,,logic ,,d$uctive ,,& ,,inductive ,fir/ ,edition1 ,june #ahih4 7,grant ,ri*>ds47 ,second ,edition1 ,novemb] #aija4 7,grant ,ri*>ds47 ,?ird ,edition1 ,janu>y #aijf4 7,a4 ,mor+ ,ltd47 ,repr9t$1 ,janu>y #aijh4 7,a4 ,mor+ ,ltd47 ,repr9t$1 ,may #aiji4 7,a4 ,mor+ ,ltd47 ,repr9t$1 ,july #aiaj4 7,a4 ,mor+ ,ltd47 ,repr9t$1 ,septemb] #aiaa4 7,a4 ,mor+ ,ltd47 ,repr9t$1 ,novemb] #aiab4 7,a4 ,mor+ ,ltd47 ,repr9t$1 ,april #aiac4 7,a4 ,mor+ ,ltd47 ,repr9t$1 ,may #aibj4 7,simpk947 ,,logic ,,d$uctive ,,& ,,inductive ,,by ,,c>ve? ,,read1 ,m4,a4 ,,au?or ,,( ,,! ,,metaphysics ,,( ,,nature ,,natural ,,& ,,social ,,morals ,,etc4 ,,f\r? ,,edition ,,enl>g$1 ,,& ,,p>tly ,,rewritt5 ,,simpk91 ,,m>%all1 ,,hamilton1 ,,k5t ,,co4 ,,ltd41 #d ,,/ation]s' ,,hall ,,c\rt4 ,,london1 ,e4,c4#d ,,preface ,9 ?is edition ( my ,logic1 ! text has be5 revis$ ?r\gh\t1 sev]al passages h be5 rewritt51 & "s sections add$4 ,! *ief alt]ations & additions occur 9 cc4 i41 v41 ix41 xiii41 xvi41 xvii41 xx4 ,! "w may be consid]$1 on ! :ole1 z atta*$ to ! s*ool ( ,mill2 to ^: ,sy/em ( ,logic1 & to ,ba9's ,logic1 x is deeply indebt$4 ,among/ ! works ( liv+ writ]s1 ! ,empirical ,logic ( ,dr4 ,v5n & ! ,=mal ,logic ( ,dr4 ,keynes h giv5 me mo/ assi/ance4 ,to "s o!rs ackn[l$gm5ts h be5 made z occasion arose4 ,= ! fur!r /udy ( contempor>y op9ion1 accessible 9 ,engli%1 "o may turn to su* works z ,mr4 ,bradley's ,pr9ciples ( ,logic1 ,dr4 ,bosanquet's ,logic2 or ! ,morphology ( ,k1 ,pr(4 ,hobh\se's ,!ory ( ,k1 ,jevon's ,pr9ciples ( ,sci5ce1 & ,sigw>t's ,logic4 ,ueb]weg's ,logic1 & ,hi/ory ( ,logical ,doctr9e is invaluable = ! hi/ory ( our subject4 ,! attitude t[>d ,logic ( ! ,pragmati/s or ,humani/s may be/ be /udi$ 9 ,dr4 ,s*ill]'s ,=mal ,logic1 & 9 ,mr4 ,alfr$ ,sidgwick's ,process ( ,argum5t & rec5t ,elem5t>y ,logic4 ,! second "p ( ?is la/ "w1 on ! ,risks ( ,reason+1 gives an admirably succ9ct acc\nt ( _! position4 ,i agree ) ! ,humani/s t1 9 all argum5t1 ! important ?+ to att5d to is ! mean+1 & t ! mo/ s]i\s difficulties ( reason+ occur 9 deal+ ) ! matt] reason$ ab\t2 b ,i f9d t a pure sci5ce ( relation has a necess>y place 9 ! sy/em ( k1 & t ! =mul kn[n z laws ( contradiction1 syllogism & causation are useful guides 9 ! fram+ & te/+ ( argum5ts & exp]im5ts conc]n+ matt]s ( fact4 ,incisive criticism ( tradition>y doctr9es1 ) "s rem>kable recon/ructions1 may be read 9 ,dr4 ,m]ci]'s ,new ,logic4 ,9 prep>+ successive editions ( ?is book1 ,i h pr(it$ by ! comm5ts ( my fri5ds3 ,mr4 ,?omas ,:ittak]1 ,pr(4 ,claude ,?ompson1 ,dr4 ,armitage ,smi?1 ,mr4 ,alfr$ ,sidgwick1 ,dr4 ,s*ill]1 ,pr(4 ,spe>man1 & ,pr(4 ,sully1 h made important sugge/ions2 & ,i might h pr(it$ m by !m1 if ! frame ( my book1 or my pr9ciples1 _h be5 m ela/ic4 ,z to ! pres5t edition1 useful criticisms h be5 receiv$ f ,mr4 ,s4,c4 ,dutt1 ( ,cotton ,college1 ,assam1 & f ,pr(4 ,m4,a4 ,roy1 ( ,midnapore2 &1 especially1 ,i mu/ he>tily ?ank my colleague1 ,dr4 ,wolf1 = communications t h left _! impress ^u ne>ly e *apt]4 ,,c>ve? ,,read4 ,,london1 ,augu/1 #aiad ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,preface v ,,*apt] ,i ,,introductory #a4 ,def9ition ( ,logic #a #b4 ,g5]al "* ( pro( #b #c4 ,division ( ! subject #e #d4 ,uses ( ,logic #f #e4 ,relation ( ,logic to o!r sci5ces #h to ,ma!matics 7p4 #h72 to concrete ,sci5ces 7p4 #aj72 to ,metaphysics 7p4 #aj72 to regulative sci5ces 7p4 #aa7 #f4 ,s*ools ( ,logicians #aa ,relation to ,psy*ology 7p4 #ac7 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,g5]al ,,analysis ,,( ,,propositions #a4 ,propositions & ,s5t5ces #af #b4 ,subject1 ,pr$icate & ,copula #ag #c4 ,comp\nd ,propositions #ag #d4 ,import ( ,propositions #ai #e4 ,=m & ,matt] #bb #f4 ,=mal & ,mat]ial ,logic #bc #g4 ,symbols us$ 9 ,logic #bd ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,( ,,t]ms ,,& ,,_! ,,d5otation #a4 ,"s ,acc\nt ( ,language necess>y #bg #b4 ,logic1 ,gramm> & ,rhetoric #bh #c4 ,words are ,categorematic or ,syncategorematic #bi #d4 ,t]ms ,concrete or ,ab/ract #cj #e4 ,concrete ,t]ms1 ,s+ul>1 ,g5]al or ,collective #cc ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,connotation ,,( ,,t]ms #a4 ,connotation ( ,g5]al ,names #cg #b4 ,"q ( ,prop] ,names #ch o!r ,s+ul> ,names 7p4 #dj7 #c4 ,"q ( ,ab/ract ,t]ms #dj #d4 ,univocal & ,equivocal ,t]ms #da ,connotation det]m9$ by ! suppositio 7p4 #dc7 #e4 ,absolute & ,relative ,t]ms #dc #f4 ,relation ( ,d5otation to ,connotation #df #g4 ,contradictory ,t]ms #dg #h4 ,positive & ,negative ,t]ms #ej ,inf9ites2 ,privitives2 ,contr>ies 7pp4 #ej-ea7 ,,*apt] ,v ,,classification ,,( ,,propositions #a4 ,z to ,quantity #ec ,quantity ( ! ,pr$icate 7p4 #ef7 #b4 ,z to ,quality #eg ,inf9ite ,propositions 7p4 #eg7 #c4 ,a4 ,i4 ,e4 ,o4 #eh #d4 ,z to ,relation #ei ,*ange ( ,relation 7p4 #fj72 ,int]pretation ( 'ei!r1 or' 7p4 #fc72 ,function ( ! hypo!tical =m 7p4 #fd7 #e4 ,z to ,modality #ff #f4 ,v]bal & ,real ,propositions #fg ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,conditions ,,( ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce #a4 ,mean+ ( ,inf]5ce #fi #b4 ,imm$iate & ,m$iate ,inf]5ce #gj #c4 ,! ,laws ( ,?\ght #gb #d4 ,id5tity #gc #e4 ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle #gd #f4 ,! ,scope ( ,=mal ,inf]5ce #gf ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ces #a4 ,plan ( ! ,*apt] #gi #b4 ,subalt]nation #gi #c4 ,connotative ,subalt]nation #hj #d4 ,conv]sion #hb ,reciprocality 7p4 #hd7 #e4 ,obv]sion #he #f4 ,contr>y ,opposition #hg #g4 ,contradictory ,opposition #hg #h4 ,sub-contr>y ,opposition #hh #i4 ,! ,squ>e ( ,opposition #hi #aj4 ,second>y modes ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce #ij #aa4 ,imm$iate ,inf]5ces f ,conditionals #ic ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,ord] ,,( ,,t]ms1 ,,eul]',s ,,diagrams1 ,,logical ,,equations1 ,,exi/5tial ,,import ,,( ,,propositions #a4 ,ord] ( ,t]ms 9 a proposition #ie #b4 ,eul]'s ,diagrams #ig #c4 ,propositions consid]$ z ,equations #aja #d4 ,exi/5tial ,import ( ,propositions #ajd ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,=mal ,,conditions ,,( ,,m$iate ,,inf]5ce #a4 ,nature ( ,m$iate ,inf]5ce & ,syllogism #ajg #b4 ,g5]al ,canons ( ! ,syllogism #ajh ,def9itions ( ,categorical ,syllogism2 ,middle ,t]m2 ,m9or ,t]m2 ,major ,t]m2 ,m9or & ,major ,premise 7p4 #aji7 ,illicit ,process 7p4 #aaj72 ,di/ribution ( ! ,middle 7p4 #aaj72 ,negative ,premises 7p4 #aab72 ,p>ticul> ,premises 7p4 #aac7 #c4 ,dictum de omni et nullo #aae #d4 ,syllogism 9 relation to ! ,laws ( ,?\ght #aaf #e4 ,o!r ,k9ds ( ,m$iate ,inf]5ce #aah ,,*apt] ,x ,,categorical ,,syllogisms #a4 ,illu/rations ( ! ,syllogism #aba #b4 ,( ,figures #abb #c4 ,( ,moods #abc #d4 ,h[ valid ,moods are det]m9$ #abd #e4 ,special ,canons ( ! ,f\r ,figures #abf #f4 ,o/5sive ,r$uction & ! ,mnemonic ,v]ses #abg #g4 ,ano!r v]sion ( ! ,mnemonic ,v]ses #acb #h4 ,indirect ,r$uction #acb #i4 ,uses ( ! sev]al ,figures #acd #aj4 ,sci5tific ,value ( ,r$uction #ace #aa4 ,eul]'s ,diagrams = ! ,syllogism #acf ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,abbreviat$ ,,& ,,comp\nd ,,argum5ts #a4 ,popul> ,argum5ts ,in=mal #ach #b4 ,! ,en?ymeme #aci #c4 ,monosyllogism1 ,polysyllogism1 ,prosyllogism1 ,episyllogism #ada #d4 ,! ,epi*eirema #adb #e4 ,! ,sorites #adb #f4 ,! ,ant9omy #ade ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,conditional ,,syllogisms #a4 ,! ,hypo!tical ,syllogism #adg #b4 ,! ,disjunctive ,syllogism #aeb #c4 ,! ,dilemma #aed ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,transition ,,to ,,induction #a4 ,=mal ,consi/5cy & ,mat]ial ,tru? #aei #b4 ,real ,g5]al ,propositions ass]t m ?an has be5 directly obs]v$ #afj #c4 ,h5ce1 =mally1 a ,syllogism's ,premises seem to beg ! ,conclusion #afb #d4 ,mat]ially1 a ,syllogism turns ^u ! resemblance ( ! ,m9or to ! ,middle ,t]m2 & ?us ext5ds ! ,major ,premise to new cases #afc #e4 ,re/atem5t ( ! ,dictum = mat]ial reason+ #afe #f4 ,uses ( ! ,syllogism #afg #g4 ,analysis ( ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature1 consid]$ z ! =mal gr\nd ( all reason+ #afi #h4 ,gr\nds ( our belief 9 ,uni=mity #agc ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,causation #a4 ,! mo/ important aspect ( ,uni=mity 9 relation to ,induction is ,causation #agd #b4 ,def9ition ( ,cause expla9$3 five m>ks ( ,causation #age #c4 ,h[ /rictly ! conception ( ,cause c be appli$ dep5ds ^u ! subject "u inve/igation #ahc #d4 ,sci5tific conception ( ,effect4 ,plurality ( ,causes #ahe #e4 ,"s condition1 b n ! :ole cause1 may long prec$e ! ,effect2 & "s co-effect1 b n ! :ole effect1 may long survive ! ,cause #ahg #f4 ,me*anical ,causes & ! homog5e\s ,int]mixture ( ,effects2 ,*emical ,causes & ! het]opa?ic ,int]mixture ( ,effects #ahh #g4 ,t5d5cy1 ,resultant1 ,c\nt]action1 ,elim9ation1 ,resolution1 ,analysis1 ,reciprocity #ahi ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,inductive ,,me?od #a4 ,outl9e ( ,inductive inve/igation #aib #b4 ,induction def9$ #aif #c4 ,p]fect ,induction #aif #d4 ,imp]fect ,induction me?odical or imme?odical #aig #e4 ,obs]vation & ,exp]im5t1 ! mat]ial gr\nd ( ,induction1 comp>$ #aih #f4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,causation is ! =mal gr\nd ( ,induction #bja #g4 ,! ,inductive ,canons are d]iv$ f ! pr9ciple ( ,causation1 ! m readily to detect x 9 facts obs]v$ #bjb ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,! ,,canons ,,( ,,direct ,,induction #a4 ,! ,canon ( ,agreem5t #bjf ,negative ,in/ances 7p4 #bjh72 ,plurality ( ,causes 7p4 #bjh7 ,agreem5t may %[ connection )\t direct ,causation 7p4 #bji7 #b4 ,! ,canon ( ,agreem5t 9 ,pres5ce & 9 ,abs5ce #bab ,x t5ds to disprove a ,plurality ( ,causes 7p4 #bac7 #c4 ,! ,canon ( ,diff]5ce #baf ,may be appli$ to obs]vations 7p4 #bba7 #d4 ,! ,canon ( ,v>iations #bbb ,h[ relat$ to ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce 7p4 #bbb72 ,! ,graphic ,me?od 7p4 #bbg72 ,critical po9ts 7p4 #bcj72 ,progressive effects 7p4 #bca72 ,gradations 7p4 #bca7 #e4 ,! ,canon ( ,residues #bcb ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,comb9ation ,,( ,,induction ,,) ,,d$uction #a4 ,d$uctive "* ( ,=mal ,induction #bcf #b4 ,fur!r complication ( ,d$uction ) ,induction #bch #c4 ,! ,direct ,d$uctive 7or ,physical7 ,me?od #bdj #d4 ,opportunities ( ,error 9 ! ,physical ,me?od #bdc #e4 ,! ,inv]se ,d$uctive 7or ,hi/orical7 ,me?od #bdf #f4 ,precautions 9 us+ ! ,hi/orical ,me?od #bea #g4 ,! ,comp>ative ,me?od #bee #h4 ,hi/orical ,evid5ce #bfa ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,hypo!ses #a4 ,hypo!sis def9$ & di/+ui%$ f ,!ory #bff #b4 ,an ,hypo!sis mu/ be v]ifiable #bfh #c4 ,pro( ( ,hypo!ses #bgj 7#a7 ,mu/ an hypo!tical ag5t be directly obs]vable8 7p4 #bgj72 ,v]a causa 7p4 #bga7 7#b7 ,an ,hypo!sis mu/ be adequate to its pret5sions 7p4 #bgb72 ,exceptio probat regulam 7p4 #bgd7 7#c7 ,e compet+ ,hypo!sis mu/ be exclud$ 7p4 #bge72 ,crucial in/ance 7p4 #bgg7 7#d7 ,hypo!ses mu/ agree ) ! laws ( ,nature 7p4 #bgi7 #d4 ,hypo!ses necess>y 9 sci5tific inve/igation #bhj #e4 ,! ,me?od ( ,ab/ractions #bhc ,me?od ( ,limits 7p4 #bhd72 ,9 :at s5se all k is hypo!tical 7p4 #bhf7 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,laws ,,classifi$2 ,,explanation2 ,,co-,,exi/5ce2 ,,analogy #a4 ,axioms2 ,prim>y ,laws2 ,second>y ,laws1 ,d]ivative or ,empirical2 ,facts #bhh #b4 ,second>y ,laws ei!r ,inv>iable or ,approximate ,g5]alisations #bib #c4 ,second>y ,laws tru/wor?y only 9 ',adjac5t ,cases' #bic #d4 ,second>y ,laws ( ,succession or ( ,co-exi/5ce #bie ,natural ,k9ds 7p4 #bif72 ,co-exi/5ce ( concrete ?+s to be d$uc$ f ,causation 7p4 #big7 #e4 ,explanation consi/s 9 trac+ resemblance1 especially ( ,causation #bii #f4 ,?ree modes ( ,explanation #cjb ,analysis 7p4 #cjb72 ,concat5ation 7p4 #cjb72 ,subsumption 7p4 #cjc7 #g4 ,limits ( ,explanation #cje #h4 ,analogy #cjg ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,probability #a4 ,mean+ ( ,*ance & ,probability #caj #b4 ,probability z a fraction or proportion #cab #c4 ,probability dep5ds ^u exp]i5ce & /ati/ics #cac #d4 ,x is a k9d ( ,induction1 & pre-supposes ,causation #cae #e4 ,( ,av]ages & ! ,law ( ,error #cah #f4 ,int]pretation ( probabilities #cbd ,p]sonal ,equation 7p4 #cbe72 mean+ ( ',expectation' 7p4 #cbe7 #g4 ,rules ( ! comb9ation ( ,probabilities #cbe ,detection ( a hidd5 ,cause 7p4 #cbf72 oral tradition 7p4 #cbg72 circum/antial & analogical evid5ce 7p4 #cbh7 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,division ,,& ,,classification #a4 ,classification1 sci5tific1 special & popul> #ccj #b4 ,uses ( classification #ccb #c4 ,classification1 ,d$uctive & ,inductive #ccd #d4 ,division1 or ,d$uctive ,classification3 its ,rules #cce #e4 ,rules = te/+ a ,division #ccg #f4 ,inductive ,classification #cci #g4 ,difficulty ( ,natural ,classification #cda #h4 ,d>w9's influ5ce on ! !ory ( ,classification #cdb #i4 ,classification ( ,inorganic ,bodies also dep5d5t on ,causation #cdf ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,nom5clature1 ,,def9ition1 ,,pr$icables #a4 ,precise ?9k+ ne$s precise language #cdh #b4 ,nom5clature & ,t]m9ology #cdi #c4 ,def9ition #ceb #d4 ,rules = te/+ a ,def9ition #ceb #e4 ,e ,def9ition is relative to a ,classification #cec #f4 ,difficulties ( ,def9ition #cef ,proposals to sub/itute ! ,type 7p4 #cef7 #g4 ,! ,limits ( ,def9ition #ceg #h4 ,! five ,pr$icables #ceh ,porphyry's ,tree 7p4 #cfa7 #i4 ,realism & ,nom9alism #cfd #aj4 ,! ,pr$icam5ts #cff ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,def9ition ,,( ,,common ,,t]ms #a4 ,! rig\r ( sci5tific me?od mu/ be qualifi$ #cfi #b4 ,/ill1 ,language comprises ! ,nom5clature ( an imp]fect ,classification1 to :i* e ,def9ition is relative2 #cgj #c4 & an imp]fect ,t]m9ology #cgd #d4 ,maxims & precautions ( ,def9ition #cge #e4 ,words ( common language 9 sci5tific use #cgh #f4 ,h[ ,def9itions affect ! cog5cy ( argum5ts #chj ,,*apt] ,,xxiv ,,fallacies #a4 ,fallacy def9$ & divid$ #che #b4 ,=mal ,fallacies ( ,d$uction #che #c4 ,=mal ,fallacies ( ,induction #chh #d4 ,mat]ial ,fallacies classifi$ #cid #e4 ,fallacies ( ,obs]vation #cid #f4 ,begg+ ! ,"q #cif #g4 ,surreptiti\s ,conclusion #cih #h4 ,ambiguity #djj #i4 ,fallacies1 a natural rank gr[? ( ! ,human m9d1 n easy to classify1 or ext]m9ate #djc ,,que/ions #dje ,,logic ,,*apt] ,i ,,introductory #a4 ,logic is ! sci5ce t expla9s :at conditions mu/ be fulfill$ 9 ord] t a proposition may be prov$1 if x admits ( pro(4 ,n1 inde$1 e su* proposition2 = z to ^? t decl>e ! equality or inequality ( numb]s or o!r magnitudes1 to expla9 ! conditions ( _! pro( belongs to ,ma!matics3 !y are said to be quantitative4 ,b z to all o!r propositions1 call$ qualitative1 l mo/ ( ^? t we meet ) 9 conv]sation1 9 lit]ature1 9 politics1 & ev5 9 sci5ces s f> z !y are n treat$ ma!matically 7say1 ,botany & ,psy*ology72 propositions t m]ely tell u t some?+ happ5s 7z t salt dissolves 9 wat]71 or t some?+ has a c]ta9 prop]ty 7z t ice is cold73 z to ^!1 x belongs to ,logic to %[ h[ we may judge :e!r !y are true1 or false1 or d\btful4 ,:5 propositions are express$ ) ! univ]sality & def9it5ess t belong to sci5tific /atem5ts1 !y are call$ laws2 & laws1 s f> z !y are n laws ( quantity1 are te/$ by ! pr9ciples ( ,logic1 if !y at all admit ( pro(4 ,b x is pla9 t ! process ( prov+ _c g on = ev]2 some?+ mu/ be tak5 = grant$2 & ?is is usually consid]$ to be ! case 7#a7 ) p>ticul> facts t c only be p]ceiv$ & obs]v$1 & 7#b7 ) ^? highe/ laws t are call$ 'axioms' or 'fir/ pr9ciples1' ( :i* we c only say t we "k ( no exceptions to !m1 t we _c help believ+ !m1 & t !y are indisp5sable to sci5ce & to consi/5t ?\ght4 ,logic1 !n1 may be briefly def9$ z ! sci5ce ( pro( ) respect to qualitative laws & propositions1 except ^? t are axiomatic4 #b4 ,pro( may be ( diff]5t degrees or /ages ( complet5ess4 ,absolute pro( w\ld require t a proposition %\ld be %[n to agree ) all exp]i5ce & ) ! sy/ematic explanation ( exp]i5ce1 to be a necess>y "p ( an all-embrac+ & self-consi/5t philosophy or !ory ( ! univ]se2 b z no "o hi!rto has be5 able to frame su* a philosophy1 we mu/ at pres5t put up ) some?+ less ?an absolute pro(4 ,logic1 assum+ c]ta9 pr9ciples to be true ( exp]i5ce1 or at lea/ to be conditions ( consi/5t disc\rse1 di/+ui%es ! k9ds ( propositions t c be %[n to agree ) ^! pr9ciples1 & expla9s by :at means ! agreem5t c be/ be exhibit$4 ,su* pr9ciples are ^? ( ,contradiction 7*ap4 vi471 ! ,syllogism 7*ap4 ix471 ,causation 7*ap4 xiv471 & ,probabilities 7*ap4 xx474 ,to br+ a proposition or an argum5t "u !m1 or to %[ t x agrees ) !m1 is logical pro(4 ,! ext5t to :i* pro( is requisite1 aga91 dep5ds ^u ! pres5t purpose3 if our aim be g5]al tru? = its own sake1 a sy/ematic inve/igation is necess>y2 b if our object be m]ely to remove "s occasional d\bt t has occurr$ to ourselves or to o!rs1 x may be en\gh to appeal to any evid5ce t is admitt$ or n que/ion$4 ,?us1 if a man d\bts t "s acids are comp\nds ( oxyg51 b grants t "s comp\nds ( oxyg5 are acids1 he may agree to ! =m] proposition :5 y po9t out t x has ! same mean+ z ! latt]1 diff]+ f x only 9 ! ord] ( ! words4 ,?is is call$ pro( by imm$iate inf]5ce4 ,aga91 suppose t a man holds 9 8 h& a piece ( yell[ metal1 :i* he ass]ts to be copp]1 & t we d\bt ?is1 p]haps sugge/+ t x is really gold4 ,!n he may propose to dip x 9 v9eg>2 :il/ we agree t1 if x !n turns gre51 x is copp] & n gold4 ,on try+ ?is exp]im5t ! metal does turn gre52 s t we may put 8 argum5t 9 ?is way3-- ,:atev] yell[ metal turns gre5 9 v9eg> is copp]2 ,?is yell[ metal turns gre5 9 v9eg>2 ,!re=e1 ?is yell[ metal is copp]4 ,su* an argum5t is call$ pro( by m$iate inf]5ce2 because "o _c see directly t ! yell[ metal is copp]2 b x is admitt$ t any yell[ metal is copp] t turns gre5 9 v9eg>1 & we are %[n t ?is yell[ metal has t prop]ty4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 x may occur to u1 t ! liquid 9 :i* ! metal 0 dipp$ 0 n v9eg>1 or n pure v9eg>1 & t ! gre5ness 0 due to ! impurity4 ,our fri5d mu/ !reupon %[ by "s means t ! v9eg> 0 pure2 & !n 8 argum5t w be t1 s9ce no?+ b ! v9eg> came 9 contact ) ! metal1 ! gre5ness 0 due to ! v9eg>2 or1 9 o!r words1 t contact ) t v9eg> 0 ! cause ( ! metal turn+ gre54 ,/ill1 on second ?\ghts1 we may suspect t we _h =m]ly conc$$ too mu*2 we may reflect t1 al?\gh x _h (t5 be5 %[n t copp] turn$ gre5 9 v9eg>1 :il/ gold did n1 yet ! same might n always happ54 ,may x n be1 we might ask1 t j at ?is mom5t1 & p]haps always = ! future gold turns1 & w turn gre5 9 v9eg>1 :il/ copp] does n & nev] w aga98 ,he w probably reply t ?is is to d\bt ! uni=mity ( causation3 he may hope t we are n s]i\s3 he may po9t out to u t 9 e action ( our life we take su* uni=mity = grant$4 ,b he w be oblig$ to admit t1 :atev] he may say to induce u to ass5t to ! pr9ciple ( ,nature's uni=mity1 8 argum5ts w n am\nt to logical pro(1 because e argum5t 9 "s way assumes t pr9ciple4 ,he has come1 9 fact1 to ! limits ( ,logic4 ,j z ,euclid does n try to prove t 'two magnitudes equal to ! same ?ird are equal to "o ano!r1' s ! ,logician 7z su*7 does n attempt to prove ! uni=mity ( causation & ! o!r pr9ciples ( 8 sci5ce4 ,ev5 :5 our purpose is to asc]ta9 "s g5]al tru?1 ! results ( sy/ematic inquiry may h v>i\s degrees ( c]ta9ty4 ,if ,logic 7 conf9$ to /rict demon/ration1 x w\ld cov] a n>r[ field4 ,! great] "p ( our conclusions c only be m or less probable4 ,x may1 inde$1 be ma9ta9$1 n unreasonably1 t no judgm5ts conc]n+ matt]s ( fact c be m ?an probable4 ,"s say t all sci5tific results %\ld be consid]$ z giv+ ! av]age ( cases1 f :i* deviations are to be expect$4 ,_m matt]s c only be treat$ /ati/ically & by ! me?ods ( ,probability4 ,our ord9>y beliefs are adopt$ )\t any me?odical exam9ation4 ,b x is ! aim1 & x is *>act]i/ic1 ( a rational m9d to di/+ui% degrees ( c]ta9ty1 & to hold ea* judgm5t ) ! degree ( confid5ce t x des]ves1 consid]+ ! evid5ce = & aga9/ x4 ,x takes a long "t1 & mu* self-discipl9e1 to make "s progress t[>d rationality2 = !re are _m causes ( belief t are n good gr\nds = x--h no value z evid5ce4 ,evid5ce consi/s ( 7#a7 obs]vation2 7#b7 reason+ *eck$ by obs]vation & by logical pr9ciples2 7#c7 memory--(t5 inaccurate2 7#d7 te/imony--(t5 untru/wor?y1 b indisp5sable1 s9ce all we le>n f books or f o!r m5 is tak5 on te/imony2 7#e7 ! agreem5t ( all our results4 ,on ! o!r h&1 belief is caus$ by _m influ5ces t are n evid5ce at all3 su* are 7#a7 desire1 :i* makes u believe 9 :atev] s]ves our purpose2 fe> & suspicion1 :i* 7p>adoxically7 make u believe 9 :atev] seems dang]\s2 7#b7 habit1 :i* resi/s :atev] di/urbs our prejudices2 7#c7 vanity1 :i* delights to ?9k oneself always "r & consi/5t & dis[ns fallibility2 7#d7 imitativ5ess1 sugge/ibility1 fa%ion1 :i* c>ry u along ) ! cr[d4 ,all ^!1 & nobl] ?+s1 su* z love & fidelity1 fix our att5tion ^u :atev] seems to support our prejudices1 & prev5t our att5d+ to any facts or argum5ts t ?reat5 to ov]?r[ !m4 #c4 ,two dep>tm5ts ( ,logic are usually recognis$1 ,d$uction & ,induction2 t is1 to describe !m briefly1 pro( f pr9ciples1 & pro( f facts4 ,classification is sometimes made a ?ird dep>tm5t2 sometimes its topics are di/ribut$ among/ ^? ( ! =m] two4 ,9 ! pres5t "w ! ord] adopt$ is1 ,d$uction 9 *aps4 ii4 to xiii42 ,induction 9 *aps4 xiii4 to xx42 &1 la/ly1 ,classification4 ,b su* divisions d n repres5t fundam5tally di/9ct & oppos$ aspects ( ! sci5ce4 ,= al?\gh1 9 discuss+ any "q ) an oppon5t :o makes admissions1 x may be possible to combat 8 views ) m]ely d$uctive argum5ts bas$ ^u 8 admissions2 yet 9 any "q ( g5]al tru?1 ,induction & ,d$uction are mutually dep5d5t & imply "o ano!r4 ,?is may be se5 9 "o ( ! above examples4 ,x 0 argu$ t a c]ta9 metal mu/ be copp]1 because e metal is copp] t turns gre5 :5 dipp$ 9 v9eg>4 ,s f> ! pro( appeal$ to a g5]al proposition1 & 0 d$uctive4 ,b :5 we ask h[ ! g5]al proposition is kn[n to be true1 exp]im5ts or facts mu/ be alleg$2 & ?is is inductive evid5ce4 ,d$uction !n dep5ds on ,induction4 ,b if we ask1 aga91 h[ any numb] ( pa/ exp]im5ts c prove a g5]al proposition1 :i* mu/ be good = ! future z well z = ! pa/1 ! uni=mity ( causation is invok$2 t is1 appeal is made to a pr9ciple1 & t aga9 is d$uctive pro(4 ,induction !n dep5ds ^u ,d$uction4 ,we may put x 9 ?is way3 ,d$uction dep5ds on ,induction1 if g5]al propositions are only kn[n to u ?r\gh ! facts3 ,induction dep5ds on ,d$uction1 because "o fact c nev] prove ano!r1 except s f> z :at is true ( ! "o is true ( ! o!r & ( any o!r ( ! same k9d2 & because1 to exhibit ?is resemblance ( ! facts1 x mu/ be /at$ 9 a g5]al proposition4 #d4 ,! use ( ,logic is (t5 disput$3 ^? :o h n /udi$ x1 (t5 feel confid5t ( _! ability to d )\t x2 ^? :o h /udi$ x1 are sometimes disgu/$ ) :at !y consid] to be its sup]ficial analysis ( ! gr\nds ( evid5ce1 or ne$less te*nicality 9 ! discussion ( details4 ,z to ^? :o1 n hav+ /udi$ ,logic1 yet despise x1 !re w be "t en\gh to discuss its utility ) !m1 :5 !y "k some?+ ab\t x2 & z = ^? :o1 hav+ /udi$ x1 turn away 9 disgu/1 :e!r !y are ju/ifi$ e man mu/ judge = himself1 :5 he has atta9$ to equal pr(ici5cy 9 ! subject4 ,mean:ile1 ! foll[+ consid]ations may be (f]$ 9 its fav\r3 ,logic /ates1 & p>tly expla9s & applies1 c]ta9 ab/ract pr9ciples :i* all o!r sci5ces take = grant$2 namely1 ! axioms above m5tion$--! pr9ciples ( ,contradiction1 ( ! ,syllogism & ( ,causation4 ,by ex]cis+ ! /ud5t 9 ! appreh5sion ( ^! tru?s1 & 9 ! application ( !m to p>ticul> propositions1 x educates ! p[] ( ab/ract ?\ght4 ,e sci5ce is a model ( me?od1 a discipl9e 9 close & consecutive ?9k+2 & ?is m]it ,logic ought to possess 9 a high degree4 ,= ages ,logic has s]v$ z an introduction to ,philosophy t is1 to ,metaphysics & speculative ,e?ics4 ,x is ( old & hon\rable desc5t3 a man /udies ,logic 9 v good company4 ,x is ! w>p ^u :i* ne>ly ! :ole web ( anci5t1 m$ival & mod]n ,philosophy is wov54 ,! hi/ory ( ?\ght is h>dly intelligible )\t x4 ,z ! sci5ce ( pro(1 ,logic gives an acc\nt ( ! g5]al nature ( evid5ce d$uctive & inductive1 z appli$ 9 ! physical & social sci5ces & 9 ! affairs ( life4 ,! g5]al nature ( su* evid5ce3 x w\ld be absurd ( ! logician to pret5d to in/ruct ! *emi/1 economi/ & m]*ant1 z to ! special "* ( ! evid5ce requisite 9 _! sev]al sph]es ( judgm5t4 ,/ill1 by inve/igat+ ! g5]al conditions ( pro(1 he sets e man ^u 8 gu>d aga9/ ! insuffici5cy ( evid5ce4 ,"o application ( ! sci5ce ( pro( des]ves special m5tion3 namely1 to t dep>tm5t ( ,rhetoric :i* has be5 ! mo/ develop$1 relat+ to p]suasion by means ( oratory1 lead]-writ+1 or pamphlete]+4 ,x is usually said t ,logic is useful to conv9ce ! judgm5t1 n to p]suade ! w3 b "o way ( p]suad+ ! w is to conv9ce ! judgm5t t a c]ta9 c\rse is advantage\s2 & al?\gh ?is is n always ! readie/ way1 x is ! mo/ hon\rable1 & leads to ! mo/ endur+ results4 ,logic is ! backbone ( ,rhetoric4 ,x has be5 disput$ :e!r ,logic is a sci5ce or an art2 &1 9 fact1 x may be consid]$ 9 bo? ways4 ,z a /atem5t ( g5]al tru?s1 ( _! relations to "o ano!r1 & especially to ! fir/ pr9ciples1 x is a sci5ce2 b x is an art :51 reg>d+ tru? z an end desir$1 x po9ts out "s ( ! means ( atta9+ x--namely1 to proce$ by a regul> me?od1 to te/ e judgm5t by ! pr9ciples ( ,logic1 & to di/ru/ :atev] _c be made consi/5t ) !m4 ,logic does n1 9 ! fir/ place1 tea* u to reason4 ,we le>n to reason z we le>n to walk & talk1 by ! natural gr[? ( our p[]s ) "s assi/ance f fri5ds & neighb\rs4 ,! way to develop "o's p[] ( reason+ is1 fir/1 to set oneself problems & try to solve !m4 ,secondly1 s9ce ! solv+ ( a problem dep5ds ^u "o's ability to call to m9d p>allel cases1 "o mu/ le>n z _m facts z possible1 & keep on le>n+ all "o's life2 = nobody ev] knew en\gh4 ,?irdly "o mu/ *eck all results by ! pr9ciples ( ,logic4 ,x is because ( ?is *eck+1 v]ify+1 corrective function ( ,logic t x is sometimes call$ a ,regulative or ,normative ,sci5ce4 ,x _c give any "o orig9ality or f]tility ( inv5tion2 b x enables u to *eck our inf]5ces1 revise our conclusions1 & *a/5 ! vag>ies ( ambiti\s speculation4 ,x quick5s our s5se ( bad reason+ bo? 9 o!rs & 9 ourselves4 ,a man :o reasons delib]ately1 manages x bett] aft] /udy+ ,logic ?an he c\ld be=e1 if he is s9c]e ab\t x & has common s5se4 #e4 ,! relation ( ,logic to o!r sci5ces3 7a7 ,logic is reg>d$ by ,sp5c] z co-ord9ate ) ,ma!matics1 bo? be+ ,ab/ract ,sci5ces--t is1 sci5ces ( ! relations 9 :i* ?+s /& to "o ano!r1 :atev] ! p>ticul> ?+s may be t are s relat$2 & ?is view seems to be1 on ! :ole1 j--subject1 h[ev]1 to qualifications t w appe> pres5tly4 ,ma!matics treats ( ! relations ( all sorts ( ?+s consid]$ z quantities1 namely1 z equal to1 or great] or less ?an1 "o ano!r4 ,?+s may be quantitatively equal or unequal 9 degree1 z 9 comp>+ ! temp]ature ( bodies2 or 9 duration2 or 9 spatial magnitude1 z ) l9es1 sup]ficies1 solids2 or 9 numb]4 ,& x is assum$ t ! equality or inequality ( ?+s t _c be directly comp>$1 may be prov$ indirectly on ! assumption t '?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal1' etc4 ,logic also treats ( ! relations ( all sorts ( ?+s1 b n z to _! quantity4 ,x consid]s 7i7 t "o ?+ may be l or unlike ano!r 9 c]ta9 attributes1 z t iron is 9 _m ways l t9 or lead1 & 9 _m ways unlike c>bon or sulphur3 7ii7 t attributes co-exi/ or co9h]e 7or d n7 9 ! same subject1 z metallic lu/re1 h>dness1 a c]ta9 atomic weight & a c]ta9 specific gravity co9h]e 9 iron3 & 7iii7 t "o ev5t foll[s ano!r 7or is ! effect ( x71 z t ! plac+ ( iron 9 wat] causes x to ru/4 ,! relations ( lik5ess & ( co9h]5ce are ! gr\nd ( ,classification2 = x is by resemblance ( co9h]+ attributes t ?+s =m classes3 co9h]5ce is ! gr\nd ( judgm5ts conc]n+ ,sub/ance & ,attribute1 z t iron is metallic2 & ! relation ( succession1 9 ! mode ( ,causation1 is ! *ief subject ( ! dep>tm5t ( ,induction4 ,x is usual to gr\p toge!r ^! relations ( attributes & ( ord] 9 "t1 & call !m qualitative1 9 ord] to contra/ !m ) ! quantitative relations :i* belong to ,ma!matics4 ,& x is assum$ t qualitative relations ( ?+s1 :5 !y _c be directly p]ceiv$1 may be prov$ indirectly by assum+ ! axiom ( ! ,syllogism 7*ap4 ix47 & ! law ( ,causation 7*ap4 xiv474 ,s f>1 !n1 ,logic & ,ma!matics appe> to be co-ord9ate & di/9ct sci5ces4 ,b we %all see h]eaft] t ! satisfactory treatm5t ( t special ord] ( ev5ts 9 "t :i* con/itutes ,causation1 requires a comb9ation ( ,logic ) ,ma!matics2 & s does ! treatm5t ( ,probability4 ,&1 aga91 ,logic may be said to be1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 'prior to' or 'above' ,ma!matics z usually treat$4 ,= ! ,ma!matics assume t "o magnitude mu/ be ei!r equal or unequal to ano!r1 & t x _c be bo? equal & unequal to x1 & ?us take = grant$ ! pr9ciples ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle2 b ! /atem5t & elucidation ( ^! ,pr9ciples are left to ,logic 7*ap4 vi474 ,! ,ma!matics also classify & def9e magnitudes1 z 79 ,geometry7 triangles1 squ>es1 cubes1 sph]es2 b ! pr9ciples ( classification & def9ition rema9 = ,logic to discuss4 7b7 ,z to ! concrete ,sci5ces1 su* z ,a/ronomy1 ,*emi/ry1 ,zoology1 ,sociology--,logic 7z well z ,ma!matics7 is impli$ 9 !m all2 = all ! propositions ( :i* !y consi/ involve causation1 co-exi/5ce1 & class-lik5ess4 ,logic is !re=e said to be prior to !m or above !m3 mean+ by 'prior' n t x %\ld be /udi$ e>li]1 = t is n a good plan2 mean+ by 'above' n 9 dignity1 = di/9ctions ( dignity among/ lib]al /udies are absurd4 ,b x is a philosophical idiom to call ! ab/ract 'prior to1' or 'high] ?an1' ! concrete 7see ,porphyry's ,tree1 *ap4 xxii4 #h72 & ,logic is m ab/ract ?an ,a/ronomy or ,sociology4 ,philosophy may ?ank t idiom = _m a fooli% notion4 7c7 ,b1 z we h se51 ,logic does n inve/igate ! tru?1 tru/wor?9ess1 or validity ( its own pr9ciples2 nor does ,ma!matics3 ?is task belongs to ,metaphysics1 or ,epi/emology1 ! criticism ( k & beliefs4 ,logic assumes1 = example1 t ?+s are :at to a c>eful scrut9y !y seem to be2 t animals1 trees1 m\nta9s1 planets1 are bodies ) v>i\s attributes1 exi/+ 9 space & *ang+ 9 "t2 & t c]ta9 pr9ciples1 su* z ,contradiction & ,causation1 are true ( ?+s & ev5ts4 ,b ,metaphysicians h rais$ _m plausible objections to ^! assumptions4 ,x has be5 urg$ t natural objects d n really exi/ on _! own acc\nt1 b only 9 dep5d5ce on "s m9d t contemplates !m1 & t ev5 space & "t are only our way ( p]ceiv+ ?+s2 or1 aga91 t al?\gh ?+s d really exi/ on _! own acc\nt1 x is 9 an entirely diff]5t way f t 9 :i* we "k !m4 ,z to ! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction--t if an object has an attribute1 x _c at ! same "t & 9 ! same way be )\t x 7e4g41 if an animal is consci\s1 x is false t x is n consci\s7--x has be5 cont5d$ t ! speci\sness ( ?is pr9ciple is only due to ! obtus5ess ( our m9ds1 or ev5 to ! pov]ty ( language1 :i* _c make ! f9e di/9ctions t exi/ 9 ,nature4 ,& z to ,causation1 x is sometimes d\bt$ :e!r ev5ts always h physical causes2 & x is (t5 sugge/$ t1 grant+ !y h physical causes1 yet ^! are su* z we c nei!r p]ceive nor conceive2 belong+ n to ! ord] ( ,nature z we "k x1 b to ! secret inw>dness & reality ( ,nature1 to ! wells & res]voirs ( p[]1 n to ! spray ( ! f\nta9 t glitt]s 9 our eyes--'occult causes1' 9 %ort4 ,n[ ^! d\bts & surmises are metaphysical spectres :i* x rema9s = ,metaphysics to lay4 ,logic has no direct conc]n ) !m 7al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 metaphysical discussion is expect$ to be logical71 b keeps ! pla9 pa? ( pla9 beliefs1 level ) ! compreh5sion ( pla9 m54 ,metaphysics1 z exam9+ ! gr\nds ( ,logic itself1 is sometimes reg>d$ z '! high] ,logic'2 &1 c]ta9ly1 ! /udy ( ,metaphysics is necess>y to e "o :o w\ld compreh5d ! nature & functions ( ,logic1 or ! place ( 8 own m9d & ( ,reason 9 ! _w4 7d7 ,! relation ( ,logic to ,psy*ology w be discuss$ 9 ! next section4 7e7 ,z a ,regulative ,sci5ce1 po9t+ out ! conditions ( true inf]5ce 7)9 its own sph]e71 ,logic is co-ord9ate ) 7i7 ,e?ics1 consid]$ z assign+ ! conditions ( "r conduct1 & ) 7ii7 /hetics1 consid]$ z det]m9+ ! pr9ciples ( criticism & good ta/e4 #f4 ,?ree pr9cipal s*ools ( ,logicians are commonly recognis$3 ,nom9ali/1 ,conceptuali/1 & ,mat]iali/1 :o diff] z to :at x is t ,logic really treats (3 ! ,nom9ali/s say1 '( language'2 ! ,conceptuali/s1 '( ?\ght'2 ! ,mat]iali/s1 '( relations ( fact4' ,to illu/rate ^! positions let u take au?ors :o1 if "s ( !m are n[ neglect$1 h ! m]it ( /at+ _! contra/$ views ) a di/9ctness t lat] ref9em5ts t5d to obscure4 7a7 ,:ately1 a well-kn[n ,nom9ali/1 reg>d$ ,logic z ! ,sci5ce & ,art ( ,reason+1 b at ! same "t z entirely conv]sant ab\t language2 t is to say1 x is ! bus9ess ( ,logic to discov] ^? modes ( /atem5t :i* %all ensure ! cog5cy ( an argum5t1 no matt] :at may be ! subject "u discussion4 ,?us1 ,all fi% are cold-blood$1 "s cold-blood$ ?+s are fi%3 ?is is a s\nd inf]5ce by ! m]e mann] ( expression2 & equally s\nd is ! inf]5ce1 ,all fi% are w>m-blood$1 "s w>m-blood$ ?+s are fi%4 ,! latt] proposition may be false1 b x foll[s2 & 7accord+ to ?is doctr9e7 ,logic is only conc]n$ ) ! consi/5t use ( words3 ! tru? or falsity ( ! proposition itself is a "q = ,zoology4 ,! %ort-com+ ( extreme ,nom9alism lies 9 speak+ ( language z if its mean+ 7 unimportant4 ,b ,:ately did n int5d ?is3 he 0 a man ( great p5etration & common-s5se4 7b7 ,hamilton1 our be/-kn[n ,conceptuali/1 def9$ ,logic z ! sci5ce ( ! =mal laws ( ?\ght1 & ( ?\ght z ?\ght1 t is1 )\t reg>d to ! matt] ?\ght ab\t4 ,j z ,:ately reg>d$ ,logic z conc]n$ m]ely ) cog5t =ms ( /atem5t1 s ,hamilton treat$ x z conc]n$ m]ely ) ! necess>y relations ( ?\ght4 ,?is doctr9e is call$ ,conceptualism1 because ! simple/ elem5t ( ?\ght is ! ,concept2 t is1 an ab/ract idea1 su* z is signifi$ by ! ^w man1 planet1 col\r1 virtue2 n a repres5tative or g5]ic image1 b ! ?\ght ( all attributes common to any class ( ?+s4 ,m51 planets1 col\rs1 virtu\s actions or *>act]s1 h1 sev]ally1 some?+ 9 common on acc\nt ( :i* !y be> ^! g5]al names2 & ! ?\ght ( :at !y h 9 common1 z ! gr\nd ( ^! names1 is a ,concept4 ,to affirm or d5y "o concept ( ano!r1 z ,"s m5 are virtu\s1 or ,no man is p]fectly virtu\s1 is to =m a ,judgm5t1 correspond+ to ! ,proposition ( :i* ! o!r s*ools ( ,logic disc\rse4 ,conceptualism1 !n1 inve/igates ! conditions ( consi/5t judgm5t4 ,to di/+ui% ,logic f ,psy*ology is mo/ important 9 connection ) ,conceptualism4 ,concepts & ,judgm5ts be+ m5tal acts1 or products ( m5tal activity1 x is (t5 ?\ght t ,logic mu/ be a dep>tm5t ( ,psy*ology4 ,x is recognis$ ( c\rse1 t ,psy*ology deals ) mu* m ?an ,logic does1 ) s5sation1 pleasure & pa91 emotion1 volition2 b 9 ! region ( ! intellect1 especially 9 its mo/ delib]ate & elaborate processes1 namely1 conception1 judgm5t1 & reason+1 ,logic & ,psy*ology seem to occupy common gr\nd4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 ! two sci5ces h little 9 common except a few g5]al t]ms1 & ev5 ^! !y employ 9 diff]5t s5ses4 ,x is usual to po9t out t ,psy*ology tries to expla9 ! subjective processes ( conception1 judgm5t & reason+1 & to give _! natural hi/ory2 b t ,logic is :olly conc]n$ ) ! results ( su* processes1 ) concepts1 judgm5ts & reason+s1 & m]ely ) ! validity ( ! results1 t is1 ) _! tru? or consi/5cy2 :il/ ,psy*ology has no?+ to d ) _! validity1 b only ) _! causes4 ,besides1 ! logical judgm5t 79 ,=mal ,logic at lea/7 is q a diff]5t ?+ f ! psy*ological3 ! latt] involves feel+ & belief1 :]eas ! =m] is m]ely a giv5 relation ( concepts4 ,s is ,p3 t is a model logical judgm5t2 !re c be no "q ( believ+ x2 b x is logically valid if ,m is ,p & ,s is ,m4 ,:51 aga91 9 ,logic1 "o deals ) belief1 x dep5ds ^u evid5ce2 :]eas1 9 ,psy*ology belief is %[n to dep5d ^u causes :i* may h evid5ti>y value or may n2 = ,psy*ology expla9s q imp>tially ! gr[? ( sci5tific insight & ! gr[? ( prejudice4 7c7 ,mill1 ,ba91 & ,v5n are ! *ief ,mat]iali/ logicians2 & to gu>d aga9/ ! error ( conf\nd+ ,mat]ialism 9 ,logic ) ! ontological doctr9e t no?+ exi/s b ,matt]1 x may suffice to rememb] t 9 ,metaphysics all ^! philosoph]s are ,ideali/s4 ,mat]ialism 9 ,logic consi/s 9 reg>d+ propositions z affirm+ or d5y+ relations 7cf4 #e7 betwe5 matt]s-(-fact 9 ! wide/ s5se2 n only physical facts1 b ideas1 social & moral relations2 x consi/s1 9 %ort1 9 att5d+ to ! mean+ ( propositions4 ,x treats ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ,contradiction & ,causation z true ( ?+s s f> z !y are kn[n to u1 & n m]ely z conditions or t5d5cies ( ?\ght2 & x takes ^! pr9ciples z conditions ( "r ?9k+1 because !y seem to hold good ( ,nature & human life4 ,to ^! diff]5ces ( op9ion x w be necess>y to recur 9 ! next *apt] 7 #d72 b "h ,i may obs]ve t x is easy to exagg]ate _! importance 9 ,logic4 ,!re is really little at issue betwe5 s*ools ( logicians z su*1 & z f> z _! doctr9es run p>allel2 x is on ! metaphysical gr\nds ( _! /udy1 or z to its scope & compreh5sion1 t !y f9d a battle-field4 ,! pres5t "w g5]ally proce$s ^u ! ?ird1 or ,mat]iali/ doctr9e4 ,if ,d$uction & ,induction are reg>d$ z mutually dep5d5t p>ts ( "o sci5ce1 unit+ ! discipl9e ( consi/5t disc\rse ) ! me?od ( inve/igat+ laws ( physical ph5om5a1 ! ,mat]iali/ doctr9e1 t ! pr9ciples ( ,logic are f\nd$ on fact1 seems to be ! mo/ natural way ( ?9k+4 ,b if ! unity ( ,d$uction & ,induction is n disput$ by ! o!r s*ools1 ! ,mat]iali/ may reg>d !m z allies exhibit+ 9 _! own way ! same body ( tru?s4 ,! ,nom9ali/ may c]ta9ly claim t 8 doctr9e is indisp5sable3 consi/5tly cog5t =ms ( /atem5t are necess>y bo? to ! ,conceptuali/ & to ! ,mat]iali/2 nei!r ! relations ( ?\ght nor ^? ( fact c be arre/$ or pres5t$ )\t ! aid ( language or "s equival5t sy/em ( signs4 ,! ,conceptuali/ may urge t ! ,nom9ali/'s =ms ( /atem5t & argum5t exi/ = ! sake ( _! mean+1 namely1 judgm5ts & reason+s2 & t ! ,mat]iali/'s laws ( ,nature are only judgm5ts f\nd$ ^u our conceptions ( ,nature2 t ! tru? ( obs]vations & exp]im5ts dep5ds ^u our p[]s ( p]ception2 t p]ception is insep>able f und]/&+1 & t a sy/em ( ,induction may be con/ruct$ ^u ! axiom ( ,causation1 reg>d$ z a pr9ciple ( ,reason1 j z well z by consid]+ x z a law ( ,nature1 & ^u mu* ! same l9es4 ,! ,mat]iali/1 admitt+ all ?is1 may say t a judgm5t is only ! proximate mean+ ( a proposition1 & t ! ultimate mean+1 ! mean+ ( ! judgm5t itself1 is always "s matt]-(-fact2 t ! o!r s*ools h n hi!rto be5 eag] to recognise ! unity ( ,d$uction & ,induction or to inve/igate ! conditions ( tru/wor?y exp]im5ts & obs]vations )9 ! limits ( human und]/&+2 t ?\ght is itself a sort ( fact1 z complex 9 its /ructure1 z pr(\nd 9 its relations1 z subtle 9 its *anges z any o!r fact1 & !re=e at lea/ z h>d to "k2 t to turn away f ! full reality ( ?\ght 9 p]ception1 & to conf9e ,logic to artificially limit$ concepts1 is to ab&on ! ef=t to pu% me?od to ! utmo/ & to get z ne> tru? z possible2 & t z to ,causation be+ a pr9ciple ( ,reason r ?an ( ,nature1 ! di/9ction escapes 8 appreh5sion1 s9ce ,nature seems to be t to :i* our private m9ds turn ^u que/ions ( ,causation = correction & in/ruction2 s t if he does n call ,nature ! ,univ]sal ,reason1 x is because he loves sev]ity ( /yle4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,g5]al ,,analysis ,,( ,,propositions #a4 ,s9ce ,logic discusses ! pro( or dispro(1 or 7briefly7 ! te/+ ( propositions1 we mu/ beg9 by expla9+ _! nature4 ,a proposition1 !n1 may fir/ be describ$ 9 ! language ( gramm> z a s5t5ce indicative2 & x is usually express$ 9 ! pres5t t5se4 ,x is true t o!r k9ds ( s5t5ces1 optative1 imp]ative1 int]rogative1 exclamatory1 if !y express or imply an ass]tion1 are n beyond ! view ( ,logic2 b be=e treat+ su* s5t5ces1 ,logic1 = great] precision1 r$uces !m to _! equival5t s5t5ces indicative4 ,?us1 ,i wi% x 7 summ] may be und]/ood to mean1 ,! com+ ( summ] is an object ( my desire4 ,?\ %alt n kill may be int]pret$ z ,murd]]s are 9 dang] ( ! judgm5t4 ,int]rogatories1 :5 us$ 9 argum5t1 if _! =m is affirmative1 h negative =ce1 & affirmative =ce if _! =m is negative4 ,?us1 ,d hypocrites love virtue8 anticipates ! answ]1 ,no4 ,are n traitors ! vile/ ( mank9d8 anticipates ! answ]1 ,yes4 ,s t ! logical =m ( ^! s5t5ces is1 ,hypocrites are n lov]s ( virtue2 ,traitors are ! vile/ ( mank9d4 ,imp]sonal propositions1 su* z ,x ra9s1 are easily r5d]$ into logical =ms ( equival5t mean+1 ?us3 ,ra9 is fall+2 or 7if t be tautology71 ,! cl\ds are ra9+4 ,exclamations may seem caprici\s1 b are (t5 "p ( ! argum5t4 ,%ade ( ,*a?am6 usually means ,*a?am1 be+ aw>e ( our pres5t =eign policy1 is mu* disgu/$4 ,x is 9 fact1 an appeal to au?ority1 )\t ! inconv5i5ce ( /at+ :at exactly x is t ! au?ority decl>es4 #b4 ,b ev5 s5t5ces indicative may n be express$ 9 ! way mo/ conv5i5t to logicians4 ,salt dissolves 9 wat] is a pla9 en\gh /atem5t2 b ! logician pref]s to h x ?us3 ,salt is soluble 9 wat]4 ,= he says t a proposition is analysable into ?ree elem5ts3 7#a7 a ,subject 7z ,salt7 ab\t :i* some?+ is ass]t$ or d5i$2 7#b7 a ,pr$icate 7z soluble 9 wat]7 :i* is ass]t$ or d5i$ ( ! ,subject1 & 7#c7 ! ,copula 7is or are1 or is n or are n71 ! sign ( relation betwe5 ! ,subject & ,pr$icate4 ,! ,subject & ,pr$icate are call$ ! ,t]ms ( ! proposition3 & ! ,copula may be call$ ! sign ( pr$ication1 us+ ! v]b 'to pr$icate' indef9itely = ei!r 'to affirm' or 'to d5y4' ,?us ,s is ,p means t ! t]m ,p is giv5 z relat$ 9 "s way to ! t]m ,s4 ,we may1 !re=e1 fur!r def9e a ,proposition z 'a s5t5ce 9 :i* "o t]m is pr$icat$ ( ano!r4' ,9 su* a proposition z ,salt dissolves1 ! copula 7is7 is conta9$ 9 ! pr$icate1 &1 besides ! subject1 only "o elem5t is exhibit$3 x is !re=e said to be secundi adjac5tis4 ,:5 all ?ree p>ts are exhibit$1 z 9 ,salt is soluble1 ! proposition is said to be t]tii adjac5tis4 ,= ! ord9>y purposes ( ,logic1 9 pr$icat+ attributes ( a ?+ or class ( ?+s1 ! copula is1 or is n1 suffici5tly repres5ts ! relation ( subject & pr$icate2 b :5 x is desirable to realise fully ! nature ( ! relation involv$1 x may be bett] to use a m explicit =m4 ,in/ead ( say+ ,salt--is--soluble1 we may say ,solubility--co9h]es )--! nature ( salt1 or ,! putt+ ( salt 9 wat]--is a cause (--its dissolv+3 ?us exp&+ ! copula into a full expression ( ! relation we h 9 view1 :e!r co9h]5ce or causation4 #c4 ,! s5t5ces ( ord9>y disc\rse are1 inde$1 = ! mo/ "p1 long] & m complicat$ ?an ! logical =m ( propositions2 x is 9 ord] to prove !m1 or to use !m 9 ! pro( ( o!r propositions1 t !y are 9 ,logic r$uc$ z ne>ly z possible to su* simple b explicit expressions z ! above 7t]tii adjac5tis74 ,a ,comp\nd ,proposition1 r$ucible to two or m simple ones1 is said to be exponible4 ,! modes ( comp\nd+ s5t5ces are expla9$ 9 e gramm>-book4 ,"o ( ! commone/ =ms is ! copulative1 su* z ,salt is bo? sav\ry & :olesome1 equival5t to two simple propositions3 ,salt is sav\ry2 ,salt is :olesome4 ,pure wat] is nei!r sapid nor odor\s1 equival5t to ,wat] is n sapid2 ,wat] is n odor\s4 ,or1 aga91 ,tobacco is injuri\s1 b n :5 us$ 9 mod]ation1 equival5t to ,mu* tobacco is injuri\s2 a little is n4 ,ano!r =m ( ,exponible is ! ,exceptive1 z ,kladd]adats* is publi%$ daily1 except on week-days1 equival5t to ,kladd]adats* is publi%$ on ,sunday2 x is n publi%$ any o!r day4 ,/ill ano!r ,exponible is ! ,exclusive1 z ,only m5 use fire1 equival5t to ,m5 are us]s ( fire2 ,no o!r animals are4 ,exceptive & exclusive s5t5ces are1 h[ev]1 equival5t =ms2 = we may say1 ,kladd]adats* is publi%$ only on ,sunday2 & ,no animals use fire1 except m54 ,!re are o!r comp\nd s5t5ces t are n exponible1 s9ce1 ?\gh !y conta9 two or m v]bal clauses1 ! con/ruction %[s t ^! are insep>able4 ,?us1 ,if cats are sc>ce1 mice are pl5tiful1 conta9s two v]bal clauses2 b if cats are sc>ce is conditional1 n indicative2 & mice are pl5tiful is subject to ! condition t cats are sc>ce4 ,h5ce ! :ole s5t5ce is call$ a ,conditional ,proposition4 ,= ! v>i\s =ms ( ,conditional ,propositions see *ap4 v4 #d4 ,b1 9 fact1 to f9d ! logical =ce ( recognis$ grammatical =ms is ! lea/ ( a logician's difficulties 9 br++ ! disc\rses ( m5 to a pla9 issue4 ,metaphors1 epigrams1 innu5does & o!r figures ( spee* pres5t f> great] ob/acles to a lucid r$uction :e!r = approval or refutation4 ,no rules c be giv5 = f9d+ ev]ybody's mean+4 ,! poets h _! own way ( express+ !mselves2 sophi/s1 too1 h _! own way4 ,& ! po9t (t5 lies 9 :at is unexpress$4 ,?us1 b>b>\s nations make1 ! civilis$ write hi/ory1 means t civilis$ nations d n make hi/ory1 :i* none is s braz5 z op5ly to ass]t4 ,or1 aga91 ,alcibiades is dead1 b ,x is /ill ) u2 ! :ole mean+ ( ?is 'exponible' is t ,x w\ld be ! less] loss to society4 ,ev5 an epi!t or a suffix may imply a proposition3 ,?is p]sonage may mean ,x is a pret5ti\s nobody4 ,h[ %all we int]pret su* illusive pr$ications except by cultivat+ our lit]>y p]ceptions1 by read+ ! mo/ significant au?ors until we are at home ) !m8 ,b1 no d\bt1 to dis5tangle ! comp\nd propositions1 & to exp& ! abbreviations ( lit]ature & conv]sation1 is a useful logical ex]cise4 ,& if x seem a labori\s task ?us to r$uce to its logical elem5ts a long argum5t 9 a spee* or treatise1 x %\ld be obs]v$ t1 z a rule1 9 a long disc\rse only a few s5t5ces are ( pr9cipal importance to ! reason+1 ! re/ be+ explanatory or illu/rative digression1 & t a close scrut9y ( ^! c>d9al s5t5ces w frequ5tly disp5se u f giv+ mu* att5tion to ! re/4 #d4 ,b n[1 return+ to ! def9ition ( a ,proposition giv5 9 #b1 t x is 'a s5t5ce 9 :i* "o t]m is pr$icat$ ( ano!r1' we mu/ consid] :at is ! import ( su* pr$ication4 ,= ! def9ition1 z x /&s1 seems to be purely ,nom9ali/4 ,is a proposition no?+ m ?an a c]ta9 syn!sis ( words2 or1 is x meant to correspond ) some?+ fur!r1 a syn!sis ( ideas1 or a relation ( facts8 ,conceptuali/ logicians1 :o speak ( judgm5ts in/ead ( propositions1 ( c\rse def9e ! judgm5t 9 _! own language4 ,accord+ to ,hamilton1 x is a recognition ( ! relation ( congru5ce or confliction 9 :i* two concepts /& to ea* o!r4 ,to light5 ! s5t5ce1 ,i h omitt$ "o or two qualifications 7,hamilton's ,lectures on ,logic1 xiii474 ,?us1 he goes on if we comp>e ! ?\ghts wat]1 iron1 & ru/+1 we f9d !m congru5t1 & connect !m into a s+le ?\ght1 ?us3 wat] ru/s iron--9 t case we =m a judgm5t4 ,:5 a judgm5t is express$ 9 words1 he says1 x is call$ a proposition4 ,b has a proposition no mean+ beyond ! judgm5t x expresses8 ,mill1 :o def9es x z a portion ( disc\rse 9 :i* a pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( a subject 7,logic1 ,book #a41 *ap4 iv4 #a471 proce$s to inquire into ! import ( propositions 7,book #a41 *ap4 v471 & f9ds ?ree classes ( !m3 7a7 ^? 9 :i* "o prop] "n is pr$icat$ ( ano!r2 & ( ^! ,hobbes's ,nom9ali/ def9ition is adequate1 namely1 t a proposition ass]ts or d5ies t ! pr$icate is a "n = ! same ?+ z ! subject1 z ,tully is ,cic]o4 7b7 ,propositions 9 :i* ! pr$icate means a "p 7or ! :ole7 ( :at ! subject means1 z ,horses are animals1 ,man is a rational animal4 ,^! are ,v]bal ,propositions 7see bel[3 *ap4 v4 #f71 & _! import consi/s 9 affirm+ or d5y+ a co9cid5ce betwe5 ! mean+s ( names1 z ,! mean+ ( 'animal' is "p ( ! mean+ ( 'horse4' ,!y are p>tial or complete def9itions4 ,b 7c7 !re are also ,real ,propositions1 ^: pr$icates d n mean ! same z _! subjects1 & ^: import consi/s 9 affirm+ or d5y+ "o ( five diff]5t k9ds ( matt] ( fact3 7#a7 ,t ! subject exi/s1 or does n2 z if we say ,! bison exi/s1 ,! great auk is ext9ct4 7#b7 ,co-exi/5ce1 z ,man is mortal2 t is1 ! be+ subject to dea? co9h]es ) ! qualities on acc\nt ( :i* we call c]ta9 objects m54 7#c7 ,succession1 z ,night foll[s day4 7#d7 ,causation 7a p>ticul> k9d ( ,succession71 z ,wat] ru/s iron4 7#e7 ,resemblance1 z ,! col\r ( ?is g]anium is l t ( a soldi]'s coat1 or ,a ,b4 ,on comp>+ ?is li/ ( real pr$ications ) ! li/ ( logical relations giv5 above 7*ap4 i4 #e 7a771 x w be se5 t ! two diff] only 9 ?is1 t ,i h !re omitt$ simple ,exi/5ce4 ,no?+ simply exi/s1 unrelat$ ei!r 9 ,nature or 9 k4 ,su* a proposition z ,! bison exi/s may1 no d\bt1 be us$ 9 ,logic 7subject to int]pretation7 = ! sake ( cu/om or = ! sake ( brevity2 b x means t "s specim5s are /ill to be f\nd 9 ,n4 ,am]ica1 or 9 ,zoological g>d5s4 ,controv]sy z to ! ,import ( ,propositions really turns ^u a diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! scope ( ,logic & ! f\ndations ( k4 ,mill 0 dissatisfi$ ) ! congruity ( concepts z ! basis ( a judgm5t4 ,cle>ly1 m]e congruity does n ju/ify belief4 ,9 ! proposition ,wat] ru/s iron1 ! concepts wat]1 ru/ & iron may be congru\s1 b does any "o ass]t _! connection on t gr\nd8 ,9 ! proposition ,murd]]s are haunt$ by ! gho/s ( _! victims1 ! concepts victim1 murd]]1 gho/ h a high degree ( congruity2 yet1 un=tunately1 ,i _c believe x3 !re seems to be no su* *eap def5ce ( innoc5ce4 ,n[1 ,mill held t ,logic is conc]n$ ) ! gr\nds ( belief1 & t ! scope ( ,logic includes ,induction z well z ,d$uction2 :]eas1 accord+ to ,hamilton1 ,induction is only ,modifi$ ,logic1 a m]e app5dix to ! !ory ( ! =ms ( ?\ght z ?\ght4 ,inde$1 ,mill endeav\r$ 9 8 ,logic to probe ! gr\nds ( belief deep] ?an usual1 & introduc$ a good deal ( ,metaphysics--ei!r too mu* or n en\gh--conc]n+ ! gr\nd ( axioms4 ,b1 at any rate1 8 great po9t 0 t belief1 & !re=e 7= ! mo/ "p7 ! ,real ,proposition1 is conc]n$ n m]ely ) ! relations ( words1 or ev5 ( ideas1 b ) matt]s ( fact2 t is1 bo? propositions & judgm5ts po9t to some?+ fur!r1 to ! relations ( ?+s :i* we c exam9e1 n m]ely by ?9k+ ab\t !m 7comp>+ !m 9 ?\ght71 b by obs]v+ !m ) ! unit$ p[]s ( ?\ght & p]ception4 ,?is is :at conv9ces u t wat] ru/s iron3 & ! difficulty ( do+ ?is is :at prev5ts our feel+ sure t murd]]s are haunt$ by ! gho/s ( _! victims4 ,h5ce1 al?\gh ,mill's def9ition ( a proposition1 giv5 above1 is adequate = propositions 9 g5]al2 yet t k9d ( proposition 7! ,real7 ) reg>d to :i* ,logic 79 ,mill's view7 inve/igates ! conditions ( pro(1 may be m explicitly & p]t95tly def9$ z 'a pr$ication conc]n+ ! relation ( matt]s ( fact4' #e4 ,?is leads to a v important di/9ction to :i* we %all (t5 h to ref] 9 subsequ5t pages--namely1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ,=m & ! ,matt] ( a proposition or ( an argum5t4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ,=m & ,matt]1 z x is ord9>ily employ$1 is easily und]/ood4 ,an apple gr[+ 9 ! or*>d & a wax5 apple on ! table may h ! same %ape or =m1 b !y consi/ ( diff]5t mat]ials2 two real apples may h ! same %ape1 b conta9 di/9ct ounces ( apple-/uff1 s t aft] "o is eat5 ! o!r rema9s to be eat54 ,simil>ly1 tables may h ! same %ape1 ?\gh "o be made ( m>ble1 ano!r ( oak1 ano!r ( iron4 ,! =m is common to sev]al ?+s1 ! matt] is peculi> to ea*4 ,metaphysicians h c>ri$ ! di/9ction fur!r3 apples1 !y say1 may h n only ! same outw>d %ape1 b ! same inw>d con/itution1 :i*1 !re=e1 may be call$ ! ,=m ( apple-/uff itself--namely1 a c]ta9 pulp9ess1 juic9ess1 sweetness1 etc42 qualities common to all dess]t apples3 yet _! ,matt] is diff]5t1 "o be+ "h1 ano!r !re--diff]+ 9 place or "t1 if 9 no?+ else4 ,! def9ition ( a species is ! =m ( e specim5 ( x4 ,to apply ?is di/9ction to ! ?+s ( ,logic3 x is easy to see h[ two propositions may h ! same ,=m b diff]5t ,matt]3 n us+ ',=m' 9 ! s5se ( '%ape1' b = t :i* is common to _m ?+s1 9 contra/ ) t :i* is peculi> to ea*4 ,?us1 ,all male lions are tawny & ,all wat] is liquid at #ej ,fahr5heit1 are two propositions t h ! same =m1 ?\gh _! matt] is entirely diff]5t4 ,!y bo? pr$icate some?+ ( ! :ole ( _! subjects1 ?\gh _! subjects are diff]5t1 & s are ! ?+s pr$icat$ ( !m4 ,aga91 ,all male lions h tuft$ tails & ,all male lions h manes1 are two propositions hav+ ! same =m &1 9 _! subjects1 ! same matt]1 b diff]5t matt] 9 _! pr$icates4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we take two su* propositions z ^!3 ,all male lions h manes & ,"s male lions h manes1 "h ! matt] is ! same 9 bo?1 b ! =m is diff]5t--9 ! fir/1 pr$ication is made conc]n+ e male lion2 9 ! second ( only "s male lions2 ! fir/ is univ]sal1 ! second is p>ticul>4 ,or1 aga91 if we take ,"s tig]s are man-eat]s & ,"s tig]s are n man-eat]s1 "h too ! matt] is ! same1 b ! =m is diff]5t2 = ! fir/ proposition is affirmative1 :il/ ! second is negative4 #f4 ,n[1 accord+ to ,hamilton & ,:ately1 pure ,logic has to d only ) ! ,=m ( propositions & argum5ts4 ,z to _! ,matt]1 :e!r !y are really true 9 fact1 t is a "q1 !y said1 n = ,logic1 b = exp]i5ce1 or = ! special sci5ces4 ,b ,mill desir$ s to ext5d logical me?od z to te/ ! mat]ial tru? ( propositions3 he ?\ght t he c\ld exp\nd a me?od by :i* exp]i5ce itself & ! conclusions ( ! special sci5ces may be exam9$4 ,to ?is me?od x may be object$1 t ! claim to det]m9e ,mat]ial ,tru? takes = grant$ t ! ord] ( ,nature w rema9 un*ang$1 t 7= example7 wat] n only at pres5t is a liquid at #ej ,fahr5heit1 b w always be s2 :]eas 7al?\gh we h no reason to expect su* a ?+7 ! ord] ( ,nature may alt]--x is at lea/ supposable--& 9 t ev5t wat] may freeze at su* a temp]ature4 ,any matt] ( fact1 aga91 mu/ dep5d on obs]vation1 ei!r directly1 or by inf]5ce--z :5 some?+ is ass]t$ ab\t atoms or e!r4 ,b obs]vation & mat]ial inf]5ce are subject to ! limitations ( our faculties2 & h[ev] we may aid obs]vation by microscopes & micromet]s1 x is /ill obs]vation2 & h[ev] we may correct our obs]vations by repetition1 comp>ison & ref9$ ma!matical me?ods ( mak+ all[ances1 ! correction ( error is only an approximation to accuracy4 ,outside ( ,=mal ,reason+1 susp5se ( judgm5t is y\r only attitude4 ,b su* objections imply t no?+ %ort ( absolute tru? has any value2 t all our discussions & inve/igations 9 sci5ce or social affairs are )\t logical crit]ia2 t ,logic mu/ be conf9$ to symbols1 & consid]$ entirely z m5tal gymna/ics4 ,9 ?is book prom95ce w be giv5 to ! "* ( ,logic z a =mal sci5ce1 & x w also be %[n t ,induction itself may be treat$ =mally2 b x w be assum$ t logical =ms are valuable z repres5t+ ! actual relations ( natural & social ph5om5a4 #g4 ,symbols are (t5 us$ 9 ,logic in/ead ( concrete t]ms1 n only 9 ,symbolic ,logic :]e ! sci5ce is treat$ algebraically 7z by ,dr4 ,v5n 9 8 ,symbolic ,logic71 b 9 ord9>y manuals2 s t x may be well to expla9 ! use ( !m be=e go+ fur!r4 ,x is a common & conv5i5t practice to illu/rate logical doctr9es by examples3 to %[ :at is meant by a ,proposition we may give salt is soluble1 or wat] ru/s iron3 ! copulative exponible is exemplifi$ by salt is sav\ry & :olesome2 & s on4 ,b ?is proc$ure has "s disadvantages3 x is (t5 cumbr\s2 & x may di/ract ! read]'s att5tion f ! po9t to be expla9$ by excit+ 8 int]e/ 9 ! special fact ( ! illu/ration4 ,cle>ly1 too1 s f> z ,logic is =mal1 no p>ticul> matt] ( fact c adequately illu/rate any ( its doctr9es4 ,accord+ly1 writ]s on ,logic employ lett]s ( ! alphabet in/ead ( concrete t]ms1 7say7 ,x in/ead ( salt or in/ead ( iron1 & 7say7 ,y in/ead ( soluble or in/ead ( ru/$ by wat]2 & !n a proposition may be repres5t$ by ,x is ,y4 ,x is /ill m usual to repres5t a proposition by ,s is 7or is n7 ,p1 ,s be+ ! initial ( ,subject & ,p ( ,pr$icate2 ?\gh ?is has ! drawback t if we argue--,s is ,p1 !re=e ,p is ,s1 ! symbols 9 ! latt] proposition no long] h ! same significance1 s9ce ! =m] subject is n[ ! pr$icate4 ,aga91 negative t]ms frequ5tly occur 9 ,logic1 su* z n-wat]1 or n-iron1 & !n if wat] or iron be express$ by ,x1 ! correspond+ negative may be express$ by x2 or1 g5]ally1 if a capital lett] /& = a positive t]m1 ! correspond+ small lett] repres5ts ! negative4 ,! same device may be adopt$ to express contradictory t]ms3 ei!r ( !m be+ ,x1 ! o!r is x 7see *ap4 iv41 #g-h72 or ! contradictory t]ms may be express$ by x & x1 y & y4 ,& z t]ms are (t5 comp\nd$1 x may be conv5i5t to express !m by a comb9ation ( lett]s3 in/ead ( illu/rat+ su* a case by boil+ wat] or wat] t is boil+1 we may write ,,xy2 or s9ce positive & negative t]ms may be comp\nd$1 in/ead ( illu/rat+ ?is by wat] t is n boil+1 we may write ,xy4 ,! conv5i5ce ( ?is is obvi\s2 b x is m ?an conv5i5t2 =1 if "o ( ! uses ( ,logic be to discipl9e ! p[] ( ab/ract ?\ght1 ?is c be done f> m effectually by symbolic ?an by concrete examples2 & if su* discipl9e 7 ! only use ( ,logic x might be be/ to disc>d concrete illu/rations altoge!r1 at lea/ 9 advanc$ text-books1 ?\gh no d\bt ! practice w\ld be too sev]e = elem5t>y manuals4 ,on ! o!r h&1 to %[ ! practical applicability ( ,logic to ! argum5ts & pro(s ( actual life1 or ev5 ( ! concrete sci5ces1 m]ely symbolic illu/ration may be n only useless b ev5 mislead+4 ,:5 we speak ( politics1 or poetry1 or species1 or ! wea!r1 ! t]ms t mu/ be us$ c r>ely h ! di/9ctness & isolation ( ,x & ,y2 s t ! p]functory use ( symbolic illu/ration makes argum5t & pro( appe> to be mu* simpl] & easi] matt]s ?an !y really are4 ,our belief 9 any proposition nev] re/s on ! proposition itself1 nor m]ely ^u "o or two o!rs1 b ^u ! imm5se backgr\nd ( our g5]al k & beliefs1 full ( circum/ances & analogies1 9 relation to :i* alone any giv5 proposition is intelligible4 ,inde$1 = ?is reason1 x is impossible to illu/rate ,logic suffici5tly3 ! read] :o is 9 e>ne/ ab\t ! cog5cy ( argum5ts & ! limitation ( pro(s1 & is scrupul\s z to ! degrees ( ass5t t !y require1 mu/ con/antly look = illu/rations 9 8 own k & exp]i5ce & rely at la/ ^u 8 own sagacity4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,( ,,t]ms ,,& ,,_! ,,d5otation #a4 ,9 treat+ ( ,d$uctive ,logic x is usual to recognise ?ree divisions ( ! subject3 fir/1 ! doctr9e ( ,t]ms1 words1 or o!r signs us$ z subjects or pr$icates2 secondly1 ! doctr9e ( ,propositions1 analys$ into t]ms relat$2 &1 ?irdly1 ! doctr9e ( ! ,syllogism 9 :i* propositions appe> z ! gr\nds ( a conclusion4 ,! t]ms employ$ are ei!r lett]s ( ! alphabet1 or ! words ( common language1 or ! te*nicalities ( sci5ce2 & s9ce ! words ( common language are mo/ 9 use1 x is necess>y to give "s acc\nt ( common language z subs]v+ ! purposes ( ,logic4 ,x has be5 urg$ t we _c ?9k or reason at all )\t words1 or "s sub/itute = !m1 su* z ! signs ( algebra2 b ?is is an exagg]ation4 ,m9ds greatly diff]1 & "s ?9k by ! aid ( def9ite & compreh5sive pictur+s1 especially 9 deal+ ) problems conc]n+ objects 9 space1 z 9 play+ *ess bl9dfold1 inv5t+ a ma*9e1 plann+ a t\r on an imag9$ map4 ,mo/ p draw _m simple inf]5ces by means ( p]ceptions1 or ( m5tal imag]y4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "s m5 ?9k a good deal )\t any cont9uum ( words & )\t any imag]y1 or ) none t seems relevant to ! purpose4 ,/ill ! m elaborate sort ( ?9k+1 ! gr\p+ & concat5ation ( inf]5ces1 :i* we call reason+1 _c be c>ri$ f> )\t language or "s equival5t sy/em ( signs4 ,x is n m]ely t we ne$ language to express our reason+s & communicate !m to o!rs3 9 solit>y ?\ght we (t5 dep5d on words--'talk to ourselves1' 9 fact2 ?\gh ! words or s5t5ces t !n pass ?r\gh our m9ds are n always fully =m$ or articulat$4 ,9 ,logic1 moreov]1 we h c>efully to exam9e ! gr\nds 7at lea/ ! proximate gr\nds7 ( our conclusions2 & pla9ly ?is _c be done unless ! conclusions 9 "q are explicitly /at$ & record$4 ,conceptuali/s say t ,logic deals n ) ! process ( ?9k+ 7:i* belongs to ,psy*ology7 b ) its results2 n ) conceiv+ b ) concepts2 n ) judg+ b ) judgm5ts4 ,is ! concept self-consi/5t or adequate8 ,logic asks2 is ! judgm5t capable ( pro(8 ,n[1 x is only by record+ our ?\ghts 9 language t x becomes possible to di/+ui% betwe5 ! process & ! result ( ?\ght4 ,)\t language1 ! act & ! product ( ?9k+ w\ld be id5tical & equally evanesc5t4 ,b by c>ry+ on ! process 9 language & rememb]+ or o!rwise record+ x1 we obta9 a result :i* may be exam9$ accord+ to ! pr9ciples ( ,logic4 #b4 ,z ,logic1 !n1 mu/ give "s acc\nt ( language1 x seems desirable to expla9 h[ its treatm5t ( language diff]s f t ( ,gramm> & f t ( ,rhetoric4 ,gramm> is ! /udy ( ! words ( "s language1 _! classification & d]ivation1 & ( ! rules ( comb9+ !m1 accord+ to ! usage at any "t recognis$ & foll[$ by ^? :o are consid]$ correct writ]s or speak]s4 ,composition may be faultless 9 its gramm>1 ?\gh dull & absurd4 ,rhetoric is ! /udy ( language ) a view to obta9+ "s special effect 9 ! communication ( ideas or feel+s1 su* z picturesqu5ess 9 description1 vivacity 9 n>ration1 lucidity 9 exposition1 vehem5ce 9 p]suasion1 or lit]>y *>m4 ,"s ( ^! ends are (t5 ga9$ 9 spite ( faulty syntax or faulty logic2 b s9ce ! few :om bad gramm> sadd5s or incoh]5t argum5ts div]t are n c>ri$ away1 z !y else might be1 by an unsophi/icat$ orator1 ,gramm> & ,logic are necess>y to ! p]fection ( ,rhetoric4 ,n t ,rhetoric is 9 bondage to ^? o!r sci5ces2 = =eign idioms & su* figures z ! ellipsis1 ! anacolu?on1 ! oxymoron1 ! hyp]bole1 & viol5t inv]sions h _! place 9 ! magnific5t /yle2 b au?ors unacqua9t$ ) ,gramm> & ,logic are n likely to place su* figures well & wisely4 ,inde$1 common idioms1 ?\gh bo? grammatically & rhetorically ju/ifiable1 bo? correct & effective1 (t5 seem illogical4 ',to fall asleep1' = example1 is a p]fect ,engli% phrase2 yet if we exam9e sev]ally ! words x consi/s (1 x may seem /range t _! comb9ation %\ld mean any?+ at all4 ,b ,logic only /udies language s f> z necess>y 9 ord] to /ate1 und]/&1 & *eck ! evid5ce & reason+s t are usually embodi$ 9 language4 ,& z long z mean+s are cle>1 good ,logic is compatible ) false concords & inelegance ( /yle4 #c4 ,t]ms are ei!r ,simple or ,composite3 t is to say1 !y may consi/ ei!r ( a s+le ^w1 z ',*auc]1' 'civilisation'2 or ( m ?an "o1 z '! fa!r ( ,engli% poetry1' or 'mod]n civilis$ nations4' ,logicians classify words accord+ to _! uses 9 =m+ propositions2 or1 r1 !y classify ! uses ( words z t]ms1 n ! words !mselves2 = ! same ^w may fall into diff]5t classes ( t]ms accord+ to ! way 9 :i* x is us$4 7,cf4 ,mr4 ,alfr$ ,sidgwick's ,di/9ction & ! ,criticism ( ,beliefs1 *ap4 xiv47 ,?us words are classifi$ z ,categorematic or ,syncategorematic4 ,a ^w is ,categorematic if us$ s+ly z a t]m )\t ! support ( o!r words3 x is ,syncategorematic :5 jo9$ ) o!r words 9 ord] to con/itute ! subject or pr$icate ( a proposition4 ,if we say ,v5us is a planet ^: orbit is inside ! ,e>?'s1 ! subject1 ',v5us1' is a ^w us$ categorematically z a simple t]m2 ! pr$icate is a composite t]m ^: con/itu5t words 7:e!r sub/antive1 relative1 v]b1 or preposition7 are us$ syncategorematically4 ,prepositions1 conjunctions1 articles1 adv]bs1 relative pron\ns1 9 _! ord9>y use1 c only ent] into t]ms along ) o!r words hav+ a sub/antive1 adjectival or p>ticipial =ce2 b :5 !y are !mselves ! ?+s spok5 ( & are us$ sub/antively 7suppositio mat]ialis71 !y are categorematic4 ,9 ! proposition1 ',(' 0 us$ m indef9itely ?ree hundr$ ye>s ago ?an x is n[1 '(' is categorematic4 ,on ! o!r h&1 all sub/antives may be us$ categorematically2 & ! same self-suffici5cy is usually recognis$ 9 adjectives & p>ticiples4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 hold t ! categorematic use ( adjectives & p>ticiples is due to an ellipsis :i* ! logician %\ld fill up2 t in/ead ( ,gold is heavy1 he %\ld say ,gold is a heavy metal2 in/ead ( ,! sun is %9+1 ,! sun is a body %9+4 ,b 9 ^! cases ! words 'metal' & 'body' are unmi/akable tautology1 s9ce 'metal' is impli$ 9 gold & 'body' 9 sun4 ,b1 z we h se51 any ( ^! k9ds ( ^w1 sub/antive1 adjective1 or p>ticiple1 may occur syncategorematically 9 connection ) o!rs to =m a composite t]m4 #d4 ,mo/ t]ms 7! exceptions & d\btful cases w be discuss$ h]eaft]7 h two functions1 a d5otative & a connotative4 ,a t]m's d5otative function is1 to be ! "n or sign ( some?+ or "s multitude ( ?+s1 :i* are said to be call$ or d5ot$ by ! t]m4 ,its connotative function is1 to sugge/ c]ta9 qualities & *>act]i/ics ( ! ?+s d5ot$1 s t x _c be us$ lit]ally z ! "n ( any o!r ?+s2 :i* qualities & *>act]i/ics are said to be impli$ or connot$ by ! t]m4 ,?us '%eep' is ! "n ( c]ta9 animals1 & its connotation prev5ts its be+ us$ ( any o!rs4 ,t :i* a t]m directly indicates1 !n1 is its ,d5otation2 t s5se or cu/om>y use ( x :i* limits ! ,d5otation is its ,connotation 7*4 iv474 ,hamilton & o!rs use ',ext5sion' 9 ! s5se ( ,d5otation1 & ',int5sion' or ',compreh5sion' 9 ! s5se ( ,connotation4 ,n[1 t]ms may be classifi$1 fir/ accord+ to :at !y /& = or d5ote2 t is1 accord+ to _! ,d5otation4 ,9 ?is respect1 ! use ( a t]m is said to be ei!r ,concrete or ,ab/ract4 ,a t]m is ,concrete :5 x d5otes a '?+'2 t is1 any p]son1 object1 fact1 ev5t1 feel+ or imag9ation1 consid]$ z capable ( hav+ 7or consi/+ (7 qualities & a det]m9ate exi/5ce4 ,?us 'cricket ball' d5otes any object hav+ a c]ta9 size1 weight1 %ape1 col\r1 etc4 7:i* are its qualities71 & be+ at any giv5 "t 9 "s place & relat$ to o!r objects--9 ! b[l]'s h&s1 on ! grass1 9 a %op w9d[4 ,any 'feel+ ( heat' has a c]ta9 int5sity1 is pleasurable or pa9ful1 occurs at a c]ta9 "t1 & affects "s "p or ! :ole ( "s animal4 ,an imag9ation1 inde$ 7say1 ( a fairy71 _c be said 9 ! same s5se to h locality2 b x dep5ds on ! ?9k+ ( "s man :o has locality1 & is def9itely relat$ to 8 o!r ?\ghts & feel+s4 ,a t]m is ,ab/ract1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 x d5otes a quality 7or qualities71 consid]$ by itself & )\t det]m9ate exi/5ce 9 "t1 place1 or relation to o!r ?+s4 ',size1' '%ape1' 'weight1' 'col\r1' 'int5sity1' 'pleasurabl5ess1' are t]ms us$ to d5ote su* qualities1 & are !n ab/ract 9 _! d5otation4 ',weight' is n some?+ ) a det]m9ate exi/5ce at a giv5 "t2 x exi/s n m]ely 9 "s p>ticul> place1 b :]ev] !re is a heavy ?+2 &1 z to relation1 at ! same mom5t x comb9es 9 iron ) solidity & 9 m]cury ) liquidity4 ,9 fact1 a quality is a po9t ( agreem5t 9 a multitude ( diff]5t ?+s2 all heavy ?+s agree 9 weight1 all r\nd ?+s 9 r\ndness1 all r$ ?+s 9 r$ness2 & an ab/ract t]m d5otes su* a po9t 7or po9ts7 ( agreem5t among ! ?+s d5ot$ by concrete t]ms4 ,ab/ract t]ms result f ! analysis ( concrete ?+s into _! qualities2 & conv]sely a concrete t]m may be view$ z d5ot+ ! syn!sis ( qualities into an individual ?+4 ,:5 sev]al ?+s agree 9 m ?an "o quality1 !re may be an ab/ract t]m d5ot+ ! union ( qualities 9 :i* !y agree1 & omitt+ _! peculi>ities2 z 'human nature' d5otes ! common qualities ( m51 'civilisation' ! common conditions ( civilis$ peoples4 ,e g5]al "n1 if us$ z a concrete t]m1 has1 or may h1 a correspond+ ab/ract t]m4 ,sometimes ! concrete t]m is modifi$ to =m ! ab/ract1 z 'gre$y--gre$9ess'2 sometimes a ^w is adapt$ f ano!r language1 z 'man--humanity'2 sometimes a composite t]m is us$1 z 'm]cury--! nature ( m]cury1' etc4 ,! same concrete may h sev]al ab/ract correlatives1 z 'man--manhood1 humanity1 human nature'2 'heavy--weight1 gravity1 pond]osity'2 b 9 su* cases ! ab/ract t]ms are n us$ q synonym\sly2 t is1 !y imply diff]5t ways ( consid]+ ! concrete4 ,:e!r a ^w is us$ z a concrete or ab/ract t]m is 9 mo/ in/ances pla9 f ! ^w itself1 ! use ( mo/ words be+ pretty regul> "o way or ! o!r2 b sometimes we mu/ judge by ! context4 ',weight' may be us$ 9 ! ab/ract = 'gravity1' or 9 ! concrete = a measure2 b 9 ! latt] s5se x is syncategorematic 79 ! s+ul>71 ne$+ at lea/ ! article 'a 7or !7 weight4' ',gov]nm5t' may mean 'supreme political au?ority1' & is !n ab/ract2 or1 ! m5 :o happ5 to be m9i/]s1 & is !n concrete2 b 9 ?is case1 too1 ! article is usually prefix$4 ',! life' ( any man may mean 8 vitality 7ab/ract71 z 9 ,?us foll[+ life 9 creatures we dissect2 or1 ! s]ies ( ev5ts ?r\gh :i* he passes 7concrete71 z 9 '! life ( ,nelson z n>rat$ by ,s\!y4' ,x has be5 made a "q :e!r ! d5otation ( an ab/ract t]m may itself be ! subject ( qualities4 ,app>5tly 'weight' may be great] or less1 'gov]nm5t' good or bad1 'vitality' int5se or dull4 ,b if e subject is modifi$ by a quality1 a quality is also modifi$ by mak+ x ! subject ( ano!r2 &1 if s1 x seems !n to become a new quality4 ,! comp\nd t]ms 'great weight1' 'bad gov]nm5t1' 'dull vitality1' h n ! same d5otation z ! simple t]ms 'weight1 'gov]nm5t1' 'vitality'3 !y imply1 & may be said to connote1 m special concrete exp]i5ce1 su* z ! ef=t felt 9 lift+ a trunk1 disgu/ at ! conduct ( (ficials1 sluggi% movem5ts ( an animal :5 irritat$4 ,x is to su* concrete exp]i5ces t we h always to ref] 9 ord] fully to realise ! mean+ ( ab/ract t]ms1 & !re=e1 ( c\rse1 to und]/& any qualification ( !m4 #e4 ,concrete t]ms may be subdivid$ accord+ to ! numb] ( ?+s !y d5ote & ! way 9 :i* !y d5ote !m4 ,a t]m may d5ote "o ?+ or _m3 if "o1 x is call$ ,s+ul>2 if _m1 x may d s di/ributively1 & !n x is ,g5]al2 or1 z tak5 all toge!r1 & !n x is ,collective3 "o1 !n2 any "o ( _m2 _m 9 "o4 ,among ,s+ul> ,t]ms1 ea* d5ot+ a s+le ?+1 ! mo/ obvi\s are ,prop] ,names1 su* z ,gibralt> or ,george ,wa%+ton1 :i* are m]ely m>ks ( individual ?+s or p]sons1 & may =m no "p ( ! common language ( a c\ntry4 ,!y are ?us di/+ui%$ f o!r ,s+ul> ,t]ms1 :i* consi/ ( common words s comb9$ z to re/rict _! d5otation to "s individual1 su* z1 '! /ronge/ man on e>?4' ,prop] ,t]ms are (t5 said to be arbitr>y signs1 because _! use does n dep5d ^u any reason t may be giv5 = !m4 ,gibralt> _h a mean+ among ! ,moors :5 orig9ally conf]r$2 b no "o n[ kn[s :at x 01 unless he happ5s to h le>n$ x2 yet ! "n s]ves its purpose z well z if x 7 ,rooke's ,ne/4 ,e ,newton or ,newport ye> by ye> gr[s old1 b to alt] ! "n w\ld cause only confusion4 ,if su* names 7 giv5 by m]e caprice x w\ld make no diff]5ce2 & !y c\ld n be m cumbr\s1 ugly1 or absurd ?an _m ( ^? t are giv5 '= reasons4' ,! rema9+ k9ds ( ,s+ul> ,t]ms are drawn f ! common res\rces ( ! language4 ,?us ! pron\ns 'he1' '%e1' 'x1' are s+ul> t]ms1 ^: pres5t d5otation is det]m9$ by ! occasion & context ( disc\rse3 s ) demon/rative phrases--'! man1' 't horse4' ,descriptive names may be m complex1 z '! wise/ man ( ,go?am1' :i* is limit$ to "s individual by ! sup]lative suffix2 or '! ,g]man ,emp]or1' :i* is limit$ by ! def9ite article--! g5]al t]m ',g]man ,emp]or' be+ !reby re/rict$ ei!r to ! reign+ mon>* or to ! "o we happ5 to be discuss+4 ,in/ead ( ! def9ite1 ! indef9ite article may be us$ to make g5]al t]ms s+ul>1 z 'a ,g]man ,emp]or 0 cr[n$ at ,v]sailles' 7individua vaga74 ,ab/ract ,t]ms are o/5sively s+ul>3 ':it5ess' 7e4g47 is "o quality4 ,b _! full mean+ is g5]al3 ':it5ess' /&s = all :ite ?+s1 s f> z :ite4 ,ab/ract t]ms1 9 fact1 are only =mally s+ul>4 ,g5]al ,t]ms are words1 or comb9ations ( words1 us$ to d5ote any "o ( _m ?+s t resemble "o ano!r 9 c]ta9 respects4 ',george ,,iii4' is a ,s+ul> ,t]m d5ot+ "o man2 b ',k+' is a ,g5]al ,t]m d5ot+ him & all o!r m5 ( ! same rank2 :il/ ! comp\nd 'cr[n$ head' is /ill m g5]al1 d5ot+ k+s & also emp]ors4 ,x is ! nature ( a g5]al t]m1 !n1 to be us$ 9 ! same s5se ( :atev] x d5otes2 & its mo/ *>act]i/ic =m is ! ,class-"n1 :e!r ( objects1 su* z 'k+1' '%eep1' 'gho/'2 or ( ev5ts1 su* z 'accession1' 'pur*ase1' 'manife/ation4' ,?+s & ev5ts are kn[n by _! qualities & relations2 & e su* aspect1 be+ a po9t ( resemblance to "s o!r ?+s1 becomes a gr\nd ( g5]alisation1 & !re=e a gr\nd = ! ne$ & use ( g5]al t]ms4 ,h5ce g5]al t]ms are f> ! mo/ important sort ( t]ms 9 ,logic1 s9ce 9 !m g5]al propositions are express$ &1 moreov] 7) r>e exceptions71 all pr$icates are g5]al4 ,=1 besides ^! typical class-names1 attributive words are g5]al t]ms1 su* z 'royal1' 'rul+1' 'woolly1' 'bleat+1' 'impalpable1' 'vani%+4' ,inf9itives may also be us$ z g5]al t]ms1 z ',to err is human'2 b = logical purposes !y may h to be translat$ into equival5t sub/antive =ms1 z ,fooli% actions are *>act]i/ic ( mank9d4 ,ab/ract t]ms1 too1 are 7z ,i obs]v$7 equival5t to g5]al t]ms2 'folly' is ab/ract = 'fooli% actions4' ',hone/y is ! be/ policy' means p :o are hone/ may hope to f9d _! acc\nt 9 be+ s2 t is1 9 ! effects ( _! hone/ actions1 provid$ !y are wise 9 o!r ways1 & no mis=tunes att5d !m4 ,! ab/ract =m is (t5 mu* ! m succ9ct & =cible1 b = logical treatm5t x ne$s to be int]pret$ 9 ! g5]al =m4 ,by antonomasia prop] names may become g5]al t]ms1 z if we say ',a ,johnson' w\ld n h writt5 su* a book--i4e41 any man ( 8 g5ius = elaborate eloqu5ce4 ,a ,collective ,t]m d5otes a multitude ( simil> ?+s consid]$ z =m+ "o :ole1 z 'regim5t1' 'flock1' 'nation'3 n di/ributively1 t is1 n ! simil> ?+s sev]ally2 to d5ote !m we mu/ say 'soldi]s ( ! regim5t1' '%eep ( ! flock1' & s on4 ,if 9 a multitude ( ?+s !re is no resemblance1 except ! fact ( be+ consid]$ z p>ts ( "o :ole1 z '! _w1' or '! t[n ( ,nott+ham' 7mean+ its /reets & h\ses1 op5 spaces1 p1 & civic organisation71 ! t]m d5ot+ !m z a :ole is ,s+ul>2 b '! _w' or 't[n ( ,nott+ham1' mean+ ! inhabitants only1 is ,collective4 ,9 _! /rictly collective use1 all su* expressions are equival5t to s+ul> t]ms2 b _m ( !m may also be us$ z g5]al t]ms1 z :5 we speak ( 's _m regim5ts ( ! l9e1' or discuss ! 'plurality ( worlds'2 & 9 ?is g5]al use !y d5ote any ( a multitude ( ?+s ( ! same k9d--regim5ts1 or habitable worlds4 ,names ( sub/ances1 su* z 'gold1' 'air1' 'wat]1' may be employ$ z s+ul>1 collective1 or g5]al t]ms2 ?\gh1 p]haps1 z s+ul> t]ms only figuratively1 z :5 we say ,gold is k+4 ,if we say ) ,?ales1 ',wat] is ! s\rce ( all ?+s1' 'wat]' seems to be us$ collectively4 ,b sub/antive names are frequ5tly us$ z g5]al t]ms4 ,= example1 ,gold is heavy means '9 comp>ison ) o!r ?+s1' su* z wat]4 ,&1 pla9ly1 x does n mean t ! aggregate ( gold is heavi] ?an ! aggregate ( wat]1 b only t its specific gravity is great]2 t is1 bulk = bulk1 any piece ( gold is heavi] ?an wat]4 ,f9ally1 any class-"n may be us$ collectively if we wi% to ass]t some?+ ( ! ?+s d5ot$ by x1 n di/ributively b altoge!r1 z t ,%eep are m num]\s ?an wolves4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,connotation ,,( ,,t]ms #a4 ,t]ms are next to be classifi$ accord+ to _! ,connotation--t is1 accord+ to :at !y imply z *>act]i/ic ( ! ?+s d5ot$4 ,we h se5 t g5]al names are us$ to d5ote _m ?+s 9 ! same s5se1 because ! ?+s d5ot$ resemble "o ano!r 9 c]ta9 ways3 x is ?is resemblance 9 c]ta9 po9ts t leads u to class ! ?+s toge!r & call !m by ! same "n2 & !re=e ! po9ts ( resemblance con/itute ! s5se or mean+ ( ! "n1 or its ,connotation1 & limit its applicability to su* ?+s z h ^! *>act]i/ic qualities4 ',%eep' = example1 is us$ 9 ! same s5se1 to d5ote any ( a multitude ( animals t resemble "o ano!r3 _! size1 %ape1 woolly coats1 clov5 ho(s1 innoc5t ways & edibility are well kn[n4 ,:5 we apply to any?+ ! t]m '%eep1' we imply t x has ^! qualities3 '%eep1' d5ot+ ! animal1 connotes its possess+ ^! *>act]i/ics2 &1 ( c\rse1 x _c1 )\t a figure ( spee* or a blund]1 be us$ to d5ote any?+ t does n possess all ^! qualities4 ,x is by a figure ( spee* t ! t]m '%eep' is appli$ to "s m52 & to apply x to goats w\ld be a blund]4 ,mo/ p are v imp]fectly aw>e ( ! connotation ( ! words !y use1 & are guid$ 9 us+ !m m]ely by ! cu/om ( ! language4 ,a man :o employs a ^w q correctly may be sadly pos$ by a reque/ to expla9 or def9e x4 ,moreov]1 s f> z we are aw>e ( ! connotation ( t]ms1 ! numb] & ! k9d ( attributes we ?9k (1 9 any giv5 case1 v>y ) ! dep? ( our int]e/1 & ) ! nature ( our int]e/ 9 ! ?+s d5ot$4 ',%eep' has "o mean+ to a t\r+ t[nsman1 a mu* full] "o to a f>m]1 & yet a diff]5t "o to a zoologi/4 ,b ?is does n prev5t !m agree+ 9 ! use ( ! ^w1 z long z ! qualities !y sev]ally include 9 its mean+ are n incompatible4 ,all g5]al names1 & !re=e n only class-names1 l '%eep1' b all attributives1 h "s connotation4 ',woolly' d5otes any?+ t be>s wool1 & connotes ! fact ( be>+ wool2 'innoc5t' d5otes any?+ t habitually & by its disposition does no h>m 7or has n be5 guilty ( a p>ticul> (f5ce71 & connotes a h>mless "* 7or fre$om f p>ticul> guilt72 'edible' d5otes :atev] c be eat5 ) good results1 & connotes its suitability = ma/ication1 deglutition1 dige/ion1 & assimilation4 #b4 ,b :e!r all t]ms mu/ connote z well z d5ote some?+1 has be5 mu* debat$4 ,prop] names1 accord+ to :at seems ! bett] op9ion1 are1 9 _! ord9>y use1 n connotative4 ,to say t !y h no mean+ may seem viol5t3 if any "o is call$ ,john ,doe1 ?is "n1 no d\bt1 means a great deal to 8 fri5ds & neighb\rs1 rem9d+ !m ( 8 /ature & physiognomy1 8 air & gait1 8 wit & wisdom1 "s que] /ories1 & an indef9ite numb] ( o!r ?+s4 ,b all ?is significance is local or accid5tal2 x only exi/s = ^? :o "k ! individual or h he>d him describ$3 :]eas a g5]al "n gives in=mation ab\t any ?+ or p]son x d5otes to ev]ybody :o und]/&s ! language1 )\t any p>ticul> k ( ! individual4 ,we mu/ di/+ui%1 9 fact1 betwe5 ! peculi> associations ( ! prop] "n & ! commonly recognis$ mean+ ( ! g5]al "n4 ,?is is :y prop] names are n 9 ! diction>y4 ,su* a "n z ,london1 to be sure1 or ,napoleon ,buonap>te1 has a significance n m]ely local2 /ill1 x is accid5tal4 ,^! names are borne by o!r places & p]sons ?an ^? t h r5d]$ !m fam\s4 ,!re are ,londons 9 v>i\s latitudes1 &1 no d\bt1 _m ,napoleon ,buonap>tes 9 ,l\isiana2 & ea* "n has 9 its sev]al d5otations an altoge!r diff]5t sugge/iv5ess4 ,= its sugge/iv5ess is 9 ea* application det]m9$ by ! peculi>ities ( ! place or p]son d5ot$2 x is n giv5 to ! diff]5t places 7or to ! diff]5t p]sons7 because !y h c]ta9 *>act]i/ics 9 common4 ,h[ev]1 ! sci5tific gr\nds ( ! doctr9e t prop] names are non-connotative1 are ^!3 ,! peculi>ities t di/+ui% an individual p]son or ?+ are admitt$ to be inf9ite1 & any?+ less ?an a complete enum]ation ( ^! peculi>ities may fail to di/+ui% & id5tify ! individual4 ,=1 %ort ( a complete enum]ation ( !m1 ! description may be satisfi$ by two or m individuals2 & 9 t case ! t]m d5ot+ !m1 if limit$ by su* a description1 is n a prop] b a g5]al "n1 s9ce x is applicable to two or m 9 ! same s5se4 ,! exi/5ce ( o!r individuals to :om x applies may be highly improbable2 b1 if x be logically possible1 t is en\gh4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! enum]ation ( inf9ite peculi>ities is c]ta9ly impossible4 ,!re=e prop] names h no assignable connotation4 ,! only escape f ?is reason+ lies 9 fall+ back ^u "t & place1 ! pr9ciples ( individuation1 z con/itut+ ! connotation ( prop] names4 ,two ?+s _c be at ! same "t 9 ! same place3 h5ce '! man :o 0 at a c]ta9 spot on ! bridge ( ,lodi at a c]ta9 in/ant 9 a c]ta9 ye>' suffices to id5tify ,napoleon ,buonap>te = t in/ant4 ,suppos+ no "o else to h borne ! "n1 !n1 is ?is its connotation8 ,no "o has ev] ?\ght s4 ,&1 at any rate1 "t & place are only extr9sic det]m9ations 7suitable inde$ to ev5ts l ! battle ( ,lodi1 or to places !mselves l ,london72 :]eas ! connotation ( a g5]al t]m1 su* z '%eep1' consi/s ( intr9sic qualities4 ,h5ce1 !n1 ! s*ola/ic doctr9e 't individuals h no ess5ce' 7see *ap4 xxii4 #i71 & ,hamilton's dictum 't e concept is inadequate sic to ! individual1' are ju/ifi$4 ,g5]al names1 :5 us$ z prop] names1 lose _! connotation1 z ,eux9e or ,newf\ndl&4 ,s+ul> t]ms1 o!r ?an ,prop]1 h connotation2 ei!r 9 !mselves1 l ! s+ul> pron\ns 'he1' '%e1' 'x1' :i* are g5]al 9 _! applicability1 ?\gh s+ul> 9 application2 or1 d]ivatively1 f ! g5]al names t comb9e to =m !m1 z 9 '! fir/ ,emp]or ( ! ,fr5*' or ! ',capital ( ! ,briti% ,empire4' #c4 ,:e!r ,ab/ract ,t]ms h any connotation is ano!r disput$ "q4 ,we h se5 t !y d5ote a quality or qualities ( some?+1 & t is precisely :at g5]al t]ms connote3 'hone/y' d5otes a quality ( "s m52 'hone/' connotes ! same quality1 :il/ d5ot+ ! m5 :o h x4 ,! d5otation ( ab/ract t]ms ?us seems to exhau/ _! =ce or mean+4 ,x has be5 propos$1 h[ev]1 to reg>d !m z connot+ ! qualities !y directly /& =1 & n d5ot+ any?+2 b surely ?is is too viol5t4 ,to d5ote some?+ is ! same z to be ! "n ( some?+ 7:e!r real or unreal71 :i* e t]m mu/ be4 ,x is a bett] proposal to reg>d _! d5otation & connotation z co9cid+2 ?\gh op5 to ! objection t 'connote' means 'to m>k along )' some?+ else1 & ?is plan leaves no?+ else4 ,mill ?\ght t ab/ract t]ms are connotative :51 besides d5ot+ a quality1 !y sugge/ a quality ( t quality 7z 'fault' implies 'hurtfulness'72 b aga9/ ?is x may be urg$ t "o quality _c be> ano!r1 s9ce e qualification ( a quality con/itutes a di/9ct quality 9 ! total 7'milk-:it5ess' is di/9ct f ':it5ess1' cf4 *ap4 iii4 #d74 ,aft] all1 if x is ! mo/ consi/5t plan1 :y n say t ab/ract1 l prop]1 t]ms h no connotation8 ,b if ab/ract t]ms mu/ be made to connote some?+1 %\ld x n be ^? ?+s1 indef9itely sugge/$1 to :i* ! qualities belong8 ,?us ':it5ess' may be consid]$ to connote ei!r sn[ or vap\r1 or any :ite ?+1 ap>t f "o or o!r ( :i* ! quality has no exi/5ce2 ^: exi/5ce !re=e x implies4 ,by ?is c\rse ! d5otation & connotation ( ab/ract & ( g5]al names w\ld be exactly rev]s$4 ,:il/ ! d5otation ( a g5]al "n is limit$ by ! qualities connot$1 ! connotation ( an ab/ract "n includes all ! ?+s 9 :i* its d5otation is realis$4 ,b ! :ole difficulty may be avoid$ by mak+ x a rule to translate1 = logical purposes1 all ab/ract into ! correspond+ g5]al t]ms4 #d4 ,if we ask h[ ! connotation ( a t]m is to be kn[n1 ! answ] dep5ds ^u h[ x is us$4 ,if us$ sci5tifically1 its connotation is det]m9$ by1 & is ! same z1 its def9ition2 & ! def9ition is det]m9$ by exam9+ ! ?+s to be d5ot$1 z we %all see 9 *ap4 xxii4 ,if ! same ^w is us$ z a t]m 9 diff]5t sci5ces1 z 'prop]ty' 9 ,law & 9 ,logic1 x w be diff]5tly def9$ by !m1 & w h1 9 ea* use1 a correspond+ly diff]5t connotation4 ,b t]ms us$ 9 popul> disc\rse %\ld1 z f> z possible1 h _! connotations det]m9$ by classical usage1 i4e41 by ! s5se 9 :i* !y are us$ by writ]s & speak]s :o are ackn[l$g$ ma/]s ( ! language1 su* z ,dryd5 & ,burke4 ,9 ?is case ! classical connotation det]m9es ! def9ition2 s t to def9e t]ms ?us us$ is no?+ else ?an to analyse _! accept$ mean+s4 ,x mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be suppos$ t 9 popul> use ! connotation ( any ^w is inv>iable4 ,logicians h attempt$ to classify t]ms into ,univocal 7hav+ only "o mean+7 & quivocal 7or ambigu\s72 & no d\bt "s words 7l 'civil1' 'natural1' 'pr\d1' 'lib]al1' 'humor\s'7 are m manife/ly liable to ambigu\s use ?an "s o!rs4 ,b 9 tru? all g5]al t]ms are popul>ly & classically us$ 9 some:at diff]5t s5ses4 ,figurative or tropical language *iefly consi/s 9 ! transf] ( words to new s5ses1 z by metaphor or metonymy4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ye>s1 too1 words *ange _! mean+s2 & be=e ! "t ( ,dryd5 our :ole vocabul>y 0 mu* m fluid & adaptable ?an x has s9ce become4 ,su* au?ors z ,bacon1 ,milton1 & ,sir ,?omas ,br[ne (t5 us$ words d]iv$ f ! ,lat9 9 "s s5se !y orig9ally _h 9 ,lat91 ?\gh 9 ,engli% !y _h acquir$ ano!r mean+4 ,sp5s] & ,%akespe>e1 besides ?is practice1 sometimes use words 9 a way t c only be ju/ifi$ by _! *oos+ to h x s2 :il/ _! contempor>ies1 ,beaumont & ,flet*]1 write ! p]fect mod]n language1 z ,dryd5 obs]v$4 ,lapse ( "t1 h[ev]1 is n ! *ief cause ( v>iation 9 ! s5se ( words4 ,! matt]s :i* t]ms are us$ to d5ote are (t5 s complicat$ or s ref9$ 9 ! assemblage1 int]fusion1 or gradation ( _! qualities1 t t]ms d n exi/ 9 suffici5t abundance & discrim9ativ5ess to d5ote ! ?+s &1 at ! same "t1 to convey by connotation a det]m9ate s5se ( _! agreem5ts & diff]5ces4 ,9 discuss+ politics1 religion1 e?ics1 /hetics1 ?is imp]fection ( language is cont9ually felt2 & ! only escape f x1 %ort ( co9+ new words1 is to use su* words z we h1 n[ 9 "o s5se1 n[ 9 ano!r some:at diff]5t1 & to tru/ to ! context1 or to ! res\rces ( ! lit]>y art1 9 ord] to convey ! true mean+4 ,aga9/ ?is evil ! hav+ be5 born s9ce ,dryd5 is no protection4 ,x behoves u1 !n1 to rememb] t t]ms are n classifiable into ,univocal & quivocal1 b t all t]ms are susceptible ( be+ us$ quivocally1 & t hone/y & lucidity require u to try1 z well z we c1 to use ea* t]m univocally 9 ! same context4 ,! context ( any proposition always proce$s ^u "s assumption or und]/&+ z to ! scope ( ! discussion1 :i* controls ! int]pretation ( e /atem5t & ( e ^w4 ,?is 0 call$ by ,de ,morgan ! univ]se ( disc\rse3 an old] "n = x1 reviv$ by ,dr4 ,v5n1 & surely a bett] "o1 is suppositio4 ,if we are talk+ ( *ildr51 & 'play' is m5tion$1 ! suppositio limits ! sugge/iv5ess ( ! ^w 9 "o way2 :il/ if ,monaco is ! subject ( conv]sation1 ! same ^w 'play1' "u ! influ5ce ( a diff]5t suppositio1 excites altoge!r diff]5t ideas4 ,h5ce to ignore ! suppositio is a great s\rce ( fallacies ( equivocation4 ',man' is g5]ally def9$ z a k9d ( animal2 b 'animal' is (t5 us$ z oppos$ to & exclud+ man4 ',lib]al' has "o mean+ "u ! suppositio ( politics1 ano!r ) reg>d to culture1 & /ill ano!r z to ! disposal ( "o's private means4 ,cle>ly1 !re=e1 ! connotation ( g5]al t]ms is relative to ! suppositio1 or univ]se ( disc\rse4 #e4 ,relative & ,absolute ,t]ms4--,"s words g 9 c\ples or gr\ps3 l 'up-d[n1' '=m]-latt]1' 'fa!r-"m-*ildr51' 'hunt]-prey1' 'cause-effect1' etc4 ,^! are call$ ,relative ,t]ms1 & _! nature1 z expla9$ by ,mill1 is t ! connotations ( ! memb]s ( su* a pair or gr\p are d]iv$ f ! same set ( facts 7! fundam5tum relationis74 ,!re _c be an 'up' )\t a 'd[n1' a 'fa!r' )\t a '"m' & '*ild'2 !re _c be a 'hunt]' )\t some?