that of imitation2 and the instinct of fear1 with that of curiosity4 ,to establish satisfactory moral habits on the basis of instinct1 therefore1 it is often possible to proceed by a method of substitution4 ,the child who shows a tendency to destroy school furniture can best be cured by having constructive exercises4 ,the boy who shows a natural tendency to destroy animal life may have the same arrested by being given the care of animals and thus having his sympathy developed4 ,in other cases1 the removal of stimuli1 or conditions1 for awaking the instinctive tendency will be found effective in checking the development of an undesirable instinct into a habit4 ,the boy who shows a spirit of combativeness may be cured by having a generous and congenial boy as his chum4 ,the pupil whose social tendencies are so strong that he cannot refrain from talking may be cured by isolation4 ,instincts ,may ,disappear4--,in dealing with the instinctive tendencies of the child1 it is important for the educator to remember that many of these are transitory in character and1 if not utilized at the proper time1 will perish for want of exercise4 ,even in the case of animals1 natural instincts will not develop unless the opportunity for exercise is provided at the time4 ,birds shut up in a cage lose the instinct to fly2 while ducks1 after being kept a certain time from water1 will not readily acquire the habit of swimming4 ,in the same way1 the child who is not given opportunity to associate with others will likely grow up a recluse4 ,all work for a few years1 and it will be impossible for ,jack to learn later how to play4 ,the girl who during her childhood has no opportunity to display any pride through neatness in dress will grow up untidy and careless as to her personal appearance4 ,in like manner1 it is only the child whose constructive tendency is early given an opportunity to express itself who is likely to develop into an expert workman2 while one who has no opportunity to give expression to his sthetic instinct in early life will not later develop into an artist4 ,,curiosity ,curiosity as ,motive4--,an important bearing of instinct upon the work of education is found in the fact that an instinctive tendency may add much to the force of the motive1 or end1 in any educative process4 ,this is especially true in the case of such adaptive instincts as curiosity1 imitation1 and play4 ,curiosity is the inquisitive attitude1 or appetite1 of the mind which causes it to seek out what is strange in its surroundings and make it an object of attention4 ,as an instinctive tendency1 its significance consists in the fact that it leads the individual to interpret his surroundings4 ,a creature devoid of curiosity1 therefore1 would not discover either the benefits to be derived from his surroundings or the dangers to be avoided4 ,in addition to its direct practical value in leading the individual to study his environment in order to meet actual needs1 curiosity often seeks a more theoretic end1 appearing merely as a feeling of wonder or a thirst for knowledge4 ,use and ,abuse of ,curiosity4--,while curiosity is needful for the welfare of the individual1 an inordinate development of this instinct is both intellectually and morally undesirable4 ,since curiosity directs attention to the novel in our surroundings1 over-curiosity is likely to keep the mind wandering from one novelty to another1 and thus interfere with the fixing of attention for a sufficient time to give definiteness to particular impressions4 ,the virtue of curiosity is1 therefore1 to direct attention to the novel until it is made familiar4 ,there is a type of curiosity1 however1 which craves for mere astonishment and not for understanding4 ,it is such curiosity that causes children to pry into other people's belongings1 and men into other people's affairs4 ,sensuous and ,apperceptive ,curiosity4--,curiosity may be considered of two kinds also from the standpoint of its origin4 ,in early life1 curiosity must rest largely upon sense perception1 being essentially an appetite of the senses to meet and interpret the objective surroundings4 ,a bright light1 a loud noise1 a moving object1 at once awakens curiosity4 ,at this stage1 curiosity serves as a counteracting influence to the instinct of fear1 the one leading the child to use his senses upon his surroundings1 and the other causing him to use them in a careful and judicious manner4 ,as the child grows in experience1 however1 his curiosity limits itself more and more in accordance with the law of apperception4 ,here the object attracts attention not merely because of its sensuous properties1 but because it suggests novel relations within the elements of past experience4 ,the young child's curiosity1 for instance1 is aroused toward a strange plant simply because of its form and colour1 that of the student of botany1 because the plant presents features that do not relate themselves at once to his botanical experience4 ,the first curiosity may be called objective1 or sensuous1 the second subjective1 or apperceptive4 ,relation of ,two ,types4--,the distinction between sensuous and apperceptive curiosity is1 of course1 one of degree rather than one of kind4 ,a novel object could not be an object of attention unless it bore some relation to the present mental content4 ,the young child1 however1 seeks mainly to give meaning to novel sense impressions1 and is not attracted to the more hidden relations in which objects may stand one to another4 ,he is attracted1 for instance1 to the colour1 scent1 and general form of the flower1 rather than to its structure4 ,on the other hand1 it is found that at a later stage curiosity is usually aroused toward a novel problem1 to the extent to which the problem finds a setting in previous experience4 ,this is seen in the fact that the young child takes no interest in having lessons grow out of each other in a connected manner1 but must have his curiosity aroused to the present situation through its own intrinsic appeal4 ,for this reason1 young children are mainly interested in a lesson which deals with particular elements in a concrete manner1 such as coloured blocks1 bright pictures1 and stories of action2 while the older pupil seeks out the new problem because it stands in definite relation to what is already known4 ,importance of ,apperceptive ,curiosity4--,since curiosity depends upon novelty1 it is evident that sensuous should ultimately give place to apperceptive curiosity4 ,although objects first impress the senses with a degree of freshness and vigour1 this freshness must disappear as the novelty of the impression wears off4 ,when sensuous curiosity thus disappears1 it is only by seeing in the world of sensuous objects other relations with their larger meaning1 that healthy curiosity is likely to be maintained4 ,thus it is that the curiosity of the student is attracted to the more hidden qualities of objects1 to the tracing of cause and effect1 and to the discovery of scientific truth in general4 ,novelty versus ,variety4--,while the familiar must lose something of its freshness through its very familiarity1 it is to be noted that to remit any experience for a time will add something to the freshness of its revival4 ,persons and places1 for instance1 when revisited after a period of absence1 gain something of the charm of novelty4 ,variety is1 therefore1 a means by which the effect of curiosity may be sustained1 even after the original novelty has disappeared4 ,this fact should be especially remembered in dealing with the studies of young children4 ,without being constantly fed upon the novel1 the child may yet avoid monotony by having a measure of variety within a reasonable number of interests4 ,it is in this way1 in fact1 that permanent centres of interest can best be established4 ,to keep a child's attention continually upon one line of experiences would destroy both curiosity and interest4 ,to keep him ever attending to the novel would prevent the building up of any centres of interest4 ,by variety within a reasonable number of subjects1 both depth of interest and reasonable variety in interests will be obtained4 ,this is1 therefore1 another reason why the school curriculum should show a reasonable number of subjects and reasonable variety in the presentation of these subjects4 ,,imitation ,nature of ,imitation4--,in our study of the nervous system1 attention was called to the close connection existing between sensory impulse and action4 ,it may be noted further that1 whenever the young child gains an idea of an action1 he tends at once to express that idea in action4 ,on account of this immediate connection between thought and expression1 due to an inability to inhibit the motor discharge1 a child1 as soon as he is able to form ideas of the acts of others1 must necessarily show a tendency to repeat1 or reproduce1 such acts4 ,granting that this immediate connection between sensory impulse and motor response is an inherited capacity1 the tendency of the young child to imitate the acts of others may be classified as an instinct4 ,imitation a ,complex4--,on closer examination1 however1 it will be found that imitation is really a complex of several tendencies4 ,the nervous organism of the healthy young child is usually supercharged with nervous energy4 ,this energy1 like a swollen stream1 seems ever striving to sweep away any resistance to the motor discharge of sensory impulses1 and must necessarily reinforce the natural tendency to give immediate expression to ideas of action4 ,moreover1 the social instincts of the child1 his sympathy1 etc41 give him a special interest in human beings and in their acts4 ,these tendencies1 therefore1 focus his attention upon human action1 and cause his ideas of such acts to become more vivid and interesting4 ,for this reason1 observation of human acts is more likely to lead to motor expression4 ,that the social instincts of the child reinforce the tendency to imitate is indicated by the fact that his early imitations are of human acts especially1 as yawning1 smiling1 crying1 etc4 ,the same is further evidenced in that1 at a later stage1 when ordinary objects enter into his imitative acts1 the imitation is largely symbolic1 and objects are endowed with living attributes4 ,here blocks become men2 sticks1 horses1 etc4 ,kinds of4 ,a4 ,spontaneous ,imitation4--,in its simplest form1 imitation seems to follow directly upon the perception of a given act4 ,as the child attends1 now to the nod of the head1 now to the shaking of the rattle1 now to an uttered sound1 he spontaneously reproduces these perceived acts4 ,because in such cases the imitative act follows directly upon the perception of the copy1 without the intervention of any determination to imitate1 it is termed spontaneous1 or unconscious1 imitation4 ,it is by spontaneous imitation that the child gains so much knowledge of the world about him1 and so much power over the movements of his own body4 ,the occupations and language of the home1 the operations of the workman1 the movements and gestures of the older children in their games1 all these are spontaneously reproduced through imitation4 ,this enables the child to participate largely in the social life about him4 ,it is for this reason that he should observe only good models of language and conduct during his early years4 ,b4 ,symbolic ,imitation4--,if we note the imitative acts of a child of from four to six years of age1 we may find that a new factor is often entering into the process4 ,at this stage the child1 instead of merely copying the acts of others1 further clothes objects and persons with fancied attributes through a process of imagination4 ,by this means1 the little child becomes a mother and the doll a baby2 one boy becomes a teacher or captain1 the others become pupils or soldiers4 ,this form has already been referred to as symbolic imitation4 ,frequent use is made of this type of imitation in education1 especially in the kindergarten4 ,through the gifts1 plays1 etc41 of the kindergarten1 the child in imagination exemplifies numberless relations and processes of the home and community life4 ,the educative value of this type consists in the fact that the child1 by acting out in a symbolic1 or make-believe1 way valuable social processes1 though doing them only in an imaginative way1 comes to know them better by the doing4 ,c4 ,voluntary ,imitation4--,as the child's increasing power of attention gives him larger control of his experiences1 he becomes able1 not only to distinguish between the idea of an action and its reproduction by imitation1 but also to associate some further end1 or purpose1 with the imitative process4 ,the little child imitates the language of his fellows spontaneously2 the mimic1 for the purpose of bringing out certain peculiarities in their speech4 ,when first imitating his elder painting with a brush1 the child imitates merely in a spontaneous or unconscious way the act of brushing4 ,when later1 however1 he tries to secure the delicate touch of his art teacher1 he will imitate the teacher's movements for the definite purpose of adding to his own skill4 ,because in this type the imitator first conceives in idea the particular act to be imitated1 and then consciously strives to reproduce the act in like manner1 it is classified as conscious1 or voluntary1 imitation4 ,use of ,voluntary ,imitation4--,teachers differ widely concerning the educational value of voluntary imitation4 ,it is evident1 however1 that in certain cases1 as learning correct forms of speech1 in physical and manual exercises1 in conduct and manners1 etc41 good models for imitation count for more than rules and precepts4 ,on the other hand1 to endeavour to teach a child by imitation to read intelligently could only result in failure4 ,in such a case1 the pupil1 by attempting to analyse out and set up as models the different features of the teachers reading1 would have his attention directed from the thought of the sentence4 ,but without grasping the meaning1 the pupil cannot make his reading intelligent4 ,in like manner1 to have a child learn a rule in arithmetic by merely imitating the process from type examples worked by the teacher1 would be worse than useless1 since it would prevent independent thinking on the child's part4 ,the purpose here is not to gain skill in a mechanical process1 but to gain knowledge of an intelligent principle4 ,,play ,nature of ,play ,impulse4--,another tendency of early childhood utilized by the modern educator is the so-called instinct of play4 ,according to some1 the impulse to play represents merely the tendency of the surplus energy stored up within the nervous organism to express itself in physical action4 ,according to this view1 play would represent1 not any inherited tendency1 but a condition of the nervous organism4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that this activity spends itself largely in what seems instinctive tendencies4 ,the boy1 in playing hide-and-seek1 in chasing1 and the like1 seems to express the hunting and fleeing instincts of his ancestors4 ,playing with the doll is evidently suggested and influenced by the parental instinct1 while in all games1 the activity is evidently determined largely by social instincts4 ,like imitation1 therefore1 play seems a complex1 involving a number of instinctive tendencies4 ,play versus ,work4--,an essential characteristic of the play impulse is its freedom4 ,by this is meant that the acts are performed1 not to gain some further end1 but merely for the sake of the activity itself4 ,the impulse to play1 therefore1 must find its initiative within the child1 and must give expression merely to some inner tendency4 ,so long1 for example1 as the boy shovels the sand or piles the stones merely to exercise his physical powers1 or to satisfy an inner tendency to imitate the actions of others1 the operation is one of play4 ,when1 on the other hand1 these acts are performed in order to clean up the yard1 or because they have been ordered to be done by a parent1 the process is one of work1 for the impulse to act now lies in something outside the act itself4 ,to compel a child to play1 therefore1 would be to compel him to work4 ,value of ,play3 ,a4 ,physical4--,play is one of the most effective means for promoting the physical development of the child4 ,this result follows naturally from the free character of the play activity4 ,since the impulse to act is found in the activity itself1 the child always has a strong motive for carrying on the activity4 ,on the other hand1 when somewhat similar activities are carried on as a task set by others1 the end is too remote from the child's present interests and tendencies to supply him with an immediate motive for the activity4 ,play1 therefore1 causes the young child to express himself physically to a degree that tasks set by others can never do1 and thus aids him largely in securing control of bodily movements4 ,b4 ,intellectual and ,moral4--,in play1 however1 the child not only secures physical development and a control of bodily movements1 but also exercises and develops other tendencies and powers4 ,many plays and games1 for instance1 involve the use of the senses4 ,whether the young child is shaking his rattle1 rolling the ball1 pounding with the spoon1 piling up blocks and knocking them over1 or playing his regular guessing games in the kindergarten1 he is constantly stimulating his senses1 and giving his sensory nerves their needed development4 ,as imitation and imagination1 by their co-operation1 later enable the child to symbolize his play1 such games as keeping store1 playing carpenter1 farmer1 baker1 etc41 both enlarge the child's knowledge of his surroundings1 and also awaken his interest and sympathy toward these occupations4 ,other games1 such as beans-in-the-bag1 involve counting1 and thus furnish the child incidental lessons in number under most interesting conditions4 ,in games involving co-operation and competition1 as the bowing game1 the windmill1 fill the gap1 chase ball in ring1 etc41 the social tendencies of the child are developed1 and such individual instincts as rivalry1 emulation1 and combativeness are brought under proper control4 ,,play ,,in ,,education ,assigning ,play4--,in adapting play to the formal education of the child1 a difficulty seems at once to present itself4 ,if the teacher endeavours to provide the child with games that possess an educative value1 physical1 intellectual1 or moral1 how can she give such games to the children1 and at the same time avoid setting the game as a task8 ,that such a result might follow is evident from our ordinary observation of young children4 ,to the boy interested in a game of ball1 the request to come and join his sister in playing housekeeping would1 more than likely1 be positive drudgery4 ,may it not follow therefore1 that a trade or guessing game given by the kindergarten director will fail to call forth the free activity of the child8 ,one of the arguments of the advocates of the ,montessori ,method in favour of that system is1 that the specially prepared apparatus of that system is itself suggestive of play exercises2 and that1 by having access to the apparatus1 the child may choose the particular exercise which appeals to his free activity at the moment4 ,this supposed superiority of the ,montessori apparatus over the kindergarten games is1 however1 more apparent than real4 ,what the skilful kindergarten teacher does is1 through her knowledge of the interests and tendencies of the children1 to suggest games that will be likely to appeal to their free activity1 and at the same time have educative value along physical1 intellectual1 and moral lines4 ,in this way1 she does no more than children do among themselves1 when one suggests a suitable game to his companions4 ,in such a case1 no one would argue1 surely1 that the leader is the only child to show free activity in the play4 ,stages in ,play4--,in the selecting of games1 plays1 etc41 it is to be noted that these may be divided into at least three classes1 according as they appeal to children at different ages4 ,the very young child prefers merely to play with somewhat simple objects that can make an appeal to his senses1 as the rattle1 the doll1 the pail and shovel1 hammer1 crayon1 etc4 ,this preference depends1 on the one hand1 upon his early individualistic nature1 which would object to share the play with another2 and1 on the other hand1 upon the natural hunger of his senses for varied stimulations4 ,at about five years of age1 owing to the growth of the child's imagination1 symbolism begins to enter largely into his games4 ,at this age the children love to play church1 school1 soldier1 scavenger man1 hen and chickens1 keeping store1 etc4 ,at from ten to twelve years of age1 co-operative and competitive games are preferred2 and with boys1 those games especially which demand an amount of strength and skill4 ,this preference is to be accounted for through the marked development of the social instincts at this age and1 in the case of boys1 through increase in strength and will power4 ,limitations of ,play4--,notwithstanding the value of play as an agent in education1 it is evident that its application in the school-room is limited4 ,social efficiency demands that the child shall learn to appreciate the joy of work even more than the joy of play4 ,moreover1 as noted in the early part of our work1 the acquisition of race experience demands that its problems be presented to the child in definite and logical order4 ,this can be accomplished only by having them presented to the pupil by an educative agent and therefore set as a problem or a task to be mastered4 ,this1 of course1 does not deny that the teacher should strive to have the pupil express himself as freely as possible as he works at his school problem4 ,it does necessitate1 however1 that the child should find in his lesson some conscious end1 or aim1 to be reached beyond the mere activity of the learning process4 ,this in itself stamps the ordinary learning process of the school as more than mere play4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,habit ,nature of ,habit4--,when an action1 whether performed under the full direction1 or control1 of attention and with a sense of effort1 or merely as an instinctive or impulsive act1 comes by repetition to be performed with such ease that consciousness may be largely diverted from the act itself and given to other matters1 the action is said to have become habitual4 ,for example1 if a person attempts a new manner of putting on a tie1 it is first necessary for him to stand before a glass and follow attentively every movement4 ,in a short time1 however1 he finds himself able to perform the act easily and skilfully both without the use of a glass and almost without conscious direction4 ,moreover if the person should chance in his first efforts to hold his arms and head in a certain way in order to watch the process more easily in the glass1 it is found that when later he does the act even without the use of a glass1 he must still hold his arms and head in this manner4 ,basis of ,habits4--,the ability of the organism to habituate an action1 or make it a reflex is found to depend upon certain properties of nervous matter which have already been considered4 ,these facts are3 #a4 ,nervous matter is composed of countless numbers of individual cells brought into relation with one another through their outgoing fibres4 #b4 ,this tissue is so plastic that whenever it reacts upon an impression a permanent modification is made in its structure4 #c4 ,not only are such modifications retained permanently1 but they give a tendency to repeat the act in the same way2 while every such repetition makes the structural modification stronger1 and this renders further repetition of the act both easier and more effective4 #d4 ,the connections between the various nervous centres thus become so permanent that the action may run its course with a minimum of resistance within the nervous system4 #e4 ,in time the movements are so fixed within the system that connections are formed between sensory and motor centres at points lower than the cortex--that is1 the stimulus and response become reflex4 ,an ,example4--,when a child strives to acquire the movements necessary in making a new capital letter1 his eye receives an impression of the letter which passes along the sensory system to the cortex and1 usually with much effort1 finds an outlet in a motor attempt to form the letter4 ,thus a permanent trace1 or course1 is established in the nervous system1 which will be somewhat more easily taken on a future occasion4 ,after a number of repetitions1 the child1 by giving his attention fully to the act1 is able to form the letter with relative ease4 ,as these movements are repeated1 however1 the nervous system1 as already noted1 may shorten the circuit between the point of sensory impression and motor discharge by establishing associations in centres lower than those situated in the cortex4 ,whenever any act is repeated a great number of times1 therefore1 these lower associations are established with a resulting diminution of the impression upward through the cortex of the brain4 ,this results also in a lessening of the amount of attention given the movement1 until finally the act can be performed in a perfectly regular way with practically no conscious1 or attentive1 effort4 ,habit and ,consciousness4--,while saying that such habitual action may be performed with facility in the absence of conscious direction1 it must not be understood that conscious attention is necessarily entirely absent during the performance of an habitual act4 ,in many of these acts1 as for instance1 lacing and tieing a shoe1 signing one's name1 etc41 conscious effort usually gives the first impulse to perform the act4 ,there may be cases1 however1 in which one finds himself engaged in some customary act without any seeming initial conscious suggestion4 ,this would be noted1 for instance1 where a person starts for the customary clothes closet1 perhaps to obtain something from a pocket1 and suddenly finds himself hanging on a hook the coat he has unconsciously removed from his shoulders4 ,here the initial movement for removing the coat may have been suggested by the sight of the customary closet1 or by the movement involved in opening the closet door1 these impressions being closely co-ordinated through past experiences with those of removing the coat4 ,when1 also1 a woman is sewing or kneading bread1 although she seems to be able to give her attention fully to the conversation in which she may be engaged1 yet no doubt a slight trace of conscious control is still exercised over the other movements4 ,this is seen in the fact that1 whenever the conversation becomes so absorbing that it takes a very strong hold on the attention1 the habitual movements may cease without the person being at first aware that she has ceased working4 ,habit and ,nervous ,action4--,the general flow of the nervous energy during such processes as the above1 in which there is an interchange between conscious and habitual control1 may be illustrated by the following figures4 ,in these figures the heavy lines indicate the process actually going on1 while the broken lines indicate that although such nerve courses are established1 they are not being brought into active operation in the particular case4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a1 ,,fig4 #b1 ,,fig4 #c ,a4 ,sensory ,stimulus ,b4 ,lower ,sensory ,centre ,c4 ,higher ,sensory ,centre ,a' ,higher ,motor ,centre ,b' ,lower ,motor ,centre ,c' ,motor ,response ,the arrows in ,figure #a indicate the course of sensory stimulation and motor response during the first efforts to acquire skill in any movement4 ,no connections are yet set up between lower centres and the acts are under conscious control4 ,the arrows in ,figure #b indicate the course of sensory stimulus and motor response in an ordinary habitual act1 as when an expert fingers the piano keys or controls a bicycle while his mind is occupied with other matters4 ,the arrows in ,figure #c indicate how1 even in performing what is ordinarily an habitual act1 the mind may at any time assume control of the movement4 ,this is illustrated in the case of a person who1 when unconsciously directing his bicycle along the road1 comes to a narrow plank over a culvert4 ,hereupon full attention may be given to the movements1 that is1 the acts may come under conscious control4 ,,formation ,,of ,,habits ,it is evident from the nature of the structure and properties of the nervous system1 that man cannot possibly avoid the formation of habits4 ,any act once performed will not only leave an indelible trace within the nervous system1 but will also set up in the system a tendency to repeat the act4 ,it is this fact that always makes the first false step exceedingly dangerous4 ,moreover1 every repetition further breaks down the present resistance and1 therefore1 in a sense further enslaves the individual to that mode of action4 ,the word poorly articulated for the first time1 the letter incorrectly formed1 the impatient shrug of the shoulder--these set up their various tracks1 create a tendency1 and soon1 through the establishment of lower connections1 become unconscious habits4 ,thus it is that every one soon becomes a bundle of habits4 ,precautions to be ,taken4--,a most important problem in relation to the life of the young child is that he should at the outset form right habits4 ,this includes not only doing the right thing1 but also doing it in the right way4 ,for this he must have the right impression1 make the right response1 and continue this response until the proper paths are established in the nervous system1 or1 in other words1 until practically all resistance within the system is overcome4 ,it is here that teachers are often very lax in dealing with the pupil in his various forms of expressive work4 ,they may indeed give the child the proper impression1 for example1 the correct form of the letter1 the correct pronunciation of the new word1 the correct position for the pen and the body1 but too often they do not exercise the vigilance necessary to have the first responses develop into well-fixed habits4 ,but it must be remembered that the child's first response is necessarily crude2 for as already seen1 there is always at first a certain resistance to the co-ordinated movements1 on account of the tracks within the nervous system not yet being surely established4 ,the result is that during the time this resistance is being overcome1 there is constant danger of variations creeping into the child's responses4 ,unless1 therefore1 he is constantly watched during this practice period1 his response may fall much below the model1 or standard1 set by the teacher4 ,take1 for instance1 the child's mode of forming a letter4 ,at the outset he is given the correct forms for g and m1 but on account of the resistance met in performing these movements he may1 if left without proper supervision1 soon fall into such movements as symbol and symbol4 ,the chief value of the ,montessori sandpaper letters consists in the fact that they enable the child to continue a correct movement without variation until all resistance within the nervous organism has been overcome4 ,two facts should1 therefore1 be kept prominently in view by the teacher concerning the child's efforts to secure skill4 ,first1 the learner's early attempts must be necessarily crude1 both through the resistance at first offered by the nervous system on account of the proper paths not being laid in the system1 and also through the image of the movement not being clearly conceived4 ,secondly1 there is constant danger of variations from the proper standard establishing themselves during this period of resistance4 ,,value ,,of ,,habits ,habits ,promote ,efficiency4--,but notwithstanding the dangers which seem to attend the formation of habits1 it is only through this inevitable reduction of his more customary acts to unconscious habit that man attains to proficiency4 ,only by relieving conscious attention from the ordinary mechanical processes in any occupation1 is the artist able to attend to the special features of the work4 ,unless1 for instance1 the scholar possesses as an unconscious habit the ability to hold the pen and form and join the various letters1 he could never devote his attention to evolving the thoughts composing his essay4 ,in like manner1 without an habitual control of the chisel1 the carver could not possibly give an absorbing attention to the delicate outlines of the particular model4 ,it is only because the rider has habituated himself to the control of the handles1 etc41 that he can give his attention to the street traffic before him and guide the bicycle or automobile through the ever varying passages4 ,the first condition of efficiency1 therefore1 in any pursuit1 is to reduce any general movements involved in the process to unconscious habits1 and thus leave the conscious judgment free to deal with the changeable features of the work4 ,habit ,conserves ,energy4--,another advantage of habit is that it adds to the individual's capacity for work4 ,when any movements are novel and require our full attention1 a greater nervous resistance is met on account of the laying down of new paths in the nerve centres4 ,moreover longer nervous currents are produced through the cortex of the brain1 because conscious attention is being called into play4 ,these conditions necessarily consume a greater amount of nerve energy4 ,the result is that man is able to continue for a longer time with less nervous exhaustion any series of activities after they have developed into habits4 ,this can be seen by noting the ease with which one can perform any physical exercise after habituating himself to the movements1 compared with the evident strain experienced when the exercise is first undertaken4 ,makes the ,disagreeable ,easy4--,another1 though more incidental1 advantage of the formation of habits1 is that occupations in themselves uninteresting or even distasteful may1 