,illustration     ,,scientific          
,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #cae      
,,new ,,york1 ,,january #ad1 #ahhb4     
,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4
 ,,xiii41 ,no4 #cae4  ,scientific       
,american established #ahde  ,scientific
 ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4      
,scientific ,american and ,supplement1  
#g a year4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,table ,,of ,,contents4
                                        
,,page   ,i4 ,,engineering ,,and        
,,mechanics4--,watchman's ,detecter4    
#ejbc       ,integrating ,apparatus4    
#ejbc       ,a ,canal ,boat ,propelled  
by ,air4                                
#ejbc       ,head ,linings of ,passenger
 ,cars4                                 
#ejbc       ,improved ,mortar ,mixer4 #b
 figures4                               
#ejbc       ,practical ,notes on        
,plumbing4 ,by ,j4,p4 ,,davies4 ,figs4  
#cg to #ec4 ,tinning iron pipes1 copper 
or brass work1 bits1      etc4--,spirit 
brush4--,soldering iron to              

lead4--,dummies for      pipe           
bending4--,bends and set-offs4--,bending
 with water4      --,sand               
bending4--,bending with balls or        
bobbins4--,three-ball      or lead      
driving ball and double ball            
bending4--,bending with      windlass   
and brass ball4--,hydraulic or cup      
leather and ball      bending4--,bending
 by splitting1 or split made bends4     
--,pulling up bends4--,set-offs4--,bad  
bends4--,bad falls in                   
bends4--,bends made into traps or       
retarders4--,bends made      with the   
snarling dummy4                         
#ejbd       ,the ,grossenhain ,shuttle  
,driver4 #a figure4                     
#ejbe    ,,ii4 ,,electricity1           
,,magnetism1 ,,etc4--,the               
,electro-,magnetic      ,apparatus of   
,dr4 ,pacinotti4 #h figures4 ,the       
,pacinotti      electro-magnetic machine
 of #ahfj4--,the ,elias                 
electro-motor of #ahdb4                 
#ejae       ,the ,elias ,electro-,motor4

                                        
#ejaf       ,bjerknes's ,experiments4 #g
 figures4                               
#ejaf       ,the ,arc ,electric ,light4 
,by ,,leo ,,daft4                       
#ejah       ,hedges' ,electric ,lamps4  
#d figures4                             
#ejai       ,electric ,railway          
,apparatus at the ,paris ,electrical    
,exhibition4 #ag figures4 ,lartigue's   
switch controller1      elevation and   
sections4--,position of commutators     
during      the maneuver4--,pedal for   
sending warning to railway              
crossing1 with elevation and end and    
plan views4--,electric                  
,alarm4--,lartigue's bellows pedal1 with
 plan and      sections4--,brunot's     
,controller4--,guggemos' correspondence 
apparatus4--,annunciator                
apparatus4--,lartigue's controller      
for water tanks4--,vrit controller for  
water tanks4         #ejai       ,the   
,telephonic ,halls of the ,electrical   
,exhibition4      #a figure4            

#ejbb       ,the ,action of ,cold on the
 ,voltaic ,arc4                         
#ejbb   ,,iii4 ,,technology ,,and       
,,chemistry4--,industrial ,art for      
,women4         #ejbf       ,photography
 upon ,canvas4 #a figure4               
#ejbf       ,detection of ,starch ,sugar
 ,sirup ,mixed with ,sugar      ,house  
,molasses4                              
#ejbf       ,false ,vermilion4          
#ejbf       ,the ,position of ,manganese
 in ,modern ,industry4--,by      ,m4,v4 
,,deshaeys4                             
,ferro-manganese4--,cupro-manganese4--  
,manganese bronzes4--,metallic          
manganese4--,manganese      ,german     
silver4--,phosphorus bronze4            
#ejbg       ,the ,economical ,washing of
 ,coal ,gas and ,smoke4--,m4            
,chevalet's method4                     
#ejbg       ,determination of ,nitrogen 
in ,hair1 ,wool1 ,dried ,blood1         
,flesh ,meal1 and ,leather ,scraps4 ,by 
,dr4 ,c4 ,,krauch4            #ejbh     
,testing ,white ,beeswax for ,ceresine  

and ,paraffine4 ,by      ,a4 ,,peltz4   
#ejbh       ,the ,prevention of         
,alcoholic ,fermentation by ,fungi4     
,by ,prof4 ,e4 ,,reichard4              
#ejbh       ,new ,reaction of           
,glycerine4                             
#ejbh       ,lycopodine4                
#ejbh       ,conchinamine4              
#ejbh       ,chinoline4                 
#ejbh       ,preparation of ,coniine4   
#ejbh       ,strontianite4              
#ejbh    ,,iv4                          
,,miscellaneous4--,household and ,other 
,recipes4      ,christmas plum          
pudding4--,plum pudding sauce4--        
,national plum pudding and sauce4--,egg 
nog4--,egg      flip4--,roast           
,turkey4--,woodcock and                 
,snipe4--,canvas-back                   
duck4--,pheasants4--,wild ducks4--,wild 
fowl      sauce4--,brown fricassee of   
rabbits4--,orange pudding4              
--,venison pastry4--,christmas red      
round4--,plum      porridge4--,sugared  
pears4--,table beer4--,mince meat4      

--,pumpkin pie4--,brandy punch4--,boeuf 
a la mode4--      ,punch jelly4--,orange
 salad4--,cranberry jelly4--,plum       
cake4--,black cake4--,potatoes4         
#ejbi       ,the ,bayeux ,tapestry      
,comet4                                 
#ejcj       ,synthetic ,experiments on  
the ,artificial ,reproduction      of   
,meteorites4                            
#ejcj     ,v4 ,,hygiene ,,and           
,,medicine4--,parangi2 a newly described
      disease4                          
#ejbi       ,a ,castor ,oil ,substitute4
                                        
#ejbi       ,lack of ,sun ,light4       
#ejcj         99       99       99      
99       99     ,,the                   
,,electro-,,magnetic ,,apparatus ,,of   
,,dr4 ,,pacinotti4   ,in admiring the   
recent developments of electric science 
as evidenced by the number of important 
inventions which have during the past   
few years been given to the world1      
especially in those branches of applied 
science which deal more particularly    

with the generation of electricity and  
the production of the electric light1   
there is often too great a tendency to  
forget1 or1 at least1 to pass over in   
comparative silence the claims which the
 great pioneer workers and discoverers  
undoubtedly have to a large share of the
 merit of this scientific development4  
,it is1 of course1 obviously impossible 
in anything approaching a retrospect of 
the science of magneto-electric         
induction or its application to         
illumination to pass slightly over the  
names of ,oersted1 of ,ampre1 of ,davy1 
and of ,faraday1 but1 in other respects1
 their work is too often lost sight of  
in the splendid modern developments of  
their discoveries4 ,again1 there is     
another group of discoverer-inventors   
who occupy an intermediate position     
between the abstract discoverers above  
named and the inventors and adapters of 
still more recent times4 ,to this group 
belong the names of ,pixii and ,saxton1 
,holmes and ,nollet1 ,wilde1 ,varley1   

,siemens1 ,wheatstone1 and ,pacinotti1  
who was the first to discover a means of
 constructing a machine capable of      
giving a continuous current always in   
the same direction1 and which has since 
proved itself to be the type of nearly  
all the direct current electric machines
 of the present day1 and especially     
those such as the ,gramme and ,brush and
 ,de ,meritens machines1 in which the   
rotating armature is of annular form2   
and when it is considered what a large  
number of the well known electric       
generators are founded upon this        
discovery1 it must be a matter of       
general gratification that the recent   
,international ,jury of the ,paris      
,exhibition of ,electricity awarded to  
,dr4 ,antonio ,pacinotti one of their   
highest awards4  ,the original machine  
designed by ,dr4 ,pacinotti in the year 
#ahfj1 and which we illustrate on the   
present page1 formed one of the most    
interesting exhibits in the ,paris      
,exhibition1 and conferred upon the     

,italian ,section a very distinctive    
feature1 and we cannot but think that   
while all were interested in examining  
it1 there must have been many who could 
not help being impressed with the fact  
that it took something away from the    
originality of design in several of the 
machines exhibited in various parts of  
the building4  ,this very interesting   
machine was first illustrated and       
described by its inventor in the ,nuovo 
,cimento in the year #ahfd1 under the   
title ,a ,description of a ,small       
,electro-,magnetic ,machine1 and to this
 description we are indebted for the    
information and diagrams contained in   
this notice1 but the perspective view is
 taken from the instrument itself in the
 ,paris ,exhibition4  ,in this very     
interesting historical communication the
 author commences by describing a new   
form of electro-magnet1 consisting of an
 iron ring around which is wound 7as in 
the ,gramme machine7 a single helix of  
insulated copper wire completely        

covering the ring1 and the two ends of  
the annular helix being soldered        
together1 an annular magnet is produced1
 enveloped in an insulated helix forming
 a closed circuit1 the convolutions of  
which are all in the same direction4 ,if
 in such a system any two points of the 
coil situated at opposite ends of the   
same diameter of the ring be connected  
respectively with the two poles of a    
voltaic battery1 the electric current   
having two courses open to it1 will     
divide into two portions traversing the 
coil around each half of the ring from  
one point of contact to the other1 and  
the direction of the current1 in each   
portion will be such as to magnetize the
 iron core1 so that its magnetic poles  
will be situated at the points where the
 current enters and leaves the helix1   
and a straight line joining these points
 may be looked upon as the magnetic axis
 of the system4 ,from this construction 
it is clear that1 by varying the        
position of the points of contact of the

 battery wires and the coil1 the        
position of the magnetic axis will be   
changed accordingly1 and can be made to 
take up any diametrical position with   
respect to the ring1 of which the two   
halves 7separated by the diameter       
joining the points of contact of the    
battery wires with the coil7 may be     
regarded as made up of two semicircular 
horseshoe electro-magnets having their  
similar poles joined4 ,to this form of  
instrument the name ,transversal electro
 magnet 7,eletro calamita transversale7 
was given by its inventor1 to whom is   
undoubtedly due the merit of having been
 the first to construct an              
electro-magnet the position of whose    
poles could be varied at will by means  
of a circular commutator4               
,illustration3 ,,pacinotti              
,,electro-,,magnetic ,,machine4--,,made 
,,in #ahfj4  ,by applying the principle 
to an electro-magnetic engine1 ,dr4     
,pacinotti produced the machine which we
 illustrate on the present page4 ,the   

armature consists of a turned ring of   
iron1 having around its circumference   
sixteen teeth of equal size and at equal
 angular distance apart1 as shown in    
,fig4 #a1 forming between them as many  
spaces or notches1 which are filled up  
by coiling within them helices of       
insulated copper wire1 r r r1 in a      
similar manner to that adopted in       
winding the ,brush armature1 and between
 them are fixed as many wooden wedges1 m
 m1 by which the helices are firmly held
 in their place4 ,all the coils are     
wound round the ring in the same        
direction1 and the terminating end of   
each coil is connected to the commencing
 end of the next or succeeding helix1   
and the junctions so made are attached  
to conducting wires which are gathered  
together close to the vertical shaft on 
which the armature ring is fixed1       
passing through holes at equal distances
 apart in a wooden collar fixed to the  
same shaft1 and being attached at their 
lower extremities to the metallic       

contact pieces of the commutator1 c1    
shown at the lower part of ,fig4 #c1    
which is an elevation of the machine1   
while ,fig4 #d is a plan of the same    
apparatus4  ,the commutator consists of 
a small boxwood cylinder1 carrying      
around its cylindrical surface two rows 
of eight holes1 one above the other1 in 
which are fitted sixteen contact pieces 
of brass which slightly project above   
the surface of the wood1 the positions  
of those in the upper circle alternating
 or breaking joint with those in the    
lower1 and each contact piece is in     
metallic connection with its            
corresponding conducting wire1 and1     
therefore1 with the junction of two of  
the helices on the armature4 ,against   
the edge of the commutator are pressed  
by means of adjustable levers two small 
brass contact rollers1 k k1 which are   
respectively connected with the positive
 and negative poles of the voltaic      
battery 7either through or independent  
of the coils of a fixed electro-magnet1 

to which we shall presently refer71 and 
the magnetic axis of the ring will lie  
in the same plane as the line joining   
the points of contact of the battery and
 rotating helix1 this axis remaining    
nearly fixed notwithstanding the        
rotation of the iron ring in which the  
magnetism is induced4  ,in the apparatus
 figured in ,figs4 #c and #d1 the       
armature rotates between the two        
vertical limbs1 ,a ,b1 of a fixed       
electro-magnet furnished with extended  
pole pieces1 ,a ,a1 ,b ,b 7,fig4 #d71   
each of which embraces about six of the 
armature coils4 ,the fixed              
electro-magnet is constructed of two    
vertical iron cylindrical bars1 ,a and  
,b1 united at their lower extremities by
 a horizontal iron bar1 ,f ,f1 the one  
being rigidly and permanently attached  
to it1 while the other is fastened to it
 by a screw1 ,g1 passing through a slot 
so that the distance of the pole pieces 
from one another and from the armature  
ring is capable of adjustment4  ,the    

connections of the machine1 which are   
shown in ,fig4 #c1 are made as follows3 
,the positive current1 entering by the  
attachment screw1 h1 passes by a wire to
 the right hand commutator screw1 l1 to 
the right-hand roller1 k1 through the   
commutator to the ring1 around which it 
traverses to the left-hand roller1 k1   
and screw1 l1 to the magnet coil1 ,a1   
and thence through the coil of the      
magnet1 ,b1 to the terminal screw1 h1 on
 the right hand of the figure4 ,this    
method of coupling up is of very great  
historical interest1 for it is the first
 instance on record of the magnet coils 
and armature of a machine being included
 in one circuit1 giving to it the       
principle of construction of a          
dynamo-electric machine1 and antedating 
in publication1 by two years1 the       
interesting machines of ,siemens1       
,wheatstone1 and ,varley1 and preceding 
them in construction by a still longer  
period4  ,with this apparatus ,dr4      
,pacinotti made the following           

interesting experiments with the object 
of determining the amount of mechanical 
work produced by the machine 7when      
worked as an electro-magnetic engine71  
and the corresponding consumption of the
 elements of the battery3 ,attached to  
the spindle of the machine was a small  
pulley1 ,q ,q 7,fig4 #c71 for the       
purpose of driving1 by means of a cord1 
another pulley on a horizontal spindle  
carrying a drum on which was wound a    
cord carrying a weight1 and on the same 
spindle was also a brake and            
brake-wheel1 the lever of which was     
loaded so as just to prevent the weight 
setting into motion the whole system1   
consisting of the two machines1 when no 
current was flowing4 ,in this condition1
 when the machine was set in motion by  
connecting the battery1 the mechanical  
work expended in overcoming the friction
 of the brake was equal to that required
 to raise the weight2 and1 in order to  
obtain the total work done1 all that was
 necessary was to multiply the weight   

lifted by the distance through which it 
was raised4 ,the consumption of the     
battery was estimated at the same time  
by interposing in the circuit a sulphate
 of copper voltameter1 of which the     
copper plate was weighed before and     
after the experiment4 ,the following are
 some of the results obtained by ,dr4   
,pacinotti in experimenting after the   
manner just described4 ,with the current
 from a battery of four small ,bunsen   
elements1 the machine raised a weight of
 #c4bhab kilos to a height of #h4ff m4  
7allowing for friction71 so that the    
mechanical work was represented by      
#bh4de m4 ,during the experiment the    
positive plate of the voltameter lost in
 weight #j4bbd gramme1 the negative     
gaining #j4bce gramme1 giving an average
 of chemical work performed in the      
voltameter of #j4bbi gramme1 and        
multiplying this figure by the ratio    
between the equivalent of zinc to that  
of copper1 and by the number of the     
elements of the battery1 the weight of  

zinc consumed in the battery was        
computed at #j4iea gramme1 so that to   
produce one kilogrammeter of mechanical 
work #cc milligrammes of zinc would be  
consumed in the battery4 ,in another    
experiment1 made with five elements1 the
 consumption of zinc was found to be #cf
 milligrammes for every kilogrammeter of
 mechanical work performed4 ,in         
recording these experiments1 ,dr4       
,pacinotti points out that although     
these results do not show any special   
advantage in his machine over those of  
other construction1 still they are very 
encouraging1 when it is considered that 
the apparatus with which the experiments
 were made were full of defects of      
workmanship1 the commutator1 being      
eccentric to the axis1 causing the      
contacts between it and the rollers to  
be very imperfect and unequal4  ,in his 
communication to the ,nuovo ,cimento1   
,dr4 ,pacinotti states that the reasons 
which induced him to construct the      
apparatus on the principle which we have

 just described1 were3 7#a7 ,that       
according to this system the electric   
current is continuously traversing the  
coils of the armature1 and the machine  
is kept in motion not by a series of    
intermittent impulses succeeding one    
another with greater or less rapidity1  
but by a constantly acting force        
producing a more uniform effect4 7#b7   
,the annular form of the revolving      
armature contributes 7together with the 
preceding method of continuous          
magnetization7 to give regularity to its
 motion and at the same time reduces the
 loss of motive power1 through          
mechanical shocks and friction1 to a    
minimum4 7#c7 ,in the annular system no 
attempt is made suddenly to magnetize   
and demagnetize the iron core of the    
rotating armature1 as such changes of   
magnetization would be retarded by the  
setting up of extra currents1 and also  
by the permanent residual magnetism     
which cannot be entirely eliminated from
 the iron2 and with this annular        

construction such charges are not       
required1 all that is necessary being   
that each portion of the iron of the    
ring should pass1 in its rotation1      
through the various degrees of          
magnetization in succession1 being      
subjected thereby to the influence of   
the electro-dynamic forces by which its 
motion is produced4 7#d7 ,the polar     
extension pieces of the fixed           
electro-magnet1 by embracing a          
sufficiently large number of the iron   
projecting pieces on the armature ring1 
continue to exercise an influence upon  
them almost up to the point at which    
their magnetization ceases when passing 
the neutral axis4 7#e7 ,by the method of
 construction adopted1 sparks1 while    
being increased in number1 are          
diminished in intensity1 there being no 
powerful extra currents produced at the 
breaking of the circuit1 and ,dr4       
,pacinotti points out that when the     
machine is in rotation a continuous     
current is induced in the circuit which 

is opposed to that of the battery2 and  
this leads to what1 looked at by the    
light of the present state of electric  
science1 is by far the most interesting 
part of ,dr4 ,pacinotti's paper1        
published1 as it was1 more than         
seventeen years ago4  ,in the part to   
which we refer1 ,dr4 ,pacinotti states  
that it occurred to him that the value  
of the apparatus would be greatly       
increased if it could be altered from an
 electro-magnetic to a magneto-electric 
machine1 so as to produce a continuous  
current4 ,thus1 if the electro-magnet1  
,a ,b 7,figs4 #c and #d71 be replaced by
 a permanent magnet1 and the annular    
armature were made to revolve1 the      
apparatus would become a                
magneto-electric generator1 which would 
produce a continuous induced current    
always in the same direction1 and in    
analyzing the action of such a machine  
,dr4 ,pacinotti observes that1 as the   
position of the magnetic field is fixed1
 and the iron armature with its coils   

rotates within it1 the action may be    
regarded as the same as if the iron ring
 were made up of two fixed semicircular 
horseshoe magnets with their similar    
poles joined1 and the coils were loose  
upon it and were caused to rotate over  
it1 and this mode of expressing the     
phenomenon was exactly what we adopted  
when describing the ,gramme machine1    
without having at that time seen what   
,dr4 ,pacinotti had written fifteen     
years before4  ,in explanation of the   
physical phenomena involved in the      
induction of the electric currents in   
the armature when the machine is in     
action as a generator1 ,dr4 ,pacinotti  
makes the following remarks3 ,let us    
trace the action of one of the coils in 
the various positions that it can assume
 in one complete revolution2 starting   
from the position marked ,n1 ,fig4 #b1  
and moving toward ,s1 an electric       
current will be developed in it in one  
direction while moving through the      
portion of the circle1 ,n a1 and after  

passing the point1 a1 and while passing 
through the arc1 a ,s1 the induced      
current will be in the opposite         
direction1 which direction will be      
maintained until the point1 b1 is       
reached1 after which the currents will  
be in the same direction as between ,n  
and a2 and as all the coils are         
connected together1 all the currents in 
a given direction will unite and give   
the combined current a direction        
indicated by the arrows in ,fig4 #b1 and
 in order to collect it 7so as to       
transmit it into the external circuit71 
the most eminent position for the       
collectors will be at points on the     
commutator at opposite ends of a        
diameter which is perpendicular to the  
magnetic axis of the magnetic field4    
,with reference to ,fig4 #b1 we imagine 
either that the two arrows to the right 
of the figure are incorrectly placed by 
the engraver1 or that ,dr4 ,pacinotti   
intended this diagram to express the    
direction of the current throughout the 

whole circuit1 as if it started from a1 
and after traversing the external       
circuit entered again at b1 thus        
completing the whole cycle made up of   
the external and internal circuits4     
,dr4 ,pacinotti calls attention to the  
fact that the direction of the current  
generated by the machine is reversed by 
a reversal of the direction of rotation1
 as well as by a shifting of the        
position of the collectors from one side
 to the other of their neutral point1   
and concludes his most interesting      
communication by describing experiments 
made with it in order to convert it into
 a magneto-electric machine4 ,i brought1
 he says1 near to the coiled armature   
the opposite poles of two permanent     
magnets1 and ,i also excited by the     
current from a battery the fixed        
electro-magnets 7see ,figs4 #c and #d71 
and by mechanical means ,i rotated the  
annular armature on its axis4 ,by both  
methods ,i obtained an induced electric 
current1 which was continuous and always

 in the same direction1 and which1 as   
was indicated by a galvanometer1 proved 
to be of considerable intensity1        
although it had traversed the sulphate  
of copper voltameter which was included 
in the circuit4  ,dr4 ,pacinotti goes on
 to show that there would be an obvious 
advantage in constructing electric      
generating machines upon this principle1
 for by such a system electric currents 
can be produced which are continuous and
 in one direction without the necessity 
of the inconvenient and more or less    
inefficient mechanical arrangements for 
commutating the currents and sorting    
them1 so as to collect and combine those
 in one direction1 separating them from 
those which are in the opposite2 and he 
also points our the reversibility of the
 apparatus1 showing that as an          
electro-magnetic engine it is capable of
 converting a current of electricity    
into mechanical motion capable of       
performing work1 while as a             
magneto-electric machine it is made to  

transform mechanical energy into an     
electric current1 which in other        
apparatus1 forming part of its external 
circuit1 is capable of performing       
electric1 chemical1 or mechanical work4 
,all these statements are matters of    
everyday familiarity at the present day1
 but it must be remembered that they are
 records of experiments made twenty     
years ago1 and as such they entitle     
their author to a very distinguished    
place among the pioneers of electric    
science1 and it is somewhat remarkable  
that they did not lead him straight to  
the discovery of the action and reaction
 principle of dynamo-electric magnetic  
induction to which he approached so     
closely1 and it is also a curious fact  
that so suggestive and remarkable a     
paper should have been written and      
published as far back as #ahfd1 and that
 it should not have produced sooner than
 it did a revolution in electric        
science4--,engineering4         99      
99       99       99       99     ,,the 

,,elias ,,electromotor4   ,we lately    
published a short description of a very 
interesting apparatus which may be      
considered in some sense as a prototype 
of the ,gramme machine1 although it has 
very considerable1 indeed radical       
differences1 and which1 moreover1 was   
constructed for a different purpose1 the
 ,elias machine being1 in fact1 an      
electromotor1 while the ,gramme machine 
is1 it is almost unnecessary to say1 an 
electric generator4 ,this apparent      
resemblance makes it1 however1 necessary
 to describe the ,elias machine1 and to 
explain the difference between it and   
the ,gramme4 ,its very early date       
7#ahdb71 moreover1 gives it an          
exceptional interest4 ,the figures on   
the previous page convey an exact idea  
of the model that was exhibited at the  
,paris ,electrical ,exhibition1 and     
which was contributed by the ,ecole     
,polytechnique of ,delft in the ,dutch  
,section4 ,this model is almost         
identical with that illustrated and     

described in a pamphlet accompanying the
 exhibit4 ,the perspective illustrations
 show the machine very clearly1 and the 
section explains the construction still 
further4 ,the apparatus consists of an  
exterior ring made of iron1 about #ad   
in4 in diameter and #a4e in wide4 ,it is
 divided into six equal sections by six 
small blocks which project from the     
inner face of the ring1 and which act as
 so many magnetic poles4 ,on each of the
 sections between the blocks is rolled a
 coil1 of one thickness only1 of copper 
wire about #j4jd in4 in diameter1       
inclosed in an insulating casing of     
gutta percha1 giving to the conductor   
thus protected a total thickness of     
#j4bj in42 this wire is coiled1 as shown
 in the illustration4 ,it forms         
twenty-nine turns in each section1 and  
the direction of winding changes at each
 passage in front of a pole piece4 ,the 
ends of the wire coinciding with the    
horizontal diameter of the ring are     
stripped of the gutta percha1 and are   

connected to copper wires which are     
twisted together and around two copper  
rods1 which are placed vertically1 their
 lower ends entering two small cavities 
made in the base of the apparatus4 ,the 
circuit is thus continuous with two ends
 at opposite points of the same         
diameter4 ,the ring is about #a4a in4   
thick1 and is fixed1 as shown1 to two   
wooden columns1 ,b ,b1 by two blocks of 
copper1 a4  ,illustration3 ,,the ,,elias
 ,,electromotor4--,,made ,,in #ahdb4    
,it will be seen from the mode of       
coiling the wire on this ring1 that if a
 battery be connected by means of the   
copper rods1 the current will create six
 consecutive poles on the various       
projecting blocks4 ,the inner ring1 ,e1 
is about #aa in4 in outside diameter1   
and is also provided with a series of   
six projecting pieces which pass before 
those on the exterior ring with very    
little clearance4 ,between these        
projections the space between the inner 
face of the outer1 and the outer face of

 the inner ring1 is #j4dj in4 ,the      
latter is movable1 and is supported by  
three wooden arms1 ,f1 fixed to a boss1 
,g1 which is traversed by a spindle     
supported in bearings by the columns1 ,a
 and ,c4 ,a coil is rolled around the   
ring in exactly the same way as that on 
the outer ring1 the wire being of the   
same size1 and the insulation of the    
same thickness4 ,the ends of the wire   
are also bared at points of the diameter
 opposite each other1 and the coil      
connected in pairs so as to form a      
continuous circuit4 ,at the two points  
of junction they are connected with a   
hexagonal commutator placed on the      
central spindle1 one end corresponding  
to the sides #a1 #c1 and #e1 and the    
other to the sides #b1 #d1 and #f4 ,two 
copper rods1 ,j1 fixed on the base to   
two plates of copper furnished with     
binding screws1 are widened and         
flattened at their upper ends to rest   
against opposite parallel sides of the  
hexagon4 ,it will be seen that if the   

battery is put in circuit by means of   
the binding screws1 the current in the  
interior ring will determine six        
consecutive poles1 the names of which   
will change as the commutator plates    
come into contact successively with the 
sides of the hexagon4 ,consequently1 if 
at first the pole-pieces opposite each  
other are magnetized with the same      
polarity1 a repulsion between them will 
be set up which will set the inner ring 
in motion1 and the effect will be       
increased on account of the attraction  
of the next pole of the outer ring4 ,at 
the moment when the pole piece thus     
attracted comes into the field of the   
pole of opposite polarity1 the action of
 the commutator will change its         
magnetization1 while that of the        
pole-piece on the fixed ring always     
remains the same2 the same phenomenon of
 repulsion will be produced1 and the    
inner ring will continue its movement in
 the same direction1 and so on4 ,to the 
attractive and repulsive action of the  

magnetic poles has to be added the      
reciprocal action of the coils around   
the two rings1 the action of which is   
similar4 ,from this brief explanation   
the differences between the ,elias      
machine and the ,gramme will be         
understood4 ,the ,dutch physicist did   
not contemplate the production of a     
current2 he utilized two distinct       
sources of electricity to set the inner 
ring in motion1 and did not imagine that
 it was possible1 by suppressing one of 
the inducing currents and putting the   
ring in rapid rotation1 to obtain a     
continuous current4 ,moreover1 if ever  
this apparent resemblance had been real1
 the merit of the ,gramme invention     
would not have been affected by it4 ,it 
has happened very many times that       
inventors living in different countries1
 and strangers to one another1 have been
 inspired with the same idea1 and have  
followed it by similar methods1 either  
simultaneously or at different periods1 
without the application having led to   

the same results4 ,it does not suffice  
even for the seed to be the same2 it    
must have fallen in good ground1 and be 
cultivated with care2 here it scarcely  
germinates1 there it produces a vigorous
 plant and abundant                     
fruit4--,engineering4         99        
99       99       99       99           
,,bjerknes',s ,,experiments4   ,as a    
general thing1 too much trust should not
 be placed in words4 ,in the first      
place1 it frequently happens that their 
sense is not well defined1 or that they 
are not understood exactly in the same  
way by everybody1 and this leads to sad 
misunderstandings4 ,but even in case    
they are precise1 and are received      
everywhere under a single acceptation1  
there still remains one danger1 and that
 is that of passing from the word to the
 idea1 and of being led to believe that1
 because there is a word1 there is a    
real thing designated by this word4     
,let us take1 for example1 the word     
electricity4 ,if we understand by this  

term the common law which embraces a    
certain category of phenomena1 it       
expresses a clear and useful idea2 but  
as for its existence1 it is not         
permitted to believe a priori that there
 is a distinct agent called electricity 
which is the efficient cause of the     
phenomena4 ,we ought never1 says the old
 rule of philosophy1 to admit entities  
without an absolute necessity4 ,the     
march of science has always consisted in
 gradually eliminating these provisory  
conceptions and in reducing the number  
of causes4 ,this fact is visible without
 going back to the ages of ignorance1   
when every new phenomenon brought with  
it the conception of a special being    
which caused it and directed it4 ,in    
later ages they had spirits in which    
there was everything3 volatile liquids1 
gases1 and theoretical conceptions1 such
 as phlogiston4 ,at the end of the last 
century1 and at the beginning of our    
own1 ideas being more rational1 the     
notion of the fluid had been admitted1 a

 mysterious and still vague enough      
category 7but yet an already somewhat   
definite one7 in which were ranged the  
unknown and ungraspable causes of       
caloric1 luminous1 electric1 etc41      
phenomena4 ,gradually1 the fluid has    
vanished1 and we are left 7or rather1 we
 were a short time ago7 at the notion of
 forces--a precise and mathematically   
graspable notion1 but yet an essentially
 mysterious one4 ,we see this conception
 gradually disappearing to leave finally
 only the elementary ideas of matter and
 motion--ideas1 perhaps1 which are not  
much clearer philosophically than the   
others1 particularly that of matter     
taken per se1 but which1 at least1 are  
necessary1 since all the others supposed
 them4  ,among those notions that study 
and time are reducing to other and      
simpler ones1 that of electricity should
 be admitted2 for it presents itself    
more and more as one of the peculiar    
cases of the general motion of matter4  
,it will be to the eternal honor of     

