,illustration3 ,eat more nuts ,carl ,weschcke author ,,growing ,,nuts ,,in ,,the ,,north ,a personal story of the author's experience of #cc years with nut culture in ,minnesota and ,wisconsin4 ,includes his failures as well as final successes4 ,scientific as well as readable for the amateur horticulturist with many illustrations4 ,tells how to grow and to propagate nut bearing trees and shrubs4 ,by ,,carl ,,weschcke ,published ,,webb ,,publishing ,,co4 ,,st4 ,,paul1 ,,minnesota1 ,u4,s4,a4 #aiec ,copyright #aied ,,carl ,,weschcke ,,st4 ,,paul1 ,,minnesota ,introduction ,,growing ,,nuts ,,in ,,the ,,north ,only a few books have been written on the subject of nut trees and their bearing habits1 and very little of that material applies to their propagation in cold climates4 ,for these reasons ,i am relating some of the experiences ,i have had in the last thirty-two years in raising nut trees in ,wisconsin4 ,to me1 this has been a hobby with results both practical and ornamental far beyond my original conception4 ,i hope that the information ,i am giving will be of help and interest to those who1 like myself1 enjoy having nut-bearing trees in their dooryards1 and that it will prevent their undergoing the failures and disappointments ,i sometimes met with in pioneering along this line4 ,since my purpose is to give advice and assistance to those whose interest parallels mine by relating my successes and failures and what ,i learned from each1 ,i have included only those details of technique which are pertinent4 ,it is a fine thing to have a hobby that takes one out-of-doors4 ,that in itself suggests healthful thought and living4 ,the further association of working with trees1 as with any living things1 brings one into the closest association with nature and ,god4 ,i hope this book may help someone achieve that attitude of life1 in which ,i have found such great pleasure and inner satisfaction4 ,anyone wishing to make a planting of a few nut trees in his dooryard or a small orchard planting should join the ,northern ,nut ,growers' ,association4 ,this ,association can be joined by writing the current secretary1 but since that office may be changed from time to time1 persons applying for membership should write ,george ,l4 ,slate of ,geneva ,experiment ,station1 ,geneva1 ,new ,york1 or ,dr4 ,h4 ,l4 ,crane1 ,principal ,horticulturist1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,beltsville1 ,maryland1 or the ,author4 ,the first president was ,dr4 ,robert ,t4 ,morris1 ,new ,york ,city1 ,n4 ,y41 #aiaj-aiaa1 the ,association being founded by ,dr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,deming of ,westchester1 ,new ,york1 who called the first meeting in #aiaj4 ,each year a report was printed of the proceedings of the ,annual ,meeting and exclusive of the #aieb meeting1 the ,reports which are in substantial book form number forty-two4 ,most of these ,reports can be obtained by writing to the secretary1 the total library of these ,reports constituting one of the best authorities for nut tree planting in the northern hemisphere of the ,united ,states than any extant4 ,the author acknowledges with thanks the consistent encouraging praise from his father1 ,charles ,weschcke1 of the work involved in nut growing experiments1 also for his financial assistance1 thus making the publication of this book possible and available to readers at a nominal price4 ,the editor of the greater part of this book1 ,allison ,burbank ,hartman 7a descendent of the great ,luther ,burbank71 is entitled to great praise and thanks for the interest and work she put forth4 ,grateful acknowledgment is made to ,william ,kuehn1 the artist4 ,he had been associated with the author in ,boy ,scout work1 also became a part of the nut growing experiments in ,northern ,wisconsin1 which work was interrupted by ,world ,war ,,ii4 ,acknowledgment is hereby made with gratitude to ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,mc,kay of the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c42 ,harry ,weber of ,cincinnati1 ,ohio2 ,ford ,wilkinson1 ,rockport1 ,ind42 ,fayette ,etter1 ,lehmasters1 ,pa42 ,dr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,deming1 ,litchfield1 ,conn42 ,clarence ,a4 ,reed1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c42 ,dr4 ,j4 ,russell ,smith1 ,swarthmore1 ,pa42 ,george ,s4 ,slate1 ,urbana1 ,ill42 ,herman ,last1 ,steamboat ,rock1 ,iowa1 and many other professors and horticulturists who lent their time and effort assisting me in my experiments throughout the years4 ,and last but not least1 the author is indebted to his secretary1 ,dorothy ,downie1 for tireless efforts in re-writing the manuscript many times which was necessary in compiling this book4 ,,growing ,,nuts ,,in ,,the ,,north ,contents ,introduction ,chapter #a ,first ,encounters ,chapter #b ,first ,attempts ,chapter #c ,black ,walnuts ,chapter #d ,hazels and ,filberts ,chapter #e ,hazels and_/or ,filberts ,chapter #f ,pecans and ,their ,hybrids ,chapter #g ,hickory the ,king ,chapter #h ,butternut ,chapter #i ,pioneering ,with ,english ,walnuts in ,wisconsin ,chapter #aj ,other ,trees ,chapter #aa ,pests and ,pets ,chapter #ab ,storing and ,planting ,seeds ,chapter #ac ,tree ,planting ,methods ,chapter #ad ,winter ,protection of ,grafts and ,seedlings ,chapter #ae ,tree ,storage ,chapter #af ,suggestions on ,grafting ,methods ,chapter #ag ,grafting ,tape ,versus ,raffia ,chapter #ah ,effects of ,grafting on ,unlike ,stocks ,chapter #ai ,distinguishing ,characteristics of ,scions ,chapter #bj ,hybridizing ,chapter #ba ,toxicity ,among ,trees and ,plants ,conclusion ,chapter #a ,,first ,,encounters ,almost everyone can remember from his youth1 trips made to gather nuts4 ,those nuts may have been any of the various kinds distributed throughout the ,united ,states1 such as the butternut1 black walnut1 beechnut1 chestnut1 hickory1 hazel or pecan4 ,i know that ,i can recall very well1 when ,i was a child and visited my grandparents in ,new ,ulm and ,st4 ,peter1 in southern ,minnesota1 the abundance of butternuts1 black walnuts and hazels to be found along the roads and especially along the ,minnesota and ,cottonwood river bottoms4 ,since such nut trees were not to be found near ,springfield1 where my parents lived1 which was just a little too far west1 ,i still associate my first and immature interest in this kind of horticulture with those youthful trips east4 ,the only way we children could distinguish between butternut and black walnut trees was by the fruit itself1 either on the tree or shaken down4 ,this is not surprising1 however1 since these trees are closely related1 both belonging to the family ,juglans4 ,the black walnut is known as ,juglans nigra and the butternut or white walnut as ,juglans cinera4 ,the similarity between the trees is so pronounced that the most experienced horticulturist may confuse them if he has only the trees in foliage as his guide4 ,an experience ,i recently had is quite suggestive of this4 ,i wished to buy some furniture in either black walnut or mahogany and ,i was hesitating between them4 ,noting my uncertainty1 the salesman suggested a suite of ,french walnut4 ,my curiosity and interest were immediately aroused4 ,i had not only been raising many kinds of walnut trees1 but ,i had also run through my own sawmill1 logs of walnut and butternut4 ,i felt that ,i knew the various species of walnut very thoroughly4 ,so ,i suggested to him3 ,you must mean ,circassian or ,english walnut1 which is the same thing4 ,it grows abundantly in ,france4 ,you are wrong in calling it ,french walnut1 though1 because there is no such species4 ,he indignantly rejected the name ,i gave it1 and insisted that it was genuine ,french walnut4 ,perhaps1 ,i advised him1 that is a trade name to cover the real origin1 just as plucked muskrat is termed ,hudson seal4 ,that1 too1 he denied4 ,we were both insistent4 ,i was sure of my own knowledge and stubborn enough to want to prove him wrong4 ,i pulled a drawer from the dresser of the ,french walnut suite and asked him to compare its weight with that of a similar drawer from a black walnut suite nearby4 ,black walnut weighs forty pounds per cubic foot1 while butternut weighs only twenty-five4 ,he was forced to admit the difference and finally allowed my assertion to stand that ,french walnut was butternut1 stained and finished to simulate black walnut4 ,since it would have been illegal to claim that it was black walnut1 the attractive but meaningless label of ,french walnut had been applied4 ,although it is less expensive1 ,i do not mean to imply that butternut is not an excellent wood for constructing furniture4 ,it ranks high in quality and is probably as durable as black walnut4 ,i do say1 though1 that it was necessary for me to know both the species names and the relative weights of each wood to be able to distinguish between them indisputably4 ,an instance in which the nuts themselves were useless for purposes of identification occurred when ,i sent some black walnuts to the ,division of ,pomology at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,these were the ,ohio variety which ,i had grafted on butternut roots4 ,the tree had been bearing for three or four years but this was the first year the nuts had matured4 ,during their bearing period1 these black walnuts had gradually changed in appearance1 becoming elongated and very deeply and sharply corrugated like butternuts although they still retained the black walnut flavor4 ,because of this mixture of characteristics1 the government experts had great difficulty in identifying the variety1 although the ,ohio was well known to them4 ,another variety of black walnut1 the ,thomas1 ,i have also known to be influenced by the butternut stock on which it was grafted1 when in #aich1 one of my trees bore black walnuts whose meat had lost its characteristic flavor and assumed that of the butternut4 ,illustration3 ,a--,genuine original ,ohio ,black ,walnut from parent tree ,b--,nut produced by grafting ,ohio on ,butternut ,i also liked to pick hazelnuts when ,i was a boy4 ,these are probably the least interesting among the wild nuts since they are usually small and hard to crack4 ,there is much variation in wild hazels1 however1 and many people may recall them as being reasonably large4 ,one of the two species abundant in ,minnesota1 ,corylus cornuta or ,beak hazel1 has fine1 needle-like hairs on its husk which are sure to stick into one's fingers disagreeably4 ,when the husk is removed1 ,corylus cornuta resembles a small acorn4 ,it does not produce in southern ,minnesota and central ,wisconsin as well as the common hazel1 ,corylus ,americana1 does1 nor is its flavor as pleasing to most people4 ,it is lighter in color than the common hazel and has a thinner shell4 ,of course1 some hazels are intermediate or natural hybrids between these two species1 and if the nuts of such hybrids are planted1 they generally revert to one of the parents when mature enough to bear4 ,this natural hybridization occurs among all plants1 between those of the same species1 the same genera or the same family4 ,it is very rare between plants of different families4 ,the process is a very important one in horticulture and ,i shall explain some of the crosses which are well-known later in this book4 ,chapter #b ,,first ,,attempts ,when ,i was about fifteen years old1 my family moved to ,st4 ,paul1 ,minnesota1 where my home now is and where my experimental work with nuts was begun4 ,st4 ,paul is in the #deth north parallel1 but although it is farther north1 it is as favorable for the growth of nut trees as ,new ,ulm or ,st4 ,peter1 because it lies in the ,mississippi ,river valley and is farther east4 ,bodies of water and altitudes have as great an influence on plant life as latitude2 at least1 they can have1 and these are factors that must be understood thoroughly4 ,soil conditions also vitally affect plant life1 particularly deep-rooted trees such as nut trees usually are4 ,each has its own requirements2 hickory1 ,japanese heartnut and ,persian walnuts favor an alkaline soil1 which chestnuts1 wanting acid will not grow in2 chestnuts thrive best in a slightly acid1 well-drained soil2 hazels will grow in either alkaline or acid soil as will black walnuts and butternuts2 almonds need a light sandy soil1 similar to that suitable to plums1 pecans do well in either rich river bottoms1 which may be slightly acid1 or in clay soil on high hillsides which are alkaline4 ,a deep1 sandy or graveltype soil is usually accepted by the chestnuts even though it may not be slightly acid1 and successful orchards have been grown on a deep clay soil on hillsides4 ,it is not always easy to obtain black walnuts and butternuts to eat4 ,hickory nuts have been a favorite of mine since ,i first tasted them and ,i often have found it difficult to procure fresh ones1 ones that were not slightly rancid4 ,because ,i liked eating these nuts1 ,i thought ,i would try to grow some for my own consumption and so avoid having to depend on a grocer's occasional supply of those shipped in1 always a little stale4 ,raising nuts appealed to me economically too1 since obviously trees would need little care1 and after they had begun to bear would supply nuts that could be sold at interesting prices4 ,i turned the back yard of my home in ,st4 ,paul into an experimental plot4 ,here ,i set out some of each kind of tree ,i planted or grafted at my farm in ,wisconsin4 ,i had purchased a farm #ce miles east of ,st4 ,paul1 beyond the influence of the ,st4 ,croix ,river ,valley4 ,my experiments really began there4 ,the farm was covered with butternut trees1 hazel bushes1 and a wild hickory called bitternut4 ,this last is well-named for ,i have never found an animal other than a squirrel that could endure its nuts4 ,possibly the white-footed mouse or deer-mouse could--,i don't know4 ,he usually eats anything a squirrel does4 ,i learned to appreciate these bitternut trees later and they became a source of experience and interest to me as ,i learned to graft on them many varieties1 species and hybrids of hickory4 ,they served as a root-system and shortened the length of time required to test dozens of hickory types1 helping me in that way1 to learn within one lifetime what types of nuts are practical for growing in the north4 ,remembering the nut trees in southern ,minnesota1 ,i first thought to procure black walnut and hickory trees from some farmer in that district4 ,through acquaintances in ,st4 ,peter1 ,i did locate some black walnut trees only to find that it was impractical to dig and transport trees of the size ,i wanted4 ,a nursery near ,st4 ,paul supplied me with some and ,i bought twenty-eight large1 seedling black walnut trees4 ,i was too eager to get ahead with my plans and ,i attempted1 the first year these trees were planted1 to graft all of them4 ,my ability to do this was not equal to my ambition though1 and all but two of the trees were killed4 ,i was successful in grafting one of them to a ,stabler black walnut2 the other tree persisted so in throwing out its natural sprouts that ,i decided it should be allowed to continue doing so4 ,that native seedling tree which ,i could not graft now furnishes me with bushels of walnuts each year which are planted for understocks4 ,this is the name given to the root systems on which good varieties are grafted4 ,in an effort to replace these lost trees1 ,i inquired at the ,university of ,minnesota ,farm and was given the addresses of several nurserymen who were then selling grafted nut trees4 ,their catalogues were so inviting that ,i decided it would be quite plausible to grow pecans and ,english walnuts at this latitude4 ,so ,i neglected my native trees that year for the sake of more exotic ones4 ,one year sufficed2 the death of my whole planting of ,english walnuts and pecans turned me back to my original interest4 ,my next order of trees included grafted black walnuts of four accepted varieties to be planted in orchard form--the ,stabler1 ,thomas1 ,ohio and ,ten ,eyck4 ,i ordered a few hickories at the same time but these eventually died4 ,my experience with hickories was very discouraging since they were my favorite nuts and ,i had set my heart on growing some4 ,i think ,i should have given up attempting them had not one dealer1 ,j4 ,f4 ,jones1 urged that ,i buy just three more hickory trees of the ,beaver variety4 ,he gave me special instructions on how to prepare them against winter4 ,i have always felt that what he told me was indeed special and very valuable since those three trees lived4 ,subsequently1 ,i bought several hundred dollars worth of trees from him4 ,more than that1 we became friends4 ,i visited him at his nurseries in ,lancaster1 ,pennsylvania1 and he again demonstrated his interest and generosity by giving me both horticultural information and the kindest hospitality4 ,my friendship with him was but one of many that ,i have formed while traveling and corresponding in the interests of nut culture4 ,true and lasting friends such men make1 too1 with no circumstances of selfish import to taint the pleasure of the relationship4 ,since ,i wanted to have many black walnut trees some day1 ,i decided to plant ten bushels of black walnuts in rows4 ,i thought ,i could later graft these myself and save expense4 ,the theory was all right but when ,i came to practice it1 ,i found ,i had not taken squirrels into consideration4 ,these bushy-tailed rats dug up one complete bed which contained two bushels of nuts and reburied them in haphazard places around the farm4 ,when the nuts started to sprout1 they came up in the fields1 in the gardens1 and on the lawn--everywhere except where ,i had intended them to be4 ,i later was grateful to those squirrels1 though1 because1 through their redistributing these nuts ,i learned a great deal about the effect of soil on black walnut trees1 even discovering that what ,i thought to be suitable was not4 ,the trees which the squirrels planted for me are now large and lend themselves to experimental grafting4 ,on them ,i have proved1 and am still proving1 new varieties of the ,english walnut4 ,the other eight bushels had been planted near a roadside and close to some farm buildings4 ,the constant human activity thereabouts probably made the squirrels less bold1 for although they carried off at least a bushel of walnuts1 about two thousand seedlings grew4 ,i had planted these too close together and as the trees developed they became so crowded that many died4 ,the remaining seedlings supplied me with root-stocks for experimental work which proved very valuable4 ,i have always suspected the squirrels of having been responsible for the fact that my first attempt to grow hickory seedlings was unsuccessful4 ,i planted a quart of these nuts and not one plant came up4 ,no doubt the squirrels dug them up as soon as ,i planted them and probably they enjoyed the flavor as much as ,i always have4 ,in #aibd ,i ordered one hundred small beechnut trees1 ,fagus ferruginea1 from the ,sturgeon ,bay ,nurseries at ,sturgeon ,bay1 ,wisconsin4 ,the company was very generous and sent me three hundred of them4 ,i planted these trees in a heavy clay soil with limestone running near the surface4 ,they grew well the first year1 except that there was heavy mortality during cold weather4 ,in working with these trees my lack of experience and horticultural knowledge was against me4 ,they could not tolerate the soil and within three years they were all dead4 ,to give variety to the landscape at my farm1 ,i planted several other kinds of trees4 ,among these were ,kentucky coffee-trees which have beautiful bronze foliage in the spring and honey locusts4 ,i planted five hundred ,douglas fir but unfortunately1 ,i put these deep in the woods among heavy timber where they were so shaded that only a few lived4 ,later1 ,i moved the surviving fir trees into an open field where they still flourish4 ,about two hundred fifty pines of mixed varieties--white1 ,norway and jack--that ,i planted in the woods1 also died4 ,i decided1 then1 that evergreens might do better if they were planted from seeds4 ,i followed instructions in ,james ,w4 ,toumey's ,seeding and ,planting in the ,practice of ,forestry1 in bed culture and spot seeding4 ,in the latter one tears off the sod in favorable places and throws seed on the unprotected ground4 ,in doing this1 ,i ignored the natural requirements of forest practice which call for half-shade during the first two to three years of growth4 ,thousands of seedlings sprouted but they all died either from disease or from attacks by cows and sheep4 ,one should never attempt to raise trees and stock in the same field4 ,because of these misfortunes1 ,i determined to study the growth of evergreens4 ,i invested in such necessary equipment as frames and lath screening4 ,better equipped with both information and material1 ,i grew thousands of evergreen trees4 ,among the varieties of pine were3 native ,white ,pine --,pinus strobus ,norway pine --,pinus silvestrus ,mugho pine --,pinus pumila montana sugar pine --,pinus ,lambertiana 7not hardy in northern ,wisconsin7 ,swiss stone --,pinus cembra 7not hardy in northern ,wisconsin7 ,italian stone --,pinus pinea 7not hardy in northern ,wisconsin7 pinon --,pinus edulis 7not hardy in northern ,wisconsin7 bull pine --,pinus ,jeffreyi 7hardy7 jack pine --,pinus banksiana 7very hardy7 limber pine --,pinus flexilis 7semi-hardy1 a fine nut pine74 ,many of the limber pines came into bearing about fifteen years after the seed was planted4 ,at that age they varied in height from three to fifteen feet4 ,one little three-foot tree had several large cones full of seed4 ,each tree varied in the quality and size of its seeds4 ,although it might be possible to graft the best varieties on young seedling stocks1 in all the hundreds of grafts ,i have made on pine1 ,i have been successful only once4 ,i doubt that such a thing would ever be practical from a commercial standpoint unless some new method were discovered by which a larger percentage of successful grafts could be realized4 ,i cultivated the ,douglas fir1 white1 ,norway1 and ,colorado blue varieties of spruce4 ,besides these1 ,i planted balsam fir1 red cedar1 ,juniperus ,virginiana1 and white cedar1 ,arborvitae4 ,practically all of these trees are still growing and many of them bear seed4 ,i wish to describe the limber pine1 ,pinus flexilis1 for it is not only a good grower and quite hardy but it is also a very ornamental nut pine which grows to be a broad1 stout-trunked tree #dj to #ge feet high4 ,the young bark is pale grey or silver2 the old bark is very dark1 in square plates4 ,the wood itself is light1 soft and close-grained1 having a color that varies from yellow to red4 ,the needles1 which are found in clusters of five1 are slender1 #a-a_/b to #c inches long1 and are dark green4 ,they are shed during the fifth or sixth year4 ,the buds of the tree are found bunched at the branch tips and are scaly and pointed4 ,the limber pine has flowers like those of the white pine1 except that they are rose-colored4 ,although the fruit is described as annual1 ,i have found that1 in this locality1 it takes about fifteen months from the time the blossoms appear for it to reach maturity4 ,that is1 the fruit requires two seasons for growth1 maturing its seeds the second ,september4 ,the cones of the limber pine1 which vary from three to seven inches in length1 are purple1 having thick rounded scales and being abruptly peaked at the apex4 ,the seeds are wingless or have only very narrow wings around them4 ,with the idea of getting practical results sooner1 since nut trees mature slowly1 ,i interplanted my nut trees with varieties of apple1 plum and cherry4 ,doing so also served to economize on ground1 since ultimately nut trees require a great deal of space for best growth4 ,walnut trees1 for example1 should be set #dj to #fj feet apart in each direction4 ,illustration3 ,pinus ,flexilus nut seeds1 ,natural ,size ,i learned a variety of facts during these first years of trial and error4 ,i discovered1 for instance1 that iron fence posts rust away in an acid soil2 that one must use cedar or oak4 ,conversely1 in alkaline soil1 iron will last indefinitely1 but that the nitrogenous bacteria will quickly rot wooden posts4 ,i found that the secret of growing hickories successfully lies in giving them plenty of room1 with no forest trees around to cut off their supply of sunlight and air4 ,i learned that it is impractical to graft a large forest tree of butternut or hickory4 ,incidental to that1 ,i learned that a branch of a butternut tree which looks large enough to support a man's weight near the trunk1 will not do so when the branch is green and alive1 but that a dead branch of similar size will4 ,contrariwise1 even a small green limb of a bitternut-hickory will bear my weight1 but an old limb1 though several inches thick1 becomes so brittle after it is dead for several years that it will break under slight pressure4 ,fortunately1 falls from trees do not usually result in serious injuries but ,i did acquire quite a few bruises learning these distinctions4 ,there is always a natural mortality in planting trees1 but in those first years1 lacking badly-needed experience1 ,i lost more than #ge4 ,nearly all of them started to grow but died during the first few winters4 ,those which survived were the start of a nursery filled with hardy trees which can endure the climate of the north4 ,in looking back1 ,i appreciate how fortunate ,i was in having sought and received advice from experienced nurserymen4 ,had ,i not done so1 frequent failures would surely have discouraged me4 ,as it was1 the successes ,i did have were an incentive which made me persist and which left me with faith enough in an ultimate success to go on buying seeds and trees and to make greater and more varied experiments4 ,chapter #c ,,black ,,walnuts ,i have spent more of my time cultivating black walnuts than any other kind of nut tree and given more of my ground area over to them4 ,yet it was with no great amount of enthusiasm that ,i started working with these trees4 ,obviously there could be nothing new or extraordinary resulting from my planting trees of this species either on my farm or at my ,st4 ,paul home1 since there already were mature1 bearing black walnut trees at both places4 ,it was only with the idea that they would be an attractive addition to the native butternut groves that ,i decided to plant some black walnut seedlings4 ,this did not prove feasible as ,i first attempted it4 ,i had engaged a ,mr4 ,miller at ,st4 ,peter to procure wild black walnut trees for me since they grew near that town4 ,he was to dig these trees with as much of the root system included as possible and ship them to my farm4 ,but the winter season came before this had been accomplished and both ,mr4 ,miller and ,i1 deciding the idea was not as practical as we had hoped it would be1 abandoned it4 ,later that same autumn ,i found that a nursery just outside of ,st4 ,paul had several rows of overgrown black walnut trees which they would sell me quite reasonably4 ,i bought them and sent instructions to the tenant at my farm to dig twenty-eight large holes in which to plant them4 ,packed in straw and burlap1 the trees weighed about #ejj pounds1 ,i found4 ,this was much too heavy and cumbersome to pack in my old touring car1 so ,i hunted around for some sort of vehicle ,i could attach to my car as a trailer4 ,in an old blacksmith shop1 ,i came upon an antiquated pair of buggy wheels4 ,they looked as though they were ready to fall apart but ,i decided that with repairs and by cautious driving1 they might last out the trip of thirty-five miles4 ,so ,i paid the blacksmith his asking price--twenty-five cents4 ,the spokes rattled and the steel tires were ready to roll off their wooden rims but the axles were strong4 ,my father-in-law and ,i puttered and pounded1 strengthened and tightened1 until we felt our semi-trailer was in good-enough order4 ,it might have been1 too1 if the roads in the country hadn't been rough and frozen so hard that they hammered on the solid1 unresisting tires and spokes until1 almost within sight of the farm1 one wheel dismally collapsed4 ,as the wheel broke1 the trailer slid off the road into a ditch1 so that it was necessary to send on to the farm for the plow horses to haul out the car1 the trailer and the trees4 ,the horses finished hauling the trees to that part of the farm where holes had been dug for them4 ,i had told my tenant to dig large holes and large holes he had certainly dug6 ,most of them were big enough to bury one of the horses in4 ,such was my amateurish first endeavor4 ,it was not until ,december of that year1 #aiai1 that the twenty-eight trees were finally planted4 ,although the ground was already somewhat frozen and the trees poorly planted as a result1 most of them started to grow in the spring4 ,they would probably be living now if ,i had not been too ambitious to convert them from seedlings into grafted varieties such as the ,ohio1 ,thomas and ,stabler1 which ,i had learned of during a winter's study of available nut-culture lore4 ,i obtained scionwood from ,j4 ,f4 ,jones1 part of which ,i put on these abused trees and the remainder of which ,i grafted on butternut trees4 ,at that time1 ,i must admit1 ,i was much more interested in trying the actual work of grafting than ,i was in developing or even conceiving a methodical plan to be worked out over a period of years4 ,in order to facilitate my grafting work that spring1 ,i pitched a tent in the woods and lived there for a week at a time1 doing my own cooking and roughing it generally4 ,cows were being pastured in this part of the woods and they were very interested in my activities4 ,if ,i were absent for a long time during the day1 on my return ,i would find that noticeable damage had been done to my tent and food supplies by these curious cows4 ,while preparing some scionwood inside the tent one day1 ,i heard a cow approaching and picked up a heavy hickory club which ,i had for protection at night1 intending to rush out and give the animal a proper lesson in minding its own business4 ,the cow approached the tent from the side opposite the door and pushed solidly against the canvas with its nose and head4 ,this so aggravated me that ,i jumped over to that part of the tent and gave the cow a hard whack over the nose with my hickory stick4 ,it jumped away fast for such a big animal4 ,this seemed to end all curiosity on the part of these cows and ,i was allowed to carry on my work in peace4 ,with beginner's luck1 ,i succeeded with many of the butternut grafts1 as well as with some of the grafts on the twenty-eight planted black walnuts4 ,however1 all of the grafted black walnut trees ultimately died with the exception of one grafted ,stabler4 ,this large tree was a monument of success for twenty years1 