,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #aagh ,,new ,,york1 ,,june #be1 #ahih4 ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xlv41 ,no4 #aagh4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,arch,,ology4--,tombs of the ,first ,egyptian ,dynasty--,by ,,ludwig ,,borchardt #ahgfg ,,ii4 ,,anthropology4--,the ,milestones of ,human ,progress #ahgff ,,iii4 ,,biography4--,the ,queen ,regent and ,alfonzo ,,xiii4--#a illustration #ahgee ,,iv4 ,,botany ,,and ,,horticulture4--,rose ,psyche--#a illustration #ahgfh ,v4 ,,civil ,,engineering4--,the ,lock of the ,dortmund-,ems ,canal at ,henrichenburg4--#a illustration #ahggf ,,vi4 ,,electricity4--,the ,development of the ,central ,station--,by ,,samuel ,,insull #ahggd ,,vii4 ,,marine ,,engineering4--,steering ,gear of ,north ,german ,lloyd ,steamers ,coblentz1 ,mainz and ,trier4--#b illustrations #ahggg ,,viii4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,hygiene4--,sleep and the ,theories of its ,cause #ahgfh ,,ix4 ,,miscellaneous3 ,engineering ,notes4 #ahgga ,electrical ,notes4 #ahgga ,selected ,formul4 #ahgga ,x4 ,,natural ,,history--,wild and ,domestic ,sheep in the ,berlin ,zoological ,garden4--#h illustrations #ahggb ,,xi4 ,,patents4--,patents4--,by ,,james ,w4 ,,see #ahggc ,,xii4 ,,photography4--,amateur ,chronophotographic ,apparatus4--#b illustrations #ahgfi ,,xiii4 ,,steam ,,engineering4--,combined ,steam ,pumping and ,motive ,power ,engine4--#a illustration #ahggh ,,xiv4 ,,technology4--,the ,reclaiming of ,old ,rubber4--,by ,,hawthorne ,,hill #ahgfi ,,xv4 ,,warfare4--,the ,american ,regular4--,by the ,english correspondent of the ,london ,times on board the ,united ,states transport ,gussie4 #ahggf 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,queen ,,regent ,,and ,,alfonzo ,,xiii4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,queen ,,regent ,,and ,,her ,,son1 ,,king ,,alfonso ,,xiii4 ,,of ,,spain4 ,in the present war between the ,united ,states and ,spain1 the ,queen ,regent is an impressive figure1 and it is entirely owing to her charm and fortitude that the present dynasty of ,spain is maintained4 ,since his earliest youth she has constantly made efforts to fit her son to wear the crown4 ,the ,queen ,regent came from the great historic house of ,hapsburg1 which has done much to shape the destinies of the world4 ,all the fortitude that has distinguished its members is represented in this lady1 who is the widow of ,alfonzo ,,xii4 and the mother of the present king4 ,her father was the late ,archduke ,karl ,ferdinand and she is the cousin of ,emperor ,franz ,joseph4 ,she has had a sad history4 ,her husband died before the young king was born1 and from the hour of his birth she has watched and cared for the boy4 ,she is the leader in all good works in ,spain1 and her sympathy for the distressed is proverbial4 ,she gives freely from her private purse wherever there is need1 whether it be for the relief of misery or1 as recently1 when the state is in peril4 ,the young king has been carefully educated4 ,by a curious fate1 his birth deposed from the throne his sister ,maria de las ,mercedes1 who as a little girl was queen for a few months4 ,the boy has been brought up under the influence of family life and has a warm affection for his mother and sisters4 ,he has never had the full delights of childhood1 for he has been educated in that false1 punctilious and thoroughly artificial atmosphere of the court of ,spain1 in which every care has been taken to fit him for his royal position4 ,his health is far from robust1 though the military education he has received has done much to strengthen his constitution4 ,he has been taught to interest himself especially in the naval and military affairs1 and the study of the models of ships and military discipline has been one of the principal occupations of his childhood4 ,it is the earnest wish of ,spain that he should prove worthy of his mother4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,milestones ,,of ,,human ,,progress4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a lecture delivered by ,prof4 ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton at the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences1 ,philadelphia4 ,the subject pertains directly to the advancement of the race4 ,indeed1 it is to the measure of this advancement ,i shall ask your attention4 ,there is no doubt about the advancement4 ,there are some people who believed and believe that man began in a state of high development and has since then degenerated into his present condition4 ,the belief in some period of ,arcadian simplicity and human perfection is still to be found in some remote nooks and crannies of the learned world2 but those minds who have been trained in archological studies and in ethnographic observations know well that when we go back to the most ancient deposits1 in which we find any sign of man at all on the globe1 we find also the proofs that man then lived in the rudest possible condition of savagery4 ,he has1 little by little1 through long centuries and millenniums of painful struggle1 survived in made his weapons and his most effective tools for the time being would be a good criterion to go by1 because these weapons and tools enabled him to conquer not only the wild beasts around him and his fellow man also1 but nature as well4 ,these materials are three in number4 ,they particularly apply to ,european archology1 but1 in a general way1 to the archology of all continents4 ,the one is stone1 which gave man material for the best cutting edge which he could make for very many millenniums of his existence4 ,after that1 for a comparatively short period1 he availed himself of bronze--of the mixture of copper and tin called bronze--an admixture giving a considerable degree of hardness and therefore allowing polish and edge making4 ,the bronze age was not long anywhere4 ,it was succeeded by that metal which1 beyond all others1 has been of signal utility to man--iron4 ,we live in the iron age1 and it is from iron in some of its forms and products that all our best weapons and materials for implements1 etc41 are derived4 ,we have1 therefore1 the ages of stone1 of bronze and of iron4 ,these are the measures1 from an artistic source1 of the advancement of human culture2 and they certainly bear a distinct relation to all man's other conditions at the time4 ,a tribe which had never progressed beyond the stone age--which had no better material for its weapons and implements than stone--could never proceed beyond a very limited point of civilization4 ,bronze or any metal which can be moulded1 hammered and sharpened of course gives a nation vast superiority over one which uses stone only2 and the value of iron and steel for the same purposes ,i need not dwell upon4 ,to be sure1 we have here several measures2 and it would seem more desirable1 if we could1 to obtain one single measure--one single material or object of which we could say that the tribe that uses or does not use that to an equal degree is certainly lower or1 in the other respects1 higher than another2 but ,i believe that there has been no single material which has been suggested as of sufficient use and value in this direction to serve as a criterion2 but1 yes6 ,i remember there was one and1 on the whole1 not a bad one4 ,it was suggested by ,baron ,liebig1 the celebrated chemist1 who said3 ,if you wish a single material by which to judge of the amount of culture that any nation1 or1 for that matter1 any individual1 possesses1 compared to another one1 find out how much soap they use4 ,nothing1 he said1 more than personal cleanliness and general cleanliness differentiates the cultured man from the savage2 and as for that purpose he probably had in view a soap1 he recognized that as the one criterion4 ,it is not amiss1 but open1 also1 to serious objections2 because there are tribes who live in such conditions that they can get neither water nor soap2 and the ,arabs1 distinctly clean1 are not by any means at the highest pinnacle of civilization4 ,the ,germans1 therefore1 as a rule1 have sought some other means than all those above mentioned4 ,almost all the ,german writers on ethnography divide the people and nations of the world into two great classes--the one they call the wild peoples1 the other the cultured peoples--the ,natur-,voelker and the ,kultur-,voelker4 ,the distinction which they draw between these two great classes is largely psychological4 ,man1 they say1 in the condition of the wild people--of the ,natur-,voelker--is subject to nature2 therefore1 they call them nature people4 ,the ,kultur-,voelker1 on the other hand1 have emancipated themselves1 in great measure1 from the control of nature4 ,furthermore1 the man in the condition of the wild people is in a condition of practically unconscious life3 he has not yet arrived at self-consciousness--he does not know and recognize his individuality--the ,ego--das ich2 that is a discovery which comes with the ,kultur-,voelker--with the cultured people2 and just in proportion as an individual 7or a nation7 achieves a completely clear idea of his own self-existence1 his self-consciousness1 his individuality1 to that extent he is emancipated from the mere control of nature around him and rises in the scale of culture4 ,again1 to make this difference between the two still more apparent1 it is the conflict between the instinctive desires and the human heart and soul and the intelligent desires--those desires which we have by instinct1 which we have by heredity and which have been inculcated into us wholly by our surroundings1 which we drink in and accept without any internal discussion of them3 those are instinctive in character4 ,we go about our business1 we transact the daily affairs of life1 we accept our religion and politics1 not from any internal conviction of our own or positive examination1 but from our surroundings4 ,to that extent people are acting instinctively2 and1 as such1 they are on a lower stage of culture than those who arrive at such results for themselves through intelligent personal effort4 ,this is a real distinction also1 although somewhat more subtle1 perhaps1 than the ones previously given4 ,therefore1 the differentiation made by the ,german ethnographers between wild people and the cultured peoples is1 in the main1 right2 but it does not admit of any sharp line of distinction between the two4 ,we cannot draw a fixed line and say1 ,on this side are the cultured people and on that the wild1 because there are many tribes and nations who are about that line1 in some respects on one side of it1 in others on the other2 but in a broad1 general way this distinction 7which is now universally adopted by the ,german writers7 is one we should keep in our minds as being based upon careful studies and real distinctions4 ,usually the writers in the ,english tongue prefer a different basis than any of these which ,i have mentioned2 they prefer the basis as to whence is derived the food supply of a nation1 or a tribe2 and on the source of that food supply they divide nations and tribes into the more or less cultured4 ,in earliest times 7and among the rudest tribes to-day7 the food supply is furnished entirely by natural means2 there is little or no agriculture known to speak of2 there is nothing in the way of preserving domestic animals for food2 hunting the wild beasts of the forests and fishing in the streams are the two sources4 ,therefore1 we call that last condition the hunting and fishing stage of human development4 ,you will observe that when that prevails there can be no congregation of men into large bodies4 ,such a thing as a city would be unknown4 ,the food supply is eminently precarious4 ,it depends upon the season and upon a thousand matters not under the control of man in any way4 ,moreover1 inasmuch as the supply at the best is uncertain1 it allows but a very limited population in a district2 nor does it permit any permanent or stable inhabitations4 ,the towns1 such as they are1 must be movable2 they must go to one part of the country in the summer and another in the winter2 they must follow the game and the fruits2 and in that condition1 therefore1 of unstable life it is not possible for a nation or a tribe to gain any great advance4 ,you observe1 therefore1 that when the food supply is drawn from this source it does entail a general depravity of culture everywhere4 ,above that would come the food supply which is obtained from other sources4 ,there is one which is not universal but still widely extended1 and that is the pastoral life4 ,there are many tribes 7as1 for instance1 in southern ,africa and in ,india and throughout the steppes of ,tartary and elsewhere7 who live on their herds and drive their herds from one pasture to another in order to obtain the best forage4 ,this nomadic and pastoral life extended very widely over the old world in ancient times1 but existed nowhere in the new world1 for the simple reason that they had no domesticated animals4 ,our own remote ancestors--both the ,aryans and the ,semites--all the early ancestors of the white race so far as known1 were pastoral or nomadic2 and the ,aryans of central ,europe remained so until after the fall of ,rome1 when1 for the first time1 they became practically sedentary4 ,this nomadic and pastoral life is a very great advance over the mere hunting and fishing stage4 ,it requires considerable care and attention to domesticate the wild animals in any sufficient quantity to form a reliable source of food4 ,moreover1 the attention which it was necessary to give to the rearing and training and the looking after domestic animals was to a certain extent1 humanizing4 ,when a man found that it was necessary to be careful about his animals1 he would also be careful about his neighbors4 ,we would say that the same sense which enabled him1 or directed him1 to look after the welfare of the herd would justify and1 in fact1 impel him to look after that of man also2 so that the nomadic and pastoral life1 although not stable nor favorable to the development of cities1 nor the great extension of commerce1 was nevertheless a decided advance over the ruder hunting and fishing stage4 ,so far as we know1 neither ,aryan nor ,semite ever depended upon a hunting and fishing stage4 ,they doubtless did1 but not in the time of any history that we know4 ,the ,bedouins1 etc41 wandering tribes to-day1 and1 among the ,semitic1 the ,tuaregs of the ,sahara1 are a purely nomadic or pastoral race2 yet are very much above the negroes of the south1 who depend upon hunting and fishing4 ,above it1 however1 and a very great improvement upon it1 is the agricultural stage1 where the main source of the food supply is the harvests4 ,you observe1 at once1 that that means a sedentary life4 ,when a man sows corn1 he must wait thereabout and tend it and till it and finally reap it and store it and thrash it and then preserve the grain and build granaries for it2 and it involves1 in fact1 the remaining in one place all the whole year2 and then the regularity of that life led very distinctly to making men regular1 generally1 in their habits4 ,they wanted to defend their homes--defend these grain fields of theirs1 or starvation would result2 therefore1 they built towers and strong-walled cities2 and they took great care in the selection of the best men among them to do the fighting1 while others looked after the crop4 ,we find that agriculture began at a very1 very early period in both continents4 ,in our own continent we cannot tell when agriculture was first in use--the main crop being the maize1 or ,indian corn4 ,it was raised by the more advanced tribes from the extreme north1 where its profitable culture invited1 to the extreme south1 from about the northern line of ,wisconsin in ,north ,america to the latitude of southern ,chile in ,south--extending1 therefore1 over some seven to eight thousand miles of linear distance4 ,in the old world 7going back to the time of the lake dwellers7 we know they had barley1 rye and a species of millet2 and later on they were introduced to oats and wheat and a variety of others4 ,rice was of the very earliest of our cereals1 in the extreme east of the old world4 ,wherever we find a very ancient civilization we also find that it is intimately connected with some important cereal1 and it has been said that all you have to do is to study botany--the history of botany--and you will find the history of human culture2 and much there is that could be said for that4 ,fourth1 and finally1 those who divide human culture according to the food supply consider that the highest stage is reached through commerce4 ,commerce brings to all the great centers of human life the food essential to their sustenance4 ,it would be absolutely impossible--obviously so--to have a city like ,philadelphia in existence for a month without constant and ceaseless commerce brought here the food for its inhabitants4 ,it is quite likely that1 were ,philadelphia shut off at once from all connection with the world1 within ten days there would be an absolute famine here--so closely do we depend upon our commercial supplies for our subsistence4 ,these supplies are not drawn from any one locality2 were we to draw a radius of five hundred miles around our great city of a million inhabitants1 we should still find that the greater part of our food supply comes from a wider distance from us than that2 and there is no one of us that will go to his table this evening but will see upon that table food products drawn from every quarter of the world4 ,thus it is that commerce enables man to reach an indefinite degree of consolidation2 and it is through consolidation--through the more and more intimate relationship1 and the closer and closer juxtaposition of man--that his real benefit and progress may be derived4 ,these1 therefore1 are the four stages of culture1 as depending upon food supply3 the hunting and fishing stage1 the nomadic or pastoral1 the agricultural and the commercial4 ,these have been generally adopted by ,english writers1 and they are so adopted to-day2 and you will probably find them in many of the text books4 ,the ,american writers have1 in many instances1 followed the principles laid down and defined most clearly by ,mr4 ,lewis ,h4 ,morgan1 a distinguished ethnologist of the last generation4 ,he divides 7or accepted the division and largely defined it7 the progress of man into a series of stages3 beginning at the lowest point with savagery2 then barbarism1 semi-civilization1 civilization1 and fifth1 enlightenment4 ,i may briefly refer to what he would include in these and the main criteria which he gives for each of them4 ,he would place the savage condition as being that of the lowest tribes known to us4 ,they have little or no agriculture2 their commerce is very inchoate and rude3 they have no knowledge of the metals as such2 their best weapon is the bow and arrow1 or the throwing stick2 and their best tool is the stone hatchet and the stone spade4 ,this is very much like the lowest condition of the wild people to whom ,i referred4 ,above that he would place the condition of barbarism4 ,in the stage of developed barbarism he would place such inventions as1 for instance1 pottery1 the art of weaving 7which is a very primitive art7 and the taming of a certain number of domestic animals1 some for food1 some for amusement and hunting1 and also the beginnings of the development of agriculture4 ,a type of such a nation of barbarism would be the ,indians who used to live here--the ,algonkian--the ,delaware ,indians4 ,when the first ,europeans came to the shores of the ,delaware ,river they did not find absolutely rude savages4 ,the ,delaware ,indians had moderately stationary villages surrounded by pickets1 the houses being built of strong timber2 they had large fields of maize1 pumpkins1 squashes and beans1 which they cultivated diligently during the summer and stored the food for their winter's supply4 ,they depended largely1 to be sure1 upon hunting and fishing also2 but along with that they had these simple arts3 ,from the rushes which grew below ,philadelphia1 in a place called the ,neck1 they used to weave mats for protecting the floors and also for building the sides of their summer houses and for sleeping upon4 ,they had a method of tanning and dressing buckskin and using it for the purposes of clothing4 ,they were by no means naked savages2 they were clothed1 and tolerably well clothed2 they could make pottery1 and the pottery was decorated sometimes with interesting designs1 of which we have specimens in our cabinets4 ,therefore1 we find among the old ,delaware ,indians who formerly lived on the site of ,philadelphia a fair specimen of a nation in a barbarous stage1 decidedly superior to the ,australian natives of to-day or the ,indians of the ,terra del ,fuego or the northern part of ,british ,america1 who are in the state of complete savagery4 ,above that is the period of semi-civilization1 a stage marked by the discovery of the method of building stone walls4 ,no ,algonkian or ,iroquois ,indian ever built a stone wall in his life2 there is no record of any and no signs of any throughout the ,united ,states east of the ,mississippi2 there was never a stone wall built by a native tribe that really amounted to anything more than a stone pile2 but we do find that in the southwest1 among the cliff dwellers1 and in various parts of ,central ,america and ,south ,america1 the stone wall was not only known1 but it was constructed with a great deal of durability and skill4 ,also1 some knowledge of metals was found among most of the semi-civilized people4 ,the ,mexicans and the ,peruvians were in a state of semi-civilization when they were discovered by the whites the first time4 ,they1 built many extensive temples and houses1 erected frequently upon pyramids1 the pyramids themselves being supported by stone walls4 ,they knew the dressing of stone2 they were distinctly agricultural and depended more on that than anything else for their food supply4 ,they had developed a system of mnemonic records which1 in the ,yucatan culture1 might be called picture writing1 but was not phonetic writing in our true sense of the term4 ,the also knew something about weighing and measuring4 ,they had definite laws1 laws which were carried out by properly appointed individuals4 ,their towns and cities would often number thousands of inhabitants2 they had roads connecting them1 which roads were kept in good condition2 they had a regular army made up of men selected and trained for that purpose4 ,in all these respects we see nations who were semi-civilized1 but they were not yet civilized4 ,we could call a nation civilized that had a distinct system of phonetic writing and used it2 but not all nations having this are civilized4 ,it is only when it is used freely and for purposes of business that we can call them civilized4 ,the wild ,tuaregs of the ,sahara have a system of phonetic writing used by a few of them--the women being the literati of those tribes 7the men not knowing how to read or write72 but civilization means more than this2 it means the use of iron weapons and tools2 it means also the adoption of a definite currency which is established on a fixed basis and recognized throughout the community2 it means the establishment of commercial lines--a progress distinct above that which is the mere barter of the lower conditions of savagery and barbarism4 ,in all these respects we see that civilization means a type about such as we enjoy at present4 ,it is such as has existed in ,europe since the ,renaissance2 because during the middle ages we could only say that ,europe was in a semi-civilized condition4 ,they knew something about writing2 but at a time when ,dean1 the writer of the early history of ,england1 said that throughout the whole of ,england there were not half a dozen men who could read what he had written1 you can see that writing was a very unimportant part of the culture of that nation2 so it can only be when writing becomes a common possession of the majority that we can call it an element of civilization4 ,it is not to be supposed that we ourselves have reached the type of the highest culture4 ,we leave something for our descendants to do4 ,we do not wish to relieve them of the privilege of being better than ourselves2 and we shall leave them1 probably1 plenty of room2 because it is supposed that the stage of enlightenment which is the highest stage of culture--which we foresee1 but do not see--that that rather applies to the future than to ourselves4 ,that period will come when mankind has freed itself very much more than now from the bonds of nature and the environment of society4 ,it will come when the ideas of our equality are much more perfect than they are now2 when that equality extends to the equality of women with men before the law and in all rights2 when it comes to the equality of all men of all castes before the law and the equal opportunity of all men to obtain that which is best in the life of all4 ,we are very far from