file which includes the original        
illustrations4       ,see #ahdca-;h4htm 
or #ahdca-;h4zip3                       
7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/
h_/d_/c_/ahdca_/ahdca-;h_/#ahdca-;h4htm7
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7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/
h_/d_/c_/ahdca_/ahdca-;h4zip7           
,,other ,,worlds  by  ,,garrett ,p4     
,,serviss4         99     99     99     
99     99     99    ,,other ,,worlds4   
,their ,nature and ,possibilities in the
 ,light of the ,latest                  
,discoveries4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4      
,cloth1 #a4bj net2 postage              
additional4       ,no science has ever  
equaled astronomy in its appeal to the  
imagination1 and recently popular       
interest in the wonders of the          
starry heavens has been stimulated by   
surprising discoveries and              
imaginary discoveries1 as well as by a  
marked tendency of writers      of      
fiction to include other worlds and     
their possible inhabitants      within  

the field of romance4       ,mr4        
,serviss's new book on ,other ,worlds1  
their ,nature and      ,possibilities in
 the ,light of the ,latest ,discoveries1
 summarizes      what is known4 ,with   
helpful illustrations1 the most         
interesting      facts about the planets
 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 etc41
 as well      as about the nearest of   
all other worlds1 the moon1 are         
presented      in a popular manner1 and 
always from the point of view of human  
interest--a point that is too seldom    
taken by writers on science4            
,,astronomy ,,with ,,an ,,opera-,,glass4
       ,a ,popular ,introduction to the 
,study of the ,starry ,heavens with the 
simplest of ,optical ,instruments4      
,illustrated4 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4      
,by its aid thousands of people who have
 resigned themselves to the             
ignorance in which they were left at    
school1 by our wretched system      of  
teaching by the book only1 will thank   
,mr4 ,serviss for the      suggestions  

he has so well carried out4--,new ,york 
,times4  ,,pleasures ,,of ,,the         
,,telescope4       ,a ,descriptive      
,guide to ,amateur ,astronomers and ,all
 ,lovers of the      ,stars4            
,illustrated4 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4      
,the volume will be found interesting by
 those for whom it is      written1 and 
will inspire many with a love for the   
study of      astronomy1 one of the most
 far-reaching of the                    
sciences4--,milwaukee ,journal4  ,d4    
,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 ,,new       
,,york4         99     99     99     99 
99     99    ,illustration3 ,,chart ,,of
 ,,mars4 ,after ,schiaparelli4          
,,other ,,worlds  ,their ,nature1       
,possibilities and ,habitability in the 
,light of the ,latest ,discoveries4  by 
,,garrett ,p4 ,,serviss  ,author of     
,astronomy with an ,opera-glass and     
,pleasures of the ,telescope  ,with     
,charts and ,illustrations              
,shall we measure the councils of heaven
 by the narrow impotence of      human  

faculties1 or conceive that silence and 
solitude reign      throughout the      
mighty empire of nature8       --,,dr4  
,,thomas ,,chalmers4     ,new ,york ,d4 
,appleton and ,company #aija ,copyright1
 #aija1 by ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4  
,,to ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,,william ,,jay
 ,,youmans4     ,,preface   ,the point  
of view of this book is human interest  
in the other worlds around us4 ,it      
presents the latest discoveries among   
the planets of the solar system1 and    
shows their bearing upon the question of
 life in those planets4 ,it points out  
the resemblances and the differences    
between the earth and the other worlds  
that share with it in the light of the  
sun4 ,it shows what we should see and   
experience if we could visit those      
worlds4  ,while basing itself upon      
facts1 it does not exclude the          
discussion of interesting probabilities 
and theories that have commanded wide   
popular attention4 ,it points out1 for  
instance1 what is to be thought of the  

idea of interplanetary communication4   
,it indicates what must be the outlook  
of the possible inhabitants of some of  
the other planets toward the earth4 ,as 
far as may be1 it traces the origin and 
development of the other worlds of our  
system1 and presents a graphic picture  
of their present condition as           
individuals1 and of their wonderful     
contrasts as members of a common family4
  ,in short1 the aim of the author has  
been to show how wide1 and how rich1 is 
the field of interest opened to the     
human mind by man's discoveries         
concerning worlds1 which1 though        
inaccessible to him in a physical sense1
 offer intellectual conquests of the    
noblest description4  ,and1 finally1 in 
order to assist those who may wish to   
recognize for themselves these other    
worlds in the sky1 this book presents a 
special series of charts to illustrate a
 method of finding the planets which    
requires no observatory and no          
instruments1 and only such knowledge of 

the starry heavens as anybody can easily
 acquire4  ,g4,p4,s4   ,,borough ,,of   
,,brooklyn1 ,,new ,,york ,,city1        
,september1 #aija4     ,,contents       
,,chapter ,i  ,,introductory            
#a       ,remarkable popular interest in
 questions concerning      other worlds 
and their inhabitants--,theories of     
interplanetary communication--,the      
plurality of worlds in                  
literature--,romances of foreign        
planets--,scientific interest      in   
the subject--,opposing views based on   
telescopic and      spectroscopic       
revelations--,changes of                
opinion--,desirability      of a popular
 presentation of the latest facts--,the 
natural      tendency to regard other   
planets as habitable--,some of the      
conditions and limitations of the       
problem--,the solar system      viewed  
from outer space--,the resemblances and 
contrasts of      its various           
planets--,three planetary groups        
recognized--,the      family character  

of the solar system   ,,chapter ,,ii    
,,mercury1 ,a ,,world ,,of ,,two ,,faces
 ,,and ,,many ,,contrasts           #ah 
,grotesqueness of ,mercury considered as
 a world--,its      dimensions1 mass1   
and movements--,the question of an      
atmosphere--,mercury's visibility from  
the earth--,its      eccentric orbit1   
and rapid changes of distance from the  
sun--,momentous consequences of these   
peculiarities--,a      virtual fall of  
fourteen million miles toward the sun   
in six weeks--,the tremendous heat      
poured upon ,mercury      and its great 
variations--,the little planet's        
singular      manner of rotation on its 
axis--,schiaparelli's astonishing       
discovery--,a day side and a night      
side--,interesting effects      of      
libration--,the heavens as viewed from  
,mercury--,can it      support life8    
,,chapter ,,iii  ,,venus1 ,,the ,,twin  
,,of ,,the ,,earth                      
#df       ,a planet that matches ours in
 size--,its beauty in the               

sky--,remarkable circularity of its     
orbit--,probable      absence of seasons
 and stable conditions of temperature   
and weather on ,venus--,its dense and   
abundant atmosphere--,seeing      the   
atmosphere of ,venus from the earth--,is
 the real face of the      planet hidden
 under an atmospheric veil8--,conditions
 of      habitability--,all planetary   
life need not be of the terrestrial     
type--,the limit fixed by destructive   
temperature--,importance of      air and
 water in the problem--,reasons why     
,venus may be a      more agreeable     
abode than the earth--,splendor of our  
globe      as seen from ,venus--,what   
astronomers on ,venus might learn       
about the earth--,a serious question    
raised--,does ,venus1 like              
,mercury1 rotate but once in the course 
of a revolution about      the          
sun8--,reasons for and against that view
   ,,chapter ,,iv  ,,mars1 ,a ,,world   
,,more ,,advanced ,,than ,,ours         
#he       ,resemblances between ,mars   

and the earth--,its seasons and its     
white polar caps--,peculiar surface     
markings--,schiaparelli's      discovery
 of the canals--,his description of     
their appearance      and of their      
duplication--,influence of the seasons  
on the      aspect of the canals--,what 
are the canals8--,mr4 ,lowell's         
observations--,the theory of            
irrigation--,how the inhabitants      of
 ,mars are supposed to have taken       
advantage of the annual      accession  
of water supplied by the melting of the 
polar      caps--,wonderful details     
shown in charts of ,mars--,curious      
effects that may follow from the small  
force of gravity      on                
,mars--,imaginary giants--,reasons for  
thinking that      ,mars may be1 in an  
evolutionary sense1 older than the      
earth--,speculations about              
interplanetary signals from      ,mars1 
and their origin--,mars's               
atmosphere--,the question of            
water--,the problem of                  

temperature--,eccentricities of ,mars's 
moons   ,,chapter ,v  ,,the ,,asteroids1
 ,a ,,family ,,of ,,dwarf ,,worlds      
#abi       ,only four asteroids large   
enough to be measured--,remarkable      
differences in their brightness         
irrespective of size--,their      widely
 scattered and intermixed               
orbits--,eccentric orbit of             
,eros--the nearest celestial body to the
 earth except the      moon--,its       
existence recorded by photography before
 it was      discovered--,its great and 
rapid fluctuations in light1 and        
the curious hypotheses based upon       
them--,is it a fragment of      an      
exploded planet8--,the startling theory 
of ,olbers as to      the origin of the 
asteroids revived--,curious results of  
the      slight force of gravity on an  
asteroid--,an imaginary visit      to a 
world only twelve miles in diameter     
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,jupiter1 ,,the        
,,greatest ,,of ,,known ,,worlds        
#afj       ,jupiter compared with our   

globe--,his swift rotation on his       
axis--,remarkable lack of density--,the 
force of gravity on                     
,jupiter--,wonderful clouds--,strange   
phenomena of the great                  
belts--,brilliant display of            
colors--,the great red spot      and the
 many theories it has given rise        
to--,curious facts      about the       
varying rates of rotation of the huge   
planet's      surface--,the theory of a 
hidden world in ,jupiter--,when         
,jupiter was a companion star to the    
sun--,the miracle of      world-making  
before our eyes--,are ,jupiter's        
satellites      habitable8--,magnificent
 spectacles in the ,jovian system       
,,chapter ,,vii  ,,saturn1 ,a ,,prodigy 
,,among ,,planets                       
#ahe       ,the wonder of the great     
rings--,saturn's great distance and     
long year--,the least dense of all the  
planets--,it would      float in        
water--,what kind of a world is         
it8--,sir ,humphry      ,davy's         

imaginary inhabitants of ,saturn--,facts
 about the      rings1 which are a      
phenomenon unparalleled in the visible  
universe--,the surprising nature of the 
rings1 as revealed      by mathematics  
and the spectroscope--,the question of  
their      origin and ultimate          
fate--,dr4 ,dick's idea of their        
habitability--,swedenborg's curious     
description of the      appearance of   
the rings from ,saturn--,is ,saturn a   
globe of      vapor1 or of dust8--,the  
nine satellites and ,roche's            
limit--,the play of spectacular shadows 
in the ,saturnian      system--,uranus  
and ,neptune--,is there a yet           
undiscovered      planet greater than   
,jupiter8   ,,chapter ,,viii  ,,the     
,,moon1 ,,child ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,and
 ,,the ,,sun                  #bab      
,the moon a favorite subject for        
intellectual speculation--,its          
nearness to the earth graphically       
illustrated--,ideas of the              
ancients--,galileo's discoveries--,what 

first raised a serious      question as 
to its habitability--,singularity of the
 moon's      motions--,appearance of its
 surface to the naked eye and with      
the telescope--,the seas and the        
wonderful mountains and      craters--,a
 terrible abyss described--,tycho's     
mysterious      rays--,difference       
between lunar and terrestrial           
volcanoes--,mountain-ringed             
valleys--,gigantic cracks in the        
lunar globe--,slight force of gravity of
 the moon and some      interesting     
deductions--,the moon a world of        
giantism--,what      kind of atmospheric
 gases can the moon contain--,the       
question      of water and of former    
oceans--,the great volcanic cataclysm   
in the moon's history--,evidence of     
volcanic and other      changes now     
occurring--,is there vegetation on the  
moon8--,lunar day and night--,the earth 
as seen from the      moon--,discoveries
 yet to be made   ,,chapter ,,ix  ,,how 
,,to ,,find ,,the ,,planets             

#bef       ,it is easy to make          
acquaintance with the planets and to    
follow them among the stars--,the first 
step a knowledge of      the            
constellations--,how this is to be      
acquired--,how to use      the ,nautical
 ,almanac in connection with the charts 
in this      book--,the visibility of   
,mercury and ,venus--,the oppositions   
of ,mars1 ,jupiter1 and ,saturn         
,,index                                 
#bgg     ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations    
,,page ,chart of ,mars                  
,frontispiece  ,diagram showing causes  
of day and night on portions of ,mercury
       #ce  ,regions of day and night on
 ,mercury                               
#ch  ,venus's atmosphere seen as a ring 
of light                           #ef  
,view of ,jupiter                       
facing #afh  ,three views of ,saturn    
facing #ahf  ,diagram showing the moon's
 path through space                     
#bag  ,the lunar ,alps1 ,apennines1 and 
,caucasus                    facing #bbb

  ,the moon at first and last quarter   
facing #bbf  ,phases and rotation of the
 moon                                   
#bej  ,charts showing the zodiacal      
constellations3   #a4 ,from right       
ascension #j hours to #d hours          
#bei   #b4                    #d        
#h                             #bfa     
#c4                    #h        #b     
#bfc   #d4                   #ab        
#af                             #bfe    
#e4                   #af       #bj     
#bfg   #f4                   #bj        
#bd                             #bfi    
,,other ,,worlds     ,,chapter ,i       
,,introductory   ,other worlds and their
 inhabitants are remarkably popular     
subjects of speculation at the present  
time4 ,every day we hear people asking  
one another if it is true that we shall 
soon be able to communicate with some of
 the far-off globes1 such as ,mars1 that
 circle in company with our earth about 
the sun4 ,one of the masters of         
practical electrical science in our time

 has suggested that the principle of    
wireless telegraphy may be extended to  
the transmission of messages across     
space from planet to planet4 ,the       
existence of intelligent inhabitants in 
some of the other planets has become1   
with many1 a matter of conviction1 and  
for everybody it presents a question of 
fascinating interest1 which has deeply  
stirred the popular imagination4  ,the  
importance of this subject as an        
intellectual phenomenon of the opening  
century is clearly indicated by the     
extent to which it has entered into     
recent literature4 ,poets feel its      
inspiration1 and novelists and romancers
 freely select other planets as the     
scenes of their stories4 ,one tells us  
of a visit paid by men to the moon1 and 
of the wonderful things seen1 and       
adventures had1 there4 ,lucian1 it is   
true1 did the same thing eighteen       
hundred years ago1 but he had not the   
aid of hints from modern science to     
guide his speculations and lend         

verisimilitude to his narrative4        
,another startles us from our sense of  
planetary security with a realistic     
account of the invasion of the earth by 
the terrible sons of warlike ,mars1     
seeking to extend their empire by the   
conquest of foreign globes4  ,sometimes 
it is a trip from world to world1 a kind
 of celestial pleasure yachting1 with   
depictions of creatures more wonderful  
than--      ,the anthropophagi and men  
whose heads     ,do grow beneath their  
shoulders--  that is presented to our   
imagination2 and sometimes we are       
informed of the visions beheld by the   
temporarily disembodied spirits of      
trance mediums1 or other modern         
thaumaturgists1 flitting about among the
 planets4  ,then1 to vary the theme1 we 
find charming inhabitants of other      
worlds represented as coming down to the
 earth and sojourning for a time on our 
dull planet1 to the delight of          
susceptible successors of father ,adam1 
who become1 henceforth1 ready to follow 

their captivating visitors to the ends  
of the universe4  ,in short1 writers of 
fiction have already established        
interplanetary communication to their   
entire satisfaction1 thus vastly and    
indefinitely enlarging the bounds of    
romance1 and making us so familiar with 
the peculiarities of our remarkable     
brothers and sisters of ,mars1 ,venus1  
and the moon1 that we can not help      
feeling1 notwithstanding the many       
divergences in the descriptions1 that we
 should certainly recognize them on     
sight wherever we might meet them4  ,but
 the subject is by no means abandoned to
 the tellers of tales and the dreamers  
of dreams4 ,men of science1 also1       
eagerly enter into the discussion of the
 possibilities of other worlds1 and     
become warm over it4  ,around ,mars1 in 
particular1 a lively war of opinions    
rages4 ,not all astronomers have joined 
in the dispute--some have not           
imagination enough1 and some are waiting
 for more light before choosing         

sides--but those who have entered the   
arena are divided between two opposed   
camps4 ,one side holds that ,mars is not
 only a world capable of having         
inhabitants1 but that it actually has   
them1 and that they have given visual   
proof of their existence and their      
intelligence through the changes they   
have produced upon its surface4 ,the    
other side maintains that ,mars is      
neither inhabited nor habitable1 and    
that what are taken for vast public     
works and engineering marvels wrought by
 its industrious inhabitants1 are       
nothing but illusions of the telescope1 
or delusions of the observer's mind4    
,both adduce numerous observations1     
telescopic and spectroscopic1 and many  
arguments1 scientific and theoretic1 to 
support their respective contentions1   
but neither side has yet been able to   
convince or silence the other1 although 
both have made themselves and their     
views intensely interesting to the world
 at large1 which would very much like to

 know what the truth really is4  ,and   
not only ,mars1 but ,venus--the         
beauteous twin sister of the earth1 who1
 when she glows in the evening sky1     
makes everybody a lover of the          
stars--and even ,mercury1 the ,moor     
among the planets1 wearing the shadowed 
livery of the burnished sun1 to whom he 
is a neighbor and near bred1 and        
,jupiter1 ,saturn1 and the moon         
itself--all these have their advocates1 
who refuse to believe that they are     
lifeless globes1 mere reflectors of     
useless sunshine4  ,the case of the moon
 is1 in this respect1 especially        
interesting1 on account of the change   
that has occurred in the opinions held  
concerning its physical condition4 ,for 
a very long time our satellite was      
confidently1 and almost universally1    
regarded as an airless1 waterless1      
lifeless desert1 a completely dead      
world1 a bare1 desiccated skull of rock1
 circling about the living earth4  ,but 
within a few years there has been a     

reaction from this extreme view of the  
lifelessness of the moon4 ,observers    
tell us of clouds suddenly appearing and
 then melting to invisibility over      
volcanic craters2 of evidences of an    
atmosphere1 rare as compared with ours1 
yet manifest in its effects2 of         
variations of color witnessed in certain
 places as the sunlight drifts over them
 at changing angles of incidence2 of    
what seem to be immense fields of       
vegetation covering level ground1 and of
 appearances indicating the existence of
 clouds of ice crystals and deposits of 
snow among the mountainous lunar        
landscapes4 ,thus1 in a manner1 the moon
 is rehabilitated1 and we are invited to
 regard its silvery beams not as the    
reflections of the surface of a desert1 
but as sent back to our eyes from the   
face of a world that yet has some slight
 remnants of life to brighten it4  ,the 
suggestion that there is an atmosphere  
lying close upon the shell of the lunar 
globe1 filling the deep cavities that   

pit its face and penetrating to an      
unknown depth in its interior1 recalls a
 speculation of the ingenious and       
entertaining ,fontenelle1 in the        
seventeenth century--recently revived   
and enlarged upon by the author of one  
of our modern romances of adventure in  
the moon--to the effect that the lunar  
inhabitants dwell beneath the surface of
 their globe instead of on the top of   
it4  ,now1 because of this widespread   
and continually increasing interest in  
the subject of other worlds1 and on     
account of the many curious revelations 
that we owe to modern telescopes and    
other improved means of investigation1  
it is certainly to be desired that the  
most important and interesting          
discoveries that have lately been made  
concerning the various globes which     
together with the earth constitute the  
sun's family1 should be assembled in a  
convenient and popular form--and that is
 the object of this book4 ,fact is      
admittedly often stranger and more      

wonderful than fiction1 and there are no
 facts that appeal more powerfully to   
the imagination than do those of        
astronomy4 ,technical books on astronomy
 usually either ignore the subject of   
the habitability of the planets1 or     
dismiss it with scarcely any recognition
 of the overpowering human interest that
 it possesses4 ,hence1 a book written   
specially from the point of view of that
 subject would appear calculated to meet
 a popular want2 and this the more1     
because1 since ,mr4 ,proctor wrote his  
,other ,worlds than ,ours and ,m4       
,flammarion his ,pluralit des ,mondes   
,habits1 many most important and        
significant discoveries have been made  
that1 in several notable instances1 have
 completely altered the aspect in which 
the planets present themselves for our  
judgment as to their conditions of      
habitability4  ,no doubt the natural    
tendency of the mind is to regard all   
the planets as habitable worlds1 for    
there seems to be deeply implanted in   

human nature a consciousness of the     
universality of life1 giving rise to a  
conviction that one world1 even in the  
material sense1 is not enough for it1   
but that every planet must belong to its
 kingdom4 ,we are apt to say to         
ourselves3 ,the earth is one of a number
 of planets1 all similarly              
circumstanced2 the earth is inhabited1  
why should not the others also be       
inhabited8  ,what has been learned of   
the unity in chemical constitution and  
mechanical operation prevailing         
throughout the solar system1 together   
with the continually accumulating       
evidence of the common origin of its    
various members1 and the identity of the
 evolutionary processes that have       
brought them into being1 all tends to   
strengthen the a priori hypothesis that 
life is a phenomenon general to the     
entire system1 and only absent where its
 essential and fundamental conditions1  
for special and local1 and perhaps      
temporary1 reasons1 do not exist4  ,if  

we look for life in the sun1 for        
instance1 while accepting the prevalent 
conception of the sun as a center of    
intense thermal action1 we must abandon 
all our ideas of the physical           
organization of life formed upon what we
 know of it from experimental evidence4 
,we can not imagine any form of life    
that has ever been presented to our     
senses as existing in the sun4  ,but    
this is not generally true of the       
planets4 ,life1 in our sense of it1 is a
 planetary1 not a solar1 phenomenon1 and
 while we may find reasons for believing
 that on some of the planets the        
conditions are such that creatures      
organized like ourselves could not      
survive1 yet we can not positively say  
that every form of living organism must 
necessarily be excluded from a world    
whose environment would be unsuited for 
us and our contemporaries in terrestrial
 life4  ,although our sole knowledge of 
animated nature is confined to what we  
learn by experience on the earth1 yet it

 is a most entertaining1 and by no means
 unedifying1 occupation1 to seek to     
apply to the exceedingly diversified    
conditions prevailing in the other      
planets1 as astronomical observations   
reveal them to us1 the principles1      
types1 and limitations that govern the  
living creatures of our world1 and to   
judge1 as best we can1 how far those    
types and limits may be modified or     
extended so that those other planets may
 reasonably be included among the       
probable abodes of life4  ,in order to  
form such judgments each planet must be 
examined by itself1 but first it is     
desirable to glance at the planetary    
system as a whole4 ,to do this we may   
throw off1 in imagination1 the dominance
 of the sun1 and suppose ourselves to be
 in the midst of open space1 far removed
 both from the sun and the other stars4 
,in this situation it is only by chance1
 or through foreknowledge1 that we can  
distinguish our sun at all1 for it is   
lost among the stars2 and when we       

discover it we find that it is only one 
of the smaller and less conspicuous     
members of the sparkling host4  ,we     
rapidly approach1 and when we have      
arrived within a distance comparable    
with that of its planets1 we see that   
the sun has increased in apparent       
magnitude1 until now it enormously      
outshines all the other stars1 and its  
rays begin to produce the effect of     
daylight upon the orbs that they reach4 
,but we are in no danger of mistaking   
its apparent superiority to its fellow  
stars for a real one1 because we clearly
 perceive that our nearness alone makes 
it seem so great and overpowering4  ,and
 now we observe that this star that we  
have drawn near to has attending it a   
number of minute satellites1 faintly    
shining specks1 that circle about it as 
if charmed1 like night-wandering        
insects1 by its splendor4 ,it is        
manifest to us at the first glance that 
without the sun these obedient little   
planets would not exist2 it is his      

attraction that binds them together in a
 system1 and his rays that make them    
visible to one another in the abyss of  
space4 ,although they vary in relative  
size1 yet we observe a striking         
similarity among them4 ,they are all    
globular bodies1 they all turn upon     
their axes1 they all travel about the   
sun in the same direction1 and their    
paths all lie very nearly in one plane4 
,some of them have one or more moons1 or
 satellites1 circling about them in     
imitation of their own revolution about 
the sun4 ,their family relationship to  
one another and to the sun is so evident
 that it colors our judgment about them 
as individuals2 and when we happen to   
find1 upon closer approach1 that one of 
them1 the earth1 is covered with        
vegetation and water and filled with    
thousands of species of animated        
creatures1 we are disposed to believe1  
without further examination1 that they  
are all alike in this respect1 just as  
they are all alike in receiving light   

and heat from the sun4  ,this           
preliminary judgment1 arising from the  
evident unity of the planetary system1  
can only be varied by an examination of 
its members in detail4  ,one striking   
fact that commands our attention as soon
 as we have entered the narrow precincts
 of the solar system is the isolation of
 the sun and its attendants in space4   
,the solar system occupies a            
disk-shaped1 or flat circular1 expanse1 
about #e1ehj1jjj1jjj miles across and   
relatively very thin1 the sun being in  
the center4 ,from the sun to the nearest
 star1 or other sun1 the distance is    
approximately five thousand times the   
entire diameter of the solar system4    
,but the vast majority of the stars are 
probably a hundred times yet more       
remote4 ,in other words1 if the ,solar  
system be represented by a circular     
flower-bed ten feet across1 the nearest 
star must be placed at a distance of    
nine and a half miles1 and the great    
multitude of the stars at a distance of 

nine hundred miles6  ,or1 to put it in  
another way1 let us suppose the sun and 
his planets to be represented by a fleet
 of ships at sea1 all included within a 
space about half a mile across2 then1 in
 order that there might be no shore     
relatively nearer than the nearest fixed
 star is to the sun1 we should have to  
place our fleet in the middle of the    
,pacific ,ocean1 while the distance of  
the main shore of the starry universe   
would be so immense that the whole      
surface of the earth would be far too   
small to hold the expanse of ocean      
needed to represent it6  ,from these    
general considerations we next proceed  
to recall some of the details of the    
system of worlds amid which we dwell4   
,besides the earth1 the sun has seven   
other principal planets in attendance4  
,these eight planets fall into two      
classes--the terrestrial planets and the
 major1 or jovian1 planets4 ,the former 
class comprises ,mercury1 ,venus1 the   
earth1 and ,mars1 and the latter        

,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 and         
,neptune4 ,i have named them all in the 
order of their distance from the sun1   
beginning with the nearest4  ,the       
terrestrial planets1 taking their class 
name from terra1 the earth1 are         
relatively close to the sun and         
comparatively small4 ,the major         
planets--or the jovian planets1 if we   
give them a common title based upon the 
name of their chief1 ,jupiter or        
,jove--are relatively distant from the  
sun and are characterized both by great 
comparative size and slight mean        
density4 ,the terrestrial planets are   
all included within a circle1 having the
 sun for a center1 about #adj1jjj1jjj   
miles in radius4 ,the space1 or gap1    
between the outermost of them1 ,mars1   
and the innermost of the jovian planets1
 ,jupiter1 is nearly two and a half     
times as broad as the entire radius of  
the circle within which they are        
included4 ,and not only is the jovian   
group of planets widely separated from  

the terrestrial group1 but the distances
 between the orbits of its four members 
are likewise very great and             
progressively increasing4 ,between      
,jupiter and ,saturn is a gap           
#djj1jjj1jjj miles across1 and this     
becomes #ijj1jjj1jjj miles between      
,saturn and ,uranus1 and more than      
#a1jjj1jjj1jjj miles between ,uranus and
 ,neptune4 ,all of these distances are  
given in round numbers4  ,finally1 we   
come to some very extraordinary         
worlds--if we can call them worlds at   
all--the asteroids4 ,they form a third  
group1 characterized by the extreme     
smallness of its individual members1    
their astonishing number1 and the       
unusual eccentricities and inclinations 
of their orbits4 ,they are situated in  
the gap between the terrestrial and the 
jovian planets1 and about #ejj of them  
have been discovered1 while there is    
reason to think that their real number  
may be many thousands4 ,the largest of  
them is less than #ejj miles in         

diameter1 and many of those recently    
discovered may be not more than ten or  
twenty miles in diameter4 ,what         
marvelous places of abode such little   
planets would be if it were possible to 
believe them inhabited1 we shall see    
more clearly when we come to consider   
them in their turn4 ,but without regard 
to the question of habitability1 the    
asteroids will be found extremely       
interesting4  ,in the next chapter we   
proceed to take up the planets for study
 as individuals1 beginning with         
,mercury1 the one nearest the sun4      
,,chapter ,,ii  ,,mercury1 ,a ,,world   
,,of ,,two ,,faces ,,and ,,many         
,,contrasts   ,mercury1 the first of the
 other worlds that we are going to      
consider1 fascinates by its             
grotesqueness1 like a piece of ,chinese 
ivory carving1 so small is it for its   
kind and so finished in its eccentric   
details4 ,in a little while we shall see
 how singular ,mercury is in many of the
 particulars of planetary existence1 but

 first of all let us endeavor to obtain 
a clear idea of the actual size and mass
 of this strange little planet4         
,compared with the earth it is so       
diminutive that it looks as if it had   
been cut out on the pattern of a        
satellite rather than that of an        
independent planet4 ,its diameter1      
#c1jjj miles1 only exceeds the moon's by
 less than one half1 while both ,jupiter
 and ,saturn1 among their remarkable    
collections of moons1 have each at least
 one that is considerably larger than   
the planet ,mercury4 ,but1 insignificant
 though it be in size1 it holds the     
place of honor1 nearest to the sun4  ,it
 was formerly thought that ,mercury     
possessed a mass greatly in excess of   
that which its size would seem to imply1
 and some estimates1 based upon the     
apparent effect of its attraction on    
comets1 made it equal in mean density to
 lead1 or even to the metal mercury4    
,this led to curious speculations       
concerning its probable metallic        

composition1 and the possible existence 
of vast quantities of such heavy        
elements as gold in the frame of the    
planet4 ,but more recent1 and probably  
more correct1 computations place        
,mercury third in the order of density  
among the members of the solar system1  
the earth ranking as first and ,venus as
 second4 ,mercury's density is now      
believed to be less than the earth's in 
the ratio of #he to #ajj4 ,accepting    
this estimate1 we find that the force of
 gravity upon the surface of ,mercury is
 only one third as great as upon the    
surface of the earth--i4e41 a body      
weighing #cjj pounds on the earth would 
weigh only #ajj pounds on ,mercury4     
,this is an important matter1 because   
not only the weight of bodies1 but the  
density of the atmosphere and even the  
nature of its gaseous constituents1 are 
affected by the force of gravity1 and if
 we could journey from world to world1  
in our bodily form1 it would make a     
great difference to us to find gravity  

considerably greater or less upon other 
planets than it is upon our own4 ,this  
alone might suffice to render some of   
the planets impossible places of abode  
for us1 unless a decided change were    
effected in our present physical        
organization4  ,one of the first        
questions that we should ask about a    
foreign world to which we proposed to   
pay a visit1 would relate to its        
atmosphere4 ,we should wish to know in  
advance if it had air and water1 and in 
what proportions and quantities4        
,however its own peculiar inhabitants   
might be supposed able to dispense with 
these things1 to us their presence would
 be essential1 and if we did not find   
them1 even a planet that blazed with    
gold and diamonds only waiting to be    
seized would remain perfectly safe from 
our invasion4 ,now1 in the case of      
,mercury1 some doubt on this point      
exists4  ,messrs4 ,huggins1 ,vogel1 and 
others have believed that they found    
spectroscopic proof of the existence of 

both air and the vapor of water on      
,mercury4 ,but the necessary            
observations are of a very delicate     
nature1 and difficult to make1 and some 
astronomers doubt whether we possess    
sufficient proof that ,mercury has an   
atmosphere4 ,at any rate1 its atmosphere
 is very rare as compared with the      
earth's1 but we need not1 on that       
account1 conclude that ,mercury is      
lifeless4 ,possibly1 in view of certain 
other peculiarities soon to be          
explained1 a rare atmosphere would be   
decidedly advantageous4  ,being much    
nearer the sun than the earth is1       
,mercury can be seen by us only in the  
same quarter of the sky where the sun   
itself appears4 ,as it revolves in its  
orbit about the sun it is visible1      
alternately1 in the evening for a short 
time after sunset and in the morning for
 a short time before sunrise1 but it can
 never be seen1 as the outer planets are
 seen1 in the mid-heaven or late at     
night4 ,when seen low in the twilight1  

at evening or morning1 it glows with the
 brilliance of a bright first-magnitude 
star1 and is a beautiful object1 though 
few casual watchers of the stars ever   
catch sight of it4 ,when it is nearest  
the earth and is about to pass between  
the earth and the sun1 it temporarily   
disappears in the glare of the sunlight2
 and likewise1 when it it is farthest   
from the earth and passing around in its
 orbit on the opposite side of the sun1 
it is concealed by the blinding solar   
rays4 ,consequently1 except with the    
instruments of an observatory1 which are
 able to show it in broad day1 ,mercury 
is never visible save during the        
comparatively brief periods of time when
 it is near its greatest apparent       
distance east or west from the sun4     
,the nearer a planet is to the sun the  
more rapidly it is compelled to move in 
its orbit1 and ,mercury1 being the      
nearest to the sun of all the planets1  
is by far the swiftest footed among     
them4 ,but its velocity is subject to   

remarkable variation1 owing to the      
peculiar form of the orbit in which the 
planet travels4 ,this is more eccentric 
than the orbit of any other planet1     
except some of the asteroids4 ,the sun  
being situated in one focus of the      
elliptical orbit1 when ,mercury is at   
perihelion1 or nearest to the sun1 its  
distance from that body is #bh1ejj1jjj  
miles1 but when it is at aphelion1 or   
farthest from the sun1 its distance is  
#dc1ejj1jjj miles4 ,the difference is no
 less than #ad1jjj1jjj miles6 ,when     
nearest the sun ,mercury darts forward  
in its orbit at the rate of twenty-nine 
miles in a second1 while when farthest  
from the sun the speed is reduced to    
twenty-three miles4  ,now1 let us return
 for a moment to the consideration of   
the wonderful variations in ,mercury's  
distance from the sun1 for we shall find
 that their effects are absolutely      
startling1 and that they alone suffice  
to mark a wide difference between       
,mercury and the earth1 considered as   

the abodes of sentient creatures4 ,the  
total change of distance amounts1 as    
already remarked1 to #ad1jjj1jjj miles1 
which is almost half the entire distance
 separating the planet from the sun at  
perihelion4 ,this immense variation of  
distance is emphasized by the rapidity  
with which it takes place4 ,mercury's   
periodic time1 i4e41 the period required
 for it to make a single revolution     
about the sun--or1 in other words1 the  
length of its year--is eighty-eight of  
our days4 ,in just one half of that     
time1 or in about six weeks1 it passes  
from aphelion to perihelion2 that is to 
say1 in six weeks the whole change in   
its distance from the sun takes place4  
,in six weeks ,mercury falls #ad1jjj1jjj
 miles--for it is a fall1 though in a   
curve instead of a straight line--falls 
#ad1jjj1jjj miles toward the sun6 ,and1 
as it falls1 like any other falling body
 it gains in speed1 until1 having       
reached the perihelion point1 its       
terrific velocity counteracts its       

approach and it begins to recede4 ,at   
the end of the next six weeks it once   
more attains its greatest distance1 and 
turns again to plunge sunward4  ,of     
course it may be said of every planet   
having an elliptical orbit that between 
aphelion and perihelion it is falling   
toward the sun1 but no other planet than
 ,mercury travels in an orbit           
sufficiently eccentric1 and approaches  
sufficiently near to the sun1 to give to
 the mind so vivid an impression of an  
actual1 stupendous fall6  ,next let us  
consider the effects of this rapid fall1
 or approach1 toward the sun1 which is  
so foreign to our terrestrial           
experience1 and so appalling to the     
imagination4  ,first1 we must remember  
that the nearer a planet is to the sun  
the greater is the amount of heat and   
light that it receives1 the variation   
being proportional to the inverse square
 of the distance4 ,the earth's distance 
from the sun being #ic1jjj1jjj miles1   
while ,mercury's is only #cf1jjj1jjj1 it

 follows1 to begin with1 that ,mercury  
gets1 on the average1 more than six and 
a half times as much heat from the sun  
as the earth does4 ,that alone is enough
 to make it seem impossible that        
,mercury can be the home of living forms
 resembling those of the earth1 for     
imagine the heat of the sun in the      
middle of a summer's day increased six  
or seven fold6 ,if there were no        
mitigating influences1 the face of the  
earth would shrivel as in the blast of a
 furnace1 the very stones would become  
incandescent1 and the oceans would turn 
into steam4  ,still1 notwithstanding the
 tremendous heat poured upon ,mercury as
 compared with that which our planet    
receives1 we can possibly1 and for the  
sake of a clearer understanding of the  
effects of the varying distance1 which  
is the object of our present inquiry1   
find a loophole to admit the chance that
 yet there may be living beings there4  
,we might1 for instance1 suppose that1  
owing to the rarity of its atmosphere1  

the excessive heat was quickly radiated 
away1 or that there was something in the
 constitution of the atmosphere that    
greatly modified the effective          
temperature of the sun's rays4 ,but1    
having satisfied our imagination on this
 point1 and placed our supposititious   
inhabitants in the hot world of         
,mercury1 how are we going to meet the  
conditions imposed by the rapid changes 
of distance--the swift fall of the      
planet toward the sun1 followed by the  
equally swift rush away from it8 ,for   
change of distance implies change of    
heat and temperature4  ,it is true that 
we have a slight effect of this kind on 
the earth4 ,between midsummer 7of the   
northern hemisphere7 and midwinter our  
planet draws #c1jjj1jjj miles nearer the
 sun1 but the change occupies six       
months1 and1 at the earth's great       
average distance1 the effect of this    
change is too slight to be ordinarily   
observable1 and only the astronomer is  
aware of the consequent increase in the 

apparent size of the sun4 ,it is not to 
this variation of the sun's distance1   
but rather to the changes of the        
seasons1 depending on the inclination of
 the earth's axis1 that we owe the      
differences of temperature that we      
experience4 ,in other words1 the total  
supply of heat from the sun is not far  
from uniform at all times of the year1  
and the variations of temperature depend
 upon the distribution of that supply   
between the northern and southern       
hemispheres1 which are alternately      
inclined sunward4  ,but on ,mercury the 
supply of solar heat is itself variable 
to an enormous extent4 ,in six weeks1 as
 we have seen1 ,mercury diminishes its  
distance from the sun about one third1  
which is proportionally ten times as    
great a change of distance as the earth 
experiences in six months4 ,the         
inhabitants of ,mercury in those six    
pregnant weeks see the sun expand in the
 sky to more than two and a half times  
its former magnitude1 while the solar   

heat poured upon them swiftly augments  
from something more than four and a half
 times to above eleven times the amount 
received upon the earth6 ,then1         
immediately1 the retreat of the planet  
begins1 the sun visibly shrinks1 as a   
receding balloon becomes smaller in the 
eyes of its watchers1 the heat falls off
 as rapidly as it had previously        
increased1 until1 the aphelion point    
being reached1 the process is again     
reversed4 ,and thus it goes on          
unceasingly1 the sun growing and        
diminishing in the sky1 and the heat    
increasing and decreasing by enormous   
amounts with astonishing rapidity4 ,it  
is difficult to imagine any way in which
 atmospheric influences could equalize  
the effects of such violent changes1 or 
any adjustments in the physical         
organization of living beings that could
 make such changes endurable4  ,but we  
have only just begun the story of       
,mercury's peculiarities4 ,we come next 
to an even more remarkable contrast     

between that planet and our own4 ,during
 the ,paris ,exposition of #ahhi a      
little company of astronomers was       
assembled at the ,juvisy observatory of 
,m4 ,flammarion1 near the ,french       
capital1 listening to one of the most   
surprising disclosures of a secret of   
nature that any savant ever confided to 
a few trustworthy friends while awaiting
 a suitable time to make it public4 ,it 
was a secret as full of significance as 
that which ,galileo concealed for a time
 in his celebrated anagram1 which1 when 
at length he furnished the key1 still   
remained a riddle1 for then it read3    
,the ,mother of the ,loves imitates the 
,shapes of ,cynthia1 meaning that the   
planet ,venus1 when viewed with a       
telescope1 shows phases like those of   
the moon4 ,the secret imparted in       
confidence to the knot of astronomers at
 ,juvisy came from a countryman of      
,galileo's1 ,signor ,g4 ,v4             
,schiaparelli1 the ,director of the     
,observatory of ,milan1 and its purport 

was that the planet ,mercury always     
keeps the same face directed toward the 
sun4 ,schiaparelli had satisfied        
himself1 by a careful series of         
observations1 of the truth of his       
strange announcement1 but before giving 
it to the world he determined to make   
doubly sure4 ,early in #ahij he withdrew
 the pledge of secrecy from his friends 
and published his discovery4  ,no one   
can wonder that the statement was       
generally received with incredulity1 for
 it was in direct contradiction to the  
conclusions of other astronomers1 who   
had long believed that ,mercury rotated 
on its axis in a period closely         
corresponding with that of the earth's  
rotation--that is to say1 once every    
twenty-four hours4 ,schiaparelli's      
discovery1 if it were received as       
correct1 would put ,mercury1 as a       
planet1 in a class by itself1 and would 
distinguish it by a peculiarity which   
had always been recognized as a special 
feature of the moon1 viz41 that of      

rotating on its axis in the same period 
of time required to perform a revolution
 in its orbit1 and1 while this seemed   
natural enough for a satellite1 almost  
nobody was prepared for the ascription  
of such eccentric conduct to a planet4  
,the ,italian astronomer based his      
discovery upon the observation that     
certain markings visible on the disk of 
,mercury remained in such a position    
with reference to the direction of the  
sun as to prove that the planet's       
rotation was extremely slow1 and he     
finally satisfied himself that there was
 but one rotation in the course of a    
revolution about the sun4 ,that1 of     
course1 means that one side of ,mercury 
always faces toward the sun while the   
opposite side always faces away from it1
 and neither side experiences the       
alternation of day and night1 one having
 perpetual day and the other perpetual  
night4 ,the older observations1 from    
which had been deduced the long accepted
 opinion that ,mercury rotated1 like the

 earth1 once in about twenty-four hours1
 had also been made upon the markings on
 the planet's disk1 but these are not   
easily seen1 and their appearances had  
evidently been misinterpreted4  ,the    
very fact of the difficulty of seeing   
any details on ,mercury tended to       
prevent or delay corroboration of       
,schiaparelli's discovery4 ,but there   
were two circumstances that contributed 
to the final acceptance of his results4 
,one of these was his well-known        
experience as an observer and the high  
reputation that he enjoyed among        
astronomers1 and the other was the      
development by ,prof4 ,george ,darwin of
 the theory of tidal friction in its    
application to planetary evolution1 for 
this furnished a satisfactory           
explanation of the manner in which a    
body1 situated as near the sun as       
,mercury is1 could have its axial       
rotation gradually reduced by the tidal 
attraction of the sun until it coincided
 in period with its orbital revolution4 

