,,the ,,complete ,,works ,,of ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche ,first ,complete and ,authorised ,english translation in ,eighteen ,volumes ,,edited ,,by ,,dr ,,oscar ,,levy ,illustration3 ,nietzsche4 ,,volume ,,eight 99 99 99 99 99 ,,third ,,edition ,,we ,,philologists ,,translated ,,by ,j4 ,m4 ,,kennedy 99 99 99 99 99 ,t4 ,n4 ,,foulis #ac #ae ,,frederick ,,street ,,edinburgh ,,and ,,london #aiaa ,,contents ,,translator',s ,,preface ,,to ,,we ,,philologists #aje ,,we ,,philologists #aji ,,we ,,philologists ,,autumn #ahgd 7,,published ,,posthumously7 ,,translated ,,by ,j4 ,m4 ,,kennedy ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,quintessence ,,of ,,nietzsche1 ,,religions ,,and ,,philosophies ,,of ,,the ,,east1 ,c4 ,the mussel is crooked inside and rough outside it is only when we hear its deep note after blowing into it that we can begin to esteem it at its true value4--7,ind4 ,spruche1 ed ,bothlingk1 #a #cce7 ,an ugly-looking-wind instrument but we must first blow into it4 ,,translator',s ,,introduction ,the subject of education was one to which ,nietzsche1 especially during his residence in ,basel1 paid considerable attention1 and his insight into it was very much deeper than that of1 say1 ,herbert ,spencer or even ,johann ,friedrich ,herbart1 the latter of whom has in late years exercised considerable influence in scholastic circles4 ,nietzsche clearly saw that the philologists 7using the word chiefly in reference to the teachers of the classics in ,german colleges and universities7 were absolutely unfitted for their high task1 since they were one and all incapable of entering into the spirit of antiquity4 ,although at the first reading1 therefore1 this book may seem to be rather fragmentary1 there are two main lines of thought running through it3 an incisive criticism of ,german professors1 and a number of constructive ideas as to what classical culture really should be4 ,these scattered aphorisms1 indeed1 are significant as showing how far ,nietzsche had travelled along the road over which humanity had been travelling from remote ages1 and how greatly he was imbued with the pagan spirit which he recognised in ,goethe and valued in ,burckhardt4 ,even at this early period of his life ,nietzsche was convinced that ,christianity was the real danger to culture2 and not merely modern ,christianity1 but also the ,alexandrian culture1 the last gasp of ,greek antiquity1 which had helped to bring ,christianity about4 ,when1 in the later aphorisms of ,we ,philologists1 ,nietzsche appears to be throwing over the ,greeks1 it should be remembered that he does not refer to the ,greeks of the era of ,homer or schylus1 or even of ,aristotle1 but to the much later ,greeks of the era of ,longinus4 ,classical antiquity1 however1 was conveyed to the public through university professors and their intellectual offspring1 and these professors1 influenced 7quite unconsciously1 of course7 by religious and liberal principles1 presented to their scholars a kind of emasculated antiquity4 ,it was only on these conditions that the ,state allowed the pagan teaching to be propagated in the schools2 and if1 where classical scholars were concerned1 it was more tolerant than the ,church had been1 it must be borne in mind that the ,church had already done all the rough work of emasculating its enemies1 and had handed down to the ,state a body of very innocuous and harmless investigators4 ,a totally erroneous conception of what constituted classical culture was thus brought about4 ,where any distinction was actually made1 for example1 later ,greek thought was enormously over-rated1 and early ,greek thought equally undervalued4 ,aphorism #dd1 together with the first half-dozen or so in the book1 may be taken as typical specimens of ,nietzsche's protest against this state of things4 ,it must be added1 unfortunately1 that ,nietzsche's observations in this book apply as much to ,england as to ,germany4 ,classical teachers here may not be rated so high as they are in ,germany1 but their influence would appear to be equally powerful1 and their theories of education and of classical antiquity equally chaotic4 ,in ,england as in ,germany they are theologians in disguise4 ,the danger of modern values to true culture may be readily gathered from a perusal of aphorisms that follow3 and1 if these aphorisms enable even one scholar in a hundred to enter more thoroughly into the spirit of a great past they will not have been penned in vain4 ,j4 ,m4 ,,kennedy4 ,,london1 ,july #aiaa4 ,i ,to what a great extent men are ruled by pure hazard1 and how little reason itself enters into the question1 is sufficiently shown by observing how few people have any real capacity for their professions and callings1 and how many square pegs there are in round holes3 happy and well chosen instances are quite exceptional1 like happy marriages1 and even these latter are not brought about by reason4 ,a man chooses his calling before he is fitted to exercise his faculty of choice4 ,he does not know the number of different callings and professions that exist2 he does not know himself2 and then he wastes his years of activity in this calling1 applies all his mind to it1 and becomes experienced and practical4 ,when1 afterwards1 his understanding has become fully developed1 it is generally too late to start something new2 for wisdom on earth has almost always had something of the weakness of old age and lack of vigour about it4 ,for the most part the task is to make good1 and to set to rights as well as possible1 that which was bungled in the beginning4 ,many will come to recognise that the latter part of their life shows a purpose or design which has sprung from a primary discord3 it is hard to live through it4 ,towards the end of his life1 however1 the average man has become accustomed to it--then he may make a mistake in regard to the life he has lived1 and praise his own stupidity3 bene navigavi cum naufragium feci 4 he may even compose a song of thanksgiving to ,providence4 #b ,on inquiring into the origin of the philologist ,i find3 #a4 ,a young man cannot have the slightest conception of what the ,greeks and ,romans were4 #b4 ,he does not know whether he is fitted to investigate into them2 #c4 ,and1 in particular1 he does not know to what extent1 in view of the knowledge he may actually possess1 he is fitted to be a teacher4 ,what then enables him to decide is not the knowledge of himself or his science2 but 7a7 ,imitation4 7b7 ,the convenience of carrying on the kind of work which he had begun at school4 7c7 ,his intention of earning a living4 ,in short1 ninety-nine philologists out of a hundred should not be philologists at all4 #c ,the more strict religions require that men shall look upon their activity simply as one means of carrying out a metaphysical scheme3 an unfortunate choice of calling may then be explained as a test of the individual4 ,religions keep their eyes fixed only upon the salvation of the individual 4 whether he is a slave or a free man1 a merchant or a scholar1 his aim in life has nothing to do with his calling1 so that a wrong choice is not such a very great piece of unhappiness4 ,let this serve as a crumb of comfort for philologists in general2 but true philologists stand in need of a better understanding3 what will result from a science which is gone in for by ninety-nine such people8 ,the thoroughly unfitted majority draw up the rules of the science in accordance with their own capacities and inclinations2 and in this way they tyrannise over the hundredth1 the only capable one among them4 ,if they have the training of others in their hands they will train them consciously or unconsciously after their own image 4 what then becomes of the classicism of the ,greeks and ,romans8 ,the points to be proved are-- 7a7 ,the disparity between philologists and the ancients4 7b7 ,the inability of the philologist to train his pupils1 even with the help of the ancients4 7c7 ,the falsifying of the science by the 7incapacity of the7 majority1 the wrong requirements held in view2 the renunciation of the real aim of this science4 #d ,all this affects the sources of our present philology3 a sceptical and melancholy attitude4 ,but how otherwise are philologists to be produced8 ,the imitation of antiquity3 is not this a principle which has been refuted by this time8 ,the flight from actuality to the ancients3 does not this tend to falsify our conception of antiquity8 #e ,we are still behindhand in one type of contemplation3 to understand how the greatest productions of the intellect have a dreadful and evil background 4 the sceptical type of contemplation4 ,greek antiquity is now investigated as the most beautiful example of life4 ,as man assumes a sceptical and melancholy attitude towards his life's calling1 so we must sceptically examine the highest life's calling of a nation3 in order that we may understand what life is4 #f ,my words of consolation apply particularly to the single tyrannised individual out of a hundred3 such exceptional ones should simply treat all the unenlightened majorities as their subordinates2 and they should in the same way take advantage of the prejudice1 which is still widespread1 in favour of classical instruction--they need many helpers4 ,but they must have a clear perception of what their actual goal is4 #g ,philology as the science of antiquity does not1 of course1 endure for ever2 its elements are not inexhaustible4 ,what cannot be exhausted1 however1 is the ever-new adaptation of one's age to antiquity2 the comparison of the two4 ,if we make it our task to understand our own age better by means of antiquity1 then our task will be an everlasting one4--,this is the antinomy of philology3 people have always endeavoured to understand antiquity by means of the present--and shall the present now be understood by means of antiquity8 ,better3 people have explained antiquity to themselves out of their own experiences2 and from the amount of antiquity thus acquired they have assessed the value of their experiences4 ,experience1 therefore1 is certainly an essential prerequisite for a philologist--that is1 the philologist must first of all be a man2 for then only can he be productive as a philologist4 ,it follows from this that old men are well suited to be philologists if they were not such during that portion of their life which was richest in experiences4 ,it must be insisted1 however1 that it is only through a knowledge of the present that one can acquire an inclination for the study of classical antiquity4 ,where indeed should the impulse come from if not from this inclination8 ,when we observe how few philologists there actually are1 except those that have taken up philology as a means of livelihood1 we can easily decide for ourselves what is the matter with this impulse for antiquity3 it hardly exists at all1 for there are no disinterested philologists4 ,our task then is to secure for philology the universally educative results which it should bring about4 ,the means3 the limitation of the number of those engaged in the philological profession 7doubtful whether young men should be made acquainted with philology at all74 ,criticism of the philologist4 ,the value of antiquity3 it sinks with you3 how deeply you must have sunk1 since its value is now so little6 #h ,it is a great advantage for the true philologist that a great deal of preliminary work has been done in his science1 so that he may take possession of this inheritance if he is strong enough for it--,i refer to the valuation of the entire ,hellenic mode of thinking4 ,so long as philologists worked simply at details1 a misunderstanding of the ,greeks was the consequence4 ,the stages of this undervaluation are the sophists of the second century1 the philologist-poets of the ,renaissance1 and the philologist as the teacher of the higher classes of society 7,goethe1 ,schiller74 ,valuing is the most difficult of all4 ,in what respect is one most fitted for this valuing8 --,not1 at all events1 when one is trained for philology as one is now4 ,it should be ascertained to what extent our present means make this last object impossible4 --,thus the philologist himself is not the aim of philology4 #i ,most men show clearly enough that they do not regard themselves as individuals3 their lives indicate this4 ,the ,christian command that everyone shall steadfastly keep his eyes fixed upon his salvation1 and his alone1 has as its counterpart the general life of mankind1 where every man lives merely as a point among other points--living not only as the result of earlier generations1 but living also only with an eye to the future4 ,there are only three forms of existence in which a man remains an individual as a philosopher1 as a ,saviour1 and as an artist4 ,but just let us consider how a scientific man bungles his life3 what has the teaching of ,greek particles to do with the sense of life8--,thus we can also observe how innumerable men merely live1 as it were1 a preparation for a man1 the philologist1 for example1 as a preparation for the philosopher1 who in his turn knows how to utilise his ant-like work to pronounce some opinion upon the value of life4 ,when such ant-like work is not carried out under any special direction the greater part of it is simply nonsense1 and quite superfluous4 #aj ,besides the large number of unqualified philologists there is1 on the other hand1 a number of what may be called born philologists1 who from some reason or other are prevented from becoming such4 ,the greatest obstacle1 however1 which stands in the way of these born philologists is the bad representation of philology by the unqualified philologists4 ,leopardi is the modern ideal of a philologist3 ,the ,german philologists can do nothing4 7,as a proof of this ,voss should be studied67 #aa ,let it be considered how differently a science is propagated from the way in which any special talent in a family is transmitted4 ,the bodily transmission of an individual science is something very rare4 ,do the sons of philologists easily become philologists8 ,dubito4 ,thus there is no such accumulation of philological capacity as there was1 let us say1 in ,beethoven's family of musical capacity4 ,most philologists begin from the beginning1 and even then they learn from