,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #cab ,,new ,,york1 ,,december #bd1 #ahha4 ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xii41 ,no4 #cab4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics4--,improved ,fifteen ,ton ,traveling ,crane4 ,designed for service in the construction of ,port ,alfred ,harbor4 ,south ,africa4 #c figures4 #difg ,improved ,steam ,boiler4 #a figure4 #difh ,the ,elevated ,railways of ,new ,york4 #difh ,some of the ,developments of ,mechanical ,engineering during the ,last ,half ,century4 ,british ,association ,paper4 ,by ,,sir ,,frederick ,,bramwell4 ,the steam engine4--,evaporative condenser4--,steam navigation4--,marine governors4--,light engines and boilers4--,the ,perkins system4--,ether engine4--,quicksilver engine4--,locomotive engines4--,brakes4--,motors4--,transmiss ion of power4--,compressed air locomotives4--,hydraulic transmission of power4--,electric transmission of power4--,the manufacture of iron and steel4-- ,bridges4--,machine tools4--,the sewing machine4--,agricultural machinery4--,printing machinery4 #difh ,amateur ,mechanics3 ,metal turning1 #bi figures4 ,rotary cutters1 #ab figures4 ,wood-working and lathe attachments1 #i figures4 #diga ,a ,new ,method of ,keeping ,mechanical ,drawings4 #digh ,achard's ,electric ,brake for ,railway ,use4 #b figures4 ,plan and elevation4 #digd ,,ii4 ,,electricity1 ,,etc4--,electricity4 ,what it is and what may be expected of it4 ,by ,,jacob ,,reese4 #digd ,electric ,light ,apparatus for ,photographic ,purposes4 ,by ,a4,j4 ,,jarman4 #b figures4 #digf ,desruelles's ,electric ,lighter4 #a figure4 #digf ,solenoid ,underground ,wires in ,philadelphia4 #digf ,dr4 ,herz's ,telephonic ,systems4 #b figures4 #digf ,decision of the ,congress of ,electricians on the ,units of ,electric ,measures4 #digg ,secondary ,batteries4 ,by ,j4 ,,rousse4 #digg ,,iii4 ,,technology ,,and ,,chemistry4--,domestic ,sugar ,production4 #dihj ,m4 ,garnier's ,new ,methods of ,photo-,engraving4 ,by ,major ,j4 ,,waterhouse4--,photogravure4--,photogra ph printing by vapor4--,atmography4 #dihb ,dangers of ,pyrogallic ,acid4 ,by ,,dr4 ,t4,l4 ,,phipson4 #dihb ,,iv4 ,,architecture1 ,,etc4--,artists' ,homes1 ,no4 #ab4--,wm4 ,emerson's house1 ,little ,sutton1 ,chiswick4--,full page illustration and large size longitudinal section4 #digh ,memorable ,english ,houses4 #d figures4--,newton's house4-- ,flaxman's house4--,canning's house4--,johnson's house4 #dihj ,v4 ,,geography4--,herald ,island4--,on the summit4--,a midnight observation4--,plant life on ,herald ,island4--,inhabitants of the cliffs4 #dihj ,,vi4 ,,metallurgy4--,the ,treatment of ,quicksilver ,ores in ,spain4 #digg ,,vii4 ,,aeronautics4--,the ,balloon in ,aeronautics4 #digg ,,viii4 ,,biography4--,franz ,liszt4--,large ,portrait4 #diha 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,fifteen ,,ton ,,crane4 ,illustration3 ,engraving4 ,illustration3 ,side and ,top ,view ,plans4 ,,improved ,,fifteen ,,ton ,,traveling ,,crane4 ,the machine illustrated on first page has been constructed for ,port ,alfred ,harbor1 this being one of several harbors now being made by ,sir ,j4 ,coode in ,south ,africa4 ,the pier for the construction of which the crane will be employed will consist of concrete blocks laid on what is known as the overend system4 ,the blocks1 being brought on trucks direct from the block yard to within the sweep of the machine1 are raised by it1 swung round1 and accurately set1 the machine being continually traveled forward as the work advances4 ,the bottom blocks are laid on bags of concrete previously deposited by the crane out of boxes with flap bottoms4 ,the present machine has been specially designed throughout1 and represents the most complete development which block-setting plant has yet attained4 ,the most striking features of the crane are1 the great range of all the motions1 the large radius1 and the method of providing for the latter by a horizontal jib suspended from a king-post4 ,it was at first intended to have a straight inclined jib1 and to alter the radius by pivoting this round its lower end1 as is commonly done2 it occurred1 however1 to ,mr4 ,matthews1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 representing ,sir ,j4 ,coode1 that the plan eventually adopted would be in many ways preferable2 the crane was therefore constructed by ,messrs4 ,stothert ,pitt with this modification1 and as far as can be judged from the trial with proof load1 the arrangements can hardly be surpassed for quick and accurate block-setting4 ,in cranes with derricking jibs it is necessary to connect the derrick and hoisting gears in such a manner that a variation of the radius may not affect the level of the load2 this plan answers sufficiently well for ordinary purposes1 but for block-setting it is requisite to have extreme accuracy in all the movements and great quickness in changing from one to another2 the arrangements adopted in foundry cranes1 in which all the motions are entirely independent of one another1 seems therefore more suited for this kind of work4 ,other not inconsiderable advantages are also secured by the adoption of the foundry crane type1 the amount of clear headway under the jib being much increased1 and the difficulty avoided of making a jib sixty feet long sufficiently stiff without undue weight4 ,the principal dimensions of the crane are1 total height of lift #df feet1 radius variable from #be feet minimum to #de feet maximum1 height from rail to underside of jib #bb feet #b inches1 radius of tail to center of boiler #bb feet1 working load #ae tons1 proof load #ai tons4 ,the general arrangement consists of a truck on which is fixed a post1 round which the crane revolves2 the jib is supported midway by an inclined strut1 above which is placed the king-post2 the strut is curved round at the bottom and forms one piece with the side frames1 which are carried right back as a tail to support the boiler and balance weight4 ,the hoisting gear consists of a double system of chains #ac_/af in4 in diameter placed side by side2 each chain is anchored by an adjustable screw to the end of the jib1 and1 passing round the traveling carriage and down to the falling block1 is taken along the jib over a sliding pulley which leads it on to the grooved barrel1 #c ft4 #i in4 in diameter4 ,in front of the barrel is placed an automatic winder which insures a proper coiling of the chain in the grooves4 ,the motive power is derived from two cylinders #aj in4 in diameter and #af in4 stroke1 one being bolted to each side frame2 these cylinders1 which are provided with link motion and reversing gear1 drive a steel crank shaft #b in4 in diameter2 on this shaft is a steel sliding pinion which drives the barrel by a double purchase4 ,in the center of the crank-shaft is a large reversing friction clutch1 which drives1 through miter gear1 a vertical shaft placed just in front of the post2 from the latter the slewing1 racking1 and traveling motions are obtained4 ,the crane can be turned through a complete circle by a pinion gearing into a machine-moulded toothed ring bolted to the top of the truck2 this ring is #aa ft4 #d-g_/h in4 in diameter1 and contains #agb teeth #b in pitch4 ,the slewing pinion is driven by intermediate gearing from the bottom of the vertical shaft mentioned above4 ,for the turning motion two distinct sets of rollers are provided2 these are carried by cross-girders placed between the side frames2 one set runs against a cast-iron roller path bolted round the bottom of the post1 and the other on the large horizontal roller path seen in the engraving4 ,the latter is #ad ft4 in diameter2 it is built up of two deep curved channel irons with top and bottom plates forming a circular box girder1 on the top of which a heavy flat rail is riveted1 and the whole turned up in the lathe4 ,the racking and traveling motions are driven from the top end of the vertical shaft2 the racking gear consists of wire ropes attached to each side of the traveling carriage and coiled round a large barrel1 the outer rope being brought over a pulley at the end of the jib4 ,the rails for the carriage rest on rolled joints bolted to the underside of jib4 ,this arrangement involves the use of an overhung traveling carriage1 but enables the jib to be of a stiff box section1 the side stiffness being further secured by wind ties4 ,the traveling motion is worked by a second vertical shaft1 which passes down the center of the post1 and by means of a cross shaft is geared to the front axle1 from which four of the ground wheels are driven4 ,the post is octagonal1 built up of plates in4 thick2 at the bottom end it is secured to the girders of the truck1 and at the top is shrunk on to a large gudgeon #ab in4 in diameter1 which enters a casting fixed in the back end of the jib2 on the top of the gudgeon are two steel disks on which an adjustable cap rests2 by means of this and the ties to the tail and the lower end of the strut a proportion of the weight can be brought on to the post so as to relieve the roller path to any desired extent1 and enable the crane to be revolved easily4 ,the truck is #bd ft4 long and #af ft4 #d in4 wide2 it is constructed of longitudinal and transverse box girders #b ft4 #h in4 deep1 and rests on two axles #f in4 in diameter2 round these axles swivel the cast-iron bogie frames which carry the ground wheels4 ,this arrangement was adopted because the crane has to travel up a gradient of #a in #cj1 and the bogies enable it to take the incline better2 they also distribute the weight more evenly on the wheels4 ,the gauge of the rails is #ae ft1 the wheels are #b ft4 #f in4 in diameter1 and have heavy steel tires4 ,the weight on each of the front wheels when running with the ballast1 but no load1 is about #af tons4 ,a powerful brake is applied to the wheels when descending the incline4 ,all the clutch levers1 break treadle1 and handles are brought together1 so that one man has the crane under his entire control4 ,an iron house1 of which the framing only is shown1 extends from the gearing right back to the boiler1 forming a most spacious engine room and stokehole4 ,a separate donkey engine is provided for feeding the boiler4 ,the truck is furnished with legs under which packings can be wedged so as to relieve the load on the wheels when block-setting4 ,the slings seen under the boiler are for hanging a concrete balance weight2 this will weigh about #bj tons4 ,the weight of the crane itself without load or ballast is about #hj tons4 ,the crane was tested under steam with a load of #ai tons with the most satisfactory results2 the whole machine appeared to be very rigid1 an end often very difficult to obtain with portable wrought-iron structures and live loads4 ,the result in the present case is probably greatly due to the careful workmanship1 and to the fact that the sides and ends of the plates are planed throughout1 so that the webs of the girders get a fair bearing on the top and bottom plates4 ,the crane showed itself to be very handy and quick in working1 the speeds with #ai tons load1 as actually timed at the trial1 are3 lifting #af ft4 per minute1 racking motion #df ft4 per minute1 slewing through a complete circle #ij ft4 diameter1 four minutes1 equivalent to a speed at load of #fj ft4 per minute4 ,the crane was constructed by ,messrs4 ,stothert ,pitt1 of ,bath1 to the order of the ,crown agents for the colonies1 and we understand that the design and construction have given complete satisfaction to ,sir ,j4 ,coode1 the engineer to the harbor works1 under whose supervision the crane was constructed4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,steam-,,boiler4 ,an improvement in steam-boilers1 best understood by reference to the ordinary vertical form1 has been introduced by ,mr4 ,t4 ,moy1 ,london4 ,here the flue is central1 and1 as shown in the accompanying illustration1 is crossed by a number of horizontal water-tubes at different heights4 ,the ends of these tubes are embraced1 within the steam chamber1 by annular troughs4 ,at the top domed part of the boiler are two annular chambers1 the outer one being intended to receive the water upon entry from the feed-pump1 and to contain any sedimentary deposit which may be formed4 ,the water next passes1 by the pipe1 a1 in the figure1 into the inner chamber1 surrounding the end of the uptake flue1 whence it flows through the pipe1 b1 down into the first of the annular troughs above mentioned1 and afterward overflows these troughs in succession until it reaches the bottom4 ,mr4 ,moy claims to have secured by this means a boiler of quick steaming capacity1 together with a reduction in the weight of metal1 and considerable economy of fuel4 ,by the arrangement of the water in a number of shallow layers a large steaming surface is obtained1 and there is a good steam space rendered available round the troughs4 ,the water also enters at a point where it may abstract as much heat as possible from the furnace gases before they escape2 and by the separation of the top domed chamber from the rest of the boiler the operation of scaling and cleaning is facilitated4 ,the arrangement is also adapted to horizontal and multitubular boilers1 to be fired with solid1 liquid1 or gaseous fuel4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,boiler4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,elevated ,,railways ,,of ,,new ,,york4 ,but few persons who have not been in ,new ,york since the construction of the elevated roads1 and witnessed their equipments and operations1 can have any adequate idea of the extent of them1 and of the people1 machinery1 and appurtenances required in working them4 ,a recent inventory discloses the fact that there are #cb miles of roadway1 #afa stations1 #bjc engines1 and #fab cars1 while #c1dhj trains a day are run4 ,there are #c1bgd men employed on these roads1 #cji of whom are engineers1 #beh ticket agents1 #bca conductors1 #cjh firemen1 #cie guards or brakemen1 #cdg gatemen1 #d road inspectors1 #ajf porters1 #cc carpenters1 #bg painters1 #fi car inspectors1 #adj car cleaners1 #dj lamp men1 and #dgj blacksmiths1 boiler makers1 and other mechanics employed on the structure and in the shops4 ,most of the ticket agents are telegraph operators1 but there are #ac other operators employed4 ,there are four double-track lines in operation4 ,the aggregate daily receipts vary from #ad1jjj to #ah1jjj2 and as many as #bgd1jbc passengers have been carried in one day4 ,engineers are paid from #c to #c4ej per day2 ticket agents1 #a4ge to #b4be2 conductors1 #a4ij to #b4ej2 firemen1 #a4ij to #b2 guards or brakemen1 #a4ej to #a4fe2 and gatemen1 #a4bj to #a4ej4 ,the above items do not include machinists and other employs in the workshops1 or the general officers1 clerks1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,american ,,antimony4 ,a ,baltimore dispatch informs us that a carload of antimony1 ten tons in all1 was lately received by ,c4,l4 ,oudesluys ,co41 from the southern part of ,utah ,territory1 being the first antimony received in the ,east from the mines of that section4 ,the antimony was mined about #adj miles from ,salt ,lake ,city4 ,the ore is a sulphide1 bluish gray in color1 and yields from #fj to #fe per cent4 of antimony4 ,all antimony heretofore came from ,great ,britain and the island of ,borneo1 and paid an import duty of #aj per cent4 ad valorem1 and there is also some from ,sonora4 ,it is believed that with proper rail facilities to the mines of the ,west there will be no need of importations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,developments ,,of ,,mechanical ,,engineering ,,during ,,the ,,last ,,half-,,century4#a ,footnote #a3 ,paper read in ,section ,g 7,mechanical7 of the ,british ,association4 ,by ,,sir ,,frederick ,,bramwell1 ,v4,p4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,chairman of the ,council of the ,society of ,arts4 ,i am quite sure the section will agree with me in thinking it was very fortunate for us1 and for science generally1 that our president refrained from occupying the time of the section by a retrospect1 and devoted himself1 in that lucid and clear address with which he favored us1 to the consideration of certain scientific matters connected with engineering1 and to the foreshadowing of the directions in which he believes it possible that further improvements may be sought for4 ,but ,i think it is desirable that some one should give to this section a record1 even although it must be but a brief and an imperfect one1 of certain of the improvements that have been made1 and of some of the progress that has taken place1 during the last fifty years1 in the practical application of mechanical science1 with which science and its applications our section is particularly connected4 ,i regret to say that1 like most of the gentlemen who sat on this platform yesterday1 who1 ,i think1 were1 without exception1 past presidents of the section1 ,i am old enough to give this record from personal experience4 ,fifty years ago ,i had not the honor of being a member1 nor should ,i1 it is true1 have been eligible for membership of the association2 but ,i was at that time vigorously making models of steam-engines1 to the great annoyance of the household in which ,i lived1 and was looking forward to the day when ,i should be old enough to be apprenticed to an engineer4 ,without further preface1 ,i will briefly allude to some of the principal developments of a few of the branches of engineering4 ,i am well aware that many branches will be left unnoticed2 but ,i trust that the omissions ,i may make will be remedied by those present who may speak upon the subject after me4 ,i will begin by alluding to ,,the ,,steam-,,engine ,,employed ,,for ,,manufacturing ,,purposes4 ,in #ahca1 the steam-engine for these purposes was commonly the condensing beam engine1 and was supplied with steam from boilers1 known1 from their shape1 as wagon boilers2 this shape appears to have been chosen rather for the convenience of the sweeps1 who periodically went through the flues to remove the soot consequent on the imperfect combustion1 than for the purpose of withstanding any internal pressure of steam4 ,the necessary consequence was1 that the manufacturing engines of those days were compelled to work with steam of from only #c lb4 to #e lb4 per square inch of pressure above atmosphere4 ,the piston speed rarely exceeded #bej feet per minute1 and as a result of the feeble pressure1 and of the low rate of speed1 very large cylinders indeed were needed relatively to the power obtained4 ,the consumption of fuel was heavy1 being commonly from #g lb4 to #aj lb4 per gross indicated horsepower per hour4 ,the governing of the engine was done by pendulum governors1 revolving slowly1 and not calculated to exert any greater effort than that of raising the balls at the end of the pendulum arms1 thus being1 as will be readily seen1 very inefficient regulators4 ,the connection of the parts of the engine between themselves was derived from the foundation upon which the engine was supported4 ,incident to the low piston speed was slowness of revolution1 rendering necessary heavy fly wheels1 to obtain even an approach to practical uniformity of rotation1 and frequently rendering necessary also heavy trains of toothed gearing1 to bring up the speed from that of the revolutions of the engine to that of the machinery it was intended to drive4 ,in #ahha1 the boilers are almost invariably cylindrical1 and are very commonly internally fired1 either by one flue or by two2 we owe it to the late ,sir ,william ,fairbairn1 ,president of the ,british ,association in #ahfa1 that the danger1 which at one time existed1 of the collapse of these fire flues1 has been entirely removed by his application of circumferential bands4 ,nowadays there are1 as we know1 modifications of ,sir ,william ,fairbairn's bands1 but by means of his bands1 or by modifications thereof1 all internally flued boilers are so strengthened that the risk of a collapse of the flue is at an end4 ,boilers of this kind are well calculated to furnish--and commonly do furnish--steam of from #dj lb4 to #hj lb4 pressure above atmosphere4 ,the piston speed is now very generally #djj feet or more1 so that1 notwithstanding that there is usually a liberal expansion1 the mean pressure upon the piston is increased1 and this1 coupled with its increased speed1 enables much more power to be obtained from a given size of cylinder than was formerly obtainable4 ,the revolutions of the engine now are as many as from #fj to #bjj per minute1 and thus1 with far lighter fly-wheels1 uniformity of rotation is much more nearly attained4 ,,the ,,evaporative ,,condenser4 ,moreover1 all the parts of the engine are self-contained2 they no longer depend upon the foundation1 and in many cases the condensing is effected either by surface condensers1 or1 where there is not sufficient water1 the condensation is1 in a few instances1 effected by the evaporative condenser--a condenser which1 ,i am sorry to say1 is not generally known1 and is therefore but seldom used1 although its existence has been nearly as long as that