that yet4 ,it will come also when the idea of international legislation is such that it will not be necessary1 in order to cure great evils1 that we should have recourse to weapons of any material whatsoever2 that time is not yet come2 and so we have much that is left for our descendants to work out in this direction4 ,it would1 however1 appear that all these various criteria which ,i have named are somewhat unsatisfactory4 ,they do not1 it appears to me1 quite touch the question at issue4 ,they are in a measure external measures altogether--even that somewhat psychological one which ,i quoted from the ,german authorities4 ,were ,i to propose a criterion1 or a series of criteria1 of culture which could be applied to all nations1 it would be that which might as well and easily be applied to each individual2 and when we come to apply it in that manner it is much more easy to understand its bearing4 ,herbert ,spencer1 in defining what he means by culture1 says3 ,it means the knowledge of one thing thoroughly and a knowledge of the groundwork of all other branches of human knowledge4 ,he claimed that we can only understand one thing thoroughly2 but that we could and ought to understand the general outline of all other things which are studied by mankind4 ,this is somewhat defective1 it appears1 because it bases culture entirely from an intellectual point of view2 and if man were merely a walking intellectual machine1 it would be well enough2 but he is not2 for the intellectual man is but a small portion of his life4 ,we are engaged1 most of our time1 in something which is very far from purely intellectual action4 ,we are governed distinctly by our emotions and our feelings--our sentiments2 and culture must touch them1 or it is vague and empty4 ,therefore it is that ,i would say that we should think with ,goethe--to whom we must often recur for an insight into the profoundest trends of human nature--must recur to him2 and we find that he lays down the principle of culture in the individual to be ,a general sympathy with all the highest ideas which have governed and are governing the human mind4 ,he said3 ,we should keep ourselves first 7each man and woman should keep himself and herself7 in touch with the highest elements of his and her own nature4 ,he said1 ,it is not so difficult1 if we give but a little time to it--provided we give that time regularly4 ,we must remember1 he says1 to cultivate our intellect by some study1 every day and our sense of the beautiful by looking at something which is beautiful2 and there is much around us which costs us nothing to look at were we to observe it--the cloud1 the sunlight1 the tree1 the flower1 a butterfly--anything of that kind studied for a few minutes each day would continue to develop in man's mind the sense of the beautiful4 ,we should also appreciate carefully our actions and govern them and measure them1 as to whether they are just to others--a matter which a very few minutes a day will probably enable us to do2 and so also he would go further and seek to find1 in the idea of truth itself1 as to what we ought and ought not to believe--trying to discover some one test of truth which we can apply4 ,indeed1 we may therefore formulate and apply to nations at large what ,goethe has there suggested2 and we shall find it can be arranged in what ,i may call a pentatonic scale of culture4 ,you may be aware that all musical scales of all savage and barbarous and primitive tribes are not in the octave1 as ours1 but in five notes only2 they all have one musical scale only1 and that is a pentatonic scale2 and it is perhaps because they feel that their own minds are based upon some such arrangement as that 7although that is an idea which ,i do not subscribe to1 but only suggest72 but when we come to look over the whole cycle of culture1 as we find it described in the histories of culture--in the histories of civilization--we find that they are all efforts to develop one or the other1 or several1 of five primary ideas which are in the mind of every human being2 and when they are developed1 then culture is perfect1 either in the individual or in the nation or the race4 ,these five primitive ideas1 innate in every human soul1 are the ideas of the useful1 of the beautiful1 of the just1 of the good and of the true1 and you will not find any savage 7provided he is not deficient in the ordinary mental ability of his tribe7 who does not indicate an appreciation of every one of these in his own way4 ,it is the idea of the useful which teaches him his utilitarian arts2 which teaches him to build his house2 to chip the flint for his weapon2 to sharpen the stick to dig the place to drop the seed2 and all those we call the arts of utility1 the useful arts2 and yet you will not find a savage tribe to-day but what goes somewhat above this2 because among them all they make also an effort that these tools and weapons of theirs shall have some sign about them of the beautiful2 and you will find decoration--indeed1 the painted savage is a name we give to the lowest order of humanity2 yet this same paint is to make himself beautiful2 and so it is throughout all his games and amusements in life--you will find he is constantly striving at the idea of decoration--at the idea of beauty2 little by little he develops this1 until it becomes1 in some nations1 the joy of their existence and the lesson of the race1 as in the ancient ,greeks2 as in the ,italians of the time of the ,renaissance4 ,these are what we call the sthetic emotions1 based upon an innate sense and love of the beautiful3 and we may also turn to the lowest savage--we shall not find him deficient in justice2 on the contrary1 among the rudest ,australians1 without shelter or clothing1 you will find that the law of the tribe is well defined and also implacable2 and a man who has sinned knows that he must meet it or flee2 he knows that there is no avail or recourse beyond the tribal council1 and he knows what they will decide in his particular case1 because he knows the law and the penalty of its infringement4 ,and this rude notion of justice develops1 little by little1 into the great edifice of jurisprudence1 the law of nation and the law of nations4 ,thus we find that the idea of the just1 and of what is right from man to man1 is something which is found everywhere2 and as that develops culture develops2 but the mere just alone does not satisfy the human heart2 the man who merely metes out to his fellow that which the tribal law1 or the law of the land1 requires of him1 certainly is not up to the ideal of any man or woman in this assembly or in this city4 ,there is something beyond that1 and what is that8 ,we find that it rests in the idea of the good--that which is often brought forward in the beautiful forms of religion1 which tells man that above justice there is something greater and nobler than mere ethics or morality--the mere right and wrong--the mere giving what is due4 ,it is not enough to do that2 there must be a giving of more than is due2 because the idea of the good transcends the present life--it passes into the future life of the species2 and it is only through going above what is needed to-day that we may endow our posterity with something greater than we ourselves possess4 ,it is the idea of the good1 therefore1 which lifts that which is merely just into a higher--into1 ,i might say1 an immortal sphere of activity4 ,it has always had an intense attraction for noble souls1 which history shows us2 and it is not to be supposed that that attraction will ever diminish2 it will ever increase1 although its forms may change2 and finally1 along with this betterment of the emotions1 and of the sense of justice--of right and of ethics and of sthetics--we find the constant effort and desire of all mankind1 in all stages of culture1 to find out what is true1 as distinct from that which is not true4 ,you will not be mistaken if you seek for this in the soul of the rudest savage2 he1 too1 likes to know the truth4 ,the methods by which he arrives at it1 or seeks to arrive at it1 are widely different from those which you have been taught4 ,nevertheless1 the logical force of his mind2 the methods of thought that he has2 the laws that govern his intelligence1 are exactly the same as yours3 and it is only with your enlightenment you have gained more and more acquaintance with the methods4 ,you know something about the great discovery which has advanced all modern science from its medival condition to that of the present--of the application of the inductive system of science and thought2 and you know that it is by constant and close mathematical study of analogy--of probability--that we exclude error little by little from our observations--we improve more and more our instruments of precision--we count out the errors of our observation2 and we are constantly seeking those laws which are not transient and ephemeral only1 but which are eternal and immortal4 ,upon those laws1 finally1 must rest all our real1 certain knowledge2 and it is the endeavor of the anthropologist to apply those laws to man and his development2 and such1 indeed1 is the recognized and highest mission of that science4 ,we thus find that the idea of truth is at the summit of this scale which ,i have placed before you--not separated from it4 ,it interprets every one of the ideas and justifies them and qualifies them and lifts them up into their highest usefulness4 ,chevalier ,bunsen1 in describing what he thought would be the highest condition of human enlightenment1 said1 ,it will be when the good will be the true and the true will be the good2 and he might have extended that further and said1 when both those ideas were the inspiring motives of all these five great ideas which ,i have stated are at the basis of the culture of every individual and are also at the basis of the culture of the race and of the nation4 ,this1 therefore1 will serve as a sketch of the milestones of human progress4 ,the way has been long and painful2 the results have been far from satisfactory2 and yet they have been enormous and wonderful1 when we compare them now with what our ancestors were when history began4 ,we can conclude1 however1 from looking back on this thorny and upward path1 that it is still going to ascend2 we do not know it for certain2 progress may cease1 through some unknown law1 now and here2 but if there is anything that we can derive from the lesson of the past--if we can project into the future any of the facts which history shows us are our own now--it guides us forward to a firm belief that the hereafter will have in its breast greater treasures for humanity1 greater glories for posterity1 than any that we know or can understand4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,tombs ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,egyptian ,,dynasty4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the ,independent4 ,by ,,ludwig ,,borchardt1 ,ph4,d41 ,director of the ,german ,school in ,cairo4 ,for many years various ,european collections of ,egyptian antiquities have contained a certain series of objects which gave archologists great difficulty4 ,there were vases of a peculiar form and color1 greenish plates of slate1 many of them in curious animal forms1 and other similar things4 ,it was known1 positively1 that these objects had been found in ,egypt1 but it was impossible to assign them a place in the known periods of ,egyptian art4 ,the puzzle was increased in difficulty by certain plates of slate with hunting and battle scenes and other representations in relief in a style so strange that many investigators considered them products of the art of ,western ,asia4 ,the first light was thrown on the question in the winter of #ahid-ie by the excavations of ,flinders ,petrie in ,ballas and ,neggadeh1 two places on the west bank of the ,nile1 a little below ancient ,thebes4 ,this persevering ,english investigator discovered here a very large necropolis in which he examined about three thousand graves4 ,they all contained the same kinds of pottery and the same slate tablets mentioned above1 and many other objects which did not seem to be ,egyptian4 ,it was plain that the newly found necropolis and the puzzling objects already in the museums belonged to the same period4 ,petrie assumed that they represented the art of a foreign people--perhaps the ,libyans--who had temporarily resided in ,egypt in the time between the old and the middle kingdoms4 ,he gave this unknown people the name ,new ,race4 ,but his theory met with little approval1 least of all from ,german ,egyptologists2 and even at that time1 an opinion was expressed that this unusual art belonged before the known beginning of ,egyptian culture4 ,however1 in spite of much discussion1 the question could not then be decided4 ,about the same time another riddle was presented to ,egyptologists by the results of the excavations made in ,abydos by the ,french scholar ,amlineau2 and another hot discussion was raised4 ,amlineau had excavated several large tombs and had also found objects which could not be arranged in the known development of ,egyptian art4 ,the fortunate discoverer ascribed these to the dynasties of the demigods1 who1 according to ,egyptian tradition1 reigned before the kings2 but of course this idea met with determined opposition1 and indeed especially among his ,french colleagues4 ,the tomb of ,abydos offered1 however1 on quiet consideration1 more material for establishing its date than those of ,ballas and ,neggadeh4 ,in ,abydos a number of inscriptions had been found which1 rude as they were1 showed that the people buried in the tombs had known the hieroglyphic system of writing4 ,the occurrence of so-called ,horus names in these inscriptions was especially important4 ,for every old ,egyptian king had a long list of names and titles1 and among them a name surmounted by the picture of a hawk 7i4e41 ,horus71 and called on that account the ,horus name4 ,as the name is1 at the same time1 written on a sort of standard1 it is also called the ,banner name4 ,such ,horus or ,banner names occur1 then1 on the objects found by ,amlineau4 ,accidentally1 one of these names occurs1 also1 on a statue in the ,grizeh ,museum which1 according to its style1 is one of the oldest statues which the museum possesses4 ,thus it became evident that the ,abydos objects were1 in any case1 to be placed in the earliest period of ,egyptian history4 ,the discussion stood thus when1 in the spring of #ahig1 the fortunate hand of ,de ,morgan1 the former ,directeur-gnral des ,services des antiquits gyptiennes1 succeeded by renewed excavations in ,neggadeh in furnishing the connections between the objects found by ,petrie in ,ballas and ,neggadeh and those found by ,amlineau in ,abydos4 ,he discovered1 not far from the necropolis1 excavated by ,petrie1 the tomb of a king which1 on the one hand1 contained pottery and tablets like those found by ,petrie1 and on the other1 objects entirely like those found by ,amlineau4 ,thus it was proved that both ,petrie's tombs and those of ,amlineau belonged to the same period1 and1 indeed1 the oldest period1 of ,egyptian history1 before the third dynasty4 ,they were older than the most ancient objects which we had thought that we possessed4 ,but it was still impossible to date them exactly4 ,at this point1 an epoch-making discovery of ,dr4 ,sethe1 privat-docent at the ,university of ,berlin1 placed the whole matter at a single stroke on a comparatively sure foundation4 ,he pointed out that the inscriptions on a few unassuming potsherds from ,abydos contained not only ,banner names of old kings1 but also their ordinary names4 ,these names were not inclosed1 as later1 in cartouches1 and even contained many unusual spellings2 but they were still too clear to be misunderstood4 ,sethe succeeded in identifying the names of the fifth1 the sixth and the seventh kings of the first ,manethonian dynasty1 called by the ,greek authors ,usaphais1 ,miebais and ,semempses4 ,thus it became extremely probable that all these newly discovered objects were from the first dynasty1 but still not absolutely certain2 for the three names occurred only on fragments of vases1 and absolutely nothing was known of how these fragments were found4 ,the proof that they belonged to the other objects was wanting4 ,a very skeptical investigator might still have said that the other objects were older1 that the potsherds had only fallen accidentally into ruined tombs of an older period2 or he might have said quite the contrary1 that the potsherds were older than the tombs4 ,at this point occurred the possibility of finding a solution of the question in the objects found in the royal tomb of ,neggadeh4 ,for the report of the excavations at ,neggadeh was more exact than that of the excavations at ,abydos2 and the whole contents of the tomb of ,neggadeh had been kept together and preserved in a separate room in the ,grizeh ,museum4 ,the possibility became a reality4 ,one of the principal objects of this royal tomb was found to bear the ordinary as well as the ,horus name of the king--a fact which had escaped the fortunate discoverer4 ,the object is a small ivory plate with incised representations of funerary offerings before the king4 ,animals are being sacrificed to him2 jars full of beer and other things are being offered4 ,the figure of the king1 in front of a hanging mat1 is not preserved2 but the upper corner still remains with the two names1 which were written above the figure4 ,first1 there is the same ,horus name which occurs on all the inscribed objects of this tomb and which may be translated ,the ,warrior4 ,beside the ,horus name in a sort of cartouche is the title ,lord of ,vulture and ,serpent ,crown 7,lord of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt71 and beneath the title the sign which represents a checkerboard1 and has the syllabic value ,mn4 ,there can therefore be no doubt that the king buried in the royal tomb of ,neggadeh1 of whom we had only known the ,horus name ,the ,warrior1 had also the name ,mn4 ,now1 there is no other known ,egyptian king who could be identified with this name ,mn than the first king of the first ,manethonian dynasty1 called ,menes by the ,greeks4 ,it is impossible here to go into the philological basis of the identification of ,mn and ,menes4 ,the final conclusion is this3 ,in ,neggadeh1 we have before us the tomb of the oldest king of whom the ,egyptians had preserved any memory1 and whom they considered the founder of the ,egyptian monarchy4 ,in consideration of the importance of the questions involved1 a short description of the tomb of ,menes and of the objects found in it will certainly be of interest4 ,the second part of ,de ,morgan's book1 ,recherche sur les origines de l',egypte1 which has just appeared1 furnishes us with the facts concerning the tomb1 and the objects found in the tomb ,i will describe from the originals in the ,gizeh ,museum4 ,the tomb consists of a large building1 standing alone1 measuring #ed ,x #bg m4 7about #ajj ,x #ej ,egyptian ells71 and built of burned brick4 ,the outside walls were ornamented1 as was usual in later ,egyptian buildings1 with pilasters composed of groups of smaller rectangular pilasters4 ,it is the same motive so often to be observed in the sham doors in tombs of the old kingdom1 and is really the most natural facade ornamentation for brick buildings1 as it may be made by simply setting every alternate column of bricks forward or backward4 ,the walls were1 in addition1 plastered4 ,back of the thick outside wall on each side lay a row of narrow rectangular rooms1 formed by dividing a corridor by means of cross walls4 ,inside this surrounding row of rooms was the real tomb1 a building with thick walls and five rooms in a row4 ,the middle one of these rooms1 noticeably larger than the others1 is the real burial chamber4 ,these five rooms were originally connected by doors which were afterward walled up4 ,as to the roof1 we can only make surmises1 as the excavator has furnished us with no material on this point4 ,the walls as they now stand are at the highest point about four meters high1 and thus may form only the lower part of the building4 ,whether the roof was an arch of stone or simply of wood1 is uncertain2 but it seems to me probable that it was of wood4 ,for the tomb contained a layer of ashes in which all the objects put in the grave with the dead man were found2 and1 assuming that the roof was of wood1 it is possible that the roof was set on fire at the time when the tomb was robbed and that the ashes came from this fire4 ,the explanation which the excavator gives of these ashes1 that the body and the offerings were burned in the closed grave1 hardly deserves consideration4 ,in any case1 the grave has been robbed and destroyed4 ,that is shown by the fact that many pieces of funeral furniture1 which originally could only have been put in the central rooms1 were found partly broken in the outside rooms1 or on the side toward the fields1 the side most exposed to the attack of grave robbers4 ,the assumption that the grave has been robbed and intentionally destroyed agrees entirely with the fact that all the more valuable objects found in the grave were in fragments4 ,but1 fragmentary as they are1 they are sufficient to give us a good idea of the art of the first period of the ,egyptian kingdom1 a period which is now most generally estimated to be five and a half millenniums before the present day 7#cfjj ,b4,c47 ,the skill with which ivory carving was done in that early time is indeed amazing4 ,reclining lions1 hunting dogs and fish are so skillfully reproduced that one asks how many centuries of development must have preceded before the art of carving reached this perfection4 ,a number of feet taken from the legs of small chairs and other similar furniture1 and made in imitation of bulls' legs1 show such a fixity of style and at the same time such a freedom of execution1 that no archologist1 without the report of the excavator1 would dare to proclaim them the oldest dated works of ,egyptian art4 ,but it was not only in carving ivory1 which is easy to work1 that the ,egyptian artists showed their skill4 ,they also make bowls and vases of diorite and porphyry with the same success2 and the forms presented by the smaller ivory vases are also to be found in vases made of those refractory stones4 ,further1 the vases made of stone present not merely such forms as might be made by turning or boring1 but there are also bowls with ribs which are as finely polished as the turned bowls4 ,the hardest material used in the objects already found is rock crystal1 of which several small flasks and bowls and a little lion are composed4 ,but the lion1 it must be confessed1 is rather rudely worked4 ,a few small vases of obsidian also occur--remarkable in view of the fact that we do not know of any place in or near ,egypt where this stone may be found4 ,besides these vessels of hard stone1 there are1 of course1 a large number made of softer stone4 ,alabaster vases occur in every conceivable form4 ,cylindrical pots1 with wavy handles or simple cordlike ornamentation1 appear to have been especially favored4 ,the great beer jars1 closed with enormous stoppers of unbaked clay1 were made of ordinary baked clay4 ,of course the different stone and clay vessels1 which1 undoubtedly1 originally contained offerings for the dead1 form the bulk of the contents of the grave4 ,the slate tablets for rubbing cosmetics for painting the body1 and the flint weapons and knives of all sorts1 follow in point of numbers4 ,remarkably enough1 metal objects occur in this oldest historical period alongside the stone implements1 though1 of course1 in less numbers4 ,several objects made of copper and a slender bead of gold have been found4 ,such1 in short1 is all that remains of the things put in the tomb with the king4 ,but little as there is1 it gives us an idea of the richness and splendor with which these old royal tombs were furnished4 ,it might certainly be productive of unusual emotions to know that the few human bones found in the tomb1 and now preserved in the ,gizeh ,museum1 once belonged to the oldest ,egyptian king4 ,but as we know almost nothing of him1 except some unfounded traditions1 this sort of relic worship deserves very little respect4 ,the scientific value of the proof that ,menes was the king buried in the royal tomb of ,neggadeh lies rather in the fact that we have now settled the question of the age of that culture which was presented to us by the excavations of ,ballas1 ,neggadeh and ,abydos4 ,the products of a whole period of ,egyptian civilization which had been misunderstood1 and had been used to support false historical conclusions1 fall into their true place2 and our knowledge of the history of ,egyptian culture is carried back not merely a few centuries1 but to a period presenting characteristics different from the oldest previously known period1 but containing the germs of the later development4 ,cairo1 ,egypt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,rose ,,psyche4 ,the hybrid ,polyantha ,rose ,psyche is a seedling from the dwarf ,polyantha ,rose ,golden ,fairy1 crossed with the pollen of the ,crimson ,rambler4 ,its growth and habit1 though more delicate1 much resembles the ,rambler4 ,it is apparently quite hardy1 and is very free flowering1 but we fear not perpetual4 ,the flowers are produced in clusters of from fifteen to twenty-five1 and are #b to #b inches across when fully expanded4 ,in the bud stage they are very pretty and well formed4 ,the color is white1 suffused with salmon-rose and pink1 with a yellow base to the petals4 ,it is a real companion to ,crimson ,rambler4--,the ,gardeners' ,chronicle4 ,illustration3 ,,rose ,,hybrid ,,polyantha ,,psyche--,,color1 ,,pale ,,pink4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sleep ,,and ,,the ,,theories ,,of ,,its ,,cause4 ,the theory of the origin of sleep which has gained the widest credence is the one that attributes it to anmia of the brain4 ,it has been shown by ,mosso1 and many others1 that in men with defects of the cranial wall the volume of the brain decreases during sleep4 ,at the same time1 the volume of any limb increases as the peripheral parts of the body become turgid with blood4 ,in dogs1 the brain has been exposed1 and the cortex of that organ has been observed to become anmic during sleep4 ,it is a matter of ordinary observation that in infants1 during sleep1 the volume of the brain becomes less1 since the fontanelle is found to sink in4 ,it has been supposed1 but without sufficient evidence to justify the supposition1 that this anmia of the brain is the cause and not the sequence of sleep4 ,the idea behind this supposition has been that1 as the day draws to an end1 the circulatory mechanism becomes fatigued1 the vasomotor center exhausted1 the tone of the blood vessels deficient1 and the energy of the heart diminished1 and the circulation to the cerebral arteries lessened4 ,by means of a simple and accurate instrument 7the ,hill-,barnard sphygmometer71 with which the pressure in the arteries of man can be easily reckoned1 it has been recently determined that the arterial pressure falls just as greatly during bodily rest as during sleep4 ,the ordinary pressure of the blood in the arteries of young and healthy men averages #aaj-abj mm4 of mercury4 ,in sleep1 the pressure may sink to #ie-ajj mm42 but if the pressure be taken of the same subject lying in bed1 and quietly engaged on mental work1 it will be found to be no higher4 ,by mental strain or muscular effort1 the pressure is1 however1 immediately raised1 and may then reach #acj-adj mm4 of mercury4 ,it can be seen from considering these facts that the fall of pressure is concomitant with rest1 rather than with sleep4 ,as1 moreover1 it has been determined on strong evidence that the cerebral vessels are not supplied with vasomotor nerves1 and that the cerebral circulation passively follows every change in the arterial pressure1 it becomes evident that sleep cannot be occasioned by any active change in the cerebral vessels4 ,this conclusion is borne out by the fact that to produce in the dog a condition of coma like to sleep1 it is necessary to reduce1 by a very great amount1 the cerebral circulation4 ,thus1 both carotids and both vertebral arteries1 can be frequently tied at one and the same time without either producing coma or any very marked symptoms4 ,the circulation is1 in such a case1 maintained through other channels1 such as branches from the superior intercostal arteries which enter the anterior spinal artery4 ,while total anmia of the brain instantaneously abolishes consciousness1 partial anmia is found to raise the excitability of the cortex cerebri4 ,by estimation of the exchange of gases in the blood which enters and leaves the brain1 it has been shown that the consumption of oxygen and the production of carbonic acid in that organ is not large4 ,further1 it may be noted that the condition of ansthesia is not in all cases associated with cerebral anmia4 ,thus1 while during chloroform ansthesia the arterial pressure markedly falls1 such is not the case during ansthesia produced by ether or a mixture of nitrous oxide and oxygen4 ,the arterial pressure of man is not lowered by the ordinary fatigue of daily life4 ,it is only in extreme states of exhaustion that the pressure may be found decreased when the subject is in the standing position4 ,the fall of pressure which does occur during rest or sleep is mainly occasioned by the diminished rate of the heart4 ,the increase in the volume of the limbs is to be ascribed to the cessation of muscular movement and to the diminution in the amplitude of respiration4 ,the duty of the heart is to deliver the blood to the capillaries4 ,from the veins the blood is1 for the most part1 returned to the heart by the compressive action of the muscles1 the constant change of posture and by the respiration acting both as a force and suction pump4 ,all of these factors are at their maximum during bodily activity and at their minimum during rest4 ,on exciting a sleeper by calling his name1 or in any way disturbing him1 the limbs1 it has been recorded1 decrease in volume while the brain expands4 ,this is so because the respiration changes in depth1 the heart quickens1 the muscles alter in tone1 as the subject stirs in his sleep in reflex response to external stimuli4 ,considering all these facts1 we must regard the fall of arterial pressure1 the depression of the fontanelle1 and the turgescence of the vessels of the limbs as phenomena concomitant with bodily rest and warmth1 and we have no more right to assign the causation of sleep to cerebral anmia than to any other alteration in the functions of the body1 such as occur during sleep4 ,we may well here summarize these other changes in function3 7#a7 ,the respiratory movement becomes shallow and thoracic in type4 7#b7 ,the volume of the air inspired per minute is lessened by one-half to two-thirds4 7#c7 ,the output of carbonic acid is diminished by the same amount4 7#d7 ,the bodily temperature falls4 7#e7 ,the acidity of the cortex of the brain disappears4 7#f7 ,reflex action persists2 the knee jerk is diminished1 pointing to relaxation in tone of the muscles2 consciousness is suspended4 ,analyzing more closely the conditions of the central nervous system1 it becomes evident that1 in sleep1 consciousness alone is in abeyance4 ,the nerves and the special senses continue to transmit impulses and to produce reflex movements4 ,if a blanket1 sufficiently heavy to impede respiration1 be placed upon the face of a sleeping person1 we know that it will be immediately pushed away4 ,more than this1 complicated movements can be carried out2 the postilion can sleep on horseback2 the punkah-wallah may work his punkah and at the same time enjoy a slumber2 a weary mother may sleep1 and yet automatically rock her infant's cradle4 ,turning to the histories of sleep walkers1 we find it recorded that1 during sleep1 they perform such feats as climbing slanting roofs or walking across dangerous narrow ledges and bridges4 ,the writer knew of the case of a lad who1 when locked in his room at night to prevent his wandering in his sleep1 climbed a partition eight to ten feet in height which separated his sleeping compartment from the next1 and this without waking4 ,the brain can carry out not only such complicated acts as these1 but it has been found to maintain during sleep its normal inhibitory control over the lower reflex centers in the spinal cord4 ,thus1 in sleeping dogs1 after the spinal cord has been divided in the dorsal region1 reflexes can be more easily evoked from the lumbar than from the cervical cord1 because the former is freed from the inhibitory control of the brain4 ,the strength of stimulus necessary to pass the threshold of consciousness and to produce an awakening has been measured in various ways4 ,it has been determined that it takes a louder and louder sound or a stronger and stronger electric shock to arouse a sleeper during the first two or three hours of slumber2 after that period1 the sleep becomes lighter and the required stimulus need be much less4 ,the alternative theories which have been suggested to account for the onset of sleep may be classed as chemical and histological4 ,in relation to the first1 it has been suggested that if consciousness be regarded as dependent upon a certain rate of atomic vibration1 it is possible that this rate depends on a store of intramolecular oxygen1 which1 owing to fatigue1 may become exhausted2 or it may be supposed that alkaloidal substances may collect as fatigue products within the brain1 and choke the activity of that organ4 ,against this theory may be submitted the facts that monotony of stimulus will produce sleep in an unfatigued person1 that over-fatigue1 either mental or bodily1 will hinder the onset of sleep1 that the cessation of external stimuli by itself produces sleep4 ,as an example of this last1 may be quoted the case recorded by ,strumpel of a patient who was completely ansthetic save for one eye and one ear1 and who fell asleep when these were closed4 ,moreover1 many men possess the power1 by an effort of will1 of withdrawing from objective or subjective stimuli1 and of thus inducing sleep4 ,the histological theories of sleep are founded on recent extraordinary advances in the knowledge of the minute anatomy of the central nervous system1 a knowledge founded on the ,golgi and methylene blue methods of staining4 ,it is held possible that the dendrites or branching processes of nerve cells are contractile1 and that they1 by pulling themselves apart1 break the association pathways which are formed by the interlacing or synapses of the dendrites in the brain4 ,ramon y ,cajal1 on the other hand1 believes that the neuroglia cells are contractile1 and may expand so as to interpose their branches as insulating material between the synapses formed by the dendrites of the nerve cells4 ,the difficulty of accepting these theories is that nobody can locate consciousness to any particular group of nerve cells4 ,moreover1 the anatomical evidence of such changes taking place is at present of the flimsiest character4 ,if these theories be true1 what1 it may be asked1 is the agency that causes the dendrites to contract or the neuroglia cells to expand8 ,is there really a soul sitting aloof in the pineal gland1 as ,descartes held8 ,when a man like ,lord ,brougham can at any moment shut himself away from the outer world and fall asleep1 does his soul break the dendritic contacts between cell and cell2 and when he awakes1 does it make contacts and switch the impulses evoked by sense stimuli on to one or other tract of the axons1 or axis cylinder processes1 which form the association pathways8 ,such a hypothesis is no explanation2 it simply puts back the whole question a step further1 and leaves it wrapped in mystery4 ,it cannot be fatigue that produces the hypothetical interruptions of the dendritic synapses and then induces sleep1 for sleep can follow after fatigue of a very limited kind4 ,a man may sleep equally well after a day spent in scientific research as after one spent in mountain climbing1 or after another passed in idling by the seashore4 ,he may spend a whole day engaged in mathematical calculation or in painting a landscape4 ,he fatigues--if we admit the localization of function to definite parts of the brain--but one set of association tracts1 but one group of cells1 and yet1 when he falls asleep1 consciousness is not partially1 but totally suspended4 ,we must admit that the withdrawal of stimuli1 or their monotonous repetition1 are factors which do undoubtedly stand out as primary causes of sleep4 ,we may suppose1 if we like1 that consciousness depends upon a certain rate of vibration which takes place in the brain structure4 ,this vibration is maintained by the stimuli of the present1 which awaken memories of former stimuli1 and are themselves at the same time modified by these4 ,by each impulse streaming into the brain from the sense organs1 we can imagine the structure of the cerebral cortex to be more or less permanently altered4 ,the impulses of the present1 as they sweep through the association pathways1 arouse memories of the past2 but in what way this is brought about is outside the range of explanation4 ,perhaps an impulse vibrating at a certain rate may arouse cells or fibrils tuned by past stimuli to respond to this particular rate of vibration4 ,thus may be evoked a chain of memories1 while by an impulse of a different rate quite another set of memories may be started4 ,tracts of association are probably formed in definite lines through the nervous system1 as during the life of a child repeated waves of sense impulses beat against and overcome resistances1 and make smooth pathways here and there through the brain structure4 ,thus may be produced growth of axons in certain directions1 and synapses of this cell with that4 ,if the same stimulus be often repeated1 the synapses between groups of cells may become permanent4 ,a memory1 a definite line of action which is manifested by a certain muscular response1 may thus become structurally fixed4 ,if the stimulus be not repeated1 the synapses may be but temporary1 and the memory fade as the group of cells is occupied by a new memory of some more potent sense stimulus4 ,many association tracts and synapses are laid down in the central nervous system when the child is born4 ,these are the fruits of inheritance1 and by their means1 we may suppose1 instinctive reflex actions are carried out4 ,so long as the present stimuli are controlled by past memories and are active in recalling them1 so long does consciousness exist1 and the higher will be the consciousness1 the greater the number and the more intense the character of the memories aroused4 ,we may suppose that when all external stimuli are withdrawn1 or the brain soothed by monotony of gentle repetition1 and when the body is placed at rest1 and the viscera are normal and give rise to no disturbing sensations1 consciousness is then suspended1 and natural sleep ensues4 ,either local fatigue of the muscles1 or of the heart1 or ennui1 or exhaustion of some brain center usually leads us to seek those conditions in which sleep comes4 ,the whole organism may sleep for the sake of the part4 ,to avoid sleeplessness1 we seek monotony of stimulus1 either objective or subjective4 ,in the latter case1 we dwell on some monotonous memory picture1 such as sheep passing one by one through a gap in the hedge4 ,to obtain our object1 we dismiss painful or exciting thoughts1 keep the viscera in health1 so that they may not force themselves upon our attention1 and render the sense organs quiet by seeking darkness1 silence and warmth4--,l4,h41 in ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,amateur ,,chronophotographic ,,apparatus4 ,at the time that we described the ,demeny chronophotographic apparatus we remarked that it had the advantage of permitting of the projection of very luminous images of large dimensions2 but it is certain that the cases are somewhat limited in which there is any need of using a screen #bd or #be feet square1 and1 as a general thing1 one #f or #aj feet square suffices4 ,the manufacturer of the apparatus1 ,m4 ,gaumont1 has1 therefore1 been led to construct a small size in which the bands have the dimensions usually employed in the ,french and other apparatus1 thus permitting of the use of such as are now found in abundance in the market4 ,by reducing the size1 it has been possible further to simplify the construction1 and at the same time to reduce the price1 thus making of the new form a genuine amateur apparatus4 ,it will be remembered that the ,demeny principle consists especially in the avoiding of traction upon the perforated part of the band1 which is the portion that always presents the most fragility4 ,this principle has naturally been preserved in the small model1 and a preservation of the bands for a long time is thus assured4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a--;,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,sensitized ,,band ,,in ,,two ,,magazines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b--;,,arrangement ,,for ,,taking ,,views ,,with ,,special ,,gearing ,,for ,,the ,,winding ,,of ,,the ,,band4 ,the apparatus is reversible1 and may be used for making negatives as well as for projecting positives4 ,in its new form it is easily transportable and is no more bulky than an ordinary #e by #g inch apparatus4 ,nothing is simpler then than to carry it on a journey1 if one desires to make his own negative bands4 ,since the sensitized film has to be protected against the light during its entire travel1 two magazines have been arranged 7,fig4 #a74 ,one of these1 ,a1 which is fixed upon the top of the camera1 contains the clean film1 while the other1 ,b1 which is placed beneath the objective1 receives the strip after it has been acted upon by the light4 ,a train of toothed wheels1 ,c 7,fig4 #b71 actuates the roller of this second magazine4 ,this arrangement may1 moreover1 be utilized also when projections are made1 if one does not desire the band to float in measure as it unwinds behind the objective4 ,as the upper magazine is entirely closed when it is placed upon the apparatus1 it is necessary1 in order to prepare for taking a negative1 to pull out a few inches of the film1 pass the latter over the guide roller and fix the extremity to the winding roller in the lower magazine4 ,it is clear that we can have any number of magazines whatever for carrying about1 all charged1 just as one carries the frames of his ordinary camera4 ,chronophotography presents no more difficulty than ordinary photography as regards the taking of negatives1 and the amateur who has not the proper facilities for developing and printing the latter can have these operations performed by a professional4 ,animate projections are beginning to be introduced into parlors1 and some day will entirely replace the magic lantern therein4 ,the excitement caused by the catastrophe at the ,charity ,bazar is now calmed1 and it has been ascertained that the accident was not due to the lamp of the projector1 but to a carelessly handled can of ether4 ,so the extension of this sort of spectacle1 momentarily arrested1 is taking a new impetus1 which will be further aided by the apparatus under consideration1 for the description of which and the illustrations we are indebted to ,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,reclaiming ,,of ,,old ,,rubber4 ,by ,,hawthorne ,,hill4 ,the complaint of high prices of ,india rubber is as old as the rubber industry1 one result of which has been an unceasing effort to discover a practical substitute4 ,never was the secret of the transmutation of metals sought more persistently by ancient philosophers than the secret of an artificial rubber has been by modern chemists1 but1 thus far1 the one search has been hardly more successful than the other4 ,one discovery has been made1 however1 by which our rubber supplies have been so far conserved that1 for the want of it1 we might be obliged now to pay double the current prices for new rubber4 ,this is the reclaiming of rubber from worn-out goods1 in a condition fit for use again in almost every class of products of the rubber factory4 ,soon after the vulcanization of rubber became fully established1 attempts began to be made to devulcanize the scrap and cuttings of rubber which accumulated in the factories4 ,so extensive were these accumulations that one company are reported to have built a road with rubber scrap through a swamp adjacent to their factory1 while most other manufacturers were unable to find even so profitable a use for their wastes4 ,as time advanced there came to be large stocks1 also1 of worn-out rubber goods1 such as car springs and the like1 all of which appealed to a practical mind here and there as being of possible value1 since the price of new rubber kept climbing up all the while4 ,no fewer than nineteen patents were granted in the ,united ,states for improvements in devulcanizing ,india rubber1 or restoring waste vulcanized rubber1 beginning in #ahee1 or eleven years after the date of ,goodyear's patent for the vulcanization process4 ,in that year ,francis ,baschnagel obtained a patent for restoring vulcanized rubber to a soft1 plastic1 workable state1 by treating it with alcohol absolutus and carbon bisulphuratum1 in a closed vessel1 without the application of heat4 ,later he obtained a patent for accomplishing the same result by boiling waste rubber in water1 after it has been reduced to a finely divided state2 and still later1 one for treating the waste to the direct action of steam4 ,patents were granted in #aheh to ,hiram ,l4 ,hall1 for the treatment of waste rubber by boiling in water2 also1 by subjecting it to steam2 and again1 by combining various resinous and other substances with it4 ,the two inventors named assigned their patents to the ,beverly ,rubber ,company1 of ,beverly1 ,mass41 controlled then by the proprietors of the ,new ,york ,belting and ,packing ,company1 and their processes became the basis of an important business in rubber clothing4 ,the low cost of the devulcanized rubber1 as compared with new rubber1 alone gave them a great advantage over other manufacturers1 in addition to which they escaped the payment of a license to work under the ,goodyear patents4 ,many army blankets1 made for the government during the civil war1 were waterproofed with ,hall's devulcanized rubber1 and from that period little new rubber has been used in the manufacture of heavy rubber coats4 ,the other patents in this class do not deserve special mention4 ,it having been established that rubber is rubber1 no matter where found1 manufacturers gradually turned their attention beyond the scraps and cuttings which remained after making up their goods4 ,there was beginning to be a good demand for ground-up rubber car springs1 wringer rolls1 tubing and other rubber goods free from fiber1 after it had been so treated as to remove the sulphur contents and restore the gum to a workable condition4 ,but this left out of account rubber footwear1 belting1 and hose1 not to mention the later heavy production of bicycle tires4 ,there were only a few uses to which rubber waste containing fibrous material could be put when ground up and devulcanized without the removal of the fiber4 ,it could be put into a cheap grade of steam packing or mixed in a powdered form with new rubber for the heels of rubber boots and shoes4 ,there was an early patent for a process for combining fibrous materials with waste vulcanized rubber1 rendered soft and plastic4 ,but all the other patents which come within the scope of this article had for their object the separation of fibers from the rubber4 ,an important advance was marked by the ,hayward patent 7,no4 #dj1djg71 granted in #ahfh1 for boiling waste rags of fibrous material and rubber in an acid or alkali1 for the purpose of destroying the tenacity of the fibers of the rags1 so that the rubber may be reground4 ,but this process extended only to the weakening of the fibers1 and not their complete destruction4 ,a later patent1 in the same year1 provided for exposing the ground rubber waste to the direct action of flames of gas or inflammable liquids1 by which the foreign matters would be consumed and the rubber rendered plastic and cohesive1 but it is not on record that this process received any particular application4 ,the principal activity of invention in the field of reclaiming rubber dates from #ahgj1 since which year #cg patents have been granted for processes more or less distinctive from those which had for their object only the devulcanization of rubber4 ,prior to that time the use of rubber reclaimed from fibrous wastes had been confined practically to one large factory in ,boston and one near ,new ,york4 ,one concern1 for a while1 bought old rubber shoes and sent them to women in the country1 whom they paid so much a pound for the rubber stripped off--a very expensive process4 ,there were several claimants for priority in the matter of reclaiming rubber by the processes which finally became standard1 and some conflicting interests were brought together under the head of the ,chemical ,rubber ,company4 ,this corporation controlled the leading patents for the acid process1 licensing various parties to work under them1 and bringing suits against concerns who reclaimed rubber without their license4 ,in #ahie the ,united ,states courts decided in favor of the defendants1 practically rendering the patents invalid1 on the ground that the inventions claimed under them had been disclosed by the ,hall patents of #aheh and the ,hayward patent of #ahfc4 ,the two patents upon which the suits for infringement rested principally were ,no4 #bdi1igj1 granted to ,n4,c4 ,mitchell1 in #ahha1 and ,no4 #cjj1gbj1 granted to the same1 in #ahhd4 ,about the same time the ,rubber ,reclaiming ,company1 formed in #ahij by the combination of five leading rubber reclaiming