+ hunt$1 nor 'prey' )\t a pursu]4 ,:at makes a man a 'hunt]' is 8 activities 9 pursuit2 & :at turns a *amois into 'prey' is its int]e/ 9 ^! activities4 ,! mean+ ( bo? t]ms1 !re=e1 is d]iv$ f ! same set ( facts2 nei!r t]m c be expla9$ )\t expla9+ ! o!r1 because ! relation betwe5 !m is connot$ by bo?2 & nei!r c ) propriety be us$ )\t ref]5ce to ! o!r1 or to "s equival5t1 z 'game' = 'prey4' ,9 contra/ ) su* ,relative ,t]ms1 o!rs h be5 call$ ,absolute or ,non-relative4 ,:il/ 'hunt]' & 'prey' are relative1 'man' & '*amois' h be5 consid]$ absolute1 z we may use !m )\t ?9k+ ( any special connection betwe5 _! mean+s4 ,h[ev]1 if we believe 9 ! unity ( ,nature & 9 ! relativity ( k 7t is1 t all k dep5ds ^u comp>ison1 or a p]ception ( ! resemblances & diff]5ces ( ?+s71 x foll[s t no?+ c be completely und]/ood except ?r\gh its agreem5ts or contra/s ) ev]y?+ else1 & t all t]ms d]ive _! connotation f ! same set ( facts1 namely1 f g5]al exp]i5ce4 ,?us bo? man & *amois are animals2 ?is fact is an important "p ( ! mean+ ( bo? t]ms1 & to t ext5t !y are relative t]ms4 ',five y>ds' & 'five m9utes' are v diff]5t notions1 yet !y are pr(\ndly relat$2 = _! v diff]5ce helps to make bo? notions di/9ct2 & _! intimate connection is %[n 9 ?is1 t five y>ds are trav]s$ 9 a c]ta9 "t1 & t five m9utes are measur$ by ! motion ( an index ov] "s fraction ( a y>d ^u ! dial4 ,! di/9ction1 !n1 betwe5 relative & non-relative t]ms mu/ re/1 n ^u a fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 !m 7s9ce1 9 fact1 all words are relative71 b ^u ! way 9 :i* words are us$4 ,we h se5 t "s words1 su* z 'up-d[n1' 'cause-effect1' c only be us$ relatively2 & ^! may1 = di/9ction1 be call$ ,correlatives4 ,b o!r words1 ^: mean+s are only p>tially int]dep5d5t1 may (t5 be us$ )\t att5d+ to _! relativity1 & may !n be consid]$ z ,absolute4 ,we _c say '! hunt] return$ empty h&$1' )\t imply+ t '! prey escap$'2 b we may say '! man w5t supp]less to b$1' )\t imply+ t '! *amois rejoic$ ^u ! m\nta94' ,su* words z 'man' & '*amois' may1 !n1 9 _! use1 be1 z to "o ano!r1 non-relative4 ,to illu/rate fur!r ! relativity ( t]ms1 we may m5tion "s ( ! *ief classes ( !m4 ,num]ical ord]3 #a/1 #bnd1 #crd1 etc42 #a/ implies #bnd1 & #bnd #a/2 & #crd implies #a/ & #bnd1 b ^! d n imply #crd2 & s on4 ,ord] 9 ,"t or ,place3 be=e-aft]2 e>ly-punctual-late2 "r-middle-left2 ,nor?-,s\?1 etc4 ,z to ,ext5t1 ,volume1 & ,degree3 great]-equal-less2 l>ge-m$ium-small2 :ole & "p4 ,g5us & ,species are a peculi> case ( :ole & "p 7cf4 *aps4 xxi4-ii4-iii474 ,sometimes a t]m connotes all ! attributes t ano!r does1 & m besides1 :i*1 z di/+ui%+ x1 are call$ diff]5tial4 ,?us 'man' connotes all t 'animal' does1 & also 7z diff]5ti7 ! erect gait1 articulate spee*1 & o!r attributes4 ,9 su* a case z ?is1 :]e !re are well-m>k$ classes1 ! t]m ^: connotation is includ$ 9 ! o!rs' is call$ a ,g5us ( t ,species4 ,we h a ,g5us1 triangle2 & a ,species1 isosceles1 m>k$ (f f all o!r triangles by ! diff]5tial quality ( hav+ two equal sides3 aga9--,g5us1 book2 ,species1 qu>to2 ,diff]5ce1 hav+ ea* %eet fold$ into f\r leaves4 ,!re are o!r cases :]e ^! expressions 'g5us' & 'species' _c be s appli$ )\t a dep>ture f usage1 z1 e4g41 if we call sn[ a species ( ! g5us ':ite1' = ':ite' is n a recognis$ class4 ,! connotation ( :ite 7i4e41 :it5ess7 is1 h[ev]1 "p ( ! connotation ( sn[1 j z ! qualities ( 'animal' are among/ ^? ( 'man'2 & = logical purposes x is desirable to use 'g5us & species' to express t relativity ( t]ms :i* consi/s 9 ! connotation ( "o be+ "p ( ! connotation ( ! o!r4 ,two or m t]ms ^: connotations sev]ally include t ( ano!r t]m1 :il/ at ! same "t exce$+ x1 are 79 relation to t o!r t]m7 call$ ,co-ord9ate4 ,?us 9 relation to ':ite1' sn[ & silv] are co-ord9ate2 9 relation to col\r1 yell[ & r$ & blue are co-ord9ate4 ,& :5 all ! t]ms ?us relat$ /& = recognis$ natural classes1 ! co-ord9ate t]ms are call$ co-ord9ate species2 ?us man & *amois are 79 ,logic7 co-ord9ate species ( ! g5us animal4 #f4 ,f su* examples ( t]ms ^: connotations are relat$ z :ole & "p1 x is easy to see ! g5]al tru? ( ! doctr9e t z connotation decreases1 d5otation increases3 = 'animal1' ) less connotation ?an man or *amois1 d5otes _m m objects2 ':ite1' ) less connotation ?an sn[ or silv]1 d5otes _m m ?+s1 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 t ?is doctr9e is always true 9 ! concrete3 s9ce !re may be a t]m connot+ two or m qualities1 all ( :i* qualities are peculi> to all ! ?+s x d5otes2 &1 if s1 by subtract+ "o ( ! qualities f its connotation1 we %\ld n increase its d5otation4 ,if 'man1' = example1 has among mammals ! two peculi> attributes ( erect gait & articulate spee*1 !n1 by omitt+ 'articulate spee*' f ! connotation ( man1 we c\ld n apply ! "n to any m ( ! exi/+ mammalia ?an we c at pres5t4 ,/ill we might h be5 able to d s2 !re might h be5 an erect in>ticulate ape1 & p]haps !re once 0 "o2 &1 if s1 to omit 'articulate' f ! connotation ( man w\ld make ! t]m 'man' d5ote t animal 7suppos+ t !re 0 no o!r diff]5ce to exclude x74 ,h5ce1 pot5tially1 an increase ( ! connotation ( any t]m implies a decrease ( its d5otation4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 we c only increase ! d5otation ( a t]m1 or apply x to m objects1 by decreas+ its connotation2 =1 if ! new ?+s d5ot$ by ! t]m _h already possess$ its :ole connotation1 !y mu/ already h be5 d5ot$ by x4 ,h[ev]1 we may increase ! kn[n d5otation )\t decreas+ ! connotation1 if we c discov] ! full connotation 9 ?+s n =m]ly suppos$ to h x1 z :5 dolph9s 7 discov]$ to be mammals2 or if we c impose ! requisite qualities ^u new individuals1 z :5 by annex+ "s millions ( ,africans we ext5d ! d5otation ( ',briti% subject' )\t alt]+ its connotation4 ,_m ( ! ?+s notic$ 9 ?is *apt]1 especially 9 ?is section & ! prec$+1 w be discuss$ at great] l5g? 9 ! *apt]s on ,classification & ,def9ition4 #g4 ,contradictory ,relative ,t]ms4--,e t]m has1 or may h1 ano!r correspond+ ) x 9 su* a way t1 :atev] diff]5tial qualities 7 #e7 x connotes1 ?is o!r connotes m]ely _! abs5ce2 s t "o or ! o!r is always =mally pr$icable ( any ,subject1 b bo? ^! t]ms are nev] pr$icable ( ! same ,subject 9 ! same relation3 su* pairs ( t]ms are call$ ,contradictories4 ,:atev] ,subject we take1 x is ei!r visible or invisible1 b n bo?2 ei!r human or non-human1 b n bo?4 ,?is at lea/ is true =mally1 ?\gh 9 practice we %\ld ?9k ourselves trifl$ ) if any "o told u t ',a m\nta9 is ei!r human or non-human1 b n bo?4' ,x is symbolic t]ms1 su* z ,x & x1 t are prop]ly said to be contradictories 9 relation to any subject :atev]1 ,s or ,m4 ,=1 z we h se51 ! ord9>y use ( t]ms is limit$ by "s suppositio1 & ?is is true ( ,contradictories4 ',human' & 'non-human' may ref] to zoological classification1 or to ! scope ( physical1 m5tal1 or moral p[]s--z if we ask :e!r to fl\ri% a dumbbell ( a ton weight1 or to "k ! future by intuition1 or impeccability1 be human or non-human4 ,simil>ly1 'visible' & 'invisible' ref] ei!r to ! p[] ( emitt+ or reflect+ light1 s t ! words h no hold ^u a s\nd or a sc5t1 or else to p[] ( vision & su* qualifications z ') ! nak$ eye' or ') a microscope4' ,aga91 ! above def9ition ( ,contradictories tells u t !y _c be pr$icat$ ( ! same ,subject 9 ! same relation2 t is1 at ! same "t or place1 or "u ! same conditions4 ,! lamp is visible to me n[1 b w be invisible if ,i turn x out2 "o side ( x is n[ visible1 b ! o!r is n3 !re=e )\t ?is re/riction1 9 ! same relation1 few or no t]ms w\ld be contradictory4 ,if a man is call$ wise1 x may mean 'on ! :ole' or '9 a c]ta9 action'2 & cle>ly a man may = once be wise 7or act wisely7 :o1 on ! :ole1 is n-wise4 ,s t "h aga91 by ?is ambiguity1 t]ms t seem contradictory are pr$icable ( ! same subject1 b n 9 ! same relation4 ,9 ord] to avoid ! ambiguity1 h[ev]1 we h only to con/ruct ! t]m s z to express ! relation1 z 'wise on ! :ole'2 & ?is imm$iately g5]ates ! contradictory 'n-wise on ! :ole4' ,simil>ly1 at "o age a man may h black hair1 at ano!r n-black hair2 b ! difficulty is practically removable by /at+ ! age ref]r$ to4 ,/ill1 ?is case easily leads u to a real difficulty 9 ! use ( contradictory t]ms1 a difficulty aris+ f ! cont9u\s *ange or 'flux' ( natural ph5om5a4 ,if ?+s are cont9ually *ang+1 x may be urg$ t contradictory t]ms are always applicable to ! same subject1 at lea/ z fa/ z we c utt] !m3 = if we h j said t a man's hair is black1 s9ce 7l ev]y?+ else7 8 hair is *ang+1 x mu/ n[ be n-black1 ?\gh 7to be sure7 x may /ill seem black4 ,! difficulty1 su* z x is1 lies 9 ?is1 t ! human m9d & its in/rum5t language are n equal to ! subtlety ( ,nature4 ,all ?+s fl[1 b ! t]ms ( human disc\rse assume a c]ta9 fixity ( ?+s2 ev]y?+ at e mom5t *anges1 b = ! mo/ "p we c nei!r p]ceive ?is *ange nor express x 9 ord9>y language4 ,?is p>adox1 h[ev]1 may1 ,i suppose1 be easily ov]-/at$4 ,! *ange t cont9ually agitates ,nature consi/s 9 ! movem5ts ( masses or molecules1 & su* movem5ts ( ?+s are compatible ) a consid]able p]si/5ce ( _! qualities4 ,n only are ! molecul> *anges always go+ on 9 a piece ( gold compatible ) its rema9+ yell[1 b its p]si/5t yell[ness dep5ds on ! cont9uance ( "s ( ^? *anges4 ,simil>ly1 a man's hair may rema9 black = "s ye>s2 ?\gh1 no d\bt1 at a c]ta9 age its col\r may beg9 to be problematical1 & ! applicability to x ( 'black' or 'n-black' may become a matt] ( g5u9e anxiety4 ,:il/ be+ on our gu>d1 !n1 aga9/ fallacies ( contradiction aris+ f ! imp]fect correspond5ce ( fact ) ?\ght & language1 we %all (t5 h to put up ) x4 ,c&\r & humility hav+ be5 satisfi$ by ! above ackn[l$gm5t ( ! subtlety ( ,nature1 we may h5ce=w>d proce$ ^u ! po/ulate--t x is possible to use contradictory t]ms su* z _c bo? be pr$icat$ ( ! same subject 9 ! same relation1 ?\gh "o ( !m may be2 t1 = example1 x may be truly said ( a man = "s ye>s t 8 hair is black2 &1 if s1 t dur+ ^? ye>s to call x n-black is false or extremely mislead+4 ,! mo/ oppos$ t]ms ( ! lit]>y vocabul>y1 h[ev]1 su* z 'wise-fooli%1' 'old-"y1' 'sweet-bitt]1' are r>ely true contradictories3 wise & fooli%1 inde$1 _c be pr$icat$ ( ! same man 9 ! same relation2 b !re are _m middl+ m51 ( :om nei!r c be pr$icat$ on ! :ole4 ,= ! comp>ison ( quantities1 aga91 we h ?ree correlative t]ms1 'great]--equal--less1' & none ( ^! is ! contradictory ( ei!r ( ! o!rs4 ,9 fact1 ! contradictory ( any t]m is "o t d5otes ! sum ( its co-ord9ates 7 #f72 & to obta9 a contradictory1 ! sure/ way is to co9 "o by prefix+ to ! giv5 t]m ! p>ticle 'n' or 7sometimes7 'non'3 z 'wise1 n-wise1' 'human1 non-human1' 'great]1 n-great]4' ,! sep>ate ^w 'n' is sur] to con/itute a contradictory ?an ! usual prefixes ( negation1 'un-' or '9-1' or ev5 'non'2 s9ce comp\nds ( ^! are g5]ally w>p$ by common use f a purely negative mean+4 ,?us1 ',noncon=mi/' does n d5ote ev]ybody :o fails to con=m4 ',unwise' is n equival5t to 'n-wise1' b means 'r fooli%'2 a v fooli% action is n-wise1 b c only be call$ unwise by meiosis or irony4 ,/ill1 negatives =m$ by '9' or 'un' or 'non' are sometimes really contradictory ( _! positives2 z 'visible1 invisible1' 'equal1 unequal4' #h4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ,positive & ,negative t]ms is n ( mu* value 9 ,logic1 :at importance w\ld else atta* to x be+ absorb$ by ! m def9ite di/9ction ( contradictories4 ,= contradictories are positive & negative 9 ess5ce &1 :5 lea/ ambigu\sly /at$1 also 9 =m4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 z we h se51 :5 positive & negative t]ms are n contradictory1 !y are mislead+4 ,z ) 'wise-unwise1' s ) _m o!rs1 su* z 'happy-unhappy'2 :i* are n contradictories2 s9ce a man may be nei!r happy nor unhappy1 b indiff]5t1 or 7aga97 s mis]able t he c only be call$ unhappy by a figure ( spee*4 ,9 fact1 9 ! common vocabul>y a =mal negative (t5 has a limit$ positive s5se2 & ?is is ! case ) unhappy1 signify+ ! /ate ( feel+ 9 ! mild] %ades ( ,purgatory4 ,:5 a ,negative t]m is fully contradictory ( its ,positive x is said to be ,inf9ite2 because x d5otes an unasc]ta9$ multitude ( ?+s1 a multitude only limit$ by ! positive t]m & ! suppositio2 ?us 'n-wise' d5otes all except ! wise1 )9 ! suppositio ( 'intellig5t be+s4' ,=mally 7disreg>d+ any suppositio71 su* a negative t]m /&s = all possible t]ms except its positive3 x d5otes ev]y?+ b ,x2 & 'n-wise' may be tak5 to include /ones1 triangles & hippogriffs4 ,& ev5 9 ?is s5se1 a negative t]m has "s positive mean+1 ?\gh a v indef9ite "o1 n a specific positive =ce l 'unwise' or 'unhappy'3 x d5otes any & ev]y?+ t has n ! attributes connot$ by ! correspond+ positive t]m4 ,privative ,t]ms connote ! abs5ce ( a quality t normally belongs to ! k9d ( ?+ d5ot$1 z 'bl9d' or 'deaf4' ,we may pr$icate 'bl9d' or 'deaf' ( a man1 dog or c[ t happ5s n to be able to see or he>1 because ! p[]s ( see+ & he>+ g5]ally belong to ^? species2 b ( a /one or idol ^! t]ms c only be us$ figuratively4 ,inde$1 s9ce ! contradictory ( a privative c>ries ) x ! privative limitation1 a /one is /rictly 'n-bl9d'3 t is1 x is 'n-some?+-t-normally-hav+-sight-wants-x4 ' ,contr>y ,t]ms are ^? t 7)9 a c]ta9 g5us or suppositio7 sev]ally connote diff]5tial qualities t are1 9 fact1 mutually incompatible 9 ! same relation to ! same ?+1 & !re=e _c be pr$icat$ ( ! same subject 9 ! same relation2 &1 s f>1 !y resemble ,contradictory ,t]ms3 b !y diff] f contradictory t]ms 9 ?is1 t ! diff]5tial quality connot$ by ea* ( !m is def9itely positive2 no ,contr>y ,t]m is inf9ite1 b is limit$ to "p ( ! suppositio exclud$ by ! o!rs2 s t1 possibly1 nei!r ( two ,contr>ies is truly pr$icable ( a giv5 subject4 ,?us 'blue' & 'r$' are ,contr>ies1 = !y _c bo? be pr$icat$ ( ! same ?+ 9 ! same relation2 b are n ,contradictories1 s9ce1 9 a giv5 case1 nei!r may be pr$icable3 if a fl[] is blue 9 a c]ta9 "p1 x _c 9 ! same "p be r$2 b x may be nei!r blue nor r$1 b yell[2 ?\gh x is c]ta9ly ei!r blue or n-blue4 ,all co-ord9ate t]ms are =mal ,contr>ies2 b if1 9 fact1 a s]ies ( co-ord9ates comprises only two 7z male-female71 !y are empirical ,contradictories2 s9ce ea* includes all t area ( ! suppositio :i* ! o!r excludes4 ,! extremes ( a s]ies ( co-ord9ate t]ms are ,opposites2 z1 9 a li/ ( col\rs1 :ite & black1 ! mo/ /rongly contra/$1 are said to be opposites1 or z among moods ( feel+1 rapture & mis]y are opposites4 ,b ?is di/9ction is ( slight logical importance4 ,imp]fect ,positive & ,negative c\ples1 l 'happy & unhappy1' :i* 7z we h se57 are n contradictories1 are (t5 call$ ,opposites4 ,! memb]s ( any s]ies ( ,contr>ies are all includ$ by any "o ( !m & its contradictory1 z all col\rs come "u 'r$' & 'n-r$1' all moods ( feel+ "u 'happy' & 'n-happy4' ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,propositions #a4 ,logicians classify ,propositions accord+ to ,quantity1 ,quality1 ,relation & ,modality4 ,z to ,quantity1 propositions are ei!r ,univ]sal or ,p>ticul>2 t is to say1 ! pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ei!r ( ! :ole subject or ( a "p ( x--( ,all or ( ,"s ,s4 ,all ,s is ,p 7t is1 ,p is pr$icat$ ( all ,s74 ,"s ,s is ,p 7t is1 ,p is pr$icat$ ( "s ,s74 ,an ,univ]sal ,proposition may h = its subject a s+ul> t]m1 a collective1 a g5]al t]m di/ribut$1 or an ab/ract t]m4 7#a7 ,a proposition hav+ a s+ul> t]m = its subject1 z ,! ,que5 has gone to ,france1 is call$ a ,s+ul> ,proposition2 & "s ,logicians reg>d ?is z a ?ird species ( proposition ) respect to quantity1 di/9ct f ! ,univ]sal & ,p>ticul>2 b t is ne$less4 7#b7 ,a collective t]m may be ! subject1 z ,! ,black ,wat* is ord]$ to ,india4 ,9 ?is case1 z well z 9 s+ul> propositions1 a pr$ication is made conc]n+ ! :ole subject z a :ole4 7#c7 ,! subject may be a g5]al t]m tak5 9 its full d5otation1 z ,all apes are sagaci\s2 & 9 ?is case a ,pr$ication is made conc]n+ ! :ole subject di/ributively2 t is1 ( ea* & ev]y?+ ! subject /&s =4 7#d7 ,propositions ^: subjects are ab/ract t]ms1 ?\gh !y may seem to be =mally ,s+ul>1 are really z to _! mean+ di/ributive ,univ]sals2 s9ce :atev] is true ( a quality is true ( :atev] ?+ has t quality s f> z t quality is conc]n$4 ,tru? w prevail means t ,all true propositions are accept$ at la/ 7by %e] =ce ( be+ true1 9 spite ( int]e/s1 prejudices1 ignorance & indiff]5ce74 ,to be> ?is 9 m9d may make "o cauti\s 9 ! use ( ab/ract t]ms4 ,9 ! above p>agraphs a di/9ction is impli$ betwe5 ,s+ul> & ,di/ributive ,univ]sals2 b1 te*nically1 e t]m1 :e!r subject or pr$icate1 :5 tak5 9 its full d5otation 7or univ]sally71 is said to be 'di/ribut$1' al?\gh ?is ^w1 9 its ord9>y s5se1 w\ld be directly applicable only to g5]al t]ms4 ,9 ! above examples1 !n1 ',que51' ',black ,wat*1' 'apes1' & 'tru?' are all di/ribut$ t]ms4 ,inde$1 a simple def9ition ( ! ,univ]sal ,proposition is '"o ^: subject is di/ribut$4' ,a ,p>ticul> ,proposition is "o t has a g5]al t]m = its subject1 :il/ its pr$icate is n affirm$ or d5i$ ( ev]y?+ ! subject d5otes2 9 o!r words1 x is "o ^: subject is n di/ribut$3 z ,"s lions inhabit ,africa4 ,9 ord9>y disc\rse x is n always explicitly /at$ :e!r pr$ication is univ]sal or p>ticul>2 x w\ld be v natural to say ,lions inhabit ,africa1 leav+ x1 z f> z ! words g1 unc]ta9 :e!r we mean all or "s lions4 ,propositions ^: quantity is ?us left indef9ite are te*nically call$ 'pre9designate1' _! quantity n be+ /at$ or designat$ by any introductory expression2 :il/ propositions ^: quantity is express$1 z ,all f\ndl+-hospitals h a high dea?-rate1 or ,"s w9e is made f grapes1 are said to be 'pr$esignate4' ,n[1 ! rule is t pre9designate propositions are1 = logical purposes1 to be treat$ z p>ticul>2 s9ce x is an obvi\s precaution ( ! sci5ce ( pro(1 9 any practical application1 n to g beyond ! evid5ce4 ,/ill1 ! rule may be relax$ if ! univ]sal quantity ( a pre9designate proposition is well kn[n or admitt$1 z 9 ,planets %9e ) reflect$ light--und]/ood ( ! planets ( our sol> sy/em at ! pres5t "t4 ,aga91 su* a proposition z ,man is ! p>agon ( animals is n a pre9designate1 b an ab/ract proposition2 ! subject be+ elliptical = ,man accord+ to 8 prop] nature2 & ! translation ( x into a pr$esignate proposition is n ,all m5 are p>agons2 nor c ,"s m5 be suffici5t1 s9ce an ab/ract c only be adequately r5d]$ by a di/ribut$ t]m2 b we mu/ say1 ,all m5 :o approa* ! ideal4 ,univ]sal real propositions1 true )\t qualification1 are v sc>ce2 & we (t5 sub/itute = !m g5]al propositions1 say+ p]haps--g5]ally1 ?\gh n univ]sally1 ,s is ,p4 ,su* g5]al propositions are1 9 /rictness1 p>ticul>2 & ! logical rules conc]n+ univ]sals _c be appli$ to !m )\t c>eful scrut9y ( ! facts4 ,! m>ks or pr$esignations ( ,quantity commonly us$ 9 ,logic are3 = ,univ]sals1 ,all1 ,any1 ,e1 ,:atev] 79 ! negative ,no or ,no "o1 see next 72 = ,p>ticul>s1 ,"s4 ,n[ ,"s1 te*nically us$1 does n mean ,"s only1 b ,"s at lea/ 7x may be "o1 or m1 or all74 ,if x meant ',"s only1' e p>ticul> proposition w\ld be an exclusive exponible 7*ap4 ii4 #c72 s9ce ,only "s m5 are wise implies t ,"s m5 are n wise4 ,besides1 x may (t5 happ5 9 an inve/igation t all ! in/ances we h obs]v$ come "u a c]ta9 rule1 ?\gh we d n yet feel ju/ifi$ 9 reg>d+ ! rule z univ]sal2 & ?is situation is exactly met by ! expression ,"s 7x may be all74 ,! words ,_m1 ,mo/1 ,few are g5]ally int]pret$ to mean ,"s2 b z ,mo/ signifies t exceptions are kn[n1 & ,few t ! exceptions are ! m num]\s1 propositions ?us pr$esignate are 9 fact exponibles1 m\nt+ to ,"s are & ,"s are n4 ,if to "w ) bo? =ms be too cumbr\s1 s t we mu/ *oose "o1 app>5tly ,few are %\ld be treat$ z ,"s are n4 ,! sci5tific c\rse to adopt ) propositions pr$esignate by ,mo/ or ,few1 is to collect /ati/ics & det]m9e ! p]c5tage2 ?us1 ,few m5 are wise--say #b p] c5t4 ,! ,quantity ( a proposition1 !n1 is usually det]m9$ entirely by ! quantity ( ! subject1 :e!r all or "s4 ,/ill1 ! quantity ( ! pr$icate is (t5 an important consid]ation2 & ?\gh 9 ord9>y usage ! pr$icate is seldom pr$esignate1 ,logicians agree t 9 e ,negative ,proposition 7see #b7 ! pr$icate is 'di/ribut$1' t is to say1 is d5i$ altoge!r ( ! subject1 & t ?is is involv$ 9 ! =m ( d5ial4 ,to say ,"s m5 are n brave1 is to decl>e t ! quality = :i* m5 may be call$ brave is n f\nd 9 any ( ! ,"s m5 ref]r$ to3 & to say ,no m5 are pro( aga9/ flatt]y1 cuts (f ! be+ 'pro( aga9/ flatt]y' entirely f ! li/ ( human attributes4 ,on ! o!r h&1 e ,affirmative ,proposition is reg>d$ z hav+ an undi/ribut$ pr$icate2 t is to say1 its pr$icate is n affirm$ exclusively ( ! subject4 ,"s m5 are wise does n mean t 'wise' _c be pr$icat$ ( any o!r be+s2 x is equival5t to ,"s m5 are wise 7:oev] else may be74 ,& ,all elephants are sagaci\s does n limit sagacity to elephants3 reg>d+ 'sagaci\s' z possibly d5ot+ _m animals ( _m species t exhibit ! quality1 ?is proposition is equival5t to ',all elephants are "s sagaci\s animals4' ,! affirmative pr$ication ( a quality does n imply exclusive possession ( x z d5ial implies its complete abs5ce2 &1 !re=e1 to reg>d ! pr$icate ( an affirmative proposition z di/ribut$ w\ld be to g beyond ! evid5ce & to take = grant$ :at _h nev] be5 alleg$4 ,"s ,logicians1 see+ t ! quantity ( pr$icates1 ?\gh n di/9ctly express$1 is recognis$1 & hold+ t x is ! "p ( ,logic to make explicit 9 language :atev] is implicit 9 ?\ght1 h propos$ to exhibit ! quantity ( pr$icates by pr$esignation1 ?us3 ',"s m5 are "s wise 7be+s7'2 '"s m5 are n any brave 7be+s7'2 etc4 ,?is is call$ ! ,quantification ( ! ,pr$icate1 & leads to "s modifications ( ,d$uctive ,logic :i* w be ref]r$ to h]eaft]4 7,see #c2 *ap4 vii4 #d1 & *ap4 viii4 #c47 #b4 ,z to ,quality1 ,propositions are ei!r ,affirmative or ,negative4 ,an ,affirmative ,proposition is1 =mally1 "o ^: copula is affirmative 7or1 has no negative sign71 z ,s--is--,p1 ,all m5--are--p>tial to !mselves4 ,a ,negative ,proposition is "o ^: copula is negative 7or1 has a negative sign71 z ,s--is n--,p1 ,"s m5--are n--pro( aga9/ flatt]y4 ,:51 inde$1 a ,negative ,proposition is ( ,univ]sal ,quantity1 x is /at$ ?us3 ,no ,s is ,p1 ,no m5 are pro( aga9/ flatt]y2 b1 9 ?is case1 ! deta*m5t ( ! negative sign f ! copula & its association ) ! subject is m]ely an accid5t ( our idiom2 ! proposition is ! same z ,all m5--are n--pro( aga9/ flatt]y4 ,x mu/ be di/+ui%$1 !re=e1 f su* an expression z ,n e man is pro( aga9/ flatt]y2 = "h ! negative sign really re/ricts ! subject2 s t ! mean+ is--,"s m5 at mo/ 7x may be none7 are pro( aga9/ flatt]y2 & ?us ! proposition is ,p>ticul>1 & is r5d]$--,"s m5--are n--pro( aga9/ flatt]y4 ,:5 ! negative sign is associat$ ) ! pr$icate1 s z to make ?is an ,inf9ite ,t]m 7*ap4 iv4 #h71 ! proposition is call$ an ,inf9ite ,proposition1 z ,s is n-,p 7or p71 ,all m5 are--incapable ( resi/+ flatt]y1 or are--n-pro( aga9/ flatt]y4 ,inf9ite propositions1 :5 ! copula is affirmative1 are =mally1 !mselves affirmative1 al?\gh _! =ce is *iefly negative2 =1 z ! la/ example %[s1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 an inf9ite & a negative proposition may dep5d ^u a hyph54 ,x has be5 propos$1 inde$1 ) a view to sup]ficial simplification1 to turn all ,negatives into ,inf9ites1 & ?us r5d] all propositions ,affirmative 9 ,quality4 ,b al?\gh e proposition bo? affirms & d5ies some?+ accord+ to ! aspect 9 :i* y reg>d x 7z ,sn[ is :ite d5ies t x is any o!r col\r1 & ,sn[ is n blue affirms t x is "s o!r col\r71 yet !re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 ! def9ite affirmation ( a g5u9e affirmative & ! vague affirmation ( a negative or inf9ite2 s t mat]ially an affirmative inf9ite is ! same z a negative4 ,g5]ally ,mill's rem>k is true1 t affirmation & d5ial /& = di/9ctions ( fact t _c be got rid ( by manipulation ( words4 ,:e!r granite s9ks 9 wat]1 or n2 :e!r ! rook lives a hundr$ ye>s1 or n2 :e!r a man has a hundr$ doll>s 9 8 pocket1 or n2 :e!r human bones h ev] be5 f\nd 9 ,plioc5e /rata1 or n2 su* alt]natives require di/9ct =ms ( expression4 ,at ! same "t1 x may be grant$ t _m facts admit ( be+ /at$ ) ne>ly equal propriety 9 ei!r ,quality1 z ,no man is pro( aga9/ flatt]y1 or ,all m5 are op5 to flatt]y4 ,b :atev] advantage !re is 9 occasionally *ang+ ! ,quality ( a proposition may be ga9$ by ! process ( ,obv]sion 7*ap4 vii4 #e72 :il/ to use only "o ,quality w\ld impair ! ela/icity ( logical expression4 ,x is a po/ulate ( ,logic t ! negative sign may be transf]r$ f ! copula to ! pr$icate1 or f ! pr$icate to ! copula1 )\t alt]+ ! s5se ( a proposition2 & ?is is ju/ifi$ by ! exp]i5ce t n to h an attribute & to be )\t x are ! same ?+4 #c4 ,a4 ,i4 ,e4 ,o4--,comb9+ ! two k9ds ( ,quantity1 ,univ]sal & ,p>ticul>1 ) ! two k9ds ( ,quality1 ,affirmative & ,negative1 we get f\r simple types ( proposition1 :i* x is usual to symbolise by ! lett]s ,a4 ,i4 ,e4 ,o41 ?us3 ,a4 ,univ]sal ,affirmative -- ,all ,s is ,p4 ,i4 ,p>ticul> ,affirmative -- ,"s ,s is ,p4 ,e4 ,univ]sal ,negative -- ,no ,s is ,p4 ,o4 ,p>ticul> ,negative -- ,"s ,s is n ,p4 ,z an aid to ! rememb]+ ( ^! symbols we may obs]ve t ,a4 & ,i4 are ! fir/ two v[els 9 affirmo & t ,e4 & ,o4 are ! v[els 9 nego4 ,x mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t ^! f\r k9ds ( proposition recognis$ by ,=mal ,logic con/itute a v meagre selection f ! li/ ( propositions actually us$ 9 judgm5t & reason+4 ,^? ,logicians :o explicitly quantify ! pr$icate obta91 9 all1 eight =ms ( proposition accord+ to ,quantity & ,quality3 ,u4 ,toto-total ,affirmative -- ,all ,x is all ,y4 ,a4 ,toto-p>tial ,affirmative -- ,all ,x is "s ,y4 ,y4 ,p>ti-total ,affirmative -- ,"s ,x is all ,y4 ,i4 ,p>ti-p>tial ,affirmative -- ,"s ,x is "s ,y4 ,e4 ,toto-total ,negative -- ,no ,x is any ,y4 4 ,toto-p>tial ,negative -- ,no ,x is "s ,y4 ,o4 ,p>ti-total ,negative -- ,"s ,x is n any ,y4 4 ,p>ti-p>tial ,negative -- ,"s ,x is n "s ,y4 ,"h ,a4 ,i4 ,e4 ,o4 correspond ) ^? simil>ly symbolis$ 9 ! usual li/1 m]ely designat+ 9 ! pr$icates ! quantity :i* 0 =m]ly treat$ z implicit4 #d4 ,z to ,relation1 propositions are ei!r ,categorical or ,conditional4 ,a ,categorical ,proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate is directly affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! subject )\t any limitation ( "t1 place1 or circum/ance1 extrane\s to ! subject1 z ,all m5 9 ,engl& are secure ( ju/ice2 9 :i* proposition1 ?\gh !re is a limitation ( place 7'9 ,engl&'71 x is includ$ 9 ! subject4 ,( ?is k9d are ne>ly all ! examples t h yet be5 giv51 accord+ to ! =m ,s is ,p4 ,a ,conditional ,proposition is s call$ because ! pr$ication is made "u "s limitation or condition n includ$ 9 ! subject1 z ,if a man live 9 ,engl&1 he is secure ( ju/ice4 ,"h ! limitation 'liv+ 9 ,engl&' is put into a conditional s5t5ce extrane\s to ! subject1 'he1' repres5t+ any man4 ,conditional propositions1 aga91 are ( two k9ds--,hypo!tical & ,disjunctive4 ,hypo!tical propositions are ^? t are limit$ by an explicit conditional s5t5ce1 z above1 or ?us3 ,if ,joe ,smi? 0 a prophet1 8 foll[]s h be5 unju/ly p]secut$4 ,or 9 symbols ?us3 ,if ,a is1 ,b is2 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,a is ,c2 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d4 ,disjunctive propositions are ^? 9 :i* ! condition "u :i* pr$ication is made is n explicit b only impli$ "u ! disguise ( an alt]native proposition1 z ,joe ,smi? 0 ei!r a prophet or an impo/or4 ,"h !re is no direct pr$ication conc]n+ ,joe ,smi?1 b only a pr$ication ( "o ( ! alt]natives conditionally on ! o!r be+ d5i$1 z1 ,if ,joe ,smi? 0 n a prophet he 0 an impo/or2 or1 ,if he 0 n an impo/or1 he 0 a prophet4 ,symbolically1 ,disjunctives may be repres5t$ ?us3 ,a is ei!r ,b or ,c1 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 ,=mally1 e ,conditional may be express$ z a ,categorical4 ,= our la/ example %[s h[ a ,disjunctive may be r$uc$ to two ,hypo!ticals 7( :i* "o is r$undant1 be+ ! contrapositive ( ! o!r2 see *ap4 vii4 #aj74 ,& a ,hypo!tical is r$ucible to a ,categorical ?us3 ,if ! sky is cle>1 ! night is cold may be read--,! case ( ! sky be+ cle> is a case ( ! night be+ cold2 & ?is1 ?\gh a clumsy plan1 is sometimes conv5i5t4 ,x w\ld be bett] to say ,! sky be+ cle> is a sign ( ! night be+ cold1 or a condition ( x4 ,=1 z ,mill says1 ! ess5ce ( a ,hypo!tical is to /ate t "o clause ( x 7! indicative7 may be inf]r$ f ! o!r 7! conditional74 ,simil>ly1 we might write3 ,pro( ( ,joe ,smi?'s n be+ a prophet is a pro( ( 8 be+ an impo/or4 ,?is turn+ ( ,conditionals into ,categoricals is call$ a ,*ange ( ,relation2 & ! process may be rev]s$3 ,all ! wise are virtu\s may be writt51 ,if any man is wise he is virtu\s2 or1 aga91 ,ei!r a man is n-wise or he is virtu\s4 ,b ! categorical =m is usually ! simple/4 ,if1 !n1 z sub/itutes = ! correspond+ conditionals1 categoricals are =mally adequate1 ?\gh sometimes inelegant1 x may be urg$ t ,logic has no?+ to d ) elegance2 or t1 at any rate1 ! *ief elegance ( sci5ce is economy1 & t !re=e1 = sci5tific purposes1 :atev] we may write fur!r ab\t conditionals mu/ be an ugly excresc5ce4 ,! sci5tific purpose ( ,logic is to assign ! conditions ( pro(4 ,c we1 !n1 9 ! conditional =m prove any?+ t _c be prov$ 9 ! categorical8 ,or does a conditional require to be itself prov$ by any me?od n applicable to ! ,categorical8 ,if n1 :y g on ) ! discussion ( ,conditionals8 ,= all laws ( ,nature1 h[ev] /at$1 are ess5tially categorical4 ',if a /raight l9e falls on ano!r /raight l9e1 ! adjac5t angles are toge!r equal to two "r angles'2 ',if a body is unsupport$1 x falls'2 ',if population increases1 r5ts t5d to rise'3 "h 'if' means ':5ev]' or 'all cases 9 :i*'2 = to raise a d\bt :e!r a /raight l9e is ev] conceiv$ to fall ^u ano!r1 :e!r bodies are ev] unsupport$1 or population ev] increases1 is a sup]fluity ( scepticism2 & pla9ly ! hypo!tical =m has no?+ to d ) ! pro( ( su* propositions1 nor ) inf]5ce f !m4 ,/ill1 ! disjunctive =m is necess>y 9 sett+ out ! relation ( contradictory t]ms1 & 9 /at+ a ,division 7*ap4 xxi471 :e!r =mal 7z ,a is ,b or n-,b7 or mat]ial 7z ,cats are :ite1 or black1 or tortoise%ell1 or tabby74 ,& 9 "s cases ! hypo!tical =m is useful4 ,"o ( ^! occurs :]e x is important to draw att5tion to ! condition1 z some?+ d\btful or especially requir+ exam9ation4 ,if !re is a resi/+ m$ium 9 space1 ! e>? w fall into ! sun2 ,if ! ,corn ,laws are to be re-enact$1 we _h bett] sell railways & buy l&3 "h ! hypo!tical =m draws att5tion to ! que/ions :e!r !re is a resi/+ m$ium 9 space1 :e!r ! ,corn ,laws are likely to be re-enact$2 b z to me?ods ( inf]5ce & pro(1 ! hypo!tical =m has no?+ to d ) !m4 ,! propositions pr$icate causation3 ,a resi/+ m$ium 9 space is a condition ( ! e>?'s fall+ into ! sun2 ,a ,corn ,law is a condition ( ! rise ( r5ts1 & ( ! fall ( railway pr(its4 ,a second case 9 :i* ! hypo!tical is a specially appropriate =m ( /atem5t occurs :]e a proposition relates to a p>ticul> matt] & to future "t1 z ,if !re be a /orm to-morr[1 we %all miss our picnic4 ,su* cases are ( v slight logical int]e/4 ,x is z ex]cises 9 =mal ?9k+ t hypo!ticals are ( mo/ value2 inasmu* z _m p f9d !m m difficult ?an categoricals to manipulate4 ,9 discuss+ ,conditional ,propositions1 ! conditional s5t5ce ( a ,hypo!tical1 or ! fir/ alt]native ( a ,disjunctive1 is call$ ! ,antec$5t2 ! indicative s5t5ce ( a ,hypo!tical1 or ! second alt]native ( a ,disjunctive1 is call$ ! ,consequ5t4 ,hypo!ticals1 l ,categoricals1 h be5 class$ accord+ to ,quantity & ,quality4 ,premis+ t ! quantity ( a ,hypo!tical dep5ds on ! quantity ( its ,antec$5t 7:i* det]m9es its limitation71 :il/ its quality dep5ds on ! quality ( its consequ5t 7:i* makes ! pr$ication71 we may exhibit f\r =ms3 ,a4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 ,i4 ,sometimes :5 ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 ,e4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is n ,d2 ,o4 ,sometimes :5 ,a is ,b1 ,c is n ,d4 ,b ,i4 & ,o4 are r>ely us$4 ,z = ,disjunctives1 x is easy to di/+ui% ! two quantities ?us3 ,a4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b1 or ,c is ,d2 ,i4 ,sometimes ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d4 ,b ,i4 is r>ely us$4 ,! di/9ction ( quality1 h[ev]1 _c be made3 !re are no true negative =ms2 = if we write-- ,nei!r is ,a ,b1 nor ,c ,d1 !re is "h no alt]native pr$ication1 b only an ,exponible equival5t to ,no ,a is ,b1 & ,no ,c is ,d4 ,& if we write-- ,ei!r ,a is n ,b1 or ,c is n ,d1 ?is is affirmative z to ! alt]nation1 & is = all me?ods ( treatm5t equival5t to ,a4 ,logicians are divid$ 9 op9ion z to ! int]pretation ( ! conjunction 'ei!r1 or'2 "s hold+ t x means 'n bo?1' o!rs t x means 'x may be bo?4' ,grammatical usage1 ^u :i* ! "q is sometimes argu$1 does n seem to be e/abli%$ 9 fav\r ( ei!r view4 ,if we say ,a man s precise 9 8 walk & conv]sation is ei!r a sa9t or a consummate hypocrite2 or1 aga91 ,"o :o is happy 9 a solit>y life is ei!r m or less ?an man2 we _c 9 su* cases mean t ! subject may be bo?4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if x be said t ! au?or ( ',a ,tale ( a ,tub' is ei!r a misan?rope or a dyspeptic1 ! alt]natives are n incompatible4 ,or1 aga91 giv5 t ,x4 is a lunatic1 or a lov]1 or a poet1 ! ?ree pr$icates h mu* congruity4 ,x has be5 urg$ t 9 ,logic1 language %\ld be made z exact & def9ite z possible1 & t ?is requires ! exclusive int]pretation 'n bo?4' ,b x seems a bett] argum5t1 t ,logic 7#a7 %\ld be able to express all mean+s1 & 7#b71 z ! sci5ce ( evid5ce1 mu/ n assume m ?an is giv52 to be on ! safe side1 x mu/ 9 d\btful cases assume ! lea/1 j z x g5]ally assumes a pre9designate t]m to be ( p>ticul> quantity2 &1 !re=e 'ei!r1 or' means '"o1 or ! o!r1 or bo?4' ,h[ev]1 :5 bo? ! alt]native propositions h ! same subject1 z ,ei!r ,a is ,b1 or ,a is ,c1 if ! two pr$icates are contr>y or contradictory t]ms 7z 'sa9t' & 'hypocrite1' or 'sa9t' & 'n-sa9t'71 !y _c 9 _! nature be pr$icable 9 ! same way ( ! same subject2 &1 !re=e1 9 su* a case 'ei!r1 or' means "o or ! o!r1 b n bo? 9 ! same relation4 ,h5ce x seems necess>y to admit t ! conjunction 'ei!r1 or' may sometimes require "o int]pretation1 sometimes ! o!r2 & ! rule is t x implies ! fur!r possibility 'or bo?1' except :5 bo? alt]natives h ! same subject :il/ ! pr$icates are contr>y or contradictory t]ms4 ,if1 !n1 ! disjunctive ,a is ei!r ,b or ,c 7,b & ,c be+ contr>ies7 implies t bo? alt]natives _c be true1 x c only be adequately r5d]$ 9 hypo!ticals by ! two =ms--7#a7 ,if ,a is ,b1 x is n ,c1 & 7#b7;,if ,a is n ,b1 x is ,c4 ,b if ! disjunctive ,a is ei!r ,b or ,c 7,b & ,c n be+ contr>ies7 implies t bo? may be true1 x w be adequately translat$ into a hypo!tical by ! s+le =m1 ,if ,a is n ,b1 x is ,c4 ,we _c translate x into--,if ,a is ,b1 x is n ,c1 =1 by our supposition1 if ',a is ,b' is true1 x does n foll[ t ',a is ,c' mu/ be false4 ,logicians are also divid$ 9 op9ion z to ! function ( ! hypo!tical =m4 ,"s ?9k x expresses d\bt2 = ! consequ5t dep5ds on ! antec$5t1 & ! antec$5t1 introduc$ by 'if1' may or may n be realis$1 z 9 ,if ! sky is cle>1 ! night is cold3 :e!r ! sky is1 or is n1 cle> be+ suppos$ to be unc]ta94 ,& we h se5 t "s hypo!tical propositions seem design$ to draw att5tion to su* unc]ta9ty1 z--,if !re is a resi/+ m$ium 9 space1 etc4 ,b o!r ,logicians lay /ress ^u ! connection ( ! clauses z ! important matt]3 ! /atem5t is1 !y say1 t ! consequ5t may be inf]r$ f ! antec$5t4 ,"s ev5 decl>e t x is giv5 z a necess>y inf]5ce2 & on ?is gr\nd ,sigw>t rejects p>ticul> hypo!ticals1 su* z ,sometimes :5 ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 = if x happ5s only sometimes ! connexion _c be necess>y4 ,inde$1 x _c ev5 be probably inf]r$ )\t fur!r gr\nds4 ,b ?is is also true :5ev] ! antec$5t & consequ5t are conc]n$ ) diff]5t matt]4 ,= example1 ,if ! s\l is simple1 x is inde/ructible4 ,h[ d y "k t8 ,because ,e simple sub/ance is inde/ructible4 ,)\t ?is fur!r gr\nd !re c be no inf]5ce4 ,! fact is t conditional =ms (t5 cov] ass]tions t are n true complex propositions b a sort ( eu?ymemes 7*ap4 xi4 #b71 argum5ts abbreviat$ & rhetorically disguis$4 ,?us3 ,if pati5ce is a virtue !re are pa9ful virtues--an example f ,dr4 ,keynes4 ,exp&+ ?is we h-- ,pati5ce is pa9ful2 ,pati5ce is a virtue3 ,"s virtue is pa9ful4 ,& !n we see ! equivocation ( ! inf]5ce2 = ?\gh pati5ce be pa9ful to le>n1 x is n pa9ful z a virtue to ! pati5t man4 ,! hypo!tical1 ',if ,plato 0 n mi/ak5 poets are dang]\s citiz5s1' may be consid]$ z an argum5t aga9/ ! laureate%ip1 & may be exp&$ 7in=mally7 ?us3 ',all ,plato's op9ions des]ve respect2 "o ( !m 0 t poets are bad citiz5s2 !re=e x behoves u to be *>y ( enc\rag+ poetry4' ,or take ?is disjunctive1 ',ei!r ,bacon wrote ! works ascrib$ to ,%akespe>e1 or !re 7 two m5 ( ! highe/ g5ius 9 ! same age & c\ntry4' ,?is means t x is n likely !re %\ld be two su* m51 t we are sure ( ,bacon1 & !re=e ought to give him all ! glory4 ,n[1 if x is ! "p ( ,logic 'to make explicit 9 language all t is implicit 9 ?\ght1' or to put argum5ts into ! =m 9 :i* !y c be/ be exam9$1 su* propositions z ! above ought to be analys$ 9 ! way sugge/$1 & confirm$ or refut$ accord+ to _! real int5tion4 ,we may conclude t no s+le function c be assign$ to all hypo!tical propositions3 ea* mu/ be treat$ accord+ to its own mean+ 9 its own context4 #e4 ,z to ,modality1 propositions are divid$ into ,pure & ,modal4 ,a ,modal proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$1 n simply b cum modo1 ) a qualification4 ,& "s ,logicians h consid]$ any adv]b occurr+ 9 ! pr$icate1 or any sign ( pa/ or future t5se1 en\gh to con/itute a modal3 z ',petroleum is dang]\sly inflammable'2 ',engli% w be ! univ]sal language4' ,b f> ! mo/ important k9d ( modality1 & ! only "o we ne$ consid]1 is t :i* is signifi$ by "s qualification ( ! pr$icate z to ! degree ( c]ta9ty ) :i* x is affirm$ or d5i$4 ,?us1 ',! bite ( ! cobra is probably mortal1' is call$ a ,cont+5t or ,problematic ,modal3 ',wat] is c]ta9ly compos$ ( oxyg5 & hydrog5' is an ,ass]tory or ,c]ta9 ,modal3 ',two /raight l9es _c enclose a space' is a ,necess>y or ,apodeictic ,modal 7! opposite be+ inconceivable74 ,propositions n ?us qualifi$ are call$ ,pure4 ,modal propositions h _h a long & ev5tful hi/ory1 b !y h n be5 f\nd tractable by ! res\rces ( ord9>y ,logic1 & are n[ g5]ally neglect$ by ! au?ors ( text-books4 ,no d\bt su* propositions are ! commone/ 9 ord9>y disc\rse1 & 9 "s r\gh way we comb9e !m & draw inf]5ces f !m4 ,x is und]/ood t a comb9ation ( ass]tory or ( apodeictic premises may w>rant an ass]tory or an apodeictic conclusion2 b t if we comb9e ei!r ( ^! ) a problematic premise our conclusion becomes problematic2 :il/ ! comb9ation ( two problematic premises gives a conclusion less c]ta9 ?an ei!r4 ,b if we ask ',h[ mu* less c]ta98' !re is no answ]4 ,t ! modality ( a conclusion foll[s ! less c]ta9 ( ! premises comb9$1 is inadequate = sci5tific guidance2 s t1 z ,d$uctive ,logic c get no f>!r ?an ?is1 x has ab&on$ ! discussion ( ,modals4 ,to endeav\r to det]m9e ! degree ( c]ta9ty atta*+ to a problematic judgm5t is n1 h[ev]1 beyond ! rea* ( ,induction1 by analys+ circum/antial evid5ce1 or by collect+ /ati/ics ) reg>d to x4 ,?us1 in/ead ( ',! cobra's bite is probably fatal1' we might f9d t x is fatal #hj times 9 #ajj4 ,!n1 if we "k t ( ^? :o g to ,india #c 9 #ajjj are bitt51 we c calculate :at ! *ances are t any "o go+ to ,india w die ( a cobra's bite 7*ap4 xx474 #f4 ,v]bal & ,real ,propositions4--,ano!r important division ( propositions turns ^u ! relation ( ! pr$icate to ! subject 9 respect ( _! connotations4 ,we saw1 :5 discuss+ ,relative ,t]ms1 t ! connotation ( "o t]m (t5 implies t ( ano!r2 sometimes reciprocally1 l 'ma/]' & 'slave'2 or by inclusion1 l species & g5us2 or by exclusion1 l contr>ies & contradictories4 ,:5 t]ms s relat$ appe> z subject & pr$icate ( ! same proposition1 ! result is (t5 tautology--e4g41 ,! ma/] has au?ority ov] 8 slave2 ,a horse is an animal2 ,r$ is n blue2 ,briti% is n =eign4 ,:oev] kn[s ! mean+ ( 'ma/]1' 'horse1' 'r$1' ',briti%1' le>ns no?+ f ^! propositions4 ,h5ce !y are call$ ,v]bal propositions1 z only exp\nd+ ! s5se ( words1 or z if !y 7 propositions only by satisfy+ ! =ms ( language1 n by fulfill+ ! function ( propositions 9 convey+ a k ( facts4 ,!y are also call$ ',analytic' & ',explicative1' :5 !y sep>ate & dis5gage ! elem5ts ( ! connotation ( ! subject4 ,d\btless1 su* propositions may be useful to "o :o does n "k ! language2 & ,def9itions1 :i* are v]bal propositions ^: pr$icates analyse ! :ole connotations ( _! subjects1 are indisp5sable in/rum5ts ( sci5ce 7see *ap4 xxii474 ,( c\rse1 hypo!tical propositions may also be v]bal1 z ,if ! s\l be mat]ial x is ext5d$2 = 'ext5sion' is connot$ by 'matt]'2 &1 !re=e1 ! correspond+ disjunctive is v]bal--,ei!r ! s\l is n mat]ial1 or x is ext5d$4 ,b a true divisional disjunctive c nev] be v]bal 7*ap4 xxi4 #d1 rule #a74 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 !re is no su* direct relation betwe5 subject & pr$icate t _! connotations imply "o ano!r1 b ! pr$icate connotes some?+ t _c be le>nt f ! connotation ( ! subject1 !re is no long] tautology1 b an enl>gem5t ( mean+--e4g41 ,ma/]s are degrad$ by _! slaves2 ,! horse is ! noble/ animal2 ,r$ is ! fav\rite col\r ( ! ,briti% army2 ,if ! s\l is simple1 x is inde/ructible4 ,su* propositions are call$ ,real1 ,syn!tic1 or ,ampliative1 because !y are propositions = :i* a m]e und]/&+ ( _! subjects w\ld be no sub/itute1 s9ce ! pr$icate adds a mean+ ( its own conc]n+ matt] ( fact4 ,to any "o :o und]/&s ! language1 a v]bal proposition c nev] be an inf]5ce or conclusion f evid5ce2 nor c a v]bal proposition ev] furni% gr\nds = an inf]5ce1 except z to ! mean+ ( words4 ,! subject ( real & v]bal propositions w inevitably recur 9 ! *apt]s on ,def9ition2 b tautologies are su* common blemi%es 9 composition1 & su* frequ5t pitfalls 9 argum5t1 t att5tion _c be drawn to !m too e>ly or too (t54 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,conditions ,,( ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce #a4 ,! ^w ,inf]5ce is us$ 9 two diff]5t s5ses1 :i* are (t5 confus$ b %\ld be c>efully di/+ui%$4 ,9 ! fir/ s5se1 x means a process ( ?\ght or reason+ by :i* ! m9d passes f facts or /atem5ts pres5t$1 to "s op9ion or expectation4 ,! data may be v vague & slight1 prompt+ no m ?an a guess or surmise2 z :5 we look up at ! sky & =m "s expectation ab\t ! wea!r1 or f ! trick ( a man's face ent]ta9 "s prejudice z to 8 "*4 ,or ! data may be important & /rongly significant1 l ! footpr9t t fright5$ ,crusoe into ?9k+ ( cannibals1 or z :5 news ( w> makes ! city expect t ,consols w fall4 ,^! are examples ( ! act ( inf]r+1 or ( inf]5ce z a process2 & ) inf]5ce 9 ?is s5se ,logic has no?+ to d2 x belongs to ,psy*ology to expla9 h[ x is t our m9ds pass f "o p]ception or ?\ght to ano!r ?\ght1 & h[ we come to conjecture1 conclude & believe 7cf4 *ap4 i4 #f74 ,9 ! second s5se1 'inf]5ce' means n ?is process ( guess+ or op9+1 b ! result ( x2 ! surmise1 op9ion1 or belief :5 =m$2 9 a ^w1 ! conclusion3 & x is 9 ?is s5se t ,inf]5ce is treat$ ( 9 ,logic4 ,! subject-matt] ( ,logic is an inf]5ce1 judgm5t or conclusion conc]n+ facts1 embodi$ 9 a proposition1 :i* is to be exam9$ 9 relation to ! evid5ce t may be adduc$ = x1 9 ord] to det]m9e :e!r1 or h[ f>1 ! evid5ce am\nts to pro(4 ,logic is ! sci5ce ( ,reason+ 9 ! s5se 9 :i* 'reason+' means giv+ reasons1 = x %[s :at sort ( reasons are good4 ,:il/ ,psy*ology expla9s h[ ! m9d goes =w>d f data to conclusions1 ,logic takes a conclusion & goes back to ! data1 inquir+ :e!r ^? data1 toge!r ) any o!r evid5ce 7facts or pr9ciples7 t c be collect$1 are ( a nature to w>rant ! conclusion4 ,if we ?9k t ! night w be /ormy1 t ,john ,doe is ( an amiable disposition1 t wat] exp&s 9 freez+1 or t "o means to national prosp]ity is popul> education1 & wi% to "k :e!r we h evid5ce suffici5t to ju/ify u 9 hold+ ^! op9ions1 ,logic c tell u :at =m ! evid5ce %\ld assume 9 ord] to be conclusive4 ,:at =m ! evid5ce %\ld assume3 ,logic _c tell u :at k9ds ( fact are prop] evid5ce 9 any ( ^! cases2 t is a "q = ! man ( special exp]i5ce 9 life1 or 9 sci5ce1 or 9 bus9ess4 ,b :atev] facts con/itute ! evid5ce1 !y mu/1 9 ord] to prove ! po9t1 admit ( be+ /at$ 9 con=mity ) c]ta9 pr9ciples or conditions2 & ( ^! pr9ciples or conditions ,logic is ! sci5ce4 ,x deals1 !n1 n ) ! subjective process ( inf]r+1 b ) ! objective gr\nds t ju/ify or discr$it ! inf]5ce4 #b4 ,inf]5ces1 9 ! ,logical s5se1 are divid$ into two great classes1 ! ,imm$iate & ! ,m$iate1 accord+ to ! "* ( ! evid5ce (f]$ 9 pro( ( !m4 ,/rictly1 to speak ( inf]5ces1 9 ! s5se ( conclusions1 z imm$iate or m$iate1 is an abuse ( language1 d]iv$ f times be=e ! di/9ction betwe5 inf]5ce z process & inf]5ce z result 0 g5]ally felt4 ,no d\bt we ought r to speak ( ,imm$iate & ,m$iate ,evid5ce2 b x is ( little use to attempt to alt] ! traditional expressions ( ! sci5ce4 ,an ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 !n1 is "o t dep5ds = its pro( ^u only "o o!r proposition1 :i* has ! same1 or m ext5sive1 t]ms 7or matt]74 ,?us t "o means to national prosp]ity is popul> education is an imm$iate inf]5ce1 if ! evid5ce = x is no m ?an ! admission t popul> education is a means to national prosp]ity3 ,simil>ly1 x is an imm$iate inf]5ce t ,"s au?ors are va91 if x be grant$ t ,all au?ors are va94 ,an ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce may seem to be little else ?an a v]bal trans=mation2 "s ,logicians dispute its claims to be call$ an inf]5ce at all1 on ! gr\nd t x is id5tical ) ! pret5d$ evid5ce4 ,if we att5d to ! mean+1 say !y1 an imm$iate inf]5ce does n really express any new judgm5t2 ! fact express$ by x is ei!r ! same z its evid5ce1 or is ev5 less significant4 ,if f ,no m5 are gods we prove t ,no gods are m51 ?is is nugatory2 if we prove f x t ,"s m5 are n gods1 ?is is to emasculate ! s5se1 to wa/e valuable in=mation1 to lose ! comm&+ sweep ( our univ]sal proposition4 ,/ill1 9 ,logic1 x is (t5 f\nd t an imm$iate inf]5ce expresses our k 9 a m conv5i5t =m ?an t ( ! evid5ti>y proposition1 z w appe> 9 ! *apt] on ,syllogisms & else:]e4 ,& by trans=m+ an univ]sal into a p>ticul> proposition1 z ,no m5 are gods1 !re=e1 ,"s m5 are n gods1--we get a /atem5t :i*1 ?\gh weak]1 is f> m easily prov$2 s9ce a s+le in/ance suffices4 ,moreov]1 by draw+ all possible imm$iate inf]5ces f a giv5 proposition1 we see x 9 all its aspects1 & le>n all t is impli$ 9 x4 ,a ,m$iate ,inf]5ce1 on ! o!r h&1 dep5ds = its evid5ce ^u a plurality ( o!r propositions 7two or m7 :i* are connect$ toge!r on logical pr9ciples4 ,if we argue-- ,no m5 are gods2 ,alex&] ! ,great is a man2 ,alex&] ! ,great is n a god3 ?is is a ,m$iate ,inf]5ce4 ,! evid5ce consi/s ( two propositions connect$ by ! t]m 'man1' :i* is common to bo? 7a ,middle ,t]m71 m$iat+ betwe5 'gods' & ',alex&]4' ,m$iate ,inf]5ces comprise ,syllogisms ) _! developm5ts1 & ,inductions2 & to discuss !m fur!r at pres5t w\ld be to anticipate future *apt]s4 ,we mu/ n[ deal ) ! pr9ciples or conditions on :i* ,imm$iate ,inf]5ces are valid3 commonly call$ ! ,laws ( ,?\ght4 #c4 ,! ,laws ( ,?\ght are conditions ( ! logical /atem5t & criticism ( all sorts ( evid5ce2 b z to ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 !y may be reg>d$ z ! only conditions x ne$ satisfy4 ,!y are (t5 express$ ?us3 7#a7 ,! pr9ciple ( ,id5tity--',:atev] is1 is'2 7#b7 ,! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction--',x is impossible = ! same ?+ to be & n be'2 7#c7 ,! pr9ciple ( ,exclud$ ,middle--',any?+ mu/ ei!r be or n be4' ,^! pr9ciples are manife/ly n 'laws' ( ?\ght 9 ! s5se 9 :i* 'law' is us$ 9 ,psy*ology2 !y d n pr(ess to describe ! actual m5tal processes t take place 9 judgm5t or reason+1 z ! 'laws ( association ( ideas' acc\nt = memory & recollection4 ,!y are n natural laws ( ?\ght2 b1 9 relation to ?\ght1 c only be reg>d$ z laws :5 /at$ z precepts1 ! obs]vance ( :i* 7consci\sly or n7 is necess>y to cle> & consi/5t ?9k+3 e4g41 ,nev] assume t ! same ?+ c bo? be & n be4 ,h[ev]1 treat+ ,logic z ! sci5ce ( ?\ght only z embodi$ 9 propositions1 9 respect ( :i* evid5ce is to be adduc$1 or :i* are to be us$ z evid5ce ( o!r propositions1 ! above laws or pr9ciples mu/ be re/at$ z ! conditions ( consi/5t argum5t 9 su* t]ms z to be directly applicable to propositions4 ,x 0 %[n 9 ! *apt] on ! connotation ( t]ms1 t t]ms are assum$ by ,logicians to be capable ( def9ite mean+1 & ( be+ us$ univocally 9 ! same context2 if1 or 9 s f> z1 ?is is n ! case1 we _c und]/& "o ano!r's reasons nor ev5 pursue 9 solit>y m$itation any coh]5t tra9 ( argum5t4 ,we saw1 too1 t ! mean+s ( t]ms 7 relat$ to "o ano!r3 "s be+ full correlatives2 o!rs p>tially inclusive "o ( ano!r1 z species ( g5us2 o!rs mutually incompatible1 z contr>ies2 or alt]natively pr$icable1 z contradictories4 ,we n[ assume t propositions are capable ( def9ite mean+ accord+ to ! mean+ ( _! compon5t t]ms & ( ! relation betwe5 !m2 t ! mean+1 ! fact ass]t$ or d5i$1 is :at we are really conc]n$ to prove or disprove2 t a m]e *ange 9 ! words t con/itute our t]ms1 or ( con/ruction1 does n affect ! tru? ( a proposition z long z ! mean+ is n alt]$1 or 7r7 z long z no fre% mean+ is introduc$2 & t if ! mean+ ( any proposition is true1 any o!r proposition t d5ies x is false4 ,?is po/ulate is pla9ly necess>y to consi/5cy ( /atem5t & disc\rse2 & consi/5cy is necess>y1 if our ?\ght or spee* is to correspond ) ! unity & coh]5ce ( ,nature & exp]i5ce2 & ! ,laws ( ,?\ght or ,conditions ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce are an analysis ( ?is po/ulate4 #d4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,id5tity is usually writt5 symbolically ?us3 ,a is ,a2 n-,a is n-,a4 ,x assumes t !re is some?+ t may be repres5t$ by a t]m2 & x requires t1 9 any discussion1 e relevant t]m1 once us$ 9 a def9ite s5se1 %all keep t mean+ ?r\gh\t4 ,socrates 9 8 fa!r's work%op1 at ! battle ( ,delium1 & 9 prison1 is assum$ to be ! same man d5otable by ! same "n2 & simil>ly1 'elephant1' or 'ju/ice1' or 'fairy1' 9 ! same context1 is to be und]/ood ( ! same ?+ "u ! same suppositio4 ,b1 fur!r1 x is assum$ t ( a giv5 t]m ano!r t]m may be pr$icat$ aga9 & aga9 9 ! same s5se "u ! same conditions2 t is1 we may speak ( ! id5tity ( mean+ 9 a proposition z well z 9 a t]m4 ,to symbolise ?is we ought to alt] ! usual =mula = ,id5tity & write x ?us3 ,if ,b is ,a1 ,b is ,a2 if ,b is n-,a1 ,b is n-,a4 ,if ,socrates is wise1 he is wise2 if fairies frequ5t ! moonlight1 !y d2 if ,ju/ice is n ( ?is _w1 x is n4 ,:atev] affirmation or d5ial we make conc]n+ any subject1 we are b\nd to adh]e to x = ! purposes ( ! curr5t argum5t or inve/igation4 ,( c\rse1 if our ass]tion turns out to be false1 we mu/ n adh]e to x2 b !n we mu/ repudiate all t we =m]ly d$uc$ f x4 ,aga91 :atev] is true or false 9 "o =m ( words is true or false 9 any o!r3 ?is is und5iable1 = ! important ?+ is id5tity ( mean+2 b 9 ,=mal ,logic x is n v conv5i5t4 ,if ,socrates is wise1 is x an id5tity to say ',!re=e ! ma/] ( ,plato is wise'2 or1 fur!r t he 'takes enlight5$ views ( life'8 ,if ,e man is fallible1 is x an id5tical proposition t ,e man is liable to error8 ,x seems p$antic to dem& a sep>ate proposition t ,fallible is liable to error4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! insidi\s sub/itution ( "o t]m = ano!r speci\sly id5tical1 is a *ief occasion ( fallacy4 ,h[ if we g on to argue3 !re=e1 ,e man is apt to blund]1 prone to confusion ( ?\ght1 inur$ to self-contradiction8 ,practically1 ! sub/itution ( id5tities mu/ be left to c&\r & good-s5se2 & may !y increase among u4 ,=mal ,logic is1 no d\bt1 safe/ ) symbols2 %\ld1 p]haps1 cont5t itself ) ,a & ,b2 or1 at lea/1 h>dly v5ture beyond ,y & ,z4 #e4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction is usually writt5 symbolically1 ?us3 ,a is n n-,a4 ,b1 s9ce ?is =mula seems to be adapt$ to a s+le t]m1 :]eas we want "o t is applicable to propositions1 x may be bett] to write x ?us3 ,b is n bo? ,a & n-,a4 ,t is to say3 if any t]m may be affirm$ ( a subject1 ! contradictory t]m may1 9 ! same relation1 be d5i$ ( x4 ,a leaf t is gre5 on "o side ( x may be n-gre5 on ! o!r2 b x is n bo? gre5 & n-gre5 on ! same surface1 at ! same "t1 & 9 ! same light4 ,if a /ick is /raight1 x is false t x is at ! same "t n-/raight3 hav+ grant$ t two angles are equal1 we mu/ d5y t !y are unequal4 ,b is x necess>ily false t ! /ick is 'crook$'2 mu/ we d5y t ei!r angle is 'great] or less' ?an ! o!r8 ,h[ f> is x p]missible to sub/itute any o!r t]m = ! =mal contradictory8 ,cle>ly1 ! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction takes = grant$ ! pr9ciple ( ,id5tity1 & is subject to ! same difficulties 9 its practical application4 ,z a matt] ( fact & common s5se1 if we affirm any t]m ( a ,subject1 we are b\nd to d5y ( t ,subject1 9 ! same relation1 n only ! contradictory b all synonyms = ?is1 & also all contr>ies & opposites2 :i*1 ( c\rse1 are includ$ 9 ! contradictory4 ,b :o %all det]m9e :at ^! are8 ,)\t an au?oritative ,logical ,diction>y to ref] to1 :]e all contradictories1 synonyms1 & contr>ies may be f\nd on record1 ,=mal ,logic w h>dly sanction ! free play ( common s5se4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,exclud$ ,middle may be writt53 ,b is ei!r ,a or n-,a2 t is1 if any t]m be d5i$ ( a subject1 ! contradictory t]m may1 9 ! same relation1 be affirm$4 ,( c\rse1 we may d5y t a leaf is gre5 on "o side )\t be+ b\nd to affirm t x is n-gre5 on ! o!r4 ,b 9 ! same relation a leaf is ei!r gre5 or n-gre52 at ! same "t1 a /ick is ei!r b5t or n-b5t4 ,if we d5y t ,a is great] ?an ,b1 we mu/ affirm t x is n-great] ?an ,b4 ,:il/1 !n1 ! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction 7t '( contradictory pr$icates1 "o be+ affirm$1 ! o!r is d5i$ '7 might seem to leave op5 a ?ird or middle c\rse1 ! d5y+ ( bo? contradictories1 ! pr9ciple ( ,exclud$ ,middle d]ives its "n f ! exclud+ ( ?is middle c\rse1 by decl>+ t ! "o or ! o!r mu/ be affirm$4 ,h5ce ! pr9ciple ( ,exclud$ ,middle does n hold good ( m]e contr>y t]ms4 ,if we d5y t a leaf is gre51 we are n b\nd to affirm x to be yell[2 = x may be r$2 & !n we may d5y bo? contr>ies1 yell[ & gre54 ,9 fact1 two contr>ies d n betwe5 !m cov] ! :ole pr$icable area1 b contradictories d3 ! =m ( _! expression is su* t 7)9 ! suppositio7 ea* includes all t ! o!r excludes2 s t ! subject 7if br\ght )9 ! suppositio7 mu/ fall "u ! "o or ! o!r4 ,x may seem absurd to say t ,mont ,blanc is ei!r wise or n-wise2 b h[ comes any m9d s ill-organis$ z to introduce ,mont ,blanc into ?is /range company8 ,be+ !re1 h[ev]1 ! pr9ciple is inexorable3 ,mont ,blanc is n-wise4 ,9 fact1 ! pr9ciples ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle are insep>able2 !y are implicit 9 all di/9ct exp]i5ce1 & may be reg>d$ z indicat+ ! two aspects ( ,negation4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction says3 ,b is n bo? ,a & n-,a1 z if n-,a might be no?+ at all2 ?is is ab/ract negation4 ,b ! pr9ciple ( ,exclud$ ,middle says3 ,grant+ t ,b is n ,a1 x is /ill some?+--namely1 n-,a2 ?us br++ u back to ! concrete exp]i5ce ( a cont9uum 9 :i* ! abs5ce ( "o ?+ implies ! pres5ce ( some?+ else4 ,symbolically3 to d5y t ,b is ,a is to affirm t ,b is n ,a1 & ?is only diff]s by a hyph5 f ,b is n-,a4 ,^! pr9ciples1 :i* 7 necess>ily to "s ext5t anticipat$ 9 *ap4 iv4 #g1 ! next *apt] w fur!r illu/rate4 #f4 ,b fir/ we mu/ draw att5tion to a maxim 7also already m5tion$71 :i* is /rictly applicable to ,imm$iate ,inf]5ces1 ?\gh 7z we %all see7 9 o!r k9ds ( pro( x may be only a =mal condition3 ?is is ! g5]al caution n to g beyond ! evid5ce4 ,an imm$iate inf]5ce ought to conta9 no?+ t is n conta9$ 7or =mally impli$7 9 ! proposition by :i* x is prov$4 ,) respect to quantity 9 d5otation1 ?is caution is embodi$ 9 ! rule 'n to di/ribute any t]m t is n giv5 di/ribut$4' ,?us1 if !re is a pr$ication conc]n+ ',"s ,s1' or ',"s m51' z 9 ! =ms ,i4 & ,o41 we _c inf] any?+ conc]n+ ',all ,s4' or ',all m5'2 &1 z we h se51 if a t]m is giv5 u pre9designate1 we are g5]ally to take x z ( p>ticul> quantity4 ,simil>ly1 9 ! case ( affirmative propositions1 we saw t ?is rule requires u to assume t _! pr$icates are undi/ribut$4 ,z to ! gr\nds ( ?is maxim1 n to g beyond ! evid5ce1 n to di/ribute a t]m t is giv5 z undi/ribut$1 x is "o ( ! ?+s s pla9 t to try to ju/ify is only to obscure !m4 ,/ill1 we mu/ "h /ate explicitly :at ,=mal ,logic assumes to be conta9$ or impli$ 9 ! evid5ce af=d$ by any proposition1 su* z ',all ,s is ,p4' ,if we rememb] t 9 *ap4 iv4 #g1 x 0 assum$ t e t]m may h a contradictory2 & if we be> 9 m9d ! pr9ciples ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle1 x w appe> t su* a proposition z ',all ,s is ,p' tells u some?+ n only ab\t ! relations ( ',s' & ',p1' b also ( _! relations to 'n-,s' & 'n-,p'2 z1 = example1 t ',s is n n-,p1' & t 'n-,p is n-,s4' ,x w be %[n 9 ! next *apt] h[ ,logicians h develop$ ^! implications 9 s]ies ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ces4 ,if x be ask$ :e!r x is true t e t]m1 itself significant1 has a significant contradictory1 & n m]ely a =mal contradictory1 g5]at$ by =ce ( ! ^w 'n1' x is difficult to give any bett] answ] ?an 0 indicat$ 9 #c-e1 )\t v5tur+ fur!r into ,metaphysics4 ,i %all m]ely say1 !re=e1 t1 grant+ t "s su* t]m z ',univ]se' or ',be+' may h no significant contradictory1 if x /& = ':atev] c be p]ceiv$ or ?\ght ('2 yet e t]m t /&s = less ?an ',univ]se' or ',be+' has1 ( c\rse1 a contradictory :i* d5otes ! re/ ( ! univ]se4 ,& s9ce e argum5t or tra9 ( ?\ght is c>ri$ on )9 a special 'univ]se ( disc\rse1' or "u a c]ta9 suppositio1 we may say t )9 ! giv5 suppositio e t]m has a contradictory1 & t e pr$ication conc]n+ a t]m implies "s pr$ication conc]n+ its contradictory4 ,b ! "n ( ! suppositio itself has no contradictory1 except ) ref]5ce to a wid] & inclusive suppositio4 ,! difficulty ( actual reason+1 n ) symbols1 b ab\t matt]s ( fact1 does n arise f ! pr9ciples ( ,logic1 b sometimes f ! obscurity or complexity ( ! facts1 sometimes f ! ambiguity or clums9ess ( language1 sometimes f ! defici5cy ( our own m9ds 9 p5etration1 t5acity & lucidity4 ,"o mu/ d "o's be/ to /udy ! facts1 & n be too easily disc\rag$4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ces #a4 ,"u ! g5]al title ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce ,logicians discuss ?ree subjects1 namely1 ,opposition1 ,conv]sion1 & ,obv]sion2 to :i* "s writ]s add o!r =ms1 su* z ,:ole & ,"p 9 ,connotation1 ,contraposition1 ,inv]sion1 etc4 ,( ,opposition1 aga91 all recognise f\r modes3 ,subalt]nation1 ,contradiction1 ,contr>iety & ,sub-contr>iety4 ,! only peculi>ities ( ! exposition ^u :i* we are n[ ent]+ are1 t x foll[s ! lead ( ! ?ree ,laws ( ,?\ght1 tak+ fir/ ^? modes ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce 9 :i* ,id5tity is mo/ important1 !n ^? :i* pla9ly involve ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle2 & t ?is me?od results 9 sep>at+ ! modes ( ,opposition1 connect+ ,subalt]nation ) ,conv]sion1 & ! o!r modes ) ,obv]sion4 ,to make up = ?is dep>ture f usage1 ! f\r modes ( ,opposition w be br\ght toge!r aga9 9 #i4 #b4 ,subalt]nation4--,opposition be+ ! relation ( propositions t h ! same matt] & diff] only 9 =m 7z ,a41 ,e41 ,i41 ,o471 propositions ( ! =ms ,a4 & ,i4 are said to be ,subalt]ns 9 relation to "o ano!r1 & s are ,e4 & ,o42 ! univ]sal ( ea* quality be+ di/+ui%$ z 'subalt]nans1' & ! p>ticul> z 'subalt]nate4' ,x foll[s f ! pr9ciple ( ,id5tity t1 ! matt] ( ! propositions be+ ! same1 if ,a4 is true ,i4 is true1 & t if ,e4 is true ,o4 is true2 = ,a4 & ,e4 pr$icate some?+ ( ,all ,s or ,all m52 & s9ce ,i4 & ,o4 make ! same pr$ication ( ,"s ,s or ,"s m51 ! s5se ( ^! p>ticul> propositions has already be5 pr$icat$ 9 ,a4 or ,e4 ,if ,all ,s is ,p1 ,"s ,s is ,p2 if ,no ,s is ,p1 ,"s ,s is n ,p2 or1 if ,all m5 are fond ( laugh+1 ,"s m5 are2 if ,no m5 are exempt f ridicule1 ,"s m5 are n4 ,simil>ly1 if ,i4 is false ,a4 is false2 if ,o4 is false ,e4 is false4 ,if we d5y any pr$ication ab\t ,"s ,s1 we mu/ d5y x ( ,all ,s2 s9ce 9 d5y+ x ( ,"s1 we h d5i$ x ( at lea/ "p ( ,all2 & :atev] is false 9 "o =m ( words is false 9 any o!r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ,i4 is true1 we d n "k t ,a4 is2 nor if ,o4 is true1 t ,e4 is2 = to inf] f ,"s to ,all w\ld be go+ beyond ! evid5ce4 ,we %all see 9 discuss+ ,induction t ! great problem ( t "p ( ,logic is1 to det]m9e ! conditions "u :i* we may 9 reality transc5d ?is rule & inf] f ,"s to ,all2 ?\gh ev5 !re x w appe> t1 =mally1 ! rule is obs]v$4 ,= ! pres5t x is en\gh t ,i4 is an imm$iate inf]5ce f ,a41 & ,o4 f ,e42 b t ,a4 is n an imm$iate inf]5ce f ,i41 nor ,e4 f ,o4 #c4 ,connotative ,subalt]nation4--,we h se5 7*ap4 iv4 #f7 t if ! connotation ( "o t]m is only "p ( ano!r's its d5otation is great] & includes t o!r's4 ,h5ce g5us & species /& 9 subalt]n relation1 & :atev] is true ( ! g5us is true ( ! species3 ,if ,all animal life is dep5d5t on vegetation1 ,all human life is dep5d5t on vegetation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :atev] is n true ( ! species or n>r[] t]m1 _c be true ( ! :ole g5us3 ,if x is false t ',all human life is happy1' x is false t ',all animal life is happy4' ,simil> inf]5ces may be drawn f ! subalt]n relation ( pr$icates2 affirm+ ! species we affirm ! g5us4 ,to take ,mill's example1 if ,socrates is a man1 ,socrates is a liv+ creature4 ,on ! o!r h&1 d5y+ ! g5us we d5y ! species3 if ,socrates is n vici\s1 ,socrates is n drunk54 ,su* cases z ^! are recognis$ by ,mill & ,ba9 z imm$iate inf]5ces "u ! pr9ciple ( ,id5tity4 ,b "s ,logicians might treat !m z imp]fect syllogisms1 requir+ ano!r premise to legitimate ! conclusion1 ?us3 ,all animal life is dep5d5t on vegetation2 ,all human life is animal life2 ,all human life is dep5d5t on vegetation4 ,or aga93 ,all m5 are liv+ creatures2 ,socrates is a man2 ,socrates is a liv+ creature4 ,! decision ( ?is issue turns ^u ! "q 7cf4 *ap4 vi4 #c7 h[ f> a ,logician is entitl$ to assume t ! t]ms he uses are und]/ood1 & t ! id5tities involv$ 9 _! mean+s w be recognis$4 ,& to ?is "q1 = ! sake ( consi/5cy1 "o ( two answ]s is requir$2 fail+ :i*1 !re rema9s ! rule ( ?umb4 ,fir/1 x may be held t no t]ms are und]/ood except ^? t are def9$ 9 exp\nd+ ! sci5ce1 su* z 'g5us' & 'species1' 'connotation' & 'd5otation4' ,b v few ,logicians obs]ve ?is limitation2 few w\ld hesitate to sub/itute 'n wise' = 'fooli%4' ,yet by :at "r8 ,malvolio be+ fooli%1 to prove t he is n-wise1 we may con/ruct ! foll[+ syllogism3 ,fooli% is n-wise2 ,malvolio is fooli%2 ,malvolio is n-wise4 ,is ?is necess>y8 ,:y n8 ,secondly1 x may be held t all t]ms may be assum$ z und]/ood unless a def9ition is *all5g$4 ,?is pr9ciple w ju/ify ! sub/itution ( 'n-wise' = 'fooli%'2 b x w also legitimate ! above cases 7conc]n+ 'human life' & ',socrates'7 z imm$iate inf]5ces1 ) innum]able o!rs t might be bas$ ^u ! doctr9e ( relative t]ms3 = example1 ,! hunt] miss$ 8 aim3 !re=e1 ,! prey escap$4 ,& f ?is pr9ciple x w fur!r foll[ t all app>5t syllogisms1 hav+ "o premise a v]bal proposition1 are imm$iate inf]5ces 7cf4 *ap4 ix4 #d74 ,closely connect$ ) su* cases z ! above are ^? m5tion$ by ,ar*bi%op ,?omson z ,imm$iate ,inf]5ces by add$ ,det]m9ants 7,laws ( ,?\ght1 #hg74 ,he takes ! case3 ',a negro is a fell[-creature3 !re=e1 ,a negro 9 suff]+ is a fell[-creature 9 suff]+4' ,?is re/s ^u ! pr9ciple t to increase ! connotations ( two t]ms by ! same attribute or det]m9ant does n affect ! relation%ip ( _! d5otations1 s9ce x mu/ equally dim9i% 7if at all7 ! d5otations ( bo? classes1 by exclud+ ! same individuals1 if any want ! giv5 attribute4 ,b ?is pr9ciple is true only :5 ! add$ attribute is n m]ely ! same v]bally1 b has ! same significance 9 qualify+ bo? t]ms4 ,we _c argue ,a m\se is an animal2 !re=e1 ,a l>ge m\se is a l>ge animal2 = 'l>ge' is an attribute relative to ! normal magnitude ( ! ?+ describ$4 #d4 ,conv]sion is ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce by transpos+ ! t]ms ( a giv5 proposition )\t alt]+ its quality4 ,if ! quantity is also unalt]$1 ! inf]5ce is call$ ',simple ,conv]sion'2 b if ! quantity is *ang$ f univ]sal to p>ticul>1 x is call$ ',conv]sion by limitation' or 'p] accid5s4' ,! giv5 proposition is call$ ! 'conv]t5d'2 t :i* is d]iv$ f x1 ! 'conv]se4' ,dep>t+ f ! usual ord] ( exposition1 ,i h tak5 up ,conv]sion next to ,subalt]nation1 because x is g5]ally ?\ght to re/ ^u ! pr9ciple ( ,id5tity1 & because x seems to be a good me?od to exhau/ ! =ms t come only "u ,id5tity be=e go+ on to ^? t involve ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,"s1 inde$1 dispute ! claims ( ,conv]sion to illu/rate ! pr9ciple ( ,id5tity2 & if ! suffici5t /atem5t ( t pr9ciple be ',a is ,a1' x may be a "q h[ ,conv]sion or any o!r mode ( inf]5ce c be ref]r$ to x4 ,b if we /ate x z above 7*ap4 vi4 #c71 t :atev] is true 9 "o =m ( words is true 9 any o!r1 !re is no difficulty 9 apply+ x to ,conv]sion4 ,?us1 to take ! simple conv]sion ( ,i41 ,"s ,s is ,p2 ,"s ,p is ,s4 ,"s poets are bus9ess-l2 ,"s bus9ess-l m5 are poets4 ,"h ! conv]t5d & ! conv]se say ! same ?+1 & ?is is true if t is4 ,we h1 !n1 two cases ( simple conv]sion3 ( ,i4 7z above7 & ( ,e4 ,= ,e43 ,no ,s is ,p2 ,no ,p is ,s4 ,no rum9ants are c>nivores2 ,no c>nivores are rum9ants4 ,9 conv]t+ ,i41 ! pr$icate 7,p7 :5 tak5 z ! new subject1 be+ pre9designate1 is treat$ z p>ticul>2 & 9 conv]t+ ,e41 ! pr$icate 7,p71 :5 tak5 z ! new subject1 is treat$ z univ]sal1 accord+ to ! rule 9 *ap4 v4 #a4 ,a4 is ! "o case ( conv]sion by limitation3 ,all ,s is ,p2 ,"s ,p is ,s4 ,all cats are grey 9 ! d>k2 ,"s ?+s grey 9 ! d>k are cats4 ,! pr$icate is treat$ z p>ticul>1 :5 tak+ x = ! new subject1 accord+ to ! rule n to g beyond ! evid5ce4 ,to inf] t ,all ?+s grey 9 ! d>k are cats w\ld be palpably absurd2 yet no error ( reason+ is common] ?an ! simple conv]sion ( ,a4 ,! validity ( conv]sion by limitation may be %[n ?us3 if1 ,all ,s is ,p1 !n1 by subalt]nation1 ,"s ,s is ,p1 & !re=e1 by simple conv]sion1 ,"s ,p is ,s4 ,o4 _c be truly conv]t$4 ,if we take ! proposition3 ,"s ,s is n ,p1 to conv]t ?is into ,no ,p is ,s1 or ,"s ,p is n ,s1 w\ld break ! rule 9 *ap4 vi4 #f2 s9ce ,s1 undi/ribut$ 9 ! conv]t5d1 w\ld be di/ribut$ 9 ! conv]se4 ,if we are told t ,"s m5 are n cooks1 we _c inf] t ,"s cooks are n m54 ,?is w\ld be to assume t ',"s m5' are id5tical ) ',all m54' ,by quantify+ ! pr$icate1 inde$1 we may conv]t ,o4 simply1 ?us3 ,"s m5 are n cooks ,no cooks are "s m54 ,& ! same plan has "s advantage 9 conv]t+ ,a42 = by ! usual me?od p] accid5s1 ! conv]se ( ,a4 be+ ,i41 if we conv]t ?is aga9 x is /ill ,i41 & !re=e means less ?an our orig9al conv]t5d4 ,?us3 ,all ,s is ,p ,"s ,p is ,s ,"s ,s is ,p4 ,su* k1 z t ,all ,s 7! :ole ( x7 is ,p1 is too preci\s a ?+ to be squ&]$ 9 pure ,logic2 & x may be pres]v$ by quantify+ ! pr$icate2 = if we conv]t ,a4 to ,y41 ?us-- ,all ,s is ,p ,"s ,p is all ,s-- we may reconv]t ,y4 to ,a4 )\t any loss ( mean+4 ,x is ! *ief use ( quantify+ ! pr$icate t1 !reby1 e proposition is capable ( simple conv]sion4 ,! conv]sion ( propositions 9 :i* ! relation ( t]ms is inadequately express$ 7see *ap4 ii41 #b7 by ! ord9>y copula 7is or is n7 ne$s a special rule4 ,to argue ?us-- ,a is foll[$ by ,b ,some?+ foll[$ by ,b is ,a-- w\ld be clumsy =malism4 ,we usually say1 & we ought to say-- ,a is foll[$ by ,b ,b foll[s ,a 7or is prec$$ by ,a74 ,n[1 any relation betwe5 two t]ms may be view$ f ei!r side--,a3 ,b or ,b3 ,a4 ,x is 9 bo? cases ! same fact2 b1 ) ! alt]$ po9t ( view1 x may pres5t a diff]5t "*4 ,= example1 9 ! ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce--,a ,b ,b ,a--a dim9i%+ turns into an increas+ ratio1 :il/ ! fact pr$icat$ rema9s ! same4 ,giv51 !n1 a relation betwe5 two t]ms z view$ f "o to ! o!r1 ! same relation view$ f ! o!r to ! "o may be call$ ! ,reciprocal4 ,9 ! cases ( ,equality1 ,co-exi/5ce & ,simultaneity1 ! giv5 relation & its reciprocal are n only ! same fact1 b !y also h ! same "*3 9 ! cases ( ,great] & ,less & ,sequ5ce1 ! "* alt]s4 ,we may1 !n1 /ate ! foll[+ rule = ! conv]sion ( propositions 9 :i* ! :ole relation explicitly /at$ is tak5 z ! copula3 ,transpose ! t]ms1 & = ! giv5 relation sub/itute its reciprocal4 ,?us-- ,a is ! cause ( ,b ,b is ! effect ( ,a4 ,! rule assumes t ! reciprocal ( a giv5 relation is def9itely kn[n2 & s f> z ?is is true x may be ext5d$ to m concrete relations-- ,a is a g5us ( ,b ,b is a species ( ,a ,a is ! fa!r ( ,b ,b is a *ild ( ,a4 ,b n e relational expression has only "o def9ite reciprocal4 ,if we are told t ,a is ! bro!r ( ,b1 we c only inf] t ,b is ei!r ! bro!r or ! si/] ( ,a4 ,a li/ ( all reciprocal relations is a desid]atum ( ,logic4 #e4 ,obv]sion 7o!rwise call$ ,p]mutation or quipoll5ce7 is ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce by *ang+ ! quality ( ! giv5 proposition & sub/itut+ = its pr$icate ! contradictory t]m4 ,! giv5 proposition is call$ ! 'obv]t5d1' & ! inf]5ce f x ! 'obv]se4' ,?us ! obv]t5d be+--,"s philosoph]s are consi/5t reason]s1 ! obv]se w be--,"s philosoph]s are n inconsi/5t reason]s4 ,! legitimacy ( ?is mode ( reason+ foll[s1 9 ! case ( affirmative propositions1 f ! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction1 t if any t]m be affirm$ ( a subject1 ! contradictory t]m may be d5i$ 7*ap4 vi4 #c74 ,to obv]t affirmative propositions1 !n1 ! rule is--,ins]t ! negative sign1 & = ! pr$icate sub/itute its contradictory t]m4 ,a4 ,all ,s is ,p ,no ,s is n-,p ,all m5 are fallible ,no m5 are infallible4 ,i4 ,"s ,s is ,p "s ,s is n-,p ,"s philosoph]s are consi/5t ,"s philosoph]s are n inconsi/5t4 ,9 agreem5t ) ?is mode ( inf]5ce1 we h ! rule ( mod]n ,engli% gramm>1 t 'two negatives make an affirmative4' ,aga91 by ! pr9ciple ( ,exclud$ ,middle1 if any t]m be d5i$ ( a subject1 its contradictory may be affirm$3 to obv]t negative propositions1 !n1 ! rule is--,remove ! negative sign1 & = ! pr$icate sub/itute its contradictory t]m4 ,e4 ,no ,s is ,p ,all ,s is n-,p ,no matt] is de/ructible ,all matt] is inde/ructible4 ,o4 ,"s ,s is n ,p ,"s ,s is n-,p ,"s ideals are n atta9able ,"s ideals are unatta9able4 ,?us1 by obv]sion1 ea* ( ! f\r propositions reta9s its quantity b *anges its quality3 ,a4 to ,e41 ,i4 to ,o41 ,e4 to ,a41 ,o4 to ,i4 ,& all ! obv]ses are inf9ite propositions1 ! affirmative inf9ites hav+ ! s5se ( negatives1 & ! negative inf9ites hav+ ! s5se ( affirmatives4 ,aga91 hav+ obta9$ ! obv]se ( a giv5 proposition1 x may be desirable to recov] ! obv]t5d2 or x may at any "t be requisite to *ange a giv5 inf9ite proposition into ! correspond+ direct affirmative or negative2 & 9 su* cases ! process is /ill obv]sion4 ,?us1 if ,no ,s is n-,p be giv5 u to recov] ! obv]t5d or to f9d ! correspond+ affirmative2 ! proposition be+ =mally negative1 we apply ! rule = obv]t+ negatives3 ',remove ! negative sign1 & = ! pr$icate sub/itute its contradictory4' ,?is yields ! affirmative ,all ,s is ,p4 ,simil>ly1 to obta9 ! obv]t5d ( ,all ,s is n-,p1 apply ! rule = obv]t+ ,affirmatives2 & ?is yields ,no ,s is ,p4 #f4 ,contr>iety4--,we h se5 9 *ap4 iv4 #h1 t contr>y t]ms are su* t no two ( !m are pr$icable 9 ! same way ( ! same subject1 :il/ p]haps nei!r may be pr$icable ( x4 ,simil>ly1 ,contr>y ,propositions may be def9$ z ^? ( :i* no two are ev] bo? true toge!r1 :il/ p]haps nei!r may be true2 or1 9 o!r words1 bo? may be false4 ,?is is ! relation betwe5 ,a4 & ,e4 :5 conc]n$ ) ! same matt]3 z ,a4--,all m5 are wise2 ,e4--,no m5 are wise4 ,su* propositions _c bo? be true2 b !y may bo? be false1 = "s m5 may be wise & "s n4 ,!y _c bo? be true2 =1 by ! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction1 if wise may be affirm$ ( ,all m51 n-wise mu/ be d5i$2 b ,all m5 are n-wise is ! obv]se ( ,no m5 are wise1 :i* !re=e may also be d5i$4 ,at ! same "t we _c apply to ,a4 & ,e4 ! pr9ciple ( ,exclud$ ,middle1 s z to %[ t "o ( !m mu/ be true ( ! same matt]4 ,= if we d5y t ,all m5 are wise1 we d n necess>ily d5y ! attribute 'wise' ( ea* & e man3 to say t ,n all are wise may mean no m ?an t ,"s are n4 ,?is gives a proposition 9 ! =m ( ,o42 :i*1 z we h se51 does n imply its subalt]nans1 ,e4 ,if1 h[ev]1 two ,s+ul> ,propositions1 hav+ ! same matt]1 b diff]+ 9 quality1 are to be treat$ z univ]sals1 & !re=e z ,a4 & ,e41 !y are1 nev]!less1 contradictory & n m]ely contr>y2 = "o ( !m mu/ be false & ! o!r true4 #g4 ,contradiction is a relation betwe5 two propositions analog\s to t betwe5 contradictory t]ms 7"o ( :i* be+ affirm$ ( a subject ! o!r is d5i$7--su*1 namely1 t "o ( !m is false & ! o!r true4 ,?is is ! case ) ! =ms ,a4 & ,o41 & ,e4 & ,i41 9 ! same matt]4 ,if x be true t ,all m5 are wise1 x is false t ,"s m5 are n wise 7equival5t by obv]sion to ,"s m5 are n-wise72 or else1 s9ce ! ',"s m5' are includ$ 9 ! ',all m51' we %\ld be pr$icat+ ( ! same m5 t !y are bo? 'wise' & 'n-wise'2 :i* w\ld violate ! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction4 ,simil>ly1 ,no m5 are wise1 be+ by obv]sion equival5t to ,all m5 are n-wise1 is incompatible ) ,"s m5 are wise1 by ! same pr9ciple ( ,contradiction4 ,b1 aga91 if x be false t ,all m5 are wise1 x is always true t ,"s are n wise2 = ?\gh 9 d5y+ t 'wise' is a pr$icate ( ',all m5' we d n d5y x ( ea* & e man1 yet we d5y x ( ',"s m54' ,( ',"s m51' !re=e1 by ! pr9ciple ( ,exclud$ ,middle1 'n-wise' is to be affirm$2 & ,"s m5 are n-wise1 is by obv]sion equival5t to ,"s m5 are n wise4 ,simil>ly1 if x be false t ,no m5 are wise1 :i* by obv]sion is equival5t to ,all m5 are n-wise1 !n x is true at lea/ t ,"s m5 are wise4 ,by ext5d+ & en=c+ ! doctr9e ( relative t]ms1 c]ta9 o!r inf]5ces are impli$ 9 ! contr>y & contradictory relations ( propositions4 ,we h se5 9 *ap4 iv4 t ! contradictory ( a giv5 t]m includes all its contr>ies3 'n-blue1' = example1 includes r$ & yell[4 ,h5ce1 s9ce ,! sky is blue becomes by obv]sion1 ,! sky is n n-blue1 we may also inf] ,! sky is n r$1 etc4 ,f ! tru?1 !n1 ( any proposition pr$icat+ a giv5 t]m1 we may inf] ! falsity ( all propositions pr$icat+ ! contr>y t]ms 9 ! same relation4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 f ! falsity ( a proposition pr$icat+ a giv5 t]m1 we _c inf] ! tru? ( ! pr$ication ( any p>ticul> contr>y t]m4 ,if x be false t ,! sky is r$1 we _c =mally inf]1 t ,! sky is blue 7cf4 *ap4 iv4 #h74 #h4 ,sub-contr>iety is ! relation ( two propositions1 conc]n+ ! same matt] t may bo? be true b are nev] bo? false4 ,?is is ! case ) ,i4 & ,o4 ,if x be true t ,"s m5 are wise1 x may also be true t ,"s 7o!r7 m5 are n wise4 ,?is foll[s f ! maxim 9 *ap4 vi4 #f1 n to g beyond ! evid5ce4 ,= if x be true t ,"s m5 are wise1 x may inde$ be true t ,all are 7?is be+ ! subalt]nans73 & if ,all are1 x is 7by contradiction7 false t ,"s are n2 b z we are only told t ,"s m5 are1 x is illicit to inf] ! falsity ( ,"s are n1 :i* c\ld only be ju/ifi$ by evid5ce conc]n+ ,all m54 ,b if x be false t ,"s m5 are wise1 x is true t ,"s m5 are n wise2 =1 by contradiction1 if ,"s m5 are wise is false1 ,no m5 are wise is true2 &1 !re=e1 by subalt]nation1 ,"s m5 are n wise is true4 #i4 ,! ,squ>e ( ,opposition4--,by _! relations ( ,subalt]nation1 ,contr>iety1 ,contradiction1 & ,sub-contr>iety1 ! =ms ,a4 ,i4 ,e4 ,o4 7hav+ ! same matt]7 are said to /& 9 ,opposition3 & ,logicians repres5t ^! relations by a squ>e hav+ ,a4 ,i4 ,e4 ,o4 at its corn]s3 ,a4 ,contr>ies ,e4 ,s ,co s ,s u nt e u b ra i b a di r a l ct o l t ct o t e di r e r ra i r n nt e n s ,co s s ,i4 ,sub-contr>ies ,o4 ,z an aid to ! memory1 ?is diagram is useful2 b z an attempt to repres5t ! logical relations ( propositions1 x is mislead+4 ,=1 /&+ at corn]s ( ! same squ>e1 ,a4 & ,e41 ,a4 & ,i41 ,e4 & ,o41 & ,i4 & ,o41 seem to be c\ples be>+ ! same relation to "o ano!r2 :]eas we h se5 t _! relations are entirely diff]5t4 ,! foll[+ traditional summ>y ( _! relations 9 respect ( tru? & falsity is mu* m to ! purpose3 7#a7 ,if ,a4 is true1 ,i4 is true1 ,e4 is false1 ,o4 is false4 7#b7 ,if ,a4 is false1 ,i4 is unkn[n1 ,e4 is unkn[n1 ,o4 is true4 7#c7 ,if ,i4 is true1 ,a4 is unkn[n1 ,e4 is false1 ,o4 is unkn[n4 7#d7 ,if ,i4 is false1 ,a4 is false1 ,e4 is true1 ,o4 is true4 7#e7 ,if ,e4 is true1 ,a4 is false1 ,i4 is false1 ,o4 is true4 7#f7 ,if ,e4 is false1 ,a4 is unkn[n1 ,i4 is true1 ,o4 is unkn[n4 7#g7 ,if ,o4 is true1 ,a4 is false1 ,i4 is unkn[n1 ,e4 is unkn[n4 7#h7 ,if ,o4 is false1 ,a4 is true1 ,i4 is true1 ,e4 is false4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 z 9 cases #b1 #c1 #f1 #g1 alleg+ ei!r ! falsity ( univ]sals or ! tru? ( p>ticul>s1 x foll[s t two ( ! ?ree ,opposites are unkn[n1 we may conclude fur!r t "o ( !m mu/ be true & ! o!r false1 because ! two unkn[n are always ,contradictories4 #aj4 ,second>y modes ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce are obta9$ by apply+ ! process ( ,conv]sion or ,obv]sion to ! results already obta9$ by ! o!r process4 ,! be/ kn[n second>y =m ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce is ! ,contrapositive1 & ?is is ! conv]se ( ! obv]se ( a giv5 proposition4 ,?us3 ,,datum4 ,,obv]se4 ,,contrapositive4 ,a4 ,all ,s is ,p ,no ,s is n-,p ,no n-,p is ,s ,i4 ,"s ,s is ,p ,"s ,s is n n-,p 7none7 ,e4 ,no ,s is ,p ,all ,s is n-,p ,"s n-,p is ,s ,o4 ,"s ,s is n ,p ,"s ,s is n-,p ,"s n-,p is ,s ,!re is no contrapositive ( ,i41 because ! obv]se ( ,i4 is 9 ! =m ( ,o41 & we h se5 t ,o4 _c be conv]t$4 ,o41 h[ev]1 has a contrapositive 7,"s n-,p is ,s72 & ?is is sometimes giv5 in/ead ( ! conv]se1 & call$ ! 'conv]se by negation4' ,contraposition ne$s no ju/ification by ! ,laws ( ,?\ght1 z x is no?+ b a comp\nd+ ( conv]sion ) obv]sion1 bo? ( :i* processes h already be5 ju/ifi$4 ,i give a table opposite ( ! o!r ways ( comp\nd+ ^! prim>y modes ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 ,a ,i ,e ,o ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- #a ,all ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is ,b ,no ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is n ,b ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,obv]se #b ,no ,a is b ,"s ,a is n b ,all ,a is b ,"s ,a is b ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,conv]se #c ,"s ,b is ,a ,"s ,b is ,a ,no ,b is ,a ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,obv]se ( #d ,"s ,b is n a ,"s ,b is n a ,all ,b is a ,conv]se ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,contra- positive #e ,no b is ,a ,"s b is ,a ,"s b is ,a ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,obv]se ( #f ,all b is a ,"s b is n a ,"s b is n a ,contrapos ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,conv]se ( ,obv]se #g ,"s a is ,b ( ,conv]se ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,obv]se ( ,conv]se ( #h ,"s a is n b ,obv]se ( ,conv]se ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,conv]se ( ,obv]se #i ,"s a is b ( ,contrapos ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,obv]se ( ,conv]se ( #aj ,"s a is n ,b ,obv]se ( ,contrapos ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,9 ?is table a & b /& = n-,a & n-,b & _h bett] be read ?us3 = ,no ,a is b1 ,no ,a is n-,b2 = ,all b is a 7col4 #f71 ,all n-,b is n-,a2 & s on4 ,x may n1 at fir/1 be obvi\s :y ! process ( alt]nately obv]t+ & conv]t+ any proposition %\ld ev] come to an end2 ?\gh x w1 no d\bt1 be consid]$ a v =tunate circum/ance t x always does end4 ,on exam9+ ! results1 x w be f\nd t ! cause ( its end+ is ! inconv]tibility ( ,o4 ,= ,e41 :5 obv]t$1 becomes ,a42 e ,a1 :5 conv]t$1 deg5]ates into ,i42 e ,i41 :5 obv]t$1 becomes ,o42 ,o _c be conv]t$1 & to obv]t x aga9 is m]ely to re/ore ! =m] proposition3 s t ! :ole process moves on to inevitable dissolution4 ,i4 & ,o4 are exhau/$ by ?ree trans=mations1 :il/ ,a4 & ,e4 w ea* endure sev54 ,except ,obv]sion1 ,conv]sion & ,contraposition1 x has n be5 usual to be/[ special names on ^! processes or _! results4 ,b ! =m 9 columns #g & #aj 7,"s a is ,b--,"s a is n ,b71 :]e ! orig9al pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! contradictory ( ! orig9al subject1 has be5 ?\ght by ,dr4 ,keynes to des]ve a di/9ctive title1 & he has call$ x ! ',inv]se4' ,:il/ ! ,inv]se is "o =m1 h[ev]1 ,inv]sion is n "o process1 b is obta9$ by diff]5t processes f ,e4 & ,a4 respectively4 ,9 ?is x diff]s f ,obv]sion1 ,conv]sion1 & ,contraposition1 ea* ( :i* /&s = "o process4 ,! ,inv]se =m has be5 object$ to on ! gr\nd t ! inf]5ce ,all ,a is ,b ,"s n-,a is n ,b1 di/ributes ,b 7z pr$icate ( a negative proposition71 ?\gh x 0 giv5 z undi/ribut$ 7z pr$icate ( an affirmative proposition74 ,b ,dr4 ,keynes def5ds x on ! gr\nd t 7#a7 x is obta9$ by obv]sions & conv]sions :i* are all legitimate & 7#b7 t al?\gh ,all ,a is ,b does n di/ribute ,b 9 relation to ,a1 x does di/ribute ,b 9 relation to "s n-,a 7namely1 9 relation to :atev] n-,a is n-,b74 ,?is is "o reason :y1 9 /at+ ! rule 9 *ap4 vi4 #f1 ,i h writt53 an imm$iate inf]5ce ought to conta9 no?+ t is n conta9$1 or =mally impli$1 9 ! proposition f :i* x is inf]r$2 & h ma9ta9$ t e t]m =mally implies its contradictory )9 ! suppositio4 #aa4 ,imm$iate ,inf]5ces f ,conditionals are ^? :i* consi/--7#a7 9 *ang+ a ,disjunctive into a ,hypo!tical1 or a ,hypo!tical into a ,disjunctive1 or ei!r into a ,categorical2 & 7#b7 9 ! relations ( ,opposition & ! equival5ces ( ,obv]sion1 ,conv]sion1 & second>y or comp\nd processes1 :i* we h already exam9$ 9 respect ( ,categoricals4 ,z no new pr9ciples are involv$1 x may suffice to exhibit "s ( ! results4 ,we h already se5 7*ap4 v4 #d7 h[ ,disjunctives may be read z ,hypo!ticals & ,hypo!ticals z ,categoricals4 ,&1 z to ,opposition1 if we recognise f\r =ms ( ,hypo!tical ,a4 ,i4 ,e4 ,o41 ^! pla9ly /& to "o ano!r 9 a ,squ>e ( ,opposition1 j z ,categoricals d4 ,?us ,a4 & ,e4 7,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d1 & ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is n ,d7 are contr>ies1 b n contradictories2 s9ce bo? may be false 7,c may sometimes be ,d1 & sometimes n71 ?\gh !y _c bo? be true4 ,& if !y are bo? false1 _! subalt]nates are bo? true1 be+ respectively ! contradictories ( ! univ]sals ( opposite quality1 namely1 ,i4 ( ,e41 & ,o4 ( ,a4 ,b 9 ! case ( ,disjunctives1 we _c set out a satisfactory ,squ>e ( ,opposition2 because1 z we saw 7*ap4 v4 #d71 ! =ms requir$ = ,e4 & ,o4 are n true ,disjunctives1 b ,exponibles4 ,! ,obv]se1 ,conv]se1 & ,contrapositive1 ( ,hypo!ticals 7admitt+ ! di/9ction ( quality7 may be exhibit$ ?us3 ,,datum4 ,,obv]se4 ,a4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is n d ,i4 ,sometimes :5 ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d ,sometimes :5 ,a is ,b1 ,c is n d ,e4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is n ,d ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is d ,o4 ,sometimes :5 ,a is ,b1 ,c is n ,d ,sometimes :5 ,a is ,b1 ,c is d ,,conv]se4 ,,contrapositive4 ,sometimes :5 ,c is ,d1 ,a is ,b ,if ,c is d1 ,a is n ,b ,sometimes :5 ,c is ,d1 ,a is ,b 7none7 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,a is n ,b ,sometimes :5 ,c is d1 ,a is ,b 7none7 ,sometimes :5 ,c is d1 ,a is ,b ,z to ,disjunctives1 ! attempt to put !m ?r\gh ^! diff]5t =ms imm$iately de/roys _! disjunctive "*4 ,/ill1 giv5 any proposition 9 ! =m ,a is ei!r ,b or ,c1 we c /ate ! propositions t give ! s5se ( obv]sion1 conv]sion1 etc41 ?us3 ,,datum4--,a is ei!r ,b or ,c2 ,,obv]se4--,a is n bo? b & c2 ,,conv]se4--,some?+1 ei!r ,b or ,c1 is ,a2 ,,contrapositive4--,no?