,transcrib$ f ! #aijf ,ar*ibald         
,con/able  ,co4 ,ltd4 edition by ,david 
,price1 ccx#jgd;cov5try4ac4uk           
,,celtic ,,religion  ,,9 ,,pre-,,*ri/ian
 ,,times      ,by  ,,edw>d ,,anwyl1     
,m4,a4    ,,late ,,classical ,,s*ol> ,,(
 ,,oriel ,,college1 ,,ox=d  ,,pr(essor  
,,( ,,wel% ,,& ,,comp>ative ,,philology 
,,at  ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,college ,,(     
,,wales1 ,,ab]y/wy?  ,,act+-,,*airman   
,,( ,,! ,,c5tral ,,wel% ,,bo>d  ,,=     
,,int]m$iate ,,education    ,,london    
,,ar*ibald ,,con/able  ,,co ,,ltd  #af  
,,james ,,/reet ,,haym>ket  #aijf       
,ed9burgh3 ,t4 & ,a4 ,,con/able1 ,pr9t]s
 to ,8 ,maje/y          ,,=eword      ,x
 is only z prehi/oric ar*aeology has    
come to ?r[ m & m  light on ! e>ly      
civilisations ( ,celtic l&s t x has     
become  possible to int]pret ,celtic    
religion f a ?or\ghly mod]n viewpo9t4   
,! au?or cordially ackn[l$ges 8         
indebt$ness to num]\s writ]s on  ?is    
subject1 b 8 rese>*es into "s portions (
 ! field  especially h sugge/$ to him ! 

possibility ( giv+ a new  pres5tation to
 c]ta9 facts & gr\ps ( facts1 :i* !     
exi/+  evid5ce disclos$4  ,x is to be   
hop$ t a new int]e/ 9 !  religion ( !   
,celts may !reby be ar\s$4    ,e4       
,,anwyl4    ,,ab]y/wy?1  ,febru>y #ae1  
#aijf4          ,,*apt]                 
,i--,,introductory3 ,,! ,,celts      ,9 
deal+ ) ! subject ( ',celtic ,religion' 
! fir/ duty ( !  writ] is to expla9 !   
s5se 9 :i* ! t]m ',celtic' w be us$ 9   
?is "w4  ,x w be us$ 9 ref]5ce to ^?    
c\ntries & di/ricts  :i*1 9 hi/oric     
times1 h be5 at "o "t or o!r ma9ly (    
,celtic  spee*4  ,x does n foll[ t all !
 races :i* spoke a =m ( !  ,celtic      
tongue1 a tongue ( ! ,indo-,european    
family1 7 all ( ! same  /ock4  ,inde$1  
e?nological & ar*aeological evid5ce t5ds
 to  e/abli% cle>ly t1 9 ,gaul &        
,brita91 = example1 man _h liv$  = ages 
be=e ! introduction ( any v>iety (      
,aryan or ,indo-,european  spee*1 & ?is 
0 probably ! case ?r\gh\t ! :ole (      
,we/]n  & ,s\!rn ,europe4  ,fur!r1 9 !  

light ( comp>ative philology1 x  has n[ 
become abundantly cle> t ! =ms (        
,indo-,european spee*  :i* we call      
,celtic are mo/ closely relat$ to ^? ( !
 ,italic  family1 ( :i* family ,lat9 is 
! be/ kn[n repres5tative4  ,f  ?is x    
foll[s t we are to look = ! c5tre (     
dissem9ation (  ,aryan ,celtic spee* 9  
"s di/rict ( ,europe t c\ld h be5 !     
natural c5tre ( dissem9ation also = !   
,italic languages4  ,f ?is  common      
c5tre1 ?r\gh conque/ & ! comm]cial      
int]c\rse :i*  foll[$ x1 ! tribes :i*   
spoke ! v>i\s =ms ( ,celtic &  ,italic  
spee* spread into ! di/ricts occupi$ by 
!m 9 hi/oric  times4  ,! common c5tre ( 
radiation = ,celtic & ,italic spee* 0   
probably 9 ! di/ricts ( ,noricum &      
,pannonia1 ! mod]n ,c>niola1  ,c>9?ia1  
etc41 & ! neighb\r+ p>ts ( ! ,danube    
valley4  ,!  conqu]+ ,aryan-speak+      
,celts & ,italians =m$ a milit>y        
ari/ocracy1 & _! success 9 ext5d+ !     
range ( _! languages  0 l>gely due to _!
 skill 9 arms1 comb9$1 9 all            

probability1  ) a tal5t = adm9i/ration4 
,?is milit>y ari/ocracy 0 (  k9dr$ type 
to t :i* c>ri$ ,aryan spee* into ,india 
& ,p]sia1  ,arm5ia & ,greece1 n to speak
 ( ! orig9al speak]s ( ! ,teutonic  &   
,slavonic tongues4  ,9 view ( !         
necessity ( discov]+ a c5tre1  :5ce !   
,indo-,european or ,aryan languages 9   
g5]al c\ld h  radiat$ ,ea/w>ds1 z well z
 ,we/w>ds1 ! t5d5cy to-day is to  reg>d 
^! tongues z hav+ be5 spok5 orig9ally 9 
"s di/rict  betwe5 ! ,c>pa?ians & !     
,/eppes1 9 ! =m ( k9dr$ dialects  ( a   
common spee*4  ,"s bran*es ( ! tribes   
:i* spoke ^!  dialects p5etrat$ into    
,c5tral ,europe1 d\btless along !       
,danube1 &1  f ! ,danube valley1 ext5d$ 
_! conque/s toge!r ) _!  v>i\s =ms (    
,aryan spee* into ,s\!rn & ,we/]n       
,europe4  ,!  proportion ( conqu]ors to 
conqu]$ 0 n uni=m 9 all !  c\ntries :]e 
!y held sway1 s t ! am\nt ( ,aryan blood
 9  _! resultant population v>i$        
greatly4  ,9 mo/ cases1 ! families  ( ! 
orig9al conqu]ors1 by _! skill 9 ! art (

 w> & a  c]ta9 in/9ct ( gov]nm5t1       
succe$$ 9 mak+ _! own tongues !  dom9ant
 m$ia ( communication 9 ! l&s :]e !y    
rul$1 ) !  result t mo/ ( ! languages ( 
,europe to-day are ( ! ,aryan or        
,indo-,european type4  ,x does n1 h[ev]1
 foll[ necess>ily f ?is  t ! e>ly       
religi\s ideas or ! arti/ic civilisation
 ( c\ntries  n[ ,aryan 9 spee*1 came    
necess>ily f ! conqu]ors r ?an !        
conqu]$4  ,9 ! la/ c5tury x 0 long held 
t 9 c\ntries (  ,aryan spee* ! ess5tial 
features ( _! civilisation1 _!  religi\s
 ideas1 _! social in/itutions1 nay1 m1  
_! inhabitants  !mselves1 7 ( ,aryan    
orig94    ,a m critical inve/igation    
has1 h[ev]1 enabl$ u to di/+ui%  cle>ly 
betwe5 ! developm5t ( v>i\s factors (   
human life :i* 9  _! evolution c foll[ &
 (t5 h foll[$ m or less  indep5d5t l9es4
  ,! physical hi/ory ( race1 = in/ance1 
=ms a  problem by itself & mu/ be /udi$ 
by an?ropological & e?nological  me?ods4
  ,language1 aga91 has (t5 spread along 
l9es o!r ?an ^?  ( race1 & its          

inve/igation app]ta9s to ! sph]e ( !    
philologi/4  ,mat]ial civilisation1 too1
 has n ( necessity foll[$  ! l9es ei!r (
 racial or ( l+ui/ic developm5t1 & !    
se>*  = its anci5t trade-r\tes may be   
safely left to ! ar*aeologi/4  ,simil>ly
 ! spread ( ideas 9 religion & ?\ght is 
"o :i* has  advanc$ on l9es ( its own1 &
 its inve/igation mu/ be conduct$ by  ! 
me?ods & along ! l9es ( ! comp>ative    
/udy ( religions4    ,9 ! wide s5se1 !n1
 9 :i* ! ^w ',celtic religion' w be us$ 
9 ?is "w1 x w cov] ! modes ( religi\s   
?\ght preval5t 9  ! c\ntries & di/ricts1
 :i*1 9 c\rse ( "t1 7 ma9ly  *>act]is$  
by _! ,celtic spee*4  ,to ! sum-total ( 
^!  religi\s ideas contributions h be5  
made f _m s\rces4  ,x w\ld  be ra% to   
affirm t ! v>i\s /reams ( ,aryan ,celtic
 conque/ made  no contributions to !    
conceptions ( life & ( ! _w :i* !       
c\ntries ( _! conque/ came to hold 7& ! 
evid5ce ( language  po9ts1 inde$1 to "s 
su* contributions71 b _! quota appe>s to
  be small comp>$ ) t ( _! pr$ecessors2 

nor is ?is  surpris+1 9 view ( ! imm5se 
p]iod dur+ :i* ! l&s ( _!  conque/ _h   
be5 previ\sly occupi$4  ,no?+ is cle>]  
?an !  m>vell\s p]si/5ce ( traditional &
 immemorial modes ( ?\ght1  ev5 9 ! face
 ( conque/ & subjugation1 &1 :atev]     
ideas on  religion ! ,aryan conqu]ors ( 
,celtic l&s may h br\ght ) !m1  !y ^:   
conque/s 7 (t5 only p>tial c\ld n       
eradicate !  invet]ate beliefs ( _!     
pr$ecessors1 & ! result 9 ! end 0       
d\btless "s compromise1 or else !       
victory ( ! e>li] fai?4    ,b ! ,aryan  
conqu]ors ( ,gaul & ,italy !mselves 7 n 
m5 :o  _h advanc$ up ! ,danube 9 "o     
g5]ation4  ,^? m5 ( ,aryan spee*  :o    
p\r$ into ! ,italian p59sula & into     
,gaul 7 d\btless 9  blood n unmix$ ) !  
old] inhabitants ( ,c5tral ,europe1 & _h
  ent]$ into ! body ( ideas :i* =m$ !   
religi\s beliefs ( !  m5 ( ! ,danube    
valley4  ,! common modifications ( !    
,aryan tongue1  by ,italians & ,celts   
alike1 z comp>$ ) ,greek1 sugge/s       
contact  ) m5 ( diff]5t spee*4  ,among !

 names ( ,celtic gods1 too1 l  ^? ( o!r 
c\ntries1 we f9d roots t are app>5tly   
irr$ucible  to any f\nd 9               
,indo-,european spee*1 & we "k n :at    
pre-,aryan  tongues may h contribut$ !m4
  ,s*ol>s1 to-day1 are f> m alive  ?an  
!y ev] 7 be=e to ! complexity ( !       
contributory elem5ts  t h ent]$ into !  
tissue ( ! anci5t religions ( mank9d1  &
 ! m ! relics ( ,celtic religion are    
inve/igat$1 ! m  complex d its          
contributory factors become4  ,9 ! long 
ages be=e  hi/ory !re 7 unrecord$       
conque/s & migrations innum]able1 &     
ideas d n fail to spread because !re is 
no hi/orian to record !m4    ,! m !     
scanty remnants ( ,celtic religion are  
exam9$1 ! cle>]  x becomes t _m ( its   
*>act]i/ic features _h be5 evolv$  dur+ 
! va/ p]iod ( ! ages ( /one4  ,dur+ ^!  
mill5nia1 m5  _h evolv$1 concomitantly )
 _! mat]ial civilisation1 a k9d (  work+
 philosophy ( life1 traces ( :i* are    
f\nd 9 e l& :]e  ?is =m ( civilisation  
has prevail$4  ,man's religion c nev] be

  dissociat$ f 8 social exp]i5ce1 & !   
pa9ful /ages ?r\gh  :i* man rea*$ !     
agricultural life1 = example1 h left _! 
indelible impress on ! m9d ( man 9      
,we/]n ,europe1 z !y h 9  e l&4  ,we are
 ?us compell$1 f ! indications :i* we h 
(  ,celtic religion1 9 ! names ( its    
deities1 its rites1 & its  survivals 9  
folk-lore & leg5d1 to come to !         
conclusion1 t its  fundam5tal gr\ndwork 
is a body ( ideas1 simil> to ^? ( o!r   
l&s1 :i* 7 ! natural correlatives ( !   
phases ( exp]i5ce  ?r\gh :i* man pass$ 9
 8 em]g5ce into civilis$ life4  ,to     
demon/rate & to illu/rate ^! relations w
 be ! aim ( !  foll[+ *apt]s4           
,,*apt] ,,ii--,,! ,,*ief ,,phases ,,(   
,,celtic ,,civilisation      ,9 ! *ief  
c\ntries ( ,celtic civilisation1 ,gaul1 
,cisalp9e &  ,transalp9e1 ,brita9 &     
,irel&1 abundant mat]ials h be5 f\nd =  
elucidat+ ! /ages ( culture ?r\gh :i*   
man pass$ 9 prehi/oric  times4  ,9      
,brita91 = example1 palaeoli?ic man has 
left num]\s  specim5s ( 8 implem5ts1 b !