,fresnel for having introduced into     
science and mathematically constituted  
the theory of undulations 7already      
proposed before him1 however71 thus     
giving the first example of the notion  
of motion substituted for that of force4
 ,since the principle of the            
conservation of energy has taken the    
eminent place in science that it now    
occupies1 and we have seen a continual  
transformation of one series of         
phenomena into another1 the mind is at  
once directed to the aspect of a new    
fact toward an explanation of this kind4
 ,still1 it is certain that these       
hypotheses are difficult of             
justification2 for those motions that   
are at present named molecular1 and that
 we cannot help presuming to be at the  
base of all actions1 are per se         
ungraspable and can only be demonstrated
 by the coincidence of a large number of
 results4 ,there is1 however1 another   
means of rendering them probable1 and   
that is by employing analogy4 ,if1 by   

vibrations which are directly           
ascertainable1 we can reproduce the     
effects of electricity1 there will be   
good reason for admitting that the      
latter is nothing else than a system of 
vibration differing only1 perhaps1 in   
special qualities1 such as dimensions1  
direction1 rapidity1 etc4  ,such is the 
result that is attained by the very     
curious experiments that are due to ,mr4
 ,bjerknes4 ,these constitute an        
ensemble of very striking results1 which
 are perfectly concordant and exhibit   
very close analogies with electrical    
effects1 as we shall presently see4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4  ,they are    
based on the presence of bodies set in  
vibration in a liquid4 ,the vibrations  
produced by ,mr4 ,bjerknes are of two   
kinds--pulsations and oscillations4 ,the
 former of these are obtained by the aid
 of small drums with flexible ends1 as  
shown to the left in ,fig4 #a4 ,a small 
pump chamber or cylinder is1 by means of
 a tube1 put in communication with one  

of these closed drums in which the rapid
 motion of a piston alternately sucks in
 and expels the air4 ,the two flexible  
ends are successively thrust outward and
 attracted toward the center4 ,in an    
apparatus of this kind the two ends     
repulse and attract the liquid at the   
same time4 ,their motions are of the    
same phase2 if it were desired that one 
should repulse while the other was      
attracting1 it would be necessary to    
place two drums back to back1 separated 
by a stiff partition1 and put them in   
connection with two distinct pump       
chambers whose movements were so        
arranged that one should be forcing in  
while the other was exhausting4 ,a      
system of this nature is shown to the   
right in ,fig4 #a4  ,the vibrations are 
obtained by the aid of small metal      
spheres fixed in tubular supports by    
movable levers to which are communicated
 the motions of compression and         
dilatation of the air in the pump       
chamber4 ,they oscillate in a plane     

whose direction may be varied according 
to the arrangement of the sphere1 as    
seen in the two apparatus of this kind  
shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b will give an
 idea of the general arrangement4 ,the  
two pistons of the air-pumps are        
connected to cranks that may be fixed in
 such a way as to regulate the phases as
 may be desired1 either in coincidence  
or opposition4 ,the entire affair is put
 in motion by a wheel and cord          
permitting of rapid vibrations being    
obtained4 ,the air is let into the      
apparatus by rubber tubing without      
interfering with their motions4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4  ,we may now  
enter into the details of the           
experiments3  ,the first is represented 
in ,fig4 #b4 ,in a basin of water there 
is placed a small frame carrying a drum 
fixed on an axle and capable of         
revolving4 ,it also communicates with   
one of the air cylinders4 ,the operator 
holds in his hand a second drum which   
communicates with the other cylinder4   

,the pistons are adjusted in such a way 
that they shall move parallel with each 
other2 then the ends of the drums       
inflate and collapse at the same time2  
the motions are of the same phase2 but  
if the drums are brought near each other
 a very marked attraction occurs1 the   
revolving drum follows the other4 ,if   
the cranks are so adjusted that the     
pistons move in an opposite direction1  
the phases are discordant--there is a   
repulsion1 and the movable drum moves   
away from the other4 ,the effect1 then1 
is analogous to that of two magnets1    
with about this difference1 that here it
 is the like phases that attract and the
 different phases that repel each other1
 while in magnets like poles repel and  
unlike poles attract each other4  ,it is
 necessary to remark that it is         
indifferent which face of the drum is   
presented1 since both possess the same  
phase4 ,the drum behaves1 then1 like an 
insulated pole of a magnet1 or1 better1 
like a magnet having in its middle a    

succeeding point4 ,in order to have two 
poles a double drum must be employed4   
,the experiment then becomes more       
complicated2 for it is necessary to have
 two pump chambers with opposite phases 
for this drum alone1 and one or two     
others for the revolving drum4 ,the     
effects1 as we shall see1 are more      
easily shown with the vibrating spheres4
  ,this form has the advantage that the 
vibrating body exhibits the two phases  
at the same time2 relatively to the     
liquid1 one of its ends advances while  
the other recedes4 ,thus with a         
vibrating sphere presented to the       
movable drum1 there may be obtained     
repulsion or attraction1 according as   
the side which is approached is         
concordant or discordant with the end of
 the drum that it faces4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #c4  ,with the arrangement shown
 in ,fig4 #c there may be performed an  
interesting series of experiments4 ,the 
two spheres supported by the frame are  
set in simultaneous vibration1 and the  

frame1 moreover1 is free to revolve     
about its axis4 ,the effect is analogous
 to that which would be produced by two 
short magnets carried by the same       
revolving support2 on presenting the    
vibrating sphere to the extremities the 
whole affair is attracted or repulsed1  
according to its phase and according to 
the point at which it is presented2 on  
replacing the transverse support by a   
single sphere 7as indicated in the      
figure by a dotted line7 we obtain the  
analogue of a short magnet carried on a 
pivot like a small compass needle4 ,this
 sphere follows the pole of a vibrating 
sphere which is presented to it1 as the 
pole of a magnet would do1 with this    
difference always1 that in the magnet1  
like poles repel1 while in oscillating  
bodies like phases attract4  ,in all the
 preceding experiments the bodies       
brought in presence were both in motion 
and the phenomena were analogous to     
those of permanent magnetism4 ,we may   
also reproduce those which result from  

magnetism by induction4 ,for this       
purpose we employ small balls of        
different materials suspended from      
floats1 as shown in ,fig4 #d 7a1 b1 c74 
,let us1 for example1 take the body1 b1 
which is a small metal sphere1 and      
present to it either a drum which is    
caused to pulsate1 on an oscillating    
sphere1 and it will be attracted1 thus  
representing the action of a magnet upon
 a bit of soft iron4 ,a curious         
experiment may serve to indicate the    
transition between this new series and  
the preceding4 ,if we present to each   
other two drums of opposite phases1 but 
so arranged that one of them vibrates   
faster than the other1 we shall find1 on
 carefully bringing them together1 that 
the repulsion which manifested itself at
 first is changing to attraction4 ,on   
approaching each other the drum having  
the quicker motion finally has upon the 
other1 the same action as if the latter 
were immovable2 and the effect is       
analogous to that which takes place     

between a strong and weak magnet        
presented by their like poles4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4  ,by          
continuing these experiments we arrive  
at a very important point4 ,instead of  
the body1 b 7,fig4 #d71 let us take c4  
,as the figure shows1 this is a sphere  
lighter than water1 kept in the liquid  
by a weight4 ,if we present to it the   
vibrating body1 it will be repelled1 and
 we shall obtain the results known by   
the name of diamagnetism4 ,this curious 
experiment renders evident the influence
 of media4 ,as well known1 ,faraday     
attributed such effects to the action of
 the air2 and he thought that magnetic  
motions always resulted from a          
difference between the attraction       
exerted by the magnet upon the body     
under experiment1 and the attraction    
exerted by the air4 ,if the body is more
 sensitive than the air1 there is direct
 magnetism1 but if it is less so1 there 
is diamagnetism4 ,water between the     
bodies1 in the ,bjerknes experiments1   

plays the same role2 it is this which1  
by its vibration1 transmits the motions 
and determines the phases in the        
suspended body4 ,if the body is heavier 
than water its motion is less than that 
of the liquid1 and1 consequently1       
relatively to the vibrating body1 it is 
of like phase2 and if it is lighter1 the
 contrary takes place1 and the phases   
are in discordance4 ,these effects may  
be very well verified by the aid of the 
little apparatus shown in ,fig4 #e1 and 
which carries two bars1 one of them     
lighter and the other heavier than      
water4 ,on presenting to them the       
vibrating body1 one presents its        
extremity and takes an axial direction1 
while the other arranges itself         
crosswise and takes the equatorial      
direction4 ,these experiments may be    
varied in different ways that it is     
scarcely necessary to dwell upon in this
 place1 as they may be seen at the      
,electrical ,exhibition4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #e4  ,very curious effects are  

also obtained with the arrangement shown
 in ,fig4 #f4 ,between the two drums    
there is introduced a body sustained by 
a float such as represented at a1 ,fig4 
#d4 ,various results may1 then1 be      
obtained according to the combinations  
adopted4 ,let us suppose that the phases
 are alike1 and that the interposed body
 is heavier than water2 in this case it 
is repelled as far as the circumference 
of the drums1 at which point it stops4  
,if the phases are different1 the       
influenced body behaves in the opposite 
manner and stops at the center4 ,if the 
body is lighter than water the effects  
are naturally changed4 ,placed between  
two like phases1 it is attracted within 
a certain radius and repelled when it is
 placed further off2 if the phases are  
unlike1 it is always repelled4 ,we may  
easily assure ourselves that these      
effects are analogous to those which are
 produced on bodies placed between the  
poles of wide and powerful magnets4 ,it 
is useless to repeat that the analogies 

are always inverse4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #f4  ,mr4 ,bjerknes has carried  
the examination of these phenomena still
 further in studying experimentally the 
actions that occur in the depths of the 
liquid2 and for this purpose he has made
 use of the arrangement shown in ,fig4  
#g4 ,by the side of the vibrating body  
there is placed a light body mounted on 
a very flexible spring4 ,this assumes   
the motion of that portion of the fluid 
in which it is immersed1 and1 by the aid
 of a small pencil1 its direction is    
inscribed upon a plate located above it4
 ,by placing this registering apparatus 
in different directions the entire      
liquid may be explored4 ,we find by this
 means figures that are perfectly       
identical with magnetic phantoms4 ,all  
the circumstances connected with these  
can be reproduced1 the vibrating sphere 
giving the phantom of a magnet with its 
two poles4 ,we may even exhibit the     
mutual action of two magnets4 ,the      
figures show with remarkable            

distinctness--much more distinct1       
perhaps1 than those that are obtained by
 true magnets4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#g4  ,however1 it must not be thought   
that these so interesting facts are the 
result of groping in the dark and the   
outcome of some fortunate experiment2   
for they have1 on the contrary1 been    
foreseen and predetermined4 ,mr4        
,bjerknes is especially a mathematician1
 and it was a study1 through            
calculation1 of the vibratory motion of 
a body or system of bodies in a medium  
that led him to the results that he     
afterwards materialized4  ,after the    
production1 by ,mr4 ,lejeune1 of his    
solutions1 ,mr4 ,bjerknes in #ahfe      
entered upon a complete study of the    
subject1 and recognized the fact that   
the result of such motions was the      
production of regular mechanical        
actions4 ,he calculated the directions  
of these1 and1 along about #ahge1       
perceived the possibility of reproducing
 the effects of permanent magnetism4    

,more recently1 in #ahgi1 he saw that   
magnetism by derivation might likewise  
be explained by those hypotheses1 and   
figured by actions of this kind4 ,it was
 not till then that he performed the    
experiments1 and submitted a body to the
 results of calculation4  ,the same     
process has led him to the conclusion   
that the action of currents might be    
represented in the same manner2 only1   
instead of bodies in vibration1 it would
 require bodies in alternating rotation4
 ,the effects are much more difficult to
 ascertain1 since it is necessary to    
employ viscid liquids4  ,meanwhile1 the 
experiments have been performed4 ,up to 
the present time attractions and        
repulsions have not been shown1 and ,i  
do not know whether ,mr4 ,bjerknes has  
obtained them4 ,but1 by the process     
pointed out1 the lines of action        
7electric phantoms1 if ,i may so express
 myself7 have been traced1 and they are 
very curious4 ,by supposing the current 
perpendicular to the plate1 and in the  

presence of the pole of a magnet1 the   
influences produced around it are very  
well seen1 and the figures are very     
striking1 especially in the case of two 
currents4 ,mr4 ,bjerknes does not appear
 as yet to have obtained from these     
experiments all that he expects from    
them4 ,and yet1 such as they are1 they  
have already led him to important       
conclusions4 ,thus1 calculation1        
confirmed by application1 has led him to
 renounce the formula proposed by ,ampre
 and to adopt that of ,regnard as       
modified by ,clausius4 ,is he right8    
,this is what more prolonged            
experimentation will allow to be seen4  
,these researches1 however1 are beset   
with difficulties of a special nature1  
and the use of viscid liquids is a      
subject for discussion4 ,mr4 ,bjerknes  
desired to employ them for reproducing  
the effects that he had obtained from   
water1 but he found that the lines of   
force were no longer the same1 and that 
the phenomena were modified4 ,it is     

necessary1 then1 to hold as much as     
possible to liquids that are perfect4   
,the experimenter is at present         
endeavoring to use these liquids by     
employing cylinders having a fluted     
surface2 but it is clear that this1 too1
 is not without its difficulties4  ,this
 series of experiments offers a rare    
example of the verification of algebraic
 calculation by direct demonstration4   
,in general1 we may employ geometry1    
which gives a graphic representation of 
calculation and furnishes a valuable    
control4 ,sometimes we have practical   
application1 which is a very important  
verification in some respects1 but only 
approximate in others4 ,but it is rare  
that we employ1 as ,mr4 ,bjerknes has   
done1 a material1 direct1 and immediate 
translation1 which1 while it brings the 
results into singular prominence1       
permits of comparing them with known    
facts and of generalizing the views upon
 which they are based4  ,hypotheses as  
to the nature of electricity being as   

yet only tolerably well established1 we 
should neglect nothing that may         
contribute to give them a solid basis4  
,assuming that electricity is a         
vibratory motion 7and probably there is 
no doubt about it71 yet the fact is not 
so well established with regard to it as
 it is to that of light4 ,every proof   
that comes to support this idea is      
welcome1 and especially so when it is   
not derived from a kind of accident1 but
 is furnished by a calculated and       
mathematical combination4 ,viewed from  
this double standpoint1 the experiments 
of ,mr4 ,bjerknes are very remarkable1  
and1 ,i may add1 they are very curious  
to behold1 and ,i recommend all visitors
 to the ,exhibition to examine          
them4--,frank ,geraldy1 in ,la ,lumiere 
,electrique4         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,the ,,arc    
,,electric ,,light4#a      ,footnote #a3
 ,a recent address before the ,new ,york
 ,electric ,light      ,association4    
,,by ,,leo ,,daft4   ,i shall experience

 one difficulty in addressing you this  
evening1 which is1 that although ,i do  
not wish to take up your time with      
purely elementary matter1 ,i wish to    
make the subject clear to those who may 
not be familiar with its earlier        
struggles4  ,if we begin at the         
beginning we have to go back to the time
 when ,faraday made the discovery that  
light could be produced by the          
separation of two carbon rods conducting
 a current of considerable tension4     
,that is the historical point when      
electric lighting first loomed up as a  
giant possibility of the near future4   
,this occurred about the year #ahdf4 ,in
 some experiments he found that although
 the circuit could not be interrupted by
 any considerable interval when metallic
 terminals were used without breaking   
the current1 when carbon was substituted
 the interval could be largely          
increased1 and a light of dazzling      
brilliancy appeared between the points4 
,this remarkable effect appears to be   

produced by the rarefaction of the air1 
due to the great heat evolved by the    
combustion of the carbon1 and also to   
the passage of incandescent particles of
 carbon from pole to pole1 thus reducing
 the resistance1 otherwise too great for
 the current tension4  ,that was the    
beginning of electric lighting2 and     
perhaps it will be well to bridge the   
long and comparatively uninteresting    
interval which elapsed between this     
discovery and the equally important one 
which alone gave it commercial value--,i
 refer to the production of suitable    
currents by mechanical means4 ,that is  
to say1 the substitution of energy      
obtained from coal in the form of steam 
power reduced the cost to a fraction of 
what it necessarily was when the        
galvanic elements were used4 ,here is   
the point2 the cost of zinc today is    
something over fifty times that of coal1
 while its energy as a vitalizing agent 
is only about five times greater1       
leaving a very large margin in favor of 

the black diamonds4 ,this is not the    
only advantage1 for the resulting       
impulse in the case of mechanical       
production is much more uniform in      
action1 and therefore better suited to  
the end in view1 while the amount of    
adjustment and attention required is    
beyond comparison in favor of the latter
 means4  ,the machines adopted were of  
the magneto variety1 and many ingenious 
machines of this class were operated    
with more or less success1 being1       
however1 quickly abandoned upon the     
introduction of the dynamo-machine1     
which gave currents of much greater     
electromotive force from the same amount
 of material1 the advantage being       
chiefly due to the large increase of    
magnetic intensity in the field magnets4
 ,at this period lights of enormous     
power were produced with ease and by the
 use of costly lamps4 ,with complicated 
mechanism a new era in artificial       
illumination seemed close at hand1 but a
 grave difficulty stood in the          

way--namely1 the proper distribution or 
subdivision of the light4 ,it was       
quickly found that the electric         
difficulty of subdividing the light1    
added to the great cost of the lamps    
then made1 was an apparently            
insurmountable obstacle to its general  
adoption1 and the electric light was    
gradually taking its place as a         
brilliant scientific toy1 when the world
 was startled by the introduction of the
 ,jablochkoff candle1 which may fairly  
claim to have given a greater impetus to
 the new light than any previous        
invention1 a stimulus without which it  
is even probable that electric lighting 
might have slumbered for another decade4
  ,the ,jablochkoff candle embodies a   
very beautiful philosophical principle1 
and though its promises have not been   
fulfilled in general practice1 we must  
not forget that we owe it much for      
arousing scientific men from a dangerous
 lethargy4  ,up to this time the light  
had always been produced by             

approximation of carbon rods with their 
axes in the same plane2 but the         
,jablochkoff candle consisted of like   
rods arranged parallel to each other and
 about one-eighth of an inch apart1 the 
intervening space being filled with     
plaster of ,paris1 and the interval at  
the top bridged by a conducting medium4 
,the object of the plaster1 which is a  
fairly good insulating material at      
ordinary temperatures1 is to prevent the
 passage of the current except at the   
top1 where the conducting material just 
referred to assisted the formation of   
the arc at that point1 and the resulting
 intense heat maintained the plaster in 
a moderately conducting state until the 
whole carbon was consumed4 ,here1 then1 
was literally an electric candle1 which 
could be operated without the costly and
 unsteady lamps1 and fortunately its    
birthplace was ,paris--then the center  
of philosophical research2 from that    
period the future of electric lighting  
was assured4  ,when we reflect that     

owing to the greater disruptive energy  
of the positive terminal1 the carbon so 
connected to an ordinary dynamo machine 
is consumed very much faster than the   
negative--sometimes in the ratio of #c  
to #a--;it will be clear that some other
 means of consuming the ,jablochkoff    
candle had to be used1 since the arc    
would cease to exist in a very short    
time by reason of the unequal           
consumption of the carbons1 and the     
subsequent increase of the intervening  
space beyond the limit of the current   
tension4  ,this difficulty ,m4 ,gramme  
overcame with characteristic ingenuity  
by adding to the ordinary system a      
distributer capable of delivering plus  
and minus currents alternately1 thus    
equalizing the consumption1 besides     
being able to supply a large number of  
candles on the multiple circuit system1 
each circuit supporting four or five    
lamps4 ,thus it will be seen that a     
result was attained which at least gave 
such men as ,siemens1 ,gramme1 and their

 peers1 if such there be1 confidence in 
the future and a courage which quickly  
placed the new science safely beyond the
 limits of the laboratory4 ,i will not  
occupy your time by stating the apparent
 reasons why the ,jablochkoff candle has
 not fully sustained its brilliant      
promise--it will1 perhaps1 be sufficient
 to state that it is now superseded     
practically1 though it must always      
occupy an honorable place in scientific 
annals4  ,let us now for a few moments  
consider what the electric light really 
accomplished at about this period1 ,i   
mean from an economical standpoint4 ,it 
appears from some data furnished by an  
engineer commissioned by the ,french    
,government that the machines were then 
capable of maintaining a light equal to 
from #bbj to #dej candles1 measured by  
comparison with the ,carcel burner1 per 
horse power absorbed--a very good       
showing considering the youth of the    
discovery1 but presenting rather a      
gloomy aspect when we consider that     

according to ,joule's mechanical        
equivalent of heat1 which is #ggb foot  
pounds1 or the power required to raise  
one pound of water one degree--and for  
lack of anything better1 we are obliged 
to accept that at this moment--the whole
 force contained in one pound of coal   
would maintain a light equal to #ac1jjj 
candles for one hour6 ,that is the      
ultimate force1 and what we are now able
 to accomplish is but a small fraction  
of this amount4  ,unfortunately we are  
but common mortals1 and cannot1 like    
,mr4 ,keely1 lightly throw off the      
trammels of natural law2 we must1       
therefore1 endeavor to close this gap by
 patient study and experiment4  ,the    
limited time at my disposal1 and a keen 
consideration for your feelings1 will   
not permit me to follow the long series 
of struggles between mind and matter    
immediately following ,jablochkoff's    
brilliant invention2 suffice it to say1 
that the few years just passed have     
yielded beyond comparison the most      

marvelous results in the scientific     
history of the world1 and it will be    
superfluous to remind you that a great  
part of this has undoubtedly been due to
 the researches made in an effort to    
reduce electric lighting to a commercial
 basis4 ,to say that this has been fully
 accomplished is but to repeat a well   
known fact2 and in proof of this ,i     
quote a high scientific authority by    
stating that a result so high as #d1jjj 
candles evolved for #dj1jjj foot-pounds 
absorbed has recently been obtained--an 
efficiency six or seven times greater   
than the record of six years ago4 ,in   
accepting this statement we must not    
lose sight of the extreme probability   
that such effects were evolved under    
conditions rarely if ever found in      
common practice4 ,of course1 ,i now     
refer to the arc system4 ,the volume of 
light so generated is incomparably      
greater than by any other known method1 
though in subdivision the limit is      
sooner reached4  ,mr4 ,hawkesworth--,let

 me ask you a question1 please4         
,supposing that it required a one-horse 
power to produce an arc light of1 say1  
#b1jjj candles1 would it be possible to 
produce ten arc lights of #bjj candles  
each8  ,mr4 ,daft--,no1 sir2 ,i will    
tell you why4 ,it would1 if no other    
element than the simple resistance of   
the arcs opposed the passage of a       
current2 then a machine that would      
produce an inch arc in one light1 if    
placed on a circuit of sixteen lamps    
would give to each an arc one-sixteenth 
of an inch long naturally2 but another  
difficulty here presents itself in the  
shape of a resisting impulse of         
considerable electromotive force in the 
opposite direction1 apparently caused by
 the intense polarity of the two        
terminals4 ,the resistance of the arc   
itself varies much according to the     
volume of current used being usually    
small with a large quantity of current1 
and greater with a current of tension2  
but this opposing element is always     