of the association4 ,notwithstanding the length of time during which the evaporative condenser has been known to some engineers1 it is a common thing to hear persons say1 when you ask them if they are using a condensing engine1 ,i can not use it2 ,i have not water enough4 ,a very sufficient answer indeed1 if an injection condenser or an ordinary surface condenser constituted the sole means by which a vacuous condition might be obtained2 but a very insufficient answer1 having regard to the existence of the evaporative condenser1 as by its means1 whenever there is water enough for the feed of a non condensing engine1 there is enough to condense1 and to produce a good vacuum4 ,the evaporative condenser simply consists of a series of pipes1 in which is the steam to be condensed1 and over which the water is allowed to fall in a continuous rain4 ,by this arrangement there is evaporated from the outside of the condenser a weight of water which goes away in a cloud of vapor1 and is nearly equal to that which is condensed1 and is returned as feed into the boiler4 ,the same water is pumped up and used outside the condenser1 over and over1 needing no more to supply the waste than would be needed as feed water4 ,although this condenser has1 as ,i have said1 been in use for thirty or forty years1 one still sees engines working without condensation at all1 or with waterworks water1 purchased at a great cost1 and to the detriment of other consumers who want it for ordinary domestic purposes2 or one sees large condensing ponds made1 in which the injection water is stored to be used over and over again1 and frequently 7especially toward the end of the week7 in so tepid a state as to be unfit for its purpose4 ,the governing is now done by means of quick-running governors1 which have power enough in them to raise not merely the weight of the pendulum ball1 which is now small1 but a very heavy weight1 and in this way the governing is extremely effective4 ,i propose to say no more1 looking at the magnitude of the whole of my subject1 upon the engine used for manufacturing purposes1 but rather to turn at once to those employed for other objects4 ,,steam ,,navigation4 ,in #ahca1 there were a considerable number of paddle steamers running along some of the rivers in ,england1 and across the ,channel to the ,continent4 ,but there were no ocean steamers1 properly so-called1 and there were no steamers used for warlike purposes4 ,as in the case of the wagon boilers1 the boilers of the paddle steamers of #ahca were most unsuited for resisting pressure4 ,they were mere tanks1 and there was as much pressure when there was no steam in the boiler from the weight of the water on the bottom1 as there was at the top of the boiler from the steam pressure when the steam was up4 ,under these circumstances1 again1 from #c lb4 to #e lb4 was all the pressure the boilers were competent to bear1 and as the engines ran at a slow speed1 they developed but a small amount of horse-power in relation to their size4 ,moreover1 as in the land engine1 the connection between the parts of the marine engine was such as to be incompetent to stand the strain that would come upon it if a higher pressure1 with a considerable expansion1 were used1 and thus the consumption of coal was very heavy2 and we know that1 having regard to the then consumption1 it was said1 on high authority1 it would be impossible for a steamboat to traverse the ,atlantic1 as it could not carry fuel enough to take it across2 and indeed it was not until #ahch that the ,sirius and the ,great ,western did make the passage4 ,the passage had been made before1 but it was not until #ahch that the passenger service can be said to have commenced4 ,in #ahca1 the marine boiler was supplied with salt water1 the hulls were invariably of wood1 and the speed was probably from eight to nine knots an hour4 ,in #ahha1 the vessels are as invariably either of iron or of steel1 and ,i believe it will not be very long before the iron disappears1 giving place entirely to the last mentioned metal4 ,with respect to the term steel1 ,i am ready to agree that it is impossible to say where1 chemically speaking1 iron ends and steel begins4 ,but 7leaving out malleable cast iron7 ,i apply this term steel to any malleable ductile metal of which iron forms the principal element and which has been in fusion1 and ,i do so in contradistinction to the metal which may be similar chemically1 but which has been prepared by the puddling process4 ,applying the term steel in that sense1 ,i believe1 as ,i have said1 it will not be very long before plate-iron produced by the puddling process will cease to be used for the purpose of building vessels4 ,with respect to marine engines1 they are now supplied with steam from multiple tubed boilers1 the shells of which are commonly cylindrical4 ,they are of enormous strength1 and made with every possible care1 and carry from #hj lb4 to #ajj lb4 pressure on the square inch4 ,it has been found1 on the whole1 more convenient to expand the steam in two or more cylinders1 rather than in one4 ,i quite agree that1 as a mere matter of engineering science1 there is no reason why the expansion should not take place in a single cylinder1 unless it be that a single cylinder is cooled down to an extent which cannot be overcome by jacketing1 and which1 therefore1 destroys a portion of the steam on its entering into the cylinder4 ,as regards the propeller1 as we know1 except in certain cases1 the paddle-wheel has practically disappeared1 and the screw propeller is all but universally employed4 ,the substitution of the screw propeller for the paddle enables the engine to work at a much higher number of revolutions per minute1 and thus a very great piston speed1 some #fjj ft4 to #hjj ft4 per minute1 is attained2 and this1 coupled with the fairly high mean pressure which prevails1 enables a large power to be got from a comparatively small-sized engine4 ,speeds of #ae knots an hour are now in many cases maintained1 and on trial trips are not uncommonly exceeded4 ,steam vessels are now the accepted vessels of war4 ,we have them in an armored state and in an unarmored state1 but when unarmored rendered so formidable1 by the command which their speed gives them of choosing their distance1 as to make them1 when furnished with powerful guns1 dangerous opponents even to the best armored vessels4 ,,marine ,,governors4 ,we have also now marine engines1 governed by governors of such extreme sensitiveness as to give them the semblance of being endowed with the spirit of prophecy1 as they appear rather to be regulating the engine for that which is about to take place than for that which is taking place4 ,this may sound a somewhat extravagant statement1 but it is so nearly the truth1 that ,i have hardly gone outside of it in using the words ,i have employed4 ,for a marine governor to be of any use1 it must not wait till the stern of the vessel is out of the water before it acts to check the engine and reduce the speed4 ,nothing but the most sensitive1 and1 indeed1 anticipatory action of the governors can efficiently control marine propulsion4 ,instances are on record of vessels having engines without marine governors being detained by stress of weather at the mouth of the ,thames1 while vessels having such governors1 of good design1 have gone to ,newcastle1 have come back1 and have found the other vessels still waiting for more favorable weather4 ,with respect to condensation in marine engines1 it is almost invariably effected by surface condensers1 and thus it is that the boilers1 instead of being fed with salt water as they used to be1 involving continuous blowing off1 and frequently the salting up1 of the boiler1 are now fed with distilled water4 ,it should be noticed1 however1 that in some instances1 owing to the absence of a thin protecting scale upon the tubes and plates1 very considerable corrosion has taken place when distilled water1 derived from condensers having untinned brass tubes1 has been used1 and where the water has carried into the boiler fatty acids1 arising from the decomposition of the grease used in the engine2 but means are now employed by which these effects are counteracted4 ,,light ,,engines ,,and ,,boilers4 ,i wish1 before quitting this section of my subject1 to call your attention to two very interesting but very different kinds of marine engines4 ,one is the high-speed torpedo vessel1 or steam launch1 of which ,messrs4 ,thornycroft's firm have furnished so many examples4 ,in these1 owing to the rate at which the piston runs to the initial pressure of #abj lb4 and to very great skill in the design1 ,messrs4 ,thornycroft have succeeded in obtaining a gross indicated horse-power for as small a weight as half a cwt41 including the boiler1 the water in the boiler1 the engine1 the propeller shaft1 and the propeller itself4 ,to obtain the needed steam from the small and light boiler1 recourse has to be made to the aid of a fan blast driven into the stoke-hole4 ,from the use of a blast in this way advantages accrue4 ,one is1 as already stated1 that from a small boiler a large amount of steam is produced4 ,another is that the stoke-hole is kept cool2 and the third is that artificial blasts thus applied are unaccompanied by the dangers which arise1 when under ordinary circumstances the blast is supplied only to the ash-pit itself4 ,,the ,,perkins ,,system4 ,the second marine engine to which ,i wish to call your attention is one that has been made with a view to great economy4 ,the principles followed in its construction are among those suggested by the ,president 7,sir ,w4,g4 ,armstrong7 in his address4 ,he 7you will remember7 pointed out that the direction in which economy in the steam engine was to be looked for was that of increasing the initial pressure2 although at the same time he said that there were drawbacks in the shape of greater loss1 by radiation1 and by the higher temperature at which the products of combustion will escape4 ,we must admit the fact of the latter source of loss1 when using very high steam1 it being inevitable that temperature of the products of combustion escaping from a boiler under these conditions must be higher than those which need be allowed to escape when lower steam is employed2 although ,i regret to say that in practice in marine boilers working at comparatively low pressures the products are ordinarily suffered to pass into the funnel at above the temperature of melted lead4 ,but with respect to the loss by radiation in the particular engine ,i am about to mention--that of ,perkins--there is not as much loss as that which prevails in the ordinary marine boilers1 because the ,perkins boiler is completely inclosed1 with the result that while there is within the case a boiler containing steam of #djj lb4 on the square inch1 and the fire to generate that steam1 the hand may be applied to the casting itself1 which contains the whole of the boiler1 without receiving any unpleasant sensation of warmth4 ,by ,mr4 ,perkins's arrangement1 using steam of #djj lb4 in the boiler1 it was found1 as the result of very severe trials1 conducted by ,mr4 ,rich1 of ,messrs4 ,easton and ,anderson's firm1 and myself--trials which lasted for twelve hours--that the total consumption of fuel1 including that for getting up steam from cold water1 was just under #a4h1 actually #a4gi lb4 per gross indicated horse-power per hour4 ,that gross indicated horse-power was obtained in a manner which it is desirable should always be employed in steamboat trials4 ,it was not got by using as a divisor the horse-power of the most favorable diagram obtained during the day2 but it was got from diagrams taken during the regular work2 then1 every half-hour1 when the pressure began to die down1 from coal being no longer put upon the fire1 diagrams taken every quarter of an hour1 and then toward the last1 every five minutes2 and the total number of foot pounds were calculated from these diagrams1 and were used to obtain the gross indicated horse-power4 ,further1 so far as could be ascertained by the process of commencing a trial with a known fire1 and closing that trial at the end of six hours1 with the fire as nearly as possible in the same condition1 the consumption was #a4ff lb4 of coal per gross indicated horse-power per hour4 ,so that1 without taking into account the coal consumed in raising steam from cold water1 the engine worked for #a-b_/c lb4 of coal per horse per hour4 ,i think it well to give these details1 because undoubtedly it is an extremely economical result4 ,,ether ,,engine4 ,our president alluded to the employment of ether as a means of utilizing the heat which escaped into the condenser1 and gave some account of what was done by ,mons4 ,du ,tremblay in this direction4 ,it so happened that ,i had occasion to investigate the matter at the time of ,du ,tremblay's experiments2 very little was effected here in ,england1 one difficulty being the excise interference with the manufacture of ether4 ,chloroform was used here1 and it was also suggested to employ bisulphide of carbon4 ,in ,france1 however1 a great deal was done4 ,four large vessels were fitted with the ether engines1 and ,i went over to ,marseilles to see them at work4 ,i took diagrams from these engines1 and there is no doubt that1 by this system1 the exhaust steam from the steam cylinder1 which was condensed by the application of ether to the surface of the steam condenser 7producing a respectable vacuum of about #bb inches71 gave an ether pressure of #ae lb4 on the square inch above atmosphere1 and very economical results as regards fuel were obtained4 ,the scheme was1 however1 abandoned from practical difficulties4 ,it need hardly be said that ether vapor is very difficult to deal with1 and although ether is light1 the vapor is extremely heavy1 and if there is any leakage1 it goes down into the bilges by gravitation1 and being mixed with air1 unless due care is taken to prevent access to the flues1 there would be a constant risk of a violent explosion4 ,in fact1 it was necessary to treat the engine room in the way in which a fiery colliery would be treated4 ,the lighting1 for instance1 was by lamps external to the engine room1 and shining through thick plate-glass4 ,the hand lamps were ,davy's4 ,the ether engine was a bold experiment in applied science1 and one that entitles ,du ,tremblay's name to be preserved1 and to be mentioned as it was by our president4 ,,the ,,quicksilver ,,engine4 ,these was another kind of marine engine that ,i think should not be passed over without notice2 ,i allude to ,howard's quicksilver engine4 ,the experiments with this engine were persevered in for some considerable time1 and it was actually used for practical purposes in propelling a passenger steam-vessel called the ,vesta1 and running between ,london and ,ramsgate4 ,in that engine the boiler had a double bottom1 containing an amalgam of quicksilver and lead4 ,this amalgam served as a reservoir of heat1 which it took up from the fire below the double-bottom1 and gave forth at intervals to the water above it4 ,there was no water in the boiler1 in the ordinary sense of the term1 but when steam was wanted to start the engine1 a small quantity of water was injected by means of a hand-pump1 and after the engine was started1 there was pumped by it into the boiler1 at each half revolution1 as much water as would make the steam needed4 ,this water was flashed on the top surface of the reservoir in which the amalgam was confined1 and was entirely turned into steam1 the object of the engineers in charge being to send in so much water as would just generate the steam1 but so as not to leave any water in the boiler4 ,the engines of the ,vesta were made by ,mr4 ,penn1 for ,mr4 ,howard1 of the ,king and ,queen ,ironworks1 ,rotherhithe4 ,mr4 ,howard was1 ,i fear1 a considerable loser by his meritorious efforts to improve the steam-engine4 ,there was used1 with this engine1 an almost unknown mode of obtaining fresh water for the boiler4 ,fresh water1 it will be seen was a necessity in this mode of evaporation4 ,the presence of salt1 or of any other impurity1 when the whole of the water was flashed into steam1 must have caused a deposit on the top of the amalgam chamber at each operation4 ,fresh water1 therefore1 was needed2 the problem arose how to get it2 and that problem was solved1 not by the use of surface condensation1 but by the employment of reinjection1 that is to say1 the water delivered from the hot well was passed into pipes external to the vessel2 after traversing them1 it came back into the injection tank sufficiently cooled to be used again4 ,the boilers were worked by coke fires1 urged by a fan blast in their ashpits1 but ,i am not aware that this mode of firing was a needful part of the system4 ,,locomotive ,,engines4 ,i come now to the engines used for railways4 ,at the ,british ,association meeting of #ahca1 the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railway had been opened only about a year4 ,the ,stockton and ,darlington coal line1 it is true1 had carried passengers by steam power as early as #ahbe1 but ,i think we may look upon the ,manchester and ,liverpool as being the beginning of the passenger and mercantile railway system of the present day4 ,at that time the locomotives weighed from eight to ten tons1 and the speed was about #bj miles per hour1 with a pressure of from #dj to #ej lb4 ,the rails were light2 they were jointed in the chairs1 which were generally carried on stone blocks1 thus affording most excellent anvils for the battering to pieces of the ends of the rails--that is to say1 for the destruction of the very parts where they were most vulnerable4 ,the engines were not competent to draw heavy trains1 and it was a common practice to have at the foot of an incline a shed containing a bank engine1 which ran out after the trains as they passed1 and pushed them up to the top of the hill4 ,injectors were then unknown1 and donkey-pumps were unknown1 and therefore1 when it was necessary to fill up the boiler1 if it had not been properly pumped up before the locomotive came to rest1 it had to run about the line in order to work its feed-pumps4 ,to get over this difficulty1 it was occasionally the practice to insert into a line of rails1 in a siding1 a pair of wheels1 with their tops level with that of the rails so that the engine wheels could run upon the rims4 ,then1 the locomotive being fixed to prevent it from moving off the pair of wheels thus endways1 it was put into revolution1 its driving wheels bearing1 as already stated1 upon the rims of the pair of wheels in the rails1 and thus the engine worked its feed-pumps without interfering 7by its needless running up and down the line7 with the traffic4 ,it should have been stated1 that at this time there was no link motion1 no practical expansion of the steam1 and that even the reversal of the engine had to be effected by working the sides by hand gear1 in the manner in use in marine engines4 ,when the ,british ,association originated1 although the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railway had been opened for a year1 there is no doubt that the #cjj members who then came to this city found their way here by the slow process of the stage-coach1 the loss of which we so much deplore in the summer and in fine weather1 but the obligatory use of which we should so much regret in the miserable weather now prevailing in these islands4 ,in #ahha1 we know that railways are everywhere inserted4 ,steel rails1 double the weight of the original iron ones1 are used4 ,wooden sleepers have replaced the stone blocks1 and they1 in their turn1 will probably give way to sleepers of steel4 ,the joints are now made by means of fish-plates1 and the most vulnerable part of the rail1 the end1 is no longer laid on an anvil for a purpose of being smashed to pieces1 but the ends of the rails are now almost always over a void1 and thereby are not more affected by wear than is any other part of the rail4 ,the speed is now from #ej to #fj miles an hour for passenger trains1 while slow speed goods engines1 weighing #de tons1 draw behind them coal trains of #hjj tons4 ,the injector is now commonly employed1 and1 by its aid1 a careful driver of the engine of a stopping train can fill up his boiler while at rest at the stations4 ,the link motion is in common use1 to which1 no doubt1 is owing the very considerable economy with which the locomotive engine now works4 ,as regards the question of safety1 it is a fact that1 notwithstanding the increased speed1 railway accidents are fewer than they were at the slow speed4 ,it is also a fact1 that if the whole population of ,london were to take a railway journey1 there would be but one death arising out of it4 ,four millions of journeys for one death of a passenger from causes beyond his own control is1 ,i believe1 a state of security which rarely prevails elsewhere4 ,as an instance1 the street accidents in ,london alone cause between #bjj and #cjj deaths per annum4 ,this safety in railway traveling is no doubt largely due to the block system1 rendered possible by the