,accepting the accuracy of              
,schiaparelli's discovery1 which was    
corroborated in every particular in     
#ahif by ,percival ,lowell in a special 
series of observations on ,mercury made 
with his #bd-;inch telescope at         
,flagstaff1 ,arizona1 and which has also
 been corroborated by others1 we see at 
once how important is its bearing on the
 habitability of the planet4 ,it adds   
another difficulty to that offered by   
the remarkable changes of distance from 
the sun1 and consequent variations of   
heat1 which we have already discussed4  
,in order to bring the situation home to
 our experience1 let us1 for a moment1  
imagine the earth fallen into ,mercury's
 dilemma4 ,there would then be no       
succession of day and night1 such as we 
at present enjoy1 and upon which not    
alone our comfort but perhaps our very  
existence depends1 but1 instead1 one    
side of our globe--it might be the      
,asiatic or the ,american half--would be
 continually in the sunlight1 and the   

other side would lie buried in endless  
night4 ,and this condition1 so          
suggestive of the play of pure          
imagination1 this plight of being a     
two-faced world1 like the god ,janus1   
one face light and the other face dark1 
must be the actual state of things on   
,mercury4  ,there is one interesting    
qualification4 ,in the case just        
imagined for the earth1 supposing it to 
retain the present inclination of its   
axis while parting with its differential
 rotation1 there would be an interchange
 of day and night once a year in the    
polar regions4 ,on ,mercury1 whose axis 
appears to be perpendicular1 a similar  
phenomenon1 affecting not the polar     
regions but the eastern and western     
sides of the planet1 is produced by the 
extraordinary eccentricity of its orbit4
 ,as the planet alternately approaches  
and recedes from the sun its orbital    
velocity1 as we have already remarked1  
varies between the limits of            
twenty-three and thirty-five miles per  

second1 being most rapid at the point   
nearest the sun4 ,but this variation in 
the speed of its revolution about the   
sun does not1 in any manner1 affect the 
rate of rotation on its axis4 ,the      
latter is perfectly uniform and just    
fast enough to complete one axial turn  
in the course of a single revolution    
about the sun4 ,the accompanying figure 
may assist the explanation4             
,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,showing      
,,that1 ,,owing ,,to ,,the              
,,eccentricity ,,of ,,its ,,orbit1 ,,and
 ,,its ,,varying ,,velocity1 ,,mercury1 
,,although ,,making ,,but ,,one ,,turn  
,,on ,,its ,,axis ,,in ,,the ,,course   
,,of ,a ,,revolution ,,about ,,the      
,,sun1 ,,nevertheless ,,experiences ,,on
 ,,parts ,,of ,,its ,,surface ,,the     
,,alternation ,,of ,,day ,,and ,,night4 
,let us start with ,mercury in          
perihelion at the point ,a4 ,the little 
cross on the planet stands exactly under
 the sun and in the center of the       
illuminated hemisphere4 ,the large      

arrows show the direction in which the  
planet travels in its revolution about  
the sun1 and the small curved arrows the
 direction in which it rotates on its   
axis4 ,now1 in moving along its orbit   
from ,a to ,b the planet1 partly because
 of its swifter motion when near the    
sun1 and partly because of the          
elliptical nature of the orbit1         
traverses a greater angular interval    
with reference to the sun than the      
cross1 moving with the uniform rotation 
of the planet on its axis1 is able to   
traverse in the same time4 ,as drawn in 
the diagram1 the cross has moved through
 exactly ninety degrees1 or one right   
angle1 while the planet in its orbit has
 moved through considerably more than a 
right angle4 ,in consequence of this    
gain of the angle of revolution upon the
 angle of rotation1 the cross at ,b is  
no longer exactly under the sun1 nor in 
the center of the illuminated           
hemisphere4 ,it appears to have shifted 
its position toward the west1 while the 

hemispherical cap of sunshine has       
slipped eastward over the globe of the  
planet4  ,in the next following section 
of the orbit the planet rotates through 
another right angle1 but1 owing to      
increased distance from the sun1 the    
motion in the orbit now becomes slower  
until1 when the planet arrives at       
aphelion1 ,c1 the angular difference    
disappears and the cross is once more   
just under the sun4 ,on returning from  
aphelion to perihelion the same         
phenomena recur in reverse order and the
 line between day and night on the      
planet first shifts westward1 attaining 
its limit in that respect at ,d1 and    
then1 at perihelion1 returns to its     
original position4  ,now1 if we could   
stand on the sunward hemisphere of      
,mercury what1 to our eyes1 would be the
 effect of this shifting of the sun's   
position with regard to a fixed point on
 the planet's surface8 ,manifestly it   
would cause the sun to describe a great 
arc in the sky1 swinging to and fro1 in 

an east and west line1 like a pendulum  
bob1 the angular extent of the swing    
being a little more than forty-seven    
degrees1 and the time required for the  
sun to pass from its extreme eastern to 
its extreme western position and back   
again being eighty-eight days4 ,but1    
owing to the eccentricity of the orbit1 
the sun swings much faster toward the   
east than toward the west1 the eastward 
motion occupying about thirty-seven days
 and the westward motion about fifty-one
 days4  ,illustration3 ,,the ,,regions  
,,of ,,perpetual ,,day1 ,,perpetual     
,,night1 ,,and ,,alternate ,,day ,,and  
,,night ,,on ,,mercury4 ,,in ,,the      
,,left-,,hand ,,view ,,the ,,observer   
,,looks ,,at ,,the ,,planet ,,in ,,the  
,,plane ,,of ,,its ,,equator2 ,,in ,,the
 ,,right-,,hand ,,view ,,he ,,looks     
,,down ,,on ,,its ,,north ,,pole4       
,another effect of the libratory motion 
of the sun as seen from ,mercury is     
represented in the next figure1 where we
 have a view of the planet showing both 

the day and the night hemisphere1 and   
where we see that between the two there 
is a region upon which the sun rises and
 sets once every eighty-eight days4     
,there are1 in reality1 two of these    
lune-shaped regions1 one at the east and
 the other at the west1 each between    
#a1bjj and #a1cjj miles broad at the    
equator4 ,at the sunward edge of these  
regions1 once in eighty-eight days1 or  
once in a ,mercurial year1 the sun rises
 to an elevation of forty-seven degrees1
 and then descends again straight to the
 horizon from which it rose2 at the     
nightward edge1 once in eighty-eight    
days1 the sun peeps above the horizon   
and quickly sinks from sight again4 ,the
 result is that1 neglecting the effects 
of atmospheric refraction1 which would  
tend to expand the borders of the domain
 of sunlight1 about one quarter of the  
entire surface of ,mercury is1 with     
regard to day and night1 in a condition 
resembling that of our polar regions1   
where there is but one day and one night

 in the course of a year--and on        
,mercury a year is eighty-eight days4   
,one half of the remaining three        
quarters of the planet's surface is     
bathed in perpetual sunshine and the    
other half is a region of eternal night4
  ,and now again1 what of life in such a
 world as that8 ,on the night side1     
where no sunshine ever penetrates1 the  
temperature must be extremely low1      
hardly greater than the fearful cold of 
open space1 unless modifying influences 
beyond our ken exist4 ,it is certain    
that if life flourishes there1 it must  
be in such forms as can endure continual
 darkness and excessive cold4 ,some heat
 would be carried around by atmospheric 
circulation from the sunward side1 but  
not enough1 it would seem1 to keep water
 from being perpetually frozen1 or the  
ground from being baked with unrelaxing 
frost4 ,it is for the imagination to    
picture underground dwellings1          
artificial sources of heat1 and living  
forms suited to unearthlike environment4

  ,what would be the mental effects of  
perpetual night upon a race of          
intelligent creatures doomed to that    
condition8 ,perhaps not quite so        
grievous as we are apt to think4 ,the   
constellations in all their splendor    
would circle before their eyes with the 
revolution of their planet about the    
sun1 and with the exception of the sun  
itself--which they could see by making a
 journey to the opposite hemisphere--all
 the members of the solar system would  
pass in succession through their        
mid-heaven1 and two of them would       
present themselves with a magnificence  
of planetary display unknown on the     
earth4 ,venus1 when in opposition under 
the most favorable circumstances1 is    
scarcely more than #bd1jjj1jjj miles    
from ,mercury1 and1 showing herself at  
such times with a fully illuminated     
disk--as1 owing to her position within  
the orbit of the earth1 she never can do
 when at her least distance from us--she
 must be a phenomenon of unparalleled   

beauty1 at least four times brighter    
than we ever see her1 and capable1 of   
course1 of casting a strong shadow4     
,the earth1 also1 is a splendid star in 
the midnight sky of ,mercury1 and the   
moon may be visible to the naked eye as 
a little attendant circling about its   
brilliant master4 ,the outer planets are
 slightly less conspicuous than they are
 to us1 owing to increase of distance4  
,the revolution of the heavens as seen  
from the night side of ,mercury is quite
 different in period from that which we 
are accustomed to1 although the apparent
 motion is in the same direction1 viz41 
from east to west4 ,the same            
constellations remain above the horizon 
for weeks at a time1 slowly moving      
westward1 with the planets drifting yet 
more slowly1 but at different rates1    
among them2 the nearer planets1 ,venus  
and the earth1 showing the most decided 
tendency to loiter behind the stars4    
,on the side where eternal sunlight     
shines the sky of ,mercury contains no  

stars4 ,forever the pitiless blaze of   
day2 forever1      ,all in a hot and    
copper sky     ,the bloody sun at noon4 
,as it is difficult to understand how   
water can exist on the night hemisphere1
 except in the shape of perpetual snow  
and ice1 so it is hard to imagine that  
on the day hemisphere water can ever be 
precipitated from the vaporous form4 ,in
 truth1 there can be very little water  
on ,mercury even in the form of vapor1  
else the spectroscope would have given  
unquestionable evidence of its presence4
 ,those who think that ,mercury is      
entirely waterless and almost1 if not   
quite1 airless may be right4 ,in these  
respects it would then resemble the     
moon1 and1 according to some observers1 
it possesses another characteristic     
lunar feature in the roughening of its  
surface by what seem to be innumerable  
volcanic craters4  ,but if we suppose   
,mercury to possess an atmosphere much  
rarer than that of the earth1 we may    
perceive therein a possible provision   

against the excessive solar heat to     
which it is subjected1 since1 as we see 
on high mountains1 a light air permits a
 ready radiation of heat1 which does not
 become stored up as in a denser        
atmosphere4  ,as the sun pours its heat 
without cessation upon the day          
hemisphere the warmed air must rise and 
flow off on all sides into the night    
hemisphere1 while cold air rushes in    
below1 to take its place1 from the      
region of frost and darkness4 ,the      
intermediate areas1 which see the sun   
part of the time1 as explained above1   
are perhaps the scene of contending     
winds and tempests1 where the moisture1 
if there be any1 is precipitated1       
through the rapid cooling of the air1 in
 whelming floods and wild snow-storms   
driven by hurrying blasts from the realm
 of endless night4  ,enough seems now to
 have been said to indicate clearly the 
hopelessness of looking for any         
analogies between ,mercury and the earth
 which would warrant the conclusion that

 the former planet is capable of        
supporting inhabitants or forms of life 
resembling those that swarm upon the    
latter4 ,if we would still believe that 
,mercury is a habitable globe we must   
depend entirely upon the imagination for
 pictures of creatures able to endure   
its extremes of heat and cold1 of light 
and darkness1 of instability1 swift     
vicissitude1 and violent contrast4  ,in 
the next chapter we shall study a more  
peaceful and even-going world1 yet one  
of great brilliancy1 which possesses    
some remarkable resemblances to the     
earth1 as well as some surprising       
divergences from it4     ,,chapter ,,iii
  ,,venus1 ,,the ,,twin ,,of ,,the      
,,earth   ,we come now to a planet which
 seems1 at the first glance1 to afford a
 far more promising outlook than        
,mercury does for the presence of       
organic life forms bearing some         
resemblance to those of the earth4 ,one 
of the strongest arguments for regarding
 ,venus as a world much like ours is    

based upon its remarkable similarity to 
the earth in size and mass1 because thus
 we are assured that the force of       
gravity is practically the same upon the
 two planets1 and the force of gravity  
governs numberless physical phenomena of
 essential importance to both animal and
 vegetable life4 ,the mean diameter of  
the earth is #g1iah miles2 that of      
,venus is #g1gjj miles4 ,the difference 
is so slight that if the two planets    
were suspended side by side in the sky1 
at such a distance that their disks     
resembled that of the full moon1 the eye
 would notice no inequality between     
them4  ,the mean density of ,venus is   
about nine tenths of that of the earth1 
and the force of gravity upon its       
surface is in the ratio of about #he to 
#ajj as compared to its force on the    
surface of the earth4 ,a man removed to 
,venus would1 consequently1 find himself
 perceptibly lighter than he was at     
home1 and would be able to exert his    
strength with considerably greater      

effect than on his own planet4 ,but the 
difference would amount only to an      
agreeable variation from accustomed     
conditions1 and would not be productive 
of fundamental changes in the order of  
nature4  ,being1 like ,mercury1 nearer  
to the sun than the earth is1 ,venus    
also is visible to us only in the       
morning or the evening sky4 ,but her    
distance from the sun1 slightly         
exceeding #fg1jjj1jjj miles1 is nearly  
double that of ,mercury1 so that1 when  
favorably situated1 she becomes a very  
conspicuous object1 and1 instead of     
being known almost exclusively by       
astronomers1 she is1 perhaps1 the most  
popular and most admired of all the     
members of the planetary system1        
especially when she appears in the      
charming rle of the evening star4 ,as   
she emerges periodically from the       
blinding glare of the sun's immediate   
neighborhood and begins to soar1 bright 
as an electric balloon1 in the twilight1
 she commands all eyes and calls forth  

exclamations of astonishment and        
admiration by her singular beauty4 ,the 
intervals between her successive        
reappearances in the evening sky1       
measured by her synodic period of #ehd  
days1 are sufficiently long to give an  
element of surprise and novelty to every
 return of so dazzling a phenomenon4    
,even the light of the full moon        
silvering the tree tops does not        
exercise greater enchantment over the   
mind of the contemplative observer4 ,in 
either of her rles1 as morning or as    
evening star1 ,venus has no rival4 ,no  
fixed star can for an instant bear      
comparison with her4 ,what she lacks in 
vivacity of light--none of the planets  
twinkles1 as do all of the true         
stars--is more than compensated by the  
imposing size of her gleaming disk and  
the striking beauty of her clear        
lamplike rays4 ,her color is silvery or 
golden1 according to the state of the   
atmosphere1 while the distinction of her
 appearance in a dark sky is so great   

that no eye can resist its attraction1  
and ,i have known an unexpected glimpse 
of ,venus to put an end to an animated  
conversation and distract1 for a long   
time1 the attention of a party of ladies
 and gentlemen from the social          
occupation that had brought them        
together4  ,as a telescopic object      
,venus is exceedingly attractive1 even  
when considered merely from the point of
 view of simple beauty4 ,both ,mercury  
and ,venus1 as they travel about the    
sun1 exhibit phases like those of the   
moon1 but ,venus1 being much larger and 
much nearer to the earth than ,mercury1 
shows her successive phases more        
effectively1 and when she shines as a   
thin crescent in the morning or evening 
twilight1 only a very slight magnifying 
power is required to show the sickle    
form of her disk4  ,a remarkable        
difference between ,venus and ,mercury  
comes out as soon as we examine the     
shape of the former's orbit4 ,venus's   
mean distance from the sun is           

#fg1bjj1jjj miles1 and her orbit is so  
nearly a circle1 much more nearly than  
that of any other planet1 that in the   
course of a revolution her distance from
 the sun varies less than a million     
miles4 ,the distance of the earth varies
 #c1jjj1jjj miles1 and that of ,mercury 
#ad1jjj1jjj4 ,her period of revolution1 
or the length of her year1 is #bbe of   
our days4 ,when she comes between the   
sun and the earth she approaches us     
nearer than any other planet ever gets1 
except the asteroid ,eros1 her distance 
at such times being #bf1jjj1jjj miles1  
or about one hundred and ten times the  
distance of the moon4  ,being nearer to 
the sun in the ratio of #fg to #ic1     
,venus receives almost twice as much    
solar light and heat as we get1 but less
 than one third as much as ,mercury     
gets4 ,there is reason to believe that  
her axis1 instead of being considerably 
inclined1 like that of the earth1 is    
perpendicular to the plane of her orbit4
 ,thus ,venus introduces to us another  

novelty in the economy of worlds1 for   
with a perpendicular axis of rotation   
she can have no succession of seasons1  
no winter and summer flitting1 one upon 
the other's heels1 to and fro between   
the northern and southern hemispheres2  
but1 on the contrary1 her climatic      
conditions must be unchangeable1 and1 on
 any particular part of her surface1    
except for local causes of variation1   
the weather remains the same the year   
around4 ,so1 as far as temperature is   
concerned1 ,venus may have two regions  
of perpetual winter1 one around each    
pole2 two belts of perpetual spring in  
the upper middle latitudes1 one on each 
side of the equator2 and one zone of    
perpetual summer occupying the          
equatorial portion of the planet4 ,but1 
of course1 these seasonal terms do not  
strictly apply to ,venus1 in the sense  
in which we employ them on the earth1   
for with us spring is characterized     
rather by the change in the quantity of 
heat and other atmospheric conditions   

that it witnesses than by a certain     
fixed and invariable temperature4  ,to  
some minds it may appear very           
undesirable1 from the point of view of  
animate existences1 that there should be
 no alternation of seasons on the       
surface of a planet1 but1 instead1 fixed
 conditions of climate2 yet it is not   
clear that such a state of affairs might
 not be preferable to that with which we
 are familiar4 ,even on the earth1 we   
find that tropical regions1 where the   
seasonal changes are comparatively      
moderate1 present many attractions and  
advantages in contrast with the violent 
and often destructive vicissitudes of   
the temperate zones1 and nature has     
shown us1 within the pale of our own    
planet1 that she is capable of bringing 
forth harvests of fruit and grain       
without the stimulus of alternate frost 
and sunshine4  ,even under the reign of 
perpetual summer the fields and trees   
find time and opportunity to rest and   
restore their productive forces4  ,the  

circularity of ,venus's orbit1 and the  
consequently insignificant change in the
 sun's distance and heating effect1 are 
other elements to be considered in      
estimating the singular constancy in the
 operation of natural agencies upon that
 interesting planet1 which1 twin of the 
earth though it be in stature1 is       
evidently not its twin in temperament4  
,and next as to the all-important       
question of atmosphere4 ,in what        
precedes1 the presence of an atmosphere 
has been assumed1 and1 fortunately1     
there is very convincing evidence1 both 
visual and spectroscopic1 that ,venus is
 well and abundantly supplied with air1 
by which it is not meant that ,venus's  
air is precisely like the mixture of    
oxygen and nitrogen1 with a few other   
gases1 which we breathe and call by that
 name4 ,in fact1 there are excellent    
reasons for thinking that the atmosphere
 of ,venus differs from the earth's     
quite as much as some of her other      
characteristics differ from those of our

 planet4 ,but1 however it may vary from 
ours in constitution1 the atmosphere of 
,venus contains water vapor1 and is     
exceedingly abundant4 ,listen to        
,professor ,young3  ,its ,venus's       
atmosphere is probably from one and a   
half to two times as extensive and as   
dense as our own1 and the spectroscope  
shows evidence of the presence of water 
vapor in it4  ,and ,prof4 ,william ,c4  
,pickering1 basing his statement on the 
result of observations at the mountain  
observatory of ,arequipa1 says3 ,we may 
feel reasonably certain that at the     
planet's ,venus's surface the density of
 its atmosphere is many times that of   
our own4  ,we do not have to depend upon
 the spectroscope for evidence that     
,venus has a dense atmosphere1 for we   
can1 in a manner1 see her atmosphere1 in
 consequence of its refractive action   
upon the sunlight that strikes into it  
near the edge of the planet's globe4    
,this illumination of ,venus's          
atmosphere is witnessed both when she is

 nearly between the sun and the earth1  
and when1 being exactly between them1   
she appears in silhouette against the   
solar disk4 ,during a transit of this   
kind1 in #ahhb1 many observers1 and the 
present writer was one1 saw a bright    
atmospheric bow edging a part of the    
circumference of ,venus when the planet 
was moving upon the face of the sun--a  
most beautiful and impressive spectacle4
  ,even more curious is an observation  
made in #ahff by ,prof4 ,c4,s4 ,lyman1  
of ,yale ,college1 who1 when ,venus was 
very near the sun1 saw her atmosphere in
 the form of a luminous ring4 ,a little 
fuller explanation of this appearance   
may be of interest4  ,when approaching  
inferior conjunction--i4e41 passing     
between the earth and sun--,venus       
appears1 with a telescope1 in the shape 
of a very thin crescent4 ,professor     
,lyman watched this crescent1 becoming  
narrower day after day as it approached 
the sun1 and noticed that its           
extremities gradually extended          

themselves beyond the limits of a       
semicircle1 bending to meet one another 
on the opposite side of the invisible   
disk of the planet1 until1 at length1   
they did meet1 and he beheld a complete 
ring of silvery light1 all that remained
 visible of the planet ,venus6 ,the ring
 was1 of course1 the illuminated        
atmosphere of the planet refracting the 
sunlight on all sides around the opaque 
globe4  ,in #ahgd ,m4 ,flammarion       
witnessed the same phenomenon in similar
 circumstances4 ,one may well envy those
 who have had the good fortune to behold
 this spectacle--to actually see1 as it 
were1 the air that the inhabitants of   
another world are breathing and making  
resonant with all the multitudinous     
sounds and voices that accompany        
intelligent life4 ,but perhaps some     
readers will prefer to think that even  
though an atmosphere is there1 there is 
no one to breathe it4  ,illustration3   
,,venus',s ,,atmosphere ,,seen ,,as ,a  
,,ring ,,of ,,light4  ,as the visibility

 of ,venus's atmosphere is unparalleled 
elsewhere in the solar system1 it may be
 worth while to give a graphic          
illustration of it4 ,in the accompanying
 figure the planet is represented at    
three successive points in its advance  
toward inferior conjunction4 ,as it     
approaches conjunction it slowly draws  
nearer the earth1 and its apparent      
diameter consequently increases4 ,at ,a 
a large part of the luminous crescent is
 composed of the planet's surface       
reflecting the sunshine2 at ,b the ratio
 of the reflecting surface to the       
illuminated atmosphere has diminished1  
and the latter has extended1 like the   
curved arms of a pair of calipers1 far  
around the unilluminated side of the    
disk2 at ,c the atmosphere is           
illuminated all around by the sunlight  
coming through it from behind1 while the
 surface of the planet has passed       
entirely out of the light--that is to   
say1 ,venus has become an invisible     
globe embraced by a circle of refracted 

sunshine4  ,we return to the question of
 life4 ,with almost twice as much solar 
heat and light as we have1 and with a   
deeper and denser atmosphere than ours1 
it is evident1 without seeking other    
causes of variation1 that the conditions
 of life upon ,venus are notably        
different from those with which we are  
acquainted4 ,at first sight it would    
seem that a dense atmosphere1 together  
with a more copious supply of heat1     
might render the surface temperature of 
,venus unsuitable for organic life as we
 understand it4 ,but so much depends    
upon the precise composition of the     
atmosphere and upon the relative        
quantities of its constituents1 that it 
will not do to pronounce a positive     
judgment in such a case1 because we lack
 information on too many essential      
points4  ,experiment has shown that the 
temperature of the air varies with      
changes in the amount of carbonic acid  
and of water vapor that it contains4 ,it
 has been suggested that in past        

geologic ages the earth's atmosphere was
 denser and more heavily charged with   
vapors than it is at present2 yet even  
then forms of life suited to their      
environment existed1 and from those     
forms the present inhabitants of our    
globe have been developed4 ,there are   
several lines of reasoning which may be 
followed to the conclusion that ,venus1 
as a life-bearing world1 is younger than
 the earth1 and1 according to that view1
 we are at liberty to imagine our       
beautiful sister planet as now passing  
through some such period in its history 
as that at which the earth had arrived  
in the age of the carboniferous forests1
 or the age of the gigantic reptiles who
 ruled both land and sea4  ,but1 without
 making any assumptions as to the phase 
of evolution which life may have        
attained on ,venus1 it is also possible 
to think that the planet's thick shell  
of air1 with its abundant vapors1 may   
serve as a shield against the excessive 
solar radiation4 ,venus is              

extraordinarily brilliant1 its          
reflective power being greatly in excess
 of ,mercury's1 and it has often been   
suggested that this may be due to the   
fact that a large share of the sunlight 
falling upon it is turned back before   
reaching the planet's surface1 being    
reflected both from the atmosphere      
itself and from vast layers of clouds4  
,even when viewed with the most powerful
 telescopes and in the most favoring    
circumstances1 the features of ,venus's 
surface are difficult to see1 and       
generally extremely difficult4 ,they    
consist of faint shadowy markings1      
indefinite in outline1 and so close to  
the limit of visibility that great      
uncertainty exists not only as to their 
shape and their precise location upon   
the planet1 but even as to their actual 
existence4 ,no two observers have       
represented them exactly alike in       
drawings of the planet1 and1            
unfortunately1 photography is as yet    
utterly unable to deal with them4 ,mr4  

,percival ,lowell1 in his special       
studies of ,venus in #ahif1 using a     
#bd-;inch telescope of great excellence1
 in the clear and steady air of         
,arizona1 found delicate spokelike      
streaks radiating from a rounded spot   
like a hub1 and all of which1 in his    
opinion1 were genuine and definite      
markings on the planet's surface4 ,but  
others1 using larger telescopes1 have   
failed to perceive the shapes and       
details depicted by ,mr4 ,lowell1 and   
some are disposed to ascribe their      
appearances to ,venus's atmosphere4 ,mr4
 ,lowell himself noticed that the       
markings seemed to have a kind of       
obscuring veil over them4  ,in short1   
all observers of ,venus agree in        
thinking that her atmosphere1 to a      
greater or less extent1 serves as a mask
 to conceal her real features1 and the  
possibilities of so extensive an        
atmosphere with reference to an         
adjustment of the peculiar conditions of
 the planet to the requirements of life 

upon it1 are almost unlimited4 ,if we   
could accurately analyze that atmosphere
 we would have a basis for more exact   
conclusions concerning ,venus's         
habitability4  ,but the mere existence  
of the atmosphere is1 in itself1 a      
strong argument for the habitability of 
the planet1 and as to the temperature1  
we are really not compelled to imagine  
special adaptations by means of which it
 may be brought into accord with that   
prevailing upon the earth4 ,as long as  
the temperature does not rise to the    
destructive point1 beyond which our     
experience teaches that no organic life 
can exist1 it may very well attain an   
elevation that would mean extreme       
discomfort from our point of view1      
without precluding the existence of life
 even in its terrestrial sense4  ,and   
would it not be unreasonable to assume  
that vital phenomena on other planets   
must be subject to exactly the same     
limitations that we find circumscribing 
them in our world8 ,that kind of        

assumption has more than once led us far
 astray even in dealing with terrestrial
 conditions4  ,it is not so long ago1   
for instance1 since life in the depths  
of the sea was deemed to be demonstrably
 impossible4 ,the bottom of the ocean1  
we were assured1 was a region of eternal
 darkness and of frightful pressure1    
wherein no living creatures could exist4
 ,yet the first dip of the deep-sea     
trawl brought up animals of marvelous   
delicacy of organization1 which1        
although curiously and wonderfully      
adapted to live in a compressed liquid1 
collapsed when lifted into a lighter    
medium1 and which1 despite the assumed  
perpetual darkness of their profound    
abode1 were adorned with variegated     
colors and furnished with organs of     
phosphorescence whereby they could      
create for themselves all the light they
 needed4  ,even the fixed animals of the
 sea1 growing1 like plants1 fast to the 
rocks1 are frequently vivid with living 
light1 and there is a splendid          

suggestion of nature's powers of        
adaptation1 which may not be entirely   
inapplicable to the problems of life on 
strange planets1 in ,alexander          
,agassiz's statement that species of sea
 animals1 living below the depths to    
which sunlight penetrates1 may dwell in 
total darkness and be illuminated at    
times merely by the movements of abyssal
 fishes through the forests of          
phosphorescent alcyonarians4  ,in       
attempting to judge the habitability of 
a planet such as ,venus we must first1  
as far as possible1 generalize the      
conditions that govern life and restrict
 its boundaries4  ,on the earth we find 
animated existence confined to the      
surface of the crust of the globe1 to   
the lower and denser strata of the      
atmosphere1 and to the film of water    
that constitutes the oceans4 ,it does   
not exist in the heart of the rocks     
forming the body of the planet nor in   
the void of space surrounding it outside
 the atmosphere4 ,as the earth condensed

 from the original nebula1 and cooled   
and solidified1 a certain quantity of   
matter remained at its surface in the   
form of free gases and unstable         
compounds1 and1 within the narrow       
precincts where these things were1 lying
 like a thin shell between the huge     
inert globe of permanently combined     
elements below1 and the equally         
unchanging realm of the ether above1    
life1 a phenomenon depending upon       
ceaseless changes1 combinations and     
recombinations of chemical elements in  
unstable and temporary union1 made its  
appearance1 and there only we find it at
 the present time4  ,it is because air  
and water furnish the means for the     
continual transformations by which the  
bodies of animals and plants are built  
up and afterward disintegrated and      
dispersed1 that we are compelled to     
regard their presence as prerequisites  
to the existence1 on any planet1 of life
 in any of the forms in which we are    
acquainted with it4 ,but if we perceive 

that another world has an atmosphere1   
and that there is water vapor in its    
atmosphere--both of which conditions are
 fulfilled by ,venus--and if we find    
that that world is bathed in the same   
sunshine that stimulates the living     
forces of our planet1 even though its   
quantity or intensity may be different1 
then it would seem that we are justified
 in averring that the burden of proof   
rests upon those who would deny the     
capability of such a world to support   
inhabitants4  ,the generally accepted   
hypothesis of the origin of the solar   
system leads us to believe that ,venus  
has experienced the same process of     
evolution as that which brought the     
earth into its present condition1 and we
 may fairly argue that upon the rocky   
shell of ,venus exists a region where   
chemical combinations and recombinations
 like those on the surface of the earth 
are taking place4 ,it is surely not     
essential that the life-forming elements
 should exist in exactly the same states

 and proportions as upon the earth2 it  
is enough if some of them are manifestly
 present4 ,even on the earth these      
things have undergone much variation in 
the course of geological history1       
coincidently with the development of    
various species of life4 ,just at       
present the earth appears to have       
reached a stage where everything        
contributes to the maintenance of a very
 high organization in both the animal   
and vegetable kingdoms4  ,so each planet
 that has attained the habitable stage  
may have a typical adjustment of        
temperature and atmospheric             
constitution1 rendering life possible   
within certain limits peculiar to that  
planet1 and to the special conditions   
prevailing there4 ,admitting1 as there  
is reason for doing1 that different     
planets may be at different stages of   
development in the geological and       
biological sense1 we should1 of course1 
not expect to find them inhabited by the
 same living species4 ,and1 since there 

is also reason to believe that no two   
planets upon arriving at the same stage 
of evolution as globes would possess    
identical gaseous surroundings1 there   
would naturally be differences between  
their organic life forms notwithstanding
 the similarity of their common phase of
 development in other respects4 ,thus a 
departure from the terrestrial type in  
the envelope of gases covering a planet1
 instead of precluding life1 would only 
tend to vary its manifestations4  ,after
 all1 why should the intensity of the   
solar radiation upon ,venus be regarded 
as inimical to life8 ,the sunbeams      
awaken life4  ,it is not impossible that
 relative nearness to the sun may be an 
advantage to ,venus from the biologic   
point of view4 ,she gets less than one  
third as much heat as ,mercury receives 
on the average1 and she gets it with    
almost absolute uniformity4 ,at aphelion
 ,mercury is about two and four tenths  
times hotter than ,venus2 then it rushes
 sunward1 and within forty-four days    

becomes six times hotter than ,venus4   
,in the meantime the temperature of the 
latter1 while high as compared with the 
earth's1 remains practically unchanged4 
,not only may ,mercury's temperature    
reach the destructive point1 and thus be
 too high for organic life1 but ,mercury
 gets nothing with either moderation or 
constancy4 ,it is a world both of       
excessive heat and of violent contrasts 
of temperature4 ,venus1 on the other    
hand1 presents an unparalleled instance 
of invariableness and uniformity4 ,she  
may well be called the favorite of the  
sun1 and1 through the advantages of her 
situation1 may be stimulated by him to  
more intense vitality than falls to the 
lot of the earth4  ,it is open1 at least
 to the writers of the interplanetary   
romances now so popular1 to imagine that
 on ,venus1 life1 while encompassed with
 the serenity that results from the     
circular form of her orbit1 and the     
unchangeableness of her climates1 is    
richer1 warmer1 more passionate1 more   

exquisite in its forms and more         
fascinating in its experiences1 keener  
of sense1 capable of more delicious     
joys1 than is possible to it amid the   
manifold inclemencies of the colder     
earth4  ,we have seen that there is     
excellent authority for saying that     
,venus's atmosphere is from one and a   
half to two times as dense and as       
extensive as ours4 ,here is an          
interesting suggestion of aerial        
possibilities for her inhabitants4 ,if  
man could but fly1 how would he take to 
himself wings and widen his horizons    
along with the birds6 ,give him an      
atmosphere the double in density of that
 which now envelopes him1 take off a    
little of his weight1 thereby increasing
 the ratio of his strength and activity1
 put into his nervous system a more     
puissant stimulus from the life-giving  
sun1 and perchance he would fly4  ,well1
 on ,venus1 apparently1 these very      
conditions actually exist4 ,how1 then1  
do intellectual creatures in the world  

of ,venus take wing when they choose8   
,upon what spectacle of fluttering      
pinions afloat in iridescent air1 like a
 ,raphael dream of heaven and its       
angels1 might we not look down if we    
could get near enough to our brilliant  
evening star to behold the intimate     
splendors of its life8  ,as ,venus      
herself would be the most brilliant     
member of the celestial host to an      
observer stationed on the night side of 
,mercury1 so the earth takes precedence 
in the midnight sky of ,venus4 ,for the 
inhabitants of ,venus ,mercury is a     
splendid evening and morning star only1 
while the earth1 being an outer planet1 
is visible at times in that part of the 
sky which is directly opposite to the   
place of the sun4 ,the light reflected  
from our planet is probably less        
dazzling than that which ,venus sends to
 us1 both because1 at our greater       
distance1 the sunlight is less intense1 
and because our rarer atmosphere        
reflects a smaller proportion of the    

rays incident upon it4 ,but the earth   
is1 after all1 a more brilliant         
phenomenon seen from ,venus than the    
latter is seen from the earth1 for the  
reason that the entire illuminated disk 
of the earth is presented toward our    
sister planet when the two are at their 
nearest point of approach1 whereas1 at  
that time1 the larger part of the       
surface of ,venus that is turned        
earthward has no illumination1 while the
 illuminated portion is a mere crescent4
  ,owing1 again1 to the comparative     
rarity of the terrestrial atmosphere1 it
 is probable that the inhabitants of    
,venus--assuming their existence--enjoy 
a superb view of the continents1 oceans1
 polar snows1 and passing clouds that   
color and variegate the face of the     
earth4 ,our astronomers can study the   
full disk of ,venus only when she is at 
her greatest distance1 and on the       
opposite side of the sun from us1 where 
she is half concealed in the glare4 ,the
 astronomers of ,venus1 on the other    

hand1 can study the earth under the most
 favorable conditions of                
observation--that is to say1 when it is 
nearest to them and when1 being in      
opposition to the sun1 its whole disk is
 fully illuminated4 ,in fact1 there is  
no planet in the entire system which    
enjoys an outlook toward a sister world 
comparable with that which ,venus enjoys
 with regard to the earth4 ,if there be 
astronomers upon ,venus1 armed with     
telescopes1 it is safe to guess that    
they possess a knowledge of the surface 
of the earth far exceeding in minuteness
 and accuracy the knowledge that we     
possess of the features of any heavenly 
body except the moon4 ,they must long   
ago have been able to form definite     
conclusions concerning the meteorology  
and the probable habitability of our    
planet4  ,it certainly tends to increase
 our interest in ,venus when1 granting  
that she is inhabited1 we reflect upon  
the penetrating scrutiny of which the   
earth may be the object whenever        