found1 and appears to be the only real  
obstacle in the way of infinite         
subdivision4  ,almost every objection   
which human ingenuity could suggest has 
been urged against lighting by          
electricity1 but fortunately            
electricians have been able in most     
cases either to meet the difficulty or  
prove it groundless4  ,in this          
connection ,i am led to speak of the    
common idea that electric light is      
injurious to the eyes1 first1 because of
 its unsteady character1 and secondly1  
by reason of the great excess of the    
more refrangible rays4 ,both objections 
undoubtedly hold good where the alleged 
causes exist2 but we can now show you a 
light which is certainly as steady as   
the ordinary gaslight--indeed more      
steady in an apartment where even feeble
 currents of air circulate2 and ,i am   
sure you will readily acknowledge that  
the latter objection is disposed of when
 ,i assure you that our light presents  
the only example with which ,i am       

acquainted of an exact artificial       
reproduction of the solar light1 as     
shown by decomposition4 ,the two        
spectra1 placed side by side1 show in   
the most conclusive manner the identity 
in composition of our light with that of
 the sun4  ,the remarkable coolness of  
the electric light1 as compared with its
 volume by gas1 is also due in a great  
measure to the conspicuous absence of   
that large excess of less refrangible1  
or heat-radiating principle1 which      
distinguishes almost equally all other  
modes of artificial illumination4 ,after
 the foregoing statement it may seem a  
paradox to claim that the electric arc  
develops the greatest heat with which we
 have yet had to deal1 but this is so2  
and the heat has an intensity quite     
beyond the reach of accurate measurement
 by any instrument now known--it has    
been variously estimated anywhere       
between #e1jjj and #ej1jjj ,f4 ,it is   
sufficient for our present purpose to   
know that the most refractory substances

 quickly disappear when brought under   
its influence--even the imperial diamond
 must succumb in a short time4 ,in order
 to reconcile this fact with its        
coolness as an illuminating agent1 we   
have to take into consideration the     
extreme smallness of the point from     
which the light radiates in the electric
 arc4 ,a light having the power of many 
thousand candles will expose but a      
fraction of the surface for heat        
radiation which is shown by one gas-jet1
 and1 as ,i have endeavored to explain1 
these rays contain very much less of the
 heating principle than those from gas  
or other artificial light4  ,the purity 
of electric light has another important 
aspect1 which can scarcely be           
overestimated--namely1 the facility with
 which all the most delicate shades of  
color can be distinguished4 ,i          
understand from persons better skilled  
than myself in such matters that this   
can be done almost as readily by        
electric as by day light1 and ,i have   

little doubt that the slight difference 
in this respect will entirely disappear 
when people become somewhat more        
familiar with the different             
conditions--the effect of such shades   
viewed by electric light being more like
 that with comparatively feeble direct  
sunlight than the subdued daylight      
usually prevailing in stores and        
warehouses4  ,again1 it has frequently  
been urged that persons working by      
electric light have thus induced        
inflammation of the eyes4 ,no doubt this
 is so with light containing the highly 
refrangible rays in excess2 but it is   
difficult to see how such an effect can 
occur with light composed as is the     
light with which the eyes are           
constructed to operate in perfect       
harmony4  ,as you are aware1 there are  
other methods of obtaining light by     
electric energy1 and in order to make a 
fair comparison of one which has lately 
attracted a great deal of attention and 
capital1 ,i will relate to you the      

result of observations made during a    
recent visit to the office of an eminent
 electrician4 ,the light was that known 
as incandescent--a filament of carbon   
raised to a light-emitting heat in      
vacuo4 ,the exclusion of the air is     
necessary to prevent the otherwise rapid
 destruction of the carbon by           
combination with oxygen4 ,at the time of
 my visit there were #fb lamps in       
circuit4 ,according to their statement  
each lamp was of #af-;candle power--,i  
accept their statement as correct2 this 
will give us an aggregate of #iib       
candles4 ,the generator was vitalized by
 an engine rated by the attendants in   
charge at #f-;horse power4 ,i found that
 it was a #eg cylinder1 working with    
very little expansion #dcj revolutions  
per minute1 with #ij pounds of live     
steam1 in a boiler not #ae feet from the
 engine4 ,i have every reason to believe
 that the steam was delivered at the    
cylinder with an almost inappreciable   
loss on #ij pounds4 ,under those        

conditions ,i think it is perfectly fair
 to assume 7you have the data1 so that  
you can calculate it afterwards7 that   
#gej1jjj foot pounds were consumed in   
producing those #fj lights1 aggregating 
#iib candles4 ,in the kind of engine    
they had1 #gej1jjj foot pounds requires 
a consumption of about #ajj pounds of   
coal per hour4 ,it was an ordinary high 
speed engine4 ,that #gej1jjj foot       
pounds1 ,i assume1 required #ajj pounds 
of coal4 ,that is the only weak point in
 my data2 ,i do not know that to be     
true2 but ,i never saw an engine of that
 form yet capable of delivering         
#a-;horse power with less consumption   
than four to five pounds of coal per    
horse power per hour4 ,i want to be as  
fair as ,i can in the matter4 ,i wish to
 compare this1 as they have taken       
particular pains to compare it1 with    
gas1 at the present cost of gas4  ,the  
hundred pounds of coal will produce #djj
 feet of gas2 #djj feet of gas will     
evolve the effect of #a1ejj candles4 ,so

 you see the position we are in4 ,in    
consuming that coal directly by         
destructive distillation you can produce
 #a1ejj candles light2 by converting it 
into power1 and then again into light by
 incandescence1 you produce #iib6       
,expressing this in other words1 we may 
say that in producing the light from    
coal by the incandescent system you lose
 one-third of the power as compared with
 gas1 by actually converting the coal   
into gas1 and delivering it in the      
ordinary manner4 ,those are facts4 ,it  
has been suggested to me that ,i am too 
liberal in my estimate of coal          
consumed--that those engines consume    
more than four or five pounds per horse 
power per hour2 but ,i prefer to give   
them the benefit of the doubt4  ,mr4    
,rothschild--,if ,i understood you      
correctly1 this electric light costs    
more than gas8  ,mr4 ,daft--,must do by 
this system4 ,you cannot do better1 so  
far as our philosophy goes4 ,but this   
whole system of illumination1 as now    

practiced is a financial fallacy4  ,mr4 
,rothschild--,that is what ,professor   
,sawyer says4  ,mr4 ,daft--,the same    
amount of energy converted into light by
 our arc system will produce #cj1jjj    
candles4 ,we are perfectly willing to   
demonstrate that at any time4 ,i am free
 to admit that the minute subdivision   
obtained by the ,edisonian1 ,swan1 or   
,fox system--they do not differ         
materially--is a great desideratum2 but 
this cannot bridge the financial gulf4  
,mr4 ,lendrum--,now please state what we
 have accomplished4  ,mr4               
,daft--,certainly2 and in so doing ,i   
prefer to give our results as actually  
occurring in everyday work2 and in this 
connection let me remind you that in no 
branch of physics are the purely        
experimental effects so well calculated 
to deceive1 if not fairly conditioned4  
,as we have seen1 it is claimed on      
excellent authority that the equivalent 
of #d1jjj candles appeared in an arc by 
expending #dj1jjj foot pounds of energy 

at the generator1 but with everyday     
conditions it is at present idle to     
expect such efficiency4 ,commercially we
 can give by our own system #c1jjj      
candles for #dj1jjj foot pounds         
absorbed2 this may be done for an       
indefinite length of time and leave     
nothing to be desired on the score of   
steadiness4 ,unfortunately there is no  
unit of photometric measurement         
generally recognized in this country1   
each electrician having so far adopted  
one to suit his own convenience2 but in 
making the foregoing statement ,i wish  
it to be understood that our efficiency 
would appear still greater if measured  
by some of the methods now employed4    
,for our own satisfaction we have       
endeavored to be at least approximately 
accurate1 at the same time wishing to   
avoid the affectation of extreme        
precision1 such1 for example1 as adding 
twenty or thirty candles to measurements
 of so many thousands1 and we are       
satisfied that the most critical expert 

tests will prove our claim to be within 
the mark4 ,the limit of subdivision is  
only reached when the difficulty of     
further increasing the electromotive    
force of the machines1 involving great  
care in insulation and a host of other  
troubles arising1 so to speak1 at very  
high pressure1 is balanced by the       
objections to working in multiple arc2  
this appears to occur now at something  
below #dj lights1 but will in all       
probability be greatly extended within a
 short time4 ,the machines are so       
constructed that the local currents1    
usually productive of dangerous heating1
 are turned to useful account1 so that  
the point where radiation exceeds       
production is soon reached1 and provided
 the machines are not speeded beyond the
 proper limit1 they may be run          
continuously without the slightest      
indication of lost vitality4 ,i need    
scarcely remind you that this is a most 
important feature1 and by no means a    
common one4  ,the lamps used in our     

system ,i believe to be the simplest    
known form of regulator2 indeed it seems
 scarcely possible that anything less   
complicated could perform the necessary 
work2 as a matter of fact we may        
confidently assert that it cannot be    
made less liable to derangement4 ,it has
 frequently been placed on circuit by   
persons totally inexperienced in such   
matters1 and still has yielded results  
which we are quite willing to quote at  
any time4  ,i will not now trespass on  
your patience further than will enable  
me to state that experiments now in hand
 indicate conclusively that domestic    
electric lighting of the immediate      
future will be accomplished in a manner 
more beautiful and wondrous than was    
ever shadowed in an ,arabian ,night's   
dream4 ,i hesitate somewhat to make     
these vague allusions1 since so many    
wild promises1 for which ,i am not      
responsible1 remain unfulfilled1 but the
 time is surely near at hand when a     
single touch will illuminate our homes  

with a light which will combine all the 
elements of beauty1 steadiness1         
softness1 and absolute safety1 to a     
degree as yet undreamed of4 ,i do not   
ask you to accept this without question1
 but only to remember that within the   
last decade wires have been taught to   
convey not only articulate sounds1 but  
the individual voices you know amidst a 
thousand1 and even light and heat have  
each been made the medium of            
communicating our thoughts to distant   
places6  ,not the least remarkable      
phenomenon in this connection is the    
intellectual condition of the people who
 have welcomed these marvelous          
achievements and allowed them to enter  
into their everyday life1 thus removing 
the greatest barriers of the past and   
paving the way for that philosophical   
millennium inevitably awaiting those who
 may be fortunate enough to survive the 
next decade4         99       99        
99       99       99   ,,success ,,of   
,,the ,,elevated ,,railways1 ,,new      

,,york4  ,the travel over the elevated  
steam street railways of ,new ,york city
 for month of ,october1 #ahha1 was the  
heaviest yet recorded1 aggregating      
#g1aba1ifa passengers1 as against       
#e1hha1dgd1 for the corresponding month 
of #ahhj1 an increase of #a1bdj1dhg1    
representing just about the entire      
population of the city4         99      
99       99       99       99           
,,hedges' ,,electric ,,lamps4   ,we     
illustrate a very curious and           
interesting form of electric regulator  
which is exhibited in the ,paris        
,exhibition of ,electricity by ,mr4     
,killingworth ,hedges1 whose name will  
be known to our readers as the author of
 a little book on the electric light4   
,mr4 ,hedges' lamp belongs to the same  
category of electric regulators as the  
lamp of ,m4 ,rapieff1 and to one form of
 ,m4 ,reynier's lamp1 that is to say1   
the position of the ends of the carbons1
 and therefore of the arc1 is determined
 not by clockwork or similar controlling

 mechanism1 but by the locus of the     
geometrical intersection of the axes of 
the carbon rods1 the positions of which 
axes being determined by simple         
mechanical means4  ,illustration3 ,figs4
 #a and #b ,,hedges' ,,electrical ,,lamp
 ,,at ,,the ,,paris ,,electrical        
,,exhibition4  ,referring to ,fig4 #a1  
,a and ,b are two troughs rectangular in
 cross section attached to the supports 
in such positions that their axes are   
inclined to one another so as to form   
the letter ,v1 as shown in the figure4  
,within these troughs slide freely the  
two carbon pencils1 which are of        
circular cross section1 meeting1 when no
 current is passing1 at the lower point1
 ,e4 ,the carbon-holder1 ,b1 to the     
right of the figure1 is rigidly attached
 to the framing of the lamp1 but the    
trough1 ,a1 which carries the negative  
carbon1 is attached to the framing by a 
pivot shown in the figure1 and on this  
pivot the carbon holder can rock1 its   
motion being controlled by the position 

of the armature of an electro-magnet1   
,m1 the coils of which are included in  
the circuit of the apparatus4 ,by this  
means1 the moment the current is        
established through the lamp1 the       
armature is attracted1 and the points of
 the two carbons are separated1 thus    
forming the arc4 ,the positive carbon1  
,b1 is held from sliding and dropping   
through the trough by the gentle        
pressure against it of the smaller      
carbon rod1 ,c1 which also slides in a  
trough or tube fixed in such a position 
that the point of contact between the   
two rods is sufficiently near the arc   
for the smaller rod to be slowly        
consumed as the other is burnt away2 the
 latter in that way is permitted to     
slide gradually down the trough as long 
as the lamp is in action4 ,the negative 
carbon-holder1 ,a1 is provided with a   
little adjustable platinum stop1 ,e1    
which by pressing against the side of   
the conical end of the negative carbon1 
holds the latter in its place and       

prevents it sliding down the trough     
except under the influence of the slow  
combustion of the cone during the       
process of producing the arc4 ,the      
position of the stop with respect to the
 conical end is determined by a small   
adjusting screw shown in the figure4    
,this arrangement of stop is identical  
in principle with that adopted by       
,messrs4 ,siemens ,brothers in their    
abutment pole lamp1 and is found to work
 very well in practice on the negative  
electrodes1 but is inapplicable on the  
positive carbons on account of the      
higher temperature of the latter1 which 
is liable to destroy the metallic stop  
by fusion1 and it is for this reason    
that the positive carbon in ,mr4        
,hedges' lamp is controlled by the      
method we have already described4 ,for  
alternating currents1 however1 the      
abutment stop may be used on both       
electrodes4  ,illustration3 ,figs4 #c   
and #d4  ,in order to maintain a good   
electrical contact between the fixed    

conducting portions of the lamp and the 
sliding carbons1 ,mr4 ,hedges fits to   
each carbon-holder a little contact     
piece1 ,f ,f1 hinged to its respective  
trough at its upper end1 and carrying at
 its lower or free end a somewhat heavy 
little block of brass grooved out to fit
 the cylindrical side of the carbon1    
against which it presses with an even   
pressure4 ,this arrangement offers      
another advantage1 namely1 that the     
length of that portion of the carbon    
rods which is conveying the current is  
always the same notwithstanding the     
shortening of their total length by     
combustion2 the resistance of the carbon
 electrodes is1 therefore1 maintained   
constant1 and1 for the reason that the  
contact piece presses against the rods  
very near their lower ends1 that        
resistance is reduced to a minimum4 ,in 
this way very long carbons1 such1 for   
instance1 as will burn for ten or       
sixteen hours1 can be used without      
introducing any increase of resistance  

into the circuit4 ,the length of the arc
 can be determined by the adjustment of 
the screw1 ,g1 by which the amount of   
movement of the armature is limited4    
,fig4 #b represents a modified form of  
,mr4 ,hedges' lamp designed for         
installation when it is desirable to    
burn a number of lamps in series4 ,in   
this arrangement the carbons are        
separated by the attractive influence of
 a solenoid upon an iron plunger1 to    
which is attached 7by a non-magnetic    
connection7 the armature of an          
electro-magnet1 the coils 7which are of 
fine wire7 forming a shunt circuit      
between the two terminals of the lamp1  
and so disposed with respect to the     
armature as to influence it in an       
opposite direction to that of the       
solenoid4 ,when the circuit of the lamp 
is completed with the electric generator
 the carbons are drawn apart by the     
action of the solenoid on the plunger1  
and the distance to which they are      
separated is determined by the          

difference of attractive force exercised
 upon the armature by the solenoid and  
the magnet2 but as the latter forms a   
short circuit to that of the arc1 it    
follows that should the resistance of   
the arc circuit increase either through 
the arc becoming too long or through    
imperfection in the carbons or contacts1
 a greater percentage of current will   
flow through the magnet coils1 and the  
arc will be shortened1 thereby reducing 
its resistance and regulating it to the 
strength of the current4 ,in other      
words1 the distance between the carbons1
 that is to say1 the length of the arc1 
is determined by the position of the    
armature of the electro-magnet between  
its magnets and the solenoid1 which     
position is in its turn determined by   
the difference between the strength of  
current passing through the coil of the 
solenoid and that of the magnet4  ,mr4  
,killingworth ,hedges exhibits also a   
third form of his lamp1 in most respects
 similar to the lamp figured in ,fig4   

#a1 but in which the ends of the two    
carbons rest against the side of a small
 cylinder of fireclay or other          
refractory material1 which is mounted on
 a horizontal axis and can be rotated   
thereon by a worm and worm-wheel        
actuated by an endless cord passing over
 a grooved pulley4 ,in the lamp one of  
the carbon-holders is rigidly fixed to  
the framing of the apparatus1 and the   
other is mounted on a point so as to    
enable the length of the arc playing    
over the clay cylinder to be regulated  
by the action of an electro-magnet      
attracting an armature in opposition to 
the tension of an adjustable spring4    
,in the same exhibit will be found      
specimens of ,mr4 ,hedges' two-way      
switches1 which have been designed to   
reduce the tendency to sparking and     
consequent destruction which so often   
accompanies the action of switches of   
the ordinary form4 ,the essential       
characteristic of this switch1 which we 
illustrate in elevation in ,fig4 #c and 

in plan in ,fig4 #d1 lies first in the  
circular form of contact-piece shown in 
,fig4 #d1 and next in the fact that the 
space between the two fixed             
contact-pieces is filled up with a block
 composed of compressed asbestos1 the   
surface of which is flush with the upper
 surfaces of the two contact-pieces4    
,the circular contact-piece attached to 
the switch lever can be turned round so 
as to present a fresh surface when that 
which has been in use shows indications 
of being worn1 and a good firm contact  
with the fixed contact-pieces is insured
 by the presence of a spiral spring     
shown in the upper figure1 and which1   
owing to an error in engraving1 appears 
more like a screw than a spring4 ,in    
order to prevent bad connection through 
dust or other impurities collecting     
within the joint1 the electrical        
connection between the fulcrum of the   
switch lever and the circular           
contact-piece is made through the bent  
spring shown edgeways in ,fig4          

#c4--;,engineering4         99       99 
99       99       99     ,,railway      
,,apparatus ,,at ,,the ,,paris          
,,electrical ,,exhibition4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,lartigue's   
,switch ,controller ,fig4               
#b--,transverse ,section ,fig4          
#c--,longitudinal ,section ,fig4        
#d4--,position of the ,commutators      
during the ,manuever ,fig4 #e4--,pedal  
for ,sending ,warning to ,railway       
,crossing--,elevation4 ,fig4 #g4--;,end 
,view4  ,fig4 #h4--;,electric ,alarm4   
,fig4 #ab4--;,guggemos's ,correspondence
 ,apparatus--,external ,view4 ,fig4     
#ac4--;,interior of the ,same4 ,fig4    
#ad4--;,annunciator ,apparatus4 ,fig4   
#ae4--;,controller for ,water ,tanks    
7,lartigue ,system74  ,,railway         
,,apparatus ,,at ,,the ,,paris          
,,electrical ,,exhibition4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,pedal for    
,sending ,warning to ,railway           
,crossing--,plan ,view4 ,fig4           
#i4--,lartigue's ,bellows               

,pedal--,longitundinal ,section ,fig4   
#aj4--;,general ,plan4  ,fig4           
#af4--;,controller for ,water ,tanks    
7,vrit ,system74 ,,railway ,,apparatus  
,,at ,,the ,,paris ,,electrical         
,,exhibition4  ,lartigue's ,switch      
,controller4--,the object of this       
apparatus is to warn the switch tender  
in case the switch does not entirely    
respond to the movement of the          
maneuvering lever4  ,the apparatus1     
which is represented in the accompanying
 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d1 consists of 
the following parts3  7#a47 ,a mercurial
 commutator1 ,o1 which is fixed on a    
lever1 ,b1 connected with a piece1 ,a1  
which is applied against the external   
surface of the web of the main rails1   
opposite the extremity of the switch    
plates2  7#b47 ,a bar1 ,c1 which        
traverses the web of the rail and       
projects on the opposite side1 and which
 carries a nut1 ,d1 against which the   
switch plate abuts2  7#c47 ,an          
electrical alarm and a pile1 located    

near the switch lever4 ,as long as one  
of the two plates of the switch is      
applied against the rail1 one of the two
 commutators is inclined and no current 
passes4 ,a space of one millimeter is   
sufficient to bring the commutator to a 
horizontal position and to cause the    
electric alarm to ring continuously4 ,if
 the apparatus gets out of order1 it is 
known at once2 for if the alarm does not
 work during the maneuver of the switch1
 the tender will be warned that the     
electric communications are interrupted1
 and that he must consequently at once  
make known the position of his switch   
until the necessary repairs have been   
made4  ,pedals for ,transmitting        
,signals to ,crossings4--,on railways   
having a double track and doing a large 
amount of business it becomes very      
necessary to announce to the flagmen at 
railway crossings the approach of       
trains1 so as to give them time to stop 
all crossing of the tracks4 ,on railway 
lines provided with electro-semaphores  

there may be used for this purpose those
 small apparatus that have been styled  
semaphore repeaters4  ,mr4 ,lartigue has
 invented two automatic apparatus1 by   
means of which the train itself signals 
its approach4  #a4 ,the first of these1 
which is generally placed at about      
#f1jjj feet from the point to be        
covered1 consists 7,figs4 #e1 #f1 #g1   
and #h7 of a very light pedal fixed to  
the inside of the rail1 and acting upon 
a mercurial commutator4 ,a spring1 ,r1  
carried upon the arm1 a1 of a lever1 ,a1
 projects slightly above the level of   
the rail1 while the other arm1 b1       
carries a commutator4  ,the spring1 ,r1 
on being depressed tilts the box        
containing the mercury1 closes the      
circuit1 and causes an alarm1 ,s1       
located at the crossing1 to immediately 
ring4 ,in this alarm 7,fig4 #h7 a piece1
 ,p1 is disconnected by the passage of  
the current into the electro-magnet1 ,e1
 which attracts the armature1 a1 and1 a 
permanent current being set up1 the     

apparatus operates like an ordinary     
alarm1 until the piece1 ,p1 is placed by
 hand in its first position again4  #b4 
,the second apparatus1 exhibited by the 
,railway ,company of the ,north1 and    
also the invention of ,mr4 ,lartigue1   
bears the name of the ,bellows ,pedal4  
,it consists 7,figs4 #i and #aj7 of a   
pedal1 properly so called1 ,p1 placed   
along the rail1 one of its extremities  
forming a lever and the other being     
provided with a counterpoise1 ,c4 ,when 
a train passes over the pedal1 the arm1 
,b1 fixed to its axle1 on falling closes
 the circuit of an ordinary electrical  
alarm1 and at the same time the bellows1
 ,s1 becomes rapidly filled with air1   
and1 after the passage of the train1 is 
emptied again very slowly under the     
action of the counterpoise4 ,the contact
 is thus kept up for some few minutes4  
,this apparatus works very              
satisfactorily1 but is cumbersome and   
relatively high-priced4  ,the ,brunot   
,controller as a ,controller of the     

,passage of ,trains4--,the ,brunot      
,controller1 which has been employed for
 several years on the ,railway of the   
,north1 is designed to control the      
regularity of the running of trains1 and
 to make automatically a contradictory  
verification of the figures on the slips
 carried by the conductors4 ,in ,fig4   
#aa we give a longitudinal section of   
the apparatus4 ,it consists of a wooden 
case containing a clockwork movement1   
,h1 upon the axle of which is mounted a 
cardboard disk1 ,c1 divided into hours  
and minutes1 and regulated like a watch1
 that is to say1 making one complete    
revolution in twelve hours4 ,the        
metallic pencil1 c1 which is capable of 
displacing itself on the cardboard in a 
horizontal direction opposite a groove  
on the other side of the disk1 traces1  
when pressure is brought to bear on it1 
a spiral curve4 ,the transverse travel  
of the pencil is effected in ninety-six 
hours4 ,the displacement of the pencil  
is brought about by means of a cam4     