electric telegraph2 and also to the efficient interlocking of points and signals1 which render it impossible now for a signal man to give an unsafe signal4 ,he may give a wrong one1 in the sense of inviting the wrong train to come in2 but1 although wrong in this sense1 it would still be safe for that train to do so4 ,if he can give a signal1 that signal never invites to danger2 before he can give it1 every one of the signals1 which ought to be at danger1 must be at danger1 and every point must have been previously set1 so as to make the road right2 then1 again1 we have the facing point-lock1 which is a great source of safety4 ,,brakes4 ,further1 we have continuous brakes of various kinds1 competent in practice to absorb three miles of speed in every second of time2 that is to say1 if a train were going #fj miles an hour1 it can be pulled up in #bj seconds2 or1 if at the rate of #cj miles1 in #aj seconds4 ,with a train running at #ej miles an hour1 it can be pulled up in from #ae to #bj seconds1 and in a distance of from #ahj to #bdj yards4 ,moreover1 in the event of the train separating into two or more sections1 the brakes are automatically applied to each section1 thereby bringing them to rest in a short time4 ,another cause of safety is undoubtedly the use of weldless tires4 ,i was fortunate enough to attend the ,british ,association meeting many years ago at ,birmingham1 and ,i then read a paper upon weldless tires1 in which ,i ventured to prophesy that1 in ten years' time1 there would not be a welded tire made2 that is one of the few prophecies that1 being made before the event1 have been fulfilled4 ,i may perhaps be permitted to mention1 that at the same time ,i laid before the section plans and suggestions for the making of the cylindrical parts of boilers equally without seam1 or even welding4 ,this is rarely done at the present time1 but ,i am sure that1 in twenty years' time1 such a thing as a longitudinal seam of rivets in a boiler will be unknown4 ,there is no reason why the successive rings of boiler shells should not be made weldless1 as tires are now made weldless4 ,,motors4 ,the next subject ,i intend to deal with is that of motors4 ,in #ahca1 we had the steam-engine1 the water-wheel1 the windmill1 horse-power1 manual power1 and ,stirling's hot air engines4 ,gas engines1 indeed1 were proposed in #ahbd1 but were not brought to the really practical stage4 ,we had then tide mills2 indeed1 we have had them until quite lately1 and it may be that some still exist2 they were sources of economy in our fuel1 and their abandonment is to me a matter of regret4 ,i remember tide mills on the coast between ,brighton and ,newhaven1 another between ,greenwich and ,woolwich1 another at ,northfleet1 and in many other places4 ,indeed1 such mills were used pretty extensively2 they were generally erected at the mouth of a stream1 and in that way the river bed made the reservoir1 and even when they were erected in other situations1 those were of a kind suitable for the purpose1 that is1 lowlying lands were selected1 and were embanked to form reservoirs4 ,in #ahha1 windmills and water-wheels are much the same1 but the turbines are greatly improved1 and by means of turbines we are enabled to make available the pressure derived from heads of water which formerly could not be used at all1 or if used1 involved the erection of enormous water-wheels1 such as those at ,glasgow and in the ,isle of ,man1 wheels of some eighty feet in diameter4 ,but now1 by means of a small turbine1 an excellent effect is produced from high heads of water4 ,the same effect is obtained from the water-engines which our president has employed with such great success4 ,in addition to these motors1 we have the gas-engine1 which1 within the last few years only1 has become a really useful working and economical machine4 ,with respect to horse-power motors1 we have not only the old horse engines1 but we have a new application1 as it seems to me1 of the work of the horse as a motor4 ,i allude to those cases where the horse drawing a reaping or thrashing machine1 not only pulls it forward as he might pull a cart1 but causes its machinery to revolve1 so as to perform the desired kind of work4 ,this species of horse-engine1 though known1 was but little used in #ahca4 ,with respect to hot-air engines there have been many attempts to improve them1 and some hot-air engines are working1 and are working with considerable success2 but the amount of power they develop in relation to their size is small1 and ,i am inclined to doubt whether it can be much increased4 ,,transmission ,,of ,,power4 ,i now come to the subject of the transmission of power4 ,i do not mean transmission in the ordinary sense by means of shafting1 gearing1 or belting1 but ,i mean transmission over long distances4 ,in #ahca1 we had for this purpose flat rods1 as they were called1 rods transmitting power from pumping engines for a considerable distance to the pits where the pumps were placed1 and we had also the pneumatic1 the exhaustion system--the invention of ,john ,hague1 a ,yorkshire-man1 my old master1 to whom ,i was apprenticed--which mode of transmission was then used to a very considerable extent4 ,the recollection of it1 ,i find1 however1 has nearly died out1 and ,i am glad to have this opportunity of reviving it4 ,but in #ahha1 we have1 for the transmission of power1 first of all1 quick moving ropes1 and there is not1 so far as ,i know a better instance of this system than that at ,schaffhausen4 ,any one who has ever1 in recent years1 gone a mile or two above the falls at ,schaffhausen1 must have seen there--in a house1 on the bank of the ,rhine1 opposite to that on which the town is situated--large turbines driven by the river1 which is slightly dammed up for the purpose4 ,these work quick-going ropes1 carried on pulleys1 erected at intervals along the river bank1 for the whole length of the town2 and power is delivered from them to shafting below the streets1 and from it into any house where it is required for manufacturing purposes4 ,then we have the compressed air transmission of power1 which is very largely used for underground engines1 and for the working of rock drills in mines and tunnels4 ,,compressed ,,air ,,locomotives4 ,we have also compressed air in a portable form1 and it is now employed with great success in driving tram-cars4 ,i had occasion last ,january to visit ,nantes1 where1 for eighteen months1 tram-cars had been driven by compressed air1 carried on the cars themselves1 coupled with an extremely ingenious arrangement for overcoming the difficulties commonly attendant on the use of compressed air engines4 ,this consists in the provision of a cylindrical vessel half filled with hot water and half with steam1 at a pressure of eighty pounds on the square inch4 ,the compressed air1 on its way from the reservoir to the engine1 passes through the water and steam1 becoming thereby heated and moistened1 and in that way all the danger of forming ice in the cylinders was prevented1 and the parts were susceptible of good lubrication4 ,these cars1 which start every ten minutes from each end1 make a journey of #c miles1 and have proved to be a commercial and an engineering success4 ,i believe1 moreover1 that they are capable of very considerable improvement4 ,,hydraulic ,,transmission ,,of ,,power4 ,then there is1 although not much used1 the transmitting of power by means of long steam pipes4 ,there is also the transmission hydraulically4 ,this may be carried out in an intermittent manner1 so as to replace the reciprocating flat rods of old days2 that is to say1 if two pipes containing water are laid down1 and if the pressure in those pipes at the one end be alternated1 there will be produced an alternating and a reciprocative effect at the other1 to give motion to pumps or other machinery4 ,there is also that thoroughly well known mode of transmission1 hydraulically1 for which the engineering world owes so much to our president4 ,we have1 by ,sir ,william ,armstrong's system1 coupled with his accumulator1 the means of transmitting hydraulically the power of a central motor to any place requiring it1 and by the means of the principal accumulator1 or if need be by that aided by local accumulators1 a comparatively small engine is enabled to meet very heavy demands made upon it for a short time4 ,i think ,i am right in saying that1 at the ordinary pressure which ,sir ,william ,armstrong uses in practice1 viz41 #gjj lb4 to the square inch1 one foot a second of motion along an inch pipe would deliver at the rate to produce one-horse power4 ,therefore1 a ten-inch pipe1 with the water traveling at no greater pace than three feet in a second1 would deliver #cjj horse-power4 ,this #cjj horse-power would no doubt be somewhat reduced by the loss in the hydraulic engine1 which would utilize the water4 ,but the total energy received would be equivalent to producing #cjj horse-power4 ,such a transmission would be effected with an exceedingly small loss infliction in transit4 ,i believe ,i am right in saying that a #aj inch pipe a mile long would not involve much more than about #ad or #ae lb4 differential pressure to propel the water through it at the rate of three feet in a second4 ,if that be so1 then1 with #gjj lb4 to the inch1 the loss under such circumstances would be only two per cent4 in transmission4 ,there is no doubt that this transmission of power hydraulically has been of the greatest possible use4 ,it has enabled work to be done which could not be done before4 ,enormous weights are raised with facility wherever required1 as by the aid of power hydraulically transmitted1 it is perfectly easy for one man to manage the heaviest cranes4 ,moreover1 as ,i have said in other places1 the system which we owe to ,sir ,william ,armstrong has gone far to elevate the human race1 and it has done so in this manner4 ,so long as it is competent for a man to earn a living by mere unintelligent exercise of his muscles1 he is very likely to do it4 ,you may see in the old ,london docks the crane-heads covered by structures that look like paddle-boxes4 ,if you go to them1 there is1 ,i am glad to say1 nothing now to fill them up2 but when the ,british ,association first met1 these paddle-boxes covered large tread-wheels1 in which men trod1 so as to raise a weight4 ,now1 although ,i know that in fact there is nothing more objectionable in a man turning a wheel by treading inside of it than there is if he turn it round by a winch-handle1 yet somehow it strikes one more as being merely the work of an animal1 a turnspit1 or a squirrel1 or1 indeed1 as the task imposed on the criminal4 ,but1 nevertheless1 in this way there were a large number of persons getting their living by the mere exercise of their muscles1 but1 as might be expected1 a very poor living1 derived as it was from unintelligent labor4 ,that work is no longer possible1 and is not so1 for the powerful reason that it does not pay4 ,those persons1 therefore1 who would now have been thus occupied1 are compelled to elevate themselves1 and to become competent to earn their living in a manner which is more worthy of an intelligent human being4 ,it is on these grounds that ,i say we owe very much the elevation of the working classes1 especially of the class below the artisan1 to this invention of our distinguished president4 ,,electric ,,transmission ,,of ,,power4 ,in addition to the modes of transmission ,i have already mentioned1 there is the transmission of power by means of gas4 ,i think that there is a very large future indeed for gas engines4 ,i do not know whether this may be the place to state it1 but ,i believe the way in which we shall utilize our fuel hereafter will1 in all probability1 not be by the way of the steam-engine4 ,sir ,william ,armstrong alluded to this probability in his address1 and ,i entirely agree1 if he will allow me to say so1 that such a change in the production of power from fuel appears to be impending1 if not in the immediate future1 at all events in a time not very far remote2 and however much the ,mechanical ,section of the ,british ,association may to-day contemplate with regret1 even the mere distant prospect of the steam-engine being a thing of the past1 ,i very much doubt whether those who meet here fifty years hence will then speak of it as anything more than a curiosity to be found in a museum4 ,with respect to the transmission of power electrically1 ,i won't venture to touch upon that2 but will content myself by reminding you that while ,sir ,william ,armstrong did say that there were comparatively small streams which could be utilized1 he did not inform you of that which he himself had done in this direction2 let me say that ,sir ,william ,armstrong thus utilized a fall of water1 situated about a mile from his house1 to work a turbine1 which drives a dynamo machine1 generating electricity1 for the illumination of the house4 ,when ,i was last at ,crag ,side1 that illumination was being effected by the arc light1 but since then1 as ,sir ,william ,armstrong has been good enough to write to me1 he has replaced the arc light by the incandescent lamp 7a form of electrical lighting far more applicable than the arc light to domestic purposes71 and with the greatest possible success4 ,thus1 in ,sir ,william ,armstrong's own case1 a small stream is made to afford light in a dwelling a mile away4 ,certainly nothing could have seemed more improbable fifty years ago than that the light of a house should be derived from a fall of water without the employment of any kind or description of fuel4 ,the next subject upon which ,i propose to touch is that of ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4 ,in #ahca1 ,neilson's hot blast specification had been published for two and a half years only4 ,the ,butterly ,company had tried the hot blast for the first time in the ,november preceding the meeting of the ,british ,association4 ,the heating of the blast was coming very slowly into use1 and the temperature attained when it was employed was only some #fjj degrees4 ,the ordinary blast furnace of those days was #ce to #dj feet high1 and about #ab feet diameter at the boshes1 and turned out about #fj tons a week4 ,it used about #b tons of coal per ton of iron1 and no attempt was made to utilize the waste gases1 whether escaping in the form of gas or in the form of flame1 the country being illuminated for miles around at night by these fires4 ,the furnaces were also open at the hearth1 and continuous fire poured out along with the slag4 ,in #ahha1 blast furnaces are from #ij ft4 to #ajj ft4 high1 and #be ft4 in diameter at the boshes2 they turn out from #ejj to #hjj tons a week4 ,the tops and also the hearths are closed1 and the blast--thanks to the use of ,mr4 ,e4,a4 ,cowper's stoves--is at #a1bjj degrees4 ,the manufacture of iron has also now enlisted in its service the chemist as well as the engineer1 and among those who have done much for the improvement of the blast furnaces1 to no one is greater praise due than to ,mr4 ,isaac ,lowthian ,bell1 who has brought the manufacture of iron to the position of a highly scientific operation4 ,in the production of wrought iron by the puddling process1 and in the subsequent mill operations1 there is no very considerable change1 except in the magnitude of the machines employed1 and1 in the greater rapidity with which they now run4 ,in saying this1 ,i am not forgetting the various mechanical puddlers which have been put to work1 nor the attempts that have been made by the use of some of them to make wrought iron direct from the ore2 but neither the mechanical puddler nor the direct process has yet come into general use2 and ,i desire to be taken as speaking of that which is the ordinary process pursued at the present in puddled iron manufactures4 ,in #ahca1 a few hundredweights was the limit of weight of a plate1 while in #ahha1 there may readily be obtained1 for boiler-making purposes1 plates of at least four times the weight of those that were made in #ahca4 ,i may1 perhaps1 be allowed to say that there is an extremely interesting blue-book of the year #ahah1 containing the report of a parliamentary committee which sat on boiler explosions1 and ,i recommend any mechanical engineer who is interested in the history of the subject to read that book2 he will find it there stated that in the ,north of ,england there was a species of engines called locomotives1 the boilers of which were made of wrought iron1 beaten1 not rolled1 because the rolled plate was not considered fit2 it was added that if made of beaten iron the boiler would last at least a year4 ,in #ahca1 thirteen years later1 the dimensions of rolled plates were no doubt raised2 but few then would have supposed it possible there should be rolled such plates as are now produced for boiler purposes1 and still fewer would have believed that in the year #ahha we should make1 for warlike purposes1 rolled plates #bb inches in thickness and #cj tons in weight4 ,i have said there is very little alteration in the process of making wrought iron by puddling1 and ,i do not think there is likely to be much further1 if any1 improvement in this process1 because ,i believe that1 with certain exceptions1 the manufacture of iron by puddling is a doomed industry4 ,i ventured to say1 in a lecture ,i delivered at the ,royal ,institution three years ago on ,the ,future of ,steel1 that ,i believed puddled iron1 except for the mere hand wrought forge purposes of the country blacksmith1 and for such like purposes1 would soon become a thing of the past4 ,mr4 ,harrison1 the engineer of the ,north-,eastern ,railway1 told me that about eighteen months ago the ,north-,eastern ,railway applied for tenders for rails in any quantities between #b1jjj and #aj1jjj tons1 and they issued alternative specifications for iron and for steel4 ,they received about ten tenders4 ,some did not care to tender for iron at all2 but when they did tender alternatively1 the price quoted for the iron was greater than for the steel4 ,i have no doubt whatever that1 in a short time1 it will be practically impossible to procure iron made by the puddling process1 of dimensions fit for many of the purposes for which a few years ago it alone was used4 ,with respect to steel1 in #ahca the process in use was that of cementation1 producing blistered steel1 which was either piled and welded to make shear steel1 or was broken into small pieces1 melted in pots1 and run into an ingot weighing only some #ej lb4 or #fj lb4 ,at that time steel was dealt in by the pound2 nobody thought of steel in tons4 ,in #ahha1 we are all aware that1 by ,sir ,henry ,bessemer's well-known discovery1 carried out by him with such persistent vigor1 cast iron is1 by the blowing process1 converted into steel1 and that of ,dr4 ,siemens' equally well-known process 7now that1 owing to his invention of the regenerative furnace1 it is possible to obtain the necessary high temperature71 steel is made upon the open hearth4 ,we are1 moreover1 aware that1 by both of these processes1 steel is produced in quantities of many tons at a single operation1 with the result that as instanced in the case of the ,north-,eastern rails1 steel is a cheaper material than the wrought iron made by the puddling process4 ,one cannot pass away from the steel manufacture without alluding to ,sir ,joseph ,whitworth's process of putting a pressure on the steel while in a tried state4 ,by this means1 the cavities which are frequently to be found in the ingot of a large size are1 while the steel is fluid1 rendered considerably smaller1 and the steel is thereby rendered much more sound4 ,in conclusion of my observations on the subject of iron and steel manufacture1 ,i wish to call attention to the invention of ,messrs4 ,thomas ,gilchrist1 by which ores of iron1 containing impurities that unfitted them to be used in the manufacture of steel1 are now freed from these impurities1 and are thus brought into use for steel-making purposes4 ,,bridges4 ,in the year #ahca1 bridges of cast iron existed2 but no attempt had been made to employ wrought iron in girder bridges1 although ,telford had employed it in the ,menai ,suspension ,bridge2 but in #ahha1 the introduction of railways1 and the improvement in iron manufactures1 have demanded1 and have rendered possible the execution of such bridges as the tubular one1 spanning the ,menai ,straits1 in span of #djj feet1 and the ,saltash1 over the ,tamar1 with spans of #dce feet2 while recent great improvements in the manufacture of steel have rendered possible the contemplated construction of the ,forth ,bridge1 where there are to be spans of #a1gjj feet1 or one-third of a mile in length4 ,mr4 ,barlow1 one of the engineers of this bridge1 has told me that there will be used upwards of #b1jjj more tons of material in the ,forth ,bridge1 to resist the wind pressure1 than would have been needed if no wind had to be taken into account1 and if the question of the simple weight to be carried had alone to be considered4 ,with respect to the foundation of bridges1 that ingenious man1 ,lord ,cochrane1 patented a mode of sinking