,,essays ,,in ,,natural ,,history ,,and ,,agriculture4 ,,by ,,the ,,late ,,thomas ,,garnett1 ,,of ,,low ,,moor1 ,,clitheroe4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,at ,,the ,,chiswick ,,press4 #ahhc4 ,,contents4 ,,facts ,,and ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,salmon4 ,introductory ,observations ,the ,salmon enters and ascends ,rivers for other purposes besides ,propagation ,suggestions for an alteration in the ,laws regarding ,salmon ,artificial ,breeding of ,fish ,artificial ,propagation of ,fish ,remarks on a ,proposed ,bill for the better ,preservation of ,salmon ,,letters ,,on ,,agricultural ,,subjects4 ,on the ,cultivation of ,wheat on the same ,land in ,successive ,years ,the ,cultivation of ,wheat ,on the ,gravelling of ,clay ,soils ,cotton ,,papers ,,on ,,natural ,,history4 ,wrens' ,nests ,the ,long-tailed ,titmouse ,identity of the ,green with the ,wood ,sandpiper ,the ,stoat ,the ,marsh ,titmouse ,creeper ,wrens' ,nests ,alarm-note of one ,bird understood by other ,species of ,birds ,dates of the appearance of some ,spring ,birds in #ahcb1 at ,clitheroe ,the ,rook ,serviceable to ,man4--,prejudice against it ,sandpipers ,on ,birds ,dressing their ,feathers with ,oil from a ,gland ,mocking powers of the ,sedge-warbler ,the ,water ,ouzel ,scolopax1 ,sabines1 ,sabine's ,snipe ,fish and other ,river ,phenomena ,lampreys ,on the ,spawning of the ,minnow ,eels ,on the ,possibility of ,introducing ,salmon into ,new ,zealand and ,australia ,on the ,formation of ,ice at the bottom of ,rivers ,on the ,production of ,ice at the bottoms of ,rivers ,gossamer 99 99 99 99 99 ,,facts ,,and ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,salmon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,facts ,,and ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,salmon4 ,in the following observations ,i intend to offer some remarks on the various migratory fish of the genus ,salmo2 and then some facts and opinions which tend to show the importance of some change in the laws which are now in force regarding them4 ,we have first the ,salmon2 which1 in the ,ribble1 varies in weight from five to thirty pounds4 ,we never see the fish here before ,may1 and then very rarely2 a few come in ,june1 ,july1 and ,august if there are high floods in the river1 and about the latter end of ,september they become tolerably abundant2 as the fisheries near the mouth of the river have then ceased for the season1 and the ,salmon run very freely up the river from that time to the middle or end of ,december4 ,they begin to spawn at the latter end of ,october1 but the greater part of those that spawn here do so in ,december4 ,i believe nearer the source of the river they are earlier1 but many fish are seen on the spawning beds in ,january2 and ,i have even seen a pair so late as ,march2 but this last is of very rare occurrence4 ,some of the male ,kipper 7,kelts7 come down in ,december and ,january1 but the greater part of the females remain in the river until ,april1 and they are occasionally seen herding with shoals of ,smolts in ,may4 ,in this state they will take a worm very readily1 and are1 many of them1 caught with the fly in the deeps2 but they are unfit to eat1 the flesh being white1 loose1 and insipid2 although they have lost the red dingy appearance which they had when about to spawn1 and are almost as bright as the fresh fish1 their large heads and lank bodies render it sufficiently easy to distinguish them from fish which are only ascending the river1 even if the latter were plentiful at this season2 but this is unfortunately not the case4 ,secondly1 we have the ,mort4 ,i am not sure whether this fish is what is called the ,grilse in ,scotland1 or whether it is the ,sea ,trout of that country2 it is a handsome fish1 weighing from one and a half to three pounds4 ,we first see ,morts in ,june2 from that time to the end of ,september they are plentiful in favourable seasons in the ,hodder1 a tributary stream of the ,ribble1 although they are never very numerous in the ,ribble above the mouth of that stream4 ,it is the opinion of the fishermen here that this is a distinct species2 my own opinion is1 that it is a young ,salmon1 and yet1 if ,i were called upon to give reasons for thinking so1 ,i could not offer any very conclusive ones3 the best ,i have is1 that there is no perceptible difference in the fry when going down to sea4 ,it may be said1 ,how do you know that one of the three or four varieties of ,smolts which you describe further on1 is not the fry of the ,mort8 ,to this objection1 if made1 ,i say that these varieties exist in the ,wharfe1 where1 owing either to natural or artificial causes1 there is never either a ,mort or a ,sprod 7,whitling87 seen4 ,thirdly1 we have the ,sprod1 which is1 ,i believe1 synonymous with the ,whitling1 ,whiting1 or ,birling of ,scotland4 ,it is a beautiful fish of six or eight ounces in weight1 and has more the appearance of the ,salmon than the ,mort2 it seldom ascends the river before ,july1 and1 like the ,mort1 is far more abundant in the ,hodder than in the ,ribble2 this fish sometimes rises pretty freely at the fly1 and when it does so1 makes a very handsome addition to the angler's basket1 but at other times it is difficult to hook1 because of its shyness4 ,it disappears in a great measure about ,september4 ,fourthly1 we have the ,pink1 or ,par1 which is found of two or three sizes in the ,ribble2 the largest are all males1 and in ,october the milt in them is large2 they are small fishes1 ranging in weight from about one to three ounces each1 and it is well remarked by the author of that delightful book ,wild ,sports of the ,west1 they have very much the appearance of ,hybrids between the ,salmon and the ,trout2 they rise very freely at the fly and maggot1 from ,july to ,october1 and afford good sport to the angler who is satisfied with catching small fish4 ,i trust ,i shall be able in the following pages to give some information respecting this fish which will assist in dispelling the mystery in which its natural history has been enveloped4 ,i will now mention a few of the opinions respecting the various species of the ,salmon1 and also my own1 when they are at variance with the generally received ones1 and give the facts and reasonings which have induced me to form those opinions1 and ,i shall be very glad1 if ,i am in error on any of these points1 if some one of my readers1 better acquainted with the subject than ,i am1 will take the trouble to set me right4 ,it seems to be the opinion of many1 indeed of most persons1 that the ,salmon spawns from ,november to ,february1 that the young fry1 or ,smolts1 go down to the sea in the ,april or ,may following2 my own opinion is that they stay in the river much longer4 ,the ,grilse is by many believed to be a distinct species1 whilst others stoutly maintain that it is a young ,salmon4 ,the testimony of the witnesses from the ,severn1 the ,wye1 the ,lee1 near ,cork1 and the ,ness 7see the evidence given before the ,select ,committees of the ,house of ,commons in #ahbd and #ahbe71 would lead one to suppose that the fish were in best season from ,november to ,march1 whilst the evidence of the witnesses from other parts of the kingdom goes to prove that this is the very worst period for catching them4 ,one maintains that each river has its own variety of fish1 which can be distinguished from the fish of any other river2 another contends that there is no such difference2 a third states that stake nets are exceedingly injurious to the breed of the fish2 and a fourth attests that stake nets only catch the fish when they are in the best season1 that neither ,kelt nor fry are taken in them1 and that if they were prohibited it would only be preserving the fish for the grampuses and seals2--in short1 the evidence regarding both their habits1 and the best mode of catching them1 having in view the preservation and increase of the breed1 is so completely contradictory as to leave a doubt in the mind of every one who reads it1 and has no other means of forming an opinion4 ,i will endeavour to show in some instances which of the testimonies is correct1 and it will be for my readers to judge how far ,i succeed1 and ,i hope they will be so obliging as to correct any error into which ,i may fall4 ,first4--,it is my opinion that the fry of ,salmon are much older when they leave the river than seems to be generally supposed1 and that the growth of this fish is by no means so rapid as it is considered to be by those who have written upon the subject4 ,for several years previous to #ahaf the ,salmon were unable to ascend into the upper parts of the river ,wharfe1 being prevented either by the high weirs in the lower parts1 or by some other cause1 and of course there were no ,smolts or ,par2 but in that year either the incessant rains of that summer or rumours of the formation of an association for the protection of fish1 or some other unknown cause1 enabled some ,salmon to ascend the river1 thirty or forty miles1 and to spawn there4 ,in the next spring1 #ahag1 there were no ,smolts1 but about ,september they began to rise at the very small flies which the anglers use in that river--they were then a little larger than ,minnows4 ,in the spring of #ahah there were blue ,smolts1 or what are generally known as ,salmon fry1 which went down to the sea in the ,may of that year2 but these were only part of the brood1 the females only1 the males remaining all that summer1 being at the period when the females went down very much smaller than they1 and what was called at the ,wharfe ,grey ,smolt and ,pinks1 or ,par elsewhere4 ,i have shown that there were two migrations from the spawn of #ahaf2 but this was not all--there still remained a few ,smolts through the summer of #ahai1 which by that time were from four to six ounces in weight1 and which are known by the anglers there as ,brambling ,smolts4 ,the blue marks on their sides are very distinct1 and the fish is a perfect ,smolt1 except that it is considerably larger4 ,it is quite different from the ,whitling1 or ,sprod1 which is not known in the ,wharfe1 at least not in the upper parts of that river1 whilst the ,brambling is never seen in the ,ribble4 #a ,the ,brambling is a beautiful fish1 and it rises very freely both at the ,may fly and the artificial fly through the summer2 it is occasionally caught by anglers with the worm on the ,salmon spawning beds in the autumn1 with the milt perfectly developed1 and in a fluid state4 ,although this fish is not found in the ,ribble1 so far as my observations and inquiries have gone1 ,i believe that it is found in the ,tweed1 and perhaps also in other rivers running into the ,german ,ocean2 for a letter addressed to ,mr4 ,kennedy1 who was chairman of the select committee appointed to investigate this subject1 by a ,mr4 ,george ,houy1 states that the ,smolts are sometimes found there ten inches long1 which he attributes to their not being able to get down at the proper period for want of a flood in the river4 ,but ,i know that in the ,ribble ,smolts will go down to the sea without there being a flood at all1 if that does not come within ten days or a fortnight of the time at which they usually descend to the sea4 ,i also know that ,brambling are found in the ,wharfe1 in years where there has been no deficiency in that respect2 yet why they should be common in that river1 when they are never met with in the ,ribble1 which has ten times as many ,salmon and ,smolts in it1 ,i am unable to comprehend4 ,it is my opinion that the ova of the ,salmon are not hatched before ,march or ,april4 ,two anglers1 who were in ,april wading in the river ,wharfe1 came upon a spawning bed1 which they had the curiosity to examine2 they found a number of ova1 in which they could see the young fry already alive1 and one of them took these eggs home with him4 ,by regularly and frequently supplying them with fresh water1 he succeeded in hatching them1 and kept some of the young fishes alive for some time2 but they died in consequence of neglect1 and were even then very diminutive4 ,the opinion generally received in ,scotland seems to be1 if ,i may judge from the evidence given before the ,house of ,commons1 that the ,smolts go down to the sea in the spring after they are spawned1 and that they return in the summer and autumn of the same year as ,grilse4 ,when they return1 and what size they are on their first visit1 ,i have hitherto been unable to ascertain2 but ,i think ,i have succeeded in proving that they do not go to the sea so soon as is generally believed1 nor do any of the witnesses give their reasons for thinking that they do4 ,i should very much like to learn what evidence they have to offer in behalf of this opinion4 ,i remember seeing an article in the ,scotsman1 perhaps about twelve months ago1 in which it was stated that ,dr4 ,knox had made some important discoveries in the natural history of the ,salmon and ,herring1 both in their food and propagation1 and1 if ,i recollect aright1 it stated that he had ascertained that the eggs remained several months in the gravel1 and that then1 in a few days or weeks after1 they 7i4e4 the fish hatched from them7 were so much grown as to go down to the sea2 but none of the data which enabled him to arrive at this conclusion were given1 and since then ,i have heard nothing about the matter4 ,as it is so long since ,i read this article1 ,i may have quoted it incorrectly1 but ,i believe its substance was what ,i have stated4 ,the only conclusive evidence ,i can find about the hatching of ,salmon fry is that of ,mr4 ,george ,hogarth 7second ,parl4 ,report1 p4 #ib71 and his account agrees with my own3 he states that he took ,salmon spawn from the spawning beds1 and by keeping it freely supplied with fresh water1 he succeeded in hatching some of the eggs2 he gives drawings of the appearance of the fry in three or four different stages1 from the egg to the age of eight days 7see ,appendix to second ,parl4 ,report71 that the young fry1 by keeping them well supplied with fresh water1 were very lively and vigorous for three weeks1 but that they after this time appeared to grow languid and uneasy1 and as they would eat nothing they died when one inch long4 ,unfortunately he does not state at what time of the year they were hatched1 but if this were in ,march or ,april1 which ,i see no reason to doubt1 it is sufficient to prove that they would not reach the size that ,smolts are when they leave the river for the sea2 for supposing them to be hatched the last week in ,march1 and that they lived a month1 this would bring us to the time when they are about to migrate1 at which time they average more than six inches long2 many of them are eight inches1 and at this period they are fond of feeding upon worms1 flies1 maggots1 and caddis worms1 as is known to every schoolboy living on the banks of a river frequented by ,salmon4 ,it is also my opinion that neither ,salmon nor ,trout spawn every year1 #b for ,salmon ascend the river as early as ,january1 in the highest condition1 with roe in them no bigger than mustard seed3 these could not have spawned that season1 as the ,kelts1 particularly the females1 do not return to the sea until ,march or ,april1 #c and at that time they are in very bad condition1 and do not appear to have a particle of spawn in them2 and in the evidence of ,mr4 ,mackenzie 7see ,parl4 ,rep41 p4 #ba71 we have an account of a ,grilse ,kelt which was caught and marked in ,march1 #ahbc1 and was again caught as a ,salmon on its return to the river in ,march1 #ahbd4 ,in this case the fish had evidently required a residence of twelve months in the sea before it was in a condition to visit the river a second time1 and in the ,wharfe it is the constant practice of the angler to catch ,trout through the winter with very minute roe in them1 and in high condition with the worm and ,salmon roe1 and also with night lines4 ,in fact1 one of the fishermen has frequently remarked to me that he occasionally caught dishes of ,trout with the fly in ,january1 and in finer condition1 than he has found them in ,april1 which he accounted for by saying that the spawned fish 7,kelts7 of that season had not begun to rise freely at the fly at the former period1 but they had at the latter1 so that his pannier contained as many ,kelts as fresh fish4 ,another reason has just occurred to me3 it is1 that in ,january the spawned fish will still be in the small brooks in which they are so fond of breeding1 and of course the bulk of the fish remaining in the river at that time would be fish in good season4 ,as it is some years since ,i acquired this information1 or at least a part of it1 ,i felt afraid of giving it incorrectly2 and ,i therefore addressed a letter to a friend living on the banks of the ,wharfe1 requesting him to send me all the information in his possession on this subject1 that derived from his own observations1 as well as that collected from others4 ,he has since the above was written sent me the following reply3--,i have seen ,robinson 7one of the best anglers and fly makers between ,cornwall and ,caithness71 and have had some conversation with him on the subject of ,salmon1 c4 ,he is of opinion that the spawn of the ,salmon remains five months in the gravel before hatching2 he examined the spawn in ,april1 and found the young fry alive in the eggs1 and ,ingham1 another angler1 took some home and kept one of the ,smolts two or three months4 ,i have subsequently seen ,ingham1 and he has given me the same account4 ,all the fishermen here are of opinion that the female ,smolts remain one year1 and the males two years1 before they go down to the sea4 ,the ,bramblings are supposed to be ,smolts which remain a year longer than the usual time2 they are few in number1 and are generally taken with the ,may fly4 ,i have no doubt that the above opinions are correct1 for we have now three distinct sizes of ,smolts in the river exclusive of ,bramblings1 the largest of which are nearly four ounces in weight1 and are all males1 as they contain milt in ,october and ,november4 ,the next are the females of the present year3 ,i have had one since the receipt of your letter1 which weighed half an ounce and measured five inches in length2 this was a real blue ,smolt2 the third are the males of the same age1 and are much smaller2 these are occasionally taken with the worm1 and will rise at the fly all the next summer4 ,we were for several years1 but ,i do not know the dates1 entirely without ,salmon1 and of course without ,smolts2 and we invariably found that the ,smolts made their appearance the year after the ,salmon1 but were very small till the second year1 when we had what we call blue ,smolts1 which disappeared in ,may or ,june2 and what you called ,pinks1 which remained till the following year2 and ,brambling ,smolts1 which remained another year4 ,the fishermen here are also of opinion that neither ,salmon nor ,trout spawn every year4 ,robinson says that one day lately 7the letter is dated ,december #acth7 he caught seven ,trouts1 six of which were in good season2 and he brought me two the other day1 one of which contained roe1 and the other was in excellent condition4 ,my friend states1 in a subsequent communication1 that one of the fishermen had told him that he had caught the male ,smolt 7,par7 more abundantly on the ,salmon spawning beds than elsewhere1 and my friend adds that the opinion there is1 that if a female ,salmon gets up to the spawning beds1 and if no male accompanies her1 yet her eggs are fecundated by the male ,smolts2 and they allege1 in support of this opinion1 that a female got up one season and spawned1 and though no male was seen near her her eggs were prolific4 ,i mention this1 although ,i apprehend it is evidence which the unbeliever will consider inadmissible1 for though no male was seen1 still there may have been one1 or admitting that one did spawn1 without being accompanied by a male1 yet another1 which contrived to bring her mate along with her1 may have spawned in the same place the same season2 yet1 notwithstanding its liability to these objections1 ,i have no doubt myself that if a female were to come alone her eggs would be impregnated by the ,par4 ,it is an excellent maxim1 that ,nature makes no useless provisions2 yet1 if we admit that ,par are young ,salmon1 for what purpose is the milt if not to impregnate ,salmon roe8 and if we deny this to be the fact1 we must endeavour to show that there are female ,par1 but in all my examinations1 ,i have never been able to meet with one that contained roe4 ,that the ,grilse are ,salmon is proved ,i think sufficiently by the evidence given before the ,house of ,commons4 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,stephens states 7see ,rep41 p4 #eb7 that he has known ,grilse kept in a salt-water pond until they became ,salmon1 and that fry that had been marked came back that year as ,grilse1 and the year after as ,salmon2 and ,mr4 ,george ,hogarth states that he has often seen a ,salmon and a ,grilse working together on the spawning beds1 as two ,salmon1 or two ,grilse2 and ,mr4 ,mackenzie states 7page #ba7 that he1 in ,march1 #ahbc1 marked a ,grilse ,kelt with brass wire1 and caught it again in ,march1 #ahbd1 a ,salmon of seven pounds weight4 ,the testimony of the witnesses from the ,ness1 the ,severn1 the ,lee1 and some other rivers1 is too positive and too well supported to admit of any doubt as to the excellent condition of many of the fish ascending those rivers in ,november1 ,december1 and ,january--a period when they are out of season1 and full of spawn generally1 and even when many fish are caught in those rivers in the same unseasonable condition4 ,the fact that there are many fish in fine season in those months may be1 ,i think1 accounted for1 if we admit that ,salmon spawn every other year1 which ,i have ,i think shown to be very probable2 but what it is that induces those fish to ascend rivers so many months before the spawning season1 ,i cannot explain4 ,probably there may be some quality in the waters of these rivers1 all the year1 which is congenial to the habits of the fish1 while the same quality may only be found during part of the year in others2 it is certain that the quality of the waters in rivers generally varies very much with the season3 thus the water of the ,ribble1 after a flood in summer1 is always of a dark brown colour1 being so coloured by the peat moss over which it passes1 while in winter no such tinge can be observed2 and there may be other differences with which we are unacquainted2 however1 whether this is the true reason or not1 it certainly cannot be that the fish which spawn in ,october are impelled by their desire to propagate their species to ascend the river the ,january before2 and if this long residence in fresh water were necessary for the proper development of the ova in one river1 we might suppose it would be necessary in all2 yet this is not the case1 as the red fish which ascend the river in ,november and ,december have at that time the spawn in them nearly ready for exclusion4 ,on one point1 about which there is great difference of opinion1 viz4 whether the fish which are bred in the river generally resort to it again1 and whether each river has its own variety of fish1 ,i am not a competent judge1 as ,i am acquainted with too few rivers to pretend to decide4 ,i may1 however1 just remark that the ,hodder1 though it is a much smaller river than the ,ribble1 is always much better stocked with ,salmon1 ,morts1 ,sprods1 ,smolts1 and ,par than is the latter river1 which ,i attribute to the fact that more fish spawn in the river ,hodder1 which runs for many miles through the ,forest of ,bowland 7the property of the ,duke of ,buccleuch7 and other large estates1 and the fish are much better protected there than in the ,ribble1 where1 with one or two exceptions1 the properties are very much divided1 and few people think it worth their while to trouble themselves on the subject4 ,dr4 ,fleming1 in his letter to ,mr4 ,kennedy 7,appendix to the first ,rep41 #ahbe71 seems to doubt that ,salmon enter rivers for any other purpose than of propagation1 but lest ,i should misrepresent his opinions1 ,i will quote what he has said on the subject3--,in the evidence taken before the ,select ,committee during the last season of ,parliament1 and appearing in the report1 there are several statements of a somewhat imposing kind1 which1 as they appear to me to be erroneous and apt to mislead1 ,i shall here take the liberty of opposing4 ,he then enumerates several opinions expressed before the ,select ,committee1 one of which is1 that ,salmon enter and leave rivers for other purposes than those connected with spawning 7see the evidence of ,messrs4 ,little1 ,halliday1 and ,johnstone74 ,first1 ,that they enter rivers to rid themselves of sea lice 7,monoculus piscinus72 secondly1 ,that they forsake rivers to save themselves from being exhausted by residence in fresh water1 and from having their gills devoured by a maggot 7,lernaea salmonea74 ,the whole history of the ,salmon contradicts this hypothesis4 ,another of these errors is1 that it is asserted 7,rep41 #ahbd1 p4 #ade71 ,that ,salmon always return to the same river2 this is not probable1 when we consider the circumstances in which they are placed during their residence in the sea4 ,on the first of these opinions1 ,i am not a competent judge2 but ,i think that the fact that ,salmon enter rivers nine or ten months before they are ready to spawn1 is of itself sufficient to show that there are other reasons for their entering rivers than those connected with propagation4 ,with respect to the second1 ,i believe that after ,salmon have once entered rivers1 at least when they have ascended into the upper parts of them1 they never offer to descend again until they have spawned4 ,on the third opinion ,i would remark1 that although ,i do not think that ,salmon always come to the same river in which they were bred1 yet ,i think they will do so if they can2 and ,i think that the fact which ,i have mentioned of the ,hodder1 a smaller and a tributary stream to the ,ribble1 containing many more ,salmon1 as well as more ,morts and ,sprods1 countenances this supposition1 for why should the larger number of fish ascend the smaller river except for such a reason8 ,i am of opinion that ,salmon do not grow so fast in the sea as is generally supposed4 ,it is here generally believed that the ,smolts1 which go down in the spring1 come up again in the ,august or ,september following1 five or six pounds in weight2 and ,george ,little1 ,esq41 in his evidence states that as his opinion1 but he does not give any other reason for it than this3 ,that the ,grilse that ascend the river in ,june weigh one and a half or two pounds1 and that those which come in ,september weigh five or six pounds1 --but opposed to this supposition is the evidence of ,mr4 ,mackenzie1 before referred to 7second ,parl4 ,report1 p4 #ba71 who states that he caught in ,march a ,grilse ,kelt which weighed three and a half pounds1 that he marked it with a brass wire1 and let it go1 and that in the ,march following he caught it again a ,salmon of seven pounds weight4 ,now a fish which weighed three and a half pounds as a ,kelt1 would weigh five pounds or six pounds when in high condition the summer before1 and if this were so1 which ,i believe all persons who are acquainted with ,salmon will admit1 the fish would have gained only one pound or two pounds in fifteen or eighteen months4 ,besides1 if ,salmon grew as fast as is stated and believed by many persons1 the breeds of different years would vary very much in weight1 whereas it is known to everybody that we have them of all sizes1 from five pounds to forty pounds2 and it is contrary to analogy to suppose that a fish which is two or three years in arriving at the weight of as many ounces1 should in two or three months acquire as many pounds4 ,there are1 however1 two or three things about which all persons agree in opinion--one of these is3 that the breed of ,salmon is decreasing every year1 and that the great cause of this decrease is the want of protection1 and a consequent destruction in the spawning season4 ,the complaint on this head is universal from north to south2 from the ,shannon to the ,tweed1 the cry is--,protect the breeding fish1 or we shall very soon have none to protect4 ,and yet1 although the destruction of the spawning fish1 and the destruction of the fry in the ,spring1 are the chief reasons for this alarming falling off1 no one seems able to devise a remedy2 no one seems inclined to make the necessary sacrifices for so desirable an object1 and without these sacrifices it would be absurd to expect the fish to become plentiful2 and instead of furnishing an abundant supply of cheap and wholesome food to all classes1 which they certainly would do if the fisheries were properly regulated1 they will either become wholly extinct1 or so rare as to be found only at the tables of the wealthy4 ,james ,gillies1 in his evidence1 states that his brother had in one night killed in the ,tweed four hundred ,salmon at one landing-place in close time2 and all the reports are full of statements showing how unceasing and universal is the persecution the ,salmon undergo1 not only when in season1 but at all times1 and most of all when every one should do his utmost to preserve them--,i mean when they are spawning4 ,in this neighbourhood the properties generally are so much divided1 and so few good fish are allowed to ascend the river1 that no one has any interest in protecting them in close time1 and the consequence is1 as might be expected1 that all sorts of contrivances for taking them are resorted to3 they are speared and netted in the streams by day and night2 they are caught with the fly1 they are taken with switch hooks 7large hooks fixed to the ends of staves71 or with a triple hook fixed to the end of a running line and a salmon rod2 if the river becomes low1 parties of idle fellows go up each side of it in search of them1 and by stoning the deeps1 or dragging a horse's skull1 or large bone of any kind through them1 they compel the fish to side1 and there they fall an easy prey1 in most cases where the pool is of small extent4 ,in a river so small as the ,ribble1 it will be readily believed that not many fish can deposit their spawn in safety1 when practices of this kind are followed almost openly1 and when no one feels a sufficient interest in the matter to put a stop to them4 ,a single party of poachers killed four hundred ,salmon in one spawning season near the source of the river2 the roe of which1 when potted1 they sold for ,l#bj4 ,need we be surprised1 then1 if the breed decreases8 ,the only wonder is that they have not been exterminated long ago4 ,i may perhaps be allowed to say what1 in my opinion1 would remedy this alarming destruction1 particularly as no one hitherto seems to have devised an efficient preventive4 ,i believe that in #ahbf there was an ,act of ,parliament passed which either repealed or modified some of the old laws on the subject1 and ,i have also understood that the good effects of this new law are already perceptible in ,scotland1 to which it is exclusively applied4 ,there was a bill introduced into ,parliament in #ahbe which was intended to apply to the whole kingdom2 but some of the clauses were so very objectionable1 that if they had been carried they could not possibly have been enforced without stopping and ruining the manufactories which were carried on by water-power1 and the bill was consequently abandoned4 ,the first thing to be done is to give the proprietors on the upper part of the river such an interest in the fisheries as will make them anxious about the preservation of the fish in the spawning season2 and to accomplish so desirable an object no one ought to fish or keep a net stretched across a river for more than twelve hours each day1 or from sunrise to sunset2 and every mill-owner ought to be compelled to facilitate the passage of the fish over his weir by every means consistent with the proper supply of water to his wheels4 ,at present the fisheries at the mouths and lower parts of rivers so completely prevent the access of the fish to the upper parts1 that unless there happen to be high floods1 which prevent the fishermen below from keeping their nets in1 the upper proprietors comparatively seldom see any until the season is at an end4 ,the evidence before the ,house of ,commons on this point is exceedingly amusing4 ,one person thinks the upper proprietors have no right to expect any fish1 as they have never paid any consideration for them when they bought their estates2 another states that he pays ,l#g1jjj a year to the ,duke of ,gordon1 and that if he is compelled to observe a weekly 7not a daily7 close time1 he will lose that proportion of his rent2 another observes the weekly close time1 and opens a passage for the fish1 but places a crocodile1 painted in very glaring colours1 in the gap to frighten them back again2 another says he observes the weekly close time in his cruive fishing1 but no one is allowed to inspect the cruives2 another sends men to break down the stake nets in the estuary1 which reach from high to low water-mark1 and at the same time stretches a net completely across the river from ,march to ,august1 so that a fish cannot pass without his permission4 ,no wonder that fish are scarce in the upper parts of the river1 when such samples of disinterestedness are manifested by the proprietors of the fisheries below4 ,no wonder that the upper proprietors should be careless about the protection of fish from which they are not allowed to derive any benefit4 ,no wonder that they should connive at1 and even encourage1 the shameful destruction of fish in close time1 since that is the only time they are allowed to have any4 ,let the fishermen below make it worth the while of the upper proprietors to protect the fish1 and they will receive that protection2 but it is too much to expect from human nature that these proprietors will take all the odium and trouble of preserving them when others reap all the benefit4 ,there ought to be conservators employed1 to see that the fisheries are properly regulated1 and these should be paid by an assessment on all the proprietors in proportion to the value of their fisheries4 ,i should also recommend an extension and uniformity of close time in all the rivers in the kingdom1 for although it is an undoubted fact that some clean fish are caught in the river early in the season1 yet they are comparatively few in number1 and their capture involves that of a far greater number of spawning and ,kelt fish1 which are not only of no value for the table1 but the destruction of which is in effect the destruction of millions of fish which would proceed from them4 ,in the first ,parl4 ,rep41 p4 #aa1 ,mr4 ,walter ,jamieson says1 that in the river ,tweed1 from ,january #ajth to ,february #ast1 he caught one hundred and twenty-one fish1 only one of which had spawned2 from ,february #ast to ,march #ast he took forty-four fish1 twenty-five of which had not spawned --fifteen were ,kelts and four were clean fish2 from ,march #ast to ,march #ajth he took seventeen fish1 seven of which had not spawned 7four of them on the #ajth7--six were ,kelts and one clean fish4 ,now the close time varies in almost every river1 and some have no close time at all2 thus in the ,ribble the close time begins on ,september #aeth and ends on ,december #cast1 and in the ,hodder there is no legal close time2 but there is no practical difference between them in this respect1 every one thinking himself entitled to kill all the fish he can1 at all times of the year1 in both of them4 ,the observance of the weekly close time1 that is1 opening a passage for the fish from sunset on ,saturday night to sunrise on ,monday morning1 is a mere farce1 even if it could not be evaded1 as it almost invariably is1 for it is well known to every one conversant with the habits of ,salmon1 that they only ascend the rivers when there are freshes 7floods7 in them1 and in summer the ground is generally so dry1 and vegetation absorbs so much moisture1 and the evaporation is so great1 that it not only requires twice as much rain to produce a flood in the river then as it does in winter1 but when the rain does come its effects are only visible in the river for a short time4 ,i have known a strong fresh in the ,ribble in the morning1 and the river low again in the afternoon of the same day4 ,a fresh coming at the beginning of a week1 would disappear long before the close of it1 unless the rainy weather continued2 and thus the strict observance of the weekly close time would be of little service to the upper proprietors unless the fresh came at the right end of the week4 ,the ,smolts and the ,par ought to be protected as strictly as the ,salmon2 and there ought to be a penalty attached to the killing of them1 or having them in possession1 and conservators of rivers ought to have the power of inspecting all mills and manufactories driven by those rivers1 to ascertain that they have no contrivances for taking the fry on their way to the sea1 as it appears that in some rivers they are taken in large quantities4 ,there ought also to be a penalty attached to the killing of ,kelt fish1 which in that state are not only tasteless and insipid1 but actually unwholesome2 yet they are pursued and destroyed with as much avidity as the fresh fish1 and a very small number of the few that spawn in safety ever return to the sea4 ,a penalty ought also to be inflicted for selling1 buying1 using1 or having in possession ,salmon roe1 either in a fresh or salted state1 as its excellence as a bait for ,trout and ,eels1 and the consequent high price at which it sells1 are sufficient temptations to poachers to kill the ,salmon in the spawning season even if they could not sell or use any other part4 ,yet destructive as this practice is1 there is an extensive trade in this article-- a fishing-tackle maker in ,liverpool having told a friend of mine that he sold #cjj lbs4 in a season1 which1 supposing every egg to hatch1 would produce perhaps five times as many ,salmon as are caught in one year throughout the whole kingdom4 #d ,in concluding this imperfect sketch1 ,i may remark that ,i have omitted many things concerning the natural history and habits of the ,salmon1 fearing to trespass too much on the patience of my readers2 but ,i have wished1 in addition to communicating some facts in the natural history of this fish1 which ,i believe are not generally known1 to call the attention of the public to the present state of the ,salmon fisheries in ,england4 ,many of the preceding observations are founded on the evidence of persons connected with the fisheries in ,scotland1 and are perhaps no longer applicable to that part of the kingdom1 since there has been an alteration in the laws2 whether this is the case or not1 ,i have no present means of ascertaining4 ,i shall be glad if any one having a knowledge of the subject will say what benefit1 if any1 has been derived from the alteration2 however1 it is sufficient for my present purpose to show what is the state of things when there are no laws on the subject1 or1 which is the same thing1 when there is no attention paid to them2 a state of things which1 instead of promoting an abundant supply of these excellent fish1 and rendering the ,salmon fisheries nationally important1 tends by the habitual disregard of the laws by one party1 the selfishness of another1 and the neglect of a third1 to render these fisheries of little and decreasing value2 whereas if the lower proprietors would allow a tolerable supply of ,salmon to come up the river when they were worth taking1 and the upper ones would preserve them during close time1 there would be plenty for each and for all4 ,i am aware it will be difficult to legislate upon this subject without injury to what is of infinitely greater importance--,i mean the manufactories of the country4 ,the absurd and impracticable clauses which were contained in the bill for the protection of the fisheries1 which was introduced into ,parliament in #ahbe1 show this2 yet notwithstanding this difficulty1 ,i think it is possible to protect the fish without interfering with the interest of the mill-owners1 and to make such laws on the subject as will be effectual1 without calling forth a single objection from any unprejudiced person4 ,i shall be glad if what ,i have said on this subject should induce any gentleman to turn his attention to it4 ,there must be many whose opportunities of observation will enable them to determine whatever is doubtful in the natural history of the ,salmon tribe2 whose experience will teach them the defects and absurdities of the present laws on the fisheries2 and whose influence will1 if they can be induced to exert it1 materially contribute to their amendment4 ,,clitheroe1 ,january1 #ahcd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,salmon ,,enters ,,and ,,ascends ,,rivers ,,for ,,other ,,purposes ,,besides ,,propagation4 #e ,in addition to the objections which ,i have offered to the seeming doubt of ,dr4 ,fleming1 whether ,salmon enter rivers for any other purpose besides propagation1 the following have come to mind2 and though they do not apply to the ,salmon1 they confirm me in the opinion that there are reasons1 of which we know nothing1 for fish ascending rivers1 which are not at all connected with propagation4 ,one is the habit of what is here called streaming4 ,in the winter the fish not engaged in spawning 7,i speak of ,trout1 ,grayling1 ,chub1 ,dace1 c47 leave the streams and go into deep water2 either because the water is warmer there1 or because they there find more food2 and it is well known to fly-fishers that they do not catch many fish in the streams if they begin early1 say in ,february4 ,it is proverbial here that fish begin to stream when the great grey1 or what is called in other districts the devil or dule crook1 and in ,march brown or brown drake1 comes upon the water2 and ,i have seen ,trout by scores leaping at a weir in the beginning of ,may1 whether in search of food or an instinct implanted in them to keep all parts equally stocked with them1 ,i do not know2 but it has certainly nothing to do with their spawning4 ,is it presumptuous to suppose that ,god in ,his providence has implanted this instinct in ,salmon for our good1 that we might have a supply of excellent food1 which without this would be in a great measure unattainable8 ,whether this is the true cause1 and the only one1 ,i am unable to determine2 but this is the effect produced1 and in the absence of other reasons it is1 in my opinion1 one that ought to be admitted4 ,another reason why fish ascend rivers is their impatience of heat4 ,i speak now more particularly of ,grayling2 if the weather is very hot at the end of ,may or the beginning of ,june1 the ,grayling in the ,wharfe 7they are almost unknown in this part of the ,ribble7 ascend the mill streams by hundreds1 and go up the wheel races as far as they can get1 and stay there until the stoppage of the wheels 7many a ducking have ,i had in pursuit of them71 when they are obliged to beat a retreat1 and this often proves a disastrous one to many of them4 ,the ascent of young ,eels by millions1 and the ascent of the ,flounder1 are neither of them connected with the propagation of their kind1 and though ,i cannot say for what purposes they do ascend1 ,i am1 ,i think1 justified in doubting assertions which seem to have nothing to support them but the positive manner in which they are made4 ,the ,salmon ,par is neither a ,hybrid nor a distinct species of the genus ,salmo1 but a state of the common ,salmon4 ,the author of ,wild ,sports of the ,west says of the ,par1 as ,i have noted previously1 ,that it has very much the appearance of a ,hybrid between the ,salmon and the ,trout1 and 7in a note7 that the natural history of this fish is doubtful4 ,some conjecture that it is a ,hybrid between the ,salmon and ,trout1 because it is only found in rivers which are frequented by ,salmon4 ,others think it a cross breed between the sea ,trout and river ,trout1 and then he speaks of this hybridous diminutive1 as if he thought one of these opinions was correct4 ,that the ,par is not the result of a cross between a sea ,trout and a river ,trout1 is proved by the fact that there are no sea ,trouts in the ,wharfe1 the ,par 7admitting it to be a distinct species1 which ,i do not71 the ,salmon1 and common ,trout being the only kinds of ,salmonidae which are found in that river1 at least where ,i am acquainted with it4 ,if the ,par be the result of a cross between the ,salmon and the ,trout1 what becomes of it in the spring1 and where are all the ,par1 which were so abundant in ,october1 gone to in ,april8 ,did they migrate to the sea1 the shoals would be met with by somebody2 and did they stay in the river they would be caught at one time or other4 ,however1 as it is well known that neither of these cases is ever realized1 we must suppose another1 which ,i have already done in my former communication4 ,in fact1 in angling in the beginning of ,march1 fish are often caught which would puzzle the most experienced fisherman to determine whether they are ,par or ,smolts1 especially after they have been caught some time2 and in a large number caught at that time there are all the intermediate shades of appearance between the perfect ,par and the real blue ,smolt4 ,,clitheroe1 ,may #bith1 #ahcd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,clitheroe1 ,march #ahth1 #ahdf4 ,,to ,,mr4 ,,pakington 7,,lord ,,hampton74 ,,sir1--,through the polite attention of ,mr4 ,cardwell ,i have been favoured with a copy of your bill--,for the better preservation of ,salmon4 ,as this is a subject to which ,i have paid some attention1 ,i trust it will not be deemed impertinent if ,i offer some suggestions for your consideration with regard to the free gap4 ,it appears to me that it will be desirable to specify the width and depth of this free gap1 or it may on the one hand degenerate into a mouse-hole1 or on the other hand the surveyor1 by the provisions of the #acth section of the ,act1 may insist on such a gap being made that the whole of the water may be diverted through it1 which in small rivers1 where there are ancient and legal hecks or cruives for the purpose of taking ,salmon1 will destroy the value of the fishery4 ,then1 with regard to fence time3--,in the #fth section of the ,act1 ,i presume you do not intend that night fishing shall be allowed at any season of the year2 but it appears to me that the expressions in the #fth section would scarcely prevent the owners of cruives from keeping them open1 as they need not go near them between sunset and sunrise1 and then they will neither lay1 draw1 nor fish with any net1 device1 or engine4 ,would it not be better to expressly insist upon all cruive fisheries being positively closed from sunset to sunrise8 or1 what would be still better1 that the cruive or heck should have a free gap in it1 of a specified size1 which should be kept constantly open between sunset and