books1 and not through travels1 c4 ,they get some training1 of course4 #ab ,most men are obviously in the world accidentally2 no necessity of a higher kind is seen in them4 ,they work at this and that1 their talents are average4 ,how strange6 ,the manner in which they live shows that they think very little of themselves3 they merely esteem themselves in so far as they waste their energy on trifles 7whether these be mean or frivolous desires1 or the trashy concerns of their everyday calling74 ,in the so-called life's calling1 which everyone must choose1 we may perceive a touching modesty on the part of mankind4 ,they practically admit in choosing thus4 ,we are called upon to serve and to be of advantage to our equals--the same remark applies to our neighbour and to his neighbour1 so everyone serves somebody else2 no one is carrying out the duties of his calling for his own sake1 but always for the sake of others and thus we are like geese which support one another by the one leaning against the other4 ,when the aim of each one of us is centred in another1 then we have all no object in existing2 and this 'existing for others' is the most comical of comedies4 #ac ,vanity is the involuntary inclination to set one's self up for an individual while not really being one2 that is to say1 trying to appear independent when one is dependent4 ,the case of wisdom is the exact contrary3 it appears to be dependent while in reality it is independent4 #ad ,the ,hades of ,homer--,from what type of existence is it really copied8 ,i think it is the description of the philologist3 it is better to be a day-labourer than to have such an anmic recollection of the past4--#a #ae ,the attitude of the philologist towards antiquity is apologetic1 or else dictated by the view that what our own age values can likewise be found in antiquity4 ,the right attitude to take up1 however1 is the reverse one1 viz41 to start with an insight into our modern topsyturviness1 and to look back from antiquity to it--and many things about antiquity which have hitherto displeased us will then be seen to have been most profound necessities4 ,we must make it clear to ourselves that we are acting in an absurd manner when we try to defend or to beautify antiquity3 who are we6 #af ,we are under a false impression when we say that there is always some caste which governs a nation's culture1 and that therefore savants are necessary2 for savants only possess knowledge concerning culture 7and even this only in exceptional cases74 ,among learned men themselves there might be a few1 certainly not a caste1 but even these would indeed be rare4 #ag ,one very great value of antiquity consists in the fact that its writings are the only ones which modern men still read carefully4 ,overstraining of the memory--very common among philologists1 together with a poor development of the judgment4 #ah ,busying ourselves with the culture-epochs of the past3 is this gratitude8 ,we should look backwards in order to explain to ourselves the present conditions of culture3 we do not become too laudatory in regard to our own circumstances1 but perhaps we should do so in order that we may not be too severe on ourselves4 #ai ,he who has no sense for the symbolical has none for antiquity3 let pedantic philologists bear this in mind4 #bj ,my aim is to bring about a state of complete enmity between our present culture and antiquity4 ,whoever wishes to serve the former must hate the latter4 #ba ,careful meditation upon the past leads to the impression that we are a multiplication of many pasts so how can we be a final aim8 ,but why not8 ,in most instances1 however1 we do not wish to be this4 ,we take up our positions again in the ranks1 work in our own little corner1 and hope that what we do may be of some small profit to our successors4 ,but that is exactly the case of the cask of the ,dan and this is useless1 we must again set about doing everything for ourselves1 and only for ourselves--measuring science by ourselves1 for example with the question ,what is science to us8 not 4 what are we to science8 ,people really make life too easy for themselves when they look upon themselves from such a simple historical point of view1 and make humble servants of themselves4 ,your own salvation above everything--that is what you should say2 and there are no institutions which you should prize more highly than your own soul4--,now1 however1 man learns to know himself3 he finds himself miserable1 despises himself1 and is pleased to find something worthy of respect outside himself4 ,therefore he gets rid of himself1 so to speak1 makes himself subservient to a cause1 does his duty strictly1 and atones for his existence4 ,he knows that he does not work for himself alone2 he wishes to help those who are daring enough to exist on account of themselves1 like ,socrates4 ,the majority of men are as it were suspended in the air like toy balloons2 every breath of wind moves them4--,as a consequence the savant must be such out of self-knowledge1 that is to say1 out of contempt for himself--in other words he must recognise himself to be merely the servant of some higher being who comes after him4 ,otherwise he is simply a sheep4 #bb ,it is the duty of the free man to live for his own sake1 and not for others4 ,it was on this account that the ,greeks looked upon handicrafts as unseemly4 ,as a complete entity ,greek antiquity has not yet been fully valued ,i am convinced that if it had not been surrounded by its traditional glorification1 the men of the present day would shrink from it horror stricken4 ,this glorification1 then1 is spurious2 gold-paper4 #bc ,the false enthusiasm for antiquity in which many philologists live4 ,when antiquity suddenly comes upon us in our youth1 it appears to us to be composed of innumerable trivialities2 in particular we believe ourselves to be above its ethics4 ,and ,homer and ,walter ,scott--who carries off the palm8 ,let us be honest6 ,if this enthusiasm were really felt1 people could scarcely seek their life's calling in it4 ,i mean that what we can obtain from the ,greeks only begins to dawn upon us in later years3 only after we have undergone many experiences1 and thought a great deal4 #bd ,people in general think that philology is at an end--while ,i believe that it has not yet begun4 ,the greatest events in philology are the appearance of ,goethe1 ,schopenhauer1 and ,wagner2 standing on their shoulders we look far into the distance4 ,the fifth and sixth centuries have still to be discovered4 #be ,where do we see the effect of antiquity8 ,not in language1 not in the imitation of something or other1 and not in perversity and waywardness1 to which uses the ,french have turned it4 ,our museums are gradually becoming filled up3 ,i always experience a sensation of disgust when ,i see naked statues in the ,greek style in the presence of this thoughtless philistinism which would fain devour everything4 ,,plans ,,and ,,thoughts ,,relating ,,to ,a ,,work ,,on ,,philology 7#ahge7 #bf ,of all sciences philology at present is the most favoured its progress having been furthered for centuries by the greatest number of scholars in every nation who have had charge of the noblest pupils4 ,philology has thus had one of the best of all opportunities to be propagated from generation to generation1 and to make itself respected4 ,how has it acquired this power8 ,calculations of the different prejudices in its favour4 ,how then if these were to be frankly recognised as prejudices8 ,would not philology be superfluous if we reckoned up the interests of a position in life or the earning of a livelihood8 ,what if the truth were told about antiquity1 and its qualifications for training people to live in the present8 ,in order that the questions set forth above may be answered let us consider the training of the philologist1 his genesis3 he no longer comes into being where these interests are lacking4 ,if the world in general came to know what an unseasonable thing for us antiquity really is1 philologists would no longer be called in as the educators of our youth4 ,effect of antiquity on the non-philologist likewise nothing4 ,if they showed themselves to be imperative and contradictory1 oh1 with what hatred would they be pursued6 ,but they always humble themselves4 ,philology now derives its power only from the union between the philologists who will not1 or cannot1 understand antiquity and public opinion1 which is misled by prejudices in regard to it4 ,the real ,greeks1 and their watering down through the philologists4 ,the future commanding philologist sceptical in regard to our entire culture1 and therefore also the destroyer of philology as a profession4 ,,the ,,preference ,,for ,,antiquity #bg ,if a man approves of the investigation of the past he will also approve and even praise the fact--and will above all easily understand it--that there are scholars who are exclusively occupied with the investigation of ,greek and ,roman antiquity3 but that these scholars are at the same time the teachers of the children of the nobility and gentry is not equally easy of comprehension--here lies a problem4 ,why philologists precisely8 ,this is not altogether such a matter of course as the case of a professor of medicine1 who is also a practical physician and surgeon4 ,for1 if the cases were identical1 preoccupation with ,greek and ,roman antiquity would be identical with the science of education4 ,in short1 the relationship between theory and practice in the philologist cannot be so quickly conceived4 ,whence comes his pretension to be a teacher in the higher sense1 not only of all scientific men1 but more especially of all cultured men8 ,this educational power must be taken by the philologist from antiquity2 and in such a case people will ask with astonishment3 how does it come that we attach such value to a far-off past that we can only become cultured men with the aid of its knowledge8 ,these questions1 however1 are not asked as a rule3 ,the sway of philology over our means of instruction remains practically unquestioned2 and antiquity has the importance assigned to it4 ,to this extent the position of the philologist is more favourable than that of any other follower of science4 ,true1 he has not at his disposal that great mass of men who stand in need of him--the doctor1 for example1 has far more than the philologist4 ,but he can influence picked men1 or youths1 to be more accurate1 at a time when all their mental faculties are beginning to blossom forth--people who can afford to devote both time and money to their higher development4 ,in all those places where ,european culture has found its way1 people have accepted secondary schools based upon a foundation of ,latin and ,greek as the first and highest means of instruction4 ,in this way philology has found its best opportunity of transmitting itself1 and commanding respect3 no other science has been so well favoured4 ,as a general rule all those who have passed through such institutions have afterwards borne testimony to the excellence of their organisation and curriculum1 and such people are1 of course1 unconscious witnesses in favour of philology4 ,if any who have not passed through these institutions should happen to utter a word in disparagement of this education1 an unanimous and yet calm repudiation of the statement at once follows1 as if classical education were a kind of witchcraft1 blessing its followers1 and demonstrating itself to them by this blessing4 ,there is no attempt at polemics ,we have been through it all4 ,we know it has done us good4 ,now there are so many things to which men have become so accustomed that they look upon them as quite appropriate and suitable1 for habit intermixes all things with sweetness2 and men as a rule judge the value of a thing in accordance with their own desires4 ,the desire for classical antiquity as it is now felt should be tested1 and1 as it were1 taken to pieces and analysed with a view to seeing how much of this desire is due to habit1 and how much to mere love of adventure--,i refer to that inward and active desire1 new and strange1 which gives rise to a productive conviction from day to day1 the desire for a higher goal1 and also the means thereto as the result of which people advance step by step from one unfamiliar thing to another1 like an ,alpine climber4 ,what is the foundation on which the high value attached to antiquity at the present time is based1 to such an extent indeed that our whole modern culture is founded on it8 ,where must we look for the origin of this delight in antiquity1 and the preference shown for it8 ,i think ,i have recognised in my examination of the question that all our philology--that is1 all its present existence and power--is based on the same foundation as that on which our view of antiquity as the most important of all means of training is based4 ,philology as a means of instruction is the clear expression of a predominating conception regarding the value of antiquity1 and the best methods of education4 ,two propositions are contained in this statement4 ,in the first place all higher education must be a historical one1 and secondly1 ,greek and ,roman history differs from all others in that it is classical4 ,thus the scholar who knows this history becomes a teacher4 ,we are not here going into the question as to whether higher education ought to be historical or not2 but we may examine the second and ask3 in how far is it classic8 ,on this point there are many widespread prejudices4 ,in the first place there is the prejudice expressed in the synonymous concept1 ,the study of the humanities3 antiquity is classic because it is the school of the humane4 ,secondly3 ,antiquity is classic because it is enlightened---- #bh ,it is the task of all education to change certain conscious actions and habits into more or less unconscious ones2 and the history of mankind is in this sense its education4 ,the philologist now practises unconsciously a number of such occupations and habits4 ,it is my object to ascertain how his power1 that is1 his instinctive methods of work1 is the result of activities which were formerly conscious1 but which he has gradually come to feel as such no longer3 but that consciousness consisted of prejudices4 ,the present power of philologists