foundations1 even before the first meeting of the ,british ,association1 viz41 as far back1 ,i believe1 as #ahbe or #ahbf2 and the improvements which he then invented are almost universally in use in bridge construction at the present day4 ,cylinders sunk by the aid of compressed air1 airlocks to obtain access to the cylinder1 and1 in fact1 every means that ,i know of as having been used in the modern sinking of cylinder foundations1 were described by ,lord ,cochrane 7afterwards ,earl of ,dundonald7 in that specification4 ,the next subject ,i propose to touch on is that of ,,machine ,,tools4 ,in #ahca1 the mention of lathes1 drilling machines1 and screwing machines brings me very nearly to the end of the list of the machine tools used by turners and fitters1 and at that time many lathes were without slide rests4 ,the boiler-maker had then his punching-press and shearing machine2 the smith1 leaving on one side his forges and their bellows1 had nothing but hand tools1 and the limit of these was a huge hammer1 with two handles1 requiring two men to work it4 ,in anchor manufacture1 it is true1 a mechanical drop-hammer1 known as a ,hercules1 was employed1 while in iron works1 the ,helve and the ,tilt hammer were in use4 ,for ordinary smith's work1 however1 there were1 as has been said1 practically no machine tools at all4 ,this paucity or absence in some trades1 as we have seen1 of machine tools1 involved the need of very considerable skill on the part of the workman4 ,it required the smith to be a man not only of great muscular power1 but to be possessed of an accurate eye and a correct judgment1 in order to produce the forgings which were demanded of him1 and to make the sound work that was needed1 especially when that soundness was required in shafts1 and in other pieces which1 in those days1 were looked upon as of magnitude2 which1 indeed1 they were1 relatively to the tools which could be brought to operate upon them4 ,the boiler-maker in his work had to trust almost entirely to the eye for correctness of form and for regularity of punching1 while all parts of engines and machines which could not be dealt with in the lathe1 in the drilling1 or in the screwing machine1 had to be prepared by the use of the chisel and the file4 ,at the present day1 the turning and fitting shops are furnished not only with the slide lathe1 self acting in both directions1 and screw-cutting1 the drilling-machine1 and the screwing machine1 but with planing machines competent to plane horizontally1 vertically1 or at an angle2 shaping machines1 rapidly reciprocating1 and dealing with almost any form of work2 nut shaping machines1 slot drilling machines1 and slotting machines1 while the drills have become multiple and radial2 and the accuracy of the work is insured by testing on large surface plates1 and by the employment of ,whitworth internal and external standard gauges4 ,the boiler maker's tools now comprise the steam1 compressed air1 hydraulic or other mechanical riveter1 rolls for the bending of plates while cold into the needed cylindrical or conical forms1 multiple drills for the drilling of rivet holes1 planing machines to plane the edges of the plates1 ingenious apparatus for flanging them1 thereby dispensing with one row of rivets out of two1 and roller expanders for expanding the tubes in locomotive and in marine boilers2 while the punching press1 where still used1 is improved so as to make the holes for seams of rivets in a perfect line1 and with absolute accuracy of pitch4 ,with respect to the smith's shop1 all large pieces of work are now manipulated under heavy ,nasmyth or other steam hammers2 while smaller pieces of work are commonly prepared either in forging machines or under rapidly moving hammers1 and when needed in sufficient numbers are made in dies4 ,and applicable to all the three industries of the fitting shop1 the boiler shop1 and the smith's shop1 and also to that other industry carried on in the foundry1 are the traveling and swing cranes1 commonly worked by shafting1 or by quick moving ropes for the travelers1 and by hydraulic power or by steam engines for the swing cranes4 ,it may safely be said1 that without the aid of these implements1 it would be impossible to handle the weights that are met with in machinery of the present day4 ,i now come to one class of machine which1 humble and small as it is1 has probably had a greater effect upon industry and upon domestic life than almost any other4 ,i mean ,,the ,,sewing ,,machine4 ,in #ahca1 there was no means of making a seam except by the laborious process of the hand needle4 ,in #ahdf1 ,eldred ,walker patented a machine for parsing the basting thread through the gores of umbrellas1 a machine that was very ingenious and very simple1 but was utterly unlike the present sewing machine1 with its eye-pointed needle1 using sometimes two threads 7the second being put in by a shuttle or by another needle71 and making stitches at twenty-fold the rapidity with which the most expert needlewoman could work4 ,by means of the sewing machine not only are all textile fabrics operated upon1 but even the thickest leather is dealt with1 and as a tour de force1 but as a matter of fact1 sheet-iron plates themselves have been pierced1 and have been united by a seam no boilermaker ever contemplated1 the piercing and the seam being produced by a ,blake sewing machine4 ,i believe all in this section will agree that the use of the sewing machine has been unattended by loss to those who earn their living by the needle2 in fact1 it would not be too much to say that there has been a positive improvement in their wages4 ,the next matter ,i have to touch upon is ,,agricultural ,,machinery4 ,in #ahca1 we had thrashing machines and double plows1 and even multiple plows had been proposed1 tried1 and abandoned4 ,reaping machines had been experimented with and abandoned2 sowing machines were in use1 but not many of them2 clod crushers and horse rakes were also in use2 but as a fact plowing was done by horse power with a single furrow at a time1 mowing and reaping were done by the scythe or the sickle1 sheaves were bound by hand1 hay was tedded by hand-rakes1 while all materials and produce were moved about in carts and in wagons drawn by horses4 ,at the present time we have multiple plows1 making five or six furrows at a time1 these and cultivators also1 driven by steam1 commonly from two engines on the head lands1 the plow being in between1 and worked by a rope from each engine1 or if by one engine1 a capstan on the other head land1 with a return rope working the plow backward and forward2 or by what is known as the roundabout system1 where the engine is fixed and the rope carried round about the field2 or else plows and cultivators are worked by ropes from two capstans placed on the two head lands1 and driven by means of a quick-going rope1 actuated by an engine1 the position of which is not changed4 ,and then we have reaping machines1 driven at present by horses2 but how long it will be before the energy residing in a battery1 or that in a reservoir of compressed air1 will supersede horse power to drive the reaping machine1 ,i don't know1 but ,i don't suppose it will be very long4 ,the mowing and reaping machines not only cut the crop and distribute it in swaths1 or1 in the case of the reaping machine1 in bundles1 but now1 in the instance of these latter machines1 are competent to bind it into sheaves4 ,in lieu of hand tedding1 haymaking machines are employed1 tossing the grass into the air1 so as to thoroughly aerate it1 taking advantage of every brief interval of fine weather2 and seed and manure are distributed by machine with unfailing accuracy4 ,the soil is drained by the aid of properly constructed plows for preparing the trenches2 roots are steamed and sliced as food for cattle2 and the thrashing machine no longer merely beats out the grain1 but it screens it1 separates it1 and elevates the straw1 so as to mechanically build it up into a stack4 ,i do not know a better class of machine than the agricultural portable engine4 ,every part of it is perfectly proportioned and made2 it is usually of the locomotive type1 and the economy of fuel in its use is extremely great4 ,i cannot help thinking that the improvement in this respect which has taken place in these engines1 and the improvement of agricultural machinery generally1 is very largely due to the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 one of the most enterprising bodies in ,england4 ,i now come to the very last subject ,i propose to speak upon1 and that is ,,printing ,,machinery1 and especially as applied to the printing of newspapers4 ,in #ahca1 we had the steam press sending out a few hundred copies in an hour1 and doing that upon detached sheets1 and thus many hours were required for an edition of some thousands4 ,the only way of expediting the matter would have been to have recomposed the paper1 involving1 however1 double labor to the compositors1 and a double chance of error4 ,at the present day1 we have1 by the ,walter press1 the paper printed on a continuous sheet at a rate per hour at least three times as great as that of the presses of #ahca1 and1 by the aid of papier mch moulds1 within five minutes from the starting of the first press1 a second press can be got to work from the stereotype plates1 and a third one in the next five minutes2 and thus the wisdom of our senators1 which has been delivered as late as three o'clock in the morning1 is able to be transmitted by the newspaper train leaving ,euston at #e3ae ,a4,m4 ,this is the last matter with which ,i shall trouble the ,section4 ,i have purposely omitted telegraphy2 ,i have purposely omitted artillery1 textile fabrics1 and the milling and preparation of grain4 ,these and other matters ,i have omitted for several reasons4 ,some ,i have omitted because ,i was incompetent to speak upon them1 others because of the want of time1 and others because they more properly belong to ,section ,a4 ,i hope1 sir1 although your address1 dealing with the future1 was undoubtedly the right address for a president to deliver1 and although it is equally right that we should not content ourselves with merely looking back in a rest and be thankful spirit at the various progress which this paper records1 it may nevertheless be thought well that there should have been brought before the section1 in however cursory a manner1 some notice of mechanical development during the past fifty years4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #caa1 page #died4 ,,amateur ,,mechanics4 ,,metal ,,turning4 ,in selecting a lathe an amateur may exercise more or less taste1 and he may be governed somewhat by the length of his purse2 the same is true in the matter of chucks2 but when he comes to the selection or making of turning tools he must conform to fundamental principles2 he must profit as far as possible by the experience of others1 and will1 after all1 find enough to be learned by practice4 ,tools of almost every description may be purchased at reasonable prices1 but the practice of making one's own tools cannot be too strongly recommended4 ,it affords a way out of many an emergency1 and where time is not too valuable1 a saving will be realized4 ,a few bars of fine tool steel1 a hammer1 and a small anvil1 are all that are required1 aside from fire and water4 ,the steel should be heated to a low red1 and shaped with as little hammering as possible2 it may then be allowed to cool slowly1 when it may be filed or ground to give it the required form4 ,it may now be hardened by heating it to a cherry red and plunging it straight down into clean cool 7not too cold7 water4 ,it should then be polished on two of its sides1 when the temper may be drawn in the flame of an alcohol lamp or ,bunsen gas burner2 or1 if these are not convenient1 a heated bar of iron may be used instead1 the tool being placed in contact with it until the required color appears4 ,this for tools to be used in turning steel1 iron1 and brass may be a straw color4 ,for turning wood it may be softer4 ,the main point to be observed in tempering a tool is to have it as hard as possible without danger of its being broken while in use4 ,by a little experiment the amateur will be able to suit the temper of his tools to the work in hand4 ,in the engraving accompanying the present article a number of hand turning tools are shown1 also a few tools for the slide rest4 ,these tools are familiar to machinists and may be well known to many amateurs2 but we give them for the benefit of those who are unacquainted with them and for the sake of completeness in this series of articles4 ,illustration3 ,,turning ,,tools4 ,fig4 #a is the ordinary diamond tool1 made from a square bar of steel ground diagonally so as to give it two similar cutting edges4 ,this tool is perhaps more generally useful than any of the others4 ,the manner of using it is shown in ,fig4 #bc2 it is placed on the tool rest and dexterously moved on the rest as a pivot1 causing the point to travel in a circular path along the metal in the lathe4 ,of course only a small distance is traveled over before the tool is moved along on the rest4 ,after a little experience it will be found that by exercising care a good job in plain turning may be done with the tool4 ,fig4 #b shows a sharp ,v shaped tool which will be found useful for many purposes4 ,fig4 #c is a ,v shaped tool for finishing screw threads4 ,figs4 #d and #e are round-nosed tools for concave surfaces2 ,fig4 #f1 a square tool for turning convex and plane surfaces4 ,the tool shown in ,fig4 #g should be made right and left2 it is useful in turning brass1 ivory1 hard wood1 etc4 ,fig4 #h is a separating tool2 ,fig4 #i is an inside tool1 which should be made both right and left1 and its point may be either round1 ,v shaped1 or square4 ,fig4 #bd shows the manner of holding an inside tool4 ,fig4 #aj is a tool for making curved undercuts4 ,fig4 #aa is a representative of a large class of tools for duplicating a given form4 ,these figures represent a series of tools which may be varied infinitely to adapt them to different purposes4 ,the user1 if he is wide awake1 is not long in discovering what angle to give the cutting edge1 what shape to give the point1 and what position to give the tool in relation to the work to be done4 ,having had experience with hand tools it requires only a little practice and observation to apply the same principles to slide rest tools4 ,a few examples of this class of tools are given4 ,fig4 #ab is the ordinary diamond pointed tool1 which should be made right and left4 ,the cutting edge may have a more or less acute angle1 according to the work to be done1 and the inclined or front end of the tool may be slightly squared or rounded1 according to the work4 ,fig4 #ac is a separating tool1 which is a little wider at the cutting edge than any where else1 so that it will clear itself as it is forced into the work4 ,for brass this tool should be beveled downward slightly4 ,by giving the point the form shown in ,fig4 #c it will be adapted to screw cutting4 ,fig4 #ad shows an inside tool for the slide rest2 its point may be modified according to the work to be done4 ,fig4 #ae is a side tool for squaring the ends of shafts2 ,figs4 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 and #ai represent tools for brass1 ,fig4 #af is a round-nosed tool for brass1 ,fig4 #ag a ,v shaped tool1 ,fig4 #ah a screw thread tool1 and ,fig4 #ai a side tool4 ,in boring1 whether the object is cored or not1 it is desirable1 where the hole is not too large1 to take out the first cut with a drill4 ,the drill for the purpose is shown in ,fig4 #bj1 the drill holder in ,fig4 #ba1 and the manner of using in ,fig #bb4 ,the drill holder1 ,b1 is held by a mortised post placed in the rest support4 ,the slot of the drill holder is placed exactly opposite the tail center and made secure4 ,the drill1 which is flat1 is drilled to receive the tail center1 and it is kept from turning by the holder1 and is kept from lateral movement and chattering by a wrench1 ,c1 which is turned so as to bind the drill in the slot of the holder4 ,the relative position of the tool and work is shown in ,figs4 #be1 #bf1 #bg1 and #bh2 ,fig4 #be shows the position for brass2 ,fig4 #bf for iron and steel2 ,fig4 #bg the relative position of the engine rest tool and its work2 and ,fig4 #bh the position of the tool for soft metal and wood4 ,in all of these cases the point of the tool is above the center of the work4 ,in the matter of the adjustment of the tool1 as well as in all other operations referred to1 experiment is recommended as the best means of gaining valuable knowledge in the matter of turning metals4 ,,rotary ,,cutters4 ,the saving of files1 time1 materials1 and patience1 by the employment of such rotary cutters as may be profitably used in connection with a foot lathe1 can hardly be appreciated by one who has never attempted to use this class of tools4 ,it is astonishing how much very hard labor may be saved by means of a small circular saw like that shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,this tool1 like many others described in this series of articles1 can1 in most instances1 be purchased cheaper than it can be made1 and the chances are in favor of its being a more perfect article4 ,however1 it is not so difficult to make as one might suppose4 ,a piece of sheet steel may be chucked upon the face plate1 or on a wooden block attached to the face plate1 where it may be bored to fit the saw mandrel1 and cut in circular form by means of a suitable hand tool4 ,it may then be placed upon the mandrel and turned true1 and it is well enough to make it a little thinner in the middle than at the periphery4 ,illustration3 ,rotary ,cutting ,tools4 ,there are several methods of forming the teeth on a circular saw4 ,it may be spaced and filed1 or it may be knurled1 as shown in ,fig4 #b1 and then filed1 leaving every third or fourth tooth formed by the knurl1 or it may1 for some purposes1 be knurled and not filed at all4 ,another way of forming the teeth is to employ a hub1 something like that used in making chasers1 as shown in ,fig4 #c1 the difference between this hub and the other one referred to1 is that the thread has one straight side corresponding with the radial side of the tooth4 ,the blank from which the saw is made is placed on a stud projecting from a handle made specially for the purpose1 and having a rounded end which supports the edge of the blank1 as the teeth are formed by the cutters on the hub4 ,the saw1 after the teeth are formed1 may be hardened and tempered by heating it slowly until it attains a cherry red1 and plunging it straight down edgewise into cool1 clean water4 ,on removing it from the water it should be dried1 and cleaned with a piece of emery paper1 and its temper drawn to a purple1 over a ,bunsen gas flame1 over the flame of an alcohol lamp1 or over a hot plate of iron4 ,the small saw shown in ,fig4 #d is easily made from a rod of fine steel4 ,it is very useful for slotting sheet brass and tubes1 slotting small shafts1 nicking screws1 etc4 ,being quite small it has the advantage of having few teeth to keep in order1 and it may be made harder than those of larger diameter4 ,a series of them1 varying in diameter from one eighth to three eighths of an inch1 and varying considerably in thickness1 will be found very convenient4 ,these cutters or saws1 with the exception of the smaller one1 may be used to the best advantage in connection with a saw table1 like that shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,this is a plane iron table having a longitudinal groove in its face to receive the guiding rib of the carriage1 shown in ,fig4 #i1 and a transverse groove running half way across1 to receive a slitting gauge1 as shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,the table is supported by a standard or shank1 which fits into the tool-rest socket4 ,the saw mandrel is supported between the centers of the lathe1 and the saw projects more or less through a slot formed in the table4 ,the gauge serves to guide the work to be slotted1 and other kinds of work may be placed on or against the carriage1 shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,it is a very simple matter to arrange guiding pieces for cutting at any angle1 and the saw table may be used for either metal or wood4 ,the saws for wood differ from those used for metal2 the latter are filed straight1 the former diagonally or fleaming4 ,among the many uses to which metal saws may be applied we mention the slitting of sheet metals1 splitting wires and rods1 slotting and grooving1 nicking screws1 etc4 ,fig4 #aj shows a holder for receiving screws to be nicked4 ,it is used in connection with the saw table1 and is moved over the saw against the gauge4 ,to facilitate the removal of the screws the holder may be split longitudinally and hinged together4 ,another method of nicking screws is illustrated by ,fig4 #aa4 ,a simple lever1 fulcrumed on a bar held by the tool post1 is drilled and tapped in the end to receive the screw4 ,after adjusting the tool all that is required