plants1 and working under license from the company above named1 was resolved into the original elements4 ,there were about that time five other rubber reclaiming plants in the ,united ,states1 operating either the acid or the mechanical process1 besides nine general rubber factories producing their own reclaimed rubber by the acid process4 ,while several of the latter--rubber shoe concerns controlled by the ,united ,states ,rubber ,company--have been consolidated1 there has been an increase in the number of rubber manufacturers reclaiming their own rubber1 since the end of the patent litigation1 so that the total number of reclaiming plants now probably is twenty4 ,the first step in any process for reclaiming rubber is the grinding of the waste1 for which purpose several machines have been designed specially1 an early patent for disintegrating rubber scrap by subjecting it to the abrading action of grindstones having failed to meet with favor4 ,the most usual chemical treatment is a bath in a solution of sulphuric acid in lead-lined tanks4 ,generally heat is employed to hasten the process1 through the medium of steam1 in which case the tanks are tightly closed4 ,the next step is the washing of the scrap1 to free it of acid and dirt1 after which it is sheeted by being run between iron rollers and hung in drying rooms4 ,as soon as it has become dry it is ready for sale4 ,in the extended litigation over the acid process patents1 the points at issue related to the strength of the acid named in the various specifications and also to the methods of applying steam4 ,prof4 ,charles ,f4 ,chandler1 called as an expert in one case1 testified that the effects of acids1 such as sulphuric or hydrochloric1 upon rubber and rubber compounds1 under varying strength and temperature1 had been known at a period antedating all the patents then the basis of suits for infringement2 also that their effect upon cotton and woolen fabrics had been equally well known4 ,they had the same effect upon fibers1 whether the latter were combined with rubber or not1 but very strong acids would affect the rubber injuriously4 ,the line of defense in this case was that no invention was required in selecting the strength of acid2 only the common sense of the manufacturer1 aided by his skill and experience1 was necessary to bring about the proper results4 ,in support of this a factory superintendent testified that varied stocks required skill and judgment in their treatment and more or less variation as to the strength of acid1 temperature1 etc4 ,as to the use of steam1 ,prof4 ,henry ,b4 ,cornwall1 of ,princeton ,college1 called as an expert in another case1 testified that1 having put to a test the specifications in all the patents involved1 he had found it necessary in no case to inject live steam into the mixtures of acid and rubber scrap in order to effect the decomposition and removal of either woolen or cotton fiber4 ,the use of the acids specified was sufficient for this1 and the various high temperatures called for were not essential for the destruction of the fibers4 ,he neglected to mention1 however1 that the steam served an equally important purpose in devulcanizing the rubber4 ,it appeared that the practice in different factories had included the use of sulphuric acid varying from a #b per cent4 solution to the full commercial strength of the acid1 but one of the defendant companies based their case upon their use of acid of the strength of #bh to #cj ,baum1 whereas the patent they were charged with infringing specified a strength of #ff4 ,their tanks were lead-lined and provided on the interior with steam pipes running down the sides and along the bottom1 the sections at the bottom being perforated and the steam admitted at a pressure of #ge to #hj pounds4 ,the chemical treatment lasted from #b to #d hours4 ,the sulphuric acid treatment1 however1 is confined mainly to scrap containing cotton fiber4 ,where woolen fibers occur1 which is much less frequently1 their disintegration is accomplished generally by the use of caustic soda4 ,in the mechanical process of reclaiming rubber1 the rubber is separated from the fiber1 after the whole has been finely ground1 by means of an air blast1 the method being not unlike that practiced by furriers for separating hair and fur from bits of pelt after skins have been finely divided4 ,as the powdered waste comes from the blower1 the rubber falls in a heap near the machine1 while the particles of fiber1 being lighter1 are carried far enough away to make the separation complete4 ,devulcanization in this case is effected by exposure to live steam at a high temperature4 ,no oil is used in the process1 the sheeting of the product being facilitated by means of hot friction rollers4 ,the cost of reclaiming rubber by the acid process is less than by mechanical means1 for which reason the former is now much more generally used4 ,but some manufacturers are willing to pay more per pound for mechanically-reclaimed rubber1 either 7#a7 because it can be compounded more heavily than the acid product1 or 7#b7 because of certain inherent disadvantages of the latter4 ,it is the testimony of these manufacturers that the action of sulphuric acid upon whiting 7one of the most common adulterants used in rubber shoes7 is to turn it into sulphate of lime--an ingredient which is far from advantageous in a rubber compound4 ,again1 any acid which may remain in the reclaimed rubber is liable to rot thin textile fabrics with which it may be combined in manufacture4 ,finally1 rubber recovered by the chemical process1 it is claimed1 is harder than that obtained by any other2 so that it is usual to add1 during vulcanization1 in order to soften the product1 the residuum obtained from petroleum manufactures1 or palm or other oils4 ,unvulcanized rubber clippings also have been used for this purpose4 ,one of the most successful of our rubber factory superintendents1 who formerly made the reclaimed rubber used by his factory1 has stated that his practice was to subject the material to an alkaline bath after the acid treatment1 not only for the better cleaning of the rubber1 but to neutralize any acid which might remain4 ,considering all the points involved1 it was his opinion that1 when scrap rubber is cheap1 the mechanical process is the more economical1 while1 if it is high priced1 the acid process has the advantage4 ,since this expression of opinion1 however1 prices of rubber scrap have ranged constantly at higher figures than before1 and there is no indication that we shall have again what was known formerly as cheap scrap4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the volume of mechanical shoddy should be placed by the best estimates at not above one-sixth of the total production of reclaimed rubber in the ,united ,states4 ,and the acid product1 with all its admitted shortcomings1 is still superior to any of the so-called rubber substitutes4 ,reclaimed rubber is not to be considered as an adulterant1 except in the same sense as fillings1 like whiting1 litharge or barytes1 the use of which in rubber compounds often gives to the product desirable qualities that are unobtainable by the use of pure gum4 ,it lacks some of the qualities of good native rubber1 and yet it is rubber1 and fills its proper place as acceptably as any raw material of manufacture4 ,rubber shoes made of new gum entirely would be too elastic1 and for that reason would draw the feet1 besides being too costly for the ordinary trade4 ,the construction of a rubber shoe1 by the way1 is well adapted for the use of different compounds for the different parts4 ,rubber enters into twenty-six pieces of a rubber boot and nine or more pieces of a rubber shoe4 ,consequently1 as many different compounds may be used1 if desired1 for the output of a single factory for rubber footwear4 ,the highest grades of native rubber may be used for waterproofing the uppers of a fine overshoe1 while reclaimed rubber1 of a cheap class even1 may be good enough for the heel1 which requires only to be waterproof and durable1 without too much weight1 and with no elasticity4 ,reclaimed rubber goes into many classes of goods of high grade4 ,the result is that such goods have been cheapened legitimately1 placing them within the reach of immense numbers of consumers who otherwise would be obliged to do without4 ,while the extensive use of reclaimed rubber is a matter of common knowledge to all who are familiar with the rubber industry1 there are nowhere available any statistics of either the absolute or comparative volume of its consumption1 with the single exception of the official returns of imports into ,canada4 ,there separate accounts are kept of crude ,india rubber and of recovered rubber received in each year1 and as only a consuming market exists for these commodities in the ,dominion1 the figures given below may be taken to represent closely the actual consumption by the rubber factories of ,ontario and ,quebec4 ,it is interesting to note the heavy growth of the percentage of recovered rubber shown in the table1 all the figures representing pounds3 ,fiscal ,crude ,recovered ,total ,year4 ,rubber4 ,rubber4 ,imports4 #ahhe-hf #gci1afi #ai1dii #geh1ffh #ahhf-hg #ghe1jdj #df1ejh #hca1edh #ahhg-hh #a1bbe1hic #hh1dga #a1cad1cfd #ahhh-hi #a1ffi1jad #bba1fgd #a1hij1fhh #ahhi-ij #a1bij1gff #adg1cgg #a1dch1adc #ahij-ia #a1fjb1fdd #h1bed #a1faj1hih #ahia-ib #b1ajj1ceh #ajf1jhj #b1bjf1dch #ahib-ic #b1aeb1hee #aie1bha #b1cdh1acf #ahic-id #b1jgg1gjc #ebi1ijj #b1fjg1fjc #ahid-ie #a1djb1hdd #faa1gde #b1jad1ehi #ahie-if #b1aee1egf #fdc1afi #b1gih1gde #ahif-ig #b1jad1icf #a1jfa1djb #c1jgf1cch ,percentage1 #ahhe-hf #ig4e #b4e #ajj #ahif-ig #fe4e #cd4e #ajj ,if it were possible to examine the books of the several rubber reclaiming plants on this side of the border1 including rubber shoe and mechanical goods factories producing their own reclaimed rubber1 the percentage of this material used1 in comparison with the total rubber consumption1 might be found to be as great in the ,united ,states as in ,canada4 ,the rubber manufacture in the ,dominion1 in its inception1 was practically an offshoot from the industry in this country4 ,our manufacturers supplied the ,canadian demand for rubber goods until1 under the stimulus of heavy protective duties1 rubber works were established beyond the border1 since which time1 to quote a leader in the trade in the ,united ,states1 the methods of the ,dominion rubber industry have mirrored the best practice in our country4 ,hence it seems not unreasonable to conclude that if the ,canadians are using so large a percentage of reclaimed rubber1 they are doing no more nor less than the older and larger concerns here4 ,the most trustworthy authorities place the consumption of new rubber in the ,united ,states during #ahig at not far from #ce1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,assuming that the rate of consumption of reclaimed rubber was as great as in ,canada1 we have #ah1dce1jjj pounds more1 or a total of #ec1dcc1jjj pounds4 ,but there are producers of reclaimed rubber who insist that the amount of this material used in this country equals1 pound for pound1 the consumption of new rubber4 ,the use of reclaimed rubber in ,europe is increasing gradually1 and especially in ,great ,britain4 ,the ,american product is sold extensively in that country1 and some native reclaiming plants have been started4 ,the most extensive galosh factory in ,russia1 which is said to be the largest in the world1 is reclaiming rubber according to ,american methods4 ,but1 as a rule1 the ,continental rubber manufacturers make more use of substitutes1 a class of materials which has not found favor in ,america4 ,these rubber substitutes belong chiefly to the class of oxidized oils and may be classed in three divisions3 ,those obtained 7#a7 by the action of oxygen or air on linseed oil2 7#b7 by acting on rape oil with chloride of sulphur2 and 7#c7 by the action of sulphur on rape oil at a high temperature4 ,the first class has little application to the rubber trade1 though its use is universal in the linoleum industry4 ,in ,europe the chemist holds a more important position in the rubber manufacture than here1 one result of which has been cheaper compounds of rubber and another the satisfactory employment of the refractory ,african rubbers long before they were used extensively in the ,united ,states4 ,hence the cost of raw materials in the rubber industry has been1 on the whole1 cheaper abroad4 ,the ,europeans have had an advantage1 too1 in respect to cheaper labor1 which has offset somewhat our own advantage from the use of reclaimed rubber as a cheap material4 ,there are numerous grades of reclaimed rubber1 due to differences in the quality of stock used1 and also to the different degrees of care used in its preparation1 according to the requirements of manufacturers4 ,the declared value of reclaimed rubber exported from ,new ,york during ,july1 #ahig1 averaged #ab4f cents per pound1 while the value of exports for ,september averaged only #i4a cents4 ,the average value for the eight months ending ,february #bh1 #ahih1 was #aj4jh cents per pound4 ,the total declared value of such exports for the fiscal year #ahif-ig was #aai1ddj1 which1 at the prices prevailing since1 would represent considerably more than #a1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,some of the material sold at home is known to bring less than any prices quoted above4 ,mechanical stock brings about two cents per pound more than acid stock of corresponding grade4 ,the collection of old rubber has acquired large proportions as an adjunct to the trade in junk or rags4 ,not long ago the estimated yearly collection of rubber shoes alone amounted to #ah1jjj tons1 and since that time the business in bicycle tire scrap has also become very large4 ,during the past ten years the price of old rubber shoes has ranged between #fj and #abj per ton in carload lots1 being at present about #ij per ton4 ,some #a1ejj tons of rubber scrap are imported annually by the reclaiming companies in the ,united ,states4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the ,baltic ,sea there are more wrecks than in any other place in the world4 ,the average throughout the year is one each day4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,engineering ,,notes4 ,,the ,,austrian government has ordered thirty-seven engines arranged to burn kerosene1 for use in the ,arlberg tunnel1 in which lack of proper ventilation at present causes the tunnel to remain filled with smoke4--,uhland's ,wochenschrift4 ,one of the first essentials to modern military enterprise is the establishment of a military railway system for war purposes4 ,to be in a position to carry out efficiently and speedily what we may expect to be called upon to do on the outbreak of serious war1 previous preparation in time of peace is an absolute requisite4 ,in connection with ,general ,sherman's operations in ,georgia1 during the ,american civil war1 an army was supplied for six and a half months over a line #dgc miles long4 ,the corps of workmen was #aj1jjj strong1 and on one occasion replaced #ce1jjj sleepers and nine miles of rails in seven days4 ,the true defense of the line was effected by the engineers always having men and material ready4 ,in spite of the large and skilled railway population on which the army could call1 and of the fact that practically the nation was in arms1 it was found extremely difficult to keep this railway construction corps together until they were placed under a severe military discipline4--,united ,service ,gazette4 ,a ,,hospital car has been introduced on the ,belgian railroads1 says ,the ,engineer4 ,it is designed for use in the event of a serious railway accident1 and can be run to the spot where the wounded may be picked up and carried to the nearest city for treatment1 instead of being left to pass hours in some wayside station while awaiting surgical attendance4 ,the interior of this car is divided into a main compartment1 a corridor on one side and two small rooms at the end4 ,the largest compartment1 the hospital proper1 contains twenty-four isolated beds on steel tubes hung upon powerful springs2 each bed is provided with a small movable table1 a cord serving to hold all the various small objects which may be needed1 and each patient lies in front of two little windows1 which may be closed or opened at will4 ,the corridor on the outside of the hospital chamber leads to the linen closet and the doctor's apartment2 in the latter is a large cupboard1 the upper portion being used for drugs1 while the lower is divided into two sections1 one serving as a case for surgical instruments and the other as a receptacle for the doctor's folding bed4 ,,the ,,dust collected from the smoke of some ,liege furnaces1 burning coal raised from the neighboring mines1 produces1 when dissolved in hydrochloric acid1 a solution from which considerable quantities of arsenic and several other metallic salts may be precipitated4 ,commenting on this fact1 ascertained by ,m4,a4 ,jorissen1 ,m4 ,francis ,maur asks whether this breathing of arsenic and other minerals in a finely divided state may not account for the singular immunity from epidemics enjoyed by certain industrial districts1 such as that of ,saint ,etienne1 and hopes that some mine doctor will throw additional light on the subject4 ,in the meanwhile1 it may be suggested that the ventilating effect of the numerous chimneys in iron making and other industrial centers has its due share in constantly driving off the vitiated air and replacing it by fresh quantities of pure air4 ,at any rate1 when pestilence was raging in the high and pleasant quarter of ,clifton1 its inhabitants migrated to the low-lying and not overclean parish of ,st4 ,philips1 ,bristol1 where the air is black from the smoke of numerous chimneys1 but where also the mortality compared very favorably with that in the fashionable quarter4 ,a ,,two-,,speed movable sidewalk1 of the ,blot1 ,guyenet and ,de ,mocomble type1 is to be used for conveying visitors at the ,paris ,exposition1 says ,engineering ,news4 ,it differs from those of ,chicago and ,berlin in the reduction of the weight of the moving platform by spacing the driving wheels #abg4e feet apart and using electricity as a motive power4 ,the driving wheels are mounted in the bed of the track and impart motion to a central rail on the under side of the platform4 ,bearing wheels1 spaced about #bj feet apart under this rail1 also carry the platform1 and the central rail supports one-half the total weight of the platform2 small side wheels carry the other half on side tracks4 ,this arrangement enables the platform1 which is divided into sections and hinged1 to pass around quite sharp curves4 ,the high speed platform1 #d feet #c inches wide1 is supposed to move at the rate of #f miles per hour on a #ce-;inch gage track2 the slow platform is #ca inches wide1 moves at half speed and runs on a #ag-c_/d-;inch gage track4 ,the whole structure will be elevated on girders carried by cast iron columns1 with stations about #fef feet apart4 ,the high speed platform weighs #adf pounds per lineal foot2 and with passengers1 nearly #djj pounds per foot4 ,the slow speed platform weighs about half this4 ,the track will be about #b miles long2 the initial motive power is figured at #dgb ,h4,p4 and the carrying capacity at #ch1hhj per hour4 ,,the ,,schlamm1 or mud1 thrown down from the water of coal washing has hitherto been regarded as worthless1 says ,the ,engineering and ,mining ,journal1 except that sometimes a portion of the coal particles it contained have been separated and made of value by a washing process2 but ,bergassessor ,haarmann1 of ,friedrichsthal1 has invented a new method for treating it dry and dividing it into two products1 one of which1 with low ash content1 is distinguished by its granular nature1 while the other contains a large proportion of ash and is of the fineness of flour4 ,the former of these two products is1 on account of its low ash content1 useful for various purposes1 and the latter constitutes a fuel quite ready for use in coal dust firing4 ,the method is founded on the circumstances1 hitherto lost sight of1 that the incombustible constituents of the schlamm chiefly consist of clay which was formerly more or less dissolved in the wash water2 and on the mud being dried and subjected to a suitable mechanical process1 the clay falls into fine dust1 while the coal particles1 on the contrary1 retain their granular nature4 ,the method is carried out by drying the mud and a subsequent fine sifting1 which effects a breaking up of the lumps that occur in the dried schlamm1 and a separation into the two products above named4 ,the dust that falls through the sieve has a high ash content1 being in the nature of flour1 while what remains behind is granular and has a low ash content4 ,it seems to us that this game is hardly worth the candle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electrical ,,notes4 ,,electricity ,,at the ,paris ,exposition4--,electricity will play a large part at the ,paris ,exposition of #aijj1 says the ,revue ,technique4 ,no less than #ae1jjj h4p4 will be used for lighting and #e1jjj h4p4 for furnishing electric power to the various parts of the grounds4 ,as far as possible all the machinery exhibited will be shown at work and for this purpose electric conductors will be laid down to all points on the grounds4 ,the boiler plant will be located at the end of the ,champ de ,mars1 and will occupy two spaces of #acj ,x #cij feet each1 one being devoted to ,french boilers and the other to those of foreign makers4 ,this plant will be in itself a very interesting exhibit4 ,it is proposed to provide a capacity for evaporating not less than #ddj1jjj pounds of water per hour4 ,,an ,,interesting little plant in which the rise and fall of the tides is used as motive power for the generation of electricity is described in ,l',electricien4 ,near ,ploumanach1 on the northern coast of ,france1 where the tides have a daily range of #ci feet1 a small fish pond separated from the sea by a dike is arranged with gates so that at high tide the water flows in and fills it1 the gates closing automatically when the tide recedes4 ,the machinery of an old grist mill is used to operate a small dynamo1 which charges a storage battery and furnishes light for the fish industry there4 ,another wheel in the same mill works an ice making machine1 the whole being under the charge of one man4 ,it is stated that the total daily expense for generating about #b1jjj horse power hours is only #b4 ,,peat ,,bogs as generators of electrical power are suggested by ,dr4 ,frank in ,stahl und ,eisen4 ,he says that the great peat bogs of ,north ,germany may be thus utilized1 and figures that one acre of bog1 averaging #aj feet in thickness1 contains about #a1jjj tons of dried peat1 or #cac1jjj tons per square mile2 and #dcj square miles would be equivalent in heating power to the #hj1jjj1jjj to #he1jjj1jjj tons of coal annually mined in ,germany4 ,the bogs of the ,ems ,valley alone cover #ac1jjj square miles2 and ,dr4 ,frank proposes the erection in that district of a #aj1jjj horse power electric station1 which would yearly consume #bjj1jjj tons of peat1 or the product of #bjj acres4 ,he would use the electrical energy on the ,dortmund and ,emshaven ,canal1 and for the manufacture of calcium carbide4 ,,the ,,success attending an application of electric towing on the ,burgundy ,canal was such that two new applications of electricity to canal haulage and also for barge propulsion were made last year in the neighborhood of ,dijon1 on the same canal1 under the superintendence of ,m4 ,gaillot1 ,ingnieur des ,ponts et ,chausses4 ,in the method of haulage1 says ,the ,london ,engineer1 the receptor dynamo is mounted on a tricycle1 to which the name of electric horse has been given1 and which1 running on the towing path1 takes its current from an air line consisting of two wires1 mounted five meters 7nearly #ag feet7 above the surface4 ,this horse1 which weighs two tons1 and is guided by a driver mounted upon it through the front wheel1 proceeds on the towing path like a traction engine2 and the boats are connected with it by a rope1 with automatic disengaging gear1 in case the force of the stream or a gust of wind should drive a boat backward4 ,speeds of from #a1iij to #d1bdj meters 7mean #c1cai yards7 were obtained with the electric horse1 towing from three to four boats1 so that it is more suitable than the electric propeller for towage in rivers or very long reaches2 but it requires a driver1 while the propeller1 with which speeds of from #b1aej to #d1bdj meters 7mean #c1djf yards7 per hour were obtained1 is worked by the bargee on board his boat4 ,the towing path is not worn1 and there is no occasion for a tow rope1 which always causes difficulty when two boats cross one another4 ,m4 ,maillet and ,m4 ,dufourny1 ,belgian ,ingnieurs des ,ponts et ,chausses1 who watched the trials1 conclude that a practical solution