bearing some nuts every year and maturing them1 and in a good season1 producing bushels of them4 ,one other of these seedlings survived but as it would not accept any grafts1 ,i finally let it live as nature intended4 ,in #aiba1 ,i began ordering grafted black walnut trees1 as well as grafted hickory trees from ,j4 ,f4 ,jones1 who had the largest and best known of the nurseries handling northern nut trees4 ,some of these grafted trees were also planted at my home in ,st4 ,paul1 using the two locations as checks against each other4 ,the site in ,st4 ,paul eventually proved unsatisfactory because of the gravelly soil and because the trees were too crowded4 ,the varieties of black walnuts ,i first experimented with were the ,thomas1 ,ohio1 ,stabler and ,ten ,eyck1 which were planted by hundreds year after year4 ,if ,i had not worked on this large scale there would be no reason for me to write about it today as the mortality of these black walnuts was so high that probably none would have lived to induce in me the ambition necessary to support a plan involving lengthy1 systematic experimentation4 ,some of these early trees survive today1 however1 and although few in number1 they have shown me that the experiment was a worthy one since it laid the foundation for results which came later4 ,in fact1 ,i feel that both the time and money ,i spent during that initial era of learning were investments in which valuable dividends of knowledge and development are still being paid4 ,in grafting black walnuts on butternut trees1 ,i very foolishly attempted to work over a tree more than a foot in diameter and ,i did not succeed in getting a single graft to grow on it4 ,other younger trees1 from three to six inches in diameter1 ,i successfully grafted4 ,some of these are still living but clearly show the incompatibility of the two species when black walnut is grafted on butternut4 ,the opposite combination of butternut on black walnut is very successful and produces nuts earlier and in greater abundance than butternut does when grafted on its own species4 ,the expense of buying trees by hundreds was so great that after a year ,i decided that ,i could very easily plant black walnuts to obtain the young trees needed as understocks4 ,when they had grown large enough1 ,i would graft them over myself4 ,i wrote to my friend in ,st4 ,peter1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,e4 ,miller1 and he told me where ,i could obtain walnuts by the bushel4 ,soon ,i was making trips to the countryside around ,st4 ,peter buying walnuts from the farmers there4 ,i planted about five bushels of these at the ,river ,falls farm and the rest1 another two bushels1 at ,st4 ,paul4 ,soon ,i had several thousand young walnut trees which all proved hardy to the winters4 ,when pruning the black walnut trees purchased from ,mr4 ,jones for transplanting1 ,i saved the tops and grafted them to the young trees with a fair degree of success4 ,in a few years1 ,i was using my own trees to fill up spaces left vacant by the mortality of the ,pennsylvania-grown trees4 ,i did not neglect seeding to provide stocks of the ,eastern black walnut also1 which is almost a different species from the local black walnut1 but these seedling trees proved to be tender toward our winters and only a few survived4 ,after they had grown into large trees1 these few were grafted to ,english walnuts4 ,the difference between the ,eastern black walnut and the local native black walnut is quite apparent when the two trees are examined side by side4 ,even the type of fruit is different1 although ,i do not know of any botanical authority who will confirm my theory that they are different species4 ,they are probably to be considered as geographically distinct rather than as botanically different species4 ,for several years ,i continued to graft black walnuts on butternut trees with the intention of converting hundreds1 perhaps thousands1 of these wild trees over to prolific1 cultured black walnuts4 ,i did not realize my mistake in doing this until ten years had elapsed4 ,i believed that since the tops were growing1 the trees would shortly produce nuts4 ,today they are still growing1 bigger and better1 yet most of these grafted trees bear no nuts1 having only a crop of leaves4 ,a few nuts result from these grafts1 however1 and some of the trees bear a handful of nuts from tops of such size that one would expect the crops to be measured in bushels4 ,the kind which bore the best was the ,ohio variety4 ,in another chapter1 ,i shall relate parallel experience in hickory grafting which ,i carried on simultaneously with grafting of black walnut on butternut4 ,my first big disappointment in my black walnut orchard was when1 in about #aicj1 having a fairly good crop of nuts1 ,i unsuccessfully attempted to sell them to local stores4 ,they were not interested in anything except walnut kernels and to them1 a wild walnut kernel was the same as a cultivated one as long as it was highly-flavored4 ,this so cooled my enthusiasm and hopes for a black walnut orchard that ,i ceased experimenting with them except to try out new varieties being discovered through nut contests carried on by the ,northern ,nut ,growers' ,association4 ,the #aibf contest produced a number of black walnut possibilities1 among them being such named varieties as the ,rohwer1 ,paterson1 ,throp1 ,vandersloot1 ,pearl and ,adams4 ,the neglected and over-grown walnut seedlings now began to serve a useful purpose in grafting the new varieties which ,i obtained for testing in this locality4 ,these were propagated by obtaining scionwood from the originators of the variety and grafting it on these seedling trees4 ,my technical knowledge had increased by this time to such an extent that ,i was usually certain of one-half of the grafts growing4 ,the behavior of the ,rohwer and ,paterson in #aicg invited nursery propagation on a greater scale than did other better-known types1 because of their qualities of hardiness and earlier-ripening4 ,in the spring of #aicg1 these native seedlings were again offered to the spirit of propagation1 when a large part of the scionwood of ,english walnuts ,i had imported from the ,carpathian mountains of ,poland was grafted on them4 ,the success of my grafting in this instance was only about #a-a_/b1 showing that something was decidedly wrong4 ,two conclusions were possible3 ,either the scionwood had been injured by transportation and the severe winter temperatures during ,january and ,february of #aicg during which they were stored1 or incompatibility existed between the imported walnuts and our local ones4 ,my conclusion now is that when these stocks are fifteen years old or more and are thrifty1 they will support grafting of the ,carpathian ,english walnuts much more successfully than they will in their first decade of growth4 ,results have shown that these local stocks will accept such grafts1 however1 and that crops of ,english walnuts will be produced4 ,the fertility of the soil must be maintained carefully1 since the ,english walnut top tends to overgrow its black walnut root-stock1 and unless nutritional substance for the support of these tops is fed to the root-system1 meager crops1 if any1 will result4 ,i might note in comparison to the #a-a_/b success ,i had in this grafting1 that during the same season ,i put several hundred scions of these same ,english walnuts on the ,eastern black walnut stocks without a single successful graft occurring4 ,in #aicc and #aicd1 many of these experimentally grafted walnuts1 such as ,vandersloot1 ,paterson1 and ,rohwer as well as others1 were planted in orchard formation4 ,in digging these trees1 we took care to get all of the root possible and to take a ball of dirt with the root4 ,in spite of these precautions1 some of the trees died1 not having sufficient vitality and root development to withstand transplantation4 ,this was a result not only of the crowded condition under which the stocks had grown but also of the poor soil which had nourished them4 ,the soil was heavy blue clay underlaid with limestone within two feet of the top of the ground4 ,enough trees were set out in orchard formation which are growing well and bearing annual crops1 to give us the proof we need in drawing conclusions of superiority among these varieties4 ,black walnuts will keep for several years if they are properly dried and then stored in a cool1 but not too damp1 place4 ,storing nuts in attics which are likely to become excessively hot in the summer time1 causes rancidity sooner than any other method4 ,nuts keep very well in attics during the winter but they should be transferred to a basement during hot weather4 ,if the basement is very damp1 though1 nuts will mould there4 ,for general storage1 without having to move them from one place to another for different seasons1 nuts can be kept most practically in a barn or outside shed4 ,the only precaution necessary under such circumstances is that they should be in a box or steel barrel to prevent squirrels and mice from feeding on them1 since barns and sheds are easily accessible to these animals4 ,the kernels of black walnuts need not be discolored if the hulls of the fresh nuts are removed as soon as the nuts are ripe4 ,at my farm1 we have done this with an ordinary corn-sheller4 ,the nuts1 having been hulled this way1 are then soaked in water for a few hours to remove any excess coloring matter left on their shells1 after which they are dried for several days out-of-doors1 although not exposed to the sun since this might cause them to crack open4 ,thorough drying is necessary before sacking to prevent moulding4 ,kernels extracted from nuts treated this way are very light in color like ,english walnuts4 ,this enhances their market value and they command a higher price when they are to be used for culinary purposes such as cake frosting and candies where there is exposure of large pieces or halves of the nut kernel4 ,i find black walnuts are exceptionally delicious when used in a candy called divinity fudge4 ,the strong flavor of the black walnut kernel although appreciated by many people1 is not as popular as that of the butternut1 of which more is said in another chapter4 ,the food value of black walnut kernels is high since they are composed of concentrated fat and protein1 similar to the ,english walnut1 the hickory nut and the pecan4 ,there is also the advantage1 which ,john ,harvey ,kellogg of ,battle ,creek1 ,michigan1 has pointed out1 that nuts are a food of high purity being entirely free from disease bacteria4 ,one could safely say of unshelled nuts that there is not a disease germ in a carload4 ,there was a time when black walnut hulls were purchased by producers of insecticides4 ,the black walnut hull1 when dried and pulverized1 produces a substance which gives body to the concentrated pyrethrum extract which is the essential ingredient of many insecticides4 ,one cannot leave a discussion of black walnuts without reflecting on the furniture which has been possible only through the use of vast forests of black walnut timber4 ,beautiful veneers have come from the burl walnut1 being formed by protuberances on the trunks of the trees near the surface of the ground4 ,there is a variety of black walnut which we have been experimenting with for quite a few years1 called the ,lamb1 which has a beautifully figured grain4 ,as this appears only in mature timber1 ours is not yet old enough to show it4 ,i have found that the ,ohio black walnut is prone to hybridize with butternut trees in its vicinity and others have told me of its hybridizing with ,english walnut trees near it1 which shows it to be almost as vacillating in character as our ,japanese walnuts or heartnuts4 ,ohio black walnuts1 when planted1 usually produce vigorous stocks1 many of which show hybridity of some sort4 ,if one examines the nuts of the ,ohio and finds them dwarfed or deformed1 he may be sure that they have been pollinized by something other than a black walnut4 ,planting such nuts1 then1 will grow hybrid trees4 ,most of us have enough curiosity to want to try this as an experiment4 ,thomas walnut seedlings have produced more thrifty trees than ,ohio nuts have4 ,however1 the best understocks are those produced from seeds of native grown trees4 ,it is well understood that rarely does a specific type such as the ,ohio1 ,thomas or ,stabler reproduce itself exactly from seeds4 ,in raising black walnut seedlings1 my experience has taught me that the nuts should be planted in the fall and not too deep1 one to two inches below the surface being all the depth necessary4 ,they may never sprout if they are four to six inches under ground4 ,the black walnut tree is a glutton for food seemingly1 it will use all the fertilizer that it is given although1 no doubt1 there is a practical limit4 ,it must have plenty of food to produce successive crops of nuts1 and barnyard manure is the safest and most practical kind to use4 ,this can be put on as a heavy mulch around the trees but some of it should also be spaded into the ground4 ,one must always remember that the feeding roots of a tree are at about the same circumference as the tips of the branches so that fertilizer put close to the trunk will do little good except in very young trees4 ,since #aicf we have been watching a small native walnut which came into bearing while in a nursery row4 ,this tree bore such fine thin-shelled easy-to-crack nuts and lent itself so readily to being propagated by graftage and had so many other good characteristics that we have selected it as representative of the black walnut varieties for the north and have named it the ,weschcke walnut and patented the variety4 ,a list is here appended to show the order of hardiness and value based on our experience3 #a--,weschcke--very hardy--excellent cracking and flavor #b--,paterson--very hardy--excellent cracking and flavor 7originating in ,iowa7 #c--,rohwer--very hardy--good cracker 7originating in ,iowa7 #d--;,bayfield--very hardy--good cracker 7originating in ,northern ,wisconsin7 #e--;,adams 7,iowa7--fairly hardy--good cracker #f--,ohio--semi-hardy1 excellent cracking and flavor 7parent tree in ,ohio7 #g--,northwestern--a new1 good hardy nut #h--,pearl--semi-hardy--good 7from ,iowa7 #i--,vandersloot--semi-hardy--very large #aj--,thomas--tender to our winters--otherwise very good 7from ,pennsylvania7 #aa--,stabler--tender--many nuts single-lobed #ab--,throp--tender1 many nuts single-lobed ,a friend of mine1 who lives in ,mason1 ,wisconsin1 discovered a black walnut tree growing in that vicinity4 ,since ,mason is in the northern part of the state1 about #dg deg4 parallel north1 this tree grows the farthest north of any large black walnut ,i know of4 ,i would estimate its height at about sixty-five feet and its trunk diameter at about sixteen inches at breast-height4 ,because of the short growing season there1 the nuts do not mature1 being barely edible1 due to their shrinkage while drying4 ,some seasons this failure to mature nuts also occurs in such varieties as the ,thomas1 the ,ohio and even the ,stabler at my ,river ,falls farm1 which is nearly #aej miles south of ,mason4 ,such nuts will sprout1 however1 and seedlings were raised from the immature nuts of this northern tree4 ,incidentally these seedlings appear to be just as hardy in wood growth as their parent tree4 ,i have also grafted scionwood from the original tree on black walnut stocks at my farm in order to determine more completely the quality of this variety4 ,since grafted1 these trees have borne large1 easy to crack mature nuts and are propagated under the varietal name 7,bayfield7 since the parent tree is in sight of ,lake ,superior at ,bayfield1 ,wisconsin4 ,many of our best nut trees1 from man's point of view1 have inherent faults such as the inability of the staminate bloom of the ,weschcke hickory to produce any pollen whatsoever1 as has been scientifically outlined in the treatise by ,dr4 ,mc,kay under the chapter on hickories4 ,in the ,weschcke walnut we have a peculiarity of a similar nature as it affects fruiting when the tree is not provided with other varieties to act as pollinators4 ,it has been quite definitely established1 by observation over a period of ten or more years1 that the pollen of the ,weschcke variety black walnut does not cause fruiting in its own pistillate blooms4 ,although this is not uncommon among some plants1 such as the chestnut and the filbert where it is generally the rule instead of the exception1 yet in the black walnuts species the pollen from its own male 7or staminate7 flowers is generally capable of exciting the ovule of the female 7pistillate7 flower into growth4 ,such species are known as self-fertile4 ,as in the case of ordinary chestnuts which receive no cross pollination1 and the pistillate flowers develop into perfect burrs with shrunken meatless1 imperfect nuts1 the ,weschcke black walnut1 when standing alone or when the prevailing winds prevent other nearby pollen from reaching any or but few of its pistillate bloom1 goes on to produce fine looking average-sized nuts practically all of which are without seed or kernels4 ,such therefore is the importance of knowing the correct pollinators for each variety of nut tree4 ,in the self-sterility of filberts the failure of self-pollination results in an absence of nuts or in very few rather than a full crop of seedless fruits such as the common chestnut and the ,weschcke black walnuts produces4 ,this is the only black walnut that has come to the author's attention where its pollen acting on its pistillate bloom has affected the production of nuts in just this way but the variety of black walnut known as the ,ohio1 one of the best sorts for this northern climate except for hardiness1 has often demonstrated that it has a peculiarity which might be caused by lack of outside pollen or because of the action of its own pollen on its pistillate bloom4 ,this peculiarity is the often found one-sided development of the ,ohio walnut kernel when the tree is isolated from other pollen bearing black walnuts4 ,one lobe of the kernel is therefore full-meated while the other half or lobe is very undernourished or it may be a thin wisp of a kernel as is the appearance of the ,weschcke variety in similar circumstances4 ,illustration3 ,stabler variety of ,black ,walnut grafted on a ,minnesota seedling stock bore many years but was winter killed4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke ,cutting scionwood early one spring1 ,i noticed that the sap was running very fast in the grafted ,stabler tree previously referred to4 ,later when ,i came back to inspect this tree1 ,i noticed that the sap had congealed to syrupy blobs at the ends of the cut branches4 ,my curiosity led me to taste this and ,i found it very sweet and heavy4 ,i mean to experiment some time in making syrup from the sap of this tree as ,i believe its sugar content to be much higher than that of the local sugar maple4 ,this makes the ,stabler a #c-purpose tree1 the first being its nuts1 the second being the syrup1 and the third being1 at the end of its potentially long life1 a good-sized piece of timber of exceptionally high value4 ,the tree is one of beauty1 having drooping foliage similar to that of the weeping willow4 ,this is another point in its favor1 its being an ornamental tree worthy of any lawn4 ,however1 the ,stabler is now considered as a tender variety and is not recommended for northern planting4 ,illustration3 ,stabler graft on old seedling grafted in ,may1 #aich bearing in ,august of the same year4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke ,illustration3 ,cut ,leaf ,black ,walnut4 ,scions furnished by ,harry ,weber of ,cincinnati1 ,ohio4 ,variety was hardy on ,minnesota seedling for about #e years4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke ,the aesthetic value of the black walnut does not cease here since there are some varieties which are exceptionally attractive4 ,one of these is the cut-leaf black walnut which has the ordinary compound leaf but whose individual leaflets are so scalloped and serrated that they resemble a male fern4 ,everyone who has seen one of these has evinced pleasurable surprise at this new form of leaf and it may become very popular with horticulturists in the future4 ,another interestingly different variety is the ,deming ,purple walnut which1 although orthodox in leaf form1 has a purplish tint1 bordering on red in some cases1 coloring leaf1 wood and nuts1 resulting in a distinctly decorative tree4 ,this tree was named for ,dr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,deming who was the founder of the ,northern ,nut ,growers' ,association4 ,neither the ,laceleaf nor ,deming ,purple are hardy for this climate but survived several years nevertheless before succumbing to one of our periodical test winters4 ,chapter #d ,,hazels ,,and ,,filberts ,in ,october #aiba1 ,i ordered from ,j4 ,f4 ,jones1 one hundred plants of what is known as the ,rush hazel which was1 at that time1 the best known of the propagated hazels4 ,in ordering these1 ,i mentioned the fact that ,i expected to get layered plants or grafted ones4 ,mr4 ,jones wrote me at once to say that the plants he had were seedlings of the ,rush hazel which are said to come very true to seed1 but that if ,i did not want them as seedlings he would cancel the order4 ,rather than lacking a profitable filler between the orchard trees1 ,i accepted the order of one hundred plants and received from him a fine lot of hazels which took good root and began to grow luxuriantly4 ,it was several years before any of them began to bear and when one or two did1 the nuts were not hazels at all1 but filberts and hybrids4 ,in most cases these nuts were larger and better than those of the original ,rush hazel4 ,one of these seedlings grew into a bushy tree ten or twelve feet high4 ,for several years it bore a crop which1 though meager1 was composed of large1 attractive nuts shaped like those of the common ,american hazel but very unlike the true ,rush hazelnut4 ,one year this tree began to fail and ,i tried to save it or propagate it by layering and sprouting seeds4 ,unfortunately it did not occur to me at that time to graft it to a wild hazel to perpetuate it4 ,i still lament my oversight as the tree finally died and a very hardy plant was lost which was apparently able to fertilize its own blossoms4 ,i ordered four ,winkler hazel bushes from ,snyder ,bros4 of ,center ,point1 ,iowa1 in ,march #aibg1 asking them to send me plants that were extra strong and of bearing size4 ,i planted these that spring but the following summer was so dry that all four died4 ,i ordered twelve more ,winklers in ,september for spring delivery1 requesting smaller ones this time 7two to three feet74 ,half of these were shipped to me with bare roots1 the others being balled in dirt for experimental purposes4 ,four of the latter are still living and producing nuts4 ,in ,april #aibh1 ,i planted a dozen ,jones hybrid hazels but only two of them survived more than two years4 ,i think the reason they lasted as well as they did was that around each plant ,i put a guard made of laths four feet high1 bound together with wire and filled with forest leaves4 ,i drove the laths several inches into the ground and covered them with window screening fastened down with tacks to keep mice out of the leaves4 ,although somewhat winter-killed1 most of the plants lived during the first winter these guards were used4 ,the second winter1 more plants died1 and ,i didn't use the guards after that4 ,the two ,jones hybrids that lived produced flowers of both sexes for several years but they did not set any nuts4 ,one day while reading a report of one of the previous conventions of the ,northern ,nut ,growers' ,association1 ,i discovered an article by ,conrad ,vollertsen in which he stressed the importance of training filberts into a single truncated plant1 allowing no root sprouts or suckers to spring up since such a condition prevents the bearing of nuts4 ,i followed his advice with my two ,jones hybrids and removed all surplus sprouts4 ,this resulted in more abundant flowers and some abortive involucres but still no nuts developed4 ,in the spring of #aidj1 ,i systematically fertilized numerous pistillate flowers of these plants with a pollen mixture4 ,on the branches so treated1 a fairly good crop of nuts similar to those of the orthodox ,jones hybrid appeared4 ,i had cut off a few branches from the ,jones hybrids when ,i received them and grafted these to wild hazels4 ,this had been suggested by ,robert ,morris in his book1 ,nut ,growing1 as an interesting experiment which might prove to be practical4 ,it did not prove to be so for me for although the grafting itself was successful ,i found it tiresome to prune1 repeatedly1 the suckers which constantly spring up during the growing period and which are detrimental to grafts4 ,although they lived for five years1 these grafts suffered a great deal of winter-injury and they never bore nuts4 ,the one which lived for the longest time became quite large and overgrew the stock of the wild hazel4 ,this same plant produced both staminate and pistillate blossoms very abundantly for several seasons but it did not set any nuts in spite of the many wild hazels growing nearby which gave it access to pollen4 ,it is now known that this hybrid is self-sterile and must have pollinators of the right variety in order to bear4 ,my next work with members of the genus ,corylus was discouraging4 ,in ,april #aibi1 ,i bought one hundred hazel and filbert plants from ,conrad ,vollertsen of ,rochester1 ,new ,york1 which included specimens of the ,rush hazel and of the following varieties of filberts3 ,italian ,red ,merribrook ,kentish ,cob ,early ,globe ,zellernuts ,white ,lambert ,althaldensleben ,medium ,long ,bony ,bush ,large ,globe ,minnas ,zeller ,marveille de ,bollwyller ,although many of these filberts bore nuts the first year they were planted1 within two years they were all completely winter-killed4 ,in #aicb1 ,i received ten filbert bushes from ,j4 ,u4 ,gellatly of ,west ,bank1 ,british ,columbia4 ,these consisted of several varieties of ,glover's best introductions and some ,pearson seedlings4 ,i planted them on the south side of a high stone wall1 a favorable location for semi-hardy plants4 ,they appeared to be thrifty and only slightly winter-killed during the first two years but by #aici1 all but two of the bushes had died or were dying4 ,although as nut-bearing plants they have been of little value to me1 their pollen has been of great service4 ,i found an unusually fine wild hazel growing in the woods on my farm and in #aicd1 ,i began an experiment in hybridizing it4 ,i crossed the pistillate flowers of the native hazel with pollen from a ,gellatly filbert and obtained four hybrid plants1 which ,i have called hazilberts4 ,in the spring of #aidj1 three of these hybrids had pistillate flowers but no staminate blooms4 ,as ,i was very eager to see what the new crosses would be like1 ,i fertilized the blossoms with a gunshot mixture of pollen from other plants such as the ,winkler hazel1 the ,european filbert and the ,jones hybrid hazel4 ,certain difficulties arose in making these hybrids1 mainly due to the curiosity of the squirrels who liked to rip open the sacks covering the blossoms which were being treated4 ,deer mice1 too1 ,i found1 have a habit of climbing the stems of hazel bushes and gnawing at the nuts long before they are mature enough to use for seed4 ,later ,i learned to protect hybrid nuts by lacing flat pieces of window screening over each branch1 thus making a mouse-proof enclosure4 ,even after gathering the nuts ,i discovered that precautions were necessary to prevent rodents from reaching them4 ,the best way ,i found to do this is to plant nuts in cages of galvanized hardware cloth of #b by #b mesh1 countersunk in the ground one foot and covered completely by a frame of the same material reinforced with boards and laths4 ,the most interesting hazilbert that has developed bears nuts of outstanding size1 typically filberts in every detail of appearance1 although the plant itself looks more like a hazel1 being bushy and having many suckers4 ,after more testing1 this hybrid may prove to be a definite asset to nursery culture in our cold northern climate1 fulfilling as it does1 all the requirements for such a plant4 ,the second hazilbert resembles the first closely except that its nuts1 which are also large1 are shaped like those of ,corylus ,americana4 ,the third hazilbert has smaller nuts but its shell is much thinner than that of either of the others4 ,in reference to the hazilberts1 ,i am reminded of certain correspondence ,i once had with ,j4 ,f4 ,jones4 ,he had sent me samples of the ,rush hazel and although ,i was impressed by them1 ,i mentioned in replying to him that we had wild hazels growing in our pasture which were as large or larger than the ,rush hazelnuts4 ,i admitted that ours were usually very much infested with the hazel weevil4 ,mr4 ,jones was immediately interested in wild hazels of such size and asked me to send him samples of them4 ,he wrote that he had never seen wild hazels with worms in them and would like to learn more about them4 ,i sent him both good and wormy nuts from the wild hazel bush to which ,i had referred4 ,he was so impressed by them that he wished me to dig up the plant and ship it to him1 writing that he wished to cross it with filbert pollen as an experiment4 ,i sent it as he asked but before he was able to make the cross he intended1 his death occurred4 ,several years later1 his daughter ,mildred wrote to me about this hazel bush1 asking if ,i knew where her father had planted it4 ,unfortunately ,i could give her no information about where1 among his many experiments1 this bush would be1 so that the plant was lost sight of for a time4 ,later ,miss ,jones sent me nuts from a bush which she thought might be the one ,i had sent4 ,i was glad to be able to identify those nuts as being1 indeed1 from that bush4 ,in the spring of #aici1 ,i crossed the ,winkler hazel with filbert pollen2 the ,european hazel with ,winkler pollen2 the ,gellatly filbert with ,jones hybrid pollen4 ,these crosses produced many plants which will be new and interesting types to watch and build from4 ,i have already made certain discoveries about them4 ,by close examination of about forty plants1 ,i have been able to determine that at least five are definitely hybrids by the color1 shape and size of their buds4 ,this is a very strong indication of hybridity with wild hazel or ,winkler4 ,on one of these plants1 about one-foot high1 ,i found staminate bloom which ,i consider unusual after only two seasons' growth4 ,during the fall of #aida1 ,i became interested in a phenomenon of fruit determination previous to actual fructification of the plant by detailed examinations of its buds4 ,i noticed1 for instance1 that large buds generally meant that the plant would produce large nuts and small buds indicated small nuts to come4 ,the color of the buds1 whether they were green1 bronze green or reddish brown1 could be fairly well depended upon to indicate their hybridity in many cases4 ,these tests were not wholly reliable but the percentage of indication was so high that ,i was tempted to make predictions4 ,at that time1 hazilbert ,no4 #a had not borne nuts4 ,the bush resembled a wild hazel so much that ,i had begun to doubt its hybridity4 ,upon examining its buds1 ,i found indications in their color that it was a hybrid1 although the nuts apparently would not be large4 ,it would be an important plant to me only if its pollen should prove to be effective on the other hazilberts4 ,at the time this was only a wishful hope1 because the pollen of the wild hazel1 which this plant resembles1 apparently does not act to excite the ovules of either filberts or filbert hybrids with filbert characteristics4 ,pure filbert pollen seemed to be necessary4 ,in #aidb1 its pollen did prove to be acceptable to the other hazilberts and my hope for a good pollinizer was realized in it4 ,from the conclusions ,i reached through my study of the buds1 ,i made sketches of which ,i believed the nuts of ,no4 #a would be like in size and shape4 ,in ,march #aidb1 these sketches were used as the basis of the drawing given here4 ,a comparison of this drawing with the photograph taken in ,september #aidb1 of the actual nuts of hazilbert ,no4 #a show how accurate such a predetermination can be4 ,i am convinced from the work ,i have done and am still doing1 that we are developing several varieties of hazilberts as hardy and adaptable to different soils as the pasture hazel is1 yet having the thin shell and the size of a ,european filbert4 ,as to the quality of the kernel of such a nut1 that of the wild hazel is as delicious as anyone could desire4 ,illustration3 #c_/d ,natural size ,filberts ,illustration3 #c_/d ,natural size ,hazilberts and ,winkler ,hazel ,illustration3 #ca_/cb of actual size ,hazilberts4 ,left to right3 ,no4 #c1 ,no4 #e1 ,no4 #d1 ,no4 #b ,illustration3 ,no4 #a ,hazilbert about #i_/ae_/db4 ,note almost identical size and shape of this actual photograph of ,no4 #a compared to predetermined size and shape in drawing made almost one year previous to photograph4 ,plant had not produced any nuts prior to crop of #aidb ,chapter #e ,,hazels ,,and_/,,or ,,filberts ,there is a certain amount of confusion in the minds of many people regarding the difference between filberts and hazels1 both of which belong to the genus ,corylus4 ,some think them identical and call them all hazels dividing them only into ,european and ,american types4 ,i see no reason for doing this4 ,filbert is the name of one species of genus ,corylus just as ,english walnut is the commercial name of one of the members of the ,juglans family4 ,there is as much difference between a well-developed filbert and a common wild hazelnut as there is between a cultivated ,english walnut and wild black walnut4 ,for ordinary purposes the nuts sold commercially1 whether imported or grown in this country1 are called filberts while those nuts which may be found growing prolifically in woodlands and pastures over almost the whole ,united ,states but which are not to be found on the market are called hazelnuts4 ,this lack of commercialization of hazelnuts should be recognized as due to the smallness of the nut and the thickness of its shell rather than to its lacking flavor4 ,its flavor1 which seldom varies much regardless of size1 shape or thickness of shell1 is both rich and nutty4 ,the three main food components of the hazelnut1 carbohydrate1 protein and oil1 are balanced so well that they approach nearer than most other nuts the ideal food make-up essential to man4 ,the ,english walnut contains much oil and protein while both chestnuts and acorns consist largely of carbohydrates4 ,one salient feature which definitely separates the species ,corylus ,americana or wild hazel1 from others of its genus1 is its resistance to hazel blight1 a native fungus disease of which it is the host4 ,controversies may occur over the application of the names hazel and filbert but there is no dispute about the effect of this infection on members of genus ,corylus imported from ,europe4 ,although there is wide variety in appearance and quality within each of the species1 especially among the ,european filberts1 and although filberts may resemble hazels sufficiently to confuse even a horticulturist1 the action of this fungus is so specific that it divides ,corylus definitely into two species4 ,corylus ,americana and ,corylus cornuta1 through long association1 have become comparatively immune to its effects and quickly wall off infected areas while filbert plants are soon killed by contact with it4 ,hybrids between filberts and hazels will usually be found to retain some of the resistance of the hazel parent4 ,the ideal nut of genus ,corylus should combine qualities of both hazels and filberts4 ,such a hybrid should have the bushy characteristics of the ,american hazel with its blight-resisting properties and its ability to reproduce itself by stolons or sucker-growth4 ,it should bear fruit having the size1 general shape1 cracking qualities and good flavor of the filbert as popularly known4 ,the hybrids ,i am growing at my farm1 which ,i call hazilberts and which are discussed later1 seem to fulfill these requirements4 ,the plants may be grown as bushes or small trees4 ,they are blight-resistant and their nuts are like filberts in appearance4 ,three varieties of these hazilberts have ivory-colored kernels which are practically free of pellicle or fibre4 ,they have a good flavor4 ,a comparison of the ripening habits and the effect of frost on the various members of the genus ,corylus growing in my nursery in the fall of #aidj1 is shown by these extracts taken from daily records of the work done there4 ,it should be noted that the summer season that year was rainy and not as hot as usual1 so that most nuts ripened two to three weeks later than they normally do4 ,september #g and #h3 ,wild hazels ripe and picked at this time4 7,their kernels showed no shrinkage by ,october #be47 ,september #ad and #ae3 ,i picked ripe nuts from hazilbert ,no4 #e which seems to be the first to ripen4 ,also picked half of the ,european filberts4 7,there was slight shrinkage in the kernels of the latter a few weeks later showing that they could have stayed on the trees another week to advantage47 ,all of the nuts of a ,jones hybrid1 which is a cross between ,rush and some ,european variety such as ,italian ,red1 could have been picked as they were ripe4 ,some were picked4 ,the almond-shaped filbert classified as the ,white ,aveline type1 was not quite ripe2 neither were hazilberts ,no4 #b and ,no4 #d1 nor the ,gellatly filberts4 ,wild hazelnuts at this time had dry husks and were falling off the bushes or being cut down by mice4 ,september #ba and #bb3 ,the remaining ,european filberts of the imported plants were picked4 ,also1 ,i picked half of the ,white ,aveline type nuts4 ,illustration3 ,carlola ,hazilberts ,no4 #e1 about #h_/aj_/db4 ,this is the earliest ripening and thinnest shell of the large type hazilberts1 not the largest size however4 ,carlola ,weschcke shown in picture4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke ,september #bh and #bi3 ,we picked most of the nuts remaining on hazilbert ,no4 #e and the remainder of the ,white ,aveline type4 ,at this time we record a heavy frost which occurred during the previous week1 that is1 between ,september #bb and #bhth4 ,since it froze water it was considered a killing frost4 ,however1 the damage was spotty all over the orchard1 most things continuing to develop and ripen4 ,winkler hazels picked and examined at this time showed them far from ripe4 ,hazilberts growing next to limestone walls on the south side showed no signs of frost damage whereas the ,winkler1 on higher ground1 showed severe damage to the leaves and the husks of the nuts which immediately started to turn brown4 ,leaves of other filbert plants in the vicinity showed no frost damage and the very few nuts that had been left on1 such as those of the ,jones hybrid1 were undamaged4 ,october #e and #f3 ,picked all of hazilbert ,no4 #b except the last two nuts4 ,gellatly filberts were picked about ,october #aj and were ripe at that time4 ,october #aa to #ac3 ,two ,english walnuts were picked and found to be as ripe as they would get4 ,these as well as the black walnuts showed distinct signs of lacking summer heat needed for their proper development4 ,the last two nuts on hazilbert ,no4 #b and the only nut on hazilbert ,no4 #d were picked at this time and were ripe4 ,chestnut burrs had opened up and the nuts enclosed were fully mature4 ,october #ai and #bj3 ,i found the last of the ,winkler hazelnuts had been picked during the previous week1 approximately ,october #ad4 ,these were left the longest on the bush of any hazel and still were not ripe although they were not entirely killed by the several frosts occurring before that time4 ,they are always much later than the wild hazel4 ,on ,october #bj1 ,i had an opportunity of comparing the action of frost on the leaves of these plants4 ,those of the ,white ,aveline type had not changed color and were very green4 ,the leaves of the ,jones hybrid showed some coloration but nothing to compare with those of the ,winkler hazel1 many of which had the most beautiful colors of any of the trees on the farm--red1 orange and yellow bronze4 ,hazilbert ,no4 #a1 which resembles a wild hazel in appearance and habits of growth1 had colored much earlier in reaction to the frost and was as brightly tinted as the wild hazel and ,winkler plants except that1 like the wild hazel1 it had already lost much of its foliage4 ,some of the wild hazels were entirely devoid of leaves at this time4 ,hazilbert ,no4 #e showed the best color effects with ,no4 #d second and ,no4 #b last4 ,the color of the leaves and the action of the frost on the plants during the autumn is another thing1 in my opinion1 that helps to differentiate between and to classify ,european filberts1 ,american hazels and their hybrids4 ,my conclusion in regard to the effect of frost is that the reaction of the ,winkler hazel is very similar to that of the wild hazel in color but exceeding it in beauty since its leaves do not drop as soon after coloring4 ,at this time1 the leaves had not changed color on the imported ,european plants1 the ,gellatly filberts from ,british ,columbia or the ,white ,aveline type4 ,they had turned only slightly on the ,jones hybrid4 ,i think an accurate idea of the general hardiness of a plant is indicated by the effect of frost and by early dropping of leaves1 using the sturdy wild hazel as the limit of hardiness and assuming that its hardiness is shown by both degree of coloration and early dropping of leaves4 ,in noting the action of frost on the ,winkler hazel1 ,i have mentioned that it was more like that on the ,american hazel than on the ,european filberts4 ,the ,winkler has always been considered a native woodland hazel1 but1 although it does show several similarities to ,corylus ,americana1 ,i have also noticed certain qualities which definitely suggest some filbert heritage4 ,i have based my theory on a study of the ,winkler hazels which have been bearing annually at my farm for six years1 bearing more regularly1 in fact1 than even the wild hazels growing nearby4 ,my comparisons have been made with wild hazels in both ,minnesota and ,wisconsin and with ,european filberts4 ,i found the first point of similarity with the filbert is in the involucre covering the nut4 ,in the wild hazel1 this folds against itself to one side of the nut1 while in the filbert it is about balanced and if not already exposing a large part of the end of the nut1 is easily opened4 ,the involucre of the ,winkler hazel is formed much more like that of the filbert than that of the hazel4 ,in ,corylus ,americana this involucre is usually thick1 tough and watery1 while in the filbert it is thinner and drier1 so that while a person may be deceived in the size of a hazelnut still in its husk1 he can easily tell that of a filbert4 ,this is also true of the ,winkler whose involucre is fairly thick but outlines the form of the enclosed nut4 ,another feature about the involucre of the ,winkler which classes it with the filberts rather than the hazels is in its appearance and texture1 which is smooth and velvety while that of the hazel is hairy and wrinkled4 ,the staminate blooms of the ,winkler hazel show similarity to those of both filberts and hazels4 ,sometimes they appear in formation at the ends of branches1 much as those of the ,european filberts do1 in overlapping groups of three or four4 ,again1 they may be found at regular intervals at the axis of leaf stems very much as in the case of the ,american hazel4 ,the buds on the ,winkler hazel are dull red which is also true of those on the hybrid hazilberts1 another indication of hybridity4 ,the initial growth of the embryo nut is very slow in the ,winkler as it is in the filbert1 as contrasted with the very rapid development of the native hazel embryo which matures in this latitude about one month ahead of the ,winklers and some filberts4 ,although ,winkler nuts are shaped like hazels and have the typically thick shells of hazelnuts1 their size is more that of a filbert usually three times as large as a native hazel4 ,during the years between #aidb and #aide many new hybrids between filberts and hazels were produced4 ,four wild varieties of hazels1 which had unusual characteristics such as tremendous bearing and large size nuts and others having very early maturing or very thin shelled nuts were used as the female parents in making the crosses4 ,pollen was obtained from other parts of the ,u4 ,s4 or from filbert bushes which were growing on the place4 ,crosses included pollen of the ,barcelona1 ,duchilly1 ,red ,aveline1 ,white ,aveline1 ,purple ,aveline1 the ,italian ,red1 ,daviana and several hybrids between other filberts and hazels4 ,by #aide the number of these plants were in the neighborhood of #bjjj and by #aieb considerable knowledge had been gained as to the hardiness1 blight resistance to the common hazel blight 7known scientifically as cryptosporella anomala71 freedom from the curculio of the hazelnuts 7commonly known as the hazel weevil7 and resistance to other insect pests4 ,also1 considerable data had been accumulated by cataloging over #fej trees each year for five years2 cataloging included varied and detailed studies of their growth1 bearing habits1 ability to resist blight1 curculio and other insects1 the size of the nut1 the thinness of the shell and the flavor of the kernel4 ,several books of all this detail were accumulated in trying to nail down several commercial varieties that would be propagated from this vast amount of material4 ,although some bushes produced good nuts at the rate of as much as two tons to the acre1 measured on the basis of space that they took up in the test orchard1 the most prolific kind seemed to be the ones that had a tendency to revert to the wild hazel type4 ,the better and thinner-shelled types1 more resembling the filberts1 seemed to be shy bearers so that there being a host of new plants to catalog 7more than #ajjj7 which had not indicated their bearing characteristics1 we included these among the possible ideal plants we were seeking4 ,although there were several plants that could be considered commercial in the original group of over #fej it has been thought that the waiting of a few more years to ascertain whether there would be something better in the next #ajjj plants to bear that would be worthwhile waiting for and no attempt has been made to propagate the earlier tested plants4 ,some of these #fej tested hybrids proved to have nuts that were classed as ,giants being much larger than the filberts produced by male or pollen parent such as the ,barcelona1 ,duchilly or ,daviana1 and several times the size of the nuts of the female parent which was the wild hazel4 ,illustration3 ,wild ,wisconsin ,hazel discovered on ,hazel ,hills ,farm near ,river ,falls4 ,note size of nuts in husks as compared to woman's hand4 ,this plant became the female parent in over #a1jjj crosses by pollen furnished from male blooms of ,duchilly1 ,barcelona1 ,italian ,red1 ,white1 ,red1 and ,purple ,aveline and many other well known filberts4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke ,chapter #f ,,pecans ,,and ,,their ,,hybrids ,at the same time1 ,october #aibd1 that ,i purchased ,beaver hickory trees from ,j4 ,f4 ,jones1 ,i also procured from him three specimens each of three commercial varieties of pecan trees1 the ,posey1 ,indiana and ,niblack1 as well as some hiccan trees1 i4e41 hybrids having pecan and hickory parents4 ,only one tree survived1 a ,niblack pecan1 which1 after sixteen years1 was only about eighteen inches in height4 ,its annual growth was very slight and it was killed back during the winter almost the full amount of the year's growth4 ,in the #agth year this tree was dead4 ,in ,september #aibe1 at a convention of the ,northern ,nut ,growers' ,association in ,st4 ,louis1 ,missouri1 ,i became acquainted with a man whose experience in the nut-growing industry was wide and who knew a great deal about the types of hickory and pecan trees in ,iowa4 ,he was ,s4 ,w4 ,snyder of ,center ,point1 ,iowa4 7,he later became president of the ,association47 ,in one of his letters to me the following summer1 ,mr4 ,snyder mentioned that there were wild pecan trees growing near ,des ,moines and ,burlington4 ,i decided ,i wanted to know more about them and at my request1 he collected ten pounds of the nuts for me4 ,i found they were the long type of pecan1 small1 but surprisingly thin-shelled and having a kernel of very high quality4 ,i first planted these nuts in an open garden in ,st4 ,paul1 but after a year ,i moved them to my farm1 where ,i set them out in nursery rows in an open field4 ,the soil there was a poor grade of clay1 not really suited to nut trees1 but even so1 most of the ones still remaining there have made reasonably good growth4 ,i used a commercial fertilizing compound around about half of these seedlings which greatly increased their rate of growth1 although they became less hardy than the unfertilized ones4 ,after five years1 ,i transplanted a number of them to better soil1 in orchard formation4 ,although ,i have only about fifty of the original three hundred seedlings1 having lost the others mainly during droughts1 these remaining ones have done very well4 ,some of these trees have been bearing small crops of nuts during the years #aidg to date4 ,the most mature nuts of these were planted and to date ,i have #ag second generation pure pecan trees to testify as to the ability of the northern pecan to become acclimated4 ,i gave several of the original seedlings to friends who planted them in their gardens1 where rich soil has stimulated them to grow at twice the rate of those on my farm4 ,there were four individual pecan trees growing in or near ,st4 ,paul from my first planting1 the largest being about #be feet high with a caliber of five inches a foot above ground4 ,although this tree did not bear nuts ,i have used it as a source of scionwood for several years4 ,these graftings1 made on bitternut hickory stock1 have been so successful that ,i am continuing their propagation at my nursery1 having named this variety the ,hope pecan1 for ,joseph ,n4 ,hope1 the man who owns the parent tree and who takes such an interest in it4 ,illustration3 ,shows the use of a zinc metal tag fastened by #af or #ah gauge copper wire to branch of tree4 ,by the year #aiej the tree had such a straggly appearance1 although still healthy and growing but being too shaded by large trees on the boulevard1 that ,mr4 ,hope caused it to be cut down4 ,the variety is still growing at my farm1 grafted on bitternut stocks and although blossoming it has never produced a nut up to this time4 ,another tree given to ,joseph ,posch of the city of ,st4 ,paul1 ,minnesota1 had made even better growth and was luxuriantly healthy and in bloom when it was cut down by the owner because the branches overhung the fence line into a neighbor's yard4 ,this was done in about #aiej4 ,another tree given to ,mrs4 ,wm4 ,eldridge of ,st4 ,paul still flourishes and is quite large 7in #aieb at breast height1 #f inches in diameter7 but being in a dense shade1 it has not borne any nuts4 ,the fourth tree1 given to ,john ,e4 ,straus1 the famous skate maker1 presumably exists at his lake residence north of ,st4 ,paul4 ,i have not seen it in the last seven or eight years4 ,although they are not as hardy as bitternut stocks1 ,i have found the wild ,iowa pecan seedlings satisfactory for grafting after five years' growth4 ,i use them as an understock for grafting the ,posey1 ,indiana and ,major varieties of northern pecan and find them preferable to northern bitternut stocks with which the pecans are not compatible for long1 as a rule1 such a union resulting in a stunted tree which is easily winter-killed4 ,although the ,posey continued to live for several years our severe winters finally put an end to all these fine pecans4 ,the root system of the seedling understock continued to live1 however4 ,i chanced to discover an interesting thing in the fall of #aida which suggests something new in pecan propagation4 ,there were two small pecans growing in the same rows as the large ones planted fifteen years previously4 ,when ,i noticed them1 ,i thought they were some of this same planting and that they had been injured or frozen back to such an extent that they were mere sprouts again1 for this has happened4 ,i decided to move them and asked one of the men on the farm to dig them up4 ,when he had dug the first1 ,i was surprised to find that this was a sprout from the main tap root of a large pecan tree which had been taken out and transplanted4 ,the same was true of the second one1 except that in this case we found three tap roots1 the two outside ones both having shoots which were showing above the ground4 ,another remarkable circumstance about this was that these tap roots had been cut off twenty inches below the surface of the ground and the sprouts had to come all that distance to start new trees4 ,all of this suggests the possibility of pecan propagation by root cuttings4 ,these two pecans1 at least1 show a natural tendency to do this and ,i have marked them for further experimentation along such lines4 ,on the advice of the late ,harry ,weber of ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 an eminent nut culturist1 who1 after visiting my nursery in #aich1 became very anxious to try out some of the ,indiana varieties of pecans in our northern climate1 ,i wrote to ,j4 ,ford ,wilkinson1 a noted propagator of nut trees at ,rockport1 ,indiana1 suggesting that he make some experimental graftings at my farm4 ,both ,mr4 ,wilkinson and ,mr4 ,weber gathered scionwood from all the black walnut1 pecan1 hiccan and hickory trees at their disposal1 for this trial4 ,there was enough of it to keep three of us busy for a week grafting it on large trees4 ,our equipment was carried on a two-wheeled trailer attached to a ,diesel-powered tractor1 and we were saved the trouble of having to carry personally1 scions1 packing material1 wax pots1 knives1 pruning shears1 tying material1 canvas and ladders into the woods4 ,mr4 ,wilkinson remarked1 on starting out1 that in the interests of experimental grafting1 he had travelled on foot1 on horseback1 by mule team and in rowboats1 but that this was his first experience with a tractor4 ,when he saw the type of grafting with which ,i had been getting good results1 ,mr4 ,wilkinson was astounded4 ,he declared that using a side-slot graft in the ,south resulted in #ajj failure1 while ,i had more than #ej success with it4 ,he was willing to discard his type of grafting for mine1 which was adequate for the work we were doing1 but ,i wanted to check his grafting performance and urged him to continue with his own 7an adaptation of the bark-slot graft to the end of a cut-off stub74 ,we both used paper sacks to shade our grafts4 ,although results proved that my methods averaged a slightly higher percentage of successful graftings in this latitude and for the type of work we were doing1 his would nonetheless be superior in working over trees larger than four inches in diameter and having no lateral branches up to eight feet above ground1 at which height it is most convenient to cut off a large hickory preparatory to working on it4 ,in the late fall of that year1 we cut scionwood of the season's growth and inverted large burlap bags stuffed with leaves over the grafts1 the bags braced on the inside by laths to prevent their collapsing on the grafts4 ,so we have perpetuated the following varieties3 ,hickories3 ,cedar ,rapids1 ,taylor1 ,barnes1 ,fairbanks4 ,hiccans3 ,mc,alester1 ,bixby1 ,des ,moines1 ,rockville1 ,burlington1 ,green ,bay4 ,the ,major and ,posey pure pecans being incompatible on bitternut hickory roots were grafted on pecan stocks1 but they proved to be tender to our winters and the varieties were finally lost4 ,illustration3 ,largest planted pecan in ,world having a record4 ,about #ag ft4 circumference breast height1 #abe ft4 spread and #abe ft4 height4 ,very small worthless pecans4 ,easton1 ,maryland4 ,photo by ,reed #aibg ,other experiments ,i have made with pecans include an attempt to grow ,southern pecans from seed1 but they seem to be no more hardy than an orange tree would be4 ,it is certain that they are not at all suited to the climate of the #deth parallel4 ,in #aich1 ,i received from ,dr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,deming of ,connecticut1 some very good nuts from a large pecan tree at ,hartford1 ,connecticut4 ,of the twelve pecans ,i planted1 only six sprouted1 and of these1 only one has survived up to this date and is now a small weak tree4 ,apparently1 the seedlings of this ,hartford pecan are not as hardy as those from ,iowa4 ,illustration3 ,iowa seedling ,pecans4 ,tree planted in #aibf as seed4 ,first crop ,october #bi1 #aiec4 #g_/h of actual size4 ,nuts were fully matured4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke ,of the hiccans1 hybrids between hickory and pecan1 there are several varieties1 as ,i mentioned before4 ,of these1 the ,mc,alester is the most outstanding1 its nuts measuring over three inches in circumference and about three inches long4 ,horticulturists believe that this hybrid is the result of a cross between a shell-bark hickory1 which produces the largest nut of any hickory growing in the ,united ,states1 and a large pecan4 ,i have experimented a number of times with the ,mc,alester and my conclusion is that it is not hardy enough to advocate its being grown in this climate4 ,there are other hiccans hardier than it is1 however1 such as the ,rockville1 ,burlington1 ,green ,bay and ,des ,moines1 and it is certain that the ,north is assured of hardy pecans and a few hardy hybrids1 which1 although they do not bear the choicest pecan nuts1 make interesting and beautiful lawn trees4 ,indeed1 as an ornamental tree1 the pecan is superior to the native hickory in two definite ways3 by its exceedingly long life1 which may often reach over #aej years as contrasted with the average hickory span of #ajj years1 and by its greater size4 ,one pecan tree ,i saw growing in ,easton1 ,maryland1 in #aibg1 for example1 was then seventeen feet in circumference at breast-height1 one hundred twenty-five feet in height and having a spread of one hundred fifty feet4 ,the wood of the pecan is similar to that of the hickory in both toughness and specific gravity1 although for practical purposes1 such as being used for tool handles1 the shagbark hickory is enough harder and tougher to make it the superior of the two4 ,i was pleasantly surprised on ,october #cj1 #aiec when a pecan seedling of the ,iowa origin1 which had not yet borne any nuts1 showed a small crop4 ,these nuts were fully matured and were of sufficient size so that they could be considered a valuable new variety of pecan nut for the ,north4 ,a plate showing a few of these pecans illustrates1 by means of a ruler1 the actual size of these pecans1 and the fact that they matured so well by ,october #cj indicates that in many seasons they may be relied upon to mature their crop4 ,no other data has been acquired on this variety and we can only be thankful that we can expect it to do a little better in size as successive crops appear1 which is the usual way of nut trees4 ,also1 by fertilizing this tree we can expect bigger nuts1 as is generally the case4 ,the shell of this pecan is so thin that it can be easily cracked with the teeth1 which ,i have done repeatedly1 and although small is thinner-shelled than any standard pecan4 ,chapter #g ,,hickory ,,the ,,king ,the acknowledged autocrat of all the native nuts is the hickory4 ,perhaps not all the experts admit this leadership but it is certainly the opinion held by most people4 ,of course1 when ,i speak of the hickory nut in this high regard1 ,i refer to the shagbark hickory which1 as a wild tree1 is native as far north as the #dcrd parallel in ,minnesota and ,wisconsin1 and somewhat farther in the eastern states4 ,wild hickory nuts have been commercialized only to a slight extent4 ,its crops are almost entirely consumed in the locality in which they are grown by those people who find great pleasure in spending fine autumn days gathering them4 ,the obvious reason why hickory nuts have not been made a product of commerce lies in the nut itself1 which is usually very small and which has a shell so strong and thick that the kernel can be taken out only in small pieces4 ,the toughness of the shell makes cracking difficult1 too1 and since only rarely is one found that can be broken by a hand cracker1 it is necessary to use the flatiron-and-hammer method4 ,it is quite possible1 though1 that some day the hickory will rival or exceed its near relative1 the wild pecan1 in commercial favor4 ,the wild pecans which formerly came on the market at ,christmastime in mixtures of nuts were just as difficult to extract from their shells as the wild shagbark hickory nuts are now4 ,by means of selection and cultivation1 the pecan was changed from a small1 hard-to-crack nut to that of a large thin-shelled nut whose kernel was extractable in whole halves4 ,among many thousands of wild pecan trees were a few which bore exceptionally fine nuts1 nuts similar to those now found at every grocery store and called papershell pecans4 ,these unusual nuts were propagated by grafting twigs from their parent trees on ordinary wild pecan trees whose own nuts were of less