,venus--as happens once every #ehd      
days--passes between us and the sun4    
,the spectacle of our great planet1     
glowing in its fullest splendor in the  
midnight sky1 pied and streaked with    
water1 land1 cloud1 and snow1 is one    
that might well excite among the        
astronomers of another world1 so        
fortunately placed to observe it1 an    
interest even greater than that which   
the recurrence of total solar eclipses  
occasions upon the earth4 ,for the      
inhabitants of ,venus the study of the  
earth must be the most absorbing branch 
of observational astronomy1 and the     
subject1 we may imagine1 of numberless  
volumes of learned memoirs1 far         
exceeding in the definiteness of their  
conclusions the books that we have      
written about the physical              
characteristics of other members of the 
solar system4 ,and1 if we are to look   
for attempts on the part of the         
inhabitants of other worlds to          
communicate with us by signals across   

the ether1 it would certainly seem that 
,venus is the most likely source of such
 efforts1 for from no other planet can  
those features of the earth that give   
evidence of its habitability be so      
clearly discerned4 ,of one thing it     
would seem we may be certain3 if ,venus 
has intellectual inhabitants they       
possess far more convincing evidence of 
our existence than we are likely ever to
 have of theirs4  ,in referring to the  
view of the earth from ,mercury it was  
remarked that the moon is probably      
visible to the naked eye4 ,from ,venus  
the moon is not only visible1 but       
conspicuous1 to the naked eye1 circling 
about the earth1 and appearing at times 
to recede from it to a distance of about
 half a degree--equal to the diameter of
 the full moon as we see it4 ,the disk  
of the earth is not quite four times    
greater in diameter than that of the    
moon1 and nowhere else in the solar     
system is there an instance in which two
 bodies1 no more widely different in    

size than are the moon and the earth1   
are closely linked together4 ,the moons 
of the other planets that possess       
satellites are relatively so small that 
they appear in the telescope as mere    
specks beside their primaries1 but the  
moon is so large as compared with the   
earth that the two must appear1 as      
viewed from ,venus1 like a double       
planet4 ,to the naked eye they may look 
like a very wide and brilliant double   
star1 probably of contrasted colors1 the
 moon being silvery white and the earth1
 perhaps1 now of a golden or reddish    
tinge and now green or blue1 according  
to the part of its surface turned toward
 ,venus1 and according1 also1 to the    
season that chances to be reigning over 
that part4  ,such a spectacle could not 
fail to be of absorbing interest1 and we
 can not admit the possibility of       
intelligent inhabitants on ,venus       
without supposing them to watch the     
motions of the moon and the earth with  
the utmost intentness4 ,the passage of  

the moon behind and in front of the     
earth1 and its eclipses when it goes    
into the earth's shadow1 could be seen  
without the aid of telescopes1 while1   
with such instruments1 these phenomena  
would possess the highest scientific    
interest and importance4  ,because the  
earth has a satellite so easily         
observable1 the astronomers of ,venus   
could not remain ignorant of the exact  
mass of our planet1 and in that respect 
they would outstrip us in the race for  
knowledge1 since1 on account of the lack
 of a satellite attending ,venus1 we    
have been able to do no more than make  
an approximate estimate of her mass4    
,with telescopes1 too1 in the case of a 
solar eclipse occurring at the time of  
the earth's opposition1 they could see  
the black spot formed by the shadow of  
the moon1 where the end of its cone     
moved across the earth like the point of
 an invisible pencil1 and could watch it
 traversing continents and oceans1 or   
thrown out in bold contrast upon the    

white background of a great area of     
clouds4 ,indeed1 the phenomena which our
 globe and its satellite present to     
,venus must be so varied and wonderful  
that one might well wish to visit that  
planet merely for the sake of beholding 
them4  ,thus far we have found so much  
of brilliant promise in the earth's twin
 sister that ,i almost hesitate to      
approach another phase of the subject   
which may tend to weaken the faith of   
some readers in the habitability of     
,venus4 ,it may have been observed that 
heretofore nothing has been said as to  
the planet's rotation period1 but1      
without specifically mentioning it1 ,i  
have tacitly assumed the correctness of 
the generally accepted period of about  
twenty-four hours1 determined by ,de    
,vico and other observers4 ,this period1
 closely accordant with the earth's1 is1
 as far as it goes1 another argument for
 the habitability of ,venus4  ,but now  
it must be stated that no less eminent  
an authority than ,schiaparelli holds   

that ,venus1 as well as ,mercury1 makes 
but a single turn on its axis in the    
course of a revolution about the sun1   
and1 consequently1 is a two-faced world1
 one side staring eternally at the sun  
and the other side wearing the black    
mask of endless night4  ,schiaparelli   
made this announcement concerning ,venus
 but a few weeks after publishing his   
discovery of ,mercury's peculiar        
rotation4 ,he himself appears to be     
equally confident in both cases of the  
correctness of his conclusions and the  
certainty of his observation4 ,as with  
,mercury1 several other observers have  
corroborated him1 and particularly      
,percival ,lowell in this country4 ,mr4 
,lowell1 indeed1 seems unwilling to     
admit that any doubt can be entertained4
 ,nevertheless1 very grave doubt is     
entertained1 and that by many1 and      
probably by the majority1 of the leading
 professional astronomers and observers4
 ,in fact1 some observers of great      
ability1 equipped with powerful         

instruments1 have directly contradicted 
the results of ,schiaparelli and his    
supporters4  ,the reader may ask3 ,why  
so readily accept ,schiaparelli's       
conclusions with regard to ,mercury     
while rejecting them in the case of     
,venus8  ,the reply is twofold4 ,in the 
first place the markings on ,venus1     
although ,mr4 ,lowell sketched them with
 perfect confidence in #ahif1 are1 by   
the almost unanimous testimony of those 
who have searched for them with         
telescopes1 both large and small1       
extremely difficult to see1 indistinct  
in outline1 and perhaps evanescent in   
character4 ,the sketches of no two      
observers agree1 and often they are     
remarkably unlike4 ,the fact has already
 been mentioned that ,mr4 ,lowell       
noticed a kind of veil partially        
obscuring the markings1 and which he    
ascribed1 no doubt correctly1 to the    
planet's atmosphere4 ,but he thinks     
that1 notwithstanding the atmospheric   
veil1 the markings noted by him were    

unquestionably permanent features of the
 planet's real surface4 ,inasmuch1      
however1 as his drawings represent      
things entirely different from what     
others have seen1 there seems to be     
weight in the suggestion that the       
radiating bands and shadings noticed by 
him were in some manner illusory1 and   
perhaps of atmospheric origin4  ,if the 
markings were evidently of a permanent  
nature and attached to the solid shell  
of the planet1 and if they were of      
sufficient distinctness to be seen in   
substantially the same form by all      
observers armed with competent          
instruments1 then whatever conclusion   
was drawn from their apparent motion as 
to the period of the planet's rotation  
would have to be accepted4 ,in the case 
of ,mercury the markings1 while not     
easily seen1 appear to be sufficiently  
distinct to afford confidence in the    
result of observations based upon them1 
but ,venus's markings have been         
represented in so many different ways   

that it seems advisable to await more   
light before accepting any              
extraordinary1 and in itself improbable1
 conclusion based upon them4  ,it should
 also be added that in #aijj            
spectroscopic observations by           
,belopolski at ,pulkova gave evidence   
that ,venus really rotates rapidly on   
her axis1 in a period probably          
approximating to the twenty-four hours  
of the earth's rotation1 thus           
corroborating the older conclusions4    
,belopolski's observation1 it may be    
remarked1 was based upon what is known  
as the ,doppler principle1 which is     
employed in measuring the motion of     
stars in the line of sight1 and in other
 cases of rapidly moving sources of     
light4 ,according to this principle1    
when a source of light1 either original 
or reflected1 is approaching the        
observer1 the characteristic lines in   
its spectrum are shifted toward the blue
 end1 and when it is retreating from the
 observer the lines are shifted toward  

the red end4 ,now1 in the case of a     
planet rotating rapidly on its axis1 it 
is clear that if the observer is        
situated in1 or nearly in1 the plane of 
the planet's equator1 one edge of its   
disk will be approaching his eye while  
the opposite edge is retreating1 and the
 lines in the spectrum of a beam of     
light from the advancing edge will be   
shifted toward the blue1 while those in 
the spectrum of the light coming from   
the retreating edge will be shifted     
toward the red4 ,and1 by carefully      
noting the amount of the shifting1 the  
velocity of the planet's rotation can be
 computed4 ,this is what was done by    
,belopolski in the case of ,venus1 with 
the result above noted4  ,secondly1 the 
theory that ,venus rotates but once in  
the course of a revolution finds but    
slight support from the doctrine of     
tidal friction1 as compared with that   
which it receives when applied to       
,mercury4 ,the effectiveness of the     
sun's attraction in slowing down the    

rotation of a planet through the braking
 action of the tides raised in the body 
of the planet while it is yet molten or 
plastic1 varies inversely as the sixth  
power of the planet's distance4 ,for    
,mercury this effectiveness is nearly   
three hundred times as great as it is   
for the earth1 while for ,venus it is   
only seven times as great4 ,while we may
 admit1 then1 that ,mercury1 being      
relatively close to the sun and subject 
to an enormous braking action1 lost     
rotation until--as occurred for a       
similar reason to the moon under the    
tidal attraction of the earth--it ended 
by keeping one face always toward its   
master1 we are not prepared to make the 
same admission in the case of ,venus1   
where the effective force concerned is  
comparatively so slight4  ,it should be 
added1 however1 that no certain evidence
 of polar compression in the outline of 
,venus's disk has ever been obtained1   
and this fact would favor the theory of 
a very slow rotation because a plastic  

globe in swift rotation has its         
equatorial diameter increased and its   
polar diameter diminished4 ,if ,venus   
were as much flattened at the poles as  
the earth is1 it would seem that the    
fact could not escape detection1 yet the
 necessary observations are very        
difficult1 and ,venus is so brilliant   
that her light increases the difficulty1
 while her transits across the sun1 when
 she can be seen as a round black disk1 
are very rare phenomena1 the latest     
having occurred in #ahgd and #ahhb1 and 
the next not being due until #bjjd4     
,upon the whole1 probably the best      
method of settling the question of      
,venus's rotation is the spectroscopic  
method1 and that1 as we saw1 has already
 given evidence for the short period4   
,even if it were established that ,venus
 keeps always the same face to the sun1 
it might not be necessary to abandon    
altogether the belief that she is       
habitable1 although1 of course1 the     
obstacles to that belief would be       

increased4 ,venus's orbit being so      
nearly circular1 and her orbital motion 
so nearly invariable1 she has but a very
 slight libration with reference to the 
sun1 and the east and west lunes on her 
surface1 where day and night would      
alternate once in her year of #bbe days1
 would be so narrow as to be practically
 negligible4  ,but1 owing to her        
extensive atmosphere1 there would be a  
very broad band of twilight on ,venus1  
running entirely around the planet at   
the inner edge of the light hemisphere4 
,what the meteorological conditions     
within this zone would be is purely a   
matter of conjecture4 ,as in the case of
 ,mercury1 we should expect an          
interchange of atmospheric currents     
between the light and dark sides of the 
planet1 the heated air rising under the 
influence of the unsetting sun in one   
hemisphere1 and being replaced by an    
indraught of cold air from the other4   
,the twilight band would probably be the
 scene of atmospheric conflicts and     

storms1 and of immense precipitation1 if
 there were oceans on the light         
hemisphere to charge the air with       
moisture4  ,it has been suggested that  
ice and snow might be piled in a vast   
circle of glaciers1 belting the planet  
along the line between perpetual day and
 night1 and that where the sunbeams     
touched these icy deposits near the edge
 of the light hemisphere a marvelous    
spectacle of prismatic hills of crystal 
would be presented6  ,it may be remarked
 that it would be the inhabitants of the
 dark hemisphere who would enjoy the    
beautiful scene of the earth and the    
moon in opposition4     ,,chapter ,,iv  
,,mars1 ,a ,,world ,,more ,,advanced    
,,than ,,ours   ,mars is the fourth     
planet in the order of distance from the
 sun1 and the outermost member of the   
terrestrial group4 ,its mean distance is
 #ada1ejj1jjj miles1 variable1 through  
the eccentricity of its orbit1 to the   
extent of about #ac1jjj1jjj miles4 ,it  
will be observed that this is only a    

million miles less than the variation in
 ,mercury's distance from the sun1 from 
which1 in a previous chapter1 were      
deduced most momentous consequences2    
but1 in the case of ,mars1 the ratio of 
the variation to the mean distance is   
far smaller than with ,mercury1 so that 
the effect upon the temperature of the  
planet is relatively insignificant4     
,mars gets a little less than half as   
much solar light and heat as the earth  
receives1 its situation in this respect 
being just the opposite to that of      
,venus4 ,its period of orbital          
revolution1 or the length of its year1  
is #fhg of our days4 ,the diameter of   
,mars is #d1bjj miles1 and its density  
is #gc per cent of the earth's density4 
,gravity on its surface is only #ch per 
cent of terrestrial gravity--i4e41 a one
 hundred-pound weight removed from the  
earth to ,mars would there weigh but    
thirty-eight pounds4 ,mars evidently has
 an atmosphere1 the details of which we 
shall discuss later4  ,the poles of the 

planet are inclined from a perpendicular
 to the plane of its orbit at very      
nearly the same angle as that of the    
earth's poles1 viz41 #bd #ej4 ,its      
rotation on its axis is also effected in
 almost the same period as the earth's1 
viz41 #bd hours1 #cg minutes4  ,when in 
opposition to the sun1 ,mars may be only
 about #ce1jjj1jjj miles from the earth1
 but its average distance when in that  
position is more than #dh1jjj1jjj miles1
 and may be more than #fj1jjj1jjj4      
,these differences arise from the       
eccentricities of the orbits of the two 
planets4 ,when on the farther side of   
the sun--i4e41 in conjunction with the  
sun as seen from the earth--,mars's     
average distance from us is about       
#bce1jjj1jjj miles4 ,in consequence of  
these great changes in its distance1    
,mars is sometimes a very conspicuous   
object in the sky1 and at other times   
inconspicuous4  ,the similarity in the  
inclination of the axis of the two      
planets results in a close resemblance  

between the seasons on ,mars and on the 
earth1 although1 owing to the greater   
length of its year1 ,mars's seasons are 
much longer than ours4 ,winter and      
summer visit in succession its northern 
and southern hemispheres just as occurs 
on the planet that we inhabit1 and the  
torrid1 temperate1 and frigid zones on  
its surface have nearly the same angular
 width as on the earth4 ,in this respect
 ,mars is the first of the foreign      
planets we have studied to resemble the 
earth4  ,around each of its poles       
appears a circular white patch1 which   
visibly expands when winter prevails    
upon it1 and rapidly contracts1         
sometimes almost completely             
disappearing1 under a summer sun4 ,from 
the time of ,sir ,william ,herschel the 
almost universal belief among           
astronomers has been that these gleaming
 polar patches on ,mars are composed of 
snow and ice1 like the similar glacial  
caps of the earth1 and no one can look  
at them with a telescope and not feel   

the liveliest interest in the planet to 
which they belong1 for they impart to it
 an appearance of likeness to our globe 
which at first glance is all but        
irresistible4  ,to watch one of them    
apparently melting1 becoming perceptibly
 smaller week after week1 while the     
general surface of the corresponding    
hemisphere of the planet deepens in     
color1 and displays a constantly        
increasing wealth of details as summer  
advances across it1 is an experience of 
the most memorable kind1 whose effect   
upon the mind of the observer is        
indescribable4  ,early in the history of
 the telescope it became known that1 in 
addition to the polar caps1 ,mars       
presented a number of distinct surface  
features1 and gradually1 as instruments 
increased in power and observers in     
skill1 charts of the planet were        
produced showing a surface diversified  
somewhat in the manner that             
characterizes the face of the earth1    
although the permanent forms do not     

closely resemble those of our planet4   
,two principal colors exist on the disk 
of ,mars--dark1 bluish gray or greenish 
gray1 characterizing areas which have   
generally been regarded as seas1 and    
light yellowish red1 overspreading broad
 regions looked upon as continents4 ,it 
was early observed that if the dark     
regions really are seas1 the proportion 
of water to land upon ,mars is much     
smaller than upon the earth4  ,for two  
especial reasons ,mars has generally    
been regarded as an older or more       
advanced planet than the earth4 ,the    
first reason is that1 accepting         
,laplace's theory of the origin of the  
planetary system from a series of rings 
left off at the periphery of the        
contracting solar nebula1 ,mars must    
have come into existence earlier than   
the earth1 because1 being more distant  
from the center of the system1 the ring 
from which it was formed would have been
 separated sooner than the terrestrial  
ring4 ,the second reason is that ,mars  

being smaller and less massive than the 
earth has run through its developments a
 cooling globe more rapidly4 ,the       
bearing of these things upon the        
problems of life on ,mars will be       
considered hereafter4  ,and now1 once   
more1 ,schiaparelli appears as the      
discoverer of surprising facts about one
 of the most interesting worlds of the  
solar system4 ,during the exceptionally 
favorable opposition of ,mars in #ahgg1 
when an ,american astronomer1 ,asaph    
,hall1 discovered the planet's two      
minute satellites1 and again during the 
opposition of #ahgi1 the ,italian       
observer caught sight of an astonishing 
network of narrow dark lines            
intersecting the so-called continental  
regions of the planet and crossing one  
another in every direction4             
,schiaparelli did not see the little    
moons that ,hall discovered1 and ,hall  
did not perceive the enigmatical lines  
that ,schiaparelli detected4 ,hall had  
by far the larger and more powerful     

telescope2 ,schiaparelli had much the   
more steady and favorable atmosphere for
 astronomical observation4 ,yet these   
differences in equipment and            
circumstances do not clearly explain why
 each observer should have seen what the
 other did not4  ,there may be a partial
 explanation in the fact that an        
observer having made a remarkable       
discovery is naturally inclined to      
confine his attention to it1 to the     
neglect of other things4 ,but it was    
soon found that ,schiaparelli's         
lines--to which he gave the name canals1
 merely on account of their shape and   
appearance1 and without any intention to
 define their real nature--were         
excessively difficult telescopic        
objects4 ,eight or nine years elapsed   
before any other observer corroborated  
,schiaparelli's observations1 and       
notwithstanding the sensation which the 
discovery of the canals produced they   
were for many years regarded by the     
majority of astronomers as an illusion4 

,but they were no illusion1 and in #ahha
 ,schiaparelli added to the astonishment
 created by his original discovery1 and 
furnished additional grounds for        
skepticism1 by announcing that1 at      
certain times1 many of the canals       
geminated1 or became double6 ,he        
continued his observations at each      
subsequent opposition1 adding to the    
number of the canals observed1 and      
charting them with classical names upon 
a detailed map of the planet's surface4 
,at length in #ahhf ,perrotin1 at ,nice1
 detected many of ,schiaparelli's       
canals1 and later they were seen by     
others4 ,in #ahhh ,schiaparelli greatly 
extended his observations1 and in #ahib 
and #ahid some of the canals were       
studied with the #cf-;inch telescope of 
the ,lick ,observatory1 and in the      
last-named year a very elaborate series 
of observations upon them was made by   
,percival ,lowell and his associates1   
,prof4 ,william ,c4 ,pickering and ,mr4 
,a4,e4 ,douglass1 at ,flagstaff1        

,arizona4 ,mr4 ,lowell's charts of the  
planet are the most complete yet        
produced1 containing #ahd canals to     
which separate names have been given1   
besides more than a hundred other       
markings also designated by individual  
appellations4  ,it should not be        
inferred from the fact that             
,schiaparelli's discovery in #ahgg      
excited so much surprise and incredulity
 that no glimpse of the peculiar        
canal-like markings on ,mars had been   
obtained earlier than that4 ,at least as
 long ago as #ahfd ,mr4 ,dawes1 in      
,england1 had seen and sketched half a  
dozen of the larger canals1 or at least 
the broader parts of them1 especially   
where they connect with the dark regions
 known as seas1 but ,dawes did not see  
them in their full extent1 did not      
recognize their peculiar character1 and 
entirely failed to catch sight of the   
narrower and more numerous ones which   
constitute the wonderful network        
discovered by the ,italian astronomer4  

,schiaparelli found no less than sixty  
canals during his first series of       
observations in #ahgg4  ,let us note    
some of the more striking facts about   
the canals which ,schiaparelli has      
described4 ,we can not do better than   
quote his own words3  ,there are on this
 planet1 traversing the continents1 long
 dark lines which may be designated as  
canals1 although we do not yet know what
 they are4 ,these lines run from one to 
another of the somber spots that are    
regarded as seas1 and form1 over the    
lighter1 or continental1 regions a      
well-defined network4 ,their arrangement
 appears to be invariable and permanent2
 at least1 as far as ,i can judge from  
four and a half years of observation4   
,nevertheless1 their aspect and their   
degree of visibility are not always the 
same1 and depend upon circumstances     
which the present state of our knowledge
 does not yet permit us to explain with 
certainty4 ,in #ahgi a great number were
 seen which were not visible in #ahgg1  

and in #ahhb all those which had been   
seen at former oppositions were found   
again1 together with new ones4          
,sometimes these canals present         
themselves in the form of shadowy and   
vague lines1 while on other occasions   
they are clear and precise1 like a trace
 drawn with a pen4 ,in general they are 
traced upon the sphere like the lines of
 great circles2 a few show a sensible   
lateral curvature4 ,they cross one      
another obliquely1 or at right angles4  
,they have a breadth of two degrees1 or 
#abj kilometres #gd miles1 and several  
extend over a length of eighty degrees1 
or #d1hjj kilometres nearly #c1jjj      
miles4 ,their tint is very nearly the   
same as that of the seas1 usually a     
little lighter4 ,every canal terminates 
at both its extremities in a sea1 or in 
another canal2 there is not a single    
example of one coming to an end in the  
midst of dry land4  ,this is not all4   
,in certain seasons these canals become 
double4 ,this phenomenon seems to appear

 at a determinate epoch1 and to be      
produced simultaneously over the entire 
surface of the planet's continents4     
,there was no indication of it in #ahgg1
 during the weeks that preceded and     
followed the summer solstice of that    
world4 ,a single isolated case presented
 itself in #ahgi4 ,on the #bfth of      
,december1 this year--a little before   
the spring equinox1 which occurred on   
,mars on the #bast of ,january1         
#ahhj--;,i noticed the doubling of the  
,nile a canal thus named between the    
,lakes of the ,moon and the ,ceraunic   
,gulf4 ,these two regular1 equal1 and   
parallel lines caused me1 ,i confess1 a 
profound surprise1 the more so because a
 few days earlier1 on the #bc;d and the 
#bdth of ,december1 ,i had carefully    
observed that very region without       
discovering anything of the kind4  ,i   
awaited with curiosity the return of the
 planet in #ahha1 to see if an analogous
 phenomenon would present itself in the 
same place1 and ,i saw the same thing   

reappear on the #aath of ,january1      
#ahhb1 one month after the spring       
equinox--which occurred on the #hth of  
,december1 #ahha4 ,the duplication was  
still more evident at the end of        
,february4 ,on this same date1 the #aath
 of ,january1 another duplication had   
already taken place1 that of the middle 
portion of the canal of the ,cyclops1   
adjoining ,elysium4 ,elysium is a part  
of one of the continental areas4  ,yet  
greater was my astonishment when1 on the
 #aith of ,january1 ,i saw the canal    
,jamuna1 which was then in the center of
 the disk1 formed very rigidly of two   
parallel straight lines1 crossing the   
space which separates the ,niliac ,lake 
from the ,gulf of ,aurora4 ,at first    
sight ,i believed it was an illusion1   
caused by fatigue of the eye and some   
new kind of strabismus1 but ,i had to   
yield to the evidence4 ,after the #aith 
of ,january ,i simply passed from wonder
 to wonder2 successively the ,orontes1  
the ,euphrates1 the ,phison1 the        

,ganges1 and the larger part of the     
other canals1 displayed themselves very 
clearly and indisputably duplicated4    
,there were not less than twenty        
examples of duplication1 of which       
seventeen were observed in the space of 
a month1 from the #aith of ,january to  
the #aith of ,february4  ,in certain    
cases it was possible to observe        
precursory symptoms which are not       
lacking in interest4 ,thus1 on the #acth
 of ,january1 a light1 ill-defined shade
 extended alongside the ,ganges2 on the 
#ahth and the #aith one could only      
distinguish a series of white spots2 on 
the #bjth the shadow was still          
indecisive1 but on the #bast the        
duplication was perfectly clear1 such as
 ,i observed it until the #bc;d of      
,february4 ,the duplication of the      
,euphrates1 of the canal of the ,titans1
 and of the ,pyriphlegethon also began  
in an uncertain and nebulous form4      
,these duplications are not an optical  
effect depending on increase of visual  

power1 as happens in the observation of 
double stars1 and it is not the canal   
itself splitting in two longitudinally4 
,here is what is seen3 ,to the right or 
left of a pre-existing line1 without any
 change in the course and position of   
that line1 one sees another line produce
 itself1 equal and parallel to the      
first1 at a distance generally varying  
from six to twelve degrees--i4e41 from  
#cej to #gjj kilometres 7#bag to #dcd   
miles72 even closer ones seem to be     
produced1 but the telescope is not      
powerful enough to distinguish them with
 certainty4 ,their tint appears to be a 
quite deep reddish brown4 ,the          
parallelism is sometimes rigorously     
exact4 ,there is nothing analogous in   
terrestrial geography4 ,everything      
indicates that here there is an         
organization special to the planet      
,mars1 probably connected with the      
course of its seasons4#a  ,footnote #a3 
,l',astronomie1 vol4 i1 #ahhb1 pp4 #bag 
et seq4  ,schiaparelli adds that he took

 every precaution to avoid the least    
suspicion of illusion4 ,i am absolutely 
sure1 he says1 of what ,i have observed4
  ,i have quoted his statement1         
especially about the duplication of the 
canals1 at so much length1 both on      
account of its intrinsic interest and   
because it has many times been argued   
that this particular phenomenon must be 
illusory even though the canals are     
real4  ,one of the most significant     
facts that came out in the early        
observations was the evident connection 
between the appearance of the canals and
 the seasonal changes on ,mars4 ,it was 
about the time of the spring equinox1   
when the white polar caps had begun to  
melt1 that ,schiaparelli first noticed  
the phenomenon of duplication4 ,as the  
season advanced the doubling of the     
canals increased in frequency and the   
lines became more distinct4 ,in the     
meantime the polar caps were becoming   
smaller4 ,broadly speaking1             
,schiaparelli's observation showed that 

the doubling of the canals occurred     
principally a little after the spring   
equinox and a little before the autumn  
equinox2 that the phenomenon disappeared
 in large part at the epoch of the      
winter solstice1 and disappeared        
altogether at the epoch of the summer   
solstice4 ,moreover1 he observed that   
many of the canals1 without regard to   
duplication1 were invisible at times1   
and reappeared gradually2 faint1        
scarcely visible lines and shadows1     
deepened and became more distinct until 
they were clearly and sharply defined1  
and these changes1 likewise1 were       
evidently seasonal4  ,the invariable    
connection of the canals at their       
terminations with the regions called    
seas1 the fact that as the polar caps   
disappeared the sealike expanses        
surrounding the polar regions deepened  
in color1 and other similar             
considerations soon led to the          
suggestion that there existed on ,mars a
 wonderful system of water circulation1 

whereby the melting of the polar snows1 
as summer passed alternately from one   
hemisphere to the other1 served to      
reenforce the supply of water in the    
seas1 and1 through the seas1 in the     
canals traversing the broad expanses of 
dry land that occupy the equatorial     
regions of the planet4 ,the thought     
naturally occurred that the canals might
 be of artificial origin1 and might     
indicate the existence of a gigantic    
system of irrigation serving to maintain
 life upon the globe of ,mars4 ,the     
geometrical perfection of the lines1    
their straightness1 their absolute      
parallelism when doubled1 their         
remarkable tendency to radiate from     
definite centers1 lent strength to the  
hypothesis of an artificial origin4 ,but
 their enormous size1 length1 and number
 tended to stagger belief in the ability
 of the inhabitants of any world to     
achieve a work so stupendous4  ,after a 
time a change of view occurred          
concerning the nature of the expanses   

called seas1 and ,mr4 ,lowell1 following
 his observations of #ahid1 developed   
the theory of the water circulation and 
irrigation of ,mars in a new form4 ,he  
and others observed that occasionally   
canals were visible cutting straight    
across some of the greenish1 or         
bluish-gray1 areas that had been        
regarded as seas4 ,this fact suggested  
that1 instead of seas1 these dark       
expanses may rather be areas of marshy  
ground covered with vegetation which    
flourishes and dies away according as   
the supply of water alternately         
increases and diminishes1 while the     
reddish areas known as continents are   
barren deserts1 intersected by canals2  
and as the water released by the melting
 of the polar snows begins to fill the  
canals1 vegetation springs up along     
their sides and becomes visible in the  
form of long narrow bands4  ,according  
to this theory1 the phenomena called    
canals are simply lines of vegetation1  
the real canals being individually too  

small to be detected4 ,it may be        
supposed that from a central supply     
canal irrigation ditches are extended   
for a distance of twenty or thirty miles
 on each side1 thus producing a strip of
 fertile soil from forty to sixty miles 
wide1 and hundreds1 or in some cases two
 or three thousands1 of miles in length4
  ,the water supply being limited1 the  
inhabitants can not undertake to        
irrigate the entire surface of the      
thirsty land1 and convenience of        
circulation induces them to extend the  
irrigated areas in the form of long     
lines4 ,the surface of ,mars1 according 
to ,lowell's observation1 is remarkably 
flat and level1 so that no serious      
obstacle exists to the extension of the 
canal system in straight bands as       
undeviating as arcs of great circles4   
,wherever two or more canals meet1 or   
cross1 a rounded dark spot from a       
hundred miles1 or less1 to three hundred
 miles in diameter1 is seen4 ,an        
astonishing number of these appear on   