is based upon these prejudices1 for example the value attached to the ratio as in the cases of ,bentley and ,hermann4 ,prejudices are1 as ,lichtenberg says1 the art impulses of men4 #bi ,it is difficult to justify the preference for antiquity since it has arisen from prejudices3 #a4 ,from ignorance of all non-classical antiquity4 #b4 ,from a false idealisation of humanitarianism1 whilst ,hindoos and ,chinese are at all events more humane4 #c4 ,from the pretensions of school-teachers4 #d4 ,from the traditional admiration which emanated from antiquity itself4 #e4 ,from opposition to the ,christian church2 or as a support for this church4 #f4 ,from the impression created by the century-long work of the philologists1 and the nature of this work4 ,it must be a gold mine1 thinks the spectator4 #g4 ,the acquirement of knowledge attained as the result of the study4 ,the preparatory school of science4 ,in short1 partly from ignorance1 wrong impressions1 and misleading conclusions2 and also from the interest which philologists have in raising their science to a high level in the estimation of laymen4 ,also the preference for antiquity on the part of the artists1 who involuntarily assume proportion and moderation to be the property of all antiquity4 ,purity of form4 ,authors likewise4 ,the preference for antiquity as an abbreviation of the history of the human race1 as if there were an autochthonous creation here by which all becoming might be studied4 ,the fact actually is that the foundations of this preference are being removed one by one1 and if this is not remarked by philologists themselves1 it is certainly being remarked as much as it can possibly be by people outside their circle4 ,first of all history had its effect1 and then linguistics brought about the greatest diversion among philologists themselves1 and even the desertion of many of them4 ,they have still the schools in their hands3 but for how long6 ,in the form in which it has existed up to the present philology is dying out2 the ground has been swept from under its feet4 ,whether philologists may still hope to maintain their status is doubtful2 in any case they are a dying race4 #cj ,the peculiarly significant situation of philologists3 a class of people to whom we entrust our youth1 and who have to investigate quite a special antiquity4 ,the highest value is obviously attached to this antiquity4 ,but if this antiquity has been wrongly valued1 then the whole foundation upon which the high position of the philologist is based suddenly collapses4 ,in any case this antiquity has been very differently valued1 and our appreciation of the philologists has constantly been guided by it4 ,these people have borrowed their power from the strong prejudices in favour of antiquity1--this must be made clear4 ,philologists now feel that when these prejudices are at last refuted1 and antiquity depicted in its true colours1 the favourable prejudices towards them will diminish considerably4 ,it is thus to the interest of their profession not to let a clear impression of antiquity come to light2 in particular the impression that antiquity in its highest sense renders one out of season8 i4e41 an enemy to one's own time4 ,it is also to the interest of philologists as a class not to let their calling as teachers be regarded from a higher standpoint than that to which they themselves can correspond4 #ca ,it is to be hoped that there are a few people who look upon it as a problem why philologists should be the teachers of our noblest youths4 ,perhaps the case will not be always so--,it would be much more natural per se if our children were instructed in the elements of geography1 natural science1 political economy1 and sociology1 if they were gradually led to a consideration of life itself1 and if finally1 but much later1 the most noteworthy events of the past were brought to their knowledge4 ,a knowledge of antiquity should be among the last subjects which a student would take up2 and would not this position of antiquity in the curriculum of a school be more honourable for it than the present one8--,antiquity is now used merely as a propdeutic for thinking1 speaking1 and writing2 but there was a time when it was the essence of earthly knowledge1 and people at that time wished to acquire by means of practical learning what they now seek to acquire merely by means of a detailed plan of study--a plan which1 corresponding to the more advanced knowledge of the age1 has entirely changed4 ,thus the inner purpose of philological teaching has been entirely altered2 it was at one time material teaching1 a teaching that taught how to live1 but now it is merely formal4#b #cb ,if it were the task of the philologist to impart formal education1 it would be necessary for him to teach walking1 dancing1 speaking1 singing1 acting1 or arguing and the so-called formal teachers did impart their instruction this way in the second and third centuries4 ,but only the training of a scientific man is taken into account1 which results in formal thinking and writing1 and hardly any speaking at all4 #cc ,if the gymnasium is to train young men for science1 people now say there can be no more preliminary preparation for any particular science1 so comprehensive have all the sciences become4 ,as a consequence teachers have to train their students generally1 that is to say for all the sciences--for scientificality in other words2 and for that classical studies are necessary6 ,what a wonderful jump6 a most despairing justification6 ,whatever is1 is right1#c even when it is clearly seen that the right on which it has been based has turned to wrong4 #cd ,it is accomplishments which are expected from us after a study of the ancients3 formerly1 for example1 the ability to write and speak4 ,but what is expected now6 ,thinking and deduction 4 but these things are not learnt from the ancients1 but at best through the ancients1 by means of science4 ,moreover1 all historical deduction is very limited and unsafe1 natural science should be preferred4 #ce ,it is the same with the simplicity of antiquity as it is with the simplicity of style3 it is the highest thing which we recognise and must imitate2 but it is also the last4 ,let it be remembered that the classic prose of the ,greeks is also a late result4 #cf ,what a mockery of the study of the humanities lies in the fact that they were also called belles lettres 7bellas litteras76 #cg ,wolf's#d reasons why the ,egyptians1 ,hebrews1 ,persians1 and other ,oriental nations were not to be set on the same plane with the ,greeks and ,romans3 ,the former have either not raised themselves1 or have raised themselves only to a slight extent1 above that type of culture which should be called a mere civilisation and bourgeois acquirement1 as opposed to the higher and true culture of the mind4 ,he then explains that this culture is spiritual and literary3 ,in a well-organised nation this may be begun earlier than order and peacefulness in the outward life of the people 7enlightenment74 ,he then contrasts the inhabitants of easternmost ,asia 7like such individuals1 who are not wanting in clean1 decent1 and comfortable dwellings1 clothing1 and surroundings2 but who never feel the necessity for a higher enlightenment7 with the ,greeks 7in the case of the ,greeks1 even among the most educated inhabitants of ,attica1 the contrary often happens to an astonishing degree2 and the people neglect as insignificant factors that which we1 thanks to our love of order1 are in the habit of looking upon as the foundations of mental culture itself74 #ch ,our terminology already shows how prone we are to judge the ancients wrongly3 the exaggerated sense of literature1 for example1 or1 as ,wolf1 when speaking of the inner history of ancient erudition1 calls it1 the history of learned enlightenment4 #ci ,according to ,goethe1 the ancients are the despair of the emulator4 ,voltaire said4 ,if the admirers of ,homer were honest1 they would acknowledge the boredom which their favourite often causes them4 #dj ,the position we have taken up towards classical antiquity is at bottom the profound cause of the sterility of modern culture2 for we have taken all this modern conception of culture from the ,hellenised ,romans4 ,we must distinguish within the domain of antiquity itself3 when we come to appreciate its purely productive period1 we condemn at the same time the entire ,romano-,alexandrian culture4 ,but at the same time also we condemn our own attitude towards antiquity1 and likewise our philology4 #da ,there has been an age-long battle between the ,germans and antiquity1 i4e41 a battle against the old culture4 ,it is certain that precisely what is best and deepest in the ,german resists it4 ,the main point1 however1 is that such resistance is only justifiable in the case of the ,romanised culture2 for this culture1 even at that time1 was a falling-off from something more profound and noble4 ,it is this latter that the ,germans are wrong in resisting4 #db ,everything classic was thoroughly cultivated by ,charles the ,great1 whilst he combated everything heathen with the severest possible measures of coercion4 ,ancient mythology was developed1 but ,german mythology was treated as a crime4 ,the feeling underlying all this1 in my opinion1 was that ,christianity had already overcome the old religion people no longer feared it1 but availed themselves of the culture that rested upon it4 ,but the old ,german gods were feared4 ,a great superficiality in the conception of antiquity--little else than an appreciation of its formal accomplishments and its knowledge--must thereby have been brought about4 ,we must find out the forces that stood in the way of increasing our insight into antiquity4 ,first of all1 the culture of antiquity is utilised as an incitement towards the acceptance of ,christianity it became1 as it were1 the premium for conversion1 the gilt with which the poisonous pill was coated before being swallowed4 ,secondly1 the help of ancient culture was found to be necessary as a weapon for the intellectual protection of ,christianity4 ,even the ,reformation could not dispense with classical studies for this purpose4 ,the ,renaissance1 on the other hand1 now begins1 with a clearer sense of classical studies1 which1 however1 are likewise looked upon from an anti-,christian standpoint3 the ,renaissance shows an awakening of honesty in the south1 like the ,reformation in the north4 ,they could not but clash2 for a sincere leaning towards antiquity renders one unchristian4 ,on the whole1 however1 the ,church succeeded in turning classical studies into a harmless direction 4 the philologist was invented1 representing a type of learned man who was at the same time a priest or something similar4 ,even in the period of the ,reformation people succeeded in emasculating scholarship4 ,it is on this account that ,friedrich ,august ,wolf is noteworthy he freed his profession from the bonds of theology4 ,this action of his1 however1 was not fully understood2 for an aggressive1 active element1 such as was manifested by the poet-philologists of the ,renaissance1 was not developed4 ,the freedom obtained benefited science1 but not man4 #dc ,it is true that both humanism and rationalism have brought antiquity into the field as an ally2 and it is therefore quite comprehensible that the opponents of humanism should direct their attacks against antiquity also4 ,antiquity1 however1 has been misunderstood and falsified by humanism it must rather be considered as a testimony against humanism1 against the benign nature of man1 c4 ,the opponents of humanism are wrong to combat antiquity as well2 for in antiquity they have a strong ally4 #dd ,it is so difficult to understand the ancients4 ,we must wait patiently until the spirit moves us4 ,the human element which antiquity shows us must not be confused with humanitarianism4 ,this contrast must be strongly emphasised3 philology suffers by endeavouring to substitute the humanitarian1 young men are brought forward as students of philology in order that they may thereby become humanitarians4 ,a good deal of history1 in my opinion1 is quite sufficient for that purpose4 ,the brutal and self-conscious man will be humbled when he sees things and values changing to such an extent4 ,the human element among the ,greeks lies within a certain naivet1 through which man himself is to be seen--state1 art1 society1 military and civil law1 sexual relations1 education1 party4 ,it is precisely the human element which may be seen everywhere and among all peoples1 but among the ,greeks it is seen in a state of nakedness and inhumanity which cannot be dispensed with for purposes of instruction4 ,in addition to this1 the ,greeks have created the greatest number of individuals1 and thus they give us so much insight into men1--a ,greek cook is more of a cook than any other4 #de ,i deplore a system of education which does not enable people to understand ,wagner1 and as the result of which ,schopenhauer sounds harsh and discordant in our ears 4 such a system of education has missed its aim4 #df 7,,the ,,final ,,draft ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,chapter47 ,il faut dire la vrit et s'immoler--,,voltaire4 ,let us suppose that there were freer and more superior spirits who were dissatisfied with the education now in vogue1 and that they summoned it to their tribunal1 what would the defendant say to them8 ,in all probability something like this3 ,whether you have a right to summon anyone here or not1 ,i am at all events not the proper person to be called4 ,it is my educators to whom you should apply4 ,it is their duty to defend me1 and ,i have a right to keep silent4 ,i am merely what they have made me4 ,these educators would now be hauled before the tribunal1 and among them an entire profession would be observed the philologists4 ,this profession consists in the first place of those men who make use of their knowledge of ,greek and ,roman antiquity to bring up youths of thirteen to twenty years of age1 and secondly of those men whose task it is to train specially-gifted pupils to act as future teachers--i4e41 as the educators of educators4 ,philologists of the first type are teachers at the public schools1 those of the second are professors at the universities4 ,the first-named philologists are entrusted with the care of certain specially-chosen youths1 those who1 early in life1 show signs of talent and a sense of what is noble1 and whose parents are prepared to allow plenty of time and money for their education4 ,if other boys1 who do not fulfil these three conditions1 are presented to the teachers1 the teachers have the right to refuse them4 ,those forming the second class1 the university professors1 receive the young men who feel themselves fitted for the highest and most responsible of callings1 that of teachers and moulders of mankind2 and these professors1 too1 may refuse to have anything to do with young men who are not adequately equipped or gifted for the task4 ,if1 then1 the educational system of a period is condemned1 a heavy censure on philologists is thereby implied3 either1 as the consequence of their wrong-headed view1 they insist on giving bad education in the belief that it is good2 or they do not wish to give this bad education1 but are unable to carry the day in favour of education which they recognise to be better4 ,in other words1 their fault is either due to their lack of insight or to their lack of will4 ,in answer to the first charge they would say that they knew no better1 and in answer to the second that they could do no better4 ,as1 however1 these philologists bring up their pupils chiefly with the aid of ,greek and ,roman antiquity1 their want of insight in the first case may be attributed to the fact that they do not understand antiquity1 and again to the fact that they bring forward antiquity into the present age as if it were the most important of all aids to instruction1 while antiquity1 generally speaking1 does not assist in training1 or at all events no longer does so4 ,on the other hand1 if we reproach our professors with their lack of will1 they would be quite right in attributing educational significance and power to antiquity2 but they themselves could not be said to be the proper instruments by means of which antiquity could exhibit such power4 ,in other words1 the professors would not be real teachers and would be living under false colours1 but how1 then1 could they have reached such an irregular position8 ,through a misunderstanding of themselves and their qualifications4 ,in order1 then1 that we may ascribe to philologists their share in this bad educational system of the present time1 we may sum up the different factors of their innocence and guilt in the following sentence3 the philologist1 if he wishes for a verdict of acquittal1 must understand three things antiquity1 the present time1 and himself his fault lies in the fact that he either does not understand antiquity1 or the present time1 or himself4 #dg ,it is not true to say that we can attain culture through antiquity alone4 ,we may learn something from it1 certainly2 but not culture as the word is now understood4 ,our present culture is based on an emasculated and mendacious study of antiquity4 ,in order to understand how ineffectual this study is1 just look at our philologists they1 trained upon antiquity1 should be the most cultured men4 ,are they8 #dh ,origin of the philologist4 ,when a great work of art is exhibited there is always some one who not only feels its influence but wishes to perpetuate it4 ,the same remark applies to a great state--to everything1 in short1 that man produces4 ,philologists wish to perpetuate the influence of antiquity and they can set about it only as imitative artists4 ,why not as men who form their lives after antiquity8 #di ,the decline of the poet-scholars is due in great part to their own corruption3 their type is continually arising again2 ,goethe and ,leopardi1 for example1 belong to it4 ,behind them plod the philologist-savants4 ,this type has its origin in the sophisticism of the second century4 #ej ,ah1 it is a sad story1 the story of philology6 ,the disgusting erudition1 the lazy1 inactive passivity1 the timid submission4--,who was ever free8 #ea ,when we examine the history of philology it is borne in upon us how few really talented men have taken part in it4 ,among the most celebrated philologists are a few who ruined their intellect by acquiring a smattering of many subjects1 and among the most enlightened of them were several who could use their intellect only for childish tasks4 ,it is a sad story no science1 ,i think1 has ever been so poor in talented followers4 ,those whom we might call the intellectually crippled found a suitable hobby in all this hair-splitting4 #eb ,the teacher of reading and writing1 and the reviser1 were the first types of the philologist4 #ec ,friedrich ,august ,wolf reminds us how apprehensive and feeble were the first steps taken by our ancestors in moulding scholarship--how even the ,latin classics1 for example1 had to be smuggled into the university market under all sorts of pretexts1 as if they had been contraband goods4 ,in the ,gottingen ,lexicon of #agcg1 ,j4 ,m4 ,gesner tells us of the ,odes of ,horace3 ut imprimis1 quid prodesse in severioribus studiis possint1 ostendat4 #ed ,i was pleased to read of ,bentley non tam grande pretium emendatiunculis meis statuere soleo1 ut singularem aliquam gratiam inde sperem aut exigam4 ,newton was surprised that men like ,bentley and ,hare should quarrel about a book of ancient comedies1 since they were both theological dignitaries4 #ee ,horace was summoned by ,bentley as before a judgment seat1 the authority of which he would have been the first to repudiate4 ,the admiration which a discriminating man acquires as a philologist is in proportion to the rarity of the discrimination to be found in philologists4 ,bentley's treatment of ,horace has something of the schoolmaster about it ,it would appear at first sight as if ,horace himself were not the object of discussion1 but rather the various scribes and commentators who have handed down the text3 in reality1 however1 it is actually ,horace who is being dealt with4 ,it is my firm conviction that to have written a single line which is deemed worthy of being commented upon by scholars of a later time1 far outweighs the merits of the greatest critic4 ,there is a profound modesty about philologists4 ,the improving of texts is an entertaining piece of work for scholars1 it is a kind of riddle-solving2 but it should not be looked upon as a very important task4 ,it would be an argument against antiquity if it should speak less clearly to us because a million words stood in the way6 #ef ,a school-teacher said to ,bentley1 ,sir1 ,i will make your grandchild as great a scholar as you are yourself4 ,how can you do that1 replied ,bentley1 when ,i have forgotten more than you ever knew8 #eg ,bentley's clever daughter ,joanna once lamented to her father that he had devoted his time and talents to the criticism of the works of others instead of writing something original4 ,bentley remained silent for some time as if he were turning the matter over in his mind4 ,at last he said that her remark was quite right2 he himself felt that he might have directed his gifts in some other channel4 ,earlier in life1 nevertheless1 he had done something for the glory of ,god and the improvement of his fellow-men 7referring to his ,confutation of ,atheism71 but afterwards the genius of the pagans had attracted him1 and1 despairing of attaining their level in any other way1 he had mounted upon their shoulders so that he might thus be able to look over their heads4 #eh ,bentley1 says ,wolf1 both as man of letters and individual1 was misunderstood and persecuted during the greater part of his life1 or else praised maliciously4 ,markland1 towards the end of his life--as was the case with so many others like him--became imbued with a repugnance for all scholarly reputation1 to such an extent1 indeed1 that he partly tore up and partly burnt several works which he had long had in hand4 ,wolf says3 ,the amount of intellectual food that can be got from well-digested scholarship is a very insignificant item4 ,in ,winckelmann's youth there were no philological studies apart from the ordinary bread-winning branches of the science--people read and explained the ancients in order to prepare themselves for the better interpretation of the ,bible and the ,corpus ,juris4 #ei ,in ,wolf's estimation1 a man has reached the highest point of historical research when he is able to take a wide and general view of the whole and of the profoundly conceived distinctions in the developments in art and the different styles of art4 ,wolf acknowledges1 however1 that ,winckelmann was lacking in the more common talent of philological criticism1 or else he could not use it properly3 ,a rare mixture of a cool head and a minute and restless solicitude for hundreds of things which1 insignificant in themselves1 were combined in his case with a fire that swallowed up those little things1 and with a gift of divination which is a vexation and an annoyance to the uninitiated4 #fj ,wolf draws our attention to the fact that antiquity was acquainted only with theories of oratory and poetry which facilitated production1 ,greek3 technai and artes that formed real orators and poets1 while at the present day we shall soon have theories upon which it would be as impossible to build up a speech or a poem as it would be to form a thunderstorm upon a brontological treatise4 #fa ,wolf's judgment on the amateurs of philological knowledge is noteworthy3 ,if they found themselves provided by nature with a mind corresponding to that of the ancients1 or if they were capable of adapting themselves to other points of view and other circumstances of life1 then1 with even a nodding acquaintance with the best writers1 they certainly acquired more from those vigorous natures1 those splendid examples of thinking and acting1 than most of those did who during their whole life merely offered themselves to them as interpreters4 #fb ,says ,wolf again ,in the end1 only those few ought to attain really complete knowledge who are born with artistic talent and furnished with scholarship1 and who make use of the best opportunities of securing1 both theoretically and practically1 the necessary technical knowledge ,true6 #fc ,instead of forming our students on the ,latin models ,i recommend the ,greek1 especially ,demosthenes simplicity6 ,this may be seen by a reference to ,leopardi1 who is perhaps the greatest stylist of the century4 #fd ,classical education what do people see in it8 ,something that is useless beyond rendering a period of military service unnecessary and securing a degree6#e #fe ,when ,i observe how all countries are now promoting the advancement of classical literature ,i say to myself1 ,how harmless it must be6 and then1 ,how useful it must be6 ,it brings these countries the reputation of promoting free culture4 ,in order that this freedom may be rightly estimated1 just look at the philologists6 #ff ,classical education6 ,yea1 if there were only as much paganism as ,goethe found and glorified in ,winckelmann1 even that would not be much4 ,now1 however1 that the lying ,christendom of our time has taken hold of it1 the thing becomes overpowering1 and ,i cannot help expressing my disgust on the point--,people firmly believe in witchcraft where this classical education is concerned4 ,they1 however1 who possess the greatest knowledge of antiquity should likewise possess the greatest amount of culture1 viz41 our philologists2 but what is classical about them8 #fg ,classical philology is the basis of the most shallow rationalism always having been dishonestly applied1 it has gradually become quite ineffective4 ,its effect is one more illusion of the modern man4 ,philologists are nothing but a guild of sky-pilots who are not known as such this is why the ,state takes an interest in them4 ,the utility of classical education is completely used up1 whilst1 for example1 the history of ,christianity still shows its power4 #fh ,philologists1 when discussing their science1 never get down to the root of the subject 4 they never set forth philology itself as a problem4 ,bad conscience8 or merely thoughtlessness8 #fi ,we learn nothing from what philologists say about philology3 it is all mere tittle-tattle--for example1 ,jahn's#f ,the ,meaning and ,place of the ,study of ,antiquity in ,germany4 ,there is no feeling for what should be protected and defended3 thus speak people who have not even thought of the possibility that any one could attack them4 #gj ,philologists are people who exploit the vaguely-felt dissatisfaction of modern man1 and his desire for something better1 in order that they may earn their bread and butter4 ,i know them--,i myself am one of them4 #ga ,our philologists stand in the same relation to true educators as the medicine-men of the wild ,indians do to true physicians ,what astonishment will be felt by a later age6 #gb ,what they lack is a real taste for the strong and powerful characteristics of the ancients4 ,they turn into mere panegyrists1 and thus become ridiculous4 #gc ,they have forgotten how to address other men2 and1 as they cannot speak to the older people1 they cannot do so to the young4 #gd ,when we bring the ,greeks to the knowledge of our young students1 we are treating the latter as if they were well-informed and matured men4 ,what1 indeed1 is there about the ,greeks and their ways which is suitable for the young8 ,in the end we shall find that we can do nothing for them beyond giving them isolated details4 ,are these observations for young people8 ,what we actually do1 however1 is to introduce our young scholars to the collective wisdom of antiquity4 ,or do we not8 ,the reading of the ancients is emphasised in this way4 ,my belief is that we are forced to concern ourselves with antiquity at a wrong period of our lives4 ,at the end of the twenties its meaning begins to dawn on one4 #ge ,there is something disrespectful about the way in which we make our young students known to the ancients3 what is worse1 it is unpedagogical2 or what can result from a mere acquaintance with things which a youth cannot consciously esteem6 ,perhaps he must learn to believe and this is why ,i object to it4 #gf ,there are matters regarding which antiquity instructs us1 and about which ,i should hardly care to express myself publicly4 #gg ,all the difficulties of