,,ages999999 file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #ahbab-;h4htm or #ahbab-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ h_/b_/a_/ahbab_/ahbab-;h_/#ahbab-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/ h_/b_/a_/ahbab_/ahbab-;h4zip7 ,,arts ,,and ,,crafts ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,a ,description of ,mediaeval ,workmanship in ,several of the ,departments of ,applied ,art1 ,together with ,some ,account of ,special ,artisans in the ,early ,renaissance by ,,julia ,,de ,,wolf ,,addison ,author of ,the ,art of the ,pitti ,palace1 ,the ,art of the ,national ,gallery1 ,classic ,myths in ,art1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,examples ,,of ,,ecclesiastical ,,metal ,,work ,,introduction ,the very general and keen interest in the revival of arts and crafts in ,america is a sign full of promise and pleasure to those who are working among the so-called minor arts4 ,one reads at every turn how greatly ,ruskin and ,morris have influenced handicraft3 how much these men and their co-workers have modified the appearance of our streets and houses1 our materials1 textiles1 utensils1 and all other useful things in which it is possible to shock or to please the aesthetic taste1 without otherwise affecting the value of these articles for their destined purposes4 ,in this connection it is interesting to look into the past1 particularly to those centuries known as the ,middle ,ages1 in which the handicrafts flourished in special perfection1 and to see for ourselves how these crafts were pursued1 and exactly what these arts really were4 ,many people talk learnedly of the delightful revival of the arts and crafts without having a very definite idea of the original processes which are being restored to popular favour4 ,william ,morris himself1 although a great modern spirit1 and reformer1 felt the necessity of a basis of historic knowledge in all workers4 ,i do not think1 he says1 that any man but one of the highest genius could do anything in these days without much study of ancient art1 and even he would be much hindered if he lacked it4 ,it is but turning to the original sources1 then1 to examine the progress of mediaeval artistic crafts1 and those sources are usually to be found preserved for our edification in enormous volumes of plates1 inaccessible to most readers1 and seldom with the kind of information which the average person would enjoy4 ,there are very few books dealing with the arts and crafts of the olden time1 which are adapted to inform those who have no intention of practising such arts1 and yet who wish to understand and appreciate the examples which they see in numerous museums or exhibitions1 and in travelling abroad4 ,there are many of the arts and crafts which come under the daily observation of the tourist1 which make no impression upon him and have no message for him1 simply because he has never considered the subject of their origin and construction4 ,after one has once studied the subject of historic carving1 metal work1 embroidery1 tapestry1 or illumination1 one can never fail to look upon these things with intelligent interest and vastly increased pleasure4 ,until the middle of the nineteenth century art had been regarded as a luxury for the rich dilettante1--the people heard little of it1 and thought less4 ,the utensils and furniture of the middle class were fashioned only with a view to utility2 there was a popular belief that beautiful things were expensive1 and the thrifty housekeeper who had no money to put into bric-a-brac never thought of such things as an artistic lamp shade or a well-coloured sofa cushion4 ,decorative art is well defined by ,mr4 ,russell ,sturgis3 ,fine art applied to the making beautiful or interesting that which is made for utilitarian purposes4 ,many people have an impression that the more ornate an article is1 the more work has been lavished upon it4 ,there never was a more erroneous idea4 ,the diligent polish in order to secure nice plain surfaces1 or the neat fitting of parts together1 is infinitely more difficult than adding a florid casting to conceal clumsy workmanship4 ,of course certain forms of elaboration involve great pains and labour2 but the mere fact that a piece of work is decorated does not show that it has cost any more in time and execution than if it were plain1--frequently many hours have been saved by the device of covering up defects with cheap ornament4 ,how often one finds that a simple chair with a plain back costs more than one which is apparently elaborately carved6 ,the reason is1 that the plain one had to be made out of a decent piece of wood1 while the ornate one was turned out of a poor piece1 and then stamped with a pattern in order to attract the attention from the inferior material of which it was composed4 ,the softer and poorer the wood1 the deeper it was possible to stamp it at a single blow4 ,the same principle applies to much work in metal4 ,flimsy bits of silverware stamped with cheap designs of flowers or fruits are attached to surfaces badly finished1 while the work involved in making such a piece of plate with a plain surface would increase its cost three or four times4 ,a craft may easily be practised without art1 and still serve its purpose2 the alliance of the two is a means of giving pleasure as well as serving utility4 ,but it is a mistake to suppose that because a design is artistic1 its technical rendering is any the less important4 ,frequently curious articles are palmed off on us1 and designated as ,arts and ,crafts ornaments1 in which neither art nor craft plays its full share4 ,art does not consist only in original1 unusual1 or unfamiliar designs2 craft does not mean hammering silver so that the hammer marks shall show2 the best art is that which produces designs of grace and appropriateness1 whether they are strikingly new or not1 and the best craftsman is so skilful that he is able to go beyond the hammer marks1 so to speak1 and to produce with the hammer a surface as smooth as1 and far more perfect than1 that produced by an emery and burnisher4 ,some people think that ,arts and ,crafts means a combination which allows of poor work being concealed under a mask of aesthetic effect4 ,labour should not go forth blindly without art1 and art should not proceed simply for the attainment of beauty without utility1--in other words1 there should be an alliance between labour and art4 ,one principle for which craftsmen should stand is a respect for their own tools3 a frank recognition of the methods and implements employed in constructing any article4 ,if the article in question is a chair1 and is really put together by means of sockets and pegs1 let these constructive necessities appear1 and do not try to disguise the means by which the result is to be attained4 ,make the requisite feature a beauty instead of a disgrace4 ,it is amusing to see a ,new ,england farmer build a fence4 ,he begins with good cedar posts1--fine1 thick1 solid logs1 which are at least genuine1 and handsome so far as a cedar post is capable of being handsome4 ,you think1 ,ah1 that will be a good unobjectionable fence4 ,but1 behold1 as soon as the posts are in position1 he carefully lays a flat plank vertically in front of each1 so that the passer-by may fancy that he has performed the feat of making a fence of flat laths1 thus going out of his way to conceal the one positive and good-looking feature in his fence4 ,he seems to have some furtive dread of admitting that he has used the real article6 ,a bolt is to be affixed to a modern door4 ,instead of being applied with a plate of iron or brass1 in itself a decorative feature on a blank space like that of the surface of a door1 the carpenter cuts a piece of wood out of the edge of the door1 sinks the bolt out of sight1 so that nothing shall appear to view but a tiny meaningless brass handle1 and considers that he has performed a very neat job4 ,compare this method with that of a mediaeval locksmith1 and the result with his great iron bolt1 and if you can not appreciate the difference1 both in principle and result1 ,i should recommend a course of historic art study until you are convinced4 ,on the other hand1 it is not necessary to carry your artistry so far that you build a fence of nothing but cedar logs touching one another1 or that you cover your entire door with a meander of wrought iron which culminates in a small bolt4 ,enthusiastic followers of the ,arts and ,crafts movement often go to morbid extremes4 ,recognition of material and method does not connote a display of method and material out of proportion to the demands of the article to be constructed4 ,as in other forms of culture1 balance and sanity are necessary1 in order to produce a satisfactory result4 ,but when a craftsman is possessed of an aesthetic instinct and faculty1 he merits the congratulations offered to the students of ,birmingham by ,william ,morris1 when he told them that they were among the happiest people in all civilization--persons whose necessary daily work is inseparable from their greatest pleasure4 ,a mediaeval artist was usually a craftsman as well4 ,he was not content with furnishing designs alone1 and then handing them over to men whose hands were trained to their execution1 but he took his own designs and carried them out4 ,thus1 the designer adapted his drawing to the demands of his material and the craftsman was necessarily in sympathy with the design since it was his own4 ,the result was a harmony of intention and execution which is often lacking when two men of differing tastes produce one object4 ,luebke sums up the talents of a mediaeval artist as follows3 ,a painter could produce panels with coats of arms for the military men of noble birth1 and devotional panels with an image of a saint or a conventionalized scene from ,scripture for that noble's wife4 ,with the same brush and on a larger panel he could produce a larger sacred picture for the convent round the corner1 and with finer pencil and more delicate touch he could paint the vellum leaves of a missal2 and so on4 ,if an artistic earthenware platter was to be made1 the painter turned to his potter's wheel and to his kiln4 ,if a filigree coronet was wanted1 he took up his tools for metal and jewelry work4 ,redgrave lays down an excellent maxim for general guidance to designers in arts other than legitimate picture making4 ,he says3 ,the picture must be independent of the material1 the thought alone should govern it2 whereas in decoration the material must be one of the suggestors of the thought1 its use must govern the design4 ,this shows the difference between decoration and pictorial art4 ,one hears a great deal of the conventional in modern art talk4 ,just what this means1 few people who have the word in their vocabularies really know4 ,as ,professor ,moore defined it once1 it does not apply to an arbitrary theoretical system at all1 but is instinctive4 ,it means obedience to the limits under which the artist works4 ,the really greatest art craftsmen of all have been those who have recognized the limitations of the material which they employed4 ,some of the cleverest have been beguiled by the fascination of overcoming obstacles1 into trying to make iron do the things appropriate only to wood1 or to force cast bronze into the similitude of a picture1 or to discount all the credit due to a fine piece of embroidery by trying to make it appear like a painting4 ,but these are the exotics2 they are the craftsmen who have been led astray by a false impulse1 who respect difficulty more than appropriateness1 war rather than peace6 ,no elaborate and tortured piece of ,cellini's work can compare with the dignified glory of the ,pala d',oro2 ,ghiberti's gates in ,florence1 though a marvellous tour de force1 are not so satisfying as the great corona candelabrum of ,hildesheim4 ,as a rule1 we shall find that mediaeval craftsmen were better artists than those of the ,renaissance1 for with facility in the use of material1 comes always the temptation to make it imitate some other material1 thus losing its individuality by a contortion which may be curious and interesting1 but out of place4 ,we all enjoy seeing acrobats on the stage1 but it would be painful to see them curling in and out of our drawing-room chairs4 ,the true spirit which the ,arts and ,crafts is trying to inculcate was found in ,florence when the great artists turned their attention to the manipulation of objects of daily use1 ,benvenuto ,cellini being willing to make salt-cellars1 and ,sansovino to work on inkstands1 and ,donatello on picture frames1 while ,pollajuolo made candlesticks4 ,the more our leading artists realize the need of their attention in the minor arts1 the more nearly shall we attain to a genuine alliance between the arts and the crafts4 ,to sum up the effect of this harmony between art and craft in the ,middle ,ages1 the ,abbe ,texier has said3 ,in those days art and manufactures were blended and identified2 art gained by this affinity great practical facility1 and manufacture much original beauty4 ,and then the value to the artist is almost incalculable4 ,to spend one's life in getting means on which to live is a waste of all enjoyment4 ,to use one's life as one goes along--to live every day with pleasure in congenial occupation--that is the only thing worth while4 ,the life of a craftsman is a constant daily fulfilment of the final ideal of the man who spends all his time and strength in acquiring wealth so that some time 7and he may never live to see the day7 he may be able to control his time and to use it as pleases him4 ,there is stored up capital represented in the life of a man whose work is a recreation1 and expressive of his own personality4 ,in a book of this size it is not possible to treat of every art or craft which engaged the skill of the mediaeval workers4 ,but at some future time ,i hope to make a separate study of the ceramics1 glass in its various forms1 the arts of engraving and printing1 and some of the many others which have added so much to the pleasure and beauty of the civilized world4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,introduction ,i4 ,gold and ,silver ,,ii4 ,jewelry and ,precious ,stones ,,iii4 ,enamel ,,iv4 ,other ,metals ,v4 ,tapestry ,,vi4 ,embroideries ,,vii4 ,sculpture in ,stone 7,france and ,italy7 ,,viii4 ,sculpture in ,stone 7,england and ,germany7 ,,ix4 ,carving in ,wood and ,ivory ,x4 ,inlay and ,mosaic ,,xi4 ,illumination of ,books ,bibliography ,index ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,examples of ,ecclesiastical ,metal ,work ,crown of ,charlemagne ,bernward's ,cross and ,candlesticks1 ,hildesheim ,bernward's ,chalice1 ,hildesheim ,corona at ,hildesheim4 7detail7 ,reliquary at ,orvieto ,apostle spoons ,ivory ,knife ,handles1 with ,portraits of ,queen ,elizabeth and ,james ,i4 ,englis ,the ,milkmaid ,cup ,saxon ,brooch ,the ,tara ,brooch ,shrine of the ,bell of ,st4 ,patrick ,the ,treasure of ,guerrazzar ,hebrew ,ring ,crystal ,flagons1 ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice ,sardonyx ,cup1 #aath ,century1 ,venice ,german ,enamel1 #acth ,century ,enamelled ,gold ,book ,cover1 ,siena ,detail2 ,shrine of the ,three ,kings1 ,cologne ,finiguerra's ,pax1 ,florence ,italian ,enamelled ,crozier1 #adth ,century ,wrought ,iron ,hinge1 ,frankfort ,biscornette's ,doors at ,paris ,wrought ,iron from the ,bargello1 ,florence ,moorish ,keys1 ,seville ,armour4 ,showing ,mail ,developing into ,plate ,damascened ,helmet ,moorish ,sword ,enamelled ,suit of ,armour ,brunelleschi's ,competitive ,panel ,ghiberti's ,competitive ,panel ,font at ,hildesheim1 #abth ,century ,portrait ,statuette of ,peter ,vischer ,a ,copper ,curfew ,sanctuary ,knocker1 ,durham ,cathedral ,anglo-,saxon ,crucifix of ,lead ,detail1 ,bayeux ,tapestry ,flemish ,tapestry1 ,the ,prodigal ,son ,tapestry1 ,representing ,paris in the #aeth ,century ,embroidery on ,canvas1 #afth ,century1 ,south ,kensington ,museum ,detail of the ,syon ,cope ,dalmatic of ,charlemagne ,embroidery1 #aeth ,century1 ,cologne ,carved ,capital from ,ravenna ,pulpit of ,nicola ,pisano1 ,pisa ,tomb of the ,son of ,st4 ,louis1 ,st4 ,denis ,carvings around ,choir ,ambulatory1 ,chartres ,grotesque from ,oxford1 ,popularly ,known as ,the ,backbiter ,the ,beverly minstrels ,st4 ,lorenz ,church1 ,nuremberg1 ,showing ,adam ,kraft's ,pyx1 and the ,hanging ,medallion by ,veit ,stoss ,relief by ,adam ,kraft ,carved ,box--wood ,pyx1 #adth ,century ,miserere ,stall2 ,an ,artisan at ,work ,miserere ,stall1 ,ely2 ,noah and the ,dove ,miserere ,stall2 the ,fate of the ,ale-wife ,ivory ,tabernacle1 ,ravenna ,the ,nativity2 ,ivory ,carving ,pastoral ,staff2 ,ivory1 ,german1 #abth ,century ,ivory ,mirror ,case2 ,early #adth ,century ,ivory ,mirror ,case1 #acdj ,chessman from ,lewis ,marble ,inlay from ,lucca ,detail of ,pavement1 ,baptistery1 ,florence ,detail of ,pavement1 ,siena2 ,fortune1 by ,pinturicchio ,ambo at ,ravello2 ,specimen of ,cosmati ,mosaic ,mosaic from ,ravenna2 ,theodora and ,her ,suite1 #afth ,century ,mosaic in ,bas-relief1 ,naples ,a ,scribe at ,work2 #abth ,century ,manuscript ,detail from the ,durham ,book ,ivy ,pattern1 from a #adth ,century ,french ,manuscript ,mediaeval ,illumination ,caricature of a ,bishop ,illumination by ,gherart ,david of ,bruges1 #adih2 ,st4 ,barbara ,choral ,book1 ,siena ,detail from an ,italian ,choral ,book ,,arts ,,and ,,crafts ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,,chapter ,i ,,gold ,,and ,,silver ,the worker in metals is usually called a smith1 whether he be coppersmith or goldsmith4 ,the term is ,saxon in origin1 and is derived from the expression he that smiteth4 ,metal was usually wrought by force of blows1 except where the process of casting modified this4 ,beaten work was soldered from the earliest times4 ,egyptians evidently understood the use of solder1 for the ,hebrews obtained their knowledge of such things from them1 and in ,isaiah xli4 #g1 occurs the passage3 ,so the carpenter encouraged the goldsmith1 and he that smootheth with the hammer him that smote the anvil1 saying1 ',it is ready for the soldering4' ,in the ,bible there are constant references to such arts in metal work as prevail in our own times3 ,of beaten work made he the candlesticks1 ,exodus4 ,in the ornaments of the tabernacle1 the artificer ,bezaleel made two cherubims of gold beaten out of one piece made he them4 ,an account of gold being gathered in spite of vicissitudes is given by ,pliny3 ,among the ,dardoe the ants are as large as ,egyptian wolves1 and cat coloured4 ,the ,indians gather the gold dust thrown up by the ants1 when they are sleeping in their holes in the ,summer2 but if these animals wake1 they pursue the ,indians1 and1 though mounted on the swiftest camels1 overtake and tear them to pieces4 ,another legend relates to the blessed ,st4 ,patrick1 through whose intercession special grace is supposed to have been granted to all smiths4 ,st4 ,patrick was a slave in his youth4 ,an old legend tells that one time a wild boar came rooting in the field1 and brought up a lump of gold2 and ,patrick brought it to a tinker1 and the tinker said1 ,it is nothing but solder4 ,give it here to me4 ,but then he brought it to a smith1 and the smith told him it was gold2 and with that gold he bought his freedom4 ,and from that time1 continues the story1 the smiths have been lucky1 taking money every day1 and never without work1 but as for the tinkers1 every man's face is against them6 ,in the ,middle ,ages the arts and crafts were generally protected by the formation of guilds and fraternities4 ,these bodies practically exercised the right of patent over their professions1 and infringements could be more easily dealt with1 and frauds more easily exposed1 by means of concerted effort on the part of the craftsmen4 ,the goldsmiths and silversmiths were thus protected in ,england and ,france1 and in most of the leading ,european art centres4 ,the test of pure gold was made by six of the more discreet goldsmiths1 who went about and superintended the amount of alloy to be employed2 gold of the standard of the touch of ,paris was the ,french term for metal of the required purity4 ,any goldsmith using imitation stones or otherwise falsifying in his profession was punished by imprisonment and by ransom at the ,king's pleasure4 ,there were some complaints that fraudulent workers cover tin with silver so subtilely444 that the same cannot be discovered or separated1 and so sell tin for fine silver1 to the great damage and deceipt of us4 ,this state of things finally led to the adoption of the ,hall ,mark1 which is still to be seen on every piece of silver1 signifying that it has been pronounced pure by the appointed authorities4 ,the goldsmiths of ,france absorbed several other auxiliary arts1 and were powerful and influential4 ,in state processions the goldsmiths had the first place of importance1 and bore the royal canopy when the ,king himself took part in the ceremony1 carrying the shrine of ,st4 ,genevieve also1 when it was taken forth in great pageants4 ,in the quaint wording of the period1 goldsmiths were forbidden to gild or silver-plate any article made of copper or latten1 unless they left some part of the original exposed1 at the foot or some other part1444 to the intent that a man may see whereof the thing is made for to eschew the deceipt aforesaid4 ,this law was enacted in #adjd4 ,many of the great art schools of the ,middle ,ages were established in connection with the numerous monasteries scattered through all the ,european countries and in ,england4 ,the ,rule of ,st4 ,benedict rings true concerning the proper consecration of an artist3 ,if there be artists in the monastery1 let them exercise their crafts with all humility and reverence1 provided the abbot shall have ordered them4 ,but if any of them be proud of the skill he hath in his craft1 because he thereby seemeth to gain something for the monastery1 let him be removed from it and not exercise it again1 unless1 after humbling himself1 the abbot shall permit him4 ,craft without graft was the keynote of mediaeval art4 ,king ,alfred had a monastic art school at ,athelney1 in which he had collected monks of all kinds from every quarter4 ,this accounts for the ,greek type of work turned out at this time1 and very likely for ,italian influences in early ,british art4 ,the king was active in craft work himself1 for ,asser tells us that he continued1 during his frequent wars1 to teach his workers in gold and artificers of all kinds4 ,the quaint old encyclopaedia of ,bartholomew ,anglicus1 called1 ,the ,properties of ,things1 defines gold and silver in an original way1 according to the beliefs of this writer's day4 ,he says of gold1 that in the composition there is more sadness of brimstone than of air and moisture of quicksilver1 and therefore gold is more sad and heavy than silver4 ,of silver he remarks1 ,though silver be white yet it maketh black lines and strakes in the body that is scored therewith4 ,marco ,polo says that in the province of ,carazan the rivers yield great quantities of washed gold1 and also that which is solid1 and on the mountains they find gold in the vein1 and they give one pound of gold for six of silver4 ,workers in gold or silver usually employ one of two methods--casting or beating1 combined with delicacy of finish1 chasing1 and polishing4 ,the technical processes are interestingly described by the writers of the old treatises on divers arts4 ,in the earliest of these1 by the monk ,theophilus1 in the eleventh century1 we have most graphic accounts of processes very similar to those now in use4 ,the naive monastic instructor1 in his preface1 exhorts his followers to honesty and zeal in their good works4 ,skilful in the arts let no one glorify himself1 say ,theophilus1 as if received from himself1 and not from elsewhere2 but let him be thankful humbly in the ,lord1 from whom all things are received4 ,he then advises the craftsman earnestly to study the book which follows1 telling him of the riches of instruction therein to be found2 you will there find out whatever444 ,tuscany knows of mosaic work1 or in variety of enamels1 whatever ,arabia shows forth in work of fusion1 ductility or chasing1 whatever ,italy ornaments with gold444 whatever ,france loves in a costly variety of windows2 whatever industrious ,germany approves in work of gold1 silver or copper1 and iron1 of woods and of stones4 ,no wonder the authorities are lost in conjecture as to the native place of the versatile ,theophilus6 ,after promising all these delightful things1 the good old monk continues1 ,act therefore1 well intentioned man1444 hasten to complete with all the study of thy mind1 those things which are still wanting among the utensils of the ,house of the ,lord1 and he enumerates the various pieces of church plate in use in the ,middle ,ages4 ,directions are given by ,theophilus for the workroom1 the benches at which the smiths are to sit1 and also the most minute technical recipes for instruments for sculping1 for scraping1 filing1 and so forth1 until the workshop should be fitted with all necessary tools4 ,in those days1 artists began at the very beginning4 ,there were no ,windsor and ,newtons1 no nice makers of dividers and ,t-squares1 to whom one could apply2 all implements must be constructed by the man who contemplated using them4 ,we will see how ,theophilus proceeds1 after he has his tools in readiness1 to construct a chalice4 ,first1 he puts the silver in a crucible1 and when it has become fluid1 he turns it into a mould in which there is wax 7this is evidently the cire perdu process familiar to casters of every age71 and then he says1 ,if by some negligence it should happen that the melted silver be not whole1 cast it again until it is whole4 ,this process of casting would apply equally to all metals4 ,theophilus instructs his craftsman how to make the handles of the chalice as follows3 ,take wax1 form handles with it1 and grave upon them dragons or animals or birds1 or leaves--in whatever manner you may wish4 ,but on the top of each handle place a little wax1 round like a slender candle1 half a finger in length1444 this wax is called the funnel4444 ,then take some clay and cover carefully the handle1 so that the hollows of the sculpture may be filled up4444 ,afterwards place these moulds near the coals1 that when they have become warm you may pour out the wax4 ,which being turned out1 melt the silver1444 and cast into the same place whence you poured out the wax4 ,and when they have become cold remove the clay4 ,the solid silver handles are found inside1 one hardly need say4 ,in casting in the cire perdu process1 ,benvenuto ,cellini warns you to beware lest you break your crucible--just as you've got your silver nicely molten1 he says1 and are pouring it into the mould1 crack goes your crucible1 and all your work and time and pains are lost6 ,he advises wrapping it in stout cloths4 ,the process of repousse work is also much the same to-day as it has always been4 ,the metal is mounted on cement and the design partly beaten in from the outside2 then the cement is melted out1 and the design treated in more detail from the inside4 ,theophilus tells us how to prepare a silver vessel to be beaten with a design4 ,after giving a recipe for a sort of pitch1 he says1 ,melt this composition and fill the vial to the top4 ,and when it has become cold1 portray444 whatever you wish1 and taking a slender ductile instrument1 and a small hammer1 design that which you have portrayed around it by striking lightly4 ,this process is practically1 on a larger scale1 what ,cellini describes as that of minuterie4 ,cellini praises ,caradosso beyond all others in this work1 saying it was just in this very getting of the gold so equal all over1 that ,i never knew a man to beat ,caradosso6 ,he tells how important this equality of surface is1 for if1 in the working1 the gold became thicker in one place than in another1 it was impossible to attain a perfect finish4 ,caradosso made first a wax model of the object which he was to make2 this he cast in copper1 and on that he laid his thin gold1 beating and modelling it to the form1 until the small hollow bas-relief was complete4 ,the work was done with wooden and steel tools of small proportions1 sometimes pressed from the back and sometimes from the front2 ever so much care is necessary1 writes ,cellini1 444to prevent the gold from splitting4 ,after the model was brought to such a point of relief as was suitable for the design1 great care had to be exercised in extending the gold further1 to fit behind heads and arms in special relief4 ,in those days the whole film of gold was then put in the furnace1 and fired until the gold began to liquefy1 at which exact moment it was necessary to remove it4 ,cellini himself made a medal for ,girolamo ,maretta1 representing ,hercules and the ,lion2 the figures were in such high relief that they only touched the ground at a few points4 ,cellini reports with pride that ,michelangelo said to him3 ,if this work were made in great1 whether in marble or in bronze1 and fashioned with as exquisite a design as this1 it would astonish the world2 and even in its present size it seems to me so beautiful that ,i do not think even a goldsmith of the ancient world fashioned aught to come up to it6 ,cellini says that these words stiffened him up1 and gave him much increased ambition4 ,he describes also an ,atlas which he constructed of wrought gold1 to be placed upon a lapis lazuli background3 this he made in extreme relief1 using tiny tools1 working right into the arms and legs1 and making all alike of equal thickness4 ,a cope-button for ,pope ,clement was also quite a tour de force2 as he said1 these pieces of work are often harder the smaller they are4 ,the design showed the ,almighty seated on a great diamond2 around him there were a number of jolly little angels1 some in complete relief4 ,he describes how he began with a flat sheet of gold1 and worked constantly and conscientiously1 gradually bossing it up1 until1 with one tool and then another1 he finally mastered the material1 till one fine day ,god the ,father stood forth in the round1 most comely to behold4 ,so skilful was ,cellini in this art that he bossed up in high relief with his punches some fifteen little angels1 without even having to solder the tiniest rent6 ,the fastening of the clasp was decorated with little snails and masks and other pleasing trifles1 which suggest to us that ,benvenuto was a true son of the ,renaissance1 and that his design did not equal his ability as a craftsman4 ,cellini's method of forming a silver vase was on this wise4 ,the original plate of silver had to be red hot1 not too red1 for then it would crack1--but sufficient to burn certain little grains thrown on to it4 ,it was then adjusted to the stake1 and struck with the hammer1 towards the centre1 until by degrees it began to take convex form4 ,then1 keeping the central point always in view by means of compasses1 from that point he struck a series of concentric circles about half a finger apart from each other1 and with a hammer1 beginning at the centre1 struck so that the movement of the hammer shall be in the form of a spiral1 and follow the concentric circles4 ,it was important to keep the form very even all round4 ,then the vase had to be hammered from within1 till it was equally bellied all round1 and after that1 the neck was formed by the same method4 ,then1 to ornament the vase1 it was filled with pitch1 and the design traced on the outside4 ,when it was necessary to beat up the ornament from within1 the vase was cleared out1 and inverted upon the point of a long snarling-iron1 fastened in an anvil stock1 and beaten so that the point should indent from within4 ,the vase would often have to be filled with pitch and emptied in this manner several times in the course of its construction4 ,benvenuto ,cellini was one of the greatest art personalities of all time4 ,the quaintness of the aesthetic temperament is nowhere found better epitomized than in his life and writings4 ,but as a producer of artistic things1 he is a great disappointment4 ,too versatile to be a supreme specialist1 he is far more interesting as a man and craftsman than as a designer4 ,technical skill he had in unique abundance4 ,and another faculty1 for which he does not always receive due credit1 is his gift for imparting his knowledge4 ,his ,treatises1 containing valuable information as to methods of work1 are less familiar to most readers than his fascinating biography4 ,these ,treatises1 or directions to craftsmen1 are full of the spice and charm which characterize his other work4 ,one cannot proceed from a consideration of the bolder metal work to a study of the dainty art of the goldsmith without a glance at ,benvenuto ,cellini4 ,the introduction to the ,treatises has a naive opening3 ,what first prompted me to write was the knowledge of how fond people are of hearing anything new4 ,this1 and other reasons1 induced him to write about those loveliest secrets and wondrous methods of the great art of goldsmithing4 ,francis ,i4 indeed thought highly of ,cellini4 ,upon viewing one of his works1 his ,majesty raised his hands1 and exclaimed to the ,mareschal de ,france1 ,i command you to give the first good fat abbey that falls vacant to our ,benvenuto1 for ,i do not want my kingdom to be deprived of his like4 ,benvenuto describes the process of making filigree work1 the principle of which is1 fine wire coiled flat so as to form designs with an interesting and varied surface4 ,filigree is quite common still1 and any one who has walked down the steep street of the ,goldsmiths in ,genoa is familiar with most of its modern forms4 ,cellini says3 ,though many have practised the art without making drawings first1 because the material in which they worked was so easily handled and so pliable1 yet those who made their drawings first did the best work4 ,now give ear to the way the art is pursued4 ,he then directs that the craftsman shall have ready three sizes of wire1 and some little gold granules1 which are made by cutting the short lengths of wire1 and then subjecting them to fervent heat until they become as little round beads4 ,he then explains how the artificer must twist and mould the delicate wires1 and tastily apply the little granules1 so as to make a graceful design1 usually of some floriate form4 ,when the wire flowers and leaves were formed satisfactorily1 a wash of gum tragacanth should be applied1 to hold them in place until the final soldering4 ,the solder was in powdered form1 and it was to be dusted on just as much as may suffice1444 and not more1444 this amount of solder could only be determined by the experience of the artist4 ,then came the firing of the finished work in the little furnace2 ,benvenuto is here quite at a loss how to explain himself3 ,too much heat would move the wires you have woven out of place1 he says1 really it is quite impossible to tell it properly in writing2 ,i could explain it all right by word of mouth1 or better still1 show you how it is done1--still1 come along1--we'll try to go on as we started6 ,sometimes embossing was done by thin sheets of metal being pressed on to a wooden carving prepared for the purpose1 so that the result would be a raised silver pattern1 which1 when filled up with pitch or lead1 would pass for a sample of repousse work4 ,i need hardly say that a still simpler mechanical form of pressing obtains on cheap silver to-day4 ,so much for the mechanical processes of treating these metals4 ,we will now examine some of the great historic examples1 and glance at the lives of prominent workers in gold and silver in the past4 ,one of the most brilliant times for the production of works of art in gold and silver1 was when ,constantine1 upon becoming ,christian1 moved the seat of government to ,byzantium4 ,byzantine ornament lends itself especially to such work4 ,the distinguishing mark between the earlier ,greek jewellers and the ,byzantine was1 that the former considered chiefly line1 form1 and delicacy of workmanship1 while the latter were led to expression through colour and texture1 and not fineness of finish4 ,the ,byzantine emperors loved gold in a lavish way1 and on a superb scale4 ,they were not content with chaste rings and necklets1 or even with golden crowns4 ,the royal thrones were of gold2 their armour was decorated with the precious metal1 and their chariots enriched in the same way4 ,even the houses of the rich people were more endowed with precious furnishings than most of the churches of other nations1 and every family possessed a massive silver table1 and solid vases and plate4 ,the ,emperor ,theophilus1 who lived in the ninth century1 was a great lover of the arts4 ,his palace was built after the ,arabian style1 and he had skilful mechanical experts to construct a golden tree over his throne1 on the branches of which were numerous birds1 and two golden lions at the foot4 ,these birds were so arranged by clockwork1 that they could be made to sing1 and the lions also joined a roar to the chorus6 ,a great designer of the ,middle ,ages was ,alcuin1 the teacher of ,charlemagne1 who lived from #gce to #hjd2 he superintended the building of many fine specimens of church plate4 ,the school of ,alcuin1 however1 was more famous for illumination1 and we shall speak of his work at more length when we come to deal with that subject4 ,another distinguished patron of art was the ,abbot ,odo of ,cluny1 who had originally been destined for a soldier2 but he was visited with what ,maitland describes as an inveterate headache1 which1 from his seventeenth to his nineteenth year1 defied all medical skill1 so he and his parents1 convinced that this was a manifestation of the disapproval of ,heaven1 decided to devote his life to religious pursuits4 ,he became ,abbot of ,cluny in the year #ibg4 ,illustration3 ,,crown ,,of ,,charlemagne ,examples of ninth century goldsmithing are rare4 ,judging from the few specimens existing1 the crown of ,charlemagne1 and the beautiful binding of the ,hours of ,charles the ,bold1 one would be inclined to think that an almost barbaric wealth of closely set jewels was the entire standard of the art of the time1 and that grace of form or contour was quite secondary4 ,the tomb was rifled about the twelfth century1 and many of the valuable things with which he was surrounded were taken away4 ,the throne was denuded of its gold1 and may be seen to-day in the ,cathedral at ,aachen1 a simple marble chair plain and dignified1 with the copper joints showing its construction4 ,many of the relics of ,charlemagne are in the treasury at ,aachen1 among other interesting items1 the bones of the right arm of the ,emperor in a golden shrine in the form of a hand and arm4 ,there is a thrill in contemplating the remains of the right arm of ,charlemagne after all the centuries1 when one remembers the swords and sceptres which have been wielded by that mighty member4 ,the reliquary containing the right arm of ,charlemagne is ,german work 7of course later than the opening of the tomb71 probably between #aaee and #aaij4 ,frederic ,barbarossa and his ancestors are represented on its ornamentation4 ,there is little goldsmith's work of the ,norman period in ,great ,britain1 for that was a time of the building of large structures1 and probably minor arts and personal adornment took a secondary place4 ,illustration3 ,,bernward',s ,,cross ,,and ,,candlesticks1 ,,hildesheim ,perhaps the most satisfactory display of mediaeval arts and crafts which may be seen in one city is at ,hildesheim3 the special richness of remains of the tenth century is owing to the life and example of an early bishop--,bernward--who ruled the ,see from #iic to #ajbb4 ,before he was made bishop1 ,bernward was tutor to the young ,emperor ,otto ,,iii4 ,he was a student of art all his life1 and a practical craftsman1 working largely in metals1 and training up a ,guild of followers in the ,cathedral ,school4 ,he was extremely versatile3 one of the great geniuses of history4 ,in times of war he was ,commander in ,chief of ,hildesheim2 he was a traveller1 having made pilgrimages to ,rome and ,paris1 and the grave of ,st4 ,martin at ,tours4 ,this wide culture was unusual in those days2 it is quite evident from his active life of accomplishment in creative art1 that good ,bishop ,bernward was not to be numbered among those who expected the end of the world to occur in the year #ajjj ,a4 ,d4 ,of his works to be seen in ,hildesheim1 there are splendid examples4 ,the ,goldsmith's ,school under his direction was famous4 ,he was created bishop in #iib2 ,taugmar pays him a tribute1 saying3 ,he was an excellent penman1 a good painter1 and as a household manager was unequalled4 ,moreover1 he excelled in the mechanical no less than in the liberal arts4 ,in fact1 a visit to ,hildesheim to-day proves that to this man who lived ten centuries ago is due the fact that ,hildesheim is the most artistic city in ,germany from the antiquarian's point of view4 ,this bishop influenced every branch of art1 and with so vital an influence1 that his ,see city is still full of his works and personality4 ,he was not only a practical worker in the arts and crafts1 but he was also a collector1 forming quite a museum for the further instruction of the students who came in touch with him4 ,he decorated the walls of his cathedral2 the great candelabrum1 or corona1 which circles above the central aisle of the cathedral1 was his own design1 and the work of his followers2 and the paschal column in the cathedral was from his workshop1 wrought as delightfully as would be possible in any age1 and yet executed nearly a thousand years ago4 ,no bishop ever deserved sainthood more1 or made a more practical contribution to the ,church4 ,pope ,celestine ,,iii4 canonized him in #aaid4 ,bernward came of a noble family4 ,his figure may be seen--as near an approach to a portrait of this great worker as we have--among the bas-reliefs on the beautiful choir-screen in ,st4 ,michael's ,church in ,hildesheim4 ,illustration3 ,,bernward',s ,,chalice1 ,,hildesheim ,the cross executed by ,bernward's own hands in #iid is a superb work1 with filigree covering the whole1 and set with gems en cabochon1 with pearls1 and antique precious stones1 carved with ,greek divinities in intaglio4 ,the candlesticks of ,st4 ,bernward1 too1 are most interesting4 ,they are made of a metal composed of gold1 silver1 and iron1 and are wrought magnificently1 into a mass of animal and floriate forms1 their outline being well retained1 and the grace of the shaft and proportions being striking4 ,they are partly the work of the mallet and partly of the chisel4 ,they had been buried with ,bernward1 and were found in his sarcophagus in #aaid4 ,didron has likened them1 in their use of animal form1 to the art of the ,mexicans2 but to me they seem more like delightful ,german ,romanesque workmanship1 leaning more towards that of certain spirited ,lombard grotesques1 or even that of ,arles and certain parts of ,france1 than to the ,aztec to which ,didron has reference4 ,the little climbing figures1 while they certainly have very large hands and feet1 yet are endowed with a certain sprightly action2 they all give the impression of really making an effort1--they are trying to climb1 instead of simply occupying places in the foliage4 ,there is a good deal of strength and energy displayed in all of them1 and1 while the work is rude and rough1 it is virile4 ,it is not unlike the workmanship on the ,gloucester candlestick in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 which was made in the twelfth century4 ,bernward's chalice is set with antique stones1 some of them carved4 ,on the foot may be seen one representing the three ,graces1 in their customary state of nudity without malice4 ,bernward was also an architect4 ,he built the delightful church of ,st4 ,michael1 and its cloister4 ,he also superintended the building of an important wall by the river bank in the lower town4 ,when there was an uneasy time of controversy at ,gandesheim1 ,bernward hastened to headquarters in ,rome1 to arrange to bring about better feeling4 ,in #ajja he arrived1 early in ,january1 and the ,pope went out to meet him1 kissed him1 and invited him to stay as a guest at his palace4 ,after accomplishing his diplomatic mission1 and laden with all sorts of sacred relics1 ,bernward returned home1 not too directly to prevent his seeing something of the intervening country4 ,a book which ,bishop ,bernward had made and illuminated in #ajaa has the inscription3 ,i1 ,bernward1 had this codex written out1 at my own cost1 and gave it to the beloved ,saint of ,god1 ,michael4 ,anathema to him who alienates it4 ,this inscription has the more interest for being the actual autograph of ,bernward4 ,he was succeeded by ,hezilo1 and many other pupils4 ,these men made the beautiful corona of the cathedral1 of which ,i give an illustration in detail4 ,great coronas or circular chandeliers hung in the naves of many cathedrals in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the finest specimen is this at ,hildesheim1 the magnificent ring of which is twenty feet across1 as it hangs suspended by a system of rods and balls in the form of chains4 ,it has twelve large towers and twelve small ones set around it1 supposed to suggest the ,heavenly ,jerusalem with its many mansions4 ,there are sockets for seventy-two candles4 ,the detail of its adornment is very splendid1 and repays close study4 ,every little turret is different in architectonic form1 and statues of saints are to be seen standing within these4 ,the pierced silver work on this chandelier is as beautiful as any mediaeval example in existence4 ,illustration3 ,,corona ,,at ,,hildesheim 7,,detail7 ,the great leader of mediaeval arts in ,france was the ,abbot ,suger of ,st4 ,denis4 ,suger was born in #ajha1 he and his brother1 ,alvise1 who was ,bishop of ,arras1 both being destined for the ,episcopate4 ,as a youth he passed ten years at ,st4 ,denis as a scholar4 ,here he became intimate with ,prince ,louis1 and this friendship developed in after life4 ,on returning from a voyage to ,italy1 in #aabb1 he learned at the same time of the death of his spiritual father1 ,abbot ,adam1 and of his own election to be his successor4 ,he thus stood at the head of the convent of ,st4 ,denis in #aabc4 ,this was due to his noble character1 his genius for diplomacy and his artistic talent4 ,he was minister to ,louis ,,vi41 and afterwards to ,louis ,,vii41 and during the second ,crusade1 he was made ,regent for the kingdom4 ,suger was known1 after this1 as the ,father of his ,country1 for he was a courageous counsellor1 firm and convincing in argument1 so that the king had really been guided by his advice4 ,while he was making laws and instigating crusades1 he was also directing craft shops and propagating the arts in connection with the life of the ,church4 ,st4 ,bernard denounced him1 as encouraging too luxurious a ritual2 ,suger made a characteristic reply3 ,if the ancient law444 ordained that vessels and cups of gold should be used for libations1 and to receive the blood of rams1444 how much rather should we devote gold1 precious stones1 and the rarest of materials1 to those vessels which are destined to contain the blood of ,our ,lord4 ,suger ordered and himself made most beautiful appointments for the sanctuary1 and when any vessel already owned by the ,abbey was of costly material1 and yet unsuitable in style1 he had it remodelled4 ,an interesting instance of this is a certain antique vase of red porphyry4 ,there was nothing ecclesiastical about this vase2 it was a plain straight ,greek jar1 with two handles at the sides4 ,suger treated it as the body of an eagle1 making the head and neck to surmount it1 and the claw feet for it to stand on1 together with its soaring wings1 of solid gold1 and it thus became transformed into a magnificent reliquary in the form of the king of birds4 ,the inscription on this ,ampula of ,suger is3 ,as it is our duty to present unto ,god oblations of gems and gold1 ,i1 ,suger1 offer this vase unto the ,lord4 ,suger stood always for the ideal in art and character4 ,he had the courage of his convictions in spite of the fulminations of ,st4 ,bernard4 ,instead of using the enormous sums of money at his disposal for importing ,byzantine workmen1 he preferred to use his funds and his own influence in developing a native ,french school of artificers4 ,it is interesting to discover that ,suger1 among his many adaptations and restorations at ,st4 ,denis1 incorporated some of the works of ,st4 ,eloi into his own compositions4 ,for instance1 he took an ivory pulpit1 and remodelled it with the addition of copper animals4 ,abbots of ,st4 ,denis made beautiful offerings to the church4 ,one of them1 ,abbot ,matthiew de ,vendome1 presented a wonderful reliquary1 consisting of a golden head and bust1 while another gave a reliquary to contain the jaw of ,st4 ,louis4 ,suger presented many fine products of his own art and that of his pupils1 among others a great cross six feet in height4 ,a story is told of him1 that1 while engaged in making a particularly splendid crucifix for ,st4 ,denis1 he ran short of precious stones1 nor could he in any way obtain what he required1 until some monks came to him and offered to sell him a superb lot of stones which had formerly embellished the dinner service of ,henry ,i4 of ,england1 whose nephew had given them to the convent in exchange for indulgences and masses6 ,in these early and half-barbaric days of magnificence1 form and delicacy of execution were not understood4 ,brilliancy and lavish display of sparkling jewels1 set as thickly as possible without reference to a general scheme of composition1 was the standard of beauty2 and it must be admitted that1 with such stones available1 no more effective school of work has ever existed than that of which such works ,charlemagne's crown1 the ,iron ,crown of ,monza1 and the crown of ,king ,suinthila1 are typical examples4 ,abbot ,suger lamented when he lacked a sufficient supply of stones2 but he did not complain when there occurred a deficiency in workmen4 ,it was comparatively easy to train artists who could make settings and bind stones together with soldered straps6 ,in #aceb a royal silversmith of ,france1 ,etienne ,la ,fontaine1 made a fauteuil of silver and crystal decorated with precious stones1 for the king4 ,the golden altar of ,basle is almost as interesting as the great ,pala d',oro in ,venice1 of which mention is made elsewhere4 ,it was ordered by ,emperor ,henry the ,pious1 before #ajbd1 and presented to the ,prime ,minister at ,basle4 ,the central figure of the ,saviour has at its feet two tiny figures1 quite out of scale2 these are intended for the donors1 ,emperor ,henry and his queen1 ,cunegunda4 ,silversmith's work in ,spain was largely in ,byzantine style1 while some specimens of ,gothic and ,roman are also to be seen there4 ,moorish influence is noticeable1 as in all ,spanish design1 and filigree work of ,oriental origin is frequently to be met with4 ,some specimens of champleve enamel are also to be seen1 though this art was generally confined to ,limoges during the ,middle ,ages4 ,a ,guild was formed in ,toledo which was in flourishing condition in #adbc4 ,an interesting document has been found in ,spain showing that craftsmen were supplied with the necessary materials when engaged to make valuable figures for the decoration of altars4 ,it is dated ,may #ab1 #acfg1 ,i1 ,sancho ,martinez ,orebsc1 silversmith1 native of ,seville1 inform you1 the ,dean and ,chapter of the church of ,seville1 that it was agreed that ,i make an image of ,st4 ,mary with its tabernacle1 that it should be finished at a given time1 and that you were to give me the silver and stones required to make it4 ,in ,spain1 the most splendid triumphs of the goldsmith's skill were the custodias1 or large tabernacles1 in which the ,host was carried in procession4 ,the finest was one made for ,toledo by ,enrique d',arphe1 in competition with other craftsmen4 ,his design being chosen1 he began his work in #aeag1 and in #aebd the custodia was finished4 ,it was in the form of a ,gothic temple1 six sided1 with a jewelled cross on the top1 and was eight feet high4 ,some of the gold employed was the first ever brought from ,america4 ,the whole structure weighed three hundred and eighty-eight pounds4 ,arphe made a similar custodia for ,cordova and another for ,leon4 ,his grandson1 ,juan d',arphe1 wrote a verse about the ,toledo custodia1 in which these lines occur3 ,custodia is a temple of rich plate ,wrought for the glory of ,our ,saviour true444 ,that holiest ark of old to imitate1 ,fashioned by ,bezaleel the cunning ,jew1 ,chosen of ,god to work his sovereign will1 ,and greatly gifted with celestial skill4 ,juan d',arphe himself made a custodia for ,seville1 the decorations and figures on which were directed by the learned ,francesco ,pacheco1 the father-in-law of ,velasquez4 ,when this custodia was completed1 d',arphe wrote a description of it1 alluding boldly to this work as the largest and finest work in silver known of its kind1 and this could really be said without conceit1 for it is a fact4 ,a ,gothic form of goldsmith's work obtained in ,spain in the #acth1 #adth and #aeth centuries2 it was based upon architectural models and was known as plateresca4 ,the shrines for holding relics became in these centuries positive buildings on a small scale in precious material4 ,in ,england also were many of these shrines1 but few of them now remain4 ,the first ,mayor of ,london1 from #aahi to #abac1 was a goldsmith1 ,henry ,fitz ,alwyn1 the ,founder of the ,royal ,exchange2 ,sir ,thomas ,gresham1 in #aebj1 was also a goldsmith and a banker4 ,there is an entertaining piece of cynical satire on the ,goldsmiths in ,stubbes' ,anatomy of ,abuses1 written in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth1 showing that the tricks of the trade had come to full development by that time1 and that the public was being aroused on the subject4 ,stubbes explains how the goldsmith's shops are decked with chains and rings1 wonderful richly4 ,then he goes on to say3 ,they will make you any monster or article whatsoever of gold1 silver1 or what you will4 ,is there no deceit in these goodlye shows8 ,yes1 too many2 if you will buy a chain of gold1 a ring1 or any kind of plate1 besides that you shall pay almost half more than it is worth444 you shall also perhaps have that gold which is naught1 or else at least mixed with drossie rubbage4444 ,but this happeneth very seldom by reason of good orders1 and constitutions made for the punishment of them that offend in this kind of deceit1 and therefore they seldom offend therein1 though now and then they chance to stumble in the dark6 ,fynes ,moryson1 a traveller who died in #afad1 says that the goldsmiths' shops in ,london444 are exceedingly richly furnished continually with gold1 with silver plate1 and with jewels4444 ,i never see any such daily show1 anything so sumptuous1 in any place in the world1 as in ,london4 ,he admits that in ,florence and ,paris the similar shops are very rich upon special occasions2 but it is the steady state of the market in ,london to which he has reference4 ,the ,company of ,goldsmiths in ,dublin held quite a prominent social position in the community4 ,in #afdi1 a great festival and pageant took place1 in which the goldsmiths and visiting craftsmen from other corporations took part4 ,henry ,,iii4 set himself to enrich and beautify the shrine of his patron saint1 ,edward the ,confessor1 and with this end in view he made various extravagant demands3 for instance1 at one time he ordered all the gold in ,london to be detailed to this object1 and at another1 he had gold rings and brooches purchased to the value of six hundred marks4 ,the shrine was of gold1 and1 according to ,matthew ,paris1 enriched with jewels4 ,it was commenced in #abda4 ,in #abdd the queen presented an image of the ,virgin with a ruby and an emerald4 ,jewels were purchased from time to time1--a great cameo in #abea1 and in #abee many gems of great value4 ,the son of ado the ,goldsmith1 ,edward1 was the king's beloved clerk1 and was made keeper of the shrine4 ,most of the little statuettes were described as having stones set somewhere about them3 an image of ,st4 ,peter holding a church in one hand and the keys in the other1 trampling on ,nero1 who had a big sapphire on his breast2 and the ,blessed ,virgin with her ,son1 set with rubies1 sapphires1 emeralds1 and garnets1 are among those cited4 ,the whole shrine was described as a basilica adorned with purest gold and precious stones4 ,odo the ,goldsmith was in charge of the works for a good while4 ,he was succeeded by his son ,edward4 ,payments were made sometimes in a regular wage1 and sometimes for task work4 ,the workmen were usually known by one name--,master ,alexander the ,king's ,carpenter1 ,master ,henry the ,king's ,master ,mason1 and so forth4 ,in an early life of ,edward the ,confessor1 there is an illumination showing the masons and carpenters kneeling to receive instruction from their sovereign4 ,the golden shrine of the ,confessor was probably made in the ,palace itself2 this was doubtless considered the safest place for so valuable a work to remain in process of construction2 for there is an allusion to its being brought on the ,king's own shoulders 7with the assistance of others71 from the palace to the ,abbey1 in #abfi1 for its consecration4 ,in #abdc ,henry ,,iii4 ordered four silver basins1 fitted with cakes of wax with wicks in them1 to be placed as lights before the shrine of ,thomas a ,becket in ,canterbury4 ,the great gold shrine of ,becket appears to have been chiefly the work of a goldsmith1 ,master ,adam4 ,he also designed the ,coronation ,chair of ,england1 which is now in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,the chief goldsmith of ,england employed by ,edward ,i4 was one ,adam of ,shoreditch4 ,he was versatile1 for he was also a binder of books4 ,a certain bill shows an item of his workmanship1 a group in silver of a child riding upon a horse1 the child being a likeness of ,lord ,edward1 the ,king's son4 ,a veritable ,arts and ,crafts establishment had been in existence in ,woolstrope1 ,lincolnshire1 before ,cromwell's time2 for ,georde ,gifford wrote to ,cromwell regarding the suppression of this monastery3 ,there is not one religious person there but what doth use either embrothering1 wryting books with a faire hand1 making garments1 or carving4 ,in all countries the chalices and patens were usually1 designed to correspond with each other4 ,the six lobed dish was a very usual form2 it had a depressed centre1 with six indented scallops1 and the edge flat like a dinner plate4 ,in an old church inventory1 mention is made of a chalice with his paten4 ,sometimes there was lettering around the flat edge of the paten4 ,chalices were-composed of three parts3 the cup1 the ball or knop1 and the stem1 with the foot4 ,the original purpose of having this foot hexagonal in shape is said to have been to prevent the chalice from rolling when it was laid on its side to drain4 ,under many modifications this general plan of the cup has obtained4 ,the bowl is usually entirely plain1 to facilitate keeping it clean2 most of the decoration was lavished on the knop1 a rich and uneven surface being both beautiful and functional in this place4 ,such ,norman and ,romanesque chalices as remain are chiefly in museums now4 ,they were usually coffin chalices--that is1 they had been buried in the coffin of some ecclesiastic4 ,of ,gothic chalices1 or those of the ,tudor period1 fewer remain1 for after the ,reformation1 a general order went out to the churches1 for all chalices to be altered to decent ,communion cups4 ,the shape was greatly modified in this change4 ,in the thirteenth century the taste ran rather to a chaster form of decoration2 the large cabochons of the ,romanesque1 combined with a liquid gold surface1 gave place to refined ornaments in niello and delicate enamels4 ,the bowls of the earlier chalices were rather flat and broad4 ,when it became usual for the laity to partake only of one element when communicating1 the chalice1 which was reserved for the clergy alone1 became modified to meet this condition1 and the bowl was much smaller4 ,after the ,reformation1 however1 the development was quite in the other direction1 the bowl being extremely large and deep4 ,in that period they were known as communion cups4 ,in ,sandwich there is a cup which was made over out of a ciborium2 as it quite plainly shows its origin1 it is naively inscribed3 ,this is a ,communion ,coop4 ,when this change in the form of the chalice took place1 it was provided1 by admonition of the ,archbishop1 in all cases with a cover of silver444 which shall serve also for the ministration of the ,communion bread4 ,to make this double use of cover and dish satisfactory1 a foot like a stand was added to the paten4 ,the communion cup of the ,reformation differed from the chalice1 too1 in being taller and straighter1 with a deep bowl1 almost in the proportions of a flaring tumbler1 and a stem with a few close decorations instead of a knop4 ,the small paten served as a cover to the cup1 as has been mentioned4 ,it is not always easy to see old church plate where it originally belonged4 ,on the ,scottish border1 for instance1 there were constant raids1 when the ,scots would descend upon the ,english parish churches1 and bear off the communion plate1 and again the ,english would cross the border and return the compliment4 ,in old churches1 such as the eleventh century structure at ,torpenhow1 in ,cumberland1 the deep sockets still to be seen in the stone door jambs were intended to support great beams with which the church had constantly to be fortified against ,scottish invasion4 ,another reason for the disappearance of church plate1 was the occasional sale of the silver in order to continue necessary repairs on the fabric4 ,in a church in ,norfolk1 there is a record of sale of communion silver and for altering of our church and fynnishing of the same according to our mindes and the parishioners4 ,it goes on to state that the proceeds were appropriated for putting new glass in the place of certain windows wherein were conteined the lives of certain prophane histories1 and for paving the king's highway in the church precincts4 ,at the time of the ,reformation many valuable examples of ,church plate were cast aside by order of the ,commissioners1 by which all monuments of feyned miracles1 pilgrimages1 idolatry1 and superstition1 were to be destroyed4 ,at this time a calf or a sheep might have been seen browsing in the meadows with a sacring-bell fastened at its neck1 and the pigs refreshed themselves with drinking from holy-water fonts6 ,croziers of ornate design especially roused the ire of the ,puritans4 ,in ,mr4 ,alfred ,maskell's incomparable book on ,ivories1 he translates a satirical verse by ,guy de ,coquille1 concerning these objectionable pastoral staves 7which were often made of finely sculptured ivory74 ,the staff of a bishop of days that are old ,was of wood1 and the bishop himself was of gold4 ,but a bishop of wood prefers gorgeous array1 ,so his staff is of gold in the new fashioned way6 ,during the ,renaissance especially1 goldsmith's work was carried to great technical perfection1 and yet the natural properties of the metal were frequently lost sight of1 and the craftsmen tried to produce effects such as would be more suitable in stone or wood1--little architectonic features were introduced1 and gold was frequently made to do the work of other materials4 ,thus it lost much of its inherent effectiveness4 ,too much attention was given to ingenuity1 and not enough to fitness and beauty4 ,illustration3 ,,reliquary ,,at ,,orvieto ,in documents of the fourteenth century1 the following list of goldsmiths is given3 ,jean de ,mantreux was goldsmith to ,king ,jean4 ,claux de ,friburg was celebrated for a gold statuette of ,st4 ,john which he made for the ,duke of ,normandy4 ,a diadem for this ,duke was also recorded1 made by ,jean de ,piguigny4 ,hannequin made three golden crowns for ,charles ,v4 ,hans ,crest was goldsmith to the ,duke of ,orleans1 while others employed by him were ,durosne1 of ,toulouse1 ,jean de ,bethancourt1 a ,flemish goldsmith4 ,in the fifteenth century the names of ,jean de ,hasquin1 ,perrin ,manne1 and ,margerie d',avignon1 were famous4 ,artists in the ,renaissance were expected to undertake several branches of their craft4 ,hear ,poussin3 ,it is impossible to work at the same time upon frontispieces of books3 a ,virgin3 at the picture for the congregation of ,st4 ,louis1 at the designs for the gallery1 and for the king's tapestry6 ,i have only a feeble head1 and am not aided by anyone6 ,a goldsmith attached to the ,court of ,king ,rene of ,anjou was ,jean ,nicolas4 ,rene also gave many orders to one ,liguier ,rabotin1 of ,avignon1 who made him several cups of solid gold1 on a large tray of the same precious metal4 ,the king often drew his own designs or such bijoux4 ,among the famous men of ,italy were several who practised the art of the goldsmith4 ,ugolino of ,siena constructed the wonderful reliquary at ,orvieto2 this1 is in shape somewhat similar to the facade of the cathedral4 ,verocchio1 the instructor of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 accomplished several important pieces of jewelery in his youth3 cope-buttons and silver statuettes1 chiefly1 which were so successful that he determined to take up the career of a sculptor4 ,ghirlandajo1 as is well known1 was trained as a goldsmith originally1 his father having been the inventor of a pretty fashion then prevailing among young girls of ,florence1 and being the maker of those golden garlands worn on the heads of maidens4 ,the name ,ghirlandajo1 indeed1 was derived from these garlands 7ghirlandes74 ,francia began life as a goldsmith1 too1 and was never in after life ashamed of his profession1 for he often signed his works ,francesco ,francia ,aurifex4 ,francia was a very skilful workman in