+ t is bo? b & c is ,a4 ,= a ,disjunctive 9 ,i41 ( c\rse1 !re is no ,contrapositive4 ,giv5 a ,disjunctive 9 ! =m ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d1 we may write = its ,obv]se--,9 no case is ,a b1 & ,c at ! same "t d4 ,b no ,conv]se or ,contrapositive ( su* a ,disjunctive c be obta9$1 except by fir/ ca/+ x into ! hypo!tical or categorical =m4 ,! read] :o wi%es to pursue ?is subject fur!r1 w f9d x elaborately treat$ 9 ,dr4 ,keynes' ,=mal ,logic1 ,"p ,,ii42 to :i* "w ! above *apt] is indebt$4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,ord] ,,( ,,t]ms1 ,,eul]',s ,,diagrams1 ,,logical ,,equations1 ,,exi/5tial ,,import ,,( ,,propositions #a4 ,( ! t]ms ( a proposition :i* is ! ,subject & :i* ! ,pr$icate8 ,9 mo/ ( ! exempl>y propositions cit$ by ,logicians x w be f\nd t ! subject is a sub/antive & ! pr$icate an adjective1 z 9 ,m5 are mortal4 ,?is is ! relation ( ,sub/ance & ,attribute :i* we saw 7*ap4 i4 #e7 to be ! c5tral type ( relations ( co9h]5ce2 & on ?is model o!r pr$ications may be =m$ 9 :i* ! subject is n a sub/ance1 b is treat$ z if x 71 & c\ld !re=e be ! gr\nd ( attributes2 z ,fame is trea*]\s1 ,! wea!r is *angeable4 ,b1 9 lit]ature1 s5t5ces 9 :i* ! adjective comes fir/ are n uncommon1 z ,l\d 0 ! applause1 ,d>k is ! fate ( man1 ,bless$ are ! peacemak]s1 & s on4 ,"h1 !n1 'l\d1' 'd>k' & 'bless$' occupy ! place ( ! logical subject4 ,are !y really ! subject1 or mu/ we alt] ! ord] ( su* s5t5ces into ,! applause 0 l\d1 etc48 ,if we d1 & !n proce$ to conv]t1 we get ,l\d 0 ! applause1 or 7m scrupul\sly7 ,"s l\d noise 0 ! applause4 ,! la/ =m1 x is true1 gives ! subject a sub/antive ^w1 b 'applause' has become ! pr$icate2 & if ! sub/antive 'noise' 0 n impli$ 9 ! fir/ =m1 ,l\d is ! applause1 by :at "r is x n[ ins]t$8 ,! recognition ( ,conv]sion1 9 fact1 requires u to admit t1 =mally1 9 a logical proposition1 ! t]m prec$+ ! copula is subject & ! "o foll[+ is pr$icate4 ,&1 ( c\rse1 mat]ially consid]$1 ! m]e ord] ( t]ms 9 a proposition c make no diff]5ce 9 ! me?od ( prov+ x1 nor 9 ! inf]5ces t c be drawn f x4 ,/ill1 if ! "q is1 h[ we may be/ ca/ a lit]>y s5t5ce into logical =m1 good gr\nds = a def9ite answ] may p]haps be f\nd4 ,we mu/ n try to /& ^u ! naturalness ( expression1 = ,d>k is ! fate ( man is q z natural z ,man is mortal4 ,:5 ! purpose is n m]ely to /ate a fact1 b also to express our feel+s ab\t x1 to place ! grammatical pr$icate fir/ may be p]fectly natural & mo/ effective4 ,b ! gr\nds ( a logical ord] ( /atem5t mu/ be f\nd 9 its adaptation to ! purposes ( pro( & inf]5ce4 ,n[ g5]al propositions are ^? f :i* mo/ inf]5ces c be drawn1 :i*1 !re=e1 x is mo/ important to e/abli%1 if true2 & !y are also ! easie/ to disprove1 if false2 s9ce a s+le negative in/ance suffices to e/abli% ! contradictory4 ,x foll[s t1 9 re-ca/+ a lit]>y or colloquial s5t5ce = logical purposes1 we %\ld try to obta9 a =m 9 :i* ! subject is di/ribut$--is ei!r a s+ul> t]m or a g5]al t]m pr$esignate z ',all' or ',no4' ,see+1 !n1 t mo/ adjectives connote a s+le attribute1 :il/ mo/ sub/antives connote m ?an "o attribute2 & t !re=e ! d5otation ( adjectives is usually wid] ?an t ( sub/antives2 9 any proposition1 "o t]m ( :i* is an adjective & ! o!r a sub/antive1 if ei!r c be di/ribut$ 9 relation to ! o!r1 x is ne>ly sure to be ! sub/antive2 s t to take ! sub/antive t]m = subject is our be/ *ance ( obta9+ an univ]sal proposition4 ,^! consid]ations seem to ju/ify ! practice ( ,logicians 9 select+ _! examples4 ,= simil> reasons1 if bo? t]ms ( a proposition are sub/antive1 ! "o ) ! less] d5otation is 7at lea/ 9 affirmative propositions7 ! m suitable subject1 z ,cats are c>nivores4 ,& if "o t]m is ab/ract1 t is ! m suitable subject2 =1 z we h se51 an ab/ract t]m may be int]pret$ by a correspond+ concrete "o di/ribut$1 z ,k9dness is infecti\s2 t is1 ,all k9d actions sugge/ imitation4 ,if1 h[ev]1 a controv]ti/ has no o!r object 9 view ?an to refute "s g5]al proposition laid d[n by an oppon5t1 a p>ticul> proposition is all t he ne$ dis5tangle f any /atem5t t s]ves 8 purpose4 #b4 ,t[>d und]/&+ cle>ly ! relations ( ! t]ms ( a proposition1 x is (t5 f\nd useful to employ diagrams2 & ! diagrams mo/ 9 use are ! circles ( ,eul]4 ,^! circles repres5t ! d5otation ( ! t]ms4 ,suppose ! proposition to be ,all holl[-horn$ animals rum9ate3 !n1 if we c\ld collect all rum9ants ^u a prairie1 & enclose !m ) a circul> palisade2 & segregate f among/ !m all ! holl[-horn$ bea/s1 & enclose !m ) ano!r r+-f5ce inside ! o!r2 "o way ( int]pret+ ! proposition 7namely1 9 d5otation7 w\ld be figur$ to u ?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,an ,univ]sal ,affirmative may also /ate a relation betwe5 two t]ms ^: d5otation is co-ext5sive4 ,a def9ition always does ?is1 z ,man is a rational animal2 & ?is1 ( c\rse1 we _c repres5t by two di/9ct circles1 b at be/ by "o ) a ?ick circumf]5ce1 to sugge/ t two co9cide1 ?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,! ,p>ticul> ,affirmative ,proposition may be repres5t$ 9 sev]al ways4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 be>+ 9 m9d t ',"s' means '"s at lea/1 x may be all1' an ,i4 proposition may be repres5t$ by ,figs4 #a & #b2 = x is true t ,"s horn$ animals rum9ate1 & t ,"s m5 are rational4 ,secondly1 !re is ! case 9 :i* ! ',"s ?+s' ( :i* a pr$ication is made are1 9 fact1 n all2 :il/ ! pr$icate1 ?\gh n giv5 z di/ribut$1 yet might be s giv5 if we wi%$ to /ate ! :ole tru?2 z if we say ,"s m5 are ,*9ese4 ,?is case is also repres5t$ by ,fig4 #a1 ! outside circle repres5t+ ',m51' & ! inside "o ',*9ese4' ,?irdly1 ! pr$icate may app]ta9 to "s only ( ! subject1 b to a great _m o!r ?+s1 z 9 ,"s horn$ bea/s are dome/ic2 = x is true t "s are n1 & t c]ta9 o!r k9ds ( animals are1 dome/ic4 ,?is case1 !re=e1 mu/ be illu/rat$ by ov]lapp+ circles1 ?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,! ,univ]sal ,negative is suffici5tly repres5t$ by a s+le ,fig4 7#d73 two circles mutually exclusive1 ?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,t is1 ,no horn$ bea/s are c>nivor\s4 ,la/ly1 ! ,p>ticul> ,negative may be repres5t$ by any ( ! ,figs4 #a1 #c1 & #d2 = x is true t ,"s rum9ants are n holl[-horn$1 t ,"s horn$ animals are n dome/ic1 & t ,"s horn$ bea/s are n c>nivor\s4 ,besides _! use 9 illu/rat+ ! d5otative =ce ( propositions1 ^! circles may be employ$ to v]ify ! results ( ,obv]sion1 ,conv]sion1 & ! second>y modes ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 ,?us ! ,obv]se ( ,a4 is cle> en\gh on glanc+ at ,figs4 #a & #b2 = if we agree t :atev] t]m's d5otation is repres5t$ by a giv5 circle1 ! d5otation ( ! contradictory t]m %all be repres5t$ by ! space outside t circle2 !n if x is true t ,all holl[ horn$ animals are rum9ants1 x is at ! same "t true t ,no holl[-horn$ animals are n-rum9ants2 s9ce none ( ! holl[-horn$ are f\nd outside ! palisade t encloses ! rum9ants4 ,! ,obv]se ( ,i41 ,e4 or ,o4 may be v]ifi$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,z to ! ,conv]se1 a ,def9ition is ( c\rse susceptible ( ,simple ,conv]sion1 & ?is is %[n by ,fig4 #b3 ',m5 are rational animals' & ',rational animals are m54' ,b any o!r ,a4 proposition is presumably conv]tible only by limitation1 & ?is is %[n by ,fig4 #a2 :]e ,all holl[-horn$ animals are rum9ants1 b we c only say t ,"s rum9ants are holl[-horn$4 ,t ,i4 may be simply conv]t$ may be se5 9 ,fig4 #c1 :i* repres5ts ! lea/ t an ,i4 proposition c mean2 & t ,e4 may be simply conv]t$ is manife/ 9 ,fig4 #d4 ,z = ,o41 we "k t x _c be conv]t$1 & ?is is made pla9 en\gh by glanc+ at ,fig4 #a2 = t repres5ts ! ,o41 ,"s rum9ants are n holl[-horn$1 b also %[s ?is to be compatible ) ,all holl[-horn$ animals are rum9ants 7,a474 ,n[ 9 conv]sion !re is 7by def9ition7 no *ange ( quality4 ,! ,conv]se1 !n1 ( ,"s rum9ants are n holl[-horn$ mu/ be a negative proposition1 hav+ 'holl[-horn$' = its subject1 ei!r 9 ,e4 or ,o42 b ^! w\ld be respectively ! contr>y & contradictory ( ,all holl[-horn$ animals are rum9ants2 &1 !re=e1 if ?is be true1 !y mu/ bo? be false4 ,b 7ref]r+ /ill to ,fig4 #a7 ! legitimacy ( contraposit+ ,o4 is equally cle>2 = if ,"s rum9ants are n holl[-horn$1 ,"s animals t are n holl[-horn$ are rum9ants1 namely1 all ! animals betwe5 ! two r+-f5ces4 ,simil> inf]5ces may be illu/rat$ f ,figs4 #c & #d4 ,& ! ,contraposition ( ,a4 may be v]ifi$ by ,figs4 #a & #b1 & ! ,contraposition ( ,e4 by ,fig4 #d4 ,la/ly1 ! ,inv]se ( ,a4 is pla9 f ,fig4 #a--,"s ?+s t are n holl[-horn$ are n rum9ants1 namely1 ?+s t lie outside ! out] circle & are nei!r 'rum9ants' nor 'holl[-horn$4' ,& ! ,inv]se ( ,e may be /udi$ 9 ,fig4 #d--,"s ?+s t are n-horn$ bea/s are c>nivor\s4 ,not)/&+ ! facility & cle>ness ( ! demon/rations ?us obta9$1 x may be said t a diagrammatic me?od1 repres5t+ d5otations1 is n prop]ly logical4 ,fundam5tally1 ! relation ass]t$ 7or d5i$7 to exi/ betwe5 ! t]ms ( a proposition1 is a relation betwe5 ! t]ms z det]m9$ by _! attributes or connotation2 :e!r we take ,mill's view1 t a proposition ass]ts t ! connotation ( ! subject is a m>k ( ! connotation ( ! pr$icate2 or ,dr4 ,v5n's view1 t ?+s d5ot$ by ! subject 7z hav+ its connotation7 h 7or h n7 ! attribute connot$ by ! pr$icate2 or1 ! ,conceptuali/ view1 t a judgm5t is a relation ( concepts 7t is1 ( connotations74 ,) a few exceptions artificially fram$ 7su* z 'k+s n[ reign+ 9 ,europe'71 ! d5otation ( a t]m is nev] directly & exhau/ively kn[n1 b consi/s m]ely 9 'all ?+s t h ! connotation4' ,if ! value ( logical tra9+ dep5ds v mu* ^u our habituat+ ourselves to con/rue propositions1 & to realise ! =ce ( inf]5ces f !m1 accord+ to ! connotation ( _! t]ms1 we %all d well n to turn too ha/ily to ! circles1 b r to reg>d !m z means ( v]ify+ 9 d5otation ! conclusions t we h already le>nt to recognise z necess>y 9 connotation4 #c4 ,! equational treatm5t ( propositions is closely connect$ ) ! diagrammatic4 ,hamilton ?\ght x a great m]it ( 8 plan ( quantify+ ! pr$icate1 t !reby e proposition is r$uc$ to its true =m--an equation4 ,accord+ to ?is doctr9e1 ! proposition ,all ,x is all ,y 7,u47 equates ,x & ,y2 ! proposition ,all ,x is "s ,y 7,a47 equates ,x ) "s "p ( ,y2 & simil>ly ) ! o!r affirmatives 7,y4 & ,i474 ,& s f> x is easy to foll[ 8 mean+3 ! ,xs are id5tical ) "s or all ! ,ys4 ,b1 com+ to ! negatives1 ! equational int]pretation is c]ta9ly less obvi\s4 ,! proposition ,no ,x is ,y 7,e47 _c be said 9 any s5se to equate ,x & ,y2 ?\gh1 if we obv]t x into ,all ,x is "s n-,y1 we h 79 ! same s5se1 ( c\rse1 z 9 ! above affirmative =ms7 ,x equat$ ) "p at lea/ ( 'n-,y4' ,b :at is t s5se8 ,cle>ly n ! same z t 9 :i* ma!matical t]ms are equat$1 namely1 9 respect ( "s mode ( quantity4 ,= if we may say ,"s ,x is "s ,y1 ^! ,xs t are also ,ys are n m]ely ! same 9 numb]1 or mass1 or figure2 !y are ! same 9 e respect1 bo? quantitative & qualitative1 h ! same positions 9 "t & place1 are 9 fact id5tical4 ,! proposition #bbd means t any two ?+s add$ to any o!r two are1 9 respect ( numb]1 equal to any ?ree ?+s add$ to "o o!r ?+2 & ?is is true ( all ?+s t c be c\nt$1 h[ev] mu* !y may diff] 9 o!r ways4 ,b ,all ,x is all ,y means t ,xs & ,ys are ! same ?+s1 al?\gh !y h diff]5t names :5 view$ 9 diff]5t aspects or relations4 ,?us all equilat]al triangles are equiangul> triangles2 b 9 "o case !y are nam$ f ! equality ( _! angles1 & 9 ! o!r f ! equality ( _! sides4 ,simil>ly1 ',briti% subjects' & 'subjects ( ,k+ ,george ,v' are ! same p1 nam$ 9 "o case f ! p]son ( ! ,cr[n1 & 9 ! o!r f ! ,imp]ial ,gov]nm5t4 ,^! logical equations1 !n1 are 9 tru? id5tities ( d5otation2 & !y are fully illu/rat$ by ! relations ( circles describ$ 9 ! previ\s section4 ,:5 we are told t logical propositions are to be consid]$ z equations1 we naturally expect to be %[n "s int]e/+ developm5ts ( me?od 9 analogy ) ! equations ( ,ma!matics2 b f ,hamilton's innovations no su* ?+ results4 ,?is _c be said1 h[ev]1 ( ! equations ( ,symbolic ,logic2 :i* are ! />t+-po9t ( v rem>kable processes ( ratioc9ation4 ,z ! subject ( ,symbolic ,logic1 z a :ole1 lies beyond ! compass ( ?is "w1 x w be en\gh to give ,dr4 ,v5n's equations correspond+ ) ! f\r propositional =ms ( common ,logic4 ,accord+ to ?is sy/em1 univ]sal propositions are to be reg>d$ z n necess>ily imply+ ! exi/5ce ( _! t]ms2 & !re=e1 in/ead ( giv+ !m a positive =m1 !y are translat$ into symbols t express :at !y d5y4 ,= example1 ! proposition ,all devils are ugly ne$ n imply t any su* ?+s z 'devils' really exi/2 b x c]ta9ly does imply t ,devils t are n ugly d n exi/4 ,simil>ly1 ! proposition ,no angels are ugly implies t ,angels t are ugly d n exi/4 ,!re=e1 writ+ x = 'devils1' y = 'ugly1' & y = 'n-ugly1' we may express ,a41 ! univ]sal affirmative1 ?us3 ,a4 xy #j4 ,t is1 x t is n y is no?+2 or1 ,devils t are n-ugly d n exi/4 ,&1 simil>ly1 writ+ x = 'angels' & y = 'ugly1' we may express ,e41 ! univ]sal negative1 ?us3 ,e4 xy #j4 ,t is1 x t is y is no?+2 or1 ,angels t are ugly d n exi/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 p>ticul> propositions are reg>d$ z imply+ ! exi/5ce ( _! t]ms1 & ! correspond+ equations are s fram$ z to express exi/5ce4 ,) ?is end 9 view1 ! symbol v is adopt$ to repres5t 'some?+1' or indet]m9ate reality1 or m ?an no?+4 ,!n1 tak+ any p>ticul> affirmative1 su* z ,"s metaphysicians are obscure1 & writ+ x = 'metaphysicians1' & y = 'obscure1' we may express x ?us3 ,i4 xy v4 ,t is1 x t is y is some?+2 or1 ,metaphysicians t are obscure d occur 9 exp]i5ce 7h[ev] few !y may be1 or :e!r !y all be obscure74 ,&1 simil>ly1 tak+ any p>ticul> negative1 su* z ,"s giants are n cruel1 & writ+ x = 'giants' & y = 'n-cruel1' we may express x ?us3 ,o4 xy v4 ,t is1 x t is n y is some?+2 or1 giants t are n-cruel d occur--9 romances1 if n[h]e else4 ,cle>ly1 ^! equations are1 l ,hamilton's1 conc]n$ ) d5otation4 ,a4 & ,e4 affirm t ! comp\nd t]ms xy & xy h no d5otation2 & ,i4 & ,o4 decl>e t xy & xy h d5otation1 or /& = some?+4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! resemblance to ,hamilton's sy/em ceases2 = ! ,symbolic ,logic1 by op]at+ ^u m ?an two t]ms simultane\sly1 by adopt+ ! algebraic signs ( op]ations1 1-1 1 7) a special signification71 & manipulat+ ! symbols by quasi-algebraic processes1 obta9s results :i* ! common ,logic rea*es 7if at all7 ) mu* great] difficulty4 ,if1 inde$1 ! value ( logical sy/ems 7 to be judg$ ( by ! results obta9able1 =mal d$uctive ,logic w\ld probably be sup]s$$4 ,&1 z a m5tal discipl9e1 !re is mu* to be said 9 fav\r ( ! symbolic me?od4 ,b1 z an introduction to philosophy1 ! common ,logic mu/ hold its gr\nd4 7,v5n3 ,symbolic ,logic1 c4 #g47 #d4 ,does ,=mal ,logic involve any g5]al assumption z to ! real exi/5ce ( ! t]ms ( propositions8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,logic treats prim>ily ( ! relations impli$ 9 propositions4 ,?is foll[s f its be+ ! sci5ce ( pro( = all sorts ( 7qualitative7 propositions2 s9ce all sorts ( propositions h no?+ 9 common except ! relations !y express4 ,b1 secondly1 relations )\t t]ms ( "s sort are n to be ?\ght (2 &1 h5ce1 ev5 ! mo/ =mal illu/rations ( logical doctr9es comprise su* t]ms z ,s & ,p1 ,x & ,y1 or x & y1 9 a symbolic or repres5tative "*4 ,t]ms1 !re=e1 ( "s sort are assum$ to exi/ 7toge!r ) _! negatives or contradictories7 = ! purposes ( logical manipulation4 ,?irdly1 h[ev]1 t ,=mal ,logic _c z su* directly involve ! exi/5ce ( any p>ticul> concrete t]ms1 su* z 'man' or 'm\nta91' us$ by way ( illu/ration1 is impli$ 9 ! ^w '=mal1' t is1 'conf9$ to :at is common or ab/ract'2 s9ce ! only ?+ common to all t]ms is to be relat$ 9 "s way to o!r t]ms4 ,! actual exi/5ce ( any concrete ?+ c only be kn[n by exp]i5ce1 z ) 'man' or 'm\nta9'2 or by me?odically ju/ifiable inf]5ce f exp]i5ce1 z ) 'atom' or 'e!r4' ,if 'man' or 'm\nta91' or ',cuzco' be us$ to illu/rate logical =ms1 !y br+ ) !m an exi/5tial import d]iv$ f exp]i5ce2 b ?is is ! import ( language1 n ( ! logical =ms4 ',c5taur' & ',el ,dorado' signify to u ! non-exi/5t2 b !y s]ve z well z 'man' & ',london' to illu/rate ,=mal ,logic4 ,nev]!less1 f\r?ly1 ! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce ( p>ticul> t]ms may come to be impli$3 namely1 :]ev] ! v fact ( exi/5ce1 or ( "s condition ( exi/5ce1 is an hypo!sis or datum4 ,?us1 giv5 ! proposition ,all ,s is ,p1 to be ,p is made a condition ( ! exi/5ce ( ,s3 :5ce x foll[s t an ,s t is n ,p does n exi/ 7xy #j74 ,on ! fur!r hypo!sis t ,s exi/s1 x foll[s t ,p exi/s4 ,on ! hypo!sis t ,s does n exi/1 ! exi/5ce ( ,p is problematic2 b1 !n1 if ,p does exi/ we _c conv]t ! proposition2 s9ce ,"s ,p is ,s 7,p exi/+7 w\ld involve ! exi/5ce ( ,s2 :i* is contr>y to ! hypo!sis4 ,assum+ t ,univ]sals d n1 :il/ ,p>ticul>s d1 imply ! exi/5ce ( _! subjects1 we _c inf] ! subalt]nate 7,i4 or ,o47 f ! subalt]nans 7,a4 or ,e471 = t is to gr\nd ! actual on ! problematic2 & = ! same reason we _c conv]t ,a4 p] accid5s4 ,assum+1 aga91 a c]ta9 suppositio or univ]se1 to :i* 9 a giv5 discussion e argum5t %all ref]1 !n1 any propositions ^: t]ms lie outside t suppositio are irrelevant1 & = ! purposes ( t discussion are sometimes call$ false2 ?\gh x seems bett] to call !m irrelevant or mean+less1 see+ t to call !m false implies t !y might 9 ! same case be true4 ,?us propositions :i*1 accord+ to ! doctr9e ( ,opposition1 appe> to be ,contradictories1 may !n cease to be s2 = ( ,contradictories "o is true & ! o!r false2 b1 9 ! case suppos$1 bo? are mean+less4 ,if ! subject ( discussion be ,zoology1 all propositions ab\t c5taurs or unicorns are absurd2 & su* speci\s ,contradictories z ,no c5taurs play ! lyre--,"s c5taurs d play ! lyre2 or ,all unicorns fight ) lions--,"s unicorns d n fight ) lions1 are bo? mean+less1 because 9 ,zoology !re are no c5taurs nor unicorns2 &1 !re=e1 9 ?is ref]5ce1 ! propositions are n really contradictory4 ,b if ! subject ( discussion or suppositio be ,my?ology or ,h]aldry1 su* propositions z ! above are to ! purpose1 & =m legitimate pairs ( ,contradictories4 ,9 ,=mal ,logic1 9 %ort1 we may make at discretion any assumption :atev] z to ! exi/5ce1 or z to any condition ( ! exi/5ce ( any p>ticul> t]m or t]ms2 & !n c]ta9 implications & conclusions foll[ 9 consi/5cy ) t hypo!sis or datum4 ,/ill1 our conclusions w !mselves be only hypo!tical1 dep5d+ on ! tru? ( ! datum2 &1 ( c\rse1 until ?is is empirically asc]ta9$1 we are z f> z ev] f empirical reality4 7,v5n3 ,symbolic ,logic1 c4 #f2 ,keynes3 ,=mal ,logic1 ,"p ,,ii4 c4 #g3 cf4 ,wolf3 ,/udies 9 ,logic47 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,=mal ,,conditions ,,( ,,m$iate ,,inf]5ce #a4 ,a ,m$iate ,inf]5ce is a proposition t dep5ds = pro( ^u two or m o!r propositions1 s connect$ toge!r by "o or m t]ms 7:i* ! evid5ti>y propositions1 or ea* pair ( !m1 h 9 common7 z to ju/ify a c]ta9 conclusion1 namely1 ! proposition 9 "q4 ,! type or 7m prop]ly7 ! unit ( all su* modes ( pro(1 :5 ( a /rictly logical k9d1 is ! ,syllogism1 to :i* we %all see t all o!r modes are r$ucible4 ,x may be exhibit$ symbolically ?us3 ,m is ,p2 ,s is ,m3 ,s is ,p4 ,syllogisms may be classifi$1 z to quantity1 into ,univ]sal or ,p>ticul>1 accord+ to ! quantity ( ! conclusion2 z to quality1 into ,affirmative or ,negative1 accord+ to ! quality ( ! conclusion2 &1 z to relation1 into ,categorical1 ,hypo!tical & ,disjunctive1 accord+ z all _! propositions are categorical1 or "o 7at lea/7 ( _! evid5ti>y propositions is a hypo!tical or a disjunctive4 ,to beg9 ) ,categorical ,syllogisms1 ( :i* ! foll[+ is an example3 ,all au?ors are va92 ,cic]o is an au?or3 ,cic]o is va94 ,"h we may suppose t !re are no direct means ( kn[+ t ,cic]o is va92 b we happ5 to "k t all au?ors are va9 & t he is an au?or2 & ^! two propositions1 put toge!r1 unmi/akably imply t he is va94 ,9 o!r words1 we d n at fir/ "k any relation betwe5 ',cic]o' & 'vanity'2 b we "k t ^! two t]ms are sev]ally relat$ to a ?ird t]m1 'au?or1' h5ce call$ a ,middle ,t]m2 & ?us we p]ceive1 by m$iate evid5ce1 t !y are relat$ to "o ano!r4 ,?is sort ( pro( be>s an obvi\s resemblance 7?\gh ! relations involv$ are n ! same7 to ! ma!matical pro( ( equality betwe5 two quantities1 t _c be directly comp>$1 by %[+ ! equality ( ea* ( !m to "s ?ird quantity3 ,a ,b ,c ,a ,c4 ,"h ,b is a middle t]m4 ,we h to inquire1 !n1 :at conditions mu/ be satisfi$ 9 ord] t a ,syllogism may be =mally conclusive or valid4 ,a speci\s ,syllogism t is n really valid is call$ a ,p>asyllogism4 #b4 ,g5]al ,canons ( ! ,syllogism4 7#a7 ,a ,syllogism conta9s ?ree1 & no m1 di/9ct propositions4 7#b7 ,a ,syllogism conta9s ?ree1 & no m1 di/9ct univocal t]ms4 ,^! two ,canons imply "o ano!r4 ,?ree propositions ) less ?an ?ree t]ms c only be connect$ 9 "s ( ! modes ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 ,?ree propositions ) m ?an ?ree t]ms d n %[ t connection ( two t]ms by means ( a ?ird1 :i* is requisite = prov+ a ,m$iate ,inf]5ce4 ,if we write-- ,all au?ors are va92 ,cic]o is a /atesman-- !re are f\r t]ms & no middle t]m1 & !re=e !re is no pro(4 ,or if we write-- ,all au?ors are va92 ,cic]o is an au?or3 ,cic]o is a /atesman-- "h ! t]m '/atesman' occurs )\t any v\*]2 x appe>s 9 ! inf]5ce b n 9 ! evid5ce1 & !re=e violates ! maxim ( all =mal pro(1 'n to g beyond ! evid5ce4' ,x is true t if any "o argu$-- ,all au?ors are va92 ,cic]o wrote on philosophy3 ,cic]o is va9-- ?is c\ld n be call$ a bad argum5t or a mat]ial fallacy2 b x w\ld be a ne$less dep>ture f ! =m ( expression 9 :i* ! connection betwe5 ! evid5ce & ! inf]5ce is mo/ easily se54 ,/ill1 a m]e adh]5ce to ! same =m ( words 9 ! expression ( t]ms is n en\gh3 we mu/ also att5d to _! mean+4 ,= if ! same ^w be us$ ambigu\sly 7z 'au?or' n[ = 'fa!r' & anon = 'man ( lett]s'71 x becomes z to its mean+ two t]ms2 s t we h f\r 9 all4 ,!n1 if ! ambigu\s t]m be ! ,middle1 no connection is %[n betwe5 ! o!r two2 if ei!r ( ! o!rs be ambigu\s1 some?+ seems to be inf]r$ :i* has nev] be5 really giv5 9 evid5ce4 ,! above two ,canons are1 inde$1 involv$ 9 ! def9ition ( a categorical syllogism1 :i* may be ?us /at$3 ,a ,categorical ,syllogism is a =m ( pro( or reason+ 7way ( giv+ reasons7 9 :i* "o categorical proposition is e/abli%$ by comp>+ two o!rs t conta9 toge!r only ?ree t]ms1 or t h "o & only "o t]m 9 common4 ,! proposition e/abli%$1 d]iv$1 or inf]r$1 is call$ ! ,conclusion3 ! evid5ti>y propositions by :i* x is prov$ are call$ ! ,premises4 ,! t]m common to ! premises1 by means ( :i* ! o!r t]ms are comp>$1 is call$ ! ,middle ,t]m2 ! subject ( ! conclusion is call$ ! ,m9or ,t]m2 ! pr$icate ( ! conclusion1 ! ,major ,t]m4 ,! premise 9 :i* ! m9or t]m occurs is call$ ! ,m9or ,premise2 t 9 :i* ! major t]m occurs is call$ ! ,major ,premise4 ,& a ,syllogism is usually writt5 ?us3 ,major ,premise--,all au?ors 7,middle7 are va9 7,major72 ,m9or ,premise--,cic]o 7,m9or7 is an au?or 7,middle73 ,conclusion-- ,cic]o 7,m9or7 is va9 7,major74 ,"h we h ?ree propositions ) ?ree t]ms1 ea* t]m occurr+ twice4 ,! m9or & major t]ms are s call$1 because1 :5 ! conclusion is an univ]sal affirmative 7:i* only occurs 9 ,b>b>a2 see *ap4 x4 #f71 its subject & pr$icate are respectively ! less & ! great] 9 ext5t or d5otation2 & ! premises are call$ aft] ! peculi> t]ms !y conta93 ! expressions 'major premise' & 'm9or premise' h no?+ to d ) ! ord] 9 :i* ! premises are pres5t$2 ?\gh x is usual to place ! major premise fir/4 7#c7 ,no t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion unless x is di/ribut$ 9 ! premises4 ,x is usual to give ?is z "o ( ! ,g5]al ,canons ( ! ,syllogism2 b we h se5 7*ap4 vi4 #f7 t x is ( wid] application4 ,inde$1 'n to g beyond ! evid5ce' belongs to ! def9ition ( =mal pro(4 ,a bree* ( ?is rule 9 a syllogism is ! fallacy ( ,illicit ,process ( ! ,m9or1 or ( ! ,major1 accord+ to :i* t]m has be5 unw>rantably di/ribut$4 ,! foll[+ p>asyllogism illicitly di/ributes bo? t]ms ( ! conclusion3 ,all poets are pa!tic2 ,"s orators are n poets3 ,no orators are pa!tic4 7#d7 ,! ,middle ,t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ at lea/ once 9 ! premises 79 ord] to prove a conclusion 9 ! giv5 t]ms74 ,= ! use ( m$iate evid5ce is to %[ ! relation ( t]ms t _c be directly comp>$2 ?is is only possible if ! middle t]m furni%es ! gr\nd ( comp>ison2 & ?is 79 ,logic7 requires t ! :ole d5otation ( ! middle %\ld be ei!r includ$ or exclud$ by "o ( ! o!r t]ms2 s9ce if we only "k t ! o!r t]ms are relat$ to "s ( ! middle1 _! respective relations may n be ) ! same "p ( x4 ,x is true t 9 :at has be5 call$ ! num]ically def9ite syllogism1 an inf]5ce may be drawn1 ?\gh our canon seems to be violat$4 ,?us3 #fj %eep 9 #ajj are horn$2 #fj %eep 9 #ajj are blackfac$3 at lea/ #bj blackfac$ %eep 9 #ajj are horn$4 ,b su* an argum5t1 ?\gh x may be correct ,ari?metic1 is n ,logic at all2 & :5 su* num]ical evid5ce is obta9able ! comp>atively indef9ite argum5ts ( ,logic are ne$less4 ,ano!r app>5t exception is ! foll[+3 ,mo/ m5 are #e feet high2 ,mo/ m5 are semi-rational3 ,"s semi-rational ?+s are #e feet high4 ,"h ! ,middle ,t]m 7m57 is di/ribut$ 9 nei!r premise1 yet ! indisputable conclusion is a logical proposition4 ,! premises1 h[ev]1 are really ari?metical2 = 'mo/' means 'm ?an half1' or m ?an #ej p] c5t4 ,/ill1 ano!r app>5t exception is entirely logical4 ,suppose we are giv51 ! premises--,all ,p is ,m1 & ,all ,s is ,m--! middle t]m is undi/ribut$4 ,b take ! obv]se ( ! contrapositive ( bo? premises3 ,all m is p2 ,all m is s3 ,"s s is p4 ,"h we h a conclusion legitimately obta9$2 b x is n 9 ! t]ms orig9ally giv54 ,= ,m$iate ,inf]5ce dep5d+ on truly logical premises1 !n1 x is necess>y t "o premise %\ld di/ribute ! middle t]m2 & ! reason ( ?is may be illu/rat$ ev5 by ! above suppos$ num]ical exceptions4 ,= 9 !m ! premises are su* t1 ?\gh nei!r ( ! two premises by itself di/ributes ! ,middle1 yet !y always ov]lap ^u x4 ,if ea* premise dealt ) exactly half ! ,middle1 ?us b>ely di/ribut+ x betwe5 !m1 !re w\ld be no logical proposition inf]rible4 ,we require t ! middle t]m1 z us$ 9 "o premise1 %\ld necess>ily ov]lap ! same t]m z us$ 9 ! o!r1 s z to furni% common gr\nd = comp>+ ! o!r t]ms4 ,h5ce ,i h def9$ ! middle t]m z 't t]m common to bo? premises by means ( :i* ! o!r t]ms are comp>$4' 7#e7 ,"o at lea/ ( ! premises mu/ be affirmative2 or1 f two negative premises no?+ c be inf]r$ 79 ! giv5 t]ms74 ,! f\r? ,canon requir$ t ! middle t]m %\ld be giv5 di/ribut$1 or 9 its :ole ext5t1 at lea/ once1 9 ord] to af=d sure gr\nd ( comp>ison = ! o!rs4 ,b t su* comp>ison may be effect$1 some?+ m is requisite2 ! relation ( ! o!r t]ms to ! ,middle mu/ be ( a c]ta9 "*4 ,"o at lea/ ( !m mu/ be1 z to its ext5t or d5otation1 p>tially or :olly id5tifi$ ) ! ,middle2 s t to t ext5t x may be kn[n to be> to ! o!r t]m1 :atev] relation we are told t s mu* ( ! ,middle be>s to t o!r t]m4 ,n[1 id5tity ( d5otation c only be pr$icat$ 9 an affirmative proposition3 "o premise1 !n1 mu/ be affirmative4 ,if bo? premises are negative1 we only "k t bo? ! o!r t]ms are p>tly or :olly exclud$ f ! ,middle1 or are n id5tical ) x 9 d5otation3 :]e !y lie1 !n1 9 relation to "o ano!r we h no means ( kn[+4 ,simil>ly1 9 ! m$iate comp>ison ( quantities1 if we are told t ,a & ,c are bo? ( !m unequal to ,b1 we c inf] no?+ z to ! relation ( ,c to ,a4 ,h5ce ! premises-- ,no electors are sob]2 ,no electors are indep5d5t-- h[ev] sugge/ive1 d n =mally ju/ify u 9 inf]r+ any connection betwe5 sobriety & indep5d5ce4 ,=mally to draw a conclusion1 we mu/ h affirmative gr\nds1 su* z 9 ?is case we may obta9 by obv]t+ bo? premises3 ,all electors are n-sob]2 ,all electors are n-indep5d5t3 ,"s :o are n-indep5d5t are n-sob]4 ,b ?is conclusion is n 9 ! giv5 t]ms4 7#f7 7a7 ,if "o premise be negative1 ! conclusion mu/ be negative3 & 7b7 to prove a negative conclusion1 "o premise mu/ be negative4 7a7 ,= we h se5 t "o premise mu/ be affirmative1 & t ?us "o t]m mu/ be p>tly 7at lea/7 id5tifi$ ) ! ,middle4 ,if1 !n1 ! o!r premise1 be+ negative1 pr$icates ! exclusion ( ! rema9+ t]m f ! ,middle1 ?is rema9+ t]m mu/ be exclud$ f ! fir/ t]m1 s f> z we "k ! fir/ to be id5tical ) ! ,middle3 & ?is exclusion w be express$ by a negative conclusion4 ,! analogy ( ! m$iate comp>ison ( quantities may "h aga9 be notic$3 if ,a is equal to ,b1 & ,b is unequal to ,c1 ,a is unequal to ,c4 7b7 ,if bo? premises be affirmative1 ! relations to ! ,middle ( bo? ! o!r t]ms are m or less inclusive1 & !re=e furni% no gr\nd = an exclusive inf]5ce4 ,?is also foll[s f ! function ( ! middle t]m4 ,= ! m conv5i5t application ( ^! canons to ! te/+ ( syllogisms1 x is usual to d]ive f !m ?ree ,coroll>ies3 7i7 ,two p>ticul> premises yield no conclusion4 ,= if bo? premises be affirmative1 all _! t]ms are undi/ribut$1 ! subjects by pr$esignation1 ! pr$icates by position2 & !re=e ! middle t]m mu/ be undi/ribut$1 & !re c be no conclusion4 ,if "o premise be negative1 its pr$icate is di/ribut$ by position3 ! o!r t]ms rema9+ undi/ribut$4 ,b1 by ,canon #f1 ! conclusion 7if any be possible7 mu/ be negative2 & !re=e its pr$icate1 ! major t]m1 w be di/ribut$4 ,9 ! premises1 !re=e1 bo? ! middle & ! major t]ms %\ld be di/ribut$1 :i* is impossible3 e4g41 ,"s ,m is n ,p2 ,"s ,s is ,m3 ,"s ,s is n ,p4 ,"h1 inde$1 ! major t]m is legitimately di/ribut$ 7?\gh ! negative premise might h be5 ! m9or72 b ,m1 ! middle t]m1 is di/ribut$ 9 nei!r premise1 & !re=e !re c be no conclusion4 ,/ill1 an exception may be made by admitt+ a bi-designate conclusion3 ,"s ,p is ,m2 ,"s ,s is n ,m3 ,"s ,s is n "s ,p4 7ii7 ,if "o premise be p>ticul>1 s is ! conclusion4 ,=1 aga91 if bo? premises be affirmative1 !y only di/ribute "o t]m1 ! subject ( ! univ]sal premise1 & ?is mu/ be ! middle t]m4 ,! m9or t]m1 !re=e1 is undi/ribut$1 & ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,if "o premise be negative1 ! two premises toge!r c di/ribute only two t]ms1 ! subject ( ! univ]sal & ! pr$icate ( ! negative 7:i* may be ! same premise74 ,"o ( ^! t]ms mu/ be ! middle2 ! o!r 7s9ce ! conclusion is negative7 mu/ be ! major4 ,! m9or t]m1 !re=e1 is undi/ribut$1 & ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 7iii7 ,f a p>ticul> major & a negative m9or premise no?+ c be inf]r$4 ,= ! m9or premise be+ negative1 ! major premise mu/ be affirmative 7#e? ,canon72 & !re=e1 be+ p>ticul>1 di/ributes ! major t]m nei!r 9 its subject nor 9 its pr$icate4 ,b s9ce ! conclusion mu/ be negative 7#f? ,canon71 a di/ribut$ major t]m is dem&$1 e4g41 ,"s ,m is ,p2 ,no ,s is ,m3 ------ ,"h ! m9or & ! middle t]ms are bo? di/ribut$1 b n ! major 7,p72 &1 !re=e1 a negative conclusion is impossible4 #c4 ,fir/ ,pr9ciple or ,axiom ( ! ,syllogism4--,hi!rto 9 ?is *apt] we h be5 analys+ ! conditions ( valid m$iate inf]5ce4 ,we h se5 t a s+le /ep ( su* inf]5ce1 a ,syllogism1 conta9s1 :5 fully express$ 9 language1 ?ree propositions & ?ree t]ms1 & t ^! t]ms mu/ /& to "o ano!r 9 ! relations requir$ by ! f\r?1 fif?1 & six? ,canons4 ,we n[ come to a pr9ciple :i* conv5i5tly sums up ^! conditions2 x is call$ ! ,dictum de omni et nullo1 & may be /at$ ?us3 ,:atev] is pr$icat$ 7affirmatively or negatively7 ( a t]m di/ribut$1 ,) :i* t]m ano!r t]m c be 7p>tly or :olly7 id5tifi$1 ,may be pr$icat$ 9 l mann] 7affirmatively or negatively7 ( ! latt] t]m 7or "p ( x74 ,?us /at$ 7ne>ly z by ,:ately 9 ! introduction to 8 ,logic7 ! ,dictum foll[s l9e by l9e ! c\rse ( a ,syllogism 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure 7see *ap4 ,x4 #b74 ,to return to our =m] example3 ,all au?ors are va9 is ! same z--,vanity is pr$icat$ ( all au?ors2 ,cic]o is an au?or is ! same z--,cic]o is id5tifi$ z an au?or2 !re=e ,cic]o is va91 or--,vanity may be pr$icat$ ( ,cic]o4 ,! ,dictum !n requires3 7#a7 ?ree propositions2 7#b7 ?ree t]ms2 7#c7 t ! middle t]m be di/ribut$2 7#d7 t "o premise be affirmative1 s9ce only by an affirmative proposition c "o t]m be id5tifi$ ) ano!r2 7#e7 t if "o premise be negative ! conclusion %all be s too1 s9ce :atev] is pr$icat$ ( ! middle t]m is pr$icat$ 9 l mann] ( ! m9or4 ,?us f>1 !n1 ! ,dictum is :olly analytic or v]bal1 express+ no m ?an is impli$ 9 ! def9itions ( ',syllogism' & ',middle ,t]m'2 s9ce 7z we h se57 all ! ,g5]al ,canons 7except ! ?ird1 :i* is a /ill m g5]al condition ( =mal pro(7 are d]ivable f ^? def9itions4 ,h[ev]1 ! ,dictum makes a fur!r /atem5t ( a syn!tic or real "*1 namely1 t :5 ^! conditions are fulfill$ an inf]5ce is ju/ifi$2 t !n ! major & m9or t]ms are br\ght into comp>ison ?r\gh ! middle1 & t ! major t]m may be pr$icat$ affirmatively or negatively ( all or "p ( ! m9or4 ,x is ?is real ass]tion t ju/ifies u 9 call+ ! ,dictum an ,axiom4 #d4 ,:e!r ! ,laws ( ,?\ght may n fully expla9 ! ,syllogism )\t ! ne$ ( any syn!tic pr9ciple has1 h[ev]1 be5 made a "q4 ,take su* a syllogism z ! foll[+3 ,all dome/ic animals are useful2 ,all pugs are dome/ic animals3 ,all pugs are useful4 ,"h 7an +5i\s man might urge71 hav+ once id5tifi$ pugs ) dome/ic animals1 t !y are useful foll[s f ! ,law ( ,id5tity4 ,if we att5d to ! mean+1 & rememb] t :at is true 9 "o =m ( words is true 9 any o!r =m1 !n1 all dome/ic animals be+ useful1 ( c\rse pugs are4 ,x is m]ely a case ( subalt]nation3 we may put x 9 ?is way3 ,all dome/ic animals are useful3 ,"s dome/ic animals 7e4g41 pugs7 are useful4 ,! d]ivation ( negative syllogisms f ! ,law ( ,contradiction 7he might add7 may be %[n 9 a simil> mann]4 ,b ! =ce ( ?is +5i\s argum5t dep5ds on ! p>ticipial clause--'hav+ once id5tifi$ pugs ) dome/ic animals4' ,if ?is is a di/9ct /ep ( ! reason+1 ! above syllogism _c be r$uc$ to "o /ep1 _c be exhibit$ z m]e subalt]nation1 nor be br\ght directly "u ! law ( ,id5tity4 ,if 'pug1' 'dome/ic1' & 'useful' are di/9ct t]ms2 & if 'pug' & 'useful' are only kn[n to be connect$ because ( _! relations to 'dome/ic'3 ?is is some?+ m ?an ! ,laws ( ,?\ght provide =3 x is n ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 b ,m$iate2 & to ju/ify x1 sci5tific me?od requires t its conditions be g5]alis$4 ,! ,dictum1 !n1 z we h se51 does g5]alise ^! conditions1 & decl>es t :5 su* conditions are satisfi$ a ,m$iate ,inf]5ce is valid4 ,b1 aft] all 7to g back a little71 consid] aga9 t proposition ,all pugs are dome/ic animals3 is x a di/9ct /ep ( ! reason+2 t is to say1 is x a ,real ,proposition8 ,if1 inde$1 'dome/ic' is no "p ( ! def9ition ( 'pug1' ! proposition is real1 & is a di/9ct "p ( ! argum5t4 ,b take su* a case z ?is3 ,all dogs are useful2 ,all pugs are dogs4 ,"h we cle>ly h1 9 ! m9or premise1 only a v]bal proposition2 to be a dog is c]ta9ly "p ( ! def9ition ( 'pug4' ,b1 if s1 ! inf]5ce ',all pugs are useful' involves no real m$iation1 & ! argum5t is no m ?an ?is3 ,all dogs are useful2 ,"s dogs 7e4g41 pugs7 are useful4 ,simil>ly1 if ! major premise be v]bal1 ?us3 ,all m5 are rational2 ,socrates is a man-- to conclude t ',socrates is rational' is no ,m$iate ,inf]5ce2 = s mu* 0 impli$ 9 ! m9or premise1 ',socrates is a man1' & ! major premise adds no?+ to ?is4 ,h5ce we may conclude 7z anticipat$ 9 *ap4 vii4 #c7 t 'any app>5t syllogism1 hav+ "o premise a v]bal proposition1 is really an ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce'2 b t1 if bo? premises are real propositions1 ! ,inf]5ce is ,m$iate1 & dem&s = its explanation some?+ m ?an ! ,laws ( ,?\ght4 ,! fact is t to prove ! m9or to be a case ( ! middle t]m may be an exce$+ly difficult op]ation 7*ap4 xiii4 #g74 ,! difficulty is disguis$ by ord9>y examples1 us$ = ! sake ( conv5i5ce4 #e4 ,o!r k9ds ( ,m$iate ,inf]5ce exi/1 yield+ valid conclusions1 )\t be+ truly syllogi/ic4 ,su* are ma!matical inf]5ces ( ,equality1 z-- ,a ,b ,c ,a ,c4 ,"h1 accord+ to ! usual logical analysis1 !re are /rictly f\r t]ms--7#a7 ,a1 7#b7 equal to ,b1 7#c7 ,b1 7#d7 equal to ,c4 ,simil>ly ) ! argum5t a =tiori1 ,a ,b ,c 7mu* m7 ,a ,c4 ,?is also is said to conta9 f\r t]ms3 7#a7 ,a1 7#b7 great] ?an ,b1 7#c7 ,b1 7#d7 great] ?an ,c4 ,su* inf]5ces are nev]!less intuitively s\nd1 may be v]ifi$ by trial 7)9 ! limits ( s5se-p]ception71 & are g5]alis$ 9 appropriate axioms ( _! own1 correspond+ to ! ,dictum ( ! syllogism2 z ',?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1' etc4 ,n[1 surely1 ?is is an errone\s application ( ! usual logical analysis ( propositions4 ,bo? ,logic & ,ma!matics treat ( ! relations ( t]ms2 b :il/ ,ma!matics employs ! sign = only "o k9d ( relation1 & = t relation exclusive ( ! t]ms2 ,logic employs ! same signs 7is or is n7 = all relations1 recognis+ only a diff]5ce ( quality 9 pr$ication1 & treat+ e o!r diff]5ce ( relation z belong+ to "o ( ! t]ms relat$4 ,?us ,logicians read ,a--is--equal to ,b3 z if equal to ,b c\ld possibly be a t]m co-relative ) ,a4 ,:5ce x foll[s t ! argum5t ,a ,b ,c ,a ,c conta9s f\r t]ms2 ?\gh ev]ybody sees t !re are only ?ree4 ,9 fact 7z obs]v$ 9 *ap4 ii4 #b7 ! sign ( logical relation 7is or is n71 :il/ usually adequate = class-reason+ 7co9h]5ce7 & sometimes ext5sible to causation 7because a cause implies a class ( ev5ts71 %\ld nev] be /ret*$ to include o!r relations 9 su* a way z to sacrifice intellig5ce to =malism4 ,&1 besides ma!matical or quantitative relations1 !re are o!rs 7usually consid]$ qualitative because indef9ite7 :i* _c be ju/ly express$ by ! logical copula4 ,we ought to read propositions express+ "t-relations 7& inf]5ces drawn accord+ly7 ?us3 ,b--is be=e--,c2 ,a--is be=e--,b3 ,a--is be=e--,c4 ,& 9 l mann] ,a--is simultane\s )--,b2 etc4 ,su* argum5ts 7z well z ! ma!matical7 are intuitively s\nd & v]ifiable1 & might be g5]alis$ 9 axioms if x 7 wor? :ile3 b x is n1 because no me?od c\ld be f\nd$ on su* axioms4 ,! cu/om>y use ( relative t]ms ju/ifies "s ,m$iate ,inf]5ces1 z1 ,! fa!r ( a fa!r is a gr&-fa!r4 ,"s cases1 h[ev]1 t at fir/ seem obvi\s1 are really delusive unless fur!r data be suppli$4 ,?us ,a co-exi/s ) ,b1 ,b ) ,c2 ,a ) ,c--is n s\nd unless ,b is an in/antane\s ev5t2 = :]e ,b is p]durable1 ,a may co-exi/ ) x at "o "t & ,c at ano!r4 ,aga93 ,a is to ! left ( ,b1 ,b ( ,c2 ,a ( ,c4 ,?is may pass2 b x is n a p>allel argum5t t if ,a is nor? ( ,b & ,b we/ ( ,c1 !n ,a is nor?-we/ ( ,c3 = suppose t ,a is a mile to ! nor? ( ,b1 & ,b a y>d to ! we/ ( ,c1 !n ,a is practically nor? ( ,c2 at lea/1 its we/w>d position _c be express$ 9 t]ms ( ! m>9]'s compass4 ,9 su* a case we require to "k n only ! directions b ! di/ances ( ,a & ,c f ,b2 & !n ! exact direction ( ,a f ,c is an affair ( ma!matical calculation4 ,qualitative reason+ conc]n+ position is only applicable to ?+s 9 "o dim5sion ( space1 or 9 "t consid]$ z hav+ "o dim5sion4 ,"u ^! conditions we may frame ! foll[+ g5]alisation conc]n+ all ,m$iate ,inf]5ces3 ,two t]ms def9itely relat$ to a ?ird1 & "o ( !m positively1 are relat$ to "o ano!r z ! o!r t]m is relat$ to ! ?ird 7t is1 positively or negatively72 provid$ t ! relations giv5 are ( ! same k9d 7t is1 ( ,"t1 or ,co9h]5ce1 or ,lik5ess1 or ,equality74 ,?us1 to illu/rate by relations ( ,"t-- ,b is simultane\s ) ,c2 ,a is n simultane\s ) ,b3 ,a is n simultane\s ) ,c4 ,"h ! relations are ( ! same k9d b ( diff]5t logical quality1 & 7z 9 ! syllogism7 a negative copula 9 ! premises leads to a negative conclusion4 ,an exam9ation 9 detail ( p>ticul> cases w\ld %[ t ! above g5]alisation conc]n+ all ,m$iate ,inf]5ces is subject to too _m qualifications to be call$ an ,axiom2 x /&s to ! real ,axioms 7! ,dictum1 etc47 z ! notion ( ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature does to ! def9ite pr9ciples ( natural ord] 7cf4 *ap4 xiii4 #i74 ,,*apt] ,x ,,categorical ,,syllogisms #a4 ,! type ( logical1 d$uctive1 m$iate1 categorical ,inf]5ce is a ,syllogism directly con=mable ) ! ,dictum3 z-- ,all c>nivores 7,m7 are excitable 7,p72 ,cats 7,s7 are c>nivores 7,m73 ,cats 7,s7 are excitable 7,p74 ,9 ?is example ,p is pr$icat$ ( ,m1 a t]m di/ribut$2 9 :i* t]m1 ,m1 ,s is giv5 z includ$2 s t ,p may be pr$icat$ ( ,s4 ,_m argum5ts1 h[ev]1 are ( a type sup]ficially diff]5t f ! above3 z-- ,no wise man 7,p7 fe>s dea? 7,m72 ,balbus 7,s7 fe>s dea? 7,m73 ,balbus 7,s7 is n a wise man 7,p74 ,9 ?is example1 in/ead ( ,p be+ pr$icat$ ( ,m1 ,m is pr$icat$ ( ,p1 & yet ,s is giv5 z includ$ n 9 ,p1 b 9 ,m4 ,! div]g5ce ( su* a syllogism f ! ,dictum may1 h[ev]1 be easily %[n to be sup]ficial by writ+1 in/ead ( ,no wise man fe>s dea?1 ! simple1 conv]se1 ,no man :o fe>s dea? is wise4 ,aga93 ,"s dogs 7,m7 are fri5dly to man 7,p72 ,all dogs 7,m7 are c>nivores 7,s73 ,"s c>nivores 7,s7 are fri5dly to man 7,p74 ,"h ,p is pr$icat$ ( ,m undi/ribut$2 & in/ead ( ,s be+ includ$ 9 ,m1 ,m is includ$ 9 ,s3 s t ! div]g5ce f ! type ( syllogism to :i* ! ,dictum directly applies is /ill great] ?an 9 ! =m] case4 ,b if we transpose ! premises1 tak+ fir/ ,all dogs 7,m7 are c>nivores 7,p71 !n ,p is pr$icat$ ( ,m di/ribut$2 &1 simply conv]t+ ! o!r premise1 we get-- ,"s ?+s fri5dly to man 7,s7 are dogs 7,m73 :5ce x foll[s t-- ,"s ?+s fri5dly to man 7,s7 are c>nivores 7,p72 & ?is is ! simple conv]se ( ! orig9al conclusion4 ,once m3 ,no pigs 7,p7 are philosoph]s 7,m72 ,"s philosoph]s 7,m7 are h$oni/s 7,s73 ,"s h$oni/s 7,s7 are n pigs 7,p74 ,9 ?is case1 in/ead ( ,p be+ pr$icat$ ( ,m di/ribut$1 ,m is pr$icat$ ( ,p di/ribut$2 & in/ead ( ,s 7or "p ( x7 be+ includ$ 9 ,m1 we are told t "s ,m is includ$ 9 ,s4 ,/ill !re is no real difficulty4 ,simply conv]t bo? ! premises1 & we h3 ,no philosoph]s 7,m7 are pigs 7,p72 ,"s h$oni/s 7,s7 are philosoph]s 7,m74 ,:5ce ! same conclusion foll[s2 & ! :ole syllogism pla9ly con=ms directly to ! ,dictum4 ,su* dep>tures z ^! f ! normal syllogi/ic =m are said to con/itute diff]5ces ( ,figure 7see #b72 & ! processes by :i* !y are %[n to be uness5tial diff]5ces are call$ ,r$uction 7see #f74 #b4 ,figure is det]m9$ by ! position ( ! ,middle ,t]m 9 ! premises2 ( :i* position !re are f\r possible v>iations4 ,! middle t]m may be subject ( ! major premise1 & pr$icate ( ! m9or1 z 9 ! fir/ example above2 & ?is position1 be+ directly con=mable to ! requirem5ts ( ! ,dictum1 is call$ ! ,fir/ ,figure4 ,or ! middle t]m may be pr$icate ( bo? premises1 z 9 ! second ( ! above examples2 & ?is is call$ ! ,second ,figure4 ,or ! middle t]m may be subject ( bo? premises1 z 9 ! ?ird ( ! above examples2 & ?is is call$ ! ,?ird ,figure4 ,or1 f9ally1 ! middle t]m may be pr$icate ( ! major premise1 & subject ( ! m9or1 z 9 ! f\r? example giv5 above2 & ?is is ! ,f\r? ,figure4 ,x may facilitate ! recollection ( ?is mo/ important po9t if we s*ematise ! figures ?us3 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,m---,p ,p---,m ,m---,p ,p---,m _/ _/ _/ ,s---,m ,s---,m ,m---,s ,m---,s ,! horizontal l9es repres5t ! premises1 & at ! angles =m$ ) !m by ! slant+ or by ! p]p5dicul> l9es ! middle t]m occurs4 ,! s*ema ( ,figure ,,iv4 resembles ,z1 ! la/ lett] ( ! alphabet3 ?is helps "o to rememb] x 9 contra/ ) ,figure ,i41 :i* is !reby also rememb]$4 ,figures ,,ii4 & ,,iii4 seem to /& back to back4 #c4 ,! ,moods ( ea* ,figure are ! modifications ( x :i* arise f diff]5t comb9ations ( propositions accord+ to quantity & quality4 ,9 ,figure ,i41 = example1 f\r ,moods are recognis$3 ,a4,a4,a41 ,e4,a4,e41 ,a4,i4,i41 ,e4,i4,o4 ,a4 ,all ,m is ,p2 ,a4 ,all ,s is ,m3 ,a4 ,all ,s is ,p4 ,e4 ,no ,m is ,p2 ,a4 ,all ,s is ,m3 ,e4 ,no ,s is ,p4 ,a4 ,all ,m is ,p2 ,i4 ,"s ,s is ,m3 ,i4 ,"s ,s is ,p4 ,e4 ,no ,m is ,p2 ,i4 ,"s ,s is ,m3 ,o4 ,"s ,s is n ,p4 ,n[1 rememb]+ t !re are f\r ,figures1 & f\r k9ds ( propositions 7,a4 ,i4 ,e4 ,o471 ea* ( :i* propositions may be major premise1 m9or premise1 or conclusion ( a syllogism1 x appe>s t 9 ea* ,figure !re may be #fd ,moods1 & !re=e #bef 9 all4 ,on exam9+ ^! #bef ,moods1 h[ev]1 we f9d t only #bd ( !m are valid 7i4e41 ( su* a "* t ! conclusion /rictly foll[s f ! premises71 :il/ #e ( ^! #bd are ne$less1 because _! conclusions are 'weak]' or less ext5sive ?an ! premises w>rant2 t is to say1 !y are p>ticul> :5 !y might be univ]sal4 ,?us1 9 ,figure ,i41 besides ! above #d ,moods1 ,a4,a4,i4 & ,e4,a4,o4 are valid 9 ! s5se ( be+ conclusive2 b !y are sup]flu\s1 because includ$ 9 ,a4,a4,a4 & ,e4,a4,e4 ,omitt+1 !n1 ^! #e ne$less ,moods1 :i* are call$ ',subalt]ns' because _! conclusions are subalt]n 7*ap4 vii4 #b7 to ^? ( o!r ,moods1 !re rema9 #ai ,moods t are valid & g5]ally recognis$4 #d4 ,h[ ^! #ai ,moods are det]m9$ mu/ be our next inquiry4 ,!re are sev]al ways m or less +5i\s & int]e/+2 b all dep5d on ! application1 directly or indirectly1 ( ! ,six ,canons1 :i* 7 %[n 9 ! la/ *apt] to be ! conditions ( ,m$iate ,inf]5ce4 7#a7 ,"o way is to beg9 by f9d+ :at ,moods ( ,figure ,i4 con=m to ! ,dictum4 ,n[1 ! ,dictum requires t1 9 ! major premise1 ,p be pr$icat$ ( a t]m di/ribut$1 f :i* x foll[s t no ,mood c be valid ^: major premise is p>ticul>1 z 9 ,i4,a4,i4 or ,o4,a4,o4 ,aga91 ! ,dictum requires t ! m9or premise be affirmative 7) :i* t]m ano!r is id5tifi$72 s t no ,mood c be valid ^: m9or premise is negative1 z 9 ,a4,e4,e4 or ,a4,o4,o4 ,by su* consid]ations we f9d t 9 ,figure ,i41 out ( #fd ,moods possible1 only six are valid1 namely1 ^? above-m5tion$ 9 #c1 includ+ ! two subalt]ns4 ,! second /ep ( ?is me?od is to te/ ! ,moods ( ! ,second1 ,?ird1 & ,f\r? ,figures1 by try+ :e!r !y c be r$uc$ to "o or o!r ( ! f\r ,moods ( ! ,fir/ 7z briefly illu/rat$ 9 #a1 & to be fur!r expla9$ 9 #f74 7#b7 ,ano!r way is to take ! above six ,g5]al or ,common ,canons1 & to d$uce f !m ,special ,canons = te/+ ea* ,figure3 an int]e/+ me?od1 :i*1 on acc\nt ( its l5g?1 w be treat$ ( sep>ately 9 ! next section4 7#c7 ,direct application ( ! ,common ,canons is1 p]haps1 ! simple/ plan4 ,fir/ write out ! #fd ,moods t are possible )\t reg>d to ,figure1 & !n cross out ^? :i* violate any ( ! ,canons or ,coroll>ies1 ?us3 ,,aaa1 ,a,a,e 7#f? ,c4 b74 ,,aai4 ,a,a,o 7#f? ,c4 b74 ,a,e,a 7#f? ,c4 a7 ,,aee1 ,a,e,i 7#f? ,c4 a7 ,,aeo1 ,a,i,a 7,cor4 ii47 ,a,i,e 7#f? ,c4 b7 ,,aii1 ,a,i,o 7#f? ,c4 b7 ,a,o,a 7#f? ,c4 a7 ,a,o,e 7,cor4 ii47 ,a,o,i 7#f? ,c4 a7 ,,aoo4 ,:oev] has ! pati5ce to g ?r\gh ! rema9+ #dh ,moods w discov] t ( ! :ole #fd only #aa are valid1 namely3 ,a4,a4,a41 ,a4,a4,i41 ,a4,e4,e41 ,a4,e4,o41 ,a4,i4,i41 ,a4,o4,o41 ,e4,a4,e41 ,e4,a4,o41 ,e4,i4,o41 ,i4,a4,i41 ,o4,a4,o4 ,^! #aa ,moods h next to be exam9$ 9 ea* ,figure1 & if valid 9 e ,figure !re w /ill be #dd moods 9 all4 ,we f9d1 h[ev]1 t 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure1 ,a4,e4,e41 ,a4,e4,o41 ,a4,o4,o4 involve illicit process ( ! major t]m 7#crd ,c472 ,i4,a4,i41 ,o4,a4,o4 involve undi/ribut$ ,middle 7#d? ,c472 & ,a4,a4,i41 ,e4,a4,o4 are subalt]ns4 ,9 ! ,second ,figure all ! affirmative ,moods1 ,a4,a4,a41 ,a4,a4,i41 ,a4,i4,i41 ,i4,a4,i41 involve undi/ribut$ ,middle2 ,o4,a4,o4 gives illicit process ( ! major t]m2 & ,a4,e4,o41 ,e4,a4,o4 are subalt]ns4 ,9 ! ,?ird ,figure1 ,a4,a4,a41 ,e4,a4,e41 involve illicit process ( ! m9or t]m 7#crd ,c472 ,a4,e4,e41 ,a4,e4,o41 ,a4,o4,o41 illicit process ( ! major t]m4 ,9 ! ,f\r? ,figure1 ,a4,a4,a4 & ,e4,a4,e4 involve illicit process ( ! m9or t]m2 ,a4,i4,i41 ,a4,o4,o41 undi/ribut$ ,middle2 ,o4,a4,o4 involves illicit process ( ! major t]m2 & ,a4,e4,o4 is subalt]n4 ,^? moods ( ea* ,figure :i*1 :5 tri$ by ^! te/s1 are n reject$1 are valid1 namely3 ,fig4 ,i4--,a4,a4,a41 ,e4,a4,e41 ,a4,i4,i41 ,e4,i4,o4 7,a4,a4,i41 ,e4,a4,o41 ,subalt]n72 ,fig4 ,,ii4--,e4,a4,e41 ,a4,e4,e41 ,e4,i4,o41 ,a4,o4,o4 7,e4,a4,o41 ,a4,e4,o41 ,subalt]n72 ,fig4 ,,iii4--,a4,a4,i41 ,i4,a4,i41 ,a4,i4,i41 ,e4,a4,o41 ,o4,a4,o41 ,e4,i4,o42 ,fig4 ,,iv4--,a4,a4,i41 ,a4,e4,e41 ,i4,a4,i41 ,e4,a4,o41 ,e4,i4,o4 7,a4,e4,o41 ,subalt]n74 ,?us1 includ+ subalt]n ,moods1 !re are six valid 9 ea* ,figure4 ,9 ,fig4 ,,iii4 alone !re is no subalt]n ,mood1 because 9 t ,figure !re c be no univ]sal conclusion4 #e4 ,special ,canons ( ! sev]al ,figures1 d$uc$ f ! ,common ,canons1 enable u to arrive at ! same result by a some:at diff]5t c\rse4 ,!y are n1 p]haps1 necess>y to ! ,sci5ce1 b af=d a v useful means ( enabl+ "o to ?or\ghly appreciate ! "* ( =mal syllogi/ic reason+4 ,accord+ly1 ! pro( ( ea* rule w be indicat$1 & its elaboration left to ! read]4 ,!re is no difficulty1 if "o be>s 9 m9d t ,figure is det]m9$ by ! position ( ! middle t]m4 ,fig4 ,i41 ,rule 7a73 ,! m9or premise mu/ be affirmative4 ,=1 if n1 9 negative ,moods !re w be illicit process ( ! major t]m4 ,apply+ ?is rule to ! elev5 possible ,moods giv5 9 #d1 z rema9+ aft] application ( ! ,common ,canons1 x elim9ates ,a4,e4,e41 ,a4,e4,o41 ,a4,o4,o4 7b7 ,! major premise mu/ be univ]sal4 ,=1 if n1 ! m9or premise be+ affirmative1 ! middle t]m w be undi/ribut$4 ,?is rule elim9ates ,i4,a4,i41 ,o4,a4,o42 leav+ six ,moods1 includ+ two subalt]ns4 ,fig4 ,,ii4 7a7 ,"o premise mu/ be negative4 ,= else nei!r premise w di/ribute ! middle t]m4 ,?is rule elim9ates ,a4,a4,a41 ,a4,a4,i41 ,a4,i4,i41 ,i4,a4,i4 7b7 ,! major premise mu/ be univ]sal4 ,= else1 ! conclusion be+ negative1 !re w be illicit process ( ! major t]m4 ,?is elim9ates ,i4,a4,i41 ,o4,a4,o42 leav+ six ,moods1 includ+ two subalt]ns4 ,fig4 ,,iii4 7a7 ,! m9or premise mu/ be affirmative4 ,= else1 9 negative moods !re w be illicit process ( ! major t]m4 ,?is rule elim9ates ,a4,e4,e41 ,a4,e4,o41 ,a4,o4,o4 7b7 ,! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,=1 if n1 ! m9or premise be+ affirmative1 !re w be illicit process ( ! m9or t]m4 ,?is elim9ates ,a4,a4,a41 ,a4,e4,e41 ,e4,a4,e42 leav+ six ,moods4 ,fig4 ,,iv4 7a7 ,:5 ! major premise is affirmative1 ! m9or mu/ be univ]sal4 ,= else ! middle t]m is undi/ribut$4 ,?is elim9ates ,a4,i4,i41 ,a4,o4,o4 7b7 ,:5 ! m9or premise is affirmative ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,o!rwise !re w be illicit process ( ! m9or t]m4 ,?is elim9ates ,a4,a4,a41 ,e4,a4,e4 7c7 ,:5 ei!r premise is negative1 ! major mu/ be univ]sal4 ,= else1 ! conclusion be+ negative1 !re w be illicit process ( ! major t]m4 ,?is elim9ates ,o4,a4,o42 leav+ six ,moods1 includ+ "o subalt]n4 #f4 ,r$uction is ei!r--7#a7 ,o/5sive or 7#b7 ,indirect4 ,o/5sive ,r$uction consi/s 9 %[+ t an argum5t giv5 9 "o ,mood c also be /at$ 9 ano!r2 ! process is especially us$ to %[ t ! ,moods ( ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? ,figures are equival5t to "o or ano!r ,mood ( ! fir/ ,figure4 ,x ?us proves ! validity ( ! =m] ,moods by %[+ t !y also ess5tially con=m to ! ,dictum1 & t all ,categorical ,syllogisms are only sup]ficial v>ieties ( "o type ( pro(4 ,to facilitate ,r$uction1 ! recognis$ ,moods h all _h names giv5 !m2 :i* names1 aga91 h be5 /rung toge!r into mnemonic v]ses ( great =ce & pregnancy3 ,b>b>a1 ,cel>5t1 ,d>ii1 ,f]ioque prioris3 ,ces>e1 ,came/res1 ,fe/9o1 ,b>oco1 secund3 ,t]tia1 ,d>apti1 ,disamis1 ,datisi1 ,felapton1 ,boc>do1 ,f]ison1 habet3 ,qu>ta insup] addit ,bramantip1 ,cam5es1 ,dim>is1 ,fesapo1 ,fresison4 ,9 ! above v]ses ! names ( ! ,moods ( ,fig4 ,i4 beg9 ) ! fir/ f\r consonants ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,f1 9 alphabetical ord]2 & ! names ( all o!r ,moods likewise beg9 ) ^! lett]s1 ?us signify+ 7except 9 ,b>oco & ,boc>do7 ! mood ( ,fig4 ,i41 to :i* ea* is equival5t1 & to :i* x is to be r$uc$3 z ,bramantip to ,b>b>a1 ,came/res to ,cel>5t1 & s =?4 ,! v[els ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o1 occurr+ 9 ! sev]al names1 give ! quantity & quality ( major premise1 m9or premise1 & conclusion 9 ! usual ord]4 ,! consonants s & p1 occurr+ aft] a v[el1 %[ t ! proposition :i* ! v[el /&s = is to be conv]t$ ei!r 7s7 simply or 7p7 p] accid5s2 except :]e s or p occurs aft] ! ?ird v[el ( a "n1 ! conclusion3 !n x ref]s n to ! conclusion ( ! giv5 ,mood 7say ,disamis71 b to ! conclusion ( t ,mood ( ! fir/ ,figure to :i* ! giv5 ,mood is r$uc$ 7,d>ii74 ,m 7mut>e1 meta!sis7 means 'transpose ! premises' 7z ( ,came/res74 ,c means 'sub/itute ! contradictory ( ! conclusion = ! =ego+ premise1' a process ( ! ,indirect ,r$uction to be pres5tly expla9$ 7see ,b>oco1 #h74 ,! o!r consonants1 r1 n1 t 7) b & d1 :5 n initial71 occurr+ "h & !re1 h no mnemonic significance4 ,:at n[ is ! problem ( ,r$uction8 ,! diff]5ce ( ,figures dep5ds ^u ! position ( ! ,middle ,t]m4 ,to r$uce a ,mood ( any o!r ,figure to ! =m ( ! ,fir/1 !n1 we mu/ s manipulate its premises t ! ,middle ,t]m %all be subject ( ! major premise & pr$icate ( ! m9or premise4 ,n[ 9 ,fig4 ,,ii4 ! ,middle ,t]m is pr$icate ( bo? premises2 s t ! m9or premise may ne$ no alt]ation1 & to conv]t ! major premise may suffice4 ,?is is ! case ) ,ces>e1 :i* r$uces to ,cel>5t by simply conv]t+ ! major premise2 & ) ,fe/9o1 :i* by ! same process becomes ,f]io4 ,9 ,came/res1 h[ev]1 ! m9or premise is negative2 &1 z ?is is impossible 9 ,fig4 ,i41 ! premises mu/ be transpos$1 & ! new major premise mu/ be simply conv]t$3 !n1 s9ce ! transposition ( ! premises w h transpos$ ! t]ms ( ! conclusion 7accord+ to ! usual read+ ( syllogisms71 ! new conclusion mu/ be simply conv]t$ 9 ord] to prove ! validity ( ! orig9al conclusion4 ,! process may be ?us repres5t$ 7s4c4 mean+ 'simply conv]t'7 ,came/res4 ,cel>5t4 ,all ,p is ,m2 ---- _/--- ,no ,m is ,s2 c_/ _/ s_/ _/ ,no ,s is ,m3 ----_/ --- ,all ,p is ,m3 s4c4 ,no ,s is ,p4 ----------- ,no ,p is ,s4 ,! ,o/5sive ,r$uction ( ,b>oco also ne$s special explanation2 = z x us$ to be r$uc$ indirectly1 its "n gives no indication ( ! o/5sive process4 ,to r$uce x o/5sively let u call x ,faksnoko1 :]e k means 'obv]t ! =ego+ premise4' ,by ?us obv]t+ 7k7 & simply conv]t+ 7s7 79 sum1 contraposit+7 ! major premise1 & obv]t+ ! m9or premise1 we get a syllogism 9 ,f]io1 ?us3 ,b>oco or ,faksnoko4 ,f]io4 contrap ,all ,p is ,m2 ----------------------- ,no m 7n-,m7 is ,p2 obv ,"s ,s is n ,m3 ----------------------- ,"s ,s is m 7n-,m73 ,"s ,s is n ,p4 ,"s ,s is n ,p4 ,9 ,fig4 ,,iii4 ! middle t]m is subject ( bo? premises2 s t1 to r$uce its ,moods to ! ,fir/ ,figure1 x may be en\gh to conv]t ! m9or premise4 ,?is is ! case ) ,d>apti1 ,datisi1 ,felapton1 & ,f]ison4 ,b1 ) ,disamis1 s9ce ! major premise mu/ 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure be univ]sal1 we mu/ transpose ! premises1 & !n simply conv]t ! new m9or premise2 &1 la/ly1 s9ce ! major & m9or t]ms h n[ *ang$ places1 we mu/ simply conv]t ! new conclusion 9 ord] to v]ify ! old "o4 ,?us3 ,disamis4 ,d>ii4 ,"s ,m is ,p2 ---- _/--- ,all ,m is ,s2 s4_/ _/ _/c4 _/ ,all ,m is ,s3 ----_/ --- ,"s ,p is ,m3 s4c4 ,"s ,s is ,p4 ------------- ,"s ,p is ,s4 ,boc>do1 l ,b>oco1 indicates by its "n ! indirect process4 ,to r$uce x o/5sively let its "n be ,doksamrosk1 & proce$ ?us3 ,boc>do or ,doksamrosk4 ,d>ii4 ,"s ,m is n ,p2 ---------- _/--------- ,all ,m is ,s2 _/ _/ _/ contrap _/ ,all ,m is ,s3 ----------_/ --------- ,"s p 7n-,p7 is ,m3 conv]t obv]t ,"s ,s is n ,p4 ------------------------- ,"s p 7n-,p7 is ,s4 ,9 ,fig4 ,,iv4 ! position ( ! middle t]m is1 9 bo? premises1 ! rev]se ( :at x is 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure2 we may !re=e r$uce its ,moods ei!r by transpos+ ! premises1 z ) ,bramantip1 ,cam5es1 & ,dim>is2 or by conv]t+ bo? premises1 ! c\rse pursu$ ) ,fesapo & ,fresison4 ,x may suffice to illu/rate by ! case ( ,bramantip3 ,bramantip4 ,b>b>a4 ,all ,p is ,m2 ---------- _/------ ,all ,m is ,s2 _/ _/ ,all ,m is ,s3 ----------_/ ------ ,all ,p is ,m3 conv]t p] acc4 ,"s ,s is ,p4 ----------------------- ,all ,p is ,s4 ,?is case %[s t a f9al significant consonant 7s1 p1 or sk7 9 ! "n ( any ,mood ref]s to ! conclusion ( ! new syllogism 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure2 s9ce p 9 ,bramantip _c ref] to t ,mood's own conclusion 9 ,i42 :i*1 be+ already p>ticul>1 _c be conv]t$ p] accid5s4 ,f9ally1 9 ,fig4 ,i41 ,d>ii & ,f]io diff] respectively f ,b>b>a & ,cel>5t only 9 ?is1 t _! m9or premises1 & consequ5tly _! conclusions1 are subalt]n to ! correspond+ propositions ( ! univ]sal ,moods2 a diff]5ce :i* seems insuffici5t to give !m rank z di/9ct =ms ( demon/ration4 ,& z = ,b>b>a & ,cel>5t1 !y are easily r$ucible to "o ano!r by obv]t+ _! major premises & ! new conclusions1 ?us3 ,b>b>a4 ,cel>5t4 obv4 ,all ,m is ,p2 ----------------------- ,no ,m is p 7n-,p72 ,all ,s is ,m3 ----------------------- ,all ,s is ,m3 obv4 ,all ,s is ,p4 ------------------- ,no ,s is p 7n-,p74 ,!re is1 !n1 only "o fundam5tal syllogism4 #g4 ,a new v]sion ( ! mnemonic l9es 0 sugge/$ 9 ,m9d ,no4 #bg1 ) ! object ( 7#a7 free+ !m f all mean+less lett]s1 7#b7 %[+ by ! "n ( ea* ,mood ! ,figure to :i* x belongs1 7#c7 giv+ names to indicate ! o/5sive r$uction ( ,b>oco & ,boc>do4 ,to obta9 ! fir/ two objects1 l is us$ z ! m>k ( ,fig4 ,i41 n ( ,fig ,,ii41 r ( ,fig4 ,,iii41 t ( ,fig4 ,,iv4 ,! v]ses 7to be scann$ discreetly7 are z foll[s3 ,balala1 ,celalel1 ,dalii1 ,felioque prioris3 ,faksnoko ,cesane1 ,cam5es1 ,fes9on1 secund3 ,banoco1 ,t]tia1 ,d>apri1 ,drisamis1 ,d>isi1 ,f]apro1 ,doksamrosk 1 ,f]isor habet3 ,qu>ta insup] addit4 ,boc>o ,bamatip1 ,cametes1 ,dimatis1 ,fesapto1 ,fesi/ot4 ,de ,morgan prais$ ! old v]ses z m full ( mean+ ?an any o!rs t ev] 7 made2 & 9 def5ce ( ! above alt]ation x may be said t !y n[ des]ve t praise /ill m4 #h4 ,indirect r$uction is ! process ( prov+ a ,mood to be valid by %[+ t ! supposition ( its invalidity involves a contradiction4 ,take ,b>oco1 & 7s9ce ! d\bt z to its validity is conc]n$ n ) ! tru? ( ! premises1 b ) _! relation to ! conclusion7 assume ! premises to be true4 ,!n1 if ! conclusion be false1 its contradictory is true4 ,! conclusion be+ 9 ,o41 its contradictory w be 9 ,a4 ,sub/itut+ ?is ,a4 = ! m9or premise ( ,b>oco1 we h ! premises ( a syllogism 9 ,b>b>a1 :i* w be f\nd to give a conclusion 9 ,a41 contradictory ( ! orig9al m9or premise2 ?us3 ,b>oco4 ,b>b>a4 ,all ,p is ,m2 ----------------- ,all ,p is ,m2 ,"s ,s is n ,m3 ----- _/----- ,all ,s is ,p3 _/ contradictory _/ _/ contradictory _/ ,"s ,s is n ,p ------_/ ------ ,all ,s is ,m4 ,b ! orig9al m9or premise1 ,"s ,s is n ,m1 is true by hypo!sis2 & !re=e ! conclusion ( ,b>b>a1 ,all ,s is ,m1 is false4 ,?is falsity _c1 h[ev]1 be due to ! =m ( ,b>b>a1 :i* we "k to be valid2 nor to ! major premise1 :i*1 be+ tak5 f ,b>oco1 is true by hypo!sis3 x mu/1 !re=e1 lie 9 ! m9or premise ( ,b>b>a1 ,all ,s is ,p2 & s9ce ?is is contradictory ( ! conclusion ( ,b>oco ,"s ,s is n ,p1 t conclusion 0 true4 ,simil>ly1 ) ,boc>do1 ! ,indirect ,r$uction proce$s by sub/itut+ = ! major premise ! contradictory ( ! conclusion2 ?us aga9 obta9+ ! premises ( a syllogism 9 ,b>b>a1 ^: conclusion is contradictory ( ! orig9al major premise4 ,h5ce ! initial ,b 9 ,b>oco & ,boc>do3 x po9ts to a syllogism 9 ,b>b>a z ! means ( ,indirect ,r$uction 7,r$uctio ad impossibile74 ,any o!r ,mood may be r$uc$ indirectly3 z1 = example1 ,dim>is4 ,if ?is is suppos$ to be invalid & ! conclusion false1 sub/itute ! contradictory ( ! conclusion = ! major premise1 ?us obta9+ ! premises ( ,cel>5t3 ,dim>is4 ,cel>5t4 contradictory ,"s ,p is ,m2 --------- -------- ,no ,s is ,p2 _/ _/ ,all ,m is ,s3 -----------_/--------- ,all ,m is ,s3 _/ contradictory_/ ,"s ,s is ,p4 ----------- -------- ,no ,m is ,p simply conv]t$ ,no ,p is ,m ,! conclusion ( ,cel>5t1 simply conv]t$1 contradicts ! orig9al major premise ( ,dim>is1 & is !re=e false4 ,!re=e ! major premise ( ,cel>5t is false1 & ! conclusion ( ,dim>is is true4 ,we might1 ( c\rse1 con/ruct mnemonic names = ! ,indirect ,r$uction ( all ! ,moods3 ! "n ( ,dim>is w\ld !n be ,cic>i4 #i4 ,! ne$ or use ( any ,figure b ! ,fir/ has be5 mu* discuss$ by ,logicians4 ,s9ce1 9 actual debate1 argum5ts are r>ely /at$ 9 syllogi/ic =m1 &1 !re=e1 if r$uc$ to t =m = clos] scrut9y1 g5]ally h to be treat$ ) "s fre$om2 :y n always ?r[ !m at once into ! ,fir/ ,figure8 ,t ,figure has manife/ advantages3 x agrees directly ) ! ,dictum2 x gives conclusions 9 all f\r propositional =ms1 & !re=e s]ves e purpose ( full affirmation or d5ial1 ( %[+ agreem5t or diff]5ce 7total or p>tial71 ( e/abli%+ ! contradictories ( univ]sal /atem5ts2 & x is ! only ,figure 9 :i* ! subject & pr$icate ( ! conclusion occupy ! same positions 9 ! premises1 s t ! c\rse ( argum5t has 9 its m]e expression an easy & natural fl[4 ,/ill1 ! ,second ,figure also has a v natural air 9 "s k9ds ( negative argum5ts4 ,! p>allelism ( ! two premises1 ) ! middle t]m z pr$icate 9 bo?1 br+s out v =cibly ! necess>y diff]5ce betwe5 ! major & m9or t]ms t is involv$ 9 _! opposite relations to ! middle t]m4 ,p is n1 :il/ ,s is1 ,m1 says ,ces>e3 t drives home ! conviction t ,s is n ,p4 ,simil>ly 9 ,came/res3 ,de] d1 ox5 d n1 %$ _! horns4 ,:at is ! conclusion8 ,! ,?ird ,figure1 aga91 furni%es 9 ,d>apti & ,felapton1 ! mo/ natural =ms ( /at+ argum5ts 9 :i* ! middle t]m is s+ul>3 ,socrates 0 tru?ful2 ,socrates 0 a ,greek3 ,"s ,greek 0 tru?ful4 ,r$uc+ ?is to ,fig ,i41 we %\ld get = ! m9or premise1 ,"s ,greek 0 ,socrates3 :i* is c]ta9ly inelegant4 ,/ill1 x might be urg$ t1 9 relation to pro(1 elegance is an extrane\s consid]ation4 ,& z = ! o!r advantage claim$ = ,fig4 ,,iii4--t1 z x yields only p>ticul> conclusions1 x is useful 9 e/abli%+ contradictories aga9/ univ]sals--= t purpose none ( its ,moods c be bett] ?an ,d>ii or ,f]io4 ,z = ,fig4 ,,iv41 no p>ticul> advantage has be5 claim$ = x4 ,x is ( comp>atively late recognition 7sometimes call$ ! ',gal5ian1' aft] ,gal51 its suppos$ discov]]72 & its sci5tific claim to exi/ at all is disput$4 ,x is said to be a m]e inv]sion ( ,fig4 ,i42 :i* is n true 9 any s5se 9 :i* ,figs4 ,,ii4 & ,,iii4 may n be condemn$ z p>tial inv]sions ( ,fig4 ,i41 & z hav+ !re=e /ill less claim to recognition4 ,x is also said to inv]t ! ord] ( ?\ght2 z if ?\ght _h only "o ord]1 or z if ! ord] ( ?\ght _h any?+ to d ) ,=mal ,logic4 ,surely1 if di/9ction ( ,figure be recognis$ at all1 ! ,f\r? ,figure is sci5tifically necess>y1 because x is inevitably g5]at$ by an analysis ( ! possible positions ( ! middle t]m4 #aj4 ,is ,r$uction necess>y1 h[ev]2 or h n all ! ,figures equal & indep5d5t validity8 ,9 "o s5se n only e ,figure b ea* ,mood has indep5d5t validity3 = any "o capable ( ab/ract ?9k+ sees its validity by direct inspection2 & ?is is true n only ( ! ab/ract ,moods1 b v frequ5tly ( p>ticul> concrete argum5ts4 ,b sci5ce aims at unify+ k2 & aft] r$uc+ all possible argum5ts t =m categorical syllogisms to ! n9ete5 ,moods1 x is ano!r /ep 9 ! same direction to r$uce ^! ,moods to "o =m4 ,?is is ! v nature ( sci5ce3 &1 accord+ly1 ! ef=ts ( "s ,logicians to exp\nd sep>ate pr9ciples ( ea* ,figure seem to be sup]]ogatory4 ,grant t !y succe$2 & :at c ! next /ep be1 b ei!r to r$uce ^! pr9ciples to ! ,dictum1 or ! ,dictum & ! re/ to "o ( ^! pr9ciples8 ,unless ?is c be done !re is no sci5ce ( ,=mal ,logic4 ,if x is done1 :at is ga9$ by r$uc+ ! pr9ciples ( ! o!r ,figures to ! ,dictum1 in/ead ( ! ,moods ( ! o!r ,figures to ^? ( ! fir/ ,figure8 ,x may1 p]haps1 be said t to %[ 7#a7 t ! ,moods ( ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? ,figures fl[ f _! own pr9ciples 7?\gh1 9 fact1 ^! pr9ciples are labori\sly adapt$ to ! ,moods72 & 7#b7 t ^! pr9ciples may be d]iv$ f ! ,dictum1 is ! m uncompromis+ly gradual & regul> me?od3 b is n ,=mal ,logic already suffici5tly encumb]$ ) =malities8 #aa4 ,eul]'s diagrams are us$ to illu/rate ! syllogism1 ?\gh n v satisfactorily1 ?us3 ,b>b>a-- ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,cel>5t-- ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,d>ii-- ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,rememb]+ t ',"s' means ',x may be all1' x is pla9 t any "o ( ^! diagrams 9 ,fig4 #g1 or ! "o giv5 above = ,b>b>a1 may repres5t ! d5otative relations ( ,p1 ,m & ,s 9 ,d>ii2 ?\gh no d\bt ! diagram we g5]ally ?9k ( z repres5t+ ,d>ii is ,no4 #a 9 ,fig4 #g4 ,rememb]+ t ,a may be ,u1 & t1 !re=e1 :]ev] ,a occurs !re may be only "o circle = ,s & ,p1 ^! syllogisms may be repres5t$ by only two circles1 & ,b>b>a by only "o4 ,f]io-- ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,"h1 aga91 probably1 we g5]ally ?9k ( ,no4 #a z ! diagram repres5t+ ,f]io2 b #b1 or #c1 or t giv5 above = ,cel>5t1 is compatible ) ! premises4 ,if in/ead ( deal+ ) ,m1 ,p1 & ,s1 a concrete example be tak5 ( ,d>ii or ,f]io1 a k ( ! facts ( ! case w %[ :at diagram is suitable to x4 ,b1 !n1 surely x mu/ be possible to d )\t ! diagram4 ,^! diagrams1 ( c\rse1 c be us$ to illu/rate ,moods ( ! o!r ,figures4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,abbreviat$ ,,& ,,comp\nd ,,argum5ts #a4 ,9 ord9>y discussion1 :e!r oral or writt51 x is b r>ely t ! =ms ( ,logic are closely adh]$ to4 ,we (t5 leave wide gaps 9 ! /ructure ( our argum5ts1 tru/+ ! intellig5ce ( ^? address$ to bridge !m ov]2 or we inv]t ! regul> ord] ( propositions1 beg9n+ ) ! conclusion1 & m5tion+ ! premises1 p]haps1 a good :ile aft]1 confid5t t ! sagacity ( our audi5ce w make all smoo?4 ,sometimes a full /yle1 l ,macaulay's1 may1 by means ( amplification & illu/ration1 spread ! elem5ts ( a s+le syllogism ov] sev]al pages--a p5nywor? ( logic /eep$ 9 s mu* eloqu5ce4 ,^! practices give a great advantage to sophi/s2 :o w\ld f9d x v inconv5i5t to /ate explicitly 9 ,mood & ,figure ! pret5ti\s antilogies :i* !y foi/ ^u ! public2 &1 inde$1 su* lic5ces ( composition (t5 prev5t hone/ m5 f detect+ errors into :i* !y !mselves h unwitt+ly fall51 & :i*1 ) ! be/ int5tions1 !y /rive to communicate to o!rs3 b we put up ) ^! drawbacks to avoid ! inelegance & ! t$ium ( a long disc\rse 9 accurate syllogisms4 ,_m dep>tures f ! /rictly logical /atem5t ( reason+s consi/ 9 ! use ( vague or figurative language1 or 9 ! sub/itution = "o ano!r ( expressions suppos$ to be equival5t1 ?\gh1 9 fact1 dang]\sly discrepant4 ,aga9/ su* occasions ( error ! logician c provide no safegu>d1 except ! advice to be c>eful & discrim9at+ 9 :at y say or he>4 ,b z to any d]angem5t ( ! elem5ts ( an argum5t1 or ! omission ( !m1 ,logic effectually aids ! task ( re/oration2 = x has %[n :at ! elem5ts are t ent] into ! explicit /atem5t ( mo/ ratioc9ations1 namely1 ! f\r =ms ( propositions & :at t connect$ ord] ( propositions is :i* mo/ easily & surely exposes ! validity or invalidity ( reason+1 namely1 ! premises & conclusion ( ! ,syllogism4 ,logic has ev5 gone s f> z to "n c]ta9 abbreviat$ =ms ( pro(1 :i* may be reg>d$ z g5]al types ( ^? t actually occur 9 debate1 9 lead+ articles1 pamphlets & o!r p]suasive or polemic writ+s--namely1 ! ,en?ymeme1 ,epi*eirema & ,sorites4 #b4 ,! ,en?ymeme1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 is ! ,syllogism ( probable reason+ ab\t practical affairs & matt]s ( op9ion1 9 contra/ ) ! ,syllogism ( !oretical demon/ration ^u necess>y gr\nds4 ,b1 z n[ commonly treat$1 x is an argum5t ) "o ( its elem5ts omitt$2 a ,categorical ,syllogism1 hav+ "o or o!r ( its premises1 or else its conclusion1 suppress$4 ,if ! major premise be suppress$1 x is call$ an ,en?ymeme ( ! ,fir/ ,ord]2 if ! m9or premise be want+1 x is said to be ( ! ,second ,ord]2 if ! conclusion be left to be und]/ood1 !re is an ,en?ymeme ( ! ,?ird ,ord]4 ,let ! foll[+ be a complete ,syllogism3 ,all free nations are ent]pris+2 ,! ,dut* are a free nation3 ,! ,dut* are ent]pris+4 ,r$uc$ to ,en?ymemes1 ?is argum5t may be put ?us3 ,9 ! ,fir/ ,ord]3 ,! ,dut* are a free nation3 ,! ,dut* are ent]pris+4 ,9 ! ,second ,ord]-- ,all free nations are ent]pris+2 ,! ,dut* are ent]pris+4 ,9 ! ,?ird ,ord]-- ,all free nations are ent]pris+2 ,& ! ,dut* are a free nation4 ,x is c]ta9ly v common to meet ) argum5ts ^: /atem5t may be repres5t$ by "o or o!r ( ^! ?ree =ms2 inde$1 ! ,en?ymeme is ! natural sub/itute = a full syllogism 9 oratory3 :5ce ! transition f ,ari/otle's to ! mod]n mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,! mo/ uns*ool$ ( m5 readily appreh5d its =ce2 & a /ud5t ( ,logic c easily supply ! proposition t may be want$ 9 any case to complete a syllogism1 & !reby te/ ! argum5t's =mal validity4 ,9 any ,en?ymeme ( ! ,?ird ,ord]1 especially1 to supply ! conclusion _c pres5t any difficulty at all2 & h5ce x is a fav\rite vehicle ( innu5do1 z 9 ,hamilton's example3 ,e li> is a c[>d2 ,& ,caius is a li>4 ,! frankness ( ?is /atem5t & its retic5ce1 toge!r1 make x a bit+ s>casm ^u ,caius4 ,! process ( f9d+ ! miss+ premise 9 an ,en?ymeme ( ei!r ! ,fir/ or ! ,second ,ord]1 s z to con/itute a syllogism1 is sometimes call$ ,r$uction2 & = ?is a simple rule may be giv53 ,take t t]m ( ! giv5 premise :i* does n occur 9 ! conclusion 7& :i* mu/ !re=e be ! ,middle71 & comb9e x ) t t]m ( ! conclusion :i* does n occur 9 ! giv5 premise2 ! proposition ?us =m$ is ! premise :i* 0 requisite to complete ! ,syllogism4 ,if ! premise ?us con/itut$ conta9 ! pr$icate ( ! conclusion1 ! ,en?ymeme 0 ( ! ,fir/ ,ord]2 if x conta9 ! subject ( ! conclusion1 ! ,en?ymeme 0 ( ! ,second ,ord]4 ,t a /atem5t 9 ! =m ( a ,hypo!tical ,proposition may really be an ,en?ymeme 7z obs]v$ 9 *ap4 v4 #d7 c easily be %[n by reca/+ "o ( ! above ,en?ymemes ?us3 ,if all free nations are ent]pris+1 ! ,dut* are ent]pris+4 ,su* /atem5ts %\ld be treat$ accord+ to _! true nature4 ,to r$uce ! argum5t ( any ord9>y disc\rse to logical =m1 ! fir/ c>e %\ld be to make x cle> to oneself :at exactly ! conclusion is1 & to /ate x adequately b z succ9ctly z possible4 ,!n look = ! evid5ce4 ,?is may be ( an inductive "*1 consi/+ ( in/ances1 examples1 analogies2 &1 if s1 ( c\rse its cog5cy mu/ be evaluat$ by ! pr9ciples ( ,induction1 :i* we %all pres5tly inve/igate4 ,b if ! evid5ce be d$uctive1 x w probably consi/ ( an ,en?ymeme1 or ( sev]al ,en?ymemes "o dep5d+ on ano!r4 ,ea* ,en?ymeme may be isolat$ & exp&$ into a syllogism4 ,& we may !n inquire3 7#a7 :e!r ! syllogisms are =mally correct accord+ to ,b>b>a 7or :atev] ! appropriate ,mood72 7#b7 :e!r ! premises1 or ! ultimate premises1 are true 9 fact4 #c4 ,a ,monosyllogism is a syllogism consid]$ z /&+ alone or )\t relation to o!r argum5ts4 ,b1 ( c\rse1 a disputant may be ask+ to prove ! premises ( any syllogism2 9 :i* case o!r syllogisms may be advanc$ = t purpose4 ,:5 ! conclusion ( "o syllogism is us$ to prove ano!r1 we h a *a9-argum5t :i*1 /at$ at full l5g?1 is a ,polysyllogism4 ,9 any ,polysyllogism1 aga91 a syllogism ^: conclusion is us$ z ! premise ( ano!r1 is call$ 9 relation to t o!r a ,prosyllogism2 :il/ a syllogism "o ( ^: premises is ! conclusion ( ano!r syllogism1 is 9 relation to t o!r an ,episyllogism4 ,two modes ( abbreviat+ a ,polysyllogism1 are usually discuss$1 ! ,epi*eirema & ! ,sorites4 #d4 ,an ,epi*eirema is a syllogism = "o or bo? ( ^: premises a reason is add$2 z-- ,all m5 are mortal1 = !y are animals2 ,socrates is a man1 = rational bip$s are m53 ,socrates is mortal4 ,! ,epi*eirema is call$ ,s+le or ,d\ble1 says ,hamilton1 accord+ z an adscititi\s proposition atta*es to "o or bo? ( ! premises4 ,! above example is ( ! d\ble k9d4 ,! ,s+le ,epi*eirema is said to be ( ! ,fir/ ,ord]1 if ! adscititi\s proposition atta* to ! major premise2 if to ! m9or1 ( ! ,second ,ord]4 7,hamilton's ,logic3 ,lecture xix47 ,an ,epi*eirema1 !n1 is an abbreviat$ *a9 ( reason+1 or ,polysyllogism1 compris+ an ,episyllogism ) "o or two en?ymematic ,prosyllogisms4 ,! major premise 9 ! above case1 ,all m5 are mortal1 = !y are animals1 is an ,en?ymeme ( ! ,fir/ ,ord]1 suppress+ its own major premise1 & may be re/or$ ?us3 ,all animals are mortal2 ,all m5 are animals3 ,all m5 are mortal4 ,! m9or premise1 ,socrates is a man1 = rational bip$s are m51 is an ,en?ymeme ( ! ,second ,ord]1 suppress+ its own m9or premise1 & may be re/or$ ?us3 ,all rational bip$s are m52 ,socrates is a rational bip$3 ,socrates is a man4 #e4 ,! ,sorites is a ,polysyllogism 9 :i* ! ,conclusions1 & ev5 "s ( ! ,premises1 are suppress$ until ! argum5ts end4 ,if ! *a9 ( argum5ts 7 fre$ ( its en?ymematic "*1 ! suppress$ conclusions w\ld appe> z premises ( ,episyllogisms4 ,two v>ieties ( ,sorites are recognis$1 ! ,ari/otelian 7s call$1 ?\gh n treat$ ( by ,ari/otle71 & ! ,gocl5ian 7nam$ aft] its discov]]1 ,gocl5ius ( ,m>burg1 :o fl\ri%$ ab\t #afjj ,a4,d474 ,9 ord] to comp>e ^! two =ms ( argum5t1 x w be conv5i5t to place side by side ,hamilton's classical examples ( !m4 ,ari/otelian4 ,gocl5ian4 ,bucephalus is a horse2 ,an animal is a sub/ance2 ,a horse is a quadrup$2 ,a quadrup$ is an animal2 ,a quadrup$ is an animal2 ,a horse is a quadrup$2 ,an animal is a sub/ance3 ,bucephalus is a horse3 ,bucephalus is a sub/ance4 ,bucephalus is a sub/ance4 ,! read] wond]s :at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two =ms4 ,9 ! ,ari/otelian ,sorites ! m9or t]m occurs 9 ! fir/ premise1 & ! major t]m 9 ! la/2 :il/ 9 ! ,gocl5ian ! major t]m occurs 9 ! fir/ premise1 & ! m9or 9 ! la/4 ,b s9ce ! "* ( premises is fix$ by _! t]ms1 n by ! ord] 9 :i* !y are writt51 !re _c be a bett] example ( a di/9ction )\t a diff]5ce4 ,at a fir/ glance1 inde$1 !re may seem to be a m important po9t involv$2 ! premises ( ! ,ari/otelian ,sorites seem to proce$ 9 ! ord] ( ,fig4 ,,iv4 ,b if t 7 really s ! conclusion w\ld be1 ,"s ,sub/ance is ,bucephalus4 ,t1 on ! contr>y1 e "o writes ! conclusion1 ,bucephalus is a sub/ance1 proves t ! logical ord] ( ! premises is 9 ,fig4 ,i4 ,logically1 !re=e1 !re is absolutely no diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two =ms1 & pure reason requires ei!r t ! ,ari/otelian ,sorites disappe> f ! text-books1 or t x be reg>d$ z 9 ,fig4 ,,iv41 & its conclusion conv]t$4 ,x is ! %9+ m]it ( ,gocl5ius to h re/or$ ! premises ( ! ,sorites to ! usual ord] ( ,fig4 ,i43 :]eby he has rais$ to himself a monum5t m durable ?an brass1 & secur$ inde$ ! v *eape/ immortality4 ,! common ,sorites1 !n1 be+ 9 ,fig4 ,i41 its rules foll[ f ^? ( ,fig4 ,i3 7#a7 ,only "o premise c be p>ticul>2 &1 if any1 only t 9 :i* ! m9or t]m occurs4 ,=1 j z 9 ,fig ,i41 a p>ticul> premise any:]e else involves undi/ribut$ ,middle4 7#b7 ,only "o premise c be negative2 &1 if any1 only t 9 :i* ! major t]m occurs4 ,= if !re 7 two negative premises1 at ! po9t :]e ! second ent]$ ! *a9 ( argum5t !re mu/ be a syllogism ) two negative premises1 :i* is contr>y to ,rule #e2 :il/ if "o premise be negative x mu/ be t :i* conta9s ! major t]m1 = ! same reason z 9 ,fig4 ,i41 namely1 t ! conclusion w be negative1 & t !re=e only a negative major premise c prev5t illicit process ( ! major t]m4 ,if we exp& a ,sorites into its con/itu5t syllogisms1 ! conclusions successively suppress$ w reappe> z major premises2 ?us3 7#a7 ,an animal is a sub/ance2 ,a quadrup$ is an animal3 ,a quadrup$ is a sub/ance4 7#b7 ,a quadrup$ is a sub/ance2 ,a horse is a quadrup$3 ,a horse is a sub/ance4 7#c7 ,a horse is a sub/ance3 ,bucephalus is a horse3 ,bucephalus is a sub/ance4 ,?is suffices to %[ t ! ,protosyllogism ( a ,gocl5ian ,sorites is an ,en?ymeme ( ! ,?ird ,ord]2 aft] :i* ! argum5t is a *a9 ( ,en?ymemes ( ! ,fir/ ,ord]1 or ( ! ,fir/ & ,?ird comb9$1 s9ce ! conclusions z well z ! major premises are omitt$1 except 9 ! la/ "o4 ,le/ x %\ld be ?\ght t ! ,sorites is only good = argum5ts s frivol\s z ! above1 ,i subjo9 an example collect$ f v>i\s p>ts ( ,mill's ,political ,economy3-- ,! co/ ( lab\r dep5ds on ! effici5cy ( lab\r2 ,! rate ( pr(its dep5ds on ! co/ ( lab\r2 ,! inve/m5t ( capital dep5ds on ! rate ( pr(its2 ,wages dep5d on ! inve/m5t ( capital3 ,wages dep5d on ! effici5cy ( lab\r4 ,_h x occurr$ to ,mill to con/ruct ?is ,sorites1 he w\ld h modifi$ 8 doctr9e ( ! wages-fund1 & w\ld h sp>$ _m critics ! malignant joy ( refut+ him4 #f4 ,! ,ant9omy is a comb9ation ( argum5ts by :i* contradictory attributes are prov$ to be pr$icable ( ! same subject4 ,9 symbols1 ?us3 ,all ,m is ,p2 ,all ,n is p2 ,all ,s is ,m3 ,all ,s is ,n3 ,all ,s is ,p4 ,all ,s is p4 ,n[1 by ! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction1 ,s _c be ,p & p 7n-,p73 !re=e1 if bo? ( ! above syllogisms are s\nd1 ,s1 z ! subject ( contradictory attributes1 is logically an impossible ?+4 ,! contradictory conclusions are call$1 respectively1 ,!sis & ,anti!sis4 ,to come to p>ticul>s1 we may argue3 7#a7 t a con/itution :i* is at once a mon>*y1 an ari/ocracy & a democracy1 mu/ comprise ! be/ elem5ts ( all ?ree =ms2 & mu/1 !re=e1 be ! be/ ( all =ms ( gov]nm5t3 ! ,briti% ,con/itution is1 !re=e1 ! be/ ( all4 ,b 7#b7 su* a con/itution mu/ also comprise ! wor/ elem5ts ( mon>*y1 ari/ocracy & democracy2 &1 !re=e1 mu/ be ! wor/ ( all =ms4 ,are we1 !n1 driv5 to conclude t ! ,briti% ,con/itution1 ?us prov$ to be bo? ! be/ & wor/1 does n really exi/ at all1 be+ logically impossible8 ,! pro(s seem equally cog5t2 b p]haps nei!r ! be/ nor ! wor/ elem5ts ( ! simpl] con/itutions ne$ be pres5t 9 our own 9 suffici5t =ce to make x ei!r good or bad4 ,aga93 7#a7 ,e be+ :o is responsible = 8 actions is free2 ,man is responsible = 8 actions3 ,man is free4 7#b7 ,e be+ ^: actions ent] into ! c\rse ( nature is n free2 ,man is su* a be+3 ,man is n free4 ,does x1 !n1 foll[ t ',man1' z ! subject ( contradictory attributes1 is a non5tity8 ,?is doctr9e1 or some?+ l x1 has be5 s]i\sly ent]ta9$2 b if to any read] x seem extravagant 7z x c]ta9ly does to me71 he w no d\bt f9d an error 9 ! above argum5ts4 ,p]haps ! major t]m is ambigu\s4 ,= o!r examples x is en\gh to ref] to ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 :]e ,kant sets out ! ,ant9omies ( ,rational ,cosmology4 ,b ev5 if we d n agree ) ,kant t ! human und]/&+1 9 attempt+ to deal ) c]ta9 subjects beyond its rea*1 inevitably falls into su* contradictory reason+s2 yet x c h>dly be d\bt$ t we n unfrequ5tly hold op9ions :i*1 if logically develop$1 result 9 ,ant9omies4 ,&1 accord+ly1 ! ,ant9omy1 if x _c be imput$ to ,reason h]self1 may be a v fair1 & a v :olesome argum5tum ad hom9em4 ,x 0 ! fav\rite weapon ( ! ,pyrrhoni/s aga9/ ! dogmatic philosophies t fl\ri%$ aft] ! dea? ( ,ari/otle4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,conditional ,,syllogisms #a4 ,conditional ,syllogisms may be g5]ally describ$ z ^? t conta9 conditional propositions4 ,!y are usually divid$ into two classes1 ,hypo!tical & ,disjunctive4 ,a ,hypo!tical ,syllogism is "o t consi/s ( a ,hypo!tical ,major ,premise1 a ,categorical ,m9or ,premise1 & a ,categorical ,conclusion4 ,two ,moods are usually recognis$ ! ,modus pon5s1 9 :i* ! antec$5t ( ! hypo!tical major premise is affirm$2 & ! ,modus toll5s sic1 9 :i* its consequ5t is d5i$4 7#a7 ,modus pon5s1 or ,con/ructive4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 ,a is ,b3 ,c is ,d4 ,if ,ari/otle's reason+ is conclusive1 ,plato's !ory ( ,ideas is errone\s2 ,ari/otle's reason+ is conclusive3 ,plato's !ory ( ,ideas is errone\s4 ,rule ( ! ,modus pon5s3 ,! antec$5t ( ! major premise be+ affirm$ 9 ! m9or premise1 ! consequ5t is also affirm$ 9 ! conclusion4 7#b7 ,modus toll5s1 or ,de/ructive4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 ,c is n ,d3 ,a is n ,b4 ,if ,py?agoras is to be tru/$1 ,ju/ice is a numb]2 ,ju/ice is n a numb]3 ,py?agoras is n to be tru/$4 ,rule ( ! ,modus toll5s3 ,! consequ5t ( ! major premise be+ d5i$ 9 ! m9or premise1 ! antec$5t is d5i$ 9 ! conclusion4 ,by us+ negative major premises two o!r =ms are obta9able3 !n1 ei!r by affirm+ ! antec$5t or by d5y+ ! consequ5t1 we draw a negative conclusion4 ,?us 7,modus pon5s73 7,modus toll5s73 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is n ,d2 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is n ,d2 ,a is ,b3 ,c is ,d3 ,c is n ,d4 ,a is n ,b4 ,fur!r1 s9ce ! antec$5t ( ! major premise1 tak5 by itself1 may be negative1 x seems possible to obta9 f\r m =ms1 two 9 ea* ,mood1 f ! foll[+ major premises3 7#a7 ,if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is ,d2 7#b7 ,if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is n ,d4 ,b s9ce ! quality ( a ,hypo!tical ,proposition is det]m9$ by ! quality ( its consequ5t1 n at all by ! quality ( its antec$5t1 we _c get f ^! two major premises any really new ,moods1 t is to say1 ,moods exhibit+ any =mal diff]5ce f ! f\r previ\sly exp\nd$4 ,x is obvi\s t1 giv5 ! hypo!tical major premise-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d-- we _c1 by d5y+ ! antec$5t1 inf] a d5ial ( ! consequ5t4 ,t ,a is ,b1 is a m>k ( ,c be+ ,d2 b we are n told t x is ! sole & indisp5sable condition ( x4 ,if m5 read good books1 !y acquire k2 b !y may acquire k by o!r means1 z by obs]vation4 ,= ! same reason1 we _c by affirm+ ! consequ5t inf] ! affirmation ( ! antec$5t3 ,caius may h acquir$ k2 b we _c !nce conclude t he has read good books4 ,to see ?is 9 ano!r light1 let u recall *ap4 v4 #d1 :]e x 0 %[n t a hypo!tical proposition may be translat$ into a categorical "o2 :5ce x foll[s t a ,hypo!tical ,syllogism may be translat$ into a ,categorical ,syllogism4 ,treat+ ! above examples ?us1 we f9d t ! ,modus pon5s 7) affirmative major premise7 takes ! =m ( ,b>b>a1 & ! ,modus toll5s ! =m ( ,came/res3 ,modus pon5s4 ,b>b>a4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 ,! case ( ,a be+ ,b is a case ( ,c be+ ,d2 ,a is ,b3 ,?is is a case ( ,a be+ ,b3 ,c is ,d4 ,?is is a case ( ,c be+ ,d4 ,n[ if1 in/ead ( ?is1 we affirm ! consequ5t1 to =m ! new m9or premise1 ,?is is a case ( ,c be+ ,d1 !re w be a ,syllogism 9 ! ,second ,figure ) two affirmative premises1 & !re=e ! fallacy ( undi/ribut$ ,middle4 ,aga93 ,modus toll5s4 ,came/res4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 ,! case ( ,a be+ ,b is a case ( ,c be+ ,d3 ,c is n ,d3 ,?is is n a case ( ,c be+ ,d3 ,a is n ,b4 ,?is is n a case ( ,a be+ ,b4 ,b if1 in/ead ( ?is1 we d5y ! antec$5t1 to =m ! new m9or premise1 ,?is is n a case ( ,a be+ ,b1 !re arises a syllogism 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure ) a negative m9or premise1 & !re=e ! fallacy ( illicit process ( ! major t]m4 ,by ?us r$uc+ ! ,hypo!tical ,syllogism to ! ,categorical =m1 :at is lo/ 9 elegance is ga9$ 9 intelligibility4 ,=1 fir/1 we may ju/ify ourselves 9 speak+ ( ! hypo!tical premise z ! major1 & ( ! categorical premise z ! m9or2 s9ce 9 ! categorical =m !y conta9 respectively ! major & m9or t]ms4 ,&1 secondly1 we may ju/ify ourselves 9 treat+ ! ,hypo!tical ,syllogism z a k9d ( ,m$iate ,inf]5ce1 9 spite ( ! fact t x does n exhibit two t]ms comp>$ by means ( a ?ird2 s9ce 9 ! ,categorical =m su* t]ms di/9ctly appe>3 a new t]m 7',?is'7 em]ges 9 ! position ( ! m9or2 ! place ( ! ,middle is fill$ by ! antec$5t ( ! major premise 9 ! ,modus pon5s1 & by ! consequ5t 9 ! ,modus toll5s4 ,! m$iate elem5t ( ! inf]5ce 9 a ,hypo!tical ,syllogism consi/s 9 ass]t+1 or d5y+1 ! fulfilm5t ( a giv5 condition2 j z 9 a ,categorical syllogism to id5tify ! m9or t]m ) ! ,middle is a condition ( ! major t]m's be+ pr$icat$ ( x4 ,9 ! hypo!tical proposition-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d-- ! ,antec$5t1 ,a is ,b1 is ! conditio suffici5s1 or m>k1 ( ! ,consequ5t1 ,c is ,d2 & !re=e ! ,consequ5t1 ,c is ,d1 is a conditio s9e qua non ( ! antec$5t1 ,a is ,b2 & x is by means ( affirm+ ! =m] condition1 or else d5y+ ! latt]1 t a conclusion is r5d]$ possible4 ,inde$1 we ne$ n say t ! elem5t ( m$iation consi/s 9 affirm+1 or d5y+1 ! fulfilm5t ( a giv5 condition3 x is en\gh to say '9 affirm+4' ,= ?us to expla9 ! ,modus toll5s1 r$uce x to ! ,modus pon5s 7contraposit+ ! major premise & obv]t+ ! m9or73 ,cel>5t4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d3 ,! case ( ,c be+ n-,d is ,if ,c is n-,d1 ,a is n ,b2 n a case ( ,a be+ ,b2 ,c is n-,d3 ,?is is a case ( ,c be+ ,a is n ,b4 n-,d3 ,?is is n a case ( ,a be+ ,b4 ,! above f\r =ms commonly treat$ ( z ,hypo!tical ,syllogisms1 are call$ by ,ueb]weg & ,dr4 ,keynes ',hypo!tico-,categorical4' ,ueb]weg re/ricts ! "n ',hypo!tical' simply 7& ,dr4 ,keynes ! "n ',conditional'7 to su* ,syllogisms z ! foll[+1 hav+ two ,hypo!tical ,premises3 ,if ,c is ,d1 ,e is ,f2 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d3 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,e is ,f4 ,if we recognise p>ticul> hypo!tical propositions 7see *ap4 v4 #d71 x is obvi\s t su* ,syllogisms may be con/ruct$ 9 all ! ,moods & ,figures ( ! ,categorical ,syllogism2 & ( c\rse !y may be translat$ into ,categoricals4 ,we (t5 reason 9 ?is hypo!tical way4 ,= example3 ,if ! m>g9 ( cultivation be ext5d$1 r5ts w rise2 ,if prices ( produce rise1 ! m>g9 ( cultivation w be ext5d$3 ,if prices ( produce rise1 r5ts w rise4 ,b ! function ( ! ,hypo!tical ,syllogism 7commonly s call$71 z also ( ! ,disjunctive ,syllogism 7to be discuss$ 9 ! next section7 is to get rid ( ! conditional elem5t ( ! premises1 to pass f susp5se to c]ta9ty1 & obta9 a decisive categorical conclusion2 :]eas ^! ,syllogisms ) two hypo!tical premises leave u /ill ) a hypo!tical conclusion4 ,?is circum/ance seems to ally !m m closely ) ,categorical ,syllogisms ?an ) ^? t are discuss$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]4 ,t !y are ,categoricals 9 disguise may be se5 by consid]+ t ! above syllogism is n mat]ially significant1 unless 9 ea* proposition ! ^w ',if' is equival5t to ',:5ev]4' ,accord+ly1 ! "n ',hypo!tical ,syllogism1' is "h employ$ 9 ! old] usage4 #b4 ,a ,disjunctive ,syllogism consi/s ( a ,disjunctive ,major ,premise1 a ,categorical ,m9or ,premise1 & a ,categorical ,conclusion4 ,h[ _m ,moods are to be recognis$ 9 ?is k9d ( argum5t dep5ds on :e!r ! alt]natives ( ! ,disjunctive ,premise are reg>d$ z mutually exclusive or possibly co9cid5t4 ,9 say+ ',ei!r ,a is ,b1 or ,c is ,d1' d we mean 'ei!r1 b n bo?1' or 'ei!r1 x may be bo?'8 7,see *ap4 v4 #d47 ,:5 ! alt]natives ( ! ,disjunctive are n exclusive1 we h only ! ,modus toll5do pon5s4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b1 or ,c is ,d2 ,a is n ,b 7or ,c is n ,d73 ,c is ,d 7or ,a is ,b74 ,ei!r wages fall1 or ! weak] h&s are dismiss$2 ,wages d n fall3 ,! weak] h&s are dismiss$4 ,b we _c argue-- ,wages fall3 ,! weak] h&s are n dismiss$2 s9ce 9 'h>d times' bo? ev5ts may happ5 toge!r4 ,rule ( ! ,modus toll5do pon5s3 ,if "o alt]native be d5i$1 ! o!r is affirm$4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! alt]natives ( ! ,disjunctive are mutually exclusive1 we h also ! ,modus pon5do toll5s4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b1 or ,c is ,d2 ,a is ,b 7or ,c is ,d73 ,c is n ,d 7or ,a is n ,b74 ,ei!r ! ,tories or ! ,:igs w9 ! election2 ,! ,tories w93 ,! ,:igs d n w94 ,we may also1 ( c\rse1 argue z above 9 ! ,modus toll5do pon5s-- ,! ,tories d n w93 ,! ,:igs d4 ,b 9 ?is example1 to make ! ,modus toll5do pon5s mat]ially valid1 x mu/ be impossible t ! election %\ld result 9 a tie4 ,! dang] ( ! ,disjunctive ,proposition is t ! alt]natives may n1 betwe5 !m1 exhau/ ! possible cases4 ,only contradictory alt]natives are sure to cov] ! :ole gr\nd4 ,rule ( ! ,modus pon5do toll5s3 ,if "o alt]native be affirm$1 ! o!r is d5i$4 ,s9ce a disjunctive proposition may be turn$ into a hypo!tical proposition 7*ap4 v4 #d17 a ,disjunctive ,syllogism may be turn$ into a ,hypo!tical ,syllogism3 ,modus toll5do pon5s4 ,modus pon5s4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b1 or ,c is ,d2 ,if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is ,d2 ,a is n ,b3 ,a is n ,b3 ,c is ,d4 ,c is ,d4 ,simil>ly ! ,modus pon5do toll5s is equival5t to t k9d ( ,modus pon5s :i* may be =m$ ) a negative major premise2 = if ! alt]natives ( a disjunctive proposition be exclusive1 ! correspond+ hypo!tical be affirmative or negative3 ,modus pon5do toll5s4 ,modus pon5s4 ,ei!r ,a is ,b1 or ,c is ,d2 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is n ,d2 ,a is ,b3 ,a is ,b3 ,c is n ,d4 ,c is n ,d4 ,h5ce1 f9ally1 a ,disjunctive ,syllogism be+ equival5t to a ,hypo!tical1 & a ,hypo!tical to a ,categorical2 a ,disjunctive ,syllogism is equival5t & r$ucible to a ,categorical4 ,x is a =m ( ,m$iate ,inf]5ce 9 ! same s5se z ! ,hypo!tical ,syllogism is2 t is to say1 ! conclusion dep5ds ^u an affirmation1 or d5ial1 ( ! fulfilm5t ( a condition impli$ 9 ! disjunctive major premise4 #c4 ,! ,dilemma is p]haps ! mo/ popul>ly int]e/+ ( all =ms ( pro(4 ,x is a fav\rite weapon ( orators & wits2 & impal$ ^u ! horns ( a dilemma is a pa9ful situation 9 :i* e "o delights to see 8 adv]s>y4 ,x seems to h be5 describ$ by ,rhetoricians be=e f9d+ its way into works on ,logic2 & ,logicians1 to judge f _! div]se ways ( def9+ x1 h f\nd "s difficulty 9 mak+ up _! m9ds z to its exact "*4 ,!re is a fam\s ,dilemma employ$ by ,demo/h5es1 f :i* ! g5]al nature ( ! argum5t may be ga!r$3 ,if s*9es jo9$ 9 ! public rejoic+s1 he is inconsi/5t2 if he did n1 he is unpatriotic2 ,b ei!r he jo9$1 or he did n jo93 ,!re=e he is ei!r inconsi/5t or unpatriotic4 ,t is1 r$uc$ to symbols3 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,g is ,h3 ,b ei!r ,a is ,b1 or ,e is ,f2 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,g is ,h 7,complex ,con/ructive74 ,?is is a comp\nd ,conditional ,syllogism1 :i* may be analys$ z foll[s3 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,e is ,f4 ,suppose t ,e is n ,f3 ,suppose t ,a is n ,b3 ,!n ,a is ,b4 ,!n ,e is ,f4 ,b if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 ,b if ,e is ,f1 ,g is ,h2 7,a is ,b73 7,e is ,f73 ,c is ,d4 ,g is ,h4 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,g is ,h4 ,a ,dilemma1 !n1 is a comp\nd ,conditional ,syllogism1 hav+ = its ,major ,premise two ,hypo!tical ,propositions1 & = its ,m9or ,premise a ,disjunctive ,proposition1 ^: alt]native t]ms ei!r affirm ! ,antec$5ts or d5y ! ,consequ5ts ( ! two ,hypo!tical ,propositions =m+ ! ,major ,premise4 ,! hypo!tical propositions 9 ! major premise1 may h all f\r t]ms di/9ct 7z 9 ! above example72 & !n ! conclusion is a disjunctive proposition1 & ! ,dilemma is said to be ,complex4 ,or ! two hypo!tical propositions may h a common antec$5t or a common consequ5t2 & !n ! conclusion is a categorical proposition1 & ! ,dilemma is said to be ,simple4 ,aga91 ! alt]natives ( ! disjunctive m9or premise may be affirmative or negative3 if affirmative1 ! ,dilemma is call$ ,con/ructive2 & if negative1 ,de/ructive4 ,us+1 !n1 only affirmative hypo!tical propositions 9 ! major premise1 !re are f\r ,moods3 #a4 ,! ,simple ,con/ructive-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,c is ,d3 ,b ei!r ,a is ,b1 or ,e is ,f3 ,c is ,d4 ,if ! ,tories w9 ! election1 ! ,gov]nm5t w avoid innovation2 & if ! ,:igs w91 ! ,h\se ( ,lords w prev5t !m innovat+3 ,b ei!r ! ,tories or ! ,:igs w w93 ,!re w be no innovation4 #b4 ,! ,complex ,con/ructive-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,g is ,h3 ,b ei!r ,a is ,b1 or ,e is ,f3 ,ei!r ,c is ,d or ,g is ,h4 ,if appe>ance is all t exi/s1 reality is a delusion2 & if !re is a sub/ance beyond consci\sness1 k ( reality is impossible3 ,b ei!r appe>ance is all1 or !re is a sub/ance beyond consci\sness3 ,ei!r reality is a delusion1 or a k ( x is impossible4 #c4 ,simple ,de/ructive-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,a is ,b1 ,e is ,f3 ,b ei!r ,c is n ,d1 or ,e is n ,f3 ,a is n ,b4 ,if table-rapp]s are to be tru/$1 ! dep>t$ are spirits2 & !y also ex]t me*anical en]gy3 ,b ei!r ! dep>t$ are n spirits1 or !y d n ex]t me*anical en]gy3 ,table-rapp]s are n to be tru/$4 #d4 ,complex ,de/ructive-- ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,g is ,h3 ,b ei!r ,c is n ,d1 or ,g is n ,h3 ,ei!r ,a is n ,b1 or ,e is n ,f4 ,if poetic ju/ice is obs]v$1 virtue is rew>d$2 & if ! mirror is held up to ,nature1 ! villa9 triumphs3 ,b ei!r virtue is n rew>d$1 or ! villa9 does n triumph3 ,ei!r poetic ju/ice is n obs]v$1 or ! mirror is n held up to ,nature4 ,su* are ! f\r ,moods ( ! ,dilemma t em]ge if we only use affirmative hypo!ticals = ! major premise2 b1 c]ta9ly1 x is (t5 q z natural to employ two negative hypo!ticals 7inde$1 "o might be affirmative & ! o!r negative2 b waive t72 & !n f\r m moods em]ge1 all hav+ negative conclusions4 ,x is ne$less to intimidate ! read] by draw+ up ^! f\r moods 9 battle array3 !y always admit ( r$uction to ! =ego+ moods by obv]t+ ! hypo!ticals4 ,/ill1 by ! same process we may greatly decrease ! numb] ( moods ( ! ,categorical ,syllogism2 & j z "s ,syllogisms are mo/ simply express$ 9 ,cel>5t or ,ces>e1 s "s ,dilemmas are mo/ simply /at$ ) negative major premises--e4g41 ,! example ( a ,simple ,con/ructive ,dilemma above giv5 w\ld run m naturally ?us3 ,if ! ,tories w91 ! ,gov]nm5t w n innovate2 & if ! ,:igs1 ! ,lords w n let !m3 & simil>ly ,demo/h5es' ,dilemma--,if s*9es jo9$1 he is n consi/5t2 & if he did n1 he is n patriotic4 ,moreov]1 ! propriety ( recognis+ ,dilemmas ) negative major premises1 foll[s f ! above analysis ( ! ,dilemma into a comb9ation ( ,conditional ,syllogisms1 ev5 if 7z 9 #a ( ?is *apt]7 we take acc\nt ( only f\r ,moods ( ! ,hypo!tical ,syllogism4 ,9 ! rhetorical use ( ! ,dilemma1 x may be obs]v$ t ! disjunction 9 ! m9or premise ought to be obvi\s1 or 7at any rate7 easily acceptable to ! audi5ce4 ,?us1 ,ei!r ! ,tories or ! ,:igs w w92 ,ei!r s*9es jo9$ 9 ! rejoic+s1 or he did n2 su* propositions are n likely to be disput$4 ,b if ! orator mu/ /op to prove 8 m9or premise1 ! smack+ effect ( ?is figure 7if ! expression be all[$7 w be lo/4 ,h5ce ! m9or premises ( o!r examples giv5 above are only fit = a select audi5ce4 ,t ,ei!r gho/s are n spirits1 or !y d n ex]t me*anical en]gy1 supposes a k ( ! pr9ciple1 g5]ally taught by physical philosoph]s1 t only matt] is ! vehicle ( en]gy2 & t ,ei!r appe>ance is all1 or !re is sub/ance beyond consci\sness1 is a doctr9e :i* only metaphysical philosoph]s c\ld be expect$ to und]/&1 & ^u :i* !y c\ld n be expect$ to agree4 ,h[ev]1 ! *ief dang] is t a plausible disjunction may n be really su* z to exclude any middle gr\nd3 ,ei!r ! ,tories or ! ,:igs w91 is bad1 if a tie be possible2 ?