through habit1 be performed at least without mental revulsion4 ,this results largely from the fact that the growth of habit decreases the resistance1 and thus lessens or destroys the disagreeable feeling4 ,moreover1 when such acts are reduced to mechanical habits1 the mind is largely free to consider other things4 ,in this way the individual1 even in the midst of his drudgery1 may enjoy the pleasures of memory or imagination4 ,although1 therefore1 in going through some customary act1 one may still dislike the occupation1 the fact that he can do much of it habitually1 leaves him free to enjoy a certain amount of mental pleasure in other ways4 ,aids ,morality4--,the formation of habits also has an important bearing on the moral life4 ,by habituating ourselves to right forms of action1 we no doubt make in a sense moral machines of ourselves1 since the right action is the one that will meet the least nervous resistance1 while the doing of the wrong action would necessitate the establishing of new co-ordinations in the nervous system4 ,it is no doubt partly owing to this1 that one whose habits are formed can so easily resist temptations2 for to ask him to act other than in the old way is to ask him to make1 not the easy1 but the hard reaction4 ,while this is true1 however1 it must not be supposed that in such cases the choice of the right thing involves only a question of customary nervous reaction4 ,when we choose to do our duty1 we make a conscious choice1 and although earlier right action has set up certain nerve co-ordinations which render it now easy to choose the right1 yet it must be remembered that conscious judgment is also involved4 ,in such cases man does the right mainly because his judgment tells him that it is right4 ,if1 therefore1 he is in a situation where he must act in a totally different way from what is customary1 as when a quiet1 peace-loving man sees a ruffian assaulting a helpless person1 a moral man does not hesitate to change his habitual modes of physical action4 ,,improvement ,,of ,,habitual ,,reactions ,to ,eliminate a ,habit4--,from what has been learned concerning the permanency of our habits1 it is evident that only special effort will enable us to make any change in an habitual mode of reaction4 ,in at least two cases1 however1 changes may be necessary4 ,the fact that many of our early habits are formed either unconsciously1 or in ignorance of their evil character1 finds us1 perhaps1 as we come to years of discretion1 in possession of certain habits from which we would gladly be freed4 ,such habits may range from relatively unimportant personal peculiarities to impolite and even immoral modes of conduct4 ,in attempting to free ourselves from such acts1 we must bear in mind what has been noted concerning the basis of retention4 ,to repeat an act at frequent intervals is an important condition of retaining it as a habit4 ,on the other hand1 the absence of such repetition is almost sure1 in due time1 to obliterate the nervous tendency to repeat the act4 ,to free one's self from an undesirable habit1 therefore1 the great essential is to avoid resolutely1 for a reasonable time1 any recurrence of the banned habit4 ,while this can be accomplished only by conscious effort and watchfulness1 yet each day passed without the repetition of the act weakens by so much the old nerve co-ordinations4 ,to attempt to break an old habit1 gradually1 however1 as some would prefer1 can result only in still keeping the habitual tendency relatively strong4 ,to ,modify a ,habit4--,at other times1 however1 we may desire not to eliminate an habitual co-ordination in toto1 but rather to modify only certain phases of the reaction4 ,in writing1 for instance1 a pupil may be holding his pen correctly and also using the proper muscular movements1 but may have developed a habit of forming certain letters incorrectly1 as symbol and symbol4 ,in any attempt to correct such forms1 a special difficulty is met in the fact that the incorrect movements are now closely co-ordinated with a number of correct movements1 which must necessarily be retained while the other portions of the process are being modified4 ,to effect such a modification1 it is necessary for attention to focus itself upon the incorrect elements1 and form a clear idea of the changes desired4 ,with this idea as a conscious aim1 the pupil must have abundant practice in writing the new forms1 and avoid any recurrence of the old incorrect movements4 ,this fact emphasizes the importance of attending to the beginning of any habit4 ,in teaching writing1 for instance1 the teacher might first give attention only to the form of the letter and then later seek to have the child acquire the muscular movement4 ,in the meantime1 however1 the child1 while learning to form the letters1 may have been allowed to acquire the finger movement1 and to break this habit both teacher and pupil find much difficulty4 ,by limiting the child to the use of a black-board or a large pencil and tablet1 and having him make only relatively large letters while he is learning to form them1 the teacher could have the pupil avoid this early formation of the habit of writing with the finger movement4 ,limitations of ,habit4--,from what has here been learned concerning the formation of physical habits1 it becomes evident that there are limitations to these as forms of reaction4 ,since any habit is largely an unconscious reaction to a particular situation1 its value will be conditional upon the nature of the circumstances which call forth the reaction4 ,these circumstances must occur quite often under almost identical conditions1 otherwise the habit can have no value in directing our social conduct4 ,on the contrary1 it may seriously interfere with successful effort4 ,for the player to habituate his hands to fingering the violin is very important1 because this is a case where such constant conditions are to be met4 ,for a salesman to habituate himself to one mode of presenting goods to his customers would be fatal1 since both the character and the needs of the customers are so varied that no permanent form of approach could be effective in all cases4 ,to habituate ourselves to some narrow automatic line of action and follow it even under varying circumstances1 therefore1 might prevent the mind from properly weighing these varying conditions1 and thus deaden initiative4 ,it is for this reason that experience is so valuable in directing life action4 ,by the use of past experience1 the mind is able to analyse each situation calling for reaction and1 by noting any unusual circumstances it presents1 may adapt even our habitual reactions to the particular conditions4 ,the relation of habit to interest and attention is treated in ,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,attention ,nature of ,attention4--,in our study of the principles of general method1 it was noted that the mind is able to set up and hold before itself as a problem any partially realized experience4 ,from what has been said concerning nervous stimulation and the passing inward of sensuous impression1 it might be thought that the mind is for the most part a somewhat passive recipient of conscious states as they chance to arise through the stimulations of the particular moment4 ,further consideration will show1 however1 that1 at least after very early childhood1 the mind usually exercises a strong selective control over what shall occupy consciousness at any particular time4 ,in the case of a student striving to unravel the mazes of his mathematical problem1 countless impressions of sight1 sound1 touch1 etc41 may be stimulating him from all sides1 yet he refuses in a sense to attend to any of them4 ,the singing of the maid1 the chilliness of the room as the fire dies out1 even the pain in the limb1 all fail to make themselves known in consciousness1 until such time as the successful solution causes the person to direct his attention from the work in hand4 ,in like manner1 the traveller at the busy station1 when intent upon catching his train1 is perhaps totally unconscious of the impressions being received from the passing throngs1 the calling newsboys1 the shunting engines1 and the malodorous cattle cars4 ,this ability of the mind to focus itself upon certain experiences to the exclusion of other possible experiences is known as attention4 ,degree of ,attention4--,mention has already been made of states of consciousness in which the mind seems in a passive state of reverie4 ,although the mind1 even in such sub-conscious states1 would seem to exercise some slight attention1 it is yet evident that it does not exercise a definite selective control during such passive states of consciousness4 ,attention proper1 on the other hand1 may be described as a state in which the mind focuses itself upon some particular impression1 and thus makes it stand out more clearly in consciousness as a definite experience4 ,from this standpoint it may be assumed that1 in a state of waking reverie1 the attention is so scattered that no impression is made to stand out clearly in consciousness4 ,on the other hand1 as soon as the mind focuses itself on a certain impression1 for example1 the report of a gun1 the relation of two angles1 or the image of a centaur1 this stands out so clearly that it occupies the whole foreground of consciousness1 while all other impressions hide themselves in the background4 ,this single focal state of consciousness is1 therefore1 pre-eminently a state of attention while the former state of reverie1 on account of its diffuse character1 may be said to be relatively devoid of attention4 ,physical ,illustrations of ,attention4--,to furnish a physical illustration of the working of attention1 some writers describe the stream of our conscious life as presenting a series of waves1 the successive waves representing the impressions or ideas upon which attention is focused at successive moments4 ,when attention is in a diffuse state1 consciousness is likened to a comparatively level stream4 ,the focusing of attention upon particular impressions and thus making them stand out as distinct states of consciousness is said to break the surface of the stream into waves4 ,this may be illustrated as follows3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a--;,consciousness in a state of passive reverie4 ,,fig4 #b--;,active consciousness4 ,attention focussed on the definite experiences a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g4 ,by others1 consciousness is described as a field of vision1 in which the centre of vision represents the focal point of attention4 ,for instance1 if the student intent upon his problem in analysis does not notice the flickering light1 the playing of the piano1 or the smell of the burning meat breaking in upon him1 it is because this problem occupies the centre of the attentive field4 ,the other impressions1 on the contrary1 lie so far on the outside of the field that they fail to stand out in consciousness4 ,this may be represented by the following diagram3 ,illustration3 ,p represents the problem on which attention is fixed4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 represent impressions which1 though stimulating the organism1 do not attract definite attention4 ,it must be understood1 however1 that these are merely mechanical devices to illustrate the fact that when the mind selects1 or attends to1 any impression1 this impression is made to stand out clearly as an object in consciousness2 or1 in other words1 the particular impression becomes a clear-cut and definite experience4 ,illustration3 ,probable adjusting of nerve ends during active attention ,neural ,basis of ,attention4--,the neural conditions under which the mind exercises such active attention seem to be that during the attentive state the nervous energy concentrates itself upon the paths and centres involved in the particular experience1 the resistance being decreased in the paths connecting the cells traversed by the impulse4 ,moreover1 any nervous energy tending to escape in other channels is checked and the movements hindered1 thus shutting off attention from other possible experiences4 ,for instance1 a person with little interest in horticulture might pass a flowering shrub1 the colour1 form1 and scent making only a faint impression upon him4 ,if1 however1 his companion should say1 ,what a lovely colour1 his attention will direct itself to this quality1 with the result that the colour stands out much more clearly in consciousness1 and the other features practically escape his notice4 ,here the suggestion of the companion focuses attention upon the colour1 this being accompanied with a lessening of the resistance between the centres involved in interpreting the colour sensations4 ,at the same time resistance in the arcs involving form and smell is increased1 and the energy diverted from these arcs into that of colour4 ,,attention ,,selective ,attention and ,interest4--,at this point a question naturally arises why the mind1 since it is continually subject to the influence of impressions from without and of reviving ideas from within1 should select and focus attention upon certain of these to the exclusion of others4 ,the answer usually given is that the mind feels in each case1 at least vaguely1 a personal interest in some change or adjustment to be wrought either in or through the impression which it makes an object of attention4 ,when1 for instance1 the reader diverts his attention from the interesting story to the loud talking outside the window1 he evidently desires to adjust his understanding more fully to the new and strange impression4 ,so1 also1 when the spectator rivets his attention upon the flying ball1 it is because he associates with this the interesting possibility of a change in the score4 ,in like manner1 the student in geometry fixes his attention upon the line joining the points of bisection of the sides1 because he desires to change his present mental state of uncertainty as to its parallelism with the base into one of certainty4 ,he further fixes his attention upon the qualities of certain bases and triangles1 because through attending to these1 he hopes to gain the desired experience concerning the parallelism of the two lines4 ,attention and the ,question4--,the general conditions for determining the course of attention will be further understood by a reference to two facts already established in connection with general method4 ,it has been seen that the question and answer method is usually a successful mode of conducting the learning process4 ,the reason for this is that the question is a most effective means of directing a selective act of attention4 ,for instance1 in an elementary science lesson on the candle flame1 although the child1 if left to himself1 might observe the flame1 he would not1 in all probability1 notice particularly the luminous part4 ,or again1 if a dry glass is simply held over the flame and then removed by the demonstrator1 although the pupil may have watched the experiment in a general way1 it is doubtful whether he would notice particularly the moisture deposited upon the glass4 ,a question from the demonstrator1 however1 awakens interest1 causes the mind to focus in a special direction1 and banishes from consciousness features which might otherwise occupy attention4 ,this is because the question suggests a problem1 and thus awakens an expectant or unsatisfied state of mind1 which is likely to be satisfied only by attending to what the question suggests as an object of attention4 ,attention and ,motive4--,it has already been noted that any process of learning is likely to be more effective when the child realizes a distinct problem1 or aim1 in the lesson1 or feels a need for going through the learning process4 ,the cause of this is that the aim1 by awaking curiosity1 etc41 is an effective means of securing attention4 ,when1 for example1 the pupil1 in learning that #c #d #ab1 begins with the problem of finding out how many threes are contained in his twelve blocks1 his curiosity can be satisfied only by grasping certain significant relations4 ,in approaching the lesson1 therefore1 with such an actual problem before him1 the child feels a desire to change1 or alter1 his present mental relation to the problem4 ,in other words1 he wishes to gain something involved in the problem which he does not now know or is not yet able to do4 ,his desire to bring about this change or to reach this end not only holds his attention upon the problem1 but also adjusts it to whatever ideas are likely to assist in solving the problem4 ,when1 therefore1 pupils approach a lesson with an interesting problem in mind1 the teacher finds it much easier to centre their attention upon those factors which make for the acquisition of the new experience4 ,,involuntary ,,attention ,nature of ,involuntary ,attention4--,attention is met in its simplest form when the mind spontaneously focuses itself upon any strong stimulus received through the senses1 as a flashing light1 a loud crash1 a bitter taste1 or a violent pressure4 ,as already noted1 the significance of this type of attention lies in the fact that the mind seeks to adjust itself intelligently to a new condition in its surroundings which has been suggested to it through the violent stimulus4 ,the ability to attend to such stimuli is evidently an inherited capacity1 and is possessed by animals as well as by children4 ,it is also the only form of attention exercised by very young children1 and for some time the child seems to have little choice but to attend to the ever varying stimuli1 the attention being drawn now to a bright light1 now to a loud voice1 according to the violence of the impressions4 ,on account of the apparent lack of control over the direction of attention1 this type is spoken of as spontaneous1 or involuntary1 attention4 ,place and ,value4--,it is only1 however1 during his very early years that man lacks a reasonable control even over relatively strong stimulations4 ,as noted above1 the mind acquires an ability to concentrate itself upon a single problem in the midst of relatively violent stimulations4 ,moreover1 in the midst of various strong stimulations1 it is able to select the one which it desires1 to the exclusion of all others4 ,at a relatively early age1 for instance1 the youth is able1 in his games1 to focus his attention upon the ball1 and pays little attention to the shouts and movements of the spectators4 ,on the other hand1 however1 it is also true that man never loses this characteristic of attending in an involuntary1 or reflex1 way to any strong stimulus4 ,indeed1 without the possession of this hereditary tendency1 it is hard to see how he could escape any dangers with which his body might be threatened while his attention is strongly engaged an another problem4 ,educational ,precautions4--,that young children naturally tend to give their attention to strong stimuli1 is a matter of considerable moment to the primary teacher4 ,it is for this cause1 among others1 that reasonable quiet and order should prevail in the class-room during the recitation4 ,when the pupil is endeavouring to fix his attention upon a selected problem1 say the relation of the square foot to the square yard1 any undue stimulation of his senses from the school-room environment could not fail to distract his attention from the problem before him4 ,for the same reason1 the external conditions should be such as are not likely to furnish unusual stimulations1 as will be the case if the class-room is on a busy street and must be ventilated by means of open windows4 ,finally1 in the use of illustrative materials1 the teacher should see that the concrete matter will not stimulate the child unduly in ways foreign to the lesson topic4 ,for example1 in teaching a nature lesson on the crow1 the teacher would find great difficulty in keeping the children's attention on the various topics of the lesson1 if he had before the class a live crow that kept cawing throughout the whole lesson period4 ,nor would it seem a very effective method of attracting attention to the problem of a lesson1 if the teacher were continually shouting and waving his arms at the pupils4 ,,non-,,voluntary ,,attention ,nature of ,non-voluntary ,attention4--,on account of the part played by interest in the focusing of attention1 it is possible to distinguish a second type of spontaneous attention in which the mind seems directly attracted to an object of thought because of a natural satisfaction gained from contemplating the subject4 ,the lover1 apparently without any determination1 and without any external stimulus to suggest the topic1 finds his attention ever centring itself upon the image of his fair lady4 ,the young lad1 also1 without any apparent cause1 turns his thoughts constantly to his favourite game4 ,here the impulse to attend is evidently from within1 rather than from without1 and arises from the interest that the mind has in the particular experience4 ,this type of attention is especially manifest when trains of ideas pass through the mind without any apparent end in view1 one idea suggesting another in accordance with the prevailing mood4 ,the mind1 in a half passive state1 thinks of last evening1 then of the house of a friend1 then of the persons met there1 then of the game played1 etc4 ,in the same way the attention of the student turns without effort to his favourite school subject1 and its various aspects may pass in view before him without any effort or determination on his part4 ,because in this type of attention the different thoughts stand out in consciousness without any apparent choice1 or selection1 on the part of the mind1 it is described as non-voluntary attention4 ,,voluntary ,,attention ,nature of ,voluntary ,attention4--,the most important form of attention1 however1 is that in which the mind focuses itself upon an idea1 not as a result of outside stimulation1 but with some further purpose in view4 ,for instance1 when a person enters a room in which a strange object seems to be giving out musical notes automatically1 he may at first give spontaneous attention to the sounds coming from the instrument4 ,when1 however1 he approaches the object later with a desire to discover the nature of its mechanism1 his attention is focused upon the object with a more remote aim1 or end1 in view1 to discover where the music comes from4 ,so also1 when the lad mentioned in ,chapter ,,ii fixed his attention on the lost coin1 he set this object before his attention with a further end in view--how to regain it4 ,because the person here determines to attend to1 or think about1 a certain problem1 in order that he may reach a certain consciously set end1 this form of attention is described as voluntary1 or active1 attention4 ,near and ,remote ,ends4--,it is to be noted1 however1 that the interesting end toward which the mind strives in voluntary attention may be relatively near or remote4 ,a child examining an automatic toy does it for the sake of discovering what is in the toy itself2 an adult in order to see whether it is likely to interest his child4 ,a student gives attention to the problem of the length of the hypotenuse because he is interested in the mathematical problem itself1 the contractor because he desires to know how much material will be necessary for the roof of the building4 ,one child may apply himself to mastering a reading lesson because the subject itself is interesting to him1 another because he desires to take home a perfect report at the end of the week1 and a third because a sense of obligation tells him that teacher and parents will expect him to study it4 ,how we ,attend to a ,problem4--,since voluntary attention implies mental movement directed to the attainment of some end1 the mind does not simply keep itself focused on the particular problem4 ,for instance1 in attempting to solve the problem that the exterior angle of a triangle equals the sum of the two interior and opposite angles1 no progress toward the attainment of the end in view could be made by merely holding before the mind the idea of their equality4 ,it is1 in fact1 impossible for the attention to be held for any length of time on a single topic4 ,this will be readily seen if one tries to hold his attention continuously upon1 say1 the tip of a pencil4 ,when this is attempted1 other ideas constantly crowd out the selected idea4 ,the only sense1 therefore1 in which one holds his attention upon the problem in an act of voluntary attention is1 that his attention passes forward and back between the problem and ideas felt to be associated with it4 ,voluntary attention is1 therefore1 a mental process in which the mind shifts from one idea to another in attaining to a desired end1 or problem4 ,in this shifting1 or movement1 of voluntary attention1 however1 two significant features manifest themselves4 ,first1 in working forward and back from the problem as a controlling centre1 attention brings into consciousness ideas more or less relevant to the problem4 ,secondly1 it selects and adjusts to the problem those that actually make for its solution1 and banishes from consciousness whatever is felt to be foreign to obtaining the desired end4 ,example of ,controlled ,attention4--,to exemplify a process of voluntary attention we may notice the action of the mind in solving such a problem as3 ,two trains started at the same moment from ,toronto and ,hamilton respectively1 one going at the rate of thirty miles an hour and the other at the rate of forty miles an hour4 ,supposing the distance between ,toronto and ,hamilton to be forty miles1 in how many minutes will the trains meet8 ,here the pupil must first fix his attention upon the problem--the number of minutes before the trains will meet4 ,this at once forms both a centre and a standard for measuring other related ideas4 ,in this way his attention passes to the respective rates of the two trains1 thirty and forty miles per hour4 ,then perhaps he fixes attention on the thought that one goes a mile in two minutes and the other a mile in #a-a_/b minutes4 ,but as he recognizes that this is leading him away from the problem1 resistance is offered to the flow of attention in this direction1 and he passes to the thought that in a minute the former goes #a_/b mile and the later #b_/c of a mile4 ,from this he passes to the thought that in one minute they together go #a-a_/f miles4 ,hereupon perhaps the idea comes to his mind to see how many miles they would go in an hour4 ,this1 however1 is soon felt to be foreign to the problem1 and resistance being set up in this direction1 the attention turns to consider in what time the two together cover #dj miles4 ,now by dividing #dj miles by #a-a_/f1 he obtains the number #cd-b_/g and is satisfied that his answer is #cd-b_/g minutes4 ,the process by which the attention here selected and adjusted the proper ideas to the problem might be illustrated by the following ,figure3 ,illustration ,here ,p represents the problem2 a1 b1 c1 d1 and e1 ideas accepted as relevant to the problem2 and b'1 d' ideas suggested by b and d1 but rejected as not adjustable to the problem4 ,factors in ,process4--,the above facts demonstrate1 however1 that the mind can take this attitude toward any problem only if it has a certain store of old knowledge relative to it4 ,two important conditions of voluntary attention are therefore1 first1 that the mind should have the necessary ideas1 or knowledge1 with which to attend and1 secondly1 that it would select and adjust these to the purpose in view4 ,here the intimate connection of voluntary attention to the normal learning process is apparent4 ,the step of preparation1 for instance1 is merely putting the mind in the proper attitude to attend voluntarily to an end in view1 namely the lesson problem2 while the so-called analytic-synthetic process of learning involves the selecting and adjusting movements of voluntary attention4 ,spontaneous and ,voluntary ,attention ,distinguished4--,in describing voluntary attention as an active form of attention1 psychologists assume that since the mind here wills1 or resolves1 to attend1 in order to gain a certain end in view2 therefore voluntary attention must imply a much greater degree of effort1 or strain1 than other types4 ,that such is always the case1 however1 is at times not very apparent4 ,if one may judge by the straining of eye or ear1 the poise of the body1 the holding of the breath1 etc41 when a person gives involuntary attention to any sudden impression1 as a strange noise at night1 it is evident that the difference of effort1 or strain1 in attending to this and some selected problem may not1 during the time it continues1 be very marked4 ,it is of course true that in voluntary attention the mind must choose its own object of attention as an end1 or aim1 while in the involuntary type the problem seems thrust upon us4 ,this certainly does imply a deliberate choice in the former1 and to that extent may be said to involve an effort not found in the latter4 ,in like manner1 when seeking to attain the end which has been set up1 the mind must select the related ideas which will solve its problem4 ,this in turn may demand the grasping of a number of complex relations4 ,to say1 however1 that all striving to attain an end is lacking in a case of involuntary attention would evidently be fallacious4 ,when the mind is startled by a strange noise1 the mind evidently does go out1 though in a less formal way1 to interpret a problem involuntarily thrust upon it4 ,when1 for instance1 we receive the violent impression1 the mind may be said to ask itself1 ,what strange impression is this8 and to that extent1 even here1 faces a selected problem4 ,the distinguishing feature of voluntary attention1 therefore1 is the presence of a consciously conceived end1 or aim1 upon which the mind deliberately sets its attention as something to be thought about4 ,,attention ,,in ,,education ,voluntary ,attention and ,learning4--,from what has been seen1 it is evident that1 when a pupil in his school approaches any particular problem1 the learning process will represent a process of voluntary attention4 ,this form of attention is1 therefore1 one of special significance to the teacher1 since a knowledge of the process will cast additional light upon the learning process4 ,the first condition of voluntary attention is the power to select some idea as an end1 or problem1 for attention4 ,it was seen1 however1 that the focusing of attention upon any problem depends upon some form of desirable change to be effected in and through the set problem4 ,for instance1 unless the recovery of the coin is conceived as producing a desirable change1 it would not become a deliberately set problem for attention4 ,it is essential1 therefore1 that the end which the child is to choose as an object of attention should be one conceived as demanding a desired change1 or adjustment4 ,for instance1 to ask a child to focus his attention upon two pieces of wood merely as pieces of wood is not likely to call forth an active effort of attention4 ,to direct his attention to them to find out how many times the one is contained in the other1 on the other hand1 focuses his attention more strongly upon them2 since the end to be reached will awaken his curiosity and set an interesting problem4 ,non-voluntary ,attention in ,education4--,on account of the ease with which attention seems to centre itself upon its object in non-voluntary attention1 it is sometimes erroneously claimed that this is the type of attention to be aimed at in the educative process1 especially with young children4 ,such a view is1 however1 a fallacious one1 and results from a false notion of the real character of both non-voluntary and voluntary attention4 ,in a clear example of non-voluntary attention1 the mind dwells upon the ideas merely on account of their inherent attractiveness1 and passes from one idea to its associated idea without any purposeful end in view4 ,this at once shows its ineffectiveness as a process of learning4 ,when the young lover's thoughts revert in a non-voluntary way to the fair one1 he perhaps passes into a state of mere reminiscence1 or at best of idle fancy4 ,even the student whose thoughts run on in a purposeless manner over his favourite subject1 will merely revive old associations1 or at best make a chance discovery of some new knowledge4 ,in the same way1 the child who delights in musical sounds may be satisfied to drum the piano by the hour1 but this is likely to give little real advance1 unless definite problems are set up and their attainment striven for in a purposeful way4 ,voluntary ,attention and ,interest4--,a corollary of the fallacy mentioned above is the assumption that voluntary attention necessarily implies some conflict with the mind's present desire or interest4 ,it is sometimes said1 for instance1 that in voluntary attention1 we compel our mind to attend1 while our interest would naturally direct our attention elsewhere4 ,but without a desire to effect some change in or through the problem being attended to1 the mind would not voluntarily make it an object of attention4 ,the misconception as to the relation of voluntary attention to interest is seen in an illustration often given as an example of non-voluntary attention4 ,it is said1 rightly enough1 that if a child is reading an interesting story1 and is just at the point where the plot is about to unravel itself1 there will be difficulty in diverting his attention to other matters4 ,this1 it is claimed1 furnishes a good example of the power of non-voluntary attention4 ,but quite the opposite may be the case4 ,when called upon1 say by his parent1 to lay aside the book and attend to some other problem1 the child1 it is true1 shows a desire to continue reading4 ,but this may be because he has a definite aim of his own in view--to find out the fate of his hero4 ,this is a strongly felt need on his part1 and his mind refuses to be satisfied until1 by further attention to the problem before him1 he has attained to this end4 ,the only element of truth in the illustration is that the child's attention