is to insert the screw and press down the handle so as to bring the screw head into contact with the saw4 ,where a lathe is provided with an engine rest1 the cutter shown in ,fig4 #f1 mounted on the mandrel shown in ,fig4 #e1 is very useful2 it is used by clamping the work to the slide rest and moving it under the cutter by working the slide rest screw4 ,to make a cutter of this kind is more difficult than to make a saw1 and to do it readily a milling machine would be required4 ,it may be done1 however1 on a plain foot lathe1 by employing a ,v-shaped cutter and using a holder 7,fig4 #g7 having an angular groove for receiving the cylinder on which the cutting edges are formed4 ,the blank can be spaced with sufficient accuracy1 by means of a fine pair of dividers1 and after the first groove is cut there will be no difficulty in getting the rest sufficiently accurate1 as a nib inserted in the side of the guide enters the first groove and all of the others in succession and regulates the spacing4 ,one of the best applications of this tool is shown in the small engraving4 ,in this case a table similar to the saw table before described is supported in a vertical position1 and arranged at right angles with the cutter mandrel4 ,the mandrel is of the same diameter as the cutter1 and serves as a guide to the pattern which carries the work to be operated upon4 ,the principal use of this contrivance is to shape the edges of curved or irregular metal work4 ,the casting to be finished is fastened--by cement if small1 and by clamps if large--to a pattern having exactly the shape required in the finished work4 ,illustration3 ,,metal ,,shaping4 ,by moving the pattern in contact with the table and the mandrel1 while the latter revolves1 the edges of the work will be shaped and finished at the same time4 ,by substituting a conical cutter for a cylindrical one1 the work may be beveled2 by using both1 the edge may be made smooth and square1 while the corner is beveled4 ,the tool shown in ,fig4 #ab might properly be called a barrel saw4 ,it is made by drilling in the end of a steel rod and forming the teeth with a file4 ,to avoid cracking in tempering a small hole should be drilled through the side near the bottom of the larger hole4 ,to insure the free working of the tool it should be turned so that its cutting edge will be rather thicker than the position behind it4 ,this tool should be made in various sizes4 ,tools for gear cutting and also cutters for wood have not been mentioned in this paper2 as they are proper subjects for separate treatment4 ,,wood ,,working4 ,it is not the intention of the writer to enter largely into the subject of wood working1 but simply to suggest a few handy attachments to the foot lathe which will greatly facilitate the operations of the amateur wood worker1 and will be found very useful by almost any one working in wood4 ,it is not an easy matter to split even thin lumber into strips of uniform width by means of a handsaw1 but by using the circular saw attachment1 shown in ,fig4 #a1 the operation becomes rapid and easy1 and the stuff may be sawed or slit at any desired angle or bevel4 ,the attachment consists of a saw mandrel of the usual form1 and a wooden table supported by a right angled piece1 ,a1 of round iron fitted to the toolpost and clamped by a wooden cleat1 ,b1 which is secured to the under side of the table1 split from the aperture to one end1 and provided with a thumbscrew for drawing the parts together4 ,by means of this arrangement the table may be inclined to a limited angle in either direction1 the slot through which the saw projects being enlarged below to admit of this adjustment4 ,illustration3 ,,woodworking ,,attachments ,,for ,,the ,,foot ,,lathe4 ,the back of the table is steadied by a screw which rests upon the back end of the tool rest support1 and enters a block attached to the under side of the table4 ,the gauge at the top of the table is used in slitting and for other purposes which will be presently mentioned1 and it is adjusted by aid of lines made across the table parallel with the saw4 ,for the purpose of cross cutting or cutting on a bevel a thin sliding table is fitted to slide upon the main table1 and is provided with a gauge which is capable of being adjusted at any desired angle4 ,for cutting slots for panels1 etc41 thick saws may be used1 or the saw may be made to wabble by placing it between two beveled washers1 as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,the saw table has an inserted portion1 ,c1 held in place by two screws which may be removed when it is desired to use the saw mandrel for carrying a sticker head for planing small strips of moulding or reeding4 ,the head for holding the moulding knives is best made of good tough brass or steam metal4 ,the knives can be made of good saw steel about one-eighth inch thick4 ,they may be filed into shape and afterward tempered4 ,they are slotted and held to their places on the head by means of quarter-inch machine screws4 ,it is not absolutely necessary to use two knives1 but when only one is employed a counterbalance should be fastened to the head in place of the other4 ,all kinds of moulding1 beading1 tonguing1 and grooving may be done with this attachment1 the gauge being used to guide the edge of the stuff4 ,if the boards are too thin to support themselves against the action of the knives they must be backed up by a thick strip of wood planed true4 ,the speed for this cutter head should be as great as possible4 ,fig4 #e shows an attachment to be used in connection with the cutter head and saw table for cutting straight1 spiral1 or irregular flutes on turned work4 ,it consists of a bar1 ,d1 carrying a central fixed arm1 and at either end an adjustable arm1 the purpose of the latter being to adapt the device to work of different lengths4 ,the arm projecting from the center of the bar1 ,d1 supports an arbor having at one end a socket for receiving the twisted iron bar1 ,e1 and at the other end a center and a short finger or pin4 ,a metal disk having three spurs1 a central aperture1 and a series of holes equally distant from the center and from each other1 is attached by its spurs to the end of the cylinder to be fluted1 and the center of the arbor in the arm1 ,d1 enters the central hole in the disk while its finger enters one of the other holes4 ,the opposite end of the cylinder is supported by a center screw4 ,a fork attached to the back of the table embraces the twisted iron1 ,e1 so that as the wooden cylinder is moved diagonally over the cutter it is slowly rotated1 making a spiral cut4 ,after the first cut is made the finger of the arbor is removed from the disk and placed in an adjoining hole1 when the second cut is made1 and so on4 ,figs4 #f and #g show a convenient and easily made attachment for moulding the edges of irregular work1 such as brackets1 frames1 parts of patterns1 etc4 ,it consists of a brass frame1 ,f1 supporting a small mandrel turning at the top in a conical bearing in the frame1 and at the bottom upon a conical screw4 ,a very small grooved pulley is fastened to the mandrel and surrounded by a rubber ring which bears against the face plate of the lathe1 as shown in the engraving4 ,the frame1 ,f1 is let into a wooden table supported by an iron rod which is received by the tool rest holder of the lathe4 ,the cutter1 ,g1 is made by turning upon a piece of steel the reverse of the required moulding1 and slotting it transversely to form cutting edges4 ,the shank of the cutter is fitted to a hole in the mandrel and secured in place by a small set screw4 ,the edge of the work is permitted to bear against the shank of the cutter4 ,should the face plate of the lathe be too small to give the required speed1 a wooden disk may be attached to it by means of screws and turned off4 ,figs4 #h1 #i1 and #aj represent a cheaply and easily made scroll saw attachment for the foot lathe4 ,it is made entirely of wood and is practically noiseless4 ,the board1 ,h1 supports two uprights1 ,i1 between which is pivoted the arm1 ,j1 whose under side is parallel with the edge of the board4 ,a block is placed between the uprights1 ,i1 to limit the downward movement of the arm1 and the arm is clamped by a bolt which passes through it and through the two uprights and is provided with a wing nut4 ,a wooden table1 secured to the upper edge of the board1 ,h1 is perforated to allow the saw to pass through1 and is provided with an inserted hardwood strip which supports the back of the saw1 and which may be moved forward from time to time and cut off as it becomes worn4 ,the upper guide of the saw consists of a round piece of hard wood inserted in a hole bored in the end of the arm1 ,j4 ,the upper end of the saw is secured in a small steel clamp pivoted in a slot in the end of a wooden spring secured to the top of the arm1 ,j1 and the lower end of the saw is secured in a similar clamp pivoted to the end of the wooden spring1 ,k4 ,fig4 #aj is an enlarged view showing the construction of clamp4 ,the relation of the spring1 ,k1 to the board1 ,h1 and to the other part is shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,it is attached to the side of the board and is pressed upward by an adjusting screw near its fixed end4 ,the saw is driven by a wooden eccentric placed on the saw mandrel shown in ,figs4 #a and #b1 and the spring1 ,k1 always pressed upward against the eccentric by its own elasticity1 and it is also drawn in an upward direction by the upper spring4 ,this arrangement insures a continuous contact between the spring1 ,k1 and the eccentric1 and consequently avoids noise4 ,the friction surfaces of the eccentric and spring may be lubricated with tallow and plumbago4 ,the eccentric may1 with advantage1 be made of metal4 ,the tension of the upper spring may be varied by putting under it blocks of different heights1 or the screw which holds the back end may be used for this purpose4 ,the saw is attached to the lathe by means of an iron bent twice at right angles1 attached to the board1 ,h1 and fitted to the tool rest support4 ,the rear end of the sawing apparatus may be supported by a brace running to the lower part of the lathe or to the floor4 ,the simple attachments above described will enable the possessor to make many small articles of furniture which he would not undertake without them1 and for making models of small patterns they are almost invaluable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,method ,,of ,,keeping ,,mechanical ,,drawings4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a ,paper by ,chas4 ,t ,porter1 read before the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,the system of keeping drawings now in use at the works of the ,southwark ,foundry and ,machine ,company1 in ,philadelphia1 has been found so satisfactory in its operation that it seems worthy of being communicated to the profession4 ,the method in common use1 and which may be called the natural method1 is to devote a separate drawer to the drawings of each machine1 or of each group or class of machines4 ,the fundamental idea of this system1 and its only one1 is1 keeping together all drawings relating to the same subject matter4 ,every draughtsman is acquainted with its practical working4 ,it is necessary to make the drawing of a machine1 and of its separate parts1 on sheets of different sizes4 ,the drawer in which all these are kept must be large enough to accommodate the largest sheets4 ,the smaller ones cannot be located in the drawer1 and as these find their way to one side or to the back1 and several of the smallest lie side by side in one course1 any arrangement of the sheets in the drawer is out of the question4 ,the operation of finding a drawing consists in turning the contents of the drawer all up until it is discovered4 ,in this way the smaller sheets get out of sight or doubled up1 and the larger ones are torn4 ,no amount of care can prevent confusion4 ,various plans have been adopted in different establishments intended to remedy this state of things1 but it is believed that none has been hit upon so convenient1 in all respects1 as the one now to be presented4 ,the idea of keeping together drawings relating to the same machine1 or of classifying them according to subjects in any way1 is entirely abandoned1 and in place of these is substituted the plan of keeping together all drawings that are made on sheets of the same size1 without regard to the subject of them4 ,nine sizes of sheets were settled upon1 as sufficient to meet our requirements1 and on a sheet that will trim to one of these sizes every drawing must be made4 ,they are distinguished by the first nine letters of the alphabet4 ,size ,a is the antiquarian sheet trimmed1 and the smaller sizes will cut from this sheet1 without waste1 as follows3 ,a1 #eacj in42 ,b1 #cgcj in2 ,c1 #becj in42 ,d1 #agcj in42 ,e #abcj in42 ,f1 #hcj in42 ,g1 #agae in42 ,h1 #hae in42 ,i1 #adbe in4 ,the drawers for the different sizes are made one inch longer and wider than the sheets they are to contain1 and are lettered as above4 ,those of the same size1 after the first one1 are distinguished by a numeral prefixed to the letter4 ,the back part of each drawer is covered for a width of from six to ten inches1 to prevent drawings1 and especially tracings1 from slipping over at the back4 ,the introduction of the blue printing process has quite revolutionized the drawing office1 so far at least as we are concerned4 ,our drawings are studies1 left in pencil4 ,when we can find nothing more to alter1 tracings are made on cloth4 ,these become our originals1 and are kept in a fire-proof vault4 ,this system is found admirably adapted to the plan of making a separate drawing for each piece4 ,the whole combined drawing is not generally traced1 but the separate pieces are picked out from it4 ,all our working copies are blue prints4 ,each drawer contains fifty tracings4 ,they are two and a half inches deep1 which is enough to hold several times as many1 but this number is quite all that it is convenient to keep together4 ,we would recommend for these shallower drawers4 ,each drawing is marked in stencil in the lower right hand corner1 and also with inverted plates in the upper left hand corner1 with the letter and number of the drawer1 and its own number in the drawer1 as1 for example1 #c;,f--#ca2 so that whichever way the sheet is put in the drawer1 this appears at the front right hand corner4 ,the drawings in each drawer are numbered separately1 fifty being thus the highest number used4 ,for reference we depend on our indices4 ,each tracing1 when completed1 is entered under its letter in the numerical index1 and is given the next consecutive number1 and laid in its place4 ,from this index the title and the number are copied into other indices1 under as many different headings as possible4 ,thus all the drawings of any engine1 or tool1 or machine whatever1 become assembled by their titles under the heading of such particular engine1 or tool1 or machine4 ,so also the drawings of any particular part1 of all sizes and styles1 become assembled by their titles under the name of such piece4 ,however numerous the drawings1 and however great the variety of their subjects1 the location of any one is1 by this means1 found as readily as a word in a dictionary4 ,the stencil marks copy1 of course1 on the blue prints1 and these when not in use are kept in the same manner as the tracings1 except that only twenty-five are placed in one drawer4 ,we employ printed classified lists of the separate pieces constituting every steam engine1 the manufacture of which is the sole business of these works1 and on these1 against the name of every piece1 is given the drawer and number of the drawing on which it is represented4 ,the office copies of these lists afford an additional mode of reference and a very convenient one1 used in practice almost exclusively4 ,the foreman sends for the prints by the stencil marks1 and these are thus got directly without reference to any index4 ,they are charged in the same way1 and reference to the numerical index gives the title of any missing print4 ,we find the different sizes to be used quite unequal4 ,the method of making a separate tracing of each piece1 which we carry to a great extent1 causes the smaller sizes to multiply quite rapidly4 ,we are marking our patterns with the stencil of the drawing of the same piece2 and also1 gauges1 templets1 and jigs4 ,it is found best to permit the sheets to be put away by one person only1 who also writes up the indices1 which are kept in the fire proof4 ,we were ourselves surprised at the saving of room which this system has effected4 ,probably less than one-fourth the space is occupied that the same drawings would require if classified according to subjects4 ,the system is completely elastic4 ,work of the most diverse character might be undertaken every day1 and the drawings of each article1 whether few or many1 would find places ready to receive them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,achard',s ,,electric ,,brake4 ,illustration3 ,,elevation4 ,illustration3 ,,plan4 ,,achard',s ,,electric ,,brake--,,eastern ,,railway ,,of ,,france4 ,the merits of a brake in which electric apparatus is used1 that has been adopted by one large railway company1 and is about to be used on the ,state railways1 as well as the fact that arrangements are being made to introduce it in ,england1 demand consideration4 ,it may be that modifications will1 under different circumstances1 be introduced1 or that the system will ultimately be found too cumbersome or too delicate1 but before criticism it is necessary to know something of the apparatus4 ,we therefore endeavor to give somewhat in detail the arrangement adopted by ,m4,l4 ,regray1 chief engineer of the ,chemin de ,fer de l',est1 the electrical system being that of ,m4 ,achard4 ,an electro-magnet1 ,a1 is suspended on a hinged axis1 so that the poles of the magnet have for armatures cylinders of metal fixed upon the axle of the carriage4 ,suppose now the poles1 ,d ,d1 of the magnet brought into contact with the revolving armatures1 the friction between them causes the magnet to revolve4 ,the chain attached to the brake is fixed to the extended axle of the magnet1 and consequently when that axle revolves is wound up1 bringing the brakes upon the wheels4 ,the friction between the poles and the armature depends upon the strength of the magnet1 and this can be regulated at will from a maximum to a minimum4 ,but it will be well to trace the whole action4 ,the electric current may be obtained by means of ,plant secondary cells charged by ,daniell's cells--in other words1 one or two ,daniell's cells are constantly in action charging three or six ,plant cells1 and it is the ,plant cells that are called into action to electrify the magnet4 ,the battery is carried in a box in the brake van4 ,the engineers1 however1 seem to prefer that the current be obtained by means of a small ,gramme machine1 driven direct by a ,brotherhood three-cylinder engine1 the steam for which is obtained from the locomotive4 ,the velocity and hence the current of the ,gramme machine can be regulated1 and so the action of the brakes4 ,m4 ,achard prefers the ,plant cells2 he informs us that he has tried the ,faure battery1 but the results obtained were not satisfactory4 ,the regulator1 ,r1 consists of a cylinder of wood around which1 as shown1 wire is wound4 ,the length of this wire in the circuit1 increasing as it does the resistance of the circuit1 determines the current to the electro-magnet4 ,the action is as follows3 ,when it is necessary to apply the brakes1 a simple pressure of a key or the turn of a handle sends the electric current into the wires of the electro-magnet4 ,an attraction immediately takes place1 and the poles and armatures are brought into contact4 ,the friction between these causes the revolution of the magnet1 the winding of the chain around the axle1 and the application of the brakes4 ,the whole of the brakes of the train enter into action at one and the same time4 ,the brakes are taken off by stopping the current1 and a small spring pulls and keeps the magnet from the armatures4 ,a frame--also carriages--fitted with this brake1 are shown by the ,compagnie des ,chemins de ,fer de l',est1 which company also shows several other pieces of interesting apparatus1 one of which is a carriage fitted with elaborate mechanism1 in which electricity plays1 perhaps1 but a subsidiary part1 to obtain the traction of the train under varying circumstances1 the pressure on the buffers when stopping1 and various phenomena connected with the engine4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electricity2 ,,what ,,it ,,is1 ,,and ,,what ,,may ,,be ,,expected ,,of ,,it4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a paper read before the ,engineers' ,society of ,western ,pennsylvania1 ,nov4 #ae1 #ahha4 ,by ,,jacob ,,reese ,in the consideration of this subject it is not my purpose to review the steps of discovery and development of electrical phenomena1 but the object of this paper is an effort to explain what electricity