 =ms ev5 ( ^! rude implem5ts  sugge/ t  
!y1 too1 h be5 evolv$ f /ill m primitive
  types4  ,"s antiqu>ians h ?\ght to    
detect su* e>li] types 9  ! /ones t h   
be5 nam$ 'eoli?s' f\nd 9 ,k5t1 b1 ?\gh  
^! 'eoli?s' may possibly %[ human use1 !
 "q ( _!  hi/ory is f> f be+ settl$4  ,x
 is c]ta91 h[ev]1 t man  succe$$ 9      
ma9ta9+ himself = ages 9 ! company ( !  
mammo?1  ! cave-be>1 & o!r animals n[   
ext9ct4  ,:e!r palaeoli?ic man  surviv$ 
! ,ice ,age 9 ,brita9 has n s f> be5    
satisfactorily  decid$4  ,9 ,gaul1      
h[ev]1 !re is fair evid5ce ( cont9uity  
betwe5  ! ,palaeoli?ic & ,neoli?ic      
p]iods1 & ?is cont9uity mu/  obvi\sly h 
exi/$ some:]e4  ,/ill 9 spite ( !       
indications (  cont9uity1 ! civilisation
 ( primitive man 9 ,gaul pres5ts "o     
aspect  t is )\t any analogues 9 ! life 
( ! palaeoli?ic m5 ( !  ,riv] ,drift    
p]iod1 or 9 t ( man ( ! ,new ,/one ,age4
  ,! feature  9 "q is ! rem>kable       
arti/ic skill %[n by ! cave m5 ( !      
,dordogne di/rict4  ,"s ( ! draw+s &    

c>v+s ( ^! m5 reveal  a s5se ( =m :i*   
w\ld h done cr$it to m5 ( a f> lat] age4
  ,a  feature su* z ?is1 :atev] may h   
be5 its object1 :e!r x arose  f an ef=t 
by means ( 'sympa!tic magic' to cat*    
animals1 z ,m4  ,salomon ,re9a* sugge/s1
 or to ! m]e arti/ic impulse1 is a /&+  
rem9d] to u ( ! scant9ess ( our data =  
e/imat+ ! l9es (  man's religi\s & o!r  
developm5t 9 ! va/ epo*s ( prehi/oric   
"t4    ,we "k t f ! life ( hunt+ man    
pass$ into ! pa/oral /age1  hav+ le>n$  
to tame animals4  ,h[ he came to d s1 & 
by :at  motives he 0 actuat$1 is /ill a 
my/]y4  ,x may be1 z ,m4 ,salomon       
,re9a* has also sugge/$1 t x 0 "s curi\s
 & indef9able  s5se ( k9%ip ) !m t l$   
him to d s1 or m probably1 z  ! pres5t  
writ] ?9ks1 "s s5se ( a ne$ ( ! alliance
 (  animals aga9/ ho/ile spirits4  ,9   
all probability x 0 no motive  :i* we c 
n[ fa?om4  ,! m9d ( e>ly man 0 l !      
unfa?omable  m9d ( a boy4  ,f ! pa/oral 
life aga9 man pass$ aft] long ages  into
 ! life ( agriculture1 & ! rema9s (     

neoli?ic man 9 ,gaul  & 9 ,brita9 give u
 glimpses ( 8 life z a f>m]4  ,! ox1 !  
%eep1 ! pig1 ! goat1 & ! dog 7 8 dome/ic
 animals2 he c\ld  gr[ :eat & flax1 &   
c\ld supplem5t ! produce ( 8 f>m by     
means ( hunt+ & fi%+4  ,neoli?ic man    
c\ld sp9 & weave2 he  c\ld obta9 !      
necess>y fl9t = 8 implem5ts1 :i* he made
 by  *ipp+ & poli%+1 & he c\ld also make
 pott]y ( a rude v>iety4  ,9 its        
ess5tials we h "h ! beg9n+s ( !         
agricultural  civilisation ( man all !  
_w ov]4  ,9 life1 neoli?ic man dwelt    
sometimes 9 pit-dwell+s & sometimes 9   
hut-circles1 cov]$ ) a  ro( ( bran*es   
support$ by a c5tral pole4  ,9 dea?1 he 
0 buri$  ) 8 k9 9 long m\nds ( e>? call$
 b>r[s1 9 *amb]$ cairns  & cromle*s or  
dolm5s4  ,! latt] usually consi/ ( ?ree 
/&+  /ones cov]$ by a cap-/one2 =m+ !   
/ony skeleton ( a grave t  has be5      
expos$ to view aft] ! m\nd ( e>? t cov]$
 x has  be5 wa%$ away4  ,9 _! graves !  
dead 7 buri$ 9 a cr\*+  attitude1 & fre%
 burials 7 made z occasion requir$4     

,sometimes  ! cromle* is d\ble1 &       
occasionally !re is a hole 9 "o ( !     
/ones1 ! significance ( :i* is unkn[n1  
unless x may h be5 =  ! +ress & egress (
 s\ls4  ,graves ( ! dolm5 or cromle*    
type  are f\nd 9 all ! c\ntries ( ,we/]n
 ,europe1 ,nor? ,africa1 &  else:]e1    
:]ev] /one suitable = ! purpose ab\nds1 
& 9 ?is  we h a /rik+ illu/ration ( !   
way 9 :i* l9es ( developm5t  9 man's    
mat]ial civilisation are soon] or lat]  
correlat$ to 8  geographical1           
geological1 & o!r surr\nd+s4  ,!        
religi\s ideas (  man 9 neoli?ic times  
also came into correlation ) !          
conditions (  8 developm5t1 & !         
un9t]pret$ /one circles & pill>s ( !  _w
 are a /&+ witness to ! religi\s zeal ( 
a m9d t 0  haunt$ by /one4  ,be=e       
proce$+ to exemplify ?is !sis !         
subsequ5t tr5d ( ,celtic civilisation   
may be briefly sket*$4    ,?r\gh !      
pacific int]c\rse ( comm]ce1 bronze     
weapons &  implem5ts began to f9d _!    
way1 ab\t #bjjj ,b4,c4 or e>li]1 f      

,c5tral & ,s\!rn ,europe into ,gaul1 &  
!nce into ,brita94  ,9  ,brita9 !       
,bronze ,age beg9s at ab\t #aejj or     
#adjj ,b4,c41 & x is  ?\ght by "s       
ar*aeologi/s t bronze 0 work$ at ?is    
p]iod by  ! aid ( native t9 9 ,brita9   
itself4  ,!re are indications1 h[ev]1  t
 ! introduction ( bronze into ,brita9 0 
n by way ( comm]ce  alone4  ,ab\t !     
beg9n+ ( ! ,bronze p]iod are f\nd       
evid5ces 9  ?is isl& ( a race ( diff]5t 
type f t ( neoli?ic man1 be+  *>act]is$ 
by a r\nd skull & a p[]ful build1 & by  
g5]al  indications ( a m>tial be>+4  ,! 
rema9s ( ?is race are usually  f\nd 9   
r\nd b>r[s4    ,?is race1 :i* c]ta9ly   
us$ bronze weapons1 is g5]ally believ$  
to  h be5 ! fir/ wave t rea*$ ,brita9 ( 
,aryan conqu]ors (  ,celtic spee* f !   
ne>e/ "p ( ! cont95t1 :]e x mu/ h       
arriv$ "s "t previ\sly1 probably along !
 ,rh9e valley4  ,z !  type ( ,celtic    
spee* t has p5etrat$ f>!/ to ! we/ is t 
kn[n z ! ,goidelic or ,iri%1 x has n    
unreasonably be5 ?\ght t  ?is mu/ h be5 

! type t arriv$ 9 ,brita9 fir/4  ,!re   
are  indications1 too1 t x 0 ?is type t 
p5etrat$ fur!/ into !  we/ ( ,gaul4     
,its mo/ m>k$ *>act]i/ic is its         
pres]vation ( !  pronunciation ( ,u z   
'oo' & ( ,,qu1 :ile ! ',bry?onic' or    
,wel%  v>iety *ang$ ,u to a s\nd        
pron\nc$ l ! ,fr5* 'u' or ! ,g]man  'u' 
& also ,,qu to ,p4  ,!re is a simil> l9e
 ( cleavage 9 ! ,italic  languages1 :]e 
,lat9 corresponds to ,goidelic1 & ,oscan
 & ,umbrian to  ,bry?onic4  ,transalp9e 
,gaul 0 probably invad$ by ,aryan-speak+
 ,celts  f m ?an "o direction1 & !      
infiltration & invasion ( new-  com]s1  
:5 x _h once begun1 0 d\btless cont9u\s 
?r\gh ^!  v>i\s *annels4  ,!re are cog5t
 reasons = ?9k+ t ultimately  ! dom9ant 
type ( ,celtic spee* ov] ! great] "p (  
,gaul came to  be t ( ! ,p r ?an ! ,,qu 
type1 ow+ to ! influx f !  ,ea/ &       
,nor!a/ ( an ov]fl[ f ! ,rh9e valley (  
tribes  speak+ t dialect2 a dialect :i*1
 by =ce ( conque/ & culture1  t5d$ to   
spread f>!r & f>!r ,we/4  ,into ,brita91

 too1 z "t  w5t on1 ! ,p type ( ,celtic 
0 c>ri$1 & has surviv$ 9 ,wel% &        
,corni%1 ! remnants ( ! tongue ( anci5t 
,brita94  ,we "k1 too1  f ! "n ,epor$ia 
7,yvrea71 t ?is dialect ( ,celtic mu/ h 
spread into ,cisalp9e ,gaul4  ,! latt]  
di/rict may h receiv$ its  fir/ ,celtic 
invad]s direct f ! ,danube valley1 z ,m4
 ,alex&re  ,b]tr& held1 b x w\ld be ra% 
to assume t all its invad]s came  f t   
direction4  ,9 connection1 h[ev]1 ) !   
hi/ory ( ,celtic  religion x is n !     
spread ( ! v>y+ types ( ,celtic dialect 
t  is important1 b ! *anges 9 !         
civilisation ( ,gaul & ,brita91  :i*    
react$ on religi\s ideas or :i*         
introduc$ new factors into !  religi\s  
developm5t ( ^! l&s4    ,! pr$atory     
exp$itions & w>s ( conque/ ( milit>y    
,celtic tribes  9 se>* = new homes = _! 
sup]flu\s populations br\ght into       
prom95ce ! deities ( w>1 z 0 ! case also
 ) ! anci5t  ,romans1 !mselves an       
agricultural & at ! same "t a pr$atory  
race4  ,! prom95ce ( w> 9 ,celtic tribal

 life at "o /age has left u !  names ( a
 l>ge numb] ( deities t 7 id5tifi$ )    
,m>s &  ,bellona1 ?\gh all ! w>-gods 7 n
 orig9ally su*4  ,9 ! ,roman  cal5d> !re
 is abundant evid5ce t ,m>s 0 at "o "t  
an  agricultural god z well z a god (   
w>4  ,! same1 z w be %[n  lat]1 0 !     
probable hi/ory ( "s ( ! ,celtic        
deities1 :o 7  id5tifi$ 9 ,roman times )
 ,m>s & ,bellona4  ,caes> tells u t     
,m>s _h at "o "t be5 ! *ief god ( !     
,gauls1 & t 9 ,g]many  t 0 /ill ! case4 
,9 ,brita91 also1 we f9d t !re 7  sev]al
 deities id5tifi$ ) ,m>s1 notably       
,belatucadrus & ,cocidius1  & ?is1 too1 
po9ts 9 ! direction ( a developm5t (    
religion "u  milit>y influ5ce4  ,!      
,gauls appe> to h made great /rides 9   
milit>y matt]s & 9 mat]ial civilisation 
dur+ ! ,iron ,age4  ,!  culture ( !     
,e>ly ,iron ,age ( ,hall/att _h be5     
develop$ 9 ,gaul on  *>act]i/ic l9es (  
its own1 result+ 9 ! =m n[ kn[n z !  ,la
 ,t5e or ,m>nian type4  ,?is type d]ives
 x "n f ! /rik+  specim5s ( x t 7       

discov]$ at ,la ,t5e on ! %ore ( ,lake  
,neu*atel1 & 9 ! ext5sive cemet]ies ( ! 
,m>ne valley1 !  burials ( :i* cov] a   
p]iod ( f #cej-bjj ,b4,c4  ,x 0 dur+ !  
?ird c5tury ,b4,c4 t ?is *>act]i/ic     
culture ( ,gaul rea*$ its  z5i?1 & gave 
def9ite %ape to ! beautiful curv$       
designs kn[n z  ^? ( ,late-,celtic ,art4
  ,iron appe>s to h be5 introduc$ into  
,brita9 ab\t #cjj ,b4,c41 & ! designs ( 
,late-,celtic ,art are "h  repres5t$ be/
 ( all4  ,excell5t specim5s (           
,late-,celtic culture h  be5 f\nd 9     
,york%ire & else:]e1 & important l9ks ) 
cont95tal developm5ts h be5 discov]$ at 
,ayles=d1 ,aesica1  ,limavady1 & o!r    
places4  ,into ! developm5t ( ?is       
typical ,gauli%  culture elem5ts are    
believ$ to h ent]$ by way ( ! important 
comm]cial av5ue ( ! ,rhone valley f     
,massilia 7,m>seilles71 f  ,greece 7via 
,v5etia71 & possibly f ,etruria4        
,prehi/oric  ar*aeology af=ds abundant  
pro(s t1 9 c\ntries ( ,celtic spee*1    
metal-work+ 9 bronze1 iron1 & gold rea*$

 a rem>kably high pit*  ( p]fection1 &  
?is is a cle> indication t ,celtic      
c\ntries &  di/ricts :i* 7 on ! l9e (   
trade r\tes1 l ! ,rhone valley1  _h     
atta9$ to a mat]ial civilisation ( no   
mean "* be=e !  ,roman conque/4  ,9     
,brita91 too1 ! di/ricts t 7 9 t\* )    
cont95tal comm]ce _h1 z ,caes> tells u1 
also develop$ 9 ! same  direction4  ,!  
religi\s c\nt]p>t ( ?is developm5t 9    
civilisation  is ! gr[? 9 _m p>ts (     
,gaul1 z atte/$ by ,caes> & by _m       
inscriptions & place-names1 ( ! wor%ip (
 gods id5tifi$ )  ,m]cury & ,m9]va1 !   
deities ( civilisation & comm]ce4  ,x is
 no  accid5t t "o ( ! di/ricts mo/      
conspicu\s = ?is wor%ip 0  ! t]ritory ( 
! ,allobrogic conf$]ation1 :]e ! comm]ce
 ( !  ,rhone valley f\nd its mo/        
rem>kable developm5t4  ,f ?is sket* (   
,celtic civilisation x w readily be se5 
h[ "h z else:]e !  religi\s developm5t (
 ! ,celts /ood closely relat$ to !      
developm5t ( _! civilisation g5]ally4   
,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d1  h[ev]1 t all    