is strongly reinforced through the intense feeling tone associated with the selected1 or determined1 aim--the fate of his hero4 ,the fact is1 therefore1 that a process of voluntary attention may have associated with its problem as strong an interest as is found in the non-voluntary type4 ,voluntary ,attention ,depends on ,problem4--,it is evident from the foregoing that the characteristic of voluntary attention is not the absence or the presence of any special degree of interest1 but rather the conception of some end1 or purpose1 to be reached in and through the attentive process4 ,in other words1 voluntary attention is a state of mind in which the mental movements are not drifting without a chart1 but are seeking to reach a set haven4 ,a person who is greatly interested in automobiles1 for instance1 on seeing a new machine1 may allow his attention to run now to this part of the machine1 now to that1 as each attracts him in turn4 ,here no fixed purpose is being served by the attentive process1 and attention may pass from part to part in a non-voluntary way1 the person's general interest in automobiles being sufficient to keep the attention upon the subject4 ,suddenly1 however1 he may notice something apparently new in the mechanism of the machine1 and a desire arises to understand its significance4 ,this at once becomes an end to which the mind desires to attain1 and voluntary attention proceeds to direct the mental movements toward its attainment4 ,to suppose1 however1 that the interest1 manifest in the former mental movements1 is now absent1 would evidently be fallacious4 ,the difference lies in this1 that at first the attention seemed fixed on the object through a general interest only1 and drifted from point to point in a purposeless way1 while in the second case an interesting end1 or purpose1 controlled the mental movements1 and therefore made each movement significant in relation to the whole conscious process4 ,attention and ,knowledge4--,mention has already been made of the relation of attention to interest4 ,it should be noted1 further1 that the difference in our attention under different circumstances is largely dependent upon our knowledge4 ,the stonecutter1 as he passes the fine mansion1 gives attention to the fretted cornice2 the glazier1 to the beautiful windows2 the gardener1 to the well-kept lawn and beds4 ,even the present content of the mind has its influence upon attention4 ,the student on his way to school1 if busy with his spelling lesson1 is attracted to the words and letters on posters and signs4 ,if he is reviewing his botany1 he notes especially the weeds along the walk2 if carrying to his art teacher1 with a feeling of pride1 the finished landscape drawing1 his attention goes out to the shade and colour of field and sky4 ,that such a connection must exist between knowledge and attention is apparent from what has been already noted concerning the working of the law of apperception4 ,physical ,conditions of ,attention4--,from what was learned above regarding the relation of nervous energy to active attention1 it is evident that the ability to attend to a problem at any given time will depend in part upon the physical condition of the organism4 ,if1 therefore1 the nervous energy is lowered through fatigue or sickness1 the attention will be weakened4 ,for this reason the teaching of subjects1 such as arithmetic1 grammar1 etc41 which present difficult problems1 and therefore make large demands upon the attention of the scholars1 should not be undertaken when the pupils' energy is likely to be at a minimum4 ,similarly1 unsatisfactory conditions in the school-room1 such as poor ventilation1 uncomfortable seats1 excessive heat or cold1 all tend to lower the nervous energy and thus prevent a proper concentration of attention upon the regular school work4 ,precautions ,relating to ,voluntary ,attention4--,although voluntary attention is evidently the form of attention possessing real educational value1 certain precautions would seem necessary concerning its use4 ,with very young children the aim for attending should evidently not be too remote4 ,in other words1 the problem should involve matter in which the children have a direct interest4 ,for this reason it is sometimes said that young children should set their own problems4 ,this is of course a paradox so far as the regular school work is concerned1 though it does apply to the pre-school period1 and also justifies the claim that with young children the lesson problem should be closely connected with some vital interest4 ,it would be useless1 for instance1 to try to interest young children in the ,british ,north ,america ,act by telling them that the knowledge will be useful when they come to write on their entrance examinations4 ,the story of ,sir ,isaac ,brock1 on the other hand1 wins attention for itself through the child's patriotism and love of story4 ,again1 the problem demanding attention should not1 in the case of young children1 be too long or complex4 ,for example1 a young child might easily attend to the separate problems of finding out1 7#a7 how many marbles he must have to give four to ,james and three to ,william2 7#b7 how many times seven can be taken from twenty-eight2 7#c7 how many marbles ,james would have if he received four marbles four times2 and 7#d7 how many ,james would have if he received three marbles three times4 ,but if given the problem to divide twenty-eight marbles between ,james and ,william1 giving ,james four every time he gives ,william three1 the problem may be too complex for his present power of attention4 ,a young child has not the control over his knowledge necessary to continue any long process of selecting attention4 ,a relatively short period of attention to any problem1 therefore1 exhausts the nervous energy in the centres connected with a particular set of experiences4 ,it is for this reason that the lessons in primary classes should be short and varied4 ,one of the objections1 therefore1 to a narrow curriculum is that attention would not obtain needed variety1 and that a narrowness in interest and application may result4 ,on the other hand1 it is well to note that the child must in time learn to concentrate his attention for longer periods and upon topics possessing only remote1 or indirect1 interest4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,feeling ,,of ,,interest ,nature of ,feeling4--,feeling has already been described 7,chapter ,,xix7 as the pleasurable or painful side of any state of consciousness4 ,we may recall how it was there found that any conscious state1 or experience1 for instance1 being conscious of the prick of a pin1 of success at an examination1 or of the loss of a friend1 is not merely a state of knowledge1 or awareness1 but is also a state of feeling4 ,it is a state of feeling because it affects us1 that is1 because being a state of our consciousness1 it appeals to us pleasurably or painfully in a way that it can to no one else4 ,neural ,conditions of ,feeling4--,it has been seen that every conscious state1 or experience1 has its affective1 or feeling1 tone1 and also that every experience involves the transmission of nervous energy through a number of connected brain cells4 ,on this basis it is thought that the feeling side of any conscious state is conditioned by the degree of the resistance encountered as the nervous energy is transmitted4 ,if the centres involved in the experience are not yet properly organized1 or if the stimulation is strong1 the resistance is greater and the feeling more intense4 ,a new movement of the limbs in physical training1 for example1 may at first prove intensely painful1 because the centres involved in the exercise are not yet organized4 ,so also1 because a very bright light stimulates the nerves violently1 it causes a painful feeling4 ,that morphine deadens pain is to be explained on the assumption that it decreases nervous energy1 and thus lessens the resistance being encountered between the nervous centres affected at the time4 ,feeling and ,habit4--,that the intensity of a feeling is conditioned by the amount of the resistance seems evident1 if we note the relation of feeling to habit4 ,the first time the nurse-in-training attends a wounded patient1 the experience is marked by intense feeling4 ,after a number of such experiences1 however1 this feeling becomes much less4 ,in like manner1 the child who at first finds the physical exercise painful1 as he becomes accustomed to the movements1 finds the pain becoming less and less intense4 ,in such cases it is evident that practice1 by organizing the centres involved in the experience1 decreases the resistance between them1 and thus gradually decreases the intensity of the feeling4 ,when finally the act becomes habitual1 the nervous impulse traverses only lower centres1 and therefore all feeling and indeed all consciousness will disappear1 as happens in the habitual movements of the limbs in walking and of the arms during walking4 ,,classes ,,of ,,feelings ,sensuous ,feeling4--,as already noted1 while feelings vary in intensity according to the strength of the resistance1 they also differ in kind according to the arcs traversed by the impulse4 ,experiencing a burn on the hand would involve nervous impulses1 or currents1 other than those involved in hearing of the death of a friend4 ,the one experience also differs in feeling from the other4 ,our feeling states are thus able to be divided into certain important classes with more or less distinct characteristics for each4 ,in one class are placed those feelings which accompany sensory impulses4 ,the sensations arising from the stimulations of the sense organs1 as a sweet or bitter taste1 a strong smell1 the touch of a hot1 sharp1 rough1 or smooth object1 etc41 all present an affective1 or feeling1 side4 ,so also feeling enters into the general or organic sensations arising from the conditions of the bodily organs2 as breathing1 the circulation of the blood1 digestion1 the tension of the muscles1 hunger1 thirst1 etc4 ,the feeling which thus enters as a factor into any sensation is known as sensuous feeling4 ,ideal ,feeling4--,other feelings enter into our ideas and thoughts4 ,the perception or imagination of an accident is accompanied with a painful feeling1 the memory or anticipation of success with a feeling of joy1 the thought of some particular person with a thrill of love4 ,such feelings are known as ideal feelings4 ,when a child tears his flesh on a nail1 he experiences sensuous feeling1 when he shrinks away1 as he perceives the teeth of a snarling dog1 he experiences an ideal feeling1 known as the emotion of fear4 ,interest4--,a third type of feeling especially accompanies an active process of attention4 ,in our study of attention1 it was seen that any process of attention is accompanied by a concentration of nervous energy upon the paths or centres involved in the experience1 thus organizing the paths more completely and thereby decreasing the resistance4 ,the impulse to attend to any experience is1 therefore1 accompanied with a desirable feeling1 because a new adjustment between nerve centres is taking place and resistance being overcome4 ,this affective1 or feeling1 tone which accompanies a process of attention is known as the feeling of interest4 ,interest and ,attention4--,in discussions upon educational method1 it is usually affirmed that the attention will focus upon a problem to the extent to which the mind is interested4 ,while this statement may be accepted in ordinary language1 it is not psychologically true that ,i first become interested in a strange presentation1 and then attend to it afterwards4 ,in such a case it is no more true to say that ,i attend because ,i am interested1 than to say that ,i am interested because ,i attend4 ,in other words1 interest and attention are not successive but simultaneous1 or1 as sometimes stated1 they are back and front of the same mental state4 ,this becomes evident by noting the nervous conditions which must accompany interest and attention4 ,when one is attending to any strange phenomenon1 say a botanist to the structure of a rare plant1 it is evident that there are not only new groupings of ideas in the mind1 but also new adjustments being set up between the brain centres4 ,this implies in turn a lessening of resistance between the cells1 and therefore the presence of the feeling tone known as interest4 ,interest1 ,attention1 and ,habit4--,since the impulse to attend to a presentation is conditioned by a process of adjustment1 or organization1 between brain centres1 it is evident that1 while the novel presentations call forth interest and attention1 repetition1 by habituating the nervous arcs1 will tend to deaden interest and attention4 ,for this reason the story1 first heard with interest and attention1 becomes stale by too much repetition4 ,the new toy fails to interest the child after the novelty has worn off4 ,it must be noted1 however1 that while repetition usually lessens interest1 yet when any set of experiences are repeated many times1 instead of lessening interest the repetition may develop a new interest known as the interest of custom4 ,thus it is that by repeating the experience the man is finally compelled to visit his club every evening1 and the boy to play his favourite game every day4 ,this secondary interest of custom arises because repetition has finally established such strong associations within the nervous system that they now have become a part of our nature and are thus able to make a new demand upon interest and attention4 ,,interest ,,in ,,education ,uses of ,term3 ,a4 ,subjective2 ,b4 ,objective4--,that the educator describes interest as something that causes the mind to give attention to what is before it1 when in fact interest and attention are psychologically merely two sides of a single process1 is accounted for by the fact that the term interest may be used with two quite different meanings4 ,psychologically1 interest is evidently a feeling state1 that is1 it represents a phase of consciousness4 ,my interest in football1 for instance1 represents the feeling of worth which accompanies attention to such experiences4 ,in this sense interest and attention are but two sides of the single experience1 interest representing the feeling1 and attention the effort side of the experience4 ,as thus applied1 the term interest is said to be used subjectively4 ,more1 often1 however1 the term is applied rather to the thing toward which the mind directs its attention1 the object being said to possess interest for the person4 ,in this sense the rattle is said to have interest for the babe2 baseball1 for the young boy2 and the latest fashions1 for the young lady4 ,since the interest is here assumed to reside in the object1 it seems reasonable to say that our attention is attracted through interest1 that is1 through an interesting presentation4 ,as thus applied1 the term interest is said to be used objectively4 ,types of ,objective ,interest4--,the interest which various objects and occupations thus possess for the mind may be of two somewhat different types4 ,in some cases the object possesses a direct1 or intrinsic1 interest for the mind4 ,the young child1 for instance1 is spontaneously attracted to bright colours1 the boy to stories of adventure1 and the sentimental youth or maiden to the romance4 ,in the case of any such direct interests1 however1 the feeling with which the mind contemplates the object may transfer itself at least partly to other objects associated more or less closely with the direct object of interest4 ,it is thus that the child becomes interested in the cup from which his food is taken1 and the lover in the lap dog which his fair one fondles4 ,as opposed to the direct interest which an object may have for the mind1 this transferred type is known as indirect interest4 ,importance of ,transference of ,interest4--,the ability of the mind thus to transfer its interests to associated objects is often of great pedagogical value4 ,abstract forms of knowledge become more interesting to young children through being associated with something possessing natural interest4 ,a pupil who seems to take little interest in arithmetic may take great delight in manual training4 ,by associating various mathematical problems with his constructive exercises1 the teacher can frequently cause the pupil to transfer in some degree his primary interest in manual training to the associated work in arithmetic4 ,in the same way the child in the primary grade may take more delight in the alphabet when he is able to make the letters in sand or by stick-laying4 ,it may be said1 in fact1 that much of man's effort is a result of indirect interest4 ,what is called doing a thing from a sense of duty is often a case of applying ourselves to a certain thing because we are interested in avoiding the disapproval of others4 ,the child also often applies himself to his tasks1 not so much because he takes a direct interest in them1 but because he wishes to gain the approval and avoid the censure of teacher and parents4 ,native and ,acquired ,interest4--,interest may also be distinguished on the basis of its origin4 ,as noted above1 certain impressions seem to demand a spontaneous interest from the individual4 ,for this cause the child finds his attention going out immediately to bright colours1 to objects which give pleasure1 such as candy1 etc41 or to that which causes personal pain4 ,on the other hand1 objects and occupations which at first seem devoid of interest may1 after a certain amount of experience has been gained1 become important centres of interest4 ,a young child may at first show no interest in insects unless it be a feeling of revulsion4 ,through the visit of an entomologist to his home1 however1 he may gain some knowledge of insects4 ,this knowledge1 by arousing an apperceptive tendency in the direction of insect study1 gradually develops in him a new interest which lasts throughout his whole life4 ,it is in this way that the various school subjects widen the narrow interests of the child4 ,by giving him an insight into various phases of his social environment1 the school curriculum awakens in him different centres of interest1 and thus causes him to become in the truest sense a part of the social life about him4 ,this fact is one of the strongest arguments1 also1 against a narrow public school course of study in a society which is itself a complex of diversified interests4 ,interest versus ,interests4--,on account of the evident connection of interest and attention1 the teacher may easily err in dealing with the young pupil4 ,it is allowable1 as pointed out above1 that the teacher should take advantage of any native interest to secure the attention and effort of the child in his school work4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that children are to be given only problems in which they are naturally interested4 ,it must be remembered1 as seen in a former paragraph1 that1 according to the interest of custom1 any line of school work1 when intelligently followed1 may soon build up a centre of interest for itself4 ,for this reason a proper study of arithmetic should develop an interest in arithmetic2 a study of history1 an interest in history2 and a study of geography1 an interest in geography4 ,the saying that school work should follow a child's interest might1 therefore1 be better expressed by saying that the child's interests should follow the school work4 ,it is only1 in fact1 as any one becomes directly interested in his pursuits1 that the highest achievement can be reached4 ,it is not the workman who is always looking forward to pay-day1 who develops into an artist1 or the teacher who is waiting for the summer holiday1 who is a real inspiration to her pupils4 ,in like manner1 it is only as the child forms centres of interest in connection with his school work1 that his life and character are likely to be affected permanently thereby4 ,development of ,interests4--,the problem for the educator is1 therefore1 not so much to follow the interest of the child1 as it is to develop in him permanent centres of interest4 ,for this reason the following facts concerning the origin and development of interests should be understood by the practical educator4 ,first among these is the fact that certain instinctive tendencies of early childhood may be made a starting-point for the development of permanent valuable interest4 ,the young child has a tendency to collect or an instinct of ownership1 which may be taken advantage of in directing him to make collections of insects1 plants1 coins1 stamps1 and thus prove of permanent educative value4 ,his constructive tendencies1 or desire to do with what comes into his hand1 as well as his imitative instincts1 may be turned to account in building up an interest in various occupations4 ,his social instinct1 also1 provides a means for developing permanent emotional interests as sympathy1 etc4 ,in like manner1 the character of the child's surroundings tends to create in him various centres of interest4 ,the young child1 for instance1 who is surrounded with beautiful objects1 is almost sure to develop an interest in works of art1 while the child who is early provided with fable and story will develop an interest in history4 ,when to ,develop ,interests4--,it is to be noted further concerning many of these forms of interest1 that youth is the special period for their development4 ,the child who does not1 during his early years1 have an opportunity to develop his social tendencies1 is not likely later in life to acquire an interest in his fellow-men4 ,in the same manner1 if youth is spent in surroundings void of sthetic elements1 manhood will be lacking in artistic interests4 ,it is in youth also that our intellectual interests1 such as love of reading1 of the study of nature1 of mathematics1 must be laid4 ,interests ,must be ,limited4--,while emphasizing the importance of establishing a wide range of interests when educating a child1 the teacher must remember that there is danger in a child acquiring too wide a range4 ,this can result only in a dissipation of effort over many fields4 ,while this prevents narrowness of vision and gives versatility of disposition1 it may prevent the attainment of efficiency in any department1 and make of the youth the proverbial ,jack-of-all-trades4 ,a study of the feeling of interest has been made at this stage on account of its close connection with the problem of attention1 and in fact with the whole learning process4 ,an examination of the other classes of feeling will be made at a later stage in the course4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,sense ,,perception ,sensation and ,perception ,distinguished4--,sensation and perception are two terms applied usually without much distinction of meaning to our recognition of the world of objects4 ,when1 for instance1 a man draws near to a stove1 he may say that it gives him a sensation of heat1 or perhaps that he perceives it to be hot4 ,in psychology1 however1 the term sensation has been used in two somewhat different meanings4 ,by some the term is used to signify a state of consciousness conditioned merely upon the stimulation of a sense organ1 as the eye1 ear1 etc41 by its appropriate stimulus4 ,to others1 however1 sensation signifies rather a mental image experienced by the mind as it reacts upon and interprets any sensory impression4 ,perception1 on the other hand1 signifies the recognition of an external object as presented to the mind here and now4 ,sensation ,implies ,externality4--,when1 however1 a sensory image1 such as smooth1 yellow1 cold1 etc41 arises in consciousness as a result of the mind reacting when an external stimulus is applied to some sense organ1 it is evident that1 at least after very early infancy1 one never has the image without at once referring it to some external cause4 ,if1 for instance1 a person is but half awake and receives a sound sensation1 he does not ask himself1 ,what mental state is this8 but rather1 ,what is that8 ,this shows an evident tendency to refer our sensations at once to an external cause1 or indicates that our sensations always carry with them an implicit reference to an external object4 ,leaving1 therefore1 to the scientific psychologist to consider whether it is possible to have a pure sensation1 we shall treat sensation as the recognition of a quality which is at least vaguely referred to an external object4 ,in other words1 sensation is a medium by which we are brought into relation with real things existing independently of our sensations4 ,perception ,involves ,sensation ,element4--,moreover1 an object is perceived as present here and now only because it is revealed to us through one or more of the senses4 ,when1 for instance1 ,i reach out my hand in the dark room and receive a sensation of touch1 ,i perceive the table as present before me4 ,when ,i receive a sensation of sound as ,i pass by the church1 ,i perceive that the organ is being played4 ,when ,i receive a colour sensation from the store window1 ,i say that ,i perceive oranges4 ,perception1 therefore1 involves the referring of the sensuous state1 or image1 to an external thing1 while in adult life sensation is never accepted by our attention as satisfactory unless it is referred to something we regard as immediately presenting itself to us by means of the sensation4 ,it is on account of this evident interrelation of the two that we speak of a process of sense perception4 ,perception an ,acquired ,power4--,on the other hand1 however1 investigation will show that this power to recognize explicitly the existence of an external object through the presentation of a sensation1 was not at first possessed by the mind4 ,the ability thus to perceive objects represents1 therefore1 an acquirement on the part of the individual4 ,if a person1 although receiving merely sensations of colour and light1 is able to say1 ,yonder is an orange1 he is evidently interpreting1 or giving meaning to1 the present sensations largely through past experience2 for the images of colour and light are accepted by the mind as an indication of the presence of an external thing from which could be derived other images of taste1 smell1 etc41 all of which go to make up the idea orange4 ,an ordinary act of perception1 therefore1 must involve not merely sensation1 but also an interpretation of sensation through past experience4 ,it is1 in fact1 because the recognition of an external object involves this conscious interpretation of the sensuous impressions1 that people often suffer delusion4 ,when the traveller passing by a lone graveyard interprets the tall and slender shrub laden with white blossoms as a swaying ghost1 the misconception does not arise from any fault of mere vision1 but from the type of former knowledge which the other surroundings of the moment call up1 these evidently giving the mind a certain bias in its interpretation of the sensuous1 or colour1 impressions4 ,perception in ,adult ,life4--,in our study of general method1 sense perception was referred to as the most common mode of acquiring particular knowledge4 ,a description of the development of this power to perceive objects through the senses should1 therefore1 prove of pedagogical value4 ,but to understand how an individual acquires the ability to perceive objects1 it is well to notice first what takes place in an ordinary adult act of perception1 as for instance1 when a man receives and interprets a colour stimulus and says that he perceives an orange4 ,if we analyse the person's idea of an orange we find that it is made up of a number of different quality images--colour1 taste1 smell1 touch1 etc41 organized into a single experience1 or idea1 and accepted as a mental representation of an object existing in space4 ,when1 therefore1 the person referred to above says that he perceives an orange1 what really happens is that he accepts the immediate colour and light sensation as a sign of the whole group of qualities which make up his notion of the external object1 orange1 the other qualities essential to the notion coming back from past experience to unite with the presented qualities4 ,owing to this fact1 any ordinary act of perception is said to contain both presentative and representative elements4 ,in the above example1 for instance1 the colour would be spoken of as a presentative element1 because it is immediately presented to the mind in sensuous terms1 or through the senses4 ,anything beyond this which goes to make up the individual's notion orange1 and is revived from past experience1 is spoken of as representative4 ,for the same reason1 the sensuous elements involved in an ordinary act of perception are often spoken of as immediate1 and the others as mediate elements of knowledge4 ,genesis of ,perception4--,to trace the development of this ability to mingle both presentative and representative elements of knowledge into a mental representation1 or idea1 of an external object1 it is necessary to recall what has been noted regarding the relation of the nervous system to our conscious acts4 ,when the young child first comes in contact with the world of strange objects with which he is surrounded1 the impressions he receives therefrom will not at first have either the definite quality or the relation to an external thing which they later secure4 ,as a being1 however1 whose first tendencies are those of movement1 he grasps1 bites1 strokes1 smells1 etc41 and thus goes out to meet whatever his surroundings thrust upon him4 ,gradually he finds himself expand to take in the existence of a something external to himself1 and is finally able1 as the necessary paths are laid down in his nervous system1 to differentiate various quality images one from the other2 as1 touch1 weight1 temperature1 light1 sound1 etc4 ,this will at once involve1 however1 a corresponding relating1 or synthetic1 attitude of mind1 in which different quality images1 when experienced together as qualities of some vaguely felt thing1 will be organized into a more or less definite knowledge1 or idea1 of that object1 as illustrated in the figure below4 ,as the child in time gains the ability to attend to the sensuous presentations which come to him1 and to discriminate one sensation from another1 he discovers in the vaguely known thing the images of touch1 colour1 taste1 smell1 etc41 and finally associates them into the idea of a better known object1 orange4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,unknown thing4 ,b4 ,sensory stimuli4 ,c4 ,sensory images4 ,d4 ,idea of object4 ,control of ,sensory ,image as ,sign4--,since the various sense impressions are carried to the higher centres of the brain1 they will not only be interpreted as sensory images and organized into a knowledge of external objects1 but1 owing to the retentive power of the nervous tissue1 will also be subject to recall4 ,as the child thus gains more and more the ability to organize and relate various sensory images into mental representations1 or ideas1 of external objects1 he soon acquires such control over these organized groups1 that when any particular sensation image out of a group is presented to the mind1 it will be sufficient to call up the other qualities1 or will be accepted as a sign of the presence of the object4 ,when this stage of perceptual power is reached1 an odour coming from the oven enables a person to perceive that a certain kind of meat is within1 or a noise proceeding from the tower is sufficient to make known the presence of a bell4 ,to possess the ability thus to refer one's sensations to an external object is to be able to perceive objects4 ,fulness of ,perception ,based on ,sensation4--,from the foregoing account of the development of our perception of the external world1 it becomes evident that our immediate knowledge1 or idea1 of an individual object will consist only of the images our senses have been able to discover either in that or other similar objects4 ,to the person born without the sense of sight1 for instance1 the flower-bed can never be known as an object of tints and colours4 ,to the person born deaf1 the violin cannot really be known as a musical instrument4 ,moreover1 only the person whose senses distinguish adequately variations in colour1 sound1 form1 etc41 is able to perceive fully the objects which present themselves to his senses4 ,even when the physical senses seem equally perfect1 one man1 through greater power of discrimination1 perceives in the world of objects much that totally escapes the observation of another4 ,the result is that few of us enter as fully as we might into the rich world of sights1 sounds1 etc41 with which we are surrounded1 because we fail to gain the abundant images that we might through certain of our senses4 ,,factors ,,involved ,,in ,,sensation ,passing to a consideration of the senses as organs through which the mind is made aware of the concrete world1 it is to be noted that a number of factors precede the image1 or mental interpretation1 of the impression4 ,when1 for instance1 the mind becomes cognizant of a musical note1 an analysis of the whole process reveals the following factors3 #a4 ,the concrete object1 as the vibrating string of a violin4 #b4 ,sound waves proceeding from the vibrating object to the sense organ4 #c4 ,the organ of sense--the ear4 ,illustration #d4 ,the nerves--cells and fibres involved in receiving and conveying the sense stimulus4 #e4 ,the interpreting cells4 #f4 ,the reacting mind1 which interprets the impression as an image of sound4 ,the different factors are somewhat arbitrarily illustrated in the accompanying diagram1 the arrows indicating the physical stimulation and the conscious response3 ,of the six factors involved in the sensation1 #a and #b are purely physical and belong to the science of acoustics2 #c1 #d1 and #e are physiological2 #f is conscious1 or psychological4 ,it is because they always involve the immediate presence of some physical object1 that the sensation elements involved in ordinary perception are spoken of as immediate1 or presentative1 elements of knowledge4 ,,classification ,,of ,,sensations ,our various sensations are usually divided into three classes as follows3 #a4 ,sensations of the special senses1 including3 sight1 sound1 touch 7including temperature71 taste1 and smell4 #b4 ,motor1 or muscular1 sensations4 #c4 ,organic sensations4 ,sensations of the ,special ,senses4--,as a study of the five special senses has been made by the student-teacher under the heading of physiology1 no attempt will be made to explain the structure of these organs4 ,it must be noted1 however1 that not all senses are equally capable of distinguishing differences in quality4 ,for example1 it seems quite beyond our power to recall the tastes and odours of the various dishes of which we may have partaken at a banquet1 while on the other hand we may recall distinctly the visual appearance of the room and the table4 ,it is worthy of note1 also1 that in the case of smell1 animals are usually much more discriminative than man4 ,certain of our senses are1 therefore1 much more intellectual than others4 ,by this is meant that for purposes of distinguishing the objects themselves1 and for providing the mind with available images as materials for further thought1 our senses are by no means equally effective4 ,under this heading the special senses are classified as follows3 ,higher ,intellectual ,senses3 sight1 hearing1 touch4 ,lower ,intellectual ,senses3 taste and smell4 ,muscular ,sensations4--,under motor1 or muscular1 sensations are included the feelings which accompany consciousness of muscular exertion1 or movement4 ,in distinction from the other sense organs1 the muscles are stimulated by having nervous energy pass outward over the motor nerves to the muscles4 ,as the muscles are thus stimulated to movement1 sensory nerves in turn convey inward from the muscles sensory impressions resulting from these movements4 ,the important sensations connected with muscular action are those of strain1 force1 and resistance1 as in lifting or pushing4 ,by means of these motor sensations1 joined with the sense of touch1 the individual is able to distinguish especially weight1 position1 and change of position4 ,in connection with the muscular sense1 may be recalled that portion of the ,montessori apparatus known as the weight tablets4 ,these wooden tablets1 it will be noted1 are designed to educate the muscular sense to distinguish slight differences in weight4 ,the muscular sense is chiefly important1 however1 in that delicate distinctions of pressure1 movement1 and resistance must be made in many forms of manual expression4 ,the interrelation between sensory impression and motor impulse within the nervous system1 as illustrated in the figures on page #bjj1 is already understood by the reader4 ,for an adequate conscious control of movements1 especially when one is engaged in delicate handwork1 as painting1 modelling1 wood-work1 etc41 there must be an ability to perceive slight differences in strain1 pressure1 and movement4 ,moreover1 the most effective means for developing the muscular sense is through the expressive exercises referred to above4 ,organic ,sensations4--,the organic sensations are those states of consciousness that arise in connection with the processes going on within the organism1 as circulation of the blood1 digestion2 breathing1 or respiration2 hunger2 thirst2 etc4 ,the significance of these sensations lies in the fact that they reveal to consciousness any disturbances in connection with the vital processes1 and thus enable the individual to provide for the preservation of the organism4 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,senses ,importance4--,when it is considered that our general knowledge must be based on a knowledge of individuals1 it becomes apparent that children should1 through sense observation1 learn as fully as possible the various qualities of the concrete world4 ,only on this basis can they build their more general and abstract forms of knowledge4 ,for this reason the child in his study of objects should1 so far as safety permits1 bring all of his senses to bear upon them and distinguish as clearly as possible all their properties4 ,by this means only can he really know the attributes of the objects constituting his environment4 ,moreover1 without such a full knowledge of the various properties and qualities of concrete objects1 he is not in a position to turn them fully to his own service4 ,it is by distinguishing the feeling of the flour1 that the cook discovers whether it is suited for bread-making or pastry4 ,it is by noting the texture of the wood1 that the artisan can decide its suitability for the work in hand4 ,in fine1 it was only by noting the properties of various natural objects that man discovered their social uses4 ,how to be ,effected4--,one of the chief defects of primary education in the past has been a tendency to overlook the importance of giving the child an opportunity to exercise his senses in discovering the properties of the objects constituting his environment4 ,the introduction of the kindergarten1 objective methods of teaching1 nature study1 school gardening1 and constructive occupations have done much1 however1 to remedy this defect4 ,one of the chief claims in favour of the so-called ,montessori ,method is that it provides especially for an education of the senses4 ,in doing this1 however1 it makes use of arbitrarily prepared materials instead of the ordinary objects constituting the child's natural environment4 ,the one advantage in this is that it enables the teacher to grade the stimulations and thus exercise the child in making series of discriminations1 for instance1 a series of colours1 sounds1 weights1 sizes1 etc4 ,notwithstanding this advantage1 however1 it seems more pedagogical that the child should receive this needful exercise of the senses by being brought into contact with the actual objects constituting his environment1 as is done in nature study1 constructive exercises1 art1 etc4 ,dangers of ,neglecting the ,senses4--,the former neglect of an adequate exercise of the senses during the early education of the child was evidently unpedagogical for various reasons4 ,as already noted1 other forms of acquiring knowledge1 such as constructive imagination1 induction1 and deduction1 must rest primarily upon the acquisitions of sense perception4 ,moreover1 it is during the early years of life that the plasticity and retentive power of the nervous system will enable the various sense impressions to be recorded for the future use of the mind4 ,further1 the senses themselves during these early years show what may be termed a hunger for contact with the world of concrete objects1 and a corresponding distaste for more abstract types of experience4 ,learning ,through all the ,senses4--,in recognizing that the process of sense perception constitutes a learning process1 or is one of the modes by which man enters into new experience1 the teacher should further understand that the same object may be interpreted through different senses4 ,for example1 when a child studies a new bird1 he may note its form and colour through the eye1 he may recognize the feeling and the outline through muscular and touch sensations1 he may discover its song through the ear1 and may give muscular expression to its form in painting or modelling4 ,in the same way1 in learning a figure or letter1 he may see its form through the eye1 hear its sound through the ear1 make the sound and trace the form by calling various muscles into play1 and thus secure a number of muscular sensations relative to the figure or letter4 ,since all these various experiences will be co-ordinated and retained within the nervous system1 the child will not only know the object better1 but will also be able to recall more easily any items of knowledge concerning it1 on account of the larger number of connections established within the nervous system4 ,one chief fact to be kept in mind by the teacher1 therefore1 in using the method of sense perception1 is to have the pupil study the object through as many different senses as possible1 and especially through those senses in which his power of discrimination and recall seems greatest4 ,use of ,different ,images in ,teaching4--,the importance to the teacher of an intimate knowledge of different types of imagery and of a further acquaintance with the more prevailing images of particular pupils1 is evident in various ways4 ,in the first place1 different school subjects may appeal more especially to different types of imagery4 ,thus a study of plants especially involves visual1 or sight1 images2 a study of birds1 visual and auditory images2 oral reading and music1 auditory images2 physical training1 motor images2 constructive work1 visual1 tactile1 and motor images2 a knowledge of weights and measures1 tactile and motor images4 ,on account of a native difference in forming images1 also1 one pupil may best learn through the eye1 another through the ear1 a third through the muscles1 etc4 ,in learning the spelling of words1 for example1 one pupil may require especially to visualize the word1 another to hear the letters repeated in their order1 and a third to articulate the letters by the movement of the organs of speech1 or to trace them in writing4 ,in choosing illustrations1 also1 the teacher will find that one pupil best appreciates a visual illustration1 a second an auditory illustration1 etc4 ,some young pupils1 for instance1 might best appreciate a pathetic situation through an appeal to such sensory images as hunger and thirst4 ,an ,illustration4--,the wide difference in people's ability to interpret sensuous impressions is well exemplified in the case of sound stimuli4 ,every one whose ear is physically perfect seems able to interpret a sound so far as its mere quality and quantity are concerned4 ,in the case of musical notes1 however1 the very greatest difference is found in the ability of different individuals to distinguish pitch4 ,so also the distinguishing of distance and direction in relation to sound is an acquired ability1 in which different people will greatly differ4 ,finally1 to interpret the external relations involved in the sound1 that is1 whether the cry is that of an insect or a bird1 or1 if it is the former1 from what kind of bird the sound is proceeding1 this evidently is a phase of sense interpretation in which individuals differ very greatly4 ,yet an adequate development of the sense of hearing might be supposed to give the individual an ability to interpret his surroundings in all these ways4 ,power of ,sense ,perception ,limited3 ,a4 ,by ,interest4--,it should be noted1 however1 that so far as our actual life needs are concerned1 there is no large demand for an all-round ability to interpret sensuous impressions4 ,for practical purposes1 men are interested in different objects in quite different ways4 ,one is interested in the colour of a certain wood1 another in its smoothness1 a third in its ability to withstand strain1 while a fourth may even be interested in more hidden relations1 not visible to the ordinary sense4 ,this will justify one in ignoring entirely qualities in the object which are of the utmost importance to others4 ,from such a practical standpoint1 it is evidently a decided gain that a person is not compelled to see everything in an object which its sensuous attributes might permit one to discover in it4 ,in the case of the man with the so-called untrained sense1 therefore1 it is questionable whether the failure to see1 hear1 etc41 is in many cases so much a lack of ability to use the particular sense1 as it is a lack of practical interest in this phase of the objective world4 ,in such processes as induction and deduction1 also1 it is often the external relations of objects rather than their sensory qualities that chiefly interest us4 ,indeed1 it is sometimes claimed that an excessive amount of mere training in sense discrimination might interfere with a proper development of the higher mental processes4 ,b4 ,by ,knowledge4--,from what has been discovered regarding the learning process1 it is evident that the development of any sense1 as sight1 sound1 touch1 etc41 is not brought about merely by exercising the particular organ4 ,it has been learned1 for instance1 that the person who is able to observe readily the plant and animal life as he walks through the forest1 possesses this skill1 not because his physical eye1 but because his mind1 has been prepared to see these objects4 ,in other words1 it is because his knowledge is active along such lines that his eye beholds these particular things4 ,the chief reason1 therefore1 why the exercise of any sense organ develops a power to perceive through that sense1 is that the exercise tends to develop in the individual the knowledge and interest which will cause the mind to react easily and effectively on that particular class of impressions4 ,a sense may be considered trained1 therefore1 to the extent to which the mind acquires knowledge of1 and interest in1 the objective elements4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,memory ,,and ,,apperception ,nature of ,memory4--,mention has been made of the retentive power of the nervous system1 and of a consequent tendency for mental images to revive1 or re-present1 themselves in consciousness4 ,it must now be noted that such a re-presentation of former experiences is frequently accompanied with a distinct recognition that the present image or images have a definite reference to past time4 ,in other words1 the present mental fact is able to be placed in the midst of other events believed to make up some portion of our past experience4 ,such an ideal revival of a past experience1 together with a recognition of the fact that it formerly occurred within our experience1 is known as an act of memory4 ,neural ,conditions of ,memory4--,when any experience is thus reproduced1 and recognized as a reproduction of a previous experience1 there is physiologically a transmission of nervous energy through the same brain centres as were involved in the original experience4 ,the mental reproduction of any image is conditioned1 therefore1 by the physical reproduction of a nervous impulse through a formerly established path4 ,that this is possible is owing to the susceptibility of nervous tissue to take on habit1 or to retain as permanent modifications1 all impressions received4 ,from this it is evident that when we say we retain certain facts in our mind1 the statement is not in a sense true2 for there is no knowledge stored up in consciousness as so many ideas4 ,the statement is true1 therefore1 only in the sense that the mind is able to bring into consciousness a former experience by reinstating the necessary nervous impulses through the proper nervous arcs4 ,what is actually retained1 however1 is the tendency to reinstate nervous movements through the same paths as were involved in the original experience4 ,although1 therefore1 retention is usually treated as a factor in memory1 its basis is1 in reality1 physiological4 ,memory ,distinguished from ,apperception4--,the distinguishing characteristics of memory as a re-presentation in the mind of a former experience is evidently the mental attitude known as recognition4 ,memory1 in other words1 always implies a belief that the present mental state really represents a fact1 or event1 which formed a part of our past experience4 ,in the apperceptive process as seen in an ordinary process of learning1 on the other hand1 although it seems to involve a re-presentation of former mental images in consciousness1 this distinct reference of the revived imagery to past time is evidently wanting4 ,when1 for instance1 the mind interprets a strange object as a pear-shaped1 thin-rinded1 many-seeded fruit1 all these interpreting ideas are1 in a sense1 revivals of past experience2 yet none carry with them any distinct reference to past time4 ,in like manner1 when ,i look at an object of a certain form and colour and say that it is a sweet apple1 it is evidently owing to past experience that ,i can declare that particular object to be sweet4 ,it is quite clear1 however1 that in such a case there is no distinct reference of the revived image of sweetness to any definite occurrence in one's former experience4 ,such an apperceptive revival1 or re-presentation of past experience1 because it includes merely a representation of mental images1 but fails to relate them to the past1 cannot be classed as an act of memory4 ,but ,involves ,apperceptive ,process4--,while1 however1 the mere revival of old knowledge in the apperceptive process does not constitute an act of memory1 memory is itself only a special phase of the apperceptive process4 ,when ,i think of a particular anecdote to-day1 and say ,i remember having the same experience on ,sunday evening last1 the present mental images cannot be the very same images as were then experienced4 ,the former images belonged to the past1 while those at present in consciousness are a new creation1 although dependent1 as we have seen1 upon certain physiological conditions established in the past4 ,in an act of memory1 therefore1 the new presentation1 like all new presentations1 must be interpreted in terms of past experience1 or by an apperceiving act of attention4 ,whenever in this apperceptive act there is1 in addition to the interpretation1 a further feeling1 or sense1 of familiarity1 the presentation is accepted by the mind as a reproduction from past experience1 or is recognized as belonging to the past4 ,when1 on the way down the street1 for instance1 impressions are received from a passing form1 and a resulting act of apperceiving attention1 besides reading meaning into them1 awakens a sense of familiarity1 the face is recognized as one seen on a former occasion4 ,memory1 therefore1 is a special mode of the apperceptive process of learning1 and includes1 in addition to the interpreting of the new through the old1 a belief that there is an identity between the old and the new4 ,,factors ,,of ,,memory ,in a complete example of memory the following factors may be noted3 #a4 ,the original presentation--as the first perception of an object or scene1 the reading of a new story1 the hearing of a particular voice1 etc4 #b4 ,retention--this involves the permanent changes wrought in the nervous tissue as a result of the presentation or learning process and1 as mentioned above1 is really physiological4 #c4 ,recall--this implies the re-establishment of the nervous movements involved in the original experiences and an accompanying revival of the mental imagery4 #d4 ,recognition--under this heading is included the sense of familiarity experienced in consciousness1 and the consequent belief that the present experience actually occurred at some certain time as an element in our past experience4 ,,conditions ,,of ,,memory ,a4 ,physical ,conditions4--,one of the first conditions for an effective recollection of any particular experience will be1 evidently1 the strength of the co-ordinations set up in the nervous system during the learning process4 ,the permanent changes brought about in the nervous tissue as a result of conscious experience is often spoken of as the physical basis of memory4 ,the first consideration1 therefore1 relative to the memorizing of knowledge is to decide the conditions favourable to establishing such nervous paths during the learning process4 ,first among these may be mentioned the condition of the nervous tissue itself4 ,as already seen1 the more plastic and active the condition of this tissue1 the more susceptible it is to receive and retain impressions4 ,for this reason anything studied when the body is tired and the mind exhausted is not likely to be remembered4 ,it is for the same reason1 also1 that knowledge acquired in youth is much more likely to be remembered than things learned late in life4 ,the intensity and the clearness of the presentation also cause it to make a stronger impression upon the system and thus render its retention more permanent4 ,this demands in turn that attention should be strongly focused upon the presentations during any learning process4 ,by adding to the clearness and intensity of any impressions1 attention adds to the likelihood of their retention4 ,the evident cause of the scholar's ability to learn even relatively late in life is the fact that he brings a much greater concentration of attention to the process than is usually found in others4 ,repetition also1 since it tends to break down any resistance to the paths which are being established in the nervous system during the learning process1 is a distinct aid to retention4 ,for this reason any knowledge acquired should be revived at intervals4 ,this is especially true of the school knowledge being acquired by young children1 and their acquisitions must be occasionally reviewed and used in various ways1 if the knowledge is to become a permanent possession4 ,a special application of the law of repetition may be noted in the fact that we remember better any topic learned1 say1 in four half-hours put upon it at different intervals1 than we should by spending the whole two hours upon it at one time4 ,another condition favourable to recall is the recency of the original experience4 ,anything is more easily recalled1 the more recently it has been learned4 ,the physiological cause for this seems to be that the nervous co-ordinations being recent1 they are much more likely to re-establish themselves1 not having yet been effaced or weakened through the lapse of time4 ,b4 ,mental ,conditions4--,it must be noted1 however1 that although there is evidently the above neural concomitant of recall1 yet it is not the nervous system1 but the mind1 that actually recalls and remembers4 ,the real condition of recall1 therefore1 is mental1 and depends largely upon the number of associations formed between the ideas themselves in the original presentation4 ,according to the law of association1 different ideas arise in the mind in virtue of certain connections existing between the ideas themselves4 ,it would be quite foreign to our present purpose to examine the theories held among philosophic psychologists regarding the principle of the association of ideas4 ,it is evident1 however1 that ideas often come to our minds in consequence of the presence in consciousness of a prior idea4 ,when we see the name ,queenston ,heights1 it suggests to us ,sir ,isaac ,brock2 when we see a certain house1 it calls to mind the pleasant evening spent there2 and when we hear the strains of solemn music1 it brings to mind the memories of the dead4 ,equally evident is the fact that anything experienced in isolation is much harder to remember than one experienced in such a way that it may enter into a larger train of ideas4 ,if1 for instance1 any one is told to call up in half an hour telephone #chbg1 it is more than likely that the number will be forgotten1 if the person goes on with other work and depends only on the mere impression to recall the number at the proper time4 ,this would be the case also in spite of the most vivid presentation of the number by the one giving the order or the repetition of it by the person himself4 ,if1 however1 the person says1 even in a casual way1 ,call up #ahfg1 and the person addressed associates the number with the ,confederation of the ,dominion1 there is practically no possibility of the number going out of his mind4 ,an important mental condition for recall1 therefore1 is that ideas should be learned in as large associations1 or groups1 as possible4 ,it is for the above reason that the logical and orderly presentation of the topics in any subject and their thorough understanding by the pupil give more complete control over the subject-matter4 ,when each lesson is taught as a disconnected item of knowledge1 there seems nothing to which the ideas are anchored1 and recall is relatively difficult4 ,when1 on the other hand1 points of connection are established between succeeding lessons1 and the pupil understands these1 one topic suggests another1 and the mind finds it relatively easy to recall any particular part of the related ideas4 ,,types ,,of ,,recall ,a4 ,involuntary4--,in connection with the working of the principle of association1 it is interesting to note that practically two types of recall manifest themselves4 ,as a result of their suggestive tendency1 the ideas before consciousness at any particular time have a tendency to revive old experiences which the mind may recognize as such4 ,here there is no effort on the part of the voluntary attention to recall the experience from the past1 the operation of the law of association being1 as it were1 sufficient to thrust the revived image into the centre of the field of consciousness1 as when the sight of a train recalls a recent trip4 ,b4 ,voluntary4--,at times the mind may set out with the deliberate aim1 or purpose1 of reviving some forgotten experience4 ,this is because attention is at the time engaged upon a definite problem1 as when the student writing on his examination paper strives to recall the conditions of the ,constitutional ,act4 ,this type is known as voluntary memory4 ,such a voluntary attempt at recall is1 however1 of the same character as the involuntary type in that both involve association4 ,what the mind really strives for is to start a train of ideas which shall suggest the illusive ideas involved in the desired answer4 ,such a process of recall might be illustrated as follows3 ,illustration ,here a1 b1 c1 d1 e represent the forgotten series of ideas to be recalled4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e represent other better known ideas1 some of which are associated with the desired ones4 ,by having the mind course over the better known facts--,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 attention may finally focus upon the relation ,a1 a1 ,b1 and thus start up the necessary revival of a1 b1 c1 d1 e4 ,attention ,may ,hinder ,memory4--,while active attention is thus able under proper conditions to reinforce memory1 yet occasionally attention seems detrimental to memory4 ,that such is the case will become evident from the preceding figure4 ,if the experience a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 is directly associated only with ,a1 ,b1 but the mind believes the association to centre in ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 attention is certain to keep focused upon the sub-group--,c1 ,d1 ,e4 ,at an examination in history1 for example1 we may desire to recall the circumstances associated with the topic1 ,the ,grand ,remonstrance1 and feel vaguely that this is connected with a revolutionary movement4 ,this may cause us1 however1 to fix attention1 not upon the civil war1 but upon the revolution of #afhh4 ,in this case1 instead of forcing a nervous impulse into the proper centres1 attention is in reality diverting it into other channels4 ,when1 a few minutes later1 we have perhaps ceased our effort to remember1 the impulse seems of itself to stimulate the proper centres1 and the necessary facts come to us apparently without any attentive effort4 ,,localization ,,in ,,time ,it has been pointed out that in an act of memory there must be a recognition of the present experience as one which has occurred in a series of past events4 ,the definite reference of a memory image to a past series is sometimes spoken of as localization4 ,the degree to which a memory image is localized in the past differs greatly1 however1 in different cases4 ,your recollection of some interesting personal event in your past school history may be very definitely located as to time1 image after image reinstating themselves in memory in the order of their actual occurrence4 ,such a similar series of events must have taken place when1 by means of handling a number of objects1 you learned different number and quantity relations or1 by drawing certain figures1 discovered certain geometrical relations4 ,at the present time1 however1 although you remember clearly the general relations1 you are utterly unable to recall the more incidental facts connected with their original presentation1 or even localize the remembered knowledge at all definitely in past time4 ,nothing1 in fact1 remains as a permanent possession except the general1 or scientific1 truth involved in the experience4 ,,classification ,,of ,,memories ,a4 ,mechanical4--,the above facts would indicate that in many cases the mind would find it more effective to omit from conscious recall what may appear irrelevant in the original presentation1 and fix attention upon only the essential features4 ,from this standpoint1 two somewhat different types of memory are to be found among individuals4 ,with many people1 it seems as if a past experience must be revived in every detail4 ,if such a one sets out to report a simple experience1 such as seeing a policeman arrest a man on the street1 he must bring in every collateral circumstance1 no matter how foreign to the incident4 ,he must mention1 for example1 that he himself had on a new straw hat1 that his companion was smoking a cigar1 was accompanied by his dog1 and was talking about his crops1 at the time they observed the arrest4 ,this type is known as a mechanical memory4 ,very good examples of such will be seen in the persons of ,farmer ,philip in ,tennyson's ,brook and the landlady in ,shakespeare's ,king ,henry ,,iv4 ,b4 ,logical4--,in another type of memory1 the mind does not thus associate into the memory experience every little detail of the original experience4 ,the outstanding facts1 especially those which are bound by some logical sequence1 are the only ones which enter into permanent association4 ,such a type of mind1 therefore1 in recalling the past1 selects out of the mass of experiences the incidents which will constitute a logical revival1 and leaves out the trivial and incidental4 ,this type is usually spoken of as a logical memory4 ,this type of memory would1 in the above incident1 recall only the essential facts connected with the arrest1 as the cause1 the incidents1 and the result4 ,,memory ,,in ,,education ,value of ,memory4--,it is evident that without the ability to reinstate past experiences in our conscious life1 such experiences could not serve as intelligent guides for our present conduct4 ,each day1 in fact1 we should begin life anew so far as concerns intelligent adaptation1 our acquired aptitude being at best only physical4 ,it will be understood1 therefore1 why the ability to recall past experiences is accepted as an essential factor in the educative process4 ,it will be noted1 indeed1 in our study of the history of education1 that1 at certain periods1 the whole problem of education seemed to be to memorize knowledge so thoroughly that it might readily be reinstated in consciousness4 ,modern education1 however1 has thrown emphasis upon two additional facts regarding knowledge4 ,these are1 first1 that the ability to use past knowledge1 and not the mere ability to recall it1 is the mark of a truly educated man4 ,the second fact is that1 when any experience is clearly understood at the time of its presentation1 the problem of remembering it will largely take care of itself4 ,for these reasons1 modern education emphasizes clearness of presentation and ability to apply1 rather than the mere memorizing of knowledge4 ,it is a question1 however1 whether the modern educator may not often be too negligent concerning the direct problem of the ability to recall knowledge4 ,for this reason1 the student-teacher may profitably make himself acquainted with the main conditions of retention and recall4 ,the ,training of ,memory4--,an important problem for the educator is to ascertain whether it is possible to develop in the pupil a general power of memory4 ,in other words1 will the memorizing of any set of facts strengthen the mind to remember more easily any other facts whatsoever8 ,from what has been noted regarding memory1 it is evident that1 leaving out of consideration the physical condition of the organism1 the most important conditions for memory at the time are attention to1 and a thorough understanding of1 the facts to be remembered4 ,from this it must appear that a person's ability to remember any facts depends primarily1 not upon the mere amount of memorizing he has done in the past1 but upon the extent to which his interests and old knowledge cause him to attend to1 understand1 and associate the facts to be remembered4 ,there seems no justification1 therefore1 for the method of the teacher who expected to strengthen the memories of her pupils for their school work by having them walk quickly past the store windows and then attempt to recall at school what they had seen4 ,in such cases the boys are found to remember certain objects1 because their interests and knowledge enable them to notice these more distinctly at the time of the presentation4 ,the girls1 on the other hand1 remember other objects1 because their interests and knowledge cause them to apprehend these rather than the others4 ,,apperception ,apperception a ,law of ,learning4--,in the study of the lesson process1 ,chapter ,,iii1 attention was called to the fact that the interpretation which the mind places upon any presentation depends in large measure upon the mind's present content and interest4 ,it is an essential characteristic of mind that it always attempts to give meaning to any new impression1 no matter how strange that impression may be4 ,this end is reached1 however1 only as the mind is able to apply to the presentation certain elements of former experience4 ,even in earliest infancy1 impressions do not come to the organism as total strangers2 for the organism is already endowed with instinctive tendencies to react in a definite manner to certain stimuli4 ,as these reactions continue to repeat themselves1 however1 permanent modifications1 as previously noted1 are established in the nervous system1 including both sensory and motor adjustments4 ,since1 moreover1 these sensory and motor adjustments give rise to ideas1 they result in corresponding associations of mental imagery4 ,as these neural and mental elements