images of public domain material from the ,google ,print project47 ,,socialism ,,and ,,modern ,,science 7,,darwin1 ,,spencer1 ,,marx7 ,,by ,,enrico ,,ferri ,,translated ,,by ,,robert ,,rives ,,la ,,monte ,,third ,,edition ,,chicago ,,charles ,h4 ,,kerr ,,company #aiag ,copyright1 #aijj by ,the ,international ,library ,publishing ,co4 ,table of ,contents4 ,,page4 ,preface #e ,introduction #i ,i4 ,,the ,,three ,,alleged ,,contradictions ,,between ,,darwinism ,,and ,,socialism ,virchow ,and ,haeckel at the ,congress of ,munich #ac a7 ,the equality of individuals #ai b7 ,the struggle for life and its victims #ce c7 ,the survival of the fittest #di ,,socialism ,,as ,a ,,consequence ,,of ,,darwinism4 ,socialism and religious beliefs #ei ,the individual and the species #fg ,the struggle for life and the class-struggle #gd ,,ii4 ,,evolution ,,and ,,socialism4 ,the orthodox thesis and the socialist thesis confronted by the theory of evolution #ib ,the law of apparent retrogression and collective ownership #ajj ,the social evolution and individual liberty #aaj ,evolution4--,revolution4--,rebellion4-- ,violence #abi ,,iii4 ,,sociology ,,and ,,socialism4 ,sterility of sociology #aef ,marx completes ,darwin ,and ,spencer4 ,conservatives and socialists #aei ,appendix ,i4--,reply to ,spencer #agc ,appendix ,,ii4--,socialist superstition and individualist myopia #agg ,author's ,preface4 7,for the ,french ,edition47 ,this volume--which it has been desired to make known to the great public in the ,french language--in entering upon a question so complex and so vast as socialism1 has but a single and definite aim4 ,my intention has been to point out1 and in nearly all cases by rapid and concise observations1 the general relations existing between contemporary socialism and the whole trend of modern scientific thought4 ,the opponents of contemporary socialism see in it1 or wish to see in it1 merely a reproduction of the sentimental socialism of the first half of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,they contend that socialism is in conflict with the fundamental facts and inductions of the physical1 biological and social sciences1 whose marvelous development and fruitful applications are the glory of our dying century4 ,to oppose socialism1 recourse has been had to the individual interpretations and exaggerations of such or such a partisan of ,darwinism1 or to the opinions of such or such a sociologist--opinions and interpretations in obvious conflict with the premises of their theories on universal and inevitable evolution4 ,it has also been said--under the pressure of acute or chronic hunger--that if science was against socialism1 so much the worse for science4 ,and those who thus spoke were right if they meant by science--even with a capital ,s--the whole mass of observations and conclusions ad usum delphini that orthodox science1 academic and official--often in good faith1 but sometimes also through interested motives--has always placed at the disposal of the ruling minorities4 ,i have believed it possible to show that modern experiential science is in complete harmony with contemporary socialism1 which1 since the work of ,marx and ,engels and their successors1 differs essentially from sentimental socialism1 both in its scientific system and in its political tactics1 though it continues to put forth generous efforts for the attainment of the same goal3 social justice for all men4 ,i have loyally and candidly maintained my thesis on scientific grounds2 ,i have always recognized the partial truths of the theories of our opponents1 and ,i have not ignored the glorious achievements of the bourgeoisie and bourgeois science since the outbreak of the ,french ,revolution4 ,the disappearance of the bourgeois class and science1 which1 at their advent marked the disappearance of the hieratic and aristocratic classes and science1 will result in the triumph of social justice for all mankind1 without distinction of classes1 and in the triumph of truth carried to its ultimate consequences4 ,the appendix contains my replies to a letter of ,herbert ,spencer and to an anti-socialist book of ,m4 ,garofalo4 ,it shows the present state of social science1 and of the struggle between ultra-conservative orthodoxy1 which is blinded to the sad truths of contemporary life by its traditional syllogisms and innovating heterodoxy which is ever becoming more marked among the learned1 as well as strengthening its hold upon the collective intelligence4 ,,enrico ,,ferri4 ,brussels1 ,nov41 #ahie4 ,introduction4 ,convinced ,darwinian and ,spencerian1 as ,i am1 it is my intention to demonstrate that ,marxian ,socialism--the only socialism which has a truly scientific method and value1 and therefore the only socialism which from this time forth has power to inspire and unite the ,social ,democrats throughout the civilized world--is only the practical and fruitful fulfilment1 in the social life1 of that modern scientific revolution which--inaugurated some centuries since by the rebirth of the experimental method in all branches of human knowledge--has triumphed in our times1 thanks to the works of ,charles ,darwin and ,herbert ,spencer4 ,it is true that ,darwin and especially ,spencer halted when they had travelled only half way toward the conclusions of a religious1 political or social order1 which necessarily flow from their indisputable premises4 ,but that is1 as it were1 only an individual episode1 and has no power to stop the destined march of science and of its practical consequences1 which are in wonderful accord with the necessities--necessities enforced upon our attention by want and misery--of contemporary life4 ,this is simply one more reason why it is incumbent upon us to render justice to the scientific and political work of ,karl ,marx which completes the renovation of modern scientific thought4 ,feeling and thought are the two inseparable impelling forces of the individual life and of the collective life4 ,socialism1 which was still1 but a few years since1 at the mercy of the strong and constantly recurring but undisciplined fluctuations of humanitarian sentimentalism1 has found1 in the work of that great man1 ,karl ,marx1 and of those who have developed and completed his thought1 its scientific and political guide4#a ,this is the explanation of every one of its conquests4 ,civilization is the most fruitful and most beautiful development of human energies1 but it contains also an infectious virus of tremendous power4 ,beside the splendor of its artistic1 scientific and industrial achievements1 it accumulates gangrenous products1 idleness1 poverty1 misery1 insanity1 crime and physical suicide and moral suicide1 i4 e4 servility4 ,pessimism--that sad symptom of a life without ideals and1 in part1 the effect of the exhaustion or even of the degeneration of the nervous system--glorifies the final annihilation of all life and sensation as the only mode of escaping from or triumphing over pain and suffering4 ,we have faith1 on the contrary1 in the eternal virtus medicatrix naturae 7healing power of ,nature71 and socialism is precisely that breath of a new and better life which will free humanity--after some access of fever perhaps--from the noxious products of the present phase of civilization1 and which1 in a more advanced phase1 will give a new power and opportunity of expansion to all the healthy and fruitful energies of all human beings4 ,,enrico ,,ferri4 ,rome1 ,june1 #ahid4 ,,footnote3 #a ,the word in the original means a mariner's compass4--,tr4 ,,socialism ,,and ,,modern ,,science4 ,,part ,,first4 ,i4 ,,virchow ,,and ,,haeckel ,,at ,,the ,,congress ,,of ,,munich4 ,on the #ahth of ,september1 #ahgg1 ,ernest ,haeckel1 the celebrated embryologist of ,jena1 delivered at the ,congress of ,naturalists1 which was held at ,munich1 an eloquent address defending and propagating ,darwinism1 which was at that time the object of the most bitter polemical attacks4 ,a few days afterward1 ,virchow1 the great pathologist1--an active member of the progressive parliamentary party1 hating new theories in politics just as much as in science--violently assailed the ,darwinian theory of organic evolution1 and1 moved by a very just presentiment1 hurled against it this cry of alarm1 this political anathema3 ,darwinism leads directly to socialism4 ,the ,german ,darwinians1 and at their head ,messrs4 ,oscar ,schmidt and ,haeckel1 immediately protested2 and1 in order to avert the addition of strong political opposition to the religious1 philosophical1 and biological opposition already made to ,darwinism1 they maintained1 on the contrary1 that the ,darwinian theory is in direct1 open and absolute opposition to socialism4 ,if the ,socialists were prudent1 wrote ,oscar ,schmidt in the ,ausland of ,november #bg1 #ahgg1 they would do their utmost to kill1 by silent neglect1 the theory of descent1 for that theory most emphatically proclaims that the socialist ideas are impracticable4 ,as a matter of fact1 said ,haeckel1#b there is no scientific doctrine which proclaims more openly than the theory of descent that the equality of individuals1 toward which socialism tends1 is an impossibility2 that this chimerical equality is in absolute contradiction with the necessary and1 in fact1 universal inequality of individuals4 ,socialism demands for all citizens equal rights1 equal duties1 equal possessions and equal enjoyments2 the theory of descent establishes1 on the contrary1 that the realization of these hopes is purely and simply impossible2 that1 in human societies1 as in animal societies1 neither the rights1 nor the duties1 nor the possessions1 nor the enjoyments of all the members of a society are or ever can be equal4 ,the great law of variation teaches--both in the general theory of evolution and in the smaller field of biology where it becomes the theory of descent--that the variety of phenomena flows from an original unity1 the diversity of functions from a primitive identity1 and the complexity of organization from a primordial simplicity4 ,the conditions of existence for all individuals are1 from their very birth1 unequal4 ,there must also be taken into consideration the inherited qualities and the innate tendencies which also vary more or less widely4 ,in view of all this1 how can the work and the reward be equal for all8 ,the more highly the social life is developed1 the more important becomes the great principle of the division of labor1 the more requisite it becomes for the stable existence of the ,state as a whole that its members should distribute among themselves the multifarious tasks of life1 each performing a single function2 and as the labor which must be performed by the individuals1 as well as the expenditure of strength1 talent1 money1 etc41 which it necessitates1 differs more and more1 it is natural that the remuneration of this labor should also vary widely4 ,these are facts so simple and so obvious that it seems to me every intelligent and enlightened statesman ought to be an advocate of the theory of descent and the general doctrine of evolution1 as the best antidote for the absurd equalitarian1 utopian notions of the socialists4 ,and it was ,darwinism1 the theory of selection1 that ,virchow1 in his denunciation1 had in mind1 rather than mere metamorphic development1 the theory of descent1 with which it is always confused6 ,darwinism is anything rather than socialistic4 ,if one wishes to attribute a political tendency to this ,english theory1--which is quite permissible1--this tendency can be nothing but aristocratic2 by no means can it be democratic1 still less socialistic4 ,the theory of selection teaches that in the life of mankind1 as in that of plants and animals1 it is always and everywhere a small privileged minority alone which succeeds in living and developing itself2 the immense majority1 on the contrary1 suffer and succumb more or less prematurely4 ,countless are the seeds and eggs of every species of plants and animals1 and the young individuals who issue from them4 ,but the number of those who have the good fortune to reach fully developed maturity and to attain the goal of their existence is relatively insignificant4 ,the cruel and pitiless 'struggle for existence' which rages everywhere throughout animated nature1 and which in the nature of things must rage1 this eternal and inexorable competition between all living beings1 is an undeniable fact4 ,only a small picked number of the strongest or fittest is able to come forth victoriously from this battle of competition4 ,the great majority of their unfortunate competitors are inevitably destined to perish4 ,it is well enough to deplore this tragic fatality1 but one cannot deny it or change it4 ',many are called1 but few are chosen6' ,the selection1 the 'election' of these 'elect' is by absolute necessity bound up with the rejection or destruction of the vast multitude of beings whom they have survived4 ,and so another learned ,englishman has called the fundamental principle of ,darwinism 'the survival of the fittest1 the victory of the best4' ,at all events1 the principle of selection is not in the slightest degree democratic2 it is1 on the contrary1 thoroughly aristocratic4 ,if1 then1 ,darwinism1 carried out to its ultimate logical consequences1 has1 according to ,virchow1 for the statesman 'an extraordinarily dangerous side1' the danger is doubtless that it favors aristocratic aspirations4 ,i have reproduced complete and in their exact form all the arguments of ,haeckel1 because they are those which are repeated--in varying tones1 and with expressions which differ from his only to lose precision and eloquence--by those opponents of socialism who love to appear scientific1 and who1 for polemical convenience1 make use of those ready-made or stereotyped phrases which have currency1 even in science1 more than is commonly imagined4 ,it is easy1 nevertheless1 to demonstrate that1 in this debate1 ,virchow's way of looking at the subject was the more correct and more perspicacious1 and that the history of these last twenty years has amply justified his position4 ,it has happened1 indeed1 that ,darwinism and socialism have both progressed with a marvelous power of expansion4 ,from that time the one was to conquer--for its fundamental theory--the unanimous endorsement of naturalists2 the other was to continue to develop--in its general aspirations as in its political discipline--flooding all the conduits of the social consciousness1 like a torrential inundation from internal wounds caused by the daily growth of physical and moral disease1 or like a gradual1 capillary1 inevitable infiltration into minds freed from all prejudices1 and which are not satisfied by the merely personal advantages that they derive from the orthodox distribution of spoils4 ,but1 as political or scientific theories are natural phenomena and not the capricious and ephemeral products of the free wills of those who construct and propagate them1 it is evident that if these two currents of modern thought have each been able to triumph over the opposition they first aroused--the strongest kind of opposition1 scientific and political conservatism--and if every day increases the army of their avowed disciples1 this of itself is enough to show us--,i was about to say by a law of intellectual symbiosis--that they are neither irreconcilable with1 nor contradictory to1 each other4 ,moreover1 the three principal arguments which form the substance of the anti-socialist reasoning of ,haeckel resist neither the most elementary criticisms1 nor the most superficial observation of every-day life4 ,these arguments are3 ,i4--,socialism tends toward a chimerical equality of persons and property3 ,darwinism1 on the contrary1 not only establishes1 but shows the organic necessity of the natural inequality of the capabilities and even the wants of individuals4 ,,ii4--,in the life of mankind1 as in that of plants and animals1 the immense majority of those who are born are destined to perish1 because only a small minority can triumph in the struggle for existence2 socialism asserts1 on the contrary1 that all ought to triumph in this struggle1 and that no one is inexorably destined to be conquered4 ,,iii4--,the struggle for existence assures the survival of the best1 the victory of the fittest1 and this results in an aristocratic hierarchic gradation of selected individuals--a continuous progress--instead of the democratic1 collectivist leveling of socialism4 ,,footnote3 #b ,les preuves du transformisme4--,paris1 #ahgi1 page #aaj et seq4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,equality ,,of ,,individuals4 ,the first of the objections1 which is brought against socialism in the name of ,darwinism1 is absolutely without foundation4 ,if it were true that socialism aspires to the equality of all individuals1 it would be correct to assert that ,darwinism irrevocably condemns it4#c ,but although even to-day it is still currently repeated--by some in good faith1 like parrots who recite their stereotyped phrases2 by others in bad faith1 with polemical skillfulness--that socialism is synonymous with equality and leveling2 the truth is1 on the contrary1 that scientific socialism--the socialism which draws its inspiration from the theory of ,marx1 and which alone to-day is worthy of support or opposition1--has never denied the inequality of individuals1 as of all living beings--inequality innate and acquired1 physical and intellectual4#d ,it is just as if one should say that socialism asserts that a royal decree or a popular vote could settle it that henceforth all men shall be five feet seven inches tall4 ,but in truth1 socialism is something more serious and more difficult to refute4 ,socialism says3 ,men are unequal1 but they are all 7of them7 men4 ,and1 in fact1 although each individual is born and develops in a fashion more or less different from that of all other individuals1--just as there are not in a forest two leaves identically alike1 so in the whole world there are not two men in all respects equals1 the one of the other1--nevertheless every man1 simply because he is a human being1 has a right to the existence of a man1 and not of a slave or a beast of burden4 ,we know1 we as well as our opponents1 that all men cannot perform the same kind and amount of labor--now1 when social inequalities are added to equalities of natural origin--and that they will still be unable to do it under a socialist regime--when the social organization will tend to reduce the effect of congenital inequalities4 ,there will always be some people whose brains or muscular systems will be better adapted for scientific work or for artistic work1 while others will be more fit for manual labor1 or for work requiring mechanical precision1 etc4 ,what ought not to be1 and what will not be--is that there should be some men who do not work at all1 and others who work too much or receive too little reward for their toil4 ,but we have reached the height of injustice and absurdity1 and in these days it is the man who does not work who reaps the largest returns1 who is thus guaranteed the individual monopoly of wealth which accumulates by means of hereditary transmission4 ,this wealth1 moreover1 is only very rarely due to the economy and abstinence of the present possessor or of some industrious ancestor of his2 it is most frequently the time-honored fruit of spoliation by military conquest1 by unscrupulous business methods1 or by the favoritism of sovereigns2 but it is in every instance always independent of any exertion1 of any socially useful labor of the inheritor1 who often squanders his property in idleness or in the whirlpool of a life as inane as it is brilliant in appearance4 ,and1 when we are not confronted with a fortune due to inheritance1 we meet with wealth due to fraud4 ,without talking for the moment of the economic organization1 the mechanism of which ,karl ,marx has revealed to us1 and which1 even without fraud1 normally enables the capitalist or property owner to live upon his income without working1 it is indisputable that the fortunes which are formed or enlarged with the greatest rapidity under our eyes cannot be the fruit of honest toil4 ,the really honest workingman1 no matter how indefatigable and economical he may be1 if he succeeds in raising himself from the state of wage-slave to that of an overseer or contractor1 can1 by a long life of privations1 accumulate at most a few hundreds of dollars4 ,those who1 on the contrary1 without making by their own talent industrial discoveries or inventions1 accumulate in a few years millions1 can be nothing but unscrupulous manipulators of affairs1 if we except a few rare strokes of good luck4 ,and it is these very parasites--bankers1 etc41--who live in the most ostentatious luxury enjoying public honors1 and holding offices of trust1 as a reward for their honorable business methods4 ,those who toil1 the immense majority1 receive barely enough food to keep them from dying of hunger2 they live in back-rooms1 in garrets1 in the filthy alleys of cities1 or in the country in hovels not fit for stables for horses or cattle4 ,besides all this1 we must not forget the horrors of being unable to find work1 the saddest and most frequent of the three symptoms of that equality in misery which is spreading like a pestilence over the economic world of modern ,italy1 as indeed1 with varying degrees of intensity1 it is everywhere else4 ,i refer to the ever-growing army of the unemployed in agriculture and industry--of those who have lost their foothold in the lower middle class1--and of those who have been expropriated 7robbed7 of their little possessions by taxes1 debts or usury4 ,it is not correct1 then1 to assert that socialism demands for all citizens material and actual equality of labor and rewards4 ,the only possible equality is equality of obligation to work in order to live1 with a guarantee to every laborer of conditions of existence worthy of a human being in exchange for the labor furnished to society4 ,equality1 according to socialism--as ,benoit ,malon said#e--;is a relative thing1 and must be understood in a two-fold sense3 #ast1 ,all men1 as men1 must be guaranteed human conditions of existence2 #b;d1 ,all men ought to be equal at the starting point1 ought not to be handicapped1 in the struggle for life1 in order that each may freely develop his own personality in an environment of equality of social conditions1 while to-day a child1 sound and healthy1 but poor1 goes to the wall in competition with a child puny but rich4#f ,this is what constitutes the radical1 immeasurable transformation that socialism demands1 but that it also has discovered and announces as an evolution--already begun in the world around us--that will be necessarily1 inevitably accomplished in the human society of the days to come4#g ,this transformation is summed up in the conversion of private or individual ownership of the means of production1 i4 e4 of the physical foundation of human life 7land1 mines1 houses1 factories1 machinery1 instruments of labor or tools1 and means of transportation7 into collective or social ownership1 by means of methods and processes which ,i will consider further on4 ,from this point we will consider it as proven that the first objection of the anti-socialist reasoning does not hold1 since its starting-point is non-existent4 ,it assumes1 in short1 that contemporary socialism aims at a chimerical physical and mental equality of all men1 when the fact is that scientific and fact-founded socialism never1 even in a dream1 thought of such a thing4 ,socialism maintains1 on the contrary1 that this inequality--though greatly diminished under a better social organization which will do away with all the physical and mental imperfections that are the cumulative results of generations of poverty and misery--can1 nevertheless1 never disappear for the reasons that ,darwinism has discovered in the mysterious mechanism of life1 in other words on account of the principle of variation that manifests itself in the continuous development of species culminating in man4 ,in every social organization that it is possible to conceive1 there will always be some men large and others small1 some weak and some strong1 some phlegmatic and some nervous1 some more intelligent1 others less so1 some superior in mental power1 others in muscular strength2 and it is well that it should be so2 moreover1 it is inevitable4 ,it is well that this is so1 because the variety and inequality of individual aptitudes naturally produce that division of labor that ,darwinism has rightly declared to be a law of individual physiology and of social economy4 ,all men ought to work in order to live1 but each ought to devote himself to the kind of labor which best suits his peculiar aptitudes4 ,an injurious waste of strength and abilities would thus be avoided1 and labor would cease to be repugnant1 and would become agreeable and necessary as a condition of physical and moral health4 ,and when all have given to society the labor best suited to their innate and acquired aptitudes1 each has a right to the same rewards1 since each has equally contributed to that solidarity of labor which sustains the life of the social aggregate and1 in solidarity with it1 the life of each individual4 ,the peasant who digs the earth performs a kind of labor in appearance more modest1 but just as necessary1 useful and meritorious as that of the workman who builds a locomotive1 of the mechanical engineer who improves it or of the savant who strives to extend the bounds of human knowledge in his study or laboratory4 ,the one essential thing is that all the members of society work1 just as in the individual organism all the cells perform their different functions1 more or less modest in appearance--for example1 the nerve-cells1 the bone-cells or the muscular cells--but all biological functions1 or sorts of labor1 equally useful and necessary to the life of the organism as a whole4 ,in the biological organism no living cell remains inactive1 and the cell obtains nourishment by material exchanges only in proportion to its labor2 in the social organism no individual ought to live without working1 whatever form his labor may take4 ,in this way the majority of the artificial difficulties that our opponents raise against socialism may be swept aside4 ,who1 then1 will black the boots under the socialist regime8 demands ,m4 ,richter in his book so poor in ideas1 but which becomes positively grotesque when it assumes that1 in the name of social equality the grand chancellor of the socialist society will be obliged1 before attending to the public business1 to black his own boots and mind his own clothes6 ,in truth1 if the adversaries of socialism had nothing but arguments of this sort1 discussion would indeed be needless4 ,but all will want to do the least fatiguing and most agreeable kinds of work1 says some one with a greater show of seriousness4 ,i will answer that this is equivalent to demanding to-day the promulgation of a decree as follows3 ,henceforth all men shall be born painters or surgeons6 ,the distribution to the proper persons of the different kinds of mental and manual labor will be effected in fact by the anthropological variations in temperament and character1 and there will be no need to resort to monkish regulations 7another baseless objection to socialism74 ,propose to a peasant of average intelligence to devote himself to the study of anatomy or of the penal code or1 inversely1 tell him whose brain is more highly developed than his muscles to dig the earth1 instead of observing with the microscope4 ,they will each prefer the labor for which they feel themselves best fitted4 ,the changes of occupation or profession will not be as considerable as many imagine when society shall be organized under the collectivist regime4 ,when once the industries ministering to purely personal luxury shall be suppressed--luxury which in most cases insults and aggravates the misery of the masses--the quantity and variety of work will adapt themselves gradually1 that is to say naturally1 to the socialist phase of civilization just as they now conform to the bourgeois phase4 ,moreover1 under the socialist regime1 every one will have the fullest liberty to declare and make manifest his personal aptitudes1 and it will not happen1 as it does to-day1 that many peasants1 sons of the people and of the lower middle class1 gifted with natural talents1 will be compelled to allow their talents to atrophy while they toil as peasants1 workingmen or employees1 when they would be able to furnish society a different and more fruitful kind of labor1 because it would be more in ,harmony with their peculiar genius4 ,the one essential point is this3 ,in exchange for the labor that they furnish to society1 society must guarantee to the peasant and the artisan1 as well as to the one who devotes himself to the liberal careers1 conditions of existence worthy of a human being4 ,then we will no longer be affronted by the spectacle of a ballet girl1 for instance1 earning as much in one evening by whirling on her toes as a scientist1 a doctor1 a lawyer1 etc41 in a year's work4 ,in fact to-day the latter are in luck if they do that well4 ,certainly1 the arts will not be neglected under the socialist regime1 because socialism wishes life to be agreeable for all1 instead of for a privileged few only1 as it is to-day2 it will1 on the contrary1 give to all the arts a marvelous impulse1 and if it abolishes private luxury this will be all the more favorable to the splendor of the public edifices4 ,more attention will be paid to assuring to each one remuneration in proportion to the labor performed4 ,this ratio will be ascertained by taking the difficulty and danger of the labor into account and allowing them to reduce the time required for a given compensation4 ,if a peasant in the open air can work seven or eight hours a day1 a miner ought not to work more than three or four hours4 ,and1 indeed1 when everybody shall work1 when much unproductive labor shall be suppressed1 the aggregate of daily labor to be distributed among men will be much less heavy and more easily endured 7by reason of the more abundant food1 more comfortable lodging and recreation guaranteed to every worker7 than it is to-day by those who toil and who are so poorly paid1 and1 besides this1 the progress of science applied to industry will render human labor less and less toilsome4 ,individuals will apply themselves to work1 although the wages or remuneration cannot be accumulated as private wealth1 because if the normal1 healthy1 well-fed man avoids excessive or poorly rewarded labor1 he does not remain in idleness1 since it is a physiological and psychological necessity for him to devote himself to a daily occupation in harmony with his capacities4 ,the different kinds of sport are for the leisure classes a substitute for productive labor which a physiological necessity imposes upon them1 in order that they may escape the detrimental consequences of absolute repose and ennui4 ,the gravest problem will be to proportion the remuneration to the labor of each4 ,you know that collectivism adopts the formula--to each according to his labor1 while communism adopts this other--to each according to his needs4 ,no one can give1 in its practical details1 the solution of this problem2 but this impossibility of predicting the future even in its slightest details does not justify those who brand socialism as a utopia incapable of realization4 ,no one could have1 a priori1 in the dawn of any civilization predicted its successive developments1 as ,i will demonstrate when ,i come to speak of the methods of social renovation4 ,this is what we are able to affirm with assurance1 basing our position on the most certain inductions of psychology and sociology4 ,it cannot be denied1 as ,marx himself declared1 that this second formula--which makes it possible to distinguish1 according to some1 anarchy from socialism--represents a more remote and more complex ideal4 ,but it is equally impossible to deny that1 in any case1 the formula of collectivism represents a phase of social evolution1 a period of individual discipline which must necessarily precede communism4#h ,there is no need to believe that socialism will realize in their fulness all the highest possible ideals of humanity and that after its advent there will be nothing left to desire or to battle for6 ,our descendants would be condemned to idleness and vagabondage if our immediate ideal was so perfect and all-inclusive as to leave them no ideal at which to aim4 ,the individual or the society which no longer has an ideal to strive toward is dead or about to die4#i ,the formula of communism may then be a more remote ideal1 when collectivism shall have been completely realized by the historical processes which ,i will consider further on4 ,we are now in a position to conclude that there is no contradiction between socialism and ,darwinism on the subject of the equality of all men4 ,socialism has never laid down this proposition and like ,darwinism its tendency is toward a better life for individuals and for society4 ,this enables us also to reply to this objection1 too often repeated1 that socialism stifles and suppresses human individuality under the leaden pall of collectivism1 by subjecting individuals to uniform monastic regulations and by making them into so many human bees in the social honey-comb4 ,exactly the opposite of this is true4 ,is it not obvious that it is under the present bourgeois organization of society that so many individualities atrophy and are lost to humanity1 which under other conditions might be developed to their own advantage and to the advantage of society as a whole8 ,to-day1 in fact1 apart from some rare exceptions1 every man is valued for what he possesses and not for what he is4#aj ,he who is born poor1 obviously by no fault of his own1 may be endowed by ,nature with artistic or scientific genius1 but if his patrimony is insufficient to enable him to triumph in the first struggles for development and to complete his education1 or if he has not1 like the shepherd ,giotto1 the luck to meet with a rich ,cimabue1 he must inevitably vanish in oblivion in the great prison of wage-slavery1 and society itself thus loses treasures of intellectual power4#aa ,he who is born rich1 although he owes his fortune to no personal exertion1 even if his mental capacity is below normal1 will play a leading role on the stage of life's theatre1 and all servile people will heap praise and flattery upon him1 and he will imagine1 simply because he has money1 that he is quite a different person from what in reality he is4#ab ,when property shall have become collective1 that is to say1 under the socialist regime1 every one will be assured of the means of existence1 and the daily labor will simply serve to give free play to the special aptitudes1 more or less original1 of each individual1 and the best and most fruitful 7potentially7 years of life will not be completely taken up1 as they are at present1 by the grievous and tragic battle for daily bread4 ,socialism will assure to every one a human life2 it will give each individual true liberty to manifest and develop his or her own physical and intellectual individuality--individualities which they bring into the world at birth and which are infinitely varied and unequal4 ,socialism does not deny inequality2 it merely wishes to utilize this inequality as one of the factors leading to the free1 prolific and many-sided development of human life4 ,,footnotes3 #c ,j4 ,de ,johannis1 ,il concetto dell'equaglianza nel socialismo e nella scienza1 in ,rassegna delle scienza sociali1 ,florence1 ,march #ae1 #ahhc1 and more recently1 ,huxley1 ,on the ,natural ,inequality of ,men1 in the ,nineteenth ,century1 ,january1 #ahij4 #d ,utopian socialism has bequeathed to us as a mental habit1 a habit surviving even in the most intelligent disciples of ,marxian socialism1 of asserting the existence of certain equalities--the equality of the two sexes1 for example--assertions which cannot possibly be maintained4 ,,bebel1 ,woman in the ,past1 ,present and ,future4 ,bebel1 the propagandist and expounder of ,marxian theories1 also repeats this assertion that1 from the psycho-physiological point of view1 woman is the equal of man1 and he attempts to refute1 without success1 the scientific objections that have been made to this thesis4 ,since the scientific investigations of ,messrs4 ,lombroso and ,ferrero1 embodied in ,donna delinquente1 prostituta e normale1 ,turin1 #ahic 7,this book has been translated into ,english1 if my memory serves me right4--,tr471 one can no longer deny the physiological and psychological inferiority of woman to man4 ,i have given a ,darwinian explanation of this fact 7,scuola positiva1 #ahic1 ,nos4 #g-h71 that ,lombroso has since completely accepted 7,uomo di genio1 #f;e dit1 #ahid4 ,this book is also available in ,english1 ,i believe4--,tr47 ,i pointed out that all the physio-psychical characteristics of woman are the consequences of her great biological function1 maternity4 ,a being who creates another being--not in the fleeting moment of a voluptuous contact1 but by the organic and psychical sacrifices of pregnancy1 childbirth and giving suck--cannot preserve for herself as much strength1 physical and mental1 as man whose only function in the reproduction of the species is infinitely less of a drain4 ,and so1 aside from certain individual exceptions1 woman has a lower degree of physical sensibility than man 7the current opinion is just the opposite71 because if her sensibility were greater1 she could not1 according to the ,darwinian law1 survive the immense and repeated sacrifices of maternity1 and the species would become extinct4 ,woman's intellect is weaker1 especially in synthetic power1 precisely because though there are no 7,sergi1 in ,atti della societa romana di antropologia1 #ahid7 women of genius1 they nevertheless give birth to men of genius4 ,this is so true that greater sensibility and power of intellect are found in women in whom the function and sentiment of maternity are undeveloped or are only slightly developed 7women of genius generally have a masculine physiognomy71 and many of them attain their complete intellectual development only after they pass the critical period of life during which the maternal functions cease finally4 ,but1 if it is scientifically certain that woman represents an inferior degree of biological evolution1 and that she occupies a station1 even as regards her physio-psychical characteristics1 midway between the child and the adult male1 it does not follow from this that the socialist conclusions concerning the woman question are false4 ,quite the contrary4 ,society ought to place woman1 as a human being and as a creatress of men--more worthy therefore of love and respect--in a better juridical and ethical situation than she enjoys at present4 ,now she is too often a beast of burden or an object of luxury4 ,in the same way when1 from the economic point of view1 we demand at the present day special measures in behalf of women1 we simply take into consideration their special physio-psychical conditions4 ,the present economic individualism exhausts them in factories and rice-fields2 socialism1 on the contrary1 will require from them only such professional1 scientific or muscular labor as is in perfect harmony with the sacred function of maternity4 ,,kuliscioff1 ,il monopolio dell'uomo1 ,milan1 #ahib1 #b;d edition4--,,mozzoni1 ,i socialisti e l'emancipazione della donna1 ,milan1 #ahia4 #e ,b4 ,,malon1 ,le ,socialisme ,integral1 #b vol41 ,paris1 #ahib4 #f ,,zuliani1 ,il privilegio della salute1 ,milan1 #ahic4 #g ,,letourneau1 ,pass1 prsent et avenir du travail1 in ,revue mensuelle de l'cole d'anthropologie1 ,paris1 ,june #ae1 #ahid4 #h ,m4 ,zerboglio has very justly pointed out that individualism acting without the pressure of external sanction and by the simple internal impulse toward good 7rightness7--this is the distant ideal of ,herbert ,spencer--can be realized only after a phase of collectivism1 during which the individual activity and instincts can be disciplined into social solidarity and weaned from the essentially anarchist individualism of our times when every one1 if he is clever enough to slip through the meshes of the penal code can do what he pleases without any regard to his fellows4 #i ,ah1 but a man's reach should exceed his grasp1 is the way ,robert ,browning expresses this in ,andrea ,del ,sarto4--,translator4 #aj ,note our common expression3 ,he is worth so much4--,tr4 #aa ,full many a gem of purest ray serene ,the dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear3 ,full many a flower is born to blush unseen1 ,and waste its fragrance on the desert air4 ,some village-,hampden1 that with dauntless breast ,the little tyrant of his field withstood1 ,some mute inglorious ,milton here may rest1 ,some ,cromwell1 guiltless of his country's blood4 --,stanzas from ,,gray',s ,elegy in a ,country ,church-yard4 ,translator4 #ab ,cursed be the gold that gilds the straighten'd forehead of the fool6 --,tennyson1 in ,locksley ,hall4 ,gold1 yellow1 glittering1 precious gold6 ,thus1 much of this will make black1 white2 foul1 fair2 ,wrong1 right2 base1 noble2 old1 young2 coward1 valiant4 --,shakespeare1 in ,timon of ,athens4--,translator4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,life ,,and ,,its ,,victims4 ,socialism and ,darwinism1 it is said1 are in conflict on a second point4 ,darwinism demonstrates that the immense majority--of plants1 animals and men--are destined to succumb1 because only a small minority triumphs in the struggle for life2 socialism1 on its part1 asserts that all ought to triumph and that no one ought to succumb4 ,it may be replied1 in the first place1 that1 even in the biological domain of the struggle for existence1 the disproportion between the number of individuals who are born and the number of those who survive regularly and progressively grows smaller and smaller as we ascend in the biological scale from vegetables to animals1 and from animals to ,man4 ,this law of a decreasing disproportion between the called and the chosen is supported by the facts even if we limit our observation to the various species belonging to the same natural order4 ,the higher and more complex the organization1 the smaller the disproportion4 ,in fact1 in the vegetables1 each individual produces every year an infinite number of seeds1 and an infinitesimal number of these survive4 ,in the animals1 the number of young of each individual diminishes and the number of those who survive continues on the contrary1 to increase4 ,finally1 for the human species1 the number of individuals that each one can beget is very small and most of them survive4 ,but1 moreover1 in the cases of all three1 vegetables1 animals and men1 we find that it is the lower and more simply organized species1 the races and classes less advanced in the scale of existence1 who reproduce their several kinds with the greatest prolificness and in which generation follows generation most rapidly on account of the brevity of individual life4 ,a fern produces millions of spores1 and its life is very short--while a palm tree produces only a few dozen seeds1 and lives a century4 ,a fish produces several thousand eggs--while the elephant or the chimpanzee have only a few young who live many years4 ,within the human species the savage races are the most prolific and their lives are short--while the civilized races have a low birth-rate and live longer4 ,from all this it follows that1 even confining ourselves to the purely biological domain1 the number of victors in the struggle for existence constantly tends to approach nearer and nearer to the number of births with the advance or ascent in the biological scale from vegetables to animals1 from animals to men1 and from the lower species or varieties to the higher species or varieties4 ,the iron law of the struggle for existence1 then1 constantly reduces the number of the victims forming its hecatomb with the ascent of the biological scale1 and the rate of decrease becomes more and more rapid as the forms of life become more complex and more perfect4 ,it would then be a mistake to invoke against socialism the ,darwinian law of ,natural ,selection in the form under which that law manifests itself in the primitive 7or lower7 forms of life1 without taking into account its continuous attenuation as we pass from vegetables to animals1 from animals to men1 and within humanity itself1 from the primitive races to the more advanced races4 ,and as socialism represents a yet more advanced phase of human progress1 it is still less allowable to use as an objection to it such a gross and inaccurate interpretation of the ,darwinian law4 ,it is certain that the opponents of socialism have made a wrong use of the ,darwinian law or rather of its brutal interpretation in order to justify modern individualist competition which is too often only a disguised form of cannibalism1 and which has made the maxim homo homini lupus 7man to man a wolf2 or1 freely1 man eats man7 the characteristic motto of our era1 while ,hobbes only made it the ruling principle of the state of nature of mankind1 before the making of the social contract4 ,but because a principle has been abused or misused we are not justified in concluding that the principle itself is false4 ,its abuse often serves as an incentive to define its nature and its limitations more accurately1 so that in practice it may be applied more correctly4 ,this will be the result of my demonstration of the perfect harmony that reigns between socialism and ,darwinism4 ,as long ago as the first edition of my work ,socialismo e ,criminalit 7pages #agi et seq47 ,i maintained that the struggle for existence is a law immanent in the human race1 as it is a law of all living beings1 although its forms continually change and though it undergoes more and more attenuation4 ,this is still the way it appears to me1 and consequently1 on this point ,i disagree with some socialists who have thought they could triumph more completely over the objection urged against them in the name of ,darwinism by declaring that in human society the struggle for existence is a law which is destined to lose all meaning and applicability when the social transformation at which socialism aims shall have been effected4#ac ,it is a law which dominates tyrannically all living beings1 and it must cease to act and fall inert at the feet of ,man1 as if he were not merely a link inseparable from the great biological chain6 ,i maintained1 and ,i still maintain1 that the struggle for existence is a law inseparable from life1 and consequently from humanity itself1 but that1 though remaining an inherent and constant law1 it is gradually transformed in its essence and attenuated in its forms4 ,among primitive mankind the struggle for existence is but slightly differentiated from that which obtains among the other animals4 ,it is the brutal struggle for daily food or for possession of the females--hunger and love are1 in fact1 the two fundamental needs and the two poles of life--and almost its only method is muscular violence4 ,in a more advanced phase there is joined to this basic struggle the struggle for political supremacy 7in the clan1 in the tribe1 in the village1 in the commune1 in the ,state71 and1 more and more1 muscular struggle is superseded by intellectual struggle4 ,in the historical period the ,graeco-,latin society struggled for civil equality 7the abolition of slavery72 it triumphed1 but it did not halt1 because to live is to struggle2 the society of the middle ages struggled for religious equality2 it won the battle1 but it did not halt2 and at the end of the last century1 it struggled for political equality4 ,must it now halt and remain stationary in the present state of progress8 ,to-day society struggles for economic equality1 not for an absolute material equality1 but for that more practical1 truer equality of which ,i have already spoken4 ,and all the evidence enables us to foresee with mathematical certainty that this victory will be won to give place to new struggles and to new ideals among our descendants4 ,the successive changes in the subject-matter 7or the ideals7 of the struggles for existence are accompanied by a progressive mitigation of the methods of combat4 ,violent and muscular at first1 the struggle is becoming1 more and more1 pacific and intellectual1 notwithstanding some atavic recurrences of earlier methods or some psycho-pathological manifestations of individual violence against society and of social violence against individuals4 ,the remarkable work of ,mr4 ,novicow#ad has recently given a signal confirmation to my opinion1 although ,novicow has not taken the sexual struggle into account4 ,i will develop my demonstration more fully in the chapter devoted to l'avenir moral de l'humanit 7the intellectual future of humanity71 in the second edition of ,socialismo e ,criminalit4 ,for the moment ,i have sufficiently replied to the anti-socialist objection1 since ,i have shown not merely that the disproportion between the number of births and the number of those who survive tends to constantly diminish1 but also that the struggle for existence itself changes in its essence and grows milder in its processes at each successive phase of the biological and social evolution4 ,socialism may then insist that human conditions of existence ought to be guaranteed to all men--in exchange for labor furnished to collective society--without thereby contradicting the ,darwinian law of the survival of the victors in the struggle for existence1 since this ,darwinian law ought to be understood and applied in each of its varying manifestations1 in harmony with the law of human progress4 ,socialism1 scientifically understood1 does not deny1 and cannot deny1 that among mankind there are always some losers in the struggle for existence4 ,this question is more directly connected with the relations which exist between socialism and criminality1 since those who contend that the struggle for existence is a law which does not apply to human society1 declare1 accordingly1 that crime 7an abnormal and anti-social form of the struggle for life1 just as labor is its normal and social form7 is destined to disappear4 ,likewise they think they discover a certain contradiction between socialism and the teachings of criminal anthropology concerning the congenital criminal1 though these teachings are also deducted from ,darwinism4#ae ,i reserve this question for fuller treatment elsewhere4 ,here is in brief my thought as a socialist and as a criminal anthropologist4 ,in the first place the school of scientific criminologists deal with life as it now is--and undeniably it has the merit of having applied the methods of experimental science to the study of criminal phenomena1 of having shown the hypocritical absurdity of modern penal systems based on the notion of free-will and moral delinquency and resulting in the system of cellular confinement1 one of the mental aberrations of the nineteenth century1 as ,i have elsewhere qualified it4 ,in its stead the criminologists wish to substitute the simple segregation of individuals who are not fitted for social life on account of pathological conditions1 congenital or acquired1 permanent or transitory4 ,in the second place1 to contend that socialism will cause the disappearance of all forms of crime is to act upon the impulse of a generous sentiment1 but the contention is not supported by a rigorously scientific observation of the facts4 ,the scientific school of criminology demonstrates that crime is a natural and social phenomenon--like insanity and suicide--determined by the abnormal1 organic and psychological constitution of the delinquent and by the influences of the physical and social environment4 ,the anthropological1 physical and social factors1 all1 always1 act concurrently in the determination of all offences1 the lightest as well as the gravest--as1 moreover1 they do in the case of all other human actions4 ,what varies in the case of each delinquent and each offense1 is the decisive intensity of each order of factors4#af ,for instance1 if the case in point is an assassination committed through jealousy or hallucination1 it is the anthropological factor which is the most important1 although nevertheless consideration must also be paid to the physical environment and the social environment4 ,if it is a question1 on the contrary1 of crimes against property or even against persons1 committed by a riotous mob or induced by alcoholism1 etc41 it is the social environment which becomes the preponderating factor1 though it is1 notwithstanding1 impossible to deny the influence of the physical environment and of the anthropological factor4 ,we may repeat the same reasoning--in order to make a complete examination of the objection brought against socialism in the name of ,darwinism--on the subject of the ordinary diseases2 crime1 moreover1 is a department of human pathology4 ,all diseases1 acute or chronic1 infectious or not infectious1 severe or mild1 are the product of the anthropological constitution of the individual and of the influence of the physical and social environment4 ,the decisiveness of the personal conditions or of the environment varies in the various diseases2 phthisis or heart disease1 for instance1 depend principally on the organic constitution of the individual1 though it is necessary to take the influence of the environment into account2 pellagra1#ag cholera1 typhus1 etc41 on the contrary1 depend principally on the physical and social conditions of the environment4 ,and so phthisis makes its ravages even among well-to-do people1 that is to say1 among persons well nourished and well housed1 while it is the badly nourished1 that is to say1 the poor1 who furnish the greatest number of victims to pellagra and cholera4 ,it is1 consequently1 evident that a socialist regime of collective property which shall assure to every one human conditions of existence1 will largely diminish or possibly annihilate--aided by the scientific discoveries and improvement in hygienic measures--the diseases which are principally caused by the conditions of the environment1 that is to say by insufficient nourishment or by the want of protection from inclemency of the weather2 but we shall not witness the disappearance of the diseases due to traumatic injuries1 imprudence1 pulmonary affections1 etc4 ,the same conclusions are valid regarding crime4 ,if we suppress poverty and the shocking inequality of economic conditions1 hunger1 acute and chronic1 will no longer serve as a stimulus to crime4 ,better nourishment will bring about a physical and moral improvement4 ,the abuses of power and of wealth will disappear1 and there will be a considerable diminution in the number of crimes due to circumstances 7crimes d'occasion71 crimes caused principally by the social environment4 ,but there are some crimes which will not disappear1 such as revolting crimes against decency due to a pathological perversion of the sexual instinct1 homicides induced by epilepsy1 thefts which result from a psycho-pathological degeneration1 etc4 ,for the same reasons popular education will be more widely diffused1 talents of every kind will be able to develop and manifest themselves freely2 but this will not cause the disappearance of idiocy and imbecility due to hereditary pathological conditions4 ,nevertheless it will be possible for different causes to have a preventive and mitigating influence on the various forms of congenital degeneration 7ordinary diseases1 criminality1 insanity and nervous disorders74 ,among these preventive influences may be3 a better economic and social organization1 the prudential counsels1 constantly growing in efficacy given by experimental biology1 and less and less frequent procreation1 by means of voluntary abstention1 in cases of hereditary disease4 ,to conclude we will say that1 even under the socialist regime--although they will be infinitely fewer--there will always be some who will be vanquished in the struggle for existence--these will be the victims of weakness1 of disease1 of dissipation1 of nervous disorders1 of suicide4 ,we may then affirm that socialism does not deny the ,darwinian law of the struggle for existence4 ,socialism will1 however1 have this indisputable advantage--the epidemic or endemic forms of human degeneracy will be entirely suppressed by the elimination of their principal cause--the physical poverty and 7its necessary consequence7 the mental suffering of the majority4 ,then the struggle for existence1 while remaining always the driving power of the life of society1 will assume forms less and less brutal and more and more humane4 ,it will become an intellectual struggle4 ,its ideal of physiological and intellectual progress will constantly grow in grandeur and sublimity when this progressive idealization of the ideal shall be made possible by the guarantee to every one of daily bread for the body and the mind4 ,the law of the struggle for life must not cause us to forget another law of natural and social ,darwinian evolution4 ,it is true many socialists have given to this latter law an excessive and exclusive importance1 just as some individuals have entirely neglected it4 ,i refer to the law of solidarity which knits together all the living beings of one and the same species--for instance animals who live gregariously in consequence of the abundance of the supply of their common food 7herbivorous animals7--or even of different species4 ,when species thus mutually aid each other to live they are called by naturalists symbiotic species1 and instead of the struggle for life we have co-operation for life4 ,it is incorrect to state that the struggle for life is the sole sovereign law in ,nature and society1 just as it is false to contend that this law is wholly inapplicable to human society4 ,the real truth is that even in human society the struggle for life is an eternal law which grows progressively milder in its methods and more elevated in its ideals4 ,but operating concurrently with this we find a law1 the influence of which upon the social evolution constantly increases1 the law of solidarity or co-operation between living beings4 ,even in animal societies mutual aid against the forces of ,nature1 or against other animals is of constant occurrence1 and this is carried much further among human beings1 even among savage tribes4 ,one notes this phenomenon especially in tribes which on account of the favorable character of their environment1 or because their subsistence is assured and abundant1 become of the industrial or peaceful type4 ,the military or warlike type which is unhappily predominant 7on account of the uncertainty and insufficiency of subsistence7 among primitive mankind and in reactionary phases of civilization1 presents us with less frequent examples of it4 ,the industrial type constantly tends1 moreover1 as ,spencer has shown1 to take the place of the warlike type4#ah ,confining ourselves to human society alone1 we will say that1 while in the first stages of the social evolution the law of the struggle for life takes precedence over the law of solidarity1 with the growth within the social organism of the division of labor which binds the various parts of the social whole more closely together in inter-dependence1 the struggle for life grows milder and is metamorphosed1 and the law of co-operation or solidarity gains more and more both in efficiency and in the range of its influence1 and this is due to that fundamental reason that ,marx pointed out1 and which constitutes his great scientific discovery1 the reason that in the one case the conditions of existence--food especially--are not assured1 and in the other case they are4 ,in the lives of individuals as in the life of societies1 when the means of subsistence1 that is to say1 the physical basis of existence1 are assured1 the law of solidarity takes precedence over the law of the struggle for existence1 and when they are not assured1 the contrary is true4 ,among savages1 infanticide and parricide are not only permitted but are obligatory and sanctioned by religion if the tribe inhabits an island where food is scarce 7for instance1 in ,polynesia71 and they are immoral and criminal acts on continents where the food supply is more abundant and certain4#ai ,just so1 in our present society1 as the majority of individuals are not sure of getting their daily bread1 the struggle for life1 or free competition1 as the individualists call it1 assumes more cruel and more brutal forms4 ,just as soon as through collective ownership every individual shall be assured of fitting conditions of existence1 the law of solidarity will become preponderant4 ,when in a family financial affairs run smoothly and prosperously1 harmony and mutual good-will prevail2 as soon as poverty makes its appearance1 discord and struggle ensue4 ,society as a whole shows us the picture on a large scale4 ,a better social organization will insure universal harmony and mutual good-will4 ,this will be the achievement of socialism1 and1 to repeat1 for this1 the fullest and most fruitful interpretation of the inexorable natural laws discovered by ,darwinism1 we are indebted to socialism4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,such socialists are ,,labusquiere1 ,,lanessau1 ,,loria ,and ,,colajanni4 #ad ,,novicow1 ,les luttes entre socits1 leurs phases successives1 ,paris1 #ahic4 ,,lerda1 ,la lotta per la vita1 in ,pensiero italiano1 ,milan1 ,feb4 and ,march1 #ahid4 #ae ,i regret that ,m4 ,loria1 ordinarily so profound and acute1 has here been deceived by appearances4 ,he has pointed out this pretended contradiction in his ,economic ,foundations of ,society 7available in ,english1 ,tr474 ,he has been completely answered1 in the name of the school of scientific criminal anthropology1 by ,m4 ,,rivieri ,,de ,,rocchi1 ,il diritto penale e un'opera recente di ,loria in ,scuola positiva nella giurisprudenza penale of ,feb4 #ae1 #ahid1 and by ,m4 ,,lombroso1 in ,archivio di psichiatria e scienza penali1 #ahid1 ,,xiv1 fasc4 ,c4 #af ,,enrico ,,ferri1 ,sociologie criminelle 7,french translation71 #ahic1 ,chaps4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 ,a recent work has just given scientific confirmation to our inductions3 ,,forsinari ,,di ,,verce1 ,sulla criminalit e le vicende economiche d',italia dal #ahgc al #ahij4 ,turin1 #ahid4 ,the preface written by ,lombroso concludes in the following words3 ,we do not wish1 therefore1 to slight or neglect the truth of the socialist movement1 which is destined to changed the current of modern ,european thought and action1 and which contends ad majorem gloriam of its conclusions that all criminality depends on the influence of the economic environment4 ,we also believe in this doctrine1 though we are unwilling and unable to accept the erroneous conclusions drawn from it4 ,however enthusiastic we may be1 we will never1 in its honor1 renounce the truth4 ,we leave this useless servility to the upholders of classical orthodoxy4 #ag ,a skin-disease endemic in ,northern ,italy4 ,tr4 #ah ,see in this connection the famous monographs of ,kropotkin1 ,mutual aid among the savages1 in the ,nineteenth ,century1 ,april #i1 #ahia1 and ,among the barbarians1 ,nineteenth ,century1 ,january1 #ahib1 and also two recent articles signed3 ,un ,professeur1 which appeared in the ,revue ,socialiste1 of ,paris1 ,may and ,june1 #ahid1 under the title3 ,lutte ou accord pour la vie4 #ai ,,enrico ,,ferri1 ,omicidio nell' antropologia criminale1 ,introduction1 ,turin1 #ahid4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,survival ,,of ,,the ,,fittest4 ,the third and last part of the argument of ,haeckel is correct if applied solely to the purely biological and ,darwinian domain1 but its starting point is false if it is intended to apply it to the social domain and to turn it into an objection against socialism4 ,it is said the struggle for existence assures the survival of the fittest2 it therefore causes an aristocratic1 hierarchic gradation of selected individuals--a continuous progress--and not the democratic leveling of socialism4 ,here again1 let us begin by accurately ascertaining the nature of this famous natural selection which results from the struggle for existence4 ,the expression which ,haeckel uses and which1 moreover1 is in current use1 survival of the best or of the best fitted1 ought to be corrected4 ,we must suppress the adjective best4 ,this is simply a persisting relic of that teleology which used to see in ,nature and history a premeditated goal to be reached by means of a process of continuous amelioration or progress4 ,darwinism1 on the contrary1 and still more the theory of universal evolution1 has completely banished the notion of final causes from modern scientific thought and from the interpretation of natural phenomena4 ,evolution consists both of involution and dissolution4 ,it may be true1 and indeed it is true1 that by comparing the two extremes of the path traversed by humanity we find that there has really been a true progress1 an improvement taking it all in all2 but1 in any case1 progress has not followed a straight ascending line1 but1 as ,goethe has said1 a spiral with rhythms of progress and of retrogression1 of evolution and of dissolution4 ,every cycle of evolution1 in the individual life as in the collective life1 bears within it the germs of the corresponding cycle of dissolution2 and1 inversely1 the latter1 by the decay of the form already worn out1 prepares in the eternal laboratory new evolutions and new forms of life4 ,it is thus that in the world of human society every phase of civilization bears within it and is constantly developing the germs of its own dissolution from which issues a new phase of civilization--which will be more or less different from its predecessor in geographical situation and range--in the eternal rhythm of living humanity4 ,the ancient hieratic civilizations of the ,orient decay1 and through their dissolution they give birth to the ,graeco-,roman world1 which in turn is followed by the feudal and aristocratic civilization of ,central ,europe2 it also decays and disintegrates through its own excesses1 like the preceding civilizations1 and it is replaced by the bourgeois civilization which has reached its culminating point in the ,anglo-,saxon world4 ,but it is already experiencing the first tremors of the fever of dissolution1 while from its womb there emerges and is developing the socialist civilization which will flourish over a vaster domain than that of any of the civilizations which have preceded it4#bj ,hence it is not correct to assert that the natural selection caused by the struggle for existence assures the survival of the best2 in fact1 it assures the survival of the best fitted4 ,this is a very great difference1 alike in natural ,darwinism and in social ,darwinism4 ,the struggle for existence necessarily causes the survival of the individuals best fitted for the environment and the particular historical period in which they live4 ,in the natural1 biological domain1 the free play of natural 7cosmiques7 forces and conditions causes a progressive advance or ascent of living forms1 from the microbe up to ,man4 ,in human society1 on the contrary1 that is to say1 in the super-organic evolution of ,herbert ,spencer1 the intervention of other forces and the occurrence of other conditions sometimes causes a retrograde selection which always assures the survival of those who are best fitted for a given environment at a given time1 but the controlling principle of this selection is in turn affected by the vicious conditions--if they are vicious--of the environment4 ,here we are dealing with the question of social selection1 or rather social selections1 for there is more than one kind of social selection4 ,by starting from this idea--not clearly comprehended--some writers1 both socialists and non-socialists1 have come to deny that the ,darwinian theories have any application to human society4 ,it is known1 indeed1 that in the contemporaneous civilized world natural selection is injuriously interfered with by military selection1 by matrimonial selection1 and1 above all1 by economic selection4#ba ,the temporary celibacy imposed upon soldiers certainly has a deplorable effect upon the human race4 ,it is the young men who on account of comparatively poor physical constitutions are excused from military service1 who marry the first1 while the healthier individuals are condemned to a transitory sterility1 and in the great cities run the risk of contagion from syphilis which unfortunately has permanent effects4 ,marriage also1 corrupted as it is in the existent society by economic considerations1 is ordinarily in practice a sort of retrogressive sexual selection4 ,women who are true degenerates1 but who have good dowries or prospects1 readily find husbands on the marriage market1 while the most robust women of the people or of the middle class who have no dowries are condemned to the sterility of compulsory old-maiddom or to surrender themselves to a more or less gilded prostitution4#bb ,it is indisputable that the present economic conditions exercise an influence upon all the social relations of men4 ,the monopoly of wealth assures to its possessor the victory in the struggle for existence4 ,rich people1 even though they are less robust1 have longer lives than those who are ill-fed4 ,the day-and-night-work1 under inhuman conditions1 imposed upon grown men1 and the still more baleful labor imposed upon women and children by modern capitalism causes a constant deterioration in the biological conditions of the toiling masses4#bc ,in addition to all these we must not forget the moral selection--which is really immoral or retrograde--made at present by capitalism in its struggle with the proletariat1 and which favors the survival of those with servile characters1 while it persecutes and strives to suppress all those who are strong in character1 and all who do not seem disposed to tamely submit to the yoke of the present economic order4#bd ,the first impression which springs from the recognition of these facts is that the ,darwinian law of natural selection does not hold good in human society--in short1 is inapplicable to human society4 ,i have maintained1 and ,i do maintain1 on the contrary1 in the first place1 that these various kinds of retrograde social selection are not in contradiction with the ,darwinian law1 and that1 moreover1 they serve as the material for an argument in favor of socialism4 ,nothing but socialism1 in fact1 can make this inexorable law of natural selection work more beneficently4 ,as a matter of fact1 the ,darwinian law does not cause the survival of the best1 but simply the survival of the fittest4 ,it is obvious that the forms of degeneracy produced by the divers kinds of social selection and notably by the present economic organization merely promote1 indeed1 and with growing efficiency1 the survival of those best fitted for this very economic organization4 ,if the victors in the struggle for existence are the worst and the weakest1 this does not mean that the ,darwinian law does not hold good2 it means simply that the environment is corrupt 7and corrupting71 and that those who survive are precisely those who are the fittest for this corrupt environment4 ,in my studies of criminal psychology ,i have too often had to recognize the fact that in prisons and in the criminal world it is the most cruel or the most cunning criminals who enjoy the fruits of victory2 it is just the same in our modern economic individualist system2 the victory goes to him who has the fewest scruples2 the struggle for existence favors him who is fittest for a world where a man is valued for what he has 7no matter how he got it71 and not for what he is4 ,the ,darwinian law of natural selection functions then even in human society4 ,the error of those who deny this proposition springs from the fact that they confound the present environment and the present transitory historical era--which are known in history as the bourgeois environment and period1 just as the ,middle ,ages are called feudal--with all history and all humanity1 and therefore they fail to see that the disastrous effects of modern1 retrograde1 social selection are only confirmations of the ,darwinian law of the survival of the fittest4 ,popular common sense has long recognized this influence of the surroundings1 as is shown by many a common proverb1 and its scientific explanation is to be found in the necessary biological relations which exist between a given environment and the individuals who are born1 struggle and survive in that environment4 ,on the other hand1 this truth constitutes an unanswerable argument in favor of socialism4 ,by freeing the environment from all the corruptions with which our unbridled economic individualism pollutes it1 socialism will necessarily correct the ill effects of natural and social selection4 ,in a physically and morally wholesome environment1 the individuals best fitted to it1 those who will therefore survive1 will be the physically and morally healthy4 ,in the struggle for existence the victory will then go to him who has the greatest and most prolific physical1 intellectual and moral energies4 ,the collectivist economic organization1 by assuring to everyone the conditions of existence1 will and necessarily must1 result in the physical and moral improvement of the human race4 ,to this some one replies3 ,suppose we grant that socialism and ,darwinian selection may be reconciled1 is it not obvious that the survival of the fittest tends to establish an aristocratic gradation of individuals1 which is contrary to socialistic leveling8 ,i have already answered this objection in part by pointing out that socialism will assure to all individuals--instead of as at present only to a privileged few or to society's heroes--freedom to assert and develop their own individualities4 ,then in truth the result of the struggle for existence will be the survival of the best and this for the very reason that in a wholesome environment the victory is won by the healthiest individuals4 ,social ,darwinism1 then1 as a continuation and complement of natural 7biological7 ,darwinism1 will result in a selection of the best4 ,to respond fully to this insistence upon an unlimited aristocratic selection1 ,i must call attention to another natural law which serves to complete that rhythm of action and reaction which results in the equilibrium of life4 ,to the ,darwinian law of natural inequalities we must add another law which is inseparable from it1 and which ,jacoby1 following in the track of the labors of ,morel1 ,lucas1 ,galton1 ,de ,caudole1 ,ribot1 ,spencer1 ,royer1 ,lombroso1 and others1 has clearly demonstrated and expounded4 ,this same ,nature1 which makes choice and aristocratic gradation a condition of vital progress1 afterwards restores the equilibrium by a leveling and democratic law4 ,from the infinite throng of humanity there emerge individuals1 families and races which tend to rise above the common level2 painfully climbing the steep heights they reach the summits of power1 wealth1 intelligence and talent1 and1 having reached the goal1 they are hurled down and disappear in the abysses of insanity and degeneration4 ,death is the great leveler2 by destroying every one who rises above the common herd1 it democratizes humanity4#be ,every one who attempts to create a monopoly of natural forces comes into violent conflict with that supreme law of ,nature which has given to all living beings the use and disposal of the natural agents3 air and light1 water and land4 ,everybody who is too much above or too much below the average of humanity--an average which rises with the flux of time1 but is absolutely fixed at any given moment of history--does not live and disappears from the stage4 ,the idiot and the man of genius1 the starving wretch and the millionaire1 the dwarf and the giant1 are so many natural or social monsters1 and ,nature inexorably blasts them with degeneracy or sterility1 no matter whether they be the product of the organic life1 or the effect of the social organization4 ,and so1 all families possessing a monopoly of any kind--monopoly of power1 of wealth or of talent--are inevitably destined to become in their latest offshoots imbeciles1 sterile or suicides1 and finally to become extinct4 ,noble houses1 dynasties of sovereigns1 descendants of millionaires--all follow the common law which1 here again1 serves to confirm the inductions--in this sense1 equalitarian--of science and of socialism4 ,,footnotes3 #bj ,one of the most characteristic processes of social dissolution is parasitism4 ,,massart and ,,vandervelde1 ,parasitism1 organic and social4 7,english translation47 ,swan1 ,sonnenschein ,co41 ,london4 #ba ,,broca1 ,les slections 7 #f4 ,les slections sociales7 in ,mmoires d' anthropologie1 ,paris1 #ahgg1 ,,iii41 #bje4 ,,lapouge1 ,les slections sociales1 in ,revue d' anthrop41 #ahhg1 p4 #eai4 ,,loria1 ,discourse su ,carlo ,darwin1 ,,sienne1 #ahhb4 ,,vadala1 ,darwinismo naturale e ,darwinismo sociale1 ,turin1 #ahhc4 ,,bordier1 ,la vie des socits1 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,,sergi1 ,le degenerazione umane1 ,milan1 #ahhi1 p4 #aeh4 ,,bebel1 ,woman in the past1 present and future4 #bb ,,max ,,nordau1 ,conventional ,lies of our ,civilization4 7,english trans47 ,laird ,lee1 ,chicago1 #ahie4 #bc ,while this is shown by all official statistics1 it is signally shown by the facts collated by ,m4 ,pagliani1 the present ,director-,general of the ,bureau of ,health in the ,interior ,department1 who has shown that the bodies of the poor are more backward and less developed than those of the rich1 and that this difference1 though but slightly manifest at birth1 becomes greater and greater in after life1 i4 e4 as soon as the influence of the economic conditions makes itself felt in all its inexorable tyranny4 #bd ,,turati1 ,selezione servile1 in ,critica ,sociale1 ,june #a1 #ahid4 ,,sergi1 ,degenerazione umane1 ,milan1 #ahhi4 #be ,,jacoby1 ,etudes sur la slection dans ses rapports avec l'hrdit chez l'homme1 ,paris1 #ahha1 p4 #fjf4 ,,lombroso1 ,l'uomo di genio1 #fth edition1 ,turin1 #ahid1 has developed and complemented this law4 ,this law1 so easily forgotten1 is neglected by ,,ritchie 7,darwinism and ,politics4 ,london4 ,sonnenschein1 #ahia47 in the section called ,does the doctrine of ,heredity support ,aristocracy8 ,v4 ,,socialism ,,and ,,religious ,,beliefs4 ,not one of the three contradictions between socialism and ,darwinism1 which ,haeckel formulated1 and which so many others have echoed since1 resists a candid and more accurate examination of the natural laws which bear the name of ,charles ,darwin4 ,i add that not only is ,darwinism not in contradiction with socialism1 but that it constitutes one of its fundamental scientific premises4 ,as ,virchow justly remarked1 socialism is nothing but a logical and vital corollary1 in part of ,darwinism1 in part of ,spencerian evolution4 ,the theory of ,darwin1 whether we wish it