,under the influence of the jarring of  
the train in motion1 a weight1 ,p1      
suspended from a flexible strip1 l1     
strikes against the pencil1 c1 which    
traces a series of points4 ,during      
stoppages there is1 of course1 an       
interruption in the tracing of the      
curve4  ,illustration3 ,fig4            
#aa4--;,brunot's ,controller4 ,,railway 
,,apparatus ,,at ,,the ,,paris          
,,electrical ,,exhibition4  ,up to this 
point no electricity is involved--the   
apparatus is simply a controller of     
regularity4 ,mr4 ,brunot has conceived  
the idea of utilizing his apparatus for 
controlling the passage of trains at    
certain determined points on the line2  
for example1 at the top of heavy grades4
 ,for this purpose it has only been     
necessary to add to the apparatus that  
we have just described an               
electro-magnet1 ,e1 connected           
electrically with a fixed contact       
located on the line4 ,when the current  
passes1 that is to say1 at the moment   

the circuit is closed by the passage of 
a train1 the armature1 ,a1 is attracted1
 and the pencil marks a point on the    
cardboard disk4 ,this modification of   
the apparatus has not as yet been       
practically applied4  ,electrical       
,corresponding ,apparatus4--,the object 
of these apparatus is to quickly        
transmit to a distance a certain number 
of phrases that have been prepared in   
advance4 ,the ,company of the ,north    
employs two kinds of correspondence     
apparatus--the ,guggemos and the        
annunciator apparatus4  #a4 ,the        
,guggemos ,apparatus4--,this apparatus  
serves at once as a manipulator and     
receiver1 and consists of an inner      
movement surmounted by a dial1 over the 
face of which moves an index hand4      
,around the circumference of the dial   
there is arranged a series of circular  
cases1 ,c1 containing the messages to be
 received1 and similar triangular cases1
 containing the messages to be          
forwarded1 radiating from the center of 

the dial4 ,between each of these there  
is a button1 b4  ,fig4 #ac represents   
the interior of an apparatus for twenty 
messages4 ,it consists of a key-board1  
,m1 an electro-magnet1 ,b1 a clock-work 
movement1 ,q1 an escapement1 s1 and an  
interrupter1 ,f ,g4  ,when one of the   
buttons1 b1 is pressed1 one of the      
levers of the key-board arrangement     
touches the disk1 ,m1 which is insulated
 from the other portions of the         
key-board1 and the current then passes  
from the terminal ,c to ,m1 and there   
bifurcating1 one portion of it goes to  
the bobbins of the apparatus and thence 
to the earth1 while the other goes to   
actuate the correspondence apparatus4   
,the index-hands of the two apparatus   
thereupon begin their movement          
simultaneously1 and only stop when the  
pressure is removed from the button and 
the current is consequently interrupted4
 ,h is a ratchet-wheel1 which1 like the 
key-board1 is insulated from the rest of
 the apparatus4 ,the button1 ,k1 located

 over each of the dials1 serves to bring
 the index-needles back to their        
position under the cross shown in ,fig4 
#ab4 ,the key1 ,x1 serves for winding up
 the clock-work movement4  ,the         
,annunciator ,apparatus4--,this         
apparatus1 which performs the same role 
as the one just described1 is simply an 
ingenious modification of the           
annunciator used in hotels1 etc4  ,it   
consists of a wooden case1 containing as
 many buttons as there are phrases to be
 exchanged4 ,over each button1 b1 there 
is a circular aperture1 behind which    
drops the disk containing the phrase4   
,between the buttons and the apertures  
are rectangular plates1 ,p1 in which are
 inscribed the answers given by pressing
 on the button of the receiving         
tablet--a pressure which1 at the same   
time1 removes the corresponding disk    
from the aperture4 ,two disks located at
 the upper part carry these             
inscriptions3 ,error1 ,i repeat2 ,wait4 
,the tablets on exhibition have eight   

disks1 and can thus be used for         
exchanging six different phrases4 ,in   
the interior1 opposite each aperture1   
there is a ,hughes magnet1 between the  
arms of which there oscillates a        
vertical soft-iron rod1 carrying a disk4
 ,the maneuver is simple4 ,by pressing  
upon a button there is sent into the    
bobbins of the magnet corresponding to  
this button a current which causes the  
disk to appear before one of the        
apertures1 while at the same time an    
alarm begins to ring4 ,the same maneuver
 performed by the agent at the          
receiving-post has the effect of causing
 the disk to disappear4 ,the two contact
 springs in communication at each       
aperture with the alarm and the line are
 connected by a strip of ebonite1 ,m1   
against the center of which presses the 
button4  ,electrical ,controllers for   
,water-,tanks4--,the object of these    
apparatus is to warn the person in      
charge of a water-tank that the latter  
is full1 and that he must stop the      

engine-pump2 or1 that the tank is empty1
 and that he must at once proceed to    
fill it4 ,the ,company of the ,north has
 on exhibition two such apparatus--one  
of them ,lartigue's1 and the other      
,vrit's4  #a4 ,the ,lartigue ,controller
 7,fig4 #ae74--,this apparatus consists 
of a long lever1 ,a1 which carries at   
one of its extremities a funnel1 ,e1    
having a very narrow orifice and which  
is placed under the overflow pipe of the
 tank4 ,the lever is kept normally in a 
horizontal position by a counterpoise2  
but1 as soon as the overflow runs into  
the funnel1 the weight of the water     
tilts the lever1 and the mercurial      
commutator1 ,f1 closes the circuit of a 
pile1 which actuates an alarm-bell      
located near the pump and engine4 ,the  
two stops1 a and a'1 limit the play of  
the lever4  #b4 ,the ,vrit ,controller  
7,fig4 #af74--,this apparatus consists  
of a float1 ,f1 provided with a catch1  
,c1 calculated in such a way as to act  
only when the float has reached a       

certain definite height4 ,at that moment
 it lifts the extremity of the weighted 
lever1 ,e1 which in falling back acts   
upon the extremity1 a1 of another lever1
 ,n1 pivoted at the point1 ,o4 ,the     
piece1 ,p1 which is normally in contact 
with the magnet1 ,a1 being suddenly     
detached by this movement of the lever1 
,n1 the induced current which is then   
produced causes the display1 near the   
pump1 of a disk1 ,q1 upon which is      
inscribed the word ,full4 ,this is a    
signal to stop pumping4         99      
99       99       99       99     ,,the 
,,telephonic ,,halls ,,of ,,the         
,,electrical ,,exhibition4   ,telephonic
 communication between the ,opera and   
the ,exhibition of ,electricity is      
obtained by means of twenty conducting  
wires1 which are divided between two    
halls hung with carpets to deaden       
external noises4 ,we represent in the   
accompanying engraving one of these     
halls1 and the one which is lighted by  
the ,lane-,fox system of lamps4 ,as may 

be seen1 there are affixed against the  
hangings1 all around the room1 long     
mahogany boards1 to which are fastened  
about twenty small tablets provided with
 hooks1 from which are suspended the    
telephones4 ,the latter are connected   
with the underground conductors by      
extensible wires which project from the 
wooden wainscot of which we have just   
spoken1 so that it is very easy for the 
auditors to put the telephones to their 
ears4  ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the  
,,telephonic ,,halls ,,at ,,the         
,,electrical ,,exhibition4  ,as the     
telephones are connected in series of   
eight with the same couple of microphone
 transmitters1 and as each of these     
transmitting couples occupies a         
different position on the stage1 it     
results that the effects are not the    
same at different points of each hall4  
,those telephones1 for example1 which   
correspond with the foot-lights of the  
theater are more affected by the sounds 
of the large instnuments of the         

orchestra than those which occupy the   
middle of the foot-lights2 but1 as an   
offset to this1 the latter are affected 
by the voice of the prompter4 ,in order 
to equalize the effects as much as      
possible1 ,mr4 ,ader has arranged it so 
that the two transmitters of each series
 shall be placed under conditions that  
are diametrically opposite4 ,thus1 the  
transmitter at the end of the           
foot-lights1 on the left side1          
corresponds with the transmitter of the 
series to the right1 nearest to the     
middle of the stage2 and the arrangement
 is the same1 but in an inverse         
direction1 for the transmitter at the   
end of the foot-lights to the right4    
,but the series which produces the best 
effects is1 as may be readily           
comprehended1 that which corresponds    
with the transmitters occupying the     
middle of the right and left rows4      
,these considerations easily explain the
 different opinions expressed by certain
 auditors in relation to the predominant

 sounds that they have heard1 and why it
 is that some of them who have listened 
in different parts of the same hall have
 not had the same impressions4          
,naturally1 the fault has beeen laid to 
the telephones2 but1 although these may 
vary in quality1 it is more particularly
 to the arrangement of the transmitters 
on the stage that are to be attributed  
the differences that are noted4  ,as the
 ,opera does not give representations   
every day1 ,mr4 ,ader has had the idea  
of occupying the attention of the public
 on ,tuesday1 ,thursday1 ,saturday1 and 
,sunday with the telephonic effects of  
flourishes of trumpets1 which imitate   
pretty well the effects of ,french      
horns4 ,these experiments have taken    
place in the hall in which is installed 
the little theater1 and we must really  
say that in the effects produced ,french
 horns count for nothing4--,la ,lumiere 
,electrique4         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,the ,,action 
,,of ,,cold ,,on ,,the ,,volt   ,when   

the voltaic arc plays between two       
metallic rheophores1 of copper for      
instance1 each formed of a ,u-tube      
traversed by a rapid current of cold    
water1 and placed horizontally opposite 
each other1 the following facts are     
observed3 ,the luminous power of the arc
 is considerably weakened2 it is reduced
 to a mere luminous point even when a   
current of #ej to #ge ,bunsen elements  
of the large pattern is employed4 ,the  
arc is very unstable and the least      
breath is sufficient to extinguish it4  
,if a leaf of paper is placed above the 
arc at the distance of #j4jjd to #j4jje 
meter a black point is produced in a few
 moments1 which spreads and becomes a   
perforation1 but the paper does not     
ignite4 ,the arc consists of a luminous 
globule1 moving between the two         
rheophores up and down and back again4  
,the form of this globule1 as well as   
its extreme mobility1 causes it to      
resemble a drop of water in a spheroidal
 state4 ,if we approach to the voltaic  

arc the south pole of a magnet the arc  
is attracted to such a degree that it   
leaves the rheophores and is            
extinguished4 ,the same facts are       
observed in an intense form on          
presenting the north pole of a magnet to
 the arc4 ,the quantity of ozone seems  
greater than when the arc is not        
refrigerated4 ,it is to be noted that   
notwithstanding the refrigeration of the
 rheophores the flame of the arc is     
slightly green1 proving that a portion  
of the copper is burning4 ,it becomes a 
question whether the arc would be       
produced on taking as rheophores two    
tubes of platinum in which is caused to 
circulate1 e4g41 alcohol cooled to      
-#cj4--;,d4 ,tommasi4         99        
99       99       99       99           
,,watchman',s ,,detecter4   ,we herewith
 illustrate an exceedingly simple form  
of detecter1 to show if the night       
watchmen perform their visits regularly 
and punctually4 ,in the case1 ,c1 is a  
clockwork apparatus driving the axle1   

,s1 at the end of which is a worm which 
gears into the wheel of the drum1 ,d4   
,the rotation of ,d1 thus obtained      
unrolls a strip of paper from the other 
drum1 ,d4 ,this paper passes over the   
poles of as many electro-magnets as     
there are points to be visited1 and     
underneath the armatures of these       
electro-magnets4 ,each armature has a   
sharp point fixed on its under side1 and
 when a current passing through the     
coils causes the attraction of the      
armature1 this point perforates the     
paper4 ,the places to be visited are    
connected electrically with the binding 
screws shown1 and the watchman has      
merely to press a button to make the    
electric circuit complete4 ,it has been 
found in practice that plain paper      
answers every purpose1 as the clock     
giving an almost uniform motion enables 
the reader1 after having seen the       
perforated slips once or twice1 to      
determine fairly well the time which    
elapses between each pressure of the    

button4--,the ,engineer4  ,illustration3
 ,,watchman',s ,,detecter         99    
99       99       99       99           
,,integrating ,,apparatus4   ,at a      
recent meeting of the ,london ,physical 
,society1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,vernon ,boys read a 
paper on ,integrating ,apparatus4 ,after
 referring to his original cart machine 
for integrating1 described at a former  
meeting of the society1 he showed how he
 had been led to construct the new      
machine exhibited1 in which a cylinder  
is caused to reciprocate longitudinally 
in contact with a disk1 and give the    
integral by its rotation4 ,integrators  
were of three kinds3 7#a7 radius        
machines2 7#b7 cosine machines2 7#c7    
tangent machines4 ,sliding friction and 
inertia render the first two kinds      
unsuitable where there are delicate     
forces or rapid variation in the        
function to be integrated4 ,tangent     
machines depend on pure rolling1 and the
 inertia and friction are inappreciable4
 ,they are1 therefore1 more practical   

than the other sort4 ,it is to this     
class that ,mr4 ,boys' machines belong4 
,the author then described a theoretical
 tangent integrator depending on the    
mutual rolling of two smoke rings1 and  
showed how the steering of a bicycle or 
wheelbarrow could be applied to         
integrate directly with a cylinder      
either the quotient or product of two   
functions4 ,if the tangent wheel is     
turned through a right angle at         
starting1 the machine will integrate    
reciprocals1 or it can be made to       
integrate functions by an inverse       
process4 ,if instead of a cylinder some 
other surface of evolution is employed  
as an integrating surface1 then special 
integrations can be effected4 ,he showed
 a polar planimeter in which the        
integrating surface is a sphere4 ,a     
special use of these integrators is for 
finding the total work done by a fluid  
pressure reciprocating engine4 ,the     
difference of pressure on the two sides 
of the piston determines the tangent of 

the inclination of the tangent wheel    
which runs on the integrating cylinder2 
while the motion of the latter is made  
to keep time with that of the piston4   
,in this case the number of evolutions  
of the cylinder measures the total      
amount of work done by the engine4 ,the 
disk cylinder integrator may also be    
applied to find the total amount of work
 transmitted by shafting or belting from
 one part of a factory to another4 ,an  
electric current meter may be made by   
giving inclination to the disk1 which is
 for this purpose made exceedingly small
 and delicate1 by means of a heavy      
magnetic needle deflected by the        
current4 ,this1 like ,edison's1 is a    
direction meter2 but a meter in which no
 regard is paid to the direction of the 
current can be made by help of an iron  
armature of such a shape that the force 
with which it is attracted to fill the  
space between the poles of an           
electro-magnet is inversely as its      
displacement4 ,then by resisting this   

motion by a spring or pendulum the      
movement is proportional to the current1
 and a tangent wheel actuated by this   
movement causes the reciprocating       
cylinder on which it runs to integrate  
the current strength4 ,mr4 ,boys        
exhibited two such electric energy      
meters1 that is1 machines which         
integrate the product of the current    
strength by the difference of potential 
between two points with respect to time4
 ,in these the main current is made to  
pass through a pair of concentric       
solenoids1 and in the annular space     
between these is hung a solenoid1 the   
upper half of which is wound in the     
opposite direction to the lower half4   
,by the use of what ,mr4 ,boys calls    
induction traps of iron1 the magnetic   
force is confined to a small portion of 
the suspended solenoid1 and by this     
means the force is independent of the   
position4 ,the solenoid is hung to one  
end of a beam1 and its motion is        
resisted by a pendulum weight1 by which 

the energy meters may be regulated like 
clocks to give standard measure4 ,the   
beam carries the tangent wheels1 and the
 rotation of the cylinder gives the     
energy expanded in foot-pounds or other 
measures4 ,the use of an equal number of
 turns in opposite directions on the    
movable solenoid causes the instrument  
to be uninfluenced by external magnetic 
forces4 ,mr4 ,boys showed on the screen 
an image of an electric arc1 and by its 
side was a spot of light1 whose position
 indicated the energy1 and showed every 
flicker of the light and fluctuation of 
current in the arc4 ,he showed on the   
screen that if the poles are brought too
 near the energy expended is less1      
though the current is stronger1 and that
 if the poles are too far apart1 though 
the electromotive force is greater the  
energy is less2 so that the apparatus   
may be made to find the distance at     
which the greatest energy1 and so the   
greatest heat and light1 may be         
produced4  ,at the conclusion of the    

paper1 ,prof4 ,w4,g4 ,adams and ,prof4  
,g4,c4 ,foster could not refrain from   
expressing their high admiration of the 
ingenious and able manner in which ,mr4 
,boys had developed the subject4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,a ,,canal ,,boat ,,propelled ,,by      
,,air4   ,a novelty in canal boats lies 
in ,charles ,river1 near the foot of    
,chestnut street1 which is calculated to
 attract considerable attention4 ,it is 
called a pneumatic canal boat and was   
built at ,wiscasset1 ,me41 as devised by
 the owner1 ,mr4 ,r4,h4 ,tucker1 of     
,boston1 who claims to hold patents for 
its design in ,england and the ,united  
,states4 ,the specimen shown on ,charles
 ,river1 which is designed to be used on
 canals without injuring the banks1 is a
 simple structure1 measuring sixty-two  
feet long and twenty wide4 ,it is three 
feet in depth and draws seventeen inches
 of water4 ,it is driven entirely by    
air1 ,root's blower ,no4 #d being used1 
the latter operated by an               

eight-horse-power engine4 ,the air is   
forced down a central shaft to the      
bottom1 where it is deflected1 and1     
being confined between keels1 passes    
backward and upward1 escaping at the    
stern through an orifice nineteen feet  
wide1 so as to form a sort of air wedge 
between the boat and the surface of the 
water4 ,the force with which the air    
strikes the water is what propels it4   
,the boat has a speed of four miles an  
hour1 but requires a                    
thirty-five-horsepower engine to develop
 its full capabilities4 ,the patentee   
claims a great advantage in doing away  
with the heavy machinery of screws and  
side-wheels1 and believes that the      
contrivance gives full results1 in      
proportion to the power employed4 ,it is
 also contrived for backing and steering
 by air propulsion4 ,owing to the slight
 disturbance which it causes to the     
water1 it is thought to be very well    
adapted for work on canals without      
injury to the sides4--,boston ,journal4 

99       99       99       99       99  
,,head ,,linings ,,of ,,passenger       
,,cars4   ,the veneer ceilings are      
considered as much superior to cloth as 
cloth was to the roof-ceiling4 ,they are
 remarkably chaste1 and so solid and    
substantial that but little decoration  
is necessary to produce a pleasing      
effect4 ,the agreeable contrast between 
the natural grain of the wood and the   
deeper shade of the bands and mouldings 
is all that is necessary to harmonize   
with the other parts of the interiors of
 certain classes of cars--smoking and   
dining cars1 for example4 ,but in the   
case of parlor and dining-room cars1 the
 decorations of these ceilings should be
 in keeping with the style of the cars1 
by giving such a character to the lines1
 curves1 and colors1 as will be         
suggestive of cheerfulness and life4    
,while these head linings are deserving 
of the highest commendation as an       
important improvement upon previous     
ones1 they are still open to some       

objections4 ,one barrier to their       
general adoption is their increased     
cost4 ,it is true that superior quality 
implies higher prices1 but when the     
prices exceed so much those of cloth    
linings1 it is difficult to induce road 
managers to increase expenses by        
introducing the new linings1 when the   
great object is to reduce expenses4     
,another objection to wood linings is   
their liability to injury from heat and 
moisture1 a liability which results from
 the way in which they are put together4
 ,a heated roof or a leak swells the    
veneering1 and in many cases takes it   
off in strips4 ,to obviate these        
objections1 ,i have1 during the past    
eighteen months1 been experimenting with
 some materials that would be less      
affected by these causes1 and at the    
same time make a handsome ceiling4      
,about a year ago ,i fitted up one car  
in this way1 and it has proved a        
success4 ,the material used is heavy    
tar-board pressed into the form of the  

roof and strengthened by burlaps4 ,it is
 then grained and decorated in the usual
 manner1 and when finished has the same 
appearance as the veneers1 will wear as 
well1 and can be finished at much less  
cost4--,d4,d4 ,robertson4         99    
99       99       99       99           
,,improved ,,mortar ,,mixer4   ,the     
engravings herewith illustrate a new    
form of mixing or pugging machine for   
making mortar or any other similar      
material4 ,it has been designed by ,mr4 
,r4,r4 ,gubbins1 more especially for    
mixing emery with agglutinating material
 for making emery wheels2 and a machine 
is at work on this material in the      
manufactory of the ,standard ,emery     
,wheel ,company1 ,greek ,street1 ,soho4 
,the machine is shown in perspective in 
,fig4 #a with the side door of the      
mixing box let down as it is when the   
box is being emptied2 and in ,fig4 #b it
 is shown in transverse section4 ,the   
principle of the machine is the         
employment of disks fixed at an angle of

 about #de deg4 on shafts revolving in a
 mixing box1 to which a slow            
reciprocating movement of short range is
 given4  ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #a and  
#b--;,,improved ,,mortar ,,mixing       
,,machine4  ,in our illustrations1 ,c is
 a knife-edge rail1 upon which run      
grooved wheels supporting the pugging   
box4 ,to the axle of one grooved wheel a
 connecting rod from crank arm1 ,f is   
attached to effect the to-and-fro motion
 of the mixing box1 ,b4 ,g is the door  
of the box1 ,b1 hinged at ,h1 and       
secured by hinged pins carrying fly     
nuts4 ,a cover and hopper and also a    
trap may be supplied to the box1 ,b1 for
 continuously feeding and discharging   
the material operated upon4 ,l1 ,l1 are 
the pugging blades or discs on shafts1  
,m4 ,the shafts1 ,m1 pass through a slot
 in the box1 ,b1 and the packing of     
these shafts is effected by the face    
plate sliding and bearing against the   
face on the standard of the machine4 ,p 
is a guide piece on the standard1       

against which bears and slides the      
piece1 ,q1 bolted on to box1 ,b1 to     
support and guide the box1 ,b1 in its   
movement4 ,the forked ends of a yoke    
engage with the collars1 ,s1 on the     
shafts1 ,m1 this yoke being set by a    
screw so that the shafts may be easily  
removed4 ,the machine is driven from the
 pulleys and shaft1 ,t1 through gearing1
 ,t#b and ,t#c1 and by the ,ewart's     
chain on the wheel and pinion1 ,v and   
,u4--,the ,engineer4         99       99
       99       99       99  ,continued 
from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #caa1 page      
#difj4     ,,practical ,,notes ,,on     
,,plumbing4#a     ,footnote #a3 ,from   
the ,london ,building ,news4  ,,by      
,p4,j4 ,,davies1 ,h4,m4,a4,s4,p41 ,,etc4
   ,,tinning ,,iron ,,pipes1 ,,copper   
,,or ,,brass-,,work1 ,,bits1 ,,etc4     
,previously1 ,i described the method of 
tinning the bit1 etc41 with resin2 but  
before this work on joints can be       
considered complete1 ,i find it         
necessary to speak of tinning the ends  

of iron pipes1 etc41 which have within  
the last fifty years been much used in  
conjunction with leaden pipes4 ,this is 
done as follows3 ,take some spirits of  
salts 7otherwise known as hydrochloric  
acid1 muriatic acid1 hydrogen chloride1 
,h,cl71 in a gallipot1 and put as much  
sheet-zinc in it as the spirit will     
dissolve2 you have then obtained        
chloride of zinc 7,zn,cl74 ,a little    
care is required when making this1 as   
the acid is decomposed and is spread    
about by the discharged hydrogen1 and   
will rust anything made of iron or      
steel1 such as tools1 etc4 ,it also     
readily absorbs ammoniacal gas1 so that1
 in fact1 sal ammoniac may also be      
dissolved in it1 or sal ammoniac        
dissolved in water will answer the      
purpose of the chloride of zinc4        
,having the killed spirits1 as it is    
sometimes called1 ready1 file the end of
 your iron or bit and plunge this part  
into the spirits1 then touch your dipped
 end with some fine solder1 and dip it  

again and again into the spirits until  
you have a good tinned face upon your   
iron1 etc42 next you require a          
spirit-brush4   ,,spirit-,,brush4  ,you 
can make this by cutting a few bristles 
out of a broom or brush1 push them into 
a short piece of compo tube1 say #a_/d  
in41 and hammer up the end to hold the  
bristles2 next cut the ends of the      
bristles to about #c_/h in4 long1 and   
the brush is ready for use4             
,,soldering ,,iron ,,to ,,lead4         
,suppose you want to make a joint round 
a lead and iron pipe4 ,first file the   
end of your iron pipe as far up as you  
would shave it if it were lead1 and be  
sure to file it quite bright and free   
from grease2 heat your soldering-iron2  
then1 with your spirit-brush1 paint the 
prepared end of your iron1 and with your
 bit1 rub over the pipe plenty of       
solder1 until the pipe is properly      
tinned1 not forgetting to use plenty of 
spirits2 this done1 you can put your    
joint together1 and wipe in the usual   

manner4 ,caution4--,do not put too much 
heat on your iron pipe1 either when     
tinning or making the joint1 or the     
solder will not take or stand4          
,,dummies ,,for ,,pipe-,,bending4       
,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ch4 and #ch;,b4 
,figs4 #ch and #ch;,b4 ,this tool ,i had
 better describe before proceeding to   
the method of bending4 ,to make it take 
a piece of1 say1  in4 iron pipe1 #c ft4 
long1 or the length required1 bent a    
little at one end1 as shown at ,a ,b in 
,fig4 #ch and ,fig4 #ch;,b4 ,tin the end
 about #b in4 up1 make a hole with a    
small plumbing-iron in some sand1 and   
place the tinned end of the iron pipe1  
,b1 into this hole2 fill the hole up    
with good hot lead1 and the dummy1 after
 it has been rasped up a little1 is     
ready for use4 ,it will be found handy  
to have three or four different lengths1
 and bent to different angles1 to suit  
your work4 ,a straight one 7,fig4       
#ch;,b47 made to screw into an iron     
socket or length of gas-pipe1 will be   

found very handy for getting dents out  
of long lengths of soil-pipe4   ,,bends 
,,and ,,set-,,offs4  ,before you begin  
bending solid pressed pipes always put  
the thickest part of your pipe at the   
back4 ,lead1 in a good plumber's hands1 
may be twisted into every conceivable   
shape2 but1 as in all other trades1     
there is a right and a wrong way of     
doing everything1 and there are many    
different methods1 each having a right  
and wrong way1 which ,i shall describe4 
,i shall be pleased if my readers will  
adopt the style most suitable for their 
particular kind of work2 of course ,i   
shall say which is the best for the     
class of work required4  ,for small     
pipes1 such as from  in4 to #a in4 stout
 pipe1 you may pull them round without  
trouble or danger2 but for larger sizes1
 say1 from #a in4 to #b in41 some little
 care is necessary1 even in stout pipes4
  ,fig4 #cg illustrates a badly made    
bend1 and also shows how it comes       
together at the throat1 ,x1 and back1   