p>ts ( ! ,celtic _w 7 n equally affect$ 
by  ! mat]ial developm5t 9 "q4  ,"p ( ! 
complexity ( !  hi/ory ( ,celtic        
religion arises f ! fact t we _c be     
always  c]ta9 ( ! degree ( progress 9   
civilisation :i* any giv5  di/rict _h   
made1 ( ! ideas :i* p]vad$ x1 or ( !    
absorb+  int]e/s ( its life4  ,ano!r    
difficulty1 too1 is t ! acc\nts (       
,celtic religion giv5 by anci5t         
au?orities d n always h>monise )  !     
indisputable evid5ce ( inscriptions4  ,!
 probability is t !  religi\s practices 
( ! ,celtic _w 7 no m homog5e\s ?an its 
g5]al civilisation1 & t ! anci5t        
au?orities are sub/antially  true 9 _!  
/atem5ts ab\t c]ta9 di/ricts1 c]ta9     
p]iods1 or  c]ta9 sections ( society1   
:ile ! inscriptions1 spr++ z !y d  f !  
influ5ce ( ! ,gallo-,roman civilisation1
 especially ( ,ea/]n  ,gaul & milit>y   
,brita91 give u mo/ valuable supplem5t>y
 evid5ce  = di/ricts & environm5ts ( a  
diff]5t k9d4  ,! inscriptions1          
especially by ! names ( deities :i* !y  

reveal1 h af=d$ mo/  valuable clues to !
 hi/ory ( ,celtic religion1 ev5 9 /ages 
(  civilisation e>li] ?an ^? to :i* !y  
!mselves belong4  ,9 !  next *apt] !    
correlation ( ,celtic religi\s ideas to 
! /ages (  ,celtic civilisation w be    
fur!r develop$4          ,,*apt]        
,,iii--,,! ,,correlation ,,( ,,celtic   
,,religion ,,) ,,! ,,gr[? ,,( ,,celtic  
,,civilisation      ,9 deal+ ) ! long   
vi/a ( prehi/oric "t1 x is v difficult  
= u1 9 our ef=t aft] p]spective1 n to   
%ort5 unduly 9 our  ?\ghts ! va/ epo*s (
 its duration4  ,we t5d1 too1 to =get1 t
  9 ^! unnumb]$ mill5nia !re 0 ample "t 
= x to be possible  ov] c]ta9 areas (   
,europe to evolve :at 7 practically new 
races1  ?r\gh ! prepot5cy ( p>ticul>    
/ocks & ! annihilation (  o!rs4  ,dur+  
^! epo*s1 aga91 aft] spee* _h aris51 !re
 0  "t en\gh to reca/ completely _m a   
language1 = be=e ! dawn (  hi/ory       
language 0 no m free f *ange ?an x is   
n[1 & 9  ^! imm5se epo*s :atev] ideas z 
to ! _w ( _! surr\nd+s  7 vaguely felt  

by prehi/oric m5 & =mulat$ = !m by _!   
k9sm5 ( g5ius1 _h abundant "t 9 :i* to  
die or to w9 supremacy4  ,!re mu/ h be5 
aeons be=e ! dawn ev5 ( consci\s        
animism1 &  ! exp]im5t ( try+ sympa!tic 
magic 01 :5 fir/ attempt$1  probably    
reg>d$ z a ma/]-/roke ( g5ius4  ,! ,/one
 ,age itself 0  a long era ( great if   
sl[ progress 9 civilisation1 & !        
evolution  ( ! practices & ideas :i*    
em]ge z ! concomitants ( its            
agricultural /age1 :5 closely reg>d$1   
be> te/imony to ! m9d's  capacity =     
religi\s progress 9 ! light ( exp]i5ce &
  intellig5t exp]im5t1 & at ! same "t to
 ! errors into :i* x  fell4  ,! ,/one   
,age has left its s$im5t 9 all !        
folk-lore ( !  _w4  ,to ! casual obs]v] 
_m ( ! ideas emb$d$ 9 x may seem  a mass
 ( error1 & s !y are :5 judg$           
unhi/orically1 b :5  view$ critically1 &
 at ! same "t hi/orically1 !y af=d _m   
glimpses ( prehi/oric g5ius 9 a _w :]e  
life 0 ( necessity a  great exp]im5t4   
,! folk-lore ( ! _w reveals = ! same    

/ages  ( civilisation a wond]ful        
uni=mity & homog5eity1 z ,dr4 ,j4 ,g4   
,fraz] has abundantly %[n 9 8 ,gold5    
,b\gh4  ,?is uni=mity is  n1 h[ev]1 due 
to necess>y uni=mity ( orig91 b to a    
great  ext5t to ! fact t x repres5ts !  
/ate ( equilibrium arriv$ at  betwe5    
m9ds at a c]ta9 level & _! environm5t1  
along l9es (  ?\ght direct$ by ! mom5tum
 giv5 by ! traditions ( mill5nia1  & !  
survival 9 hi/ory ( ! m5 :o c>efully    
reg>d$ !m4  ,!  app>5tly unreason$      
prohibitions (t5 kn[n z 'taboos1' _m (  
:i*  /ill p]si/ ev5 9 mod]n civilis$    
life1 h _! roots 9 ideas  & exp]i5ces   
:i* no speculation ( ours c n[          
completely fa?om1  h[ev] mu* we may     
guess at _! orig94  ,_m ( ^! anci5t     
prohibitions h vani%$ "u new conditions1
 o!rs h (t5  surviv$ f a real or suppos$
 h>mony ) new exp]i5ces1 t h  aris5 9 ! 
c\rse ( man's hi/ory4  ,aft] pass+ ?r\gh
 a /age  :5 he 0 too preoccupi$ ) 8     
mat]ial c>es & wants to consid]  :e!r he
 0 haunt$ or n1 e>ly man 9 ! ,celtic _w 

z  else:]e1 aft] long epo*s ( vague     
unre/1 came to realise t he 0  someh[   
haunt$ 9 ! daytime z well z at night1 & 
x 0 ?is s5se  ( be+ haunt$ t impell$ 8  
intellect & 8 imag9ation to seek  "s    
explanation ( 8 feel+s4  ,primitive man 
came to seek a solution  n ( ! ,univ]se 
z a :ole 7= ( ?is he _h no conception71 
b (  ! local ,univ]se1 9 :i* he play$ a 
"p4  ,9 deal+ ) ,celtic  folk-lore1 x is
 v rem>kable h[ x mirrors ! *>act]i/ic  
local  col\r+ & sc5]y ( ! di/ricts 9 :i*
 x has orig9at$4  ,9 a  c\ntry l ,wales1
 = example1 x is ! folk-lore ( spr+s1   
caves1  m\nta9s1 lakes1 isl&s1 & ! =ms (
 its imag9ation1 "h z  else:]e1 reflect 
unmi/akably ! l& ( its orig94  ,:]e x   
depicts  an 'o!r _w1' t 'o!r _w' is ei!r
 on an isl& or x is a  l& b5ea? ! sea1 a
 lake1 or a riv]1 or x is approa*able   
only  ?r\gh "s cave or op5+ 9 ! e>?4  ,9
 ! hunt+-gr\nds ( !  ,celtic _w !       
primitive hunt] knew e cranny ( ! great]
 "p  ( 8 environm5t ) ! accuracy born ( 
long famili>ity1 b !re  7 "s peaks :i*  

he c\ld n scale1 "s caves :i* he c\ld n 
p5etrate1 "s jungles into :i* he c\ld n 
ent]1 & 9 ^! he  knew n :at mon/]s might
 lurk or unkn[n be+s might live4  ,9    
,celtic folk-lore ! belief 9 fabul\s    
mon/]s has n yet ceas$4  ,man  0        
surr\nd$ by dang]s visible & invisible1 
& ! "t came :5  "s prehi/oric man (     
g5ius prop\nd$ ! view t all ! objects   
ar\nd him 7 no less liv+ ?an himself4   
,?is animi/ic view ( !  _w1 once adopt$1
 made great headway f ! v>i\s c5tres :]e
 x  orig9at$1 & man d]iv$ f x a new s5se
 ( k9%ip ) 8  _w1 b also new t]rors f x4
  ,kn[+ f ! exp]i5ce (  dreams t he     
himself seem$ able to w&] away f        
himself1 he  ?\ght 9 c\rse ( "t t o!r   
liv+ ?+s 7 someh[ d\ble1  & ! _w ar\nd  
him came to be occupi$1 n m]ely ) ?+s t 
7 alive1 b ) o!r selves ( ^! ?+s1 t c\ld
 rema9 9  !m or leave !m at w4  ,"h1    
aga91 ?is new prehi/oric philosophy     
gave an add$ int]e/ to life1 b x 0 none 
! less a s\rce (  fre% t]rors4  ,! _w   
sw>m$ ) invisible spirits1 "s fri5dly1  

"s ho/ile1 &1 9 view ( ^! be+s1 life _h 
to be regulat$ by  /rict rules ( actions
 & prohibitions4  ,ev5 9 ! neoli?ic /age
  ! inhabitants ( ,celtic c\ntries _h   
atta9$ to ! religi\s ideas  9 "q1 z is  
se5 n only by _! folk-lore & by ! names 
(  gr\ps ( goddesses su* z ! ,matres 7or
 mo!rs71 b by ! fact t  9 hi/oric times 
!y _h advanc$ well beyond ?is /age to t 
(  nam$ & individualis$ gods4  ,z 9 all 
c\ntries :]e ! gods 7  individualis$1 ! 
m5 ( ,celtic l&s1 :e!r aborig9es or     
invad]s1  _h toil$ along ! /eep asc5t f 
! primitive vague s5se ( be+  haunt$ to 
a belief 9 gods :o1 l ,esus1 ,teutates1 
,grannos1 ,bormanus1  ,litavis1 _h names
 ( a def9ite "*4    ,among !            
prohibitions :i* _h e/abli%$ !mselves   
among ! races  ( ,celtic l&s1 z else:]e1
 0 t direct$ aga9/ ! %$d+ (  ! blood (  
"o's own k94  ,!re are indications1 too1
 t "s at any  rate ( ! tribes inhabit+  
^! c\ntries reckon$ k9%ip ?r\gh  ! "m1 z
 9 fact cont9u$ to be ! case among !    
,picts (  ,scotl& into hi/oric times4   

,x does n foll[1 z we "k f o!r          
c\ntries1 t ! pre-,aryan tribes ( ,gaul 
& ,brita91 or inde$ !  ,aryan tribes    
!mselves 9 _! e>lie/ /age1 reg>d$ _!    
orig9al  ance/ors z human4  ,c]ta9 names
 ( deities su* z ,t>vos 7! bull71       
,moccos 7! pig71 ,epona 7! goddess (    
horses71 ,damona 7! goddess (  cattle71 
,mullo 7! ass71 z well z ! fact t !     
anci5t ,britons1  accord+ to ,caes>1    
pres]v$ ! h51 ! goose1 & ! h>e1 b did  n
 kill & eat !m1 all po9t to ! fact t 9  
^! c\ntries z  else:]e c]ta9 animals 7  
held 9 supreme respect & 7 c>efully     
gu>d$ f h>m4  ,judg+ f ! analogy ( k9dr$
 ph5om5a 9  o!r c\ntries1 ! practice (  
respect+ c]ta9 animals 0 (t5  associat$ 
) ! belief t all ! memb]s ( c]ta9 clans 
7  desc5d$ f "o or o!r ( !m1 b h[ f> ?is
 sy/em 0  elaborat$ 9 ! ,celtic _w x is 
h>d to say4  ,?is ph5om5on1 :i*  is     
widely kn[n z totemism1 appe>s to be    
sugge/$ by ! prom95ce  giv5 to ! wild   
bo> on ,celtic co9s & ensigns1 & by !   
place  assign$ on "s inscriptions &     

bas-reliefs to ! figure ( a horn$  snake
 z well z by ! effigies ( o!r animals t 
h be5  discov]$4  ,x is n easy to expla9
 ! beg9n+s ( totemism 9 ,gaul  or       
else:]e1 b x %\ld always be borne 9 m9d 
t e>ly man c\ld  n reg>d x z an         
axiomatic tru? t he 0 ! sup]ior ( e  o!r
 animal4  ,to rea* t pr\d consci\sness  
is a v high /ep 9  ! developm5t ( !     
human p]spective1 & x is to ! cr$it ( ! 
,celts t1 :5 we "k !m 9 hi/oric times1  
!y appe> to h  atta9$ to ?is height1    
inasmu* z ! human =m is giv5 to _!      
deities4  ,x is n always rememb]$ h[    
great a /ep 9 religi\s  evolution is    
impli$ :5 ! gods are clo!d ) human      
attributes4  ,m4  ,salomon ,re9a*1 9 8  
acc\nt ( ! ve/iges ( totemism among !   
,celts1 sugge/s t totemism 0 m]ely !    
hyp]trophy ( e>ly man's  social s5se1   
:i* ext5d$ f man to ! animals ar\nd him4
  ,?is  may possibly be ! case1 b x is n
 improbable t man also ?\ght  to discov]
 9 c]ta9 animals mu*-ne$$ allies aga9/  
"s ( !  visible & invisible enemies t   

beset him4  ,9 8 conflict ) !  malign   
p[]s ar\nd him1 he might well h reg>d$  
c]ta9 animals z  be+ 9 "s respects      
/rong] combatants aga9/ ^? p[]s ?an     
himself2 & :]e !y 7 n physically /rong]1
 "s ( !m1 l  ! snake1 _h a cunn+ & a    
subtlety t seem$ f> to surpass 8  own4  
,9 c\rse ( "t c]ta9 bodies ( m5 came to 
reg>d !mselves  z be+ 9 special alliance
 ) "s "o animal1 & z be+ desc5d$  f t   
animal z _! common ance/or4  ,! exi/5ce 
side by side (  v>i\s tribes1 ea* ) its 
def9ite totem1 has n yet be5 fully      
prov$ = ! ,gauli% sy/em1 & may well h   
be5 a develop$ social  arrangem5t t 0 n 
an ess5tial "p ( su* a mode ( ?\ght 9   
its prim>y =ms4  ,! place (             
animal-wor%ip 9 ! ,celtic religion  w be
 m fully consid]$ 9 a lat] *apt]4  ,"h x
 is only  indicat$ z a necess>y /age 9  
relation to man's civilisation 9 !      
hunt+ & ! pa/oral /ages1 :i* _h to be   
pass$ ?r\gh be=e  ! hi/oric deities (   
,gaul & ,brita9 9 ,roman times c\ld h   
come  into be+4  ,c]ta9 ( ! div9e names 