sunrise4 ,as this is one of the most important sections of the ,act1 ,i may be pardoned for calling your particular attention to it2 for unless this section be vigorously enforced1 it will be in vain to legislate on the subject2--for the proprietors near the sources of rivers 7where most of the fish spawn7 will never interest themselves about the preservation of fish which they are not allowed to see when in season1 and which has hitherto been the case in this neighbourhood at all events2 but if the fish are allowed a free passage everywhere1 and at all times1 between sunset and sunrise1 the upper proprietors will then have some inducement to take care of the fish in the spawning season4 ,until now1 all the good fish have been taken in the fisheries near the mouth of the river4 ,there is at present a great trade carried on in this neighbourhood in ,salmon roe1 as a bait for ,trout and ,eels1 and scores of spawning ,salmon are now destroyed for little else than the spawn they contain4 ,cannot this be prevented8 99 99 99 99 99 ,may #eth1 #ahdf4 ,h4 ,,george1 ,,esq4 ,,sir1--,i enclose a letter ,i had addressed to ,mr4 ,pakington on the subject of the preservation of the breed of ,salmon4 ,i had written to him because ,i perceived that he had introduced the bill into the ,house of ,commons1 but since that letter was written ,i have been favoured with your address through the politeness of ,sir ,thomas ,winnington1 to a friend of mine1 and as he requests that any suggestion about weirs may be addressed to you1 ,i make no apology for enclosing the letter ,i had addressed to ,mr4 ,pakington with some further suggestions1 which on looking over my letter ,i find ,i have omitted to notice4 ,in one of the clauses of the bill 7,i do not remember which1 and ,i have not the bill at hand to refer to7 you require that a grating1 the bars of which shall not be more than three inches distant from each other1 and which shall be placed at the junction of the tail- goit with the river1 as well as in front of the wheel4 ,this ,i presume is to prevent any fish being injured by the wheels1 but ,i assure you that during the twenty-two years in which ,i have had the management of the works here1 ,i never knew an instance of a ,salmon being either killed or hurt by the wheels4 ,indeed1 ,i do not know half-a-dozen instances of ,salmon ever ascending the tail-goit to the wheel1 and ,i must have seen many instances if this was a common occurrence4 ,this may1 however1 happen1 and the fish may be occasionally injured where there is much fall lost1 and a strong stream running from a wheel constituted in the old way with open float boards4 ,but the objections to such a plan on the part of the manufacturers will be insuperable1 in fact1 the accumulation of sticks and leaves in the autumn1 and ice in the winter1 will be so great at the grating in the tail-goit1 that the wheels will be thrown into back water and the works stopped1 and all this loss and inconvenience will be incurred because of the possibility of a ,salmon being killed or hurt by the wheel4 ,there is not much probability of this frequently happening1 because1 as ,i said in my other letter1 ,salmon seldom migrate except where there are freshes in the rivers1 and then there is so much water flowing down the usual course of the stream1 that the fish have no inducement to leave it to seek for a passage elsewhere4 ,i would1 however1 suggest that power be given to conservators to go at all times up the tail-goits and into the wheelhouses1 to see that there are no illegal contrivances in them for catching the ,salmon and ,smolts in their migration1 as ,i have certainly heard of such things occurring4 ,in ,sir ,thomas ,winnington's note to my friend1 he says we have difficulty enough in endeavouring to obtain support for one day's clear course2 two we could not carry1 however desirable4 ,allow me to suggest1 that in endeavouring to carry so little you rouse up your opponents1 while there is not enough to stimulate the zeal of your friends1 for it will be in vain to look for the zealous co- operation of the proprietors on the upper part of rivers unless you give them some inducement4 ,this one day in the week will not effect1 and besides this1 you make it illegal to catch ,smolts1 even with the rod1 which is destroying one of the greatest amusements of the anglers1 and depriving them of the most delicate of fish1 and for no object3 because1 if the provisions of your bill are carried 7without this clause71 there will be an abundant supply of fish for all purposes1 even after the anglers have enjoyed their sport4 ,i do not see the propriety and utility of prohibiting the killing of ,smolts1 because if they lived they would become ,salmon1 any more than ,i see the propriety of prohibiting the eating of eggs1 because if they were hatched and lived long enough they would become barn-door fowls4 ,let the legislature and the estuary fisheries give the upper proprietors a fair share of ,salmon when in season1 and they will be glad to see the angling for ,smolts abolished2 but it is rather too bad for the estuary fisheries to catch all the good ,salmon1 and then grudge to the upper proprietors the angling for ,smolts4 ,in conclusion1 allow me to urge on you the propriety of endeavouring to obtain such a bill as will give the proprietors of land on the upper parts of rivers a strong inducement to support you1 and at the same time that it does this will not injure the mill-owners2 and1 with the modifications ,i have pointed out1 ,i think this may be accomplished4 ,i speak on this subject as a practical man1 having some knowledge of the habits of ,salmon1 and superintending a mill driven by water-power which employs nearly a thousand people2 so that if a bill like yours could be worked in a satisfactory manner here1 on so small a stream as the ,ribble1 it may anywhere in the kingdom4 ,but if you make a tinkering job of it1 and ask for too little1 you will rouse your opponents and discourage your friends4 ,by all means go for a free passage for the fish every night from sunset to sunrise in all cases where this does not interfere with manufactories1 and then there will be some inducement to support you4 ,i refer you to some papers which ,i wrote on this subject in the ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 in the year #ahcd1 and if you think it worth while to ask for further information on the subject1 ,i shall be happy to give you any ,i may possess4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,low ,,moor1 ,july #ast1 #ahdf4 ,to the ,editor of ,the ,times4 ,the attempt which is now making to amend the laws relating to the ,salmon fisheries1 appears to run such a great risk of failure1 from the opposition of interested persons1 that ,i think a short sketch of the defects of the present laws and their effects on the breed of fish1 and a comparison of them with the proposed amendment1 may be interesting to some of your readers1 and may1 perhaps1 induce some influential gentlemen to throw their influence into the right scale1 in the approaching discussion on this subject4 ,the ,salmon fisheries in former times appear to have supplied food for a large portion of the people1 as there are still traditions current on the banks of various rivers in the north1 that the indentures of apprenticeship always stipulated that the apprentice should not be compelled to eat ,salmon more frequently than three days a week1 and however exaggerated this story may appear at the present day1 ,i hope to succeed in showing that it is neither improbable that it has been so1 nor impossible that it may be so again1--if good laws are made for their protection1 and these laws are properly enforced4 ,at present there is no doubt the fisheries are rapidly declining1 and in some rivers which used to have a good many ,salmon in them1 and which used to swarm with ,smolts 7or fry7 in the spring within my remembrance1 they are now rarely seen4 ,to show their scarcity ,i may mention a circumstance which occurred in the ,wharfe1 which was formerly one of the finest rivers in ,yorkshire for ,salmon4 ,a few years ago a pair of ,salmon were seen on a spawning bed in the ,wharfe1 about forty miles from its mouth4 ,this became known at the anglers' club1 and it was deemed so important to preserve them1 that the club divided themselves into three or four watches1 and guarded the spawning bed night and day1 whilst the fish were spawning1 and this spawning lasted about a week4 ,here in the ,ribble the ,salmon fisheries are not quite so near extinction 7though they are rapidly progressing in that direction71 for although we are very seldom allowed to see or catch fish in seasonable condition1 a good many come up the river to spawn1 though very few of them ever do so1 and very few of those that do ever reach the sea again4 ,the reason is obvious1 no one here has any interest in preserving the spawning fish1 and they are openly killed by the poachers1 who never dream of being prosecuted for it4 ,i am credibly informed that in a stream not five hundred yards from where ,i write1 sixty spawning fish were killed last winter4 ,some years ago one gang of poachers killed three hundred ,salmon on the spawning beds in one season1 and sold potted ,salmon roe 7which is a most destructive bait for ,trout7 to the value of ,l#bj4 ,in the ,lune the proprietors of the fisheries near ,lancaster sent men to protect the spawning fish in the streams above2 but these men were warned off by the landed proprietors1 who said1 ,if you catch all the good fish you must at least allow us to catch the bad ones4 ,in the ,tweed and its tributaries it used to be quite as bad 7what the new ,scotch law has done ,i do not know71 but a poacher who gave evidence before the ,committee of the ,house of ,commons in #ahbe said that he had assisted to take four hundred ,salmon at one haul in close time in the ,tweed4 ,sir ,walter ,scott's vivid description of burning the water1 which occurs in ,guy ,mannering1 shows that he knew how to kill ,salmon in close time4 ,in fact1 his account1 and that of ,hogg 7the ,ettrick ,shepherd71 show that both were regular black fishers4 ,there are various devices for killing the fish in close time3 they are speared1 netted1 and hooked on the spawning beds1 and when the rivers get low1 gangs of idle fellows range up and down on the banks1 stoning and beating the water by poles1 or1 what is more effective still1 a large bone1 or horse's skull1 and by fastening a cord to it1 one end of which is passed to each side of the river1 they draw this skull up and down in the pools where they know there are ,salmon1 and the fish are so foolish and timid1 that they thrust their heads under any stone or cover they can find1 and are taken without trouble2 it being common enough in such cases to slip a noose over the tail1 then tightening it1 and the fish is hauled out immediately4 ,then again1 gentlemen who want to have the reputation of being skilful anglers1 employ their game-keepers to find the ,kippers 7,scottice ,kelts7 or spawned fish in the pools1 which is a very easy matter in low water1 and dropping a hook baited with a lob worm before their noses1 it is greedily taken1 and the poor fish 7which are unfit for food7 are caught4 ,it is then trumpeted forth to the angling world that ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 has had splendid sport--he has caught a dozen ,salmon with the rod in a single day1 meaning it to be understood that these fish have been caught with the fly4 ,i by no means uphold these practices1 neither do ,i think them very deserving of censure in the present state of the law1 for all the good fish are taken near the mouths of the rivers4 ,this leads me to consider the defects of the present law1 which is by no means adapted to protect and increase the breed of ,salmon4 ,in the first place1 the close time is too short4 ,it commences in the ,ribble nominally 7for in reality the fish are openly killed all the year through7 on the #aeth ,september1 and ends on the #cast of ,december2 whereas it ought to extend to the end of ,april1 for the following reasons4 ,a very large proportion of the fish are spawning in ,january and ,february1 and ,i have even seen a spawning fish as late as the #crd of ,april4 ,in the evidence given before the ,house of ,commons in #ahbe1 it was proved by a fisherman from the ,tweed1 that in ,march for one clean fish that was caught there were ten caught that were not so1 as they were either fish that had not spawned1 or ,kelts1 that is1 fish which have finished spawning but have not returned to the sea1 and are then flabby1 unwholesome1 and unfit for food4 ,a very large proportion of these ,kippers or ,kelts do not go to the sea until ,april1 and not then without there is a fresh in the river1 for1 like the ,smolts1 they seem disposed to remain in the rivers until they can avail themselves of the assistance of a flood1 to enable them more easily to reach the sea4 ,another defect in the present law is that it fails to secure a supply of good fish to the upper proprietors4 ,there are no provisions in it 7or they are not enforced7 for giving the fish a free passage1 no prohibition of nets1 traps1 or devices for stopping them in their progress up the rivers4 ,no daily or weekly close time1 but everywhere there is so short-sighted a selfishness1 that it is completely realizing the fable of the man who killed the goose which laid the golden egg4 ,the fisheries are declining so rapidly1 that unless something is done1 and done quickly1 the breed of ,salmon will be extinct in the rivers in this neighbourhood4 ,again1 there is no power to appoint or pay conservators1 and without their assistance there is no chance of preserving ,salmon in the spawning beds4 ,game-keepers are most certainly not to be depended upon4 ,in pointing out the defects of the present laws ,i have1 in fact1 given an opinion how they should be remedied4 ,i would extend the close time from the end of ,september to the end of ,april4 ,i would establish a daily close time1 allowing no net1 device1 or engine to be employed in taking ,salmon between sunset and sunrise above tideway in any river2 and below1 ,i would only allow nets to be set for twelve hours per diem4 ,i would appoint conservators1 whom ,i would pay by a tax on the fisheries on the whole course of the river1 which tax should be determined by a valuation of the fisheries1 and paid accordingly4 ,i would fine every one who sold1 used1 or had in his possession any potted or prepared ,salmon roe for the purpose of angling1 and ,i would give conservators the power of examining all mill goits and races1 for the purpose of seeing that no unfair practices were resorted to for the taking of ,salmon or ,salmon fry2 and ,i would give the upper proprietors the power of making any alterations in mill weirs and dams which did not impair their stability or the efficiency of the water power4 ,if some such enactments as these were made and properly enforced1 there is no doubt ,salmon would swarm in every river1 for their fecundity is such1 that a very few ,salmon spawning in a river under favourable circumstances stock it abundantly with ,smolts4 ,a large ,salmon having not less than #be1jjj eggs in it1 how soon1 with a little forbearance and care1 would every river swarm with this delicious fish1 even to such a degree as to be a cheap food for the poor6 ,but to obtain such results it must be made the interest of every person to protect them4 ,in reading over the evidence on the ,salmon fisheries1 which was given before the ,house of ,commons in #ahbe1 ,i was exceedingly amused by the reasons given by the tenants of some of the fisheries in ,scotland why there should be no weekly close time1 and the shifts and evasions practiced by others4 ,one said he paid ,l#g1jjj a year rent to the ,duke of ,gordon for his fishery1 and if one day in the week were allowed for close time he would lose ,l#a1jjj a year4 ,another said he kept the close time1 but he would allow nobody to go and see whether he kept the free gap open or not4 ,another proved that he kept open the free passage1 but it was also proved that he had a crocodile placed in the gap1 painted with very glaring colours1 in order to frighten back any fish that attempted to pass4 ,another sent his boats to break down the stake nets which were set in the estuary1 but acknowledged that he kept his own nets set across the river day and night4 ,there would be no difficulty in stocking every suitable river in the kingdom with ,salmon1 either by putting into them a few pairs of breeding fish1 or by artificially fecundating the eggs1 and placing them in artificial spawning beds4 ,it is a plan ,i have frequently adopted1 and sometimes successfully2 but in other experiments ,i have failed1 from the difficulty of choosing a suitable locality in the river4 ,if too rapid a stream was chosen1 the eggs and gravel were all washed away2 and if too calm and still a place was selected1 the gravel was filled up with sand and mud1 and the eggs rotted instead of hatching4 ,i am even of opinion that where there is already a breed of ,salmon fry in a river1 it is not absolutely necessary that any male ,salmon should come up the river in the spawning season1 the male ,par1 or ,penks1 as we call them in the ,ribble1 being sufficient to fecundate the eggs4 ,if this is doubted1 ,i would ask how it happens that in the autumn they have fluid milt in them8 for as nature makes no unnecessary provisions1 for what purpose is this1 if not to provide for the possibility of a female ,salmon coming alone8 ,these ,pars swarm on the ,salmon spawning beds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,an ,,alteration ,,in ,,the ,,laws ,,regarding ,,salmon4 ,,clitheroe1 ,october #abth1 #ahea4 ,to the ,editor of the ,gardeners' ,chronicle4 ,as the amusement of fly-fishing is one which holds a first place in the opinion of every one who understands it1 and as the ,trout and the ,salmon are the only fish which afford genuine sport to the angler1 and as ,i believe that the latter in some of the southern counties is nearly extinct1 whilst the former is far from being abundant1 ,i wish to call the attention of such of your readers as are possessed by the true piscatorial furor1 to the facility with which these fish can be bred artificially4 ,and as many experiments have been made under my direction1 and having witnessed the results1 ,i unhesitatingly say that there is little risk of failure1 if due care be taken4 ,the experiments of ,shaw and ,agassiz1 my own also included1 have proved that fish can be bred artificially4 ,the experiments of ,boccius ,i have not yet tried1 although he proposes to arrive at the same result in another manner1 and acting in the manner recommended by them1 ,trout and ,salmon have been bred by thousands during the last ten years4 ,as the season for making the experiment will shortly be here1 ,i hope that those who intend to try the plan will lose no time in looking after their supply of breeding fish4 ,to begin with ,trout3--,catch as many as you can conveniently obtain upon the spawning beds1 #f and examine them carefully one by one1 to see that the spawn and milt are in a fit state for exclusion2 and also to enable you to separate the males from the females4 ,if they are in a fit state to be operated upon 7which may be known by the facility with which the milt and the roe run from them on a slight pressure71 squeeze the milt of the males into a little water1 and when you have obtained all the milt you can get1 add so much water that the mixture remains slightly opalescent--say about equal in colour to a tablespoonful of milk mixed in a quart of water2 pour this into a deep dish or bowl1 large enough to hold the largest of your female ,trouts2 take one of these and put it into the water so prepared1 and gently squeeze the roe from it whilst the vent is immersed in the water4 #g ,do this as quickly as possible1 and return the fish into fresh water1 and then pour off the water containing the impregnated roe1 through a strainer1 carefully preserving it for the remaining fish1 and immediately return the roe into fresh spring or brook water4 ,repeat the operation for every female ,trout1 and you will then have a quantity of impregnated roe1 which if properly managed will hatch with great certainty4 ,have ready as many boxes as you are able to stock with spawn 7three feet long1 two feet broad1 and six inches deep74 ,fill them to the depth of two inches of river sand1 which ought to be previously so well washed that there is not a particle of mud left in it1 and upon that put two inches of river gravel1 also exceedingly well washed1 the pebbles varying in size from a hazel nut to a pigeon or pullet's egg4 ,these boxes must be so placed that the water from a spring will flow into the first1 and from the surface of that into the second1 and below the whole nest of boxes there ought to be a small reservoir made--say three yards by two and eighteen inches deep1 and well gravelled at the bottom4 ,all these matters having been previously arranged1 and the water flowing nicely over the gravel1 sprinkle the impregnated roe equally over the surface of the gravel1 say a quarter of a pint to each box1 and it will roll down into the interstices of the gravel and find a bed in which it will remain snugly until the spring1 when1 about ,march1 if all has been properly managed1 you will find1 on a careful examination1 that the young ,trout are coming to life by hundreds4 ,i am very particular in recommending spring rather than brook water1 for several reasons4 ,in the first place1 brooks are liable to be flooded1 and are sometimes so overcharged with sand and mud that the gravel in the spawning-boxes is completely choked with it and the spawn is lost1 as ,i know to my great and frequent disappointments4 ,at other times all is washed away together4 ,in the second place1 the gravel of brooks swarms with water-lice 7shrimps7 and the larvae of aquatic insects1 as well as bull-heads and loaches1 all of which prey upon the spawn of the ,trout and ,salmon4 ,in the third place1 if you put your spawning-boxes in a brook1 you will find it difficult to prevent the escape of the fry when hatched1 and you are left in doubt as to the success of your experiment4 ,with spring water all these inconveniences are avoided4 ,but if your watercourse should contain water-lice or aquatic larvae1 it is a very easy matter to destroy them before putting in your boxes1 with a little salt or quicklime4 ,it is also desirable to cover your spawning-boxes with a wire grating1 to exclude the light1 and to protect them in severe weather from the chance of being frozen4 ,when they begin to hatch1 open a communication between the boxes and the little reservoir below1 and if this communicates with a watercourse in which aquatic plants are growing1 so much the better4 ,the fry1 as soon as they are strong enough1 will make their way into this ditch1 and will find abundance of food among the water plants2 thence they ought to be able to make their way into the brook1 river1 or lake which it is intended to store with them4 ,all ducks1 wild and tame1 should be driven from this ditch1 or few of the ,trout will be allowed to find their way to their final place of destination4 ,these rules1 with some modification1 are applicable to the breeding of ,salmon as well as ,trout2 the only difference being in the mode of placing the female fish1 when obtaining the roe1 and the size of the gravel in which the spawn is deposited in the boxes4 ,the ,salmon is too large a fish to put into the vessels in which the diluted milt is placed1 but ,i think that she should be held by an assistant1 in such a manner that the tail and lower part of the body up to the vent are immersed in the water containing the milt4 ,and it is also very necessary to hold her firmly1 otherwise a large fish1 in the struggles which it makes to get free1 is apt to upset the vessel containing the milt1 and then the experiment is at an end1 at least for the time4 ,being held firmly by the assistant1 as above stated1 the belly of the fish must be gently pressed by the hands to promote the exclusion of the spawn1 which on exclusion must be gently stirred in the diluted milt1 to bring every grain into contact with it2 but the roe ought not to remain in contact with the milt a minute1 if it can sooner be got out1 as ,i have found that if the diluted milt be too strong1 or if the ova remain too long in contact with it1 they become opaque1 and never hatch at all1 apparently because they are over-impregnated4 ,in the ordinary way in which ,salmon and ,trout are bred1 the milt must be largely diluted with water1 and the contact between the milt and ova can only be momentary1 for the streams in which these fish spawn 7particularly the ,salmon7 are so rapid1 that the milt on exclusion must be carried away immediately4 ,there is another method1 which is preferred by ,ramsbottom1 to the one ,i have been describing1 and it is certainly less troublesome4 ,this is to take the ova from the female fish in the first place 7taking care to exclude the air from it1 by immersing the fish into water up to the vent71 and when all the roe has been collected into a large bowl or basin1 then mix the milt with it1 the same diluted in the proportion which has been before described1 namely1 until the water which covers the roe becomes lightly opalescent4 ,i am quite aware that there is another theory which assumes that impregnation takes place twelve months before the exclusion of the ova4 #h ,but a very careful and long continued examination of the spawning of minnows and lampreys 7,i have never been able closely to examine the spawning of ,salmon71 convinces me that it is not a correct one4 ,besides1 did any one ever succeed in hatching the ova of a fish which had not been allowed to come in contact with milt after exclusion8 ,if they have1 when1 where1 and how has this been accomplished1 and where is it recorded8 ,i know that ,i could never succeed1 although ,i have often tried the experiment4 ,on the other hand1 it is the easiest thing imaginable1 with due care and a suitable situation1 to hatch those which have been properly impregnated after exclusion4 ,but if1 to avoid argument1 ,i admit that this theory is correct1 it will not at all interfere with artificial breeding of ,trout and ,salmon2 on the contrary1 it will materially facilitate it4 ,it will only be necessary to catch female fish with the ova ready for exclusion1 and place these ova in clean gravel in a box1 as before described1 but there will be no occasion for males4 ,but supposing ,trout and ,salmon can be bred in this manner1 which ,i by no means believe1 there would be no means of breeding hybrids1 which ,i consider a far more important achievement1 and to which ,i will now refer4 ,ever since my attention was turned to the artificial breeding of fish1 it has always appeared to me exceedingly desirable and important to breed hybrids between the ,trout and the ,salmon4 ,the fry of the ,salmon1 which1 by-the-bye1 is perhaps the most delicately flavoured fish that exists in this country1 although it lives and thrives in fresh water for two or three years1 if kept in a locality where it cannot escape to the sea1 yet1 if kept longer than that time1 pines away and dies4 ,if1 therefore1 we could obtain a hybrid fish1 bred between the river ,trout and the ,salmon1 we should probably produce a fish which1 being a mule1 would be always in good condition2 being crossed with a river fish1 it would probably never require a visit to salt water to keep it in good health4 ,being crossed with a ,salmon1 it ought to get to a good size in a comparatively short period2 and1 if it would rise at the artificial fly1 or the minnow1 ought to afford first-rate sport to the angler4 ,there does not appear to be a greater specific difference between the ,trout and the ,salmon than there is between the horse and the ass1 between the mallard and the musk duck1 or between a cabbage and a turnip4 ,but hitherto1 in all my experiments1 ,i have never succeeded in producing a hybrid between the ,trout and the ,salmon4 #i ,yet ,i do not despair of doing so1 for there was always a something to complain of1 and to doubt about1 in every one ,i tried1 and ,i still think ,i shall succeed by perseverance4 ,even if ,i shall succeed1 the result may not prove quite so favourable as ,i anticipate1 but may turn out as unfortunately as the marriage of the gentleman in the story1 which relates that1 being good- tempered but ugly himself1 he married a handsome ill-tempered wife1 hoping that his children would have his good-temper and their mother's good looks2 but when they came1 they were as ugly as the father and as ill-tempered as the mother4 ,so it may prove with these hybrids--they may not always thrive in fresh water2 they may not grow to a good size2 they may not rise at the artificial fly2 they may be worthless for the table4 ,nevertheless1 it is desirable if possible that this should be ascertained4 ,the progeny of a male ,salmon and a female ,trout may be much better or much worse fitted for a continual residence in fresh water than the descendants of a male ,trout and a female ,salmon2 but this can only be determined by experiment4 ,dr4 ,lindley says1 in his introduction to the ,guide to the ,orchard1 that in the cross fertilization of fruits1 the seedlings always partake more of the character of the male than of the female parent4 ,but ,i believe that in breeding mules it is found more desirable that the father should be an ass than a horse4 ,in my poultry yard ,i breed hybrids between the musk duck and the common duck1 and ,i find that ,i have a much better progeny from the musk drake and the common duck than from the common drake and the musk duck4 ,in the latter cross1 although the males are fine birds1 the females are not larger than a widgeon1 and fly about almost like wild ducks4 ,this may not always be the case1 but it has proved so with me4 ,but to return to the fish4 ,if any gentleman who is interested in such matters will do me the honour to read this paper1 and wishes for further information on the subject1 ,i shall be happy to give it1 so far as ,i am able4 ,very sure ,i am that the sportsman who once fairly starts as a fly-fisher1 and is so fortunate as to hook a ,salmon or a large ,trout1 will thenceforward despise or lightly esteem corks and floats1 ground-bait and trimmers1 punts and ,perch fishing1 and will fairly wish them all exchanged for a nice stream well stocked with ,trout--as a gentleman lately said to me1 fly- fishing is a perfect infatuation6 ,he was quite right4 ,the extreme avidity with which it is followed by the thoroughly initiated1 can only be explained on that supposition2 to the casual observer1 there does not appear to be any strong excitement in it4 ,but that is a great mistake4 ,let me get to the bank of a river well stocked with ,trout in a good humour1 early in the morning1 and ,i feel neither hunger1 thirst1 nor fatigue if ,i fish until dark without tasting of anything4 ,and the excitement of hooking a ten or twelve pound ,salmon is not much inferior to that produced by a long run after the hounds4 ,i cannot conclude without calling the attention of all interested1 and who are able to render assistance in remedying the evil1 to the great falling off in the quantity of fish there is in all the ,salmon rivers in ,england4 ,with those in ,scotland and ,ireland ,i am not acquainted1 but believe that matters are not in a much better state there4 ,i believe that the unsatisfactory state of the laws has a great deal to do with this decline in the value of the fisheries1 and ,i also believe that it is quite possible so to alter the law as to very greatly improve them1 and that without improperly interfering with what is of far more importance--,i mean the manufactories of the country4 ,as the law stands at present the proprietors of the upper parts of rivers have not the slightest interest in the preservation of the fish in the breeding season1 for1 as they are seldom allowed to see a fish when it is fit for the table1 why should they look after the poachers in close time8 ,why should they be put to much expense and trouble1 as well as the risk of the lives of their game-keepers1 merely to breed fish for the proprietors of stake nets and estuary fisheries1 who don't spend a farthing in the preservation of the fish when breeding1 and yet reap all the benefit8 ,i had occasion1 some years ago1 to examine the evidence on this subject given before the ,house of ,commons in #ahbe1 and was exceedingly amused at the schemes resorted to to evade the law1 moderate and inefficient as was the law at that time4 7,since then the law has been altered both in ,scotland and ,ireland1 but ,i do not know what are the provisions1 nor what has been the effect of the new law47 ,it required that there should be a free passage for the fish 7,salmon7 through all the traps1 nets1 weirs1 and devices that were used to catch or detain them1 from sunset on ,saturday night to sunrise on ,monday morning4 ,one man said he paid ,l#g1jjj a year for his fishery1 and should lose one-seventh of his catch4 ,another said he allowed a free passage on ,sundays1 but would not permit anybody to go and examine for themselves4 ,a third proved that he allowed the fish a free passage on ,sundays1 but his neighbours proved that he placed in the gap a crocodile1 painted red4 ,and a fourth was convicted of breaking down the stake nets in the estuary of a river--at the same time he had a net stretched entirely across the river above1 both day and night4 ,and so with many others1 every one striving with all his might to kill the goose that laid the golden eggs4 ,this is not the way to improve the ,salmon fisheries4 ,to do this effectually the upper proprietors must have a strong interest in the preservation of the breeding of fish1 and in order to give them this interest they ought to have an ample supply of fish when they are in the best condition2 but to give them this supply the law ought to be altered4 ,at present ,i believe the law does not require a free passage for the fish 7at least in ,english rivers7 except from ,saturday night to ,monday morning2 in many of them ,i believe this is not insisted upon2 whereas the law ought to prohibit fishing for or obstructing the passage of the fish every night from sunset to sunrise1 and this regulation ought to be rigorously enforced4 ,this would give the upper proprietors a chance of having good fish1 and a corresponding inducement to take care of them4 ,nobody would be so much benefited as the owners of fisheries at the mouths of rivers2 they would be the first takers1 and would still get the lion's share of all the fish that ascended the river4 ,if this regulation were enforced1 the expenses of conservators might be defrayed by levying a small tax1 in the shape of a licence for angling1 which all true sportsmen would be glad to pay if it gave a reasonable prospect of a well-stocked river4 ,now matters are getting worse every day1 and notwithstanding the enormous fecundity of the ,salmon 7a large one producing #be1jjj ova in a season71 they are now extinct in some rivers where they used to be found in my recollection1 and in others where they were once abundant they are now very scarce4 ,no one need to wonder at this1 when he is told that gangs of poachers are on the look-out for them all through the spawning season4 ,in one winter1 some years ago1 ,i am credibly informed that two hundred ,salmon were taken in one stream within five hundred yards of the spot where ,i am now writing4 ,it is nobody's business and nobody's interest to prevent this1 and therefore it goes on openly night and day4 ,are there no influential gentlemen in the ,house of ,commons who will take up this matter and endeavour to get an equitable and comprehensive law passed for the preservation and increase of the breed of ,salmon8 ,it is a matter of even national importance1 and if duly provided for and properly attended to1 ,i see no improbability in the supposition that ,salmon would again be as abundant as they were when the apprentices on the banks of the ,ribble stipulated that they should not be compelled to eat ,salmon oftener than three days in the week4 ,the apathy of country gentlemen in this matter is to me unaccountable4 ,i have some reason to believe1 however1 that ,government have at all times been so far from lending their influence to the promotion of any attempts to amend these laws1 that they have obstructed rather than assisted them1 most probably from an idea that the preservation of the fish would interfere with manufactories4 ,if ,i thought that this would be the case1 ,i should not say a word on the subject2 but ,i am very far from holding such an opinion4 ,so far from this being the case1 ,i assert without hesitation that weirs need form no obstruction to the free passage of fish1 and that without impairing the efficiency of the water power4 ,with the poisonous and filthy mixtures sent by some manufactories down the rivers1 the case is far different1 and where this is done the case is hopeless4 ,salmon and ,trout will rapidly disappear from such rivers1 never to be seen there again1 so long as these noxious contaminations are permitted to flow into them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,artificial ,,breeding ,,of ,,fish4 ,,clitheroe1 ,december #bfth1 #ahec4 ,to the ,editor of the ,manchester ,guardian4 ,,sir1--,i have read with some interest the letter of your correspondent1 ,salmo ,salar1 on the artificial breeding of fish2 and knowing1 as ,i do1 the great interest which the writer feels in the preservation and increase of his namesakes1 ,i shall be most happy if my humble efforts in the same cause throw any more light on the same subject1 and in any degree contribute to the same end4 ,but ,mr4 ,salmo ,salar is quite wrong in saying that1 with the exceptions of the experiments made on the banks of the ,hodder1 by ,ramsbottom1 no efforts have been made to increase the number of ,salmon by providing artificial breeding-places4 ,passing over my own numerous experiments here for the last fourteen or fifteen years 7which you1 ,sir1 are aware of1 though the fishing world is not71 ,i may refer to the extensive experiments made by ,mr4 ,fawkes1 of ,farnley1 in #ahda and #ahdb1 and renewed again in #ahdh and #ahdi2 and the whole of which 7with the exception of a portion of these in #ahdb7 were successful4 ,the experiments of ,salmo ,salar were not made until #ahea and #aheb1 and were intended merely to test the accuracy of an assumption that the impregnation of the ova takes place long prior to their exclusion2 which experiments terminated in a complete failure4 ,salmo ,salar says that the quantity of ,salmon fry in the river is enormous2 and that he has caught five pounds of them in a single pool in a single day4 ,i have known three times that quantity caught in the same way4 ,but still this proves nothing at all1 for it is well known that almost all migratory animals1 however solitary their general habits may be1 are gregarious at the time of migration4 ,witness swallows1 fieldfares1 and even woodcocks4 ,witness also the clouds of small ,eels ascending the rivers in ,may and ,june2 and if we are to believe the accounts of travellers1 the enormous flocks of antelopes in ,africa1 and of bisons in ,america1 are proofs of the same general law4 ,no doubt ,salmo ,salar will find1 as he says1 that the ,samlets are exceedingly abundant in some of the pools1 when they have flocked together for the purpose of migration2 but he may perhaps travel for miles either up or down the river before he will find any more4 ,it is notorious that1 in the tributaries of the ,hodder1 they are walled in1 in many places1 for the purpose of detaining them1 that unscrupulous anglers may get as many of them as possible before they go to the sea4 ,salmo ,salar is in error also when he says that ,ramsbottom deposited #dj1jjj in the ponds of ,galway1 of which #bj1jjj are expected to be fruitful4 ,the fact is1 that he deposited #dj1jjj in ,december1 #aheb1 of which above #bj1jjj are now alive and in the ponds1 varying from four to five inches long to two or three1 notwithstanding that experiment was made under very unfavourable circumstances2 for there was so much mud in the stream that supplied the spawning-boxes1 that when ,ramsbottom left ,galway he was afraid all the ova would be choked by it4 ,salmo ,salar seems to think that almost all the ova deposited naturally come to life1 and that very few of those deposited artificially do so4 ,this1 however1 is quite contrary to my experience1 and ,i think that if ,salmo ,salar will listen to the evidence he will change his opinion4 ,it is well known that ,salmon are very fond of particular streams1 their instinct no doubt informing them which are suitable to their purpose2 and when one pair of fish have finished spawning1 another pair will come and occupy the same place4 ,now1 what takes place under such circumstances8 ,the ova which were deposited by the first pair are rooted up by the second1 and their specific gravity is so near that of the water1 that they roll down out of the loose gravel and are picked up by the ,trouts1 ,par1 and other fish that are always lying in wait just below for that purpose4 ,when ,ramsbottom was in ,galway he caught a large ,trout1 out of whose throat he squeezed a thousand ova1 which were deposited in a spawning-box1 many of which came to life notwithstanding the pit they had escaped from4 ,the extraordinary avidity with which ,trout take ,salmon roe as a bait is also a proof 7if that were needed7 of their preying upon it in the spawning beds4 ,yet1 in addition to them1 are all the ,par1 ,bullheads1 ,eels1 ,loaches1 and aquatic larvae which may be found swarming in every spawning bed by any one who will look for them4 ,in addition to these enemies1 millions of the ova are destroyed by being washed away by heavy floods1 and as many more are destroyed by being choked with mud and sand in the spawning beds as well as by being left dry at low water owing to the ,salmon spawning in places which frequently become quite dry in early spring4 ,no doubt many of the ,salmon fry when they have reached the sea are destroyed by enemies there1 of which we know nothing4 ,but still1 if #ejj1jjj are bred1 in addition to all that are reared naturally1 it will represent a larger proportion of the whole than ,salmo ,salar seems to suppose2 otherwise1 how is it that in rivers where ,salmon are protected1 or still more in unsettled countries1 the ,salmon are so numerous8 ,the ,salmon in the ,columbia river1 on the north-west coast of ,america1 are cast dead upon the shores by myriads after the spawning season1 and these are merely the fish dying from exhaustion1 as a small portion always do here4 ,how numerous1 then1 are those which ascend the river to spawn1 and go down again to the sea afterwards6 ,no doubt the grand object to be attained is to make ,salmon abundant1 and the most important step towards the attainment of this object will be to give an efficient protection to the spawning fish1 and the only way to do this effectually is to give the upper proprietors of rivers such an interest in the ,salmon fisheries as will make them worth attention4 ,at present this is far from being the case4 ,now the upper proprietors are merely considered as so many clucking hens1 whose business and whose duty it is to hatch ,salmon for the proprietors of fisheries at the mouths of rivers1 who do not in many cases spend a farthing in their protection when spawning1 and who grievously begrudge the upper proprietors every fish that is able to pass their nets and other engines of destruction4 ,let the upper proprietors of ,salmon rivers bestir themselves so to amend the law as to give them a chance of having a supply of ,salmon when they are in season4 ,they cannot and will not have a more efficient ally than ,salmo ,salar4 ,salmo ,salar is in my opinion quite right when he says that the fish kept in ponds will not be quite so well able to take care of themselves as fish which have been bred and lived all their lives in the river4 ,nor do ,i think that this is necessary for any longer period than until the young fry get rid of the umbilical vessel2 after which they are quite able to take care of themselves4 ,before that time they are scarcely able to move1 and thousands of them fall a prey1 not only to the other fish1 but to the larvae of aquatic insects which prey upon them very greedily4 ,as ,i happen to know from my own observations1 the larva of the stone fly 7,may fly of ,lancashire7 and those of all the larger ephemera 7drakes71 to say nothing of the fresh-water shrimps1 swarm in all the spawning beds1 and no doubt destroy myriads of the ova4 ,all these would be saved by proper precautions and well formed spawning-boxes1 with good supplies of spring water to feed them4 ,i think ,salmo ,salar has very greatly over-estimated the quantity of ,salmon fry that go down to the sea from the rivers4 ,he speaks of them going down by millions4 ,now we will take the river ,hodder as a river with which both ,salmo ,salar and myself are well acquainted1 and ,i will venture to say that1 so far is this an over-estimate1 that if he would take the hundredth part of the number he would be much nearer the truth4 ,the ,samlets when they go to the sea may be reckoned to weigh eight to the pound1 and two millions would at that rate weigh one hundred and ten tons4 ,does ,salmo ,salar think that one ton and a tenth of ,smolts go down the river ,hodder to the sea on an average of years8 ,i have more favourable means of judging of the quantity that go down the river ,ribble than ,i have of those of the ,hodder1 and ,i believe ,i should very greatly exaggerate their numbers if ,i estimated them at any such weight as a fourth of that quantity4 ,again1 the ,hodder and the ,ribble are1 in some respects1 far more favourable for spawning than many other rivers2 for partly owing to the country through which they pass1 and partly owing to the rapidity of their streams1 the gravel is large and very suitable for spawning in2 there is also far less mud and sand in them1 and the spawning beds are much less liable to be choked up than they are in many other rivers4 ,no doubt the ,salmon will make the best selection in their power1 but they can only select from such places as there are2 and if those are not suitable the ova must be in a great measure destroyed4 ,since ,ramsbottom returned from ,scotland he has visited the river ,dee1 about forty miles from ,chester1 and there he found the spawning beds 7ridds as ,salmo ,salar calls them7 silted up with mud and sand1 and the ova buried in them to the depth of eighteen inches4 ,how or when were the newly hatched fish 7supposing1 which is very improbable1 that they ever did hatch7 to make their escape from such a heap of filth8 ,it would be quite impossible4 ,in conclusion1 it seems desirable and quite necessary to say a few words as to the priority of discovery of this process of fish propagation4 ,the ,french claim