\gh 9 ! above argum5t ?is is negligible1 see+ t a tie _c directly cause innovations4 ,ei!r s*9es jo9$ 9 ! rejoic+s1 or he did n1 does n all[ = a dec5t con=mity ) ! public movem5t :]e resi/ance w\ld be va92 yet su* con=mity z ne$ n be inconsi/5t ) subsequ5t condemnation ( ! proce$+s1 nor incompatible ) patriotic res]ve f\nd$ on a belief t ! rejoic+s are premature & om9\s4 ,ano!r rhetorical consid]ation is1 t ! alt]natives ( ! disjunctive conclusion ( a ,complex ,dilemma %\ld bo? po9t ! same way1 %\ld be equally di/a/eful or p>adoxical4 ',ei!r inconsi/5t or unpatriotic'3 horrid words to a politician6 ',ei!r no reality or no possible k ( x'3 v disappo9t+ to an anxi\s inquir]6 ,?us ! disjunctive conclusion is z bad = an oppon5t z ! categorical "o 9 a ,simple ,dilemma4 ,logicians fur!r speak ( ! ,trilemma1 ) ?ree ,hypo!ticals & a correspond+ triple ,disjunction2 & ( a ,polylemma1 ) any fur!r numb] ( p]plexities4 ,b anyone :o has a ta/e = logical =ms may h x amply gratifi$ 9 num]\s text-books4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,transition ,,to ,,induction #a4 ,hav+ n[ discuss$ ,t]ms1 ,propositions1 ,imm$iate & ,m$iate ,inf]5ces1 & inve/igat$ ! conditions ( =mal tru? or consi/5cy1 we h next to consid] ! conditions ( mat]ial tru?3 :e!r 7or h[ f>7 x is possible to arrive at propositions t accurately repres5t ! c\rse ( nature or ( human life4 ,hi!rto we h dealt ) no sort ( pro( t gives any su* assurance4 ,a valid syllogism gu>antees ! tru? ( its conclusion1 provid$ ! premises be true3 b :at ( ! premises8 ,! relation betwe5 ! premises ( a valid syllogism & its conclusion is ! same z ! relation betwe5 ! antec$5t & consequ5t ( a hypo!tical proposition4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d3 grant t ,a is ,b1 & x foll[s t ,c is ,d2 &1 simil>ly1 grant ! premises ( a syllogism1 & ! conclusion foll[s4 ,aga91 grant t ,c is n ,d1 & x foll[s t ,a is n ,b2 &1 simil>ly1 if ! conclusion ( a valid syllogism be false1 x foll[s t "o1 or o!r1 or bo? ( ! premises mu/ be false4 ,b1 once m1 grant t ,c is ,d1 & x does n foll[ t ,a is ,b2 s nei!r1 if ! conclusion ( a syllogism be true1 does x foll[ t ! premises are4 ,= example3-- ,sociology is an exact sci5ce2 ,ma!matics is a bran* ( ,sociology3 ,ma!matics is an exact sci5ce4 ,"h ! conclusion is true al?\gh ! premises are absurd4 ,or aga93-- ,ma!matics is an exact sci5ce2 ,sociology is a bran* ( ,ma!matics3 ,sociology is an exact sci5ce4 ,"h ! major premise is true1 b ! m9or is false1 & ! conclusion is false4 ,9 bo? cases1 h[ev]1 :e!r ! conclusion be true or false1 x equally foll[s f ! premises1 if !re is any cog5cy 9 ,b>b>a4 ,! explanation ( ?is is1 t ,b>b>a has only =mal cog5cy2 & t :e!r ! conclusion ( t1 or any o!r valid mood1 %all be true accord+ to fact & exp]i5ce1 dep5ds ^u h[ ! =m is fill$ up4 ,h[ to e/abli% ! premises1 !n1 is a mo/ important problem2 & x /ill rema9s to be solv$4 #b4 ,we may beg9 by recall+ ! di/9ction betwe5 ! d5otation & connotation ( a g5]al t]m3 ! d5otation compris+ ! ?+s or ev5ts :i* ! t]m is a "n =2 ! connotation compris+ ! common qualities on acc\nt ( :i* ^! ?+s are call$ by ! same "n4 ,obvi\sly1 !re are v few g5]al t]ms ^: d5otation is exhau/ively kn[n2 s9ce ! d5otation ( a g5]al t]m comprises all ! ?+s t h its connotation1 or t ev] h _h1 or t ev] w h x1 :e!r !y exi/ "h1 or 9 ,au/ralia1 or 9 ! ,moon1 or 9 ! utmo/ />s4 ,no "o has exam9$ all m51 all mammo?s1 all cry/als1 all fall+ bodies1 all cases ( fev]1 all revolutions1 all />s--nor ev5 all planets1 s9ce f "t to "t new ones are disc]n$4 ,we h names = animals t exi/$ long be=e !re 7 m5 to obs]ve !m1 & ( :i* we "k only a few bones1 ! rema9s ( multitud9\s species2 & = o!rs t may cont9ue to exi/ :5 m5 h disappe>$ f ! e>?4 ,if1 inde$1 we def9itely limit ! "t1 or place1 or quantity ( matt] to be explor$1 we may sometimes le>n1 )9 ! giv5 limits1 all t !re is to "k3 z all ! bones ( a p>ticul> animal1 or ! li/ ( ,engli% mon>*s hi!rto1 or ! names ( all ! memb]s ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons at ! pres5t "t4 ,su* cases1 h[ev]1 d n invalidate ! above logical tru? t few g5]al t]ms are exhau/ively kn[n 9 _! d5otation2 = ! v fact ( assign+ limits ( "t & place impairs ! g5]ality ( a t]m4 ,! bones ( a c]ta9 animal may be all exam9$1 b n ! bones ( all animals1 nor ev5 ( "o species4 ,! ,engli% mon>*s t h reign$ hi!rto may be kn[n1 b !re may be _m /ill to reign4 ,! g5]al t]ms1 !n1 ) :i* ,logic is *iefly conc]n$1 ! names ( ,causes & ,k9ds1 su* z gravitation1 diseases1 social ev5ts1 m9]als1 plants & animals1 /& = "s facts t are1 or h be51 kn[n1 & = a great _m o!r simil> ones t h n be51 & nev] w be1 kn[n4 ,! use ( a g5]al t]m dep5ds n ^u our direct k ( ev]y?+ compris$ 9 its d5otation1 b ^u our read9ess to apply x to any?+ t has its connotation1 :e!r we h se5 ! ?+ or n1 & ev5 ?\gh we nev] c p]ceive x2 z :5 a man talks freely ( ! i*?yosaurus1 or ( ! c5tral heat ( planets1 or ( atoms & e!r4 ,h5ce ,univ]sal ,propositions1 :i* consi/ ( g5]al t]ms1 deceive u1 if we suppose t _! pr$icates are directly kn[n to be relat$ to all ! facts d5ot$ by _! subjects4 ,9 exceptional cases1 9 :i* ! d5otation ( a subject is int5tionally limit$1 su* exhau/ive direct k may be possible2 z t all ! bones ( a c]ta9 animal consi/ ( phosphate ( lime1 or t e memb] ( ! pres5t ,p>liam5t we>s a silk hat4 ,b :at pr$ication is possible conc]n+ ! hats ( all memb]s ( ,p>liam5t f ! beg9n+8 ,ord9>ily1 !n1 :il/ ! relation ( pr$icate to subject has be5 obs]v$ 9 "s cases1 9 mu* ! great] numb] ( cases our belief ab\t x dep5ds ^u some?+ besides obs]vation1 or may be said 79 a c]ta9 s5se7 to be tak5 on tru/4 ',all rabbits are h]bivor\s'3 :y d we believe t8 ,we may h se5 a few wild rabbits fe$+3 or h kept tame ones1 & tri$ exp]im5ts ) _! diet2 or h read ( _! habits 9 a book ( ,natural ,hi/ory2 or h /udi$ ! anatomy & physiology ( ! dige/ive sy/em 9 _m sorts ( animals3 b ) :atev] c>e we add te/imony & sci5tific me?od to our own obs]vation1 x /ill rema9s true t ! rabbits obs]v$ by ourselves & o!rs are few 9 comp>ison ) ^? t live1 h liv$ & w live4 ,simil>ly ( any o!r univ]sal proposition2 t x 'goes beyond ! evid5ce' ( direct obs]vation pla9ly foll[s f ! fact t ! g5]al t]ms1 ( :i* su* propositions consi/1 are nev] exhau/ively kn[n 9 _! d5otation4 ,:at "r h we !n to /ate ,univ]sal ,propositions8 ,t is ! problem ( ,inductive ,logic4 #c4 ,univ]sal ,propositions1 ( c\rse1 _c always be prov$ by syllogisms2 because to prove a univ]sal proposition by a syllogism1 its premises mu/ be univ]sal propositions2 &1 !n1 ^! mu/ be prov$ by o!rs4 ,?is process may sometimes g a little way1 ?us3 ,all m5 are mortal1 because ,all animals are2 & ,all animals are mortal1 because ,all composite bodies are subject to dissolution4 ,7 !re no limit to su* sorites1 pro( w\ld always involve a regressus ad inf9itum1 = :i* life is too %ort2 b1 9 fact1 prosyllogisms soon fail u4 ,cle>ly1 ! =m ( ! ,syllogism mu/ itself be mislead+ if ! univ]sal proposition is s3 if we ?9k t premises prove ! conclusion because !y !mselves h be5 e/abli%$ by detail$ obs]vation1 we are mi/ak54 ,! consid]ation ( any example w %[ ?is4 ,suppose any "o to argue3 ,all rum9ants are h]bivor\s2 ,camels are rum9ants3 ,camels are h]bivor\s4 ,h we1 !n1 exam9$ all rum9ants8 ,if s1 we mu/ h exam9$ all camels1 & _c ne$ a syllogism to prove _! h]bivor\s nature3 in/ead ( ! major premise prov+ ! conclusion1 ! pro( ( ! conclusion mu/ !n be "p ( ! pro( ( ! major premise4 ,b if we h n exam9$ all rum9ants1 hav+ omitt$ mo/ giraffes1 mo/ de]1 mo/ ox51 etc41 h[ d we "k t ! unexam9$ 7say1 "s camels7 are n exceptional8 ,camels are vici\s en\gh to be c>nivor\s2 & inde$ x is said t ,bactrian camels w eat fle% r ?an />ve1 ?\gh ( c\rse _! habit is h]bivor\s4 ,or1 aga91 x is sometimes urg$ t-- ,all empires decay3 ,brita9 w decay4 ,?is is manife/ly a pr$iction3 at pres5t ,brita9 fl\ri%es1 & %[s no signs ( decay4 ,yet a k ( its decay seems necess>y1 to ju/ify any "o 9 ass]t+ ! giv5 premise4 ,if x is a "q :e!r ,brita9 w decay1 to attempt 7:ile sev]al empires /ill fl\ri%7 to settle ! matt] by ass]t+ t all empires decay1 seems to be 'a begg+ ( ! "q4' ,b al?\gh ?is latt] case is a manife/ pr$iction1 x does n really diff] f ! =m] "o2 = ! pro( t camels are h]bivor\s has no limits 9 "t4 ,if valid1 x %[s n only t !y are1 b also t !y w be1 h]bivor\s4 ,h5ce1 to resort to a dilemma1 x may be urg$3 ,if all ! facts ( ! major premise ( any syllogism h be5 exam9$1 ! syllogism is ne$less2 & if "s ( !m h n be5 exam9$1 x is a petitio pr9cipii4 ,b ei!r all h be5 exam9$1 or "s h n4 ,!re=e2 ! syllogism is ei!r useless or fallaci\s4 #d4 ,a way ( escape f ?is dilemma is provid$ by di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! =mal & mat]ial aspects ( ! syllogism consid]$ z a means ( pro(4 ,x begs ! "q =mally1 b n mat]ially2 t is to say1 if x be a "q :e!r camels are h]bivor\s1 & to decide x we are told t 'all rum9ants are1' lay+ /ress ^u ! 'all1' z if all _h be5 exam9$1 ?\gh 9 fact camels h n be51 !n ! "q z to camels is begg$4 ,! =m ( a univ]sal proposition is !n (f]$ z evid5ce1 :5 9 fact ! evid5ce has n be5 univ]sally asc]ta9$4 ,b if 9 urg+ t 'all rum9ants are h]bivor\s' no m is meant ?an t s _m o!r rum9ants ( diff]5t species are kn[n to be h]bivor\s1 & t ! rum9ant /oma* is s well adapt$ to a co>se vegetable diet1 t ! same habit may be expect$ 9 o!r rum9ants1 su* z camels1 ! argum5t !n re/s ^u mat]ial evid5ce )\t unfairly imply+ ! case 9 "q4 ,n[ ! nature ( ! mat]ial evid5ce is pla9ly ?is1 t ! resemblance ( camels to de]1 ox51 etc41 9 *ew+ ! cud1 ju/ifies u 9 believ+ t !y h a fur!r resemblance 9 fe$+ on h]bs2 9 o!r words1 we assume t resemblance is a gr\nd ( inf]5ce4 ,ano!r way ( putt+ ?is difficulty :i* we h j be5 discuss+1 ) reg>d to syllogi/ic evid5ce1 is to urge t by ! ,laws ( ,syllogism a conclusion mu/ nev] g beyond ! premises1 & t !re=e no progress 9 k c ev] be e/abli%$1 except by direct obs]vation4 ,n[1 tak+ ! syllogism =mally1 ?is is true3 if ! conclusion g beyond ! premises1 !re mu/ be ei!r f\r t]ms1 or illicit process ( ! major or m9or t]m4 ,b1 tak+ x mat]ially1 ! conclusion may cov] facts :i* 7 n 9 view :5 ! major premise 0 laid d[n2 facts ( :i* we pr$icate some?+ n z ! result ( direct obs]vation1 b because !y resemble 9 a c]ta9 way ^? facts :i* _h be5 %[n to c>ry ! pr$icate :5 ! major premise 0 =m$4 ',:at sort ( resemblance is a suffici5t gr\nd ( inf]5ce8' is1 !re=e1 ! important "q alike 9 mat]ial ,d$uction & 9 ,induction2 & 9 endeav\r+ to answ] x we %all f9d t ! sure/ gr\nd ( inf]5ce is resemblance ( causation4 ,= example1 x is due to causation t rum9ants are h]bivor\s4 ,_! in/9cts make !m crop ! h]b1 & _! /oma*s enable !m easily to dige/ x2 & 9 ^! *>act]s camels are l ! o!r rum9ants4 #e4 ,9 *4 ix1 #c1 ! ,dictum de omni et nullo 0 /at$3 ',:atev] may be pr$icat$ ( a t]m di/ribut$ may be pr$icat$ ( any?+ t c be id5tifi$ ) t t]m4' ,no?+ 0 !re said 7z no?+ 0 ne$$7 ( ! relations t might be impli$ 9 ! pr$ication4 ,b n[ t x comes to ! ultimate validity ( pr$ication1 we mu/ be cle> z to :at ^! relations are2 & x w also be conv5i5t to speak no long] ( t]ms1 z 9 ,=mal ,logic1 b ( ! ?+s d5ot$4 ,:at relations1 !n1 c be det]m9$ betwe5 concrete facts or ph5om5a 7physical or m5tal7 ) ! greate/ c]ta9ty ( g5]al tru?2 & :at axioms are !re t sanction m$iate inf]5ces conc]n+ ^? relations8 ,9 8 ,logic 7,b4 ,,ii4 c4 #b1 #c7 ,mill gives z ! axiom ( syllogi/ic reason+1 in/ead ( ! ,dictum3 ,a ?+ :i* co-exi/s ) ano!r ?+1 :i* o!r co-exi/s ) a ?ird ?+1 also co-exi/s ) t ?ird ?+4 ,?us ! peculi> prop]ties ( ,socrates co-exi/ ) ! attributes ( man1 :i* co-exi/ ) mortality3 !re=e1 ,socrates is mortal4 ,b1 aga91 he says t ! gr\nd ( ! syllogism is ,induction2 t man is mortal is an induction4 ,&1 fur!r1 ! gr\nd ( ,induction is causation2 ! law ( causation is ! ultimate major premise ( e s\nd induction4 ,n[ causation is ! pr9ciple ( ! succession ( ph5om5a3 h[1 !n1 c ! syllogism re/ on an axiom conc]n+ co-exi/5ce8 ,on reflection1 too1 x mu/ appe> t ',man is mortal' pr$icates causation3 ! human con/itution issues 9 dea?4 ,! explanation ( ?is inconsi/5cy may p]haps be f\nd 9 ! hi/ory ( ,mill's "w4 ,books ,i4 & ,,ii4 7 writt5 9 #ahca2 b be+ unable at t "t to expla9 ,induction1 he did n write ,book ,,iii4 until #ahcg-h4 ,!n1 no d\bt1 he revis$ ! e>li] ,books1 b n en\gh to br+ 8 !ory ( ! syllogism into complete agreem5t ) ! !ory ( ,induction2 s t ! axiom ( co-exi/5ce 0 all[$ to /&4 ,mill also introduc$ ! doctr9e ( ,natural ,k9ds z a gr\nd ( ,induction supplem5t>y1 at lea/ provisionally1 to causation2 & to reason+ ab\t ,k9ds1 or ,sub/ance & ,attribute1 8 axiom ( co-exi/5ce is really adapt$4 ,k9ds are gr\ps ( ?+s t agree among/ !mselves & diff] f all o!rs 9 a multitude ( qualities3 ^! qualities co-exi/1 or co-inh]e1 ) a high degree ( con/ancy2 s t :]e "s are f\nd o!rs may be inf]r$4 ,_! co-inh]5ce is n to be consid]$ an ultimate fact2 =1 s9ce ev]y?+ :i* occurs is det]m9$ by laws ( causation & collocations ( ! orig9al causes1 x foll[s t ! co-exi/5ces obs]vable among/ effects _c !mselves be ! subject ( any simil> set ( laws di/9ct f laws ( causation 7,b4 ,,iii4 c4 #e1 #i74 ,accord+ to ! !ory ( evolution 7work$ out s9ce ,mill wrote71 ,k9ds--t is1 species ( plants1 animals & m9]als--) _! qualities are all due to causation4 ,/ill1 z we c r>ely1 or nev]1 trace ! causes ) any fullness or precision1 a great deal ( our reason+1 z1 e4g41 ab\t m5 & camels1 does 9 fact tru/ to ! relative p]man5ce ( natural ,k9ds z def9$ by co-inh]+ attributes4 ,to see ?is m cle>ly1 we %\ld consid] t causation & natural ,k9ds are n at pres5t sep>able2 propositions ab\t causation 9 concrete ph5om5a 7z di/9ct f ab/ract '=ces'7 always involve ! assumption ( ,k9ds4 ,= example--',wat] ru/s iron1' or ! oxyg5 ( wat] comb9es ) iron imm]s$ 9 x to =m ru/3 ?is /atem5t ( causation assumes t wat]1 oxyg51 iron1 & iron-ru/ are kn[n ,k9ds4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! con/itution ( e concrete ?+1 & manife/ly ( e organis$ body1 is always und]go+ *ange1 t is1 causation1 ^u :i* fact its prop]ties dep5d4 ,h[1 !n1 c we frame pr9ciples ( m$iate reason+1 ab\t su* ?+s8 ,s f> z we consid] !m z ,k9ds1 x is en\gh to say3 ,:atev] c be id5tifi$ z a specim5 ( a kn[n sub/ance or ,k9d has ! prop]ties ( t ,k9d4 ,s f> z we consid] !m z 9 ! relation ( causation1 we may say3 ,:atev] relation ( ev5ts c be id5tifi$ ) ! relation ( cause & effect is con/ant4 ,& ^! pr9ciples may be g5]alis$ ?us3 ,:atev] is con/antly relat$ to a ph5om5on 7cause or ,k9d71 det]m9$ by c]ta9 *>act]s1 is relat$ 9 ! same way to any ph5om5on1 t has ! same *>act]s4 ,tak+ ?is z axiom ( ! syllogism mat]ially treat$1 we see t h]bivor\sness1 be+ con/antly relat$ to rum9ants1 is con/antly relat$ to camels2 mortality to man &1 !re=e1 to ,socrates2 ru/+ to ! imm]sion ( iron 9 wat] g5]ally &1 !re=e1 to ?is piece ( iron4 ,nota n1 nota rei ipsius is ano!r /atem5t ( ! same pr9ciple2 /ill ano!r is ,mill's axiom1 ,:atev] has a m>k has :at x is a m>k (4 ,a m>k is any?+ 7,a7 t is nev] f\nd )\t some?+ else 7,b7--a ph5om5on con/antly relat$ to ano!r ph5om5on--s t :]ev] ,a is f\nd1 ,b may be expect$3 human nature is a m>k ( mortality4 #f4 ,! ,syllogism has sometimes be5 disc>d$ by ^? :o h only se5 t1 z =mally /at$1 x is ei!r useless or fallaci\s3 b ^? :o also p]ceive its mat]ial gr\nds reta9 & def5d x4 ,9 fact1 great advantages are ga9$ by /at+ an argum5t z a =mal syllogism4 ,=1 9 ! fir/ place1 we c !n exam9e sep>ately ! ?ree conditions on :i* ! validity ( ! argum5t dep5ds3 7#a7 ,are ! ,premises s connect$ t1 if !y are true1 ! ,conclusion foll[s8 ,?is dep5ds ^u ! =mal pr9ciples ( *ap4 x4 7#b7 ,is ! ,m9or ,premise true8 ,?is "q c only arise :5 ! m9or premise is a real proposition2 & !n x may be v difficult to answ]4 ,wat] ru/s iron2 b is ! metal we are n[ deal+ ) a fair specim5 ( iron8 ,few p1 comp>atively1 "k h[ to det]m9e :e!r diamonds1 or ev5 gold or silv] co9s1 are g5u9e4 ,t ,camels are rum9ants is n[ a v]bal proposition to a ,zoologi/1 b n to ! re/ ( u2 & to ! ,zoologi/ ! asc]ta9+ ( ! relation 9 :i* camels /& to su* rum9ants z ox5 & de]1 0 n a matt] ( analys+ words b ( dissect+ specim5s4 ,:at a long controv]sy z to :e!r ! human race con/itutes a ,family ( ! ,primates6 ,t '! ,briti% ,empire is an empire' af=ds no matt] = d\bt or inquiry2 b h[ difficult to judge :e!r ! ,briti% ,empire resembles ,assyria1 ,egypt1 ,rome1 ,spa9 9 ^? *>act]s & circum/ances t caus$ _! d[nfall6 7#c7 ,is ! ,major ,premise true8 ,are all rum9ants h]bivor\s8 ,if !re be any exceptions to ! rule1 camels are likely en\gh to be among ! exceptions4 ,& "h ! ne$ ( ,inductive ,logic is mo/ conspicu\s3 h[ c we prove our premises :5 !y are univ]sal propositions8 ,univ]sal propositions1 h[ev]1 are also involv$ 9 prov+ ! m9or premise3 to prove a ?+ to be iron1 we mu/ "k ! con/ant reactions ( iron4 ,a second advantage ( ! syllogism is1 t x makes u fully aw>e ( :at an inf]5ce implies4 ,an inf]5ce mu/ h "s gr\nds1 or else x is a m]e prejudice2 b :atev] ! gr\nds1 if suffici5t 9 a p>ticul> case1 !y mu/ be suffici5t = all simil> cases1 !y mu/ admit ( be+ g5]alis$2 & to g5]alise ! gr\nds ( ! inf]5ce1 is no?+ else ?an to /ate ! major premise4 ,if ! evid5ce is suffici5t to ju/ify ! argum5t t camels are h]bivor\s because !y are rum9ants1 x mu/ also ju/ify ! major premise1 ,all rum9ants are h]bivor\s2 = else ! inf]5ce _c really dep5d m]ely ^u ! fact ( rum9at+4 ,to /ate our evid5ce syllogi/ically1 !n1 mu/ be possible1 if ! evid5ce is m$iate & ( a logical k9d2 & to /ate x 9 ?is =mal way1 z dep5d+ on ! tru? ( a g5]al pr9ciple 7! major premise71 increases our s5se ( responsibility = ! inf]5ce t is ?us se5 to imply s mu*2 & if any negative in/ances lie )9 our k1 we are ! m likely to rememb] !m4 ,! use ( syllogisms !re=e t5ds to /r5g!n our reason+s4 ,a ?ird advantage is1 t to =mulate an accurate g5]alisation may be useful to o!rs3 x is inde$ "p ( ! sy/ematic proc$ure ( sci5ce4 ,! memor&a ( our major premises1 or reasons = believ+ any?+1 may be ref]r$ to by o!rs1 & ei!r confirm$ or refut$4 ,:5 su* a memor&um is us$ = fur!r inf]5ces1 ^! inf]5ces are said1 9 ! language ( ,=mal ,logic1 to be drawn f x1 z if ! conclusion 7 conta9$ 9 our k ( ! major premise2 b1 consid]+ ! limit$ ext5t ( ! mat]ial evid5ce1 x is bett] to say t ! inf]5ce is drawn accord+ to ! memor&um or major premise1 s9ce ! gr\nds ( ! major premise & ( ! conclusion are 9 fact ! same 7,mill3 ,logic1 ,b4 ,,ii4 c4 #c74 ,inductive pro(s may be /at$ 9 ,syllogisms1 & inductive inf]5ces are drawn accord+ to ! ,law ( ,causation4 #g4 ,to assume t resemblance is a gr\nd ( inf]5ce1 & t sub/ance & attribute1 or cause & effect1 are ph5om5a con/antly relat$1 implies belief 9 ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature4 ,! ,uni=mity ( ,nature _c be def9$1 & is !re=e liable to be misund]/ood4 ,9 _m ways ,nature seems n to be uni=m3 !re is great v>iety 9 ! sizes1 %apes1 col\rs & all o!r prop]ties ( ?+s3 bodies fall+ 9 ! op5 air--pebbles1 slates1 fea!rs--desc5d 9 diff]5t l9es & at diff]5t rates2 ! w9d & wea!r are prov]bially unc]ta92 ! c\rse ( trade or ( politics1 is full ( surprises4 ,yet common maxims1 ev5 :5 absurd1 te/ify to a popul> belief t ! relations ( ?+s are con/ant3 ! doctr9e ( ,/4 ,s)9 & ! rhyme beg9n+ ',ev5+ r$ & morn+ grey1' %[ t ! wea!r is held to be n :olly unpr$ictable2 z to human affairs1 x is said t 'a gre5 ,yule makes a fat *ur*y>d1' t 'trade foll[s ! flag1' & t 'hi/ory repeats itself'2 & ,sup]/ition kn[s t wit*es _c ent] a /able-door if a horse-%oe is nail$ ov] x1 & t ! devil _c cross a ?re%old inscrib$ ) a p]fect p5tagram4 ,b ! sure/ pro( ( a belief 9 ! uni=mity ( nature is giv5 by ! conduct ( m5 & animals2 by t adh]5ce to habit1 cu/om & tradition1 to :i* 9 quiet times !y *iefly owe _! safety1 b :i* w\ld daily disappo9t & de/roy !m1 if x 7 n g5]ally true t ?+s may be f\nd :]e !y h be5 left & t 9 simil> circum/ances !re are simil> ev5ts4 ,n[ ?is g5]al belief1 seldom di/9ctly conceiv$1 = ! mo/ "p q unconsci\s 7z a pr9ciple71 m]ely impli$ 9 :at m5 d1 is also ! f\ndation ( all ! ,sci5ces2 :i* are entirely occupi$ 9 seek+ ! ,laws 7t is1 ! ,uni=mities7 ( ,nature4 ,z ! uni=mity ( nature _c be def9$1 x _c be prov$2 ! mo/ conv9c+ evid5ce 9 its fav\r is ! /eady progress made by ,sci5ce :il/ tru/+ 9 x4 ,nev]!less1 :at is important is n ! compreh5sive b indet]m9ate notion ( ,uni=mity s mu* z a numb] ( ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 :i* may be di/+ui%$ 9 x z foll[s3 7#a7 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle 7*4 vi4 #c7 decl>e t 9 a giv5 relation to a giv5 ph5om5on any two or m o!r ph5om5a are incompatible 7,b is n ,a & a72 :il/ ! giv5 ph5om5on ei!r /&s relat$ to ano!r ph5om5on or n 7,b is ei!r ,a or a74 ,x is n only a matt] ( ,logic b ( fact t1 if a leaf is gre51 x is n "u ! same conditions r$ or blue1 & t if x is n gre5 x is "s o!r col\r4 7#b7 ,c]ta9 ,axioms ( ,m$iate ,evid5ce3 z1 9 ,ma!matics1 't magnitudes equal to ! same magnitude are equal to "o ano!r'2 &1 9 ,logic1 ! ,dictum or its mat]ial equival5t4 7#c7 ,t all ,times & all ,spaces are comm5surable2 al?\gh 9 c]ta9 relations ( space 7z 7 ! unit ( measurem5t mu/ be inf9itely small4--,if ,"t really trott$ ) "o man & gallop$ ) ano!r1 z x seems to2 if space really swell$ 9 places1 z ,de ,qu9cey dream$ t x did2 life c\ld n be regulat$1 exp]i5ce c\ld n be comp>$ & sci5ce w\ld be impossible4 ,! ,ma!matical ,axioms w\ld !n nev] be applicable to space or "t1 or to ! objects or processes t fill !m4 7#d7 ,! ,p]si/5ce ( ,matt] & ,en]gy3 ! physical pr9ciple t1 9 all *anges ( ! univ]se1 ! quantities ( ,matt] & ,en]gy 7actual & pot5tial1 s-call$7 rema9 ! same4--,= example1 z to matt]1 al?\gh dew is f\nd on ! grass at morn+ )\t any app>5t cause1 & al?\gh a c&le seems to burn away to a scrap ( black5$ wick1 yet e "o kn[s t ! dew has be5 cond5s$ f vap\r 9 ! air1 & t ! c&le has only turn$ into gas & smoke4 ,z to en]gy1 al?\gh a /one ?r[n up to ! h\setop & re/+ !re has lo/ actual en]gy1 x has ga9$ su* a position t ! slighte/ t\* may br+ x to ! e>? aga9 9 ! same "t z x took to travel upw>ds2 s on ! h\se-top x is said to h pot5tial en]gy4 ,:5 a boil] works an eng9e1 e "t ! pi/on is ?ru/ =w>d 7me*anical en]gy71 an equival5t 9 heat 7molecul> en]gy7 is lo/4 ,b = ! elucidation ( ^! pr9ciples1 read]s mu/ ref] to treatises ( ,*emi/ry & ,physics4 7#e7 ,causation1 a special =m ( ! =ego+ pr9ciples ( ! p]si/5ce ( matt] & en]gy1 we %all discuss 9 ! next *apt]4 ,x is n to be conceiv$ ( z any?+ occult or n\m5al1 b m]ely z a special mode ( ! uni=mity ( ,nature or exp]i5ce4 7#f7 ,c]ta9 ,uni=mities ( ,co-exi/5ce2 b = want ( a g5]al pr9ciple ( ,co-exi/5ce1 correspond+ to ,causation 7! pr9ciple ( ,succession71 we c only classify ^! uni=mities z foll[s3 7a7 ,! ,geometrical2 z t1 9 a f\r-sid$ figure1 if ! opposite angles are equal1 ! opposite sides are equal & p>allel4--,c\ntless simil> uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce are disclos$ by ,geometry4 ,! co-exi/5t facts d n cause "o ano!r1 nor are !y jo9tly caus$ by some?+ else2 !y are mutually involv$3 su* is ! nature ( space4 7b7 ,univ]sal co-inh]5ces among ! prop]ties ( concrete ?+s4--,! *ief example is ! co-inh]5ce ( gravity ) in]tia 9 all mat]ial bodies4 ,!re is1 ,i believe1 no o!r entirely satisfactory case2 b "s good approximations to su* uni=mity are kn[n to physical sci5ce4 7c7 ,co-exi/5ce due to ,causation2 su* z ! positions ( objects 9 space at any "t4--,! h\ses ( a t[n are :]e !y are1 because !y 7 put !re2 & !y rema9 9 _! place z long z no o!r causes arise /rong en\gh to remove or de/roy !m4 ,simil>ly1 ! relative positions ( rocks 9 geological /rata1 & ( trees 9 a =e/1 are due to causes4 7d7 ,! co-inh]5ce ( prop]ties 9 ,natural ,k9ds2 :i* we call ! con/itution1 def9+ *>act]s1 or specific nature ( su* ?+s4--,oxyg51 plat9um1 sulphur & ! o!r elem5ts2 wat]1 common salt1 alcohol & o!r comp\nds2 ! v>i\s species ( plants & animals3 all ^! are kn[n to u z diff]5t gr\ps ( co-inh]5t prop]ties4 ,x may be conjectur$ t ^! gr\p+s ( prop]ties are also due to causation1 & sometimes ! causes c be trac$3 b v (t5 ! causes are /ill unkn[n2 &1 until resolv$ into _! causes1 !y mu/ be tak5 z necess>y data 9 ! inve/igation ( nature4 ,laws ( ! co-inh]5ce ( ! prop]ties ( ,k9ds d n1 l laws ( causation1 admit ( me?odical pro( ^u _! own pr9ciples1 b only by con/ancy 9 exp]i5ce & /ati/ical probability 7c4 xix1 #d74 7e7 ,!re are also a few cases 9 :i* prop]ties co-exi/ 9 an unacc\ntable way1 )\t be+ co-ext5sive ) any "o species1 g5us1 or ord]3 z mo/ metals are :iti%1 & sc>let fl[]s are want+ 9 fragrance4 7,on ?is #g1 see ,v5n's ,empirical ,logic1 c4 #d47 #h4 ,inasmu* z ,axioms ( ,uni=mity are ultimate tru?s1 !y _c be d$uc$2 & inasmu* z !y are univ]sal1 no pro( by exp]i5ce c ev] be adequate4 ,! gr\nds ( our belief 9 !m seem to be ^!3 7#a7 ,e inf]5ce takes = grant$ an ord] ( ,nature correspond+ ) x2 & e attempt to expla9 ! orig9 ( any?+ assumes t x is ! trans=mation ( some?+ else3 s t uni=mity ( ord] & cons]vation ( matt] & en]gy are necess>y presuppositions ( reason+4 7#b7 ,on ! rise ( philosophic reflection1 ^! tacit presuppositions are fir/ tak5 z dogmas1 & lat] z po/ulates ( sci5tific g5]alisation1 & ( ! ar*itectonic unification ( sci5ce4 ,"h !y are indisp5sable4 7#c7 ,! presuppositions or po/ulates are1 9 "s measure1 v]ifiable 9 practical life & 9 sci5tific demon/ration1 & ! bett] v]ifiable z our me?ods become m exact4 7#d7 ,!re is a cause ( ?is belief t _c be said to conta9 any evid5ce = x1 namely1 ! desire to f9d 9 ,nature a f\ndation = confid5ce 9 our own p[] to =esee & to control ev5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,causation #a4 ,= ! !ory ( ,induction1 ! specially important aspect ( ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature is ,causation4 ,= 7#a7 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle are impli$ 9 all logical op]ations1 & ne$ no fur!r explication4 7#b7 ,t "o ?+ is a m>k ( ano!r or con/antly relat$ to x1 mu/ be e/abli%$ by ,induction2 & ! sure/ ( all m>ks is a ,cause4 ,s t ! application ( ! axiom ( ! ,syllogism 9 p>ticul> cases requires1 :5 mo/ valid1 a previ\s appeal to ,causation4 7#c7 ,! uni=mity ( ,space & ( ,"t is involv$ 9 ,causation1 s f> z we conceive ,causation z ess5tially matt] 9 motion--= motion is only kn[n z a trav]s+ ( space 9 "t2 & s f> z =ces v>y 9 any way accord+ to ! di/ance betwe5 bodies2 s t if space & "t 7 n uni=m1 causation w\ld be irregul>4 ,n t "t & space are ag5ts1 b !y are conditions ( e ag5t's op]ation4 7#d7 ,! p]si/5ce ( ,matt] & ,en]gy1 be+ no?+ else ?an ,causation 9 ! g5]al movem5t ( ! _w1 is appli$ "u ! "n ( t pr9ciple 9 expla9+ any p>ticul> limit$ ph5om5on1 su* z a soap-bubble1 or a ?und]/orm1 or ! tide4 7#e7 ,z to co-exi/5ces1 ! ,geometrical d n belong to ,logic3 ^? involv$ 9 ! exi/5ce ( plants1 animals1 & inorganic bodies1 mu/1 z f> z possible1 be trac$ to causes2 & s1 ( c\rse1 mu/ ! relative positions ( objects 9 space at any "t3 & :at ,co-exi/5ces rema9 d n admit ( me?odical inductive treatm5t2 !y w be briefly discuss$ 9 *ap4 xix4 ,causation1 !n1 is t mode or aspect ( ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature :i* especially conc]ns u 9 ,induction2 & we mu/ make x z def9ite z possible4 ,x is no?+ occult1 b m]ely a conv5i5t "n = ph5om5a 9 a p>ticul> relation to o!r ph5om5a1 call$ _! effect4 ,simil>ly1 if ! ^w '=ce' is sometimes us$ = conv5i5ce 9 analys+ causation1 x means no?+ m ?an some?+ 9 "t & space1 itself mov+1 or t5d+ to move1 or h9d]+ or accel]at+ o!r ?+s4 ,if any "o does n f9d ^! words conv5i5t = ! purpose1 he c use o!rs4 #b4 ,a ,cause1 accord+ to ,mill1 is ! inv>iable unconditional antec$5t ( a giv5 ph5om5on4 ,to enl>ge ^u ?is3 7#a7 ,a ,cause is relative to a giv5 ph5om5on1 call$ ! ,effect4 ,logic has no me?od = inve/igat+ ! cause ( ! univ]se z a :ole1 b only ( a "p or epo* ( x3 we select f ! inf9ite cont9uum ( ,nature any portion t is nei!r too l>ge nor too small = a tra9$ m9d to compreh5d4 ,! magnitude ( ! ph5om5on may be a matt] ( conv5i5ce4 ,if ! cause ( disease 9 g5]al be too wide a problem1 c fev]s be dealt )2 or1 if t be too mu*1 is typhus )9 ! rea* ( inquiry8 ,9 %ort1 h[ mu* c we deal ) accurately8 7#b7 ,! giv5 ph5om5on is always an ev5t2 t is to say1 n a new ?+ 7no?+ is :olly new71 b a *ange 9 some?+1 or 9 ! relative position ( ?+s4 ,we may ask ! cause ( ! phases ( ! moon1 ( ! freez+ ( wat]1 ( ! k9dl+ ( a mat*1 ( a deposit ( *alk1 ( ! diff]5tiation ( species4 ,to inquire ! cause ( ,france be+ a republic1 or ,russia an autocracy1 implies t ^! c\ntries 7 once o!rwise gov]n$1 or _h no gov]nm5t3 to inquire ! cause ( ! e>? be+ %ap$ l an orange1 implies t ! matt] ( ! e>? _h once ano!r %ape4 7#c7 ,! ,cause is antec$5t to ! ,effect1 :i* accord+ly is (t5 call$ its consequ5t4 ,?is is (t5 misund]/ood & sometimes disput$4 ,x has be5 said t ! mean+ ( 'cause' implies an 'effect1' s t until an effect occurs !re c be no cause4 ,b ?is is a blund]2 = :il/ ! ^w 'cause' implies 'effect1' x also implies ! relative futurity ( ! effect2 & effect implies ! relative priority ( ! cause4 ,! connotation ( ! words1 !re=e1 agrees well en\gh ) ,mill's doctr9e4 ,9 fact1 ! dang] is t any pair ( contra/$ words may sugge/ too /rongly t ! ph5om5a d5ot$ are sep>ate 9 ,nature2 :]eas e natural process is cont9u\s4 ,if wat]1 dripp+ f ! ro( we>s away a /one1 x fell on ! ro( z ra92 ! ra9 came f a cond5s+ cl\d2 ! cl\d 0 driv5 by ! w9d f ! sea1 :5ce x exhal$2 & s on4 ,!re is no kn[n beg9n+ to ?is1 & no break 9 x4 ,we may take any "o ( ^! *anges1 call x an effect1 & ask = its cause2 or call x a cause1 & ask = its effect4 ,!re is n 9 ,nature "o set ( ?+s call$ causes & ano!r call$ effects2 b e *ange is bo? cause 7or a condition7 ( ! future & effect ( ! pa/2 & :e!r we consid] an ev5t z ! "o or ! o!r1 dep5ds ^u ! direction ( our curiosity or int]e/4 ,/ill1 tak+ ! ev5t z effect1 its cause is ! antec$5t process2 or1 tak+ x z a cause1 its effect is ! consequ5t process4 ,?is foll[s f ! conception ( causation z ess5tially motion2 = t motion takes "t is 7f ! way our p]ceptive p[]s gr[7 an ultimate intuition4 ,b1 = ! same reason1 !re is no int]val ( "t betwe5 cause & effect2 s9ce all ! "t is fill$ up ) motion4 ,nor mu/ x be suppos$ t ! :ole cause is antec$5t to ! effect z a :ole3 = we (t5 take ! ph5om5on on su* a scale t m9utes1 days1 ye>s1 ages1 may elapse be=e we consid] ! cause z exhau/$ 7e4g41 an e>?quake1 a battle1 an expansion ( cr$it1 natural selection op]at+ on a giv5 v>iety72 & all t "t ! effect has be5 accumulat+4 ,b we may fur!r consid] su* a cause z made up ( mom5ts or m9ute factors1 & ! effect z made up ( correspond+ mom5ts2 & !n ! cause1 tak5 9 its mom5ts1 is antec$5t ?r\gh\t to ! effect1 tak5 9 its correspond+ mom5ts4 7#d7 ,! ,cause is ! inv>iable antec$5t ( ! effect2 t is to say1 :5ev] a giv5 cause occurs x always has ! same effect3 9 ?is1 9 fact1 consi/s ! ,uni=mity ( ,causation4 ,accord+ly1 n e antec$5t ( an ev5t is its ,cause3 to assume t x is s1 is ! famili> fallacy ( argu+ 'po/ hoc ergo propt] hoc4' ,e ev5t has an inf9ite numb] ( antec$5ts t h no asc]ta9able connection ) x3 if a picture falls f ! wall 9 ?is room1 !re may h occurr$1 j previ\sly1 an e>?quake 9 ,new ,zeal&1 an explosion 9 a ,japanese ars5al1 a religi\s riot 9 ,india1 a political assass9ation 9 ,russia & a vote ( c5sure 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 besides millions ( o!r less noticeable ev5ts1 betwe5 none ( :i* & ! fall+ ( ! picture c any direct causation be detect$2 ?\gh1 no d\bt1 !y are all necess>y occurr5ces 9 ! g5]al _w-process1 & remotely connect$4 ,! cause1 h[ev]1 0 t a door slamm$ viol5tly 9 ! room above & %ook ! wall1 & t ! picture 0 heavy & ! cord old & rott54 ,ev5 if two ev5ts inv>iably occur "o aft] ! o!r1 z day foll[s night1 or z ! report foll[s ! fla% ( a gun1 !y may n be cause & effect1 ?\gh x is highly probable t !y are closely connect$ by causation2 & 9 ea* ( ^! two examples ! ev5ts are co-effects ( a common cause1 & may be reg>d$ z elem5ts ( its total effect4 ,/ill1 :il/ x is n true t e antec$5t1 or t e inv>iable antec$5t1 ( an ev5t is its cause1 ! cause is conceiv$ ( z "s *ange 9 c]ta9 conditions1 or "s /ate & process ( ?+s1 su* t %\ld x exactly recur ! same ev5t w\ld inv>iably foll[4 ,if we consid] ! antec$5t /ate & process ( ?+s v widely or v m9utely1 x nev] does exactly recur2 nor does ! consequ5t4 ,b ! purpose ( induction is to get z ne> ! tru? z possible )9 ! limits set by our faculties ( obs]vation & calculation4 ,complex causal in/ances t are mo/ unlikely to recur z a :ole1 may be analys$ into ! laws ( _! con/itu5t conditions4 7#e7 ,! ,cause is ! ,unconditional ,antec$5t4 ,a cause is nev] simple1 b may be analys$ into sev]al conditions2 & ',condition' means any necess>y factor ( a ,cause3 any ?+ or ag5t t ex]ts1 absorbs1 trans=ms1 or deflects en]gy2 or any relation ( "t or space 9 :i* ag5ts /& to "o ano!r4 ,a positive condition is "o t _c be omitt$ )\t fru/rat+ ! effect2 a negative condition is "o t _c be introduc$ )\t fru/rat+ ! effect4 ,9 ! fall+ ( ! picture1 e4g41 ! positive conditions 7 ! picture 7z be+ heavy71 ! slamm+ ( ! door1 & ! weakness ( ! cord3 a negative condition 0 t ! picture %\ld h no support b ! cord4 ,:5 ,mill1 !n1 def9es ! ,cause ( any ev5t z its unconditional antec$5t1 he means t x is t gr\p ( conditions 7/ate & process ( ?+s7 :i*1 )\t any fur!r condition1 is foll[$ by ! ev5t 9 "q3 x is ! lea/ antec$5t t suffices1 positive conditions be+ pres5t & negative abs5t4 ,:atev] item ( ! antec$5t c be left out1 !n1 )\t affect+ ! ev5t1 is no "p ( ! cause4 ,e>?quakes h happ5$ 9 ,new ,zeal& & votes ( c5sure 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons )\t a picture's fall+ 9 ?is room3 !y 7 n unconditional antec$5ts2 some?+ else 0 ne$$ to br+ d[n a picture4 ,unconditionality also di/+ui%es a true cause f an inv>iable antec$5t t is only a co-effect3 = :5 day foll[s night some?+ else happ5s2 ! ,e>? rotates ^u h] axis3 a fla% ( gunp[d] is n an unconditional antec$5t ( a report2 ! p[d] mu/ be ignit$ 9 a clos$ *amb]4 ,by common exp]i5ce1 & m precisely by exp]im5t1 x is f\nd possible to select f among ! antec$5ts ( an ev5t a c]ta9 numb] ^u :i*1 s f> z c be p]ceiv$1 x is dep5d5t1 & to neglect ! re/3 to purge ! cause ( all irrelevant antec$5ts is ! great art ( inductive me?od4 ,remote or m9ute conditions may inde$ modify ! ev5t 9 ways s ref9$ z to escape our notice4 ,subject to ! limitations ( our human faculties1 h[ev]1 we are able 9 _m cases to secure an unconditional antec$5t ^u :i* a c]ta9 ev5t inv>iably foll[s4 ,ev]ybody takes ?is = grant$3 if ! gas w n burn1 or a gun w n g (f1 we wond] ':at c be wrong ) x1' t is1 :at positive condition is want+1 or :at negative "o is pres5t4 ,no "o n[ supposes t gunn]y dep5ds ^u ^? remote/ ( all causes1 ! />s1 or ^u ! sun be+ 9 ,sagitt>ius r ?an 9 ,aqu>ius1 or t "o %oots /raighte/ ) a silv] bullet1 or aft] say+ ! alphabet backw>ds4 7#f7 ,t ! ,cause ( any ev5t is an ,imm$iate ,antec$5t foll[s f its be+ an unconditional "o4 ,= if !re are ?ree ev5ts1 ,a ,b ,c1 causally connect$1 x is pla9 t ,a is n ! unconditional antec$5t ( ,c1 b requires ! fur!r condition ( fir/ giv+ rise to ,b4 ,b t is n all2 = ! ,b t gives rise to ,c is nev] m]ely ! effect ( ,a2 x involves some?+ fur!r4 ,take su* a simple case z ! motion ( ! e>? r\nd ! sun 7neglect+ all o!r conditions1 ! o!r planets1 etc472 & let ! e>?'s motion at ?ree successive mom5ts be ,a ,b ,c3 ,a is n ! :ole cause ( ,b 9 velocity & direction2 we mu/ add relation to ! sun1 say x4 ,b !n1 aga91 ! cause ( ,c w n be m]ely ,bx1 = ! relation to ! sun w h alt]$2 s t we mu/ repres5t x z ,bx'4 ,! s]ies1 !re=e1 is ,ax ,bx' ,c4 ,:at is call$ a remote cause is1 !re=e1 d\bly conditional2 fir/1 because x supposes an int]v5+ cause2 & secondly1 because x only 9 "p det]m9es ! conditions t con/itute ?is int]v5+ cause4 ,! imm$iacy ( a cause be+ impli$ 9 its unconditionalness1 is an important clue to x2 b z f> z ! detection ( causes dep5ds ^u s5se-p]ception1 our p[]s 7h[ev] aid$ by in/rum5ts7 are unequal to ! subtlety ( ,nature4 ,betwe5 ! ev5t & :at seems to u ! imm$iate antec$5t _m ?+s 7molecul> or e!rial *anges7 may happ5 9 ,*emi/ry or ,physics4 ,! progress ( sci5ce w\ld be impossible 7 n obs]vation supplem5t$ by hypo!sis & calculation4 ,& :]e ph5om5a are treat$ ^u a l>ge scale1 z 9 ! biological & social sci5ces1 imm$iacy1 z a m>k ( causation1 mu/ be lib]ally int]pret$4 ,s f>1 !n1 z to ! qualitative "* ( ,causation4 7#g7 ,b to complete our acc\nt ( x1 we mu/ briefly consid] its quantitative "*4 ,z to ! ,matt] conta9$1 & z to ! ,en]gy embodi$1 ,cause & ,effect are conceiv$ to be equal4 ,z to matt]1 inde$1 !y may be m prop]ly call$ id5tical2 s9ce ! effect is no?+ b ! cause r$i/ribut$4 ,:5 oxyg5 comb9es ) hydrog5 to =m wat]1 or ) m]cury to =m r$ precipitate1 ! weight ( ! comp\nd is exactly equal to ! weight ( ! elem5ts comb9$ 9 x2 :5 a %ell explodes & knocks d[n a wall1 ! mat]ials ( ! %ell & wall are scatt]$ ab\t4 ,z to en]gy1 we see t 9 ! heav5ly bodies1 :i* meet ) no s5sible imp$im5t1 x rema9s ! same f age to age3 ) ?+s 'bel[ ! moon' we h to all[ = ! m or less rapid conv]sion ( ! visible motion ( a mass into o!r =ms ( en]gy1 su* z s\nd & heat4 ,b ! "r und]/&+ ( ?is po9t involves physical consid]ations ( "s difficulty1 z to :i* ! read] mu/ ref] to appropriate books1 su* z ,balf\r ,/ew>t's on ,! ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy4 ,! compreh5sion ( ! quantitative aspect ( causation is greatly aid$ by ,ba9's analysis ( any cause into a ',mov+ or an ,incit+ ,p[]' & a ',collocation' ( circum/ances4 ,:5 a demagogue by mak+ a spee* /irs up a mob to a riot1 ! spee* is ! mov+ or incit+ p[]2 ! mob already 9 a /ate ( sm\ld]+ passion1 & a /reet conv5i5t to be wreck$1 are ! collocation4 ,:5 a small quantity ( /ry*n9e kills a man1 ! /ry*n9e is ! incit+ p[]2 ! nature ( 8 n]vo-muscul> sy/em1 apt to be ?r[n into spasms by t drug1 & all ! organs ( 8 body dep5d5t on t sy/em1 are ! collocation4 ,n[ any "o :o ?9ks only ( ! spee*1 or ! drug1 9 ^! cases1 may express a/oni%m5t at ! disproportion ( cause & effect3 ,:at great ev5ts f trivial causes spr+6 ,b1 rememb]+ t ! :ole cause ( ! riot includ$ ! excit$ mob1 e "o sees t its muscul> p[] is en\gh to wreck a /reet2 & rememb]+ t brea?+ dep5ds ^u ! normal action ( ! int]co/al muscles1 x is pla9 t if ?is action is /opp$ by /ry*n9e1 a man mu/ die4 ,aga91 a slight rise ( temp]ature may be a suffici5t incit+ p[] to occasion ext5sive *emical *anges 9 a collocation ( elem5ts o!rwise /able2 a sp>k is en\gh to explode a p[d] magaz9e4 ,h5ce1 :5 suffici5t en]gy to acc\nt = any effect _c be f\nd 9 ! incit+ p[]1 or manife/ly active condition1 we mu/ look = x 9 ! collocation :i* is (t5 suppos$ to be passive4 ,& t rem9ds u ( ano!r common misappreh5sion1 namely1 t 9 ,nature "s ?+s are passive & o!rs active3 ! di/9ction betwe5 'ag5t' & 'pati5t4' ,?is is a m]ely relative di/9ction3 9 ,nature all ?+s are active4 ,to ! eye "s ?+s seem at re/ & o!rs 9 motion2 b we "k t no?+ is really at re/1 t ev]y?+ palpitates ) molecul> *ange1 & :irls ) ! planet ?r\gh space4 ,ev]y?+ t is act$ ^u reacts accord+ to its own nature3 ! quiete/-look+ object 7say1 a moss-cov]$ /one71 if we try to pu% or lift x1 pu%es or pulls u back1 assur+ u t 'action & reaction are equal & opposite4' ',in]tia' does n mean want ( vig\r1 b may be metaphorically describ$ z ! inexpugnable resolve ( ev]y?+ to h its own way4 ,! equality ( cause & effect def9es & int]prets ! unconditionality ( causation4 ,! cause1 we h se51 is t gr\p ( conditions :i*1 )\t any fur!r condition1 is foll[$ by a giv5 ev5t4 ,b h[ is su* a gr\p to be conceiv$8 ,unquantifi$1 x admits only ( a g5]al description3 quantifi$1 x mu/ mean a gr\p ( conditions equal to ! effect 9 mass & en]gy1 ! ess5ce ( ! physical _w4 ,app>5tly1 a necess>y conception ( ! human m9d3 = if a cause seem great] ?an its effect1 we ask :at has become ( ! surplus matt] & en]gy2 or if an effect seem great] ?an its cause1 we ask :5ce ! surplus matt] & en]gy has aris54 ,s conv9c$ ( ?is tru? is e exp]im5t]1 t if 8 results pres5t any deviation f x1 he always assumes t x is he :o has made "s mi/ake or ov]sight1 nev] t !re is indet]m9ism or discont9uity 9 ,nature4 ,! trans=mation ( matt] & en]gy1 !n1 is ! ess5ce ( causation3 because x is cont9u\s1 causation is imm$iate2 & because 9 ! same circum/ances ! trans=mation always foll[s ! same c\rse1 a cause has inv>iably ! same effect4 ,if a fire be lit morn+ aft] morn+ 9 ! same grate1 ) coal1 wood1 & pap] ( ! same quality & simil>ly arrang$1 !re w be ea* day ! same flam+ ( pap]1 crackl+ ( wood & gl[+ ( coal1 foll[$ 9 ab\t ! same "t by ! same r$uction ( ! :ole mass p>tly to a%es & p>tly to gases & smoke t h gone up ! *imney4 ,! flam+1 crackl+ & gl[+ are1 physically1 modes ( en]gy2 & ! *ange ( mat]ials into gas & a%es is a *emical & physical r$i/ribution3 &1 if "s "o be pres5t1 he w be aw>e ( all ?is2 & !n1 besides ! physical *anges1 !re w be s5sations ( light1 s\nd & heat2 & ^! aga9 w be always ! same 9 ! same circum/ances4 ,! ,cause ( any ev5t1 !n1 :5 exactly asc]ta9able1 has five m>ks3 x is 7quantitatively7 equal to ! effect1 & 7qualitatively7 ! imm$iate1 unconditional1 inv>iable antec$5t ( ! effect4 #c4 ,?is sci5tific conception ( causation has be5 develop$ & r5d]$ def9ite by ! inve/igations ( ^? physical sci5ces t c avail !mselves ( exact exp]im5ts & ma!matical calculation2 & x is !re1 9 ,*emi/ry & ,physics1 t x is mo/ at home4 ,! conception c inde$ be c>ri$ into ! ,biological & ,social ,sci5ces1 ev5 9 its quantitative =m1 by mak+ ! prop] all[ances4 ,= ! limbs ( animals are lev]s1 & act ^u me*anical pr9ciples2 & dige/ion & ! a]ation ( ! blood by brea?+ are p>tly *emical processes4 ,!re is a quantitative relation betwe5 ! food a man eats & ! am\nt ( "w he c d4 ,! numb]s ( any species ( plant or animal dep5d ^u ! food supply4 ,! value ( a c\ntry's imports is equal to ! value ( its exports & ( ! s]vices x r5d]s to =eign]s4 ,b1 g5]ally1 ! less exp]im5t & exact calculation are practicable 9 any bran* ( inquiry1 ! less rigor\sly c ! conception ( causation be appli$ !re1 ! m w its application dep5d ^u ! qualitative m>ks1 & ! m ne$ !re w be to use x judici\sly4 ,9 e inquiry ! greate/ possible precision mu/ be aim$ at2 b x is unreasonable to expect 9 any case m precise pro( ?an ! subject admits ( 9 ! exi/+ /ate ( culture4 ,:]ev] m5tal action is involv$1 !re is a special difficulty 9 apply+ ! physical notion ( causation4 ,= if a ,cause be conceiv$ ( z matt] 9 motion1 a ?\ght1 or feel+1 or volition c be nei!r cause nor effect4 ,& s9ce m5tal action is involv$ 9 all social affairs1 & 9 ! life ( all m5 & animals1 x may seem impossible to int]pret social or vital *anges accord+ to laws ( causation4 ,/ill1 animals & m5 are mov+ bodies2 & x is recognis$ t _! ?\ghts & feel+s are s connect$ ) _! movem5ts & ) ! movem5ts ( o!r ?+s act+ ^u !m1 t we c judge ( "o case by ano!r2 al?\gh ! connection is by no means well und]/ood1 & ! be/ words 7su* z all c agree to use7 h n yet be5 f\nd to express ev5 :at we "k ab\t x4 ,h5ce1 a regul> connection be+ grant$1 ,i h n hesitat$1 to use biological & social ev5ts & ! laws ( !m1 to illu/rate causation & induction2 because1 ?\gh less exact ?an *emical or me*anical examples1 !y are to mo/ p m famili> & int]e/+4 ,9 practical affairs1 x is felt t ev]y?+ dep5ds ^u causation2 h[ to play ! fiddle1 or sail a ya*t1 or get "o's liv+1 or defeat ! enemy4 ,! price ( pig-iron six mon?s h5ce1 ! prospects ( ! h>ve/1 ! issue 9 a ,coron]'s ,c\rt1 ,home ,rule & ,socialism1 are all que/ions ( causation4 ,b1 9 su* cases1 ! conception ( a cause is r>ely appli$ 9 its full sci5tific acceptation1 z ! unconditional antec$5t1 or 'all ! conditions' 7nei!r m nor less7 ^u :i* ! ev5t dep5ds4 ,?is is n because m5 ( affairs are bad logicians1 or incapable ( sci5tific compreh5sion2 = v (t5 ! rev]se is conspicu\sly true2 b because practical affairs call = promptitude & a decisive seiz+ ^u :at is pr$om9antly important4 ,h[ le>n to play ! fiddle8 ,g to a good tea*]4 7,!n1 beg9n+ "y en\gh1 ) natural aptitude & great dilig5ce1 all may be well47 ,h[ defeat ! enemy8 ,be two to "o at ! critical juncture4 7,!n1 if ! m5 are brave1 discipl9$1 well arm$ & well f$1 !re is a good *ance ( victory47 ,w ! price ( iron improve8 ,yes3 = ! m>ket is ov]sold3 7t is1 _m h sold iron :o h none to deliv]1 & mu/ at "s "t buy x back2 & t w put up ! price--if ! /ock is n too great1 if ! dem& does n fall (f1 & if ^? :o h b\ght :at !y _c pay = are n 9 ! mean:ile oblig$ to sell47 ,^! prompt & decisive judgm5ts 7) ! p>5!tic consid]ations unexpress$7 z to :at is ! ,cause1 or pr$om9antly important condition1 ( any ev5t1 are n z good z a sci5tific e/imate ( all ! conditions1 :5 ?is c be obta9$2 b1 :5 "t is %ort1 ! insight ( tra9$ sagacity may be mu* bett] ?an an imp]fect !oretical treatm5t ( su* problems4 #d4 ,to reg>d ! ,effect ( c]ta9 antec$5ts 9 a n>r[ selective way1 is ano!r common mi/ake4 ,9 ! full sci5tific conception ( an ,effect x is ! sum ( ! unconditional consequ5ces ( a giv5 /ate & process ( ?+s3 ! consequ5ces imm$iately fl[+ f t situation )\t fur!r conditions4 ,always to take acc\nt ( all ! consequ5ces ( any cause w\ld no d\bt be impracticable2 /ill ! practical1 z well z ! sci5tific int]e/1 (t5 requires t we %\ld enl>ge our views ( !m2 & !re is no common] error 9 private ef=t or 9 legislation ?an to aim at "s obvi\s good1 :il/ ov]look+ o!r consequ5ces ( our action1 ! evil ( :i* may f> outweigh t good4 ,an important consequ5ce ( eat+ is to satisfy hung]1 & ?is is ! ord9>y motive to eat2 b x is a poor acc\nt ( ! physiological consequ5ces4 ,an important consequ5ce ( fir+ a gun is ! propulsion ( ! bullet or %ell2 b !re are _m o!r consequ5ces 9 ! :ole effect1 & "o ( !m is ! heat+ ( ! b>rel1 :i*1 accumulat+ ) rapid fir+1 may at la/ put ! gun out ( action4 ,! tides h consequ5ces to %ipp+ & 9 ! we> & te> ( ! coa/ t draw e "o's att5tion2 b we are told t !y also ret>d ! rotation ( ! e>?1 & at la/ may cause x to pres5t always ! same face to ! sun1 &1 !re=e1 to be un9habitable4 ,su* concurr5t consequ5ces ( any cause may be call$ its ,co-effects3 ! ,effect be+ ! sum ( !m4 ,! neglect to take acc\nt ( ! :ole effect 7t is1 ( all ! co-effects7 9 any case ( causation is p]haps ! reason :y _m philosoph]s h ma9ta9$ ! doctr9e ( a ,plurality ( ,causes3 mean+ n t m ?an "o condition is op]ative 9 ! antec$5t ( e ev5t 7:i* is true71 b t ! same ev5t may be due at diff]5t times to diff]5t antec$5ts1 t 9 fact !re may be vic>i\s causes4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we take any effect z a :ole1 ?is does n seem to be true4 ,a fire may c]ta9ly be lit 9 _m ways3 ) a mat* or a fl9t & /eel1 or by rubb+ /icks toge!r1 or by a fla% ( lightn+3 h we n "h a plurality ( causes8 ,n if we take acc\nt ( ! :ole effect2 = !n we %all f9d x modifi$ 9 ea* case accord+ to ! diff]5ce ( ! cause4 ,9 "o case !re w be a burnt mat*1 9 ano!r a w>m fl9t1 9 ! la/ a *ang$ /ate ( electrical t5sion4 ,& simil> diff]5ces are f\nd 9 cases ( dea? "u diff]5t conditions1 z /abb+1 hang+1 *ol]a2 or ( %ipwreck f explosion1 scuttl+1 tempe/4 ,h5ce a ,coron]'s ,c\rt expects to f9d1 by exam9+ a corpse1 ! precise cause ( dea?4 ,9 %ort1 if we knew ! facts m9utely en\gh1 x w\ld be f\nd t !re is only "o ,cause 7sum ( conditions7 = ea* ,effect 7sum ( co-effects71 & t ! ord] ( ev5ts is z uni=m backw>ds z =w>ds4 ,/ill1 z we are f> f kn[+ ev5ts m9utely1 x is necess>y 9 practical affairs1 & ev5 9 ! m complex & unmanageable sci5tific inve/igations1 especially ^? t deal ) human life1 to ackn[l$ge a possible plurality ( causes = any effect4 ,inde$1 =getfulness ( ?is leads to _m ra% g5]alisations2 z t 'revolutions always beg9 9 hung]'2 or t 'my?s are a disease ( language4' ,!n !re is great wa/e ( +5uity 9 reconcil+ su* propositions ) ! recalcitrant facts4 ,a sci5tific me?od recognises t !re may be o!r causes ( effects ?us vaguely conceiv$1 & !n proce$s to di/+ui% 9 ea* class ( effects ! peculi>ities due to diff]5t causes4 #e4 ,! und]/&+ ( ! complex nature ( ,causes & ,effects helps u to ov]come "s o!r difficulties t p]plex ! use ( ^! words4 ,we h se5 t ! true cause is an imm$iate antec$5t2 b if ! cause is conf\nd$ ) "o ( its con/itu5t conditions1 x may seem to h long prec$$ ! ev5t :i* is reg>d$ z its effect4 ,?us1 if "o man's dea? is ascrib$ to ano!r's desire ( rev5ge1 ?is desire may h be5 ent]ta9$ = ye>s be=e ! assass9ation occurr$3 simil>ly1 if a %ipwreck is ascrib$ to a sunk5 reef1 ! rock 0 wait+ = ages be=e ! %ip sail$ t way4 ,b1 ( c\rse1 nei!r ! desire ( rev5ge nor ! sunk5 rock 0 '! sum ( ! conditions' on :i* ! "o or ! o!r ev5t dep5d$3 z soon z ?is is complete ! effect appe>s4 ,we h also se5 ! true effect ( any /ate & process ( ?+s is ! imm$iate consequ5ce2 b if ! effect be conf\nd$ ) "o ( its con/itu5t factors1 x may seem to long outlive ! cessation ( ! cause4 ,?us1 9 ne>ly e process ( human indu/ry & art1 "o factor ( ! effect--a road1 a h\se1 a tool1 a picture--may1 & g5]ally does1 rema9 long aft] ! "w has ceas$3 b su* a result is n ! :ole effect ( ! op]ations t produce x4 ,! o!r factors may be1 & "s always are1 evanesc5t4 ,9 mo/ ( su* works "s heat is produc$ by hamm]+ or friction1 & ! lab\r]s are fatigu$2 b ^! consequ5ces soon pass (f4 ,h5ce ! effect z a :ole only mom5t>ily survives ! cause4 ,consid] a p5dulum :i*1 hav+ be5 once set ago+1 sw+s to & fro 9 an arc1 "u ! jo9t control ( ! %aft1 gravitation & its own in]tia3 at e mom5t its spe$ & direction *ange2 & ea* *ange may be consid]$ z an effect1 ( :i* ! antec$5t *ange 0 "o condition4 ,9 su* a case z ?is1 :i*1 ?\gh a v simple1 is a p]fectly fair example ( all causation1 ! duration ( ei!r cause or effect is q ins5sible3 s t1 z ,dr4 ,v5n says1 an ,effect1 rigor\sly conceiv$1 is only ! initial t5d5cy ( its ,cause4 #f4 ,mill contra/$ two =ms "u :i* causation appe>s to u3 t is to say1 ! conditions con/itut+ a cause may be modifi$1 or 'int]mix$' 9 ! effect1 9 two ways1 :i* are typifi$ respectively by ,me*anical & ,*emical action4 ,9 me*anical causation1 :i* is f\nd 9 ,a/ronomy & all bran*es ( ,physics1 ! effects are all r$ucible to modes ( en]gy1 & are !re=e comm5surable ) _! causes4 ,!y are ei!r directly comm5surable1 z 9 ! cases treat$ ( 9 ! consid]ation ( ! me*anical p[]s2 or1 if diff]5t =ms ( en]gy ent] into cause & effect1 su* z me*anical en]gy1 electrical en]gy1 heat1 ^! diff]5t =ms are sev]ally r$ucible to units1 betwe5 :i* equival5ts h be5 e/abli%$4 ,h5ce ,mill calls ?is ! homog5e\s int]mixture ( effects1 because ! antec$5ts & consequ5ts are fundam5tally ( ! same k9d4 ,9 *emical causation1 on ! o!r h&1 cause & effect 7at lea/1 z !y pres5t !mselves to u7 diff] 9 almo/ e way3 9 ! act ( comb9ation ! prop]ties ( elem5ts 7except weight7 disappe>1 & are sup]s$$ by o!rs 9 ! comp\nd4 ,if1 = example1 m]cury 7a heavy1 silv]y liquid7 be heat$ 9 contact ) oxyg5 7a col\rless gas71 oxide ( m]cury is =m$ 7r$ precipitate1 :i* is a p[d]74 ,?is comp\nd pres5ts v diff]5t ph5om5a f ^? ( its elem5ts2 & h5ce ,mill call$ ?is class ( cases ! het]opa?ic int]mixture ( effects4 ,/ill1 9 *emical action1 ! effect is n 79 ,nature7 het]og5e\s ) ! cause3 = ! weight ( a comp\nd is equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! elem5ts t are m]g$ 9 x2 & an equival5ce has be5 asc]ta9$ betwe5 ! en]gy ( *emical comb9ation & ! heat1 light1 etc41 produc$ 9 ! act ( comb9ation4 ,! het]opa?ic int]mixture ( effects is also f\nd 9 organic processes 7:i*1 inde$1 are p>tly *emical73 z :5 a man eats bread & milk1 & by dige/ion & assimilation conv]ts !m into n]ve1 muscle & bone4 ,su* ph5om5a may make u wond] t p %\ld ev] h believ$ t 'effects resemble _! causes1' or t 'l produces l4' ,a dim recognition ( ! equival5ce ( cause & effect 9 respect ( matt] & motion may h aid$ ! belief2 & ! resemblance ( (fspr+ to p>5ts may h help$3 b x is probably a residuum ( magical rites2 9 :i* to :i/le may be reg>d$ z a means ( rais+ ! w9d1 because ! w9d :i/les2 & ra9-wiz>ds may make a victim %$ te>s t ! cl\ds also may weep4 #g4 ,ano!r consid]ation arises out ( ! complex "* ( causes & effects4 ,:5 a cause consi/s ( two or m conditions or =ces1 we may consid] :at effect any "o ( !m w\ld h if x op]at$ alone1 t is to say1 its ,t5d5cy4 ,?is is be/ illu/rat$ by ! ,p>allelogram ( ,=ces3 if two =ces act+ ^u a po9t1 b n 9 ! same direction1 be repres5t$ by /raight l9es drawn 9 ! direction ( ! =ces1 & 9 l5g? proportional to _! magnitudes1 ^! l9es1 meet+ 9 an angle1 repres5t sev]ally ! t5d5cies ( ! =ces2 :il/ if ! p>allelogram be complet$ on ^! l9es1 ! diagonal drawn f ! po9t 9 :i* !y meet repres5ts _! ,resultant or effect4 ,aga91 consid]+ ! t5d5cy ( any =ce if x op]at$ alone1 we may say t1 :5 comb9$ ) ano!r =ce 7n 9 ! same direction7 9 any resultant1 its t5d5cy is c\nt]act$3 ei!r p>tially1 :5 ! direction ( ! resultant is diff]5t2 or :olly :51 ! o!r =ce be+ equal & opposite1 ! resultant is equilibrium4 ,if ! two =ces be 9 ! same direction1 !y are m]ely add$ toge!r4 ,c\nt]action is only "o mode ( comb9ation2 9 no case is any =ce de/roy$4 ,sometimes ! sep>ate t5d5cies ( comb9$ =ces c only be !oretically di/+ui%$3 z :5 ! motion ( a projectile is analys$ into a t5d5cy to travel 9 ! /raight l9e ( its dis*>ge1 & a t5d5cy to fall /raight to ! gr\nd4 ,b sometimes a t5d5cy c be isolat$3 z :51--aft] dropp+ a fea!r 9 "s place %elt]$ f ! w9d1 & wat*+ x drift to & fro1 z ! air1 (f]+ unequal resi/ances to its unev5 surface1 c\nt]acts its weight ) v>y+ success1 until x sl[ly settles ^u ! gr\nd1--we take x up & drop x aga9 9 a vacuum1 :5 x falls l lead4 ,"h we h ! t5d5cy ( a c]ta9 cause 7namely1 ! relation betwe5 ! fea!r & ! e>?7 free f c\nt]action3 & ?is is call$ ! ,elim9ation ( ! c\nt]act+ circum/ances4 ,9 ?is case inde$ !re is physical elim9ation2 :]eas1 9 ! case ( a projectile1 :5 we say t its actual motion is resolvable 7neglect+ ! resi/ance ( ! air7 into two t5d5cies1 "o 9 ! l9e ( dis*>ge1 ! o!r e>?w>ds1 !re is only !oretical elim9ation ( ei!r t5d5cy1 consid]$ z c\nt]act+ ! o!r2 & ?is is m specifically call$ ! ,resolution or ,analysis ( ! total effect into its compon5t conditions4 ,n[1 ,elim9ation & ,resolution may be said to be ! ess5tial process ( ,induction 9 ! wide/ s5se ( ! t]m1 z includ+ ! comb9ation ( ,induction ) ,d$uction4 ,! sev]al conditions con/itut+ any cause1 !n1 by aid+ or c\nt]act+ "o ano!r's t5d5cies1 jo9tly det]m9e ! total effect4 ,h5ce1 view$ 9 relation "o to ano!r1 !y may be said to /& 9 ,reciprocity or mutual influ5ce4 ,?is relation at any mom5t is itself "o ( co-exi/5ce1 ?\gh x is conceiv$ ) ref]5ce to a possible effect4 ,z ,kant says1 all sub/ances1 z p]ceiv$ 9 space at ! same "t1 are 9 reciprocal activity4 ,& :at is true ( ! _w ( ?+s at any mom5t 7z connect$1 say1 by gravity71 is true ( any select$ gr\p ( circum/ances :i* we reg>d z ! p>ticul> cause ( any ev5t to come4 ,! use ( ! concept ( reciprocity1 !n1 lies 9 ! analysis ( a cause3 we mu/ n ?9k ( reciprocity z obta9+ 9 ! succession ( cause & effect1 z if ! effect c\ld turn back ^u its cause2 = z ! effect arises its cause disappe>s1 & is irrecov]able by ,nature or ,magic4 ,!re are _m cases ( rhy?mic *ange & ( mov+ equilibria1 9 :i* "o movem5t or process produces ano!r1 & ?is produces some?+ closely resembl+ ! =m]1 & s on 9 long s]ies2 z ) ! sw+ ( a p5dulum or ! orbit ( a planet3 b ^! are s]ies ( cause & effect1 n ( reciprocity4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,inductive ,,me?od #a4 ,x is necess>y to describe briefly ! process ( inve/igat+ laws ( causation1 n ) ! notion ( tea*+ any "o ! ,art ( ,discov]y1 :i* ea* man pursues = himself accord+ to 8 natural gifts & 8 exp]i5ce 9 ! me?ods ( 8 own sci5ce1 b m]ely to ca/ "s light ^u ! cont5ts ( ! next few *apt]s4 ,logic is "h treat$ z a process ( pro(2 pro( supposes t "s g5]al proposition or hypo!sis has be5 sugge/$ z requir+ pro(2 & ! se>* = su* propositions may spr+ f sci5tific curiosity or f practical int]e/s4 ,we may1 z ,ba9 obs]ves 7,logic3 ,b4 iii4 *4 #e71 desire to detect a process ( causation ei!r 7#a7 amid/ circum/ances t h no influ5ce ^u ! process b only obscure x2 z :51 be+ pleas$ ) a c]ta9 sc5t 9 a g>d51 we wi% to "k f :at fl[] x rises2 or1 be+ attract$ by ! s\nd ( "s in/rum5t 9 an or*e/ra1 we desire to "k :i* x is3 or 7#b7 amid/ circum/ances t alt] ! effect f :at x w\ld h be5 by ! sole op]ation ( "s cause2 z :5 ! air deflects a fall+ fea!r2 or 9 "s m complex case1 su* z a rise or fall ( prices t may ext5d ov] _m ye>s4 ,to beg9 )1 we mu/ =m def9ite ideas z to :at ! ph5om5on is t we are ab\t to inve/igate2 & 9 a case ( any complexity ?is is be/ done by writ+ a detail$ description ( x3 e4g41 to inve/igate ! cause ( a rec5t fall ( prices1 we mu/ describe exactly ! c\rse ( ! ph5om5on1 dat+ ! p]iod ov] :i* x ext5ds1 record+ ! successive fluctuations ( prices1 ) _! maxima & m9ima1 & not+ ! classes ( goods or securities t 7 m or less affect$1 etc4 ,!n ! fir/ /ep ( elim9ation 7z ,ba9 fur!r obs]ves7 is to analyse ! situation m5tally1 9 ! light ( analogies sugge/$ by our exp]i5ce or previ\s k4 ,dew1 = example1 is moi/ure =m$ ^u ! surface ( bodies f no app>5t s\rce4 ,b two possible s\rces are easily sugge/$ by common exp]i5ce3 is x deposit$ f ! air1 l ! moi/ure ^u a mirror :5 we brea! ^u x2 or does x exude f ! bodies !mselves1 l gum or turp5t9e8 ,or1 aga91 z to a fall ( prices1 a little exp]i5ce 9 bus9ess1 or k ( ,economics1 readily sugge/s two possible explanations3 ei!r *eap] production 9 mak+ goods or c>ry+ !m2 or a sc>city ( t 9 :i* ! pur*as+ p[] ( ! *ief comm]cial nations is directly express$1 namely1 gold4 ,hav+ ?us analys$ ! situation & consid]$ ! possibility ( "o1 two1 ?ree1 or m possible causes1 we fix ^u "o ( !m = fur!r inve/igation2 t is to say1 we frame an hypo!sis t ?is is ! cause4 ,:5 an effect is giv5 to f9d its cause1 an inquir] ne>ly always beg9s 8 inve/igations by ?us fram+ an hypo!sis z to ! cause4 ,! next /ep is to try to v]ify ?is ,hypo!sis4 ,?is we may sometimes d by v>y+ ! circum/ances ( ! ph5om5on1 accord+ to ! ,canons ( direct ,inductive ,pro( to be discuss$ 9 ! next *apt]2 t is to say1 by obs]v+ or exp]im5t+ 9 su* a way z to get rid ( or elim9ate ! obscur+ or di/urb+ conditions4 ,?us1 to f9d out :i* fl[] 9 a g>d5 gives a c]ta9 sc5t1 x is usually en\gh to rely on obs]vation1 go+ up to ! likely fl[]s "o aft] ! o!r & smell+ !m3 at close qu>t]s1 ! great] relative int5sity ( ! sc5t is suffici5tly decisive4 ,or we may resort to a sort ( exp]im5t1 pluck+ a likely fl[]1 z to :i* we frame ! hypo!sis 7?is is ! cause71 & c>ry+ x to "s place :]e ! air is free f conflict+ od\rs4 ,%\ld obs]vation or exp]im5t disprove our fir/ hypo!sis we try a second2 & s on until we succe$1 or exhau/ ! kn[n possibilities4 ,b if ! ph5om5on is s complex & ext5sive z a cont9u\s fall ( prices1 direct obs]vation or exp]im5t is a useless or impossible me?od2 & we mu/ !n resort to ,d$uction2 t is1 to indirect ,induction4 ,if1 = example1 we take ! hypo!sis t ! fall is due to a sc>city ( gold1 we mu/ %[ t !re is a sc>city2 :at effect su* a sc>city may be expect$ to h ^u prices f ! ackn[l$g$ laws ( prices1 & f ! analogy ( o!r cases ( an exp&$ or re/rict$ curr5cy2 t ?is expectation agrees ) ! /ati/ics ( rec5t comm]ce3 & f9ally1 t ! alt]native hypo!sis t ! fall is due to *eap] production is n true2 ei!r because !re has n be5 a suffici5t *eap5+ ( g5]al production2 or because1 if !re has be51 ! results to be rationally expect$ f x are n su* z to agree ) ! /ati/ics ( rec5t comm]ce4 7,*4 xviii47 ,b n[ suppose t1 a ph5om5on hav+ be5 sugge/$ = explanation1 we are unable at ! "t to ?9k ( any cause--to frame any hypo!sis ab\t x2 we mu/ !n wait = ! ph5om5on to occur aga91 &1 once m obs]v+ its c\rse & accompanim5ts & try+ to recall its antec$5ts1 d our be/ to conceive an hypo!sis1 & proce$ z be=e4 ,?us1 9 ! fir/ great epidemic ( influ5za1 "s doctors trac$ x to a deluge 9 ,*9a1 o!rs to a volcanic eruption ne> ,java2 "s ?\ght x a mild =m ( ,asiatic plague1 & o!rs caught a specific microbe4 ,z ! disease (t5 recurr$1 !re 7 fre% opportunities ( fram+ hypo!ses2 & ! microbe 0 id5tifi$4 ,aga91 ! inve/igation may take a diff]5t =m3 giv5 a suppos$ ,cause to f9d its ,effect2 e4g41 a new *emical elem5t1 to f9d :at comp\nds x =ms ) o!r elem5ts2 or1 ! spots on ! sun--h !y any influ5ce ^u our wea!r8 ,"h1 if ! giv5 cause be "u control1 z a new elem5t may be1 x is possible to try exp]im5ts ) x accord+ to ! ,canons ( ,inductive ,pro(4 ,! inquir] may =m "s hypo!sis or expectation z to ! effects1 to guide 8 obs]vation ( !m1 b w be c>eful n to hold 8 expectation s confid5tly z to falsify 8 obs]vation ( :at actually happ5s4 ,b if ! cause be1 l ! sun-spots1 n "u control1 ! inquir] w wat* on all sides :at ev5ts foll[ _! appe>ance & developm5t2 he mu/ wat* = consequ5ces ( ! new cause he is /udy+ 9 _m diff]5t circum/ances1 t 8 obs]vations may satisfy ! canons ( pro(4 ,b he w also resort = guidance to d$uction2 argu+ f ! nature ( ! cause1 if any?+ is kn[n ( its nature1 :at consequ5ces may be expect$1 & comp>+ ! results ( ?is d$uction ) any consequ5t :i* he suspects to be connect$ ) ! cause4 ,& if ! results ( d$uction & obs]vation agree1 he w /ill consid] :e!r ! facts obs]v$ may n be due to "s o!r cause4 ,a cause1 h[ev]1 may be "u control & yet be too dang]\s to exp]im5t )2 su* z ! effects ( a poison--?\gh1 if too dang]\s to exp]im5t ) ^u man1 x may be tri$ ^u animals2 or su* z a propos$ *ange ( ! con/itution by legislation2 or ev5 "s m9or ,act ( ,p>liam5t1 = alt]+ ! ,poor ,law1 or regulat+ ! h\rs ( lab\r4 ,"h ! fir/ /ep mu/ be d$uctive4 ,we mu/ ask :at consequ5ces are to be expect$ f ! nature ( ! *ange 7comp>+ x ) simil> *anges71 & f ! laws ( ! special circum/ances 9 :i* x is to op]ate8 ,& sometimes we may p>tially v]ify our d$uction by try+ exp]im5ts ^u a small scale or 9 a mild =m4 ,!re are conflict+ d$uctions z to ! probable effect ( giv+ ,home ,rule to ,irel&2 & exp]im5ts h be5 made 9 m or less simil> cases1 z 9 ! ,colonies & 9 "s =eign c\ntries4 ,z to ! proposal to make eight h\rs ! legal limit ( a day's lab\r 9 all trades1 we h all tri$ to =eca/ ! consequ5ces ( ?is2 & by way ( v]ification we might beg9 ) n9e h\rs2 or we might induce "s o!r c\ntry to try ! exp]im5t fir/4 ,/ill1 no v]ification by exp]im5ts on a small scale1 or 9 a mild =m1 or 9 some:at simil> yet diff]5t circum/ances1 c be consid]$ logically conclusive4 ,:at pro(s are conclusive we %all see 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s4 #b4 ,to beg9 ) ! conditions ( direct ,induction4--,an ,induction is an univ]sal real proposition1 bas$ on obs]vation1 9 reliance on ! uni=mity ( ,nature3 :5 well asc]ta9$1 x is call$ a ,law4 ,?us1 t all life dep5ds on ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 is 7#a7 an univ]sal proposition2 7#b7 a real "o1 s9ce ! 'pres5ce ( oxyg5' is n connot$ by 'life'2 7#c7 x is bas$ on obs]vation2 7#d7 x relies on ! uni=mity ( ,nature1 s9ce all cases ( life h n be5 exam9$4 ,su* a proposition is "h call$ 'an induction1' :5 x is inductively prov$2 t is1 prov$ by facts1 n m]ely d$uc$ f m g5]al premises 7except ! premise ( ,nature's uni=mity73 & by ! 'process ( induction' is meant ! me?od ( inductive pro(4 ,! phrase 'process ( induction' is (t5 us$ 9 ano!r s5se1 namely = ! inf]5ce or judgm5t by :i* su* propositions are arriv$ at4 ,b x is bett] to call ?is '! process ( hypo!sis1' & to reg>d x z a prelim9>y to ! process ( induction 7t is1 pro(71 z furni%+ ! hypo!sis :i*1 if x c /& ! prop] te/s1 becomes an induction or law4 #c4 ,inductive pro(s are usually class$ z ,p]fect & ,imp]fect4 ,!y are said to be p]fect :5 all ! in/ances )9 ! scope ( ! giv5 proposition h be5 sev]ally exam9$1 & ! proposition has be5 f\nd true 9 ea* case4 ,b we h se5 7*ap4 xiii4 #b7 t ! in/ances includ$ 9 univ]sal propositions conc]n+ ,causes & ,k9ds _c be exhau/ively exam9$3 we d n "k all planets1 all heat1 all liquids1 all life1 etc42 & we nev] c1 s9ce a man's life is nev] long en\gh4 ,x is only :]e ! conditions ( "t1 place1 etc41 are arbitr>ily limit$ t exam9ation c be exhau/ive4 ,p]fect induction might %[ 7say7 t e memb] ( ! pres5t ,h\se ( ,commons has two ,*ri/ian names4 ,su* an argum5t is sometimes exhibit$ z a ,syllogism 9 ,d>apti ) a ,m9or premise 9 ,u41 :i* legitimates a ,conclusion 9 ,a41 ?us3 ,a4,b4 to ,z h two ,*ri/ian names2 ,a4,b4 to ,z are all ! pres5t ,m4,p4's3 ,all ! pres5t ,m4,p4's h two ,*ri/ian names4 ,b 9 su* an inve/igation !re is no ne$ ( logical me?od to f9d ! major premise2 x is m]e c\nt+3 & to c>ry out ! syllogism is a holl[ =mality4 ,accord+ly1 our def9ition ( ,induction excludes ! k9d un=tunately call$ ,p]fect1 by includ+ 9 ! notion ( ,induction a reliance on ! uni=mity ( ,nature2 = ?is w\ld be sup]flu\s if e in/ance 9 "q _h be5 sev]ally exam9$4 ,imp]fect ,induction1 !n1 is :at we h to deal )3 ! me?od ( %[+ ! cr$ibility ( an univ]sal real proposition by an exam9ation ( "s ( ! in/ances x includes1 g5]ally a small fraction ( !m4 #d4 ,imp]fect ,induction is ei!r ,me?odical or ,imme?odical4 ,n[1 ,me?od is proc$ure ^u a pr9ciple2 & if ! me?od is to be precise & conclusive1 ! pr9ciple mu/ be cle> & def9ite4 ,!re is a ,geometrical ,me?od1 because ! axioms ( ,geometry are cle> & def9ite1 & by _! means1 ) ! aid ( def9itions1 laws are d$uc$ ( ! equality ( l9es & angles & o!r relations ( position & magnitude 9 space4 ,! process ( pro( is purely ,d$uctive 7! axioms & def9itions be+ grant$74 ,diagrams are us$ n z facts = obs]vation1 b m]ely to fix our att5tion 9 foll[+ ! g5]al argum5t2 s t x matt]s little h[ badly !y are drawn1 z long z _! div]g5ce f ! conditions ( ! proposition to be prov$ is n di/ract+4 ,ev5 ! appeal to sup]position to prove ! equality ( magnitudes 7z 9 ,euclid ,i4 #d71 is n an appeal to obs]vation1 b to our judgm5t ( :at is impli$ 9 ! =ego+ conditions4 ,h5ce no inf]5ce is requir$ f ! special case to all simil> ones2 = !y are all prov$ at once4 ,!re is also1 z we h se51 a me?od ( ,d$uctive ,logic re/+ on ! ,pr9ciples ( ,consi/5cy & ! ,dictum de omni et nullo4 ,& we %all f9d t !re is a me?od ( ,inductive ,logic1 re/+ on ! pr9ciple ( ,causation4 ,b !re are a good _m g5]al propositions1 m or less tru/wor?y )9 a c]ta9 range ( conditions1 :i* _c be me?odically prov$ = want ( a precise pr9ciple by :i* !y may be te/$2 & !y1 !re=e1 dep5d ^u ,imme?odical ,induction1 t is1 ^u ! exam9ation ( z _m in/ances z c be f\nd1 rely+ = ! re/ ^u ! undef9able pr9ciple ( ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature1 s9ce we are n able to connect !m ) any ( its def9ite modes enum]at$ 9 *ap4 xiii4 #g4 ,to ?is subject we %all return 9 *ap4 xix41 aft] treat+ ( ,me?odical ,induction1 or ! means ( det]m9+ t a relation ( ev5ts is ( ! nature ( cause & effect1 because ! relation c be %[n to h ! m>ks ( causation1 or "s ( !m4 #e4 ,obs]vations & ,exp]im5ts are ! mat]ial gr\nds ( ,induction4 ,an exp]im5t is an obs]vation made "u prep>$1 & !re=e kn[n1 conditions2 &1 :5 obta9able1 x is mu* to be pref]r$4 ,simple obs]vation %[s t ! burn+ ( ! fire dep5ds1 = "o ?+1 on ! supply ( air2 b x _c %[ u t x dep5ds on oxyg54 ,to prove ?is we mu/ make exp]im5ts z by obta9+ pure oxyg5 & pure nitrog5 7:i*1 mix$ 9 ! proportion ( "o to f\r1 =m ! air7 9 sep>ate vessels1 & !n plung+ a burn+ tap] into ! oxyg5--:5 x w blaze fi]cely2 & aga9 plung+ x into ! nitrog5--:5 x w be ext+ui%$4 ,?is %[s t ! great] "p ( ! air does no?+ to keep ! fire alight1 except by dim9i%+ its int5sity & s mak+ x la/ long]4 ,exp]im5ts are m p]fect ! m c>efully !y are prep>$1 & ! m completely ! conditions are kn[n "u :i* ! giv5 ph5om5on is to be obs]v$4 ,!re=e1 !y become possible only :5 "s k has already be5 ga9$ by obs]vation2 = else ! prep>ation :i* !y require c\ld n be made4 ,obs]vation1 !n1 0 ! fir/ mat]ial gr\nd ( ,induction1 & 9 "s sci5ces x rema9s ! *ief gr\nd4 ,! heav5ly bodies1 ! w9ds & tides1 ! /rata ( ! e>?1 & ! movem5ts ( hi/ory1 are beyond our p[] to exp]im5t )4 ,exp]im5ts ^u ! liv+ body or m9d are inde$ resort$ to :5 practicable1 ev5 9 ! case ( man1 z n[ 9 all dep>tm5ts ( ,psy*ology2 b1 if ( a grave nature1 !y are usually ?\ght unju/ifiable4 ,& 9 political affairs exp]im5ts are h9d]$ by ! reflection1 t ^? ^: int]e/s are affect$ mu/ be> ! consequ5ces & may res5t !m4 ,h5ce1 x is 9 physical & *emical inquiries & 9 ! physiology ( plants & animals 7"u c]ta9 conditions7 t direct exp]im5t is mo/ con/antly practis$4 ,:]e direct exp]im5t is possible1 h[ev]1 x has _m advantages ov] unaid$ obs]vation4 ,if "o exp]im5t does n enable u to obs]ve ! ph5om5on satisfactorily1 we may try aga9 & aga92 :]eas ! m]e obs]v]1 :o wi%es to /udy ! bright spots on ,m>s1 or a comm]cial crisis1 mu/ wait = a fav\rable opportunity4 ,aga91 9 mak+ exp]im5ts we c v>y ! conditions ( ! ph5om5on1 s z to obs]ve its diff]5t behavi\r 9 ea* case2 :]eas he :o dep5ds solely on obs]vation mu/ tru/ ! b\nty ( nature to supply him ) a suitable div]sity ( in/ances4 ,x is a p>ticul> advantage ( exp]im5t t a ph5om5on may sometimes be 'isolat$1' t is1 remov$ f ! influ5ce ( all ag5ts except t ^: op]ation we desire to obs]ve1 or except ^? ^: op]ation is already kn[n3 :]eas a simple obs]v]1 :o has no control ov] ! conditions ( ! subject he /udies1 c nev] be q sure t its movem5ts or *anges are n due to causes t h nev] be5 conspicu\s en\gh to draw 8 att5tion4 ,f9ally1 exp]im5t enables u to obs]ve coolly & circumspectly & to be precise z to :at happ5s1 ! "t ( its occurr5ce1 ! ord] ( successive ev5ts1 _! duration1 int5sity & ext5t4 ,b :e!r we proce$ by obs]vation or exp]im5t1 ! utmo/ atta9able exactness ( measurem5ts & calculation is requisite2 & ^! presuppose "s ,unit1 9 multiples or divisions ( :i* ! result may be express$4 ,?is unit _c be an ab/ract numb] z 9 ,ari?metic1 b mu/ be "o some?+--an h\r1 or a y>d1 or a p\nd--accord+ to ! nature ( ! ph5om5on to be measur$4 ,b :at is an h\r1 or a y>d or a p\nd8 ,!re mu/ 9 ea* case be "s con/ant ,/&>d ( ref]5ce to give assurance t ! unit may always h ! same value4 ,! ,engli% p\nd is def9$ by a c]ta9 lump ( plat9um pres]v$ at ,we/m9/]4 ,! unit may be id5tical ) ! /&>d or "s division or multiple ( x2 &1 9 measur+ ! same k9d ( ph5om5a1 diff]5t units may be us$ = diff]5t purposes z long z ea* be>s a con/ant relation to ! /&>d4 ,?us1 tak+ ! rotation ( ! e>? z ! /&>d ( ,"t1 ! conv5i5t unit = long p]iods is a ye> 7:i* is a multiple72 = %ort] p]iods1 a day 7:i* is id5tical72 = %ort] /ill1 an h\r 7:i* is a division71 or a second1 or a ?\s&? ( a second4 7,see ,jevons' ,pr9ciples ( ,sci5ce1 *4 #ad47 #f4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,causation is ! =mal gr\nd ( ,induction2 & ! ,inductive ,canons d]iv$ f x are means ( te/+ ! =mal suffici5cy ( obs]vations to ju/ify ! /atem5t ( a ,law4 ,if we c obs]ve ! process ( cause & effect 9 nature we may g5]alise our obs]vation into a law1 because t process is inv>iable4 ,fir/1 !n1 c we obs]ve ! c\rse ( cause & effect8 ,our p[] to d s is limit$ by ! ref9em5t ( our s5ses aid$ by in/rum5ts1 su* z l5ses1 !rmomet]s1 balances1 etc4 ,if ! causal process is ess5tially molecul> *ange1 z 9 ! ma9t5ance ( combu/ion by oxyg51 we _c directly obs]ve x2 if ! process is p>tly c]ebral or m5tal1 z 9 social movem5ts :i* dep5d on feel+ & op9ion1 x c b remotely be inf]r$2 ev5 if ! process is a collision ( mov+ masses 7billi>d-balls71 we _c really obs]ve :at happ5s1 ! ela/ic yield+1 & recoil & ! int]nal *anges t result2 ?\gh no d\bt photography w ?r[ "s light ^u ?is1 z x has done ^u ! gallop+ ( horses & ! impact ( projectiles4 ,direct obs]vation is limit$ to ! effect :i* any *ange 9 a ph5om5on 7or its index7 produces ^u our s5ses2 & :at we believe to be ! causal process is a matt] ( inf]5ce & calculation4 ,! meagre & ab/ract outl9es ( ,inductive ,logic are apt to fo/] ! notion1 t ! evid5ce on :i* ,sci5ce re/s is simple2 b x is amaz+ly intricate & cumulative4 ,secondly1 s f> z we c obs]ve ! process ( nature1 h[ %all we judge :e!r a true causal in/ance1 a relation ( cause & effect1 is be=e u8 ,by look+ = ! five m>ks ( ,causation4 ,?us1 9 ! exp]im5t above describ$1 %[+ t oxyg5 supports combu/ion1 we f9d--7#a7 t ! tap] :i* only gl[$ be=e be+ plung$ into ! oxyg51 bur/s into flame :5 !re--,sequ5ce2 7#b7 t ?is beg9s to happ5 at once )\t p]ceptible int]val--,imm$iacy2 7#c7 t no o!r ag5t or di/urb+ circum/ance 0 pres5t 7! prep>ation ( ! exp]im5t hav+ exclud$ any su* ?+7--,unconditionalness2 7#d7 ! exp]im5t may be repeat$ z (t5 z we l ) ! same result--,inv>iabl5ess4 ,inv>iabl5ess1 inde$1 ,i d n reg>d z =mally necess>y to be %[n1 suppos+ ! o!r m>ks to be cle>2 = x c only be prov$ )9 our exp]i5ce2 & ! v object ( ,induction is to f9d gr\nds ( belief beyond actual exp]i5ce4 ,h[ev]1 = mat]ial assurance1 to gu>d aga9/ 8 own liability to error1 ! inquir] w ( c\rse repeat 8 exp]im5ts4 ,! above f\r are ! qualitative m>ks ( ,causation3 ! fif? & quantitative m>k is ! ,equality ( ,cause & ,effect2 & ?is1 9 ! above example1 ! ,*emi/ det]m9es by %[+ t1 in/ead ( ! oxyg5 & wax t h disappe>$ dur+ combu/ion1 an equival5t weight ( c>bon dioxide1 wat]1 etc41 has be5 =m$4 ,"h1 !n1 we h all ! m>ks ( causation2 b 9 ! ord9>y judgm5ts ( life1 9 hi/ory1 politics1 criticism1 bus9ess1 we mu/ n expect su* cle> & direct pro(s2 9 subsequ5t *apt]s x w appe> h[ diff]5t k9ds ( evid5ce are comb9$ 9 diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( inve/igation4 #g4 ,! ,inductive ,canons1 to be expla9$ 9 ! next *apt]1 describe ! "* ( obs]vations & exp]im5ts t ju/ify u 9 draw+ conclusions ab\t causation2 &1 z we h m5tion$1 !y are d]iv$ f ! pr9ciple ( ,causation itself4 ,accord+ to t pr9ciple1 cause & effect are inv>iably1 imm$iately & unconditionally antec$5t & consequ5t1 & are equal z to ! matt] & en]gy embodi$4 ,inv>iability c only be obs]v$1 9 any ( ! me?ods ( induction1 by collect+ m & m in/ances1 or repeat+ exp]im5ts4 ,( c\rse x c nev] be exhau/ively obs]v$4 ,imm$iacy1 too1 9 direct ,induction1 is a matt] = obs]vation ! mo/ exact t is possible4 ,succession1 or ! relation itself ( antec$5t & consequ5t1 mu/ ei!r be directly obs]v$ 7or "s index ( x72 or else asc]ta9$ by %[+ t en]gy ga9$ by "o ph5om5on has be5 lo/ by ano!r1 = ?is implies succession4 ,b to det]m9e ! unconditionality ( causation1 or ! indisp5sability ( "s condition1 is ! great object ( ! me?ods1 & = t purpose ! mean+ ( unconditionality may be fur!r explicat$ by ! foll[+ rules = ! det]m9ation ( a ,cause4 ,a4 ,,qualitative ,,det]m9ation ,i4--,= ,positive ,in/ances4 ,to prove a suppos$ ,cause3 7a7 ,any ag5t ^: introduction among c]ta9 conditions 7)\t fur!r *ange7 is foll[$ by a giv5 ph5om5on2 or1 7b7 ^: removal is foll[$ by ! cessation 7or modification7 ( t ph5om5on1 is 7s f>7 ! cause or an indisp5sable condition ( x4 ,to f9d ! ,effect3 7c7 ,any ev5t t foll[s a giv5 ph5om5on1 :5 !re is no fur!r *ange2 or1 7d7 t does n occur :5 ! conditions ( a =m] occurr5ce are exactly ! same1 except = ! abs5ce ( t ph5om5on1 is ! effect ( x 7or is dep5d5t on x74 ,,ii4--,= ,negative ,in/ances4 ,to exclude a suppos$ ,cause3 7a7 ,any ag5t t c be introduc$ among c]ta9 conditions )\t be+ foll[$ by a giv5 ph5om5on 7or t is f\nd )\t t ph5om5on72 or 7b7 t c be remov$ :5 t ph5om5on is pres5t )\t impair+ x 7or t is abs5t :5 t ph5om5on is pres5t71 is n ! cause1 or does n complete ! cause1 ( t ph5om5on 9 ^? circum/ances4 ,to exclude a suppos$ ,effect3 7c7 ,any ev5t t occurs )\t ! introduction 7or pres5ce7 ( a giv5 ph5om5on2 or 7d7 t does n occur :5 t ph5om5on is introduc$ 7or is pres5t71 is n ! effect ( t ph5om5on4 99 99 99 99 99 ,subject to ! conditions ?us /at$1 ! rules may be briefly put z foll[s3 ,i4 7a7 ,t :i* 7)\t fur!r *ange7 is foll[$ by a giv5 ev5t is its cause4 ,,ii4 7a7 ,t :i* is n s foll[$ is n ! cause4 ,i4 7b7 ,t :i* _c be left out )\t impair+ a ph5om5on is a condition ( x4 ,,ii4 7b7 ,t :i* c be left out is n a condition ( x4 ,b4 ,,quantitative ,,det]m9ation ,! ,equality ( ,cause & ,effect may be fur!r expla9$ by ^! rules3 ,,iii4 7a7 ,:5 a cause 7or effect7 increases or decreases1 s does its effect 7or cause74 ,,iii4 7b7 ,if two ph5om5a1 hav+ ! o!r m>ks ( cause & effect1 seem unequal1 ! less conta9s an unexplor$ factor4 ,,iii4 7c7 ,if an antec$5t & consequ5t d n increase or decrease correspond+ly1 !y are n cause & effect1 s f> z !y v>y4 ,x w next be %[n t ^! propositions are v>i\sly comb9$ 9 ,mill's five ,canons ( ,induction3 ,agreem5t1 ! ,jo9t ,me?od1 ,diff]5ce1 ,v>iations1 ,residues4 ,! fir/ ?ree are sometimes call$ ,qualitative ,me?ods1 & ! two la/ ,quantitative2 & al?\gh ?is gr\p+ is n q accurate1 see+ t ,diff]5ce is (t5 us$ quantitatively1 yet x draws att5tion to an important di/9ction betwe5 a m]e description ( conditions & det]m9ation by exact measurem5t4 ,to avoid c]ta9 misund]/&+s1 "s slight alt]ations h be5 made 9 ! word+ ( ! ,canons4 ,x may seem que/ionable :e!r ! ,canons add any?+ to ! above propositions3 ,i ?9k !y d4 ,!y are n discuss$ 9 ! ensu+ *apt] m]ely out ( rev]5ce = ,mill1 or reg>d = a nasc5t tradition2 b because1 z describ+ ! "* ( obs]vations & exp]im5ts t ju/ify u 9 draw+ conclusions ab\t causation1 !y are guides to ! analysis ( obs]vations & to ! prep>ation ( exp]im5ts4 ,to _m em95t inve/igators ! ,canons 7z su*7 h be5 unkn[n2 b !y prep>$ _! "w effectively s f> only z !y _h def9ite ideas to ! same purport4 ,a def9ite conception ( ! conditions ( pro( is ! necess>y antec$5t ( :atev] prep>ations may be made = prov+ any?