are thus organized into more and more complex masses1 the recurrence of any element within an associated mass is able to reinstate the other elements4 ,the result is that when a certain sensation is received1 as1 for instance1 a sound stimulus1 it reinstates sensory impressions and motor reactions together with their associated mental images1 thus enabling the mind to assert that a dog is barking in the distance4 ,in such a case1 the present impression is evidently joined with1 and interpreted through1 what has already formed a part of our experience4 ,what is true of this particular case is true of all cases4 ,new presentations are always met and interpreted by some complex experiences with which they have something in common1 otherwise the stimuli could not be attended to at all4 ,this ability of the mind to interpret new presentations in terms of old knowledge on account of some connection they bear to that content1 is known as apperception4 ,in other words1 apperception is the law of the mind to attend to such elements in a new presentation as possess some degree of familiarity with the already assimilated experience1 although there may be no distinct recognition of this familiarity4 ,,conditions ,,of ,,apperception ,a4 ,present ,knowledge4--,since the mind can apperceive only that for which it is prepared through former experience1 the interpretation of the same presentations will be likely to differ greatly in different individuals4 ,the book lying before him is to the young child a place in which to find pictures1 to the ignorant man a source of mysterious information1 and to the scholar a symbolic representation of certain mathematical knowledge4 ,in the same manner1 the object outside the window is a noxious weed to the farmer1 a flower to the naturalist1 and a medicinal plant to the physician or the druggist4 ,from this it is clear that the interpretation of the impressions must differ according to the character of our present knowledge4 ,in other words1 the more important the aspects read into any presentation1 the more valuable will be the present experience4 ,although when the child apperceives a stick as a horse1 and the mechanic apperceives it as a lever1 each interpretation is valuable within its own sphere1 yet there is evidently a marked difference in the ultimate significance of the two interpretations4 ,education is especially valuable1 in fact1 in that it so adds to the experience of the child that he may more fully apperceive his surroundings4 ,b4 ,present ,interests and ,needs4--,but apperception is not solely dependent upon present knowledge4 ,the interests and needs of the individual reflect themselves largely in his apperceptive tendencies4 ,while the boy sees a tent in the folded paper1 the girl is more likely to find in it a screen4 ,to the little boy the lath is a horse1 to the older boy it becomes a sword4 ,feelings and interest1 therefore1 as well as knowledge1 dominate the apperceptive process4 ,nor should this fact be overlooked by the teacher4 ,the study of a poem would be very incomplete and unsatisfactory if it stopped with the apprehension of the ideas4 ,there must be emotional appreciation as well2 otherwise the study will result in entire indifference to it4 ,in introducing1 for instance1 the sonnet1 ,mysterious ,night 7page #cid1 ,ontario ,reader1 ,book ,,iv71 the teacher might ask3 ,why can we not see the stars during the day8 ,the answer to this question would put the pupils in the proper intellectual attitude to interpret the ideas of the poem1 but that is not enough4 ,a recall of such an experience as his contemplation of the starry sky on a clear night will put the pupil in a suitable emotional attitude4 ,he is a rare pupil who has not at some time gazed in wonder at the immense number and magnificence of the stars1 or who has not thought with awe and reverence of the infinite power of the ,creator of such countless orbs4 ,a recall of these feelings of wonder1 awe1 and reverence will place the pupil in a suitable mood for the emotional appreciation of the poem4 ,it is in the teaching of literature that the importance of a proper feeling attitude on the part of the pupil is particularly great4 ,without it the pupil is coldly indifferent toward literature and will never cultivate an enthusiasm for it4 ,,factors ,,in ,,apperception ,retention and ,recall4--,the facts already noted make it plain that apperception involves two important factors4 ,first1 apperception implies retention and recall4 ,unless our various experiences left behind them the permanent effects already noted in describing the retentive power of the nervous organism and the consequent possibility of recall1 there could be no adjustment to new impressions on the basis of earlier experiences4 ,attention4--,secondly1 apperception involves attention4 ,since to apperceive is to bring the results of earlier experience to bear actively upon the new impression1 it must involve a reactive1 or attentive1 state of consciousness2 for1 as noted in our study of the learning process1 it is only by selecting elements out of former experience that the new impression is given definite meaning in consciousness4 ,for the child to apperceive the strange object as a bug-in-a-basket1 demands from him therefore a process of attention in which the ideas bug and basket are selected from former experience and read into the new impression1 thereby giving it a meaning in consciousness4 ,a reference to any of the lesson topics previously considered will provide further examples of these apperceptive factors4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,imagination ,nature of4--,in our study of the various modes of acquiring individual notions1 attention was called to the fact that knowledge of a particular object may be gained through a process of imagination4 ,like memory1 imagination is a process of re-presentation1 though differing from it in certain important regards4 #a4 ,although imagination depends on past experiences for its images1 these images are used to build up ideal representations of objects without any reference to past time4 #b4 ,in imagination the associated elements of past experience may be completely dissociated4 ,thus a bird may be imagined without wings1 or a stone column without weight4 #c4 ,the dissociated elements may be re-combined in various ways to represent objects never actually experienced1 as a man with wings1 or a horse with a man's head4 ,imagination is thus an apperceptive process by which we construct a mental representation of an object without any necessary reference to its actual existence in time4 ,product of ,imagination1 ,particular4--,it is to be noted that in a process of imagination the mind always constructs in idea a representation of a particular object or individual4 ,for instance1 the ideal picture of the house ,i imagine situated on the hill before me is that of a particular house1 possessing definite qualities as to height1 size1 colour1 etc4 ,in like manner1 the future visit to ,toronto1 as it is being run over ideally1 is constructed of particular persons1 places1 and events4 ,so also when reading such a stanza as3 ,the milk-white blossoms of the thorn ,are waving o'er the pool1 ,moved by the wind that breathes along1 ,so sweetly and so cool2 if the mind is able to combine into a definite outline of a particular situation the various elements depicted1 then the mental process of the reader is one of imagination4 ,it is not true1 of course1 that the particular elements which enter into such an ideal representation are always equally vivid4 ,yet one test of a person's power of imagination is the definiteness with which the mind makes an ideal representation stand out in consciousness as a distinct individual4 ,,types ,,of ,,imagination ,a4 ,passive4--,in dissociating the elements of past experience and combining them into new particular forms1 the mind may proceed in two quite different ways4 ,in some cases the mind seemingly allows itself to drift without purpose and almost without sense1 building up fantastic representations of imaginary objects or events4 ,this happens especially in our periods of day-dreaming4 ,here various images1 evidently drawn from past experience1 come before consciousness in a spontaneous way and enter into most unusual forms of combination1 with little regard even to probability4 ,in these moods the timid lad becomes a strong hero1 and his rustic ,audrey1 a fair lady1 for whose sake he is ever performing untold feats of valour4 ,here the ideas1 instead of being selected and combined for a definite purpose through an act of voluntary attention1 are suggested one after the other by the mere law of association4 ,because in such fantastic products of the imagination the various images appear in consciousness and combine themselves without any apparent control or purpose1 the process is known as passive imagination1 or phantasy4 ,such a type1 it is evident1 will have little significance as an actual process of learning4 ,b4 ,active1 or ,constructive4--,opposed to the above type is that form of imagination in which the mind proceeds to build up a particular ideal representation with some definite purpose1 or end1 in view4 ,a student1 for example1 who has never seen an aeroplane and has no direct knowledge of the course to be traversed1 may be called upon in his composition work to describe an imaginary voyage through the air from ,toronto to ,winnipeg4 ,in such an act of imagination1 the selecting of elements to enter into the ideal picture must be chosen with an eye to their suitability to the end in view4 ,when also a child is called upon in school to form an ideal representation of some object of which he has had no direct experience1 as for instance1 a mental picture of a volcano1 he must in the same way1 under the guidance of the teacher1 select and combine elements of his actual experience which are adapted to the building up of a correct mental representation of an actual volcano4 ,this type of imagination is known as active1 or constructive1 imagination4 ,factors in ,constructive ,imagination4--,in such a purposeful1 or active1 process of imagination the following factors may be noticed3 #a4 ,the purpose1 end1 or problem calling for the exercise of the imagination4 #b4 ,a selective act of attention1 in which the fitness or unfitness of elements of past experience1 or their adaptability to the ideal creation1 is realized4 #c4 ,a relating1 or synthetic1 activity combining the selected elements into a new ideal representation4 ,,uses ,,of ,,imagination ,imagination in ,education4--,one important application of imagination in school work is found in connection with the various forms of constructive occupation4 ,in such exercises1 it is possible to have the child first build up ideally the picture of a particular object and then have him produce it through actual expression4 ,for example1 a class which has been taught certain principles of cutting may be called upon to conceive an original design for some object1 say a valentine4 ,here the child1 before proceeding to produce the actual object1 must select from his knowledge of valentines certain elements and interpret them in relation to his principles of cutting4 ,this ideal representation of the intended object is1 therefore1 a process of active1 or constructive1 imagination4 ,in composition1 also1 the various events and situations depicted may be ideal creations to which the child gives expression in language4 ,in geography and nature study likewise1 constant use must be made of the imagination in gaining a knowledge of objects which have never come within the actual experience of the child4 ,in science there is a further appeal to the child's imagination4 ,when1 for instance1 he studies such topics as the law of gravity1 chemical affinity1 etc41 the imagination must fill in much that falls outside the sphere of actual observation4 ,in history and literature1 also1 the student can enter into the life and action of the various scenes and events only by building up ideal representations of what is depicted through the words of the author4 ,imagination in ,practical ,life4--,in addition to the large use of constructive imagination in school work1 this process will be found equally important in the after affairs of life4 ,it is by use of the imagination that the workman is able to see the changes we desire made in the decoration of the room or in the shape of the flower-beds4 ,it is by the use of imagination1 also1 that the general is able to outline the plan of campaign that shall lead his army to victory4 ,without imagination1 therefore1 the mind could not set up those practical aims toward the attainment of which most of life's effort is directed4 ,in the dominion of conduct1 also1 imagination has its important part to play4 ,it is by viewing in his imagination the effect of the one course of action as compared with the other1 that man finally decides what constitutes the proper line of conduct4 ,even when indifferent as to his moral conduct1 man pictures to himself what his friends may say and think of certain lines of action4 ,for the enjoyment of life1 also1 the exercise of imagination has a place4 ,it is by filling up the present with ideals and hopeful anticipations for the future1 that much of the monotony of our work-a-day hours is relieved4 ,development of ,imagination4--,a prime condition of a creative imagination is evidently the possession of an abundance of mental materials which may be dissociated and re-combined into new mental products4 ,these materials1 of course1 consist of the images and ideas retained by the mind from former experiences4 ,one important result1 therefore1 of providing the young child with a rich store of images of sight1 sound1 touch1 movement1 etc41 is that it provides his developing imagination with necessary materials4 ,but the mere possession of abundant materials in the form of past images will not in itself develop the imagination4 ,here1 as elsewhere1 it is only by exercising imagination that ability to imagine can be developed4 ,opportunity for such an exercise of the imagination1 moreover1 may be given the child in various ways4 ,as already noted1 a chief function of play is that it stimulates the child to use his imagination in reconstructing the objects about him and clothing them with many fancied attributes4 ,in supplementary reading and story work1 also1 the imagination is actively exercised in constructing the ideal situations1 as they are being presented in words by the book or the teacher4 ,nature study1 likewise1 by bringing before the child the secret processes of nature1 as noting1 for instance1 the life history of the butterfly1 the germination of seeds1 etc41 will call upon him to use his imagination in various ways4 ,on the other hand1 to deprive a young child of all such opportunities will usually result in preventing a proper development of the imagination4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,thinking ,nature of ,thinking4--,in the study of general method1 as well as in that of the foregoing mental processes1 it has been taken for granted that our minds are capable of identifying different objects on the basis of some common feature or features4 ,this tendency of the mind to identify objects and group individual things into classes1 depends upon its capacity to detect similarity and difference1 or to make comparisons4 ,when the mind1 in identifying objects1 events1 qualities1 etc41 discovers certain relations between its various states1 the process is especially known as that of thinking4 ,in its technical sense1 therefore1 thought implies a more or less explicit apprehension of relation4 ,thinking ,involved in all ,conscious ,states4--,it is evident1 however1 that every mental process must involve thinking1 or a grasping of relations4 ,when1 by my merely touching an object1 my mind perceives it is an apple1 this act of perception1 as already seen1 takes place because elements of former experience come back as associated factors4 ,this implies1 evidently1 that the mind is here relating elements of its past experience with the present touch sensation4 ,perception of external objects1 therefore1 implies a grasping of relations4 ,in the same way1 if1 in having an experience to-day1 one recognizes it as identical with a former experience1 he is equally grasping a relation4 ,every act of memory1 therefore1 implies thinking4 ,thus in all forms of knowledge the mind is apprehending relations2 for no experience could have meaning for the mind except as it is discriminated from other experiences4 ,in treating thinking as a distinct mental process1 however1 it is assumed that the objects of sense perception1 memory1 etc41 are known as such1 and that the mind here deals more directly with the relations in which ideas stand one to another4 ,as a mental process1 thinking appears in three somewhat distinct forms1 known as conception1 judgment1 and reasoning4 ,,conception ,the ,abstract ,notion4--,it was seen that at least in adult life1 the perception of any object1 as this particular orange1 horse1 cow1 etc41 really includes a number of distinct images of quality synthesised into the unity of a particular idea or experience4 ,because of this union of a number of different sensible qualities in the notion of a single individual1 the mind may limit its attention upon a particular quality1 or characteristic1 possessed by an object1 and make this a distinct problem of attention4 ,thus the mind is able to form such notions as length1 roundness1 sweetness1 heaviness1 four-footedness1 etc4 ,when such an attribute is thought of as something distinct from the object1 the mental image is especially known as an abstract idea1 or notion1 and the process as one of abstraction4 ,the ,class ,notion4--,one or more of such abstracted qualities may1 moreover1 be recognized as common to an indefinite number of objects4 ,for instance1 in addition to its ability to abstract from the perception of a dog1 the abstract notions four-footedness1 hairy1 barking1 etc41 the mind further gives them a general character by thinking of them as qualities common to an indefinite number of other possible individuals1 namely1 the class four-footed1 hairy1 barking objects4 ,because the idea representing the quality or qualities is here accepted by the mind as a means of identifying a number of objects1 the idea is spoken of as a class notion1 and the process as one of classification1 or generalization4 ,thus it appears that1 through its ability to detect sameness and difference1 or discover relations1 the mind is able to form two somewhat different notions4 ,by mentally abstracting any quality and regarding it as something distinct from the object1 it obtains an abstract notion1 as sweetness1 bravery1 hardness1 etc42 by synthesising and symbolizing the images of certain qualities recognized in objects1 it obtains a general1 or class1 notion by which it may represent an indefinite number of individual things as1 triangle1 horse1 desert1 etc4 ,thus abstract notions are supposed to represent qualities2 class notions1 things4 ,because of its reference to a number of objects1 the class notion is spoken of especially as a general notion1 and the process of forming the notion as one of generalization4 ,these two types of notions are technically known as concepts1 and the process of their formation as one of conception4 ,formal ,analysis of ,process4--,at this point may be recalled what was stated in ,chapter ,,xv concerning the development of a class notion4 ,mention was there made of the theory that in the formation of such concepts1 or class notions1 as cow1 dog1 desk1 chair1 adjective1 etc41 the mind must proceed through certain set stages as follows3 #a4 ,comparison3 ,the examination of a certain number of particular individuals in order to discover points of similarity and difference4 #b4 ,abstraction3 ,the distinguishing of certain characteristics common to the objects4 #c4 ,generalization3 ,the mental unification1 or synthesis1 of these common characteristics noted in different individuals into a class notion represented by a name1 or general term4 ,but ,conception is ,involved in ,perception4--,from what has been seen1 however1 it is evident that the development of our concepts does not proceed in any such formal way4 ,if the mind perceives an individual object with any degree of clearness1 it must recognize the object as possessing certain qualities4 ,if1 therefore1 the child can perceive such an object as a dog1 it implies that he recognizes it1 say1 as a hairy1 four-footed creature4 ,to recognize these qualities1 however1 signifies that the mind is able to think of them as something apart from the object1 and the child thus has in a sense a general notion even while perceiving the particular dog4 ,whenever he passes to the perception of another dog1 he undoubtedly interprets this with the general ideas already obtained from this earlier percept of a dog4 ,to say1 therefore1 that to gain a concept he compares the qualities found in several individual things is not strictly true1 for if his first percept becomes a type by which he interprets other dogs1 his first experience is already a concept4 ,what happens is that as this concept is used to interpret other individuals1 the person becomes more conscious of the fact that his early experience is applicable to an indefinite number of objects4 ,so also1 when an adult first perceives an individual thing1 say the fruit of the guava1 he must apprehend certain qualities in relation to the individual thing4 ,thereupon his idea of this particular object becomes in itself a copy for identifying other objects1 or a symbol by which similar future impressions may be given meaning4 ,in this sense the individual idea1 or percept1 will serve to identify other particular experiences4 ,such being the case1 this early concept of the guava has evidently required no abstraction of qualities beyond apprehending them while perceiving the one example of the fruit4 ,this1 however1 is but to say that the perception of the guava really implied conception4 ,comparison of ,individuals ,necessary for ,correct ,concepts4--,it is1 of course1 true that the correctness of the idea as a class symbol can be verified only as we apply it in interpreting a number of such individual things4 ,as the person meets a further number of individuals1 he may even discover the presence of qualities not previously recognized4 ,a child1 for instance1 may have a notion of the class triangle long before he discovers that all triangles have the property of containing two right angles4 ,when this happens1 he will later modify his first concept by synthesising into it the newly discovered quality4 ,moreover1 if certain features supposed to be common are later found to be accidental1 if1 for instance1 a child's concept of the class fish includes the quality always living in water1 his meeting with a flying fish will not result in an utterly new concept1 but rather in a modification of the present one4 ,thus the young child1 who on seeing the ,chinese diplomat1 wished to know where he had his laundry1 was not without a class concept1 although that concept was imperfect in at least one respect4 ,concept and ,term4--,a point often discussed in connection with conception is whether a general notion can be formed without language4 ,by some it is argued that no concept could exist in the mind without the name1 or general term4 ,it was seen1 however1 that our first perception of any object becomes a sort of standard by which other similar experiences are intercepted1 and is1 therefore1 general in character4 ,from this it is evident that a rudimentary type of conception exists prior to language4 ,in the case of the young child1 as he gains a mental image of his father1 the experience evidently serves as a centre for interpreting other similar individuals4 ,we may notice that as soon as he gains control of language1 other men are called by the term papa4 ,this does not imply an actual confusion in identity1 but his use of the term shows that the child interprets the new object through a crude concept denoted by the word papa4 ,it is more than probable1 moreover1 that this crude concept developed as he became able to recognize his father1 and had been used in interpreting other men before he obtained the term1 papa4 ,on the other hand1 it is certain that the term1 or class name1 is necessary to give the notion a definite place in consciousness4 ,,factors ,,involved ,,in ,,concept ,it will appear from the foregoing that a concept presents the following factors for consideration3 #a4 ,the essential quality or qualities found in the individual things1 and supposed to be abstracted sooner or later from the individuals4 #b4 ,the concept itself1 the mental image or idea representative of the abstracted quality2 or the unification of a number of abstracted qualities1 when the general notion implies a synthesis of different qualities4 #c4 ,the general term1 or name4 #d4 ,the objects themselves1 which the mind can organize into a class1 because they are identified as possessing common characteristics4 ,when1 however1 a single abstracted quality is taken as a symbol of a class of objects1 for example1 when the quality bitterness becomes the symbol for the class of bitter things1 there can be no real distinction between the abstracted quality and the class concept4 ,in other words1 to fix attention upon the quality bitterness as a quality distinct from the object in which it is found1 is at the same time to give it a general character1 recognizing it as something which may be found in a number of objects--the class bitter things4 ,here the abstract term is in a sense a general notion representative of a whole class of objects which agree in the possession of the quality4 ,intension of ,concepts4--,certain of our general notions are1 however1 much more complex than others4 ,when a single attribute such as four-footedness is generalized to represent the class four-footed objects1 the notion itself is relatively simple4 ,in other words1 a single property is representative of the objects1 and in apprehending the members of the class all other properties they chance to possess may be left out of account4 ,in many cases1 however1 the class notion will evidently be much more complex4 ,the notion dog1 for instance1 in addition to implying the characteristic four-footedness1 may include such qualities as hairy1 barking1 watchful1 fearless1 etc4 ,this greater or less degree of complexity of a general notion is spoken of as its intensity4 ,the notion dog1 for instance1 is more intensive than the notion four-footed animals2 the notion lawyer1 than the notion man4 ,extension of ,concepts4--,it is to be noted further that as a notion increases in intension it becomes limited to a smaller class of objects4 ,from this standpoint1 notions are said to differ in extension4 ,the class lawyer1 for instance1 is not so extensive as the class man2 nor the class dog1 as the class four-footed objects4 ,it will appear from the above that an abstract notion viewed as a sign of a class of objects is distinguished by its extension1 while a class notion1 so far as it implies a synthesis of several abstracted qualities1 is marked rather by its intension4 ,,aims ,,of ,,conceptual ,,lessons ,so far as school lessons aim to establish and develop correct class notions in the minds of the pupils1 three somewhat distinct types of work may be noted3 #a4 ,,to ,,define ,,classes ,in some lessons no attempt is made to develop an utterly new class notion1 or concept2 the pupils in fact may already know the class of objects in a general way and be acquainted with many of their characteristics4 ,the object of the lesson is1 therefore1 to render the concept more scientific by having it include the qualities which essentially mark it as a class and especially separate it from other co-ordinate classes4 ,in studying the grasshopper2 for instance1 in entomology1 the purpose is not to give the child a notion of the insect in the ordinary sense of the term4 ,this the pupil may already have4 ,the purpose is rather to enable him to decide just what general characteristics distinguish this from other insects4 ,the lesson may1 therefore1 leave out of consideration features which are common to all grasshoppers1 simply because they do not enter into a scientific differentiation of the class4 #b4 ,,to ,,enlarge ,a ,,concept ,in many lessons the aim seems to be chiefly to enlarge certain concepts by adding to their intensiveness4 ,the pupil1 for instance1 has a scientific concept of a triangle1 that is1 one which enables him to distinguish a triangle from any other geometrical figure4 ,he may1 however1 be led to see further that the three angles of every triangle equal two right angles4 ,this is really having him discover a further attribute in relation to triangles1 although this knowledge is not essential to the concept as a symbol of the members of the class4 ,in the same way1 in grammar the pupil is taught certain attributes common to verbs1 as mood and tense1 although these are not essential attributes from the standpoint of distinguishing the verb as a special class of words4 #c4 ,,to ,,build ,,up ,,new ,,concepts ,a4 ,presentation of ,unknown ,individuals4--,in many lessons the chief object seems to be1 however1 to build up a new concept in the mind of the child4 ,this would be the case when the pupil is presented with a totally unknown object1 say a platypus1 and called upon to examine its characteristics4 ,in such lessons two important facts should be noticed4 ,first1 the child finds seemingly little difficulty in accepting a single individual as a type of a class1 and is able to carry away from the lesson a fairly scientific class notion through a study of the one individual4 ,in this regard the pupil but illustrates what has been said of the ability of the child to use his early percepts as standards to interpret other individuals4 ,the pupil is able the more easily to form this accurate notion1 because he no doubt has already a store of abstract notions with which to interpret the presentation1 and also because his interest and attention is directed into the proper channels by the teacher4 ,b4 ,division of ,known ,classes4--,a second common mode of developing new concepts in school work is in breaking up larger classes into co-ordinate sub-classes4 ,this1 of course1 involves the developing of new concepts to cover these sub-classes4 ,in such cases1 however1 the new notions are merely modified forms of the higher class notion4 ,when1 for example1 the pupil gains general notions representative of the classes1 proper noun and common noun1 the new terms merely add something to the intension of the more extensive term noun4 ,this will be evident by considering the difference between the notions noun and proper noun4 ,both agree in possessing the attribute used to name4 ,the latter is more intensive1 however1 because it signifies used to name a particular object4 ,although in such cases the lesson seems in a sense to develop new general notions1 they represent merely an adding to the intension of a notion already possessed by the child4 ,use of the ,term4--,a further problem regarding the process of conception concerns the question of the significance of a name4 ,when a person uses such a term as dog1 whale1 hepatica1 guava1 etc41 to name a certain object1 what is the exact sense1 or meaning1 in which the name is to be applied8 ,a class name1 when applied scientifically to an object1 is evidently supposed to denote the presence in it of certain essential characteristics which belong to the class4 ,it is clear1 however1 that the ordinary man rarely uses these names with any scientific precision4 ,a man can point to an object and say that it is a horse1 and yet be ignorant of many of the essential features of a horse4 ,in such cases1 therefore1 the use of the name merely shows that the person considers the object to belong to a certain class1 but is no guarantee that he is thinking of the essential qualities of the class4 ,it might be said1 therefore1 that a class term is used for two somewhat different purposes1 either to denote the object merely1 or to signify scientifically the attributes possessed by the object4 ,it is in the second respect that danger of error in reasoning arises4 ,so far as a name represents the attributes of a class1 it will signify for us just those attributes which we associate with that class4 ,so long1 therefore1 as the word fish means to us an animal living in the water1 we will include in the class the whale1 which really does not belong to the class1 and perhaps exclude from the class the flying fish1 although it is scientifically a member of the class4 ,,the ,,definition ,it has been noted that1 when man discovers common characteristics in a number of objects1 he tends on this basis to unite such objects into a class4 ,it is to be noted in addition1 however1 that in the same manner he is also able1 by examining the characteristics of a large class of objects1 to divide these into smaller sub-classes4 ,although1 for example1 we may place all three-sided figures into one class and call them triangles1 we are further able to divide these into three sub-classes owing to certain differences that may be noted among them4 ,thus an important fact regarding classification is that while a class may possess some common quality or qualities1 yet its members may be further divided into sub-classes and each of these smaller classes distinguished from the others by points of difference4 ,owing to this fact1 there are two important elements entering into a scientific knowledge of any class1 first1 to know of what larger class it forms a part1 and secondly1 to know what characteristics distinguish it from the other classes which go with it to make up this larger class4 ,to know the class equilateral triangle1 for instance1 we must know1 first1 that it belongs to the larger class triangle1 and secondly1 that it differs from other classes of triangles by having its