it2 the ,irish seem to claim it2 the ,messrs4 ,ashworth take great credit for it2 and now ,salmo ,salar says he first suggested it4 ,allow me1 as there are so many claimants in the field1 to suggest one or two more4 ,in the year #ahcb1 without knowing that such a thing had ever been done or even thought of1 ,i made some experiments on the spawning of fish and the artificial impregnation of their ova1 which ,i communicated to ,loudon's ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 in which they appeared4 ,after that came the ,duke of ,buccleuch's game-keeper1 ,shaw1 whose experiments were both satisfactory and conclusive4 ,this was in #ahcf or #ahch4 ,then after my experiments at home1 ,i induced ,mr4 ,fawkes to take up the matter in #ahda1 and they were resumed in #ahdb1 and again in #ahdh and #ahdi1 both with ,salmon and ,trout4 ,it was at this period that ,ramsbottom came into the field4 ,at ,mr4 ,fawkes's request ,i instructed him in the art1 and sent him to ,farnley1 where he was perfectly successful2 and since then1 ,i believe he has had more experience and been more successful than any other propagator in the kingdom4 ,the principle of this system is very easily comprehended2 but success depends on many niceties of manipulation1 and much experience in judging whether the fish1 both male and female1 are in the proper condition for operating upon4 ,this experience is not gained without much practice4 ,this practice ,ramsbottom has in great perfection4 ,there is no doubt the artificial breeding of fish will be found exceedingly beneficial1 if properly carried out2 and ,i hope to see the time when ,salmo ,salar may catch half-a-dozen of his namesakes at ,whitewell1 any good day in the season4 ,i am1 ,sir1 ,yours very truly1 ,,thomas ,,garnett4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,artificial ,,breeding ,,of ,,fish--7,,continued74 ,,clitheroe1 #ith ,january1 #ahed4 ,to the ,editor of the ,manchester ,guardian4 ,,sir1--,as ,i believe that ,salmo ,salar is quite as desirous of increasing the breed of ,salmon as myself1 the controversy between us may be reduced to very narrow limits4 ,he believes that ,trout eat very few of the ,salmon ova1 and therefore cannot do much harm4 ,i will just mention a few facts which make me think otherwise4 ,when ,ramsbottom was in ,galway he caught in one night twenty-five ,trout on the spawning ground1 which had on the average not less than five hundred ova in each of their stomachs2 from one of their throats he squeezed a thousand4 ,as the net would not take a fish of less than two pounds1 how many had passed through it8 ,when he was at ,knowlmere1 in sweeping the river for spawning fish he caught nine ,par1 two ,trouts1 and a ,sprod on the spawning bed1 all of which were gorged with ,salmon spawn2 when he went into the brooks there he never found a pair of ,trout spawning without also finding a number of smaller fish behind1 some of which he caught1 and in all such cases found them gorged with roe up to the throat2 the male ,trout would occasionally drive them off1 but as soon as he returned to the female they were again close in the rear4 ,in the ,perthshire ,courier of the #bbnd ,december is the following statement3 ,the men employed in taking the breeding fish secured a ,whitling on ,tuesday about three-quarters of a pound1 and as they observed ,salmon ova coming out of his mouth he was brought to the office of ,mr4 ,buist for examination2 on being opened1 upwards of three hundred impregnated ,salmon ova were taken from his stomach quite undigested4 ,it may be1 therefore1 fairly presumed1 that this youngster had taken this quantity for his breakfast2 if he dined and breakfasted in the same style each day during the breeding season1 it is difficult to estimate the expense of his keep4 ,such is the amount of loss of impregnated roe in one morning from one trifling fish2 what must it be throughout the season from the various enemies it has to encounter8 ,salmo ,salar is facetious about the destruction of the roe by insects1 and says1 because an aquatic insect will devour a minnow's egg1 which is not as large as a pin's head1 we have no right to infer that it will devour that of a ,salmon1 which is as large as a pea2 it would be just as reasonable to suppose that because a wasp feasts upon a cherry1 or a strawberry1 therefore he will eat a turnip or a mangold wurtzel4 ,as he seems to have made a slip of the pen in naming the two last fruits1 allow me to supply what ,i suppose he meant to say1 which ,i presume was that because a wasp eats a cherry or a strawberry1 we must not therefore infer that he will either eat a pear or a plum2 if that is his meaning1 ,i think ,i can understand it4 ,if he adheres to his own version1 ,i would merely observe that there is no analogy in the two cases4 ,but the inference does not rest upon mere supposition2 the freshwater shrimps at ,knowlmere were seen devouring the ova in the spawning-boxes4 ,we have seen above that ,par eat ova as well as ,trout4 ,let us suppose that the millions of ,smolts 7as ,par7 have only one meal each of ,salmon roe1 and we will stint them to twenty ova apiece4 ,i fear that very few of the five millions which ,salmo ,salar says are deposited in the ,hodder will be left to grow into ,salmon4 ,in addition to these1 ducks1 both wild and tame1 eat them greedily4 ,when ,ramsbottom was in ,galway he saw that the tame ducks frequented the spawning ford1 and the superintendent bought one1 and found its crop quite full of ,salmon roe4 ,if this had been buried eighteen inches in the gravel 7as ,salmo ,salar suggests71 the duck would have had some difficulty in extracting it2 but so far as my experience goes1 it is not usually one-half that depth1 although this varies in different rivers4 ,then1 if one ,salmon is able to plough up gravel which is cemented together by sand and long continuance in one place1 why should not another be able to do the same when the gravel is loose and easily removed8 ,but there is another enemy whom ,salmo ,salar has not mentioned1 who does more harm than all the rest3 that is the poacher1 and ,i fear that many of the ,salmon which ,salmo ,salar saw spawning in the ,hodder and its tributaries have since then made a journey overland4 ,at all events1 ,i am credibly informed that in one season a gang of poachers took seventy ,salmon in the ,hodder4 ,is he sure they have taken none this season8 ,salmo ,salar seems to think that one pair of ,salmon will not spawn on the same ground1 which has been previously occupied by another pair2 but he has only to watch the same ridd for a week or two to be convinced he is mistaken4 ,as to fish refusing to spawn on new gravel1 ,i may state that when ,mr4 ,fawkes was making his experiments at ,farnley he put some new gravel into his brook1 and there were sixteen pairs of ,trout spawning on it the next morning4 ,salmo ,salar says that if he can have those simple checks which he enumerates to the present practices1 he will restore abundance of ,salmon to the ,ribble2 they are all very good in their way1 but do not go quite far enough1 and they would do very little good without a fourth1 namely1 protection from the poacher for the fish on the spawning beds4 ,until this can be given more efficiently than it is at present1 all the rest will be unavailing2 and until the upper proprietors can have a greater interest in the preservation of ,salmon than they now have1 they cannot be expected to give themselves much trouble on the subject4 ,my readers would not be much edified by strong assertion and counter-assertion of what ,trout do1 and what they cannot do2 nor is it probable that where we differ we should convince each other2 neither do ,i see any occasion for personality1 when both parties are actuated by the same motives--a desire to see the ,salmon fisheries restored to a state of great prosperity4 ,i therefore avoid noticing some of ,salmo ,salar's remarks1 which seem to me a little tinged with this spirit1 and hope we shall be able to act in concert for the attainment of that desirable result4 ,salmo ,salar will find that the number of ,smolts is not always determined by the quantity of ova deposited3 if he will examine the bed of the ,hodder the next low water1 he will find many of the ridds disturbed by the ice floods of yesterday2 and if he doubts this1 ,i shall be happy to examine them along with him1 if he will give me previous notice of his intention4 ,since the above was written ,i have seen ,ramsbottom1 who tells me that the stream in the ,tay1 where he caught the whole of the fish from which he obtained #cjj1jjj to #djj1jjj ova1 was on one side of it one continuous ridd1 and that the fish could not avoid ploughing up the gravel which previous fish had spawned in1 and at ,oughterard1 where #cjj pairs of fish spawned in the same number of yards1 it was the same2 and they found thousands of ova buried so deep that they were rotting in great quantities4 ,with regard to what ,salmo ,salar says about the infrequency of a veritable spawning bed being washed away by floods1 ,i refer him to what ,i have said previously2 but ,ramsbottom tells me the game- keeper at ,harden 7,haworth7 will be able to give him sufficient proof that in the ,langden ,brook this has occurred1 as he found the ova on the dry land by thousands1 which had been left there by the flood4 ,when ,ramsbottom was at ,perth he found on one of the fords1 a space of twenty yards long and fourteen yards wide1 filled with ridds1 which was entirely left dry4 ,what would become of all the spawn deposited there8 ,salmo ,salar seems to think nature is quite sufficient to take care of her own interests without our interference1 and that without some counter-acting influence to keep the breed of fish in check1 the river would not hold all that would be bred4 ,i quite agree with him in this1 provided nature had fair play2 but she has not1 and occasionally needs a little help3 else why do we employ game- keepers to trap cats1 foxes1 and weasels1 to shoot hawks1 carrion crows1 and magpies1 and to breed pheasants1 as well as to prevent poaching8 ,if these precautions are unnecessary1 why go to such expense8 and if they are necessary for hares and birds1 may they not be also for fish8 ,i hope ,salmo ,salar will investigate what ,i said about walling in of the ,smolts in ,langden ,brook4 ,i fancy he may have seen these enclosures himself2 at all events1 ,i have1 and although ,i cannot prove they were erected for that purpose1 ,i do not doubt the accuracy of my information4 ,i am1 ,sir1 ,yours very truly1 ,,thomas ,,garnett4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following letter was sent to me from ,chester3-- ,,chester1 #crd ,february1 #ahed4 ,,sir1--,we are about to make application to ,parliament for a ,commission of ,inquiry into the state of laws respecting the fisheries of ,england and ,wales4 ,and ,mr4 ,ashworth1 of ,poynton1 has been so good as to refer me to you1 as able and willing to furnish us with information on the subject4 ,the annual meeting of the river ,dee fishery association will be held on the #bjth instant1 when ,i purpose to lay before them the draft of a petition to ,parliament for their approval4 ,i am anxious in the meantime to obtain all the information possible relative to the working of the present laws1 their defects1 and the alterations to be proposed in them1 in order that a condensed statement may be embodied in the petition as the ground of our application4 ,i should be exceedingly obliged for any remarks your experience may suggest1 and trust you will accept the cause which dictates my writing as a sufficient apology for troubling you on the subject4 ,i have had great pleasure in reading your able replies to ,salmo ,salar's letters4 ,on the appearance of the first1 ,i was strongly prompted to reply to it myself1 but rejoiced to find him in much better hands4 ,i remain1 ,sir1 ,yours very truly1 ,,william ,,ayrton4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,clitheroe1 #dth ,february1 #ahed4 ,,to ,,wm4 ,,ayrton1 ,,esq4 ,,dear ,,sir1--,i am favoured with your letter of yesterday1 and shall be glad to give you any information ,i may possess on the habits of ,salmon1 or the requirements of any act of ,parliament necessary for the preservation and increase of this valuable fish4 ,being a mill- owner1 ,i have interests which are supposed to clash with those of fish preservers2 but ,i hope to be able to show that all mill- owners are able to give a passage over their weirs at all times when the fish are inclined to run2 that is1 when there are freshes in the river4 ,i say this the more confidently1 as ,i believe the works here are the largest in ,england for the power of the stream they stand upon1 and ,i find it necessary to employ #aej horse-power of steam4 ,yet ,i find from a careful register1 which has been kept here since the year #ahch1 that we are able1 without interfering with the efficiency of the water power1 to give the fish a passage over the weir #aha days1 or part of days1 annually1 and this at times when alone they are disposed to avail themselves of such a passage--that is in floods4 ,the suggestions that occur to me from time to time ,i will not fail to send you4 ,at present the following seem to me to be essential1 to give efficacy to any ,act of ,parliament framed for the purpose of preserving and increasing the breed of ,salmon1 for without some such provisions the gentlemen on the upper parts of rivers will have no inducement to exert themselves in the matter4 ,first4--,no nets or other engines1 except rod and line1 should be used for taking fish from six o'clock at night to six o'clock in the morning1 and all fish should be allowed a free passage up the stream every night when this does not destroy or impair the efficacy of the water power4 ,second4--,no mill-owner nor his servants1 nor any other person1 should be allowed to take fish at his weir1 or within fifty yards of it4 ,third4--,conservators should be allowed to go into all wheel-races1 wheel-houses and tail-goits1 and also upon all lands on the banks of ,salmon rivers1 as well as inspect all cruives1 weirs1 c41 without being deemed guilty of trespass4 ,fourth4--,all weirs kept solely for fishing purposes1 cruives1 c41 should be compelled to give a free passage to the fish every night from six o'clock to six o'clock in the morning2 and any obstruction placed in the gap calculated to hinder or frighten the fish back1 should be deemed breaches of the ,act of ,parliament and liable to a penalty4 ,fifth4--,all nets and other devices for catching ,eels should be prohibited in ,april1 ,may1 and ,june4 ,sixth4--,close time should be altered and extended1 as well as made uniform1 in all rivers4 ,seventh4--,the sale and use of ,salmon roe should be prohibited4 ,eighth4--,justices should be enabled to assist the passage of fish over weirs by any contrivance which did not impair their stability nor the efficiency of the water power4 ,ninth4--,all cruives should be formed of vertical bars1 and should have the intervening spaces to measure not less than three inches4 ,tenth4--,no nets used in a ,salmon river should measure in the mesh less than two inches and a half from knot to knot4 ,eleventh4--,any person having no right of fishing found with a net in his possession or a ,salmon out of season1 should be guilty of misdemeanour4 ,twelfth4--,a ten shillings' licence for angling for ,salmon4 ,the reasons for most of these suggestions will be obvious to you1 but there are some which may not be so2 ,i will therefore give a short comment on such4 ,third and fourth4--,the conservators shall have the right to inspect all wheel-races1 cruives1 c41 to see they are properly regulated1 and also to see that no contrivance is used to drive the fish back4 ,in the evidence given before the ,house of ,commons in #ahbe1 it was proved that the lessee of a fishery in ,scotland used to place a crocodile painted red in the king's gap1 which the law compelled him to give from ,saturday night till ,monday morning4 ,fifth4--,the prohibition to set ,eel nets in ,april1 ,may1 and ,june is to prevent the destruction of ,smolts when going down to the sea4 ,seventh4--,salmon are destroyed here when spawning chiefly for the sake of the roe4 ,if a man were fined for selling it or having it in his possession1 this inducement would be weakened4 ,eleventh4--,there is the same reason for seizing the net of the black fisher that there is for seizing the snare of the poacher1 and if the latter can be convicted for having hares or snares in his possession1 ,i do not see why the former should not for having nets and ,salmon4 ,a meeting of the gentlemen interested in the fisheries of the ,ribble and the ,hodder will be held on ,friday1 the #agth instant1 previous to which time ,i should be glad of your criticism4 ,i am1 dear ,sir1 ,yours very truly1 ,,thomas ,,garnett4 ,p4,s4--,it occurs to me since closing my letter that ,i have forgotten one important provision required in any new ,act of ,parliament--namely1 protection to the ,smolts in their downward migration4 ,here the pools are swept with small meshed trammel nets of all the fish that they contain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,artificial ,,propagation ,,of ,,fish4 ,,clitheroe1 #bcrd ,april1 #ahfc4 ,to the ,editors of the ,leeds ,mercury4 ,,gentlemen1--,i am somewhat at a loss to understand the object of ,mr4 ,horsfall's letter on this subject which appears in the ,mercury of to-day4 ,if he means that fish hatched by this process are as much at the mercy of their natural enemies as they are in their natural spawning beds ,i differ from him entirely2 but if he means that there is no good in breeding migratory fish like ,salmon1 when the obstacles to their return in the shape of stake nets1 impassable weirs1 and poisonous waters are so numerous as they are at present in many rivers 7the ,wharfe and the ,aire are examples of both71 ,i entirely agree with him4 ,let us consider both suppositions1 for the more this subject is ventilated the more likely is good to arise from the discussion4 ,i think ,mr4 ,horsfall is entirely wrong in the first supposition1 for the following reasons3 ,by artificial propagation the young fish escape all damage from floods1 and particularly ice floods1 which scoop out all the loose gravel from the spawning beds1 which are frequently entirely carried away by these floods4 ,they escape all danger from drought1 which in some rivers is almost as bad1 there being now several mounds of dry gravel in my length of the ,ribble which were spawning grounds last ,december4 ,they escape being destroyed as ova by ,trout1 ,eels1 ,bullheads1 ,loaches1 the larva of aquatic insects1 ducks 7wild and tame71 water rats1 and water shrews4 ,the last are said to be destructive to the spawn2 but this ,i do not vouch for1 as these two last-mentioned animals have not come under my own observation as devourers of spawn4 ,with regard to the #ejj ,salmon ova said to have been taken from the stomach of a ,trout1 ,ramsbottom is the authority for it1 only he says there were nearer #a1jjj than #ejj1 and he took them from the maw of a large lake ,trout at ,oughterard1 when netting the spawning ,salmon for his artificial propagation4 ,when ,ramsbottom was fish breeding for ,mr4 ,peel the year after he first went to ,ireland for that purpose1 he went into the brooks at night with a light4 ,he never found a pair of spawning fish without also finding several waiters on ,providence in the shape of small ,trout1 which were picking up the ova that descended the streams towards them4 ,several of these he caught1 and they were perfectly gorged with spawn4 ,with regard to the ducks1 ,ramsbottom is again my authority4 ,he found that a flock of tame ducks frequented the spawning beds at ,oughterard2 he bought one for the purpose of ascertaining whether they eat spawn or not1 and he found its crop quite full of spawn4 ,with regard to the aquatic larvae of insects1 ,mr4 ,horsfall may easily satisfy himself that they destroy spawn if he will turn some into an artificial spawning bed4 ,one of my friends failed to hatch his ,trout ova because he could not keep out the fresh-water shrimps4 ,mr4 ,horsfall seems to think that nature would be sufficient to take care of her own interests if man did not step in to aid her endeavours2 but if he is a sportsman he no doubt has a game- keeper1 who not only preserves the ground from poachers1 but traps cats and weasels1 shoots hawks1 magpies and carrion crows1 breeds tame pheasants1 and generally looks to the well being of the game without trusting to the efforts of unassisted nature4 ,let us take the second supposition1 that there is no good in artificial propagation when the fish which are sent to the sea can never come back again by reason of insurmountable obstacles4 ,if ,mr4 ,horsfall means this he is quite right2 there is no good in the upper proprietors of ,salmon rivers becoming brood hens for the owners of fisheries at the mouths of rivers or the proprietors of impassable weirs1 who take all the fish which get to the foot of these weirs4 ,i quite agree with ,mr4 ,horsfall that it is in most cases easy to build practicable fish passes1 and at a slight expense1 if people were willing to do so2 but ,i wish to show that notwithstanding the boasted effects of the ,act of #ahfa1 the upper riparian proprietors have not a sufficient inducement to build fish passes1 and will not do so unless the expense can be made very moderate indeed4 ,i will take the river ,ribble to illustrate my meaning4 ,as a general rule we have no fresh run ,salmon until ,may1 and the upper proprietors are supposed to have a sufficient share of the fish that ascend the stream if the owners of the fisheries in the estuary and the tidal part of the river cease to net from six o'clock on the ,saturday night to six o'clock on the ,monday morning4 ,that is a day and a half per week4 ,the fishing for ,salmon 7except angling7 ceases on the #cast of ,august1 and from the #ast of ,may to the #cast of ,august there are #abc days4 ,call the period eighteen weeks1 which gives us twenty-seven days during which time the ,salmon have liberty to pass to the upper parts of the river4 ,but on the average of seasons1 owing to droughts1 the rapid absorption of moisture by vegetation1 and the great evaporation1 there is no fresh water to enable the fish to ascend during two- thirds of that time4 ,every one who knows anything of the habits of ,salmon is aware that they never ascend the rivers from the estuary unless there is a fresh in the river2 and1 as ,i said before1 on the average of seasons there is no fresh for two-thirds of the time from ,may to ,august4 ,this reduces the twenty-seven days 7which are supposed to feed the upper proprietors with ,salmon to repletion7 to nine days1 and these nine days are expected to stock the river and its tributaries for one hundred miles4 ,it is true ,i have not taken into consideration the privileges which the upper proprietors have of angling to the #ast of ,november2 but besides the fact that the fish are then full of spawn1 and ought not to be killed at all1 very few rise at the fly1 and when they are taken they can neither be sold nor used by any one who knows what a fresh ,salmon is4 ,it is a greater crime against public polity to kill a spawning ,salmon than it is to steal a sheep2 for1 supposing it produces #aj1jjj ova1 and one in a hundred returns as a ,salmon1 it returns from a place 7the sea7 where it has cost nothing in rent1 taxes1 or superintendence1 and1 in the finest condition imaginable1 it invites us to take it4 ,mr4 ,horsfall and ,i both wish for the same results 7rivers swarming with fish71 and although we may somewhat differ as to details1 ,i have no doubt both would be glad to see public attention directed to these matters rather more than it is at present4 ,if ,mr4 ,horsfall will do me the honour to come and see me1 ,i will show him an efficient fish-pass which has been in operation forty years4 ,it may suggest some ideas to him1 and he may be able to suggest some improvements in it which ,i should be glad to receive4 ,i am1 ,gentlemen1 ,your obedient ,servant1 ,,thomas ,,garnett4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,low ,,moor1 #dth ,january1 #ahfe4 ,,dear ,,sir1--,as ,i believe ,mr4 ,eden1 the ,commissioner of ,salmon fisheries1 is visiting various districts connected with ,salmon rivers in ,england and ,wales1 with a view of explaining the proposed alterations and additions to the bill of #ahfa1 and as ,i think from what ,i have learnt that the proposed alterations and additions will not be satisfactory to the upper proprietors of ,salmon rivers1 ,i wish to call your attention to the matter1 that1 if he should come into this district1 the gentlemen interested may be able to point out to him how far these alterations are from meeting their wishes4 ,supposing that the new bill 7as published in the ,field newspaper1 and explained and commented on by ,mr4 ,eden7 is to be understood as a government measure and one in which they will allow of no alterations1 ,i maintain that it is very objectionable both from what it omits and what it purposes to do4 ,to begin with the former1 or1 in other words1 to take the recommendations of the ,worcester meeting as the groundwork of new legislation1 it does not touch on several of them2 they were1 so far as ,i remember 7for ,i have no memoranda to refer to7 an extension of the weekly and annual close time--minimum penalties3 --a close time for ,trout1 and a right of way on the banks of ,salmon rivers for all water-bailiffs1 duly appointed1 without their being deemed guilty of trespass2 and a tax on fishery nets and implements1 for the purpose of defraying the expenses of protection4 ,now1 so far as ,i understand the bill as proposed1 the only one of these recommendations included in it is the tax4 ,i am wrong in this--the taxation is not included in the bill1 but was suggested by ,mr4 ,eden at the meeting he attended lately at ,chester4 ,the bill proposes that the choice of conservators shall be vested in the magistrates at quarter sessions1 and the conservators shall have power to expend all the funds raised by voluntary subscriptions for certain purposes mentioned in the act4 ,but ,mr4 ,eden suggested at ,chester that if these funds were inadequate the conservators should have the power of supplementing them by a rate on the owners and lessees of fisheries in proportion to their extent4 ,now one man may have an estate on the banks of a river extending for miles from which he derives little or no revenue2 while another may have a fishery not extending more yards than the other does miles1 but from which he derives a revenue of as many pounds as the other does pence4 ,if ,mr4 ,eden's meaning is lineal extent1 ,i feel very sure it will not meet with the approval of the upper riparian proprietors4 ,again1 why should the magistrates in quarter sessions 7nine-tenths of whom know nothing of ,salmon or ,salmon rivers7 choose the conservators8 ,what1 for instance1 would the magistrates meeting at ,wakefield know of the ,ribble or the ,hodder8 ,what would they care about the matter8 ,they would choose the men who had power to tax the riparian proprietors and lessees2 but as they would not be taxed themselves1 they would look on with great composure4 ,no2 if we are to be taxed1 let us tax ourselves1 and not leave it to those who will have no interest in the matter1 and who may involve us in litigation and expense over which we shall have no control4 ,the recommendations of the ,worcester committee deserved more consideration on the part of ,government4 ,they were suggested by men of great experience1 and1 moreover1 unless they are adopted and legalized by ,parliament there can be no permanent prosperity for ,salmon rivers4 ,take the extension of close time as an instance4 ,it cannot be right that the owners or lessees of estuary fisheries shall be allowed to take ninety per cent4 of the fish which they have neither bred nor fed1 and whose well-being and increase they have done nothing to promote2 while the upper proprietors1 on whom devolve all the care1 trouble1 and expense1 are to rest satisfied with what the thirty-six hours per week can give them4 ,what did they give the upper proprietors on the ,ribble and the ,hodder last season8 ,little or nothing4 ,when the bill of #ahfa was before the ,house of ,commons1 ,i had an opportunity of suggesting 7indirectly7 to the late ,sir ,george ,cornewall ,lewis the propriety and desirableness of an extension of the weekly close time for the benefit of the upper proprietors4 ,he replied1 ,you might as well propose to restrict the shooting of partridges to three days a week as to restrict the netting of ,salmon4 ,but with all due deference to so great an authority1 there is no analogy between the two cases4 ,if partridges had all to migrate and return before they could be legally shot1 and had1 like the ,salmon1 all to return by the same road1 ninety per cent4 of them before reaching the district where they were reared would become the prey of men who had neither bred nor fed them4 ,i fancy sportsmen would want protection for them2 and if they were not able to obtain it1 they would do what is seriously proposed by many people with regard to the ,salmon--they would do all they could to exterminate them1 rather than continue to act as brood hens to hatch chickens for other men's eating4 ,then take the annual close time and the pretended compensation it offers in the two months' rod-fishing 7,september and ,october74 ,after the nets have been withdrawn1 what is it worth8 ,or1 what is the value of black fish full of spawn8 ,they cannot be sold2 they are not fit to eat2 the spawn has nearly arrived at maturity1 and the only value the fish has is in the spawn1 which is potted and sold in many instances by the poacher who kills the fish4 ,he deserves no other name1 whatever may be his rank or station4 ,again1 in the #bast section1 regulating the weekly close time1 it is enacted ,that any person acting in contravention of this section shall forfeit all the fish taken by him1 and any net or movable instrument used by him in taking the same1 and1 in addition thereto1 shall incur a penalty of not exceeding five pounds1 and a further penalty of not exceeding one pound for each fish4 ,but in the #agth section1 which regulates the annual close time1 though there is a penalty for the contravention and forfeiture of the ,salmon so taken1 there is no forfeiture of nets and implements4 ,you will no doubt remember how this worked when the watchers took a net and boat1 near ,preston1 last season1 after the setting in of the annual close time4 ,how the owner of the net and boat came to claim them1 on the pretence that the net had been stolen from the bank1 where it had been left to dry1 although his own men were the parties who were so illegally using them4 ,minimum penalties4--,i see no mention of them in the new bill1 although it is notorious that many magistrates have fined convicted poachers in the penalty of a farthing or a shilling4 ,what is this but an encouragement to do so again8 ,close time for ,trout4--,this is greatly needed in ,salmon rivers1 as it is well known that many a poacher pretends to be fishing for ,trout when he is looking after ,salmon4 ,this is doubly needed when the ,salmon ascend the small tributaries to spawn4 ,the right of way for water bailiffs4--,there is no clause or section in the new bill giving the right of way on the banks of ,salmon rivers to duly authorized persons without their being deemed guilty of trespass4 ,but there is one by which they are permitted to examine weirs4 ,there is on my part no objection to this examination1 but why are millowners stigmatized by being subjected to exceptional legislation8 ,are not the gamekeepers of gentlemen who have many miles of river subject to no surveillance on the part of the water bailiffs as likely to act illegally as the servants of the millowners8 ,let both be watched with equal care1 and ,i do not mind how vigilant the watching may be2 but ,i do object to being made the object of special and exceptional legislation4 ,the tax ought to be upon nets and rods and other implements in proportion to their value4 ,but if a tax is laid on the extent of the fishery1 we may bid adieu to voluntary subscriptions4 ,in conclusion1 if ,mr4 ,eden comes into this district1 ,i think it ought to be distinctly intimated to him that no bill would be satisfactory to the upper proprietors which did not give them a greater interest in the increase and improvement of rivers4 ,there are three ways of doing this4 ,the mesh of the ,salmon net might be enlarged from eight to twelve inches round4 ,this would allow grilse to pass1 and fill the river with breeding fish4 ,or1 secondly1 the weekly close time might be extended so as to include ,friday as well as ,saturday afternoon and ,sunday4 ,or1 thirdly1 the annual close time for net and rod fishing might commence a month earlier than at present2 say net fishing to close on the #ast of ,august1 and rod fishing on the #ast of ,october4 ,any of these measures would give the upper proprietors a much better supply of fish than they now have4 ,they all1 ,i think1 deserve consideration4 ,one thing at least is certain1 that unless the upper proprietors have a better share of the fish than they have at present1 they will soon cease to take an interest in their preservation4 ,to ,colonel ,j4 ,wilson ,patten1 ,m4,p4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,low ,,moor1 #ajth ,january1 #ahfe4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir1--,i shall be very glad if ,i can induce you to read my opinions on the ,salmon question4 ,it is one which ,i think may become of even national importance1 if properly managed4 ,but the sad tinkering it has hitherto received in the nine hundred and ninety-nine ,acts of ,parliament wholly or partly devoted to the subject makes me almost hopeless about future legislation4 ,yet it seems to me that the only way to greatly increase the breed of ,salmon is so simple and obvious1 that its not having been adopted long since can only be accounted for by supposing that all the parties interested in the matter are like the man in the fable1 who killed the goose that laid the golden eggs4 ,hitherto the law has never properly recognized the claims of the upper riparian proprietors4 ,these men have all the trouble and expense of rearing and protecting the young fish1 whilst the owners of estuary fisheries1 men who never lift a hand nor spend a penny in taking care of the brood1 take above ninety per cent4 of the grown ,salmon when in season2 and even then think they are hardly used4 ,how can it be expected that the upper proprietors should be very earnest in their protection of fish from which they derive little or no benefit1 merely acting the part of brood hens and hatching the chickens for the benefit of other people8 ,in ,june1 #agfi1 #c1chd ,salmon and ,salmon ,trout were taken at a single haul of the net in the ,ribble1 near ,penwortham4 ,now the sea is as wide1 and1 for anything we know to the contrary1 as capable of feeding them as it was a hundred years ago2 and the rivers are as capable of breeding and rearing them now as they were at that time2 and therefore ,i do not see why1 if proper steps were taken1 they should not be as abundant now as they were then4 ,if we take a sheep or a bullock1 and to his first cost add the rent of the land on which he has pastured1 and something for insurance and interest on capital1 the transaction is not a very profitable one in the long run4 ,but in the case of the ,salmon1 we send a little fish down to the sea which is not worth a penny1 and he remains there1 paying neither rent nor taxes1 neither gamekeepers' nor bailiffs' wages1 costing nothing to anyone1 until he returns to the river1 worth ten or twenty shillings1 as the case may be4 ,surely this is a branch of the public wealth that deserves sedulous cultivation4 ,i think with you that the ,calder can never become a ,salmon river1 so long as manufactories flourish on its banks1 and it is not desirable that it ever should become so at their expense2 but even in the ,calder 7and its tributaries7 a little care would prevent immense mischief4 ,some people at ,church1 a few years ago1 very carelessly pushed a quantity of poisonous matter into the ,hyndburn brook1 and the first thunderstorm that followed carried it down the ,calder into the ,ribble1 and poisoned all the fish between ,calder foot and ,ribchester4 ,take another instance of carelessness in the ,ribble1 the emptying of the gas-holder tank at ,settle1 which when turned into the river killed nearly all the fish between that town and ,mitton4 ,several other instances occur to me1 but these two are sufficient to show the great mischief occasioned by avoidable neglect and carelessness4 ,such mischief should not be perpetrated with impunity4 ,the act of #ahfa was very good as far as it went1 notwithstanding some oversights2 but it did not go far enough4 ,it did not give to the upper riparian proprietors such an interest in the fish as they are entitled to1 nor is the interest they now have sufficient to induce them to exert themselves in the preservation and increase of the ,salmon as they might and would do if such additional stimulus were given to them4 ,the law now is1 that no nets shall be used in the taking of ,salmon between twelve o'clock at noon on ,saturdays1 and six o'clock on ,monday mornings4 ,that is1 forty-two hours per week4 ,but in the ,ribble1 as a rule1 we never see seasonable ,salmon until ,may4 ,now from that time to the #ast of ,september1 is1 say sixteen weeks1 and at forty-two hours per week 7the length of the weekly close time7 this gives twenty-eight days during which time the fish may pass up the river without interruption2 but this is by no means the true state of the case4 ,everyone conversant with the habits of ,salmon knows that they never ascend rivers except when they are in a state of flood2 and in average summers1 partly owing to droughts1 and partly to the rapid evaporation and absorption of moisture by vegetation1 these twenty-eight days may fairly be reduced by two-thirds1 to give the true time allowed for the ascent of the fish4 ,but say ten days1 which are supposed to give an adequate supply of fish to a hundred miles of river1--the extent of the ,ribble and its ,salmon-breeding tributaries4 ,is it surprising that the upper proprietors are not satisfied with this state of things8 ,it would be surprising if they were content with such a cheeseparing allowance4 ,when the bill of #ahfa was before the ,house of ,commons1 ,i had an opportunity 7indirectly7 of suggesting to the late ,sir ,george ,cornewall ,lewis the propriety of a considerable extension of the weekly close time4 ,he replied1 ,you might as well propose to shoot partridges only three days a week1 as to restrict the netting of ,salmon to only three days4 ,with all due deference to such an authority1 there is no analogy between the two cases4 ,but if partridges had all to migrate and return before they could be legally shot1 and had1 like ,salmon1 to come by one road1 and if1 like them1 ninety per cent4 of them became the prey of men who had neither bred nor fed them1 ,i fancy the sportsman who reared them would want some restrictions placed on their being shot by men who had not spent a farthing in breeding and protecting them1 but who took the lion's share in their appropriation4 ,i saw ,lord ,derby on the subject last spring4 ,he had1 however1 so little time at his disposal that he could only give me a few minutes4 ,he said a good deal must be allowed for vested interests4 ,i said1 ,my ,lord1 ,i am a manufacturer4 ,when the ,ten ,hours ,bill was passed1 manufacturers were deprived of one-sixth of their fixed capital at a stroke1 and had not a farthing allowed for their vested interests2 nay1 more1 that measure involved the destruction of machinery which had cost millions4 ,all this was done on grounds of public policy4 ,and is not the ,salmon question one of public policy8 ,if1 as ,i suppose1 the measure ,i advocate produced a great increase in the breed of ,salmon1 the estuary fisheries would be the first to profit by it4 ,they are the first on the river4 ,indeed1 the stake nets in the estuaries are taking fish daily in times of drought1 when fish will not ascend the river at all4 ,in #ahei we had not a fresh in the river between the #ajth of ,april and the #ast of ,august4 ,and last year we had only a few days of flood between the beginning of ,may and the #cast ,august1 when close time 7for nets7 commences4 ,i have said above that only ten days per year are allowed for the supply of fish to the upper proprietors4 ,i may be told that they have two months 7,september and ,october7 in which they are allowed to angle for them4 ,true1 but what are they worth8 ,they are not allowed to be sold1 they are not fit to eat1 the fish are black 7or red71 the milt and spawn nearly at maturity1 and the only temptation they offer is to the poacher 7who often pots the roe as a bait for ,trout72 and he is a poacher1 whatever his rank or station1 who will kill an ,october fish when full of spawn4 ,last year1 at my suggestion1 a meeting of gentlemen interested in ,salmon fisheries was convened at ,worcester1 during the meeting there of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 and a number of suggestions were made1 and resolutions were come to1 which were intended to serve as a basis for the desired alterations in the ,salmon ,bill of #ahfa4 ,i have no memoranda to which ,i can now refer1 but the most important1 according to my recollection1 were the following3--,the extension of the weekly close time2 the annual close time to be extended to ,trout2 a right to be given to all conservators and water-bailiffs1 duly appointed1 to pass along the banks of ,salmon rivers without being deemed guilty of trespass2 a tax on fishing-nets1 rods1 and implements1 to defray the expenses of protecting the rivers from poachers4 ,the ,commissioner of ,salmon ,fisheries1 ,mr4 ,eden1 has been convening meetings of gentlemen interested in ,salmon rivers at ,chester1 ,conway1 ,york1 and various other places1 to explain the provisions of the bill which ,government introduced at the end of last session and intend to bring forward again4 ,i have not attended any of these meetings1 but expect he will be at ,whalley or ,preston shortly1 when we shall hear what he has got to say4 ,the new bill1 as printed last year1 does not embody any of the suggestions of the ,worcester meeting2 but as ,i learn from private sources1 ,mr4 ,eden1 at the various meetings he has lately attended1 has thrown out various suggestions1 some of which are highly objectionable4 ,for instance1 he suggests that the magistrates in quarter sessions assembled shall have the power to appoint conservators1 and that the conservators shall have the power to expend all the money raised by subscription in having water-bailiffs to put up fish- ladders1 commencing actions at law in certain cases2 and if the subscriptions are not adequate to defray all these expenses1 that they 7the conservators7 shall have the power to levy a rate in aid on the riparian proprietors4 ,i cannot see how this can be made to work equitably4 ,if the rate be laid on the extent of frontage to the river1 one man may have a great extent of no value for fishing purposes1 another may have only one pool1 so conveniently formed and placed for netting that he will be able to catch ten times as many fish as the other4 ,then how are the fisheries in the estuary and just above tideway to be valued8 ,they probably take ninety per cent4 of all the seasonable fish4 ,will they be willing to pay ninety per cent4 of the rate8 ,again1 the college at ,stonyhurst claims a right of several fishery1 both in the ,ribble and the ,hodder4 ,that is1 they exercise a right to fish in both rivers1 where they have no land1 and they exercise this right so freely that they take more fish than all the other upper proprietors added together4 ,if1 then1 the tax is laid on the extent of frontage to the rivers1 these reverend gentlemen would escape entirely1 so far as the right of several fishery extends1 and would only pay the rate on their own extent of frontage4 ,again1 the new bill does not embody the suggestions of the ,worcester meeting as to the right of way for the water-bailiffs2 but according to ,mr4 ,eden's comment upon it at ,chester and elsewhere1 a strict surveillance is to be kept on weirs1 to which the water-bailiffs are to have free access4 ,personally ,i have no objection to this1 provided the water-bailiffs are allowed free access to the banks of the river elsewhere2 but ,i have a strong objection to be made the subject of offensive exceptional legislation4 ,are not gamekeepers as likely to need looking after as mill-owners8 ,again1 the bill does not touch on minimum penalties4 ,this it ought to do1 for in some districts 7,wales1 for instance7 there is a strong animus against all attempts at preserving the ,salmon1 and notorious poachers1 duly convicted of offences against the act of #ahfa1 in some instances have been fined a shilling1 in others a farthing4 ,to ,w4 ,h4 ,hornby1 ,esq41 ,m4,p4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,remarks ,,on ,a ,,proposed ,,bill ,,for ,,the ,,better ,,preservation ,,of ,,salmon4 ,,clitheroe1 ,august #bgth1 #ahfj4 ,,henry ,,george1 ,,esq4 ,,dear ,,sir1--,i am favoured by the receipt of your letter of the #beth inst41 and the accompanying draft of a proposed bill for the better ,preservation of ,salmon1 and proceed at once to offer such remarks and suggestions as occur to me1 and shall be glad to learn that they meet with your approval4 ,in the third clause 7section7 you give an interpretation of the names under which you wish to include all fish of the ,salmon kind4 ,does not this include common ,trout8 ,you specially include ,char by name4 ,would it not be better to limit your intentions to all migratory fish of the ,salmon kind1 to wit1 ,salmon1 ,grilse1 c4 c48 ,i think also the meaning of a fixed net wants defining more rigorously4 ,as it now stands it appears to me that it would include any net which should be fastened on a root or stone whilst it was being drawn through a pool1 if the men employed in doing this were to let go the cords whilst they loosed the net from the obstruction4 ,fourth clause4--,i quite agree with you on the period allotted to annual close time1 but think there ought to be a penalty for buying1 selling1 or having in possession ,salmon roe 7save and except for the purpose of artificial propagation74 ,seventh4--,i do not agree with you at all on the subject of the weekly close time1 which in my opinion ought to be for one-half of every day1 except ,sunday1 and the whole of that day4 ,why should the owners of fisheries at the mouths of rivers1 who are at neither trouble nor expense in breeding or preserving the spawning fish1 have all the benefit derivable from their increase8 ,why should the upper proprietors act the part of