niello1 and in enamels4 ,in fact1 to quote the enthusiastic ,vasari1 he executed everything that is most beautiful1 and which can be performed in that art more perfectly than any other master had ever done4 ,baccio ,baldini1 also1 was a goldsmith1 although a greater portion of his ability was turned in the direction of engraving4 ,his pupil ,maso ,finniguerra1 who turned also to engraving1 began his career as a goldsmith4 ,the great silver altar in the ,baptistery in ,florence occupied nearly all the goldsmiths in that city4 ,in #accj the father of the ,orcagnas1 ,cione1 died2 he had worked for some years before that on the altar4 ,in #acff the altar was destroyed1 but the parts in bas-relief by ,cione were retained and incorporated into the new work1 which was finished in #adgh4 ,ghiberti1 ,orcagna1 ,verocchio1 and ,pollajuolo1 all executed various details of this magnificent monument4 ,goldsmiths did not quite change their standing and characteristics until late in the sixteenth century4 ,about that time it may be said that the last goldsmith of the old school was ,claude ,ballin1 while the first jeweller1 in the modern acceptation of the word1 was ,pierre de ,montarsy4 ,silver has always been selected for the better household utensils1 not only on account of its beauty1 but also because of its ductility1 which is desirable in making larger vessels2 its value1 too1 is less than that of gold1 so that articles which would be quite out of the reach of most householders1 if made in gold1 become very available in silver4 ,silver is particularly adapted to daily use1 for the necessary washing and polishing which it receives keeps it in good condition1 and there is no danger from poison through corrosion1 as with copper and brass4 ,in the middle ages the customary pieces of plate in ,english homes were basins1 bottles1 bowls1 candlesticks1 saucepans1 jugs1 dishes1 ewers and flagons1 and chafing-dishes for warming the hands1 which were undoubtedly needed1 when we remember how intense the cold must have been in those high1 bare1 ill-ventilated halls6 ,there were also large cups called hanaps1 smaller cups1 plates1 and porringers1 salt-cellars1 spoons1 and salvers4 ,forks were of much later date4 ,there are records of several silver basins in the ,register of ,john of ,gaunt1 and also in the ,inventory of ,lord ,lisle3 one being a basin and ewer with arms and another1 a shaving basin4 ,john of ,gaunt also owned a silver bowl for the kitchen4 ,if the mediaeval household lacked comforts1 it could teach us lessons in luxury in some other departments6 ,he also had a pair of silver bottles1 partly gilt1 and enamelled1 garnished with tissues of silk1 white and blue1 and a casting bottle for distributing perfume3 ,silver candelabra were recorded2 these1 of course1 must have been in constant service1 as the facilities for lighting were largely dependent upon them4 ,when the ,crown was once obliged to ask a loan from the ,earl of ,salisbury1 in #adcb1 the ,earl received1 as earnest of payment1 two golden candelabra1 garnished with pearls and precious stones4 ,in the ,close ,roll of ,henry ,,iii4 of ,england1 there is found an interesting order to a goldsmith3 ,edward1 son of ,eudo1 with all haste1 by day and by night1 make a cup with a foot for the ,queen3 weighing two marks1 not more2 price twenty marks1 against ,christmas1 that she may drink from it in that feast3 and paint it and enamel it all over1 and in every other way that you can1 let it be decently and beautifully wrought1 so that the ,king1 no less than the said ,queen1 may be content therewith4 ,all the young princes and princesses were presented with silver cups1 also1 as they came to such age as made the use of them expedient2 ,lionel and ,john1 sons of ,edward ,,iii41 were presented with cups with leather covers for the same1 when they were one and three years old respectively4 ,in #adbc the chief justice1 ,sir ,william ,hankford1 gave his great-granddaughter a baptismal gift of a gilt cup and a diamond ring1 together with a curious testimonial of eight shillings and sixpence to the nurse6 ,of dishes1 the records are meagre1 but there is an amusing entry among the ,lisle papers referring to a couple of conserve dishes for which ,lady ,lisle expressed a wish4 ,husee had been ordered to procure these1 but writes1 ,i can get no conserve dishes444 however1 if they be to be had1 ,i will have of them1 or it shall cost me hot water6 ,a little later he observes1 ,towards ,christmas day they shall be made at ,bevoys1 betwixt ,abbeville and ,paris4 ,flagons were evidently a novelty in #adga1 for there is an entry in the ,issue ,roll of ,edward ,,iv41 which mentions two ollas called silver flagons for the ,king4 ,an olla was a ,latin term for a jar4 ,lord ,lisle rejoiced in a pair of flagons1 the gilt sore worn4 ,hanaps were more usual1 and appear to have been usually in the form of goblets4 ,they frequently had stands called tripers4 ,sometimes these stands were very ornate1 as1 for instance1 one owned by the ,bishop of ,carpentras1 in the shape of a flying dragon1 with a crowned damsel sitting upon a green terrace4 ,another1 belonging to the ,countess of ,cambridge1 was described as being in the shape of a monster1 with three buttresses and three bosses of mother of pearl444 and an ewer1444 partly enamelled with divers babooneries--a delightful expression6 ,other hanaps were in the forms of swans1 oak trees1 white harts1 eagles1 lions1 and the like--probably often of heraldic significance4 ,a set of platters was sent from ,paris to ,richard ,,ii41 all of gold1 with balas rubies1 pearls and sapphires set in them4 ,it is related of the ancient ,frankish king1 ,chilperic1 that he had made a dish of solid gold1 ornamented all over with precious stones1 and weighing fifty pounds1 while ,lothaire owned an enormous silver basin bearing as decoration the world with the courses of the stars and the planets4 ,the porringer was a very important article of table use1 for pap1 and soft foods such as we should term cereals1 and for boiled pudding4 ,these were all denominated porridge1 and were eaten from these vessels4 ,soup was doubtless served in them as well4 ,they were numerous in every household4 ,in the ,roll of ,henry ,,iii4 is an item1 mentioning that he had ordered twenty porringers to be made1 like the one hundred porringers which had already been ordered6 ,an interesting pattern of silver cups in ,elizabethan times were the trussing cups1 namely1 two goblets of silver1 squat in shape and broad in bowl1 which fitted together at the rim1 so that one was inverted as a sort of cover on top of the other when they were not in use4 ,drinking cups were sometimes made out of cocoanuts1 mounted in silver1 and often of ostrich eggs1 similarly treated1 and less frequently of horns hollowed out and set on feet4 ,mediaeval loving cups were usually named1 and frequently for some estates that belonged to the owner4 ,cups have been known to bear such names as ,spang1 ,bealchier1 and ,crumpuldud1 while others bore the names of the patron saints of their owners4 ,a kind of cruet is recorded among early ,french table silver1 a double necked bottle in divisions1 in which to place two kinds of liquor without mixing them4 ,a curious bit of table silver in ,france1 also1 was the almsbox1 into which each guest was supposed to put some piece of food1 to be given to the poor4 ,spoons were very early in their origin2 ,st4 ,radegond is reported by a contemporary to have used a spoon1 in feeding the blind and infirm4 ,a quaint book of instructions to children1 called ,the ,babee's ,booke1 in #adge1 advises by way of table manners3 ,and whenever your potage to you shall be brought1 ,take your sponys and soupe by no way1 ,and in your dish leave not your spoon1 ,i pray6 ,and a later volume on the same subject1 in #aejj1 commends a proper respect for the implements of the table3 ,ne playe with spoone1 trencher1 ne knife4 ,spoons of curious form were evidently made all the way from #acjj to the present day4 ,in an old will1 in #adgg1 mention is made of spoons wt leopards hedes printed in the sponself1 and in another1 six spoons wt owles at the end of the handles4 ,professor ,wilson said1 ,a plated spoon is a pitiful imposition1 and he was right4 ,if there is one article of table service in which solidity of metal is of more importance than in another1 it is the spoon1 which must perforce come in contact with the lips whenever it is used4 ,in ,england the earliest spoons were of about the thirteenth century1 and the first idea of a handle seems to have been a plain shaft ending in a ball or knob4 ,gradually spoons began to show more of the decorative instinct of their designers2 acorns1 small statuettes1 and such devices terminated the handles1 which still retained their slender proportions1 however4 ,finally it became popular to have images of the ,virgin on individual spoons1 which led to the idea1 after a bit1 of decorating the dozen with the twelve apostles4 ,these may be seen of all periods1 differently elaborated4 ,sets of thirteen are occasionally met with1 these having one with the statue of ,jesus as the ,good ,shepherd1 with a lamb on his shoulders3 it is known as the ,master spoon4 ,illustration3 ,,apostle ,,spoons ,the first mention of forks in ,france is in the ,inventory1 of ,charles ,v41 in #acgi4 ,we hear a great deal about the promiscuous use of knives before forks were invented2 how in the children's book of instructions they are enjoined pick not thy teeth with thy knife1 as if it were a general habit requiring to be checked4 ,massinger alludes to a silver fork ,to convey an olive neatly to thy mouth1 but this may apply to pickle forks4 ,forks were introduced from ,italy into ,england about #afjg4 ,a curiosity in cutlery is the musical knife at the ,louvre2 the blade is steel1 mounted in parcel gilt1 and the handle is of ivory4 ,on the blade is engraved a few bars of music 7arranged for the bass only71 accompanying the words1 ,what we are about to take may ,trinity in ,unity bless4 ,amen4 ,this is a literal translation4 ,it indicates that there were probably three other knives in the set so ornamented1 one with the soprano1 one alto1 and one tenor1 so that four persons sitting down to table together might chant their grace in four-part harmony1 having the requisite notes before them6 ,it was a quaint idea1 but quite in keeping with the taste of the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,ivory ,,knife ,,handles1 ,,with ,,portraits ,,of ,,queen ,,elizabeth ,,and ,,james ,i4 ,,englis ,the domestic plate of ,louis1 ,duke of ,anjou1 in #acfj1 consisted of over seven hundred pieces1 and ,charles ,v4 of ,france had an enormous treasury of such objects for daily use4 ,strong rooms and safes were built during the fourteenth century1 for the lodging of the household valuables4 ,about this time the ,dukes of ,burgundy were famous for their splendid table service4 ,indeed1 the craze for domestic display in this line became so excessive1 that in #acef ,king ,john of ,france prohibited the further production of such elaborate pieces1 gold or silver plate1 vases1 or silver jewelry1 of more than one mark of gold1 or silver1 excepting for churches4 ,this edict1 however1 accomplished little1 and was constantly evaded4 ,many large pieces of silver made in the period of the ,renaissance were made simply with a view to standing about as ornaments4 ,cellini alludes to certain vases which had been ordered from him1 saying that they are called ewers1 and they are placed upon buffets for the purpose of display4 ,the salt cellar was always a piece de resistance1 and stood in the centre of the table4 ,it was often in the form of a ship in silver4 ,a book entitled ,ffor to serve a ,lorde1 in #aejj1 directs the boteler or panter1 to bring forth the principal salt1 and to set the saler in the myddys of the table4 ,persons helped themselves to salt with a clene kniffe4 ,the seats of honour were all about the salt1 while those of less degree were at the lower end of the table1 and were designated as below the salt4 ,the silver ship was commonly an immense piece of plate1 containing the napkin1 goblet1 and knife and spoon of the host1 besides being the receptacle for the spices and salt4 ,through fear of poison1 the precaution was taken of keeping it covered4 ,this ship was often known as the nef1 and frequently had a name1 as if it were the family yacht6 ,one is recorded as having been named the ,tyger1 while a nef belonging to the ,duke of ,orleans was called the ,porquepy1 meaning porcupine4 ,one of the historic salts1 in another form1 is the ,huntsman's salt1 and is kept at ,all ,soul's ,college1 ,oxford4 ,the figure of a huntsman1 bears upon its head a rock crystal box with a lid4 ,about the feet of this figure are several tiny animals and human beings1 so that it looks as if the intent had been to picture some gigantic legendary hunter--a sort of ,gulliver of the chase4 ,the table was often furnished also with a fountain1 in which drinking-water was kept1 and upon which either stood or hung cups or goblets4 ,these fountains were often of fantastic shapes1 and usually enamelled4 ,one is described as representing a dragon on a tree top1 and another a castle on a hill1 with a convenient tap at some point for drawing off the water4 ,the ,london ,city ,companies are rich in their possessions of valuable plate4 ,some of the cups are especially beautiful4 ,the ,worshipful ,company of ,skinners owns some curious loving cups1 emblematic of the names of the donors4 ,there are five ,cockayne ,loving ,cups1 made in the form of cocks1 with their tail feathers spread up to form the handles4 ,the heads have to be removed for drinking4 ,these cups were bequeathed by ,william ,cockayne1 in #aeih4 ,another cup is in the form of a peacock1 walking with two little chicks of minute proportions on either side of the parent bird4 ,this is inscribed1 ,the gift of ,mary the daughter of ,richard ,robinson1 and wife to ,thomas ,smith and ,james ,peacock1 ,skinners4 ,whether the good lady were a bigamist or took her husbands in rotation1 does not transpire4 ,an interesting cup is owned by the ,vintners in ,london1 called the ,milkmaid4 ,the figure of a milkmaid1 in laced bodice1 holds above her head a small cup on pivots1 so that it finds its level when the figure is inverted1 as is the case when the cup is used1 the petticoat of the milkmaid forming the real goblet4 ,it is constructed on the same principle as the ,german figures of court ladies holding up cups1 which are often seen to-day1 made on the old pattern4 ,the cups in the case of this milkmaid are both filled with wine1 and it is quite difficult to drink from the larger cup without spilling from the small swinging cup which is then below the other4 ,every member is expected to perform this feat as a sort of initiation4 ,it dates from #afeh4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,milkmaid ,,cup ,one of the most beautiful ,corporation cups is at ,norwich1 where it is known as the ,petersen cup4 ,it is shaped like a very thick and squat chalice1 and around its top is a wide border of decorative lettering1 bearing the inscription1 ,,the ,,most ,,here ,,of4 ,,is ,,dunne ,,by ,,peter ,,peterson 4 ,this craftsman was a ,norwich silversmith of the sixteenth century1 very famous in his day1 and a remarkably chaste designer as well4 ,a beautiful ivory cup twelve inches high1 set in silver gilt1 called the ,grace ,cup1 of ,thomas a ,becket1 is inscribed around the top band1 ,vinum tuum bibe cum gaudio4 ,it has a hall-mark of a ,lombardic letter ,h1 signifying the year #adde4 ,it is decorated by cherubs1 roses1 thistles1 and crosses1 relieved with garnets and pearls4 ,on another flat band is the inscription3 ,sobrii estote1 and on the cover1 in ,roman capitals1 ,ferare ,god4 ,it is owned by the ,howard family1 of ,corby4 ,tankards were sometimes made of such crude materials as leather 7like the lether bottel of history71 and of wood4 ,in fact1 the inventory of a certain small church in the year #aeff tells of a penny tankard of wood1 which was used as a holy water stock4 ,an extravagant design1 of a period really later than we are supposed to deal with in this book1 is a curious cup at ,barber's and ,surgeon's ,hall1 known as the ,royal ,oak4 ,it is built to suggest an oak tree1--a naturalistic trunk1 with its roots visible1 supporting the cup1 which is in the form of a semi-conventional tree1 covered with leaves1 detached acorns swinging free on rings from the sides at intervals6 ,richard ,redgrave called attention to some of the absurdities of the exotic work of his day in ,england4 ,rachel at a well1 under an imitative palm tree1 he remarks1 draws1 not water1 but ink2 a grotto of oyster shells with children beside it1 contains444 an ink vessel2 the milk pail on a maiden's head contains1 not goat's milk1 as the animal by her side would lead you to suppose1 but a taper6 ,one great secret of good design in metal is to avoid imitating fragile things in a strong material4 ,the stalk of a flower or leaf1 for instance1 if made to do duty in silver to support a heavy cup or vase1 is a very disagreeable thing to contemplate2 if the article were really what it represented1 it would break under the strain4 ,while there should be no deliberate perversion of ,nature's forms1 there should be no naturalistic imitation4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,jewelry ,,and ,,precious ,,stones ,we are told that the word jewel has come by degrees from ,latin1 through ,french1 to its present form2 it commenced as a gaudium 7joy71 and progressed through jouel and joyau to the familiar word1 as we have it4 ,the first objects to be made in the form of personal adornment were necklaces3 this may be easily understood1 for in certain savage lands the necklace formed1 and still forms1 the chief feature in feminine attire4 ,in this little treatise1 however1 we cannot deal with anything so primitive or so early2 we must not even take time to consider the exquisite ,greek and ,roman jewelry4 ,amongst the earliest mediaeval jewels we will study the ,anglo-,saxon and the ,byzantine4 ,anglo-,saxon and ,irish jewelry is famous for delicate filigree1 fine enamels1 and flat garnets used in a very decorative way4 ,niello was also employed to some extent4 ,it is easy1 in looking from the ,bell of ,st4 ,patrick to the ,book of ,kells1 to see how the illuminators were influenced by the goldsmiths in early times1--in ,celtic and ,anglo-,saxon work4 ,illustration3 ,,saxon ,,brooch ,the earliest forms of brooches were the annular1--that is1 a long pin with a hinged ring at its head for ornament1 and the penannular1 or pin with a broken circle at its head4 ,through the opening in the circle the pin returns1 and then with a twist of the ring1 it is held more firmly in the material4 ,of these two forms are notable examples in the ,arbutus brooch and the celebrated ,tara brooch4 ,the ,tara brooch is a perfect museum in itself of the jeweller's art4 ,it is ornamented with enamel1 with jewels set in silver1 amber1 scroll filigree1 fine chains1 ,celtic tracery1 moulded glass--nearly every branch of the art is represented in this one treasure1 which was found quite by accident near ,drogheda1 in #ahej1 a landslide having exposed the buried spot where it had lain for centuries4 ,as many as seventy-six different kinds of workmanship are to be detected on this curious relic4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tara ,,brooch ,at a great ,exhibition at ,ironmonger's ,hall in #ahfa there was shown a leaden fibula1 quite a dainty piece of personal ornament1 in ,anglo-,saxon taste1 decorated with a moulded spiral meander4 ,it was found in the ,thames in #ahee1 and there are only three other similar brooches of lead known to exist4 ,of the ,celtic brooches ,scott speaks3 444the brooch of burning gold ,that clasps the chieftain's mantle fold1 ,wrought and chased with rare device1 ,studded fair with gems of price4 ,one of the most remarkable pieces of ,celtic jewelled work is the bell of ,st4 ,patrick1 which measures over ten inches in height4 ,this saint is associated with several bells3 one1 called the ,broken ,bell of ,st4 ,brigid1 he used on his last crusade against the demons of ,ireland2 it is said that when he found his adversaries specially unyielding1 he flung the bell with all his might into the thickest of their ranks1 so that they fled precipitately into the sea1 leaving the island free from their aggressions for seven years1 seven months1 and seven days4 ,one of ,st4 ,patrick's bells is known1 in ,celtic1 as the white toned1 while another is called the black sounding4 ,this is an early and curious instance of the sub-conscious association of the qualities of sound with those of colour4 ,viollet le ,duc tells how a blind man was asked if he knew what the colour red was4 ,he replied1 ,yes3 red is the sound of the trumpet4 ,and the great architect himself1 when a child1 was carried by his nurse into the ,cathedral of ,notre ,dame in ,paris1 where he cried with terror because he fancied that the various organ notes which he heard were being hurled at him by the stained glass windows1 each one represented by a different colour in the glass6 ,illustration3 ,,shrine ,,of ,,the ,,bell ,,of ,,st4 ,,patrick ,but the most famous bell in connection with ,st4 ,patrick is the one known by his own name and brought with his relics by ,columbkille only sixty years after the saint's death4 ,the outer case is an exceedingly rich example of ,celtic work4 ,on a ground of brass1 fine gold and silver filigree is applied1 in curious interlaces and knots1 and it is set with several jewels1 some of large size1 in green1 blue1 and dull red4 ,in the front are two large tallow-cut ,irish diamonds1 and a third was apparently set in a place which is now vacant4 ,on the back of the bell appears a ,celtic inscription in most decorative lettering all about the edge2 the literal translation of this is3 ,a prayer for ,donnell ,o',lochlain1 through whom this bell shrine was made2 and for ,donnell1 the successor of ,patrick1 with whom it was made2 and for ,cahalan ,o',mulhollan1 the keeper of the bell1 and for ,cudilig ,o',immainen1 with his sons1 who covered it4 ,donald ,o',lochlain was monarch of ,ireland in #ajhc4 ,donald the successor of ,patrick was the ,abbot of ,armagh1 from #ajia to #aaje4 ,the others were evidently the craftsmen who worked on the shrine4 ,in many interlaces1 especially on the sides1 there may be traced intricate patterns formed of serpents1 but as nearly all ,celtic work is similarly ornamented1 there is probably nothing personal in their use in connection with the relic of ,st4 ,patrick6 ,patrick brought quite a bevy of workmen into ,ireland about #ddj3 some were smiths1 ,mac ,cecht1 ,laebhan1 and ,fontchan1 who were turned at once upon making of bells1 while some other skilled artificers1 ,fairill and ,tassach1 made patens and chalices4 ,st4 ,bridget1 too1 had a famous goldsmith in her train1 one ,bishop ,coula4 ,the pectoral cross of ,st4 ,cuthbert of ,lindisfarne is now to be seen in ,durham4 ,it was buried with the saint1 and was discovered with his body4 ,the four arms are of equal length1 and not very heavy in proportion4 ,it is of gold1 made in the seventh century1 and is set with garnets1 a very large one in the centre1 one somewhat smaller at the ends of the arms1 where the lines widen considerably1 and with smaller ones continuously between4 ,among the many jewels which decorated the shrine of ,thomas a ,becket at ,canterbury was a stone with an angell of gold poynting thereunto1 which was a gift from the ,king of ,france1 who had had it made into a ring and wore it on his thumb4 ,other stones described as being on this shrine were sumptuous1 the whole being damascened with gold wire1 and in the midst of the gold1 rings2 or cameos of sculptured agates1 carnelians1 and onyx stones4 ,a visitor to ,canterbury in #aejj writes3 ,everything is left far behind by a ruby not larger than a man's thumb nail1 which is set to the right of the altar4 ,the church is rather dark1 and when we went to see it the sun was nearly gone down1 and the weather was cloudy1 yet we saw the ruby as well as if it had been in my hand4 ,they say it was a gift of the ,king of ,france4 ,possessions of one kind were often converted into another1 according to changing fashions4 ,philippa of ,lancaster had a gold collar made out of two bottles and a turret1 in #achj4 ,mediaeval rosaries were generally composed of beads of coral or carnelian1 and often of gold and pearls as well4 ,marco ,polo tells of a unique rosary worn by the ,king of ,malabar2 one hundred and four large pearls1 with occasional rubies of great price1 composed the string4 ,marco ,polo adds3 ,he has to say one hundred and four prayers to his idols every morning and evening4 ,in the possession of the ,shah of ,persia is a gold casket studded with emeralds1 which is said to have the magic power of rendering the owner invisible as long as he remains celibate4 ,i fancy that this is a safe claim1 for the tradition is not likely to be put to the proof in the case of a ,shah6 ,probably there has never been an opportunity of testing the miraculous powers of the stones4 ,the inventory of ,lord ,lisle contains many interesting side lights on the jewelry of the period3 a hawthorne of gold1 with twenty diamonds2 a little tower of gold1 and a pair of beads of gold1 with tassels4 ,filigree or chain work was termed perry4 ,in old papers such as inventories1 registers1 and the like1 there are frequent mentions of buttons of gold and perry2 in #acgb ,aline ,gerbuge received one little circle of gold and perry1 emeralds and balasses4 ,clasps and brooches were used much in the fourteenth century4 ,they were often called ouches1 and were usually of jewelled gold4 ,one1 an image of ,st4 ,george1 was given by the ,black ,prince to ,john of ,gaunt4 ,the ,duchess of ,bretagne had among other brooches one with a white griffin1 a balas ruby on its shoulder1 six sapphires around it1 and then six balasses1 and twelve groups of pearls with diamonds4 ,brooches were frequently worn by being stuck in the hat4 ,in a curious letter from ,james ,i4 to his son1 the monarch writes3 ,i send for your wearing the ,three ,brethren 7evidently a group of three stones7 444but newly set444 which ,i wolde wish you to weare alone in your hat1 with a ,littel black feather4 ,to his favourite ,buckingham he also sends a diamond1 saying that his son will lend him also an anker in all probability2 but he adds3 ,if my ,babee will not spare the anker from his ,mistress1 he may well lend thee his round brooch to weare1 and yett he shall have jewels to weare in his hat for three grate dayes4 ,in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the women wore nets in their hair1 composed of gold threads adorned with pearls4 ,at first two small long rolls by the temples were confined in these nets3 later1 the whole back hair was gathered into a large circular arrangement4 ,these nets were called frets--a fret of pearls was considered a sufficient legacy for a duchess to leave to her daughter4 ,in the constant resetting and changing of jewels1 many important mediaeval specimens1 not to mention exquisite vessels and church furniture1 were melted down and done over by ,benvenuto ,cellini1 especially at the time that ,pope ,clement was besieged at the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo4 ,probably the most colossal jewel of ancient times was the ,peacock ,throne of ,delhi4 ,it was in the form of two spread tails of peacocks1 composed entirely of sapphires1 emeralds and topazes1 feather by feather and eye by eye1 set so as to touch each other4 ,a parrot of life size carved from a single emerald1 stood between the peacocks4 ,in #aafa the throne of the ,emperor in ,constantinople is described by ,benjamin of ,tudela3 ,of gold ornamented with precious stones4 ,a golden crown hangs over it1 suspended on a chain of the same material1 the length of which exactly admits the ,emperor to sit under it4 ,the crown is ornamented with precious stones of inestimable value4 ,such is the lustre of these diamonds that even without any other light1 they illumine the room in which they are kept4 ,the greatest mediaeval jeweller was ,st4 ,eloi of ,limoges4 ,his history is an interesting one1 and his achievement and rise in life was very remarkable in the period in which he lived4 ,eloi was a workman in ,limoges1 as a youth1 under the famous ,abho1 in the sixth century2 there he learned the craft of a goldsmith4 ,he was such a splendid artisan that he soon received commissions for extensive works on his own account4 ,king ,clothaire ,,ii4 ordered from him a golden throne1 and supplied the gold which was to be used4 ,to the astonishment of all1 ,eloi presented the king with two golden thrones 7although it is difficult to imagine what a king would do with duplicate thrones671 and immediately it was noised abroad that the goldsmith ,eloi was possessed of miraculous powers1 since1 out of gold sufficient for one throne1 he had constructed two4 ,people of a more practical turn found out that ,eloi had learned the art of alloying the gold1 so as to make it do double duty4 ,a great many examples of ,st4 ,eloi's work might have been seen in ,france until the ,revolution in #agib1 especially at the ,abbey of ,st4 ,denis4 ,a ring made by him1 with which ,st4 ,godiberte was married to ,christ1 according to the custom of mediaeval saints1 was preserved at ,noyon until #agic1 when it disappeared in the ,revolution4 ,the ,chronicle says of ,eloi3 ,he made for the king a great numer of gold vesses enriched with precious stones1 and he worked incessantly1 seated with his servant ,thillo1 a ,saxon by birth1 who followed the lessons of his master4 ,st4 ,eloi founded two institutions for goldsmithing3 one for the production of domestic and secular plate1 and the other for ecclesiastical work exclusively1 so that no worker in profane lines should handle the sacred vessels4 ,the secular branch was situated near the dwelling of ,eloi1 in the ,cite itself1 and was known as ,st4 ,eloi's ,enclosure4 ,when a fire burned them out of house and shelter1 they removed to a suburban quarter1 which soon became known in its turn1 as the ,cloture ,st4 ,eloi4 ,the religious branch of the establishment was presided over by the aforesaid ,thillo1 and was the ,abbey of ,solignac1 near ,limoges4 ,this school was inaugurated in #fca4 ,while ,eloi was working at the court of ,king ,clothaire ,,ii41 ,st4 ,quen was there as well4 ,the two youths struck up a close friendship1 and afterwards ,ouen became his biographer4 ,his description of ,eloi's personal appearance is worth quoting1 to show the sort of figure a mediaeval saint sometimes cut before canonization4 ,he was tall1 with a ruddy face1 his hair and beard curly4 ,his hands well made1 and his fingers long1 his face full of angelic sweetness4444 ,at first he wore habits covered with pearls and precious stones2 he had also belts sewn with pearls4 ,his dress was of linen encrusted with gold1 and the edges of his tunic trimmed with gold embroidery4 ,indeed1 his clothing was very costly1 and some of his dresses were of silk4 ,such was his exterior in his first period at court1 and he dressed thus to avoid singularity2 but under this garment he wore a rough sack cloth1 and later on1 he disposed of all his ornaments to relieve the distressed2 and he might be seen with only a cord round his waist and common clothes4 ,sometimes the king1 seeing him thus divested of his rich clothing1 would take off his own cloak and girdle and give them to him1 saying3 ',it is not suitable that those who dwell for the world should be richly clad1 and that those who despoil themselves for ,christ should be without glory4' ,among the numerous virtues of ,st4 ,eloi was that of a consistent carrying out of his real beliefs and theories1 whether men might consider him quixotic or not4 ,he was strongly opposed to the institution of slavery4 ,in those days it would have been futile to preach actual emancipation4 ,the times were not ripe4 ,but ,st4 ,eloi did all that he could for the cause of freedom by investing most of his money in slaves1 and then setting them at liberty4 ,sometimes he would corner a whole slave market1 buying as many as thirty to a hundred at a time4 ,some of these manumitted persons became his own faithful followers3 some entered the religious life1 and others devoted their talents to their benefactor1 and worked in his studios for the furthering of art in the ,church4 ,he once played a trick upon the king4 ,he requested the gift of a town1 in order1 as he explained1 that he might there build a ladder by which they might both reach heaven4 ,the king1 in the rather credulous fashion of the times1 granted his request1 and waited to see the ladder4 ,st4 ,eloi promptly built a monastery4 ,if the monarch did not choose to avail himself of this species of ladder1--surely it was no fault of the builder6 ,st4 ,quen and ,st4 ,eloi were consecrated bishops on the same day1 ,may #ad1 ,st4 ,quen to the ,bishopric of ,rouen1 and ,eloi to the ,see of ,noyon4 ,he made a great hunt for the body of ,st4 ,quentin1 which had been unfortunately mislaid1 having been buried in the neighbourhood of ,noyon2 he turned up every available spot of ground around1 within and beneath the church1 until he found a skeleton in a tomb1 with some iron nails4 ,this he proclaimed to be the sacred body1 for the legend was that ,st4 ,quentin had been martyred by having nails driven into his head6 ,although it was quite evident to others that these were coffin nails1 still ,st4 ,eloi insisted upon regarding his discovery as genuine1 and they began diligently to dismember the remains for distribution among the churches4 ,as they were pulling one of the teeth1 a drop of blood was seen to follow it1 which miracle was hailed by ,st4 ,eloi as the one proof wanting4 ,eloi had the genuine artistic temperament and his religious zeal was much influenced by his aesthetic nature4 ,he once preached an excellent sermon1 still preserved1 against superstition4 ,he inveighed particularly against the use of charms and incantations4 ,but he had his own little streak of superstition in spite of the fact that he fulminated against it4 ,when he had committed some fault1 after confession1 he used to hang bags of relics in his room1 and watch them for a sign of forgiveness4 ,when one of these would turn oily1 or begin to affect the surrounding atmosphere peculiarly1 he would consider it a sign of the forgiveness of heaven4 ,it seems to us to-day as if he might have looked to his own relic bags before condemning the ignorant4 ,st4 ,eloi died in #fei1 and was himself distributed to the faithful in quite a wholesale way4 ,one arm is in ,paris4 ,he was canonized both for his holy life and for his great zeal in art4 ,he was buried in a silver coffin adorned with gold1 and his tomb was said to work miracles like the shrine of ,becket4 ,indeed1 ,becket himself was pretty dressy in the matter of jewels2 when he travelled to ,paris1 the simple ,frenchmen exclaimed3 ,what a wonderful personage the ,king of ,england must be1 if his chancellor can travel in such state6 ,there are various legends about ,st4 ,eloi4 ,it is told that a certain horse once behaved in a very obstreperous way while being shod2 ,st4 ,eloi calmly cut off the animal's leg1 and fixed the shoe quietly in position1 and then replaced the leg1 which grew into place again immediately1 to the pardonable astonishment of all beholders1 not to mention the horse4 ,st4 ,eloi was also employed to coin the currency of ,dagobert and ,clovis ,,ii41 and examples of these coins may now be seen1 as authentic records of the style of his work4 ,a century after his death the monasteries which he had founded were still in operation1 and ,charlemagne's crown and sword are very possibly the result of ,st4 ,eloi's teachings to his followers4 ,while the monasteries undoubtedly controlled most of the art education of the early middle ages1 there were also laymen who devoted themselves to these pursuits4 ,john de ,garlande1 a famous teacher in the ,university of ,paris1 wrote1 in the eleventh century1 a ,dictionarius dealing with various arts4 ,in this interesting work he describes1 the trades of the moneyers 7who controlled the mint71 the coining of gold and silver into currency 7for the making of coin in those days was permitted by individuals71 the clasp makers1 the makers of cups or hanaps1 jewellers and harness makers1 and other artificers4 ,john de ,garlande was ,english1 born about the middle of the twelfth century1 and was educated in ,oxford4 ,in the early thirteenth century he became associated with the ,university1 and when ,simon de ,montfort was slain in #abah1 at ,toulouse1 ,john was at the ,university of ,toulouse1 where he was made ,so professor1 and stayed three years1 returning then to ,paris4 ,he died about the middle of the thirteenth century4 ,he was celebrated chiefly for his ,dictionarius1 a work on the various arts and crafts of ,france1 and for a poem ,de ,triumphis ,ecclesiae4 ,during the ,middle ,ages votive crowns were often presented to churches2 among these a few are specially famous4 ,the crowns1 studded with jewels1 were suspended before the altar by jewelled chains1 and often a sort of fringe of jewelled letters was hung from the rim1 forming an inscription4 ,the votive crown of ,king ,suinthila1 in ,madrid1 is among the most ornate of these4 ,it is the finest specimen in the noted ,treasure of ,guerrazzar1 which was discovered by peasants turning up the soil near ,toledo2 the crowns1 of which there were many1 date from about the seventh century1 and are sumptuous with precious stones4 ,the workmanship is not that of a barbarous nation1 though it has the fascinating irregularities of the ,byzantine style4 ,of the delightful work of the fifth and sixth centuries there are scarcely any examples in ,italy4 ,the so-called ,iron ,crown of ,monza is one of the few early ,lombard treasures4 ,this crown has within it a narrow band of iron1 said to be a nail of the ,true ,cross2 but the crown1 as it meets the eye1 is anything but iron1 being one of the most superb specimens of jewelled golden workmanship1 as fine as those in the ,treasure of ,guerrazzar4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,treasure ,,of ,,guerrazzar4 ,the crown of ,king ,alfred the ,great is mentioned in an old inventory as being of gould wire worke1 sett with slight stones1 and two little bells4 ,a diadem is described by ,william of ,malmsbury1 so precious with jewels1 that the splendour444 threw sparks of light so strongly on the beholder1 that the more steadfastly any person endeavoured to gaze1 so much the more he was dazzled1 and compelled to avert the eyes6 ,in #achb a circlet crown was purchased for ,queen ,anne of ,bohemia1 being set with a large sapphire1 a balas1 and four large pearls with a diamond in the centre4 ,the ,cathedral at ,amiens owns what is supposed to be the head of ,john the ,baptist1 enshrined in a gilt cup of silver1 and with bands of jewelled work4 ,the head is set upon a platter of gilded and jewelled silver1 covered with a disc of rock crystal4 ,the whole1 though ancient1 is enclosed in a modern shrine4 ,the legend of the preservation of the ,baptist's head is that ,herodias1 afraid that the saint might be miraculously restored to life if his head and body were laid in the same grave1 decided to hide the head until this danger was past4 ,furtively1 she concealed the relic for a time1 and then it was buried in ,herod's palace4 ,it was there opportunely discovered by some monks in the fourth century4 ,this invention of the head 7the word being interpreted according to the credulity of the reader7 resulted in its removal to ,emesa1 where it was exhibited in #dec4 ,in #gec ,marcellus1 the ,abbot of ,emesa1 had a vision by means of which he re-discovered 7or re-invented7 the head1 which had in some way been lost sight of4 ,following the guidance of his dream1 he repaired to a grotto1 and proceeded to exhume the long-suffering relic4 ,after many other similar and rather disconnected episodes1 it finally came into possession of the ,bishop of ,amiens in #abjf4 ,a great calamity in early times was the loss of all the valuables of ,king ,john of ,england4 ,between ,lincolnshire and ,norfolk the royal cortege was crossing the ,wash3 the jewels were all swept away4 ,crown and all were thus lost1 in #abaf4 ,several crowns have been through vicissitudes4 ,when ,richard ,,iii4 died1 on ,bosworth ,field1 his crown was secured by a soldier and hidden in a bush4 ,sir ,reginald de ,bray discovered it1 and restored it to its rightful place4 ,but to balance such cases several of the queens have brought to the national treasury their own crowns4 ,in #acdj ,edward ,,iii4 pawned even the queen's jewels to raise money for fighting ,france4 ,the same inventory makes mention of certain treasures deposited at ,westminster3 the values are attached to each of these1 crowns1 plates1 bracelets1 and so forth4 ,also1 with commendable zeal1 a list was kept of other articles stored in an iron chest1 among which are the items1 one liver coloured silk robe1 very old1 and worth nothing1 and an old combe of horne1 worth nothing4 ,a frivolous scene is described by ,wood1 when the notorious ,republican1 ,marten1 had access to the treasure stored in ,westminster4 ,some of the wits of the period assembled in the treasury1 and took out of the iron chest several of its jewels1 a crown1 sceptre1 and robes2 these they put upon the merry poet1 ,george ,withers1 who1 being thus crowned and royally arrayed1 first marched about the room with a stately gait1 and afterwards1 with a thousand ridiculous and apish actions1 exposed the sacred ornaments to contempt and laughter4 ,no doubt the olde comb played a suitable part in these pranks1--perhaps it may even have served as orchestra4 ,one ,sir ,henry ,mildmay1 in #afdi1 was responsible for dreadful vandalism1 under the ,puritan regime4 ,among other acts which he countenanced was the destruction and sale of the wonderful ,crown of ,king ,alfred1 to which allusion has just been made4 ,in the ,will of the ,earl of ,pembroke1 in #afej1 is this clause showing how unpopular ,sir ,henry had become3 ,because ,i threatened ,sir ,henry ,mildmay1 but did not beat him1 ,i give ,l#ej to the footman who cudgelled him4 ,item1 my will is that the said ,sir ,harry shall not meddle with my jewels4 ,i knew him444 when he handled the ,crown jewels1444 for which reason ,i now name him the ,knave of ,diamonds4 ,jewelled arms and trappings became very rich in the fifteenth century4 ,pius ,,ii4 writes of the ,german armour3 ,what shall ,i say of the neck chains of the men1 and the bridles of the horses1 which are made of the purest gold2 and of the spears and scabbards which are covered with jewels8 ,spurs were also set with jewels1 and often damascened with gold1 and ornamented with appropriate mottoes4 ,an inventory of the jewelled cups and reliquaries of ,queen ,jeanne of ,navarre1 about #aegj1 reads like a museum4 ,she had various gold and jewelled dishes for banquets2 one jewel is described as ,item1 a demoiselle of gold1 represented as riding upon a horse1 of mother of pearl1 standing upon a platform of gold1 enriched with ten rubies1 six turquoises and three fine pearls4 ,another item is1 ,a fine rock crystal set in gold1 enriched with three rubies1 three emeralds1 and a large sapphire1 set transparently1 the whole suspended from a small gold chain4 ,it is time now to speak of the actual precious stones themselves1 which apart from their various settings are1 after all1 the real jewels4 ,according to ,cellini there are only four precious stones3 he says they are made by the four elements1 ruby by fire1 sapphire by air1 emerald by earth1 and diamond by water4 ,it irritated him to have any one claim others as precious stones4 ,i have a thing or two to say1 he remarks1 in order not to scandalize a certain class of men who call themselves jewellers1 but may be better likened to hucksters1 or linen drapers1 pawn brokers1 or grocers444 with a maximum of credit and a minimum of brains444 these dunderheads444 wag their arrogant tongues at me and cry1 ',how about the chrysophrase1 or the jacynth1 how about the aqua marine1 nay more1 how about the garnet1 the vermeil1 the crysolite1 the plasura1 the amethyst8 ,ain't these all stones and all different8' ,yes1 and why the devil don't you add pearls1 too1 among the jewels1 ain't they fish bones8 ,thus he classes the stones together1 adding that the balas1 though light in colour1 is a ruby1 and the topaz a sapphire4 ,it is of the same hardness1 and though of a different colour1 must be classified with the sapphire3 what better classification do you want8 hasn't the air got its sun8 ,cellini always set the coloured stones in a bezel or closed box of gold1 with a foil behind them4 ,he tells an amusing story of a ruby which he once set on a bit of frayed silk instead of on the customary foil4 ,the result happened to be most brilliant4 ,the jewellers asked him what kind of foil he had used1 and he replied that he had employed no foil4 ,then they exclaimed that he must have tinted it1 which was against all laws of jewelry4 ,again ,benvenuto swore that he had neither used foil1 nor had he done anything forbidden or unprofessional to the stone4 ,at this the jeweller got a little nasty1 and used strong language1 says ,cellini4 ,they then offered to pay well for the information if ,cellini would inform them by what means he had obtained so remarkably a lustre4 ,benvenuto1 expressing himself indifferent to pay1 but much honoured in thus being able to teach his teachers1 opened the setting and displayed his secret1 and all parted excellent friends4 ,even so early as the thirteenth century1 the jewellers of ,paris had become notorious for producing artificial jewels4 ,among their laws was one which stipulated that the jeweller was not to dye the amethyst1 or other false stones1 nor mount them in gold leaf nor other colour1 nor mix them with rubies1 emeralds1 or other precious stones1 except as a crystal simply without mounting or dyeing4 ,one day ,cellini had found a ruby which he believed to be set dishonestly1 that is1 a very pale stone with a thick coating of dragon's blood smeared on its back4 ,when he took it to some of his favourite dunderheads1 they were sure that he was mistaken1 saying that it had been set by a noted jeweller1 and could not be an imposition4 ,so ,benvenuto immediately removed the stone from its setting1 thereby exposing the fraud4 ,then might that ruby have been likened to the crow which tricked itself out in the feathers of the peacock1 observes ,cellini1 adding that he advised these old fossils in the art to provide themselves with better eyes than they then wore4 ,i could not resist saying this1 chuckles ,benvenuto1 because all three of them wore great gig-lamps on their noses2 whereupon they all three gasped at each other1 shrugged their shoulders1 and with ,god's blessing1 made off4 ,cellini tells of a ,milanese jeweller who concocted a great emerald1 by applying a very thin layer of the real stone upon a large bit of green glass3 he says that the ,king of ,england bought it1 and that the fraud was not discovered for many years4 ,a commission was once given ,cellini to make a magnificent crucifix for a gift from the ,pope to ,emperor ,charles ,v41 but1 as he expresses it1 ,i was hindered from finishing it by certain beasts who had the vantage of the ,pope's ear1 but when these evil whisperers had so gammoned the ,pope1 that he was dissuaded from the crucifix1 the ,pope ordered ,cellini to make a magnificent ,breviary instead1 so that the job still remained in his hands4 ,giovanni ,pisano made some translucid enamels for the decorations of the high altar in ,florence1 and also a jewelled clasp to embellish the robe of a statue of the ,virgin4 ,ghiberti was not above turning his attention to goldsmithing1 and in #adbh made a seal for ,giovanni de ,medici1 a cope-button and mitre for ,pope ,martin ,v41 and a gold nutre with precious stones weighing five and a half pounds1 for ,pope ,eugene ,,iv4 ,diamonds were originally cut two at a time1 one cutting the other1 whence has sprung the adage1 diamond cut diamond4 ,cutting in facets was thus the natural treatment of this gem4 ,the practise originated in ,india4 ,two diamonds rubbing against each other systematically will in time form a facet on each4 ,in #adge it was discovered by ,louis de ,berghem that diamonds could be cut by their own dust4 ,it is an interesting fact in connection with the ,kohinoor that in ,india there had always been a legend that its owner should be the ruler of ,india4 ,probably the ancient ,hindoos among whom this legend developed would be astonished to know that1 although the great stone is now the property of the ,english1 the tradition is still unbroken6 ,marco ,polo alludes to the treasures brought from the ,isle of ,ormus1 as spices1 pearls1 precious stones1 cloth of gold and silver1 elephant's teeth1 and all other precious things from ,india4 ,in ,balaxiam he says are found ballasses and other precious stones of great value4 ,no man1 on pain of death1 dare either dig such stones or carry them out of the country1 for all those stones are the ,king's4 ,other mountains also in this province yield stones called lapis lazuli1 whereof the best azure is made4 ,the like is not found in the world4 ,these mines also yield silver1 brass1 and lead4 ,he speaks of the natives as wearing gold and silver earrings1 with pearls and-other stones artificially wrought in them4 ,in a certain river1 too1 are found jasper and chalcedons4 ,marco ,polo's account of how diamonds are obtained is ingenuous in its reckless defiance of fact4 ,he says that in the mountains there are certain great deep valleys to the bottom of which there is no access4 ,wherefore the men who go in search of the diamonds take with them pieces of meat1 which they throw into this deep valley4 ,he relates that the eagles1 when they see these pieces of meat1 fly down and get them1 and when they return1 they settle on the higher rocks1 when the men raise a shout1 and drive them off4 ,after the eagles have thus been driven away1 the men recover the pieces of meat1 and find them full of diamonds1 which have stuck to them4 ,for the abundance of diamonds down in the depths1 continues ,marco ,polo1 naively is astonishing2 but nobody can get down1 and if one could1 it would be only to be incontinently devoured by the serpents which are so rife there4 ,a further account proceeds thus3 ,the diamonds are so scattered and dispersed in the earth1 and lie so thin1 that in the most plentiful mines it is rare to find one in digging2444 they are frequently enclosed in clods1444 some444 have the earth so fixed about them that till they grind them on a rough stone with sand1 they cannot move it sufficiently to discover they are transparent or444 to know them from other stones4 ,at the first opening of the mine1 the unskilful labourers sometimes1 to try what they have found1 lay them on a great stone1 and1 striking them one with another1 to their costly experience1 discover that they have broken a diamond4444 ,they fill a cistern with water1 soaking therein as much of the earth they dig out of the mine as it can hold at one time1 breaking the clods1 picking out the great stones1 and stirring it with shovels444 then they open a vent1 letting out the foul water1 and supply it with clean1 till the earthy substance be all washed away1 and only the gravelly one remains at the bottom4 ,a process of sifting and drying is then described1 and the gravel is all spread out to be examined1 they never examine the stuff they have washed but between the hours of ten and three1 lest any cloud1 by interposing1 intercept the brisk beams of the sun1 which they hold very necessary to assist them in their search1 the diamonds constantly reflecting them when they shine on them1 rendering themselves thereby the more conspicuous4 ,the earliest diamond-cutter is frequently mentioned as ,louis de ,berquem de ,bruges1 in #adgf4 ,but ,laborde finds earlier records of the art of cutting this gem3 there was in ,paris a diamond-cutter named ,herman1 in #adjg4 ,the diamond cutters of ,paris were quite numerous in that year1 and lived in a special district known as la ,courarie1 where reside the workers in diamonds and other stones4 ,finger rings almost deserve a history to themselves1 for their forms and styles are legion4 ,rings were often made of glass in the eleventh century4 ,theophilus tells in a graphic and interesting manner how they were constructed4 ,he recommends the use of a bar of iron1 as thick as one's finger1 set in a wooden handle1 as a lance is joined in its pike4 ,there should also be a large piece of wood1 at the worker's right hand1 the thickness of an arm1 dug into the ground1 and reaching to the top of the window4 ,on the left of the furnace a little clay trench is to be provided4 ,then1 the glass being cooked1 one is admonished to take the little iron in the wooden handle1 dip it into the molten glass1 and pick up a small portion1 and prick it into the wood1 that the glass may be pierced through1 and instantly warm it in the flame1 and strike it twice upon the wood1 that the glass may be dilated1 and with quickness revolve your hand with the same iron2 when the ring is thus formed1 it is to be quickly thrown into the trench4 ,theophilus adds1 ,if you wish to vary your rings with other colours444 take444 glass of another colour1 surrounding the glass of the ring with it in the manner of a thread444 you can also place upon the ring glass of another kind1 as a gem1 and warm it in the fire that it may adhere4 ,one can almost see these rings from this accurate description of their manufacture4 ,the old ,coronation ,ring1 the wedding ring of ,england1 was a gold ring with a single fine balas ruby2 the pious tradition had it that this ring was given to ,edward the ,confessor by a beggar1 who was really ,st4 ,john the ,evangelist in masquerade6 ,the palace where this unique event occurred was thereupon named ,have-ring-at-,bower4 ,the ,stuart kings all wore this ring and until it came to ,george ,,iv41 with other ,stuart bequests1 it never left the royal ,stuart line4 ,edward ,i4 owned a sapphire ring made by ,st4 ,dunstan4 ,dunstan was an industrious art spirit1 being reported by ,william of ,malmsbury as taking great delight in music1 painting1 and engraving4 ,in the ,ancren ,riwle1 a book of directions for the cloistered life of women1 nuns are forbidden to wear ne ring ne brooche1 and to deny themselves other personal adornments4 ,archbishops seem to have possessed numerous rings in ancient times4 ,in the romance of ,sir ,degrevant a couplet alludes to3 ,archbishops with rings ,more than fifteen4 ,episcopal rings were originally made of sapphires1 said to be typical of the cold austerity of the life of the wearer4 ,later1 however1 the carbuncle became a favourite1 which was supposed to suggest fiery zeal for the faith4 ,perhaps the compromise of the customary amethyst1 which is now most popularly used1 for ,episcopal rings1 being a combination of the blue and the red1 may typify a blending of more human qualities6 ,illustration3 ,,hebrew ,,ring ,in an old will of #aebi1 a ring was left as a bequest to a relative1 described as a table diamond set with black aniell1 meate for my little finger4 ,the accompanying illustration represents a ,hebrew ring1 surmounted by a little mosque1 and having the inscription ,mazul ,toub 7,god be with you1 or ,good luck to you74 ,it was the custom in ,elizabethan times to wear posie rings 7or poesie rings7 in which inscriptions were cut1 such as1 ,let likinge ,laste1 ,remember the 8 that is in pain1 or1 ,god saw fit this knot to knit1 and the like4 ,these posie rings are so called because of the little poetical sentiments associated with them4 ,they were often used as engagement rings1 and sometimes as wedding rings4 ,in an old ,saxon ring is the inscription1 ,eanred made me and ,ethred owns me4 ,one of the mottoes in an old ring is pathetic2 evidently it was worn by an invalid1 who was trying to be patient1 ,quant ,dieu ,plera melior sera4 7,when it shall please ,god1 ,i shall be better47 ,and in a small ring set with a tiny diamond1 ,this sparke shall grow4 ,an agreeable and favourite posie was ,the love is true ,that ,i ,o ,u4 ,a motto in a ring owned by ,lady ,cathcart was inscribed on the occasion of her fourth marriage2 with laudable ambition1 she observes1 ,if ,i survive1 ,i will have five4 ,it is to these posie rings that ,shakespeare has reference when he makes ,jaques say to ,orlando3 ,you are full of pretty answers3 have you not been acquainted with goldsmiths' wives1 and conned them out of rings8 ,in the ,isle of ,man there was once a law that any girl who had been wronged by a man had the right to redress herself in one of three ways3 she was given a sword1 a rope and a ring1 and she could decide whether she would behead him1 hang him1 or marry him4 ,tradition states that the ring was almost invariably the weapon chosen by the lady4 ,superstition has ordained that certain stones should cure certain evils3 the blood-stone was of very general efficacy1 it was claimed1 and the opal1 when folded in a bay leaf1 had the power of rendering the owner invisible4 ,some stones1 especially the turquoise1 turned pale or became deeper in hue according to the state of the owner's health2 the owner of a diamond was invincible2 the possession of an agate made a man amiable1 and eloquent4 ,whoever wore an amethyst was proof against intoxication1 while a jacynth superinduced sleep in cases of insomnia4 ,bed linen was often embroidered1 and set with bits of jacynth1 and there is even a record of diamonds having been used in the decoration of sheets6 ,another entertaining instance of credulity was the use of cramp rings4 ,these were rings blessed by the queen1 and supposed to cure all manner of cramps1 just as the king's touch was supposed to cure scrofula4 ,when a queen died1 the demand for these rings became a panic3 no more could be produced1 until a new queen was crowned4 ,after the beheading of ,anne ,boleyn1 ,husee writes to his patroness3 ,your ladyship shall receive of this bearer nine cramp rings of silver4 ,john ,williams says he never had so few of gold as this year6 ,a stone engraved with the figure of a hare was believed to be valuable in exorcising the devil4 ,that of a dog preserved the owner from dropsy or pestilence2 a versatile ring indeed6 ,an old ,french book speaks of an engraved stone with the image of ,pegasus being particularly healthful for warriors2 it was said to give them boldness and swiftness in flight4 ,these two virtues sound a trifle incompatible6 ,the turquoise was supposed to be especially sympathetic4 ,according to ,dr4 ,donne3 ,a compassionate turquoise1 that cloth tell ,by looking pale1 the owner is not well1 must have been a very sensitive stone4 ,there was a physician in the fourth century who was famous for his cures of colic and biliousness by means of an iron ring engraved with an exorcism requesting the bile to go and take possession of a bird6 ,there was also a superstition that fits could be cured by a ring made of sacrament money4 ,the sufferer was obliged to stand at the church door1 begging a penny from every unmarried man who passed in or out2 this was given to a silversmith1 who exchanged it at the cathedral for sacrament money1 out of which he made a ring4 ,if this ring was worn by the afflicted person1 the seizures were said to cease4 ,the superstition concerning the jewel in the toad's head was a strangely persistent one3 it is difficult to imagine what real foundation there could ever have been for the idea4 ,an old writer gives directions for getting this stone1 which the toad in his life time seems to have guarded most carefully4 ,a rare good way to get the stone out of a toad1 he says1 is to put a444 toad444 into an earthen pot3 put the same into an ant's hillocke1 and cover the same with earth1 which toad444 the ants will eat1 so that the bones444 and stone will be left in the pot4 ,boethius once stayed up all night watching a toad in the hope that it might relinquish its treasure2 but he complained that nothing resulted to gratify the great pangs of his whole night's restlessness4 ,an old ,irish legend says that the stone ,adamant in the land of ,india grows no colder in any wind or snow or ice2 there is no heat in it under burning sods 7this is such an ,hibernian touch6 ,the peat fuel was the ,celtic idea of a heating system71 nothing is broken from it by striking of axes and hammers2 there is one thing only breaks that stone1 the blood of the ,lamb at the ,mass2 and every king that has taken that stone in his right hand before going into battle1 has always gained the victory4 ,there is also a superstition regarding the stone ,hibien1 which is said to flame like a fiery candle in the darkness1 it spills out poison before it in a vessel2 every snake that comes near to it or crosses it dies on the moment4 ,another stone revered in ,irish legend is the ,stone of ,istien1 which is found in the brains of dragons after their deaths1 and a still more capable jewel seems to be the ,stone of ,fanes1 within which it is claimed that the sun1 moon1 and twelve stars are to be seen4 ,in the hearts of the dragons it is always found that make their journey under the sea4 ,no one having it in his hand can tell any lie until he has put it from him2 no race or army could bring it into a house where there is one that has made way with his father4 ,at the hour of matins it gives out sweet music that there is not the like of under heaven4 ,bartholomew1 the mediaeval scientist1 tells narratives of the magical action of the sapphire4 ,the sapphire is a precious stone1 he says1 and is blue in colour1 most like to heaven in fair weather and clear1 and is best among precious stones1 and most apt and able to fingers of kings4 ,and if thou put an addercop in a box1 and hold a very sapphire of ,india at the mouth of the box any while1 by virtue thereof the addercop is overcome and dieth1 as it were suddenly4 ,and this same ,i have seen proved oft in many and divers places4 ,possibly the fact that the addercop is so infrequent an invader of our modern life accounts for the fact that we are left inert upon reading so surprising a statement2 or possibly our incredulity dominates our awe4 ,the art of the lapidary1 or science of glyptics1 is a most interesting study1 and it would be a mistake not to consider it for a few moments on its technical side4 ,it is very ancient as an art4 ,in ,ecclesiasticus the wise ,son of ,sirach alludes to craftsmen that cut and grave seals1 and are diligent to make great variety1 and give themselves to counterfeit imagery1 and watch to finish a work4 ,theophilus on glyptics is too delightfully naive for us to resist quoting his remarks4 ,crystal1 he announces1 which is water hardened into ice1 and the ice of great age hardened into stone1 is trimmed and polished in this manner4 ,he then directs the use of sandstone and emery1 chiefly used by rubbing1 as one might infer1 to polish the stones1 probably en cabochon as was the method in his time2 this style of finish on a gem was called tallow cutting4 ,but when one wishes to sculp crystal1 ,theophilus informs one3 ,take a goat of two or three years444 make an opening between his breast and stomach1 in the position of the heart1 and lay in the crystal1 so that it may lie in its blood until it grow warm444 cut what you please in it as long as the heat lasts4 ,just how many goats were required to the finishing of a sculptured crystal would be determined by the elaboration of the design6 ,unfortunately ,animal ,rescue ,leagues had not invaded the monasteries of the eleventh century4 ,in sculpturing glass1 the ingenuous ,theophilus is quite at his best4 ,artists6 he exclaims1 who wish to engrave glass in a beautiful manner1 ,i now can teach you1 as ,i have myself made trial4 ,i have sought the gross worms which the plough turns up in the ground1 and the art necessary in these things also bid me procure vinegar1 and the warm blood of a lusty goat1 which ,i was careful to place under the roof for a short time1 bound with a strong ivy plant4 ,after this ,i infused the worms and vinegar with the warm blood and ,i anointed the whole clearly shining vessel2 which being done1 ,i essayed to sculp the glass with the hard stone called the ,pyrites4 ,what a pity good ,theophilus had not begun with the pyrites1 when he would probably have made the further discovery that his worms and goats could have been spared4 ,in the polishing of precious stones1 he is quite sane in his directions4 ,procure a marble slab1 very smooth1 he enjoins1 and act as useful art points out to you4 ,in other words1 rub it until it is smooth6 ,bartholomew ,anglicus is as entertaining as ,theophilus regarding crystal4 ,men trowe that it is of snow or ice made hard in many years1 he observes complacently4 ,this stone set in the sun taketh fire1 insomuch if dry tow be put thereto1 it setteth the tow on fire1 and again1 quoting ,gregory on ,ezekiel ,i41 he adds1 water is of itself fleeting1 but by strength of cold it is turned and made stedfast crystal4 ,of small specimens of sculptured crystal some little dark purple beads carved into the semblance of human faces may be seen on the ,tara brooch2 while also on the same brooch occur little purple daisies4 ,the ,cup of the ,ptolemies1 a celebrated onyx cup in ,paris1 is over fifteen inches in circumference1 and is a fine specimen of early lapidary's work4 ,it was presented in the ninth century by ,charles the ,bald to ,st4 ,denis1 and was always used to contain the consecrated wine when ,queens of ,france were crowned4 ,henry ,,ii4 once pawned it to a ,jew when he was hard up1 and in #ahjd it was stolen and the old gold and jewelled setting removed4 ,it was found again in ,holland1 and was remounted within a century4 ,in the ,treasury of ,st4 ,mark's