+4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,! ,,canons ,,( ,,direct ,,induction #a4 ,let me beg9 by borr[+ an example f ,ba9 7,logic3 ,b4 ,,iii4 c4 #f74 ,! ,nor?-,ea/ w9d is g5]ally dete/$ 9 ?is c\ntry3 z long z x bl[s few p feel at _! be/4 ,occasional well-kn[n causes ( a w9d be+ injuri\s are viol5ce1 excessive heat or cold1 excessive dryness or moi/ure1 electrical condition1 ! be+ lad5 ) du/ or exhalations4 ,let ! hypo!sis be t ! la/ is ! cause ( ! ,nor?-,ea/ w9d's un:olesome quality2 s9ce we "k x is a gr\nd curr5t sett+ f ! pole t[>d ! equator & b5t we/w>d by ! rotation ( ! e>?2 s t1 rea*+ u ov] ?\s&s ( miles ( l&1 x may well be fraught ) du/1 effluvia1 & microbes4 ,n[1 exam9+ _m cases ( ,nor?-,ea/ w9d1 we f9d t ?is is ! only circum/ance 9 :i* all ! in/ances agree3 = x is sometimes cold1 sometimes hot2 g5]ally dry1 b sometimes wet2 sometimes light1 sometimes viol5t1 & ( all electrical conditions4 ,ea* ( ! o!r circum/ances1 !n1 c be omitt$ )\t ! ,n4,e4 w9d ceas+ to be noxi\s2 b "o circum/ance is nev] abs5t1 namely1 t x is a gr\nd curr5t4 ,t circum/ance1 !re=e1 is probably ! cause ( its injuri\sness4 ,?is case illu/rates3-- 7,i7 ,,! ,,canon ,,( ,,agreem5t4 ,if two or m in/ances ( a ph5om5on "u inve/igation h only "o o!r circum/ance 7antec$5t or consequ5t7 9 common1 t circum/ance is probably ! cause 7or an indisp5sable condition7 or ! effect ( ! ph5om5on1 or is connect$ ) x by causation4 ,?is rule ( pro( 7s f> z x is us$ to e/abli% direct causation7 dep5ds1 fir/1 ^u obs]vation ( an inv>iable connection betwe5 ! giv5 ph5om5on & "o o!r circum/ance2 &1 secondly1 ^u ,i4 7a7 & ,,ii4 7b7 among ! propositions obta9$ f ! unconditionality ( causation at ! close ( ! la/ *apt]4 ,to prove t ,a is causally relat$ to p1 suppose two in/ances ( ! occurr5ce ( ,a1 an antec$5t1 & p1 a consequ5t1 ) concomitant facts or ev5ts--& let u repres5t !m ?us3 ,antec$5ts3 ,a ,b ,c ,a ,d ,e ,consequ5ts3 p q r p s t2 & suppose fur!r t1 9 ?is case1 ! imm$iate succession ( ev5ts c be obs]v$4 ,!n ,a is probably ! cause1 or an indisp5sable condition1 ( p4 ,=1 z f> z our in/ances g1 ,a is ! inv>iable antec$5t ( p2 & p is ! inv>iable consequ5t ( ,a4 ,b ! two in/ances ( ,a or p agree 9 no o!r circum/ance4 ,!re=e ,a is 7or completes7 ! unconditional antec$5t ( p4 ,= ,b & ,c are n indisp5sable conditions ( p1 be+ abs5t 9 ! second in/ance 7,rule ,,ii4 7b772 nor are ,d & ,e1 be+ abs5t 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,moreov]1 q & r are n effects ( ,a1 be+ abs5t 9 ! second in/ance 7,rule ,,ii4 7d772 nor are s & t1 be+ abs5t 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! cog5cy ( ! pro( dep5ds entirely ^u its t5d+ to %[ ! unconditionality ( ! sequ5ce ,a-p1 or ! indisp5sability ( ,a z a condition ( p4 ,t p foll[s ,a1 ev5 imm$iately1 is no?+ by itself3 if a man sits d[n to /udy &1 on ! in/ant1 a h&-organ beg9s "u 8 w9d[1 he mu/ n inf] malice 9 ! musician3 ?\s&s ( ?+s foll[ "o ano!r e mom5t )\t traceable connection2 & ?is we call 'accid5tal4' ,ev5 inv>iable sequ5ce is n en\gh to prove direct causation2 =1 9 our exp]i5ce does n night inv>iable foll[ day8 ,! pro( requires t ! in/ances be su* z to %[ n m]ely :at ev5ts are 9 inv>iable sequ5ce1 b also :at are n4 ,f among ! occasional antec$5ts ( p 7or consequ5ts ( ,a7 we h to elim9ate ! accid5tal ones4 ,& ?is is done by f9d+ or mak+ 'negative in/ances' 9 respect ( ea* ( !m4 ,?us ! in/ance ,a ,d ,e p s t is a negative in/ance ( ,b & ,c consid]$ z supposable causes ( p 7& ( q & r z supposable effects ( ,a72 = x %[s t !y are abs5t :5 p 7or ,a7 is pres5t4 ,to insi/ ^u ! cog5cy ( 'negative in/ances' 0 ,bacon's great contribution to ,inductive ,logic4 ,if we neglect !m1 & m]ely collect examples ( ! sequ5ce ,a-p1 ?is is 'simple enum]ation'2 & al?\gh simple enum]ation1 :5 ! in/ances ( agreem5t are num]\s en\gh1 may give rise to a /rong belief 9 ! connection ( ph5om5a1 yet x c nev] be a me?odical or logical pro( ( causation1 s9ce x does n indicate ! unconditionalness ( ! sequ5ce4 ,= simple enum]ation ( ! sequ5ce ,a-p leaves op5 ! possibility t1 besides ,a1 !re is always "s o!r antec$5t ( p1 say ,x2 & !n ,x may be ! cause ( p4 ,to disprove x1 we mu/ f9d1 or make1 a negative in/ance ( ,x--:]e p occurs1 b ,x is abs5t4 ,s f> z we recognise ! possibility ( a plurality ( causes1 ?is me?od ( ,agreem5t _c be q satisfactory4 ,= !n1 9 su* in/ances z ! above1 al?\gh ,d is abs5t 9 ! fir/1 & ,b 9 ! second1 x does n foll[ t !y are n ! causes ( p2 = !y may be alt]native causes3 ,b may h produc$ p 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 & ,d 9 ! second2 ,a be+ 9 bo? cases an accid5tal circum/ance 9 relation to p4 ,to rem$y ?is %ortcom+ by ! me?od ( ,agreem5t itself1 ! only c\rse is to f9d m in/ances ( p4 ,we may nev] f9d a negative in/ance ( ,a2 &1 if n1 ! probability t ,a is ! cause ( p increases ) ! numb] ( in/ances4 ,b if !re be no antec$5t t we _c sometimes exclude1 yet ! collection ( in/ances w probably give at la/ all ! causes ( p2 & by f9d+ ! proportion ( in/ances 9 :i* ,a1 ,b1 or ,x prec$es p1 we may e/imate ! probability ( any "o ( !m be+ ! cause ( p 9 any giv5 case ( its occurr5ce4 ,b ?is is n en\gh4 ,s9ce !re _c really be vic>i\s causes1 we mu/ def9e ! effect 7p7 m /rictly1 & exam9e ! cases to f9d :e!r !re may n be v>ieties ( p1 ) ea* ( :i* "o ( ! app>5t causes is correlat$3 ,a ) p#a ,b ) p#aa1 ,x ) p#aaa4 ,or1 aga91 x may be t none ( ! recognis$ antec$5ts is effective3 z we "h dep5d solely on obs]vation1 ! true conditions may be s recondite & disguis$ by o!r ph5om5a z to h escap$ our scrut9y4 ,?is may happ5 ev5 :5 we suppose t ! *ief condition has be5 isolat$3 ! dr9k+ ( f\l wat] 0 long believ$ to cause dys5t]y1 because x 0 a frequ5t antec$5t2 :il/ obs]vation _h ov]look$ ! bacillus1 :i* 0 ! indisp5sable condition4 ,aga91 ?\gh we h assum$ t1 9 ! in/ances suppos$ above1 imm$iate sequ5ce is obs]vable1 yet 9 _m cases x may n be s1 if we rely only on ! canon ( ,agreem5t2 if in/ances _c be obta9$ by exp]im5t1 & we h to dep5d on obs]vation4 ,! ph5om5a may !n be s mix$ toge!r t ,a & p seem to be m]ely concomitant2 s t1 ?\gh connection ( "s sort may be r5d]$ highly probable1 we may n be able to say :i* is cause & :i* is effect4 ,we mu/ !n try 7z ,ba9 says7 to trace ! exp5diture ( en]gy3 if p ga9s :5 ,a loses1 ! c\rse ( ev5ts if f ,a to p4 ,moreov]1 :]e succession _c be trac$1 ! me?od ( ,agreem5t may po9t to a connection betwe5 two or m facts 7p]haps z co-effects ( a remote cause7 :]e direct causation seems to be out ( ! "q3 e4g41 t ,negroes1 ?\gh ( diff]5t tribes1 diff]5t localities1 cu/oms1 etc41 are progna?\s1 woolly-hair$ & doli*ocephalic4 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 !n1 _c by itself prove causation4 ,its *ief use 7z ,mill says7 is to sugge/ hypo!ses z to ! cause2 :i* mu/ !n be us$ 7if possible7 exp]im5tally to try if x produces ! giv5 effect4 ,a bacillus1 = example1 be+ always f\nd ) a c]ta9 disease1 is probably ! *ief condition ( x3 give x to a gu9ea-pig1 & obs]ve :e!r ! disease appe>s 9 t animal4 ,m5 (t5 use argum5ts :i*1 if !y knew x1 might be %[n to con=m m or less to ?is canon2 = !y collect _m in/ances to %[ t two ev5ts are connect$2 b usually neglect to br+ out ! negative side ( ! pro(2 s t _! argum5ts only am\nt to simple enum]ation4 ,?us ,as*am 9 8 ,toxophilus1 insi/+ on ! national importance ( ar*]y1 argues t victory has always dep5d$ on sup]iority 9 %oot+2 &1 to prove x1 he %[s h[ ! ,p>?ians *eck$ ! ,romans1 ,seso/ris conqu]$ a great "p ( ! kn[n _w1 ,tib]ius ov]came ,arm9ius1 ! ,turks e/abli%$ _! empire1 & ! ,engli% defeat$ ! ,fr5* 7) _m l examples7--all by sup]ior ar*]y4 ,b hav+ cit$ ^! cases to 8 purpose1 he is cont5t2 :]eas he might h greatly /r5g!n$ 8 pro( by %[+ h[ "o or ! o!r in/ance excludes o!r possible causes ( success4 ,?us3 ! cause 0 n discipl9e1 = ! ,romans 7 bett] discipl9$ ?an ! ,p>?ians2 nor yet ! boa/$ sup]iority ( a nor!rn habitat1 = ,seso/ris issu$ f ! s\?2 nor bett] manhood1 = "h ! ,g]mans probably _h ! advantage ( ! ,romans2 nor sup]ior civilisation1 = ! ,turks 7 less civilis$ ?an mo/ ( ^? !y conqu]$2 nor numb]s1 nor ev5 a good cause1 = ! ,fr5* 7 m num]\s ?an ! ,engli%1 & 7 %amefully attack$ by ,h5ry ,v4 on _! own soil4 ,_m an argum5t f simple enum]ation may ?us be turn$ into an induction ( great] plausibility accord+ to ! ,canon ( ,agreem5t4 ,/ill1 9 ! above case1 ! effect 7victory7 is s vaguely conceiv$1 t a plurality ( causes mu/ be all[$ =3 al?\gh1 e4g41 discipl9e did n enable ! ,romans to conqu] ! ,p>?ians1 x may h be5 _! *ief advantage ov] ! ,g]mans2 & x 0 c]ta9ly important to ! ,engli% "u ,h5ry ,v4 9 _! w> ) ! ,fr5*4 ,"h is ano!r argum5t1 some:at simil> to ! above1 put =w>d by ,h4 ,sp5c] ) a full consci\sness ( its logical "*4 ,/ates t make w> _! *ief object1 he says1 assume a c]ta9 type ( organisation1 involv+ ! gr[? ( ! w>rior class & ! treatm5t ( lab\r]s z exi/+ solely to su/a9 ! w>riors2 ! complete subord9ation ( individuals to ! w ( ! despotic soldi]-k+1 _! prop]ty1 lib]ty & life be+ at ! s]vice ( ! ,/ate2 ! regim5tation ( society n only = milit>y b also = civil purposes2 ! suppression ( all private associations1 etc4 ,?is is ! case 9 ,dahomey & 9 ,russia1 & x 0 s at ,sp>ta1 9 ,egypt1 & 9 ! empire ( ! ,yncas4 ,b ! simil>ity ( organisation 9 ^! ,/ates _c h be5 due to race1 = !y are all ( diff]5t races2 nor to size1 = "s are small1 "s l>ge2 nor to climate or o!r circum/ances ( habitat1 = "h aga9 !y diff] widely3 ! "o ?+ !y h 9 common is ! milit>y purpose2 & ?is1 !re=e1 mu/ be ! cause ( _! simil> organisation4 7,political ,in/itutions47 ,by ?is me?od1 !n1 to prove t "o ?+ is causally connect$ ) ano!r1 say ,a ) p1 we %[1 fir/1 t 9 all in/ances ( p1 ,a is pres5t2 &1 secondly1 t any o!r supposable cause ( p may be abs5t )\t di/urb+ p4 ,we next come to a me?od ! use ( :i* greatly /r5g!ns ! =ego+1 by %[+ t :]e p is abs5t ,a is also abs5t1 & 7if possible7 t ,a is ! only supposable cause t is always abs5t along ) p4 #b4 ,,! ,,canon ,,( ,,! ,,jo9t ,,me?od ,,( ,,agreem5t ,,9 ,,pres5ce ,,& ,,9 ,,abs5ce4 ,if 7#a7 two or m in/ances 9 :i* a ph5om5on occurs h only "o o!r circum/ance 7antec$5t or consequ5t7 9 common1 :ile 7#b7 two or m in/ances 9 :i* x does n occur 7?\gh 9 important po9ts !y resemble ! =m] set ( in/ances7 h no?+ else 9 common save ! abs5ce ( t circum/ance--! circum/ance 9 :i* alone ! two sets ( in/ances diff] ?r\gh\t 7be+ pres5t 9 ! fir/ set & abs5t 9 ! second7 is probably ! effect1 or ! cause1 or an indisp5sable condition ( ! ph5om5on4 ,! fir/ clause ( ?is ,canon is ! same z t ( ! me?od ( ,agreem5t1 & its significance dep5ds ^u ! same propositions conc]n+ causation4 ,! second clause1 relat+ to in/ances 9 :i* ! ph5om5on is abs5t1 dep5ds = its probative =ce ^u ,prop4 ,,ii4 7a71 & ,i4 7b73 its function is to exclude c]ta9 circum/ances 7^: nature or mann] ( occurr5ce gives !m "s claim to consid]ation7 f ! li/ ( possible causes 7or effects7 ( ! ph5om5on inve/igat$4 ,x might h be5 bett] to /ate ?is second clause sep>ately z ! ,canon ( ! ,me?od ( ,exclusions4 ,to prove t ,a is causally relat$ to p1 let ! two sets ( in/ances be repres5t$ z foll[s3 ,in/ances ( ,pres5ce4 ,in/ances ( ,abs5ce4 ,a ,b ,c ,c ,h ,f p q r r x v ,a ,d ,e ,b ,d ,k p s t q y s ,a ,f ,g ,e ,g ,m p u v t f u ,!n ,a is probably ! cause or a condition ( p1 or p is dep5d5t ^u ,a3 fir/1 by ! ,canon ( ,agreem5t 9 ,pres5ce1 z repres5t$ by ! fir/ set ( in/ances2 &1 secondly1 by ,agreem5t 9 ,abs5ce 9 ! second set ( in/ances4 ,= !re we see t ,c1 ,h1 ,f1 ,b1 ,d1 ,k1 ,e1 ,g1 ,m occur )\t ! ph5om5on p1 & !re=e 7by ,prop4 ,,ii4 7a77 are n its cause1 or n ! :ole cause1 unless !y h be5 c\nt]act$ 7:i* is a po9t = fur!r inve/igation74 ,we also see t r1 v1 q1 s1 t1 u occur )\t ,a1 & !re=e are n ! effects ( ,a4 ,&1 fur!r1 if ! negative in/ances repres5t all possible cases1 we see t 7accord+ to ,prop4 ,i4 7b77 ,a is ! cause ( p1 because x _c be omitt$ )\t ! cessation ( p4 ,! inf]5ce t ,a & p are cause & effect1 sugge/$ by _! be+ pres5t ?r\gh\t ! fir/ set ( in/ances1 is !re=e /r5g!n$ by _! be+ bo? abs5t ?r\gh\t ! second set4 ,s f> z ?is ,d\ble ,me?od1 l ! ,s+le ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 relies on obs]vation1 sequ5ce may n be p]ceptible 9 ! in/ances obs]v$1 & !n1 direct causation _c be prov$ by x1 b only ! probability ( causal connection2 &1 aga91 ! real cause1 ?\gh pres5t1 may be s obscure z to evade obs]vation4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 "o peculi> advantage1 namely1 t if ! second li/ ( in/ances 79 :i* ! ph5om5on & its suppos$ antec$5t are bo? abs5t7 c be made exhau/ive1 x precludes any hypo!sis ( a plurality ( causes2 s9ce all possible antec$5ts w h be5 includ$ 9 ?is li/ )\t produc+ ! ph5om5on4 ,?us1 9 ! above symbolic example1 tak+ ! fir/ set ( in/ances1 ! supposition is left op5 t ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g may1 at "o "t or ano!r1 h be5 a condition ( p2 b1 9 ! second li/1 ^! antec$5ts all occur1 "h or !re1 )\t produc+ p1 & !re=e 7unless c\nt]act$ someh[7 _c be a condition ( p4 ,a1 !n1 /&s out z ! "o ?+ t is pres5t :5ev] p is pres5t1 & abs5t :5ev] p is abs5t4 ,/at$ 9 ?is ab/ract way1 ! ,d\ble ,me?od may seem v elaborate & difficult2 yet1 9 fact1 its use may be v simple4 ,tyndall1 to prove t disp]s$ light 9 ! air is due to motes1 %[$ by a numb] ( cases 7#a7 t any gas conta9+ motes is lum9\s2 7#b7 t air 9 :i* ! motes _h be5 de/roy$ by heat1 & any gas s prep>$ z to exclude motes1 are n lum9\s4 ,all ! in/ances are ( gases1 & ! result is3 motes--lum9osity2 no motes--no lum9osity4 ,d>w91 to %[ t cross-f]tilisation is fav\rable to fl[]s1 plac$ a net ab\t #ajj fl[]-heads1 & left #ajj o!rs ( ! same v>ieties expos$ to ! bees3 ! =m] bore no se$1 ! latt] ne>ly #c1jjj4 ,we mu/ assume t1 9 ,d>w9's judgm5t1 ! net did n scre5 ! fl[]s f light & heat suffici5tly to affect ! result4 ,!re are in/ructive applications ( ?is ,d\ble ,me?od 9 ,wallace's ,d>w9ism4 ,9 *ap4 viii41 on ,col\r 9 ,animals1 he obs]ves1 t ! usefulness ( _! coloration to animals is %[n by ! fact t1 z a rule1 col\r & m>k+ are con/ant 9 ea* species ( wild animal1 :ile1 9 almo/ e dome/icat$ animal1 !re arises great v>iability4 ,we see ?is 9 our horses & cattle1 our dogs & cats1 our pigeons & p\ltry4 ,n[ ! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! conditions ( life ( dome/icat$ & wild animals is1 t ! =m] are protect$ by man1 :ile ! latt] h to protect !mselves4 ,wild animals protect !mselves by acquir+ qualities adapt$ to _! mode ( life2 & coloration is a v important "o1 its *ief1 ?\gh n its only use1 be+ concealm5t4 ,h5ce a useful coloration hav+ be5 e/abli%$ 9 any species1 individuals t occasionally may v>y f x1 w g5]ally1 p]i%2 :il/1 among dome/ic animals1 v>iation ( col\r or m>k+ is subject to no *eck except ! ta/e ( own]s4 ,we h1 !n1 two li/s ( in/ances2 fir/1 innum]able species ( wild animals 9 :i* ! coloration is con/ant & :i* dep5d ^u _! own qualities = exi/5ce2 secondly1 sev]al species ( dome/ic animals 9 :i* ! coloration is n con/ant1 & :i* d n dep5d ^u _! own qualities = exi/5ce4 ,9 ! =m] li/ two circum/ances are pres5t toge!r 7"u all sorts ( conditions72 9 ! latt] !y are abs5t toge!r4 ,! argum5t may be fur!r /r5g!n$ by add+ a ?ird li/1 p>allel to ! fir/1 compris+ dome/ic animals 9 :i* coloration is approximately con/ant1 b :]e 7z we "k7 x is made a condition ( exi/5ce by own]s1 :o only bre$ f ^? specim5s t come up to a c]ta9 /&>d ( coloration4 ,wallace goes on to discuss ! col\r+ ( arctic animals4 ,9 ! arctic regions1 he says1 "s animals are :olly :ite all ! ye> r\nd1 su* z ! pol> be>1 ! ,am]ican pol> h>e1 ! sn[y owl & ! ,gre5l& falcon3 ^! live amid/ almo/ p]petual sn[4 ,o!rs1 t live :]e ! sn[ melts 9 summ]1 only turn :ite 9 w9t]1 su* z ! arctic h>e1 ! arctic fox1 ! erm9e & ! pt>migan4 ,9 all ^! cases ! :ite col\r+ is useful1 conceal+ ! h]bivores f _! enemies1 & also ! c>nivores 9 approa*+ _! prey2 ?is usefulness1 !re=e1 is a condition ( ! :ite col\r+4 ,two o!r explanations h1 h[ev]1 be5 sugge/$3 fir/1 t ! preval5t :ite ( ! arctic regions directly col\rs ! animals1 ei!r by "s photographic or *emical action on ! sk91 or by a reflex action ?r\gh vision 7z 9 ! *ameleon72 secondly1 t a :ite sk9 *ecks radiation & keeps ! animals w>m4 ,b !re are "s exceptions to ! rule ( :ite col\r+ 9 arctic animals :i* refute ^! hypo!ses1 & confirm ! au?or's4 ,! sable rema9s br[n ?r\gh\t ! w9t]2 b x frequ5ts trees1 ) ^: b>k its col\r assimilates4 ,! musk-%eep is br[n & conspicu\s2 b x is greg>i\s1 & its safety dep5ds ^u its ability to recognise its k9d & keep ) ! h]d4 ,! rav5 is always black2 b x fe>s no enemy & fe$s on c>rion1 & !re=e does n ne$ concealm5t = ei!r def5ce or attack4 ,! col\r ( ! sable1 !n1 ?\gh n :ite1 s]ves = concealm5t2 ! col\r ( ! musk-%eep s]ves a purpose m important ?an concealm5t2 ! rav5 ne$s no concealm5t4 ,!re are ?us two sets ( in/ances3--9 "o set ! animals are :ite 7a7 all ! ye>1 7b7 9 w9t]2 & :ite conceals !m 7a7 all ! ye>1 7b7 9 w9t]2 9 ! o!r set1 ! animals are n :ite1 & to !m ei!r :it5ess w\ld n give concealm5t1 or concealm5t w\ld n be advantage\s4 ,& ?is second li/ refutes ! rival hypo!ses3 = ! sable1 ! musk-%eep & ! rav5 are z mu* expos$ to ! gl>e ( ! sn[1 & to ! cold1 z ! o!r animals are4 #c4 ,,! ,,canon ,,( ,,diff]5ce4 ,if an in/ance 9 :i* a ph5om5on occurs1 & an in/ance 9 :i* x does n occur1 h e o!r circum/ance 9 common save "o1 t "o 7:e!r consequ5t or antec$5t7 occurr+ only 9 ! =m]2 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone ! two in/ances diff] is ! effect1 or ! cause1 or an indisp5sable condition ( ! ph5om5on4 ,?is foll[s f ,props4 ,i 7a7 & 7b71 9 *apt] xv4 #g4 ,to prove t ,a is a condition ( p1 let two in/ances1 su* z ! ,canon requires1 be repres5t$ ?us3 ,a ,b ,c ,b ,c p q r q r ,!n ,a is ! cause or a condition ( p4 ,=1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ,a be+ introduc$ 7)\t fur!r *ange71 p arises 7,prop4 ,i4 7a772 &1 9 ! second in/ance1 ,a hav+ be5 remov$ 7)\t o!r *ange71 p disappe>s 7,prop4 ,i4 7b774 ,simil>ly we may prove1 by ! same in/ances1 t p is ! effect ( ,a4 ,! ord] ( ! ph5om5a & ! imm$iacy ( _! connection is a matt] = obs]vation1 aid$ by :atev] in/rum5ts & me?ods ( inspection & measurem5t may be available4 ,z to ! inv>iability ( ! connection1 x may ( c\rse be te/$ by collect+ m in/ances or mak+ m exp]im5ts2 b x has be5 ma9ta9$1 t a s+le p]fect exp]im5t accord+ to ?is me?od is suffici5t to prove causation1 & !re=e implies inv>iability 7s9ce causation is uni=m71 ?\gh no o!r in/ances %\ld ev] be obta9able2 because x e/abli%es once = all ! unconditionality ( ! connection ,a ,b ,c p q r4 ,n[1 =mally ?is is true2 b 9 any actual inve/igation h[ %all we decide :at is a satisfactory or p]fect exp]im5t8 ,su* an exp]im5t requires t 9 ! negative in/ance ,b ,c q r1 ,,bc %all be ! lea/ assemblage ( conditions necess>y to co-op]ate ) ,a 9 produc+ p2 & t x is s _c be asc]ta9$ )\t ei!r g5]al prior k ( ! nature ( ! case or special exp]im5ts = ! purpose4 ,s t inv>iability w n really be inf]r$ f a s+le exp]im5t2 besides t e prud5t inquir] repeats 8 exp]im5ts1 if only to gu>d aga9/ 8 own liability to error4 ,! suppos$ plurality ( causes does n affect ! me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,9 ! above symbolic case1 ,a is cle>ly "o cause 7or condition7 ( p1 :atev] o!r causes may be possible2 :]eas ) ! ,s+le ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 x rema9$ d\btful 7admitt+ a plurality ( causes7 :e!r ,a1 9 spite ( be+ always pres5t ) p1 0 ev] a cause or condition ( x4 ,?is me?od ( ,diff]5ce )\t our be+ di/9ctly aw>e ( x1 is (t5] ?an any o!r ! basis ( ord9>y judgm5ts4 ,t ! sun gives light & heat1 t food n\ri%es & fire burns1 t a /one breaks a w9d[ or kills a bird1 t ! turn+ ( a tap p]mits or *ecks ! fl[ ( wat] or ( gas1 & ?\s&s ( o!r propositions are kn[n to be true by r\gh b (t5 emphatic applications ( ?is me?od 9 common exp]i5ce4 ,! me?od ( ,diff]5ce may be appli$ ei!r 7#a7 by obs]vation1 on f9d+ two in/ances 7di/9ct assemblages ( conditions7 diff]+ only 9 "o ph5om5on toge!r ) its antec$5t or consequ5t2 or 7#b7 by exp]im5t1 & !n1 ei!r 7a7 by prep>+ two in/ances t may be comp>$ side by side1 or 7b7 by tak+ c]ta9 conditions1 & !n introduc+ 7or subtract+7 "s ag5t1 suppos$ to be ! cause1 to see :at happ5s3 9 ! latt] case ! two in/ances are ! same assemblage ( conditions consid]$ be=e &1 aga91 aft]1 ! introduction ( ! ag5t4 ,z an example ( 7a7 !re is an exp]im5t to %[ t radium gives (f heat3 take two glass tubes1 9 "o put "s *loride ( radium1 9 bo? !rmomet]s1 & close !m ) cotton-wool4 ,soon ! !rmomet] 9 ! tube along ) radium reads #ed ,f4 high] ?an ! o!r "o4 ,! tube )\t ! radium1 ^: temp]ature rema9s unalt]$1 is call$ ! control exp]im5t4 ,mo/ exp]im5ts are ( ! type 7b72 & s9ce ! ,canon1 :i* describes two co-exi/+ in/ances1 does n readily apply to ?is type1 an alt]native v]sion may be (f]$3 ,any ag5t ^: introduction into kn[n circum/ances 7)\t fur!r *ange7 is imm$iately foll[$ by a def9ite ph5om5on is a condition ( ! occurr5ce ( t ph5om5on4 ,! words into kn[n circum/ances are necess>y to emphasise :at is requir$ by ?is ,me?od1 namely1 t ! two in/ances diff] 9 only "o ?+2 = ?is _c be asc]ta9$ unless all ! o!r conditions are kn[n2 & ?is fur!r implies t !y h be5 prep>$4 ,x is1 !re=e1 n true 7z ,sigw>t ass]ts7 t ?is me?od det]m9es only "o condition ( a ph5om5on1 & t x is !n necess>y to inquire into ! o!r conditions4 ,if !y 7 n kn[n !y mu/ be inve/igat$2 b !n ! exp]im5t w\ld n h be5 made ^u ?is me?od4 ,practically1 exp]im5ts h to be made 9 all degrees ( imp]fection1 & ! less p]fect !y are1 t is1 ! less ! circum/ances are kn[n be=eh&1 ! m rema9s to be done4 ,a common imp]fection is delay1 or ! occurr5ce ( a lat5t p]iod betwe5 ! introduction ( an ag5t & ! manife/ation ( its effects2 x _c !n be ! unconditional cause2 ?\gh x may be an indisp5sable remote condition ( :atev] *ange occurs4 ,if1 feel+ out ( sorts1 y take a drug & "s "t aft]w>ds feel bett]1 x is n cle> on ?is gr\nd alone t ! drug 0 ! cause ( recov]y1 = o!r curative processes may h be5 active mean:ile--food1 or sleep1 or ex]cise4 ,any book ( ,physics or ( ,*emi/ry w furni% scores ( examples ( ! me?od ( ,diff]5ce3 su* z ,galileo's exp]im5t to %[ t air has weight1 by fir/ weigh+ a vessel fill$ ) ord9>y air1 & !n fill+ x ) cond5s$ air & weigh+ x aga92 :5 ! increas$ weight c only be due to ! great] quantity ( air conta9$4 ,! melt+-po9t ( solids is det]m9$ by heat+ !m until !y d melt 7z silv] at #ajjj ,c41 gold at #abej1 plat9um at #bjjj72 = ! only diff]5ce betwe5 bodies at ! "t ( melt+ & j be=e is ! addition ( s mu* heat4 ,simil>ly ) ! boil+ po9t ( liquids4 ,t ! transmission ( s\nd dep5ds ^u ! cont9uity ( an ela/ic pond]able m$ium1 is prov$ by lett+ a clock /rike 9 a vacuum 7"u a glass f :i* ! air has be5 )drawn by an air pump71 & /&+ ^u a non-ela/ic p$e/al3 :5 ! clock be se5 to /rike1 b makes only su* a fa9t s\nd z may be due to ! imp]fections ( ! vacuum & ! p$e/al4 ,! exp]im5ts by :i* ! *emical analysis or syn!sis ( v>i\s =ms ( matt] is demon/rat$ are simple or comp\nd applications ( ?is me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 toge!r ) ! quantitative m>k ( causation 7t cause & effect are equal72 s9ce ! bodies result+ f an analysis are equal 9 weight to ! body analys$1 & ! body result+ f a syn!sis is equal 9 weight to ! bodies syn!sis$4 ,t an electric curr5t resolves wat] into oxyg5 & hydrog5 may be prov$ by ins]t+ ! poles ( a galvanic batt]y 9 a vessel ( wat]2 :5 ?is "o *ange is foll[$ by ano!r1 ! rise ( bubbles f ea* pole & ! v gradual decrease ( ! wat]4 ,if ! bubbles are caught 9 receiv]s plac$ ov] !m1 x c be %[n t ! jo9t weight ( ! two bodies ( gas ?us =m$ is equal to ! weight ( ! wat] t has disappe>$2 & t ! gases are respectively oxyg5 & hydrog5 may !n be %[n by prov+ t !y h ! prop]ties ( ^? gases accord+ to fur!r exp]im5ts by ! me?od ( ,diff]5ce2 z 7e4g47 t "o ( !m is oxyg5 because x supports combu/ion1 etc4 ,:5 wat] 0 fir/ decompos$ by ! electric curr5t1 !re appe>$ n only oxyg5 & hydrog51 b also an acid & an alkali4 ,^! products 7 aft]w>ds trac$ to impurities ( ! wat] & ( ! op]ator's h&s4 ,mill obs]ves t 9 any exp]im5t ! effect1 or "p ( x1 may be due1 n to ! suppos$ ag5t1 b to ! means employ$ 9 introduc+ x4 ,we %\ld "k n only ! o!r conditions ( an exp]im5t1 b t ! ag5t or *ange introduc$ is no?+ else ?an :at x is suppos$ to be4 ,9 ! m complex sci5ces ! me?od ( ,diff]5ce is less easily applicable1 because ( ! great] difficulty ( be+ sure t only "o circum/ance at a "t has alt]$2 /ill1 x is frequ5tly us$4 ,?us1 if by divid+ a c]ta9 n]ve c]ta9 muscles are p>alys$1 x is %[n t normally t n]ve controls ^? muscles4 ,t ! s5se ( smell 9 flies & cockroa*es is connect$ ) ! ant5nae has be5 %[n by cutt+ !m (f3 :]eupon ! insects c no long] f9d c>rion4 ,9 8 "w on ,e>?worms1 ,d>w9 %[s t1 ?\gh s5sitive to me*anical tremors1 !y are deaf 7or1 at lea/1 n s5sitive to sonor\s vibrations transmitt$ ?r\gh ! air71 by ! foll[+ exp]im5t4 ,he plac$ a pot conta9+ a worm t _h come to ! surface1 z usual at night1 ^u a table1 :il/ close by a piano 0 viol5tly play$2 b ! worm took no notice ( ! noise4 ,he !n plac$ ! pot ^u ! piano1 :il/ x 0 be+ play$1 :5 ! worm1 probably feel+ me*anical vibrations1 ha/ily slid back into its burr[4 ,:51 in/ead ( alt]+ "o circum/ance 9 an in/ance 7:i* we h done our be/ n o!rwise to di/urb7 & !n wat*+ :at foll[s1 we try to f9d two ready-made in/ances ( a ph5om5on1 :i* only diff] 9 "o o!r circum/ance1 x is1 ( c\rse1 /ill m difficult to be sure t !re is only "o o!r circum/ance 9 :i* !y diff]4 ,x may be wor? :ile1 h[ev]1 to look = su* in/ances4 ,?us1 t ! temp]ature ( ocean curr5ts influ5ces ! climate ( ! %ores !y wa%1 seems to be %[n by ! fact t ! av]age temp]ature ( ,newf\ndl& is l[] ?an t ( ! ,norwegian coa/ "s #ae f>!r nor?4 ,bo? regions h great cont95ts at _! back2 & z ! m\nta9s ( ,norway are high] & capp$ ) p]5nial sn[1 we might expect a cold] climate !re3 b ! %ore ( ,norway is visit$ by ! ,gulf ,/ream1 :il/ ! %ore ( ,newf\ndl& is trav]s$ by a cold curr5t f ,gre5l&4 ,aga91 :5 9 #ahda ! railway f ,r\5 to ,p>is 0 be+ built1 gangs ( ,engli% & gangs ( ,fr5* workm5 7 employ$ ^u x1 & ! ,engli% got ?r\gh ab\t "o-?ird m "w p] man ?an ! ,fr5*4 ,x 0 suspect$ t ?is diff]5ce 0 due to "o o!r diff]5ce1 namely1 t ! ,engli% f$ bett]1 pref]r+ beef to ?9 s\p4 ,n[1 logically1 x might h be5 object$ t ! evid5ce 0 unsatisfactory1 see+ t ! m5 diff]$ 9 o!r ?+s besides diet--9 'race' 7say71 :i* expla9s s mu* & s easily4 ,b ! ,fr5*m51 hav+ be5 induc$ to try ! same diet z ! ,engli%1 71 9 a few days1 able to d z mu* "w3 s t ! two in/ances 7 bett] ?an !y look$4 ,x (t5 happ5s t evid5ce1 ?\gh logically que/ionable1 is good :5 us$ by exp]ts1 ^: famili>ity ) ! subject makes x good4 #d4 ,,! ,,canon ,,( ,,concomitant ,,v>iations4 ,:atev] ph5om5on v>ies 9 any mann] :5ev] ano!r ph5om5on 7consequ5t or antec$5t7 v>ies 9 "s p>ticul> mann] no o!r *ange hav+ concurr$ is ei!r ! cause or effect ( t ph5om5on or is connect$ ) x ?r\gh "s fact ( causation4 ,?is is n an entirely fre% me?od1 b may be reg>d$ z a special case ei!r ( ,agreem5t or ( ,diff]5ce1 to prove ! cause or effect1 n ( a ph5om5on z a :ole1 b ( "s increm5t ( x 7positive or negative74 ,!re are c]ta9 =ces1 su* z gravitation1 heat1 friction1 t c nev] be elim9at$ altoge!r1 & !re=e c only be /udi$ 9 _! degrees4 ,to su* ph5om5a ! me?od ( ,diff]5ce _c be appli$1 because !re are no negative in/ances4 ,b we may obta9 negative in/ances ( a giv5 quantity ( su* a ph5om5on 7say1 heat71 & may apply ! me?od ( ,diff]5ce to t quantity4 ,?us1 if ! heat ( a body increases #aj degrees1 f #fj to #gj1 ! =m] temp]ature ( #fj 0 a negative in/ance 9 respect ( ^? #aj degrees2 & if only "o o!r circum/ance 7say1 friction7 has alt]$ at ! same "t1 t circum/ance 7if an antec$5t7 is ! cause4 ,accord+ly1 if 9 ! above ,canon we ins]t1 aft] 'p>ticul> mann]1' no o!r *ange hav+ concurr$1 x is a /atem5t ( ! me?od ( ,diff]5ce z applicable to ! increm5t ( a ph5om5on1 in/ead ( to ! ph5om5on z a :ole2 & we may !n omit ! la/ clause--or is connect$1 etc44 ,= ^! words are ins]t$ to provide = ! case ( co-effects ( a common cause 7su* z ! fla% & report ( a gun72 b if no o!r *ange 7su* z ! dis*>ge ( a gun7 has concurr$ ) ! v>iations ( two ph5om5a1 !re _c h be5 a common cause1 & !y are !re=e cause & effect4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we omit ! clause no o!r *ange hav+ concurr$1 ! ,canon is a /atem5t ( ! me?od ( ,agreem5t z applicable to ! increm5t ( a ph5om5on in/ead ( to ! ph5om5on z a :ole2 & x is !n subject to ! imp]fections ( t me?od3 t is to say1 x leaves op5 ! possibilities1 t an inquir] may ov]look a plurality ( causes2 or may mi/ake a connection ( two ph5om5a1 :i* 7l ! fla% & report ( a gun7 are co-effects ( a common cause1 = a direct relation ( cause & effect4 ,x may occur to ! read] t we ought also to di/+ui% ,qualitative & ,quantitative ,v>iations z two ord]s ( ph5om5a to :i* ! pres5t me?od is applicable4 ,b1 9 fact1 ,qualitative ,v>iations may be adequately dealt ) by ! =ego+ me?ods ( ,agreem5t1 ,d\ble ,agreem5t1 & ,diff]5ce2 because a *ange ( quality or prop]ty entirely gets rid ( ! =m] phase ( t quality1 or sub/itutes "o = ano!r2 z :5 ! pt>migan *anges f br[n to :ite 9 w9t]1 or z :5 a /ag gr[s & %$s its antl]s ) ! c\rse ( ! seasons4 ,! peculi> use ( ! me?od ( ,v>iations1 h[ev]1 is to =mulate ! conditions ( pro( 9 respect ( ^? causes or effects :i* _c be entirely got rid (1 b c be obta9$ only 9 great] or less am\nt2 & su* ph5om5a are or c\rse1 quantitative4 ,ev5 :5 !re are two p>allel s]ies ( ph5om5a ! "o quantitative & ! o!r qualitative--l ! rate ( air-vibration & ! pit* ( s\nd1 or ! rate ( e!r-vibration & ! col\r-s]ies ( ! spectrum--! me?od ( ,v>iations is n applicable4 ,= 7#a7 two su* s]ies _c be said to v>y toge!r1 s9ce ! qualitative v>iations are het]og5e\s3 #eab3 #egf is a def9ite ratio2 b ! correspond+ notes1 ,c1 ,d1 9 ! treble clef1 pres5t only a diff]5ce4 ,h5ce 7#b7 ! correspond5ce ( ea* note ) ea* numb] is a di/9ct fact4 ,ea* octave ev5 is a di/9ct fact2 !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 ,c #fd & ,c #abh t c\ld nev] h be5 anticipat$ )\t ! appropriate exp]i5ce4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no su* law ( ^! p>allel s]ies z !re is = temp]ature & *ange ( volume 7say7 9 m]cury4 ,simil> rem>ks apply to ! physical & s5sitive light-s]ies4 ,we may illu/rate ! two cases ( ! me?od ?us 7putt+ a da% aga9/ any lett]1 ,a' or p'1 to signify an increase or decrease ( ! ph5om5on ! lett] /&s =73 ,agreem5t 9 ,v>iations 7o!r *anges be+ admissible7-- ,a ,b ,c ,a' ,d ,e ,a'' ,f ,g p q r p' s t p'' u v ,"h ! accompany+ ph5om5a 7,b ,c q r1 ,d ,e s t1 ,f ,g u v7 *ange f "t to "t1 & ! "o ?+ 9 :i* ! in/ances agree ?r\gh\t is t any increase ( ,a 7,a' or ,a''7 is foll[$ or accompani$ by an increase ( p 7p' or p''73 :5ce x is argu$ t ,a is ! cause ( p1 accord+ to ,prop4 ,,iii4 7a7 7*4 xv4 #g74 ,/ill1 x is supposable t1 9 ! second in/ance1 ,d or ,e may be ! cause ( ! increm5t ( p2 & t1 9 ! ?ird in/ance1 ,f or ,g may be its cause3 ?\gh ! probability ( su* vic>i\s causation decreases rapidly ) ! increase ( in/ances 9 :i* ,a & p v>y toge!r4 ,&1 s9ce an actual inve/igation ( ?is type mu/ rely on obs]vation1 x is fur!r possible t "s undiscov]$ cause1 ,x1 is ! real det]m9ant ( bo? ,a & p & ( _! concomitant v>iations4 ,pr(essor ,f]ri1 9 8 ,crim9al ,sociology1 obs]ves3 ,i h %[n t 9 ,france !re is a manife/ correspond5ce ( increase & decrease betwe5 ! numb] ( homicides1 assaults & malici\s w\nd+1 & ! m or less abundant v9tage1 especially 9 ! ye>s ( extraord9>y v>iations1 :e!r ( failure ( ! v9tage 7#ahec-e1 #ahei1 #ahfg1 #ahgc1 #ahgh-hj71 att5d$ by a rem>kable dim9ution ( crime 7assaults & w\nd+71 or ( abundant v9tages 7#ahej1 #ahef-h1 #ahfb-c1 #ahfe1 #ahfh1 #ahgd-e71 att5d$ by an increase ( crime 7p4 #aag1 ,eng4 trans474 ,& e>li] he _h rem>k$ t su* crimes also 9 _! oscillations f mon? to mon? display a *>act]i/ic increase dur+ ! v9tage p]iods1 f ,june to ,decemb]1 not)/&+ ! con/ant dim9ution ( o!r (f5ces 7p4 #gg74 ,?is is necess>ily an appeal to ! canon ( ,concomitant ,v>iations1 because ,france is nev] )\t h] annual v9tage1 nor yet )\t h] annual /ati/ics ( crime4 ,/ill1 x is an argum5t ^: cog5cy is only t ( ,agreem5t1 %[+ t probably ! abuse ( ! v9tage is a cause ( crimes ( viol5ce1 b leav+ op5 ! supposition1 t "s o!r circum/ance or circum/ances1 aris+ or v>y+ f ye> to ye>1 may det]m9e ! increase or decrease ( crime2 or t !re is "s unconsid]$ ag5t :i* affects bo? ! v9tage & crimes ( viol5ce4 ,fr5* sun%9e1 x might be urg$1 :il/ x matures ! g5]\s grape1 also excites a morbid f]m5tation 9 ! human m9d4 ,diff]5ce 9 ,v>iations may be symbolically repres5t$ ?us 7no o!r *ange hav+ concurr$73 ,a ,b ,a' ,b ,a'' ,b p q1 p' q1 p'' q4 ,"h ! accompany+ ph5om5a are always ! same ,b_/q2 & ! only po9t 9 :i* ! successive in/ances diff] is 9 ! increm5ts ( ,a 7,a'1 ,a''7 foll[$ by correspond+ increm5ts ( p 7p'1 p''73 h5ce ! increm5t ( ,a is ! cause ( ! increm5t ( p4 ,= examples ( ! application ( ?is me?od1 ! read] %\ld ref] to "s "w ( exact sci5ce4 ,he w f9d 9 ,des*anel's ,natural ,philosophy1 c4 #cb1 an acc\nt ( "s exp]im5ts by :i* ! connection betwe5 heat & me*anical "w has be5 e/abli%$4 ,x is !re %[n t :5ev] "w is p]=m$ by ! ag5cy ( heat z 9 driv+ an eng9e1 an am\nt ( heat disappe>s equival5t to ! "w p]=m$2 & :5ev] me*anical "w is sp5t 9 g5]at+ heat z 9 rubb+ two /icks toge!r1 ! heat g5]at$ is equival5t to ! "w ?us sp5t4 ,& an exp]im5t ( ,j\le's is describ$1 :i* consi/$ 9 fix+ a rod ) paddles 9 a vessel ( wat]1 & mak+ x revolve & agitate ! wat] by means ( a /r+ w\nd r\nd ! rod1 pass$ ov] a pulley & atta*$ to a weight t 0 all[$ to fall4 ,! desc5t ( ! weight 0 measur$ by a graduat$ rule1 & ! rise ( ! wat]'s temp]ature by a !rmomet]4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! heat communicat$ to ! wat] by ! agitation am\nt$ to "o p\nd-degree ,fahr5heit = e #ggb foot-p\nds ( "w exp5d$ by ! fall+ weight4 ,z no o!r mat]ial *ange seems to take place dur+ su* an exp]im5t1 x %[s t ! progressive exp5diture ( me*anical en]gy is ! cause ( ! progressive heat+ ( ! wat]4 ,! !rmomet] itself illu/rates ?is me?od4 ,x has be5 f\nd t ! application ( heat to m]cury exp&s x accord+ to a law2 & h5ce ! volume ( ! m]cury1 measur$ by a graduat$ index1 is us$ to indicate ! temp]ature ( ! air1 wat]1 animal body1 etc41 9 :i* ! !rmomet] is imm]s$1 or ) :i* x is br\ght into contact4 ,9 su* cases1 if no o!r *ange has tak5 place1 ! heat ( ! air1 wat]1 or body is ! cause ( ! rise ( ! m]cury 9 its tube4 ,if "s o!r sub/ance 7say _s7 be sub/itut$ = m]cury 9 con/ruct+ a !rmomet]1 x s]ves ! same purpose1 provid$ ! index be graduat$ accord+ to ! law ( ! expansion ( t sub/ance by heat1 z exp]im5tally det]m9$4 ,in/ances ( ph5om5a t d n v>y toge!r indicate ! exclusion ( a suppos$ cause 7by ,prop4 ,,iii 7c774 ,! /ature ( ! human race has be5 suppos$ to dep5d on temp]ature2 b !re is no correspond5ce4 ,! n v>y+ toge!r1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be confus$ ) v>y+ inv]sely1 :i* :5 regul> indicates a true concomitance4 ,x is (t5 a matt] ( conv5i5ce :e!r we reg>d concomitant ph5om5a z v>y+ directly or inv]sely4 ,x is usual to say--'! great] ! friction ! less ! spe$'2 b x is really m intelligible to say--'! great] ! friction ! m rapidly mol> is conv]t$ into molecul> motion4' ,! ,graphic ,me?od exhibits ,concomitant ,v>iations to ! eye1 & is ext5sively us$ 9 physical & /ati/ical inquiries4 ,along a horizontal l9e 7! abscissa7 is measur$ "o ( ! conditions 7or ag5ts7 ) :i* ! inquiry is conc]n$1 call$ ! ,v>iable2 & along p]p5dicul>s 7ord9ates7 is measur$ "s ph5om5on to be comp>$ ) x1 call$ ! ,v>iant4 ,?us1 ! expansion ( a liquid by heat may be repres5t$ by measur+ degrees ( temp]ature along ! horizontal1 & ! expansion ( a column ( ! liquids 9 units ( l5g? along ! p]p5dicul>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,9 ! next diagram 7,fig4 #aj71 r$uc$ f "o giv5 by ,mr4 ,c4,h4 ,d5y] 9 an article on ! ,price ( ,tea 7,economic ,j\rnal1 ,no4 #i71 ! condition measur$ horizontally is ,"t2 &1 v]tically1 ?ree v>iants are measur$ simultane\sly1 s t _! relations to "o ano!r f "t to "t may be se5 at a glance4 ,f ?is x is evid5t t1 z ! duty on tea falls1 ! price ( tea falls1 :il/ ! consumption ( tea rises2 &1 9 spite ( "s irregul>ity ( correspond5ce 9 ! c\rses ( ! ?ree ph5om5a1 _! g5]al causal connection c h>dly be mi/ak54 ,h[ev]1 ! causal connection may also be inf]r$ by g5]al reason+2 ! /ati/ical ,induction c be confirm$ by a ,d$uction2 ?us illu/rat+ ! comb9$ me?od ( pro( to be discuss$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,)\t su* confirmation ! pro( by ,concomitant ,v>iations w\ld n be complete2 because1 f ! complexity ( ! circum/ances1 social /ati/ics c only yield evid5ce accord+ to ! me?od ( ,agreem5t 9 ,v>iations4 ,=1 besides ! ag5ts t are measur$1 !re may always be "s o!r important influ5ce at "w4 ,dur+ ! la/ fifty ye>s1 = example1 crime has decreas$ :il/ education has increas$3 true1 b at ! same "t wages h ris5 & _m o!r ?+s h happ5$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,x w be notic$ t 9 ! diagram ! ?ree l9es1 especially ^? ( ,price & ,consumption 7:i* may be consid]$ natural resultants1 9 contra/ ) ! arbitr>y fixation ( a ,tax71 d n dep>t widely f regul> curves2 & accord+ly1 assum+ ! causes at "w to v>y cont9u\sly dur+ ! int]vals betwe5 po9ts ( measurem5t1 curves may be sub/itut$4 ,9 fact1 a curve (t5 repres5ts ! c\rse ( a ph5om5on m tru?fully ?an c be done by a l9e t zigzags along ! exact measurem5ts2 because x is less influ5c$ by tempor>y & extraord9>y causes t may obscure ! op]ation ( ^? t are be+ inve/igat$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! abrupt deviations ( a punctili\s zigzag may h _! own logical value1 z w appe> 9 ! next section4 ,9 work+ ) ! ,me?od ( ,v>iations "o mu/ all[ = ! occurr5ce 9 a s]ies ( 'critical po9ts1' at :i* sudd5 & sometimes het]og5e\s *anges may take place4 ,e sub/ance exi/s at diff]5t temp]atures 9 ?ree /ates1 gase\s1 liquid1 solid2 & :5 ! *ange takes place1 f "o /ate to ano!r1 ! s]ies ( v>iations is brok54 ,wat]1 e4g41 foll[s ! g5]al law t cool+ is accompani$ by decrease ( volume betwe5 #bab & #ci ,f43 b above #bab1 und]goes a sudd5 expansion 9 becom+ a gas2 & bel[ #ci beg9s to exp&1 until at #cb ! expansion is consid]able on its becom+ solid4 ,?is illu/rates a common exp]i5ce t concomitant v>iations are mo/ regul> 9 ! 'm$ian range1' & are apt to become irregul> at ! extremities ( ! s]ies1 :]e new conditions beg9 to op]ate4 ,! ,canon ( ,v>iations1 aga91 deals n ) sudd5 irruptions ( a cause1 =ce or ag5t1 b ) "s increase or decrease ( an ag5t already pres5t1 & a correspond+ increase or decrease ( "s o!r ph5om5on--say an increase ( tax & a rise ( price4 ,b !re are cases 9 :i* ! en]gy ( a cause is n imm$iately dis*>g$ & dissipat$4 ,:il/ a tax ( #f;d4 p] lb4 on tea raises ! price p] lb4 by ab\t #f;d41 h[ev] long x la/s1 ! cont9u\s application ( friction to a body may gradually raise its temp]ature to ! po9t ( combu/ion2 because heat is receiv$ fa/] ?an x is radiat$1 & !re=e accumulates4 ,su* cases are treat$ by ,mill "u ! title ( 'progressive effects' 7,logic3 ,b4 ,,iii41 c4 #ae73 he gives z an example ( x ! accel]ation ( fall+ bodies4 ,! /orage ( effects is a fact ( ! utmo/ importance 9 all dep>tm5ts ( nature1 & is especially int]e/+ 9 ,biology & ,sociology1 :]e x is met ) z h]$ity1 exp]i5ce1 tradition4 ,evolution ( species ( plants & animals w\ld 7s f> z we "k7 be impossible1 if ! *anges 7h[ev] caus$7 t adapt "s individuals bett] ?an o!rs to ! conditions ( life 7 n inh]it$ by1 & accumulat$ 91 _! po/]ity4 ,! eyes 9 ! peacock's tail are suppos$ to h rea*$ _! pres5t p]fection gradually1 ?r\gh v>i\s /ages t may be illu/rat$ by ! ocelli 9 ! w+s ( ! ,argus pheasant & o!r g5]a ( ,phasianid4 ,simil>ly ! progress ( societies w\ld be impossible )\t tradition1 :]eby ! improvem5ts made 9 any g5]ation may be pass$ on to ! next1 & ! exp]i5ce ( mank9d may be gradually accumulat$ 9 v>i\s =ms ( culture4 ,! e>lie/ rema9s ( culture are fl9t implem5ts & weapons2 9 :i* we c trace ! effect ( tradition 9 ! lives ( our remote =efa!rs1 z !y sl[ly ?r\gh ?\s&s ( ye>s le>nt to improve ! *ipp+ ( fl9ts1 until ! fir/ rudely %ap$ lumps gave place to works ( unmi/akable design1 & ^! to ! beautiful weapons contempor>y ) ! ,bronze ,age4 ,! ,me?od ( ,gradations1 ! arrang+ ( any ph5om5a to be /udi$ 9 s]ies1 accord+ to ! degree 9 :i* "s "* is exhibit$1 is1 p]haps1 ! mo/ def9ite device 9 ! ,art ( ,discov]y4 7,ba93 ,induction1 c4 #f1 & ,app4 ,,ii47 ,if ! causes are unkn[n x is likely to sugge/ hypo!ses3 & if ! causes are p>tly kn[n1 v>iation 9 ! "* ( ! s]ies is likely to indicate a correspond+ v>iation ( ! conditions4 #e4 ,,! ,,canon ,,( ,,residues4 ,subduct f any ph5om5on su* "p z previ\s inductions h %[n to be ! effect ( c]ta9 antec$5ts1 & ! residue ( ! ph5om5on is ! effect ( ! rema9+ antec$5ts4 ,! ph5om5on is "h assum$ to be an effect3 a simil> ,canon may be fram$ = residu>y causes4 ,?is also is n a fre% me?od1 b a special case ( ! me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,= if we suppose ! ph5om5on to be p q r1 & ! antec$5t to be ,a ,b ,c1 & t we already "k ,b & ,c to h 7ei!r sev]ally or toge!r7 ! consequ5ts q r1 9 :i* _! efficacy is exhau/$2 we may reg>d ,b ,c q r z an in/ance ( ! abs5ce ( p obta9$ d$uctively f ! :ole ph5om5on ,a ,b ,c p q r by our k ( ! laws ( ,b & ,c2 s t ,a ,b ,c p q r is an in/ance ( ! pres5ce ( p1 diff]+ o!rwise f ,b ,c q r 9 no?+ except t ,a is also pres5t4 ,by ! ,canon ( ,diff]5ce1 !re=e ,a is ! cause ( p4 ,or1 aga91 :5 ph5om5a ?us treat$ are /rictly quantitative1 ! me?od may be bas$ on ,prop4 ,,iii4 7b71 *4 xv4 #g4 ,( c\rse1 if ,a c be obta9$ ap>t f ,b ,c & directly exp]im5t$ ) s z to produce p1 s mu* ! bett]2 & ?is may (t5 be done2 b ! special value ( ! me?od ( ,residues appe>s1 :5 "s complex ph5om5on has be5 = ! mo/ "p acc\nt$ = by kn[n causes1 :il/ !re rema9s "s excess1 or %ortcom+1 or deviation f ! result :i* ^? causes alone w\ld lead u to expect1 & ?is residu>y fact has to be expla9$ 9 relation to ! :ole4 ,"h ! negative in/ance is con/itut$ by d$uction1 %[+ :at w\ld happ5 b = ! int]f]5ce ( "s unkn[n cause :i* is to be inve/igat$2 & ?is prom95ce ( ! d$uctive process has l$ "s writ]s to class ! me?od z d$uctive4 ,b we h se5 t all ! ,canons involve d$uction2 &1 consid]+ h[ mu* 9 e exp]im5t is assum$ z already kn[n 7:at circum/ances are 'mat]ial1' & :5 conditions may be call$ '! same'71 ! wond] is t no "o has insi/$ ^u reg>d+ e me?od z conc]n$ ) residues4 ,9 fact1 z sci5tific explanation progresses1 ! ph5om5a t may be consid]$ z residu>y become m num]\s & ! importance ( ?is me?od increases4 ,examples3 ,! record$ dates ( anci5t eclipses hav+ be5 f\nd to diff] f ^? assign$ by calculation1 x appe>s t ! av]age l5g? ( a day has 9 ! mean:ile increas$4 ,?is is a residu>y ph5om5on n acc\nt$ = by ! causes =m]ly recognis$ z det]m9+ ! rotation ( ! e>? on its axis2 & x may be expla9$ by ! consid]ation t ! friction ( ! tides r$uces ! rate ( ! e>?'s rotation1 & !reby l5g!ns ! day4 ,a/ronomy ab\nds 9 examples ( ! me?od ( ,residues1 ( :i* ! discov]y ( ,neptune is ! mo/ fam\s4 ,capill>ity seems to be a /rik+ exception to ! pr9ciple t wat] 7or any liquid7 'f9ds its level1' t be+ ! condition ( equilibrium2 yet capill>ity proves to be only a ref9$ case ( equilibrium :5 acc\nt is tak5 ( ! =ces ( adhesion ex]t$ by diff]5t k9ds ( bodies 9 contact4 ,_m ( ! new elem5ts ( ,*emi/ry1 says ,h]s*el1 h be5 detect$ 9 ! inve/igation ( residual ph5om5a4 ,?us1 ,"l ,rayleigh & ,sir ,w4 ,ramsay f\nd t nitrog5 f ! atmosph]e 0 slightly heavi] ?an nitrog5 got f *emical s\rces2 &1 seek+ ! cause ( ?is diff]5ce1 discov]$ argon4 ,! ,economi/ %[s t :5 a c\ntry imports goods ! *ief means ( pay+ = !m is to export o!r goods4 ,if ?is 7 all1 imports & exports w\ld be ( equal value3 yet ! ,unit$ ,k+dom imports ab\t #djj1jjj1jjj annually1 & exports ab\t #cjj1jjj1jjj4 ,"h1 !n1 is a residu>y ph5om5on ( #ajj1jjj1jjj to be acc\nt$ =4 ,b =eign c\ntries owe u ab\t #ej1jjj1jjj = ! use ( %ipp+1 & #gj1jjj1jjj z int]e/ on ! capital we h l5t !m1 & #ae1jjj1jjj 9 commissions ^u bus9ess transact$ = !m4 ,^! sums add$ toge!r am\nt to #ace1jjj1jjj2 & t is #ce1jjj1jjj too mu*4 ,?us ano!r residu>y ph5om5on em]ges2 = :il/ =eign]s seem to owe u #dce1jjj1jjj !y only s5d u #djj1jjj1jjj ( imports4 ,^! #ce1jjj1jjj are acc\nt$ = by ! annual inve/m5t ( our capital abroad1 9 return = :i* no imm$iate paym5t is due2 &1 ^! be+ omitt$1 exports & imports balance4 ,s9ce ?is 0 writt5 ! figures ( our =eign trade h greatly ris52 b ! "* ( ! explanation rema9s ! same4 ,:51 9 pursu+ ! me?od ( ,v>iations1 ! ph5om5a comp>$ d n always correspond 9 _! fluctuations1 ! irregul> movem5ts ( t ph5om5on :i* we reg>d z ! effect may (t5 be expla9$ by treat+ !m z residu>y ph5om5a1 & !n seek+ = exceptional causes1 ^: tempor>y int]f]5ce has obscur$ ! influ5ce ( ! g5]al cause4 ,?us1 return+ to ! diagram ( ! ,price ( ,tea 9 #d1 x is cle> t g5]ally ! price falls z ! duty falls2 b 9 ,mr4 ,d5y]'s m m9utely wr\ght diagram1 f :i* ?is is r$uc$1 x may be se5 t 9 #ahdj ! price ( tea rose f #cs4 #i;d4 to #ds4 #i;d4 )\t any increase ( duty4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is readily expla9$ by ! ,*9ese ,w> ( t ye>1 :i* *eck$ ! supply4 ,aga91 f #ahfi to #ahhi ! duty 0 con/ant1 :il/ ! price ( tea fell z mu* z #h;d4 p] lb42 b ?is residu>y ph5om5on is expla9$ by ! prodigi\sly increas$ production ( tea dur+ t p]iod 9 ,india & ,ceylon4 ,! above examples ( ! me?od ( ,residues are all quantitative2 b ! me?od is (t5 employ$ :]e exact e/imates are unobta9able4 ,?us ,d>w91 hav+ f\nd c]ta9 modifications ( animals 9 =m1 coloration & habits1 t 7 n cle>ly d]ivable f _! /ruggle = exi/5ce 9 relation to o!r species or to ext]nal conditions1 sugge/$ t !y 7 due to ,sexual ,selection4 ,! 've/iges' & 'survivals' s common 9 ,biology & ,sociology are residu>y ph5om5a4 ,x is a g5]al inf]5ce f ! doctr9e ( ,natural ,selection t e organ ( a plant1 animal1 or society is 9 "s way useful to x4 ,!re occur1 h[ev]1 organs t h at pres5t no assignable utility1 are at lea/ wa/eful1 & sometimes ev5 injuri\s4 ,& ! explanation is t =m]ly !y 7 useful2 b t1 _! uses hav+ laps$1 !y are n[ reta9$ by ! =ce ( h]$ity or tradition4 ,ei!r !y are n injuri\s en\gh to be elim9at$ by natural selection2 or !y are correlat$ ) o!r organs1 ^: utility outweighs _! disutility4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,comb9ation ,,( ,,induction ,,) ,,d$uction #a4 ,we h n[ review$ ,mill's five ,canons ( ,inductive ,pro(4 ,at bottom1 z he obs]ves1 !re are only two1 namely1 ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce3 s9ce ! ,d\ble ,me?od1 ,v>iations & ,residues are only special =ms ( ! o!r two4 ,inde$1 9 _! function ( pro(1 !y are all r$ucible to "o1 namely1 ,diff]5ce2 = ! cog5cy ( ! me?od ( ,agreem5t 7z di/+ui%$ f a simple enum]ation ( in/ances agree+ 9 ! co9cid5ce ( a suppos$ cause & its effect71 dep5ds ^u ! omission1 9 "o in/ance aft] ano!r1 ( all o!r circum/ances2 :i* omission is a po9t ( diff]5ce4 ,! ,canons are an analysis ( ! conditions ( prov+ directly 7:]e possible71 by means ( obs]vation or exp]im5t1 any proposition t pr$icates causation4 ,b if we say 'by means ( obs]vation or exp]im5t1' x is n to be und]/ood t ^! are ! only means & t no?+ else is involv$2 = x has be5 %[n t ! ,law ( ,causation is itself an indisp5sable f\ndation ( ! evid5ce4 ,9 fact ,inductive ,logic may be consid]$ z hav+ a purely =mal "*4 ,x consi/s 7#a7 9 a /atem5t ( ! ,law ( ,cause & ,effect2 7#b7 9 c]ta9 imm$iate inf]5ces f ?is ,law1 exp&$ into ! ,canons2 7#c7 9 ! syllogi/ic application ( ! ,canons to special pr$ications ( causation by means ( m9or premises1 %[+ t c]ta9 in/ances satisfy ! ,canons4 ,at ! risk ( "s p$antry1 we may exhibit ! process z foll[s 7cf4 ,pr(4 ,ray's ,logic3 ,app5dix ,d73 ,:atev] relation ( ev5ts has c]ta9 m>ks is a case ( causation2 ,! relation ,a3 p has "s or all ( ^! m>ks 7z %[n by obs]vation & by ! con=mity ( in/ances to su* or su* a ,canon73 ,!re=e1 ! relation ,a3 p is a case ( causation4 ,n[1 ! p>5!sis1 z %[n by ! con=mity1 etc41 is an adscititi\s memb] ( an ,epi*eirema1 :i* may be /at$1 z a ,prosyllogism1 ?us3 ,if an in/ance1 etc4 7,canon ( ,diff]5ce72 ,! in/ances ,a ,b ,c ,b ,c are ( ! k9d requir$3 p q r' q r ,!re=e1 ,a1 pres5t :]e p occurs & abs5t :]e x does n occur1 is an indisp5sable antec$5t ( p4 ,su* is ! b>e ,logic ( ,induction3 s t1 /rictly speak+1 obs]vation or exp]im5t is no "p ( ! logic1 b a means ( apply+ ! logic to actual1 t is1 n m]ely symbolical1 propositions4 ,! ,=mal ,logic ( ,induction is ess5tially d$uctive2 & x has be5 mu* que/ion$ :e!r any transition f ! =mal to ! mat]ial conditions ( pro( is possible4 ,z long z we are cont5t to illu/rate ! ,canons ) symbols1 su* z ,a & p1 all goes well2 b c we 9 any actual inve/igation %[ t ! relevant facts or 'in/ances' correspond ) ^? symbols8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z ,dr4 ,v5n %[s1 natural ph5om5a want ! di/9ctness & capability ( isolation t belong to symbols4 ,secondly1 ! obs]v+ :e!r in/ances con=m to a ,canon1 mu/ always be subject at la/ to ! limits ( our faculties4 ,h[ c we asc]ta9 exact equality1 imm$iate sequ5ce8 ,! ,canon ( ,diff]5ce1 9 its exp]im5tal application1 is usually consid]$ ! mo/ cog5t sort ( pro(3 yet :5 c ! two sequ5t in/ances1 be=e & aft] ! introduction ( a c]ta9 ag5t1 be said to diff] 9 no?+ else8 ,are n e>? & />s always *ang+ position2 is n e molecule 9 ! room & app>atus always oscillat+8 ,x is true t our s5ses are n[ aid$ by elaborate in/rum5ts2 b ! con/ruction ( ^! dep5ds on sci5tific !ories1 :i* aga9 dep5d on exp]im5ts4 ,x is "r to t\* ^u ?is well-kn[n sceptical topic2 b to insi/ mu* ^u x is n a sign ( good s5se4 ,! works ( ,h]s*el1 ,:ewell1 & ,jevons %\ld be consult$ = ! v>i\s me?ods ( correct+ obs]vations1 by repeat+ !m1 av]ag+ !m1 v]ify+ "o exp]im5tal process by ano!r1 always ref9+ ! me?ods ( exact measurem5t1 multiply+ ! opportunities ( error 7t if any exi/ x may at la/ %[ itself71 & by o!r devices ( :at may be call$ ,mat]ial ,logic or ,me?odology4 ,b only direct exp]i5ce & p]sonal manipulation ( sci5tific processes1 c give a j s5se ( _! effectiv5ess2 & to /& by1 sugge/+ academic d\bts1 is easi] & m amus+4 #b4 ,/ill1 x is n s mu* 9 laws bas$ ^u direct obs]vation or exp]im5t1 t ! mat]ial validity ( sci5tific reason+ appe>s1 z 9 ! cumulative evid5ce t arises f ! co-ord9ation ( laws )9 ea* sci5ce1 & ! gr[+ h>mony & coh]5ce ( all sci5ces4 ,?is requires a m elaborate comb9ation ( d$uction ) obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,dur+ ! la/ ?ree hundr$ ye>s _m dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce h be5 r$uc$ "u pr9ciples ( ! greate/ g5]ality1 su* z ! ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy1 ! ,law ( ,gravitation1 ! ,undulatory !ory ( ,light1 ! ,law ( comb9+ ,equival5ts1 & ! ,!ory ( ,natural ,selection2 connect+ & expla9+ ! less g5]al laws1 :i*1 aga91 are said to connect & expla9 ! facts4 ,mean:ile1 ^? sci5ces t 7 ! fir/ to make progress h help$ to develop o!rs :i*1 l ,biology & ,sociology1 pres5t great] difficulties2 & x becomes m & m app>5t t ! di/9ctions drawn among sci5ces are entirely = ! conv5i5ce ( /udy1 & t all sci5ces t5d to m]ge 9 "o univ]sal ,sci5ce ( ,nature4 ,n[1 ?is process ( ! 'unification ( k' is almo/ ano!r "n = d$uction2 b at ! same "t x dep5ds = its reality & solidity ^u a con/ant ref]5ce to obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,only a v inadequate notion ( x c be giv5 9 ! ensu+ *apt]s4 ,we saw 9 *ap4 xiv4 #f1 t :5 two or m ag5ts or =ces comb9e to produce a ph5om5on1 _! effects are int]mix$ 9 x1 & ?is 9 "o ( two ways accord+ to _! nature4 ,9 *emical action & 9 vegetable & animal life1 ! causal ag5ts conc]n$ are bl5d$ 9 _! results 9 su* a way t mo/ ( ! qualities :i* !y exhibit$ sev]ally are lo/1 :il/ new qualities appe> in/ead4 ,?us *lor9e 7a gre5i%-yell[ gas7 & sodium 7a metal7 unite to =m common salt ,na,cl2 :i* is q unlike ei!r ( !m3 a man eats bread1 & x becomes muscle1 n]ve & bone4 ,9 su* cases we _c trace ! qualities ( ! causal ag5ts 9 ! qualities ( ! effects2 giv5 su* causes1 we c prove exp]im5tally1 accord+ to ! canons ( induction1 t !y h su* effects2 b we may n be able 9 any new case to calculate :at ! effects w be4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ,a/ronomy & ,physics1 ! causes treat$ ( are me*anical2 at lea/1 x is ! aim ( ,physics to atta9 to a me*anical conception ( ph5om5a2 s t1 9 e new comb9ation ( =ces1 ! int]mix$ effect1 or resultant1 may be calculat$ be=eh&2 provid$ t ! =ces conc]n$ admit ( be+ quantitatively e/imat$1 & t ! conditions ( _! comb9ation are n s complex z to baffle ! p[]s ( ma!maticians4 ,9 su* cases1 :5 direct obs]vation or exp]im5t is insuffici5t to resolve an effect into ! laws ( its conditions1 ! g5]al me?od is to calculate :at may be expect$ f a comb9ation ( its conditions1 z ei!r kn[n or hypo!tically assum$1 & to comp>e ?is anticipation ) ! actual ph5om5on4 #c4 ,?is is :at ,mill calls ! ,direct ,d$uctive ,me?od2 or1 ! ,physical ,me?od1 because x is s mu* reli$ on 9 treat+ ( ,light1 ,heat1 ,s\nd1 etc42 x is also ! me?od ( ,a/ronomy & mu* us$ 9 ,economics3 ,d$uction leads ! way1 & its results are te/$ inductively by exp]im5ts or obs]vations4 ,giv5 any complex me*anical ph5om5on1 ! inquir] consid]s--7#a7 :at laws already asc]ta9$ seem likely to apply to x 79 default ( kn[n laws1 hypo!ses are sub/itut$3 cf4 *ap4 xviii472 he !n--7#b7 computes ! effect t w foll[ f ^! laws 9 circum/ances simil> to ! case be=e him2 & 7#c7 he v]ifies 8 conclusion by comp>+ x ) ! actual ph5om5on4 ,a simple example ( ?is me?od is ! explanation ( ! rise ( wat] 9 ! 'common pump4' ,we "k ?ree laws applicable to ?is case3 7a7 t ! atmosph]e weighs ^u ! wat] outside ! pump ) a pressure ( #ae lb4 to ! squ>e in*2 7b7 t a liquid 7& !re=e ! wat]7 transmits pressure equally 9 all directions 7upw>ds z well z d[nw>ds & sideways72 & 7c7 t pressure ^u a body 9 any direction1 if n c\nt]act$ by an opposite pressure1 produces motion4 ,h5ce1 :5 ! rise ( ! pi/on ( ! pump removes ! pressure ^u ! wat] )9 ! cyl9d]1 t5d+ to produce a vacuum !re1 ?is wat] is pu%$ up by ! pressure ( ! air ^u ! wat] outside ! cyl9d]1 & foll[s ! ris+ pi/on1 until ! column ( wat] inside ! cyl9d] ex]ts a pressure equal to t ( ! atmosph]e ^u an equal area4 ,s mu* = ! computation2 does x correspond ) ! fact8 ,x is f\nd t at ! sea level wat] c be pump$ to ! height ( #cc ft2 & t su* a column ( wat] has a pressure ( #ae lb4 to ! squ>e in*4 ,we may %[ fur!r t1 at ! sea level1 spirits ( w9e may be pump$ high] accord+ to its less specific gravity2 & t if we attempt to pump wat] at successive altitudes above ! sea level1 we c only raise x to less & less heights1 correspond+ ) ! less5$ atmosph]ic pressure at ^? altitudes1 :]e ! column ( air produc+ ! pressure is %ort]4 ,f9ally1 if we try to "w a pump1 hav+ fir/ produc$ a vacuum ov] ! wat] outside ! cyl9d]1 we %all f9d t ! wat] inside w n rise at all2 ! pi/on c be rais$1 b ! wat] does n foll[ x4 ,! v]ification ?us %[s t ! comput$ effect corresponds ) ! ph5om5on to be expla9$2 t ! result does n dep5d ^u ! nature ( wat] only1 b is true 7all[+ = diff]5ces ( specific gravity7 ( o!r liquids2 t if ! pressure ( ! outside air is dim9i%$1 ! height ( pump+ is s too 7canon ( ,v>iations72 & t if t pressure is entirely remov$1 pump+ becomes impossible 7canon ( ,diff]5ce74 ,any text-book ( ,a/ronomy or ,physics furni%es num]\s illu/rations ( ! d$uctive me?od4 ,take1 = example1 ! fir/ *apt] ( ,des*anel's ,optics1 :]e are giv5 ?ree me?ods ( det]m9+ ! velocity ( ,light4 ,?is 0 fir/ d$uc$ f obs]vation ( ,jupit]'s satellites4 ,! "o ne>e/ ! planet passes beh9d x1 or into its %ad[1 & is eclips$1 at int]vals ( ab\t #db-a_/b h\rs4 ,b x c be %[n t1 :5 ,jupit] & ! ,e>? are ne>e/ toge!r on ! same side ( ! ,sun1 an eclipse ( ?is satellite is visible f ! e>? #af m94 #bf4f sec4 e>li] ?an :5 ,jupit] & ! e>? are fur!/ ap>t on opposite sides ( ! ,sun3 #af m94 #bf4f sec1 !n1 is ! "t 9 :i* light trav]ses ! diamet] ( ! ,e>?'s orbit4 ,!re=e1 suppos+ ! ,e>?'s di/ance f ! ,sun to be #ib millions ( miles1 light travels ab\t #ahf1jjj miles a second4 ,ano!r d$uction1 agree+ ) ?is1 />ts f ! fact ( ab]ration1 or ! displacem5t ( ! app>5t f ! actual position ( ! />s 9 ! direction ( ! e>?'s motion4 ,ab]ration dep5ds p>tly on ! velocity ( light1 p>tly on ! velocity ( ! ,e>?2 & ! latt] be+ kn[n1 ! =m] c be comput$4 ,n[1 ^! two d$uctive argum5ts1 v]ify+ ea* o!r1 h also be5 v]ifi$ exp]im5tally4 ,f\cault's exp]im5t to measure ! velocity ( light is too elaborate to be describ$ "h3 a full acc\nt ( x w be f\nd 9 ! treatise above cit$1 #fhg4 ,:5 ! ph5om5a to be expla9$ are ( su* a "*1 s va/ 9 ext5t1 p[] or duration1 t x is impossible1 9 ! actual circum/ances ( ! case1 to frame exp]im5ts 9 ord] to v]ify a d$uctive explanation1 x may /ill be possible to reproduce a simil> ph5om5on ^u a small] scale4 ,?us ,monge's explanation ( mirage by ! great heat ( ! des]t s&1 :i* makes ! l[e/ /ratum ( air less d5se ?an ^? above x1 s t rays ( light f di/ant objects are refract$ 9 desc5d+1 until !y are actually turn$ upw>ds aga9 to ! eye ( ! behold]s1 giv+ him inv]t$ images ( ! objects z if !y 7 reflect$ 9 wat]1 is manife/ly incapable ( be+ v]ifi$ by exp]im5t 9 ! natural conditions ( ! ph5om5on4 ,b by heat+ ! bottom ( a %eet-iron box1 ) its ends cut away1 ! r>efi$ air at ! bottom ( ! box may sometimes be made to yield reflections2 & ?is %[s at lea/ t ! suppos$ cause is a possible "o 7,des*anel1 ,optics1 #gbf74 ,simil>ly z to ! va/e/ ( all ph5om5a1 ! evolution ( ! /ell> sy/em1 & ( ! sol> sy/em z "p ( x1 f an imm5se cl\dlike volume ( matt]3 ,h4 ,sp5c]1 9 8 ,essay on ,! ,nebul> ,hypo!sis1 says1 amid/ a great array ( d$uctive argum5ts f me*anical pr9ciples1 t ?is a priori reason+ h>monises ) ! results ( exp]im5t4 ,dr4 ,plateau has %[n t :5 a mass ( fluid is1 z f> z may be1 protect$ f ! action ( ext]nal =ces1 x w1 if made to rotate ) adequate velocity1 =m deta*$ r+s2 & t ^! r+s w break up into sph]oids1 :i* turn on _! axes 9 ! same direction ) ! c5tral mass4 ,! !ory ( ! evolution ( species ( plants & animals by ,natural ,selection1 aga91 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 x _c be v]ifi$ by direct exp]im5t 7s9ce exp]im5t implies artificial arrangem5t71 & ! process is too sl[ = obs]vation1 is1 nev]!less1 to "s ext5t confirm$ by ! practice ( g>d5]s & bre$]s ( animals3 s9ce1 by tak+ advantage ( accid5tal v>iations ( =m & col\r 9 ! plants or animals "u _! c>e1 & rely+ on ! inh]itability ( ^! v>iations !y obta9 ext5sive modifications ( ! orig9al /ocks1 & adapt !m to ! v>i\s purposes = :i* fl[]s & c]eals1 p\ltry1 dogs & cattle are dome/icat$4 ,?is %[s1 at lea/1 t liv+ =ms are pla/ic1 & ext5sively modifiable 9 a comp>atively %ort "t4 #d4 ,suppose1 h[ev]1 t1 9 v]ify+ a d$uctive argum5t1 ! effect z comput$ f ! laws ( ! causes assign$1 does n correspond ) ! facts obs]v$3 !re mu/ !n be an error some:]e4 ,if ! fact has be5 accurately obs]v$1 ! error mu/ lie ei!r 9 ! process ( d$uction & computation1 or else 9 ! premises4 ,z to ! process ( d$uction1 x may be v simple & easily revis$1 z 9 ! above explanation ( ! common pump2 or x may be v involv$ & comprise long tra9s ( ma!matical calculation4 ,if1 h[ev]1 on re-exam9+ ! computations1 we f9d !m correct1 x rema9s to look = "s mi/ake 9 ! premises4 7#a7 ,we may n h accurately asc]ta9$ ! laws1 or ! modes ( op]ation1 or ! am\nts ( ! =ces pres5t4 ,?us1 ! rate at :i* bodies fall 0 =m]ly believ$ to v>y 9 proportion to _! relative weights2 & any e/imate bas$ ^u ?is belief _c agree ) ! facts4 ,aga91 ! corpuscul> !ory ( light1 namely1 t ! physical cause ( light is a /ream ( f9e p>ticles project$ 9 /raight l9es f ! lum9\s object1 ?\gh x seem$ adequate to ! explanation ( _m optical ph5om5a1 c\ld n be made to agree ) ! facts ( int]f]5ce & d\ble refraction4 7#b7 ,! circum/ances 9 :i* ! ag5ts are comb9$ may n h be5 correctly conceiv$4 ,:5 ,newton began to inquire :e!r ! attraction ( ! e>? det]m9$ ! orbit ( ! moon1 he 0 at fir/ disappo9t$4 ,accord+ to ,newton's calculations1 made at ?is "t1 says ,:ewell1 ! moon1 by h] motion 9 h] orbit1 0 deflect$ f ! tang5t e m9ute ?r\gh a space ( ?irte5 feet4 ,b by notic+ ! space :i* bodies w\ld fall 9 "o m9ute at ! e>?'s surface1 & suppos+ ?is to be dim9i%$ 9 ! ratio ( ! inv]se squ>e1 x appe>$ t gravity w\ld1 at ! moon's orbit1 draw a body ?r\gh m ?an fifte5 feet4 ,9 view ( ?is discrepancy he gave up ! inquiry = sixte5 ye>s1 until 9 #afhb1 hav+ obta9$ bett] data1 he successfully r5ew$ x4 ,he _h be5 mi/ak5 9 ! magnitude ( ! e>?1 & consequ5tly 9 ! di/ance ( ! moon1 :i* is det]m9$ by measurem5ts ( :i* ! e>?'s radius is ! base4 ,x 0 n1 !re=e1 a mi/ake z to ! law or z to ! nature ( ! =ces conc]n$ 7namely1 ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e & ! id5tity ( cele/ial ) t]re/rial gravity71 b z to ! circum/ances 9 :i* ! ag5ts 7e>? & moon7 7 comb9$1 t prev5t$ 8 calculations be+ v]ifi$4 7,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc43 ,,vii4 ii4 #c47 7#c7 ,"o or m ( ! ag5ts affect+ ! result may h be5 ov]look$ & omitt$ f ! e/imate4 ,?us1 an attempt to expla9 ! tides by tak+ acc\nt only ( ! e>? & ! moon1 w n entirely agree ) ! facts1 s9ce ! sun also influ5ces ! tides4 ,?is illu/ration1 h[ev]1 %[s t :5 ! conclusion ( a d$uctive explanation does n entirely agree ) ! facts1 x is n always to be inf]r$ t ! reason+ is1 prop]ly speak+1 wrong2 x may be "r z f> z x goes1 & m]ely inadequate4 ,h5ce 7a7 9 su* cases an opportunity occurs ( apply+ ! ,me?od ( ,residues1 by discov]+ ! ag5t t mu/ be all[$ = 9 ord] to complete ! explanation4 ,& 7b7 ! inve/igation ( a ph5om5on is (t5 design$ly begun ^u an imp]fect basis = ! sake ( simplicity2 ! result be+ reg>d$ z a fir/ approximation1 to be aft]w>ds correct$ by includ+1 "o by "o1 ! rema9+ ag5ts or circum/ances affect+ ! ph5om5on1 until ! !ory is complete2 t is1 until its agreem5t ) ! facts is satisfactory4 7#d7 ,we may h includ$ among ! data ( our reason+s ag5ts or circum/ances t d n exi/ or d n affect ! ph5om5on 9 "q4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( sci5ce purely fanciful p[]s 7 mu* reli$ ^u3 su* z ! solid sph]es t c>ri$ ! planets & />s2 ! influ5ce ( ! planets ^u human de/9y2 ! t5d5cy ( ev]y?+ to seek its own place1 s t fire rises to heav51 & solids fall to ! e>?2 ! pla/ic virtue ( ! soil1 :i* 0 once ?\ght to h produc$ fossils4 ,:51 h[ev]1 su* conceptions h9d]$ ! progress ( explanation1 x 0 n s mu* by vitiat+ ! d$uctive me?od z by putt+ m5 (f f exact inquiries4 ,m to our pres5t purpose 7 ! suppos$ cataclysms1 or extraord9>y convulsions ( ! e>?1 a belief 9 :i* long h9d]$ ! progress ( ,geology4 ,aga91 9 ,biology1 ,psy*ology1 & ,sociology _m explanations h dep5d$ ^u ! doctr9e t any improvem5t ( /ructure or faculty acquir$ by an individual may be inh]it$ by 8 desc5dants3 z t1 if an animal le>ns to climb trees1 8 (fspr+ h a great] aptitude = t mode ( life2 t if a man tries to be good1 8 *ildr5 f9d x easi] to be virtu\s2 t if ! inhabitants ( a di/rict c>ry on clo?-"w1 x becomes easi] = ea* successive g5]ation to acquire dext]ity 9 t art4 ,b n[ ! inh]itability ( p[]s acquir$ by ! individual ?r\gh 8 own ef=ts1 is disput$2 &1 if ! d5ial be made good1 all su* explanations z ! above mu/ be revis$4 ,if1 !n1 ! premises ( a d$uctive argum5t be vitiat$ 9 any ( ^! f\r ways1 its conclusion w fail to agree ) ! results ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 unless1 ( c\rse1 "o k9d ( error happ5 to be cancell$ by ano!r t is 'equal & opposite4' ,we n[ come to a v>iation ( ! me?od ( comb9+ ,induction ) ,d$uction1 s important z to require sep>ate treatm5t4 #e4 ,! ,inv]se or ,hi/orical ,me?od has ( late ye>s become rem>kably fruitful4 ,:5 ! =ces det]m9+ a ph5om5on are too num]\s1 or too indef9ite1 to be comb9$ 9 a direct d$uction1 we may beg9 by collect+ an empirical law ( ! ph5om5on 7z t '! democracies ( ,city-,/ates are arbitr>y & fickle'71 & !n endeav\r to %[ by d$uctions f ! nature ( ! case1 t is1 f a consid]ation ( ! circum/ances & =ces kn[n to be op]ative 7( :i*1 9 ! above in/ance1 ! mo/ important is sympa!tic contagion71 t su* a law 0 to be expect$4 ,d$uction is ?us call$ 9 to v]ify a previ\s induction2 :]eas 9 ! ',physical ,me?od' a d$uction 0 v]ifi$ by comp>+ x ) an induction or an exp]im5t2 h5ce ! me?od n[ to be discuss$ has be5 nam$ ! ,inv]se ,d$uctive ,me?od4 ,b al?\gh x is true t1 9 su* inquiries z we are n[ deal+ )1 induction g5]ally takes ! lead2 yet ,i _c ?9k t ! m]e ord] 9 :i* ! two logical processes occur is ! ess5tial di/9ction betwe5 ! two ways ( comb9+ !m4 ,=1 9 ! fir/ place1 9 inve/igations ( any complexity bo? induction & d$uction recur aga9 & aga9 9 :atev] ord] may be mo/ conv5i5t2 &1 9 ! second place1 ! s-call$ 'inv]se ord]' is sometimes resort$ to 9 ,a/ronomy & ,physics4 ,= example1 ,kepl]'s ,laws 7 fir/ collect$ empirically f obs]vations ( ! planet>y motions1 & aft]w>ds d$uc$ by ,newton f ! ,law ( ,gravitation2 ?is1 !n1 0 ! ,inv]se ,me?od2 b ! result is some?+ v diff]5t f any t c be obta9$ by ! ,hi/orical ,me?od4 ,! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,physical & ,hi/orical ,me?ods is t1 9 ! =m]1 :e!r ,direct or ,inv]se1 ! d$uctive process1 :5 complete1 am\nts to exact demon/ration2 :]eas1 9 ! latt]1 ! d$uctions may consi/ ( qualitative reason+s1 & ! results are indef9ite4 ,!y e/abli%--7#a7 a m]ely probable connection betwe5 ! ph5om5a accord+ to an empirical law 7say1 betwe5 ,city-democracy & fickle politics72 7#b7 connect ?is ) o!r hi/orical or social g5]alisations1 by %[+ t !y all alike fl[ f ! same causes1 namely1 f ! nature ( races ( m5 "u c]ta9 social & geographical conditions2 & 7#c7 expla9 :y su* empirical laws may fail1 accord+ to ! diff]5ces t prevail among races ( m5 & among ! conditions "u :i* !y live4 ,?us1 see+ h[ rapidly excitem5t is propagat$ by ! *att]1 grimac+1 & ge/iculation ( t[nsm51 x is probable en\gh t ! democracy ( a ,city-/ate %\ld be fickle 7& arbitr>y1 because irresponsible74 ,a simil> ph5om5on ( panic1 sympa!tic hope & despair1 is exhibit$ by e /ock-ex*ange1 & is n peculi> to political life4 ,& :5 political op9ion is n manufactur$ solely 9 ! rev]b]at+ furnace ( a city1 fickl5ess ceases to *>act]ise democracy2 &1 9 fact1 is n f\nd 9 ,switz]l&1 or ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 nor 9 ,france s f> z politics1 dep5d ^u ! peasantry4 ,?is is call$ ! ,hi/orical ,me?od1 !n1 because x is especially useful 9 expla9+ ! movem5ts ( hi/ory1 & 9 v]ify+ ! g5]alisations ( political & social sci5ce4 ,we mu/ n1 h[ev]1 suppose t its use is conf9$ to su* /udies4 ,only a ridicul\s p$antry w\ld allot to ea* subject its own me?od & =bid ! use ( any o!r2 z if x 7 n our capital object to e/abli% tru? by any means4 ,:]ev] ! =ces det]m9+ a ph5om5on are too num]\s or too indef9ite to be comb9$ 9 a d$uctive demon/ration1 !re ! ,hi/orical ,me?od is likely to be useful2 & ?is seems (t5 to be ! case 9 ,geology & ,biology1 z well z 9 ! ,sci5ce ( ,hi/ory1 or ,sociology1 & its v>i\s subsidi>y /udies4 ,consid] ^u :at causes hi/orical ev5ts dep5d3 ! cu/oms1 "*1 & op9ions ( all ! p conc]n$2 ! organisation ( _! gov]nm5t1 & ! "* ( _! religi\s in/itutions2 ! developm5t ( indu/ry among !m1 ( ! milit>y art1 ( f9e art1 lit]ature & sci5ce2 _! relations1 comm]cial1 political & social1 ) o!r nations2 ! physical conditions ( climate & geographical position amid/ :i* !y live4 ,h>dly an ev5t ( importance occurs 9 any nation t is n1 directly or indirectly1 influ5c$ by e "o ( ^! circum/ances1 & t does n react ^u !m4 ,n[1 f ! nature ( ! ,canons ( direct ,induction1 a satisfactory employm5t ( !m 9 su* a complex & tangl$ situation z hi/ory pres5ts1 is r>ely possible2 = !y all require ! actual or virtual isolation ( ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation4 ,!y also require ! greate/ atta9able imm$iacy ( connection betwe5 cause & effect2 :]eas ! causes ( social ev5ts may accumulate dur+ hundr$s ( ye>s4 ,9 collect+ empirical laws f hi/ory1 !re=e1 only v r\gh inductions c be hop$ =1 & we may h to be cont5t ) simple enum]ation4 ,h5ce ! importance ( support+ su* laws by d$uction f ! nature ( ! case1 h[ev] fa9t a probability ( ! ass]t$ connection is !reby rais$2 & ?is ev5 if ea* law is valu$ m]ely = its own sake4 ,/ill m1 if any?+ wor? ! "n ( ,hi/orical ,sci5ce is to be con/ruct$1 mu/ a m]e collection ( su* empiricisms fail to cont5t u2 & ! only way to give !m a sci5tific "* is to %[ d$uctively _! common dep5d5ce ^u v>i\s comb9ations ( ! same causes4 ,yet ev5 ^? :o pr(ess to employ ! ,hi/orical ,me?od (t5 omit ! d$uctive half ( x2 & ( c\rse 'practical politicians' boa/ ( _! entire cont5tm5t ) :at !y call '! facts4' ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 politicians1 v5tur+ ^u d$uctive reason+1 h fall5 into ! opposite error ( omitt+ to te/ _! results by any comp>ison ) ! facts3 argu+ f c]ta9 ',rights ( ,man1' or ',int]e/s ( ,classes1' or ',laws ( ,supply & ,dem&1' t ?is or t ev5t w happ51 or ought to happ51 )\t tr\bl+ !mselves to obs]ve :e!r x does happ5 or ev] has happ5$4 ,?is me?od ( ,d$uction )\t any empirical v]ification1 is call$ by ,mill ! ,geometrical2 &1 pla9ly1 x c be tru/wor?y only :]e !re is no actual conflict ( =ces to be consid]$4 ,9 pure ma!matical reason+ ab\t space1 "t1 & numb]1 provid$ ! premises & ! reason+ be correct1 v]ification by a comp>ison ) ! facts may be ne$less1 because !re is no possibility ( c\nt]action4 ,b :5 we deal ) actual causes1 no computation ( _! effects c be reli$ ^u )\t comp>+ our conclusions ) ! facts3 n ev5 9 ,a/ronomy & ,physics1 lea/ ( all 9 ,politics4 ,burke1 !n1 has well said t )\t ! guide & light ( s\nd1 well-und]/ood pr9ciples all our reason+ 9 politics1 z 9 ev]y?+ else1 w\ld be only a confus$ jumble ( p>ticul> facts & details )\t ! means ( draw+ any sort ( !oretical or practical conclusion2 b t1 on ! o!r h&1 ! /atesman1 :o does n take acc\nt ( circum/ances1 inf9ite & inf9itely comb9$1 is n errone\s1 b />k mad--he is metaphysically mad 7,on ! ,petition ( ! ,unit>ians74 ,!re is1 or ought to be1 no logical diff]5ce betwe5 ! evid5ce requir$ by a /atesman & t appeal$ to by a philosoph]2 & s9ce1 z we h se51 ! comb9ation ( pr9ciples ) circum/ances _c1 9 solv+ problems ( social sci5ce1 be made ) ! demon/rative precision t belongs to a/ronomical & physical inve/igations1 !re rema9s ! ,hi/orical ,me?od z above describ$4 ,examples ( ! empirical laws f :i* ?is me?od beg9s ab\nd 9 hi/ories1 newspap]s1 & political discussions1 & are ( all %ades ( tru? or half-tru?3 z t ',hi/ory consi/s 9 ! biographies ( great m5'2 9 o!r words1 t ! movem5ts ( society are due to exceptional p]sonal p[]s1 n to g5]al causes2 ,t at c]ta9 epo*s great m5 occur 9 gr\ps2 ,t e ,f9e ,art passes ?r\gh p]iods ( developm5t1 culm9ation & decl9e2 ,t ,democracies t5d to *ange into ,despotisms2 ,t ! possession ( p[]1 :e!r by classes or despots1 corrupts ! possessor3 ,t '! gov]nm5ts mo/ di/+ui%$ = su/a9$ vig\r & abilities h g5]ally be5 ari/ocracies'2 ,t 'revolutions always beg9 9 hung]'2 ,t civilisation is inimical to individuality2 ,t ! civilisation ( ! c\ntry proce$s f ! t[n2 ,t '! movem5t ( progressive societies has hi!rto be5 a movem5t f ,/atus to ,contract 7i4e41 f a condition 9 :i* ! individual's rights & duties dep5d on 8 ca/e1 or position 9 8 family z slave1 *ild1 or patri>*1 to a condition 9 :i* 8 rights & duties are l>gely det]m9$ by ! volunt>y agreem5ts he ent]s into7'2 & ?is la/ is treat$ by ,h4 ,sp5c] z "o aspect ( ! law fir/ /at$ by ,comte1 t ! progress ( societies is f ! milit>y to ! indu/rial /ate4 ,! d$uctive process we may illu/rate by ,sp5c]'s explanation ( ! co-exi/5ce 9 ! milit>y /ate ( ^? specific *>act]s1 ! inductive pro( ( :i* furni%$ an illu/ration ( ! me?od ( ,agreem5t 7*4 xvi4 #a74 ,! type ( ! milit>y ,/ate involves ! gr[? ( ! w>rior class1 & ! treatm5t ( lab\r]s z exi/+ solely to support ! w>riors2 ! complete subord9ation ( all individuals to ! w ( ! despotic soldi]-k+1 _! prop]ty1 lib]ty & life be+ at ! s]vice ( ! ,/ate2 ! regim5tation ( society1 n only = milit>y1 b also = civil purposes2 ! suppression ( all private associations1 etc4 ,n[ all ^! *>act]i/ics arise f _! utility = ! purpose ( w>1 a utility am\nt+ to necessity if w> is ! ,/ate's *ief purpose4 ,= e purpose is be/ s]v$ :5 ! :ole available =ce co-op]ates t[>d x3 o!r ?+s equal1 ! bigg] ! army ! bett]2 & to increase x1 m5 mu/ be tak5 f indu/ry1 until only j en\gh rema9 to fe$ & equip ! soldi]s4 ,z ?is arrangem5t is n to ev]ybody's ta/e1 !re mu/ be despotic control2 & ?is control is mo/ effective ?r\gh regim5tation by grades ( comm&4 ,private associations1 ( c\rse1 _c live op5ly 9 su* a ,/ate1 because !y may h wills ( _! own & are conv5i5t = conspiracy4 ,?us ! induction ( *>act]i/ics is v]ifi$ by a d$uction ( !m f ! nature ( ! case4 #f4 ,! great] indef9it5ess ( ! ,hi/orical comp>$ ) ! ,physical ,me?od1 bo? 9 its inductions & 9 its d$uctions1 makes x ev5 m difficult to "w )4 ,x wants mu* sagacity & m imp>tiality2 = ! demon ( ,p>ty is too mu* ) u4 ,our fir/ c>e %\ld be to make ! empirical law z ne>ly true z possible1 collect+ z _m z we c ( ! facts :i* ! law is suppos$ to g5]alise1 & exam9+ !m accord+ to ! canons ( ,induction1 ) due all[ance = ! imp]fect applicability ( ^? canons to su* complex1 unwieldy1 & indef9ite in/ances4 ,9 ! examples ( su* laws giv5 above1 x is cle> t 9 "s cases no pa9s h be5 tak5 to exam9e ! facts4 ,:at is ! inductive evid5ce t ,democracies *ange into ,despotisms2 t revolutions always beg9 9 hung]2 or t civilisation is inimical to individuality8 ,ev5 ,mill's (t5 quot$ say+1 t ! gov]nm5ts rem>kable 9 hi/ory = su/a9$ vig\r & ability h g5]ally be5 ari/ocracies1 is oddly ov]-/at$4 ,= if y turn to ! passage 7,rep4 ,gov4 *ap4 vi471 ! next s5t5ce tells y t su* gov]nm5ts h always be5 ari/ocracies ( public function>ies2 & ! next s5t5ce b "o re/ricts1 app>5tly1 ! li/ ( su* rem>kable gov]nm5ts to two--,rome & ,v5ice4 ,:5ce1 !n1 comes ! ^w g5]ally into ,mill's law8 ,z to d$uc+ our empirical law f a consid]ation ( ! nature ( ! case1 x is obvi\s t we ought--7a7 to take acc\nt ( all ! important conditions2 7b7 to all[ weight to !m sev]ally 9 proportion to _! importance2 & 7c7 n to include 9 our e/imates any condition :i* we _c %[ to be probably pres5t & op]ative4 ,?us ! ,great-,man-,!ory ( hi/ory mu/ surely be admitt$ to assign a real condition ( national success4 ,! great man organises1 directs1 inspires3 is t no?+8 ,on ! o!r h&1 to recognise no o!r condition ( national success is ! manife/ fr5zy ( a m9d 9 ! my?opic age4 ,we mu/ all[ ! great man 8 due weight1 & !n inquire into ! g5]al conditions t 7a7 br+ him to bir? 9 "o nation r ?an ano!r1 & 7b7 give him 8 opportunity4 ,mill's explanation ( ! success ( ! ari/ocratic gov]nm5ts ( ,rome & ,v5ice is1 t !y 71 9 fact1 bureaucracies2 t is to say1 _! memb]s 7 tra9$ 9 ! sci5ce & art ( adm9i/ration & comm&4 ,"h1 aga91 we h1 no d\bt1 a real condition2 b is x ! only "o8 ,! popul> m9d1 :i* little reli%es ! scal+ d[n ( ,mill's orig9al law to ^? two remote cases1 is p]suad$ t an ari/ocracy is ! depository ( h]$it>y virtue1 especially ) ref]5ce to gov]nm5t1 & w\ld at once ascribe to ?is circum/ance ! great] "p ( ! success ( any ari/ocratic con/itution4 ,n[1 if ! effects ( tra9+ are inh]it$1 !y mu/1 9 an h]$it>y ari/ocracy1 increase ! en]gy ( ! cause assign$ by ,mill2 b1 if n1 su* h]$ity is a condition n pres5t or n op]ative4 ,/ill1 if families are ennobl$ = _! extraord9>y natural p[]s ( adm9i/ration or comm& 7z sometimes happ5s71 x is agre$ on all h&s t innate qualities are inh]itable2 at lea/1 if c>e be tak5 to int]m>ry ) families simil>ly di/+ui%$1 & if by natural or artificial selection all ! failures among ! (fspr+ be elim9at$4 ,! ,sp>tans _h "s crude notion ( bo? ^! precautions2 & if su* measures _h be5 widely adopt$1 we might d$uce f ! doctr9e ( h]$ity a probability 9 fav\r ( ,mill's orig9al proposition1 & !reby v]ify x 9 its g5]ality1 if x c\ld be collect$ f ! facts4 ,! ,hi/orical ,me?od may be fur!r illu/rat$ by ! c\rse adopt$ 9 t bran* ( ,social ,sci5ce :i* has be5 f\nd susceptible ( ! mo/ ext5sive indep5d5t developm5t1 namely1 ,economics4 ,fir/1 by way ( contra/1 ,i %\ld say t ! ab/ract1 or !oretical treatm5t ( ,economics foll[s ! ,physical ,me?od2 because1 z ,mill expla9s1 al?\gh ! ph5om5a ( indu/ry are no d\bt influ5c$1 l o!r social affairs1 by all ! o!r circum/ances ( ,society1 gov]nm5t1 religion1 w>1 art1 etc42 yet1 :]e indu/ry is mo/ develop$1 z 9 ,engl& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 c]ta9 special conditions affect+ x are s mu* ! mo/ important t1 = ! purpose at lea/ ( a fir/ outl9e ( ! sci5ce1 !y may conv5i5tly be consid]$ z ! only ones4 ,^! conditions are3 7#a7 ! g5]al disposition ( m5 to obta9 weal? ) z little tr\ble z possible1 & 7#b7 to sp5d x s z to obta9 ! greate/ satisfaction ( _! v>i\s desires2 7#c7 ! facts t det]m9e population2 & 7#d7 ! t5d5cy ( extractive indu/ry1 :5 pu%$ beyond a c]ta9 limit )\t any improvem5t 9 ! indu/rial arts1 to yield dim9i%+ returns4 ,f ^! premises x is easy to inf] ! g5]al laws ( prices1 ( wages & int]e/ 7:i* are ! prices ( lab\r & ( ! use ( capital71 & ( r5t2 & x rema9s to v]ify ^! laws by comp>+ !m ) ! facts 9 ea* case2 & 7if !y fail to agree ) ! facts7 to am5d !m1 accord+ to ! ,me?od ( ,residues1 by tak+ acc\nt ( ^? influ5tial conditions :i* 7 omitt$ f ! fir/ draft ( ! !ory4 ,:il/1 h[ev]1 ?is is usually ! proc$ure ( ^? inquir]s :o h done mo/ to give ,economics its sci5tific "*1 to insi/ t no o!r plan %all be adopt$ w\ld be %e] p$antry2 & ,dr4 ,keynes has %[n1 9 8 ,scope & ,me?od ( ,political ,economy1 t ,mill has himself sometimes solv$ economic problems by ! ,hi/orical ,me?od4 ,) an analysis ( 8 treatm5t ( ,peasant ,proprietor%ip 7,political ,economy1 ,b4 ,,ii41 cc4 #g & #h7 we may close ?is section4 ,mill fir/ %[s inductively1 by collect+ evid5ce f ,switz]l&1 ,g]many1 ,norway1 ,belgium1 & ,france 7c\ntries diff]+ 9 race1 gov]nm5t1 climate & situation71 t peasant proprietors are sup]humanly indu/ri\s2 intellig5t cultivators1 & g5]ally intellig5t m52 prud5t1 temp]ate1 & indep5d5t1 & t !y ex]cise self-control 9 avoid+ improvid5t m>riages4 ,?is gr\p ( empirical g5]alisations z to ! "* ( peasant proprietors he !n d$uces f ! nature ( ! case3 _! indu/ry1 he says1 is a natural consequ5ce ( ! fact t1 h[ev] mu* !y produce1 x is all _! own2 !y cultivate intellig5tly1 because = g5]ations !y h giv5 _! :ole m9d to x2 !y are g5]ally intellig5t m51 because ! v>iety ( "w involv$ 9 small f>m+1 requir+ =esight & calculation1 necess>ily promotes intellig5ce2 !y are prud5t1 because !y h some?+ to save1 & by sav+ c improve _! /ation & p]haps buy m l&2 !y are temp]ate1 because intemp]ance is incompatible ) indu/ry & prud5ce2 !y are indep5d5t1 because secure ( ! necess>ies ( life1 & f hav+ prop]ty to fall back ^u2 & !y avoid improvid5ce 9 m>riage1 because ! ext5t & f]tility ( _! fields is always pla9ly be=e !m1 & !re=e h[ _m *ildr5 !y c ma9ta9 is easily calculat$4 ,! wor/ ( !m is t !y "w too h>d & d5y !mselves too mu*3 b1 ov] ! great] "p ( ! _w1 o!r peasantry "w too h>d2 ?\gh !y c sc>cely be said to d5y !mselves too mu*2 s9ce all _! lab\r = o!rs br+s !m no surplus to squ&] ^u self-indulg5ce4 #g4 ,! =ego+ acc\nt ( ! ,hi/orical ,me?od is bas$ ^u ,mill's discussions 9 ,b4 ,,vi4 ( 8 ,logic1 especially cc4 #f to #aa4 ,mill ascribes to ,comte ! fir/ cle> /atem5t ( ! me?od2 & x is highly sci5tific1 & important 9 g5]alis+ ! connections ( hi/orical ev5ts4 ,b p]haps ! expression1 ',hi/orical ,me?od1' is m frequ5tly appli$ to ! ,comp>ative ,me?od1 z us$ 9 inve/igat+ ! hi/ory ( in/itutions or ! true s5se ( leg5ds4 7#a7 ,suppose we are try+ to expla9 ! in/itution ( capital puni%m5t z x n[ exi/s 9 ,engl&4 7#a7 ,we mu/ try to trace ! hi/ory ( x back to ! e>lie/ times2 = social cu/om & tradition is "o l9e ( causation4 ,at pres5t ! puni%m5t ( dea? is legally incid5t only to murd] & high treason4 ,b e>ly 9 ! la/ c5tury malefactors 7 hung = =g]y1 %eep-/eal+1 arson & a long li/ ( o!r (f5ces d[n to pocket-pick+3 e>li] /ill ! li/ includ$ wit*craft & h]esy4 ,at pres5t hang+ is ! only mode ( putt+ a malefactor to dea?2 b =m]ly ! ways ( putt+ to dea? includ$ also burn+1 boil+1 press+1 behead+1 & mix$ modes4 ,be=e ! ,re/oration1 h[ev]1 ! (f5ces puni%able ) dea? 7 f> few] ?an !y aft]w>ds became2 & until ! twelf? c5tury1 ! p5alty ( dea? might be avoid$ by pay+ comp5sation1 ! w]-geld4 7#b7 ,e *ange 9 ! hi/ory ( an in/itution mu/ be expla9$ by po9t+ to ! special causes 9 op]ation dur+ ! "t :5 ! *ange 0 9 progress4 ,?us ! re/riction ( ! dea? p5alty1 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 to s few (f5ces 0 due p>tly to ! gr[? ( humane feel+s1 p>tly to ! belief t ! infliction1 or ?reat1 ( ! extreme p5alty _h fail$ to en=ce ! law & _h demoralis$ ! adm9i/ration ( ,ju/ice4 ,! cont9ual ext5sion ( ! dea? p5alty ?r\gh\t ! eighte5? c5tury may be attribut$ to a belief t x 0 ! mo/ effectual means ( det]r+ evil-do]s :5 ! means ( detect+ & appreh5d+ crim9als 7 feeble & ill-organis$4 ,! v>i\s old brutal ways ( execution 7 adopt$ sometimes to /rike t]ror1 sometimes = v5geance1 sometimes f horror ( ! crime1 or ev5 f 'consci5ti\s scruples'2--:i* la/ 7 ! excuse = pref]r+ ! burn+ ( h]etics to any sort ( blood%$4 7#c7 ,! causes ( any *ange 9 ! hi/ory ( an in/itution 9 any c\ntry may n be directly discov]able3 !y mu/ !n be inve/igat$ by ! ,comp>ative ,me?od4 ,aga91 ! record$ hi/ory ( a nation1 & ( all its in/itutions1 foll[$ backw>ds1 comes at la/ to an end3 !n ! antec$5t hi/ory mu/ also be suppli$ by ! ,comp>ative ,me?od2 ^: special use is to indicate ! exi/5ce ( facts = :i* !re is no direct evid5ce4 ,?is me?od re/s ^u ! pr9ciple t :]e ! causes are alike ! effects w be alike1 & t simil> effects are traceable to simil> causes4 ,e dep>tm5t ( /udy--,a/ronomy1 ,*emi/ry1 ,zoology1 ,sociology--is det]m9$ by ! fact t ! ph5om5a x inve/igates h c]ta9 common *>act]i/ics2 & we are apt to inf] t any process obs]v$ 9 "s ( ^! ph5om5a1 if dep5d+ on ^? common *>act]i/ics1 w be f\nd 9 o!rs4 ,= example1 ! decomposition1 or radio-activity1 ( c]ta9 elem5ts prep>es "o to believe t all elem5ts may exhibit x4 ,:]e ! prop]ties ( an object are kn[n to be closely int]dep5d5t1 z 9 ! organisation ( plants1 animals & societies1 we are especially ju/ifi$ 9 inf]r+ f "o case to ano!r4 ,! :ole animal ,k+dom has c]ta9 common *>act]s--! metabolic process1 dep5d5ce ^u oxyg51 ^u vegetable food 7ultimately71 h]$ity1 etc41 &1 ^u ?is gr\nd1 any process 7say1 ! diff]5tiation ( species by ,natural ,selection7 t has be5 e/abli%$ = "s k9ds ( animal is readily ext5d$ to o!rs4 ,if in/ead ( ! :ole animal ,k+dom we take "s di/rict ( x--,class1 ,ord]1 ,family--our confid5ce 9 su* inf]5ces increases2 because ! common *>act]s are m num]\s & ! conditions ( life are m alike2 or1 9 o!r words1 ! common causes are m num]\s t initiate & control ! developm5t ( ne>ly alli$ animals4 ,= su* reasons a few fragm5t>y rema9s ( an ext9ct animal enable ! palontologi/ to recon/ruct ) "s probability an outl9e ( its appe>ance1 organisation1 food1 habitat & habits4 ,appli$ to ,hi/ory1 ! ,comp>ative ,me?od re/s ^u an assumption 7:i* ! kn[n facts ( 7say7 #f1jjj ye>s amply ju/ify7 t human nature1 aft] atta9+ a recognisable type z homo sapi5s1 is approximately uni=m 9 all c\ntries & 9 all ages1 ?\gh m especially :]e /ates ( culture are simil>4 ,m5 liv+ 9 society are actuat$ by simil> motives & reasons 9 simil> ways2 !y are all dep5d5t ^u ! supply ( food & !re=e on ! sun & ! seasons & ! wea!r & ^u means ( mak+ fire1 & s on4 ,accord+ly1 !y ent]ta9 simil> beliefs1 & develop simil> in/itutions ?r\gh simil> s]ies ( *anges4 ,h5ce1 if 9 "o nation "s in/itution has be5 alt]$ = reasons t we _c directly discov]1 :]eas we "k ! reasons :y a simil> *ange 0 adopt$ else:]e1 we may conjecture ) m or less probability1 aft] mak+ all[ance = diff]5ces 9 o!r circum/ances1 t ! motives or causes 9 ! =m] case 7 simil> to ^? 