value4 ,these grafted trees were set out in orchards where they produce the millions of pounds of high-grade pecans now on the market4 ,the question which naturally occurs is1 ,why hasn't this been done with hickory nuts8 ,hundreds of attempts have been made to do so1 by the greatest nut propagators in the ,united ,states4 ,they have been successful in grafting outstanding varieties of hickory to wild root stocks but the time involved has prevented any practical or commercial success1 since most grafted hickories require a period of growth from ten to twenty years before bearing any nuts4 ,this length of time contrasts very unfavorably with that required by grafted pecans which produce nuts on quite young trees1 frequently within three to five years after grafting4 ,this factor of slow growth has set the pecan far ahead of the tasty shagbark hickory4 ,experimenters have long thought to reduce the time required by the hickory to reach maturity by grafting it to fast-growing hickory roots such as the bitternut or the closely related pecan4 ,both of these grow rapidly and the bitternut has the additional advantage of growing farther north and of being transplanted more easily4 ,it has always been thought that when a good variety of shagbark hickory had been successfully grafted to bitternut root stocks1 orchards of hickory trees would soon appear4 ,this takes me to my discovery of the variety now known as the ,weschcke hickory1 which ,i have found fulfills the necessary conditions4 ,illustration3 ,shows exceptionally thin shell of ,weschcke hickory variety4 ,drawing by ,wm4 ,kuehn ,one fall day in #aibf1 when ,i was at the home of a neighboring farmer1 he offered me some mixed hickory nuts he had received from an uncle in ,iowa4 ,as he knew of my interest in nuts1 he wanted my opinion of them4 ,i looked them over and explained that they were no better than little nutmegs1 having very hard shells and a small proportion of inaccessible meat4 ,to demonstrate this1 ,i cracked some between hammer and flatiron4 ,my demonstration was conclusive until ,i hit one nut which almost melted under the force ,i was applying4 ,the shape of this nut was enough different from the others to enable me to pick out a handful like it from the mixture4 ,i was amazed to see how very thin-shelled and full of meat they were4 ,upon my request1 this neighbor wrote to his uncle1 ,john ,bailey1 of ,fayette1 ,iowa1 asking if he knew from which tree such fine nuts had come4 ,unfortunately he did not1 because the nuts had been gathered from quite a large area4 ,after corresponding with ,mr4 ,bailey myself1 ,i decided that ,i would go there and help him locate the tree1 although it was nearly ,christmas and heavy snowfalls which already covered the ground would make our search more difficult4 ,illustration3 ,carl ,weschcke1 ,jr41 hand holding ,weschcke hickory in hull4 #i_/ae_/db ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke ,on my arrival in ,fayette1 ,i called on ,mr4 ,bailey1 who was glad to help me hunt out the tree in which ,i had so much interest4 ,we called ,a4 ,c4 ,fobes1 the owner of the farm from which the nuts were believed to have come1 and arranged to go out there with him by bob sleigh4 ,a rough ride of six or seven miles brought us to the farm and we began our quest4 ,once there1 ,mr4 ,bailey had a more definite idea of where to look for the tree from which these particular nuts came than he had had before and we had not been at our task for more than an hour before it was located4 ,there were still quite a few nuts on the ground beneath it1 which identified it accurately4 ,it was a large shagbark whose first living branch was fully sixteen feet off the ground and1 since we had no ladder with us1 ,i had to shin up the tree to cut off some of the smaller branches4 ,this shagbark1 true to its name1 had rough bark which tore not only my clothes but some of the skin on my legs as well and whereas the climbing up was difficult1 the coming down was equally so4 ,having contracted verbally with ,mr4 ,fobes to buy the tree1 ,i packed the branches ,i had cut in cardboard boxes with straw packing and carefully brought them home to ,st4 ,paul4 ,i wrote at once to my friend1 ,j4 ,f4 ,jones1 of my expedition1 telling him of my plans to propagate this hickory4 ,i also sent him some of the nuts from the parent tree and samples of extra-good nuts from other trees growing near it so that he could give me his opinion of them4 ,mr4 ,jones responded by advising me about the kind of a contract to make with ,mr4 ,fobes in regard to both the purchasing and propagation of the original hickory tree and he urged the latter enthusiastically4 ,of the ,weschcke hickory nuts themselves1 he wrote3 ,this is practically identical with the ,glover4 ,the ,glover is usually a little larger but this varies in all nuts from year to year4 ,this is a fine nut and if it comes from ,iowa1 it ought to be propagated4 ,i suggest you keep the stock of it and propagate the tree for northern planting1 that is for ,iowa1 ,minnesota1 ,wisconsin1 etc41 where most nuts grown here would not mature4 ,a few years ago1 ,i saw the ,glover hickory nut for the first time and ,i also thought it much the same as the ,weschcke in shape1 as is also the ,brill4 ,because ,i did not know how to preserve the scions ,i had cut1 they dried out during the winter to such an extent that they were worthless for spring grafting4 ,this meant losing a whole season4 ,the next fall ,i obtained more scionwood from ,mr4 ,fobes and having kept it in good condition during the winter by storing it in a ,harrington graft box shown by illustration1 ,i was able to graft it in the spring4 ,however1 these grafts did not take hold well1 only two or three branches resulting from all of it and these did not bear nor even grow as they should have4 ,i was disappointed and discouraged1 writing to ,mr4 ,fobes that ,i did not believe the tree could be propagated4 ,illustration3 ,this drawing illustrates how to build a ,harrington graft storage box ,in the fall of #aicb1 ,mr4 ,fobes sent me a large box of scions and branches1 explaining that he had sold his farm and1 as the tree might be cut down1 this was my last opportunity to propagate it4 ,without much enthusiasm1 ,i grafted the material he had sent me on about a dozen trees1 some of them very large hickories and ,i was most agreeably surprised to find the grafting successful and more than one branch bearing nutlets4 ,these nuts dropped off during the summer until only one remained to mature1 which it did in the latter part of ,october4 ,but ,i waited too long to pick that nut and some smart squirrel1 which had probably been watching it ripen as diligently as ,i had1 secured it first4 ,i made a very thorough search of the ground nearby to find the remains of it1 for while ,i knew ,i would not get a taste of the kernel--the squirrel would take care of that--,i was interested in finding out whether it followed the exact shape and thinness of shell of the first nuts ,i had examined4 ,i finally did find part of it1 enough to see that it was similar to the nuts from the parent tree4 ,the grafts ,i made in #aicb have been bearing nuts every year since that time4 ,the ,weschcke hickory makes a tremendous growth grafted on bitternut hickory 7,carya ,cordiformis74 ,the wood and buds are hardy to a temperature of #dg deg4 below zero ,fahrenheit1 so that wherever the wild bitternut hickory grow1 this grafted tree will survive to bear its thin-shelled nuts4 ,the nuts have a fine flavor and the unusual quality of retaining this flavor without becoming rancid1 for three years4 ,the only fault to find with them is the commercial one of being only medium in size1 so that compared to ,english walnuts1 for example1 they become unimpressive4 ,i have noticed time and again that the average person will pass over a small1 sweet nut to choose a larger one even though the latter may not have as attractive a flavor4 ,this is noticeably true in regard to pecans1 when the large paper-shell types1 which have a rather dry1 sweet kernel1 are almost invariably preferred to the smaller ones of finer flavor1 which are plump and have slightly thicker shells4 ,previous to finding the ,weschcke hickory1 ,i experimented with several varieties of hickory hybrids4 ,in ,march #aibd1 ,i purchased twelve ,beaver and twelve ,fairbanks hybrid hickories from ,j4 ,f4 ,jones4 ,i planted these trees in ,april of that year but of the lot1 only two ,beaver trees lived to bear nuts4 ,one of these is still growing on my farm1 in thin1 clay soil underlaid with limestone1 and it bears nuts annually4 ,it is only a fair-sized tree but ,i think its slow growth has protected it from the usual amount of winter damage4 ,i also ordered from ,mr4 ,jones1 in ,july #aibd1 #ab ,marquardt hiccans1 #ab ,laney1 #ab ,siers1 #cd ,beaver and #cj ,fairbanks4 ,the last four are hybrids between species of hickories4 ,out of the whole order1 amounting to one hundred trees1 none remains alive now4 ,the ,marquardt hiccan mentioned above was the subject of dispute among nut culturists for a time but it has been definitely agreed now1 that the ,marquardt was never actually propagated1 the tree having been lost or cut down before scions were taken from it4 ,substitutes were taken from the ,burlington1 a hybrid whose nut is similar to the ,marquardt and whose foliage and other attributes are thought to be like it4 ,the name of ,marquardt persisted for several years1 however1 and it has been entirely discarded only recently4 ,the ,burlington is now known to be the representative of that part of ,iowa4 ,however1 ,i grafted some of the tops of the ,marquardt trees from ,jones to bitternut trees at the time that ,i transplanted them2 several of the grafts made successful growth and resulted in several trees growing deep in the woods4 ,after #bh years these grafts are still alive and certainly have established their right to be called compatible with bitternut hickory stocks4 ,close examination of the branches1 leaves and buds1 particularly the leaf-scars1 indicate that this hiccan is enough different and more hardy than the ,burlington1 which also grows well on the bitternut1 to discredit the story that the ,marquardt is lost4 ,it will not be determined1 however1 that this is the genuine ,marquardt until it has fruited4 ,altogether ,i have grafted about #gj varieties of hickory and its hybrids on bitternut stocks in my attempts to increase the number of varieties of cultured hickory trees in the ,north4 ,most of those ,i worked with were compatible with the bitternut stock1 but a few1 perhaps a dozen1 have indicated that they would rather not live on the bitternut and have died1 either from incompatibility or winter-killing4 ,yet as a root system1 the bitternut is the hardiest and easiest to transplant of any of the hickories and for these reasons it makes an ideal stock for the amateur nut-grower to use4 ,i did try1 in #aibf1 to grow some shagbark hickory stocks1 which would be more compatible with those varieties ,i could not get started on bitternut4 ,i planted half a bushel of shagbark hickory nuts from ,iowa1 but although they sprouted nicely1 they were not sufficiently hardy and were winter-killed so severely that1 after twelve years1 the largest was not more than a foot high1 nor thicker than a lead pencil4 ,some of these1 about #ej1 were transplanted into the orchard and in other favorable locations4 ,the largest of these1 in #aieb1 is about #d inches in diameter1 #a-;foot off the ground1 and about #ae feet high4 ,i have not grafted any yet and only one has borne any seedling nuts so far4 ,i am now reconciled to using my native bitternut trees for most of my stock in spite of some disadvantages4 ,a list of successfully grafted varieties is appended1 and indicates to what extent this stock is a universal root stock for most of the hickories and their hybrids4 ,a successful union1 however1 and long life1 does not mean that good bearing habits will be established1 since most of these trees grow in the woods in dense shade and poor surroundings4 ,some varieties have not borne many nuts1 and some not at all4 ,the following scions were cut this fall 7in #aieb7 from successfully grafted trees deep in the woods3 ,bixby hiccan 7pecan by shellbark7 grafted in #aich ,burlington hiccan 7pecan by shellbark7 grafted in #aich ,green ,bay hiccan 7pecan by shellbark7 grafted in #aich ,des ,moines hiccan 7pecan by shellbark7 grafted in #aich ,burton hiccan 7pecan by shellbark7 grafted in #aici ,mc,alester hiccan 7pecan by shellbark7 grafted in #aich ,anthony ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aich ,barnes ,shagbark by mocker nut grafted in #aich ,brill ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aicf ,brooks ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aich ,camp ,no4 #b ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aich 787 ,deveaux ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aicf ,fox ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aici ,glover ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aicf ,gobble ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aidj ,hand ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aici ,harman ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aici ,leonard ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aici ,lingenfelter ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aidb ,manahan ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aici ,milford ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aici ,murdock ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aida ,netking ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aich ,platman ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aich ,pleas ,pecan by bitternut grafted in #aich ,schinnerling ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aidb ,stanley ,shellbark hickory grafted in #aici ,swaim ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aida ,taylor ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aici ,triplett ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aici ,woods grafted in #aici ,the varieties below are growing in orchard or random locations out of the woods3 ,beaver ,hybrid hickory grafted in #aibd ,cedar ,rapids ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aibf ,clark ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aich ,fairbanks hybrid ,shagbark by bitternut grafted in #aibd ,herman ,last ,hybrid grafted in #aidh ,hope pecan ,pure pecan grafted to bitternut grafted in #aich ,kirtland ,shagbark hickory grafted in #aicf ,laney ,pecan by shellbark grafted in #aicf ,marquardt ,hiccan grafted in #aibd ,norton ,hiccan grafted in #aich ,river hickory ,undetermined hybrid grafted in #aidh ,rockville hiccan ,pecan by shellbark grafted in #aibf ,siers ,mockernut by bitternut grafted in #aicf ,stratford ,shagbark by bitternut grafted in #aich ,weiker hybrid ,shagbark by shellbark grafted in #aicf ,in addition to the above1 several large and small trees of the ,weschcke variety are located in orchard and random locations1 some having been grafted in #aibf and later4 ,also1 there is a sprinkling of ,bridgewater variety1 grafted in #aicf and later1 all bearing each year4 ,for many years1 ,i observed hickories and walnuts in bloom and hand-pollinated them1 yet ,i overlooked many things ,i should have discovered earlier in study4 ,it was only after ten years of observing the ,weschcke hickory1 for example1 that ,i realized the importance of proper pollinization of it4 ,in years when it produced only a few nuts1 ,i had blamed seasonal factors1 rains and soil conditions1 but ,i now realize that it was due to lack of the right pollen4 ,in the spring of #aida1 ,i decided to make special pollen combinations with all the hickories then in bloom4 ,the information ,i acquired in return was great reward for the work ,i did4 ,i selected branches of the ,weschcke hickory trees bearing a profuse amount of pistillate 7female7 blossoms4 ,i hand-pollinated these with a special apparatus 7the hand-pollen gun described later in this book71 using a magnifying glass so that both pollen and blossom could be plainly seen4 ,in doing this1 ,i found it most practical to wear what jewelers call a double loupe1 a light1 fiber head-gear carrying lenses well-suited to such work4 ,i treated the marked branches with pollen gathered from the ,bridgewater1 the ,kirtland and the ,beaver1 all very good pollen-bearers4 ,i also pollinated branches of the ,cedar ,rapids variety1 which bears little pollen in this locality1 with ,kirtland pollen4 ,however1 the pollinization of the ,cedar ,rapids1 which involved treating from #ce to #ej pistillate blossoms1 resulted in only two mature nuts4 ,the ,weschcke hickory has an abortive staminate bloom so that it must depend on some other variety for pollen4 ,at the ,northern ,nut ,growers' ,convention1 held at ,hershey1 ,pa4 in #aida1 7where ,i had the honor of being elected president of that venerable organization and succeeded myself thereafter for the next five years7 ,i mentioned this abortive staminate bloom of my hickory to my friend1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,mc,kay1 ,associate ,cytologist of the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture at that time4 ,he was very interested in this phenomenon and wanted specimens of the abortive catkins for examination4 ,these were sent to him in the spring of #aidb4 ,i quote from ,dr4 ,mc,kay's report on his primary findings3 ,i have just made a preliminary examination of the catkins from your hickory tree received last ,may1 and it seems that the individual staminate flower of the catkin produces #d-e undersized stamens1 the anthers of which are devoid of either pollen or pollen-mother-cells4 ,so far ,i have made only temporary preparations of the crushed anthers in stain but careful study of these mounts discloses no sign of pollen grains or mother cells1 so we may tentatively conclude that no pollen is produced by the tree2 in other words it is male-sterile4 ,the stage at which degeneration of the pollen-forming tissue occurs in the anthers and its nature will have to be determined by means of a longer and more elaborate technique and ,i will let you know what we find as soon as the results are available4 ,it may be that pollen-mother-cells are not even formed in the anthers2 the small size of these structures and their more or less shriveled appearance lead me to believe that this may be the case4 ,so far as ,i know there is no instance among nut species comparable to that outlined above4 ,we have two or three cases of male sterility in chestnut but in these no stamens are formed in the individual staminate flower4 ,in one of the hybrid walnuts that ,i reported on at the ,hershey convention1 imperfect pollen grains are formed in the anthers but the latter structures never open1 so no pollen is shed4 ,bear in mind that the above report is preliminary and other angles may turn up when permanent mounts are available for study4 ,on ,december #ad1 #aidc ,i received a second1 and final report from ,dr4 ,mc,kay from which ,i quote1 as follows3 ,dear ,mr4 ,weschcke3 ,the enclosed pencil sketches will give you an idea of the results obtained from sectioning four lots of material from the two samples of catkins that you sent1 two lots from each sample4 ,since the sample collected ,may #be at the time of catkin fall was old enough to contain mature pollen and showed only anthers of the two types described herewith ,i think we may safely conclude that the tree is male sterile because of the failure of the mother cells to function4 ,it is odd that in some anthers the pollen-mother-cells develop 7type #b7 while in others they do not 7type #a74 ,for this we have no explanation2 nor can we explain why the tree is male sterile4 ,i am afraid these phenomena will remain a matter of conjecture for some time to come4 ,since sterilities of this and other sorts in most other plants are largely genetic1 that is1 controlled by one or more genes that are inherited in ,mendelian fashion1 it is likely that such is the case here4 ,you and ,i will not live long enough1 however1 to grow the necessary number of generations of trees to clear up these matters4 ,in the course of routine preparation of other material ,i plan to run up other lots from your samples1 and ,i will let you know if anything different turns up4 ,i believe we may safely conclude1 however1 that the results reported herewith are representative4 ,in further explanation1 ,dr4 ,mc,kay submitted the drawings shown on page #eg1 and says3 ,four lots of material were sectioned1 two from the collection of ,may #f and two from that of ,may #be4 ,of these1 two gave anthers of type one1 and two of type two4 ,more material will have to be sectioned before we know which type is predominant4 ,the anthers of type one are greatly shriveled1 and a band of deeply-staining collapsed cells apparently represents the remains of archesporial or pollen-forming tissue4 ,the anthers of type two are normal in appearance1 but the pollen-mother-cells degenerate before pollen grains are formed4 ,a comparison of the degenerate pollen-mother-cells of this plant with normal pollen-mother-cells is given below3 ,illustration3 ,sections of anthers of the ,weschcke ,hickory ,carya ovata ,illustrations by ,dr4 ,mc,kay showing pollen degeneration in ,weschcke hickory4 ,this substantiates the conclusion that ,i had arrived at previous to this report1 that this hickory is able to mature its nuts early in the fall by reason of not having to waste its energy in the production of pollen4 7,there is only one other variety of hickory which ,i have grafted on bitternut which has proved unable to mature pollen and it is the ,creager from ,iowa47 ,i was immensely pleased to find that it responded very well to ,bridgewater pollen1 a high percentage of the blooms treated with it developing mature nuts4 ,the results with the ,kirtland pollen were almost equally good1 the poorest showing coming from those branches treated with ,beaver pollen on which only three mature nuts developed4 7,the ,beaver is presumed to be a hybrid between bitternut and shagbark hickories47 ,sixty-two nuts from these pollinizations were planted in the fall of #aida in rodent-proof seed beds4 ,in the spring1 counting germination1 ,i found #ajj of these nuts had sprouted and grown into small trees during the season4 ,after finding the most suitable pollen for the ,weschcke hickory1 ,i realized the necessity for including more than one variety of hickory in a planting1 just as there should be more than one variety of apple or plum tree in an orchard4 ,i think that it would always be well to have three or more varieties of known compatibility within reasonable distances1 probably not more than #ajj feet apart1 nor less than #dj to #ej feet for large hickories4 ,of the many varieties of hickory and hickory hybrids ,i have tested1 about twenty have1 by now1 proved to be sufficiently hardy to recommend for this latitude4 ,these include3 99,beaver hybrid hickory 99,fairbanks hybrid hickory 99,laney hybrid hickory ,burlington hybrid between pecan and shellbark hickory ,rockville hybrid between pecan and shellbark hickory ,hope pecan pure pecan grafted on to bitternut roots ,hand pure shagbark 99,bridgewater pure shagbark ,barnes hybrid hickory 99,cedar ,rapids pure shagbark 99,weschcke pure shagbark 99,deveaux pure shagbark 99,brill pure shagbark 99,glover pure shagbark 99,kirtland pure shagbark 99,siers thought to be a hybrid between the mocker nut and bitternut 99,stratford hybrid 7bitternut by shagbark7 99,creager 99,have produced mature nuts ,there are three or four others that are hardy but all means of identification having been lost1 it will be necessary to wait until they come into bearing before their varieties will be known4 ,as experiments continue1 more varieties of worthy1 hardy hickories and hiccans will be found which will justify completely the opinion of those of us who always hail as king of all our native nuts1 the hickory4 ,illustration3 #aicj--,weschcke ,hickory as borne by parent tree at ,fayette1 ,iowa4 #aici--;,after several years of bearing grafted on ,northern ,bitternut hickory at ,river ,falls1 ,wis4 #aidj--,still further change in shape and size from graft on ,bitternut4 #aida--;,change and increase in size now is so pronounced as to almost extinguish its original identity4 ,illustration3 ,weschcke hickory nut natural size shows free splitting hull4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke4 ,chapter #h ,,butternut ,like the hickory tree1 the butternut shares in the childhood reminiscences of those who have lived on farms or in the country where butternuts are a treat to look forward to each fall4 ,the nuts1 which mature early1 have a rich1 tender kernel of mild flavor4 ,only the disadvantage of their heavy1 corrugated shells prevents them from holding the highest place in popularity1 although a good variety cracks easily into whole half-kernels4 ,butternuts grow over an extended range which makes them the most northern of all our native wild nut trees1 although their nuts do not mature as far north as hazelnuts do4 ,butternut trees blossom so early that in northern latitudes the blossoms are frequently killed in late spring frosts4 ,only when the trees are growing near the summit of a steep hillside will they be likely to escape such frosts and bear crops regularly4 ,i have found that really heavy crops appear in cycles in natural groves of butternut trees4 ,my observation of them over a period of thirty-two years in their natural habitat in west-central ,wisconsin has led me to conclude that one may expect butternut trees to bear1 on an average1 an enormous crop of nuts once in five years1 a fairly large crop once in three years1 with little or no crop the remaining years4 ,as a seedling tree of two or three years1 the butternut is indistinguishable from the black walnut except to a very discerning and practiced eye1 especially in the autumn after its leaves have fallen4 ,as the trees grow older1 the difference in their bark becomes more apparent1 that of the butternut remaining smooth for many years1 as contrasted to the bark on black walnut trees which begins to roughen on the main trunk early in its life4 ,bark on a butternut may still be smooth when the tree is ten years old4 ,forest seedlings of butternut1 when one or two years old1 are easily transplanted if the soil is congenial to their growth4 ,although the tree will do well on many types of soil1 it prefers one having a limestone base1 just as the ,english walnut does4 ,a butternut seedling usually requires several more years of growth than a black walnut does before it comes into bearing1 although this varies with climate and soil4 ,it is impossible to be exact1 but ,i think ,i may safely say that it requires at least ten years of growing before a seedling butternut tree will bear any nuts4 ,of course1 exceptions will occasionally occur4 ,as a butternut tree matures1 it spreads out much like an apple or chestnut tree4 ,of course1 it must have enough room to do so1 an important factor in raising any nut tree4 ,enough room and sunlight hasten bearing-age and insure larger crops of finer nuts4 ,grafting valuable varieties of butternut on black walnut stock will also hasten bearing4 ,i have had such grafts produce nuts the same year the grafting was done and these trees continued to grow rapidly and produce annually4 ,however1 they were not easy to graft1 the stubborn reluctance of the butternut top to accept transplantation to a foreign stock being well known4 ,this factor will probably always cause grafted butternut trees to be higher in price than black walnut or hickory4 ,the reverse graft1 i4e41 black walnut on butternut should never be practiced for although successful1 the black walnut overgrows the stock and results in an unproductive tree4 ,specimens #be or more years old prove this to be a fact4 ,butternut trees are good feeders4 ,they respond well to cultivation and lend themselves to being grafted upon1 although1 from my own experience1 ,i question their usefulness as a root stock4 ,i have found that when ,i grafted black walnuts1 ,english walnuts or heartnuts on butternut stock1 the top or grafted part of the tree became barren except for an occasional handful of nuts1 even on very large trees4 ,since this has occurred throughout the many years of my nut culture work1 ,i think it should be given serious consideration before butternut is used as a root stock for other species of nut trees4 ,illustration3 ,weschcke ,butternut4 ,smooth shallow convolutions of shell allow kernels to drop out freely4 ,drawing by ,wm4 ,kuehn4 ,i had the good luck to discover an easy-cracking variety of butternut in ,river ,falls1 ,wisconsin1 in #aicd1 which ,i have propagated commercially and which carries my name4 ,a medium-sized nut1 it has the requisite properties for giving it a varietal name1 for it cracks mostly along the sutural lines and its internal structure is so shallow that the kernel will fall out if a half-shell is turned upside down4 ,i received one of those surprises which sometimes occur when a tree is asexually propagated when ,i grafted scions from this butternut on black walnut stock4 ,the resulting nuts were larger than those on the parent tree and their hulls peeled off with almost no effort4 ,whether these features continue after the trees become older is something ,i shall observe with interest4 ,illustration3 ,self hulling ,butternut4 ,weschcke variety4 ,drawing by ,wm4 ,kuehn4 ,the nearly self-hulling quality of these nuts makes them very clean to handle4 ,the absence of hulls in cracking butternuts not only does away with the messiness usually involved1 but also it allows more accurate cracking and more sanitary handling of the kernels4 ,in #aidi ,i noticed a new type of butternut growing near the farm residence4 ,this butternut was fully twice as large as the ,weschcke and had eight prominent ridges4 ,the nut proved to be even better than the older variety and we intend to test it further by grafting it on butternuts and black walnut stocks4 ,although hand-operated nutcrackers have been devised to crack these and other wild nuts1 they are not as fast as a hammer4 ,if one protects the hand by wearing a glove and stands the butternut on a solid iron base1 hitting the pointed end with a hammer1 it is quite possible to accumulate a pint of clean nut meats in half an hour4 ,the butternut tree is one whose lumber may be put to many uses4 ,it is light but very tough and stringy and when planed and sanded1 it absorbs varnish and finishes very well4 ,although not as dark in natural color as black walnut1 butternut resembles it in grain4 ,when butternut has been stained to represent black walnut1 it is only by their weight that they can be