,e2 ,l is the enlarged section of ,x ,e1
 looking at the pipe endways4 ,the cause
 of this contraction is pulling the bend
 too quickly1 and too much at a time1   
without dressing in the sides at ,b ,b  
as follows3 ,after you have pulled the  
pipe round until it just begins to      
flatten1 take a soft dresser1 or a piece
 of soft wood1 and a hammer1 and turn   
the pipe on its side as at ,fig4 #cg2   
then strike the bulged part of the pipe 
from ,x ,b toward ,e1 until it appears  
round like section ,k4 ,now pull your   
pipe round again as before1 and keep    
working it until finished4 ,if you find 
that it becomes smaller at the bend1    
take a long bolt and work the throat    
part out until you have it as required4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4   ,,bending  
,,with ,,water 7,,light ,,pipes74  ,fig4
 #ci4 ,this style of bending is much in 
use abroad1 but not much practiced in   
,london1 though a splendid method of    
work4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4  ,it  
is a well known fact that1 practically  

speaking1 for such work1 water is       
incompressible1 but may be turned and   
twisted about to any shape1 provided it 
is inclosed in a solid case--,fig4 #ci  
is that case4 ,the end1 ,a1 is stopped1 
and the stopcock1 ,b1 soldered into the 
other end4 ,now fill up this pipe quite 
full with warm water and shut the cock1 
take the end1 ,a1 and pull round the    
pipe1 at the same time dressing the     
molecules of lead from the throat1 ,c1  
toward ,d ,e1 which will flow if        
properly worked4  ,you can hammer away  
as much as you please1 but be quick     
about it1 so that the water does not    
cool down1 thereby contracting2 in fact1
 you should open the cock now and then1 
and recharge it to make sure of this4   
,,sand ,,bending4  ,this is a very old  
method of bending lead pipes1 and       
answers every purpose for long1 easy    
bends4 ,proceed in this way3 ,the length
 of the pipe to be #e ft41 fill and well
 ram this pipe solid with sand #b ft4   
up1 then have ready a metal-pot of very 

hot sand to fill the pipe one foot up1  
next fill the pipe up with more cold    
sand1 ramming it as firmly as possible1 
stop the end and work it round as you   
did the water bend1 but do not strike it
 too hard in one place1 or you will find
 it give way and require to be dummied  
out again1 or if you cannot get the dent
 out with the dummy send a ball through 
7see ,bending with ,balls74   ,,bending 
,,with ,,balls ,,or ,,bobbins4  ,this   
style of work is much practiced on small
 pipes1 such as #b in4 to #c in41       
especially by ,london plumbers4 ,method3
 ,suppose your pipe to be #b in41 then  
you require your ball or bobbin about   
#a_/af in4 less than the pipe1 so that  
it will run through the pipe freely4    
,now pull the pipe round until it just  
begins to flatten1 as at ,fig4 #cg1 put 
the ball into the pipe1 and with some   
short pieces of wood 7say1 #b in4 long  
by #a in4 diameter7 force the ball      
through the dented part of the pipe1 or 
you may use several different-sized     

balls1 as at ,a ,b ,c1 ,fig4 #dj1 and   
ram them through the pipe with a short  
mandrel1 as at ,d ,m4 ,you will require 
to proceed very carefully about this    
ramming1 or otherwise you will most     
likely drive the bobbins through the    
back at ,l ,k ,j4 ,you must also watch  
the throat part1 ,g ,h ,i1 to keep it   
from kinking or buckling-up2 dress this 
part from the throat toward the back1 in
 order to get rid of the surplus in the 
throat4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4     
,,three-,,ball ,,or ,,lead ,,driving    
,,ball ,,and ,,double-,,ball ,,bending4 
,fig4 #da shows a method of bending with
 three balls1 one of lead being used as 
a driver attached to a piece of twine4  
,this is a country method1 and very     
good1 because the two balls are kept    
constantly to the work4 ,first1 put the 
two balls just where you require the    
bend1 then pull the pipe slightly round2
 take the leaden ball and drop it on the
 ball1 ,b1 then turn the pipe the other 
end up and drop it on ,a1 and do so     

until your bend is the required shape4  
,you must be careful not to let your    
leaden ball touch the back of the pipe4 
,some use a piece of smaller leaden pipe
 run full of lead for the ball1 ,c1 and 
,i do not think it at all a bad method1 
as you can get a much greater weight for
 giving the desired blow to your boxwood
 balls4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4     
,,bending ,,with ,,windlass ,,and       
,,brass ,,ball4  ,this is an excellent  
method of bending small pipes4 ,fig4 #db
 will almost describe itself4 ,a is a   
brass or gun metal ball having a copper 
or wire rope running through it1 and    
pulled through the flattened part of the
 pipe as shown4 ,it will be quite as    
well to tack the bend down to the bench1
 as at ,b1 when pulling the ball        
through2 well dress the lead from front 
to back to thicken the back4 ,i have    
seen some plumbers put an extra         
thickness of lead on the back before    
beginning to bend4 ,notice3 nearly all  
solid pressed pipes are thicker on one  

side than the other 7as before          
remarked71 always place the thickest    
part at the back4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #db4   ,,hydraulic ,,or ,,cup-,,leather
 ,,and ,,ball ,,bending4  ,fig #dc4     
,this is my own method of pipe-bending1 
and is very useful when properly handled
 with plenty of force1 but requires     
great care and practice4 ,you must have 
a union sweated on the end1 ,a1 ,fig4   
#dc1 and the ball1 ,b1 to fit the pipe4 
,the cup-leather1 ,e1 should have a     
plate fixed on the front to press the   
ball forward4 ,pull up the pipe as you  
please1 and pump the ball through2 it   
will take all the dents out1 and that   
too very quickly4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #dc4   ,,bending ,,by ,,splitting ,,or 
,,split-,,made ,,bends4  ,this method of
 bending is much practiced in the       
provinces1 and1 for anything ,i know to 
the contrary1 is one of the best methods
 in use1 as by it you are likely to get 
a good substance of metal on the back of
 the bend whether the plumber be a good 

or a bad workman4 ,proceed as follows3  
,cut the pipe down the center to suit   
the length of your bend1 as shown at ,a 
,b1 ,fig4 #dd4 ,it will be quite as well
 if you first set out this bend on the  
bench1 then you may measure round the   
back1 as from ,c to ,l1 to obtain the   
distance of the cut1 which should always
 be three or four inches longer than the
 bend4 ,you may also in this way obtain 
the correct length for the throat1 ,g ,h
 ,i2 here you will see that you have a  
quantity of lead to spare1 i4e41 from ,a
 to ,e1 all of which has to be got rid  
of in uncut bends--some plumbers shift  
from front to back1 but how many8 ,not  
one in twenty4 ,after you have cut the  
pipe1 open the throat part1 bend out the
 sides1 and pull this part round a      
little at a time1 then with a dummy1    
,fig4 #ch1 work the internal part of the
 throat outward to as nearly the shape  
as you can4 ,go carefully to work1 and  
do not attempt to work up the sides1 ,a 
,d ,b1 until your throat is nearly to   

the proper shape1 after which you may do
 so with a small boxwood dresser or     
bossing-stick 7,it is not necessary to  
explain minutely what a bosser or       
dressing-stick is1 as they can be bought
 at almost any lead-merchants--the      
dresser is shown at ,e1 ,fig4 #a2 the   
bossing-stick is somewhat similar1 the  
only difference being that it has a     
rounded face instead of flat47 ,keep the
 dummy up against the sides when truing 
it4 ,if you have proceeded properly with
 this throat part1 you will not require 
to work up the sides or edges1 as in    
working the throat back the sides will  
come up by themselves4 ,next take the   
back1 pull it round a little at a time1 
the dummy being held inside1 with your  
dresser work the two edges and sides    
slowly round1 and the back will follow4 
,never strike the back from the         
underside with the dummy4 ,after you    
have made a dozen or two you will be    
able to make them as fast as you please1
 but do not hurry them at first1 as the 

greater part of this work is only to be 
learned by patient application1         
perseverance1 and practice4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4  ,after you  
have made the bend it will require to be
 soldered1 but before you can do this   
you must have the joint quite perfect   
and the edges true one with the other4  
,a good bender will not require to touch
 his edges at all1 but a novice will    
have to rasp and trim them up so that   
they come together4 ,having your edges  
true1 soil them1 take a gauge-hook1     
which may be described as a shave-hook  
with a gauge attached1 and shave it     
about #a_/h in4 each side2 now solder it
 to look like the solder ,a1 ,fig4 #de1 
which is done as follows3 ,with some    
fine solder tack the joint at ,a ,d ,b1 
,fig4 #dd1 put on some resin1 and with a
 well-heated copper-bit drop some solder
 roughly on the point from ,b to ,a1    
then draw the bit over it again to float
 the solder1 being especially careful   
not to let the joint open when coming   

off at ,a4 ,some plumbers think fit to  
begin here1 but that is a matter of no  
importance4 ,do not forget that if your 
joint is not properly prepared1 that is 
to say1 true and even1 it is sure to be 
a failure1 and will have a              
higgledy-piggledy appearance4 ,some     
difference of opinion exists as to the  
best method of making these joints3 one 
workman will make a good joint by       
drawing it while1 on the other hand1    
another one will do it equally well by  
wiping it4 ,drawing will be fully       
explained in a part on pipe making4 ,it 
may1 however1 be here mentioned that it 
is a method of making the joint by      
floating the solder along the joint with
 the ladle and plumbing-iron4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4  ,it is not  
uncommon for plumbers to make their     
bends with only one joint on the back4  
,,pulling ,,up ,,bends4  ,in ,london1 it
 is the favorite plan to make bends     
without cutting them4 ,fig4 #df4 ,it is 
done by taking a length of pipe1 and1   

just where you require the bend1 lay it 
7with the seam at the side7 upon a      
pillow1 made by tightly filling a sack  
with sand1 wood shavings1 or sawdust2   
have some shavings ready to hand and a  
good lath1 also a short length of       
mandrel about #c ft4 long and about  in4
 smaller than the pipe1 and a dummy as  
shown at ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #ef4 ,now1 all    
being ready1 put a few burning shavings 
into the throat of the bend1 just to get
 heat enough to make it fizz1 which you 
can judge by spitting on it4 ,when this 
heat is acquired withdraw the fire1 and 
let the laborer quickly place the end of
 the mandrel into the pipe1 and pull the
 pipe up while you place a sack or      
anything else convenient across the     
throat of the bend1 then pull the pipe  
up a little1 just sufficient to dent it 
across the throat4 ,now1 with a hot     
dummy1 dummy out the dent1 until it is  
round like the other part of the pipe4  
,keep at this until your bend is made1  
occasionally turning the pipe or its    

side and giving it a sharp blow on the  
side with the soft or hornbeam dresser2 
this is when the sides run out as in    
,fig4 #cg4 ,never strike the back part  
of the bend from inside with the dummy1 
but work the lead from the throat to the
 back with a view to thickening the     
back4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4       
,,set-,,offs4  ,a set-off is nothing    
more than a double bend1 as shown at    
,fig4 #dg1 and made in much the same    
manner4 ,d is the long end of the pipe4 
,always make this bend first and pull it
 up quite square1 as it will be found to
 go a little back when pulling up the   
other bend2 if you can make the two     
together so much the better1 as you can 
then work the stuff from the throat of  
one bend into the back of the other4    
,the different shaped dummies are also  
here shown3 ,f a round-nosed dummy1 ,g a
 double bent dummy1 ,h a single bent1 ,i
 straight1 ,j hand-dummy1 ,,abn a long  
bent dummy shown at ,fig4 #ch4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4   ,,bad      

,,bends4  ,these can always be detected 
by examining them in their backs1 as at 
,fig4 #dh2 take a small dresser and tap 
the pipe a few times round ,,abd to test
 for the thickness4 ,strike it hard     
enough to just dent it2 next strike the 
back part of the pipe1 ,e1 with the same
 force1 and if it dents much more it is 
not an equally-made bend4 ,i have seen  
some of these much-praised ,london-made 
bends that could be easily squeezed     
together by the pressure of the thumb   
and finger4 ,n4,b4--,care must be taken 
not to reduce or enlarge the size of the
 bore at the bend4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #dh4   ,,bad ,,falls ,,in        
,,bends4  ,the fall given in bending    
lead pipes should be considered of quite
 as much importance as making the bends 
of equal thickness especially for pipes1
 as shown in ,fig4 #di4 ,in this ,fig4  
you have a drawing of a bad bend4 ,from 
,a to ,b there is no fall whatever1 as  
also from ,b to ,c2 such bending is     
frequently done and fixed in and about  

,london1 which is not only more work for
 the plumber1 but next to useless for   
soil-pipes4 ,fig4 #ej shows how this    
bend should be made with a good fall    
from ,a to ,j1 also from ,m to ,n2 the  
method of making these bends requires no
 further explanation4 ,r1 ,p1 and ,k are
 the turnpins for opening the ends1 the 
method of which will be explained in a  
future paragraph on ,preparing for      
,fixing4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4   ,,bends    
,,made ,,into ,,traps ,,or ,,retarders4 
,it will sometimes be found requisite to
 retard the flow of water when running  
through soil or other pipes1 or to      
direct it to another course1 or even to 
form a trap in the length of pipe4 ,this
 has been done in many ways1 but ,figs4 
#ea and #eb represent the method that   
,i1 after mature consideration1 think   
most preferable4 ,there is nothing new  
about this style of bending1 as it has  
been long in vogue with provincial      
plumbers1 but more especially in ,kent4 

,for many years it has had a run as a   
sink and slop closet-trap4 ,mr4 ,baldwin
 ,latham1 in his ,sanitary ,engineering1
 says it was introduced and has been    
used for the ,surrey and ,kent sewers   
from about #ahdh4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #ea4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4  ,i   
have also noticed many of these traps in
 the ,sanitary ,exhibition at ,south    
,kensington1 made by ,graham and        
,fleming1 plumbers1 who deserve a medal 
for their perseverance and skill1 not   
only for the excellence of their bends1 
but also for some other branches of the 
trade1 such as joint-wiping1 etc41 which
 is unquestionably the best work sent   
into this ,exhibition--in fact1 quite   
equal to that which was shown at the    
,exhibition of #ahfb4 ,i shall treat    
further of these bends in an article on 
,fixing1 in a future part4   ,,bends    
,,made ,,with ,,the ,,snarling ,,dummy4 
,this is an ,american method of making  
lead bends4 ,fig4 #ec shows a dummy made
 upon a bent steel rod1 fixed into the  

bench4 ,the method of working it is by  
first pulling up the bend1 and to get   
out the dents1 strike the rod of the    
snarling dummy1 as shown at ,a1 and the 
reaction gives a blow within the bend1  
throwing out the bend to any shape      
required4 ,this method of working the   
dummy is also taken advantage of in     
working up embossed vases1 etc4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4  7,to be     
continued7         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,the ,,grossenhain     
,,shuttle-,,driver4   ,the manufacture  
of fabrics having woofs of different    
colors requires the use of several      
shuttles and boxes containing the       
different colors at the extremity of the
 driver's travel1 in which these boxes  
are adjusted alternately either by a    
rectilinear motion1 or by a rotary one  
when the boxes are arranged upon a      
cylinder4 ,the controlling mechanism of 
the shuttles by means of draught and tie
 machines constitutes1 at present1 the  
most perfect apparatus of this nature1  

because they allow of a choice of any   
shuttles whatever4  ,illustration3 ,,the
 ,,grossenhain ,,shuttle-,,driver4  ,the
 apparatus constructed by the           
,grossenhainer ,webstuhl und ,maschinen 
,fabrik1 of ,grossenhain1 and           
represented in the accompanying cut1 is 
new as regards its general arrangement1 
although in its details it more or less 
resembles the analogous machines of     
,schnherr1 ,crompton1 and ,hartmann4    
,the lifting of the shuttles is effected
 by two sectors1 a#a1 a#b1 arranged on  
the two sides of the loom1 and the      
rotary motion of which acts upon the    
box1 c1 by means of the lever1 b1 the   
box being caused to descend again by the
 spring1 d4 ,parallel with the breast   
beam there is mounted an axle1 e1 and   
upon one of the extremities of this is  
fixed the sector1 a#a1 while the other  
extremity carries two fixed disks1 f#a1 
f#b1 two loose disks1 f#c1 f#d1 and the 
sector1 a#b1 which is connected with the
 latter4 ,the disks are kept in position

 by a brake1 g4 ,the pawls1 h#a and h#b1
 are supported on a lever1 i1 on a level
 with the disks1 and are connected with 
the cam1 l1 by the spring1 k4 ,this cam 
revolves with the axle of the loom and  
thrusts the pawls against the disk4 ,a  
draught and tie machine controls the    
action of the pawls on the disks in such
 a way that1 by the revolution of the   
sectors1 a#a and a#b1 the shuttle-boxes1
 ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii41 are brought at the 
desired moment in the way of the driver4
 ,the pawls1 h1 are connected by wires  
with the bent levers1 m1 of the draught 
machine1 which carry also the pawls1 n4 
,the upper position of the pawls1 h1 is 
limited by the direct resting of the    
levers1 m1 on the tappet1 o1 and the    
lower position by the resting of the    
pawls1 n4 ,the plates1 p1 held by the   
pattern1 ,m1 are set in motion          
horizontally by means of the eccentric1 
q1 the crank1 r1 and the bent lever1 s4 
,the raised plates abut against the     
corresponding levers1 m1 and thus bring 

about the descent of the pawls1 h1 which
 are suspended from these levers4 ,this 
position is maintained by the resting of
 the pawls1 n1 upon the tappet1 o1 until
 the lowering of the corresponding plate
 has set the pawl1 n1 free4 ,the lever1 
m1 then gives way to the action of the  
spring1 t1 and the pawl1 h1 rises again4
 ,the rotation of the cylinder which    
supports the design1 ,m1 is effected by 
the motion of the bent lever1 s4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,,industrial ,,art ,,for                
,,women--,,carpet ,,designing4   ,a     
meeting of ladies was held in this city 
recently to consider the possibilities  
of industrial art in furnishing         
occupation for women4  ,mrs4 ,florence  
,e4 ,cory1 ,principal of the ,woman's   
,institute of ,technical ,design1 which 
was recently established in this city1  
advanced the proposition that whatever  
could be done by man in decorative art  
could be done as well by women1 and she 
made an earnest plea to her own sex to  

fit themselves by proper training to    
engage in remunerative industrial work4 
,mrs4 ,cory enjoys the distinction of   
being the first woman who ever attempted
 to make designs for carpets in this    
country4 ,she said that four years ago1 
when she came to this city1 there was no
 school at which was taught any kind of 
design as applied to industrial         
purposes1 except at ,cooper ,union1     
where design was taught theoretically   
but not practically4 ,during the past   
year or two1 however1 in many branches  
of industrial design women have been    
pressing to the front1 and last year    
eighteen ladies were graduated from the 
,boston ,institute of ,technology4 ,most
 of these ladies are now working as     
designers for various manufacturers1    
eight are in print factories1 designing 
for chintz and calico1 two have become  
designers for oil-cloths1 one is        
designing for a carpet company1 and one 
for a china factory4 ,carpet designing1 
said ,mrs4 ,cory1 is especially fitted  

for women's work4 ,it opens a wide field
 to them that is light1 pleasant1 and   
remunerative4 ,the demand for good      
carpet designs far exceeds the supply1  
and ,american manufactures are sending  
to ,europe1 particularly ,england and   
,france1 for hundreds of thousands of   
dollars' worth of designs yearly4 ,if   
the same quality of designs could be    
made in this country the manufacturers  
would gladly patronize home talent4 ,one
 carpet firm alone pays #ajj1jjj a year 
for its designing department1 and of    
this sum several thousands of dollars go
 to foreign markets4 ,more technical    
knowledge is required for carpet        
designing than for any other industrial 
design4 ,it is necessary to have a fair 
knowledge of the looms1 runnings of     
color1 and manner of weaving4 ,hitherto 
this knowledge has been very difficult1 
if not impossible1 for women to obtain4 
,but now there are a few places where   
competent instruction in this branch of 
industrial art is given4  ,there are    

several kinds of work connected with    
this business that may be done at home  
by those who wish1 and at very fair     
prices4 ,the price of copying an ingrain
 design is from #c to #f per sheet4 ,the
 price for an original design of the    
same size is from #aj to #bj4 ,for      
,brussels or tapestry sketches1 which   
may be made at home1 provided they are  
as good as the average sketch1 the      
artists receive from #ae to #cj4 ,for   
moquettes1 ,axminsters1 and the higher  
grades of carpets some artists are paid 
as high as #bjj4 ,the average price1    
however1 is from #be to #ajj4 ,these    
designs may all be made at home1 carried
 to the manufacturer1 submitted to his  
judgment1 and if approved1 will be      
purchased4 ,after the purchase1 if the  
manufacturer desires the artist to put  
the design upon the lines and the artist
 chooses to do so1 the work may still be
 done at home1 and the pay will range   
from #bj to #ge extra for each design so
 finished4 ,the average length of time  

for making a design is1 for ingrains1   
two per week2 ,brussels sketch1 three   
per week2 ,brussels on the lines1 one in
 two weeks2 moquettes and ,axminsters1  
one in two or three weeks1 depending of 
course upon the elaborateness and size  
of the pattern4 ,when the work is done  
at the designing-rooms1 and the artist  
is required to give his or her time from
 #i o'clock in the morning until #e in  
the afternoon1 the salaries run about as
 follows3 ,for a good original ingrain  
designer1 from #b1jjj to #c1jjj per     
year4 ,a good ,brussels and tapestry    
designer from #a1ejj to #f1jjj per year4
 ,copyists and shaders1 from #c to #aj  
per week4  ,mrs4 ,r4,a4 ,morse advocated
 the establishment of schools of        
industrial art1 in which there would be 
special departments so that young girls 
might be trained to follow some         
practical calling4 ,mrs4 ,dr4 ,french   
said that unskilled labor and           
incompetent workmen were the bane and   
disgrace of this country1 and she       

thought that the field of industrial art
 was very inviting to women4 ,she       
disparaged the custom of decorating     
chinaware and little fancy articles1 and
 said that if the time thus wasted by   
women was applied to the study of       
practical designing those who persevered
 in the latter branch of industrial art 
might earn liberal wages4 ,miss ,requa1 
of the ,public ,school ,department1     
explained that elementary lessons in    
drawing were taught in the public       
schools4 ,mme4 ,roch1 who is thoroughly 
familiar with industrial and high art in
 both this country and in ,europe1 said 
that if the ,american people would apply
 themselves more carefully to the study 
of designing they could easily produce  
as good work as came from abroad4 ,the  
beauties to be seen in ,american nature 
alone surpassed anything that she had   
ever witnessed in the old countries4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,,photography ,,upon ,,canvas4   ,one of
 the most extensive establishments for  

the purpose is that of ,messrs4 ,winter1
 in ,vienna4 ,they say to photographers 
in general3 ,if you will send us a      
portrait1 either negative or positive1  
we will produce you an enlargement on   
canvas worked up in monochrome4 ,the    
success of their undertaking lies in the
 circumstance that they do not produce  
colored work--or1 at any rate1 it is    
exceptional on their part to do so--but 
devote their efforts to the production  
of an artistic portrait in brown or     
sepia4 ,in this way they can make full  
use of the dark brown photograph itself2
 there is less necessity for tampering  
with the enlarged image1 and natural    
blemishes in the model itself maybe     
softened and modified1 without          
interfering much with the true lines of 
face and features4 ,the monotone        
enlargements of ,messrs4 ,winter1 again1
 exquisitely as most of them are        
finished1 do not appear to provoke the  
opposition of the painter2 they do not  
cross his path1 and hence he is more    

willing to do them justice4 ,many a     
would-be purchaser has been frightened  
out of his intention to buy an          
enlargement by the scornful utterance of
 an artist friend about painted         
photographs1 and in these days of cheap 
club portraits there is certainly much  
risk of good work falling into          
disrepute4 ,but a well-finished portrait
 in monotone disarms the painter1 and he
 is willing to concede that the picture 
has merit4  ,we cannot use ,english     
canvas1 or 'shirting1' as you call it1  
said one of our hosts2 it seems to      
contain so much fatty matter4 ,the      
,german material1 on the other hand1    
would appear to be fit for photography  
as soon as it had been thoroughly worked
 in hot water and rinsed4 ,here1 in this
 apartment1 paved with red brick1 we see
 several pieces of canvas drying4 ,it is
 a large room1 very clean1 here and     
there a washing trough1 and in one      
corner two or three large horizontal    
baths4 ,the appearance is that of a     

wash-house1 except that all the         
assistants are men1 and not washerwomen2
 there is plenty of water everywhere1   
and the floor is well drained to allow  
of its running off4 ,we are to be       
favored with a sight of the whole       
process1 and this is the first          
operation4  ,into one of the horizontal 
baths1 measuring about #e by #d feet1 is
 put the salting solution4 ,it is a bath
 that can be rocked1 or inclined in any 
direction1 for its center rests upon a  
ball-and-socket joint4 ,it is of papier 
mch1 the inside covered with white      
enamel4 ,formerly1 only bromine salts   
were employed1 but now the following    
formula is adopted3  ,bromide of        
potassium4444444444444444444 #c parts4  
,iodide of potassium44444444444444444444
 #a part4 ,bromide of                   
cadmium444444444444444444444 #a         
,water44444444444444444444444444444444  
#bdj parts4  ,four assistants are       
required in the operation1 and the same 
number when it comes to sensitizing and 

developing1 all of which processes are  
commenced in the same way4 ,the bath is 
tilted so that the liquid collects at   
one end1 and near this end two          
assistants hold across the bath a stout 
glass rod2 then the canvas is dipped    
into the liquid1 and drawn out by two   
other assistants over the glass rod4 ,in
 this way the canvas is thoroughly      
saturated1 and1 at the same time1       
drained of superfluous liquid4  ,the    
canvas is hung up to dry2 but as        
sometime must elapse before this        
particular piece will be ready for      
sensitizing1 we proceed with another    
canvas which is fit and proper for that 
process4 ,the room1 we should have      
mentioned1 is provided with windows of  
yellow glass2 but as there is plenty of 
light nevertheless1 the fact hardly     
strikes one on entering4 ,the           
sensitizing1 with a solution of nitrate 
of silver1 is conducted with a glass rod
 in the same way as before1 the solution
 being thus compounded3  ,nitrate of    

silver444444444444444444444444 #d parts4
 ,citric                                
acid444444444444444444444444444444 #a   
part4                                   
,water4444444444444444444444444444444444
 #adj parts4  ,again the canvas is      
dried1 and then comes its exposure4     
,this is done in a room adjoining4 ,we  
lift a curtain and enter a space that   
reminds one of the underground regions  
of a theater4 ,there are curtained      
partitions and wooden structures on     
every hand2 dark murky corners combined 
with brilliant illumination4 ,messrs4   
,winter use the electric light for      
enlarging1 a lamp of ,siemens' driven by
 a six-horse power engine4 ,the lamp is 
outside the enlarging room1 and three   
large lenses1 or condensers1 on three   
sides of the light1 permit the making of
 three enlargements at one end at the   
same time4 7,see ,fig47  ,illustration  
,the condenser collects the rays1 and   
these shine into a camera arrangement in
 which the small negative is contained4 

,the enlarged image is then projected1  
magic lantern fashion1 upon the screen1 
to which is fastened the sensitized     
canvas4 ,the screen in question is upon 
a tramway--there are three tramways and 
three screens in all1 as shown in our   
sketch--and for this reason it is easy  
to advance and retire the canvas1 for   
the purpose of properly focusing it4    
,even with the electric light now       
employed1 it is necessary to expose a   
considerable time to secure a vigorous  
impression4 ,from ten minutes to half an
 hour is the usual period1 determined by
 the assistant1 whose experienced eye is
 the only guide4 ,we should estimate the
 distance of the cameras from the       
enlarging apparatus to be about fourteen
 or fifteen feet in the instance we saw1
 and when the canvas was taken down1 a  
distinct outline of the image was       
visible on its surface4  ,by the way1 we
 ought to mention that the canvas is in 
a decidedly limp state during these     
operations4 ,it has just sufficient     

stiffness to keep smooth on the screen1 
and that is all2 the treatment it has   
received appears to have imparted no    
increase of substance to it4 ,again it  
is brought into the red-brick washing   
apartment1 and again treated in one of  
the white enameled baths as before4     
,this time it is the developer that is  
contained in the bath1 and the small    
limp tablecloth--for that is what it    
looks like--after being drawn over the  
glass rod1 is put back into the bath1   
and the developing solution rocked to   
and fro over it4 ,the whiteness of the  
bath lining assists one in forming a    
judgment of the image as it now         
gradually develops and grows stronger4  
,here is the formula of the developer3  
,pyrogallic                             
acid4444444444444444444444444 #aj parts4
 ,citric                                
acid44444444444444444444444444444 #de   
,water4444444444444444444444444444444444
4#daj   ,the developer--which1 it will  
be noted1 is very acid--is warmed before

 it is used1 say to a temperature of #cj
 to #dj ,c42 nevertheless1 the          
development does not proceed very       
quickly4 ,as we watched1 exactly eight  
minutes elapsed before ,mr4 ,winter     
cried out sharply1 ,that will do4       
,immediately one of the assistants      
seizes the wet canvas1 crumples it up   
without more ado1 as if it were dirty   
linen1 and takes it off to a wooden     
washing trough1 where it is kneaded and 
washed in true washerwoman fashion4     
,water in plenty is sluiced over it1 and
 after more vigorous manipulation still1
 it is passed from trough to trough     
until deemed sufficiently free from     
soluble salts to tone4 ,the toning--done
 in the ordinary way with gold--removes 
any unpleasant redness the picture      
possesses1 and then follows the fixing  
operation in hyposulphite4 ,as canvas is
 more permeable than paper1 these two   
last processes are quickly got through4 
,the final washing of the canvas is very
 thorough4 ,again it is treated with all

 the vigor with which a good            
laundry-maid attacks dirty linen1 the   
canvas1 in the end1 being consigned to a
 regular washing-machine1 in which it is
 systematically worked for some time4   
,when the canvas picture at last is     
finished1 it presents a very rough      
appearance1 by reason of the tiny fibers
 that stand erect all over the surface4 
,to lay these1 and also to improve the  
surface generally1 the canvas is waxed1 
the fabric is stretched1 and a          
semi-fluid mass rubbed into it1 heat    
being used in the process1 which not    
only gives brilliancy1 but seems also to
 impart transparency to the shadows of  
the picture4 ,the result is a pleasant  
finish1 without vulgar glare or glaze1  
the high lights remaining beautifully   
pure and white4  ,of course1 the price  
of these canvas enlargements varies with
 the amount of artistic work            
subsequently put upon them2 but the     
usual charge made by ,messrs4 ,winter   
for a well-finished life-size portrait1 

three quarter length1 is sixty florins1 
or about #e sterling as the exchange now
 stands4 ,besides working for           
photographers1 ,messrs4 ,winter are     
reproducing a large number of classic   
paintings and cartoons by photography on
 canvas in this way 7some of them almost
 absolutely untouched71 and these1 as   
may be supposed1 are finding a very     
large sale among dealers4 ,such copies  
must necessarily be of considerable     
value to artists and collectors1 and    
altogether it would seem that ,messrs4  
,winter have hit upon a novel           
undertaking1 which bids fair to make    
them a handsome return for the outlay   
7large as it undoubtedly has been7 made 
upon their ,vienna                      
establishment4--,photo4 ,news4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,detection ,,of ,,starch ,,sugar       
,,sirup ,,mixed ,,with ,,sugar-,,house  
,,molasses4#a     ,footnote #a3 ,a      
,paper read before the ,american        
,chemical ,society1     ,september #b1  