in ,venice are many valuable examples of carved stones1 made into cups1 flagons1 and the like4 ,these were brought from ,constantinople in #abjd1 when the city was captured by the ,venetians4 ,constantinople was the only place where glyptics were understood and practised upon large hard stones in the early ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,greek artists who took refuge in ,italy at that time brought the art with them4 ,there are thirty-two of these ,byzantine chalices in ,st4 ,mark's4 ,usually the mountings are of gold1 and precious stones4 ,there are also two beautiful cruets of agate1 elaborately ornamented1 but carved in curious curving forms requiring skill of a superior order4 ,two other rock crystal cruets are superbly carved1 probably by ,oriental workmen1 however1 as they are not ,byzantine in their decorations4 ,one of them was originally a vase1 and1 indeed1 is still1 for the long gold neck has no connection with the inside2 the handle is also of gold1 both these adjuncts seem to have been regarded as simply ornament4 ,the other cruet is carved elaborately with leopards1 the first and taller one showing monsters and foliate forms4 ,around the neck of the lower of these rock crystal cruets is an inscription1 praying for ,god's blessing on the ,imam ,aziz ,billah1 who was reigning in ,egypt in #ihj4 ,this cruet has a gold stand4 ,the handle is cleverly cut in the same piece of crystal1 but a band of gold is carried down it to give it extra strength4 ,the forming of this handle in connection with the rest of the work is a veritable tour de force1 and we should have grave doubts whether ,theophilus with his goats could have managed it6 ,illustration3 ,,crystal ,,flagons1 ,,st4 ,,mark',s1 ,,venice ,vasari speaks with characteristic enthusiasm of the glyptics of the ,greeks1 whose works in that manner may be called divine4 ,but1 as he continues1 many and very many years passed over during which the art was lost4444 until in the days of ,lorenzo di ,medici the fashion for cameos and intaglios revived4 ,in the ,guild of the ,masters of ,wood and ,stone in ,florence1 the cameo-cutters found a place1 nevertheless it seems fitting to include them at this point among jewellers1 instead of among carvers4 ,the ,italians certainly succeeded in performing feats of lapidary art at a later period4 ,vasari mentions two cups ordered by ,duke ,cosmo1 one cut out of a piece of lapis lazuli1 and the other from an enormous heliotrope1 and a crystal galley with gold rigging was made by the ,sanachi brothers4 ,in the ,green ,vaults in ,dresden may be seen numerous specimens of valuable but hideous products of this class4 ,in the seventeenth century1 the art had run its course1 and gave place to a taste for cameos1 which in its turn was run into the ground4 ,cameo-cutting and gem engraving has always been accomplished partly by means of a drill2 the deepest point to be reached in the cutting would be punctured first1 and then the surfaces cut1 chipped1 and ground away until the desired level was attained4 ,this is on much the same principle as that adopted by marble cutters to-day4 ,mr4 ,cyril ,davenport's definition of a cameo is quite satisfactory3 ,a small sculpture executed in low relief upon some substance precious either for its beauty1 rarity1 or hardness4 ,cameos are usually cut in onyx1 the different layers and stratifications of colour being cut away at different depths1 so that the sculpture appears to be rendered in one colour on another1 and sometimes three or four layers are recognized1 so that a shaded effect is obtained4 ,certain pearly shells are sometimes used for cameo cutting2 these were popular in ,italy in the fifteenth century4 ,in ,greece and ,rome the art of cameo cutting was brought to astonishing perfection1 the sardonyx being frequently used1 and often cut in five different coloured layers4 ,an enormous antique cameo1 measuring over nine inches across1 may be seen in ,vienna2 it represents the ,apotheosis of ,augustus1 and the scene is cut in two rows of spirited figures4 ,it dates from the first century ,a4 ,d4 ,it is in dark brown and white4 ,among the treasures of the art-loving ,henry ,,iii4 was a great cameo1 in a golden case2 it was worth two hundred pounds4 ,this cameo was supposed to compete with a celebrated work at ,ste4 ,chapelle in ,paris1 which had been brought by ,emperor ,baldwin ,,ii4 from ,constantinople4 ,illustration3 ,,sardonyx ,,cup1 #aa,,th ,,century1 ,,venice ,in ,paris was a flourishing guild1 the ,lapidaries1 ,jewel ,cutters1 and ,engravers of ,cameos and ,hard ,stones1 in the thirteenth century2 glass cutters were included in this body for a time1 but after #aehd the revised laws did not permit of any imitative work1 so glass cutters were no longer allowed to join the society4 ,the ,french work was rather coarse compared with the classic examples4 ,the celebrated ,portland ,vase is a glass cameo1 of enormous proportions1 and a work of the first century1 in blue and white4 ,there is a quaint legend connected with the famous stone cameo known as the ,vase of ,st4 ,martin1 which is as follows3 when ,st4 ,martin visited the ,martyr's ,field at ,agaune1 he prayed for some time1 and then stuck his knife into the ground1 and was excusably astonished at seeing blood flow forth4 ,recognizing at once that he was in the presence of the miraculous 7which was almost second nature to mediaeval saints71 he began sedulously to collect the precious fluid in a couple of receptacles with which he had had the foresight to provide himself4 ,the two vases1 however1 were soon filled1 and yet the mystical ruby spring continued4 ,at his wit's ends1 he prayed again for guidance1 and presently an angel descended1 with a vase of fine cameo workmanship1 in which the remainder of the sacred fluid was preserved4 ,this vase is an onyx1 beautifully cut1 with fine figures1 and is over eight inches high1 mounted at foot and collar with ,byzantine gold and jewelled work4 ,the subject appears to be an episode during the ,siege of ,troy1--a whimsical selection of design for an angel4 ,some apparently mediaeval cameos are in reality antiques recut with ,christian characters4 ,a ,hercules could easily be turned into a ,david1 while ,perseus and ,medusa could be transformed quickly into a ,david and ,goliath4 ,there are two examples of cameos of the ,virgin which had commenced their careers1 one as a ,leda1 and the other as ,venus6 ,while a ,st4 ,john had originally figured as ,jupiter with his eagle6 ,in the ,renaissance there was great revival of all branches of gem cutting1 and cameos began to improve1 and to resemble once more their classical ancestors4 ,indeed1 their resemblance was rather academic1 and there was little originality in design4 ,like most of the ,renaissance arts1 it was a reversion instead of a new creation4 ,technically1 however1 the work was a triumph4 ,the craftsmen were not satisfied until they had quite outdone the ancients1 and they felt obliged to increase the depth of the cutting1 in order to show how cleverly they could coerce the material2 they even under-cut in some cases4 ,during the ,medicean period of ,italian art1 cameos were cut in most fantastic forms2 sometimes a negro head would be introduced simply to exhibit a dark stratum in the onyx1 and was quite without beauty4 ,one of the ,florentine lapidaries was known as ,giovanni of the ,carnelians1 and another as ,domenico of the ,cameos4 ,this latter carved a portrait of ,ludovico il ,moro on a red balas ruby1 in intaglio4 ,nicolo ,avanzi is reported as having carved a lapis lazuli three fingers broad into the scene of the ,nativity4 ,matteo dal ,nassaro1 a son of a shoemaker in ,verona1 developed extraordinary talent in gem cutting4 ,an exotic production is a crucifix cut in a blood-stone by ,matteo del ,nassaro1 where the artist has so utilized the possibilities of this stone that he has made the red patches to come in suitable places to portray drops of blood4 ,matteo worked also in ,paris1 in #aeca1 where he formed a school and craft shop1 and where he was afterwards made ,engraver of the ,mint4 ,vasari tells of an ingenious piece of work by ,matteo1 where he has carved a chalcedony into a head of ,dejanira1 with the skin of the lion about it4 ,he says1 ,in the stone there was a vein of red colour1 and here the artist has made the skin turn over444 and he has represented this skin with such exactitude that the spectator imagines himself to behold it newly torn from the animal6 ,of another mark he has availed himself1 for the hair1 and the white parts he has taken for the face and breast4 ,matteo was an independent spirit3 when a baron once tried to beat him down in his price for a gem1 he refused to take a small sum for it1 but asked the baron to accept it as a gift4 ,when this offer was refused1 and the nobleman insisted upon giving a low price1 ,matteo deliberately took his hammer and shattered the cameo into pieces at a single blow4 ,his must have been an unhappy life4 ,vasari says that he took a wife in ,france and became the father of children1 but they were so entirely dissimilar to himself1 that he had but little satisfaction from them4 ,another famous lapidary was ,valerio ,vicentino1 who carved a set of crystals which were made into a casket for ,pope ,clement ,,vii41 while for ,paul ,,iii4 he made a carved crystal cross and chandelier4 ,vasari reserves his highest commendation for ,casati1 called el ,greco1 by whom every other artist is surpassed in the grace and perfection as well as in the universality of his productions4444 ,nay1 ,michelangelo himself1 looking at them one day while ,giovanni ,vasari was present1 remarked that the hour for the death of the art had arrived1 for it was not possible that better work could be seen6 ,michelangelo proved a prophet1 in this case surely1 for the decadence followed swiftly4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,enamel ,oh1 thou discreetest of readers1 says ,benvenuto ,cellini1 marvel not that ,i have given so much time to writing about all this1 and we feel like making the same apology for devoting a whole chapter to enamel2 but this branch of the goldsmith's art has so many subdivisions1 that it cries for space4 ,the word ,enamel is derived from various sources4 ,the ,greek language has contributed maltha1 to melt2 the ,german schmeltz1 the old ,french esmail1 and the ,italian smalta1 all meaning about the same thing1 and suggesting the one quality which is inseparable from enamel of all nations and of all ages1--its fusibility4 ,for it is always employed in a fluid state1 and always must be4 ,enamel is a type of glass product reduced to powder1 and then melted by fervent heat into a liquid condition1 which1 when it has hardened1 returns to its vitreous state4 ,enamel has been used from very early times4 ,the first allusion to it is by ,philostratus1 in the year #bjj ,a4 ,d41 where he described the process as applied to the armour of his day4 ,the barbarians of the regions of the ocean1 he writes1 are skilled in fusing colours on heated brass1 which become as hard as stone1 and render the ornament thus produced durable4 ,enamels have special characteristics in different periods3 in the late tenth century1 of ,byzantium and ,germany2 in the eleventh century1 of ,italy2 while most of the later work owes its leading characteristics to the ,french1 although it continued to be produced in the other countries4 ,it helps one to understand the differences and similarities in enamelled work1 to observe the three general forms in which it is employed2 these are1 the cloisonne1 the champleve1 and the painted enamel4 ,there are many subdivisions of these classifications1 but for our purpose these three will suffice4 ,in cloisonne1 the only manner known to the ,greek1 ,anglo-,saxon1 and ,celtic craftsmen1 the pattern is made upon a gold ground1 by little upright wire lines1 like filigree1 the enamel is fused into all the little compartments thus formed1 each bit being one clear colour1 on the principle of a mosaic4 ,the colours were always rather clear and crude1 but are the more sincere and decorative on this account1 the worker recognizing frankly the limitation of the material2 and the gold outline harmonizes the whole1 as it does in any form of art work4 ,a cloisonne enamel is practically a mosaic1 in which the separations consist of narrow bands of metal instead of plaster4 ,the enamel was applied in its powdered state on the gold1 and then fused all together in the furnace4 ,illustration3 ,,german ,,enamel1 #ac,,th ,,century ,champleve enamel has somewhat the same effect as the cloisonne1 but the end is attained by different means4 ,the outline is left in metal1 and the whole background is cut away and sunk1 thus making the hollow chambers for the vitreous paste1 in one piece1 instead of by means of wires4 ,often it is not easy to determine which method has been employed to produce a given work4 ,painted enamels were not employed in the earliest times1 but came to perfection in the ,renaissance4 ,a translucent enamel prevailed especially in ,italy3 a low relief was made with the graver on gold or silver2 fine raised lines were left here and there1 to separate the colours4 ,therefore1 where the cutting was deepest1 the enamel ran thicker1 and consequently darker in colour1 giving the effect of shading1 while in reality only one tint had been used4 ,the powdered and moistened enamel was spread evenly with a spatula over the whole surface1 and allowed to stand in the kiln until it liquefied4 ,another form of enamel was used to colour gold work in relief1 with a permanent coating of transparent colour4 ,sometimes this colour was applied in several coats1 one upon another1 and the features painted with a later touch4 ,much enamelled jewelry was made in this way1 figures1 dragons1 and animal forms1 being among the most familiar4 ,but an actual enamel painting--on the principle of a picture1 was rendered in still another way4 ,in preparing the ground for enamel painting1 there are two things which have been essentially considered in all times and countries4 ,the enamel ground must be more fusible than the metal on which it is placed1 or else both would melt together4 ,also the enamel with which the final decoration is executed must be more easily made fluid than the harder enamel on which it is laid4 ,in fact1 each coat must of necessity be a trifle more fusible than the preceding one4 ,a very accurate knowledge is necessary to execute such a work1 as will be readily understood4 ,illustration3 ,,enamelled ,,gold ,,book ,,cover1 ,,siena ,in examining historic examples of enamel1 the curious oval set in gold1 known as the ,alfred ,jewel1 is among the first which come within our province4 ,it was found in ,somersetshire1 and probably dates from about the year #hgh4 ,it consists of an enamelled figure covered by a thick crystal1 set in filigree1 around the edge of which runs the inscription1 ,,aelfred ,,mec ,,reht ,,gavur ,,can 7,alfred ordered me to be wrought74 ,king ,alfred was a great patron of the arts4 ,of such ,anglo-,saxon work1 an ancient poem in the ,exeter ,book testifies3 ,for one a wondrous skill in goldsmith's art is provided ,full oft he decorates and well adorns ,a powerful king's nobles4 ,celtic enamels are interesting1 being usually set in the spaces among the rambling interlaces of this school of goldsmithing4 ,the ,cross of ,cong is among the most famous specimens of this work1 and also the bosses on the ,ardagh ,chalice4 ,the monk ,theophilus describes the process of enamelling in a graphic manner4 ,he directs his workmen to adapt their pieces of gold in all the settings in which the glass gems are to be placed 7by which we see that he teaches the cloisonne method74 ,cut small bands of exceedingly thin gold1 he continues1 in which you will bend and fashion whatever work you wish to make in enamel1 whether circles1 knots1 or small flowers1 or birds1 or animals1 or figures4 ,he then admonishes one to solder it with greatest care1 two or three times1 until all the pieces adhere firmly to the plate4 ,to prepare the powdered glass1 ,theophilus advises placing a piece of glass in the fire1 and1 when it has become glowing1 throw it into a copper vessel in which there is water1 and it instantly flies into small fragments which you break with a round pestle until quite fine4 ,the next step is to put the powder in its destined cloison1 and to place the whole jewel upon a thin piece of iron1 over which fits a cover to protect the enamel from the coals1 and put it in the most intensely hot part of the fire4 ,theophilus recommends that this little iron cover be perforated finely all over so that the holes may be inside flat and wide1 and outside finer and rough1 in order to stop the cinders if by chance they should fall upon it4 ,this process of firing may have to be repeated several times1 until the enamel fills every space evenly4 ,then follows the tedious task of burnishing2 setting the jewel in a strong bit of wax1 you are told to rub it on a smooth hard bone1 until it is polished well and evenly4 ,benvenuto ,cellini recommends a little paper sponge to be used in smoothing the face of enamels4 ,take a clean nice piece of paper1 he writes1 and chew it well between your teeth1--that is1 if you have got any--,i could not do it1 because ,i've none left6 ,a celebrated piece of goldsmith's work of the tenth century is the ,pala d',oro at ,st4 ,mark's in ,venice4 ,this is a gold altar piece or reredos1 about eleven feet long and seven feet high1 richly wrought in the ,byzantine style1 and set with enamels and precious stones4 ,the peculiar quality of the surface of the gold still lingers in the memory2 it looks almost liquid1 and suggests the appearance of metal in a fluid state4 ,on its wonderful divisions and arched compartments are no less than twelve hundred pearls1 and twelve hundred other precious gems4 ,these stones surround the openings in which are placed the very beautiful enamel figures of saints and sacred personages4 ,st4 ,michael occupies a prominent position2 the figure is partly in relief4 ,the largest medallion contains the figure of ,christ in glory1 and in other compartments may be seen even such secular personages as the ,empress ,irene1 and the ,doge who was ruling ,venice at the time this altar piece was put in place--the year #aajf4 ,the ,pala d',oro is worked in the champleve process1 the ground having been cut away to receive the melted enamel4 ,it is undoubtedly a ,byzantine work2 the ,doge ,orseolo1 in #igf1 ordered it to be made by the enamellers of ,constantinople4 ,it was not finished for nearly two centuries1 arriving in ,venice in #aajb1 when the portrait of the ,doge then reigning was added to it4 ,the ,byzantine range of colours was copious2 they had white1 two reds1 bright and dark1 dark and light blue1 green1 violet1 yellow1 flesh tint1 and black4 ,these tints were always fused separately1 one in each cloison3 the ,greeks in this period never tried to blend colours1 and more than one tint never appears in a compartment4 ,the enlarging and improving of the ,pam d',oro was carried on by ,greek artists in ,venice in #aaje4 ,it was twice altered after that1 once in the fourteenth century for ,dandolo1 and thus the pure ,byzantine type is somewhat invaded by the ,gothic spirit4 ,the restorations in #acde were presided over by ,gianmaria ,boninsegna4 ,one of the most noted specimens of enamel work is on the ,crown of ,charlemagne1#a which is a magnificent structure of eight plaques of gold1 joined by hinges1 and surmounted by a cross in the front1 and an arch crossing the whole like a rib from back to front4 ,the other cross rib has been lost1 but originally the crown was arched by two ribs at the top4 ,the plates of gold are ornamented1 one with jewels1 and filigree1 and the next with a large figure in enamel4 ,these figures are similar to those occurring on the ,pala d',oro4 ,footnote #a3 ,see ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,detail2 ,,shrine ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,kings1 ,,cologne ,the ,shrine of the ,three ,kings in ,cologne is decorated both with cloisonne and champleve enamels1--an unusual circumstance4 ,in ,aix la ,chapelle the shrine of ,charlemagne is extremely like it in some respects1 but the only enamels are in champleve4 ,good examples of translucent enamels in relief may be seen on several of the reliquaries at ,aix la ,chapelle4 ,theophilus gives us directions for making a very ornate chalice with handles1 richly embossed and ornamented with mello4 ,another paragraph instructs us how to make a golden chalice decorated with precious stones and pearls4 ,it would be interesting as a modern problem1 to follow minutely his directions1 and to build the actual chalice described in the eleventh century4 ,to apply the gems and pearls ,theophilus directs us to cut pieces like straps1 which you bend together to make small settings of them1 by which the stones may be enclosed4 ,these little settings1 with their stones1 are to be fixed with flour paste in their places and then warmed over the coals until they adhere4 ,this sounds a little risky1 but we fancy he must have succeeded1 and1 indeed1 it seems to have been the usual way of setting stones in the early centuries4 ,filigree flowers are then to be added1 and the whole soldered into place in a most primitive manner1 banking the coals in the shape of a small furnace1 so that the coals may lie thickly around the circumference1 and when the solder flows about as if undulating1 the artist is to sprinkle it quickly with water1 and take it out of the fire4 ,niello1 with which the chalice of ,theophilus is also to be enriched1 stands in relation to the more beautiful art of enamel1 as drawing does to painting1 and it is well to consider it here4 ,both the ,romans and the ,anglo-,saxons understood its use4 ,it has been employed as an art ever since the sixth and seventh centuries4 ,the term niello probably is an abbreviation of the ,italian word nigellus 7black72 the art is that of inlaying an engraved surface with a black paste1 which is thoroughly durable and hard as the metal itself in most cases1 the only difference being in flexibility2 if the metal plate is bent1 the niello will crack and flake off4 ,illustration3 ,,finiguerra',s ,,pax1 ,,florence ,niello is more than simply a drawing on metal4 ,that would come under the head of engraving4 ,a graver is used to cut out the design on the surface of the silver1 which is simply a polished plane4 ,when the drawing has been thus incised1 a black enamel1 made of lead1 lamp black1 and other substances1 is filled into the interstices1 and rubbed in2 when quite dry and hard1 this is polished4 ,the result is a black enamel which is then fused into the silver1 so that the whole is one surface1 and the decoration becomes part of the original plate4 ,the process as described by ,theophilus is as follows3 ,compose the niello in this manner2 take pure silver and divide it into equal parts1 adding to it a third part of pure copper1 and taking yellow sulphur1 break it very small444 and when you have liquefied the silver with the copper1 stir it evenly with charcoal1 and instantly pour into it lead and sulphur4 ,this niello paste is then made into a stick1 and heated until it glows3 then with another forceps1 long and thin1 hold the niello and rub it all over the places which you wish to make black1 until the drawing be full1 and carrying it away from the fire1 make it smooth with a flat file1 until the silver appear4 ,when ,theophilus has finished his directions1 he adds3 ,and take great care that no further work is required4 ,to polish the niello1 he directs us to pumice it with a damp stone1 until it is made everywhere bright4 ,there are various accounts of how ,finiguerra1 who was a worker in niello in ,florence1 discovered by its means the art of steel engraving4 ,it is probably only a legendary narrative1 but it is always told as one of the apocryphal stories when the origin of printing is discussed1 and may not be out of place here4 ,maso ,finiguerra1 a ,florentine1 had just engraved the plate for his famous niello1 a ,pax which is now to be seen in the ,bargello1 and had filled it in with the fluid enamel1 which was standing waiting until it should be dry4 ,then1 according to some authorities1 a piece of paper blew upon the damp surface1 on which1 after carefully removing it1 ,maso found his design was impressed2 others state that it was through the servant's laying a damp cloth upon it1 that the principle of printing from an incised plate was suggested4 ,at any rate1 ,finiguerra took the hint1 it is said1 and made an impression on paper1 rolling it1 as one would do with an etching or engraving4 ,in the ,silver ,chamber in the ,pitti ,palace is a ,pax1 by ,mantegna1 made in the same way as that by ,finiguerra1 and bearing comparison with it4 ,the engraving is most delicate1 and it is difficult to imagine a better specimen of the art4 ,the ,madonna and ,child1 seated in an arbour1 occupy the centre of the composition1 which is framed with jewelled bands1 the frame being divided into sixteen compartments1 in each of which is seen a tiny and exquisite picture4 ,the work on the arbour of roses in which the ,virgin sits is of remarkable quality1 as well as the small birds and animals introduced into the composition4 ,in the background1 ,st4 ,christopher is seen crossing the river with the ,christ ,child on his back1 while in the water a fish and a swan are visible4 ,in ,valencia in ,spain may be seen a chalice which has been supposed to be the very cup in which ,our ,saviour instituted the ,communion4 ,the cup itself is of sardonyx1 and of fine form4 ,the base is made of the same stone1 and handles and bands are of gold1 adorned with black enamel4 ,pearls1 rubies1 sapphires1 and emeralds are set in profusion about the stem and base4 ,it is a work of the epoch of ,imperial ,rome4 ,in ,england1 one of the most perfect specimens of fine1 close work1 is the ,wilton ,chalice1 dating from the twelfth century4 ,the ,warwick ,bowl1 too1 is of very delicate workmanship1 and both are covered with minute scenes and figures4 ,one of the most splendid treasures in this line is the crozier of ,william ,wyckham1 now in ,oxford4 ,it is strictly national in style4 ,the agreement entered into between ,henry ,,vii41 and ,abbot ,islip1 for the building of the chapel of that king in ,westminster1 is extant4 ,it is bound in velvet and bossed with enamels4 ,it is an interesting fact that some of the enamels are in the ,italian style1 while others are evidently ,english4 ,limoges was the most famous centre of the art of enamelling in the twelfth century1 the work being known as ,opus de ,limogia1 or ,labor ,limogiae4 ,limoges was a ,roman settlement1 and enamels were made there as early as the time of ,philostratus4 ,champleve enamel1 while it was not produced among the ,greeks1 nor even in ,byzantine work1 was almost invariable at ,limoges in the earlier days3 one can readily tell the difference between a ,byzantine enamel and an early ,limoges enamel by this test1 when there is otherwise sufficient similarity of design to warrant the question4 ,some of the most beautiful enamels of ,limoges were executed in what was called basse-taille1 or transparent enamel on gold grounds1 which had been first prepared in bas-relief4 ,champleve enamel was often used on copper1 for such things as pastoral staves1 reliquaries1 and larger bits of church furniture4 ,the enamel used on copper is usually opaque1 and somewhat coarser in texture than that employed on gold or silver4 ,owing to their additional toughness1 these specimens are usually in perfect preservation4 ,in #acbg1 ,guillaume de ,harie1 in his will1 bequeathed #hjj francs to make two high tombs1 to be covered with ,limoges enamel1 one for himself1 and the other for ,blanche d',avange1 my dear companion4 ,illustration3 ,,italian ,,enamelled ,,crozier1 #ad,,th ,,century ,an interesting form of cloisonne enamel was that known as plique a jour1 which consists of a filigree setting with the enamel in transparent bits1 without any metallic background4 ,it is still made in many parts of the world4 ,when held to the light it resembles minute arrangements of stained glass4 ,francis ,i4 showed ,benvenuto ,cellini a wonderful bowl of this description1 and asked ,cellini if he could possibly imagine how the result was attained4 ,sacred ,majesty1 replied ,benvenuto1 ,i can tell you exactly how it is done1 and he proceeded to explain to the astonished courtiers how the bowl was constructed1 bit by bit1 inside a bowl of thin iron lined with clay4 ,the wires were fastened in place with glue until the design was complete1 and then the enamel was put in place1 the whole being fused together at the soldering4 ,the clay form to which all this temporarily adhered was then removed1 and the work1 transparent and ephemeral1 was ready to stand alone4 ,king ,john gave to the city of ,lynn a magnificent cup of gold1 enamelled1 with figures of courtiers of the period1 engaged in the sports of hawking and hare-hunting1 and dressed in the costume of the king's reign4 ,king ,john gave to the ,corporation a rich cup and cover1 says ,mackarel1 weighing seventy-three ounces1 which is preserved to this day and upon all public occasions and entertainments used with some uncommon ceremonies at drinking the health of the ,king or ,queen1 and whoever goes to visit the ,mayor must drink out of this cup1 which contains a full pint4 ,the colours of the enamels which are used as flat values in backgrounds to the little silver figures1 are dark rose1 clear blue1 and soft green4 ,the dresses of the persons are also picked out in the same colours1 varied from the grounds4 ,this cup was drawn by ,john ,carter in #aghg1 he having had much trouble in getting permission to study the original for that purpose6 ,he took letters of introduction to the ,corporation1 but they appeared to suspect him of some imposture2 at first they refused to entertain his proposal at all1 but after several applications1 he was allowed to have the original before him1 in a closed room1 in company with a person appointed by them but at his expense1 to watch him and see that no harm came to the precious cup6 ,the translucent enamels on relief were made a great deal by the ,italian goldsmiths2 ,vasari alludes to this class of work as a species of painting united with sculpture4 ,as enamel came by degrees to be used as if it were paint1 one of the chief charms of the art died4 ,the limits of this art were its strength1 and simple straight-forward use of the material was its best expression4 ,the method of making a painted enamel was as follows4 ,the design was laid out with a stilus on a copper plate4 ,then a flux of plain enamel was fused on to the surface1 all over it4 ,the drawing was then made again1 on the same lines1 in a dark medium1 and the colours were laid flat inside the dark lines1 accepting these lines as if they had been wires around cloisons4 ,all painted enamels had to be enamelled on the back as well1 to prevent warping in the furnace when the shrinkage took place4 ,after each layer of colour the whole plate was fired4 ,in the fifteenth century these enamels were popular and retained some semblance of respect for the limitation of material2 later1 greater facility led1 as it does in most of the arts1 to a decadence in taste1 and florid pictures1 with as many colours and shadows as would appear in an oil painting1 resulted4 ,here and there1 where special metallic brilliancy was desired1 a leaf of gold was laid under the colour of some transparent enamel1 giving a decorative lustre4 ,these bits of brilliant metal were known as paillons4 ,when ,limoges had finally become the royal manufactory of enamels1 under ,francis ,i41 the head of the works was ,leonard ,limousin1 created ,valet de ,chambre du ,roi1 to show his sovereign's appreciation4 ,remarkable examples of the work of ,leonard ,limousin1 executed in #aedg1 are the large figures of the ,apostles to be seen in the church of ,st4 ,pierre1 at ,chartres1 where they are ranged about the apsidal chapel4 ,they are painted enamels on copper sheets twenty-four by eleven inches1 and are in a wonderful state of preservation4 ,they were the gift of ,henri ,,ii4 to ,diane de ,poictiers and were brought to ,chartres from the ,chateau d',anet4 ,these enamels1 being on a white ground1 have something the effect of paintings in ,faience2 the colouring is delicate1 and they have occasional gold touches4 ,a treatise by ,william of ,essex directs the artist how to prepare a plate for a painted enamel1 such as were used in miniature work4 ,he says ,to make a plate for the artist to paint upon3 a piece of gold or copper being chosen1 of requisite dimensions1 and varying from about #a_/ah to #a_/af of an inch in thickness1 is covered with pulverized enamel1 and passed through the fire1 until it becomes of a white heat2 another coating of enamel is then added1 and the plate again fired2 afterwards a thin layer of a substance called flux is laid upon the surface of the enamel1 and the plate undergoes the action of heat for a third time4 ,it is now ready for the painter to commence his picture upon4 ,leonard ,limousin painted from #aecb until #aegd4 ,he used the process as described by ,william of ,essex 7which afterwards became very popular for miniaturists71 and also composed veritable pictures of his own design4 ,it is out of our province to trace the history of the ,limoges enamellers after this period4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,other ,,metals ,the perils that environ men that meddle with cold iron are many2 but those who attempt to control hot iron are also to be respected1 when they achieve an artistic result with this unsympathetic metal1 which by nature is entirely lacking in charm1 in colour and texture1 and depends more upon a proper application of design than any other1 in order to overcome the obstacles to beauty with which it is beset4 ,rust hath corrupted1 unfortunately1 many interesting antiquities in iron1 so that only a limited number of specimens of this metal have come down to us from very early times2 one of the earliest in ,england is a grave-stone of cast metal1 of the date #acej3 it is decorated with a cross1 and has the epitaph1 ,pray for the soul of ,joan ,collins4 ,the process of casting iron was as follows4 ,the moulds were made of a sandy substance1 composed of a mixture of brick dust1 loam1 plaster1 and charcoal4 ,a bed of this sand was made1 and into it was pressed a wooden or metal pattern4 ,when this was removed1 the imprint remained in the sand4 ,liquid metal was run into the mould so formed1 and would cool into the desired shape4 ,as with a plaster cast1 it was necessary to employ two such beds1 the sand being firmly held in boxes1 if the object was to be rounded1 and then the two halves thus made were put together4 ,flat objects1 such as fire-backs1 could be run into a single mould4 ,bartholomew1 in his book ,on the ,properties of ,things1 makes certain statements about iron which are interesting3 ,though iron cometh of the earth1 yet it is most hard and sad1 and therefore with beating and smiting it suppresseth and dilateth all other metal1 and maketh it stretch on length and on breadth4 ,this is the key-note to the work of a blacksmith3 it is what he has done from the first1 and is still doing4 ,in ,spain there have been iron mines ever since the days when ,pliny wrote and alluded to them1 but there are few samples in that country to lead us to regard it as aesthetic in its purpose until the fifteenth century4 ,for tempering iron instruments1 there are recipes given by the monk ,theophilus1 but they are unfortunately quite unquotable1 being treated with mediaeval frankness of expression4 ,st4 ,dunstan was the patron of goldsmiths and blacksmiths4 ,he was born in #ibe1 and lived in ,glastonbury1 where he became a monk rather early in life4 ,he not only worked in metal1 but was a good musician and a great scholar1 in fact a genuine rounded man of culture4 ,he built an organ1 no doubt something like the one which ,theophilus describes1 which1 ,bede tells us1 being fitted with brass pipes1 filled with air from the bellows1 uttered a grand and most sweet melody4 ,dunstan was a favourite at court1 in the reign of ,king ,edmund4 ,enemies were plentiful1 however1 and they spread the report that ,dunstan evoked demoniac aid in his almost magical work in its many departments4 ,it was said that occasionally the evil spirits were too aggravating1 and that in such cases ,dunstan would stand no nonsense4 ,there is an old verse3 ,st4 ,dunstan1 so the story goes1 ,once pulled the devil by the nose1 ,with red hot tongs1 which made him roar ,that he was heard three miles or more6 ,the same story is told of ,st4 ,eloi1 and probably of most of the mediaeval artistic spirits who were unfortunate enough to be human in their temperaments and at the same time pious and struggling4 ,he was greatly troubled by visitations such as persecuted ,st4 ,anthony4 ,on one occasion1 it is related that he was busy at his forge when this fiend was unusually persistent3 ,st4 ,dunstan turned upon the demon1 and grasped its nose in the hot pincers1 which proved a most successful exorcism4 ,in old portraits1 ,st4 ,dunstan is represented in full ecclesiastical habit1 holding the iron pincers as symbols of his prowess4 ,he became ,archbishop of ,canterbury after having held the ,sees of ,worcester and ,london4 ,he journeyed to ,rome1 and received the pallium of ,primate of the ,anglo-,saxons1 from ,pope ,john ,,xii4 ,dunstan was a righteous statesman1 twice reproving the king for evil deeds1 and placing his ,royal ,highness under the ban of the ,church for immoral conduct6 ,st4 ,dunstan died in #ihh4 ,illustration3 ,,wrought ,,iron ,,hinge1 ,,frankfort ,wrought iron has been in use for many centuries for hinges and other decorations on doors2 a necessity to every building in a town from earliest times4 ,the word hinge comes from the ,saxon1 hengen1 to hang4 ,primitive hinges were sometimes sockets cut in stone1 as at ,torcello2 but soon this was proved a clumsy and inconvenient method of hanging a door1 and hinges more simple in one way1 and yet more ornate1 came into fashion4 ,iron hinges were found most useful when they extended for some distance on to the door2 this strengthened the door against the invasion of pirates1 when the church was the natural citadel of refuge for the inhabitants of a town1 and also held it firmly from warping4 ,at first single straps of iron were clamped on3 then the natural craving for beauty prevailed1 and the hinges developed1 flowering out into scrolls and leaves1 and spreading all over the doors1 as one sees them constantly in mediaeval examples4 ,the general scheme usually followed was a straight strap of iron flanked by two curving horns like a crescent1 and this motive was elaborated until a positive lace of iron1 often engraved or moulded1 covered the surface of the door1 as in the wonderful work of ,biscornette at ,notre ,dame in ,paris4 ,biscornette was a very mysterious worker1 and no one ever saw him constructing the hinges4 ,reports went round that the devil was helping him1 that he had sold his soul to the ,king of ,darkness in order to enlist his assistance in his work2 an instance of aesthetic altruism almost commendable in its exotic zeal4 ,certain jealous artificers even went so far as to break off bits of the meandering iron1 to test it1 but with no result2 they could not decide whether it was cast or wrought4 ,later a legend grew up explaining the reason why the central door was not as ornate as the side doors3 the story was that the devil was unable to assist ,biscornette on this door because it was the aperture through which the ,host passed in processions4 ,it is more likely1 however1 that the doors were originally uniform1 and that the iron was subsequently removed for some other reason4 ,the design is supposed to represent the ,earthly ,paradise4 ,sauval says3 ,the sculptured birds and ornaments are marvellous4 ,they are made of wrought iron1 the invention of ,biscornette and which died with him4 ,he worked the iron with an almost incredible industry1 rendering it flexible and tractable1 and gave it all the forms and scrolls he wished1 with a 'douceur et une gentillesse' which surprised and astonished all the smiths4 ,the iron master ,gaegart broke off fragments of the iron1 and no member of the craft has ever been able to state with certainty just how the work was accomplished4 ,some think that it is cast1 and then treated with the file2 others say that it must have been executed by casting entire1 with no soldering4 ,in any case1 the secret will never be divulged1 for no one was in the confidence of ,biscornette4 ,norman blacksmiths and workers in wrought iron were more plentiful than goldsmiths4 ,they had1 in those warlike times1 more call for arms and the massive products of the forge than for gaudy jewels and table appointments4 ,one of the doors of ,st4 ,alban's ,abbey displays the skill of ,norman smiths dealing with this stalwart form of ornament4 ,among special artists in iron whose names have survived is that of ,jehan ,tonquin1 in #achh4 ,earlier than that1 a cutler1 ,thomas de ,fieuvillier1 is mentioned1 as having flourished about #accj4 ,illustration3 ,,biscornette',s ,,doors ,,at ,,paris ,elaborate iron work is rare in ,germany2 the ,germans always excelled rather in bronze than in the sterner metal4 ,at ,st4 ,ursula's in ,cologne there are iron floriated hinges1 but the design and idea are ,french1 and not native4 ,one may usually recognize a difference between ,french and ,english wrought iron1 for the ,french is often in detached pieces1 not an outgrowth of the actual hinge itself1 and when this is found in ,england1 it indicates ,french work4 ,ornaments in iron were sometimes cut out of flat sheet metal1 and then hammered into form4 ,in stamping this flat work with embossed effect1 the smith had to work while the iron was hot1--as ,sancho ,panza expressed it1 ,praying to ,god and hammering away4 ,dies were made1 after a time1 into which the design could be beaten with less effort than in the original method4 ,one of the quaintest of iron doors is at ,krems1 where the gate is made up of square sheets of iron1 cut into rude pierced designs1 giving scenes from the ,new ,testament1 and hammered up so as to be slightly embossed4 ,the ,guild of ,blacksmiths in ,florence flourished as early as the thirteenth century4 ,it covered workers in many metals1 copper1 iron1 brass1 and pewter included4 ,among the rules of the ,guild was one permitting members to work for ready money only4 ,they were not allowed to advertise by street crying1 and were fined if they did so4 ,the ,arms of the ,guild was a pair of furnace tongs upon a white field4 ,among the products of the forge most in demand were the iron window-gratings so invariable on all houses1 and called by ,michelangelo kneeling windows1 on account of the bulging shape of the lower parts4 ,one famous iron worker carried out the law of the ,guild both in spirit and letter to the extent of insisting upon payment in advance6 ,this was ,nicolo ,grosso1 who worked about #adii4 ,vasari calls him the money grabber4 ,his specialty was to make the beautiful torch holders and lanterns such as one sees on the ,strozzi ,palace and in the ,bargello4 ,in ,england there were ,guilds of ,blacksmiths2 in ,middlesex one was started in #adcd1 and members were known as in the worship of ,st4 ,eloi4 ,members were alluded to as ,brethren and ,sisteren1--this term would fill a much felt vacancy6 ,some of the ,guilds exacted fines from all members who did not pay a proper proportion of their earnings to the ,church4 ,another general use of iron for artistic purposes was in the manufacture of grilles4 ,grilles were used in ,france and ,england in cathedrals4 ,the earliest ,christian grille is a pierced bronze screen in the ,church of the ,nativity in ,bethlehem4 ,in ,hildesheim is an original form of grille2 the leaves and rosettes in the design are pierced1 instead of being beaten up into bosses4 ,this probably came from the fact that the ,german smith did not understand the ,frankish drawing1 and supposed that the shaded portions of the work were intended to be open work4 ,the result1 however1 is most happy1 and a new feature was thus introduced into grille work4 ,illustration3 ,,wrought ,,iron ,,from ,,the ,,bargello1 ,,florence ,many grilles were formed by the smith's taking an iron bar and1 under the intense heat1 splitting it into various branches1 each of which should be twisted in a different way4 ,another method was to use the single slighter bar for the foundation of the design1 and welding on other volutes of similar thickness to make the scroll work associated with wrought iron4 ,some of the smiths who worked at ,westminster ,abbey are known by name2 ,master ,henry ,lewis1 in #abei1 made the iron work for the tomb of ,henry ,,iii4 ,a certain iron fragment is signed ,gilibertus4 ,the iron on the tomb of ,queen ,eleanor is by ,thomas de ,leighton1 in #abid4 ,lead workers also had a place assigned to them in the precincts1 which was known as the ,plumbery4 ,in #adca ,master ,roger ,johnson was enjoined to arrest or press smiths into service in order to finish the ironwork on the tomb of ,edward ,,iv4 ,probably the most famous use of iron in ,spain is in the stupendous rejas1 or chancel screens of wrought iron2 but these are nearly all of a late ,renaissance style1 and hardly come within the scope of this volume4 ,the requirements of ,spanish cathedrals1 too1 for wrought iron screens for all the side chapels1 made plenty of work for the iron masters4 ,in fact1 the rejeros1 or iron master1 was as regular an adjunct to a cathedral as an architect or a painter4 ,knockers were often very handsome in ,spain1 and even nail heads were decorated4 ,an interesting specimen of iron work is the grille that surrounds the tomb of the ,scaligers in ,verolla4 ,it is not a hard stiff structure1 but is composed of circular forms1 each made separately1 and linked together with narrow bands1 so that the construction is flexible1 and is more like a gigantic piece of chain mail than an iron fence4 ,quentin ,matsys was known as the blacksmith of ,antwerp1 and is reported to have left his original work among metals to become a painter4 ,this was done in order to marry the lady of his choice1 for she refused to join her fate to that of a craftsman4 ,she1 however1 was ready to marry a painter4 ,quentin1 therefore1 gave up his hammer and anvil1 and began to paint ,madonnas that he might prosper in his suit4 ,some authorities1 however1 laugh at this story1 and claim that the specimens of iron work which are shown as the early works of ,matsys date from a time when he would have been only ten or twelve years old1 and that they must therefore have been the work of his father1 ,josse ,matsys1 who was a locksmith4 ,the well-cover in ,antwerp1 near the cathedral1 is always known as ,quentin ,matsys' well4 ,it is said that this was not constructed until #adgj1 while ,quentin was born in #adff4 ,the iron work of the tomb of the ,duke of ,burgundy1 in ,windsor1 is supposed to be the work of ,quentin ,matsys1 and is considered the finest grille in ,england4 ,it is wrought with such skill and delicacy that it is more like the product of the goldsmith's art than that of the blacksmith4 ,illustration3 ,,moorish ,,keys1 ,,seville ,another object of utility which was frequently ornamented was the key4 ,the ,key of ,state1 especially1 was so treated4 ,some are nine or ten inches long1 having been used to present to visiting grandees as typical of the ,freedom of the ,city4 ,keys were often decorated with handles having the appearance of ,gothic tracery4 ,in an old book published in #agie1 there is an account of the miraculous ,keys of ,st4 ,denis1 made of silver1 which they apply to the faces of these persons who have been so unfortunate as to be bitten by mad dogs1 and who received certain and immediate relief in only touching them4 ,a key in ,valencia1 over nine inches in length1 is richly embossed1 while the wards are composed of decorative letters1 looking at first like an elaborate sort of filigree1 but finally resolving themselves into the autographic statement3 ,it was made by ,ahmed ,ahsan4 ,it is a delicate piece of thirteenth or fourteenth century work in iron4 ,another old ,spanish key has a ,hebrew inscription round the handle3 ,the ,king of ,kings will open3 the ,king of the whole ,earth will enter1 and1 in the wards1 in ,spanish1 ,god will open1 the ,king will enter4 ,the iron smiths of ,barcelona formed a ,guild in the thirteenth century3 it is to be regretted that more of their work could not have descended to us4 ,a frank treatment of locks and bolts1 using them as decorations1 instead of treating them as disgraces1 upon the surface of a door1 is the only way to make them in any degree effective4 ,as ,pugin has said1 it is possible to use nails1 screws1 and rivets1 so that they become beautiful studs and busy enrichments4 ,florentine locksmiths were specially famous2 there also was a great fashion for damascened work in that city1 and it was executed with much elegance4 ,in blacksmith's work1 heat was used with the hammer at each stage of the work1 while in armourer's or locksmith's work1 heat was employed only at first1 to achieve the primitive forms1 and then the work was carried on with chisel and file on the cold metal4 ,up to the fourteenth century the work was principally that of the blacksmith1 and after that1 of the locksmith4 ,the mention of arms and armour in a book of these proportions must be very slight2 the subject is a vast one1 and no effort to treat it with system would be satisfactory in so small a space4 ,but a few curious and significant facts relating to the making of armour may be cited4 ,the rapid decay of iron through rust--rapid1 that is to say1 in comparison with other metals--is often found to have taken place when the discovery of old armour has been made2 so that gold ornaments1 belonging to a sword or other weapon1 may be found in excavating1 while the iron which formed the actual weapon has disappeared4 ,primitive armour was based on a leather foundation1 hence the name cuirass1 was derived from cuir 7leather74 ,in a former book ,i have alluded to the armour of the nomadic tribes1 which is described by ,pausanias as coarse coats of mail made out of the hoofs of horses1 split1 and laid overlapping each other1 making them something like dragon's scales1 as ,pausanias explains2 adding for the benefit of those who are unfamiliar with dragons' anatomy1 ,whoever has not yet seen a dragon1 has1 at any rate1 seen a pine cone still green4 ,these are equally like in appearance to the surface of this armour4 ,these horny scales of tough hoofs undoubtedly suggested1 at a later date1 the use of thick leather as a form of protection1 and the gradual evolution may be imagined4 ,the art of the armourer was in early mediaeval times the art of the chain maker4 ,the chain coat1 or coats of mail1 reached in early days as far as the knees4 ,finally this developed into an entire covering for the man1 with head gear as well2 of course this form of armour allowed of no real ornamentation1 for there was no space larger than the links of the chain upon which to bestow decoration4 ,each link of a coat of mail was brought round into a ring1 the ends overlapped1 and a little rivet inserted4 ,warriors trusted to no solder or other mode of fastening4 ,all the magnificence of knightly apparel was concentrated in the surcoat1 a splendid embroidered or gem-decked tunic to the knees1 which was worn over the coat of mail4 ,these surcoats were often trimmed with costly furs1 ermine or vair1 the latter being similar to what we now call squirrel1 being part gray and part white4 ,cinderella's famous slipper was made of vair1 which1 through a misapprehension in being translated verre1 has become known as a glass slipper4 ,illustration3 ,,armour1 ,,showing ,,mail ,,developing ,,into ,,plate ,after a bit1 the makers of armour discovered that much tedious labor in chain making might be spared1 if one introduced a large plate of solid metal on the chest and back4 ,this was in the thirteenth century4 ,the elbows and knees were also treated in this way1 and in the fourteenth century1 the principle of armour had changed to a set of separate plates fastened together by links4 ,this was the evolution from mail to plate armour4 ,a description of ,charlemagne as he appeared on the field of battle1 in his armour1 is given by the ,monk of ,st4 ,gall1 his biographer1 and is dramatic4 ,then could be seen the iron ,charles1 helmeted with an iron helmet1 his iron breast and broad shoulders protected with an iron breast plate2 an iron spear was raised on high in his left hand1 his right always rested on his unconquered iron falchion4444 ,his shield was all of iron1 his charger was iron coloured and iron hearted4444 ,the fields and open spaces were filled with iron2 a people harder than iron paid universal homage to the hardness of iron4 ,the horror of the dungeon seemed less than the bright gleam of iron4 ',oh1 the iron6 woe for the iron6' was the confused cry that rose from the citizens4 ,the strong walls shook at the sight of iron3 the resolution of young and old fell before the iron4 ,by the end of the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries1 whole suits of armour were almost invariable1 and then came the opportunity for the goldsmith1 the damascener1 and the niellist4 ,some of the leading artists1 especially in ,italy1 were enlisted in designing and decorating what might be called the armour-de-luxe of the warrior princes6 ,the armour of horses was as ornate as that of the riders4 ,the sword was always the most imposingly ornamented part of a knight's equipment1 and underwent various modifications which are interesting to note4 ,at first1 it was the only weapon invariably at hand3 it was enormously large1 and two hands were necessary in wielding it4 ,as the arquebuse came into use1 the sword took a secondary position3 it became lighter and smaller4 ,and ever since #aeaj it is a curious fact that the decorations of swords have been designed to be examined when the sword hangs with the point down2 the earlier ornament was adapted to being seen at its best when the sword was held upright1 as in action4 ,perhaps the later theory of decoration is more sensible1 for it is certain that neither a warrior nor his opponent could have occasion to admire fine decoration at a time when the sword was drawn6 ,that the arts should be employed to satisfy the eye in times of peace1 sufficed the later wearers of ornamented swords4 ,toledo blades have always been famous1 and rank first among the steel knives of the world4 ,even in ,roman times1 and of course under the ,moors1 ,toledo led in this department4 ,the process of making a ,toledo blade was as follows4 ,there was a special fine white sand on the banks of the ,tagus1 which was used to sprinkle on the blade when it was red hot1 before it was sent on to the forger's4 ,when the blade was red hot from being steeped four-fifths of its length in flame1 it was dropped point first into a bucket of water4 ,if it was not perfectly straight when it was withdrawn1 it was beaten into shape1 more sand being first put upon it4 ,after this the remaining fifth of the blade was subjected to the fire1 and was rubbed with suet while red hot2 the final polish of the whole sword was produced by emery powder on wooden wheels4 ,illustration3 ,,damascened ,,helmet ,damascening was a favourite method of ornamenting choice suits of armour1 and was also applied to bronzes1 cabinets1 and such pieces of metal as lent themselves to decoration4 ,the process began like niello3 little channels for the design were hollowed out1 in the iron or bronze1 and then a wire of brass1 silver1 or gold1 was laid in the groove1 and beaten into place1 being afterwards polished until the surface was uniform all over4 ,one great feature of the art was to sink the incision a little broader at the base than at the top1 and then to force the softer metal in1 so that1 by this undercutting1 it was held firmly in place4 ,cellini tells of his first view of damascened steel blades4 ,i chanced1 he says1 to become possessed of certain little ,turkish daggers1 the handle of which together with the guard and blade were ornamented with beautiful ,oriental leaves1 engraved with a chisel1 and inlaid with gold4 ,this kind of work differed materially from any which ,i had as yet practised or attempted1 nevertheless ,i was seized with a great desire to try my hand at it1 and ,i succeeded so admirably that ,i produced articles infinitely finer and more solid than those of the ,turks4 ,benvenuto had such a humble opinion of his own powers6 ,but when one considers the pains and labour expended upon the arts of damascening and niello1 one regrets that the workers had not been inspired to attempt dentistry1 and save so much unnecessary individual suffering6 ,on the ,sword of ,boabdil are many inscriptions1 among them1 ,god is clement and merciful1 and ,god is gifted with the best memory4 ,no two sentiments could be better calculated to keep a conqueror from undue excesses4 ,mercia was a headquarters for steel and other metals in the thirteenth century4 ,seville was even then famous for its steel1 also1 and in the words of a contemporary writer1 the steel which is made in ,seville is most excellent2 it would take too much time to enumerate the delicate objects of every kind which are made in this town4 ,king ,don ,pedro1 in his will1 in the fourteenth century1 bequeathes to his son1 his ,castilian sword1 which ,i had made here in ,seville1 ornamented with stones and gold4 ,swords were baptized2 they were named1 and seemed to have a veritable personality of their own4 ,the sword of ,charlemagne was christened ,joyeuse1 while we all know of ,arthur's ,excalibur2 ,roland's sword was called ,durandel4 ,saragossa steel was esteemed for helmets1 and the sword of ,james of ,arragon in #abcj1 a very good sword1 and lucky to those who handled it1 was from ,monzon4 ,the ,cid's sword was similar1 and named ,tizona4 ,there is a story of a ,jew who went to the grave of the ,cid to steal his sword1 which1 according to custom1 was interred with the owner3 the corpse is said to have resented the intrusion by unsheathing the weapon1 which miracle so amazed the ,jew that he turned ,christian6 ,illustration3 ,,moorish ,,sword ,german armour was popular4 ,cologne swords were great favourites in ,england4 ,king ,arthur's sword was one of these1-- ,for all of ,coleyne was the blade ,and all the hilt of precious stone4 ,in the ,british ,museum is a wonderful example of a wooden shield1 painted on a gesso ground1 the subject being a ,knight kneeling before a lady1 and the motto3 ,vous ou la mort4 ,these wooden shields were used in ,germany until the end of ,maximilian's reign4 ,the helmet1 or ,heaume1 entirely concealed the face1 so that for purposes of identification1 heraldic badges and shields were displayed4 ,later1 crests were also used on the helmets1 for the same purpose4 ,certain armourers were very well known in their day1 and were as famous as artists in other branches4 ,william ,austin made a superb suit for the ,earl of ,warwick1 while ,thomas ,stevyns was the coppersmith who worked on the same1 and ,bartholomew ,lambspring was the polisher4 ,there was a famous master-armourer at ,greenwich in the days of ,elizabeth1 named ,jacob3 some important arms of that period bear the inscription1 ,made by me ,jacob4 ,there is some question whether he was the same man as ,jacob ,topf who came from ,innsbruck1 and became court armourer in ,england in #aege4 ,another famous smith was ,william ,pickering1 who made exquisitely ornate suits of what we might call full-dress armour4 ,colossal cannon were made3 two celebrated guns may be seen1 the monster at ,ghent1 called ,mad ,meg1 and the huge cannon at ,edinburgh ,castle1 ,mons ,meg1 dating from #adgf4 ,these guns are composed of steel coils or spirals1 afterwards welded into a solid mass instead of being cast4 ,they are mammoth examples of the art of the blacksmith and the forge4 ,in ,germany cannon were made of bronze1 and these were simply cast4 ,cross bows obtained great favour in ,spain1 even after the arquebuse had come into use4 ,it was considered a safer weapon to the one who used it4 ,an old writer in #afdd remarks1 ,it has never been known that a man's life has been lost by breaking the string or cord1 two things which are dangerous1 but not to a considerable extent1444 and he goes on once set1 its shot is secure1 which is not the case with the arquebus1 which often misses fire4 ,there is a letter from ,ambassador ,salimas to the ,king of ,hungary1 in which he says3 ,i went to ,balbastro and there occupied myself in making a pair of cross bows for your ,majesty4 ,i believe they will satisfy the desires which were required444 as your ,majesty is annoyed when they do not go off as you wish4 ,it would seem as though his ,majesty's annoyance was justifiable2 imagine any one dependent upon the shot of a cross bow1 and then having the weapon fail to go off6 ,nothing could be more discouraging4 ,illustration3 ,,enamelled ,,suit ,,of ,,armour ,there is a contemporary treatise which is full of interest1 entitled1 ,how a ,man shall be ,armed at his ease when he shall ,fight on ,foot4 ,it certainly was a good deal of a contract to render a knight comfortable in spite of the fact that he could see or breathe only imperfectly1 and was weighted down by iron at every point4 ,this complete covering with metal added much to the actual noise of battle4 ,froissart alludes to the fact that in the battle of ,rosebeque1 in #achb1 the hammering on the helmets made a noise which was equal to that of all the armourers of ,paris and ,brussels working together4 ,and yet the strength needed to sport such accoutrements seems to have been supplied4 ,leon ,alberti of ,florence1 when clad in a full suit of armour1 could spring with ease upon a galloping horse1 and it is related that ,aldobrandini1 even with his right arm disabled1 could cleave straight through his opponent's helmet and head1 down to the collar bone1 with a single stroke6 ,one of the richest suits of armour in the world is to be seen at ,windsor2 it is of ,italian workmanship1 and is made of steel1 blued and gilded1 with wonderfully minute decorations of damascene and applique work4 ,this most ornate armour was made chiefly for show1 and not for the field3 for knights to appear in their official capacity1 and for jousting at tournaments1 which were practically social events4 ,in the days of ,henry ,,viii4 a chronicler tells of a jouster who tourneyed in harneyse all of gilt from the head piece to the sabattons4 ,many had tassels of fine gold on their suits4 ,italian weapons called lasquenets were very deadly4 ,in a letter from ,albrecht ,duerer to ,pirckheimer1 he alludes to them1 as having roncions with two hundred and eighteen points3 and if they pink a man with any of these1 the man is dead1 as they are all poisoned4 ,bronze is composed of copper with an alloy of about eight or ten per cent4 of tin4 ,the fusing of these two metals produces the brown glossy substance called bronze1 which is so different from either of them4 ,the art of the bronze caster is a very old and interesting one4 ,the method of proceeding has varied very little with the centuries4 ,a statue to be cast either in silver or bronze would be treated in the following manner4 ,a general semblance of the finished work was first set up in clay2 then over this a layer of wax was laid1 as thick as the final bronze was intended to be4 ,the wax was then worked with tools and by hand until it took on the exact form designed for the finished product4 ,then a crust of clay was laid over the wax2 on this were added other coatings of clay1 until quite a thick shell of clay surrounded the wax4 ,the whole was then subjected to fervent heat1 and the wax all melted out1 leaving a space between the core and the outer shell4 ,into this space the liquid bronze was poured1 and after it had cooled and hardened the outer shell was broken off1 leaving the statue in bronze exactly as the wax had been4 ,cellini relates an experience in ,paris1 with an old man eighty years of age1 one of the most famous bronze casters whom he had engaged to assist him in his work for ,francis ,i4 ,something went wrong with the furnace1 and the poor old man was so upset and got into such a stew that he fell upon the floor1 and ,benvenuto picked him up fancying him to be dead3 ,howbeit1 explains ,cellini1 ,i had a great beaker of the choicest wine brought him1444 ,i mixed a large bumper of wine for the old man1 who was groaning away like anything1 and ,i bade him most winning-wise to drink1 and said3 ',drink1 my father1 for in yonder furnace has entered in a devil1 who is making all this mischief1 and1 look you1 we'll just let him bide there a couple of days1 till he gets jolly well bored1 and then will you and ,i together in the space of three hours firing1 make this metal run1 like so much batter1 and without any exertion at all4' ,the old fellow drank and then ,i brought him some little dainties to eat3 meat pasties they were1 nicely peppered1 and ,i made him take down four full goblets of wine4 ,he was a man quite out of the ordinary1 this1 and a most lovable old thing1 and what with my caresses and the virtue of the wine1 ,i found him soon moaning away as much with joy as he had moaned before with grief4 ,cellini displayed in this incident his belief in the great principle that the artist should find pleasure in his work in order to impart to that work a really satisfactory quality1 and did exactly the right thing at the right minute2 instead of trusting to a faltering effort in a disheartened man1 he cheered the old bronze founder up to such a pitch that after a day or two the work was completed with triumph and joy to both4 ,in