distinguished4 ,in late years1 natural butternut has become popular as an interior finish and for furniture1 being sold as blonde walnut1 ,french walnut1 or white walnut1 in my opinion very improper names4 ,i see no reason for calling it by other than its own4 ,depletion of forests of butternut trees brings its lumber value up in price nearly to that of fine maple or birch1 approaching that of black walnut in some places4 ,i have run several thousand feet of butternut lumber from my farmland through my own sawmill and used it for a variety of purposes4 ,it is probably the strongest wood for its weight except spruce4 ,i have used it successfully to make propellers which operate electric generators for deriving power from the wind4 ,because butternut is so light and1 properly varnished1 resists weathering and decay to so great an extent1 ,i have found it the best material ,i have ever tried for such construction4 ,in building a small electric car for traveling around the orchards1 ,i used butternut rather than oak or metal1 which saved at least #ajj pounds of weight1 an important matter since the source of the car's power is automobile storage batteries4 ,butternut is very durable in contact with the ground and is used for fence posts on farms where it is plentiful4 ,bird houses built of this wood will last indefinitely1 even a lifetime if they are protected with paint or varnish4 ,butternut is like red cedar in this respect1 although much stronger4 ,stories have been told of black walnut logs which1 after lying unused for fifty years1 have been sawed into lumber and found to be still in excellent condition4 ,it is quite likely that the same could be said of butternut for these woods are very much alike in the degree of their durability and resistance to weather4 ,an incidental value butternut trees have is their ability to bleed freely in the spring if the outer bark is cut4 ,therefore1 they can be tapped like maple trees and their sap boiled down to make a sweet syrup4 ,it does not have the sugar content that the ,stabler black walnut has1 however4 ,another possible use is suggested by the shells of butternuts which1 even when buried in the ground1 show great resistance to decay4 ,i have found them to be still intact and possessing some strength after being covered by earth for fifteen years4 ,this indicates that they might be used with a binder in a composition material4 ,their extreme hardness also offers a good wearing surface4 ,illustration3 ,electrically operated wagon constructed of native butternut wood known for strength and light weight as well as durability4 ,author's sons aboard4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke #aida4 ,not only good things can be said of the butternut tree and it would be wrong to avoid mentioning the deleterious effect that a butternut tree may have on other trees planted within the radius of its root system4 ,i have had several experiences of this kind4 ,one butternut tree on my farm1 having a trunk six inches in diameter1 killed every ,mugho pine within the radius of its root system4 ,this amounted to between #ej and #ajj pines4 ,their death could not be attributed to the shade cast by the butternut as ,mugho pines are very tolerant of shade4 ,as the first branches of the butternut were more than three feet off the ground1 the pines could not have been influenced by the top system of the tree nor do ,i believe that it was due to fallen leaves1 but rather directly to the greatly ramified roots4 ,large evergreens1 such as ,colorado blue spruce1 native white pine1 limber pine and ,jeffrey pine are known to have been similarly influenced4 ,while small butternut trees do not1 in my experience1 have this effect1 this may be explained by the fact that the radius of their root systems is much more limited4 ,most plants1 other than pines1 thrive within the influence of butternut roots1 however1 and it certainly does not damage pasture grass as some of the country's best grazing land is among such trees4 ,the damage results from a chemical known as ,juglone which is elaborated by the root system and when the roots of the butternut cross those of its evergreen neighbor1 this acts as a poison to the evergreen and may kill it4 ,illustration3 ,an #h-;foot propeller of butternut wood is the prime mover for wind power generator which in a brisk wind generated #aaj volts and #aj amperes at #cjj ,,rpm4 ,the butternut is attacked by one serious disease which is in the nature of a blight 7melanconium oblongum71 since it is transmitted through spores4 ,it usually attacks old trees1 the branches of the top part dying1 and the bark on the main trunk becoming loose4 ,the disease progresses slowly and ,i have seen large trees infected for twelve or fifteen years1 continuing to bear fine crops4 ,it does have a very weakening effect1 though1 and eventually saps the life from the tree long before its natural span of life of about fifty years is over4 ,chapter #i ,,pioneering ,,with ,,english ,,walnuts ,,in ,,wisconsin ,the convention of the ,northern ,nut ,growers' ,association at ,geneva1 ,new ,york1 in #aicf1 brought many interesting subjects to the attention of nut enthusiasts4 ,none1 however1 commanded as much attention as an exhibit by ,paul ,c4 ,crath1 of ,toronto1 of walnuts from the ,carpathian ,mountains in ,europe4 ,there were more than forty varieties of walnuts represented in it1 in sizes ranging from that of a large filbert to that of a very large hen's egg1 and in shape being globular1 ovate or rectangular4 ,the exhibitor had these identified by varietal numbers until testing and propagation should suggest appropriate names4 ,in several talks which ,rev4 ,crath gave during the convention1 he described his trips and findings in the walnut-producing sections of the ,polish ,carpathians4 ,the subject remained in prominence during the three days of the convention and the idea was suggested that the ,association sponsor another trip to ,europe to obtain walnuts growing there which ,rev4 ,crath considered even hardier and finer than the ones he had4 ,the plan was tabled1 however1 for only two of us were eager to contribute to the venture4 ,on my return home1 ,i thought more about what a splendid opportunity this would be to procure hardy ,english walnuts to grow in this part of the country4 ,i interested my father in the idea1 and1 with his backing1 corresponded with ,rev4 ,crath4 ,this was not the first or the last time that my father1 ,charles ,weschcke1 had encouraged me and had backed his good wishes and advice with money4 ,a professional man and a graduate of pharmacy and chemistry of the ,university of ,wisconsin1 he showed an unusual interest in my horticultural endeavors4 ,the immediate outcome was ,rev4 ,crath's visit to my nursery at ,river ,falls1 to determine whether material that he might collect could be properly tested there4 ,to my satisfaction1 he found that temperature1 soil conditions and stock material were adequate for such work4 ,we contracted with ,rev4 ,crath to reproduce asexually all the varieties that he could discover and ship to us1 agreeing to finance his trip and to pay him a royalty whenever we sold trees resulting from the plant material he sent us4 ,we decided that the material which he was to gather should include not only ,english walnuts but also the hazels or filberts native to ,poland4 ,the walnuts were to consist of about six hundred pounds of seeds1 representing some forty varieties1 several thousand scions and about five hundred trees4 ,we planned that the filberts should consist of both trees and nuts1 but because of a total failure of this crop the year that ,rev4 ,crath was there1 only trees were available4 ,rev4 ,crath left ,canada in ,october #aicf1 and spent all of the following winter in ,poland4 ,while he was there1 ,i began the task of arranging for the receipt of the walnuts and hazels he was to send1 and so began a wearisome1 exasperating experience4 ,first1 it was necessary to obtain permits from the ,bureau of ,plant ,industry in ,washington4 ,because of the vast quantity of material expected1 these permits had to be issued in the names of five people4 ,next1 ,i engaged a ,new ,york firm of importers1 so that no time would be lost in re-routing the shipment to the proper authorities for inspection4 ,this firm1 in turn1 hired brokers who were responsible for paying all duty1 freight and inspection charges4 ,i certainly thought that we had everything in such readiness that there would be nothing to delay the shipment when it arrived4 ,how wrong ,i was6 ,although ,rev4 ,crath had written me that the shipment had been sent on a certain ,polish steamer1 ,i learned of its arrival only from a letter ,i received from the importing company1 which requested that the original bill of lading and invoice be sent to them at once1 as the shipment had already been in the harbor for a week but could not be released by the customs office until they had these documents4 ,i had received the bill of lading from ,rev4 ,crath but not the invoice1 for he had not known that ,i would need it4 ,so my valuable1 but perishable1 shipment remained in port storage day after day while ,i frantically sought for some way to break through the red tape holding it there4 ,cables to ,rev4 ,crath were undeliverable as he was back in the mountains seeking more material4 ,in desperation1 ,i wrote to ,clarence ,a4 ,reed1 an old friend1 member of the ,northern ,nut ,growers' ,association and in charge of government nut investigations in the ,division of ,pomology at ,washington4 ,through his efforts and under heavy bond pending receipt of the invoice1 the walnut and filbert material was released and sent to ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,as there was too much of it to be inspected through the usual facilities for this work1 it was necessary to employ a firm of seed and plant importers to do the necessary inspecting and fumigating4 ,at last1 terminating my concern and distress over the condition in which the trees and scions would be after such great delays and so many repackings1 the shipment arrived in ,st4 ,paul4 ,there remained only the requirement of getting permission from the ,bureau of ,plant ,inspection of the ,state of ,minnesota to take it to ,wisconsin1 where1 if there was anything left1 ,i intended to plant it4 ,this permission being readily granted1 we managed1 by truck and1 finally1 by sled1 to get it to the nursery about the middle of the winter4 ,the following spring1 we planted the nuts and trees and grafted the scions on black walnut and butternut stocks4 ,the mortality of these grafts was the greatest ,i have ever known4 ,of about four thousand ,english walnut grafts1 representing some twenty varieties1 only one hundred twenty-five took well enough to produce a good union with the stock and to grow4 ,some of them grew too fast and in spite of my precautions1 were blown out2 others died from winter injury the first year4 ,by the following spring1 there were only ten varieties which had withstood the rigor of the climate4 ,of the five hundred trees1 only a few dozen survived4 ,fortunately1 this was not one of our severe1 test winters1 or probably none of these plants would have withstood it4 ,the walnuts which were planted showed a fairly high degree of hardiness4 ,of #ab1jjj seedling trees1 our nursery is testing more than #hjj for varietal classification4 ,these have been set out in test orchard formation on two locations1 both high on the slope of a ravine1 one group on the north side1 one on the south4 ,it has been suggested that from the remaining seedlings1 which number thousands1 we select #ejj to #ajjj representative specimens and propagate them on black walnut stocks in some warmer climate1 either in ,oregon1 ,missouri or ,new ,york4 ,this would determine their value as semi-hardy trees worthy of propagation in such localities4 ,such an experiment will probably be made eventually4 ,the same year1 #aicg1 in which ,i obtained the ,polish nuts1 ,i also bought one hundred pounds of ,austrian walnuts1 to serve as a check4 ,eighty pounds of these consisted of the common1 commercial type of walnut1 while the remainder was of more expensive nuts having cream-colored shells and recommended by the ,austrian seed firm as particularly hardy4 ,altogether these nuts included approximately one hundred varieties1 twenty of which were so distinctive that their nuts could be separated from the others by size and shape4 ,about two thousand seedlings grew from this planting1 most of which proved to be too tender for our winter conditions4 ,the seedlings grown from the light-colored nuts show about the same degree of hardiness as the ,carpathian plants4 ,many of them have been set out in experimental orchards to be brought into bearing4 ,after the first year1 the ,english walnuts progressed fairly well4 ,large trees1 which had not been entirely worked over at first1 were trimmed so that nothing remained of the original top1 but only the grafted branches4 ,the winter of #aich-ci was not especially severe and mortality was low1 although it was apparent that all of the varieties were not equally hardy4 ,even a few of the scions grafted on butternut stocks were growing successfully4 ,i had made these grafts realizing that the stock was not a very satisfactory one1 to learn if it could be used to produce scionwood4 ,as the results were encouraging1 ,i decided it would be worthwhile to give them good care and gradually to remove all of the butternut top4 ,each fall1 the first two years after ,i had grafted all these walnuts1 ,i cut and stored enough scionwood from each variety to maintain it if the winter should be so severe as to destroy the grafts4 ,unfortunately1 the grafts had developed so well1 even to the actual bearing of nuts by three varieties1 that in #aidj ,i did not think this precaution was necessary4 ,then came our catastrophic ,armistice ,day blizzard1 the most severe test of hardiness and adaptability ever to occur in the north4 ,many of our hardiest trees suffered great injury from it1 such trees1 for instance1 as ,colorado blue spruce1 limber pine1 arborvitae2 cultured varieties of hickories1 hiccans1 heartnuts2 fruit trees1 including apples1 plums and apricots1 which bore almost no fruit the next summer4 ,although not one variety of ,english walnut was entirely killed1 all1 except one1 suffered to some degree1 and it was not until late the following summer that several varieties began to produce new wood4 ,the variety which showed the greatest degree of hardiness is ,firstling1 originally known as ,letter ,f4 ,although the primary buds on the ,firstling were nearly all killed1 very few of the small branches were affected and the union itself suffered no injury4 ,second in hardiness is ,kremenetz1 much of its top being killed1 but its union being only slightly affected4 ,no4 #fd was affected in about the same amount as ,kremenetz4 ,increasing degrees of tenderness and1 of course1 decreasing degrees of hardiness1 were shown by the many other varieties1 some of which may never recover completely from the shock of that blizzard4 ,the seedling trees suffered only slight damage so that ,i expect that they are hardy enough to produce fruit here4 ,i cannot conclude this chapter without mentioning certain observations ,i have made regarding hardiness1 which1 although they require more specific study1 ,i wish to describe as a suggestion for further experimentation by either amateur or professional horticulturists4 ,my theory is that a determination of the hardiness factor of an ,english walnut tree can be made according to the color of its bark4 ,i have seen that a tree having thin bark which remains bright green late into the fall is very likely to be of a tender variety4 ,conversely1 among these ,carpathian walnuts1 ,i have found that varieties whose bark becomes tan or brown early in autumn show much more hardiness than those whose bark remains green4 ,one variety1 ,wolhynie1 whose bark is chocolate brown1 is very resistant to winter injury4 ,another1 whose green bark is heavily dotted with lenticels1 shows itself hardier than those having none or only a trace of them4 ,in testing almonds1 ,i have found that trees whose bark turns red early in the fall are definitely more hardy than those whose bark remains green or tan4 ,in observing apricots1 ,i have learned that young twigs with red bark are more resistant to cold than those with brown4 ,of course1 these findings cannot be considered as facts until further studies have been made4 ,i hope that others will find the idea of investigating this more-than-possibility as interesting as ,i do4 ,as the years increased1 however1 the growth of the seedling walnuts decreased and some having made a nice tree-like form1 with a trunk of approximately an inch in diameter1 within a succession of years were reduced in size through the combination of winter injury and attacks by the butternut curculio as well as a bacterial blight until by #aieb only a fraction of the #ab1jjj seedlings remained1 certainly less than #a1jjj4 ,all of the originally grafted specimens are dead with the exception of one variety which has been kept alive by constantly re-grafting it on black walnut4 ,we have not named this variety as yet1 although it has borne both staminate and pistillate bloom1 it has never borne any ripe nuts4 ,some of the seedlings1 however1 still show persistent traits of hardiness and of insect resistance and we still have hopes that after #ae years these trees will yet overcome the adversities of this uncongenial climate for this species4 ,chapter #aj ,,other ,,trees ,heartnut ,the heartnut is a sport of the ,japanese walnut 7,juglans sieboldiana74 ,since its nut is heart-shaped1 it has the name of cordiformis added to its species name4 ,there are many of these sports1 some of which have been propagated under the varietal names of ,faust1 ,lancaster1 ,fodermaier1 ,wright1 ,walters1 ,canoka1 ,okay and ,gellatly4 ,i think this is the most ornamental of all nut trees4 ,in shape1 it is similar to an apple tree1 spreading out rather than growing tall1 but its long1 compound leaves give it a tropical appearance4 ,during the autumn these leaves do not color any more than do those of the black walnut4 ,the tree produces long racemes of red blossoms and its staminate blooms are catkins eight to ten inches long1 which1 when fully ripened1 swish in the wind and release clouds of yellow pollen4 ,the heartnut tree holds the interest of its owner closely during that time when the nuts resulting from the racemes of blossoms are steadily increasing in size4 ,i have seen as many as sixteen nuts on one stem and doubtless1 there sometimes are more4 ,the owner of such a tree1 at least if he is at all like me1 will proudly exhibit it to all comers during the spring and summer seasons4 ,and then1 at harvest time1 after the nuts have gradually changed from green to the dull yellow that indicates their maturity1 he will have the satisfaction of shaking them down for drying and storage4 ,the heartnut kernel tastes much like that of the butternut and its internal structure is almost the same but the outside shell is smooth4 ,cultivated varieties usually crack easily and in such a way that the kernel is released in halves4 ,from all this1 it is easy to see that the heartnut is not only a beautiful tree but is definitely useful4 ,in my own work with heartnuts ,i have found that1 although they are to be classed only as semi-hardy1 there are a few varieties which are hardy enough for northern temperatures4 ,only testing will determine which ones can endure severe climates4 ,in the spring of #aiba1 ,i planted a ,lancaster heartnut grafted on a black walnut1 but the weather was cold that season and it was killed down to the graft joint1 where it threw out a sprout4 ,this was weak and succulent by fall and the graft was entirely killed back that winter4 ,i bought twelve more ,lancaster heartnuts a year later4 ,they were interspersed in the orchard among some black walnuts4 ,although a few survived the first winter1 none ever lived to come into bearing4 ,from time to time1 ,i also experimented with seedlings sent to me by ,professor ,james ,a4 ,neilson of ,vineland1 ,ontario1 who was interested in having them tested in this latitude4 ,these1 too1 were always unsuccessful4 ,i had my first success with several unnamed varieties of heartnuts ,i purchased in #aicc from ,j4 ,u4 ,gellatly of ,british ,columbia4 ,these were grafted on black walnut stocks of considerable size4 ,to insure their surviving the first winter1 ,i built wooden shelters which completely enclosed them1 filling these shelters with forest leaves and protecting them against mice with screen covers4 ,no doubt this was a decided help2 at least all of these heartnuts lived for many years until the invasion of the butternut curculio and the damage done by the yellow bellied sap sucker bird caused me the loss of all except one variety1 the ,gellatly4 ,this variety ,i have perpetuated by re-grafting on other black walnut stocks and by spraying and covering the limbs with screen to prevent the sap sucker from working on it1 still have it in the nursery and at my home in ,st4 ,paul where a young tree on the boulevard bears each year4 ,i have found that heartnuts are difficult to propagate1 the number of successful grafts ,i have made being far below that of black walnuts on black walnut stocks4 ,the reason for this is not well understood any more than is the fact1 in my experience1 that the ,stabler walnut will graft readily and the ,ten ,eyck persistently refuses to4 ,a good feature that these grafted trees do have1 however1 is their early productiveness4 ,i have seen them set nuts the second year after grafting and this has also occurred in trees ,i have sold to others4 ,when a nut of ,j4 sieboldiana cordiformis is planted1 it does not reliably reproduce itself in true type1 sometimes reverting to that of the ordinary ,japanese walnut1 which looks more like a butternut and has a rather rough shell as distinguished from the smooth shell of the heartnut4 ,in hulling my heartnut crop for #aidj1 ,i noticed many deformed nuts4 ,the season had been a prolific one for nut production of all kinds1 and ,i knew there had been a mixture of pollen in the air at the time these nutlets were receptive 7a mixture made up largely of pollen from black walnuts1 butternuts1 with some ,english walnuts74 ,since irregularities in size and shape indicate hybridity frequently and since heartnuts are easily hybridized ,i have assumed that these were pollinized by the mixture4 ,i have planted these odd-shaped nuts and ,i expect them to result in many new crosses of ,j4 sieboldiana cordiformis1 some five to eight years from now4 ,illustration3 ,beautiful tropical looking ,japanese ,walnut 7,juglans sieboldiana cordiformis74 ,variety ,gellatly1 from ,westbank1 ,b4 ,c41 ,canada4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke4 ,to show how nature reacts to much interference ,i will follow through on these nearly #ajj small trees that resulted from this pollination4 ,they were transplanted into an orchard on a side hill and well taken care of for several years1 but during that time one after another was killed1 apparently by winter conditions or perhaps the site was too exposed or the soil may have been uncongenial4 ,today there remains but three trees1 none of which have borne but all indicate that they are true heartnuts from the shape of the leaves and color of the bark and general formation4 ,in order to hasten their bearing1 scions have been taken from these small trees and will be grafted on large black walnut stocks to bring them into fruitfulness much earlier than if they were left to their own slow growth4 ,this system of testing out seedlings long before they have reached a size sufficient to bear on their own roots is applicable to all of the species of nut trees and is one way that the plant breeder can hurry up his testing for varieties after making crosses and obtaining young plants4 ,illustration3 ,natural size ,heartnut4 ,photo #aj_/bf_/ch by ,c4 ,weschcke4 ,gellatly variety4 ,beechnut ,the beechnut1 ,fagus ferruginea1 belonging to the oak family1 is one of the giants of the forest1 growing to great size and age4 ,even very old beech trees have smooth bark and this1 in earlier and more rustic days1 was much used for the romantic carving of lovers' names1 as scars still visible on such ancient trees testify4 ,the wood itself is dense and hard1 even more so than hard maple1 and is considered good lumber4 ,beechnut is one of the few nut trees with a more shallow and ramified root system as contrasted with that of most1 which1 as in the oak1 walnut and hickory1 is a tap root system4 ,this fact suggests that in those localities where beeches grow wild1 grafts made on such trees1 and transplanted1 would survive and grow well4 ,perhaps one of the reasons why very little propagation is done with beeches is that no outstanding variety has ever been discovered4 ,although the nut shell is thin and the meat sweet and oily1 the kernel is so small that one must crack dozens of them to get a satisfying sample of their flavor4 ,this1 of course1 prevents their having any commercial value as a nut4 ,there is also the fact that the beechnut is the slowest growing of all the common nut trees1 requiring from twenty to thirty years to come into bearing as a seedling4 ,of course this could be shortened1 just as it is in propagating hickories and pecans1 by making grafts on root systems which are ten or more years old1 as explained in the chapter on heartnuts4 ,however1 ,i know of no nursery in which beechnuts are propagated in this way4 ,my attempts to grow beechnut trees in ,wisconsin have met with little success4 ,about the year #aibb1 ,i obtained #aej trees from the ,sturgeon ,bay ,nurseries4 ,i planted these on level ground which had clay near the surface with limestone about a foot under it4 ,although all of these trees seemed to start satisfactorily1 some even growing about a foot1 within two or three years they had all died4 ,i decided they were not hardy but ,i now realize that the character of the soil was responsible for their gradual death2 they should be planted in a limestone or calcareous soil1 preferably of the fine sandy type1 the main requisite being plenty of moisture because of their shallow root system4 ,since then1 ,i have purchased beechnut seeds several times from various seedsmen1 but none of these seeds has ever sprouted4 ,i think this is because beechnuts1 like chestnuts1 must be handled with great care to retain their viability4 ,in #aich1 ,i ordered #ajj beechnut trees from the ,hershey ,nurseries of ,downingtown1 ,pennsylvania4 ,although these trees were set in sandy soil1 there are now only about five of them alive1 and of these1 only four are growing well enough to suggest that they will some day become big trees4 ,beechnuts must be protected against mice and rabbits as these species of rodents are very fond of bark and young growth of these trees and ,i have every reason to believe that deer are in the same category4 ,oaks ,although the acorns produced by the red oak are very bitter and consistently wormy1 those from the white oak are more edible4 ,in my own exploring1 ,i have found one tree1 apparently a hybrid between the red and white oaks1 which bears good acorns4 ,the nuts1 which are long and thin1 are generally infested with weevils4 ,if there were a demand for such a nut tree1 ,i'm sure that it could easily be grafted on oak roots4 ,during favorable seasons1 when these edible nuts were of good size and free from worms1 ,i have carried them in my pocket and enjoyed munching on them4 ,i found that their flavor1 like that of chestnuts1 was improved by roasting4 ,acorns are a balanced food and contain enough starch to make them readily assimilated1 except for their bitterness4 ,they are a good food for farm animals and chickens4 ,i have kept a flock of goats in good condition by feeding them acorns during the winter4 ,it isn't necessary to grind them for such use4 ,i have read that ,indians at one time prepared acorns for their own use by storing them in bags submerged in cold running water4 ,this not only extracted the bitterness but also it probably discouraged the development of weevil eggs4 ,oak trees are generally prolific and are regular bearers1 but of course1 what they are widely known and loved for is the beauty of their leaves in the autumn4 ,no one doubts their esthetic value1 which will keep them forever popular whether they come into demand as a grafted nut tree or not4 ,chestnuts ,another of our ornamental nut trees is the chestnut1 also of the oak family1 classified under the genus ,castanea1 which grows into a large1 beautiful tree with wide-spread branches4 ,chestnuts do not grow well on limestone soil and always fail in the heavy blue clay so common on farm lands in this part of the country4 ,it is best for their growth that the soil be gravelly and slightly acid4 ,the chestnut has always been a good timber tree4 ,its wood1 although not as hard as the red oak1 resembles it in grain4 ,the beams of many old pioneer homes are found to be chestnut4 ,it is said that this is one of few woods to give a warning groan under too heavy a burden before it cracks or breaks4 ,chestnut wood is very durable in contact with the soil1 outlasting all others except possibly black walnut and cedar4 ,it contains so much siliceous matter in its pores that it quickly dulls chisels and saws used in working it4 ,the chestnut trees at my nursery were grown from mixed hybrid seeds which ,i obtained from ,miss ,amelia ,riehl of ,godfrey1 ,illinois4 ,almost all of the seeds she first sent me1 in #aibf1 spoiled while they were stored during the winter4 ,but ,miss ,riehl sent me more the following spring1 many of which proved hardy4 ,in #aicg1 the oldest of these trees produced staminate bloom for the first time4 ,i naturally expected a crop of nuts from it that year1 but none developed4 ,the same thing happened in #aich4 ,i then wrote to ,miss ,riehl about it1 also asking her where to look for the pistillate blossoms4 ,her reply was a very encouraging one in which she wrote that the pistillate blossoms appear at the base of the catkins or staminate blooms1 but that it is quite a common thing for chestnut trees to carry the latter for several years before producing pistillate blossoms4 ,she also explained that it was very unlikely that the tree would fertilize its own blooms1 so that ,i should not expect one tree to bear until other nearby chestnuts were also shedding pollen4 ,this occurred the next year and another chestnut close to the first one set a few nuts4 ,it was not until #aidj that the tree which had blossomed first1 actually bore nuts4 ,in #aidj1 ,i crossed the pistillate blossoms of this tree with pollen from a ,chinese variety