of the question depends upon the cost of producing the motive power2 but they also consider that horse haulage on canals will soon be superseded by mechanical traction1 based on the use of an automotive tricycle1 working with petroleum or some other hydrocarbon1 and capable of running on the tow path without requiring any fixed plant4 ,,it ,,has long been known that feathers and hair are electrical bodies1 but until recently we have had little information about their electrical properties or the conditions in which these properties are manifested4 ,most of these phenomena were first observed by ,exner1 and in the work of ,dr4 ,schwarze are found collected a mass of facts that cannot fail to interest the physician and the biologist2 besides1 we find there a description of ,exner's apparatus which was used by ,schwarze in most of his experiments on electrical phenomena of this kind4 ,by the side of gold leaf electroscopes we see a feather electroscope1 which is fastened to its support by means of a silken thread4 ,a feather waved through the air is positively electrified1 while the air itself seems to be charged with negative electricity4444 ,two feathers rubbed together in the natural position are so electrified that their lower surface is negative and the upper positive4444 ,these experiments and others still have been utilized to study the vital relations of animals and the biological signification of these phenomena4 ,most feathers stick together and remain so even after being dried2 if they then are waved through the air1 the barbs of the feather separate1 owing to differences of electrification4 ,no bird needs to attend to its plumage at the end of a long flight1 for while the large feathers are positively electrified by friction against the air1 the white down has become negative1 and so there is attraction between it and the feathers4 ,another consequence of this production of electricity during flight is that during winds1 even the most violent1 the plumage does not become ruffled1 but rests tightly against the bird's body1 for in this case the wing feathers1 which overlap1 rub against each other and become electrified in contrary senses4 ,if the bird flies toward the ground1 flapping its wings1 it compresses the air below them1 and1 supposing that the wing feathers can bend aside1 the experiments of ,exner show that by the friction the upper side of one feather and the lower side of that which is just above are electrified oppositely1 the more powerfully as the rubbing is greater1 which always causes them to resume the normal position4--,l',electricien4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,selected ,,formul4 ,,removal ,,of ,,ink ,,from ,,hectograph4--,it is recommended in ,sdd4 ,ap4 ,ztg4 to pour crude hydrochloric acid upon the hectograph1 rub with a wad of cotton1 then wash off by holding under cold running water and drying with a cloth4 ,the hectograph may be used again immediately4 ,,to ,,clean ,,wall ,,paper4--,four ounces of pumice stone in fine powder are thoroughly mixed with #a quart of flour and the mass is kneaded with water enough to form a thick dough4 ,this dough is formed into rolls about #b inches in diameter and #f or #h inches long2 each one is sewed up in a piece of cotton cloth and then boiled in water for from #dj to #ej minutes--long enough to render the dough firm4 ,after cooling and allowing the rolls to stand for several hours1 the outer portion is peeled off and they are then ready for use1 the paper being rubbed with them as in the bread process4--,druggist's ,circular4 ,,insulating ,,compound4--,prof4 ,fessenden recommends for armature work a compound made by boiling pure linseed oil at about #bjj degrees with #a_/b per cent4 of borate of manganese1 the boiling being continued for several hours1 or until the oil begins to thicken4 ,an advantage of this borated oil is that it always retains a slight stickiness1 and so gives a good joint when wrapped around wires1 etc4 ,many substances so used are not sticky and let moisture in through the joints4 ,where a smooth surface is required1 it is readily obtained by dusting on a little talc4 ,it can also be given a coat of japan on the outside4--,american ,electrician4 ,,how ,,to ,,clean ,,diatoms4--,as a general rule1 we may say that every specimen of diatomaceous earth or rock needs a special treatment4 ,the following1 however1 may serve as a basic treatment1 from which such departure may be taken in each case as the nature of the specimen would indicate3 ,boil the material in hydrochloric acid1 in a test tube1 from two to five minutes4 ,let settle1 pour off the hydrochloric acid1 substitute nitric acid in its place1 and boil again for two or three minutes4 ,pour into a beaker of water1 stir a moment with a glass rod and let settle4 ,after the material has fallen to the bottom1 decant the liquid1 and fill with fresh water4 ,repeat the operation until the water no longer shows an acid reaction4 ,a portion of the deposit may now be examined1 and if not clean1 boil the deposit with tincture of soap and water in equal parts1 decant1 wash1 first with water1 then with stronger ammonia water1 and finally1 with distilled water4 ,this usually leaves the frustules bright and sharp4--,national ,druggist4 ,,red ,,indelible ,,ink4--,it is said that by proceeding according to the following formula1 an intense purple red color may be produced on fabrics1 which is indelible in the customary sense of the word4 ,no4 #a4 ,sodium carbonate #c drs4 ,gum arabic #c ,water #ab ,no4 #b4 ,platinic chloride #a dr4 ,distilled water #b oz4 ,no4 #c4 ,stannous chloride #a dr4 ,distilled water #d ,moisten the place to be written upon with ,no4 #a and rub a warm iron over it until dry2 then write with ,no4 #b1 and1 when dry1 moisten with ,no4 #c4 ,an intense and beautiful purple-red color is produced in this way4 ,the following simpler and less expensive method of obtaining an indelible red mark on linen has been proposed by ,wegler3 ,dilute egg albumen with an equal weight of water1 rapidly stir with a glass rod until it foams1 and then filter through linen4 ,mix the filtrate with a sufficient quantity of finely levigated vermilion until a rather thick liquid is obtained4 ,write with a quill1 or gold pen1 and then touch the reverse side of the fabric with a hot iron1 coagulating the albumen4 ,it is claimed that marks so made are affected by neither soaps1 acids nor alkalies4 ,this ink1 or rather paint1 is said to keep moderately well in securely stoppered bottles1 but we should not rely on it as a stock article4 ,a white paint for marking dark colored articles might be made by substituting zinc white for the red pigment in the foregoing formula4--,druggist's ,circular4 ,,brown ,,or ,,black ,,discoloration ,,of ,,silvered ,,mirrors4--,generally these spots are due to faulty manipulation1 too great dilution of the silver solution1 or touching the plates with the fingers after they have been cleaned4 ,sometimes1 however1 they are due to chemical defects in the glass itself4 ,in these cases1 as a general thing1 the discolorations occur only after several days--a faultless mirror having been made at first1 and the browning subsequently developing slowly4 ,the writer was a student in the laboratory of ,baron ,liebig during the time that distinguished chemist was carrying out the series of experiments which resulted in devising a method of making silver mirrors commercially4 ,one of the greatest troubles with which he had to contend was this browning--the cause for which was never fully cleared up by him4 ,some years ago1 the writer1 having in his possession two mirrors made by ,liebig1 and which had gradually become brown throughout1 undertook an examination of the deposit 7which had been thoroughly protected from extraneous influences by a strong film of varnish71 and was surprised to find that it consisted of a layer of silver sulphide4 ,without going into detail1 the source of the change was later found to lie within the glass itself4 ,in making glass to be used for mirrors1 a considerable portion of sodium sulphate is used1 and in annealing1 this is partly reduced to sodium sulphide1 which effloresces on the surface of the glass4 ,this efflorescence is1 of course1 removed on cleaning the glass before silvering2 but it is found that1 in many instances1 on exposure of the mirror to the light for some time1 a further efflorescence occurs1 and it is this which produces the discoloration in cases such as we have cited4 ,it has been suggested that the tendency to subsequent efflorescence may be corrected by boiling the plates1 intended for silvering1 for a couple of minutes1 in a #aj per cent4 solution of sodium carbonate or bicarbonate4 ,we have no experience with the process1 however4--,national ,druggist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,wild ,,and ,,domestic ,,sheep ,,in ,,the ,,berlin ,,zoological ,,garden4 ,as a rule1 domestic animals are accorded very little space in zoological gardens1 but1 although it is doubtless the first duty of these popular institutions to show visitors animals which live in a wild state in foreign lands1 it is well1 where there is sufficient space and adequate means1 to extend the limits of the collection so as to include natives of our own woods and fields1 thus enabling people of a great city who are unfamiliar with nature to form an idea of the changes wrought in animal life by the influence of man1 for domestic animals are a great aid in the study of natural history4 ,the accompanying engravings are reproductions of instantaneous photographs of occupants of the new sheep and goat house--mostly foreign breeds2 but there are a few that belong to that ,south ,european-,asiatic group which are looked upon as the progenitors of the domestic sheep3 the mouflon1 of ,sardinia and ,corsica 7,ovis ,musimon ,l471 which has a coat of brownish red1 flecked with darker color2 and the slender1 long-legged1 reddish-gray sheep of ,belochistan 7,ovis ,blanfordi ,hume74 ,the first glance at these creatures convinces one that they are wild1 not domestic sheep1 an impression which is caused chiefly by the monotonous coloring and the dry1 short coat1 which bears no resemblance to the thick fleece of the tame sheep1 although the eye is soon attracted by other differences1 such as the shape of the tail1 which is short and thick1 and of the horns1 which extend over the back and then turn inward1 so that when the old ram is kept in captivity1 it is necessary to cut off the points of the horns to prevent their boring into the flesh of its neck4 ,horns of this shape form a strong contrast to those with snail-like windings and points standing away from the body4 ,when looking at one of these sheep from the front1 it will be noticed that the left horn turns to the right and the right horn to the left4 ,illustration3 ,,sardinian ,,mouflon 7,,ovis ,,musimon ,l47 ,illustration3 ,,belochistan ,,sheep 7,,ovis ,,blanfordi ,,hume74 ,former authorities have been unwilling to admit that the domestic sheep have come from any species of wild sheep of the present time4 ,they hold that they are the descendants of one or more species of wild sheep that are now extinct4 ,recently1 however1 men have thought more deeply and freely on such subjects1 and ,nehring and others have traced the modern tame sheep back to the mouflon1 but not to him alone4 ,it is thought that in this case1 as with other domestic animals1 there has been a mixture of species1 and in this connection attention was directed to the ,transcaspian arkal1 the argalis of the interior of ,asia and the ,north ,african species4 ,dr4 ,heck1 director of the ,berlin ,zoological ,garden1 thinks that the horns of the tame ram1 which are turned outward1 the points being directed away from the body1 constitute one of the strongest proofs that the blood of the argalis and its extinct ,european ancestors--which are known only by the fossil remains--flows in the veins of all domestic sheep4 ,the other characteristic marks of the domestic sheep--the wool and the length of the tail--vary greatly4 ,the heath sheep--the little1 contented1 weather-hardened grazing sheep of the ,lneburg and other heaths--belong to one of the oldest species1 and their tails are as short and their horns as dark as those of the moufflon4 ,a cross between these two breeds is not distinguishable1 even in the second generation1 as has been shown by the interesting experiments in the ,dsseldorf ,zoological ,garden4 ,illustration3 ,,heath ,,sheep4 ,the little1 black and red-spotted ,cameroons sheep1 from the western coast of ,africa1 have not a trace of wool4 ,but why should they have8 ,the negroes need no clothing1 and1 consequently1 they have not bred sheep with wool2 and1 besides1 such an animal could not live in the tropics1 even if the black man were a much better stock raiser and breeder than he is4 ,the mane on the neck1 and breast of the ,cameroons ram reminds one of the ,north ,american sheep2 but it must be remembered that the mouflon and arkal rams have this ornament quite clearly1 although not so strongly defined4 ,illustration3 ,,cameroons ,,sheep4 ,the large1 short-bodied and long-legged sheep found in the interior of western and northern ,africa are a complete contrast to the short-legged1 long-bodied little ,cameroons sheep4 ,there is a very valuable pair of the former in the ,berlin ,zoological ,garden--the ,haussa sheep--which are very regularly marked1 the front parts of their bodies being red and the hind parts white4 ,they were brought from the neighborhood of ,say1 on the middle ,niger1 by the ,togo ,hinterland expedition4 ,the ram has beautiful horns1 and the ewe is distinguished by two strange1 tassel-like pendants of skin that hang from her neck4 ,this zoological garden also possesses a fine ram from the interior of ,tunis1 which is similar in shape to the ,haussa ram1 but has shorter horns and a heavier mane4 ,its color is grayish black4 ,illustration3 ,,ram ,,from ,,tunis4 ,illustration3 ,,haussa ,,ram4 ,illustration3 ,,haussa ,,ewe4 ,dr4 ,heck considers the long tail of the domestic sheep the chief impediment to the adoption of the theory of its descent from the short-tailed wild sheep4 ,and yet1 in sheep1 this member is of secondary importance1 for it varies greatly in form4 ,the short-tailed heath sheep are just the opposite of the fat-tailed ,persian sheep1 which are represented in a fabulous account as being obliged to draw their broad tails1 that weighed #dj pounds1 behind them on wheels4 ,these are the sheep that supply the ,astrakan and ,persian lamb which is so much worn now4 ,the fur is caused to lie in peculiar waves or tight rings by sewing the newly born lamb in a tightly fitting covering which keeps the fur from being mussed4 ,in the ,berlin ,zoological ,garden there is a very fine four-horned1 fat-tailed ram1 from the steppes on the lower ,volga4 ,from this region come also the large-boned1 fat-rumped sheep1 which have a large mass of fat on each side of the stunted tail4 ,in the illustration this peculiarity does not show well1 on account of the thick winter wool4 ,their color is red1 with dirty white4 ,when ,wissman and ,bumiller returned from their last expedition1 they brought a fine ram of a different breed of fat-rumped sheep1 which are raised by the ,kirghise1 on the ,altai ,mountains4 ,they are smaller than those from the steppes of the ,volga1 but have finer wool1 and evidently belong to a finer breed4 ,as mutton tallow is very useful1 and has been used even from the most ancient times by sheep raisers in the preparation of food1 they prize sheep with these masses of fat on the tail and rump1 which were purposely developed to the greatest possible degree4 ,illustration3 ,,fat-,,tailed ,,sheep 7,,four-,,horned ,,ram74 ,illustration3 ,,fat-,,rumped ,,sheep4 ,the steinbock and the chamois1 which live in the highest mountains1 are still found1 but other breeds1 such as the argalis1 which inhabited the foot hills and the high table lands1 have disappeared1 as ,europe has become more thickly populated4 ,we know that they formerly lived there1 by the fossil remains of the oldest ,pliocene in ,england 7,ovis ,savinii ,newton71 of the caves of bones near ,stramberg in ,moravia 7,ovis argaloides ,nehring71 and of the diluvial strata near ,puy-de-,dme ,mountain in the south of ,france 7,ovis antiqua ,pommerol74 ,for the above and the accompanying illustrations we are indebted to ,daheim4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #aagb1 page #ahgef4 ,,patents4#a ,footnote #a3 ,to be presented at the ,niagara ,falls meeting 7,june1 #ahih7 of the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers1 and forming part of ,vol4 six of the ,transactions4 ,by ,,james ,w4 ,,see1 ,hamilton1 ,ohio1 ,member of the ,society4 ,,employers' ,,rights4 ,an invention1 to be patented1 must be applied for by the actual inventor1 and in the absence of acts constituting a transfer1 the patent1 and all legal ownership in it1 and all rights under it1 go exclusively to the inventor4 ,in the absence of express or implied contract1 a mere employer of the inventor has no rights under the patent4 ,only contracts or assignments give to the employer1 or to anyone else1 a license or a partial or entire ownership in the patent4 ,the equity of this may be appreciated by examples4 ,a journeyman carpenter invents an improvement in chronometer escapements and patents it4 ,the man who owns the carpenter shop has no shadow of claim on or under this patent4 ,again1 the carpenter invents and patents an improvement in jack planes4 ,the shop owner has no rights in or under the patent4 ,again1 the carpenter invents an improvement in window frames1 and the shop owner has no rights4 ,he has no right even to make the patented window frame without license4 ,the shop owner1 in merely employing the carpenter1 acquires no rights to the carpenter's patented inventions4 ,but there are cases in which an implied license would go to the shop owner4 ,for instance1 if the carpenter was employed on the mutual understanding that he was particularly ingenious in devising carpenter work1 and capable of improving upon the products of the shop2 and if in the course of his work he devised a new and patentable window frame1 and developed it in connection with his employment and at the expense of his employer2 and if the new frames were made by the employer without protest from the carpenter1 the carpenter could1 of course1 patent the new frame1 but he could not oust the employer in his right to continue making the invention1 for it would be held that the employer had acquired an implied license4 ,if he could not use it1 then he would not be getting the very advantage for which he employed this particular carpenter1 and if he did get that right1 he would be getting all that he employed the carpenter for1 and that right would not be at all lessened by the fact that the carpenter had a patent under which he could license other people4 ,the patent does not constitute the right to make or use or sell1 for such right is enjoyed without a patent4 ,the patent constitutes the exclusive right to make1 sell or use1 and this the shop owner does not get unless he specially bargains for it4 ,implied licenses stand on delicate ground1 and where men employ people of ingenious talent1 with the understanding that the results of such talent developed during the employment shall inure to the benefit of the employer1 there is only one safeguard1 and that is to found the employment on a contract unmistakably setting forth the understanding4 ,,new ,,purpose4 ,if an invention is old1 it is old regardless of any new purpose to which it is put4 ,it is no invention to put a machine to a new use4 ,if an inventor contrives a meritorious machine for the production of coins or medals1 his invention is lacking in novelty if it should appear that such a machine had before been designed as a soap press1 and this fact is not altered by any merely structural or formal difference1 such as difference in power or strength1 due to the difference in duty4 ,the invention resides in the machine and not in the use of it4 ,if the soap press is covered by an existing patent1 that patent is infringed by a machine embodying that invention1 regardless of whether the infringing machine be used for pressing soap or silver4 ,and it is no invention to discover some new capacity in an old invention4 ,an inventor is entitled to all the capacities of his invention4 ,,combination ,,claims4 ,many people have an erroneous notion regarding patent claims1 and consider the expression combination as an element of weakness4 ,the fact is1 that all mechanical claims that are good for anything are combination claims4 ,no claim for an individual mechanical element has come under my notice for many years and ,i doubt if a new mechanical element has been lately invented4 ,all claims resolve themselves into combinations1 whether so expressed or not4 ,combination does not necessarily imply separateness of elements4 ,the improved carpet tack is after all but a peculiar combination of body and head and barbs4 ,the erroneous public contempt for combination claims is based upon the legal maxim1 that if you break the combination you avoid the claim and escape infringement1 and this legal maxim should be well understood in formulating the claims4 ,if the claim calls for five elements and the competitor can omit one of the elements1 he escapes infringement4 ,therefore1 the claim is good only when it recites no elements which are not essential4 ,many inventors labor under the delusion that a claim is strong in proportion to the extent of its array of elements4 ,the exact opposite is the truth1 and that claim is the strongest which recites the fewest number of elements4 ,it is the duty of the inventor to analyze his invention and know what is and what is not essential to its realization4 ,it is the duty of the patent solicitor to sift out the essential from the non-essential1 and to draft claims covering broad combinations involving only essential elements4 ,sometimes the inventor will help him in this matter1 but quite as often he will1 through ignorance1 hinder him and combat him4 ,the invention having been carefully analyzed and reduced to its prime factors1 and the claim having been provided to comprise a combination involving no element which is not essential to a realization of the invention1 a new and more important question arises4 ,the elements have been recited in terms fitted to the example of the invention thus far developed4 ,the combination is broadly stated1 but the terms of the elements are limiting4 ,cannot some ingenious infringer realize the invention by a similar combination escaping the literalism of the terms of the elements8 ,it is at this stage that the claim must be carefully studied4 ,the inventor1 or some one for him1 must assume the position of a pirate1 and set his wits to work to contrive an organization realizing the invention but escaping the terms of the proposed claim4 ,when such an escaping device is schemed out1 then the defect in the claim is developed and the claim must be redrawn4 ,in this way every possible escape must be studied so as to secure to the inventor adequate protection for his invention4 ,solicitors find it difficult to get inventors to do or consider this matter properly1 inventors being too often inclined to disparage alternative constructions1 the matter being largely one of sentiment founded on the love of offspring4 ,the wise inventor will recognize the fact that the patent which he proposes to get is the deed to valuable property2 that the object of the deed is not to permit him to enter upon the property1 for he can do that without the deed1 but that it is to keep strangers from entering upon the property2 that he desires to enjoy his invention without unauthorized competition2 that when the property begins to yield profit it will invite competition2 that competitors may make machines worse than or as good as or better than his2 and that he can get adequate protection only in a claim which would bar poorer as well as better machines embodying his invention4 ,briefly1 then1 all good claims for mechanism are combination claims2 the fewer the elements recited1 the stronger will the claim be2 non-essential elements weaken or destroy the claim2 the claim should not be considered satisfactory so long as a way is seen for the escape of the ingenious pirate4 ,,combinations ,,and ,,aggregations4 ,a given association of mechanical elements may be entirely new1 but it does not follow that it forms a patentable association1 for not all new things are patentable4 ,if the new association is a combination1 it is patentable1 but if it is a mere aggregation1 it is unpatentable4 ,an association may be new and still all of its separate elements may be old1 the act of invention lying in the fact that the elements have been so associated with relation to each other as to bring about an improved result1 or an improved means for an old result4 ,all new machines are1 after all1 composed of