three sides equal4 ,for this reason a person is able to know a class scientifically without knowing all of its common characteristics4 ,for instance1 the large class of objects known as words is subdivided into smaller classes known as parts of speech4 ,taking one of these classes1 the verb1 we find that all verbs agree in possessing at least three common characteristics1 they have power to assert1 to denote manner1 and to express time4 ,to distinguish the verb1 however1 it is necessary to note only that it is a word used to assert1 since this is the only characteristic which distinguishes it from the other classes of words4 ,when1 therefore1 we describe any class of objects by first naming the larger class to which it belongs1 and then stating the characteristics which distinguish it from the other co-ordinate classes1 we are said to give a definition of the class1 or to define it4 ,the statement1 ,a trimeter is a verse of three measures1 is a definition because it gives1 first1 the larger class 7verse7 to which the trimeters belong1 and secondly1 the difference 7of three measures7 which distinguishes the trimeter from all other verses4 ,the statement1 ,a binomial is an algebraic expression consisting of two terms1 is a definition1 because it gives1 first1 the larger class 7algebraic expression7 to which binomials belong1 and secondly1 the difference 7consisting of two terms7 which distinguishes binomials from other algebraic expressions4 ,,judgment ,nature of ,judgment4--,a second form1 or mode1 of thinking is known as judgment4 ,our different concepts were seen to vary in their intension1 or meaning1 according to the number of attributes suggested by each4 ,my notion triangle may denote the attributes three-sided and three-angled2 my notion isosceles triangle will in that case include at least these two qualities plus equality of two of the sides4 ,this indicates that various relations exist between our ideas and may be apprehended by the mind4 ,when a relation between two concepts is distinctly apprehended in thought1 or1 in other words1 when there is a mental assertion of a union between two ideas1 or objects of thought1 the process is known as judgment4 ,judgment may be defined1 therefore1 as the apprehension1 or mental affirmation1 of a relation between two ideas4 ,if the idea1 or concept1 heaviness enters as a mental element into my idea stone1 then the mind is able to affirm a relation between these concepts in the form1 ,stone is heavy4 ,in like manner when the mind asserts1 ,glass is transparent or ,horses are animals1 there is a distinct apprehension of a relation between the concepts involved4 ,judgment ,distinguished from ,statement4--,it should be noted that judgment is the mental apprehension of a relation between ideas4 ,when this relation is expressed in actual words1 it is spoken of as a proposition1 or a predication4 ,a proposition is1 therefore1 the statement of a judgment4 ,the proposition is composed of two terms and the copula1 one term constituting the subject of the proposition and the other the predicate4 ,although a judgment may often be expressed in some other form1 it can usually be converted into the above form4 ,the proposition1 ,horses eat oats1 may be expressed in the form1 ,horses are oat-eaters2 the proposition1 ,the sun melts the snow1 into the form1 ,the sun is a-thing-which-melts-snow4 ,relation of ,judgment to ,conception4--,it would appear from the above examples that a judgment expresses in an explicit form the relations involved within the concept1 and is1 therefore1 merely a direct way of indicating the state of development of any idea4 ,if my concept of a dog1 for example1 is a synthesis of the qualities four-footed1 hairy1 fierce1 and barking1 then an analysis of the concept will furnish the following judgments3 ,a four-footed thing4 ,a hairy thing4 ,a dog is ,a fierce thing4 ,a barking thing4 ,because in these cases a concept seems necessary for an act of judgment1 it is said that judgment is a more advanced form of thinking than conception4 ,on the other hand1 however1 judgment is implied in the formation of a concept4 ,when the child apprehends the dog as a four-footed object1 his mind has grasped four-footedness as a quality pertaining to the strange object1 and has1 in a sense1 brought the two ideas into relation4 ,but while judgment is implied in the formation of the concept1 the concept does not bring explicitly to the mind the judgments it implies4 ,the concept snow1 for instance1 implies the property of whiteness1 but whiteness must be apprehended as a distinct idea and related mentally with the idea snow before we can be said to have formed1 or thought1 the judgment1 ,snow is white4 ,judgment is a form of thinking separate from conception1 therefore1 because it does thus bring into definite relief relations only implied in our general notions1 or concepts4 ,one value of judgment is1 in fact1 that it enables us to analyse our concepts1 and thus note more explicitly the relations included in them4 ,universal and ,particular ,judgments4--,judgments are found to differ also as to the universality of their affirmation4 ,in such a judgment as ,man is mortal1 since mortality is viewed as a quality always joined to manhood1 the affirmation is accepted as a universal judgment4 ,in such a judgment as ,men strive to subdue the air1 the two objects of thought are not considered as always and necessarily joined together4 ,the judgment is therefore particular in character4 ,all of our laws of nature1 as ,air has weight1 ,pressure on liquids is transmitted in every direction1 or ,heat is conducted by metals1 are accepted as universal judgments4 ,errors in ,judgment due to3 ,a4 ,faulty ,concepts4--,it may be seen from the foregoing that our judgments1 when explicitly grasped by the mind and predicated in language1 reflect the accuracy or inaccuracy of our concepts4 ,whatever relations are1 as it were1 wrapped up in a concept may merge at any time in the form of explicit judgments4 ,if the fact that the only ,chinamen seen by a child are engaged in laundry work causes this attribute to enter into his concept ,chinaman1 this will lead him to affirm that the restaurant keeper1 ,wan ,lee1 is a laundry-man4 ,the republican who finds two or three cases of corruption among democrats1 may conceive corruption as a quality common to democrats and affirm that honest ,john ,smith is corrupt4 ,faulty concepts1 therefore1 are very likely to lead to faulty judgments4 ,a first duty in education is evidently to see that children are forming correct class concepts4 ,for this it must be seen that they always distinguish the essential features of the class of objects they are studying4 ,they must learn1 also1 not to conclude on account of superficial likeness that really unlike objects belong to the same class4 ,the child1 for instance1 in parsing the sentence1 ,the swing broke down1 must be taught to look for essential characteristics1 and not call the word swing a gerund because it ends in ing2 which1 though a common characteristic of gerunds1 does not differentiate it from other classes of words4 ,so1 also1 when the young nature student notes that the head of the spider is somewhat separated from the abdomen1 he must not falsely conclude that the spider belongs to the class insects4 ,in like manner1 the pupil must not imagine1 on account of superficial differences1 that objects really the same belong to different classes1 as for example1 that a certain object is not a fish1 but a bird1 because it is flying through the air2 or that a whale is a fish and not an animal1 because it lives in water4 ,the pupil must also learn to distinguish carefully between the particular and universal judgment4 ,to affirm that ,men strive to subdue the air1 does not imply that ,john ,smith strives to subdue the air4 ,the importance of this distinction will be considered more fully in our next section4 ,b4 ,feeling4--,faulty concepts are not1 however1 the only causes for wrong judgments4 ,it has been noted already that feeling enters largely as a factor in our conscious life4 ,man1 therefore1 in forming his judgments1 is always in danger of being swayed by his feelings4 ,our likes and dislikes1 in other words1 interfere with our thinking1 and prevent us from analysing our knowledge as we should4 ,instead1 therefore1 of striving to develop true concepts concerning men and events and basing our judgments upon these1 we are inclined in many cases to allow our judgments to be swayed by mere feeling4 ,c4 ,laziness4--,indifference is likewise a common source of faulty judgments4 ,to attend to the concept and discover its intension as a means for correct judgment evidently demands mental effort4 ,many people1 however1 prefer either to jump at conclusions or let others do their judging for them4 ,sound ,judgments ,based on ,scientific ,concepts4--,to be able to form correct judgments regarding the members of any class1 however1 the child should know1 not only its common characteristics1 but also the essential features which distinguish its members from those of co-ordinate classes4 ,to know adequately the equilateral triangle1 for instance1 the pupil must know both the features which distinguish it from other triangles and also those in which it agrees with all triangles4 ,to know fully the mentha family of plants1 he must know both the characteristic qualities of the family and also those of the larger genus labiatae4 ,from this it will be seen that a large share of school work must be devoted to building up scientific class notions in the minds of the pupils4 ,without this1 many of their judgments must necessarily be faulty4 ,to form such scientific concepts1 however1 it is necessary to relate one concept with another in more indirect ways than is done through the formation of judgments4 ,this brings us to a consideration of reasoning1 the third and last form of thinking4 ,,reasoning ,nature of ,reasoning4--,reasoning is defined as a mental process in which the mind arrives at a new judgment by comparing other judgments4 ,the mind1 for instance1 is in possession of the two judgments1 ,stones are heavy and ,flint is a stone4 ,by bringing these two judgments under the eye of attention and comparing them1 the mind is able to arrive at the new judgment1 ,flint is heavy4 ,here the new judgment1 expressing a relation between the notions1 flint and heavy1 is supposed to be arrived at1 neither by direct experience1 nor by an immediate analysis of the concept flint1 but more indirectly by comparing the other judgments4 ,the judgment1 or conclusion1 is said1 therefore1 to be arrived at mediately1 or by a process of reasoning4 ,reasoning is of two forms1 deductive1 or syllogistic1 reasoning1 and inductive reasoning4 ,,deduction ,nature of ,deduction4--,in deduction the mind is said to start with a general truth1 or judgment1 and by a process of reasoning to arrive at a more particular truth1 or judgment1 thus3 ,stone is heavy2 ,flint is a stone2 4'4 ,flint is heavy4 ,expressed in this form1 the reasoning process1 as already mentioned1 is known as a syllogism4 ,the whole syllogism is made up of three parts1 major premise1 minor premise1 and conclusion4 ,the three concepts involved in the syllogism are known as the major1 the minor1 and the middle term4 ,in the above syllogism1 heavy1 the predicate of the major premise1 is the major term2 flint1 the subject of the minor premise1 is the minor term2 and stone1 to which the other two are related in the premises1 is known as the middle term4 ,because of this previous comparison of the major and the minor terms with the middle term1 deduction is sometimes said to be a process by which the mind discovers a relation between two concepts by comparing them each with a third concept4 ,purpose of ,deduction4--,it is to be noted1 however1 as pointed out in ,chapter ,,xv1 that deductive reasoning takes place normally only when the mind is faced with a difficulty which demands solution4 ,take the case of the boy and his lost coin referred to in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,as he faces the problem1 different methods of solution may present themselves4 ,it may enter his mind1 for instance1 to tear up the grate1 but this is rejected on account of possible damage to the brickwork4 ,finally he thinks of the tar and resorts to this method of recovery4 ,in both of the above cases the boy based his conclusions upon known principles4 ,as he considered the question of tearing up the grate1 the thought came to his mind1 ,lifting-a-grate is a-thing-which-may-cause-damage4 ,as he considered the use of the tar1 he had in mind the judgment1 ,adhesion is a property of tar1 and at once inferred that tar would solve his problem4 ,in such practical cases1 however1 the mind seems to go directly from the problem in hand to a conclusion by means of a general principle4 ,when a woman wishes to remove a stain1 she at once says1 ,gasoline will remove it4 ,here the mind1 in arriving at its conclusion1 seems to apply the principle1 ,gasoline removes spots1 directly to the particular problem4 ,thus the reasoning might seem to run as follows3 ,problem3 ,what will remove this stain8 ,principle3 ,gasoline will remove stains4 ,conclusion3 ,gasoline will remove this stain4 ,here the middle term of the syllogism seems to disappear4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that our thought changes from the universal idea stains1 mentioned in the statement of the principle1 to the particular idea this stain mentioned in the problem and in the conclusion4 ,but this implies a middle term1 which could be expressed thus3 ,gasoline will remove stains2 ,this is a stain2 4'4 ,gasoline will remove this4 ,the syllogism is valuable1 therefore1 because it displays fully and clearly each element in the reasoning process1 and thus assures the validity of the conclusion4 ,deduction in ,school ,recitation4--,it will be recalled from what was noted in our study of general method1 that deduction usually plays an important part during an ordinary developing lesson4 ,in the step of preparation1 when the pupil is given a particular example in order to recall old knowledge1 the example suggests a problem which is intended to call up certain principles which are designed to be used during the presentation4 ,in a lesson on the ,conjunctive ,pronoun1 for instance1 if we have the pupil recall his knowledge of the conjunction by examining the particular word if in such a sentence as1 ,i shall go if they come1 he interprets the word as a conjunction simply because he possesses a general rule applicable to it1 or is able to go through a process of deduction4 ,in the presentation also1 when the pupil is called on to examine the word who in such a sentence as1 ,the man who met us is very old1 and decides that it is both a conjunction and a pronoun1 he is again making deductions1 since it is by his general knowledge of conjunctions and pronouns that he is able to interpret the two functions of the particular word who4 ,finally1 as already noted1 the application of an ordinary recitation frequently involves deductive processes4 ,,induction ,nature of ,induction4--,induction is described as a process of reasoning in which the mind arrives at a conclusion by an examination of particular cases1 or judgments4 ,a further distinguishing feature of the inductive process is that1 while the known judgments are particular in character1 the conclusion is accepted as a general law1 or truth4 ,as in deduction1 the reasoning process arises on account of some difficulty1 or problem1 presented to the mind1 as for example3 ,what is the effect of heat upon air8 ,will glass conduct electricity8 ,why do certain bodies refract light8 ,to satisfy itself upon the problem1 the mind appeals to actual experience either by ordinary observation or through experimentation4 ,these observations or experiments1 which necessarily deal with particular instances1 are supposed to provide a number of particular judgments1 by examining which a satisfactory conclusion is ultimately reached4 ,example of ,induction4--,as an example of induction1 may be taken the solution of such a problem as1 ,does air exert pressure8 ,to meet this hypothesis we must evidently do more than merely abstract the manifest properties of an object1 as is done in ordinary conception1 or appeal directly to some known general principle1 as is done in deduction4 ,the work of induction demands rather to examine the two at present known but disconnected things1 air and pressure1 and by scientific observation seek to discover a relation between them4 ,for this purpose the investigator may place a card over a glass filled with water1 and on inverting it find that the card is held to the glass4 ,taking a glass tube and putting one end in water1 he may place his finger over the other end and1 on raising the tube1 find that water remains in the tube4 ,soaking a heavy piece of leather in water and pressing it upon the smooth surface of a stone or other object1 he finds the stone can be lifted by means of the leather4 ,reflecting upon each of these circumstances the mind comes to the following conclusions3 ,air pressure holds this card to the glass1 ,air pressure keeps the water in the tube1 ,air pressure holds together the leather and the stone1 4'4 ,air exerts pressure4 ,how ,distinguished from1 ,a4 ,deduction1 and ,b4 ,conception4--,such a process as the above constitutes a process of reasoning1 first1 because the conclusion gives a new affirmation1 or judgment1 ,air exerts pressure1 and secondly1 because the judgment is supposed to be arrived at by comparing other judgments4 ,as a process of reasoning1 however1 it differs from deduction in that the final judgment is a general judgment1 or truth1 which seems to be based upon a number of particular judgments obtained from actual experience1 while in deduction the conclusion was particular and the major premise general4 ,it is for this reason that induction is defined as a process of going from the particular to the general4 ,moreover1 since induction leads to the formation of a universal judgment1 or general truth1 it differs from the generalizing process known as conception1 which leads to the formation of a concept1 or general idea4 ,it is evident1 however1 that the process will enrich the concept involved in the new judgment4 ,when the mind is able to affirm that air exerts pressure1 the property1 exerting-pressure1 is at once synthesised into the notion air4 ,this point will again be referred to in comparing induction and conception as generalizing processes4 ,in speaking of induction as a process of going from the particular to the general1 this does not signify that the process deals with individual notions4 ,the particulars in an inductive process are particular cases giving rise to particular judgments1 and judgments involve concepts1 or general ideas4 ,when1 in the inductive process1 it is asserted that air holds the card to the glass1 the mind is seeking to establish a relation between the notions air and pressure1 and is1 therefore1 thinking in concepts4 ,for this reason1 it is usually said that induction takes for granted ordinary relations as involved in our everyday concepts1 and concerns itself only with the more hidden relations of things4 ,the significance of induction as a process of going from the particular to the general1 therefore1 consists in the fact that the conclusion is held to be a wider judgment than is contained in any of the premises4 ,particular ,truth ,implies the ,general4--,describing the premises of an inductive process as particular truths1 and the conclusion as a universal truth1 however1 involves the same fiction as was noted in separating the percept and the concept into two distinct types of notions4 ,in the first place1 my particular judgment1 that air presses the card against the glass1 is itself a deduction resting upon other general principles4 ,secondly1 if the judgment that air presses the card against the glass contains no element of universal truth1 then a thousand such judgments could give no universal truth4 ,moreover1 if the mind approaches a process of induction with a problem1 or hypothesis1 before it1 the general truth is already apprehended hypothetically in thought even before the particular instances are examined4 ,when we set out1 for instance1 to investigate whether the line joining the bisecting points of the sides of a triangle is parallel with the base1 we have accepted hypothetically the general principle that such lines are parallel with the base4 ,the fact is1 therefore1 that when the mind examines the particular case and finds it to agree with the hypothesis1 so far as it accepts this case as a truth1 it also accepts it as a universal truth4 ,although1 therefore1 induction may involve going from one particular experiment or observation to another1 it is in a sense a process of going from the general to the general4 ,that accepting the truth of a particular judgment may imply a universal judgment is very evident in the case of geometrical demonstrations4 ,when it is shown1 for instance1 that in the case of the particular isosceles triangle ,,abc1 the angles at the base are equal1 the mind does not require to examine other particular triangles for verification1 but at once asserts that in every isosceles triangle the angles at the base are equal4 ,induction and ,conception ,interrelated4--,although as a process1 induction is to be distinguished from conception1 it either leads to an enriching of some concept1 or may in fact be the only means by which certain scientific concepts are formed4 ,while the images obtained by ordinary sense perception will enable a child to gain a notion of water1 to add to the notion the property1 boiling-at-a-certain-temperature1 or able-to-be-converted-into-two-parts-hydr ogen-and-one-part-oxygen1 will demand a process of induction4 ,the development of such scientific notions as oxide1 equation1 predicate adjective1 etc41 is also dependent upon a regular inductive process4 ,for this reason many lessons may be viewed both as conceptual and as inductive lessons4 ,to teach the adverb implies a conceptual process1 because the child must synthesise certain attributes into his notion adverb4 ,it is also an inductive lesson1 because these attributes being formulated as definite judgments are1 therefore1 obtained inductively4 ,the double character of such a lesson is fully indicated by the two results obtained4 ,the lesson ends with the acquisition of a new term1 adverb1 which represents the result of the conceptual process4 ,it also ends with the definition3 ,an adverb is a word which modifies a verb1 adjective1 or other adverb1 which indicates the general truth or truths resulting from the inductive process4 ,deduction and ,induction ,interrelated4--,in our actual teaching processes there is a very close inter-relation between the two processes of reasoning4 ,we have already noted on page #cbb that1 in such inductive lessons as teaching the definition of a noun or the rule for the addition of fractions1 both the preparatory step and the application involve deduction4 ,it is to be noted further1 however1 that even in the development of an inductive lesson there is a continual interplay between induction and deduction4 ,this will be readily seen in the case of a pupil seeking to discover the rule for determining the number of repeaters in the addition of recurring decimals4 ,when he notes that adding three numbers with one1 one1 and two repeaters respectively1 gives him two repeaters in his answer1 he is more than likely to infer that the rule is to have in the answer the highest number found among the addenda4 ,so far as he makes this inference1 he undoubtedly will apply it in interpreting the next problem1 and if the next numbers have one1 one1 and three repeaters respectively1 he will likely be quite convinced that his former inference is correct4 ,when1 however1 he meets a question with one1 two1 and three repeaters respectively1 he finds his former inference is incorrect1 and may1 thereupon1 draw a new inference1 which he will now proceed to apply to further examples4 ,the general fact to be noted here1 however1 is that1 so far as the mind during the examination of the particular examples reaches any conclusion in an inductive lesson1 it evidently applies this conclusion to some degree in the study of the further examples1 or thinks deductively1 even during the inductive process4 ,development of ,reasoning ,power4--,since reasoning is essentially a purposive form of thinking1 it is evident that any reasoning process will depend largely upon the presence of some problem which shall stimulate the mind to seek out relations necessary to its solution4 ,power to reason1 therefore1 is conditioned by the ability to attend voluntarily to the problem and discover the necessary relations4 ,it is further evident that the accuracy of any reasoning process must be dependent upon the accuracy of the judgments upon which the conclusions are based4 ,but these judgments in turn depend for their accuracy upon the accuracy of the concepts involved4 ,correct reasoning1 therefore1 must depend largely upon the accuracy of our concepts1 or1 in other words1 upon the old knowledge at our command4 ,on the other hand1 however1 it has been seen that both deductive and inductive reasoning follow to some degree a systematic form4 ,for this reason it may be assumed that the practice of these forms should have some effect in giving control of the processes4 ,the child1 for instance1 who habituates himself to such thought processes as ,,ab equals ,,bc1 and ,,ac equals ,,bc1 therefore ,,ab equals ,,ac1 no doubt becomes able thereby to grasp such relations more easily4 ,granting so much1 however1 it is still evident that close attention to1 and accurate knowledge of1 the various terms involved in the reasoning process is the sure foundation of correct reasoning4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,feeling ,sensuous and ,ideal ,feeling4--,we have noted 7,chapter ,,xxiv71 that in addition to the general feeling tone accompanying an act of attention1 and already described as a feeling of interest1 there are two important classes of feeling known respectively as sensuous and ideal feeling4 ,when a person says3 ,i feel tired or ,i feel hungry1 he is referring to the feeling side of certain organic sensations4 ,when he says3 ,the air feels cold or ,the paper feels smooth1 he is referring to the feeling side of temperature and touch sensations4 ,these are1 therefore1 examples of sensuous feeling4 ,on the other hand1 to say ,i feel angry or ,i feel afraid1 is to refer to a feeling state which accompanies perhaps the perception of some object1 the recollection or anticipation of some act1 or the inference that something is sure to happen1 etc4 ,these latter states are therefore known as ideal feelings4 ,quality of ,feeling ,states4--,the qualities of our various feeling states are distinguished under two heads1 pleasure and pain4 ,it might seem at first sight that our feeling states will fall into a much larger number of classes distinguished by differences in quality1 or tone4 ,the taste of an orange1 the smell of lavender1 the touch of a hot stove1 the appreciation of a fine piece of music1 and the appreciation of a lofty poem1 seem at first sight to yield different feelings4 ,the supposed difference in the quality of the feelings is due1 however1 to a difference in the knowledge elements accompanying the feelings1 or to the fact that they are discriminated as different experiences4 ,the idea of the music or the poem is of a higher grade than the sensory image of taste1 and accordingly the feelings appear to be different4 ,the feelings may1 of course1 differ in intensity1 but in quality they are either pleasant or unpleasant4 ,,conditions ,,of ,,feeling ,,tone ,a4 ,neural4--,the quality1 or tone1 of a feeling will vary according to the intensity of the impression4 ,great heat stimulates the nerves violently and the resultant feeling state is painful2 warmth gives a moderate stimulation and the resultant tone is pleasant4 ,excessive cold also1 because it stimulates violently1 produces a painful feeling4 ,since the intensity of a stimulus varies according to the resistance encountered in the nervous arc1 the quality of a feeling state must1 therefore1 vary according to the resistance4 ,it is for this reason that an experience1 at first very painful1 may lose much of its tone by repetition4 ,by repetition the nerve centres are adapted to the experience1 resistance is lessened1 and the accompanying pain diminished4 ,in this way1 some work or exercise1 which is at first positively unpleasant1 may at least become endurable as the organism becomes adapted to the occupation4 ,from this point of view1 it is sometimes said that any impressions to which we are perfectly adapted give pleasurable feelings1 while1 in other cases the resultant tone will be painful4 ,b4 ,mental4--,the law of perfect adaptation also explains why ideal feelings may at one time result in a pleasant1 and at another time in a painful1 feeling tone4 ,according to the principle of apperception1 the new experience must organize itself with whatever thoughts and feelings are now occupying consciousness4 ,it necessarily happens that a given experience does not always equally harmonize with our present thoughts and feelings4 ,the recognition of a friend under ordinary circumstances is agreeable1 but amid certain associations or in a certain environment1 such recognition would be disagreeable4 ,so1 too1 while an original experience may have been agreeable1 the memory of it may now be disagreeable2 and vice versa4 ,for instance1 the memory of a former success or prosperity may1 in the midst of present failure and poverty1 be disagreeable2 while the recollection of former failure and defeat may now1 in the midst of success and prosperity1 be agreeable4 ,what is it that makes a sensation1 a perception1 a memory1 or an apprehended relation pleasant under some circumstances and unpleasant under others8 ,the rule appears to be that when the experience harmonizes with our present train of thought1 when it promotes our present interests and intentions1 it is pleasant2 but when1 on the other hand1 it does not harmonize with our train of thought or thwarts or impedes our interests and purposes1 it is unpleasant4 ,function of ,pleasure and ,pain4--,from what has been noted concerning co-ordination between the adaptation of the organism to impression and the quality of the accompanying feeling1 it is evident that pleasure and pain each have their part to play in promoting the ultimate good of the individual4 ,pain is beneficial1 because it lets us know that there is some misadjustment to our environment1 and thereby warns us to remove or cease doing what is proving injurious4 ,in this connection1 it may be noted that no disease is so dangerous as one that fails to make its presence known through pain4 ,pleasure also is valuable in so far as it results from perfect adaptation to a perfect environment1 since it induces the individual to continue beneficial acts4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that so far as heredity or education has adapted our organism to improper stimuli1 pleasure is no proof that the good of the organism is being advanced4 ,in such cases1 redemption can come to the fallen world only through suffering4 ,feeling and ,knowing4--,since the intensity of a feeling state is conditioned by the amount of resistance1 an intense state of feeling is likely to be accompanied by a lowering of intellectual activity4 ,for this reason excessive hunger1 heat or cold1 intense joy1 anger or sorrow1 are usually antagonistic to intellectual work4 ,the explanation for this seems to be that so much of our nervous energy is consumed in overcoming the resistance in the centres affected1 that little is left for ordinary intellectual processes4 ,this does not1 of course1 imply that no one can do intellectual work under such conditions2 nor that the intellectual man is always devoid of strong feelings1 although such is often the case4 ,occasionally1 however1 a man is so strongly endowed with nervous energy1 that even after overcoming the resistance being encountered1 he still has a residue of energy to devote to ordinary intellectual processes4 ,feeling and ,will4--,although1 as pointed out in the last paragraph1 there is a certain antagonism between knowing and feeling1 it has also been seen that every experience has its knowing as well as its feeling side4 ,because of this co-ordination1 the qualities of our feeling states become known to us1 or are able to be distinguished by the mind4 ,as a result of this recognition of a difference in our feeling states1 we learn to seek states of pleasure and to avoid states of pain or1 in other words1 our mere states of feeling become desires4 ,this means that we become able to contrast a present feeling with other remembered states1 and seek either to continue the present desired state or to substitute another for the present undesirable feeling4 ,in the form of desire1 therefore1 our feelings become strong motives1 which may influence the will to certain lines of action4 ,,sensuous ,,feelings ,while the sensations of the special senses1 namely1 sight1 sound1 touch1 taste1 and smell1 have each their affective1 or feeling1 side1 a minute study of these feelings is not necessary for our present purpose4 ,it may be noted1 however1 that in the more intellectual senses1 namely1 sight1 hearing1 and touch1 feeling tone is less marked1 although strong feeling may accompany certain tactile sensations4 ,in the lower senses of taste and smell1 the feeling tone is more pronounced4 ,under muscular sensation we meet such marked feeling tones as fatigue1 exertion1 and strain1 while associated with the organic sensations are such feelings as hunger and thirst1 and the various pains which usually accompany derangement and disease of the bodily organs4 ,some of these feelings are important1 because they are likely to influence the will