is2 and having done this1 to deduce some reasonable conclusions as to what may be expected of it4 ,and while ,i am profoundly sensible of the importance of the subject1 and the difficulties attending its consideration1 still with humble boldness ,i present this paper and ask for it a serious and careful consideration1 hoping that the discussion and investigation resulting therefrom may add to our knowledge of physical science4 ,it is now a well established fact that matter1 per se1 is inert1 and that its energy is derived from the physical forces2 therefore all chemical and physical phenomena observed in the universe are caused by and due to the operations of the physical forces1 and matter1 of whatever state or condition it may be in1 is but the vehicle through or by which the physical forces operate to produce the phenomena4 ,there are but two physical forces1 i4e41 the force of attraction and the force of caloric4 ,the force of attraction is inherent in the matter1 and tends to draw the particles together and hold them in a state of rest4 ,the force of caloric accompanies the matter and tends to push the particles outward into a state of activity4 ,the force of attraction being inherent1 it abides in the matter continuously and can neither be increased nor diminished2 it1 however1 is present in different elementary bodies in different degrees1 and in compound bodies relative to the elements of which they are composed4 ,the force of caloric is mobile1 and is capable of moving from one portion of matter to another2 yet under certain conditions a portion of caloric is occluded in the matter by the force of attraction4 ,that portion of caloric which is occluded 7known by the misnomer1 latent heat7 ,i shall call static caloric1 and that portion which is in motion1 dynamic caloric4 ,the force of attraction1 as ,i have said1 tends to draw the particles of matter together and hold them in a state of rest2 but as this force is inherent1 the degree of power thus exerted is in an inverse ratio to the distance of the particles from each other4 ,the effective force so exerted is always balanced by an equivalent amount of the force of caloric1 and that modicum of caloric so engaged in balancing the effective force of attraction is static1 because occluded in that work4 ,in solid or fluid bodies1 where the molecules are held in a local or near relation to each other1 the amount of static caloric will be in direct proportion to the effective force of attraction1 but in gaseous bodies the static caloric is in an inverse ratio to the effective force of attraction2 hence the amount of static caloric present in solid and fluid bodies will be greatest when the molecules are nearest each other1 and greatest in gaseous bodies when the molecules are furthest apart4 ,caloric1 whether static or dynamic1 is not phenomenal2 therefore the phenomena of light1 temperature1 incandescence1 luminosity1 heat1 cold1 and motion1 as well as all other phenomena1 are due to the movement of matter caused by the physical forces4 ,thus we find that temperature is a phenomenal measure of molecular velocity1 as we consider weight to be the measure of matter4 ,an increase of temperature denotes an increased molecular velocity1 and this in solid and liquid bodies unlocks a portion of the static caloric and converts it into dynamic caloric1 while an increased temperature of gases occludes additional caloric1 thus converting dynamic into static caloric2 and a reduction of molecular activity reverses this action4 ,from this we see that a change of temperature either converts static to dynamic or dynamic to static caloric4 ,thus we find that the amount of static caloric which a body possesses is in direct relation to its temperature1 but1 as ,i have already explained1 temperature is a phenomenal indication of molecular velocity1 and as increased velocity separates the molecules to a greater distance1 which reduces the effective force of attraction and unlocks a portion of caloric1 it will be seen that the separation of the molecules from any other cause will have the same effect4 ,i desire now to explain a second method by which the molecules are separated and static caloric is changed to dynamic caloric4 ,it is not definitely known how much static caloric is occluded in either of the elementary bodies1 but it is believed that hydrogen possesses the greatest amount and oxygen the least4 ,now if we take a molecule of hydrogen containing two atoms1 and under proper conditions interpose these atoms between #af atoms of oxygen 7one molecule71 the phenomenon of combustion is exhibited1 and a molecule of water is formed containing #ah atoms2 and if one pound of hydrogen is thus consumed1 the atoms of hydrogen are separated from each other to such a distance by the interposing atoms of oxygen as to unlock #cd1ffb units ,c4 of static1 and convert it into dynamic caloric4 ,and if we thus bring a molecule of carbon containing #ab atoms in contact with a molecule of oxygen of #af atoms1 combustion ensues and a molecule of carbonic oxide of #bh atoms is formed1 and if we then present another molecule of oxygen1 combustion again takes place1 and a molecule of carbonic acid1 containing #dd atoms1 is produced4 ,now1 in the combustion of one pound of carbon in this manner1 when the carbon is converted into carbonic oxide 7,,co71 #b1dgc units ,c4 of static is converted into dynamic caloric2 and when this ,,co is converted into carbonic acid 7,,co#b7 #e1fjg additional units ,c4 are unlocked4 ,thus by the combustion of one pound of carbon to ,,co#b1 #h1jhj units ,c4 of static caloric are changed to dynamic caloric4 ,when caloric is thus unlocked from its occlusion it escapes with great velocity until an equilibrium is attained1 and in doing so it pushes the particles of matter out of its path4 ,in solid bodies this produces such a high degree of molecular movement as to exhibit the phenomena of incandescence and luminosity1 and in liquids increased mobility1 while in gases the molecular activity may be so great as to produce the phenomena of sound and light2 and the more rapidly combustion takes place the greater will be the volume and velocity of dynamic caloric escaping therefrom2 consequently with a slow combustion1 the phenomena produced by dynamic caloric will be different from those exhibited at a high degree4 ,combustion1 as ,i have before shown1 is merely the oxidation of the material2 nothing is consumed nor annihilated1 and1 the phenomena vary with the velocity of oxidation4 ,now1 if we take one pound of zinc and place it in the acid cell of an electric battery1 the oxygen of the acid attacks the zinc and oxide of zinc is formed4 ,in this operation the ,zn molecule containing #fe atoms is united with one molecule of oxygen of #af atoms1 forming a molecule of oxide of zinc 7,zn,o7 of #ha atoms2 and owing to the comparatively small number of oxygen atoms interposed between the #fe atoms of zinc1 only #a1cja units ,c4 of static caloric are unlocked to the pound of zinc1 and the velocity of oxidation is so low1 and the insulation of the vessel so perfect1 that the dynamic caloric is caused to flow outward through the copper wire4 ,,electricity4--,what is it8 ,why1 it is dynamic caloric4 ,now let us take this oxide of zinc 7,zn,o7 and place it with charcoal in a reducing apparatus which stands on an insulated table2 the apparatus is then heated1 the carbon vaporizes1 and this vapor of carbon 7,c7 robs the oxide of zinc 7,zn,o7 of its oxygen1 leaving metallic zinc 7,zn7 and carbonic oxide 7,,co74 ,now1 for every pound of zinc so formed #a1cja units ,c4 of static caloric are transferred from the charcoal to the zinc and occluded in it4 ,hence we find that the #a1cja units ,c4 of caloric which we took out of the zinc1 and which we call electricity1 is nothing else but the #a1cja units of static caloric which was contained in the charcoal and from it set free by oxidation and transferred to the zinc in the smelting process4 ,let us follow this matter a little further4 ,charcoal is made by burning wood under such conditions as eliminate the water and hydrogen and leave the carbon as a residuum which we call charcoal4 ,thus we find that the caloric contained in the charcoal1 transferred from the charcoal to the zinc1 and from it developed into what we call electricity1 was previously embodied in the wood2 and if we study the laws of vegetation1 we find that the atmosphere being charged with carbonic acid 7,,co#b71 the leaves of plants1 shrubs1 and trees1 breathing1 take in the ,,co#b1 the sun rays decompose the ,,co#b1 set free the oxygen1 and supply the necessary amount of caloric for the condensed state of the carbon4 ,thus we find that the force which we term electricity1 developed from the oxidation of zinc1 or any other matter1 by oxidation1 primarily comes from the sun rays4 ,coal is generally supposed to be of vegetable origin1 and the caloric occluded in it is derived from the same source as that embodied in charcoal4 ,now when we burn coal under a steam boiler1 the carbon and hydrogen are oxidized1 and the static caloric set free4 ,a portion of this caloric passes through the shell or tubes of the boilers1 and increases the molecular velocity of the water2 increased activity of the molecules tends to separate them to a greater distance from each other4 ,when the molecular velocity of the water acquires the degree indicated by a temperature of #bab degrees ,f41 the water passes from the fluid to the gaseous state1 and in doing so expands to #a1fif times its bulk4 ,now if the steam so developed be confined under a pressure of #aje pounds to the square inch1 the water will not vaporize until a molecular velocity is attained indicated by a temperature of #cab ,f4 7,spons' ,engineering1 ,d#b1 page #dah71 and then the expansion is only #bec times its bulk4 ,by using this steam1 in a steam engine1 the caloric in the steam tends to push the molecules of which it is composed into an ultimate expansion of #a1fif times the bulk of the water from which it was generated1 and this force acts upon the piston and does the work4 ,thus we see that the steam engine is driven by the same force which produces the phenomena accredited to electricity4 ,i have already shown that in what we term combustion not a particle of the ponderable matter is annihilated4 ,combustion is but a phenomenon resulting from a rearrangement of the particles1 and so it is with the imponderable physical force caloric2 it is not consumed when light and heat are produced1 nor converted into power1 as we are sometimes told4 ,but whatever the phenomena produced1 the aggregate amount of static and dynamic caloric is always and ever the same4 ,if we consider the ,ritter-,plant-,faure-,battery1 which is mentioned as storing electricity1 we find that the phenomena exhibited by the use of this apparatus are produced by the same factor4 ,the battery is composed of two sheets of lead1 which are covered with a layer of minium 7,pb#c,o#d74 ,the sheets are laid one upon the other with an intervening layer of felt4 ,the pack is then rolled up in a spiral form and placed in a vessel containing acidulated water4 ,one of the plates is connected with the positive1 and the other plate with the negative pole of a battery or generator4 ,when the current of electricity enters the battery1 the ,pb#c,o#d on the positive plate is reduced to ,pb1 and the oxygen so set free attacks the ,pb#c,o#d on the negative plate1 and oxidizes it to ,pb,o#b4 ,in this chemical action1 caloric is occluded in the ,pb and unlocked in the ,pb,o#b1 but a much greater amount of caloric is locked up than is unlocked1 although the amount of oxygen used in both cases is precisely the same1 which has been fully explained in the oxidation of carbon4 ,now after the battery has been thus charged and the wires disengaged1 the chemical action ceases for want of the reducing agent 7dynamic caloric71 and the apparatus may be held at rest1 or transported to any distance required4 ,when it is desired to utilize the force thus stored1 the poles are changed by grounding the positive wire1 and attaching the other to the conduit through which the electricity is to flow4 ,the chemical action is thus reversed1 and the ,pb,o#b is reduced to ,pb#c,o#d1 the oxygen thus set free attacks the ,pb on the other plate1 oxidizing it to ,pb#c,o#d1 thus unlocking all the caloric which was occluded by the first action4 ,in a battery of this kind weighing #ge pounds1 we are informed by ,sir ,william ,thomson1 that one million foot pounds of force may be stored1 and again set free for use4 ,thus we find that the principle upon which the ,faure battery is formed is not new1 and the prime factor producing the phenomena is the same as has been shown to have caused all other phenomena referred to1 and indeed the principle is the same as now employed by the author in the basic dephosphorizing process1 i4e41 caloric is occluded in phosphorus by smelting in a blast furnace1 and unlocked in the converter1 for the purpose of securing the fluidity of the metal during treatment4 ,the difference being1 that one is done by non-luminous1 while the other is by luminous combustion4 ,if we consider the phenomenon of light1 we find that it is due to the same force4 ,as before stated1 when we oxidize carbon1 or hydrogen1 as in the rapid combustion of wood1 oil1 or coal1 the escaping caloric flies off with such great speed as to cause the molecules in the circumambient medium to assume a velocity which exhibits luminosity4 ,thus the light produced by burning candles1 oil1 gas1 wood1 and coal1 is caused by the same prime factor1 dynamic caloric4 ,the force of caloric is imponderable and invisible1 and is only known by its effects4 ,we do know that it is occluded in metals and other material1 because we can unlock it and set it free1 or we can transfer it from one body to another1 and by measuring its effects1 we can determine its quantity4 ,we know that it prefers to travel over one vehicle more than another1 and by this knowledge we are able to insulate it1 and thus conduct it in any direction desired4 ,the materials through which it passes with the greatest freedom are called conductors1 and the materials which most retard its passage1 non-conductors2 but these terms must be taken in a comparative sense only1 as in fact there are no absolute non-conductors of dynamic caloric1 or of what we call electricity4 ,the dynamo-electric generator simply draws the dynamic caloric from the air or earth1 or both1 and confines it in an insulated path4 ,now if that path be a ,no4 #aj wire1 the conduit may be sufficient to permit the caloric to pass without increasing the molecular velocity of the metal to an appreciable degree1 but if we cut the ,no4 #aj wire and insert a piece of ,no4 #dj platinum wire in the path1 the amount of caloric flowing through the ,no4 #aj wire cannot pass through the ,no4 #dj wire1 and the resistance so caused increases the molecular velocity of the ,no4 #dj wire to such degree as to exhibit the phenomenon of incandescence1 and this is the incandescent electric light4 ,and if we consider the carbon light1 we find that the current of caloric1 in passing from one pencil to the other1 produces a molecular velocity of luminosity in the adjoining atmosphere1 and in addition a portion of the carbon is consumed1 which sets free an additional amount of caloric1 at a very high velocity1 hence the intensity of the carbon electric light is largely due to the dynamic caloric unlocked from the pencils1 and thus we find that the electric light produced by either method is due to the action of dynamic caloric4 ,taking this theory based upon physical science1 and the facts which we know pertaining to electricity1 ,i conceive that caloric exists in two conditions4 ,static caloric is what we call latent heat1 and dynamic caloric is what we call electricity4 ,therefore what may we expect of it 7electricity7 is merely a matter of economy in the development and utilization of dynamic caloric2 in other words1 can we unlock static caloric by non-luminous combustion1 and thus develop dynamic caloric as a first power more economically per foot pound than we now do or can hereafter do by luminous combustion8 ,second1 can we utilize water and wind for the production of dynamic caloric as a first power8 ,third1 can we utilize the differential tension of dynamic caloric in the earth and the atmosphere as a first power8 ,fourth1 will it pay to use luminous combustion as a first power to generate dynamic caloric as a second power8 ,,what ,,may ,,we ,,expect ,,of ,,it4 ,let us take the steam engine1 and see what we are now doing by luminous combustion4 ,good ,pittsburg coal contains #hg per cent4 of carbon1 #e per cent4 of hydrogen1 #b per cent4 of oxygen and #f per cent4 of ash2 we therefore have in one pound of such coal3 #h1jhj #i #ad1edd #hg --------- ----------- #ab1fec units in carbon4 #e #ajj #cd1ffb #i #fb1cia #e #c1aai units in hydrogen4 ---------- ---------- ------ #e #ajj #ae1ggb units in coal4 #ae1ggb #ggbb #ab1age1ihd foot pounds of energy is occluded in the static caloric contained in one pound of such coal4 ,footnote #b3 ,dr4 ,joule--foot pounds in one unit4 ,a horse-power is estimated as capable of raising #cc1jjj pounds one foot high per minute1 and for this reason it is termed #cc1jjj foot pounds per minute4 ,so we have #cc1jjj #fj #a1ihj1jjj foot pounds per hour1 as a horse-power4 ,the best class of compound condensing engines1#c with all the modern improvements1 require #a4hbh pounds of coal per #a h4p4 per hour4 ,thus we have-- #ab1age1ihd #a4hbh 44444444444444444#bb1beg1fii ,foot pounds in one h4p4 4444444444444#a1ihj1jjj ---------- ,foot pounds lost per h4p4 4444444444#bj1bgg1fii ,per cent utilized per h4p4 44444444444444#h4id ,per cent lost per h4p4 44444444444444444#ia4jf ------ #ajj4jj ,footnote #c3 ,american ,engineer1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 ,no4 #aj1 page #ahb4 ,in the ordinary practice of stationary non-condensing engines1 from three to four pounds of coal are required per horse-power per hour4 ,now1 taking the best of this class at #c pounds1 we have-- #ab1age1ihd #c #cf1ebg1ieb ,one h4p4 #a1ihj1jjj ---------- ,loss per h4p4 #cd1edg1ieb ,per cent utilized per h4p4 #e4db ,per cent lost per h4p4 #id4eh ------ #ajj4jj ,from these facts it may be assumed that after making due allowance for variable qualities of the coal1 the steam engine process1 as at present practiced1 will not utilize more than from #e to #aj per cent4 of the energy contained in the fuel used4 ,it will thus be seen that the process of converting static to dynamic caloric by luminous combustion1 by means of the steam engine1 is an exceedingly wasteful and costly method1 and leaves much room for economy4 ,taking an ordinary grade of petroleum as consisting of #ac per cent4 hydrogen1 #gh carbon1 #f oxygen1 #c nitrogen and ash1 we have as its energy in foot pounds per pound of oil-- #fb1cia #ac ----------- #h1aaj ,h4 #ajj #ai1ded units4 #ad1edd #gh ----------- #aa1cdd ,c4 #ajj #ai1ded #ggb #ae1jah1dhh foot pounds4 ,thus1 while our best coal contains twelve million1 the petroleum contains fifteen million foot pounds of occluded energy in each pound1 which is equal to #aah1jjj1jjj foot pounds1 or #fj horse power for one hour1 from one gallon of such oil4 ,at present electricity is generated by two methods1 and both of these are second powers4 ,metals are smelted by luminous combustion as a first power1 and then oxidized by non-luminous combustion as a second power1 and coal is consumed by luminous combustion1 by which steam is generated as a first power1 to drive a dynamo-generator whereby electricity is obtained as a second power4 ,now1 of the two methods1 the latter is much the cheaper1 and as ,i have shown that the best compound condensing engines only utilize #h4id1 and a fair average single cylinder condensing engine only utilizes #e4db per cent4 of the energy of the fuel consumed1 and as at the best not over #gj per cent4 of the foot pounds obtained from the engine can be utilized as electricity1 from which we must deduct loss by friction1 etc41 it will be readily seen that not more than #e per cent4 of the energy of the fuel can be developed by the dynamo-generator as electricity by the present method4 ,the great want of the present age is a process by which the static caloric of carbon or a hydrocarbon maybe set free by non-luminous combustion2 or1 in other words1 a process by which coal or oil may be oxidized at a low degree1 within an insulated vessel2 if this can be accomplished 7and ,i can see no reason why we should not look for such invention71 we would be able to produce from twelve to fifteen million foot pounds of energy 7electricity7 from one pound of petroleum1 or from ten to twelve million foot pounds from one pound of good coal1 which would be a saving of from #ij to #ie per cent4 of present cost1 and leave the steam engine for historical remembrance4 ,electricity may be generated by water or wind power to great advantage1 and conveyed to a distance for motive power4 ,the practicability of generating