( ! hi/oric p]iod1 l  ,artio 7!         
be>-goddess71 ,moccus 7! pig71 ,epona 7!
 m>e71 & ,damona  7! %eep71 be> !       
unmi/akable impress ( hav+ be5 at "o "t 
^? ( animals4    ,z = ! /age (          
civilisation at :i* totemism orig9at$1  
!re is  mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion4  ,! /age 
( m9d :i* x implies w\ld  sugge/ t x    
reflects a "t :5 man's m9d 0 preoccupi$ 
) wild  bea/s1 & :5 ! alliances &       
fri5d%ips1 :i* he w\ld value 9  life1   
might be f\nd 9 t sph]e4  ,!re is mu*   
plausibility 9 !  view put =w>d by ,m4  
,salomon ,re9a*1 t ! dome/ication (     
animals  itself implies a totemi/ic     
habit ( ?\ght1 & ! consequ5t  protection
 ( ^! animals by means ( taboos f h>m & 
dea?4  ,x  may well be t1 aft] all1 !   
usefulness ( dome/ic animals f a        
mat]ial po9t ( view 0 only a second>y   
consid]ation = man1 & a  happy discov]y 
aft] unsuccessful totemi/ic att5tions to
 o!r  animals4  ,we "k n h[ _m creatures
 e>ly man tri$ to associate  ) himself b
 fail$4    ,9 all /ages ( man's hi/ory !

 alt]nation ( ! seasons mu/ h  br\ght "s
 rudim5ts ( ord] & sy/em into 8 ?\ghts1 
?\gh =  a long "t he 0 too preoccupi$ to
 reflect ^u ! regul>ly  recurr+         
vicissitudes ( 8 life4  ,9 ! pa/oral    
/age1 ! s5se (  ord] came to be m m>k$  
?an 9 t ( hunt+1 & quick5$ !  m9d to    
fre% ?\ght4  ,! e>? came to be reg>d$ z 
! ,"m f  :om all ?+s came1 & !re are    
abundant indications t ! e>?  z ! ,"m1 !
 ,que51 ! ,long-liv$ "o1 etc41 f\nd h]  
natural  place z a goddess among !      
,celts4  ,h] names & titles 7 probably  
n 9 all places or 9 all tribes ! same4  
,b x is 9 !  agricultural /age t %e     
ent]$ 9 ,celtic l&s1 z %e did 9 o!r     
c\ntries1 into h] complete/ religi\s    
h]itage1 & ?is aspect (  ,celtic        
religion w be dealt ) m fully 9         
connection ) !  spirits ( vegetation4   
,?is phase ( religion 9 ,celtic c\ntries
 is "o  :i* appe>s to und]lie "s ( its  
mo/ *>act]i/ic =ms1 & !  "o :i* has     
surviv$ longe/ 9 ,celtic folk-lore4  ,! 
,e>?-"m  ) h] prog5y ( spirits1 ( spr+s1

 riv]s1 m\nta9s1 =e/s1  trees1 & corn1  
appe>s to h suppli$ mo/ ( ! gr\p$ &     
individualis$ gods ( ! ,celtic pan!on4  
,! ,dis1 ( :om ,caes>  speaks z ! anci5t
 god ( ! ,gauls1 0 probably reg>d$ z h] 
son1  to :om ! dead return$ 9 dea?4     
,:e!r he is ! ,gauli% god  depict$ ) a  
hamm]1 or z a huge dog swall[+ ! dead1  
has n yet  be5 e/abli%$ ) any degree (  
c]ta9ty4          ,,*apt] ,,iv--,,celtic
 ,,religion ,,& ,,! ,,developm5t ,,(    
,,individualis$ ,,deities      ,l o!r   
religions1 ^? ( ! ,celtic l&s ( ,europe 
supplem5t$  ! e>li] animism by a belief 
9 spirits1 :o belong$ to trees1         
animals1 rocks1 m\nta9s1 spr+s1 riv]s1 &
 o!r natural ph5om5a1  & 9 folk-lore !re
 /ill survives abundant evid5ce t !     
,celt  reg>d$ spirits z tak+ ^u !mselves
 a v>iety ( =ms1 animal &  human4  ,x 0 
?is idea ( spirits 9 animal =m t help$  
to  pres]ve ! memory ( ! old] totemism  
into hi/oric times4  ,x is  ?us t we h  
names ( ! type ( ,brannog5os 7son ( !   
rav571  ,artog5os 7son ( ! be>71 & ! l1 

n to speak ( simpl] names  l ,bran      
7rav571 ,m>* 7horse71 surviv+ into      
hi/oric times4  ,bronze  images1 too1 h 
be5 f\nd at ,neuvy-en-,sullias1 ( a     
horse & a /ag  7n[ 9 ! ,orleans museum71
 provid$ ) r+s1 :i* 71 z ,m4  ,salomon  
,re9a* sugge/s1 probably us$ = ! purpose
 ( c>ry+ ^!  images 9 procession4  ,!   
wild bo>1 too1 0 a fav\rite emblem (    
,gaul1 & !re is extant a bronze figure (
 a ,celtic ,diana rid+ on a  bo>'s back4
  ,at ,bol>1 ne> ,nuits1 !re 0 discov]$ 
a bronze mule4  ,9 ! museum at ,may5ce  
is a bas-relief ( ! goddess ( horses1   
,epona  7f ! ,gauli% ,epos,lat4 equus1  
horse71 rid+ on horseback4  ,"o  ( ! mo/
 important monum5ts ( ?is k9d is a      
figure ( ,artio1 !  be>-goddess 7f      
,celtic ,artos1 a be>71 f\nd at ,muri   
ne> ,b]ne4  ,9  front ( h] /ood a figure
 ( a be>1 :i* 0 also f\nd ) h]4  ,!     
bull ( ! ,t>vos ,trig>anos bas-relief ( 
,notre ,dame 0 also 9 all  likelihood   
orig9ally a totem1 & simil>ly ! horn$   
s]p5ts ( o!r  bas-reliefs1 z well z !   

bo> f\nd on ,gauli% ensigns & co9s1     
especially 9 ,belgic t]ritory4  ,!re is 
a repres5tation1 too1 ( a  rav5 on a    
bas-relief at ,compiegne4  ,! "n        
',moccus1' :i* is  id5tifi$ ) ,m]cury1  
on inscriptions1 & :i* is f\nd inscrib$ 
at  ,langres1 ,trobaso1 ! valley ( !    
,ossola & ! ,borgo san ,dalmazzo1 is    
und\bt$ly ! philological equival5t ( !  
,wel% mo* 7sw9e74  ,9  ,brita91 too1 !  
bo> is frequ5tly f\nd on ! co9s ( !     
,ic5i &  o!r tribes4  ,9 ,italy1 accord+
 to ,mr4 ,w>de ,f[l]1 ! pig 0 an        
appropriate (f]+ to deities ( ! e>?1 s t
 9 ! widespread  use ( ! pig z a symbol 
9 ! ,celtic _w1 !re may be "s anci5t    
e*o ( a connection betwe5 x & ! e>?-_s4 
,its diet (  acorns1 too1 may h m>k$ x  
out1 9 ! e>ly days ( life 9 =e/-        
cle>+s1 z ! animal embodim5t ( ! oak-_s4
  ,9 ! leg5ds (  ! ,celtic races1 ev5 9 
hi/oric times1 ! pig1 & especially !    
bo>1 f9ds an hon\r$ place4  ,9 addition 
to ! animals  a=em5tion$1 ! ass1 too1 0 
probably at "o "t v5]at$ 9 "o  ( !      

di/ricts ( ,gaul1 & x is n improbable t 
,mullo1 ! "n  ( a god id5tifi$ ) ,m>s & 
reg>d$ z ! patron ( mulete]s1  m5tion$  
on inscriptions 7at ,nantes1 ,craon1 &  
,les ,prov5*]es ne>  ,craon71 meant     
orig9ally 'an ass4'  ,! goddess ,epona1 
also1 ^:  wor%ip 0 widely spread1 0     
probably at "o "t an animal goddess 9  !
 =m ( a m>e1 & ! "n ( ano!r goddess1    
,damona1 ei!r f  ! root dam,ir4 dam1    
7ox72 or ,wel% daf-ad 7%eep71 may       
simil>ly  be t ( an anci5t totem %eep or
 c[4  ,nor 0 x 9 ! animal _w  alone t ! 
,celts saw indications ( ! div9e4  ,:ile
 ! *ase &  ! pa/oral life conc5trat$ !  
m9d's att5tion on ! life (  animals1 !  
gr[? ( agriculture fix$ man's ?\ghts on 
! life (  ! e>?1 & all t grew ^u x1 :ile
 at ! same "t he 0 l$  to ?9k m & m ( ! 
my/]i\s _w b5ea? ! e>?1 f  :i* all ?+s  
came & to :i* all ?+s return$4  ,nor    
c\ld he  =get ! trees ( ! =e/1          
especially ^? :i*1 l ! oak1 _h  provid$ 
him ) _! fruit z food 9 "t ( ne$4  ,! "n
 ,druid1  z well z t ( ! c5tre ( wor%ip 

( ! ,gauls ( ,asia ,m9or1  ,drunemeton  
7! oak-grove71 ! /atem5t ( ,maximus (   
,tyre t !  repres5tation ( ,zeus to !   
,celts 0 a high oak1 ,pl9y's acc\nt (   
,druidism 7,nat4 ,hi/41 xvi4 #ie71 !    
num]\s inscriptions to ,silvanus  &     
,silvana1 ! m5tion ( ,d]vones or        
,d]vonnae on an inscription at          
,cavalzesio ne> ,brescia1 & ! abundant  
evid5ce ( survivals 9 folk-  lore z     
collect$ by ,dr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,fraz] & o!rs1 
all po9t to ! fact  t tree-wor%ip1 &    
especially t ( ! oak1 _h contribut$ its 
full %>e to ! developm5t ( ,celtic      
religion1 at any rate 9 "s  di/ricts & 9
 "s epo*s4  ,! developm5t ( m>tial &    
comm]cial  civilisation 9 lat] times    
t5d$ to re/rict its typical & m         
primitive developm5ts to ! m cons]vative
 p>ts ( ! ,celtic  _w4  ,! fact t 9     
,caes>'s "t its ma9 c5tre 9 ,gaul 0 9 ! 
t]ritory ( ! ,c>nutes1 ! tribe :i* has  
giv5 its "n to  ,*>tres1 sugge/s t its  
*ief vot>ies 7 ma9ly 9 t "p (  ! c\ntry4
  ,?is1 too1 0 ! di/rict ( ! god ,esus  

7! eponym\s  god ( ! ,essuvii71 & 9 "s  
degree ( ,teutates1 ! cruelty ( ^:      
rites is m5tion$ by ,lucan4  ,x _h      
occurr$ to ! pres5t writ]1  be=e f9d+ ! 
same view express$ by ,m4 ,salomon      
,re9a*1 t !  wor%ip ( ,esus 9 ,gaul 0   
almo/ entirely local 9 "*4  ,)  reg>d to
 ! rites ( ! ,druids1 ,caes> tells u t x
 0 cu/om>y  to make huge images (       
wick]work1 into :i* human be+s1 usually 
crim9als1 7 plac$ & burnt4  ,! use (    
wick]work1 & !  sugge/ion t ! rite 0 =  
purify+ ! l&1 indicates a  comb9ation ( 
! ideas ( tree-wor%ip ) ^? ( e>ly       
agricultural  life4  ,:5 ! ,emp]or      
,claudius is said by ,suetonius to h    
suppress$  ,druidism1 :at is meant is1 9
 all probability1 t ! m inhuman  rites 7
 suppress$1 lead+1 z ! ,s*olia/s on     
,lucan seem to  sugge/1 to a sub/itution
 ( animal victims = m54  ,on ! side (   
civil adm9i/ration & education1 !       
functions ( ! ,druids1 z !  successors (
 ! primitive m$ic9e m5 & magicians1     
d\btless v>i$  greatly 9 diff]5t p>ts ( 

,gaul & ,brita9 accord+ to ! progress  t
 _h be5 made 9 ! diff]5tiation (        
functions 9 social life4  ,! m we       
inve/igate ! /ate ( ! ,celtic _w 9      
anci5t times1  ! cle>] x becomes1 t 9   
civilisation x 0 v f> f be+  homog5e\s1 
& ?is het]og5eity ( civilisation mu/ h  
_h its  influ5ce on religion z well z on
 o!r social ph5om5a4  ,! natural        
cons]vatism ( agricultural life1 too1   
p]petuat$ _m practices ev5  into        
comp>atively late times1 & ( ^! we cat* 
a glimpse 9 ,gregory  ( ,t\rs1 :5 he    
tells u t at ,autun ! goddess ,b]ecyntia
 0  wor%ipp$1 h] image be+ c>ri$ on a   
wagon = ! protection ( !  fields & !    
v9es4  ,x is n impossible t by          
,b]ecyntia ,gregory  means ! goddess    
,brig9du1 ^: "n occurs on an inscription
 at ,volnay  9 ! same di/rict ( ,gaul4  
,! belief 9 corn-spirits1 & o!r  ideas  
connect$ ) ! c5tral ?\ght ( ! f>m]'s    
life1 %[1 by  _! p]si/5ce 9 ,celtic z   
well z o!r folklore1 h[ deeply !y  _h   
ent]$ into ! inn] tissue ( !            