brood hens for these1 hatching and preserving the fish for the benefit of those who take no trouble about these things themselves8 ,twelfth4--,i do not agree with you as to the size of the mesh3 ,i do not think that a mesh of twelve inches in circumference1 or three inches from knot to knot1 at all too large2 it would permit fish below six pounds to escape1 and this being done1 there would under any circumstances be a fair supply of breeding fish4 ,fifteenth4--,i think your leister requires a more rigorous definition4 ,a man in this neighbourhood is reputed to have killed a good many ,salmon with a hay or a dung fork4 ,are either of these leisters8 ,your sixteenth section is utterly impracticable4 ,how could such hecks or grates be prevented from choking with leaves in the autumn and ice in the winter1 thus stopping the wheels8 ,you might as well require a farmer to hedge out the game4 ,impose a penalty1 if you like1 upon any millowner who may kill ,salmon in his mill lead2 and as you give your conservators power to inspect everywhere1 you will readily detect such practices4 ,but it will never do to close the mills by pretexts that the fish may be taken or killed there4 ,twenty-first4--,i do not understand the meaning of this4 ,but taken in its ordinary sense1 it seems to me to be very unjust4 ,many persons have traps in their weirs for the purpose of taking ,salmon to which they plead a prescriptive right4 ,do you mean to do away with these8 ,you may succeed in this1 but why should not a man be allowed to fish in the river above the weir where there are no obstructions to the passage of the fish8 ,and why should not a man be allowed to fish with a rod and line below the weir1 and as near to it as he chooses8 ,i think weirs might be safely divided into two classes3 those used for manufacturing purposes and those for fishery purposes2 that a man should be allowed to say in which class his weir should be included4 ,if for manufacturing purposes he should not be allowed to catch ,salmon 7except with rod and line7 within a certain distance below the weir4 ,if he choose to class his weir as one for fishery purposes1 he should then be compelled to give a free passage to the fish for twelve hours every day2 but he should be compelled to make his election as to the class in which he would include his weir4 ,twenty-fifth4--,it would never do to allow the commissioners to make bye-laws4 ,suppose the case of a millowner who got into a dispute with them3 he might be utterly ruined by their bye-laws2 they might make bye-laws which deprived him of his water-power1 under a pretext that they were taking more efficient care of the ,salmon4 ,thirty-first4--,i think the licence to angle should be compulsory1 and not at the discretion of the commissioner4 ,that it should be in the nature of a game licence1 qualifying and enabling the holder to angle in any river of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 provided he had the consent of the owner of the fishery where he was angling4 7,additional observations74 ,twelfth4--,you say that no double net shall be used4 ,do you mean to prohibit the trammel1 which is usually a treble and not a double net8 ,you also prohibit one net behind another1 but you do not specify the distance outside of which a second net would be lawful4 ,if neither a series of ,scotch nets nor a single trammel is to be used1 by what sort of net do you propose to catch the ,salmon8 ,nineteenth4--,you say the sluices which admit water to wheels or factories shall be kept closed from six o'clock on ,saturday night to six o'clock on ,monday morning4 ,how1 then1 are the repairs of shafting and machinery to be made8 ,these are generally done when the workpeople have gone home on ,saturdays4 ,besides1 what is your object8 ,if the river is low1 the ,salmon will not be running up the stream1 and if it be in flood there will always be an abundant supply running over the weir in addition to that which would be required to turn the wheel4 ,you add that the water may be allowed to flow freely through the waste-gate1 provided the opening of such a waste-gate shall not deprive the mill of the necessary supply of water4 ,eighteenth4--,in this clause you say that in weirs already constructed it shall be lawful for the commissioner1 on the application of any two or more persons interested in the fisheries of such river1 and at the proper costs and charges of the persons making such application--proof having been first given1 c4--to cause a survey to be made of such dam or weir by a competent engineer1 and to direct such alterations to be made therein as shall1 in the opinion of the commissioner1 be necessary and desirable1 c4 ,in this clause1 which so far as it goes is very desirable1 you have omitted a proviso without which it could never pass into a law4 ,you have forgotten to provide for the legal right of the millowner1 which would1 or might1 be taken away by the alteration made in the weir unless there were some provision in the act which prevented this being done4 ,at present there is no such proviso in your act4 ,here ,i have offered for years to allow the upper proprietors to make any alteration they liked in the weir1 provided such alterations did not affect the milling power1 the stability of the weir1 or my legal title to the weir as existing at present4 ,and my legal adviser tells me that any alteration made in the weir without a guarantee from the upper proprietors would very probably deprive me of my present title4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,letters ,,on ,,agricultural ,,subjects4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,cultivation ,,of ,,wheat ,,on ,,the ,,same ,,land ,,in ,,successive ,,years4 ,to ,the ,editor of the ,manchester ,guardian4 ,,clitheroe1 ,october #eth1 #ahdc4 ,,sir1--,i ,,promised to send you some details of my attempt to grow wheat on the same soil year after year4 ,these ,i now forward1 and hope they may prove interesting4 ,i was led into these experiments by reading ,liebig's book on the ,chemistry of ,agriculture2 for1 assuming his theory to be true1 it appeared to me to be quite possible to grow wheat on the same land year after year2 as1 according to that theory1 the carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen1 which constitute the great bulk of all cereal crops 7both grain and straw71 are supplied in abundance from the soil and atmosphere 7or perhaps1 to speak more correctly1 from the latter71 and we have only to supply those inorganic substances1 which1 however numerous1 form but a small part of the whole weight of the crop4 ,with the view of testing this theory1 and hoping that ,i might be able to find out what were the elements which built up and cemented the carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen together--or1 in other words1 which constituted fertility--,i begun1 in the autumn of #ahda1 to experiment on a field which had been exhausted by a succession of crops1 and which had just been cleared of one of oats4 ,i chose an exhausted field in preference to any other1 as the only one in which ,i could test the truth of the theory4 ,it was very foul1 being full of couch grass and weeds of all kinds4 ,it was ploughed up and hastily picked over1 for the season was so unfavourable for cleaning the land 7from the great quantity of rain that fell7 that ,i was almost induced to abandon the experiment4 ,previously to sowing the seed1 one-fourth of the field was manured with a compost of night-soil and coal-ashes1 at the rate of forty tons to the customary acre 7#ghdj yards72 the remaining three-fourths having the seed put in without any manure whatever4 ,the winter was very unfavourable for the plants in our cold wet soil1 and in the unmanured part of the field many of them perished1 and those that survived made very little progress1 from having no stimulus at the roots4 ,thinking it desirable to apply my experimental manures in moist weather1 ,i waited until the #fth ,may1 when ,i treated that part of the field which had not been manured 7three-fourths of the whole7 in the following manner4 ,i applied guano to one-fourth1 at the rate of two hundredweight to the statute acre1 and the same weight of nitrate of soda over another fourth1 leaving one-fourth entirely without manure4 ,the wheat manured with the guano and nitrate of soda grew vigorously1 and the ears1 more particularly in the part manured with guano1 were the finest ,i had ever seen1 but when it came to ripen it shrivelled in the ear1 and the sample was very indifferent2 the soil being evidently deficient in some property necessary for perfecting the grain4 ,the crop also suffered much from the depredations of the birds4 ,the portion manured with night-soil produced to the statute acre #cb bushels of #fj lbs4 each4 ,guano #bg ,nitrate of ,soda #bg ,unmanured part #ai #b_/c ,i give these details to show that the land was in an exhausted state previous to the commencement of the experiment ,i am now about to detail4 ,after the crop of #ahdb was reaped1 the land was immediately ploughed up1 and the season being very favourable1 it was tolerably well cleaned1 and the seed was sown 7without any manure7 about the first week in ,october4 ,after the wheat came up1 it was manured with a dusting of one hundredweight of guano1 over the entire field 7about one acre1 three roods71 to keep the plants alive through the winter4 ,in the spring1 being divided into three portions1 it was manured with the same number of experimental manures1 which were furnished to me by ,mr4 ,blyth1 of ,church1 near ,accrington1 who also analyzed the soil and subsoil for me4 ,these manures were applied about the #ajth of ,april1 and the experiment was still further varied by covering a portion of each division with guano a fortnight afterwards1 at the rate of two hundredweight to the acre1 but all the manure applied to the crop1 including the hundredweight of guano put on in the autumn1 did not exceed #f #a_/b hundredweight4 ,the crop1 which was a very thin one in the spring1 improved so much by the application of these manures1 that when it came into ear1 it was allowed by all who saw it to be the best in the neighbourhood2 but the heavy rains of ,july caused it to lodge in the best part of the field1 and there it was attacked by rust1 and the sample was very indifferent4 ,in addition to this drawback1 there being very little wheat grown in the neighbourhood of the town1 and this being much earlier than any of the other fields1 was attacked by the birds as soon as the grain was formed in the ear4 ,notwithstanding all the efforts made to prevent them1 they continued feeding upon it until it was cut2 and it is a very moderate estimate of the damage1 to say that they destroyed one- fourth of the crop throughout the field4 ,that part of the field covered with manure 7,no4 #a7 being the earliest1 suffered most4 ,there were patches of several square yards where there did not appear to be a single grain left2 and wherever the birds took a grain from the middle of the ear1 when in the milky state1 the grains on each side of it appeared to grow no more1 but shrivelled up in the ear4 ,i have little doubt that in this portion of the field one-third of the crop was destroyed4 ,all this seems to reduce the experiment to little more than guess-work2 and it will1 probably1 be very difficult to persuade those who did not see the field when it was cut1 to credit this report of the devastation made by the birds2 even when they are told that ,clitheroe is a town of #g1jjj inhabitants1 and probably as many sparrows1 and that apparently they were all assembled to feed in this field2 and they became so accustomed to the good living they found there1 that even when our neighbours' wheat was fit to eat1 they continued to favour this field with their visits in preference to going elsewhere4 ,i estimate the damage on ,no4 #a at one-third1 ,no4 #b at one-fourth1 ,no4 #c at one-fifth2 this was later than the others1 and suffered more from rust than birds4 ,the following are the results3--,from #c1jfj yards manured with ,no4 #a1 there were obtained #a1jdb lbs4 of wheat1 or #bg #a_/b bushels of #fj lbs4 each to the statute acre2 if we add one-half to this1 as we assume that one-third was destroyed by the birds1 it will give #da #a_/d bushels to the statute acre4 ,the weight of straw from this portion was #ahh stones #e lbs41 #ad lbs4 to the stone4 ,from #b1hef yards manured with ,no4 #b1 #ifb lbs4 of wheat were obtained1 and #aee stones #i lbs4 of straw2 this is equal to #bg #a_/d bushels per acre1 or with one-third added1 for estimated damage1 it is equal to #cf bushels per statute acre4 ,from #bfaj yards manured with ,no4 #c1 there were #a1jfg lbs4 of wheat1 and #baa stones #g lbs4 of straw1 or #cc bushels to the statute acre1 to which if we add one-fourth1 according to the estimate of damage1 it will be equal to #da #a_/d bushels per acre4 ,it will be observed that this portion yielded a far greater weight of straw per acre than either of the others1 and from the sort of manure applied1 it was expected that this would be the case4 ,no4 #a yielded straw at the rate of #big #c_/d stones per acre4 #b #bdf #c_/d #c #cib #a_/c ,many people may feel inclined to say1 that all these apparent data are mere guesses1 and that a crop may be made into anything one likes1 if they assume so much for damages2 but1 fortunately1 it is not all guess-work4 ,i have stated previously that ,i covered a part of each division with guano a fortnight after the application of the manures in ,april1 intending to see what advantage was obtained by the use of it2 but1 owing to the depredations of the birds1 the portions of the first and second divisions manured with guano were not kept separate from those which were left without guano2 but the third being later1 and1 therefore1 not so much injured by them1 gave me an opportunity of ascertaining the effect4 ,i measured off a land which had been so manured1 and reaped and thrashed it out separately4 ,from this land of #ajj yards long and #aj feet wide 7#c1jjj square feet71 there was obtained #bbj lbs4 of wheat1 or #ec bushels of #fj lbs4 per statute acre2 and this was far from being the best portion of the field4 ,i don't mean that it was not the best portion of the crop1 but ,i mean that the soil was not so good there as it was in other parts of the field2 as ,i have before stated1 in the best part of the field the crop was spoiled by being lodged by the rain1 and subsequently attacked by rust4 ,i communicate this to you1 in the hope that the publication of it in your paper maybe the means of stimulating others to try the same experiments4 ,it is not too late yet to try for the next year's crop1 and ,i have no doubt that ,mr4 ,blyth will be happy to supply both material and information to any who may require them from him4 ,it is the duty of everyone to promote the advancement of agriculture2 and this is my contribution towards it4 ,i have not yet done1 for ,i have sown the same field with wheat again1 and hope1 with a favourable season1 to reap a still more abundant crop next year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the same4 ,,clitheroe1 ,october #abth1 #ahdd4 ,,sir1--,last ,october you published an account of an attempt of mine to grow wheat on the same land year after year2 and1 as ,i have repeated the experiment this year1 ,i shall be obliged if you will be kind enough to insert the account of it in the ,guardian1 as the subject appears to me to be an important one2 and1 as many persons who may read this letter may either not have seen the former1 or may have forgotten it1 ,i trust that a short summary of the former experiments may not be out of place4 ,these experiments took place in the autumn of #ahda1 after the field had been cleared of a crop of oats1 which was a very bad one2 the land being not only naturally poor1 but foul and exhausted by long cropping4 ,as the season was very wet1 it was indifferently cleaned1 and one-fourth of it manured with a compost of night-soil and ashes1 and then the field was sowed with wheat4 ,two of the remaining three-fourths were manured on the #fth of ,may1 #ahdb 7the spring being a very dry one1 no rain came until that day71 one with guano1 the other with nitrate of soda1 each at the rate of two hundredweight to the statute acre1 and the remaining fourth was left unmanured4 ,the following were the results at harvest3--,that manured with night-soil and ashes produced #cb bushels of #fj lbs4 per acre2 guano1 #bg bushels2 nitrate of soda1 #bg bushels2 unmanured1 #ai #b_/c bushels4 ,when the field had been cleared of the crop1 it was immediately ploughed up1 and1 as the season was favourable1 the land was well cleaned and sowed with wheat in ,october1 #ahdb1 without any manure except #a cwt4 of guano1 which was scattered over it when the wheat was coming up4 ,the field was divided into three portions1 and in ,april1 #ahdc1 was manured as follows3--,no4 #a1 with #ij lbs4 of sulphate of magnesia1 and #b cwt4 nitrate of soda to the statute acre2 ,no4 #b1 with a compound from a manufacturer of chemical manures2 ,no4 #c1 with #fj lbs4 of silicate of soda and #b cwt4 of nitrate of soda to the acre2 and1 with the view of still further varying the experiment1 a part of each portion was sowed with guano a fortnight after the application of the chemical manures4 ,the crop promised to be a very good one1 but it was much plundered by the birds1 and as the summer was wet1 it suffered also much from rust4 ,allowing for the destruction occasioned by the birds1 the crop was estimated at3 #da #a_/d bushels in patch ,no4 #a1 #cf ,no4 #b1 #da #a_/d ,no4 #c1 and in that part of ,no4 #c which was also covered with guano1 it reached by actual weight 7not by estimate71 #ec bushels of #fj lbs4 to the acre4 ,those patches in ,nos4 #a and #b which had guano put on them1 suffered so much from the depredations of the birds1 that no account was taken of them separately4 ,the crop was cleared off the land1 which was cleaned1 and again sowed with wheat on #crd ,october1 #ahdc4 ,it was drilled in rows seven inches apart1 and at the rate of #b #a_/b bushels to the acre4 ,it is to the results of this crop that ,i now wish to call your attention4 ,before sowing1 the land was subsoiled to the depth of from #ad to #af inches2 except a strip of about #aj feet in width1 down the middle of the field1 which was left untouched for the purpose of determining what were the advantages derived from subsoiling4 ,if the advantage was merely that of thorough draining 7for the field had not been thoroughly drained previous to the subsoiling71 it was thought probable that this strip of #aj feet wide would be drained by the subsoiling on each side of it2 but if1 in addition to this1 the wheat plant derived more nourishment by striking its root deeper into the soil1 where that was loosened by the subsoil plough1 the crop ought to be better in the subsoiled than in the unsubsoiled part4 ,the field runs over the ridge of a hill1 and upon that ridge the soil is so poor and thin1 that it was deemed expedient to give it a slight dressing of coal-ashes and night-soil1 from an idea that the plant would scarcely survive the winter unless some stimulus were applied there2 but the ashes contained little manure1 and were only applied to the worst part of the field1 covering about one-third of its surface4 ,the wheat was ,spalding's ,prolific2 it came up evenly and well all over the field4 ,it was hand-sowed with lime early in ,february to the extent of about #bd cwt4 of dry lime on the acre4 ,in order to ascertain the value of lime1 and the proper quantity1 ,i had the field uniformly covered with it1 except one land1 which was left entirely without1 and the headlands1 which had one three1 the other six times as much lime put upon them as any other part4 ,the field was also dressed with a chemical manure of the following ingredients on the #afth ,march1 costing3-- ,l4 s4 d4 #a #a_/d cwt4 nitrate of soda #j #ag #f #a impure sulphate of magnesia #j #e #j #c_/d silicate of soda #j #aa #c #c_/d common salt #j #b #j #a #a_/d gypsum #j #b #j ,mixing and applying it1 say #j #b #c ,total for statute acre ,l#b #j #j ,speculating on the probability of a dry summer1 ,i gave it an extra quantity of manure1 and ,i think where guano is used afterwards1 as it is by me1 the nitrate of soda might be dispensed with1 which would bring the cost to ,l#a #bs4 #f;d4 per acre4 ,i should prefer guano to nitrate of soda1 because of the phosphates contained in the former4 ,at the distance we are from the sea 7about thirty miles7 it would seldom be necessary to apply common salt1 as the gales of winter generally bring as much as is needed2 but last winter we had no high winds1 and ,i thought that where salt was applied with other chemical manures1 the wheat was more luxuriant than where there was none2 but owing to a misunderstanding of the instructions to that effect1 the produce was not kept separate4 ,when the chemical manure was applied1 one land was left without1 for the purpose of comparison4 ,guano was sowed on the land on the #bith ,march1 at the rate of something less than #b cwt4 to the statute acre1 one side of the field being covered with ,peruvian1 the other with ,african1 and the land on which no chemical manure had been sowed was half of it covered with guano1 and the other half left without anything except lime2 but as it was thought desirable to ascertain the value of the chemical manure without guano1 half of this patch was sowed with the chemical manure in ,april1 after the long drought of the last spring had set in4 ,a small patch was left without manure1 to show the natural condition of the field1 and to serve as a comparison with the manured part alongside it1 and also with the condition of the field when the experiment commenced1 #ahda-b1 when the unmanured portion yielded only #ai #b_/c bushels to the acre4 ,this part of the experiment1 however1 was frustrated by the carelessness of the men who thrashed out the wheat4 ,the crop was a very good one throughout the field1 but was evidently shorter and thinner where there was no lime1 and also where guano was applied alone4 ,it was best on the headlands where more lime had been applied4 ,the weather was extremely favourable until the wheat was going out of bloom1 but it then changed1 and the crop was beaten down by the rain1 in some places so thoroughly that it never rose again2 and from that time to the day it was reaped 7#bast ,august71 there were not more than six fine warm days4 ,this cold and ungenial weather would1 no doubt1 materially affect both the quantity and quality of the crop1--the sample only being just fair4 ,on thrashing out the crop1 ,i find the result to be as follows3--,where the guano and chemical manure were applied1 but no lime1 the yield was #di #a_/e bushels of #fj lbs4 per statute acre2 where the land was left unsubsoiled1 it was #eb #a_/b bushels2 when guano alone was applied1 it was #db #a_/c bushels2 where the chemical manure alone was applied1 it was #dc #a_/b bushels2 where the ,african guano was applied1 it was #de bushels2 where the ,peruvian was applied1 it was #eb #b_/c bushels2 on the headlands1 where three times the quantity of lime 7or #c #a_/b tons per acre7 was applied1 it was nearly #fb bushels2 and where six times the quantity of lime 7or #g tons to the acre71 it was #di #b_/c bushels4 ,i give this last result as it was ascertained1 but do not consider it conclusive1 for the wheat plant on this headland looked quite as well as the other1 until it went out of bloom1 when from some unknown cause it was partially blighted2 an irregular patch from a foot to a yard in width and extending almost from end to end of the headland becoming brown and parched1 as if affected by lightning or some atmospheric visitation4 ,with the view of making these results a little clearer to the eye1 ,i subjoin the following tabular statement of the produce per acre in the different parts of the field3-- ,bushels of #fj lbs4 per statute acre4 ,guano alone #db #a_/c ,chemical manure alone #dc #a_/b ,guano and chemical manure1 with #bd cwt4 lime to the acre1 but land unsubsoiled #eb #b_/c ,guano and chemical manure1 but no lime #di #a_/e ,african guano and lime #de ,peruvian #eb #b_/c and #c times as much lime #fb and #f #di #b_/c ,average crop throughout the field #ej ,it may be as well to observe1 that the total expense of manure1 and of its application to that portion of the field which produced sixty-two bushels per acre 7including the guano and the additional quantity of lime used71 was at the rate of #has4 per statute acre4 ,deducting the cost of the nitrate of soda1 the utility of which1 under the circumstances1 ,i am inclined to doubt1 it would have been #fcs4 #f;d4 ,i consider these to be very favourable results1 and as offering strong inducements to continue the experiment4 ,i have accordingly had the land ploughed up and cleaned2 and it was again sowed with wheat on the #ith inst4 ,having detailed the general results of the experiment1 ,i beg to offer the following remarks upon some points in it1 which seem to me to require a little elucidation4 ,i consider the success of this experiment to be in a great measure owing to the use of soluble silica and magnesia2 because1 although there is an abundance of silica in the soil1 my first crop showed very miserable results1 the grain being ill-fed and poor1 and the straw soft and discoloured1 although the year #ahdb was1 in this district1 very favourable for wheat1 the month of ,august being singularly fine and warm2 but when ,i combined the nitrate of soda with sulphate of magnesia1 as in experiment ,no4 #a in #ahdc1 but still more so when ,i combined it with the silicate of soda1 as in ,no4 #c of that year1 the straw became as strong1 firm1 and bright as need be desired2 and this year when both these salts are combined with nitrate of soda1 common salt1 and gypsum1 ,i have not only good and bright straw1 but also an abundant crop of wheat4 ,with respect to the lime used1 it may be as well to state that the field had not been limed for many years1 and although in a limestone district1 showed a deficiency of lime on analysis4 ,the soil is a strong loam1 on a brick clay subsoil1 in which there is little or no lime1 although the stony clays1 which form the subsoil in a great part of the district1 abound in it1 containing from twenty to thirty per cent4 of carbonate of lime4 ,i had always believed that lime was used in great excess in this neighbourhood1 and had1 in fact1 an idea that its good qualities were overrated1 inasmuch as it does not enter into the composition of the plant1 except in very minute proportion2 but last winter ,i saw a paper 7by ,mr4 ,briggs of ,overton7 on the possibility of growing wheat on the same land year after year1 in which the utility of lime in preventing rust was incidentally touched upon4 ,i also saw ,liebig's letters explaining the action of quicklime in liberating potash from the clay2 and then ,i considered it very important to ascertain the proper quantity to be applied4 ,the quantity required to decompose the phosphate of iron was not great1 and assuming ,liebig's theory of its action in liberating the potash to be true1 it seemed to me that an excess of lime would permanently impoverish the land2 for1 supposing that the crop required #ajj lbs4 of potash1 and as much lime was applied as liberated #ejj lbs41 what became of the #djj lbs4 which did not enter into the composition of the plant8 was not a large portion of this #djj lbs4 washed down the drains by the rain1 and so lost for ever8 ,perhaps the absence of lime in this field accounts for its beneficial action in the experiment just detailed2 but if my supposition is correct1 that any excess of potash which may be liberated from the clay by the use of quicklime 7that is1 any more than may be required to perfect the crop71 is washed down the drains1 and thus the land is permanently impoverished by the excessive use of lime1 it behoves landed proprietors to ascertain what is required1 and they should take care to apply no more than is necessary4 ,this caution is most particularly needed in this neighbourhood1 where lime is cheap1 and where the opinion is prevalent that the more there is applied the better it is for the land1 and where it is common to apply ten or twelve tons to the acre4 ,i have stated above that chemical manure was applied to a small portion of the field after the setting-in of the drought in ,april4 ,the action of this manure showed that a good thing may be very injurious if applied at an improper time2 for1 although it produced a stimulating effect on the plant immediately after its application1 there was too little moisture in the land to dissolve it thoroughly1 and thus enable the plants to appropriate it1 until the rain came1 about the end of ,june1 when the wheat had been in flower some time2 but the stimulus was then so great that all the plants threw up fresh stalks 7from the roots71 which were in flower when the wheat was cut1 and it was then found that they had not only impoverished the plants1 but had prevented the grain from ripening4 ,this was the case not only in the experimental field1 but in several others also1 where the chemical manure was sowed after the setting-in of the drought4 ,when the field was sowed with guano1 it was thought desirable to cover one part of it with the ,african1 and the other with ,peruvian1 for the sake of comparison2 but as the ,african did not appear to produce the same stimulating effect as the other1 fifty per cent4 more was applied1 that the cost might be equal 7the ,peruvian cost #ajs41 the ,african #gs4 per cwt472 but as the latter application of the ,african was made when the wheat was just shooting into ear1 the same objection applies to the experiment which does to the chemical manure applied after the drought had set in--viz41 that there was not sufficient moisture in the soil to dissolve it thoroughly until the plant was too far advanced to benefit by it2 and therefore its failure would be no proof of the value of the ,african as compared with the ,peruvian1 which was the object of the experiment4 ,it is true1 no bad effects followed the application similar to those produced by the misapplication of the chemical manure in dry weather1 yet if soluble salts like the latter did not find sufficient moisture in the ground when applied in ,april1 there is reason to suppose that the former would not do so when applied in ,may4 ,i regret the failure of the experiment without any manure1 as ,i think the result would have shown satisfactorily that the land is so far from being impoverished by this system of cropping1 that it is improving every year4 ,i think1 however1 that this is shown by the produce of the land manured with guano alone4 ,in the first year's experiment the produce from guano alone was #bg bushels per acre1 and both straw and wheat were very indifferent in quality4 ,this year the produce from guano alone is #db #a_/c bushels2 and although neither straw nor wheat are so good as upon the adjoining lands1 they are both very much better than they were in #ahdb4 ,it will be observed that the result from the unsubsoiled portion is very good1 and if nothing more were said about it1 people would be led to conclude that there was no advantage in subsoiling4 ,but this1 in my opinion1 would be a great mistake2 for to say nothing of the advantage which the unsubsoiled portion would derive from the drainage which it received from the subsoiling on each side of it1 ,i found1 when the field was ploughed up this autumn1 that whilst the unsubsoiled portion was stiff and heavy1 the subsoiled part was comparatively friable and loose1 like a garden1 and will1 ,i expect1 show its superiority in the succeeding crops4 ,it must be borne in mind1 in reading these experiments1 that we have here one of the most unfavourable climates in the kingdom for growing wheat1 from the excessive quantity of rain that falls1 three times more rain falling annually in the north of ,lancashire than at ,york1 and this1 no doubt1 is very prejudicial to the success of such a series of experiments as ,i have been detailing4 ,it has been objected to these experiments1 that allowing all to have been done which is here detailed1 it leads to no important conclusion2 for although it may be practicable to grow wheat every year1 in a small field like the one experimented on1 it is not so on a large scale4 ,but the objectors should remember that there is not the seed of a single weed sowed with the manure2 and therefore if the land is thoroughly cleaned1 and kept so1 by hoeing the crop in the spring1 it will require very little labour to fit it for another4 ,but ,i shall be better able to speak on this head next harvest1 having sowed wheat on an oat stubble with once ploughing4 ,it is said there are no weeds in ,chinese husbandry1 and if they can eradicate them completely1 so may we1 if we adopt the same methods and follow them up as perseveringly4 ,again1 admitting that it is not practicable to grow wheat on the same land year after year on a large scale1 yet if we can double the crop in those years in which we do grow it1 by the application of chemical manures 7and the same manures are applicable to all cereal crops71 will not that be a conclusion worth arriving at8 ,that it is possible to do so1 is1 ,i think1 sufficiently shown by the results ,i have obtained4 ,what1 then1 may we expect when these experiments are infinitely multiplied and varied1 under the superintendence of skilful and experienced men1 who will devote their whole time and attention to the subject8 ,will raising the average produce from twenty-five to fifty bushels per acre be the utmost limit to which improvement can be carried8 ,i believe not4 ,in conclusion1 ,i would urge on all owners and occupiers of land1 the importance of devoting at least a small field to agricultural experiments1 as ,i think there can be no doubt that1 if these are carefully and systematically made and followed up by agriculturists generally1 we shall be so far from needing an importation of corn in average years that we shall have a large surplus to spare for our neighbours4 ,,note4--,in the use of silicates of soda and potash one precaution is very necessary--viz41 that you really have a soluble silicate1 and not a mere mechanical mixture of ground flint and soda3 this is a very different thing1 and one1 if it be not carefully guarded against1 which will lead to nothing but disappointment4 ,again1 the silicate may be properly made in the first place1 but in a long exposure to the atmosphere the soda attracts carbonic acid1 and the soda is liberated1 and this has defeated my expectations more than once4 ,again1 though ,i consider it desirable to defer the application of it until vegetation has fairly started in the spring1 yet1 in one instance1 ,i delayed the application of it so long1 that there was not moisture to dissolve it until the end of ,june1 and then the wheat began to shoot afresh from the roots and the crop was seriously injured by it3 but this was in an exceedingly dry spring1 and might not happen again for many years4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the same4 ,,low ,,moor1 #ahth ,december1 #ahde4 ,,sir1--,i promised to communicate to you the results of my attempt to grow wheat on the same land year after year1 this being the fourth crop of wheat 7the fifth white crop7 grown in successive years on the same soil1 and though ,i consider the crop an indifferent one1 ,i don't think the failure ought in any degree to be attributed to the over-cropping1 but to the wetness and coldness of the season1 as well as other untoward circumstances hereafter to be mentioned4 ,in a former letter of mine of the #abth ,october1 #ahdd--which was published in the ,guardian a few days after--,i gave an account of the crop of #ahdd1 which was a very good one1 being fifty bushels to the acre throughout the field1 and as much as fifty-two bushels in the best part of it4 ,this ,i considered so satisfactory that ,i had the field again ploughed up and sowed with wheat on the #ith ,october1 #ahdd1 and it is to the results of this crop that ,i wish to call your attention4 ,as remarked in my former letter1 the field was subsoil ploughed in the autumn of #ahdc1 and this subsoiling was carried to such a depth that most of the drains in the field were more or less injured by it2 and although this did no injury to the crop of #ahdd1 owing to the very dry season1 yet when the rain came in the winter of #ahdd1 the want of drainage was found to be very prejudicial1 and in the wet places large patches of the young wheat went off altogether1 and there was a great deficiency of roots in many parts of the field2 the long continuance of frost and after that the ungenial weather which continued so long in the spring 7of #ahde7 were also unfavourable1 yet with all these drawbacks the appearance of the plant after the growing weather did come1 was very promising1 and many of my friends predicted that ,i should have as good a crop as in #ahdd4 ,on the #bdth ,march ,i applied chemical manure of the same kind as ,i had done in #ahdd1 at the rate of about #c #a_/d cwt4 to the acre 7costing #bcs4 #f;d471 and a fortnight after ,i had it sowed with #b cwt4 of guano to the acre4 ,when the warm weather came1 these manurings seemed to help it wonderfully1 and it was1 as ,i have before stated1 a very promising crop2 but the cold1 ungenial weather we had through a great part of the summer1 and the continued rain we had whilst the wheat was in flower1 destroyed all the former promise3 and the manuring with guano1 so far from being beneficial1 was very injurious--so much so1 that ,i believe every shilling's-worth of it applied to my wheat this year1 made the crop a shilling worse than if nothing had been applied2 and all ammoniacal manures had the same effect4 ,it may be asked how ,i know it was the guano1 and not the chemical manure4 ,in answer to this inquiry1 if made1 ,i may observe1 that ,i supplied two of my neighbours with the chemical manure1 and they applied it without guano on very poor land1 and they both assert they had never such good crops of wheat before2 but everywhere in this neighbourhood1 the only good samples of wheat that ,i saw or heard of were grown on exhausted soil4 ,this appears to me to be a strong proof that chemistry has a great deal to learn before it can adapt its measures to all varieties of seasons1 particularly as it cannot know beforehand how the season may turn out4 ,if further proof be required of the injurious effect upon grain crops of ammoniacal manures in general1 and of guano in particular1 ,i may mention that in another field of wheat1 sowed on the #bast ,december1 and which did not come up until the frost broke1 in ,march 7the previous crop having been ,swedes71 the blade was so yellow and the plant altogether so small and sickly in appearance1 that ,i had it manured with a water-cart from a cesspool in ,april4 ,this appeared to produce a wonderful improvement immediately1 as the plant assumed a deep green and grew very fast1 but when it ought to have shot1 the heads seemed to stick in the sockets1 the blade and straw became mildewed and made no progress in ripening4 ,it was not fit to cut for three weeks after the experimental field1 although it was an early white wheat1 and the result was a miserable crop--far worse than the experimental field4 ,the instance of injury from the use of guano1 ,i had from a neighbour1 who told me he had sowed a patch of oats with it1 and that they never ripened at all1 and that he was compelled to cut them green as fodder for his cattle4 ,i had a striking proof this season of the much lower temperature required by oats than wheat1 when strongly stimulated by manuring4 ,i had gathered an ear of wheat and a panicle of oats the previous season1 which seemed to me to be superior varieties2 and that they might have every chance1 ,i dibbled them alongside each other in my garden1 and determined to manure them with every kind of manure ,i could procure1 as ,i had an idea that it was not easy to over-manure grain crops1 if all the elements entering into the composition of the plant were applied in due proportion to each other1 and ,i also wished to ascertain whether wheat and oats would thrive equally well with the same sort of manuring4 ,i accordingly limed the land soon after the wheat came up1 and in ,march ,i applied silicate of soda1 sulphate of magnesia1 gypsum1 common salt1 and nitrate of soda4 ,a fortnight after this ,i applied guano1 then bones dissolved in sulphuric acid1 then woollen rags dissolved in potash 7the two latter in weak solution72 and the consequence was1 that ,i don't think there was a single grain in the whole parcel--at least ,i could not find one--the straw was no great length1 and the blade much discolored with mildew1 whilst the oats were seven feet high1 and with straws through which ,i could blow a pea1 and large panicles1 although the oat was not particularly well-fed4 ,the inference ,i have drawn from these experiments is1 that as far as is practicable the manuring should be adapted to the temperature1 but as this is obviously impossible in a climate like ours1 the only way is to rather under than over manure1 and to apply no ammoniacal manure to the wheat crop1 or at all events very little2 for although guano was beneficial to wheat when used in conjunction with silicates1 c4 c4 in #ahdd1 yet the injury it did in #ahde may very fairly be set against that benefit4 ,i should feel obliged if any of your readers who may have tried the experiment of manuring grain crops with guano1 the last season 7#ahde7 would publish the result as compared with a similar crop without such manuring4 ,i feel convinced that such result would be against the use of guano for wheat in #ahde4 ,i am the more confirmed in the opinion that ammoniacal manures are unfavourable for wheat1 by a series of articles in the ,gardener's ,chronicle on the ,geo-,agriculture of ,middlesex1 in which the writer states that land in that county which in ,queen ,elizabeth's time produced such good wheat that it was reserved for her especial use1 will now scarcely grow wheat at all1 and when that grain is sowed upon it1 the straw is always mildewed1 and the sample very poor2 and this is attributed--and no doubt justly so--to the extensive use of ,london manure4 ,my crop was only #cb bushels to the acre of #fj lbs4 to the bushel2 last year the crop1 as ,i have said before1 was #ej bushels of the same weight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the same4 ,,clitheroe1 #gth ,march1 #ahdh4 ,on continuing my attempts to grow wheat on the same land year after year1 ,i observed that the crop of #ahde was very seriously injured by the deficient drainage--the old drains having been destroyed by the subsoil plough4 ,it was therefore necessary to replace them3 they were accordingly put in four feet deep4 ,this occupied so much time that the season for sowing wheat had gone by1 and the ground was cropped with potatoes1 which were got up in ,september1 and the wheat might have been got in early in ,october4 ,but seeing in your paper that sowing too early was not advisable1 and also being carried away by the arguments of the thin-seeders1 ,i deferred sowing until the middle of ,november1 and then put in little seed2 and the winter proving very unfavourable1 when the wheat was coming up1 there was not half plant enough in the spring1 and ,i hesitated whether to plough up the ground or drill in barley4 ,i determined to do the latter1 which was done on the #ahth ,april1 and wheat and barley grew up together1 and when cut and threshed1 proved to be equal to #dh bushels to the acre4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,low ,,moor1 #cast ,december1 #ahdd4 ,,henry ,,briggs1 ,,esq4 ,i duly received your obliging letter in reply to my pamphlet on the growth of wheat year after year on the same land1 and now offer my rejoinder to your remarks4 ,you seem to consider the expense is too great under the system pursued by me2 and that it was more than was required by the crop1 is proved in my opinion by the fact that the fertility of the land is very much augmented since the commencement of the experiment in #ahda3 as my first crop with guano alone produced only #bg bushels per acre1 whilst this year from guano alone the produce was #db bushels4 ,but still ,i think that your allowance of manure is far too little1 and not exactly what ,i should apply1 and ,i shall frankly state my objections and opinions1 in the hope that they may elicit a reply from you1 as it will be from discussion and the experiments instituted to test the various theories propounded1 that agriculture will be most materially benefited4 ,you state that ,liebig's present theory is1 that plants obtain the necessary oxygen1 hydrogen1 carbon1 and nitrogen from the rain and atmosphere1 and that the plants merely require the supply of inorganic constituents1 and that you are inclined to agree with him4 ,my copy of his work on the ,chemistry of ,agriculture is his first edition2 and ,i don't know how far he has since modified or altered the opinions therein expressed1 which are in some degree at variance with each other4 ,he states that it may be received as an axiom in agricultural chemistry that the nitrogen of the atmosphere is never assimilated by plants1 except in the form of ammonia or nitric acid4 ,he certainly states that plants and animals derive their nitrogen from the atmosphere2 but why1 if this be true1 does he attach so much importance to the excrements 7particularly urine71 of men and animals being husbanded with so much care8 and he states that for every pound of urine wasted1 a pound of wheat is thrown away4 ,but even if he said it was utterly worthless1 every practical farmer who has tried it knows how exceedingly valuable it is4 ,it may be said there are other ingredients in urine besides ammonia1 and these are what make it valuable2 and in reply to this ,i would ask what is it that makes the ammoniacal liquor from gasworks so valuable8 ,there are no phosphates or alkalies there1 and yet what a powerful stimulant it is4 ,again1 ,liebig states that the carbon is derived from the atmosphere2 but to say nothing of the argument which might be deduced from the advantage which is derived by plants from having their soil loosened about their roots1 the experiments of ,dumas and ,boussingault prove that a tree which was cut off below the branches expired a large quantity of carbonic acid4 ,it may be asked how ,i know this was not precipitated by the rain4 ,i don't know2 but if the plant would assimilate this1 why should it not assimilate that which arises from the decomposition of the carbonaceous matter in the soil8 ,my idea is that it does both1 and that carbon in the soil does good if it offers an abundant supply of carbonic acid to the plant when it is in a condition to appropriate it4 ,your allowance of lime appears to me to be far too small1 for if any reliance can be placed on my experiments1 lime can be profitably used to far greater extent than