,mr4 ,lowell's charts4 ,occasionally1 as
 occurs at the singular spot named      
,lacus ,solis1 several canals converging
 from all points of the compass meet at 
a central point like the spokes of a    
wheel2 in other cases1 as1 for instance1
 that of the long canal named           
,eumenides1 with its continuation       
,orcus1 a single conspicuous line is    
seen threading a large number of round  
dark spots1 which present the appearance
 of a row of beads upon a string4 ,these
 circular spots1 which some have        
regarded as lakes1 ,mr4 ,lowell believes
 are rather oases in the great deserts1 
and granting the correctness of his     
theory of the canals the aptness of this
 designation is apparent4#b  ,footnote  
#b3 ,the reader can find many of these  
canals and oases1 as well as some of the
 other regions on ,mars that have       
received names1 in the frontispiece4    
,wherever several canals1 that is to    
say1 several bands of vegetation or     
bands of life1 meet1 it is reasonable to

 assume that an irrigated and habitable 
area of considerable extent will be     
developed1 and in such places the       
imagination may picture the location of 
the chief centers of population1 perhaps
 in the form of large cities1 or perhaps
 in groups of smaller towns and         
villages4 ,the so-called ,lacus ,solis  
is one of these localities4  ,so1       
likewise1 it seems but natural that     
along the course of a broad1            
well-irrigated band a number of         
expansions should occur1 driving back   
the bounds of the desert1 forming       
rounded areas of vegetation1 and thus   
affording a footing for population4     
,wherever two bands cross such areas    
would be sure to exist1 and in almost   
every instance of crossing the telescope
 actually shows them4  ,as to the       
gemination or duplication of many of the
 lines which1 at the beginning of the   
season1 appear single1 it may be        
suggested that1 in the course of the    
development of the vast irrigation      

system of the planet parallel bands of  
cultivation have been established1 one  
receiving its water supply from the     
canals of the other1 and consequently   
lagging a little behind in visibility as
 the water slowly percolates through the
 soil and awakens the vegetation4 ,or   
else1 the character of the vegetation   
itself may differ as between two such   
parallel bands1 one being supplied with 
plants that spring up and mature quickly
 when the soil about their roots is     
moistened1 while the plants in the twin 
band respond more slowly to stimulation4
  ,objection has been made to the theory
 of the artificial origin of the canals 
of ,mars on the ground1 already         
mentioned1 that the work required to    
construct them would be beyond the      
capacity of any race of creatures       
resembling man4 ,the reply that has been
 made to this is twofold4 ,in the first 
place1 it should be remembered that the 
theory1 as ,mr4 ,lowell presents it1    
does not assert that the visible lines  

are the actual canals1 but only that    
they are strips of territory            
intersected1 like ,holland or the center
 of the plain of ,lombardy1 by          
innumerable irrigation canals and       
ditches4 ,to construct such works is    
clearly not an impossible undertaking1  
although it does imply great industry   
and concentration of effort4  ,in the   
second place1 since the force of gravity
 on ,mars is in the ratio of only #ch to
 #ajj compared with the earth's1 it is  
evident that the diminished weight of   
all bodies to be handled would give the 
inhabitants of ,mars an advantage over  
those of the earth in the performance of
 manual labor1 provided that they       
possess physical strength and activity  
as great as ours4 ,but1 in consequence  
of this very fact of the slighter force 
of gravity1 a man upon ,mars could      
attain a much greater size1 and         
consequently much greater muscular      
strength1 than his fellows upon the     
earth possess without being oppressed by

 his own weight4 ,in other words1 as far
 as the force of gravity may be         
considered as the decisive factor1 ,mars
 could be inhabited by giants fifteen   
feet tall1 who would be relatively just 
as active1 and just as little impeded in
 their movements by the weight of their 
bodies1 as a six-footer is upon the     
earth4 ,but they would possess far more 
physical strength than we do1 while1 in 
doing work1 they would have much lighter
 materials to deal with4  ,whether the  
theory that the canals of ,mars really  
are canals is true or not1 at any rate  
there can now be no doubt as to the     
existence of the strange lines which    
bear that designation4 ,the suggestion  
has been offered that their builders may
 no longer be in existence1 ,mars having
 already passed the point in its history
 where life must cease upon its surface4
 ,this brings us to consider again the  
statement1 made near the beginning of   
this chapter1 that ,mars is1 perhaps1 at
 a more advanced stage of development   

than the earth4 ,if we accept this view1
 then1 provided there was originally    
some resemblance between ,mars's life   
forms and those of the earth1 the       
inhabitants of that planet would1 at    
every step1 probably be in front of     
their terrestrial rivals1 so that at the
 present time they should stand well in 
advance4 ,mr4 ,lowell has1 perhaps1 put 
this view of the relative advancement in
 evolution of ,mars and its inhabitants 
as picturesquely as anybody4  ,in ,mars1
 he says1 we have before us the         
spectacle of a world relatively well on 
in years1 a world much older than the   
earth4 ,to so much about his age ,mars  
bears witness on his face4 ,he shows    
unmistakable signs of being old4        
,advancing planetary years have left    
their mark legible there4 ,his          
continents are all smoothed down2 his   
oceans have all dried up4444 ,mars being
 thus old himself1 we know that         
evolution on his surface must be        
similarly advanced4 ,this only informs  

us of its condition relative to the     
planet's capabilities4 ,of its actual   
state our data are not definite enough  
to furnish much deduction4 ,but from the
 fact that our own development has been 
comparatively a recent thing1 and that a
 long time would be needed to bring even
 ,mars to his present geological        
condition1 we may judge any life he may 
support to be not only relatively1 but  
really older than our own4 ,from the    
little we can see such appears to be the
 case4 ,the evidence of handicraft1 if  
such it be1 points to a highly          
intelligent mind behind it4 ,irrigation1
 unscientifically conducted1 would not  
give us such truly wonderful            
mathematical fitness in the several     
parts to the whole as we there          
behold4444 ,quite possibly such ,martian
 folk are possessed of inventions of    
which we have not dreamed1 and with them
 electrophones and kinetoscopes are     
things of a bygone past1 preserved with 
veneration in museums as relics of the  

clumsy contrivances of the simple       
childhood of the race4 ,certainly what  
we see hints at the existence of beings 
who are in advance of1 not behind us1 in
 the journey of life4#c  ,footnote #c3  
,mars1 by ,percival ,lowell1 p4 #bjg et 
seq4  ,granted the existence of such a  
race as is thus described1 and to them  
it might not seem a too appalling       
enterprise1 when their planet had become
 decrepit1 with its atmosphere thinned  
out and its supply of water depleted1 to
 grapple with the destroying hand of    
nature and to prolong the career of     
their world by feats of chemistry and   
engineering as yet beyond the compass of
 human knowledge4  ,it is confidence1   
bred from considerations like these1 in 
the superhuman powers of the supposed   
inhabitants of ,mars that has led to the
 popular idea that they are trying to   
communicate by signals with the earth4  
,certain enigmatical spots of light1    
seen at the edge of the illuminated disk
 of ,mars1 and projecting into the      

unilluminated part--for ,mars1 although 
an outer planet1 shows at particular    
times a gibbous phase resembling that of
 the moon just before or just after the 
period of full moon--have been          
interpreted by some1 but without any    
scientific evidence1 as of artificial   
origin4  ,upon the assumption that these
 bright points1 and others occasionally 
seen elsewhere on the planet's disk1 are
 intended by the ,martians for signals  
to the earth1 entertaining calculations 
have been made as to the quantity of    
light that would be required in the form
 of a flash signal to be visible across 
the distance separating the two planets4
 ,the results of the calculations have  
hardly been encouraging to possible     
investors in interplanetary telegraphy1 
since it appears that heliographic      
mirrors with reflecting surfaces        
measured by square miles1 instead of    
square inches1 would be required to send
 a visible beam from the earth to ,mars 
or vice versa4  ,the projections of     

light on ,mars can be explained much    
more simply and reasonably4 ,various    
suggestions have been made about them2  
among others1 that they are masses of   
cloud reflecting the sunshine2 that they
 are areas of snow2 and that they are   
the summits of mountains crowned with   
ice and encircled with clouds4 ,in fact1
 a huge mountain mass lying on the      
terminator1 or the line between day and 
night1 would produce the effect of a    
tongue of light projecting into the     
darkness without assuming that it was   
snow-covered or capped with clouds1 as  
any one may convince himself by studying
 the moon with a telescope when the     
terminator lies across some of its most 
mountainous regions4 ,to be sure1 there 
is reason to think that the surface of  
,mars is remarkably flat2 yet even so   
the planet may have some mountains1 and 
on a globe the greater part of whose    
shell is smooth any projections would be
 conspicuous1 particularly where the    
sunlight fell at a low angle across     

them4  ,another form in which the       
suggestion of interplanetary            
communication has been urged is plainly 
an outgrowth of the invention and       
surprising developments of wireless     
telegraphy4 ,the human mind is so       
constituted that whenever it obtains any
 new glimpse into the arcana of nature  
it immediately imagines an indefinite   
and all but unlimited extension of its  
view in that direction4 ,so to many it  
has not appeared unreasonable to assume 
that1 since it is possible to transmit  
electric impulses for considerable      
distances over the earth's surface by   
the simple propagation of a series of   
waves1 or undulations1 without          
connecting wires1 it may also be        
possible to send such impulses through  
the ether from planet to planet4  ,the  
fact that the electric undulations      
employed in wireless telegraphy pass    
between stations connected by the crust 
of the earth itself1 and immersed in a  
common atmospheric envelope1 is not     

deemed by the supporters of the theory  
in question as a very serious objection1
 for1 they contend1 electric waves are a
 phenomenon of the ether1 which extends 
throughout space1 and1 given sufficient 
energy1 such waves could cross the gap  
between world and world4  ,but nobody   
has shown how much energy would be      
needed for such a purpose1 and much less
 has anybody indicated a way in which   
the required energy could be            
artificially developed1 or cunningly    
filched from the stores of nature4 ,it  
is1 then1 purely an assumption1 an      
interesting figment of the mind1 that   
certain curious disturbances in the     
electrical state of the air and the     
earth1 affecting delicate electric      
instruments1 possessing a marked        
periodicity in brief intervals of time1 
and not yet otherwise accounted for1 are
 due to the throbbing1 in the           
all-enveloping ether1 of impulses       
transmitted from instruments controlled 
by the savants of ,mars1 whose          

insatiable thirst for knowledge1 and    
presumably burning desire to learn      
whether there is not within reach some  
more fortunate world than their         
half-dried-up globe1 has led them into a
 desperate attempt to call up the earth 
on their interplanetary telephone1 with 
the hope that we are wise and skilful   
enough to understand and answer them4   
,in what language they intend to        
converse no one has yet undertaken to   
tell1 but the suggestion has sapiently  
been made that1 mathematical facts being
 invariable1 the eternal equality of two
 plus two with four might serve as a    
basis of understanding1 and that a      
statement of that truth sent by electric
 taps across the ocean of ether would be
 a convincing assurance that the        
inhabitants of the planet from which the
 message came at least enjoyed the      
advantages of a common-school education4
  ,but1 while speculation upon this     
subject rests on unverified1 and at     
present unverifiable1 assumptions1 of   

course everybody would rejoice if such a
 thing were possible1 for consider what 
zest and charm would be added to human  
life if messages1 even of the simplest  
description1 could be sent to and       
received from intelligent beings        
inhabiting other planets6 ,it is because
 of this hold that it possesses upon the
 imagination1 and the pleasing pictures 
that it conjures up1 that the idea of   
interplanetary communication1 once      
broached1 has become so popular a topic1
 even though everybody sees that it     
should not be taken too seriously4  ,the
 subject of the atmosphere of ,mars can 
not be dismissed without further        
consideration than we have yet given it1
 because those who think the planet     
uninhabitable base their opinion largely
 upon the assumed absence of sufficient 
air to support life4 ,it was long ago   
recognized that1 other things being     
equal1 a planet of small mass must      
possess a less dense atmosphere than one
 of large mass4 ,assuming that each     

planet originally drew from a common    
stock1 and that the amount and density  
of its atmosphere is measured by its    
force of gravity1 it can be shown that  
,mars should have an atmosphere less    
than one fifth as dense as the earth's4 
,dr4 ,johnstone ,stoney has attacked the
 problem of planetary atmospheres in    
another way4 ,knowing the force of      
gravity on a planet1 it is easy to      
calculate the velocity with which a     
body1 or a particle1 would have to start
 radially from the planet in order to   
escape from its gravitational control4  
,for the earth this critical velocity is
 about seven miles per second2 for ,mars
 about three miles per second4          
,estimating the velocity of the         
molecules of the various atmospheric    
gases1 according to the kinetic theory1 
,dr4 ,stoney finds that some of the     
smaller planets1 and the moon1 are      
gravitationally incapable of retaining  
all of these gases in the form of an    
atmosphere4 ,among the atmospheric      

constituents that1 according to this    
view1 ,mars would be unable permanently 
to retain is water vapor4 ,indeed1 he   
supposes that even the earth is slowly  
losing its water by evaporation into    
space1 and on ,mars1 owing to the slight
 force of gravity there1 this process   
would go on much more rapidly1 so that1 
in this way1 we have a means of         
accounting for the apparent drying up of
 that planet1 while we may be led to    
anticipate that at some time in the     
remote future the earth also will begin 
to suffer from lack of water1 and that  
eventually the chasms of the sea will   
yawn empty and desolate under a         
cloudless sky4  ,but it is not certain  
that the original supply of atmospheric 
elements was in every case proportional 
to the respective force of gravity of a 
planet4 ,the fact that ,venus appears to
 have an atmosphere more extensive and  
denser than the earth's1 although its   
force of gravity is a little less than  
that of our globe1 indicates at once a  

variation as between these two planets  
in the amount of atmospheric material at
 their disposal4 ,this may be a detail  
depending upon differences in the mode1 
or in the stage1 of their evolution4    
,thus1 after all1 ,dr4 ,stoney's theory 
may be substantially correct and yet    
,mars may retain sufficient water to    
form clouds1 to be precipitated in snow1
 and to fill its canals after each      
annual melting of the polar caps1       
because the original supply was         
abundant1 and its escape is a gradual   
process1 only to be completed by        
age-long steps4  ,even though the       
evidence of the spectroscope1 as far as 
it goes1 seems to lend support to the   
theory that there is no water vapor in  
the atmosphere of ,mars1 we can not     
disregard the visual evidence that1     
nevertheless1 water vapor exists there4 
,what are the polar caps if they are not
 snow8 ,frozen carbon dioxide1 it has   
been suggested2 but this is hardly      
satisfactory1 for it offers no          

explanation of the fact that when the   
polar caps diminish1 and in proportion  
as they diminish1 the seas and the      
canals darken and expand1 whereas a     
reasonable explanation of the           
correlation of these phenomena is       
offered if we accept the view that the  
polar caps consist of snow4  ,then there
 are many observations on record        
indicating the existence of clouds in   
,mars's atmosphere4 ,sometimes a        
considerable area of its surface has    
been observed to be temporarily         
obscured1 not by dense masses of cloud  
such as accompany the progress of great 
cyclonic storms across the continents   
and oceans of the earth1 but by         
comparatively thin veils of vapor such  
as would be expected to form in an      
atmosphere so comparatively rare as that
 of ,mars4 ,and these clouds1 in some   
instances at least1 appear1 like the    
cirrus streaks and dapples in our own   
air1 to float at a great elevation4 ,mr4
 ,douglass1 one of ,mr4 ,lowell's       

associates in the observations of #ahid 
at ,flagstaff1 ,arizona1 observed what  
he believed to be a cloud over the      
unilluminated part of ,mars's disk1     
which1 by micrometric measurement and   
estimate1 was drifting at an elevation  
of about fifteen miles above the surface
 of the planet4 ,this was seen on two   
successive days1 ,november #beth and    
,november #bfth1 and it underwent       
curious fluctuations in visibility1     
besides moving in a northerly direction 
at the rate of some thirteen miles an   
hour4 ,but1 upon the whole1 as ,mr4     
,lowell remarks1 the atmosphere of ,mars
 is remarkably free of clouds4  ,the    
reader will remember that ,mars gets a  
little less than half as much heat from 
the sun as the earth gets4 ,this fact   
also has been used as an argument       
against the habitability of the planet4 
,in truth1 those who think that life in 
the solar system is confined to the     
earth alone insist upon an almost exact 
reproduction of terrestrial conditions  

as a sine qua non to the habitability of
 any other planet4 ,venus1 they think1  
is too hot1 and ,mars too cold1 as if   
life were rather a happy accident than  
the result of the operation of general  
laws applicable under a wide variety of 
conditions4 ,all that we are really     
justified in asserting is that ,venus   
may be too hot and ,mars too cold for   
us4 ,of course1 if we adopt the opinion 
held by some that the temperature on    
,mars is constantly so low that water   
would remain perpetually frozen1 it does
 throw the question of the kind of life 
that could be maintained there into the 
realm of pure conjecture4  ,the argument
 in favor of an extremely low           
temperature on ,mars is based on the law
 of the diminution of radiant energy    
inversely as the square of the distance1
 together with the assumption that no   
qualifying circumstances1 or no         
modification of that law1 can enter into
 the problem4 ,according to this view1  
it could be shown that the temperature  

on ,mars never rises above -#bjj ,f4    
,but it is a view that seems to be      
directly opposed to the evidence of the 
telescope1 for all who have studied     
,mars under favorable conditions of     
observation have been impressed by the  
rapid and extensive changes that the    
appearance of its surface undergoes     
coincidently with the variation of the  
planet's seasons4 ,it has its winter    
aspect and its summer aspect1 perfectly 
distinct and recognizable1 in each      
hemisphere by turns1 and whether the    
polar caps be snow or carbon dioxide1 at
 any rate they melt and disappear under 
a high sun1 thus proving that an        
accumulation of heat takes place4       
,professor ,young says3 ,as to the      
temperature of ,mars we have no certain 
knowledge4 ,on the one hand1 we know    
that on account of the planet's distance
 from the sun the intensity of solar    
radiation upon its surface must be less 
than here in the ratio of #a to         
7#a4ebd7b--;i4e41 only about #dc per    

cent as great as with us2 its 'solar    
constant' must be less than #ac calories
 against our #cj4 ,then1 too1 the low   
density of its atmosphere1 probably less
 at the planet's surface than on the    
tops of our highest mountains1 would    
naturally assist to keep down the       
temperature to a point far below the    
freezing-point of water4 ,but1 on the   
other hand1 things certainly look as if 
the polar caps were really masses of    
snow and ice deposited from vapor in the
 planet's atmosphere1 and as if these   
actually melted during the ,martian     
summer1 sending floods of water through 
the channels provided for them1 and     
causing the growth of vegetation along  
their banks4 ,we are driven1 therefore1 
to suppose either that the planet has   
sources of heat internal or external    
which are not yet explained1 or else1 as
 long ago suggested1 that the polar     
'snow' may possibly be composed of      
something else than frozen water4#d     
,footnote #d3 ,general ,astronomy1 by   

,charles ,a4 ,young4 ,revised edition1  
#ahih1 p4 #cfc4  ,even while granting   
the worst that can be said for the low  
temperature of ,mars1 the persistent    
believer in its habitability could take 
refuge in the results of recent         
experiments which have proved that      
bacterial life is able to resist the    
utmost degree of cold that can be       
applied1 microscopic organisms perfectly
 retaining their vitality--or at least  
their power to resume it--when subjected
 to the fearfully low temperature of    
liquid air4 ,but then he would be open  
to the reply that the organisms thus    
treated are in a torpid condition and   
deprived of all activity until revived  
by the application of heat2 and the     
picture of a world in a state of        
perpetual sleep is not particularly     
attractive1 unless the fortunate prince 
who is destined to awake the slumbering 
beauty can also be introduced into the  
romance4#e  ,footnote #e3 ,many of the  
present difficulties about temperatures 

on the various planets would be         
beautifully disposed of if we could     
accept the theory urged by ,mr4 ,cope   
,whitehouse1 to the effect that the sun 
is not really a hot body at all1 and    
that what we call solar light and heat  
are only local manifestations produced  
in our atmosphere by the transformation 
of some other form of energy transmitted
 from the sun2 very much as the electric
 impulses carried by a wire from the    
transmitting to the receiving station on
 a telephone line are translated by the 
receiver into waves of sound4 ,according
 to this theory1 which is here mentioned
 only as an ingenuity and because       
something of the kind so frequently     
turns up in one form or another in      
popular semi-scientific literature1 the 
amount of heat and light on a planet    
would depend mainly upon local causes4  
,to an extent which most of us1 perhaps1
 do not fully appreciate1 we are        
indebted for many of the pleasures and  
conveniences and some of the necessities

 of life on our planet to its faithful  
attendant1 the moon4 ,neither ,mercury  
nor ,venus has a moon1 but ,mars has two
 moons4 ,this statement1 standing alone1
 might lead to the conclusion that1 as  
far as the advantages a satellite can   
afford to the inhabitants of its master 
planet are concerned1 the people of     
,mars are doubly fortunate4 ,so they    
would be1 perhaps1 if ,mars's moons were
 bodies comparable in size with our     
moon1 but in fact they are hardly more  
than a pair of very entertaining        
astronomical toys4 ,the larger of the   
two1 ,phobos1 is believed to be about   
seven miles in diameter2 the smaller1   
,deimos1 only five or six miles4 ,their 
dimensions thus resemble those of the   
more minute of the asteroids1 and the   
suggestion has even been made that they 
may be captured asteroids which have    
fallen under the gravitational control  
of ,mars4  ,the diameters just mentioned
 are ,professor ,pickering's estimates1 
based on the amount of light the little 

satellites reflect1 for they are much   
too small to present measurable disks4  
,deimos is #ad1fjj miles from the center
 of ,mars and #ab1ejj miles from its    
surface4 ,phobos is #e1hjj miles from   
the center of the planet and only #c1gjj
 from the surface4 ,deimos completes a  
revolution about the planet in thirty   
hours and eighteen minutes1 and ,phobos 
in the astonishingly short              
period--although1 of course1 it is in   
strict accord with the law of           
gravitation and in that sense not       
astonishing--of seven hours and         
thirty-nine minutes4  ,since ,mars takes
 twenty-four hours and thirty-seven     
minutes for one rotation on its axis1 it
 is evident that ,phobos goes round the 
planet three times in the course of a   
single ,martian day and night1 rising1  
contrary to the general motion of the   
heavens1 in the west1 running in a few  
hours through all the phases that our   
moon exhibits in the course of a month1 
and setting1 where the sun and all the  

stars rise1 in the east4 ,deimos1 on the
 other hand1 has a period of revolution 
five or six hours longer than that of   
the planet's axial rotation1 so that it 
rises1 like the other heavenly bodies1  
in the east2 but1 because its motion is 
so nearly equal1 in angular velocity1 to
 that of ,mars's rotation1 it shifts    
very slowly through the sky toward the  
west1 and for two or three successive   
days and nights it remains above the    
horizon1 the sun overtaking and passing 
it again and again1 while1 in the       
meantime1 its protean face swiftly      
changes from full circle to half-moon1  
from half-moon to crescent1 from        
crescent back to half1 and from half to 
full1 and so on without ceasing4  ,and  
during this time ,phobos is rushing     
through the sky in the opposite         
direction1 as if in defiance of the     
fundamental law of celestial revolution1
 making a complete circuit three times  
every twenty-four hours1 and changing   
the shape of its disk four times as     

rapidly as ,deimos does6 ,truly1 if we  
were suddenly transported to ,mars1 we  
might well believe that we had arrived  
in the mother world of lunatics1 and    
that its two moons were bewitched4 ,yet 
it must not be supposed that all the    
peculiarities just mentioned would be   
clearly seen from the surface of ,mars  
by eyes like ours4 ,the phases of       
,phobos would probably be discernible to
 the naked eye1 but those of ,deimos    
would require a telescope in order to be
 seen1 for1 notwithstanding their       
nearness to the planet1 ,mars's moons   
are inconspicuous phenomena even to the 
,martians themselves4 ,professor        
,young's estimate is that ,phobos may   
shed upon ,mars one-sixtieth and ,deimos
 one-twelve-hundredth as much reflected 
moonlight as our moon sends to the      
earth4 ,accordingly1 a moonlit night on 
,mars can have no such charm as we      
associate with the phrase4 ,but it is   
surely a tribute to the power and       
perfection of our telescopes that we    

have been able to discover the existence
 of objects so minute and inconspicuous1
 situated at a distance of many millions
 of miles1 and half concealed by the    
glaring light of the planet close around
 which they revolve4  ,if ,mars's moons 
were as massive as our moon is they     
would raise tremendous tides upon ,mars1
 and would affect the circulation of    
water in the canals1 but1 in fact1 their
 tidal effects are even more            
insignificant than their light-giving   
powers4 ,but for astronomers on ,mars   
they would be objects of absorbing      
interest4  ,upon quitting ,mars we pass 
to the second distinctive planetary     
group of the solar system1 that of the  
asteroids4     ,,chapter ,v  ,,the      
,,asteroids1 ,a ,,family ,,of ,,dwarf   
,,worlds   ,beyond ,mars1 in the broad  
gap separating the terrestrial from the 
,jovian planets1 are the asteroids1 of  
which nearly five hundred have been     
discovered and designated by individual 
names or numbers4 ,but any statement    

concerning the known number of asteroids
 can remain valid for but a short time1 
because new ones are continually found1 
especially by the aid of photography4   
,very few of the asteroids are of       
measurable size4 ,among these are the   
four that were the first to be          
discovered--,ceres1 ,pallas1 ,juno1 and 
,vesta4 ,their diameters1 according to  
the measurements of ,prof4 ,e4,e4       
,barnard1 of the ,yerkes ,observatory1  
are as follows3 ,ceres1 #dgg miles2     
,pallas1 #cjd miles2 ,juno1 #abj miles2 
,vesta1 #bci miles4  ,it is only        
necessary to mention these diameters in 
order to indicate how wide is the       
difference between the asteroids and    
such planets as the earth1 ,venus1 or   
,mars4 ,the entire surface of the       
largest asteroid1 ,ceres1 does not equal
 the republic of ,mexico in area4 ,but  
,ceres itself is gigantic in comparison 
with the vast majority of the asteroids1
 many of which1 it is believed1 do not  
exceed twenty miles in diameter1 while  

there may be hundreds or thousands of   
others still smaller--ten miles1 five   
miles1 or perhaps only a few rods1 in   
diameter6  ,curiously enough1 the       
asteroid which appears brightest1 and   
which it would naturally be inferred is 
the largest1 really stands third in the 
order of measured size4 ,this is ,vesta1
 whose diameter1 according to ,barnard1 
is only #bci miles4 ,it is estimated    
that the surface of ,vesta possesses    
about four times greater                
light-reflecting power than the surface 
of ,ceres4 ,some observations have also 
shown a variation in the intensity of   
the light from ,vesta1 a most           
interesting fact1 which becomes still   
more significant when considered in     
connection with the great variability of
 another most extraordinary member of   
the asteroidal family1 ,eros1 which is  
to be described presently4  ,the orbits 
of the asteroids are scattered over a   
zone about #bjj1jjj1jjj miles broad4    
,the mean distance from the sun of the  

nearest asteroid1 ,eros1 is #ace1jjj1jjj
 miles1 and that of the most distant1   
,thule1 #djj1jjj1jjj miles4 ,wide gaps  
exist in the asteroidal zone where few  
or no members of the group are to be    
found1 and ,prof4 ,daniel ,kirkwood long
 ago demonstrated the influence of      
,jupiter in producing these gaps4       
,almost no asteroids1 as he showed1     
revolve at such a distance from the sun 
that their periods of revolution are    
exactly commensurable with that of      
,jupiter4 ,originally there may have    
been many thus situated1 but the        
attraction of the great planet has1 in  
the course of time1 swept those zones   
clean4  ,many of the asteroids have very
 eccentric orbits1 and their orbits are 
curiously intermixed1 varying widely    
among themselves1 both in ellipticity   
and in inclination to the common plane  
of the solar system4  ,considered with  
reference to the shape and position of  
its orbit1 the most unique of these     
little worlds is ,eros1 which was       

discovered in #ahih by ,de ,witt1 at    
,berlin1 and which1 on account of its   
occasional near approach to the earth1  
has lately been utilized in a fresh     
attempt to obtain a closer approximation
 to the true distance of the sun from   
the earth4 ,the mean distance of ,eros  
from the sun is #ace1jjj1jjj miles1 its 
greatest distance is #aff1jjj1jjj miles1
 and its least distance #aje1jjj1jjj    
miles4 ,it will thus be seen that1      
although all the other asteroids are    
situated beyond ,mars1 ,eros1 at its    
mean distance1 is nearer to the sun than
 ,mars is4 ,when in aphelion1 or at its 
greatest distance1 ,eros is outside of  
the orbit of ,mars1 but when in         
perihelion it is so much inside of      
,mars's orbit that it comes surprisingly
 near the earth4  ,indeed1 there are    
times when ,eros is nearer to the earth 
than any other celestial body ever gets 
except the moon--and1 it might be added1
 except meteors and1 by chance1 a comet1
 or a comet's tail4 ,its least possible 

distance from the earth is less than    
#ad1jjj1jjj miles1 and it was nearly as 
close as that1 without anybody knowing  
or suspecting the fact1 in #ahid1 four  
years in advance of its discovery4 ,yet 
the fact1 strange as the statement may  
seem1 had been recorded without being   
recognized4 ,after ,de ,witt's discovery
 of ,eros in #ahih1 at a time when it   
was by no means as near the earth as it 
had been some years before1 ,prof4      
,e4,c4 ,pickering ascertained that it   
had several times imprinted its image on
 the photographic plates of the ,harvard
 ,observatory1 with which pictures of   
the sky are systematically taken1 but   
had remained unnoticed1 or had been     
taken for an ordinary star among the    
thousands of star images surrounding it4
 ,from these telltale plates it was     
ascertained that in #ahid it had been in
 perihelion very near the earth1 and had
 shone with the brilliance of a         
seventh-magnitude star4  ,it will1      
unfortunately1 be a long time before    

,eros comes quite as near us as it did  
on that occasion1 when we failed to see 
it1 for its close approaches to the     
earth are not frequent4 ,prof4 ,solon   
,i4 ,bailey selects the oppositions of  
,eros in #aica and #aich as probably the
 most favorable that will occur during  
the first half of the twentieth century4
  ,we turn to the extraordinary         
fluctuations in the light of ,eros1 and 
the equally extraordinary conclusions   
drawn from them4 ,while the little      
asteroid1 whose diameter is estimated to
 be in the neighborhood of twenty or    
twenty-five miles1 was being assiduously
 watched and photographed during its    
opposition in the winter of #aijj-aija1 
several observers discovered that its   
light was variable to the extent of more
 than a whole magnitude2 some said as   
much as two magnitudes4 ,when it is     
remembered that an increase of one      
stellar magnitude means an accession of 
light in the ratio of #b4e to #a1 and an
 increase of two magnitudes an accession

 of #f4be to #a1 the significance of    
such variations as ,eros exhibited      
becomes immediately apparent4 ,the      
shortness of the period within which the
 cycle of changes occurred1 about two   
hours and a half1 made the variation    
more noticeable1 and at the same time   
suggested a ready explanation1 viz41    
that the asteroid was rapidly turning on
 its axis1 a thing1 in itself1 quite in 
accordance with the behavior of other   
celestial bodies and naturally to be    
expected4  ,but careful observation     
showed that there were marked           
irregularities in the light             
fluctuations1 indicating that ,eros     
either had a very strange distribution  
of light and dark areas covering its    
surface1 or that instead of being a     
globular body it was of some extremely  
irregular shape1 so that as it rotated  
it presented successively larger and    
smaller reflecting surfaces toward the  
sun and the earth4 ,one interesting     
suggestion was that the little planet is

 in reality double1 the two components  
revolving around their common center of 
gravity1 like a close binary star1 and  
mutually eclipsing one another4 ,but    
this theory seems hardly competent to   
explain the very great fluctuation in   
light1 and a better one1 probably1 is   
that suggested by ,prof4 ,e4,c4         
,pickering1 that ,eros is shaped        
something like a dumb-bell4  ,we can    
picture such a mass1 in imagination1    
tumbling end over end in its orbit so as
 to present at one moment the broad     
sides of both bells1 together with their
 connecting neck1 toward the sun1 and1  
at the same time1 toward the observer on
 the earth1 and1 at another moment1 only
 the end of one of the bells1 the other 
bell and the neck being concealed in    
shadow4 ,in this way the successive gain
 and loss of sixfold in the amount of   
light might be accounted for4 ,owing to 
the great distance the real form of the 
asteroid is imperceptible even with     
powerful telescopes1 but the effect of a

 change in the amount of reflecting     
surface presented produces1 necessarily1
 an alternate waxing and waning of the  
light4 ,as far as the fluctuations are  
concerned1 they might also be explained 
by supposing that the shape of the      
asteroid is that of a flat disk1        
rotating about one of its larger        
diameters so as to present1 alternately1
 its edge and its broadside to the sun4 
,and1 perhaps1 in order completely to   
account for all the observed            
eccentricities of the light of ,eros1   
the irregularity of form may have to be 
supplemented by certain assumptions as  
to the varying reflective capacity of   
different parts of the misshapen mass4  
,the invaluable ,harvard photographs    
show that long before ,eros was         
recognized as an asteroid its light     
variations had been automatically       
registered on the plates4 ,some of the  
plates1 ,prof4 ,e4,c4 ,pickering says1  
had had an exposure of an hour or more1 
and1 owing to its motion1 ,eros had     

formed a trail on each of these plates1 
which in some cases showed distinct     
variations in brightness4 ,differences  
in the amount of variation at different 
times will largely depend upon the      
position of the earth with respect to   
the axis of rotation4  ,another         
interesting deduction may be made from  
the changes that the light of ,eros     
undergoes4 ,we have already remarked    
that one of the larger asteroids1 and   
the one which appears to the eye as the 
most brilliant of all1 ,vesta1 has been 
suspected of variability1 but not so    
extensive as that of ,eros4 ,olbers1 at 
the beginning of the last century1 was  
of the opinion that ,vesta's variations 
were due to its being not a globe but an
 angular mass4 ,so he was led by a      
similar phenomenon to precisely the same
 opinion about ,vesta that has lately   
been put forth concerning ,eros4 ,the   
importance of this coincidence is that  
it tends to revive a remarkable theory  
of the origin of the asteroids which has

 long been in abeyance1 and1 in the     
minds of many1 perhaps discredited4     
,this theory1 which is due to ,olbers1  
begins with the startling assumption    
that a planet1 perhaps as large as      
,mars1 formerly revolving in an orbit   
situated between the orbits of ,mars and
 ,jupiter1 was destroyed by an          
explosion6 ,although1 at first glance1  
such a catastrophe may appear too wildly
 improbable for belief1 yet it was not  
the improbability of a world's blowing  
up that led to a temporary abandonment  
of ,olbers's bold theory4 ,the great    
,french mathematician ,lagrange         
investigated the explosive force which  
would be necessary to detach a fragment 
of matter from a planet revolving at a  
given distance from the sun1 and        
published the results in the            
,connaissance des ,temps for #ahad4     
,applying his results to the earth1     
,lagrange found that if the velocity of 
the detached fragment exceeded that of a
 cannon ball in the proportion of #aba  

to #a the fragment would become a comet 
with a direct motion2 but if the        
velocity rose in the proportion of #aef 
to #a the motion of the comet would be  
retrograde4 ,if the velocity was less   
than in either of these cases the       
fragment would revolve as a planet in an
 elliptic orbit4 ,for any other planet  
besides the earth the velocity of       
explosion corresponding to the different
 cases would vary in the inverse ratio  
of the square root of the mean distance4
 ,it would therefore manifestly be less 
as the planet was more distant from the 
sun4 ,in the case of each of the four   
smaller planets 7only the four          
asteroids1 ,ceres1 ,pallas1 ,juno1 and  
,vesta1 were known at that time71 the   
velocity of explosion indicated by their
 observed motion would be less than     
twenty times the velocity of a cannon   
ball4#f  ,footnote #f3 ,grant's ,history
 of ,physical ,astronomy1 p4 #bda4      
,instead1 then1 of being discredited by 
its assumption of so strange a          

catastrophe1 ,olbers's theory fell into 
desuetude because of its apparent       
failure to account for the position of  
the orbits of many of the asteroids     
after a large number of those bodies had
 been discovered4 ,he calculated that   
the orbits of all the fragments of his  
exploded planet would have nearly equal 
mean distances1 and a common point of   
intersection in the heavens1 through    
which every fragment of the original    
mass would necessarily pass in each     
revolution4 ,at first the orbits of the 
asteroids discovered seemed to answer to
 these conditions1 and ,olbers was even 
able to use his theory as a means of    
predicting the position of yet          
undetected asteroids4 ,only ,ceres and  
,pallas had been discovered when he put 
forth his theory1 but when ,juno and    
,vesta were found they fell in with his 
predictions so well that the theory was 
generally regarded as being virtually   
established2 while the fluctuations in  
the light of ,vesta1 as we have before  

remarked1 led ,olbers to assert that    
that body was of a fragmental shape1    
thus strongly supporting his explosion  
hypothesis4  ,afterward1 when the orbits
 of many asteroids had been             
investigated1 the soundness of ,olbers's
 theory began to be questioned4 ,the    
fact that the orbits did not all        
intersect at a common point could easily
 be disposed of1 as ,professor ,newcomb 
has pointed out1 by simply placing the  
date of the explosion sufficiently far  
back1 say millions of years ago1 for the
 secular changes produced by the        
attraction of the larger planets would  
effectively mix up the orbits4 ,but when
 the actual effects of these secular    
changes were calculated for particular  
asteroids the result seemed to show that
 the orbits could never have intersected
 unless some of them have in the        
meantime been altered by the attraction 
of the small planets on each other4     
,such an action is not impossible1 but  
it is impossible to determine it1 owing 

to the great number of these bodies and 
our ignorance of their masses4#g        
,footnote #g3 ,popular ,astronomy1 by   
,simon ,newcomb1 p4 #cce4  ,yet the     
theory has never been entirely thrown   
out1 and now that the discovery of the  
light fluctuations of ,eros lends       
support to ,olbers's assertion of the   
irregular shape of some of the          
asteroids1 it is very interesting to    
recall what so high an authority as     
,professor ,young said on the subject   
before the discovery of ,eros3  ,it is  
true1 as has often been urged1 that this
 theory in its original form1 as        
presented by ,olbers1 can not be        
correct4 ,no single explosion of a      
planet could give rise to the present   
assemblage of orbits1 nor is it possible
 that even the perturbations of ,jupiter
 could have converted a set of orbits   
originally all crossing at one point    
7the point of explosion7 into the       
present tangle4 ,the smaller orbits are 
so small that1 however turned about1    

they lie wholly inside the larger and   
can not be made to intersect them4 ,if1 
however1 we admit a series of           
explosions1 this difficulty is removed2 
and if we grant an explosion at all1    
there seems to be nothing improbable in 
the hypothesis that the fragments formed
 by the bursting of the parent mass     
would carry away within themselves the  
same forces and reactions which caused  
the original bursting1 so that they     
themselves would be likely enough to    
explode at some time in their later     
history4#h  ,footnote #h3 ,general      
,astronomy1 by ,charles ,a4 ,young4     
,revised edition1 #ahih1 p4 #cgb4  ,the 
rival theory of the origin of the       
asteroids is that which assumes that the
 planetary ring originally left off from
 the contracting solar nebula between   
the orbits of ,mars and ,jupiter was so 
violently perturbed by the attraction of
 the latter planet that1 instead of     
being shaped into a single globe1 it was
 broken up into many fragments4 ,either 

hypothesis presents an attractive       
picture2 but that which presupposes the 
bursting asunder of a large planet1     
which might at least have borne the     
germs of life1 and the subsequent       
shattering of its parts into smaller    
fragments1 like the secondary explosions
 of the pieces of a pyrotechnic bomb1   
certainly is by far the more impressive 
in its appeal to the imagination1 and   
would seem to offer excellent material  
for some of the extra-terrestrial       
romances now so popular4 ,it is a       
startling thought that a world can      
possibly carry within itself1 like a    
dynamite cartridge1 the means of its own
 disruption2 but the idea does not      
appear so extremely improbable when we  
recall the evidence of collisions or    
explosions1 happening on a tremendous   
scale1 in the case of new or temporary  
stars4#i  ,footnote #i3 ,since the      
discovery of ,eros1 the extraordinary   
position of its orbit has led to the    
suggestion that possibly ,mars itself1  

instead of being regarded as primarily a
 major planet1 belonging to the         
terrestrial group1 ought rather to be   
considered as the greatest of the       
asteroids1 and a part of the original   
body from which the asteroidal system   
was formed4--,j4 ,bauschinger1          
,astronomische ,nachrichten1 ,no4 #cedb4
  ,coming to the question of life upon  
the asteroids1 it seems clear that they 
must be excluded from the list of       
habitable worlds1 whatever we may choose
 to think of the possible habitability  
of the original planet through whose    
destruction they may have come into     
existence4 ,the largest of them         
possesses a force of gravity far too    
slight to enable it to retain any of the
 gases or vapors that are recognized as 
constituting an atmosphere4 ,but they   
afford a captivating field for          
speculation1 which need not be          
altogether avoided1 for it offers some  
graphic illustrations of the law of     
gravitation4 ,a few years ago ,i wrote1 

for the entertainment of an audience    
which preferred to meet science attired 
in a garb woven largely from the strands
 of fancy1 an account of some of the    
peculiarities of such minute globes as  
the asteroids1 which ,i reproduce here  
because it gives1 perhaps1 a livelier   
picture of those little bodies1 from the
 point of view of ordinary human        
interest1 than could be presented in any
 other way4   ,a ,,waif ,,of ,,space    
,one night as ,i was waiting1 watch in  
hand1 for an occultation1 and striving  
hard to keep awake1 for it had been a   
hot and exhausting summer's day1 while  
my wife--we were then in our            
honeymoon--sat sympathetically by my    
side1 ,i suddenly found myself withdrawn
 from the telescope1 and standing in a  
place that appeared entirely strange4   
,it was a very smooth bit of ground1    
and1 to my surprise1 there was no       
horizon in sight2 that is to say1 the   
surface of the ground disappeared on all
 sides at a short distance off1 and     

beyond nothing but sky was visible4 ,i  
thought ,i must be on the top of a      
stupendous mountain1 and yet ,i was     
puzzled to understand how the face of   
the earth could be so far withdrawn4    
,presently ,i became aware that there   
was some one by me whom ,i could not    
see4  ,you are not on a mountain1 my    
companion said1 and as he spoke a cold  
shiver ran along my back-bone2 you are  
on an asteroid1 one of those miniature  
planets1 as you astronomers call them1  
and of which you have discovered several
 hundred revolving between the orbits of
 ,mars and ,jupiter4 ,this is the little
 globe that you have glimpsed           
occasionally with your telescope1 and   
that you1 or some of your fellows1 have 
been kind enough to name ,menippe4      
,then ,i perceived that my companion1   
whose address had hardly been           
reassuring1 was a gigantic inhabitant of
 the little planet1 towering up to a    
height of three quarters of a mile4 ,for
 a moment ,i was highly amused1 standing

 by his foot1 which swelled up like a   
hill1 and straining my neck backward to 
get a look up along the precipice of his
 leg1 which1 curiously enough1 ,i       
observed was clothed in rough homespun1 
the woolly knots of the cloth appearing 
of tremendous size1 while it bagged at  
the knee like any terrestrial trousers' 
leg4 ,his great head and face ,i could  
see far above me1 as it were1 in the    
clouds4 ,yet ,i was not at all          
astonished4  ,this is all right1 ,i said
 to myself4 ,of course on ,menippe the  
people must be as large as this1 for the
 little planet is only a dozen miles in 
diameter1 and the force of gravity is   
consequently so small that a man without
 loss of activity1 or inconvenience1 can
 grow three quarters of a mile tall4    
,suddenly an idea occurred to me4 ,just 
to think what a jump ,i can make6 ,why1 
only the other day ,i was figuring it   
out that a man could easily jump a      
thousand feet high from the surface of  
,menippe1 and now here ,i actually am on