agricultural m9d1 s z to be  l9k$ to its
 ke5e/ emotions4  ,"h ! rites (         
religion1 :e!r  p]suasive z 9 pray]1 or 
compulsory z 9 sympa!tic magic1 :e!r    
associat$ ) communal or propitiatory    
sacrifice1 :e!r direct$ to  ! e>? or to 
! heav51 all _h an int5sely practical & 
t]ribly  real "*1 due to man's con/ant  
preoccupation ) ! gr[? &  /orage ( food 
= man & bea/4  ,9 ! hunt+1 ! pa/oral1 & 
above all 9 ! agricultural life1        
religion 0 n a matt] m]ely (  imag9ation
 or s5tim5t1 b "o mo/ intimately        
associat$ ) !  daily practice ( life1 & 
?is practical int]e/ includ$ 9 its      
purview riv]s1 spr+s1 =e/s1 m\nta9s1 &  
all ! sett+ ( man's  exi/5ce4  ,& :at is
 true ( agriculture is true also1 9 a   
great] or  less degree1 ( ! life ( !    
,celtic metal-work] or ! ,celtic sailor4
  ,ev5 9 late ,wel% leg5d ,amae?on 7old 
,celtic ,ambactonos71 ! patron  god (   
f>m+ 7,wel% ,amae?71 & ,g(annon1 !      
patron god ( !  metal-work] 7,wel% g(1  
,iri% gobha71 7 n q =gott51 &  !        

prom95ce ( ! wor%ip ( ! c\nt]p>ts (     
,m]cury & ,m9]va  9 ,gaul 9 hi/oric     
times 0 due to ! s5se ( respect &       
gratitude1  :i* ea* trade & ea* locality
 felt = ! deity :o _h rid !  l& (       
mon/]s1 & :o _h br\ght man into !       
comp>ative calm (  civilis$ life4       
,,*apt] ,v--,,! ,,humanis$ ,,gods ,,(   
,,celtic ,,religion      ,"o ( ! mo/    
/rik+ facts connect$ ) ! ,celtic        
religion is !  l>ge numb] ( names (     
deities :i* x includes4  ,^! names are  
kn[n to u almo/ entirely f inscriptions1
 = ! mo/ "p votive  tablets1 9          
ackn[l$gm5t ( "s b5efit1 usually t (    
heal?1  conf]r$ by ! god on man4  ,9    
,brita9 ^! votive tablets are *iefly    
f\nd 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,roman walls &
 camps1 b we _c be  always c]ta9 t !    
deities m5tion$ are indig5\s4  ,9 ,gaul1
  h[ev]1 we are on sur] gr\nd 9         
associat+ c]ta9 deities )  c]ta9        
di/ricts1 inasmu* z ! evid5ce (         
place-names is (t5 a  guide4  ,^!       
inscriptions are v unev5ly di/ribut$ ov]

 ,gauli%  t]ritory1 ! ,we/]n & !        
,nor?-,we/]n di/ricts be+ v  sp>sely    
repres5t$4    ,9 ! pres5t brief sket* x 
is impossible to ent] into a full       
discussion ( ! relations ( ! names f\nd 
on inscriptions to  p>ticul> localities1
 & ! light ?us ?r[n on ,celtic religion2
 b  x may be "h /at$ t inve/igation t5ds
 to confirm ! local  "* ( mo/ ( !       
deities :i* ! inscriptions "n4  ,out (  
^! deities1 "s1 x is true1 9 ! process (
 evolution1 ga9$ a  wid] field (        
wor%ipp]s1 :ile o!rs1 l ,lugus1 may ev5 
h be5  at "o "t m widely wor%ipp$ ?an !y
 came to be 9 lat] times4  ,occasionally
 a "n l ,lugus 7,iri% ,lug71 ,segomo    
7,iri%1 9 !  g5itive1 ,segamonas71      
,camulos1 :5ce ,camulodunum 7,col*e/]71 
,bel5os  7,wel% ,belyn71 ,maponos 7,wel%
 ,mabon71 ,litavis 7,wel% ,llydaw71 by  
its exi/5ce 9 ,brita9 z well z 9 ,gaul1 
sugge/s t x 0 ei!r  "o ( ! anci5t       
deities ( ! ,aryan ,celts1 or "o ^:     
wor%ip came  to ext5d ov] a l>g] area   
?an its fell[s4  ,ap>t f a few          

exceptional consid]ations ( ?is k9d1    
h[ev]1 ! local "* (  ! deities is mo/   
m>k$4    ,a v consid]able numb] are !   
deities ( spr+s & riv]s4  ,9  ,noricum1 
= example1 we h ,adsalluta1 a goddess   
associat$ ) ,savus  7! riv] ,save74  ,9 
,brita9 '! goddess' ,deva 7! ,dee71 &   
,belisama  7ei!r ! ,ribble or ! ,m]sey71
 a "n mean+ '! mo/ w>like  goddess1' are
 ( ?is type4  ,we h aga9 ,axona !       
goddess ( ! riv]  ,aisne1 ,sequana1 !   
goddess ( ! ,se9e1 ,ritona ( ! riv]     
,rieu1  num]\s nymphs & _m o!r deities (
 f\nta9s4  ,d\btless _m  o!r names (    
local deities are ( ?is k9d4  ,a]ial    
ph5om5a appe>  to h left v few cle>     
traces on ! names ( ,celtic deities4    
,v9tios1 a god id5tifi$ ) ,m>s1 0       
probably a god ( ! w9d1  ,t>anucus1 a   
god ( ?und]1 ,leucetios1 a god (        
lightn+1 ,sulis 7(  ,ba?7 a sun-goddess1
 b beyond ^! !re are few1 if any1       
reflections  ( ! ph5om5a ( ! heav5s4  ,(
 ! gods nam$ on inscriptions  ne>ly all 
are id5tifi$ ) ,m]cury1 ,m>s1 or        

,apollo4  ,! gods :o  came to be reg>d$ 
z culture-deities appe> f _! names to be
 (  v>i\s orig9s3 "s are humanis$       
totems1 o!rs are 9 orig9 deities  (     
vegetation or local natural ph5om5a4  ,z
 already indicat$1 x is  cle> t ! gr[? (
 comm]cial & civilis$ life 9 c]ta9      
di/ricts _h br\ght into prom95ce deities
 id5tifi$ ) ,m]cury &  ,m9]va z !       
patrons ( civilisation4  ,milit>y m51   
especially 9  ,brita91 appe> to h fav\r$
 deities l ,belatucadros 7! brilliant  9
 w>71 id5tifi$ ) ,m>s4    ,ab\t f\rte5  
inscriptions m5tion+ him h be5 f\nd 9 ! 
,nor?  ( ,engl& & ! ,s\? ( ,scotl&4  ,! 
goddess ,brigantia 7! patron-  deity ( !
 ,brigantes71 too1 is m5tion$ on f\r    
inscriptions3  ,cocidius1 id5tifi$ )    
,m>s1 is m5tion$ on ?irte53 :ile ano!r  
popul> god appe>s to h be5 ,silvanus4   
,among ! mo/ noticeable  names ( !      
,celtic gods id5tifi$ ) ,m]cury are     
,adsm]ius or  ,atesm]ius1 ,dumiatis 7!  
god ( ! ,puy de ,dome71 ,iovantuc>us 7! 
lov] ( y\?71 ,teutates 7! god ( ! p71   

,caletos 7! h>d71  & ,moccus 7! bo>74   
,sev]al deities are id5tifi$ ) ,m>s1 & (
  ^! "s ( ! mo/ noticeable names are    
,albiorix 7_w-k+71  ,caturix            
7battle-k+71 ,dunatis 7! god ( ! =t71   
,belatucadrus 7!  brilliant 9 w>71      
,leucetius 7! god ( lightn+71 ,mullo 7! 
mule71  ,ollovidius 7! all-kn[+7 ,v9tius
 7! w9d-god71 & ,vitucadrus 7!          
brilliant 9 en]gy74  ,! l>ge numb] (    
names id5tifi$ ) ,m>s  reflects !       
prom95t place at "o "t giv5 to w> 9 !   
ideas t  affect$ ! gr[? ( ! religion ( !
 ,celtic tribes4  ,( ! gods  id5tifi$ ) 
,h]cules1 ! mo/ int]e/+ "n is ,ogmios 7!
 god (  ! furr[7 giv5 by ,lucian1 b n   
f\nd on any inscription4  ,!  foll[+    
gods too1 among o!rs1 are id5tifi$ )    
,jupit]3 ,aramo 7!  g5tle71 ,ambisagrus 
7! p]si/5t71 ,bussum>us 7! l>ge-lipp$71 
,t>anucus 7! ?und]]71 ,uxellimus 7!     
highe/74  ,x w\ld seem f  ?is t 9       
hi/oric times at any rate ,jupit] did n 
play a l>ge "p  9 ,celtic religi\s      
ideas4    ,!re rema9s ano!r /rik+       

feature ( ,celtic religion :i* has n    
yet be5 m5tion$1 namely ! id5tification 
( sev]al deities )  ,apollo4  ,^!       
deities are ess5tially ! presid+ deities
 ( c]ta9  heal+-spr+s & heal?-resorts1 &
 ! gr[? ( _! wor%ip into  popul>ity is a
 fur!r /rik+ index to ! developm5t (    
religion  side by side ) c]ta9 aspects (
 civilisation4  ,"o ( ! names ( a       
,celtic ,apollo is ,borvo 7:5ce         
,b\rbon71 ! deity ( c]ta9 hot  spr+s4   
,?is "n is ,indo-,european1 & 0 giv5 to 
! local f\nta9-  god by ! ,celtic-speak+
 invad]s ( ,gaul3 x simply means '!     
,boil]4'  ,o!r =ms ( ! "n are also f\nd1
 z ,bormo & ,bormanus4  ,at ,aquae      
,granni 7,aix-la-,*apelle7 & else:]e !  
"n id5tifi$ )  ,apollo is ,grannos4  ,we
 f9d also ,mogons1 & ,mog\nus1 ! patron 
deity  ( ,moguntiacum 7,ma9z71 &1 once  
or twice1 ,maponos 7! great y\?74  ,!   
ess5tial feature ( ! ,apollo wor%ip 0   
its association 9 ,gallo-  ,roman       
civilisation ) ! idea ( heal+1 an idea  
:i*1 ?r\gh !  revival ( ! wor%ip (      

,a,esculapius1 affect$ religi\s views v 
/rongly 9 o!r qu>t]s ( ! empire4  ,x 0 9
 ?is conception (  ! gods z ! guides (  
civilisation & ! re/or]s ( heal?1 t     
,celtic religion1 9 "s di/ricts at any  
rate1 %[s itself em]g+  into a measure (
 light aft] a long & toilsome progress f
 !  d>kness ( prehi/oric ideas4  ,:at   
,caes> says ( ! practice ( !  ,gauls (  
beg9n+ ! ye> ) ! night r ?an ) ! day1 & 
_! anci5t belief t !y 7 sprung f ,dis1 !
 god ( ! l[]  _w1 is ?us typifi$ 9 _!   
religi\s hi/ory4    ,9 deal+ ) ! deities
 ( ! ,celtic _w we mu/ n1 h[ev]1  =get !
 goddesses1 ?\gh _! hi/ory pres5ts      
sev]al problems (  great difficulty4  ,(
 ^! goddesses "s are kn[n to u by       
gr\ps--,proximae 7! k9swom571 ,d]vonnae 
7! oak-spirits71 ,niskai  7!            
wat]-sprites71 ,mairae1 ,matronae1      
,matres or ,matrae 7! mo!rs71           
,quadriviae 7! goddesses ( cross roads74
  ,! ,matres1 ,matrae1 &  ,matronae are 
(t5 qualifi$ by "s local "n4  ,deities (
 ?is type  appe> to h be5 popul> 9      

,brita91 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,cologne  & 
9 ,prov5ce4  ,9 "s cases x is unc]ta9   
:e!r "s ( ^!  gr\p$ goddesses are       
,celtic or ,teutonic4  ,x is an int]e/+ 
p>allel  to ! exi/5ce ( ^! gr\p$        
goddesses1 :5 we f9d t 9 "s  p>ts (     
,wales ',y ,mamau' 7! mo!rs7 is ! "n = !
 fairies4  ,^!  gr\p$ goddesses take u  
back to "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ /ages 9  !   
e>ly ,celtic religion1 :5 ! e>?-spirits 
or ! corn-spirits _h  n yet be5         
completely individualis$4  ,( !         
individualis$ goddesses  _m are /rictly 
local1 be+ ! names ( spr+s or riv]s4    
,o!rs1  aga91 appe> to h em]g$ into     
great] individual prom95ce1 & (  ^! we  
f9d sev]al associat$ on inscriptions1   
sometimes ) a god (  ,celtic "n1 b      
sometimes ) 8 ,lat9 c\nt]p>t4  ,x is by 
no means  c]ta9 t ! names s l9k$ toge!r 
7 ?us associat$ 9 e>ly  times1 & !      
fa%ion may h be5 a lat] "o1 :i*1 l o!r  
fa%ions1 spread aft] x _h once begun4   
,! relation%ip 9 "s cases  may h be5    
reg>d$ z t ( "m & son1 9 o!rs t (  bro!r