or not1 by demonstrating that man is descended from the animals1 has dealt a severe blow to the belief in ,god as the creator of the universe and of man by a special fiat4 ,this1 moreover1 is why the most bitter opposition1 and the only opposition which still continues1 to its scientific inductions1 was made and is made in the name of religion4 ,it is true that ,darwin did not declare himself an atheist#bf and that ,spencer is not one2 it is also true that1 strictly speaking1 the theory of ,darwin1 like that of ,spencer1 can also be reconciled with the belief in ,god1 since it may be admitted that ,god created matter and force1 and that both afterward evolved into their successive forms in accordance with the initial creative impulse4 ,nevertheless1 it cannot be denied that these theories1 by rendering the idea of causality more and more inflexible and universal1 lead necessarily to the negation of ,god1 since there always remains this question3 ,and ,god1 who created him8 ,and if it is replied that ,god has always existed1 the same reply may be flung back by asserting that the universe has always existed4 ,to use the phrase of ,ardig1 human thought is only able to conceive the chain which binds effects to causes as terminating at a given point1 purely conventional4#bg ,god1 as ,laplace said1 is an hypothesis of which exact science has no need2 he is1 according to ,herzen1 at the most an ,x1 which represents not the unknowable--as ,spencer and ,dubois ,raymond contend--but all that which humanity does not yet know4 ,therefore1 it is a variable ,x which decreases in direct ratio to the progress of the discoveries of science4 ,it is for this very reason that science and religion are in inverse ratio to each other2 the one diminishes and grows weaker in the same proportion that the other increases and grows stronger in its struggle against the unknown4#bh ,and if this is one of the consequences of ,darwinism1 its influence on the development of socialism is quite obvious4 ,the disappearance of faith in the hereafter1 where the poor shall become the elect of the ,lord1 and where the miseries of the vale of tears will find an eternal compensation in paradise1 gives greater strength to the desire for some semblance of an earthly paradise here below even for the unfortunate and the poor1 who are the great majority4 ,hartmann and ,guyau#bi have shown that the evolution of religious beliefs may be summarized thus3 ,all religions include1 with various other matters1 the promise of happiness2 but the primitive religions concede that this happiness will be realized during the life of the individual himself1 and the later religions1 through an excess of reaction1 place its realization after death1 outside the human world2 in the final phase1 this realization of happiness is once more placed within the field of human life1 no longer in the ephemeral moment of the individual existence1 but indeed in the continuous evolution of all mankind4 ,on this side1 then1 socialism is closely related to the religious evolution1 and tends to substitute itself for religion1 since its aim is for humanity to have its own earthly paradise here1 without having to wait for it in the hereafter1 which1 to say the least1 is very problematical4 ,therefore1 it has been very justly remarked that the socialist movement has many traits in common with1 for example1 primitive ,christianity1 notably that ardent faith in the ideal that has definitively deserted the arid field of bourgeois skepticism1 and some savants1 not socialists1 such as ,messrs4 ,wallace1 de ,lavaleye and the ,roberty1 etc41 admit that it is entirely possible for socialism to replace by its humanitarian faith the faith in the hereafter of the former religions4 ,more direct and potent than these relations 7between socialism and faith in a hereafter7 are1 however1 the relations which exist between socialism and the belief in ,god4 ,it is true that ,marxian ,socialism1 since the ,congress held at ,erfurt 7#ahia71 has rightly declared that religious beliefs are private affairs#cj and that1 therefore1 the ,socialist party combats religious intolerance under all its forms1 whether it be directed against ,catholics#ca or against ,jews1 as ,i have shown in an article against ,anti-,semitism4#cb ,but this breadth of superiority of view is1 at bottom1 only a consequence of the confidence in final victory4 ,it is because socialism knows and foresees that religious beliefs1 whether one regards them1 with ,sergi1#cc as pathological phenomena of human psychology1 or as useless phenomena of moral incrustation1 are destined to perish by atrophy with the extension of even elementary scientific culture4 ,this is why socialism does not feel the necessity of waging a special warfare against these religious beliefs which are destined to disappear4 ,it has assumed this attitude although it knows that the absence or the impairment of the belief in ,god is one of the most powerful factors for its extension1 because the priests of all religions have been1 throughout all the phases of history1 the most potent allies of the ruling classes in keeping the masses pliant and submissive under the yoke by means of the enchantment of religion1 just as the tamer keeps wild beasts submissive by the terrors of the cracks of his whip4 ,and this is so true that the most clear-sighted conservatives1 even though they are atheists1 regret that the religious sentiment--that precious narcotic--is diminishing among the masses1 because they see in it1 though their pharisaism does not permit them to say it openly1 an instrument of political domination4#cd ,unfortunately1 or fortunately1 the religious sentiment cannot be re-established by royal decree4 ,if it is disappearing1 the blame for this cannot be laid at the door of any particular individual1 and there is no need of a special propaganda against it1 because its antidote impregnates the air we breathe--saturated with the inductions of experimental science--and religion no longer meets with conditions favorable to its development as it did amid the superstitious ignorance of past centuries4 ,i have thus shown the direct influence of modern science1 science based on observation and experiment1--which has substituted the idea of natural causality for the ideas of miracle and divinity1--on the extremely rapid development and on the experimental foundation of contemporary socialism4 ,democratic socialism does not look with unfriendly eyes upon ,catholic ,socialism 7the ,christian ,socialism of ,southern ,europe71 since it has nothing to fear from it4 ,catholic socialism1 in fact1 aids in the propagation of socialist ideas1 especially in the rural districts where religious faith and practices are still very vigorous1 but it will not win and wear the palm of victory ad majorem dei gloriam4 ,as ,i have shown1 there is a growing antagonism between science and religion1 and the socialist varnish cannot preserve ,catholicism4 ,the earthly socialism has1 moreover1 a much greater attractive power4 ,when the peasants shall have become familiar with the views of ,catholic socialism1 it will be very easy for democratic socialism to rally them under its own flag--they will1 indeed1 convert themselves4 ,socialism occupies an analogous position with regard to republicanism4 ,just as atheism is a private affair which concerns the individual conscience1 so a republican form of government is a private affair which interests only a part of the bourgeoisie4 ,certainly1 by the time that socialism draws near to its day of triumph1 atheism will have made immense progress1 and a republican form of government will have been established in many countries which to-day submit to a monarchical regime4 ,but it is not socialism which develops atheism1 any more than it is socialism which will establish republicanism4 ,atheism is a product of the theories of ,darwin and ,spencer in the present bourgeois civilization1 and republicanism has been and will be1 in the various countries1 the work of a portion of the capitalist bourgeoisie1 as was recently said in some of the conservative newspapers of ,milan 7,corriere della sera and ,idea liberale71 when the monarchy shall no longer serve the interests of the country1 that is to say of the class in power4 ,the evolution from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy and to republicanism is an obvious historical law2 in the present phase of civilization the only difference between the two latter is in the elective or hereditary character of the head of the ,state4 ,in the various countries of ,europe1 the bourgeoisie themselves ,hill demand the transition from monarchy to republicanism1 in order to put off as long as possible the triumph of socialism4 ,in ,italy as in ,france1 in ,england as in ,spain1 we see only too many republicans or radicals whose attitude with regard to social questions is more bourgeois and more conservative than that of the intelligent conservatives4 ,at ,montecitorio1 for example1 there is ,imbriani whose opinions on religious and social matters are more conservative than those of ,m4 di ,rudini4 ,imbriani1 whose personality is moreover very attractive1 has never attacked the priests or monks--this man who attacks the entire universe and very often with good reason1 although without much success on account of mistaken methods--and he was the only one to oppose even the consideration of a law proposed by the ,dput ,ferrari1 which increased the tax on estates inherited by collateral heirs6 ,socialism then has no more interest in preaching republicanism than it has in preaching atheism4 ,to each his role 7or task71 is the law of division of labor4 ,the struggle for atheism is the business of science2 the establishment of republicanism in the various countries of ,europe has been and will be the work of the bourgeoisie themselves--whether they be conservative or radical4 ,all this constitutes the historical progress toward socialism1 and individuals are powerless to prevent or delay the succession of the phases of the moral1 political and social evolution4 ,,footnotes3 #bf ,darwin never made a declaration of atheism1 but that was in fact his way of looking at the problem 7sa manire de voir474 ,while ,haeckel1 concerned solely with triumphing over the opposition1 said at the ,congress of ,eisenach 7#ahhb7 that ,darwin was not an atheist1 ,bchner1 on the contrary1 published shortly afterward a letter which ,darwin had written him1 and in which he avowed that since the age of forty years1 his scientific studies had led him to atheism4 7,see also1 ,charles ,darwin and ,karl ,marx3 ,a ,comparison1 by ,ed4 ,aveling4 ,published by the ,twentieth ,century ,press1 ,london4--,translator47 ,in the same way1 ,john ,stuart ,mill never declared himself a ,socialist1 but that1 nevertheless1 in opinion he was one1 is made evident by his autobiography and his posthumous fragments on ,socialism4 7,see ,the ,socialism of ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,humboldt ,pub4 ,co41 ,new ,york4--,tr47 #bg ,,ardig1 ,la ,formazione naturale1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 of his ,opere filologiche1 and ,vol4 ,,vi41 ,la ,ragione1 ,padone1 #ahid4 #bh ,guyau1 ,l',irrligion de l'avenir4 ,paris4 #ahhg4 #bi ,the dominant factor1 nevertheless1 in religious beliefs1 is the hereditary or traditional sentimental factor2 this it is which always renders them respectable when they are professed in good faith1 and often makes them even appeal to our sympathies1--and this is precisely because of the ingenuous or refined sensibility of the persons in whom religious faith is the most vital and sincere4 #cj ,,nitti1 ,le ,socialisme catholique1 ,paris1 #ahid1 p4 #bg and #cic4 #ca ,its usual form in ,america4--,translator4 #cb ,nuova ,rassegna1 ,august1 #ahid4 #cc ,,sergi1 ,l'origine dei fenomeni psichici e loro significazione biologica1 ,milan1 #ahhe1 p4 #ccd1 et seq4 #cd ,,durkheim1 ,de la division du travail social4 ,paris4 #ahic4 ,as regards the pretended influence of religion on personal morality ,i have shown how very slight a foundation there was for this opinion in my studies on criminal psychology1 and more particularly in ,omicidio nell' antropologia criminale4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,individual ,,and ,,the ,,species4 ,it can also be shown that scientific socialism proceeds directly from ,darwinism by an examination of the different modes of conceiving of the individual in relation to the species4 ,the eighteenth century closed with the exclusive glorification of the individual1 of the man--as an entity in himself4 ,in the works of ,rousseau this was only a beneficent1 though exaggerated re-action against the political and sacerdotal tyranny of the ,middle ,ages4 ,this individualism led directly to that artificiality in politics1 which ,i will consider a little further on in studying the relations between the theory of evolution and socialism1 and which is common to the ruling classes under the bourgeois regime and to the individualistic anarchists1--since both alike imagine that the social organization can be changed in a day by the magical effect of a bomb1--more or less murderous4 ,modern biology has radically changed this conception of the individual and it has demonstrated1 in the domain of biology as in that of sociology1 that the individual is himself only an aggregation of more simple living elements1 and likewise that the individual in himself1 the ,selbstwesen of the ,germans1 does not exist in independent isolation1 but only as a member of a society 7,gliedwesen74 ,every living object is an association1 a collectivity4 ,the monad itself1 the living cell1 the irreducible expression of biological individuality1 is also an aggregate of various parts 7nucleus1 nuclole1 protoplasm71 and each one of them in its turn is an aggregate of molecules which are aggregates of atoms4 ,the atom does not exist alone1 as an individual2 the atom is invisible and impalpable and it does not live4 ,and the complexity of the aggregation1 the federation of the parts constantly increases with the ascent in the zoological series from protozoa to ,man4 ,unifying1 ,jacobin artificiality corresponds to the metaphysics of individualism1 just as the conception of national and international federalism corresponds to the scientific character of modern socialism4 ,the organism of a mammal is simply a federation of tissues1 organs and anatomical machinery2 the organism of a society can consist of nothing but a federation of communes1 provinces and regions2 the organism of humanity can be nothing but a federation of nations4 ,if it is absurd to conceive of a mammal whose head should have to move in the same fashion as the extremities and all of whose extremities would have to perform the same motions simultaneously1 there is no less absurdity in a political and administrative organization in which the extreme northern province or the mountainous province1 for instance1 have to have the same bureaucratic machinery1 the same body of laws1 the same methods1 etc41 as the extreme southern province or the province made up of plains1 solely through the passion for symmetrical uniformity1 that pathological expression of unity4 ,if we disregard those considerations of a political order which make it possible to conclude1 as ,i have done elsewhere1#ce that the only possible organization for ,italy1 as for every other country1 appeared to me to be that of an administrative federalism combined with political unity1 we can regard it as manifest1 that at the close of the nineteenth century the individual1 as an independent entity1 is dethroned alike in biology and sociology4 ,the individual exists1 but only in so far as he forms a part of a social aggregate4 ,robinson ,crusoe--that perfect type of individualism--can not possibly be aught but a legend or a pathological specimen4 ,the species--that is to say1 the social aggregate--is the great1 the living and eternal reality of life1 as has been demonstrated by ,darwinism and confirmed by all the inductive sciences from astronomy to sociology4 ,at the close of the eighteenth century ,rousseau thought that the individual alone existed1 and that society was an artificial product of the social contract and1 as he attributed 7just as ,aristotle had done in the case of slavery7 a permanent human character to the transitory manifestations of the period1 such as the rottenness of the regime under which he lived1 he further thought that ,society was the cause of all evils1 and that individuals are all born good and equal4 ,at the end of the nineteenth century1 on the contrary1 all the inductive sciences agree in recognizing that society1 the social aggregate1 is a fact of ,nature1 inseparable from life1 in the vegetable species as in the animal species1 from the lowest animal colonies of zoophytes up to societies of mammals 7herbivora71 and to human society4#cf ,all that is best in the individual1 he owes to the social life1 although every phase of evolution is marked at its decline by pathological conditions of social decay--essentially transitory1 however--which inevitably precede a new cycle of social renovation4 ,the individual1 as such1 if he could live1 would fulfill only one of the two fundamental requirements 7needs7 of existence3 alimentation--that is to say1 the selfish preservation of his own organism1 by means of that primordial and fundamental function1 which ,aristotle designated by the name of ctesi--the conquest of food4 ,but all individuals have to live in society because a second fundamental requirement of life imposes itself upon the individual1 viz41 the reproduction of beings like himself for the preservation of the species4 ,it is this life of relationship and reproduction 7sexual and social7 which gives birth to the moral or social sense1 which enables the individual not only to be1 but to co-exist with his fellows4 ,it may be said that these two fundamental instincts of life--bread and love--by their functioning maintain a social equilibrium in the life of animals1 and especially in ,man4 ,it is love which causes1 in the great majority of men1 the principal physiological and psychical expenditure of the forces accumulated in larger or smaller quantities by the consumption of daily bread1 and which the daily labor has not absorbed or which parasitic inaction has left intact4 ,even more--love is the only pleasure which truly has a universal and equalitarian character4 ,the people have named it the paradise of the poor2 and religions have always bidden them to enjoy it without limits--be fruitful and multiply--because the erotic exhaustion which results from it1 especially in males1 diminishes or hides beneath the pall of forgetfulness the tortures of hunger and servile labor1 and permanently enervates the energy of the individual2 and to this extent it performs a function useful to the ruling class4 ,but indissolubly linked to this effect of the sexual instinct there is an other1 the increase of the population4 ,hence it happens that the desire to eternize a given social order is thwarted and defeated by the pressure of this population which in our epoch assumes the characteristic form of the proletariat1--and the social evolution continues its inexorable and inevitable forward march4 ,it follows from our discussion that while at the end of the eighteenth century it was thought that ,society was made for the individual--and from that the deduction could be made that millions of individuals could and ought to toil and suffer for the exclusive advantage of a few individuals--at the end of our century the inductive sciences have demonstrated1 just the opposite1 that it is the individual who lives for the species and that the latter is the only eternal reality of life4 ,there we have the starting-point of the sociological or socialist tendency of modern scientific thought in the face of the exaggerated individualism inherited from the last century4 ,modern biology also demonstrates that it is necessary to avoid the opposite excess--into which certain schools of utopian socialism and of communism fall--the excess of regarding only the interests of ,society and altogether neglecting the individual4 ,an other biological law shows us1 in fact1 that the existence of the aggregation is the resultant of the life of all the individuals1 just as the existence of an individual is the resultant of the life of its constituent cells4 ,we have demonstrated that the socialism which characterizes the end of the nineteenth century and which will illumine the dawn of the coming century is in perfect harmony with the entire current of modern thought4 ,this harmony manifests itself even on the fundamental question of the predominance given to the vital necessity of collective or social solidarity over the dogmatic exaggerations of individualism1 and if the latter at the close of the last century was the outward sign of a potent and fruitful awakening1 it inevitably leads1 through the pathological manifestations of unbridled competition1 to the libertarian explosions of anarchism which preaches individual action1 and which is entirely oblivious of human and social solidarity4 ,we now come to the last point of contact and essential oneness that there is between ,darwinism and socialism4 ,,footnotes3 #ce ,sociologie criminelle1 ,french trans41 ,paris1 #ahib4 #cf ,i cannot consider here the recent attempt at eclecticism made by ,m4 ,fouille and others4 ,m4 ,fouille wishes to oppose1 or at least to add1 to the naturalistic conception of society the consensual or contractual conception4 ,evidently1 since no theory is absolutely false1 there is even in this consensual theory a share of truth1 and the liberty of emigration may be an instance of it--as long as this liberty is compatible with the economic interests of the class in power4 ,but1 obviously1 this consent1 which does not exist at the birth of each individual into such or such a society 7and this fact of birth is the most decisive and tyrannical factor in life7 also has very little to do with the development of his aptitudes and tendencies1 dominated as they are by the iron law of the economic and political organization in which he is an atom4 ,,viii4 ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,life ,,and ,,the ,,class-,,struggle4 ,darwinism has demonstrated that the entire mechanism of animal evolution may be reduced to the struggle for existence between individuals of the same species on the one hand1 and between each species and the whole world of living beings4 ,in the same way all the machinery of social evolution has been reduced by ,marxian socialism to the law of the ,struggle between ,classes4 ,this theory not only gives us the secret motive-power and the only scientific explanation of the history of mankind2 it also furnishes the ideal and rigid standard of discipline for political socialism and thus enables it to avoid all the elastic1 vaporous1 inconclusive uncertainties of sentimental socialism4 ,the only scientific explanation of the history of animal life is to be found in the grand ,darwinian law of the struggle for existence2 it alone enables us to determine the natural causes of the appearance1 development and disappearance of vegetable and animal species from paleontological times down to our own day4 ,in the same way the only explanation of the history of human life is to be found in the grand ,marxian law of the struggle between classes2 thanks to it the annals of primitive1 barbarous and civilized humanity cease to be a capricious and superficial kaleidoscopic arrangement of individual episodes in order to become a grand and inevitable drama1 determined--whether the actors realize it or not1 in its smallest internal details as well as in its catastrophes--by the economic conditions1 which form the indispensable1 physical basis of life and by the struggle between the classes to obtain and keep control of the economic forces1 upon which all the others--political1 juridical and moral--necessarily depend4 ,i will have occasion to speak more at length--in studying the relations between sociology and socialism--of this grand conception1 which is the imperishable glory of ,marx and which assures him in sociology the place which ,darwin occupies in biology and ,spencer in philosophy4#cg ,for the moment it suffices for me to point out this new point of contact between ,socialism and ,darwinism4 ,the expression1 ,class-,struggle1 so repugnant when first heard or seen 7and ,i confess that it produced this impression on me when ,i had not yet grasped the scientific import of the ,marxian theory71 furnishes us1 if it be correctly understood1 the primary law of human history and1 therefore1 it alone can give us the certain index of the advent of the new phase of evolution which ,socialism foresees and which it strives to hasten4 ,to assert the existence of the class-struggle is equivalent to saying that human society1 like all other living organisms1 is not a homogeneous whole1 the sum of a greater or smaller number of individuals2 it is1 on the contrary1 a living organism which is made up of diverse parts1 and their differentiation constantly increases in direct ratio to the degree of social evolution attained4 ,just as a protozoon is almost wholly composed of albuminoid gelatine1 while a mammal is composed of tissues widely varying in kind1 in the same way a tribe of primitive savages1 without a chief1 is composed simply of a few families and the aggregation is the result of mere material propinquity1 while a civilized society of the historical or contemporaneous period is made up of social classes which differ1 the one from the other1 either through the physio-psychical constitutions of their component members1 or through the whole of their customs and tendencies1 and their personal1 family or social life4 ,these different classes may be rigorously separated4 ,in ancient ,india they range from the brahman to the sudra3 in the ,europe of the ,middle ,ages1 from the ,emperor and the ,pope to the feudatory and the vassal1 down to the artisan1 and an individual cannot pass from one class into another1 as his social condition is determined solely by the hazard of birth4 ,classes may lose their legal character1 as happened in ,europe and ,america after the ,french ,revolution1 and exceptionally there may be an instance of an individual passing from one class into another1 analogously to the endosmose and exosmose of molecules1 or1 to use the phrase of ,m4 ,dumont1 by a sort of social capillarity4 ,but1 in any case1 these different classes exist as an assured reality and they resist every juridical attempt at leveling as long as the fundamental reason for their differentiation remains4 ,it is ,karl ,marx who1 better than any one else1 has proved the truth of this theory by the mass of sociological observations which he has drawn from societies under the most diverse economic conditions4 ,the names 7of the classes71 the circumstances and phenomena of their hostile contact and conflict may vary with the varying phases of social evolution1 but the tragic essence of history always appears in the antagonism between those who hold the monopoly of the means of production--and these are few--and those who have been robbed 7expropriated7 of them--and these are the great majority4 ,warriors and shepherds in the primitive societies1 as soon as first1 family and then individual ownership of land has superseded the primitive collectivism2 patricians and plebeians--feudatories and vassals--nobles and common people--bourgeoisie and proletariat2 these are so many manifestations of one and the same fact--the monopoly of wealth on one side1 and productive labor on the other4 ,now1 the great importance of the ,marxian law--the struggle between classes--consists principally in the fact that it indicates with great exactness just what is in truth the vital point of the social question and by what method its solution may be reached4 ,as long as no one had shown on positive evidence the economic basis of the political1 juridical and moral life1 the aspirations of the great majority for the amelioration of social conditions aimed vaguely at the demand and the partial conquest of some accessory instrumentality1 such as freedom of worship1 political suffrage1 public education1 etc4 ,and certainly1 ,i have no desire to deny the great utility of these conquests4 ,but the sancta sanctorum always remained impenetrable to the eyes of the masses1 and as economic power continued to be the privilege of a few1 all the conquests and all the concessions had no real basis1 separated1 as they were1 from the solid and fecund foundation which alone can give life and abiding power4 ,now1 that ,socialism has shown--even before ,marx1 but never before with so much scientific precision--that individual ownership1 private property in land and the means of production is the vital point of the question--the problem is formulated in exact terms in the consciousness of contemporaneous humanity4 ,what method will it be necessary to employ in order to abolish this monopoly of economic power1 and the mass of suffering and ills1 of hate and injustice which flow from it8 ,the method of the ,class ,struggle1 based on the scientifically proven fact that every class tends to preserve and increase its acquired advantages and privileges1 teaches the class deprived of economic power that in order to succeed in conquering it1 the struggle 7we will consider1 further on1 the forms of this struggle7 must be a struggle of class against class1 and not of individual against individual4 ,hatred toward such or such an individual--even if it result in his death--does not advance us a single step toward the solution of the problem2 it rather retards its solution1 because it provokes a reaction in the general feeling against personal violence and it violates the principle of respect for the human person which socialism proclaims most emphatically for the benefit of all and against all opponents4 ,the solution of the problem does not become easier because it is recognized that the present abnormal condition1 which is becoming more and more acute--misery for the masses and pleasure for a few--is not the consequence of the bad intentions of such or such an individual4 ,viewed from this side also socialism is1 in fact1 in perfect harmony with modern science1 which denies the free will of man and sees in human activity1 individual and collective1 a necessary effect whose determining causes are the conditions of race and environment1 acting concurrently4#ch ,crime1 suicide1 insanity1 misery are not the fruits of free will1 of individual faults1 as metaphysical spiritualism believes1 and neither is it an effect of free will1 a fault of the individual capitalist if the workingman is badly paid1 if he is without work1 if he is poor and miserable4 ,all social phenomena are the necessary resultants of the historical conditions and of the environment4 ,in the modern world the facility and the greater frequency of communication and relations of every kind between all parts of the earth have also increased the dependence of every fact--economic1 political1 juridical1 ethical1 artistic or scientific--upon the most remote and apparently unrelated conditions of the life of the great world4 ,the present organization of private property with no restrictions upon the right of inheritance by descent or upon personal accumulation2 the ever increasing and more perfect application of scientific discoveries to the facilitation of human labor--the labor of adapting the materials furnished by ,nature to human needs2 the telegraph and the steam-engine1 the constantly overflowing torrent of human migrations--all these bind1 with invisible but infrangible threads1 the existence of a family of peasants1 work-people or petty trades-people to the life of the whole world4 ,and the harvest of coffee1 cotton or wheat in the most distant countries makes its effects felt in all parts of the civilized world1 just as the decrease or increase of the sun-spots are phenomena co-incident with the periodical agricultural crises and have a direct influence on the destinies of millions of men4 ,this magnificent scientific conception of the unity of physical forces1 to use the expression of ,p4 ,secchi1 or of universal solidarity is far1 indeed1 from that infantile conception which finds the causes of human phenomena in the free wills of individuals4 ,if a socialist were to attempt1 even for philanthropic purposes1 to establish a factory in order to give work to the unemployed1 and if he were to produce articles out of fashion or for which there was no general demand1 he would soon become bankrupt in spite of his philanthropic intentions by an inevitable effect of inexorable economic laws4 ,or1 again1 if a socialist should give the laborers in his establishment wages two or three times as high as the current rate of wages1 he would evidently have the same fate1 since he would be dominated by the same economic laws1 and he would have to sell his commodities at a loss or keep them unsold in his warehouses1 because his prices for the same qualities of goods would be above the market price4 ,he would be declared a bankrupt and the only consolation the world would offer him would be to call him an honest man 7brave homme72 and in the present phase of mercantile ethics we know what this expression means4#ci ,therefore1 without regard to the personal relations1 more or less cordial1 between capitalists and workingmen1 their respective economic situations are inexorably determined by the present 7industrial7 organization1 in accordance with the law of surplus-labor which enabled ,marx to explain and demonstrate irrefutably how the capitalist is able to accumulate wealth without working1--because the laborer produces in his day's work an amount of wealth exceeding in value the wage he receives1 and this surplus-product forms the gratuitous 7unearned7 profit of the capitalist4 ,even if we deduct from the total profits his pay for technical and administrative superintendence1 this unearned surplus-product still remains4 ,land1 abandoned to the sun and the rain1 does not1 of itself1 produce either wheat or wine4 ,minerals do not come forth1 unaided1 from the bowels of the earth4 ,a bag of dollars shut up in a safe does not produce dollars1 as a cow produces calves4 ,the production of wealth results only from a transformation of 7,nature-given7 materials effected by human labor4 ,and it is only because the peasant tills the land1 because the miner extracts minerals1 because the laborer sets machinery in motion1 because the chemist makes experiments in his laboratory1 because the engineer invents machinery1 etc41 that the capitalist or the landlord--though the wealth inherited from his father may have cost him no labor1 and though he may practise absenteeism and thus make no personal exertion--is able every year to enjoy riches that others have produced for him1 in exchange for wretched lodgings and inadequate nourishment--while the workers are1 in most cases1 poisoned by the miasmatic vapors from rivers or marshes1 by gas in mines and by dust in factories--in brief1 in exchange for wages which are always inadequate1 to assure the workers conditions of existence worthy of human creatures4 ,even under a system of absolute mtayage 7share-farming7--which has been called a form of practical socialism--we always have this question left unanswered4 ,by what miracle does the landlord1 who does not work1 get his barns and houses filled with wheat and oil and wine in sufficient quantities to enable him to live in ample comfort1 while the mtayer 7the tenant on shares7 is obliged to work every day1 in order to wrest from the earth enough to support himself and his family in wretchedness8 ,and the system of mtayage does at least give the tenant the tranquillizing assurance that he will reach the end of the year without experiencing all the horrors of enforced idleness to which the ordinary day or wage laborers are condemned in both city and country4 ,but1 in substance1 the whole problem in its entirety remains unsolved 7even under this system71 and there is always one man who lives in comfort1 without working1 because ten others live poorly by working4#dj ,this is the way the system of private property works1 and these are the consequences it produces1 without any regard to the wills or wishes of individuals4 ,therefore1 every attempt made against such or such an individual is condemned to remain barren of results2 it is the ruling tendency of ,society1 the objective point which must be changed1 it is private ownership which must be abolished1 not by a partition 7dividing up71 which would result in the most extreme and pernicious form of private ownership1 since by the end of a year the persistence of the old individualist principle would restore the status quo ante1 and all the advantage would accrue solely to the most crafty and the least scrupulous4 ,our aim must be the abolition of private ownership and the establishment of collective and social ownership in land and the means of production4 ,this substitution cannot be the subject for a decree1--though the intention to effect it by a decree is attributed to us--but it is in course of accomplishment under our eyes1 every day1 from hour to hour1 directly or indirectly4 ,directly1 because civilization shows us the continuous substitution of public ownership and social functions for private ownership and individual functions4 ,roads1 postal systems1 railways1 museums1 city lighting-plants1 water-plants1 schools1 etc41 which were only a few years since private properties and functions1 have become social properties and functions4 ,and it would be absurd to imagine that this direct process of socialization is destined to come to a halt to-day1 instead of becoming progressively more and more marked1 in accordance with every tendency of our modern life4 ,indirectly1 since it is the outcome toward which the economic individualism of the bourgeoisie tends4 ,the bourgeois class1 which takes its name from the dwellers in the bourgs 7towns7 which the feudal chateau and the ,church--symbols of the class then dominant--protected1 is the result of fecund labor intelligently directed toward its goal and of historical conditions which have changed the economic structure and tendency of the world 7the discovery of ,america1 for instance74 ,this class achieved its revolution in the end of the eighteenth century1 and conquered the political power4 ,in the history of the civilized world1 it has inscribed a page in letters of gold by those wondrous developments in the lives of nations that are truly epic in character1 and by its marvelous applications of science to industry 444 but it is now traversing the downward branch of the parabola1 and symptoms are appearing which announce to us--and offer proof of their announcement--its dissolution2 without its disappearance1 moreover1 the advent and establishment of a new social phase would be impossible4 ,economic individualism carried out to its ultimate logical consequences1 necessarily causes the progressive multiplication of property in hands of a constantly diminishing number of persons4 ,milliardaire 7billionaire7 is a new word1 which is characteristic of the nineteenth century1 and this new word serves to express and emphasize that phenomenon--in which ,henry ,george saw the historic law of individualism--of the rich becoming richer while the poor become poorer4#da ,now it is evident that the smaller is the number of those who hold possession of the land and the means of