9 ! latt]1 or 9 any cases t are bett] kn[n4 ,or1 aga91 if 9 "o nation we _c trace an in/itution beyond a c]ta9 po9t1 b c %[ t else:]e a simil> in/itution has _h su* or su* an antec$5t hi/ory1 we may v5ture to recon/ruct ) m or less probability ! e>li] hi/ory ( t in/itution 9 ! nation we are /udy+4 ,among/ ! ,engli% & ,saxon tribes t settl$ 9 ,brita91 dea? 0 ! p5alty = murd]1 & ! crim9al 0 deliv]$ to ! next-(-k9 ( 8 victim = execution2 he might1 h[ev]1 comp\nd = 8 crime by pay+ a c]ta9 comp5sation4 ,/udy+ ! hi/ory ( o!r tribes 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w1 we are able1 ) mu* probability1 to recon/ruct ! antec$5ts ( ?is dea?-p5alty 9 our own prehi/oric ages1 & to trace x to ! blood-feud2 t is1 to a tribal condition 9 :i* ! next-(-k9 ( a murd]$ man 0 socially & religi\sly b\nd to av5ge him by slay+ ! murd]] or "o ( 8 k9dr$4 ,?is duty ( rev5ge is sometimes 7& p]haps 0 at fir/ ev]y:]e7 reg>d$ z necess>y to appease ! gho/ ( ! victim2 sometimes z necess>y to comp5sate ! surviv+ memb]s ( 8 family4 ,9 ! latt] case1 x is op5 to !m to accept comp5sation 9 money or cattle1 etc4 ,:e!r ! k9 w be ready to accept comp5sation mu/ dep5d ^u ! value !y set ^u weal? 9 comp>ison ) rev5ge2 b = ! sake ( ord] & tribal /r5g?1 x is ! int]e/ ( ! tribe1 or its eld]s1 or *iefta91 to enc\rage or ev5 to en=ce su* acceptance4 ,x is also _! int]e/ to take ! que/ions--:e!r a crime has be5 committ$1 by :om1 & :at comp5sation is due--out ( ! h&s ( ! injur$ p>ty1 & to submit !m to "s sort ( c\rt or judicial au?ority4 ,at fir/1 foll[+ anci5t cu/om z mu* z possible1 ! act ( requital1 or ! *oice ( accept+ comp5sation1 is left to ! next-(-k92 b ) ! gr[? ( c5tral p[] ^! ?+s are entru/$ to m9i/]s ( ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,!n rev5ge has und]gone its full trans=mation into puni%m5t4 ,v likely ! wrong itself w come to be treat$ z hav+ be5 done n to ! k9dr$ ( ! murd]$ man1 b to ! ,/ate or ! ,k+1 z 9 fact a brea* ( ! ,k+'s peace4 ,?is happ5$ 9 our own hi/ory4 7#d7 ,! ,comp>ative ,me?od assumes t human nature is approximately ! same 9 diff]5t c\ntries & ages2 b1 ( c\rse1 'approximately' is an important ^w4 ,al?\gh !re is (t5 a /rik+ & significant resemblance betwe5 ! beliefs & in/itutions ( widely sep>at$ peoples1 we expect to draw ! mo/ in/ructive p>allels betwe5 ^? :o are ne>ly relat$ by desc5t1 or neighb\rhood1 or culture4 ,to %$ light ^u our own mann]s1 we turn fir/ to o!r ,teutons1 !n to ,slavonians & ,kelts1 or o!r ,aryans1 & s on2 & we pref] evid5ce f ,europe to examples f ,africa4 7#e7 ,z to national culture1 t x exhibits c]ta9 '/ages' ( developm5t is popul>ly recognis$ 9 ! di/9ction drawn betwe5 savages1 b>b>ians & civilis$ folk4 ,b ! idea rema9s r vague2 & !re is n space "h to def9e x4 ,i ref]1 !re=e1 to ! classifications ( /ages ( culture giv5 by ,a4 ,su!rl&1 7,orig9 & ,gr[? ( ,moral ,in/9ct1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ajc71 & ,l4,t4 ,hobh\se 7,morals 9 ,evolution1 c4 #b74 ,t 9 any '/ate ( ,society1' its factors--religion1 gov]nm5t1 sci5ce1 etc4--are mutually dep5d5t1 0 a lead+ doctr9e ) ,comte1 adopt$ by ,mill4 ,!re mu/ be "s tru? 9 x2 b 9 "s cases we d n und]/& social influ5ces suffici5tly well to trace ! connection ( factors2 & :il/ pref]r+ to look = hi/orical p>allels betwe5 nations ( simil> culture1 we f9d _m cases 9 :i* b>b>\s or savage cu/oms l+] 9 a civilis$ c\ntry4 7#f7 ,x 0 ano!r fav\rite doctr9e ) ,comte1 also adopt$ by ,mill--t ! g5]al /ate ( culture is *iefly det]m9$ by ! prevail+ intellectual condition ( a p1 especially by ! accept$ gr\nd ( explanation--:e!r ! w ( sup]natural be+s1 or occult p[]s1 or physical antec$5ts3 ! law ( ?ree /ages1 ,feti*ism1 ,metaphysics1 ,positivism4 ,& ?is also is1 at lea/1 s f> true1 t x is useless to try to int]pret ! mann]s & in/itutions ( any nation until we "k its pr$om9ant beliefs4 ,magic & animism are beliefs ev]y:]e held by mank9d 9 e>ly /ages ( culture1 & !y influ5ce e action ( life4 ,b t is n all3 ^! beliefs reta9 _! hold ^u great multitudes ( civilis$ m5 & affect ! ?\ghts ( ! mo/ enlight5$4 ,:il/ ! say+ 't human nature is ! same 9 all ages' seems to make no all[ance = ! fact t1 9 "s nations1 a consid]able numb] ( individuals has atta9$ to p[]s ( delib]ation1 self-control1 & exact reason+1 f> above ! b>b>\s level1 x is yet s f> true t1 ev5 9 civilis$ c\ntries1 masses ( p1 7 x n = ! example & in/ruction ( ^? individuals1 w\ld fall back ^u magic & animism & ! mann]s t g ) ^? beliefs4 ,! diff]5t degrees ( enlight5m5t enjoy$ by diff]5t classes ( ! population (t5 enable ! less educat$ to pres]ve a b>b>\s cu/om amid/ _m civilis$ *>act]i/ics ( ! national life4 #h4 ,hi/orical reason+ mu/ />t f1 or be v]ifi$ by1 obs]vations4 ,if we are writ+ ! hi/ory ( ourselves3 if ( ano!r "t or c\ntry1 we c obs]ve "s ( ! pres5t conditions ( ! c\ntry1 its inhabitants1 language1 mann]s1 in/itutions1 :i* are effects ( ! pa/ & mu/ be traceable to x2 we may also be able to obs]ve anci5t build+s or _! ru9s1 fun]>y rema9s1 co9s1 dat+ f ! v times we are to treat (4 ,our own obs]vations1 ( c\rse1 are by no means free f error4 ,b ev5 9 treat+ ( our own age & c\ntry1 mo/ ( our in=mation mu/ be d]iv$ f ! te/imony ( o!rs1 :o may h made mi/akes ( obs]vation & fur!r mi/akes 9 report+ _! obs]vations1 or may h int5tionally falsifi$ !m4 ,te/imony is ( two k9ds3 ,oral2 & ,writt51 inscrib$ or pr9t$4 ,9 inve/igat+ ! ev5ts ( a remote age1 ne>ly all our direct evid5ce mu/ be "s sort ( te/imony4 7#a7 ,oral te/imony dep5ds ^u ! "* ( ! witness2 & ! be/ witness is n p]fectly tru/wor?y2 = he may n h obs]v$ accurately1 or he may n h report$ correctly2 especially if "s "t elaps$ betwe5 ! ev5t & 8 acc\nt ( x2 = no man's memory is p]fect4 ,s9ce witnesses v>y widely 9 capacity & integrity1 we mu/ ask conc]n+ any "o ( !m--0 he a good judge ( :at he saw1 & ( :at 0 really important 9 ! ev5t8 ,_h he good opportunities ( kn[+ ! circum/ances8 ,_h he any int]e/ 9 ! ev5t--p]sonal1 or p>tisan1 or patriotic8 ,su* int]e/s w\ld col\r 8 report2 & s w\ld ! love ( tell+ a dramatic /ory1 if t 0 a weakness ( 84 ,nay1 a love ( tru? might lead him to modify ! report ( :at he rememb]$ if--z he rememb]$ x--! matt] seem$ n q cr$ible4 ,we mu/ also be> 9 m9d t1 = want ( tra9+1 precision 9 speak+ ! tru? is n und]/ood or appreciat$ by _m hone/ p ev5 n[1 /ill less 9 unsci5tific ages4 ,oral tradition is =m$ by pass+ a report f "o to ano!r1 g5]ation by g5]ation2 & x is g5]ally true t su* a tradition loses cr$it at e /ep1 because e n>rator has "s weakness4 ,h[ev]1 ! value ( tradition dep5ds ^u ! motives p h to report correctly1 & on ! =m ( ! communication1 & on :e!r monum5ts survive 9 connection ) ! /ory4 ,among/ ! ?+s be/ rememb]$ are religi\s & magic =mul1 h]oic poems1 li/s ( ance/ors1 popul> leg5ds ab\t deeply impressive ev5ts1 su* z migrations1 conque/s1 fam9es1 plagues4 ,we are apt n[ to und]rate ! value ( tradition1 because ! use ( writ+ has made tradition less important1 & !re=e less pa9s are tak5 to pres]ve x4 ,9 ! middle ( la/ c5tury1 x 0 usual 7& !n q ju/ifiable7 to depreciate oral tradition z ne>ly wor?less2 b ! spread ( ar*ological & an?ropological rese>*1 & ! gr[? ( ! ,comp>ative ,me?od1 h giv5 new significance to leg5ds & traditions :i*1 m]ely by !mselves1 c\ld n des]ve ! slighte/ confid5ce4 7#b7 ,z to writt5 evid5ce1 contempor>y inscriptions--su* z are f\nd on rocks & /ones & bricks 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w1 & mo/ abundantly 9 ,egypt & ,we/]n ,asia--are ( ! highe/ value1 because lea/ liable to fraudul5t abuse2 b mu/ be consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! motives ( ^? :o set !m =?4 ,manuscripts & books give rise to _m difficulties4 ,we h to consid] :e!r !y 7 orig9ally writt5 by "s "o contempor>y ) ! ev5ts record$3 if s !y h ! same value z imm$iate oral te/imony1 provid$ !y h n be5 tamp]$ ) s9ce4 ,b if n contempor>y records1 !y may h be5 d]iv$ f o!r records t 7 contempor>y1 or only f oral tradition4 ,9 ! latt] case !y are vitiat$ by ! weakness ( oral tradition4 ,9 ! =m] case1 we h to ask :at 0 ! tru/wor?9ess ( ! orig9al records1 & h[ f> d ! extant writ+s fairly repres5t ^? records8 ,our answ]s to ^! que/ions w p>tly dep5d ^u :at we "k or c discov] ( ! au?ors ( ! ,,mss4 or books4 ,:o 0 ! au?or8 ,if a "w be>s "s man's "n1 did he really write x8 ,! evid5ce be>+ ^u ?is "q is usually divid$ into int]nal1 ext]nal & mix$2 b p]haps no evid5ce is purely int]nal1 if we def9e x z t :i* is d]iv$ entirely f ! "w itself4 ,"u ! "n ( int]nal evid5ce x is usual to put ! language1 ! /yle1 consi/5cy ( ideas2 b if we _h no gr\nds ( judgm5t b ! book itself1 we c\ld n possibly say :e!r ! /yle 0 ! au?or's3 ?is requires u to "k 8 o!r works4 ,nor c\ld we say :e!r ! language 0 t ( 8 age1 unless we knew o!r lit]ature ( ! same age2 nor ev5 t diff]5t passages seem to be writt5 9 ! mann] ( diff]5t ages1 b = our k ( *ange 9 o!r lit]atures4 ,!re mu/ 9 e case be "s ext]nal ref]5ce4 ,?us we judge t a "w is n by ! alleg$ au?or1 nor contempor>y ) him1 if words are us$ t only became curr5t at a lat] date1 or are us$ 9 a s5se t !y only lat] acquir$1 or if lat] writ]s are imitat$1 or if ev5ts are m5tion$ t happ5$ lat] 7'ana*ronism'74 ,books are sometimes =g$ outright1 t is1 are writt5 by "o man & delib]ately fa!r$ ^u ano!r2 b sometimes books come to be ascrib$ to a well-kn[n "n1 :i* 7 writt5 by "s "o else )\t fraudul5t int5t1 dramatically or z a rhetorical ex]cise4 ,z to ext]nal evid5ce1 if f o!r s\rces we h "s k ( ! facts describ$ 9 a giv5 book1 & if x pres5ts no s]i\s discrepancies ) ^? facts1 ?is is "s confirmation ( a claim to contemporaneity4 ,b ! *ief s\rce ( ext]nal evid5ce is o!r lit]ature1 :]e we may f9d ! book 9 "q ref]r$ to or quot$4 ,su* o!r lit]ature may be by ano!r au?or1 z :5 ,ari/otle ref]s to a dialogue ( ,plato's1 or ,%akespe>e quotes ,m>l[e2 or may be o!r "w ( ! au?or himself1 z :5 ,ari/otle 9 ! ,e?ics ref]s to 8 own ,physics1 or ,*auc] 9 ,! ,cant]bury ,tales m5tions z 8 own ,! ,leg5d ( ,good ,wom51 & 9 ,! ,leg5d gives a li/ ( o!r works ( 84 ,?is k9d ( argum5t assumes t ! au?or%ip ( ! "w we />t f is undisput$2 :i* is practically ! case ) ! ,e?ics & ,! ,cant]bury ,tales4 ,b1 n[1 grant+ t a "w is by a good au?or1 or contempor>y ) ! ev5ts record$1 or heal?ily relat$ to o!rs t 7 contempor>y1 x rema9s to consid] :e!r x has be5 well pres]v$ & is likely to reta9 its orig9al s5se4 ,x is1 !re=e1 desirable to "k ! hi/ory ( a book or ,,ms41 & ?r\gh ^: h&s x has pass$4 ,h !re be5 opportunities ( tamp]+ ) x2 & h !re be5 motives to d s8 ,9 repr9t+ books1 b /ill m 9 copy+ ,,mss41 !re are opportunities ( omitt+ or int]polat+ passages1 or ( o!rwise alt]+ ! s5se4 ,9 fact1 slight *anges are almo/ sure to be made ev5 )\t mean+ to make !m1 especially 9 copy+ ,,mss41 ?r\gh ! c>elessness or ignorance ( transcrib]s4 ,h5ce ! olde/ ,,ms4 is reckon$ ! be/4 ,if a "w conta9s /ories t are physically impossible1 x %[s a defect ( judgm5t 9 ! au?or1 & decreases our confid5ce 9 8 o!r /atem5ts2 b x does n foll[ t ^! o!rs are to be reject$4 ,we mu/ try to comp>e !m ) o!r evid5ce4 ,ev5 incr$ible /ories are significant3 !y %[ :at p 7 capable ( believ+1 &1 !re=e1 "u :at conditions !y reason$ & act$4 ,"o cause ( ! incr$ibility ( popul> /ories is ! fusion ( leg5d ) my?4 ,a leg5d is a tradition>y /ory ab\t some?+ t really happ5$3 x may h be5 greatly di/ort$ by /upidity1 or exagg]ation1 or dramatisation1 or rationalisation1 b may /ill reta9 a good deal ( ! orig9al fact4 ,a my?1 h[ev]1 has n necess>ily any basis ( fact3 x may be a sort ( primitive philosophy1 an hypo!sis freely inv5t$ to expla9 "s fact 9 nature1 su* z eclipses1 or to expla9 "s social cu/om ^: orig9 is =gott51 su* z ! sacrific+ ( a ram4 ,all hi/orical conclusions1 !n1 dep5d on a sum ( conv]g5t & conflict+ probabilities 9 ! nature ( circum/antial evid5ce4 ,! be/ te/imony is only highly probable1 & x is always incomplete4 ,to complete ! picture ( any pa/ age !re is no res\rce b ! ,comp>ative ,me?od4 ,we use ?is me?od )\t be+ aw>e ( x1 :5ev] we make ! records ( ! la/ g5]ation intelligible to ourselves by our own exp]i5ce4 ,)\t x no?+ w\ld be intelligible3 an anci5t co9 or weapon w\ld h no mean+1 7 we n acqua9t$ ) ! orig9s & uses ( o!r co9s & weapons4 ,g5]ally1 ! fur!r we g back 9 hi/ory1 ! m ! evid5ce ne$s int]pretation & recon/ruction1 & ! m prom95t becomes ! appeal to ! ,comp>ative ,me?od4 ,our aim is to con/ruct a hi/ory ( ! _w1 & ( ! planet z "p ( ! _w1 & ( mank9d z "p ( ! life ( ! planet1 9 su* a way t e ev5t %all be consi/5t )1 & ev5 requir$ by1 ! re/ accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( ,causation4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,hypo!ses #a4 ,an ,hypo!sis1 sometimes employ$ in/ead ( a kn[n law1 z a premise 9 ! d$uctive inve/igation ( nature1 is def9$ by ,mill z any supposition :i* we make 7ei!r )\t actual evid5ce1 or on evid5ce av[$ly insuffici5t7 9 ord] to endeav\r to d$uce f x conclusions 9 accordance ) facts :i* are kn[n to be real2 "u ! idea t if ! conclusions to :i* ! hypo!sis leads are kn[n tru?s1 ! hypo!sis itself ei!r mu/ be1 or at lea/ is likely to be1 true4 ,! d$uction ( kn[n tru?s f an hypo!sis is its ,v]ification2 & :5 ?is has be5 accompli%$ 9 a good _m cases1 & !re are no manife/ failures1 ! hypo!sis is (t5 call$ a ,!ory2 ?\gh ?is t]m is also us$ = ! :ole sy/em ( laws ( a c]ta9 class ( ph5om5a1 z :5 ,a/ronomy is call$ ! '!ory ( ! heav5s4' ,betwe5 hypo!sis & !ory 9 ! =m] s5se no di/9ct l9e c be drawn2 = ! complete pro( ( any speculation may take a long "t1 & mean:ile ! gradually accumulat+ evid5ce produces 9 diff]5t m9ds v diff]5t degrees ( satisfaction2 s t ! sangu9e beg9 to talk ( '! !ory1' :il/ ! circumspect cont9ue to call x '! hypo!sis4' ,an ,hypo!sis may be made conc]n+ 7#a7 an ,ag5t1 su* z ! e!r2 or 7#b7 a ,collocation1 su* z ! plan ( our sol> sy/em--:e!r geoc5tric or helioc5tric2 or 7#c7 a ,law ( an ag5t's op]ation1 z t light is transmitt$ by a wave motion ( su* l5g?s or ( su* rates ( vibration4 ,! receiv$ explanation ( light involves bo? an ag5t1 ! e!r1 z an all-p]vad+ ela/ic fluid1 & also ! law ( its op]ation1 z transmitt+ light 9 waves ( def9ite =m & l5g?1 ) def9ite velocity4 ,! agreem5t betwe5 ! calculat$ results ( ?is complex hypo!sis & ! obs]v$ ph5om5a ( light is ! *ief "p ( ! v]ification2 :i* has n[ be5 s successfully accompli%$ t we g5]ally he> ( ! ',undulatory ,!ory4' ,sometimes a new ag5t only is propos$2 z ! planet ,neptune 0 at fir/ assum$ to exi/ 9 ord] to acc\nt = p]turbations 9 ! movem5ts ( ,uranus1 influ5c+ x accord+ to ! already e/abli%$ law ( gravitation4 ,sometimes ! ag5ts are kn[n1 & only ! law ( _! op]ation is hypo!tical1 z 0 at fir/ ! case ) ! law ( gravitation itself4 ,= ! ag5ts1 namely1 ,e>?1 fall+ bodies on ! ,e>?1 ,moon1 ,sun1 & planets 7 manife/2 & ! hypo!sis 0 t _! motions might be due to _! attract+ "o ano!r ) a =ce inv]sely proportional to ! squ>es ( ! di/ances betwe5 !m4 ,9 ! ,ptolemaic ,a/ronomy1 aga91 !re 0 an hypo!sis z to ! collocation ( ! heav5ly bodies 7namely1 t our ,e>? 0 ! c5tre ( ! univ]se1 & t ,moon1 ,sun1 planets & />s revolv$ ar\nd h]73 9 ! e>ly =m ( ! sy/em !re 0 also an hypo!sis conc]n+ ag5ts ^u :i* ?is arrangem5t dep5d$ 7namely1 ! cry/all9e sph]es 9 :i* ! heav5ly bodies 7 fix$1 ?\gh ^! 7 aft]w>ds decl>$ to be imag9>y72 & an hypo!sis conc]n+ ! law ( op]ation 7namely1 t circul> motion is ! mo/ p]fect & et]nal1 & !re=e prop] to cele/ial ?+s74 ,hypo!ses are by no means conf9$ to ! physical sci5ces3 we all make !m freely 9 private life4 ,9 se>*+ = any?+1 we guess :]e x may be be=e go+ to look = x3 ! se>* = ! ,nor? ,pole 0 likewise guid$ by hypo!ses h[ be/ to get !re4 ,9 e/imat+ ! *>act]s or expla9+ ! conduct ( acqua9tances or ( public m51 we frame hypo!ses z to _! dispositions & pr9ciples4 ',t we %\ld n impute motives' is a peculi>ly absurd maxim1 z !re is no o!r way ( und]/&+ human life4 ,to impute bad motives1 inde$1 :5 good are j z probable1 is to be want+ 9 ! sci5tific _s1 :i* views e subject 9 'a dry light4' ,nor c we help 'judg+ o!rs by ourselves'2 = self-k is ! only possible />t+-po9t :5 we set out to int]pret ! lives ( o!rs4 ,b to und]/& ! manifold comb9ations ( :i* ! elem5ts ( "* are susceptible1 & h[ ^! are det]m9$ by ! bre$+ ( race or family "u v>i\s conditions1 & aga9 by ! circum/ances ( ea* man's life1 dem&s an extraord9>y union ( sympa!tic imag9ation ) sci5tific habits ( ?\ght4 ,su* %\ld be ! equipm5t ( ! hi/orian1 :o pursues ! same me?od ( hypo!sis :5 he attempts to expla9 7say7 ! /ate ( p>ties ^u ! ,exclusion ,bill1 or ! policy ( ,l\is ,,xi4 ,problems su* z ! =m] ( ^! are ! easi]2 because1 amid/ ! compromises ( a p>ty1 p]sonal peculi>ities oblit]ate "o ano!r1 & expose a simpl] s*eme ( human nature ) few] fig-leaves4 ,mu* m haz>d\s hypo!ses are necess>y 9 int]pret+ ! cu/oms ( savages1 & ! feel+s ( all sorts ( animals4 ,lit]>y criticisms1 aga91 ab\nd ) hypo!ses3 e4g41 z to ! composition ( ! ,hom]ic poems1 ! ord] ( ! ,platonic dialogues1 ! au?or%ip ( ! ,cdmonic poems1 or ! ,ossianic1 or ( ! lett]s ( ,junius4 ,?us ! me?od ( our ev]yday ?\ghts is id5tical ) t ( our mo/ ref9$ speculations2 & 9 e case we h to f9d :e!r ! hypo!sis acc\nts = ! facts4 #b4 ,x foll[s f ! def9ition ( an hypo!sis t none is ( any use t does n admit ( v]ification 7pro( or dispro(71 by comp>+ ! results t may be d$uc$ f x ) facts or laws4 ,if s fram$ z to elude e attempt to te/ x by facts1 x c nev] be prov$ by !m nor add any?+ to our und]/&+ ( !m4 ,suppose t a conjur] ass]ts t 8 table is controll$ by ! _s ( y\r deceas$ relative1 & makes x rap out an acc\nt ( "s adv5ture t c\ld n easily h be5 )9 a /rang]'s k4 ,s f> good4 ,!n1 try+ aga91 ! table raps out "s blund] ab\t y\r family :i* ! deceas$ relative c\ld n h committ$2 b ! conjur] expla9s t 'a ly+ _s' sometimes possesses ! table4 ,?is am5dm5t ( ! hypo!sis makes x equally compatible ) success & ) failure4 ,to pass f small ?+s to great1 n dissimil> 0 ! case ( ! ,ptolemaic ,a/ronomy3 by successive modifications1 its hypo!sis 0 made to correspond ) accumulat+ obs]vations ( ! cele/ial motions s +5i\sly t1 until ! telescope 0 inv5t$1 x may be said to h be5 unv]ifiable4 ,consid]1 aga91 ! sociological hypo!sis1 t civil ord] 0 at fir/ f\nd$ on a ,contract :i* rema9s b9d+ ^u all mank9d3 ?is is reconcilable ) ! mo/ opposite in/itutions4 ,= we h no record ( su* an ev5t3 & if ! in/itutions ( "o ,/ate 7say ! ,briti%7 include c]emonies1 su* z ! coronation oa? & oa? ( allegiance1 :i* may be remnants ( an orig9al contract1 !y may nev]!less be ( comp>atively rec5t orig92 :]eas if ! in/itutions ( ano!r ,/ate 7say ! ,russian7 conta9 no?+ t admits ( simil> int]pretation1 yet traces ( ! contract once exi/+ may long s9ce h be5 oblit]at$4 ,moreov]1 ! actual cont5ts ( ! contract n hav+ be5 pres]v$1 e adh]5t ( ?is hypo!sis supplies !m at 8 own discretion1 'accord+ to ! dictates ( ,reason'2 & s "o d]ives f x ! duty ( passive ob$i5ce1 & ano!r ) equal cog5cy e/abli%es ! "r ( rebellion4 ,to be v]ifiable1 !n1 an hypo!sis mu/ be def9ite2 if some:at vague 9 its fir/ conception 7:i* is reasonably to be expect$71 x mu/ be made def9ite 9 ord] to be put to ! pro(4 ,b1 except ?is condition ( v]ifiability1 & def9it5ess = ! sake ( v]ifiability1 )\t :i* a proposition does n des]ve ! "n ( an hypo!sis1 x seems inadvisable to lay d[n rules = a 'legitimate' hypo!sis4 ,! epi!t is mislead+4 ,x sugge/s t ! ,logician makes rules = sci5tific inquir]s2 :]eas 8 bus9ess is to discov] ! pr9ciples :i* !y1 9 fact1 employ 9 :at are ackn[l$g$ to be _! mo/ successful inve/igations4 ,if he did make rules = !m1 & !y treat$ him s]i\sly1 !y might be disc\rag$ 9 ! ex]cise ( t lib]ty ( hypo!sis+ :i* is ! condition ( all orig9ality2 :il/ if !y paid no att5tion to him1 he mu/ suff] "s loss ( dignity4 ,aga91 to say t a 'legitimate hypo!sis' mu/ expla9 all ! facts1 at lea/ 9 ! dep>tm5t = :i* x is inv5t$1 is decid$ly disc\rag+4 ,no d\bt x may be expect$ to d ?is 9 ! long run :5 7if ev]7 x is completely e/abli%$2 b ?is may take a long "t3 is x mean:ile illegitimate8 ,or c ?is adjective be appli$ to ,newton's corpuscul> !ory ( light1 ev5 ?\gh x has fail$ to expla9 all ! facts8 #c4 ,giv5 a v]ifiable hypo!sis1 h[ev]1 :at con/itutes pro( or dispro(8 7#a7 ,if a new ag5t be propos$1 x is desirable t we %\ld be able directly to obs]ve x1 or at lea/ to obta9 "s evid5ce ( its exi/5ce ( a diff]5t k9d f ! v facts :i* x has be5 inv5t$ to expla94 ,?us1 9 ! discov]y ( ,neptune1 aft] ! exi/5ce ( su* a planet outside ! orbit ( ,uranus _h be5 conjectur$ 7to acc\nt = ! movem5ts ( ! latt]71 ! place 9 ! heav5s :i* su* a body %\ld occupy at a c]ta9 "t 0 calculat$1 & !re by means ( ! telescope x 0 actually se54 ,ag5ts1 h[ev]1 are assum$ & reason$ ^u v successfully :i*1 by _! nature1 nev] c be objects ( p]ception3 su* are ! atoms ( ,*emi/ry & ! e!r ( ,optics4 ,b ! sev]] me?odologi/s reg>d !m ) suspicion3 ,mill 0 nev] completely conv9c$ ab\t ! e!r2 ! def9+ ( :i* has be5 f\nd v difficult4 ,he 0 will+1 h[ev]1 to make ! mo/ ( ! evid5ce t has be5 adduc$ z indicat+ a c]ta9 prop]ty ( x di/9ct f ^? by :i* x transmits radiation1 namely1 me*anical in]tia1 :]eby x has be5 suppos$ to ret>d ! c>e] ( ! heav5ly bodies1 z %[n especially by ! hi/ory ( ,encke's comet4 ,?is comet return$ soon] ?an x %\ld1 z calculat$ f ! usual data2 ! diff]5ce 0 ascrib$ to ! influ5ce ( a resi/+ m$ium 9 r$uc+ ! ext5t ( its orbit2 & su* a m$ium may be ! e!r4 ,if ?is conjecture 7n[ ( less cr$it7 %\ld ga9 acceptance1 ! e!r might be reg>d$ z a v]a causa 7t is1 a condition ^: exi/5ce may be prov$ indep5d5tly ( ! ph5om5a x 0 int5d$ to expla971 9 spite ( its be+ exclud$ by its nature f ! sph]e ( direct p]ception4 ,h[ev]1 sci5ce is n a way ( p]ceiv+ ?+s1 b ess5tially a way ( ?9k+ ab\t !m4 ,x />ts1 inde$1 f p]ception & returns to x1 & its ?9k+ is controll$ by ! analogies ( p]ception4 ,atoms & e!r are ?\ght ab\t z if !y c\ld be se5 or felt1 n z n\m5a2 & if /ill successful 9 connect+ & expla9+ p]ceptions1 & free f contradiction1 !y w /& z hypo!ses on t gr\nd4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a great _m ag5ts1 once assum$ 9 ord] to expla9 ph5om5a1 h s9ce be5 expla9$ away4 ,( c\rse1 a fact c nev] be 'expla9$ away'3 ! phrase is prop]ly applicable to ! fate ( errone\s hypo!ses1 :51 n only are !y disprov$1 b o!rs are e/abli%$ 9 _! places4 ,( ! ,ari/otelian sph]es1 :i* 7 suppos$ to support & translate sun1 moon & planets1 no trace has ev] be5 f\nd3 !y w\ld h be5 v mu* 9 ! way ( ! comets4 ,phlogi/on1 aga91 an ag5t mu* 9 fav\r ) ! e>li] ,*emi/s1 0 f\nd1 ,:ewell tells u1 :5 _! !ories 7 te/$ by exact weigh+1 to be n m]ely non-exi/5t b a m9us quantity2 t is to say1 x requir$ ! assumption ( its absolute lightness s t x dim9i%$ ! weight ( ! comp\nds into :i* x ent]$4 ,^! ag5ts1 !n1 ! sph]es & phlogi/on1 h be5 expla9$ away1 & in/ead ( !m we h ! laws ( motion & oxyg54 7#b7 ,:e!r ! hypo!tical ag5t be p]ceptible or n1 x _c be e/abli%$ z a cause1 nor c a suppos$ law ( su* an ag5t be accept$ z suffici5t to ! giv5 inquiry1 unless x is adequate to acc\nt = ! effects :i* x is call$ ^u to expla91 at lea/ s f> z x pret5ds to expla9 !m4 ,! g5]al tru? ( ?is is suffici5tly obvi\s1 s9ce to expla9 ! facts is ! purpose ( an hypo!sis2 & we h se5 t ,newton gave up 8 hypo!sis t ! moon 0 a fall+ body1 z long z he 0 unable to %[ t ! am\nt ( its deflection f a tang5t 7or fall7 9 a giv5 "t1 0 exactly :at x %\ld be1 if ! ,moon 0 controll$ by ! same =ce z fall+ bodies on ! ,e>?4 ,x is important to obs]ve ! limitations to ?is canon4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x says t1 unless adequate to expla9 ! facts 9 "q1 an hypo!sis _c be 'e/abli%$'2 b1 = all t1 su* an hypo!sis may be a v promis+ "o1 n to be ha/ily reject$1 s9ce x may take a v long "t fully to v]ify an hypo!sis4 ,"s facts may n be obta9able t are necess>y to %[ ! connection ( o!rs3 z1 = example1 ! hypo!sis t all species ( animals h aris5 f e>li] ones by "s process ( gradual *ange1 c be only imp]fectly v]ifi$ by collect+ ! fossil rema9s ( ext9ct species1 because imm5se dep?s & expanses ( fossilif]\s /rata h be5 de/roy$4 ,or1 aga91 ! g5]al /ate ( culture may be su* z to prev5t m5 f trac+ ! consequ5ces ( an hypo!sis2 = :i* reason1 app>5tly1 ! doctr9e t ! ,sun is ! c5tre ( our planet>y sy/em rema9$ a discr$it$ hypo!sis = #bjjj ye>s4 ,?is %\ld in/ruct u n to reg>d an hypo!sis z necess>ily errone\s or illegitimate m]ely because we _c yet see h[ x works out3 b nei!r c we 9 su* a case reg>d x z e/abli%$1 unless we take somebody's ^w = x4 ,secondly1 ! canon says t an hypo!sis is n e/abli%$1 unless x acc\nts = ! ph5om5a s f> z x pr(esses to4 ,b x implies a complete misund]/&+ to assail a doctr9e = n expla9+ :at lies beyond its scope4 ,?us1 x is no objection to a !ory ( ! orig9 ( species1 t x does n expla9 ! orig9 ( life3 x does n pr(ess to4 ,= ! same reason1 x is no objection to ! !ory ( ,natural ,selection1 t x does n acc\nt = ! v>iations :i* selection presupposes4 ,b su* objections might be p]fectly fair aga9/ a g5]al doctr9e ( ,evolution4 ,an int]e/+ case 9 ,wallace's ,d>w9ism 7*ap4 x47 w illu/rate ! importance ( att5d+ to ! exact conditions ( an hypo!sis4 ,he says t 9 ^? gr\ps ( birds t ne$ protection f enemies1 :5 ! male is brightly col\r$ & ! female sits expos$ on ! ne/1 %e is always less brilliant & g5]ally ( q sob] & protective hues2 & 8 hypo!sis is1 t ^! sob] hues h be5 acquir$ or pres]v$ by ,natural ,selection1 because x is important to ! family t ! sitt+ bird %\ld be inconspicu\s4 ,n[ to ?is x might be object$ t 9 "s birds bo? sexes are brilliant or conspicu\s2 b ! answ] is t ! female ( su* species does n sit expos$ on ! ne/2 = ! ne/s are ei!r dom$ ov]1 or made 9 a hole2 s t ! sitt+ bird does n ne$ protective col\r+4 ,if x be object$1 aga91 t "s sob]-col\r$ birds build dom$ ne/s1 x may be repli$ t ! proposition ',all conspicu\sly col\r$ birds are conceal$ 9 ! ne/1' is n to be conv]t$ simply into ',all birds t sit conceal$ 9 ! ne/ are conspicu\sly col\r$4' ,9 ! cases alleg$ ! dom$ ne/s are a protection aga9/ ! wea!r1 & ! sob] col\r+ is a g5]al protection to ! bird1 :i* inhabits an op5 c\ntry4 ,x may be urg$1 h[ev]1 t jays1 cr[s1 & magpies are conspicu\s birds1 & yet build op5 ne/s3 b ^! are aggressive birds1 n ne$+ protection f enemies4 ,f9ally1 !re are cases1 x mu/ be confess$1 9 :i* ! female is m brilliant ?an ! male1 & :i* yet h op5 ne/s4 ,yes3 b !n ! male sits ^u ! eggs1 & ! female is /rong] & m pugnaci\s6 ,?us e objection is %[n to imply "s inatt5tion to ! conditions ( ! hypo!sis2 & 9 ea* case x may be said1 exceptio probat regulam--! exception te/s ! rule4 7,( c\rse1 ! usual translation proves ! rule1 9 ! re/rict$ mod]n s5se ( prove1 is absurd47 ,t is to say1 x appe>s on exam9ation3 7#a7 t ! alleg$ exception is n really "o1 & 7#b7 t x /&s 9 su* relation to ! rule z to confirm x4 ,= to all ! above objections x is repli$ t1 grant+ ! ph5om5on 9 "q 7special protective col\r+ = ! female7 to be abs5t1 ! alleg$ cause 7ne$ ( protection7 is also abs5t2 s t ! pro( is1 by means ( ! objections1 ext5d$1 f be+ "o by ! me?od ( ,agreem5t1 into "o by ! ,d\ble ,me?od4 ,?irdly1 an hypo!sis orig9ally int5d$ to acc\nt = ! :ole ( a ph5om5on & fail+ to d s1 ?\gh x _c be e/abli%$ 9 t s5se1 may nev]!less conta9 an ess5tial "p ( ! explanation4 ,! ,neptunian ,hypo!sis 9 ,geology1 0 an attempt to expla9 ! =mation ( ! ,e>?'s out] cru/1 z hav+ be5 deposit$ f an univ]sal ocean ( mud4 ,9 ! progress ( ! sci5ce o!r causes1 seismic1 fluvial & atmosph]ic1 h be5 f\nd necess>y 9 ord] to complete ! !ory ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,e>?'s cru/2 b x rema9s true t ! /ratifi$ rocks1 & "s t h lo/ _! /ratifi$ "*1 7 orig9ally deposit$ "u wat]4 ,inadequacy1 !re=e1 is n a reason = entirely reject+ an hypo!sis or treat+ x z illegitimate4 7#c7 ,grant+ t ! hypo!tical cause is real & adequate1 ! inve/igation is n complete4 ,agreem5t ) ! facts is a v p]suasive circum/ance1 ! m s ! m ext5sive ! agreem5t1 especially if no exceptions are kn[n4 ,/ill1 if ?is is all t c be said 9 fav\r ( an hypo!sis1 x am\nts to pro( at mo/ by ! me?od ( ,agreem5t2 x does n exclude ! possibility ( vic>i\s causes2 & if ! hypo!sis proposes a new ag5t t _c be directly obs]v$1 an equally plausible hypo!sis ab\t ano!r imag9$ ag5t may p]haps be inv5t$4 ,accord+ to ,:ewell1 x is a /rong m>k ( ! tru? ( an hypo!sis :5 x agrees ) di/9ct inductions conc]n+ diff]5t classes ( facts1 & he calls ?is ! ',consili5ce ( ,inductions1' because !y jump toge!r 9 ! unity ( ! hypo!sis4 ,x is p>ticul>ly conv9c+ :5 ?is consili5ce takes place easily & naturally )\t necessitat+ ! m5d+ & t9k]+ ( ! hypo!sis2 & he cites ! ,!ory ( ,gravitation & ! ,undulatory ,!ory ( ,light z ! mo/ conspicu\s examples ( su* ev]-victori\s hypo!ses4 ,?us1 gravitation expla9s ! fall ( bodies on ! ,e>?1 & ! orbits ( ! planets & _! satellites2 x applies to ! tides1 ! comets1 ! d\ble />s1 & gives consi/5cy to ! ,nebul> ,hypo!sis1 :5ce fl[ important geological inf]5ces2 & all ?is )\t any ne$ ( am5dm5t4 ,nev]!less1 ,mill1 ) 8 rigor\s s5se ( duty1 po9ts out1 t an induction is m]ely a proposition conc]n+ _m facts1 & t a consili5ce ( inductions is m]ely a multiplication ( ! facts expla9$2 & t1 !re=e1 if ! pro( is m]ely ,agreem5t 9 ea* case1 !re c be no m 9 ! totality2 ! possibility ( vic>i\s causes is n preclud$2 & ! hypo!sis may1 aft] all1 describe an accid5tal circum/ance4 ,:ewell also laid great /ress ^u pr$iction z a m>k ( a true hypo!sis4 ,?us1 ,a/ronom]s pr$ict eclipses1 occultations1 transits1 long be=eh& ) ! greate/ precision2 & ! pr$iction ( ! place ( ,neptune by %e] =ce ( d$uction is "o ( ! mo/ a/oni%+ ?+s 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,yet ,mill p]si/$ 9 %[+ t a pr$ict$ fact is only ano!r fact1 & t x is really n v extraord9>y t an hypo!sis1 t happ5s to agree ) _m kn[n facts1 %\ld also agree ) "s /ill undiscov]$4 ,c]ta9ly1 !re seems to be "s illusion 9 ! common belief 9 ! probative =ce ( pr$iction4 ,pr$iction surprises u1 puts u (f our gu>d1 & r5d]s p]suasion easy2 9 ?is x resembles ! =ce ( an epigram 9 rhetoric4 ,b cases c be produc$ 9 :i* errone\s hypo!ses h l$ to pr$iction2 & ,:ewell himself produces !m4 ,?us1 he says t ! ,ptolemaic !ory 0 confirm$ by its pr$ict+ eclipses & o!r cele/ial ph5om5a1 & by lead+ to ! con/ruction ( ,tables 9 :i* ! places ( ! heav5ly bodies 7 giv5 at e mom5t ( "t4 ,simil>ly1 bo? ,newton's !ory ( light & ! *emical doctr9e ( phlogi/on l$ to pr$ictions :i* came true4 ,:at s\nd me?od dem&s 9 ! pro( ( an hypo!sis1 !n1 is n m]ely t x be %[n to agree ) ! facts1 b t e o!r hypo!sis be exclud$4 ,?is1 to be sure1 may be beyond our p[]2 !re may 9 "s cases be no su* negative pro( except ! exhau/ion ( human +5uity 9 ! c\rse ( "t4 ,! pres5t !ory ( col\r has 9 its fav\r ! failure ( ,newton's corpuscul> hypo!sis & ( ,goe!'s anti-ma!matical hypo!sis2 b ! field ( conjecture rema9s op54 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,newton's pro( t ! sol> sy/em is controll$ by a c5tral =ce1 0 support$ by ! demon/ration t a =ce hav+ any o!r direction c\ld n h results agree+ ) ,kepl]'s second law ( ! planet>y motions1 namely1 t1 z a planet moves 9 its orbit1 ! areas describ$ by a l9e drawn f ! sun to ! planet are proportional to ! times occupi$ 9 ! planet's motion4 ,:5 a planet is ne>e/ to ! sun1 ! area describ$ by su* a l9e is lea/ = any giv5 di/ance trav]s$ by ! planet2 & !n ! planet moves fa/e/3 :5 ! planet is fur!/ f ! sun1 ! area describ$ by su* a l9e is greate/ = an equal di/ance trav]s$2 & !n ! planet moves sl[e/4 ,?is law may be d$uc$ f ! hypo!sis ( a c5tral =ce1 b n f any o!r2 ! pro(1 !re=e1 z ,mill says1 satisfies ! me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,app>5tly1 to su* complet5ess ( demon/ration c]ta9 conditions are necess>y3 ! possibilities mu/ lie betwe5 alt]natives1 su* z ,a or n-,a1 or among/ "s def9ite li/ ( cases t may be exhau/$1 su* z equal1 great] or less4 ,he ^: hypo!sis _c be br\ght to su* a def9ite issue1 mu/ try to refute :atev] o!r hypo!ses are (f]$1 & naturally he w attack fir/ ! /ronge/ rivals4 ,) ?is object 9 view he looks ab\t = a crucial in/ance1 t is1 an obs]vation or exp]im5t t /&s l a cross 7sign-po/7 at ! p>t+ ( ! ways to guide u into ! "r way1 or1 9 pla9 words1 an in/ance t c be expla9$ by "o hypo!sis b n by ano!r4 ,?us ! phases ( ,v5us1 simil> to ^? ( ! ,moon1 b concurr+ ) great *anges ( app>5t size1 pres5t$1 :5 discov]$ by ,galileo1 a crucial in/ance 9 fav\r ( ! ,cop]nican hypo!sis1 z aga9/ ! ,ptolemaic1 s f> at lea/ z to prove t ,v5us revolv$ ar\nd ! ,sun inside ! orbit ( ! ,e>?4 ,f\cault's exp]im5t det]m9+ ! velocity ( ,light 7cit$ 9 ! la/ *apt]7 0 at fir/ int5d$ z an exp]im5tum crucis to decide betwe5 ! corpuscul> & undulatory !ories2 & answ]$ ?is purpose1 by %[+ t ! velocity ( a beam pass$ ?r\gh wat] 0 less ?an x %\ld be by ! =m]1 b 9 agreem5t ) ! latt] doctr9e 7,des*anel3 #hac74 ,p]haps exp]im5ts ( ?is decisive "* are commone/ 9 ,*emi/ry3 *emical te/s1 says ,h]s*el1 are almo/ univ]sally crucial exp]im5ts4 ,! foll[+ is abridg$ f ,playfair 7,encycl4 ,met41 ,diss4 ,,iii473 ,! ,*emi/s ( ! eighte5? c5tury obs]v$ t metals 7 r5d]$ heavi] by calc9ation2 & !re 7 two ways ( acc\nt+ = ?is3 ei!r some?+ _h be5 add$ 9 ! process1 ?\gh :at1 !y c\ld n imag9e2 or1 some?+ _h be5 driv5 (f t 0 9 its nature light1 namely1 phlogi/on4 ,to decide betwe5 ^! hypo!ses1 ,lavoisi] h]metically seal$ "s t9 9 a glass retort1 & weigh$ ! :ole4 ,he !n heat$ x2 &1 :5 ! t9 0 calc9$1 weigh$ ! :ole aga91 & f\nd x ! same z be=e4 ,no sub/ance1 !re=e1 ei!r light or heavy1 _h escap$4 ,fur!r1 :5 ! retort 0 cool$ & op5$1 ! air ru%$ 91 %[+ t "s ( ! air =m]ly )9 _h disappe>$ or lo/ its ela/icity4 ,on weigh+ ! :ole aga91 its weight 0 n[ f\nd to h increas$ by t5 gra9s2 s t t5 gra9s ( air _h ent]$ :5 x 0 op5$4 ,! calc9$ t9 0 !n weigh$ sep>ately1 & prov$ to be exactly t5 gra9s heavi] ?an :5 x 0 plac$ 9 ! retort2 %[+ t ! t5 gra9s ( air t _h disappe>$ _h comb9$ ) ! metal dur+ calc9ation4 ,?is exp]im5t1 !n1 decid$ aga9/ phlogi/on1 & l$ to an analysis ( common air confirm+ ,prie/ley's discov]y ( oxyg54 7#d7 ,an hypo!sis mu/ agree ) ! re/ ( ! laws ( ,nature2 &1 if n itself ( ! highe/ g5]ality1 mu/ be d]ivable f prim>y laws 7*ap4 xix4 #a74 ,gravitation & ! diffusion ( heat1 light & s\nd f a c5tre1 all foll[ ! 'law ( ! inv]se squ>e1' & agree ) ! relation ( ! radius ( a sph]e to its surface4 ,any "o :o %\ld ?9k t he _h discov]$ a new c5tral =ce w\ld naturally beg9 to inve/igate x on ! hypo!sis t x con=m$ to ! same law z gravitation or light4 ,a ,*emi/ aga91 :o %\ld believe himself to h discov]$ a new elem5t1 w\ld expect x to fill "o ( ! vacant places 9 ! ,p]iodic ,table4 ,con=mity1 9 su* cases1 is /rong confirmation1 & disagreem5t is an occasion ( misgiv+s4 ,a n>r[] hypo!sis1 z 't ! toad's ugl9ess is protective'1 w\ld be support$ by ! g5]al !ory ( protective col\r+ & figure1 & by ! /ill m g5]al !ory ( ,natural ,selection1 if facts c\ld be adduc$ to %[ t ! toad's appe>ance does really det] its enemies4 ,su* an hypo!sis resembles an ,empirical ,law 9 its ne$ ( d]ivation 7*ap4 xix4 #a1 #b74 ,if und]ivable f1 or irreconcilable )1 kn[n laws1 x is a m]e conjecture or prejudice4 ,! absolute leviation ( phlogi/on1 9 contra/ ) ! gravitation ( all o!r =ms ( matt]1 discr$it$ t suppos$ ag5t4 ,t ,macph]son %\ld h f\nd ! ,ossianic poems extant 9 ! ,gaelic memory1 0 contr>y to ! nature ( oral tradition2 except :]e tradition is organis$1 z x 0 = ages among ! ,brahm9s4 ,! sugge/ion t xan?o*roid ,aryans 7 blea*$ by exposure dur+ ! glacial p]iod1 does n agree ) ,wallace's doctr9e conc]n+ ! coloration ( ,arctic animals4 ,t our =efa!rs be+ pr$atory1 l be>s1 :ite v>iations among/ !m 7 !n select$ by ! advantage ( concealm5t1 is a m plausible hypo!sis4 ,al?\gh1 !n1 ! consili5ce ( ,inductions or ,hypo!ses is n a suffici5t pro( ( _! tru?1 x is /ill a condition ( x2 nonconsili5ce is a suspici\s circum/ance1 & resili5ce 7s to speak71 or mutual repugnance1 is fatal to "o or all4 #d4 ,we h n[ se5 t a sci5tific hypo!sis1 to des]ve ! "n1 mu/ be v]ifiable & !re=e def9ite2 & t to e/abli% itself z a true !ory1 x mu/ pres5t "s symptom ( reality1 & be adequate & exclusive & 9 h>mony ) ! sy/em ( exp]i5ce4 ,?us gu>d$1 hypo!ses seem h>mless en\gh2 b "s p h a /rong prejudice aga9/ !m1 z aga9/ a tribe ( savages )\t gov]nm5t1 or laws1 or any dec5t reg>d = ve/$ int]e/s4 ,x is well kn[n1 too1 t ,bacon & ,newton disp>ag$ !m4 ,b ,bacon1 9 8 examples ( an inve/igation accord+ to 8 own me?od1 is oblig$1 aft] a prelim9>y classification ( facts1 to resort to an hypo!sis1 call+ x p]missio intellectus1 int]pretatio in*oata or v9demiatio prima4 ,& ,newton :5 he said hypo!ses non f+o1 meant t he did n deal 9 fictions1 or lay /ress ^u suppos$ =ces 7su* z 'attraction'71 t add no?+ to ! law ( ! facts4 ,hypo!ses are ess5tial aids to discov]y3 speak+ g5]ally1 delib]ate inve/igation dep5ds :olly ^u ! use ( !m4 ,x is true t we may sometimes obs]ve a tra9 ( ev5ts t *ances to pass be=e u1 :5 ei!r we are idle or engag$ ) "s o!r inquiry1 & s obta9 a new glimpse ( ! c\rse ( nature2 or we may try exp]im5ts haphaz>d1 & wat* ! results4 ,b1 ev5 9 ^! cases1 be=e our new notions c be consid]$ k1 !y mu/ be def9itely fram$ 9 hypo!ses & reobs]v$ or exp]im5t$ ^u1 ) :atev] calculations or precautions may be necess>y to ensure accuracy or isolation4 ,z a rule1 :5 inquir+ delib]ately into ! cause ( an ev5t1 :e!r 9 nature or 9 hi/ory1 we fir/ reflect ^u ! circum/ances ( ! case & comp>e x ) simil> ones previ\sly inve/igat$1 & s are guid$ by a preconception m or less def9ite ( ':at to look =1' :at ! cause is likely to be1 t is1 by an hypo!sis4 ,!n1 if our preconception is ju/ifi$1 or some?+ :i* we obs]ve leads to a new hypo!sis1 ei!r we look = o!r in/ances to satisfy ! canons ( ,agreem5t2 or 7if ! matt] admits ( exp]im5t7 we endeav\r1 "u kn[n conditions accord+ to ! canon ( ,diff]5ce1 to reproduce ! ev5t by means ( t :i* our hypo!sis assigns z ! cause2 or we draw remote inf]5ces f our hypo!sis1 & try to te/ ^! by ! ,inductive ,canons4 ,if we argue f an hypo!sis & express ourselves =mally1 x w usually appe> z ! major premise2 b ?is is n always ! case4 ,9 ext5d+ asc]ta9$ laws to fre% cases1 ! m9or premise may be an hypo!sis1 z 9 te/+ ! *emical con/itution ( any d\btful sub/ance1 su* z a piece ( ore4 ,"s solution or prep>ation1 ,a1 is g5]ally made :i* 7x is kn[n7 w1 on ! introduction ( a c]ta9 ag5t1 ,b1 give a reaction1 ,c1 if ! prep>ation conta9s a giv5 sub/ance1 ,x4 ,! major premise is ! law ( reaction-- ,:5ev] ,a is ,x1 if treat$ ) ,b x is ,c4 ,! m9or premise is an hypo!sis t ! prep>ation conta9s ,x4 ,an exp]im5t !n treats ,a ) ,b4 ,if ,c result1 a probability is rais$ 9 fav\r ( ! hypo!sis t ,a is ,x2 or a c]ta9ty1 if we "k t ,c results on t condition only4 ,s important are hypo!ses to sci5ce1 t ,:ewell insi/s t !y h (t5 be5 extremely valuable ev5 ?\gh errone\s4 ,( ! ,ptolemaic sy/em he says1 ,we c h>dly imag9e t ,a/ronomy c\ld1 9 its outset1 h made s great a progress "u any o!r =m4 ,x s]v$ to connect m5's ?\ghts on ! subject & to su/a9 _! int]e/ 9 work+ x out2 by successive corrections to save appe>ances1 x atta9$ at la/ to a descriptive sort ( tru?1 :i* 0 ( great practical utility2 x also occasion$ ! inv5tion ( te*nical t]ms1 &1 9 g5]al dige/$ ! :ole body ( obs]vations & prep>$ !m = assimilation by a bett] hypo!sis 9 ! fulness ( "t4 ,:ewell ev5 def5ds ! maxim t ,nature abhors a vacuum1 z hav+ =m]ly s]v$ to connect _m facts t diff] widely 9 _! fir/ aspect4 ,& 9 reality is x n true1 he asks1 t nature does abhor a vacuum1 & does all %e c to avoid x8 ,let no =lorn cause despair ( a *ampion6 ,yet no "o has accus$ ,:ewell ( ,quixotry2 & ! s5se ( 8 position is t ! human m9d is a r feeble affair1 t c h>dly beg9 to ?9k except ) blund]s4 ,! progress ( sci5ce may be plausibly attribut$ to a process ( ,natural ,selection2 hypo!ses are produc$ 9 abundance & v>iety1 & ^? unfit to be> v]ification are de/roy$1 until only ! fitte/ survive4 ,wallace1 a practical naturali/1 if !re ev] 0 "o1 z well z an em95t !ori/1 takes ! same view z ,:ewell ( su* inadequate conjectures4 ,( ',lemuria1' an hypo!tical cont95t 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 once suppos$ to be traceable 9 ! isl&s ( ,madagasc>1 ,sey*elles1 & ,mauritius1 its surviv+ fragm5ts1 & nam$ f ! ,lemurs1 its *>act]i/ic d5iz5s1 he says 7,isl& ,life1 *ap4 xix47 t x 0 ess5tially a provisional hypo!sis1 v useful 9 call+ att5tion to a rem>kable s]ies ( problems 9 geographical di/ribution ( plants & animals1 b n af=d+ ! true solution ( ^? problems4 ,we see1 !n1 t 'provisional hypo!ses1' or work+ hypo!ses1' ?\gh errone\s1 may be v useful or 7z ,:ewell says7 necess>y4 ,h5ce1 to be prolific ( hypo!ses is ! fir/ attribute ( sci5tific g5ius2 ! fir/1 because )\t x no progress :atev] c be made4 ,& "s m5 seem to h a m>k$ felicity1 a sort ( in/9ctive judgm5t ev5 9 _! guesses1 z if _! heads 7 made accord+ to ,nature4 ,b o!rs among ! greate/1 l ,kepl]1 guess (t5 & are (t5 wrong be=e !y hit ^u ! tru?1 & !mselves1 l ,nature1 de/roy _m va9 %oots & se$l+s ( sci5ce = "o t !y f9d fit to live4 ,if ?is is h[ ! m9d works 9 sci5tific inquiry 7z x c]ta9ly is1 ) mo/ m51 9 poetry1 9 f9e art1 & 9 ! s*em+ ( bus9ess71 x is useless to compla94 ,we %\ld r recognise a place = fools' hypo!ses1 z ,d>w9 did = fools' exp]im5ts4 ,b to complete ! sci5tific "*1 !re mu/ be great pati5ce1 accuracy1 & imp>tiality 9 exam9+ & te/+ ^! conjectures1 z well z great +5uity 9 devis+ exp]im5ts to t end4 ,! want ( ^! qualities leads to crude "w & public failure & br+s hypo!ses into d]ision4 ,n p>tially & ha/ily to believe 9 "o's own guesses1 nor petulantly or timidly to reject !m1 b to consid] ! matt]1 to susp5d judgm5t1 is ! moral lesson ( sci5ce3 difficult1 di/a/eful1 & r>ely ma/]$4 #e4 ,! ^w 'hypo!sis' is (t5 us$ also = ! sci5tific device ( treat+ an ,ab/raction z1 = ! purposes ( argum5t1 equival5t to ! concrete facts4 ,?us1 9 ,geometry1 a l9e is treat$ z hav+ no bread?2 9 ,me*anics1 a b> may be suppos$ absolutely rigid1 or a ma*9e to "w )\t friction2 9 ,economics1 man is sometimes reg>d$ z actuat$ solely by love ( ga9 & dislike ( ex]tion4 ,! results rea*$ by su* reason+ may be made applicable to ! concrete facts1 if all[ance be made = ! omitt$ circum/ances or prop]ties1 9 ! sev]al cases ( l9es1 b>s1 & m52 b o!rwise all conclusions f ab/ract t]ms are limit$ by _! def9itions4 ,ab/ract reason+1 !n 7t is1 reason+ limit$ by def9itions71 is (t5 said to imply '! hypo!sis' t ?+s exi/ z _! names are def9$1 hav+ no prop]ties b ^? enum]at$ 9 _! def9itions4 ,?is seems1 h[ev]1 a ne$less & confus+ ext5sion ( ! t]m2 = an hypo!sis proposes an ag5t1 collocation1 or law hi!rto unkn[n2 :]eas ab/ract reason+ proposes to exclude f consid]ation a good deal t is well kn[n4 ,!re seems no reason :y ! latt] device %\ld n be pla9ly call$ an ,ab/raction4 ,su* ab/ractions are necess>y to sci5ce2 = no object is compreh5sible by u 9 all its prop]ties at once4 ,b if we =get ! limitations ( our ab/ract data1 we are liable to make /range blund]s by mi/ak+ ! "* ( ! results3 treat+ ! results z simply true ( actual ?+s1 in/ead ( z true ( actual ?+s only s f> z !y are repres5t$ by ! ab/ractions4 ,9 address+ ab/ract reason+1 !re=e1 to ^? :o are unfamili> ) sci5tific me?ods1 pa9s %\ld be tak5 to make x cle> :at ! ab/ractions are1 :at are ! consequ5t limitations ^u ! argum5t & its conclusions1 & :at corrections & all[ances are necess>y 9 ord] to turn ! conclusions into an adequate acc\nt ( ! concrete facts4 ,! great] ! numb]1 v>iety1 & subtlety ( ! prop]ties possess$ by any object 7su* z human nature71 ! great] are ! qualifications requir$ 9 ! conclusions ( ab/ract reason+1 be=e !y c hold true ( su* an object 9 practical affairs4 ,closely alli$ to ?is me?od ( ,ab/raction is ! ,ma!matical ,me?od ( ,limits4 ,9 8 ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas 7,b4 ,,ii4 c4 #ab71 ,:ewell says3 ,! ,idea ( a ,limit supplies a new mode ( e/abli%+ ma!matical tru?s4 ,?us ) reg>d to ! l5g? ( any portion ( a curve1 a problem :i* we h j m5tion$2 a curve is n made up ( /raight l9es1 & !re=e we _c by means ( any ( ! doctr9es ( elem5t>y geometry measure ! l5g? ( any curve4 ,b we may make up a figure ne>ly resembl+ any curve by putt+ toge!r _m %ort /raight l9es1 j z a polygonal build+ ( v _m sides may ne>ly resemble a circul> room4 ,& 9 ord] to approa* ne>] & ne>] to a curve1 we may make ! sides m & m small1 m & m num]\s4 ,we may !n possibly f9d "s mode ( measurem5t1 "s relation ( ^! small l9es to o!r l9es1 :i* is n di/urb$ by ! multiplication ( ! sides1 h[ev] f> x be c>ri$4 ,& ?us we may d :at is equival5t to measur+ ! curve itself2 = by multiply+ ! sides we may approa* m & m closely to ! curve till no appreciable diff]5ce rema9s4 ,! curve l9e is ! ,limit ( ! polygon2 & 9 ?is process we proce$ on ! ,axiom t ',:at is true up to ! ,limit is true at ! ,limit4' ,:at ,:ewell calls ! ,axiom "h1 o!rs might call an ,hypo!sis2 b p]haps x is prop]ly a ,po/ulate4 ,& x is j ! obv]se ( ! ,po/ulate impli$ 9 ! ,me?od ( ,ab/ractions1 namely1 t ',:at is true ( ! ,ab/raction is true ( concrete cases ! m ne>ly !y approa* ! ,ab/raction4' ,:at is true ( ! ',economic ,man' is tru] ( a brok] ?an ( a f>m]1 ( a f>m] ?an ( a lab\r]1 ( a lab\r] ?an ( ! arti/ ( romance4 ,h5ce ! ,ab/raction may be call$ a ,limit or limit+ case1 9 ! s5se t x /&s to concrete individuals1 z a curve does to ! figures made up by putt+ toge!r _m %ort /raight l9es4 ,correspond+ly1 ! ,prop] ,"n may be call$ ! ,limit ( ! class-"n2 s9ce its attributes are inf9ite1 :]eas any "n ^: attributes are less ?an inf9ite /&s = a possible class4 ,9 %ort1 = logical purposes1 a ,limit may be def9$ z any extreme case to :i* actual examples may approa* )\t ev] rea*+ x4 ,& 9 ?is s5se ',me?od ( ,limits' might be us$ z a t]m includ+ ! ,me?od ( ,ab/ractions2 ?\gh x w\ld be bett] to speak ( !m g5]ically z ',me?ods ( ,approximation4' ,we may also notice ! ,assumptions 7z !y may be call$7 t are sometimes employ$ to facilitate an inve/igation1 because "s def9ite gr\nd mu/ be tak5 & no?+ bett] c be ?\ght (3 z 9 e/imat+ national weal?1 t furniture is half ! value ( ! h\ses4 ,x is easy to conceive ( an objector urg+ t su* devices z ! above are m]ely ways ( avoid+ ! actual problems1 & t !y display m cunn+ ?an skill4 ,b sci5ce1 l good s5se1 puts up ) ! be/ t c be _h2 &1 l prud5ce1 does n reject ! half-loaf4 ,! position1 t a conceivable case t c be dealt ) may1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 be sub/itut$ = "o t is unworkable1 is a t\*/one ( intellig5ce4 ,to /& out = ideals t are kn[n to be impossible1 is only an excuse = do+ no?+ at all4 ,9 ano!r s5se1 aga91 ! :ole ( sci5ce is sometimes said to be hypo!tical1 because x takes = grant$ ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature2 = ?is1 9 its v>i\s aspects1 c only be directly asc]ta9$ by u z f> z our exp]i5ce ext5ds2 :]eas ! :ole value ( ! pr9ciple ( ,uni=mity consi/s 9 its furni%+ a =mula = ! ext5sion ( our o!r beliefs beyond our actual exp]i5ce4 ,transc5d5tali/s1 inde$1 call x a =m ( ,reason1 j because x is presuppos$ 9 all k2 & !y & ! ,empirici/s agree t to adduce mat]ial evid5ce = x1 9 its full ext5t1 is impossible4 ,if1 !n1 mat]ial evid5ce is dem&$ by any "o1 he _c reg>d ! conclusions ( ,ma!matics & ,physical ,sci5ce z dep5d+ on :at is itself unprov$2 he mu/1 ) ,mill1 reg>d ^! conclusions z drawn n f b accord+ to ! axioms ( ,equality & ,causation4 ,t is to say1 if ! axioms are true1 ! conclusions are2 ! mat]ial evid5ce = bo? ! axioms & ! conclusions be+ ! same1 namely1 uncontradict$ exp]i5ce4 ,n[ :5 we say1 ',if ,nature is uni=m1 sci5ce is true1' ! hypo!tical "* ( sci5ce appe>s 9 ! =m ( ! /atem5t4 ,nev]!less1 x seems undesirable to call our confid5ce 9 ,nature's uni=mity an 'hypo!sis'3 x is incongru\s to use ! same t]m = our t5tative conjectures & = our mo/ indisp5sable beliefs4 ',! ,univ]sal ,po/ulate' is a bett] t]m = ! pr9ciple :i*1 9 "s =m or o!r1 e g5]alisation takes = grant$4 ,we are n[ sometimes told t1 in/ead ( ! det]m9ism & cont9uity ( ph5om5a hi!rto assum$ by sci5ce1 we %\ld recognise indet]m9ism & discont9uity4 ,b x w be "t en\gh to fall 9 ) ?is doctr9e :5 its advocates produce a new ,logic ( ,induction1 & expla9 ! use ( ! me?od ( ,diff]5ce & ( control exp]im5ts accord+ to ! new po/ulates4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,laws ,,classifi$2 ,,explanation2 ,,co-,,exi/5ce2 ,,analogy #a4 ,laws are classifi$1 accord+ to _! degrees ( g5]ality1 z high] & l[]1 ?\gh ! grades may n be decisively di/+ui%able4 ,fir/1 !re are ,axioms or ,pr9ciples1 t is real1 univ]sal1 self-evid5t propositions4 ,!y are--7#a7 real propositions2 n1 l ',! :ole is great] ?an any ( its p>ts1' m]ely def9itions1 or impli$ 9 def9itions4 7#b7 ,!y are reg>d$ z univ]sally true ( ph5om5a1 z f> z ! =m ( _! expression ext5ds2 t is1 = example1 ,axioms conc]n+ quantity are true ( ev]y?+ t is consid]$ 9 its quantitative aspect1 ?\gh n 7( c\rse7 9 its qualitative aspect4 7#c7 ,!y are self-evid5t2 t is1 ea* re/s ^u its own evid5ce 7:atev] t may be72 !y _c be d]iv$ f "o ano!r1 nor f any m g5]al law4 ,"s1 inde$1 are m g5]al ?an o!rs3 ! ,logical ,pr9ciple ( ,contradiction1 'if ,a is ,b1 x is n n-,b'1 is true ( qualities z well z ( quantities2 :]eas ! ,axioms ( ,ma!matics apply only to quantities4 ,! ,ma!matical ,axioms1 aga91 apply to "t1 space1 m5tal ph5om5a1 & matt] & en]gy2 :]eas ! ,law ( ,causation is only true ( concrete ev5ts 9 ! r$i/ribution ( matt] & en]gy3 su*1 at lea/1 is ! /rict limit ( ,causation1 if we id5tify x ) ! ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy2 al?\gh our imp]fect k ( life & m9d (t5 drives u to speak ( feel+s1 ideas1 volitions1 z causes4 ,/ill1 ! ,law ( ,causation _c be d]iv$ f ! ,ma!matical ,axioms1 nor ^! f ! ,logical4 ,! k9d ( evid5ce ^u :i* ,axioms re/1 or :e!r any evid5ce c be giv5 = !m1 is 7z be=e obs]v$7 a "q = ,metaphysics1 n = ,logic4 ,axioms are ! upw>d limit ( ,logic1 :i*1 l all ! special sci5ces1 necess>ily takes !m = grant$1 z ! />t+ po9t ( all d$uction & ! goal ( all g5]alisation4 ,next to ,axioms1 come ,prim>y ,laws ( ,nature3 ^! are ( less g5]ality ?an ! ,axioms1 & are subject to ! conditions ( me?odical pro(2 be+ univ]sally true only ( c]ta9 =ces or prop]ties ( matt]1 or ( nature "u c]ta9 conditions2 s t pro( ( !m by logical or ma!matical reason+ is expect$1 because !y dep5d ^u ! ,axioms = _! =mal evid5ce4 ,su* are ! law ( gravitation1 9 ,a/ronomy2 ! law ( def9ite proportions1 9 ,*emi/ry2 ! law ( h]$ity1 9 ,biology2 & 9 ,psy*ology1 ! law ( relativity4 ,!n1 !re are ,second>y ,laws1 ( /ill less g5]ality1 result+ f a comb9ation ( conditions or =ces 9 giv5 circum/ances1 & !re=e conceivably d]ivable f ! laws ( ^? conditions or =ces1 if we c discov] !m & compute _! unit$ effects4 ,accord+ly1 ,second>y ,laws are ei!r--7#a7 ,d]ivative1 hav+ be5 analys$ into1 & d$uc$ f1 ,prim>y ,laws2 or 7#b7 ,empirical1 ^? t h n yet be5 d$uc$ 7?\gh f _! comp>atively special & complex "*1 x seems probable !y may be1 giv5 suffici5t "t & +5uity71 & t mean:ile re/ ^u "s unsatisfactory sort ( induction by ,agreem5t or ,simple ,enum]ation4 ,:e!r laws prov$ only by ! canon ( ,diff]5ce are to be consid]$ ,empirical1 is p]haps a "q3 _! pro( d]ives !m f ! pr9ciple ( ,causation2 b1 be+ ( n>r[ scope1 "s m special acc\nt ( !m seems requisite 9 relation to ! ,prim>y ,laws be=e we c call !m ,d]ivative 9 ! te*nical s5se4 ,_m ,second>y ,laws1 aga91 are p>tially or imp]fectly ,d]ivative2 we c give g5]al reasons = !m1 )\t be+ able to det]m9e !oretically ! precise relations ( ! ph5om5a !y describe4 ,meteorologi/s c expla9 ! g5]al conditions ( all sorts ( wea!r1 b h made little progress t[>d pr$ict+ ! actual c\rse ( x 7at lea/1 = our isl&73 ,geologi/s "k ! g5]al causes ( m\nta9 ranges1 b n :y !y rise j :]e we f9d !m3 ,economi/s expla9 ! g5]al c\rse ( a comm]cial crisis1 b n :y ! great crises recurr$ at int]vals ( ab\t t5 ye>s4 ,d]ivative ,laws make up ! body ( ! exact sci5ces1 hav+ be5 assimilat$ & organis$2 :il/ ,empirical ,laws are ! undige/$ mat]ials ( sci5ce4 ,! !orems ( ,euclid are good examples ( d]ivative laws 9 ,ma!matics2 9 ,a/ronomy1 ,kepl]'s laws & ! laws ( ! tides2 9 ,physics1 ! laws ( %ad[s1 ( p]spective1 ( h>mony2 9 ,biology1 ! law ( protective coloration2 9 ,economics1 ! laws ( prices1 wages1 int]e/1 & r5t4 ,empirical ,laws are su* z ,bode's law ( ! planet>y di/ances2 ! laws ( ! expansion ( diff]5t bodies by heat1 & =mul express+ ! electrical conductivity ( ea* sub/ance z a function ( ! temp]ature4 ,/rictly speak+1 ,i suppose1 all ! laws ( *emical comb9ation are empirical3 ! law ( def9ite proportions is v]ifiable 9 all cases t h be5 exam9$1 except = v>iations t may be ascrib$ to errors ( exp]im5t4 ,mu* ! same is true 9 ,biology2 mo/ ( ! second>y laws are empirical1 except s f> z /ructures or functions may be reg>d$ z specialis$ cases 9 ,physics or ,*emi/ry & d$ucible f ^! sci5ces4 ,! !ory ( ,natural ,selection1 h[ev]1 has be5 ! means ( r5d]+ _m laws1 t 7 once :olly empirical1 at lea/ p>tially d]ivative2 namely1 ! laws ( ! geographical di/ribution ( plants & animals1 & ( _! adaptation 9 organisation1 =m & col\r1 habits & in/9cts1 to _! v>i\s conditions ( life4 ,! laws t rema9 empirical 9 ,biology are ( all degrees ( g5]ality f t ( ! t5d5cy to v>iation 9 size & 9 e o!r "* %[n by e species 7?\gh z to ! reason ( ?is !re are promis+ hypo!ses71 d[n to su* curi\s cases z t ! col\r ( roses & c>nations nev] v>ies into blue1 t sc>let fl[]s are nev] sweet-sc5t$1 t bullf9*es f$ on hemp-se$ turn black1 t ! "y ( :ite1 yell[ & dun pigeons are born almo/ nak$ 7:il/ o!rs h pl5ty ( d[n72 & s on4 ,! d]ivation ( empirical laws is ! great] "p ( ! explanation ( ,nature 7 #e1 #f74 ,a ',fact1' 9 ! common use ( ! ^w1 is a p>ticul> obs]vation3 x is ! mat]ial ( sci5ce 9 its rawe/ /ate4 ,z p]ceiv$ by a m9d1 x is1 ( c\rse1 nev] absolutely p>ticul>3 = we _c p]ceive any?+ )\t class+ x1 m or less def9itely1 ) ?+s already kn[n to u2 nor describe x )\t us+ connotative t]ms :i* imply a classification ( ! ?+s d5ot$4 ,/ill1 we may consid] an obs]vation z p>ticul>1 9 comp>ison ) a law t includes x ) num]\s o!rs 9 "o g5]al proposition4 ,to turn an obs]vation into an exp]im5t1 or 7:]e exp]im5t is impracticable7 to repeat x ) all possible precautions & exactness1 & to describe x z to ! duration1 quantity1 quality & ord] ( occurr5ce ( its ph5om5a1 is ! fir/ /age ( sci5tific manufacture4 ,!n comes ! =mulation ( an empirical law2 & la/ly1 if possible1 d$uction or d]ivation1 ei!r f high] laws previ\sly asc]ta9$1 or f an hypo!sis4 ,h[ev]1 z a ^w is us$ 9 v>i\s s5ses1 we (t5 speak ( laws z 'facts'3 we say ! law ( gravitation is a fact1 mean+ t x is real1 or v]ifiable by obs]vations or exp]im5ts4 #b4 ,second>y ,laws may also be classifi$ accord+ to _! con/ancy into--7#a7 ! ,inv>iable 7z f> z exp]i5ce rea*es71 & 7#b7 ,approximate ,g5]alisations 9 ! =m--,mo/ ,x's are ,y4 ,( ! inv>iable we h giv5 examples above4 ,! foll[+ are approximate g5]alisations3 ,mo/ comets g r\nd ! ,sun f ,ea/ to ,we/2 ,mo/ metals are solid at ord9>y temp]atures2 ,mo/ m>supials are ,au/ralasian2 ,mo/ arctic animals are :ite 9 w9t]2 ,mo/ cases ( plague are fatal2 ,mo/ m5 ?9k fir/ ( _! own int]e/s4 ,"s ( ^! laws are empirical1 z t ',mo/ metals are solid at ord9>y temp]atures'3 at pres5t no reason c be giv5 = ?is2 nor d we "k :y mo/ cases ( plague are fatal4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 are at lea/ p>tially d]ivative1 z t ',mo/ arctic animals are :ite'2 = ?is seems to be due to ! advantage ( concealm5t 9 ! sn[2 :e!r1 z ) ! be>1 ! bett] to surprise its prey1 or1 ) ! h>e1 to escape ! notice ( its enemies4 ,b ! sci5tific treatm5t ( su* a proposition requires t we %\ld also expla9 ! exceptions3 if ',mo/ are1' ?is implies t ',"s are n'2 :y n1 !n8 ,n[1 if we c give reasons = all ! exceptions1 ! approximate g5]alisation may be conv]t$ into an univ]sal "o1 ?us3 ',all arctic animals are :ite1 unless 7l ! rav57 !y ne$ no concealm5t ei!r to prey or to escape2 or unless mutual recognition is m important to !m ?an concealm5t 7z ) ! musk-%eep7'4 ,! same end ( univ]sal /atem5t may be ga9$ by includ+ ! conditions on :i* ! ph5om5on dep5ds1 ?us3 ',all arctic animals to :om concealm5t is ( ! utmo/ utility are :ite4' ,:5 /ati/ics are obta9able1 x is prop] to conv]t an approximate g5]alisation into a proportional /atem5t ( ! fact1 ?us3 in/ead ( ',mo/ attacks ( plague are fatal'1 we might f9d t 9 a c]ta9 c\ntry #gj p] c5t4 7 s4 ,!n1 if we f\nd t 9 ano!r c\ntry ! p]c5tage ( dea?s 0 #fj1 9 ano!r #dj1 we might discov]1 9 ! diff]5t conditions ( ^! c\ntries1 a clue to ! high rate ( mortality f ?is disease4 ,ev5 if ! proportion ( cases 9 :i* two facts are connect$ does n am\nt to ',mo/1' yet1 if any def9ite p]c5tage is obta9able1 ! proposition has a high] sci5tific value ?an a vague ',"s'3 z if we "k t #b p] c5t4 ( ! dea?s 9 ,engl& are due to suicide1 ?is may be comp>$ ) ! rates ( suicide 9 o!r c\ntries2 f :i* p]haps inf]5ces may be drawn z to ! causes ( suicide4 ,9 "o dep>tm5t ( life1 namely1 ,politics1 !re is a special advantage 9 true approximate g5]alisations am\nt+ to ',mo/ cases4' ,! citiz5s ( any ,/ate are s v>i\s 9 "*1 enlight5m5t1 & conditions ( life1 t we c expect to f9d few propositions univ]sally true ( !m3 s t propositions true ( ! majority mu/ be tru/$ z ! bases ( legislation4 ,if mo/ m5 are det]r$ f crime by fe> ( puni%m5t2 if mo/ m5 w idle if !y c obta9 support )\t indu/ry2 if mo/ jurym5 w refuse to convict ( a crime = :i* ! prescrib$ p5alties seem to !m too sev]e2 ^! are mo/ useful tru?s1 ?\gh !re %\ld be num]\s exceptions to !m all4 #c4 ,second>y ,laws c only be tru/$ 9 ',adjac5t ,cases'2 t is1 :]e ! circum/ances are simil> to ^? 9 :i* ! laws are kn[n to be true4 ,a ,d]ivative ,law w be true :]ev] ! =ces conc]n$ exi/ 9 ! comb9ations ^u :i* ! law dep5ds1 if !re are no c\nt]act+ conditions4 ,t wat] c be pump$ to ab\t #cc feet at ! sea-level1 is a d]ivative law on ?is planet3 is x true 9 ,m>s8 ,t dep5ds on :e!r !re are 9 ,m>s bodies ( a liquid simil> to our wat]2 :e!r !re is an atmosph]e !re1 & h[ great its pressure is2 :i* w v>y ) its height & d5sity4 ,if !re is no atmosph]e !re c be no pump+2 or if !re is an atmosph]e ( less pressure ?an ours1 wat] su* z ours c only be pump$ to a less height ?an #cc feet4 ,aga91 we "k t !re are arctic regions 9 ,m>s2 if !re are also arctic animals1 are !y :ite8 ,t may dep5d ^u :e!r !re are any bea/s ( prey4 ,if n1 concealm5t seems to be ( no use4 ,an ,empirical ,law1 be+ "o ^: conditions we d n "k1 ! ext5t ( its preval5ce is /ill less asc]ta9able4 ,:]e x has n be5 actually obs]v$ to be true1 we _c tru/ x unless ! circum/ances1 on ! :ole1 resemble s closely ^? among/ :i* x has be5 obs]v$1 t ! unkn[n causes1 :atev] !y may be1 are likely to prevail !re4 ,&1 ev5 !n1 we _c h mu* confid5ce 9 x2 = !re may be unkn[n circum/ances :i* entirely fru/rate ! effect4 ,! fir/ naturali/ :o travell$ 7say7 f ,s+apore ea/w>d by ,sumatra & ,java1 or ,borneo1 & f\nd ! mammalia !re simil> to ^? ( ,asia1 may naturally h expect$ ! same ?+ 9 ,celebes & ,papua2 b1 if s1 he 0 entirely disappo9t$2 = 9 ,papua ! mammalia are m>supials l ^? ( ,au/ralia4 ,?us 8 empirical law1 ',! mammalia ( ! ,ea/]n ,ar*ipelago are ,asiatic1' w\ld h fail$ = no app>5t reason4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,wallace1 !re is a reason = x1 ?\gh su* z c\ld only be discov]$ by ext5sive rese>*es2 namely1 t ! sea is deep betwe5 ,borneo & ,celebes1 s t !y mu/ h be5 sep>at$ = _m ages2 :]eas x is %all[ f ,borneo we/w>d to ,asia1 & also s\?w>d f ,celebes to ,au/ralia2 s t ^! regions1 respectively1 may h be5 rec5tly unit$3 & ! true law is t simil> mammalia belong to ^? tracts :i* at comp>atively rec5t dates h =m$ p>ts ( ! same cont95ts 7unless !y are ! rema9s ( a =m] mu* wid] di/ribution74 ,a consid]able lapse ( "t may make an empirical law no long] tru/wor?y2 = ! =ces f ^: comb9ation x result$ may h ceas$ to op]ate1 or to op]ate 9 ! same comb9ation2 & s9ce we d n "k :at ^? =ces 71 ev5 ! k t great *anges h tak5 place 9 ! meantime _c enable u1 aft] an int]val1 to judge :e!r or n ! law /ill holds true4 ,new />s %9e 9 ! sky & g out2 species ( plants & animals become ext9ct2 diseases die out & fre% ones afflict mank9d3 all ^! ?+s d\btless h _! causes1 b if we d n "k :at !y are1 we h no measure ( ! effects1 & _c tell :5 or :]e !y w happ54 ,laws ( ,concomitant ,v>iations may hold good only )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,t bodies contract z ! temp]ature falls1 is n true ( wat] bel[ #ci ,f4 ,9 ,psy*ology1 ,web]'s ,law is only true )9 ! m$ian range ( s5sation-int5sities1 n = v fa9t1 nor = v /rong1 /imuli4 ,9 su* cases ! failure ( ! laws may dep5d ^u some?+ imp]fectly und]/ood 9 ! collocation3 z to wat]1 on its molecul> con/itution2 z to s5sation1 ^u ! /ructure ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 #d4 ,second>y ,laws1 aga91 are ei!r ( ,succession or ( ,co-exi/5ce4 ,^? ( ,succession are ei!r--7#a7 ( direct causation1 z t ',wat] qu5*es fire1' or 7m /rictly7 t ',evaporation r$uces temp]ature'2 or 7#b7 ( ! effect ( a remote cause1 z ',bad h>ve/s t5d to raise ! price ( bread'2 or 7#c7 ( ! jo9t effects ( ! same cause1 z t ',night foll[s day' 7f ! revolution ( ! e>?71 or ! c\rse ( ! seasons 7f ! incl9ation ( ! e>?'s axis74 ,laws ( ,co-exi/5ce are ( sev]al classes4 7#a7 ,"o has ! g5]ality ( a prim>y law1 ?\gh x is prov$ only by ,agreem5t1 namely1 ',all gravitat+ bodies are in]t'4 ,o!rs1 ?\gh less g5]al ?an ?is1 are ( v ext5sive range1 z t ',all gases t are n decompos$ by rise ( temp]ature h ! same rate ( expansion'2 &1 9 ,botany t ',all monocotyl$on\s plants are endog5\s'4 ,^! laws ( ,co-exi/5ce are conc]n$ ) fundam5tal prop]ties ( bodies4 7#b7 ,next come laws ( ! ,co-exi/5ce ( ^? prop]ties :i* are compris$ 9 ! def9itions ( ,natural ,k9ds4 ,mill di/+ui%$ betwe5 77 classes ( ?+s t agree among !mselves & diff] f o!rs only 9 "o or a few attributes 7su* z 'r$ ?+s1' 'musical notes'1 'c>nivor\s animals'1 'soldi]s'71 & 77 classes ( ?+s t agree among !mselves & diff] f o!rs 9 a multitude ( *>act]s3 & ! latt] he calls ,natural ,k9ds4 ,^! comprise ! *emical elem5ts & _! pure comp\nds 7su* z wat]1 alcohol1 rock-salt71 & ! species ( plants & animals4 ,cle>ly1 ea* ( ^! is con/itut$ by ! co-exi/5ce or co-inh]5ce ( a multitude ( prop]ties1 "s ( :i* are select$ z ! basis ( _! def9itions4 ,?us1 ,gold is a metal ( high specific gravity1 atomic weight #aig4b1 high melt+ po9t1 l[ *emical aff9ities1 great ductility1 yell[ col\r1 etc43 a ,horse has 'a v]tebral column1 mamm1 a plac5tal embryo1 f\r legs1 a s+le well-develop$ toe 9 ea* foot provid$ ) a ho(1 a bu%y tail1 & callosities on ! inn] sides ( bo? ! =e & ! h9d legs' 7,huxley74 ,s9ce ,d>w9ism has obta9$ g5]al acceptance1 "s ,logicians h d\bt$ ! propriety ( call+ ! organic species ',k9ds1' on ! gr\nd t !y are n1 z to def9it5ess & p]man5ce1 on a p> ) ! *emical elem5ts or su* comp\nds z wat] & rock-salt2 t !y v>y ext5sively1 & t x is only by ! loss ( =m] g5]ations ( animals t we are able to di/+ui% species at all4 ,b to ?is x may be repli$ t species are (t5 approximately con/ant = imm5se p]iods ( "t1 & may be call$ p]man5t 9 comp>ison ) human g5]ations2 & t1 al?\gh ! lead+ pr9ciples ( ,logic are p]haps et]nal tru?s1 yet ^u a detail su* z ?is1 ! sci5ce may condesc5d to recognise a di/9ction if x is good = 7say7 only #ajj1jjj ye>s4 ,t if =m] g5]ations ( plants & animals 7 n lo/1 all di/9ctions ( species w\ld disappe>1 may be true2 b !y are lo/--= ! mo/ "p beyond hope ( recov]y2 & accord+ly ! di/9ction ( species is /ill recognis$2 al?\gh !re are cases1 *iefly at ! l[] /ages ( organisation1 9 :i* s _m v>ieties occur z to make adjac5t species almo/ or q indi/+ui%able4 ,s f> z species are recognis$1 !n1 !y pres5t a complex co-inh]5ce ( qualities1 :i* is1 9 "o aspect1 a logical problem2 &1 9 ano!r1 a logical datum2 &1 com+ m naturally "u ! head ( ,natural ,k9ds ?an any o!r1 !y mu/ be m5tion$ 9 ?is place4 7#c7 ,!re are1 aga91 c]ta9 co9cid5ces ( qualities n ess5tial to any k9d1 & sometimes prevail+ among/ _m diff]5t k9ds3 su* z ',insects ( nause\s ta/e h vivid 7w>n+7 col\rs'2 ',:ite tom-cats ) blue eyes are deaf'2 ',:ite spots & pat*es1 :5 !y appe> 9 dome/ic animals1 are mo/ frequ5t on ! left side4' 7#d7 ,f9ally1 !re may be con/ancy ( relative position1 z ( sides & angles 9 ,geometry2 & also among concrete ?+s 7at lea/ = long p]iods ( "t71 z ( ! planet>y orbits1 ! app>5t positions ( fix$ />s 9 ! sky1 ! di/ribution ( l& & wat] on ! globe1 opposite seasons 9 opposite hemisph]es4 ,all ^! cases ( ,co-exi/5ce 7except ! geometrical7 pres5t ! problem ( d]iv+ !m f ,causation2 = !re is no g5]al ,law ( ,co-exi/5ce f :i* !y c be d]iv$2 &1 inde$1 if we conceive ( ! ext]nal _w z a p]petual r$i/ribution ( matt] & en]gy1 x foll[s t ! :ole /ate ( ,nature at any in/ant1 & !re=e e co-exi/5ce includ$ 9 x1 is due to causation issu+ f "s e>li] di/ribution ( matt] & en]gy4 ,h5ce1 inde$1 x is n likely t ! problems ( co-exi/5ce z a :ole w ev] be solv$1 s9ce ! orig9al di/ribution ( matt] is1 ( c\rse1 unkn[n4 ,/ill1 />t+ ) any giv5 /ate ( ,nature1 we may hope to expla9 "s ( ! co-exi/5ces 9 any subsequ5t /ate4 ,we d n1 inde$1 "k :y heavy bodies are always in]t1 nor :y ! *emical elem5ts are :at !y are2 b x is kn[n t ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts are functions ( _! atomic weight1 :i* 7?\gh1 at pres5t1 only an empirical law7 may be a clue to "s deep] explanation4 ,z to plants & animals1 we "k ! conditions ( _! g5]ation1 & c trace a connection betwe5 mo/ ( _! *>act]i/ics & ! conditions ( _! life3 z t ! tee? & /oma* ( animals v>y ) _! food1 & t _! col\r g5]ally v>ies ) _! habitat4 ,geometrical ,co-exi/5ce1 :5 x is n a matt] ( def9ition 7z 'a squ>e is a rectangle ) f\r equal sides'71 is d$uc$ f ! def9itions & axioms3 z :5 x is %[n t 9 triangles ! great] side is opposite ! great] angle4 ,! d$uctions ( !orems or second>y laws1 9 ,geometry is a type ( :at is desirable 9 ! ,physical ,sci5ces3 ! demon/ration1 namely1 t all ! connections ( ph5om5a1 :e!r successive or co-exi/5t1 are consequ5ces ( ! r$i/ribution ( matt] & en]gy accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( ,causation4 ,co9cid5ces ( ,co-exi/5ce 7,gr\p 7#c77 may sometimes be d$uc$ & sometimes n4 ,t 'nause\s insects h vivid coloration' comes "u ! g5]al law ( 'protective coloration'2 z !y are easily recognis$ & !re=e avoid$ by insectivor\s birds & o!r animals4 ,b :y :ite tom-cats ) blue-eyes %\ld be deaf1 is 7,i believe7 unkn[n4 ,:5 co-exi/5ces _c be d]iv$ f causation1 !y c only be prov$ by collect+ examples & tru/+ vaguely to ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature4 ,if no exceptions are f\nd1 we h an empirical law ( consid]able probability )9 ! range ( our exploration4 ,if exceptions occur1 we h at mo/ an approximate g5]alisation1 z t ',mo/ metals are :iti%1' or ',mo/ dome/ic cats are tabbies' 7b ?is probably is ! ance/ral col\r+74 ,we may !n resort to /ati/ics = great] def9it5ess1 & f9d t 9 ,hamp%ire 7say7 #ij p] c5t4 ( ! dome/ic cats are tabby4 #e4 ,sci5tific ,explanation consi/s 9 discov]+1 d$uc+1 & assimilat+ ! laws ( ph5om5a2 x is ! analysis ( t ,h]acleitan 'flux' :i* s _m philosoph]s h reg>d$ z intractable to human inquiry4 ,9 ! ord9>y use ( ! ^w1 'explanation' means ! satisfy+ a man's und]/&+2 & :at may s]ve ?is purpose dep5ds p>tly ^u ! natural s\ndness ( 8 und]/&+1 & p>tly on 8 education2 b x is always at la/ an appeal to ! prim>y functions ( cognition1 discrim9ation & assimilation4 ,g5]ally1 :at we are accu/om$ to seems to ne$ no explanation1 unless our curiosity is p>ticul>ly direct$ to x4 ,t boys climb trees & ?r[ /ones1 & t m5 g fox-hunt+1 may easily pass = matt]s ( c\rse4 ,if any "o is s exact+ z to ask ! reason1 !re is a ready answ] 9 ! 'ne$ ( ex]cise4' ,b ?is w n expla9 ! peculi> ze/ ( ^? ex]cises1 :i* is some?+ q diff]5t f our feel+s :il/ sw++ dumb-bells or tramp+ ! highway4 ,o!rs1 m sophi/icat$1 tell u t ! civilis$ individual reta9s 9 8 nature ! in/9cts ( 8 remote ance/ors1 & t ^! ass]t !mselves at /ages ( 8 gr[? correspond+ ) ance/ral p]iods ( culture or savag]y3 s t if we delight to climb trees1 ?r[ /ones1 & hunt1 x is because our =efa!rs once liv$ 9 trees1 _h no missiles b /ones1 & dep5d$ = a livelihood ^u kill+ some?+4 ,to "s ( u1 aga91 ?is seems an explanation2 to o!rs x m]ely gives annoyance1 z a sup]flu\s hypo!sis1 ! fruit ( a wanton imag9ation & too mu* leisure4 ,h[ev]1 :at we are n accu/om$ to imm$iately excites curiosity4 ,if x 7 exceptional to climb trees1 ?r[ /ones1 ride aft] foxes1 :oev] did su* ?+s w\ld be view$ ) suspicion4 ,an eclipse1 a %oot+ />1 a solit>y b\ld] on ! hea?1 a /range animal1 or a ,*9aman 9 ! /reet1 calls = explanation2 & among "s nations1 eclipses h be5 expla9$ by suppos+ a dragon to dev\r ! sun or moon2 solit>y b\ld]s1 z ! missiles ( a giant2 & s on4 ,su* explanations1 pla9ly1 are attempts to reg>d r>e ph5om5a z simil> to o!rs t are bett] kn[n2 a snake hav+ be5 se5 to swall[ a rabbit1 a bigg] "o may swall[ ! sun3 a giant is suppos$ to be> mu* ! same relation to a b\ld] z a boy does to half a brick4 ,:5 any v common ?+ seems to ne$ no explanation1 x is because ! sev]al in/ances ( its occurr5ce are a suffici5t basis ( assimilation to satisfy mo/ ( u4 ,/ill1 if a reason = su* a ?+ be dem&$1 ! commone/ answ] has ! same implication1 namely1 t assimilation or classification is a suffici5t reason = x4 ,?us1 if climb+ trees is ref]r$ to ! ne$ ( ex]cise1 x is assimilat$ to runn+1 r[+1 etc42 if ! cu/oms ( a savage tribe are ref]r$ to ! comm& ( its gods1 !y are assimilat$ to ^? ?+s t are done at ! comm& ( *iefta9s4 ,explanation1 !n1 is a k9d ( classification2 x is ! f9d+ ( resemblance betwe5 ! ph5om5on 9 "q & o!r ph5om5a4 ,9 ,ma!matics1 ! explanation ( a !orem is ! same z its pro(1 & consi/s 9 %[+ t x repeats1 "u diff]5t conditions1 ! def9itions & axioms already assum$ & ! !orems already demon/rat$4 ,9 ,logic1 ! major premise ( e syllogism is an explanation ( ! conclusion2 = ! m9or premise ass]ts t ! conclusion is an example ( ! major premise4 ,9 ,concrete ,sci5ces1 to discov] ! cause ( a ph5om5on1 or to d]ive an empirical law f laws ( causation1 is to expla9 x2 because a cause is an inv>iable antec$5t1 & !re=e rem9ds u (1 or enables u to conceive1 an indef9ite numb] ( cases simil> to ! pres5t "o :]ev] ! cause exi/s4 ,x classifies ! pres5t case ) o!r in/ances ( causation1 or br+s x "u ! univ]sal law2 &1 z we h se5 t ! discov]y ( ! laws ( nature is ess5tially ! discov]y ( causes1 ! discov]y & d]ivation ( laws is sci5tific explanation4 ,! discov]y ( quantitative laws is especially satisfactory1 because x n only expla9s :y an ev5t happ5s at all1 b :y x happ5s j 9 ?is direction1 degree1 or am\nt2 & n only is ! giv5 relation ( cause & effect def9itely assimilat$ to o!r causal in/ances1 b ! effect is id5tifi$ ) ! cause z ! same matt] & en]gy r$i/ribut$2 :]e=e1 :e!r ! cons]vation ( matt] & en]gy be univ]sally true or n1 x mu/ /ill be an univ]sal po/ulate ( sci5tific explanation4 ,! m]e discov]y ( an empirical law ( co-exi/5ce1 z t ':ite tom-cats ) blue eyes are deaf'1 is inde$ some?+ bett] ?an an isolat$ fact3 e g5]al proposition relieves ! m9d ( a load ( facts2 &1 = _m p1 to be able to say--',x is always s'--may be en\gh2 b = sci5tific explanation we require to "k ! reason ( x1 t is1 ! cause4 ,/ill1 if ask$ to expla9 an axiom1 we c only say1 ',x is always s3' ?\gh x is "s relief to po9t out p>ticul> in/ances ( its realisation1 or to exhibit ! simil>ity ( its =m to t ( o!r axioms--z ( ! ,dictum to ! axiom ( equality4 #f4 ,!re are ?ree modes ( sci5tific ,explanation2 ,fir/1 ! analysis ( a ph5om5on into ! laws ( its causes & ! concurr5ce ( ^? causes4 ,! pump+ ( wat] implies 7#a7 pressure ( ! air1 7#b7 di/ribution ( pressure 9 a liquid1 7#c7 t motion takes ! direction ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,simil>ly1 t ?und] foll[s =k$ lightn+1 & t ! report ( a gun foll[s ! fla%1 are resolvable into 7#a7 ! dis*>ge ( electricity1 or ! explosion ( gunp[d]2 7#b7 di/ance ( ! obs]v] f ! ev5t2 7#c7 t light travels fa/] ?an s\nd4 ,! planet>y orbits are analysable into ! t5d5cy ( planets to fall into ! sun1 & _! t5d5cy to travel 9 a /raight l9e4 ,:5 ?is conception is help$ out by sw++ a ball r\nd by a /r+1 & !n lett+ x g1 to %[ :at w\ld happ5 to ! e>? if gravitation ceas$1 we see h[ ! recognition ( resemblance lies at ! bottom ( explanation4 ,secondly1 ! discov]y ( /eps ( causation betwe5 a cause & its remote effects2 ! int]polation & concat5ation ( causes4 ,! maxim ',no cats no clov]' is expla9$ by assign+ ! int]m$iate /eps 9 ! foll[+ s]ies2 t ! fructification ( r$ clov] dep5ds on ! visits ( humble-bees1 :o di/ribute ! poll5 9 seek+ honey2 t if field-mice are num]\s !y de/roy ! humble-bees' ne/s2 & t 7owls & weasels be+ ext]m9at$ by gamekeep]s7 ! de/ruction ( field-mice dep5ds ^u ! supply ( cats2 :i*1 !re=e1 are a remote condition ( ! clov] crop4 ,aga91 ! communication ( ?\ght by spee* is an example ( some?+ s common t x seems to ne$ no explanation2 yet to expla9 x is a long /ory4 ,a ?\ght 9 "o man's m9d is ! remote cause ( a simil> ?\ght 9 ano!r's3 "h we h 7#a7 a ?\ght associat$ ) m5tal words2 7#b7 a connection betwe5 ^! ?\ghts & "s tracts ( ! bra92 7#c7 a connection betwe5 ^! tracts ( ! bra9 & ! muscles ( ! l>ynx1 ! tongue & ! lips2 7#d7 movem5ts ( ! *e/1 l>ynx & m\?1 propell+ & modify+ waves ( air2 7#e7 ! imp++ ( ^! air-waves ^u ano!r man's e>1 & by a complex me*anism excit+ ! aural n]ve2 7#f7 ! transf] ( ?is excitation to c]ta9 tracts ( 8 bra92 7#g7 a connection !re ) s\nds ( words & _! associat$ ?\ghts4 ,if "o ( ^! l9ks fail1 !re is no communication4 ,?irdly1 ! subsumption ( sev]al laws "u "o m g5]al expression4 ,! t5d5cy ( bodies to fall to ! e>? & ! t5d5cy ( ! e>? itself 7) ! o!r planets7 to fall into ! sun1 are subsum$ "u ! g5]al law t ',all matt] gravitates4' ,! same law subsumes ! movem5ts ( ! tide4 ,by means ( ! notion ( specific gravity1 x includes 'levitation1' or ! actual ris+ ( "s bodies1 z ( corks 9 wat]1 ( balloons1 or flames 9 ! air3 ! fact be+ t ^! ?+s d n t5d to rise1 b to fall l ev]y?+ else2 only z ! wat] or air weighs m 9 proportion to its volume ?an corks or balloons1 ! latt] are pu%$ up4 ,?is process ( subsumption be>s ! same relation to second>y laws1 t ^! d to p>ticul> facts4 ,! g5]alisation ( _m p>ticul> facts 7t is1 a /atem5t ( t 9 :i* !y agree7 is a law2 & ! g5]alisation ( ^! laws 7t is1 aga91 a /atem5t ( t 9 :i* !y agree7 is a high] law2 & ?is process1 upw>ds or d[nw>ds1 is *>act]i/ic ( sci5tific progress4 ,! p]fect+ ( any sci5ce consi/s 9 compreh5d+ m & m ( ! facts )9 its prov9ce1 & 9 %[+ t !y all exemplify a small] & small] numb] ( pr9ciples1 :i* express _! mo/ pr(\nd resemblances4 ,^! ?ree modes ( explanation 7analysis1 int]polation1 subsumption7 all consi/ 9 g5]alis+ or assimilat+ ! ph5om5a4 ,! pressure ( ! air1 ( a liquid1 & motion 9 ! direction ( lea/ resi/ance1 are all common] facts ?an pump+2 t light travels fa/] ?an s\nd is a common] fact ?an a ?und]/orm or gun-fir+4 ,ea* ( ! laws--',cats kill mice1' ',mice de/roy humble-bees' ne/s1' ',humble-bees fructify r$ clov]'--is wid] & expresses ! resemblance ( m num]\s cases ?an ! law t ',clov] dep5ds on cats'2 because ea* ( !m is less subject to fur!r conditions4 ,simil>ly1 e /ep 9 ! communication ( ?\ght by language is less conditional1 & !re=e m g5]al1 ?an ! completion ( ! process4 ,9 all ! above cases1 aga91 ea* law into :i* ! ph5om5on 7:e!r pump+ or conv]sation7 is resolv$1 sugge/s a ho/ ( p>allel cases3 z ! modify+ ( air-waves by ! l>ynx & lips sugge/s ! v>i\s devices by :i* ! /r+s & orifices ( musical in/rum5ts modify ! "* ( notes4 ,subsumption consi/s entirely 9 prov+ ! exi/5ce ( an ess5tial simil>ity betwe5 ?+s :]e x 0 =m]ly n obs]v$3 z t ! gyrations ( ! moon1 ! fall ( apples1 & ! flotation ( bubbles are all examples ( gravitation3 or t ! purify+ ( ! blood by brea?+1 ! burn+ ( a c&le1 & ! ru/+ ( iron are all cases ( oxidation3 or t ! col\r+ ( ! und]side ( a r$-admiral's w+s1 ! spots ( ! giraffe1 ! %ape & attitude ( a /ick-cat]pill>1 ! immobility ( a bird on its ne/1 & c\ntless o!r cases1 ?\gh sup]ficially s diff]5t1 agree 9 ?is1 t !y conceal & !reby protect ! organism4 ,n any sort ( lik5ess1 h[ev]1 suffices = sci5tific explanation3 ! only satisfactory explanation ( concrete ?+s or ev5ts1 is to discov] _! lik5ess to o!rs 9 respect ( ,causation4 ,h5ce attempts to help ! und]/&+ by famili> comp>isons are (t5 worse ?an useless4 ,any ( ! above examples w %[ t ! fir/ result ( explanation is n to make a ph5om5on seem famili>1 b to put 7z ! say+ is7 'q a new face ^u x4' ,:51 inde$1 we h ?\ght x ov] 9 all its newly discov]$ relations1 we feel m at home ) x ?an ev]2 & ?is is "o s\rce ( our satisfaction 9 expla9+ ?+s2 & h5ce to sub/itute imm$iate famili>isation = radical explanation1 is ! easily besett+ s9 ( human und]/&+3 ! mo/ plausible ( fallacies1 ! mo/ attractive1 ! mo/ difficult to avoid ev5 :5 we are on our gu>d aga9/ x4 #g4 ,! explanation ( ,nature 7if x be admitt$ to consi/ 9 g5]alisation1 or ! discov]y ( resemblance amid/ diff]5ces7 c nev] be complet$4 ,=--7#a7 !re are 7z ,mill says7 facts1 namely1 fundam5tal /ates or processes ( consci\sness1 :i* are di/9ct2 9 o!r words1 !y d n resemble "o ano!r1 & !re=e _c be g5]alis$ or subsum$ "u "o explanation4 ,col\r1 heat1 smell1 s\nd1 t\*1 pleasure & pa91 are s diff]5t t !re is "o gr\p ( conditions to be s\ght = ea*2 & ! laws ( ^! conditions _c be subsum$ "u a m g5]al "o )\t leav+ out ! v facts to be expla9$4 ,a g5]al condition ( s5sation1 su* z ! /imulat+ ( ! s5sory organs ( a liv+ animal1 gives no acc\nt ( ! special *>act]s ( col\r1 smell1 etc42 :i* are1 h[ev]1 ! ph5om5a 9 "q2 & ea* ( !m has its own law4 ,nay1 ea* di/9ct s5sation-quality1 or degree1 mu/ h its own law2 = 9 ea* ultimate diff]5ce !re is some?+ t _c be assimilat$4 ,su* diff]5ces am\nt1 accord+ to exp]im5tal ,psy*ologi/s1 to m ?an #ej1jjj4 ,moreov]1 a neural process c nev] expla9 a consci\s process 9 ! way ( cause & effect2 = !re is no equival5ce betwe5 !m1 & "o c nev] absorb ! o!r4 7#b7 ,:5 physical sci5ce is treat$ objectively 7t is1 ) z little ref]5ce z possible to ! fact t all ph5om5a are only kn[n 9 relation to ! human m9d71 col\r1 heat1 smell1 s\nd 7consid]$ z s5sations7 are neglect$1 & att5tion is fix$ ^u c]ta9 ( _! conditions3 ext5sion1 figure1 resi/ance1 weight1 motion1 ) _! d]ivatives1 d5sity1 ela/icity1 etc4 ,^! are call$ ! ,prim>y ,qualities ( ,matt]2 & x is assum$ t !y belong to matt] by itself1 :e!r we look on or n3 :il/ col\r1 heat1 s\nd1 etc41 are call$ ,second>y ,qualities1 z dep5d+ entirely ^u ! reaction ( "s consci\s animal4 ,by physical sci5ce ! _w is consid]$ 9 ! ab/ract1 z a p]petual r$i/ribution ( matt] & en]gy1 & ! di/ract+ multiplicity ( s5sations seems to be got rid (4 ,b1 n to dwell ^u ! difficulty ( r$uc+ ! activities ( life & *emi/ry to me*anical pr9ciples--ev5 if ?is 7 done1 complete explanation c\ld n be atta9$4 ,=--7a7 z explanation is ! discov]y ( causes1 we no soon] succe$ 9 assign+ ! causes ( ! pres5t /ate ( ! _w ?an we h to inquire into ! causes ( ^? causes1 & aga9 ! /ill e>li] causes1 & s on to inf9ity4 ,b1 ?is be+ impossible1 we mu/ be cont5t1 :]ev] we /op1 to contemplate ! uncaus$1 t is1 ! unexpla9$2 & !n all t foll[s is only relatively expla9$4 ,besides ?is difficulty1 h[ev]1 !re is ano!r t prev5ts ! p]fect+ ( any !ory ( ! ab/ract mat]ial _w1 namely 7b71 t x involves m ?an "o fir/ pr9ciple4 ,= we h se5 t ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature is n really a pr9ciple1 b a m]ely nom9al g5]alisation1 s9ce x _c be def9itely /at$2 &1 !re=e1 ! pr9ciples ( ,contradiction1 ,m$iate ,equality1 & ,causation rema9 incapable ( subsumption2 nor c any "o ( !m be r$uc$ to ano!r3 s t !y rema9 unexpla9$4 7#c7 ,ano!r limit to explanation lies 9 ! inf9ite "* ( e p>ticul> fact2 s t we may "k ! laws ( _m ( its prop]ties & yet come f> %ort ( und]/&+ x z a :ole4 ,a lump ( s&/one 9 ! road3 we may "k a good deal ab\t its specific gravity1 temp]ature1 *emical composition1 geological conditions2 b if we inquire ! causes ( ! p>ticul> modifications x exhibits ( ^! prop]ties1 & fur!r :y x is j s big1 conta9+ s _m molecules1 nei!r m nor less1 dispos$ 9 j su* relations to "o ano!r z to give x ?is p>ticul> figure1 :y x lies exactly !re r ?an a y>d (f1 & s =?1 we %all get no explanation ( all ?is4 ,! causes det]m9+ ea* p>ticul> ph5om5on are inf9ite1 & c nev] be comput$2 &1 !re=e1 x c nev] be fully expla9$4 #h4 ,analogy is us$ 9 two s5ses3 7#a7 = ! resemblance ( relations betwe5 t]ms t h little or no resemblance--z ,! w9d drives ! cl\ds z a %eph]d drives 8 %eep--:]e w9d & %eph]d1 cl\ds & %eep are totally unlike4 ,su* analogies are a fav\rite figure 9 poetry & rhetoric1 b _c prove any?+4 ,= valid reason+ !re mu/ be p>allel cases1 accord+ to sub/ance & attribute1 or cause & effect1 or proportion3 e4g4 ,z cattle & de] are to h]bivor\sness1 s are camels2 ,z bodies ne> ! e>? fall t[>d x1 s does ! moon2 ,z #b is to #c s is #d to #f4 7#b7 ,analogy is discuss$ 9 ,logic z a k9d ( probable pro( bas$ ^u imp]fect simil>ity 7z ! be/ t c be discov]$7 betwe5 ! data ( comp>ison & ! subject ( our inf]5ce4 ,l ,d$uction & ,induction1 x assumes t ?+s :i* are alike 9 "s respects are also alike 9 o!rs2 b x diff]s f !m 9 n appeal+ to a def9ite g5]al law assign+ ! ess5tial po9ts ( resemblance ^u :i* ! argum5t relies4 ,9 ,d$uctive pro(1 ?is is done by ! major premise ( e syllogism3 if ! major says t ',all fat m5 are humori/s1' & we c e/abli% ! m9or1 ',x is a fat man1' we h secur$ ! ess5tial resemblance t c>ries ! conclusion4 ,9 induction1 ! ,law ( ,causation & its repres5tatives1 ! ,canons1 s]ve ! same purpose1 specify+ ! ess5tial m>ks ( a cause4 ,b1 9 ,analogy1 ! resemblance reli$ on _c be /at$ categorically4 ,if we argue t ,m>s is inhabit$ because x resembles ! datum1 our ,e>?1 7#a7 9 be+ a planet1 7#b7 nei!r too hot nor too cold = life1 7#c7 hav+ an atmosph]e1 7#d7 l& & wat]1 etc41 we are n prep>$ to say t ',all planets hav+ ^! *>act]i/ics are inhabit$4' ,x is1 !re=e1 n a d$uction2 & s9ce we d n "k ! orig9al causes ( life on ! ,e>?1 we c]ta9ly _c %[ by induction t adequate causes exi/ 9 ,m>s4 ,we rely1 !n1 ^u "s su* vague notion ( ,uni=mity z t ',?+s alike 9 "s po9ts are alike 9 o!rs'2 :i*1 pla9ly1 is ei!r false or nugatory4 ,b if ! l9e> m>k+s ^u ! surface ( ,m>s indicate a sy/em ( canals1 ! inf]5ce t he has intellig5t inhabitants is no long] analogical1 s9ce canals c h no o!r cause4 ,! cog5cy ( any pro( dep5ds ^u ! "* & def9it5ess ( ! lik5ess :i* "o ph5om5on be>s to ano!r2 b ,analogy tru/s to ! g5]al quantity ( lik5ess betwe5 !m1 9 ignorance ( :at may be ! really important lik5ess4 ,if1 hav+ tri$ ) a /one1 an apple1 a bullet1 etc41 we f9d t !y all break an ord9>y w9d[1 & !nce inf] t a cricket ball w d s1 we d n reason by analogy1 b make in/9ctively a d$uctive ext5sion ( an induction1 m]ely omitt+ ! explicit g5]alisation1 ',all missiles ( a c]ta9 weight1 size & solidity break w9d[s4' ,b if1 kn[+ no?+ ( snakes except t ! vip] is v5om\s1 a *ild runs away f a grass-snake1 he argues by analogy2 &1 ?\gh 8 conduct is prud5tially ju/ifiable1 8 inf]5ce is wrong3 = !re is no law t ',all snakes are v5om\s1' b only t ^? are v5om\s t h a c]ta9 /ructure ( fang2 a po9t :i* he did n /ay to exam9e4 ,! discov]y ( an analogy1 !n1 may sugge/ hypo!ses2 x /ates a problem--to f9d ! causes ( ! analogy2 & ?us x may lead to sci5tific pro(2 b m]ely analogical argum5t is only probable 9 v>i\s degrees4 7#a7 ,! great] ! numb] & importance ( ! po9ts ( agreem5t1 ! m probable is ! inf]5ce4 7#b7 ,! great] ! numb] & importance ( ! po9ts ( diff]5ce1 ! less probable is ! inf]5ce4 7#c7 ,! great] ! numb] ( unkn[n prop]ties 9 ! subject ( our argum5t1 ! less ! value ( any inf]5ce f ^? t we d "k4 ,( c\rse ! numb] ( unkn[n prop]ties c itself be e/imat$ only by analogy4 ,9 ! case ( ,m>s1 !y are probably v num]\s2 &1 ap>t f ! evid5ce ( canals1 ! preval5t assumption t !re are intellig5t be+s 9 t planet1 seems to re/ less ^u probability ?an on a curi\sly imag9ative ext5sion ( ! greg>i\s s5tim5t1 ! *illy discom=t ( mank9d at ! ?\ght ( be+ alone 9 ! univ]se1 & a hope t !re may be conv]sable & 'clubable' s\ls ne>] ?an ! ,dog-/>4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,probability #a4 ,*ance 0 once believ$ to be a di/9ct p[] 9 ! _w1 di/urb+ ! regul>ity ( ,nature2 ?\gh1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 x 0 only op]ative 9 occurr5ces bel[ ! sph]e ( ! moon4 ,z1 h[ev]1 x is n[ admitt$ t e ev5t 9 ! _w is due to "s cause1 if we c only trace ! connection1 :il/ nev]!less ! notion ( ,*ance is /ill useful :5 rightly conceiv$1 we h to f9d "s o!r gr\nd = x ?an t ( a spontane\s caprici\s =ce inh]5t 9 ?