 & si/]1 9 o!rs t ( husb& & wife1 ! data
 are n  adequate = ! f9al decision ( !  
"q4  ,( ^! associat$  pairs ! foll[+ may
 be not$1 ,m]curius & ,rosm]ta1         
,m]curius &  ,dirona1 ,grannus 7,apollo7
 & ,sirona1 ,sucellus & ,nantosvelta1   
,borvo &  ,damona1 ,cicolluis 7,m>s7 &  
,litavis1 ,bormanus & ,bormana1 ,savus &
  ,adsalluta1 ,m>s & ,nemetona4  ,"o (  
^! names1 ,sirona1 probably meant  !    
long-liv$ "o1 & 0 appli$ to ! e>?-"m4   
,9 ,wel% "o or  two names h surviv$ :i*1
 by _! /ructure1 appe> to h be5  anci5t 
names ( goddesses2 ^! are ,rhiannon     
7,rigantona1 ! great  que571 & ,modron  
7,matrona1 ! great "m74  ,! o!r ,briti% 
deities w be m fully treat$ by ano!r    
writ] 9 ?is s]ies 9 a  "w on ! anci5t   
my?ology ( ! ,briti% ,isles4  ,x is     
en\gh to say  t rese>* t5ds m & m to    
confirm ! view t ! key to !  hi/ory ( ! 
,celtic deities is ! realisation ( !    
local "*  ( ! va/ majority ( !m4        
,,*apt] ,,vi--,,! ,,celtic ,,prie/hood  
,no "n 9 connection ) ,celtic religion  

is m famili> to !  av]age read] ?an t ( 
! ,druids1 yet !re is no section ( !    
hi/ory ( ,celtic religion t has giv5    
rise to great] discussion ?an  t relat+ 
to ?is ord]4  ,ev5 ! association ( ! "n 
) !  ,indo-,european root dru-1 :i* we  
f9d 9 ! ,greek ^w drus1 an  oak1 has be5
 que/ion$ by su* a compet5t ,celtic     
s*ol> z ,m4  d',arbois de ,juba9ville1 b
 on ?is po9t x _c be said t 8  criticism
 is conclusive4  ,! writ]s ( ! anci5t _w
 :o ref] to  ! ,druids1 d n always make 
x suffici5tly cle> 9 :at di/ricts  !    
rites1 c]emonies1 & functions :i* !y 7  
describ+  prevail$4  ,nor 0 x s mu* !   
prie/ly "* ( ! ,druids t  produc$ !     
deepe/ impression on ! anci5ts4  ,to "s 
philosophical  & !ological writ]s (     
antiquity _! doctr9es & _! app>5t       
aff9ities ) ,py?agoreanism 7 ( mu*      
great] int]e/ ?an _!  c]emonial or o!r  
functions4  ,"o ?+ at any rate is cle>1 
t !  ,druids & _! doctr9es1 or suppos$  
doctr9es1 _h made a deep  impression on 
! writ]s ( ! anci5t _w4  ,!re is a      

ref]5ce to  !m 9 a fragm5t ( ,ari/otle  
7:i* may n1 h[ev]1 be g5u9e7 t  is (    
int]e/ z assign+ !m a place 9 express   
t]ms bo? among !  ,celts & ! ,galatae4  
,! prom95t feature ( _! tea*+ :i* _h    
attract$ ! att5tion ( o!r writ]s1 su* z 
! hi/orian ,diodorus  ,siculus & !      
,*ri/ian !ologian ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 0
 !  resemblance ( _! doctr9e conc]n+ !  
immortality &  transmigration ( ! s\l to
 ! views ( ,py?agoras4  ,anci5t writ]s1 
h[ev]1 did n always rememb] t a religi\s
 or philosophical  doctr9e mu/ n be     
treat$ z a ?+ ap>t1 b mu/ be int]pret$ 9
  its :ole context 9 relation to its    
developm5t 9 hi/ory & 9 !  social life (
 ! community 9 :i* x has fl\ri%$4  ,to  
"s ( !  anci5ts ! sup]ficial resemblance
 betwe5 ! ,druidic doctr9e ( !  s\l's   
future & ! tea*+ attribut$ to ,py?agoras
 0 ! ess5tial  po9t1 & ?is 0 en\gh to   
give ! ,druids a reputation =           
philosophy1 s t a writ] l ,clem5t (     
,alex&ria goes s f> z to  reg>d !       
,druids ( ! ',galatae' along ) !        

prophets ( !  ,egyptians1 ! ',*aldaeans'
 ( ! ,assyrians1 ! 'philosoph]s ( !     
,celts1' & ! ,magi ( ! ,p]sians z !     
pione]s ( philosophy among  ! b>b>ians  
be=e x spread to ! ,greeks4  ,! reason =
 !  di/9ction drawn 9 ?is passage betwe5
 ! ',druids ( ! ,galatae' &  '!         
philosoph]s ( ! ,celts' is n cle>4      
,diodorus ,siculus calls  att5tion to ! 
,druidic doctr9e t ! s\ls ( m5 7        
immortal1  & t aft] ! lapse ( an appo9t$
 numb] ( ye>s !y came to  life aga91 !  
s\l !n ent]+ into ano!r body4  ,he says 
t !re  7 c]ta9 'philosoph]s & !ologians'
 t 7 call$ ,druids :o  7 held 9         
exceptional hon\r4  ,9 addition to ^!1 !
 ,celts1 he  says1 _h also se]s1 :o     
=etold ! future f ! flight ( birds  & by
 means ( ! (f]+ ( sacrifices4  ,accord+ 
to him x 0  ^! prie/ly se]s :o _h !     
masses 9 subjection to !m4  ,9 great    
affairs !y _h1 he says1 ! practice (    
div9ation by ! slaught] (  a human      
victim1 & ! obs]vation ( ! attitude 9   
:i* he fell1 !  contortions ( ! limbs1 !

 spurt+ ( ! blood1 & ! l4  ,?is1  he    
/ates1 0 an anci5t & e/abli%$ practice4 
,moreov]1 x 0 !  cu/om1 accord+ to      
,diodorus1 to make no sacrifice )\t !   
pres5ce  ( a philosoph] 7app>5tly a     
,druid 9 addition to ! sacrific+  se]71 
! !ory be+ t ^? :o 7 au?orities on !    
div9e  nature 7 to ! gods intelligible  
m$iators = ! (f]+ ( gifts  & !          
pres5tation ( petitions4  ,^!           
philosoph]s 7 9 great  reque/1 toge!r ) 
_! poets1 9 w> z well z 9 peace1 & 7    
consult$ n m]ely by ! m5 ( _! own side1 
b also by ^? (  ! enemy4  ,ev5 :5 two   
armies 7 on ! po9t ( jo9+ battle1  ^!   
philosoph]s _h be5 able1 ,diodorus says1
 to /ep into ! space  betwe5 !m & to /op
 !m f fight+1 exactly z if !y _h  *>m$  
wild bea/s4  ,! moral :i* ,diodorus     
draws f ?is is1 t  ev5 among ! wilde/ ( 
b>b>ians ! spirit$ pr9ciple ( ! s\l     
yields to wisdom1 & t ,ares 7! god ( w>7
 ev5 !re respects !  ,muses4  ,x is cle>
 f ?is acc\nt t ,diodorus _h 9 m9d !    
?ree  classes ( non-milit>y pr(essional 

m5 among ! ,celts1 to :om o!r  anci5t   
writ]s also ref]1 namely1 ! ,b>ds1 !    
,se]s1 & ! ,druids4  ,8 n>rative is     
app>5tly an expansion1 9 ! light ( 8    
read+ &  philosophical m$itation1 (     
in=mation suppli$ by previ\s writ]s1    
notably ,posidonius4  ,! latt]1 too1    
appe>s to h be5 ,julius ,caes>'s  *ief  
au?ority1 9 addition to 8 own           
obs]vation1 b ,caes> does n  appe>      
expressly to indicate ! triple division 
"h 9 "q4  ,!  acc\nt :i* he gives is    
important1 & w\ld be ev5 m valuable ?an 
x is _h he told u h[ f> :at he describes
 0 writt5 f 8 own  p]sonal in=mation1 & 
! degree ( v>iation 7if any7 ( religi\s 
practice 9 diff]5t di/ricts4  ,h[ev]1   
,caes>'s /atem5ts des]ve  ! close/      
consid]ation4  ,aft] call+ att5tion to !
 division (  ! ,gauli% ari/ocracy into  
two ma9 sections1 ! ,druids & !         
,knights1 he proce$s to speak ( !       
,druids4  ,^! 7 occupi$1 he  says1 )    
religi\s matt]s1 !y att5d$ to public &  
private  sacrifices1 & int]pret$ om5s4  

,moreov]1 !y 7 ! tea*]s (  ! c\ntry4    
,to !m ! "y m5 congregat$ = k1 & !      
pupils held _! tea*]s 9 great respect4  
,!y1 too1 7 ! judges  9 public & private
 disputes3 x 0 !y :o aw>d$ damages &    
p5alties4  ,any contumacy 9 ref]5ce to  
_! judgm5ts 0 puni%$ by  exclusion f !  
sacrifices4  ,?is s5t5ce (              
excommunication 0 !  sev]e/ puni%m5t    
among ! ,gauls4  ,! m5 s puni%$ 7 treat$
 z  outlaws1 & cut (f f all human       
society1 ) its rights &  privileges4    
,ov] ^! ,druids !re 0 "o head1 :o wield$
 !  highe/ influ5ce among !m4  ,on 8    
dea? ! ne>e/ ( ! o!rs 9  dignity succe$$
 him1 or1 if sev]al 7 equal1 ! election 
( a  successor 0 made by ! vote ( !     
,druids4  ,sometimes ! primacy 0  n     
decid$ )\t ! arbitram5t ( arms4  ,!     
,druids met at a fix$  "t ( ! ye> 9 a   
consecrat$ spot 9 ! t]ritory ( !        
,c>nutes1  ! di/rict :i* 0 reg>d$ z be+ 
9 ! c5tre ( ! :ole (  ,gaul4  ,?is      
assembly ( ,druids =m$ a c\rt = !       
decision ( cases  br\ght to !m f ev]y:]e

 ar\nd4  ,x 0 ?\ght1 ,caes> says1  t !  
doctr9e ( ! ,druids 0 discov]$ 9 ,brita9
 & !nce  c>ri$ ov] into ,gaul4  ,at t   
"t1 too1 ^? :o want$ to make a  pr(\nd] 
/udy ( x resort$ ?i!r = _! tra9+4  ,!   
,druids  _h immunity f milit>y s]vice & 
f ! paym5t ( tribute4  ,^!  privileges  
drew _m into tra9+ = ! pr(ession1 "s (  
_! own  accord1 o!rs at ! in/ance (     
p>5ts & relatives4  ,:ile 9  tra9+ !y 7 
said to le>n by he>t a l>ge numb] (     
v]ses1 &  "s w5t s f> z to sp5d tw5ty   
ye>s 9 _! c\rse ( prep>ation4  ,!       
,druids held x wrong to put _! religi\s 
tea*+ 9 writ+1  ?\gh1 9 almo/ ev]y?+    
else1 :e!r public or private affairs1   
!y made use ( ,greek lett]s4  ,caes>    
?\ght t !y disc\rag$  writ+ on ! "o h&1 
le/ _! tea*+ %\ld become public         
prop]ty2 on ! o!r1 le/ reliance ^u writ+
 %\ld less5 !  cultivation ( ! memory4  
,to ?is risk ,caes> c\ld te/ify f 8  own
 k4  ,_! c>d9al doctr9e 0 t s\ls did n  
p]i%1  b t aft] dea? !y pass$ f "o p]son
 to ano!r2 & ?is  !y reg>d$ z a supreme 

inc5tive to val\r1 s9ce1 ) ! prospect  (
 immortality1 ! fe> ( dea? c\nt$ = no?+4
  ,!y c>ri$ on1  moreov]1 _m discussions
 ab\t ! />s & _! motion1 !  greatness ( 
! univ]se & ! l&s1 ! nature ( ?+s1 !    
/r5g? & p[] ( ! immortal gods1 &        
communicat$ _! k  to _! pupils4  ,9     
ano!r passage ,caes> says t ! ,gauls z a
  p 7 extremely devot$ to religi\s ideas
 & practices4  ,m5 :o  7 s]i\sly ill1 :o
 7 engag$ 9 w>1 or :o /ood 9 any p]il1  
(f]$1 or promis$ to (f]1 human          
sacrifices1 & made use ( !  ,druids z _!
 ag5ts = su* sacrifices4  ,_! !ory 01 t 
!  immortal gods c\ld n be appeas$      
unless a human life 7 giv5 = a  human   
life4  ,9 addition to ^! private        
sacrifices1 !y _h also  simil> human    
sacrifices ( a public "*4  ,caes> fur!r 
contra/s  ! ,g]mans ) ! ,gauls1 say+ t !
 =m] _h no ,druids to  preside ov]      
matt]s ( religion1 & t !y paid no       
att5tion to  sacrifices4    ,9 8 "w on  
div9ation1 ,cic]o1 too1 ref]s to !      
pr(ession :i*  ! ,druids made ( natural 

sci5ce1 & ( ! p[] ( =etell+ !  future1 &
 in/ances ! case ( ! ,a,eduan           
,diviciacus1 8 bro!r's  gue/ & fri5d4   
,no?+ is "h said by ,cic]o ( ! ?ree     
classes  impli$ 9 ,diodorus1 b ,timag5es
 7quot$ 9 ,ammianus7 ref]s to !  ?ree   
classes "u ! names 'b>di1' 'euhages' 7a 
mi/ake = 'vates'71  & 'drasidae' 7a     
mi/ake = 'druidae'74  ,! /udy ( nature &
 ( !  heav5s is "h attribut$ to ! second
 class ( se]s 7vates74  ,!  highe/      
class1 t ( ! ,druids1 71 he says1 9     
accordance ) !  rule ( ,py?agoras1      
closely l9k$ toge!r 9 confrat]nities1 & 
by  acquir+ a c]ta9 l(t9ess ( m9d f _!  
inve/igations into  ?+s t 7 hidd5 &     
exalt$1 !y despis$ human affairs &      
decl>$ ! s\l immortal4  ,we see "h !    
view express$ t socially  z well z      
intellectually ! ,druids liv$ accord+ to
 ! ,py?agorean  philosophy4  ,orig5 also
 ref]s to ! view t 0 preval5t 9 8  "t1 t
 ,zamolxis1 ! s]vant ( ,py?agoras1 _h   
taught ! ,druids !  philosophy (        
,py?agoras4  ,he fur!r /ates t ! ,druids