#ahha4  ,,by ,p4 ,,casamajor4   ,in     
previous communications ,i have given   
processes for detecting the adulteration
 of cane-sugar by starch-sugar4 ,the    
adulteration of sugar-house sirups by   
starch glucose is still more extensively
 practiced than that of sugar1 and a    
great portion of sirups sold by         
retailers in this market is adulterated 
with starch glucose4 ,this form of      
adulteration may be very easily detected
 by the use of strong methylic alcohol1 
in which the alcoholometer of ,tralles  
or of ,gay ,lussac will indicate about  
#ic4  ,a straight sugar-house sirup when
 mixed with three times its volume of   
this strong methylic alcohol will       
dissolve by stirring1 giving a very     
slight turbidity1 which remains         
suspended2 while sirups containing the  
usual admixture of starch sugar give a  
very turbid liquid1 which separates1    
when left at rest1 into two layers1 the 
lower being a thick viscous deposit     
containing the glucose sirup4           

,considerable quantities are sold of a  
thin sirup1 of about #cb ,baum1 in which
 the proportion of sugar to the         
impurities is greater than in common    
sugar-house molasses4 ,when a sirup of  
this kind is stirred with three times   
its volume of methylic alcohol1 a marked
 turbidity and deposition will take     
place1 which consists of pure sugar4    
,the crystals are hard and gritty4 ,they
 adhere to the sides of the glass1 and  
are deposited on the bottom4 ,there is  
no resemblance between this precipitate 
and that due to starch sugar sirup4  ,it
 may not be useless to mention that if a
 straight sugar-house sirup of about #dj
 ,b4 density is stirred with three times
 its volume of ethylic alcohol of about 
#ic the sirup will not dissolve4 ,hence 
ethylic alcohol of this strength is not 
suitable for distinguishing a sirup     
mixed with starch glucose from a        
straight sugar-house sirup4  ,the       
presence of starch glucose in           
sugar-house molasses may be easily      

detected by the optical saccharometer   
when the sirup has the usual density of 
about #dj ,b41 and when starch sugar has
 been added in the usual quantities4    
,for making the test the usual weight   
should be taken 7#af4ce grammes for     
,duboscq's saccharometer1 and #bf4jdh   
grammes for ,ventzke's instrument74 ,the
 direct test should show a percentage of
 sugar not higher than the number of    
,baum degrees indicating the density1   
and it may be from #b to #c per cent4   
lower4 ,to understand this1 we must     
refer to the composition of cane-sugar  
molasses of #dj ,b43                    
,sugar4444444444444444444444444444444444
44444#cg4e ,insoluble                   
impurities444444444444444444444444#cg4e 
,water4444444444444444444444444444444444
44444#be  ,if the direct test should    
indicate #ee per cent4 of sugar1 and if 
the molasses were straight1 the         
composition would be--                  
,sugar4444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444#ee ,soluble                   

impurities444444444444444444444444444444
#bj                                     
,water4444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444#be  ,now1 a product of this   
composition would not be a clear sirup  
at #dj ,b41 but a mixture of sirup and  
crystals4 ,therefore1 if the product is 
a clear sirup at #dj ,b41 and it tests  
#ee per cent41 it cannot be straight4   
,the presence of starch glucose in      
sugar-house molasses may also be        
detected by the copper test4 ,the       
possibility of applying this test1 as   
well as those already indicated1 rests  
on the fact that starch glucose is      
always added in very large quantities   
for the purposes of adulteration4 ,a    
very small addition could not be        
satisfactorily detected4  ,the detection
 by the copper test rests on the        
observation that very nearly one-half of
 the soluble impurities in sugar-house  
molasses consists of glucose in the     
shape of inverted sugar4 ,we have seen  
above that for a molasses of #dj ,b4 the

 soluble impurities amount to about #cg 
per cent4 ,we may1 then1 lay down the   
rule3 that the percentage of glucose    
shown by the copper test cannot1 in a   
straight sugar-house molasses1 be much  
greater than one-half of the number     
expressing the density in ,baum degrees4
 ,the reason is obvious from what has   
been said of the test by the optical    
saccharometer4         99       99      
99       99       99   ,,false          
,,vermilion4--,a curious case has been  
noticed in ,germany1 where a small cargo
 of vermilion was purchased1 and1 upon  
being analyzed1 turned out to be red    
oxide of lead colored by eosine4 ,this  
is an entirely novel sophistication4    
,the eosine was separated from the oxide
 of lead by digesting the product for   
twenty-four hours in very strong        
alcohol4 ,a much shorter time is        
sufficient to color the spirit enough to
 enable an expert chemist to detect the 
presence of this splendid organic       
coloring matter4 ,another kind of       

vermilion consists entirely of peroxide 
of iron1 prepared especially to imitate 
the brilliant and costly sulphide of    
mercury1 which it does very well1 and is
 largely used in ,england1 ,france1 and 
,america4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,the ,,position ,,of   
,,manganese ,,in ,,modern ,,industry4   
,,by ,m4,v4 ,,deshayes4   ,no body among
 the metals and the metalloids          
7silicium1 titanium1 tungsten1 chromium1
 phosphorus1 etc47 has occupied a more  
prominent position in modern metallurgy 
than manganese1 and it is chiefly due to
 its great affinity for oxygen4 ,when   
this substance was discovered1 more than
 a century ago 7#aggd71 by the          
celebrated ,swedish chemist and         
mineralogist1 ,gahn1 by treating the    
black oxide of manganese in the         
crucible1 no one would have thought that
 the new element1 so delicate by itself1
 without any direct industrial use1     
would become1 in the middle of the      
nineteenth century1 one of the most     

powerful and necessary instruments for  
the success of the ,bessemer process1 as
 well for its deoxidizing properties as 
for the qualities which it imparts to   
steel1 increasing its resistance1 its   
durability1 and its elasticity1 as has  
been shown elsewhere4  ,without entering
 into a complete history 7for it is     
beyond the task which we have here      
assumed71#a it will not be without      
interest to recall how1 when manganese  
was first obtained in a pure state1 that
 it was supposed that it would remain   
simply an object of curiosity in the    
laboratory2 but when its presence was   
proved in spiegeleisen and when it came 
to be considered an essential ingredient
 in the best ,german and ,english works 
for cutlery steel 7where it is thrown   
into the crucible as the peroxide71 then
 we find that its qualities become      
better and better appreciated2 and it is
 surprising that no technologist ever   
devoted his attention to the production 
of manganese alloys4     ,footnote #a3  

,see ,engineering1 ,may #bg1 #ahha  ,it 
was not till after the investigations of
 ,dr4 ,percy1 ,tamm1 ,prieger1 and      
,bessemer1 who employed crucibles for   
the production of these alloys1 that    
,hendersen received the idea of         
utilizing it in the ,siemens furnace4   
,so important a compound could not      
remain unemployed4 ,the works at ,terre 
,noire produced1 by the ,martin furnace1
 for a number of years1 ferro-manganese 
of #gj to #hj per cent4 ,shortly        
afterward1 when competition in the      
market was established1 the works at    
,carniola and at ,carinthia1 some       
,english factories1 and more especially 
the works at ,saint-,louis1 near        
,marseilles1 of ,terre ,noire1 of       
,montluon1 etc41 successfully adopted   
the manufacture of ferro-manganese with 
the blast furnace1 which is without     
doubt the method best adapted for the   
reduction of metallic oxides1 as well in
 consideration of the reactions as from 
an economical point of view4 ,before    

very long it was possible to produce1 by
 the blast furnace1 alloys of #dj1 #fj1 
#hj1 and even #hf per cent41 in using   
the hot air apparatus of ,siemens1      
,cowper1 and ,witwell1 with the         
employment of good coke1 and principally
 by calculating the charges for the     
fusion in such a manner as to obtain an 
extra basic and refractory slag4        
,following in the same path1 the        
,phoenix ,co41 of ,ruhrort1 sent1 in    
#ahhj1 to the ,metallurgical ,exposition
 of ,dusseldorf1 samples of             
ferro-manganese obtained in a blast     
furnace1 with an extra basic slag in    
which the silica was almost entirely    
replaced by alumina4 ,the works of      
,l',esperance1 at ,oberhausen1 exhibited
 similar products1 quite pure as to     
sulphur and phosphorus1 and they had a  
double interest at the exhibition1 in   
consideration of the agitation over the 
,thomas and ,gilchrist process 7see the 
discussions which were raised at the    
meeting of the ,iron and ,steel         

,institute74 ,this process unfortunately
 requires for its prompt success the use
 of a very large quantity of spiegel or 
of ferro-manganese1 in order to         
sufficiently carburize and deoxidize the
 burnt iron1 which is the final product 
of the blowing4  ,the production of     
ferro-manganese by the blast furnace    
depends upon the following conditions4  
#a4 ,a high temperature4      #b4 ,on a 
proper mixture of the iron ores and the 
manganese4      #c4 ,on the production  
of slag rich in bases4  ,these different
 conditions may be obtained with but    
slight variations at the different      
works1 but the condition of a high      
temperature is one of the most important
 considerations1 not only for the alloys
 of manganese1 but equally as well for  
the alloys of iron1 manganese1 silicium1
 those of chromium1 of tungsten1 etc4   
,it is also necessary to study the      
effects produced either in the crucible 
or in the blast furnace1 and to examine 
the ores which for a long while have    

been regarded as not reducible4  ,the   
works of ,terre ,noire especially made  
at the same time1 in the blast furnace1 
ferro-silicon with manganese1 alloys    
which are daily becoming more important 
for the manufacture of steels tempered  
soft and half soft without blowing4     
,these alloys1 rich in silicon1 present 
the peculiarity of being poor in carbon1
 the amount of this latter element      
varying with the proportions of         
manganese4 ,in addition to the alloys   
used in the iron and steel industry1 we 
shall proceed to relate the recent      
progress obtained in the metallurgy of  
other materials 7especially copper7 by  
the use of cupro-manganese3             
----------------------------------------
---------------------------------       
,mn4      ,c4      ,si4      ,s4     ,p4
      per cent4                         
----------------------------------------
---  ,a  #ah to #bj #b to #c #aj to #ab 
,traces        ,extra ,quality for soft 
metals4  ,b  #ae to #ah #c4jj   #aj to  

#h  scarcely,about  ,medium ,quality  ,c
  #ae to #aj #c4be    #h to #f  percep- 
#j4ajj4  ,d   #e to #aj #c4ej    #d to  
#f  tible4        ,ordinary for hard    
metals4                                 
----------------------------------------
---------------------------------  ,the 
first alloys of manganese and copper    
were made in #ahdh1 by ,von ,gersdorff2 
soon after ,prof4 ,schrtter of ,vienna  
made compounds containing #ah or #bj per
 cent4 of manganese by reducing in a    
crucible the oxides of copper and       
manganese mixed with wood charcoal and  
exposing to a high heat4  ,these alloys 
were quite ductile1 very hard1 very     
tenacious1 and capable of receiving a   
beautiful polish2 their color varies    
from white to rose color1 according to  
the respective proportions of the two   
bodies2 they are particularly           
interesting on account of the results   
which were obtained by adding them to   
certain metallic fusions4  ,it is well  
known that in the fining of copper by   

oxidation there is left in the fined    
metal the suboxide of copper1 which must
 then be removed by the refining        
process1 using carbon to reduce the     
copper to its metallic state4 ,m4       
,manhs1 taking advantage of the greater 
affinity of manganese for oxygen1 found 
that if this last element was introduced
 into the bath of copper during the     
operation of refining1 the copper       
suboxide would be reduced and the copper
 obtained in its metallic condition4    
,for this purpose during these last     
years real cupro-manganese has been     
prepared1 occupying the same position to
 copper as the spiegel or the           
ferro-manganese does toward the         
manufacture of steel4 ,m4 ,manhs used   
these same alloys for the fusion of     
bronze and brass1 and recommended the   
following proportions3        #c to #d  
kilog4 of cupro-manganese for #ajj      
kilog4 of bronze4   #j4bej to #a        
do4           do4       do4             
brass4   #j4aej to #a4b       do4       

do4       do4         copper4  ,in every
 case the alloy is introduced at the    
moment of pouring1 as is the case in the
 ,bessemer or ,martin process1 taking   
care to cover the fusion with charcoal  
in order to prevent the contact with    
air1 together with the use of some kind 
of a flux to aid in the scorification of
 the manganese4  ,according to ,m4      
,manhs a slight proportion of manganese 
added to bronze appears to increase its 
resistance and its ductility1 as is     
shown in the following table1 provided1 
however1 that these different alloys    
have been subjected to the same         
operations from a physical point of     
view2 that is1 pouring1 rolling1 etc4   
----------------------------------------
------------------------                
,weight                                 
,cu4  ,sn4   ,mn4    of      ,elongation
                                        
fracture                                
----------------------------------------
------------------------ ,ordinary      

,bronze            #ij   #aj         #bj
 kil4      #d4jj     ,bronze with       
,manganese1 ,a1  #ij   #aj    #j4e  #bd 
#ae4jj         ,do4    do4         ,b1  
#ij   #aj    #a4j  #bf         #bj4jj   
----------------------------------------
------------------------  ,the ,white   
,brass ,co41 of ,london1 exhibited at   
,paris1 in #ahgh1 manganese bronzes of  
four grades of durability1 destined for 
different uses and corresponding to     
about #bj to #be kilos of the limit of  
elasticity1 and #cf to #cg kilos of     
resistance to fracture2 the number #j is
 equivalent after rolling to a          
resistance to fracture of #df4e kilos1  
and #bj to #be per cent4 of elongation4 
,such results show beyond contradiction 
the great interest there is in          
economically producing alloys of copper1
 manganese1 tin1 zinc1 etc4 ,in         
addition1 they may be added to metallic 
fusions1 for deoxidizing and also to    
communicate to the commercial alloys    
7such as bronze1 brass1 etc47 the       

greatest degree of resistance and       
tenacity4  ,while many investigators    
have tried to form alloys of copper and 
manganese by combining them in the      
metallic state 7that is to say1 by the  
simultaneous reduction of their oxides71
 the ,hensler ,bros41 of ,dillenburg1   
have found it best to first prepare the 
metallic manganese and then to alloy it 
in proper proportions with other metals4
 ,their method consisted of reducing the
 pure pyrolusite in large plumbago      
crucibles1 in the presence of carbon and
 an extra basic flux2 the operation was 
carried on in a strong coke fire1 and at
 the end of about six hours the crude   
manganese is poured out1 having the     
following composition3    ,manganese    
#ij   to #ib   ,carbon              #f  
to  #f4e   ,iron                #j4e to 
#a4e   ,silicon             #j4e to     
#a4b  ,by refining1 the manganese can be
 brought up to #id to #ie per cent4 of  
purity4 ,it is from this casting of pure
 manganese that is obtained the         

substance used as a base for the alloys4
 ,this metal is white1 crystalline1 when
 exposed to the damp air slowly         
oxidizes1 and readily combines with     
copper to form the cupro-manganese of   
the variety having the composition--    
,copper             #gj   ,manganese    
#cj  ,cast in ingots or in pigs it      
becomes an article of commerce which may
 be introduced in previously determined 
proportions into bronze1 gun metal1 bell
 metal1 brass1 etc4 ,it may also be     
used1 as we have already mentioned1 for 
the refining of copper according to     
,manhs's process4  ,tests made from this
 standpoint at the works of ,mansfield  
have shown that the addition of #j4de   
per cent4 of cupro-manganese is         
sufficient to give tenacity to the      
copper1 which1 thus treated1 will not   
contain more than #j4jje to #j4jbb of   
oxygen1 the excess passing off with the 
manganese into the scorias4  ,on the    
other hand1 the addition of             
cupro-manganese is recommended1 when it 

is desirable to cast thin pieces of the 
metal1 such as tubes1 caldrons1 kitchen 
utensils1 which formerly could only be  
obtained by beating and stamping4  ,the 
tenacity obtained for tubes of only     
three centimeters in diameter and #a4ge 
millimeters in thickness is such that   
they are able to withstand a pressure of
 #a1ajj pounds to the square inch4  ,the
 manganese bronze1 which we have        
previously referred to1 and which is    
used by the ,white ,brass ,company of   
,london1 is an alloy of copper1 with    
from one to ten per cent4 of manganese2 
the highest qualities of resistance1    
ductility1 tenacity1 and durability are 
obtained with one to four per cent4 of  
manganese1 while with twelve per cent4  
the metal becomes too weak for          
industrial uses4                        
----------------------------------------
----------------    ,manganese          
,weight of                   bronze4    
,copper4 ,manganese4 fracture in        
,elongation4                            

kilos per                               
square mm4                              
----------------------------------------
----------------    ,a           #if4jj 
#d4jj       #ai4jj       #ad4fj         
,b           #ie4jj      #e4jj          
#bj4fb       #aj4jj        ,c           
#id4jj      #f4jj       #bj4hj          
#ad4fj        ,d           #ij4jj       
#aj4jj       #af4ef        #e4jj        
----------------------------------------
----------------  ,the preceding table  
gives some of the experimental results  
obtained with the testing machine at    
,friedrich-,wilhelmshtte on the crude   
cast ingots2 the resistance is          
increased1 as with copper1 by rolling or
 hammering4  ,the manganese ,german     
silver consists of                      
,copper4444444444444444 #gj4jj          
,manganese4444444444444 #ae4jj          
,zinc444444444444444444 #ae4jj  ,but as 
this alloy often breaks in rolling1 the 
preference is given to the following    
proportions3    ,copper4444444444444444 

#hj4jj   ,manganese4444444444444 #ae4jj 
,zinc444444444444444444  #e4jj  ,this   
results in a white1 ductile metal1 which
 is easily worked and susceptible of    
receiving a beautiful polish1 like the  
alloys of nickel1 which it may in time  
completely replace4  ,the bronzes of    
manganese1 tin1 and zinc were perhaps   
the first upon which important          
investigations were made2 they were     
obtained by adding to an alloy of       
copper1 zinc1 and tin 7ordinary bronze7 
a definite quantity of the              
cupro-manganese of the type indicated   
above 7,cu #gj1 ,mn #cj74 ,by this means
 the resistance is increased fully nine 
per cent41 probably in the same way as  
the copper1 that is1 by the deoxidizing 
effect of the manganese1 as both the    
copper and the tin are always more or   
less oxidized in ordinary bronzes4      
,manganese combines with tin just the   
same as it does with copper1 and the    
proportion which is recommended as      
giving the highest resistances is three 

to six per cent4 of cupro-manganese4    
,however1 notwithstanding the use of    
cupro-manganese1 the tin1 as in ordinary
 bronzes1 has a tendency to liquate in  
those portions of the mould which are   
the hottest1 and which become solid the 
last1 especially in the case of moulds  
having a great width4  ,from a series of
 experiments made at ,isabelle ,htte1 it
 has been found that the metal which has
 the greatest resisting qualities was   
obtained from                           
,copper4444444444444444444444#he4jj     
,manganese4444444444444444444 #f4jj     
,zinc444444444444444444444444 #e4jj  #e 
per cent4 of cupro-manganese  manganese 
#a4jj remaining in the metal4  ,the best
 method of procedure is first to melt   
the copper in a crucible1 and then to   
add the tin and the zinc2 finally the   
cupro-manganese is added just at the    
moment of pouring1 as in the ,manhs     
process2 then the reaction on the oxides
 is very effective1 there is a boiling  
with scintillation similar to the action

 produced in the ,bessemer and ,martin  
process when ferro-manganese is added to
 the bath of steel4  ,the following are 
some of the results obtained from       
thirteen alloys obtained in this manner4
 ,these samples were taken direct from  
the casting and were tested with the    
machine at ,friedrich-,wilhelms-htte1   
and with the one at the shops of the    
,rhine ,railroad4 ,their resistance was 
considerably increased1 as with the     
other alloys1 by rolling or hammering4  
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,weight                                 
,limit of    of     ,elong-             
,nature                                 
elasticityfracture ation1          of   
,cupro- in kilos  in kilos  per-        
,numbersmould4,copper ,tin4  ,zinc4     
manganeseper mm4    per mm4centage      
----------------------------------------
---------------------------    #a       
,sand  #he4jj #f4jj   #e4jj             
#aa4cj    #af4jj    --      #b     --   

#he4jj #f4jj   #e4jj     #d4jj          
#ac4jj    #af4aj   #b4jj     #c         
,cast4 #hg4jj #h4gj   #d4cj     #d4jj   
--     #ai4dj    --      #d     --      
#he4jj #f4ij   #e4jj     #f4jj       -- 
#ah4hj   #f4jj     #e     --   #he4jj   
#f4jj   #e4jj     #f4jj       --        
#ai4ge   #g4jj     #f     --   #he4jj   
#f4jj   #e4jj    #aj4jj       --        
#ag4ae   #d4jj     #g    ,sand  #hg4jj  
#e4bj   #d4cc     #c4dg       --        
#ai4gj   #h4gj     #h     --   #hg4jj   
#e4bj   #d4cc     #c4dg       --        
#ai4gj   #h4ij     #i     --   #he4jj   
#f4jj   #e4jj     #c4jj     #af4hj      
#bb4jj    --     #aj     --             
#gd4jjaj4jj   #e4jj     #c4cj     #ac4hj
    #ah4gj    --                        
7#g4ff ,pb7                             
#aa     --   #gh4gj #h4jj 7 #h ,pb7     
#c4cj     #ac4hj    #bj4gj    --     #ab
     --   #hb4jj #i4hj   #d4ij     #c4cj
     #ad4ge    #ai4ge    --     #ac     
--   #hf4bjaf4ej    --      #c4cj       
#ad4cj    #bd4gj    --                  

----------------------------------------
---------------------------  ,the       
results of the tests of ductility which 
are here given1 with reference to the   
cupro-manganese1 manganese bronze1 the  
alloys with zinc and tin1 are taken from
 ,m4,c4 ,hensler's very valuable        
communication to the ,berlin ,society   
for the ,advancement of the ,industrial 
,arts4  ,these various alloys1 as well  
as the phosphorus bronze1 of which we   
make no mention here1 are at present    
very largely used in the manufacture of 
technical machines1 as well as for      
supports1 valves1 stuffing-boxes1       
screws1 bolts1 etc41 which require the  
properties of resistance and durability4
 ,they vastly surpass in these qualities
 the brass and like compounds which have
 been used hitherto for these           
purposes4--,bull4 ,soc4 ,chim41 ,paris1 
xxxvi4 p4 #ahd4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,the          
,,economical ,,washing ,,of ,,coal ,,gas
 ,,and ,,smoke4   ,in a recent number of

 the ,journal des ,usines  ,gaz appears 
a note by ,m4 ,chevalet1 on the chemical
 and physical purification of gas1 which
 was one of the papers submitted to the 
,socit ,technique de l',industrie du    
,gaz en ,france at the last ordinary    
meeting4 ,this communication is         
noticeable1 apart from the author's     
conclusions1 for the fact that the      
processes described were not designed   
originally for use in gas manufacture1  
but were first used to purify1 or rather
 to remove the ammonia which is to be   
found in all factory chimneys1 and      
especially in certain manufactories of  
bone-black1 and in spirit distilleries4 
,it is because of the success which     
attended ,m4 ,chevalet's treatment of   
factory smoke that he turned his        
attention to coal gas4 ,the             
communication in which ,m4 ,chevalet's  
method is described deals first with    
chimney gases1 in order to show the     
difficulties of the first class of work 
done by the author's process4 ,like coal

 gas1 chimney gases contain in          
suspension solid particles1 such as soot
 and ashes4 ,before washing these gases 
in a bath of sulphuric acid1 in order to
 retain the ammonia1 there were two     
problems to be solved4 ,it was first of 
all necessary to cool the gases down to 
a point which should not exceed the     
boiling-point of the acid employed in   
washing2 and then to remove the solid   
particles which would otherwise foul the
 acid4 ,in carrying out this mechanical 
purification it was impossible1 for two 
reasons1 to make use of apparatus of the
 kind used in gas works2 the first      
obstacle was the presence of solid      
particles carried forward by the gaseous
 currents1 and the other difficulty was 
the volume of gas to be dealt with4 ,in 
the example to which the author's       
attention was directed he had to purify 
#fjj cubic meters of chimney gas per    
minute1 or #cf1jjj cubic meters per     
hour1 while the gas escaped from the    
flues at a temperature of from #djj to  

#ejj ,c4 7#geb to #icb ,fahr471 and a   
large quantity of cinders had frequently
 to be removed from the main chimney    
flues4 ,after many trials a simple      
appliance was constructed which         
successfully cooled the gases and freed 
them from ashes4 ,this consisted of a   
vertical screen1 with bars three mm4    
apart1 set in water4 ,this screen       
divided the gases into thin sheets      
before traversing the water1 and by thus
 washing and evaporating the water the  
gases were cooled1 and threw down the   
soot and ashes1 and these impurities    
fell to the bottom of the water bath4   
,the gases after this process are       
divested of the greater part of any     
tarry impurities which they may have    
possessed1 and are ready for the final  
purification1 in which ammonia is       
extracted4 ,this is effected by means of
 a series of shallow trays1 covered with
 water or weak acid1 and pierced with a 
number of fine holes1 through which the 
gas is made to bubble4 ,the washing     

apparatus is therefore strangely similar
 in principle to that designed by ,mr   
,g4 ,livesey4 ,m4 ,chevalet states that 
this double process is applicable to gas
 works as well as to the purification of
 smoke1 with the difference that for the
 latter purpose the washing trays are   
filled with acid for the retention of   
ammonia1 while in the former application
 gas liquor or water is used4 ,the      
arrangement is said to be a practical   
success4--,journal of ,gas ,lighting4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,,determination ,,of ,,nitrogen ,,in    
,,hair1 ,,wool1 ,,dried ,,blood1 ,,flesh
 ,,meal1 ,,and ,,leather ,,scraps4  ,,by
 ,,dr4 ,c4 ,,krauch4   ,differences     
obtained in the estimation of nitrogen  
in the above substances are frequently  
the source of much annoyance4 ,the cause
 of these discrepancies is chiefly due  
to the lack of uniformity in the        
material1 and from its not being in a   
sufficiently fine state during the      
combustion4 ,the hair which is found in 

commerce for the manufacture of         
fertilizers1 is generally mixed with    
sand and dust4 ,wool dust often contains
 old buttons1 pieces of wood1 shoe pegs1
 and all sorts of things4 ,the flesh    
fertilizers are composed of light       
particles of flesh mixed with the       
heavier bone dust4  ,even after taking  
all possible precautions to finely      
comminute these substances by mechanical
 means1 still only imperfect results are
 obtained1 for the impurities1 that is  
to say1 the sand1 can never be so       
intimately mixed with the lighter       
particles that a sample of #j4e to #j4h 
gramme1 such as is used in the          
determination of nitrogen1 will         
correspond to the correct average       
contents4 ,in substances such as dried  
blood1 pulverization is very tedious4 ,a
 very good method of overcoming these   
difficulties1 and of obtaining from the 
most mixed substances a perfectly       
homogeneous mass1 is that recommended by
 ,grandeau#a of decomposing with        

sulphuric acid--a method which as yet   
does not seem to be generally known4    
,from a large quantity of the substance 
to be examined1 the coarse stones1 etc41
 are removed by picking or sifting1 and 
the prepared substance1 or in cases     
where the impurities cannot be          
separated1 the original substance1 is   
treated with sulphuric acid2 after it is
 decomposed1 the acid is neutralized    
with calcium carbonate1 and the nitrogen
 is determined in this mass4            
,footnote #a3 ,handbook d4 ,agrict4     
,chem4 ,analyst41 p4 #ah4  ,in order to 
operate rapidly1 it is best to use as   
little sulphuric acid as possible4 ,if  
too much sulphuric acid is used1        
necessarily a large amount of calcium   
carbonate is essential to get it into   
proper condition for pulverizing4 ,under
 such circumstances the percentage of   
nitrogen becomes very low1 and a slight 
error will become correspondingly high4 
#bj c4c4 of concentrated sulphuric acid 
and #aj c4c4 are sufficient for #cj to  