you seem to imagine4 ,and1 again1 you seem to think that where there is plenty of silex in the soil1 the plant will be able to obtain as much as it requires4 ,i think that it is quite necessary that the silex should be in a soluble state1 as ,i think that it is not only desirable that all the elements necessary to fertility should be in the soil1 but that they should be in such a form that they can be assimilated by the plant4 ,some of our compounds for producing fertility may perhaps be as absurd as it would be to give muriatic acid to a man troubled with indigestion1 because free muriatic acid is found in the stomach of a healthy person4 ,let me recommend you to try both silex and magnesia in a soluble state1 and ,i think you will be satisfied with the benefit derived from their use4 ,recurring again to the quantity of manure necessary to grow thirty-six bushels of wheat1 ,i would ask1 why limit yourself to so small a crop8 ,the difference in the cost of your manuring a field1 and my manuring it1 is more than made up by the increase of fourteen bushels of wheat and the corresponding increase of straw1 even if the land did not improve every year by the application2 and as the seed1 rent1 labour1 and liabilities of the land are the same whether you grow a small crop or a large one1 why not have it as large as possible8 ,again1 if ,i applied far more manure than was necessary1 ,i ought to have had the crop equally good throughout the field2 but on the ridge of the hill1 where the soil was thin and poor1 neither straw nor wheat were so good as they were where it was deeper and richer4 ,my own opinion is1 that the plant is never able to extract from the soil all the manure1 and therefore it ought to be brought up to a good standard before good crops can be expected4 ,i am not satisfied with any analogy that ,i can think of1 but the best that occurs to me is that of a cloth in a dye- copper4 ,you can never get it to absorb either all or half the colouring matter1 and if you don't use far more than is taken up by the cloth1 you will never obtain the desired results4 ,besides1 in chemical combinations it is desirable to use far more than the chemical equivalents1 or the experiments don't succeed4 ,i perceive that you intend to use guano next year1 and that you intend to use it along with the seed4 ,i trust it will not be sowed in contact with either the seed or the quicklime1 which you proposed to use in some of your land4 ,the best time ,i have found for applying guano is in wet weather1 just when vegetation is making a start in the spring--say the last week in ,march1 or the first week in ,april--as ,i fear a large part of the soluble portion of it would be washed away by the rains of winter4 ,it is true we have had none this winter1 but when shall we have such another8 ,did you ever use woollen rags as manure8 ,they ought to be excellent1 as they are almost all albumen1 and are1 ,i fancy1 to be had at a very moderate price1 not far from you4 ,can you inform me what it is that causes the land to be clover-sick8 ,if it is the abstraction of something from the soil1 what is that something8 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy said that a dressing of gypsum would prevent it2 but clover does not succeed here 7even when dressed with gypsum71 if sowed every four years4 ,one reason why ,i think so small a quantity of manure will not succeed1 is based on the theory of excrementitious secretion4 ,decandolle proved that this secretion took place1 but he did not succeed in proving that it poisoned the land for a similar crop4 ,i can only reason from analogy1 and it does not follow that an analogy drawn from animal life will hold good when applied to plants2 but if we were to feed an animal with pure gluten and pure starch1 with the proper quantity of phosphates1 c41 are we to suppose it would have no excrements8 ,let this be applied to plants3 are we to suppose that the plant assimilates all that is absorbed by its roots and leaves8 ,when that which is absorbed is what would enter into the composition of the plant1 is it not more rational to suppose that the inorganic and gaseous constituents only combine in fixed proportions1 and that although the plant may absorb a much larger proportion of one than is required1 the surplus is discharged excrementitiously1 and perhaps may be unfitted for entering into the plant until it has undergone a decomposition8 ,in conclusion1 ,i trust you will pardon my frankness in so boldly canvassing your opinions2 but it is in this collision of opinion that the truth will be elicited1 and if ,i judge you aright1 it is that you wish to discover whether it harmonizes with your preconceived notions or not4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,low ,,moor1 #ast ,may1 #ahde4 ,,henry ,,briggs1 ,,esq4 ,i duly received your pamphlet on the use of lime1 for which ,i am much obliged1 and am delighted to perceive that you confirm the idea 7expressed in my pamphlet on the growth of wheat every year on the same land7 that the excessive use of lime is ultimately injurious to the fertility of the soil to which it is applied4 ,this1 coming from a gentleman of your reputation and experience1 will1 ,i hope1 induce someone capable of performing the experiment to endeavour to ascertain with precision how much lime it is desirable to apply to an acre to give the best results1 and with the least waste1 assuming that the land contained little or none previous to the experiment2 and it would also be desirable to ascertain whether it is better1 in an economical point of view1 to apply a small quantity every year1 or a larger quantity every third or fourth4 ,my own opinion is in favour of the former method1 except that it is difficult to get it ploughed in1 particularly in wet weather1 immediately after spreading 7which is essential where you grow wheat on the same land every year7 without injuring the feet of the horses4 ,you speak of ten days or a fortnight being necessary to neutralize caustic lime1 but our horses had their feet injured by it six weeks after it had been spread on the land1 last year1 although the weather had been wet almost the whole of the time1 say from the beginning of ,february to the middle of ,march4 ,you appear to think that lime will replace silica in the wheat plant4 ,whose authority have you for this8 ,it will be very important to establish this supposition1 but ,i fear it is too good news to be true4 ,on referring to your letter1 ,i find you don't say what ,i supposed you did1 but that the lime liberates the soluble silicates1 potash1 c4 ,this may be1 and certainly the beneficial effects of lime in growing wheat are not to be explained by any other hypothesis with which ,i am acquainted4 ,i am this year trying some experiments to ascertain 7if ,i can7 the cause of clover- sickness1 and ,i hope to be in a position to say whether your supposition that lime1 gypsum1 c4 will prevent it1 is correct4 ,my experiments so far are opposed to this theory1 but it is not very safe or philosophical to draw conclusions from one or two experiments only4 ,i doubt the possibility of making silicate of soda by merely mixing lime1 sand1 and salt together1 as my chemical friends tell me this cannot be accomplished unless the silex and the alkali are fused together4 ,if a soluble silicate of soda can be made in the way you mention1 it will be a great saving of expense4 ,has it been tried8 ,you have no doubt seen a report of the enormous crop of wheat grown in a field in ,norfolk last year 7#ij bushels to the acre71 and that the ,royal ,agricultural ,society have determined to have the soil analyzed by ,dr4 ,playfair4 ,this is very desirable1 but as ,dr4 ,playfair is more of a lecturing than an analyzing chemist1 ,i think it is very necessary that his analysis should be checked by another1 made by the most eminent chemist that ,europe can produce1 for #ij bushels is so unheard-of a crop1 that no expense should be spared which would enable us to ascertain what the soil contained to enable it to produce such a crop1 which is the more remarkable as the field seems to have been a good many years under the plough4 ,as your ,wakefield ,farmers' ,club has many wealthy members in it1 allow me to hint the desirableness of your undertaking this analysis1 which1 if properly performed1 will be worth a thousand times more than its cost4 ,when you are aware that even ,davy missed #af per cent4 of alumina in one of his analyses and that the chemists of the present day don't seem to have detected the potash which exists so abundantly in potato-tops1 you will1 ,i think1 agree how exceedingly important it is that such analysis should be checked by others1 made without any communication between the parties4 ,you speak of an original letter of ,liebig's appearing in the ,farmer's ,journal4 ,on what subject is it8 as ,i have no means of referring to the periodical in question4 ,does it throw any light upon the new manure for which he is said to be taking out a patent8 ,you speak of humus and humic acid4 ,what do you understand by humus8 as1 according to ,liebig1 humus sometimes means one thing and sometimes another1 and he appears to treat it very much as modern chemists treat phlogiston1 as something which they don't comprehend1 but which they need to explain the phenomena of vegetation4 ,if you are a believer in humus1 what is it composed of1 and how does it act in forwarding vegetation8 ,i suppose you will reply1 ,by combining with oxygen and forming humic acid4 ,but would not the theory of the decomposition of carbon do quite as well8 ,i don't perceive the injurious effects of quicklime upon grass land which you anticipate in your paper1 but the contrary1 and the more caustic it is the more beneficial is its action1 so far as ,i can judge from my own experiments2 and it is my practice in liming grass land to spread it as soon as ,i can get it into the state of flour4 ,i shall be glad to hear the result of your electrical experiment--at present ,i am rather sceptical on the subject4 ,p4,s4--,am ,i to suppose that you have abandoned the idea of manuring an acre of wheat for thirteen shillings8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,cultivation ,,of ,,wheat4 ,october #ast1 #aheb4 ,to the ,editor of the ,manchester ,guardian4 ,the increasing quantity of agricultural produce consumed in this country makes it desirable that the cultivation of the land should be carried to the highest point consistent with profit2 and the increasing scarcity of agricultural labourers will shortly render it difficult for the farmers in some districts to gather in their crops4 ,it therefore becomes increasingly desirable that every mechanical contrivance which will facilitate their doing so should be made as perfect as possible2 and also that the crops themselves should be so cultivated as to make these mechanical aids to work to the greatest advantage4 ,but it has been a difficult matter 7at least in the wet climate of ,lancashire7 to ascertain how far it is prudent to manure for wheat1 for in unfavourable seasons the plant runs so much to straw that it is liable to lodge1 and become mildewed2 in which cases the manure is not only wasted1 but becomes positively injurious1 as appears to be the case in the ,south of ,england this year1 and as was also the case in the ,north in #ahde1 when every shilling expended in manuring the wheat crops of that year made the crop at least a shilling worse than if no manure had been applied4 ,but if we could find a wheat so short in the straw that it would bear heavy manuring without being lodged1 wheat-growing would be a far less hazardous occupation than it is at present1 and we might confidently calculate on a far greater production than we can now4 ,the following appear to me to be some of the advantages of growing a short-strawed wheat3-- #ast4 ,it will bear highly manuring without lodging1 and with much less liability to mildew1 than a long-strawed wheat4 #bnd4 ,the proportion of grain to straw is greater in short than in long-strawed wheat4 #crd4 ,as it very rarely lodges1 it will be far better suited to the reaping-machine than a long-strawed wheat2 and no doubt other advantages will occur to the minds of experienced agriculturists4 ,when making these assertions ,i ought to state that my experience of wheat-growing does not extend beyond the counties of ,york and ,lancaster1 but from what ,i can learn of the agriculture of more southerly districts1 ,i fancy these opinions of mine will be found correct even there4 ,i may be asked to prove my assertion1 and ,i will endeavour to do so4 ,i have been experimenting on the growth of wheat for the last ten or eleven years--particularly with reference to the practicability of doing this on the same land year after year2 and that ,i might do it in the most satisfactory manner1 ,i have varied my seed-wheat and my manure very frequently3 but ,i very soon discovered that the advantages of abundance of manure and high cultivation did not insure good crops of wheat1 inasmuch as in our moist climate1 we had not one summer in five that was favourable1 and consequently the crop was generally lodged1 and the straw mildewed4 ,i found that the time of sowing1 and also of applying the manure1 were matters of great importance1 and it occurred to me that the remedy would be--a straw so short1 that it would not lodge when highly manured4 ,i consequently addressed a query to the ,gardener's ,chronicle1 asking what was the shortest-strawed variety of wheat known1 and was told that ,piper's ,thickset was so2 ,i therefore got some of this sort from ,mr4 ,piper1 which ,i have cultivated since #ahdg4 ,it is a coarse red wheat1 but the quality has improved with me every year1 and this season being the third successive crop on the same land1 ,i have nearly eight quarters to the statute acre from this variety4 #b4 ,the proportion of wheat in ,piper's ,thickset is #ch per cent4 of the gross weight of the crop2 in the ,hopetown wheat 7,i speak of my own crops only71 #cd per cent4 #c4 ,not having seen a reaping-machine1 it may seem absurd in me to say that short-strawed wheat is better adapted to it than long- strawed2 but every report of the working of these machines goes to show that1 so far1 they are not well adapted to the cutting of laid corn2 therefore a variety that always stands upright will be much better suited to the working of them4 ,i have been trying for the last six years to obtain 7by cross- breeding7 a wheat of good quality1 and with a straw shorter than ,piper's1 but hitherto with indifferent success2 but1 thanks to the kindness of ,messrs4 ,brownells1 of ,liverpool1 who furnished me with many samples of ,chilian wheat about three years ago1 ,i have now got varieties much shorter in the straw than ,piper's1 and some which appear to be of much better quality1 but these will require to be tested for a year or two before ,i can speak decisively about them4 ,the ,chilian varieties are very difficult to acclimatize4 ,the original samples were beautiful white wheats1 very much resembling the ,australian1 but when grown in ,lancashire they resemble rye more than wheat1 and three years' sowing has not much improved them4 ,it has1 however1 enabled me to obtain crosses which seem better adapted to the soil and climate1 and so short in the straw that the highest manuring produces no tendency to lodge4 ,if we could obtain a variety of wheat of good quality1 which1 instead of two tons of straw and one of wheat to the acre1 produced a ton and a half of each1 it might be profitably cultivated1 and the differences in the chemical composition of grain and straw are not so very great as to make me despair of this being done some time or other4 ,it may be asked1 ,where can a short-strawed wheat of good quality be procured8 ,to this ,i am afraid the reply will be1 ,nowhere at present4 ,but can none of our expert manipulators1 who rejoice exceedingly when they cross-breed a geranium or a fuchsia1 turn their attention to the cross-breeding of wheat8 ,cannot the ,royal ,agricultural ,society offer a premium for a short-strawed wheat of good quality8 ,do none of the great agriculturists themselves see how desirable such a wheat would be for the agriculture of this country8 ,apparently not2 for with the exception of ,mr4 ,raynbird1 of ,hampshire1 ,i am not aware of one scientific operator who is endeavouring to produce such a wheat4 ,my own attempts at cross-breeding are such as may be tried by anyone who has sufficient perseverance1 and 7with one or two exceptions1 of doubtful success7 have been confined to sowing the different varieties ,i wished to cross in contiguous drills1 and then sowing the produce of these4 ,at the second harvest ,i carefully select such ears as differ from both varieties1 and at the same time seem by their quality of grain and the shortness of their straw to be the best suited to my wishes4 ,it has been1 no doubt1 to the accidental contact of distinct varieties that we owe the numerous kinds now known to agriculturists1 and which differ from each other in colour1 quality1 yield1 and comparative value in the various districts in which they are grown4 ,fully sensible of my inability to do justice to this important subject1 ,i yet hope 7if you do me the honour to publish my letter7 that my remarks may induce scientific men to consider it2 for it appears unaccountable to me that hitherto they seem to have thought it unworthy of their attention4 ,p4,s4--,there is still time to try the experiment during the present season4 ,if any gentleman wishes to try the short-strawed ,chilian wheat1 ,i shall be glad to give him a sample of it for the purpose of cross-breeding4 ,samples were sent to ,mr4 ,h4 ,briggs1 ,mr4 ,raynbird1 and ,mr4 ,stevenson1 ,stockport4 99 99 99 99 99 ,january #bgth1 #ahdh4 ,to the ,editor of the ,agricultural ,gazette4 ,you invite persons who have grown good crops of grain or turnips to forward you the particulars4 ,i therefore enclose you an account of an attempt which ,i made to grow wheat on the same land year after year1 that account reaching to the fourth white crop in #ahdd4 ,as ,i still continue the experiment1 ,i shall be in a position to continue the account up to the present time 7as ,i am now threshing out the last year's crop71 and will send it to you if you think it worthy of insertion in the ,agricultural ,gazette4 ,if the account ,i now send is not worth inserting1 please to send it to your correspondent ,a4 ,w41 who doubted whether there were authenticated instances of land producing eighty1 seventy1 or even fifty bushels to the acre4 ,i attribute my success in growing wheat to the use of silicate of soda1 and yet1 singularly enough1 until now ,i have been unable to induce anyone else to try it4 ,this season1 however1 several persons have applied to me to procure it for them4 ,among them is the talented editor of the ,liverpool ,times1 whose farm at ,barton ,moss shows what good management will accomplish on very unpromising soils4 ,if1 as ,i hope will be the case1 the silicate of soda should supply to peat its greatest deficiency1 no one will more readily discover it than ,mr4 ,baines4 ,in the use of silicates of soda and potash1 one precaution is very necessary1 namely1 that you really have a soluble silicate1 not a mere mechanical mixture of ground flint and alkali4 ,this is a very different thing1 and one which1 if it be not carefully guarded against1 will lead to nothing but disappointment4 ,again1 the silicate of soda may be properly made1 in the first instance1 but in a long exposure to the atmosphere1 the soda attracts carbonic acid1 and is liberated from the silex1 and this has disappointed my expectation more than once4 ,again1 though ,i consider it desirable to defer the application of soluble silicates until vegetation has made a fair start in the spring1 yet in one instance ,i delayed the application of it so long that there was not moisture to dissolve it until the end of ,june1 and then the plant began to send up suckers from the roots1 and the crop was seriously injured by it2 but this was in an exceedingly dry spring1 and may not happen again for many years4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,clitheroe1 ,march #gth1 #ahdh4 ,in continuing my attempts to grow wheat on the same land year after year1 ,i observed that the crop of #ahde was very seriously injured by the deficient drainage--the old drains having been destroyed by the subsoil plough4 ,it was therefore necessary to replace them2 they were accordingly put in four feet deep4 ,this took up so much time1 that the season for sowing wheat had gone by1 and the ground was cropped with potatoes1 which were dug up in ,september1 and the wheat might have been got in early in ,october2 but seeing in your paper that sowing too early was not advisable1 and also being carried away by the arguments of the thin-seeders1 ,i deferred sowing until the middle of ,november1 and also put in little seed1 and the weather proving very unfavourable when the wheat was coming up1 there was not half plant enough in the spring1 and ,i hesitated whether to plough up the ground or to drill in barley4 ,i determined to do the latter4 ,it was put in on the #ahth ,april1 and wheat and barley grew up together1 and when cut and threshed1 it yielded #dh bushels to the acre4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,gravelling ,,of ,,clay ,,soils4 ,there is an old story of a man1 who1 having a very stony field1 determined to experiment on the value of these stones in the growth of his crops4 ,with this view he divided his field into three equal parts4 ,from ,no4 #a he gathered all the stones1 which he spread upon ,no4 #c1 leaving ,no4 #b in its original condition4 ,he then sowed barley over the whole field1 and carefully noted the results4 ,the story ends by saying that ,no4 #a bore a miserably poor crop1 ,no4 #b a tolerable one1 and ,no4 #c a splendid one4 ,i quote this story as a text on which ,i wish to speak as to the advantage of gravelling heavy clay soils4 ,some weeks since ,i spent a few days at the village of ,milnthorpe1 in ,westmoreland1 and during one day with ,mr4 ,hutton1 the celebrated bone-setter1 ,i remarked that the land was very stony1 being covered with stones 7not pebbles7 having very much the appearance of road metal4 ,he replied1 that these stones were essential to the fertility of the soil1 and said that some years before there was a great demand for such material in the neighbourhood of ,preston1 and the high prices stimulated the farmers to gather these stones from their land1 and send them to ,preston2 but the consequences were so injurious to the growth of their crops1 that they were compelled--at least those who had the means of doing so--to lead stones again upon their land before their crops would grow again with the vigour which they had before the stones were abstracted4 ,this brought to mind what had occurred in my own farm practice4 ,a church was built in the neighbourhood1 and the stones for it were hewn on the corner of a field which was afterwards sown with wheat1 and ,i remarked that the straw was much brighter1 the ripening was forwarded ten days1 and the sample was much better where the stones had been hewn than elsewhere in the field4 7,the stones of which the church was built were of ordinary sandstone1 probably millstone grit47 ,borrowing from this hint1 ,i had the field covered with about #djj cartloads of alluvial gravel 7from the bed of the river7 to the acre1 and the land was then ploughed two furrows deep1 one plough following the other4 ,previous to this gravelling1 the land was a stiff1 obdurate clay nearly to the surface4 ,the subsequent effect was the doubling1 or more probably trebling the value of the land1 which has now become a nice friable soil4 ,i was much amused with the criticisms of some of the neighbouring farmers 7men of the old school71 one of whom remarked that he had seen land tilled 7manured7 in various ways before my time1 but until now he had never seen a field tilled with cobble-stones4 ,i said1 ,what is your objection to it1 ,john8 ,why1 ye see1 it makes th' land so poor4 ,i replied1 ,making anything or anybody poor1 means robbing them of something4 ,if you had twenty shillings in your pocket1 and ,i filled it up with these cobble-stones1 how much poorer would you be8 ,of what have ,i robbed this field by putting gravel into it8 ,why1 of nothing2 but it looks so queer4 ,i said1 ,john1 did you never hear of a man gathering the stones off his field1 and then having to lead them back again8 ,yes1 ,i have2 but then they were natural to the soil4 ,i said1 ,what does manuring land mean1 but putting something into it of which it is deficient8 ,you don't till a muck-midden4 ,if in stony land stones are essential for the vigorous growth of the crop1 is it not exceedingly probable that they will be still more beneficial on stiff land which has no stones in it8 ,this is a doctrine ,i tried many years since to inculcate upon our friend ,mechi1 and some of his land 7,i speak of its condition twenty years since7 needed such a gravelling as much as any land ,i ever saw4 ,whether he adopted my suggestion1 or his land remains in the same condition now as then1 ,i don't know2 but if it does1 ,i would just suggest to him and to all landed proprietors who own stiff clay lands1 if they are near to gravel-pits1 to try a small portion by gravelling it freely1 and let us hear the results4 ,december #bnd1 #ahga4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cotton4 ,june #ast1 #ahdb4 ,j4 ,,kindermann1 ,,esq4 ,i have for some time intended to call your attention to the importance of attempting to grow fine cotton in ,peru1 but my inability to do justice to the subject1 both from my being practically unacquainted with any mode of growing cotton and my general want of information1 has hitherto prevented me2 but as ,i made you a promise to that effect yesterday1 ,i have endeavoured to put a few suggestions on paper1 and hope that if they be carefully acted upon1 some benefit may be derived from the experiments4 ,we have been 7as you are aware7 consumers of ,peruvian cotton to some extent for the last six or eight months1 and from the observations ,i have made on it during that time1 ,i have no hesitation in saying that it possesses many excellences3 it is long enough 7almost too long71 very sound in staple1 and where well managed of a very good colour4 ,its defects are coarseness and harshness of staple1 and if these could be removed ,i don't see what is to prevent its rivalling the ,egyptian and ,sea ,islands cotton1 any considerable approximation to which would very materially enhance its value1 seeing that the highest quotation for ,sea ,island1 was last week #cj;d4 per lb4 7#bs4 #f;d471 whilst the highest for ,peruvian was no more than #f #a_/b d4 ,with the view of improving the quality of the cotton in ,peru1 ,i would strongly recommend you to send seeds of various kinds1 packed in air-tight boxes1 particularly ,sea ,island and ,egyptian1 which some of the cotton-brokers would easily procure from the spinners using these descriptions1 and1 judging from what ,i hear of the climate of both countries1 ,i should think the ,egyptian would go to a very similar atmosphere and mode of cultivation to that of the country where it had been raised1 which would probably render it more easy to acclimatize1 and1 of course1 make it more likely to succeed than a sort of cotton which had been grown under dissimilar circumstances of soil1 climate1 and mode of cultivation4 ,these seeds when sown1 ought 7with the exceptions hereafter to be mentioned7 to be planted at such a distance from all other cottons as to render it very unlikely for the wind or insects to carry the pollen from the flowers of one kind to those of another2 for without this precaution1 such is the tendency in many genera of plants to hybridize 7and ,i believe1 from what ,i have heard1 there is this tendency in the different varieties of cotton7 or cross- breed with each other1 that1 however good the quality in the first instance1 they would all revert to the old variety in a year or two in consequence of the great preponderance of that variety over any newly-introduced ones4 ,so much are the growers of turnip-seed for sale in ,england aware of the importance of attending to this1 that the greatest precautions are taken to remove all cruciform plants from the vicinity of the field whilst their turnips are in flower1 as there is such a tendency in them all to hybridize that the quality of the seed is often injured by the wild mustard 7,sinapis arvensis7 springing up in the same or the adjoining fields2 whilst1 on the other hand1 by carefully selecting the best bulbs for seed1 and by judiciously crossing one variety with another1 new sorts are obtained1 combining the excellences of both4 ,this leads me to observe1 that probably seed of foreign varieties of cotton may not thrive well in the first instance1 and ,i would therefore strongly recommend the gentlemen who may make the experiment carefully to select seed from the plants on their estates which they see are growing the best and finest cotton1 and sow them in contact with a few seeds of each of the sorts you may send out1 carefully removing them in every instance as far as may be practicable from the vicinity of all other cotton2 and then again sowing the seeds which are obtained from the plants thus raised in contiguity to each other1 and carefully examining the cotton grown upon each of them1 it is more than probable they will find that some of the plants will be varieties partaking of the character of both the parent kinds1 and by selecting the best of these and sowing them only 7still apart from all other cotton71 there is little doubt that much benefit will be derived by the persevering and skilful cultivator4 ,i have heard it stated that the origin of ,sea ,island cotton is to be traced to something of this kind4 ,an observing and experimental planter1 by carefully examining his cotton1 and by sowing his seed only from those plants that produced the finest and longest staple1 at last arrived at the excellent quality which is now known by that name4 ,look1 again1 at what has been done in ,egypt by the introduction of better varieties of cotton4 ,there these improved varieties have by no means had a fair chance of showing what they are capable of becoming1 inasmuch as the wretched cultivator has not the slightest inducement to improve their quality--he gets no more per pound for the finest and cleanest cotton than he does for the coarsest and dirtiest1 and therefore it is not very likely to improve under his care4 ,but with all this neglect and want of management1 we can see by what it is1 what it would most probably become in the hands of an enterprising and intelligent man who knew that every improvement he made in its quality would be to his own advantage4 ,assuming that your ,peruvian friends could so far improve the quality of their cotton as to double its value in this market 7and ,i don't think myself too sanguine in expecting more than this71 with very little extra labour nearly all the additional price would be profit4 ,but supposing even that cross-breeding1 or hybridizing1 as the horticulturists call it1 does not frequently occur naturally in cotton1 it is well known that it is very easy to effect it artificially by prematurely unfolding the petals and with fine scissors cutting away all the stamens before impregnation takes place4 ,this requires to be carefully done1 so as not to injure the petals1 and they will then close again of themselves1 and when they expand naturally1 then impregnate the stigma of the flower with the pollen of the kind you want to cross with4 ,we owe many of our finest varieties of fruits to this practice4 ,the late ,mr4 ,payne ,knight was very successful in raising new varieties of many sorts of fruit in this way1 and it appears to me from the experiments ,i have made that the more frequently this cross- breeding takes place1 the more easy 7within certain limits7 is it to extend it until cultivation has so completely changed the character of the plant that it bears very little resemblance to its original stock4 ,there is nothing growing wild like our cabbages1 turnips1 and cauliflowers2 nor even like our carrots1 celery1 and asparagus4 ,where are the originals of our wheat1 barley1 rye1 beans1 and peas8 ,many of these appear to be so completely transformed by cultivation that we don't know where to look for the parent stocks from which they originated4 ,but ,i am forgetting cotton altogether1 yet beg to refer to the preceding paragraph to show how much is owing to careful cultivation1 and trust that it may not be without its use if my letter induces your friends to make the experiments here suggested1 even though their first attempts are unsuccessful4 ,this letter was translated into ,spanish and circulated in ,peru1 but with what success ,i do not know4 ,it was also published in the ,gardener's ,chronicle1 and led to a reply from ,dr4 ,royle1 which occasioned the following letter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,august #adth1 #ahde4 ,to the ,editor of the ,gardener's ,chronicle4 ,i am very glad that my letter and your remarks on the improvement of cotton in ,india have attracted the attention of so able a correspondent as ,g4 ,f4 ,r4 7,dr4 ,royle71 who appears to be conversant with a good deal of what has been attempted there4 ,no doubt there are1 as he states1 great diversities of soil and climate in so extensive a country as ,india2 and if so1 although there may be some which are not adapted to the growth of either the ,gossypium ,barbadense or the ,gossypium ,peruvianum1 there must be both soil and climate suited to them in various localities in that country4 ,my chief reason for suspecting that the injury arises from the new kinds hybridizing with the indigenous cotton1 is1 that very good cotton has been grown from both varieties in the first generation1 but when the seed from this first crop is sown again1 the quality always deteriorates 7at least all the gentlemen say so with whom ,i have conversed on this subject74 ,i have a sample of ,indian-grown cotton of excellent quality from ,pernambuco seed1 worth twice as much as the best ,surat cotton ,i ever saw2 but ,i cannot learn that anything deserving the name of aught but a sample was ever obtained4 ,we hear of no increase in the quantity of this improved variety2 it does not--like cotton in the ,united ,states--go on from ten bags to ten thousand1 in eight or ten years2 on the contrary1 so far as ,i can learn1 it dwindles away to nothing4 ,the ,tinnivelly cotton brought forward as an example by your correspondent is no exception to this--it is no more like ,bourbon cotton1 than ,bowed cotton is like ,sea ,island--at least none that ,i ever saw4 ,bourbon is a long1 silky-stapled cotton1 whilst ,tinnivelly has the shortness and inequality of fibre common to most of the cotton of ,india4 ,it is generally much cleaner than the cotton grown on the western side of ,india1 but this arises from the greater care in picking it4 ,an intelligent friend of mine1 now in ,india1 says that the pod of cotton is overhung by a brown leaf 7bractea871 and if the cotton is gathered early in the morning1 whilst the dew is on the plant1 this leaf is tough and does not break1 and the cotton is gathered clean2 but if it is picked after the dew has evaporated1 this leaf is brittle1 and gets mixed with the cotton in the picking4 ,but he says that no persuasion can induce the ryots to keep that which is picked in the morning from that which is gathered in the heat of the day4 ,he also suggests that the cotton should be irrigated during its growth1 and alleges as a motive for doing this1 that in ,egypt and ,peru no good cotton can be grown without resorting to it4 ,but the cases are not exactly parallel1 inasmuch as no rain falls in either of these countries1 whilst rain is most abundant in ,india1 eighty or ninety inches of rain sometimes falling at ,bombay in three months during the monsoon4 ,another intelligent gentleman with whom ,i have conversed on this subject since my former letter was written1 and who has resided at ,bombay many years1 where he has paid much attention to this subject1 tells me that the gentleman entrusted by the ,east ,india ,company with the management of one of the experimental cotton estates1 assures him he has grown excellent ,orleans cotton1 and that the ryots were so satisfied with its superiority over the indigenous kind that #a1bjj begahs 7say #cjj acres7 were planted with it4 ,but this was two years ago1 and as the disturbances took place in this very neighbourhood1 he fears these plantations have perished1 as he heard no more of the matter1 and had omitted to inquire of the gentleman entrusted with the management4 ,i reserved this until ,i saw the second letter from your correspondent ,g4 ,f4 ,r41 which ,i have now read1 as well as an article on the same subject in the ,manchester ,guardian1 in which it is stated that #bj1jjj acres are now under cultivation1 planted with this improved cotton4 ,i fear this is too good news to be true4 ,my informant is a gentleman who was in correspondence with ,mr4 ,mercer1 the superintendent of these cotton estates1 or some of them1 and ,i have again questioned him4 ,he says that the crop which would be gathered in ,march last1 would amount to what ,i have stated 7#a1bjj begahs71 according to ,mr4 ,mercer's letter to him1 but he says it is now twelve months since he heard from ,mr4 ,mercer1 as he left ,bombay for ,england shortly after4 ,his fear was that none of this cotton would be gathered1 as the disturbances which took place in ,central ,india1 and which required so long a time to quell them1 were in this very district4 ,if your correspondent ,g4 ,f4 ,r4 has got samples of this improved cotton1 of the second or third generation1 he would confer a great obligation upon me by sending me a small sample of it by post4 ,but this is wandering from what ,i intended to say1 which was most heartily to thank your correspondent for his second communication1 which goes far to prove the truth of what ,i had previously supposed1 that the cotton of ,india is capable of great improvement by being judiciously crossed with suitable foreign varieties4 ,your correspondent thinks if the old varieties deteriorate the new when growing in proximity to each other1 the new ought1 for the same reason1 to improve the old2 and no doubt they will1 but to a much smaller extent4 ,it is said that a man leaping up into the air attracts the earth 7proportionately7 as much as the earth attracts him1 and it may be so with the old and new cotton4 ,what ,i mean to say is1 that although some of the old sort of cotton might be hybridized by the new1 the improved variety would be in so small a quantity that a thousand to one the cultivator would never observe it2 and such is the aversion or indifference to anything new among the natives of ,india1 that if an improved plant were observed1 it is again a thousand to one he would take no pains to preserve it2 and if he did1 it is again perhaps a thousand to one that it would be entirely spoilt in the next generation by being planted among the indigenous sorts4 ,i trust your correspondent will continue to favour us with his communications whenever he has any fresh information on the subject1 which1 the more it is considered the more important it seems to be4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,papers ,,on ,,natural ,,history4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,wrens' ,,nests4 ,,the ,editor of ,loudon's ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 and one of his contributors1 ,mr4 ,jennings1 were of opinion that the common ,wren never lined its nest with feathers4 ,the following contribution was sent to the ,magazine of ,natural ,history in consequence of this1 and led to some discussion afterwards3-- ,april #agth1 #ahbi4 ,mr4 ,jennings and yourself1 in opposition to ,montagu1 are of opinion that the ,wren never lines its nest with feathers2 like the knights of the gold-and-silver shield1 both sides are right4 ,it is true1 many ,wrens' nests may be found in which there are no feathers2 but did you ever find either eggs or young ones in them8 ,as far as my observations go1 the nest in which the ,wren lays its eggs is profusely lined with feathers2 but during the period of incubation1 the male--apparently from a desire to be doing something--constructs several nests in the vicinity of the first1 none of which are lined2 and whilst the first nest is so artfully concealed as to be found with difficulty1 the last is very often seen4 ,the ,wren does not appear to be very careful in the selection of a site for these cock-nests1 as they are called in ,yorkshire by the schoolboys4 ,i have frequently seen them in the twigs of a thick thorn hedge1 under banks1 in haystacks1 in ivy bushes1 in old stumps1 in the loopholes of buildings1 and in one instance in an old bonnet1 which was placed among some peas to frighten away the blackcaps4 99 99 99 99 99 ,august #aeth1 #ahca4 ,,to ,,professor ,,rennie4 ,in your edition of ,montagu's ,ornithological ,dictionary1 just published1 you say--speaking of the ,wren--,an anonymous correspondent of ,loudon's ',magazine of ,natural ,history1' c4 c42 and you remark1 ,there can be no doubt of these supposed 'cock- nests' being nothing more than unfinished structures of paired birds2 otherwise1 the story would require the support of very strong evidence to render it credible4 ,as ,i am the anonymous correspondent alluded to1 ,i forward you a few observations of facts tending1 as ,i think1 to confirm my view of the question4 ,in the first place1 these nests are far too abundant for the birds1 which are not plentiful--at least1 in this neighbourhood4 ,again1 it is at least five to one that any ,wren's nest which is found during the summer without a lining of hair or feathers is ever completed1 or has any eggs in it4 ,this ,i have verified in a hundred instances1 when1 having found ,wrens' nests1 ,i have visited them again at intervals1 for the purpose of ascertaining whether my opinion of cock-nests was correct4 ,farther1 in a small wood adjoining my garden1 where ,i was certain there was only one pair of ,wrens1 ,i found at least half-a-dozen nests1 not one of which was either lined with feathers or ever had eggs in it2 although ,i discovered they were not all deserted1 as ,i found an old bird roosting in one of them4 ,i was induced to be more particular in my remarks in consequence of my seeing ,mr4 ,jennings's remarks in the ,magazine of ,natural ,history2 and ,i searched1 as ,i supposed1 every bank1 bush1 and stump in the wood two or three times before ,i could find the breeding-nest1 which ,i at last discovered in the twigs of a willow on the bank of the river1 in the centre of a bunch of tangled grass1 cotton waste1 and straws which had been left there by the floods1 and which the bird had apparently excavated and in it formed its nest1 which was profusely lined with rooks' feathers4 ,the fear of being thought tedious prevents my giving other facts which tend1 as ,i think1 to prove the correctness of my opinion2 however1 ,i will just add that all the persons with whom ,i have conversed who take an interest in such pursuits1 agree with me in opinion in this matter4 ,the nest ,i have just spoken of was also a strong proof that ,wrens1 although they may not always adapt their materials to the locality they have chosen for a nest1 frequently do so2 and if this is not with the intention of concealing it1 but merely because the materials are at hand1 it serves the purpose of concealment also1 and very effectually4 ,the one ,i am speaking of was so exactly like the other lumps of rubbish which had been left by the floods in the same bush1 that ,i did not discover that it was a ,wren's nest until ,i had pulled it out of the twigs2 and if a ,wren builds its nest in a haystack--which it frequently does--the front of the nest is almost invariably composed of the hay from the stack1 which prevents its being seen much more effectually than if the moss of which the body of the nest is composed were visible on the outside4 ,the fact that the long-tailed tits occasionally associate to the number of six or seven1 and have a nest in common1 which is mentioned in the same page of the ,magazine of ,natural ,history as the ,wrens' nests1 ,i could prove by the testimony of twenty people who saw the nest and young there spoken of4 ,i should be glad to learn whether the same thing has been noticed by other people4 ,among the few rare birds which it has been my good fortune to procure is a ,woodpecker1 which ,i killed this summer1 and which is not mentioned in your edition of ,montagu1 although spoken of by ,bewick as a dubious species1 under the name of the ,middle ,spotted ,woodpecker4 ,a pair of these birds had built their nest1 or rather hatched their young 7for there was no nest71 in a hole in a decayed ash tree about twenty feet from the ground4 ,there were two young ones1 which ,i secured1 as well as one of the old ones1 and they are all in the possession of a professional friend of mine1 who is a collector of ornithological specimens4 ,the old one measures #i #a_/b inches long1 and weighed #df #a_/b dwts4 an hour after it was killed4 ,the forehead is a dirty buff1 the whole crown of the head a bright crimson2 the irides a dark lead colour1 and it has a white ring round its neck4 ,in other respects it corresponds with your description of the ,picus major4 ,the sex was not ascertained4 ,the young ones have also the bright crimson head1 and differ very materially from the old one4 ,the ,chevy ,linnet1 as the lesser ,redpole is called1 is found here throughout the year1 and is at no time a scarce bird with us4 ,it frequently builds its nest in the alder and willow bushes1 on the banks of the brooks or rivers4 ,it is a late breeder1 the nests being often met with containing eggs or young in ,july4 ,in the winter it feeds upon the seeds of the alder or the cones of the larch1 hanging suspended from the twigs like the titmouse4 ,we have also the ,gray ,wagtail 7,motacilla sulphurea7 with us the whole year1 but it is rather a rare bird at all times and in all localities with which ,i am acquainted4 7#ahec3--;,it is more plentiful now than it was in #ahca47 ,i very strongly suspect ,selby is mistaken when he says1 that previous to its departure in ,september1 it assembles in small flocks or families1 which haunt the meadows or bare pastures4 ,this does not agree with my observations of this bird1 although quite true when applied to the ,spring ,wagtail 7,motacilla flava72 on the contrary1 the ,grey ,wagtail is solitary throughout the year1 except in the breeding season1 and never frequents the meadows1 but is found in the beds of the rivers1 brooks1 or ditches1 where its shrill note often betrays it to eyes which would otherwise never see it4 ,this bird may be easily distinguished from the ,spring ,wagtail by its note when flying--yet1 notwithstanding the difference is very apparent to a person who