by developing into desires in the form of appetites4 ,many sensuous feelings are important also because they especially warn the mind regarding the condition of the organism4 ,,emotion ,nature of ,emotion4--,an emotion differs from sensuous feeling1 not in its content1 but in its higher intensity1 its greater complexity1 and its more elaborate motor response4 ,it may be defined as a succession of interconnected feelings with a more complex physical expression than a simple feeling4 ,on reading an account of a battle1 one may feel sad and express this sadness only in a gloomy appearance of the face4 ,but if one finds that in this battle a friend has been killed1 the feeling is much intensified and may become an emotion of grief1 expressing itself in some complex way1 perhaps in tears1 in sobbing1 in wringing the hands4 ,similarly1 a feeling of slight irritation expressed in a frowning face1 if intensified1 becomes the emotion of anger1 expressed in tense muscles1 rapidly beating heart1 laboured breathing1 perhaps a torrent of words or a hasty blow4 ,emotion and ,instinct4--,feeling and instinct are closely related4 ,every instinct has its affective phase1 that is1 its satisfaction always involves an element of pleasure or pain4 ,the satisfaction of the instincts of curiosity or physical activity illustrates this fact4 ,on the other hand1 every emotion has its characteristic instinctive response4 ,fear expresses itself in all persons alike in certain characteristic ways inherited from a remote ancestry2 anger expresses itself in other instinctive reactions2 grief in still others4 ,,conditions ,,of ,,emotion ,an analysis of a typical emotion will serve to show the conditions under which it makes its appearance4 ,let us take first the emotion of fear4 ,suppose a person is walking alone on a dark night along a deserted street4 ,his nervous currents are discharging themselves uninterruptedly over their wonted channels1 his current of thought is unimpeded4 ,suddenly there appears a strange and frightful object in his pathway4 ,his train of thought is violently checked4 ,his nervous currents1 which a moment ago were passing out smoothly and without undue resistance into muscles of legs1 arms1 body1 and face1 are now suddenly obstructed1 or in other words encounter violent resistance4 ,he stands still4 ,his heart momentarily stops beating4 ,a temporary paralysis seizes him4 ,as the nervous currents thus encounter resistance1 the feeling tone known as fear is experienced4 ,at the same time the currents burst their barriers and overflow into new channels that are easy of access1 the motor centres being especially of this character4 ,some of the currents1 therefore1 run to the involuntary muscles1 and in consequence the heart beats faster1 the breathing becomes heavier1 the face grows pale1 a cold sweat breaks forth1 the hair stands on end4 ,other currents1 through hereditary influences1 pass to the voluntary muscles1 and the person shrieks1 and turns and flees4 ,or take the emotion of anger4 ,some fine morning in school everything is in good order1 everybody is industriously at work1 the lessons are proceeding satisfactorily4 ,the current of the teacher's experience is flowing smoothly and unobstructedly4 ,presently a troublesome boy1 who has been repeatedly reproved for misconduct1 again shows symptoms of idleness and misbehaviour4 ,the smooth current of experience being checked1 here also both a new feeling tone is experienced and the wonted nerve currents flow out into other brain centres4 ,the teacher stops his work and gazes fixedly at the offending pupil4 ,his heart beats rapidly1 the blood surges to his face1 his breathing becomes heavy1 his muscles grow tense4 ,in these reactions we have the nervous currents passing out over involuntary channels4 ,then1 perhaps1 the teacher unfortunately breaks forth into a torrent of words or lays violent hands upon the offender4 ,here the nervous currents are passing outward over the voluntary system4 ,these illustrations indicate that three important conditions are present at the appearance of the emotion1 namely1 7#a7 the presence of an unusual object in consciousness1 7#b7 the consequent disturbance of the smooth flow of experience or1 in physiological terms1 the temporary obstruction of the ordinary pathways of nervous discharge through the great resistance encountered1 and 7#c7 the new feeling state with its concomitant overflow of the impulses into new motor channels1 some of which lead to the involuntary muscles and others to the voluntary4 ,the emotion proper consists in the feeling state which arises as a result of the resistance encountered by the nervous impulses as the smooth flow of experience is checked4 ,the idea that ,i shall die some day arouses no emotion in me1 because it in no way affects my ordinary thought processes1 and therefore it in no way disturbs my nervous equilibrium4 ,the perception of a wild animal about to kill me1 because it suddenly thwarts and impedes the smooth flow of my experience through a suggestion of danger1 produces an intense feeling and a diffused and intense derangement of the nervous equilibrium4 ,development of ,emotions4--,the question of paramount importance in connection with emotion is how to arouse and develop desirable emotions4 ,the close connection of the three phases of the mind's manifestation--knowing1 feeling1 and willing1 gives the key to the question4 ,feeling cannot be developed alone apart from knowing and willing4 ,in fact1 if we attend carefully to the knowing and willing activities1 the feelings1 in one sense1 take care of themselves4 ,two principles1 therefore1 lie at the basis of proper emotional development3 #a4 ,the mind must be allowed to dwell upon only those ideas to which worthy emotions are attached4 ,we must refuse to think those thoughts that are tinged with unworthy feelings4 ,the ,apostle ,paul has expressed this very eloquently when he says in his ,epistle to the ,philippians3 ,finally1 brethren1 whatsoever things are true1 whatsoever things are honest1 whatsoever things are just1 whatsoever things are pure1 whatsoever things are lovely1 whatsoever things are of good report2 if there be any virtue1 and if there be any praise1 think on these things4 #b4 ,the teacher's main duty in the above regard is to provide the pupil with a rich fund of ideas to which desirable feelings cling4 ,an impressive manner1 an enthusiastic attitude toward subjects of study1 an evident interest in them1 and apparent appreciation of them1 will also aid much in inspiring pupils with proper feelings1 for feelings are often contagious in the absence of very definite ideas4 ,how often have we been deeply moved by hearing a poem impressively read even though we have very imperfectly grasped its meaning4 ,the feelings of the reader have been communicated to us through the principle of contagion4 ,similarly1 in history1 art1 and nature study1 emotions may be stirred1 not only through the medium of the ideas presented1 but also by the impressiveness1 the enthusiasm1 and the interest exhibited by the teacher in presenting them4 #c4 ,we must give expression to these emotions we wish to develop4 ,expression means the probability of the recurrence of the emotion1 and gradually an emotional habit is formed4 ,an unselfish disposition is cultivated by performing little acts of kindness and self-denial whenever the opportunity offers4 ,the expression of a desirable emotion1 moreover1 should not stop merely with an experience of the organic sensations or the reflex reactions accompanying the emotion4 ,to listen to a sermon and react only by an emotional thrill1 a quickened heart beat1 or a few tears1 is a very ineffective kind of expression4 ,the only kind of emotional expression that is of much consequence either to ourselves or others is conduct4 ,only in so far as our emotional experiences issue in action that is beneficial to those about us1 are they of any practical value4 ,elimination of ,emotions4--,since certain of our emotions1 such as anger and fear1 are1 in general1 undesirable states of feeling1 a question arises how such emotions may be prevented4 ,it is sometimes said that1 if we can inhibit the expression1 the emotion will disappear1 that is1 if ,i can prevent the trembling1 ,i will cease to be afraid4 ,from what has just been learned1 however1 the emotion and its expression being really concomitant results of the antecedent obstruction of ordinary nervous discharges1 emotion cannot be checked by checking the expression1 but both will be checked if the nervous impulses can be made to continue in their wonted courses in spite of the disturbing presentations4 ,the real secret of emotional control lies1 therefore1 in the power of voluntary attention4 ,the effect of attention is to cause the nervous energy to be directed without undue resistance into its wonted channels1 this1 in turn1 preventing its overflow into new channels4 ,by thus directing the energy into wonted and open channels1 attention prevents both the movements and the feeling that are concomitants of a disturbance of nervous equilibrium4 ,by meeting the attack of the dog in a purposeful and attentive manner1 we cause the otherwise damming-up nervous energy to continue flowing into ordinary channels1 and in this way prevent both the feeling of fear and also the flow of the energy into the motor centres associated with the particular emotion4 ,but while it is not scientifically correct in a particular case to say that we may inhibit the feeling by inhibiting the movements1 it is of course true that1 by avoiding a present emotional outburst1 we are less likely in the future to respond to situations which tend to arouse the emotional state4 ,on the other hand1 to give way frequently to any emotional state will make it more difficult to avoid yielding to the emotion under similar conditions4 ,,other ,,types ,,of ,,feeling ,mood4--,our feelings and emotions become organized and developed in various ways4 ,the sum total of all the feeling tones of our sensory and ideational processes at any particular time gives us our mood at that time4 ,if1 for instance1 our organic sensations are prevailingly pleasant1 if the ideas we dwell upon are tinged with agreeable feeling1 our mood is cheerful4 ,we can to a large extent control our current of thought1 and can as we will1 except in case of serious bodily disturbances1 attend1 or not attend1 to our organic sensations4 ,consequently we are ourselves largely responsible for the moods we indulge4 ,disposition4--,a particular kind of mood frequently indulged in produces a type of emotional habit1 our disposition4 ,for instance1 the teacher who permits the occurrences of the class-room to trouble him unnecessarily1 and who broods over these afterwards1 soon develops a worrying disposition4 ,as we have it in our power to determine what habits1 emotional and otherwise1 we form1 we alone are responsible for the dispositions we cultivate4 ,temperament4--,some of us are provided with nervous systems that are predisposed to particular moods4 ,this predisposition1 together with frequent indulgence in particular types of mood1 gives us our temperament4 ,the responsibility for this we share with our ancestors1 but1 even though predisposed through heredity to unfortunate moods1 we can ourselves decide whether we shall give way to them4 ,temperaments have been classified as sanguine1 melancholic1 choleric1 and phlegmatic4 ,the sanguine type is inclined to look on the bright side of things1 to be optimistic2 the melancholic tends to moodiness and gloom2 the choleric is easily irritated1 quick to anger2 the phlegmatic is not easily aroused to emotion1 is cold and sluggish4 ,an individual seldom belongs exclusively to one type4 ,sentiments4--,certain emotional tendencies become organized about an object and constitute a sentiment4 ,the sentiment of love for our mother had its basis in our childhood in the perception of her as the source of numberless experiences involving pleasant feeling tones4 ,as we grew older1 we understood better her solicitude for our welfare and her sacrifices for our sake--further experiences involving a large feeling element4 ,thus there grew up about our mother an organized system of emotional tendencies1 our sentiment of filial love4 ,such sentiments as patriotism1 religious faith1 selfishness1 sympathy1 arise and develop in the same way4 ,compared with moods1 sentiments are more permanent in character and involve more complex knowledge elements4 ,moreover1 they do not depend upon physiological conditions as do moods4 ,one's organic sensations may affect one's mood to a considerable extent1 but will scarcely influence one's patriotism or filial love4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,the ,,will ,,voluntary ,,control ,,of ,,action ,types of ,movement4--,closely associated with the problem of voluntary attention is that of voluntary movement1 or control of action4 ,it is an evident fact that the infant can at first exercise no conscious control over his bodily movements4 ,he has1 it is true1 certain reflex and instinctive tendencies which enable him to react in a definite way to certain special stimuli4 ,in such cases1 however1 there is no conscious control of the movements1 the bodily organs merely responding in a definite way whenever the proper stimulus is present4 ,the eye1 for instance1 must wink when any foreign matter affects it2 wry movements of the face must accompany the bitter taste2 and the body must start at a sudden noise4 ,at other times1 bodily movements may be produced in a more spontaneous way4 ,here the physical energy stored within the system gives rise to bodily activity and causes those random impulsive movements so evident during infancy and early childhood4 ,when these movements1 which are the only ones possible to very early childhood1 are compared with the movements of a workman placing the brick in the wall or of an artist executing a delicate piece of carving1 there is found in the latter movements the conscious idea of a definite end1 or object1 to be reached4 ,to gain control of one's movements is1 therefore1 to acquire an ability to direct bodily actions toward the attainment of a given end4 ,thus a question arises as to the process by which a child attains to this bodily control4 ,ideas of ,movements ,acquired4--,although1 as pointed out above1 a child's early instinctive and impulsive movements are not under conscious control1 they nevertheless become conscious acts1 in the sense that the movements are soon realized in idea4 ,the movements1 in other words1 give rise to conscious states1 and these in turn are retained as portions of past experience4 ,for instance1 although the child at first grasps the object only impulsively1 he nevertheless soon obtains an idea1 or experience1 of what it means to grasp with the hand4 ,so1 also1 although he may first stretch the limb impulsively or make a wry face reflexively1 he secures1 in a short time1 ideas representative of these movements4 ,as the child thus obtains ideas representative of different bodily movements1 he is able ultimately1 by fixing his attention upon any movement1 to produce it in a voluntary way4 ,development of ,control3 ,a4 ,ideo-motor ,action4--,at first1 on account of the close association between the thought centres and the motor centres causing the act1 the child seems to have little ability to check the act1 whenever its representative idea enters consciousness4 ,it is for this reason that young children often perform such seemingly unreasonable acts as1 for instance1 slapping another person1 kicking and throwing objects1 etc4 ,in such cases1 however1 it must not be assumed that these are always deliberate acts4 ,more often the act is performed simply because the image of the act arises in the child's mind1 and his control of the motor discharge is so weak that the act follows immediately upon the idea4 ,this same tendency frequently manifests itself even in the adult4 ,as one thinks intently of some favourite game1 he may suddenly find himself taking a bodily position used in playing that game4 ,it is by the same law also that the impulsive man tends to act out in gesture any act that he may be describing in words4 ,such a type of action is described as ideo-motor action4 ,b4 ,deliberate ,action4--,because the child in time gains ideas of various movements and an ability to fix his attention upon them1 he thus becomes able to set one motor image against another as possible lines of action4 ,one image may suggest to slap2 the other to caress2 the one to pull the weeds in the flower bed2 the other1 to lie down in the hammock4 ,but attention is ultimately able1 as noted in the last ,chapter1 so to control the impulse and resistance in the proper nervous centres that the acts themselves may be indefinitely suspended4 ,thus the mind becomes able to conceive lines of action and1 by controlling bodily movement1 gain time to consider the effectiveness of these toward the attainment of any end4 ,when a bodily movement thus takes place in relation to some conscious end in view1 it is termed a deliberate act4 ,one important result of physical exercises with the young child is that they develop in him this deliberate control of bodily movements4 ,the same may be said also of any orderly modes of action employed in the general management of the school4 ,regular forms of assembly and dismissal1 of moving about the class-room1 etc41 all tend to give the child this same control over his acts4 ,action versus ,result4--,as already noted1 however1 most of our movements soon develop into fixed habits4 ,for this reason our bodily acts are usually performed more or less unconsciously1 that is1 without any deliberation as to the mere act itself4 ,for this reason1 we find that when bodily movements are held in check1 or inhibited1 in order to allow time for deliberation1 attention usually fixes itself1 not upon the acts themselves1 but rather upon the results of these acts4 ,for instance1 a person having an axe and a saw may wish to divide a small board into two parts4 ,although the axe may be in his hand1 he is thinking1 not how he is to use the axe1 but how it will result if he uses this to accomplish the end4 ,in the same way he considers1 not how to use the saw1 but the result of using the saw4 ,by inhibiting the motor impulses which would lead to the use of either of these1 the individual is able to note1 say1 that to use the axe is a quick1 but inaccurate1 way of gaining the end2 to use the saw1 a slow1 but accurate1 way4 ,the present need being interpreted as one where only an approximate division is necessary1 attention is thereupon given wholly to the images tending to promote this action2 resistance is thus overcome in these centres1 and the necessary motor discharges for using the axe are given free play4 ,here1 however1 the mind evidently does not deliberate on how the hands are to use the axe or the saw1 but rather upon the results following the use of these4 ,,volition ,nature of ,will4--,when voluntary attention is fixed1 as above1 upon the results of conflicting lines of action1 the mind is said to experience a conflict of desires1 or motives4 ,so long as this conflict lasts1 physical expression is inhibited1 the mind deliberating upon and comparing the conflicting motives4 ,for instance1 a pupil on his way to school may be thrown into a conflict of motives4 ,on the one side is a desire to remain under the trees near the bank of the stream2 on the other a desire to obey his parents1 and go to school4 ,so long as these desires each press themselves upon the attention1 there results an inhibiting of the nervous motor discharge with an accompanying mental state of conflict1 or indecision4 ,this prevents1 for the time being1 any action1 and the youth deliberates between the two possible lines of conduct4 ,as he weighs the various elements of pleasure on the one hand and of duty on the other1 the one desire will finally appear the stronger4 ,this constitutes the person's choice1 or decision1 and a line of action follows in accordance with the end1 or motive1 chosen4 ,this mental choice1 or decision1 is usually termed an act of will4 ,attention in ,will4--,such a choice between motives1 however1 evidently involves an act of voluntary attention4 ,what really goes on in consciousness in such a conflict of motives is that voluntary attention makes a single problem of the twofold situation--school versus play4 ,to this problem the attention marshals relative ideas and selects and adjusts them to the complex problem4 ,finally these are built into an organized experience which solves the problem as one1 say1 of going to school4 ,the so-called choice is1 therefore1 merely the mental solution of the situation2 the necessary bodily action follows in an habitual manner1 once the attention lessens the resistance in the appropriate centres4 ,factors in ,volitional ,act4--,such an act of volition1 or will1 is usually analysed in the following steps3 #a4 ,conflicting desires #b4 ,deliberation--weighing of motives #c4 ,choice--solving the problem #d4 ,expression4 ,as a mental process1 however1 an act of will does not include the fourth step--expression4 ,the mind has evidently willed1 the moment a conclusion1 or choice1 is reached in reference to the end in view4 ,if1 therefore1 ,i stand undecided whether to paint the house white or green1 an act of will has taken place when the conclusion1 or mental decision1 has been reached to paint the house green4 ,on the other hand1 however1 only the man who forms a decision and then resolutely works out his decision through actual expression1 will be credited with a strong will by the ordinary observer4 ,physical ,conditions of ,will4--,deliberation being but a special case of giving voluntary attention to a selected problem1 it involves the same expenditure of nervous energy in overcoming resistance within the brain centres as was seen to accompany any act of voluntary attention4 ,such being the case1 our power of will at any given time is likely to vary in accordance with our bodily condition4 ,the will is relatively weak during sickness1 for instance1 because the normal amount of nervous energy which must accompany the mental processes of deliberation and choice is not able to be supplied4 ,for the same reason1 lack of food and sleep1 working in bad air1 etc41 are found to weaken the will for facing a difficulty1 though we may nevertheless feel that it is something that ought to be done4 ,an added reason1 therefore1 why the victim of alcohol and narcotics finds it difficult to break his habit is that the use of these may permanently lessen the energy of the nervous organism4 ,in facing the difficult task of breaking an old habit1 therefore1 this person has rendered the task doubly difficult1 because the indulgence has weakened his will for undertaking the struggle of breaking an old habit4 ,on the other hand1 good food1 sleep1 exercise in the fresh air1 by quickening the blood and generating nervous energy1 in a sense strengthens the will in undertaking the duties and responsibilities before it4 ,,abnormal ,,types ,,of ,,will ,the ,impulsive ,will4--,one important problem in the education of the will is found in the relation of deliberation to choice4 ,as is the case in a process of learning1 the mind in deliberating must draw upon past experiences1 must select and weigh conflicting ideas in a more or less intelligent manner1 and upon this basis finally make its choice4 ,a first characteristic of a person of will1 therefore1 is to be able to deliberate intelligently upon any different lines of action which may present themselves4 ,but in the case of many individuals1 there seems a lack of this power of deliberation4 ,on every hand they display almost a childlike impulsiveness1 rushing blindly into action1 and always following up the word with the blow4 ,this type1 which is spoken of as an impulsive will1 is likely to prevail more or less among young children4 ,it is essential1 therefore1 that the teacher should take this into account in dealing with the moral and the practical actions of these children4 ,it should be seen that such children in their various exercises are made to inhibit their actions sufficiently to allow them to deliberate and choose between alternative modes of action4 ,for this purpose typical forms of constructive work will be found of educational value4 ,in such exercises situations may be continually created in which the pupil must deliberate upon alternative lines of action and make his choice accordingly4 ,the ,retarded ,will4--,in some cases a type of will is met in which the attention seems unable to lead deliberation into a state of choice4 ,like ,hamlet1 the person keeps ever weighing whether to be or not to be is the better course4 ,such people are necessarily lacking in achievement1 although always intending to do great things in the future4 ,this type of will is not so prevalent among young children2 but if met1 the teacher should1 as far as possible1 encourage the pupil to pass more rapidly from thought to action4 ,the ,sluggish ,will4--,a third and quite common defect of will is seen where the mind is either too ignorant or too lazy to do the work of deliberating4 ,while such characters are not impulsive1 they tend to follow lines of action merely by habit1 or in accordance with the direction of others1 and do little thinking for themselves4 ,the only remedy for such people is1 of course1 to quicken their intellectual life4 ,unless this can be done1 the goodness of their character must depend largely upon the nobility of those who direct the formation of their habits and do their thinking for them4 ,development of ,will4--,by recalling what has been established concerning the learning process1 we may learn that most school exercises1 when properly conducted1 involve the essential facts of an act of will4 ,in an ordinary school exercise1 the child first has before him a certain aim1 or problem1 and then must select from former experience the related ideas which will enable him to solve this problem4 ,so far1 however1 as the child is led to select and reject for himself these interpreting ideas1 he must evidently go through a process similar to that of an ordinary act of will4 ,when1 for example1 the child faces the problem of finding out how many yards of carpet of a certain width will cover the floor of a room1 he must first decide how to find the number of strips required4 ,having come to a decision on this point1 he must next give expression to his decision by actually working out this part of the problem4 ,in like manner1 he must now decide how to proceed with the next step in his problem and1 having come to a conclusion on this point1 must also give it expression by performing the necessary mathematical processes4 ,it is for this reason1 that the ordinary lessons and exercises of the school1 when presented to the children as actual problems1 constitute an excellent means for developing will power4 ,the ,essentials of ,moral ,character4--,it must be noted finally1 that will power is a third essential factor in the attainment of real moral character1 or social efficiency4 ,we have learned that man1 through the possession of an intelligent nature1 is able to grasp the significance of his experience and thus form comprehensive plans and purposes for the regulation of his conduct4 ,we have noted further that1 through the development of right feeling1 he may come to desire and plan for the attainment of only such ends as make for righteousness4 ,yet1 however noble his desires1 and however intelligent and comprehensive his plans and purposes1 it is only as he develops a volitional personality1 or determination of character which impels toward the attainment of these noble ends through intelligent plans1 that man can be said to live the truly efficient life4 ,self-reverence1 self-knowledge1 self-control1 ,these three alone lead life to sovereign power4 ,in this connection1 also1 we cannot do better than quote ,huxley's description of an educated man1 as given in his essay on ,a ,liberal ,education1 a description which may be considered to crystallize the true conception of an efficient citizen3 ,that man1 ,i think1 has had a liberal education who has been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will1 and does with ease and pleasure all the work that1 as a mechanism1 it is capable of2 whose intellect is a clear1 cold1 logic engine1 with all its parts of equal strength1 and in smooth working order2 ready1 like a steam engine1 to be turned to any kind of work1 and spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind2 whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of nature1 and of the laws of her operations2 one who1 no stunted ascetic1 is full of life and fire1 but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will1 the servant of a tender conscience2 who has learned to love all beauty1 whether of nature or of art1 to hate all vileness1 and to respect others as himself4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,child ,,study ,scope and ,purpose of ,child ,study4--,by child study is meant the observation of the general characteristics and the leading individual differences exhibited by children during the periods of infancy1 childhood1 and adolescence4 ,its purpose is to gather facts regarding childhood and formulate them into principles that are applicable in education4 ,from the teacher's standpoint1 the purpose is to be able to adapt intelligently his methods in each subject to the child's mind at the different stages of its development4 ,in the education of the child we have our eyes fixed1 at least partly1 upon his future4 ,the aim of education is usually stated in terms of what the child is to become4 ,he is to become a socially efficient individual1 to be fitted to live completely1 to develop a good moral character1 to have his powers of mind and body harmoniously developed4 ,all these aims look toward the future4 ,but what the child becomes depends upon what he is4 ,education1 in its broadest sense1 means taking the individual's present equipment of mind and body and so using it as to enable him to become something else in the future4 ,the teacher must be concerned1 therefore1 not only with what he wishes the child to become in the future1 but also with what he is1 here and now4 ,importance to the ,teacher4--,the adaptation of matter and method to the child's tendencies1 capacities1 and interests1 which all good teaching demands1 is possible only through an understanding of his nature4 ,the teacher must have regard1 not only to the materials and the method used in training1 but also to the being who is to be trained4 ,a knowledge of child nature will prevent expensive mistakes and needless waste4 ,a few typical examples will serve to illustrate the immense importance a knowledge of child nature is to his teacher4 #a4 ,as has been already explained1 when the teacher knows something about the instincts of children1 he will utilize these tendencies in his teaching and work with them1 not against them4 ,he will1 wherever possible1 make use of the play instinct in his lessons1 as for example1 when he makes the multiplication drill a matter of climbing a stairway without stumbling or crossing a stream on stones without falling in4 ,he will use the instinct of physical activity in having children learn number combinations by manipulating blocks1 or square measure by actually measuring surfaces1 or fractions by using scissors and strips of cardboard1 or geographical features by modelling in sand and clay4 ,he will use the imitative instinct in cultivating desirable personal habits1 such as neatness1 cleanliness1 and order1 and in modifying conduct through the inspiring presentation of history and literature4 ,he will provide exercise for the instinct of curiosity by suggesting interesting problems in geography and nature study4 #b4 ,when the teacher understands the principle of eliminating undesirable tendencies by substitution1 he will not regard as cardinal sins the pushing1 pinching1 and kicking in which boys give vent to their excess energy1 but will set about directing this purposeless activity into more profitable channels4 ,he will thus substitute another means of expression for the present undesirable means4 ,he will1 for instance1 give opportunity for physical exercises1 paper-folding and cutting1 cardboard work1 wood-work1 drawing1 colour work1 modelling1 etc41 so far as possible in all school subjects4 ,he will try to transform the boy who teases and bullies the smaller boys into a guardian and protector4 ,he will try to utilize the boy's tendency to collect useless odds and ends by turning it into the systematic and purposeful collection of plants1 insects1 specimens of soils1 specimens illustrating phases of manufactures1 postage stamps1 coins1 etc4 #c4 ,when the teacher knows that the interests of pupils have much to do with determining their effort1 he will endeavour to seize upon these interests when most active4 ,he will thus be saved such blunders as teaching in ,december a literature lesson on ,an ,apple ,orchard in the ,spring1 or assigning a composition on ,tobogganing in ,june1 because he realizes that the interest in these topics is not then active4 ,each season1 each month of the year1 each festival and holiday has its own particular interests1 which may be effectively utilized by the presentation of appropriate materials in literature1 in composition1 in nature study1 and in history4 ,a current event may be taken advantage of to teach an important lesson in history or civics4 ,for instance1 an election may be made the occasion of a lesson on voting by ballot1 a miniature election being conducted for that purpose4 #d4 ,when the teacher appreciates the extent of the capacities of children1 he will not make too heavy demands upon their powers of logical reasoning by introducing too soon the study of formal grammar or the solution of difficult arithmetical problems4 ,when he knows that the period from eight to twelve is the habit-forming