historical study to be elucidated by great examples4 ,why our young students are not suited to the ,greeks4 ,the consequences of philology4 ,arrogant expectation4 ,culture-philistinism4 ,superficiality4 ,too high an esteem for reading and writing4 ,estrangement from the nation and its needs4 ,the philologists themselves1 the historians1 philosophers1 and jurists all end in smoke4 ,our young students should be brought into contact with real sciences4 ,likewise with real art4 ,in consequence1 when they grew older1 a desire for real history would be shown4 #gh ,inhumanity3 even in the ,antigone1 even in ,goethe's ,iphigenia4 ,the want of rationalism in the ,greeks4 ,young people cannot understand the political affairs of antiquity4 ,the poetic element3 a bad expectation4 #gi ,do the philologists know the present time8 ,their judgments on it as ,periclean1 their mistaken judgments when they speak of ,freytag's#g genius as resembling that of ,homer1 and so on2 their following in the lead of the littrateurs1 their abandonment of the pagan sense1 which was exactly the classical element that ,goethe discovered in ,winckelmann4 #hj ,the condition of the philologists may be seen by their indifference at the appearance of ,wagner4 ,they should have learnt even more through him than through ,goethe1 and they did not even glance in his direction4 ,that shows that they are not actuated by any strong need1 or else they would have an instinct to tell them where their food was to be found4 #ha ,wagner prizes his art too highly to go and sit in a corner with it1 like ,schumann4 ,he either surrenders himself to the public 7,rienzi7 or he makes the public surrender itself to him4 ,he educates it up to his music4 ,minor artists1 too1 want their public1 but they try to get it by inartistic means1 such as through the ,press1 ,hanslick1#h c4 #hb ,wagner perfected the inner fancy of man 4 later generations will see a renaissance in sculpture4 ,poetry must precede the plastic art4 #hc ,i observe in philologists #a4 ,want of respect for antiquity4 #b4 ,tenderness and flowery oratory2 even an apologetic tone4 #c4 ,simplicity in their historical comments4 #d4 ,self-conceit4 #e4 ,under-estimation of the talented philologists4 #hd ,philologists appear to me to be a secret society who wish to train our youth by means of the culture of antiquity ,i could well understand this society and their views being criticised from all sides4 ,a great deal would depend upon knowing what these philologists understood by the term culture of antiquity--,if ,i saw1 for example1 that they were training their pupils against ,german philosophy and ,german music1 ,i should either set about combating them or combating the culture of antiquity1 perhaps the former1 by showing that these philologists had not understood the culture of antiquity4 ,now ,i observe3 #a4 ,a great indecision in the valuation of the culture of antiquity on the part of philologists4 #b4 ,something very non-ancient in themselves2 something non-free4 #c4 ,want of clearness in regard to the particular type of ancient culture they mean4 #d4 ,want of judgment in their methods of instruction1 e4g41 scholarship4 #e4 ,classical education is served out mixed up with ,christianity4 #he ,it is now no longer a matter of surprise to me that1 with such teachers1 the education of our time should be worthless4 ,i can never avoid depicting this want of education in its true colours1 especially in regard to those things which ought to be learnt from antiquity if possible1 for example1 writing1 speaking1 and so on4 #hf ,the transmission of the emotions is hereditary3 let that be recollected when we observe the effect of the ,greeks upon philologists4 #hg ,even in the best of cases1 philologists seek for no more than mere rationalism and ,alexandrian culture--not ,hellenism4 #hh ,very little can be gained by mere diligence1 if the head is dull4 ,philologist after philologist has swooped down on ,homer in the mistaken belief that something of him can be obtained by force4 ,antiquity speaks to us when it feels a desire to do so1 not when we do4 #hi ,the inherited characteristic of our present-day philologists a certain sterility of insight has resulted1 for they promote the science1 but not the philologist4 #ij ,the following is one way of carrying on classical studies1 and a frequent one3 a man throws himself thoughtlessly1 or is thrown1 into some special branch or other1 whence he looks to the right and left and sees a great deal that is good and new4 ,then1 in some unguarded moment1 he asks himself3 ,but what the devil has all this to do with me8 ,in the meantime he has grown old and has become accustomed to it all2 and therefore he continues in his rut--just as in the case of marriage4 #ia ,in connection with the training of the modern philologist the influence of the science of linguistics should be mentioned and judged2 a philologist should rather turn aside from it 4 the question of the early beginnings of the ,greeks and ,romans should be nothing to him 4 how can they spoil their own subject in such a way8 #ib ,a morbid passion often makes its appearance from time to time in connection with the oppressive uncertainty of divination1 a passion for believing and feeling sure at all costs3 for example1 when dealing with ,aristotle1 or in the discovery of magic numbers1 which1 in ,lachmann's case1 is almost an illness4 #ic ,the consistency which is prized in a savant is pedantry if applied to the ,greeks4 #id 7,,the ,,greeks ,,and ,,the ,,philologists47 ,,the ,,greeks4 ,,the ,,philologists are render homage to beauty1 babblers and triflers1 develop the body1 ugly-looking creatures1 speak clearly1 stammerers1 are religious transfigurers filthy pedants1 of everyday occurrences1 are listeners and observers1 quibblers and scarecrows1 have an aptitude for the unfitted for the symbolical1 symbolical1 are in full possession of ardent slaves of the ,state1 their freedom as men1 can look innocently out ,christians in disguise1 into the world1 are the pessimists of philistines4 thought4 #ie ,bergk's ,history of ,literature3 ,not a spark of ,greek fire or ,greek sense4 #if ,people really do compare our own age with that of ,pericles1 and congratulate themselves on the reawakening of the feeling of patriotism3 ,i remember a parody on the funeral oration of ,pericles by ,g4 ,freytag1#i in which this prim and strait-laced poet depicted the happiness now experienced by sixty-year-old men4--,all pure and simple caricature6 ,so this is the result6 ,and sorrow and irony and seclusion are all that remain for him who has seen more of antiquity than this4 #ig ,if we change a single word of ,lord ,bacon's we may say 4 infimarum ,grcorum virtutum apud philologos laus est1 mediarum admiratio1 supremarum sensus nullus4 #ih ,how can anyone glorify and venerate a whole people6 ,it is the individuals that count1 even in the case of the ,greeks4 #ii ,there is a great deal of caricature even about the ,greeks for example1 the careful attention devoted by the ,cynics to their own happiness4 #ajj ,the only thing that interests me is the relationship of the people considered as a whole to the training of the single individuals and in the case of the ,greeks there are some factors which are very favourable to the development of the individual4 ,they do not1 however1 arise from the goodwill of the people1 but from the struggle between the evil instincts4 ,by means of happy inventions and discoveries1 we can train the individual differently and more highly than has yet been done by mere chance and accident4 ,there are still hopes 4 the breeding of superior men4 #aja ,the ,greeks are interesting and quite disproportionately important because they had such a host of great individuals4 ,how was that possible8 ,this point must be studied4 #ajb ,the history of ,greece has hitherto always been written optimistically4 #ajc ,selected points from antiquity3 the power1 fire1 and swing of the feeling the ancients had for music 7through the first ,pythian ,ode71 purity in their historical sense1 gratitude for the blessings of culture1 the fire and corn feasts4 ,the ennoblement of jealousy3 the ,greeks the most jealous nation4 ,suicide1 hatred of old age1 of penury4 ,empedocles on sexual love4 #ajd ,nimble and healthy bodies1 a clear and deep sense for the observation of everyday matters1 manly freedom1 belief in good racial descent and good upbringing1 warlike virtues1 jealousy in the ,greek3 aristeyein1 delight in the arts1 respect for leisure1 a sense for free individuality1 for the symbolical4 #aje ,the spiritual culture of ,greece an aberration of the amazing political impulse towards ,greek3 aristeyein4 ,the ,greek3 polis utterly opposed to new education2 culture nevertheless existed4 #ajf ,when ,i say that1 all things considered1 the ,greeks were more moral than modern men what do ,i mean by that8 ,from what we can perceive of the activities of their soul1 it is clear that they had no shame1 they had no bad conscience4 ,they were more sincere1 open-hearted1 and passionate1 as artists are2 they exhibited a kind of child-like naivet4 ,it thus came about that even in all their evil actions they had a dash of purity about them1 something approaching the holy4 ,a remarkable number of individualities3 might there not have been a higher morality in that8 ,when we recollect that character develops slowly1 what can it be that1 in the long run1 breeds individuality8 ,perhaps vanity1 emulation8 ,possibly4 ,little inclination for conventional things4 #ajg ,the ,greeks as the geniuses among the nations4 ,their childlike nature1 credulousness4 ,passionate4 ,quite unconsciously they lived in such a way as to procreate genius4 ,enemies of shyness and dulness4 ,pain4 ,injudicious actions4 ,the nature of their intuitive insight into misery1 despite their bright and genial temperament4 ,profoundness in their apprehension and glorifying of everyday things 7fire1 agriculture74 ,mendacious1 unhistorical4 ,the significance of the ,greek3 polis in culture instinctively recognised1 favourable as a centre and periphery for great men 7the facility of surveying a community1 and also the possibility of addressing it as a whole74 ,individuality raised to the highest power through the ,greek3 polis4 ,envy1 jealousy1 as among gifted people4 #ajh ,the ,greeks were lacking in sobriety and caution4 ,over-sensibility1 abnormally active condition of the brain and the nerves2 impetuosity and fervour of the will4 #aji ,invariably to see the general in the particular is the distinguishing characteristic of genius1 says ,schopenhauer4 ,think of ,pindar1 c4--,greek3 ,sophrosynae1 according to ,schopenhauer1 has its roots in the clearness with which the ,greeks saw into themselves and into the world at large1 and thence became conscious of themselves4 ,the wide separation of will and intellect indicates the genius1 and is seen in the ,greeks4 ,the melancholy associated with genius is due to the fact that the will to live1 the more clearly it is illuminated by the contemplating intellect1 appreciates all the more clearly the misery of its condition1 says ,schopenhauer4 ,cf4 the ,greeks4 #aaj ,the moderation of the ,greeks in their sensual luxury1 eating1 and drinking1 and their pleasure therein2 the ,olympic plays and their worship 4 that shows what they were4 ,in the case of the genius1 the intellect will point out the faults which are seldom absent in an instrument that is put to a use for which it was not intended4 ,the will is often left in the lurch at an awkward moment3 hence genius1 where real life is concerned1 is more or less unpractical--its behaviour often reminds us of madness4 #aaa ,we contrast the ,romans1 with their matter-of-fact earnestness1 with the genial ,greeks6 ,schopenhauer3 ,the stern1 practical1 earnest mode of life which the ,romans called gravitas presupposes that the intellect does not forsake the service of the will in order to roam far off among things that have no connection with the will4 #aab ,it would have been much better if the ,greeks had been conquered by the ,persians instead of by the ,romans4 #aac ,the characteristics of the gifted man who is lacking in genius are to be found in the average ,hellene--all the dangerous characteristics of such a disposition and character4 #aad ,genius makes tributaries of all partly-talented people3 hence the ,persians themselves sent their ambassadors to the ,greek oracles4 #aae ,the happiest lot that can fall to the genius is to exchange doing and acting for leisure2 and this was something the ,greeks knew how to value4 ,the blessings of labour6 ,nugari was the ,roman name for all the exertions and aspirations of the ,greeks4 ,no happy course of life is open to the genius1 he stands in contradiction to his age and must perforce struggle with it4 ,thus the ,greeks 4 they instinctively made the utmost exertions to secure a safe refuge for themselves 7in the polis74 ,finally1 everything went to pieces in politics4 ,they were compelled to take up a stand against their enemies 4 this became ever more and more difficult1 and at last impossible4 #aaf ,greek culture is based on the lordship of a small class over four to nine times their number of slaves4 ,judged by mere numbers1 ,greece was a country inhabited by barbarians4 ,how can the ancients be thought to be humane8 ,there was a great contrast between the genius and the breadwinner1 the half-beast of burden4 ,the ,greeks believed in a racial distinction4 ,schopenhauer wonders why ,nature did not take it into her head to invent two entirely separate species of men4 ,the ,greeks bear the same relation to the barbarians as free-moving or winged animals do to the barnacles which cling tightly to the rocks and must await what fate chooses to send them--,schopenhauer's simile4 #aag ,the ,greeks as the only people of genius in the history of the world4 ,such they are even when considered as learners2 for they understand this best of all1 and can do more than merely trim and adorn themselves with what they have borrowed1 as did the ,romans4 ,the constitution of the polis is a ,phoenician invention1 even this has been imitated by the ,hellenes4 ,for a long time they dabbled in everything1 like joyful dilettanti4 ,aphrodite is likewise ,phoenician4 ,neither do