old elements4 ,the law presupposes that the elements are old1 and that the invention resides in the peculiar association of them4 ,if we take a given mechanical element1 recognized as having had a certain capacity1 and if we then similarly take some other mechanical element and employ it only for its previously recognized capacity1 and if we then add the third element for its recognized capacity1 we have in the end only an association of three elements each performing its well recognized individual office1 and the entire association performing only the sum of the recognized individual elements4 ,such an association is a mere aggregation1 a mere adding together of elements1 without making the sum of the results any greater in the association than it was in the individual elements4 ,it is simply adding two to one and getting three as a result4 ,an aggregation is unpatentable4 ,as an illustration1 a heavy marble statue of ,jupiter is found in the parlor and difficult to move4 ,ordinary casters are put under its pedestal and it becomes easier to move4 ,modern anti-friction two-wheeled casters are substituted for the commoner casters1 and the statue becomes still easier to move4 ,casters were never before associated with a statue of ,jupiter4 ,here is a new association1 but it is a mere aggregation4 ,the statue of ,jupiter has been unmodified by the presence of the casters1 and the casters perform precisely the same under the statue of ,jupiter that they did under the bedstead4 ,there is no combined result1 and there is no patentable combination4 ,but if an inventor takes a given mechanical element for the purpose of its well recognized capacity1 and then associates with it another mechanical element for its recognized capacity1 but so associates the two elements that one has a modifying effect upon the capacity of the other element1 then the association will be capable of a result greater than the sum of the results for the individual elements4 ,this excessive result is not due to the individual elements1 but to the combination of them4 ,one has been added to one and a sum greater than two has been secured4 ,the modification of result may be due merely to the bringing of the two elements together1 so that they may mutually act upon each other1 or it may be due to the manner or means by which they are joined4 ,in a patentable combination the separate elements mutually act upon each other to effect a modification of their previous individual results1 and secure a conjoint result greater than the sum of the individual results4 ,the elements of a combination need not act simultaneously2 they may act successively1 or some may act without motion4 ,as an illustration1 assume an old watch in which there was a stem for setting the hands1 and assume another old watch with a stem for winding the spring4 ,if an inventor should make a watch1 and provide it with the two stems1 he would have only an aggregation4 ,but if he employed but one stem1 and so located it that it could be used at will for setting the hands or for winding the spring1 then he would have produced a combination4 ,the particular instance just given is not a case of the same number of elements1 producing a result in excess of the individual results of the separate elements1 but is rather a case of a lesser number of elements1 producing a combination result equal to the sum of the previous results of a greater number of elements4 ,a better example would perhaps be a new watch with its two old stems so related that either could be used for setting the hands or for winding the spring4 ,,genera ,,and ,,species4 ,an inventor1 being the first to produce a given organization1 and desiring to patent it1 may see at once a patentable variation on the device4 ,in other words1 he makes two machines patentably different1 but both embodying his main invention4 ,he drafts his broad patent claim to cover both machines4 ,in his patent he must illustrate his invention1 and he accordingly shows in the drawings the preferred machine4 ,the two machines represent two species of his generic invention1 and for illustration he selects the preferable species4 ,he drafts his generic claim to cover both species1 and he follows this with a specific claim relating to the selected species4 ,the question might be asked1 ,if the broad generic claim covers the selected and all other species1 why bother with the specific claim1 why not rest on the generic claim8 ,the answer is that it might in the future develop that the genus was old1 and that the generic claim was invalid1 while the specific claim would still be good4 ,the infringer of the specific claim may thus be held notwithstanding the generic claim becomes void4 ,but the inventor cannot claim his second species in his patent4 ,he can claim the genus1 and he can claim one species under that genus1 but all other species must be covered in separate patents4 ,it is even unwise to illustrate alternative species in a patent for1 in case1 of litigation1 some one of the alternative species might prove to be old4 ,this would have the effect1 of course1 to destroy the generic claim1 but it might possibly have the effect of damaging the specific claim if it should appear that the specific claim was after all merely for a modification as distinguished from a distinct species4 ,were it not for the danger of broad generic claims being rendered void by discovered anticipations1 there would be no need for claiming species1 but in view of such possibility it is important to claim one species in the generic patent1 and to protect alternative species by other patents4 ,,combination ,,and ,,sub-,,combination4 ,a given machine capable of a given ultimate result having been invented1 a claim may be drawn to cover the combination of elements comprised in the machine4 ,such claim will cover the machine as a whole4 ,but1 the fact being recognized that many machines are1 after all1 composed of a series of sub-machines1 and that these sub-machines1 in turn1 are composed of certain combinations of elements1 and that within these sub-machines there are still minor combinations of elements capable of producing useful mechanical results1 and that the sub-machines1 or some of the subordinate combinations of elements within the sub-machines1 might be capable of utilization in other situations than that comprehended by the main machine1 it becomes important that the inventor be protected regarding the sub-machines and the minor useful combinations4 ,claims may be drawn for the combination constituting the main machine1 other claims may be drawn for the combinations constituting the operative sub-machines1 and claims may be drawn covering the minor useful combinations of elements found within the sub-machines4 ,each claimed combination must be operative4 ,but secondary claims cannot be made for sub-machines or sub-combinations which are for divisional matter or matter which should be made the subject of separate patents4 ,,mechanical ,,equivalents4 ,where an inventor produces a new mechanical device for the production of a certain result1 he can often see in advance that various modifications of it can be made to bring about the same result1 and even if he does not see it he may in the future find competitors getting at the result by a different construction4 ,he analyzes the competing structure1 and determines that it is the same thing only different1 and wonders what the legal doctrine of mechanical equivalents means1 and asks if he is not entitled to the benefits of that doctrine1 so that his patent may dominate the competing machine4 ,an inventor may or may not be entitled to invoke the doctrine of mechanical equivalents1 and the doctrine may or may not cause his patent to cover a given fancied infringement4 ,if an inventor is a pioneer in a certain field1 and is the first to produce an organization of mechanism by means of which a given result is produced1 he is entitled to a claim whose breadth of language is commensurate with the improvement he has wrought in the art4 ,he cannot claim functions or performance1 but must limit his claim to mechanism1 in other words1 to the combination of elements which produces the new result4 ,his claim recites those elements by name4 ,if the new result cannot be produced by any other combination of elements1 then1 of course1 no question will arise regarding infringement4 ,but it may be that a competitor contrives a device having some of the elements of the combination as called for by the claim1 the remaining elements being omitted and substitutes provided4 ,the competing device will thus not respond to the language of the claim4 ,but the courts will deal liberally with the claim of the meritorious pioneer inventor1 and will apply to it the doctrine of mechanical equivalents1 and will hold the claim to be infringed by a combination containing all of the elements recited in the claim1 or containing some of them1 and mechanical equivalents for the rest of them4 ,were it not for this liberal doctrine1 the pioneer inventor could gather little fruit from his patent1 for the patent could be avoided1 perhaps1 by the mere substitution of a wedge for the screw or lever called for by the claim4 ,the court1 having ascertained from the prior art that the inventor is entitled to invoke the doctrine of equivalents1 will proceed to ascertain if the substituted elements are real equivalents4 ,a given omitted element will be considered in connection with its substitute element1 and if the substitute element is found to be an element acting in substantially the same manner for the production of substantially the same individual result1 and if it be found that the prior art has recognized the equivalency of the two individual elements1 then the court will say that the substituted element is a mechanical equivalent of the omitted element1 and that the two combinations are substantially the same4 ,this reasoning must be applied to each of the omitted elements for which substitutes have been furnished4 ,in this way justice can be done to the pioneer inventor4 ,but the courts1 in exercising liberality1 cannot do violence to the language of the claim4 ,the infringer will not escape by merely substituting equivalents for recited elements1 but he will escape if he omits a recited element and supplies no substitute1 for the courts will not read out of a claim an element which the patentee has deliberately put into the claim1 and a combination of a less number of elements than that recited in the claim is not the combination called for by the claim4 ,it is seldom that the exemplifying device of the pioneer inventor is a perfect one4 ,later developments and improvements by the original patentee1 or by others1 must be depended on to bring about perfection of structure4 ,those who improve the structure are as much entitled to patents upon their specific improvements in the device as was the original inventor entitled to his patent for the fundamental device4 ,these improvers are secondary inventors1 and are not entitled to invoke the doctrine of mechanical equivalents4 ,the secondary inventor did not bring about a new result1 but his patent was for new means for producing the old result4 ,his patent is for this improvement in means1 and his claim will be closely scrutinized in court1 and he will be held to it1 subject only to formal variations in structure4 ,the justice of thus restricting the claim of the secondary inventor must be obvious1 in view of the fact that if the doctrine of mechanical equivalents were applied to his claim1 then the fundamental device on which he improved would probably infringe upon it1 which would be an absurdity4 ,it is thus seen that the pioneer inventor may have a claim so broad in its terms that its terms cannot be escaped2 that he may invoke the doctrine of equivalents and have his claim dominate structures not directly responding to the terms of the claim2 that the secondary inventor1 who improves only the means1 is limited to the recited means and cannot invoke the doctrine of equivalents4 ,but within this general view1 sight is not to be lost of the fact that secondary inventors may be pioneers within certain limits4 ,they are not the first to produce the broad ultimate result1 but they may be pioneers in radically improving interior or sub-results1 and they may thus reasonably ask for the application of the doctrine of equivalents to their claims within proper limits4 ,the matter often becomes quite complicated1 for it is sometimes difficult to determine as to what is the result in a given machine1 for many machines consist1 after all1 of a combination of subordinate machines4 ,thus the modern grain-harvesting machine embodies a machine for moving to the place of attack1 a machine for cutting the grain1 a machine for supporting the grain at the instant of cutting1 a machine for receiving the cut grain1 a machine for conveying the cut grain to a bindery1 a machine for measuring the cut grain into gavels1 a machine for compressing the gavel1 a machine for applying the band1 a machine for tying the band1 a machine for discharging the bundle1 a machine to receive the bundles and carry them to a place of deposit1 and a machine to deposit the accumulated bundles4 ,the machine would be useful with one or more of these sub-machines omitted1 and each machine may be capable of performing its own individual results alone or in other associations4 ,pioneership of invention might apply to the main machine1 or to the sub-machines1 or even to the sub-organization within the sub-machines4 7,to be continued47 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #aagb1 page #ahgfd4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,central ,,station4 ,by ,,samuel ,,insull4#a ,footnote #a3 ,before the ,electrical ,engineering ,department of ,purdue ,university1 ,lafayette1 ,ind41 ,may #ag1 #ahih4 ,the success of the low-tension system was followed by the introduction of the alternating system1 using high potential primaries with the converters at each house1 reducing1 as a rule1 from #a1jjj down to either #ej or #ajj volts4 ,i am not familiar with the early alternating work1 and had not at my disposal sufficient time in preparing my notes to go at any length into an investigation of this branch of the subject2 nor do ,i think that any particular advantage could have been served by my doing so1 as it has become generally recognized that the early alternating work with a house-to-house converter system1 while it undoubtedly helped central station development at the time1 proved very uneconomical in operation and expensive in investment1 when the cost of converters is added to the cost of distribution4 ,the large alternating stations in this country have so clearly demonstrated this that their responsible managers have1 within the last few years1 done everything possible1 by the adoption of block converters and three-wire secondary circuits1 to bring their system as close as they could in practice to the low-tension direct-current distribution system4 ,i do not want to be understood as undervaluing the position of the alternating current in central station work4 ,it has its place1 but to my mind its position is a false one when it is used for house-to-house distribution with converters for each customer4 ,the success of the oldest stations in this country1 and the demonstration of the possibilities of covering areas of several miles in extent by the use of the three wire system1 resulted in much capital going into the business4 ,one of the earliest stations of a really modern type installed on either side of the ,atlantic was built by the ,berlin ,electricity ,works4 ,the engineers of that station1 while recognizing the high value of the distributing system1 went back to ,edison's original scheme of a compact direct-connected steam and electric generator1 but with dynamos of the multipolar type designed and built by ,siemens ,halske1 of ,berlin1 the engines being of vertical marine type4 ,this was followed by the projecting in ,new ,york of the present ,duane ,street station1 employing boilers of #bjj pounds pressure1 triple and quadruple expansion engines of the marine type1 and direct-connected multipolar dynamos4 ,almost immediately thereafter1 the station in ,atlantic ,avenue1 ,boston1 somewhat on the same general design so far as contents is concerned1 was erected4 ,in #ahia a small station1 but on the same lines1 was projected for ,san ,francisco1 and in #ahib the present ,harrison ,street station of the ,chicago ,edison company was designed1 and1 benefiting by the experience of ,berlin1 ,new ,york and ,boston1 this station produces electric current for lighting purposes probably cheaper than any station of a similar size anywhere in this country4 ,it is not necessary for me to go into detail in explanation of the modern central station4 ,you are all doubtless quite familiar with the general design1 but if you will examine the detail drawings of the ,harrison ,street station1 which ,i have brought with me1 you will find that every effort has been made to provide for the economical production of steam1 low cost of operating1 good facilities for repairs and consequently low cost1 and for permanency of service4 ,you have but to go into any of the modern central stations in midwinter1 to see them turning out anywhere from #aj1jjj to #hj1jjj amperes with a minimum of labor1 to appreciate the fact that central station business is of a permanent and lucrative character4 ,to go back to the question of alternating currents1 the work done in connection with the two-phase and three-phase currents and the perfection of the rotary transformer has resulted in introducing into central station practice a further means of economizing the cost of production--by concentration of power4 ,according to present experience1 it is 7except in some extraordinary cases7 uneconomical to distribute direct low-tension current over more than a radius of a mile and a half from the generating point4 ,the possibility of transmitting it at a very high voltage1 and consequently low investment in conductors1 has resulted in the adoption of a scheme1 in many of the large cities1 of alternating transmission combined with low tension distribution4 ,the limit to which this alternating transmission can be economically carried has not yet been definitely settled1 but it is quite possible even now to transmit economically from the center of any of our large cities to the distant suburbs1 by means of high potential alternating currents1 distributing the current from the subcenter distribution by means either of the alternating current itself and large transformers for a block or district or else1 if the territory is thickly settled1 by means of a system of low-tension mains and feeders1 the direct current for this purpose being obtained through the agency of rotary transformers4 ,there are various methods of producing the alternating current for transmission purposes4 ,in some cases the generators are themselves wound for high potential2 in others they are wound for #hj volts1 and step-up transformers are used1 carrying the current up to whatever pressure is desired1 from #a1jjj to #aj1jjj volts4 ,in other cases dynamos are used having collector rings for alternating current on one side and a commutator for direct current on the other side of the armature1 thus enabling you1 when the peak in two districts of a city comes at two different times1 to take care of this peak by means of the same original generating unit1 furnishing direct low-tension current to the points near the central station and alternating current to the distant points4 ,in other cases1 where a small amount of alternating current is required on the transmission line1 it has even been found economical to take direct current from a large unit1 change it by means of a rotary transformer into alternating current1 step up from #hj to1 say1 #b1jjj volts1 go to the distant point1 and step down again to #hj volts alternating1 and then convert again by means of a rotary transformer into low-potential direct current4 ,the introduction of alternating current for transmission purposes in large cities is probably best exemplified in the station recently erected in ,brooklyn1 where alternating current is produced and carried to distant points1 and then used to operate series arc-light machines run by synchronous motors1 the low-tension direct-current network being fed by rotary transformers1 and alternating circuits arranged with block converters1 and even in some cases separate converters for each individual customer in the scattered districts4 ,it would be very interesting to go at length into the details of cost in this1 the latest development of central station transmission1 but time will not permit2 nor have ,i the time at my disposal to go at length into the central station business as developed by the electric street railways now so universally in use1 or another phase of the business as exemplified by the large transmission plants1 the two greatest examples of which1 in this country1 are probably those at ,niagara ,falls1 ,n4,y41 and ,lachine ,rapids1 near ,montreal4 ,so far as street railways and power transmission are concerned1 ,i would draw your attention to the fact that the same underlying principle of multiple-arc mains and feeders originally conceived by ,mr4 ,edison is as much a necessity in their operation as it is in the electric lighting systems1 whether those systems be operated on the old two-wire plan1 the three-wire plan or by means of alternating currents4 ,passing from a review of central station plants and distribution system naturally bring us to the operating cost and the factors governing profit and loss of the enterprise4 ,in considering this branch of the subject1 ,i will confine my remarks to the business as operated in ,chicago by the company with which ,i am connected4 ,our actual maximum last winter came on ,december #bj1 our load being approximately #ab1jjj horse power4 ,a comparison of the figures of maximum capacity and maximum load of last winter shows that we had a margin in capacity over output of about #bj per cent4 ,the load curves shown this evening represent the maximum output of last winter 7,december #bj71 an average summer load last year 7,june #d71 and an average spring load of this year 7,may #b74 ,for our purposes we will assume the maximum capacity of the plant and the maximum load of the system to be identical4 ,the maximum load last winter occurred1 as ,i have stated1 on ,december #bj1 about #d3cj o'clock in the afternoon1 and lasted less than half an hour4 ,it should be borne in mind that the period of maximum load only lasts for from two to three months1 and that the investment necessary to take care of that maximum load1 has to be carried the whole year4 ,it should not be assumed from this statement that the whole plant as an earning factor is in use #be per cent4 of the year4 ,the fact is that1 during the period of maximum load1 the total plant is in operation only about #ajj hours out of the #h1gfj hours of the year2 so that you are compelled1 in order to get interest on your investment1 to earn the interest for the whole of the year in about #a per cent4 of that period1 on about #ej per cent4 of your plant4 ,this statement must bring home to you a realization of the fact that by far the most serious problem of central station management1 and by far the greatest item of cost of your product1 is interest on the investment4 ,it may be that the use of storage batteries in connection with large installations will modify this interest charge1 but even allowing the highest efficiency and the lowest cost of maintenance ever claimed for a storage battery installation1 the fact of high interest cost must continue to be the most important factor in calculating profit and loss4 ,this brings home to us the fact that in his efforts to show the greatest possible efficiency of his plant and distribution system1 it is quite possible that the station manager may spend so much capital as to eat up many times over in interest charge the saving that he makes in direct operating expenses4 ,it is a common mistake for the so-called expert to demonstrate to you that he has designed for you a plant of the highest possible efficiency1 and at the same time for him to lose sight of the fact that he has saddled you with the highest possible amount of interest on account of excessive investment4 ,operating cost and interest cost should never be separated4 ,one is as much a part of the cost of your current as the other4 ,this is particularly illustrated in connection with the use of storage batteries4 ,those opposed to their use will point out to you that of the energy going into the storage battery only #gj per cent4 is available for use on your distribution system4 ,that statement in itself is correct2 but in figuring the cost of energy for a class of business for which the storage battery is particularly adapted1 the maximum load1 that portion of your operating cost affected by the #cj per cent4 loss