the famous statue of ,perseus1 ,cellini experienced much difficulty in keeping the metal liquid4 ,the account of this thrilling experience1 told in his matchless autobiography1 is too long to quote at this point2 an interesting item1 however1 should be noted4 ,cellini used pewter as a solvent in the bronze which had hardened in the furnace4 ,apprehending that the cause of it was1 that the fusibility of the metal was impaired1 by the violence of the fire1 he says1 ,i ordered all my dishes and porringers1 which were in number about two hundred1 to be placed one by one before my tubes1 and part of them to be thrown into the furnace1 upon which all present perceived that my bronze was completely dissolved1 and that my mould was filling1 and1 such was the relief that even the loss of the entire pewter service of the family was sustained with equanimity2 the family1 without delay1 procured earthen vessels to supply the place of the pewter dishes and porringers1 and we all dined together very cheerfully4 ,edgecumb ,staley1 in the ,guilds of ,florence1 speaks of the pewter fattened ,perseus3 this is worthy of ,carlyle4 ,early ,britons cast statues in brass4 ,speed tells of ,king ,cadwollo1 who died in #fgg1 being buried at ,st4 ,martin's church near ,ludgate1 his image great and terrible1 triumphantly riding on horseback1 artificially cast in brass1 was placed on the ,western gate of the city1 to the further fear and terror of the ,saxons6 ,in #aefb ,bartolomeo ,morel1 who made the celebrated statue of the ,giralda ,tower in ,seville1 executed a fifteen branched candelabrum for the ,cathedral4 ,it is a rich ,renaissance design1 in remarkably chaste and good lines1 and holds fifteen statuettes1 which are displaced to make room for the candles only during the last few days of ,lent4 ,a curious form of mediaeval trinket was the perfume ball2 this consisted of a perforated ball of copper or brass1 often ornamented with damascene1 and intended to contain incense to perfume the air1 the balls being suspended4 ,the earliest metal statuary in ,england was rendered in latten1 a mixed metal of a yellow colour1 the exact recipe for which has not survived4 ,the recumbent effigies of ,henry ,,iii4 and ,queen ,eleanor are made of latten1 and the tomb of the ,black ,prince in ,canterbury is the same1 beautifully chased4 ,many of these and other tombs were probably originally covered with gilding1 painting1 and enamel4 ,the effigies of ,richard ,,ii4 and his queen1 ,anne of ,bohemia1 were made during the reign of the monarch2 a contemporary document states that ,sir ,john ,innocent paid another part of a certain indenture made between the ,king and ,nicolas ,broker and ,geoffrey ,prest1 coppersmiths of ,london1 for the making of two images1 likenesses of the ,king and ,queen1 of copper and latten1 gilded upon the said marble tomb4 ,there are many examples of bronze gates in ecclesiastical architecture4 ,the gates of ,st4 ,paolo ,fuori le ,mura in ,rome were made in #ajgj1 in ,constantinople1 by ,stauracius the ,founder4 ,many authorities think that those at ,st4 ,mark's in ,venice were similarly produced4 ,the bronze doors in ,rome are composed of fifty-four small designs1 not in relief1 but with the outlines of the subjects inlaid with silver4 ,the doors are in ,byzantine taste4 ,the bronze doors at ,hildesheim differ from nearly all other such portals1 in the elemental principle of design4 ,instead of being divided into small panels1 they are simply blocked off into seven long horizontal compartments on each side1 and then filled with a pictorial arrangement of separate figures2 only three or four in each panel1 widely spaced1 and on a background of very low relief4 ,the figures are applied1 at scattered distances apart1 and are in unusually high modelling1 in some cases being almost detached from the door4 ,the effect is curious and interesting rather than strictly beautiful1 on the whole2 but in detail many of the figures display rare power of plastic skill1 proportion1 and action4 ,they are1 at any rate1 very individual3 there are no other doors at all like them4 ,they are the work of ,bishop ,bernward4 ,unquestionably1 one of the greatest achievements in bronze of any age is the pair of gates by ,lorenzo ,ghiberti on the ,baptistery in ,florence4 ,twenty-one years were devoted to their making1 by ,ghiberti and his assistants1 with the stipulation that all figures in the design were to be personal work of the master1 the assistants only attending to secondary details4 ,the doors were in place in ,april1 #adbd4 ,illustration3 ,,brunelleschi',s ,,competitive ,,panel ,the competition for the ,baptistery doors reads like a romance1 and is familiar to most people who know anything of historic art4 ,when the young ,ghiberti heard that the competition was open to all1 he determined to go to ,florence and work for the prize2 in his own words3 ,when my friends wrote to me that the governors of the ,baptistery were sending for masters whose skill in bronze working they wished to prove1 and that from all ,italian lands many maestri were coming1 to place themselves in this strife of talent1 ,i could no longer forbear1 and asked leave of ,sig4 ,malatesta1 who let me depart4 ,the result of the competition is also given in ,ghiberti's words3 ,the palm of victory was conceded to me by all judges1 and by those who competed with me4 ,universally all the glory was given to me without any exception4 ,illustration3 ,,ghiberti',s ,,competitive ,,panel ,symonds considers the first gate a supreme accomplishment in bronze casting1 but criticizes the other1 and usually more admired gate1 as overstepping the limits that separate sculpture from painting1 by massing together figures in multitudes at three and sometimes four distances4 ,he tried to make a place in bas-relief for perspective4 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds finds fault with ,ghiberti1 also1 for working at variance with the severity of sculptural treatment1 by distributing small figures in a spacious landscape framework4 ,it was not really in accordance with the limitations of his material to treat a bronze casting as ,ghiberti treated it1 and his example has led many men of inferior genius astray1 although there is no use in denying that ,ghiberti himself was clever enough to defy the usual standards and rules4 ,fonts were sometimes made in bronze4 ,there is such a one at ,liege cast by ,lambert ,patras1 which stands upon twelve oxen4 ,it is decorated with reliefs from the ,gospels4 ,this artist1 ,patras1 was a native of ,dinant1 and lived in the twelfth century4 ,the bronze font in ,hildesheim is among the most interesting late ,romanesque examples in ,germany4 ,it is a large deep basin entirely covered with enrichment of ,scriptural scenes1 and is supported by four kneeling figures1 typical of the four ,rivers of ,paradise4 ,the conical cover is also covered with ,scriptural scenes1 and surmounted by a foliate knob4 ,among the figures with which the font is covered are the ,cardinal ,virtues1 flanked by their patron saints4 ,didron considers this a most important piece of bronze from an iconographic point of view theologically and poetically4 ,the archaic qualities of the figures are fascinating and sometimes diverting4 ,in the scene of the ,baptism of ,christ the water is positively trained to flow upwards in pyramidal form1 in order to reach nearly to the waist1 while at either side it recedes to the ground level again1--it has an ingenuous and almost startling suddenness in the rising of its flood6 ,an interesting comment upon the prevalence of early national forms may be deduced1 when one observes that on the table1 at the ,last ,supper1 there lies a perfectly shaped pretzel6 ,the great bronze column constructed by ,st4 ,bernward at ,hildesheim has the ,life of ,christ represented in consecutive scenes in a spiral form1 like those ornamenting the column of ,trajan4 ,down by ,bernward's grave there is a spring which is said to cure cripples and rheumatics4 ,peasants visit ,hildesheim on saints' days in order to drink of it1 and frequently1 after one of these visitations1 crutches are found abandoned near by4 ,saxony was famous for its bronze founders1 and work was sent forth1 from this country1 in the twelfth century1 all over ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,font ,,at ,,hildesheim1 #ab,,th ,,century ,orcagna's tabernacle at ,or ,san ,michele is1 as ,symonds has expressed it1 a monumental jewel1 and an epitome of the minor arts of mediaeval ,italy4 ,on it one sees bas-relief carving1 intaglios1 statuettes1 mosaic1 the lapidary's art in agate2 enamels1 and gilded glass1 and yet all in good taste and harmony4 ,the sculpture is properly subordinated to the architectonic principle1 and one can understand how it is not only the work of a goldsmith1 but of a painter4 ,of all bronze workers1 perhaps ,peter ,vischer is the best known and is certainly one of the best deserving of his wide fame4 ,peter ,vischer was born about the same time as ,quentin ,matsys1 between #adfj and #adgj4 ,he was the most important metal worker in ,germany4 ,he and ,adam ,kraft1 of whom mention will be made when we come to deal with sculptural carving1 were brought up together as boys1 and when older boys1 went with one another on all holidays1 acting still as though they were apprentices together4 ,vischer's normal expression was in ,gothic form4 ,his first design for the wonderful shrine of ,st4 ,sebald in ,nuremberg was made by him in #adhh1 and is still preserved in ,vienna4 ,it is a pure late-,gothic canopy1 and ,i cannot help regretting that the execution was delayed until popular taste demanded more concession towards the ,renaissance1 and it was resolved in #aejg1 to have the ,shrine of ,st4 ,sebald made of brass4 ,therefore1 although the general lines continue to hold a ,gothic semblance1 the shrine has many ,renaissance features4 ,regret1 however1 is almost morbid1 in relation to such a perfect work of art4 ,italian feeling is evident throughout1 and the wealth of detail in figures and foliate forms is magnificent4 ,the centre of interest is the little portrait statuette of ,peter ,vischer himself1 according to his biographer1 as he looked1 and as he daily went about and worked in the foundry4 ,though ,peter had not been to ,italy himself1 his son ,hermann had visited the historic land1 and had brought home artistic things that he sketched and drew1 which delighted his old father1 and were of great use to his brothers4 ,peter ,vischer had three sons1 who all followed him in the craft4 ,his workshop must have been an ideal institution in its line4 ,some remnants of ,gothic grotesque fancy are to be seen on the shrine1 although treated outwardly with ,renaissance feeling4 ,a realistic life-sized mouse may be seen in one place1 just as if it had run out to inspect the work2 and the numbers of little tipsy putti who disport themselves in all attitudes1 in perilous positions on narrow ledges1 are full of merry humour4 ,the metal of ,st4 ,sebald's shrine is left as it came from the casting1 and owes much of its charm to the lack of filing1 polishing1 and pointing usual in such monuments4 ,the molten living expression is retained4 ,only the details and spirit of the figures are ,renaissance2 the ,gothic plan is hardly disturbed1 and the whole monument is pleasing in proportion4 ,the figures are exquisite1 especially that of ,st4 ,peter4 ,illustration3 ,,portrait ,,statuette ,,of ,,peter ,,vischer ,a great ,renaissance work in ,germany was the grille of the ,rathaus made for ,nuremberg by ,peter ,vischer the ,younger4 ,it was of bronze1 the symmetrical diapered form of the open work part being supported by chaste and dignified columns of the ,corinthian order4 ,it was first designed by ,peter ,vischer the ,elder1 and revised and changed by the whole family after ,hermann's return from ,rome with his ,renaissance notions4 ,it was sold in #ahjf to a merchant for old metal2 later it was traced to the south of ,france1 where it disappeared4 ,another famous bronze of ,nuremberg is the well-known ,goose ,man fountain1 by ,labenwolf4 ,every traveller has seen the quaint half-foolish little man1 as he stands there holding his two geese who politely turn away their heads in order to produce the streams of water6 ,with the best bronzes1 and with steel used for decorative purposes1 the original casting has frequently been only for general form1 the whole of the surface finishing being done with a shaping tool1 by hand1 giving the appearance of a carving in bronze or steel4 ,in ,japanese bronzes this is particularly felt4 ,the classical bronzes were evidently perfect mosaics of different colours1 in metal4 ,pliny tells of a bronze figure of a dying woman1 who was represented as having changed colour at the extremities1 the fusion of the different shades of bronze being disguised by anklets1 bracelets1 and a necklace6 ,a curious and very disagreeable work of art1 we should say4 ,one sometimes sees in antique fragments ivory or silver eyeballs1 and hair and eyelashes made separately in thin strips and coils of metal2 while occasionally the depression of the edge of the lips is sufficient to give rise to the opinion that a thin veneer of copper was applied to give colour4 ,the bronze effigies of ,henry ,,iii4 and ,eleanor1 at ,westminster1 were the work of a goldsmith1 ,master ,william ,torel1 and are therefore finer in quality and are in some respects superior to the average casting in bronze4 ,torel worked at the palace1 and the statues were cast in cire perdue process1 being executed in the churchyard itself4 ,they are considered among the finest bronzes of the period extant4 ,gilding and enamel were often used in bronze effigies4 ,splendid bronzes1 cast each in a single flow1 are the recumbent figures of two bishops at ,amiens2 they are of the thirteenth century4 ,ruskin says3 ,they are the only two bronze tombs of her men of the great ages left in ,france4 ,an old document speaks of the moulds and imagines which were in use for casting effigy portraits1 in #acid4 ,another good ,english bronze is that of ,richard ,beauchamp at ,warwick1 the work of ,thomas ,stevens1 which has been alluded to4 ,in ,westminster ,abbey1 the effigy of ,aymer de ,valence1 dating from #abif1 is of copper1 but it is not cast2 it is of beaten metal1 and is enamelled1 probably at ,limoges4 ,bells and cannon are among the objects of actual utility which were cast in bronze4 ,statues as a rule came later4 ,in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in ,england1 bronze was used to such an extent1 that one authority suggested that it should be called the ,age of ,bronze4 ,primitive bells were made of cast iron riveted together3 one of these is at the ,cologne museum1 and the ,irish bells were largely of this description4 ,a great bell was presented to the ,cathedral of ,chartres in #ajbh1 by a donor named ,jean1 which affords little clue to his personality4 ,this bell weighed over two tons4 ,there is considerable interest attaching to the subject of the making of bells in the ,middle ,ages4 ,even in domestic life bells played quite a part2 it was the custom to ring a bell when the bath was ready and to announce meals1 as well as to summon the servitors4 ,church bells1 both large and small1 were in use in ,england by #fgj1 according to ,bede4 ,they were also carried by missionaries2 those good saints1 ,patrick and ,cuthbert1 announced their coming like town criers6 ,the shrine of ,st4 ,patrick's bell has been already described4 ,bells used to be regarded with a superstitious awe1 and were supposed to have the ability to dispel evil spirits1 which were exorcised with bell1 book1 and candle4 ,the bell of ,st4 ,patrick1 inside the great shrine1 is composed of two pieces of sheet iron1 one of which forms the face1 and being turned over the top1 descends about half-way down the other side1 where it meets the second sheet4 ,both are bent along the edges so as to form the sides of the bell1 and they are both secured by rivets4 ,a rude handle is similarly attached to the top4 ,a quaint account is given by the ,monk of ,st4 ,gall about a bell ordered by ,charlemagne4 ,charlemagne having admired the tone of a certain bell1 the founder1 named ,tancho1 said to him3 ,lord ,emperor1 give orders that a great weight of copper be brought to me that ,i may refine it1 and instead of tin give me as much silver as ,i need1--a hundred pounds at least1--and ,i will cast such a bell for you that this will seem dumb in comparison to it4 ,charlemagne ordered the required amount of silver to be sent to the founder1 who was1 however1 a great knave4 ,he did not use the silver at all1 but1 laying it aside for his own use1 he employed tin as usual in the bell1 knowing that it would make a very fair tone1 and counting on the ,emperor's not observing the difference4 ,the ,emperor was glad when it was ready to be heard1 and ordered it to be hung1 and the clapper attached4 ,that was soon done1 says the chronicler1 and then the warden of the church1 the attendants1 and even the boys of the place1 tried1 one after the other1 to make the bell sound4 ,but all was in vain2 and so at last the knavish maker of the bell came up1 seized the rope1 and pulled at the bell4 ,when1 lo6 and behold6 down from on high came the brazen mass2 fell on the very head of the cheating brass founder2 killed him on the spot2 and passed straight through his carcase and crashed to the ground4444 ,when the aforementioned weight of silver was found1 ,charles ordered it to be distributed among the poorest servants of the palace4 ,there is record of bronze bells in ,valencia as early as #fbb1 and an ancient mortar was found near ,monzon1 in the ruins of a castle which had formerly belonged to the ,arabs4 ,round the edge of this mortar was the inscription3 ,complete blessing1 and ever increasing happiness and prosperity of every kind and an elevated and happy social position for its owner4 ,the mortar was richly ornamented4 ,at ,croyland1 ,abbot ,egebric caused to be made two great bells which he named ,bartholomew and ,bethelmus1 two of middle size1 called ,turketul and ,tatwyn1 and two lesser1 ,pega and ,bega4 ,also at ,croyland were placed two little bells which ,fergus the brass worker of ,st4 ,botolph's had lately given1 in the church tower1 until better times1 when the monks expressed a hope that they should improve all their buildings and appointments4 ,oil that dropped from the framework on which church bells were hung was regarded in ,florence as a panacea for various ailments4 ,people who suffered from certain complaints were rubbed with this oil1 and fully believed that it helped them4 ,the curfew bell was a famous institution2 but the name was not originally applied to the bell itself4 ,this leads to another curious bit of domestic metal4 ,the popular idea of a curfew is that of a bell2 a bell was undoubtedly rung at the curfew hour1 and was called by its name2 but the actual curfew 7or couvre feu7 was an article made of copper1 shaped not unlike a deep blower1 which was used in order to extinguish the fire when the bell rang4 ,there are a few specimens in ,england of these curious covers3 they stood about ten to fifteen inches high1 with a handle at the top1 and closed in on three sides1 open at the back4 ,the embers were shovelled close to the back of the hearth1 and the curfew1 with the open side against the back of the chimney1 was placed over them1 thus excluding all air4 ,horace ,walpole owned1 at ,strawberry ,hill1 a famous old curfew1 in copper1 elaborately decorated with vines and the ,york rose4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,copper ,,curfew ,illustration3 ,,sanctuary ,,knocker1 ,,durham ,,cathedral ,the ,sanctuary knocker at ,durham ,cathedral is an important example of bronze work1 probably of the same age as the ,cathedral door on which it is fastened4 ,they both date from about the eleventh century4 ,ever since #gdj1 in the ,episcopate of ,cynewulf1 criminals were allowed to claim ,sanctuary in ,durham4 ,when this knocker was sounded1 the door was opened1 by two porters who had their accommodations always in two little chambers over the door1 and for a certain length of time the criminal was under the protection of the ,church4 ,in speaking of the properties of lead1 the old ,english ,bartholomew says3 ,of uncleanness of impure brimstone1 lead hath a manner of neshness1 and smircheth his hand who toucheth it444 a man may wipe off the uncleanness1 but always it is lead1 although it seemeth silver4 ,weather vanes1 made often of lead1 were sometimes quite elaborate4 ,one of the most important pieces of lead work in art is the figure of an angel on the chewet of ,ste4 ,chapelle in ,paris4 ,originally this figure was intended to be so controlled by clockwork that it would turn around once in the course of the twenty-four hours1 so that his attitude of benediction should be directed to all four quarters of the city2 but this was not practicable1 and the angel is stationary4 ,the cock on the weather vane at ,winchester was described as early as the tenth century1 in the ,life of ,st4 ,swithin1 by the scribe ,walstan4 ,he calls it a cock of elegant form1 and all resplendent and shining with gold who occupies the summit of the tower4 ,he regards the world from on high1 he commands all the country4 ,before him extend the stars of the ,north1 and all the constellations of the zodiac4 ,under his superb feet he holds the sceptre of the law1 and he sees under him all the people of ,winchester4 ,the other cocks are humble subjects of this one1 whom they see thus raised in mid-air above them3 he scorns the winds1 that bring the rains1 and1 turning1 he presents to them his back4 ,the terrible efforts of the tempest do not annoy him1 he receives with courage either snow or lightning1 alone he watches the sun as it sets and dips into the ocean3 and it is he who gives it its first salute on its rising again4 ,the traveller who sees him afar off1 fixes on him his gaze2 forgetting the road he has still to follow1 he forgets his fatigues3 he advances with renewed ardour4 ,while he is in reality a long way from the end1 his eyes deceive him1 and he thinks that he has arrived4 ,quite a practical tribute to a weather cock6 ,the fact that leaden roofs were placed on all churches and monastic buildings in the ,middle ,ages1 accounts in part for their utter destruction in case of fire2 for it is easy to see how impossible it would be to enter a building in order to save anything1 if1 to the terror of flames1 were added the horror of a leaden shower of molten metal proceeding from every part of the roof at once6 ,if a church once caught fire1 that was its end1 as a rule4 ,the invention of clocks1 on the principle of cog-wheels and weights1 is attributed to a monk1 named ,gerbert1 who died in #ajac4 ,he had been instructor to ,king ,robert1 and was made ,bishop of ,rheims1 later becoming ,pope ,sylvester ,,ii4 ,clocks at first were large affairs in public places4 ,portable clocks were said to have been first made by ,carovage1 in #adhj4 ,illustration3 ,,anglo ,,saxon ,,crucifix ,,of ,,lead ,an interesting specimen of mediaeval clock work is the old ,dijon time keeper1 which still performs its office1 and which is a privilege to watch at high noon4 ,twelve times the bell is struck3 first by a man1 who turns decorously with his hammer1 and then by a woman1 who does the same4 ,this staunch couple have worked for their living for many centuries4 ,froissart alludes to this clock1 saying3 ,the ,duke of ,burgundy caused to be carried away from the market place at ,courtray a clock that struck the hours1 one of the finest which could be found on either side of the sea3 and he conveyed it by pieces in carts1 and the bell also1 which clock was brought and carted into the town of ,dijon1 in ,burgundy1 where it was deposited and put up1 and there strikes the twenty-four hours between day and night4 ,this was in #achb1 and there is no knowing how long the clock may have performed its functions in ,courtray prior to its removal to ,dijon4 ,the great clock at ,nuremberg shows a procession of the ,seven ,electors1 who come out of one door1 pass in front of the throne1 each turning and doing obeisance1 and pass on through another door4 ,it is quite imposing1 at noon1 to watch this procession repeated twelve times4 ,the clock is called the ,mannleinlauffen4 ,in the ,statutes of ,francis ,i41 there is a clause stating that clockmakers as well as goldsmiths were authorized to employ in their work gold1 silver1 and all other materials4 ,in ,wells ,cathedral is a curious clock1 on which is a figure of a monarch1 like ,charles ,i41 seated above the bell1 which he kicks with his heels when the hour comes round4 ,he is popularly known as ,jack ,blandiver4 ,this clock came originally from ,glastonbury4 ,on the hour a little tournament takes place1 a race of little mounted knights rushing out in circles and charging each other vigorously4 ,pugin regrets the meaningless designs used by early ,victorian clock makers4 ,he calls attention to the fact that it is not unusual to cast a ,roman warrior in a flying chariot1 round one of the wheels of which on close inspection the hours may be descried2 or the whole front of a cathedral church reduced to a few inches in height1 with the clock face occupying the position of a magnificent rose window6 ,this is not overdrawn2 taste has suffered many vicissitudes in the course of time1 but we hope that the future will hold more beauty for us in the familiar articles of the household than have prevailed at some periods in the past4 ,,chapter ,v ,,tapestry ,a study of textiles is often subdivided into tapestry1 carpet-weaving1 mechanical weaving of fabrics of a lighter weight1 and embroidery4 ,these headings are useful to observe in our researches in the mediaeval processes connected with the loom and the needle4 ,tapestry1 as we popularly think of it1 in great rectangular wall-hangings with rather florid figures from ,scriptural scenes1 commonly dates from the sixteenth century or later1 so that it is out of our scope to study its manufacture on an extensive scale4 ,but there are earlier tapestries1 much more restrained in design1 and more interesting and frequently more beautiful4 ,of these earlier works there is less profusion1 for the examples are rare and precious1 and seldom come into the market nowadays4 ,the later looms were of course more prolific as the technical facilities increased4 ,but a study of the craft as it began gives one all that is necessary for a proper appreciation of the art of tapestry weaving4 ,the earliest ,european work with which we have to concern ourselves is the ,bayeux tapestry4 ,although this is really needlework1 it is usually treated as tapestry1 and there seems to be no special reason for departing from the custom4 ,some authorities state that the ,bayeux tapestry was made by the ,empress ,matilda1 daughter of ,henry ,i41 while others consider it the achievement of ,queen ,matilda1 the wife of ,william the ,conqueror4 ,she is recorded to have sat quietly awaiting her lord's coming while she embroidered this quaint souvenir of his prowess in conquest4 ,a veritable mediaeval ,penelope1 it is claimed that she directed her ladies in this work1 which is thoroughly ,saxon in feeling and costuming4 ,it is undoubtedly the most interesting remaining piece of needlework of the eleventh century1 and it would be delightful if one could believe the legend of its construction4 ,its attribution to ,queen ,matilda is very generally doubted by those who have devoted much thought to the subject4 ,mr4 ,frank ,rede ,fowke gives it as his opinion1 based on a number of arguments too long to quote in this place1 that the tapestry was not made by ,queen ,matilda1 but was ordered by ,bishop ,odo as an ornament for the nave of ,bayeux ,cathedral1 and was executed by ,norman craftsmen in that city4 ,dr4 ,rock also favours the theory that it was worked by order of ,bishop ,odo4 ,odo was a brother of ,william the ,conqueror and might easily have been interested in preserving so important a record of the ,battle of ,hastings4 ,dr4 ,rock states that the tradition that ,queen ,matilda executed the tapestry did not arise at all until #agcj4 ,the work is on linen1 executed in worsteds4 ,fowke gives the length as two hundred and thirty feet1 while it is only nineteen inches wide1--a long narrow strip of embroidery1 in many colours on a cream white ground4 ,in all1 there are six hundred and twenty-three figures1 besides two hundred horses and dogs1 five hundred and five animals1 thirty-seven buildings1 forty-one ships1 forty-nine trees1 making in all the astonishing number of one thousand five hundred and twelve objects6 ,the colours are in varying shades of blue1 green1 red and yellow worsted4 ,the colours are used as a child employs crayons2 just as they come to hand4 ,when a needleful of one thread was used up1 the next was taken1 apparently quite irrespective of the colour or shade4 ,thus1 a green horse will be seen standing on red legs1 and a red horse will sport a blue stocking6 ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,hayes believes that these varicoloured animals are planned purposely3 that two legs of a green horse are rendered in red on the further side1 to indicate perspective1 the same principle accounting for two blue legs on a yellow horse6 ,illustration3 ,,detail1 ,,bayeux ,,tapestry ,the buildings are drawn in a very primitive way1 without consideration for size or proportion4 ,the solid part of the embroidery is couched on1 while much of the work is only rendered in outline4 ,but the spirited little figures are full of action1 and suggest those in the celebrated ,utrecht ,psalter4 ,sometimes one figure will be as high as the whole width of the material1 while again1 the people will be tiny4 ,in the scene representing the burial of ,edward the ,confessor1 in ,westminster ,abbey1 the roof of the church is several inches lower than the bier which is borne on the shoulders of men nearly as tall as the tower6 ,the naive treatment of details is delicious4 ,harold1 when about to embark1 steps with bare legs into the tide3 the water is laid out in the form of a hill of waves1 in order to indicate that it gets deeper later on4 ,it might serve as an illustration of the ,red ,sea humping up for the benefit of the ,israelites6 ,the curious little stunted figure with a bald head1 in the group of the conference of messengers1 would appear to be an abortive attempt to portray a person at some distance--he is drawn much smaller than the others to suggest that he is quite out of hearing6 ,this seems to have been the only attempt at rendering the sense of perspective4 ,then comes a mysterious little lady in a kind of shrine1 to whom a clerk is making curious advances2 to the casual observer it would appear that the gentleman is patting her on the cheek1 but we are informed by ,thierry that this represents an embroideress1 and that the clerk is in the act of ordering the ,bayeux ,tapestry itself6 ,conjecture is swamped concerning the real intention of this group1 and no certain diagnosis has ever been pronounced6 ,the ,countess of ,wilton sees in this group a female in a sort of porch1 with a clergyman in the act of pronouncing a benediction upon her6 ,every one to his taste4 ,a little farther on there is another unexplained figure3 that of a man with his feet crossed1 swinging joyously on a rope from the top of a tower4 ,soon after the ,crowning of ,harold1 may be seen a crowd of people gazing at an astronomic phenomenon which has been described by an old chronicler as a hairy star4 ,it is recorded as a blazing starre such as never appears but as a prognostic of afterclaps1 and again1 as dreadful to be seen1 with bloudie haires1 and all over rough and shagged at the top4 ,another author complacently explains that comets were made to the end that the ethereal regions might not be more void of monsters than the ocean is of whales and other great thieving fish6 ,a very literal interpretation of this hairy star has been here embroidered1 carefully fitted out with cog-wheels and all the paraphernalia of a conventional mediaeval comet4 ,in the scenes dealing with the preparation of the army and the arrangement of their food1 there occurs the lassooing of an ox2 the amount of action concentrated in this group is really wonderful4 ,the ox1 springing clear of the ground1 with all his legs gathered up under him1 turns his horned head1 which is set on an unduly long neck1 for the purpose of inspecting his pursuers4 ,no better origin for the ancient tradition of the cow who jumped over the moon could be adduced4 ,and what shall we say of the acrobatic antics of ,leofwine and ,gyrth when meeting their deaths in battle8 ,these warriors are turning elaborate handsprings in their last moments1 while horses are represented as performing such somersaults that they are practically inverted4 ,in the border of this part of the tapestry1 soldiers are seen stripping off the coats of mail from the dead warriors on the battle-field2 this they do by turning the tunic inside out and pulling it off at the head1 and the resulting attitudes of the victims are quaint and realistic in the extreme6 ,the border has been appropriately described as a layer of dead men4 ,in the tenth and eleventh centuries one of the regular petitions in the ,litany was ,from the fury of the ,normans ,good ,lord ,deliver us4 ,the ,bayeux ,tapestry was designated1 in #agdf1 as the noblest monument in the world relating to our old ,english ,history4 ,it has passed through most trying vicissitudes1 having been used in war time as a canvas covering to a transport wagon1 among other experiences4 ,for centuries this precious treasure was neglected and not understood4 ,in his ,tour ,m4 ,ducarel states3 ,the priests444 to whom we addressed ourselves for a sight of this remarkable piece of antiquity1 knew nothing of it2 the circumstance only of its being annually hung up in their church led them to understand what we wanted1 no person then knowing that the object of our inquiries any ways related to the ,conqueror4 ,this was in the nineteenth century4 ,anglo-,saxon women spent much of their time in embroidering4 ,edith1 ,queen of ,edward the ,confessor1 was quite noted for her needlework1 which was sometimes used to decorate the state robes of the king4 ,formerly there existed at ,ely ,cathedral a work very like the ,bayeux ,tapestry1 recording the deeds of the heroic ,brihtnoth1 the ,east ,saxon1 who was slain in #iia1 fighting the ,danish forces4 ,his wife rendered his history in needlework1 and presented it to ,ely4 ,unhappily there are no remains of this interesting monument now existing4 ,the nearest thing to the ,bayeux ,tapestry in general texture and style is perhaps a twelfth century work in the ,cathedral at ,gerona1 a little over four yards square1 which is worked in crewels on linen1 and is ornamented with scenes of an ,oriental and primitive character1 taken mainly from the story of ,genesis4 ,these tapestries come under the head of needlework4 ,the tapestries made on looms proceed upon a different principle1 and are woven instead of embroidered4 ,two kinds of looms were used under varying conditions in different places2 high warp looms1 or ,haute ,lisse1 and low warp looms1 known as ,basse ,lisse4 ,the general method of making tapestries on a high warp loom has been much the same for many centuries4 ,the warp is stretched vertically in two sets1 every other thread being first forward and then back in the setting4 ,m4 ,lacordaire1 late ,director of the ,gobelins1 writes as follows3 ,the workman takes a spindle filled with worsted or silk444 he stops off the weft thread and fastens it to the warp1 to the left of the space to be occupied by the colour he has in hand2 then1 by passing his left hand between the back and the front threads1 he separates those that are to be covered with colours2 with his right hand1 having passed it through the same threads1 he reaches to the left side1 for the spindle which he brings back to the right2 his left hand1 then1 seizing hold of the warp1 brings the back threads to the front1 while the right hand thrusts the spindle back to the point whence it started4 ,when a new colour is to be introduced1 the artist takes a new shuttle4 ,he fastens his thread on the wrong side of the tapestry 7the side on which he works7 and repeats the process just described on the strings stretched up and down before him1 like harp strings2 the work is commenced at the lower part1 and worked upwards1 so that1 when this strictly hand weaving is accomplished1 it may be crowded down into place by means of a kind of ivory comb1 so adjusted that the teeth fit between the warp threads4 ,in tapestry weaving1 the warp could be of any inferior but strong thread1 for1 by the nature of the work1 only the woof was visible1 the warp being quite hidden and incorporated into the texture under the close lying stitches which met and dove-tailed over it4 ,the worker on a low loom does not see the right side of the work at all1 unless he lifts the loom1 which is a difficult undertaking4 ,on a high loom1 it is only necessary for the worker to go around to the front in order to see exactly what he is doing4 ,the design is put below the work1 however1 in a low loom1 and the work is thus practically traced as the tapestry proceeds4 ,on account of the limitations of the human arm in reaching1 the low warp tapestry requires more seams than does that made on the haute lisse loom1 the pieces being individually smaller4 ,one whole division of the workmen in tapestry establishments used to be known as the fine drawers1 whose whole duty was to join the different pieces together1 and also to repair worn tapestries1 inserting new stitches for restorations4 ,tapestry repairing was a necessary craft2 at ,rheims some tapestries were restored by ,jacquemire de ,bergeres2 these hangings had been much damaged by dogs1 rats1 mice1 and other beasts4 ,it is not stated where they had been hung6 ,high warp looms have been known in ,europe certainly since the ninth century4 ,there is an order extant1 from the ,bishop of ,auxerre1 who died in #hdj1 for some carpets for his church4 ,in #hij the monks of ,saumur were manufacturing tapestries4 ,beautiful textiles had been used to ornament the ,church of ,st4 ,denis as early as #fcj1 but there is no proof that these were actually tapestries4 ,there is a legend that in #gcb a tapestry establishment existed in the district between ,tours and ,poitiers4 ,at ,beauvais1 too1 the weavers of arras were settled at the time of the ,norman ravages4 ,king ,dagobert was a mediaeval patron of arts in ,france4 ,he had the walls of ,st4 ,denis 7which he built7 hung with rich tapestries set with pearls and wrought with gold4 ,at the monastery of ,st4 ,florent1 at ,saumur in #ihe1 the monks wove tapestries1 using floral and animal forms in their designs4 ,at ,poitiers there was quite a flourishing factory as early as #ajbe4 ,tapestry was probably first made in ,france1 to any considerable extent1 then1 in the ninth century4 ,the historian of the monastery of ,saumur tells us an interesting incident in connection with the works there4 ,the ,abbot of ,st4 ,florent had placed a magnificent order for curtains1 canopies1 hangings1 bench covers1 and other ornaments1444 and he caused to be1 made two pieces of tapestry of large size and admirable quality1 representing elephants4 ,while these were about to be commenced1 the aforesaid abbot was called away on a journey4 ,the ecclesiastic who remained issued a command that the tapestries should be made with a woof different from that which they habitually used4 ,well1 said they1 in the absence of the good abbot we will not discontinue our employment2 but as you thwart us1 we shall make quite a different kind of fabric4 ,so they deliberately set to work to make square carpets with silver lions on a red ground1 with a red and white border of various animals6 ,abbot ,william was fortunately pleased with the result1 and used lions interchangeably with elephants thereafter in his decorations4 ,at the ninth century tapestry manufactory in ,poitiers1 an amusing correspondence took place between the ,count of ,poitou and an ,italian bishop1 in #ajbe4 ,poitou was at that time noted for its fine breed of mules4 ,the ,italian bishop wrote to ask the count to send him one mule and one tapestry1--as he expressed it1 both equally marvellous4 ,the count replied with spirit3 ,i cannot send you what you ask1 because for a mule to merit the epithet marvellous1 he would have to have horns1 or three tails1 or five legs1 and this ,i should not be able to find4 ,i shall have to content myself with sending you the best that ,i can procure6 ,in #iib the ,abbey of ,croyland1 in ,england1 owned two large foot cloths woven with lions1 to be laid before the high altar on great festivals1 and two shorter ones trailed all over with flowers1 for the feast days of the ,apostles4 ,under ,church auspices in the twelfth century1 the tapestry industry rose to its most splendid perfection4 ,when the secular looms were started1 the original beauty of the work was retained for a considerable time2 in the tenth century ,german craftsmen worked as individuals1 independently of ,guilds or organizations4 ,in the thirteenth century the work was in a flourishing condition in ,france1 where both looms were in use4 ,the upright loom is still used at the ,gobelin factory4 ,as an adjunct to the stained glass windows in churches1 there never was a texture more harmonious than good mediaeval tapestry4 ,in #abfj the best tapestries in ,france were made by the ,church exclusively2 in #adfa ,king ,rene of ,anjou bequeathed a magnificent tapestry in twenty-seven subjects representing the ,apocalypse1 to the church of ,monsieur ,st4 ,maurice1 at ,angers4 ,although tapestry was made in larger quantities during the ,renaissance1 the mediaeval designs are better adapted to the material4 ,the royal chambers of the ,kings of ,england were hung with tapestry1 and it was the designated duty of the ,chamberlain to see to such adornment4 ,in #abid there is mention of a special artist in tapestry1 who lived near ,winchester2 his name was ,sewald1 and he was further known as le tapenyr1 which1 according to ,m4 ,g4 ,thomson1 signifies tapestrier4 ,one is led to believe that tapestries were used as church adornments before they were introduced into dwellings2 for it was said1 when ,queen ,eleanor of ,castile had her bedroom hung with tapestries1 that it was like a church4 ,at ,westminster1 a writer of #afca alludes to the cloths of ,arras which adorn the choir4 ,sets of tapestries to hang entire apartments were known as ,hallings4 ,among the tapestries which belonged to ,charles ,v4 was one worked with towers1 fallow bucks and does1 to put over the ,king's boat4 ,among early recorded tapestries are those mentioned in the inventory of ,philip the ,bold1 in #adjd1 while that of ,philip the ,good tells of his specimens1 in #adbj4 ,nothing can well be imagined more charming than the description of a tapestried chamber in #adah2 the room being finished in white was decorated with paroquets and damsels playing harps4 ,this work was accomplished for the ,duchess of ,bavaria by the tapestry maker1 ,jean of ,florence4 ,flanders tapestry was famous in the twelfth and fourteenth centuries4 ,arras particularly was the town celebrated for the beauty of its work4 ,this famous manufactory was founded prior to #acej1 as there is mention of work of that period4 ,before the town became known as ,arras1 while it still retained its original name1 ,nomenticum1 the weavers were famous who worked there4 ,in #bhb ,a4 ,d4 the woven cloaks of ,nomenticum were spoken of by ,flavius ,vopiscus4 ,the earliest record of genuine ,arras tapestry occurs in an order from the ,countess of ,artois in #acac1 when she directs her receiver de faire faire six tapis a ,arras4 ,among the craftsmen at ,arras in #achi was a ,saracen1 named ,jehan de ,croisetes1 and in #acgh there was a worker by the name of ,huwart ,wallois4 ,several of its workmen emigrated to ,lille1 in the fifteenth century1 among them one ,simon ,lamoury and another1 ,jehan de ,rausart4 ,in #adai the ,council ,chamber of ,ypres was ornamented with splendid tapestries by ,francois de ,wechter1 who designed them1 and had them executed by ,arras workmen4 ,the ,van ,eycks and ,memlinc also designed tapestries1 and there is no doubt that the art would have continued to show a more consistent regard for the demands of the material if ,raphael had never executed his brilliant cartoons4 ,the effort to be ,raphaelesque ruined the effect of many a noble piece of technique1 after that4 ,in #acjb a body of ten craftsmen formed a ,corporation in ,paris4 ,the names of several workmen at ,lille have been handed down to us4 ,in #acah ,jehan ,orghet is recorded1 and in #acfh1 ,willaume1 a high-warp worker4 ,penalties for false work were extreme4 ,one of the best known workers in ,france was ,bataille1 who was closely followed by one ,dourdain4 ,illustration3 ,,flemish ,,tapestry1 ,,the ,,prodigal ,,son ,a famous ,arras tapestry was made in #achf by a weaver of the name of ,michel ,bernard4 ,it measured over two hundred and eighty-five square yards1 and represented the battle of ,roosebecke4 ,at this time a tapestry worker lived1 named ,jehanne ,aghehe1 one of the first attested women's names in connection with this art4 ,in the ,treasury of the church of ,douai there is mention of three cushions made of high loom tapestry presented in #achf by la demoiselle ,englise4 ,it is not known who this young lady may have been4 ,france and ,flanders made the most desirable tapestries in the fourteenth century4 ,in ,italy the art had little vogue until the fifteenth4 ,very little tapestry was made in ,spain in the ,middle ,ages1--the earliest well known maker was named ,gutierrez1 in the time of ,philip ,,iv4 ,the picture by ,velasquez1 known as ,the ,weavers1 represents the interior of his manufactory4 ,a table cloth in mediaeval times was called a carpett3 these were often very ornate1 and it is useful to know that their use was not for floor covering1 for the inventories often mention carpetts worked with pearls and silver tissue1 which would have been singularly inappropriate4 ,the ,arabs introduced the art of carpet weaving into ,spain4 ,an ,oriental1 ,edrisi1 writing in the twelfth century1 says that such carpets were made at that time in ,alicante1 as could not be produced elsewhere1 owing to certain qualities in both air and water which greatly benefited the wool used in their manufacture4 ,in the ,travels of ,jean ,lagrange1 the author says that all carpets of ,smyrna and ,caramania are woven by women4 ,as soon as a girl can hold a shuttle1 they stretch cords between two trees1 to make a warp1 and then they give her all colours of wools1 and leave her to her own devices4 ,they tell her1 ,it is for you to make your own dowry4 ,then1 according to the inborn art instinct of the child1 she begins her carpet4 ,naturally1 traditions and association with others engaged in the same pursuit assist in the scheme and arrangement2 usually the carpet is not finished until she is old enough to marry4 ,then1 continues ,lagrange1 two masters1 two purchasers1 present themselves2 the one carries off a carpet1 and the other a wife4 ,edward ,,ii44 of ,england owned a tapestry probably of ,english make1 described as a green hanging of wool wove with figures of ,kings and ,earls upon it4 ,there was a roistering ,britisher called ,john le ,tappistere1 who was complained of by certain people near ,oxford1 as having seized ,master ,john of ,shoreditch1 and assaulted and imprisoned him1 confiscating his goods and charging him fifty pounds for ransom4 ,it is not stated what the gentleman from ,shoreditch had done thus to bring down upon him the wrath of ,john the weaver6 ,english weavers had rather the reputation of being fighters3 in #acdj one ,george le ,tapicier murdered ,john le ,dextre of ,leicester2 while ,giles de la ,hyde also slew ,thomas ,tapicier in #ache4 ,possibly these rows occurred on account of a practical infringement upon the manufacturing rights of others as set down in the rules of the ,company4 ,there was a woman in ,finch ,lane who produced tapestry1 with a cotton back1 after the manner of the works of ,arras3 this was considered a dishonest business1 and the work was ordered to be burnt4 ,roger van der ,weyden designed a set of tapestries representing the ,history of ,herkinbald1 the stern uncle who1 with his own hand1 beheaded his nephew for wronging a young woman4 ,upon his death-bed1 ,herkinbald refused to confess this act as a sin1 claiming the murder to have been justifiable and a positive virtue4 ,apparently the ,higher ,powers were on his side1 too1 for1 when the priest refused the ,eucharist to the impertinent ,herkinbald1 it is related that the ,host descended by a miracle and entered the lips of the dying man4 ,a dramatic story1 of which van der ,weyden made the most1 in designing his wonderfully decorative tapestries4 ,the originals were lost1 but similar copies remain4 ,as early as #adda tapestries were executed in ,oudenardes2 usually these were composed of green foliage1 and known as verdures4 ,in time the names verdure and ,oudenarde became interchangeably associated with this class of tapestry4 ,they represented woodland and hunting scenes1 and were also called ,tapestry verde1 and are alluded to by ,chaucer4 ,curious symbolic subjects were often used3 for instance1 for a set of hangings for a banquet hall1 what could be more whimsically appropriate than the representation of ,dinner1 giving a feast to ,good ,company1 while ,banquet and ,maladies attack the guests6 ,this scene is followed by the arrest of ,souper and ,banquet by ,experience1 who condemns them both to die for their cruel treatment of the ,feasters6 ,there is an old poem written by a monk of ,chester1 named ,bradshaw1 in which a large hall decorated with tapestries is described as follows3 ,all herbs and flowers1 fair and sweet1 ,were strawed in halls1 and layd under their feet2 ,cloths of gold1 and arras were hanged on the wall1 ,depainted with pictures and stories manifold ,well wrought and craftely4 ,a set of tapestries was made by some of the monks of ,troyes1 who worked upon the high loom1 displaying scenes from the ,life of the ,magdalen4 ,this task was evidently not devoid of the lighter elements1 for in the bill1 the good brothers made charge for such wine as they drank when they consulted together in regard to the life of the ,saint in question6 ,among the most interesting tapestries are those representing scenes from the ,wars of ,troy1 in ,south ,kensington4 ,they are crowded with detail1 and in this respect exhibit most satisfactorily the beauties of the craft1 which is enhanced by small intricacies1 and rendered less impressive when treated in broad masses of unrelieved woven colour4 ,another magnificent set1 bearing similar characteristics1 is the ,history of ,clovis at ,rheims4 ,there is a fascinating set of ,english tapestries representing the ,seasons1 at ,hatfield3 these were probably woven at ,barcheston4 ,the detail of minute animal and vegetable forms--the flora and fauna1 as it were in worsted--are unique for their conscientious finish4 ,they almost amount to catalogues of plants and beasts4 ,the one which displays ,summer is a herbal and a ,noah's ,ark turned loose about a full-sized ,classical ,deity1 who presides in the centre of the composition4 ,among ,english makers of tapestries was a workman named ,john ,bakes1 who was paid the magnificent sum of twelve pence a day1 while in an entry in another document he is said to have received only fourpence daily4 ,the ,hunting ,tapestries belonging to the ,duke of ,devonshire are as perfect specimens as any that exist of the best period of the art4 ,they are represented in colour in ,w4 ,g4 ,thomson's admirable work on ,tapestries1 and are thus available to most readers in some public collection4 ,another splendidly decorative specimen is at ,hampton ,court1 being a series of the ,seven ,deadly ,sins4 ,they measure about twenty-five by thirteen feet each1 and are worked in heavy wools and silks4 ,as technical facility developed1 certain weaknesses began to show themselves4 ,tapestry weavers had their favourite figures1 which1 to save themselves trouble1 they would often substitute for others in the original design4 ,arras tapestries were no longer made in the sixteenth century1 and the best work of that time was accomplished in the ,netherlands4 ,about #aedj ,brussels probably stood at the head of the list of cities famous for the production of these costly textiles4 ,the ,raphael tapestries were made there1 by ,peter van ,aelst1 under the order of ,pope ,leo ,x4 ,they were executed in the space of four years1 being finished in #aeai1 only a year before ,raphael's death4 ,in the sixteenth century the ,brussels workers began to make certain short cuts not quite legitimate in an art of the highest standing1 such as touching up the faces with liquid dyes1 and using the same to enhance the effect after the work was finished4 ,a law was passed that this must not be done on any tapestry worth more than twelve pence a yard4 ,in spite of this trickery1 the ,netherlandish tapestries led all others in popularity in that century4 ,it was almost invariable1 especially in ,flemish work1 to treat ,scriptural subjects as dressed in the costume of the period in which the tapestry happened to be made4 ,when one sees the ,prodigal ,son attired in a delightful ,flemish costume of a well-appointed dandy1 and ,adam presented to ,god the ,father1 both being clothed in ,netherlandish garments suitable for ,burgomasters of the sixteenth century1 then we can believe that the following description1 quoted by the ,countess of ,wilton1 is hardly overdrawn4 ,in a corner of the apartment stood a bed1 the tapestry of which was enwrought with gaudy colours1 representing ,adam and ,eve in the ,garden of ,eden4444 ,adam was presenting our first mother with a large yellow apple gathered from a tree which scarcely reached his knee4444 ,to the left of ,eve appeared a church1 and a dark robed gentleman holding something in his hand which looked like a pin cushion1 but doubtless was intended for a book2 he seemed pointing to the holy edifice1 as if reminding them that they were not yet married6 ,on the ground lay the rib1 out of which ,eve1 who stood a head higher than ,adam1 had been formed3 both of them were very respectably clothed in the ancient ,saxon costume2 even the angel wore breeches1 which1 being blue1 contrasted well with his flaming red wings4 ,in ,france1 the leading tapestry works were at ,tours in the early sixteenth century4 ,a ,flemish weaver1 ,jean ,duval1 started the work there in #aedj4 ,until #aeeb he and his three sons laboured together with great results1 and they left a large number of craftsmen to follow in their footsteps4 ,in ,italy the art had almost died out in the early sixteenth century1 but revived in full and florid force under the ,raphaelesque influence4 ,king ,rene of ,anjou collected tapestries so assiduously that the care and repairing of them occupied the whole time of a staff of workers1 who were employed steadily1 living in the palace1 and sleeping at night in the various apartments in which the hangings were especially costly4 ,queen ,jeanne1 the mother of ,henri ,,iv41 was a skilled worker in tapestry4 ,to quote ,miss ,freer in the ,life of ,jeanne d',albret1 ,during the hours which the queen allowed herself for relaxation1 she worked tapestry and discoursed with some one of the learned men whom she protected4 ,this queen was of an active mental calibre and one to whom physical repose was most repugnant4 ,she was a regular and pious attendant at church1 but sitting still was torture to her1 and listening to the droning sermons put her to sleep4 ,so1 with a courage to be admired1 ,jeanne demanded permission from the ,synod to work tapestry during the sermon4 ,this request was granted2 from thenceforth ,queen ,jeanne1 bending decorously over her tapestry frame1 and busy with her needle1 gave due attention4 ,the ,chateau of ,blois1 during the reign of ,louis ,,xii4 and ,ann of ,brittany1 is described as being regally appointed with tapestries3 ,those which were hung in the apartments of the king and queen1 says the chronicler1 were all full of gold2 and the tapestries and embroideries of cloth of gold and of silk had others beneath them ornamented with personages and histories as those were above4 ,indeed1 there was so great a number of rich tapestries1 velvet carpets1 and bed coverings1 of gold and silk1 that there was not a chamber1 hall1 or wardrobe1 that was not full4 ,in an inventory of the ,princess of ,burgundy there occurs this curious description of a tapestry3 ,the three tapestries of the ,church ,militant1 wrought in gold1 whereon may be seen represented ,god ,almighty seated in majesty1 and around him many cardinals1 and below him many princes who present to him a church4 ,household luxury in ,england is indicated by a quaint writer in #aehf3 ,in noblemen's houses1 he says1 it is not rare to see abundance of arras1 rich hangings1 of tapestrie444 ,turkie wood1 pewter1 brasse1 and fine linen4444 ,in times past the costly furniture stayed there1 whereas now it is discarded yet lower1 even unto the inferior artificers1 and many farmers444 have for the most part learned to garnish their beds with tapestries and hangings1 and their tables with carpetts and fine napery4 ,henry ,,viii4 was devoted to tapestry collecting1 also4 ,an agent who was buying for him in the ,netherlands in #aech1 wrote to the king3 ,i have made a stay in my hands of two hundred ells of goodly tapestry2 there hath not been brought this twenty year eny so good for the price4 ,henry ,,viii4 had in his large collection many subjects1 among them such characteristic pieces as3 ten peeces of the rich story of ,king ,david 7in which ,bathsheba doubtless played an important part71 seven peeces of the ,stories of ,ladies1 ,a peece with a man and woman and a flagon1 ,a peece of verdure444 having poppinjays at the nether corners1 ,one peece of ,susannah1 ,six fine new tapestries of the ,history of ,helena and ,paris4 ,a set of six verdure tapestries was owned by ,cardinal ,wolsey1 which served for the hanging of ,durham ,hall of inferior days4 ,the hangings in a hall in ,chester are described as depicting ,adam1 ,noe1 and his ,shyppe4 ,in #aefc a monk of ,canterbury was mentioned as a tapestry weaver4 ,at ,york1 ,norwich1 and other cities1 were also to be found ,arras ,workers during the sixteenth century4 ,there was an amusing law suit in #aeih1 which was brought by a gentleman1 ,charles ,lister1 against one ,mrs4 ,bridges1 for accepting from him1 on the understanding of an engagement in marriage1 a suite of tapestries for her apartment4 ,he sued for the return of his gifts6 ,among the ,state ,papers of ,james ,i41 there is a letter in which the ,king remarks ,sir ,francis ,crane desires to know if my baby will have him to-hasten the making of that suite of tapestry that he commanded him4 ,in ,florence1 the art flourished under the ,medici4 ,in #aedf a regular ,academy of instruction in tapestry weaving was set up1 under the direction of ,flemish masters4 ,all the leading artists of the ,golden ,age furnished designs which1 though frequently inappropriate for being rendered in textile1 were fine pictures1 at any rate4 ,in ,venice1 too1 there were work shops1 but the influence of ,italy was ,flemish in every case so far as technical instruction was concerned4 ,the most celebrated artists of the ,renaissance made cartoons3 ,raphael1 ,giulio ,romano1 ,jouvenet1 ,le ,brun1 and numerous others1 in various countries4 ,illustration3 ,,tapestry1 ,,representing ,,paris ,,in ,,the #ae,,th ,,century ,the ,gobelins work in ,paris was inaugurated in the fifteenth century under ,jean ,gobelins1 a native of ,rheims4 ,his son1 ,philibert1 and later1 many descendants persevered steadily at the work2 the art prospered under ,francis ,i41 the whole force of tapestry weavers being brought together at ,fontainebleau1 and under ,henry ,,ii41 the direction of the whole was given to the celebrated artist ,philibert ,delorme4 ,in #afcj the ,gobelins was fully established as a larger plant1 and has never made another move4 ,the work has increased ever since those days1 on much the same general lines4 ,celebrated ,french artists have designed tapestries3 ,watteau1 ,boucher1 and others were interpreted by the brilliant manager whose signature appears on the works1 ,cozette1 who was manager from #agcf until #agib4 ,with this technical perfection came the death of the art of tapestry3 the pictures might as well have been painted on canvas1 and all feeling for the material was lost1 so that the naive charm of the original workers ceased to be a part of the production4 ,among ,european collections now visible1 the best is in ,madrid1 where over six hundred tapestries may be seen1 chiefly ,flemish1 of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,the collection at the ,pitti ,palace in ,florence comprises six hundred1 while in the ,vatican are preserved the original ,raphael tapestries4 ,south ,kensington ,museum1 too1 is rich in interesting examples of various schools4 ,it is a very helpful collection to students1 especially1 although not so large as some others4 ,in #affc1 two well intended statutes were introduced dealing with curiously opposite matters3 one was to encourage linen and tapestry manufacture in ,england1 and the other was for regulating the packing of herrings6 ,the famous ,english ,mortlake tapestry manufactory was not established until the seventeenth century1 and that is rather late for us4 ,the progress of craftsmanship has been steady1 especially at the ,gobelins in ,france4 ,many other centres of industry developed1 however1 in various countries4 ,the study of modern tapestry is a branch by itself with which we are unable to concern ourselves now4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,embroideries ,the materials used as groundwork for mediaeval embroideries were rich in themselves4 ,samit was the favourite--shimmering1 and woven originally of solid flat gold wire4 ,ciclatoun was also a brilliant textile1 as also was ,cendal4 ,cendal silk is spoken of by early writers4 ,the first use of silk is interesting to trace4 ,a monopoly1 a veritable silk trust1 was established in #ecc1 in the ,roman ,empire4 ,women were employed at the ,court of ,justinian to preside over the looms1 and the manufacture of silk was not allowed elsewhere4 ,the only hindrance to this scheme was that the silk itself had to be brought from ,china4 ,but in the reign of ,justinian1 two monks who had been travelling in the ,orient1 brought to the emperor1 as curiosities1 some silkworms and cocoons4 ,they obtained some long hollow walking sticks1 which they packed full of silkworms' eggs1 and thus imported the producers of the raw material4 ,the ,european silk industry1 in fabrics1 embroideries1 velvets1 and such commodities1 may owe its origin to this bit of monastic enterprise in #eej4 ,silk garments were very costly1 however1 and it was not every lady in early times who could have such luxuries4 ,it is said that even the ,emperor ,aurelian refused his wife her request for just one single cloak of silk1 saying3 ,no1 ,i could never think of buying such a thing1 for it sells for its weight in gold6 ,fustian and taffeta were less costly1 but frequently used in important work1 as also were sarcenet and camora4 ,velvet and satin were of later date1 not occurring until the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries4 ,baudekin1 a good silk and golden weave1 was very popular4 ,cut velvets with elaborate patterns were made in ,genoa4 ,the process consisted in leaving the main ground in the original fine rib which resulted from weaving1 while in the pattern these little ribs were split open1 making that part of a different ply from the rest of the material1 in fact1 being the finished velvet as we now know it1 while the ground remained uncut1 and had more the appearance of silk reps4 ,velvet is first mentioned in ,england in #abie1 but probably existed earlier on the ,continent4 ,both ,roger de ,wendover and ,matthew ,paris mention a stuff called imperial3 it was partly gold in weave1 but there is some doubt as to its actual texture4 ,baudekin was a very costly textile of gold and silk which was used largely in altar coverings and hangings1 such as dossals2 by degrees the name became synonymous with baldichin1 and in ,italy the whole altar canopy is still called a baldachino4 ,during ,royal ,progresses the streets were always hung with rich cloth of gold4 ,as ,chaucer makes allusion to streets ,by ordinance throughout the city large ,hanged with cloth of gold1 and not with serge1 so ,leland tells how the ,queen of ,henry ,,vii4 was conducted to her coronation and all the stretes through which she should pass were clenely dressed444 with cloths of tapestry and ,arras1 and some stretes1 as ,cheepe1 hanged with rich cloths of gold1 velvetts1 and silks4 ,and in ,machyn's ,diary1 he says that as late as #aeee at ,bow church in ,london1 was hangyd with cloth of gold and with rich ,arras4 ,the word satin is derived from the silks of the ,mediterranean1 called aceytuni1 which became zetani in ,italian1 and gradually changed through ,french and ,english influence1 to satin4 ,the first mention of it in ,england is about #acej1 when ,bishop ,grandison made a gift of choice satins to ,exeter ,cathedral4 ,the ,dalmatic of ,charlemagne is embroidered on blue satin1 although this is a rare early example of the material4 ,at ,constantinople1 also1 as early as #abjd1 ,baldwin ,,ii4 wore satin at his coronation4 ,it was nearly always made in a fiery red in the early days4 ,it is mentioned in a ,welsh poem of the thirteenth century4 ,benjamin of ,tudela1 a traveller who wrote in #aafa1 mentions that the ,jews were living in