they disavow what has come to them through immigration and does not originally belong to their own country4 #aah ,the happy and comfortable constitution of the politico-social position must not be sought among the ,greeks 4 that is a goal which dazzles the eyes of our dreamers of the future6 ,it was1 on the contrary1 dreadful2 for this is a matter that must be judged according to the following standard3 the more spirit1 the more suffering 7as the ,greeks themselves prove74 ,whence it follows1 the more stupidity1 the more comfort4 ,the philistine of culture is the most comfortable creature the sun has ever shone upon3 and he is doubtless also in possession of the corresponding stupidity4 #aai ,the ,greek polis and the ,greek3 aien aristeyein grew up out of mutual enmity4 ,hellenic and philanthropic are contrary adjectives1 although the ancients flattered themselves sufficiently4 ,homer is1 in the world of the ,hellenic discord1 the pan-,hellenic ,greek4 ,the ,greek3 agon of the ,greeks is also manifested in the ,symposium in the shape of witty conversation4 #abj ,wanton1 mutual annihilation inevitable3 so long as a single polis wished to exist--its envy for everything superior to itself1 its cupidity1 the disorder of its customs1 the enslavement of the women1 lack of conscience in the keeping of oaths1 in murder1 and in cases of violent death4 ,tremendous power of self-control3 for example in a man like ,socrates1 who was capable of everything evil4 #aba ,its noble sense of order and systematic arrangement had rendered the ,athenian state immortal--,the ten strategists in ,athens6 ,foolish6 ,too big a sacrifice on the altar of jealousy4 #abb ,the recreations of the ,spartans consisted of feasting1 hunting1 and making war their every-day life was too hard4 ,on the whole1 however1 their state is merely a caricature of the polls1 a corruption of ,hellas4 ,the breeding of the complete ,spartan--but what was there great about him that his breeding should have required such a brutal state6 #abc ,the political defeat of ,greece is the greatest failure of culture2 for it has given rise to the atrocious theory that culture cannot be pursued unless one is at the same time armed to the teeth4 ,the rise of ,christianity was the second greatest failure3 brute force on the one hand1 and a dull intellect on the other1 won a complete victory over the aristocratic genius among the nations4 ,to be a ,philhellenist now means to be a foe of brute force and stupid intellects4 ,sparta was the ruin of ,athens in so far as she compelled ,athens to turn her entire attention to politics and to act as a federal combination4 #abd ,there are domains of thought where the ratio will only give rise to disorder1 and the philologist1 who possesses nothing more1 is lost through it and is unable to see the truth e4g4 in the consideration of ,greek mythology4 ,a merely fantastic person1 of course1 has no claim either one must possess ,greek imagination and also a certain amount of ,greek piety4 ,even the poet does not require to be too consistent1 and consistency is the last thing ,greeks would understand4 #abe ,almost all the ,greek divinities are accumulations of divinities 4 we find one layer over another1 soon to be hidden and smoothed down by yet a third1 and so on4 ,it scarcely seems to me to be possible to pick these various divinities to pieces in a scientific manner1 for no good method of doing so can be recommended3 even the poor conclusion by analogy is in this instance a very good conclusion4 #abf ,at what a distance must one be from the ,greeks to ascribe to them such a stupidly narrow autochthony as does ,ottfried ,muller6#aj ,how ,christian it is to assume1 with ,welcker1#aa that the ,greeks were originally monotheistic6 ,how philologists torment themselves by investigating the question whether ,homer actually wrote1 without being able to grasp the far higher tenet that ,greek art long exhibited an inward enmity against writing1 and did not wish to be read at all4 #abg ,in the religious cultus an earlier degree of culture comes to light a remnant of former times4 ,the ages that celebrate it are not those which invent it1 the contrary is often the case4 ,there are many contrasts to be found here4 ,the ,greek cultus takes us back to a pre-,homeric disposition and culture4 ,it is almost the oldest that we know of the ,greeks--older than their mythology1 which their poets have considerably remoulded1 so far as we know it--,can this cult really be called ,greek8 ,i doubt it3 they are finishers1 not inventors4 ,they preserve by means of this beautiful completion and adornment4 #abh ,it is exceedingly doubtful whether we should draw any conclusion in regard to nationality and relationship with other nations from languages4 ,a victorious language is nothing but a frequent 7and not always regular7 indication of a successful campaign4 ,where could there have been autochthonous peoples6 ,it shows a very hazy conception of things to talk about ,greeks who never lived in ,greece4 ,that which is really ,greek is much less the result of natural aptitude than of adapted institutions1 and also of an acquired language4 #abi ,to live on mountains1 to travel a great deal1 and to move quickly from one place to another 4 in these ways we can now begin to compare ourselves with the ,greek gods4 ,we know the past1 too1 and we almost know the future4 ,what would a ,greek say1 if only he could see us6 #acj ,the gods make men still more evil2 this is the nature of man4 ,if we do not like a man1 we wish that he may become worse than he is1 and then we are glad4 ,this forms part of the obscure philosophy of hate--a philosophy which has never yet been written1 because it is everywhere the pudendum that every one feels4 #aca ,the pan-,hellenic ,homer finds his delight in the frivolity of the gods2 but it is astounding how he can also give them dignity again4 ,this amazing ability to raise one's self again1 however1 is ,greek4 #acb ,what1 then1 is the origin of the envy of the gods8 people did not believe in a calm1 quiet happiness1 but only in an exuberant one4 ,this must have caused some displeasure to the ,greeks2 for their soul was only too easily wounded3 it embittered them to see a happy man4 ,that is ,greek4 ,if a man of distinguished talent appeared1 the flock of envious people must have become astonishingly large4 ,if any one met with a misfortune1 they would say of him3 ,ah6 no wonder6 he was too frivolous and too well off4 ,and every one of them would have behaved exuberantly if he had possessed the requisite talent1 and would willingly have played the role of the god who sent the unhappiness to men4 #acc ,the ,greek gods did not demand any complete changes of character1 and were1 generally speaking1 by no means burdensome or importunate 4 it was thus possible to take them seriously and to believe in them4 ,at the time of ,homer1 indeed1 the nature of the ,greek was formed flippancy of images and imagination was necessary to lighten the weight of its passionate disposition and to set it free4 #acd ,every religion has for its highest images an analogon in the spiritual condition of those who profess it4 ,the ,god of ,mohammed 4 the solitariness of the desert1 the distant roar of the lion1 the vision of a formidable warrior4 ,the ,god of the ,christians 4 everything that men and women think of when they hear the word love4 ,the ,god of the ,greeks3 a beautiful apparition in a dream4 #ace ,a great deal of intelligence must have gone to the making up of a ,greek polytheism 4 the expenditure of intelligence is much less lavish when people have only one ,god4 #acf ,greek morality is not based on religion1 but on the polis4 ,there were only priests of the individual gods2 not representatives of the whole religion 4 i4e41 no guild of priests4 ,likewise no ,holy ,writ4 #acg ,the lighthearted gods this is the highest adornment which has ever been bestowed upon the world--with the feeling1 ,how difficult it is to live6 #ach ,if the ,greeks let their reason speak1 their life seems to them bitter and terrible4 ,they are not deceived4 ,but they play round life with lies3 ,simonides advises them to treat life as they would a play2 earnestness was only too well known to them in the form of pain4 ,the misery of men is a pleasure to the gods when they hear the poets singing of it4 ,well did the ,greeks know that only through art could even misery itself become a source of pleasure1 vide tragoediam4 #aci ,it is quite untrue to say that the ,greeks only took this life into their consideration--they suffered also from thoughts of death and ,hell4 ,but no repentance or contrition4 #adj ,the incarnate appearance of gods1 as in ,sappho's invocation to ,aphrodite1 must not be taken as poetic licence they are frequently hallucinations4 ,we conceive of a great many things1 including the will to die1 too superficially as rhetorical4 #ada ,the martyr is ,hellenic3 ,prometheus1 ,hercules4 ,the hero-myth became pan-,hellenic3 a poet must have had a hand in that6 #adb ,how realistic the ,greeks were even in the domain of pure inventions6 ,they poetised reality1 not yearning to lift themselves out of it4 ,the raising of the present into the colossal and eternal1 e4g41 by ,pindar4 #adc ,what condition do the ,greeks premise as the model of their life in ,hades8 ,anmic1 dreamlike1 weak 4 it is the continuous accentuation of old age1 when the memory gradually becomes weaker and weaker1 and the body still more so4 ,the senility of senility 4 this would be our state of life in the eyes of the ,hellenes4 #add ,the naive character of the ,greeks observed by the ,egyptians4 #ade ,the truly scientific people1 the literary people1 were the ,egyptians and not the ,greeks4 ,that which has the appearance of science among the ,greeks1 originated among the ,egyptians and later on returned to them to mingle again with the old current4 ,alexandrian culture is an amalgamation of ,hellenic and ,egyptian 4 and when our world again founds its culture upon the ,alexandrian culture1 then4444#ab #adf ,the ,egyptians are far more of a literary people than the ,greeks4 ,i maintain this against ,wolf4 ,the first grain in ,eleusis1 the first vine in ,thebes1 the first olive-tree and fig-tree4 ,the ,egyptians had lost a great part of their mythology4 #adg ,the unmathematical undulation of the column in ,paestum is analogous to the modification of the tempo3 animation in place of a mechanical movement4 #adh ,the desire to find something certain and fixed in sthetic led to the worship of ,aristotle3 ,i think1 however1 that we may gradually come to see from his works that he understood nothing about art1 and that it is merely the intellectual conversations of the ,athenians1 echoing in his pages1 which we admire4 #adi ,in ,socrates we have as it were lying open before us a specimen of the consciousness out of which1 later on1 the instincts of the theoretic man originated3 that one would rather die than grow old and weak in mind4 #aej ,at the twilight of antiquity there were still wholly unchristian figures1 which were more beautiful1 harmonious1 and pure than those of any ,christians3 e4g41 ,proclus4 ,his mysticism and syncretism were things that precisely ,christianity cannot reproach him with4 ,in any case1 it would be my desire to live together with such people4 ,in comparison with them ,christianity looks like some crude brutalisation1 organised for the benefit of the mob and the criminal classes4 ,proclus1 who solemnly invokes the rising moon4 #aea ,with the advent of ,christianity a religion attained the mastery which corresponded to a pre-,greek condition of mankind3 belief in witchcraft in connection with all and everything1 bloody sacrifices1 superstitious fear of demoniacal punishments1 despair in one's self1 ecstatic brooding and hallucination1 man's self become the arena of good and evil spirits and their struggles4 #aeb ,all branches of history have experimented with antiquity critical consideration alone remains4 ,by this term ,i do not mean conjectural and literary-historical criticism4 #aec ,antiquity has been treated by all kinds of historians and their methods4 ,we have now had enough experience1 however1 to turn the history of antiquity to account without being shipwrecked on antiquity itself4 #aed ,we can now look back over a fairly long period of human existence what will the humanity be like which is able to look back at us from an equally long distance8 which finds us lying intoxicated among the dbris of old culture6 which finds its only consolation in being good and in holding out the helping hand1 and turns away from all other consolations6--,does beauty1 too1 grow out of the ancient culture8 ,i think that our ugliness arises from our metaphysical remnants 4 our confused morals1 the worthlessness of our marriages1 and so on1 are the cause4 ,the beautiful man1 the healthy1 moderate1 and enterprising man1 moulds the objects around him into beautiful shapes after his own image4 #aee ,up to the present time all history has been written from the standpoint of success1 and1 indeed1 with the assumption of a certain reason in this success4 ,this remark applies also to ,greek history3 so far we do not possess any4 ,it is the same all round1 however3 where are the historians who can survey things and events without being humbugged by stupid theories8 ,i know of only one1 ,burckhardt4 ,everywhere the widest possible optimism prevails in science4 ,the question3 ,what would have been the consequence if so and so had not happened8 is almost unanimously thrust aside1 and yet it is the cardinal question4 ,thus everything becomes ironical4 ,let us only consider our own lives4 ,if we examine history in accordance with a preconceived plan1 let this plan be sought in the purposes of a great man1 or perhaps in those of a sex1 or of a party4 ,everything else is a chaos4--,even in natural science we find this deification of the necessary4 ,germany has become the breeding-place of this historical optimism2 ,hegel is perhaps to blame for this4 ,nothing1 however1 is more responsible for the fatal influence of ,german culture4 ,everything that has been kept down by success gradually rears itself up3 history as the scorn of the conqueror2 a servile sentiment and a kneeling down before the actual