electricity at ,niagara by which to propel trains to ,new ,york and return may be considered almost settled2 and ,i conceive a second invention of importance which is now needed is an apparatus by which the rising and falling tides may be utilized for driving dynamo machines1 by which electricity may be generated for lighting the coast cities1 and it is not unreasonable to expect that such an apparatus will soon be provided2 and in such an event gas companies would suffer4 ,it is a well known fact among electricians that the volume and tension of electricity vary both in the earth and in the atmosphere at different sections of the earth's surface1 and ,i conceive that we may yet find means of utilizing this differential tension of electricity2 indeed1 it is reported that during a recent storm the wires of an ocean cable were grounded at both ends and a sufficient current for all practical purpose flowed from the ,european to the ,american continent1 with all batteries removed1 showing that the tension was so much greater in ,europe as to cause the electricity to flow through the copper cable to this side in preference to passing through the earth or the sea4 ,it is also said that during an east-going storm it was found impossible to work the telegraph lines between ,new ,york and ,buffalo1 but on taking off the batteries at both ends and looping the ends of the wire in the air1 that a constant current of electricity passed from ,buffalo to ,new ,york1 and the line was kept in constant use in that direction without any battery connection until the storm abated4 ,now1 how far or to what advantage we may be able to utilize this differential tension of electricity in the earth and the air1 we cannot now say2 but ,i think that we may justly look for valuable developments in this direction4 ,if1 as ,i verily believe1 a process will soon be discovered by which dynamic caloric can be produced by the oxidation of petroleum with non-luminous combustion in an insulated chamber1 as we now oxidize zinc1 electricity will then be obtained from so small a weight1 and at such a low cost1 as to insure aerial navigation beyond a doubt4 ,not with balloons and their cumbrous inflations1 but with machines capable of carrying the load1 and traveling by displacement of the air at high velocities4 ,therefore we may expect that aerial navigation will be developed in the near future to be one of the greatest enterprises of the world4 ,and lastly1 will it pay to use luminous combustion as a first power for generating dynamic caloric for use as a second power1 as is now practiced8 ,at the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 in ,philadelphia1 gas is consumed in an ,otto gas engine1 which drives a ,gramme generator2 and the lecture room is lighted with electricity1 and ,i am informed that the light is both better and cheaper than when they used the gas in the ordinary gas burners4 ,hence we may expect to see gas consumed to advantage for producing electric lights4 ,considering the difficulties of transmitting steam power to a considerable distance1 and the comparative great cost of running small engines1 it is more than likely that electricity as at present generated will be found to be economical for driving small motors4 ,having thus endeavored to explain what electricity is1 and the laws which govern the occlusion of static caloric1 and the development of dynamic caloric 7electricity71 in conclusion ,i call the attention of the inventors of the age to the great need of a process for oxidizing coal or oil at a low degree1 within an insulated vessel4 ,with such an invention electricity would be obtained at such a low cost that it would be used exclusively to light and heat our houses1 to smelt1 refine1 and manipulate our metals1 to propel our cars1 wagons1 carriages1 and ships1 cook our food1 and drive all machinery requiring motive power4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electric ,,light ,,apparatus ,,for ,,photographic ,,purposes4 ,by ,a4,j4 ,,jarman4 ,for some time past it has been the desire of many photographers to have at hand a ready means of producing a powerful and highly actinic artificial light1 suitable for the production of negatives1 and easily controllable4 ,several forms of apparatus have been designed1 and ,i believe have been1 to a certain extent1 employed successfully in portraiture4 ,but it has been well known for many years that the electric light was just the light that would answer the photographer's requirements1 owing to its possessing great actinic power2 but the cost of its production was too great for general adoption2 indeed1 such might be said of it now as far as dynamo-electric machines and steam or gas motors are concerned1 for the majority of photographers4 ,it is true that several influential photographers have already adopted the use of the electric light for portraiture1 but the primary cost of the apparatus employed by these firms is far beyond the reach of most portraitists4 ,the apparatus about to be described is one that has been carefully worked out to meet the wants of the photographer in almost every particular2 in fact1 with this apparatus1 portraits can1 and have been1 produced in an ordinary sitting room1 as good and as perfect as if taken in a well-lighted studio4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,the generator of the electric current consists of a series of voltaic elements of zinc and carbon--forty-eight in number--these elements being made up of ninety-six zinc plates and forty-eight carbon plates2 thus the generator consists of forty-eight voltaic elements arranged in rows of twelve2 they are all carefully screwed upon suitable bars of wood1 and these bars are joined by other cross bars1 which bind the whole in a compact form2 the battery being suitably connected so as to produce a current of very high electro-motive force1 and so arranged over their exciting trough that the plates can be raised or lowered at will1 as seen in ,fig4 #a1 which will explain itself almost at first sight4 ,the troughs are made of mahogany1 put together with brass screws1 and well saturated with an insulating compound which also makes them acid proof2 the cells are charged with a saturated solution of bichromate of potash1 to which has been added twenty fluid ounces of sulphuric acid to each gallon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,to produce the electric current1 all that is needed is to lower these suspended elements down into the trough1 having previously connected the wires as shown in ,fig4 #a1 to the electric lamp1 ,fig #b4 ,at once a light starts up1 between the carbon pencils1 of a thousand-candle power or more4 ,with a light of this power1 a large head on cabinet or carte size plate may be produced in three or four seconds4 ,the generator occupies a floor space of three feet six inches by two feet1 and stands two feet six inches high4 ,the cells will cost #es4 to charge1 and will produce upward of sixty negatives before being exhausted4 ,all that is necessary1 in recharging1 is to lift the elements up out of the way1 take out the troughs by their handles and empty them1 charging them again by means of a toilet jug4 ,when replaced1 the whole apparatus is fit for use again2 the whole of the above operation occupies but a quarter of an hour1 and as there are no earthenware cells employed1 there is no fear of breakage4 ,the small amount of labor and cost of working the above apparatus will compare favorably with the production of the electric light from a dynamo-electric machine for the photographer1 and when we consider that the cost of the whole of the above apparatus1 consisting of a generator automatic lamp1 reflector1 and all the necessary appendages1 is less then one-tenth of the dynamo machine1 motor1 shafting1 etc41 to produce the same result1 it would seem to have a greater claim for its adoption with those who wish to employ the electric light1 whether for work at night1 use in the sitting room1 or to assist daylight on the dark and foggy days of winter4 ,fig4 #b shows the arrangement of the electric lamp4 ,a is the automatic regulator2 ,b1 the reflector2 ,c1 top extension of the reflector2 ,d1 small tissue paper screen to prevent the intense arc-rays from coming in contact with the sitter2 ,e1 stand with sliding rod4 ,this appendage can be wheeled about with ease1 as it is arranged to run upon four casters4 ,when the generator is in use it may be placed within easy reach of the operator1 so that the exposure may be made by lowering the elements in their troughs just for the requisite time1 and withdrawing immediately the exposure is made2 there is no need to fear any inconvenience from deleterious fumes as none are given off1 so it may be used in any studio or sitting-room without any inconvenience from this source1 and as far as many trials have gone1 it seems to meet every requirement demanded by the photographer for the production of portraits by means of the electric light4--,photo4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,desruelles',s ,,electric ,,lighter ,illustration3 ,,electric ,,lighter4 ,the little apparatus shown in the accompanying cut will certainly find favor with smokers1 as well as with persons generally who often have need of a fire or light4 ,it forms one of the most direct applications of dry piles of all the systems on the ,desruelles plan4 ,instead of filling piles with a liquid1 this plan contemplates the introduction into them of a sort of asbestos sponge saturated with an acid or any suitable solution4 ,in this way there is obtained the advantage of having a pile which is in some sort dry1 that may be moved1 shaken1 or upset without any outflow of liquid1 and which will prove of special value when applied to movable apparatus1 such as portable lighters1 alarms on ships1 railroads1 etc4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that while the introduction of this inert substance diminishes the volume of the liquid1 the electro-motive force of the pile is thereby in nowise affected1 but its internal resistance is increased4 ,this1 however1 is of no consequence in the application under consideration4 ,the lighter consists of a small1 round1 wooden box containing the pile1 and surmounted by a spirit lamp4 ,a platinum spiral opposite the wick serves for producing the light4 ,the pile is a bichromate of potash element1 in which there is substituted for the liquid a solution of bichromate identical with that used in bottle piles4 ,the zinc is suspended from a small lever1 in which it is only necessary to press slightly to bring the former in contact with the asbestos paste1 when1 the zinc being attached1 a current is set up which traverses the spiral1 heats it to redness1 and lights the spirit4 ,the pile1 when once charged1 may be used for several hundred lightings4 ,when the spiral no longer becomes red hot1 it is only necessary to replace the paste--an operation of extreme simplicity4 ,when the pressure is removed from the little lever1 the zinc1 being raised1 is no longer acted upon by the liquid with which the asbestos is saturated4 ,mr ,desruelles is constructing upon the same principle a gas lighter1 the pile of which is fixed at the extremity of a handle whose length varies with the height of the gas burners to be reached4 ,these little domestic apparatus are being exhibited at the ,paris ,electrical ,exhibition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,solenoid ,,underground ,,wires ,,in ,,philadelphia4 ,the ,evening ,bulletin of the #bith ,october has the following3 ,this afternoon a series of experiments were conducted at the ,public ,buildings which will be of great interest to electricians all over the country1 and upon which the success of a number of underground telegraph projects in different parts of the ,united ,states depends4 ,in all projects of this kind the problem which has given most trouble to inventors has been to overcome the induction4 ,in other words1 electric currents will leave their original conductors and pass to other conductors which may be near at hand4 ,this interchange of currents may take place without seriously hindering ordinary telegraphy1 as the indicators are not delicate enough to detect the induction4 ,when telephones came into use1 however1 the induction became a great source of trouble to electricians1 it often being the case that the sounds and influences from without were sufficient to drown out sounds in a telephone4 ,to-day's experiment was conducted by ,mr4 ,j4,f4 ,shorey1 a well-known electrician1 who exhibited ,dr4 ,orazio ,lugo's cables for electric light1 telephone1 and telegraphic purposes4 ,a large number of prominent electricians were present1 including the following3 ,general ,j4,h4 ,wilson1 ,president of the ,n4,y4 and ,n4,e4 ,railroad1 of ,boston2 ,messrs4 ,frank ,l ,pope1 ,s4,l4,m ,barlow1 ,george ,b4 ,post1 ,charles ,g4 ,francklyn1 ,col4 ,j4,f4 ,casey1 ,w4,h4 ,bradford1 and ,selim ,r4 ,grant1 of ,new ,york2 ,james ,gamble1 ,general ,manager of the ,mutual ,union ,telegraph ,co42 ,t4,e4 ,cornich and ,w4,d4 ,sargent1 of the ,bell ,telegraph ,co42 ,s4,s4 ,garwood and ,j4,e4 ,zeublen1 of the ,western ,union1 and others4 ,the principal tests were made through the conduits on ,market ,street1 laid by the ,national ,underground ,electric ,company as far as ,ninth ,street4 ,a cable of five conductors was laid through the conduit4 ,two of these conductors consisted of simple circuit wires1 while the other three were what is known as solenoids4 ,a solenoid wire is a single straight wire1 connected at each end with and wound closely around by another insulated wire1 this forming a complete system1 the electric currents returning into themselves4 ,electricians claim that the solenoid effectually overcomes all induction1 and this afternoon experiments were made for the purpose of proving that assertion4 ,in the telephones1 connected by the ordinary wires1 a constant burr and click could be heard1 that sound being the induction from the wires on the poles on ,market ,street1 sixty feet overhead4 ,with the solenoid the only sound in the telephones was the voices of the persons speaking4 ,the faintest whispers could be heard distinctly1 and the ease and comfort of conversation was in marked contrast to the other telephone on the ground wires4 ,a set of telegraph indicators was also attached to the wires in use in the cable4 ,the sounds were transferred from one ground wire to the other1 while the solenoids seemed to resist every influence but that directed upon them by the operators4 ,another interesting test was made4 ,the electric current for a ,hauckhousen lamp was passed through a long coil of solenoid wire4 ,separated from this coil by a single newspaper1 lay a coil of wire attached to telephones1 yet not a sound could be heard in the telephones but the voices of the persons using them4 ,the current of electricity created by a dynamo-electric machine is of necessity a violent one1 and in the use of ordinary wires the induction would be so great that no other sounds could possibly be heard in the telephones4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dr4 ,,herz',s ,,telephonic ,,systems4 ,in an article by ,count du ,moncel1 published in ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 ,no #bgd1 page #dcfd1 the author1 after describing ,dr4 ,herz's telephonic systems1 deferred to another occasion the description of a still newer system of the same inventor1 because at that time it had not been protected by patent4 ,in the current number of ,la ,lumire ,electrique1 ,count ,moncel returns to the subject to explain the principles of these new apparatus of ,dr4 ,herz1 and says3 ,i will first recall the fact that ,dr4 ,herz's first system was based upon the ingenious use 7then new7 of derivations4 ,the microphone transmitter was placed on a derivation from the current going to the earth1 taken in on leaving the pile1 and the different contacts of the microphone were themselves connected directly and individually with the different elements of the pile4 ,the telephone receiver was located at the other end of the line1 and when this receiver was a condenser its armatures were1 as a consequence of this arrangement1 continuously and preventively polarized1 thus making it capable of reproducing conversation4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,herz',s ,,telephonic ,,systems4 ,this arrangement evidently presented its advantages2 but it likewise possessed its inconveniences1 one of the most important of these being the necessity of employing rather strong piles and consequently of exposing the line to those effects of charge which react in so troublesome a manner in electrical transmissions when they occur on somewhat lengthy lines4 ,now the fact should be recalled that ,dr4 ,herz's principal object was the application of the telephone to long lines1 and he has been applying himself to this problem ever since4 ,he at first thought of employing reversed currents1 as in telegraphy2 but how was such a result to be attained with systems based upon the use of sonorously-vibrating transmitters8 ,he might have been able to solve the problem with the secondary currents of an induction bobbin1 as ,messrs4 ,gray1 ,edison1 and others had done2 but then he would no longer have been benefited by those amplifications which are furnished by the variations of pressure-derivations in microphones1 and this led him to endeavor to increase the effects of the induced currents themselves by prolonging their duration1 or rather by combining them in such a way that they should succeed each other1 two by two1 in the same direction2 and this is the way he solved the problem in the beginning4 ,the fact should also be recalled that ,dr4 ,herz had1 from his first experiments1 recognized the efficiency of those microphonic contacts that are obtained by the superposition of carbon disks or other semi-conducting substances4 ,he has employed these under different arrangements and with very diverse groupings1 but1 as a general thing1 it has been the horizontal arrangement which has given him the best effects4 ,let us suppose1 then1 that four systems of contacts of this nature are arranged at the four corners of an ebonite plate1 ,c ,c 7,figs4 #a and #b71 at ,a1 ,a1 ,b1 ,b1 and that they are connected with each other1 as shown in the cuts--that is to say1 the upper disks1 e1 f1 g1 h1 parallel with the sides of the plate1 and the lower disks1 ,a1 ,a1 ,b1 ,b1 diagonally4 ,let us admit1 further1 that the plate pivots about an axis1 ,r2 that the disks are traversed by small pins fixed in the plate2 and that small leaden disks rest upon the upper disks4 ,finally1 let us imagine that the plate is connected at one end1 through a rod ,t1 with a telephone diaphragm4 ,now it will be readily understood that the vibrations produced by the diaphragm will cause the oscillation of the plate1 ,c ,c1 and that there will result therefrom1 on the part of the disks1 two effects that will succeed one another4 ,the first will be1 for the ascending vibrations1 an increase of pressure effected between the disks of the left side1 by reason of their force of inertia being increased by that of the lead disks2 and the second will be1 for the disks to the right1 and1 for the same reason1 a reduction of pressure which will take place through resilience1 at the moment of change in direction of the vibrating motions4 ,if the current from a pile1 ,p1 traverses all these disks1 through the connections that we have just mentioned1 and passes through the primary helix 7through the wire1 ,i7 of an induction coil ,h ,h' 7,fig4 #b71 located beneath the apparatus1 and if the secondary current from this bobbin corresponds1 through the wire ,i1 with a telephone line in which there is interposed a telephone or a speaking condenser1 there will be set up an inverse induced current1 which1 being reversed as a consequence of the crosswise connections of the disks1 will continue the action of the first or increase its duration1 and1 consequently1 its force1 through the telephone receiver4 ,the results of this system are very good2 but ,dr4 ,herz has endeavored to simplify it still further1 and with this object in view has experimented on several arrangements4 ,for example1 to obtain inversion a contact was simply placed on each side of the vibrating plate4 ,although the movements of this latter are not1 as we know1 of the nature of ordinary sonorous vibrations1 it was thought that they might prove to be in opposite directions on the two sides of the plate1 and that one of the contacts might be compressed while the other was free4 ,so notwithstanding the advantages of this arrangement1 it was thought necessary to place the plate vertically in order to give the same regulation to the two contacts which it is essential should be identical4 ,but it became difficult to regulate by weight2 and even to succeed in regulating at all1 it became necessary to employ two parallel diaphragms1 vibrating in unison1 and each carrying its contact1 but in opposite directions4 ,afterwards1 the horizontal arrangement was again