 ,menippe4 ,i'll jump4  ,the sensation  
of that glorious rise skyward was       
delightful beyond expression4 ,my legs  
seemed to have become as powerful as the
 engines of a transatlantic liner1 and  
with one spring ,i rose smoothly and    
swiftly1 and as straight as an arrow1   
surmounting the giant's foot1 passing   
his knee and attaining nearly to the    
level of his hip4 ,then ,i felt that the
 momentum of my leap was exhausted1 and 
despite my efforts ,i slowly turned head
 downward1 glancing in affright at the  
ground a quarter of a mile below me1 on 
which ,i expected to be dashed to       
pieces4 ,but a moment's thought         
convinced me that ,i should get no hurt1
 for with so slight a force of gravity  
it would be more like floating than     
falling4 ,just then the ,menippean      
caught me with his monstrous hand and   
lifted me to the level of his face4  ,i 
should like to know1 ,i said1 how you   
manage to live up here2 you are so large
 and your planet is so little4  ,now1   

you are altogether too inquisitive1     
replied the giant4 ,you go6  ,he stooped
 down1 placed me on the toe of his boot1
 and drew back his foot to kick me off4 
,it flashed into my mind that my        
situation had now become very serious4  
,i knew well what the effects of the    
small attractive force of these         
diminutive planets must be1 for ,i had  
often amused myself with calculations   
about them4 ,in this moment of peril ,i 
did not forget my mathematics4 ,it was  
clear that if the giant propelled me    
with sufficient velocity ,i should be   
shot into space1 never to return4 ,how  
great would that velocity have to be8   
,my mind worked like lightning on this  
problem4 ,the diameter of ,menippe ,i   
knew did not exceed twelve miles4 ,its  
mean density1 as near as ,i could judge1
 was about the same as that of the      
earth4 ,its attraction must therefore be
 as its radius1 or nearly #ffj times    
less than that of the earth4 ,a         
well-known formula enables us to compute

 the velocity a body would acquire in   
falling from an infinite distance to the
 earth or any other planet whose size   
and force of gravity are known4 ,the    
same formula1 taken in the opposite     
sense1 of course1 shows how fast a body 
must start from a planet in order that  
it may be freed from its control4 ,the  
formula is ,v  square root of 7#b gr471 
in which g is the acceleration of       
gravity1 equal for the earth to #cb feet
 in a second1 and r is the radius of the
 attracting body4 ,on ,menippe ,i knew g
 must equal about one twentieth of a    
foot1 and r #ca1fhj feet4 ,like a flash 
,i applied the formula while the giant's
 muscles were yet tightening for the    
kick3 #ca1fhj  #a_/bj  #b  #c1afh1 the  
square root of which is a fraction more 
than #ef4 ,fifty-six feet in a second1  
then1 was the critical velocity with    
which ,i must be kicked off in order    
that ,i might never return4 ,i perceived
 at once that the giant would be able to
 accomplish it4 ,i turned and shouted up

 at him3  ,hold on1 ,i have something to
 say to you6  ,i dimly saw his          
mountainous face puckered into mighty   
wrinkles1 out of which his eyes glared  
fiercely1 and the next moment ,i was    
sailing into space4 ,i could no more    
have kept a balance than the earth can  
stand still upon its axis4 ,i had become
 a small planet myself1 and1 like all   
planets1 ,i rotated4 ,yet the motion did
 not dizzy me1 and soon ,i became       
intensely interested in the panorama of 
creation that was spread around me4 ,for
 some time1 whenever my face was turned 
toward the little globe of ,menippe1 ,i 
saw the giant1 partly in profile against
 the sky1 with his back bent and his    
hands upon his knees1 watching me with  
an occasional approving nod of his big  
head4 ,he looked so funny standing there
 on his little seven-by-nine world1 like
 a clown on a performing ball1 that1    
despite my terrible situation1 ,i shook 
my sides with laughter4 ,there was no   
echo in the profundity of empty space4  

,soon ,menippe dwindled to a point1 and 
,i saw her inhospitable inhabitant no   
more4 ,then ,i watched the sun and the  
blazing firmament around1 for there was 
at the same time broad day and midnight 
for me4 ,the sunlight1 being no longer  
diffused by an atmosphere1 did not      
conceal the face of the sky1 and ,i     
could see the stars shining close to the
 orb of day4 ,i recognized the various  
planets much more easily than ,i had    
been accustomed to do1 and1 with a      
twinge at my heart1 saw the earth       
traveling along in its distant orbit1   
splendid in the sunshine4 ,i thought of 
my wife sitting alone by the telescope  
in the darkness and silence1 wondering  
what had become of me4 ,i asked myself1 
,how in the world can ,i ever get back  
there again8 ,then ,i smiled to think of
 the ridiculous figure ,i cut1 out here 
in space1 exposed to the eyes of the    
universe1 a rotating1 gyrating1         
circumambulating astronomer1 an animated
 teetotum lost in the sky4 ,i saw no    

reason to hope that ,i should not go on 
thus forever1 revolving around the sun  
until my bones1 whitening among the     
stars1 might be revealed to the         
superlative powers of some future       
telescope1 and become a subject of      
absorbing interest1 the topic of many a 
learned paper for the astronomers of a  
future age4 ,afterward ,i was comforted 
by the reflection that in airless space1
 although ,i might die and my body      
become desiccated1 yet there could be no
 real decay2 even my garments would     
probably last forever4 ,the savants1    
after all1 should never speculate on my 
bones4  ,i saw the ruddy disk of ,mars1 
and the glinting of his icy poles1 as   
the beautiful planet rolled far below   
me4 ,if ,i could only get there1 ,i     
thought1 ,i should know what those      
canals of ,schiaparelli are1 and even if
 ,i could never return to the earth1 ,i 
should doubtless meet with a warm       
welcome among the ,martians4 ,what a    
lion ,i should be6 ,i looked longingly  

at the distant planet1 the outlines of  
whose continents and seas appeared most 
enticing1 but when ,i tried to propel   
myself in that direction ,i only kicked 
against nothingness4 ,i groaned in      
desperation4  ,suddenly something darted
 by me flying sunward2 then another and 
another4 ,in a minute ,i was surrounded 
by strange projectiles4 ,every instant  
,i expected to be dashed in pieces by   
them4 ,they sped with the velocity of   
lightning4 ,hundreds1 thousands of them 
were all about me4 ,my chance of not    
being hit was not one in a million1 and 
yet ,i escaped4 ,the sweat of terror was
 upon me1 but ,i did not lose my head4  
,a comet has met me1 ,i said4 ,these    
missiles are the meteoric stones of     
which it is composed4 ,and now ,i       
noticed that as they rushed along       
collisions took place1 and flashes of   
electricity darted from one to another4 
,a pale luminosity dimmed the stars4 ,i 
did not doubt that1 as seen from the    
earth1 the comet was already flinging   

the splendors of its train upon the     
bosom of the night4  ,while ,i was      
wondering at my immunity amid such a    
rain of death-threatening bolts1 ,i     
became aware that their velocity was    
sensibly diminishing4 ,this fact ,i     
explained by supposing that ,i was drawn
 along with them4 ,notwithstanding the  
absence of any collision with my body1  
the overpowering attraction of the whole
 mass of meteors was overcoming my      
tangential force and bearing me in their
 direction4 ,at first ,i rejoiced at    
this circumstance1 for at any rate the  
comet would save me from the dreadful   
fate of becoming an asteroid4 ,a little 
further reflection1 however1 showed me  
that ,i had gone from the frying-pan    
into the fire4 ,the direction of my     
expulsion from ,menippe had been such   
that ,i had fallen into an orbit that   
would have carried me around the sun    
without passing very close to the solar 
body4 ,now1 being swept along by the    
comet1 whose perihelion probably lay in 

the immediate neighborhood of the sun1  
,i saw no way of escape from the        
frightful fate of being broiled alive4  
,even where ,i was1 the untempered rays 
of the sun scorched me1 and ,i knew that
 within two or three hundred thousand   
miles of the solar surface the heat must
 be sufficient to melt the hardest      
rocks4 ,i was aware that experiments    
with burning-glasses had sufficiently   
demonstrated that fact4  ,but perforce  
,i resigned myself to my fate4 ,at any  
rate it would the sooner be all over4   
,in fact1 ,i almost forgot my awful     
situation in the interest awakened by   
the phenomena of the comet4 ,i was in   
the midst of its very head4 ,i was one  
of its component particles4 ,i was a    
meteor among a million millions of      
others4 ,if ,i could only get back to   
the earth1 what news could ,i not carry 
to ,signor ,schiaparelli and ,mr4       
,lockyer and ,dr4 ,bredichin about the  
composition of comets6 ,but1 alas6 the  
world could never know what ,i now saw4 

,nobody on yonder gleaming earth1       
watching the magnificent advance of this
 specter of the skies1 would ever dream 
that there was a lost astronomer in its 
blazing head4 ,i should be burned and   
rent to pieces amid the terrors of its  
perihelion passage1 and my fragments    
would be strewn along the comet's orbit1
 to become1 in course of time1 particles
 in a swarm of aerolites4 ,perchance1   
through the effects of some unforeseen  
perturbation1 the earth might encounter 
that swarm4 ,thus only could ,i ever    
return to the bosom of my mother planet4
 ,i took a positive pleasure in         
imagining that one of my calcined bones 
might eventually flash for a moment1 a  
falling star1 in the atmosphere of the  
earth1 leaving its atoms to slowly      
settle through the air1 until finally   
they rested in the soil from which they 
had sprung4  ,from such reflections ,i  
was aroused by the approach of the      
crisis4 ,the head of the comet had      
become an exceedingly uncomfortable     

place4 ,the collisions among the meteors
 were constantly increasing in number   
and violence4 ,how ,i escaped           
destruction ,i could not comprehend1 but
 in fact ,i was unconscious of danger   
from that source4 ,i had become in      
spirit an actual component of the       
clashing1 roaring mass4 ,tremendous     
sparks of electricity1 veritable        
lightning strokes1 darted about me in   
every direction1 but ,i bore a charmed  
life4 ,as the comet drew in nearer to   
the sun1 under the terrible stress of   
the solar attraction1 the meteors seemed
 to crowd closer1 crashing and grinding 
together1 while the whole mass swayed   
and shrieked with the uproar of a       
million tormented devils4 ,the heat had 
become terrific4 ,i saw stone and iron  
melted like snow and dissipated in      
steam4 ,stupendous jets of white-hot    
vapor shot upward1 and1 driven off by   
the electrical repulsion of the sun1    
streamed backward into the tail4        
,suddenly ,i myself became sensible of  

the awful heat4 ,it seemed without      
warning to have penetrated my vitals4   
,with a yell ,i jerked my feet from a   
boiling rock and flung my arms          
despairingly over my head4  ,you had    
better be careful1 said my wife1 or     
you'll knock over the telescope4  ,i    
rubbed my eyes1 shook myself1 and rose4 
,i must have been dreaming1 ,i said4  ,i
 should think it was a very lively      
dream1 she replied4  ,i responded after 
the manner of a young man newly wed4    
,at this moment the occultation began4  
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,jupiter1 ,,the        
,,greatest ,,of ,,known ,,worlds   ,when
 we are thinking of worlds1 and trying  
to exalt the imagination with them1 it  
is well to turn to ,jupiter1 for there  
is a planet worth pondering upon6 ,a    
world thirteen hundred times as         
voluminous as the earth is a phenomenon 
calculated to make us feel somewhat as  
the inhabitant of a rural village does  
when his amazed vision ranges across the
 million roofs of a metropolis4 ,jupiter

 is the first of the outer and greater  
planets1 the major1 or ,jovian1 group4  
,his mean diameter is #hf1ejj miles1 and
 his average girth more than #bgj1jjj   
miles4 ,an inhabitant of ,jupiter1 in   
making a trip around his planet1 along  
any great circle of the sphere1 would   
have to travel more than #cj1jjj miles  
farther than the distance between the   
earth and the moon4 ,the polar          
compression of ,jupiter1 owing to his   
rapid rotation1 amounts in the aggregate
 to more than #e1jjj miles1 the         
equatorial diameter being #hh1bjj miles 
and the polar diameter #hc1jjj miles4   
,jupiter's mean distance from the sun is
 #dhc1jjj1jjj miles1 and the            
eccentricity of his orbit is sufficient 
to make this distance variable to the   
extent of #ba1jjj1jjj miles2 but1 in    
view of his great average distance1 the 
consequent variation in the amount of   
solar light and heat received by the    
planet is not of serious importance4    
,when he is in opposition to the sun as 

seen from the earth ,jupiter's mean     
distance from us is about #cij1jjj1jjj  
miles4 ,his year1 or period of          
revolution about the sun1 is somewhat   
less than twelve of our years 7#aa4hf   
years74 ,his axis is very nearly upright
 to the plane of his orbit1 so that1 as 
upon ,venus1 there is practically no    
variation of seasons4 ,gigantic though  
he is in dimensions1 ,jupiter is the    
swiftest of all the planets in axial    
rotation4 ,while the earth requires     
twenty-four hours to make a complete    
turn1 ,jupiter takes less than ten hours
 7nine hours fifty-five minutes71 and a 
point on his equator moves1 in          
consequence of axial rotation1 between  
#bg1jjj and #bh1jjj miles in an hour4   
,the density of the mighty planet is    
slight1 only about one quarter of the   
mean density of the earth and virtually 
the same as that of the sun4 ,this fact 
at once calls attention to a contrast   
between ,jupiter and our globe that is  
even more significant than their immense

 difference in size4 ,the force of      
gravity upon ,jupiter's surface is more 
than two and a half times greater than  
upon the earth's surface 7more          
accurately #b4fe times71 so that a      
hundred-pound weight removed from the   
planet on which we live to ,jupiter     
would there weigh #bfe pounds1 and an   
average man1 similarly transported1     
would be oppressed with a weight of at  
least #djj pounds4 ,but1 as a result of 
the rapid rotation of the great planet1 
and the ellipticity of its figure1 the  
unfortunate visitor could find a        
perceptible relief from his troublesome 
weight by seeking the planet's equator1 
where the centrifugal tendency would    
remove about twenty pounds from every   
one hundred as compared with his weight 
at the poles4  ,if we could go to the   
moon1 or to ,mercury1 ,venus1 or ,mars1 
we may be certain that upon reaching any
 of those globes we should find         
ourselves upon a solid surface1 probably
 composed of rock not unlike the rocky  

crust of the earth2 but with ,jupiter   
the case would evidently be very        
different4 ,as already remarked1 the    
mean density of that planet is only one 
quarter of the earth's density1 or only 
one third greater than the density of   
water4 ,consequently the visitor1 in    
attempting to set foot upon ,jupiter1   
might find no solid supporting surface1 
but would be in a situation as          
embarrassing as that of ,milton's ,satan
 when he undertook to cross the domain  
of ,chaos3      ,fluttering his pinions 
vain1 plumb down he drops1     ,ten     
thousand fathom deep1 and to this hour  
,down had been falling had not1 by ill  
chance1     ,the strong rebuff of some  
tumultuous cloud4     ,instinct with    
fire and niter1 hurried him     ,as many
 miles aloft2 that fury stayed1         
,quenched in a boggy ,syrtis1 neither   
sea     ,nor good dry land1 nigh        
foundered1 as he fares1     ,treading   
the crude consistence1 half on foot1    
,half flying4  ,the probability that    

nothing resembling a solid crust1 nor1  
perhaps1 even a liquid shell1 would be  
found at the visible surface of         
,jupiter1 is increased by considering   
that the surface density must be much   
less than the mean density of the planet
 taken as a whole1 and since the latter 
but little exceeds the density of water1
 it is likely that at the surface       
everything is in a state resembling that
 of cloud or smoke4 ,our imaginary      
visitor upon reaching ,jupiter would1   
under the influence of the planet's     
strong force of gravity1 drop out of    
sight1 with the speed of a shot1        
swallowed up in the vast atmosphere of  
probably hot1 and perhaps partially     
incandescent1 gases4 ,when he had       
sunk--supposing his identity could be   
preserved--to a depth of thousands of   
miles he might not yet have found any   
solid part of the planet2 and1          
perchance1 there is no solid nucleus    
even at the very center4  ,the cloudy   
aspect of ,jupiter immediately strikes  

the telescopic observer4 ,the huge      
planet is filled with color1 and with   
the animation of constant movement1 but 
there is no appearance of markings1 like
 those on ,mars1 recalling the look of  
the earth4 ,there are no white polar    
caps1 and no shadings that suggest the  
outlines of continents and oceans4 ,what
 every observer1 even with the smallest 
telescope1 perceives at once is a pair  
of strongly defined dark belts1 one on  
either side of1 and both parallel to1   
the planet's equator4 ,these belts are  
dark compared with the equatorial band  
between them and with the general       
surface of the planet toward the north  
and the south1 but they are not of a    
gray or neutral shade4 ,on the contrary1
 they show decided1 and1 at times1      
brilliant colors1 usually of a reddish  
tone4 ,more delicate tints1 sometimes a 
fine pink1 salmon1 or even light green1 
are occasionally to be seen about the   
equatorial zone1 and the borders of the 
belts1 while near the poles the surface 

is shadowed with bluish gray1           
imperceptibly deepening from the lighter
 hues of the equator4  ,all this variety
 of tone and color makes of a telescopic
 view of ,jupiter a picture that will   
not quickly fade from the memory2 while 
if an instrument of considerable power  
is used1 so that the wonderful details  
of the belts1 with their scalloped      
edges1 their diagonal filaments1 their  
many divisions1 and their curious light 
and dark spots1 are made plain1 the     
observer is deeply impressed with the   
strangeness of the spectacle1 and the   
more so as he reflects upon the enormous
 real magnitude of that which is spread 
before his eye4 ,the whole earth        
flattened out would be but a small      
blotch on that gigantic disk6  ,then1   
the visible rotation of the great       
,jovian globe1 whose effects become     
evident to a practised eye after but a  
few minutes' watching1 heightens the    
impression4 ,and the presence of the    
four satellites1 whose motions in their 

orbits are also evident1 through the    
change in their positions1 during the   
course of a single not prolonged        
observation1 adds its influence to the  
effectiveness of the scene4 ,indeed1    
color and motion are so conspicuous in  
the immense spectacle presented by      
,jupiter that they impart to it a       
powerful suggestion of life1 which the  
mind does not readily divest itself of  
when compelled to face the evidence that
 ,jupiter is as widely different from   
the earth1 and as diametrically opposed 
to lifelike conditions1 as we comprehend
 them1 as a planet possibly could be4   
,the great belts lie in latitudes about 
corresponding to those in which the     
trade-winds blow upon the earth1 and it 
has often been suggested that their     
existence indicates a similarity between
 the atmospheric circulation of ,jupiter
 and that of the world in which we live4
 ,no doubt there are times when the     
earth1 seen with a telescope from a     
distant planet1 would present a belted  

appearance somewhat resembling that of  
,jupiter1 but there would almost        
certainly be no similar display of      
colors in the clouds1 and the latter    
would exhibit no such persistence in    
general form and position as            
characterizes those of ,jupiter4 ,our   
clouds are formed by the action of the  
sun1 producing evaporation of water2 on 
,jupiter1 whose mean distance from the  
sun is more than five times as great as 
ours1 the intensity of the solar rays is
 reduced to less than one twenty-fifth  
part of their intensity on the earth1 so
 that the evaporation can not be equally
 active there1 and the tendency to form 
aerial currents and great systems of    
winds must be proportionally slight4 ,in
 brief1 the clouds of ,jupiter are      
probably of an entirely different origin
 from that of terrestrial clouds1 and   
rather resemble the chaotic masses of   
vapor that enveloped the earth when it  
was still in a seminebulous condition1  
and before its crust had formed4        

,although the strongest features of the 
disk of ,jupiter are the great cloud    
belts1 and the white or colored spots in
 the equatorial zone1 yet the telescope 
shows many markings north and south of  
the belts1 including a number of        
narrower and fainter belts1 and small   
light or dark spots4 ,none of them is   
absolutely fixed in position with       
reference to others4 ,in other words1   
all of the spots1 belts1 and markings   
shift their places to a perceptible     
extent1 the changes being generally very
 slow and regular1 but occasionally     
quite rapid4 ,the main belts never      
entirely disappear1 and never depart    
very far from their mean positions with 
respect to the equator1 but the smaller 
belts toward the north and south are    
more or less evanescent4 ,round or      
oblong spots1 as distinguished from     
belts1 are still more variable and      
transient4 ,the main belts themselves   
show great internal commotion1          
frequently splitting up1 through a      

considerable part of their length1 and  
sometimes apparently throwing out       
projections into the lighter equatorial 
zone1 which occasionally resemble       
bridges1 diagonally spanning the broad  
space between the belts4  ,illustration3
 ,,jupiter ,,as ,,seen ,,at ,,the ,,lick
 ,,observatory ,,in #ahhi4 ,,the ,,great
 ,,red ,,spot ,,is ,,visible1 ,,together
 ,,with ,,the ,,indentation ,,in ,,the  
,,south ,,belt4  ,perhaps the most      
puzzling phenomenon that has ever made  
its appearance on ,jupiter is the       
celebrated great red spot1 which was    
first noticed in #ahgh1 although it has 
since been shown to be probably         
identical with a similar spot seen in   
#ahfi1 and possibly with one noticed in 
#aheg4 ,this spot1 soon after its       
discovery in #ahgh1 became a clearly    
defined red oval1 lying near the        
southern edge of the south belt in      
latitude about #cj4 ,its length was     
nearly one third of the diameter of the 
disk and its width almost one quarter as

 great as its length4 ,translated into  
terrestrial measure1 it was about       
#cj1jjj miles long and #g1jjj miles     
broad4  ,in #ahgi it seemed to deepen in
 color until it became a truly wonderful
 object1 its redness of hue irresistibly
 suggesting the idea that it was        
something hot and glowing4 ,during the  
following years it underwent various    
changes of appearance1 now fading almost
 to invisibility and now brightening    
again1 but without ever completely      
vanishing1 and it is still 7#aija7      
faintly visible4  ,nobody has yet       
suggested an altogether probable and    
acceptable theory as to its nature4     
,some have said that it might be a part 
of the red-hot crust of the planet      
elevated above the level of the clouds2 
others that its appearance might be due 
to the clearing off of the clouds above 
a heated region of the globe beneath1   
rendering the latter visible through the
 opening2 others that it was perhaps a  
mass of smoke and vapor ejected from a  

gigantic volcano1 or from the vents     
covering a broad area of volcanic       
action2 others that it might be a vast  
incandescent slag floating upon the     
molten globe of the planet and visible  
through1 or above1 the enveloping       
clouds2 and others have thought that it 
could be nothing but a cloud among      
clouds1 differing1 for unknown reasons1 
in composition and cohesion from its    
surroundings4 ,all of these hypotheses  
except the last imply the existence1    
just beneath the visible cloud shell1 of
 a more or less stable and continuous   
surface1 either solid or liquid4  ,when 
the red spot began to lose distinctness 
a kind of veil seemed to be drawn over  
it1 as if light clouds1 floating at a   
superior elevation1 had drifted across  
it4 ,at times it has been reduced in    
this manner to a faint oval ring1 the   
rim remaining visible after the central 
part has faded from sight4  ,one of the 
most remarkable phenomena connected with
 the mysterious spot is a great bend1 or

 scallop1 in the southern edge of the   
south belt adjacent to the spot4 ,this  
looks as if it were produced by the     
spot1 or by the same cause to which the 
spot owes its existence4 ,if the spot   
were an immense mountainous elevation1  
and the belt a current of liquid1 or of 
clouds1 flowing past its base1 one would
 expect to see some such bend in the    
stream4 ,the visual evidence that the   
belt is driven1 or forced1 away from the
 neighborhood of the spot seems         
complete4 ,the appearance of repulsion  
between them is very striking1 and even 
when the spot fades nearly to           
invisibility the curve remains equally  
distinct1 so that in using a telescope  
too small to reveal the spot itself one 
may discover its location by observing  
the bow in the south belt4 ,the         
suggestion of a resemblance to the      
flowing of a stream past the foot of an 
elevated promontory1 or mountain1 is    
strengthened by the fact1 which was     
observed early in the history of the    

spot1 that markings involved in the     
south belt have a quicker rate of       
rotation about the planet's axis than   
that of the red spot1 so that such      
markings1 first seen in the rear of the 
red spot1 gradually overtake and pass   
it1 and eventually leave it behind1 as  
boats in a river drift past a rock lying
 in the midst of the current4  ,this    
leads us to another significant fact    
concerning the peculiar condition of    
,jupiter's surface4 ,not only does the  
south belt move perceptibly faster than 
the red spot1 but1 generally speaking1  
the various markings on the surface of  
the planet move at different rates      
according as they are nearer to or      
farther from the equator4 ,between the  
equator and latitude #cj or #dj there is
 a difference of six minutes in the     
rotation period--i4e41 the equatorial   
parts turn round the axis so much faster
 than the parts north and south of them1
 that in one rotation they gain six     
minutes of time4 ,in other words1 the   

clouds over ,jupiter's equator flow past
 those in the middle latitudes with a   
relative velocity of #bgj miles per     
hour4 ,but there are no sharp lines of  
separation between the different        
velocities2 on the contrary1 the        
swiftness of rotation gradually         
diminishes from the equator toward the  
poles1 as it manifestly could not do if 
the visible surface of ,jupiter were    
solid4  ,in this respect ,jupiter       
resembles the sun1 whose surface also   
has different rates of rotation         
diminishing from the equator4 ,measured 
by the motion of spots on or near the   
equator1 ,jupiter's rotation period is  
about nine hours fifty minutes2 measured
 by the motion of spots in the middle   
latitudes1 it is about nine hours       
fifty-six minutes4 ,the red spot        
completes a rotation in a little less   
than nine hours and fifty-six minutes1  
but its period can not be positively    
given for the singular reason that it is
 variable4 ,the variation amounts to    

only a few seconds in the course of     
several years1 but it is nevertheless   
certain4 ,the phenomenon of variable    
motion is not1 however1 peculiar to the 
red spot4 ,mr4 ,w4,f4 ,denning1 who has 
studied ,jupiter for a quarter of a     
century1 says3  ,it is well known that  
in different latitudes of ,jupiter there
 are currents1 forming the belts and    
zones1 moving at various rates of speed4
 ,in many instances the velocity changes
 from year to year4 ,and it is a        
singular circumstance that in the same  
current a uniform motion is not         
maintained in all parts of the          
circumference4 ,certain spots move      
faster than others1 so that if we would 
obtain a fair value for the rotation    
period of any current it is not         
sufficient to derive it from one marking
 alone2 we must follow a number of      
objects distributed in different        
longitudes along the current and deduce 
a mean from the whole4#aj  ,footnote    
#aj3 ,the ,observatory1 ,no4 #bhf1      

,december1 #ahii4  ,nor is this all4    
,observation indicates that if we could 
look at a vertical section of ,jupiter's
 atmosphere we should behold an equally 
remarkable contrast and conflict of     
motions4 ,there is evidence that some of
 the visible spots1 or clouds1 lie at a 
greater elevation than others1 and it   
has been observed that the deeper ones  
move more rapidly4 ,this fact has led   
some observers to conclude that the     
deep-lying spots may be a part of the   
actual surface of the planet4 ,but if we
 could think that there is any solid    
nucleus1 or core1 in the body of        
,jupiter1 it would seem1 on account of  
the slight mean density of the planet1  
that it can not lie so near the visible 
surface1 but must be at a depth of      
thousands1 perhaps tens of thousands1 of
 miles4 ,since the telescope is unable  
to penetrate the cloudy envelope we can 
only guess at the actual constitution of
 the interior of ,jupiter's globe4 ,in a
 spirit of mere speculative curiosity it

 has been suggested that deep under the 
clouds of the great planet there may be 
a comparatively small solid globe1 even 
a habitable world1 closed round by a    
firmament all its own1 whose vault1     
raised #cj1jjj or #dj1jjj miles above   
the surface of the imprisoned planet1   
appears only an unbroken dome1 too      
distant to reveal its real nature to    
watchers below1 except1 perhaps1 under  
telescopic scrutiny2 enclosing1 as in a 
shell1 a transparent atmosphere1 and    
deriving its illumination partly from   
the sunlight that may filter through1   
but mainly from some luminous source    
within4  ,but is not ,jupiter almost    
equally fascinating to the imagination1 
if we dismiss all attempts to picture a 
humanly impossible world shut up within 
it1 and turn rather to consider what its
 future may be1 guided by the not       
unreasonable hypothesis that1 because of
 its immense size and mass1 it is still 
in a chaotic condition8 ,mention has    
been made of the resemblance of ,jupiter

 to the sun by virtue of their similar  
manner of rotation4 ,this is not the    
only reason for looking upon ,jupiter as
 being1 in some respects1 almost as much
 a solar as a planetary body4 ,its      
exceptional brightness rather favors the
 view that a small part of the light by 
which it shines comes from its own      
incandescence4 ,in size and mass it is  
half-way between the earth and the sun4 
,jupiter is eleven times greater than   
the earth in diameter and thirteen      
hundred times greater in volume2 the sun
 is ten times greater than ,jupiter in  
diameter and a thousand times greater in
 volume4 ,the mean density of ,jupiter1 
as we have seen1 is almost exactly the  
same as the sun's4  ,now1 the history of
 the solar system1 according to the     
nebular hypothesis1 is a history of     
cooling and condensation4 ,the sun1 a   
thousand times larger than ,jupiter1 has
 not yet sufficiently cooled and        
contracted to become incrusted1 except  
with a shell of incandescent metallic   

clouds2 ,jupiter1 a thousand times      
smaller than the sun1 has cooled and    
contracted until it is but slightly1 if 
at all1 incandescent at its surface1    
while its thickening shell1 although    
still composed of vapor and smoke1 and  
still probably hot1 has grown so dense  
that it entirely cuts off the luminous  
radiation from within2 the earth1 to    
carry the comparison one step further1  
being more than a thousand times smaller
 than ,jupiter1 has progressed so far in
 the process of cooling that its        
original shell of vapor has given place 
to one of solid rock4  ,a sudden        
outburst of light from ,jupiter1 such as
 occurs occasionally in a star that is  
losing its radiance through the         
condensation of absorbing vapors around 
it1 would furnish strong corroboration  
of the theory that ,jupiter is really an
 extinguished sun which is now on the   
way to become a planet in the           
terrestrial sense4  ,not very long ago1 
as time is reckoned in astronomy1 our   

sun1 viewed from the distance of the    
nearer fixed stars1 may have appeared as
 a binary star1 the brighter component  
of the pair being the sun itself and the
 fainter one the body now called the    
planet ,jupiter4 ,supposing the latter  
to have had the same intrinsic          
brilliance1 surface for surface1 as the 
sun1 it would have radiated one hundred 
times less light than the sun4 ,a       
difference of one hundredfold between   
the light of two stars means that they  
are six magnitudes apart2 or1 in other  
words1 from a point in space where the  
sun appeared as bright as what we call a
 first-magnitude star1 its companion1   
,jupiter1 would have shone as a         
sixth-magnitude star4 ,many stars have  
companions proportionally much fainter  
than that4 ,the companion of ,sirius1   
for instance1 is at least ten thousand  
times less bright than its great        
comrade4  ,looking at ,jupiter in this  
way1 it interests us not as the probable
 abode of intelligent life1 but as a    

world in the making1 a world1 moreover1 
which1 when it is completed--if it ever 
shall be after the terrestrial          
pattern--will dwarf our globe into      
insignificance4 ,that stupendous miracle
 of world-making which is dimly painted 
in the grand figures employed by the    
writers of ,genesis1 and the composers  
of other cosmogonic legends1 is here    
actually going on before our eyes4 ,the 
telescope shows us in the cloudy face of
 ,jupiter the moving of the spirit upon 
the face of the great deep4 ,what the   
final result will be we can not tell1   
but clearly the end of the grand        
processes there in operation has not yet
 been reached4  ,the interesting        
suggestion was made and urged by ,mr4   
,proctor that if ,jupiter itself is in  
no condition at present to bear life1   
its satellites may be1 in that respect1 
more happily circumstanced4 ,it can not 
be said that very much has been learned 
about the satellites of ,jupiter since  
,proctor's day1 and his suggestion is no

 less and no more probable now than it  
was when first offered4  ,there has been
 cumulative evidence that ,jupiter's    
satellites obey the same law that       
governs the rotation of our moon1 viz41 
that which compels them always to keep  
the same face turned toward their       
primary1 and this would clearly affect1 
although it might not preclude1 their   
habitability4 ,with the exception of the
 minute fifth satellite discovered by   
,barnard in #ahib1 they are all of      
sufficient size to retain at least some 
traces of an atmosphere4 ,in fact1 one  
of them is larger than the planet ,mars1
 and another is of nearly the same size 
as that planet1 while the smallest of   
the four principal ones is about equal  
to our moon4 ,under the powerful        
attraction of ,jupiter they travel      
rapidly1 and viewed from the surface of 
that planet they would offer a wonderful
 spectacle4  ,they are continually      
causing solar eclipses and themselves   
undergoing eclipse in ,jupiter's shadow1

 and their swiftly changing aspects and 
groupings would be watched by an        
astronomer on ,jupiter with undying     
interest4  ,but far more wonderful would
 be the spectacle presented by ,jupiter 
to inhabitants dwelling on his moons4   
,from the nearer moon1 in particular1   
which is situated less than #bbj1jjj    
miles from ,jupiter's surface1 the great
 planet would be an overwhelming        
phenomenon in the sky4  ,its immense    
disk1 hanging overhead1 would cover a   
circle of the firmament twenty degrees  
in diameter1 or1 in round numbers1 forty
 times the diameter of the full moon as 
seen from the earth6 ,it would shed a   
great amount of light and heat1 and thus
 would more or less effectively supply  
the deficit of solar radiation1 for we  
must remember that ,jupiter and his     
satellites receive from the sun less    
than one twenty-fifth as much light and 
heat as the earth receives4  ,the maze  
of contending motions1 the rapid flow   
and eddying of cloud belts1 the outburst

 of strange fiery spots1 the display of 
rich1 varied1 and constantly changing   
colors1 which astonish and delight the  
telescopic observer on the earth1 would 
be exhibited to the naked eye of an     
inhabitant of ,jupiter's nearest moon   
far more clearly than the greatest      
telescope is able to reveal them to us4 
,here1 again1 the mind is carried back  
to long past ages in the history of the 
planet on which we dwell4 ,it is        
believed by some that our moon may have 
contained inhabitants when the earth was
 still hot and glowing1 as ,jupiter     
appears to be now1 and that1 as the     
earth cooled and became habitable1 the  
moon gradually parted with its          
atmosphere and water so that its living 
races perished almost coincidently with 
the beginning of life on the earth4 ,if 
we accept this view and apply it to the 
case of ,jupiter we may conclude that   
when that enormous globe has cooled and 
settled down to a possibly habitable    
condition1 its four attendant moons will

 suffer the fate that overtook the      
earth's satellite1 and in their turn    
become barren and death-stricken1 while 
the great orb that once nurtured them   
with its light and heat receives the    
,promethean fire and begins to bloom    
with life4     ,,chapter ,,vii          
,,saturn1 ,a ,,prodigy ,,among ,,planets
   ,one of the first things that persons
 unaccustomed to astronomical           
observations ask to see when they have  
an opportunity to look through a        
telescope is the planet ,saturn4 ,many  
telescopic views in the heavens         
disappoint the beginner1 but that of    
,saturn does not4 ,even though the      
planet may not look as large as he      
expects to see it from what he has been 
told of the magnifying power employed1  
the untrained observer is sure to be    
greatly impressed by the wonderful      
rings1 suspended around it as if by a   
miracle4 ,no previous inspection of     
pictures of these rings can rob them of 
their effect upon the eye and the mind4 