 practis$  sorc]y4  ,! triple division (
 ! non-milit>y ari/ocracy is p]haps  be/
 giv5 by ,/rabo1 ! ,greek geograph]1 :o 
"h foll[s ,posidonius4  ,! ?ree classes 
are ! ,b>ds1 ! ,se]s 7ouateisvates71 &  
,druids4  ,! ,b>ds 7 hymn-writ]s &      
poets1 ! ,se]s sacrific]s & m5 (        
sci5ce1 :ile ! ,druids1 9 addition to   
natural sci5ce1 practis$ also  moral    
philosophy4  ,!y 7 reg>d$ z ! ju/e/ (   
m51 & on ?is  acc\nt 7 intru/$ ) !      
settlem5t ( private & public  disputes4 
,!y _h be5 ! means ( prev5t+ armies f   
fight+  :5 on ! v v]ge ( battle1 & 7    
especially intru/$ ) !  judgm5t ( cases 
involv+ human life4  ,accord+ to ,/rabo1
 !y &  _! fell[-c\ntrym5 held t s\ls & !
 univ]se 7 immortal1  b t fire & wat]   
w\ld sometime prevail4  ,sacrifices 7   
nev]  made1 ,/rabo says1 )\t !          
int]v5tion ( ! ,druids4  ,pomponius     
,mela says t 9 8 "t 7c4 #dd ,a4,d471    
?\gh ! anci5t savag]y 0  no m1 & !      
,gauls ab/a9$ f human sacrifices1 "s    
traces (  _! =m] practices /ill rema9$1 

notably 9 _! habit ( cutt+  a portion ( 
! fle% ( ^? condemn$ to dea? aft] br++  
!m to  ! alt>s4  ,! ,gauls1 he says1 9  
spite ( _! traces ( b>b>ism1  _h an     
eloqu5ce ( _! own1 & _h ! ,druids z _!  
tea*]s 9  philosophy4  ,^! pr(ess$ to "k
 ! size & =m ( ! e>? &  ( ! univ]se1 !  
motions ( ! sky & />s1 & ! w ( !  gods4 
,he ref]s1 z ,caes> does1 to _! "w 9    
education1 & says  t x 0 c>ri$ on 9     
caves or 9 seclud$ groves4  ,mela speaks
 (  _! doctr9e ( immortality1 b says    
no?+ z to ! entry ( s\ls  into o!r      
bodies4  ,z a pro( ( ?is belief he      
speaks ( ! practice  ( burn+ & bury+ ) !
 dead ?+s appropriate to ! ne$s (  !    
liv+4  ,lucan1 ! ,lat9 poet1 9 8        
,ph>salia1 ref]s to !  seclusion ( !    
,druids' groves & to _! doctr9e (       
immortality4  ,!  ,s*olia/s' notes on   
?is passage are aft] ! mann] ( _! k9d1 &
  add v little to our k4  ,9 ,pl9y's    
,natural ,hi/ory 7xvi1  #bdi71 h[ev]1 we
 seem to be face to face ) ano!r1 ?\gh  
p]haps a  di/ort$1 tradition4  ,pl9y 0  

an indefatigable compil]1 & appe>s      
p>tly by read+1 p>tly by p]sonal        
obs]vation1 to h notic$ phases  (       
,celtic religi\s practices :i* o!r      
writ]s _h ov]look$4  ,9 !  fir/ place he
 calls att5tion to ! v5]ation 9 :i* !   
,gauls held  ! mi/letoe & ! tree on :i* 
x grew1 provid$ t t tree 0  ! oak4      
,h5ce _! pr$ilection = oak groves & _!  
requirem5t  ( oak leaves = all religi\s 
rites4  ,pl9y "h rem>ks on !  consonance
 ( ?is practice ) ! etymology ( ! "n    
,druid z  int]pret$ ev5 ?r\gh ,greek 7! 
,greek = an oak be+ drus74  ,7  n ?is   
respect = ! oak & = ! mi/letoe p>allel$ 
by num]\s  examples ( tree &            
plant-wor%ip giv5 by ,dr4 ,fraz] & o!rs1
 x  might well h be5 suspect$ t ,pl9y 0 
"h quot+ "s writ]  :o _h tri$ to argue f
 ! etymology ( ! "n ,druid4  ,ano!r     
suspici\s circum/ance 9 ,pl9y's acc\nt  
is 8 ref]5ce to !  s]p5t's egg compos$ (
 snakes roll$ toge!r into a ball4  ,he  
/ates  t he himself _h se5 su* an 'egg1'
 ( ab\t ! size ( an apple4  ,pl9y1 too1 

/ates t ,tib]ius ,caes> aboli%$ by a    
decree ( !  ,s5ate ! ,druids & ! k9d (  
se]s & physicians ! ,gauls !n  _h4  ,?is
 /atem5t1 :5 read 9 its context1        
probably ref]s to !  prohibition ( human
 sacrifices4  ,! hi/orian ,suetonius1 9 
8 acc\nt  ( ! ,emp]or ,claudius1 also   
/ates t ,augu/us _h prohibit$ '!        
religion ( ! ,druids' 7:i*1 he says1 '0 
"o ( fe>ful savag]y'7  to ,roman        
citiz5s1 b t ,claudius _h entirely      
aboli%$ x4  ,:at is  "h also meant1 9   
view ( ! description giv5 ( ,druidism1  
is  d\btless ! aboli%+ ( its human      
sacrifices4  ,9 lat] ,lat9 writ]s  !re  
are sev]al ref]5ces to ,druidesses1 b ^!
 7 probably only  sorc]esses4  ,9 ,iri% 
! "n drui 7g5itive druad7 meant a       
magician1 & ! ^w d]wydd 9 m$iaeval ,wel%
 0 especially us$  9 ref]5ce to !       
vatic9ations :i* 7 !n popul> 9 ,wales4  
,:5 we analyse ! te/imony ( anci5t      
writ]s conc]n+ ! ,druids1  we see 9 !   
fir/ place t to diff]5t m9ds ! "n       
connot$  diff]5t ?+s4  ,to ,caes> x is !

 g5]al "n = ! non-milit>y  pr(essional  
class1 :e!r prie/s1 se]s1 tea*]s1       
lawy]s1 or judges4  ,to o!rs ! ,druids  
are pre-em95tly ! philosoph]s & tea*]s (
  ! ,gauls1 & are di/+ui%$ f ! se]s     
designat$ vates4  ,to  o!rs aga91 su* z 
,pl9y1 !y 7 ! prie/s ( ! oak-ritual1    
:5ce _! "n 0 d]iv$4  ,9 view ( ! v>iety 
( grades (  civilisation !n co-exi/+ 9  
,gaul & ,brita91 x is n improbable  t ! 
developm5t ( ! non-milit>y pr(essional  
class v>i$ v  consid]ably 9 diff]5t     
di/ricts1 & t all ! aspects ( ,druidism 
:i* ! anci5t writ]s specify f\nd _!     
appropriate places 9 !  social sy/em ( !
 ,celts4  ,9 ,gaul & ,brita91 z else:]e1
 !  (fice ( ! primitive tribal          
m$ic9e-man 0 capable ( indef9ite        
developm5t1 & all ! =ms ( its evolution 
c\ld n h proce$$  p>i passu :]e !       
sociological conditions f\nd su* scope =
  v>iation4  ,x may well be t ! oak &   
mi/letoe c]emonies1 =  example1 l+]$ 9  
remote agricultural di/ricts long aft]  
!y _h  ceas$ to int]e/ m5 along ! ma9   

r\tes ( ,celtic civilisation4  ,!       
bucolic m9d does n readily ab&on !      
practices ( mill5nia4    ,9 addition to 
! t]m ,druid1 we f9d 9 ,aulus ,hirtius' 
cont9uation (  ,caes>'s ,gallic ,w>     
7,bk4 viii41 c4 xxxviii41 #b71 z well z 
on two  inscriptions1 "o at             
,le-,puy-en-,velay 7,dep4               
,haute-,loire71 & ! o!r at  ,macon      
7,dep4 ,saone-et-,loire71 ano!r prie/ly 
title1 'gutuat]4'  ,at  ,macon ! (fice  
is t ( a 'gutuat] ,m>tis1' b ( its      
special  features no?+ is kn[n4         
,,*apt] ,,vii--,,! ,,celtic ,,o!r-,,_w  
,9 ! prec$+ *apt] we h se5 t ! belief 0 
widely  preval5t among ,greek & ,roman  
writ]s t ! ,druids taught !  immortality
 ( ! s\l4  ,"s ( ^! writ]s1 too1 po9t   
out !  und\bt$ fact1 atte/$ by          
,ar*aeology1 t objects :i* w\ld be      
s]viceable to ! liv+ 7 buri$ ) ! dead1 &
 ?is 0  reg>d$ z a confirmation ( ! view
 t ! immortality ( s\ls 0  to ! ,celts  
an object ( belief4  ,! /udy (          
,ar*aeology on ! "o  h&1 & ( ,comp>ative

 ,religion on ! o!r1 c]ta9ly leads to ! 
conclusion t 9 ! ,bronze & ! ,e>ly ,iron
 ,age1 & 9 all  probability 9 ! ,/one   
,age1 ! idea prevail$ t dea? 0 n !  end 
( man4  ,! hol$ cromle*s ( ! lat] ,/one 
,age 7 probably  design$ = ! egress &   
+ress ( s\ls4  ,! food & ! weapons  t 7 
buri$ ) ! dead 7 ?\ght to be objects (  
g5u9e  ne$4  ,roman religion1 too1 9 "s 
( its rites provid$ means = !  p]iodical
 expulsion ( hungry & ho/ile spirits ( !
 dead1 & =  _! pacification by ! (f] (  
food4  ,a tomb & its adjuncts 7  meant n
 m]ely = ! hon\r ( ! dead1 b also = !   
protection  ( ! liv+4  ,a cle> l9e (    
di/9ction 0 drawn betwe5 satisfi$  &    
b5efic5t gho/s l ! ,manes1 & !          
unsatisfi$ & ho/ile  gho/s l ! ,lemures 
& ,l>vae4  ,to ! ,celtic m9d1 :5 its    
analytical p[]s _h come to bir?1 & man 0
 suffici5tly  self-consci\s to reflect  
^u himself1 ! problem ( 8 own nature    
press$ = "s solution4  ,9 ^! solutions !
 brea?1 ! blood1 !  "n1 ! head1 & ev5 ! 
hair g5]ally play$ a "p1 b ^!  w\ld n 9 

!mselves expla9 ! my/]i\s ph5om5a (     
sleep1 (  dreams1 ( epilepsy1 ( madness1
 ( disease1 ( man's %ad[ & 8            
reflection1 & ( man's dea?4  ,by long   
famili>ity ) ! sci5tific  or            
quasi-sci5tific explanations ( ^! ?+s1  
we f9d x difficult to  realise fully _! 
con/ant fasc9ation = e>ly man1 :o _h 8  
?9k]s & philosophies l ourselves4  ,"o v
 widely accept$  solution ( e>ly man 9 !
 ,celtic _w 01 t )9 him !re 0  ano!r    
self :i* c\ld live a life ( its own ap>t
 f ! body1 &  :i* surviv$ ev5 dea?1     
burial1 & burn+4  ,sometimes ?is inn]   
self 0 associat$ ) ! brea?1 :5ce1 =     
example1 ! ,lat9  'anima' & ! ,wel%     
'enaid1' bo? mean+ ! s\l1 f ! root an-1 
to brea!4  ,at o!r times ! t]m employ$ =
 ! second self _h  ref]5ce to man's     
%ad[3 ! ,greek 'skia1' ! ,lat9 'umbra1' 
! ,wel%  'ysgawd1' ! ,engli% '%ade4'    
,!re are abundant evid5ces1 too1 t  !   
life-pr9ciple 0 frequ5tly reg>d$ z be+  
especially associat$  ) ! blood4  ,ano!r
 t5d5cy1 ( :i* ,pr9cipal ,rhys has giv5 

num]\s examples 9 8 ,wel% folk-lore1 0  
to reg>d ! s\l z  capable ( tak+ a      
visible =m1 n necess>ily human1         
pref]ably t  ( "s w+$ creature4  ,9     
anci5t writ]s !re is no in=mation z  to 
! views preval5t among ! ,celts reg>d+ !
 =ms or ! abodes  ( ! spirits ( ! dead1 
beyond ! /atem5t t ! ,druids taught  !  
doctr9e ( _! re-bir?4  ,we are ?us      
compell$ to look to !  evid5ce af=d$ by 
my?1 leg5d1 & folk-lore4  ,^! give fair 
indications z to ! types ( e>li] popul> 
belief 9 ^! matt]s1  b x w\ld be a      
mi/ake to assume t ! ideas embodi$ 9 !m 
_h  rema9$ entirely un*ang$ f remote    
times4  ,! m9d ( man at  c]ta9 levels is
 q capable ( evolv+ new my?s & fre%     
folk-lore  along ! l9es ( its own       
psy*ology & its own logic4  ,! =ms :i*  
! s\l c\ld take d\btless v>i$ greatly 9 
m5's op9ions 9  diff]5t di/ricts & 9    
diff]5t m5tal p]spectives1 b folk-lore  
t5ds to confirm ! view t e>ly man1 9 !  
,celtic _w z  else:]e1 t5d$ to emphasise
 8 conception ( ! subtlety &  mobility (