fact--a sense for the ,state1 they now call it1 as if that had still to be propagated6 ,he who does not understand how brutal and unintelligent history is will never understand the stimulus to make it intelligent4 ,just think how rare it is to find a man with as great an intelligent knowledge of his own life as ,goethe had 4 what amount of rationality can we expect to find arising out of these other veiled and blind existences as they work chaotically with and in opposition to each other8 ,and it is especially naive when ,hellwald1 the author of a history of culture1 warns us away from all ideals1 simply because history has killed them off one after the other4 #aef ,to bring to light without reserve the stupidity and the want of reason in human things that is the aim of our brethren and colleagues4 ,people will then have to distinguish what is essential in them1 what is incorrigible1 and what is still susceptible of further improvement4 ,but ,providence must be kept out of the question1 for it is a conception that enables people to take things too easily4 ,i wish to breathe the breath of this purpose into science4 ,let us advance our knowledge of mankind6 ,the good and rational in man is accidental or apparent1 or the contrary of something very irrational4 ,there will come a time when training will be the only thought4 #aeg ,surrender to necessity is exactly what ,i do not teach--for one must first know this necessity to be necessary4 ,there may perhaps be many necessities2 but in general this inclination is simply a bed of idleness4 #aeh ,to know history now means to recognise how all those who believed in a ,providence took things too easily4 ,there is no such thing4 ,if human affairs are seen to go forward in a loose and disordered way1 do not think that a god has any purpose in view by letting them do so or that he is neglecting them4 ,we can now see in a general way that the history of ,christianity on earth has been one of the most dreadful chapters in history1 and that a stop must be put to it4 ,true1 the influence of antiquity has been observed in ,christianity even in our own time1 and1 as it diminishes1 so will our knowledge of antiquity diminish also to an even greater extent4 ,now is the best time to recognise it3 we are no longer prejudiced in favour of ,christianity1 but we still understand it1 and also the antiquity that forms part of it1 so far as this antiquity stands in line with ,christianity4 #aei ,philosophic heads must occupy themselves one day with the collective account of antiquity and make up its balance-sheet4 ,if we have this1 antiquity will be overcome4 ,all the shortcomings which now vex us have their roots in antiquity1 so that we cannot continue to treat this account with the mildness which has been customary up to the present4 ,the atrocious crime of mankind which rendered ,christianity possible1 as it actually became possible1 is the guilt of antiquity4 ,with ,christianity antiquity will also be cleared away4--,at the present time it is not so very far behind us1 and it is certainly not possible to do justice to it4 ,it has been availed of in the most dreadful fashion for purposes of repression1 and has acted as a support for religious oppression by disguising itself as culture4 ,it was common to hear the saying1 ,antiquity has been conquered by ,christianity4 ,this was a historical fact1 and it was thus thought that no harm could come of any dealings with antiquity4 ,yes1 it is so plausible to say that we find ,christian ethics deeper than ,socrates6 ,plato was easier to compete with6 ,we are at the present time1 so to speak1 merely chewing the cud of the very battle which was fought in the first centuries of the ,christian era--with the exception of the fact that now1 instead of the clearly perceptible antiquity which then existed1 we have merely its pale ghost2 and1 indeed1 even ,christianity itself has become rather ghostlike4 ,it is a battle fought after the decisive battle1 a post-vibration4 ,in the end1 all the forces of which antiquity consisted have reappeared in ,christianity in the crudest possible form3 it is nothing new1 only quantitatively extraordinary4 #afj ,what severs us for ever from the culture of antiquity is the fact that its foundations have become too shaky for us4 ,a criticism of the ,greeks is at the same time a criticism of ,christianity2 for the bases of the spirit of belief1 the religious cult1 and witchcraft1 are the same in both--,there are many rudimentary stages still remaining1 but they are by this time almost ready to collapse4 ,this would be a task 4 to characterise ,greek antiquity as irretrievably lost1 and with it ,christianity also and the foundations upon which1 up to the present time1 our society and politics have been based4 #afa ,christianity has conquered antiquity--yes2 that is easily said4 ,in the first place1 it is itself a piece of antiquity1 in the second place1 it has preserved antiquity1 in the third place1 it has never been in combat with the pure ages of antiquity4 ,or rather3 in order that ,christianity itself might remain1 it had to let itself be overcome by the spirit of antiquity--for example1 the idea of empire1 the community1 and so forth4 ,we are suffering from the uncommon want of clearness and uncleanliness of human things2 from the ingenious mendacity which ,christianity has brought among men4 #afb ,it is almost laughable to see how nearly all the sciences and arts of modern times grow from the scattered seeds which have been wafted towards us from antiquity1 and how ,christianity seems to us here to be merely the evil chill of a long night1 a night during which one is almost inclined to believe that all is over with reason and honesty among men4 ,the battle waged against the natural man has given rise to the unnatural man4 #afc ,with the dissolution of ,christianity a great part of antiquity has become incomprehensible to us1 for instance1 the entire religious basis of life4 ,on this account an imitation of antiquity is a false tendency 4 the betrayers or the betrayed are the philologists who still think of such a thing4 ,we live in a period when many different conceptions of life are to be found3 hence the present age is instructive to an unusual degree2 and hence also the reason why it is so ill1 since it suffers from the evils of all its tendencies at once4 ,the man of the future 4 the ,european man4 #afd ,the ,german ,reformation widened the gap between us and antiquity3 was it necessary for it to do so8 ,it once again introduced the old contrast of ,paganism and ,christianity2 and it was at the same time a protest against the decorative culture of the ,renaissance--it was a victory gained over the same culture as had formerly been conquered by early ,christianity4 ,in regard to worldly things1 ,christianity preserved the grosser views of the ancients4 ,all the nobler elements in marriage1 slavery1 and the ,state are unchristian4 ,it required the distorting characteristics of worldliness to prove itself4 #afe ,the connection between humanism and religious rationalism was emphasised as a ,saxonian trait by ,kochly3 the type of this philologist is ,gottfried ,hermann4#ac #aff ,i understand religions as narcotics3 but when they are given to such nations as the ,germans1 ,i think they are simply rank poison4 #afg ,all religions are1 in the end1 based upon certain physical assumptions1 which are already in existence and adapt the religions to their needs 4 for example1 in ,christianity1 the contrast between body and soul1 the unlimited importance of the earth as the world1 the marvellous occurrences in nature4 ,if once the opposite views gain the mastery--for instance1 a strict law of nature1 the helplessness and superfluousness of all gods1 the strict conception of the soul as a bodily process--all is over4 ,but all ,greek culture is based upon such views4 #afh ,when we look from the character and culture of the ,catholic ,middle ,ages back to the ,greeks1 we see them resplendent indeed in the rays of higher humanity2 for1 if we have anything to reproach these ,greeks with1 we must reproach the ,middle ,ages with it also to a much greater extent4 ,the worship of the ancients at the time of the ,renaissance was therefore quite honest and proper4 ,we have carried matters further in one particular point1 precisely in connection with that dawning ray of light4 ,we have outstripped the ,greeks in the clarifying of the world by our studies of nature and men4 ,our knowledge is much greater1 and our judgments are more moderate and just4 ,in addition to this1 a more gentle spirit has become widespread1 thanks to the period of illumination which has weakened mankind--but this weakness1 when turned into morality1 leads to good results and honours us4 ,man has now a great deal of freedom3 it is his own fault if he does not make more use of it than he does2 the fanaticism of opinions has become much milder4 ,finally1 that we would much rather live in the present age than in any other is due to science1 and certainly no other race in the history of mankind has had such a wide choice of noble enjoyments as ours--even if our race has not the palate and stomach to experience a great deal of joy4 ,but one can live comfortably amid all this freedom only when one merely understands it and does not wish to participate in it--that is the modern crux4 ,the participants appear to be less attractive than ever how stupid they must be6 ,thus the danger arises that knowledge may avenge itself on us1 just as ignorance avenged itself on us during the ,middle ,ages4 ,it is all over with those religions which place their trust in gods1 ,providences1 rational orders of the universe1 miracles1 and sacraments1 as is also the case with certain types of holy lives1 such as ascetics2 for we only too easily conclude that such people are the effects of sickness and an aberrant brain4 ,there is no doubt that the contrast between a pure1 incorporeal soul and a body has been almost set aside4 ,who now believes in the immortality of the soul6 ,everything connected with blessedness or damnation1 which was based upon certain erroneous physiological assumptions1 falls to the ground as soon as these assumptions are recognised to be errors4 ,our scientific assumptions admit just as much of an interpretation and utilisation in favour of a besotting philistinism--yea1 in favour of bestiality--as also in favour of blessedness and soul-inspiration4 ,as compared with all previous ages1 we are now standing on a new foundation1 so that something may still be expected from the human race4 ,as regards culture1 we have hitherto been acquainted with only one complete form of it1 i4e41 the city-culture of the ,greeks1 based as it was on their mythical and social foundations2 and one incomplete form1 the ,roman1 which acted as an adornment of life1 derived from the ,greek4 ,now all these bases1 the mythical and the politico-social1 have changed2 our alleged culture has no stability1 because it has been erected upon insecure conditions and opinions which are even now almost ready to collapse4--,when we thoroughly grasp ,greek culture1 then1 we see that it is all over with it4 ,the philologist is thus a great sceptic in the present conditions of our culture and training that is his mission4 ,happy is he if1 like ,wagner and ,schopenhauer1 he has a dim presentiment of those auspicious powers amid which a new culture is stirring4 #afi ,those who say3 ,but antiquity nevertheless remains as a subject of consideration for pure science1 even though all its educational purposes may be disowned1 must be answered by the words1 ,what is pure science here6 ,actions and characteristics must be judged2 and those who judge them must stand above them3 so you must first devote your attention to overcoming antiquity4 ,if you do not do that1 your science is not pure1 but impure and limited 4 as may now be perceived4 #agj ,to overcome ,greek antiquity through our own deeds3 this would be the right task4 ,but before we can do this we must first know it6--,there is a thoroughness which is merely an excuse for inaction4 ,let it be recollected how much ,goethe knew of antiquity3 certainly not so much as a philologist1 and yet sufficient to contend with it in such a way as to bring about fruitful results4 ,one should not even know more about a thing than one could create4 ,moreover1 the only time when we can actually recognise something is when we endeavour to make it4 ,let people but attempt to live after the manner of antiquity1 and they will at once come hundreds of miles nearer to antiquity than they can do with all their erudition4--,our philologists never show that they strive to emulate antiquity in any way1 and thus their antiquity remains without any effect on the schools4 ,the study of the spirit of emulation 7,renaissance1 ,goethe71 and the study of despair4 ,the non-popular element in the new culture of the ,renaissance3 a frightful fact6 #aga ,the worship of classical antiquity1 as it was to be seen in ,italy1 may be interpreted as the only earnest1 disinterested1 and fecund worship which has yet fallen to the lot of antiquity4 ,it is a splendid example of ,don ,quixotism2 and philology at best is such ,don ,quixotism4 ,already at the time of the ,alexandrian savants1 as with all the sophists of the first and second centuries1 the ,atticists1 c41 the scholars are imitating something purely and simply chimerical and pursuing a world that never existed4 ,the same trait is seen throughout antiquity the manner in which the ,homeric heroes were copied1 and all the intercourse held with the myths1 show traces of it4 ,gradually all ,greek antiquity has become an object of ,don ,quixotism4 ,it is impossible to understand our modern world if we do not take into account the enormous influence of the purely fantastic4 ,this is now confronted by the principle there can be no imitation4 ,imitation1 however1 is merely an artistic phenomenon1 i4e41 it is based on appearance 4 we can accept manners1 thoughts1 and so on through imitation2 but imitation can create nothing4 ,true1 the creator can borrow from all sides and nourish himself in that way4 ,and it is only as creators that we shall be able to take anything from the ,greeks4 ,but in what respect can philologists be said to