,they are overwhelming in their         
inimitable singularity1 and they leave  
every spectator truly amazed4 ,sir ,john
 ,herschel has remarked that they have  
the appearance of an elaborately        
artificial mechanism4 ,they have even   
been regarded as habitable bodies6 ,what
 we are to think of that proposition we 
shall see when we come to consider their
 composition and probable origin4 ,in   
the meantime let us recall the main     
facts of ,saturn's dimensions and       
situation in the solar system4  ,saturn 
is the second of the major1 or ,jovian1 
group of planets1 and is situated at a  
mean distance from the sun of           
#hhf1jjj1jjj miles4 ,we need not        
consider the eccentricity of its orbit1 
which1 although relatively not very     
great1 produces a variation of          
#ej1jjj1jjj miles in its distance from  
the sun1 because1 at its immense mean   
distance1 this change would not be of   
much importance with regard to the      
planet's habitability or                

non-habitability4 ,under the most       
favorable conditions ,saturn can never  
be nearer than #gdd1jjj1jjj miles to the
 earth1 or eight times the sun's        
distance from us4 ,it receives from the 
sun about one ninetieth of the light and
 heat that we get4  ,illustration3      
,,saturn ,,in ,,its ,,three ,,principal 
,,phases ,,as ,,seen ,,from ,,the       
,,earth4 ,from a drawing by ,bond4      
,saturn takes twenty-nine and a half    
years to complete a journey about the   
sun4 ,like ,jupiter1 it rotates very    
rapidly on its axis1 the period being   
ten hours and fourteen minutes4 ,its    
axis of rotation is inclined not far    
from the same angle as that of the      
earth's axis 7#bf #di71 so that its     
seasons should resemble ours1 although  
their alternations are extremely slow in
 consequence of the enormous length of  
,saturn's year4  ,not including the     
rings in the calculation1 ,saturn       
exceeds the earth in size #gfj times4   
,the addition of the rings would not1   

however1 greatly alter the result of the
 comparison1 because1 although the total
 surface of the rings1 counting both    
faces1 exceeds the earth's surface about
 #afj times1 their volume1 owing to     
their surprising thinness1 is only about
 six times the volume of the earth1 and 
their mass1 in consequence of their     
slight density1 is very much less than  
the earth's1 perhaps1 indeed1           
inappreciable in comparison4  ,saturn's 
mean diameter is #gc1jjj miles1 and its 
polar compression is even greater than  
that of ,jupiter1 a difference of #g1jjj
 miles--almost comparable with the      
entire diameter of the earth--existing  
between its equatorial and its polar    
diameter1 the former being #ge1jjj and  
the latter #fh1jjj miles4  ,we found the
 density of ,jupiter astonishingly      
slight1 but that of ,saturn is slighter 
still4 ,jupiter would sink if thrown    
into water1 but ,saturn would actually  
float1 if not like a cork1 yet quite as 
buoyantly as many kinds of wood1 for its

 mean density is only three quarters    
that of water1 or one eighth of the     
earth's4 ,in fact1 there is no known    
planet whose density is so slight as    
,saturn's4 ,thus it happens that1       
notwithstanding its vast size and mass1 
the force of gravity upon ,saturn is    
nearly the same as upon our globe4 ,upon
 visiting ,venus we should find         
ourselves weighing a little less than at
 home1 and upon visiting ,saturn a      
little more1 but in neither case would  
the difference be very important4 ,if   
the relative weight of bodies on the    
surfaces of planets formed the sole test
 of their habitability1 ,venus and      
,saturn would both rank with the earth  
as suitable abodes for men4  ,but the   
exceedingly slight density of ,saturn   
seems to be most reasonably accounted   
for on the supposition that1 like       
,jupiter1 it is in a vaporous condition1
 still very hot within--although but    
slightly1 if at all1 incandescent at the
 surface--and1 therefore1 unsuited to   

contain life4 ,it is hardly worth while 
to speculate about any solid nucleus    
within1 because1 even if such a thing   
were possible1 or probable1 it must lie 
forever hidden from our eyes4 ,but if we
 accept the theory that ,saturn is in an
 early formative stage1 and that1       
millions of years hence1 it may become  
an incrusted and habitable globe1 we    
shall1 at least1 follow the analogy of  
what we believe to have been the history
 of the earth1 except that ,saturn's    
immense distance from the sun will      
always prevent it from receiving an     
amount of solar radiation consistent    
with our ideas of what is required by a 
living world4 ,of course1 since one can 
imagine what he chooses1 it is possible 
to suppose inhabitants suited to        
existence in a world composed only of   
whirling clouds1 and a poet with the    
imagination of a ,milton might give us  
very imposing and stirring images of    
such creatures and their chaotic        
surroundings1 but fancies like these can

 have no basis in human experience1 and 
consequently can make no claim upon     
scientific recognition4  ,or1 as an     
alternative1 it might be assumed that   
,saturn is composed of lighter elements 
and materials than those which          
constitute the earth and the other solid
 planets in the more immediate          
neighborhood of the sun4 ,but such an   
assumption would put us entirely at sea 
as regards the forms of organic life    
that could exist upon a planet of that  
description1 and1 like ,sir ,humphry    
,davy in the ,vision1 that occupies the 
first chapter of his quaintly charming  
,consolations in ,travel1 or1 the ,last 
,days of a ,philosopher1 we should be   
thrown entirely upon the resources of   
the imagination in representing to      
ourselves the nature and appearance of  
its inhabitants4 ,yet minds of          
unquestioned power and sincerity have in
 all ages found pleasure and even profit
 in such exercises1 and with every fresh
 discovery arises a new flight of       

fancies like butterflies from a roadside
 pool4 ,as affording a glimpse into the 
mind of a remarkable man1 as well as a  
proof of the fascination of such        
subjects1 it will be interesting to     
quote from the book just mentioned      
,davy's description of his imaginary    
inhabitants of ,saturn3  ,i saw below me
 a surface infinitely diversified1      
something like that of an immense       
glacier covered with large columnar     
masses1 which appeared as if formed of  
glass1 and from which were suspended    
rounded forms of various sizes which1 if
 they had not been transparent1 ,i might
 have supposed to be fruit4 ,from what  
appeared to me to be analogous to       
bright-blue ice1 streams of the richest 
tint of rose color or purple burst forth
 and flowed into basins1 forming lakes  
or seas of the same color4 ,looking     
through the atmosphere toward the       
heavens1 ,i saw brilliant opaque clouds1
 of an azure color1 that reflected the  
light of the sun1 which had to my eyes  

an entirely new aspect and appeared     
smaller1 as if seen through a dense blue
 mist4  ,i saw moving on the surface    
below me immense masses1 the forms of   
which ,i find it impossible to describe4
 ,they had systems for locomotion       
similar to those of the morse1 or       
sea-horse1 but ,i saw1 with great       
surprise1 that they moved from place to 
place by six extremely thin membranes1  
which they used as wings4 ,their colors 
were varied and beautiful1 but          
principally azure and rose color4 ,i saw
 numerous convolutions of tubes1 more   
analogous to the trunk of the elephant  
than to anything else ,i can imagine1   
occupying what ,i supposed to be the    
upper parts of the body4 ,it was with a 
species of terror that ,i saw one of    
them mounting upward1 apparently flying 
toward those opaque clouds which ,i have
 before mentioned4  ',i know what your  
feelings are1' said the ,genius2 'you   
want analogies1 and all the elements of 
knowledge to comprehend the scene before

 you4 ,you are in the same state in     
which a fly would be whose microscopic  
eye was changed for one similar to that 
of man1 and you are wholly unable to    
associate what you now see with your    
former knowledge4 ,but those beings who 
are before you1 and who appear to you   
almost as imperfect in their functions  
as the zoophytes of the polar sea1 to   
which they are not unlike in their      
apparent organization to your eyes1 have
 a sphere of sensibility and            
intellectual enjoyment far superior to  
that of the inhabitants of your earth4  
,each of those tubes1 which appears like
 the trunk of an elephant1 is an organ  
of peculiar motion or sensation4 ,they  
have many modes of perception of which  
you are wholly ignorant1 at the same    
time that their sphere of vision is     
infinitely more extended than yours1 and
 their organs of touch far more perfect 
and exquisite4'  ,after descanting upon 
the advantages of ,saturn's position for
 surveying some of the phenomena of the 

solar system and of outer space1 and the
 consequent immense advances that the   
,saturnians have made in astronomical   
knowledge1 the ,genius continues3  ',if 
,i were to show you the different parts 
of the surface of this planet you would 
see the marvelous results of the powers 
possessed by these highly intellectual  
beings1 and of the wonderful manner in  
which they have applied and modified    
matter4 ,those columnar masses1 which   
seem to you as if rising out of a mass  
of ice below1 are results of art1 and   
processes are going on within them      
connected with the formation and        
perfection of their food4 ,the          
brilliant-colored fluids are the results
 of such operations as on the earth     
would be performed in your laboratories1
 or more properly in your refined       
culinary apparatus1 for they are        
connected with their system of          
nourishment4 ,those opaque azure clouds1
 to which you saw a few minutes ago one 
of those beings directing his course1   

are works of art1 and places in which   
they move through different regions of  
their atmosphere1 and command the       
temperature and the quantity of light   
most fitted for their philosophical     
researches1 or most convenient for the  
purposes of life4'#aa  ,footnote #aa3   
,davy1 of course1 was aware that1 owing 
to increase of distance1 the sun would  
appear to an inhabitant of ,saturn with 
a disk only one ninetieth as great in   
area as that which it presents to our   
eyes4  ,but1 while ,saturn does not     
appear1 with our present knowledge1 to  
hold out any encouragement to those who 
would regard it as the abode of living  
creatures capable of being described in 
any terms except those of pure          
imagination1 yet it is so unique a      
curiosity among the heavenly bodies that
 one returns again and again to the     
contemplation of its strange details4   
,saturn has nine moons1 but some of them
 are relatively small bodies--the ninth1
 discovered photographically by         

,professor ,pickering in #ahii1 being   
especially minute--and others are       
situated at great distances from the    
planet1 and for these reasons1 together 
with the fact that the sunlight is so   
feeble upon them that1 surface for      
surface1 they have only one ninetieth as
 much illumination as our moon receives1
 they can not make a very brilliant     
display in the ,saturnian sky4 ,to      
astronomers on ,saturn they would1 of   
course1 be intensely interesting because
 of their perturbations and particularly
 the effect of their attraction on the  
rings4  ,this brings us again to the    
consideration of those marvelous        
appendages1 and to the statement of     
facts about them which we have not yet  
recalled4  ,if the reader will take a   
ball three inches in diameter to        
represent the globe of ,saturn1 and1 out
 of the center of a circular piece of   
writing-paper seven inches in diameter1 
will cut a round hole three and three   
quarter inches across1 and will then    

place the ball in the middle of the hole
 in the paper1 he will have a very fair 
representation of the relative          
proportions of ,saturn and its rings4   
,to represent the main gap or division  
in the rings he might draw1 a little    
more than three eighths of an inch from 
the outer edge of the paper disk1 a     
pencil line about a sixteenth of an inch
 broad4  ,perhaps the most striking fact
 that becomes conspicuous in making such
 a model of the ,saturnian system is the
 exceeding thinness of the rings as     
compared with their enormous extent4    
,they are about #agj1jjj miles across   
from outer edge to outer edge1 and about
 #ch1jjj miles broad from outer edge to 
inner edge--including the gauze ring    
presently to be mentioned--yet their    
thickness probably does not surpass one 
hundred miles6 ,in fact1 the sheet of   
paper in our imaginary model is several 
times too thick to represent the true   
relative thickness of ,saturn's rings4  
,several narrow gaps in the rings have  

been detected from time to time1 but    
there is only one such gap that is      
always clearly to be seen1 the one      
already mentioned1 situated about       
#aj1jjj miles from the outer edge and   
about #a1fjj miles in width4 ,inside of 
this gap the broadest and brightest ring
 appears1 having a width of about       
#af1ejj miles4 ,for some reason this    
great ring is most brilliant near the   
gap1 and its brightness gradually falls 
off toward its inner side4 ,at a        
distance of something less than #bj1jjj 
miles from the planet--or perhaps it    
would be more correct to say above the  
planet1 for the rings hang directly over
 ,saturn's equator--the broad1 bright   
ring merges into a mysterious gauzelike 
object1 also in the form of a ring1     
which extends to within #i1jjj or       
#aj1jjj miles of the planet's surface1  
and therefore itself has a width of say 
#aj1jjj miles4  ,in consequence of the  
thinness of the rings they completely   
disappear from the range of vision of   

small telescopes when1 as occurs once in
 every fifteen years1 they are seen     
exactly edgewise from the earth4 ,in a  
telescope powerful enough to reveal them
 when in that situation they resemble a 
thin1 glowing needle run through the    
ball of the planet4 ,the rings will be  
in this position in #aijg1 and again in 
#aibb4  ,the opacity of the rings is    
proved by the shadow which they cast    
upon the ball of the planet4 ,this is   
particularly manifest at the time when  
they are edgewise to the earth1 for the 
sun being situated slightly above or    
below the plane of the rings then throws
 their shadow across ,saturn close to   
its equator4 ,when they are canted at a 
considerable angle to our line of sight 
their shadow is seen on the planet1     
bordering their outer edge where they   
cross the ball4  ,the gauze ring1 the   
detection of which as a faintly luminous
 phenomenon requires a powerful         
telescope1 can be seen with slighter    
telescopic power in the form of a light 

shade projected against the planet at   
the inner edge of the broad bright ring4
 ,the explanation of the existence of   
this peculiar object depends upon the   
nature of the entire system1 which1     
instead of being1 as the earliest       
observers thought it1 a solid ring or   
series of concentric rings1 is composed 
of innumerable small bodies1 like       
meteorites1 perhaps1 in size1           
circulating independently but in        
comparatively close juxtaposition to one
 another about ,saturn1 and presenting  
to our eyes1 because of their great     
number and of our enormous distance1 the
 appearance of solid1 uniform rings4 ,so
 a flock of ducks may look from afar    
like a continuous black line or band1   
although if we were near them we should 
perceive that a considerable space      
separates each individual from his      
neighbors4  ,the fact that this is the  
constitution of ,saturn's rings can be  
confidently stated because it has been  
mathematically proved that they could   

not exist if they were either solid or  
liquid bodies in a continuous form1 and 
because the late ,prof4 ,james ,e4      
,keeler demonstrated with the           
spectroscope1 by means of the ,doppler  
principle1 already explained in the     
chapter on ,venus1 that the rings       
circulate about the planet with varying 
velocities according to their distance  
from ,saturn's center1 exactly as       
independent satellites would do4  ,it   
might be said1 then1 that ,saturn1      
instead of having nine satellites only1 
has untold millions of them1 traveling  
in orbits so closely contiguous that    
they form the appearance of a vast ring4
  ,as to their origin1 it may be        
supposed that they are a relic of a ring
 of matter left in suspension during the
 contraction of the globe of ,saturn    
from a nebulous mass1 just as the rings 
from which the various planets are      
supposed to have been formed were left  
off during the contraction of the main  
body of the original solar nebula4      

,other similar rings originally         
surrounding ,saturn may have become     
satellites1 but the matter composing the
 existing rings is so close to the      
planet that it falls within the critical
 distance known as ,roche's limit1      
within which1 owing to the tidal effect 
of the planet's attraction1 no body so  
large as a true satellite could exist1  
and accordingly in the process of       
formation of the ,saturnian system this 
matter1 instead of being aggregated into
 a single satellite1 has remained spread
 out in the form of a ring1 although its
 substance long ago passed from the     
vaporous and liquid to the solid form4  
,we have spoken of the rings as being   
composed of meteorites1 but perhaps     
their component particles may be so     
small as to answer more closely to the  
definition of dust4 ,in these rings of  
dust1 or meteorites1 disturbances are   
produced by the attraction of the planet
 and that of the outer satellites1 and  
it is yet a question whether they are a 

stable and permanent feature of ,saturn1
 or will1 in the course of time1 be     
destroyed4#ab  ,footnote #ab3 ,for      
further details about ,saturn's rings1  
see ,the ,tides1 by ,g4,h4 ,darwin1     
chap4 xx4  ,it has been thought that the
 gauze ring is variable in brightness4  
,this would tend to show that it is     
composed of bodies which have been drawn
 in toward the planet from the principal
 mass of the rings1 and these bodies may
 end their career by falling upon the   
planet4 ,this process1 indefinitely     
continued1 would result in the total    
disappearance of the rings--,saturn     
would finally swallow them1 as the old  
god from whom the planet gets its name  
is fabled to have swallowed his         
children4  ,near the beginning of this  
chapter reference was made to the fact  
that ,saturn's rings have been regarded 
as habitable bodies4 ,that1 of course1  
was before the discovery that they were 
not solid4 ,knowing what we now know    
about them1 even ,dr4 ,thomas ,dick1 the

 great ,scotch popularizer of astronomy 
in the first half of the nineteenth     
century1 would have been compelled to   
abandon his theory that ,saturn's rings 
were crowded with inhabitants4 ,at the  
rate of #bhj to the square mile he      
reckoned that they could easily contain 
#h1jgh1ajb1bff1jhj people4  ,he even    
seems to have regarded their edges--in  
his time their actual thinness was      
already well known--as useful ground for
 the support of living creatures1 for he
 carefully calculated the aggregate area
 of these edges and found that it       
considerably exceeded the area of the   
entire surface of the earth4 ,indeed1   
,dr4 ,dick found room for more          
inhabitants on ,saturn's rings than on  
,saturn itself1 for1 excluding the gauze
 ring1 undiscovered in his day1 the two 
surfaces of the rings are greater in    
area than the surface of the globe of   
the planet4 ,he did not attack the      
problem of the weight of bodies on      
worlds in the form of broad1 flat1 thin1

 surfaces like ,saturn's rings1 or      
indulge in any reflections on the       
interrelations of the inhabitants of the
 opposite sides1 although he described  
the wonderful appearance of ,saturn and 
other celestial objects as viewed from  
the rings4  ,but all these speculations 
fall to the ground in face of the simple
 fact that if we could reach ,saturn's  
rings we should find nothing to stand   
upon1 except a cloud of swiftly flying  
dust or a swarm of meteors1 swayed by   
contending attractions4 ,and1 indeed1 it
 is likely that upon arriving in the    
immediate neighborhood of the rings they
 would virtually disappear6 ,seen close 
at hand their component particles might 
be so widely separated that all         
appearance of connection between them   
would vanish1 and it has been estimated 
that from ,saturn's surface the rings1  
instead of presenting a gorgeous arch   
spanning the heavens1 may be visible    
only as a faintly gleaming band1 like   
the ,milky ,way or the zodiacal light4  

,in this respect the mystic ,swedenborg 
appears to have had a clearer conception
 of the true nature of ,saturn's rings  
than did ,dr4 ,dick1 for in his book on 
,the ,earths in the ,universe he        
says--using the word belt to describe   
the phenomenon of the rings3  ,being    
questioned concerning that great belt   
which appears from our earth to rise    
above the horizon of that planet1 and to
 vary its situations1 they the          
inhabitants of ,saturn said that it does
 not appear to them as a belt1 but only 
as somewhat whitish1 like snow in the   
heaven1 in various directions4  ,in view
 of such observations as that of ,prof4 
,e4,e4 ,barnard1 in #ahib1 showing that 
a satellite passing through the shadow  
of ,saturn's rings does not entirely    
disappear--a fact which proves that the 
rings are partially transparent to the  
sunlight--one might be tempted to ask   
whether ,saturn itself1 considering its 
astonishing lack of density1 is not     
composed1 at least in its outer parts1  

of separate particles of matter         
revolving independently about their     
center of attraction1 and presenting the
 appearance of a smooth1 uniform shell  
reflecting the light of the sun4 ,in    
other words1 may not ,saturn be1        
exteriorly1 a globe of dust instead of a
 globe of vapor8 ,certainly the rings1  
incoherent and translucent though they  
be1 reflect the sunlight to our eyes1 at
 least from the brighter part of their  
surface1 with a brilliance comparable   
with that of the globe of the planet    
itself4  ,as bearing on the question of 
the interior condition of ,saturn and   
,jupiter1 it should1 perhaps1 be said   
that mathematical considerations1 based 
on the figures of equilibrium of        
rotating liquid masses1 lead to the     
conclusion that those planets are       
comparatively very dense within4        
,professor ,darwin puts the statement   
very strongly1 as follows3 ,in this way 
it is known with certainty that the     
central portions of the planets ,jupiter

 and ,saturn are much denser1 compared  
to their superficial portions1 than is  
the case with the earth4#ac  ,footnote  
#ac3 ,the ,tides1 by ,g4,h4 ,darwin1 p4 
#ccc4  ,the globe and rings of ,saturn  
witness an imposing spectacle of        
gigantic moving shadows4 ,the great ball
 stretches its vast shade across the    
full width of the rings at times1 and   
the rings1 as we have seen1 throw their 
shadow in a belt1 whose position slowly 
changes1 across the ball1 sweeping from 
the equator1 now toward one pole and now
 toward the other4 ,the sun shines      
alternately on each side of the rings   
for a space of nearly fifteen years--a  
day fifteen years long6 ,and then1 when 
that face of the ring is turned away    
from the sun1 there ensues a night of   
fifteen years' duration also4  ,whatever
 appearance the rings may present from  
the equator and the middle latitudes on 
,saturn1 from the polar regions they    
would be totally invisible4 ,as one     
passed toward the north1 or the south1  

pole he would see the upper part of the 
arch of the rings gradually sink toward 
the horizon until at length1 somewhere  
in the neighborhood of the polar circle1
 it would finally disappear1 hidden by  
the round shoulder of the great globe4  
,,uranus1 ,,neptune1 ,,and ,,the        
,,suspected ,,ultraneptunian ,,planet   
,what has been said of ,jupiter and     
,saturn applies also to the remaining   
members of the ,jovian group of planets1
 ,uranus and ,neptune1 viz41 that their 
density is so small that it seems       
probable that they can not1 at the      
present time1 be in a habitable         
planetary condition4 ,all four of these 
outer1 larger planets have1 in          
comparatively recent times1 been solar  
orbs1 small companions of the sun4 ,the 
density of ,uranus is about one fifth   
greater than that of water1 and slightly
 greater than that of ,neptune4 ,uranus 
is #cb1jjj miles in diameter1 and       
,neptune #ce1jjj miles4 ,curiously      
enough1 the force of gravity upon each  

of these two large planets is a little  
less than upon the earth4 ,this arises  
from the fact that in reckoning gravity 
on the surface of a planet not only the 
mass of the planet1 but its diameter or 
radius1 must be considered4 ,gravity    
varies directly as the mass1 but        
inversely as the square of the radius1  
and for this reason a large planet of   
small density may exercise a less force 
of gravity at its surface than does a   
small planet of great density4  ,the    
mean distance of ,uranus from the sun is
 about #a1ghj1jjj1jjj miles1 and its    
period of revolution is eighty-four     
years2 ,neptune's mean distance is about
 #b1hjj1jjj1jjj miles1 and its period of
 revolution is about #afd years4        
,uranus has four satellites1 and        
,neptune one4 ,the remarkable thing     
about these satellites is that they     
revolve backward1 or contrary to the    
direction in which all the other        
satellites belonging to the solar system
 revolve1 and in which all the other    

planets rotate on their axis4 ,in the   
case of ,uranus1 the plane in which the 
satellites revolve is not far from a    
position at right angles to the plane of
 the ecliptic2 but in the case of       
,neptune1 the plane of revolution of the
 satellites is tipped much farther      
backward4 ,since in every other case the
 satellites of a planet are situated    
nearly in the plane of the planet's     
equator1 it may be assumed that the same
 rule holds with ,uranus and ,neptune2  
and1 that being so1 we must conclude    
that those planets rotate backward on   
their axes4 ,this has an important      
bearing on the nebular hypothesis of the
 origin of the solar system1 and at one 
time was thought to furnish a convincing
 argument against that hypothesis2 but  
it has been shown that by a modification
 of ,laplace's theory the peculiar      
behavior of ,uranus and ,neptune can be 
reconciled with it4  ,very little is    
known of the surfaces of ,uranus and    
,neptune4 ,indications of the existence 

of belts resembling those of ,jupiter   
have been found in the case of both     
planets4 ,there are similar belts on    
,saturn1 and as they seem to be         
characteristic of large1 rapidly        
rotating bodies of small density1 it was
 to be expected that they would be found
 on ,uranus and ,neptune4  ,the very    
interesting opinion is entertained by   
some astronomers that there is at least 
one other great planet beyond ,neptune4 
,the orbits of certain comets are relied
 upon as furnishing evidence of the     
existence of such a body4 ,prof4 ,george
 ,forbes has estimated that this1 as yet
 undiscovered1 planet may be even       
greater than ,jupiter in mass1 and may  
be situated at a distance from the sun  
one hundred times as great as the       
earth's1 where it revolves in an orbit a
 single circuit of which requires a     
thousand years4  ,whether this planet1  
with a year a thousand of our years in  
length1 will ever be seen with a        
telescope1 or whether its existence will

 ever1 in some other manner1 be fully   
demonstrated1 can not yet be told4 ,it  
will be remembered that ,neptune was    
discovered by means of computations     
based upon its disturbing attraction on 
,uranus before it had ever been         
recognized with the telescope4 ,but when
 the astronomers in the observatories   
were told by their mathematical brethren
 where to look they found the planet    
within half an hour after the search    
began4 ,so it is possible the suspected 
great planet beyond ,neptune may be     
within the range of telescopic vision1  
but may not be detected until elaborate 
calculations have deduced its place in  
the heavens4 ,as a populous city is said
 to furnish the best hiding-place for a 
man who would escape the attention of   
his fellow beings1 so the star-sprinkled
 sky is able to conceal among its       
multitudes worlds both great and small  
until the most painstaking detective    
methods bring them to recognition4      
,,chapter ,,viii  ,,the ,,moon1 ,,child 

,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,and ,,the ,,sun    
,very naturally the moon has always been
 a great favorite with those who1 either
 in a scientific or in a literary       
spirit1 have speculated about the       
plurality of inhabited worlds4 ,the     
reasons for the preference accorded to  
the moon in this regard are evident4    
,unless a comet should brush us--as a   
comet is suspected of having done       
already--no celestial body1 of any      
pretensions to size1 can ever approach  
as near to the earth as the moon is1 at 
least while the solar system continues  
to obey the organic laws that now       
control it4 ,it is only a step from the 
earth to the moon4 ,what are #bdj1jjj   
miles in comparison with the distances  
of the stars1 or even with the distances
 of the planets8 ,jupiter1 driving      
between the earth and the moon1 would   
occupy more than one third of the       
intervening space with the chariot of   
his mighty globe2 ,saturn1 with broad   
wings outspread1 would span more than   

two thirds of the distance2 and the sun1
 so far from being able to get through  
at all1 would overlap the way more than 
#cjj1jjj miles on each side4  ,in       
consequence1 of course1 of its nearness1
 the moon is the only member of the     
planetary system whose principal        
features are visible to the naked eye4  
,in truth1 the naked eye perceives the  
larger configurations of the lunar      
surface more clearly than the most      
powerful telescope shows the details on 
the disk of ,mars4 ,long before the time
 of ,galileo and the invention of the   
telescope1 men had noticed that the face
 of the moon bears a resemblance to the 
appearance that the earth would present 
if viewed from afar off4 ,in remote     
antiquity there were philosophers who   
thought that the moon was an inhabited  
world1 and very early the romancers took
 up the theme4 ,lucian1 the ,voltaire of
 the second century of our era1         
mercilessly scourged the pretenders of  
the earth from an imaginary point of    

vantage on the moon1 which enabled him  
to peer down into their secrets4        
,lucian's description of the appearance 
of the earth from the moon shows how    
clearly defined in his day had become   
the conception of our globe as only an  
atom in space4  ,especially did it occur
 to me to laugh at the men who were     
quarreling about the boundaries of their
 land1 and at those who were proud      
because they cultivated the ,sikyonian  
plain1 or owned that part of ,marathon  
around ,oenoe1 or held possession of a  
thousand acres at ,acharn4 ,of the whole
 of ,greece1 as it then appeared to me  
from above1 being about the size of four
 fingers1 ,i think ,attica was in       
proportion a mere speck4 ,so that ,i    
wondered on what condition it was left  
to these rich men to be proud4#ad       
,footnote #ad3 ,ikaromenippus2 or1      
,above the ,clouds4 ,prof4 ,d4,c4       
,brown's translation4  ,such scenes as  
,lucian beheld1 in imagination1 upon the
 earth while looking from the moon1 many

 would fain behold1 with telescopic aid1
 upon the moon while looking from the   
earth4 ,galileo believed that the       
details of the lunar surface revealed by
 his telescope closely resembled in     
their nature the features of the earth's
 surface1 and for a long time1 as the   
telescope continued to be improved1     
observers were impressed with the belief
 that the moon possessed not only       
mountains and plains1 but seas and      
oceans also4  ,it was the discovery that
 the moon has no perceptible atmosphere 
that first seriously undermined the     
theory of its habitability4 ,yet1 as was
 remarked in the introductory chapter1  
there has of late been some change of   
view concerning a lunar atmosphere2 but 
the change has been not so much in the  
ascertained facts as in the way of      
looking at those facts4  ,but before we 
discuss this matter1 it will be well to 
state what is known beyond peradventure 
about the moon4  ,its mean distance from
 the earth is usually called1 for the   

sake of a round number1 #bdj1jjj miles1 
but more accurately stated it is        
#bch1hdj miles4 ,this is variable to the
 extent of more than #ca1jjj miles1 on  
account of the eccentricity of its      
orbit1 and the eccentricity itself is   
variable1 in consequence of the         
perturbing attractions of the earth and 
the sun1 so that the distance of the    
moon from the earth is continually      
changing4 ,it may be as far away as     
#bec1jjj miles and as near as #bba1fjj  
miles4  ,although the orbit of the moon 
is generally represented1 for           
convenience1 as an ellipse about the    
earth1 it is1 in reality1 a varying     
curve1 having the sun for its real      
focus1 and always concave toward the    
latter4 ,this is a fact that can be more
 readily explained with the aid of a    
diagram4  ,illustration3 ,,the ,,moon',s
 ,,path ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,the     
,,sun ,,and ,,the ,,earth4  ,in the     
accompanying cut1 when the earth is at  
,a the moon is between it and the sun1  

in the phase called new moon4 ,at this  
point the earth's orbit about the sun is
 more curved than the moon's1 and the   
earth is moving relatively faster than  
the moon1 so that when it arrives at ,b 
it is ahead of the moon1 and we see the 
latter to the right of the earth1 in the
 phase called first quarter4 ,the earth 
being at this time ahead of the moon1   
the effect of its attraction1 combined  
with that of the sun1 tends to hasten   
the moon onward in its orbit about the  
sun1 and the moon begins to travel more 
swiftly1 until it overtakes the earth at
 ,c1 and appears on the side opposite   
the sun1 in the phase called full moon4 
,at this point the moon's orbit about   
the sun has a shorter radius of         
curvature than the earth's4 ,in         
traveling from ,c to ,d the moon still  
moves more rapidly than the earth1 and1 
having passed it1 appears at ,d to the  
left of the earth1 in the phase called  
third quarter4 ,now1 the earth being    
behind the moon1 the effect of its      

attraction combined with the sun's tends
 to retard the moon in its orbit about  
the sun1 with the result that the moon  
moves again less rapidly than the earth1
 and the latter overtakes it1 so that1  
upon reaching ,e1 the two are once more 
in the same relative positions that they
 occupied at ,a1 and it is again new    
moon4 ,thus it will be seen that1       
although the real orbit of the moon has 
the sun for its center of revolution1   
nevertheless1 in consequence of the     
attraction of the earth1 combined in    
varying directions with that of the sun1
 the moon1 once every month1 makes a    
complete circuit of our globe4  ,the    
above explanation should not be taken   
for a mathematical demonstration of the 
moon's motion1 but simply for a         
graphical illustration of how the moon  
appears to revolve about the earth while
 really obeying the sun's attraction as 
completely as the earth does4  ,there is
 no other planet that has a moon        
relatively as large as ours4 ,the moon's

 diameter is #b1afc miles4 ,its volume1 
compared with the earth's1 is in the    
ratio of #a to #di1 and its density is  
about six tenths of the earth's4 ,this  
makes its mass to that of our globe     
about as #a to #ha4 ,in other words1 it 
would take eighty-one moons to          
counterbalance the earth4 ,before       
speaking of the force of gravity on the 
moon we will examine the character of   
the lunar surface4  ,to the naked eye   
the moon's face appears variegated with 
dusky patches1 while a few points of    
superior brilliance shine amid the      
brighter portions1 especially in the    
southern and eastern quarters1 where    
immense craters like ,tycho and         
,copernicus are visible to a keen eye1  
gleaming like polished buttons4 ,with a 
telescope1 even of moderate power1 the  
surface of the moon presents a scene of 
astonishing complexity1 in which        
strangeness1 beauty1 and grandeur are   
all combined4 ,the half of the moon     
turned earthward contains an area of    

#g1cjj1jjj square miles1 a little       
greater than the area of ,south ,america
 and a little less than that of ,north  
,america4 ,of these #g1cjj1jjj square   
miles1 about #b1ijj1jjj square miles are
 occupied by the gray1 or dusky1        
expanses1 called in lunar geography1 or 
selenography1 maria--i4e41 seas4        
,whatever they may once have been1 they 
are not now seas1 but dry plains1       
bordered in many places by precipitous  
cliffs and mountains1 varied in level by
 low ridges and regions of depression1  
intersected occasionally by immense     
cracks1 having the width and depth of   
our mightiest river caons1 and sprinkled
 with bright points and crater pits4    
,the remaining #d1djj1jjj square miles  
are mainly occupied by mountains of the 
most extraordinary character4 ,owing    
partly to roughness of the surface and  
partly to more brilliant reflective     
power1 the mountainous regions of the   
moon appear bright in comparison with   
the dull-colored plains4  ,some of the  

lunar mountains lie in long1 massive    
chains1 with towering peaks1 profound   
gorges1 narrow valleys1 vast            
amphitheaters1 and beetling precipices4 
,looking at them with a powerful        
telescope1 the observer might well fancy
 himself to be gazing down from an      
immense height into the heart of the    
untraveled ,himalayas4 ,but these1      
imposing though they are1 do not        
constitute the most wonderful feature of
 the mountain scenery of the moon4      
,appearing sometimes on the shores of   
the seas1 sometimes in the midst of     
broad plains1 sometimes along the course
 of mountain chains1 and sometimes in   
magnificent rows1 following for hundreds
 of miles the meridians of the lunar    
globe1 are tremendous1 mountain-walled1 
circular chasms1 called craters4        
,frequently they have in the middle of  
their depressed interior floors a peak1 
or a cluster of peaks4 ,their inner and 
outer walls are seamed with ridges1 and 
what look like gigantic streams of      

frozen lava surround them4 ,the         
resemblance that they bear to the       
craters of volcanoes is1 at first sight1
 so striking that probably nobody would 
ever have thought of questioning the    
truth of the statement that they are    
such craters but for their incredible   
magnitude4 ,many of them exceed fifty   
miles in diameter1 and some of them sink
 two1 three1 four1 and more miles below 
the loftiest points upon their walls6   
,there is a chasm1 #adj miles long and  
#gj broad1 named ,newton1 situated about
 #bjj miles from the south pole of the  
moon1 whose floor lies #bd1jjj feet     
below the summit of a peak that towers  
just above it on the east6 ,this abyss  
is so profound that the shadows of its  
enclosing precipices never entirely quit
 it1 and the larger part of its bottom  
is buried in endless night4  ,one can   
not but shudder at the thought of       
standing on the broken walls of ,newton1
 and gazing down into a cavity of such  
stupendous depth that if ,chimborazo    

were thrown into it1 the head of the    
mighty ,andean peak would be thousands  
of feet beneath the observer4  ,a       
different example of the crater         
mountains of the moon is the celebrated 
,tycho1 situated in latitude about #dc  
south1 corresponding with the latitude  
of southern ,new ,zealand on the earth4 
,tycho is nearly circular and a little  
more than #ed miles across4 ,the highest
 point on its wall is about #ag1jjj feet
 above the interior4 ,in the middle of  
its floor is a mountain #e1jjj or #f1jjj
 feet high4 ,tycho is especially        
remarkable for the vast system of       
whitish streaks1 or rays1 which starting
 from its outer walls1 spread in all    
directions over the face of the moon1   
many of them1 running1 without          
deviation1 hundreds of miles across     
mountains1 craters1 and plains4 ,these  
rays are among the greatest of lunar    
mysteries1 and we shall have more to say
 of them4  ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lunar 
,,alps1 ,,apennines1 ,,and ,,caucasus4  

,photographed with the ,lick ,telescope4
  ,copernicus1 a crater mountain        
situated about #aj north of the equator1
 in the eastern hemisphere of the moon1 
is another wonderful object1 #ef miles  
in diameter1 a polygon appearing1 when  
not intently studied1 as a circle1      
#aa1jjj or #ab1jjj feet deep1 and having
 a group of relatively low peaks in the 
center of its floor4 ,around ,copernicus
 an extensive area of the moon's surface
 is whitened with something resembling  
the rays of ,tycho1 but more irregular  
in appearance4 ,copernicus lies within  
the edge of the great plain named the   
,oceanus ,procellarum1 or ,ocean of     
,storms1 and farther east1 in the midst 
of the ocean1 is a smaller crater       
mountain1 named ,kepler1 which is also  
enveloped by a whitish area1 covering   
the lunar surface as if it were the     
result of extensive outflows of         
light-colored lava4  ,in one important  
particular the crater mountains of the  
moon differ from terrestrial volcanoes4 