 ! s\l z contra/$ ) ! body4  ,soon] or  
lat] !  primitive philosoph] 0 b\nd to  
consid] :i!r ! s\l w5t 9  dreams or 9   
dea?4  ,he may n at fir/ h ?\ght ( any  
o!r sph]e  ?an t ( 8 own normal life1 b 
o!r que/ions1 su* z ! home  ( ! spirits 
( vegetation 9 or "u ! e>?1 w\ld sugge/1
 ev5  if ?is ?\ght _h n occurr$ to him  
be=e1 t ! spirits ( m51  too1 _h        
entrance to ! _w bel[4  ,:e!r ?is _w 0  
fur!r  pictur$ 9 imag9ation dep5d$      
l>gely on ! poetic g5ius ( any  giv5 p4 
,! folk-lore ( ! ,celtic races be>s     
abundant te/imony  to _! belief t b5ea? 
?is _w !re 0 ano!r4  ,! 'annwfn'  ( !   
,wel% 0 di/9ctly conceiv$ 9 ! folk-lore 
embodi$ 9  m$iaeval poetry z be+ 'is    
elfydd' 7b5ea? ! _w74  ,9 m$iaeval      
,wel% leg5d1 aga91 ?is l[] _w is reg>d$ 
z divid$ into  k+doms1 l ?is _w1 & its  
k+s1 l ,arawn & ,hafgan 9 !  ,mab9ogi ( 
,pwyll1 are repres5t$ z be+ sometimes   
engag$ 9  conflict4  ,f ?is l[] _w _h   
come to man "s ( ! bless+s (            
civilisation1 & among !m ! mu* priz$    

gift ( sw9e4  ,! l[]  _w c\ld be ev5    
plund]$ by ent]pris+ h]oes4  ,m>riages l
  t ( ,pwyll & ,rhiannon 7 possible     
betwe5 ! dwell]s ( ! "o  _w & ! o!r4  ,!
 o!r-_w ( ! ,celts does n seem1  h[ev]1 
to h be5 always pictur$ z b5ea? ! e>?4  
,iri% &  ,wel% leg5d comb9e 9 view+ x at
 times z situat$ on di/ant  isl&s1 &    
,wel% folk-lore conta9s sev]al          
sugge/ions ( ano!r  _w situat$ b5ea? !  
wat]s ( a lake1 a riv]1 or a sea4  ,9 "o
  or two passages also ( ,wel% m$iaeval 
poetry ! %ades are repres5t$  z w&]+ 9 !
 woods ( ,cal$onia 7,co$ ,celyddon74    
,?is 0 no  d\bt a traditional idea 9 ^? 
families t migrat$ to ,wales 9 po/-     
,roman times f ,/ra?clyde4  ,to ^? :o   
puzzl$ ov] ! fate ( !  s\ls ( ! dead !  
idea ( _! re-bir? 0 a v natural         
solution1  & ,mr4 ,alfr$ ,nutt1 9 8     
,voyage ( ,bran1 has call$ att5tion to !
  occurr5ce ( ?is idea 9 ,iri% leg5d4   
,x does n foll[1 h[ev]1  t ! s\ls ( all 
m5 w\ld enjoy ! privilege ( ?is re-bir?4
  ,z  ,mr4 ,alfr$ ,nutt po9ts out1 ,iri%

 leg5d seems to reg>d ?is re-bir?  only 
z ! privilege ( ! truly great4  ,x is ( 
int]e/ to note !  curi\s p]si/5ce (     
simil> ideas z to dea? & ! o!r-_w 9     
lit]ature writt5 ev5 9 ,*ri/ian times & 
by mona/ic scribes4  ,9  ,wel%1 9       
addition to ,annwfn1 a t]m :i* seems to 
mean ! ',n-_w1'  we h o!r names = ! _w  
bel[1 su* z 'angh>1' ! loveless  place2 
'difant1' ! unrimm$ place 7:5ce ! mod]n 
,wel% ^w  'difancoll1' lo/ = ev]72      
'affwys1' ! abyss2 'affan1' ! l&        
invisible4  ,! upp]-_w is sometimes     
call$ 'elfydd1' sometimes  'adfant1' !  
latt] t]m mean+ ! place ^: rim is turn$ 
back4  ,app>5tly x implies a picture ( !
 e>? z a disc1 ^: rim or lip  is curv$  
back s z to prev5t m5 f fall+ ov] into !
 'difant1'  or ! rimless place4  ,9     
mod]n ,celtic folk-lore ! v>i\s local   
o!r-  worlds are ! abodes ( fairies1 & 9
 ^! traditions !re may  possibly be1 z  
,pr9cipal ,rhys has sugge/$1 "s         
int]mixture (  rem9isc5ces ( ! e>li]    
inhabitants ( ! v>i\s di/ricts4  ,mod]n 

folk-lore1 l m$iaeval leg5d1 has its    
/ories ( ! int]-m>riages  ( natives (   
?is _w ) ^? ( ! o!r-_w1 (t5 locat$      
und]nea? a lake4  ,! curi\s read] w f9d 
sev]al examples ( su*  /ories 9         
,pr9cipal ,rhys's collection ( ,wel% &  
,manx folk-lore4  ,9  ,iri% leg5d "o ( !
 mo/ classical ( ^! /ories is t ( !     
betro?al ( ,eta91 a /ory :i* has sev]al 
po9ts ( contact ) !  n>rative ( ! meet+ 
( ,pwyll & ,rhiannon 9 ! ,wel% ,mab9ogi4
  ,!  "n ( ,ar?ur's wife1 ,gw5hwyf>1 :i*
 means '! ,:ite ,spectre1' also  sugge/s
 t orig9ally %e too play$ a "p 9 a /ory 
( ! same  k9d4  ,9 all ^! & simil>      
n>ratives1 x is important to note !  way
 9 :i* ! ,celtic conceptions ( ! o!r-_w1
 9 ,brita9 & 9  ,irel&1 h be5 col\r$ by 
! geographical aspects ( ^! two         
c\ntries1 by _! seas1 _! isl&s1 _!      
caves1 _! m\nds1 _!  lakes1 & _!        
m\nta9s4  ,! local o!r-worlds ( ^! l&s  
be>1  z we might h expect$1 ! cle>      
impress ( _! orig94  ,on !  :ole !      
conceptions ( ! o!r-_w :i* we meet 9    

,celtic leg5d  are joy\s2 x is a l& (   
y\? & beauty4  ,cu*ula9n1 ! ,iri%  h]o1 
= example1 is br\ght 9 a boat to an     
exce$+ly fair isl&  r\nd :i* !re is a   
silv] wall & a bronze palisade4  ,9 "o  
,wel%  leg5d ! cauldron ( ! ,head (     
,annwfn has ar\nd x a rim ( pe>ls4  ,"o 
,iri% /ory has a naive description ( !  
glories ( ! ,celtic  ,elysium 9 !       
words--',admirable 0 t l&3 !re are ?ree 
trees  !re always be>+ fruit1 "o pig    
always alive1 & ano!r ready  cook$4'    
,occasionally1 h[ev]1 we f9d a diff]5t  
picture4  ,9 !  ,wel% poem call$ ',y    
,godod9' ! poet ,aneir9 is repres5t$ z  
express+ 8 gratitude at be+ rescu$ by ! 
son ( ,llyw>* ,h5 f  '! cruel prison ( !
 e>?1 f ! abode ( dea?1 f !  loveless   
l&4'  ,! sali5t features1 !re=e1 ( !    
,celtic  conceptions ( ! o!r-_w are _!  
consonance ) ! sugge/ions  made by      
,celtic sc5]y to ! ,celtic imag9ation1 !
 vagu5ess &  v>iability ( ^! conceptions
 9 diff]5t m9ds & 9 diff]5t  moods1 !   
abs5ce ( any e?ical consid]ations beyond

 ! inc5tive  giv5 to brav]y by ! ?\ght (
 immortality1 & ! rem>kable  developm5t 
( a s5se ( possible int]-relations      
betwe5 ! two  worlds1 :e!r pacific or   
ho/ile4  ,su* conceptions1 z we see f   
,celtic leg5d1 prov$ an admirable       
/imulus & provid$ excell5t  mat]ial = ! 
developm5t ( ,celtic n>rative1 & ! weird
 &  romantic effect 0 fur!r height5$ by 
! g5]al belief 9 !  possibilities (     
magic & metamorphosis4  ,moreov]1 !     
association )  innum]able place-names ( 
leg5ds ( ?is type gave ! beautiful      
sc5]y ( ,celtic l&s an add$ *>m1 :i* has
 atta*$ _!  inhabitants to !m ) a subtle
 & unconqu]able atta*m5t sc>cely        
intelligible to ! m prosaic inhabitants 
( prosaic l&s4  ,to !  poetic ,celt !   
love ( c\ntry t5ds to become almo/ a    
religion4  ,!  ,celtic m9d _c rema9     
indiff]5t to l&s & seas ^: v beauty     
compels ! eyes ( man to gaze ^u !m to _!
 v horizon1 & !  l9es ( obs]vation ?us  
drawn to ! horizon are = ! ,celt        
cont9ual  temptations to ! ?\ght ( an   

inf9ity beyond4  ,! preoccupation (  !  
,celtic m9d ) ! deities ( 8 sc5]y1 8    
spr+s1 8 riv]s1  8 seas1 8 =e/s1 8      
m\nta9s1 8 lakes1 0 9 ?or\gh keep+  ) ! 
t5\r ( 8 m9d1 :5 tun$ to its natural    
surr\nd+s4  ,9  deal+ ) ,celtic         
religion1 my?ology1 & leg5d1 x is n s   
mu*  ! v>y+ local & temporal =ms t dem& 
our att5tion1 z !  all-p]vad+ & animat+ 
_s1 :i* %[s its ess5tial "*  ev5 ?r\gh !
 scanty rema9s ( ! anci5t ,celtic _w4   
,celtic  religion be>s ! impress (      
nature on e>? f> m ?an nature 9 !       
heav5s4  ,! s5se ( ! heav5 above has    
p]haps surviv$ 9 "s (  ! g5]al          
,indo-,european ,celtic t]ms = ! div9e  
pr9ciple1 &  !re are "s traces ( a      
religi\s int]e/ 9 ! sun & ! god (  ?und]
 & lightn+1 b e /ud5t ( ,celtic religion
 mu/ feel  t ! ma9 & *>act]i/ic elem5ts 
are associat$ ) ! e>?  9 all ! v>iety ( 
its local ph5om5a4  ,! great e>?-"m &   
h] v>i$ (fspr+ ev] come to view 9       
,celtic religion "u _m  names1 & !      
features ev5 ( ! o!r-_w c\ld n be       

dissociat$  = ! ,celt f ^? ( 8 "m-e>?4  
,! fe/ivals ( 8 ye>1  too1 7 associat$ )
 ! decay & ! r5ewal ( h] annual life4   
,! bonfires ( ,novemb]1 ,may1 ,midsumm]1
 & ,augu/ 7 d\btless meant  to be       
associat$ ) ! vicissitudes ( h] life & !
 spirits t  7 h] *ildr54  ,= ! ,celt !  
ye> began 9 ,novemb]1 s t its  second   
half-ye> comm5c$ ) ! fir/ ( ,may4  ,!   
idea to :i*  ,caes> ref]s1 t ! ,gauls   
believ$ !mselves desc5d$ f ,dis1 !  god 
( ! l[] _w1 & began ! ye> ) ! night1    
c\nt+ _!  "t n by days b by nights1     
po9ts 9 ! same direction1 namely t  !   
d>kness ( ! e>? _h a great] hold on !   
m9d ?an !  brightness ( ! sky4  ,! ,wel%
 t]ms = a week & a =tnight1  wy?nos     
7eight nights7 & py!fnos 7fifte5 nights7
 respectively  confirm ,caes>'s /atem5t4
  ,to u n[ x may seem m natural to      
associate religion ) ! contemplation ( !
 heav5s1 b = !  ,celtic l&s at any rate 
! ma9 tr5d ( ! evid5ce is to %[ t  !    
religi\s m9d 0 ma9ly drawn to a         
contemplation ( ! e>? &  h] v>i$ life1 &

 t ! ,celt look$ = 8 o!r-_w ei!r  b5ea? 
! e>?1 ) h] riv]s1 lakes1 & seas1 or 9 !
 isl&s on  ! di/ant horizon1 :]e e>? &  
sky met4  ,?is pr$om9ance ( !  e>? 9    
religion 0 9 ?or\gh keep+ ) ! int5sity (
 religion  z a factor 9 8 daily         
pursuits4  ,x 0 ?is int5sity t gave !   
,druids at "s "t or o!r 9 ! hi/ory ( !  
,we/]n ,celts !  p[] :i* ,caes> & o!rs  
assign to !m4  ,! :ole p ( !  ,gauls1   
ev5 ) _! milit>y ari/ocracy1 7 extremely
 devot$ to  religi\s ideas1 ?\gh ^! l$  
to ! inhumanity ( human sacrifices4  ,at
 "o "t _! s5se ( ! reality ( ! o!r-_w 0 
s great1  t !y believ$ t loans contract$
 9 ?is _w w\ld be repaid  !re1 &        
practical belief c\ld n g mu* fur!r ?an 
t4  ,all  ^! consid]ations t5d to %[ h[ 
important x is1 9 ! comp>ative  /udy (  
religions1 to inve/igate ea* religion 9 
its :ole  sociological & geographical   
environm5t z well z 9 ! etymological    
mean+ ( its t]ms4    ,9 conclusion1 !   
writ] hopes t ?is brief sket*1 :i* is   
bas$ on  an indep5d5t /udy ( ! ma9      

evid5ce = ! religi\s ideas &  practices 
( ! ,celtic peoples1 w help to int]e/   
/ud5ts (  religion 9 ! dom9ant modes (  
?\ght :i* f "t immemorial held  sway 9  
^! l&s ( ! ,we/ ( ,europe1 & :i* 9      
folk-lore &  cu/om occasionally %[      
!mselves ev5 9 ! mid/ ( our highly      
develop$ & complex civilisation (       
to-day4  ,! ?\ght ( e>ly man  on !      
problems ( 8 be+--= aft] all 8          
sup]/itions reveal  ?\ght--des]ve       
respect1 = 9 8 ef=ts to ?9k he 0 try+ to
  grope t[>ds ! light4          ,,%ort  
,,bibliography      ,,rhys1 ,hibb]t     
,lectures on ,celtic ,hea!ndom4         
,,rhys1 ,celtic ,folk-lore1 ,wel% &     
,manx4    ,,re9a*1 ,s41 ,cultes1 ,my!s  
et ,religion4    ,,nutt1 ,,alfr$1 ,!    
,voyage ( ,bran4    ,,squire1 ,my?ology 
( ! ,briti% ,isl&s4    ,,gaidoz1        
,esqiusse de ,my?ologie gauloise4       
,,b]tr&1 ,la ,religion des ,gaulois1 les
 ,druides et le ,druidisme4    ,,fraz]1 
,! ,gold5 ,b\gh4    ,,joyce1 ,! ,social 
,hi/ory ( ,irel&4    ,d',,arbois ,,de   

,,juba9ville1 ,les ,druides et les dieux
 celtiques a =me  d'animaux4            
,,w9dis*1 ,iris*e ,texte mit ,wort]bu*4 
,,cynddelw1 ,cymru ,fu4    ,,f\lkes1    
,enwogion ,cymru4    ,,campbell1 ,popul>
 ,tales ( ! ,we/ ,highl&s4