period1 he will stress1 during these years such things as mechanical accuracy in the fundamental rules in arithmetic1 the memorization of gems of poetry1 and the cultivation of right physical and moral habits4 ,when he knows the influence of motor expression in giving definiteness1 vividness1 and permanency to ideas1 he will have much work in drawing1 modelling1 constructive work1 dramatization1 and oral and written expression4 ,,methods ,,of ,,child ,,study ,a4 ,observation4--,from the teacher's standpoint the method of observation of individual children is the most practicable4 ,he has the material for his observations constantly before him4 ,he soon discovers that one pupil is clever1 another dull2 that one excels in arithmetic1 another in history2 that one is inclined to jump to conclusions1 another is slow and deliberate4 ,he is thus able to adapt his methods to meet individual requirements4 ,but however advantageous this may be from the practical point of view1 it must be noted that the facts thus secured are individual and not universal4 ,such child study does not in itself carry one very far4 ,to be of real value to the teacher1 these particular facts must be recognized as illustrative of a general law4 ,when the teacher discovers1 for instance1 that nobody in his class responds very heartily to an abstract discussion of the rabbit1 but that everybody is intensely interested when the actual rabbit is observed1 he may regard the facts as illustrating the general principle that children need to be appealed to through the senses4 ,likewise when he obtains poor results in composition on the topic1 ,how ,i ,spent ,my ,summer ,holidays1 but excellent results on ,how to ,plant ,bulbs1 especially after the pupils have planted a bed of tulips on the front lawn1 he may infer the law1 that the best work is obtained when the matter is closely associated with the active interests of pupils4 ,by watching the children when they are on the school grounds1 the teacher may observe how far the occupations of the home1 or a current event1 such as a circus1 an election1 or a war1 influences the play of the children4 ,thus the method of observation requires that not only individual facts should be obtained1 but also that general principles should be inferred on the basis of these4 ,care must be taken1 however1 that the facts observed justify the inference4 ,b4 ,experiment4--,an experiment in any branch of science means the observation of results under controlled conditions4 ,experimental child study must1 to a large extent1 therefore1 be relegated to the psychological laboratory4 ,such experiments as the localization of cutaneous impressions1 the influence of certain operations on fatigue1 or the discovery of the length of time necessary for a conscious reaction1 can be successfully carried out only with more or less elaborate equipment and under favourable conditions4 ,however1 the school offers opportunity for some simple yet practical experiments in child study4 ,the teacher may discover experimentally what is the most favourable period at which to place a certain subject on the school programme1 whether1 for instance1 it is best to take mechanical arithmetic when the minds of the pupils are fresh or when they are weary1 or whether the writing lesson had better be taught immediately after the strenuous play at recess or at a time when the muscles are rested4 ,he may find out the response of the pupils to problems in arithmetic closely connected with their lives 7for example1 in a rural community problems relating to farm activities71 as compared with their response to problems involving more or less remote ideas4 ,he may discover to what extent concentration in securing neat exercises in one subject1 composition for instance1 affects the exercises in other subjects in which neatness has not been explicitly demanded4 ,this latter experiment might throw some light upon the much debated question of formal discipline4 ,in all these cases the teacher must be on his guard not to accept as universal principles what he has found to be true of a small group of pupils1 until at least he has found his conclusions verified by other experimenters4 ,c4 ,direct ,questions4--,this method involves the submission of questions to pupils of a particular age or grade1 collecting and classifying their answers1 and basing conclusions upon these4 ,much work in this direction has been done in recent years by certain educators1 and much illuminating and more or less useful material has been collected4 ,a good deal of light has been thrown upon the apperceptive material that children have possession of by noting their answers to such questions as3 ,have you ever seen the stars8 ,a robin8 ,a pig8 ,where does milk come from8 ,where do potatoes come from8 etc41 etc4 ,the practical value of this method lies in the insight it gives into the interests of children1 the kind of imagery they use1 and the relationships they have set up among their ideas4 ,every teacher has been surprised at times at the absurd answers given by children4 ,these absurdities are usually due to the teacher's taking for granted that the pupils have possession of certain old knowledge that is actually absent4 ,the moral of such occurrences is that he should examine very carefully what mind stuff the pupils have for interpreting the new material4 ,d4 ,biographical ,studies of ,individual ,children4--,many books have been written describing the development of individual children4 ,these descriptions doubtless contain much that is typical of all children1 but one must be careful not to argue too much from an individual case4 ,such records are valuable as confirmatory evidence of what has already been observed in connection with other children1 or as suggestive of what may be looked for in them4 ,,periods ,,of ,,development ,the period covered by child study may be roughly divided into three parts1 namely1 7#a7 infancy1 extending from birth to three years of age1 7#b7 childhood1 from three to twelve1 and 7#c7 adolescence1 from twelve to eighteen4 ,while children during each of these periods exhibit striking dissimilarities one from another1 there are nevertheless many characteristics that are fairly universal during each period4 #a4 ,,infancy ,a4 ,physical ,characteristics4--,one of the striking features of infancy is the rapidity with which command of the bodily organs is secured4 ,starting with a few inherited reflexes1 the child at three years of age has attained fairly complete control of his sense organs and bodily movements1 though he lacks that co-ordination of muscles by which certain delicate effects of hand and voice are produced4 ,the relative growth is greater at this than at any subsequent period4 ,another prominent characteristic is the tendency to incessant movement4 ,the constant handling1 exploring1 and analysing of objects enhances the child's natural thirst for knowledge1 and he probably obtains a larger stock of ideas during the first three years of his life than during any equal period subsequently4 ,b4 ,mental ,characteristics4--,a conspicuous feature of infancy is the imitative tendency1 which early manifests itself4 ,through this means the child acquires many of his movements1 his language power1 and the simple games he plays4 ,sense impressions begin to lose their fleeting character and to become more permanent4 ,as evidence of this1 few children remember events farther back than their third year1 while many can distinctly recall events of the third and fourth years even after the lapse of a long period of time4 ,the child at this period begins to compare1 classify1 and generalize in an elementary way1 though his ideas are still largely of the concrete variety4 ,his attention is almost entirely non-voluntary2 he is interested in objects and activities for themselves alone1 and not for the sake of an end4 ,he is1 as yet1 unable to conceive remote ends1 the prime condition of voluntary attention4 ,his ideas of right and wrong conduct are associated with the approval and disapproval of those about him4 #b4 ,,childhood ,a4 ,physical ,characteristics4--,in the earlier period of childhood1 from three to seven years1 bodily growth is very rapid4 ,much of the vital force is thus consumed1 and less energy is available for physical activity4 ,the child has also less power of resistance and is thus susceptible to the diseases of childhood4 ,his movements are for the same reason lacking in co-ordination4 ,in the later period1 from seven to twelve years1 the bodily growth is less rapid1 more energy is available for physical activity1 and the co-ordination of muscles is greater4 ,the brain has now reached its maximum size and weight1 any further changes being due to the formation of associative pathways along nerve centres4 ,this is1 therefore1 pre-eminently the habit-forming period4 ,from the physical standpoint this means that those activities that are essentially habitual must have their genesis during the period between seven and twelve if they are to function perfectly in later life4 ,the mastery of a musical instrument must be begun then if technique is ever to be perfect4 ,if a foreign language is to be acquired1 it should be begun in this period1 or there will always be inaccuracies in pronunciation and articulation4 ,b4 ,mental ,characteristics4--,the instinct of curiosity is very active in the earlier period of childhood1 and this1 combined with greater language power1 leads to incessant questionings on the part of the child4 ,he wants to know what1 where1 why1 and how1 in regard to everything that comes under his notice1 and fortunate indeed is that child whose parent or teacher is sufficiently long-suffering to give satisfactory answers to his many and varied questions4 ,to ignore the inquiries of the child1 or to return impatient or grudging answers may inhibit the instinct and lead later to a lack of interest in the world about him4 ,the imitative instinct is also still active and reveals itself particularly in the child's play1 which in the main reflects the activities of those about him4 ,he plays horse1 policeman1 school1 ,indian1 in imitation of the occupations of others4 ,parents and teachers should depend largely upon this imitative tendency to secure desirable physical habits1 such as erect and graceful carriage1 cleanliness of person1 orderly arrangement of personal belongings1 neatness in dress1 etc4 ,the imagination is exceedingly active during childhood1 fantastic and unregulated in the earlier period1 under better control and direction in the later4 ,it reveals itself in the love of hearing1 reading1 or inventing stories4 ,the imitative play mentioned above is one phase of imaginative activity4 ,the child's ideas of conduct1 in this earlier stage of childhood1 are derived from the pleasure or pain of their consequences4 ,he has as yet little power of subordinating his lower impulses to an ideal end1 and hence is not properly a moral being4 ,good conduct must1 therefore1 be secured principally through the exercise of arbitrary authority from without4 ,in the later period of childhood1 acquired interests begin to be formed and1 coincident with this1 active attention appears4 ,the child begins to be interested in the product1 not merely in the process4 ,the mind at this period is most retentive of sense impressions4 ,this is consequently the time to bring the child into immediate contact with his environment through his senses1 in such departments as nature study and field work in geography4 ,thus is laid the basis of future potentialities of imagery1 and through it appreciation of literature4 ,on account of the acuteness of sense activity at this period1 this is also the time for memorization of fine passages of prose and poetry4 ,the child's thinking is still of the pictorial rather than of the abstract order1 though the powers of generalization and language are considerably extended4 ,the social interests are not yet strong1 and hence co-operation for a common purpose is largely absent4 ,his games show a tendency toward individualism4 ,when co-operative games are indulged in1 he is usually willing to sacrifice the interests of his team to his own personal glorification4 #c4 ,,adolescence ,a4 ,physical ,characteristics4--,in early adolescence the characteristic physical accompaniments of early childhood are repeated1 namely1 rapid growth and lack of muscular co-ordination4 ,from twelve to fifteen1 girls grow more rapidly than boys and are actually taller and heavier than boys at corresponding ages4 ,from fifteen onward1 however1 the boys rapidly outstrip the girls in growth4 ,lack of muscular co-ordination is responsible for the awkward movements1 ungainly appearance1 ungraceful carriage1 with their attendant self-consciousness1 so characteristic of both boys and girls in early adolescence4 ,b4 ,mental ,characteristics4--,ideas are gradually freed from their sensory accompaniments4 ,the child thinks in symbols rather than in sensory images4 ,consequently there is a greater power of abstraction and reflective thought4 ,this is therefore the period for emphasizing those subjects requiring logical reasoning1 for example1 mathematics1 science1 and the reflective aspects of grammar1 history1 and geography4 ,from association with others or from literature and history1 ideals begin to be formed which influence conduct4 ,this is brought about largely through the principle of suggestion4 ,in the early years of adolescence children are very susceptible to suggestions1 but the suggestive ideas must be introduced by a person who is trusted1 admired1 or loved1 or under circumstances inspiring these feelings2 hence the importance to the adolescent of having teachers of strong and inspiring personality4 ,however1 if the suggestive idea is to influence action1 it must be introduced in such a way as not to set up a reaction against it4 ,reaction will be set up if the idea is antagonistic to the present ideas1 feelings1 or aims1 or if it is so persistently thrust upon the child that he begins to suspect that he is being unduly influenced4 ,to avoid reaction the parent or teacher should introduce suggestive ideas indirectly4 ,for instance1 while the mind is concentrated upon one set of ideas1 a suggestive idea that would otherwise be distasteful may be tolerated4 ,it may lie latent for a time1 and when it recurs it may be regarded as original1 under which condition it is likely to issue in action4 ,the adolescent stage is the period of greatest emotional development1 and care should therefore be exercised to have the child's mind dwell upon only those ideas with which worthy emotions are associated4 ,the emotional bent1 whether good or bad1 is determined to a large extent during this period of adolescence4 ,so far as morality is the subordination of primitive instincts to higher ideas1 the child now becomes a moral being4 ,his conduct is now determined by reason and by ideals1 and the primitive pleasure-pain motives disappear4 ,it follows that coercion and arbitrary authority have little place in discipline at this period4 ,social interests are prominent1 evidenced by the tendency to co-operate with others for a common end4 ,the games of the period are mainly of the co-operative variety and are marked by a willingness to sacrifice personal interests for the sake of the team1 or side4 ,,individual ,,differences ,while1 as noted above1 all children have certain common characteristics at each of the three periods of development1 it is even more apparent that every child is in many respects different from every other child4 ,he has certain peculiarities that demand particular treatment4 ,it is evident that it would be impossible to enumerate all the individual differences in children4 ,the most that can be done is to classify the most striking differences and endeavour to place individual children in one or other of these classes4 ,a4 ,differences in ,thought4--,one of the obvious classifications of pupils is that of quick and slow4 ,the former learns easily1 but often forgets quickly2 the latter learns slowly1 but usually retains well4 ,the former is keen and alert2 the latter1 dull and passive4 ,the former frequently lacks perseverance2 the latter is often tenacious and persistent4 ,the former unjustly wins applause for his cleverness2 the latter1 equally unjustly1 wins contempt for his dulness4 ,the teacher must not be unfair to the dull plodder1 who in later years may frequently outstrip his brilliant competitor in the race of life4 ,some pupils think better in the abstract1 others1 in the concrete4 ,the former will analyse and parse well in grammar1 distinguish fine shades of meaning in language1 manage numbers skilfully1 or work out chemical equations accurately4 ,the latter will be more successful in doing things1 for instance1 measuring boards1 planning and planting a garden plot1 making toys1 designing dolls' clothes1 and cooking4 ,the schools of the past have all emphasized the ability to think in the abstract1 and to a large extent ignored the ability to think in the concrete4 ,this is unfair to the one class of thinkers4 ,from the ranks of those who think in the abstract have come the great statesmen1 poets1 and philosophers2 from the ranks of those who think in the concrete have come the carpenters1 builders1 and inventors4 ,it will be admitted that the world owes as great a debt from the practical standpoint to the latter class as to the former4 ,let the school not despise or ignore the pupil who1 though unable to think well in abstract studies1 is able to do things4 ,b4 ,differences in ,action4--,there is a marked difference among children in the ability to connect an abstract direction with the required act4 ,this is particularly seen in writing1 art1 and constructive work1 subjects in which the aim is the formation of habit1 and in which success depends upon following explicitly the direction given4 ,the teacher will find it economical to give very definite instruction as to what is to be done in work in these subjects4 ,it is equally important that instructions regarding conduct should be definite and unmistakable4 ,as explained in the last ,chapter1 there are two extreme and contrasting types of will exhibited by children1 namely1 the impulsive type and the obstructed type4 ,in the former1 action occurs without deliberation immediately upon the appearance of the idea in consciousness4 ,this type is illustrated in the case of the pupil who1 as soon as he hears a question1 thoughtlessly blurts out an answer without any reflection whatever4 ,in the adult1 we find a similar illustration when1 immediately upon hearing a pitiable story from a beggar1 he hands out a dollar without stopping to investigate whether or not the action is well-advised4 ,it is useless to plead in extenuation of such actions that the answer may be correct or the act noble and generous4 ,the probability is equally great that the opposite may be the case4 ,the remedy for impulsive action is patiently and persistently to encourage the pupil to reflect a moment before acting4 ,in the case of the obstructed type of will1 the individual ponders long over a course of action before he is able to bring himself to a decision4 ,such is the child whom it is hard to persuade to answer even easy questions1 because he is unable to decide in just what form to put his answer4 ,on an examination paper he proceeds slowly1 not because he does not know the matter1 but because he finds it hard to decide just what facts to select and how to express them4 ,the bashful child belongs to this type4 ,he would like to answer questions asked him1 to talk freely with others1 to act without any feeling of restraint1 but is unable to bring himself to do so4 ,the obstinate child is also of this type4 ,he knows what he ought to do1 but the opposing motives are strong enough to inhibit action in the right direction4 ,as already shown1 the remedy for the obstructed will is to encourage rapid deliberation and choice and then immediate action1 thrusting aside all opposing motives4 ,show such pupils that in cases where the motives for and against a certain course of action are of equal strength1 it often does not matter which course is selected4 ,one may safely choose either and thus end the indecision4 ,the quick child usually belongs to the impulsive type2 the slow child1 to the obstructed type4 ,the former is apt to decide and act hastily and frequently unwisely2 the latter is more guarded and1 on the whole1 more sound in his decision and action4 ,c4 ,differences in ,temperament4--,all four types of temperament given in the formal classification are represented among children in school4 ,the choleric type is energetic1 impulsive1 quick-tempered1 yet forgiving1 interested in outward events4 ,the phlegmatic type is impassive1 unemotional1 slow to anger1 but not of great kindness1 persistent in pursuing his purposes4 ,the sanguine type is optimistic1 impressionable1 enthusiastic1 but unsteady4 ,the melancholic type is pessimistic1 introspective1 moody1 suspicious of the motives of others4 ,most pupils belong to more than one class4 ,perhaps the two most prominent types represented in school are 7#a7 that variety of the sanguine temperament which leads the individual to think himself1 his possessions1 and his work superior to all others1 and 7#b7 that variety of the melancholic temperament which leads the individual to fancy himself constantly the victim of injustice on the part of the teacher or the other pupils4 ,a pupil of the first type always believes that his work is perfectly done2 he boasts that he is sure he made a hundred per cent4 on his examinations2 what he has is always1 in his own estimation1 better than that of others4 ,when the teacher suggests that his work might be better done1 the pupil appears surprised and aggrieved4 ,such a child should be shown that he is right in not being discouraged over his own efforts1 but wrong in thinking that his work does not admit of improvement4 ,a pupil of the second type is continually imagining that the teacher treats him unjustly1 that the other pupils slight or injure him1 that1 in short1 he is an object of persecution4 ,such a pupil should be shown that nobody has a grudge against him1 that the so-called slights are entirely imaginary1 and that he should take a sane view of these things1 depending more upon judgment than on feeling to estimate the action of others toward him4 ,d4 ,sex ,differences4--,boys differ from girls in the predominance of certain instincts1 interests1 and mental powers4 ,in boys the fighting instinct1 and capacities of leadership1 initiative1 and mastery are prominent4 ,in girls the instinct of nursing and fondling1 and the capacities to comfort and relieve are prominent4 ,these are revealed in the games of the playground4 ,the interests of the two sexes are different1 since their games and later pursuits are different4 ,in a system of co-education it is impossible to take full cognizance of this fact in the work of the school4 ,yet it is possible to make some differentiation between the work assigned to boys and that assigned to girls4 ,for instance1 arithmetical problems given to boys might deal with activities interesting to boys1 and those to girls might deal with activities interesting to girls4 ,in composition the differentiation will be easier4 ,such a topic as ,a ,game of ,baseball would be more suitable for boys1 and on the other hand ,how to ,bake ,bread would make a stronger appeal to girls4 ,similarly in literature1 such a poem as ,how ,they ,brought the ,good ,news from ,ghent to ,aix would be particularly interesting to boys1 while ,the ,romance of a ,swan's ,nest would be of greater interest to girls4 ,as to mental capacities1 boys are usually superior in those fields where logical reasoning is demanded1 while girls usually surpass boys in those fields involving perceptive powers and verbal memory4 ,for instance1 boys succeed better in mathematics1 science1 and the reflective phases of history2 girls succeed better in spelling1 in harmonizing colours in art work1 in distinguishing fine shades of meaning in language1 and in memorizing poetry4 ,the average intellectual ability of each sex is nearly the same1 but boys deviate from the average more than girls4 ,thus while the most brilliant pupils are likely to be boys1 the dullest are also likely to be boys4 ,it is a scientific fact that there are more individuals of conspicuously clever mind1 but also more of weak intellect1 among men than there are among women4 ,a ,caution4--,while it has been stated that the teacher should take notice of individual differences in his pupils1 it may be advisable also to warn the student-teacher against any extravagant tendency in the direction of such a study4 ,a teacher is occasionally met who seems to act on the assumption that his chief function is not to educate but to study children4 ,too much of his time may therefore be spent in the conducting of experiments and the making of observations to that end4 ,while the data thus secured may be of some value1 it must not be forgotten that control of the subject-matter of education and of the method of presenting that subject-matter to the normal child1 together with an earnest1 enthusiastic1 and sympathetic manner1 are the prime qualifications of the teacher as an instructor4 ,,appendix ,,suggested ,,readings ,,from ,,books ,,of ,,reference ,,chapter ,i ,bagley ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapter ,i4 ,colvin ,the ,learning ,process1 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,strayer ,a ,brief ,course in the ,teaching ,process1 ,chapter ,i4 ,thorndike ,principles of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,i4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,bagley ,educational ,values1 ,chapters ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii4 ,strayer ,a ,brief ,course in the ,teaching ,process1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,thorndike ,elements of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,i4 ,welton ,the ,psychology of ,education1 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,bagley ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapters ,,iv1 ,,xiv4 ,colvin ,the ,learning ,process1 ,chapter ,i4 ,mc,murry ,the ,method of the ,recitation1 ,chapter ,i4 ,raymont ,the ,principles of ,education1 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,bagley ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapters ,,ii1 ,,xv4 ,dewey ,the ,school and ,society1 ,part ,i4 ,raymont ,the ,principles of ,education1 ,chapters ,,vi1 ,,vii4 ,strayer ,a ,brief ,course in the ,teaching ,process1 ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,chapter ,v ,bagley ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapter ,i4 ,raymont ,the ,principles of ,education1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,bagley ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,dewey ,the ,school and ,society1 ,part ,,ii4 ,raymont ,the ,principles of ,education1 ,chapters ,i1 ,,iv4 ,welton ,the ,psychology of ,education1 ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,landon ,the ,principles and ,practice of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,i4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,landon ,the ,principles and ,practice of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,i4 ,mc,murry ,the ,method of the ,recitation1 ,chapter ,i4 ,raymont ,the ,principles of ,education1 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,kirkpatrick ,fundamentals of ,child ,study1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,landon ,the ,principles and ,practice of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,dewey ,the ,school and ,society1 ,part ,,ii4 ,strayer ,a ,brief ,course in the ,teaching ,process1 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,thorndike ,principles of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,x ,betts ,the ,mind and ,its ,education1 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,mc,murry ,the ,method of the ,recitation1 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,thorndike ,principles of ,teaching1 ,chapters ,,iv1 ,,ix4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,angell ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,bagley ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapters ,,iv1 ,v1 ,,ix4 ,pillsbury ,essentials of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,v4 ,raymont ,the ,principles of ,education1 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,betts ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,xvi4 ,thorndike ,principles of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,mc,murry ,the ,method of the ,recitation1 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,landon ,the ,principles and ,practice of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,mc,murry ,the ,method of the ,recitation1 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,raymont ,the ,principles of ,education1 ,chapter ,,xii4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,mc,murry ,the ,method of the ,recitation1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,bagley ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapters ,,xix1 ,,xx4 ,colvin ,the ,learning ,process1 ,chapter ,,xxii4 ,mc,murry ,the ,method of the ,recitation1 ,chapters ,,viii1 ,x4 ,strayer ,a ,brief ,course in the ,teaching ,process1 ,chapters ,v1 ,,vi4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,landon ,the ,principles and ,practice of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,bagley ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapters ,,xxi1 ,,xxii4 ,landon ,the ,principles and ,practice of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,strayer ,a ,brief ,course in the ,teaching ,process1 ,chapters ,,iv1 ,,viii1 ,x4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,landon ,the ,principles and ,practice of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,raymont ,the ,principles of ,education1 ,chapter ,,xii4 ,strayer ,a ,brief ,course in the ,educative ,process1 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,betts ,the ,mind and ,its ,education1 ,chapter ,i4 ,pillsbury ,essentials of ,education1 ,chapter ,i4 ,raymont ,the ,principles of ,education1 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,welton ,the ,psychology of ,education1 ,chapter ,i4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,angell ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,betts ,the ,mind and ,its ,education1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,pillsbury ,essentials of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,halleck ,education of the ,central ,nervous ,system4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,colvin ,the ,learning ,process1 ,chapters ,,iii1 ,,iv4 ,kirkpatrick ,fundamentals of ,child ,study1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,pillsbury ,essentials of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,x4 ,thorndike ,principles of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,welton ,the ,psychology of ,education1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,angell ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,bagley ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,betts ,the ,mind and ,its ,education1 ,chapter ,v4 ,colvin ,the ,learning ,process1 ,chapters ,,iii1 ,,iv4 ,thorndike ,principles of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,thorndike ,elements of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,angell ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,betts ,the ,mind and ,its ,education1 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,pillsbury ,essentials of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,v4 ,welton ,the ,psychology of ,education1 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,angell ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,xxi4 ,betts ,the ,mind and ,its ,education1 ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,james ,talks to ,teachers1 ,chapter ,x4 ,welton ,the ,psychology of ,education1 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,angell ,psychology1 ,chapters ,v1 ,,vi4 ,betts ,the ,mind and ,its ,education1 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,pillsbury ,essentials of ,psychology1 ,chapters ,,iv1 ,,vii4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,angell ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,bagley ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapters ,,iv1 ,,xi4 ,betts ,the ,mind and ,its ,education1 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,thorndike ,elements of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,pillsbury ,essentials of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,angell ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,betts ,the ,mind and ,its ,education1 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,pillsbury ,essentials of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,angell ,psychology1 ,chapters ,x1 ,,xii4 ,bagley ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapters ,,ix1 ,x4 ,betts ,the ,mind and ,its ,education1 ,chapter ,x4 ,colvin ,the ,learning ,process1 ,chapter ,,xxii4 ,pillsbury ,essentials of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,thorndike ,elements of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,angell ,psychology1 ,chapters ,,xiii1 ,,xiv4 ,betts ,the ,mind and ,its ,education1 ,chapters ,,xii1 ,,xiv4 ,pillsbury ,essentials of ,psychology1 ,chapters ,,xi1 ,,xii4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,angell ,psychology1 ,chapters ,,xx1 ,,xxii4 ,betts ,the ,mind and ,its ,education1 ,chapter ,,xv4 ,pillsbury ,essentials of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,thorndike ,elements of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,bagley ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapter ,,xii4 ,raymont ,the ,principles of ,education1 ,chapter ,v4 ,kirkpatrick ,fundamentals of ,child ,study4