,this difference is clearly described by
 ,nasmyth and ,carpenter in their book  
on ,the ,moon3  ,while the terrestrial  
crater is generally a hollow on a       
mountain top1 with its flat bottom high 
above the level of the surrounding      
country1 those upon the moon have their 
lowest points depressed more or less    
deeply below the general surface of the 
moon1 the external height being         
frequently only a half or one third of  
the internal depth4  ,it has been       
suggested that these gigantic rings are 
only basal wrecks of volcanic mountains1
 whose conical summits have been blown  
away1 leaving vast crateriform hollows  
where the mighty peaks once stood2 but  
the better opinion seems to be that     
which assumes that the rings were formed
 by volcanic action very much as we now 
see them4 ,if such a crater as          
,copernicus or the still larger one     
named ,theophilus1 which is situated in 
the western hemisphere of the moon1 on  
the shore of the ,sea of ,nectar1 ever  

had a conical mountain rising from its  
rim1 the height attained by the peak1 if
 the average slope were about #cj1 would
 have been truly stupendous--fifteen or 
eighteen miles6  ,there is a kind of    
ring mountains1 found in many places on 
the moon1 whose forms and surroundings  
do not1 as the craters heretofore       
described do1 suggest at first sight a  
volcanic origin4 ,these are rather level
 plains of an oval or circular outline1 
enclosed by a wall of mountains4 ,the   
finest example is1 perhaps1 the         
dark-gray ,plato1 situated in #ej of    
north latitude1 near an immense mountain
 uplift named the ,lunar ,alps1 and on  
the northern shore of the ,mare         
,imbrium1 or ,sea of ,showers4 ,plato   
appears as an oval plain1 very smooth   
and level1 about #fj miles in length1   
and completely surrounded by mountains1 
quite precipitous on the inner side1 and
 rising in their highest peaks to an    
elevation of #f1jjj to #g1jjj feet4     
,enclosed plains1 bearing more or less  

resemblance to ,plato--sometimes smooth 
within1 and sometimes broken with small 
peaks and craters or hilly ridges--are  
to be found scattered over almost all   
parts of the moon4 ,if our satellite was
 ever an inhabited world like the earth1
 while its surface was in its present   
condition1 these valleys must have      
presented an extraordinary spectacle4   
,it has been thought that they may once 
have been filled with water1 forming    
lakes that recall the curious ,crater   
,lake of ,oregon4  ,illustration3 ,,the 
,,moon ,,at ,,first ,,and ,,last        
,,quarter 7,,western ,,and ,,eastern    
,,hemispheres74 ,photographed with the  
,lick ,telescope4  ,it is not my        
intention to give a complete description
 of the various lunar features1 and ,i  
mention but one other--the clefts or    
rills1 which are to be seen running     
across the surface like cracks4 ,one of 
the most remarkable of these is found in
 the ,oceanus ,procellarum1 near the    
crater-mountain ,aristarchus1 which is  

famed for the intense brilliance of its 
central peak1 whose reflective power is 
so great that it was once supposed to be
 aflame with volcanic fire4 ,the cleft1 
or crack1 in question is very erratic in
 its course1 and many miles in length1  
and it terminates in a ringed plain     
named ,herodotus not far east of        
,aristarchus1 breaking through the wall 
of the plain and entering the interior4 
,many other similar chasms or caons     
exist on the moon1 some crossing plains1
 some cleaving mountain walls1 and some 
forming a network of intersecting       
clefts4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,gwyn ,elger has   
this to say on the subject of the lunar 
clefts3  ,if1 as seems most probable1   
these gigantic cracks are due to        
contractions of the moon's surface1 it  
is not impossible1 in spite of the      
assertions of the text-books to the     
effect that our satellite is now a      
'changeless world1' that emanations may 
proceed from these fissures1 even if1   
under the monthly alternations of       

extreme temperatures1 surface changes do
 not now occasionally take place from   
this cause also4 ,should this be so1 the
 appearance of new rills and the        
extension and modification of those     
already existing may reasonably be      
looked for4  ,mr4 ,elger then proceeds  
to describe his discovery in #ahhc1 in  
the ring-plain ,mersenius1 of a cleft   
never noticed before1 and which seems to
 have been of recent formation4#ae      
,footnote #ae3 ,the ,moon1 a ,full      
,description and ,map of its ,principal 
,features1 by ,thomas ,gwyn ,elger1     
#ahie4  ,those who desire to read       
detailed descriptions of lunar scenery  
may consult1 in addition to ,mr4        
,elger's book1 the following3 ,the      
,moon1 considered as a ,planet1 a       
,world1 and a ,satellite1 by ,james     
,nasmyth and ,james ,carpenter1 #ahgd2  
,the ,moon1 and the ,condition and      
,configurations of its ,surface1 by     
,edmund ,neison1 #ahgf4 ,see also       
,annals of ,harvard ,college            

,observatory1 vol4 xxxii1 part ii1      
#aijj1 for observations made by ,prof4  
,william ,h4 ,pickering at the ,arequipa
 ,observatory4  ,we now return to the   
question of the force of lunar gravity4 
,this we find to be only one sixth as   
great as gravity on the surface of the  
earth4 ,it is by far the smallest force 
of gravity that we have found anywhere  
except on the asteroids4 ,employing the 
same method of comparison that was made 
in the case of ,mars1 we compute that a 
man on the moon could attain a height of
 thirty-six feet without being          
relatively more unwieldy than a six-foot
 descendant of ,adam is on the earth4   
,whether this furnishes a sound reason  
for assuming that the lunar inhabitants1
 if any exist or have ever existed1     
should be preposterous giants is        
questionable2 yet such an assumption    
receives a certain degree of support    
from the observed fact that the natural 
features of the moon are framed on an   
exaggerated scale as compared with the  

earth's4 ,we have just observed that the
 moon is characterized by vast mountain 
rings1 attaining in many cases a        
diameter exceeding fifty miles4 ,if     
these are volcanic craters1 it is       
evident1 at a glance1 that the mightiest
 volcanoes of the earth fall into       
insignificance beside them4 ,now1 the   
slight force of gravity on the moon has 
been appealed to as a reason why        
volcanic explosions on the lunar globe  
should produce incomparably greater     
effects than upon the earth1 where the  
ejected materials are so much heavier4  
,the same force that would throw a      
volcanic bomb a mile high on the earth  
could throw it six miles high on the    
moon4 ,the giant cannon that we have    
placed in one of our coast forts1 which 
is said to be able to hurl a projectile 
to a distance of fifteen miles1 could   
send the same projectile ninety miles on
 the moon4 ,an athlete who can clear a  
horizontal bar at a height of six feet  
on the earth could clear the same bar at

 a height of thirty-six feet on the     
moon4 ,in other words1 he could jump    
over a house1 unless1 indeed1 the       
lunarians really are giants1 and live in
 houses proportioned to their own       
dimensions and to the size of their     
mountains4 ,in that case1 our athlete   
would have to content himself with      
jumping over a lunarian1 whose head he  
could just clear--with the hat off4     
,these things are not only amusing1 but 
important4 ,there can be no question    
that the force of gravity on the moon   
actually is as slight as it has just    
been described4 ,so1 even without       
calling in imaginary inhabitants to lend
 it interest1 the comparative inability 
of the moon to arrest bodies in motion  
becomes a fact of much significance4 ,it
 has led to the theory that meteorites  
may have originally been shot out of the
 moon's great volcanoes1 when those     
volcanoes were active1 and may have     
circulated about the sun until various  
perturbations have brought them down    

upon the earth4 ,a body shot radially   
from the surface of the moon would need 
to have a velocity of only about a mile 
and a half in a second in order to      
escape from the moon's control1 and we  
can believe that a lunar volcano when in
 action could have imparted such a      
velocity1 all the more readily because  
with modern gunpowders we have been able
 to give to projectiles a speed one half
 as great as that needed for liberation 
from lunar gravity4  ,another           
consequence of the small gravitative    
power of the moon bears upon the        
all-important question of atmosphere4   
,according to the theory of ,dr4        
,johnstone ,stoney1 heretofore referred 
to1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 and water vapor   
would all gradually escape from the     
moon1 if originally placed upon it1     
because1 by the kinetic theory1 the     
maximum velocities of their molecules   
are greater than a mile and a half per  
second4 ,the escape would not occur     
instantly1 nor all at once1 for it would

 be only the molecules at the upper     
surface of the atmosphere which were    
moving with their greatest velocity1 and
 in a direction radial to the center of 
the moon1 that would get away2 but in   
the course of time this gradual leakage 
would result in the escape of all of    
those gases4#af  ,footnote #af3 ,the    
discovery of free hydrogen in the       
earth's atmosphere1 by ,professor       
,dewar1 #aija1 bears upon the theory of 
the escape of gases from a planet1 and  
may modify the view above expressed4    
,since hydrogen is theoretically        
incapable of being permanently retained 
in the free state by the earth1 its     
presence in the atmosphere indicates    
either that there is an influx from     
space or that it emanates from the      
earth's crust4 ,in a similar way it may 
be assumed that atmospheric gases can be
 given off from the crust of the moon1  
thus1 to a greater or less extent1      
supplying the place of the molecules    
that escape4  ,after it had been found  

that1 to ordinary tests1 the moon       
offered no evidence of the possession of
 an atmosphere1 and before ,dr4         
,stoney's theory was broached1 it was   
supposed by many that the moon had lost 
its original supply of air by absorption
 into its interior4 ,the oxygen was     
supposed to have entered into           
combination with the cooling rocks and  
minerals1 thus being withdrawn from the 
atmosphere1 and the nitrogen was        
imagined to have disappeared also within
 the lunar crust4 ,for it seems to have 
always been tacitly assumed that the    
phenomenon to be accounted for was not  
so much the absence of a lunar          
atmosphere as its disappearance4 ,but   
disappearance1 of course1 implies       
previous existence4 ,in like manner it  
has always been a commonly accepted view
 that the moon probably once had enough 
water to form lakes and seas4  ,these1  
it has been calculated1 could have been 
absorbed into the lunar globe as it     
cooled off4 ,but ,johnstone ,stoney's   

theory offers another method by which   
they could have escaped1 through        
evaporation and the gradual flight of   
the molecules into open space4 ,possibly
 both methods have been in operation1 a 
portion of the constituents of the      
former atmosphere and oceans having     
entered into chemical combinations in   
the lunar crust1 and the remainder      
having vanished in consequence of the   
lack of sufficient gravitative force to 
retain them4  ,but why1 it may be asked1
 should it be assumed that the moon ever
 had things which it does not now       
possess8 ,perhaps no entirely           
satisfactory reply can be made4 ,some   
observers have believed that they       
detected unmistakable indications of    
alluvial deposits on lunar plains1 and  
of the existence of beaches on the      
shores of the seas4 ,messrs4 ,loewy and 
,puiseux1 of the ,paris ,observatory1   
whose photographs of the moon are       
perhaps the finest yet made1 say on this
 subject3  ,there exists1 from the point

 of view of relief1 a general similarity
 between the 'seas' of the moon and the 
plateaux which are covered to-day by    
terrestrial oceans4 ,in these convex    
surfaces are more frequent than concave 
basins1 thrown back usually toward the  
verge of the depressed space4 ,in the   
same way the 'seas' of the moon present1
 generally at the edges1 rather         
pronounced depressions4 ,in one case1 as
 in the other1 we observe normal        
deformations of a shrinking globe       
shielded from the erosive action of     
rain1 which tends1 on the contrary1 in  
all the abundantly watered parts of the 
earth to make the concave surfaces      
predominate4 ,the explanation of this   
structure1 such as is admitted at       
present by geologists1 seems to us      
equally valid for the moon4#ag          
,footnote #ag3 ,comptes ,rendus1 ,june  
#bf1 ,july #c1 #ahii4  ,it might be     
urged that there is evidence of former  
volcanic activity on the moon of such a 
nature that explosions of steam must    

have played a part in the phenomena1 and
 if there was steam1 of course there was
 water4  ,but perhaps the most          
convincing argument tending to show that
 the moon once had a supply of water1 of
 which some remnant may yet remain below
 the surface of the lunar globe1 is     
based upon the probable similarity in   
composition of the earth and the moon4  
,this similarity results almost equally 
whether we regard the moon as having    
originated in a ring of matter left off 
from the contracting mass that became   
the earth1 or whether we accept the     
suggestion of ,prof4 ,g4,h4 ,darwin1    
that the moon is the veritable offspring
 of the earth1 brought into being by the
 assistance of the tidal influence of   
the sun4 ,the latter hypothesis is the  
more picturesque of the two1 and1 at    
present1 is probably the more generally 
favored4 ,it depends upon the theory of 
tidal friction1 which was referred to in
 ,chapter ,,iii1 as offering an         
explanation of the manner in which the  

rotation of the planet ,mercury has been
 slowed down until its rotary period    
coincides with that of its revolution4  
,the gist of the hypothesis in question 
is that at a very early period in its   
history1 when the earth was probably yet
 in a fluid condition1 it rotated with  
extreme rapidity on its axis1 and was1  
at the same time1 greatly agitated by   
the tidal attraction of the sun1 and    
finally huge masses were detached from  
the earth which1 ultimately uniting1    
became the moon4#ah  ,footnote #ah3 ,the
 ,tides1 by ,g4,h4 ,darwin1 chapter xvi4
  ,born in this manner from the very    
substance of the earth1 the moon would  
necessarily be composed1 in the main1 of
 the same elements as the globe on which
 we dwell1 and is it conceivable that it
 should not have carried with it both   
air and water1 or the gases from which  
they were to be formed8 ,if the moon    
ever had enough of these prime          
requisites to enable it to support forms
 of life comparable with those of the   

earth1 the disappearance of that life   
must have been a direct consequence of  
the gradual vanishing of the lunar air  
and water4 ,the secular drying up of the
 oceans and wasting away of the         
atmosphere on our little neighbor world 
involved a vast1 all-embracing tragedy1 
some of the earlier scenes of which1 if 
theories be correct1 are now reenacted  
on the half-desiccated planet ,mars--a  
planet1 by the way1 which in size1 mass1
 and ability to retain vital gases      
stands about half-way between the earth 
and the moon4  ,one of the most         
interesting facts about the moon is that
 its surface affords evidence of a      
cataclysm which has wiped out many1 and 
perhaps nearly all1 of the records of   
its earlier history1 that were once     
written upon its face4 ,even on the     
earth there have been geological        
catastrophes destroying or burying the  
accumulated results of ages of          
undisturbed progress1 but on the moon   
these effects have been transcendent4   

,the story of the tremendous disaster   
that overtook the moon is partly written
 in its giant volcanoes4 ,although it   
may be true1 as some maintain1 that     
there is yet volcanic action going on   
upon the lunar surface1 it is evident   
that such action must be insignificant  
in comparison with that which took place
 ages ago4  ,there is a spot in the     
western hemisphere of the moon1 on the  
border of a placid bay or sea1 that ,i  
can never look at without a feeling of  
awe and almost of shrinking4 ,there1    
within a space about #bej miles in      
length by #ajj in width1 is an          
exhibition of the most terrifying       
effects of volcanic energy that the eye 
of man can anywhere behold4 ,three      
immense craters--,theophilus1 #fd miles 
across and #c-a_/b miles deep2          
,cyrillus1 #fj miles across and #ae1jjj 
feet deep2 and ,catharina1 #gj miles    
across and from #h1jjj to #af1jjj feet  
deep--form an interlinked chain of      
mountain rings1 ridges1 precipices1     

chasms1 and bottomless pits that take   
away one's breath4  ,but when the first 
impression of astonishment and dismay   
produced by this overwhelming spectacle 
has somewhat abated1 the thoughtful     
observer will note that here the moon is
 telling him a part of her wonderful    
story1 depicted in characters so plain  
that he needs no instruction in order to
 decipher their meaning4 ,he will       
observe that this ruin was not all      
wrought at once or simultaneously4      
,theophilus1 the crater-mountain at the 
northwestern end of the chain1 whose    
bottom lies deepest of all1 is the      
youngest of these giants1 though the    
most imposing4 ,for a distance of forty 
miles the lofty wall of ,theophilus has 
piled itself upon the ruins of the wall 
of ,cyrillus1 and the circumference of  
the circle of its tremendous crater has 
been forcibly thrust within the original
 rim of the more ancient crater1 which  
was thus rudely compelled to make room  
for its more vigorous rival and         

successor4  ,the observer will also     
notice that ,catharina1 the huge pit at 
the southeastern end of the chain1 bears
 evidence of yet greater age4 ,its      
original walls1 fragments of which still
 stand in broken grandeur1 towering to a
 height of #af1jjj feet1 have1          
throughout the greater part of their    
circuit1 been riddled by the outbreak of
 smaller craters1 and torn asunder and  
thrown down on all sides4  ,in the vast 
enclosure that was originally the floor 
of the crater-mountain ,catharina1      
several crater rings1 only a third1 a   
quarter1 or a fifth as great in         
diameter1 have broken forth1 and these  
in turn have been partially destroyed1  
while in the interior of the oldest of  
them yet smaller craters1 a nest of     
them1 mere ,etnas1 ,cotopaxis1 and      
,kilaueas in magnitude1 simple pinheads 
on the moon1 have opened their tiny jaws
 in weak and ineffective expression of  
the waning energies of a still later    
epoch1 which followed the truly heroic  

age of lunar vulcanicity4  ,this is only
 one example among hundreds1 scattered  
all over the moon1 which show how the   
surface of our satellite has suffered   
upheaval after upheaval4 ,it is possible
 that some of the small craters1 not    
included within the walls of the greater
 ones1 may represent an early stage in  
the era of volcanic activity that       
wrecked the moon1 but where larger and  
smaller are grouped together a certain  
progression can be seen1 tending finally
 to extinction4 ,the internal energies  
reached a maximum and then fell off in  
strength until they died out completely4
  ,it can hardly be supposed that the   
life-bearing phase of lunar history--if 
there ever was one--could survive the   
outbreak of the volcanic cataclysm4     
,north ,america1 or ,europe1 if         
subjected to such an experience as the  
continental areas of the moon have      
passed through1 would be1 in proportion1
 worse wrecked than the most fearfully  
battered steel victim of a modern sea   

fight1 and one can readily understand   
that1 in such circumstances1 those now  
beautiful and populous continents would 
exhibit1 from a distance1 scarcely any  
token of their present topographical    
features1 to say nothing of any relics  
of their occupation by living creatures4
  ,there are other interesting glimpses 
to be had of an older world in the moon 
than that whose scarred face is now     
beautified for us by distance4 ,not far 
from ,theophilus and the other great    
crater-mountains just described1 at the 
upper1 or southern1 end of the level    
expanse called the ,sea of ,nectar1 is a
 broad1 semicircular bay whose shores   
are formed by the walls of a partially  
destroyed crater named ,fracastorius4   
,it is evident that this bay1 and the   
larger part of the ,sea of ,nectar1 have
 been created by an outwelling of liquid
 lavas1 which formed a smooth floor over
 a portion of the pre-existing surface  
of the moon1 and broke down and         
submerged a large part of the mountain  

ring of ,fracastorius1 leaving the more 
ancient walls standing at the southern  
end1 while1 outlined by depressions and 
corrugations in the rocky blanket1 are  
certain half-defined forms belonging to 
the buried world beneath4  ,near        
,copernicus1 some years ago1 as ,dr4    
,edward ,s4 ,holden pointed out1        
photographs made with the great ,lick   
telescope1 then under his direction1    
showed1 in skeleton outline1 a huge ring
 buried beneath some vast outflow of    
molten matter and undiscerned by        
telescopic observers4 ,and ,mr4 ,elger1 
who was a most industrious observer and 
careful interpreter of lunar scenery1   
speaks of the undoubted existence of the
 relics of an earlier lunar world       
beneath the smooth superficies of the   
maria4  ,although1 as already remarked1 
it seems necessary to assume that any   
life existing in the moon prior to its  
great volcanic outburst must have ceased
 at that time1 yet the possibility may  
be admitted that life could reappear    

upon the moon after its surface had     
again become quiet and comparatively    
undisturbed4 ,germs of the earlier life 
might have survived1 despite the        
terrible nature of the catastrophe4 ,but
 the conditions on the moon at present  
are such that even the most confident   
advocates of the view that the lunar    
world is not entirely dead do not       
venture to assume that anything beyond  
the lowest and simplest organic         
forms--mainly1 if not wholly1 in the    
shape of vegetation--can exist there4   
,the impression that even such life is  
possible rests upon the accumulating    
evidence of the existence of a lunar    
atmosphere1 and of visible changes1 some
 apparently of a volcanic character and 
some not1 on the moon's surface4  ,prof4
 ,william ,h4 ,pickering1 who is1       
perhaps1 more familiar with the         
telescopic and photographic aspects of  
the moon than any other ,american       
astronomer1 has recorded numberless     
instances of change in minute details of

 the lunar landscapes4 ,he regards some 
of his observations made at ,arequipa as
 pointing very strongly to the existence
 of vegetation upon the surface of the  
moon in large quantities at the present 
time4 ,the mountain-ringed valley of    
,plato is one of the places in the lunar
 world where the visible changes have   
been most frequently observed1 and more 
than one student of the moon has reached
 the conclusion that something very like
 the appearances that vegetation would  
produce is to be seen in that valley4   
,professor ,pickering has thoroughly    
discussed the observations relating to a
 celebrated crater named ,linn in the   
,mare ,serenitatis1 and after reading   
his description of its changes of       
appearance one can hardly reject his    
conclusion that ,linn is an active      
volcanic vent1 but variable in its      
manifestations4 ,this is only one of a  
number of similar instances among the   
smaller craters of the moon4 ,the giant 
ones are evidently entirely extinct1 but

 some of the minor vents give occasional
 signs of activity4 ,nor should it be   
assumed that these relatively slight    
manifestations of volcanic action are   
really insignificant4 ,as ,professor    
,pickering shows1 they may be regarded  
as comparable with the greatest volcanic
 phenomena now witnessed on the earth1  
and1 speaking again of ,plato1 he says  
of its evidences of volcanic action3    
,it is1 ,i believe1 more active than any
 area of similar size upon the earth4   
,there seems to be no evidences of lava1
 but the white streaks indicate         
apparently something analogous to snow  
or clouds4 ,there must be a certain     
escape of gases1 presumably steam and   
carbonic acid1 the former of which1     
probably1 aids in the production of the 
white markings4#ai  ,footnote #ai3      
,annals of ,harvard ,college            
,observatory1 vol4 xxxii1 part ii1      
#aijj4  ,to ,professor ,pickering we owe
 the suggestion that the wonderful rays 
emanating from ,tycho consist of some   

whitish substance blown by the wind1 not
 from ,tycho itself1 but from lines of  
little volcanic vents or craters lying  
along the course of the rays4 ,this     
substance may be volcanic powder or     
snow1 in the form of minute ice         
crystals4 ,mr4 ,elger remarks of this   
theory that the confused network of     
streaks around ,copernicus seems to     
respond to it more happily than the rays
 of ,tycho do1 because of the lack of   
definiteness of direction so manifest in
 the case of the rays4  ,as an          
encouragement to amateur observers who  
may be disposed to find out for         
themselves whether or not changes now   
take place in the moon1 the following   
sentence from the introduction to       
,professor ,pickering's chapter on      
,plato in the ,harvard ,observatory     
,annals1 volume xxxii1 will prove useful
 and interesting3  ,in reviewing the    
history of selenography1 one must be    
impressed by the singular fact that1    
while most of the astronomers who have  

made a special study of the moon1 such  
as ,schroeter1 ,maedler1 ,schmidt1      
,webb1 ,neison1 and ,elger1 have all    
believed that its surface was still     
subject to changes readily visible from 
the earth1 the great majority of        
astronomers who have paid little        
attention to the subject have quite as  
strenuously denied the existence of such
 changes4  ,in regard to the lunar      
atmosphere1 it may be said1 in a word1  
that even those who advocate the        
existence of vegetation and of clouds of
 dust or ice crystals on the moon do not
 predicate any greater amount1 or       
greater density1 of atmosphere than do  
those who consider the moon to be wholly
 dead and inert4 ,professor ,pickering  
himself showed1 from his observations1  
that the horizontal refraction of the   
lunar atmosphere1 instead of being less 
than #b1 as formerly stated1 was less   
than #j4d4 ,yet he found visual evidence
 that on the sunlit side of the moon    
this rare atmosphere was filled to a    

height of four miles with some absorbing
 medium which was absent on the dark    
side1 and which was apparently an       
emanation from the lunar crust1         
occurring after sunrise4 ,and ,messrs4  
,loewy and ,puiseux1 of the ,paris      
,observatory1 say1 after showing reasons
 for thinking that the great volcanic   
eruptions belong to a recent period in  
the history of the moon1 that the       
diffusion of cinders to great distances 
infers a gaseous envelope of a certain  
density4444 ,the resistance of the      
atmosphere must have been sufficient to 
retard the fall of this dust the        
reference is to the white trails1 like  
those from ,tycho1 during its transport 
over a distance of more than #a1jjj     
kilometers #fbj miles4#bj  ,footnote    
#bj3 ,comptes ,rendus1 ,june #bc1 ,july 
#c1 #ahii4  ,we come now to a brief     
consideration of certain peculiarities  
in the motions of the moon1 and in the  
phenomena of day and night on its       
surface4 ,the moon keeps the same side  

forever turned toward the earth1        
behaving1 in this respect1 as ,mercury  
does with regard to the sun4 ,the       
consequence is that the lunar globe     
makes but one rotation on its axis in   
the course of a month1 or in the course 
of one revolution about the earth4 ,some
 of the results of this practical       
identity of the periods of rotation and 
revolution are illustrated in the       
diagram on page #bej4 ,the moon really  
undergoes considerable libration1       
recalling the libration of ,mercury1    
which was explained in the chapter on   
that planet1 and in consequence we are  
able to see a little way round into the 
opposite lunar hemisphere1 now on this  
side and now on the other1 but in the   
diagram this libration has been         
neglected4 ,if it had been represented  
we should have found that1 instead of   
only one half1 about three fifths of the
 total superficies of the moon are      
visible from the earth at one time or   
another4  ,illustration3 ,,phases ,,and 

,,rotation ,,of ,,the ,,moon4  ,perhaps 
it should be remarked that in drawing   
the moon's orbit about the earth as a   
center we offer no contradiction to what
 was shown earlier in this chapter4 ,the
 moon does travel around the earth1 and 
its orbit about our globe may1 for our  
present purpose1 be treated             
independently of its motion about the   
sun4 ,let the central globe1 then1      
represent the earth1 and let the sun be 
supposed to shine from the left-hand    
side of the diagram4 ,a little cross is 
erected at a fixed spot on the globe of 
the moon4  ,at ,a the moon is between   
the earth and the sun1 or in the phase  
of new moon4 ,the lunar hemisphere      
facing the earth is now buried in night1
 except so far as the light reflected   
from the earth illuminates it1 and this 
illumination1 it is interesting to      
remember1 is about fourteen times as    
great--reckoned by the relative areas of
 the reflecting surfaces--as that which 
the full moon sends to the earth4 ,an   

inhabitant of the moon1 standing beside 
the cross1 sees the earth in the form of
 a huge full moon directly above his    
head1 but1 as far as the sun is         
concerned1 it is midnight for him4  ,in 
the course of about seven days the moon 
travels to ,b4 ,in the meantime it has  
turned one quarter of the way around its
 axis1 and the spot marked by the cross 
is still directly under the earth4 ,for 
the lunar inhabitant standing on that   
spot the sun is now on the point of     
rising1 and he sees the earth no longer 
in the shape of a full moon1 but in that
 of a half-moon4 ,the lunar globe itself
 appears1 at the same time from the     
earth1 as a half-moon1 being in the     
position or phase that we call first    
quarter4  ,seven more days elapse1 and  
the moon arrives at ,c1 opposite to the 
position of the sun1 and with the earth 
between it and the solar orb4 ,it is now
 high noon for our lunarian standing    
beside the cross1 while the earth over  
his head appears1 if he sees it at all1 

only as a black disk close to the sun1  
or--as would sometimes be the           
case--covering the sun1 and encircled   
with a beautiful ring of light produced 
by the refraction of its atmosphere4    
7,recall the similar phenomenon in the  
case of ,venus47 ,the moon seen from the
 earth is now in the phase called full  
moon4  ,another lapse of seven days1 and
 the moon is at ,d1 in the phase called 
third quarter1 while the earth1 viewed  
from the cross on the moon1 which is    
still pointed directly at it1 appears   
again in the shape of a huge half-moon4 
,during the next seven days the moon    
returns to its original position at ,a1 
and becomes once more new moon1 with    
full earth shining upon it4  ,now it is 
evident that in consequence of the      
peculiar law of the moon's rotation its 
days and nights are each about two of   
our weeks1 or fourteen days1 in length4 
,that hemisphere of the moon which is in
 the full sunlight at ,a1 for instance1 
is buried in the middle of night at ,c4 

,the result is different than in the    
case of ,mercury1 because the body      
toward which the moon always keeps the  
same face directed is not the luminous  
sun1 but the non-luminous earth4  ,it is
 believed that the moon acquired this   
manner of rotation in consequence of the
 tidal friction exercised upon it by the
 earth4 ,the tidal attraction of the    
earth exceeds that of the sun upon the  
moon because the earth is so much nearer
 than the sun is1 and tidal attraction  
varies inversely as the cube of the     
distance4 ,in fact1 the braking effect  
of tidal friction varies inversely as   
the sixth power of the distance1 so that
 the ability of the earth to stop the   
rotation of the moon on its axis is     
immensely greater than that of the sun4 
,this power was effectively applied     
while the moon was yet a molten mass1 so
 that it is probable that the moon has  
rotated just as it does now for millions
 of years4  ,as was remarked a little   
while ago1 the moon traveling in an     

elliptical orbit about the earth has a  
libratory movement which1 if represented
 in our picture1 would cause the cross  
to swing now a little one way and now a 
little the other1 and thus produce an   
apparent pendulum motion of the earth in
 the sky1 similar to that of the sun as 
seen from ,mercury4 ,but it is not      
necessary to go into the details of this
 phenomenon4 ,the reader1 if he chooses1
 can deduce them for himself4  ,but we  
may inquire a little into the effects of
 the long days and nights of the moon4  
,in consequence of the extreme rarity of
 the lunar atmosphere1 it is believed   
that the heat of the sun falling upon it
 during a day two weeks in length1 is   
radiated away so rapidly that the       
surface of the lunar rocks never rises  
above the freezing temperature of water4
 ,on the night side1 with no warm       
atmospheric blanket such as the earth   
enjoys1 the temperature may fall far    
toward absolute zero1 the most merciful 
figure that has been suggested for it   

being #bjj below the zero of our        
ordinary thermometers6 ,but there is    
much uncertainty about the actual       
temperature on the moon1 and different  
experiments1 in the attempt to make a   
direct measurement of it1 have yielded  
discordant results4 ,at one time1 for   
instance1 ,lord ,rosse believed he had  
demonstrated that at lunar noon the     
temperature of the rocks rose above the 
boiling-point of water4 ,but afterward  
he changed his mind and favored the     
theory of a low temperature4  ,in this  
and in other respects much remains to be
 discovered concerning our interesting  
satellite1 and there is plenty of room1 
and an abundance of original occupation1
 for new observers of the lunar world4  
,,chapter ,,ix  ,,how ,,to ,,find ,,the 
,,planets   ,there is no reason why     
everybody should not know the principal 
planets at sight nearly as well as      
everybody knows the moon4 ,it only      
requires a little intelligent           
application to become acquainted with   

the other worlds that have been         
discussed in the foregoing chapters1 and
 to be able to follow their courses     
through the sky and recognize them      
wherever they appear4 ,no telescope1 or 
any other instrument whatever1 is       
required for the purpose4 ,there is but 
one preliminary requirement1 just as    
every branch of human knowledge         
presupposes its ,a ,b ,c4 ,this is an   
acquaintance with the constellations and
 the principal stars--not a difficult   
thing to obtain4  ,almost everybody     
knows the ,great ,dipper from           
childhood's days1 except1 perhaps1 those
 who have had the misfortune to spend   
their youth under the glare of city     
lights4 ,some know ,orion when he shines
 gloriously in the winter heavens4 ,many
 are able to point out the north star1  
or pole star1 as everybody should be    
able to do4 ,all this forms a good      
beginning1 and may serve as the basis   
for the rapid acquirement of a general  
knowledge of the geography of the       

heavens4  ,if you are fortunate enough  
to number an astronomer among your      
acquaintance--an amateur will do as well
 as a professor--you may1 with his aid1 
make a short cut to a knowledge of the  
stars4 ,otherwise you must depend upon  
books and charts4 ,my ,astronomy with an
 ,opera-,glass was prepared for this    
very purpose4 ,for simply learning the  
constellations and the chief stars you  
need no opera-glass or other instrument4
 ,with the aid of the charts1           
familiarize yourself with the appearance
 of the constellations by noticing the  
characteristic arrangements of their    
chief stars4 ,you need pay no attention 
to any except the bright stars1 and     
those that are conspicuous enough to    
thrust themselves upon your attention4  
,learn by observation at what seasons   
particular constellations are on1 or    
near1 the meridian--i4e41 the north and 
south line through the middle of the    
heavens4 ,make yourself especially      
familiar with the so-called zodiacal    

constellations1 which are1 in their     
order1 running around the heavens from  
west to east3 ,aries1 ,taurus1 ,gemini1 
,cancer1 ,leo1 ,virgo1 ,libra1 ,scorpio1
 ,sagittarius1 ,capricornus1 ,aquarius1 
and ,pisces4 ,the importance of these   
particular constellations arises from   
the fact that it is across them that the
 tracks of the planets lie1 and when you
 are familiar with the fixed stars      
belonging to them you will be able      
immediately to recognize a stranger     
appearing among them1 and will correctly
 conclude that it is one of the         
planets4#ba ,how to tell which planet it
 may be1 it is the object of this       
chapter to show you4 ,as an             
indispensable aid--unless you happen    
already to possess a complete star atlas
 on a larger scale--,i have drawn the   
six charts of the zodiacal              
constellations and their neighbors that 
are included in this chapter4  ,footnote
 #ba3 ,in our latitudes1 planets are    
never seen in the northern quarter of   

the sky4 ,when on the meridian1 they are
 always somewhere between the zenith and
 the southern horizon4  ,illustration3  
,,chart ,,no4 #a4--;,,from ,,right      
,,ascension #j ,,hours ,,to #d ,,hours2 
,,declination #cj ,,north ,,to #aj      
,,south4  ,having learned to recognize  
the constellations and their chief stars
 on sight1 one other step1 an extremely 
easy one1 remains to be taken before    
beginning your search for the           
planets--buy the ,american ,ephemeris   
and ,nautical ,almanac for the current  
year4 ,it is published under the        
direction of the ,united ,states ,naval 
,observatory at ,washington1 and can be 
purchased for one dollar4  ,this book1  
which may appear to you rather bulky and
 formidable for an almanac1 contains    
hundreds of pages and scores of tables  
to which you need pay no attention4     
,they are for navigators and            
astronomers1 and are much more innocent 
than they look4 ,the plain citizen1     
seeking only an introduction to the     

planets1 can return their stare and pass
 by1 without feeling in the least       
humiliated4  ,illustration3 ,,chart     
,,no4 #b4--;,,from ,,right ,,ascension  
#d ,,hours ,,to #h ,,hours2             
,,declination #cj ,,north ,,to #aj      
,,south4  ,in the front part of the     
book1 after the long calendar1 and the  
tables relating to the sun and the moon1
 will be found about thirty pages of    
tables headed1 in large black letters1  
with the names of the planets--,mercury1
 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 etc4 
,two months are represented on each     
page1 and opposite the number of each   
successive day of the month the position
 of the planet is given in hours1       
minutes1 and seconds of right ascension1
 and degrees1 minutes1 and seconds of   
north and south declination1 the sign   
meaning north1 and the sign - south4 ,do
 not trouble yourself with the seconds  
in either column1 and take the minutes  
only when the number is large4 ,the     
hours of right ascension and the degrees

 of declination are the main things to  
be noticed4  ,right ascension1 by the   
way1 expresses the distance of a        
celestial body1 such as a star or a     
planet1 east of the vernal equinox1 or  
the first point of ,aries1 which is an  
arbitrary point on the equator of the   
heavens1 which serves1 like the meridian
 of ,greenwich on the earth1 as a       
starting-place for reckoning longitude4 
,the entire circuit of the heavens along
 the equator is divided into twenty-four
 hours of right ascension1 each hour    
covering #ae of space4 ,if a planet then
 is in right ascension 7usually printed 
for short ,r4,a47 #j h4 #j m4 #j s41 it 
is on the meridian of the vernal        
equinox1 or the celestial ,greenwich2 if
 it is in ,r4,a4 #a h41 it will be found
 #ae east of the vernal equinox1 and so 
on4  ,illustration3 ,,chart ,,no4       
#c4--;,,from ,,right ,,ascension #h     
,,hours ,,to #ab ,,hours2 ,,declination 
#cj ,,north ,,to #aj ,,south4           
,declination 7printed ,d4 or ,dec47     

expresses the distance of a celestial   
body north or south of the equator of   
the heavens4  ,with these explanations  
we may proceed to find a planet by the  
aid of the ,nautical ,almanac and our   
charts4 ,i take1 for example1 the       
ephemeris for the year #aija1 and ,i    
look under the heading ,jupiter on page 
#bci1 for the month of ,july4 ,opposite 
the #aeth day of the month ,i find the  
right ascension to be #ah h4 #bg m41    
neglecting the seconds4 ,now #bg minutes
 are so near to half an hour that1 for  
our purposes1 we may say ,jupiter is in 
,r4,a4 #ah h4 #cj m4 ,i set this down on
 a slip of paper1 and then examine the  
declination column1 where ,i find that  
on ,july #ae ,jupiter is in south       
declination 7the sign - meaning south1  
as before explained7 #bc #ag #eb1 which 
is almost #bc #ah1 and1 for our         
purposes1 we may call this #bc #bj1     
which is what ,i set down on my slip4   
,illustration3 ,,chart ,,no4            
#d4--;,,from ,,right ,,ascension #ab    