hears them both1 it is not so easily described4 ,in attempting to do so1 therefore1 ,i hope ,i shall be excused if ,i don't make the difference so apparent in the description as it is in reality4 ,the latter part of the note of the ,grey ,wagtail when flying is higher in the musical scale than the former part1 and is very staccato1 thus3 ,,bar ,,of ,,music generally being uttered as the bird makes a spring in the air1 #aj whilst the latter part of the note of the summer-bird is lower in the scale than the former part1 which is more prolonged than in the note of the ,grey ,wagtail1 and is slurred into the latter part1 something in the following manner3 ,,bar ,,of ,,music ,of course ,i don't mean it to be understood that these notes are either of the same pitch1 or that they bear the same relation to each other that the notes of the bird do1 but as a rude attempt at illustrating what ,i could not explain in any other way4 ,a singular habit which ,i have noticed in several individuals of this species 7,m4 sulphurea7 has amused me exceedingly4 ,they were in the habit of looking at their own images in the windows and attacking them1 uttering their peculiar cry1 and pecking and fluttering against the glass as earnestly as if the object they saw was a real rival instead of an imaginary one 7a friend who observed it1 insisted that1 ,narcissus-like1 it was in an ecstasy of self-admiration74 ,what is more remarkable1 two of these instances occurred in the autumn1 when one would not suppose the same motives for animosity to exist that would probably actuate them in the spring4 ,the first of these instances was when ,i was a boy1 and was repeated daily for several weeks1 both against the windows of my father's house and those of our neighbour1 who1 being rather superstitious1 was alarmed about it1 and came to consult my mother on the subject4 ,she said there was a bird which her brother told her was a barley-bird 7,motacilla flava71 which was continually flying against her windows1 and as birds were not in the habit of doing so generally1 she thought something serious was portended by it4 ,my mother comforted her as well as she could1 and ,i undertook to rid her of the annoyance1 which ,i did by setting a horsehair- noose on one of the window-ledges which it frequented4 ,i soon caught it1 and by plucking out the under-tail coverts1 with which ,i wanted to dress yellow duns1 ,i effectually cured it of the propensity--whether1 ,narcissus-like1 it was in an ecstasy of self- admiration1 or like the cock which attacked its own image in the boot 7which ,mr4 ,robert ,warren's poet and painter have immortalized71 it would admit of no rival4 ,it has been suggested1 and ,i think with great probability1 that the bird was merely attempting to catch the flies which it saw on the inside of the panes of glass2 but certainly it was not so silent about it as these birds generally are when they are feeding4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,long-,,tailed ,,titmouse4 ,to the ,editor of ,loudon's ,magazine4 ,some years ago1 when my brother and myself were seekers of birds' nests1 we found one of the ,long-tailed ,titmouse 7,parus caudatus71 about two miles from home1 containing young ones half- fledged4 ,being anxious to rear them1 we hit upon the plan of catching the old ones1 and giving them the trouble instead of ourselves4 ,we accordingly set lime-twigs near the nest1 and caught six old ones out of the seven of which the colony consisted1 and brought them away in triumph2 but the old ones would not eat in confinement1 and all died but one1 which we allowed to escape1 in the hope that it would come back and rear the young ones4 ,this it did1 and by the most unwearied exertion reared the whole brood1 sometimes feeding them ten times in a minute4 ,never having seen this social habit stated in any ornithological work to which ,i have access1 ,i am not aware that it is generally known to naturalists2 but it is right to state that ,i have only found one nest of the species since1 and this my avocations would not permit me to examine4 ,i am therefore not aware whether the fact ,i have stated was an exception to the general habit of the bird1 or whether such is invariably the case4 ,some of your correspondents will1 no doubt1 be able to give an answer to this inquiry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,identity ,,of ,,the ,,green ,,with ,,the ,,wood-,,sandpiper4 ,to the ,editor of the ,magazine of ,natural ,history4 ,the question whether the ,green and the ,wood-,sandpiper are the same species seems from ,rennie's edition of ,montagu's ,ornithological ,dictionary to be undecided2 but as a specimen has just come under my notice which appears to me to clear up this difficulty1 ,i shall offer no apology for sending a description of it4 ,the length from the bill to the tail is #aj inches1 to the end of the toes1 #aa #c_/d inches2 breadth1 #ag inches2 thigh-joint to the toe1 #e #a_/b inches4 ,the bill measures #a #e_/h inches from the corner of the mouth1 and is very slender2 the upper mandible1 which is black and slightly curved at the point1 is a little longer than the lower one1 which is a dark green at the base and black at the point2 a dark streak extends from the base of the upper mandible to the corner of the eye1 and above it is a patch of dirty white intermixed with minute dusky spots2 a small circle of dirty white surrounds the eyes2 the chin is white2 the cheeks1 throat1 and forepart of the neck white1 spotted with dusky1 with which colour a few laminae of each feather are marked their whole length4 ,the breast has a dappled stripe of the same colour as the throat running down the middle of it2 with this exception it is white1 as are also the belly1 vent1 and under tail-coverts4 ,the crown of the head and hinder part of the neck are a dingy brown1 which on the neck has a shade of ash colour2 the bend of the wing and lesser wing-coverts are a brownish black2 the whole upper surface of the plumage is of a glossy brownish-green1 which is spotted on the middle wing-coverts with minute white spots1 that change to a dingy yellow on the back1 scapulars1 and tertials1 the last of which have twelve spots on the outer margin of the feathers1 and six on the inner one2 the tertials are very long1 the longest of them reaching to within a quarter of an inch of the extreme top of the wing1 which reaches to the end of the tail2 the quill feathers are wholly black1 as are also the secondaries2 the upper part of the rump is black1 and each feather is slightly tipped with white1 which forms small wavy lines on that part of the plumage2 the lower part of the rump and upper tail-coverts are pure white2 the tail1 which is even at the end1 consists of twelve feathers1 which are barred with black and white alternately4 ,at the end of ,bewick's description of the ,green ,sandpiper there is a very exact representation of a covert feather of the tail1 and an inner-wing covert1 which will give a better idea of their appearance than a page of letterpress4 ,the legs are dark green1 the outer toe connected with the middle one by a membrane as far as the first joint2 toes very slender1 middle one #a #a_/d inch long2 weight1 #b #c_/d oz4 ,killed on the #agth ,september1 #ahca1 near ,stonyhurst4 ,i have been thus minute in my description from a wish to clear up the doubt that appears to exist as to the identity of these two birds4 ,the one ,i have now before me is1 undoubtedly1 the ,green ,sandpiper of ,bewick1 but it corresponds in so many particulars with the ,wood ,sandpiper of ,montagu1 and appears to combine so many of the peculiarities of both without exactly agreeing with either1 that ,i think it proves their identity satisfactorily4 ,the glossy green of the upper plumage and the barring of the under wing- coverts and the tail identify this bird with the ,green ,sandpiper2 whilst on the other side the yellowish spots on the scapulars and tertials1 the black rump1 the length of the leg1 and the web between the outer and middle toes are characteristic of the ,wood ,sandpiper of ,montagu4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,stoat4 ,i4 ,m4 7in the ,magazine of ,natural ,history7 says that the ,stoat is more timid than the weasel1 and that it does not change its colour as in the more northern parts of the world4 ,i know not why he calls it timid1 even relatively1 as ,i think it is the most fearless wild animal we have in the kingdom1 in proof of which ,i will mention an incident ,i witnessed myself4 ,i one day saw a ,stoat carrying off a large rat it had killed1 and ,i immediately pursued it1 but it stuck so tenaciously to its prey 7although it was so encumbered with its load as to be scarcely able to run at all7 that ,i was close upon it before it would abandon it2 however1 it then took refuge in a wall that happened to be close by4 ,i took up the rat1 and the ,stoat put its head out of the wall1 spitting and chattering with every appearance of the most lively indignation against me for having so unjustly robbed it of a lawful prize4 ,i amused myself with watching it for some time1 and then being desirous of seeing how far its evident desire to recapture its booty would overcome its fear of me1 ,i held the rat just before the hole in which it was1 when after several attempts1 in which its discretion got the better of its valour1 it at length screwed up its courage to the sticking-place1 came boldly out of the wall1 and dragged it out of my hand into the hole4 ,i know not in what county ,i4 ,m4 lives1 nor do ,i know whether he means to include any part of ,england in the more northern parts of the world1 but ,i do know that the ,stoat is white in the winter in ,yorkshire1 as ,i have caught and still more frequently seen specimens of this colour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,marsh ,,titmouse4 ,i have been much interested this spring at witnessing in two or three instances the tenacity with which the ,marsh ,titmouse sits on its nest4 ,being in a wood near my own house1 ,i perceived a pair of these birds in one of the trees1 and having seen them in the same place several times before1 and being desirous of finding the nest1 ,i sat down to watch their motions4 ,after examining me on all sides with much chattering and many gesticulations1 indicative of dislike and suspicion1 the female flew to the root of a tree1 three or four yards off1 and disappeared1 as she had gone to the opposite side of the tree to that on which ,i sat2 and as there were several holes about the root ,i was at a loss to know in which the nest was built1 and began to strike the root with a stick1 expecting her to fly out1 but nothing appeared4 ,i then examined the holes one by one1 and whilst doing so heard her hissing and puffing from within1 in such a way that if ,i had not known she was there ,i should have thought it was a snake rather than a bird4 ,however1 as she would not come out1 and the hole was so small that ,i could not get my hand in1 ,i was obliged to raise the siege until next morning1 when ,i returned armed with a hammer and chisel with which to storm her citadel4 ,as the wood was sound1 the hole small1 and the nest six or eight inches within the tree1 ,i was five or ten minutes before ,i could get to it1 during which ,i gave her repeated opportunities of escaping if she chose2 but she still sat on her nest1 puffing and pecking at the stick that ,i thrust in in order to drive her off4 ,she at last crept to the further edge of the nest1 which ,i then took out1 as ,i wanted it for one of my friends who is a collector of eggs1 but on attempting to blow one ,i found they had been sat upon too long1 and ,i then felt desirous of seeing whether the old bird would hatch them after having her nest torn from under her1 and ,i turned back to the tree whence ,i had taken them1 and found her still sitting in the hole where ,i had left her4 ,i regret to add that the humane part of my experiment did not succeed1 for although she remained after ,i had returned the nest to its place1 she left it immediately after1 and did not return to it again4 ,another instance which ,i witnessed was in a nest containing young ones4 ,this was also at the root of a tree1 but the situation did not appear to be so well chosen as is usually the case with the ,titmouse tribe2 for in this instance the hole went quite through the tree1 and on one side was large enough to admit the hand4 ,as the young ones were exposed to the weather1 and were also liable to be seen by anyone going along the adjoining footpath1 ,i attempted to remedy this defect by covering the larger hole with a sod1 which to a casual observer would appear to have grown there4 ,on taking the sod off one day1 to see how the nestlings were going on1 ,i perceived that a clod of earth had fallen from the sod upon them1 and ,i took a stick and hooked it out1 lest it should smother them4 ,whilst ,i was doing this ,i perceived the old one sat on the further side of the nest1 so still and quiet that until ,i perceived her eye ,i fancied she was dead2 and she also endured several pokings with the stick before she would move1 although the hole on the opposite side of the tree enabled her to escape whenever she thought proper4 ,perhaps ,mr4 ,rennie1 in his next edition of ,montagu's ,dictionary1 will give us a new name for this bird1 as the one it has at present is no more applicable to this species than it is to the ,parus caeruleus1 or the ,parus major1 and not half so much so as it would be to the ,parus biarnicus2 and he has changed good names into bad ones with far less reason1 witness ,corvus frugilegus into ,corvus predatorius4 ,the former name is strictly applicable to that species1 and to that alone2 and so useful a bird does not deserve the name of a thief4 ,the ,chaffinch 7which received its name of ,coelebs from ,linnaeus on account of the males alone remaining in ,sweden in the winter1 which fact is corroborated by ,white1 who found scarcely any but females in ,hampshire during that season7 has had its name changed by ,mr4 ,rennie into ,spiza4 ,the old name is characteristic of a remarkable fact in the habits of this bird2 why the new one is more appropriate 7neither understanding ,greek1 nor having read ,aristotle71 ,i cannot say4 ,will ,mr4 ,rennie condescend to enlighten me8 ,once for all--if we are to have a new nomenclature1 let a committee of able naturalists decide upon it1 or let us submit to the authority of a master 7for instance ,linnaeus or ,temminck71 but don't let every bookmaker who publishes a work on ,natural ,history1 rejecting names long established and universally received1 give new ones in such a way as serves only to show his own presumption and to confuse what it ought to be his business to elucidate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,creeper4 ,the ,nuthatch does not occur in this1 and ,i doubt if in any part of ,lancashire1 but the ,creeper is very common1 and is a bird with the habits and peculiar call of which ,i have been acquainted from my childhood4 ,mr4 ,bree1 who combines with accurate and extensive information1 an amiable and pleasant manner of communicating it1 has not1 ,i perceive1 witnessed the ,creepers associating with the ,titmice in winter1 at which ,i am rather surprised1 and think if they are numerous in his neighbourhood1 he will hereafter not fail to perceive them among the small flocks of ,titmice which associate through the winter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,wrens' ,,nests4 ,in ,mr4 ,rennie's edition of ,montagu's ,dictionary1 and also in his ,architecture of ,birds1 after copying what ,i have said on the subject of ,wrens' nests being lined with feathers1 he says3-- ,there can be no doubt1 ,i apprehend1 of these supposed cock-nests being nothing more than the unfinished structures of paired birds2 otherwise the story would require the support of strong evidence to render it credible4 ,mr4 ,rennie afterwards goes on to say that in two instances he had seen nests which had about half-a-dozen feathers interwoven into the linings with hair2 and ,mr4 ,jennings1 if ,i recollect aright1 as ,i have not the work to refer to at present1 says that ,wrens don't line their nests with anything but moss1 and he thinks ,montagu is in error when he says they are lined with feathers4 ,along with this ,i send you three or four ,wrens' nests1 which you will perceive have abundance of feathers in the inside2 and although the ,wren will occasionally use cows' hair along with the feathers1 yet ,i am persuaded from the localities in which ,i have met with them1 that cows' hair has been used because feathers were not to be found2 but when the nests are in the vicinity of a rookery1 a farm-yard1 or any other locality where feathers are abundant1 the ,wrens will use them exclusively4 ,what the strong evidence must be which will convince ,mr4 ,rennie about cock-nests1 ,i don't know2 but ,i know of a dozen of these nests at the present moment1 several of which have remained in the state in which they were left in the middle of ,april4 ,other nests found about the same time have now young ones in them4 ,i doubt not these nests are occasionally used for breeding in3 for instance1 if the first nest of a ,wren be taken1 or if it breed a second time1 it will occasionally take possession of a cock-nest2 as ,i have sometimes found that after remaining in the same unfinished state for several weeks1 they have afterwards been fitted up with a lining1 and bred in4 ,mr4 ,rennie asserts that ,montagu is wrong when he says that the ,wren always adapts its materials to its locality4 ,although it certainly is not always the case1 yet so very generally is it so1 that ,i think it is not surprising that ,montagu made this assertion4 ,thus1 if a ,wren build in a haystack1 the front of the nest is generally composed of the hay from the stack2 if it be built in a bush by the side of a river1 and 7which is frequently the case7 below flood mark1 it is generally covered on the outside with the rubbish which has been left there by the flood2 and if it build in a mossy stump1 the front of the nest is composed of the dark- coloured moss which grows there4 7,may #bb1 #ahcb47 ,along with my last letter1 ,i sent some ,wrens' nests lined with feathers1 and ,i could easily have increased them to a dozen of the same sort1 only ,i did not wish to deprive so many of my little favourites of their eggs and young4 ,every day convinces me more decidedly1 that ,i am right both with regard to the lining of the ,wrens' nests1 and as to the cock-nests also4 ,the nests ,i sent you will prove the former1 and ,i know of at least twenty instances of the latter1 in nests which ,i have known of all through the spring1 from ,april to the present time1 which have remained in the same unfinished state1 although they are not forsaken1 as ,i have found the birds in them1 in several instances1 when ,i have examined them4 ,i found one of these nests on the #ajth of ,april1 under a bank on the side of the river2 and ,i examined it repeatedly through ,april and ,may1 and always found it in the same state1 although there was always a pair of ,wrens about1 and ,i could find no other nest2 yet ,i am sure there was another1 for in the beginning of this month 7,june7 there were some young ,wrens1 which had evidently only just come out of the nest2 and there were only two or three bushes grew thereabouts1 so that it is not probable they had come from any other quarter1 but the bushes were filled with dead leaves1 and other rubbish brought down by the flood4 ,however1 when ,i heard them1 ,i looked out for another nest1 as ,i believe 7notwithstanding what ,montagu says1 that there are few birds1 if any1 that would produce a second lot of eggs if the first were unmolested7 that most of the small birds which are early breeders build a second time the same year1 even when they succeed in rearing the first brood4 ,i have had proof of this 7if anything can be considered proof1 except marking the birds71 in the ,throstle1 the ,blackbird1 the ,wren1 the ,redbreast1 and the ,hedge ,sparrow1 whose second nests may be found contiguous to the first2 and in point of time1 this always happens just when the first brood have left the nest4 ,the cock-bird1 too1 who had been silent whilst his young were unfledged1 begins to sing again1 and throwing off the anxious and care-beset manners of a parent1 again assumes that of a bridegroom4 ,but to return to ,wrens' nests4 ,i found one within ten yards of the one ,i had known of since the #ajth of ,april1 lined1 and ready for an egg4 ,as ,i was anxious to prove what ,i had so long believed1 ,i pulled out this nest1 thinking that the old bird was ready for laying a second lot of eggs2 and that when ,i had destroyed this1 as she had no other nest ready1 she would probably take up with the cock-nest4 ,as it was half a mile from my house1 ,i did not visit it again until the #afth of ,june1 and was then delighted to find the old bird sitting on six or seven eggs in the cock-nest1 which had remained so long unoccupied4 ,i believe that in this instance there is very little lining 7fur1 feathers1 c47 in the nest1 although ,i should be sorry to examine it minutely until the young have left it2 but ,i consider it an exception to the general rule1 inasmuch as ,i believe the bird was ready to lay when ,i pulled out the other nest4 ,as she would have to find another with as little delay as possible1 she would not have time to embellish the inside in the same manner as she probably would have done if she had had more time4 ,on examining another ,wrens' nest a few evenings ago1 ,i found the young ones had flown1 and as there was a cock-nest in some wrack left by the river in a bush a few yards off1 ,i gave it a shake to see if the old ones had taken possession of it for another brood2 and ,i was surprised to see one1 and then a second young one come flying out1 and a third putting out its head to reconnoitre4 ,whether the whole brood was there ,i don't know1 as ,i did not disturb them further4 ,as ,i had examined this nest only ten days before1 when it had not an egg in it1 ,i was at first at a loss to account for these young ones2 but ,i have now no doubt they were the young from the adjoining nest1 which had taken up their quarters for the night in the new house4 ,but how had they learnt the way8 ,young birds generally roost where night finds them1 and if ,i had found only one1 ,i should not have been surprised1 but to find at least three1 probably six or seven1 in a nest where ,i am certain they were not bred1 was something new to me4 ,i went several times in the evening after this1 but never found them2 ,i suppose the fright ,i gave them deterred them from lodging there again4 ,the editor of ,loudon's ,magazine1 in a paragraph appended to this article1 says3 ,we have examined the ,wrens' nests sent2 their staple materials are moss1 feathers1 and hair4 ,into the moss on the exterior of the nest are woven a more or less perfect but feeble frond or two1 and separate pinnae as well of ,aspidium ,filix-,mas1 and leaves of apple1 elm1 and oak trees4 ,interiorly cows' hair is not scarce1 and is partly inwoven with the moss and laces it together1 and partly mingled with the feathers2 a horse- hair or two are also observable4 ,the feathers in each nest1 apparently those of domestic fowls1 are numerous enough to fill the hollow of the hand when the fingers are so folded over as not to much compress the feathers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,alarm-,,note ,,of ,,one ,,bird ,,understood ,,by ,,other ,,species ,,of ,,birds4 ,in ,montagu's ,ornithological ,dictionary1 under the article ,song of ,birds1 there is the following remark3 ,regarding the note of alarm which birds utter on the approach of their natural enemies1 whether a ,hawk1 an ,owl1 or a ,cat1 we consider it to be a general language perfectly understood by all small birds1 though each species has a note peculiar to itself4 ,i was last ,april very much pleased at witnessing an illustration of the truth of this opinion4 ,i found a nest of young ,throstles at the root of a hazel1 and although they could scarcely fly1 yet as they were near a footpath1 and the next day was ,sunday1 when many idle and mischievous lads would be rambling about1 ,i thought they would be safer out of their nest than in it2 and as ,i knew that when so far fledged1 if they were once disturbed they would not continue in the nest1 ,i took one from the nest and made it cry out1 and then put it back again2 but in one minute1 not only it but its three companions had disappeared in the long dry grass which was round about4 ,on hearing the cry of their young one1 the parent bird set up such shrieks of alarm as brought all the birds in the wood to see what was the matter4 ,i noticed the ,blackbird1 the ,chaffinch1 the ,titlark1 the ,robin1 the ,oxeye 7greater ,titmouse71 the ,blue and ,marsh ,titmouse1 and the ,wren all uttering their cries of alarm and apprehension2 even the golden-crested ,wren1 which usually seems to care for nothing1 was as forward and persevering as any of them in expressing its fears on this occasion2 indeed1 the only bird which seemed indifferent to all these manifestations of alarm was the ,creeper1 which continued its anxious and incessant search for food1 as it flitted from one tree to another1 examining them from root to branch without ever seeming to understand or to care for what seemed to have so much frightened the others4 7,june #cjth1 #ahcb47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dates ,,of ,,the ,,appearance ,,of ,,some ,,spring ,,birds ,,in #ahcb1 ,,at ,,clitheroe4 ,young ,rooks heard1 #eth ,april2 ,house ,martin seen1 #adth2 ,sandpiper1 #adth2 ,willow ,wren1 ,spring ,wagtail1 and ,redstart1 #agth2 ,wheatear1 #aith 7this is generally the first spring bird seen72 ,sand ,martin and ,swallow1 #bbnd2 ,cuckoo heard1 #bfth2 ,wood ,wren1 ,blackcap1 and ,whinchat1 #bhth2 ,mocking-bird and ,whitethroat1 #dth ,may2 ,swift1 #gth2 ,flycatcher1 #aath2 and ,fieldfares were not seen until the #bnd of ,may1 which is later than ,i ever observed them before4 7,in the parish of ,allesby1 near ,coventry1 ,fieldfares were observed as late as the #adth of ,may47 ,no doubt many of these birds were in the neighbourhood earlier than the dates ,i have attached to them1 but they are the periods at which ,i saw or heard them4 ,the study of ,natural ,history is perhaps as little followed in this neighbourhood as in any part of the kingdom1 notwithstanding the facilities which are offered4 ,our flora is beautiful1 varied1 and possesses many rare plants1 yet ,i only know of two herbaria2 the birds are abundant1 yet there is but one collector of them2 and as for insects1 although ,i frequently take what ,i consider rare species1 yet ,i cannot find an entomologist in the whole district1 or ,i would send them to him4 ,in conclusion1 allow me to say1 that the leisure hours a somewhat busy life has enabled me to spend in these pursuits1 have been some of the happiest of my existence1 and have awakened and cherished such an admiration of nature and such a love for the country and its scenes1 as ,i think can never be appreciated by the inhabitants of large towns1 and which ,i cannot describe so well as in the words of one of my friends in a beautiful apostrophe to ,england1 when leaving it--never to return3 #aa-- ,to thee ,whose fields first fed my childish fantasy1 ,whose mountains were my boyhood's wild delight1 ,whose rocks1 and woods1 and torrents were to me ,the food of my soul's youthful appetite2 ,were music to my ear--a blessing to my sight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,rook ,,serviceable ,,to ,,man4--,,prejudice ,,against ,,it4 ,a strong prejudice is felt by many persons against ,rooks1 on account of their destroying grain and potatoes1 and so far is this prejudice carried1 that ,i know persons who offer a reward for every ,rook that is killed on their land2 yet so mistaken do ,i deem them as to consider that no living creature is so serviceable to the farmer as the ,rook1 except his own live stock4 ,in the neighbourhood of my native place is a rookery belonging to ,william ,vavasour ,esq41 of ,weston in ,wharfdale1 in which it is estimated there are #aj1jjj ,rooks1 that #a lb4 of food a week is a very moderate allowance for each bird1 and that nine-tenths of such food consists of worms1 insects1 and their larvae3 for although they do considerable damage to the crops for a few weeks in seed-time and harvest1 particularly in backward seasons1 yet a very large proportion of their food1 even at these times1 consists of insects and worms1 which 7if we except a few acorns1 walnuts1 and potatoes in autumn7 at all other times form the whole of their subsistence4 ,here1 then1 if my data be correct1 there is the enormous quantity of #dfh1jjj lbs41 or #bji tons of worms1 insects1 and their larvae destroyed by the birds of a single rookery1 and to everyone who knows how very destructive to vegetation are the larvae of the tribes of insects 7as well as worms7 fed upon by ,rooks1 some slight idea may be formed of the devastation which ,rooks are the means of preventing4 ,i have understood that in ,suffolk and in some of the southern counties1 the larvae of the cockchafer are so exceedingly abundant that the crops of corn are almost destroyed by them1 and that their ravages do not cease even when they have become perfect insects4 ,various plans have been proposed to put a stop to their ravages1 but ,i have little doubt that their abundance is to be attributed to the scarcity of ,rooks1 as ,i have somewhere seen an account that these birds are not numerous in those counties 7,i have never been there71 either from the trees being felled in which they nested1 or from their having been destroyed by the prejudiced farmer4 ,i am the more inclined to be of this opinion1 because we have many ,rooks in this neighbourhood where the cockchafer is not known as a destructive insect1 and ,i know that insects of that class and their larvae are the most favourite food of the ,rook1 which may be seen in the twilight catching both cockchafers and the large blackbeetles which are flying at that time in the evening4 ,i will mention another instance of the utility of the ,rook which occurred in this neighbourhood4 ,many years ago a flight of locusts visited ,craven1 and they were so numerous as to create considerable alarm among the farmers of the district4 ,they were1 however1 soon relieved from their anxiety1 for the ,rooks flocked in from all quarters by thousands and tens of thousands1 and devoured the locusts so greedily that they were all destroyed in a short time4 ,such1 at least1 is the account given1 and ,i have heard it repeatedly mentioned as the reason why the late ,lord ,ribblesdale was so partial to ,rooks4 ,but ,i have no means of ascertaining how far this is true4 ,it was stated in the newspapers a year or two back that there was such an enormous quantity of caterpillars upon ,skiddaw1 that they devoured all the vegetation on the mountain1 and people were apprehensive they would attack the crops in the enclosed lands2 but the ,rooks 7which are fond of high ground in the summer7 having discovered them1 put a stop to their ravages in a very short time4 7,june #cjth1 #ahcb47 ,these remarks are confirmed by a writer in the ,essex ,herald and by ,mr4 ,waterton4 ,the former says3--,an extensive experiment appears to have been made in some of the agricultural districts on the ,continent1 the result of which has been the opinion that farmers do wrong in destroying ,rooks1 ,jays1 ,sparrows1 and1 indeed1 birds in general on their farms1 particularly where there are orchards4 ,that birds do mischief occasionally among ripe corn there can be no doubt2 but the harm they do in autumn is amply compensated by the good they do in spring by the havoc they make among the insect tribes4 ,the quantity of grubs destroyed by ,rooks and of caterpillars and grubs by the various small birds1 must be annually immense4 ,other tribes of birds which feed on the wing--as ,swifts1 ,swallows1 and ,martins--destroy millions of winged insects which would otherwise infest the air and become insupportably troublesome4 ,even the ,titmouse and the ,bullfinch1 usually supposed to be so mischievous in gardens1 have actually been proved only to destroy those buds which contain a destructive insect4 ,ornithologists have of late determined these facts to be true1 and parish officers would do well to consider them before they waste the public money in paying rewards to idle boys and girls for the heads of dead birds1 which only encourages children and other idle persons in the mischievous employment of fowling instead of minding their work or their schooling4 ,but to return to the experiment alluded to4 ,on some very large farms in ,devonshire the proprietors determined a few summers ago to try the result of offering a great reward for the heads of ,rooks1 but the issue proved destructive to the farms1 for nearly the whole of the crops failed for three succeeding years1 and they have since been forced to import ,rooks and other birds wherewith to re-stock their farms4 ,of late years the extensive destruction of the foliage and young fruit in orchards by a species of caterpillar has excited the attention of the naturalist1 and it has been found to have arisen from the habit of destroying those small birds about orchards which if left unmolested would have destroyed or kept down those rapacious insects4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sandpipers4 ,sandpipers breed about ,clitheroe4 ,i this year 7#ahcb7 started an old one from her nest at the root of a ,weymouth pine4 ,she screamed out1 and rolled about in such a manner1 and seemed so completely disabled1 that1 although perfectly aware that her intention was to allure me from her nest1 ,i could not resist my inclination to pursue her1 and in consequence ,i had great difficulty in finding the nest again4 ,it was built of a few dried leaves of the ,weymouth pine1 and contained three young ones just hatched1 and an egg through which the bill of a young one was making its way4 ,yet1 young as they were1 on my taking out the egg to examine it1 the little things1 which could not have been out of the shell more than an hour or two1 set off out of the nest with as much celerity as if they had been running about a fortnight4 ,as ,i thought the old one would abandon the egg if the young ones left the nest1 ,i caught them again and covering them up with my hand for some time1 they settled down again4 ,next day all four had disappeared4 ,montagu says3 ,it is probable many of the ,sandpipers are capable of swimming if by accident they wade out of their depth4 ,having shot and winged one of this species as it was flying across a piece of water1 it fell1 and floated towards the side1 and as we reached to take it up1 the bird instantly dived1 and we never saw it rise again to the surface2 possibly it got entangled in the weeds and was drowned4 ,i quote this remark because the same thing has happened to myself4 ,i winged a ,sandpiper1 and on going to take it up1 it fluttered into the water and dived1 but never rose again to the surface that ,i could perceive1 although ,i watched long and attentively for it4 ,in this instance the bird could not have been entangled by the weeds1 inasmuch as the bottom of the river was covered with gravel and not a weed was growing there4 ,whether the ,sandpiper laid hold of the gravel at the bottom with its feet1 or how it managed1 ,i cannot tell1 nor have ,i ever been able to account for it4 7,june #cjth1 #ahcb47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,birds ,,dressing ,,their ,,feathers ,,with ,,oil ,,from ,a ,,gland4 ,mr4 ,waterton doubts 7,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history1 vol4 v4 p4 #dac7 if the small nipple on the rump of birds is an oil-gland1 or that birds ever oil their feathers with matter obtained from it2 and he asks if any naturalist will say that he has ever witnessed this process1 and if so how it is that the bird contrives to take this oil in its bill and how it manages to oil its head and neck8 ,i will therefore state what ,i think ,i have witnessed1 and trust to ,mr4 ,waterton's forbearance if ,i am in error2 yet ,i cannot help suspecting that ,mr4 ,waterton's queries are 7like those of ,charles the ,second to the ,royal ,society7 more for the purpose of laughing at our ignorance than from any wish he has to obtain information1 for ,i can scarcely suppose that so acute an observer can have failed to perceive everything perceptible on the point at issue4 ,i have just watched a ,muscovy ,duck go through the operation of preening and dressing its feathers1 and it certainly appears obvious enough to me that this bird uses the gland on the rump for the purpose for which birds are generally supposed to use it4 ,the bird erected the feathers on the rump so as to exhibit the gland very distinctly1 and then1 after pressing it with the bill1 rubbed the under mandible and chin down to the throat upon it1 and then1 after drawing some of the feathers through the bill1 rubbed the lower mandible and chin upon the back and scapulars1 apparently to apply the oil which adhered to them1 and then1 turning its head back1 it rubbed the crown and sides of the head and neck upon those parts which it had previously rubbed with the chin and under mandible4 ,by this rubbing of the head and neck it is easy to perceive how birds can oil these parts if it be allowed that birds oil themselves at all4 ,i cannot see how we can explain this action of birds in relation to any other object4 ,it certainly does not seem calculated to expel or disturb any vermin lodged there1 and ,i remarked that it never occurred except when the bird had been applying its bill to the gland as above mentioned4 ,however1 ,mr4 ,waterton1 and anyone who doubts this oiling1 may readily judge for themselves4 ,let them take a common duck1 and shut it up for two or three days1 so that it can have no access to water except for drinking1 and at the end of that time let them turn it out1 and allow it to go to a brook or pond2 it will give itself a thorough ablution--ducking1 diving1 and splashing with its wings--and on coming out1 will begin to dress and arrange its feathers1 very frequently applying its bill to the gland on its rump4 ,if this application is not for the purpose of procuring a supply of oil1 perhaps ,mr4 ,waterton will have the goodness to inform us what it is for1 and what end this gland answers in the economy of the feathered tribes if not that which has hitherto been supposed4 7,june #cj1 #ahcb47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mocking ,,powers ,,of ,,the ,,sedge-,,warbler4 ,in the article ,sedge ,bird1 in ,montagu's ,dictionary of ,ornithology 7,rennie's edition1 p4 #dee71 the writer says3 ,it has a variety of notes1 which partake of those of the ,skylark and the ,swallow1 as well as the chatter of the ,house-,sparrow4 ,according to my observation1 it has a much greater variety than this4 ,i have heard it imitate in succession 7intermixed with its own note1 chur1 chur71 the ,swallow1 the ,house-,martin1 the ,greenfinch1 the ,chaffinch1 the ,lesser-,redpole1 the ,house-,sparrow1 the ,redstart1 the ,willow-,wren1 the ,whinchat1 the ,pied-,wagtail1 and the ,spring- ,wagtail2 yet its imitations are chiefly confined to the notes of alarm 7the fretting-notes as they are called here7 of those birds1 and so exactly does it imitate them in tone and modulation1 that if it were to confine itself to one 7no matter which71 and not interlard the wailings of the little ,redpole and the shrieks of the ,martin with the curses of the ,house-,sparrow1 the twink1 twink of the ,chaffinch1 and its own care-for-naught chatters1 the most practiced ear would not detect the difference4 ,after being silent for awhile1 it often begins with the chue1 chue of the ,house-,sparrow1 so exactly imitated in every respect that were it not for what follows1 no one would suppose it to be any other bird4 ,it is called a ,mocking-,bird here1 and it well deserves the name1 for it is a real scoffer at the sorrows of other birds1 which it laughs to scorn and turns into ridicule by parodying them so exactly4 ,i never heard it attempt to imitate any of the ,larks or ,thrushes1 although ,i have listened to it for hours4 ,this bird was very plentifully met with in ,wharfdale ten years ago1 and is also found in this neighbourhood1 but ,i am not aware that anybody in either of these districts ever attempted to keep one in confinement1 although from their powers of imitation1 ,i think the experiment well worth trying2 probably the idea that it would be difficult to supply them with proper food has prevented the experiment being made4 7,may #bnd1 #ahcb47 ,i am surprised that no other writer on ,natural ,history has noticed the wonderful imitative power of this bird4 ,so far is the above notice from overstating this bird's powers of imitation1 that ,i have scarcely enumerated half the notes which it hits off with such wonderful exactness4 ,in listening to one the other day for about a quarter of an hour1 ,i heard it give three notes of the ,swallow1 two of the ,martin1 and two of the ,spring-,wagtail2 and in addition1 notes of the ,house- ,sparrow1 ,whinchat1 ,starling1 ,chaffinch1 ,whitethroat1 ,greenfinch1 ,little ,redpole1 and ,whin-,linnet1 besides the notes of half-a-dozen birds which ,i did not know2 at least1 a reasoning from analogy would induce me to think them imitations1 and ,i have no right to suppose they were not because ,i did not happen to recognize them4 ,i am not strictly correct when ,i say that it only imitates the alarm-notes 7called here fretting-notes7 of other birds1 for although this is generally the case1 it is not invariably so4 ,for instance1 in addition to the alarm-note of the ,swallow1 chizzic1 chizzic1 it also had the whit1 whit1 which the ,swallow uses when flying about1 and the chatter of self-satisfaction 7not the song7 which one often hears in a barn when two ,swallows are arranging their plan of operations in the spring4 ,again1 in addition to the shriek of the ,martin1 there was the note which it utters when on the wing in pursuit of its food4 ,there was also the chirrup of the ,greenfinch1 and the whee1 whee1 whee which is the climax of the ,linnet's song1 by which it is so irresistible as a call-bird1 and which appears to bring down the flock in spite of themselves4 ,although the ,sedge-,bird imitated all ,i have mentioned1 it made much more frequent use of the notes of some than of others--the ,sparrow1 the ,whinchat1 the ,swallow1 and the ,starling appeared to be its chief favourites1 whilst it only touched once or twice on the notes of the ,greenfinch and the ,linnet4 ,it had been very sparing also in its use of the ,chaffinch's note1 until one in the neighbourhood had begun to twink1 twink1 twink2 then the ,mocking-,bird took it up1 and twinked away for fifty times together4 ,next morning the ,linnet's note was much more frequent in request1 and it also made more use of notes with which ,i was not acquainted4 ,on neither day did it touch upon the notes of the ,redstart1 or ,pied-,wagtail1 both of which ,i had heard frequently used by the ,mocking-,bird before4 ,on the other hand1 ,i had not previously observed the notes of the ,starling and ,whin-,linnet1 and therefore1 although ,i have said that ,i have never heard it make use of the notes of any of the ,larks or the ,thrushes1 ,i would not be understood to say that this never happens4 ,it is1 perhaps1 difficult to say whether it has a note which is not an imitation of some other bird1 but there is one which it always makes use of when any person approaches its nest 7intermixed1 however1 with the notes of the ,swallow1 ,whinchat1 and ,whitethroat74 ,this is something like chur-r-r1 chur-r-r1 prolonging the sound of the r very considerably1 and in a style which would be quite an acquisition to the ,northumbrians if they could attain it4 7,may #bith1 #ahcd47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,water ,,ouzel4 ,the ,water ,ouzel sings very frequently1 and as much in winter as at any time4 ,perched on a stone or a piece of ice1 it chirps away at a famous rate1 but its song consists almost entirely of its note zeet1 zeet1 which it hashes up in all sorts of ways1 lengthening and shortening--now a crotchet1 then a semiquaver1 rising an octave or so1 and then descending again4 ,it makes as much of it as can be made1 but with all its efforts its song is a very so-so affair1 all its syllables beginning with z1 and almost ending with it too4 ,yet1 although it is not much of a songster1 it is almost a sacred bird with me1 in consequence of the associations connected with it4 ,a pair had built for forty years1 according to tradition1 in a wheel-race near to where ,i was born1 and had never been molested by anybody until a gentleman in the neighbourhood1 who was a great ornithologist1 employed his gamekeeper to shoot this pair4 ,i think the natives of ,calcutta were not more indignant when an unlucky ,englishman got one of their sacred bulls into his compound and baited him1 than was our little community at what we considered so great an outrage4 ,the gamekeeper narrowly escaped being stoned by myself and some more lads1 any one of whom would have shot fifty ,blackbirds or ,fieldfares without any misgivings4 ,this bird very much resembles the ,wren in its habits and motions1 its nods and curtsies1 and cocks its tail in exactly the same manner4 ,its nest is also similar in form to that of the ,wren4 ,some persons seem to think that it is impossible for the ,water ,ouzel to walk at the bottom of the water1 owing to its body being of less specific gravity4 ,i will not argue the point with them1 but disbelieving my own eyes1 ,i will endeavour to submit with a good grace2 otherwise ,i should have said that ,i have repeatedly seen it doing so1 from a situation where ,i had an excellent opportunity of observing it1 the window of a building directly over the place where it was feeding4 ,it walked into the water and began to turn over the pebbles with its bill1 rooting almost like a pig1 and it seemed to have no difficulty whatever in keeping at the bottom at all depths where ,i could see it2 and ,i have frequently observed it when the water just covered it1 and its head appeared above the water every time it lifted it up1 which it did incessantly1 turning over a pebble or two1 then lifting its head1 and again dipping it below to seize the creepers 7aquatic larvae7 it had disturbed from their hiding-places4 ,besides1 its speed was too slow for diving4 ,every aquatic bird with which ,i am acquainted moves much faster when diving than when it is swimming or walking1 and its course is generally in a straight line1 or nearly so2 but the ,water ,ouzel1 when feeding1 turns to the right or left1 or back again to where it started1 stops and goes on again1 just as it does when out of the water4 ,yet when it wished1 it seemed to have the power of altering its own gravity1 as after wading about two1 or perhaps five minutes1 where