production the easier is their expropriation--with or without indemnification--for the benefit of a single proprietor which is and can be ,society alone4 ,land is the physical basis of the social organism4 ,it is then absurd for it to belong to a few and not to the whole social collectivity2 it would not be any more absurd for the air we breathe to be the monopoly of a few airlords4 ,that 7the socialization of the land and the means of production7 is truly the supreme goal of socialism1 but evidently it can not be reached by attacking such or such a landlord1 or such or such a capitalist4 ,the individualist mode of conflict is destined to remain barren of results1 or1 to say the least1 it requires a terribly extravagant expenditure of strength and efforts to obtain merely partial or provisional results4 ,and so those politicians1 whose conception of statesmanship is a career of daily1 trivial protests1 who see nothing in politics but a struggle between individuals--and those tactics no longer produce any effect either on the public or on legislative assemblies1 because they have at last become wonted to them--produce just about as much effect as would fantastic champions of hygiene who should attempt to render a marsh inhabitable by killing the mosquitoes one by one with shots from a revolver1 instead of adopting as their method and their goal the draining of the pestilential marsh4 ,no individual conflicts1 no personal violence1 but a ,class ,struggle4 ,it is necessary to make the immense army of workers of all trades and of all professions conscious of these fundamental truths4 ,it is necessary to show them that their class interests are in opposition to the interests of the class who possess the economic power1 and that it is by class-conscious organization that they will conquer this economic power through the instrumentality of the other public powers that modern civilization has assured to free peoples4 ,it may1 nevertheless1 be foreseen that1 in every country1 the ruling class1 before yielding1 will abridge or destroy even these public liberties which were without danger for them when they were in the hands of laborers not organized into a class-conscious party1 but forming the rearguard of other purely political parties1 as radical on secondary questions as they are profoundly conservative on the fundamental question of the economic organization of property4 ,a ,class-,struggle1 therefore a struggle of class against class2 and a struggle 7this is understood71 by the methods of which ,i will soon speak in discussing the four modes of social transformation3 evolution--revolution--rebellion--indivi dual violence4 ,but a ,class-,struggle in the ,darwinian sense1 which renews in the history of ,man the magnificent drama of the struggle for life between species1 instead of degrading us to the savage and meaningless brute strife of individual with individual4 ,we can stop here4 ,the examination of the relations between ,darwinism and socialism might lead us much further1 but it would go on constantly eliminating the pretended contradiction between the two currents of modern scientific thought1 and it would1 on the contrary1 confirm the essential1 natural and indissoluble harmony that there is between them4 ,thus the penetrating view of ,virchow is confirmed by that of ,leopold ,jacoby4 ,the same year in which appeared ,darwin's book 7#ahei7 and coming from a quite different direction1 an identical impulse was given to a very important development of social science by a work which long passed unnoticed1 and which bore the title3 ,critique de l'conomie politique by ,,karl ,,marx--it was the forerunner of ,capital4 ,what ,darwin's book on the ,origin of ,species is on the subject of the genesis and evolution of organic life from non-sentient nature up to ,man1 the work of ,marx is on the subject of the genesis and evolution of association among human beings1 of ,states and the social forms of humanity4#db ,and this is why ,germany1 which has been the most fruitful field for the development of the ,darwinian theories1 is also the most fruitful field for the intelligent1 systematic propaganda of socialist ideas4 ,and it is precisely for this reason that in ,berlin1 in the windows of the book-stores of the socialist propaganda1 the works of ,charles ,darwin occupy the place of honor beside those of ,karl ,marx4#dc ,,footnotes3 #cg ,,larfargue1 ,le ,matrialisme conomique1 in ,ere nouvelle1 #ahic4 #ch ,avoiding both of the mutually exclusive theses that civilization is a consequence of race or a product of the environment1 ,i have always maintained--by my theory of the natural factors in criminality--that it is the resultant of the combined action of the race and the environment4 ,among the recent works which support the thesis of the exclusive or predominant influence of race1 ,i must mention ,,le ,,bon1 ,les lois psychologiques de l'volution des peuples1 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,this work is1 however1 very superficial4 ,i refer the reader for a more thorough examination of these two theses to ,chap4 ,,iv of my book ,omicidio nell' anthropologia criminale1 ,turin1 #ahid4 #ci ,i use the expression mercantile ethics1 which ,,letourneau used in his book on the ,evolution of ,ethics 7,l'volution de la morale71 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,in his scientific study of the facts relating to ethics1 ,letourneau has distinguished four phases3 animal ethics--savage ethics--barbarous ethics--mercantile 7or bourgeois7 ethics2 these phases will be followed by a higher phase of ethics which ,malon has called social ethics4 #dj ,some persons1 still imbued with political 7,jacobin7 artificiality1 think that in order to solve the social question it will be necessary to generalize the system of mtayage4 ,they imagine1 then--though they do not say so--a royal or presidential decree3 ,art4 #a4 ,let all men become mtayers6 ,and it does not occur to them that if mtayage1 which was the rule1 has become a less and less frequent exception1 this must be the necessary result of natural causes4 ,the cause of the transformation is to be found in the fact that mtayage represents 7is a form typical of7 petty agricultural industry1 and that it is unable to compete with modern agricultural industry organized on a large scale and well equipped with machinery1 just as handicrafts have not been able to endure competition with modern manufacturing industry4 ,it is true that there still are to-day some handicraft industries in a few villages1 but these are rudimentary organs which merely represent an anterior phase 7of production71 and which no longer have any important function in the economic world4 ,they are1 like the rudimentary organs of the higher species of animals1 according to the theory of ,darwin1 permanent witnesses of past epochs4 ,the same ,darwinian and economic law applies to mtayage1 which is also evidently destined to the same fate as handicrafts4 ,conf4 the excellent propagandist pamphlet of ,,biel1 ,ai contadini toscani1 ,colle d' ,elsa1 #ahid4 #da ,,henry ,,george1 ,progress and ,poverty1 ,new ,york1 #ahih4 ,doubleday ,mc,clure ,co4 #db ,l4 ,,jacoby1 ,l',idea dell' evoluzione1 in ,bibliotheca dell' economista1 srie ,,iii1 vol4 ,,ix1 #b;d part1 p4 #fi4 #dc ,at the death of ,darwin the ,sozialdemokrat of the #bgth of ,april1 #ahhb1 wrote3 ,the proletariat who are struggling for their emancipation will ever honor the memory of ,charles ,darwin4 ,conf4 ,,lafargue1 ,la thorie darwinienne4 ,i am well aware that in these last years1 perhaps in consequence of the relations between ,darwinism and socialism1 consideration has again been given to the objections to the theory of ,darwin1 made by ,voegeli1 and more recently by ,weismann1 on the hereditary transmissibility of acquired characters4 ,see ,,spencer1 ,the ,inadequacy of ,natural ,selection1 ,paris1 #ahid4--,,virchow1 ,transformisme et descendance1 ,berlin1 #ahic4 ,but all this merely concerns such or such a detail of ,darwinism1 while the fundamental theory of metamorphic organic development remains impregnable4 ,,part ,,second4 ,,evolution ,,and ,,socialism4 ,the theory of universal evolution which--apart from such or such a more or less disputable detail--is truly characteristic of the vital tendency of modern scientific thought1 has also been made to appear in absolute contradiction with the theories and the practical ideals of socialism4 ,in this case the fallacy is obvious4 ,if socialism is understood as that vague complex of sentimental aspirations so often crystallized into the artificial utopian creations of a new human world to be substituted by some sort of magic in a single day for the old world in which we live2 then it is quite true that the scientific theory of evolution condemns the presumptions and the illusions of artificial or utopian political theories1 which1 whether they are reactionary or revolutionary1 are always romantic1 or in the words of the ,american ,senator ,ingalls1 are iridescent dreams4 ,but1 unfortunately for our adversaries1 contemporary socialism is an entirely different thing from the socialism which preceded the work of ,marx4 ,apart from the same sentiment of protest against present injustices and the same aspirations toward a better future1 there is nothing in common between these two socialisms1 neither in their logical structure nor in their deductions1 unless it be the clear vision1 which in modern socialism becomes a mathematically exact prediction 7thanks to the theories of evolution7 of the final social organization--based on the collective ownership of the land and the means of production4 ,these are the conclusions to which we are led by the evidence of the facts--facts verified by a scientific examination of the three principal contradictions which our opponents have sought to set up between socialism and scientific evolution4 ,from this point it is impossible not to see the direct causal connection between ,marxian socialism and scientific evolution1 since it must be recognized that the former is simply the logical consequence of the application of the evolutionary theory to the domain of economics4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,orthodox ,,thesis ,,and ,,the ,,socialist ,,thesis ,,in ,,the ,,light ,,of ,,the ,,evolution ,,theory4 ,what1 in substance1 is the message of socialism8 ,that the present economic world can not be immutable and eternal1 that it merely represents a transitory phase of social evolution and that an ulterior phase1 a differently organized world1 is destined to succeed it4 ,that this new organization must be collectivist or socialist--and no longer individualist--results1 as an ultimate and certain conclusion1 from the examination we have made of ,darwinism and socialism4 ,i must now demonstrate that this fundamental affirmation of socialism--leaving out of consideration for the moment all the details of that future organization1 of which ,i will speak further on--is in perfect harmony with the experiential theory of evolutionism4 ,upon what point are orthodox political economy and socialism in absolute conflict8 ,political economy has held and holds that the economic laws governing the production and distribution of wealth which it has established are natural laws 444 not in the sense that they are laws naturally determined by the conditions of the social organism 7which would be correct71 but that they are absolute laws1 that is to say that they apply to humanity at all times and in all places1 and1 consequently1 that they are immutable in their principal points1 though they may be subject to modification in details4#dd ,scientific socialism holds1 on the contrary1 that the laws established by classical political economy1 since the time of ,adam ,smith1 are laws peculiar to the present period in the history of civilized humanity1 and that they are1 consequently1 laws essentially relative to the period of their analysis and discovery1 and that just as they no longer fit the facts when the attempt is made to extend their application to past historical epochs and1 still more1 to pre-historic and ante-historic times1 so it is absurd to attempt to apply them to the future and thus vainly try to petrify and perpetuate present social forms4 ,of these two fundamental theses1 the orthodox thesis and the socialist thesis1 which is the one which best agrees with the scientific theory of universal evolution8 ,the answer can not be doubtful4#de ,the theory of evolution1 of which ,herbert ,spencer was the true creator1 by applying to sociology the tendency to relativism which the historical school had followed in its studies in law and political economy 7even then heterodox on more than one point71 has shown that everything changes2 that the present phase--of the facts in astronomy1 geology1 biology and sociology--is only the resultant of thousands on thousands of incessant1 inevitable1 natural transformations2 that the present differs from the past and that the future will certainly be different from the present4 ,spencerism has done nothing but to collate a vast amount of scientific evidence1 from all branches of human knowledge1 in support of these two abstract thoughts of ,leibnitz and ,hegel3 ,the present is the child of the past1 but it is the parent of the future1 and ,nothing is2 everything is becoming4 ,this demonstration had already been made in the case of geology by ,lyell who substituted for the traditional catastrophic theory of cataclysmic changes1 the scientific theory of the gradual and continuous transformation of the earth4#df ,it is true that1 notwithstanding his encyclopdic knowledge1 ,herbert ,spencer has not made a really profound study of political economy1 or that at least he has not furnished us the evidence of the facts to support his assertions in this field as he has done in the natural sciences4 ,this does not alter the fact1 however1 that socialism is1 after all1 in its fundamental conception only the logical application of the scientific theory of natural evolution to economic phenomena4 ,it was ,karl ,marx who1 in #ahei in his ,critique de l'conomie politique1 and even before then1 in #ahdg1 in the famous ,manifesto written in collaboration with ,engels1 nearly ten years before ,spencer's ,first ,principles1 and finally in ,capital 7#ahfg7 supplemented1 or rather completed1 in the social domain1 the scientific revolution begun by ,darwin and ,spencer4 ,the old metaphysics conceived of ethics--law--economics--as a finished compilation of absolute and eternal laws4 ,this is the conception of ,plato4 ,it takes into consideration only historical times and it has1 as an instrument of research1 only the fantastic logic of the school-men4 ,the generations which preceded us1 have all been imbued with this notion of the absoluteness of natural laws1 the conflicting laws of a dual universe of matter and spirit4 ,modern science1 on the contrary1 starts from the magnificent synthetic conception of monism1 that is to say1 of a single substance underlying all phenomena--matter and force being recognized as inseparable and indestructible1 continuously evolving in a succession of forms--forms relative to their respective times and places4 ,it has radically changed the direction of modern thought and directed it toward the grand idea of universal evolution4#dg ,ethics1 law and politics are mere superstructures1 effects of the economic structure2 they vary with its variations1 from one parallel 7of latitude or longitude7 to another1 and from one century to another4 ,this is the great discovery which the genius of ,karl ,marx has expounded in his ,critique de l'conomie politique4 ,i will examine further on the question as to what this sole source or basis of the varying economic conditions is1 but the important point now is to emphasize their constant variability1 from the pre-historic ages down to historical times and to the different periods of the latter4 ,moral codes1 religious creeds1 juridical institutions both civil and criminal1 political organization3--all are constantly undergoing transformation and all are relative to their respective historical and material environments4 ,to slay one's parents is the greatest of crimes in ,europe and ,america2 it is1 on the contrary1 a duty enjoined by religion in the island of ,sumatra2 in the same way1 cannibalism is a permitted usage in ,central ,africa1 and such it also was in ,europe and ,america in pre-historic ages4 ,the family is1 at first 7as among animals71 only a sort of sexual communism2 then polyandry and the matriarchal system were established where the supply of food was scanty and permitted only a very limited increase of population2 we find polygamy and the patriarchal system appearing whenever and wherever the tyranny of this fundamental economic cause of polyandry ceases to be felt2 with the advent of historical times appears the monogamic form of the family the best and the most advanced form1 although it is still requisite for it to be freed from the rigid conventionalism of the indissoluble tie and the disguised and legalised prostitution 7the fruits of economic causes7 which pollute it among us to-day4 ,how can any one hold that the constitution of property is bound to remain eternally just as it is1 immutable1 in the midst of the tremendous stream of changing social institutions and moral codes1 all passing through evolutions and continuous and profound transformations8 ,property alone is subject to no changes and will remain petrified in its present form1 i4 e41 a monopoly by a few of the land and the means of production6#dh ,this is the absurd contention of economic and juridical orthodoxy4 ,to the irresistible proofs and demonstrations of the evolutionist theory1 they make only this one concession3 the subordinate rules may vary1 the abuses may be diminished4 ,the principle itself is unassailable and a few individuals may seize upon and appropriate the land and the means of production necessary to the life of the whole social organism which thus remains completely and eternally under the more or less direct domination of those who have control over the physical foundation of life4#di ,nothing more than a perfectly clear statement of the two fundamental theses--the thesis of classical law and economics1 and the economic and juridical thesis of socialism--is necessary to determine1 without further discussion1 this first point of the controversy4 ,at all events1 the theory of evolution is in perfect1 unquestionable harmony with the inductions of socialism and1 or the contrary1 it flatly contradicts the hypothesis of the absoluteness and immutability of the natural laws of economies1 etc4 ,,footnotes3 #dd ,u4 ,,rabbeno1 ,le leggi economiche e il socialismo1 in ,rivista di filos4 scientif41 #ahhd1 vol4 ,,iii41 fasc4 #e4 #de ,this is the thesis of ,,colajanni1 in ,il socialismo1 ,catane1 #ahhd1 ,p4 #bgg4 ,he errs when he thinks that ,i combatted this position in my book ,socialismo e criminalit4 #df ,,morselli1 ,antropologia generale--,lezioni sull' uomo secondo la teoria dell' evoluzione1 ,turin1 #ahij-id1 gives an excellent resum of these general indications of modern scientific thought in their application to all branches of knowledge from geology to anthropology4 #dg ,,bonardi1 ,evoluzionismo e socialismo1 ,florence1 #ahid4 #dh ,,arcangeli1 ,le evoluzioni della propriet1 in ,critica sociale1 ,july #a1 #ahid4 #di ,this is exactly analogous to the conflict between the partisans and the opponents of free-will4 ,the old metaphysics accorded to man 7alone1 a marvelous exception from all the rest of the universe7 an absolutely free will4 ,modern physio-psychology absolutely denies every form of the free-will dogma in the name of the laws of natural causality4 ,an intermediate position is occupied by those who1 while recognizing that the freedom of man's will is not absolute1 hold that at least a remnant of freedom must be conceded to the human will1 because otherwise there would no longer be any merit or any blameworthiness1 any vice or any virtue1 etc4 ,i considered this question in my first work3 ,teoria dell' imputabilit e negazione del libero arbitrio 7,florence1 #ahgh1 out of print71 and in the third chapter of my ,sociologie criminelle1 ,french trans41 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,i speak of it here only in order to show the analogy in the form of the debate on the economico-social question1 and therefore the possibility of predicting a similar ultimate solution4 ,the true conservative1 drawing his inspiration from the metaphysical tradition1 sticks to the old philosophical or economic ideas with all their rigid absolutism2 at least he is logical4 ,the determinist1 in the name of science1 upholds diametrically opposite ideas1 in the domain of psychology as well as in those of the economic or juridical sciences4 ,the eclectic1 in politics as in psychology1 in political economy as in law1 is a conservative through and through1 but he fondly hopes to escape the difficulties of the conservative position by making a few partial concessions to save appearances4 ,but if the eclecticism is a convenient and agreeable attitude for its champions1 it is1 like hybridism1 sterile1 and neither life nor science owe anything to it4 ,therefore1 the socialists are logical when they contend that in the last analysis there are only two political parties3 the individualists 7conservatives or ,republicans1 progressives or ,democrats and radicals or ,populists7 and the socialists4 ,x4 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,apparent ,,retrogression ,,and ,,collective ,,ownership4 ,admitting1 say our adversaries1 that in demanding a social transformation socialism is in apparent accord with the evolutionist theory1 it does not follow that its positive conclusions--notably the substitution of social ownership for individual ownership--are justified by that theory4 ,still further1 they add1 we maintain that those conclusions are in absolute contradiction with that very theory1 and that they are therefore1 to say the least1 utopian and absurd4 ,the first alleged contradiction between socialism and evolutionism is that the return to collective ownership of the land would be1 at the same time1 a return to the primitive1 savage state of mankind1 and socialism would indeed be a transformation1 but a transformation in a backward direction1 that is to say1 against the current of the social evolution which has led us from the primitive form of collective property in land to the present form of individual property in land--the form characteristic of advanced civilization4 ,socialism1 then1 would be a return to barbarism4 ,this objection contains an element of truth which can not be denied2 it rightly points out that collective ownership should be a return--apparent--to the primitive social organization4 ,but the conclusion drawn from this truth is absolutely false and anti-scientific because it altogether neglects a law--which is usually forgotten--but which is no less true1 no less founded on scientific observation of the facts than is the law of social evolution4 ,this is a sociological law which an able ,french physician merely pointed out in his studies on the relations between ,transmutation and ,socialism1#ej and the truth and full importance of which ,i showed in my ,sociologie criminelle 7#ahib7--;before ,i became a militant socialist--and which ,i again emphasized in my recent controversy with ,morselli on the subject of divorce4#ea ,this law of apparent retrogression proves that the reversion of social institutions to primitive forms and types is a fact of constant recurrence4 ,before referring to some obvious illustrations of this law1 ,i would recall to your notice the fact that ,m4 ,cognetti de ,martiis1 as far back as #ahha1 had a vague perception of this sociological law4 ,his work1 ,forme primitive nell' evoluzione economica1 7,turin1 #ahha71 so remarkable for the fullness1 accuracy and reliability of its collation of relevant facts1 made it possible to foresee the possibility of the reappearance in the future economic evolution of the primitive forms characteristic of the status which formed the starting-point of the social evolution4 ,i also remember having heard ,carducci say1 in his lectures at the ,university of ,bologna1 that the later development of the forms and the substance of literature is often merely the reproduction of the forms and the substance of the primitive ,grco-,oriental literature2 in the same way1 the modern scientific theory of monism1 the very soul of universal evolution and the typical and definitive form of systematic1 scientific1 experiential human thought boldly fronting the facts of the external world--following upon the brilliant but erratic speculations of metaphysics--is only a return to the ideas of the ,greek philosophers and of ,lucretius1 the great poet of naturalism4 ,the examples of this reversion to primitive forms are only too obvious and too numerous1 even in the category of social institutions4 ,i have already spoken of the religions evolution4 ,according to ,hartmann1 in the primitive stage of human development happiness appeared attainable during the lifetime of the individual2 this appeared impossible later on and its realization was referred to the life beyond the tomb2 and now the tendency is to refer its realization to the earthly life of humanity1 not to the life of the individual as in primitive times1 but to series of generations yet unborn4 ,the same is true in the political domain4 ,herbert ,spencer remarks 7,principles of ,sociology1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,part ,v1 ,chap4 ,v17 that the will of all--the sovereign element among primitive mankind--gradually gives way to the will of a single person1 then to those of a few 7these are the various aristocracies3 military1 hereditary1 professional or feudal71 and the popular will finally tends again to become sovereign with the progress of democracy 7universal suffrage--the referendum--direct legislation by the people1 etc474 ,the right to administer punishment1 a simple defensive function among primitive mankind tends to become the same once more4 ,criminal law no longer pretends to be a teleological agency for the distribution of ideal justice4 ,this pretension in former days was an illusion that the belief in the freedom of the will had erected on the natural foundation of society's right of self-defense4 ,scientific investigations into the nature of crime1 as a natural and social phenomenon1 have demonstrated to-day how absurd and unjustified was the pretension of the lawmaker and the judge to weigh and measure the guilt of the delinquent to make the punishment exactly counterbalance it1 instead of contenting themselves with excluding from civil society1 temporarily or permanently1 the individuals unable to adapt themselves to its requirements1 as is done in the case of the insane and the victims of contagious diseases4 ,the same truth applies to marriage4 ,the right of freely dissolving the tie1 which was recognized in primitive society1 has been gradually replaced by the absolute formul of theology and mysticism which fancy that the free will can settle the destiny of a person by a monosyllable pronounced at a time when the physical equilibrium is as unstable as it is during courtship and at marriage4 ,later on the reversion to the spontaneous and primitive form of a union based on mutual consent imposes itself on men1 and the matrimonial union1 with the increase in the frequency and facility of divorce1 reverts to its original forms and restores to the family1 that it to say to the social cell1 a healthier constitution4 ,this some phenomenon may be traced in the organization of property4 ,spencer himself has been forced to recognize that there has been an inexorable tendency to a reversion to primitive collectivism since ownership in land1 at first a family attribute1 then industrial1 as he has himself demonstrated1 has reached its culminating point1 so that in some countries 7,torrens act in ,australia7 land has become a sort of personal property1 transferable as readily as a share in a stock-company4 ,read as proof what such an individualist as ,herbert ,spencer has written3 ,at first sight it seems fairly inferable that the absolute ownership of land by private persons1 must be the ultimate state which industrialism brings about4 ,but though industrialism has thus far tended to individualize possession of land1 while individualizing all other possession1 it may be doubted whether the final stage is at present reached4 ,ownership established by force does not stand on the same footing as ownership established by contract1 and though multiplied sales and purchases1 treating the two ownerships in the same way1 have tacitly assimilated them1 the assimilation may eventually be denied4 ,the analogy furnished by assumed rights of possession over human beings1 helps us to recognize this possibility4 ,for while prisoners of war1 taken by force and held as property in a vague way 7being at first much on a footing with other members of a household71 were reduced more definitely to the form of property when the buying and selling of slaves became general2 and while it might1 centuries ago1 have been thence inferred that the ownership of man by man was an ownership in course of being permanently established2#eb yet we see that a later stage of civilization1 reversing this process1 has destroyed ownership of man by man4 ,similarly1 at a stage still more advanced1 it may be that private ownership of land will disappear4#ec ,moreover1 this process of the socialization of property1 though a partial and subordinate process1 is nevertheless so evident and continuous that to deny its existence would be to maintain that the economic and consequently the juridical tendency of the organization of property is not in the direction of a greater and greater magnification of the interests and rights of the collectivity over those of the individual4 ,this1 which is only a preponderance to-day1 will become by an inevitable evolution a complete substitution as regards property in land and the means of production4 ,the fundamental thesis of ,socialism is then1 to repeat it again1 in perfect harmony with that sociological law of apparent retrogression1 the natural reasons for which have been so admirably analyzed by ,m4 ,loria1 thus3 the thought and the life of primitive mankind are moulded and directed by the natural environment along the simplest and most fundamental lines2 then the progress of intelligence and the complexity of life increasing by a law of evolution give us an analytical development of the principal elements contained in the first genus of each institution2 this analytical development is often1 when once finished1 detrimental to each one of its elements2 humanity itself1 arrived at a certain stage of evolution1 reconstructs and combines in a final synthesis these different elements1 and thus returns to its primitive starting-point4#ed ,this reversion to primitive forms is not1 however1 a pure and simple repetition4 ,therefore it is called the law of apparent retrogression1 and this removes all force from the objection that socialism would be a return to primitive barbarism4 ,it is not a pure and simple repetition1 but it is the concluding phase of a cycle1 of a grand rhythm1 as ,m4 ,asturaro recently put it1 which infallibly and inevitably preserves in their integrity the achievements and conquests of the long preceding evolution1 in so far as they are vital and fruitful2 and the final outcome is far superior1 objectively and subjectively1 to the primitive social embryo4 ,the track of the social evolution is not represented by a closed circle1 which1 like the serpent in the old symbol1 cuts off all hope of a better future2 but1 to use the figure of ,goethe1 it is represented by a spiral1 which seems to return upon itself1 but which always advances and ascends4 ,,footnotes3 #ej ,l4 ,,dramard1 ,transformisme et socialisme1 in ,revue ,socialiste1 ,jan4 and ,feb41 #ahhe4 #ea ,divorzio e sociologia1 in ,scuola positiva nella geurisprudenza penale1 ,rome1 #ahic1 ,no4 #af4 #eb ,it is known that ,aristotle1 mistaking for an absolute sociological law a law relative to his own time1 declared that slavery was a natural institution1 and that men were divided1 by ,nature1 into two classes--free men and slaves4 #ec ,,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,part4 ,v41 ,chap4 ,,xv41 p4 #eec4 ,new ,york1 #ahig4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 ,this idea1 which ,spencer had expressed in #ahej in his ,social ,statics is found again in his recent work1 ,justice 7,chap4 ,,xi1 and ,appendix #c74 ,it is true that he has made a step backward4 ,he thinks that the amount of the indemnity to be given to the present holders of the land would be so great that this would make next to impossible that nationalization of the land which1 as long ago as #ahha1 ,henry ,george considered as the only remedy1 and that ,gladstone had the courage to propose as a solution of the ,irish question4 ,spencer adds3 ,i adhere to the inference originally drawn1 that the aggregate of men forming the community are the supreme owners of the land1 but a fuller consideration of the matter has led me to the conclusion that individual ownership1 subject to ,state suzerainty1 should be maintained4 ,the profound study which ,spencer has made in ,justice--7and1 let us say between parentheses1 this work1 together with his ,positive and ,negative ,beneficence furnishes sad evidence of the senile mental retrogression that even ,herbert ,spencer has been unable to escape2 moreover its subjective aridity is in strange contrast with the marvelous wealth of scientific evidence poured forth in his earlier works7--is based on these two arguments3 ,i4 ,the present landed proprietors are not the direct descendants of the first conquerors2 they have1 in general1 acquired their titles by free contract2 ,,ii4 ,society is entitled to the ownership of the virgin soil1 as it was before it was cleared1 before any improvements or buildings were put upon it by private owners2 the indemnity which would have to be paid for these improvements would reach an enormous figure4 ,the answer is that the first argument would hold good if socialism proposed to punish the present owners2 but the question presents itself in a different form4 ,society places the expropriation of the owners of land on the ground of public utility1 and the individual right must give way before the rights of society4 ,just as it does at present1 leaving out of consideration for the moment the question of indemnity4 ,to reply to the second argument1 in the first place1 it must not be forgotten that the improvements are not exclusively the work of the personal exertions of the owners4 ,they represent1 at first1 an enormous accumulation of fatigue and blood that many generations of laborers have left upon the soil1 in order to bring it to its present state of cultivation 444 and all of this for the profit of others2 there is also this fact to be remembered that society itself1 the social life1 has been a great factor in producing these improvements 7or increased values71 since public roads1 railways1 the use of machinery in agriculture1 etc41 have been the means of bestowing freely upon the landowners large unearned increments that have greatly swollen the prices of their lands4 ,why1 finally1 if we are to consider the amount and the character of this indemnity1 should this indemnity be total and absolute8 ,why1 even under present conditions1 if a landowner1 for various reasons1 such as cherished memories connected with the land1 values it at a sentimental price1 he would be forced under the right of eminent domain to accept the market value1 without any extra payment for his affection or sentiment4 ,it would be just the same in the case of the collective appropriation which would1 moreover1 be facilitated by the progressive concentration of the land in the hands of a few great landed proprietors4 ,if we were to assure these proprietors1 for the term of the natural lives1 a comfortable and tranquil life1 it would suffice to make the indemnity meet all the requirements of the most rigorous equity4 #ed ,,loria1 ,la ,teoria economica della constituzione politica1 ,turin1 #ahhf4 p4 #ada4 ,the second edition of this work has appeared in ,french1 considerably enlarged3 ,les bases conomiques de la constitution sociale1 ,paris1 #ahic4 7,this has also been translated into ,english4--,tr47 ,this law of apparent retrogression alone overthrows the greater part of the far too superficial criticisms that ,guyot makes upon socialism in ,la ,tyrannie socialiste1 ,paris1 #ahic 7published in ,english1 by ,swan ,sonnenschein1 ,london17 and in ,les ,principes de #aghi et le ,socialisme1 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,,xi4 ,,the ,,social ,,evolution ,,and ,,individual ,,liberty4 ,the conclusion of the preceding chapter will be of use to us in the examination of the second contradiction that1 it is pretended1 exists between socialism and the theory of evolution4 ,it is asserted and repeated in all possible tones that socialism constitutes a tyranny under a new form which will destroy all the blessings of liberty won with such toil and difficulty in our century1 at the cost of so many sacrifices and of so many martyrs4 ,i have already shown1 in speaking of anthropological inequalities1 that socialism will1 on the contrary1 assure to all individuals the conditions of a human existence and the possibility of developing with the utmost freedom and completeness their own respective individualities4 ,it is sufficient here for me to refer to another law1 which the scientific theory of evolution has established1 to demonstrate 7since ,i cannot in this monograph enter into details7 that it is an error to assume that the advent of socialism would result in the suppression of the vital and vitalizing part of personal and political liberty4 ,it is a law of natural evolution1 set forth and illustrated with remarkable clearness by ,m4 ,ardig#ee1 that each succeeding phase of the natural and social evolution does not destroy the vital and life-giving manifestations of the preceding phases1 but that1 on the contrary1 it preserves their existence in so far as they are vital and only eliminates their pathological manifestations4 ,in the biological evolution1 the manifestations of vegetable life do not efface the first glimmerings of the dawn of life that are seen even before in the crystallization of minerals1 any more than the manifestations of animal life efface those of vegetable life4 ,the human form of life also permits the continued existence of the forms and links which precede it in the great series of living beings1 but1 more than this1 the later forms only really live in so far as they are the product of the primitive forms and co-exist with them4 ,the social evolution follows the same law3 and this is precisely the interpretation of transition periods given by scientific evolutionism4 ,they did not annihilate the conquests of the preceding civilizations1 but they preserved1 on the contrary1 whatever was vital in them and fecundated them for the ,renaissance of a new civilization4 ,this law1 which dominates all the magnificent development of the social life1 equally governs the fate and the parabolic career of all social institutions4 ,one phase of social evolution by following upon another phase eliminates1 it is true1 the parts that are not vital1 the pathological products of preceding institutions1 