+s4 ,= su* a conception c h no place 9 any logical int]pretation ( ,nature3 x c nev] be inf]r$ f a pr9ciple1 see+ t e pr9ciple expresses an uni=mity2 nor1 aga91 if ! exi/5ce ( a caprici\s p[] be grant$1 c any inf]5ce be drawn f x4 ,impossible alike z premise & z conclusion1 = ,reason x is no?+ at all4 ,e ev5t is a result ( causes3 b ! multitude ( =ces & ! v>iety ( collocations be+ immeasurably great1 ! ov]:elm+ majority ( ev5ts occurr+ ab\t ! same "t are only relat$ by ,causation s remotely t ! connection _c be foll[$4 ,:il/ my p5 moves along ! pap]1 a cab rattles d[n ! /reet1 bells 9 ! neighb\r+ /eeple *ime ! qu>t]1 a girl 9 ! next h\se is practis+ h] scales1 & ?r\gh\t ! _w innum]able ev5ts are happ5+ :i* may nev] happ5 toge!r aga92 s t %\ld "o ( !m recur1 we h no reason to expect any ( ! o!rs4 ,?is is ,*ance1 or *ance co9cid5ce4 ,! ^w ,co9cid5ce is vulg>ly us$ only = ! inexplicable concurr5ce ( int]e/+ ev5ts--q a co9cid5ce6 ,on ! o!r h&1 _m ?+s are n[ happ5+ toge!r or co9cid+1 t w d s1 = assignable reasons1 aga9 & aga92 ?\s&s ( m5 are leav+ ! ,city1 :o leave at ! same h\r five days a week4 ,b ?is is n *ance2 x is causal co9cid5ce due to ! cu/om ( bus9ess 9 ?is c\ntry1 z det]m9$ by our latitude & longitude & o!r circum/ances4 ,no d\bt ! above *ance co9cid5ces--writ+1 cab-rattl+1 *imes1 scales1 etc4--are causally connect$ at "s po9t ( pa/ "t4 ,!y 7 pr$et]m9$ by ! condition ( ! _w t5 m9utes ago2 & t 0 due to e>li] conditions1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 ev5 to ! =mation ( ! planet4 ,b :atev] connection !re may h be51 we h no su* k ( x z to be able to d$uce ! co9cid5ce1 or calculate its recurr5ce4 ,h5ce ,*ance is def9$ by ,mill to be3 ,co9cid5ce giv+ no gr\nd to inf] uni=mity4 ,/ill1 "s *ance co9cid5ces d recur accord+ to laws ( _! own3 ,i say "s1 b x may be all4 ,if ! _w is f9ite1 ! possible comb9ations ( its elem5ts are exhau/ible2 &1 9 "t1 :atev] conditions ( ! _w h concurr$ w concur aga91 & 9 ! same relation to =m] conditions4 ,?is writ+1 t cab1 ^? *imes1 ^? scales w co9cide aga92 ! ,argonautic exp$ition1 & ! ,trojan w>1 & all our o!r tr\bles w be r5ew$4 ,b let u consid] "s m manageable in/ance1 su* z ! ?r[+ ( dice4 ,e "o :o has play$ mu* ) dice kn[s t d\ble sixes are sometimes ?r[n1 & sometimes d\ble aces4 ,su* co9cid5ces d n happ5 once & only once2 !y occur aga9 & aga91 & a great numb] ( trials w %[ t1 ?\gh _! recurr5ce has n ! regul>ity ( cause & effect1 x yet has a law ( its own1 namely--a t5d5cy to av]age regul>ity4 ,9 #aj1jjj ?r[s !re w be "s numb] ( d\ble sixes2 & ! great] ! numb] ( ?r[s ! m closely w ! av]age recurr5ce ( d\ble sixes1 or d\ble aces1 approximate to "o 9 ?irty-six4 ,su* a law ( av]age recurr5ce is ! basis ( ,probability4 ,*ance be+ ! fact ( co9cid5ce )\t assignable cause1 ,probability is expectation bas$ on ! av]age frequ5cy ( its happ5+4 #b4 ,probability is an ambigu\s t]m4 ,usually1 :5 we say t an ev5t is 'probable1' we mean t x is m likely ?an n to happ54 ,b1 sci5tifically1 an ev5t is probable if our expectation ( its occurr5ce is less ?an c]ta9ty1 z long z ! ev5t is n impossible4 ,probability1 ?us conceiv$1 is repres5t$ by a fraction4 ,tak+ #a to /& = c]ta9ty1 & #j = impossibility1 probability may be #iii_/ajjj1 or #a_/ajjj1 or 7g5]ally7 #a_/m4 ,! d5om9ator repres5ts ! numb] ( times t an ev5t happ5s1 & ! num]ator ! numb] ( times t x co9cides ) ano!r ev5t4 ,9 ?r[+ a die1 ! probability ( ace turn+ up is express$ by putt+ ! numb] ( ?r[s = ! d5om9ator & ! numb] ( times t ace is ?r[n = ! num]ator2 & we may assume t ! m trials we make ! ne>] w ! result+ fraction approximate to #a_/f4 ,in/ead ( speak+ ( ! '?r[+ ( ! die' & its 'turn+ up ace' z two ev5ts1 ! =m] is call$ '! ev5t' & ! latt] '! way ( its happ5+4' ,& ^! expressions may easily be ext5d$ to cov] relations ( di/9ct ev5ts2 z :5 two m5 %oot at a m>k & we desire to repres5t ! probability ( bo? hitt+ ! bull's eye toge!r1 ea* %ot may c\nt z an ev5t 7d5om9ator7 & ! co9cid5ce ( 'bull's-eyes' z ! way ( its happ5+ 7num]ator74 ,x is also common to speak ( probability z a proportion4 ,if ! fraction express+ ! probability ( ace be+ ca/ is #a_/f1 ! proportion ( cases 9 :i* x happ5s is #a to #e2 or 7z x is1 p]haps1 /ill m commonly put7 '! *ances are #e to #a aga9/ x4' #c4 ,z to ! gr\nds ( probability op9ions diff]4 ,accord+ to "o view ! gr\nd is subjective3 probability dep5ds1 x is said1 ^u ! quantity ( our ,belief 9 ! happ5+ ( a c]ta9 ev5t1 or 9 its happ5+ 9 a p>ticul> way4 ,accord+ to ! o!r view ! gr\nd is objective1 &1 9 fact1 is no?+ else ?an exp]i5ce1 :i* is mo/ tru/wor?y :5 c>efully express$ 9 /ati/ics4 ,to ! subjective view x may be object$1 7a7 t belief _c by itself be satisfactorily measur$4 ,no "o w ma9ta9 t belief1 m]ely z a /ate ( m9d1 always has a def9ite num]ical value ( :i* "o is consci\s1 z #a_/ajj or #a_/aj4 ,let anybody mix a numb] ( lett]s 9 a bag1 kn[+ no?+ ( !m except t "o ( !m is ,x1 & !n draw !m "o by "o1 endeav\r+ ea* "t to e/imate ! value ( 8 belief t ! next w be ,x2 c he say t 8 belief 9 ! draw+ ( ,x next "t regul>ly increases z ! numb] ( lett]s left decreases8 ,if n1 we see t 7b7 belief does n uni=mly correspond ) ! /ate ( ! facts4 ,if 9 su* a trial z propos$ above1 we really wi% to draw ,x1 z :5 look+ = some?+ 9 a numb] ( boxes1 h[ common x is1 aft] a few failures1 to feel q hopeless & to say3 ,oh1 ( c\rse x w be 9 ! la/4 ,= belief is subject to hope & fe>1 temp]am5t1 passion1 & prejudice1 & n m]ely to rational consid]ations4 ,& x is useless to appeal to '! ,wise ,man1' ! purely rational judge ( probability1 unless he is producible4 ,or1 if x be said t belief is a %ort cut to ! evaluation ( exp]i5ce1 because x is ! resultant ( all pa/ exp]i5ce1 we may reply t ?is is n true4 ,= "o /rik+ exp]i5ce1 or two or ?ree rec5t ones1 w imm5sely outweigh a great numb] ( fa9t or remote exp]i5ces4 ,moreov]1 ! exp]i5ce ( two m5 may be practically equal1 :il/ _! beliefs ^u any "q greatly diff]4 ,any two ,engli%m5 h ab\t ! same exp]i5ce1 p]sonal & ance/ral1 ( ! wea!r2 yet _! beliefs 9 ! saw t 'if x ra9 on ,/4 ,s)9's ,day x w ra9 = =ty days aft]1' may diff] z confid5t expectation & %e] scepticism4 ,^u :i* ( ^! beliefs %all we gr\nd ! probability ( =ty days' ra98 ,b 7c7 at any rate1 if ,probability is to be connect$ ) ,inductive ,logic1 x mu/ re/ ^u ! same gr\nd1 namely--obs]vation4 ,induction1 9 any p>ticul> case1 is n cont5t ) beliefs or op9ions1 b aims at te/+1 v]ify+ or correct+ !m by appeal+ to ! facts2 & ,probability has ! same object & ! same basis4 ,9 "s cases1 inde$1 ! conditions ( an ev5t are suppos$ to be ma!matically pr$et]m9$1 z 9 toss+ a p5ny1 ?r[+ dice1 deal+ c>ds4 ,9 ?r[+ a die1 ! ways ( happ5+ are six2 9 toss+ a p5ny only two1 head & tail3 & we usually assume t ! odds ) a die are fairly #e to #a aga9/ ace1 :il/ ) a p5ny '! bett+ is ev5' on head or tail4 ,/ill1 ?is assumption re/s ^u ano!r1 t ! die is p]fectly fair1 or t ! head & tail ( a p5ny are exactly alike2 & ?is is n true4 ,) an ord9>y die or p5ny1 a v great numb] ( trials w\ld1 no d\bt1 give an av]age approximat+ to #a_/f or #a_/b2 yet might always leave a c]ta9 excess "o way or ! o!r1 :i* w\ld also become m def9ite z ! trials w5t on2 ?us %[+ t ! die or p5ny did n satisfy ! ma!matical hypo!sis4 ,buffon is said to h toss$ a co9 #djdj times1 obta9+ #aiib heads & #bjdh tails2 a pupil ( ,de ,morgan toss$ #djib times1 obta9+ #bjdh heads & #bjdd tails4 ,!re are o!r important cases 9 :i* probability is e/imat$ & num]ically express$1 al?\gh /ati/ical evid5ce directly be>+ ^u ! po9t 9 "q _c be obta9$2 z 9 bett+ ^u a race2 or 9 ! prices ( /ocks & %>es1 :i* are suppos$ to repres5t ! probability ( _! pay+1 or cont9u+ to pay1 a c]ta9 rate ( int]e/4 ,b ! judgm5t ( exp]ts 9 su* matt]s is c]ta9ly bas$ ^u exp]i5ce2 & great pa9s are tak5 to make ! evid5ce z def9ite z possible by comp>+ records ( spe$1 or by f9ancial e/imates2 ?\gh some?+ mu/ /ill be all[$ = reports ( ! condition ( horses1 or ( ! prospects ( w>1 h>ve/s1 etc4 ,h[ev]1 :]e /ati/ical evid5ce is obta9able1 no "o dreams ( e/imat+ probability by ! quantity ( 8 belief4 ,insurance (fices1 deal+ ) fire1 %ipwreck1 dea?1 accid5t1 etc41 prep>e elaborate /ati/ics ( ^! ev5ts1 & regulate _! rates accord+ly4 ,ap>t f /ati/ics1 at :at rate ought ! lives ( m5 ag$ #dj to be insur$1 9 ord] to leave a pr(it ( #e p] c5t4 ^u #ajjj payable at ea* man's dea?8 ,is 'quantity ( belief' a suffici5t basis = do+ ?is sum8 #d4 ,! gr\nd ( probability is exp]i5ce1 !n1 &1 :5ev] possible1 /ati/ics2 :i* are a k9d ( induction4 ,x has inde$ be5 urg$ t induction is itself bas$ ^u probability2 t ! subtlety1 complexity & secrecy ( nature are su*1 t we are nev] q sure t we fully "k ev5 :at we h obs]v$2 & t1 z = laws1 ! conditions ( ! univ]se at l>ge may at any mom5t be completely *ang$2 s t all imp]fect inductions1 includ+ ! law ( causation itself1 are only probable4 ,b1 cle>ly1 ?is doctr9e turns ^u ano!r ambiguity 9 ! ^w 'probable4' ,x may be us$ 9 ! s5se ( 'less ?an absolutely c]ta9'2 & su* d\btless is ! condition ( all human k1 9 comp>ison ) ! compreh5sive intuition ( ar*-angels3 or x may mean 'less ?an c]ta9 accord+ to our /&>d ( c]ta9ty1' t is1 9 comp>ison ) ! law ( causation & its d]ivatives4 ,we may suppose "s "o to object t by ?is relative /&>d ev5 empirical laws _c be call$ 'only probable' z long z we '"k no exception to !m'2 = t is all t c be said = ! boa/$ law ( causation2 & t1 accord+ly1 we c frame no fraction to repres5t _! probability4 ,t 'all swans are :ite' 0 at "o "t1 f ?is po9t ( view1 n probable b c]ta92 ?\gh we n[ "k x to be false4 ,x w\ld h be5 an indecorum to call x only probable z long z no o!r-col\r$ swan _h be5 discov]$2 n m]ely because ! quantity ( belief am\nt$ to c]ta9ty1 b because ! numb] ( ev5ts 7see+ a swan7 & ! numb] ( _! happ5+s 9 a c]ta9 way 7be+ :ite7 7 equal1 & !re=e ! evid5ce am\nt$ to #a or c]ta9ty4 ,b1 9 fact1 su* an empirical law is only probable2 & ! e/imate ( its probability mu/ be bas$ on ! numb] ( times t simil> laws h be5 f\nd liable to exceptions4 ,alb9ism is ( frequ5t occurr5ce2 & x is common to f9d closely alli$ v>ieties ( animals diff]+ 9 col\r4 ,_h ! evid5ce be5 duly weigh$1 x c\ld nev] h seem$ m ?an probable t 'all swans are :ite4' ,b :at law1 approa*+ ! compreh5siv5ess ( ! law ( causation1 pres5ts any exceptions8 ,suppos+ evid5ce to be ultimately no?+ b accumulat$ exp]i5ce1 ! am\nt ( x 9 fav\r ( causation is incomp>ably great] ?an ! mo/ t has ev] be5 advanc$ to %[ ! probability ( any o!r k9d ( ev5t2 & e relation ( ev5ts :i* is %[n to h ! m>ks ( causation obta9s ! support ( t incomp>ably great] body ( evid5ce4 ,h5ce ! only way 9 :i* causation c be call$ probable1 = u1 is by consid]+ x z ! upw>d limit 7#a7 to :i* ! s]ies ( probabilities t5ds2 z impossibility is ! d[nw>d limit 7#j74 ,induction1 'humanly speak+1' does n re/ on probability2 b ! probability ( concrete ev5ts 7n ( m]e ma!matical ab/ractions l ! fall+ ( absolutely true dice7 re/s on induction &1 !re=e1 on causation4 ,! inductive evid5ce und]ly+ an e/imate ( probability may be ( ?ree k9ds3 7a7 direct /ati/ics ( ! ev5ts 9 "q2 z :5 we f9d t1 at ! age ( #bj1 ! av]age expectation ( life is #ci-dj ye>s4 ,?is is an empirical law1 &1 if we d n "k ! causes ( any ev5t1 we mu/ be cont5t ) an empirical law4 ,b 7b7 if we d "k ! causes ( an ev5t1 & ! causes :i* may prev5t its happ5+1 & c e/imate ! comp>ative frequ5cy ( _! occurr+1 we may d$uce ! probability t ! effect 7t is1 ! ev5t 9 "q7 w occur4 ,or 7c7 we may comb9e ^! two me?ods1 v]ify+ ea* by means ( ! o!r4 ,n[ ei!r ! me?od 7b7 or 7a =tiori7 ! me?od 7c7 7bo? dep5d+ on causation7 is m tru/wor?y ?an ! me?od 7a7 by itself4 ,b1 fur!r1 a m]ely empirical /ati/ical law w only be true z long z ! causes influ5c+ ! ev5t rema9 ! same4 ,a die may be f\nd to turn ace once 9 six ?r[s1 on ! av]age1 9 close accordance ) ma!matical !ory2 b if we load x on t facet ! results w be v diff]5t4 ,s x is ) ! expectation ( life1 or fire1 or %ipwreck4 ,! increas$ virul5ce ( "s epidemic su* z influ5za1 an outbreak ( an>*ic inc5di>ism1 a moral epidemic ( ov]-load+ %ips1 may deceive ! hopes ( insurance (fices4 ,h5ce we see1 aga91 t probability dep5ds ^u causation1 n causation ^u probability4 ,t unc]ta9ty ( an ev5t :i* arises n f ignorance ( ! law ( its cause1 b f our n kn[+ :e!r ! cause itself does or does n occur at any p>ticul> "t1 is ,cont+5cy4 #e4 ,! nature ( an av]age supposes deviations f x4 ,deviations f an av]age1 or errors1 are assum$ to con=m to ! law 7#a7 t ! great] errors are less frequ5t ?an ! small]1 s t mo/ ev5ts approximate to ! av]age2 & 7#b7 t errors h no bias1 b are equally frequ5t & equally great 9 bo? directions f ! mean1 s t !y are scatt]$ symmetrically4 ,h5ce _! di/ribution may be express$ by "s su* figure z ! foll[+3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,"h o is ! av]age ev5t1 & oy repres5ts ! numb] ( av]age ev5ts4 ,along ox1 9 ei!r direction1 deviations are measur$4 ,at p ! am\nt ( error or deviation is op2 & ! numb] ( su* deviations is repres5t$ by ! l9e or ord9ate pa4 ,at s ! deviation is os2 & ! numb] ( su* deviations is express$ by sb4 ,z ! deviations gr[ great]1 ! numb] ( !m gr[s less4 ,on ! o!r side ( o1 t[>d -x1 at di/ances1 op'1 os' 7equal to op1 os7 ! l9es p'a'1 s'b' repres5t ! numb]s ( ^? errors 7equal to pa1 sb74 ,if o is ! av]age height ( ! adult m5 ( a nation1 7say7 #e ft4 #f 941 s' & s may /& = #e ft4 & #f ft42 m5 ( #d ft4 #f 94 lie fur!r t[>d -x1 & m5 ( #f ft4 #f 94 fur!r t[>d x4 ,!re are limits to ! /ature ( human be+s 7or to any k9d ( animal or plant7 9 bo? directions1 because ( ! physical conditions ( g5]ation & bir?4 ,) su* ev5ts ! curve b'yb meets ! abscissa at "s po9t 9 ea* direction2 ?\gh :]e ?is occurs c only be kn[n by cont9ually measur+ dw>fs & giants4 ,b 9 ?r[+ dice or toss+ co9s1 :il/ ! av]age occurr5ce ( ace is once 9 six ?r[s1 & ! av]age occurr5ce ( 'tail' is once 9 two tosses1 !re is no necess>y limit to ! sequ5ces ( ace or ( 'tail' t may occur 9 an inf9ite numb] ( trials4 ,to provide = su* cases ! curve is drawn z if x nev] t\*$ ! abscissa4 ,t "s su* figure z t giv5 above describes a frequ5t *>act]i/ic ( an av]age ) ! deviations f x1 may be %[n 9 two ways3 7#a7 ,by arrang+ ! /ati/ical results ( any homog5e\s class ( measurem5ts2 :5 x is (t5 f\nd t !y d1 9 fact1 approximately con=m to ! figure2 t v _m ev5ts are ne> ! av]age2 t errors are symmetrically di/ribut$ on ei!r side1 & t ! great] errors are ! r>]4 7#b7 ,by ma!matical demon/ration bas$ ^u ! supposition t ea* ( ! ev5ts 9 "q is influ5c$1 m or less1 by a numb] ( unkn[n conditions common to !m all1 & t ^! conditions are indep5d5t ( "o ano!r4 ,= !n1 9 r>e cases1 all ! conditions w op]ate fav\rably 9 "o way1 & ! m5 w be tall2 or 9 ! opposite way1 & ! m5 w be %ort2 9 m num]\s cases1 _m ( ! conditions w op]ate 9 "o direction1 & w be p>tially cancell$ by a few oppos+ !m2 :il/ 9 /ill m cases oppos$ conditions w approximately balance "o ano!r & produce ! av]age ev5t or some?+ ne> x4 ,! results w !n con=m to ! above figure4 ,f ! above assumption x foll[s t ! symmetrical curve describes only a 'homog5e\s class' ( measurem5ts2 t is1 a class no portion ( :i* is mu* influ5c$ by conditions peculi> to itself4 ,if ! class is n homog5e\s1 because "s portion ( x is subject to peculi> conditions1 ! curve w %[ a hump on "o side or ! o!r4 ,suppose we are tabulat+ ! ages at :i* ,engli%m5 die :o h rea*$ ! age ( #bj1 we may f9d t ! greate/ numb] die at #ci 7#ai ye>s be+ ! av]age expectation ( life at #bj7 & t z f> z t age ! curve upw>ds is regul>1 & t beyond ! age ( #ci x beg9s to desc5d regul>ly1 b t on approa*+ #de x bulges out "s way be=e resum+ its regul> desc5t--?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,su* a hump 9 ! curve might be due to ! pres5ce ( a consid]able body ( teetotal]s1 ^: longevity 0 increas$ by ! peculi> condition ( ab/a9+ f alcohol1 & ^: av]age age 0 #de1 #f ye>s m ?an ! av]age = common m54 ,aga91 if ! gr\p we are measur+ be subject to selection 7su* z ,briti% soldi]s1 = :i* pr(ession all volunte]s bel[ a c]ta9 height--say1 #e ft4 #e 94--are reject$71 ! curve w fall /eeply on "o side1 ?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,if1 above a c]ta9 height1 volunte]s are also reject$1 ! curve w fall abruptly on bo? sides4 ,! av]age is suppos$ to be #e ft4 #h 94 ,! di/ribution ( ev5ts is describ$ by '"s su* curve' z t giv5 9 ,fig4 #aa2 b diff]5t gr\ps ( ev5ts may pres5t figures or surfaces 9 :i* ! slopes ( ! curves are v diff]5t1 namely1 m or less /eep2 & if ! curve is v /eep1 ! figure runs into a peak2 :]eas1 if ! curve is gradual1 ! figure is comp>atively flat4 ,9 ! latt] case1 :]e ! figure is flat1 few] ev5ts w closely clu/] ab\t ! av]age1 & ! deviations w be great]4 ,suppose t we "k no?+ ( a giv5 ev5t except t x belongs to a c]ta9 class or s]ies1 :at c we v5ture to inf] ( x f our k ( ! s]ies8 ,let ! ev5t be ! cephalic index ( an ,engli%man4 ,! cephalic index is ! bread? ( a skull #ajj & divid$ by ! l5g? ( x2 e4g4 if a skull is #h 94 long & #f 94 broad1 7#fajj7_/hge4 ,we "k t ! av]age ,engli% skull has an index ( #gh4 ,! skull ( ! giv5 individual1 !re=e1 is m likely to h t index ?an any o!r4 ,/ill1 _m skulls deviate f ! av]age1 & we %\ld l to "k :at is ! probable error 9 ?is case4 ,! probable error is ! measurem5t t divides ! deviations f ! av]age 9 ei!r direction into halves1 s t !re are z _m ev5ts hav+ a great] deviation z !re are ev5ts hav+ a less deviation4 ,if1 9 ,fig4 #aa above1 we h arrang$ ! measurem5ts ( ! cephalic index ( ,engli% adult males1 & if at o 7! av]age or mean7 ! index is #gh1 & if ! l9e pa divides ! "r side ( ! fig4 into halves1 !n op is ! probable error4 ,if ! measurem5t at p is #hj1 ! probable error is #b4 ,simil>ly1 on ! left h&1 ! probable error is op'1 & ! measurem5t at p' is #gf4 ,we may inf]1 !n1 t ! skull ( ! man be=e u is m likely to h an index ( #gh ?an any o!r2 if any o!r1 x is equally likely to lie betwe5 #hj & #gf1 or to lie outside !m2 b z ! numb]s rise above #hj to ! "r1 or fall bel[ #gf to ! left1 x rapidly becomes less & less likely t !y describe ?is skull4 ,9 su* cases z heights ( m5 or skull measurem5ts1 :]e great numb]s ( specim5s exi/1 ! av]age w be actually pres5t$ by _m ( !m2 b if we take a small gr\p1 su* z ! measurem5ts ( a college class1 x may happ5 t ! av]age height 7say1 #e ft4 #h 947 is n ! actual height ( any "o man4 ,ev5 !n !re w g5]ally be a clos] clu/] ( ! actual heights ab\t t numb] ?an ab\t any o!r4 ,/ill1 ) v few cases be=e u1 x may be bett] to take ! m$ian ?an ! av]age4 ,! m$ian is t ev5t on ei!r side ( :i* !re are equal numb]s ( deviations4 ,"o advantage ( ?is proc$ure is t x may save "t & tr\ble4 ,to f9d approximately ! av]age height ( a class1 arrange ! m5 9 ord] ( height1 take ! middle "o & measure him4 ,a fur!r advantage ( ?is me?od is t x excludes ! influ5ce ( extraord9>y deviations4 ,suppose we h sev5 cephalic indices1 f skeletons f\nd 9 ! same b>r[1 #ge-a_/b1 #gf1 #gh1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj-a_/b1 #hf4 ,! av]age is #gi2 b ?is numb] is swoll5 unduly by ! la/ measurem5t2 & ! m$ian1 #gh1 is m fairly repres5tative ( ! s]ies2 t is to say1 ) a great] numb] ( skulls ! av]age w\ld probably h be5 ne>] #gh4 ,to make a s+le measurem5t ( a ph5om5on does n give "o mu* confid5ce4 ,ano!r measurem5t is made2 & !n1 if !re is no opportunity = m1 "o takes ! mean or av]age ( ! two4 ,b :y8 ,= ! result may c]ta9ly be worse ?an ! fir/ measurem5t4 ,suppose t ! ev5ts ,i am measur+ are 9 fact fairly describ$ by ,fig4 ,,ii1 al?\gh 7at ! outset7 ,i "k no?+ ab\t !m2 & t my fir/ measurem5t gives p1 & my second s2 ! av]age ( !m is worse ?an p4 ,/ill1 be+ yet ignorant ( ! di/ribution ( ^! ev5ts1 ,i d rightly 9 tak+ ! av]age4 ,=1 z x happ5s1 #c_/d ( ! ev5ts lie to ! left ( p2 s t if ! fir/ trial gives p1 !n ! av]age ( p & any subsequ5t trial t fell ne>] ?an 7say7 s' on ! opposite side1 w\ld be bett] ?an p2 & s9ce deviations great] ?an s' are r>e1 ! *ances are ne>ly #c to #a t ! tak+ ( an av]age w improve ! obs]vation4 ,only if ! fir/ trial give o1 or fall )9 a little m ?an #a_/b p on ei!r side ( o1 w ! *ances be aga9/ any improvem5t by try+ aga9 & tak+ an av]age4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 we _c "k ! position ( our fir/ trial 9 relation to o1 x is always prud5t to try aga9 & take ! av]age2 & ! m trials we c make & av]age1 ! bett] is ! result4 ,! av]age ( a numb] ( obs]vations is call$ a ,r$uc$ ,obs]vation4 ,we may h reason to believe t "s ( our measurem5ts are bett] ?an o!rs because !y h be5 tak5 by a bett] tra9$ obs]v]1 or by ! same obs]v] 9 a m delib]ate way1 or ) bett] in/rum5ts1 & s =?4 ,if s1 su* obs]vations %\ld be 'weight$1' or giv5 m importance 9 our calculations2 & a simple way ( do+ ?is is to c\nt !m twice or (t5] 9 tak+ ! av]age4 #f4 ,^! consid]ations h an important be>+ ^u ! int]pretation ( probabilities4 ,! av]age probability = any g5]al class or s]ies ( ev5ts _c be confid5tly appli$ to any "o in/ance or to any special class ( in/ances1 s9ce ?is "o1 or ?is special class1 may exhibit a /rik+ error or deviation2 x may1 9 fact1 be subject to special causes4 ,)9 ! class ^: av]age is fir/ tak51 & :i* is describ$ by g5]al *>act]s z 'a man1' or 'a die1' or 'a rifle %ot1' !re may be classes m>k$ by special *>act]s & det]m9$ by special influ5ces4 ,/ati/ics giv+ ! av]age = 'mank9d' may n be true ( 'civilis$ m51' or ( any /ill small] class su* z ',fr5*m54' ,h5ce life-insurance (fices rely n m]ely on /ati/ics ( life & dea? 9 g5]al1 b collect special evid5ce 9 respect ( diff]5t ages & sexes1 & make fur!r all[ance = teetotalism1 inh]it$ disease1 etc4 ,simil>ly ) individual cases3 ! av]age expectation = a class1 :e!r g5]al or special1 is only applicable to any p>ticul> case if t case is adequately describ$ by ! class *>act]s4 ,9 ,engl&1 = example1 ! av]age expectation ( life = males at #bj ye>s ( age is #ci4dj2 b at #fj x is /ill #ac4ad1 & at #gc x is #g4jg2 at #ajj x's #a4fa4 ,( m5 #bj ye>s old ^? :o live m or less ?an #ci4dj ye>s are deviations or errors2 b !re are a great _m ( !m4 ,to insure ! life ( a s+le man at #bj1 9 ! expectation ( 8 dy+ at #fj1 w\ld be a m]e bet1 if we _h no special k ( him2 ! safety ( an insurance (fice lies 9 hav+ s _m cli5ts t opposite deviations cancel "o ano!r3 ! m cli5ts ! saf] ! bus9ess4 ,x is q possible t a hundr$ m5 ag$ #bj %\ld be insur$ 9 "o week & all ( !m die be=e #be2 ?is w\ld be ru9\s1 if o!rs did n live to be #hj or #ij4 ,n only 9 su* a practical affair z insurance1 b 9 matt]s purely sci5tific1 ! m9ute & subtle peculi>ities ( individuals h important consequ5ces4 ,ea* man has a c]ta9 ca/ ( m9d1 "*1 physique1 giv+ a di/9ctive turn to all 8 actions ev5 :5 he tries to be normal4 ,9 e employm5t ?is det]m9es 8 ,p]sonal ,equation1 or av]age deviation f ! normal4 ,! t]m ,p]sonal ,equation is us$ *iefly 9 connection ) sci5tific obs]vation1 z 9 ,a/ronomy4 ,ea* obs]v] is liable to be a little wrong1 & ?is error has to be all[$ = & 8 obs]vations correct$ accord+ly4 ,! use ( ! t]m 'expectation1' & ( examples drawn f insurance & gambl+1 may convey ! notion t probability relates entirely to future ev5ts2 b if bas$ on laws & causes1 x c h no ref]5ce to po9t ( "t4 ,z long z conditions are ! same1 ev5ts w be ! same1 :e!r we consid] uni=mities or av]ages4 ,we may !re=e draw probable inf]5ces conc]n+ ! pa/ z well z ! future1 subject to ! same hypo!sis1 t ! causes affect+ ! ev5ts 9 "q 7 ! same & simil>ly comb9$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we "k t conditions be>+ on ! subject ( inve/igation1 h *ang$ s9ce /ati/ics 7 collect$1 or 7 diff]5t at "s "t previ\s to ! collection ( evid5ce1 e probable inf]5ce bas$ on ^? /ati/ics mu/ be correct$ by all[+ = ! alt]$ conditions1 :e!r we desire to reason =w>ds or backw>ds 9 "t4 #g4 ,! rules = ! comb9ation ( probabilities are z foll[s3 7#a7 ,if two ev5ts or causes d n concur1 ! probability ( "o or ! o!r occurr+ is ! sum ( ! sep>ate probabilities4 ,a die _c turn up bo? ace & six2 b ! probability 9 fav\r ( ea* is #a_/f3 !re=e1 ! probability 9 fav\r ( "o or ! o!r is #a_/c4 ,dea? c h>dly occur f bo? burn+ & dr[n+3 if #a 9 #ajjj is burn$ & #b 9 #ajjj are dr[n$1 ! probability ( be+ burn$ or dr[n$ is #c_/ajjj4 7#b7 ,if two ev5ts are indep5d5t1 hav+ nei!r connection nor repugnance1 ! probability ( _! concurr+ is f\nd by multiply+ toge!r ! sep>ate probabilities ( ea* occurr+4 ,if 9 walk+ d[n a c]ta9 /reet ,i meet ,a once 9 f\r times1 & ,b once 9 ?ree times1 ,i ought 7by m]e *ance7 to meet bo? once 9 twelve times3 = 9 twelve occasions ,i meet ,b f\r times2 b once 9 f\r ,i meet ,a4 ,?is is a v important rule 9 sci5tific inve/igation1 s9ce x enables u to detect ! pres5ce ( causation4 ,= if ! co9cid5ce ( two ev5ts is m or less frequ5t ?an x w\ld be if !y 7 entirely indep5d5t1 !re is ei!r connection or repugnance betwe5 !m4 ,if1 e4g41 9 walk+ d[n ! /reet ,i meet bo? ,a & ,b (t5] ?an once 9 twelve times1 !y may be engag$ 9 simil> bus9ess1 call+ !m f _! (fices at ab\t ! same h\r4 ,if ,i meet !m bo? less (t5 ?an once 9 twelve times1 !y may belong to ! same (fice1 :]e "o acts z a sub/itute = ! o!r4 ,simil>ly1 if 9 a multitude ( ?r[s a die turns six (t5] ?an once 9 six times1 x is n a fair "o3 t is1 !re is a cause fav\r+ ! turn+ ( six4 ,if ( #bj1jjj p #ejj see app>itions & #ajj h fri5ds murd]$1 ! *ance ( any man hav+ bo? exp]i5ces is #a_/hjjj2 b if ea* lives on ! av]age #cjj1jjj h\rs1 ! *ance ( bo? ev5ts occurr+ 9 ! same h\r is #a_/bdjjjjjjjj4 ,if ! two ev5ts occur 9 ! same h\r (t5] ?an ?is1 !re is m ?an a *ance co9cid5ce4 ,! m m9ute a cause ( connection or repugnance betwe5 ev5ts1 ! long] ! s]ies ( trials or in/ances necess>y to br+ out its influ5ce3 ! less a die is load$1 ! m ca/s mu/ be made be=e x c be %[n t a c]ta9 side t5ds to recur (t5] ?an once 9 six4 7#c7 ,! rule = calculat+ ! probability ( a dep5d5t ev5t is ! same z ! above2 = ! concurr5ce ( two indep5d5t ev5ts is itself dep5d5t ^u ea* ( !m occurr+4 ,my meet+ ) bo? ,a & ,b 9 ! /reet is dep5d5t on my walk+ !re & on my meet+ "o ( !m4 ,simil>ly1 if ,a is sometimes a cause ( ,b 7?\gh liable to be fru/rat$71 & ,b sometimes ( ,c 7,c & ,b hav+ no causes indep5d5t ( ,b & ,a respectively71 ! occurr5ce ( ,c is dep5d5t on t ( ,b1 & t aga9 on ! occurr5ce ( ,a4 ,h5ce we may /ate ! rule3 ,if two ev5ts are dep5d5t ea* on ano!r1 s t if "o occur ! second may 7or may n71 & if ! second a ?ird2 :il/ ! ?ird nev] occurs )\t ! second1 nor ! second )\t ! fir/2 ! probability t if ! fir/ occur ! ?ird w1 is f\nd by multiply+ toge!r ! fractions express+ ! probability t ! fir/ is a m>k ( ! second & ! second ( ! ?ird4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple ! value ( he>say evid5ce or tradition det]iorates1 & g5]ally ! cog5cy ( any argum5t bas$ ^u ! comb9ation ( approximate g5]alisations dep5d5t on "o ano!r or self-infirmative4 ,if !re are two witnesses1 ,a & ,b1 ( :om ,a saw an ev5t1 :il/ ,b only he>d ,a relate x 7& is !re=e dep5d5t on ,a71 :at cr$it is due to ,b's recital8 ,suppose ! probability ( ea* man's be+ correct z to :at he says he saw1 or he>d1 is #c_/d3 !n 7#c_/d #c_/d #i_/af7 ! probability t ,b's /ory is true is a little m ?an #a_/b4 ,= if 9 #af atte/ations ,a is wrong #d times1 ,b c only be "r 9 #c_/d ( ! rema9d]1 or #i times 9 #af4 ,aga91 if we h ! ,approximate ,g5]alisations1 ',mo/ attempts to r$uce wages are met by /rikes1' & ',mo/ /rikes are successful1' & le>n1 on /ati/ical inquiry1 t 9 e hundr$ attempts to r$uce wages !re are #hj /rikes1 & t #gj p4c4 ( ! /rikes are successful1 !n #ef p4c4 ( attempts to r$uce wages are unsuccessful4 ,( c\rse ?is me?od ( calculation _c be quantitatively appli$ if no /ati/ics are obta9able1 z 9 ! te/imony ( witnesses2 & ev5 if an av]age num]ical value c\ld be atta*$ to ! evid5ce ( a c]ta9 class ( witnesses1 x w\ld be absurd to apply x to ! evid5ce ( any p>ticul> memb] ( ! class )\t tak+ acc\nt ( 8 education1 int]e/ 9 ! case1 prejudice1 or g5]al capacity4 ,/ill1 ! num]ical illu/ration ( ! rapid det]ioration ( he>say evid5ce1 :5 less ?an q v]aci\s1 puts u on our gu>d aga9/ rum\r4 ,to retail rum\r may be z bad z to inv5t an orig9al lie4 7#d7 ,if an ev5t may co9cide ) two or m o!r indep5d5t ev5ts1 ! probability t !y w toge!r be a sign ( x1 is f\nd by multiply+ toge!r ! fractions repres5t+ ! improbability t ea* is a sign ( x1 & subtract+ ! product f unity4 ,?is is ! rule = e/imat+ ! cog5cy ( circum/antial evid5ce & analogical evid5ce2 or1 g5]ally1 = comb9+ approximate g5]alisations self-corroboratively4 ,if1 = example1 ea* ( two indep5d5t circum/ances1 ,a & ,b1 indicates a probability ( #f to #a 9 fav\r ( a c]ta9 ev5t2 tak+ #a to repres5t c]ta9ty1 #a-f_/g is ! improbability ( ! ev5t1 not)/&+ ea* circum/ance4 ,!n #a_/g #a_/g #a_/di1 ! improbability ( bo? prov+ x4 ,!re=e ! probability ( ! ev5t is #dh to #a4 ,! matt] may be pla9] if put ?us3 ,a's indication is "r #f times 9 #g1 or #db 9 #di2 9 ! rema9+ #g times 9 #di1 ,b's indication w be "r #f times4 ,!re=e1 toge!r !y w be "r #dh times 9 #di4 ,if ea* ( two witnesses is tru?ful #f times 9 #g1 "o or ! o!r w be tru?ful #dh times 9 #di4 ,b !y w n be believ$ unless !y agree2 & 9 ! #db cases ( ,a be+ "r1 ,b w contradict him #f times2 s t !y only concur 9 be+ "r #cf times4 ,9 ! rema9+ #g times 9 :i* ,a is wrong1 ,b w contradict him #f times1 & once !y w bo? be wrong4 ,x does n foll[ t :5 bo? are wrong !y w concur2 = !y may tell v diff]5t /ories & /ill contradict "o ano!r4 ,if 9 an analogical argum5t !re 7 #h po9ts ( comp>ison1 #e = & #c aga9/ a c]ta9 inf]5ce1 & ! probability rais$ by ea* po9t c\ld be quantifi$1 ! total value ( ! evid5ce might be e/imat$ by do+ simil> sums = & aga9/1 & subtract+ ! unfav\rable f ! fav\rable total4 ,:5 approximate g5]alisations t h n be5 precisely quantifi$ comb9e _! evid5ce1 ! cog5cy ( ! argum5t increases 9 ! same way1 ?\gh x _c be made s def9ite4 ,if x be true t mo/ poets are irritable1 & also t mo/ invalids are irritable1 a /ill great] proportion w be irritable ( ^? :o are bo? invalids & poets4 ,on ! :ole1 f ! discussion ( probabilities !re em]ge f\r pr9cipal cautions z to _! use3 ,n to make a p$antic p>ade ( num]ical probability1 :]e ! numb]s h n be5 asc]ta9$2 ,n to tru/ to our feel+ ( :at is likely1 if /ati/ics c be obta9$2 ,n to apply an av]age probability to special classes or individuals )\t inquir+ :e!r !y correspond to ! av]age type2 & ,n to tru/ to ! empirical probability ( ev5ts1 if _! causes c be discov]$ & made ! basis ( reason+ :i* ! empirical probability may be us$ to v]ify4 ,! read] :o wi%es to pursue ?is subject fur!r %\ld read a "w to :i* ! =ego+ *apt] is greatly indebt$1 ,dr4 ,v5n's ,logic ( ,*ance4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,division ,,& ,,classification #a4 ,classification1 9 its wide/ s5se1 is a m5tal gr\p+ ( facts or ph5om5a accord+ to _! resemblances & diff]5ces1 s z be/ to s]ve "s purpose4 ,a m5tal gr\p+3 = al?\gh 9 museums we (t5 see ! ?+s !mselves arrang$ 9 classes1 yet su* an arrangem5t only conta9s specim5s repres5t+ a classification4 ,! classification itself may ext5d to innum]able objects mo/ ( :i* h nev] be5 se5 at all4 ,ext9ct animals1 = example1 are classifi$ f :at we "k ( _! fossils2 & "s ( ! fossils may be se5 arrang$ 9 a museum2 b ! animals !mselves h disappe>$ = _m ages4 ,aga91 ?+s are class$ accord+ to _! resemblances & diff]5ces3 t is to say1 ^? t mo/ closely resemble "o ano!r are class$ toge!r on t gr\nd2 & ^? t diff] f "o ano!r 9 important ways1 are di/ribut$ into o!r classes4 ,! m ! ?+s diff]1 ! wid] ap>t are _! classes bo? 9 ?\ght & 9 ! arrangem5ts ( a museum4 ,if _! diff]5ces are v great1 z ) animals1 vegetables & m9]als1 ! class+ ( !m falls to diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( ?\ght or sci5ce1 & is (t5 repres5t$ 9 diff]5t museums1 zoological1 botanical1 m9]alogical4 ,we mu/ n1 h[ev]1 suppose t !re is only "o way ( classify+ ?+s4 ,! same objects may be class$ 9 v>i\s ways accord+ to ! purpose 9 view4 ,= g>d5+1 we are usually cont5t to classify plants into trees1 %rubs1 fl[]s1 grasses & we$s2 ! ord9>y crops ( ,engli% agriculture are di/+ui%$1 9 settl+ _! rotation1 into :ite & gre52 ! botani/ divides ! high] plants into gymnosp]ms & angiosp]ms1 & ! latt] into monocotyl$ons & dicotyl$ons4 ,! pr9ciple ( resemblance & diff]5ce is recognis$ 9 all ^! cases2 b :at resemblances or diff]5ces are important dep5ds ^u ! purpose to be s]v$4 ,purposes are ei!r 77 special or practical1 z 9 g>d5+ or hunt+1 or 77 g5]al or sci5tific1 z 9 ,botany or ,zoology4 ,! sci5tific purpose is m]ely k2 x may inde$ subs]ve all p>ticul> or practical ends1 b has no o!r end ?an k directly 9 view4 ,& :il/1 ev5 = k1 diff]5t classifications may be suitable = diff]5t l9es ( inquiry1 9 ,botany & ,zoology ! ,morphological ,classification is t :i* gives ! mo/ g5]al & compreh5sive k 7see ,huxley1 ,on ! ,classification ( ,animals1 *4 #a74 ,mo/ ( :at a logician says ab\t classification is applicable to ! practical k9d2 b ! sci5tific 7(t5 call$ ',natural ,classification'71 z ! mo/ ?or\gh & compreh5sive1 is :at he keeps mo/ con/antly be=e him4 ,sci5tific classification comes late 9 human hi/ory1 & at fir/ works ov] e>li] classifications :i* h be5 made by ! gr[? ( intellig5ce1 ( language1 & ( ! practical arts4 ,ev5 9 ! di/9ctions recognis$ by animals1 may be trac$ ! gr\nds ( classification3 a cat does n conf\nd a dog ) "o ( its own species1 nor wat] ) milk1 nor cabbage ) fi%4 ,b x is 9 ! developm5t ( language t ! progress ( in/9ctive classification may be/ be se54 ,! use ( g5]al names implies ! recognition ( classes ( ?+s correspond+ to !m1 :i* =m _! d5otation1 & ^: resembl+ qualities1 s f> z recognis$1 =m _! connotation2 & su* names are ( _m degrees ( g5]ality4 ,! use ( ab/ract names %[s t ! objects class$ h also be5 analys$1 & t _! resembl+ qualities h be5 recognis$ amid/ div]se gr\ps ( qualities4 ,( ! classes m>k$ by popul> language x is wor? :ile to di/+ui% two sorts 7cf4 *ap4 xix4 #d73 ,k9ds1 & ^? hav+ b few po9ts ( agreem5t4 ,b ! popul> classifications1 made by language & ! primitive arts1 are v imp]fect4 ,!y omit innum]able ?+s :i* h n be5 f\nd useful or noxi\s1 or h be5 inconspicu\s1 or h n happ5$ to occur 9 ! region inhabit$ by ^? :o speak a p>ticul> language2 & ev5 ?+s recognis$ & nam$ may h be5 v sup]ficially exam9$1 & !re=e wrongly class$1 z :5 a :ale or porpoise is call$ a fi%1 or a sl[worm is conf\nd$ ) snakes4 ,a sci5tific classification1 on ! o!r h&1 aims at ! utmo/ compreh5siv5ess1 ransack+ ! :ole _w f ! dep?s ( ! e>? to ! remote/ /> = new objects1 & scrut9is+ ev]y?+ ) ! aid ( crucible & dissect+ knife1 microscope & spectroscope1 to f9d ! qualities & con/itution ( ev]y?+1 9 ord] t x may be class$ among ^? ?+s ) :i* x has mo/ 9 common & di/+ui%$ f ^? o!r ?+s f :i* x diff]s4 ,a sci5tific classification cont9ually gr[s m compreh5sive1 m discrim9ative1 m def9itely & sy/ematically coh]5t4 ,h5ce ! uses ( classification may be easily p]ceiv$4 #b4 ,! fir/ use ( classification is ! bett] und]/&+ ( ! facts ( ,nature 7or ( any sph]e ( practice72 = und]/&+ consi/s 9 p]ceiv+ & compreh5d+ ! lik5ess & diff]5ce ( ?+s1 9 assimilat+ & di/+ui%+ !m2 &1 9 c>ry+ out ?is process sy/ematically1 new correlations ( prop]ties are cont9ually disclos$4 ,?us classification is closely analog\s to explanation4 ,explanation has be5 %[n 7*ap4 xix4 #e7 to consi/ 9 ! discov]y ( ! laws or causes ( *anges 9 ,nature2 & laws & causes imply simil>ity1 or l *anges "u l conditions3 9 ! same way classification consi/s 9 ! discov]y ( resemblances 9 ! ?+s t und]go *ange4 ,we may say 7subject to subsequ5t qualifications7 t ,explanation deals ) ,nature 9 its dynamic1 ,classification 9 its /atic aspect4 ,9 bo? cases we h a feel+ ( relief4 ,:5 ! cause ( any ev5t is po9t$ out1 or an object is assign$ its place 9 a sy/em ( classes1 ! gap+ wond]1 or confusion1 or p]plexity1 occasion$ by an un9telligible ?+1 or by a multitude ( su* ?+s1 is dissipat$4 ,"s p are m ?an o!rs susceptible ( ?is pleasure & fa/idi\s ab\t its purity4 ,a second use ( classification is to aid ! memory4 ,x /r5g!ns memory1 because "o ( ! conditions ( our recollect+ ?+s is1 t !y resemble :at we la/ ?\ght (2 s t to be accu/om$ to /udy & ?9k ( ?+s 9 classes mu/ greatly facilitate recollection4 ,b1 besides ?is1 a classification enables u easily to run ov] all ! contra/$ & relat$ ?+s t we want to ?9k (4 ,explanation & classification bo? t5d to rationalise ! memory1 & to organise ! m9d 9 correspond5ce ) ,nature4 ,e "o kn[s h[ a poor m9d is always repeat+ itself1 go+ by rote ?r\gh ! same tra9 ( words1 ideas1 actions2 & t su* a m9d is nei!r int]e/+ nor practical4 ,x is n practical1 because ! circum/ances ( life are r>ely exactly repeat$1 s t = a pres5t purpose x is r>ely en\gh to rememb] only "o =m] case2 we ne$ sev]al1 t by comp>+ 7p]haps automatically7 _! resemblances & diff]5ces ) ! "o be=e u1 we may select a c\rse ( action1 or a pr9ciple1 or a p>allel1 suit$ to our imm$iate ne$s4 ,great] f]tility & flexibility ( ?\ght seem naturally to result f ! practice ( explanation & classification4 ,b x mu/ be hone/ly add$1 t ! result dep5ds ^u ! _s 9 :i* su* /udy is c>ri$ on2 = if we are too fond ( f9ality1 too eag] to believe t we h already atta9$ a great] precision & compreh5sion ?an are 9 fact atta9able1 no?+ c be m petrific ?an 'sci5ce1' & our la/ /ate may be worse ?an ! fir/4 ,( ?is1 /ud5ts ( ,logic h (t5 furni%$ examples4 #c4 ,classification may be ei!r ,d$uctive or ,inductive2 t is to say1 9 ! =mation ( classes1 z 9 ! pro( ( propositions1 we may1 on ! :ole1 proce$ f ! m to ! less1 or f ! less to ! m g5]al2 n t ^! two processes are entirely indep5d5t4 ,if we beg9 ) "s l>ge class1 su* z ',animal1' & subdivide x d$uctively into ,v]tebrate & ,inv]tebrate1 yet ! pr9ciple ( division 7namely1 c5tral /ructure7 has fir/ be5 rea*$ by a comp>ison ( examples & by g5]alisation2 if1 on ! o!r h&1 beg9n+ ) individuals1 we gr\p !m inductively into classes1 & ^! aga9 into wid] ones 7z dogs1 rats1 horses1 :ales & monkeys into mammalia7 we are guid$ bo? 9 special cases by hypo!ses z to ! be/ gr\nds ( resemblance1 & ?r\gh\t by ! g5]al pr9ciple ( classification--to associate ?+s t are alike & to sep>ate ?+s t are unlike4 ,?is pr9ciple holds implicitly a place 9 classification simil> to t ( causation 9 explanation2 bo? are pr9ciples ( intellig5ce4 ,"h1 !n1 z 9 pro(1 induction is impli$ 9 d$uction1 & d$uction 9 induction4 ,/ill1 ! two modes ( proc$ure may be usefully di/+ui%$3 9 d$uction1 we proce$ f ! idea ( a :ole to its p>ts1 f g5]al to special2 9 induction1 f special 7or p>ticul>7 to g5]al1 f p>ts to ! idea ( a :ole4 #d4 ,! process ( ,d$uctive ,classification1 or ,=mal ,division1 may be repres5t$ ?us3 ,a ------------------- ,a ,b ,a b ---------- ---------- ,a ,b ,c ,a ,b c ,a b ,c ,a b c ,giv5 any class 7,a7 to be divid$3 #a4 ,select "o important "*1 attribute1 or quality 7,b71 n common to all ! individuals compreh5d$ 9 ! class1 z ! basis ( division 7fundam5tum divisionis74 #b4 ,proce$ by ,di*otomy2 t is1 cut ! giv5 class into two1 "o hav+ ! select$ attribute 7say1 ,b71 ! o!r n hav+ x 7b74 ,?is1 l all =mal processes1 assumes ! pr9ciples ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle1 t ',no ,a is bo? ,b & n-,b1' & t ',e ,a is ei!r ,b or n-,b' 7*ap4 vi4 #c72 & if ^! pr9ciples are n true1 or n applicable1 ! me?od fails4 ,:5 a class is ?us subdivid$1 x may be call$1 9 relation to its subclasses1 a ,g5us2 & 9 relation to x1 ! subclasses may be call$ ,species3 ?us--g5us ,a1 species ,,ab & ,ab1 etc4 #c4 ,proce$ gradually 9 ! ord] ( ! importance ( *>act]s2 t is1 hav+ divid$ ! giv5 class1 subdivide on ! same pr9ciple ! two classes !nce aris+2 & s aga9 & aga91 /ep by /ep1 until all ! *>act]s are exhau/$3 ,divisio ne fiat p] saltum4 ,suppose we 7 to attempt an exhau/ive classification ( ?+s by ?is me?od1 we mu/ beg9 ) ',all ,?+s1' & divide !m 7say7 into ph5om5al & n-ph5om5al1 & !n subdivide ph5om5a1 & s on1 ?us3 ,all ,?+s ------------------ ,ph5om5al ,n-ph5om5al -------------------- ,ext5d$ ,unext5d$ 7e4g41 ,pleasure & ,pa97 ---------------- ,resi/ant ,n-resi/ant 7,matt]7 7,space7 ------------------- ,gravitat+ ,n-gravitat+ ----------- ,simple ,comp\nd ,hav+ subdivid$ ',simple' by all possible *>act]s1 we mu/ !n g back & simil>ly subdivide ,n-ph5om5al1 ,unext5d$1 ,n-resi/ant1 ,n-gravitat+1 & ,comp\nd4 ,n[1 if we knew all possible *>act]s1 & ! ord] ( _! importance1 we might prep>e a priori a classification ( all possible ?+s2 at lea/1 ( all ?+s t come "u ! pr9ciples ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,_m ( our comp>tm5ts might conta9 no?+ actual2 !re may1 = example1 be no?+ t is n ph5om5al to "s m9d1 or no?+ t is ext5d$ & n-resi/ant 7no vacuum71 & s =?4 ,?is w\ld imply a brea* ( ! rule1 t ! divid+ quality be n common to ! :ole class2 b1 9 fact1 d\bts h be51 & are1 s]i\sly ent]ta9$ :e!r ^! comp>tm5ts are fill$ or n4 ,if !y are n1 we h concepts repres5t+ no?+1 :i* h be5 g5]at$ by ! m]e =ce ( grammatical negation1 or by ! habit ( ?9k+ accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( ,exclud$ ,middle2 &1 on ! /r5g? ( ^! empty concepts1 we h be5 misl$ into divid+ by an attribute1 :i* 7be+ univ]sal7 _c be a fundam5tum divisionis4 ,b ?\gh 9 su* a classification places might be empty1 !re w\ld be a place = ev]y?+2 = :atev] did n come into "s positive class 7su* z ,gravitat+7 mu/ fall "u "o ( ! negative classes 7! ',nots'7 t run d[n ! "r-h& side ( ! ,table & ( its subdivisions4 ,?is is ! ideal ( classification4 ,un=tunately we h to le>n :at *>act]s or attributes are possible1 by exp]i5ce & comp>ison2 we are f> f kn[+ !m all3 & we d n "k ! ord] ( _! importance2 nor are we ev5 cle> :at 'important' means 9 ?is context1 :e!r 'widely preval5t1' or 'anci5t1' or 'causally influ5tial1' or 'indicative ( o!rs4' ,h5ce1 9 classify+ actual ?+s1 we mu/ foll[ ! inductive me?od ( beg9n+ ) p>ticul>s1 & sort+ !m accord+ to _! lik5ess & diff]5ce z discov]$ by inve/igation4 ,! exceptional cases1 9 :i* d$uction is really useful1 occur :]e c]ta9 limits to ! numb] & comb9ation ( qualities happ5 to be kn[n1 z !y may be 9 human in/itutions1 or :]e !re are ma!matical conditions4 ,?us1 we might be able to classify ord]s ( ,ar*itecture1 or ! classical metres & /anzas ( ,engli% poetry2 ?\gh1 9 fact1 ^! ?+s are too free1 subtle & complex = d$uctive treatm5t3 = d n ! ,arts gr[ l trees8 ,! only sure cases are ma!matical2 z we may %[ t !re are possible only ?ree k9ds ( plane triangles1 f\r conic sections1 five regul> solids4 #e4 ,! rules = te/+ a ,division are z foll[s3 #a4 ,ea* ,sub-class1 or ,species1 %\ld comprise less ?an ! ,class1 or ,g5us1 to be divid$4 ,?is provides t ! division %all be a real "o1 & n bas$ ^u an attribute common to ! :ole class2 t1 !re=e1 ! fir/ rule = mak+ a division %all h be5 adh]$ to4 ,b1 z 9 #d1 we are "h met by a logical difficulty4 ,suppose t ! class to be divid$ is ,a1 & t we attempt to divide ^u ! attribute ,b1 into ,,ab & ,ab2 is ?is a true division1 if we d n "k any ,a t is n ,b8 ,z f> z our k ext5ds1 we h n divid$ ,a at all4 ,on ! o!r h&1 our k ( concrete ?+s is nev] exhau/ive2 s t1 al?\gh we "k ( no ,a t is n ,b1 x may yet exi/1 & we h se5 t x is a logical caution n to assume :at we d n "k4 ,9 a d$uctive classification1 at lea/1 x seems bett] to reg>d e attribute z a possible gr\nd ( division4 ,h5ce1 9 ! above division ( ',all ,?+s1'--',n-ph5om5al1' ',ext5d$-,n-resi/ant1' ',resi/ant-,n-gravitat+1' appe> z negative classes 7t is1 classes bas$ on ! negation ( an attribute71 al?\gh _! real exi/5ce may be d\btful4 ,b1 if ?is be ju/ifiable1 we mu/ ei!r rewrite ! fir/ te/ ( a division ?us3 ',ea* sub-class %\ld possibly comprise less ?an ! class to be divid$'2 or else we mu/ conf9e ! te/ to 7a7 ?or\ghly empirical divisions1 z 9 divid+ ,col\r into ,r$ & ,n-r$1 :]e we "k t bo? sub-classes are real2 & 7b7 divisions "u demon/rable conditions--z 9 divid+ ! ?ree k9ds ( triangles by ! quality equilat]al1 we "k t x is only applicable to acute-angl$ triangles1 & d n attempt to divide ! "r-angl$ or obtuse-angl$ by x4 #b4 ,! ,sub-classes tak5 toge!r %\ld be equal to ! ,class to be divid$3 ! sum ( ! ,species con/itutes ! ,g5us4 ,?is provides t ! division %all be exhau/ive2 :i* di*otomy always secures1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( ,exclud$ ,middle2 because :atev] is n 9 ! positive class1 mu/ be 9 ! negative3 ,r$ & ,n-r$ include all col\rs4 #c4 ,! ,sub-classes mu/ be oppos$ or mutually exclusive3 ,species mu/ n ov]lap4 ,?is aga9 is secur$ by di*otomy1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction1 provid$ ! division be made ^u "o attribute at a "t4 ,b1 if we attempt to divide simultane\sly ^u two attributes1 z ',musicians' ^u 'nationality' & 'me?od1' we get :at is call$ a ,cross-division1 ?us ',g]man ,musicians4' ',n-,g]man1' ',classical1' ',n-,classical2' = ^! classes may ov]lap1 ! same m5 sometimes appe>+ 9 two gr\ps--,ba* 9 ',g]man' & ',classical1' ,p]golesi 9 ',n-,g]man' & ',classical4' ,if1 h[ev]1 we divide ,musicians ^u ^! attributes successively1 cross division w be avoid$1 ?us3 ,musicians ------------------------ ,classical ,n-classical ------------ ------------ ,g]man ,n-,g]man ,g]man ,n-,g]man ,"h no ,musician w be f\nd 9 two classes1 unless he has writt5 works 9 two /yles1 or unless !re are works ^: /yle is undecid$4 ,?is unless--or unless may sugge/ caution 9 us+ di*otomy z a %ort cut to ! classification ( realities4 #d4 ,no ,sub-class mu/ include any?+ t is n compris$ 9 ! class to be divid$3 ! ,g5us comprises all ! ,species4 ,we mu/ n divide ,dogs into fox-t]ri]s & dog-fi%4 #f4 ,! process ( ,inductive ,classification may be repres5t$ ?us3 ,giv5 any multitude ( individuals to be classifi$3 7#a7 ,place toge!r 9 gr\ps 7or 9 ?\ght7 ^? ?+s t h 9 common ! mo/1 ! mo/ widely diffus$ & ! mo/ important qualities4 7#b7 ,connect ^? gr\ps :i* h1 z gr\ps1 ! great] resemblance1 & sep>ate ^? t h ! great] diff]5ce4 7#c7 ,dem>cate1 z =m+ high] or m g5]al classes1 ^? gr\ps ( gr\ps t h important *>act]s 9 common2 &1 if possible1 on ! same pr9ciple1 =m ^! high] classes into classes high] /ill3 t is to say1 graduate ! classification upw>ds4 ,:il/ 9 ,division ! t]ms ',g5us' & ',species' are entirely relative to "o ano!r & h no fix$ positions 9 a gradation ( classes1 x has be5 usual1 9 ,inductive ,classification1 to conf9e ! t]m ',species' to classes reg>d$ z l[e/ 9 ! scale1 to give ! t]m ',g5]a' to classes on ! /ep above1 & at ea* high] /ep to f9d "s new t]m su* z ',tribe1' ',ord]1' ',sub-k+dom1' ',k+dom'2 z may be se5 by turn+ to any book on ,botany or ,zoology4 ,if1 hav+ fix$ our ,species1 we f9d !m subdivisible1 x is usual to call ! ,sub-species ',v>ieties4' ,suppose an attempt to classify by ?is me?od ! objects 9 a sitt+-room4 ,we see at a glance c>pets1 mats1 curta9s1 grates1 fire-irons1 coal-scuttles1 *airs1 s(as1 tables1 books1 pictures1 musical in/rum5ts1 etc4 ,^! may be call$ ',species4' ,c>pets & mats g toge!r2 s d *airs & s(as2 s d grates1 fire-irons1 & coal-scuttles & s on4 ,^! great] gr\ps1 or high] classes1 are ',g5]a4' ,putt+ toge!r c>pets1 mats & curta9s z 'w>m?-fabrics'2 *airs1 s(as & tables z 'supports'2 books1 pictures & musical in/rum5ts z 'means ( culture'2 ^! gr\ps we may call ,ord]s4 ,sum up ! :ole z1 f ! h\sewife's po9t ( view1 'furniture4' ,if we !n subdivide "s ( ! species1 z books into poetry1 novels1 travels1 etc41 ^! ,sub-species may be consid]$ ',v>ieties4' ,a ,classification ?us made1 may be te/$ by ! same rules z ^? giv5 = te/+ a ,division2 b if x does n /& ! te/1 we mu/ n inf] t ! classification is a bad "o4 ,if ! be/ possible1 x is good1 ?\gh =mally imp]fect3 :atev] faults are f\nd mu/ !n be *>g$ ^u ! 'matt]1' :i* is traditionally p]v]se & intractable4 ,if1 = example1 !re is a hammock 9 ! room1 x mu/ be class$ n ) ! curta9s z a w>m?-fabric1 b ) ! s(as z a support2 & books & pictures may be class$ z1 9 a peculi> s5se1 means ( culture1 ?\gh all ! objects 9 ! room may h be5 modifi$ & assort$ ) a view to gratify+ & develop+ good ta/e4 #g4 ,! difficulty ( classify+ natural objects is v great4 ,x is n en\gh to consid] _! ext]nal appe>ance3 exhau/ive k ( _! int]nal /ructure is necess>y1 & ( ! functions ( e "p ( _! /ructure4 ,?is is a matt] ( imm5se rese>*1 & has occupi$ _m ( ! greate/ m9ds = v _m ye>s4 ,! foll[+ is a tabul> outl9e ( ! classification ( ! ,animal ,k+dom ------------------- ,,sub-,,k+dom1 ,v]tebrates ,inv]tebrates 7#aj ,sub-k+dom #e7 or ,phylum3 ------------------------------- ,sauropsida ,i*?yopsida --------- ----------- ,,class3 ,mammalia ,birds ,reptiles ,amphibia ,fi%es ------------------------- ,,sub-,,class3 ,plac5tal ,implac5tal ------------------- ,,division3 ,monodelphia ,didelphia ,orni?odelphia --------------------------------------- ,,ord]3 ,quadrumana ,rod5tia ,c>nivora ,ungulata ,ctacea1 etc4 ---------------------------------- ,,section3 ,p9nigrada ,plantigrada ,digitigrada 7,seals1 etc47 7,be>s1 etc47 -------------------------------------- ,,g5us3 ,mu/elid ,viv]rid ,hyanid ,canid ,felid 7,weasels1 etc47 7,civets1 etc47 --------------------------------------- ,,species3 ,lion ,tig] ,leop>d ,puma ,lynx ,cat1 etc4 --------------------- ,,v>iety3 ,african ,syrian ,cave-lion 7ext9ct7 ,z !re is n space en\gh to tabulate su* a classification 9 full1 ,i h develop$ at ea* /ep ! mo/ int]e/+ gr\ps3 ,v]tebrates1 ,mammalia1 ,monodelphia ,c>nivora1 ,digitigrada1 ,felid1 ,lion4 ,mo/ ( ! o!r gr\ps 9 ea* grade are also subdivisible1 ?\gh "s ( !m conta9 f> few] sub-classes ?an o!rs4 ,to see ! true "* ( ?is classification1 we mu/ consid] t x is bas$ *iefly ^u k ( exi/+ animals4 ,"s ext9ct animals1 kn[n by _! fossils1 f9d places 9 x2 = o!rs new places h be5 made4 ,b x repres5ts1 on ! :ole1 a cross-section1 or cross-sections ( ,nature z develop+ 9 "t2 &1 9 ord] to give a j view ( ! relations ( animals1 x mu/ be se5 9 ! light ( o!r consid]ations4 ,! old] sy/ems ( classification1 & ! rules = mak+ !m1 seem to h assum$ t an actual sy/em ( classes1 or ( :at ,mill calls ',k9ds1' exi/s 9 nature1 & t ! relations ( ,k9ds 9 ?is sy/em are det]m9$ by quantity ( resemblance 9 co-inh]5t qualities1 z ! gr\nd ( _! aff9ity4 #h4 ,d>w9's doctr9e ( ! orig9 ( species affects ! conception ( natural classification 9 sev]al ways1 7#a7 ,if all liv+ ?+s are blood-relations1 modifi$ 9 ! c\rse ( ages accord+ to _! v>i\s conditions ( life1 'aff9ity' mu/ mean 'ne>ness ( common desc5t'2 & x seems irrational to propose a classification ^u any o!r basis4 ,we h to consid] ! ,animal 7or ! ,vegetable7 ,k+dom z a family tree1 exhibit+ a long l9e ( ance/ors1 & 7desc5d$ f !m7 all sorts ( c\s9s1 fir/1 second1 ?ird1 etc41 p]haps once1 twice1 or (t5] 'remov$4' ,animals 9 ! relation ( fir/ c\s9s mu/ be class$ z ne>] ?an second c\s9s1 & s on4 ,b1 if we accept ?is pr9ciple1 & are able to trace relation%ip1 x may n lead to ! same results z w\ld be rea*$ by simply rely+ ^u ! pres5t 'quantity ( resemblance1' unless we und]/& ?is 9 a v p>ticul> way4 ,= ! mo/ obvi\s features ( an animal may h be5 rec5tly acquir$2 :i* (t5 happ5s ) ^? *>act]s t adapt an animal to its habits ( life1 z ! w+s ( a bat1 or ! fi%-l %ape ( a dolph92 or z 9 cases ( 'mimicry4' ,"s butt]flies1 snakes1 etc41 h gr[n to resemble closely1 9 a sup]ficial way1 o!r butt]flies & snakes1 f :i* a /rict] inve/igation widely sep>ates !m2 & ?is sup]ficial resemblance is probably a rec5t acquisition1 = ! sake ( protection2 ! imitat$ butt]flies be+ nause\s1 & ! imitat$ snakes poison\s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 anci5t & important traits ( /ructure may1 9 "s species1 h dw9dl$ into inconspicu\s survivals or be /ill f\nd only 9 ! embryo2 s t only great k & sagacity c id5tify !m2 yet ^u anci5t traits1 ?\gh hidd51 classification dep5ds4 ,! seal seems ne>] alli$ to ! porpoise ?an to ! tig]1 ! %rew ne>] to ! m\se ?an to ! h$gehog2 & ! ,tasmanian wolf looks m l a true wolf1 ! ,tasmanian devil m l a badg]1 ?an l a kang>oo3 yet ! seal is ne>] ak9 to ! tig]1 ! %rew to ! h$gehog1 & ! ,tasmanian fle%-eat]s are m>supial1 l ! kang>oo4 ,to ov]come ?is difficulty we mu/ und]/& ! resemblance ^u :i* classification is bas$ to include resemblance ( ,causation1 t is1 ! fact itself ( desc5t f common ance/ors4 ,= organic be+s1 all o!r rules ( classification are subord9ate to "o3 trace ! g5ealogy ( e =m4 ,by ?is rule we get a def9ite mean+ = ! phrase 'important or fundam5tal attribute' z det]m9+ organic classes2 namely1 mo/ anci5t1 or 'be/ s]v+ to indicate community ( orig94' ,grades ( classification w be det]m9$ by su* fundam5tal *>act]s1 & may correspond approximately to ! m g5]al types 7n[ ext9ct7 f :i* exi/+ animals h desc5d$4 7#b7 ,by ! hypo!sis ( developm5t ! fixity ( species is discr$it$4 ,! l[e/ grade ( a classification is made up n ( well-def9$ types un*ang+ f age to age1 b ( tempor>y species1 (t5 connect$ by unc]ta9 & indi/9ct v>ieties3 "s ( :i* may1 9 turn1 if ! conditions ( _! exi/5ce alt]1 und]go su* *anges z to produce new species4 ,h5ce ! notion t ,k9ds exi/ 9 organic nature mu/ be greatly modifi$4 ,dur+ a giv5 p]iod ( a few ?\s& ye>s1 ,k9ds may be recognis$1 because1 "u su* conditions z n[ prevail 9 ! _w1 t p]iod ( "t is insuffici5t to br+ ab\t great *anges4 ,b1 if x be true t lions1 tig]s1 & leop>ds h _h a common ance/or1 f ^: type !y h gradually div]g$1 x is pla9 t _! pres5t di/9ctness results only f ! dea? ( int]m$iate specim5s & ! de/ruction ( int]m$iate v>ieties4 ,7 x possible to re/ore1 by ! evid5ce ( fossils1 all ! ranks ( ! great processions t h desc5d$ f ! common ance/or1 !re w\ld n[h]e occur a great] diff]5ce ?an betwe5 (fspr+ & p>5ts2 & ! appe>ance ( ,k9ds exi/+ 9 nature1 :i* is s /rik+ 9 a museum or zoological g>d51 w\ld entirely vani%4 ,a classification1 !n1 z =m]ly obs]v$1 repres5ts a cross-section ( nature z develop+ 9 "t3 c\ld we beg9 at ! beg9n+ & foll[ ?is developm5t d[n ! c\rse ( "t1 we %\ld f9d no classes1 b an ev]-mov+1 *ang+1 spread+1 bran*+ cont9uum4 ,x may be repres5t$ ?us3 ,suppose an animal 7or plant7 ,a1 ext5d+ ov] a c]ta9 geographical area1 subject to diff]5t influ5ces & conditions ( climate1 food1 hill & pla91 wood & prairie1 enemies & rivals1 & und]go+ modifications "h & !re 9 adaptation to ! v>y+ conditions ( life3 !n v>ieties appe>4 ,^! v>ieties1 div]g+ m & m1 become di/9ct species 7,,ab1 ,,ac1 ,,ad1 ,,ax74 ,"s ( ^! species1 ! m widely diffus$1 aga9 produce v>ieties2 :i*1 9 turn become species 7,,abe1 ,,abf1 ,,adg1 ,,adh74 ,f ^!1 aga91 ,,abe1 ,,abfi1 ,,abfj1 ,,ac1 ,,adhk1 ,,adhl1 ,,adhm1 ! extant species1 desc5d4 ,a _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,ab ,,ac ,,ad ,,ax _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,abe ,,abf ,,adg ,,adh _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,abe ,,abfi ,,abfj ,,ac ,,adhk ,,adhl ,,adhm ,if 9 ?is age a classifi] appe>s1 he f9ds sev5 liv+ species1 :i* c be gr\p$ into f\r g5]a 7,,abe1 ,,abf1 ,,ac1 ,,adh71 & ^! aga9 into ?ree ,families 7,,ab1 ,,ac1 ,,ad71 all =m+ "o ,ord]4 ,b ! animals :i* 7 _! ance/ors are all ext9ct4 ,if ! fossils ( any ( !m--say ,,ab1 ,,adg & ,,ax--c be f\nd1 he has ?ree m species1 "o m g5us 7,,adg71 & "o m family 7,,ax74 ,= ,,ac1 :i* has p]si/$ un*ang$1 & ,,ax1 :i* has become ext9ct1 are bo? ( !m ,families1 ea* repres5t$ by only "o species4 ,x seems necess>y to treat su* anci5t types z species on a level ) extant =ms2 b ! naturali/ draws our att5tion to _! ar*aic *>act]i/ics1 & tries to expla9 _! places 9 ! ord] ( evolution & _! relation%ips4 ,b n[ suppose t he c\ld f9d a fossil specim5 ( e g5]ation 7hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( g5]ations71 f ,,abfi1 etc41 up to ,a2 !n1 z ea* g5]ation w\ld only diff] f ! prec$+ z (fspr+ f p>5ts1 he w\ld be unable at any po9t to di/+ui% a species2 at mo/1 he w\ld obs]ve a slightly m>k$ v>iety4 ,,abfi & ,,abfj w\ld gr[ m & m alike1 until !y became indi/+ui%able 9 ,,abf2 ,,abf & ,,abe w\ld m]ge into ,,ab2 ,,ab1 ,,ac1 ,,ad & ,,ax w\ld m]ge into ,a4 ,h5ce1 ! appe>ance ( species is due to our tak+ cross-sections ( "t1 or comp>+ =ms t belong to p]iods remote f "o ano!r 7l ,,ax1 ,,adg1 & ,,adhk1 or ,,ad1 ,,adh & ,,adhk71 & ?is appe>ance ( species dep5ds ^u ! de/ruction ( ance/ral int]m$iate =ms4 7#c7 ,! hypo!sis ( developm5t modifies ! logical "* ( classification3 x no long] consi/s 9 a direct induction ( co-inh]5t *>act]s1 b is l>gely a d$uction ( ^! f ! *>act]s ( e>li] =ms1 toge!r ) ! conditions ( v>iation2 9 o!r words1 ! def9ition ( a species mu/1 ) ! progress ( sci5ce1 cease to be a m]e empirical law ( co-inh]5ce & become a d]ivative law ( ,causation4 ,b ?is 0 already impli$ 9 ! position t causation is ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! explanation ( concrete ?+s2 & accord+ly1 ! d]ivative "* ( species or k9ds ext5ds beyond organic nature4 #i4 ,! classification ( inorganic bodies also dep5ds on causation4 ,!re is ! physical classification into ,solids1 ,liquids1 & ,gases4 ,b ^! /ates ( matt] are dep5d5t on temp]ature2 at diff]5t temp]atures1 ! same body may exi/ 9 all ?ree /ates4 ,!y _c !re=e be def9$ z solid1 liquid1 or gase\s absolutely1 b only )9 c]ta9 degrees ( temp]ature1 & !re=e z dep5d5t ^u causation4 ,simil>ly1 ! geological classification ( rocks1 accord+ to relative antiquity 7prim>y1 second>y1 t]ti>y1 ) _! subdivisions71 & mode ( =mation 7igne\s & aque\s71 re/s ^u causation2 & s does ! *emical classification ( comp\nd bodies accord+ to ! elem5ts t ent] into !m 9 def9ite proportions4 ,h5ce1 only ! classification ( ! elem5ts !mselves 7among/ concrete ?+s71 at pres5t1 dep5ds l>gely ^u empirical ,co9h]5ce4 ,if ! elem5ts rema9 irresolvable into any?+ simpl]1 ! def9itions ( ! co-inh]5t *>act]s t di/+ui% !m mu/ be reckon$ among/ ! ultimate ,uni=mities ( ,nature4 ,b if a def9ite !ory ( _! orig9 bo? g5]ally & sev]ally1 :e!r out ( e!r-vortices1 or gr\ps ( electric corpuscles1 or :atnot1 %all ev] ga9 acceptance1 simil>ity ( g5esis or causation w naturally be ! lead+ consid]ation 9 classify+ ! *emical elem5ts4 ,to f9d common pr9ciples ( causation1 !re=e1 con/itutes ! v]ification ( e ,natural ,classification4 ,! ultimate explanation ( nature is always causation2 ! ,law ( ,causation is ! backbone ( ! sy/em ( ,exp]i5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,nom5clature1 ,,def9ition1 ,,pr$icables #a4 ,precision ( ?\ght ne$s precision ( language = ! record+ ( su* ?\ght & = communicat+ x to o!rs4 ,we c (t5 rememb] ) great vividness p]sons1 ?+s1 l&scapes1 *anges & actions ( p]sons or ?+s1 )\t ! aid ( language 7?\gh words are (t5 mix$ ) su* tra9s ( imag]y71 & by ?is means may =m judgm5ts & inf]5ces 9 p>ticul> cases2 b = g5]al notions1 judgm5ts & inf]5ces1 n m]ely ab\t ?is or t man1 or ?+1 b ab\t all m5 or all k9ds ( ?+s1 we ne$ some?+ besides ! few images we c =m ( !m f obs]vation4 ,ev5 if we possess g5]ic images1 say1 ( 'horse' or 'cat' 7t is1 images =m$1 l composite photographs1 by a coalesc5ce ( ! images ( all ! horses or cats we h se51 s t _! common prop]ties /& out & _! diff]5ces fru/rate & cancel "o ano!r71 ^! are useless = precise ?\ght2 = ! g5]ic image w n correspond ) ! g5]al appe>ance ( horse or cat1 unless we h _h proportional exp]i5ce ( all v>ieties & h be5 imp>tially int]e/$ 9 all2 &1 besides1 :at we want = g5]al ?\ght is n a g5]ic image ( ! appe>ance ( ?+s1 ?\gh x 7 mu* m def9ite & fairly repres5tative ?an su* images ev] are1 b a g5]al repres5tation ( _! important *>act]s2 :i* may be connect$ ) int]nal organs1 su* z none b an anatomi/ ev] sees4 ,we require a symbol connect$ ) ! g5]al "* ( a ?+1 or quality1 or process1 z sci5tifically det]m9$1 ^: repres5tative tru? may be tru/$ 9 ord9>y cases1 or may be v]ifi$ :5ev] d\bt arises4 ,su* symbols are = mo/ purposes provid$ by language2 ,ma!matics & ,*emi/ry h _! own symbols4 #b4 ,fir/ !re %\ld be a "n = e important mean+3 7a7 ,a ,nom5clature1 or sy/em ( ! names ( all classes ( objects1 adapt$ to ! use ( ea* sci5ce4 ,?us1 9 ,geology !re are names = classes ( rocks & /rata1 9 ,*emi/ry = ! elem5ts & _! comp\nds1 9 ,zoology & ,botany = ! v>ieties & species ( animals & plants1 _! g5]a1 families & ord]s4 ,to h su* names1 h[ev]1 is n ! :ole aim 9 =m+ a sci5tific language2 x is desirable t !y %\ld be sy/ematically significant1 & ev5 elegant4 ,names1 l o!r in/rum5ts1 ought to be effici5t1 & ! effici5cy ( names consi/s 9 convey+ ! mo/ mean+ ) ! lea/ ef=t4 ,9 ,botany & ,zoology ?is result is obta9$ by giv+ to ea* species a composite "n :i* includes t ( ! g5us to :i* x belongs4 ,! species ( ,felid giv5 9 *ap4 xvii4 #g1 are call$ ,felis leo 7lion71 ,felis tigris 7tig]71 ,felis leop>dus 7leop>d71 ,felis concolor 7puma71 ,felis lyncus 7,european lynx71 ,felis catus 7wild cat74 ,9 ,*emi/ry1 ! nom5clature is extremely effici5t4 ,names ( ! simpl] comp\nds are =m$ by comb9+ ! names ( ! elem5ts t ent] into !m2 z ,hydrog5 ,*loride1 ,hydrog5 ,sulphide1 ,c>bon ,dioxide2 & ^! c be giv5 /ill m briefly & effici5tly 9 symbols1 z ,h,cl1 ,h#b,s1 ,,co#b4 ,! symbolic lett]s are usually initials ( ! names ( ! elem5ts3 z ,c ,c>bon1 ,s ,sulphur2 sometimes ( ! ,lat9 "n1 :5 ! common "n is ,engli%1 z ,fe ,iron4 ,ea* lett] repres5ts a fix$ quantity ( ! elem5t = :i* x /&s1 viz41 ! atomic weight4 ,! numb] writt5 bel[ a symbol on ! "r-h& side %[s h[ _m atoms ( ! elem5t d5ot$ ent] into a molecule ( ! comp\nd4 7b7 ,a ,t]m9ology is next requir$1 9 ord] to describe & def9e ! ?+s t con/itute ! classes designat$ by ! nom5clature1 & to describe & expla9 _! actions4 7i7 ,a "n = e integral "p ( an object1 z head1 limb1 v]tebra1 he>t1 n]ve1 t5don2 /alk1 leaf1 corolla1 /am51 pi/il2 pl9?1 frieze1 etc4 7ii7 ,a "n = e metaphysical "p or ab/ract quality ( an object1 & = its degrees & modes2 z ext5sion1 figure1 solidity1 weight2 r\gh1 smoo?1 ela/ic1 friable2 ! v>i\s col\rs1 r$1 blue1 yell[1 9 all _! %ades & comb9ations & s ) s\nds1 smells1 ta/es1 temp]atures4 ,! t]ms ( ,geometry are employ$ to describe ! modes ( figure1 z angul>1 curv$1 squ>e1 elliptical2 & ! t]ms ( ,ari?metic to express ! degrees ( weight1 ela/icity1 temp]ature1 pit* ( s\nd4 ,:5 o!r means fail1 qualities are sugge/$ by ! names ( ?+s :i* exhibit !m 9 a sali5t way2 figures by su* t]ms z amphi!atre1 b[l-l1 pe>-%ap$1 egg-%ap$2 col\rs by lias-blue1 sky-blue1 g5tian-blue1 peacock-blue2 & simil>ly ) s\nds1 smells & ta/es4 ,x is also important to express by %ort t]ms complex qualities1 z h>mony1 fragrance1 organisation1 sex1 symmetry1 /ratification4 7iii7 ,9 ! explanation ( ,nature we fur!r require suitable names = processes & activities3 z d$uction1 conv]sion1 v]ification1 addition1 integration1 causation1 t5d5cy1 mom5tum1 gravitation1 ab]ration1 refraction1 conduction1 aff9ity1 comb9ation1 g]m9ation1 respiration1 att5tion1 association1 developm5t4 ,!re may sometimes be a difficulty 9 di/+ui%+ ! t]ms :i* /& = qualities f ^? t express activities1 s9ce all qualities imply activities3 weight1 = example1 implies gravitation2 & ! quality heat is also a k9d ( motion4 ,! di/9ction aim$ at lies betwe5 a quality z p]ceiv$ by means ( an effect ^u our s5ses 7z weight is resi/ance to our ef=t 9 lift+2 heat1 a s5sation :5 we approa* fire71 & t prop]ty ( a body :i* is conceiv$ to acc\nt = its en]gy 7z gravitation t br+s a body to ! gr\nd1 or physical heat t exp&s an iron b> or works an eng9e74 ,! =m] class ( words1 express+ qualities1 are *iefly us$ 9 description3 ! latt] class1 express+ activities1 are *iefly ne$$ 9 explanation4 ,!y correspond respectively1 l classification & explanation1 ) ! /atic & dynamic aspects ( ,nature4 ,! t]ms ( ord9>y language fall into ! same classes z ^? ( sci5ce3 !y /& = ?+s1 classes ( ?+s1 p>ts1 or qualities1 or activities ( ?+s2 b !y are f> less precise 9 _! signification4 ,z long z popul> ?\ght is vague its language mu/ be vague2 nor is x desirable too /rictly to correct ! language :il/ ! ?\ght is incorrigible4 ,mu* ( ! effect ( poetry & eloqu5ce dep5ds ^u ! ela/icity & indirect sugge/iv5ess ( common t]ms4 ,ev5 9 reason+ ^u "s subjects1 x is a mi/ake to aim at an unatta9able precision4 ,x is bett] to be vaguely "r ?an exactly wrong4 ,9 ! criticism ( mann]s1 ( f9e art1 or ( lit]ature1 9 politics1 religion & moral philosophy1 :at we are anxi\s to say is (t5 f> f cle> to ourselves2 & x is bett] to indicate our mean+ approximately1 or z we feel ab\t x1 ?an to convey a false mean+1 or to lose ! w>m? & col\r t are ! life ( su* reflections4 ,x is h>d to decide :e!r m h>m has be5 done by sophi/s :o take a base advantage ( ! vagu5ess ( common t]ms1 or by hone/ p>alogi/s 7if ,i may use ! ^w7 :o beg9 by deceiv+ !mselves ) a plausible def9it5ess ( expression1 & g on to propagate _! delusions among/ foll[]s eag] = sy/ematic insight b ignorant ( ! limits ( its possibility4 #c4 ,a ,def9ition is necess>y 7if possible7 = e sci5tific "n4 ,to def9e a "n is to give a precise /atem5t ( its mean+ or connotation4 ,! "n to be def9$ is ! subject ( a proposition1 ^: pr$icate is a li/ ( ! fundam5tal qualities common to ! ?+s or processes :i* ! subject d5otes1 & on acc\nt ( possess+ :i* qualities ?is "n is giv5 to !m4 ,?us1 a curve is a l9e ( :i* no "p is /raight4 ,! mom5tum ( a mov+ body is ! product ( its mass & its velocity 7^! be+ express$ 9 numb]s ( c]ta9 units74 ,nitrog5 is a transp>5t col\rless gas1 atomic weight #ad1 specific gravity 4#igac1 n readily comb9+1 etc4 ,a lion is a monodelphian mammal1 pr$atory1 walk+ on its toes1 ( nocturnal habits1 ) a %ort r\nd$ head & muzzle2 d5tal =mula3 ,incisors 7#c-c7_/7c-c71 can9es 7#a-a7_/7a_/a71 prmol>s 7#c-c7_/7b-b71 mol>s 7#a-a7_/7a-a7 #cj2 f\r toes on ! h9d & five on ! =e foot1 retractile claws1 prickly tongue1 light & muscul> 9 build1 ab\t #i-a_/b feet f muzzle to tip ( tail1 tawny 9 col\r1 ! males man$1 ) a tuft$ tail4 ,if any?+ answ]s to ?is description1 x is call$ a lion2 if n1 n3 = ?is is ! mean+ ( ! "n4 ,= ord9>y purposes1 x may suffice to give an ,incomplete ,def9ition2 t is1 a li/ ( qualities n exhau/ive1 b conta9+ en\gh to id5tify ! ?+s d5ot$ by ! giv5 "n2 z if we say t a lion is 'a l>ge tawny bea/ ( prey ) a tuft$ tail4' ,su* purposes may also be s]v$ by a ,description2 :i* is te*nically1 a proposition m5tion+ prop]ties suffici5t to di/+ui% ! ?+s d5ot$1 b n ! prop]ties t ent] into ! def9ition2 z if nitrog5 be indicat$ z ! gas t con/itutes #d_/e ( ! atmosph]e4 #d4 ,! rules = te/+ a ,def9ition are3 ,i4--,z to its ,cont5ts-- 7#a7 ,x mu/ /ate ! :ole connotation ( ! "n to be def9$4 7#b7 ,x mu/ n include any quality d]ivative f ! connotation4 ,su* a quality is call$ a ,proprium4 ,a brea* ( ?is rule c d no positive h>m1 b x is a dep>ture f sci5tific economy4 ,!re is no ne$ to /ate 9 ! def9ition :at c be d]iv$ f x2 & :atev] c be d]iv$ by causation1 or by ma!matical demon/ration1 %\ld be exhibit$ 9 t mann]4 7#c7 ,x mu/ n m5tion any circum/ance t is n a "p ( ! connotation1 ev5 ?\gh x be univ]sally f\nd 9 ! ?+s d5ot$4 ,su* a circum/ance1 if n d]ivable f ! connotation1 is call$ an ,accid5t4 ,t1 = example1 ! lion at pres5t only inhabits ! ,old ,_w1 is an accid5t3 if a species o!rwise l a lion 7 f\nd 9 ,brazil1 x w\ld n be refus$ ! "n ( lion on ! score ( locality4 ,:il/1 h[ev]1 ! rules ( ,logic h =bidd5 ! inclusion ( proprium or accid5t 9 a def9ition1 9 fact ! def9itions ( ,natural ,hi/ory (t5 m5tion su* attributes :5 *>act]i/ic4 ,inde$1 def9itions ( sup]ord9ate classes--,families & ,ord]s--n infrequ5tly give qualities z g5]ally f\nd 9 ! subord9ate classes1 & at ! same "t m5tion exceptional cases 9 :i* !y d n occur4 ,,ii4--,z to its ,expression-- 7#d7 ,a ,def9ition mu/ n include ! v t]m to be def9$1 nor any cognate4 ,9 def9+ 'lion' we mu/ n repeat 'lion1' nor use 'leon9e'2 x w\ld elucidate no?+4 7#e7 ,x mu/ n be put 9 vague language4 7#f7 ,x mu/ n be 9 a negative =m1 if a positive =m be obta9able4 ,we mu/ n be cont5t to say t a lion is 'no veget>ian1' or 'no lov] ( daylight4' ,to def9e a curve z a l9e 'always *ang+ its direction' may be bett] ?an z '9 no "p /raight4' #e4 ,! process ( det]m9+ a ,def9ition is insep>able f classification4 ,we saw t classification consi/s 9 di/ribut+ ?+s into gr\ps accord+ to _! lik5esses & diff]5ces1 reg>d+ z a class ^? individuals :i* h mo/ qualities 9 common4 ,9 do+ s we mu/1 ( c\rse1 recognise ! common qualities or po9ts ( lik5ess2 & to enum]ate ^! is to def9e ! "n ( ! class4 ,if we discov] ! qualities ^u :i* a class is bas$ by direct obs]vation & induction1 by ! same me?od we discov] ! def9ition ( its "n4 ,we saw also t classification is n m]ely ! det]m9ation ( isolat$ gr\ps ( ?+s1 b a sy/ematic arrangem5t ( su* gr\ps 9 relation to "o ano!r4 ,h5ce1 aga91 ,def9itions are n indep5d5t1 b relative to "o ano!r2 &1 ( c\rse1 9 ! same way z classes are relative4 ,t is to say1 z a class is plac$ 9 subord9ation to high] or m compreh5sive gr\ps1 s ! def9ition ( its "n is subord9ate to t ( _! names2 & z a class /&s 9 contra/ ) co-ord9ate classes 7^? t are 9 ! same degree ( subord9ation to ! same high] gr\ps71 s ! def9ition ( its "n is 9 contra/ or co-ord9ation ) ! def9itions ( _! names4 ,lion is subord9ate to ,felis1 to ,digitigrade1 to ,c>nivore & s on up to ,animal2 &1 beyond ! ,animal ,k+dom1 to ,ph5om5on2 x is co-ord9ate ) tig]1 puma1 etc42 & m remotely x is co-ord9ate ) dog1 jackal1 wolf1 :i* come "u ,canis--a g5us co-ord9ate ) ,felis4 ,! def9ition ( lion1 !re=e1 is subord9ate to t ( ,felis1 & to all above x up to ,ph5om5on2 & is co-ord9ate ) t ( tig]1 & ) all species 9 ! same grade4 ,?is is ! gr\nd ( ! old me?od ( def9ition p] g5us et diff]5tiam4 ,! g5us be+ ! next class above any species1 ! diff]5tia or ,diff]5ce consi/s ( ! qualities :i* m>k t species 9 addition to ^? t m>k ! g5us1 & :i* !re=e di/+ui% x f all o!r species ( ! same g5us4 ,9 ! above def9ition ( lion1 = example1 all ! prop]ties d[n to light & muscul> 9 build are g5]ic1 t is1 are possess$ by ! :ole g5us1 ,felis2 & ! rema9+ f\r 7size1 col\r1 tuft$ tail1 & mane 9 ! male7 are ! ,diff]5ce or specific prop]ties1 because 9 ^? po9ts ! lion contra/s ) ! o!r species ( t g5us4 ,diff]5ces may be exhibit$ ?us3 ,lion4 ,tig]4 ,,size3 ab\t #i-a_/b feet f nose ,ab\t #aj feet4 to tip ( tail4 ,,col\r3 tawny4 ,w>m tawny1 /rip$ ) black4 ,,tail3 tuft$4 ,tap]+4 ,,mane3 pres5t 9 ! male4 ,bo? sexes maneless4 ,!re are o!r diff]5ces 9 ! %ape ( ! skull4 ,9 def9+ lion1 !n1 x w\ld h be5 en\gh to m5tion ! g5us & ! prop]ties mak+ up ! ,diff]5ce2 because ! prop]ties ( ! g5us may be f\nd by turn+ to ! def9ition ( ! g5us2 &1 on ! pr9ciple ( economy1 :atev] x is en\gh to d x is "r to d4 ,to def9e 'by g5us & diff]5ce' is a po9t ( elegance1 :5 ! g5us is kn[n2 b ! only way ( kn[+ x is to comp>e ! individuals compris$ 9 x & 9 co-ord9ate g5]a1 accord+ to ! me?ods ( sci5tific classification4 ,x may be add$ t1 z ! g5us repres5ts ance/ral d]ivation1 ! pr$ication ( g5us 9 a def9ition indicates ! remote causes ( ! ph5om5a d5ot$ by ! "n def9$4 ,& ?is way ( def9+ corresponds ) ! me?od ( d\ble nam+ by g5us & species3 ,felis leo1 ,felis tigris1 etc42 ,vanessa ,atalanta1 ,vanessa ,io1 etc4 ,! s-call$ ,g5etic ,def9ition1 *iefly us$ 9 ,ma!matics1 is a rule = con/ruct+ t :i* a "n d5otes1 9 su* a way z to ensure its possess+ ! tributes connot$ by ! "n4 ,?us1 = a circle3 ,take any po9t &1 at any con/ant di/ance f x1 trace a l9e return+ into itself4 ,9 ,*emi/ry a g5etic def9ition ( any comp\nd might be giv5 9 ! =m ( directions = ! requisite syn!sis ( elem5ts4 #f4 ,! *ief difficulty 9 ! def9ition ( sci5tific names consi/s 9 det]m9+ exactly ! nature ( ! ?+s d5ot$ by !m1 z 9 classify+ plants & animals4 ,if organic species are free gr[?s1 cont9ually *ang+1 h[ev] gradually1 accord+ z circum/ances give "s advantage to "o =m ov] o!rs1 we may expect to f9d su* species bran*+ into v>ieties1 :i* diff] consid]ably f "o ano!r 9 "s respects1 ?\gh n en\gh to con/itute di/9ct species4 ,?is is ! case2 &1 consequ5tly1 !re arises "s unc]ta9ty 9 collect+ f all ! v>ieties ^? attributes :i* are common to ! species z a :ole2 &1 !re=e1 ( c\rse1 unc]ta9ty 9 def9+ ! species4 ,! same difficulty may occur 9 def9+ a g5us1 on acc\nt ( ! ext5t to :i* "s ( its species diff] f o!rs1 :il/ hav+ en\gh ( ! common "* to det] ! classifi] f =m+ a di/9ct g5us on _! acc\nt4 ,on ! o!r h& ! occurr5ce ( num]\s int]m$iate v>ieties may make x difficult to di/+ui% g5]a or species at all4 ,ev5 ! ,k+doms ( plants & animals are h>d to discrim9ate at ! l[e/ levels ( organisation4 ,n[1 :]e !re is a difficulty ( classification !re mu/ be a correspond+ difficulty ( def9ition4 ,x has be5 propos$ 9 su* cases to sub/itute a ,type = a ,def9ition2 to select "s v>iety ( a species1 or species ( a g5us1 z exhibit+ its "* 9 an em95t degree1 & to reg>d o!r gr\ps z belong+ to ! same species or g5us1 accord+ z !y agree m ) ?is type ?an ) o!r types repres5t+ o!r species or g5]a4 ,b ! selection ( "o gr\p z typical implies a recognition ( its attributes z prevail+ g5]ally 7?\gh n univ]sally7 ?r\gh\t ! species or g5us2 & to recognise ^! attributes & yet refuse to enum]ate !m 9 a def9ition1 seems to be no great ga94 ,to enum]ate ! attributes ( ! type z an ,approximate ,def9ition ( ! species or g5us1 true ( mo/ ( ! gr\ps con/itut+ ! species or g5us1 answ]s ! same purpose1 is m explicit1 & c mislead no "o :o really att5ds to ! exposition4 ,an approximate def9ition is1 inde$1 less mislead+ ?an ! indication ( a type2 = ! latt] me?od seems to imply t ! gr\p :i* is n[ typical has a great] p]man5ce or reality ?an its co-ord9ate gr\ps2 :]eas1 = aught we "k1 "o ( ! outside v>ieties or species may ev5 n[ be sup]s$+ & ext+ui%+ x4 ,b ! /atem5t ( a def9ition z approximate1 is an hone/ confession t bo? ! def9ition & ! classification are 7l a provisional hypo!sis7 m]ely ! be/ acc\nt we c give ( ! matt] accord+ to our pres5t k4 #g4 ,! limits ( ,def9ition are tw(old3 7a7 ,a "n ^: mean+ _c be analys$ _c be def9$4 ,?is limitation meets u only 9 deal+ ) ! names ( ! metaphysical p>ts or simple qualities ( objects "u ! second requisite ( a ,t]m9ology4 ,resi/ance & weight1 col\r & its modes1 _m names ( s\nds1 ta/es1 smells1 heat & cold--9 fact1 :atev] /&s = an unanalysable p]ception1 _c be made intelligible to any "o :o has n _h exp]i5ce ( ! facts d5ot$2 !y _c be def9$1 b only exemplifi$4 ,a sort ( g5etic def9ition may p]haps be attempt$1 z if we say t col\r is ! special s5sation ( ! cones ( ! ret9a1 or t blue is ! s5sation produc$ by a ray ( light vibrat+ ab\t #fej1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj times a second2 b su* expressions c give no notion ( our mean+ to a bl9d man1 or to any "o :o has nev] se5 a blue object4 ,nor c we expla9 :at heat is l1 or ! smell ( tobacco1 to ^? :o h nev] exp]i5c$ !m2 nor ! s\nd ( ,c #abh to "o :o kn[s no?+ ( ! musical scale4 ,if we di/+ui% ! prop]ty ( an object f ! s5sation x excites 9 u1 we may def9e any simple prop]ty z '! p[] ( produc+ ! s5sation'2 ! col\r ( a fl[] z ! p[] ( excit+ ! s5sation ( col\r 9 u4 ,/ill1 ?is gives no in=mation to ! bl9d nor to ! col\r-bl9d4 ,ab/ract names may be def9$ by def9+ ! correspond+ concrete3 ! def9ition ( 'human nature' is ! same z ( 'man4' ,b if ! correspond+ concrete be a simple s5sation 7z blue71 ?is be+ indef9able1 ! ab/ract 7blu5ess7 is also indef9able4 7b7 ,! second limit ( ,def9ition is ! impossibility ( exhau/+ inf9ity1 :i* w\ld be necess>y 9 ord] to convey ! mean+ ( ! "n ( any individual ?+ or p]son4 ,=1 z we saw 9 *ap4 iv41 if 9 attempt+ to def9e a prop] "n we /op %ort ( inf9ity1 our li/ ( qualities or prop]ties may possibly be f\nd 9 two individuals1 & !n x becomes ! def9ition ( a class-"n or g5]al "n1 h[ev] small ! actual class4 ,h5ce we c only give a ,description ( t :i* a prop] "n d5otes1 enum]at+ en\gh ( its prop]ties to di/+ui% x f ev]y?+ else z f> z our k goes4 #h4 ,! five ,pr$icables 7,species1 ,g5us1 ,diff]5ce1 ,proprium1 ,accid5t7 may be/ be discuss$ 9 connection ) ,classification & ,def9ition2 & 9 giv+ an acc\nt ( ,classification1 mo/ ( :at has to be said ab\t !m has be5 anticipat$4 ,_! "n1 inde$1 connects !m ) ! doctr9e ( ,propositions2 = ,pr$icables are t]ms t may be pr$icat$1 classifi$ accord+ to _! connotative relation to ! subject ( a proposition 7t is1 accord+ to ! relation 9 :i* _! connotation /&s to ! connotation ( ! subject73 nev]!less1 ! significance ( ! relations ( su* pr$icates to a subject is d]ivative f ! g5]al doctr9e ( classification4 ,= example1 9 ! proposition ',x is ,y1' ,y mu/ be "o ( ! five sorts ( pr$icables 9 relation to ,x2 b ( :at sort1 dep5ds ^u :at ,x 7! subject7 is1 or means4 ,! subject ( ! proposition mu/ be ei!r a def9ition1 or a g5]al connotative "n1 or a s+ul> "n4 ,if ,x be a def9ition1 ,y mu/ be a species2 = no?+ b a g5]al "n c be pr$icat$ ( a def9ition3 &1 /rictly speak+1 x is only 9 relation to a def9ition 7z subject7 t species c be a pr$icable2 :5 x is call$ ,species pr$icabilis 7#a74 ,if ,x be a connotative "n1 x is itself a species 7,species subjicibilis72 & ! place ( ! subject ( a proposition is ! usual "o = species4 ,! pr$icate1 ,y1 may !n be relat$ to ! species 9 ?ree diff]5t ways4 ,fir/1 x may be a def9ition1 exactly equival5t to ! species2--9 fact1 no?+ else ?an ! species 9 an explicit =m1 ! analysis ( its connotation4 ,secondly1 ! pr$icate may be1 or connote1 "s "p only ( ! def9ition or connotation ( ! species2 & !n x is ei!r g5us 7#b71 or diff]5ce 7#c74 ,?irdly1 ! pr$icate may connote no "p ( ! def9ition1 & !n x is ei!r d]ivable f x1 be+ a proprium 7#d71 or n d]ivable f x1 be+ an accid5t 7#e74 ,^! po9ts ( doctr9e w be exp&$ & illu/rat$ 9 subsequ5t pages4 ,if ,x be a s+ul> "n1 d]iv+ connotation f its con/itu5t t]ms 7*ap4 iv4 #b71 z ',! pres5t ,emp]or ( ,*9a1' x may be treat$ z a ,species subjicibilis4 ,!n t he is 'an absolute mon>*1' pr$icates a g5us2 because t is a g5us ( ',emp]or1' a "p ( ! s+ul> "n t gives x connotation4 ,t he we>s a yell[ robe is a proprium1 d]ivable f ! c]emonial ( 8 c\rt4 ,t he is ?irty ye>s ( age is an accid5t4 ,b if ,x be a prop] "n1 hav+ no connotation1 ,y mu/ always be an accid5t2 s9ce !re c !n be no def9ition ( ,x1 & !re=e nei!r species1 g5us1 diff]5ce1 nor proprium4 ,h5ce1 t ',john ,doe is a man' is an accid5tal proposition3 'man' is n "h a ,species pr$icabilis2 = ! "n might h be5 giv5 to a dog or a m\nta94 ,t is :at enables ! proposition to convey in=mation3 x w\ld be useless if ! prop] "n impli$ 'humanity4' ',species' is mo/ frequ5tly us$ 7z 9 ,zoology7 = ! class d5ot$ by a g5]al "n2 b 9 ,logic x is bett] to treat x z a g5]al "n us$ connotatively = ! attributes possess$ 9 common by ! ?+s d5ot$1 & on acc\nt ( :i* !y are reg>d$ z a class3 x is sometimes call$ ! ,ess5ce 7 #i74 ,9 ?is connotative s5se1 a species is implicitly :at ! def9ition is explicitly2 & !re=e ! two are always simply conv]tible4 ,?us1 ',a plane triangle' 7species7 is 'a figure enclos$ by ?ree /raight l9es' 7def9ition73 cle>ly we may equally say1 ',a figure enclos$ by ?ree /raight l9es is a plane triangle4' ,x is a simple id5tity4 ,a g5us is also commonly view$ d5otatively1 z a class conta9+ small] classes1 its species2 b 9 ,logic x is1 aga91 bett] to treat x connotatively1 z a "n ^: def9ition is "p ( ! def9ition ( a giv5 species4 ,a diff]5ce is ! rema9d] ( ! def9ition ( any species aft] subtract+ a giv5 g5us4 ,h5ce1 ! g5us & diff]5ce toge!r make up ! species2 :5ce ! me?od ( def9ition p] g5us et diff]5tiam 7ante1 #e74 ,:il/ 9 ,botany & ,zoology ! species is fix$ at ! l[e/ /ep ( ! classification 7v>ieties n be+ reckon$ z classes71 & ! g5us is also fix$ on ! /ep next above x1 9 ,logic ^! pr$icables are treat$ z movable up & d[n ! ladd]3 any l[] class be+ species 9 relation to any high]2 :i* high] class1 :]ev] tak51 ?us becomes a g5us4 ,lion may logically be reg>d$ z a species ( digitigrade1 or mammal1 or animal2 & !n ea* ( ^! is a g5us z to lion3 or1 aga91 digitigrade may be reg>d$ z a species ( mammal1 or mammal z a species ( animal4 ,! highe/ class1 h[ev]1 is nev] a species2 :]e=e x is call$ a ,summum ,g5us3 & ! l[e/ class is nev] a g5us2 :]e=e x is call$ an ,infima ,species4 ,betwe5 ^! two any /ep may be ei!r species or g5us1 accord+ to ! relation 9 :i* x is view$ to o!r classes1 & is !n call$ ,subalt]n4 ,! summum g5us1 aga91 may be view$ 9 relation to a giv5 univ]se or suppositio 7t is1 any limit$ area ( exi/5ce n[ ! object ( att5tion71 or to ! :ole univ]se4 ,if we take ! animal k+dom z our suppositio1 ,animal is ! summum g5us2 b if we take ! :ole univ]se1 ',all ?+s' is ! summum g5us4 ,porphyry's tree is us$ to illu/rate ?is doctr9e4 ,x beg9s ) a summum g5us1 ',sub/ance1' & desc5ds by add+ diff]5ces1 /ep by /ep1 to ! infima species1 ',man4' ,x also illu/rates ,division by ,di*otomy4 ,,sub/ance _/ ,,corporeal ,,incorporeal ,,body _/ ,,animate ,,inanimate ,,liv+ ,,body _/ ,,s5sible ,,ins5sible ,,animal _/ ,,rational ,,irrational ,,man _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ ,socrates ,plato ,ari/otle ,beg9n+ ) ',sub/ance1' z summum g5us1 & add+ ! diff]5ce ',corporeal1' we frame ! species ',body4' ,tak+ ',body' z ! g5us & add+ ! diff]5ce ',animate1' we frame ! species ',liv+ ,body2' & s on till ',man' is rea*$2 :i*1 be+ infima species1 is only subdivisible into individuals4 ,b ! division ( ,man into individuals involves a *ange ( pr9ciple2 x is a division ( ! d5otation1 n an increase ( ! connotation z 9 ! e>li] /eps4 ,only "o side ( ea* di*otomy is foll[$ out 9 ! 'tree'3 if ! o!r side _h be5 tak51 ,incorporeal ,sub/ance w\ld be ',_s'2 :i* might be simil>ly subdivid$4 ,g5us & species1 !n1 h a d\ble relation4 ,9 d5otation ! g5us includes ! species2 9 connotation ! species includes ! g5us4 ,h5ce ! doctr9e t by increas+ ! connotation ( a "n we decrease its d5otation3 if1 = example1 to ! def9ition ( 'lion' we add 'inhabit+ ,africa1' ,asiatic lions are no long] d5ot$ by x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we use a "n to d5ote objects t x did n =m]ly apply to1 "s ( ! connotation mu/ be dropp$3 if1 = example1 ! "n 'lion' be us$ to include 'pumas1' ! tuft$ tail & mane c no long] be "p ( ! mean+ ( ! ^w2 s9ce pumas h n ^! prop]ties4 ,?is doctr9e is logically or =mally true1 b x may n always be true 9 fact4 ,x is logically true2 because :]ev] we add to ! connotation ( a "n1 x is possible t "s ?+s to :i* x =m]ly appli$ are n[ exclud$ f its d5otation1 ?\gh we may n "k ( any su* ?+s4 ,/ill1 z a matt] ( fact1 an object may be discov]$ to h a prop]ty previ\sly unkn[n1 & ?is prop]ty may be fundam5tal & co-ext5sive ) ! d5otation ( its "n1 or ev5 m widely preval5t4 ,! discov]y t ! :ale is a mammal did n limit ! class ':ale'2 nor did ! discov]y t lions1 dogs1 wolves1 etc41 walk ^u _! toes1 affect ! application ( any ( ^! names4 ,simil>ly1 ! ext5sion ( a "n to ?+s n previ\sly d5ot$ by x1 may n 9 fact alt] its def9ition2 = ! ext5sion may be made on ! v gr\nd t ! ?