called ,carr1 resulting in half a dozen nuts which ,i planted4 ,since the chestnuts in these parts do not bloom usually until early ,july we can expect chestnuts to be a more reliable crop than butternuts1 for instance1 which bloom very early in the spring about ,may #a to #aeth4 ,having had this reward for my efforts ,i took much more interest in chestnut growing and ordered trees of the ,chinese varieties1 ,castanea mollissma from ,j4 ,russell ,smith1 ,h4 ,f4 ,stoke1 and ,john ,hershey4 ,some of these were seedlings and some were grafted trees1 not over a dozen of them alive today and none have produced mature nuts4 ,seemingly they have not been hardy although they have grown large enough to produce both staminate and pistillate blooms2 they have never winter killed back to the ground1 however4 ,also1 ,i have been planting nuts from all sources from which ,i could obtain them1 mostly of the ,chinese chestnut type4 ,some of these nuts were results of crosses1 and showed their hybridity in the young seedlings that resulted there from4 ,today ,i have perhaps #aej of such young seedlings which ,i am pampering with the hope of getting something worthwhile from them4 ,one of the big thrills of chestnut growing was the result of a chestnut that ,i picked up from a plant that was no higher than #b feet1 growing at ,beltsville1 ,maryland in the government testing ground there1 in #aicg4 ,my records show that this plant began to bear nuts in #aidc and have subsequently borne several crops in between the times that it was frozen to the ground and grew up again1 which happened at least three times4 ,like most chestnuts this one has to be pollinated by taking the staminate bloom from a dwarfed chestnut nearby whose bloom coincides with the blossoming of the female flowers of this ,chinese hybrid4 ,chestnuts rarely set any nuts that produce mature seed from their own pollen but depend on cross-pollination4 ,the nut from this hybrid is also the largest of any that ,i have grown and to my taste is a palatable one4 ,it may not rank among the best ones of known varieties today1 but for our climate ,i would consider it unusually large and good4 ,experimentally1 ,i have been able to produce new plants from this tree by layering young shoots coming from the roots4 ,this generally requires two years to make a well-rooted plant before they are cut off and transplanted4 ,this alternative of propagating by grafting or budding is considered a better method if it can be practiced1 as it gives a plant on its own roots instead of the roots of some unknown seedling stock4 ,illustration3 ,hybrid ,chestnut2 natural size1 one of the two survivors of several dozen trees sent by the ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture for testing this far north4 ,fair size nut and it resembles the ,american ,sweet ,chestnut4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke4 ,another tree that surprised me when it came into bearing proved to bear one nut in a burr which led me to believe that it was a chinquapin hybrid4 ,later on1 the habit of this tree changed somewhat and some of the burrs had more than one nut4 ,i have found this to be the experience of others who have observed so-called chinquapin trees of a hybrid nature4 ,it is my belief that the kind of pollen with which these blossoms are fertilized directly influences the number of nuts in a burr and sometimes the size of the nuts1 again showing the importance of the cross-pollinating varieties when setting out an orchard of trees4 ,this particular chinquapin type chestnut has upright growing habits different from a tree bearing similar nuts but having a very dwarfed habit4 ,all of the nuts of the latter after six years of bearing can be picked off this tree by standing on the ground4 ,there are several other trees bearing chestnuts1 some large and some small nuts1 all of which are interesting to me and may be important in the future of the chestnuts this far north since they indicate without doubt that the chestnut can accommodate itself to our climate1 providing it has the right type of soil to grow in4 ,in #aieb ,i acquired a #bj-;acre adjoining piece of land which has a much better chestnut growing site1 being deep sandy soil1 well drained1 and yet not ever being dry4 ,new varieties will be tested on this piece and should give much better results than the old trees which already were good enough to indicate success in chestnuts4 ,illustration3 ,a hybrid chestnut presumed to be a cross between ,european ,chestnut 7,castanea ,sativa7 and its ,american cousin 7,castanea ,americana74 ,actual size4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke4 ,illustration3 ,chinquapin hybrids from a tall growing tree4 ,nuts grow in racemes of burrs with as many as #aj burrs on one stem4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke4 ,apricot ,if it were not that an apricot is a nut as well as a fruit1 ,i should hesitate to include a description of my work with it4 ,but the apricot seed has a rich kernel which1 in many countries1 for example1 ,china1 is used as a substitute for the almond to which it is closely related4 ,it was in #aicc that my aunt1 ,margaret ,weschcke1 told me of an apricot tree growing in a yard on the ,mississippi ,river bluff in ,st4 ,paul and said to be bearing fruit4 ,i was quite skeptical until ,i saw the tree and also saw fruit from it which had been preserved by the woman who owned it4 ,convinced of the hardiness of the tree1 ,i was anxious to obtain scionwood but it was not until late that winter that ,i received permission to do so4 ,it happened that a truck had broken off a large branch from the tree while delivering coal1 and the owner very reasonably decided that taking a few twigs from it would not hurt it any more4 ,i not only took the small branches that she was willing to sacrifice from her tree but also as many as possible from the branch which had been torn off1 as its terminals were still in a fresh condition4 ,i grafted these scions on hybrid plum trees where they took hold readily1 and in #aich1 they began to bear prolifically4 ,the apricots1 which ,i have named ,harriet1 in honor of my mother1 are a fine-flavored fruit1 medium in size4 ,their cheeks are a mottled red with raised surfaces4 ,their pits are well-formed and fairly edible4 ,although the parent tree died the winter ,i took scions from it1 my grafts have proved quite hardy1 having received no injury when temperatures as low as #dg deg4 below zero have occurred4 ,since the parent tree died because its roots were severely frozen1 it would seem that the top of the tree1 in this case1 was more hardy than the root system4 ,this does occur sometimes1 although it is unusual4 ,in developing the factor of hardiness further in this apricot variety1 ,i have taken advantage of something ,i had observed about other fruit trees4 ,when one combines parts of two trees by grafting1 it is a simple thing to select a hardy root stock from the available plants1 just as ,i selected hardy plum stock on which to graft my apricot scions4 ,this is not always possible in choosing scionwood1 however1 since scionwood is usually selected for such reasons as the quality of its fruit4 ,it may happen that the top part of a tree is limited in its climatic scope because of its inability to withstand precipitate or otherwise unfavorable temperatures4 ,having observed that certain grafted varieties of fruit trees1 such as the ,wealthy apple1 for instance1 have gradually come to be planted much farther north than they originally were1 ,i reasoned that this was because only the hardiest of them survived and these hardy ones therefore became the mother blocks for future grafting4 ,this was an inescapable procedure which acted as a method of bud selection4 ,i therefore assumed that by a careful choice of the hardiest among surviving twigs of the most recent graft of the ,harriet apricot1 when particularly severe winter weather had caused some injury1 ,i could induce extra-hardiness in future grafts4 ,i also believe that ,i have added to the hardiness factor of the apricot by making frequent grafts4 ,it is my theory that the root stock is able to exert some influence over the top other than mere maintenance of life4 ,by frequently uniting a hardy stock with a less hardy top1 ,i think that the individuality of the top part may be somewhat broken down and the extra characteristic of hardiness added to it4 ,after the fifth re-graft of this apricot made in eight years1 ,i am convinced by its appearance and behavior that it is capable of becoming a reliable apricot for the region around ,st4 ,paul4 ,today the apricot still exists grafted on plum at my nursery at ,river ,falls1 ,wisconsin1 and the weakness of the tree seems to be in the union between the top and the plum stock4 ,if this union were not so corky and large and succulent it might be less injured by our winters2 therefore it is quite apparent that the plum is not a congenial stock for an apricot1 at least it does not produce a satisfactory union4 ,i am now making tests with this same variety by grafting it on more hardy apricot seedling stock such as the ,prof4 ,n4 ,e4 ,hansen of ,brookings1 ,south ,dakota1 introduces4 ,chapter #aa ,,pests ,,and ,,pets ,the pocket gopher is an herbivorous animal which attains approximately the size of a gray squirrel4 ,it has a sleek1 grey-brown coat of fur which is almost as fine as that of the mole and would1 ,i think1 make a good quality fur except that the skin is too tender to stand either sewing or the wear that fur coats have to undergo4 ,i learned this by trapping them and having a furrier try them out1 as ,i knew that the quickest way to get rid of a pest is to eat it or use its hide4 ,since ,i found its hide to be of no practical value1 ,i enjoined my troop of ,boy ,scouts1 a willing group of boys1 to carry out my suggestions that they skin and prepare one of these animals in a stew4 ,gophers are purely herbivorous and ,i thought they should be quite edible1 but as ,i am a strict vegetarian myself1 ,i had to depend on them to make this experiment4 ,the boys followed instructions up to the point of cooking1 but by that time the appearance of the animal had so deprived them of their enthusiasm and appetites that ,i had no heart to urge them to continue4 ,i am still of the opinion1 however1 that to meat-eating people1 the pocket gopher would taste as good as squirrel or pigeon4 ,the first introduction ,i had to the devastating work that these animals can do in an orchard was when ,i was working among my young apple and plum trees one spring4 ,i noticed that the foliage was turning yellow on many of them and upon investigation ,i found that the trees were very loose in the ground4 ,at first ,i thought that planting operations and heaving of the ground by frost in the spring might be the cause1 but in testing the looseness of one of these trees1 ,i found that ,i could pull it out of the ground easily4 ,there ,i saw what appeared to be the marks of an axe4 ,i was completely convinced that ,i had personal enemies who went around nights chopping off the roots of my trees1 for ,i knew that most of my neighbors were completely out of sympathy with my tree cultivation4 ,in fact1 farmers living in that section of the country were always poking fun at my nut tree plantings and orchard work1 for their idea of what was proper on a farm was a treeless field of plowed ground4 ,as ,i thought of all these things1 ,i pulled up many other trees2 in fact1 there were dozens that were chopped off so that they could be completely pulled out4 ,others still had one or two roots clinging to the main trunk and these ,i carefully replanted so that they would continue to live and grow4 ,not long after the tragic day on which ,i found all these ravaged trees1 ,i noticed1 winding in and out close to the young orchard trees1 the mounds which pocket gophers make when they tunnel under the ground4 ,i followed some of these by digging into them with a shovel1 and discovered that they led to the roots of trees1 the very trees that had been chopped off and killed4 ,my enemies were not human after all4 ,sending for a pamphlet from the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,i studied the material given about pocket gophers and their habits4 ,i then began their systematic eradication1 using about twelve steel muskrat traps4 ,i succeeded in trapping1 in one season1 over thirty of them1 at a time when they were so prolific and their holes so numerous that ,i could not drive a horse through the orchard without danger of breaking one of its legs4 ,i also used poisoned grains and gases but ,i do not recommend them4 ,trapping is the only method in which one obtains actual evidence of elimination4 ,it took me many years to force the gophers out of my orchards and ,i still must set traps every fall1 during ,september and ,october when they are most active4 ,their habits are such that they do most of their tunnelling in the early fall months1 before frost1 during which time they expose and isolate the roots on which they intend to feed during the winter months when the ground is so hard that they cannot burrow further4 ,this period is when they are most easily trapped4 ,it was with the idea of establishing a balance of nature against these animals that ,i conceived the idea of importing bull snakes4 ,almost everyone has heard of the bull snake1 but its name is a poor one1 for it has the wrong connotation4 ,these snakes are actually a fine friend to the farmer since each snake accounts for the death of many rodents each year4 ,their presence certainly was of definite value in decreasing the number at my farm4 ,bull snakes have the long body typical of constrictors1 sometimes reaching a length of nearly six feet at maturity1 and being at the most an inch and one-half in diameter4 ,this country had a natural abundance of such snakes at one time but ignorance and superstition have lessened their number so that it is now a rare thing to find one4 ,during the early days of automobiles1 these huge bull snakes1 or gopher snakes1 as ,i prefer to call them1 would lie across the sunny1 dusty roads1 and drivers of cars delighted in running them down4 ,since they are very docile1 they are the least afraid of man of any members of the local snake family4 ,they are slow in movement until they sense the immediate presence of their natural food1 which is live mice1 rats1 gophers1 squirrels1 young rabbits1 and sometimes1 though rarely1 birds4 ,then it is they become alert1 and the horny appendage on their tails vibrates with a high-pitched1 buzzing sound1 simulating1 although not similar to1 the sound of a poisonous rattlesnake4 ,when ,i first brought some of these snakes to my farm1 ,i loosed them and they wandered off to a neighbor's premises where they were promptly found and killed4 ,later importations ,i confined to my basement1 where ,i built an artificial pool with frogs and fish in it4 ,however1 ,i could never induce the bull snakes to eat any of these batrachians4 ,they would1 almost playfully1 stalk the frogs1 but at the moment when one was within reach1 the snake would glide away4 ,neither would the snakes1 unless force-fed1 eat anything they had not caught themselves4 ,my children were delighted to have the snakes there and made pets of them4 ,only once was one of the girls bitten when she attempted force-feeding4 ,the bite was a mere scratch but we feared that it might be slightly poisonous4 ,however1 it healed so promptly that it was quite apparent that the bull snake's bite is not toxic4 ,i1 too1 have had my skin slightly punctured by their teeth1 but always the wound healed with no more pain or trouble than a pin prick4 ,such is not at all the case when a person is nipped by a squirrel or gopher4 ,i have purposely allowed a pocket gopher to bite me1 to determine what the effects are4 ,the pain was severe and healing was slow4 ,once1 bitten by a gray squirrel when ,i reached into a hollow tree to get it1 ,i received such a wound that fever started in my whole hand4 ,its teeth punctured a finger-nail and were stopped only by meeting the bone4 ,such bites ,i consider rather poisonous4 ,rabbits also committed much damage at my nursery by gnawing the bark of my trees1 especially during times of deep snow4 ,they did not bother the walnuts particularly1 but were very fond of hickories and pecan trees4 ,on the smallest ones1 they cut branches off and carried them away to their nests4 ,on larger trees1 they gnawed the bark off of most of the lower branches4 ,this was dangerous but seldom fatal1 whereas the gnawing of mice1 near the base of the trunks1 was such that in some cases when complete girdling occurred1 it was necessary to use bridge-grafting to save the trees4 ,this consists of connecting the bark immediately above the roots with the bark above the girdled portion1 so that the tree can receive and send the food substances it elaborates to its upper and lower parts4 ,rabbits and mice1 therefore1 had to be dealt with4 ,of course1 one could go hunting for rabbits and later eat them4 ,this was one task ,i had my employees do4 ,i1 myself1 was unwilling to take an active part in it1 although still intent on saving my trees in spite of my pity for the little animals4 ,placing hundreds of cans in the orchard1 with a pinch of poisoned wheat and oat mixture in each1 helped to eradicate the mice4 ,the bait was placed inside the cans to prevent birds from being poisoned1 and the cans were tipped at an angle so that water would not enter them4 ,to be absolutely sure of preventing mice damage1 one should provide each tree with a screen guard4 ,i have made about #aj1jjj screen protectors for my trees for this purpose4 ,i have also trapped rabbits which we were not able to shoot and ,i conceived the idea of painting the traps with white enamel4 ,when these were set on the snow around those trees which the rabbits attacked1 they worked very successfully4 ,the traps were a size larger than the common gopher trap1 but were not expensive4 ,there are other ways of catching rabbits or curtailing their activities1 but on my list1 shooting comes first1 with trapping as a second effective measure4 ,squirrels1 although they do no damage to the trees themselves1 except on rare occasions1 are a definite nuisance when they come in large numbers and cut down nuts before they are ripe4 ,they do this to hickory nuts1 and apparently are very fond of the half-ripened nuts4 ,i have seen squirrels chew hickory buds and young sprouts of hickory grafts and ,i had to trap several before ,i stopped them from doing this to certain ornamental trees in our garden4 ,in fact1 when one has a large nut orchard1 squirrels will be attracted in number that preclude the possibility of harvesting a crop unless measures are taken to banish them4 ,they are very active early in the morning and my experiences indicate that two or three people should hunt them together1 as they are very clever at dodging a single hunter4 ,i also have built galvanized metal guards around isolated trees which prevent squirrels from climbing them4 ,in speaking of mice1 we have two important species commonly known as the meadow mouse and the other species known as the white-footed mouse4 ,the meadow mouse is the one that does so much damage to the orchard trees and young nursery stock if unprotected1 and the white-footed mouse may be responsible for some of this when present in great numbers1 but of the white-footed mouse this much good can be said3 ,illustration3 ,drwg4 by ,wm4 ,kuehn4 ,squirrel guards4 ,much of its diet1 especially of the mother mouse during the time that she is nursing her young ones1 is made up of insects4 ,a personal experience accentuates this4 ,since these are such pretty little creatures1 having such cunning ways1 it was my ambition to catch a complete family of mother and young ones which sometimes numbered as high as ten4 ,my ambition was finally gratified and ,i was able to get a mother of eight and her tiny mouslings1 which have a habit of fastening themselves securely to her breasts while she runs about1 and drags them all along in a most ludicrous fashion4 ,at times1 under these circumstances1 the combined weight of the brood exceeds that of the mother mouse but they are exceptionally strong creatures for their size1 a mature mouse being able to jump out of a #c-;foot barrel with one leap4 ,in observing this brood of mice1 ,i was particularly anxious to see what kind of a diet they throve on and tried the mother's appetite with tidbits from the table4 ,while she ate most everything1 it soon became apparent that something was wrong because the young ones became weaker1 finally to the extent that they were unable to nurse1 and one morning ,i found several on their backs with their feet feebly waving in the air indicating that they were dying of starvation4 ,at about that time ,i was drying some hazelnuts on a flat back porch floor and in sweeping them up found a lot of alive and dried up larvae which had escaped from the shells4 ,just for fun1 ,i swept this material up and threw it into the mouse cage4 ,the reaction of this treatment was gratifying1 for the mother mouse pounced upon this insect life greedily devouring everything4 ,within three days1 the young mice were all in good health and running around showing that the milk produced from the diet that ,i had been giving the mother was inadequate for the baby mice4 ,it is therefore to their credit to state that these mice and probably at times the meadow mice do consume large quantities of larvae and grubs in the surface soil1 as well as mature active insects1 such as crickets and grasshoppers4 ,,how ,,to ,,prepare ,,rodent ,,protectors ,,for ,,trees #a4 ,cut #f strips from #bd wide roll of galvanized screen with a #ab x #ab mesh4 #b4 ,cut strips in half to make two protectors from each strip4 #c4 ,make bundles of #be each by running wire through protectors4 #d4 ,dip these bundles in a solution containing #e pounds of red lead per gallon of linseed oil4 ,use from #c to #e gallons of this solution4 #e4 ,remove bundles and hang them on a pole with a drip pan beneath to catch the solution1 which can be used again4 ,allow bundles to drip for #h hours1 then separate each protector and place on grass for a few days to dry4 #f4 ,roll each protector around a #c_/d pipe or broomstick and it is ready for the tree4 ,illustration3 ,drwg4 by ,wm4 ,kuehn4 ,preparation of screen guards4 ,in dealing with wild creatures1 one must forebear condemning a whole species of animals merely because at times they become troublesome1 for the main purpose of their existence1 like owls1 hawks and crows1 they may be more beneficial than otherwise4 ,a good word should be said here for skunks and moles4 ,a great deal of the skunk diet is insect life4 ,the same is true of the mole whose diet probably consists of #ge insects1 mostly in their larval state4 ,this is an important feature of mole and skunk as they dig these insects out before they mature into winged female adults which may lay hundreds of eggs4 ,if these larvae should be allowed to develop into a mature winged insect that would lay eggs1 this particular insect would multiply itself hundreds of times over and it would take many more birds than at present exist to take over the big job of keeping the balance between necessary insect life and a surplus which would be destructive to all plant life4 ,we can never hope to eradicate all insect life which we deplore as being deleterious to the interests of mankind1 and it is mighty well that we cannot do this for the insects are as important to us as all other life1 for without them we would be unable to produce the vast quantities of foods that are now dependent upon such insect life4 ,it is true that they take their toll of the food that they are instrumental in sometimes producing but when one attempts to unravel the mystery of balance of nature one is confronted by the big question of how far to go in the eradication of both animals and insect pests4 ,before man's interference the wild crops were plentiful and balances were kept in harmony by vast multitudes of frogs and toads1 birds and rodents1 all of which have been slaughtered and reduced by such amounts as to endanger man's food supply1 forcing him to resort to poison sprays and other measures in order to hold destruction in check4 ,all of this expense and trouble he could have avoided if he had been sensible enough to observe the natural checks and foster the natural procedure of which nature is the best guide4 ,chapter #ab ,,storing ,,and ,,planting ,,seeds ,most nut tree seed requires ideal storage conditions to preserve its germinating power or viability4 ,under natural circumstances1 such nuts as black walnuts1 ,english walnuts1 butternuts1 hickory nuts1 pecans1 hazelnuts1 filberts and almost all other nuts1 will be planted by squirrels1 mice and other rodents4 ,although most of these will be eaten by the animals who buried them1 a large percentage of the ones which are not eaten will sprout4 ,the sprouts which achieve maturity and bearing age1 however1 will be only a very small percentage--some say only a fraction of #a--of the number that sprouted4 ,this is an expensive and wasteful method1 horticulturally speaking1 but it does indicate that it is best to plant nuts as soon as possible after they have properly ripened and been dried4 ,after walnuts1 hickory nuts1 butternuts and hazels have been gathered1 they should be dried until the hulls have lost most of their moisture4 ,the husks should be removed from filberts before they are dried4 ,while this preparation is not essential1 nuts are less likely to mold if they are dried somewhat before they are planted4 ,however1 ,i have planted freshly-gathered black walnuts and butternuts and most of them sprouted4 ,if nuts are to be stored in large quantities1 the drying-out process is absolutely essential and should be carried to the point of completely drying the hulls4 ,the system ,i followed in doing this is to gather the nuts after they have fallen and spread them out in the sunlight on roofs or floors where air can circulate around them4 ,after the hulls are dry1 such nuts as black walnuts1 ,english walnuts and butternuts may be put in barrels or burlap bags and stored in an unheated basement without seriously deteriorating4 ,english walnuts are most safely stored when they are hulled before being packed in burlap bags4 ,these bags should be suspended above the floor of the cellar by a rope or wire4 ,these are additional precautions which allow better circulation of air1 further prevention of mold1 and safety from mice and squirrels4 ,chestnuts1 beechnuts and acorns require more care when they are to be stored1 for their viability is very sensitive to dryness4 ,i have found that these soft-shelled species of nuts should be treated in a different manner than the walnut and hickory types of seeds if we are to get the most out of their germination4 ,since chestnuts are very prone to molding or rotting1 the best way to maintain their viability and freshness over winter is to stratify them in a can or box between layers of a peat moss4 ,this peat moss must be decidedly on the acid side and must be dampened1 but must not be so wet that you can wring any water out of it4 ,the best way to prepare this dry peat moss is to soak it in water and wring as much water out of it as possible by squeezing with your hands4 ,then mix it with half as much of the undampened peat4 ,this will give you approximately the right moisture coefficient4 ,if stored in cans1 the bottom of the can must be punctured with a few holes about #a_/d of an inch in diameter1 well distributed on the bottom to act as a drain and to admit some slight circulation of air4 ,the same thing should be done with the cover4 ,first1 put down an even layer about #a-a_/b inches of this dampened moss1 then put in a layer of chestnuts or other nuts to be stratified1 placed evenly or well distributed but not touching each other4 ,after the first layer1 carefully sift in more dampened moss about #a inch thick and repeat the process until either the can is full or all the seeds have been stored4 ,the last layer should be a #b-;inch layer of peat moss before the cover is placed on4 ,now the important thing about all this is to place this can in a storage room of low temperature and yet it should not freeze solid4 ,but in a temperature of from #cb to #dj degrees is ideal and preferably it should be on the ground floor so as to maintain the moisture that is already stored in the seed and the moss4 ,a mechanical refrigerator which would constantly dehydrate might eventually dry them out too much for good germination2 otherwise such a refrigerator would be ideal for the storage of small amount of seeds of this kind4 ,it would be well from time to time to inspect these seeds to see whether they were in good condition and check the temperatures as well4 ,if they start to sprout all the better2 they can then be planted with the sprout downward and the nut barely covered with earth4 ,some years ,i have had sprouts nearly six inches long on my chestnuts which had been so stored and care will have to be taken not to break the sprout when transplanting the nuts4 ,in planting nuts1 great care must be taken not to plant them too deeply4 ,large nuts1 such as black walnuts1 butternuts and ,english walnuts1 are often planted with a small part of the nut still exposed4 ,certainly1 the depth of the soil over a nut should never exceed the thickness of the nut4 ,most seeds develop best when they are planted just under the surface of the soil4 ,the earth should be lightly tamped around the planted seeds to eliminate air-pockets4 ,a thin coating of manure1 not more than three inches deep1 is valuable if large seeds are planted but it is detrimental to the development of small seeds and manure should never be used for evergreens4 ,seeds of the nut pines1 usually purchased from seedsmen and received in a dry state1 should be planted no deeper than their own diameter in a light1 sandy loam4 ,a seed bed1 incidentally1 is a very necessary protection against rodents in the case of nut pine seed4 ,i have used a mixture of bone meal on such seeds with good results4 ,four quarts of bone meal carefully worked into the first two or three inches of the surface soil of a #d x #ab seed bed greatly increases its fertility4 ,sifted hardwood ashes scattered over the bed after the seed is in1 will discourage cutworms and increase the potash content of the soil4 ,proper drying and storage are of no use if nuts are not planted where they will have protection against rodents1 improper drainage1 and other hazards4 ,to keep them from being eaten by rodents1 nut seeds should be planted under wire screens inside a deep frame4 ,the seed beds ,i have made for use in my nursery are four feet wide and twelve feet long4 ,by using