be creators6 ,there must be a few dirty jobs1 such as knackers' men1 and also text-revisers3 are the philologists to carry out tasks of this nature8 #agb ,what1 then1 is antiquity now1 in the face of modern art1 science1 and philosophy8 ,it is no longer the treasure-chamber of all knowledge2 for in natural and historical science we have advanced greatly beyond it4 ,oppression by the church has been stopped4 ,a pure knowledge of antiquity is now possible1 but perhaps also a more ineffective and weaker knowledge4--,this is right enough1 if effect is known only as effect on the masses2 but for the breeding of higher minds antiquity is more powerful than ever4 ,goethe as a ,german poet-philologist2 ,wagner as a still higher stage3 his clear glance for the only worthy position of art4 ,no ancient work has ever had so powerful an effect as the ,orestes had on ,wagner4 ,the objective1 emasculated philologist1 who is but a philistine of culture and a worker in pure science1 is1 however1 a sad spectacle4 #agc ,between our highest art and philosophy and that which is recognised to be truly the oldest antiquity1 there is no contradiction3 they support and harmonise with one another4 ,it is in this that ,i place my hopes4 #agd ,the main standpoints from which to consider the importance of antiquity3 #a4 ,there is nothing about it for young people1 for it exhibits man with an entire freedom from shame4 #b4 ,it is not for direct imitation1 but it teaches by which means art has hitherto been perfected in the highest degree4 #c4 ,it is accessible only to a few1 and there should be a police des moeurs1 in charge of it--as there should be also in charge of bad pianists who play ,beethoven4 #d4 ,these few apply this antiquity to the judgment of our own time1 as critics of it2 and they judge antiquity by their own ideals and are thus critics of antiquity4 #e4 ,the contract between the ,hellenic and the ,roman should be studied1 and also the contrast between the early ,hellenic and the late ,hellenic4--,explanation of the different types of culture4 #age ,the advancement of science at the expense of man is one of the most pernicious things in the world4 ,the stunted man is a retrogression in the human race3 he throws a shadow over all succeeding generations ,the tendencies and natural purpose of the individual science become degenerate1 and science itself is finally shipwrecked3 it has made progress1 but has either no effect at all on life or else an immoral one4 #agf ,men not to be used like things6 ,from the former very incomplete philology and knowledge of antiquity there flowed out a stream of freedom1 while our own highly developed knowledge produces slaves and serves the idol of the ,state4 #agg ,there will perhaps come a time when scientific work will be carried on by women1 while the men will have to create1 using the word in a spiritual sense3 states1 laws1 works of art1 c4 ,people should study typical antiquity just as they do typical men3 i4e41 imitating what they understand of it1 and1 when the pattern seems to lie far in the distance1 considering ways and means and preliminary preparations1 and devising stepping-stones4 #agh ,the whole feature of study lies in this3 that we should study only what we feel we should like to imitate2 what we gladly take up and have the desire to multiply4 ,what is really wanted is a progressive canon of the ideal model1 suited to boys1 youths1 and men4 #agi ,goethe grasped antiquity in the right way invariably with an emulative soul4 ,but who else did so8 ,one sees nothing of a well-thought-out pedagogics of this nature3 who knows that there is a certain knowledge of antiquity which cannot be imparted to youths6 ,the puerile character of philology3 devised by teachers for pupils4 #ahj ,the ever more and more common form of the ideal3 first men1 then institutions1 finally tendencies1 purposes1 or the want of them4 ,the highest form3 the conquest of the ideal by a backward movement from tendencies to institutions1 and from institutions to men4 #aha ,i will set down in writing what ,i no longer believe--and also what ,i do believe4 ,man stands in the midst of the great whirlpool of forces1 and imagines that this whirlpool is rational and has a rational aim in view3 error6 ,the only rationality that we know is the small reason of man3 he must exert it to the utmost1 and it invariably leaves him in the lurch if he tries to place himself in the hands of ,providence4 ,our only happiness lies in reason2 all the remainder of the world is dreary4 ,the highest reason1 however1 is seen by me in the work of the artist1 and he can feel it to be such3 there may be something which1 when it can be consciously brought forward1 may afford an even greater feeling of reason and happiness3 for example1 the course of the solar system1 the breeding and education of a man4 ,happiness lies in rapidity of feeling and thinking3 everything else is slow1 gradual1 and stupid4 ,the man who could feel the progress of a ray of light would be greatly enraptured1 for it is very rapid4 ,thinking of one's self affords little happiness4 ,but when we do experience happiness therein the reason is that we are not thinking of ourselves1 but of our ideal4 ,this lies far off2 and only the rapid man attains it and rejoices4 ,an amalgamation of a great centre of men for the breeding of better men is the task of the future4 ,the individual must become familiarised with claims that1 when he says ,yea to his own will1 he also says ,yea to the will of that centre--for example1 in reference to a choice1 as among women for marriage1 and likewise as to the manner in which his child shall be brought up4 ,until now no single individuality1 or only the very rarest1 have been free3 they were influenced by these conceptions1 but likewise by the bad and contradictory organisation of the individual purposes4 #ahb ,education is in the first place instruction in what is necessary1 and then in what is changing and inconstant4 ,the youth is introduced to nature1 and the sway of laws is everywhere pointed out to him2 followed by an explanation of the laws of ordinary society4 ,even at this early stage the question will arise3 was it absolutely necessary that this should have been so8 ,he gradually comes to need history to ascertain how these things have been brought about4 ,he learns at the same time1 however1 that they may be changed into something else4 ,what is the extent of man's power over things8 ,this is the question in connection with all education4 ,to show how things may become other than what they are we may1 for example1 point to the ,greeks4 ,we need the ,romans to show how things became what they were4 #ahc ,if1 then1 the ,romans had spurned the ,greek culture1 they would perhaps have gone to pieces completely4 ,when could this culture have once again arisen8 ,christianity and ,romans and barbarians3 this would have been an onslaught3 it would have entirely wiped out culture4 ,we see the danger amid which genius lives4 ,cicero was one of the greatest benefactors of humanity1 even in his own time4 ,there is no ,providence for genius2 it is only for the ordinary run of people and their wants that such a thing exists3 they find their satisfaction1 and later on their justification4 #ahd ,thesis3 the death of ancient culture inevitable4 ,greek culture must be distinguished as the archetype2 and it must be shown how all culture rests upon shaky conceptions4 ,the dangerous meaning of art3 as the protectress and galvanisation of dead and dying conceptions2 history1 in so far as it wishes to restore to us feelings which we have overcome4 ,to feel historically or just towards what is already past1 is only possible when we have risen above it4 ,but the danger in the adoption of the feelings necessary for this is very great 4 let the dead bury their dead1 so that we ourselves may not come under the influence of the smell of the corpses4 ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,culture4 #a4 ,the signification of the studies of antiquity hitherto pursued3 obscure2 mendacious4 #b4 ,as soon as they recognise the goal they condemn themselves to death for their goal is to describe ancient culture itself as one to be demolished4 #c4 ,the collection of all the conceptions out of which ,hellenic culture has grown up4 ,criticism of religion1 art1 society1 state1 morals4 #d4 ,christianity is likewise denied4 #e4 ,art and history--dangerous4 #f4 ,the replacing of the study of antiquity which has become superfluous for the training of our youth4 ,thus the task of the science of history is completed and it itself has become superfluous1 if the entire inward continuous circle of past efforts has been condemned4 ,its place must be taken by the science of the future4 #ahe ,signs and miracles are not believed2 only a ,providence stands in need of such things4 ,there is no help to be found either in prayer or asceticism or in vision4 ,if all these things constitute religion1 then there is no more religion for me4 ,my religion1 if ,i can still apply this name to something1 lies in the work of breeding genius 4 from such training everything is to be hoped4 ,all consolation comes from art4 ,education is love for the offspring2 an excess of love over and beyond our self-love4 ,religion is love beyond ourselves4 ,the work of art is the model of such a love beyond ourselves1 and a perfect model at that4 #ahf ,the stupidity of the will is ,schopenhauer's greatest thought1 if thoughts be judged from the standpoint of power4 ,we can see in ,hartmann how he juggled away this thought4 ,nobody will ever call something stupid--,god4 #ahg ,this1 then1 is the new feature of all the future progress of the world men must never again be ruled over by religious conceptions4 ,will they be any worse8 ,it is not my experience that they behave well and morally under the yoke of religion2 ,i am not on the side of ,demopheles#ad ,the fear of a beyond1 and then again the fear of divine punishments will hardly have made men better4 #ahh ,where something great makes its appearance and lasts for a relatively long time1 we may premise a careful breeding1 as in the case of the ,greeks4 ,how did so many men become free among them8 ,educate educators6 ,but the first educators must educate themselves6 ,and it is for these that ,i write4 #ahi ,the denial of life is no longer an easy matter3 a man may become a hermit or a monk--and what is thereby denied6 ,this conception has now become deeper 4 it is above all a discerning denial1 a denial based upon the will to be just2 not an indiscriminate and wholesale denial4 #aij ,the seer must be affectionate1 otherwise men will have no confidence in him ,cassandra4 #aia ,the man who to-day wishes to be good and saintly has a more difficult task than formerly 4 in order to be good1 he must not be so unjust to knowledge as earlier saints were4 ,he would have to be a knowledge-saint3 a man who would link love with knowledge1 and who would have nothing to do with gods or demigods or ,providence1 as the ,indian saints likewise had nothing to do with them4 ,he should also be healthy1 and should keep himself so1 otherwise he would necessarily become distrustful of himself4 ,and perhaps he would not bear the slightest resemblance to the ascetic saint1 but would be much more like a man of the world4 #aib ,the better the state is organised1 the duller will humanity be4 ,to make the individual uncomfortable is my task6 ,the great pleasure experienced by the man who liberates himself by fighting4 ,spiritual heights have had their age in history2 inherited energy belongs to them4 ,in the ideal state all would be over with them4 #aic ,the highest judgment on life only arising from the highest energy of life4 ,the mind must be removed as far as possible from exhaustion4 ,in the centre of the world-history judgment will be the most accurate2 for it was there that the greatest geniuses existed4 ,the breeding of the genius as the only man who can truly value and deny life4 ,save your genius6 shall be shouted unto the people3 set him free6 ,do all you can to unshackle him4 ,the feeble and poor in spirit must not be allowed to judge life4 #aid ,i dream of a combination of men who shall make no concessions1 who shall show no consideration1 and who shall be willing to be called destroyers3 they apply the standard of their criticism to everything and sacrifice themselves to truth4 ,the bad and the false shall be brought to light6 ,we will not build prematurely3 we do not know1 indeed1 whether we shall ever be able to build1 or if it would not be better not to build at all4 ,there are lazy pessimists and resigned ones in this world--and it is to their number that we refuse to belong6 ,,footnotes3 #a ,no doubt a reminiscence of the ,odyssey1 ,bk4 ix--,,tr4 #b ,formal education is that which tends to develop the critical and logical faculties1 as opposed to material education1 which is intended to deal with the acquisition of knowledge and its valuation1 e4g41 history1 mathematics1 c4 ,material education1 of course1 has nothing to do with materialism--,,tr4 #c ,the reference is not to ,pope1 but to ,hegel4--,,tr4 #d ,friedrich ,august ,wolf 7#agei-ahbd71 the well-known classical scholar1 now chiefly remembered by his ,prolegomena ad ,homerum4--,,tr4 #e ,students who pass certain examinations need only serve one year in the ,german ,army instead of the usual two or three--,,tr4 #f ,otto ,jahn 7#ahac-fi71 who is probably best remembered in philological circles by his edition of ,juvenal4--,,tr4 #g ,gustav ,freytag at one time a famous ,german novelist--,,tr4 #h ,a well-known anti-,wagnerian musical critic of ,vienna4--,,tr4 #i ,see note on p #adi4--,,tr4 #aj ,karl ,ottfried ,muller 7#agig-ahdj71 classical archologist1 who devoted special attention to ,greece--,,tr4 #aa ,friedrich ,gottlieb ,welcker 7#aghd-ahfh71 noted for his ultra-profound comments on ,greek poetry--,,tr4 #ab ,we shall once again be shipwrecked4 ,the omission is in the original--,,tr4 #ac ,johann ,gottfried ,jakob ,hermann 7#aggb-ahdh71 noted for his works on metre and ,greek grammar4--,,tr4 #ad ,a type in ,schopenhauer's ,essay ,on ,religion4 ,see ,parerga and ,paralipomena--,,tr4 ,,finis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,printed at ,,the ,,darien ,,press1 ,edinburgh