+s n[ fir/ d5ot$ by x h be5 f\nd to h ! prop]ties enum]at$ 9 its def9ition1 z :5 ! "n 'mammal' 0 appli$ to :ales1 dolph9s1 etc4 ,if1 h[ev]1 'mammal' _h =m]ly be5 und]/ood to apply only to l& animals1 s t its def9ition includ$ 7at lea/1 popul>ly7 ! quality ( 'liv+ on ! l&1' ?is "p ( ! connotation 0 ( c\rse lo/ :5 ! d5otation came to include c]ta9 aquatic animals4 ,a proprium is an attribute d]iv$ f ! def9ition3 be+ ei!r 7a7 impli$ 9 x1 or d$ucible f x1 z 'hav+ its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles' may be prov$ f ! def9ition ( a triangle2 or 7b7 causally dep5d5t on x1 z be+ 'dang]\s to flocks' results f ! nature ( a wolf1 & z 'mov+ 9 an ellipse' results f ! nature ( a planet 9 its relation to ! sun4 ,an accid5t is a prop]ty accompany+ ! def9+ attributes )\t be+ d$ucible f !m4 ,! ^w sugge/s t su* a prop]ty is m]ely 'accid5tal1' or !re 'by *ance'2 b x only means t we d n und]/& ! connection4 ,proprium & ,accid5t be> ! same relation to "o ano!r z ,d]ivative & ,empirical ,laws3 ! pr$ication ( a proprium is a d]ivative law1 & ! pr$ication ( an accid5t is an empirical law4 ,bo? accid5ts & empirical laws pres5t problems1 ! solution ( :i* consi/s 9 r$uc+ !m1 respectively1 to propria & d]ivative laws4 ,?us ! col\r ( animals 0 once reg>d$ z an accid5t = :i* no reason c\ld be giv52 b n[ ! col\r ( animals is reg>d$ z an effect ( _! nature & habits1 ! *ief det]m9ants ( x be+ ! advantage ( concealm5t2 :il/ 9 o!r cases1 z among brightly col\r$ insects & snakes1 ! det]m9ant may be ! advantage ( adv]tis+ _! own noxi\sness4 ,if su* reason+ is s\nd1 col\r is a proprium 7& if s1 x _c logically be includ$ 9 a def9ition2 b x is bett] to be judici\s ?an =mal74 ,if ! col\r ( animals is a proprium1 we mu/ recognise a di/9ction betwe5 ,insep>able & ,sep>able ,propria1 accord+ z !y d1 or d n1 always accompany ! ess5ce3 = mank9d is reg>d$ z "o species2 b ea* col\r1 :ite1 black or yell[1 is sep>able f x "u diff]5t climatic conditions2 :il/ tig]s are ev]y:]e col\r$ & /rip$ 9 mu* ! same way2 s t we may consid] _! col\r+ z insep>able1 9 spite ( exceptional specim5s black or :ite or cl\d$4 ,! same di/9ction may be drawn betwe5 accid5ts4 ',inhabit+ ,asia' is an ,insep>able ,accid5t ( tig]1 b a ,sep>able ,accid5t ( lion4 ,ev5 ! occasional *>act]i/ics & occupations ( individuals are sometimes call$ sep>able accid5ts ( ! species2 z1 ( man1 be+ col\r-bl9d1 c>p5t]+1 or runn+4 ,a proprium 9 ! orig9al signification ( ! t]m 0 peculi> to a species1 nev] f\nd ) any o!r1 & 0 !re=e conv]tible ) ! subject2 b ?is re/riction is no long] insi/$ on4 #i4 ,any pr$ication ( a g5us1 diff]5ce or def9ition1 is a v]bal1 analytic1 or ess5tial proposition3 & any pr$ication ( a proprium or accid5t1 is a real1 syn!tic1 or accid5tal proposition 7*ap4 v4 #f74 ,a proposition is call$ v]bal or analytic :5 ! pr$icate is a "p1 or ! :ole1 ( ! mean+ ( ! subject2 & ! subject be+ species1 a g5us or diff]5ce is "p1 & a def9ition is ! :ole1 ( its mean+ or connotation4 ,h5ce su* a proposition has also be5 call$ explicative4 ,aga91 a proposition is call$ real or syn!tic :5 ! pr$icate is no "p ( ! mean+ ( ! subject2 &1 ! subject be+ species1 a proprium or accid5t is no "p ( its mean+ or connotation4 ,h5ce su* a proposition has be5 call$ ampliative4 ,z to ,ess5tial & ,accid5tal1 ^! t]ms are d]iv$ f ! doctr9e ( ,realism4 ,reali/s ma9ta9 t ! ess5ce ( a ?+1 or t :i* makes a ?+ to be :at 7or ( :at k9d7 x is1 also makes ev]y?+ else ( ! same k9d to be :at x is4 ,! ess5ce1 !y say1 is n prop] to ea* ?+ or sep>ately inh]5t 9 x1 b is an ',univ]sal' common to all ?+s ( t k9d4 ,"s hold t ! univ]sal nature ( ?+s ( any k9d is an ,idea exi/+ 7ap>t f ! ?+s7 9 ! intelligible _w1 invisible to mortal eye & only accessible to ?\ght2 :5ce ! ,idea is call$ a n\m5on3 t only ! ,idea is truly real1 & t ! ?+s 7say1 trees1 b$/eads & cities7 :i* appe> to u 9 s5se-p]ception1 & :i* !re=e are call$ ph5om5a1 only exi/ by p>ticipat+ 91 or imitat+1 ! ,idea ( ea* k9d ( !m4 ,! /&>d ( ?is s*ool be>s ! leg5d ,univ]salia ante rem4 ,b o!rs ?9k t ! ,univ]sal does n exi/ ap>t f p>ticul> ?+s1 b is _! pres5t ess5ce2 gives !m actuality z individual sub/ances2 in=ms !m1 or is _! =mal cause1 & ?us makes !m to be :at !y are ( _! k9d accord+ to ! def9ition3 ! univ]sal lion is 9 all lions1 & is n m]ely simil>1 b id5tical 9 all2 = ?us ! ,univ]sal ,reason ?9ks & en]gises 9 ,nature4 ,?is s*ool inscribes ^u its bann]s1 ,univ]salia 9 re4 ,to def9e any?+1 !n1 is to discov] its ess5ce1 :e!r transc5d5t or imman5t2 & to pr$icate ! def9ition1 or any "p ( x 7g5us or diff]5ce71 is to en\nce an ess5tial proposition4 ,b a proprium1 be+ no "p ( a def9ition1 ?\gh x always goes along ) x1 does n %[ :at a ?+ is2 nor ( c\rse does an accid5t2 s t to pr$icate ei!r ( ^! is to en\nce an accid5tal proposition4 ,ano!r s*ool ( ,metaphysicians d5ies ! exi/5ce ( ,univ]sal ,ideas or ,=ms2 ! real ?+s1 accord+ to !m1 are individuals2 :i*1 s f> z any ( !m resemble "o ano!r1 are reg>d$ z =m+ classes2 & ! only ,univ]sal is ! class-"n1 :i* is appli$ univ]sally 9 ! same s5se4 ,h5ce1 !y are call$ ,nom9ali/s4 ,! s5se 9 :i* any "n is appli$1 !y say1 is d]iv$ f a comp>ison ( ! individuals1 & by ab/raction ( ! prop]ties !y h 9 common2 & ?us ! def9ition is =m$4 ,univ]salia po/ rem is _! motto4 ,"s ,nom9ali/s1 h[ev]1 hold t1 ?\gh ,univ]sals d n exi/ 9 nature1 !y d 9 our m9ds1 z ,ab/ract ,ideas or ,concepts2 & t to def9e a t]m is to analyse ! concept x /&s =2 :5ce1 ^! philosoph]s are call$ ,conceptuali/s4 ,su* que/ions belong to ,metaphysics r ?an to ,logic2 & ! =ego+ is a commonplace acc\nt ( a subject ^u e po9t ( :i* !re is mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion4 #aj4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,pr$icam5ts1 or ,categories1 is s int]wov5 ) ! hi/ory ( speculation & especially ( ,logic t1 ?\gh its vitality is exhau/$1 x c h>dly be pass$ ov] unm5tion$4 ,! pr$icam5ts ( ,ari/otle are ! heads ( a classification ( t]ms z possible pr$icates ( a p>ticul> ?+ or individual4 ,hamilton 7,logic3 ,lect4 xi47 has giv5 a classification ( !m2 :i*1 if x _c be f\nd 9 ,ari/otle1 is an aid to ! memory1 & may be ?r[n into a table ?us3 ,sub/ance 7#a7 ,quantity 7#b7 ,attribute ,quality 7#c7 ,relation 7#d7 ,:]e 7#e7 ,:5 7#f7 ,action 7#g7 ,modes ( ,relation ,passion 7#h7 ,po/ure 7#i7 ,habit 7#aj7 ,tak+ a p>ticul> ?+ or individual1 z ',socrates1' ?is is ,sub/ance 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! ^w1 & c nev] be a pr$icate1 b is ! subject ( all pr$icates4 ,we may ass]t ( him 7#a7 ,sub/ance 9 ! second>y s5se 7species or g5us7 t he is a man or an animal2 7#b7 ,quantity1 ( su* a height or weight2 7#c7 ,quality1 fair or d>k2 7#d7 ,relation1 %ort] or tall] ?an ,xan?ippe2 7#e7 ,:]e1 at ,a!ns2 7#f7 ,:51 two ?\s& & odd ye>s ago2 7#g7 ,action1 t he que/ions or pleads2 7#h7 ,passion1 t he is answ]$ or condemn$2 7#i7 ,po/ure1 t he sits or /&s2 7#aj7 ,habit1 t he is clo!d or arm$4 ,?us illu/rat$ 7,categori3 c4 #d71 ! pr$icam5ts seem to be a li/ ( topics1 g5]ally useful = ! analysis & description ( an individual1 b want+ 9 ! sci5tific qualities ( rational arrangem5t1 d]ivation & limitation4 ,:y are !re j ^! heads1 & j s _m8 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t !y 7 det]m9$ by grammatical =ms3 = ,sub/ance is express$ by a sub/antive2 ,quantity1 ,quality & ,relation are adjectival2 ,:]e & ,:51 adv]bial2 & ! rema9+ f\r are v]bal4 ,x is true t ! p>ts ( spee* 7 n sy/ematically discrim9at$ until "s ye>s aft] ,ari/otle's "t2 b1 z !y exi/$1 !y may h unconsci\sly influ5c$ 8 selection & arrangem5t ( ! pr$icam5ts4 ,:]e a pr9ciple is s obscure "o feels glad ( any clue to x 7cf4 ,grote's ,ari/otle1 c4 #c1 & ,zell]'s ,ari/otle1 c4 #f74 ,b :atev] ! orig9 & orig9al mean+ ( ! pr$icam5ts1 !y 7 = a long "t reg>d$ z a classification ( ?+s2 & x is 9 ?is s5se t ,mill criticises !m 7,logic3 ,bk4 ,i4 c4 #c74 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! pr$icam5ts are heads ( a classification ( t]ms pr$icable1 we may expect to f9d "s connection ) ! pr$icables2 &1 9 fact1 second>y ,sub/ances are species & g5us2 :il/ ! rema9+ n9e =ms are g5]ally accid5ts4 ,b1 aga91 we may expect "s agreem5t betwe5 !m & ! fundam5tal =ms ( pr$ication 7ante1 *ap4 i4 #e1 & *ap4 ii #d73 ,sub/ance1 :e!r z ! f\ndation ( attributes1 or z g5us & species1 implies ! pr$ication ( co-inh]5ce1 :i* is "o mode ( ,co-exi/5ce4 ,quantity is pr$icat$ z equality 7or inequality7 a mode ( ,lik5ess2 & ! o!r mode ( ,lik5ess is involv$ 9 ! pr$ication ( ,quality4 ,relation1 inde$1 is ! ab/ract ( all pr$ication1 & ought n to appe> 9 a li/ along ) special =ms ( itself4 ',:]e' is position1 or ,co-exi/5ce 9 space2 & ',:5' is position 9 "t1 or ,succession4 ,action & ,passion are ! mo/ int]e/+ aspect ( ,causation4 ,po/ure & ,habit are complex modes ( ,co-exi/5ce1 b too specialis$ to h any philosophic value4 ,n[1 ,i d n pret5d t ?is is :at ,ari/otle meant & 0 try+ to say3 b if ,lik5ess1 ,co-exi/5ce1 ,succession & ,causation are fundam5tal =ms ( pr$ication1 a good m9d analys+ ! fact ( pr$ication is likely to happ5 ^u !m 9 "o set ( words or ano!r4 ,by ,kant ! ^w ',category' has be5 appropriat$ to ! highe/ =ms ( judgm5t1 su* z ,unity1 ,reality1 ,sub/ance1 & ,cause1 "u :i* ! und]/&+ r$uces ph5om5a to ord] & !reby con/itutes ,nature4 ,?is *ange ( mean+ has n be5 made )\t a c]ta9 cont9uity ( ?\ght2 = =ms ( judgm5t are modes ( pr$ication4 ,b besides alt]+ ! li/s ( categories & greatly improv+ x1 ,kant has br\ght =w>d "u an old title a doctr9e s orig9al & sugge/ive t x has ext5sively influ5c$ ! subsequ5t hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,at ! same "t1 & probably z a result ( ! vogue ( ! ,kantian philosophy1 ! ^w 'category' has be5 vulg>is$ z a synonym = 'class1' j z 'pr$icam5t' long ago pass$ f ,s*ola/ic ,logic into common use z a synonym = 'plight4' ,a m9i/] is said to be '9 a pr$icam5t1' or to fall "u ! 'category ( impo/ors4' ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,def9ition ,,( ,,common ,,t]ms #a4 ,ord9>y words may ne$ def9ition1 if 9 ! c\rse ( exposition or argum5t _! mean+ is liable to be mi/ak54 ,b z def9ition _c give "o ! s5se ( a popul> ^w = all occasions ( its use1 x is an op]ation ( great delicacy4 ,fixity ( mean+ 9 ! use ( s+le words is contr>y to ! g5ius ( ! common vocabul>y2 s9ce ea* ^w1 :il/ hav+ a c]ta9 pr$om9ant "*1 mu/ be us$ ) _m %ades ( significance1 9 ord] to express ! diff]5t ?\ghts & feel+s ( multitudes ( m5 9 endlessly div]sifi$ situations2 & its =ce1 :5ev] x is us$1 is qualifi$ by ! o!r words ) :i* x is connect$ 9 a s5t5ce1 by its place 9 ! con/ruction ( ! s5t5ce1 by ! emphasis1 or by ! pit* ( its pronunciation comp>$ ) ! o!r words4 ,cle>ly1 ! requisite ( a sci5tific language1 't e ^w %all h "o mean+ well def9$1' is too exact+ = popul> language2 because ! o!r *ief requisite ( sci5tific language _c be compli$ )1 't !re be no important mean+ )\t a "n4' ',important mean+s1' or :at seem su*1 are too num]\s to be ?us provid$ =2 & new ones are con/antly aris+1 z ea* ( u pursues 8 bus9ess or 8 pleasure1 8 m$itations or ! excursions ( 8 fancy4 ,x is impossible to h a sep>ate t]m = ea* mean+2 &1 !re=e1 ! t]ms we h mu/ admit ( v>iable application4 ,an attempt to introduce new words is g5]ally disgu/+4 ,few m5 h ma/]$ ! uses ( half ! words already to be f\nd 9 our classics4 ,mu* m w\ld be lo/ ?an ga9$ by d\bl+ ! diction>y4 ,x is true t1 at c]ta9 /ages 9 ! gr[? ( a p1 a ne$ may be widely felt = ! adoption ( new words3 su*1 9 our own case1 0 ! p]iod ( ! ,tudors & e>ly ,/u>ts4 ,_m fre% words1 *iefly f ! ,lat91 !n appe>$ 9 books1 7 (t5 receiv$ ) reprobation & d]ision1 sometimes disappe>$ aga91 sometimes e/abli%$ _! foot+ 9 ! language3 see ,! ,art ( ,engli% ,poetry 7ascrib$ to ,putt5ham71 ,book ,,iii4 *ap4 #d1 & ,b5 ,jonson's ,poeta/]1 ,act4 ,v4 sc4 ,i4 ,good judges did n "k :e!r a ^w 0 really call$ =3 ev5 ,%akespe>e ?\ght 'remun]ation' & 'accommodate' ridicul\s4 ,b su* national exig5cies r>ely arise2 & 9 our own "t great au?ors di/+ui% !mselves by ! pla/ic p[] ) :i* !y make common words convey uncommon mean+s4 ,fluid1 h[ev]1 z popul> language is & ought to be1 x may be necess>y = ! sake ( cle> exposition1 or to /eady ! c\rse ( an argum5t1 to avoid ei!r sophi/ry or un9t5tional confusion1 t words %\ld be def9$ & discrim9at$2 & we mu/ discuss ! means ( do+ s4 #b4 ,sci5tific me?od is applicable1 ) "s qualifications1 to ! def9ition ( ord9>y words4 ,classification is involv$ 9 any problem ( def9ition3 at lea/1 if our object is to f9d a mean+ t %all be g5]ally acceptable & intelligible4 ,no d\bt two disputants may1 = _! own satisfaction1 adopt any arbitr>y def9ition ( a ^w important 9 _! controv]sy2 or1 any "o may def9e a ^w z he pleases1 at ! risk ( be+ misund]/ood1 provid$ he has no fraudul5t int5tion4 ,b 9 exposition or argum5t address$ to ! public1 :]e words are us$ 9 "s ( _! ord9>y s5ses1 x %\ld be recognis$ t ! mean+ ( ea* "o involves t ( _m o!rs4 ,= language has gr[n ) ! human m9d1 z repres5t+ its k ( ! _w3 ?is k consi/s ( ! resemblances & diff]5ces ( ?+s & ( ! activities ( ?+s1 t is1 ( classes & causes2 & z !re is su* ord] 9 ! _w1 s !re mu/ be 9 language3 language1 !re=e1 embodies an irregul> classification ( ?+s ) _! attributes & relations accord+ to our k & beliefs4 ,! be/ attempt 7kn[n to me7 to c>ry out ?is view is conta9$ 9 ,roget's ,!saurus1 :i* is a classification ( ,engli% words accord+ to _! mean+s3 f\nd$1 z ! au?or tells u1 on ! models ( ,zoology & ,botany1 x has "s ( ! requisites ( a ,logical ,diction>y4 ,popul> language1 inde$1 hav+ gr[n up ) a pr$om9antly practical purpose1 repres5ts a v imp]fect classification philosophically consid]$4 ,?+s1 or aspects1 or processes ( ?+s1 t h excit$ little int]e/1 h (t5 gone unnam$3 s t sci5tific discov]]s are oblig$1 = sci5tific purposes1 to inv5t ?\s&s ( new names4 ,/rong int]e/s1 on ! o!r h&1 give su* a col\r to language1 t1 :]e !y ent]1 x is difficult to f9d any indiff]5t expressions4 ,consi/5cy be+ mu* priz$1 ?\gh (t5 ! "p ( a blockhead1 inconsi/5cy implies n m]ely ! abs5ce ( ! suppos$ virtue1 b a positive vice3 ,beauty be+ attractive & ugl9ess ! rev]se1 if we inv5t a ^w = t :i* is nei!r1 'pla9ness1' x at once becomes t+$ ) ! ugly4 ,we seem to love beauty & morality s mu* z to be almo/ incapable ( signify+ _! abs5ce )\t express+ av]sion4 ,aga91 ! errone\s !ories ( mank9d h (t5 f\nd _! way into popul> spee*1 & _! t]ms h rema9$ !re long aft] ! rejection ( ! beliefs !y embodi$3 z--lunatic1 augury1 div9ation1 spell1 exorcism3 ?\gh1 to be sure1 su* words may (t5 be turn$ to good acc\nt1 besides ! int]e/ ( pres]v+ _! orig9al s5se4 ,language is a record z well z an index ( ideas4 ,language1 !n1 be+ ess5tially classificatory1 any attempt to asc]ta9 ! mean+ ( a ^w1 f> f neglect+ its relations to o!rs1 %\ld be direct$ t[>d elucidat+ !m4 ,e ^w belongs to a gr\p1 & ?is gr\p to "s o!r l>g] gr\p4 ,a gr\p is sometimes =m$ by d]ivation1 at lea/ s f> z diff]5t mean+s are m>k$ m]ely by inflections1 z %ort1 %ort]1 %ort51 %ortly2 b1 = ! mo/ "p1 is a conflux ( words f _m diff]5t s\rces4 ,repose1 depose1 suppose1 impose1 propose1 are n ne>ly connect$ 9 mean+2 b are sev]ally alli$ 9 s5se mu* m closely ) words philologically remote4 ,?us repose is alli$ ) re/1 sleep1 tranquillity2 di/urbance1 unre/1 tumult2 :il/ depose is1 9 "o s5se1 alli$ ) ov]?r[1 dismiss1 de?rone2 re/ore1 confirm1 e/abli%2 &1 9 ano!r s5se1 ) decl>e1 atte/1 swe>1 prove1 etc4 ,gr\ps ( words1 9 fact1 dep5d on _! mean+s1 j z ! connection ( sci5tific names foll[s ! resemblance 9 "* ( ! ?+s d5ot$4 ,words1 accord+ly1 /& relat$ to "o ano!r1 = ! mo/ "p1 ?\gh v irregul>ly1 z g5us1 species1 & co-ord9ate species4 ,tak+ repose z a g5us1 we h z species ( x1 ?\gh n exactly co-ord9ate ) "o ano!r1 tranquillity ) a m5tal diff]5tia 7repose ( m9d71 re/1 :e!r ( m9d or body1 sleep1 ) ! diff]5tia ( unconsci\sness 7privative74 ,synonyms are species1 or v>ieties1 :]ev] any diff]5ce c be detect$ 9 !m2 & to discrim9ate !m we mu/ fir/ f9d ! g5]ic mean+2 = :i* !re may1 or may n1 be a s+le ^w4 ,?us1 equality1 sam5ess1 lik5ess1 simil>ity1 resemblance1 id5tity1 are synonyms2 b1 if we att5d to ! ways 9 :i* !y are actually us$1 p]haps none ( !m c claim to be a g5us 9 relation to ! re/4 ,if s1 we mu/ resort to a comp\nd t]m = ! g5us1 su* z 'abs5ce ( "s sort ( diff]5ce4' ,!n equality is abs5ce ( diff]5ce 9 quantity2 sam5ess is (t5 abs5ce ( diff]5ce 9 quality1 ?\gh ! usage is n /rict3 lik5ess1 simil>ity1 & resemblance1 9 _! actual use1 p]haps1 _c be discrim9at$2 unless lik5ess be ! m concrete1 simil>ity ! m ab/ract2 b !y may all be us$ compatibly ) ! recognition ( m or less diff]5ce 9 ! ?+s comp>$1 & ev5 imply ?is4 ,id5tity is ! abs5ce ( diff]5ce ( orig91 a cont9uity ( exi/5ce1 ) s mu* sam5ess f mom5t to mom5t z is compatible ) *anges 9 ! c\rse ( nature2 s t egg1 cat]pill>1 *rysalis1 butt]fly may be id5tical = ! run ( an individual life1 9 spite ( diff]5ces quantitative & qualitative1 z truly z a %ill+ t all ! "t lies 9 a draw]4 ,co-ord9ate ,species1 :5 positive1 h ! lea/ contr>iety2 b !re are also opposites1 namely1 negatives1 contradictories & full] contr>ies4 ,^! may be reg>d$ z ei!r co-ord9ate g5]a or ! species ( co-ord9ate g5]a4 ,?us1 repose be+ a g5us1 n-repose is by di*otomy a co-ord9ate g5us & is a negative & contradictory2 !n activity 7imply+ an end 9 view71 motion 7limit$ to matt]71 di/urbance 7imply+ *anges f a /ate ( calm71 tumult1 etc41 are co-ord9ate species ( n-repose1 & are !re=e co-ord9ate opposites1 or contr>ies1 ( ! species ( repose4 ,z = correlative words1 l ma/] & slave1 husb& & wife1 etc41 x may seem f>-fet*$ to comp>e !m ) ! sexes ( ! same species ( plants or animals2 b !re is ?is resemblance betwe5 ! two cases1 t sexual names are correlative1 z 'lioness1' & t "o sex ( a species1 l a correlative "n1 _c be def9$ )\t imply+ ! o!r2 = if a di/9ctive attribute ( "o sex be m5tion$ 7z ! lion's mane71 x is impli$ t ! o!r wants x1 & ap>t f ?is implication ! species is n def9$3 j z ! def9ition ( 'ma/]' implies a 'slave' to obey4 ,common words1 less precise ?an ! t]ms ( a sci5tific nom5clature1 diff] f !m also 9 ?is1 t ! same ^w may occur 9 diff]5t g5]a4 ,?us1 sleep is a species ( repose z above2 b x is also a species ( unconsci\sness1 ) co-ord9ate species swoon1 hypnotic /ate1 etc4 ,9 fact1 e ^w /&s "u z _m di/9ct g5]a1 at lea/1 z !re are simple or indef9able qualities to be enum]at$ 9 its def9ition4 #c4 ,p>tially simil> to a sci5tific nom5clature1 ord9>y language has likewise a t]m9ology = describ+ ?+s accord+ to _! qualities & /ructure4 ,su* is ! function ( all ! names ( col\rs1 s\nds1 ta/es1 contra/s ( temp]ature1 ( h>dness1 ( pleasantness2 9 %ort1 ( all descriptive adjectives1 & all names = ! p>ts & processes ( ?+s4 ,any ^w connot+ a quality may be us$ to describe _m v diff]5t ?+s1 z long z !y agree 9 t quality4 ,b ! quality connot$ by a ^w1 & treat$ z always ! same quality1 is (t5 only analogically ! same4 ,we speak ( a great /orm1 a great man1 a great book2 b great is 9 ea* case n only relative1 imply+ small1 & leav+ op5 ! possibility t :at we call great is /ill small] ?an some?+ else ( its k9d1 b x is also pr$icat$ ) ref]5ce to "s quality or qualities1 :i* may be v diff]5t 9 ! sev]al cases ( its application4 ,if ! book is priz$ = wisdom1 or = imag9ation1 its greatness lies 9 t quality2 if ! man is di/+ui%$ = influ5ce1 or = c\rage1 8 greatness is ( t nature2 if ! /orm is rem>kable = viol5ce1 or = duration1 its greatness dep5ds on t fact4 ,! ^w great1 !re=e1 is n us$ = ^! ?+s 9 ! same s5se1 b only analogically & elliptically4 ,simil>ly ) good1 pure1 free1 /rong1 ri*1 & s on4 ',re/' has n ! same mean+ 9 respect ( a /one & ( an animal1 nor '/rong' 9 respect ( ?\ght & muscle1 nor 'sweet' 9 respect ( sug> & music4 ,b "h we come to ! bord] betwe5 lit]al & figurative use2 e "o sees t figurative epi!ts are analogical2 b by cu/om any figurative use may become lit]al4 ,aga91 _m g5]al names ( widely diff]5t mean+1 are br\ght toge!r 9 describ+ any concrete object1 z an animal1 or a l&scape1 or 9 def9+ any specific t]m4 ,?is is ! s5se ( ! doctr9e1 t any concrete ?+ is a conflux ( g5]alities or univ]sals3 x may at lea/ be consid]$ 9 ?is way2 ?\gh x seems m natural to say1 t an object pres5ts ^! diff]5t aspects to a spectator1 :o1 fully to compreh5d x1 mu/ classify x 9 e aspect4 #d4 ,! process ( seek+ a def9ition may be guid$ by ! foll[+ maxims3 7#a7 ,f9d ! usage ( good mod]n au?ors2 t is 7z !y r>ely def9e a ^w explicitly71 consid] :at 9 v>i\s relations !y use x to d5ote2 f :i* uses its connotation may be collect$4 7#b7 ,b if ?is process yield no satisfactory result1 make a li/ ( ! ?+s d5ot$1 & ( ^? d5ot$ by ! co-ord9ate & opposite words2 & obs]ve ! qualities 9 :i* ! ?+s d5ot$ agree1 & 9 :i* !y diff] f ^? d5ot$ by ! contr>ies & opposites4 ,if 'civilisation' is to be def9$1 make li/s ( civilis$ peoples1 ( semi-civilis$1 ( b>b>\s1 & ( savage3 n[1 :at ?+s are common to civilis$ peoples & want+ 9 ! o!rs respectively8 ,?is is an ex]cise wor? attempt+4 ,if poetry is to be def9$1 survey "s typical examples ( :at good critics recognise z poetry1 & comp>e !m ) examples ( bad 'poetry1' lit]>y prose1 oratory1 & sci5ce4 ,hav+ det]m9$ ! *>act]i/ics ( ea* k9d1 arrange !m opposite "o ano!r 9 p>allel columns4 ,:oev] tries to def9e by ?is me?od a few important1 frequ5tly occurr+ words1 w f9d 8 ?\ghts ! cle>] = x1 & w collect by ! way mu* in=mation :i* may be m valuable ?an ! def9ition itself1 %\ld he ev] f9d "o4 7#c7 ,if ! g5us ( a ^w to be def9$ is already kn[n1 ! process may be %ort5$4 ,suppose ! g5us ( poetry to be belles lettres 7t is1 'appeal+ to good ta/e'71 ?is suffices to m>k x (f f sci5ce2 b s9ce lit]>y prose & oratory are also belles lettres1 we mu/ /ill seek ! diff]5tia ( poetry by a comp>ison ( x ) ^! co-ord9ate species4 ,a comp\nd ^w (t5 exhibits g5us & diff]5ce ^u its face3 z 're-turn1' 'int]-p5etrate1' 'tun+-=k1' 'cricket-bat'2 b ! two la/ w\ld h>dly be und]/ood )\t inspection or fur!r description4 ,& h[ev] a def9ition be discov]$1 x is well to /ate x p] g5us et diff]5tiam4 7#d7 ,9 def9+ any t]m we %\ld avoid encroa*+ ^u ! mean+ ( any ( ! co-ord9ate t]ms2 = else _! usefulness is less5$3 z by mak+ 'law' include 'cu/om1' or 'weal?' include 'lab\r' or 'culture4' 7#e7 ,if two or m t]ms happ5 to be exactly synonym\s1 x may be possible 7&1 if s1 x is a s]vice to ! language7 to div]t "o ( !m to any neighb\r+ mean+ t has no det]m9ate expression4 ,?us1 ,wordswor? & ,col]idge took great pa9s to di/+ui% betwe5 ,imag9ation & ,fancy1 :i* _h become 9 common usage practically equival5t2 & !y s\ght to limit 'imag9ation' to an ord] ( poetic effect1 :i* 7!y said7 _h prevail$ dur+ ! ,elizabe?an age1 b _h be5 almo/ lo/ dur+ ! ,gallo-classic1 & :i* x 0 _! mission to re/ore4 ,co-ord9ate t]ms (t5 t5d to coalesce & become synonym\s1 or "o almo/ sup]s$es ! o!r1 to ! consequ5t impov]i%m5t ( our spee*4 ,at pres5t proposition 7t some?+ is ! fact7 has almo/ driv5 out proposal 7t x is desirable to co-op]ate 9 "s action74 ,ev5 good writ]s & speak]s1 by _! own practice1 enc\rage ?is confusion3 !y submit to ,p>liam5t c]ta9 'propositions' 7proposals = legislation71 or ev5 make 'a proposition ( m>riage4' ,def9ition %\ld c\nt]act su* a t5d5cy4 7#f7 ,we mu/ avoid ! temptation to ext5d ! d5otation ( a ^w s f> z to dim9i% or de/roy its connotation2 or to increase its connotation s mu* z to r5d] x no long] applicable to ?+s :i* x =m]ly d5ot$3 we %\ld nei!r unduly g5]alise1 nor unduly specialise1 a t]m4 ,is x desirable to def9e education s z to include ! 'lessons ( exp]i5ce'2 or is x bett] to re/rict x z imply+ a p]sonal educator8 ,if any ^w implies blame or praise1 we are apt to ext5d x to ev]y?+ we hate or approve4 ,b c[>d _c be s def9$ z to include all bullies1 nor noble s z to include e hone/ man1 )\t "s loss 9 di/9ctness ( ?\ght4 ,! same impulses make u specialise words2 =1 if two words express approval1 we wi% to apply bo? to :atev] we admire & to refuse bo? to :atev] displeases u4 ,?us1 a man may resolve to call no "o great :o is n good3 greatness1 accord+ to him1 connotes goodness3 :5ce x foll[s t 7say7 ,napoleon ,i4 0 n great4 ,ano!r man is disgu/$ ) greatness3 accord+ to him1 good & great are mutually exclusive classes1 %eep & goats1 z 9 ,gray's wret*$ cl5*3 ,b5ea? ! good h[ f>1 yet f> above ! great4 ,9 feet1 h[ev] 'good' & 'great' are descriptive t]ms1 sometimes applicable to ! same object1 sometimes to diff]5t3 b 'great' is ! wid] t]m & applicable to goodness itself & also to badness2 :]eas by mak+ 'great' connote goodness x becomes ! n>r[] t]m4 ,& z we h se5 7 #c71 su* epi!ts may be applicable to objects on acc\nt ( diff]5t qualities3 good is n pr$icat$ on ! same gr\nd ( a man & ( a horse4 7#g7 ,9 def9+ any ^w1 x is desirable to be> 9 m9d its d]ivation1 & to pres]ve ! connection ( mean+ ) its orig92 unless !re are prepond]ant reasons = div]t+ x1 gr\nd$ on our ne$ ( ! ^w to express a c]ta9 s5se1 & ! great] difficulty ( f9d+ any o!r ^w = ! same purpose4 ,x is bett] to lean to ! classical ?an to ! vulg> s5se ( 'indiff]5t1' 'imp]t95t1' 'aggravat+1' 'ph5om5al4' 7#h7 ,rigor\s def9ition %\ld n be attempt$ :]e ! subject does n admit ( x4 ,"s k9ds ( ?+s are s complex 9 _! qualities1 & ea* quality may manife/ itself 9 s _m degrees )\t ev] admitt+ ( exact measurem5t1 t we h no means ( m>k+ !m (f precisely f o!r ?+s ne>ly alli$1 simil>ly complex & simil>ly v>iable4 ,if s we _c precisely def9e _! names4 ,imag9ation & fancy are ( ?is nature1 civilisation & b>b>ism1 poetry & o!r k9ds ( lit]>y expression4 ,z to poetry1 "s ?9k x only exi/s 9 metre1 b h>dly ma9ta9 t ! metre mu/ be /rictly regul>3 if n1 h[ mu* irregul>ity ( rhy?m is admissible8 ,o!rs reg>d a c]ta9 mood ( impassion$ imag9ation z ! ess5ce ( poetry2 b !y h nev] told u h[ great int5sity ( ?is mood is requisite4 ,we also he> t poetry is ( su* a nature t ! enjoym5t ( x is an end 9 itself2 b z x is n ma9ta9$ t poetry mu/ be :olly imp]suasive or un9/ructive1 !re seems to be no means ( decid+ :at am\nt or prom95ce ( p]suasion or in/ruction w\ld transf] ! "w to ! region ( oratory or sci5ce4 ,su* cases make ! me?od ( def9+ by ! aid ( a type really useful3 ! difficulty c h>dly be got ov] )\t po9t+ to typical examples ( ea* mean+1 & admitt+ t !re may be _m div]g5ces & unclassifiable in/ances on ! bord] betwe5 alli$ mean+s4 #e4 ,z sci5ce began f common k1 ! t]ms ( ! common vocabul>y h (t5 be5 adopt$ into ! sci5ces1 & _m are /ill f\nd !re3 su* z weight1 mass1 "w1 attraction1 repulsion1 diffusion1 reflection1 absorption1 base1 salt1 & s =?4 ,9 ! m exact sci5ces1 ! vague popul> associations ) su* words are h>dly an inconv5i5ce3 s9ce ^? addict$ to su* /udies d n expect to ma/] !m )\t und]go+ special discipl9e2 &1 hav+ precisely def9$ ! t]ms1 !y acquire ! habit ( ?9k+ ) !m accord+ to _! assign$ signification 9 ^? inve/igations to :i* !y are appropriate4 ,x is 9 ! ,social ,sci5ces1 especially ,economics & ,e?ics1 t ! use ( popul> t]m9ology is at once unavoidable & prejudicial4 ,= ! subject-matt]s1 indu/ry & ! conduct ( life1 are e man's bus9ess2 &1 accord+ly1 h always be5 discuss$ ) a consci\sness ( _! direct practical be>+ ^u public & private int]e/s1 & !re=e 9 ! common language1 9 ord] t ev]ybody may z f> z possible b5efit by :atev] light c be ?r[n ^u !m4 ,! g5]al practice ( ,economi/s & ,morali/s1 h[ev]1 %[s t1 9 _! judgm5t1 ! good d]iv$ f writ+ 9 ! common vocabul>y outweighs ! evil3 ?\gh x is sometimes manife/ t !y !mselves h be5 misl$ by extra-sci5tific mean+s4 ,to r$uce ! evil z mu* z possible1 ! foll[+ precautions seem reasonable3 7#a7 ,to try to f9d & adopt ! c5tral mean+ ( ! ^w 7say r5t or money7 9 its curr5t or tradition>y applications3 s z to less5 9 ! great] numb] ( cases ! j> ( conflict+ associations4 ,b if ! c5tral popul> mean+ does n correspond ) ! sci5tific conception to be express$1 x may be bett] to inv5t a new t]m4 7#b7 ,to def9e ! t]m ) suffici5t accuracy to secure its cle> & consi/5t use = sci5tific purposes4 7#c7 ,:5 a popul> t]m has to be us$ 9 a s5se t dep>ts f ! ord9>y "o 9 su* a way z to incur ! dang] ( misund]/&+1 to qualify x by "s adjunct or int]pretation-clause4 ,! fir/ ( ^! rules is n always adh]$ to2 &1 9 ! progress ( a sci5ce1 z subtl] & m ab/ract relations are discov]$ among/ ! facts1 ! mean+ ( a t]m may h to be modifi$ & %ift$ fur!r & fur!r f its popul> use4 ,! t]m 'r5t1' = example1 is us$ by economi/s1 9 su* a s5se t !y h to beg9 ! discussion ( ! facts x d5otes1 by expla9+ t x does n imply any actual paym5t by "o man to ano!r4 ,"h1 = mo/ read]s1 ! mean+ !y are accu/om$ to1 seems already to h entirely disappe>$4 ,difficulties may1 h[ev]1 be l>gely ov]come by qualify+ ! t]m 9 its v>i\s relations1 z produce-r5ts1 gr\nd-r5ts1 cu/om>y r5ts1 & s =?1 7,cf4 ,dr4 ,keynes' ,scope & ,me?od ( ,political ,economy1 *ap4 #e47 #f4 ,def9itions affect ! cog5cy ( argum5ts 9 _m ways1 :e!r we use popul> or sci5tific language4 ,if ! def9itions ( our t]ms are vague1 or are badly ab/ract$ f ! facts d5ot$1 all argum5ts involv+ ^! t]ms are inconclusive4 ,!re c be no confid5ce 9 reason+ ) su* t]ms2 s9ce1 if vague1 !re is no?+ to protect u f ambiguity2 or1 if _! mean+ has be5 badly ab/ract$1 we may be l$ into absurdity--z if 'impud5ce' %\ld be def9$ 9 su* a way z to conf\nd x ) hone/y4 ,aga91 x is by def9itions t we c be/ di/+ui% betwe5 ,v]bal & ,real ,propositions4 ,:e!r a t]m pr$icat$ is impli$ 9 ! def9ition ( ! subject1 or adds some?+ to its mean+1 des]ves our con/ant att5tion4 ,we (t5 p]suade ourselves t /atem5ts are pr(\nd & important1 :51 9 fact1 !y are m]e v]bal propositions4 ,x is j to give e man 8 due2 ! great] good ought to be pref]r$ to ! less2 su* dicta s\nd well--inde$1 too well6 ,= 'a man's due' means no?+ else ?an :at x is j to give him2 & '! great] good' may mean ! "o t ought to be pref]r$3 ^!1 !re=e1 are ,truisms4 ,! inve/igation ( a def9ition may be a v valuable s]vice to ?\ght2 b1 once f\nd1 !re is no m]it 9 repeat+ x4 ,to put =w>d v]bal or analytic propositions1 or truisms1 z in=mation 7except1 ( c\rse1 9 expla9+ t]ms to ! un9/ruct$71 %[s t we are n ?9k+ :at we say2 = else we mu/ become aw>e ( our own empt9ess4 ,e /ep =w>d 9 k is express$ 9 a real or syn!tic proposition2 & x is only by means ( su* propositions t in=mation c be giv5 7except z to ! mean+ ( words7 or t an argum5t or tra9 ( reason+ c make any progress4 ,oppos$ to a truism is a ,contradiction 9 ,t]ms2 t is1 ! d5y+ ( a subject some?+ :i* x connotes 7or :i* belongs to its def9ition71 or ! affirm+ ( x some?+ ^: abs5ce x connotes 7or :i* is exclud$ by its def9ition74 ,a v]bal proposition is necess>ily true1 because x is tautolog\s2 a contradiction 9 t]ms is necess>ily false1 because x is inconsi/5t4 ,yet1 z a rhetorical artifice1 or figure1 x may be effective3 t '! slave is n b\nd to obey 8 ma/]' may be a way ( say+ t !re ought to be no slaves2 t 'prop]ty is !ft1' is an uncompromis+ ass]tion ( ! communi/ic ideal4 ,simil>ly a truism may h rhetorical value3 t 'a ,negro is a man' has (t5 be5 a timely rem9d]1 or ev5 t a man's a man4 ,x is only :5 we fall into su* contradiction or tautology by lapse ( ?\ght1 by n fully und]/&+ our own words1 t x becomes absurd4 ,real ,propositions comprise ! pr$ication ( ,propria & ,accid5tia4 ,accid5tia1 imply+ a sort ( empirical law1 c only be e/abli%$ by direct induction4 ,b propria are d$uc$ f 7or r by means (7 ! def9ition ) ! help ( real propositions1 & ?is is :at is call$ 'argu+ f a ,def9ition4' ,?us1 if increas+ capacity = co-op]ation be a specific "* ( civilisation1 'great weal?' may be consid]$ z a proprium ( civilis$ z comp>$ ) b>b>\s nations4 ,= co-op]ation is made mo/ effectual by ! division ( lab\r1 & t ?is is ! *ief condition ( produc+ weal? is a real proposition4 ,su* argum5ts f def9itions conc]n+ concrete facts & causation require v]ification by comp>+ ! conclusion ) ! facts4 ,! v]ification ( ?is example is easy1 if we d n let ourselves be misl$ 9 e/imat+ ! weal? ( b>b>ians by ! o/5tati\s pe>l & gold ( k+s & nobles1 :]e #ii p] c5t4 ( ! p live 9 p5ury & s]vitude4 ,! weal? ( civilisation is n only great b diffus$1 & 9 its diffusion its greatness mu/ be e/imat$4 ,to argue f a def9ition may be a process ( sev]al degrees ( complexity4 ,! simple/ case is ! e/abli%+ ( a proprium z ! direct consequ5ce ( "s connot$ attribute1 z 9 ! above example4 ,if ! def9ition has be5 correctly ab/ract$ f ! p>ticul>s1 ! p>ticul>s h ! attributes summ>is$ 9 ! def9ition2 &1 !re=e1 !y h :atev] c be %[n to foll[ f ^? attributes4 ,b x frequ5tly happ5s t ! argum5t re/s p>tly on ! qualities connot$ by ! class "n & p>tly on _m o!r facts4 ,9 ,geometry1 ! pro( ( a !orem dep5ds n only ^u ! def9ition ( ! figure or figures directly conc]n$1 b also ^u "o or m axioms1 & ^u propria or con/ructions already e/abli%$4 ,?us1 9 ,euclid's fif? ,proposition1 ! pro( t ! angles at ! base ( an isosceles triangle are equal1 dep5ds n only on ! equality ( ! opposite sides1 b ^u ?is toge!r ) ! con/ruction t %[s h[ f ! great] ( two l9es a "p may be cut (f equal to ! less1 ! pro( t triangles t c be conceiv$ to co9cide are equal1 & ! axiom t if equals be tak5 f equals ! rema9d]s are equal4 ,simil>ly1 9 ,biology1 if col\r+ fav\rable to concealm5t is a proprium ( c>nivor\s animals1 x is n d$ucible m]ely f _! pr$atory "* or any o!r attribute ent]+ into ! def9ition ( any species ( !m1 b f _! pr$atory "* toge!r ) ! causes summ>is$ 9 ! phrase ',natural ,selection'2 t is1 competition = a livelihood1 & ! de/ruction ( ^? t lab\r "u any disadvantages1 ( :i* conspicu\s col\r+ w\ld be "o4 ,! p>ticul> coloration ( any giv5 species1 aga91 c only be d$uc$ by fur!r consid]+ its habitat 7des]t1 jungle or sn[field73 a circum/ance ly+ :olly outside ! def9ition ( ! species4 ,! validity ( an argum5t bas$ p>tly or :olly on a def9ition dep5ds1 9 ! fir/ place1 on ! exi/5ce ( ?+s correspond+ ) ! def9ition--t is1 hav+ ! prop]ties connot$ by ! "n def9$4 ,if !re are no su* ?+s z isosceles triangles1 ,euclid's fif? ,proposition is only =mally true1 l a !orem conc]n+ ! f\r? dim5sion ( space3 m]ely consi/5t ) 8 o!r assumptions4 ,b if !re be any triangles only approximately isosceles1 ! pro( applies to !m1 mak+ all[ance = _! concrete imp]fection3 ! ne>] _! sides approa* /raightness & equality ! m ne>ly equal w ! opposite angles be4 ,aga91 z to ! ?+s correspond+ ) t]ms def9$1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,v5n1 _! 'exi/5ce' may be und]/ood 9 sev]al s5ses3 7#a7 m]ely = ! reason1 l ! pure g5]a & species ( ,porphyry's tree2 ! sole condition ( ^: be+ is logical consi/5cy3 or 7#b7 = ! imag9ation1 l ! giants & magicians ( romance1 ! h]oes ( trag$y & ! fairies ( popul> sup]/ition2 ^: prop]ties may be discuss$1 & v]ifi$ by appeal to ! "r docum5ts & au?orities 7poems & ballads73 or 7#c7 = p]ception1 l plants1 animals1 /ones & />s4 ,only ! ?ird class exi/ 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! ^w4 ,b "u a conv5tion or hypo!sis ( exi/5ce1 we may argue f ! def9ition ( a fairy1 or a demigod1 or a dragon1 & d$uce v>i\s consequ5ces )\t absurdity1 if we are cont5t ) poetic consi/5cy & ! au?ority ( my?s & romances z ! te/ ( tru?4 ,9 ! region ( concrete objects1 ^: prop]ties are causes1 & nei!r m]ely fictions nor det]m9ations ( space 7z 9 ,geometry71 we meet ) ano!r condition ( ! validity ( any argum5t dep5d+ on a def9ition3 !re mu/ n only be objects correspond+ to ! def9ition1 b !re mu/ be no o!r causes c\nt]act+ ^? qualities on ^: ag5cy our argum5t relies4 ,?us1 ?\gh we may inf] f ! quality ( co-op]ation connot$ by civilisation1 t a civilis$ c\ntry w be a weal?y "o1 ?is may n be f\nd true ( su* a c\ntry rec5tly deva/at$ by w> or o!r calamity4 ,nor c co-op]ation always triumph ov] disadvantage\s circum/ances4 ,sc&9avia is s poor 9 ! gifts ( nature fav\rable to indu/ry1 t x is n weal?y 9 spite ( civilisation3 /ill1 x is f> weal?i] ?an x w\ld be 9 ! h&s ( a b>b>\s p4 ,9 %ort1 :5 argu+ f a def9ition1 we c only inf] ! t5d5cy ( any causal *>act]i/ics includ$ 9 x2 ! unqualifi$ realisation ( su* a t5d5cy mu/ dep5d ^u ! abs5ce ( c\nt]act+ causes4 ,z soon z we leave ! region ( pure conceptions & make any attempt to br+ our speculations home to ! actual ph5om5a ( nature or ( human life1 ! v]ification ( e inf]5ce becomes an unremitt+ obligation4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv ,,fallacies #a4 ,a ,fallacy is any failure to fulfil ! conditions ( pro(4 ,if we neglect or mi/ake ! conditions ( pro( un9t5tionally1 :e!r 9 our private m$itations or 9 address+ o!rs1 x is a ,p>alogism3 b if we endeav\r to pass (f ^u o!rs evid5ce or argum5t :i* we "k or suspect to be uns\nd1 x is a ,sophism4 ,fallacies1 :e!r p>alogisms or sophisms1 may be divid$ into two classes3 7a7 ! ,=mal1 or ^? t c be %[n to conflict ) "o or m ( ! tru?s ( ,logic1 :e!r ,d$uctive or ,inductive2 z if we attempt to prove an univ]sal affirmative 9 ! ,?ird ,figure2 or to argue t1 z ! av]age expectation ( life = males at ! age ( #bj is #ai-a_/b ye>s1 !re=e ,alcibiades1 be+ #bj ye>s ( age1 w die :5 he is #ci-a_/b2 7b7 ! ,mat]ial1 or ^? t _c be cle>ly exhibit$ z transgressions ( any logical pr9ciple1 b are due to sup]ficial inquiry or confus$ reason+2 z 9 adopt+ premises on insuffici5t au?ority1 or )\t exam9+ ! facts2 or 9 mi/ak+ ! po9t to be prov$4 #b4 ,=mal ,fallacies ( ,d$uction & ,induction are1 all ( !m1 brea*es ( ! rule 'n to g beyond ! evid5ce4' ,z a detail$ acc\nt ( !m w\ld be little else ?an a repetition ( ! =ego+ *apt]s1 x may suffice to recall "s ( ! places at :i* x is easie/ to g a/ray4 7#a7 ,x is n uncommon to mi/ake ! ,contr>y = ! ,contradictory1 z--,a is n tall] ?an ,b1 he is %ort]4 7#b7 ,to conv]t ,a4 or ,o4 simply1 z-- ,all ,money is ,weal? ,all ,weal? is ,money2 or--,"s ,weal? is n ,money ,"s ,money is n ,weal?4 ,9 bo? ^! cases1 ,weal?1 ?\gh undi/ribut$ 9 ! conv]t5d1 is di/ribut$ 9 ! conv]se4 7#c7 ,to attempt to syllogise ) two premises conta9+ f\r t]ms1 z ,! ,papuans are savages2 ,! ,javanese are neighb\rs ( ! ,papuans3 ,! ,javanese are savages4 ,su* an argum5t is exclud$ by ! def9ition ( a ,syllogism1 & pres5ts no =mal evid5ce :atev]4 ,we %\ld naturally assume t any man :o advanc$ x m]ely meant to raise "s probability t 'neighb\rhood is a sign ( community ( ideas & cu/oms4' ,b1 if s1 he %\ld h be5 m explicit4 ,!re w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be ! same failure ( connection1 if a f\r? t]m 7 introduc$ into ! conclusion1 in/ead ( into ! premises4 7#d7 ,to di/ribute 9 ! conclusion a t]m t 0 undi/ribut$ 9 ! premises 7an error ess5tially ! same z 7#b7 above71 i4e41 ,illicit process ( ! major or m9or t]m1 z-- ,e rational ag5t is acc\ntable2 ,brutes are n rational ag5ts3 ,brutes are n acc\ntable4 ,9 ?is example 7f ,:ately71 an illegitimate mood ( ,fig4 ,i41 ! major t]m1 'acc\ntable1' has suff]$ ! illicit process2 s9ce1 9 ! premise1 x is pr$icate ( an affirmative proposition &1 !re=e1 undi/ribut$2 b1 9 ! conclusion1 x is pr$icate ( a negative proposition &1 !re=e1 di/ribut$4 ,! fact t ne>ly ev]ybody w\ld accept ! conclusion z true1 might lead "o to ov]look ! =mal inconclusiv5ess ( ! pro(4 ,aga91 ,all m5 are two-h&$2 ,all two-h&$ animals are cook+ animals3 ,all cook+ animals are m54 ,"h we h ,bramantip conclud+ 9 ,a42 & !re is1 =mally1 an illicit process ( ! m9or2 ?\gh ! conclusion is true2 & ! evid5ce1 su* z x is1 is mat]ially adequate4 7',two-h&$1' be+ a peculi> diff]5tia1 is nugatory z a middle t]m1 & may be cut out ( bo? premises2 :il/ 'cook+' is a proprium peculi> to ! species ,man2 s t ^! t]ms might be relat$ 9 ,u41 ,all m5 are all cook]s2 :5ce1 by conv]sion1 ,all cook]s are m547 7#e7 ,to omit to di/ribute ! middle t]m 9 "o or ! o!r premise1 z-- ,all v]bal propositions are self-evid5t2 ,all axioms are self-evid5t3 ,all axioms are v]bal propositions4 ,?is is an illegitimate mood 9 ,fig4 ,,ii42 9 :i*1 to give any conclusion1 "o premise mu/ be negative4 ,x may s]ve z a =mal illu/ration ( ,undi/ribut$ ,middle2 ?\gh1 z bo? premises are v]bal propositions1 x is 7mat]ially7 n syllogi/ic at all1 b an error ( classification2 a conf\nd+ ( co-ord9ate species by assum+ _! id5tity because !y h ! g5]ic attribute 9 common4 7#f7 ,to simply conv]t an hypo!tical proposition1 z-- ,if trade is free1 x prosp]s2 ,if trade prosp]s1 x is free4 ,?is is simil> to ! simple conv]sion ( ! categorical ,a42 s9ce x takes = grant$ t ! antec$5t is co-ext5sive ) ! consequ5t1 or 79 o!r words7 t ! fre$om ( trade is ! sole condition (1 or 7at lea/7 insep>able f1 its prosp]ity4 ,! same assumption is made if1 9 an hypo!tical syllogism1 we try to gr\nd an inf]5ce on ! affirmation ( ! consequ5t or d5ial ( ! antec$5t1 z-- ,if trade is free x prosp]s3 ,x does prosp]2 ,x is free4 ,x is n free2 ,x does n prosp]4 ,nei!r ( ^! argum5ts is =mally good2 nor1 ( c\rse1 is ei!r ( !m mat]ially valid1 if x be possible = trade to prosp] 9 spite ( protective t>iffs4 ,an important example ( ?is fallacy is ! preval5t notion1 t if ! conclusion ( an argum5t is true ! premises mu/ be tru/wor?y2 or1 t if ! premises are false ! conclusion mu/ be errone\s4 ,=1 pla9ly1 t-- ,if ! premises are true1 ! conclusion is true1 is a hypo!tical proposition2 & we argue ju/ly-- ,! premises are true2 ,! conclusion is true2 or1 ,! conclusion is false2 ,! premises are false 7or "o ( !m is74 ,?is is valid = e argum5t t is =mally correct2 b t we _c tru/ ! premises on ! /r5g? ( ! conclusion1 nor reject ! conclusion because ! premises are absurd1 ! foll[+ example w %[3 ,all :o squ>e ! circle are great ma!maticians2 ,newton squ>$ ! circle3 ,newton 0 a great ma!matician4 ,! conclusion is true2 b ! premises are intol]able4 ,h[ ! tak+ ( ,contr>ies = ,contradictories may vitiate ,disjunctive ,syllogisms & ,dilemmas has be5 suffici5tly expla9$ 9 ! twelf? *apt]4 #c4 ,=mal ,fallacies ( ,induction consi/ 9 suppos+ or inf]r+ ,causation )\t attempt+ to prove x1 or 9 pret5d+ to prove x )\t satisfy+ ! ,canons ( obs]vation & exp]im5t3 z-- 7#a7 ,to assign ! ,cause ( any?+ t is n a concrete ev5t3 z1 e4g41 :y two circles c t\* only 9 "o po9t4 ,we %\ld give ! 'reason'2 = ?is expression includes1 besides evid5ce ( causation1 ! pr9ciples ( =mal d$uction1 logical & ma!matical4 7#b7 ,to argue1 z if on inductive gr\nds1 conc]n+ ! cause ( ! ,univ]se z a :ole4 ,?is may be call$ ! fallacy ( transc5d5t inf]5ce3 s9ce ! ,canons are only applicable to in/ances ( ev5ts t c be comp>$2 !y _c deal ) t :i* is 9 its nature unique4 7#c7 ,to mi/ake co-exi/5t ph5om5a = cause & effect3 z :5 a man1 we>+ an amulet & escap+ %ipwreck1 reg>ds ! amulet z ! cause ( 8 escape4 ,to prove 8 po9t1 he mu/ ei!r get aga9 into exactly ! same circum/ances )\t 8 amulet1 & be dr[n$--accord+ to ! me?od ( ,diff]5ce2 or1 %irk+ ! only satisfactory te/1 & putt+ up ) m]e ,agreem5t1 he mu/ %[1 7a7 t all :o are %ipwreck$ & escape we> amulets1 & 7b7 t _! cases agree 9 no?+ else2 & 7c71 by ! ,jo9t ,me?od1 t all :o are %ipwreck$ )\t amulets are dr[n$4 ,& ev5 if 8 evid5ce1 accord+ to ,agreem5t1 seem$ satisfactory at all ^! po9ts1 x w\ld /ill be fallaci\s to tru/ to x z pro( ( direct causation2 s9ce we h se5 t unaid$ obs]vation is nev] suffici5t = ?is3 x is only by exp]im5t 9 prep>$ circum/ances t we c confid5tly trace sequ5ce & ! transf] ( en]gy4 ,!re is ! rev]se error ( mi/ak+ causal connection = indep5d5t co-exi/5ce3 z if any "o reg>ds x z m]ely a curi\s co9cid5ce t great riv]s g5]ally fl[ pa/ great t[ns4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! evid5ce ( connection does n dep5d m]ely ^u direct ,induction4 7#d7 ,po/ hoc1 ergo propt] hoc3 to accept ! m]e sequ5ce ( ph5om5a1 ev5 ?\gh (t5 repeat$1 z prov+ t ! ph5om5a are cause & effect1 or connect$ by causation4 ,?is is a v natural error3 = al?\gh1 ! antec$5ts ( a ph5om5on be+ num]\s1 mo/ ( !m _c be its cause1 yet x is among !m t ! cause mu/ be s\ght4 ,inde$1 if !re is nei!r "t nor opportunity = analysis1 x may seem bett] to accept any antec$5t z a cause 7or1 at lea/1 z a sign7 ( an important ev5t ?an to g )\t any guide4 ,&1 accord+ly1 ! va/ & complicat$ le>n+ ( om5s1 augury1 horoscopy & prophetic dreams1 relies ^u ?is maxim2 = :atev] ! orig9 ( su* sup]/itions1 a s+le co9cid5ce 9 _! fav\r triumphantly confirms !m4 ,x is ! besett+ delusion ( ev]ybody :o has wi%es or prejudices2 t is1 ( all ( u at "s "t or o!r2 = !n we are ready to believe )\t evid5ce4 ,! fallacy consi/s 9 judg+ (f-h&1 )\t any attempt1 ei!r by logic or by common s5se1 to elim9ate ! irrelevant antec$5ts2 :i* may include all ! mo/ /rik+ & speci\s4 7#e7 ,to reg>d ! ,co-,effects 7:e!r simultane\s or successive7 ( a common cause z /&+ 9 ! direct relation ( cause & effect4 ,probably no "o supposes t ! fall+ ( ! m]cury 9 8 !rmomet] causes ! neighb\r+ lake to freeze4 ,true1 x is ! antec$5t1 & 7)9 a n>r[ range ( exp]i5ce7 may be ! inv>iable antec$5t ( ! =mation ( ice2 b1 besides t ! two ev5ts are s unequal1 e "o is aw>e t !re is ano!r antec$5t1 ! fall ( temp]ature1 :i* causes bo?4 ,to ju/ify inductively our belief 9 causation1 ! in/ances comp>$ mu/ agree1 or diff]1 9 "o circum/ance only 7besides ! effect74 ,! fl[+ tide is an antec$5t ( ! ebb+ tide2 x is inv>iably s1 & is equal to x2 b x is n ! cause ( x3 o!r circum/ances are pres5t2 & ! moon is ! *ief condition ( bo? fl[ & ebb4 ,9 sev]al in/ances1 ,/ates t h gr[n outrage\sly luxuri\s h decl9$ 9 p[]3 t luxury caus$ _! d[nfall may seem obvi\s1 & capable ( furni%+ a moral lesson to ! "y4 ,h5ce o!r important circum/ances are ov]look$1 su* z ! in/itution ( slav]y1 ! corruption & rapacity ( (ficials & tax-ga!r]s1 an army too p[]ful = discipl9e2 any or all ( :i* may be pres5t1 & suffici5t to expla9 bo? ! luxury & ! ru94 7#f7 ,to mi/ake "o condition ( a ph5om5on = ! :ole cause4 ,to speak ( an indisp5sable condition ( any ph5om5on z ! cause ( x1 may be a m]e conv5tional abbreviation2 & 9 ?is way su* a mode ( expression is common n only 9 popul> b also 9 sci5tific discussion4 ,?us we say t a temp]ature ( #cc ,f4 is a cause ( ! melt+ ( ice2 al?\gh t ice melts at #cc ,f41 mu/ fur!r dep5d ^u some?+ 9 ! nature ( wat]2 = e solid has its own melt+-po9t4 ,z long1 !n1 z we rememb] t 'cause1' us$ 9 ?is s5se1 is only a conv5i5t abbreviation1 no h>m is done2 b1 if we =get x1 fallacy may result3 z :5 a man says t ! cause ( a f9ancial crisis 0 ! rais+ ( ! rate ( disc\nt1 neglect+ ! o!r conditions ( ! m>ket2 :]eas1 9 "s circum/ances1 a rise ( ! ,bank-rate may increase public confid5ce & prev5t a crisis4 ,we h se5 t ! direct use ( ! ,canons ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce may only enable u to say t a c]ta9 antec$5t is a cause or an indisp5sable condition ( ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation4 ,if1 !re=e1 x is important to f9d ! :ole cause1 we mu/ ei!r exp]im5t directly ^u ! o!r conditions1 or resort to ! ,me?od ( ,residues & d$uctive reason+2 nor mu/ we be cont5t1 )\t %[+ 7:]e su* precision is possible7 t ! alleg$ cause & ! giv5 ph5om5on are equal4 7#g7 ,to mi/ake a s+le consequ5ce ( a giv5 cause = ! :ole effect1 is a correspond+ error2 & none s common4 ,ne>ly all ! mi/akes ( private conduct & ( legislation are due to x3 ,to cure tempor>y lassitude by a /imulant1 & s d]ange ! liv]2 to e/abli% a new indu/ry by protective duties1 & !reby impov]i% ! re/ ( ! c\ntry2 to gag ! press1 & s drive ! discont5t$ into conspiracy2 to build an alms-h\se1 & !reby attract paup]s into ! p>i%1 raise ! rates1 & disc\rage indu/ry4 7#h7 ,to dem& great] exactness 9 ! e/imate ( causes or effects ?an a giv5 subject admits (4 ,9 ! m complex sci5ces1 ,biology1 ,psy*ology1 ,sociology1 x is (t5 impossible to be confid5t t all ! conditions ( a giv5 ph5om5on h be5 assign$1 or t all its consequ5ces h be5 trac$4 ,! causes ( ! orig9 ( species & ( ! great ,fr5* ,revolution h be5 c>efully inve/igat$1 & /ill we may d\bt :e!r !y h all be5 discov]$1 or :e!r _! comp>ative importance has be5 rightly det]m9$2 b x w\ld be v unreasonable to treat ^? ?+s z miracul\s & un9telligible4 ,we read 9 ! ,e?ics1 t a prop]ly cultivat$ m9d kn[s :at degree ( precision is to be expect$ 9 ea* sci5ce4 ,! greate/ possible precision is always to be s\ght2 b :at is possible dep5ds p>tly on ! nature ( ! /udy & p>tly ^u ! /ate ( sci5tific prep>ation4 7#i7 ,to treat an ag5t or condition remote 9 "t z an unconditional cause3 = e mom5t ( "t gives an opportunity = new comb9ations ( =ces &1 !re=e1 = modifications ( ! effect4 ,?us1 al?\gh we (t5 say t ,napoleon's ,russian exp$ition 0 ! cause ( 8 d[nfall1 yet ! effect 0 subject to num]\s fur!r conditions4 ,_h ! natives n burnt ,mosc[1 _h ! w9t] be5 exceptionally mild1 _h ! ,prussians & ,au/rians n ris5 aga9/ him1 ! ev5t might h be5 v diff]5t4 ,x is ra% to trace ! lib]ties ( mod]n ,europe to ! battle ( ,m>a?on4 ,inde$1 our p[]s ( p]ception are s unequal to ! subtlety ( nature1 t ev5 9 exp]im5tal sci5ce !re is "t = molecul> *anges to occur betwe5 :at we treat z a cause & ! effect z we p]ceive x2 &1 9 su* cases1 ! /rictly unconditional cause has n be5 discov]$4 7#aj7 ,to neglect ! negative conditions to :i* a cause is subject4 ,:5 we say t wat] boils at #bab ,f41 we mean provid$ ! pressure be ! same z t ( ! atmosph]e at ab\t ! sea-level2 = "u a great] pressure wat] w n boil at t temp]ature1 :il/ "u less pressure x boils at a l[] temp]ature4 ,9 ! usual /atem5t ( a law ( causation1 'di/urb+1' 'fru/rat+1' 'c\nt]act+' circum/ances 7t is1 negative conditions7 are suppos$ to be abs5t2 s t ! /rict /atem5t ( su* a law1 :e!r = a remote cause1 or = an imm$iate cause 7:5 only positive conditions are includ$71 is t ! ag5t or assemblage ( conditions1 t5ds to produce su* an effect1 o!r conditions be+ fav\rable1 or 9 ! abs5ce ( contr>y =ces4 7#aa7 ,x is ne$less to repeat :at has already be5 said ( o!r fallacies t beset inductive pro(2 su* z ! neglect ( a possible plurality ( causes :]e ! effect has be5 vaguely conceiv$2 ! ext5sion ( empirical laws beyond adjac5t cases2 ! *ief errors to :i* ! e/imate ( analogies & probabilities1 or ! application ( ! pr9ciples ( classification are liable2 & ! reliance ^u direct ,induction :]e ! aid ( ,d$uction may be obta9$1 or ^u obs]vation :]e exp]im5t may be employ$4 ,z to =mal fallacies t may be avoid$ by adh]+ to ! rules ( logical me?od1 ?is may suffice4 #d4 ,!re rema9 _m ways 9 :i* argum5ts fall %ort ( a tol]able /&>d ( pro(1 ?\gh !y _c be exhibit$ z def9ite brea*es ( logical pr9ciples4 ,logicians1 !re=e1 might be excus$ f discuss+ !m2 b out ( ! abundance ( _! pity = human infirmity !y usually describe & label ! *ief classes ( ^! 'extra-logical fallacies1' & exhibit a few examples4 ,we may adopt ,:ately's rem>k1 t a fallacy lies ei!r 7#a7 9 ! premises1 or 7#b7 9 ! conclusion1 or 7#c7 9 ! attempt to connect a conclusion ) ! premises4 7#a7 ,n[ ! premises ( a s\nd argum5t mu/ ei!r be valid d$uctions1 or valid inductions1 or p>ticul> obs]vations1 or axioms4 ,9 an uns\nd argum5t1 !n1 ^: premises are support$ by ei!r d$uction or induction1 ! evid5ce may be r$uc$ to logical rules2 & its failure is !re=e a 'logical fallacy' su* z we h already discuss$4 ,x foll[s t an extra-logical fallacy ( ! premises mu/ lie 9 :at _c be r$uc$ to rules ( evid5ce1 t is1 9 bad obs]vations 7 #e71 or %am axioms 7 #f74 7#b7 ,z to ! conclusion1 ?is c only be fallaci\s if "s o!r conclusion has be5 sub/itut$ = t :i* 0 to h be5 prov$ 7 #g74 7#c7 ,fallacies 9 ! connection betwe5 premises & conclusion1 if all ! propositions are di/9ctly & explicitly /at$1 become manife/ ^u apply+ ! rules ( ,logic4 ,fallacies1 !re=e1 :i* are n ?us manife/1 & s are extra-logical1 mu/ dep5d ^u "s sort ( slurr+1 confusion1 or ambiguity ( ?\ght or spee* 7 #h74 #e4 ,among/ ,fallacies ( ,obs]vation1 ,mill di/+ui%es 7#a7 ^? ( ,non-obs]vation1 :]e ei!r in/ances ( ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation1 or else "s ( ! circum/ances con/itut+ x or att5d+ ^u x1 ?\gh important to ! induction1 are ov]look$4 ,^! errors are impli$ 9 ! ,=mal ,fallacies ( ,induction already treat$ ( 9 #c 7p>agraphs 7#c7 to 7#g774 ,mill's class 7#b7 comprises fallacies ( ,malobs]vation4 ,malobs]vation may be due to obtus5ess or sl[ness ( p]ception2 & x is "o advantage ( ! physical sci5ces z means ( education1 t ! tra9+ involv$ 9 /udy+ !m t5ds to cure ^! defects--at lea/1 )9 _! own range4 ,b ! occasion ( error ^u :i* ,mill mo/ insi/s1 is our pron5ess to sub/itute a ha/y inf]5ce = a j repres5tation ( ! fact be=e u2 z :5 a ya*tsman1 eag] = m>vels1 sees a l9e ( porpoises & takes !m = ! sea-s]p5t4 ,e "o kn[s :at x is to mi/ake a /rang] = a fri5d1 a leaf = a sp>r[1 "o ^w = ano!r4 ,! wond] is t we are n (t5] wrong2 consid]+ h[ small a "p pres5t s5sation has 9 p]ception1 & h[ mu* ( e object obs]v$ is suppli$ by a sort ( automatic judgm5t4 ,y see some?+ br[n1 :i* y\r p]ceptive me*anism classes ) ! appe>ance ( a c[ at su* a di/ance2 & in/antly all ! o!r prop]ties ( a c[ are suppli$ f ! res\rces ( =m] exp]i5ce3 b on gett+ ne>]1 x turns out to be a log ( wood4 ,x is "s protection aga9/ su* errors to "k t we are subject to !m2 & ! ,logician fulfils 8 duty 9 w>n+ u accord+ly4 ,b ! matt] belongs ess5tially to ,psy*ology2 & :oev] wi%es to pursue x w f9d a ?or\gh explanation 9 ,pr(4 ,sully's volume on ,illusions4 ,ano!r error is ! accumulation ( useless1 irrelevant obs]vations1 f :i* no pro( ( ! po9t at issue c be d]iv$4 ,x has be5 said t an important "p ( an inductive inquir]'s equipm5t consi/s 9 kn[+ :at to obs]ve4 ,! /udy ( any sci5ce educates ?is faculty by %[+ u :at obs]vations h be5 effective 9 simil> cases2 b some?+ dep5ds ^u g5ius4 ,obs]vation is g5]ally guid$ by hypo!ses3 he makes ! "r obs]vations :o c frame ! "r hypo!ses2 :il/ ano!r ov]looks ?+s1 or sees !m all awry1 because he is confus$ & p]v]t$ by wi%es1 prejudices or o!r false preconceptions2 & /ill ano!r gropes ab\t bl9dly1 not+ ?is & docket+ t to no purpose1 because he has no hypo!sis1 or "o s vague & ill-conceiv$ t x %$s no light ^u 8 pa?4 #f4 ,! second k9d ( extra-logical ,fallacy ly+ 9 ! premises1 consi/s 9 (f]+ z evid5ce "s ass]tion entirely baseless or nugatory1 b express$ 9 su* a way z to seem l a g5]al tru? capable ( subsum+ ! proposition 9 dispute3 x is g5]ally kn[n z petitio pr9cipii1 or begg+ ! "q4 ,! "q may be begg$ 9 ?ree ways3 7#a7 ,!re are :at ,mill calls ,fallacies a priori1 m]e ass]tions1 pret5d+ to be self-evid5t1 & (t5 s9c]ely accept$ z su* by ! au?or & "s infatuat$ disciples1 b 9 :i* ! cool spectator sees ei!r no s5se at all1 or palpable falsity4 ,^! %am axioms are num]\s2 & probably e "o is famili> ) ! foll[+ examples3 ,t circul> motion is ! mo/ p]fect2 ,t e body /rives t[>d its natural place2 ,t l cures l2 ,t e bane has its antidote2 ,t :at is true ( our conceptions is true ( ,nature2 ,t pleasure is no?+ b relief f pa92 ,t ! good1 ! beautiful & ! true are ! same ?+2 ,t1 9 trade1 :atev] is some:]e ga9$ is some:]e lo/2 ,t only 9 agriculture does nature assi/ man2 ,t a man may d :at he w ) 8 own2 ,t "s m5 are naturally born to rule & o!rs to obey4 ,"s ( ^! doctr9es are speci\s en\gh2 :il/1 z to o!rs1 h[ !y c\ld ev] h be5 ent]ta9$ ar\ses a wond] t c only be allay$ by a l5g?y hi/orical & psy*ological disquisition4 7#b7 ,v]bal propositions (f]$ z pro( ( "s matt] ( fact4 ,^! h1 inde$1 "o attribute ( axioms2 !y are self-evid5t to any "o :o kn[s ! language2 b z !y only dissect ! mean+ ( words1 no?+ b ! mean+ ( words c be inf]r$ f !m4 ,if any?+ fur!r is arriv$ at1 x mu/ be by ! help ( real propositions4 ,h[ common is su* an argum5t z ?is3 ',ly+ is wrong1 because x is vici\s'--! impli$ major premise be+ t ':at is vici\s is wrong4' ,all ?ree propositions are v]bal1 & we m]ely le>n f !m t ly+ is call$ vici\s & wrong2 & to make t k det]r5t1 x mu/ be supplem5t$ by a fur!r premise1 t ':atev] is call$ wrong ought to be avoid$4' ,?is is a real proposition2 b x is mu* m difficult to prove x ?an 't ly+ ought to be avoid$4' ,/ill1 su* argum5ts1 ?\gh bad ,logic1 (t5 h a rhetorical =ce3 to call ly+ n only wrong b vici\s1 may be dissuasive by accumulat+ associations ( %ame & ignom9y4 ,def9itions1 be+ ! mo/ important ( v]bal propositions 7s9ce !y imply ! possibility ( z _m o!r v]bal propositions z !re are def9+ attributes & comb9ations ( !m71 ne$ to be wat*$ ) especial c>e4 ,if two disputants def9e ! same ^w 9 diff]5t ways1 ) ea* ( ! diff]5t attributes includ$ 9 _! sev]al def9itions !y may br+ 9 a fre% set ( real propositions z to ! ag5cy or normal connection ( t attribute4 ,h5ce _! conclusions ab\t ! ?+s d5ot$ by ! ^w def9$1 div]ge 9 all directions & to any ext5t4 ,& x is g5]ally felt t a man :o is all[$ to def9e 8 t]ms z he pleases1 may prove any?+ to ^? :o1 ?r\gh ignorance or inadv]t5ce1 grant t ! ?+s t ^? t]ms /& = h ! attributes t figure 9 8 def9itions4 7#c7 ,circulus 9 demon/r&o1 ! pret5ce ( giv+ a reason = an ass]tion1 :il/ 9 fact only repeat+ ! ass]tion itself--g5]ally 9 o!r words4 ,9 su* cases ! orig9al proposition is1 p]haps1 really reg>d$ z self-evid5t1 b by =ce ( habit a man says 'because'2 & !n1 aft] va9ly fumbl+ 9 8 empty pocket = ! co9 ( reason1 ! habit ( symbolic ?9k+ 9 words only1 )\t ref]5ce to ! facts1 comes to 8 rescue1 & he ends ) a p>aphrase ( ! same ass]tion4 ,?us a man may try to prove ! necessity ( ,causation3 ',e ev5t mu/ h a cause2 because an ev5t is a *ange ( ph5om5a1 & ?is implies a trans=mation ( some?+ pre-exi/+2 :i* c only h be5 possible1 if !re 7 =ces 9 op]ation capable ( trans=m+ x4' ,or1 aga93 ',we ought n to g to w>1 because x is wrong to %$ blood4' ,b1 pla9ly1 if w> did n imply blood%$1 ! unlawfulness ( ?is c\ld be no?+ aga9/ w>4 ,! m s]i\s any matt] is1 ! m important x becomes ei!r to reason ?or\ghly ab\t x1 or to cont5t ourselves ) :olesome ass]tions4 ,h[ _m 'argum5ts' are sup]flu\s6 #g4 ,! ,fallacy ( surreptiti\s conclusion 7ignoratio el5*i71 ! mi/ak+ or obscur+ ( ! proposition really at issue1 :il/ prov+ some?+ else in/ead4 ,?is may be done by sub/itut+ a p>ticul> proposition = an univ]sal1 or an univ]sal = a p>ticul>4 ,?us1 he :o attacks ! practice ( giv+ 9 *>ity mu/ n be cont5t to %[ t x has1 9 ?is or t case1 degrad$ ! recipi5t2 :o may h be5 exceptionally weak4 ,or1 aga91 to dissuade ano!r f giv+ alms 9 a p>ticul> case1 x is n en\gh to %[ t ! g5]al t5d5cy ( almsgiv+ is injuri\s2 =1 by tak+ pa9s 9 a p>ticul> case1 ! g5]al t5d5cy may (t5 be c\nt]act$4 ,sometimes an argum5t e/abli%+ a :olly irrelevant conclusion is sub/itut$ = an argum5tum ad rem4 ,macaulay compla9s ( ^? apologi/s = ,*>les ,i4 :o try to def5d him z a k+1 by urg+ t he 0 a good judge ( pa9t+s & indulg5t to 8 wife4 ,to ?is class ( ,fallacies belongs ! argum5tum ad hom9em1 :i* consi/s 9 %[+ n t a c]ta9 proposition is true1 b t ,critias ought to accept x 9 consi/5cy ) 8 o!r op9ions4 ,?us3 ',9 e p>i% ! co/ ( education ought to be paid out ( ! rates3 y1 at lea/1 h said t !re c be no s\nd economy1 unless local exp5ses are defray$ f local funds4' ,b :e!r ?is is a fallacy dep5ds1 z ,:ately obs]ves1 ^u :e!r x is urg$ z actually prov+ ! po9t at issue1 or m]ely z convict+ ! oppon5t ( inconsi/5cy4 ,9 ! latt] case1 ! argum5t is q fair3 :atev] su* a conclusion may be wor?4 ,simil>ly ) ! argum5tum ad populum3 '?is measure is fav\rable to su* or su* a class2 let !m vote = x4' ,an appeal to private gre$1 h[ev] base1 is n fallaci\s1 z long z ! int]e/ ( ! class is n fraudul5tly sub/itut$ = ! good ( ! nation4 ,& mu* ! same may be said = ! argum5tum ad v]ecundiam4 ,:5 a "q ( morals is debat$ z a "q ( hon\r among ?ieves1 !re is no fallacy1 if ! moral issue is frankly repudiat$4 ,! argum5t f au?ority is (t5 br\ght "u ?is head3 'su* is ! op9ion ( ,ari/otle4' ,al?\gh ?is does n e/abli% ! tru? ( any proposition1 x may be fairly urg$ z a reason = n ha/ily adopt+ a contr>y conclusion3 t is1 if ! subject "u discussion be "o z to :i* ,ari/otle 7or :oev] ! au?ority may be7 _h mat]ials = =m+ a judgm5t4 ,a negative use ( ?is fallacy is v common4 ,"s g5]al doctr9e1 su* z ,positivism1 ,transc5d5talism1 ,utilit>ianism1 or ,d>w9ism1 is held 9 common by a gr\p ( m52 :o1 h[ev]1 all judge indep5d5tly1 & !re=e are likely to diff] 9 details4 ,an oppon5t exhibits _! diff]5ces ( op9ion1 & !reupon pret5ds to h refut$ ! !ory !y agree 9 support+4 ,?is is an argum5tum ad s*olam1 & pu%es too f> ! dem& = consi/5cy4 ,9 fact x recoils ^u ! sophi/2 = !re is no s5se 9 quot+ m5 aga9/ "o ano!r1 unless bo? 7or all7 are ackn[l$g$ to speak ) ! au?ority ( le>n+ & judgm5t1 & !re=e ! g5]al doctr9e :i* !y hold 9 common is ! m confirm$4 ,?is is an example ( ! p>alogism ( 'prov+ too mu*'2 :5 a disputant is s eag] to refute an oppon5t z to lay d[n1 or imply1 pr9ciples f :i* an easy inf]5ce de/roys 8 own position4 ,to appeal to a pr9ciple ( great] sweep ?an ! occasion requires may easily op5 ! way to ?is pitfall3 z if a man %\ld urge t 'all m5 are li>s1' z ! premise ( an argum5t design$ to %[ t ano!r's ass]tion is less cr$ible ?an 8 own4 ,a common =m ( ignoratio el5*i is t :i* ,:ately call$ ! 'fallacy ( objections'3 namely1 to lay /ress ^u all ! consid]ations aga9/ any doctr9e or proposal1 )\t any attempt to weigh !m aga9/ ! consid]ations 9 its fav\r2 among/ :i* %\ld be reckon$ all ! consid]ations t tell aga9/ ! alt]native doctr9es or proposals4 ,inconte/able demon/ration c r>ely be expect$ ev5 9 sci5ce1 outside ( ! ,ma!matics2 & 9 practical affairs1 z ,butl] says1 'probability is ! v guide ( life'2 s t e conclusion dep5ds ^u ! balance ( evid5ce1 & to all[ weight to only a "p ( x is an evasion ( ! "r issue4 #h4 ,fallacies 9 ! connection ( premises & conclusion1 t _c be detect$ by r$uc+ ! argum5ts to syllogi/ic =m1 mu/ dep5d ^u "s juggl+ ) language to disguise _! incoh]5ce4 ,!y may be g5]ally describ$ z ,fallacies ( ,ambiguity1 :e!r !y turn ^u ! use ( ! same ^w 9 diff]5t s5ses1 or ^u ellipsis4 ,?us x may be argu$ t all works writt5 9 a classical language are classical1 & t1 !re=e1 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy by ,diog5es ,lrtius1 be+ writt5 9 ,greek1 is a classic4 ,su* ambiguities are sometimes s]i\s en\gh2 sometimes are little bett] ?an jokes4 ,= jokes1 z ,:ately obs]ves1 are (t5 fallacies2 & consid]$ z a propdeutic to ! art ( sophi/ry1 punn+ des]ves ! ignom9y t has ov]tak5 x4 ,fallacies ( ellipsis usually g by le>n$ names1 z2 7#a7 a dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]4 ,x has be5 argu$ t s9ce1 accord+ to ,ric>do1 ! value ( goods dep5ds solely ^u ! quantity ( lab\r necess>y to produce !m1 ! lab\r]s :o are employ$ ^u 7say7 cotton clo? ought to receive z wages ! :ole price d]iv$ f its sale1 leav+ no?+ = int]e/ ^u capital4 ,ric>do1 h[ev]1 expla9$ t by '! quantity ( lab\r necess>y to produce goods' he meant n only :at is imm$iately appli$ to !m1 b also ! lab\r be/[$ ^u ! implem5ts & build+s ) :i* ! imm$iate lab\r is assi/$4 ,n[ ^! build+s & implem5ts are capital1 ! lab\r :i* produc$ !m 0 paid =1 & x 0 f> en\gh f ,ric>do's m9d to suppose t ! capital :i* assi/s pres5t lab\r ^u 7say7 cotton clo? has no claim to remun]ation out ( ! price ( x4 ,9 ?is argum5t1 !n1 ! ^w lab\r 9 ! premise is us$ secundum quid1 t is1 ) ! suppress$ qualification ( includ+ pa/ z well z pres5t lab\r2 b 9 ! conclusion lab\r is us$ simplicit] to mean pres5t lab\r only4 7#b7 ,a dicto secundum quid ad dictum secundum alt]um quid4 ,x may be urg$ t1 s9ce ! tax on tea is uni=m1 !re=e all consum]s contribute equally to ! rev5ue = _! enjoym5t ( x4 ,b writt5 out fairly ?is argum5t runs ?us3 ,s9ce tea is tax$ uni=mly #d;d4 p] lb41 all consum]s pay equally = _! enjoym5t ( x :atev] quantity !y use4 ,^! qualifications introduc$1 nobody c be deceiv$4 7#c7 ,a dicto simplicit] ad dictum secundum quid1 also call$ fallacia accid5tis4 ,?us3 ,to take int]e/ ^u a loan is p]fectly j1 !re=e1 ,i d "r to exact x f my own fa!r 9 di/ress4 ,! popul> answ] to ?is sort ( blund] is t 'circum/ances alt] cases4' ,we commit ?is error 9 suppos+ t :at is true ( ! av]age is likely to be true ( ea* case2 z if "o %\ld say3 ',! (fices are ready to insure my h\se ) ?\s&s ( o!rs aga9/ fire at a rate p] annum :i* w leave !m heavy los]s unless x la/s a hundr$ ye>s2 s1 z we are told n to take long views ( life1 ,i %all n insure4' ,! ,fallacy ( ,division & ,composition consi/s 9 sugge/+1 or assum+1 t :at is true ( ?+s sev]ally d5ot$ by a t]m is true ( !m tak5 toge!r4 ,t e man is mortal is g5]ally admitt$1 b we _c inf] t1 !re=e1 ! human race w become ext9ct4 ,t ! remote prospects ( ! race are tragic may be plausibly argu$1 b n f t premise4 ,*ang+ ! ,premises is a fallacy usually plac$ 9 ?is division2 al?\gh1 in/ead ( disguis+ diff]5t mean+s "u simil> words1 x g5]ally consi/s 9 us+ words or phrases o/5sibly diff]+1 z if !y 7 equival5t3 ^? address$ be+ expect$ to r5\nce _! "r to r$uce ! argum5t to /rict =ms ( pro(1 z ne$less p$antry 9 deal+ ) an au?or s palpably /raight=w>d4 ,if an orator says--',napoleon conqu]$ ,europe2 9 o!r words1 he murd]$ five millions ( 8 fell[ creatures'--& is all[$ to g on1 he may inf] f ! latt] ( ^! propositions _m ?+s :i* ! =m] ( !m w\ld h>dly h cov]$4 ,?is is a sort ( hyp]bole1 & !re is a correspond+ meiosis1 z3 ',mill admits t ! ,syllogism is useful'2 :51 9 fact1 t is ,mill's cont5tion4 ,x may be suppos$ t1 if a man be fool en\gh to be impos$ ^u by su* transp>5t col\rs1 x s]ves him "r2 b ?is h>% judgm5t w n be urg$ by any "o :o kn[s & consid]s ! weak] bre?r54 #i4 ,! above classification ( ,fallacies is a re>rangem5t ( ! plans adopt$ by ,:ately & ,mill4 ,b ,fallacies resemble o!r spontane\s natural gr[?s 9 n submitt+ to precise & def9ite classification4 ,! same blund]s1 look$ at f diff]5t po9ts ( view1 may seem to belong to diff]5t gr\ps4 ,?us1 ! example giv5 above to illu/rate fallacia accid5tis1 't1 s9ce x is j to take int]e/1 x is "r to exact x f "o's own fa!r1' may also be reg>d$ z petitio pr9cipii1 if we consid] ! unconditional /atem5t ( ! premise--'to take int]e/ ^u a loan is p]fectly j'2 =1 surely1 ?is is only conditionally true4 ,or1 aga91 ! fir/ example giv5 ( simple ambiguity--'t :atev] is writt5 9 a classical language is classical1 etc41' may1 if we att5d m]ely to ! major premise1 be treat$ z a bad g5]alisation1 an undue ext5sion ( an inf]5ce1 f\nd$ ^u a simple enum]ation ( ! fir/ few ,greek & ,lat9 works t "o happ5$ to rememb]4 ,x mu/ also be ackn[l$g$ t g5u9e wild fallacies1 roam+ ! jungle ( controv]sy1 are n s easily detect$ or evad$ z specim5s seem to be :5 exhibit$ 9 a ,logician's collection2 :]e "o surveys !m )\t fe>1 l a *ild at a m5ag]ie4 ,to assume ! succ9ct mode ( /atem5t t is mo/ conv5i5t = refutation1 is n ! natural habit ( ^! ?+s4 ,b to give reality to 8 acc\nt ( fallacies an au?or ne$s a l>ge space1 t he may quote no inconsid]able "p ( lit]ature anci5t & mod]n4 ,z to ! means ( avoid+ fallacies1 a g5]al increase ( s9c]ity & c&\r among/ mank9d may be freely recomm5d$4 ,) m hone/y !re w\ld be few] bad argum5ts2 b !re is su* a ?+ z well-mean+ incapacity t gets unaffect$ly fogg$ 9 conv]t+ ,a41 & reg>ds ! refractor9ess ( ,o41 z m ?an fle% & blood c endure4 ,m]e indulg5ce 9 figurative language1 aga91 is a besett+ sn>e4 ,"o ( ! fa!rs1 9 great sev]ity call$ poesy v9um dmonum1 says ,bacon3 himself too fanciful = a philosoph]4 ,surely1 to use a simile = ! discov]y ( tru? is l /udy+ beauty 9 ! b[l ( a spoon4 ,! /udy ( ! natural sci5ces tra9s & confirms ! m9d 9 a habit ( good reason+1 :i* is ! sure/ pres]vative aga9/ p>alogism1 z long z ! t]ms 9 use are1 l ^? ( sci5ce1 well def9$2 & :]e !y are ill def9$1 s t x is necess>y to gu>d aga9/ ambiguity1 a ?or\gh tra9+ 9 politics or metaphysics may be useful4 ,logic seems to me to s]ve1 9 "s measure1 bo? ^! purposes4 ,! conduct ( bus9ess1 or exp]i5ce1 a suffici5t "t be+ grant$1 is inde$ ! be/ tea*]1 b also ! mo/ au/]e & exp5sive4 ,9 ! sev5te5? c5tury "s ( ! greate/ philosoph]s wrote de intellectus em5datione2 & if _! successors h giv5 ov] ?is v practical inquiry1 ! cause ( its ab&onm5t is n success & satiety b despair4 ,p]haps ! "r m9d is n to be made by in/ruction1 b c only be br$3 a sl[1 haphaz>d process2 & mean:ile ! rogue ( a sophi/ may c\nt on a /eady supply ( dupes to amuse ! t$ium ( _m an age4 ,,f9is4 ,,que/ions ,! foll[+ que/ions are *iefly tak5 f public exam9ation pap]s3 ,civil ,s]vice ,s1 ,ox=d ,o1 ,cambridge ,c1 ,london ,l4 ,i4 ,,t]ms1 ,,etc4 #a4 ,:at is a ,t]m8 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! *ief divisions ( ,t]ms4 ,:at is meant by ! ,connotation ( a ,t]m8 ,illu/rate4 ,s #b4 ,! connotation & d5otation ( t]ms v>y inv]sely4 ,exam9e ?is ass]tion1 expla9+ c>efully ! limits )9 :i* x is true1 if at all4 ,s #c4 ,exemplify ! false reason+ aris+ f ! confusion ( ,contr>y & ,contradictory ,t]ms4 ,s #d4 ,discuss ! claims ( ! doctr9e ( ,t]ms to be includ$ 9 a ,logical ,sy/em4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 a ,g5]al & an ,ab/ract ,t]m4 ,s #e4 ,expla9 & illu/rate :at is meant by ! ,d5otation & ,connotation ( a ,t]m4 ,:at t]ms h bo?1 & :at h "o only8 ,s #f4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ,ab/ract & ,concrete ,names4 ,to :i* ( ^! classes belong 7a7 adjectives1 7b7 names ( /ates ( consci\sness8 ,are any ab/ract names connotative8 ,s #g4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 7a7 ,prop] & ,s+ul> ,t]ms1 7b7 ,negative & ,privative1 7c7 ,absolute & ,relative4 ,illu/rate4 #h4 ,:at connection is !re betwe5 ! ,connotation & ! ,relativity ( ,names8 #i4 ,exam9e ! logical relations betwe5 ! foll[+ pairs ( t]ms3 7a7 happy & happ9ess2 7b7 happy & unhappy2 7c7 '! juryman' & '! jury'2 7d7 p>5t & (fspr+4 ,expla9 ! te*nical words us$ 9 y\r answ]4 ,c #aj4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 "n2 "p ( spee*2 t]m3 & illu/rate by ref]5ce to ! foll[+--use1 useful1 usefully4 ,c #aa4 ,describe ! nature ( ,collective t]ms2 exam9e 9 p>ticul> any difficulties 9 di/+ui%+ betwe5 ^! & g5]al or ab/ract t]ms4 ,c #ab4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 positive1 negative1 & privative names4 ,( :at k9d are ! foll[+1 & :y--p>allel1 ali51 idle1 unhappy8 ,:at ambiguity is !re 9 ! use ( su* a t]m z n-:ite8 ,c ,,ii4 ,,propositions ,,& ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce4 #ac4 ,:at is meant by 7#a7 ! ,conv]sion1 & 7#b7 ! ,contra-position ( a proposition8 ,apply ^! processes1 z f> z admissible1 to ! foll[+3-- 7a7 ,all inv]tebrates h cold blood4 7b7 ,"s cold-blood$ animals are n inv]tebrates4 7c7 ,no w+less birds are song/]s4 7d7 ,"s w+$ birds are n song/]s4 ,:at c y inf] f 7a7 & 7b7 jo9tly1 & :at f 7c7 & 7d7 jo9tly8 ,s #ad4 ,! au?or actually supposes t1 because ,pr(essor ,fawcett d5ies t all weal? is money1 he d5ies t all money is weal?4 ,analyse ! diff]5ces ( op9ion impli$ 9 ! above passage4 ,s #ae4 ,take any univ]sal affirmative proposition2 conv]t x by obv]sion 7contraposition72 atta* ! negative p>ticle to ! pr$icate1 & aga9 conv]t4 ,int]pret ! result exactly1 & say :e!r x is or is n equival5t to ! orig9al proposition4 ,s #af4 ,:at in=mation ab\t ! t]m solid body c we d]ive f ! proposition1 ,no bodies :i* are n solids are cry/als8 ,s #ag4 ,discuss ! proposal to treat all propositions z affirmative4 #ah4 ,conv]t ! proposition ,a is probably ,b4 ,:at in=mation does ! proposition give u conc]n+ ,b8 ,s #ai4 ,%[ 9 h[ _m ways y c d5y ! foll[+ ass]tions3 ,all ca!dral t[ns are all cities2 ,cant]bury is ! ,metropolitan see4 ,s #bj4 ,expla9 ! nature ( a hypo!tical 7or conditional7 proposition4 ,:at d y consid] ! radical diff]5ce betwe5 x & a categorical8 ,s #ba4 ,:at is ! function ( ! copula8 ,9 :at diff]5t mann]s has x be5 treat$8 ,s #bb4 ,conv]t ,a kill$ ,c unju/ly2 ,all ,k is probably useful2 ,! exception proves ! rule2 ,birds ( a fea!r flock toge!r4 ,s #bc4 ,:at is modality8 ,h[ are modals treat$ by 7a7 =mal logic & 7b7 by ! !ory ( induction8 ,s #bd4 ,:at is ! subject ( an imp]sonal proposition8 ,give reasons = y\r answ]4 ,s #be4 ,is ! categorical proposition suffici5tly describ$ z ref]r+ a ?+ or ?+s to a class8 ,s #bf4 ,enum]ate ! cases 9 :i* ! tru? or falsity ( "o proposition may be =mally inf]r$ f ! tru? or falsity ( ano!r4 ,illu/rate ^! cases1 & give to ea* its te*nical "n4 ,s #bg4 ,illu/rate ! relation ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ces to ! ,laws ( ,?\ght4 #bh4 ,expla9 :at is meant by 7a7 ,symbolic ,logic2 7b7 ! ,logic ( ,relatives4 ,describe "s me?od ( repres5t+ propositions by means ( diagrams2 & indicate h[ f> any p>ticul> !ory ( ! import ( propositions is involv$ 9 su* repres5tation4 ,s #bi4 ,expla9 ! exact nature ( ! relation betwe5 two ,contradictory propositions2 & def9e ,conv]sion by ,contraposition1 det]m9+ :at k9d ( propositions admit ( su* conv]sion4 ,give ! contradictory & ! contrapositive ( ea* ( ! foll[+ propositions3-- 7a7 ,all equilat]al triangles are equiangul>2 7b7 ,no v]tebrate animal has jaws op5+ sideways2 7c7 ,:]ev] ,a & ,b are bo? pres5t1 ei!r ,c or ,d is also pres5t4 ,s #cj4 ,def9e ,obv]sion & ,inv]sion1 & apply ^! processes also to ! above ?ree propositions4 #ca4 ,propositions c be und]/ood ei!r 9 ext5sion or 9 int5sion4 ,expla9 ?is1 & discuss ! relative value ( ! two int]pretations4 ,s #cb4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 real & v]bal propositions2 & expla9 ! importance ( ! di/9ction4 #cc4 ,illu/rate ! process call$ '*ange ( ,relation4' ,,iii4 ,,syllogism ,,& ,,m$iate ,,inf]5ce4 #cd4 ,:at is a ,syllogism8 ,f9d1 )\t ref]5ce to ! mnemonic v]ses1 9 :at diff]5t ways x is possible to prove syllogi/ically ! conclusion ,no ,s is ,p2 & %[ ! equival5ce betwe5 ^! diff]5t ways4 ,s #ce4 ,f :at po9ts ( view c ! syllogism be reg>d$ 7#a7 z be+1 7#b7 z n be+1 a petitio pr9cipii8 ,s #cf4 ,:at are ! figures ( syllogism8 ,= :at k9d ( argum5ts are !y sev]ally adapt$8 ,s #cg4 ,:at is meant by ,mood & ,figure8 ,h[ c ! validity ( a ,mood be te/$8 ,%\ld !re be f\r ,figures or ?ree8 ,s #ch4 ,con/ruct syllogisms 9 ,cam5es1 ,datisi & ,b>oco1 & r$uce !m to ! correspond+ moods ( ! fir/ figure4 #ci4 ,expla9 ! mean+ ( o/5sive & indirect ,r$uction4 ,%[ t any ,mood ( ! second ,figure may be r$uc$ 9 ei!r way4 #dj4 ,%[ t ,a _c be prov$ except 9 ! ,fir/ ,figure4 ,express ! foll[+ reason+ 9 z _m syllogi/ic figures z y c3 ,"s !ori/s _c be tru/$1 = !y are unwise4 ,s #da4 ,discuss ! possibility ( r$uc+ ! argum5t a =tiori to ! syllogi/ic =m4 ,s #db4 ,c a false conclusion be rea*$ ?r\gh true premises1 or a true conclusion ?r\gh false premises8 ,give reasons = y\r answ]4 ,s #dc4 ,c we "u any circum/ances inf] a relation betwe5 ,x & ,z f ! premises-- ,"s ,y's are ,x's ,"s ,y's are ,z's8 ,s #dd4 ,take an app>5t syllogism subject to ! fallacy ( negative premises1 & inquire :e!r y c correct ! reason+ by conv]t+ "o or bo? ( ! premises into ! affirmative =m4 ,s #de4 ,enum]ate ! faults to :i* a syllogism is liable1 giv+ in/ances ( ea*4 ,s #df4 ,/ate any ,en?ymeme1 & exp& x into 7#a7 a ,syllogism1 7#b7 an ,epi*eirema1 7#c7 a ,sorites2 & give 9 ea* case ! te*nical "n ( ! ,mood or ,ord] t results4 #dg4 ,/ate any ,disjunctive ,syllogism1 & *ange x 7#a7 into a ,hypo!tical1 7#b7 into a ,categorical2 & discuss ! loss or ga91 9 cog5cy or significance involv$ 9 ?is process4 #dh4 ,c ! ,syllogism be treat$ z m]ely a consequ5ce ( ! ,laws ( ,?\ght8 ,if n1 :y n2 & :at else does x imply8 #di4 ,prove t ) ?ree giv5 propositions 7( ! =ms ,a41 ,e41 ,i41 ,o47 x is nev] possible to con/ruct m ?an "o valid syllogism4 ,c #ej4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 a ,con/ructive & a ,de/ructive ,hypo!tical ,syllogism2 & %[ h[ "o may be r$uc$ to ! o!r4 ,c ,,iv4 ,,induction1 ,,etc4 #ea4 ,:at con/itutes a ,valid ,induction8 ,di/+ui% x f a legitimate hypo!sis4 ,s #eb4 ,is x possible to =m true univ]sal propositions ab\t facts if we h n actually obs]v$ all ! individuals designat$ by ! subject ( ! proposition8 ,if s1 h[8 ,s #ec4 ,p]fect induction is demon/rative & syllogi/ic2 imp]fect induction is nei!r4 ,expla9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 p]fect & imp]fect induction1 & exam9e ! tru? ( ?is ass]tion4 ,s #ed4 ,:y is x t "o %\ld n reg>d night z ! cause1 nor ev5 z a univ]sal condition ( day8 ,expla9 cause & condition4 ,s #ee4 ,:at d y und]/& by an exp]im5t8 ,c y say h[ _m exp]im5ts are requir$ to e/abli% 7#a7 a fact1 7#b7 a law ( nature8 #ef4 ,h[ w\ld y def9e antec$5t1 cause1 effect1 consequ5t8 ,s #eg4 ,engl& is ! ri*e/ c\ntry 9 ! _w1 & has a gold curr5cy4 ,russia & ,india1 9 proportion to population1 are poor c\ntries & h little or no gold curr5cy4 ,h[ f> are su* k9d ( facts logically suffici5t to prove t a gold curr5cy is ! cause ( a nation's weal?8 ,s #eh4 ,a man hav+ be5 %ot ?r\gh ! he>t imm$iately falls dead4 ,inve/igate ! logical value ( su* a fact z prov+ t all m5 %ot ?r\gh ! he>t w fall dead4 ,s #ei4 ,expla9 ! process ( induction call$ ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 & give "s new in/ances ( its application4 ,h[ is x relat$ to ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations8 ,:at is ! ,major ,premise impli$ 9 all ^! me?ods8 ,s #ei;,a4 ,exam9e ! position1 t ! ,canons ( ,exp]im5t are useless1 because ! "w ( prep>+ ! exp]im5ts mu/ h be5 done be=e ! canons c be appli$4 #fj4 ,expla9 ! logical cog5cy ( exp]im5ts 9 ! se>* = physical causes4 ,s #fa4 ,if ! effects ( ,a ,b ,c ,d are fully express$ by a b c d1 & ^? ( ,b ,c ,d by b c d1 :at inductive inf]5ce c be drawn & on :at pr9ciple8 ,/ate ! canon accord+ to :i* x is drawn4 ,s #fb4 ,comp>e ! advantage ( obs]vation & exp]im5t z means ( ga9+ data = ,reason+4 ,s #fc4 ,comp>e ! cog5cy ( diff]5t ,inductive ,me?ods1 %[+ ! k9d ( evid5ce ea* requires1 & ! pr9ciple on :i* x is bas$4 ,s #fd4 ,comp>e ! ,canons ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce 7#a7 z to ! difficulty ( f9d+ or prep>+ actual ,in/ances = !m1 & 7#b7 z to _! conclusiv5ess4 #fe4 ,describe :at is meant by residual ph5om5a1 & e/imate _! value 9 inductive sci5ce4 ,s #ff4 ,:at is ! argum5t f ,analogy8 ,h[ does x diff] f 7a7 ,induction1 7b7 metaphorical argum5t8 ,s #fg4 ,:at are ! v>i\s s5ses 9 :i* ! ^w ,analogy has be5 us$8 ,di/+ui%1 giv+ in/ances1 betwe5 good & bad analogies4 ,s #fh4 ,h[ d y di/+ui% betwe5 :at ,mill calls ! ,geometrical1 ,physical1 & ,hi/orical ,me?ods8 #fh;,a4 ,! ,comp>ative ,me?od is appeal$ to :]e direct evid5ce is want+4 ,expla9 ?is4 #fi4 ,:at is meant by a doctr9e be+ unv]ifiable8 ,if a conclusion rea*$ by d$uction does n agree ) ! facts1 :]e mu/ we look = error8 #gj4 ,!re are c]ta9 cases 9 :i* failure ( v]ification is fatal to a !ory1 & o!r cases 9 :i* x is ( comp>atively little cog5cy4 ,h[ w\ld y di/+ui% betwe5 ^! classes ( cases8 ,s #ga4 ,tak+ ! evolution1 or any o!r propos$ hypo!sis1 h[ %\ld "o proce$ 7a7 to %[ :e!r x satisfies ! conditions ( a legitimate hypo!sis suffici5tly to entitle x to inve/igation1 & 7b7 to te/ x ) a view to its acceptance or rejection z a tru? ( sci5ce8 ,s #gb4 ,:at d y mean by say+ t a ph5om5on has be5 satisfactorily expla9$8 #gc4 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! ,hi/orical ,me?od ( ,sociological inquiry4 ,s #gd4 ,:at is ! relation ( ! !ory ( ,probability to ,logic8 ,s #ge4 ,expla9 & discuss ! doctr9e t ,induction is bas$ ^u ! ,!ory ( ,probability4 ,s #ge;,a4 ,:at are ! logical gr\nds ( ! ,law ( ,error8 #gf4 ,expla9 ! nature & use ( ,classification1 ! means to1 & te/s (1 its successful p]=mance4 ,s #gg4 ,:at is ,def9ition & :at is its use8 ,m5tion v>i\s difficulties t occur 9 ! process1 & %[ h[ !y are to be met4 ,s #gh4 ,propose rules = a good ,division & a good ,def9ition1 & exemplify ! brea* ( !m4 ,s #gi4 ,exam9e ! validity ( ! idea ( ,real ,k9ds4 ,o #hj4 ,:at k9d ( words are indef9able1 & :y8 ,:5 d we def9e by negation & by example8 ,s #ha4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ! prov9ce & aims ( classification & 7logical7 division4 ,illu/rate4 ,s #hb4 ,:at is an infima species or species specialissima8 ,comp>e ! use ( ! t]ms g5us & species 9 ,logic ) t :i* is common 9 speak+ ( animals or plants4 ,s #hc4 ,h[ f> does ! =mation ( ,def9itions & ,classifications con/itute ! end ( ,sci5ce8 ,s #hd4 ,exam9e ! me?odological relations betwe5 ,def9ition1 ,classification & ,nom5clature4 ,s #he4 ,give in/ances ( ,diff]5tia1 ,prop]ty1 ,insep>able ,accid5t2 & exam9e1 ) ref]5ce to y\r in/ances1 h[ f> x is possible to di/+ui% !m4 ,s ,v4 ,,miscellane\s4 #hf4 ,p c reason )\t ! help ( ,logic4 ,:y is ?is n a suffici5t objection to ! /udy8 ,9 y\r answ] %[ di/9ctly :y ,logic %\ld be /udi$4 ,s #hg4 ,:at is ! mean+ ( ! ass]tion t ,logic is conc]n$ ) ! =m1 & n ) ! matt]1 ( ?\ght8 ,s #hh4 ,nei!r by d$uctive nor inductive reason+ c we add a tittle to our implicit k4 7,jevons47 ,expla9 & criticise4 ,s #hi4 ,:at is ! logical f\ndation ( ! indirect me?od or r$uctio ad absurdum8 ,is x applicable to non-ma!matical subjects8 ,s #ij4 ,on :at gr\nds d we believe 9 ! reality ( an hi/orical ev5t8 ,s #ia4 ,facts are famili> !ories4 ,expla9 & discuss ?is4 ,o #ib4 ,:]e9 lies ! difficulty ( prov+ a negative8 ,o #ic4 ,c any limits be assign$ to ! possible unification ( ! sci5ces8 ,o #id4 ,are ! results ( inductive inf]5ce necess>ily c]ta98 ,o #ie4 ,! me?od ( d$uctive sci5ce is hypo!tical4 ,expla9 & discuss4 ,o #if4 ,! uni=mity ( ,nature c nev] be m ?an a work+ hypo!sis4 ,expla9 & criticise4 #ig4 ,)\t speculation !re is no good & orig9al obs]vation4 ,:y8 ,o #ih4 ,c ! prov9ces ( induction & d$uction be kept sep>ate8 ,o #ii4 ,h[ f> is ! relation ( logical dep5d5ce id5tical ) t ( causation8 ,o #ii;,a4 ,discuss ! position t ! =ms ( ,logic are mean+less ap>t f _! application4 #ajj4 ,/ate 9 syllogi/ic =m 7mood & figure7 ! foll[+ argum5ts3-- 7a7 ,z polygamy is 9 _m c\ntries legal1 we may inf] ! v>iability ( ! moral /&>d4 7b7 ,if gold is weal?1 to export x dim9i%es ! national res\rces4 7c7 ,if all good p are happy1 unhapp9ess is an indication ( vice4 7d7 ,"o may be sure ( ! b5efits ( inur+ "y *ildr5 to cold1 f ! /r5g? exhibit$ by all m5 & wom5 ?us treat$ 9 infancy4 7e7 ,:]e !re is no law1 !re is no inju/ice4 7f7 ,dissimulation is b a fa9t k9d ( policy or wisdom2 = x aske? a /rong wit & a /rong he>t to "k :5 to tell ! tru?1 & to d x2 !re=e x is ! weak] sort ( politicians t are ! greate/ dissembl]s4 7,bacon47 7g7 ,money be+ a b>r5 product1 x is contr>y to nature to make x reproduce itself4 ,usury1 !re=e1 is unnatural1 &1 be+ unnatural1 is unju/ifiable4 7h7 ,! /udy ( ma!matics is ess5tial to a complete c\rse ( education1 because x induces a habit ( close & regul> reason+4 ,s #aja4 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! foll[+ t]ms3--,subalt]nans1 ,v]a ,causa1 ,plurality ( ,causes1 ,law ( ,nature1 ,empirical ,law1 ,summum ,g5us1 ,pr$icam5t1 ,arbor ,porphyriana1 ,axiom1 ,univ]se ( disc\rse 7suppositio71 ,ant9omy1 ,dilemma1 ,realism1 ,di*otomy1 etc4 #ajb4 ,is !re any di/9ction &1 if s1 :at1 betwe5 a complete ,description & an ,explanation8 ,c #ajc4 ,on :at pr9ciples h fallacies be5 classifi$8 ,to :at ext5t d y ?9k a satisfactory classification ( ,fallacies possible8 ,c #ajd4 ,exam9e h[ f> conceptions ( ,p]si/5ce & ( ,inv>iable ,concomitance ( ,prop]ties are involv$ 9 ! me?odological application ( ! conception ( ,cause4 #ajd;,a4 ,inquire :e!r ! two foll[+ propositions c be reconcil$ ) "o ano!r3 7a7 ,! same conjunction ( antec$5ts is inv>iably foll[$ by ! same consequ5t2 7b7 ,we nev] f9d ! same concurr5ce ( ph5om5a a second "t4 ,c #aje4 ,us+ ! t]m ,logic 9 a wide s5se1 s z to include ,me?odology1 inquire h[ f> a ,logic ( ,obs]vation is possible1 & %[ 9 :at x w consi/4 ,c #ajf4 ,:at is ,pro(8 ,expla9 & discuss ! foll[+ dicta3--7a7 ,qui nimium probat1 nihil probat3 7b7 ,a bad pro( is worse ?an no pro(2 7c7 ,! exception proves ! rule2 7d7 ,negatives _c be prov$4 ,c #ajg4 ,exam9e h[ f> ! rules ( imm$iate & syllogi/ic inf]5ce are modifi$ by diff]5ces ( int]pretation ( ! categorical proposition 9 respect ( ! exi/5ce ( ! subject4 ,s #ajh4 ,an effect is b ! sum ( all ! p>tial causes1 ! concurr5ce ( :i* con/itutes its exi/5ce4 ,! cause ( an ev5t is its inv>iable & unconditional antec$5t4 ,expla9 & comp>e ^! two !ories ( causation4 ,does ei!r alone exhau/ ! sci5tific conception ( cause8 ,s #aji4 ,"u :at logical conditions are /ati/ical inf]5ces au?oris$1 & :at is ! nature ( _! conclusions8 ,s #aaj4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ,psy*ology1 ,metaphysics1 & ,logic2 & discuss briefly _! mutual relations4 ,s #aaa4 ,all processes ( inf]5ce 9 :i* ! ultimate premises are p>ticul> cases are equally induction4 ,induction is an inv]se d$uction4 ,expla9 & contra/ ^! two !ories ( ! relation ( induction to d$uction4 ,s #aab4 ,:at are ! ,fallacies specially incid5t to ,induction8--or to ! application ( ! !ory ( ,probabilities8 ,s #aac4 ,:at is meant by ! p]sonal error 7or p]sonal equation7 9 obs]vation8 ,discuss its importance 9 diff]5t bran*es ( k4 ,s #aad4 ,def9e & illu/rate3--,p>alogism1 ignoratio el5*i1 fallacia accid5tis1 argum5tum ad v]ecundiam1 illicit process1 undi/ribut$ middle1 etc4 #aae4 ,/ate ! ?ree fundam5tal laws ( ?\ght1 expla9 _! mean+1 & consid] h[ f> !y are indep5d5t ( ea* o!r8 ,l #aaf4 ,enum]ate ! ,heads ( ,pr$icables & def9e _! mean+4 ,discuss _! logical importance4 ,l #aag4 ,^u :at gr\nds has x be5 ass]t$ t ! conclusion ( a syllogism is drawn1 n f1 b accord+ to1 ! major premise8 ,are !y valid8 ,l #aah4 ,exp]im5t is always pref]able to obs]vation4 ,:y is ?is8 ,expla9 f ! example ( any sci5ce h[ obs]vation & exp]im5t supplem5t ea* o!r4 ,l #aai4 ,:at is a hypo!sis8 ,di/+ui% betwe5 a work+ hypo!sis & an e/abli%$ hypo!sis1 s z to br+ out ! conditions on :i* ! latt] dep5ds4 ,l #abj4 ,expla9 h[ good sci5tific nom5clature & t]m9ology are connect$ ) ! purposes ( good classification4 ,l ,pr9t$ 9 ,great ,brita9 by ,hazell1 ,watson ,v9ey1 ,ld41 ,london & ,aylesbury = ,simpk91 ,m>%all1 ,hamilton1 ,k5t ,co4 ,ltd4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,! foll[+ corrections 7 made to ! orig9al text3 ,page #dj3 in$equate *ang$ to inadequate ,page #db3 classily *ang$ to classify ,page #ij3 all$g+ *ang$ to alleg+ ,page #abh3 miss+ comma add$3 ,cam5es1 ,dim>is ,page #ada3 evalu$ *ang$ to evaluat$ ,page #adg3 tell5s *ang$ to toll5s3 & ! ,modus toll5s ,page #agj3 impr$ictable *ang$ to unpr$ictable ,page #baj3 miss+ ^w 'a' add$3 ,seso/ris conqu]$ a great ,page #cjg3 ei!r *ang$ to nei!r ,page #cae3 inductions *ang$ to induction ,page #dja3 quality *ang$ to quantity ,page #dja3 propdeutic *ang$ to propdeutic