#dj grammes of material4 ,after the     
substance and liquid have been          
thoroughly stirred in a porcelain dish1 
they are warmed on a water bath and     
continually stirred until the mass forms
 a homogeneous liquid4 ,the sirupy      
liquid thus obtained is then mixed with 
#hj to #ajj grammes of pulverized       
calcium carbonate 7calcspar71 dried for 
fifteen minutes at #dj to #fj ,c41 and  
after standing for one to two hours the 
dish and its contents are weighed4 ,from
 the total weight the weight of the dish
 is subtracted1 which gives the weight  
of the calcium sulphate and the calcium 
carbonate1 and the known weight of the  
wool dust1 etc4 ,this material is then  
intimately ground1 and #b to #c grammes 
of it are taken for the determination of
 the nitrogen1 which is then calculated 
for the original substance4  ,although  
the given quantities of water and       
sulphuric acid hardly appear sufficient 
for such a large quantity of hair or    
wool1 still in the course of a few      

minutes to a quarter of an hour1 after  
continual stirring1 there is obtained a 
liquid which1 after the addition of the 
calcium carbonate1 is readily converted 
into a pulverized mass4 ,frequently a   
smaller quantity of sulphuric acid will 
suffice1 especially if the material is  
moist4 ,the chief merit of this process 
is that in a short time a large quantity
 of material1 having a uniform          
character1 is obtained4 ,its use is1    
therefore1 recommended for general      
employment4  ,when the coarser stones1  
etc41 are weighed1 and the purified     
portion decomposed1 absolutely correct  
results are obtained1 and in this way   
the awkward discrepancies from different
 analysts may be avoided4--,chemiker    
,zeitung1 v4 #g1 p4 #gjc4         99    
99       99       99       99           
,,testing ,,white ,,beeswax ,,for       
,,ceresine ,,and ,,paraffins4  ,,by ,a4 
,,peltz4   ,the method which is here    
recommended originated with ,dr4 ,m4    
,buchner1 and consists in preparing a   

concentrated solution of alcoholic      
caustic potash--one part caustic potash 
to three of #ij per cent4 alcohol--and  
then boiling one to two grammes of the  
suspected wax in a small flask with the 
above solution4 ,the liquid is poured   
into a glass cylinder to prevent        
solidification of the contents1 and it  
is then placed for about one half hour  
in boiling water4 ,with pure wax the    
solution remains clear white2 when      
ceresine and paraffine are present1 they
 will float on the surface of the alkali
 solution as an oily layer1 and on      
cooling they will appear lighter in     
color than the saponified mass1 and thus
 they may be quantitatively estimated4  
,the author likewise gives a superficial
 method for the determination of the    
purity of beeswax4 ,it depends on the   
formation of wax crystals when the fused
 wax solidifies4 ,these crystals form on
 the surface on cooling1 and are still  
visible after solidification when       
examining the surface from the side4    

,the test succeeds best when the liquid 
wax is poured into a shallow tin mould  
,after cooling another peculiar property
 of the wax becomes apparent4 ,while the
 beeswax fills a smaller volume1 that   
is1 separates from the sides of the     
mould1 the ,japanese wax1 without       
separating from the sides1 becomes      
covered with cracks on cooling which    
have a depth corresponding to the       
thickness of the wax4--,neuste          
,erfindungen und ,erfahrungen1 viii41 p4
 #dcj4         99       99       99     
99       99     ,,the ,,prevention ,,of 
,,alcoholic ,,fermentation ,,by ,,fungi4
  ,,by ,,prof4 ,e4 ,,reichard4   ,the   
manager of a well directed brewery1     
which was built according to the latest 
improvements and provided with          
ice-cooling arrangements1 found that the
 alcoholic fermentation of lager beer   
did not advance with proper regularity4 
,the beer did not clarify well1 it      
remained turbid and had a tendency to   
assume a disagreeable odor and taste4   

,microscopic examination of the yeast1  
however1 showed the same to be bottom   
yeast4 ,after some time its action      
apparently diminished1 or rather1 the   
fermentation1 which began well1 ceased1 
and at the same time a white foam formed
 in the center of the vat4 ,the manager 
observing this1 again submitted it to   
microscopic examination4 ,the instrument
 revealed a number of much smaller forms
 of fungi1 similar to those of young    
yeast1 and some which were excessively  
large1 a variety never found in bottom  
yeast4 ,fully appreciating the          
microscopic examination1 and aware of   
the danger which the spread of the fungi
 could cause1 the manager resorted to   
all known means to retard its pernicious
 influence4 ,fresh yeast was employed1  
and the fermenting vats throughly       
cleaned1 both inside and out1 but the   
phenomena reappeared1 showing that the  
transmission took place through the air4
 ,a microscopic examination of a        
gelatinous coating on the wall of the   

fermenting room further explained the   
matter4 ,beginning at the door of the   
ice cellar1 the walls were covered with 
a gelatinous mass1 which1 even when     
placed beneath the microscope1 showed no
 definite organic structure2 however it 
contained numerous threads of fungi4    
,notwithstanding the precautions which  
were taken for cleanliness1 these germs 
traveled from the ceiling through the   
air into the fermenting liquid and there
 produced a change1 which would         
ultimately have caused the destruction  
of all the beer4  ,for a third time and 
by altogether different means1 it was   
demonstrated that the air was the bearer
 of these germs4 ,the whole atmosphere  
was infected1 and a simple change of air
 was by no manner of means sufficient1  
as has already been shown4 ,in addition1
 these observations throw considerable  
light on the means by which contagious  
diseases are spread1 for often a room1 a
 house1 or the entire neighborhood      
appears to be infected4 ,it must also be

 remembered how1 in times of plague1    
large fires were resorted as to a method
 of purifying the air4  ,with the       
infinite distribution of germs1 and as  
they are always present in all places   
where any organic portions of vegetable 
or animal matter are undergoing         
decomposition1 it becomes1 under certain
 circumstances1 exceedingly difficult1  
and at times even impossible1 to trace  
the direct effect of these minute germs4
 ,the organism is exposed to the        
destructive action of the most minute   
creation2 several changes in this case  
give to them the direct effect of the   
acting germs4 ,the investigation of the 
chemist does not extend beyond the      
chemical changes2 nevertheless these    
phenomena are directly explained by the 
microscope1 without which1 in the       
present case1 the discovery of the cause
 would have remained unknown4--,arch4   
der ,pharm41 #bad1 #aeh4         99     
99       99       99       99     ,,new 
,,reaction ,,of ,,glycerine4   ,if two  

drops of phenic acid are diluted with   
three thousand to five thousand parts of
 water1 a distinct blue color is        
produced by one drop of solution of     
perchloride of iron4  ,the addition of  
six or eight drops of glycerine entirely
 removes the color1 and if any glycerine
 was present in the liquid the reaction 
does not take place at all4 ,by this    
test the presence of #a per cent4 of    
glycerine can be detected4 ,it may be   
applied to the analysis of wines1 beers1
 etc41 but when there is much sugar1    
extractive or coloring matter1 the test 
can only be applied after evaporating1  
dissolving the residue in alcohol and   
ether1 evaporating again1 and then      
redissolving in water4 ,alkaline        
solutions must be first                 
acidulated4--,pharm4 ,zeit4 fr ,russ4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,,lycopodine4   ,while the phanerogams  
or flowering plants annually contribute 
to the list of newly discovered         
alkaloids1 with the exception of        

muscarine and amanitine1 no alkaloid has
 as yet been definitely recognized among
 the cryptogams4  ,karl ,bdeker1 of     
,gttingen1 has opened the road in this  
direction1 and gives in a paper sent to 
,liebig's ,annalen der ,chemie1 ,august 
#ae1 #ahha1 the following account of an 
alkaloid1 which1 from the name of the   
plant in which it occurs1 he calls      
lycopodine4  ,the plant yielding the    
alkaloid1 ,lycopodium complanatum1      
belongs to the group of angiospermous   
cryptogams4 ,it is distributed          
throughout the whole of north and middle
 ,europe1 and contains the largest      
proportion of aluminum of any known     
plant4 ,its bitter taste led the author 
to suspect an alkaloid in it4  ,to      
prepare the alkaloid the dried plant is 
chopped up and twice exhausted with     
boiling alcohol of #ij per cent4 ,the   
residue is squeezed out while hot1 and  
the extract1 after being allowed to     
settle awhile1 is decanted off1 and     
evaporated to a viscid consistency over 

a water bath4 ,this is then repeatedly  
kneaded up with fresh quantities of     
lukewarm water until the washings cease 
to taste bitter1 and to give a reddish  
brown coloration when treated with a    
strong aqueous solution of iodine4 ,the 
several washings are collected and      
precipitated with basic lead acetate1   
the precipitate filtered off1 and the   
lead in the filtrate removed by         
sulphureted hydrogen4 ,the filtrate from
 the lead sulphide is evaporated down   
over a water bath1 then made strongly   
alkaline with a solution of caustic     
soda1 and repeatedly shaken up with     
fresh quantities of ether so long as the
 washings taste bitter and give a       
precipitate with iodine water4 ,after   
distilling off the ether1 the residue is
 treated with strong hydrochloric acid1 
the neutral or slightly acid solution   
filtered off from resinous particles1   
slowly evaporated to crystallization1   
and the crystals purified by repeated   
recrystallization4 ,to prepare the pure 

base a very concentrated solution of    
this pure hydrochlorate is treated with 
an excess of a very concentrated        
solution of caustic soda1 and pieces of 
caustic potash are added1 whereupon the 
free alkaloid separates out at first as 
a colorless resinous stringy mass1      
which1 however1 upon standing1 turns    
crystalline1 forming monoclinic crystals
 similar to tartaric acid or glycocol4  
,the crystals are rapidly washed with   
water1 and dried between soft blotting  
paper4  ,thus prepared1 lycopodine has a
 composition which may be represented by
 the formula ,c#cb;,h#eb,n#b,o#c4 ,it   
melts at #aad to #aae ,c4 without loss  
of weight4 ,it is tolerable soluble in  
water and in ether1 and very soluble    
indeed in alcohol1 chloroform1 benzol1  
or amyl alcohol4 ,lycopodine has a very 
pure bitter taste4  ,the author has     
formed several salts of the base1 all of
 a crystalline nature1 and containing   
water of crystallization4  ,the         
hydrochlorate gives up a part of its    

water of crystallization at the ordinary
 temperature under a desiccator over    
sulphuric acid1 and the whole of it upon
 heating4--,chemist and ,druggist4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,conchinamine4   ,some years ago1 ,o4  
,hesse1 when preparing chinamine from   
the renewed bark of ,cinchona           
succirubra1 found in the mother liquid a
 new alkaloid1 which he then briefly    
designated as conchinamine4 ,he has     
lately given his attention to the       
separation and preparation of this      
alkaloid1 and gives in ,liebig's        
,annalen der ,chemie1 ,august #ca1      
#ahha1 the following description of it3 
,preparation4--,the alcoholic mother lye
 from chinamine is evaporated down and  
protractedly exhausted with boiling     
ligroine1 whereby conchinamine and a    
small quantity of certain amorphous     
bases are dissolved out4 ,upon cooling  
the greater part of the amorphous bases 
precipitates out4 ,the ligroine solution
 is then first treated with dilute      

acetic acid1 and then with a dilute     
solution of caustic soda1 whereupon a   
large quantity of a resinous precipitate
 is formed4 ,this is kneaded up with    
lukewarm water to remove adherent soda1 
and then dissolved in hot alcohol4 ,the 
alcoholic solution is saturated with    
nitric acid1 which has been previously  
diluted with half its volume of water1  
and the whole set aside for a few days  
to crystallize4 ,the crystals of        
conchinamine nitrate are purified by    
recrystallization from boiling water4   
,on dissolving these pure crystals of   
the nitrate in hot alcohol of #fj per   
cent41 and adding ammonia1 absolute pure
 conchinamine separates out on cooling4 
,composition4--,conchinamine may be     
represented by the formula              
,c#ai;,h#bd,n#b,o#b1 without water of   
crystallization4                        
,properties4--,conchinamine is easily   
soluble in hot alcohol of #fj per cent41
 and in ether and ligroine1 from which  
solutions it crystallizes in            

quadrilateral shining prisms4 ,it is    
extremely soluble in chloroform1 but    
almost insoluble in water4 ,it melts at 
#aba ,c41 forming crystalline stars on  
cooling4  ,salts4--,the salts of        
conchinamine1 like the base itself1 have
 much in common with chinamine1 but are1
 as a rule1 more easily crystallizable4 
,they are prepared by neutralizing an   
alcoholic solution of the base with the 
acid in question4--,chemist and         
,druggist4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,chinoline4   ,the     
valuable properties of which chinoline  
has been found to be possessed have led 
to its admission as a therapeutic agent1
 and the discoverer of these properties1
 ,jul4 ,donath1 of ,baja1 in ,hungary1  
in a paper sent to the ,berichte der    
deutschen chemischen ,gesellschaft1     
,september #ab1 #ahha1 gives the        
following further details as to this    
interesting substance4  ,antiseptic     
,properties4--,chinoline appears to be  
an excellent antiseptic4 ,the author    

found that #ajj grammes of a ,bucholze's
 solution for the propagation of        
bacteria1 charged with #j4bj g4 of      
chinoline hydrochlorate1 had remained   
perfectly clear and free from bacteria  
after standing forty-six days exposed to
 the air1 while a similar solution1     
placed under the same conditions1       
without chinoline1 had turned muddy and 
contained bacteria after only twelve    
days' standing4  ,antizymotic           
,properties4--,chinoline1 even in the   
proportion of #e per cent41 does not    
prevent alcoholic fermentation1 while in
 as small a quantity as #j4bj per cent4 
it does not prevent lactic acid         
fermentation4  ,physiological           
,effects4--,the author gave a healthy   
man during several days various doses of
 chinoline tartrate1 which in no way    
affected the individual operated on1 nor
 was any trace of chinoline found in his
 urine4 ,the author1 therefore1         
considers that the base is oxidized by  
the blood to carbopyridinic acid1 which 

is a still more powerful antiseptic than
 chinoline itself4 ,chinoline taken     
internally would1 therefore1 be a useful
 and safe agent in cases of internal    
putrid fungoid or other growth4         
,chemical ,reactions4--,chinoline yields
 very characteristic reactions with a   
number of chemical reagents1 for a      
description of which we refer to the    
original paper4--,chemist and ,druggist4
         99       99       99       99  
99     ,,preparation ,,of ,,coniine4    
,dr4 ,j4 ,schorm1 of ,vienna1 the author
 of this paper1 after remarking that in 
spite of the increase of the consumption
 of coniine1 the methods hitherto in    
vogue for preparing it yielded an       
article which darkened on exposure to   
the air1 and the salts of which         
crystallized but badly1 gives the       
following method for preparing pure     
coniine and its salts3   ,,preparation  
,,of ,,crude ,,coniine4  ,a4--#ajj      
kilogrammes of hemlock seed are         
moistened with hot water1 and after     

swelling up are treated with #d         
kilogrammes of sodium carbonate         
previously dissolved in the requisite   
quantity of water 7caustic alkalies     
cannot be used74 ,the swollen seed is   
worked up uniformly with shovels1 and   
then placed in an apparatus of #djj     
kilogrammes capacity1 similar to that   
used in the distillation of ethereal    
oils1 and charged with steam under a    
pressure of three atmospheres4 ,coniine 
distills over with the steam1 the       
greater part separating out in the      
receiver as an oily stratum1 while a    
part remains dissolved in the water4    
,the riper the seeds1 the greater is the
 percentage yield of oily coniine1 and  
the sooner is the distillation ended4   
,the distillate is neutralized with     
hydrochloric acid1 and the whole        
evaporated to a weak sirupy consistence4
 ,when cool1 this sirup yields          
successive crops of sal-ammoniac        
crystals1 which latter are removed by   
shaking up the mass with twice its      

volume of strong alcohol1 and filtering4
 ,this filtrate is freed from alcohol by
 evaporation over a water bath1 the     
approximate quantity of a solution of   
caustic soda then added1 and the whole  
shaken up with ether4 ,the ethereal     
solution is then cooled down to a low   
temperature1 whereby it is separated    
from conhydrine1 which1 being somewhat  
difficultly soluble in ether1           
crystallizes out4  ,b4--,the bruised    
hemlock seed is treated in a vacuum     
extractor with water acidulated with    
acetic acid1 and the extract evaporated 
in vacuo to a sirupy consistence4 ,the  
sirup is treated with magnesia1 and the 
coniine dissolved out by shaking up with
 ether4  ,the ,b method yields a less   
percentage of coniine than ,a1 but of a 
better quality4   ,,rectification ,,of  
,,the ,,crude ,,coniine4  ,the solution 
of crude coniine in ether obtained by   
either of the above processes is        
evaporated over a water bath to remove  
the ether1 mixed with dry potassium     

carbonate1 and then submitted to        
fractional distillation from an air     
bath4 ,the portion distilling over at   
#afh ,c4 to #afi ,c4 is pure coniine1   
and represents #fj per cent4 of the     
crude coniine4  ,coniine thus prepared  
is a colorless oily liquid1 volatile at 
the ordinary temperature1 and has a     
specific gravity of #j4hhf4 ,at a       
temperature of #be;,c it absorbs water1 
which it gives up again upon heating4   
,it is soluble in #ij parts of water4   
,it is not altered by light4  ,the      
author has formed a number of salts from
 coniine thus prepared1 and finds them  
all crystallizable and unaffected by    
light4--,berichte der deutschen         
chemischen ,gesellschaft4--,chem4 and   
,druggist4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,strontianite4   ,since
 it has been shown by ,professor        
,scheibler1 of ,berlin1 that strontium  
is the most powerful medium of          
extraction in sugar refining1 owing to  
its capacity of combining with three    

parts of saccharate1 the idea suggests  
itself that the same medium might be    
successfully employed in the arts1 and  
form a most interesting subject of      
experiment for the chemist4  ,hitherto  
native strontianite1 that is1 the #ij to
 #ie per cent4 pure carbonate of        
strontium 7not the celestine which      
frequently is mistaken by the term      
strontianite71 has not been worked      
systematically in mines1 but what used  
to be brought to the market was an      
inferior stone collected in various     
parts of ,germany1 chiefly in           
,westphalia1 where it is found on the   
surface of the fields4 ,little also has 
been collected in this manner1 and      
necessarily the quality was subject to  
the greatest fluctuations4  ,by ,dr4    
,scheibler's important discovery1 a new 
era has begun in the matter of          
strontianite4 ,deposits of considerable 
importance have been opened in the      
,westphalian districts at a very great  
depth1 and the supply of several #aj1jjj

 tons per annum seems to be secured1    
whereas only a short time ago it was not
 thought possible that more than a few  
hundred tons could in all be            
provided4--,chemist and ,druggist4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,parangi--,a ,,newly ,,described       
,,disease4   ,a peculiar contagious     
disease1 called framboesia1 or the yaws1
 has long been known to exist in        
,africa1 the ,west ,indies1 and the     
northern parts of the ,british ,islands4
 ,it is chronic in character1 and is    
distinguished by the development of     
raspberry-like tumors of granulation    
tissue on different parts of the body4  
,a disease of a somewhat similar1 but   
severer type1 has for many years        
prevailed in ,ceylon4 ,even less was    
known of this affection than of its     
supposed congener1 until a recent       
careful report upon the subject by ,mr4 
,w4,r4 ,kinsey1 principal civil medical 
officer of ,ceylon4  ,the disease in    
question is called parangi1 and is      

defined by ,mr4 ,kinsey 7,british       
,medical ,journal7 as a specific        
disease1 produced by such causes as lead
 to debilitation of the system2         
propagated by contagion1 generally      
through an abrasion or sore1 but        
sometimes by simple contact with a sound
 surface2 marked by an ill-defined      
period of incubation1 followed by       
certain premonitory symptoms referable  
to the general system1 then by the      
evolution of successive crops of a      
characteristic eruption1 which pass on  
in weakly subjects into unhealthy and   
spreading ulcers whose cicatrices are   
very prone to contraction2 running a    
definite course2 attacking all ages1 and
 amenable to appropriate treatment4     
,the disease seems to develop especially
 in places where the water supply1 which
 in ,ceylon is kept in tanks1 is        
insufficient or poor4 ,the bad food1    
dirty habits1 and generally unhygienic  
mode of life of the people1 help on the 
action of the disease4  ,parangi1 when  

once developed1 spreads generally by    
contagion from the discharges of the    
eruptions and ulcers4 ,the natural      
secretions do not convey the poison4    
,the disease may be inherited also4  ,in
 the clinical history of the disease    
there are1 according to ,mr4 ,kinsey1   
four stages4 ,the first is that of      
incubation4 ,it lasts from two weeks to 
two months4 ,a sore will be found       
somewhere upon the body at this time1   
generally over some bony prominence4    
,the second is the stage of invasion1   
and is characterized by the development 
of slight fever1 malaise1 dull pains in 
the joints4 ,as this stage comes on the 
initial sore heals4 ,this second stage  
lasts only from two to seven days1 and  
ends with an eruption which ushers in   
the third stage4 ,the eruption appears  
in successive crops1 the first often    
showing itself on the face1 the next on 
the body1 and the last on the           
extremities4 ,this eruptive stage of the
 disease continues for several weeks or 

months1 and it ends either in           
convalescence or the onset of a train of
 sequel1 which may prolong the disease  
for years4  ,parangi may attack any one1
 though the poorly fed and housed are   
more susceptible4 ,one attack seems to  
confer immunity from another4  ,although
 some of the sequel of the disease are  
most painful1 yet death does not often  
directly result from them1 nor is       
parangi itself a fatal disease4 ,persons
 who have had parangi and passed safely 
through it1 are not left in impaired    
health at all1 but often live to an old 
age4  ,the similarity of the disease1 in
 its clinical history1 to syphilis1 is  
striking4 ,mr4 ,kinsey1 however1        
considers it1 as we have stated1 allied 
to1 if not identical with               
framboesia4--,medical ,record4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,a ,,castor ,,oil ,,substitute4   ,so   
far back as #ahdi1 ,mr4 ,alexander ,ure 
investigated the purgative properties of
 the oil of anda4 ,the specimen with    

which the experiments were tried had not
 been freshly prepared1 and had indeed  
been long regarded as a curiosity4      
,twelve ounces were alone available1 and
 it was a yellowish oil1 quite bright1  
about the consistence of oleum oliv1    
devoid of smell1 and free from the      
viscid qualities of castor oil4 ,there  
was a small supply of anda fruits       
differing a good deal in appearance one 
from the other1 but we are not aware    
whether these were utilized and the oil 
expressed2 as far as our recollection   
serves1 the subject was abandoned4 ,it  
was known that the natives of ,brazil   
used the seeds as an efficient purgative
 in doses of from one to three1 and it  
was in contemplation to introduce this  
remedy into ,england1 though it was by  
no means certain that under distinctly  
different climatic influences equally   
beneficial results might be expected4   
,mr4 ,ure determined1 by actual         
experiment1 to ascertain the value of   
the oil in his own hospital practice4   