it could just get its head out1 it would suddenly rise to the surface and begin to swim1 which it does quite as well as the ,water-hen4 ,the awkward1 tumbling1 shuffling wriggle which it appears to have1 is occasioned by the incessant motion of its head as it turns over the gravel in search of creepers1 which appear to me to form the bulk of its food4 ,sir ,george ,mackenzie seems to think that these birds destroy salmon spawn1 and this opinion is prevalent in ,scotland4 ,if it is correct1 it would go far towards putting an end to my partiality for them2 but ,i rather think that they are unjustly accused1 and believe they are catching creepers when they are supposed to be eating spawn4 ,if this is the fact 7and it is well worth ascertaining7 they are rendering an essential service to the fisheries instead of injuring them1 because these creepers 7the larvae of the stone-fly1 bank-fly1 and all the drakes7 are exceedingly destructive to spawning-beds1 and as the ,water ,ouzel feeds on them at all other times1 and as they are more abundant in the winter than at any other season1 ,i think this is the more probable supposition4 ,of course1 if ,sir ,george ,mackenzie has shot the bird1 and speaks from his own knowledge1 after dissecting it1 there can be no doubt of the fact that it destroys spawn2 but if he merely supposes so because the ,water ,ouzel feeds in the same streams where the salmon are spawning1 it is very probable he is mistaken1 for the reasons before mentioned4 7,may #bith1 #ahcd74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,scolopax1 ,,sabines1 ,,sabine',s-,,snipe4 ,some years ago ,i killed what ,i am now persuaded was a ,sabine's- ,snipe1 but unfortunately it was not preserved1 for hanging it up in the larder with the other birds ,i had killed1 ,i found to my great mortification that the cook had stripped it of every feather before ,i was aware1 and before ,i had noted down the markings of the plumage4 ,the dry weather of ,august1 #ahbj1 had driven a flock of the ,golden ,plover from the moors to the banks of the river ,wharfe1 and on the #adth of that month ,i had been out with my gun1 endeavouring to shoot some of them4 ,on my return ,i sprung this ,snipe from a pond near home1 and killed it4 ,when ,i picked it up1 ,i was astonished to find a ,snipe with the plumage of a ,woodcock1 and showed it to a friend of mine1 who is a good practical ornithologist1 but he was as much puzzled as myself to give it a name2 so not being able to find a description of it in any books to which we had access1 we jumped to the conclusion that it was a hybrid between the ,snipe and the ,woodcock1 and called it a bastard ,woodcock4 ,according to the recollection ,i have of it1 it was as large as the solitary ,snipe1 and the bill was a little longer2 the general appearance of the plumage on the wings and back resembled a dark- coloured ,woodcock2 but under the wings the fine blue inner coverts exactly resembled those of the ,snipe4 ,in those days ,i had no idea of the value attached to rare birds1 nor did ,i know anything of the art of preserving birds1 or of bird-preservers1 and no doubt some of these gentlemen will pronounce me a great ,goth when ,i tell them that what ,i regretted most1 when ,i found that the bird was plucked1 was the loss of the wings1 the feathers of which ,i wanted to dress artificial flies with4 ,three days after ,i had killed this1 ,i saw another in a ditch adjoining ,sir ,henry ,ibbetson's park1 at ,denton1 but being in his preserve ,i had no opportunity of procuring it4 ,i had never seen one since1 and until ,i had seen the sixth edition of ,bewick's ,birds1 ,i was unable to make out its name1 about which ,i may still be mistaken4 7,may #bith1 #ahcd47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,fish ,,and ,,other ,,river ,,phenomena4 ,a writer in the ,british ,naturalist says1 that fish don't feed1 and therefore we may conclude they don't discern in sunny weather4 ,if the author had ever been a ,may-fly-fisher he would have known that bright weather and clear water were essentially necessary to his success4 ,this fly is one of the best baits ,i know for large ,trout1 and is much used by the anglers in some of the rivers in ,yorkshire 7perhaps in other counties also71 where two methods of fishing it are practised4 ,the one is bobbing1 which with one sort of bait or another is universal1 and therefore needs no description4 ,however1 it is always practised in bright weather4 ,in the other method 7which ,i believe is peculiar to the ,north of ,england7 the ,may-fly 7stone-fly7 is fished with a long line in rapid streams1 in the same way as the artificial fly1 except that it is fished up the stream2 that is1 the angler throws his line into the stream above where he stands1 and allows it to float down opposite to him1 when he makes another throw2 by this means he always keeps his line slack1 and the ,may-fly floats on the surface1 which is essential to his success4 ,i mention these two methods of angling because both are practised in bright weather1 and therefore prove that fish both discern and feed in such days4 ,i believe the fact is1 that at such times they frequently see too well for the angler1 and are consequently aware that his artificial flies are not what they seem to be4 ,fishes1 particularly ,par and ,grayling1 may be seen rising by dozens at the small flies 7midges7 which abound in sunny weather1 yet the angler is unable to hook a single fish4 ,first-rate anglers are well aware of this1 and abandon their larger flies as the summer advances1 use smaller hooks1 dress their flies much finer1 and substitute horsehair for the fishing- gut1 when they can procure it of good quality4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lampreys4 ,lampreys abound in the ,ribble4 ,some of them1 of the large species 7,petromyzon marinus71 weigh three and four pounds each1 #ab but owing to a prejudice against them 7,i suppose on account of their ugliness7 they are seldom eaten4 ,i will illustrate this prejudice by giving the remark of a keen fisherman to myself1 on my saying that ,i should eat a large one ,i had just caught4 ,well1 said he1 if you can manage to eat such a thing as that1 you would not stick at devouring a child in the small-pox4 ,this1 if not an elegant1 was at least a forcible expression of his opinion on the subject1 and this dislike of them is almost universal in this neighbourhood4 7,jan4 #agth #ahcb47 ,an ,old ,angler1 in the ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 having questioned the assertion of ,sir ,everard ,home that the ,lamprey was hermaphrodite--in fact1 that all were spawners and emitted eggs-- the following was addressed to the ,magazine of ,natural ,history3-- ,when ,i had the pleasure of writing to you before1 ,i had either overlooked or forgotten the queries of ,an ,old ,angler respecting the ,lamprey4 ,however1 your remarks have induced me to pay a little more attention to the subject4 ,i can now confirm in the strongest and most conclusive manner the supposition of ,an ,old ,angler that the sexes are as distinct in the ,lamprey as they are in the ,cod or ,herring4 ,how so distinguished an anatomist as ,sir ,everard ,home fell into such a mistake1 it is not for me to say2 but ,i am as certain that the sexes are distinct in the ,lamprey as that they are so in any other animal1 and ,i will now give my reasons for making this positive assertion4 ,on the #hth of ,may1 chancing to cross a small stream1 ,i saw a number of ,lampreys in the act of spawning1 and remembering the queries of your correspondent1 ,i stood to watch their motions4 ,after observing them for some time1 ,i observed one twist its tail round another in such a manner1 and they both stirred up the sand and small gravel from the bottom in such a way1 as convinced me it was a conjunction of the sexes4 ,however1 there were so many of them together1 and they kept so continually moving about1 that ,i could not single out the two individuals1 and thus ascertain whether they were male and female2 but ,i felt so desirous of being able to set this question at rest1 that ,i went again next morning1 and was fortunate enough to find only two1 a male and a female4 ,i then witnessed several sexual conjunctions1 during which the sand and small gravel was stirred up by them1 and each of which was followed by the ejection of a jet of eggs from the female4 ,i then caught them both1 and dissected them4 ,the sexual organ in the male was projected above a quarter of an inch1 and the body filled with milt2 the female1 although she seemed to have shed a considerable quantity of her spawn1 had still a tolerable stock remaining4 ,i frequently afterwards witnessed the same thing1 and always found the same difference of sexes2 in fact1 there was generally no difficulty in distinguishing the male from the female1 without taking them out of the water3 the latter might be readily known by the enlargement of her body1 and the former by a still more incontestable token4 ,i have been induced to describe this more minutely than ,i otherwise should have done1 in consequence of the mystery in which the propagation of fish has been wrapped hitherto2 and ,i am not aware that what ,i have described has been witnessed by anyone before--at least ,i don't know that it has been recorded4 ,i caught half-a-dozen ,lampreys1 four males and two females1 and preserved them in spirits1 and these ,i now forward to you4 ,i am unable to give the same information concerning the large ,lamprey1 having never seen it in the act of spawning2 but ,i have repeatedly caught both milters and spawners of species with the milt and roe as distinctly visible in them as it is in the ,salmon or any other fish4 ,i am of opinion that the ,p4 marinus and the ,p4 fluviatilis are distinct species1 for the following reasons3--#ast4 ,because the latter stays with us the whole year1 while the former only ascends the rivers to spawn1 and then returns to the sea immediately4 #bnd4 ,because fish that are in the habit of descending to the sea1 never 7unless the small ,lamprey be an exception to the general rule7 arrive at maturity #ac until they have visited it2 and1 #crdly1 because there are no intermediate sizes 7at least in the ,ribble7 between the one which1 although only six or seven inches long1 and an ounce in weight1 is yet capable of propagation1 and the one of a pound4 ,not having one of the larger kind to refer to1 ,i am unable to point out any specific difference of form4 7,may #bnd1 #ahcb47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,spawning ,,of ,,the ,,minnow4 ,as ,i had been so fortunate in observing the ,lampreys1 ,i felt desirous of ascertaining whether the same thing could be seen in other fish 7as in ,natural ,history it is not always safe to reason from analogy71 and as there was a large shoal of ,minnows spawning near the place where ,i had seen the ,lampreys1 ,i determined to watch their motions4 ,they happened to have chosen a very convenient place for being observed1 being between two large stones in the river1 which lay about three feet from each other2 so that by cautiously approaching them from behind one of the stones1 ,i got close to without disturbing them1 but after watching them carefully and repeatedly within the distance of two feet1 ,i can only speak doubtfully of their operations1 for they were so numerous1 and their motions were so incessant2 and when a female was about to shed her spawn1 the males 7which were ten times more numerous than the females7 crowded round her in such a manner as to render it very difficult1 if not impossible1 to speak with certainty on the subject4 ,i will state what steps ,i took to satisfy myself1 and perhaps the history of my failure may be of use to future observers4 ,it occurred to me from what ,i observed1 that it was probable the males had the power of absorbing the eggs after their exclusion by the female1 and impregnating them within their own bodies2 and ,i caught a dozen males at different times1 when they were attending on females1 and opened them1 but ,i could discover nothing like an egg4 ,i then caught a female1 and scattered the spawn 7which was expelled by the slightest pressure7 in a place frequented by a number of males1 but they took no notice of it whatever4 ,i after this caught a female when she was surrounded by a number of males1 and apparently in the act of shedding her spawn1 and examined whether the spawn which ,i pressed from her body was impregnated2 but it appeared perfectly homogeneous1 and so delicate in its texture that it burst with the slightest touch1 whilst in that which ,i picked up from among the gravel where it was scattered abundantly1 the impregnation was visible with the assistance of a microscope1 and it was so much tougher in its covering as to bear rolling about in my hand without injury4 ,i then tried to impregnate the eggs mechanically1 and applied a drop of the spermatic fluid to the egg at the moment of exclusion1 and it certainly seemed1 in one instance1 both to increase the size and to alter the colour of the ova it was applied to2 but ,i was not able to produce the same effect so decidedly in any of my subsequent attempts4 ,my observations1 which were often repeated1 induce me to believe that the egg is impregnated at the moment of exclusion1 and that two males have 7almost invariably7 access to the female at the same time2 for ,i frequently remarked1 that when a female came among a number of males1 they immediately pursued her3 if she was not ready for shedding her spawn1 she made a precipitate retreat2 but if she was1 she came boldly in among them1 and was immediately pressed closely by a male on each side1 who when they had been in that situation a short time1 were superseded by other two1 who wedged themselves in between them and the female1 who appeared to treat all her lovers with the same kindness4 ,one difficulty is1 that the spermatic fluid mixes very readily with water2 and ,i cannot imagine how its virtue is preserved1 #ad if 7as ,i suppose must be the case7 the egg is impregnated after exclusion2 but ,i also think it probable that the ventral fins of the female serve to conduct this fluid to the place where it is needed1 and the chemical affinity between it and the egg may be sufficient for impregnation4 ,p4,s4 ,july #bgth4 ,i tried to hatch some of the eggs ,i had endeavoured to fecundate4 ,the attempt was unsuccessful4 ,i placed the eggs1 which ,i had put into some clean-washed gravel1 in a shallow vessel 7open at the top1 and with holes drilled through the sides7 in a small stream of water1 but ,i found to my great mortification on looking for them a day or two after that there was not one left1 but that in their stead were many aquatic insects1 which had no doubt feasted on them as long as they lasted1 and after this ,i was not able to meet with another shoal of ,minnows in the act of spawning4 ,the head of the ,minnow in the spawning season is spotted over with small white knobs1 apparently osseous in their structure1 which make their appearance immediately before the fish begins to spawn1 and which disappear again as shortly after1 and ,i think they are intended as a protection to the head of the fish during the spawning2 as ,i remarked that they generally thrust their heads in between two pebbles1 and had their tails sticking up almost perpendicularly4 ,yet this was not always the case1 as they sometimes ran nearly out of the water1 and it was in this situation that ,i observed what ,i have before mentioned1 as ,i found it impossible to discover anything that was done by those in deeper water2 for when a female went into such a situation1 there was such a crowd of males rushed to the place that ,i lost sight of her in a moment4 ,i was astonished to find how quickly the eggs were hatched4 ,i discovered a large shoal spawning on the #aath of ,may2 on the #abth they were diminished to one-tenth of the number1 and on the #adth 7the #acth being ,sunday7 there was not one left4 ,as ,i had by no means satisfied myself on the subject1 ,i felt disappointed that they had so soon finished their operations1 and ,i took up a handful of the gravel where they had been spawning1 and examined it with the microscope1 to see whether ,i could discover any ova1 and how they were going on1 when to my great surprise ,i found them already hatching and some of them already excluded from the egg4 ,one of them1 which ,i took on the point of a knife1 swam briskly away1 and another was the means of pointing out an enemy to me which ,i had not previously suspected1 and that ,i had always hitherto believed to be the prey of and not the preyer upon fish4 ,the poor ,minnow had somehow got fast to the point of the knife1 and in its struggles to free itself it attracted the attention of a creeper--the larva of one of the aquatic flies called drakes 7,ephemerae7--which pounced upon it as fiercely as the water staphylinus does on the luckless tadpole1 but1 fortunately for the ,minnow1 either the glittering of the knife-blade or the motion of my hand1 scared it away again without its prey4 ,the young ,minnows in this state were quite transparent1 except the eyes1 which were disproportionately large2 and they seemed to be perfectly aware that they owed their safety to concealment1 as those that ,i saw immediately buried themselves in the gravel when they were set at liberty4 7,july #bgth1 #ahcb47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,eels4 ,to the ,editor of the ,gardener's ,chronicle4 ,my attention has been called to a paragraph in a ,worcester paper giving an account of a 7so-called7 discovery by ,mr4 ,boccius1 that ,eels are propagated by spawn1 like other fish1 and that they are not brought forth alive1 as had hitherto been supposed4 ,this may be true1 but before ,i can give an unqualified belief to the assertion1 ,i should like to have a few questions answered by ,mr4 ,boccius4 ,who saw the fish from which those thousands of eggs were extracted at the time this dissection was made8 ,are the parties who saw these eggs quite certain that the fish was an ,eel and not a ,lamprey8 ,who saw the eggs from which ,mr4 ,boccius produced living ,eels8 ,who beside ,mr4 ,boccius ever saw ,eel-fry in a pond which had no communication with a river8 ,will ,mr4 ,allees and ,mr4 ,reed 7the gentlemen to whom the spawn was exhibited7 say whether the ovary which was shown to them was pretty much of the same form as that of the ,lamprey8 and if not1 in what respect did it differ8 ,i am induced to ask these questions1 both because by inference they show my own opinions on the subject1 and because ,i am led on undoubted authority to believe that ,mr4 ,boccius is inclined to claim at least all that belongs to him2 and also because ,i have my doubts about the scientific attainments of ,mr4 ,boccius in the ,natural ,history of ,fishes4 ,it is difficult to prove a negative4 ,my never having seen the strange things above mentioned certainly does not prove that other people with better eyes and more discrimination have likewise failed to do so2 but ,i can't help doubting1 and ,i publish my doubts in the hope that the subject may be further inquired into4 ,a true naturalist ought only to wish for the truth1 without reference to his own preconceived notions2 but so far as my examinations have gone1 ,i have failed altogether to detect spawn in the fringes which ,i have fancied were the ovaria of the fish1 or elsewhere1 and ,i don't believe that ,eels are bred in fresh water at all4 ,i see the fry ascending from the sea in ,may and ,june by thousands and millions1 but ,i never met with one of these in a pond having no communication with a river4 ,i have little doubt that ,i shall be pronounced in error touching this matter1 except perhaps by those who know how perseveringly these little ,eels make their way up every stream1 ditch1 and driblet of water into which they can gain access4 ,they penetrate into the water-pipes and pumps2 they climb up the perpendicular faces of the rocks and weirs which obstruct the course of the rivers1 even when they are only moist--adhering to the moss and stones like snails4 ,the downward migration of ,eels is observed here from ,july to the middle of ,september1 but in the ,manchester market ,i find them up to this time 7the end of ,november71 and am informed that they are caught at the foot of ,windermere in their downward migration4 ,would a dissection of the ,conger at various seasons throw any light on the propagation of ,eels8 ,one would think that in such large fish the ovaria would be much more easily distinguished than in smaller specimens4 7,november1 #ahej47 ,the above elicited the following reply3-- ,t4 ,g4 denies the possibility of ,eels breeding in fresh water4 ,we have a pond here covering three or four acres which swarms with ,eels of all sizes4 ,i have caught them from the size of my little finger up to the weight of five pounds4 ,the supply of water is from nothing else than land springs--there being no communication between the pond and any river4 ,when much rain occurs ,i am obliged to put up a sluice-board1 in order to prevent the banks from overflowing4 ,i have taken from one to two hundredweight at a time from a box which the water flows through at the bottom of the sluice-board4 ,the large quantity that has been taken out of this pond leaves no doubt that they breed there to a great extent1 but whether they are propagated by spawn or brought forth alive ,i am unable to say4--,g4 ,h41 ,finedon ,hall4 ,reply to the foregoing4 ,your correspondent ,g4 ,h4 says ,t4 ,g4 denies the possibility of ,eels breeding in fresh water4 ,this is rather too strong4 ,i don't deny the possibility of ,eels being bred in fresh water1 ,i only deny the probability4 ,the expression ,i used was that ,i did not believe they were bred in fresh water at all1 and ,i distinctly stated that my not having seen these things 7,eel spawn1 c471 did not prove that other people had not done so4 ,but to the question4 ,g4 ,h4 says that he has caught them of all sizes1 from the thickness of his little finger to five pounds weight4 ,no doubt he may have done so1 but did he catch them of the thickness of a crow's quill1 and three inches long8 because that is the size at which they usually ascend rivers4 ,he says his pond does not communicate with any river4 ,is there no escape of water from it8 ,i mean1 is the evaporation from its surface equal to the supply of water8 ,if not1 where does the surplus go to8 ,does it not directly or indirectly flow into a river or the sea8 ,i am the more inclined to think that this is the case1 because ,g4 ,h4 says he caught a hundredweight at a time from a box which the water flows through at the bottom of the sluice-board4 ,this is exceedingly like what is done here and elsewhere from ,july to the end of ,november1 when the ,eels are on their downward migration4 ,will ,g4 ,h4 be kind enough to say whether he does not catch his about the same time8 will he also say whether the ,eels he catches are not ,silver ,eels8 and will he also state whether he does not catch them principally after heavy rains have increased the flow of water out of the pond8 ,if he answers these questions in the affirmative1 ,i shall still think ,i am right1 and request him to keep a sharp look-out after rains in ,may and ,june1 when ,i think he would probably see the grigs passing through his box into the pond4 ,if1 on the other hand1 there is no escape of water from the pond at any time1 ,i must admit that ,i am wrong1 but at present ,i don't know how to reconcile the impounding the water so completely with what he says about the flow of the water through the box at the bottom of the sill4 ,where does the water flow to1 and for what is this sill8 ,g4 ,h4 replied as follows4 ,t4 ,g4 asks if ,i have caught ,eels of the size of a crow's quill4 ,i have caught them of the size of a tobacco-pipe1 and from three to four inches in length4 ,our surplus water flows indirectly into the river ,nene from our sluice4 ,it supplies some stews where we have been in the habit of keeping reserve fish1 and passing over several waterfalls1 it enters into a ditch which is about three-quarters of a mile long1 and then reaches the river ,i have just named4 ,the greatest take of ,eels ,i have had was on the #bcrd of ,december1 but the time of the year is of little consequence with us1 provided the water is thick and muddy and the weather rather warm1 which1 of course1 only occurs during very heavy rains4 ,if ,i were to draw all the water out of the pond when in a clear state1 ,i should not catch a fish4 ,the variety is the ,silver ,eel4 ,our pond is upwards of fifty miles from the sea2 therefore how is it that those little ,eels had got no larger during their long journey1 interrupted as it is by numerous and almost insurmountable obstacles1 before they could reach the little ditch1 three- quarters of a mile long1 that would conduct them to our pond8 ,and1 last of all1 after this long and tedious journey1 within a hundred yards of their destination they would have to climb four waterfalls and a perpendicular sluice-board4 ,it appears to me they should have grown much larger than a common tobacco-pipe and longer than three or four inches in that time1 but ,i will leave this point for ,t4 ,g4 to explain4--,g4 ,h41 ,finedon ,hall4 ,reply to the foregoing4 ,many thanks to ,g4 ,h4 for his second letter on this subject4 ,it appears to me that we think very much alike about ,eels4 ,he says his pond is fifty miles from the sea2 therefore1 how is it that these little ,eels get no larger in their long and tedious journey8 interrupted as it is by numerous and almost insurmountable obstacles1 before they could reach the little ditch1 three-quarters of a mile long1 which would conduct them to our pond8 and last of all1 after this long and tedious journey1 within a hundred yards of their destination1 they would have to climb four waterfalls and a perpendicular sluice-board4 ,it appears to me they should have grown much larger than a common tobacco-pipe during that time2 but ,i will leave that point to ,t4 ,g4 to explain4 ,this is so fairly put1 that ,i will tell what ,i have seen1 hoping that this will be a sufficient explanation4 ,in ,june1 #ahej1 ,i chanced to go down to the bank of the ,ribble1 and there ,i saw a column of small ,eels steadily making their way up the stream4 ,i should suppose there might be fifty in every lineal yard1 for they kept pretty close to the bank1 apparently because they met with less resistance from the stream1 and without pretending to accuracy ,i supposed they travelled at the rate of a mile an hour4 ,this was about five o'clock in the afternoon1 and ,i went to look for them about nine in the evening--they were still going in one unbroken column4 ,how long they had been going when ,i first saw them1 and how long they continued to go after my second visit1 ,i don't know1 but many thousands--perhaps millions--must have passed that day4 ,at this rate 7of a mile an hour7 they would have required little more than two days to reach ,g4 ,h4's pond1 fifty miles from the sea2 but he says they had to pass over three or four waterfalls and a perpendicular sluice-board4 ,if these waterfalls and the sluice-board were covered with moss1 they would climb them as readily as a cat does a ladder4 ,i have seen them in swarms at a perpendicular weir here1 winding their way through the damp moss with which the stones are covered2 but this was not all3 where there was no moss1 the little things seemed to have the power of adhering to the perpendicular face of the stones1 like so many snails4 ,i must not omit to remark1 that although they seemed to choose the margin of the stream for the sake of easier travelling1 yet they took care to keep in the stream1 as ,i had a nice opportunity of observing4 ,at the point where ,i first saw them1 the tail goit of a water- wheel had its junction with the river1 but being ,sunday there was no current there--not a single ,eel took its course up the goit1 although the water was deeper there than where they went4 ,the water being low and perfectly clear1 ,i could trace their course both above and below the place where ,i stood without any difficulty4 ,if we allowed that they travelled a mile in the hour1 and that the obstructions of the waterfalls and sluice-board took as long to get over as all the rest of the journey1 they would be able to reach ,g4 ,h4's pond in four days from the sea2 and from what ,i have seen of their ability to surmount such obstructions1 ,i am quite convinced that they would travel that distance in the time4 ,but say they were a week--they would not grow much in that time1 particularly if they had been travelling without food the whole of the distance1 and that they must have done so1 is proved to my mind by their keeping in column2 for if they had dispersed to seek for food1 by what contrivance were they marshalled into line again1 to enable them to proceed8 ,now the place ,i saw them is forty miles from the sea1 although not that distance from salt- water4 ,t4 says it is no proof that ,eels are bred in fresh water because they may be found in ponds having no connection with a river--the proof required is ab ovo4 ,if we wait for this proof ,i fear we will have to wait for some time1 for ,i fancy that no one but ,mr4 ,boccius ever saw the ova of ,eels1 and he will not condescend to enlighten us on the subject4 ,at the same time ,i admit that finding them there is no proof that they were bred there1 inasmuch as ,i have myself stocked such ponds for my friends1 and what ,i have done may be done by others4 ,t4 says further there is also room for inquiry into another curious subject--do ,eels return to fresh water after having gone to the sea for spawning8 ,in reply to this1 ,i can only say1 that no trace of such a migration is ever seen here1 and ,i think if it existed at all1 ,i should have observed it1 for the following reasons4 ,the ,ribble here supplies a large mill1 the water-wheels of which are #aej horse-power2 therefore1 when they are at work in the daytime1 the whole force of the river is often passing through the mill-lead 7goit7 and the bed of the river between the weir1 and the tail goit in such times is left dry1 except in a few pools4 ,if there was a shoal of ,eels between these two points it would have been seen at one time or another1 and this has never happened1 so far as ,i know4 ,it may be said that they migrate singly1 but they don't do so in their first migration1 and1 so far as ,i am aware1 it is not the habit of any animal to do so4 ,herrings1 ,pilchards1 ,smelts1 ,flounders1 ,sturgeon1 ,bisons1 ,antelopes1 ,woodcocks1 ,swallows1 ,fieldfares1 ,locusts1 and even ,butterflies congregate together previous to migration4 ,,note4--,the last paragraph requires some modification1 as ,i have since proved that ,eels migrate singly when going to the sea1 as ,i have had occasion to know in a hundred cases when watching my ,eel- trap1 where every ,eel may be seen as it descends into the trap4 ,on the same subject4 ,i ,jeremiah ,garnett1 brother of the writer1 and editor of the ,manchester ,guardian1 having noticed the communications on this subject which have recently appeared in your columns1 am desirous of mentioning a fact which appears to me to throw some light upon the localities in which ,eels are bred1 though it leaves the question of the mode of generation precisely where it stood before4 ,like your correspondent ,t4 ,g41 ,i have many times seen columns of small ,eels ascending the ,ribble and other rivers in the months of ,may and ,june1 at considerable distances from the sea1 but only on one occasion have ,i seen them under circumstances which evidently brought them near the place of their nativity4 ,i happened to be attending the ,lancaster ,spring ,assizes in the month of ,march in the year #ahbf1 and learning that there was a remarkably high tide in the estuary of the ,lune1 ,i walked down to the riverside about the time of high water1 and found that the tide had covered the grass in many places2 and as it began to ebb1 ,i observed something moving in every small hollow which had been overflowed1 and in which a little water had been left behind4 ,on examination ,i found that the moving bodies were exceedingly diminutive ,eels1 rather less1 to the best of my recollection1 than three-quarters of an inch long1 and almost transparent1 but exhibiting in every respect the true form of the mature ,eel4 ,they had evidently followed the water to its extreme verge1 where it could not have been more than an inch deep1 and that they must have been very numerous was clear from the large numbers which were left behind and had perished--for that they did perish ,i found on the following day1 when they were lying dead on the grass by hundreds4 ,some of your correspondents who reside in localities favourable for making observations on this subject may be induced to pay attention to it2 the exact appearance may be ascertained1 with probably other facts calculated to throw light on the obscure question of their generation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,possibility ,,of ,,introducing ,,salmon ,,into ,,new ,,zealand ,,and ,,australia4 ,october1 #ahei4 ,the colonists of ,australia1 ,tasmania1 and ,new ,zealand appear to wish for the introduction of ,salmon and ,trout into the rivers of these colonies1 and one of them1 ,tasmania1 is said to have offered the reward of ,l#ejj for the first pair of live ,salmon which reaches that colony4 ,if this is true it is a liberal offer1 and one that is likely to induce various persons1 both in ,england and ,france1 to make the attempt4 ,i should be sorry to say anything to check so laudable an endeavour1 but ,i greatly fear that ,van ,diemen's ,land 7to say nothing of the ,australian colonies7 is too near the tropics to offer a reasonable chance of success4 ,i think it is practicable to take these fish there 7or at least fertilized ova71 but ,i don't think they would live and thrive in the rivers of that colony4 ,never having been there1 ,i can1 of course1 only reason from ,european experience1 but the best inquiries ,i can make lead me to suppose that there are no ,salmon in ,france 7south of ,brittany71 ,spain1 or any of the countries washed by the ,mediterranean ,sea2 and in ,america 7although ,i confess ,i am not so well informed on that country7 ,i have never heard of ,salmon being seen to the south of the tributaries of the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,supposing this to be so1 ,i think that we may fairly infer that if ,salmon are not found south of a certain latitude in ,europe and ,america1 it must be that the climate of these southern countries is not congenial to the habits of this fish4 ,i believe1 however1 that the ,trout lives and thrives much further south than the ,salmon2 for instance1 it is found in the ,pyrenees and in the lakes of ,northern ,italy 7,lady ,m4 ,w4 ,montagu74 ,it is also found in ,northern ,turkey1 and probably ,albania also 7,spencer72 and therefore ,i think it is quite probable that it might live in ,tasmania--that is1 if the streams are never dried up and the rivers reduced to a number of water-holes1 which appears to be the case in ,australia4 ,should this be the case in ,tasmania also1 ,i doubt whether even ,trout would thrive1 for here in ,lancashire ,i have known the ,trout to die in great numbers from the heat1 when1 owing to the water-wheels of the mill diverting the river from its usual channel1 there was no stream1 but merely a series of detached pools or water-holes2 and the ,grayling seem to be more incommoded by heat than the ,trout1 and it was one of the diversions of my boyhood to wait until the wheels of my father's mill were stopped in the hot weather1 and then go up the covered wheel-races in search of the ,grayling that had gone there to get out of the sunshine4 ,i used to catch them there in great numbers4 ,however1 this has nothing to do with the matter1 except to suggest that although ,grayling are very desirable fish to introduce into the colonies1 ,i fear they would be too impatient of heat to thrive there4 ,but my object in addressing you is to ask whether it is true that the legislature of ,tasmania has offered the prize of ,l#ejj for the first pair of live ,salmon taken there8 ,secondly1 whether they offer a prize for the introduction of ,salmon fry2 and if so1 what is the amount offered8 ,thirdly1 whether they offer a prize for the introduction of fertilized ova of ,salmon or ,trout1 and what is the amount8 ,i ask these questions because ,i happen to know a good deal on such matters1 and ,i have been applied to this day by ,james ,birch1 the head water-bailiff of our river 7,ribble71 to obtain some information for him on the subject1 as he seems seriously bent on making the experiment1 provided the reward be an adequate one2 for1 to be successful1 it would involve the necessity of his making the voyage himself1 and it would be a cruel thing to induce him to do so1 and in the end to find that he was entitled to no reward4 ,i'll say this for him1 that if he tries he will succeed1 if success be possible2 but his pecuniary resources are too limited for him to undertake such a risk4 ,i have reason to believe that he has been applied to by ,ramsbottom to go to ,tasmania1 but this he declines to do under ,ramsbottom's auspices4 ,as he 7,r47 professes to be in communication with the authorities of ,tasmania 7or at all events with influential persons there7 let him make the first attempt1 and if he succeed1 there will be no necessity to apply to me on the subject2 but if he should fail--as ,i think he will--why1 then the persons interested in the matter may1 if they wish to try again1 let me know their wishes and the amount of remuneration they mean to give4 ,i should certainly suggest that both ,salmon and ,salmon ,trout 7as well as the common ,trout7 should be included in their list of desiderata1 and although for reasons previously given ,i have no great hopes of success with the two former1 ,i think it quite probable that the common ,trout would succeed better4 ,of course ,i know nothing of the fish already in the rivers of ,tasmania2 for aught ,i know there may be fish in all those rivers quite as voracious and destructive as the ,pike are here4 ,if this is the case1 the chances of success would be materially lessened1 as ,trout and ,salmon fry are rare in all rivers stocked with ,pike4 ,however1 those who are making the attempt ought to know what they are about1 and will1 no doubt1 have considered such obstacles1 if there are any such in the way4 ,will you1 therefore1 be kind enough to answer the questions ,i have asked above1 at your earliest convenience1 and if your replies offer any inducement to ,birch to make the attempt1 ,i have no doubt that he will be quite ready to do so4 ,for various reasons he can only start from here in the autumn or winter1 and he should1 if he reaches ,tasmania with either live fish or fertilized ova1 have someone to render him prompt and cordial assistance to enable him to deposit the fish or ova1 or fish and ova1 in suitable places for spawning and hatching2 and therefore if this letter be replied to1 the answer ought to say to whom ,birch should apply on his arrival in ,tasmania4 ,it may be asked1 who is the man who obtrudes his opinions on the colony unasked1 and what can be his motives8 ,as ,i am not aware that ,i know a single person in ,tasmania1 ,i cannot refer to anyone there2 but ,i happen to know one or two gentlemen in ,melbourne1 and if you will take the trouble to refer there to ,messrs4 ,w4 and ,b4 ,hick1 or to ,w4 ,bailey1 the corn merchant1 they will be able to satisfy all inquiries4 ,if it be asked what ,i know of the habits of fish1 and ,salmon in particular1 ,i beg to refer the inquirers to ,loudon's ,magazine of ,natural ,history for #ahcd 7if there is a copy of that work in the colony71 and they will there find two papers 7signed ,t4,g41 ,clitheroe7 which will show that ,i then knew all that has since been proved by the elaborate experiments made at ,perth by ,ramsbottom1 and moreover ,i taught ,ramsbottom himself the art of propagating fish artificially4 ,i want no compensation3 the honour of being the first man who succeeded in introducing these valuable fish into the colonies would be a sufficient reward to me4 ,but with ,birch the case is different3 he is a working man1 and ,l#ejj would be a fortune to him4 ,on the other hand1 he could not afford to come to ,hobart ,town from ,england at his own expense1 as he has not the means4 ,would the colony1 if other attempts failed1 be willing to pay ,birch's passage out and home if he failed also1 and would he receive the ,l#ejj if he succeeded8 ,by success ,i mean that he would either bring live fish or ova that would hatch into live fish4 ,either of these objects being accomplished1 he ought1 in my opinion1 to receive the reward2 for although he would attempt both1 he would probably fail in the former4 ,should he attempt this under my advice1 ,i should not only send ,salmon and ,salmon ,trout and their ova1 but the common brown ,trout and its ova also1 for the reason previously given in this letter2 and although ,i am by no means sanguine of success1 on account of the temperature1 the experiment is too important to be abandoned for a mere theoretical objection which may be erroneous4 ,i think ,new ,zealand offers far greater chances of success4 ,it is not only further removed from the tropics1 but1 if ,i am rightly informed1 the streams are more abundant and constant than those of ,australia and ,tasmania--in fact1 ,i believe it is as well watered as this country2 and if the authorities there are as much alive to the importance of introducing these fish into their rivers1 ,i would undertake to do this with much greater confidence of ultimate success than ,i should have if ,i undertook to introduce them into ,tasmania or the sister colonies4 ,some time since 7it may be eighteen months or two years ago7 there was a very intelligent correspondent of the ,field newspaper1 whose nom de plume was the ,maori one1 ,wetariki no te wai ,herekeke1 or a similar one2 and ,i having written something in the ,field on this subject1 the ,new ,zealander asked for my address1 which1 for some private reason of his own1 the ,editor declined to give until so long a time had elapsed that ,wetariki ,herekeke had returned to the colony--this ,i learnt from an indirect source-- otherwise ,i should have tried to induce him to undertake the experiment of introducing all the various species of the genus ,salmo which are to be found in our rivers4 ,if the colonists of ,new ,zealand wish to make the attempt1 ,i shall be most happy to render them all the assistance in my power1 and ,i know no one so qualified as ,birch to undertake the management of such an experiment2 for he is exceedingly intelligent1 has a perfect knowledge of the habits of both ,trout and ,salmon1 and thoroughly understands the feeding of fish1 both in their natural haunts and artificially1 and would consequently be able to select suitable localities for conducting such an experiment to a successful issue4 ,,note4--,no reply was given to this by the authorities of ,tasmania1 but a similar communication1 addressed to the ,governor of ,new ,zealand1 elicited a very polite reply from his secretary1 in which he said that there were no funds available for such a purpose1 but that the subject would be brought before the legislature on their assembling1 and would no doubt meet with their favourable consideration2 but the ,maori troubles broke out immediately after1 and ,i heard no more about it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,clitheroe1 ,october #adth1 #ahei4 ,to the ,editor of the ,field4 ,in the ,field of some weeks since1 it was stated that the colonists of ,tasmania were offering a large reward for the introduction of live ,salmon1 ,salmon fry1 or the fertilized ova of ,salmon4 ,will you have the kindness to say what was the amount offered8 who were the parties who made themselves responsible for the payment8 and what time did they give within which they would pay for a successful attempt8 ,i am the more anxious to have this information1 because ,i have been applied to for advice by an exceedingly likely person1 as the reward 7,l#ejj7 which he understood to be offered is to him so tempting a sum1 that he would need very little encouragement to undertake the management of the experiment2 and from what ,i know of him ,i will venture to assert that he will succeed1 if success be practicable4 ,but before ,i speak confidently of success1 ,i would like a little more information1 and will thank any of your readers who are able to do so1 to give me replies to the following questions3-- ,are there any ,salmon in the rivers of ,spain1 or in ,france1 south of the ,loire1 or even in that river8 ,if not1 why not8 ,are there any ,salmon in ,north ,america1 in any river 7not a tributary of the ,st4 ,lawrence71 south of that river8 ,if there are1 what rivers in the ,states contain ,salmon4 ,do any of the rivers on the west coast of ,america below the latitude of #dj degrees ,n4 contain ,salmon8 ,do any of the rivers of ,china 7not ,chinese ,tartary7 contain ,salmon8 ,if ,i am right in supposing that the rivers ,i have pointed out have no ,salmon in them1 is it not exceedingly probable that the high temperature of these southern countries is unsuited to the habits and uncongenial to the health of these fish8 ,or how is it when they are on the same seaboard further north1 they don't ascend these rivers1 unless there are some such objections to their doing so8 ,and if these objections really exist1 then do they not equally exist in the rivers of ,australia and ,tasmania8 ,but there may be other objections equally fatal3 there may be fish in their rivers as voracious and destructive as our ,pike2 there may be ,sharks and other fish in their seas and estuaries1 which would snap up every ,salmon that entered them4 ,there may be ,seals1 ,porpoises1 ,albatrosses1 ,man-of-,war birds1 and ,cormorants1 as well as fifty other nameless enemies1 all combining their efforts to defeat so desirable a consummation2 and1 after all1 there may be no one willing to make himself responsible for a repayment of the necessary expenses1 for corporations and public bodies are proverbially untrustworthy4 ,yet1 notwithstanding all these doubts of success1 ,i think the experiment ought to be made2 for its success would confer so great a boon on the colony in which it was made1 that they 7the colonists7 ought to incur considerable risk and outlay for the chance of success1 however small4 ,i don't think there will be much difficulty in carrying fertilized ova there1 but when hatched ,i fear they would not thrive4 ,i think ,new ,zealand offers far better chances of success3 it is further from the tropics1 it abounds in suitable rivers1 the climate and temperature are more like ,england1 and ,i believe the rivers never degenerate into mere water-holes1 as they seem to do in ,australia2 and ,i think the residents of that colony ought to make a vigorous attempt to introduce ,salmon1 ,salmon ,trout1 and the common brown ,trout into their rivers immediately2 and ,i should be delighted to render all the assistance in my power to accomplish so desirable an object4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,ice ,,at ,,the ,,bottom ,,of ,,rivers4 ,anchor ,frosts4 ,a correspondent of the ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 in endeavouring to explain the causes why water freezes at the bottom in rapid streams1 says this unusual phenomenon may be rationally accounted for by anyone who has attended to it2 that the streams in which anchor frosts occur generally are those which contain water of different temperatures--viz41 surface-drainage and land springs and main springs1 the first being always colder than the latter1 in winter these never being less than #dj degrees1 even in severe frosts4 ,these colder globules being first frozen1 float on the surface of the water individually1 being prevented from coalescing by the intermediate main-spring-water1 and where the water passes in a shallow stream over the pebbles the crystals are intercepted by the interstices of the stones1 and then become heaped together in thick beds4 ,the fact of the crystals of ice 7which are specifically lighter than the water7 sinking below the surface1 is a circumstance requiring explanation4 ,they do not sink from their specific gravity1 but in the commotion of the current they are occasionally submerged1 and while so are stopped by any obstruction1 when they commence and compose the aggregation4 ,thinking this was an erroneous view of the matter1 ,i replied as follows3-- ,j4 ,m41 in his remarks on anchor frosts1 appears to me to have fallen into several errors in endeavouring to account for them 7they are called bottom frosts in ,yorkshire72 for1 admitting that main springs are of the temperature stated 7#dj degrees7 when they issue from the earth1 ,i am by no means prepared to believe that they keep that temperature long1 or that the water issuing from them does not mingle intimately and immediately with the water of the river into which it flows2 especially in the situations where anchor frosts are most common1 which are rough and rapid streams4 ,from ,j4 ,m4's statement it would appear that globules of water of different temperatures mix together without the one imparting its excess of caloric to the other1 which is contrary to the experience of everyone2 it is true1 that in still places there will be different temperatures in the same body of water1 but it is not owing to the main springs of which ,j4 ,m4 speaks1 but to the peculiar way in which water is affected by cold4 ,it is well known that water increases in density down to #dj degrees1 below which temperature it begins to expand1 and this expansion continues until it reaches the freezing-point1 so that in severe frosts there will be strata of different temperatures from #cb degrees to #dj degrees4 ,again1 he says that the crystals of ice are intercepted by the interstices of the stones1 and then become heaped together in thick beds2 but if my observations are correct1 these depositions begin first round the large stones1 which are not likely to stop small spiculae any more than are the water-gates of mills1 where1 he says1 the accumulations also take place4 ,anchor frosts are most common in the rapid streams occurring below deeps in rivers1 and ,i have seen a weir on the river ,wharfe which had a wall of ice four feet high formed upon it in a single night by a sharp north wind4 ,in my opinion a sufficient explanation of this freezing at the bottom of rivers is to be found in the fact that water when kept still may be cooled down below the freezing- point without being congealed2 but if the vessel in which it is kept be shaken1 a portion of it will be converted into a porous1 spongy ice1 and the temperature immediately rises to #cb degrees4 ,in the deeps of rivers the same cooling below the freezing-point takes place without congelation1 but as soon as this water reaches the stream below1 the agitation immediately converts a portion of it into ice1 which collects round the large stones at the bottom in the same way that crystallization commences in a solution of salt or sugar around a piece of thread or other substance which may be suspended in it4 ,if a severe frost is followed by a bright day1 thousands of these detached pieces of spongy ice may be seen rising from the stones which have served as nuclei for them2 which proves that the detention of them is not merely mechanical1 but that precipitation 7if ,i may be allowed to call it so7 takes place in the first instance1 the stone serving as a nucleus1 and that this adhesion is destroyed by the action of the sun's rays4 ,i have never seen any attempt to explain the phenomenon of bottom- frosts before this of ,j4 ,m4's1 and ,i am not philosopher enough to speak positively on the subject2 but the above is the way in which ,i have always endeavoured to account for it4 ,perhaps some of your scientific readers may be able to give much better reasons for it than have been offered either by ,j4 ,m4 or myself4 7,january #agth1 #ahcb47 ,another writer 7,j4 ,carr1 of ,alnwick17 says that anchor frosts are merely long and severe ones where long masses of ice are frozen to the stones at the bottom of rapid streams1 and this is simply owing to these stones acquiring a degree of cold far below the freezing-point1 and the water in contact with them freezing and spreading into large sheets of ice1 which are sometimes torn up and carry away the gravel adhering to the under surface4 ,thinking that this was an error1 ,i again wrote to the ,magazine of ,natural ,history as below3-- ,i perceive that others beside myself have endeavoured to account for anchor frosts4 ,mr4 ,carr says they never occur except in long and severe frosts1 and that the adhesion of the ice to the stones at the bottom is owing to their acquiring a degree of cold far below the freezing-point4 ,he is in error when he says they never occur except in long-continued frosts1 as the walls of ice which are sometimes raised on the crowns of weirs are invariably 7so far as my observations have extended7 deposited there before the water in the reservoir above is frozen over1 which proves that the frost has not been of long continuance1 although it may have been severe4 ,as to what he says about the stones acquiring a degree of cold far below the freezing-point1 and imparting that coldness to the water1 ,i would just ask how it is that a stone at the bottom of a river acquires this excess of cold1 and if it is not more probable that the stones impart warmth to the surrounding water8 ,i can easily conceive how the stones may1 by the action of the sun's rays upon them1 warm the surrounding water2 but ,i do not see how they can impart cold1 or1 in other words1 how their temperature can be reduced below that of the water by which they are surrounded4 ,stones certainly impart warmth to the water they are in1 in bright weather1 as the rays of the sun do not give much warmth in passing through any transparent medium2 but on coming in contact with any opaque bodies1 the heat is absorbed or reflected as the case may be1 and in this way transparent media such as air and water acquire a warmth by contact which they would not otherwise possess4 ,thus1 if an anchor frost is followed by a bright day1 the rays of the sun impart so much warmth to the stones at the bottom of the river as is sufficient to liberate the ice from them1 and on such days thousands of pieces of ice may be seen rising from the bottom and floating down the streams4 ,since my former observations were written ,i have had the satisfaction of finding my views on the subject confirmed by a very eminent chemist1 #ae and if the discussions in your ,magazine were to be settled by authority1 and not by argument 7which ,i trust will never be the case71 he is one to whom many would be inclined to appeal1 and to whom few would refuse to submit4 7,may #bnd1 #ahcb47 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the ,editor of the ,agricultural ,gazette4 ,in a leading article of the #ajth of ,january1 #aheb1 after an account of the effects produced on water by radiation and the protection afforded to plants by the ice with which ponds are covered in winter1 you go on to say that there are some circumstances under which water-plants suffer greatly1 and from a singular cause1 but one which when looked into is sufficiently simple and intelligible4 ,as you do not appear to have hit upon the true reason1 allow me to quote a little further1 and then give my reason for this singular effect4 ,you say that on a very fine but still night1 water is cooled less rapidly than the earth3 under such circumstances the bottom of the pond cools more rapidly than the surface1 the plants become colder--in fact1 some degrees below the freezing-point1 c4 c4 ,i submit that such reasons are inadmissible1 for there would be an immediate upward current1 which1 as water is such an excellent conductor of heat1 would immediately equalize the temperature of all the water above #dj degrees ,fahrenheit1 and stratified 7if ,i may use the expression7 above the water of this temperature there would be another layer of water of equal but gradually decreasing temperature until it fell below #cb degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the explanation ,i offer is this4 ,it is well known that if water is kept perfectly still it may be cooled down considerably1 or at least some degrees below #cb degrees1 without freezing2 but the moment it is shaken a portion of it is converted into a spongy1 porous ice1 and the temperature rises to #cb degrees4 ,what may be the case in the rivers of the ,south of ,england ,i do not know1 but in the rapid streams of the ,north this process may be seen on a very extensive scale in severe frosts4 ,the water in the still pools 7before they are frozen over7 is cooled down to below #cb degrees1 and so soon as this cooled water reaches the next stream1 precipitation 7if ,i may so call it7 takes place1 and the spongy ice lays hold of every projecting pebble1 which serves as a nucleus in the same way as threads and bits of stick serve in the crystallization of salts4 ,after a severe frost1 when followed by bright sunshine the next morning1 ,i have seen thousands of these bits of spongy ice rising from the stones to which they had been attached to the surface of the water4 ,i have seen after long- continued frost the course of a stream completely altered by this bottom-ice 7as it is called here71 and ,i have also seen a weir with a wall of ice on it three feet high 7raised in a single night7 by the same cause4 ,now apply this to the bottom-ice in ponds 7which however ,i must confess ,i never saw74 ,the night being calm1 the water gets cool below #cb degrees1 but then a breeze springing up the water becomes agitated1 precipitation takes place1 and the plants serving as nuclei become immediately clothed with this spongy ice1 and the sun shining next morning imparts so much warmth to the plants that the ice thaws which is in contact with them1 and rises to the surface4 ,of course if the sun does not shine next morning1 and the frost continues1 the plants may be clothed with ice for a long time4 ,to the foregoing the ,editor of the ,agricultural ,gazette replied as follows3-- ,we cannot admit the soundness of our correspondent's explanation of the formation of bottom-ice or ground gore4 ,we are well acquainted with the statements of ,arago and other writers as to the cause of this curious phenomenon1 and after a careful consideration of the subject believe that it is due to radiation and not to any other cause4 ,bottom-ice has been observed in ponds on perfectly still nights when there was no breeze to agitate the surface of the water4 ,the waters in the pools between the rapids of rivers can hardly ever be still enough for the water to fall below the freezing- point and yet remain fluid2 the temperature of water in such situations is not below #cc degrees4 ,the following was my rejoinder3-- ,you say at the end of remarks about bottom-ice that you cannot admit the soundness of my explanation1 and that you are well aware of what is said by ,arago and others on this curious phenomenon1 and that bottom-ice has been observed in ponds when there was no breeze1 and that the water in pools between the rapids of weirs can hardly ever be still enough to fall below the freezing-point1 and yet remain fluid4 ,i was not aware before seeing your remarks that either ,arago or any other philosopher had ever written about bottom-ice1 and even now ,i do not know what are their opinions on the subject1 and if the discussions in your paper are to be settled by authority and not by argument1 ,i can only make my bow and withdraw2 but if it meets your views to allow your correspondents to state their opinions temperately1 and support them by such arguments as occur to them1 ,i do not yet feel inclined to give up my notions about bottom-ice4 ,will you allow me to ask whether you ever personally saw ice at the bottom of a pond when there was none on the surface8 and if so1 under what circumstances8 ,i have heard of such an occurrence1 but never witnessed it1 and feel inclined to doubt the fact unless you will vouch for it2 for it appears to me that the moment the water at the bottom falls below #dj degrees it will begin to rise to the surface1 and it is so excellent a conductor that it will instantly equalize the temperature of the mud at the bottom with that of its own temperature4 ,i am neither chemist nor meteorologist1 and therefore ,i am not able to say much about radiation2 but my idea of it is1 that its effects in water would be much greater in still pools than in rapid streams1 and that1 therefore1 if radiation was the cause of bottom-ice1 there ought to be more of it in the pools than in the rapid streams4 ,but the contrary is the fact1 for after a severe night's frost1 ,i can frequently find the streams filled with this bottom-ice1 when none can be observed in the pools4 ,again1 can the fact of the weir which had a wall of this bottom- ice three feet high in a single night1 be accounted for by radiation8 ,it appears to me to be very easily accounted for by supposing that the water in the deep above was so quietly cooled down as to retain its fluidity until the shaking it got on flowing over the weir suddenly produced congelation4 ,i think that radiation would not go on at the crown of the weir alone4 ,why do you think that the water in pools is never still enough to allow it to get below #cb degrees without freezing on still clear nights8 ,in long deep pools1 where the body of the water is perhaps a hundred times as great as the current flowing into it1 the motion is so extremely slow that ,i cannot for a moment doubt that it gets below #cb degrees without congelation1 but when it arrives at a rapid1 this ice is immediately formed4 ,the ,editor closed the discussion at this point by saying that the subject was not of sufficient agricultural importance to be continued further4 ,the following is my brother ,richard ,garnett's #af account of his observations on bottom-frosts4 7,the paper was written in #ahah1 and published in the ,journal of the ,royal ,institution47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,production ,,of ,,ice ,,at ,,the ,,bottoms ,,of ,,rivers4 ,the phenomenon of the production of ice at the bottoms of rivers has been repeatedly noticed1 but ,i am not aware that any satisfactory solution of the cause has hitherto been given4 ,in ,nicholson's ,dictionary of ,chemistry1 several different hypotheses are enumerated1 which ,i shall not stop now to examine1 since it may be safely asserted that they neither accord with the established principles of chemistry1 nor with the facts for which they endeavour to account4 ,the most recent theory with which ,i am acquainted is that of ,mr4 ,a4 ,knight1 who in a paper lately published in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 seems to consider the particles of ice as originally formed at the surface1 and afterwards absorbed by the eddies of streams to the bottom4 ,he states1 in support of this idea1 that he did not observe any similar phenomenon in still water4 ,i shall advert to this hypothesis in the sequel1 and at present it may suffice to remark of it and all others which ,i have hitherto seen1 that supposing any of them to be correct1 the same effects ought regularly to be produced whenever the atmosphere is at a similar temperature1 or in other words1 that whenever the frost is so intense as materially to affect the water of a river1 we may then expect to find ice at the bottom4 ,now this is certainly not the case1 since the appearance we are treating of never occurs but under peculiar atmospherical circumstances1 and rivers are frequently frozen over1 and remain so for a length of time without a particle of ice being visible at the bottom of their streams4 ,i do not now profess to have developed this mystery1 but merely intend to state the circumstances under which the phenomenon takes place1 as well as a few particulars connected with it1 which are perhaps not generally known1 and which may hereafter be serviceable as data for investigating the cause4 ,it is well known to meteorologists that a severe frost in winter does not always commence in a uniform manner4 ,sometimes it begins with a gentle wind from the ,e4 or ,n4,e41 and is at first comparatively mild in its operations1 but afterwards gradually increases in intensity4 ,frosts of this kind are generally more lasting than others1 and during such1 ,i have not observed that any ice is generated at the bottoms of streams2 though the deep and still parts of rivers are often frozen over to a considerable extent4 ,at other times1 during the continuance of the violent south-westerly gales which are so prevalent in this country in the winter months1 the wind frequently shifts on a sudden from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,w41 commonly about an hour before sunset1 and blows with great impetuosity in the latter direction1 attended with a severe frost1 and sometimes with a heavy fall of snow4 ,the effects of this frost1 in places exposed to the wind1 are extremely rapid1 so as to render the ground impenetrably hard in about a couple of hours from its commencement4 ,situations that are not so much exposed seem comparatively little affected--at least1 ,i have repeatedly observed that a small sheltered pond in a field was nearly free from ice1 while the current of a large and rapid river at no great distance was nearly choked up by it4 ,i believe that the phenomenon under consideration seldom occurs except during such frosts as these1 and the following are the principal circumstances connected with it which ,i am able to state from my own observation4 ,it may here be premised that ice of this description is seldom seen adhering to anything beside rock1 stone1 or gravel1 and that it is more abundantly produced in proportion to the greater magnitude and number of the stones composing the bed of the river1 combined 7as will be further noticed7 with the velocity of the current4 ,i have been informed by a friend that he has occasionally seen it attached to solid wooden piles at a considerable depth below the surface of the water1 but ,i never saw or heard of any on earth1 mud1 or clay4 ,it is not easy to ascertain the precise time at which the process begins to take place4 ,it appears1 however1 almost invariably to commence during the first night of the frost1 and probably within a few hours after sunset4 ,on the ensuing morning the first thing which strikes an observer is an immense quantity of detached plates of ice floating down the stream4 ,mr4 ,knight naturally enough supposed these to have been formed at the surface by the influence of the freezing atmosphere1 and afterwards absorbed by the current2 but ,i think that a minute inspection would have led him to form a different conclusion-- viz41 that they are first formed in the bed of the river1 and afterwards rise to the surface4 ,it is true that none are to be seen in situations where there is no sensible current1 and that they abound most in rough and rapid places2 but on closely examining any stream of moderate velocity1 yet smooth1 equable1 and free from all appearance of eddy or rippling1 a great number of these plates of ice will be found adhering to the rock1 stone1 or gravel at the bottom4 ,if they are watched with attention1 they will be observed to rapidly increase in bulk1 till at last1 on account of their inferior specific gravity1 aided1 perhaps1 by the action of the current1 they detach themselves from the substances to which they first adhered1 and rise to the surface of the water4 ,the form of these pieces of ice is very irregular1 depending in a great measure on the size and shape of the stones or other substances to which they were originally attached4 ,most of them seem to be of an oblong or circular figure2 they are generally convex on the upper surface1 and have a number of laminae and spiculae shooting from them in various directions1 especially from their circumference4 ,sometimes when those floating pieces or plates meet with any obstruction in the channel of the river1 they accumulate in such quantities as to cover the surface of the water1 and become frozen together in one large sheet1 but this kind of ice may be always readily distinguished from that produced in the usual way by the action of the cold air on the surface1 which is smooth1 transparent1 and of an uniform texture2 on the contrary1 one of these conglomerated fields or sheets is opaque1 uneven1 full of asperities1 and the form of each separate plate composing it may be distinctly traced4 ,in this situation1 they generally assume the shape of irregular polygons1 with angles somewhat rounded2 a form apparently caused by the lateral pressure of the contiguous pieces4 ,on the river ,wharfe1 near ,otley1 in the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 is a weir or milldam where this phenomenon is sometimes manifested in a striking manner4 ,this structure is of hewn stone1 forming a plane inclined at an angle of from #ce degrees to #ej degrees1 fronting the north and extending from west to east1 to the length of #bej or #cjj yards4 ,when one of the above-mentioned frosts occurs1 the stone which composes the weir soon becomes incrusted with ice1 which increases so rapidly in thickness as in a short time to impede the course of the stream1 which falls over it in a tolerably uniform sheet1 and with considerable velocity2 at the same time1 the wind blowing strongly from the north-west1 contributes to repel the water and freeze such as adheres to the crest of the weir when its surface comes nearly in contact with the air4 ,the consequence is that in a short time the current is entirely obstructed1 and the superincumbent water forced to a higher level4 ,but as the above-mentioned causes continue to act1 the ice is also elevated by a perpetual aggregation of particles1 till by a series of similar operations an icy mound or barrier is formed1 so high as to force the water over the opposite bank1 and thus produce an apparent inundation4 ,but in a short time the accumulated weight of a great many thousand cubic feet of water presses so strongly against the barrier as to burst a passage through some weak part1 through which the water escapes and subsides to its former level1 leaving the singular appearance of a wall or rampart of ice three or four feet high1 and about two feet in thickness1 along the greatest part of the upper edge of the weir4 ,the ice composing this barrier where it adheres to the stone1 is of solid consistency1 but the upper part consists of a multitude of thin laminae or layers resting upon each other in a confused manner1 and at different degrees of inclination1 their interstices being occupied by innumerable icy spiculae1 diverging and crossing each other in all directions4 ,the whole mass much resembles the white and porous ice which may be seen at the edge of a pond or small rill where the water has subsided during a frost4 ,it may be further observed that a frost of this kind is very limited in its duration1 seldom lasting more than thirty-six or forty hours4 ,on the morning of the second day after its commencement1 a visible relaxation takes place in the temperature of the atmosphere4 ,usually before noon1 the wind on a sudden shifts to the south-west1 and a rapid thaw comes on1 frequently attended with rain4 ,what appears somewhat remarkable is1 that during several hours after the commencement of the thaw1 the production of ice at the bottom of rivers seems to go on without abatement1 and upon examining a rapid stream1 the stones over which it flows will be found at this period completely incrusted with the above description of icy plates4 ,it seems evident from this that the bed of the river1 which has been reduced below the freezing temperature1 is not for some time affected by the change of the atmosphere4 ,this may be in some measure illustrated by the well-known fact1 that rain which falls upon a rock or stone wall1 is frequently converted into ice1 though the air and the ground are evidently in a state of thaw4 ,before the following morning1 the ice of which we have been speaking generally disappears1 being carried away by the current or dissolved by the thaw4 ,the last time that ,i remarked this phenomenon1 was in a stream of the river ,aire1 near ,bradford1 in ,yorkshire1 on the #ast of ,january1 #ahad4 ,this instance did not precisely accord with what ,i have stated to be the usual circumstances of the case1 as the frost then had existed several days without any previous appearance of this kind2 but there were several indications of approaching change of temperature1 and the day following there was a partial thaw attended with rain1 the wind having veered from north-west to south-west4 ,this thaw1 however1 did not continue long1 and was succeeded by a frost which surpassed all within my recollection in severity and duration4 ,yet during the whole of the period1 though the thermometer often stood below #ah degrees ,fahrenheit1 and the estuary of the ,tees several miles below ,stockton1 where the spring-tides rise from twelve to eighteen feet1 was for two months frozen over1 so as to allow the passage of a loaded waggon1 ,i could never perceive a particle of ice adhering to the rock or gravel1 in the bed of the small and rapid river ,leven in ,cleveland1 where ,i then resided4 ,this circumstance seems decisively to prove that the phenomenon does not merely depend on an intensity of cold4 ,i confess ,i am unable to frame any hypotheses respecting the above-mentioned facts which would not be liable to numerous and formidable objections4 ,the immediate cause of the formation of the ice seems to be a rapid diminution of the temperature in the stone or gravel in the bed of the river1 connected with the sudden changes in the state of the atmosphere1 but it does not seem very easy to explain the precise nature of this connection4 ,we may easily conceive that by a sudden change from a state of thaw to an intense frost attended by a strong wind1 the whole body of water in a river may become quickly cooled1 and consequently diminish the temperature of the stone or gravel over which it flows2 but to suppose that water which is not itself at freezing- point is capable of reducing the substances in contact with it by means of a continual application of successive particles so far beneath that temperature as in process of time to convert the contiguous water to ice1 seems not to accord very well with the usually received theory of the equilibrium of caloric4 ,however1 the fact that the quantity of ice thus produced is always greater in proportion to the superior velocity of the stream1 little or none being found where there is no sensible current1 seems in some degree to countenance the above idea4 ,i cannot learn that any experiments have ever been instituted on this subject1 though it seems that they might easily be made by a person conveniently situated and possessed of the necessary instruments4 ,a careful examination by properly contrived thermometers of the relative temperatures of the air1 the water1 and the bed of the river and of the changes undergone by them during the above process1 would probably go a great way towards solving the problem4 ,i know no one better qualified for this undertaking than ,mr4 ,knight1 if he should at any future time have leisure and opportunity to direct towards it the same acuteness of observation and accuracy of investigation which have enabled him to make such important discoveries in the economy of the vegetable kingdom1 and if the explanation of this phenomenon should ever lead to results of any importance to the cause of science1 ,i shall feel sufficiently satisfied if it be deemed that ,i have been of any service in pointing out the way4 ,,richard ,,garnett4 ,,blackburn1 ,may #afth1 #ahah4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gossamer4 ,,clitheroe1 ,october #bjth1 #ahei4 ,to the ,editor of the ,field4 ,a ,young ,inquirer asks what is the cause of that appearance so often met with in the autumn1 resembling spider-webs4 ,he says1 if it be the production of that insect1 how do you account for their hanging apparently unsuspended in the air1 as it is seen fifty or sixty feet high1 without a tree or any other object near to which it could be attached8 ,i suppose you have not time to give to such questions minutely1 as your reply would lead one to infer that ,gossamer proceeded from spiders in general2 and if it be meant that all true spiders spin1 it is no doubt correct2 but the ,gossamer which ,a ,young ,inquirer asks about is the production of a small black spider about the size of a flea1 which was a true aeronaut long before ,montgolfier or ,lunardi1 and if ,a ,young ,inquirer has access to either the ,linnean ,transactions or the first series of ,loudon's ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 he will find particulars in the latter1 showing that a violent controversy raged through the three first volumes between ,mr4 ,blackwall and ,dr4 ,murray on the question whether the ascent of this spider 7,a4 ,a,eronautica7 was electric1 or whether it merely travelled in the direction of the wind4 ,but if ,a ,young ,inquirer would deserve his name1 let him begin with these spiders and observe for himself2 he will find the inquiry highly interesting4 ,he has no doubt frequently seen a small black spider creeping on his hat or clothes 7if he lives in the country this must have occurred to him many times72 this is the aeronautic spider4 ,let him take this upon his hand1 and if he be in the house let him carry it to the open door or window1 and allow it to creep up to the tip of his finger1 which he must then hold in a horizontal position4 ,when the spider finds it can proceed no further by creeping1 it generally drops a few inches1 where it remains suspended for a short time1 apparently quite still1 but if very closely observed another thread 7,gossamer7 may be seen proceeding from its vent1 and when this has reached the length which the spider's instinct tells it is sufficient for the purpose1 it cuts off the connection till then existing between it and the thread by which it has hitherto been suspended from the finger1 and floats away into space4 ,very often it rises almost vertically1 sometimes its course is nearly horizontal1 and sometimes it is oblique4 ,i cannot say1 as ,mr4 ,murray does1 that ,i have seen the spider go against the wind1 neither can ,i confirm ,mr4 ,blackwall's assertions that he always goes right before the wind1 for ,i have seen him go apparently across the current1 so far as ,i could judge of the direction of the wind at the time4 ,if ,a ,young ,inquirer makes the experiment ,i have suggested1 let him not be discouraged if the first he tries does not go off at all1 as ,i have sometimes found this to be the case1 which ,i accounted for by supposing that possibly the supply of materials might be exhausted at the time4 ,i do not remember that ,i ever saw one of these aeronautic spiders preying upon any insect1 yet it must be for some such purpose that they ascend to great altitudes1 sometimes in countless numbers1 and the way they come down again is quite as curious as the manner in which they ascend4 ,many years since1 as ,i was walking over the hills in the neighbourhood of ,blackburn1 on a bright1 still morning in ,september1 thousands of small locks of what looked like cotton wool were slowly descending to the ground from various altitudes-- some as high as ,i could see--and tens of thousands of similar locks were lying on the ground on both sides of the path by which ,i was travelling2 and on examination ,i found that all these locks were ,gossamer1 some with the spider still with them1 but generally deserted4 ,the spiders when they wanted to come down1 finding there was no descending current of air1 or perhaps1 as ,mr4 ,murray says1 no electricity1 determined to descend in parachutes2 they therefore had drawn up their cables hand over hand 7as they may often be seen to do when they wish to ascend their own lines7 until they accumulated a mass heavy enough to fall by its own weight1 and carry them along with it4 ,i have seen ,gossamer in this form at other times before and since1 but in the likeness of a snow-shower ,i never saw it except on that occasion1 and1 if ,i recollect aright1 the same enormous shower of ,gossamer was observed to extend as far as ,liverpool4 ,what induced these millions of spiders to go up at the same time1 of course ,i do not know1 and can only suppose that they went up to feed2 but1 as ,i have said previously1 ,i never saw one of this species preying upon anything4 ,the idea that they go aloft to kill the ,furia ,infernalis is too fanciful to deserve credit4 ,who knows whether the ,furia ,infernalis is anything else than a murderous ,mrs4 ,harris--at all events1 who has seen one1 and what was it like8 ,i suppose they are true sportsmen1 and disdaining to take their fish in nets1 they1 like thorough brothers of the angle1 fish only with fine gut4 ,gilbert ,white noticed one of these showers of ,gossamer1 and as his account is very interesting1 ,i quote it4 ,he says that on the #bast of ,september1 #agda1 intent upon field diversions1 he rose before daybreak1 but on going out he found the whole face of the country covered with a thick coat of cobweb drenched with dew1 as if two or three setting-nets had been drawn one over the other4 ,when his dogs attempted to hunt1 their eyes were blinded and hoodwinked1 so much that they were obliged to lie down and scrape themselves4 ,this appearance was followed by a most lovely day4 ,about #i ,a4,m4 a shower of these webs 7formed not of single threads1 but of perfect flakes1 some near an inch broad and five or six long7 was observed falling from very elevated regions1 which continued without interruption during the whole of the day1 and they fell with a velocity which showed they were considerably heavier than the atmosphere4 ,when the most elevated station in the country where this was observed was ascended1 the webs were still to be seen descending from above1 and twinkling like stars in the sun1 so as to draw the attention of the most incurious4 ,the flakes of the web on this occasion hung so thick upon the hedges and trees1 that basketsful might have been collected4 ,no one doubts 7he observes7 but that these webs are the production of small spiders4 ,these aerial spiders are of two sizes1 although of the same colour and general appearance2 they are probably male and female4 ,at all events they do not vary in size more than other species of spiders when the sexes differ4 ,has it been observed by naturalists that spiders eat their own webs8 ,a large one that ,i used to feed when ,i was a lad with wasps1 humble bees1 and flesh-flies1 used to do so occasionally4 ,these insects were so strong that they often ruined the web in their efforts to escape1 and the spider1 quite aware of the rough customers it had to deal with1 would often coil a cable of many folds round them before venturing to seize them with its mandibles4 ,it would1 if the web was ruined by the struggles of the insect1 deliberately gorge it1 which ,i accounted for by supposing that unless it did so it would not be able to secrete a sufficient supply of material to enable it to spin another4 ,the leaping spiders are another curious species1 which construct no webs1 although they spin threads4 ,this spider may be seen frequently on the walls of houses1 and if carefully watched it will be seen to range up and down in quest of small gnats and other insects2 when it observes one it creeps to within about two inches of it1 and backing slightly1 it appears to hesitate for a moment1 and then springs upon the fly1 but always before doing so it fixes a thread to the spot from whence it springs1 so that if the fly happens to be too strong for it1 and is able to detach itself from the wall1 they both remain suspended from the thread which has been previously fixed by the spider4 ,this ,i have seen more than once4 ,they sometimes venture on larger game than the small gnats4 ,one ,i was watching one day came upon one of the large ,ephemera 7the ,browndrake71 an insect ten times as large as the spider1 but after many points 7for the setting of the spider before it springs is very similar in manner to that of a thoroughbred pointer #ag71 in which it kept varying its position1 apparently to gain some advantage1 it gave up the attempt1 discretion proving the better part of valour4 ,when botanizing on ,erris ,begh 7in ,connemara71 this summer1 ,i passed through many spider-lines so strong as to offer a very sensible resistance before breaking4 ,i don't remember to have ever before met with them so strong and tenacious1 and the makers of optical instruments might there have found abundance of threads which ,i am told are valuable as cross-wires for transit- instruments and theodolites4 ,i did not meet with any of the spiders that had thrown out these lines1 but judging of them by their works ,i suppose they must have been large ones4 ,one of your correspondents was inquiring a few weeks since how it was that a spider could throw out a long line between two trees or buildings at a considerable distance from each other4 ,this seems to me to be very easily explained1 if we reason from the analogy of the flying spider4 ,the spider seems to throw out a line1 trusting it will catch somewhere or other1 and it is able to ascertain it has done so by pulling at it1 and when it finds that it is firmly fixed it starts off to travel upon it1 as ,i have occasionally noticed4 ,everyone has noticed how carefully the spider carries her cocoon of eggs attached to the vent1 and how disconsolate she appears to be when deprived of them2 but ,i don't think it is so generally known that some of the spiders carry their young on their backs for some time after they are hatched4 ,i remember seeing an instance of this one day when on the ,moors1 grouse-shooting4 ,i saw what seemed to be a very curious insect travelling on the ling 7heather71 and on stooping down to examine it ,i found it was a large spider1 upon the back of which 7in fact1 all over it7 were clustered some dozens of young ones1 about the size of pins' heads2 she also seemed to guard them with great care1 and seemed much afraid of losing them4 ,,finis4 ,,notes4 #a ,there is a fish somewhat resembling the ,brambling in the ,dunsop1 a tributary of the ,hodder1 where it is known by the name of the ,bull ,penk4 #b ,my opinion that neither ,trout nor ,salmon spawn every year is ,i think strongly corroborated by the fact1 that previous to the ,act of #ahfa the ,london fish market was supplied with ,salmon of the largest size1 and of the best quality1 in ,october1 ,november1 and ,december4 ,when these fish were examined1 it was found that the ovaries were but small1 and the individual ova were not larger than mustard seed4 ,these fish could not have spawned that season1 nor would they have done so if left alive1 if the growth of the ova in the ovaries is uniform--,i mean if the growth of the ova is as great in one month as another--because in ,may and ,june the ova in a female ,salmon is four times as large as these were in ,november4 ,again1 when the gas tank at ,settle was emptied into the ,ribble1 in ,september1 #ahfa1 all the fish so far as was known were killed between that place and ,mitton1 ,salmon as well as ,par and ,trout4 ,supposing that ,salmon spawn every year1 and that the ,smolts come up the river1 as ,grilse in the summer of the same year in which they have gone to the sea in the spring1 there ought to have been a great scarcity of both ,grilse and ,salmon in the ,ribble in the year #ahfb1 but so far was this from being the case1 that both ,grilse and ,salmon were more abundant that season than they had been for some years previously1 but there was a scarcity of both in #ahfc4 ,again1 when the ,smolts were turned out of the breeding ponds at ,dohulla1 ,galway1 the experiment was looked upon as a failure because no ,grilse returned the same season1 not one having showed itself1 but many came the summer after1 proving pretty conclusively that in some rivers1 at all events1 the ,smolt requires a year's residence in the sea before it returns as ,grilse4 #c ,in the evidence of ,mr4 ,george ,hogarth1 it is stated that he saw upwards of ninety ,kelt fish in the mill lead at ,grandholme1 on the ,don1 ,may #fth4 #d ,salmon are said to produce #ah1jjj or #bj1jjj eggs each1 and ,i have no doubt that a large ,salmon will produce more1 as one ,i examined a year or two ago1 of about ten pounds weight1 had a roe which weighed two pounds nine ounces1 and the skin in which the eggs were enveloped 7they were not in the loose state in which they are found just before exclusion7 weighed three ounces1 after all the eggs were washed from it2 so that there were thirty-eight ounces of eggs4 ,i weighed fifty of them1 and found they weighed sixty-five grains4 ,at that rate1 thirty-eight ounces would give #ab1ghh1 and #cjj lbs4 #a1fae1jjj2 but as they would be much lighter when dried and potted than when taken from the belly of the fish1 we may safely estimate that the #cjj lbs4 would contain #b1jjj1jjj1 a prodigious number to pass through the hands of one tackle maker in a season4 #e ,from ,loudon's ,magazine of ,natural ,history4 #f ,i have frequently found1 when catching ,trout for this purpose1 that the milt and roe were not ready for exclusion2 when this was the case1 ,i put them into a wire cage1 which ,i sunk in the water1 examining the fish every week1 until ,i found they were in a fit state for the experiment4 #g ,i fancy that if the ova come in contact with the air on exclusion1 they are not so readily impregnated as if they are always covered with the water1 and therefore ,i have laid some stress on the desirableness of keeping the air excluded from the ova as much as possible4 #h ,there is1 however1 one fact which must lead a casual observer to suppose that the ova are impregnated twelve months before exclusion4 ,it is this3 the male ,par 7,salmon fry7 are at this season1 ,october1 full of milt1 almost ready for exclusion2 whilst1 in the female1 the ova are so small that they require a microscope to see them individually1 and the whole ovary is merely like a thread1 leading to the conclusion that either the milt of the male is not required for the female ,par1 or the ova are impregnated twelve months before exclusion4 ,the fact is1 that the milt of the ,par is used to impregnate the ova of the ,salmon on the spawning beds4 #i ,when ,i commenced this paper ,i had no doubt that hybrids had been produced between the ,sprod 7sea ,trout7 and the common ,trout2 since then1 having seen the fry said to be so produced1 and on making some further inquiries1 ,i find there is some doubt whether the female was a ,sprod1 or merely a white ,trout1 and therefore ,i cannot confidently assert 7as some time ago ,i believed ,i could7 that hybrid fish had already been produced4 ,as some of my readers may not know what a ,sprod is1 it may be necessary to explain4 ,in the ,ribble we have a fish ascending from the sea in ,july and ,august1 weighing from six to ten ounces1 which1 in appearance at least1 is a miniature ,salmon4 ,i believe the same fish is called a ,whitling in ,scotland4 ,besides this1 we have a similar but larger fish1 which begins to come a little earlier1 and which weighs from one to three pounds2 this1 in the ,ribble1 is called a ,mort 7in ,scotland a sea ,trout74 ,both these fish 7if they are two species7 afford splendid sport to the angler1 who must never consider them beaten until he has them in the landing-net4 ,they are also delicate eating4 ,note on cross-breeding of ,fish4 ,since the above paper was published1 the breeding of ,hybrids has been successfully accomplished4 ,i have had fish sent from two different gentlemen living on the banks of the reservoirs belonging to the ,liverpool ,waterworks2 these were beautiful fish 7three in number71 more like the sea ,trout than the ,salmon1 and the largest of them weighing two pounds4 ,i had put them into the brooks running into the reservoirs three years before4 ,i also learn from a friend that a beautiful specimen of the ombre ,chevalier 7,french ,char7 was taken out of the ,rivington reservoir4 ,about a thousand had been put there by me two years before4 #aj ,persons conversant with the habits of birds will readily comprehend me2 for the sake of those who do not1 ,i will just observe that the flight of all the ,wagtails is very peculiar1 being a succession of great leaps in the air 7if ,i may be allowed the expression71 which form a series of curves1 the bird rising considerably at the commencement of each effort1 and sinking again at the close4 #aa ,the intrepid and unfortunate traveller ,joseph ,ritchie1 who accompanied ,captain ,lyon's expedition to ,fezzan1 and died there in #ahai4 ,mr4 ,ritchie was a native of ,otley1 and an intimate friend of ,mr4 ,garnett and his brothers4 ,the beautiful poem from which the quotation is taken is printed in ,alaric ,watts's ,poetical ,album4 #ab #ahec4--;,i regret that in #ahec1 and for some years previous1 we have not seen one4 ,i fear they are extinct4 ,the smaller kind are still numerous4 #ac ,the male ,par is an exception to this rule4 #ad ,it appears to be a beautiful provision of ,nature that mixture with water should increase the sphere of its action4 ,spallanzani found by actual experiment that three grains of the seed of a male frog might be diluted with a pint of water without destroying its stimulating power4 ,see ,dissertations1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adb1 chap4 #c1 ,ed4 ,mag4 ,nat4 ,history4 #ae ,mr4 ,thomson1 of ,primrose4 #af ,assistant ,keeper of ,printed ,books in the ,british ,museum4 ,author of ,philological ,essays1 c4 #ag ,the toad1 when going to take a bee1 points for a second or two as beautifully as the best-trained pointer before it strikes with its tongue4