great numbers in ,thebes1 and that they made silks there at that time4 ,there is record that in the late eleventh century a ,norman ,abbot brought home from ,apulia a quantity of heavy and fine silk1 from which four copes were made4 ,french silks were not remarkable until the sixteenth century1 while those of the ,netherlands led all others as early as the thirteenth4 ,shot silks were popular in ,england in the sixteenth century4 ,york ,cathedral possessed1 in #aedc1 a vestment of changeable taffety for ,good ,friday4 ,st4 ,dunstan is reported to have once tinted a sacerdotal vestment to oblige a lady1 thus departing from his regular occupation as goldsmith to perform the office of a dyer of stuff4 ,many rich mediaeval textiles were ornamented by designs1 which usually show interlaces and animal forms1 and sometimes conventional floral ornament4 ,patterns originated in the ,east1 and1 through ,byzantine influence1 in ,italy1 and ,saracenic in ,spain1 they were adopted and modified by ,europeans4 ,in #abie ,st4 ,paul's in ,london owned a hanging patterned with wheels and two-headed birds4 ,sicilian silks1 and many others of the contemporary textiles1 display variations of the tree of life pattern4 ,this consists of a little conventional shrub1 sometimes hardly more than a budding rod1 with two birds or animals advancing vis-a-vis on either side4 ,sometimes these are two peacocks2 often lions or leopards and frequently griffins and various smaller animals4 ,whenever one sees a little tree or a single stalk1 no matter how conventionally treated1 with a couple of matched animals strutting up to each other on either side1 this pattern owes its origin to the old tradition of the decorative motive usual in ,persia and in ,byzantium1 the ,tree of ,life1 or ,horn4 ,the origin of patterns does not come within our scope1 and has been excellently treated in the various books of ,lewis ,day1 and other writers on this subject4 ,textiles of ,italian manufacture may be seen represented in the paintings of the old masters3 ,orcagna1 ,francia1 ,crivelli1 and others1 who delighted in the rendering of rich stuffs2 later1 they abound in the creations of ,veronese and ,titian4 ,a favourite ,italian vegetable1 as ,dr4 ,rock quaintly expresses it1 is the artichoke1 which1 often1 set in oval forms1 is either outlined or worked solidly in the fabric4 ,almeria was a rich city in the thirteenth century1 noted for its textiles4 ,a historian of that period writes3 ,christians of all nations came to its port to buy and to sell4 ,from thence444 they travelled to other parts of the interior of the country1 where they loaded their vessels with such goods as they wanted4 ,costly silken robes of the brightest colours are manufactured in ,almeria4 ,granada was famous too1 a little later1 for its silks and woven goods4 ,about #aefb ,navagiero wrote3 ,all sorts of cloth and silks are made there3 the silks made at ,granada are much esteemed all over ,spain2 they are not so good as those that come from ,italy4 ,there are several looms1 but they do not yet know how to work them well4 ,they make good taffetas1 sarcenet1 and silk serges4 ,the velvets are not bad1 but those that are made at ,valencia are better in quality4 ,marco ,polo says of the ,persians in certain sections2 ,there are excellent artificers in the cities1 who make wonderful things in gold1 silk1 and embroidery4444 ,in veins of the mountains stones are found1 commonly called turquoises1 and other jewels4 ,there also are made all sorts of arms and ammunition for war1 and by the women excellent needlework in silks1 with all sorts of creatures very admirably wrought therein4 ,marco ,polo also reports the ,king of ,tartary as wearing on his birthday a most precious garment of gold1 while his barons wore the same1 and had given them girdles of gold and silver1 and pearls and garments of great price4 ,this ,khan also has the tenths of all wool1 silk1 and hemp1 which he causes to be made into clothes1 in a house for that purpose appointed3 for all trades are bound one day in the week to serve him4 ,he clothed his armies with this tythe wool4 ,in ,anglo-,saxon times a fabric composed of fine basket-weaving of thin flat strips of pure gold was used2 sometimes the flat metal was woven on a warp of scarlet silk threads4 ,later strips of gilded parchment were fraudulently substituted for the genuine flat metal thread4 ,often the woof of gold strips was so solid and heavy that it was necessary to have a silk warp of six strands1 to support its wear4 ,gold cloth was of varying excellence1 however3 among the items in an inventory for the ,earl of ,warwick in the time of ,henry ,,vi41 there is allusion to one coat for ,my ,lord's body1 beat with fine gold2 two coats for heralds1 beat with demi-gold4 ,it is generally assumed that the first wire-drawing machines were made about #acfj in ,germany2 they were not used in ,england until about #aefj4 ,theophilus1 however1 in the eleventh century1 tells ,of the instruments through which wires are drawn1 saying that they consist of two irons1 three fingers in breadth1 narrow above and below1 everywhere thin1 and perforated with three or four ranges1 through which holes wires are drawn4 ,this would seem to be a primitive form of the more developed instrument4 ,wire drawing was introduced into ,england by ,christian ,schutz about #aefj4 ,in #afbc was incorporated in ,london1 ,the ,worshipful ,company of ,gold and ,silver ,wire-,drawers4 ,the preamble of their charter reads thus3 ,the ,trade ,art of ,drawing and flattening of gold and silver wire1 and making and spinning of gold and silver thread and stuffe4 ,it seems as though there were some kind of work that corresponded to wire-drawing1 earlier than its supposed introduction1 for a petition was sent to ,king ,henry ,,vi4 in #adbc1 by the wise and worthy ,communes of ,london1 the ,wardens of ,broderie in the said ,citie1 requesting protection against deceit and default in the work of divers persons occupying the craft of embroidery2 and in #adfa ,an act of ,common ,council was passed respecting the gold-drawers1 showing that the art was known to some extent and practised at that time4 ,in the reign of ,george ,,ii41 in #agdb1 ,an act to prevent the counterfeiting of gold and silver lace and for the settling and adjusting the proportions of fine silver and silk1 and for the better making of gold and silver lace1 was passed4 ,ecclesiastical vestments were often trimmed with heavy gold fringe1 knotted fretty wise1 and the embroideries were further enriched with jewels and small plaques of enamel4 ,matthew ,paris relates a circumstance of certain garments being so heavily weighted with gold that the clergy could not walk in them1 and1 in order to get the solid metal out again1 it was necessary to burn the garments and thus melt the gold4 ,jewelled robes were often seen in the ,middle ,ages2 a chasuble is described as having been made for the ,abbot of ,st4 ,albans1 in the twelfth century1 which was practically covered with plaques of gold and precious stones4 ,imagine the unpleasant physical sensation of a bishop in #adjd1 who was obliged to wear a golden mitre of which the ground was set with large pearls1 bordered with balas rubies1 and sapphires1 and trimmed with indefinite extra pearls6 ,the body of ,st4 ,cecilia1 who was martyred in #bcj1 was interred in a garment of pure woven gold4 ,the cloth of solid gold which was used for state occasions was called tissue2 the thin paper in which it was wrapped when it was laid away was known as tissue paper1 and ,mr4 ,william ,maskell states that the name has clung to it1 and that is why thin paper is called tissue paper to-day4 ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome possessed a great pair of silver curtains1 which hung at the entrance to the church1 given by ,pope ,stephen ,,iv4 in the eighth century4 ,vitruvius tells how to preserve the gold in old embroidery1 or in worn-out textiles where the metal has been extensively used4 ,he says3 ,when gold is embroidered on a garment which is worn out1 and no longer fit for use1 the cloth is burnt over the fire in earthen pots4 ,the ashes are thrown into water1 and quicksilver added to them4 ,this collects all particles of gold1 and unites with them4 ,the water is then poured off1 and the residuum placed in a cloth1 which1 when squeezed with the hands suffers the liquid quicksilver to pass through the pores of the cloth1 but retains the gold in a mass within it4 ,an early allusion to asbestos woven as a cloth is made by ,marco ,polo1 showing that fire-proof fabrics were known in his time4 ,in the province of ,chinchintalas1 there is a mountain wherein are mines of steel444 and also1 as was reported1 salamanders1 of the wool of which cloth was made1 which if cast into the fire1 cannot burn4 ,but that cloth is in reality made of stone in this manner1 as one of my companions a ,turk1 named ,curifar1 a man endued with singular industry1 informed me1 who had charge of the minerals in that province4 ,a certain mineral is found in that mountain which yields threads not unlike wool2 and these being dried in the sun1 are bruised in a brazen mortar1 and afterwards washed1 and whatsoever earthy substance sticks to them is taken away4 ,lastly1 these threads are spun like ordinary wool1 and woven into cloth4 ,and when they would whiten those cloths1 they cast them into the fire for an hour1 and then take them out unhurt whiter than snow4 ,after the same manner they cleanse them when they have taken any spots1 for no other washing is used to them1 besides the fire4 ,in the ,middle ,ages it would have been possible1 as ,lady ,alford suggests1 to play the game ,animal1 ,vegetable1 or ,mineral with textiles only6 ,between silk1 hemp1 cotton1 gold1 silver1 wool1 flax1 camel's hair1 and asbestos1 surely the three elements all played their parts4 ,since the first record of ,eve having sewn fig leaves together to make aprons1 women have used the needle in some form4 ,in ,england1 it is said that the first needles were made by an ,indian1 in #aede1 before which time they were imported4 ,the old play1 ,gammer ,gurton's ,needle1 is based upon the extreme rarity of these domestic implements1 and the calamity occasioned in a family by their loss4 ,there is a curious old story about a needle1 which was supposed to possess magic powers4 ,this needle is reported to have worked at night while its owner was resting1 saving her all personal responsibility about her mending4 ,when the old lady finally died1 another owner claimed this charmed needle1 and began at once to test its powers4 ,but1 do what she would1 she was unable to force a thread through its obstinate eye4 ,at last1 after trying all possible means to thread the needle1 she took a magnifying glass to examine and see what the impediment was1 and1 lo6 the eye of the needle was filled with a great tear1--it was weeping for the loss of its old mistress1 and no one was ever able to thread it again6 ,embroidery is usually regarded as strictly a woman's craft1 but in the ,middle ,ages the leading needleworkers were often men4 ,the old list of names given by ,louis ,farcy has almost an equal proportion of workers of both sexes4 ,but the finest work was certainly accomplished by the conscientious dwellers in cloisters1 and the nuns devoted their vast leisure in those days to this art4 ,fuller observes3 ,nunneries were also good shee-schools1 wherein the girls of the neighbourhood were taught to read and work444 that the sharpnesse of their wits and suddennesse of their conceits 7which even their enemies must allow unto them67 might by education be improved into a judicious solidity4 ,in some of these schools the curriculum included ,reading and sewing1 threepence a week3 a penny extra for manners4 ,an old thirteenth century work1 called the ,kleine ,heldenbuch1 contains a verse which may be thus translated3 ,who taught me to embroider in a frame with silk8 ,and to draw and design the wild and tame ,beasts of the forest and field8 ,also to picture on plain surface3 ,round about to place golden borders1 ,a narrow and a broader one1 ,with stags and hinds lifelike4 ,a study of historic embroidery should be preceded by a general knowledge of the principle stitches employed4 ,one of the simplest forms was chain stitch1 in which one stitch was taken through the loop of the stitch just laid4 ,in the ,middle ,ages it was often used4 ,sometimes1 when the material was of a loose weave1 it was executed by means of a little hook--the probable origin of crochet4 ,tapestry stitch1 of which one branch is cross-stitch1 was formed by laying close single stitches of uniform size upon a canvas specially prepared for this work4 ,illustration3 ,,embroidery ,,on ,,canvas1 #af,,th ,,century1 ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum ,fine embroidery in silk was usually executed in long smooth stitches of irregular length1 which merged into each other4 ,this is generally known as satin stitch1 for the surface of the work is that of a satin texture when the work is completed4 ,this was frequently executed upon linen1 and then1 when the entire surface had been hidden by the close silk stitches1 it was cut out and transferred on a brocade background1 this style of rendering being known as applique4 ,botticelli recommended this work as most durable and satisfactory3 it is oftenest associated with church embroidery4 ,a simple applique was also done by cutting out pieces of one material and applying them to another1 hiding the edge-joinings by couching on a cord4 ,as an improvement upon painted banners to be used in processions1 ,botticelli introduced this method of cutting out and resetting colours upon a different ground4 ,as ,vasari says3 ,this he did that the colors might not sink through1 showing the tint of the cloth on each side4 ,but ,dr4 ,rock points out that it is hardly fair to earlier artificers to give the entire credit for this method of work to ,botticelli1 since such cut work or applique was practised in ,italy a hundred years before ,botticelli was born6 ,sometimes solid masses of silk or gold thread were laid in ordered flatness upon a material1 and then sewn to it by long or short stitches at right angles4 ,this is known as couching1 and is a very effective way of economizing material by displaying it all on the surface4 ,as a rule1 however1 the surface wears off somewhat1 but it is possible to execute it so that it is as durable as embroidery which has been rendered in separate stitches4 ,in ,sicily it was a common practice to use coral in embroideries as well as pearls4 ,coral work is usually called ,sicilian work1 though it was also sometimes executed in ,spain4 ,the garments worn by the ,byzantines were very ornate2 they were made of woven silk and covered with elaborate devices4 ,in the fourth century the ,bishop of ,amasia ridiculed the extravagant dress of his contemporaries4 ,when men appear in the streets thus dressed1 he says1 the passers by look at them as at painted walls4 ,their clothes are pictures1 which little children point out to one another4 ,the saintlier sort wear likenesses of ,christ1 the ,marriage of ,galilee1 and ,lazarus raised from the dead4 ,allusion was made in a sermon3 ,persons who arrayed themselves like painted walls with beasts and flowers all over them were denounced6 ,in the early ,dark ,ages there was some prejudice against these rich embroideries4 ,in the sixth century the ,bishop ,st4 ,cesaire of ,arles forbade his nuns to embroider robes with precious stones or painting and flowers4 ,king ,withaf of ,mercia willed to the ,abbey of ,croyland my purple mantle which ,i wore at my ,coronation1 to be made into a cope1 to be used by those who minister at the holy altar3 and also my golden veil1 embroidered with the ,siege of ,troy1 to be hung up in the ,church on my anniversary4 ,st4 ,asterius preached to his people1 ,strive to follow in your lives the teachings of the ,gospel1 rather than have the miracles of ,our ,redeemer embroidered on your outward dress6 ,this prejudice1 however1 was not long lived1 and the embroidered vestments and garments continued to hold their popularity all through the ,middle ,ages and the ,renaissance4 ,it has been said on grave authority that ,woman is an animal that delights in the toilette1 while ,petrarch1 in #acff1 recognized the power of fashion over its votaries4 ,who can see with patience1 he writes1 the monstrous fantastical inventions which people of our times have invented to deform rather than adorn their persons8 ,who can behold without indignation their long pointed shoes1 their caps with feathers1 their hair twisted and hanging down like tails1444 their bellies so cruelly squeezed with cords that they suffer as much pain from vanity as the martyrs suffered for religion6 ,and yet who shall say whether a dress-reform ,laura would have charmed any more surely the eye of the poet8 ,chaucer1 in ,england1 also deplores the fashions of his day1 alluding to the sinful costly array of clothing1 namely1 in too much superfluity or else indisordinate scantiness6 ,changing fashions have always been the despair of writers who have tried to lay down rules for aesthetic effect in dress4 ,an ,englishman1 says ,harrison1 endeavouring some time to write of our attire444 when he saw what a difficult piece of work he had taken in hand1 he gave over his travail1 and onely drue a picture of a naked man unto whom he gave a pair of shears in the one hand and a piece of cloth in the other1 to the end that he should shape his apparel after such fashion as himself liked1 sith he could find no garment that could please him any while together3 and this he called an ,englishman4 ,edward the ,confessor wore ,state robes which had been beautifully embroidered with gold by his accomplished wife1 ,edgitha4 ,in the ,royal ,rolls of ,edward ,,iii41 in #acce1 we find allusion to two vests of green velvet embroidered respectively with sea sirens and coats of arms4 ,the tunics worn over armour offered great opportunities to the needleworker4 ,they were richly embroidered1 usually in heraldic style4 ,when ,symon1 ,bishop of ,ely1 performed the ceremony of ,churching for ,queen ,philippa1 the royal dame bestowed upon him the gown which she wore on that occasion2 it is described as a murrey-coloured velvet1 powdered with golden squirrels1 and was of such voluminous pattern that it was cut over into three copes6 ,bridal gowns were sometimes given to churches1 as well4 ,st4 ,louis of ,france was what might be called temperate in dress4 ,the ,sire de ,joinville says he never saw a single embroidered coat or ornamented saddle in the possession of the king1 and reproved his son for having such things4 ,i replied that he would have acted better if he had given them in charity1 and had his dress made of good sendal1 lined and strengthened with his arms1 like as the king his father had done6 ,at the marriage of the ,lord of ,touraine in #achi1 the ,duke of ,burgundy presented magnificent habits and clothing to his nephew the ,count of ,nevers3 among these were tunics1 ornamented with embroidered trees conventionally displayed on their backs1 fronts1 and sleeves2 others showed heraldic blazonry1 while a blue velvet tunic was covered with balas rubies set in pearls1 alternating with suns of solid gold with great solitaire pearls as centres4 ,again1 in #acij1 when the king visited ,dijon1 he presented to the same nephew a set of harnesses for jousting4 ,some of them were composed largely of sheets of beaten gold and silver4 ,in some gold and silver marguerites were introduced also4 ,savonarola reproved the ,florentine nuns for employing their valuable time in manufacturing gold laces with which to adorn persons and houses4 ,the ,florentine gold lace was very popular in ,england1 in the days of ,henry ,,viii41 and later the art was taken up by the wire-drawers of ,england1 and a native industry took the place of the imported article4 ,among prohibited gowns in ,florence was one owned by ,donna ,francesca degli ,albizi1 a black mantle of raised cloth3 the ground is yellow1 and over it are woven birds1 parrots1 butterflies1 red and white roses1 and many figures in vermilion and green1 with pavilions and dragons1 and yellow and black letters and trees1 and many other figures of various colours1 the whole lined with cloth in hues of black and vermilion4 ,as one reads this description1 it seems as though the artistic sense as much as conscientious scruples might have revolted and led to its banishment6 ,costumes for tournaments were also lavish in their splendour4 ,in #adfg ,benedetto ,salutati ordered made for such a pageant all the trappings for two horses1 worked in two hundred pounds of silver by ,pollajuolo2 thirty pounds of pearls were also used to trim the garments of the sergeants4 ,no wonder ,savonarola was enthusiastic in his denunciation of such extravagance4 ,henry ,,viii4 had a pair of hose of purple silk and ,venice gold1 woven like a caul4 ,for one of his favoured lady friends1 also1 there is an item1 of a certain sum paid1 for one pound of gold for embroidering a nightgown4 ,the unrivalled excellence of ,english woollen cloths was made manifest at an early period4 ,there was a fabric produced at ,norwich of such superiority that a law was passed prohibiting monks from wearing it1 the reason being that it was considered smart enough for military men6 ,this was in #adbb4 ,the name of ,worsted was given to a certain wool because it was made at ,worsted1 a town in ,norfolk2 later the worsted thread was sold for needleworkers4 ,ladies made their own gold thread in the ,middle ,ages by winding a fine flat gold wire1 scarcely of more body than a foil1 around a silk thread4 ,patches were embroidered into place upon such clothes or vestments as were torn3 those who did this work were as well recognized as the original designers1 and were called healers of clothes6 ,embroidered bed hangings were very much in order in mediaeval times in ,england4 ,in the eleventh century there lived a woman who had emigrated from the ,hebrides1 and who had the reputation for witchcraft1 chiefly based upon the unusually exquisite needlework on her bed curtains6 ,the name of this reputed sorceress was ,thergunna4 ,bequests in important wills indicate the sumptuous styles which were usual among people of position4 ,the ,fair ,maid of ,kent left to her son her new bed curtains of red velvet1 embroidered with ostrich feathers of silver1 and heads of leopards of gold1 while in #achj the ,earl of ,march bequeathed his large bed of black satin embroidered with white lions and gold roses1 and the escutcheons of the arms of ,mortimer and ,ulster4 ,this outfit must have resembled a ,parisian first class funeral6 ,the widow of ,henry ,,ii4 slept in a sort of mourning couch of black velvet1 which must have made her feel as if she too were laid out for her own burial6 ,a child's bedquilt was found mentioned in an inventory of furniture at the ,priory of ,durham1 in #addf1 which was embroidered in the four corners with the ,evangelistic symbols4 ,in the ,squier of ,lowe ,degree1 a fifteenth century romance1 there is allusion to a bed1 of which the head sheet is described with diamonds set and rubies bright4 ,the king of ,england1 in #achh1 refers1 in a letter1 to a bed of gold cloth4 ,wall hangings in bedrooms were also most elaborate1 and the effect of a chamber adorned with gold and needlework must have been fairly regal4 ,an embroiderer named ,delobel made a set of furnishings for the bedroom of ,louis ,,xiv4 the work upon which occupied three years4 ,the subject was the ,triumph of ,venus4 ,in ,south ,kensington ,museum there is a fourteenth century linen cloth of ,german workmanship1 upon which occurs the legend of the unicorn1 running for protection to a maiden4 ,an old ,bestiary describes how the unicorn1 or as it is there called1 the monocerus1 is an animal which has one horn on its head3 it is caught by means of a virgin4 ,the unicorn and virgin1 with a hunter in pursuit1 is quite a favourite bit of symbolism in the middle ages4 ,another interesting piece of ,german embroidery in ,south ,kensington is a table cloth1 worked on heavy canvas1 in heraldic style3 long decorative inscriptions embellish the corners4 ,a liberal translation of these verses is given by ,dr4 ,rock1 some of the sentences being quaint and interesting to quote4 ,evidently the embroideress indulged in autobiography in the following3 ,and she1 to honour the esquire her husband1 wished to adorn and increase his house furniture1 and there has worked1 with her own hand1 this and still many other pretty cloths1 to her memory4 ,and in another corner1 ,now follows here my own birthday4 ,when one wrote #aefe my mother's heart was gladdened by my first cry4 ,in the year #aehe ,i gave birth my self to a daughter4 ,her name is ,emilia ,catharina1 and she has been a proper and praiseworthy child4 ,then1 to her children the following address is directed3 ,do not forget your prayers in the morning4 ,and be temperate in your pleasures4 ,and make yourselves acquainted with the ,word of ,god4444 ,i beseech you to be sincere in all matters4 ,that will make you great and glorious4 ,honour everybody according to his station3 it will make you honourably known4 ,you1 my truly beloved sons1 beware of fiery wines444 you1 my truly beloved daughters1 preserve and guard your honour1 and reflect before you do anything3 many have been led into evil by acting first and thinking afterwards4 ,in another compartment1 a lament goes up in which she deplores the death of her husband4 ,his age was sixty and eight years1 she says4 ,the dropsy has killed him4 ,i1 his afflicted ,anna ,blickin von ,liechtenperg who was left behind1 have related it with my hand in this cloth1 that might be known to my children this greater sorrow which ,god has sent me4 ,the cloth is a naive and unusual record of ,german home life4 ,ecclesiastical embroidery began in the fourth century4 ,in earliest days the work was enhanced with quantities of gold thread4 ,the shroud in which ,st4 ,cuthbert's body was wrapped is a mass of gold3 a ,latin inscription on the vestments in which the body was clad may be thus translated3 ,queen to ,alfred's son and successor1 ,edward the ,elder1 was one ,aelflaed1 who caused this stole and maniple to be made for a gift to ,fridestan consecrated ,bishop of ,winchester1 ,a4 ,d4 #ije4 ,the maniple is of woven gold1 with spaces left vacant for needlework embroidery4 ,such garments for burial were not uncommon2 but they have as a rule perished from their long residence underground4 ,st4 ,cuthbert's vestments are splendid examples of tenth century work in ,england4 ,after the death of ,king ,edward ,,ii41 and his wife ,aelflaed1 ,bishop ,frithestan also having passed away1 ,athelstan1 as ,king1 made a pilgrimage to the shrine of ,st4 ,cuthbert and bestowed these valuable embroideries there4 ,they were removed from the body of the saint in #ahbg4 ,the style of the work inclines to ,byzantine4 ,the ,saxon embroideries must have been very decorative3 a robe is described by ,aldhelme in #gji1 as of a most delicate thread of purple1 adorned with black circles and peacocks4 ,at the church at ,croyland some vestments were decorated with birds of gold cut out and applique and at ,exeter they had nothing about them but true needlework4 ,in the ,liber ,eliensis1 in the ,muniment room at ,ely1 is an account of a gift to the church by ,queen ,emma1 the wife of ,king ,knut1 who on a certain day came to ,ely in a boat1 accompanied by his wife the ,queen ,emma1 and the chief nobles of his kingdom4 ,this royal present was a purple cloth worked with gold and set with jewels for ,st4 ,awdry's shrine1 and the ,monk ,thomas assures us that none other could be found in the kingdom of the ,english of such richness and beauty of workmanship4 ,the various stitches in ,english work had their several names1 the opus plumarium1 or straight overlapping stitches1 resembling the feathers of a bird2 the opus pluvarium1 or cross stitch1 and many others4 ,a great deal of work was accomplished by means of applique in satin and silk1 and sometimes the ground was painted1 as has already been described in ,italian work4 ,in the year #abdf ,matthew ,paris writes3 ,about this time the ,lord ,pope1 ,innocent ,,iv41 having observed that the ecclesiastical ornaments of some ,englishmen1 such as choristers' copes and mitres1 were embroidered in gold thread1 after a very desirable fashion1 asked where these works were made1 and received in answer1 ',england4' ,then1 said the ,pope1 ,england is surely a garden of delight for us2 it is truly a never failing ,spring1 and there where many things abound much may be extorted4 ,this far sighted ,pope1 with his semi-commercial views1 availed himself of his discovery4 ,in the days of ,anastatius1 ecclesiastical garments were spoken of by name according to the motive of their designs3 for instance1 the peacock garment1 the elephant chasuble1 and the lion cope4 ,fuller tells of the use of a pall as an ecclesiastical vestment1 remarking tersely3 ,it is made up of lamb's wool and superstition4 ,mediaeval embroiderers in ,england got into certain habits of work1 so that there are some designs which are almost as hall-marks to ,english work2 the ,cherubim over the wheel is especially characteristic1 as is also the vase of lilies1 and various heraldic devices which are less frequently found in the embroidered work of ,european peoples4 ,the ,syon ,cope is perhaps the most conspicuous example of the mediaeval embroiderer's art4 ,it was made by nuns about the end of the thirteenth century1 in a convent near ,coventry4 ,it is solid stitchery on a canvas ground1 wrought about with divers colours on green4 ,the design is laid out in a series of interlacing square forms1 with rounded and barbed sides and corners4 ,in each of these is a figure or a scriptural scene4 ,the orphreys1 or straight borders which go down both fronts of the cope1 are decorated with heraldic charges4 ,much of the embroidery is raised1 and wrought in the stitch known as ,opus ,anglicanum4 ,the effect was produced by pressing a heated metal knob into the work at such points as were to be raised4 ,the real embroidery was executed on a flat surface1 and then bossed up by this means until it looked like bas-relief4 ,the stitches in every part run in zig-zags1 the vestments1 and even the nimbi about the heads1 are all executed with the stitches slanting in one direction1 from the centre of the cope outward1 without consideration of the positions of the figures4 ,each face is worked in circular progression outward from the centre1 as well4 ,the interlaces are of crimson1 and look well on the green ground4 ,the wheeled ,cherubim is well developed in the design of this famous cope1 and is a pleasing decorative bit of archaic ecclesiasticism4 ,in the central design of the ,crucifixion1 the figure of the ,lord is rendered in silver on a gold ground4 ,the anatomy is according to the rules laid down by an old sermonizer1 in a book entitled ,the ,festival1 wherein it is stated that the body of ,christ was drawn on the cross as a skin of parchment on a harrow1 so that all his bones might be told4 ,with such instruction1 there was nothing left for the mediaeval embroiderers but to render the figure with as much realistic emaciation as possible4 ,the heraldic ornaments on the ,syon ,cope are especially interesting to all students of this graceful art4 ,it is not our purpose here to make much allusion to this aspect of the work1 but it is of general interest to know that on the orphreys1 the devices of most of the noble families of that day appear4 ,illustration3 ,,detail ,,of ,,the ,,syon ,,cope ,english embroidery fell off greatly in excellence during the ,wars of the ,roses4 ,in the later somewhat degenerate raised embroidery1 it was customary to represent the hair of angels by little tufted curls of auburn silk6 ,many of the most important examples of ancient ecclesiastical embroidery are in ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,a pair of orphreys of the fifteenth century1 of ,german work 7probably made at ,cologne71 shows a little choir of angels playing on musical instruments4 ,these figures are cut out and applied on crimson silk1 in what was called cut work4 ,this differed entirely from what modern embroiderers mean by cut work1 as has been explained4 ,the ,dalmatic of ,charlemagne is given by ,louis ,farcy to the twelfth century4 ,he calls it the ,dalmatic of ,leo ,,iii4 ,but ,lady ,alford claims for this work a greater antiquity4 ,certainly1 as one studies its details1 one is convinced that it is not quite a ,gothic work1 nor yet is it ,byzantine2 for the figures have all the grace of ,greek work prior to the age of ,byzantine stiffness4 ,it is embroidered chiefly in gold1 on a delicate bluish satin ground1 and has not been transferred1 although it has been carefully restored4 ,the central ornament on the front is a circular composition1 and the arrangement of the figures both here and on the back suggests that ,sir ,edward ,burne ,jones must have made a study of this magnificent dalmatic1 from which it would seem that much of his inspiration might have been drawn4 ,the composition is singularly restful and rhythmical4 ,the little black outlines to the white silk faces1 and to the glowing figures1 give this work a peculiarly decorative quality1 not often seen in other embroideries of the period4 ,it is unique and one of the most valuable examples of its art in the world4 ,it is now in the ,treasury of the ,vatican4 ,when ,charlemagne sang the ,gospel at ,high ,mass on the day of his ,coronation1 this was his vestment4 ,it must have been a strangely gorgeous sight when ,cola di ,rienzi1 according to ,lord ,lindsay1 took this dalmatic1 and placed it over his armour1 and1 with his crown and truncheon1 ascended to the palace of the ,popes6 ,a very curious ,italian piece of the fourteenth century is an altar frontal1 on which the subjects introduced are strange4 ,it displays scenes from the life of ,st4 ,ubaldo1 with some incidents also in that of ,st4 ,julian ,hospitaler4 ,st4 ,ubaldo is seen forgiving a mason who1 having run a wall across his private grounds1 had knocked the saint down for remonstrating4 ,another scene shows the death bed of the saint1 and the conversion of a possessed man at the foot of the bed3 a lady is throwing her arms above her head in astonishment while the evil spirit flies from its victim into the air4 ,later1 the saint is seen going to the grave in a cart drawn by oxen4 ,illustration3 ,,dalmatic ,,of ,,charlemagne ,the peacock was symbolical both of knightly vigilance and of ,christian watchfulness4 ,an old ,anglo-,norman1 ,osmont1 writes3 ,the eye-speckled feathers should warn a man that never too often can he have his eyes wide open1 and gaze inwardly upon his own heart4 ,these dear people were so introspective and self-conscious1 always looking for trouble--in their own motives1 even--that no doubt many good impulses perished unnoticed1 while the originator was chasing mental phantoms of heresy and impurity4 ,painting and jewelry were sometimes introduced in connection with embroideries4 ,in the celebrated ,cope of ,st4 ,john ,lateran1 the faces and hands of the personages are rendered in painting2 but this method was more generally adopted in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 when sincerity counted for less than effect1 and when genuine religious fervour for giving one's time and best labour to the ,lord's service no longer dominated the workers4 ,gold thread was used extensively in ,english work1 and spangles were added at quite an early period1 as well as actual jewels set in floral designs4 ,the finest work was accomplished in the ,gothic period1 before the ,renaissance came with its aimless scrolls to detract from the dignity of churchly ornament4 ,in the sixteenth century the winged angels have often a degenerate similitude to tightly laced coryphees1 who balance themselves upon their wheels as if they were performing a vaudeville turn4 ,they are not as dignified as their archaic predecessors4 ,very rich funeral palls were in vogue in the sixteenth century4 ,a description of ,prince ,arthur's burial in #aejb relates how numerous palls were bestowed1 apparently much as friends would send wreaths or important floral tributes to-day4 ,the ,lord ,powys went to the ,queere ,doore1 writes ,leland1 where two gentlemen ushers delivered him a riche pall of cloth of gould of tissue1 which he offered to the corpse1 where two ,officers of the ,armes received it1 and laid it along the corpse4 ,the ,lord ,dudley in like manner offered a pall444 the ,lord ,grey ,ruthen offered another1 and every each of the three ,earls offered to the corpse three palls of the same cloth of gould444 all the palls were layd crosse over the corpse4 ,the account of the obsequies of ,henry ,,vii4 also contains mention of these funeral palls3 the ,earls and ,dukes came in procession1 from the ,vestry1 with certain palls1 which everie of them did bring solemnly between their hands and coming in order one before another as they were in degree1 unto the said herse1 they kissed their said palls444 and laid them upon the ,king's corpse4 ,at ,ann of ,cleves' burial the same thing was repeated1 in #aeeg4 ,finally these rich shimmering hangings came to be known in ,england as cloth of pall1 whether they were used for funerals or coronations1 for bridals or pageants4 ,the ,london ,city ,guilds possessed magnificent palls2 especially well known is that of the ,fishmongers1 with its kneeling angels swinging censers2 this pall is frequently reproduced in works on embroidery4 ,it is embroidered magnificently with angels1 saints1 and strange to say1 mermaids4 ,the peacock's wings of the angels make a most decorative feature in this famous piece of old embroidery4 ,the ,arms of the ,company are also emblazoned4 ,french embroiderers are known by name in many instances2 in #abii allusion was made to ,clement le ,brodeur1 who furnished a cope for the ,count of ,artois1 and in #acaf a magnificent set of hangings was made for the ,queen1 by one ,gautier de ,poulleigny4 ,nicolas ,waquier was armourer and embroiderer to ,king ,john in #aceb4 ,among ,court workers in #achd were ,perrin ,gale1 and ,henriet ,gautier4 ,in the ,book of ,rules by ,etienne ,boileau1 governing the ,embroiderers and embroideresses of the ,city of ,paris1 one of the chief laws was that no work should be permitted in the evening1 because the work of the night cannot be so good or so satisfactory as that accomplished in the day4 ,when one remembers the facilities for evening lighting in the middle ages1 one fully appreciates the truth of this statement4 ,matthew ,paris1 in his ,life of ,st4 ,alban1 tells of an excellent embroideress1 ,christine1 ,prioress of ,margate1 who lived in the middle of the twelfth century4 ,in the thirteenth century several names occur4 ,adam de ,bazinge made1 in #abda1 by order of ,henry ,,iii4 of ,england1 a cope for the ,bishop of ,hereford4 ,cunegonde1 ,abbess of ,goss1 in ,styria1 accomplished numerous important works in that period4 ,also1 ,henry ,,iii4 employed ,jean de ,sumercote to make jewelled robes of state4 ,on a certain thirteenth century chasuble are the words ,penne fit me 7,penne made me71 pointing to the existence of a needleworker of that name4 ,among the names of the fourteenth century are those of ,gautier de ,bruceles1 ,renier de ,treit1 ,gautier de ,poulogne1 and ,jean de ,laon1 while ,jean ,harent of ,calais is recorded as having worked1 for ,mme4 d',artois1 in #acai1 a robe decorated a bestelettes et a testes4 ,these names prove that the art had been taught in many cities and countries3 ,ogier de ,gant1 ,jean de ,savoie1 ,etienne le ,hongre1 and ,roger de ,varennes1 all suggest a cosmopolitan and dispersed number of workers1 who finally all appeared in ,paris4 ,rene d',anjou had in his employ a worker in embroidery1 named ,pierre du ,villant4 ,this artist executed a set of needlework pieces for the ,cathedral of ,angers1 of such important proportions that they were known collectively as ,la ,grande ,broderie4 ,in #adfb1 when they were put in place1 a special mass was performed by way of a dedication4 ,the letter which accompanied this princely donation contained the following sentences3 ,we1 ,rene1 by the ,grace of ,god444 give444 to this church444 the adornments for a chapell all composd of golden embroidery1 comprising five pieces 7which are enumerated7 and an altar cloth illustrated with scenes from the ,passion of ,our ,saviour4444 ,given in our castle in ,angers1 the fourth day of ,march1 #adfb4 ,rene4 ,illustration3 ,,embroidery1 #ae,,th ,,century1 ,,cologne ,in #adgi another altar frontal was presented4 ,two other rich chapels were endowed by ,rene4 ,one was known as ,la ,chapelle ,joyeuse1 and the other as ,la ,grande ,chapelle des ,trepasses4 ,it is likely that the same embroiderer executed the pieces of all these4 ,a guild of embroiderers was in standing in ,seville in #adcc1 where ,ordinances were enforced to protect from fraud and otherwise to regulate this industry4 ,the same laws were in existence in ,toledo4 ,one of the finest and largest pieces of embroidery in ,spain is known as the ,tent of ,ferdinand and ,isabella4 ,this was used in #adhh1 when certain ,english ,ambassadors were entertained4 ,the following is their description of its use4 ,after the tilting was over1 the majesties returned to the palace1 and took the ,ambassadors with them1 and entered a large room444 and there they sat under a rich cloth of state of crimson velvet1 richly embroidered1 with the arms of ,castile and ,aragon4 ,a curious effect must have been produced by a piece of embroidery described in the inventory of ,charles ,v41 as two little pillows with savage beasts having the heads of armed men1 and garnished with pearls4 ,after the ,reformation it became customary to use ecclesiastical ornaments for domestic purposes4 ,heylin1 in his ,history of the ,reformation1 makes mention of many private men's parlours which were hung with altar cloths1 and their tables and beds covered with copes instead of carpetts and coverlids4 ,katherine of ,aragon1 while the wife of ,henry ,,viii41 consoled herself in her unsatisfactory life by needlework3 it is related that she and her ladies occupied themselves working with their own hands something wrought in needlework1 costly and artificially1 which she intended to the honour of ,god to bestow upon some churches4 ,katherine of ,aragon was such a devoted needlewoman1 in fact1 that on one occasion ,burnet records that she stepped out to speak to two ambassadors1 with a skein of silk about her neck1 and explained that she had been embroidering with her ladies when they were announced4 ,in an old sonnet she is thus commemorated3 ,she to the eighth king ,henry married was ,and afterwards divorced1 when virtuously1 ,although a queen1 yet she her days did pass ,in working with the needle curiously4 ,queen ,elizabeth was also a clever embroiderer2 she worked a book-cover for ,katherine ,parr1 bearing the initials ,k4 ,p41 and it is now in the ,bodleian ,library at ,oxford4 ,mary ,queen of ,scots was also said to be skilful with her needle2 in fact it seems to have been the consolation of most queens in their restricted existence in those centuries4 ,dr4 ,rock considers that the corporal which ,mary ,queen of ,scots had bound about her eyes at the time of her execution1 was in reality a piece of her own needle-work1 probably wrought upon fine linen4 ,knight1 in describing the scene in his ,picturesque ,history of ,england1 says3 ,then the maid ,kennedy took a handkerchief edged with gold1 in which the ,eucharist had formerly been enclosed1 and fastened it over her eyes2 so accounts differ and traditions allow considerable scope for varied preferred interpretation4 ,it is stated that ,catherine de ,medicis was fond of needlework1 passing her evenings embroidering in silk which was as perfect as was possible1 says ,brantome4 ,anne of ,brittany instructed three hundred of the children of the nobles at her court1 in the use of the needle4 ,these children produced several tapestries1 which were presented by the queen to various churches4 ,the volatile ,countess of ,shrewsbury1 the much married ,bess of ,hardwick1 was a good embroideress1 who worked1 probably1 in company with the ,queen of ,scots when that unfortunate woman was under the guardianship of the ,earl of ,shrewsbury4 ,one of these pieces is signed ,e4 ,s41 and dated #aeij4 ,a form of intricate pattern embroidery in black silk on fine linen was executed in ,spain in the sixteenth century1 and was known as black work4 ,viscount ,falkland owns some important specimens of this curious work4 ,it was introduced into ,england by ,katherine of ,aragon1 and became very popular1 being exceedingly suitable and serviceable for personal adornment4 ,the black was often relieved by gold or silver thread4 ,the ,petit ,point1 or single square stitch on canvas1 became popular in ,england during the reign ,elizabeth4 ,it suggested ,gobelins tapestry1 on a small scale1 when finished1 although the method of execution is quite different1 being needlework pure and simple4 ,in ,elizabeth's time was incorporated the ,london ,company of ,broderers1 which flourished until about the reign of ,charles ,i41 when there is a complaint registered that trade was so much decayed and grown out of use1 that a great part of the company1 for want of employment1 were much impoverished4 ,raised embroidery1 when it was padded with cotton1 was called ,stump ,work4 ,this was made extensively by the nuns of ,little ,gidding in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,decided changes and developments took place in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 in all forms of embroidery1 but these are not for us to consider at present4 ,a study of historic samples alone is most tempting1 but there is no space for the intrusion of any subject much later than the ,renaissance4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,sculpture ,,in ,,stone 7,france and ,italy7 ,sculpture is not properly speaking the plastic art1 as is often understood4 ,the real meaning of sculpture is work which is cut into form1 whereas plastic art is work that is moulded or cast into form4 ,terra cotta1 which is afterwards baked1 is plastic2 and yet becomes hard2 thus a ,tanagra figurine is an example of plastic art1 while a ,florentine marble statuette is a product of sculpture4 ,the two are often confounded4 ,we shall allude to them under different heads1 taking for our consideration now only such sculpture as is the result of cutting in the stone4 ,the work of ,luca ,della ,robbia will not be treated as sculpture in this book4 ,luca ,della ,robbia is a worker in plastic art1 while ,adam ,kraft1 hewing directly at the stone1 is a sculptor4 ,we have no occasion to study the art of the sculptor who produces actual statues2 only so far as sculpture is a companion to architecture1 and a decorative art1 does it come within the scope of the arts and crafts4 ,figure sculpture1 then1 is only considered when strictly of a monumental character4 ,in attacking such a subject as sculpture in the ,middle ,ages it is impossible to do more than indicate the general tendencies in different countries4 ,but there are certain defined characteristics an observance of which will make clear to any reader various fundamental principles by which it is easy to determine the approximate age and style of works4 ,in the first place1 the great general rule of treatment of stone in the ,north and in the ,south is to be mentioned4 ,in the ,northern countries1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,england1 the stone which was employed for buildings and their decorations was obtainable in large blocks and masses2 it was what1 for our purposes1 we will call ordinary stone1 and could be used in the solid2 therefore it was possible for carving in the ,north to be rendered as deeply and as roundly as the sculptor desired4 ,in ,southern countries1 however1 and chiefly in ,italy1 the stone used for building was not ordinary1 but semi-precious stone4 ,marble1 porphyry1 and alabaster were available2 and the use of such material led to a different ideal in architecture and decoration1--that of incrustation instead of solid piling4 ,these valuable stones of ,italy could not be used1 generally speaking1 in vast blocks1 into which the chisel was at liberty to plough as it pleased2 when a mass of marble or alabaster was obtained1 the aesthetic soul of the ,italian craftsman revolted against shutting up all that beauty of veining and texture in the confines of a solid square1 of which only the two sides should ever be visible1 and often only one4 ,so he cut his precious block into slices3 made slabs and shallow surfaces of it1 and these he laid1 as an outward adornment to his building1 upon a substructure of brick or rubble4 ,it is easy to perceive1 then1 the difference of the problem of the sculptors of the ,north and the ,south4 ,the plain1 solid ,northern building was capable of unlimited enrichment by carving2 this carving1 when deeply cut1 with forcible projection1 acted as a noble embellishment in which the principal feature was a varied play of light and shade2 the stone having little charm of colour or texture in itself1 depended for its beauty entirely upon its bold relief1 its rounded statuary1 and its well shaped chiselled ornament4 ,the shallow surface1 already beautiful1 both in colour and texture1 in the ,southern building material1 called only for enrichment in low relief3 ornament only slightly raised from the level or simply perforating the thin slab of glowing stone on which it was used was the more usual choice of the ,italian craftsman4 ,this statement applies1 of course1 only to general principles of the art of sculpture2 there is some flat bas-relief in the ,north1 and some rounded sculpture in the ,south2 but as a rule the tendencies are as they have just been outlined4 ,another difference between sculpture in the ,north and ,south is due to the fact that in ,italy the work was individual1 as a rule1 and in ,france it was the labour of a ,guild or company4 ,in ,italy it is usually known who was the author of any striking piece of sculpture1 while in ,france it is the exception when a work is signed1 or the names of artisans recorded4 ,in ,italy1 then1 each piece was made more with a view to its own display1 than as a part of a building1 while in ,france statuary was regarded as an integral part of the architecture1 and rows of figures were used as commonly as rows of columns in ,italy4 ,it is tragic to think of the personal skill and brilliancy of all these great ,french craftsmen being absorbed in one general reputation1 while there were undoubtedly among them great art personalities who would have stood equally with the ,pisani if they had been recognized4 ,a good deal of flat carving1 especially in the interlace and acanthus of ,ravenna1 was accomplished by commencing with a series of drilled holes1 which were afterwards channelled into each other and formed patterns4 ,when the subsequent finish is not particularly delicate1 it is quite easy to detect these symmetrical holes1 but the effect1 under the circumstances1 is not objectionable4 ,illustration3 ,,carved ,,capital ,,from ,,ravenna ,the process of cutting a bas-relief was generally to outline the whole with an incision1 and then cut away the background1 leaving the simple elevated flat value1 the shape of the proposed design4 ,the modelling was then added by degrees1 until the figure looked like half of a rounded object4 ,while it is often unpractical to refer one's readers to examples of work in far and various countries1 and advise them instantly to examine them1 it is frequently possible to call attention to well-produced plates in certain modern art books which are in nearly every public library4 ,to understand thoroughly the use of the drill in flat sculpture1 ,i wish my readers would refer to ,fig4 #aba in ,mr4 ,russell ,sturgis's ,artist's ,way of ,working1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,in a quaint treatise on ,belles ,lettres in ,france nearly two centuries ago1 by ,carlencas1 the writer says3 ,it is to no great purpose to speak of the ,gothick sculptures3 for everybody knows that they are the works of a rude art1 formed in spite of nature and rules3 sad productions of barbrous and dull spirits1 which disfigure our old churches4 ,fie on a ,frenchman who could so express himself6 ,we recall the story of how ,viollet le ,duc made the people of ,paris appreciate the wonderful carvings on ,notre ,dame4 ,all the rage in ,france was for ,greek and ,roman remains1 and the people persisted in their adoration of the antique1 but would not deign to look nearer home1 at their great mediaeval works of art4 ,so the architect had plaster casts made of the principal figures on the cathedral1 and these were treated so as to look like ancient marble statues2 he then opened an exhibition1 purporting to show new discoveries and excavations among antiques4 ,the exhibition was thronged1 and everyone was deeply interested1 expressing the greatest admiration for the marvellously expressive sculptures4 ,viollet le ,duc then admitted what he had done1 and confessing that these treasures were to be found in their native city1 advised them to pay more attention to the beauties of ,gothic art in ,paris4 ,we will not enter into a discussion of the relative merits of ,northern and ,southern art2 whether the great revival really originated in ,france or ,italy2 but this is certain3 ,nicolo ,pisano lived in the latter half of the thirteenth century1 while the great sculptures of ,notre ,dame1 ,paris1 and those of ,chartres1 were executed half a century earlier4 ,but prior to either were the ,byzantine and ,romanesque sculptures in ,italy and ,southern ,france4 ,our attention must first be turned to them4 ,charles ,eliot ,norton's definition of this word ,romanesque is as satisfactory as any that could be instanced3 ,it very nearly corresponds to the term of ,romance as applied to language4 ,it signifies the derivation of the main elements1 both in plan and construction1 from the works of the later ,roman ,empire4 ,but ,romanesque architecture 7and this applies equally to sculpture7 was not1 as it has been called1 a corrupted imitation of the ,roman architecture1 any more than the ,provencal or the ,italian language was a corrupted imitation of the ,latin4 ,it was a new thing1 the slowly matured product of a long period of many influences4 ,all mediaeval carving was subordinate to architecture1 therefore every piece of carving was designed with a view to being suitable to appear in some special place4 ,the most striking difference between mediaeval and later sculpture is that the latter is designed as a thing apart1 an object to be stood anywhere to be admired for its intrinsic merit1 instead of being a functional component in a general scheme for beautifying a given building4 ,the use of the interlace in all primitive arts is very interesting4 ,it undoubtedly began in an unconscious imitation of local architecture4 ,for instance1 in the ,british ,isles1 the building in earliest times was with wattles3 practically walls of basket work4 ,william of ,malmsbury says that ,glastonbury was a mean structure of wattle work1 while of the ,monastery of ,iona1 it is related that in #efc1 ,columba sent forth his monks to gather twigs to build his hospice4 ,british baskets were famous even so far away as ,rome4 ,so the first idea of ornament was to copy the interlacing forms4 ,the same idea was worked out synchronously in metal work1 and in illuminated books4 ,carving in stone1 wood1 and ivory1 show the same influence4 ,debased ,roman sculptural forms were used in ,italy during the fourth and fifth centuries4 ,then ,justinian introduced the ,byzantine which was grafted upon the ,roman1 producing a characteristic and fascinating though barbaric combination4 ,this was the ,romanesque1 or ,romano-,byzantine1 in the ,north of ,italy generally being recognized as the ,lombard style4 ,the sculptures of this period1 from the fifth to the thirteenth century1 are blunt and heavy1 but full of quaint expression due to the elemental and immature conditions of the art4 ,many of the old ,byzantine carvings are to be seen in ,italy4 ,the ,lombards1 when invading ,northern ,italy1 brought with them a mighty smith1 ,paul the ,deacon1 who had much skill with the hammer4 ,when these rude ,norsemen found themselves among the aesthetic treasures of ,byzantium1 and saw the fair ,italian marbles1 and the stately work of ,theodoric and ,justinian1 they were inflamed with zeal for artistic expression1 and began to hew and carve rough but spirited forms out of the ,pisan and ,carrara stones4 ,the animals which they sculptured were1 as ,ruskin has said1 all alive3 hungry and fierce1 wild1 with a life-like spring4 ,the ,byzantine work was quiescent3 the designs formal1 decent1 and monumental4 ,but the ,lombards threw into their work their own restless energy1 and some of their cruelty and relentlessness4 ,queen ,theodolinda1 in her palace at ,monza1 encouraged the arts2 it was because of her appreciative comprehension of such things that ,st4 ,gregory sent her the famous ,iron ,crown1 of which a description has been given1 on the occasion of the baptism of her son4 ,under the influence of these subsequently civilized barbarians many of the greatest specimens of carving in ,north ,italy came into being4 ,the most delightful little stumpy saints and sacred emblems may be found on the facade of ,st4 ,michele at ,pavia1 and also at ,lucca1 and on the ,baptistery at ,parma4 ,the sculptor who produced these works at ,parma was a very interesting craftsman1 named ,antelami4 ,his ,descent from the ,cross is one of the most striking pieces of early sculpture before the ,pisani4 ,he lived in the twelfth century4 ,the figures are of ,byzantine proportions and forms1 but have a good deal of grace and suggestion of movement4 ,among the early names known in ,italy is that of ,magister ,orso1 of ,verona4 ,another1 in the ninth century1 was ,magister ,pacifico1 and in the twelfth there came ,guglielmus1 who carved the charming naive wild hunting scenes on the portal of ,st4 ,zeno of ,verona4 ,these reliefs represent ,theodoric on horseback1 followed by an able company of men and horses which1 according to legend1 were supplied by the infernal powers4 ,the eyes of these fugitives have much expression1 being rendered with a drill1 and standing out in the design as little black holes--fierce and effective4 ,there is a fine round window at ,st4 ,zeno at ,verona1 designed and executed by one ,briolottus1 which1 intended to represent the ,wheel of ,fortune1 is decorated all over with little clinging figures1 some falling and some climbing1 and has the motto3 ,i elevate some mortals and depose others3 ,i give good or evil to all3 ,i clothe the naked and strip the clothed3 in me if any one trust he will be turned to derision4 ,perhaps the most wonderful carvings on the church of ,st4 ,zeno at ,verona are over the arched entrance to the crypt4 ,these1 being chiefly grotesque animal forms1 are signed by ,adaminus4 ,among the humourous little conceits is a couple of strutting cocks carrying between them a dead fox slung on a rod4 ,ruskin has characterized the carvings at ,verona1 especially those on the porch1 as being among the best examples of the true function of flat decorative carving in stone4 ,he says3 ,the primary condition is that the mass shall be beautifully rounded1 and disposed with due discretion and order2444 sculpture is essentially the production of a pleasant bossiness or roundness of surface4 ,the pleasantness of that bossy condition to the eye is irrespective of imitation on one side1 and of structure on the other4 ,the more one considers this statement1 the more he is convinced of its comprehensiveness4 ,if the lights and shadows fall pleasantly1 how little one stops to inquire1 ,what is the subject8 ,do ,i consider that horse well proportioned1 or do ,i not8 ,is that woman in good drawing8 ,effectiveness is almost independent of detail1 except as that detail affects the law of proportion4 ,there are varying degrees of relief3 from flat 7where the ornament is hardly more than incised1 and the background planed away7 to a practically solid round figure cut almost entirely free of its ground4 ,in ,venice1 until the revival in the thirteenth century1 the ,greek ,byzantine influence was marked4 ,there is no more complete storehouse of the art of the ,east adapted to mediaeval conditions than the ,church of ,st4 ,mark's4 ,if space permitted1 nothing could be more delightful than to examine in detail these marvellous capitals and archivolts which ,ruskin has so lovingly immortalized for ,english readers4 ,of all decorative sculpture there is none more satisfying from the ornamental point of view than the ,byzantine interlace and vine forms so usual in ,venice4 ,the only place where these may be seen to even greater advantage is ,ravenna4 ,the pierced marble screens and capitals1 with their restful combinations of interlacing bands and delicate foliate forms1 are nowhere surpassed4 ,the use of the acanthus leaf conventionalized in a strictly primitive fashion characterizes most of the ,byzantine work in ,italy4 ,with these are combined delightful stiff peacocks1 and curious bunches of grapes1 rosettes1 and animal forms of quaint grotesqueness4 ,such work exemplifies specially what has been said regarding the use of flat thin slabs for sculptural purposes in the ,south of ,europe4 ,nearly all these carvings are executed in fine marbles and alabasters4 ,the chief works of this period in the round are lions and gryphons supporting columns as at ,ancona and ,perugia1 and many other ,italian cities4 ,in ,rome there were several sculptors of the name of ,peter4 ,one of them1 ,peter ,amabilis1 worked about #aaig2 and another1 ,peter le ,orfever1 went to ,england and worked on the tomb of ,edward the ,confessor at ,westminster4 ,in ,bologna is an interesting crucifix probably carved in the eighth or ninth century4 ,christ's figure is upon the cross and that of his mother stands near4 ,the sculptor was ,petrus ,albericus4 ,on the cross is an inscription in the form of a dialogue3 ,my son8 ,what1 ,mother8 ,are you ,god8 ,i am4 ,why do you hang on the cross8 ,that ,mankind may not perish4 ,the ,masters of ,stone and ,wood were among the early ,guilds and ,corporations of ,florence4 ,charlemagne patronized this industry and helped to develop it4 ,of craftsmen in these two branches exclusive of master builders1 and recognized artists1 there were1 in #abii1 about a hundred and forty-six members of the ,guild4 ,italy was backward for a good while in the progress of art1 for while great activities were going on in the ,north1 the ,doge of ,venice in #igf was obliged to import artists from ,constantinople to decorate ,st4 ,mark's church4 ,the tombs of this early period in ,italy1 as elsewhere1 are significant and beautiful4 ,recumbent figures1 with their hands devoutly pressed together1 are usually seen1 lying sometimes on couches and sometimes under architectural canopies4 ,the first great original ,italian sculptor of the ,renaissance was ,nicola ,pisano4 ,he lived through almost the whole of the thirteenth century1 being born about #abjd1 and dying in #abgh4 ,what were the early influences of ,nicola ,pisano1 that helped to make him so much more more modern1 more truly classic1 than any of his age8 ,in the first place1 he was born at the moment when interest in ancient art was beginning to awaken2 the early thirteenth century4 ,in the ,campo ,santo of ,pisa may be seen two of the most potent factors in his aesthetic education1 the ,greek sarcophagus on which was carved the ,hunting of ,meleager1 and the ,greek urn with ,bacchic figures wreathing it in classic symmetry4 ,with his mind tuned to the beautiful1 the boy ,nioola gazed at the work of genuine pagan ,greek artists1 who knew the sinuousness of the human form and the joy of living with no thought of the morrow4 ,these joyous pagan elements1 grafted on solemn religious surroundings and influences1 combined to produce his peculiar genius4 ,basing his early endeavours on these specimens of genuine classical ,greek art1 there resulted his wonderful pulpits at ,pisa and ,siena1 and his matchlessly graceful little ,madonnas denote the ,hellenistic sentiment for beauty4 ,his work was a marked departure from the ,byzantine and ,romanesque work which constituted ,italian sculpture up to that period4 ,an examination of his designs and methods proves his immense originality4 ,by profession he was an architect4 ,of his pulpit in ,siena ,charles ,eliot ,norton speaks with much appreciation4 ,alluding to the lions used as bases to its columns1 he says3 ,these are the first realistic representations of living animals which the mediaeval revival of art has produced2 and in vivacity and energy of rendering1 and in the thoroughly artistic treatment of leonine spirit and form1 they have never been surpassed4 ,it is usually claimed that one may learn much of the rise of ,gothic sculpture by studying the models in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,in a foot-note to such a statement in a book edited by ,ruskin1 the indignant editor has observed1 ,you cannot do anything of the kind4 ,pisan sculpture can only be studied in the original marble3 half its virtue is in the chiselling6 ,nicola was assisted in the work on his shrine of ,st4 ,dominic at ,bologna by one ,fra ,guglielmo ,agnelli1 a monk of a very pious turn1 who1 nevertheless1 committed a curious theft1 which was never discovered until his own death-bed confession4 ,he absconded with a bone of ,st4 ,dominic1 which he kept for private devotions all his subsequent life6 ,an old chronicler says1 naively3 ,if piety can absolve from theft1 ,fra ,guglielmo is to be praised1 though never to be imitated4 ,illustration3 ,,pulpit ,,of ,,nicola ,,pisano1 ,,pisa ,andrea ,pisano was ,nicola's greatest scholar1 though not his son4 ,he took the name of his master after the mediaeval custom4 ,his work was largely in bronze1 and the earlier gates of the ,baptistery in ,florence are by him4 ,we have already alluded to the later gates by ,ghiberti1 when speaking of bronze4 ,andrea had the honour to teach the celebrated ,orcagna1--more painter than sculptor1--whose most noted work in this line was the ,tabernacle at ,or ,san ,michele4 ,among the loveliest of the figures sculptured by the ,pisani are the angels standing in a group1 blowing trumpets1 on the pulpit at ,pistoja1 the work of ,giovanni4 ,among ,nicola's pupils were his son ,giovanni1 ,donatello1 ,arnolfo di ,cambio1 and ,lorenzo ,maitani1 who executed the delightful sculptures on the facade of the ,cathedral of ,orvieto1--perhaps the most interesting set of bas-reliefs in detail of the ,early ,renaissance1 although in general symmetrical bossiness of effect1 so much approved by ,ruskin1 they are very uneven4 ,in this respect they come rather under the head of realistic than of decorative art4 ,lorenzo ,maitani was a genuine leader of his guild of craftsmen1 and superintended the large body of architects who worked at ,orvieto1 stone masons1 mosaicists1 bronze founders1 painters1 and minor workmen4 ,he lived until #accj1 and practically devoted his life to ,orvieto4 ,it is uncertain whether any of the ,pisani were employed in any capacity1 although for a time it was popularly supposed that the four piers on the facade were their work4 ,an iconographic description of these sculptures would occupy too much time here1 but one or two features of special interest should be noted3 the little portrait relief of the master ,maitani himself occurs on the fourth pier1 among the ,elect in heaven1 wearing his workman's cap and carrying his architect's square4 ,only his head and shoulders can be seen at the extreme left of the second tier of sculptures4 ,in accordance with an early tradition1 that ,virgil was in some wise a prophet1 and that he had foretold the coming of ,christ1 he is here introduced1 on the second pier1 near the base1 crowned with laurel4 ,the incident of the cutting off of the servant's ear1 by ,peter1 is positively entertaining4 ,peter is sawing away industriously at the offending member2 a fisherman ought to understand a more deft use of the knife6 ,in the scenes of the ,creation1 depicted on the first pier1 ,maitani has proved himself a real nature lover in the tender way he has demonstrated the joy of the birds at finding the use of their wings4 ,the earliest sculptures in ,france were very rude1--it was rather a process than an art to decorate a building with carvings as the ,gauls did6 ,but the latent race talent was there2 as soon as the ,romanesque and ,byzantine influences were felt1 a definite school of sculpture was formed in ,france2 almost at once they seized on the best elements of the craft and abandoned the worthless1 and the great note of a national art was struck in the figures at ,chartres1 ,paris1 ,rheims1 and other cathedrals of the ,ile de ,france4 ,prior to this flowering of art in ,northern ,france1 the churches of the ,south of ,france developed a charming ,romanesque of their own1 a little different from that in ,italy4 ,a monk named ,tutilon1 of the monastery of ,st4 ,gall1 was among the most famous sculptors of the ,romanesque period4 ,another name is that of ,hughes1 ,abbot of ,montier-en-,der4 ,at the end of the tenth century one ,morard1 under the patronage of ,king ,robert1 built and ornamented the ,church of ,st4 ,germain des ,pres1 ,paris1 while ,guillaume1 an ,abbot at ,dijon1 was at the head of the works of forty monasteries4 ,guillaume probably had almost as wide an influence upon ,french art as ,st4 ,bernward had on the ,german1 or ,nicola ,pisano on that of ,italy4 ,in ,metz were two noted architects1 ,adelard and ,gontran1 who superintended the building of fourteen churches1 and an early chronicler says that the expense was so great that the imperial treasury would scarce have sufficed for it4 ,at ,arles are two of the most famous monuments of ,romanesque art1 the porches of ,st4 ,trophime1 and of ,st4 ,gilles4 ,the latter exhibits almost classical feeling and influence2 the former is much blunter and more ,byzantine2 both are highly interesting for purposes of study1 being elaborately ornamented with figure sculptures and other decorative motives4 ,abbot ,suger1 the art-craftsman par excellence of the ,ile de ,france1 was the sculptor in chief of ,st4 ,denis from #aacg to #aahj4 ,this magnificent facade is harmonious in its treatment1 betokening plainly that one brain conceived and carried out the plan4 ,we have not the names of the minor architects and sculptors who were employed1 but doubtless they were the scholars and followers of ,suger1 and rendered work in a similar manner4 ,there are some names which have been handed down from early times in ,normandy3 one ,otho1 another ,garnier1 and a third1 ,anquetil1 while a crucifix carved by ,auquilinus of ,moissac was popularly believed to have been created by divine means4 ,if one will compare the statues of ,st4 ,trophime of ,arles with those at ,st4 ,denis1 it will be found that the latter are better rounded1 those at ,st4 ,trophime being coarsely blocked out2 although at first glance one would say that there was little to choose between them4 ,the old font at ,amiens is very ancient1 older than the church4 ,it is seven feet long1 and stands on short square piers3 it resembles a stone coffin1 and was apparently so made that a grown person might be baptized by immersion1 by lying at full length4 ,angels holding scrolls are carved at its four corners1 otherwise it is very plain4 ,there is an ancient ,byzantine crucifix at ,amiens1 on which the figure of ,our ,lord is fully draped1 and on his head is a royal crown instead of thorns4 ,the figure1 too1 is erect1 as if to invite homage by its outstretched arms1 instead of suggesting that the arms had to bear the weight of the body4 ,indeed1 it is a ,christ triumphant and regnant though crucified--a very unusual treatment of the subject in the ,middle ,ages4 ,it was brought from the ,east1 in all probability1 by a returning warrior from the ,crusades4 ,the foundation of ,chartres was very early3 the first ,bishop ,st4 ,aventin occupied his see as early as #bjj ,a4 ,d4 ,the early ,gothic type in figure sculpture is always characterized by a few features in common1 though different districts produced varying forms and facial expressions4 ,the figures are always narrow1 and much elongated1 from a monumental sentiment which governed the design of the period4 ,the influence of the ,caryatid may have remained in the consciousness of later artists1 leading them to make their figures conform so far as expedient to the proportions of the columns which stood behind them and supported them4 ,in any case1 it was considered an indispensable condition that these proportions should be maintained1 and has come to be regarded as an architectural necessity4 ,as soon as sculptors began to consider their figures as realistic representations of human beings instead of ornamental motives in their buildings1 the art declined1 and poor results followed4 ,the west porch of ,chartres dates from the twelfth century4 ,the church was injured by fire in #aaid4 ,in #abbf certain restorations were made1 and an old chronicle says that at that time it was quite fire-proof1 remarking3 ,it has nothing to fear from any earthly fire from this time to the day of ,judgment1 and will save from fires eternal the many ,christians who by their alms have helped in its rebuilding4 ,the whole edifice was consecrated by ,st4 ,louis on ,oct4 #ag1 #abfj4 ,the ,king gave the north porch1 and several of the windows1 and the whole royal family was present at this impressive function4 ,about the time of ,william the ,conqueror it became customary to carve effigies on tombstones1 at first simple figures in low relief lying on flat slabs3 this idea being soon elaborated1 however1 into canopied tombs1 which grew year by year more ornate1 until ,gothic structures enriched with finials and crockets began to be erected in churches to such an extent that the interior of the edifice was quite filled with these dignified little buildings4 ,in many instances it is quite impossible to obtain any view of the sanctuary except looking directly down the central aisle2 the whole ambulatory is often one continuous succession of exquisite sepulchral monuments4 ,illustration3 ,,tomb ,,of ,,the ,,son ,,of ,,st4 ,,louis1 ,,st4 ,,denis ,perhaps the most satisfying monument of ,french ,gothic style is the tomb of the elder son of ,st4 ,louis at ,st4 ,denis4 ,the majesty of the recumbent figure is striking1 but the little procession of mourners about the main body of the tomb is absolutely unrivalled in art of this character4 ,the device of little weeping figures surrounding the lower part of a tomb is also carried out in an exquisite way on the tomb of ,aymer de ,valence in ,westminster4 ,some interesting saints are carved on the north portal of ,amiens1 among others1 ,st4 ,ulpha1 a virgin who is chiefly renowned for having lived in a chalk cave near ,amiens1 where she was greatly annoyed by frogs4 ,undaunted1 she prayed so lustily and industriously1 that she finally succeeded in silencing them6 ,the thirteenth century revival in ,france was really a new birth2 almost more than a ,renaissance4 ,it is a question among archaeologists if ,france was not really more original and more brilliant than ,italy in this respect4 ,a glance at such figures as the ,virgin from the ,gilded ,portal at ,amiens1 and another ,virgin from the same cathedral1 will show the change which came over the spirit of art in that one city during the thirteenth century4 ,the figure on the right door of the western facade is a work of the early part of the century4 ,she is grave and dignified in bearing1 her hand extended in favour1 while the ,child gives the blessing in calm majesty4 ,this figure has the spirit of a goddess receiving homage1 and bestowing grace3 it is conventional and monumental4 ,the ,virgin from the ,gilded ,portal is of a later generation4 ,her attention is given to the ,child1 and her aspect is human and spirited1--almost merry4 ,it may be said to be less religious than the other statue1 but it is filled with more modern grace and charm1 and glorifies the idea of happy maternity3 every angle and fold of the drapery is full of life and action without being over realistic4 ,there is much in common between this pleasing statue and the ,virgins of the ,pisani in ,italy4 ,professor ,moore considers the statue of the ,virgin on the ,portal of the ,virgin at the west end of ,notre ,dame in ,paris as about the best example of ,gothic figure sculpture in ,france4 ,he says further that the finest statues in portals of any age are those of the north porch at ,paris4 ,the ,virgin here is marvellously fine also4 ,it combines the dignity and monumental qualities of the first of the ,virgins at ,amiens1 with the living buoyancy of the ,virgin on the ,gilded ,portal4 ,it is the clear result of a study of nature grafted on ,byzantine traditions4 ,it dates from #abej4 ,while sculpture was practised chiefly by monastic artists1 it retained the archaic and traditional elements4 ,when trained carvers from secular life began to take the chisel1 the spirit of the world entered in4 ,for a time this was a marked improvement3 later the pendulum swung too far1 and decadence set in4 ,a favourite device on carved tympana above portals was the ,last ,judgment4 ,michael with the scales1 engaged in weighing souls1 was the tall central figure1 and the two depressed saucers of the scales help considerably in filling the triangular space usually left over a ,gothic doorway4 ,at ,chartres1 there is an example of this subject1 in which ,mortal ,sin1 typified by a devil and two toads1 are being weighed against the soul of a departed hero4 ,as is customary in such compositions1 a little devil is seen pulling on the side of the scale in which he is most interested6 ,one of the most cheerful and delightful figures at ,chartres is that of the very tall angel holding a sun dial1 on the corner of the ,south tower4 ,a certain optimistic inconsequence is his chief characteristic1 as if he really believed that the hours bore more of happiness than of sorrow to the world4 ,there is no limit to the originality and the symbolic messages of the ,gothic grotesques4 ,two whole books might be written upon this subject alone to do it justice2 but a few notable instances of these charming little adornments to the stern structures of the ,middle ,ages must be noticed here4 ,the little medallions at ,amiens deserve some attention4 ,they represent the ,virtues and ,vices1 the ,follies1 and other ethical qualities4 ,some of them deal with ,scriptural scenes4 ,churlishness is figured by a woman kicking over her cup-bearer4 ,apropos of her attitude1 ,ruskin observes that the final forms of ,french churlishness are to be discovered in the feminine gestures in the can-can4 ,he adds3 ,see the favourite print shops in ,paris4 ,times have certainly changed little6 ,one of these ,amiens reliefs1 signifying ,rebellion1 is that of a man snapping his fingers at his bishop6 ,another known as ,atheism is variously interpreted4 ,a man is seen stepping out of his shoes at the church porch4 ,ruskin explains this as meaning that the infidel is shown in contradistinction to the faithful who is supposed to have his feet shod with the preparation of the ,gospel of ,peace2 but ,abbe ,roze thinks it more likely that this figure represents an unfrocked monk abandoning the church4 ,one of these displays the beasts in ,nineveh1 and a little squat monkey1 developing into a devil1 is wittily characterized by ,ruskin as reversing the ,darwinian theory4 ,the statues above these little quatrefoils are over seven feet in height1 differing slightly1 and evidently portrait sculptures inspired by living models1 adapted to their more austere use in this situation4 ,a quiet and inconspicuous example of exquisite refinement in ,gothic bas-relief is to be seen in the medallioned ,portail aux ,libraires at the ,cathedral in ,rouen4 ,this doorway was built in #abgh by ,jean ,davi1 who must have been one of the first sculptors of his time4 ,the medallions are a series of little grotesques1 some of them ineffably entertaining1 and others expressive of real depth of knowledge and thought4 ,ruskin has eulogized some of these little figures3 one as having in its eye the expression which is never seen but in the eye of a dog gnawing something in jest1 and preparing to start away with it4 ,again1 he detects a wonderful piece of realism and appreciative work in the face of a man who leans with his head on his hand in thought3 the wrinkles pushed up under his eye are especially commended4 ,in the south transept at ,amiens is a piece of elaborate sculpture in four compartments1 which are the figures of many saints4 ,there is a legend in connection with those figures3 when the millers were about to select a patron saint1 they agreed to choose the saint on whose head a dove1 released for the purpose1 should alight2 but as the bird elected to settle on the head of a demon1 they abandoned their plan6 ,the figures in these carvings are almost free of the ground2 they appear to be a collection of separate statuettes1 the scenes being laid in three or four planes4 ,it is not restrained bas-relief2 but the effect is extremely rich4 ,the sculptures in high relief1 but in more conventional proportion than these1 which occur on the dividing wall between the choir and the north aisle1 are thoroughly satisfactory4 ,they are coloured2 they were executed in #aeca1 and they represent scenes in the life of the ,baptist4 ,in the panel where ,salome is portrayed as dancing1 a grave little monkey is seen watching her from under the table4 ,the similar screen surrounding the sanctuary at ,paris was the work of the chief cathedral architect1 ,jean ,renoy1 with whom worked his nephew1 ,jehan le ,bouteiller4 ,these stone carved screens are quite usual in the ,ile de ,france4 ,the finest are at ,chartres1 where they go straight around the ambulatory1 the whole choir being fenced in1 as it were1 about the apse1 by this exquisite work4 ,this screen is more effective1 too1 for being left in the natural colour of the stone3 where these sculptures are painted1 as they usually are1 they suggest wood carvings1 and have not as much dignity as when the stone is fully recognized4 ,the ,door of ,st4 ,marcel has the oldest carving on ,notre ,dame in ,paris4 ,the plate representing the iron work1 in ,chapter ,,iv41 shows the carving on this portal1 which is the same that has ,biscornette's famous hinges4 ,the central figure of ,st4 ,marcel himself presents the saint in the act of reproving a naughty dragon which had had the indiscretion to devour the body of a rich but wicked lady4 ,the dragon is seen issuing from the dismantled tomb of this unfortunate person4 ,the dragon repented his act1 when the saint had finished admonishing him1 and showed his attachment and gratitude for thus being led in paths of rectitude1 by following the saint for four miles1 apparently walking much as a seal would walk1 beseeching the saint to forgive him4 ,but ,marcel was firm1 and punished the serpent1 saying to him3 ,go forth and inhabit the deserts or plunge thyself into the sea2 and1 as ,st4 ,patrick rid the ,celtic land of snakes1 so ,st4 ,marcel seems to have banished dragons from fair ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,carvings ,,around ,,choir ,,ambulatory1 ,,chartres ,at ,chartres there are eighteen hundred statues1 and almost as many at ,amiens and at ,rheims and ,paris4 ,one reason for the superiority of ,french figure sculpture in the thirteenth century1 over that existing in other countries1 is that the ,french used models4 ,there has been preserved the sketch book of a mediaeval ,french architect1 ,vilard de ,honcourt1 which is filled with studies from life3 and why should we suppose him to be the only one who worked in this way8 ,rheims ,cathedral is the ,mecca of the student of mediaeval sculpture4 ,the array of statues on the exterior is amazing1 and a walk around the great structure reveals unexpected riches in corbels1 gargoyles1 and other grotesques1 hidden at all heights1 each a veritable work of art1 repaying the closest study1 and inviting the enthusiast to undue extravagance at a shop in the vicinity1 which advertises naively1 that it is an ,artistical ,photograph ,laboratory4 ,on the door of ,st4 ,germain l',auxerrois in ,paris1 there is a portrait statue of ,st4 ,genevieve1 holding a lighted candle1 while the devil in little sits on her shoulder1 exerting himself to blow it out6 ,it is quite a droll conceit of the thirteenth century4 ,of the leaf forms in ,gothic sculpture1 three styles are enough to generalize about4 ,the early work usually represented springlike leaves1 clinging1 half-developed1 and buds4 ,later1 a more luxuriant foliage was attempted3 the leaves and stalks were twisted1 and the style was more like that actually seen in nature4 ,then came an overblown period1 when the leaves were positively detached1 and the style was lost4 ,the foliage was no longer integral1 but was applied4 ,there is little of the personal element to be exploited in dealing with the sculptors in the ,middle ,ages4 ,until the days of the ,renaissance individual artists were scarcely recognized2 master masons employed ,imagers as casually as we would employ brick-layers or plasterers2 and no matter how brilliant the work1 it was all included in the general term building4 ,the first piece of signed sculpture in ,france is a tympanum in the south transept at ,paris1 representing the ,stoning of ,stephen4 ,it is by ,jean de ,chelles1 in #abeg4 ,st4 ,louis of ,france was a patron of arts1 and took much interest in his sculptors4 ,there were two ,jean de ,montereau1 who carved sacred subjects in quite an extraordinary way4 ,jean de ,soignoles1 in #acei1 was designated as ,macon et ,ymageur4 ,one of the chief imageurs1 as they were called1 was ,jacques ,haag1 who flourished in the latter half of the fifteenth century1 in ,amiens4 ,this artist was imprisoned for sweating coin1 but in #adha the king pardoned him4 ,he executed large statues for the city gates1 of ,st4 ,michael and ,st4 ,firmin1 in #adfd and #adhi4 ,there was a sculptor in ,paris in the fourteenth century1 one ,hennequin de ,liege1 who made several tombs in black and white marble1 among them that of ,blanche de ,france1 and the effigy of ,queen ,philippa at ,westminster4 ,it was customary both in ,france and ,england to use colour on ,gothic architecture4 ,it is curious to realize that the facade of ,notre ,dame in ,paris was originally a great colour scheme4 ,a literary relic1 the ,voyage of an ,armenian ,bishop1 named ,martyr1 in the year #adij1 alludes to the beauty of this cathedral of ,paris1 as being ablaze with gold and colour4 ,an old record of the screen of the chapel of ,st4 ,andrew at ,westminster mentions that it was adorned with curious carvings and engravings1 and other imagery work of birds1 flowers1 cherubims1 devices1 mottoes1 and coats of arms of many of the chief nobility painted thereon4 ,all done at the cost of ,edmond ,kirton1 ,abbot1 who lies buried on the south side of the chapel under a plain gray marble slab4 ,h4 ,keepe1 who wrote of ,westminster ,abbey in #afhc1 mentioned the virgin over the ,chapter ,house door as being all richly enamelled and set forth with blue1 some vestigia of all which are still remaining1 whereby to judge of the former splendour and beauty thereof4 ,accounts make frequent mention of painters employed1 one being ,peter of ,spain1 and another ,william of ,westminster1 who was called the king's beloved painter4 ,king ,rene of ,anjou was an amateur of much versatility2 he painted and made many illuminations3 among other volumes1 copies of his own works in prose and verse4 ,aside from his personal claim to renown in the arts1 he founded a school in which artists and sculptors were included4 ,one of the chief sculptors was ,jean ,poncet1 who was followed in the king's favour by his son ,pons ,poncet4 ,poor ,pons was something of a back-slider1 being rather dissipated2 but ,king ,rene was fond of him1 and gave him work to do when he was reduced to poverty4 ,the monument to his nurse1 ,tiphanie1 at ,saumur1 was entrusted to ,pons ,poncet4 ,after the death of ,pons1 the chief sculptor of the court was ,jacques ,moreau4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,sculpture ,,in ,,stone 7,england and ,germany7 ,a progressive history of ,english sculpture in stone could be compiled by going from church to church1 and studying the tympana1 over the doors1 in ,romanesque and ,norman styles1 and in following the works in the spandrils between the arches in early ,gothic work4 ,first we find rude sculptures1 not unlike those in ,france4 ,the ,saxon work like the two low reliefs now to be seen in ,chichester ,cathedral show dug-out lines and almost flat modelling2 then the ,norman1 slightly rounded1 are full of historic interest and significance1 though often lacking in beauty4 ,the two old panels alluded to1 now in ,chichester1 were supposed to have been brought from ,selsea ,cathedral1 having been executed about the twelfth century4 ,there is a good deal of ,byzantine feeling in them2 one represents the ,raising of ,lazarus1 and the other1 ,our ,lord entering the house of ,mary and ,martha4 ,the figures are long and stiff1 and there is a certain quality in the treatment of draperies not unlike that in the figures at ,chartres4 ,then follows the very early ,gothic1 like the delightful little spandrils in the chapter house at ,salisbury1 and at ,westminster1 familiar to all travellers4 ,they are full of life1 partly through the unanatomic contortions by means of which they are made to express their emotions4 ,often one sees elbows bent the wrong way to emphasize the gesture of denunciation1 or a foot stepping quite across the instep of its mate in order to suggest speed of motion4 ,early ,gothic work in ,england is usually bas-relief2 one does not find the statue as early as in ,france4 ,in #aagf ,william of ,sens went over to ,england1 to work on ,canterbury ,cathedral1 and after that ,french influence was felt in most of the best ,english work in that century4 ,before the year #abjj there was little more than ornamented spaces1 enriched by carving2 after that time1 figure sculpture began in earnest1 and1 in statues and in effigies1 became a large part of the craftsmanship of the thirteenth century4 ,the transition was gradual4 ,first small separate heads began to obtain1 as corbels1 and were bracketed at the junctures of the arch-mouldings in the arcade and triforium of churches4 ,then on the capitals little figures began to emerge from the clusters of foliage4 ,in many cases the figures are very inferior to the faces1 as if more time and study had been given to expressing emotions than to displaying form4 ,the grotesque became very general4 ,satire and caricature had no other vehicle in the ,middle ,ages than the carvings in and out of the buildings1 for the cartoon had not yet become possible1 and painting offered but a limited scope to the wit1 especially in the ,north2 in ,italy this outlet for humour was added to that of the sculptor4 ,of the special examples of great figure sculpture in ,england the facade at ,wells is usually considered the most significant4 ,the angel choir at ,lincoln1 too1 has great interest2 there is real power in some of the figures1 especially the angel with the flaming sword driving ,adam and ,eve from ,eden1 and the one holding aloft a small figure1--probably typical of the ,creation4 ,at ,salisbury1 too1 there is much splendid figure sculpture2 it is cause for regret that the names of so few of the craftsmen have survived4 ,wells ,cathedral is one of the most interesting spots in which to study ,english ,gothic sculpture4 ,its beautiful ,west ,front is covered with tier after tier of heroes and saints2 it was finished in #abdb4 ,this is the year that ,cimabue was three years old2 ,niccola ,pisano had lived during its building1 ,amiens was finished forty-six years later1 and ,orvieto was begun thirty-six years later4 ,it is literally the earliest specimen of so advanced and complete a museum of sculpture in the ,west4 ,many critics have assumed that the statues on the ,west ,front of ,wells were executed by foreign workmen2 but there are no special characteristics of any known foreign school in these figures4 ,messrs4 ,prior and ,gardner have recently expressed their opinion that these statues1 like most of the thirteenth century work in ,england1 are of native origin4 ,the theory is that two kinds of influence were brought to bear to create ,english imagers4 ,in the first place1 goldsmiths and ivory carvers had been making figures on a small scale3 their trade was gradually expanded until it reached the execution of statues for the outside ornament of buildings4 ,the figures carved by such artists are inclined to be squat1 these craftsmen having often been hampered by being obliged to accommodate their design to their material1 and to treat the human figure to appear in spaces of such shapes as circles1 squares1 and trefoils4 ,another class of workers who finally turned their attention to statuary1 were the carvers of sepulchral slabs3 these slabs had for a long time shown the effigies of the deceased4 ,this theory accounts for both types of figures that are found in ,english ,gothic1--the extremely attenuated1 and the blunt squat statues4 ,at ,wells it would seem that both classes of workmen were employed1 some of the statues being short and some extremely tall4 ,they were executed1 evidently1 at different periods1 the facade being gradually decorated1 sometimes in groups of several statues1 and sometimes in simple pairs4 ,this theory1 too1 lends a far greater interest to the west front than the theory that it was all carried out at once1 from one intentional design4 ,st4 ,nicholas1 the patron saint of ,baptism1 is here represented1 holding a child on his arm1 and standing in water up to his knees4 ,the water1 being treated in a very conventional way1 coiling about the lower limbs1 is so suggestive of tiers of flat discs1 that it has won for this statue the popular name of the pancake man1 for he certainly looks as if he had taken up his position in the midst of a pile of pancakes1 into which he had sunk4 ,the old statue of ,st4 ,hugh at ,lincoln is an attractive early ,gothic work4 ,in #agdc he was removed from his precarious perch on the top of a stone pinnacle1 and was placed more firmly afterwards4 ,in a letter from the ,clerk of the ,works this process was described4 ,i must acquaint you that ,i took down the antient image of ,st4 ,hugh1 which is about six foot high1 and stood upon the summit of a stone pinnacle at the ,south corner of the ,west ,front444 and pulled down twenty-two feet of the pinnacle itself1 which was ready to tumble into ruins1 the shell being but six inches thick1 and the ribs so much decayed that it declined visibly4444 ,i hope to see the saint fixed upon a firmer basis before the ,winter4 ,on the top of a turret opposite ,st4 ,hugh is the statue of the ,swineherd of ,stowe4 ,this personage became famous through contributing a peck of silver pennies toward the building of the cathedral4 ,as is usually the case1 the saint and the donor therefore occupy positions of equal exaltation6 ,the swineherd is equipped with a winding horn4 ,a foolish tradition without foundation maintains that this figure does not represent the ,swineherd at all1 but is a play upon the name of ,bishop ,bloet1--the horn being intended to suggest ,blow it6 ,it seems hardly possible to credit the mediaeval wit with no keener sense of humour than to perpetrate such a far-fetched pun4 ,the ,lincoln ,imp1 who sits enthroned at the foot of a cul-de-lampe in the choir1 is so familiar to every child1 now1 through his photographs and casts1 that it is hardly necessary to describe him4 ,but many visitors to the cathedral fail to come across the old legend of his origin4 ,it is as follows3 ,the wind one day brought two imps to view the new ,minster at ,lincoln4 ,both imps were greatly impressed with the magnitude and beauty of the structure1 and one of them1 smitten by a fatal curiosity1 slipped inside the building to see what was going on4 ,his temerity1 however1 cost him dear1 for he was so petrified with astonishment1 that his heart became as stone within him1 and he remained rooted to the spot4 ,the other imp1 full of grief at the loss of his brother1 flew madly round the ,minster1 seeking in vain for the lost one4 ,at length1 being wearied out1 he alighted1 quite unwittingly1 upon the shoulders of a certain witch1 and was also1 and in like manner1 instantly turned to stone4 ,but the wind still haunts the ,minster precincts1 waiting their return1 now hopelessly desolate1 now raging with fury4 ,a verse1 also1 is interesting in this connection3 ,the ,bishop we know died long ago1 ,the wind still waits1 nor will he go1 ,till he has a chance of beating his foe4 ,but the devil hopped without a limp1 ,and at once took shape as the ,lincoln ,imp4 ,and there he sits atop of a column1 ,and grins at the people who gaze so solemn1 ,moreover1 he mocks at the wind below1 ,and says3 ',you may wait till doomsday1 ,o6' ,the effigies in the ,round ,church at the ,temple in ,london have created much discussion4 ,they represent ,crusaders1 two dating from the twelfth century1 and seven from the thirteenth4 ,most of them have their feet crossed1 and the ,british antiquarian mind has exploited and tormented itself for some centuries in order to prove1 or to disprove1 that this signifies that the warriors were crusaders who had actually fought4 ,there seems now to be rather a concensus of opinion that they do not represent ,knights ,templars1 but associates of the ,temple4 ,as none of them can be certainly identified1 this controversy would appear to be of little consequence to the world at large4 ,the effigies are extremely interesting from an artistic point of view1 and1 in repairing them1 in #ahdj1 ,mr4 ,richardson discovered traces of coloured enamels and gilding1 which must have rendered them most attractive4 ,henry ,,iii4 of ,england was a genuine art patron1 and even evinced some of the spirit of socialism so dear to the heart of ,william ,morris1 for the old records relate that the ,master ,mason1 ,john of ,gloucester1 was in the habit of taking wine each day with the ,king6 ,this shows that ,henry recognized the levelling as ,well as the raising power of the arts4 ,in #abee the king sent five casks of wine to the mason1 in payment for five with which ,john of ,gloucester had accommodated his ,majesty at ,oxford6 ,this is an intimate and agreeable departure from the despotic and grim reputation of early ,kings of ,england4 ,in #acba the greatest mediaeval craftsman in ,england was ,alan de ,walsingham1 who built the great octagon from which ,ely derives its chief character among ,english cathedrals4 ,in a fourteenth century manuscript in the ,british ,museum is a tribute to him1 which is thus translated by ,dean ,stubbs 7now ,bishop of ,truro73 ,a ,sacrist good and ,prior benign1 ,a builder he of genius fine3 ,the flower of craftsmen1 ,alan1 ,prior1 ,now lying entombed before the choir444 ,and when1 one night1 the old tower fell1 ,this new one he built1 and mark it well4 ,this octagon was erected to the glory of ,god and to ,st4 ,etheldreda1 the ,queen ,abbess of ,ely1 known frequently as ,st4 ,awdry4 ,around the base of the octagon1 at the crests of the great piers which carry it1 ,prior ,alan had carved the ,deeds of the ,saint in a series of decorative bosses which deserve close study4 ,the scene of her marriage1 her subsequently taking the veil at ,coldingham1 and the various miracles over which she presided1 terminate in the death and chesting of the saint4 ,this ancient term is very literal1 as the body was placed in a stone coffin above the ground1 and therefore the word burial would be incorrect4 ,the tomb of ,queen ,eleanor in ,westminster is of ,purbeck marble1 treated in the style of ,southern sculpture1 being cut in thin slabs and enriched with low relief ornamentation4 ,the recumbent effigy is in bronze1 and was cast1 as has been stated1 by ,master ,william ,torel4 ,master ,walter of ,durham painted the lower portion4 ,master ,richard ,crundale was in charge of the general work4 ,master ,john of ,st4 ,albans worked in about #abeg1 and was designated sculptor of the king's images4 ,there was at this time a school of sculpture at the ,abbey4 ,this ,westminster ,school of ,artificers supplied statuettes and other sculptured ornaments to order for various places4 ,one of the craftsmen was ,alexander le imaginator4 ,in the ,rolls of the ,works at ,westminster1 there is an entry1 ,master ,john1 with a carpenter and assistant at ,st4 ,albans1 worked on the lectern4 ,this referred to a copy which was ordered of a rarely beautiful lectern at ,st4 ,albans' cathedral1 which had been made by the incomparable ,walter of ,colchester4 ,labour was cheap6 ,there is record of three shillings being paid to ,john ,benet for three capitals6 ,among ,westminster labourers was one known as ,brother ,ralph1 the ,convert2 this individual was a reformed ,jew4 ,among the craftsmen selected to receive wine from the convent with special grace is the goldsmith1 ,master ,r4 de ,fremlingham1 who was then the ,abbey plumber4 ,there was a master mason in #acbf1 who worked at ,westminster and in various other places on ,his ,majesty's ,service4 ,this was ,william ,ramsay1 who also superintended the building then in progress at ,st4 ,paul's1 and was a man of such importance in his art1 that the mayor and aldermen ordered that he should not be placed on juries or inquests during the time of his activity4 ,he was also chief mason at the ,tower4 ,but in spite of the city fathers it was not possible to keep this worthy person out of court6 ,for he and some of his friends1 in #accb1 practically kidnapped a youth of fourteen named ,robert ,huberd1 took him forcibly from his appointed guardian1 and married him out of hand to ,william ,ramsay's daughter ,agnes1 the reason for this step being evidently that the boy had money4 ,upon the complaint of his guardian1 ,robert was given his choice whether he would remain with his bride or return to his former home4 ,he deliberately chose his new relations1 and so1 as the marriage was quite legal according to existing laws1 everything went pleasantly for ,master ,william6 ,it made no difference1 either1 in the respect of the community or the king for the master mason2 in #acdd1 he was appointed to superintend the building at ,windsor1 and was made a member of the ,common ,council in #acdg4 ,verily1 the ,old ,testament days were not the last in which every man did that which was right in his own eyes4 ,carter gives some curious historical explanations of some very quaint and little-known sculptures in a frieze high up in the ,chapel of ,edward the ,confessor in ,westminster4 ,one of them represents the ,trial of ,queen ,emma1 and is quite a spirited scene4 ,the little accusing hands raised against the central figure of the queen1 are unique in effect in a carving of this character4 ,queen ,emma was accused of so many misdemeanours1 poor lady6 ,she had agreed to marry the enemy of her kingdom1 ,king ,canute3 she gave no aid to her sons1 ,edward the ,confessor and ,alfred1 when in exile2 and she was also behaving in a very unsuitable manner with ,alwin1 ,bishop of ,winchester3 she seems to have been versatile in crime1 and it is no wonder that she was invited to withdraw from her high estate4 ,the burial of ,henry ,v4 is interestingly described in an old manuscript of nearly contemporary origin3 ,his body was embalmed and cired and laid on a royal carriage1 and an image like to him was laid upon the corpse1 open3 and with divers banners1 and horses1 covered with the arms of ,england and ,france1 ,st4 ,edward and ,st4 ,edmund444 and brought with great solemnity to ,westminster1 and worshipfully buried2 and after was laid on his tomb a royal image like to himself1 of silver and gilt1 which was made at the cost of ,queen ,katherine444 he ordained in his life the place of his sepulchre1 where he is now buried1 and every daye ,,iii4 masses perpetually to be sungen in a fair chapel over his sepulchre4 ,this exquisite arrangement of a little raised chantry1 and the noble tomb itself1 was the work of ,master ,mapilton1 who came from ,durham in #adaf4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,lethaby calls attention to the practical and expedient way in which mediaeval carvers of effigies utilized their long blocks of stone3 ,notice1 he says1 how444 the angels at the head and the beast at the foot were put in just to square out the block1 and how all the points of high relief come to one plane so that a drawing board might be firmly placed on the statue4 ,only such cutting away as was actually necessary was encouraged2 the figure was usually represented as putting the earthly powers beneath his feet1 while angels ministered at his head4 ,st4 ,louis ordered a crown of thorns to be placed on his head when he was dying1 and the crown of ,france placed at his feet4 ,the little niches around the tombs1 in which usually stood figures of saints1 were called hovels4 ,it is amusing to learn this to-day1 with our long established association of the word with poverty and squalor4 ,henry ,,vii4 left directions for the design of his tomb4 ,among other stipulations1 it was to be adorned with ymages of his patron saints of copper and gilte4 ,henry then calls and cries to his guardian saints and directs that the tomb shall have a grate1 in manner of a closure1 of coper and gilte1 which was added by ,english craftsmen4 ,inside this grille in the early days was an altar1 containing a unique relic1--a leg of ,st4 ,george4 ,sculpture and all other decorative arts reached their ultimatum in ,england about the time of the construction of ,henry ,,vii4's chapel at ,westminster4 ,the foundation stone was laid in #aejb1 by ,henry himself4 ,of the interesting monuments and carvings contained in it1 the most beautiful is the celebrated bronze figure by ,torregiano on the tomb of the king and queen1 which was designed during their lives4 ,torregiano was born in #adgj1 and died in #aebb1 so he is not quite a mediaeval figure1 but in connection with his wonderful work we must consider his career a moment4 ,vasari says that he had more pride than true artistic excellence4 ,he was constantly interfering with ,michelangelo1 with whom he was a student in ,florence1 and on one memorable occasion they came to blows3 and that was the day when ,torregiano struck ,michelangelo on the nose with his fist1 using such terrible violence and crushing that feature in such a manner that the proper form could never be restored to it1 and ,michelangelo had his nose flattened by that blow all his life4 ,so ,torregiano fled from the ,medicean wrath which would have descended upon him4 ,after a short career as a soldier1 impatient at not being rapidly promoted1 he returned to his old profession of a sculptor4 ,he went to ,england1 where1 says ,vasari1 he executed many works in marble1 bronze1 and wood1 for the king4 ,the chief of these was the striking tomb of ,henry ,,vii4 and the queen4 ,torregiano's agreement was to make it for a thousand pounds3 also there is a contract which he signed with ,henry ,,viii41 agreeing to construct a similar tomb also for that monarch1 to be one quarter part larger than that of ,henry ,,vii41 but this was not carried out4 ,st4 ,anthony appears on a little sculptured medallion on the tomb of ,henry ,,vii41 with a small pig trotting beside him4 ,this is ,st4 ,anthony of ,vienna1 not of ,padua4 ,his legend is as follows4 ,in an old document1 ,newcourt's ,repertorium1 it is related that the monks of ,st4 ,anthony with their importunate begging1 contrary to the example of ,st4 ,anthony1 are so troublesome1 as1 if men give them nothing1 they will presently threaten them with ,st4 ,anthony's fire2 so that many simple people1 out of fear or blind zeal1 every year use to bestow on them a fat pig1 or porker1 which they have ordinarily painted in their pictures of ,st4 ,anthony1 whereby they may procure their good will and their prayers1 and be secure from their menaces4 ,torregiano's contract read that he should make well1 surely1 cleanly1 and workmanlike1 curiously1 and substantially the marble tomb with images1 beasts1 and other things1 of copper1 gilte4 ,another craftsman who exercised his skill in this chapel was ,lawrence ,imber1 image maker1 and in #aejj the names of ,john ,hudd1 sculptor1 and ,nicolas ,delphyn1 occur4 ,some of the figures and statuettes on the tomb were also made by ,drawswerd of ,york4 ,on the outer ribs of ,henry ,,vii4's chapel may be detected certain little symmetrically disposed bosses1 which at first glance one would suppose to be inconspicuous crockets4 ,but in an admirable spirit of humour1 the sculptor has here carved a series of griffins1 in procession1 holding on for dear life1 in the attitudes of children sliding down the banisters4 ,they are delightfully animated and amusing4 ,the well-known figures of the ,vices which stand around the quadrangle at ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford1 are interpreted by an old ,latin manuscript in the college4 ,the statues should properly be known as the ,virtues and ,vices1 for some of them represent such moral qualities as ,vigilance1 ,sobriety1 and ,affection4 ,it is indeed a shock to learn from this presumably authoritative source1 that the entertaining figure of a patient nondescript animal1 upon whose back a small reptile clings1 is not intended to typify back biting1 but is intended for a hippopotamus1 or river-horse1 carrying his young one upon his shoulders2 this is the emblem of a good tutor1 or fellow of the college1 who is set to watch over the youth4 ,but a large number of the statues are devoted to the ,vices1 which generally explain themselves4 ,illustration3 ,,grotesque ,,from ,,oxford1 ,,popularly ,,known ,,as ,,the ,,backbiter ,no more spirited semi-secular carvings are to be seen in ,england than the delightful row of the ,beverly ,minstrels4 ,they stand on brackets round a column in ,st4 ,mary's ,church1 ,beverly1 and are exhibited as singing and playing on musical instruments4 ,they were probably carved and presented by the ,minstrels or ,waits1 themselves1 or at any rate at their expense1 for an angel near by holds a tablet inscribed3 ,this pyllor made the meynstyrls4 ,these waits were quite an institution1 being a kind of police to go about day and night and inspect the precincts1 announcing break of day by blowing a horn1 and calling the workmen together by a similar signal4 ,the figures are of about the period of ,henry ,,vii4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,beverly ,,minstrels ,the general excellence of sculpture in ,germany is said to be lower than that of ,france2 in fact1 such mediaeval ,german sculpture as is specially fine is based upon ,french work4 ,still1 while this statement holds good in a general way1 there are marked departures1 and examples of extremely interesting and often original sculpture in ,germany1 although until the work of such great masters as ,albrecht ,duerer1 ,adam ,kraft1 and ,viet ,stoss1 the wood carver1 who are much later1 there is not as prolific a display of the sculptor's genius as in ,france4 ,the figures on the ,choir screen at ,hildesheim are rather heavy1 and decidedly ,romanesque2 but the whole effect is most delightful4 ,some of the heads have almost ,gothic beauty4 ,the screen is of about #aahf1 and the figures are made of stucco2 but it is exceptionally good stucco1 very different in character from the later work1 which ,browning has designated as stucco twiddlings everywhere4 ,much good ,german sculpture may be seen in ,nueremberg4 ,the ,schoener ,brunnen1 the beautiful fountain1 is a delight1 in spite of the fact that one is not looking at the original1 which was relegated to the museum for safe keeping long ago4 ,the carving1 too1 on the ,frauenkirche1 and ,st4 ,sebald's1 and on ,st4 ,lorenz1 is as fine as anything one will find in ,germany4 ,another exception stands out in the memory4 ,nothing is more exquisite than the ,bride's ,door1 at ,st4 ,sebald's1 in ,nueremberg2 the figures of the ,wise and ,foolish ,virgins who guard the entrance could hardly be surpassed in the realm of realistic sculpture1 retaining at the same time a just proportion of monumental feeling4 ,they are bewitching and dainty1 full of grace not often seen in ,german work of that period4 ,the figures on the outside of ,bamberg ,cathedral are also as fine as anything in ,france1 and there are some striking examples at ,naumburg1 but often the figures in ,german work lack lightness and length1 which are such charming elements in the ,french ,gothic sculptures4 ,at ,strasburg the ,cathedral is generally conceded to be the most interesting and ornate of the thirteenth century work in ,germany1 although1 as has been indicated1 ,french influence is largely responsible4 ,a very small deposit of this influence escaped into the ,netherlands1 and ,st4 ,gudule in ,brussels shows some good carving in ,gothic style4 ,a gruesome statue on ,st4 ,sebald's in ,nueremberg represents the puritanical idea of the world1 by exhibiting a good-looking young woman1 whose back is that of a corpse2 the shroud is open1 and the half decomposed body is displayed1 with snakes and toads depredating upon it4 ,among the early ,renaissance artists in ,nueremberg1 was ,hans ,decker1 who was named in the ,burgher ,lists of #addi4 ,he may have had influence upon the youth of ,adam ,kraft1 whose great pyx in ,st4 ,lorenz's is known to everyone who has visited ,germany4 ,adam ,kraft was born in ,nueremberg in the early fifteenth century and his work is a curious link between ,gothic and ,renaissance styles4 ,his chief characteristic is expressed by ,p4 ,j4 ,ree1 who says3 ,the essence of his art is best described as a naive realism sustained by tender and warm religious zeal4 ,adam ,kraft carved the ,stations of the ,cross1 to occupy1 on the road to ,st4 ,john's ,cemetery in ,nueremberg1 the same relative distances apart as those of the actual scenes between ,pilate's house and ,golgotha4 ,easter ,sepulchres were often enriched with very beautiful sculptures by the first masters4 ,adam ,kraft carved the noble scene of the ,burial of ,christ in ,st4 ,john's churchyard in ,nueremberg4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,lorenz ,,church1 ,,nuremberg1 ,,showing ,,adam ,,kraft',s ,,pyx1 ,,and ,,the ,,hanging ,,medallion ,,by ,,veit ,,stoss ,it is curious that the same mind and hand which conceived and carved these short stumpy figures1 should have made the marvel of slim grace1 the ,tabernacle1 or ,pyx1 at ,st4 ,lorenz4 ,a figure of the artist kneeling1 together with two workmen1 one old and one young1 supports the beautiful shrine1 which rears itself in graduated stages to the tall ,gothic roof1 where it follows the curve of a rib1 and turns over at the top exactly like some beautiful clinging plant departing from its support1 and flowering into an exquisitely proportioned spiral4 ,it suggests a gigantic crozier4 ,before it was known what a slender metal core followed this wonderful growth1 on the inside1 there was a tradition that ,kraft had discovered a wonderful method for softening and moulding hard stones4 ,the charming relief by ,kraft on the ,weighing ,office exhibits quite another side of his genius2 here three men are engaged in weighing a bale of goods in a pair of scales3 a charming arrangement of proportion naturally grows out of this theme1 which may have been a survival in the mind of the artist of his memory of the numerous tympana with the ,judgment of ,michael weighing souls4 ,the design is most attractive1 and the decorative feeling is enhanced by two coats of arms and a little ,gothic tracery running across the top4 ,when ,adam ,kraft died in #aejh1 the art of sculpture practically ceased in ,nueremberg4 ,illustration3 ,,relief ,,by ,,adam ,,kraft ,,chapter ,,ix ,,carving ,,in ,,wood ,,and ,,ivory ,if the ,germans were somewhat less original than the ,french1 ,english1 and ,italians in their stone carving1 they made up for this deficiency by a very remarkable skill in wood carving4 ,being later1 in period1 this art was usually characterized by more naturalism than that of sculpture in stone4 ,in ,germany the art of sculpture in wood is said to have been in full favour as early as the thirteenth century4 ,there are two excellent wooden monuments1 one at ,laach erected to ,count ,palatine ,henry ,,iii41 who died in #ajie1 and another to ,count ,henry ,,iii4 of ,sayne1 in #abdf4 ,the carving shows signs of the transition to ,gothic forms4 ,large wooden crucifixes were carved in ,germany in the eleventh and twelfth centuries4 ,byzantine feeling is usual in these figures1 which are frequently larger than life4 ,mediaeval wood carving developed chiefly along the line of altar pieces and of grotesque adornments of choir stalls4 ,among the most interesting of these are the miserere seats1 of which we shall speak at more length4 ,the general methods of wood carving resemble somewhat those of stone carving2 that is to say1 flat relief1 round relief1 and entirely disengaged figures occur in both1 while in both the drill is used as a starting point in many forms of design4 ,as with the other arts1 this of carving in wood emanated from the monastery4 ,illustration3 ,,carved ,,box-,,wood ,,pyx1 #ad,,th ,,century ,the monk ,tutilo1 of ,st4 ,gall1 was very gifted4 ,the old chronicle tells us that he was eloquent1 with a fine voice1 skilful in carving1 and a painter4 ,a musician1 like his companions1 but in all kinds of wind and stringed instruments444 he excelled everybody4 ,in building and in his other arts he was eminent4 ,tutilo was a monk of the ninth century4 ,a celebrated wood carving of the thirteenth century1 on a large scale1 is the door of the ,church of ,st4 ,sabina in ,rome4 ,it is divided into many small panels1 finely carved4 ,these little reliefs are crowded with figures1 very spirited in action4 ,painted and carved shields and hatchments were popular4 ,the ,italian artists made these with great refinement4 ,sometimes stucco was employed instead of genuine carving1 and occasionally the work was embossed on leather4 ,they were painted in heraldic colours1 and gold1 and nothing could be more decorative4 ,even ,giotto produced certain works of this description1 as well as a carved crucifix4 ,altar pieces were first carved and painted1 the backgrounds being gilded4 ,by degrees stucco for the figures came in to replace the wood3 after that1 they were gradually modelled in lower relief1 until finally they became painted pictures with slightly raised portions1 and the average ,florentine altar piece resulted4 ,with the advance in painting1 and the ability to portray the round1 the necessity for carved details diminished4 ,orders from a great distance were sometimes sent to the ,florentine ,masters of ,wood1--the choir stalls in ,cambridge1 in ,king's ,college ,chapel1 were executed by them1 in spite of the fact that ,torregiano alluded to them as beasts of ,english4 ,an early ,french wood carver was ,girard d',orleans1 who1 in #acgi1 carved for ,charles ,v4 ung tableau de boys de quatre pieces4 ,ruskin considers the choir stalls in ,amiens the best worth seeing in ,france2 he speaks of the carpenter's work with admiration1 for no nails are used1 nor is the strength of glue relied upon2 every bit is true joinery1 mortised1 and held by the skill and conscientiousness of its construction4 ,of later work in wood it is a magnificent example4 ,the master joiner1 ,arnold ,boulin1 undertook the construction of the stalls in #aejh4 ,he engaged ,anton ,avernier1 an image maker1 to carve the statuettes and figures which occur in the course of the work4 ,another joiner1 ,alexander ,hust1 is reported as working as well1 and in #aeaa1 both he and ,boulin travelled to ,rouen1 to study the stalls in the cathedral there4 ,two ,franciscan monks1 expert and renowned in working in wood1 came from ,abbeville to give judgment and approval1 their expenses being paid for this purpose4 ,jean ,troupin1 a simple workman at the wages of three sous a day1 was added to the staff of workers in #aeaf1 and in one of the stalls he has carved his own portrait1 with the inscription1 ,jan ,troupin1 ,god take care of thee4 ,in #aebb the entire work was completed1 and was satisfactorily terminated on ,st4 ,john's day1 representing the entire labour of six or eight men for about fourteen years4 ,in the fifteenth century ,germany led all countries in the art of wood carving4 ,painting was nearly always allied to this art in ecclesiastical use4 ,the sculptured forms were gilded and painted1 and1 in some cases1 might almost be taken for figures in faience1 so high was the polish4 ,small altars1 with carved reredos and frontals1 were very popular1 both for church and closet4 ,the style employed was pictorial1 figures and scenes being treated with great naturalism4 ,one of the famous makers of such altar pieces was ,lucas ,moeser1 in the earlier part of the fifteenth century4 ,a little later came ,hans ,schuelein1 and then followed ,freidrich ,herlin1 who carved the fine altar in ,rothenburg4 ,jorg ,syrlin of ,ulm and his son of the same name cover the latter half of the century4 ,bavaria was the chief province in which sculptors in wood flourished4 ,the figures are rather stumpy sometimes1 and the draperies rather heavy and lacking in delicate grace1 but the works are far more numerous than those of other districts1 and vary enormously in merit4 ,then followed the great carvers of the early ,renaissance--,adam ,kraft1 and ,veit ,stoss1 contemporaries of ,peter ,vischer and ,albrecht ,duerer1 whom we must consider for a little1 although they hardly can be called mediaeval workmen4 ,veit ,stoss was born in the early fifteenth century1 in ,nueremberg4 ,he went to ,cracow when he was about thirty years of age1 and spent some years working hard4 ,he returned to his native city1 however1 in #adif1 and worked there for the rest of his life4 ,a delicate specimen of his craft is the ,rosenkranztafel1 a wood carving in the ,germanic ,museum1 which exhibits medallions in relief1 representing the ,communion of ,saints1 with a wreath of roses encircling it4 ,around the border of this oblong composition there are small square reliefs1 and a ,last ,judgment which is full of grim humour occupies the lower part of the space4 ,among the amusing incidents represented1 is that of a redeemed soul1 quite naked1 climbing up a vine to reach heaven1 in which ,god the ,father is in the act of receiving ,adam and ,eve1 shaking hands most sociably6 ,the friends of this aspiring climber are boosting him from below2 the most deliciously realistic proof that ,stoss had no use for the theory of a winged hereafter6 ,veit ,stoss was a very versatile craftsman4 ,besides his wonderful wood carvings1 for which he is chiefly noted1 he was a bridge-builder1 a stone-mason1 a bronze caster1 painter of altars1 and engraver on copper6 ,like all such variously talented persons1 he suffered somewhat from restlessness and preferred work to peace1--but his compensation lay in the varied joys of creative works4 ,his naturalism was marked in all that he did3 a naive old chronicler remarks that he made some life-sized coloured figures of ,adam and ,eve1 so fashioned that one was afraid that they were alive6 ,veit ,stoss was an interesting individual4 ,he was not especially moral in all his ways1 narrowly escaping being executed for forgery2 but his brilliancy as a technician was unsurpassed4 ,he lived until #aecc1 when he died in ,nueremberg as a very old man4 ,one of his most delightful achievements is the great medallion with an open background1 which hangs in the centre of the ,church of ,st4 ,lorenz4 ,it shows two large and graceful figures1--,mary and the ,angel ,gabriel1 the subject being the ,annunciation4 ,a wreath of angels and flowers surrounds the whole1 with small medallions representing the seven joys of the ,virgin4 ,it is a masterly work1 and was presented by ,anton ,tucher in #aeah4 ,veit ,stoss was the leading figure among wood carvers of the ,renaissance1 although ,albrecht ,duerer combined this with his many accomplishments1 as well4 ,some of the carvings in wood in the chapel of ,henry ,,vii4 at ,westminster1 are adapted from drawings by ,albrecht ,duerer1 and are probably the work of ,germans4 ,two of these1 ,derrick van ,grove and ,giles van ,castel1 were working at ,st4 ,george's1 ,windsor1 about the same time4 ,the very finest example of ,nueremberg carving1 however1 is the famous wooden ,madonna1 which has been ascribed to ,peter ,vischer the ,younger1 both by ,herr von ,bezold and by ,cecil ,headlam4 ,it seems very reasonable after a study of the other works of this remarkable son of ,peter ,vischer1 for there is no other carver of the period1 in all ,nueremberg1 who could have executed such a flawlessly lovely figure4 ,one of the noted wood carvers in ,spain in the ,renaissance1 was ,alonso ,cano4 ,he was a native of ,granada and was born in #afja4 ,his father was a carver of retablos1 and brought the boy up to follow his profession4 ,cano was also a painter of considerable merit1 but as a sculptor in wood he was particularly successful4 ,his first conspicuous work was a new high altar for the church of ,lebrija1 which came to him on account of the death of his father1 who was commencing the work in #afcj1 when his life was suddenly cut off4 ,alonso made this altar so beautifully1 that he was paid two hundred and fifty ducats more than he asked6 ,columns and cornices are arranged so as to frame four excellent statues4 ,these carvings have been esteemed so highly that artists came to study them all the way from ,flanders4 ,the altar is coloured1 like most of the ,spanish retablos4 ,cano was a pugnacious character1 always getting into scrapes1 using his stiletto1 and being obliged to shift his residence on short notice4 ,it is remarkable that his erratic life did not interfere with his work1 which seems to have gone calmly on in spite of domestic and civic difficulties4 ,among his works at various places1 where his destiny took him1 was a tabernacle for the ,cathedral of ,malaga4 ,he had worked for some time at the designs for this tabernacle1 when it was whispered to him that the ,bishop of ,malaga intended to get a bargain1 and meant to beat him down in his charges4 ,so1 packing up his plans and drawings1 and getting on his mule4 ,cano observed1 ,these drawings are either to be given away for nothing1 or else they are to bring two thousand ducats4 ,the news of his departure caused alarm among those in authority1 and he was urged to bring back the designs1 and receive his own price4 ,cano carved a life-size crucifix for ,queen ,mariana1 which she presented to the ,convent of ,monserrati at ,madrid4 ,alonso ,cano entered the ,church and became canon of the ,cathedral of ,granada4 ,but all his talents had no effect upon his final prosperity3 he died in extreme want in #affg1 the ,cathedral records showing that he was the recipient of charity1 five hundred reals being voted to the canon ,cano1 being sick and very poor1 and without means to pay the doctor4 ,another record mentions the purchase of poultry and sweet-meats also for him4 ,cano made one piece of sculpture in marble1 a guardian angel for the ,convent at ,granada1 but this no longer exists4 ,some of his architectural drawings are preserved in the ,louvre4 ,ford says that his ,st4 ,francesco in ,toledo is a masterpiece of cadaverous ecstatic sentiment4 ,the grotesques which played so large a part in church art are bewailed by ,st4 ,bernard3 ,what is the use1 he asks1 of those absurd monstrosities displayed in the cloisters before the reading monks8444 ,why are unclean monkeys and savage lions1 and monstrous centaurs and semi-men1 and spotted tigers1 and fighting soldiers1 and pipe-playing hunters1 represented8 ,then ,st4 ,bernard inadvertently admits the charm of all these grotesques1 by adding3 ,the variety of form is everywhere so great1 that marbles are more pleasant reading than manuscripts1 and the whole day is spent in looking at them instead of in meditating on the law of ,god4 ,st4 ,bernard concludes with the universal argument3 ,oh1 ,god1 if one is not ashamed of these puerilities1 why does not one at least spare the expense8 ,a hundred years later1 the clergy were censured by the ,prior de ,coinsi for allowing wild cats and lions to stand equal with the saints4 ,illustration3 ,,miserere ,,stall2 ,,an ,,artisan ,,at ,,work ,the real test of a fine grotesque--a genuine ,gothic monster--is1 that he shall1 in spite of his monstrosity1 retain a certain anatomical consistency3 it must be conceivable that the animal organism could have developed along these lines4 ,in the thirteenth century1 this is always possible2 but in much later times1 and in the ,renaissance1 the grotesques simply became comic and degraded1 and lacking in humour3 in a later chapter this idea will be developed further4 ,the art of the choir stalls and miserere seats was a natural ebullition of the humourous instinct1 which had so little opportunity for exploiting itself in monastic seclusion4 ,the joke was hidden away1 under the seat1 out of sight of visitors1 or laymen3 inconspicuous1 but furtively entertaining4 ,there was no self-consciousness in its elaboration1 it was often executed for pure love of fun and whittling2 and for that very reason embodies all the most attractive qualities of its art4 ,there was no covert intention to produce a genre history of contemporary life and manners1 as has sometimes been claimed4 ,these things were accidentally introduced in the work1 but the carvers had no idea of ministering to this or any other educational theory4 ,like all light-hearted expression of personality1 the miserere stalls have proved of inestimable worth to the world of art1 as a record of human skill and genial mirth4 ,illustration3 ,,miserere ,,stall1 ,,ely3 ,,noah ,,and ,,the ,,dove ,a good many of the vices of the times were portrayed on the miserere seats4 ,the backbiter is frequently seen1 in most unlovely form1 and two persons gossiping with an unseen witness in the shape of an avenging friend1 looking on and waiting for his opportunity to strike6 ,gluttons and misers are always accompanied by familiar devils1 who prod and goad them into such sin as shall make them their prey at the last4 ,among favourite subjects on miserere seats is the alewife4 ,no wonder ale drinking proved so large a factor in the jokes of the fraternity1 for the rate at which it was consumed1 in this age when it took the place of both tea and coffee1 was enormous4 ,the inmates of ,st4 ,cross ,hospital1 ,winchester1 who were alluded to as impotents1 received daily one gallon of beer each1 with two extra quarts on holidays6 ,if this were the allowance of pensioners1 what must have been the proportion among the well-to-do8 ,in #aeeh there is a record of a dishonest beer seller who gave only a pint for a penny drink1 instead of the customary quart6 ,the subject of the alewife who had cheated her customers1 being dragged to hell by demons1 is often treated by the carvers with much relish1 in the sacred precincts of the church choir6 ,illustration3 ,,miserere ,,stall2 ,,the ,,fate ,,of ,,the ,,ale-,,wife ,at ,ludlow there is a relief which shows the unlucky lady carried on the back of a demon1 hanging with her head upside down1 while a smiling recording imp is making notes in a scroll concerning her6 ,in one of the ,chester ,mysteries1 the ,ale ,wife is made to confess her own shortcomings3 ,some time ,i was a