but it preserves and develops the parts that are healthy and vigorous while ever elevating more and more the physical and moral diapason of humanity4 ,by this natural process the great stream of humanity issued from the virgin forests of savage life and developed with majestic grandeur during the periods of barbarism and the present civilization1 which are superior in some respects to the preceding phases of the social life1 but in many others are marred by the very products of their own degeneracy1 as ,i pointed out in speaking of reactionary varieties of social selection4 ,and1 as an example of this1 it is certain that the laborers of the contemporaneous period1 of the bourgeois civilization have1 in general1 a better physical and moral life than those of past centuries1 but it cannot be denied none the less that their condition as free wage-workers is inferior in more than one particular to the condition of the slaves of antiquity and of the serfs of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the slave of antiquity was1 it is true1 the absolute property of his master1 of the free man1 and he was condemned to well nigh an animal existence1 but it was to the interest of his master to assure him daily bread at the least1 for the slave formed a part of his estate1 like his cattle and horses4 ,just so1 the serf or villein of the ,middle ,ages enjoyed certain customary rights which attached him to the soil and assured him at the least--save in case of famine--of daily bread4 ,the free wage-worker of the modern world1 on the contrary1 is always condemned to labor inhuman both in its duration and its character1 and this is the justification of that demand for an ,eight-,hours day which can already count more than one victory and which is destined to a sure triumph4 ,as no permanent legal relation binds the wage-slave either to the capitalist proprietor or to the soil1 his daily bread is not assured to him1 because the proprietor no longer has any interest to feed and support the laborers who toil in his factory or on his field4 ,the death or sickness of the laborer cannot1 in fact1 cause any decrease of his estate and he can always draw from the inexhaustible multitude of laborers who are forced by lack of employment to offer themselves on the market4 ,that is why--not because present-day proprietors are more wicked than those of former times1 but because even the moral sentiments are the result of economic conditions--the landed proprietor or the superintendent of his estate hastens to have a veterinary called if1 in his stable1 a cow becomes ill1 while he is in no hurry to have a doctor called if it is the son of the cow-herd who is attacked by disease4 ,certainly there may be--and these are more or less frequent exceptions--here and there a proprietor who contradicts this rule1 especially when he lives in daily contact with his laborers4 ,neither can it be denied that the rich classes are moved at times by the spirit of benevolence--even apart from the charity fad--and that they thus put to rest the inner voice1 the symptom of the moral disease from which they suffer1 but the inexorable rule is nevertheless as follows3 with the modern form of industry the laborer has gained political liberty1 the right of suffrage1 of association1 etc4 7rights which he is allowed to use only when he does not utilize them to form a class-party1 based on intelligent apprehension of the essential point of the social question71 but he has lost the guarantee of daily bread and of a home4 ,socialism wishes to give this guarantee to all individuals--and it demonstrates the mathematical possibility of this by the substitution of social ownership for individual ownership of the means of production--but it does not follow from this that socialism will do away with all the useful and truly fruitful conquests of the present phase of civilization1 and of the preceding phases4 ,and here is a characteristic example of this3 the invention of industrial and agricultural machinery1 that marvelous application of science to the transformation of natural forces which ought to have had only beneficent consequences1 has caused and is still causing the misery and ruin of thousands and thousands of laborers4 ,the substitution of machines for human labor has inevitably condemned multitudes of workers to the tortures of enforced idleness and to the ruthless action of the iron law of minimum wages barely sufficient to prevent them from dying of hunger4 ,the first instinctive reaction or impulse of these unfortunates was and still is1 unhappily1 to destroy the machines and to see in them only the instruments of their undeserved sufferings4 ,but the destruction of the machines would be1 in fact1 only a pure and simple return to barbarism1 and this is not the wish or purpose of socialism which represents a higher phase of human civilization4 ,and this is why socialism alone can furnish a solution of this tragic difficulty which can not be solved by economic individualism which involves the constant employment and introduction of improved machinery because its use gives an evident and irresistible advantage to the capitalist4 ,it is necessary--and there is no other solution--that the machines become collective or social property4 ,then1 obviously1 their only effect will be to diminish the aggregate amount of labor and muscular effort necessary to produce a given quantity of products4 ,and thus the daily work of each worker will be decreased1 and his standard of existence will constantly rise and become more closely correspondent with the dignity of a human being4 ,this effect is already manifest1 to a limited extent1 in those cases where1 for instance1 several small farm proprietors found co-operative societies for the purchase of1 for example1 threshing-machines4 ,if there should be joined to the small proprietors1 in a grand fraternal co-operation1 the laborers or peasants 7and this will be possible only when the land shall have become social property71 and if the machines were municipal property1 for example1 as are the fire-engines1 and if the commune were to grant their use for the labors of the fields1 the machines would no longer produce any evil effects and all men would see in them their liberators4 ,it is thus that socialism1 because it represents a higher phase of human evolution1 would eliminate from the present phase only the bad products of our unbridled economic individualism which creates1 at one pole1 the billionaires or ,napoleons of ,finance who enrich themselves in a few years by seizing upon--in ways more or less clearly described in the penal code--the public funds1 and which1 at the other pole1 accumulates vast multitudes of poverty-stricken wretches in the slums of the cities or in the houses of straw and mud which reproduce in the ,south of ,italy1 the quarters of the ,helots of antiquity1 or in the valley of the ,po1 the huts of the ,australian bushmen4#ef ,no intelligent socialist has ever dreamt of not recognizing all that the bourgeoisie has done for human civilization1 or of tearing out the pages of gold that it has written in the history of the civilized world by its brilliant development of the various nations1 by its marvelous applications of science to industry1 and by the commercial and intellectual relations which it has developed between different peoples4 ,these are permanent conquests of human progress1 and socialism does not deny them any more than it wishes to destroy them1 and it accords a just tribute of recognition to the generous pioneers who have achieved them4 ,the attitude of socialism toward the bourgeoisie might be compared to that of atheists who do not wish either to destroy or to refuse their admiration to a painting of ,raphael or to a statue of ,michel-,angelo1 because these works represent and give the seal of eternity to religious legends4 ,but socialism sees in the present bourgeois civilization1 arrived at its decline1 the sad symptoms of an irremediable dissolution1 and it contends that it is necessary to rid the social organism of its infectious poison1 and this not by ridding it of such or such a bankrupt1 of such or such a corrupt official1 of such or such a dishonest contractor 444 but by going to the root of the evil1 to the indisputable source of the virulent infection4 ,by radically transforming the regime--through the substitution of social ownership for individual ownership--it is necessary to renew the healthy and vital forces of human society1 to enable it to rise to a higher phase of civilization4 ,then1 it is true1 the privileged classes will no longer be able to pass their lives in idleness1 luxury and dissipation1 and they will have to make up their minds to lead an industrious and less ostentatious life1 but the immense majority of men will rise to the heights of serene dignity1 security and joyous brotherhood1 instead of living in the sorrows1 anxieties and bitter strife of the present4 ,an analogous response may be made to that banal objection that socialism will suppress all liberty--that objection repeated to satiety by all those who more or less consciously conceal1 under the colors of political liberalism1 the tendencies of economic conservatism4 ,that repugnance which many people1 even in good faith1 show toward socialism1 is it not the manifestation of another law of human evolution which ,herbert ,spencer has formulated thus3 ,every progress effected is an obstacle to further progress8 ,this is1 in fact1 a natural psychological tendency1 a tendency analogous to fetishism1 to refuse to consider the ideal attained1 the progress effected as a simple instrument1 a starting-point for further progress and for the attainment of new ideals1 instead of contentedly halting to adore as a fetish the progress already effected1 which men are prone to look upon as being so complete that it leaves no room for new ideals and higher aspirations4 ,just as the savage adores the fruit-tree1 whose benefits he enjoys1 for itself and not for the fruits it can yield1 and1 in the end1 makes a fetish of it1 an idol too holy to be touched and1 therefore1 barren2 just as the miser who has learned in our individualist world the value of money1 ends by adoring the money in itself and for itself1 as a fetish and an idol1 and keeps it buried in a safe where it remains sterile1 instead of employing it as a means for procuring himself new pleasures2 in the same way1 the sincere liberal1 the son of the ,french ,revolution1 has made ,liberty an idol which is its own goal1 a sterile fetish1 instead of making use of it as an instrument for new conquests1 for the realization of new ideals4 ,it is understood that under a regime of political tyranny1 the first and most urgent ideal was necessarily the conquest of liberty and of political sovereignty4 ,and we who arrive upon the field after the battle is fought and the victory won1 we gladly pay our tribute of gratitude for that conquest to all the martyrs and heroes who bought it at the price of their blood4 ,but ,liberty is not and can not be its own end and object6 ,what is the liberty of holding public assemblages or the liberty of thought worth if the stomach has not its daily bread1 and if millions of individuals have their moral strength paralyzed as a consequence of bodily or cerebral anemia8 ,of what worth is the theoretic share in political sovereignty1 the right to vote1 if the people remain enslaved by misery1 lack of employment1 and acute or chronic hunger8 ,liberty for liberty's sake--there you have the progress achieved turned into an obstacle to future progress2 it is a sort of political masturbation1 it is impotency face to face with the new necessities of life4 ,socialism1 on the other hand1 says that just as the subsequent phase of the social evolution does not efface the conquests of the preceding phases1 neither does it wish to suppress the liberty so gloriously conquered1 by the bourgeois world in #aghi--;but it does desire the laborers1 after they have become conscious of the interests and needs of their class1 to make use of that liberty to realize a more equitable and more human social organization4 ,nevertheless1 it is only too indisputable that under the system of private property and its inevitable consequence1 the monopoly of economic power1 the liberty of the man who does not share in this monopoly1 is only an impotent and sentimental toy4 ,and when the workers1 with a clear consciousness of their class-interests1 wish to make use of this liberty1 then the holders of political power are forced to disown the great liberal principles1 the principles of '#hi1 by suppressing all public liberty1 and they vainly fancy that they will be able1 in this way1 to stop the inevitable march of human evolution4 ,as much must be said of another accusation made against socialists4 ,they renounce their fatherland 7patrie71 it is said1 in the name of internationalism4 ,this also is false4 ,the national popes which1 in our century1 have reconquered for ,italy and ,germany their unity and their independence1 have really constituted great steps forward1 and we are grateful to those who have given us a free country4 ,but our country can not become an obstacle to future progress1 to the fraternity of all peoples1 freed from national hatreds which are truly a relic of barbarism1 or a mere bit of theatrical scenery to hide the interests of capitalism which has been shrewd enough to realize1 for its own benefit1 the broadest internationalism4 ,it was a true moral and social progress to rise above the phase of the communal wars in ,italy1 and to feel ourselves all brothers of one and the same nation2 it will be just the same when we shall have risen above the phase of patriotic rivalries to feel ourselves all brothers of one and the same humanity4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 not difficult for us to penetrate1 thanks to the historical key of class-interests1 the secret of the contradictions1 in which the classes in power move4 ,when they form an international league--the ,london banker1 thanks to telegraphy1 is master of the markets in ,pekin1 ,new ,york and ,st4 ,petersburg--it is greatly to the advantage of that ruling class to maintain the artificial divisions between the laborers of the whole world1 or even those of old ,europe alone1 because it is only the division of the workers which makes possible the maintenance of the power of the capitalists4 ,and to attain their object1 it suffices to exploit the primitive fund of savage hatred for foreigners4 ,but this does not keep international socialism from being1 even from this point of view1 a definite moral scheme and an inevitable phase of human evolution4 ,just so1 and in consequence of the same sociological law1 it is not correct to assert that1 by establishing collective ownership1 socialism will suppress every kind of individual ownership4 ,we must repeat again that one phase of evolution can not suppress all that has been accomplished during the preceding phases2 it suppresses only the manifestations which have ceased to be vital1 and it suppresses them because they are in contradiction with the new conditions of existence begotten by the new phases of evolution4 ,in substituting social ownership for individual ownership of the land and the means of production1 it is obvious that it will not be necessary to suppress private property in the food necessary to the individual1 nor in clothing and objects of personal use which will continue to be objects of individual or family consumption4 ,this form of individual ownership will then always continue to exist1 since it is necessary and perfectly consistent with social ownership of the land1 mines1 factories1 houses1 machines1 tools and instruments of labor1 and means of transportation4 ,the collective ownership of libraries--which we see in operation under our eyes--does it deprive individuals of the personal use of rare and expensive books which they would be unable to procure in any other way1 and does it not largely increase the utility that can be derived from these books1 when compared to the services that these books could render if they were shut up in the private library of a useless book-collector8 ,in the same way1 the collective ownership of the land and the means of production1 by securing to everyone the use of the machines1 tools and land1 will only increase their utility a hundred-fold4 ,and let no one say that1 when men shall no longer have the exclusive and transferable 7by inheritance1 etc47 ownership of wealth1 they will no longer be impelled to labor because they will no longer be constrained to work by personal or family self-interest4#eg ,we see1 for example1 that1 even in our present individualist world1 those survivals of collective property in land--to which ,laveleye has so strikingly called the attention of sociologists--continue to be cultivated and yield a return which is not lower than that yielded by lands held in private ownership1 although these communist or collectivist farmers have only the right of use and enjoyment1 and not the absolute title4#eh ,if some of these survivals of collective ownership are disappearing1 or if their administration is bad1 this can not be an argument against socialism1 since it is easy to understand that1 in the present economic organization based on absolute individualism1 these organisms do not have an environment which furnishes them the conditions of a possible existence4 ,it is as though one were to wish a fish to live out of water1 or a mammal in an atmosphere containing no oxygen4 ,these are the same considerations which condemn to a certain death all those famous experiments--the socialist1 communist or anarchist colonies which it has been attempted to establish in various places as experimental trials of socialism4 ,it seems not to have been understood that such experiments could only result in inevitable abortions1 obliged as they are to develop in an individualist economic and moral environment which can not furnish them the conditions essential for their physiological development1 conditions which they will1 on the contrary1 have when the whole social organization shall be guided by the collectivist principle1 that is to say1 when society shall be socialized4#ei ,then individual tendencies and psychological aptitudes will adapt themselves to the environment4 ,it is natural that in an individualist environment1 a world of free competition1 in which every individual sees in every other if not an adversary1 at least a competitor1 anti-social egoism should be the tendency which is inevitably most highly developed1 as a necessary result of the instinct of self-preservation1 especially in these latest phases of a civilization which seems to be driven at full steam1 compared to the pacific and gentle individualism of past centuries4 ,in an environment where every one1 in exchange for intellectual or manual labor furnished to society1 will be assured of his daily bread and will thus be saved from daily anxiety1 it is evident that egoism will have far fewer stimulants1 fewer occasions to manifest itself than solidarity1 sympathy and altruism will have4 ,then that pitiless maxim--homo homini lupus--will cease to be true--a maxim which1 whether we admit it or not1 poisons so much of our present life4 ,i can not dwell longer on these details and ,i conclude here the examination of this second pretended opposition between socialism and evolution by again pointing out that the sociological law which declares that the subsequent phase 7of social evolution7 does not efface the vital and fruitful manifestations of the preceding phases of evolution1 gives us1 in regard to the social organization in process of formation1 a more exact 7positive or fact-founded7 idea than our opponents think1 who always imagine that they have to refute the romantic and sentimental socialism of the first half of this century4#fj ,this shows how little weight there is in the objection recently raised against socialism1 in the name of a learned but vague sociological eclecticism1 by a distinguished ,italian professor1 ,m4 ,vanni4 ,contemporary socialism is not identified with individualism1 since it places at the foundation of the social organization a principle which is not that of individual autonomy1 but rather its negation4 ,if1 notwithstanding this1 it promulgates individualist ideas1 which are in contradiction with its principles1 this does not signify that it has changed its nature1 or that it has ceased to be socialism3 it means simply that it lives upon and by contradictions4#fa ,when socialism1 by assuring to every one the means of livelihood1 contends that it will permit the assertion and the development of all individualities1 it does not fall into a contradiction of principles1 but being1 as it is1 the approaching phase of human civilization1 it can not suppress nor efface whatever is vital1 that is to say1 compatible with the new social form1 in the preceding phases4 ,and just as socialist internationalism is not in conflict with patriotism1 since it recognizes whatever is healthy and true in that sentiment1 and eliminates only the pathological part1 jingoism1 in the same way1 socialism does not draw its life from contradiction1 but it follows1 on the contrary1 the fundamental laws of natural evolution1 in developing and preserving the vital part of individualism1 and in suppressing only its pathological manifestations which are responsible for the fact that in the modern world1 as ,prampolini said1 #ij per cent4 of the cells of the social organization are condemned to anemia because #aj per cent4 are ill with hyper-emia and hyper-trophy4 ,,footnotes3 #ee ,,ardig1 ,la formazione naturale1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 of his ,opere filosofiche1 ,padua1 #ahig4 #ef ,my master1 ,pietro ,ellero1 has given in ,la ,tirrandie borghese1 an eloquent description of this social and political pathology as it appears in ,italy4 #eg ,,richter1 ,o mne le socialisme1 ,paris1 #ahib4 #eh ,m4 ,loria1 in ,les ,bases conomiques de la constitution sociale1 ,paris1 #ahid1 part #ast1 demonstrates1 moreover1 that in a society based on collective ownership selfishness1 rightly understood will still remain the principal motive of human actions1 but that it will then be the means of realizing a social harmony of which it is the worst enemy under the regime of individualism4 ,here is an example of this1 on a small scale1 but instructive4 ,the means of transportation have1 in large cities1 followed the ordinary process of progressive socialization4 ,at first1 everybody went on foot1 excepting only a few rich persons who were able to have horses and carriages2 later1 carriages were made available for the public at a fixed rate of hire 7the fiacres which have been used in ,paris a little more than a century1 and which took their name from ,saint ,fiacre because the first cab stood beneath his image72 then1 the dearness of fiacre-hire led to a further socialization by means of omnibuses and tramways4 ,another step forward and the socialization will be complete4 ,let the cab service1 omnibus service1 street railways1 bicyclettes1 etc41 become a municipal service or function and every one will be able to make use of it gratis just as he freely enjoys the railways when they become a national public service4 ,but1 then--this is the individualist objection--everybody will wish to ride in cabs or on trolleys1 and the service having to attempt to satisfy all1 will be perfectly satisfactory to no one4 ,this is not correct4 ,if the transformation had to be made suddenly1 this might be a temporary consequence4 ,but even now many ride gratis 7on passes1 etc47 on both railways and tramways4 ,and so it seems to us that every one will wish to ride on the street cars because the fact that it is now impossible for many to enjoy this mode of locomotion gives rise to the desire for the forbidden fruit4 ,but when the enjoyment of it shall be free 7and there could be restrictions based on the necessity for such transportation7 another egoistic motive will come into play--the physiological need of walking1 especially for well-fed people who have been engaged in sedentary labor4 ,and so you see how individual selfishness1 in this example of collective ownership on a small scale1 would act in harmony with the social requirements4 #ei ,thus it is easy to understand how unfounded is the reasoning among the opponents of socialism that the failure of communist or socialist colonies is an objective demonstration of the instability of a socialist arrangement 7of society74 #fj ,this is what ,yves ,guyot1 for example1 does in ,les ,principes de #aghi1 ,paris1 #ahid1 when he declares1 in the name of individualist psychology1 that socialism is restrictive and individualism expansive4 ,this thesis is1 moreover1 in part true1 if it is transposed4 ,the vulgar psychology1 which answers the purposes of ,m4 ,guyot 7,la ,tyrannie socialiste1 liv4 ,,iii1 ch4 ,i471 is content with superficial observations4 ,it declares1 for instance1 that if the laborer works twelve hours1 he will produce evidently a third more than if he works eight hours1 and this is the reason why industrial capitalism has opposed and does oppose the minimum programme of the three eighths--eight hours for work1 eight hours for sleep and eight hours for meals and recreation4 ,a more scientific physio-psychological observation demonstrates1 on the contrary1 as ,i said long ago1 that man is a machine1 but he does not function after the fashion of a machine1 in the sense that man is a living machine1 and not an inorganic machine4 ,every one knows that a locomotive or a sewing machine does in twelve hours a quantity of work greater by one-third than it does in eight hours2 but man is a living machine1 subject to the law of physical mechanics1 but also to those of biological mechanics4 ,intellectual labor1 like muscular labor1 is not uniform in quality and intensity throughout its duration4 ,within the individual limits of fatigue and exhaustion1 it obeys the law which ,quetelet expressed by his binomial curve1 and which ,i believe to be one of the fundamental laws of living and inorganic nature4 ,at the start the force or the speed is very slight--afterward a maximum of force or speed is attained--and at last the force or speed again becomes very slight4 ,with manual labor1 as with intellectual labor1 there is a maximum1 after which the muscular and cerebral forces decline1 and then the work drags along slowly and without vigor until the end of the forced daily labor4 ,consider also the beneficient suggestive influence of a reduction of hours1 and you will readily understand why the recent ,english reports are so unanswerable on the excellent results1 even from the capitalist point of view1 of the ,eight-,hour reform4 ,the workingmen are less fatigued1 and the production is undiminished4 ,when these economic reforms1 and all those which are based on an exact physio-psychology1 shall be effected under the socialist regime--that is to say1 without the friction and the loss of force that would be inevitable under capitalist individualism--it is evident that they will have immense material and moral advantages1 notwithstanding the a priori objections of the present individualism which can not see or which forgets the profound reflex effects of a change of the social environment on individual psychology4 #fa ,,icilio ,,vanni1 ,la funzione practica della filosofia del diritto considerata in s e in rapporto al socialismo contemporaneo1 ,bologne1 #ahid4 ,,xii4 ,,evolution--,,revolution--,,rebellion-- ,,individual ,,violence--,,socialism ,,and ,,anarchy4 ,the last and the gravest of the contradictions that it is attempted to set up between socialism and the scientific theory of evolution1 relates to the question of how socialism1 in practice1 will be inaugurated and realized4 ,some think that socialism ought1 at the present time1 to set forth1 in all its details1 the precise and symmetrical form of the future social organization4--,show me a practical description of the new society1 and ,i will then decide whether ,i ought to prefer it to the present society4 ,others--and this is a consequence of that first false conception--imagine that socialism wishes in a single day to change the face of the world1 and that we will be able to go to sleep in a world completely bourgeois and to wake up next morning in a world completely socialist4 ,how is it possible not to see1 some one then says1 that all this is directly and thoroughly in conflict with the law of evolution1 a law based on the two fundamental ideas--which are characteristic of the new tendencies of scientific thought and which are in conflict with the old metaphysics--of the naturalness and the gradualness of all phenomena in all domains of universal life1 from astronomy to sociology4 ,it is indisputable that these two objections were1 in great part1 well founded when they were directed against what ,engels has called utopian socialism4 ,when socialism1 before the time of ,karl ,marx1 was merely the sentimental expression of a humanitarianism as noble as it was neglectful of the most elementary principles of exact science1 it was altogether natural for its partisans to give rein to the impetuosity of their generous natures both in their vehement protests against social injustices and in their reveries and day-dreams of a better world1 to which the imagination strove to give precise contours1 as witness all the utopias from the ,,republic of ,plato to the ,,looking ,,backward of ,bellamy4 ,it is easy to understand what opportunities these constructions afforded to criticism4 ,the latter was false in part1 moreover1 because it was the offspring of the habits of thought peculiar to the modern world1 and which will change with the change in the environment1 but it was well founded in part also because the enormous complexity of social phenomena makes it impossible to prophesy in regard to all the details of a social organization which will differ from ours more profoundly than the present society differs from that of the ,middle ,ages1 because the bourgeois world has retained the same foundation1 individualism1 as the society which preceded it1 while the socialist world will have a fundamentally different polarization4 ,these prophetic constructions of a new social order are1 moreover1 the natural product of that artificiality in politics and sociology1 with which the most orthodox individualists are equally deeply imbued1 individualists who imagine1 as ,spencer has remarked1 that human society is like a piece of dough to which the law can give one form rather than another1 without taking into account the organic and psychical1 ethical and historical qualities1 tendencies and aptitudes of the different peoples4 ,sentimental socialism has furnished some attempts at utopian construction1 but the modern world of politics has presented and does present still more of them with the ridiculous and chaotic mess of laws and codes which surround every man from his birth to his death1 and even before he is born and after he is dead1 in an inextricable network of codes1 laws1 decrees and regulations which stifle him like the silk-worm in the cocoon4 ,and every day1 experience shows us that our legislators1 imbued with this political and social artificiality1 do nothing but copy the laws of the most dissimilar peoples1 according as the fashion comes from ,paris or ,berlin1--instead of carefully studying the facts of actual life1 the conditions of existence and the interests of the people in their respective countries1 in order to adapt their laws to them1 laws which--if this is not done--remain1 as abundant examples show1 dead letters because the reality of the facts of life does not permit them to strike their roots into the social soil and to develop a fruitful life4#fb ,on the subject of artificial social constructions1 the socialists might say to the individualists3 let him who is without sin1 cast the first stone4 ,the true reply is wholly different4 ,scientific socialism represents a much more advanced phase of socialist thought2 it is in perfect harmony with modern1 experiential science1 and it has completely abandoned the fantastic idea of prophesying1 at the present time1 what human society will be under the new collectivist organization4 ,what scientific socialism can affirm and does affirm with mathematical certainty1 is that the current1 the trajectory1 of human evolution is in the general direction pointed out and foreseen by socialism1 that is to say1 in the direction of a continuously and progressively increasing preponderance of the interests and importance of the species over the interests and importance of the individual--and1 therefore1 in the direction of a continuous socialization of the economic life1 and with and in consequence of that1 of the juridical1 moral and political life4 ,as to the petty details of the new social edifice1 we are unable to foresee them1 precisely because the new social edifice will be1 and is1 a natural and spontaneous product of human evolution1 a product which is already in process of formation1 and the general outlines of which are already visible1 and not an artificial construction of the imagination of some utopian or idealist4 ,the situation is the same in the social sciences and the natural sciences4 ,in embryology the celebrated law of ,haeckel tells us that the development of the individual embryo reproduces in miniature the various forms of development of the animal species which have preceded it in the zoological series4 ,but the biologist1 by studying a human embryo of a few days' or a few weeks' growth1 can not tell whether it will be male or female1 and still less whether it will be a strong or a weak individual1 phlegmatic or nervous1 intelligent or not4 ,he can only tell the general lines of the future evolution of that individual1 and must leave it to time to show the exact character of all the particular details of its personality1 which will be developed naturally and spontaneously1 in conformity with the hereditary organic conditions and the conditions of the environment in which it will live4 ,this is what can be and what must be the reply of every socialist4 ,this is the position taken by ,bebel in the ,german ,reichstag#fc in his reply to those who wish to know at the present time what all the details of the future ,state will be1 and who skilfully profiting by the ingenuity of the socialist romancers1 criticize their artificial fantasies which are true in their general outlines1 but arbitrary in their details4 ,it would have been just the same thing if1 before the ,french ,revolution1--which1 as it were1 hatched out the bourgeois world1 prepared and matured during the previous evolution1--the nobility and the clergy1 the classes then in power1 had asked the representatives of the ,third ,estate--bourgeois by birth1 though some aristocrats or priests embraced the cause of the bourgeoisie against the privileges of their caste1 as the ,marquis de ,mirabeau and the ,abb ,sieys--,but what sort of a world will this new world of yours be8 ,show us first its exact plan1 and after that we will decide6 ,the ,third ,estate1 the bourgeoisie1 would not have been able to answer this question1 because it was impossible for them to foresee what the human society of the nineteenth century was to be4 ,but this did not prevent the bourgeois revolution from taking place because it represented the next natural and inevitable phase of an eternal evolution4 ,this is now the position of socialism with relation to the bourgeois world4 ,and if this bourgeois world1 born only about a century ago1 is destined to have a much shorter historical cycle than the feudal 7aristocratico-clerical7 world1 this is simply because the marvelous scientific progress of the nineteenth century has increased a hundred-fold the rapidity of life in time and has nearly annihilated space1 and1 therefore1 civilized humanity traverses now in ten years the same road that it took1 in the ,middle ,ages1 a century or two to travel4 ,the continuously accelerated velocity of human evolution is also one of the laws established and proved by modern social science4 ,it is the artificial constructions of sentimental socialism which have given birth to the idea--correct so far as they are concerned--that socialism is synonymous with tyranny4 ,it is evident that if the new social organization is not the spontaneous form naturally produced by the human evolution1 but rather an artificial construction that has issued complete in every detail from the brain of some social architect1 the latter will be unable to avoid regulating the new social machinery by an infinite number of rules and by the superior authority which he will assign to a controlling intelligence1 either individual or collective4 ,it is easy to understand then1 how such an organization gives rise in its opponents--who see in the individualist world only the advantages of liberty1 and who forget the evils which so copiously flow from it--the impression of a system of monastic or military discipline4#fd ,another contemporary artificial product has contributed to confirm this impression--,state ,socialism4 ,at bottom1 it does not differ from sentimental or utopian socialism1 and as ,liebknecht said at the socialist congress of ,berlin 7#ahib71 it would be a ,state ,capitalism which would join political slavery to economic exploitation4 ,state ,socialism is a symptom of the irresistible power of scientific and democratic socialism--as is shown by the famous rescripts of ,emperor ,william convoking an international conference to solve 7this is the infantile idea of the decree7 the problems of labor1 and the famous ,encyclical on ,the ,condition of ,labor of the very able ,pope1 ,leo ,,xiii1 who has handled the subject with great tact and cleverness4#fe ,but these imperial rescripts and these papal encyclicals--because it is impossible to leap over or suppress the phases of the social evolution--could only result abortively in our bourgeois1 individualist and laissez faire world4 ,certainly it would not have been displeasing to this bourgeois world to see the vigorous contemporary socialism strangled to death in the amorous embraces of official artificiality and of ,state ,socialism1 for it had become evident in ,germany and elsewhere1 that neither laws nor repressive measures of any kind could kill it4#ff ,all that arsenal of rules and regulations and provisions for inspection and superintendence has nothing in common with scientific socialism which foresees clearly that the executive guidance of the new social organization will be no more confused than is the present administration of the ,state1 the provinces and the communes1 and will1 on the contrary1 be much better adapted to subserve the interests of both society and the individual1 since it will be a natural product and not a parasitic product of the new social organization4 ,just so1 the nervous system of a mammal is the regulating apparatus of its organism2 it is1 certainly1 more complex than that of the organism of a fish or of a mollusc1 but it has not1 for that reason1 tyrannically stifled the autonomy of the other organs and anatomical machinery1 or of the cells in their living confederation4 ,it is understood1 then1 that to refute socialism1 something more is needed than the mere repetition of the current objections against that artificial and sentimental socialism which still continues to exist1 ,i confess1 in the nebulous mass of popular ideas4 ,but every day it is losing ground