,he found that small doses were better  
than larger ones1 and in several        
reported cases it appeared that twenty  
drops administered on sugar proved      
successful4 ,oil of anda-au1 or assu1   
therefore1 would stand mid-way between  
ol4 ricini and ol4 crotonis4 ,these     
researches seem to have been limited to 
the original sample1 although the       
results obtained would appear to justify
 a more extended trial4 ,m4             
,mello-,oliveira4 of ,rio ,janeiro1 has 
endeavored to bring the remedy into     
notice under the name of ,huile         
d',anda-,assu1 and possibly may not have
 been acquainted with the attempt to    
introduce it into ,english practice4 ,he
 describes the anda as a fine tree      
7,johanesia princeps1 ,euphorbiace71    
with numerous branches and persistent   
leaves1 growing in different parts of   
,brazil1 and known under the name of    
coco purgatif4 ,the fruit is            
quadrangular1 bilocular1 with two       
kernels1 which on analysis yield an     

active principle for which the name     
,johaneseine is proposed4 ,this is a    
substance sparingly soluble in water and
 alcohol1 and insoluble in chloroform1  
benzine1 ether1 and bisulphide of       
carbon4 ,evidence derived from          
experiments with the sulphate of this   
principle did not give uniform results3 
one opinion being that1 contrary to the 
view of many ,brazilian physicians1 this
 salt had no toxic effect on either men 
or animals4 ,local medical testimony1   
however1 was entirely in favor of the   
oil4 ,dr4 ,torrs1 professor at ,rio     
,janeiro1 using a dose of two           
teaspoonfuls1 had been successful4 ,dr4 
,tazenda had obtained excellent results1
 and ,dr4 ,castro1 with a somewhat      
larger dose 7#c ijss471 was even        
enthusiastic in its praise4 ,it might1  
therefore1 be desirable at a time when  
new remedies are so much in vogue1 not  
to abandon altogether a ,brazilian      
medicament the value of which is        
confirmed both by popular native use and

 by professional treatment4 ,m4         
,mello-,oliveira comes to the conclusion
 that oleum anda assu 7or au7 may be    
employed wherever castor oil is         
indicated1 and with these distinct      
advantages3 first1 that its dose is     
considerably less2 secondly1 that it is 
free from disagreeable odor and pungent 
taste2 and thirdly1 being sufficiently  
fluid1 it is not adherent to the mouth  
so as to render it nauseous to the      
patient4 ,in this short abstract the    
spelling of the ,french original has    
been retained4 ,as this therapeutic     
agent claimed attention thirty years    
ago1 and has again been deemed worthy of
 notice in scientific journals1 some of 
our enterprising pharmacists might be   
inclined to add it to the list of their 
commercial ventures4--,chemist and      
,druggist4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,household ,,and       
,,other ,,recipes4   ,mr4 ,jas4 ,w4     
,parkinson gives in a recent number of  
the ,confectioner's ,journal the        

following useful recipes3   ,,christmas 
,,plum ,,pudding4  ,stone a pound of    
bloom raisins2 wash and clean a pound of
 ,zante currants2 mince finely a pound  
of beef suet2 mix with this1 in a large 
pan1 a pound of stale bread crumbs and  
half a pound of sifted flour4 ,beat     
together in another pan six eggs1 and   
mix with them half a pint of milk4 ,pour
 this over the suet and flour1 and stir 
and beat the whole well together2 then  
add the raisins1 currants1 and a        
seasoning of ground cinnamon1 grated    
nutmeg1 powdered ginger1 and a little   
ground cloves1 a teaspoonful of salt1   
one pound of sugar1 and a glass of      
,jamaica rum4 ,this pudding may now be  
boiled in a floured cloth or in an      
ornamental mould tied up in a cloth4 ,in
 either way it requires long and        
constant boiling1 six hours at least for
 one such as the above4 ,every pudding  
in a cloth should be boiled briskly1    
till finished1 in plenty of water1 in a 
large pot1 so as to allow it to move    

about freely4  ,to take the boiled      
pudding out of the cloth without        
breaking it1 dip it into cold water for 
a minute or two1 then place it in a     
round bottomed basin that will just hold
 it1 untie the cloth and lay bare the   
pudding down to the edge of the basin2  
then place upon it1 upside down1 the    
dish on which it is to be served1 and   
invert the whole so that the pudding may
 rest on the dish2 lastly1 lift off the 
basin and remove the cloth4 ,the use of 
the cold water is to chill and solidify 
the surface1 so that it may part from   
the cloth smoothly4  ,plum pudding may  
also be baked in a mould or pan1 which  
must be well buttered inside before     
pouring the pudding into it4 ,two hours'
 boiling suffices4   ,,plum-,,pudding   
,,sauce4  ,put into a saucepan two      
ounces of best butter and a             
tablespoonful of flour2 mix these well  
together with a wooden spoon1 and stir  
in half a pint of cold water and a      
little salt and pepper4 ,set this on the

 fire and stir constantly till nearly   
boiling2 then add half a tumbler of     
,madeira wine1 brandy1 or ,jamaica rum1 
fine sugar to the taste1 and a little   
ground cinnamon or grated nutmeg4 ,make 
the sauce very hot1 and serve over each 
portion of the pudding4   ,,national    
,,plum ,,pudding4  ,an excellent plum   
pudding is made as follows3 ,half a     
pound of flour1 half a pound of grated  
bread crumbs1 a pound of ,zante         
currants1 washed and picked2 a pound of 
raisins1 stoned2 an ounce of mixed      
spices1 such as cinnamon1 mace1 cloves1 
and nutmeg2 an ounce of butter1 two     
ounces of blanched almonds1 cut small2  
six ounces of preserved citron and      
preserved orange peel1 cut into small   
pieces2 four eggs1 a little salt1 four  
ounces of fine sugar1 and half a pint of
 brandy4 ,mix all these well together1  
adding sufficient milk to bring the     
mixture to a proper consistency4 ,boil  
in a floured cloth or mould for eight   
hours4   ,,the ,,sauce ,,for ,,the      

,,above4  ,into a gill of melted butter 
put an ounce of powdered sugar1 a little
 grated nutmeg1 two wine glasses of     
,madeira wine and one of ,curacoa4 ,stir
 all well together1 make very hot1 and  
pour it over the pudding4   ,,egg-,,nog1
 ,,or ,,auld ,,man',s ,,milk4  ,separate
 the whites and yolks of a dozen fresh  
eggs4 ,put the yolks into a basin and   
beat them to a smooth cream with half a 
pound of finely pulverized sugar4 ,into 
this stir half a pint of brandy1 and the
 same quantity of ,jamaica rum2 mix all 
well together and add three quarts of   
milk or cream1 half a nutmeg 7grated71  
and stir together4 ,beat the whites of  
the eggs to a stiff froth2 stir lightly 
into them two or three ounces of the    
finest sugar powder1 add this to the    
mixture1 and dust powdered cinnamon over
 the top4   ,,egg ,,flip4  ,beat up in a
 bowl half a dozen fresh eggs2 add half 
a pound of pulverized sugar2 stir well  
together1 and pour in one quart or more 
of boiling water1 about half a pint at a

 time1 mixing well as you pour it in2   
when all is in1 add two tumblers of best
 brandy and one of ,jamaica rum4        
,,roast ,,turkey4  ,the turkey is       
without doubt the most savory and finest
 flavored of all our domestic fowls1 and
 is justly held in the highest          
estimation by the good livers in all    
countries where it is known4 ,singe1    
draw1 and truss the turkey in the same  
manner as other fowls2 then fill with a 
stuffing made of bread crumbs1 butter1  
sweet herbs rubbed fine1 moistened with 
eggs and seasoned with pepper1 salt1 and
 grated nutmeg4 ,sausage meat or a      
forced meat1 made of boiled chicken     
meat1 boiled ham grated fine1 chopped   
oysters1 roasted or boiled chestnuts    
rubbed fine1 stewed mushrooms1 or last  
but not the least in estimation1 a dozen
 fine truffles cut into pieces and      
sauted in the best of butter1 and added 
part to the stuffing and part to the    
sauce which is made from the drippings  
7made into a good brown gravy by the    

addition of a capful of cold water      
thickened with a little flour1 with the 
giblets boiled and chopped fine in it74 
,a turkey of ten pounds will require two
 and a half hours' roasting and frequent
 basting4 ,currant jelly1 cranberry     
jelly1 or cranberry sauce should always 
be on the table with roast turkey4      
,,woodcocks ,,and ,,snipe4  ,some       
epicures say that the woodcock should   
never be drawn1 but that they should be 
fastened to a small bird spit1 and      
should be put to roast before a clear   
fire2 a slice of toast1 put in a pan    
below each bird1 in order to catch the  
trail2 baste them with melted butter2   
lay the toast on a hot dish1 and the    
birds on the toast4 ,they require from  
fifteen to twenty minutes to roast4     
,snipe are dressed in the same manner1  
but require less time to cook4 ,my pet  
plan to cook woodcock is to draw the    
bird and split it down the back1 and    
then to broil it1 basting it with       
butter2 chop up the intestines1 season  

them with pepper and salt1 and saute    
them on a frying pan with butter2 lay   
the birds on toast upon a hot dish and  
pour the saute over them4               
,,canvas-,,back ,,ducks4  ,select young 
fat ducks2 pick them nicely1 singe1 and 
draw them carefully without washing them
 so as to preserve the blood and        
consequently the full flavor of the     
bird2 then truss it and place it on the 
spit before a brisk fire1 or in a pan in
 a hot oven for at least fifteen or     
twenty minutes2 then serve it hot with  
its own gravy1 which is formed by its   
own blood and juices1 on a hot dish4 ,it
 may also be a little less cooked1 and  
then carved and placed on a chafing dish
 with red currant jelly1 port wine1 and 
a little butter4    ,,pheasants4  ,a    
pheasant should have a clear1 steady    
fire1 but not a fierce one4 ,the        
pheasant1 being a rather dry bird1      
requires to be larded1 or put a piece of
 beef or a rump steak into the inside of
 it before roasting4    ,,wild ,,ducks4 

,in order to serve these birds in their 
most succulent state and finest flavor1 
let them hang in their feathers for a   
few days after being shot2 then pluck1  
clean1 and draw1 and roast them in a    
quick oven or before a brisk fire2      
dredge and baste them well1 and allow   
them twenty minutes to roast2 serve them
 with gravy sauce and red currant jelly1
 or with a gravy sauce to which a       
chopped shallot and the juice of an     
orange has been added4   ,,wild ,,fowl  
,,sauce4  ,the following exquisite sauce
 is applicable to all wild fowl3 ,take  
one saltspoon of salt1 half to          
two-thirds salt spoon of ,cayenne1 one  
dessert spoon lemon juice1 one dessert  
spoon powdered sugar1 two dessert spoons
 ,harvey sauce1 three dessert spoons    
port wine1 well mixed and heated2 score 
the bird and pour the sauce over it4    
,,brown ,,fricassee ,,of ,,rabbits4     
,cut a couple of rabbits into joints1   
fry these in a little fresh butter till 
they are of a light brown color2 then   

put them into a stewpan1 with a pint of 
water1 two tablespoonfuls of lemon      
juice1 the same of mushroom catchup1 one
 of ,worcester sauce1 and a couple of   
burnt onions1 a little ,cayenne and     
salt2 stew over a slow fire till        
perfectly done2 then take out the meat1 
strain the gravy1 and thicken it with a 
little flour if necessary2 make it quite
 hot1 and pour it over the rabbits4     
,,orange ,,pudding4  ,beat up the yolks 
of eight eggs1 grate the yellow rinds   
from two oranges1 add these to a quarter
 of a pound of finely powdered sugar1   
the same weight of fresh butter1 three  
teaspoonfuls of orange-flower water1 two
 glasses of sherry wine1 two or three   
stale ,naples biscuits or lady fingers1 
and a teacupful of cream4 ,line a dish  
with puff paste1 pour in the            
ingredients1 and bake for half an hour  
in a good oven4   ,,venison ,,pastry4   
,a neck or breast of venison is rendered
 very savory by treating it as follows3 
,take off the skin and cut the meat off 

the bones into pieces of about an inch  
square2 put these1 with the bones1 into 
a stewpan1 cover them with veal or      
mutton broth1 add two thirds of a       
teaspoon of powdered mace1 half a dozen 
allspice1 three shallots chopped fine1 a
 teaspoonful of salt1 a saltspoon of    
,cayenne1 and a tumbler of port wine2   
stew over a slow fire until the meat is 
half done1 then take it out and let the 
gravy remain on the fire ten or fifteen 
minutes longer4 ,line a good sized dish 
with pastry1 arrange your meat on it1   
pour the gravy upon it through a sieve1 
adding the juice of a lemon2 put on the 
top crust1 and bake for a couple of     
hours in a slow oven4   ,,christmas     
,,red ,,round4  ,rub well into a round  
of beef a half pound of saltpeter1      
finely powdered4 ,next day mix half an  
ounce of cloves1 half an ounce of black 
pepper1 the same quantity of ground     
allspice1 with half a pound of salt2    
wash and rub the beef in the brine for a
 fortnight1 adding every other day a    

tablespoonful of salt4 ,at the          
expiration of the fortnight1 wipe the   
beef quite free from the brine1 and     
stuff every interstice that you can find
 with equal portions of chopped parsley1
 and mixed sweet herbs in powder1       
seasoned with ground allspice1 mace1    
salt1 and ,cayenne4 ,do not be sparing  
of this mixture4 ,put the round into a  
deep earthen pan1 fill it with strong   
ale1 and bake it in a very slow oven for
 eight hours1 turning it in the liquor  
every two hours1 and adding more ale if 
necessary4 ,this is an excellent        
preparation to assist in the keeping of 
the ,christmas season4   ,,plum         
,,porridge ,,for ,,christmas            
,,festivities4  ,make a good strong     
broth from four pounds of veal and an   
equal quantity of shin of beef4 ,strain 
and skim off the fat when cold4 ,wash   
and stone three pounds and a half of    
raisins2 wash and well dry the same     
weight of best ,zante currants2 take out
 the stones from two and a half pounds  

of ,french prunes2 grate up the crumbs  
of two small loaves of wheat bread2     
squeeze the juice of eight oranges and  
four lemons2 put these1 with a          
teaspoonful of powdered cinnamon1 a     
grated nutmeg1 half a dozen cloves1 and 
five pounds of sugar into your broth2   
stir well together1 and then pour in    
three quarts of sherry4 ,set the vessel 
containing the mixture on a slow fire4  
,when the ingredients are soft add six  
bottles of hock2 stir the porridge well1
 and as soon as it boils it is fit for  
use4   ,,sugared ,,pears4  ,half a dozen
 of those fine pears called the         
,bartlett will make a small dish worthy 
the attention of any good ,christian who
 has a sweet tooth in his head4 ,pare   
the fruit1 cut out the cores1 squeeze   
lemon juice over them1 which will       
prevent their discoloration4 ,boil them 
gently in enough sirup to cover them    
till they become tender4 ,serve them    
cold1 with ,naples biscuit round the    
dish4   ,,table ,,beer4  ,table beer of 

a superior quality may be brewed in the 
following manner1 a process well worth  
the attention of the gentleman1 the     
mechanic1 and the farmer1 whereby the   
beer is altogether prevented from       
working out of the cask1 and the        
fermentation conducted without any      
apparent admission of the external air4 
,i have made the scale for one barrel1  
in order to make it more generally      
useful to the community at large2       
however the same proportions will answer
 for a greater or less quantity1 only   
proportioning the materials and         
utensils4 ,take one peck of good malt1  
ground1 one pound of hops1 put them in  
twenty gallons of water1 and boil them  
for half an hour2 then run them into a  
hair-cloth bag or sieve1 so as to keep  
back the hops and malt from the wort1   
which when cooled down to sixty-five    
degrees by ,fahrenheit's thermometer1   
add to it two gallons of molasses1 with 
one pint1 or a little less1 of good     
yeast4 ,mix these with your wort1 and   

put the whole into a clean barrel1 and  
fill it up with cold water to within six
 inches of the bung hole 7this space is 
requisite to leave room for             
fermentation71 bung down tight4 ,if     
brewed for family use1 would recommend  
putting in the cock at the same time1 as
 it will prevent the necessity of       
disturbing the cask afterward4 ,in one  
fortnight this beer may be drawn and    
will be found to improve to the last4   
,,mince ,,meat4  ,this inevitable       
,christmas luxury is vastly improved by 
being mixed some days before it is      
required for use2 this gives the various
 ingredients time to amalgamate and     
blend4  ,peel1 core1 and chop fine a    
pound of pippin apples1 wash and clean a
 pound of ,zante currants1 stone one    
pound of bloom raisins1 cut into small  
pieces a pound of citron1 remove the    
skin and gristle from a pound and a half
 of cold roast or boiled beef1 and      
carefully pick a pound of beef suet2    
chop these well together4 ,cut into     

small bits three-quarters of a pound of 
mixed candied orange and lemon peel2 mix
 all these ingredients well together in 
a large earthen pan4 ,grate one nutmeg1 
half an ounce of powdered ginger1       
quarter of an ounce of ground cloves1   
quarter of an ounce of ground allspice  
and coriander seed mixed1 and half an   
ounce of salt4 ,grate the yellow rind of
 three lemons1 and squeeze the juice    
over two pounds of fine sugar4 ,put the 
grated yellow rind and all the other    
ingredients in a pan2 mix well together1
 and over all pour one pint of brandy1  
one pint of sherry1 and one pint of hard
 cider2 stir well together1 cover the   
pan closely1 and when about to use the  
mince meat1 take it from the bottom of  
the pan4   ,,pumpkin ,,pie4    ,what    
moistens the lip1 and what brightens the
 eye8    ,what calls back the past like 
the rich pumpkin pie8  ,stew about two  
pounds of pumpkins1 then add to it      
three-quarters of a pound of sugar1 and 
the same quantity of butter1 well worked

 together2 stir these into the pumpkin  
and add a teaspoonful of powdered mace  
and grated nutmeg1 and a little ground  
cinnamon2 then add a gill of brandy1    
beat them well together1 and stir in the
 yolks of eight well-beaten eggs4 ,line 
the pie plates with puff paste1 fill    
them with the pumpkin mixture1 grate a  
little nutmeg over the top1 and bake4   
,,brandy ,,punch4  ,take three dozen    
lemons1 chip off the yellow rinds1      
taking care that none of the white      
underlying pith is taken1 as that would 
make the punch bitter1 whereas the      
yellow portion of the rinds is that in  
which the flavor resides and in which   
the cells are placed containing the     
essential oil4 ,put this yellow rind    
into a punch bowl1 add to it two pounds 
of lump sugar2 stir the sugar and peel  
together with a wooden spoon or spatula 
for nearly half an hour1 thereby        
extracting a greater quantity of the    
essential oil4 ,now add boiling water1  
and stir until the sugar is completely  

dissolved4 ,squeeze and strain the juice
 from the lemons and add it to the      
mixture2 stir together and taste it2 add
 more acid or more sugar1 as required1  
and take care not to render it too      
watery4 ,rich of the fruit and plenty of
 sweetness1 is the maxim4 ,now measure  
the sherbet1 and to every three quarts  
add a pint of cognac brandy and a pint  
of old ,jamaica rum1 the spirit being   
well stirred as poured in4 ,this punch  
may be bottled and kept in a cool       
cellar2 it will be found to improve with
 age4   ,,boeuf ,a ,,la ,,mode 7,,family
 ,,style74  ,the rump is the most       
applicable for this savory dish4 ,take  
six or eight pounds of it1 and cut it   
into bits of a quarter of a pound each2 
chop a couple of onions very fine2 grate
 one or two carrots2 put these into a   
large stewpan with a quarter of a pound 
of fresh butter1 or fresh and well      
clarified beef drippings2 while this is 
warming1 cover the pieces of beef with  
flour2 put them into the pan and stir   

them for ten minutes1 adding a little   
more flour by slow degrees1 and taking  
great care that the meat does not burn4 
,pour in1 a little at a time1 a gallon  
of boiling water2 then add a couple of  
drachms of ground allspice1 one of black
 pepper1 a couple of bay leaves1 a pinch
 each of ground cloves and mace4 ,let   
all this stew on a slow fire1 and very  
gently1 for three hours and a quarter2  
ascertain with a fork if the meat be    
tender2 if so1 you may serve it in a    
tureen or deep dish4 ,a well-dressed    
salad is the proper accompaniment of    
boeuf  la mode4   ,,punch ,,jelly4      
,make a bowl of punch according to the  
directions for brandy punch1 only a     
little stronger4 ,to every pint of punch
 add an ounce of gelatine dissolved in  
half a pint of water2 pour this into the
 punch while quite hot1 and then fill   
your moulds1 taking care not to disturb 
it until the jelly is completely set4   
,this preparation is a very agreeable   
refreshment1 but should be used in      

moderation4 ,the strength of the punch  
is so artfully concealed by its         
admixture with the gelatine that many   
persons1 particularly of the softer sex1
 have been tempted to partake so        
plentifully of it as to render them     
somewhat unfit for waltzing or          
quadrilling after supper4   ,,orange    
,,salad4  ,this somewhat                
inappropriately-named dish is made by   
removing the rind and cutting the fruit 
in slices crosswise and adding equal    
quantities of brandy and ,madeira1 in   
proportion to the quantity of fruit thus
 dressed1 strewing a liberal allowance  
of finely-powdered sugar over all4      
,,cranberry ,,jelly4  ,put two quarts of
 cranberries into a large earthen       
pipkin1 and cover them with water2 place
 them on a moderate fire1 and boil them 
until they are reduced to a soft pulp2  
then strain and press them through a    
hair sieve into an earthen or stone ware
 pan1 and for each pint of liquid pulp  
allow one pound of pulverized sugar2 mix

 the pulp and sugar together in a bright
 copper basin and boil1 stirring        
constantly for ten or fifteen minutes1  
or until the mixture begins to coagulate
 upon the spatula2 then remove it from  
the fire and fill your moulds2 let them 
stand in a cool place to set4 ,when     
wanted for use1 turn it out of the mould
 in the same manner as other jellies4   
,,jove',s ,,nectar4  ,for three gallons1
 peel the yellow rind from one and a    
half dozen fresh lemons1 very thin1 and 
steep the peelings for forty-eight hours
 in a gallon of brandy2 then add the    
juice of the lemons1 with five quarts of
 water1 three pounds of loaf sugar1 and 
two nutmegs grated2 stir it till the    
sugar is completely dissolved1 then pour
 in three quarts of new milk1 boiling   
hot1 and let it stand two hours1 after  
which run it through a jelly bag till it
 is fine4 ,this is fit for immediate    
use1 but may be kept for years in       
bottles1 and will be improved by age4   
,,plum1 ,,or ,,black ,,cake4  ,for this 

,christmas luxury take one pound of     
butter and one pound of pulverized      
sugar2 beat them together to a cream1   
stir in one dozen eggs beaten to a      
froth1 beat well together1 and add one  
pound of sifted flour2 continue the     
beating for ten minutes1 then add and   
stir in three pounds of stoned raisins1 
three pounds of ,zante currants1 washed1
 cleaned1 and dried1 a pound and a half 
of citron sliced and cut into small     
pieces1 three grated nutmegs1 quarter of
 an ounce of powdered mace1 half an     
ounce of powdered cinnamon1 and half a  
teaspoonful of ground cloves2 mix all   
well together2 bake in a well-buttered  
pan in a slow oven for four hours and a 
half4   ,,black ,,cake 7,,parkinson',s  
,,own74    ,if you have lips1 prepare to
 smack them now4                        
--,shakspeare1 slightly altered4  ,take 
one and a half pounds of the best       
butter1 and the same weight of          
pulverized sugar2 beat them together to 
a cream2 stir into this two dozen eggs1 

beaten to a froth2 add one gill of old  
,jamaica rum2 then add one and a half   
pounds of sifted flour4 ,stir and beat  
all well together1 and add two pounds of
 finest bloom raisins1 stoned2 two      
pounds of ,zante currants1 washed1      
cleaned1 and dried2 one pound of        
preserved citron1 sliced thinly and cut 
into small pieces2 one pound of         
preserved ,french cherries1 in halves2  
one pound of green gages1 and one pound 
of preserved apricots1 stoned and cut   
into small pieces2 half a pound of      
preserved orange and lemon peel1 mixed1 
and cut into small pieces2 three grated 
nutmegs1 half an ounce of ground mace1  
half an ounce of powdered cinnamon1 and 
a quarter ounce of ground cloves4 ,mix  
all the ingredients well together1 and  
bake in a well-buttered mould or pan1 in
 a slow oven1 for five and a half hours4
  ,this cake is vastly improved by age4 
,those intended for the ,christmas      
festivities should be made at or about  
the first of ,october2 then put the cake

 into a round tin box1 half an inch     
larger in diameter than the cake2 then  
pour over it a bottle of the best brandy
 mixed with half a pint of pure lemon1  
raspberry1 strawberry1 or simple sirup1 
and one or more bottles of champagne4   
,now put on the lid of the box1 and have
 it carefully soldered on1 so as to make
 all perfectly air-tight4 ,put it away  
in your store-room1 and let stand till  
,christmas1 only reversing the box      
occasionally1 in order that the liquors 
may permeate the cake thoroughly4  ,this
 heroic treatment causes the ingredients
 to amalgamate1 and the flavors to      
harmonize and blend more freely2 and    
when1 on ,christmas day1 you bring out  
this hermit1 after doing a three months'
 penance in a dark cell1 it will come   
out rich1 succulent1 and unctuous2 you  
will not only have a luxury1 fit to set 
before a king1 or before the ,empress of
 ,india1 but fit to crown a feast of the
 very gods themselves1 on high ,olympus'
 top4   ,,potatoes 7,,parkinson         

,,style74  ,take two or three fine white
 potatoes1 raw2 peel and chop them up   
very1 very fine4 ,then chop up just as  
fine the breast of a good-sized boiled  
fowl2 they should be chopped as fine as 
unboiled rice2 mix the meat and the     
potatoes together1 and dust a very      
little flour over them and a pinch or   
two of salt4 ,now put an ounce or so of 
the best butter into a frying pan1 and  
when it is hot1 put in the mixture1 and 
stir constantly with a wooden spatula   
until they are fried to a nice golden   
color1 then immediately serve on a hot  
plate4  ,cold boiled ham grated fine1 or
 boiled beef tongue chopped very fine1  
may be used instead of chicken1 omitting
 the salt4 ,a dozen or two of prime     
oysters1 parboiled1 drained1 and chopped
 fine1 mixed with the potatoes prepared 
as above1 and fried1 makes a most       
delicious lunch or supper dish4 ,try any
 of the above styles1 and say no1 if you
 can4         99       99       99      
99       99     ,,the ,,bayeux          

,,tapestry ,,comet4   ,professor ,hind1 
of the ,british ,nautical ,almanac      
,office1 recently sent an interesting   
letter to the ,london ,times on the     
comet depicted in that famous piece of  
embroidery known as the ,bayeux         
,tapestry4 ,probably no one of the great
 comets recorded in history has         
occasioned a more profound impression   
upon mankind in the superstitious ages  
than the celebrated body which appeared 
in the spring of the year #ajff1 and was
 regarded as the precursor of the       
invasion of ,england by ,william the    
,norman4 ,as ,pingre1 the eminent       
cometographer1 remarks1 it forms the    
subject of an infinite number of        
relations in the ,european chronicles4  
,the comet was first seen in ,china on  
,april #b1 #ajff4 ,it appeared in       
,england about ,easter ,sunday1 ,april  
#af1 and disappeared about ,june #h4    
,professor ,hind finds in ancient       
,british and ,chinese records abundant  
grounds for believing that this visitant

 was only an earlier appearance of      
,halley's great comet1 and he traces    
back the appearances of this comet at   
its several perihelion passages to      
,b4,c4 #ab4 ,the last appearance of     
,halley's comet was in #ahce1 and       
according to ,pontecoulant's            
calculations1 its next perihelion       
passage will take place ,may #bd1 #aiaj4
         99       99       99       99  
99     ,,lack ,,of ,,sun ,,light4       
,some interesting information as to the 
way in which the human system is        
affected under the peculiar conditions  
of work in mines has been furnished by  
,m4 ,fabre1 from experiences connected  
with the coal mines of ,france4 ,he     
finds that the deprivation of solar     
light causes a diminution in the pigment
 of the skin1 and absence of sunburning1
 but there is no globular anmia--that   
is1 diminution in the number of globules
 in the blood4 ,internal maladies seem  
to be more rare4 ,while there is no     
essential anmia in the miners1 the blood

 globules are often found smaller and   
paler than in normal conditions of life1
 this being due to respiration of       
noxious gases1 especially where         
ventilation is difficult4 ,the men who  
breathe too much the gases liberated on 
explosion of powder or dynamite suffer  
more than other miners from affections  
of the larynx1 the bronchia1 and the    
stomach4 ,ventilation sometimes works   
injury by its cooling effect4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,synthetic ,,experiments ,,on ,,the    
,,artificial ,,reproduction ,,of        
,,meteorites4   ,by means of igneous    
fusion the authors have succeeded in    
reproducing two types of crystalline    
associations1 which1 in their           
mineralogical composition and the       
principal features of their structure1  
are analogous1 if not identical with    
certain oligosideric meteorites4 ,the   
only notable difference results from the
 habitual brecchoid state of the        
meteorites1 which contrasts with state  

of quiet solidification of the          
artificial compounds4--,f4 ,fouqu and   
,michel ,lvy4         99       99       
99       99       99   ,a catalogue1    
containing brief notices of many        
important scientific papers heretofore  
published in the ,,supplement1 may be   
had gratis at this office4         99   
99       99       99       99   ,,the   
,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4   
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99       99       99   ,,patents4  ,in  
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