taverner1 ,a gentle gossip and a tapster1 ,of wine and ale a trusty brewer1 ,which woe hath me wrought4 ,of cans ,i kept no true measure1 ,my cups ,i sold at my pleasure1 ,deceiving many a creature1 ,though my ale were nought6 ,there is a curious miserere in ,holderness representing a nun between two hares3 she is looking out with a smile1 and winking6 ,at ,ripon the stalls show ,jonah being thrown to the whale1 and the same ,jonah being subsequently relinquished by the sea monster4 ,the whale is represented by a large bland smiling head1 with gaping jaws1 occurring in the midst of the water1 and ,jonah takes the usual header familiar in mediaeval art1 wherever this episode is rendered4 ,a popular treatment of the stall was the foliate mask2 stems issuing from the mouth of the mask and developing into leaves and vines4 ,this is an entirely foolish and unlovely design3 in most cases it is quite lacking in real humour1 and makes one think more of the senseless ,roman grotesques and those of the ,renaissance4 ,the mediaeval quaintness is missing4 ,at ,beverly a woman is represented beating a man1 while a dog is helping himself out of the soup cauldron4 ,the misereres at ,beverly date from about #aebj4 ,animals as musicians1 too1 were often introduced1--pigs playing on viols1 or pipes1 an ass performing on the harp1 and similar eccentricities may be found in numerous places1 while ,reynard the ,fox in all his forms abounds4 ,the choir stalls at ,lincoln exhibit beautiful carving and design3 they date from the fourteenth century1 and were given by the treasurer1 ,john de ,welburne4 ,there are many delightful miserere seats1 many of the selections in this case being from the legend of ,reynard the ,fox4 ,abbot ,islip of ,westminster was a great personality1 influencing his times and the place where his genius expressed itself4 ,he was very constant and thorough in repairing and restoring at the ,abbey1 and under his direction much fine painting and illuminating were accomplished4 ,the special periods of artistic activity in most of the cathedrals may be traced to the personal influence of some cultured ecclesiastic4 ,a very beautiful specimen of ,english carving is the curious oak chest at ,york ,cathedral1 on which ,st4 ,george fighting the dragon is well rendered4 ,however1 the termination of the story differs from that usually associated with this legend1 for the lady leads off the subdued dragon in a leash1 and the very abject crawl of the creature is depicted with much humour4 ,mediaeval ivory carving practically commenced with the fourth century2 in speaking of the tools employed1 it is safe to say that they corresponded to those used by sculptors in wood4 ,it is generally believed by authorities that there was some method by which ivory could be taken from the whole rounded surface of the tusk1 and then1 by soaking1 or other treatment1 rendered sufficiently malleable to be bent out into a large flat sheet3 for some of the large mediaeval ivories are much wider than the diameter of any known possible tusk4 ,there are recipes in the early treatises which tell how to soften the ivory that it may be more easily sculptured3 in the ,mappae ,clavicula1 in the twelfth century1 directions are given for preparing a bath in which to steep ivory1 in order to make it soft4 ,in the ,sloane ,,ms4 occurs another recipe for the same purpose4 ,ahab's ivory house which he made must have been either covered with a very thin veneer1 or else the ivory was used as inlay1 which was often the case1 in connection with ebony4 ,ezekiel alludes to this combination4 ,ivory and gold were used by the ,greeks in their famous ,chryselephantine statues1 in which cases thin plates of ivory formed the face1 hands1 and exposed parts1 the rest being overlaid with gold1 ,this art originated with the brothers ,dipoenus and ,scillis1 about #egj ,b4 ,c41 in ,crete4 ,in sculpturing ivory1 says ,theophilus1 first form a tablet of the magnitude you may wish1 and superposing chalk1 portray with a lead the figures according to your pleasure1 and with a pointed instrument mark the lines that they may appear3 then carve the grounds as deeply as you wish with different instruments1 and sculp the figures or other things you please1 according to your invention and skill4 ,he tells how to make a knife handle with open work carvings1 through which a gold ground is visible3 and extremely handsome would such a knife be when completed1 according to ,theophilus' directions4 ,he also tells how to redden ivory4 ,there is likewise an herb called 'rubrica1' the root of which is long1 slender1 and of a red colour2 this being dug up is dried in the sun and is pounded in a mortar with the pestle1 and so being scraped into a pot1 and a lye poured over it1 is then cooked4 ,in this1 when it has well boiled1 the bone of the elephant or fish or stag1 being placed1 is made red4 ,mediaeval chessmen were made in ivory3 very likely the need for a red stain was felt chiefly for such pieces4 ,the celebrated ,consular ,diptychs date from the fourth century onwards4 ,it was the custom for ,consuls to present to senators and other officials these little folding ivory tablets1 and the adornment of ,diptychs was one of the chief functions of the ivory worker4 ,some of them were quite ambitious in size2 in the ,british ,museum is a ,diptych measuring over sixteen inches by five3 the tusk from which this was made must have been almost unique in size4 ,it is a ,byzantine work1 and has the figure of an angel carved upon it4 ,gregory the ,great sent a gift of ivory to ,theodolinda1 ,queen of the ,lombards1 in #fjj4 ,this is decorated with three figures1 and is a most interesting diptych4 ,the earliest diptych1 however1 is of the year #djf1 known as the ,diptych of ,probus1 on which may be seen a bas-relief portrait of ,emperor ,honorius4 ,on the ,diptych of ,philoxenus is a ,greek verse signifying1 ,i1 ,philoxenus1 being ,consul1 offer this present to the wise ,senate4 ,an interesting diptych1 sixteen inches by six1 is inscribed1 ,flavius ,strategius ,apius1 illustrious man1 count of the most fervent servants1 and consul in ordinary4 ,this consul was invested in #eci2 the work was made in ,rome1 but it is the property of the ,cathedral of ,orviedo in ,spain1 where it is regarded as a priceless treasure4 ,claudian1 in the fourth century1 alludes to diptychs1 speaking of huge tusks cut with steel into tablets and gleaming with gold1 engraved with the illustrious name of the ,consul1 circulated among great and small1 and the great wonder of the ,indies1 the elephant1 wanders about in tuskless shame6 ,in ,magaster1 a city which according to ,marco ,polo1 was governed by four old men1 they sold vast quantities of elephants' teeth4 ,rabanus1 a follower of ,alcuin1 born in #ggf1 was the author of an interesting encyclopaedia1 rejoicing in the comprehensive title1 ,on the ,universe4 ,this work is in twenty-two books1 which are supposed to cover all possible subjects upon which a reader might be curious4444 ,the seventeenth book is on the dust and soil of the earth1 under which uninviting head he includes all kinds of stones1 common and precious2 salt1 flint1 sand1 lime1 jet1 asbestos1 and the ,persian moonstone1 of whose brightness he claims that it waxes and wanes with the moon4 ,later he devotes some space to pearls1 crystals1 and glass4 ,metals follow1 and marbles and ivory1 though why the latter should be classed among minerals we shall never understand4 ,illustration3 ,,ivory ,,tabernacle1 ,,ravenna ,the ,roman diptychs were often used as after-dinner gifts to distinguished guests4 ,they were presented on various occasions4 ,in the ,epistles of ,symmachus1 the writer says3 ,to my ,lord and ,prince ,i sent a diptych edged with gold4 ,i presented other friends also with these ivory note books4 ,while elephant's tusks provided ivory for the southern races1 the more northern peoples used the walrus and narwhale tusks4 ,in ,germany this was often the case4 ,the fabulous unicorn's horn1 which is so often alluded to in early literature1 was undoubtedly from the narwhale1 although its possessor always supposed that he had secured the more remarkable horn which was said to decorate the unicorn4 ,triptychs followed diptychs in natural sequence4 ,these1 in the ,middle ,ages1 were usually of a devotional character1 although sometimes secular subjects occur4 ,letters were sometimes written on ivory tablets1 which were supposed to be again used in forwarding a reply4 ,st4 ,augustine apologizes for writing on parchment1 explaining1 ,my ivory tablets ,i sent with letters to your uncle2 if you have any of my tablets1 please send them in case of similar emergencies4 ,tablets fitted with wax linings were used also in schools1 as children now use slates4 ,ivory diptychs were fashionable gifts and keepsakes in the later ,roman imperial days4 ,they took the place which had been occupied in earlier days by illuminated books1 such as were produced by ,lala of ,cyzicus1 of whom mention will be made in connection with book illuminators4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,nativity2 ,,ivory ,,carving ,after the triptychs came sets of five leaves1 hinged together2 sometimes these were arranged in groups of four around a central plaque4 ,often they were intended to be used as book covers4 ,occasionally the five leaves were made up of classical ivories which had been altered in such a way that they now had ,christian significance4 ,the beautiful diptych in the ,bargello1 representing ,adam in the ,earthly ,paradise1 may easily have been originally intended for ,orpheus1 especially since ,eve is absent6 ,the treatment is rather classical1 and was probably adapted to its later name4 ,some diptychs which were used afterwards for ecclesiastical purposes1 show signs of having had the ,consular inscription erased1 and the wax removed1 while ,christian sentiments were written or incised within the book itself4 ,parts of the service were also occasionally transcribed on diptychs4 ,in ,milan the ,rites contain these passages3 ,the lesson ended1 a scholar1 vested in a surplice1 takes the ivory tablets from the altar or ambo1 and ascends the pulpit2 and in another place a similar allusion occurs3 ,when the ,deacon chants the ,alleluia1 the key bearer for the week hands the ivory tablets to him at the exit of the choir4 ,anastatius1 in his ,life of ,pope ,agatho1 tells of a form of posthumous excommunication which was sometimes practised3 ,they took away from the diptychs444 wherever it could be done1 the names and figures of these patriarchs1 ,cyrus1 ,sergius1 ,paul1 ,pyrrhus1 and ,peter1 through whom error had been brought among the orthodox4 ,among ivory carvings in ,carlovingian times may be cited a casket with ornamental colonettes sent by ,eginhard to his son4 ,in #hbc1 ,louis le ,debonaire owned a statuette1 a diptych1 and a coffer1 while in #hde the ,archbishop of ,rheims placed an order for ivory book covers1 for the works of ,st4 ,jerome1 a ,lectionary1 and other works4 ,the largest and best known ivory carving of the middle ages is the throne of ,maximian1 ,archbishop of ,ravenna4 ,this entire chair1 with an arched back and arms1 is composed of ivory in intricately carved plaques4 ,it is considerably over three feet in height1 and is a superb example of the best art of the sixth century4 ,photographs and reproductions of it may be seen in most works dealing with this subject4 ,scenes from ,scripture are set all over it1 divided by charming meanders of deeply cut vine motives4 ,some authorities consider the figures inferior to the other decorations3 of course in any delineation of the human form1 the archaic element is more keenly felt than when it appears in foliate forms or conventional patterns4 ,diptychs being often taken in considerable numbers and set into large works of ivory1 has led some authorities to suppose that the ,ravenna throne was made of such a collection2 but this is contradicted by ,passeri in #agei1 who alludes to the panels in the following terms3 ,they might readily be taken by the ignorant for diptychs4444 ,this they are not1 for they cannot be taken from the consular diptychs which had their own ornamentation1 referring to the consultate and the insignia1 differing from the sculpture destined for other purposes4 ,hence they are obviously mistaken who count certain tablets as diptychs which have no ascription to any consul1 but represent the ,muses1 ,bacchantes1 or ,gods4 ,these seem to me to have been book covers4 ,probably the selected form of an upright tablet for the majority of ivory carvings is based on economic principles3 the best use of the most surface from any square block of material is to cut it in thin slices4 ,in their architecture the southern mediaeval builders so treated stone1 building a substructure of brick and laying a slab or veneer of the more costly material on its surface3 with ivory this same principle was followed1 and the shape of the tusk1 being long and narrow1 naturally determined the form of the resulting tablets4 ,the ,throne of ,ivan ,,iii4 in ,moscow and that of ,st4 ,peter in ,rome are also magnificent monuments of this art4 ,ivory caskets were the chief manifestation of taste in that medium1 during the period of transition from the eighth century until the revival of ,byzantine skill in the tenth century4 ,this form of sculpture was at its best at a time when stone sculpture was on the decline4 ,there is a fascinating book cover in ,ravenna which is a good example of sixth century work of various kinds4 ,in the centre1 ,christ is seen1 enthroned under a kind of palmetto canopy2 above him1 on a long panel1 are two flying angels displaying a cross set in a wreath2 at either end stand little squat figures1 with balls and crosses in their hands4 ,scenes from the miracles of ,our ,lord occupy the two side panels1 which are subdivided so that there are four scenes in all2 they are so quaint as to be really grotesque1 but have a certain blunt charm which is enhanced by the creamy lumpiness of the material in which they are rendered4 ,the healing of the blind1 raising of the dead1 and the command to the man by the pool to take up his bed and walk1 are accurately represented2 the bed in this instance is a form of couch with a wooden frame and mattress1 the carrying of which would necessitate an unusual amount of strength on the part of even a strong1 well man4 ,one of the most naive of these panels of the miracles is the curing of one possessed3 the boy is tied with cords by the wrists and ankles1 while1 at the touch of the ,master1 a little demon is seen issuing from the top of the head of the sufferer1 waving its arms proudly to celebrate its freedom6 ,underneath is a small scene of the three ,children in the ,fiery ,furnace2 they look as if they were presenting a vaudeville turn1 being spirited in action1 and very dramatic4 ,below all1 is a masterly panel of ,jonah and the whale1--an old favourite1 frequently appearing in mediaeval art4 ,the whale1 positively smiling and sportive1 eagerly awaits his prey at the right4 ,jonah is making a graceful dive from the ship1 apparently with an effort to land in the very jaws of the whale4 ,at the opposite side1 the whale1 having coughed up his victim1 looks disappointed1 while ,jonah1 in an attitude of lassitude suggestive of sea-sickness1 reclines on a bank2 an angel1 with one finger lifted as if in reproach1 is hurrying towards him4 ,an ingenuous ivory carving of the ninth century in ,carlovingian style is a book cover on which is depicted the finding of ,st4 ,gall1 by tame bears in the wilderness4 ,these bears1 walking decorously on their hind legs1 are figured as carrying bread to the hungry saint3 one holds a long ,french loaf of a familiar pattern1 and the other a breakfast roll6 ,bernward of ,hildesheim had a branch for ivory carving in his celebrated academy1 to which allusion has been made4 ,ivory drinking horns were among the most beautiful and ornate examples of secular ivories4 ,they were called ,oliphants1 because the tusks of elephants were chiefly used in their manufacture4 ,in #aeae the ,earl of ,ormonde leaves in his will a little white horn of ivory garnished at both ends with gold1 and in ,st4 ,paul's in the thirteenth century1 there is mention of a great horn of ivory engraved with beasts and birds4 ,the ,horn of ,ulphas at ,york is an example of the great drinking horns from which the ,saxons and ,danes1 in early days1 drank in token of transfer of lands2 as we are told by an old chronicler1 ,when he gave the horn that was to convey his estate1 he filled it with wine1 and went on his knees before the altar444 so that he drank it off in testimony that thereby he gave them his lands4 ,this horn was given by ,ulphas to the ,cathedral with certain lands1 a little before the ,conquest1 and placed by him on the altar4 ,interesting ivories are often the pastoral staves carried by bishops4 ,that of ,otho ,bishop of ,hildesheim in #abfj is inscribed in the various parts3 ,persuade by the lower part2 rule by the middle2 and correct by the point4 ,these were apparently the symbolic functions of the crozier4 ,the ,french ,gothic ivory croziers are perhaps more beautiful than others1 the little figures standing in the carved volutes being especially delicate and graceful4 ,illustration3 ,,pastoral ,,staff2 ,,ivory1 ,,german1 #ab,,th ,,century ,before a mediaeval bishop could perform mass he was enveloped in a wrapper1 and his hair was combed respectfully and lightly 7no tugging67 by the deacon4 ,this being a part of the regular ceremonial1 special carved combs of ivory1 known as ,liturgical ,combs1 were used4 ,many of them remain in collections1 and they are often ornamented in the most delightful way1 with little processions and ,scriptural scenes in bas-relief4 ,in the ,regalia of ,england1 there was mentioned among things destroyed in #afdi1 ,one old comb of horn1 worth nothing4 ,according to ,davenport1 this may have been the comb used in smoothing the king's hair on the occasion of a ,coronation4 ,the rich pulpit at ,aix la ,chapelle is covered with plates of gold set with stones and ivory carvings2 these are very fine4 ,it was given to the cathedral by the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii4 ,the inscription may be thus translated3 ,artfully brightened in gold and precious stones1 this pulpit is here dedicated by ,king ,henry with reverence1 desirous of celestial glory3 richly it is decorated with his own treasures1 for you1 most ,holy ,virgin1 in order that you may obtain the highest gain as a future reward for him4 ,the sentiment is not entirely disinterested2 but are not motives generally mixed8 ,st4 ,bernard preached a ,crusade from this pulpit in #aadf4 ,the ivory carvings are very ancient1 and remarkably fine1 representing figures from the ,greek myths4 ,ivory handles were usual for the fly-fan1 or flabellum1 used at the altar1 to keep flies and other insects away from the ,elements4 ,one entry in an inventory in #adbi might be confusing if one did not know of this custom3 the article is mentioned as one muscifugium de pecock meaning a fly-fan of peacock's feathers6 ,small round ivory boxes elaborately sculptured were used both for ,reserving the ,host and for containing relics4 ,in the inventory of the ,church of ,st4 ,mary ,hill1 ,london1 was mentioned1 in the fifteenth century1 a lytill yvory cofyr with relyks4 ,at ,durham1 in #achc1 there is an account of an ivory casket conteining a vestment of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 and in the fourteenth century1 in the same collection1 was a tooth of ,st4 ,gendulphus1 good for the ,falling ,sickness1 in a small ivory pyx4 ,illustration3 ,,ivory ,,mirror ,,case2 ,,earth #ad,,th ,,century ,ivory mirror backs lent themselves well to decorations of a more secular nature3 these are often carved with the ,siege of the ,castle of ,love1 and with scenes from the old ,romances2 tournaments were very popular1 with ladies in balconies above pelting the heroes with roses as large as themselves1 and the tutor ,aristotle playing horse was a great favourite4 ,little elopements on horseback were very much liked1 too1 as subjects2 sometimes rows of heroes on steeds appear1 standing under windows1 from which1 in a most wholesale way1 whole nunneries or boarding-schools seem to be descending to fly with them4 ,one of these mirrors shows ,huon of ,bordeaux playing at chess with the king's daughter3 another represents a castle1 which occupies the upper centre of the circle1 and under the window is a drawbridge1 across which passes a procession of mounted knights4 ,one of these has paused1 and1 standing balancing himself in a most precarious way on the pommels of his saddle1 is assisting a lady to descend from a window4 ,below are seen others1 or perhaps the same lovers1 in a later stage of the game1 escaping in a boat4 ,at the windows are the heads of other ladies awaiting their turn to be carried off4 ,illustration3 ,,ivory ,,mirror ,,case1 #acdj ,an ivory chest of simple square shape1 once the property of the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,bowle1 is given in detail by ,carter in the ,ancient ,specimens1 and is as interesting an example of allegorical romance as can be imagined4 ,observe the attitude of the knight who has laid his sword across a chasm in order to use it as a bridge4 ,he is proceeding on all fours1 with unbent knees1 right up the sharp edge of the blade6 ,among small box shrines which soon developed in ,christian times from the ,consular diptychs is one1 in the inventory of ,roger de ,mortimer1 a lyttle long box of yvory1 with an ymage of ,our ladye therein closed4 ,the differences in expression between ,french1 ,english1 and ,german ivory carvings is quite interesting4 ,the ,french faces and figures have always a piquancy of action3 the nose is a little retroussee and the eyelids long4 ,the ,german shows more solidity of person1 less transitoriness and lightness about the figure1 and the nose is blunter4 ,the ,english carvings are often spirited1 so as to be almost grotesque in their strenuousness1 and the tool-mark is visible1 giving ruggedness and interest4 ,nothing could be more exquisite than the ,gothic shrines in ivory made in the thirteenth century1 but descriptions1 unless accompanied by illustrations1 could give little idea of their individual charm1 for the subject is usually the same3 the ,virgin and child1 in the central portion of the triptych1 while scenes from the ,passion occupy the spaces on either side1 in the wings4 ,statuettes in the round were rare in early ,christian times3 one of the ,good ,shepherd in the ,basilewski collection is almost unique1 but pyxes in cylindrical form were made1 the sculpture on them being in relief4 ,in small ivory statuettes it was necessary to follow the natural curve of the tusk in carving the figure1 hence the usual twisted1 and sometimes almost contorted forms often seen in these specimens4 ,later1 this peculiarity was copied in stone1 unconsciously1 simply because the style had become customary4 ,one of the most charming little groups of figures in ivory is in the ,louvre1 the ,coronation of the ,virgin4 ,the two central figures are flanked by delightful jocular little angels1 who have that characteristic close-lipped1 cat-like smile1 which is a regular feature in all ,french sculpture of the ,gothic type4 ,in a little triptych of the fourteenth century1 now in ,london1 there is the rather unusual scene of ,joseph1 sitting opposite the ,virgin1 and holding the ,infant in his arms4 ,among the few names of mediaeval ivory carvers known1 are ,henry de ,gres1 in #acia1 ,heliot1 #acij1 and ,henry de ,senlis1 in #adhd4 ,heliot is recorded as having produced for ,philip the ,bold two large ivory tablets with images1 one of which is the444 life of ,monsieur ,st4 ,john ,baptist4 ,this polite description occurs in the ,accounts of ,amiot ,arnaut1 in #acib4 ,a curious freak of the ,gothic period was the making of ivory statuettes of the ,virgin1 which opened down the centre 7like the ,iron ,maiden of ,nueremberg71 and disclosed within a series of ,scriptural scenes sculptured on the back and on both sides4 ,these images were called ,vierges ,ouvrantes1 and were decidedly more curious than beautiful4 ,in the ,british ,museum is a specimen of northern work1 a basket cut out from the bone of a whale2 it is ,norse in workmanship1 and there is a ,runic inscription about the border1 which has been thus translated3 ,the whale's bones from the fishes' flood ,i lifted on ,fergen ,hill3 ,he was dashed to death in his gambols ,and aground he swam in the shallows4 ,fergen ,hill refers to an eminence near ,durham4 ,illustration3 ,,chessman ,,from ,,lewis ,some very ancient chessmen are preserved in the ,british ,museum1 in particular a set called the ,lewis ,chessmen4 ,they were discovered in the last century1 being laid bare by the pick axe of a labourer4 ,these chessmen have strange staring eyes2 when the workman saw them1 he took them for gnomes who had come up out of the bowels of the earth1 to annoy him1 and he rushed off in terror to report what proved to be an important archaeological discovery4 ,one of the chessmen of ,charlemagne is to be seen in ,paris3 he rides an elephant1 and is attended by a cortege1 all in one piece4 ,sometimes these men are very elaborate ivory carvings in themselves4 ,as ,mr4 ,maskell points out that bishops did not wear mitres1 according to high authority1 until after the year #ajjj1 it is unlikely that any of the ancient chessmen in which the ,bishop appears in a mitre should be of earlier date than the eleventh century4 ,there is one fine ,anglo-,saxon set of draughts in which the white pieces are of walrus ivory1 and the black pieces1 of genuine jet4 ,paxes1 which were passed about in church for the ,kiss of ,peace1 were sometimes made of ivory4 ,there are few remains of early ,spanish ivory sculpture4 ,among them is a casket curiously and intricately ornamented and decorated1 with the following inscription3 ,in the ,name of ,god1 ,the ,blessing of ,god1 the complete felicity1 the happiness1 the fulfilment of the hope of good works1 and the adjourning of the fatal period of death1 be with ,hagib ,seifo4444 ,this box was made by his orders under the inspection of his slave ,nomayr1 in the year #cie4 ,ivory caskets in ,spain were often used to contain perfumes1 or to serve as jewel boxes4 ,it was customary1 also1 to use them to convey presents of relics to churches4 ,ivory was largely used in ,spain for inlay in fine furniture4 ,king ,don ,sancho ordered a shrine1 in #ajcc1 to contain the relics of ,st4 ,millan4 ,the ivory plaques which are set about this shrine are interesting specimens of ,spanish art under ,oriental domination4 ,under one little figure is inscribed ,apparitio ,scholastico1 and ,remirus ,rex under another1 while a figure of a sculptor carving a shield1 with a workman standing by him1 is labelled ,magistro and ,ridolpho his son4 ,few individual ivory carvers are known by name4 ,a ,french artist1 ,jean ,labraellier1 worked in ivory for ,charles ,v4 of ,france2 and in ,germany it must have been quite a fashionable pursuit in high life2 the ,elector of ,saxony1 ,august the ,pious1 who died in #aehf1 was an ivory worker1 and there are two snuff-boxes shown as the work of ,peter the ,great4 ,the ,elector of ,brandenburgh and ,maximilian of ,bavaria both carved ivory for their own recreation4 ,in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there were many well-known sculptors who turned their attention to ivory2 but our researches hardly carry us so far4 ,for a moment1 however1 ,i must touch on the subject of billiard balls4 ,it may interest our readers to know that the size of the little black dot on a ball indicates its quality4 ,the nerve which runs through a tusk1 is visible at this point1 and a ball made from the ivory near the end of the tusk1 where the nerve has tapered off to its smallest proportions1 is the best ball4 ,the finest balls of all are made from short stubby tusks1 which are known as ball teeth4 ,the ivory in these is closer in grain1 and they are much more expensive4 ,very large tusks are more liable to have coarse grained bony spaces near the centre4 ,,chapter ,x ,,inlay ,,and ,,mosaic ,there are three kinds of inlay1 one where the pattern is incised1 and a plastic filling pressed in1 and allowed to harden1 on the principle of a niello2 another1 where both the piece to be set in and the background are cut out separately2 and a third1 where a number of small bits are fitted together as in a mosaic4 ,the pavement in ,siena is an example of the first process4 ,the second process is often accomplished with a fine saw1 like what is popularly known as a jig saw1 cutting the same pattern in light and dark wood1 one layer over another2 the dark can then be set into the light1 and the light in the dark without more than one cutting for both4 ,the mosaic of small pieces can be seen in any of the ,southern churches1 and1 indeed1 now in nearly every country4 ,it was the chief wall treatment of the middle ages4 ,illustration3 ,,marble ,,inlay ,,from ,,lucca ,about the year #gfd1 ,maestro ,giudetto ornamented the delightful ,church of ,st4 ,michele at ,lucca4 ,this work1 or at least the best of it1 is a procession of various little partly heraldic and partly grotesque animals1 inlaid with white marble on a ground of green serpentine4 ,they are full of the best expression of mediaeval art4 ,the ,lion of ,florence1 the ,hare of ,pisa1 the ,stork of ,perugia1 the ,dragon of ,pistoja1 are all to be seen in these simple mosaics1 if one chooses to consider them as such1 hardly more than white silhouettes1 and yet full of life and vigour4 ,the effect is that of a vast piece of lace1--the real cut work of the period4 ,absurd little trees1 as space fillers1 are set in the green and white marble4 ,every reader will remember how ,ruskin was enthusiastic over these little creatures1 and no one can fail to feel their charm4 ,the pavements at the ,florentine ,baptistery and at ,san ,miniato are interesting examples of inlay in black and white marble4 ,they are early works1 and are the natural forerunners of the marvellous pavement at ,siena1 which is the most remarkable of its kind in the world4 ,the pavement masters worked in varying methods4 ,the first of these was the joining together of large flat pieces of marble1 cut in the shapes of the general design1 and then outlining on them an actual black drawing by means of deeply cut channels1 filled with hard black cement4 ,the channels were first cut superficially and then emphasized and deepened by the use of a drill1 in a series of holes4 ,illustration3 ,,detail ,,of ,,pavement1 ,,baptistery1 ,,florence ,later workers used black marbles for the backgrounds1 red for the ground1 and white for the figures1 sometimes adding touches of yellow inlay for decorations1 jewels1 and so forth4 ,some of the workers even used gray marble to represent shadows1 but this was very difficult1 and those who attempted less chiaroscuro were more successful from a decorator's point of view4 ,this work covered centuries4 ,the earliest date of the ornamental work in ,siena is #acfi4 ,from #adac to #adbc ,domenico del ,coro1 a famous worker in glass and in intarsia1 was superintendent of the works4 ,the beauty and spirit of much of the earlier inlay have been impaired by restoration1 but the whole effect is unique1 and on so vast a scale that one hesitates to criticize it just as one hesitates to criticize the windows at ,gouda4 ,one compartment of the floor is in genuine mosaic1 dating from #acgc4 ,the designer is unknown1 but the feeling is very ,sienese2 ,romulus and ,remus are seen in their customary relation to the domesticated wolf1 while the symbolical animals of various ,italian cities are arranged in a series of circles around this centrepiece4 ,one of the most striking designs is that of ,absalom1 hanging by his hair4 ,it is in sharp black and white1 and the foliage of the trees is remarkably decorative1 rendered with interesting minutiae4 ,this is attributed to ,pietro del ,minella1 and was begun in #addg4 ,a very interesting composition is that of the ,parable of the ,mote and the ,beam4 ,this is an early work1 about #acge2 it shows two gentlemen in the costume of the period1 arguing in courtly style1 one apparently declaiming to the other how much better it would be for him if it were not for the mote in his eye1 while from the eye of the speaker himself extends1 at an impossible angle1 a huge wedge of wood1 longer than his head1 from which he appears to suffer no inconvenience1 and which seems to have defied the laws of gravitation6 ,the renowned ,matteo da ,siena worked on the pavement2 he designed the scene of the ,massacre of the ,innocents--it seems to have been always his favourite subject4 ,he was apparently of a morbid turn4 ,in #aeje ,pinturicchio was paid for a work on the floor3 ,to master ,bernardino ,pinturicchio1 ptr41 for his labour in making a cartoon for the design of ,fortune1 which is now being made in the ,cathedral1 on this #acth day of ,march1 #ab ,lires for our said ,master ,alberto4 ,the mosaic is in red1 black1 and white1 while other coloured marbles are introduced in the ornamental parts of the design1 several of which have been renewed4 ,fortune herself has been restored1 also1 as have most of the lower figures in the composition4 ,her precariousness is well indicated by her action in resting one foot on a ball1 and the other on an unstable little boat which floats1 with broken mast1 by the shore4 ,she holds a sail above her head1 so that she is liable to be swayed by varying winds4 ,the three upper figures are in a better state of preservation than the others4 ,illustration3 ,,detail ,,of ,,pavement1 ,,siena2 ,,fortune1 ,,by ,,pinturicchio ,there was also in ,france some interest in mosaic during the eleventh century4 ,at ,st4 ,remi in ,rheims was a celebrated pavement in which enamels were used as well as marbles4 ,among the designs which appeared on this pavement1 which must have positively rivalled ,siena in its glory1 was a group of the ,seven ,arts1 as well as numerous ,biblical scenes4 ,it is said that certain bits of valuable stone1 like jasper1 were exhibited in marble settings1 like precious stones in a ring4 ,there were other ,french pavements1 of the eleventh century1 which were similar in their construction1 in which terra cotta was employed for the reds4 ,pietra ,dura was a mosaic laid upon either a thick wood or a marble foundation4 ,lapis lazuli1 malachite1 and jasper were used largely1 as well as bloodstones1 onyx1 and ,rosso ,antico4 ,in ,florentine ,pietra ,dura work1 the inlay of two hard and equally cut materials reached its climax4 ,arnolfo del ,cambio1 who built the ,cathedral of ,sta4 ,maria ,fiore in ,florence1 being its architect from #abid till #acaj1 was the first in that city to use coloured slabs and panels of marble in a sort of flat mosaic on a vast scale on the outside of buildings4 ,his example has been extensively followed throughout ,italy4 ,the art of ,pietra ,dura mosaic began under ,cosimo ,i4 who imported it1 if one may use such an expression1 from ,lombardy4 ,it was used chiefly1 like ,gobelins ,tapestry1 to make very costly presents1 otherwise unprocurable1 for grandees and crowned heads4 ,for a long time the work was a ,royal monopoly4 ,there are several interesting examples in the ,pitti ,palace1 in this case in the form of tables4 ,flowers1 fruits1 shells1 and even figures and landscapes have been represented in this manner4 ,six masters of the art of ,pietra ,dura came from ,milan in #aehj1 to instruct the ,florentines3 and a portrait of ,cosimo ,i4 was the first important result of their labours4 ,it was executed by ,maestro ,francesco ,ferucci4 ,the ,medicean ,mausoleum in ,florence exhibits magnificent specimens of this craft4 ,in the time of ,ferdinand ,i4 the art was carried by ,florentines to ,india1 where it was used in decorating some of the palaces4 ,under ,ferdinand ,,ii4 ,pietra ,dura reached its climax1 there being in ,florence at this time a most noted ,frenchman1 ,luigi ,siries1 who settled in ,florence in #agbb4 ,he refined the art by ceasing to use the stone as a pigment in producing pictures1 and employing it for the more legitimate purposes of decoration4 ,some of the large tables in the ,pitti are his work4 ,flowers and shells on a porphyry ground were especially characteristic of ,siries4 ,there was a famous inlayer of tables1 long before this time1 named ,antonio ,leopardi1 who lived from #adej to #aebe4 ,the inlay of wood has been called marquetry and intarsia1 and was used principally on furniture and choir stalls4 ,labarte gives the origin of this art in ,italy to the twelfth century4 ,the ,guild of ,carpenters in ,florence had a branch of ,intarsiatura workers1 which included all forms of inlay in wood4 ,it is really more correct to speak of intarsia when we allude to early ,italian work1 the word being derived from interserere1 the ,latin for insert2 while marquetry originates in ,france1 much later1 from marqueter1 to mark4 ,italian wood inlay began in ,siena1 where one ,manuello is reported to have worked in the ,cathedral in #abei4 ,intarsia was also made in ,orvieto at this time4 ,vasari did not hold the art in high estimation1 saying that it was practised by those persons who possessed more patience than skill in design1 and ,i confess to a furtive concurrence in ,vasari's opinion4 ,he criticizes it a little illogically1 however1 when he goes on to say that the work soon becomes dark1 and is always in danger of perishing from the worms and by fire1 for in these respects it is no more perishable than any great painting on canvas or panel4 ,vasari always is a little extreme1 as we know4 ,the earliest ,italian workers took a solid block of wood1 chiselled out a sunken design1 and then filled in the depression with other woods4 ,the only enemy to such work was dampness1 which might loosen the glue1 or cause the small thin bits to swell or warp4 ,the glue was applied always when the surfaces were perfectly clean1 and the whole was pressed1 being screwed down on heated metal plates1 that all might dry evenly4 ,in #adgh there were thirty-four workshops of intarsia makers in ,florence4 ,the personal history of several of the ,italian workers in inlay is still available1 and1 as it makes a craft seem much more vital when the names of the craftsmen are known to us1 it will be interesting to glance at a few names of prominent artists in this branch of work4 ,bernardo ,agnolo and his family are among them2 and ,domenico and ,giovanni ,tasso were wood-carvers who worked with ,michelangelo4 ,among the ,novelli1 there is a quaint tale called ,the ,fat ,ebony ,carver1 which is interesting to read in this connection4 ,benedetto da ,maiano1 one of the most solemn workers in intarsia in ,florence1 became disgusted with his art after one trying experience1 and ever after turned his attention to other carving4 ,vasari's version of the affair is as follows4 ,benedetto had been making two beautiful chests1 all inlaid most elaborately1 and carried them to the ,court of ,hungary1 to exhibit the workmanship4 ,when he had made obeisance to the king1 and had been kindly received1 he brought forward his cases and had them unpacked444 but it was then he discovered that the humidity of the sea voyage had softened the glue to such an extent that when the waxed cloths in which the coffers had been wrapped were opened1 almost all the pieces were found sticking to them1 and so fell to the ground6 ,whether ,benedetto stood amazed and confounded at such an event1 in the presence of so many nobles1 let every one judge for himself4 ,a famous family of wood inlayers were the del ,tasso1 who came from ,s4 ,gervasio4 ,one of the brothers1 ,giambattista1 was a wag1 and is said to have wasted much time in amusement and standing about criticizing the methods of others4 ,he was a friend of ,cellini1 and all his cronies pronounce him to have been a good fellow4 ,on one occasion he had a good dose of the spirit of criticism1 himself1 from a visiting abbot1 who stopped to see the ,medicean tomb1 where ,tasso happened to be working4 ,tasso was requested to show the stranger about1 which he did4 ,the abbot began by depreciating the beauty of the building1 remarking that ,michelangelo's figures in the ,sacristy did not interest him1 and on his way up the stairs1 he chanced to look out of a window and caught sight of ,brunelleschi's dome4 ,when the dull ecclesiastic began to say that this dome did not merit the admiration which it raised1 the exasperated ,tasso1 who was loyal to his friends1 could stand no more4 ,il ,lasca recounts what happened3 ,pulling the abbot backward with force1 he made him tumble down the staircase1 and he took good care to fall himself on top of him1 and calling out that the frater had been taken mad1 he bound his arms and legs with cords444 and then taking him1 hanging over his shoulders1 he carried him to a room near1 stretched him on the ground1 and left him there in the dark1 taking away the key4 ,we will hope that if ,tasso himself was too prone to criticism1 he may have learned a lesson from this didactic monastic1 and was more tolerant in the future4 ,of the work of ,canozio1 a worker of about the same time1 ,matteo ,colaccio in #adhf1 writes1 ,in visiting these intarsiad figures ,i was so much taken with the exquisiteness of the work that ,i could not withold myself from praising the author to heaven6 ,he refers thus ecstatically to the ,stalls at ,st4 ,antonio at ,padua1 which were inlaid by ,canozio1 assisted by other masters4 ,for his work in the ,church of ,st4 ,domenico in ,reggio1 the contract called for some curious observances3 he was bound by this to buy material for fifty lire1 to work one third of the whole undertaking for fifty lire1 to earn another fifty lire for each succeeding third1 and then to give forty-eight planks to the ,lady1 whatever that may mean6 ,among the instruments mentioned are3 ,two screw profiles3 one outliner3 four one-handed little planes3 rods for making cornices3 two large squares and one grafonetto3 three chisels1 one glued and one all of iron3 a pair of big pincers3 two little axes3 and a bench to put the tarsia on4 ,pyrography has its birth in intarsia1 where singeing was sometimes employed as a shading in realistic designs4 ,in the ,study of the ,palace at ,urbino1 there is mention of arm chairs encircling a table all mosaicked with tarsia1 and carved by ,maestro ,giacomo of ,florence1 a worker of considerable repute4 ,one of the first to adopt the use of ivory1 pearl1 and silver for inlay was ,andrea ,massari of ,siena4 ,in this same way inlay of tortoise-shell and brass was made1--the two layers were sawed out together1 and then counterchanged so as to give the pattern in each material upon the other4 ,cabinets are often treated in this way4 ,ivory and sandal-wood or ebony1 too1 have been sometimes thus combined4 ,in ,spain cabinets were often made of a sort of mosaic of ebony and silver2 in #aegd a ,prohibtion was issued against using silver in this way1 since it was becoming scarce4 ,in ,de ,luna's ,diologos ,familiarea1 a ,spanish work of #affi1 the following conversation is given3 ,how much has your worship paid for this cabinet8 ,it is worth more than forty ducats4 ,what wood is it made of8 ,the red is of mahogany1 from ,habana1 and the black is made of ebony1 and the white of ivory4 ,you will find the workmanship excellent4 ,this proves that inlaid cabinets were usual in ,spain4 ,ebony being expensive1 it was sometimes simulated with stain4 ,an old fifteenth century recipe says3 ,take boxwood and lay in oil with sulphur for a night1 then let it stew for an hour1 and it will become as black as coal4 ,an old ,italian book enjoins the polishing of this imitation ebony as follows3 ,is the wood to be polished with burnt pumice stone8 ,rub the work carefully with canvas and this powder1 and then wash the piece with ,dutch lime water so that it may be more beautifully polished444 then the rind of a pomegranate must be steeped1 and the wood smeared over with it1 and set to dry1 but in the shade4 ,inlay was often imitated2 the elaborate marquetry cabinets in ,sta4 ,maria della ,grazia in ,milan which are proudly displayed are in reality1 according to ,mr4 ,russell ,sturgis1 cleverly painted to simulate the real inlaid wood4 ,mr4 ,hamilton ,jackson says that these1 being by ,luini1 are intended to be known as paintings1 but to imitate intarsia4 ,intarsia was made also among the monasteries4 ,the ,olivetans practised this art extensively1 and1 much as some monasteries had scriptoria for the production of books1 so others had carpenter's shops and studios where1 according to ,michele ,caffi1 they showed great talent for working in wood1 succeeding to the heirship of the art of tarsia in coloured woods1 which they got from ,tuscany4 ,one of the more important of the ,olivetan ,monasteries was ,st4 ,michele in ,bosco1 where the noted worker in tarsia1 ,fra ,raffaello da ,brescia1 made some magnificent choir stalls4 ,in #aeba these were finished1 but they were largely destroyed by the mob in the suppression of the convents in the eighteenth century4 ,in #ahab eighteen of the stalls were saved1 bought by the ,marquis ,malvezzi1 and placed in ,st4 ,petronio4 ,he tried also to save the canopies1 but these had been sold for firewood at about twopence each6 ,the stalls of ,st4 ,domenico at ,bologna are by ,fra ,damiano of ,bergamo2 it is said of him that his woods were coloured so marvellously that the art of tarsia was by him raised to the rank of that of painting6 ,he was a ,dominican monk in ,bologna most of his life4 ,when ,charles ,v4 visited the choir of ,st4 ,domenico1 and saw these stalls1 he would not believe that the work was accomplished by inlay1 and actually cut a piece out with his sword by way of investigation4 ,castiglione the ,courtier expresses himself with much admiration of the work of ,fra ,damiano1 rather divine than human4 ,of the technical perfection of the workmanship he adds3 ,though these works are executed with inlaid pieces1 the eye cannot even by the greatest exertion detect the joints4444 ,i think1 indeed1 ,i am certain1 that it will be called the eighth wonder of the world4 7,count ,castiglione did not perhaps realize what a wonderful world he lived in67 ,but at any rate there is no objection to subscribing to his eulogy3 ,all that ,i could say would be little enough of his rare and singular virtue1 and on the goodness of his religious and holy life4 ,another frate who wrote about that time alluded to ,fra ,damiano as putting together woods with so much art that they appear as pictures painted with the brush4 ,in ,germany there was some interesting intarsia made by the ,elfen ,brothers1 of ,st4 ,michael's in ,hildesheim1 who produced beautiful chancel furniture4 ,hans ,stengel of ,nueremberg1 too1 was renowned in this art4 ,after the ,renaissance marquetry ran riot in ,france1 but that is out of the province of our present study4 ,the art of mosaic making has changed very little during the centuries4 ,nearly all the technical methods now used were known to the ancients4 ,in fact1 this art is rather an elemental one1 and any departure from old established rules is liable to lead the worker into a new craft2 his art becomes that of the inlayer or the enameller when he attempts to use larger pieces in cloissons1 or to fuse bits together by any process4 ,mosaic is a natural outgrowth from other inlaying2 when an elaborate design had to be set up1 quite too complicated to be treated in tortuously-cut large pieces1 the craftsman naturally decided to render the whole work with small pieces1 which demanded less accurate shaping of each piece4 ,originally1 undoubtedly1 each bit of glass or stone was laid in the soft plaster of wall or floor2 but now a more labour saving method has obtained2 it is amusing to watch the modern rest-cure4 ,instead of an artist working in square bits of glass to carry out his design1 throwing his interest and personality into the work1 a labourer sits leisurely before a large cartoon1 on which he glues pieces of mosaic the prescribed colour and size1 mechanically fitting them over the design until it is completely covered4 ,then this sheet of paper1 with the mosaic glued to it1 is slapped on to the plaster wall1 having the stones next to the plaster1 so that1 until it is dry1 all that can be seen is the sheet of paper apparently fixed on the wall4 ,but lo6 the grand transformation6 ,the paper is washed off1 leaving in place the finished product--a very accurate imitation of the picture on which the artist laboured1 all in place in the wall1 every stone evenly set as if it had been polished--entirely missing the charm of the irregular faceted effect of an old mosaic--again mechanical facility kills the spirit of an art4 ,much early mosaic1 known as ,cosmati ,work1 is inlaid into marble1 in geometric designs2 twisted columns of this class of work may be seen in profusion in ,rome1 and the facade of ,orvieto is similarly decorated4 ,our illustration will demonstrate the technical process as well as a description4 ,the mosaic base of ,edward the ,confessor's shrine is inscribed to the effect that it was wrought by ,peter of ,rome4 ,it was a dignified specimen of the best ,cosmati4 ,all the gold glass which once played its part in the scheme of decoration has been picked out1 and in fact most of the pieces in the pattern are missing4 ,illustration3 ,,ambo ,,at ,,ravello2 ,,specimen ,,of ,,cosmati ,,mosaic ,the mosaic pavement in ,westminster ,abbey ,presbytery is as fine an example of ,roman ,cosmati mosaic as one can see north of the ,alps4 ,an inscription1 almost obliterated1 is interpreted by ,mr4 ,lethaby as signifying1 that in the year #abfh ,henry ,,iii4 being ,king1 and ,odericus the cementarius1 ,richard de ,ware1 ,abbot1 brought the porphyry and divers jaspers and marbles of ,thaso from ,rome4 ,in another place a sort of enigma1 drawn from an arbitrary combination of animal forms and numbers1 marks a chart for determining the end of the world6 ,there is also a beautiful mosaic tomb at ,westminster1 inlaid with an interlacing pattern in a ground of marble1 like the work so usual in ,rome1 and in ,palermo1 and other ,southern centres of the art4 ,while the material used in mosaic wall decoration is sometimes a natural product1 like marble1 porphyry1 coral1 or alabaster1 the picture is composed for the most part of artificially prepared smalts--opaque glass of various colours1 made in sheets and then cut up into cubes4 ,an infinite variety in gradations of colour and texture is thus made possible4 ,the gold grounds which one sees in nearly all mosaics are constructed in an interesting way4 ,each cube is composed of plain rather coarse glass1 of a greenish tinge1 upon which is laid gold leaf4 ,over this leaf is another film of glass1 extremely thin1 so that the actual metal is isolated between two glasses1 and is thus impervious to such qualities in the air as would tarnish it or cause it to deteriorate4 ,to prevent an uninteresting evenness of surface on which the sun's rays would glint in a trying manner1 it was usual to lay the gold cubes in a slightly irregular manner1 so that each facet1 as it were1 should reflect at a different angle1 and the texture1 especially in the gold grounds1 never became monotonous4 ,one does not realize the importance of this custom until one sees a cheap modern mosaic laid absolutely flat1 and then it is evident how necessary this broken surface is to good effect4 ,any one who has tried to analyze the reason for the superiority of old ,french stained glass over any other1 will be surprised1 if he goes close to the wall1 under one of the marvellous windows of ,chartres1 for instance1 and looks up1 to see that the whole fabric is warped and bent at a thousand angles1--it is not only the quality of the ancient glass1 nor its colour1 that gives this unattainable expression to these windows1 but the accidental warping and wear of centuries have laid each bit of glass at a different angle1 so that the refraction of the light is quite different from any possible reflection on the smooth surface of a modern window4 ,the dangers of a clear gold ground were1 felt more fully by the workers at ,ravenna and ,rome1 than in ,venice4 ,architectural schemes were introduced to break up the surface3 clouds and backgrounds1 fields of flowers1 and trees1 and such devices1 were used to prevent the monotony of the unbroken glint4 ,but in ,venice the decorators were brave2 their faith in their material was unbounded1 and they not only frankly laid gold in enormous masses on flat wall and cupola1 but they even moulded the edges and archivolts without separate ribs or strips to relieve them2 the gold is carried all over the edges1 which are rounded into curves to receive the mosaic1 so that the effect is that of the entire upper part of the church having been pressed into shape out of solid gold4 ,the lights on these rounded edges are incomparably rich4 ,it is equally important to vary the plain values of the colour1 and this was accomplished by means of dilution and contrast in tints instead of by unevenness of surface1 although in many of the most satisfactory mosaics1 both means have been employed4 ,plain tints in mosaic can be relieved in a most delightful way by the introduction of little separate cubes of unrelated colour1 and the artist who best understands this use of mass and dot is the best maker of mosaic4 ,the actual craft of construction is similar everywhere1 but the use of what we may regard as the pigment has possibilities similar to the colours of a painter4 ,the manipulation being of necessity slow1 it is more difficult to convey the idea of spontaneity in design than it is in a fresco painting4 ,to follow briefly the history of mosaic as used in the ,dark ,ages1 the ,middle ,ages1 and the period of the ,renaissance1 it is interesting to note that by the fourth century mosaic was the principal decoration in ecclesiastical buildings4 ,contantine employed this art very extensively4 ,of his period1 however1 few examples remain4 ,the most notable is the little church of ,sta4 ,constanza1 the vaults of which are ornamented in this way1 with a fine running pattern of vines1 interspersed with figures on a small scale4 ,the ,libel ,pontificalis tells how ,constantine built the ,basilica of ,st4 ,agnese at the request of his daughter1 and also a baptistery in the same place1 where ,constance was baptized1 by ,bishop ,sylvester4 ,among the most interesting early mosaics is the apse of the ,church of ,st4 ,pudentiana in ,rome4 ,barbet de ,jouy1 who has written extensively on this mosaic1 considers it to be an eighth century achievement4 ,but a later archaeologist1 ,m4 ,rossi1 believes it to have been made in the fourth century1 in which theory he is upheld by ,m4 ,vitet4 ,the design is that of a company of saints gathered about the ,throne on which ,god the ,father sits to pass judgment4 ,in certain restorations and alterations made in #aehh two of these figures were cut away1 and the lower halves of those remaining were also removed1 so that the figures are now only half length4 ,the faces and figures are drawn in a very striking manner1 being realistic and full of graceful action1 very different from the mosaics of a later period1 which were dominated by ,byzantine tradition4 ,in ,france were many specimens of the mosaics of the fifth century4 ,but literary descriptions are all that have survived of these works1 which might once have been seen at ,nantes1 ,tours1 and ,clermont4 ,illustration3 ,,mosaic ,,from ,,ravenna2 ,,theodora ,,and ,,her ,,suite1 #af,,th ,,century ,ravenna is the shrine of the craft in the fifth and sixth centuries4 ,it is useless in so small a space to attempt to describe or do justice to these incomparable walls1 where gleam the marvellous procession of white robed virgins1 and where glitters the royal cortege of ,justinian and ,theodora4 ,the acme of the art was reached when these mural decorations were planned and executed1 and the churches of ,ravenna may be considered the central museum of the world for a study of mosaic4 ,among those who worked at ,ravenna a few names have descended4 ,these craftsmen were1 ,cuserius1 ,paulus1 ,janus1 ,statius and ,stephanus1 but their histories are vague4 ,theodoric also brought some mosaic artists from ,rome to work in ,ravenna1 which fact accounts for a ,latin influence discernible in these mosaics1 which are in many instances free from ,byzantine stiffness4 ,the details of the textiles in the great mosaics of ,justinian and ,theodora are rarely beautiful4 ,the chlamys with which ,justinian is garbed is covered with circular interlaces with birds in them2 on the border of the ,empress's robe are embroideries of the three ,magi presenting their gifts2 on one of the robes of the attendants there is a pattern of ducks swimming1 while another is ornamented with leaves of a five-pointed form4 ,there is a mosaic in the ,tomb of ,galla ,placida in ,ravenna1 representing ,st4 ,lawrence1 cheerfully approaching his gridiron1 with the ,cross and an open book encumbering his hands1 while in a convenient corner stands a little piece of furniture resembling a meat-safe1 containing the ,four ,gospels4 ,the saint is walking briskly1 and is fully draped2 the gridiron is of the proportions of a cot bedstead1 and has a raging fire beneath it1--a gruesome suggestion of the martyrdom4 ,no finer examples of the art of the colourist in mosaic can be seen than in the procession of ,virgins at ,san ,apollinaire ,nuovo in ,ravenna4 ,cool1 restrained1 and satisfying1 the composition has all the elements of chromatic perfection4 ,in the golden background occasional dots of light and dark brown serve to deepen the tone into a slightly bronze colour4 ,the effect is especially scintillating and rich1 more like hammered gold than a flat sheet4 ,the colours in the trees are dark and light green1 while the ,virgins1 in brown robes1 with white draperies over them1 are relieved with little touches of gold4 ,the whole tone being thus green and russet1 with purplish lines about the halos1 is an unusual colour-scheme1 and can hardly carry such conviction in a description as when it is seen4 ,in the ,east1 the ,church of ,sta4 ,sophia at ,constantinople exhibited the most magnificent specimens of this work2 the building was constructed under ,constantine1 by the architects ,anthemius and ,isidore1 and the entire interior1 walls and dome included1 was covered by mosaic pictures4 ,among important works of the seventh century is the apse of ,st4 ,agnese1 in ,rome4 ,honorius decorated the church1 about #fcj1 and it is one of the most effective mosaics in ,rome4 ,at ,st4 ,john ,lateran1 also1 ,pope ,john ,,iv4 caused a splendid work to be carried out1 which has been reported as being as brilliant as the sacred waters4 ,in the eighth century a magnificent achievement was accomplished in the monastery of ,centula1 in ,picardie1 but all traces of this have been lost1 for the convent was burnt in #aaca4 ,the eighth was not an active century for the arts1 for in #gbf ,leo's edict was sent forth1 prohibiting all forms of image worship1 and at a ,council at ,constantinople in #ged it was decided that all iconographic representation and all use of symbols 7except in the ,sacrament7 were blasphemous4 ,idolatrous monuments were destroyed1 and the iconoclasts continued their devastations until the death of ,theophilus in #hdb4 ,fortunately this wave of zeal was checked before the destruction of the mosaics in ,ravenna and ,rome1 but very few specimens survived in ,france4 ,in the ninth century a great many important monuments were added1 and a majority of the mosaics which may still be seen1 date from that time3 they are not first in quality1 however1 although they are more numerous4 ,after this1 there was a period of inanition1 in this art as in all others1 while the pseudo-prophets awaited the ending of the world4 ,after the year #ajjj had passed1 and the astonished people found that they were still alive1 and that the world appeared as stable as formerly1 interest began to revive1 and the new birth of art produced some significant examples in the field of mosaic4 ,there was some activity in ,germany1 for a time1 the versatile ,bishop ,bernward of ,hildesheim adding this craft to his numerous accomplishments1 although it is probable that his works resembled the graffiti and inlaid work rather than the mosaics composed of cubes of smalt4 ,at the ,monastery of ,monte ,cassino in the eleventh century was an interesting personality1--the ,abbe ,didier1 its ,superior4 ,about #ajff he brought workers from ,constantinople1 who decorated the apse and walls of the basilica under his direction4 ,at the same time1 he established a school at the monastery1 and the young members were instructed in the arts and crafts of mosaic and inlay1 and the illumination of books4 ,greek influence was thus carried into ,italy through ,monte ,cassino4 ,in the twelfth century the celebrated ,suger of ,st4 ,denis decorated one of the porches of his church with mosaic1 in smalt1 marbles1 and gold2 animal and human forms were introduced in the ornament4 ,but this may not have been work actually executed on the spot1 for another narrator tells us that ,suger brought home from ,italy1 on one of his journeys1 a mosaic1 which was placed over the door at ,st4 ,denis2 as it is no longer in its position1 it is not easy to determine which account is correct4 ,the mosaics at ,st4 ,mark's in ,venice were chiefly the work of two centuries and a half4 ,greek artists were employed in the main1 bringing their own tesserae and marbles4 ,in #abjd there was special activity in this line1 at the time when the ,venetians took ,constantinople4 ,after this1 an establishment for making the smalts and gold glass was set up at ,murano1 and ,venice no longer imported its material4 ,the old ,cathedral at ,torcello has one of the most perfect examples of the twelfth century mosaic in the world4 ,the entire west end of the church is covered with a rich display of figures and ,scriptural scenes4 ,a very lurid ,hell is exhibited at the lower corner1 in the depths of which are seen stewing1 several ,saracens1 with large hoop earrings4 ,their faces are highly expressive of discomfort4 ,this mosaic is full of genuine feeling2 one of the subjects is ,amphitrite riding a seahorse1 among those who rise to the surface when the sea gives up its dead4 ,the ,redeemed are seen crowding round ,abraham1 who holds one in his bosom2 they are like an infant class1 and are dressed in uniform pinafores1 intended to look like little ecclesiastical vestments6 ,the ,dead who are being given up by the ,earth are being vomited forth by wild animals--this is original1 and ,i believe1 almost the only occasion on which this form of literal resurrection is represented4 ,in the thirteenth century a large number of mosaic artists appeared in ,florence1 many of whose names and histories are available4 ,in the ,baptistery1 ,andrea ,tafi1 who lived between #abac and #abid1 decorated the cupola4 ,with him were two assistants who are known by name--,apollonius a ,greek1 which in part accounts for the stiff ,byzantine figures in this work1 and another who has left his signature1 ,jacobus ,sancti ,francisci ,frater--evidently a monastic craftsman4 ,gaddo ,gaddi also assisted in this work1 executing the ,prophets which occur under the windows1 and professing to combine in his style the ,greek manner and that of ,cimabue4 ,apollonius taught ,andrea ,tafi how to compose the smalt and to mix the cement1 but this latter was evidently unsuccessful1 for in the next century the mosaic detached itself and fell badly1 when ,agnolo ,gaddi1 the grandson of ,gaddo1 was engaged to restore it4 ,tafi1 ,gaddi1 and ,jacobus were considered as a promising firm1 and they undertook other large works in mosaic4 ,they commenced the apse at ,pisa1 which was finished in #acba by ,vicini1 ,cimabue designing the colossal figure of ,christ which thus dominates the cathedral4 ,vasari says that ,andrea ,tafi was considered an excellent1 nay1 a divine artist in his specialty4 ,andrea1 himself more modest1 visited ,venice1 and deigned to take instruction from ,greek mosaic workers1 who were employed at ,st4 ,mark's4 ,one of them1 ,apollonius1 became attached to ,tafi1 and this is how he came to accompany him to ,florence4 ,the work on the ,baptistery was done actually in situ1 every cube being set directly in the plaster4 ,the work is still extant1 and the technical and constructive features are perfect1 since their restoration4 ,it is amusing to read ,vasari's patronizing account of ,tafi2 from the late ,renaissance point of view1 the mosaic worker seemed to be a barbarous ,goth at best3 ,the good fortune of ,andrea was really great1 says ,vasari1 to be born in an age which1 doing all things in the rudest manner1 could value so highly the works of an artist who really merited so little1 not to say nothing6 ,gaddo ,gaddi was a painstaking worker in mosaic1 executing some works on a small scale entirely in eggshells of varying tints4 ,in the ,baroncelli chapel in ,florence is a painting by ,taddeo ,gaddi1 in which occur the portraits of his father1 ,gaddo ,gaddi1 and ,andrea ,tafi4 ,about this time the delightful mosaic at ,st4 ,clemente1 in ,rome1 was executed4 ,with its central cross and graceful vine decorations1 it stands out unique among the groups of saints and seraphs1 of angels and hierarchies1 of most of the ,roman apsidal ornaments4 ,the mosaic in the basilica of ,st4 ,john ,lateran is by ,jacopo ,torriti4 ,in the design there are two inconspicuous figures1 intentionally smaller than the others1 of two monks on their knees1 working1 with measure and compass4 ,these represent ,jacopo ,torriti and his co-worker1 ,camerino4 ,one of them is inscribed 7translated7 ,jacopo ,torriti1 painter1 did this work1 and the other1 ,brother ,jacopo ,camerino1 companion of the master worker1 commends himself to