,,hours ,,to #af ,,hours2 ,,declination 
#aj ,,north ,,to #cj ,,south4  ,next1 ,i
 turn to ,chart ,no4 #e1 in this        
chapter1 where ,i find the meridian line
 of ,r4,a4 #ah h4 running through the   
center of the chart4 ,i know that       
,jupiter is to be looked for about #cj  
m4 east1 or to the left1 of that line4  
,at the bottom and top of the chart1    
every twenty minutes of ,r4,a4 is       
indicated1 so that it is easy1 with the 
eye1 or with the aid of a ruler1 to     
place the vertical line at some point of
 which ,jupiter is to be found4         
,illustration3 ,,chart ,,no4            
#e4--;,,from ,,right ,,ascension #af    
,,hours ,,to #bj ,,hours2 ,,declination 
#aj ,,north ,,to #cj ,,south4  ,then ,i 
consult my note of the declination of   
the planet4 ,it is south #bc #bj4 ,on   
the vertical borders of the chart ,i    
find the figures of the declination1 and
 ,i observe that #j ,dec41 which        
represents the equator of the heavens1  
is near the top of the chart1 while each

 parallel horizontal line across the    
chart indicates #aj north or south of   
its next neighbor4 ,next to the bottom  
of the chart ,i find the parallel of    
#bj1 and ,i see that every five degrees 
is indicated by the figures at the      
sides4 ,by the eye1 or with the aid of a
 ruler1 ,i easily estimate where the    
horizontal line of #bc would fall1 and  
since #bj is the third of a degree ,i   
perceive that it is1 for the rough      
purpose of merely finding a conspicuous 
planet1 negligible1 although it1 too1   
can be included in the estimate1 if     
thought desirable4  ,having already     
found the vertical line on which        
,jupiter is placed and having now found 
the horizontal line also1 ,i have simply
 to regard their crossing point1 which  
will be the situation of the planet     
among the stars4 ,i note that it is in  
the constellation ,sagittarius in a     
certain position with reference to a    
familiar group of stars in that         
constellation1 and when ,i look at the  

heavens1 there1 in the place thus       
indicated1 ,jupiter stands revealed4    
,illustration3 ,,chart ,,no4            
#f4--;,,from ,,right ,,ascension #bj    
,,hours ,,to #bd ,,hours 7#j ,,ii472    
,,declination #aj ,,north ,,to #cj      
,,south4  ,the reader will readily      
perceive that1 in a precisely similar   
manner1 any planet can be located1 at   
any time of the year1 and at any point  
in its course about the heavens4 ,but it
 may turn out that the place occupied by
 the planet is too near the sun to      
render it easily1 or at all1 visible4   
,such a case can be recognized1 either  
from a general knowledge of the location
 of the constellations at various       
seasons1 or with the aid of the         
,nautical ,almanac1 where at the        
beginning of each set of monthly tables 
in the calendar the sun's right         
ascension and declination will be found4
 ,in locating the sun1 if you find that 
its right ascension differs by less than
 an hour1 one way or the other1 from    

that of the planet sought1 it is useless
 to look for the latter4 ,if the planet 
is situated west of the sun--to the     
right on the chart--then it is to be    
looked for in the east before sunrise4  
,but if it is east of the sun--to the   
left on the chart--then you must seek it
 in the west after sunset4  ,for        
instance1 ,i look for the planet        
,mercury on ,october #ab1 #aija4 ,i find
 its ,r4,a4 to be #ad h4 #dj m4 and its 
,dec4 #ah #cf4 ,looking at the sun's    
place for ,october #abth1 ,i find it to 
be ,r4,a4 #ac h4 #h m4 and ,dec4 #g #ad4
 ,placing them both on ,chart ,no4 #d1  
,i discover that ,mercury is well to the
 east1 or left hand of the sun1 and will
 consequently be visible in the western 
sky after sundown4  ,additional guidance
 will be found by noting the following  
facts about the charts3  ,the meridian  
7the north and south line7 runs through 
the middle of ,chart ,no4 #a between #aa
 and #ab o'clock ,p4,m4 on ,november    
#ast1 between #i and #aj o'clock ,p4,m4 

on ,december #ast1 and between #g and #h
 o'clock ,p4,m4 on ,january #ast4  ,the 
meridian runs through the middle of     
,chart ,no4 #b between #aa and #ab      
o'clock ,p4,m4 on ,january #ast1 between
 #i and #aj o'clock ,p4,m4 on ,february 
#ast1 and between #g and #h o'clock     
,p4,m4 on ,march #ast4  ,the meridian   
runs through the middle of ,chart ,no4  
#c between #aa and #ab o'clock ,p4,m4 on
 ,march #ast1 between #i and #aj o'clock
 ,p4,m4 on ,april #ast1 and between #g  
and #h o'clock ,p4,m4 on ,may #ast4     
,the meridian runs through the middle of
 ,chart ,no4 #d between #aa and #ab     
o'clock ,p4,m4 on ,may #ast1 between #i 
and #aj o'clock ,p4,m4 on ,june #ast1   
and between #g and #h o'clock ,p4,m4 on 
,july #ast4  ,the meridian runs through 
the middle of ,chart ,no4 #e between #aa
 and #ab o'clock ,p4,m4 on ,july #ast1  
between #i and #aj o'clock ,p4,m4 on    
,august #ast1 and between #g and #h     
o'clock ,p4,m4 on ,september #ast4  ,the
 meridian runs through the middle of    

,chart ,no4 #f between #aa and #ab      
o'clock ,p4,m4 on ,september #ast1      
between #i and #aj o'clock ,p4,m4 on    
,october #ast1 and between #g and #h    
o'clock ,p4,m4 on ,november #ast4  ,note
 well1 also1 these particulars about the
 charts3 ,chart ,no4 #a includes the    
first four hours of right ascension1    
from #j h4 to #d h4 inclusive2 ,chart   
,no4 #b includes #d h4 to #h h42 ,chart 
,no4 #c1 #h h4 to #ab h42 ,chart ,no4   
#d1 #ab h4 to #af h42 ,chart ,no4 #e1   
#af h4 to #bj h42 and ,chart ,no4 #f1   
#bj h4 to #bd h41 which completes the   
circuit4 ,in the first three charts the 
line of #j1 or the equator1 is found    
near the bottom1 and in the last three  
near the top4 ,this is a matter of      
convenience in arrangement1 based upon  
the fact that the ecliptic1 which1 and  
not the equator1 marks the center of the
 zodiac1 indicates the position of the  
tracks of the planets among the stars2  
and the ecliptic1 being inclined #bc to 
the plane of the equator1 lies half to  

the north and half to the south of the  
latter4  ,those who1 after all1 may not 
care to consult the ephemeris in order  
to find the planets1 may be able to     
locate them1 simply from a knowledge of 
their situation among the               
constellations4 ,some ordinary almanacs 
tell in what constellations the         
principal planets are to be found at    
various times of the year4 ,having once 
found them in this way1 it is           
comparatively easy to keep track of them
 thereafter through a general knowledge 
of their movements4 ,jupiter1 for       
instance1 requiring a period of nearly  
twelve years to make a single journey   
around the sun1 moves about #cj eastward
 among the stars every year4 ,the       
zodiacal constellations are roughly     
about #cj in length1 and as ,jupiter was
 in ,sagittarius in #aija1 he will be in
 ,capricornus in #aijb4 ,saturn1        
requiring nearly thirty years for a     
revolution around the sun1 moves only   
between #ab and #ac eastward every year1

 and1 being in conjunction with ,jupiter
 in ,sagittarius in #aija1 does not get 
beyond the border of that constellation 
in #aijb4  ,jupiter having been in      
opposition to the sun ,june #cj1 #aija1 
will be similarly placed early in       
,august1 #aijb1 the time from one       
opposition of ,jupiter to the next being
 #cii days4  ,saturn passes from one    
opposition to the next in #cgh days1 so 
that having been in that position ,july 
#e1 #aija1 it reaches it again about    
,july #ah1 #aijb4  ,mars requires about 
#fhg days to complete a revolution1 and 
comes into conjunction with the earth1  
or opposition to the sun--the best      
position for observation--on the average
 once every #ghj days4 ,mars was in     
opposition near the end of ,february1   
#aija1 and some of its future           
oppositions will be in ,march1 #aijc2   
,may1 #aije2 ,july1 #aijg2 and          
,september1 #aiji4 ,the oppositions of  
#aijg and #aiji will be unusually       
favorable ones1 for they will occur when

 the planet is comparatively near the   
earth4 ,when a planet is in opposition  
to the sun it is on the meridian1 the   
north and south line1 at midnight4      
,mercury and ,venus being nearer the sun
 than the earth is1 can never be seen   
very far from the place of the sun      
itself4 ,venus recedes much farther from
 the solar orb than ,mercury does1 but  
both are visible only in the sunset or  
the sunrise sky4 ,all almanacs tell at  
what times these planets play their     
respective rles as morning or as evening
 stars4 ,in the case of ,mercury about  
#aaf days on the average elapse between 
its reappearances2 in the case of       
,venus1 about #ehd days4 ,the latter1   
for instance1 having become an evening  
star at the end of ,april1 #aija1 will  
become an evening star again in         
,december1 #aijb4  ,with the aid of the 
,nautical ,almanac and the charts the   
amateur will find no difficulty1 after a
 little practise1 in keeping track of   
any of the planets4  ,in the back part  

of the ,nautical ,almanac will be found 
two pages headed ,phenomena3 ,planetary 
,configurations4 ,with the aid of these 
the student can determine the position  
of the planets with respect to the sun  
and the moon1 and with respect to one   
another4 ,the meaning of the various    
symbols used in the tables will be found
 explained on a page facing the calendar
 at the beginning of the book4 ,from    
these tables1 among other things1 the   
times of greatest elongation from the   
sun of the planets ,mercury and ,venus  
can be found4  ,it may be added that    
only bright stars1 and stars easily     
seen1 are included in the charts1 and   
there will be no danger of mistaking any
 of these stars for a planet1 if the    
observer first carefully learns to      
recognize their configurations4 ,neither
 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 nor ,saturn ever      
appears as faint as any of the stars1   
except those of the first magnitude1    
included in the charts4 ,uranus and     
,neptune being invisible to the naked   

eye--,uranus can occasionally be just   
glimpsed by a keen eye--are too faint to
 be found without the aid of more       
effective appliances4     ,,index       
,agassiz1 ,alexander1 on deep-sea       
animals1 #fc4  ,asteroids1 the1 #af1    
#abi4   brightness of1 #acj4   imaginary
 adventures on1 #adf4   life on1 #add4  
number of1 known1 #abi4   orbits of1    
#acb4   origin of1 #ach1 #adc4   size   
of1 #abi4  ,aristarchus1 lunar crater1  
#bbf4  ,atmosphere1 importance of1 #bj4 
,bailey1 ,solon ,i41 on oppositions of  
,eros1 #acd4  ,barnard1 ,e4,e41         
discovers fifth satellite of ,jupiter1  
#aha4   measures asteroids1 #abi4   on  
,saturn's rings1 #bje4  ,belopolski1 on 
rotation of ,venus1 #gi4   ,ceres1 an   
asteroid1 #abi1 #acj4  ,clefts in the   
moon1 #bbf4  ,copernicus1 lunar crater1 
#bbc1 #bdb4   ,darwin1 ,george ,h41 on  
,jupiter and ,saturn1 #bjf4   on origin 
of moon1 #bce4   theory of tidal        
friction1 #cb4  ,davy1 ,sir ,humphry1 on
 ,saturn1 #aij4  ,dawes sees canals on  

,mars1 #ic4  ,deimos1 satellite of      
,mars1 #abe4  ,denning1 ,w4,f41         
description of ,jupiter1 #age4  ,de     
,vico on rotation of ,venus1 #gf4       
,dewar1 ,james1 discovers free hydrogen 
in air1 #bcb4  ,de ,witt discovers      
,eros1 #acc4  ,dick1 ,thomas1 on        
,saturn1 #bja4  ,douglass1 ,a4,e41 sees 
,mars's canals1 #ib4   sees clouds in   
,mars1 #aai4  ,doppler's principle1 #gi1
 #bjj4   ,earth and moon's orbit1 #bag4 
birth of moon from1 #bcf4   change of   
distance from sun1 #bg4   less advanced 
than ,mars1 #hi4   older than ,venus1   
#eh4   seen from ,mercury1 #da4   seen  
from ,venus1 #fi-ga1 #ge4   seen from   
moon1 #bad4  ,earth1 similarity to      
,venus1 #df4   supposed signals to and  
from ,mars1 #aaj4  ,elger1 ,t4,g41 on   
cracks in moon1 #bbg4   on ,tycho's     
rays1 #bdf4  ,ephemeris1 how to use1    
#bfj1 #bfd4  ,eros1 an asteroid1        
#aca-acd1 #acf1 #acg4   ,flammarion1    
,c41 observes ,venus's atmosphere1 #ef4 
on plurality of worlds1 #h4  ,forbes1   

,prof4 ,george1 on ultra-,neptunian     
planet1 #baj4   ,galileo on lunar world1
 #bae4  ,gravity1 as affecting life on  
planets1 #bj1 #df4   ,hall1 ,asaph1     
discovers ,mars's moons1 #ij4           
,herodotus1 lunar crater1 #bbg4         
,herschel1 ,sir ,john1 on ,saturn1 #ahe4
  ,holden1 ,e4,s41 on photograph of     
lunar crater1 #bdb4  ,huggins on        
,mercury's atmosphere1 #ba4             
,inhabitants of foreign planets1 #a1 #d1
 #e4  ,interplanetary communication1 #a1
 #c1 #gb1 #aaj1 #aab4   ,juno1 an       
asteroid1 #abi4  ,jupiter1 cloudy aspect
 of1 #afe4   density of1 #afb4          
distance of1 #afa4   equatorial belts   
on1 #afe4   future of1 #ahj4   gravity  
on1 #afb4   great red spot on1 #afi4    
markings outside the belts1 #afh4   and 
the nebular theory1 #agh4   once a      
companion star1 #agi4   polar           
compression of1 #afa4   possibly yet    
incandescent1 #agg4   question of a     
denser core1 #agf4   resemblance of1 to 
sun1 #agd4   rotation of1 #afa1 #agc4   

satellites of1 #aff1 #aha4   seen from  
satellites1 #ahb4   size of1 #afj4      
solar light and heat on1 #ahb4   south  
belt of1 #agb4   surface conditions of1 
#afc4   theories about the red spot1    
#agj4   trade-winds and the belts of1   
#afg4   various rates of rotation of1   
#agc4   visibility of rotation of1 #aff4
   ,keeler1 ,j4,e41 on ,saturn's rings1 
#bjj4  ,kepler1 lunar crater1 #bbc4     
,kinetic theory of gases1 #aaf4         
,kirkwood1 ,daniel1 on asteroids1 #aca4 
,lagrange on ,olbers's theory1 #aci4    
,lick ,observatory and ,mars's canals1  
#ib4  ,life1 a planetary phenomenon1    
#aj4   in sea depths1 #fb4   on planets1
 #fb1 #fc4   prime requisites of1 #fd4  
resisting extreme cold1 #abc4           
universality of1 #i4  ,loewy and        
,puiseux1 on lunar atmosphere1 #bdh4    
on lunar seas1 #bcd4  ,lowell1          
,percival1 description of ,mars1 #ajh4  
on markings of ,venus1 #fj4   on        
,mercury's rotation1 #cc4   on rotation 
of ,venus1 #gg4   sees ,mars's canals1  

#ib4   theory of ,martian canals1 #aja4 
,lucian1 on appearance of earth from    
moon1 #bac4  ,lyman1 ,c4,s41 observes   
,venus's atmosphere1 #ee4   ,mars1 age  
of1 #hi4   atmosphere of1 #hf1 #aae1    
#aag4   bands of life on1 #ajd4   canals
 on1 #ij4     described by              
,schiaparelli1 #ic4     gemination of1  
#ia1 #aje4     have builders of1        
disappeared8 #ajg4     and irrigation1  
#aja4     and lines of vegetation1 #ajb4
     and seasonal changes1 #ii4     and 
water circulation1 #ajj4   carbon       
dioxide on1 #aah4   circular spots or   
oases on1 #ajc4   colors of1 #hi4       
dimensions of1 #hf4   distance of1 #he1 
#hf4   enigmatical lights on1 #aaa4     
gravity on1 #hf4   inclination of axis1 
#hf4   length of year1 #hf4   ,lowell's 
theory of1 #aja4   light and heat on1   
#he4   moonlight on1 #abh4   orbit of1  
#he4   polar caps of1 #hg1 #aah4        
possible size of inhabitants1 #ajf4     
satellites of1 #ij1 #abd1 #abf4         
seasons on1 #hg4   supposed signals     

from1 #aaj1 #aab4   temperature of1     
#abj1 #abb4   water vapor on1 #aag4     
,mercury1 atmosphere of1 #ba1 #bh1 #dc1 
#dd4   day and night on1 #cd1 #ch1 #dj4 
dimensions1 #ah4   earth seen from1 #da4
   habitability of1 #cc1 #dj1 #dd4      
heavens seen from1 #da1 #db4   heat and 
light on1 #be1 #bh4   holds place of    
honor1 #ai4   length of year1 #bd4      
mass of1 #ai4   moon visible from1 #da4 
resemblances to moon1 #dc4   rotation   
of1 #cj4   shape of orbit1 #bc4   sun as
 seen from1 #cg4   velocity in orbit1   
#bc4   ,venus seen from1 #da4   virtual 
fall toward sun1 #bd4   visibility of1  
#ba4   water on1 #dc4  ,moon1 the area  
of surface1 #bai4   atmosphere of1 #g1  
#bae1 #bca1 #bdg1 #bdh4   clouds on1 #f1
 #bde4   constitution of1 #bcf4         
craters1 #bba4   day and night on1 #bed4
   distance of1 #bab1 #bae4   density   
of1 #bai4   former cataclysm on1 #bcg4  
former life on1 #bda1 #bdc4   giantism  
on1 #bbh1 #bbi4   gravity on1 #bai1     
#bbh1 #bbi4   libration of1 #bdi4       

meteorites and1 #bcj4   mountains on1   
#bbj4   the older world in1 #bdb4       
origin of1 #bce4   phases and motions   
of1 #bej4   rotation of1 #bdi4   seas   
of1 #bcd4   size of1 #bah4   snow on1   
#bdf4   speculation about1 #bab4        
temperature of1 #bee4   vegetation on1  
#f1 #bdd1 #bdg4   visibility of features
 of1 #bac4   ,nasmyth and ,carpenter on 
lunar craters1 #bbd4  ,neptune1         
description of1 #bjh-baj4  ,newcomb1    
,simon1 on ,olbers's theory1 #ada4      
,newton1 lunar crater1 #bbb4   ,olbers's
 theory of planetary explosion1 #ach4   
on ,vesta's light1 #ach4   ,pallas1 an  
asteroid1 #abi4  ,perrotin sees canals  
on ,mars1 #ib4  ,phobos1 satellite of   
,mars1 #abe4  ,pickering1 ,e4,c41       
discovers ninth moon of ,saturn1 #aie4  
finds ,eros on ,harvard plates1 #acc4   
on shape of ,eros1 #acf4   on light of  
,eros1 #acg4  ,pickering1 ,w4,h41 on    
lunar atmosphere1 #bdg4   observes      
changes in moon1 #bdd4   sees ,mars's   
canals1 #ib4   theory of ,tycho's rays1 

#bdf4   on ,venus's atmosphere1 #ed4    
,planets1 classification of1 #ae4   how 
to find1 #bef1 #bgc4   resemblances     
among1 #ab4  ,plato1 lunar ring plain1  
#bbe4  ,plurality of worlds in          
literature1 #b4   subject ignored1 #h4  
,proctor1 ,r4,a41 on ,jupiter's moons1  
#ahj4   on other worlds1 #h4  ,roche's  
limit1 #bja4  ,rosse1 ,lord1 on         
temperature of moon1 #bee4   ,saturn1   
age of1 #ahi4   composition of1 #aij4   
density of1 #ahh4   distance of1 #ahf4  
the gauze ring1 #aii-bjb4   gravity on1 
#ahh4   inclination of axis1 #ahg4      
interior of1 #bjf4   length of year1    
#ahf4   popular telescopic object1 #ahe4
   rings of1 #ahe1 #aif4     gaps in1   
#aig4     origin of1 #bjj4     periodic 
disappearance of1 #aih4     seen from   
planet1 #bjg4     shadow of1 #aih4      
rotation of1 #ahg4   satellites of1     
#aie4   size of1 #ahg4  ,schiaparelli   
discovers canals on ,mars1 #ij4         
describes ,martian canals1 #ic4         
discovers ,mercury's rotation1 #cj1 #cb4

   on rotation of ,venus1 #gf4  ,solar  
system1 shape and size of1 #ad4   unity 
of1 #i4   viewed from space1 #aa4       
,stoney1 ,johnstone1 on atmospheres of  
planets1 #aaf4   on escape of gases from
 moon1 #bca4  ,sun1 the1 isolation in   
space1 #ac4   no life on1 #aj4          
resemblances with ,jupiter1 #agd4       
,swedenborg1 on ,saturn's rings1 #bjd4  
,tidal friction1 #hj1 #ha1 #bcf1 #bec4  
,tycho1 lunar crater1 #bbb4             
,ultra-,neptunian planet1 #baj4         
,uranus1 description of1 #bjh-baj4      
,venus1 age of1 #eh4   atmosphere of1   
#ec1 #ee1 #ei1 #fa1 #fh4   absence of   
seasons on1 #ea4   density of1 #dg4     
distance of1 #dg1 #ej4   gravity on1    
#df1 #dg4   inclination of axis1 #ej4   
life on1 #eg1 #eh1 #fa1 #fe1 #fg1 #fh1  
#hb1 #aag4   light and heat on1 #ej-eg4 
orbit of1 #ej4   phases of1 #di4        
resemblances of1 to earth1 #df4         
rotation of1 #gf1 #gi1 #hj4   size of1  
#df4   twilight on1 #hc4   visibility   
of1 #dg4  ,vesta1 an asteroid1 #abi1    

#acj1 #ach4  ,vogel on ,mercury's       
atmosphere1 #ba4   ,wireless telegraphy1
 #a1 #aab4   ,young1 ,c4,a41 on         
,olbers's theory of asteroids1 #adb4    
on temperature of ,mars1 #abb4   on     
,venus's atmosphere1 #ec4   ,zodiac1    
the1 #beh4   ,,the ,,end     ,a ,,new   
,,book ,,by ,,prof4 ,,groos4  ,the ,play
 of ,man4  ,by ,,karl ,,groos1          
,professor of ,philosophy in the        
,university of ,basel1 and author of    
,the ,play of ,animals4 ,translated1    
with the author's cooperation1 by       
,elizabeth ,l4 ,baldwin1 and edited1    
with a ,preface and ,appendix1 by ,prof4
 ,j4 ,mark ,baldwin1 of ,princeton      
,university4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej net2  
postage1 #ab cents additional4          
,the results of ,professor ,groos's     
original and acute investigations       
are of peculiar value to those who are  
interested in psychology and            
sociology1 and they are of great        
importance to educators4 ,he            
presents the anthropological aspects of 

the subject treated in his              
psychological study of the ,play of     
,animals1 which has already      become 
a classic4 ,professor ,groos1 who agrees
 with the followers of      ,weismann1  
develops the great importance of the    
child's play as      tending to         
strengthen his inheritance in the       
acquisition of      adaptations to his  
environment4 ,the influence of play on  
character1      and its relation to     
education1 are suggestively indicated4  
,the      playful manifestations        
affecting the child himself and those   
affecting his relations to others have  
been carefully classified1      and the 
reader is led from the simpler exercises
 of the sensory      apparatus through a
 variety of divisions to inner          
imitations and      social play4 ,the   
biological1 sthetic1 ethical1 and       
pedagogical      standpoints receive    
much attention from the investigator4   
,while      this book is an illuminating
 contribution to scientific literature1 

it is of eminently practical value4 ,its
 illustrations and lessons      will be 
studied and applied by educators1 and   
the importance of      this original    
presentation of a most fertile subject  
will be      appreciated by parents as  
well as by those who are interested as  
general students of sociological and    
psychological themes4  ,d4 ,,appleton   
,,and ,,company1 ,,new ,,york4     ,d4  
,,appleton ,,and ,,company',s           
,,publications4  ,,richard ,a4          
,,proctor',s ,,works4   ,,other ,,worlds
 ,,than ,,ours3 ,the ,plurality of      
,worlds1 ,studied under the ,light of   
,recent ,scientific ,researches4 ,with  
,illustrations1 some colored4 #abmo4    
,cloth1 #a4ge4                          
,,contents4--,introduction4--,what the  
,earth teaches us4--,what we learn      
from the ,sun4--,the ,inferior          
,planets4--,mars1 the ,miniature of our 
,earth4--,jupiter1 the ,giant of the    
,solar ,system4--,saturn1 the ,ringed   
,world4--,uranus and ,neptune1 the      

,arctic ,planets4--,the ,moon and other 
,satellites4--,meteors and ,comets3     
their ,office in the ,solar             
,system4--,other ,suns than ,ours4--,of 
,minor ,stars1 and of the               
,distribution of ,stars in ,space4--,the
 ,nebul3 are they ,external             
,galaxies8--,supervision and ,control4  
,,our ,,place ,,among ,,infinities4 ,a  
,series of ,essays contrasting our      
,little ,abode in ,space and ,time with 
the ,infinities around us4 ,to which are
 added ,essays on the ,jewish ,sabbath  
and ,astrology4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ge4   
,,contents4--,past and ,future of the   
,earth4--,seeming ,wastes in            
,nature4--,new ,theory of ,life in other
 ,worlds4--,a ,missing ,comet4--,the    
,lost ,comet and its ,meteor            
,train4--,jupiter4--,saturn and its     
,system4--,a ,giant ,sun4--,the ,star   
,depths4--,star ,gauging4--,saturn and  
the ,sabbath of the ,jews4--,thoughts on
 ,astrology4   ,,the ,,expanse ,,of     
,,heaven4 ,a ,series of ,essays on the  

,wonders of the ,firmament4 #abmo4      
,cloth1 #b4jj4       ,,contents4--,a    
,dream that was not all a ,dream4--,the 
,sun4--,the ,queen      of ,night4--,the
 ,evening ,star4--,the ,ruddy           
,planet4--,life in the ,ruddy           
,planet4--,the ,prince of               
,planets4--,jupiter's ,family of        
,moons4--,the      ,ring-,girdled       
,planet4--,newton and the ,law of the   
,universe4--,the      ,discovery of ,two
 ,giant ,planets4--,the ,lost           
,comet4--,visitants from      the ,star 
,depths4--,whence come the              
,comets8--,the ,comet ,families of      
the ,giant ,planets4--,the ,earth's     
,journey through ,showers4--,how the    
,planets ,grew4--,our ,daily            
,light4--,the ,flight of ,light4--,a    
,cluster of      ,suns4--,worlds ruled  
by ,colored ,suns4--,the ,king of       
,suns4--,four      ,orders of           
,suns4--,the ,depths of                 
,space4--,charting the ,star            
,depths4--,the ,star ,depths ,astir with

 ,life4--,the ,drifting ,stars4--,the   
,milky ,way4   ,,the ,,moon3 ,her       
,motions1 ,aspect1 ,scenery1 and        
,physical ,conditions4 ,with ,three     
,lunar ,photographs1 ,map1 and ,many    
,plates1 ,charts1 etc4 #abmo4 ,cloth1   
#b4jj4       ,,contents4--,the ,moon's  
,distance1 ,size1 and ,mass4--,the      
,moon's      ,motions4--,the ,moon's    
,changes of ,aspect1 ,rotation1         
,libration1      etc4--,study of the    
,moon's ,surface4--,lunar ,celestial    
,phenomena4--,condition of the ,moon's  
,surface4--,index to the ,map of        
the ,moon4   ,,light ,,science ,,for    
,,leisure ,,hours4 ,a ,series of        
,familiar ,essays on ,scientific        
,subjects1 ,natural ,phenomena1 etc4    
#abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ge4   ,d4 ,,appleton  
,,and ,,company1 ,,new ,,york4     ,d4  
,,appleton  ,,co4',s ,,publications4    
,,the ,,beginners ,,of ,a ,,nation4 ,a  
,history of the ,source and ,rise of the
 ,earliest ,english ,settlements in     
,america1 with ,special ,reference to   

the ,life and ,character of the ,people4
 ,the first volume in ,a ,history of    
,life in the ,united ,states4 ,by       
,,edward ,,eggleston4 ,small #hvo4      
,cloth1 gilt top1 uncut1 with ,maps1    
#a4ej4       ,few works on the period   
which it covers can compare with this in
      point of mere literary            
attractiveness1 and we fancy that many  
to      whom its scholarly value will   
not appeal will read the volume with    
interest and delight4--,new ,york       
,evening ,post4       ,written with a   
firm grasp of the theme1 inspired by    
ample      knowledge1 and made          
attractive by a vigorous and resonant   
style1      the book will receive much  
attention4 ,it is a great theme the     
author has taken up1 and he grasps it   
with the confidence of a                
master4--,new ,york ,times4       ,mr4  
,eggleston's ',beginners' is unique4 ,no
 similar historical study      has1 to  
our knowledge1 ever been done in the    
same way4 ,mr4      ,eggleston is a     

reliable reporter of facts2 but he is   
also an      exceedingly keen critic4   
,he writes history without the effort to
      merge the critic in the historian4
 ,his sense of humor is never           
dormant4 ,he renders some of the dullest
 passages in colonial annals            
actually amusing by his witty treatment 
of them4 ,he finds a laugh      for his 
readers where most of his predecessors  
have found yawns4      ,and with all    
this he does not sacrifice the dignity  
of history for      an instant4--,boston
 ,saturday ,evening ,gazette4       ,the
 delightful style1 the clear flow of the
 narrative1 the      philosophical tone1
 and the able analysis of men and events
 will      commend ,mr4 ,eggleston's    
work to earnest students4--,philadelphia
      ,public ,ledger4       ,the work  
is worthy of careful reading1 not only  
because of the      author's ability as 
a literary artist1 but because of his   
conspicuous proficiency in interpreting 
the causes of and changes      in       

,american life and character4--,boston  
,journal4       ,it is noticeable that  
,mr4 ,eggleston has followed no beaten  
track1      but has drawn his own       
conclusions as to the early period1 and 
they      differ from the generally     
received version not a little4 ,the book
      is stimulating and will prove of  
great value to the student of           
history4--,minneapolis ,journal4        
,a very interesting as well as a        
valuable book4444 ,a distinct           
advance upon most that has been written1
 particularly of the      settlement of 
,new ,england4--,newark ,advertiser4    
,one of the most important books of the 
year4 ,it is a work of art      as well 
as of historical science1 and its       
distinctive purpose is to      give an  
insight into the real life and character
 of people4444 ,the      author's style 
is charming1 and the history is fully as
 interesting      as a novel4--,brooklyn
 ,standard-,union4       ,the value of  
,mr4 ,eggleston's work is in that it is 

really a      history of 'life1' not    
merely a record of events4444 ,the      
comprehensive purpose of his volume has 
been excellently performed4      ,the   
book is eminently                       
readable4--,philadelphia ,times4   ,new 
,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton  ,,co41 #gb ,fifth
 ,avenue4     ,,recent ,,books ,,by     
,,distinguished ,,specialists4   ,the   
,comparative ,physiology and ,morphology
 of ,animals4  ,by ,prof4 ,,joseph ,,le 
,,conte4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4 ,cloth1   
#b4jj4   ,evolution by ,atrophy4  ,by   
,,jean ,,demoor1 ,,jean ,,massart1 and  
,,mile ,,vandervelde4 ,a new volume in  
the ,international ,scientific ,series4 
#abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4   ,foot-,notes to 
,evolution4  ,a ,series of ,popular     
,addresses on the ,evolution of ,life4  
,by ,,david ,,starr ,,jordan1 ,ph4,d41  
,president of ,leland ,stanford ,junior 
,university4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4      
,outlines of the ,earth's ,history4  ,a 
,popular ,study in ,physiography4 ,by   
,prof4 ,n4,s4 ,,shaler1 of ,harvard     

,university4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4       
,cloth1 #a4ej4   ,studies of ,good and  
,evil4  ,by ,,josiah ,,royce1 ,professor
 of the ,history of ,philosophy in      
,harvard ,university4 #abmo4 ,cloth1    
#a4ej4   ,evolutional ,ethics and       
,animal ,psychology4  ,by ,e4,p4        
,,evans1 author of ,animal ,symbolism in
 ,ecclesiastical ,architecture1 etc4    
#abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ge4   ,wages and      
,capital4  ,an ,examination of the      
,wages ,fund ,doctrine4 ,by ,f4,w4      
,,taussig1 ,professor of ,political     
,economy in ,harvard ,university1 author
 of ,tariff ,history of the ,united     
,states and ,the ,silver ,situation in  
the ,united ,states4 #abmo4 ,cloth1     
#a4ej4   ,what is ,electricity8  ,by    
,prof4 ,,john ,,trowbridge1 of ,harvard 
,university4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4      
,the ,psychology of ,suggestion4  ,a    
,research into the ,subconscious ,nature
 of ,man and ,society4 ,by ,,boris      
,,sidis1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,associate in 
,psychology at the ,pathological        

,institute of the ,new ,york ,state     
,hospitals4 ,with an ,introduction by   
,prof4 ,william ,james1 of ,harvard     
,university4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4       
,cloth1 #a4ge4   ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and   
,,company1 ,,new ,,york4     ,a ,,timely
 ,,book4  ,china4  ,travels and         
,investigations in the ,middle          
,kingdom--,a ,study of its ,civilization
 and ,possibilities4 ,together with an  
,account of the ,boxer ,war1 the ,relief
 of the ,legations1 and the             
,re-establishment of ,peace4 ,by ,,james
 ,,harrison ,,wilson1 ,a4,m41 ,,ll4,d41 
late ,major-,general ,united ,states    
,volunteers1 and ,brevet ,major-,general
 ,united ,states ,army4 ,third edition1 
revised throughout1 enlarged1 and reset4
 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ge4       ,general   
,wilson's second visit to ,china and his
 recent active      service in that     
country have afforded exceptional       
chances for a      knowledge of present 
conditions and the possibilities of the 
future4 ,in the light of the information

 thus obtained at first hand      in the
 country itself1 ,general ,wilson is    
enabled to write with a      peculiar   
authoritativeness in this edition1 which
 brings his study      of ,china down to
 the present day4 ,in addition to the   
new chapters      which have been added 
explaining the origin and development of
 the      ,boxer insurrection1 the      
relief of the legations1 and the outlook
      for the future1 the author has    
revised his book throughout1 and has    
added much valuable matter in the course
 of his narrative4 ,this      book1     
which is therefore in many respects new1
 puts the reader in      possession of a
 broad and comprehensive knowledge of   
,chinese      affairs1 and this includes
 the latest phases of the subject4 ,the 
practical and discriminating character  
of the author's study of      ,china    
will be appreciated more than ever at   
this time when      practical questions 
relating to ,chinese administration1    
commerce1      and other matters of the 

first importance1 are engaging so much  
attention4 ,this new edition is         
indispensable for any one who wishes    
a compact1 authoritative presentation of
 the ,china of to-day4   ,d4 ,,appleton 
,,and ,,company1 ,,new ,,york4     ,d4  
,,appleton  ,,co4',s ,,publications4    
,the ,sun4  ,by ,c4,a4 ,,young1 ,ph4,d41
 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,astronomy in  
,princeton ,university4 ,new and revised
 edition1 with numerous ,illustrations4 
#abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4       ',the ,sun' 
is a book of facts and achievements1 and
 not a      discussion of theories1 and 
it will be read and appreciated by all  
scientific students1 and not by them    
alone4 ,being written in                
untechnical language1 it is equally     
adapted to a large class of             
educated readers not engaged in         
scientific pursuits4--,journal of       
,education1 ,boston4   ,the ,story of   
the ,sun4  ,by ,sir ,,robert ,s4 ,,ball1
 ,f4,r4,s41 author of ,an ,atlas of     
,astronomy1 ,the ,cause of an ,ice ,age1

 etc4 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #e4jj4       ,sir   
,robert ,ball has the happy gift of     
making abstruse problems                
intelligible to the 'wayfaring man' by  
the aid of simple language      and a   
few diagrams4 ,science moves so fast    
that there was room for a      volume   
which should enlighten the general      
leader on the present      state of     
knowledge about solar phenomena1 and    
that place the      present treatise    
admirably fills4--,london ,chronicle4   
,an ,atlas of ,astronomy4  ,by ,sir     
,,robert ,s4 ,,ball1 ,f4,r4,s41         
,professor of ,astronomy and ,geometry  
at the ,university of ,cambridge2 author
 of ,starland1 ,the ,cause of an ,ice   
,age1 etc4 ,with #gb ,plates1           
,explanatory ,text1 and ,complete       
,index4 ,small #dto4 ,cloth1 #d4jj4     
,the high reputation of ,sir ,robert    
,ball as a writer on astronomy at       
once popular and scientific is in itself
 more than sufficient                   
recommendation of his newly published   

',atlas of ,astronomy4' 444 ,the        
introduction is written with ,sir       
,robert ,ball's well-known lucidity     
and simplicity of exposition1 and       
altogether the ,atlas is admirably      
adapted to meet the needs and smooth the
 difficulties of young and              
inexperienced students of astronomy1 as 
well as materially to      assist the   
researches of those that are more       
advanced4--,london      ,times4         
,studies in ,spectrum ,analysis4  ,by   
,j4 ,,norman ,,lockyer1 ,f4,r4,s41      
,correspondent of the ,institute of     
,france1 etc4 ,with #fj ,illustrations4 
#abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4ej4       ,the study  
of spectrum analysis is one fraught with
 a peculiar      fascination1 and some  
of the author's experiments are         
exceedingly      picturesque in their   
results4 ,they are so lucidly described1
 too1      that the reader keeps on from
 page to page1 never flagging in        
interest in the matter before him1 nor  
putting down the book until      the    

last page is reached4--,new ,york       
,evening ,express4   ,the ,story of the 
,stars4  ,by ,g4,f4 ,,chambers1         
,f4,r4,a4,s41 author of ,handbook of    
,descriptive and ,practical ,astronomy1 
etc4 ,with #bd ,illustrations4 7,library
 of ,useful ,stories47 #afmo4 ,cloth1   
#dj cents4       ,one can here get a    
clear conception of the relative        
condition of      the stars and         
constellations1 and of the existent     
universe so far      as it is disclosed 
to view4 ,the author presents his       
wonderful and      at times bewildering 
facts in a bright and cheery spirit that
 makes      the book doubly             
attractive4--,boston ,home ,journal4    
,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 ,,new   
,,york4