heavy galvanized hardware cloth #b x #b mesh1 which means that it has #a_/b-;inch square holes1 is ideal for the top and sides of this frame4 ,by using this wire cloth #b feet wide1 #ah inches is sunk under the ground surface1 and only #f inches protrudes above4 ,this is to prevent burrowing rodents from going underneath and extracting the seeds which you will find they will do unless the screen protection goes down deep enough into the ground to discourage them4 ,a stout frame of rot-resisting wood1 such as cedar or fir should be placed on the inside of this countersunk screen4 ,this should also be #d feet wide1 #ab feet long so that a similar frame1 which is removable1 can be placed over this4 ,the edges of the frame should match perfectly so that no rodents can reach the interior of the seed bed without going down #a-a_/b feet under ground to burrow under the countersunk screen4 ,several thousand evergreens or several hundred walnut trees can be raised in a seed bed this size4 ,the soil is now removed from the inside of this enclosure or stationary part of the bed to the depth of #f inches so that the plants will have head room to develop leaves and stems and still be protected under the top or removable frame part4 ,the top frame made of the same material and covered also by the #b x #b hardware cloth should be about #f inches in height so that there will actually be #ah inches of head room for the plants to grow in before touching the screen4 ,illustration3 ,this #fj x #cj foot corrugated galvanized iron fence #c-a_/b feet tall and sunk #f inches into ground protects valuable hybrids against invasion by rodents4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke4 ,there are several important points to remember in starting a seed bed4 ,it must be in a well-drained site1 so that the seeds will not be under water or water-logged for any length of time4 ,it should be in an open place where sunlight is plentiful1 unless evergreens are being grown4 ,evergreens must be in half-shade the first season to avoid a condition known as damping off4 ,the top six inches of soil in the bed should be the best garden soil obtainable1 the growth resulting from using good1 clean soil1 free from weed seeds1 being worth the trouble of preparing it4 ,by having the bed in two parts1 with a cover that may be taken off1 proper weeding can be done when necessary4 ,the cover should always be replaced afterward1 though1 as rodents will sometimes attack the young shoots and the remainder of the seed kernel4 ,in the spring of the second season of growth1 the young plants may be dug up and lined out in nursery rows4 ,after two or three years more1 they may be planted in permanent locations4 ,chapter #ac ,,tree ,,planting ,,methods ,since nut trees usually have deep1 well-developed root systems of the taproot type1 they are more difficult to transplant than such trees as plum1 apple1 elm or maple which have many small fibrous roots4 ,taproots have a long1 main trunk like a parsnip1 from which lateral roots branch4 ,these roots are heavy and may extend deep into the ground even in trees only two or three years old4 ,in moving such a tree1 the lower part of the central taproot must1 of course1 be cut off1 but as many of the side roots as possible are retained4 ,because such roots have no fibrous or hair-root system1 their handling during transplantation necessarily differs from that of the ordinary shade or fruit tree4 ,if trees having a taproot system1 such as the ,english walnut1 black walnut1 butternut1 hickory or pecan1 are received with bare roots1 they should be treated in the following way3 ,immediately after the trees have been unpacked1 their roots should be submerged in a barrel of water for several hours4 ,after their thirst has been quenched1 the roots should be dipped into a mixture of clay and water made to the consistency of thick paint4 ,with a heavy coating of wet clay around them1 the roots may then be wrapped in wet burlap sacks4 ,they are now ready to be transported to their planting site4 ,selecting a favorable location for nut trees is very important4 ,they should never be planted at the bottom of a gulch or valley because1 in such places1 frost pockets may occur which will interfere with both blossoming in the spring and ripening of nuts in the fall4 ,nut trees grow best near the summit of a hill4 ,although such soils are difficult to plant in1 stony soil or soil overlaid with limestone results in good growth4 ,shallow surface soil1 underlaid with heavy clay1 will usually slow down the growth of a young tree so that it remains dwarfed for many years4 ,it is more satisfactory to have at least three feet of soil before clay is reached4 ,if the soil is light and sandy1 it will be improved by adding black dirt immediately around the roots of each tree4 ,as most nut trees ultimately grow to be very large1 they should be planted at least forty feet apart4 ,the hole dug to receive each tree should be wide and deep enough to accommodate the roots without bending or twisting them4 ,if the excavated soil is of poor quality1 it should be discarded1 and good1 rich soil brought in for setting the tree4 ,trees should not be planted too deeply4 ,the collar of a tree1 which is a discoloration of its trunk resulting from contact with the ground1 indicates how much of the tree was previously underground4 ,although it is a good idea to plant so that this collar is a little lower than the surface to allow access to extra moisture1 the actual planting depth should be about as it was previously in the nursery4 ,all broken or damaged parts on the roots should be trimmed smoothly with pruning shears4 ,such clean cuts will send out new rootlets to replace the lost ones4 ,after a tree has been set into the hole made for it1 the soil1 which should be thoroughly mixed with a quart of bone meal to increase its fertility1 is replaced a little at a time4 ,it must be packed very solidly about the roots with a rounded tamping stick to avoid leaving air pockets4 ,i find it advisable to retamp the earth about each tree two or three times during the first year's growing season1 to insure intimate contact between soil and roots4 ,planting should be delayed if the soil is very wet4 ,trees will stay in good condition for several days1 if the burlap sacks are kept moistened4 ,wet1 soggy soil is certain to shrink away from the roots and leave air pockets which will1 in time1 kill the trees4 ,if trees are transplanted during a very dry season1 they should be thoroughly watered4 ,to do this1 remove several shovelfuls of dirt from the ground about a foot from the tree1 being careful not to cut any roots4 ,fill this hole with water and after the water has seeped away1 fill it two more times4 ,the tree should receive about five gallons of water4 ,sprinkling with a hose does not suffice4 ,if dry weather continues1 each tree should be watered in this way every week4 ,nurserymen in the future will have to deal with this transplanting problem in a different way than the old time nurserymen who handles fruit trees4 ,a suggested way to improve the root system and at the same time make it easy to lift the tree with a ball of dirt1 similar to the way an evergreen is transplanted1 is to prepare a pocket of special transplanting soil previous to the lining out 7which is the term used by nurserymen in setting out seedlings preparatory to grafting them in nursery rows74 ,a suggested balanced soil for making the method practical is to use #a_/b by volume of peat moss2 the other half should be rich1 black sandy loam with very little clay mixture in it4 ,in other words1 each nut tree should be allowed about a bushel of soil for its development1 #a_/b bushel to be peat moss1 the other half bushel to be represented by rich black loam4 ,this mixture will encourage many fibrous roots to develop and when the tree is dug1 approximately all of this bushel of soil will be retained around the roots4 ,having such a high proportion of peat moss makes it lighter than ordinary ground2 such a ball and the tree will weigh approximately from #ajj to #abe pounds which can be shipped by freight at a low rate and is well worth the extra price that nurserymen must ask for a specimen of this kind4 ,such trees have really never been unplanted and for this reason do not suffer the shock which is inevitable in the usual transplanting process4 ,although pre-planted trees are more expensive to buy and to transport1 their improved chances of living make them worth the price4 ,the above recommendation is especially applicable to young grafted hickory trees since they are among the most difficult trees to transplant satisfactorily4 ,the ,english walnut 7,persian71 black walnut1 butternut and especially the hickory are improved by the use of a handful of ground lime mixed with the soil in preparing these pockets which will later constitute the ball surrounding the roots of the tree to be transplanted4 ,there is a tendency in grafted trees to produce sprouts below the graft4 ,unless these are rubbed off1 the grafted portion will become discouraged and the tree will revert to a seedling variety4 ,filberts should never be allowed more than two or three stems1 or trunks1 while one is more preferable4 ,if they are allowed to have more1 they will produce a rank growth of wood but only a few1 if any1 nuts4 ,i stress1 by repeating1 that trees should not be planted too deeply and that great care must be taken to eliminate air pockets4 ,extra effort and nursing of transplanted trees during the first season will be repaid by their successful development and growth4 ,it is a wise precaution to place a protective screen around the trunk of each tree to prevent rodents from attacking it4 ,mice gnaw off the bark near the ground1 sometimes girdling a tree and so killing it4 ,rabbits chew off branches and they1 too1 may girdle the upper part of a tree4 ,rabbits are very fond of pecan and hickory bark4 ,in some places1 it may be necessary to encircle each pecan and hickory tree with a three or four-foot rabbit fence until the tree is large enough to lose its appeal to these nuisances4 ,compared with the number of insects which infest fruit trees1 very few attack nut trees4 ,one of those which does is the walnut-leaf caterpillar4 ,these appear as a closely congregated group of small worms which feed on the leaves of black walnut and hickory trees during the latter half of the summer season4 ,very often they are all to be found on a single leaf1 which should be picked from the tree and crushed underfoot4 ,a simple spray of lead arsenate of the strength recommended by companies selling spray material1 will effectively rid trees of these pests4 ,another insect often found in a nut orchard is the oak tree girdler1 which also is active in the latter part of the summer4 ,it often causes limbs as large as an inch in diameter to be cut through and to fall to the ground4 ,by removing such freshly girdled branches and cutting into the hollow made by the larva1 it is possible to find the live worm and destroy it4 ,a good way to combat this pest is to keep each tree pruned of all dead branches and to burn all broken and dead wood each fall4 ,while some nut trees are subject to other insects1 the two described here are the most frequently found4 ,fortunately1 they are easily controlled if a watch is kept for them4 ,chapter #ad ,,winter ,,protection ,,of ,,grafts ,,and ,,seedlings ,it is not enough to make a successful graft and to watch it carefully during the growing season1 picking all sprouts off the stock1 spraying it so that insects will not chew the tender leaves and bark1 bracing it against windstorms and perching birds4 ,each graft must also be protected from winter injury4 ,for many years ,i have studied and experimented to find a successful way of achieving such protection4 ,to enumerate my many experiments1 from simple to far-fetched1 would be to write another book quite as long as this one4 ,my conclusion1 now1 is that there is little one can do to assist nature in the process of acclimatizing grafted plants and seedlings4 ,i have repeatedly noticed that the place where most damage is done by the cold is at the union between stock and graft4 ,for example1 ,i observed this on the ,european walnuts1 imported from ,poland1 grafted to ,minnesota black walnut stocks4 ,although both the buds and the wood of the top remained fresh and green1 the unions suffered severe1 and sometimes total winter injury4 ,in grafts where the latter occurred1 the dead cells soon caused the wood to ferment and sour4 ,occasionally1 a small group of healthy cells succeeded in re-establishing circulation with the unharmed1 grafted top and the graft1 continuing its growth1 would eventually overcome the injury it had suffered4 ,i have seen this occur with grafts of ,english walnut1 apricot and pecan4 ,a blackbird's nest in the crotch of a small tree suggested to me the most satisfactory guard ,i have yet found against this greatest of dangers to all exotic1 grafted varieties of nut trees4 ,the nest1 which enclosed over half of the graft union1 was partly composed of woolen fibers which its builder had gathered from barbed-wire fences that sheep had brushed against4 ,on the exposed portion of the graft union1 discoloration indicated injury and dead cells1 but on that part covered by the nest1 all the cells were alive and green4 ,i have improved on the bird's nest by wrapping a large wad of wool loosely around each graft union4 ,the value of wool is that it will not collect moisture and so start fermentation4 ,it allows the cells to breathe1 yet protects the union from the shock of temperature extremes4 ,birds will inevitably steal some of the strands of wool but this activity in and about the trees means a decrease in injuries from insects--a worthwhile exchange4 ,when an unusually large swelling at the graft union appears1 it is certain that the plant needs protection such as ,i have described4 ,such swellings result from a too-rapid multiplication of cells1 a condition which leaves the union weak and susceptible to injury4 ,although a union is never entirely safe1 even after many seasons of growth1 each year adds to the safety factor by the development of rough1 cork-like bark4 ,i suggest the use of a woolen guard for several winters1 by which time this outer bark should be able to do its protective work alone4 ,a successful but rather expensive method of winter protection1 both to the graft itself and its union with its host1 is to enclose the entire tree with a box-like structure consisting of four corrugated aluminum roofing sheets set up on their ends and countersunk into the ground about six inches4 ,the purpose of countersinking these below the ground surface is two-fold3 it stiffens and braces the structure and prevents the intrusion of mice and other rodents1 which may also appreciate both the shelter and possible food supply contained therein4 ,by fastening these sheets together with a stout wire you can depend on the structure to stand up against wind and snow pressures4 ,fill the entire inside with forest leaves1 oak leaves preferred1 as their insulating quality is the best and they are slow to rot and ferment4 ,when working with semi-hardy plants in a cold climate1 avoid fertilizing and cultivating the ground after the first of ,august4 ,doing so stimulates late growth and such growth is very likely to be badly injured during the winter months4 ,if fertilizer is used1 it should be early in the spring1 as soon as the ground is free from frost4 ,trees which persist in growing late into the fall are more subject to winter injury4 ,protective measures to avoid their doing so by inducing an earlier dormancy1 include keeping the soil around them dry and exposing1 somewhat1 the roots near the trunk of each tree4 ,my last word of advice in raising what might be termed semi-hardy trees1 is to grow them in sod1 the ordinary quack grass1 ,june grass1 bluegrass or other natural grass sods which can be found on your planting site4 ,although this will probably hold back your tree development for a few years1 until the roots are thoroughly established in the deeper soil beneath the sod roots1 it is surprising how many species of trees will thrive in sod and perish on open cultivated ground4 ,i can give no better example of this than relating a circumstance which bears this out in a most convincing way4 ,in #aida ,i purchased about #bej filbert seedlings from ,samuel ,graham of ,ithaca1 ,new ,york4 ,these were planted out on a field site and practically all of the plants made good growth the first year4 ,they were thoroughly cultivated4 ,the next year a second batch of plants of a like amount were purchased from the same man and of the same kind of seedlings4 ,mr4 ,graham told me that these were seedling trees from ,jones hybrid seeds which he had growing in his orchard4 ,these plants were put on heavy sod ground2 all plants were protected by screens1 but the plants on the sod ground were subject to a very wet season and it was necessary to build up the soil around some of the plants in order to save them from being drowned out4 ,today about #de plants are living on the sod culture and two or three barely alive exist in the open field culture4 ,although the plants remaining alive on the sod culture plot are almost pure filbert strain they are therefore very subject to the common hazel blight4 ,some have grown into bushes #aj feet high which later were hit by blight and have been reduced to small bushes4 ,others are producing good filbert-type nuts and are somewhat blight resistant1 but the main fact to remember is that about #a_/d of the plants on sod culture lived1 whereas not over #b are alive of the open field culture plants4 ,the distance between these plantings is approximately #a_/h of a mile4 ,in addition to being placed in sod these filberts which have survived are sheltered by rows of evergreen trees both on the south and on the north side which may be construed as of some assistance but is not altogether the reason for the tremendous difference between the winter protection value of sod and open field culture4 ,this is not the only example that ,i could cite but is one of the most outstanding ones which has come to my attention4 ,sod culture is now being recommended to fruit orchardists in this part of the country and in my own experience1 ,i can highly recommend it for apples1 plums1 pears1 mulberries and nut trees4 ,chapter #ae ,,tree ,,storage ,if it is necessary to store trees through the winter months1 one of several procedures may be followed4 ,if the trees are quite small1 their tops may be dipped in melted paraffin or beeswax1 not hot enough to injure the buds4 ,if the trees are too large for this to be practical1 wax may be painted on with a brush4 ,roots should be protected by heeling them in dirt4 ,an unheated cellar with a dirt floor is a very satisfactory place for storing trees4 ,select a corner of the cellar far from any source of heat or temperature change4 ,place the trees so that the roots are pointing toward the basement wall4 ,cover the roots to a depth of six inches with either sand or sandy loam1 packing the soil firmly to eliminate air pockets4 ,lastly1 cover the trees completely with burlap sacks4 ,once every two weeks1 the earth around the roots should be watered4 ,trees maintained in this way are conveniently ready to plant when the ground thaws out in the spring4 ,another and better method of storing trees is to plant them outside in a trench1 preferably on the north side of a building1 having first waxed them as described above4 ,one side of the trench should slope so that the trees will lie in an oblique position with their branches touching the ground4 ,the roots of these trees should be covered with dirt1 then more trees set alongside them1 until all have been planted and the earth made firm about their roots4 ,trees will usually suffer no damage during such winter storage if their roots have been properly packed in sand or sandy loam4 ,six or more cans1 each containing a little poisoned grain1 should be set among the branches4 ,if these cans are laid on their sides1 rodents will have easier access to the poison4 ,the branches of the trees should then be well covered with straw or hay1 with heavy boards laid on top to keep it from blowing away4 ,if trees are received for planting after the ground has frozen1 all that is necessary is to build a log fire on the side where they are to be heeled in4 ,this will thaw out the soil enough so that a trench can be made to accommodate them4 ,chapter #af ,,suggestions ,,on ,,grafting ,,methods ,grafting1 including budding1 may be defined as inserting a piece of wood which carries buds of a desired variety1 on a root stock sufficiently compatible to accept it1 for the purpose of propagation4 ,methods vary1 each nurseryman having one or more which he prefers1 but the principle is always the same4 ,scionwood may be cut the fall before grafting is to be done1 after the growing season has ended1 but some prefer to cut the scions in early spring4 ,this means that the scions must be stored until time to graft1 and correct storage is so important that nurserymen make elaborate provision for it4 ,i have found that keeping scions underground in a ,harrington graft storage box is the safest method4 ,an illustration of this box is given1 with directions for its construction and location4 ,a small quantity of scions may be kept in an icebox 7not a mechanical refrigerator71 by cutting them into convenient lengths of one or two feet1 dipping them in melted beeswax1 wrapping them in tar or asphalt paper and placing them close to the ice4 ,they will remain in good condition for several months if there is always a good supply of ice4 ,care must be taken in dipping the scions in melted wax1 for if the wax is too hot it will injure the buds4 ,it should never become so hot that it smokes4 ,i find it advisable to keep an unmelted piece of wax in the liquid wax to hold the temperature down4 ,another method of storing scions1 after they have been dipped in beeswax1 is to place them on the earth of a cellar floor and cover them with a few burlap sacks4 ,they should never be allowed to become wet or they will start to mold4 ,if they are to be stored in this way1 a watch must be kept for mice which will molest them and destroy them if they have an opportunity4 ,although bud wood may be stored in any of the three ways mentioned1 it should not be waxed4 ,because of this1 it is more likely to deteriorate4 ,it must be examined frequently and if mold is found1 the wood should be dipped in a ,bordeaux solution4 ,after drying1 it may be placed in storage again4 ,it is a good plan to wrap bud wood in tar or asphalt paper when storing it4 ,however1 ,i have found that the best storage conditions for all scionwood that ,i have yet discovered is in the use of peat moss4 ,peat moss must be on the distinctly acid side in order to perform the function of storing scionwood4 ,most peat moss is generally acid2 however the simple litmus paper test with which every high school pupil is familiar1 can be made4 ,having acquired good acid peat moss1 dampen a sufficient quantity to pack the scions in to give them liberal protection4 ,do not make the bundles of scionwood too large1 from #aj to #bj scions in a bundle is better than a large number and much easier to handle4 ,the moss should be prepared exactly the same as advised in storing chestnuts 7see chapter for storing seeds74 ,in this case it is not necessary to wax the scions at all4 ,the moss should be applied by sifting it into the open spaces between the scions and a larger wad at the base of the cuttings1 not at the terminal or bud ends as these would be better left unpacked4 ,the package is now rolled into a cylinder1 using tar paper or asphalt treated paper1 and both ends left open4 ,do not use ordinary paper or wax paper as it will turn moldy4 ,cylinders of tar paper containing the packed scions should be placed in a damp room like a cellar with a dirt floor which is cold enough to keep potatoes and other roots in good condition throughout the winter4 ,if the cellar is not a good storage cellar for roots and herbs it will not be good enough for the scionwood as it will be too warm generally4 ,neither should they be frozen solid1 therefore if a good root cellar is not obtainable then these should be put in the ,harrington graft box already described or placed under the sawdust in an icehouse and close to the ice4 ,an old-fashioned ice refrigerator will also make a good storage bin1 placing them close to the ice at all times4 ,illustration3 ,drwg by ,wm4 ,kuehn4 ,making a scarf with a plane preparatory to grafting4 ,selection of good scionwood and bud wood1 a very important matter1 is made according to definite standards4 ,some plants graft better if wood is used that has two seasons' growth1 but1 in general1 wood of the current season's growth is used4 ,it must have reached its maximum possible maturity before it is cut4 ,also1 some attention should be paid to the vigor of the growth which it has made during the season4 ,for instance1 in choosing between wood which has made only two or three inches' growth and that which has made a foot or more of growth1 both being equally sound and mature1 the more vigorous should be chosen4 ,attention should be paid to the development of the buds1 which should be plump and never immature4 ,it is advisable to label scions before they are stored to avoid the confusion that will result if they are mixed4 ,i find that the best method of doing this is to get a sheet of zinc1 from #bj to #cj gauge thick1 and cut it into strips one inch wide by one and three-quarters inches long4 ,i bore a small hole in one corner of each tag1 through which ,i thread #ah-;gauge copper wire1 doubled and with the bottom loop folded over 7see page #dj74 ,in preparing these tags1 it is important to remember that both wires must pass through the hole in the metal tag1 otherwise1 the slight movement due to winds will cause the metal to wear through4 ,two wires prevent this action indefinitely4 ,since a small wire cuts through a zinc tag in one or two years1 heavy wire must be used4 ,wire such as ,i have indicated is satisfactory4 ,i print the necessary information on each tag with a small1 steel awl1 and such labels are still legible after twenty-five years4 ,copper1 brass or aluminum would also make good tags1 but these metals are more expensive4 ,of course1 these tags may be used for small trees as well as grafts and scionwood and it is always well to do a good job of labeling all work1 since many errors may result from disregard to this important detail4 ,in the north1 the time to graft nut trees is when the cambium layer of the host1 or stock1 is active1 which is usually during the entire month of ,may4 ,this cambium layer consists of those cells lying just inside of the outer bark1 between it and the woody part of the tree4 ,when these cells are active1 the inner side of the bark feels slippery and a jelly-like substance can be scraped from it4 ,although this is the state in which the stock should be for grafting1 the condition of the scions should be almost the opposite1 rather dry and showing no signs of cambium activity4 ,the bark should cling firmly to the woody part of the scions1 whereas the bark of the stock should slip off readily4 ,another good and fairly satisfactory rule is never to graft the stocks of nut trees until after the young leaves appear4 ,in grafting young nursery trees not more than an inch in diameter1 the whole tree is cut off at any distance from the ground convenient to the nurseryman4 ,sometimes they are cut within a few inches of the ground1 sometimes two or three feet4 ,in my work1 ,i like to keep the scions as high above the ground as ,i can4 ,when the top of a stock is cut off1 there is a great deal of sap pressure and the tree bleeds4 ,it is a poor policy to attempt grafting while this is happening4 ,rather1 one should cut the tops off1 then wait for several days before inserting any grafts4 ,tools must be kept very sharp4 ,a good grafting knife is sharpened on one side only1 so that the blade is flat along the side which lies next to the cut made on the scion when it is trimmed4 ,if unaccustomed to handling a knife1 one can obtain more accurate results by using a small plane4 ,i do this by holding the scion firmly in my right hand and pulling it toward me1 against the cutting edge of the plane which is held in the left hand4 ,illustrations show how this is done4 ,the only disadvantage in using a plane is that one must exchange it for a knife to make the receiving cut in the stock before inserting the graft4 ,this necessitates exposing the graft to the air for a longer time than does using a single instrument4 ,spring budding is done during the same period as grafting4 ,bud wood is usually much larger in diameter than scionwood1 for it is easier to remove buds from big branches than from wood only one-quarter inch in diameter4 ,when budding is to be done1 take along only enough wood for half a day's work1 leaving the rest safely stored4 ,a piece of wood having a bud is prepared as shown in the illustrations ,a and ,b 7next page74 ,a ,t-shaped slot is made in the stock to receive the bud1 a process called shield budding4 ,this is tied in place with either string1 raffia or gummed tape1 as shown in ,c and ,d 7next page74 ,the bud must be free to grow1 and although it may be covered completely with wax1 no part of the binding material should be close to it4 ,since it is not necessary to cut off all the tree in budding1 enough of it may remain above the bud to brace the shoot that develops4 ,later1 it may be necessary to cut back the tree to the bud so that a callus will form and cause the wound to heal properly4 ,illustration3 ,drwg by ,wm4 ,kuehn ,shield ,budding4 ,best results are obtained when a graft union is coated with melted beeswax4 ,another and cheaper wax may be made by combining four parts of rosin1 one part of beeswax and one-sixteenth part of raw linseed oil4 ,to this is sometimes added a little lampblack to color the mixture so that it can be seen on the graft4 ,again1 care must be taken to prevent injuring the cells with wax that is too hot4 ,i have used many kinds of tying materials1 but the one which gives me best results is gummed tape1 which preparation ,i describe in another chapter4 ,by wrapping it in spirals around a graft union1 ,i have a material which holds the graft in place and at the same time excludes air4 ,the rubber also seems to encourage the formation of that tissue which unites the stock and scion4 ,in addition to tape1 melted wax should be brushed into those crevices and cracks which always occur in making a graft4 ,it is usually advisable1 although not necessary1 to shade new grafts4 ,to do this1 cover them with light-colored or white paper sacks4 ,never use glassine alone for it causes the grafts to overheat and so destroys them4 ,whatever tying material is used1 either to fasten on these bags or to support the grafts1 it should be inspected at intervals during the summer1 as it may constrict the graft or stock and injure or cut off the cambium4 ,after a scion begins to grow1 it must be firmly braced against the force of the wind1 for a heavy gale can rip out grafts made years before4 ,laths make good braces for growing shoots4 ,they may be attached to the main branch by stout waterproof twine such as binder twine1 and the growing graft tied with soft muslin strips to the lath4 ,as the graft grows more muslin strips should be used to keep the excessive growth anchored to the lath4 ,grafts will often make three or more feet in growth in one season4 ,it is important to remember that sprouts or buds which start from the stock must be rubbed off4 ,if they are allowed to flourish1 they may prevent the scion from growing4 ,when working over a tree several inches in diameter1 it becomes an art to keep the tree stock satisfied1 yet to encourage the growth of the scions4 ,in large trees1 a few sprouts must grow to nourish the root system1 but this is not necessary if the stock is one inch1 or less1 in diameter4 ,chapter #ag ,,grafting ,,tape ,,versus ,,raffia ,it is necessary that a person who is grafting trees and developing hybrids experiment not only with the plants he is interested in1 but also with the equipment and materials he uses4 ,for more than twelve years1 ,i used raffia to tie the grafts ,i made1 becoming more annoyed and irritated with its limitations each year4 ,finally1 ,i began trying other materials1 until ,i found one which ,i think is very satisfactory4 ,this is a rubberized grafting tape4 ,at my nursery1 we make our own tape4 ,we buy pure rubber gum1 known as ,lotol ,,nc-#cef1 from the ,naugatuck ,chemical ,company1 at a cost of #g4ej for five gallons1 ,f4,o4,b4 their factory4 ,with this1 we use unbleached muslin of an #hj x #hj mesh1 or finer4 ,as the muslin is usually a yard wide1 we fold it and take it to a printing firm1 where1 for a small charge1 it is cut into both one-half and three-quarter inch strips by being fed through a paper-cutting machine4 ,we use the wider strips for heavy work on large trees which have three to five-inch stubs2 the narrower strips we use in the nursery1 grafting young seedlings4 ,first1 pour about a gallon of the rubber compound into a twelve or sixteen-quart pail having a smooth1 rolled edge4 ,next1 separate a dozen or so of the strips of muslin4 ,then1 set out a pair of rails on which to dry the tape after it has been dipped4 ,i make these rails by using two #a x #b boards about twelve feet in length1 nailed together at the ends with boards two feet long4 ,this frame1 resting on carpenter's horses or benches1 makes a good drying rack4 ,holding a piece of tape by one end1 submerge it in the rubber solution1 forcing it down with a spatula or knife4 ,swishing it around or moving it up and down several times helps to fill the pores with rubber4 ,drag it from the solution by pulling it sharply over the rolled edge of the pail1 using the spatula on the upper side of the strip to scrape off superfluous rubber4 ,a little practice soon enables one to judge the amount of rubber needed on the tape4 ,there should not be so much that it drips off4 ,hang the tape on the rack so that the ends are attached to the rails1 the tape sagging slightly in the center4 ,space the pieces of tape so that they do not touch1 for1 if they do1 they will be very difficult to separate later4 ,after they have dried for twenty-four hours1 wind the tape on pieces of cardboard about one foot square1 being careful not to overlap the tape4 ,the tape is now ready for field-work4 ,i want to mention some of the advantages ,i have found in using this rubberized tape rather than raffia4 ,the tape is uniform throughout and is stronger than raffia4 ,it does not fly around and frequently get tangled as the latter does4 ,there is no necessity for keeping it slightly damp to be usable4 ,it may easily be torn off at any convenient length or it may be cut without injuring the edge of the grafting knife4 ,a last advantage is that it is self-sealing since it overlaps on itself slightly when wound around a graft union4 ,because of this1 there is no necessity for painting the finished graft with melted wax as is absolutely vital when using raffia4 ,personally1 ,i use wax in addition to the tape for ,i feel that it is probably safer with that extra protection4 ,also it gives me an opportunity to wax over the tip end of the scion when it is devoid of a terminal bud4 ,the only disadvantage in using tape is its cost which1 ,i must admit1 is very much higher than that of raffia4 ,but if1 by using tape1 twice as many grafts can be made each day1 and if the resulting takes are #ej better1 as they have been in my experience1 then the cost is justified and raffia is actually the more expensive to use4 ,chapter #ah ,,effects ,,of ,,grafting ,,on ,,unlike ,,stocks ,it is unquestionably a great shock to a tree when #ij of its top is cut off4 ,if it is healthy and vigorous1 the root system will try to recover1 using every means possible to do so4 ,if a new top is grafted to it1 the stock must either accept and nourish that foreign and sometimes incompatible new part1 or give up its struggle for life4 ,nature and the tree stock usually accept the challenge and the graft begins to grow4 ,in an attempt to continue with its own identity1 the stock will bring into activity adventitious buds4 ,these are tiny microscopic buds imbedded in the bark of a tree that are not apparent to the eye but are nature's protection against destruction of the individual plant4 ,but these must be removed by the horticulturist to insure proper nourishment of the grafts4 ,because the root system is striving hard to live1 and because it is usually the stronger1 it may force the top to accept certain of its characteristics4 ,occasionally1 it may assume some qualities of the original top4 ,such cooperation is necessary if either is to survive4 ,first of all1 the grafted scions must accept the vital quality of climatic hardiness1 a powerful factor developed through ages spent in a certain climate4 ,to hasten the acclimatization of a tender variety1 ,i cut scionwood from such unions early in the winter1 storing it until spring4 ,when these scions are grafted on new root systems1 ,i find that they are much more readily accepted than the first grafts were4 ,the following season1 ,i allow the grafts of this later union to go through their first winter of exposure4 ,early each spring ,i continue to cut scions from the most recent unions and graft them to new root systems1 so hastening and setting the factor of hardiness through frequent asexual propagation4 ,because my observations of the effects of scion on root and vice versa1 have not extended over a sufficient period of time1 ,i think it is possible that the changes ,i have seen may be only transient4 ,in any case1 ,i do know that the phenomenon occurs1 for ,i have seen many examples of it4 ,one instance in which the stock was apparently affecting the scions1 occurred in the case of several varieties of black walnuts which had been grafted on wild butternut stock over a period of sixteen years4 ,the walnut top flourished but tended to outgrow the butternut1 so that the caliber of the walnut was greater than that of the stock a few inches below the graft union4 ,i also noticed that1 although the graft began to bear about as early as black walnuts do when they are grafted on their own species1 the nuts did not mature at all during the first few years of bearing4 ,in #aich1 after a favorable season1 ,i found mature nuts on one variety1 the ,thomas4 ,these nuts varied in size more than they do when grafted on black walnut4 ,the most surprising thing about them1 though1 was that they did not have the characteristic black walnut flavor4 ,when properly dried and cured1 they could have passed as an entirely different nut since they tasted like neither the black walnut1 the butternut nor the ,persian walnut4 ,the overgrowth of the ,ohio black walnut1 grafted on butternut1 was even more apparent than that of the ,thomas4 ,these nuts were1 as ,i have said1 immature the first few years they appeared and they1 too1 lacked the usual black walnut flavor4 ,in their case1 however1 the most striking change was in the shape and structure of their shells which were elongated like butternuts1 with corrugations typical of those found on butternuts and nearly as deep and sharp4 7,see ,illustration in ,chapter #a1 ,page #e47 ,in #aicg1 ,i made experimental graftings on native black walnut stocks of the ,weschcke ,no4 #d butternut1 a variety ,i found to be superior to hundreds of other native trees tested4 ,the grafts grew luxuriantly and in #aidj1 produced about two pounds of nuts4 ,these nuts were approximately #cj larger than those on the parent tree4 ,they cracked well and the kernels were similar to those from the parent tree4 ,they definitely distinguished themselves1 however1 by being a free-hulling nut1 which is not true of the mother tree nor of most butternuts4 ,soon after the nuts had dropped to the ground and were still green1 they were hulled and their hulls peeled off like those of the ,persian walnut1 leaving the nuts clean and free from remnants4 ,apparently this phenomenon was a transient one since later crops did not display this free-hulling feature4 ,i have mentioned1 elsewhere1 the seedling apricot which came into bearing in ,st4 ,paul1 and how ,i obtained grafts before it died during a very cold winter4 ,i have grafted scions of this apricot on both hybrid and wild plum stocks repeatedly and this apricot now exhibits a material gain in hardiness4 ,it overgrows the plum stock1 but this does not seem to inhibit its bearing1 the fruit growing to greater size than that of the mother tree4 ,these are some of the instances in which ,i have seen stock exert a definite1 and1 mainly a beneficial influence on its grafted top4 ,it may easily be that these are only of a temporary nature and until ,i have seen them maintained for many more years1 ,i must consider them to be transient effects4 ,chapter #ai ,,distinguishing ,,characteristics ,,of ,,scions ,loss of identification markings from my grafted trees has1 on occasion1 caused me much confusion4 ,there was one time when ,i had from six to ten varieties of hickories and their hybrids grafted on wild bitternut hickory stocks1 totally lacking in identification4 ,although this disconcerted me considerably1 ,i knew of nothing ,i could do except to wait for the grafts to bear nuts and determine the varieties from these4 ,as ,i continued my experimental grafting1 ,i made sure that the tags ,i used were not only indestructible1 but also secured to the grafts in such a way that the action of the wind could not wear them out nor cause them to drop off4 ,not long after this had happened1 ,i received from ,dr4 ,deming a shipment of about twenty varieties of hickory scions4 ,while ,i was preparing this material for grafting1 ,i noticed that each variety could be readily distinguished by its appearance in general and1 specifically1 by differences in its leaf scars4 ,i also noticed markings on the bark1 particularly the stomata1 which differed with each variety4 ,color and stripes added further differentiation4 ,although ,i also found variations in the size and shape of the buds1 ,i later discovered that these do not always remain constant within a variety1 but depend somewhat on each season's growth4 ,for instance1 a second growth sometimes develops during a favorable season with a large number of lateral buds growing out of it like spines4 ,it seemed to me that if scions could be maintained in an approximately fresh state1 they would furnish a key by which any variety of graft could be determined as easily as it could by its nuts4 ,i therefore set myself to preserve scionwood in its fresh state4 ,first1 ,i cut five-inch pieces of plump1 healthy wood1 each piece having a terminal bud4 ,i placed these buds downward in large test tubes which ,i then filled with pure1 strained honey4 ,such models did very well for a time1 but after about a year1 the honey crystallized and of course the scions were no longer visible4 ,i emptied the tubes and washed them1 cleaned the scions in warm water1 replaced them and refilled the tubes with pure glycerine4 ,i submerged a thin1 zinc tag1 stencilled with the varietal name and bent to conform with the contour of the tube1 inside of each one as a name plate which could not easily be lost or removed4 ,i also labeled each cork with the name of the variety enclosed so that any one of them could be located when looking down at a nest of tubes in a vertical position4 ,in order to display these preserved specimens at illustrated lectures1 ,i had a rack made of redwood1 of a size to hold twenty tubes4 ,the tubes could easily be taken from the rack for closer observation by members of an audience4 ,i find this to be an interesting adjunct to various nut culture exhibits ,i make in trying to promote nut culture education4 ,since ,i was able to identify my unlabeled1 hickory grafts by means of this catalogue of submerged scions1 ,i consider it of great practical worth4 ,at the present time1 ,i have about #ej hickory specimens1 a good catalogue1 although not a complete one4 ,i see no reason why the same thing could not be done with black walnut or any other kind of nut scions4 ,chapter #bj ,,hybridizing ,working with nature to develop new varieties of trees is fascinating although it requires infinite patience and study combined with skill and concentration4 ,a person without experience may taste of this pleasure1 however1 by trying his hand at cross-pollination1 and there is no end to the number of hybrids possible4 ,in attempting to make crosses1 one must necessarily understand the botanical relationship between the trees to be crossed4 ,trees of the same species cross readily in almost all cases2 trees of the same genus are not as easily crossed2 trees belonging only to the same family are usually difficult to cross4 ,it is generally assumed that trees not in the same family are impossible to hybridize4 ,the plum serves as a practical example of this4 ,the ,american wild plum crosses readily with almost any other plum and particularly well with the ,japanese plum4 ,these crosses have resulted in such phenomenal fruit as the ,underwood plum1 a cross made between species4 ,if a cross were made between a chestnut and a walnut1 it would be between members of different families4 ,i recommend to anyone who is attempting to cross-pollinate for the first time1 that he limit his work to crosses made within species4 ,his chances of success will be greater and such success added to the experience he is acquiring1 will give him the background needed for more difficult hybridizing4 ,crosses made between filberts and hazels usually produce great changes in the resulting fruit4 ,j4 ,f4 ,jones won considerable horticultural fame from crosses he made between the wild ,american hazel known as the ,rush hazel1 and such varieties of the ,european filbert as the ,italian ,red and ,daviana4 ,hazel and filbert cross readily and the resulting seedlings will usually bear after only three or four years4 ,for both these reasons1 they are good material for a beginner to work with4 ,if the wild hazel is to be used as the female1 or mother1 of the cross1 it is necessary to pick off all the male blossoms1 or staminate blooms4 ,this should be done long before they begin to expand4 ,the pistillate1 or female blossoms1 should be enclosed in bags1 about six of the three-pound1 common kraft bags should be enough4 ,these are slipped over those branches which bear female blossoms and are tied around a heavy packing of absorbent cotton1 which has been wound around the branch at approximately the place where the opening of the bag will be4 ,in fastening the mouth of the bag around the cotton1 ,i find that ,no4 #ah copper wire1 wrapped several times around and the ends twisted together1 is more satisfactory than string4 ,this makes a pollen-tight house for the pistillate blossoms but not one so air-tight as to cause any damage to either the plant or blossoms4 ,in order to have pollen available at the proper time1 it is necessary to cut a few filbert branches which bear staminate blooms and store them in a dark1 cold place to prevent the pollen from ripening too soon4 ,i recommend keeping such branches in dampened sphagnum moss until it is time for the pollen to ripen1 or if a cold cellar is available1 burying the cut ends of large branches carrying male catkins one foot deep in clean1 moist sand4 ,when the pollen is wanted1 the branches should be placed in a container of water and set near a window where sunlight will reach them4 ,usually1 after one day of exposure to bright sunlight1 the staminate blooms will expand and begin to shed their pollen4 ,the pollen may easily be collected by allowing an extended catkin to droop inside a vial or test tube and then1 as the catkin rests against its inner wall1 tapping the outside of the tube sharply with a pencil to jar the pollen grains loose4 ,a separate test tube must be used for each variety of pollen to be experimented with4 ,by following this procedure for several days with all the staminate blooms that have been gathered1 the experimenter should have enough pollen for work on a small scale4 ,the test tubes containing this pollen should never be stoppered with corks1 but with plugs of absorbent cotton1 which will allow the passage of air4 ,pollen may be stored in this manner for several days1 possibly as long as two weeks1 if it is kept dry4 ,by a close observation of the blooming period of the wild hazels1 one is able to determine the best time for placing the filbert pollen on the pistillate blossoms4 ,no attempt should be made to do so until the male catkins of the wild hazel species are so entirely exhausted that no amount of shaking will release any grains of pollen4 ,when this condition exists1 it is time to move the stored filbert branches to strong sunlight4 ,a quiet day should be chosen to pollinize the hazels for two reasons4 ,if there is a wind1 it will blow away the pollen and so make the work more difficult4 ,a wind will also increase the danger of the hazels being fertilized by native hazel pollen which may still be circulating in the air and which the flowers may prefer to filbert pollen4 ,when good conditions are present1 then1 the hybridizer proceeds to his work4 ,a brush with which to transfer pollen from the vial to the pistillate blossoms is made by wrapping a little absorbent cotton around the end of a match4 ,the paper bag is removed from around a group of hazel blossoms1 a small amount of pollen is dabbed on each blossom and the bag is immediately replaced1 to remain on for two more weeks4 ,when the bags are finally taken off1 the branches should be marked to indicate that the nuts will be hybrids4 ,before receiving pollen1 each pistillate blossom has1 emerging from its bud tip1 a few delicate red or pink spikes which are sticky enough to make pollen adhere to them4 ,within a few days after receiving pollen1 these spikes may dry up and turn black1 a fair indication that the pollen has been effective4 ,if the pollen does not take hold1 the spikes of the staminate blooms are sure to continue pink for a long time4 ,i have seen them in the middle of the summer1 still blooming and waiting for pollen which would let them continue on their cycle4 ,this ability of hazel flowers to remain receptive for a long period allows the nut-culturist ample time to accomplish his work4 ,it is not so true with all members of the nut tree group1 some1 such as the ,english walnuts1 being receptive for such a short period that only by very frequent examination and many applications of pollen can one be sure of making a cross4 ,early in the fall1 the hybrid nuts should be enclosed in a wire screen to prevent mice and squirrels from taking them before they are ripe4 ,such wire screens may be used in the form of a bag and fastened around each branch4 ,when the husks turn brown and dry1 the nuts are ripe1 and ready to be gathered and planted4 ,careful handling of the nuts is advisable to preserve their viability4 ,they should be planted in an outdoor bed which has been fully protected against the invasion of rodents4 ,a screen such as ,i described for other nut seed is satisfactory for these hybrid nuts but it need not be as large as that4 ,after the nuts have sprouted and the plants have grown for one season1 they may be transplanted into a permanent location where they should again be well protected against mice by a trunk screen1 and against rabbits by driving a stout stake deep into the ground on the south side of the tree and tying it to the tree4 ,this use of a stake discourages rabbits from cutting off the tree4 ,there are innumerable other crosses that can be made as well as those between hazels and filberts4 ,it is possible1 for example1 to cross the ,english walnut with the black walnut4 ,many such crosses have been made although none of them is known to have produced superior nuts4 ,thousands of crosses exist between butternuts and ,japanese heartnuts4 ,many of these are of some worth and are being propagated4 ,crosses between heartnut and butternut are easily made1 following the same procedure used in crossing hazels and filberts1 except that larger bags are necessary for covering the female blossoms4 ,also1 these bags should have a small1 celluloid window glued into a convenient place1 so that the progress of the female blossoms toward maturity can be observed4 ,when hybridizing walnuts1 it is necessary to use a pollen gun instead of removing the bag from around the female blossoms and applying the pollen with a cotton-covered applicator4 ,such a pollen gun can be made by using a glass vial which does not hold more than an ounce of liquid4 ,an atomizer bulb1 attached to a short copper or brass tube soldered into a metal screw-cap1 is fitted to the vial4 ,another small copper or brass tube should also be inserted in the screw-cap close to the first one4 ,the second tube should be bent to a right angle above the stopper and its projecting end filed to a sharp point4 ,without removing the bag from around the pistillate blossoms1 the hybridizer forces the point of the atomizer through the cotton wadding between bag and branch4 ,the pollen in the vial is blown through the tube into the bag in a cloud1 covering all the enclosed blossoms4 ,it is advisable to repeat this on several successive days to make certain of reaching the female blossoms during their most receptive period4 ,illustration3 #h x #h x #h foot tightly woven sheet of unbleached muslin stretched over mother hazel plant during pollination period in the process of making controlled crosses between it and filbert parents4 ,photo by ,c4 ,weschcke4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,weschcke ,,pollen ,,gun ,taper end of copper tube 444 not absolutely necessary1 but it saves pollen4 ,long fibre cotton wad wired to intake side of bulb to strain out foreign pollens that may be in atmosphere4 ,de ,vilbiss atomizer bulb4 ,pollen grains ,any small glass bottle with a wide mouth and screw cap4 ,tubes ,a and ,b--#c_/af outside diameter copper tubing can be purchased at any garage4 ,solder both tubes to screw cover ,c4 ,drwg by ,wm4 ,kuehn ,how to make pollen gun4 ,chapter #ba ,,toxicity ,,among ,,trees ,,and ,,plants ,although quack grass will grow luxuriantly up to the trunks of both black walnut and butternut trees1 ,i know1 from things ,i have seen myself1 that the roots of the latter and probably of the former have a deadly effect on members of the evergreen family4 ,i have seen northern white pine and other pines1 too1 suddenly lose their needles and die when1 as large trees1 they have been transplanted to the vicinity of butternut trees4 ,to save as many of these transplanted trees as possible1 it was necessary for me to sacrifice almost one hundred fine butternut trees by cutting them off close to the ground and pruning all the sprouts that started4 ,other instances have also demonstrated to me this deleterious power of butternut trees over evergreens4 ,for years1 ,i watched a struggle between a small butternut tree and a large ,mugho pine4 ,gradually the ,mugho pine was succumbing4 ,at last1 when the pine had lost over half its branches on the side near the butternut1 ,i decided to take an active part in the fight4 ,i cut off the trunk of the butternut and pruned off all of its sprouts4 ,the butternut surrendered and died4 ,the ,mugho pine took new heart1 lived and again flourished4 ,at another time1 ,i transplanted several thousand ,montana pines1 about thirty or forty of which came within the branch limits of a medium size butternut tree4 ,within a year1 these thirty or more trees had turned brown and were completely dead1 while those immediately outside the branch area were dwarfed and not at all thrifty4 ,the trees farther from the butternut were unaffected and grew consistently well4 ,a similar condition1 although not to the same degree1 developed under a white oak where more ,mugho pines were growing4 ,another instance occurred when a planting of several thousand ,colorado blue spruce were lined out and fell within the area affected by two butternut trees4 ,the spruce were all dead within a few months4 ,many people have observed the detrimental effect of trees of the walnut family on alfalfa1 tomatoes and potatoes1 resulting in wilting and dying4 ,it is the root systems of the walnut which are responsible for this damage4 ,apparently1 there is some chemical elaborated near the surface of the roots1 and sensitive plants1 whose roots come in contact with either roots or ground containing this factor1 are injured and sometimes killed by it4 ,one must therefore be very cautious about trusting these trees as protectors of many of the ornamental and garden plants4 ,i am certain1 from my own observations1 that their influence on evergreens is strongly antagonistic4 ,on another basis is the association between catalpas and chestnut trees growing adjacent to one another4 ,constructive symbiosis apparently develops when a young chestnut tree is planted within the radius of the root system of a catalpa4 ,the latter very definitely influences the chestnut tree to grow more vigorously than it otherwise would4 ,i have recorded my observations of these antagonisms and friendships between trees and plants to show that they are a reality which should be taken into consideration in grouping and transplanting4 ,such warnings are infrequent because some people may mistake them as condemnations of certain favorite trees4 ,i do not intend them as such1 for these plants are often valuable and worthwhile4 ,this ability which they have developed through the many years of their existence is a guarantee of the sturdiness and strength of their family and species1 not at all a quality to be condemned4 ,,conclusion ,if ,i had written this book twenty years ago1 ,i would have prophesied a future for nut culture in the north1 full of wonder1 hope and profit4 ,if ,i had written it ten years ago1 ,i should have filled it with discouragement and disillusion4 ,now1 after growing such trees for more than #cj years1 ,i realize that the truth lies somewhere between these extremes1 but nearer the first4 ,it is seldom practical to move native trees very far from their natural range1 nor is it necessary to do so in this part of the north3 ,we have four fine1 native nut trees3 the hazel1 the butternut1 the black walnut and the hickory4 ,in my experience1 these four have completely demonstrated their practical worth4 ,if commercialization is the primary hope of the nut tree planter1 he should first consider the large1 hardy hybrids1 known as hazilberts1 which ,i have produced between a large ,wisconsin wild hazel and ,european filberts4 ,hazilberts equal the best ,european filberts in every way1 without the latter's disadvantage of susceptibility to hazel blight and its lack of hardiness4 ,they are as hardy as the common wild hazel and are more adaptable to environment and soil conditions than any other native nut tree4 ,they may be trained into trees or allowed to grow as large bushes4 ,like all other filberts and hazels1 they1 too1 need companion plants for cross pollinization to obtain full crops of nuts4 ,the butternut is also a very adaptable tree4 ,no one who is acquainted with it1 questions the quality of the butternut kernel4 ,in a good variety1 the nuts should crack out in halves and the kernels drop out readily4 ,so many good varieties of black walnuts are being propagated1 ,i need not say much about them1 except that many of the best ones are not practical for this climate4 ,nurserymen who grow them can give the best advice about varieties to anyone selecting black walnuts for orchard planting4 ,hickories are the last of these native trees to be recommended from a commercial standpoint1 as they are the most particular about soil and climate4 ,however1 with improved propagation methods and planting technique they should become some day as valuable as pecan plantations have become valuable to the south4 ,considering the nut tree as a dooryard tree1 an ornament rather than a business1 makes it possible to include many more species as suitable for growing in the north4 ,for this purpose1 ,i suggest heartnuts1 chestnuts1 pecans and hiccans4 ,the heartnut tree is always one to draw attention and interest1 picturesque in its leaves1 blossoms and clusters of nuts4 ,last1 but certainly not least in it potentialities1 is the ,english walnut4 ,i am certain that we shall have some varieties of these which will be hardy enough to plant in the north4 ,when these have been completely proven1 they will be a delightful addition to the number of trees flourishing here4 ,what family would not receive enjoyment and satisfaction from having1 in its dooryard1 a gracious ,english walnut tree1 its spreading branches laden with nuts8 ,although the commercial aspect of producing hazilberts is engrossing me at the present time1 my greatest pleasure in nut culture still comes1 as it always shall come1 from actual work with these trees4 ,it is both a physical and mental tonic4 ,i recommend nut tree culture to everyone who enjoys spending his time out-of-doors1 who is inspired by work of a creative nature1 and who appreciates having trees1 or even one tree1 of his own4 ,suggested reading on ,nut ,tree ,culture3 ,nut ,growing by ,morris ,nut ,growers' ,handbook by ,bush ,tree ,crops by ,j4 ,russell ,smith ,the ,nut ,culturist by ,fuller ,improved ,nut ,tree of ,north ,america by ,clarence ,reed ,annual ,reports of ,n4,n4,g4,a4