of energy in the battery1 forms under #d per cent4 of your total cost1 and it must be self-evident1 in that case at least1 that the #cj per cent4 loss in the storage battery is hardly an appreciable factor in figuring the operating cost of your product4 ,so far as ,i have been able to ascertain1 it would appear to be economical to use storage batteries in connection with central station systems the peak of whose load does not exceed from two to two and one-half hours4 ,in order to illustrate the important bearing which interest has on cost1 ,i have prepared graphical representations of the cost of current1 including interest1 under conditions of varying load factors4 ,for the purpose of this chart ,i have assumed an average cost of current1 so far as operating and repairs and renewals and general expense are concerned1 extending over a period of a year1 although of course these items are more or less attested by the character of the load factor4 ,for the purpose of figuring interest1 ,i have selected seven different classes of business commonly taken by electric light and power companies in any large city4 ,take1 for instance1 an office building4 ,it has a load factor of about #c4g per cent41 that is1 the average load for the whole year is #c4g per cent4 of the maximum demand on you for current at any one time during that period2 or1 to put it in another way1 this load factor of #c4g per cent4 would show that your investment is in use the equivalent of a little over #cbc hours a year on this class of business4 ,this is by no means an extreme case4 ,you can find in almost every large city customers whose load factors are not nearly as favorable to the operating company1 their use of your investment being as low as the equivalent of #ge or #ajj hours a year4 ,take another class of business1 that of the haberdasher1 or small fancy goods store4 ,as a rule these stores are comparatively small1 with facilities for getting a large amount of natural light and little use for artificial light4 ,the load factor as shown by the chart is about #g per cent41 the use of your investment being not quite twice as long as that of the office building4 ,day saloons show an average of #af per cent4 load factor2 cafetiers and small lunch counters about #bj per cent41 while the large dry goods stores1 in which there is comparatively little light1 have a load factor of #be per cent4 and use your investment seven times as long per year as the office building4 ,power business naturally shows a still better load factor1 say #ce per cent41 and the all-night restaurant has a load factor of #dh per cent4 ,you will see from this that the great desideratum of the central station system is1 from the investors' point of view1 the necessity of getting customers for your product whose business is of such a character as to call for a low maximum and long average use4 ,this question of load factor is by all means the most important one in central station economy4 ,if your maximum is very high and your average consumption very low1 heavy interest charges will necessarily follow4 ,the nearer you can bring your average to your maximum load1 the closer you approximate to the most economical conditions of production1 and the lower you can afford to sell your current4 ,take1 for instance1 the summer and winter curves of the ,chicago ,edison company4 ,the curve of ,december #bj1 #ahig1 shows a load factor of about #dh per cent42 the curve of ,may #b1 #ahih1 shows a load factor of nearly #fj per cent4 ,now1 if we were able in ,chicago to get business of such a character as would give us a curve of the same characteristics in ,december as the curve we get in ,may2 or1 in other words1 if we could improve our load factor1 our interest cost would be reduced1 an effect would be produced upon the other items going to make up the cost of current1 and we probably could make more money out of our customers at a lower price per unit than we get from them now4 ,many schemes are employed for improving the load factor1 or1 in other words1 to encourage a long use of central station product4 ,some companies adopt a plan of allowing certain stated discounts1 provided the income per month of each lamp connected exceeds a given sum4 ,the objection to this is that it limits the number of lamps connected4 ,other companies have what is known as the two-rate scheme1 charging one rate for electricity used during certain hours of the day and a lower rate for electricity used during the balance of the day1 using a meter with two dials for this purpose4 ,other companies use an instrument which registers the maximum demand for the month1 and the excess over the equivalent of a certain specified number of hours monthly in use of the maximum demand is sold at greatly reduced price4 ,the last scheme would seem particularly equitable1 as it results in what is practically an automatic scale of discounts based on the average load factor of the customers4 ,it does not seem to be just that a man who only uses your investment say #ajj hours a year should be able to buy your product at precisely the same price as the man who uses your investment say #c1jjj hours a year1 when the amount of money invested to take care of either customer is precisely the same4 ,surely the customer who uses the product on an average #cj times longer than the customer using it for only #ajj hours is entitled to a much lower unit rate1 in view of the fact that the expense for interest to the company is in one case but a fraction per unit of output of what it is in the other4 ,this fact is illustrated by the interest columns on the graphic chart already referred to4 ,supposing that the central station manager desired to sell his product at cost1 that is1 an amount sufficient to cover his operating1 repairs and renewals1 general expense1 and interest and depreciation1 he would have to obtain from the customer having the poorest load factor1 as shown on the load chart1 over four times as much per unit of electricity as it would be necessary for him to collect from the customer having the largest load factor4 ,no one would think of going to a bank to borrow money and expect to pay precisely the same total interest whether he required the money for one month or for twelve2 and for the same reason it seems an absurdity to sell electricity to the customer who uses it but a comparatively few hours a year at the same price at which you would sell it to the customer using it ten hours a day and three hundred days a year1 when it is remembered that interest is the largest factor in cost1 and the total amount of interest is the same with the customer using it but a few hours a year as it is with the customer using it practically all the year around4 ,i have dwelt thus at length on the question of interest cost in operating a central station system1 not alone for the purpose of pointing out to you its importance in connection with an electrical distribution system1 but also to impress upon you its importance as a factor in cost2 in fact1 the most important factor in cost in any public service business which you may enter after leaving this institution4 ,most of the businesses presenting the greatest possibilities from the point of view of an engineering career are those requiring very large investment and having a comparatively small turnover or yearly income4 ,of necessity1 in all enterprises of this character1 the main factor of cost is interest1 and if you intend following engineering as a profession1 my advice to you would be to learn first the value of money1 or1 to put it another way1 to learn the cost of money4 ,before leaving this question of interest and its effect upon cost1 ,i would draw your attention to the fact that while interest is by far the most important factor of cost1 it is a constantly reducing amount per unit of maximum output in practically every central station system4 ,when a system is first installed1 it is the rule to make large enough investment in real estate and buildings to take care of many times the output obtained in the first year or so of operation4 ,as a rule1 the generating plant from the boilers to the switchboard is designed with only sufficient surplus to last a year or so4 ,in the case of the distributing system the same course is followed as in the case of real estate and buildings1 with a view to minimizing the ultimate investment4 ,mains are laid along each block facing1 feeders are put in having a capacity far beyond the necessity of the moment2 consequently interest cost is very high when a plant first starts1 except1 as ,i have stated1 in the case of the machinery forming the generating plant itself4 ,as the business increases from1 year to year1 the item of interest per unit of maximum output consequently will constantly decrease1 owing to the fact that each additional unit of output following an increase of connected load increases the divisor by which the total interest is divided4 ,the result is from year to year the interest cost of each additional unit of maximum output is a constantly reducing amount1 and consequently the average interest cost of each unit of maximum output should1 in a well regulated plant1 grow less from year to year until the minimum interest cost per unit is reached4 ,this minimum interest cost is reached when the capacity of the whole system and the total units of output at maximum load are identical1 although of course it will always be necessary to have a certain margin of capacity over possible output1 as a factor of safety4 ,this same rule1 although to a less extent1 applies to the operating and general expense cost1 that is1 the cost other than interest4 ,to particularize1 the manager's salary and other administrative expenses do not increase in proportion to maximum output of station2 therefore1 the cost of administration per unit of output1 if the business is in a healthy condition1 must be from year to year reduced4 ,there are a great many other expenses that are not directly in proportion to output1 and these follow the same rule4 ,in a well-run plant the percentage of operating expenses to gross receipts will stand even year after year1 while the income per unit of output will be constantly reduced4 ,this is an excellent evidence of the fact that the cost per unit of output is constantly being reduced1 as1 if it were not1 the percentage of expenses to gross receipts would be increased in direct proportion to the reduction in price4 ,moreover1 it should be borne in mind that there are many difficulties in the way of universal use of electric energy from a central station system4 ,it is the rare exception to find a house not piped for gas and water4 ,in the case of the latter it is almost invariably the rule that owners are compelled to pipe for water1 under the sanitary code of the municipality4 ,on the other hand1 in a large residential district1 it is the exception to find a house wired for electric light2 consequently the output of current per foot of conductor is at the present time very low as compared with the output of gas per foot of gas pipe in any of the large cities4 ,the expense of wiring 7which must of necessity be borne by the householder7 is large1 and it is often a barrier to the adoption of electric illumination1 but as the rule to wire houses becomes more general1 the output per foot of main will constantly increase1 and therefore the interest per unit of output per foot of main will constantly decrease4 ,this same rule will apply in the case of expenses of taking care of and repairing the distribution system1 although to not so great an extent4 ,if you will take into account these various factors constantly operating toward a reduction of operating and general expense cost1 and interest cost1 the conclusion must necessarily be forced upon you that the price at which current can be sold at a profit to-day is in no sense a measure of the income per unit which it will be necessary for central station managers to obtain in the future4 ,in #ahha-hb it was difficult to make both ends meet with an income of #be cents per kilowatt hour1 to-day there are many stations showing a substantial return on their investment whose average income does not exceed #g cents per kilowatt hour1 showing #gj per cent4 reduction in price in less than two decades4 ,how far this constant reduction in cost1 followed by a constant reduction in selling price1 will go1 it is difficult to determine2 but if so much has been accomplished during the first #bj years of the existence of the industry1 is it too much to predict that in a far less time than the succeeding #bj years electric current for all purposes will be within the reach of the smallest householder and the poorest citizen8 ,but few industries can parallel the record already obtained4 ,if you will trace the history of the introduction of gas as an illuminant1 you will find that it took a much longer time to establish it on a commercial basis than it has taken to establish most firmly the electric lighting industry4 ,all the great improvements in gas1 the introduction of water gas1 the economizing in consumption by the use of the ,welsbach burner1 have all been made within the time of those before me1 and yet1 notwithstanding that when these gas improvements started1 the electric lighting business was hardly conceived1 and certainly had not advanced to a point where you could claim that it had passed the experimental stage--notwithstanding this1 the cost of electrical energy has decreased so rapidly that to-day there are many large central station plants making handsome returns on their investments at a far lower average income per unit of light than the income obtained by the gas company in the same community4 ,in making my calculations which have led me to this conclusion1 ,i have assumed that #aj1jjj watts are equal to #a1jjj feet of gas4 ,this comparison holds good1 provided an incandescent lamp of high economy is used as against the ordinary gas burner4 ,to make a comparison between electric illumination and incandescent gas burners1 such as the ,welsbach burner1 you must figure on the use of an arc lamp in the electric circuit instead of an incandescent lamp1 which is certainly fair when it is remembered that incandescent gas burners are1 as a rule1 used in places where arc lamps should be used if electric illumination is employed4 ,with such brilliant results obtained in the past1 the prospects of the central station industry are certainly most dazzling4 ,while the growth of the business has been phenomenal1 more especially since #ahij1 ,i think it can be conservatively stated that we have scarcely entered upon the threshold of the development which may be expected in the future4 ,in very few cities in the ,united ,states can you find that electric illumination exceeds more than #bj per cent4 of the total artificial illumination for which the citizens pay4 ,if this be the state of affairs in connection with the use of electricity for illuminating purposes1 and if you will bear in mind the many other purposes to which electricity can be adapted throughout a city and supplied to customers in small quantities1 you may get some faint conception of the possible consumption of electrical energy in the not far distant future4 ,methods of producing it may change1 but these methods cannot possibly go into use unless their adoption is justified by saving in the cost of production--a saving which must be sufficient to show a profit above the interest and depreciation on the new plant employed4 ,it is within the realms of possibility that the present form of generating station may be entirely dispensed with4 ,it has already been demonstrated experimentally that electrical energy may be produced direct from the coal itself without the intervention of the boiler1 engine and dynamo machine4 ,whether this can be done commercially remains to be proved4 ,whatever changes may take place in generating methods1 ,i should1 were ,i not engaged in a business which affords so many remarkable surprises1 be inclined to question the possibility of any further material change in the distributing system4 ,improvements in the translating devices1 such as lamps1 may add enormously to the capacity of the distributing system per unit of light2 but it does seem to me that the system itself1 as originally conceived1 is to a large extent a permanency4 ,should any great improvements take place in the medium employed for turning electrical energy into light1 the possible effect on cost1 and consequently selling price1 would be enormous4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,proposal of ,gov4 ,black1 which has now become law1 to depute to ,cornell the care of a considerable tract of forest land1 and the duty of demonstrating to ,americans the theory1 methods and profits of scientific forestry1 has a curious appropriateness much commented on at the university1 since two-thirds of the wealth of ,cornell has been derived from the location and skillful management of forest lands1 the net receipts from this source being to date #d1aab1jjj4 ,in the course of twenty years management the university has thrice sold the timber on some pieces of land which it still holds1 and received a larger price at the third sale than at the first4 ,the conduct of this land business is so systematized that the treasurer of the university knows to a dot the amount of pine1 hemlock1 birch1 maple1 basswood and oak timber1 even to the number of potential railroad ties1 telegraph poles and fence posts on each fourth part of a quarter section owned by ,cornell4 ,certainly1 ,cornell is rich in experience for the business side of a forestry experiment such as ,gov4 ,black proposes4 ,the university forest lands from which its endowment has been realized are in ,wisconsin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,books may be called heavy when the qualifying term is not applied to their writers1 but to the paper makers4 ,it is falsifications in the paper that give it weight4 ,sulphate of baryta1 the well known adulterate of white lead1 does the work4 ,a correspondent1 writing to ,the ,london ,saturday ,review1 gives the weight of certain books as3 ,miss ,kingsley's ,travels in ,africa4 #c pounds #e ounces2 ,tragedy of the ,csars1 #c pounds2 ,mahan's ,nelson 7#a vol471 #b pounds #aj ounces2 ,tennyson 7#a vol471 #b pounds #f ounces2 ,life and ,letters of ,jowett 7#a vol471 #b pounds #a ounce4 ,to handle these dumb-bell books1 ,the ,saturday ,review advises that readers take lessons in athletics4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,lock ,,of ,,the ,,dortmund-,,ems ,,canal ,,at ,,henrichenburg4 ,the ,dortmund-,ems ,canal1 destined to connect the heart of ,german industry with the sea1 was formally dedicated on ,april #a1 and partially opened to commerce4 ,after its completion1 ,german coal will be transported to the harbors of the ,ems at the same cost as the ,english coal which has hitherto forced back the treasures of our soil2 our black diamonds will then be sold in the markets of the world1 and the ,kaiser ,wilhelm ,canal will enable the western part of the empire to exchange its coal and iron for the grain and wood of the ,east4 ,many difficulties were encountered in cutting the canal1 owing partly to the vast network of railroads in the coal region of ,westphalia1 but chiefly due to the insufficiency of moisture in the highlands1 the latter not containing enough water to supply the many necessary sluices1 at which it could be easily foreseen considerable traffic would occur4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lock ,,of ,,the ,,dortmund-,,ems ,,canal ,,at ,,henrichenburg4 ,for the modern engineer there are1 however1 no insurmountable obstacles4 ,instead of a line of ordinary locks1 a single structure was erected sufficient for the needs of the entire region4 ,this lock is situated at ,henrichenburg1 near ,dortmund1 and our illustration pictures it with its lock-chamber half raised4 ,the lock1 which serves to overcome a difference in level of fifty-nine feet1 raises vessels of #a1jjj tons capacity with a velocity of #j4c to #j4g foot per second1 and has been constructed after a new and astonishingly simple system4 ,the lock chamber1 designed for the reception of the various vessels1 is #bbi4fj feet in length and #bh4hfd feet in breadth and normally contains #h4b feet of water4 ,under the sluice in a line with the long axis are five wells filled with water in which cylindrical floats are placed1 connected to the bottom of the chamber by means of iron trellis-work4 ,the floats are placed so deeply that1 in their highest position1 their upper edges are always submerged2 they are1 moreover1 of such size that by means of their upward impulsion the chamber is held in equilibrium4 ,irrespective of the small differences of pressure which arise from the varying immersion of the framework1 the lock will in all positions be in equilibrium4 ,since a vessel which enters the lock displaces a volume of water whose weight is equal to the weight of the vessel1 a constant equilibrium will always be maintained and only a minimum force required to raise or lower the chamber4 ,in order to move the lock-chamber up and down and to sustain it constantly in a horizontal position1 nuts have been fixed to strong crossbeams1 through which powerful screw-rods work4 ,these rods are held in place by a massive framework of iron and are turned to the left or to the right by means of a small steam engine1 placed at one side of the lock1 which engine1 by means of a longitudinal shaft1 drives two cross shafts to which bevel wheels are attached4 ,by this means the chamber is lowered and raised4 ,the screw rods are so powerful that they sustain the entire weight of the lock chamber1 and the pitch of the thread is such that spontaneous sliding or slipping is impossible1 the chamber being1 therefore1 kept constantly in the desired position4 ,it is interesting to note that the hollow space in the screw rods is heated by steam during winter1 thus preventing the formation of ice in the machinery4 ,during the eighties1 locks for ships of #djj tons capacity were erected in ,england and ,france1 at ,anderton1 ,les ,fontinettes and ,la ,louvire4 ,the lock at ,henrichenburg1 however1 exceeds all its predecessors1 not only in size1 but also in security4 ,at all events1 the structure is a worthy memorial of the energy and genius of ,german engineers4--,illustrirte ,zeitung4 99 99 99 99 99 ,paper hanging by machine is the latest achievement1 according to a ,german contemporary1 says ,the ,engineer4 ,the arrangement used for this purpose is provided with a rod upon which the roll of paper is placed4 ,a paste receptacle with a brushing arrangement is attached in such a manner that the paste is applied automatically on the back of the paper4 ,the end of the wall paper is fixed at the bottom of the wall and the implement rises on the wall and only needs to be set by one workman4 ,while the wall paper unrolls and1 provided with paste1 is held against the wall1 an elastic roller follows on the outside1 which presses it firmly to the wall4 ,when the wall paper has reached the top1 the workman pulls a cord1 whereby it is cut off from the remainder on the roll4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,american ,,regular4 ,,by ,,the ,,english ,,correspondent ,,of ,,the ,,london ,,times ,,on ,,board ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,transport ,,gussie4 ,the regular of the ,united ,states is in many respects the least equipped foot soldier of my acquaintance4 ,this was my reflection as ,i overhauled the kit of a private this morning on board the ,gussie4 ,there was not a single brush in his knapsack4 ,i counted three in that of a ,spanish foot soldier only a few weeks ago4 ,the ,american knapsack is merely a canvas bag cut to the outward proportions of the ,european knapsack1 but in practical features bearing affinity with the rckensack of the ,tyrolean chamois hunters1 or pack-sack of the backwoodsmen of ,canada and the ,adirondack ,mountains4 ,this knapsack of the ,american is not intended to be carried on any extended marches1 although the total weight he is ever called upon to carry1 including everything1 is only #ej pounds1 a good #ab pounds less than what is carried by the private of ,germany4 ,the men of this regiment1 in heavy marching order1 carry an overcoat with a cape1 a blanket1 the half of a shelter tent1 and one wooden tent pole in two sections4 ,the rifle could be used as a tent pole--so say men ,i talk with on the subject4 ,on this expedition overcoats are a superfluity1 and it is absurd that troops should be sent to the tropics in summer wearing exactly the same uniform they would be using throughout the winter on the frontiers of ,canada4 ,this war will1 no doubt1 produce a change after ,english models4 ,at present the situation here is prevented from being painful because no marching has yet been attempted1 and the commanding officers permit the most generous construction in the definition of what is a suitable uniform4 ,on the trip of this ship to ,cuba1 no officer or man has ever worn a tunic excepting at guard mounting inspection4 ,the #ej men who went ashore near ,cabaas on ,may #ab and pitched into some #ejj ,spaniards left their coats behind and fought in their blue flannel shirts4 ,of the officers1 some wore a sword1 some did not1 though all carried a revolver4 ,no orders were issued on the subject--it was left to individual taste1 ,i have experienced hotter days at ,german maneuvers than on the coast of ,cuba during the days we happened to be there1 yet ,i have never noticed any disposition in the army of ,william ,,ii4 to relax the severity of service even temporarily4 ,my ,german friends sincerely believe that the black stock and the hot tunic are what has made ,prussia a strong nation1 and to disturb that superstition would be a thankless task4 ,in the way of clothing the ,american private carries a complete change of under-drawers1 under-shirt1 socks1 laced boots and uniform trousers4 ,my particular private was carrying a double allowance of socks1 handkerchiefs1 and underwear4 ,he had a toothbrush and comb4 ,that is the heavy marching order knapsack4 ,for light marching1 which is the usual manner1 the man begins by spreading on the ground his half-tent1 which is about the size of a traveling rug4 ,on this he spreads his blanket1 rolls it up tightly into a long narrow sausage1 having first distributed along its length a pair of socks1 a change of underwear1 and the two sticks of his one tent pole4 ,then he brings the ends of this canvas roll together1 not closely1 as in the ,german army1 but more like the ends of a horse-shoe1 held by a rope which at the same time stops the ends of the roll tightly4 ,when this horse shoe is slung over the man's shoulder1 it does not press uncomfortably upon his chest4 ,the total weight is distributed in the most convenient manner for marching4 ,the packing of the man's things is strictly according to regulation1 excepting only the single pocket in his knapsack1 where he may carry what he chooses1 as he chooses4 ,his light canvas haversack is much like the ,english one1 and his round1 rather flat water flask is covered with canvas4 ,it is made of tin1 and the one ,i inspected was rusty inside4 ,it would be better if of aluminum4 ,in the haversack is a pannikin with a hinged handle that may be used as a saucepan4 ,over this fits a tin plate1 and when the two are covering one another the handle of the pannikin fits over both by way of handle4 ,it is an excellent arrangement1 but should be of aluminum instead of a metal liable to rust4 ,the most valuable part of this haversack is a big tin cup that can be used for a great variety of purposes1 including cooking coffee4 ,it is hung loose at the strap of the haversack4 ,of course each man has knife1 fork and spoon1 each in a leather case4 ,the cartridge belt contains #ajj rounds1 which are distributed all the way around the waist1 there being a double row of them4 ,the belt is remarkably light1 being woven all in one operation4 ,it is of cotton and partly some material which prevents shrinking or loosening4 ,the belts have stood admirably the test put upon them for the last six days1 when it has rained every day1 on top of the ordinary heavy moisture usual at sea in the tropics4 ,the test is the more interesting from their having been previously in a very dry country4 ,officers and men alike unite in praise of this cartridge belt4 ,the particular private whom ,i was inspecting said he now carried #ajj as easily as he formerly carried #ej4 ,this belt rests loosely on the hips1 without any straps over the shoulders4 ,it is eminently businesslike in appearance4 ,the hat is the gray felt of ,south ,africa1 ,australia1 and every other part of the world where comfort and cost are consulted4 ,no boots are blacked on expeditions of this kind4 ,the men who form in line for guard duty have their tunics well brushed1 but that may be due to extraneous assistance4 ,for fighting purposes1 then1 the ,united ,states private has nothing to keep clean excepting his rifle and bayonet4 ,he carries no contrivances for polishing buttons1 boots1 or the dozen of bits of accouterment deemed essential to a good soldier in ,europe4 ,in ,spain1 for instance1 the private1 though he may have nothing in his haversack1 will1 nevertheless1 carry a clumsy outfit of tools for making his uniform look imposing4 ,now1 as to discipline in the ,american army ,i cannot speak at present1 for the war is yet too young4 ,it may1 however1 be worth noting that in this particular regiment1 while most complete liberty was allowed the men all the twelve days of the rail journey from ,san ,francisco to ,tampa1 not a single case of drunkenness or any other breach of discipline was reported4 ,among the #aje men on this boat there has not in the past seven days been a single case of sickness of any kind or any occasion for punishing4 ,the firing discipline during the three times we have been under fire has been excellent2 the obedience of soldiers to their officers has been as prompt and intelligent as anything ,i have seen in ,europe2 and as to coolness under fire and accuracy of aim1 what ,i have seen is most satisfactory4 ,the men evidently regard their officers as soldiers of equal courage and superior technical knowledge4 ,to the ,yankee private ,west ,pointer means what to the soldier of ,prussia is conveyed by noble rank4 ,in my intimate intercourse with officers and men aboard this ship ,i cannot recall an instance of an officer addressing a private otherwise than is usual when a gentleman issues an order4 ,i have never heard an officer or noncommissioned officer curse a man4 ,during the engagement of ,cabaas the orders were issued as quietly as at any other time1 and the men went about their work as steadily as bluejackets on a man-o'-war4 ,all this ,i note1 because this is the first occasion that ,united ,states troops have been in action since the civil war1 and because ,i have more than once heard ,european officers question the possibility of making an army out of elements different from those to which they were accustomed4 ,i have heard ,germans insist that unless the officer appears in uniform he cannot command the respect of his men4 ,on this ship it would be frequently difficult to tell officers from men when the tunic is laid aside and shoulder straps are not seen4 ,there are numberless points of resemblance between ,tommy ,atkins and the ,yankee private2 and the ,sandhurst man has no difficulty in understanding the ,west ,pointer4 ,but to do this we must go a little beneath the surface and see things1 not on the parade ground1 but in actual war4 ,for dress occasions the ,american uniform is far and away the ugliest and most useless of all the uniforms ,i know4 ,the helmets and cocked hats are of the pattern affected by theatrical managers1 the decorations tawdry1 the swords absurd1 the whole appearance indicative of a taste unmilitary and inartistic4 ,the parade uniform has been designed by a lot of unsoldierly politicians and tailors about ,washington4 ,their notion of military glory is confused with memories of ,st4 ,patrick's ,day processions and ,masonic installations4 ,they have made the patient ,united ,states army a victim of their vulgar designs1 and to-day at every ,european army maneuver one can pick out the ,american military attache by merely pointing to the most unsoldierly uniform on the field4 ,on the battlefield1 however1 there are no political tailors1 and the ,washington dress regulations are ruthlessly disregarded4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,steering ,,gear ,,of ,,north ,,german ,,lloyd ,,steamers ,,coblentz1 ,,mainz1 ,,and ,,trier4 ,the steering gear illustrated below1 which has been fitted to a number of vessels in this country as well as on the three ,north ,german ,lloyd steamers above named1 is designed1 primarily1 to effect the distribution of the leverage more in proportion to the resistance of the rudder than exists in ordinary gears4 ,the latter1 as a rule1 exert a uniform and decreasing1 instead of an increasing1 purchase on the rudder1 in moving it from midgear to hard over4 ,this important object is attained in the gear under notice chiefly through the arrangement of the quadrant and the spring buffers1 which form an essential part of it1 and of the tiller crosshead4 ,the quadrant--which1 as may be gathered from our illustration1 has its main body formed of wrought steel1 flanged and riveted1 making an exceptionally strong design--works on its own center4 ,it travels through #ea degrees in moving the tiller crosshead through #dj degrees1 and in doing so increases the leverage over the rudder to an extent which is equivalent to a gain of #fj per cent4 upon midgear position4 ,illustration3 ,,hand ,,gear ,,hard ,,over4 ,illustration3 ,,hand ,,gear ,,amidships4 ,,croom ,,arthur',s ,,steering ,,gear4 ,being carried on its own center1 and not1 as is usual1 on the rudder stock1 and with its rim supported on rollers1 the quadrant does not impose upon the rudder pintles any of its own weight1 thus diminishing the wear on these parts4 ,this arrangement also keeps the quadrant always in good gear with its pinion1 thereby allowing the teeth of both to be strengthened by shrouding1 and rendering them exempt from the effects of sinking and slogger of the rudder stock as the pintles wear4 ,the rack and pinions are of cast steel1 as is also the tiller crosshead4 ,the spring buffers1 which1 as has been said1 form an essential part of the quadrant1 are fitted with steel rollers at the point of contact with the crosshead1 thereby reducing the friction to a minimum4 ,the springs1 by their compression1 absorb any shock coming on the rudder1 and greatly reduce the vibration when struck by a sea4 ,they are made adjustable1 and can be either steel or rubber4 ,our illustrations show the arrangement of the gear as worked by hand at the rudder head1 but of course gears are made having a steam steering engine as the major portion of the arrangement--the two cylinders being placed directly over the quadrant--thus securing the well known advantages attaching to a direct rudder head steering engine as compared with the engine situated amidship1 with all the friction of parts1 liability to breakage1 etc41 thereby entailed4 ,whether with engine amidship or directly over the rudderhead1 ample provision is made for putting the hand power into gear by means of a friction clutch within the standard upon which the hand wheels are mounted4 ,the clutch is of large diameter and lined with hard wood1 power and ready facility being provided by the hand lever--seen at the top of standard--and the screw which it operates1 for shifting to in and out of gear4 ,the patentees and makers of this type of gear are ,messrs4 ,croom ,arthur1 ,victoria ,dock1 ,leith1 who1 in addition to fitting it to the three ,north ,german ,lloyd steamers named in the title--which are each of #c1bjj tons1 having an #h-;inch rudder-stock--have applied it to the ,hamburg and ,australian liner ,meissen of #e1bjj tons and #aj-;inch rudder stock1 and to the steamer ,carisbrook of #a1gbd tons1 owned in ,leith4 ,on the latter vessel1 which was the first fitted with it1 the gear has been working for over two years1 giving1 we are told1 entire satisfaction to the owners1 who say the spring buffers undoubtedly reduce the vibration when the rudder is struck by a sea1 and the arrangement of quadrant and tiller appears to give increase of power4 ,of the installation of this gear on board the three ,north ,german ,lloyd vessels1 the agents of that company say3 ,it has been working to our entire satisfaction4 ,this system1 on the whole1 proves to have answered its purpose4 ,considering the advantages claimed for the gear1 this is satisfactory testimony4 ,we are indebted to ,the ,london ,engineer for the cuts and description4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,combined ,,steam ,,pumping ,,and ,,motive ,,power ,,engine4 ,we give herewith an illustration of a compact engine1 designed by ,messrs4 ,merryweather ,sons1 of ,london1 particularly for mining work1 and already supplied to the ,burma ruby mines1 the ,salamanca tin mines1 and several mining companies in ,brazil and other parts of ,south ,america4 ,it is an arrangement of the ,valiant steam pumping engine with a flywheel arranged to take a belt1 and is so constructed that the pump can be readily thrown out of gear and the engine used to drive light machinery4 ,the smaller size weighs only #g cwt41 including boiler1 engine and pump complete1 and can be run on its own wheels1 or these can be detached and the machine carried by eight or ten men on shoulder poles passed through rings fitted on top of the boiler4 ,thus it can be easily transported up country1 and has for this reason been found most useful for prospecting4 ,for alluvial mining it will throw a powerful jet at #ajj lb4 to #abj lb4 pressure1 or by means of a belt will drive an experimental quartz crusher or stamp mill4 ,the power developed is six horses1 and the boiler will burn wood or other inferior fuel when coal is not obtainable4 ,the pump will deliver #ajj gallons per minute1 on a short length of hose or piping1 and will force water through three or four miles of piping on the level1 or1 on a short length1 #ce gallons per minute against a head of #baj feet4 ,the pump is made entirely of gun metal1 with rubber valves1 and has large suction and delivery branches4 ,air vessels are fitted1 and the motion work is simple and strong4 ,the boiler is ,merryweather's water tube type1 and raises steam rapidly1 while the fittings include feed pump1 injector1 safety valve1 steam blast and an arrangement for feeding the boiler from the main pump in case of necessity4 ,illustration3 ,,merryweather',s ,,pumping ,,engine4 ,we are indebted to ,the ,london ,engineer for the engraving and description4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some romances and exaggerations of which the ,pitch ,lake1 at ,trinidad1 has been the subject1 are corrected by ,mr4 ,albert ,cronise1 of ,rochester1 ,n4,y4 ,its area1 height and distance from the sea have been overestimated1 and a volcanic action has been ascribed to it which does not really exist4 ,it is one mile from the landing place1 is #ach feet above the sea level1 is irregular1 approximately round1 and has an area of #aji acres4 ,its surface is a few feet higher than the ground immediately around it1 having been lifted up by the pressure from below4 ,the material of the lake is solid to a depth of several feet1 except in a few spots in the center1 where it remains soft1 but usually not hot or boiling4 ,but as the condition of the softest part varies1 it may be that it boils sometimes4 ,the surface of the lake is marked by fissures two or three feet wide and slightly depressed spots1 all of which are filled with rainwater4 ,in going about one has to pick his way among the larger puddles and jump many of the smaller connecting streams4 ,each of the hundreds of irregular portions separated by this network of fissures is said to have a slow revolving motion upon a horizontal axis at right angles to a line from the center of the lake1 the surface moving toward the circumference4 ,this motion is supposed to be caused by the great daily change in temperature1 often amounting to #hj1 and an unequal upward motion of the mass below1 increasing toward the center of the lake4 ,a few patches of shallow earth lying on the pitch1 and covered with bushes and small trees1 are scattered over the surface of the lake4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,gardeners' ,chronicle announces that ,mr4 ,fetisoff1 an amateur horticulturist at ,voronezh1 ,russia1 has achieved what was believed to be impossible1 the production of jet black roses4 ,no details of the process have been received4 99 99 99 99 99 ,recent ,books4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electro-,,metallurgy4 ,electric ,smelting and ,refining3 ,the ,extraction and ,treatment of ,metals by means of the ,electric ,current4 ,being the second edition of ,elektro-,metallurgie by ,dr4 ,w4 ,borchers4 ,translated1 with additions1 by ,walter ,g4 ,mc,millan4 ,with #c plates and numerous illustrations in the text4 #hvo1 cloth4 #daf pages4 ,london and ,new ,york1 #ahig #f4ej ,,electro-,,technical ,,series4 ,by ,edwin ,j4 ,houston1 ,ph4,d41 and ,a4,e4 ,kennelly1 ,d4,sc4 ,ten volumes3 ,alternating ,electric ,currents1 ,electric ,heating1 ,electro-,magnetism1 ,electricity in ,electro-,therapeutics1 ,electric ,arc ,lighting1 ,electric ,incandescent ,lighting1 ,electric ,motors1 ,electric ,street ,railways1 ,electric ,telephony1 ,electric ,telegraphy4 ,each #a4jj ,,engineers4 ,the ,practical ,management of ,engines and ,boilers1 including ,boiler ,setting1 ,pumps1 ,injectors1 ,feed ,water ,heaters1 ,steam ,engine ,economy1 ,condensers1 ,indicators1 ,slide ,valves1 ,safety ,valves1 ,governors1 ,steam ,gages1 ,incrustation and ,corrosion1 etc4 ,a ,practical ,guide for ,engineers and ,firemen and ,steam ,users generally4 ,by ,william ,b4 ,le ,van4 #abmo1 cloth4 #bfg pages4 #di illustrations4 #ahig #b4jj ,,experimental ,,science4 ,by ,george ,m4 ,hopkins4 ,this book treats on the various topics of ,physics in a popular and practical way4 ,it describes the apparatus in detail1 and explains the experiments in full1 so that teachers1 students and others interested in ,physics may readily make the apparatus without expense and perform the experiments without difficulty4 ,the aim of the writer has been to render physical experimentation so simple and attractive as to induce both old and young to engage in it for pleasure and profit4 ,a few simple arithmetical problems comprise all of the mathamatics of the book4 ,many new experiments are here described for the first time4 ,it is the most thoroughly illustrated work over published on ,experimental ,physics4 #hdj pages4 ,over #gij illustrations4 ,seventeenth edition4 ,revised and enlarged4 #hvo1 cloth #d4jj ,,explosives4 ,lectures on ,explosives4 ,a course of ,lectures prepared especially as a ,manual and ,guide in the ,laboratory of the ,united ,states ,artillery ,school4 ,by ,willoughby ,walke1 ,first ,lieut4 ,fifth ,united ,states ,artillery4 ,second edition4 ,revised and enlarged4 #hvo1 cloth4 #dce pages4 ,new ,york1 #ahig #d4jj ,,feeds ,,and ,,feeding4 ,a ,handbook for the ,student and ,stockman4 ,by ,w4,a4 ,henry4 #hvo1 cloth4 #feg pages4 #ahih #b4jj 99 99 99 99 99 ,our large ,catalogue of ,american and ,foreign ,scientific and ,technical ,books1 embracing more than ,fifty different subjects1 and containing #aaf pages1 will be mailed1 free1 to any address in the world4 ,any of the foregoing ,books mailed1 on receipt of price1 to any address4 ,remit by ,draft1 ,postal ,note1 ,check1 or ,money ,order1 to order of ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,complete ,,electrical ,,library ,,by ,,prof4 ,t4 ,o',,conor ,,sloane1 ,comprising five books1 as follows3 ,arithmetic of ,electricity1 #ach pages #a4jj ,electric ,toy ,making1 #adj pages #a4jj ,how to ,become a ,successful ,electrician1 #ahi pp4 #a4jj ,standard ,electrical ,dictionary1 #fhb pages #c4jj ,electricity ,simplified1 #aeh pages #a4jj --,the above five books by ,prof4 ,sloane may be purchased singly at the published prices1 or the set complete1 put up in a neat folding box1 will be furnished to ,scientific ,american readers at the special reduced price of ,,five ,,dollars4 ,you save #b by ordering the complete set4 ,,five ,,volumes1 #a1cjj ,,pages1 ,,and ,,over #dej ,,illustrations4 --,send for full table of contents of each of the books4 --,our complete book catalogue of #aaf pages1 containing reference to works of a scientific and technical character1 will be sent free to any address on application4 ,we cannot permit the receipt of ,sloane's ,electrical ,library to pass by without complimenting you upon the same4 ,it is a most admirable work4 ,should be in the hands of all those who are interested in electricity4 ,,phillips1 ,,ormonde ,,co41 ,engineers4 ,melbourne1 ,victoria4 ,i was highly pleased with the copy of ,sloane's ,electrical ,library1 which arrived in good condition4 ,it is one of the most valuable works ,i possess in my library4 ,the use of the ,roentgen ,rays in my profession has stimulated my desire for electrical knowledge greatly1 and ,i consider ,sloane's ,electrical ,dictionary a first-class book of reference4 ,i shall be pleased to recommend it to my colleagues in search of such a work4 ,yours truly1 ,p4,j4 ,,clendinnin1 ,m4,d41 ,hon4 ,medical ,electrician to the ,melbourne ,hospital4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,just ,,published4 ,second ,edition1 ,revised and much ,enlarged4 ,gas1 ,gasoline and ,oil ,engines ,by ,,gardner ,d4 ,,hiscox1 ,m4,e4 ,the only ,american ,book on the ,subject4 ,this is a book designed for the general information of every one interested in this new and popular motive power1 and its adaptation to the increasing demand for a cheap and easily managed motor requiring no licensed engineer4 ,the book treats of the theory and practice of ,gas1 ,gasoline and ,oil ,engines1 as designed and manufactured in the ,united ,states4 ,it also contains chapters on ,horseless ,vehicles1 ,electric ,lighting1 ,marine ,propulsion1 etc4 ,second ,edition4 ,illustrated by #bgj engravings4 ,revised and enlarged4 ,,large ,,octavo4 #cfe ,,pages4 ,,price #b4ej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,contents4 ,chapter ,i4--,introductory1 ,historical4 ,chapter ,,ii4--,theory of the ,gas and ,gasoline ,engine4 ,chapter ,,iii4--,utilization of ,heat and ,efficiency in ,gas ,engines4 ,chapter ,,iv4--,heat ,efficiencies4 ,chapter ,v4--,retarded ,combustion and ,wall ,cooling4 ,chapter ,,vi4--,causes of ,loss and ,inefficiency in ,explosive ,motors4 ,chapter ,,vii4--,economy of the ,gas ,engine for ,electric ,lighting4 ,chapter ,,viii4--,the ,material of ,power in ,explosive ,engines1 ,gas1 ,petroleum ,products and ,acetylene ,gas4 ,chapter ,,ix4--,carbureters and ,vapor ,gas for ,explosive ,motors4 ,chapter ,x4--,cylinder ,capacity of ,gas and ,gasoline ,engines1 ,mufflers on ,gas ,engines4 ,chapter ,,xi--,governors and ,valve ,gear4 ,chapter ,,xii4--,igniters and ,exploders1 ,hot1 ,tube and ,electric4 ,chapter ,,xiii4--,cylinder ,lubrication4 ,chapter ,,xiv--,on the ,management of ,explosive ,motors4 ,chapter ,,xv4--,the ,measurement of ,power by ,prony ,brakes1 ,dynamometers and ,indicators1 ,the ,measurement of ,speed1 ,the ,indicator and its ,work1 ,vibrations of ,buildings and ,floors by the ,running of ,explosive ,motors4 ,chapter ,,xvi4--,explosive ,engine ,testing4 ,chapter ,,xvii4--,various ,types of ,gas and ,oil ,engines1 ,marine and ,vehicle ,motors4--,chapter ,,xviii4--,various ,types of ,gas and ,oil ,engines4 ,marine and ,vehicle ,motors--,continued4 ,chapter ,,xix--,united ,states ,patents on ,gas1 ,gasoline and ,oil ,engines and their ,adjuncts--#ahge to #ahig inclusive--,list of the ,manufacturers of ,gas1 ,gasoline and ,oil ,engines in the ,united ,states1 with their addresses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,few ,,extracts ,,of ,,notices ,,from ,,the ,,press4 ,it is a very comprehensive and thoroughly up-to-date work4--,american ,machinist4 ,the subjects treated in this book are timely and interesting1 as there is no doubt as to the increasing use of ,gas1 ,gasoline and ,oil ,engines1 particularly for small powers4 ,it gives such general information on the construction1 operation and care of these engines that should prove valuable to any one in need of such motors1 as well as those already having them in use4--,machinery4 ,what an engineer says3 ,i beg to acknowledge receipt of your book on ,gas1 ,gasoline and ,oil ,engines1 by ,hiscox1 by registered mail4 ,i am highly pleased with the book4 ,it is the best on ,oil ,engines ,i have ever seen1 is not intricate in the calculations1 and the illustrations are excellent4 ,yours truly1 ,s4 ,,dalrymple1 ,chief-engineer ,s4,s4 ,talune4 ,melbourne1 ,victoria4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,scientific ,,american ,,office1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,,terms ,,of ,,subscription1 #e ,a ,,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january #a1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4 ,all the back volumes of ,,the ,,supplement can likewise be supplied4 ,two volumes are issued yearly4 ,price of each volume1 #b4ej stitched in paper1 or #c4ej bound in stiff covers4 ,,combined ,,rates4--,one copy of ,,scientific ,,american and one copy of ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 one year1 postpaid1 #g4jj ,a liberal discount to booksellers1 news agents1 and canvassers4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publishers1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 ,n4,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,special ,,naval ,,supplement1 ,no4 #aafe1 contains a historical review of 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