the blessed ,john4 ,the tools and implements used by mosaic artists are represented in the hands of these two monks4 ,torriti was apparently a greater man in some respects than his contemporaries4 ,he based his art rather on ,roman than ,greek tradition1 and his works exhibit less ,byzantine formality than many mosaics of the period4 ,on the apse of ,sta4 ,maria ,maggiore there appears a signature1 ,jacopo ,torriti made this work in mosaic4 ,gaddo ,gaddi also added a composition below the vault1 about #acjh4 ,the well-known mosaic called the ,navicella in the atrium of ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome1 was originally made by ,giotto4 ,it has been much restored and altered1 but some of the original design undoubtedly remains4 ,giotto went to ,rome to undertake this work in #abih2 but the present mosaic is largely the restoration of ,bernini1 who can hardly be considered as a sympathetic interpreter of the early ,florentine style4 ,vasari speaks of the ,navicella as a truly wonderful work1 and deservedly eulogized by all enlightened judges4 ,he marvels at the way in which ,giotto has produced harmony and interchange of light and shade so cleverly3 with mere pieces of glass 7,vasari is so naively overwhelmed with ignorance when he comes to deal with handicraft7 especially on the large sail of the boat4 ,in ,venice1 the ,mascoli chapel was ornamented by scenes from the life of the ,virgin1 in #adcj4 ,the artist was ,michele ,zambono1 who designed and superintended the work himself4 ,at ,or ,san ,michele in ,florence1 the painter ,peselli1 or ,guliano ,arrigo1 decorated the tabernacle1 in #adaf4 ,among other artists who entered the field of mosaic1 were ,baldovinetti and ,domenico ,ghirlandajo1 the painter who originated the motto3 ,the only painting for eternity is mosaic4 ,in the sixteenth century the art of mosaic ceased to observe due limitations4 ,the ideal was to reproduce exactly in mosaic such pictures as were prepared by ,titian1 ,pordenone1 ,raphael1 and other realistic painters4 ,georges ,sand1 in her charming novel1 ,les ,maitres ,mosaistes1 gives one the atmosphere of the workshops in ,venice in this later period4 ,tintoretto and ,zuccato1 the aged painter1 are discussing the durability of mosaic3--,since it resists so well1 says ,zuccato1 how comes it that the ,seignory is repairing all the domes of ,st4 ,mark's1 which to-day are as bare as my skull8 ,to which ,tintoretto makes answer3 ,because at the time when they were decorated with mosaics1 ,greek artists were scarce in ,venice4 ,they came from a distance1 and remained but a short time3 their apprentices were hastily trained1 and executed the works entrusted to them without knowing their business1 and without being able to give them the necessary solidity4 ,now that this art has been cultivated in ,venice1 century after century1 we have become as skilful as even the ,greeks were4 ,the two sons of ,zuccato1 who are engaged in this work1 confide to each other their trials and difficulties in the undertaking3 like artists of all ages1 they cannot easily convince their patrons that they comprehend their art better than their employers6 ,francesco complains of the ,procurator1 who is commissioned to examine the work3 ,he is not an artist4 ,he sees in mosaic only an application of particles more or less brilliant4 ,perfection of tone1 beauty of design1 ingenuity of composition1 are nothing to him4444 ,did ,i not try in vain the other day to make him understand that the old pieces of gilded crystal used by our ancestors and a little tarnished by time1 were more favourable to colour than those manufactured to-day8 ,indeed1 you make a mistake1 ,messer ,francesco1 said he1 in handing over to the ,bianchini all the gold of modern manufacture4 ,the ,commissioners have decided that the old will do mixed with the new4444 ,but did ,i not in vain try to make him understand that this brilliant gold would hurt the faces1 and completely ruin the effect of colour8444 ,the answer of the ,procurator was1 ,the ,bianchini do not scruple to use it1 and their mosaics please the eye much better than yours1 so his brother ,valerio1 laughing1 asks1 ,what need of worrying yourself after such a decision as that8 ,suppress the shadows1 cut a breadth of material from a great plate of enamel and lay it over the breast of ,st4 ,nicaise1 render ,st4 ,cecilia's beautiful hair with a badly cut tile1 a pretty lamb for ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 and the ,commission will double your salary and the public clap its hands4 ,really1 my brother1 you who dream of glory1 ,i do not understand how you can pledge yourself to the worship of art4 ,i dream of glory1 it is true1 replied ,francesco1 but of a glory that is lasting1 not the vain popularity of a day4 ,i should like to leave an honoured name1 if not an illustrious one1 and make those who examine the cupolas of ,st4 ,mark's five hundred years hence say1 ',this was the work of a conscientious artist4' ,a description follows of the scene of the mosaic workers pursuing their calling4 ,here was heard abusive language1 there the joyous song2 further on1 the jest2 above1 the hammer3 below1 the trowel3 now the dull and continuous thud of the tampon on the mosaics1 and anon the clear and crystal like clicking of the glassware rolling from the baskets on to the pavement1 in waves of rubies and emeralds4 ,then the fearful grating of the scraper on the cornice1 and finally the sharp rasping cry of the saw in the marble1 to say nothing of the low masses said at the end of the chapel in spite of the racket4 ,illustration3 ,,mosaic ,,in ,,bas-,,relief1 ,,naples ,the ,zuccati were very independent skilled workmen1 as well as being able to design their own subjects4 ,they were1 in the judgment of ,georges ,sand1 superior to another of the masters in charge of the works1 ,bozza1 who was less of a man1 although an artist of some merit4 ,later than these men1 there were few mosaic workers of high standing2 in ,florence the art degenerated into a mere decorative inlay of semi-precious material1 heraldic in feeling1 costly and decorative1 but an entirely different art from that of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,lapis-lazuli with gold veinings1 malachite1 coral1 alabaster1 and rare marbles superseded the smalts and gold of an elder day4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,illumination ,,of ,,books ,one cannot enter a book shop or a library to-day without realizing how many thousands of books are in constant circulation4 ,there was an age when books were laboriously but most beautifully written1 instead of being thus quickly manufactured by the aid of the type-setting machine2 the material on which the glossy text was executed was vellum instead of the cheap paper of to-day1 the illustrations1 instead of being easily reproduced by photographic processes1 were veritable miniature paintings1 most decorative1 ablaze with colour and fine gold1--in these times it is easy to forget that there was ever a period when the making of a single book occupied years1 and sometimes the life-time of one or two men4 ,in those days1 when the transcription of books was one of the chief occupations in religious houses1 the recluse monk1 in the quiet of the scriptorium1 was1 in spite of his seclusion1 and indeed1 by reason of it1 the chief link between the world of letters and the world of men4 ,the earliest known example of work by a ,european monk dates from the year #eag2 but shortly after this there was a great increase in book making1 and monasteries were founded especially for the purpose of perpetuating literature4 ,the first establishment of this sort was the monastery of ,vivaria1 in ,southern ,italy1 founded by ,cassiodorus1 a ,greek who lived between the years #dgi and #ege1 and who had been the scribe 7or private secretary7 of ,theodoric the ,goth4 ,about the same time1 ,st4 ,columba in ,ireland founded a house with the intention of multiplying books1 so that in the sixth century1 in both the extreme ,north and in the ,south1 the religious orders had commenced the great work of preserving for future ages the literature of the past and of their own times4 ,before examining the books themselves1 it will be interesting to observe the conditions under which the work was accomplished4 ,sometimes the scriptorium was a large hall or studio1 with various desks about2 sometimes the ,north walk of the cloister was divided into little cells1 called carrels1 in each of which was room for the writer1 his desk1 and a little shelf for his inks and colours4 ,these carrels may be seen in unusual perfection in ,gloucester4 ,in very cold weather a small brazier of charcoal was also introduced4 ,cassiodorus writes thus of the privilege of being a copyist of holy books4 ,he may fill his mind with the ,scriptures while copying the sayings of the ,lord2 with his fingers he gives life to men and arms against the wiles of the ,devil2 as the antiquarius copies the word of ,christ1 so many wounds does he inflict upon ,satan4 ,what he writes in his cell will be carried far and wide over distant provinces4 ,man multiplies the word of ,heaven3 if ,i may dare so to speak1 the three fingers of his right hand are made to represent the utterances of the ,holy ,trinity4 ,the fast travelling reed writes down the holy words1 thus avenging the malice of the wicked one1 who caused a reed to be used to smite the head of the ,saviour4 ,when the scriptorium was consecrated1 these words were used 7and they would be most fitting words to-day1 in the consecration of libraries or class rooms which are to be devoted to religious study73 ,vouchsafe1 ,o1 ,lord1 to bless this workroom of thy servants1 that all which they write therein may be comprehended by their intelligence1 and realized by their work4 ,scriptorium work was considered equal to labour in the fields4 ,in the ,rule of ,st4 ,fereol1 in the sixth century1 there is this clause3 ,he who doth not turn up the earth with his plough1 ought to write the parchment with his fingers4 ,the ,capitulary of ,charlemagne contains this phrase3 ,do not permit your scribes or pupils1 either in reading or writing1 to garble the text2 when you are preparing copies of the ,gospels1 the ,psalter1 or the ,missal1 see that the work is confided to men of mature age1 who will write with due care4 ,some of the scribes were prolific book transcribers4 ,jacob of ,breslau1 who died in #adhj1 copied so many books that it is said that six horses could with difficulty bear the burden of them6 ,the work of each scriptorium was devoted first to the completion of the library of the individual monastery1 and after that1 to other houses1 or to such patrons as were rich enough to order books to be transcribed for their own use4 ,the library of a monastery was as much a feature as the scriptorium4 ,the monks were not like the rising literary man1 who1 when asked if he had read ,pendennis replied1 ,no--,i never read books--,i write them4 ,every scribe was also a reader4 ,there was a regular system of lending books from the central store4 ,a librarian was in charge1 and every monk was supposed to have some book which he was engaged in reading straight through as the ,rule of ,st4 ,benedict enjoins1 just as much as the one which he was writing4 ,as silence was obligatory in the scriptorium and library1 as well as in the cloisters1 they were forced to apply for the volumes which they desired by signs4 ,for a general work1 the sign was to extend the hand and make a movement as if turning over the leaves of a book4 ,if a ,missal was wanted1 the sign of the cross was added to the same form2 for a ,gospel1 the sign of the cross was made upon the forehead1 while those who wished tracts to read1 should lay one hand on the mouth and the other on the stomach2 a ,capitulary was indicated by the gesture of raising the clasped hands to heaven1 while a ,psalter could be obtained by raising the hands above the head in the form of a crown4 ,as the good brothers were not possessed of much religious charity1 they indicated a secular book by scratching their ears1 as dogs are supposed to do1 to imply the suggestion that the infidel who wrote such a book was no better than a dog6 ,this extract is made from a book in one of the early monastic libraries4 ,oh1 ,lord1 send the blessing of thy ,holy ,spirit upon these books1 that1 cleansing them from all earthly things1 they may mercifully enlighten our hearts1 and give us true understanding1 and grant that by their teaching they may brightly preserve and make a full abundance of good works according to ,thy will4 ,the books were kept in cupboards1 with doors2 in the ,customs of the ,augustine ,priory of ,barnwell1 these directions are given3 ,the press in which the books are kept ought to be lined with wood1 that the damp of the walls may not moisten or stain the books4 ,the press should be divided vertically as well as horizontally1 by sundry partitions1 on which the books may be ranged so as to be separated from one another1 for fear they be packed so close as to injure one another1 or to delay those who want them4 ,we read of the chained books of the ,middle ,ages1 and ,i think there is a popular belief that this referred to the fact that the ,bible was kept in the priest's hands1 and chained so that the people should not be able to read it for themselves and become familiar with every part of it4 ,this1 however1 is a mistake4 ,it was the books in the libraries which were chained1 so that dishonest people should not make way with them6 ,in one ,chapter ,library1 there occurs a denunciation of such thieves1 and instructions how to fasten the volumes4 ,it reads as follows3 ,since to the great reproach of the ,nation1 and a greater one to our ,holy ,religion1 the thievish disposition of some who enter libraries to learn no good there1 hath made it necessary to secure the sacred volumes themselves with chains 7which are better deserved by those ill persons1 who have too much learning to be hanged1 and too little to be honest71 care shall be taken that the chains should neither be too long nor too clumsy1 more than the use of them requires3 and that the loops whereby they are fastened to the books may be rivetted on such a part of the cover1 and so smoothly1 as not to gall or graze the books1 while they are moved to or from their respective places4 ,and forasmuch as the more convenient way to place books in libraries is to turn their backs out showing the title and other decent ornaments in gilt work which ought not to be hidden1 this new method of fixing the chain to the back of the book is recommended until one more suitable shall be contrived4 ,numerous monasteries in ,england devoted much time to scriptorium work4 ,in ,gloucester may still be seen the carrels of the scribes in the cloister wall1 and there was also much activity in the book making art in ,norwich1 ,glastonbury1 and ,winchester1 and in other cities4 ,the two monasteries of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,swithin in ,winchester were1 the chronicler says1 so close packed together1444 that between the foundation of their respective buildings there was barely room for a man to pass along4 ,the choral service of one monastery conflicted with that of the other1 so that both were spoiled1 and the ringing of their bells together produced a horrid effect4 ,one of the most important monasteries of early times1 on the ,continent1 was that conducted by ,alcuin1 under the protection of ,charlemagne4 ,when the appointed time for writing came round1 the monks filed into the scriptorium1 taking their places at their desks4 ,one of their number then stood in the midst1 and read aloud1 slowly1 for dictation1 the work upon which they were engaged as copyists2 in this way1 a score of copies could be made at one time4 ,alcuin himself would pass about among them1 making suggestions and correcting errors1 a beautiful example of true consecration1 the great scholar spending his time thus in supervising the transcription of the ,word of ,god1 from a desire to have it spread far and wide4 ,alcuin sent a letter to ,charlemagne1 accompanying a present of a copy of the ,bible1 at the time of the emperor's coronation1 and from this letter1 which is still preserved1 it may be seen how reverent a spirit his was1 and how he esteemed the things of the spiritual life as greater than the riches of the world4 ,after deliberating a long while1 he writes1 what the devotion of my mind might find worthy of a present equal to the splendour of your ,imperial dignity1 and the increase of your wealth1--at length by the inspiration of the ,holy ,spirit1 ,i found what it would be competent for me to offer1 and fitting for your prudence to accept4 ,for to me inquiring and considering1 nothing appeared more worthy of your peaceful honour than the gifts of the ,sacred ,scriptures444 which1 knit together in the sanctity of one glorious body1 and diligently amended1 ,i have sent to your royal authority1 by this your faithful son and servant1 so that with full hands we may assist at the delightful service of your dignity4 ,one of ,alcuin's mottoes was3 ,writing books is better than planting vines3 for he who plants a vine serves his belly1 while he who writes books serves his soul4 ,many different arts were represented in the making of a mediaeval book4 ,of those employed1 first came the scribe1 whose duty it was to form the black even glossy letters with his pen2 then came the painter1 who must not only be a correct draughtsman1 and an adept with pencil and brush1 but must also understand how to prepare mordaunts and to lay the gold leaf1 and to burnish it afterwards with an agate1 or1 as an old writer directs1 a dogge's tooth set in a stick4 ,after him1 the binder gathered the lustrous pages and put them together under silver mounted covers1 with heavy clasps4 ,at first1 the illuminations were confined only to the capital letters1 and red was the selected colour to give this additional life to the evenly written page4 ,the red pigment was known as minium4 ,the artist who applied this was called a miniator1 and from this1 was derived the term miniature1 which later referred to the pictures executed in the developed stages of the art4 ,the use of the word miniature1 as applied to paintings on a small scale1 was evolved from this expression4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,scribe ,,at ,,work3 #ab,,th ,,century ,,manuscript ,the difficulties were numerous4 ,first1 there was climate and temperature to consider4 ,it was necessary to be very careful about the temperature to which gold leaf was exposed1 and in order to dry the sizing properly1 it was important that the weather should not be too damp nor too warm4 ,peter de ,st4 ,audemar1 writing in the late thirteenth century1 says3 ,take notice that you ought not to work with gold or colours in a damp place1 on account of the hot weather1 which1 as it is often injurious in burnishing gold1 both to the colours on which the gold is laid and also to the gilding1 if the work is done on parchment1 so also it is injurious when the weather is too dry and arid4 ,john ,acherius1 in #acii1 observes1 too1 that care must be taken as regards the situation1 because windy weather is a hindrance1 unless the gilder is in an enclosed place1 and if the air is too dry1 the colour cannot hold the gold under the burnisher4 ,illumination is an art which has always been difficult2 we who attempt it to-day are not simply facing a lost art which has become impossible because of the changed conditions2 even when followed along the best line in the best way the same trials were encountered4 ,early treatises vary regarding the best medium for laying leaf on parchment4 ,there are very few vehicles which will form a connecting and permanent link between these two substances4 ,there is a general impression that white of egg was used to hold the gold3 but any one who has experimented knows that it is impossible to fasten metal to vellum by white of egg alone4 ,both oil and wax were often employed1 and in nearly all recipes the use of glue made of boiled-down vellum is enjoined4 ,in some of the monasteries there are records that the scribes had the use of the kitchen for drying parchment and melting wax4 ,the introductions to the early treatises show the spirit in which the work was undertaken4 ,peter de ,st4 ,audemar commences3 ,by the assistance of ,god1 of whom are all things that are good1 ,i will explain to you how to make colours for painters and illuminators of books1 and the vehicles for them1 and other things appertaining thereto1 as faithfully as ,i can in the following chapters4 ,peter was a ,north ,frenchman of the thirteenth century4 ,of the recipes given by the early treatises1 ,i will quote a few1 for in reality they are all the literature we have upon the subject4 ,eraclius1 who wrote in the twelfth century1 gives accurate directions3 ,take ochre and distemper it with water1 and let it dry4 ,in the meanwhile make glue with vellum1 and whip some white of egg4 ,then mix the glue and the white of egg1 and grind the ochre1 which by this time is well dried1 upon a marble slab2 and lay it on the parchment with a paint brush2444 then apply the gold1 and let it remain so1 without pressing it with the stone4 ,when it is dry1 burnish it well with a tooth4 ,this1 continues ,eraclius naively1 is what ,i have learned by experiment1 and have frequently proved1 and you may safely believe me that ,i shall have told you the truth4 ,this assurance of good faith suggests that possibly it was a habit of illuminators to be chary of information1 guarding their own discoveries carefully1 and only giving out partial directions to others of their craft4 ,in the ,bolognese ,manuscript1 one is directed to make a simple size from incense1 white gum1 and sugar candy1 distempering it with wine2 and in another place1 to use the white of egg1 whipped with the milk of the fig tree and powdered gum ,arabic4 ,armenian ,bole is a favourite ingredient4 ,gum and rose water are also prescribed1 and again1 gesso1 white of egg1 and honey4 ,all of these recipes sound convincing1 but if one tries them to-day1 one has the doubtful pleasure of seeing the carefully laid gold leaf slide off as soon as the whole mixture is quite dry4 ,especially improbable is the recipe given in the ,brussels ,manuscript3 ,you lay on gold with well gummed water alone1 and this is very good for gilding on parchment4 ,you may also use fresh white of egg or fig juice alone in the same manner4 ,theophilus does not devote much time or space to the art of illuminating1 for1 as he is a builder of everything from church organs to chalices1 glass windows1 and even to frescoed walls1 we must not expect too much information on minor details4 ,he does not seem to direct the use of gold leaf at all1 but of finely ground gold1 which shall be applied with its size in the form of a paste1 to be burnished later4 ,he says 7after directing that the gold dust shall be placed in a shell73 ,take pure minium and add to it a third part of cinnibar1 grinding it upon a stone with water4 ,which1 being carefully ground1 beat up the clear white of an egg1 in summer with water1 in winter without water1 and this is to be used as a slightly raised bed for the gold4 ,then1 he continues1 place a little pot of glue on the fire1 and when it is liquefied1 pour it into the shell of gold and wash it with it4 ,this is to be painted on to the gesso ground just mentioned1 and when quite dry1 burnished with an agate4 ,this recipe is more like the modern ,florentine method of gilding in illumination4 ,concerning the gold itself1 there seem to have been various means employed for manufacturing substitutes for the genuine article4 ,a curious recipe is given in the manuscript of ,jehan de ,begue1 ,take bulls' brains1 put them in a marble vase1 and leave them for three weeks1 when you will find gold making worms4 ,preserve them carefully4 ,more quaint and superstitious is ,theophilus' recipe for making ,spanish ,gold2 but1 as this is not quotable in polite pages1 the reader must refer to the original treatise if he cares to trace its manufacture4 ,brushes made of hair are recommended by the ,brussels manuscript1 with a plea for pencils of fishes' hairs for softening4 ,if this does not refer to sealskin1 it is food for conjecture6 ,and for the binding of these beautiful volumes1 how was the leather obtained8 ,this is one way in which business and sport could be combined in the monastery1 ,warton says1 ,about the year #gij1 ,charlemagne granted an unlimited right of hunting to the ,abbot and monks of ,sithiu1 for making444 of the skins of the deer they killed444 covers for their books4 ,there is no doubt that it had occurred to artists to experiment upon human skin1 and perhaps the fact that this was an unsatisfactory texture is the chief reason why no books were made of it4 ,a ,french commentator observes3 ,the skin of a man is nothing compared with the skin of a sheep4444 ,sheep is good for writing on both sides1 but the skin of a dead man is just about as profitable as his bones1--better bury him1 skin and bones together4 ,there was some difficulty in obtaining manuscripts to copy4 ,the ,breviary was usually enclosed in a cage2 rich parishioners were bribed by many masses and prayers1 to bequeath manuscripts to churches4 ,in old ,paris1 the ,parchment ,makers were a guild of much importance4 ,often they combined their trade with tavern keeping1 in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4 ,the ,rector of the ,university was glad when this occurred1 for the inn keeper and parchment maker was under his control1 both being obliged to reside in the ,pays ,latin4 ,bishops were known to exhort the parchment makers1 from the pulpit1 to be honest and conscientious in preparing skins4 ,a bookseller1 too1 was solemnly made to swear faithfully to receive1 take care of1 and expose for sale the works which should be entrusted to him4 ,he might not buy them for himself until they had been for sale a full month at the disposition of the ,masters and ,scholars4 ,but in return for these restrictions1 the bookseller was admitted to the rights and privileges of the ,university4 ,as clients of the ,university1 these trades1 which were associated with book making1 joined in the solemn processions of those times2 booksellers1 binders1 parchment makers1 and illuminators1 all marched together on these occasions4 ,they were obliged to pay toll to the ,rector for these privileges2 the recipe for ink was a carefully guarded secret4 ,it now becomes our part to study the books themselves1 and see what results were obtained by applying all the arts involved in their making4 ,the transition from the ,roman illuminations to the ,byzantine may be traced to the time when ,constantine moved his seat of government from ,rome to ,constantinople4 ,constantinople then became the centre of learning1 and books were written there in great numbers4 ,for some centuries ,constantinople was the chief city in the art of illuminating4 ,the style that here grew up exhibited the same features that characterized ,byzantine art in mosaic and decoration4 ,the ,oriental influence displayed itself in a lavish use of gold and colour2 the remnant of ,classical art was slight1 but may sometimes be detected in the subjects chosen1 and the ideas embodied4 ,the ,greek influence was the strongest4 ,but the ,greek art of the seventh and eighth centuries was not at all like the ,classic art of earlier ,greece2 a conventional type had entered with ,christianity1 and is chiefly recognized by a stubborn conformity to precedent4 ,it is difficult to date a ,byzantine picture or manuscript1 for the same severe hard form that prevailed in the days of ,constantine is carried on to-day by the monks of ,mt4 ,athos1 and a ,byzantine work of the ninth century is not easily distinguished from one of the fifteenth4 ,in manuscripts1 the caligraphy is often the only feature by which the work can be dated4 ,in the earlier ,byzantine manuscripts there is a larger proportion of ,classical influence than in later ones1 when the art had taken on its inflexible uniformity of design4 ,one of the most interesting books in which this classical influence may be seen is in the ,imperial ,library at ,vienna1 being a work on ,botany1 by ,dioscorides1 written about #djj ,a4 ,d4 ,the miniatures in this manuscript have many of the characteristics of ,roman work4 ,the pigments used in ,byzantine manuscripts are glossy1 a great deal of ultramarine being used4 ,the high lights are usually of gold1 applied in sharp glittering lines1 and lighting up the picture with very decorative effect4 ,in large wall mosaics the same characteristics may be noted1 and it is often suggested that these gold lines may have originated in an attempt to imitate cloisonne enamel1 in which the fine gold line separates the different coloured spaces one from another4 ,this theory is quite plausible1 as cloisonne was made by the ,byzantine goldsmiths4 ,m4 ,lecoy de la ,marche tells us that the first recorded name of an illuminator is that of a woman--,lala de ,cizique1 a ,greek1 who painted on ivory and on parchment in ,rome during the first ,christian century4 ,but such a long period elapses between her time and that which we are about to study1 that she can here occupy only the position of being referred to as an interesting isolated case4 ,the ,byzantine is a very easy style to recognize1 because of the inflexible stiffness of the figures1 depending for any beauty largely upon the use of burnished gold1 and the symmetrical folds of the draperies1 which often show a sort of archaic grace4 ,byzantine art is not so much representation as suggestion and symbolism4 ,there is a book which may still be consulted1 called ,a ,byzantine ,guide to ,painting1 which contains accurate recipes to be followed in painting pictures of each saint1 the colours prescribed for the dress of the ,virgin1 and the grouping to be adopted in representing each of the standard ,scriptural scenes2 and it has hardly from the first occurred to any ,byzantine artist to depart from these regulations4 ,the heads and faces lack individuality1 and are outlined and emphasized with hard1 unsympathetic black lines2 the colouring is sallow and the expression stolid4 ,any attempt at delineating emotion is grotesque1 and grimacing4 ,the beauty1 for in spite of all these drawbacks there is great beauty1 in ,byzantine manuscripts1 is1 as has been indicated1 a charm of colour and gleaming gold rather than of design4 ,in the ,boston ,art ,museum there is a fine example of a large single miniature of a ,byzantine ,flight into ,egypt1 in which the gold background is of the highest perfection of surface1 and is raised so as to appear like a plate of beaten gold4 ,there is no attempt to portray a scene as it might have occurred2 the rule given in the ,manual is followed1 and the result is generally about the same4 ,the background is usually either gold or blue1 with very little effort at landscape4 ,trees are represented in flat values of green with little white ruffled edges and articulations4 ,the sea is figured by a blue surface with a symmetrical white pattern of a wavy nature4 ,a building is usually introduced about half as large as the people surrounding it4 ,there is no attempt1 either1 at perspective4 ,the anatomy of the human form was not understood at all4 ,nearly all the figures in the art of this period are draped4 ,wherever it is necessary to represent the nude1 a lank1 disproportioned person with an indefinite number of ribs is the result1 proving that the monastic art school did not include a life class4 ,most of the best ,byzantine examples date from the fifth to the seventh centuries4 ,after that a decadence set in1 and by the eleventh century the art had deteriorated to a mere mechanical process4 ,the ,irish and ,anglo-,saxon work are chiefly characterized in their early stages by the use of interlaced bands as a decorative motive4 ,the ,celtic goldsmiths were famous for their delicate work in filigree1 made of threads of gold used in connection with enamelled grounds4 ,in decorating their manuscripts1 the artists were perhaps unconsciously influenced by this1 and the result is a marvellous use of conventional form and vivid colours1 while the human figure is hardly attempted at all1 or1 when introduced1 is so conventionally treated1 as to be only a sign instead of a representation4 ,probably the earliest representation of a pen in the holder1 although of a very primitive pattern1 occurs in a miniature in the ,gospels of ,mac ,durnam1 where ,st4 ,john is seen writing with a pen in one hand and a knife1 for sharpening it1 in the other4 ,this picture is two centuries earlier than any other known representation of the use of the pen1 the volume having been executed in the early part of the eighth century4 ,two of the most famous ,irish books are the ,book of ,kells1 and the ,durham ,book4 ,the ,book of ,kells is now in ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin4 ,it is also known as the ,gospel of ,st4 ,columba4 ,st4 ,columba came1 as the ,chronicle of ,ethelwerd states1 in the year #efe3 five years afterwards ,christ's servant ,columba came from ,scotia 7,ireland7 to ,britain1 to preach the word of ,god to the ,picts4 ,illustration3 ,,detail ,,from ,,the ,,durham ,,book ,the intricacy of the interlacing decoration is so minute that it is impossible to describe it4 ,each line may be followed to its conclusion1 with the aid of a strong magnifying glass1 but cannot be clearly traced with the naked eye4 ,westwood reports that1 with a microscope1 he counted in one square inch of the page1 one hundred and fifty-eight interlacements of bands1 each being of white1 bordered on either side with a black line4 ,in this book there is no use of gold1 and the treatment of the human form is most inadequate4 ,there is no idea of drawing except for decorative purposes2 it is an art of the pen rather than of the brush--it hardly comes into the same category as most of the books designated as illuminated manuscripts4 ,the so-called ,durham ,book1 or the ,gospels of ,st4 ,cuthbert1 was executed at the ,abbey of ,lindisfarne1 in #fhh1 and is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,there is a legend that in the ninth century pirates plundered the ,abbey1 and the few monks who survived decided to seek a situation less unsafe than that on the coast1 so they gathered up their treasures1 the body of the saint1 their patron1 ,cuthbert1 and the book1 which had been buried with him1 and set out for new lands4 ,they set sail for ,ireland1 but a storm arose1 and their boat was swamped4 ,the body and the book were lost4 ,after reaching land1 however1 the fugitives discovered the box containing the book1 lying high and dry upon the shore1 having been cast up by the waves in a truly wonderful state of preservation4 ,any one who knows the effect of dampness upon parchment1 and how it cockles the material even on a damp day1 will the more fully appreciate this miracle4 ,giraldus ,cambriensis went to ,ireland as secretary to ,prince ,john1 in #aahe1 and thus describes the ,gospels of ,kildare1 a book which was similar to the ,book of ,kells1 and his description may apply equally to either volume4 ,of all the wonders of ,kildare ,i have found nothing more wonderful than this marvellous book1 written in the time of the ,virgin ,st4 ,bridget1 and1 as they say1 at the dictation of an angel4 ,here you behold the magic face divinely drawn1 and there the mystical forms of the ,evangelists1 there an eagle1 here a calf1 so closely wrought together1 that if you look carelessly at them1 they would seem rather like a uniform blot than like an exquisite interweavement of figures2 exhibiting no perfection of skill or art1 where all is really skill and perfection of art4 ,but if you look closely at them with all the acuteness of sight that you can command1 and examine the inmost secrets of this wondrous art1 you will discover such delicate1 such wonderful and finely wrought lines1 twisted and interwoven with such intricate knots and adorned with such fresh and brilliant colours1 that you will readily acknowledge the whole to have been the work of angelic rather than human skill4 ,at first gold was not used at all in ,irish work1 but the manuscripts of a slightly later date1 and especially of the ,anglo-,saxon school1 show a superbly decorative use both of gold and silver4 ,the ,coronation ,oath ,book of the ,anglo-,saxon ,kings is especially rich in this exquisite metallic harmony4 ,by degrees1 also1 the ,anglo-,saxons became more perfected in the portrayal of the human figure1 so that by the twelfth century the work of the ,southern schools and those of ,england were more alike than at any previous time4 ,illustration3 ,,ivy ,,pattern1 ,,from ,a #ad,,th ,,century ,,french ,,manuscript ,in the ,northern manuscripts of the eleventh and twelfth centuries it is amusing to note that the bad characters are always represented as having large hooked noses1 which fact testifies to the dislike of the ,northern races for the ,italians and ,southern peoples4 ,the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries may be considered to stand for the ,golden ,age of miniature art in all the countries of ,europe4 ,in ,england and ,france especially the illuminated books of the thirteenth century were marvels of delicate work1 among which the ,tenison ,psalter and the ,psalter of ,queen ,mary1 both in the ,british ,museum1 are excellent examples4 ,queen ,mary's ,psalter was not really painted for ,queen ,mary2 it was executed two centuries earlier4 ,but it was being sent abroad in #aeec1 and was seized by the ,customs4 ,they refused to allow it to pass4 ,afterwards it was presented to ,queen ,mary4 ,at this time grew up a most beautiful and decorative style1 known as ivy pattern1 consisting of little graceful flowering sprays1 with tiny ivy leaves in gold and colours4 ,the ,gothic feeling prevails in this motive1 and the foliate forms are full of spined cusps4 ,the effect of a book decorated in the ivy pattern1 is radiant and jewelled as the pages turn1 and the burnishing of the gold was brought to its full perfection at this time4 ,the value of the creamy surface of the vellum was recognized as part of the colour scheme4 ,with the high polish of the gold it was necessary to use always the strong crude colours1 as the duller tints would appear faded by contrast4 ,in the later stages of the art1 when a greater realism was attempted1 and better drawing had made it necessary to use quieter tones1 gold paint was generally adopted instead of leaf1 as being less conspicuous and more in harmony with the general scheme2 and one of the chief glories of book decoration died in this change4 ,illustration3 ,,mediaeval ,,illumination ,the divergences of style in the work of various countries are well indicated by ,walter de ,gray ,birch1 who says3 ,the ,english are famous for clearness and breadth2 the ,french for delicate fineness and harmoniously assorted colours1 the ,flemish for minutely stippled details1 and the ,italian for the gorgeous yet calm dignity apparent in their best manuscripts4 ,individuality of facial expression1 although these faces are generally ugly1 is a characteristic of ,flemish work1 while the faces in ,french miniatures are uniform and pretty4 ,one marked feature in the ,english thirteenth and fourteenth century books1 is the introduction of many small grotesques in the borders1 and these little creatures1 partly animal and partly human1 show a keen sense of humour1 which had to display itself1 even though inappropriately1 but always with a true spirit of wit4 ,one might suppose on first looking at these grotesques1 that the droll expression is unintentional3 that the monks could draw no better1 and that their sketches are funny only because of their inability to portray more exactly the thing represented4 ,but a closer examination will convince one that the wit was deliberate1 and that the very subtlety and reserve of their expression of humour is an indication of its depth4 ,to-day an artist with the sense of caricature expresses himself in the illustrated papers and other public channels provided for the overflow of high spirits2 but the cloistered author of the ,middle ,ages had only the sculptured details and the books belonging to the church as vehicles for his satire4 ,the carvings on the miserere seats in choirs of many cathedrals were executed by the monks1 and abound in witty representations of such subjects as ,reynard the ,fox1 cats catching rats1 etc42 inspired generally by the knowledge of some of the inconsistencies in the lives of ecclesiastical personages4 ,the quiet monks often became cynical4 ,the spirit of the times determines the standard of wit4 ,at various periods in the world's history1 men have been amused by strange and differing forms of drollery2 what seemed excruciatingly funny to our grandparents does not strike us as being at all entertaining4 ,each generation has its own idea of humour1 and its own fun-makers1 varying as much as fashion in dress4 ,in mediaeval times1 the sense of humour in art was more developed than at any period except our own day4 ,even-while the monk was consecrating his time to the work of beautifying the sanctuary1 his sense of humour was with him1 and must crop out4 ,the grotesque has always played an important part in art2 in the subterranean ,roman vaults of the early centuries1 one form of this spirit is exhibited4 ,but the element of wit is almost absent2 it is displayed in oppressively obvious forms1 so that it loses its subtlety3 it represents women terminating in floral scrolls1 or sea-horses with leaves growing instead of fins4 ,the same spirit is seen in the grotesques of the ,renaissance1 where the sense of humour is not emphasized1 the ideal in this class of decoration being simply to fill the space acceptably1 with voluptuous graceful lines1 mythological monstrosities1 the inexpressive mingling of human and vegetable characteristics1 grinning dragons1 supposed to inspire horror1 and such conceits1 while the attempt to amuse the spectator is usually absent4 ,in mediaeval art1 however1 the beauty of line1 the sense of horror1 and the voluptuous spirit1 are all more or less subservient to the light-hearted buoyancy of a keen sense of fun4 ,to illustrate this point1 ,i wish to call the attention of the reader to the wit of the monastic scribes during the ,gothic period4 ,who could look at the little animals which are found tucked away almost out of sight in the flowery margins of many illuminated manuscripts1 without seeing that the artist himself must have been amused at their pranks1 and intended others to be so8 ,one can picture a gray-hooded brother1 chuckling alone at his own wit1 carefully tracing a jolly little grotesque1 and then stealing softly to the alcove of some congenial spirit1 and in a whisper inviting his friend to come and see the satire which he has carefully introduced3 ,a perfect portrait of the ,bishop1 only with claws instead of legs6 ,so very droll6 ,and dear brother1 while you are here1 just look at the expression of this little rabbit's ears1 while he listens to the bombastic utterance of this monkey who wears a stole6 ,illustration3 ,,caricature ,,of ,a ,,bishop ,such a fund of playful humour is seldom found in a single book as that embodied in the ,tenison ,psalter1 of which only a few pages remain of the work of the original artist4 ,the book was once the property of ,archbishop ,tenison4 ,these few pages show to the world the most perfect example of the delicacy and skill of the miniaturist4 ,on one page1 a little archer1 after having pulled his bow-string1 stands at the foot of the border1 gazing upwards after the arrow1 which has been caught in the bill of a stork at the top of the page4 ,the attitude of a little fiddler who is exhibiting his trick monkeys can hardly be surpassed by caricaturists of any time4 ,a quaint bit of cloister scandal is indicated in an initial from the ,harleian ,manuscript1 in which a monk who has been entrusted with the cellar keys is seen availing himself of the situation1 eagerly quaffing a cup of wine while he stoops before a large cask4 ,in a ,german manuscript ,i have seen1 cuddled away among the foliage1 in the margin1 a couple of little monkeys1 feeding a baby of their own species with pap from a spoon4 ,the baby monkey is closely wrapped in the swathing bands with which one is familiar as the early trussing of ,european children4 ,satire and wrath are curiously blended in a ,german manuscript of the twelfth century1 in which the scribe introduces a portrait of himself hurling a missile at a venturesome mouse who is eating the monk's cheese--a fine ,camembert6--under his very nose4 ,in the book which he is represented as transcribing1 the artist has traced the words--,pessime mus1 sepius me provocas ad iram1 ut te ,deus perdat4 7,wicked mouse1 too often you provoke me to anger--may ,god destroy thee67 ,in their illustrations the scribes often showed how literal was their interpretation of ,scriptural text4 ,for instance1 in a passage in the book known as the ,utrecht ,psalter1 there is an illustration of the verse1 ,the words of the ,lord are pure words2 as silver tried in the furnace1 purified seven times4 ,a glowing forge is seen1 and two craftsmen are working with bellows1 pincers1 and hammer1 to prove the temper of some metal1 which is so molten that a stream of it is pouring out of the furnace4 ,another example of this literal interpretation1 is in the ,psalter of ,edwin1 where two men are engaged in sharpening a sword upon a grindstone1 in illustration of the text about the wicked1 who whet their tongue like a sword4 ,there is evidence of great religious zeal in the exhortations of the leaders to those who worked under them4 ,abbot ,john of ,trittenham thus admonished the workers in the ,scriptorium in #adhf3 ,i have diminished your labours out of the monastery lest by working badly you should only add to your sins1 and have enjoined on you the manual labour of writing and binding books4 ,there is in my opinion no labour more becoming a monk than the writing of ecclesiastical books4444 ,you will recall that the library of this monastery444 had been dissipated1 sold1 or made way with by disorderly monks before us1 so that when ,i came here ,i found but fourteen volumes4 ,it was often with a sense of relief that a monk finished his work upon a volume1 as the final word1 written by the scribe himself1 and known as the ,explicit1 frequently shows4 ,in an old manuscript in the ,monastery of ,st4 ,aignan the writer has thus expressed his emotions3 ,look out for your fingers6 ,do not put them on my writing6 ,you do not know what it is to write6 ,it cramps your back1 it obscures your eyes1 it breaks your sides and stomach6 ,it is interesting to note the various forms which these final words of the scribes took2 sometimes the ,explicit is a pathetic appeal for remembrance in the prayers of the reader1 and sometimes it contains a note of warning4 ,in a manuscript of ,st4 ,augustine now at ,oxford1 there is written3 ,this book belongs to ,st4 ,mary's of ,robert's ,bridge2 whoever shall steal it or in any way alienate it from this house1 or mutilate it1 let him be ,anathema ,marantha6 ,a later owner1 evidently to justify himself1 has added1 ,i1 ,john1 ,bishop of ,exeter1 know not where this aforesaid house is1 nor did ,i steal this book1 but acquired it in a lawful way6 ,the ,explicit in the ,benedictional of ,ethelwold is touching3 the writer asks all who gaze on this book to ever pray that after the end of the flesh ,i may inherit health in heaven2 this is the prayer of the scribe1 the humble ,godemann4 ,a mysterious ,explicit occurs at the end of an ,irish manuscript of #aach1 ,pray for ,moelbrighte who wrote this book4 ,great was the crime when ,cormac ,mac ,carthy was slain by ,tardelvach ,o',brian4 ,who shall say what revelation may have been embodied in these words8 ,was it in the nature of a confession or an accusation of some hitherto unknown occurrence8 ,coming as it does at the close of a sacred book1 it was doubtless written for some important reason4 ,among curious examples of the ,explicit may be quoted the following3 ,it is finished4 ,let it be finished1 and let the writer go out for a drink4 ,a ,french monk adds3 ,let a pretty girl be given to the writer for his pains4 ,ludovico di ,cherio1 a famous illuminator of the fifteenth century1 has this note at the end of a book upon which he had long been engaged3 ,completed on the vigil of the nativity of ,our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 on an empty stomach4 7,whether this refers to an imposed penance or fast1 or whether ,ludovico considered that the offering of a meek and empty stomach would be especially acceptable1 the reader may determine47 ,there is an amusing rhymed ,explicit in an early fifteenth century copy of ,froissart3 ,i1 ,raoul ,tanquy1 who never was drunk 7,or hardly more than judge or monk17 ,on fourth of ,july finished this book1 ,then to drink at the ,tabouret myself took1 ,with ,pylon and boon companions more ,who tripe with onions and garlic adore4 ,but if some of the monks complained or made sport of their work1 there were others to whom it was a divine inspiration1 and whose affection for their craft was almost fanatic1 an anecdote being related of one of them1 who1 when about to die1 refused to be parted from the book upon which he had bestowed much of his life's energy1 and who clutched it in his last agony so that even death should not take it from him4 ,the good ,othlonus of ,ratisbon congratulates himself upon his own ability in a spirit of humility even while he rejoices in his great skill2 he says3 ,i think proper to add an account of the great knowledge and capacity for writing which was given me by the ,lord in my childhood4 ,when as yet a little child1 ,i was sent to school and quickly learned my letters1 and ,i began long before the time of learning1 and without any order from my master1 to learn the art of writing4 ,undertaking this in a furtive and unusual manner1 and without any teacher1 ,i got a habit of holding my pen wrongly1 nor were any of my teachers afterwards able to correct me on that point4 ,this very human touch comes down to us through the ages to prove the continuity of educational experience6 ,the accounts of his monastic labours put us to the blush when we think of such activity4 ,while in the monastery of ,tegernsee in ,bavaria ,i wrote many books4444 ,being sent to ,franconia while ,i was yet a boy1 ,i worked so hard writing that before ,i had returned ,i had nearly lost my eyesight4 ,after ,i became a monk at ,st4 ,emmerem1 ,i was appointed the school-master4 ,the duties of the office so fully occupied my time that ,i was able to do the transcribing ,i was interested in only by nights and in holidays4444 ,i was1 however1 able1 in addition to writing the books that ,i had myself composed1 and the copies which ,i gave away for the edification of those who asked for them1 to prepare nineteen missals1 three books of the ,gospels and ,epistles1 besides which ,i wrote four service books for ,matins4 ,i wrote in addition several other books for the brethren at ,fulda1 for the monks at ,hirschfeld1 and at ,amerbach1 for the ,abbot of ,lorsch1 for certain friends at ,passau1 and for other friends in ,bohemia1 for the monastery at ,tegernsee1 for the monastery at ,preyal1 for that at ,obermunster1 and for my sister's son4 ,moreover1 ,i sent and gave at different times sermons1 proverbs1 and edifying writings4 ,afterward old age's infirmities of various kinds hindered me4 ,surely ,othlonus was justified in retiring when his time came1 and enjoying some respite from his labours6 ,religious feeling in works of art is an almost indefinable thing1 but one which is felt in all true emanations of the conscientious spirit of devotion4 ,fra ,angelico had a special gift for expressing in his artistic creations is own spiritual life2 the very qualities for which he stood1 his virtues and his errors1--purity1 unquestioning faith in the miraculous1 narrowness of creed1 and gentle and adoring humility1--all these elements are seen to completeness in his decorative pictures4 ,perhaps this is because he really lived up to his principles4 ,one of his favourite sayings was ,he who occupies himself with the things of ,christ1 must ever dwell with ,christ4 ,it is related that1 in the ,monastery of ,maes ,eyck1 while the illuminators were at work in the evening1 copying ,holy ,writ1 the devil1 in a fit of rage1 extinguished their candles2 they1 however1 were promptly lighted again by a ,breath of the ,holy ,spirit1 and the good work went on6 ,salvation was supposed to be gained through conscientious writing4 ,a story is told of a worldly and frivolous brother1 who was guilty of many sins and follies1 but who1 nevertheless1 was an industrious scribe4 ,when he came to die1 the devil claimed his soul4 ,the angels1 however1 brought before the ,throne a great book of religious ,instructions which he had illuminated1 and for every letter therein1 he received pardon for one sin4 ,behold6 ,when the account was completed1 there proved to be one letter over6 the narrator adds naively1 ,and it was a very big book4 ,illustration3 ,,illumination ,,by ,,gherart ,,david ,,of ,,bruges1 #adih2 ,,st4 ,,barbara ,perhaps more than any books executed in the better period1 after the decline had begun1 were the ,books of ,hours1 containing the numerous daily devotions which form part of the ritual of the ,roman ,church4 ,every well appointed lady was supposed to own a copy1 and there is a little verse by ,eustache ,deschamps1 a poet of the time of ,charles ,v41 in which a woman is supposed to be romancing about the various treasures she would like to possess4 ,she says3 ,hours of ,our ,lady should be mine1 ,fitting for a noble dame1 ,of lofty lineage and name2 ,wrought most cunningly and quaint1 ,in gold and richest azure paint4 ,rare covering of cloth of gold ,full daintily it shall enfold1 ,or1 open to the view exposed1 ,two golden clasps to keep it closed4 ,john ,skelton the poet did honour to the illuminated tomes of his day1 in spite of the fact that the aeesthetic deterioration had begun4 ,with that of the boke lozende were the clasps ,the margin was illumined all with golden railes1 ,and bice empictured1 with grasshoppers and waspes ,with butterflies and fresh peacock's tailes3 ,englosed with444 pictures well touched and quickly1 ,it wold have made a man hole that had be right sickly6 ,but here we have an indication of that realism which rung the death knell of the art4 ,the grasshoppers on a golden ground1 and the introduction of carefully painted insect and floral life1 led to all sorts of extravagances of taste4 ,but before this decadence1 there was a very interesting period of transition1 which may be studied to special advantage in ,italy1 and is seen chiefly in the illuminations of the great choral books which were used in the choirs of churches4 ,one book served for all the singers in those days1 and it was placed upon an open lectern in the middle of the choir1 so that all the singers could see it3 it will be readily understood that the lettering had to be generous1 and the page very large for this purpose4 ,the decoration of these books took on the characteristics of breadth in keeping with their dimensions1 and of large masses of ornament rather than delicate meander4 ,the style of the ,italian choral books is an art in itself4 ,the ,books of ,hours and ,missals developed during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries into positive art galleries1 whole pages being occupied by paintings1 the vellum being entirely hidden by the decoration4 ,the art of illumination declined as the art of miniature painting progressed4 ,the fact that the artist was decorating a page in a book was lost sight of in his ambition to paint a series of small pictures4 ,the glint of burnished gold on the soft surface of the vellum was no longer considered elegant1 and these more elaborate pictures often left not even a margin1 so that the pictures might as well have been executed on paper and canvas and framed separately1 for they do not suggest ornaments in a book after this change had taken place4 ,lettering is hardly introduced at all on the same page with the illustration1 or1 when it is1 is placed in a little tablet which is simply part of the general scheme4 ,illustration3 ,,choral ,,book1 ,,siena ,among the books in this later period ,i will refer specifically to two only1 the ,hours of ,ann of ,brittany1 and the ,grimani ,breviary4 ,the ,hours of ,ann of ,brittany1 illuminated by a famous ,french artist of the time of ,louis ,,xii41 is reproduced in facsimile by ,curmer1 and is therefore available for consultation in most large libraries4 ,it will repay any one who is interested in miniature art to examine this book1 for the work is so excellent that it is almost like turning the leaves of the original4 ,the ,grimani ,breviary1 which was illuminated by ,flemish artists of renown1 was the property of ,cardinal ,grimani1 and is now one of the treasures of the ,library of ,st4 ,marc in ,venice4 ,it is impossible in a short space to comment to any adequate extent upon the work of such eminent artists as ,jean ,foucquet1 ,don ,giulio ,clovio1 ,sano di ,pietro1 and ,liberale da ,verona2 they were technically at the head of their art1 and yet1 so far as taste in book decoration is to be considered1 their work would be more satisfactory as framed miniatures than as marginal or paginal ornament4 ,stippling was brought to its ultimate perfection by ,don ,giulio ,clovio1 but it is supposed to have been first practised by ,antonio de ,holanda4 ,one of ,jehan ,foucquet's assistants was ,jehan ,bourdichon4 ,there is an interesting memorandum extant1 relating to a piece of illumination which ,bourdichon had accomplished4 ,to the said ,b4 for having had written a book in parchment named the ,papalist1 the same illuminated in gold and azure and made in the same nine rich ,histories1 and for getting it bound and covered1 thirty crowns in gold4 ,at the time of the ,renaissance there was a rage for tiny books1 miniature copies of famous works4 ,m4 ,wuertz possessed a copy of the ,sonnets of ,petrarch1 written in italics1 in brown ink1 of which the length was one inch1 and the breadth five-eighths of an inch1 showing fifty lines on a page4 ,the text is only visible through a glass4 ,it is in ,italian taste1 with several miniatures1 and is bound in gold filigree4 ,the value of illuminated books is enormous4 ,an ,elector of ,bavaria once offered a town for a single book2 but the monks had sufficient worldly wisdom to know that he could easily take the town again1 and so declined the exchange6 ,with the introduction of printing1 the art of illumination was doomed4 ,the personal message from the scribe to the reader was merged in the more comprehensive message of the press to the public4 ,it was no longer necessary to spend a year on a work that could be accomplished in a day2 so the artists found themselves reduced to painting initial letters in printed books1 sometimes on vellum1 but more often on paper4 ,this art still flourishes in many localities2 but it is no more illumination1 though it is often so designated1 than photography is portrait painting4 ,both are useful in their departments and for their several purposes1 but it is incorrect to confound them4 ,illustration3 ,,detail ,,from ,,an ,,italian ,,choral ,,book ,once1 while examining an old choral book1 ,i was particularly struck with the matchless personal element which exists in a book which is made1 as this was1 by the hand1 from the first stroke to the last4 ,the first page showed a bold lettering1 the sweep of the pen being firm and free4 ,animal vigour was demonstrated in the steady hand and the clear eye4 ,the illuminations were daintily painted1 and the sure touch of the little white line used to accentuate the colours1 was noticeable4 ,after several pages1 the letters became less true and firm4 ,the lines had a tendency to slant to the right2 a weakness could be detected in the formerly strong man4 ,finally the writing grew positively shaky4 ,the skill was lost4 ,suddenly1 on another page1 came a change4 ,a new hand had taken up the work--that of a novice4 ,he had not the skill of the previous worker in his best days1 but the indecision of his lines was that of inexperience1 not of failing ability4 ,gradually he improved4 ,his colours were clearer and ground more smoothly2 his gold showed a more glassy surface4 ,the book ended as it had begun1 a virile work of art2 but in the course of its making1 one man had grown old1 lost his skill1 and died1 and another had started in his immaturity1 gained his education1 and devoted his best years to this book4 ,the printing press stands for all that is progressive and desirable2 modern life and thought hang upon this discovery4 ,but in this glorious new birth there was sacrificed a certain indescribable charm which can never be felt now except by a book lover as he turns the leaves of an ancient illuminated book4 ,to him it is given to understand that pathetic appeal across the centuries4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,bibliography ,arts and ,crafts ,movement4 ,o4 ,l4 ,triggs4 ,two ,lectures4 ,william ,morris4 ,decorative ,arts4 ,william ,morris4 ,treatises of ,benvenuto ,cellini4 ,library of ,british ,manufactories4 ,gold and ,silver4 ,wheatley4 ,ye ,olden ,time4 ,e4 ,s4 ,holt4 ,arts and ,crafts ,essays4 ,ed4 by ,morris4 ,industrial ,arts4 ,maskell4 ,old ,english ,silver4 ,cripps4 ,spanish ,arts4 ,j4 ,e4 ,rianio4 ,history of the ,fine ,arts4 ,w4 ,b4 ,scott4 ,art ,work in ,gold and ,silver4 ,p4 ,h4 ,delamotte4 ,gold and ,silver4 ,j4 ,h4 ,pollen4 ,une ,ville du ,temps ,jadis4 ,m4 ,e4 ,del ,monte4 ,industrial ,arts4 ,p4 ,burty4 ,arts of the ,middle ,ages4 ,labarte4 ,miscellanea ,graphica4 ,fairholt4 ,artist's ,way of ,working4 ,r4 ,sturgis4 ,jewellery4 ,cyril ,davenport4 ,enamels4 ,mrs4 ,nelson ,dawson4 ,precious ,stones4 ,jones4 ,ghiberti and ,donatello4 ,leader ,scott4 ,iron ,work4 ,j4 ,s4 ,gardner4 ,guilds of ,florence4 ,e4 ,staley4 ,armour in ,england4 ,j4 ,s4 ,gardner4 ,foreign ,armour in ,england4 ,j4 ,s4 ,gardner4 ,cameos4 ,cyril ,davenport4 ,peter ,vischer4 ,cecil ,headlam4 ,st4 ,eloi and ,st4 ,bernward4 ,baring ,gould2 ,lives of the ,saint4 ,european ,enamels4 ,h4 ,cunynghame4 ,intarsia and ,marquetry4 ,h4 ,jackson4 ,pavement ,masters of ,siena4 ,r4 ,h4 ,cust4 ,sculpture in ,ivory4 ,digby ,wyatt4 ,ancient and ,mediaeval ,ivories4 ,wm4 ,maskell4 ,ivory ,carvers of the ,middle ,ages4 ,a4 ,m4 ,cust4 ,arts of the ,middle ,ages and ,renaissance4 ,p4 ,lacroix4 ,ivories4 ,a4 ,maskell4 ,old ,english ,embroidery4 ,f4 and ,h4 ,marshall4 ,the ,bayeux ,tapestry4 ,f4 ,r4 ,fowke4 ,history of ,tapestry4 ,w4 ,g4 ,thomson4 ,la ,broderie4 ,l4 de ,farcy4 ,textile ,fabrics4 ,dr4 ,rock4 ,needlework as ,art4 ,lady ,alford4 ,history of ,needlework4 ,countess of ,wilton4 ,gilds2 ,their ,origins1 etc4 ,c4 ,walford4 ,tapestry4 ,a4 ,champeaux4 ,tapestry4 ,j4 ,hayes4 ,ornamental ,metal ,work4 ,digby ,wyatt4 ,la ,mosaique4 ,gerspach4 ,the ,master ,mosaic ,workers4 ,g4 ,sand4 ,revival of ,sculpture4 ,a4 ,l4 ,frothingham4 ,history of ,italian ,sculpture4 ,c4 ,h4 ,perkins4 ,art ,applied to ,industry4 ,w4 ,burges4 ,four ,centuries of ,art4 ,noel ,humphreys4 ,aratra ,pentelici4 ,ruskin4 ,seven ,lamps of ,architecture4 ,ruskin4 ,val d',arno4 ,ruskin4 ,stones of ,venice4 ,ruskin4 ,lectures on ,sculpture4 ,flaxman4 ,brick and ,marble4 ,g4 ,e4 ,street4 ,sculpture in ,wood4 ,williams4 ,greek and ,gothic4 ,st4 ,j4 ,tyrwhitt4 ,westminster ,abbey and ,craftsmen4 ,w4 ,r4 ,lethaby4 ,le ,roi ,rene4 ,l4 de la ,marche4 ,english ,mediaeval ,figure ,sculpture4 ,prior and ,gardner4 ,churches of ,paris4 ,sophia ,beale4 ,matthew ,paris' ,chronicle4 ,crowns and ,coronations4 ,jones4 ,bell's ,handbooks of ,rouen1 ,chartres1 ,amiens1 ,wells1 ,salisbury and ,lincoln4 ,history of ,sculpture4 ,d',agincourt4 ,the ,grotesque in ,church ,art4 ,t4 ,t4 ,wildridge4 ,choir ,stalls and ,their ,carving4 ,emma ,phipson4 ,memorials of ,westminster ,abbey4 ,dean ,stanley4 ,memorials of ,canterbury4 ,dean ,stanley4 ,les ,corporations des ,arts et ,metiers4 ,hubert ,valeroux4 ,finger ,ring ,lore4 ,jones4 ,goldsmith's and ,silversmith's ,work4 ,nelson ,dawson4 ,the ,dark ,ages4 ,maitland4 ,rambles of an ,archaeologist4 ,f4 ,w4 ,fairholt4 ,history of ,furniture4 ,a4 ,jacquemart4 ,embroidery4 ,w4 ,g4 ,p4 ,townsend4 ,le ,livre des ,metiers4 ,etienne ,boileau4 ,illuminated ,manuscripts4 ,j4 ,h4 ,middleton4 ,illuminated ,manuscripts4 ,edward ,quaile4 ,english ,illuminated ,manuscripts4 ,maunde ,thompson4 ,les ,manuscrits et l'art de les ,orner4 ,alphonse ,labitte4 ,les ,manuscrits et la ,miniature4 ,l4 de la ,marche4 ,primer of ,illumination4 ,delamotte4 ,primer of ,illumination4 ,digby ,wyatt4 ,ancient ,painting and ,sculpture in ,england4 ,j4 ,carter4 ,vasari's ,lives of the ,painters4 7,selected47 ,benvenuto ,cellini--,autobiography4 ,illuminated ,manuscripts4 ,o4 ,westwood4 ,celtic ,illuminative ,art4 ,s4 ,f4 ,h4 ,robinson4 ,illuminated ,manuscripts4 ,bradley4 ,,index ,aachen1 #af ,abbeville1 #bfe ,abbo1 #eg ,absalom1 #bii ,acherius1 ,j41 #cce ,adam1 #bh ,adam1 ,abbot1 #ba ,adaminus1 #bbb ,adelard1 #bbi ,aelfled1 #aii ,aelst1 #agb ,agatho1 #bha ,agnelli1 ,fra1 #bbf ,agnese1 ,st41 #ad1 #caf ,agnolo1 ,b41 #cjc ,ahab1 #bgf ,aignan1 ,st41 #ced ,aix-la-,chapelle1 #ih1 #bhg ,albans1 ,st41 #aad1 #ahf1 #bjg1 #bej ,alberti1 ,l41 #aca ,aleuin1 #ad1 #bgh1 #ccb ,aldobrandini1 #aca ,alfred1 ,king1 #d1 #fd1 #fg1 #id1 #aii ,alford1 ,lady1 #ahh1 #cjc ,alicante1 #afg ,almeria1 #ahc ,aloise1 #bj ,alwin1 ,bp41 #beb ,alwyn1 ,h4 ,f41 #be ,amasia1 ,bp4 of1 #aia ,america1 #be ,amiens1 #fe1 #add1 #bcj1 #bcc1 #bcf1 #bch1 #bdj1 #bdd1 #bfe ,anastatius1 #bja1 #bha ,anatomy of ,abuses1 #bf ,ancona1 #bbd ,ancren ,riwle1 #ge ,angers1 #afd1 #bjh ,anglo-,saxons1 #di1 #ib1 #ie1 #ajj1 #aaa1 #aei1 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