before the intelligent partisans--workingmen1 middle-class or aristocrats--of scientific socialism which armed--thanks to the impulse received from the genius of ,marx--with all the best-established inductions of modern science1 is triumphing over the old objections which our adversaries1 through force of mental custom1 still repeat1 but which have long been left behind by contemporary thought1 together with the utopian socialism which provoked them4 ,the same reply must be made to the second part of the objection1 with regard to the mode by which the advent of socialism will be accomplished4 ,one of the inevitable and logical consequences of utopian and artificial socialism is to think that the architectonic construction proposed by such or such a reformer1 ought to be and can be put into practice in a single day by a decree4 ,in this sense it is quite true that the utopian illusion of empirical socialism is in opposition to the scientific law of evolution1 and1 looked at in this way1 ,i combatted it in my book on ,socialismo e ,criminalit1 because at that time 7#ahhc7 the ideas of scientific or ,marxian socialism were not yet generally disseminated in ,italy4 ,a political party or a scientific theory are natural products which must pass through the vital phases of infancy and youth1 before reaching complete development4 ,it was1 then1 inevitable that1 before becoming scientific or positif 7fact-founded71 socialism1 in ,italy as in other countries1 should pass through the infantile phases of clannish exclusiveness--the era when socialism was confined to organizations of manual laborers--and of nebulous romanticism which1 as it gives to the word revolution a narrow and incomplete meaning1 is always fed with false hope by the illusion that a social organism can be radically changed in a single day with four rifle-shots1 just as a monarchical regime could thus be converted into a republican regime4 ,but it is infinitely easier to change the political envelope of a social organization1--because such a change has little effect on the economic foundation of the social life1--than to completely revolutionize this social life in its economic constitution4 ,the processes of social transformation1 as well as--under various names--those of every sort of transformation in living organisms are3 evolution1--revolution1--rebellion1--ind ividual violence4 ,a mineral or vegetable or animal species may pass through1 during the cycle of its existence1 these four processes4 ,as long as the structure and the volume of the centre of crystallization1 the germ1 or the embryo1 increase gradually1 we have a gradual and continuous process of evolution1 which must be followed at a definite stage by a process of revolution1 more or less prolonged1 represented1 for example1 by the separation of the entire crystal from the mineral mass which surrounds it1 or by certain revolutionary phases of vegetable or animal life1 as1 for example1 the moment of sexual reproduction2 there may also be a period of rebellion1 that is to say1 of organized personal violence1 a frequent and well-verified phenomenon among those species of animals who live in societies2 there may also be isolated instances of personal violence1 as in the struggles to obtain food or for possession of the females between animals of the same species4 ,these same processes also occur in the human world4 ,by evolution must be understood the transformation that takes place day by day1 which is almost unnoticed1 but continuous and inevitable2 by revolution1 the critical and decisive period1 more or less prolonged1 of an evolution that has reached its concluding phase2 by rebellion1 the partially collective violence which breaks out1 upon the occasion of some particular circumstance1 at a definite place and time2 and by individual violence1 the action of one individual against one or several others1 which may be the effect of a fanatical passion or of criminal instincts1 or the manifestation of a lack of mental equilibrium1--and which identifies itself with the political or religious ideas most in vogue at the moment4 ,it must be remarked1 in the first place1 that while revolution and evolution are normal functions of social physiology1 rebellion and individual violence are symptoms of social pathology4 ,these are1 nevertheless1 merely natural and spontaneous processes1 since1 as ,virchow has shown1 pathology is merely the sequel of normal physiology4 ,besides1 the pathological symptoms have1 or should have1 a great diagnostical value for the classes in power2 but the latter1 unfortunately1 in every period of history1 in times of political crisis1 as in those of social crisis1 have shown themselves unable to conceive of any other remedy than brutal repression--the guillotine or the prison--and they fancy that thus they can cure the organic and constitutional disease which vexes the social body4#fg ,but it is indisputable1 at all events1 that the normal processes of social transformation 7and because they are normal1 the most fruitful and the surest1 although the slowest and the least effective in appearance7 are evolution and revolution1 using the latter term in its accurate and scientific sense1 as the concluding phase of an evolution1 and not in the current and incorrect sense of a stormy and violent revolt4#fh ,it is evident1 in fact1 that ,europe and ,america are1 in these closing years of the nineteenth century1 in a period of revolution1 prepared by the evolution begotten by the bourgeois organization itself and promoted by utopian socialism as well as by scientific socialism4 ,likewise1 we are in that period of social life which ,bagehot calls the age of discussion1#fi and already we can see what ,zola has called1 in ,germinal1 the cracking of the politico-social crust1 and1 in fact1 all those symptoms which ,taine has described in his l',ancien ,rgime1 in relating the history of the twenty years which preceded #aghi4 ,as repressive methods are of no avail against domestic revolution1 and only serve to expose the symptoms1 there can be nothing efficacious and productive of good results1 except laws of social reform and preparation which1 while safe-guarding the present society1 will render less painful1 as ,marx said1 the birth of the new society4 ,in this sense1 evolution and revolution constitute the most fruitful and surest processes of social metamorphosis4 ,as human society forms a natural and living organism1 like all other organisms1 it can not endure sudden transformations1 as those imagine who think that recourse must be had only or by preference to rebellion or personal violence to inaugurate a new social organization4 ,this seems to me like imagining that a child or a youth could1 in a single day1 accomplish a biological evolution and become forthwith an adult4#gj ,it is easy to understand how a man out of work1 in the horrors of starvation1 his brain giving way for want of nourishment1 may fancy that by giving a policeman a blow with his fist1 by throwing a bomb1 by raising a barricade1 or by taking part in a riot1 he is hastening the realization of a social ideal1 from which injustice will have vanished4 ,and1 even apart from such cases1 it is possible to understand how the power of impulsive feeling1 the dominant factor in some natures1 may1 through a generous impatience1 lead them to make some real attempt--and not imaginary like those which the police in all times and all countries prosecute in the courts--to spread terror among those who feel the political or economic power slipping from their hands4 ,but scientific socialism1 especially in ,germany1 under the direct influence of ,marxism1 has completely abandoned those old methods of revolutionary romanticism4 ,though they have often been employed1 they have always resulted abortively1 and for that very reason the ruling classes no longer dread them1 since they are only light1 localized assaults on a fortress which still has more than sufficient resistant power to remain victorious and by this victory to retard temporarily the evolution by removing from the scene the strongest and boldest adversaries of the status quo4 ,marxian socialism is revolutionary in the scientific meaning of the word1 and it is now developing into open social revolution--no one will attempt to deny1 ,i think1 that the close of the nineteenth century marks the critical phase of the bourgeois evolution rushing under a full head of steam1 even in ,italy1 along the road of individualist capitalism4 ,marxian socialism has the candor to say1 through the mouths of its most authoritative spokesmen1 to the great suffering host of the modern proletariat1 that it has no magic wand to transform the world in a single day1 as one shifts the scenes in a theatre2 it says on the contrary1 repeating the prophetic exhortation of ,marx1 ,proletarians of all countries1 unite1 that the social revolution can not achieve its object1 unless it first becomes a vivid fact in the minds of the workers themselves by virtue of the clear perception of their class-interests and of the strength which their union will give them1 and that they will not wake up some day under a full-fledged socialist regime1 because divided and apathetic for #cfd days out of the year they shall rebel on the #cfeth1 or devote themselves to the perpetration of some deed of personal violence4 ,this is what ,i call the psychology of the gros lot 7the capital prize in a lottery1 etc474 ,many workingmen imagine1 in fact1 that--without doing anything to form themselves into a class-conscious party--they will win some day the capital prize1 the social revolution1 just as the manna is said to have come down from heaven to feed the ,hebrews4 ,scientific socialism has pointed out that the transforming power decreases as we descend the scale from one process to another1 that of revolution being less than that of evolution1 and that of rebellion being less than that of revolution1 and individual violence having the least of all4 ,and since it is a question of a complete transformation and1 consequently1 in its juridical1 political and ethical organization1 the process of transformation is more effective and better adapted to the purpose in proportion as its social character predominates over its individual character4 ,the individualist parties are individualists even in the daily struggle2 socialism1 on the contrary1 is collectivist even in that1 because it knows that the present organization does not depend upon the will of such or such an individual1 but upon society as a whole4 ,and this is also one reason why charity1 however generous it be1 being necessarily personal and partial1 can not be a remedy for the social1 and thereby collective1 question of the distribution of wealth4 ,in political questions1 which leave the economico-social foundation untouched1 it is possible to understand how1 for instance1 the exile of ,napoleon ,,iii4 or of the ,emperor ,don ,pedro could inaugurate a republic4 ,but this transformation does not extend to the foundation of the social life1 and the ,german ,empire or the ,italian ,monarchy are1 socially1 bourgeois just the same as the ,french ,republic or the ,north ,american ,republic1 because notwithstanding the political differences between them1 they all belong to the same economico-social phase4 ,this is why the processes of evolution and revolution--the only wholly social or collective processes--are the most efficacious1 while partial rebellion and1 still more1 individual violence have only a very feeble power of social transformation2 they are1 moreover1 anti-social and anti-human1 because they re-awaken the primitive savage instincts1 and because they deny1 in the very person whom they strike down1 the principle with which they believe themselves animated--the principle of respect for human life and of solidarity4 ,what is the use of hypnotizing oneself with phrases about the propaganda of the deed and immediate action8 ,it is known that anarchists1 individualists1 amorphists and libertarians admit as a means of social transformation individual violence which extends from homicide to theft or estampage1 even among companions2 and this is then merely a political coloring given to criminal instincts which must not be confounded with political fanaticism1 which is a very different phenomenon1 common to the extreme and romantic parties of all times4 ,a scientific examination of each case by itself1 with the aid of anthropology and psychology1 alone can decide whether the perpetrator of such or such a deed of violence is a congenital criminal1 a criminal through insanity1 or a criminal through stress of political fanaticism4 ,i have1 in fact1 always maintained1 and ,i still maintain1 that the political criminal1 whom some wish to class in a special category1 does not constitute a peculiar anthropological variety1 but that he can be placed under one or another of the anthropological categories of criminals of ordinary law1 and particularly one of these three3 the born criminal having a congenital tendency to crime1 the insane-criminal1 the criminal by stress of fanatical passion4 ,the history of the past and of these latter times afford us obvious illustrations of these several categories4 ,in the ,middle ,ages religious beliefs filled the minds of all and colored the criminal or insane excesses of many of the unbalanced4 ,a similar insanity was the efficient cause of the more or less hysterical sanctity of some of the saints4 ,at the close of our century it is the politico-social questions which absorb 7and with what overwhelming interest67 the universal consciousness--which is stimulated by that universal contagion created by journalism with its great sensationalism--and these are the questions which color the criminal or insane excesses of many of the unbalanced1 or which are the determining causes of instances of fanaticism occurring in men who are thoroughly honorable1 but afflicted with excessive sensibility4 ,it is the most extreme form of these politico-social questions which1 in each historical period1 possesses the most intense suggestive power4 ,in ,italy sixty years ago it was ,mazzinnianisme or ,carbonarisme2 twenty years ago1 it was socialism2 now it is anarchism4 ,it is very easy to understand how there occurred in each period1 in accordance with their respective dominant tendencies1 deeds of personal violence4444 ,felice ,orsini1 for example1 is one of the martyrs of the ,italian ,revolution4 ,in each case of individual violence1 unless one is content with the necessarily erroneous judgments begotten by emotion to reach a correct decision it is necessary to make a physio-psychical examination of the perpetrator1 just as it is in the case of any other crime4 ,felice ,orsini was a political criminal through passion4 ,among the anarchist bomb-throwers or assassins of our day may be found the born criminal--who simply colors his congenital lack of the moral or social sense with a political varnish--2 the insane-criminal or mattoid whose mental deficiency becomes blended with the political ideas of the period2 and also the criminal through political passion1 acting from sincere conviction and mentally almost normal1 in whom the criminal action is determined 7or caused7 solely by the false idea 7which socialism combats7 of the possibility of effecting a social transformation by means of individual violence4#ga ,but no matter whether the particular crime is that of a congenital criminal or of a madman or of a political criminal through passion1 it is none the less true that personal violence1 as adopted by the anarchist individualists1 is simply the logical product of individualism carried to extremes and1 therefore1 the natural product of the existing economic organization--though its production is also favored by the delirium of hunger1 acute or chronic2 but it is also the least efficacious and the most anti-human means of social transformation4#gb ,but all anarchists are not individualists1 amorphists or autonomists2 there are also anarchist-communists4 ,the latter repudiates deeds of personal violence1 as ordinary means of social transformation 7,merlino1 for example has recently stated this in his pamphlet3 ,necessit e base di un accordo1 ,prato1 #ahib71 but even these anarchist-communists cut themselves off from ,marxian socialism1 both by their ultimate ideal and more especially by their method of social transformation4 ,they combat ,marxian socialism because it is law-abiding and parliamentary1 and they contend that the most efficacious and the surest mode of social transformation is rebellion4 ,these assertions which respond to the vagueness of the sentiments and ideas of too large a portion of the working-class and to the impatience provoked by their wretched condition1 may meet with a temporary1 unintelligent approval1 but their effect can be only ephemeral4 ,the explosion of a bomb may indeed give birth to a momentary emotion1 but it can not advance by the hundredth part of an inch the evolution in men's minds toward socialism1 while it causes a reaction in feeling1 a reaction in part sincere1 but skilfully fomented and exploited as a pretext for repression4 ,to say to the laborers that1 without having made ready the requisite material means1 but especially without solidarity and without an intelligent conception of the goal and without a high moral purpose1 they ought to rise against the classes in power1 is really to play into the hands of those very classes1 since the latter are sure of the material victory when the evolution is not ripe and the revolution is not ready4#gc ,and so it has been possible to show in the case of the late ,sicilian rebellion1 in spite of all the lies of those interested in hiding the truth1 that in those districts where socialism was most advanced and best understood there were no deeds of personal violence1 no revolts1 as1 for example1 among the peasants of ,piana dei ,greci1 of whom ,nicola ,barbato had made intelligent socialists2 while those convulsive movements occurred outside of the field of the socialist propaganda as a rebellion against the exactions of the local governments and of the camorre1#gd or in those districts where the socialist propaganda was less intelligent and was stifled by the fierce passions caused by hunger and misery4#ge ,history demonstrates that the countries where revolts have been the most frequent are those in which social progress is the least advanced4 ,the popular energies exhaust and destroy themselves in these feverish1 convulsive excesses1 which alternate with periods of discouragement and despair--which are the fitting environment of the ,buddhist theory of electoral abstention--a very convenient theory for the conservative parties4 ,in such countries we never see that continuity of premeditated action1 slower and less effective in appearance1 but in reality the only kind of action that can accomplish those things which appear to us as the miracles of history4 ,therefore ,marxian socialism in all countries has proclaimed that from this time forth the principal means of social transformation must be the conquest of the public powers 7in local administrations as well as in national ,parliaments7 as one of the results of the organization of the laborers into a class-conscious party4 ,the further the political organization of the laborers1 in civilized countries1 shall progress1 the more one will see realized1 by a resistless evolution1 the socialist organization of society1 at first by partial concessions1 but ever growing more important1 wrested from the capitalist class by the working-class 7the law restricting the working-day to ,eight ,hours1 for example71 and then by the complete transformation of individual ownership into social ownership4 ,as to the question whether this complete transformation1 which is at present being prepared for by a process of gradual evolution which is nearing the critical and decisive period of the social revolution1 can be accomplished without the aid of other means of transformation--such as rebellion and individual violence--this is a question which no one can answer in advance4 ,marxian socialists are not prophets4 ,our sincere wish is that the social revolution1 when its evolution shall be ripe1 may be effected peacefully1 as so many other revolutions have been1 without blood-shed--like the ,english ,revolution1 which preceded by a century1 with its ,bill of ,rights1 the ,french ,revolution2 like the ,italian ,revolution in ,tuscany in #ahei2 like the ,brazilian ,revolution1 with the exile of the ,emperor ,dom ,pedro1 in #ahib4 ,it is certain that socialism by spreading education and culture among the people1 by organizing the workers into a class-conscious party under its banner1 is only increasing the probability of the fulfilment of our hope1 and is dissipating the old forebodings of a reaction after the advent of socialism1 which were indeed justified when socialism was still utopian in its means of realization instead of being1 as it now is1 a natural and spontaneous1 and therefore inevitable and irrevocable1 phase of the evolution of humanity4 ,where will this social revolution start8 ,i am firmly convinced that if the ,latin peoples1 being ,southerners1 are more ready for revolt1 which may suffice for purely political transformations1 the peoples of the ,north1 the ,germans and ,anglo-,saxons are better prepared for the tranquil and orderly but inexorable process of the true revolution1 understood as the critical phase of an organic1 incomplete1 preparatory evolution1 which is the only effective process for a truly social transformation4 ,it is in ,germany and ,england1 where the greater development of bourgeois industrialism inevitably aggravates its detrimental consequences1 and thereby magnifies the necessity for socialism1 that the great social metamorphosis will perhaps being--though indeed it has begun everywhere--and from there it will spread across old ,europe1 just as at the close of the last century the signal for the political and bourgeois revolution was raised by ,france4 ,however this may be1 we have just demonstrated once more the profound difference there is between socialism and anarchism--which our opponents and the servile press endeavor to confound#gf and1 at all events1 ,i have demonstrated that ,marxian socialism is in harmony with modern science and is its logical continuation4 ,that is exactly the reason why it has made the theory of evolution the basis of its inductions and why it thus marks the truly living and final phase--and1 therefore1 the only phase recognized by the intelligence of the collectivist democracy--of socialism which had theretofore remained floating in the nebulosities of sentiment and why it has taken as its guide the unerring compass of scientific thought1 rejuvenated by the works of ,darwin and ,spencer4 ,,footnotes3 #fb ,we have a typical example of this in the new ,italian penal code1 which1 as ,i said before its enforcement1 shows no signs of special adaptation to ,italian conditions4 ,it might just as well be a code made for ,greece or ,norway1 and it has borrowed from the countries of the north the system of confinement in cells1 which even then in the north was recognized in all its costly absurdity as a system devised for the brutalization of men4 #fc ,,bebel1 ,zukunftstaat und ,sozialdemokratie1 #ahic4 #fd ,it is this artificial socialism which ,herbert ,spencer attacks4 #fe ,see ,socialism3 a ,reply to the ,pope's ,encyclical1 by ,robert ,blatchford4 ,the ,international ,publishing ,co41 ,new ,york4--,tr4 #ff ,to this ,state socialism apply most of the individualist and anarchist objections of ,spencer ,in ,man vs4 ,state4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,you will recall on this subject the celebrated debate between ,spencer and ,laveleye3 ,the ,state and the ,individual or ,social ,darwinism and ,christianity1 in the ,contemporary ,review1 #ahhe4 ,lafargue has also replied to ,spencer1 but has not pointed out the fact that ,spencer's criticisms apply1 not to democratic socialism1 our socialism1 but to ,state socialism4 ,see also ,,ciccotti on this subject4 #fg ,at the moment when ,i was correcting the proofs of the ,italian edition of this work1 ,m4 ,crispi had just proposed the exceptional laws for the public safety1 which1 using the outrages of the anarchists as a pretext1 aimed by this method to strike a blow at and to suppress socialism4 ,repressive laws can suppress men1 but not ideas4 ,has the failure of the exceptional laws against the socialist party in ,germany been forgotten8 ,it is possible to increase the number of crimes1 to suppress public liberties 444 but that is no remedy4 ,socialism will continue its forward march just the same4 #fh ,,lombroso and ,,laschi1 ,le ,crime politique1 etc41 and the monograph of ,,elisee ,,reclus1 ,evolution et ,rvolution4 #fi ,,walter ,,bagehot1 ,physics and ,politics4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #gj ,it is this lack of even elementary knowledge of geology1 biology1 etc41 which makes the vague ideal of anarchy so attractive to many men or the people with really bright minds1 but with no scientific training1 even though they repudiate the employment of violent methods4 ,in my opinion a more wide-spread instruction in the natural sciences--together with their substitution for the classics--would do more than any repressive laws to suppress the outrages of anarchy4 #ga ,,hamon1 ,les ,hommes et les thories de l'anarchie1 ,paris1 #ahic4--,,lombroso1 ,ultime scoperte ed applicazioni dell' antropologia criminale1 ,turin1 #ahic4 #gb ,at the moment when ,i was correcting the proofs of the ,italian edition of this book1 the emotion had not yet subsided which grew out of the harmless attack upon ,crispi1 at ,rome1 on the #afth of ,june1 and especially the much keener emotion produced by the death of the ,president of the ,french ,republic1 ,sadi ,carnot1 on the #bdth of ,june4 ,i reproduce here1 as documentary evidence1 the declaration published by a section of the ,socialist ,party of ,italian ,workers in the ,secolo of the #bg-bh ,june1 and distributed by thousands in ,milan as a manifesto1 and which was not mentioned by either the ,conservative or the ,progressive newspapers1 who tried by their silence to perpetrate the confusion between socialism and anarchy4 ,here is the declaration3 ,the ,socialist ,party to the ,workingmen of ,italy4--,down with assassins6 ,humanity now understands that life is sacred1 and does not tolerate brutal violations of this great principle which is morally the soul of socialism4 ,c4 ,,prampolini4 ,he who struggles for the right to life1 in exchange for his labor1 condemns every assault upon human life1--whether it be the work of bourgeois exploitation in factories1 or of the bombs or daggers of unintelligent revolutionists4 ,the ,socialist ,party which has this principle for a shibboleth1 which expects everything from the class-conscious organization of the working class1 execrates the crime committed against the person of the ,president of the ,french ,republic1 as a brutal deed1 as the negation of every principle of revolutionary logic4 ,it is necessary to arouse in the proletariat the consciousness of their own rights1 to furnish them the structure of organization1 and to induce them to function as a new organism4 ,it is necessary to conquer the public powers by the means which modern civilization gives us4 ,to revolt1 to throw at haphazard a bomb among the spectators in a theatre1 or to kill an individual1 is the act of barbarians or of ignorant people4 ,the ,socialist ,party sees in such deeds the violent manifestation of bourgeois sentiments4 ,we are the adversaries of all the violences of bourgeois exploitation1 of the guillotine1 of musketry discharges 7aimed at strikers1 etc471 and of anarchist outrages4 ,hurrah for ,socialism6 ,socialism represses all these sterile and repugnant forms of individual violence4 ,carnot's death accomplished nothing except to arouse a transitory atavistic hatred of ,italians4 ,afterward1 the ,french ,republic elected another ,president and everything was as before4 ,the same may be said of ,russia after the assassination of ,alexander ,,ii4 ,but the question may be regarded from another point of view1 which the conservatives1 the progressives and the radicals too completely forget4 ,the very day of these outrages two explosions of gas took place1 one in the mines of ,karwinn 7,austria71 and the other in the mines of ,cardiff 7,england72 the first caused the death of #beg miners 4441 the second the death of #baj66 ,although the death of an honorable man1 like ,carnot1 may be regretted1 it is not to be compared to the mass of human sufferings1 misery and woe which fell upon these #dfg working-class families1 equally innocent as he4 ,it will be said1 it is true1 that the murder of ,carnot was the voluntary act of a fanatic1 while no one directly killed these #dfg miners6--,and certainly this is a difference4 ,but it must be remarked that if the death of these #dfg miners is not directly the voluntary work of any one1 it is indirectly a result of individual capitalism1 which1 to swell its revenues1 reduces expenses to the lowest possible point1 does not curtail the hours of labor1 and does not take all the preventive measures indicated by science and sometimes even enjoined by law1 which is in such cases not respected1 for the justice of every country is as flexible to accommodate the interests of the ruling class as it is rigid when applied against the interests of the working-class4 ,if the mines were collectively owned1 it is certain the owners would be less stingy about taking all the technical preventive precautions 7electric lighting1 for instance71 which would diminish the number of these frightful catastrophes which infinitely increase the anonymous multitude of the martyrs of toil and which do not even trouble the digestion of the share-holders in mining companies4 ,that is what the individualist regime gives us2 all this will be transformed by the socialist regime4 #gc ,,rienzi1 l',anarchisme2 ,,deville1 l',anarchisme4 #gd ,a4 ,,rossi1 l',agitazione in ,sicilia1 ,milan1 #ahid4 ,,colajanni1 ,in ,sicilia1 ,rome1 #ahid4 #ge ,the camorre were tyrannical secret societies that were formerly prevalent and powerful in ,italy4--,translator4 #gf ,i must recognize that one of the recent historians of socialism1 ,m4 l',abb ,winterer--more candid and honorable than more than one jesuitical journalist--distinguishes always1 in each country1 the socialist movement from the anarchist movement4 ,,winterer1 le ,socialisme contemporain1 ,paris1 #ahid1 #bnd edition4 ,,part ,,third4 ,,sociology ,,and ,,socialism4 ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,sterility ,,of ,,sociology4 ,one of the strangest facts in the history of the scientific thought of the nineteenth century is that1 though the profound scientific revolution caused by ,darwinism and ,spencerian evolution has reinvigorated with new youth all the physical1 biological and even psychological sciences1 when it reached the domain of the social sciences1 it only superficially rippled the tranquil and orthodox surface of the lake of that social science par excellence1 political economy4 ,it has led1 it is true1 through the initiative of ,auguste ,comte--whose name has been somewhat obscured by those of ,darwin and ,spencer1 but who was certainly one of the greatest and most prolific geniuses of our age--to the creation of a new science1 ,sociology1 which should be1 together with the natural history of human societies1 the crowning glory of the new scientific edifice erected by the experimental method4 ,i do not deny that sociology1 in the department of purely descriptive anatomy of the social organism1 has made great and fruitful new contributions to contemporary science1 even developing into some specialized branches of sociology1 of which criminal sociology1 thanks to the labors of the ,italian school1 has become one of the most important results4 ,but when the politico-social question is entered upon1 the new science of sociology is overpowered by a sort of hypnotic sleep and remains suspended in a sterile1 colorless limbo1 thus permitting sociologists to be in public economy1 as in politics1 conservatives or radicals1 in accordance with their respective whims or subjective tendencies4 ,and while ,darwinian biology1 by the scientific determination of the relations between the individual and the species1 and evolutionist sociology itself by describing in human society the organs and the functions of a new organism1 was making the individual a cell in the animal organism1 ,herbert ,spencer was loudly proclaiming his ,english individualism extending to the most absolute theoretical anarchism4 ,a period of stagnation was inevitable in the scientific productive activity of sociology1 after the first original observations in descriptive social anatomy and in the natural history of human societies4 ,sociology represented thus a sort of arrested development in experimental scientific thought1 because those who cultivated it1 wittingly or unwittingly1 recoiled before the logical and radical conclusions that the modern scientific revolution was destined to establish in the social domain--the most important domain of all if science was to become the handmaid of life1 instead of contenting itself with that barren formula1 science for the sake of science4 ,the secret of this strange phenomenon consists not only in the fact that1 as ,malagodi said1#gg sociology is still in the period of scientific analysis and not yet in that of synthesis1 but especially in the fact that the logical consequences of ,darwinism and of scientific evolutionism applied to the study of human society lead inexorably to socialism1 as ,i have demonstrated in the foregoing pages4 ,,footnote3 #gg ,,malagodi1 ,il ,socialismo e la scienza4 ,in ,critica ,sociale1 ,aug4 #a1 #ahib4 ,,xiv4 ,,marx ,,completes ,,darwin ,,and ,,spencer4 ,,conservatives ,,and ,,socialists4 ,to ,karl ,marx is due the honor of having scientifically formulated these logical applications of experiential science to the domain of social economy4 ,beyond doubt1 the exposition of these truths is surrounded1 in his writings1 with a multitude of technical details and of apparently dogmatic formul1 but may not the same be said of the ,,first ,,principles of ,spencer1 and are not the luminous passages on evolution in it surrounded with a dense fog of abstractions on time1 space1 the unknowable1 etc48 ,until these last few years a vain effort was made to consign1 by a conspiracy of silence1 the masterly work of ,marx to oblivion1 but now his name is coming to rank with those of ,charles ,darwin and ,herbert ,spencer as the three ,titans of the scientific revolution which begot the intellectual renaissance and gave fresh potency to the civilizing thought of the latter half of the nineteenth century4 ,the ideas by which the genius of ,karl ,marx completed in the domain of social economy the revolution effected by science are in number three4 ,the first is the discovery of the law of surplus-labor4 ,this law gives us a scientific explanation of the accumulation of private property not created by the labor of the accumulator2 as this law has a more peculiarly technical character1 we will not lay further stress upon it here1 as we have given a general idea of it in the preceding pages4 ,the two other ,marxian theories are more directly related to our observations on scientific socialism1 since they undoubtedly furnish us the sure and infallible key to the life of society4 ,i allude1 first1 to the idea expressed by ,marx1 as long ago as #ahei1 in his ,critique de l'conomie politique1 that the economic phenomena form the foundation and the determining conditions of all other human or social manifestations1 and that1 consequently1 ethics1 law and politics are only derivative phenomena determined by the economic factor1 in accordance with the conditions of each particular people in every phase of history and under all climatic conditions4 ,this idea which corresponds to that great biological law which states the dependence of the function on the nature and capacities of the organ and which makes each individual the result of the innate and acquired conditions of his physiological organism1 living in a given environment1 so that a biological application may be given to the famous saying3 ,tell me what you eat and ,i will tell you what you are1--this sublime idea which unfolds before our eyes the majestic drama of history1 no longer as the arbitrary succession of great men on the stage of the social theatre1 but rather as the resultant of the economic conditions of each people1 this sublime idea1 after having been partially applied by ,thorold ,rogers#gh has been so brilliantly expounded and illustrated by ,achille ,loria1#gi that ,i believe it unnecessary to say anything more about it4 ,one idea1 however1 still appears to me necessary to complete this ,marxian theory1 as ,i remarked in the first edition of my book3 ,socialismo e criminalit4 ,it is necessary1 indeed1 to rid this impregnable theory of that species of narrow dogmatism with which it is clothed in ,marx and still more in ,loria4 ,it is perfectly true that every phenomenon1 as well as every institution--moral1 juridical or political--is simply the result of the economic phenomena and conditions of the transitory physical and historical environment4 ,but1 as a consequence of that law of natural causality which tells us that every effect is always the resultant of numerous concurrent causes and not of one cause alone1 and that every effect becomes in its turn a cause of other phenomena1 it is necessary to amend and complete the too rigid form that has been given to this true idea4 ,just as all the psychical manifestations of the individual are the resultant of the organic conditions 7temperament7 and of the environment in which he lives1 in the same way1 all the social manifestations--moral1 juridical or political--of a people are the resultant of their organic conditions 7race7 and of the environment1 as these are the determining causes of the given economic organization which is the physical basis of life4 ,in their turn1 the individual psychical conditions become causes and effect1 although with less power1 the individual organic conditions and the issue of the struggle for life4 ,in the same way1 the moral1 juridical and political institutions1 from effects become causes 7there is1 in fact1 for modern science no substantial difference between cause and effect1 except that the effect is always the latter of two related phenomena1 and the cause always the former7 and react in their turn1 although with less efficacy1 on the economic conditions4 ,an individual who has studied the laws of hygiene may influence beneficently1 for instance1 the imperfections of his digestive apparatus1 but always within the very narrow limits of his organic capacities4 ,a scientific discovery1 an electoral law may have an effect on industry or on the conditions of labor1 but always within limits fixed by the framework of the fundamental economic organization4 ,this is why moral1 juridical and political institutions have a greater influence on the relations between the various subdivisions of the class controlling the economic power 7capitalists1 industrial magnates1 landed proprietors7 than on the relations between the capitalist--property-owners on the one side and the toilers on the other4 ,it suffices here for me to have mentioned this ,marxian law and ,i will refer to the suggestive book of ,achille ,loria the reader who desires to see how this law scientifically explains all the phenomena1 from the most trivial to the most imposing1 of the social life4 ,this law is truly the most scientific and the most prolific sociological theory that has ever been discovered by the genius of man4 ,it furnishes1 as ,i have already remarked1 a scientific1 physiological1 experiential explanation of social history in the most magnificent dramas as well as of personal history in its most trivial episodes--on explanation in perfect harmony with the entire trend--which has been described as materialistic--of modern scientific thought4#hj ,if we leave out of consideration the two unscientific explanations of free will and divine providence1 we find that two one-sided and therefore incomplete1 although correct and scientific1 explanations of human history have been given4 ,i refer to the physical determinism of ,montesquieu1 ,buckle and ,metschnikoff1 and to the anthropological determinism of the ethnologists who find the explanation of the events of history in the organic and psychical characteristics of the various races of men4 ,karl ,marx sums up1 combines and completes these two theories by his economic determinism4 ,the economic conditions--which are the resultant of the ethnical energies and aptitudes acting in a given physical environment--are the determining basis of all the moral1 juridical and political phenomenal manifestations of human life1 both individual and social4 ,this is the sublime conception1 the fact-founded and scientific ,marxian theory1 which fears no criticism1 resting as it does on the best established results of geology and biology1 of psychology and sociology4 ,it is thanks to it that students of the philosophy of law and sociology are able to determine the true nature and functions of the ,state which1 as it is nothing but society juridically and politically organized1 is only the secular arm used by the class in possession of the economic power--and consequently of the political1 juridical and administrative power--to preserve their own special privileges and to postpone as long as possible the evil day when they must surrender them4 ,the other sociological theory by which ,karl ,marx has truly dissipated the clouds which had ere then darkened the sky of the aspirations of socialism1 and which has supplied scientific socialism with a political compass by the use of which it can guide its course1 with complete confidence and certainty1 in the struggles of every-day life1 is the great historical law of class struggles4#ha 7,the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles4 ,communist ,manifesto4 ,marx and ,engels4 #ahdh47 ,if it is granted that the economic conditions of social groups1 like those of individuals1 constitute the fundamental1 determining cause of all the moral1 juridical and political phenomena1 it is evident that every social group1 every individual will be led to act in accordance with its or his economic interest1 because the latter is the physical basis of life and the essential condition of all other development4 ,in the political sphere1 each social class will be inclined to pass laws1 to establish institutions and to perpetuate customs and beliefs which1 directly or indirectly subserve its interests4 ,these laws1 these institutions1 these beliefs1 handed down by inheritance or tradition1 finally obscure or conceal their economic origin1 and philosophers and jurists and often even the laity defend them as truths1 subsisting by virtue of their own intrinsic merits1 without seeing their real source1 but the latter--the economic sub-stratum--is none the less the only scientific explanation of these laws1 institutions and beliefs4 ,and in this fact consists the greatness and strength of the perspicacious conception of the genius of ,marx4#hb ,as in the modern world there are now but two classes1 with subordinate varieties1--on the one side the workers to whatever category they belong1 and on the other the property owners who do not work1--the socialist theory of ,marx leads us to this evident conclusion3 since political parties are merely the echoes and the mouth-pieces of class interests--no matter what the subvarieties of these classes may be--there can be substantially only two political parties3 the socialist labor party and the individualist party of the class in possession of the land and the other means of production4 ,the difference in the character of the economic monopoly may cause1 it is true1 a certain diversity of political color1 and ,i have always contended that the great landed proprietors represent the conservative tendencies of political stagnation1 while the holders of financial or industrial capital represent in many instances the progressive party1 driven by its own nature to petty innovations of form1 while finally those who possess only an intellectual capital1 the liberal professions1 etc41 may go to the extreme length of political radicalism4 ,on the vital question--that is to say on the economic question of property--conservatives1 progressives and radicals are all individualists4 ,on this point they are all1 in their essential nature of the same social class and1 in spite of certain sentimental sympathies1 the adversaries of the working class and of those who1 although born on the other shore1 have embraced the political programme of that class1 a programme necessarily corresponding to the primordial economic necessity--that is to say1 the socialization of the land and the means of production with all the innumerable and radical moral1 juridical and political transformations1 which this socialization will inevitably bring to pass in the social world4 ,this is why contemporary political life cannot but degenerate into the most sterile bysantinisme and the most corrupt strife for bribes and spoils1 when it is confined to the superficial skirmishes between individualist parties1 which differ only by a shade and in their formal names1 but whose ideas are so similar that one often sees radicals and progressives less modern than many conservatives4 ,there will be a new birth of political life only with the development of the socialist party1 because1 after the disappearance from the political stage of the historical figures of the patriots 7the founders of modern ,italy7 and of the personal reasons which split up the representatives into different political groups1 the formation of one single individualist party will become necessary1 as ,i declared in the ,italian ,chamber on the #bjth of ,december1 #ahic4 ,the historical duel will then be begun1 and the ,class ,struggle will then display on the field of politics all its beneficent influence4 ,beneficent1 ,i say1 because the class struggle must be understood not in the contemptible sense of a ,saturnalia of fist-fights and outrages1 of malevolence and personal violence1 but must be worthily conceived as a great social drama4 ,with all my heart ,i hope that this conflict may be settled1 for the progress of civilization1 without bloody convulsions1 but historical destiny has decreed the conflict1 and it is not given to us or to others to avert or postpone it4 ,it follows from all that we have just said that these ideas of political socialism1 because they are scientific1 dispose their partisans both to personal tolerance and to theoretical inflexibility4#hc ,this is also a conclusion reached by experimental psychology in the domain of philosophy4 ,however great our personal sympathies may be for such or such a representative of the radical faction of the individualist party 7as well as for every honorable and sincere representative of any scientific1 religious or political opinion whatsoever71 we are bound to recognize that there are on the side of socialism no partiti affini4#hd ,it is necessary to be on one side or the other--individualist or socialist4 ,there is no middle ground4 ,and ,i am constantly growing more and more convinced that the only serviceable tactics for the formation of a socialist party likely to live1 is precisely that policy of theoretical inflexibility and of refusing to enter into any alliance with partiti affini1 as such an alliance is for socialism only a false placenta for a fetus that is unlikely to live4 ,the conservative and the socialist are the natural products of the individual character and the social environment4 ,one is born a conservative or an innovator just as one is born a painter or a surgeon4 ,therefore the socialists have no contempt for or bitterness toward the sincere representatives of any faction of the conservative party1 though they combat their ideas unrelentingly4 ,if such or such a socialist shows himself intolerant1 if he abuses his opponents1 this is because he is the victim of a passing emotion or of an ill-balanced temperament2 it is1 therefore1 very excusable4 ,the thing that provokes a smile of pity is to see certain conservatives young in years1 but old in thought--for conservatism in the young can be nothing but the effect of calculating selfishness or the index of psychical anemia--have an air of complacency or of pity for socialists whom they consider1 at best1 as misled1 without perceiving that what is normal is for the old to be conservatives1 but that young conservatives can be nothing but egoists who are afraid of losing the life of idle luxury into which they were born or the advantages of the orthodox fashion of dividing 787 the fruits of labor4 ,their hearts at least1 if not their brains1 are abnormally small4 ,the socialist1 who has everything to lose and nothing to gain by boldly declaring his position and principles1 possesses by contrast all the superiority of a disinterested altruism1 especially when having been born in the aristocratic or the bourgeois class he has renounced the brilliant pleasure of a life of leisure to defend the cause of the weak and the oppressed4#he ,but1 it is said1 these bourgeois socialists act in this way through love of popularity6 ,this is a strange form of selfishness1 at all events1 which prefers to the quickly reaped rewards and profits of bourgeois individualism1 the socialist idealism of popular sympathy1 especially when it might gain this sympathy by other means which would compromise it less in the eyes of the class in power4 ,let us hope1 in concluding1 that when the bourgeoisie shall have to surrender the economic power and the political power in order that they may be used for the benefit of all in the new society and that1 as ,berenini recently said1 victors and vanquished may really become brothers without distinction of class in the common assured enjoyment of a mode of life worthy of human beings1 let us hope that in surrendering power1 the bourgeoisie will do it with that dignity and self-respect which the aristocracy showed when it was stripped of its class privileges by the triumphant bourgeoisie at the time of the ,french ,revolution4 ,it is the truth of the message of socialism and its perfect agreement with the most certain inductions of experimental science which explain to us not only its tremendous growth and progress1 which could not be merely the purely negative effect of a material and moral malady rendered acute by a period of social crisis1 but above all it explains to us that unity of intelligent1 disciplined1 class-conscious solidarity which presents1 in the world-wide celebration of the first of ,may1 a moral phenomenon of such grandeur that human history presents no parallel example1 if we except the movement of primitive ,christianity which had1 however1 a much more restricted field of action than contemporary socialism4 ,henceforth--disregarding the hysterical or unreasoning attempts to revert from bourgeois scepticism to mysticism as a safeguard against the moral and material crisis of the present time1 attempts which make us think of those lascivious women who become pious bigots on growing old#hf--;henceforth both partisans and adversaries of socialism are forced to recognize the fact that1 like ,christianity at the dissolution of the ,roman world1 ,socialism constitutes the only force which restores the hope of a better future to the old and disintegrating human society--a hope no longer begotten by a faith inspired by the unreasoning transports of sentiment1 but born of rational confidence in the inductions of modern experimental science4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,footnotes3 #gh ,j4 ,e4 ,,th4 ,,rogers1 ,the ,economic ,interpretation of ,history1 ,london1 #ahhh4 #gi ,,loria1 ,les ,bases conomiques de la constitution sociale1 #bnd edition1 ,paris1 #ahid4 7,this work is available in ,english under the title3 ,the ,economic ,foundations of ,society4 ,swan ,sonnenschein1 ,london4--,tr47 ,to the general idea of ,karl ,marx1 ,loria adds a theory about the occupation of free land1 which is the fundamental cause of the technical explanation of the different econo-micro-social organizations1 a theory which he has amply demonstrated in his ,analisi della propriet capitalistica1 ,turin1 #ahib4 #hj ,it is seen what our judgment must be regarding the thesis maintained by ,ziegler1 in his book3 ,la question sociale est une question morale 7,the social question is a moral question74 ,french trans41 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,just as psychology is an effect of physiology1 so the moral phenomena are effects of the economic facts4 ,such books are only intended1 more or less consciously1 to divert attention from the vital point of the question1 which is that formulated by ,karl ,marx4 ,see on our side1 ,,de ,,greef1 l',empirieme1 l'utopi et le socialisme scientifique1 ,revue ,socialiste1 ,aug41 #ahhf1 p4 #fhh4 #ha ,as proof of that conspiracy of silence about the theories of ,karl ,marx1 it suffices for me to point out that the historians of socialism generally mention only the technical theory of surplus-labor1 and ignore the two other laws3 7#a7 the determination of social phenomena and institutions by economic conditions1 and 7#b7 the ,class ,struggle4 #hb ,the votes on measures imposing taxes in the legislative bodies of all countries afford obvious illustrations of this principle4 7,the alignment of forces in the struggle for the income tax under the late administration of ,president ,cleveland1 is a very striking instance4--,tr47 #hc ,if uncompromisingness was an ,english word1 it would express the thought more clearly and strongly4--,tr4 #hd ,parties related by affinity of object1 tactics1 or1 more especially1 of immediate demands4--,tr4 #he ,see the lectures of ,,de ,,amicis4 ,osservazioni sulla questione sociale1 ,lecce1 #ahid4 ,,labriola1 ,il ,socialismo1 ,rome1 #ahij4 ,g4 ,,oggero1 ,il ,socialismo1 #bnd edition1 ,milan1 #ahid4 #hf ,there are1 however1 certain forms of this mysticism which appeal to our sympathies very strongly4 ,such forms ,i will call social mysticism4 ,we may instance the works of ,tolstoi1 who envelops his socialism with the doctrine of non-resistance to evil by violent means1 drawn from the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,tolstoi is also an eloquent anti-militarist1 and ,i am pleased to see quoted in his book le ,salut est en vous1 ,paris1 #ahid1 a passage from one of my lectures against war4 ,but he maintains a position aloof from contemporary experimental science1 and his work thus fails to reach the mark4 ,,appendix ,i#hg ,editor1 etc4 ,,dear ,,sir3- ,i have read in your journal a letter from ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer in which he1 relying on indirect information conveyed to him1 regarding my book1 ,socialism and ,modern ,science1 expresses his astonishment at the audacity of him who has made use of his name to defend socialism4 ,permit me to say to you that no socialist has ever dreamt of making ,mr4 ,spencer 7who is certainly the greatest of living philosophers7 pass as a partisan of socialism4 ,it is strange1 indeed1 that anyone could have been able to make him believe that there is in ,italy enough ignorance among writers as well as among readers for one to misuse so grotesquely the name of ,herbert ,spencer1 whose extreme individualism is known to all the world4 ,but the personal opinion of ,herbert ,spencer is a quite different thing from the logical consequence of the scientific theories concerning universal evolution1 which he has developed more fully and better than anyone else1 but of which he has not the official monopoly and whose free expansion by the labor of other thinkers he can not inhibit4 ,i myself1 in the preface of my book1 pointed out that ,spencer and ,darwin stopped half-way on the road to the logical consequences of their doctrines4 ,but ,i also demonstrated that these very doctrines constituted the scientific foundation of the socialism of ,marx1 the only one who1 by rising above the sentimental socialism of former days1 has arranged in a systematic and orderly fashion the facts of the social economy1 and by induction drawn from them political conclusions in support of the revolutionary method of tactics as a means of approach to a revolutionary goal4 ,as regards ,darwinism1 being unable to repeat here the arguments which are already contained in my book and which will be more fully developed in the second edition1 it suffices for me to remind you--since it has been thought fit to resort to arguments having so little weight as appeals to the authority of individuals--that1 among many others1 the celebrated ,virchow foresaw1 with great penetration1 that ,darwinism would lead directly to socialism1 and let me remind you that the celebrated ,wallace1 ,darwinian though he is1 is a member of the ,english ,league for the ,nationalization of the ,land1 which constitutes one of the fundamental conclusions of socialism4#hh ,and1 from another point of view1 what is the famous doctrine of class-struggle which ,marx revealed as the positive key of human history1 but the ,darwinian law of the struggle for life transformed from a chaotic strife between individuals to a conflict between collectivities8 ,just the same as every individual1 every class or social group struggles for its existence4 ,and just as the bourgeoisie struggled against the clergy and the aristocracy1 and triumphed in the ,french ,revolution1 in the same way to-day the international proletariat struggles1 and not by the use of violence1 as is constantly charged against us1 but by propaganda and organization for its economic and moral existence at present so ill assured and depressed to so sadly low a plane4 ,as regards the theory of evolution1 how can any one not see that it most flagrantly contradicts the classical theories of political economy1 which looks upon the basic laws of the existing economic organization as eternal and immutable laws8 ,socialism1 on the contrary1 maintains that the economic institutions and the juridical and political institutions are only the historical product of their particular epoch1 and that therefore they are changing1 since they are in a state of continuous evolution1 which causes the present to differ from the past1 just as the future will be different from the present4 ,herbert ,spencer believes that universal evolution dominates over all orders of phenomena1 with the exception of the organization of property1 which he declares is destined to exist eternally under its individualistic form4 ,the socialists1 on the contrary1 believe that the organization of property will inevitably undergo--just as all other institutions--a radical transformation1 and1 taking into consideration its historical transformations1 they show that the economic evolution is marching and will march faster and faster--as a consequence of the increased evils of individualist concentration--toward its goal1 the complete socialization of the means of production which constitute the physical basis of the social and collective life1 and which must not and can not therefore remain in the hands of a few individuals4 ,between these two doctrines it is not difficult to decide which is the more in harmony with the scientific theory of physical and social evolution4 ,in any case1 with all the respect due to our intellectual father1 ,herbert ,spencer1 but also with all the pride to which my scientific studies and conscience give me the right1 ,i am content with having repelled the anathema which ,herbert ,spencer--without having read my book and on indirect and untrustworthy information--has thought proper to hurl with such a dogmatic tone against a scientific thesis which ,i have affirmed--not merely on the strength of an ipse dixi 7a mode of argument which has had its day7--but which ,i have worked out and supported with arguments which have1 up to this time1 awaited in vain a scientific refutation4 ,,enrico ,,ferri4 ,rome1 ,june1 #ahie4 ,,footnotes3 #hg ,this appendix is a copy of a letter addressed by ,m4 ,ferri to an ,italian newspaper which had printed a letter addressed by ,herbert ,spencer to ,m4 ,fiorentino4 #hh ,wallace has advanced beyond this half way house1 and now calls himself a ,socialist4--,tr4 ,,appendix ,,ii4#hi ,,socialist ,,superstition ,,and ,,individualist ,,myopia4 ,among the numerous publications which1 for or against socialism1 have appeared in ,italy since my ,socialismo e scienza positiva#ij--which demonstrated the agreement of socialism with the fundamental lines of contemporary scientific thought--the book of ,baron ,garofalo was looked forward to with eager interest4 ,it received attention both because of the fame of the author and the open and radical disagreement which its publication made manifest in the ranks of the founders of the school of positive criminology1 formerly united in such close bonds in the propaganda and defense of the new science--criminal anthropology and sociology--created by ,m4 ,lombroso4 ,it is true that the scientific union between the founders of the new ,italian school of criminology formed an alliance1 but they were never in perfect unison4 ,m4 ,lombroso gave to the study of crime as a natural and social phenomenon the initial impulse1 and brilliantly supported the correctness of this conception by his fruitful anthropological and biological investigations4 ,i contributed the systematic1 theoretical treatment of the problem of human responsibility1 and my psychological and sociological studies enabled me to classify the natural causes of crime and the anthropological categories of criminals4 ,i showed the predominant role of social prevention--quite a different thing from police prevention--of criminality1 and demonstrated the infinitesimal influence of repression1 which is always violent and only acts after the mischief has been done4 ,m4 ,garofalo--though he was in accord with us on the subject of the diagnosis of criminal pathology--contributed nevertheless a current of ideas peculiar to himself1 ideas more metaphysical and less heterodox2 such1 for instance1 as the idea that the anomaly shown by the criminal is only a moral anomaly2 that religion has a preventive influence on criminality2 that severe repression is1 at all events1 the effective remedy2 that misery 7poverty7 it not only not the sole and exclusive factor in producing crime 7which ,i always maintained and still maintain71 but that it has no determining influence on crime2 and that popular education1 instead of being a preventive means1 is1 on the contrary1 an incentive1 etc4 ,these ideas1 in evident disagreement with the inductions of biology and of criminal psychology and sociology--as ,i have elsewhere demonstrated--nevertheless did not prevent harmony among the positivists of the new school4 ,in fact1 these personal and antiquated conceptions of ,m4 ,garofalo passed almost unnoticed4 ,his action was especially notable by reason of the greater importance and development he gave to the purely juridical inductions of the new school1 which he systematized into a plan of reforms in criminal law and procedure4 ,he was the jurist of the new school1 ,m4 ,lombroso was the anthropologist1 and ,i the sociologist4 ,but while in ,lombroso and myself the progressive and heterodox tendency--extending even to socialism--became more and more marked1 it could already be foreseen that in ,m4 ,garofalo the orthodox and reactionary tendencies would prevail1 thus leading us away from that common ground on which we have fought side by side1 and might still so fight4 ,for ,i do not believe that these disagreements concerning the social future must necessarily prevent our agreement on the more limited field of the present diagnosis of a phenomenon of social pathology4 99 99 99 99 99 ,after the explanation of this personal matter1 we must now examine the contents of this ,superstition socialiste1 in order to see1 in this schism of the scientific criminologists1 which side has followed most systematically the method of experimental science1 and traced with the most rigorous exactness the trajectory of human evolution4 ,we must see who is the more scientific1 he who in carrying the experimental science beyond the narrow confines of criminal anthropology and applying it in the broad field of social science1 accepts all the logical consequences of scientific observations and gives his open adherence to ,marxian socialism--or he who while being a positivist and innovator in one special branch of science1 remains a conservative in the other branches1 to which he refuses to apply the positive method1 and which he does not study with a critical spirit1 but in which he contents himself with the easy and superficial repetition of trite commonplaces4 ,to those familiar with the former work of the author1 this book1 from the first page to the last1 presents a striking contrast between ,m4 ,garofalo1 the heterodox criminologist ever ready to criticize with penetration classical criminology1 always in revolt against the threadbare commonplaces of juridical tradition1 and ,m4 ,garofalo1 the anti-socialist1 the orthodox sociologist1 the conservative follower of tradition1 who finds that all is well in the world of to-day4 ,he who distinguished himself before by the tone of his publications1 always serene and dignified1 now permits us to think1 that he is less convinced of the correctness of his position than he would have us believe1 and to cover up this deficiency of conviction screams and shouts at the top of his voice4 ,for instance1 on page #ag1 in a style which is neither aristocratic nor bourgeois1 he writes that ,bebel had the impudence to defend the ,commune in a public session of the ,reichstag2 and he forgets that the ,commune of ,paris is not to be judged historically by relying solely upon the revolting impressions left upon the mind by the artificial and exaggerated accounts of the bourgeois press of that time4 ,malon and ,marx have shown by indisputable documentary evidence and on impregnable historical grounds what the verdict on the ,commune of the impartial judgment must be1 in spite of the excesses which--as ,m4 ,alfred ,maury said to me at the ,pre-,lachaise1 one day in #ahgi--were far surpassed by the ferocity of a bloody and savage repression4 ,in the same way1 on pages #bj-bb1 he speaks 7,i can not see why7 of the contempt of ,marxian socialists for sentimental socialism1 which no ,marxian has ever dreamt of despising1 though we recognize it is little in harmony with the systematic1 experimental method of social science4 ,and1 on page #aed1 he seems to think1 he is carrying on a scientific discussion when he writes3 ,in truth1 when one sees men who profess such doctrines succeed in obtaining a hearing1 one is obliged to recognize that there are no limits to human imbecility4 ,ah6 my dear ,baron ,garofalo1 how this language reminds me of that of some of the classical criminologists--do you remember it8--who tried to combat the positivist school with language too much like this of yours1 which conceals behind hackneyed phrases1 the utter lack of ideas to oppose to the hated1 but victorious heresy6 99 99 99 99 99 ,but aside from this language1 so strange from the pen of ,m4 ,garofalo1 it is impossible not to perceive the strange contrast between his critical talent and the numerous statements in this book which are1 to say the least1 characterized by a naivet one would never have suspected in him4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is true that1 on page #gd1 like an individualist of the good old days1 and with an absolutism which we may henceforth call pre-historic1 he deplores the enactment of even those civil laws which have limited the jus utendi et abutendi 7freely1 the right of doing what one will with one's own--,tr471 and which have seriously maimed the institution of private property1 since1 he says1 the lower classes suffer cruelly1 not from the existence of great fortunes1 but rather from the economic embarrassment of the upper classes 7page #gg74 ,what boldness of critical thought and profundity in economic science6 ,and1 in regard to my statement that contemporary science is altogether dominated by the idea and the fact of the social aggregate--and1 therefore1 of socialism--in contrast to the glorification of the individual1 and1 therefore1 of individualism1 which obtained in the ,eighteenth ,century1 ,m4 ,garofalo replies to me that the story of ,robinson ,crusoe was borrowed from a very trustworthy history1 and adds that it would be possible to cite many cases of anchorites and hermits who had no need of the company of their fellows 7page #hb74 ,he believes that he has thus demonstrated that ,i was mistaken when ,i declared that the species is the sole eternal reality of life and that the individual--himself a biological aggregation--does not live alone and by himself alone1 but only by virtue of the fact that he forms a part of a collectivity1 to which he owes all the creative conditions of his material1 moral and intellectual existence4 ,in truth1 if ,m4 ,garofalo had employed such arguments to expose the absurdities of metaphysical penology1 and to defend the heresies of the positive school1 the latter would certainly not number him among its most eloquent and suggestive founders and champions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and yet1 ,m4 ,garofalo1 instead of repeating these soporific banalities1 ought to have been able to discuss seriously the fundamental thesis of socialism1 which1 through the social ownership of the land and the means of production1 tends to assure to every individual the conditions of an existence more worthily human1 and of a full and perfectly free development of his physical and moral personality4 ,for then only1 when the daily bread of the body and mind is guaranteed1 will every man be able1 as ,goethe said1 to become that which he is1 instead of wasting and wearing himself out in the spasmodic and exhausting struggle for daily bread1 obtained too often at the expense of personal dignity or the sacrifice of intellectual aptitudes1 while human energies are obviously squandered to the great disadvantage of the entire society1 and all this with the appearance of personal liberty1 but1 in fact1 with the vast majority of mankind reduced to dependence upon the class in possession of economic monopoly4 ,but ,m4 ,garofalo has altogether refrained from these discussions1 which admit of scientific arguments on either hand4 ,he has confined himself1 on the contrary1 even when he has attempted to discuss seriously1 to the repetition of the most superficial commonplaces4 ,thus1 for example 7page #ib71 opposing the socialists who maintain that the variations of the social environment will inevitably bring about a change in individual aptitudes and activities1 he writes3 ,but the world can not change1 if men do not first begin by transforming themselves under the influence of those two ideal factors3 honor and duty4 ,that is the same as saying that a man must not jump into the water 444 unless he has learned beforehand to swim1 while remaining on land4 ,nothing1 on the contrary1 is more in harmony with the scientific inductions of biology and sociology than the socialist idea1 according to which changes in the environment cause correlative changes1 both physiological and psychical1 in individuals4 ,the soul of ,darwinism1 is it not wholly in the variability1 organic and functional1 of individuals and species1 under the modifying influence of the environment1 fixed and transmitted by natural selection8 ,and neo-,darwinism itself1 does it not consist wholly in the constantly increasing importance attributed to the changes in the environment as explanations of the variations of living beings8 ,and1 in the realm of sociology1 just as1 according to the repeated and unquestioned demonstrations of ,spencer1 in the passage of human societies from the military type to the industrial type--as ,saint-,simon had already pointed out--a change1 a process of adaptation1 also takes place in that human nature which the anti-socialists would have us believe is a fixed and immutable thing1 like the created species of old-school biology2 in the same way1 in the gradual transition to a collectivist organization1 human nature will necessarily adapt itself to the modified social conditions4 ,certainly1 human nature will not change in its fundamental tendencies2 and1 as an illustration1 man like the animals will always shun suffering and strive after pleasure1 since the former is a diminution and the latter an augmentation of life2 but this is not inconsistent with the fact that the application and direction of these biological tendencies can and must change with the changes in the environment4 ,so that ,i have been able elsewhere to demonstrate that individual egoism will1 indeed1 always exist1 but it will act in a profoundly different fashion1 in a society whose conscious goal will be true human solidarity1 from the way in which it acts in the individualist and morally anarchical world of to-day1 a world in which every man1 by the working of what is called free competition1 is forced to follow the impulses of his anti-social egoism1 that is to say1 to be in conflict1 and not in harmony1 with the wants and the tendencies of the other members of society4 ,but the repetition of worn-out commonplaces reaches its climax when ,m4 ,garofalo--surely1 through inattention--writes these marvelous lines3 ,apparently1 many young men of aristocratic families do not work4 ,it is nevertheless more correct to say that they do not do any productive labor for themselves1 but they work just the same 76671 and this for the benefit of others6 ,in fact1 these gentlemen 'of leisure' are generally devoted to sport--hunting1 yachting1 horseback riding1 fencing--or to travel1 or to dilettantisme in the arts1 and their activity1 unproductive for themselves1 provides an immense number of persons with profitable occupations 7page #ahc74 ,one day1 when ,i was studying the prisoners in a jail1 one of them said to me3 ,such an outcry is made against the criminals because they do not work2 but if we did not exist1 an immense number of persons--jailers1 policemen1 judges and lawyers--would be without a profitable occupation6 99 99 99 99 99 ,after having noted these specimens of unscientific carelessness1 and before entering upon the examination of the few scientific arguments developed by ,m4 ,garofalo1 it will be well1 to aid us in forming a general judgment on his book1 to show how far he has forgotten the most elementary rules of the scientific method4 ,and it will be useful also to add a few examples of mistakes in regard to facts bearing either on science in general1 or on the doctrines combated by him4 ,on page #da1 speaking of the scientific work of ,marx with a disdain which can not be taken seriously1 since it is too much like that of the theologians for ,darwin or that of the jurists for ,lombroso1 he reasons in this curious fashion3 ,starting from the hypothesis that all private property is unjust1 it is not logic that is wanting in the doctrine of ,marx4 ,but if one recognizes1 on the contrary1 that every individual has a right to possess some thing of his own1 the direct and inevitable consequence is the rightfulness of the profits of capital1 and1 therefore1 the augmentation of the latter4 ,certainly1 if one admits a priori the right of individual property in the land and the means of production 444 it is needless and useless to discuss the question4 ,but the troublesome fact is that all the scientific work of ,marx and the socialists has been done precisely in order to furnish absolute scientific proof of the true genesis of capitalist property--the unpaid surplus-labor of the laborer--and to put an end to the old fables about the first occupant1 and accumulated savings which are only exceptions1 ever becoming rarer4 ,moreover1 the negation of private property is not the hypothesis1 but the logical and inevitable consequence of the premises of facts and of historical demonstrations made1 not only by ,marx1 but by a numerous group of sociologists who1 abandoning the reticence and mental reservations of orthodox conventionalism1 have1 by that step1 become socialists4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but contemporary socialism1 for the very reason that it is in perfect harmony with scientific and exact thought1 no longer harbors the illusions of those who fancy that to-morrow--with a dictator of wonderful intelligence and remarkable eloquence1 charged with the duty of organizing collectivism by means of decrees and regulations--we could reach the ,co-operative ,commonwealth at a bound1 eliminating the intermediate phases4 ,moreover1 is not the absolute and unbridled individualism of yesterday already transformed into a limited individualism and into a partial collectivism by legal limitations of the jus abutendi and by the continuous transformation into social functions or public properties of the services 7lighting1 water-supply1 transportation1 etc471 or properties 7roads1 bridges1 canals1 etc471 which were formerly private services and properties8 ,these intermediate phases can not be suppressed by decrees1 but they develop and finish their course naturally day by day1 under the pressure of the economic and social conditions2 but1 by a natural and therefore inexorable progress1 they are constantly approaching more closely that ultimate phase of absolute collectivism in the means of production1 which the socialists have not invented1 but the tendency toward which they have shown1 and whose ultimate attainment they scientifically predict4 ,the rate of progress toward this goal they can accelerate by giving to the proletarians1 organized into a class-party1 a clearer consciousness of their historic mission4 99 99 99 99 99 ,all through this book are scattered not only defects of method1 but also actual errors in matters of fact4 ,the book is also marred by an immanent contradiction that runs all through it1 in connection with the absolutely uncompromising attitude against socialism which the author aims to maintain1 but which he is unable to keep up in the face of the irresistible tendency of the facts1 as we shall see in the conclusion of this analysis4 ,in chapter ,,iv1 ,m4 ,garofalo contends that civilization would be menaced with destruction by the elevation to power of the popular classes4 ,m4 ,garofalo1 who is of an old aristocratic family1 declares that the ,third ,estate1 which should have substituted youthful energies for the feebleness and corruption of an effete and degenerate aristocracy1 has shown magnified a hundred-fold the defects and corruption of the latter 7p4 #bjf74 ,this is certainly not a correct historical judgment2 for it is certain that the ,third ,estate1 which with the ,french ,revolution gained political ascendancy--a political ascendancy made inevitable by its previously won economic ascendancy1--gave in the course of the ,nineteenth ,century a new and powerful impulse to civilization4 ,and if to-day1 after a century of undisputed domination1 the bourgeoisie shows multiplied a hundred-fold the defects and the corruption of the aristocracy of the ,eighteenth ,century1 this signifies simply that the ,third ,estate has reached the final phase of its parabola1 so that the advent of a more developed social phase is becoming an imminent historical necessity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another error in criminal psychology--natural enough for idealists and metaphysicians1 but which may well surprise us in an exact scientist--is the influence upon human conduct which ,m4 ,garofalo attributes to the religious sentiment4 ,moral instruction has no meaning1 or at least no efficacy1 without a religious basis 7p4 #bfg74 ,and from this erroneous psychological premise1 he draws the conclusion that it is necessary to return to religious instruction in the schools1 selecting the masters from among men of mature age1 fathers of families or ministers of religion 7p4 #bfh74 ,in combating this conclusion1 truly surprising in a scientist1 it is useless to recall the teachings of the experience of former times in regard to the pretended moralizing influence of the priest upon the school2 and it is also unnecessary to recall the statistics of criminal assaults committed by priests condemned to celibacy4 ,it is equally superfluous to add that at all events1 in again turning the priest into a schoolmaster1 it would be necessary to recommend to him never to recall the invectives of ,jesus against the rich1 the metaphor of the camel passing through the eye of a needle1 or the still more violent invectives of the ,fathers of the ,church against private property2 for long before ,proudhon1 ,saint ,jerome had said that wealth is always the product of theft2 if it was not committed by the present holder1 it was by his ancestors1 and ,saint ,ambrose added that ,nature has established community of goods2 from usurpation alone is private property born4 ,if it is true that later on the ,church1 in proportion as it departed from the doctrines of the ,master1 preached in favor of the rich1 leaving to the poor the hope of ,paradise2 and if it is true1 as ,m4 ,garofalo says1 that the ,christian philosophers exhorted the poor to sanctify the tribulations of poverty by resignation 7p4 #aff72 it is also true that1 for example1 ,bossuet1 in one of his famous sermons1 recognized that the complaints of the poor are justified2 and he asked3 ,why are conditions so unequal8 ,we are all formed of the same dust1 and nothing can justify it4 ,so that recently1 ,m4 ,giraud-,teulon1 in the name of an hermaphrodite liberalism1 recalled that the right of private property is rather tolerated by the ,church as an existing fact than presented as a necessary foundation of civil society4 ,it is even condemned in its inspiring principle by the ,fathers of the ,church4#ia ,but apart from all this1 it is sufficient for me to establish that the psychological premise1 from which ,m4 ,garofalo starts1 is erroneous in itself4 ,studying elsewhere the influence of the religious sentiment on criminality#ib1 ,i have shown by positive documentary evidence1 that religious beliefs1 efficacious for individuals already endowed with a normal social sense1 since they add to the sanction of the moral conscience 7which1 however1 would suffice by itself7 the sanctions of the life beyond the tomb--religion is the guarantor of justice#ic--;are1 nevertheless1 wholly ineffective1 when the social sense1 on account of some physio-psychical anomaly1 is atrophied or non-existent4 ,so that religious belief1 considered as a regulator of social conduct1 is at once superfluous for honorable people and altogether ineffective for those who are not honorable1 if indeed it is not capable of increasing the propensity to evil by developing religious fanaticism or giving rise to the hope of pardon in the confessional or of absolution in articulo mortis1 etc4 ,it is possible to understand--at least as an expedient as utilitarian as it is highly hypocritical--the argument of those who1 atheists so far as they themselves are concerned1 still wish to preserve religious beliefs for the people1 because they exercise a depressing influence and prevent all energetic agitation for human rights and enjoyments here below4 ,the conception of ,god as a ,policeman is only one among many illusions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,besides these errors of fact in the biological and psychological sciences1 ,m4 ,garofalo also misstates the socialist doctrines1 following the example of the opponents of the new school of criminology1 who found it easier to refute the doctrines they attributed to us than to shake the doctrines we defended4 ,on page #ad1 ,m4 ,garofalo begins by stating1 the true tendency of the party known as the ,workingmen's ,party1 is to gain power1 not in the interest of all1 but in order to expropriate the dominant class and to step into their shoes4 ,they do not disguise this purpose in their programmes4 ,this statement is found again on page #baj1 etc4 ,now1 it suffices to have read the programme of the socialist party1 from the ,,manifesto of ,marx and ,engels down to the propagandist publications1 to know1 on the contrary1 that contemporary socialism wishes1 and declares its wish1 to accomplish the general suppression of all social divisions into classes by suppressing the division of the social patrimony of production1 and1 therefore1 proclaims itself resolved to achieve the prosperity ,,of ,,all1 and not only--as some victims of myopia continue to believe--that of a ,fourth ,estate1 which would simply have to follow the example of the decaying ,third ,estate4 ,starting from this fundamental datum of socialism1 that every individual1 unless he be a child1 sick or an invalid1 must work1 in order to live1 at one sort or another of useful labor1 it follows as an inevitable consequence that1 in a society organized on this principle1 all class antagonism will become impossible2 for this antagonism exists only when society contains a great majority who work1 in order to live in discomfort1 and a small minority who live well1 without working4 ,this initial error naturally dominates the entire book4 ,thus1 for instance1 the third chapter is devoted to proving that the social revolution planned for by the new socialists1 will be the destruction of all moral order in society1 because it is without an ideal to serve it as a luminous standard 7p4 #aei74 ,let us disregard1 my dear ,baron1 the famous moral order of that society which enriches and honors the well-dressed wholesale thieves of the great and little ,panamas1 the banks and railways1 and condemns to imprisonment children and women who steal dry wood or grass in the fields which formerly belonged to the commune4 ,but to say that socialism is without an ideal1 when even its opponents concede to it this immense superiority in potential strength over the sordid skepticism of the present world1 viz41 its ardent faith in a higher social justice for all1 a faith that makes strikingly clear its resemblance to the regenerating ,christianity of primitive times 7very different from that fatty degeneration of ,christianity1 called ,catholicism71 to say this is truly1 for a scientist1 to blindly rebel against the most obvious facts of daily life4 ,m4 ,garofalo even goes so far as to say that the want of the necessaries of life is a very exceptional fact1 and that therefore the condition of the proletariat is a social condition like that of all the other classes1 and the lack of capital1 which is its characteristic1 is a permanent economic condition which is not at all abnormal ,,for ,,those ,,who ,,are ,,used ,,to ,,it4#id ,then--while passing over this comfortable and egoistic quietism which finds nothing abnormal in the misery 444 of others--we perceive how deficient ,m4 ,garofalo is1 in the most elementary accuracy1 in the ascertainment of facts when we recall the suffering and ever-growing multitude of the unemployed1 which is sometimes a local and transitory phenomenon1 but which1 in its acute or chronic forms1 is always the necessary and incontestable effect of capitalist accumulation and the introduction and improvement of machinery1 which are1 in their turn1 the source of modern socialism1 scientific socialism1 so different from the sentimental socialism of former times4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but the fundamental fallacy1 from which so many thinkers--,m4 ,garofalo among them--can not free themselves1 and to which ,i myself yielded1 before ,i had penetrated1 thanks to the ,marxian theory of historic materialism--or1 more exactly1 of economic determinism--into the true spirit of socialist sociology1 is the tendency to judge the inductions of socialism by the biological1 psychological and sociological data of the present society1 without thinking of the necessary changes that will be effected by a different economic environment with its inevitable concomitants or consequences1 different moral and political environments4 ,in ,m4 ,garofalo's book we find once more this petitio principii which refuses to believe in the future in the name of the present1 which is declared immutable4 ,it is exactly as if in the earliest geological epochs it had been concluded from the flora and fauna then existing that it was impossible for a fauna and flora ever to exist differing from them as widely as do the cryptogams from the conifers1 or the mammalia from the mollusca4 ,this confirms1 once more1 the observation that ,i made before1 that to deny the truth of scientific socialism is implicitly to deny that law of universal and eternal evolution1 which is the dominant factor in all modern scientific thought4 ,on page #af1 ,m4 ,garofalo predicts that with the triumph of socialism we shall see re-appear upon earth the reign of irrational and brutal physical force1 and that we shall witness1 as happens every day in the lowest strata of the population1 the triumph of the most violent men4 ,and he repeats this on pages #bji-baj2 but he forgets that1 given the socialist premise of a better organized social environment1 this brutality1 which is the product of the present misery and lack of education1 must necessarily gradually diminish1 and at last disappear4 ,now1 the possibility of this improvement of the social environment1 which socialism asserts1 is a thesis that can be discussed2 but when a writer1 in order to deny this possibility1 opposes to the future the effects of a present1 whose elimination is the precise question at issue1 he falls into that insidious fallacy which it is only necessary to point out to remove all foundation from his arguments4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and it is as always by grace of this same fallacy that he is able to declare1 on page #bac1 that under the socialist regime the fine arts will be unable to exist4 ,it is easy to say1 they will henceforth be exercised and cultivated for the benefit of the public4 ,of what public8 ,of the great mass of the people deprived of artistic education8 ,as if1 when poverty is once eliminated and labor has become less exhausting for the popular classes1 the comfort and economic security1 which would result from this1 would not be sure to develop in them also the taste for sthetic pleasure1 which they feel and satisfy now1 so far as that is possible for them1 in the various forms of popular art1 or as may be seen to-day it ,paris and ,vienna by the ,thtre socialiste and at ,brussells by the free musical matines1 instituted by the socialists and frequented by a constantly growing number of workingmen4 ,it is just the same with regard to scientific instruction1 as witness ,university ,extension in ,england and ,belgium4 ,and all this1 notwithstanding the present total lack of artistic education1 but thanks to the exigence among the workers of these countries of an economic condition lees wretched than that of the agricultural or even the industrial proletariat in countries such as ,italy4 ,and from another point of view1 what are the museums if not a form of collective ownership and use of the products of art8 ,it is again1 as always1 the same fallacy which 7at page #baf7 makes ,m4 ,garofalo write3 ,the history of ,europe1 from the fifth to the thirteenth centuries1 shows us1 by analogy1 what would happen to the world if the lower classes should come into power4444 ,how to explain the medieval barbarism and anarchy save by the grossness and ignorance of the conquerors8 ,the same fate would inevitably await the modern civilization1 if the controlling power should fall into the hands of the proletarians1 who1 assuredly1 are intellectually not superior to the ancient barbarians and ,,morally ,,are ,,far ,,inferior ,,to ,,them6 ,let us disregard this unjustified and unjustifiable insult and this completely erroneous historical comparison4 ,it is enough to point out that it is here supposed that by a stroke of a magic wand the lower classes will be able in a single day to gain possession of power without having been prepared for this by a preliminary moral revolution1 a revolution accomplished in them by the acquired consciousness of their rights and of their organic solidarity4 ,it will be impossible to compare the proletarians in whom this moral revolution shall have taken place with the barbarians of the ,middle ,ages4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in my book ,socialismo et ,criminalit1 published in #ahhc1 and which to-day my adversaries1 including ,m4 ,garofalo 7p4 #abh et seq471 try to oppose to the opinions which ,i have upheld in my more recent book1 ,socialisme et science positive 7the present work71 ,i have developed two theses3 ,i4 ,that the social organization could not be suddenly changed1 as was then maintained in ,italy by the sentimental socialists1 since the law of evolution dominates with sovereign power the human world as well as the inorganic and organic world2 ,,ii4 ,that1 by analogy1 crime could not disappear absolutely from among mankind1 as the ,italian socialists of those days vaguely hinted4 ,now1 in the first place it would not have been at all inconsistent if1 after having partially accepted socialism1 which ,i had already done in #ahhc1 the progressive evolution of my thought1 after having studied the systematic1 scientific form given to socialism by ,marx and his co-workers1 had led me to recognize 7apart from all personal advantage7 the complete truth of socialism4 ,but1 especially1 precisely because scientific socialism 7since the work of ,marx1 ,engels1 ,malon1 de ,paepe1 ,dramard1 ,lanessan1 ,guesde1 ,schaeffle1 ,george1 ,bebel1 ,loria1 ,colajanni1 ,turati1 de ,greef1 ,lafargue1 ,jaurs1 ,renard1 ,denis1 ,plechanow1 ,vandervelde1 ,letourneau1 ,l4 ,jacoby1 ,labriola1 ,kautsky1 etc47 is different from the sentimental socialism which ,i had alone in mind in #ahhc1 it is for that very reason that ,i still maintain to-day these two same principal theses1 and ,i find myself in so doing in perfect harmony with international scientific socialism4 ,and as to the absolute disappearance of all criminality1 ,i still maintain my thesis of #ahhc1 and in the present book 7 #c71 ,i have written that1 even under the socialist regime1 there will be--though infinitely fewer--some who will be conquered in the struggle for existence and that1 though the chronic and epidemic forms of nervous disease1 crime1 insanity and suicide1 are destined to disappear1 the acute and sporadic forms will not completely disappear4 ,at this statement ,m4 ,garofalo manifests a surprise which1 as ,i can not suppose it simulated1 ,i declare truly inexplicable in a sociologist and a criminologist2 for this reminds me too strongly of the ignorant surprise shown by a review of classical jurisprudence in regard to a new scientific fact recorded by the ,archives de psychiatrie of ,m4 ,lombroso1 the case being the disappearance of every criminal tendency in a woman after the surgical removal of her ovaries4 ,but that the trepanning of the skull in a case of traumatic epilepsy or that ovariotomy can cure the central nervous system and1 therefore1 restore the character and even the morality of the individual1 these are facts that can be unknown only to a metaphysical idealist1 an opponent of the positivist school of criminology4 ,and yet this is how ,m4 ,garofalo comments on my induction 7p4 #bdj72 this commentary is reproduced again on pages #ie1 #ajj1 #acd and #bia3 ,it is truly extraordinary that ,m4 ,ferri1 notwithstanding that criminal anthropology1 of which he has so long been 7and still is7 one of the most ardent partisans1 should have allowed himself to be so blinded by the mirage of socialism4 ,a statement such as that which ,i have quoted at first leaves the reader stunned1 since he sees absolutely no connection between nervous diseases and collective ownership4 ,it would be just as sensible to say that by the study of algebra one can make sure of one's first-born child being a male4 ,how exactly like the remarks of the ,review of jurisprudence concerning the case of the removal of the ovaries6 ,now1 let us see whether it is possible1 by a supreme effort of our feeble intellect1 to point out a connection between nervous diseases and collective ownership4 ,that poverty1 i4 e41 inadequate physical and mental nutrition--in the life of the individual and through hereditary transmission--is1 if not the only and exclusive cause1 certainly the principal cause of human degeneration1 is henceforth an indisputable and undisputed fact4 ,that the poverty and misery of the working class--and notably of the unhappy triad of the unemployed1 the displaced by machinery1 trusts1 etc4 and those who have been expropriated by taxation--is destined to disappear with the socialization of the land and the means of production3--this is the proposition that socialism maintains and demonstrates4 ,it is1 therefore1 natural that under the socialist rgime1 with the disappearance of poverty1 there should be eliminated the principal source of popular degeneracy in the epidemic and chronic forms of diseases1 crimes1 insanity and suicide2 this can1 moreover1 be seen at present--on a small scale1 but clearly enough to positively confirm the general induction--since diseases nervous1 crimes1 insanity and suicide increase during famines and crises1 while they diminish in years when the economic conditions are less wretched4 ,there is still more to be said4 ,even among the aristocracy and bourgeoisie1 no one can fail to see that the feverish competition and cannibalistic strife of our present system beget nervous disorders1 crime and suicide1 which would be rendered quite unnecessary by the establishment of a socialist rgime1 which would banish worry and uneasiness for the morrow from the human race4 ,there then you see established the relation between collective ownership and nervous diseases or degeneration in general1 not only among the popular and more numerous classes1 but also in the bourgeois and aristocratic classes4 ,it is1 indeed1 astonishing that the anti-socialist prejudice of ,m4 ,garofalo should have been strong enough to cause him to forget that truth which is nevertheless a legitimate induction of criminal biology and sociology1 the truth that besides the congenital criminal there are other types of criminals who are more numerous and more directly produced by the vitiated social environment4 ,and1 finally1 if the congenital criminal is not himself the direct product of the environment1 he is indirectly its product through the degeneration begun in his ancestors1 by some acute disease in some cases1 but by debilitating poverty in the majority of cases1 and afterward hereditarily transmitted and aggravated in accordance with the inexorable laws discovered by modern science4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,garofalo's book1 which was announced as an assault of science upon socialism1 has been1 even from this point of view1 a complete disappointment1 as even the ,italian anti-socialists have confessed in several of the most orthodox ,reviews4 ,it now remains for me to reply briefly to his observations--and they are few and far between--on the relations which exist between contemporary socialism and the general trend and tendency of thought in the exact sciences4 ,disregarding the arguments which ,i had developed on this subject by pointing out that there is an essential connection between economic and social transmutation 7,marx7 and the theories of biological transmutation 7,darwin7 and of universal transmutation 7,spencer71 ,m4 ,garofalo has thought it prudent to take up for consideration only the struggle for existence and the relations between evolution and revolution4 ,as to the first1 five pages 7#if-ajj7 are enough to enable him to declare1 without supporting his declaration by any positive argument which is not merely a different verbal expression of the same idea1 that the ,darwinian law of the struggle for existence has not undergone and can not undergo any transformation except that which will change the violent struggle into competition 7the struggle of skill and intelligence7 and that this law is irreconcilable with socialism2 for it necessarily requires the sacrifice of the conquered1 while socialism would guarantee to all men their material existence1 so they would have no cause for anxiety4 ,but my friend1 the ,baron ,garofalo1 quietly and completely ignores the fundamental argument that the socialists oppose to the individualist interpretation that has hitherto been given of the struggle for life and which still affects the minds of some socialists so far as to make them think that the law of the struggle for life is not true and that ,darwinism is irreconcilable with socialism4 ,the socialists1 in fact1 think that the laws of life are the following1 and that they are concurrent and inseparable3 the struggle for existence and solidarity in the struggle against natural forces4 ,if the first law is in spirit individualist1 the second is essentially socialistic4 ,now1 not to repeat what ,i have written elsewhere1 it is sufficient here for me to establish this positive fact that all human evolution is effected through the constantly increasing predominance of the law of solidarity over the law of the struggle for existence4 ,the forms of the struggle are transformed and grow milder1 as ,i showed as long ago as #ahhc1 and ,m4 ,garofalo accepts this way of looking at the matter when he recognizes that the muscular struggle is ever tending to become an intellectual struggle4 ,but he has in view only the formal evolution2 he wholly disregards the progressive decrease in the importance of the struggling function under the action of the other parallel law of solidarity in the struggle4 ,here comes in that constant principle in sociology1 that the social forms and forces co-exist always1 but that their relative importance changes from epoch to epoch and from place to place4 ,just as in the individual egoism and altruism co-exist and will co-exist always--for egoism is the basis of personal existence--but with a continuous and progressive restriction and transformation of egoism1 corresponding to the expansion of altruism1 in passing from the fierce egoism of savage humanity to the less brutal egoism of the present epoch1 and finally to the more fraternal egoism of the coming society2 in the same way in the social organism1 for example1 the military type and the industrial type always co-exist1 but with a progressively increasing predominance of the latter over the former4 ,the same truth applies to the different forms of the family1 and also to many other institutions1 of which ,spencerian sociology had given only the descriptive evolution and of which the ,marxian theory of economic determinism has given the genetic evolution1 by explaining that the religious and juridical customs and institutions1 the social types1 the forms of the family1 etc41 are only the reflex of the economic structure which differs in varying localities 7on islands or continents1 according to the abundance or scarcity of food7 and also varies from epoch to epoch4 ,and--to complete the ,marxian theory--this economic structure is1 in the case of each social group1 the resultant of its race energies developing themselves in such or such a physical environment1 at ,i have said elsewhere4 ,the same rule holds in the case of the two co-existing laws of the struggle for existence and of solidarity in the struggle1 the first of which predominates where the economic conditions are more difficult2 while the second predominates with the growth of the economic security of the majority4 ,but while this security will become complete under the rgime of socialism1 which will assure to every man who works the material means of life1 this will not exclude the intellectual forms of the struggle for existence which ,m4 ,tchisch recently said should be interpreted not only in the sense of a struggle for life1 but also in the sense of a struggle for the enrichment of life4#ie ,in fact1 when once the material life of every one is assured1 together with the duty of labor for all the members of society1 man will continue always to struggle for the enrichment of life1 that is to say1 for the fuller development of his physical and moral individuality4 ,and it is only under the rgime of socialism that1 the predominance of the law of solidarity being decisive1 the struggle for existence will change its form and substance1 while persisting as an eternal striving toward a better life in the solidaire development of the individual and the collectivity4 ,but ,m4 ,garofalo devotes more attention to the practical 787 relations between socialism and the law of evolution4 ,and in substance1 once more making use of the objection already so often raised against ,marxism and its tactics1 he formulates his indictment thus3 ,the new socialists who1 on the one hand1 pretend to speak in the name of sociological science and of the natural laws of evolution1 declare themselves politically1 on the other hand1 as revolutionists4 ,now1 evidently science has nothing to do with their political action4 ,although they take pains to say that by revolution they do not mean either a riot or a revolt--an explanation also contained in the dictionary#if--this fact always remains1 viz43 that they are unwilling to await the spontaneous organization of society under the new economic arrangement foreseen by them in a more or less remote future4 ,for if they should thus quietly await its coming1 who among them would survive to prove to the incredulous the truth of their predictions8 ,it is a question then of an evolution artificially hastened1 that is to say1 in other words1 of the use of force to transform society in accordance with their wishes4 7p4 #cj47 ,the socialists of the ,marxian school do not expect the transformation to be effected by a slow evolution1 but by a revolution of the people1 and they even fix the epoch of its occurence4 7p4 #ec47 ,henceforth the socialists must make a decision and take one horn of the dilemma or the other4 ,either they must be theoretical evolutionists1 ,,who ,,wait ,,patiently until the time shall be ripe2 ,or1 on the contrary1 they must be revolutionary democrats2 and if they take this horn1 it is nonsense to talk of evolution1 accumulation1 spontaneous concentration1 etc4 ,,accomplish ,,then ,,this ,,revolution1 ,,if ,,you ,,have ,,the ,,power4 7p4 #aea47 ,i do not wish to dwell on this curious instigation to civil war by such an orthodox conservative as the ,baron ,garofalo1 although he might be suspected of the not specially ,christian wish to see this revolution of the people break out at once1 while the people are still disorganized and weak and while it would be easier for the dominant class to bleed them copiously4444 ,let us try rather to deliver ,m4 ,garofalo from another trouble2 for on page #aai he exclaims pathetically3 ,i declare on my honor ,i do not understand how a sincere socialist can to-day be a revolutionist4 ,i would be sincerely grateful to anyone who would explain this to me1 for to me this is an enigma1 so great is the contradiction between the theory and the methods of the socialists4 ,well then1 console yourself1 my excellent friend6 ,just as in the case of the relationship between collective ownership and human degeneration1 which seemed so enigmatical to this same ,baron ,garofalo--and although he has not offered his gratitude for the solution of this enigma to the socialist ,oedipus who explained it to him--here also1 in the case of this other enigma1 the explanation is very simple4 ,on the subject of the social question the attitudes assumed in the domain of science1 or on the field of politics1 are the following3 #ast4 ,that of the conservatives1 such as ,m4 ,garofalo4 ,these1 judging the world1 not by the conditions objectively established1 but by their own subjective impressions1 consider that they are well enough off under the present rgime1 and contend that everything is for the best in this best of all possible worlds1 and oppose in all cases1 with a very logical egoism1 every change which is not merely a superficial change2 #bnd4 ,that of the reformers1 who1 like all the eclectics1 whose number is infinite1 give1 as the ,italian proverb says1 one blow to the cask and another to the hoop and do not deny--,o1 no6--the inconveniences and even the absurdities of the present 444 but1 not to compromise themselves too far1 hasten to say that they must confine themselves to minor ameliorations1 to superficial reforms1 that is to say1 to treating the symptoms instead of the disease1 a therapeutic method as easy and as barren of abiding results in dealing with the social organism as with the individual organism2 #crd4 ,that1 finally1 of the revolutionaries1 who rightly call themselves thus because they think and say that the effective remedy is not to be found in superficial reforms1 but in a radical reorganization of society1 beginning at the very foundation1 private property1 and which will be so profound that it will truly constitute a social revolution4 ,it is in this sense that ,galileo accomplished a scientific revolution2 for he did not confine himself to reforms of the astronomical system received in his time1 but he radically changed its fundamental lines4 ,and it is in this same sense that ,jacquart effected an industrial revolution1 since he did not confine himself to reforming the hand-loom1 as it had existed for centuries1 but radically changed its structure and productive power4 ,therefore1 when socialists speak of socialism as revolutionary1 they mean by this to describe the programme to be realized and the final goal to be attained and not--as ,m4 ,garofalo1 in spite of the dictionary1 continues to believe--the method or the tactics to be employed in achieving this goal1 the social revolution4 ,and right here appears the profound difference between the method of sentimental socialism and that of scientific socialism--henceforth the only socialism in the civilized world--which has received through the work of ,marx1 ,engels and their successors that systematic form which is the distinctive mark of all the evolutionary sciences4 ,and that is why and how ,i have been able to demonstrate that contemporary socialism is in full harmony with the scientific doctrine of evolution4 ,socialism is in fact evolutionary1 but not in the sense that ,m4 ,garofalo prefers of waiting patiently until the times shall be ripe and until society shall organize spontaneously under the new economic arrangement1 as if science necessarily must consist in ,oriental contemplation and academic ,platonism--as it has done for too long--instead of investigating the conditions of actual1 every-day life1 and applying its inductions to them4 ,certainly1 science for the sake of science1 is a formula very satisfactory to the avowed conservatives--and that is only logical--and also to the eclectics2 but modern positivism prefers the formula of science for life's sake and1 therefore1 thinks that the ripeness of the times and the new economic arrangement will certainly not be realized by spontaneous generation and that therefore it is necessary to act1 in harmony with the inductions of science1 in order to bring this realization to pass4 ,to act1 but how8 ,there is the question of methods and tactics1 which differentiates utopian socialism from scientific socialism2 the former fancied it possible to alter the economic organization of society from top to bottom by the improvised miracle of a popular insurrection2 the latter1 on the contrary1 declares that the law of evolution is supreme and that1 therefore1 the social revolution can be nothing but the final phase of a preliminary evolution1 which will consist--through scientific study and propaganda work--in the realization of the exhortation of ,marx3 ,proletarians of all countries1 unite6 ,there then is the explanation of the easy enigma1 presented by the fact that socialism1 though revolutionary in its programme1 follows the laws of evolution in its method of realization1 and that is the secret of its vitality and power1 and that is also what makes it so essentially different from that mystical and violent anarchism1 which class prejudices or the exigencies of venal journalism assert is nothing but a consequence of socialism1 while in fact it is the practical negation of socialism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,finally1 as a synthetic conclusion1 ,i think it worth while to show that1 while in the beginning of his book ,m4 ,garofalo starts out in open hostility to socialism with the intention of maintaining an absolutely uncompromising attitude1 declaring on the first page that he has written his book for those who are called the bourgeois1 in order to dissuade them from the concessions which they themselves1 in their own minds1 can not prevent themselves from making to the undeniable truth of the socialist ideal1 when he reaches the end of his polemic1 the irresistible implications of the facts force ,m4 ,garofalo to a series of eclectic compromises1 which produce on the reader1 after so many accusations and threats of repression1 the depressing impression of a mental collapse1 as unforeseen as it is significant4 ,indeed1 ,m4 ,garofalo1 on page #beh1 recognizes the usefulness of combinations of laborers to enable them to resist unjust demands1 and even declares it obligatory upon factory-owners to assure a life-pension to their laborers who have served them long4 7p4 #bge47 ,and he demands for the laborers at all events a share in the profits 7p4 #bgf72 he recognizes also that the adult out of work and in good health has the right to assistance1 no less than the sick man or the cripple 7p4 #bha74 ,m4 ,garofalo1 who by all these restrictions to his absolute individualism has permitted himself to make concessions to ,socialism1 which are in flagrant contradiction with his announced intention and to the whole trend of his book1 ends indeed by confessing that if the new socialists were to preach collectivism solely within the sphere of agricultural industry1 it would at least be possible to discuss it1 since one would not be confronted at the outset by an absurdity1 as is the case in attempting to discuss universal collectivism4 ,this is not equivalent to saying that agricultural collectivism#ig would be easily put into practice4 ,that is to say that there is room for compromises and that a mitigated collectivism would not be in contradiction with all the laws of science1 a contradiction which it seems his entire argument was intended to establish2 for ,m4 ,garofalo confines himself to remarking that the realization of collectivism in land would not be easy--a fact that no socialist has ever disputed4 ,there is no need for me to point out once more how this method of combating socialism1 on the part of ,m4 ,garofalo1 resemble that which the classical criminologists employed against the positivist school1 when1 after so many sweeping denials of our teachings1 they came to admit that1 nevertheless1 some of our inductions1 for example1 the anthropological classification of criminals1 might well be applied 444 on a reduced scale1 in the administration of jails and penitentiaries1 but never in the provisions of the criminal law6 ,during many years1 as a defender of the positivist school of criminology1 ,i have had personal experience of the inevitable phases that must be passed through by a scientific truth before its final triumph--the conspiracy of silence2 the attempt to smother the new idea with ridicule2 then1 in consequence of the resistance to these artifices of reactionary conservatism1 the new ideas are misrepresented1 through ignorance or to facilitate assaults upon them1 and at last they are partially admitted and that is the beginning of the final triumph4 ,so that1 knowing these phases of the natural evolution of every new idea1 now when1 for the second time1 instead of resting upon the laurels of my first scientific victories1 ,i have wished to fight for a second and more radical heresy2 this time the victory appears to me more certain1 since my opponents and my former companions in arms again call into use against it the same artifices of reactionary opposition1 whose impotence ,i had already established on a narrower battle-field1 but one where the conflict was neither less keen nor less difficult4 ,and so1 a new recruit enlisted to fight for a grand and noble human ideal1 ,i behold even now the spectacle of partial and inevitable concessions being wrung from those who still pretend to maintain a position of uncompromising and unbending hostility1 but who are helpless before the great cry of suffering and hope which springs from the depths of the masses of mankind in passionate emotion and in intellectual striving4 ,,enrico ,,ferri4 ,,footnotes3 #hi ,this appendix was written as a reply to a book by ,baron ,garofalo1 called ,la ,superstition socialiste4 ,this book made quite a sensation in ,italy and ,france1 not on account of the solidity of its arguments1 but merely because ,garofalo had been associated with ,lombroso and ,ferri in founding the modern school of criminology4 ,as ,garofalo's book is practically unknown in this country1 ,i have felt justified in making many and large omissions from this appendix4 ,gabriel ,deville exposed the emptiness of ,garofalo's pretentious book in a most brilliant open letter to the ,baron1 which appeared in ,le ,socialiste for the #aeth of ,sept41 #ahie4--,tr4 #ij ,the present work1 which appeared in ,italian in #ahid1 in ,french in #ahie1 and in ,spanish in ,madrid and ,buenos-,ayres in #ahie4 ,it now appears in ,english for the first time4 #ia ,,giraud-,,teulon1 ,double pril social4 ,l',eglise et le socialisme1 ,paris1 #ahid1 p4 #ag4 #ib ,e4 ,,ferri1 l',omicidio nell' antropologia criminale1 ,turin1 #ahie1 together with ,atlas and more especially ,religion et ,criminalit in la ,revue des ,revues1 ,oct44 #ahie4 #ic ,,de ,,molinari1 ,science et ,religion1 ,paris1 #ahid4 #id ,garofalo suppressed these lines in the ,french edition of his book4 #ie ,tchisch1 la ,loi fondamentale de la vie1 ,dorpat1 #ahie1 p4 #ai4 #if ,and yet1 how many judges have not1 to the injury of the ,socialists1 denied this elementary truth taught by the dictionary6 #ig ,more correctly1 collective ownership of the land4--,tr4