adopted2 but1 by a clever combination1 the two principles applied by ,dr4 ,herz--derivation and inversion--were united4 ,the current is then led to a double contact1 where it divides4 ,this contact is arranged under the plate in such a way that its two points of variable resistance act in opposite directions to each other1 or1 in some apparatus1 so that one of the points has no variation1 while the other is in action4 ,the result that occurs may be easily imagined4 ,the system has been experimented with under different forms2 in one case the derivation is simple1 that is1 a single one of the currents being sent into the line1 while in another case it is double1 each of the branches being provided with a bobbin and communicating with the receiver4 ,in the latter case the result is remarkably good1 but the apparatus is not free from a certain amount of complication1 and demands1 moreover1 particular care in its construction1 experience having shown that the induction coils must not be equal1 but that they must present resistances combined according to the circuit doing duty4 ,it should be added that researches have been continued as to the bodies proper to be employed as microphonic contact1 with the result of bringing out the important fact that the number of substances that can be put to this use is almost unlimited4 ,the contacts of the ,herz apparatus are now being made of conducting bodies 7metals for example7 reduced to powder and conglomerated by chemical means with a sort of non-conductive cement4 ,the proportion of the elements depends upon the conductivity of the materials employed1 and it alone determines the microphonic value of the compound1 the nature of the elements apparently having scarcely any influence4 ,nor has the speaking condenser been neglected4 ,as regards this1 efforts have seemingly been made toward finding a convenient arrangement and a regular mode of construction1 the good working of these apparatus being absolutely dependent upon the care with which they are set up4 ,in ,dr4 ,herz's opinion1 the telephone is not to remain a single apparatus1 varied only as to form1 but1 on the contrary1 must be actually modified according to the purposes for which it is designed4 ,he thinks that a telephone operating at great distances must differ from a city apparatus1 and that an instrument for transmitting song can not be absolutely the same as one for conversational purposes4 ,so he has endeavored to create types that shall prove appropriate for these different applications4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,decision ,,of ,,the ,,congress ,,of ,,electricians ,,on ,,the ,,unities ,,of ,,electric ,,measures4 ,for these measures there are adopted the fundamental unities--centimeter1 gramme1 second1 and this system is briefly designated by the letters ,c41 ,g41 ,s4 ,the practical units1 the ohm and the volt1 will retain their present definitions2 the ohm is a resistance equal to #aji absolute unities 7,c41 ,g41 ,s471 and the volt is an electromotive force equal to #ajh absolute unities 7,c41 ,g41 ,s474 ,the practical unit of resistance 7ohm7 will be represented by a column of mercury of #a square mm4 in section at the temperature of #j;,c4 ,an international commission will be charged with ascertaining for practice1 by means of new experiments1 the height of this column of mercury representing the ohm4 ,the name ampre will be given to the current produced by the electromotor force of #a volt in a circuit whose resistance is #a ohm4 ,coulomb is the quantity of electricity defined by the condition that in the current of an ampre the section of the conductor is traversed by a coulomb per second4 ,farad is the capacity defined by the condition that a coulomb in a condenser1 whose capacity is a farad1 establishes a difference of potential of a volt between the armatures4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,secondary ,,batteries4 ,by ,j4 ,,rousse4 ,in order to accumulate electricity for the production of light or motive power1 the author has arranged secondary batteries1 which differ from those of ,m4,g4 ,plant4 ,at the negative pole he uses a sheet of palladium1 which1 during the electrolysis1 absorbs more than #ijj times its volume of hydrogen4 ,at the positive pole he uses a sheet of lead4 ,the electrolyzed liquid is sulphuric acid at one tenth4 ,this element is very powerful1 even when of small dimensions4 ,another secondary element which has also given good results1 is formed at the negative pole of a slender plate of sheet-iron4 ,this plate absorbs more than #bjj times its volume of hydrogen when electrolyzed in a solution of ammonium sulphate4 ,the positive pole is formed of a plate of lead1 pure or covered with a stratum of litharge1 or pure oxide1 or all these substances mixed4 ,these metallic plates are immersed in a solution containing #ej per cent4 of ammonium sulphate4 ,another arrangement is at the negative pole1 sheet-iron2 at the positive pole a cylinder of ferro-manganese4 ,the electrolyzed liquid contains #dj per cent4 ammonium sulphate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,quicksilver ,,ores ,,in ,,spain4 ,though known from remote times1 the date of the first opening of the famous mines of quicksilver of ,almadn has not been precisely determined4 ,almost all the writers on the subject agree that cinnabar1 from ,spain1 was already known in the times of ,theophrastus1 three hundred years before the ,christian era1 although there is evidence in the writings of ,vitruvius that they were worked at a still earlier date1 ,spanish ore being sent to ,rome for the manufacture of vermilion4 ,such ore constituted a part of the tribute which ,spain paid to ,rome emperors1 and there are records of its receipt until the first century after ,christ4 ,the history of ,almaden during the reign of the ,moors is so much involved in doubt that some writers deny altogether that the ,arabs worked the deposit2 still the very name it now bears1 which means the mine1 and many of the technical terms still in use1 give evidence that they knew and worked that famous deposit4 ,as for their ,christian conquerors1 there are stray indications that they extracted mercury during the twelfth and thirteen centuries4 ,in #adag1 ,almaden was given the privileges of a city1 and from #aebe to #afde the working of mines was contracted for by the wealthy family of ,fugger1 of ,augsburg1 ,germany4 ,since then1 the mine has been worked by the state1 though the ,rothschilds have controlled the sale of the product4 ,according to ,vitruvius1 the works for manufacturing vermilion from ,spanish ore in ,rome were situated between the temple of ,flora and ,quirino4 ,the ore was dried and treated in furnaces1 to remove the native mercury it contained1 and was then ground in iron mortars and washed4 ,in addition1 small quantities of quicksilver and vermilion were made at ,almaden4 ,the ancients describe other methods1 among which ,theophrastus speaks of using vinegar1 which1 however1 appears from modern investigations to have been an erroneous account4 ,nothing definite is known concerning the methods of the ,moors2 we possess only as a proof that they produced mercury1 an account of a quicksilver fountain in the marvelous palace of ,abderrahman ,,iii41 at ,medina-,zahara1 and the works of ,rasis1 an ,arab4 ,the ,moors probably extracted mercury at ,almaden1 from the eighth to the twelfth century1 by the use of furnaces called xabecas1 which latter1 in the fourteenth century1 were still employed by the ,christians1 who continued them till the seventeenth century1 when ,german workmen replaced them by reverberatory furnaces1 which in turn were superseded in #afdf by aludel or ,bustamente furnaces4 ,there is an anonymous description of the working with xabecas as practiced at ,almaden in #aedc1 and later accounts in #aeeg and #aefe4 ,the ore was put into egg-shaped vessels with a lid1 the mineral being covered over with ashes4 ,the vessels were packed in a furnace heated with wood1 about #fj pounds being used per pound of quicksilver made4 ,this system was also applied at the ,guancavelica mines1 discovered in ,peru in #aeff1 where the xabecas were abandoned in #afcc1 being replaced by the furnaces invented by ,lope ,saavedra ,barba1 which there were called busconiles1 while in ,spain they were named ,bustamente furnaces1 and elsewhere aludel furnaces4 ,they were introduced at ,almaden thirteen years after their first use in ,peru by ,juan ,alfonso de ,bustamente1 ,barba and his son having been lost at sea on their way to the ,peninsula4 ,in #ahgf1 there were at ,almaden1 at the works at ,buitrones1 twenty such aludel furnaces and two ,idria furnaces4 ,d4 ,luis de la ,escosura y ,morrogh1 from whose work we take the above notes1 has followed the historical details of the growth of ,almaden closely1 and from his account of the method of working in #ahgh we take some data3 ,it is not an easy matter to explain the classification of the ore at ,almaden4 ,metal is there called the richest mineral1 composed of quartz impregnated with crystalline cinnabar4 ,requiebro are middlings of medium richness1 ,china are smalls1 and ,vaciscos the finest ore4 ,besides native mercury1 which the ores of ,almaden contain in greater or smaller quantity1 the most abundant mineral is cinnabar1 which is always crystalline and is often crystallized4 ,the ores have1 besides1 a small quantity of selenium and iron pyrites intimately mixed with the cinnabar4 ,the gangue is quartz1 occasionally argillaceous and bituminous4 ,the following are assays of some of the ores made by ,escosura3 ,metal4 ,requiebro4 ,vaciscos4 ,china4 #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h ,cinnabar #bi4a #ba4b #ac4c #aj4b #e4a #b4h #a4b #j4hf ,iron pyrites4 #b4b #b4j #b4j #a4i #ab4c #a4e #b4a #b4hj ,bituminous matter #j4f #a4j #a4j #a4b #d4f #j4g #c4d #j4ij ,gangue #fg4e #gd4h #hb4a #gf4e #gg4e #ic4c #ij4b #ic4ej ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----- ,total #ii4d #id4j #ih4h #ih4i #ii4e #ih4c #ih4g #ih4jf ,quicksilver #be4je #ah4bh #aa4dg #h4fd #d4dj #b4da #a4jc #j4ge ,it appears to be a difficult matter to determine the average percentage of the various grades of ore4 ,in #ahgb1 a commission classified and sampled a lot of #cjj tons with the following results3 ,quantity1 ,per cent4 ,average of ,grade4 ,no4 kilos4 mercury4 grade4 ,metal #a4 #ha1hij #bc4hf #b4 #ad1igj #bb4fe #bd4hj ,requiebro #c4 #ab1bdj #ae4bj #d4 #ag1jjj #aj4ej #ab4dg ,china #e4 #ca1hij #c4hd #f4 #cb1cfj #a4ag #a4ge #g4 #bh1ifj #j4aj ,vaciscos #h4 #gh1cbj #i4bd #i4bd ,this general average of #ab4bh per cent4 of mercury is pronounced higher than the usual run of the ore1 which1 it is stated1 does not go above #g to #h4ej per cent4 ,the furnace in which the ore is treated is cylindrical1 #b meters in diameter1 and #c4gj meters high from a brick grate1 supported by three arches to the arched roof4 ,at the level of the grate is a charging orifice1 and near the roof are openings into two chambers1 from the bottom of which extend #ab lines of aludels1 clay vessels1 open at both ends1 the middle being expanded4 ,the mouth of one fits into the back end of the one following1 a channel being thus formed through which the fumes to be condensed are passed4 ,the lines of aludels which are laid on the ground terminate in a chamber1 and for half the distance between the furnaces and these chambers the ground slopes downward1 while for the other it slopes upward4 ,two furnaces are always placed side by side1 and the pair have from #a1ajj to #a1aej aludels4 ,the operation is as follows3 ,a layer of poor quartz is spread over the brick grate2 this is followed by a layer of smalls1 and then by a layer of still finer stuff1 all of it being low grade ore4 ,on top of this are piled two-thirds of the china of the charge on which the metal is put4 ,then follows a layer of requiebro1 another lot of china1 and finally the vaciscos1 shaped into balls1 the whole charge amounting to about #aa tons1 which is put in from an hour and a half to two hours by three men4 ,the charging orifice is then closed1 the aludels are luted1 and everything made tight4 ,the fires under the brick grate are lighted and kept going for twelve hours1 during which time furnaces1 charge1 and condensing apparatus are heated up4 ,during this period1 the temperature in the condensing-chamber at the end of the line of aludels runs up #dj or #ej degrees ,celsius1 and some mercury1 evidently part of the native quicksilver1 is noticed in it4 ,the temperature of the aludels in the immediate vicinity of the furnaces is about #adj degrees ,c4 ,during this period1 the consumption of fuel is four parts to every part of quicksilver produced4 ,at its close1 the fire is drawn1 and the second period begins4 ,the air entering through the brick arch is heated to from #bjj to #cjj degrees by contact with the layer of poor stuff1 the cinnabar is ignited1 and its sulphur oxidized1 and the quicksilver vaporized and1 condensing in the aludels1 flows toward the depression in the central portion of the line4 ,the temperature goes on increasing1 until1 twelve hours after the beginning of this period1 the thermometer shows #bab degrees ,c4 at the first aludels4 ,this lasts for #ah hours1 and then the third or cooling period begins1 which takes from #bd to #bf hours1 and during the beginning of which the temperature in the furnaces still rises4 ,it is then opened and cooled down4 ,a very elaborate series of observations made on the temperatures of various parts of the condensing apparatus of the ,almaden furnaces has shown that at the aludels nearest to them the heat increases steadily until it reaches #bdi degrees ,c41 #dd hours after the beginning of the operation2 that in the middle of the line1 at the depression1 the maximum is #ej degrees #ej hours after starting the fires2 and that at the end it does not surpass #ci degrees4 ,in the final condensing chamber1 the temperature varied1 running downward from #dj degrees during the heating period to #ad degrees1 rising again to #bi degrees toward the close4 ,the loss of the quicksilver during the operation has been vary variously estimated1 some stating that it is #ej per cent4 and more1 while others place it at #cj per cent4 ,escosura1 in his work1 gives the details of an operation checked by a royal commission in #ahgb1 according to which the loss in working ore running #i4ee per cent4 was only #d4da per cent4--a loss which he considered inevitable4 ,in #ahjf1 two ,idria furnaces were put up at ,almaden1 but the engineers are not favorably impressed with them4 ,the first cost is stated to be more than ten times greater than that of an aludel furnace1 while the capacity is only #ej per cent4 greater4 ,one pair of ,idria furnaces in five years produced #abj1jjj kilogrammes of quicksilver1 against #hdc1jjj kilogrammes made by eight sets of the ,bustamente furnaces1 the cost per kilogramme of quicksilver being respectively #j4aba and #j4jef peseta4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,balloon ,,in ,,aeronautics4 ,while it is undoubtedly true that the discovery of the balloon has very greatly retarded the science of aerostation1 yet1 in my opinion1 its field of usefulness as a vehicle for pleasure excursions1 for explorations1 and for scientific investigations1 has not been fully developed for the want of certain improvements1 the nature of which it is the object of this paper to point out4 ,the improvement of which ,i am about to speak relates to the regulation of the buoyancy of the balloon4 ,this is now done by throwing out ballast or by allowing some of the gas to escape--a method which necessitates the carrying of an unwieldy amount of sand and the expenditure of an unnecessary amount of gas4 ,from the fire balloon invented by the ,montgolfier ,brothers1 in #aghb1 to the superior hydrogen balloon of ,m4,m4 ,charles and ,robert1 no material advancement has been made1 except the employment of coal gas1 first suggested by ,mr4 ,green4 ,the vast surface presented to the wind makes the balloon unmanageable in every breeze1 and the aeronaut can do nothing but allow it to float along with the current4 ,this is a difficulty which has been partly overcome1 as was seen at the recent ,paris ,electrical ,exhibition2 but no one will ever be able to guide it in a direction opposite to a current of air4 ,the aeronaut must ever content himself in being able to float in the direction of the current or at certain angles to its course2 but to do this even is a matter which has not been successfully accomplished4 ,an inflated balloon would ascend too high unless several hundred pounds of ballast were used to weight it down4 ,this ballast serves another purpose1 it is desirable to maintain the balloon at a uniform distance above the earth's surface1 and as the two per cent4 daily waste of gas diminishes the buoyancy of the balloon1 it must be kept from descending by throwing off a certain amount of sand4 ,again1 the heat of the sun and the action of warm air currents cause at times the volume of gas to undergo a sudden expansion1 and then to prevent the balloon from running too high1 the gas must be allowed to escape from the valve4 ,the gas1 under these circumstances1 must also be allowed to escape in order to prevent the balloon from bursting4 ,presently the balloon will pass through a colder current of air and sudden condensation takes place1 and the balloon would sink unless more ballast were thrown off4 ,this process continues until the aeronaut has neither ballast nor gas left4 ,now1 ,i suggest that a large balloon be made with the mouth closed1 so that no gas can escape2 and that it carry enough ballast to keep it1 under an ordinary temperature1 at a certain distance from the ground4 ,a pipe must enter the mouth of the balloon1 one end of which opens in its interior and the other end in a gas reservoir which lies in the basket or car4 ,as soon as the gas undergoes an expansion1 and a certain amount of pressure is made in this reservoir1 a valve opens and a whistle signals the moment when the force pumps must be set to work to pump the air out of the balloon into the large number two reservoir1 the frame work of which forms the body of the car4 ,taking a certain amount of gas out of the balloon is equivalent to taking on more ballast1 while by condensing this gas into a large reservoir1 it is not allowed to escape1 and when necessary can be sent back into the balloon and thus prevent the throwing off of ballast4 ,coal gas1 under a certain pressure1 becomes heavier than air 7or at least equally heavy71 and thus the gas pumped out of the balloon will of itself serve as ballast4 ,this invention will enable the balloonist to keep himself at a uniform distance above the earth1 will prevent the carrying of so much ballast and the expensive waste of gas1 and will enable him to keep afloat at least ten times as long as by the old method4 ,i have made a model and tested the above theory4 ,,eli ,c4 ,,ohmart4 ,north ,manchester1 ,ind4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,artists' ,,homes4 ,,no4 #ab--,,mr4 ,,william ,,emerson',s ,,house ,,at ,,little ,,sutton1 ,,chiswick4 ,illustration ,little ,sutton was an old house1 parts of which were in existence before the time of ,cromwell4 ,it is situated in a picturesque old garden1 surrounded by ivy-clad walls and fine trees1 one of the cedars being extraordinarily large and perfect1 its huge branches covering a space of over #ij ft4 in diameter4 ,the greater part of the old house1 being uninhabitable through decay1 was pulled down2 the old parts are shown in black on the plan1 and the new hatched4 ,it is faced with red bricks1 and red ,corsehill stone dressings1 and covered with tiles ,the plan was arranged so as to preserve the old kitchen1 billiard-room1 morning room1 and conservatory4 ,the hall1 entered from a veranda in connection with the entrance-porch1 is surrounded by a dado1 the height of doors2 the lower panels are filled with tiles made to design by the ,school of ,art at ,bombay4 ,the woodwork is painted a mottled blue color1 harmonizing with the general tone of the tiles1 the whole being something the color of lapis lazuli4 ,the staircase is divided from the hall by three arches1 through which is seen the staircase-window1 representing1 in stained glass1 the ,earth1 ,air1 and ,water4 ,under the central arch is the fireplace1 on the hood of which will eventually be a bronze figure of ,orpheus1 on a ground of mosaic4 ,the floor is of marble mosaic1 and round the border are the various beasts listening to the music1 the trees and river1 etc4 ,above the dado1 and on the wooden panels of ceiling1 will be the birds1 etc4 ,the woodwork of dining-room is plain ,american walnut1 the panels of dado being filled with dark ,japanese leather-paper4 ,the panels and beams of ceiling are of stained and dull varnished fir4 ,the drawing room woodwork1 and furniture throughout1 is painted a mottled greenish blue1 after the same manner as the hall4 ,the decorations of this room1 when complete1 are intended to illustrate ,chaucer's ,house of ,fame4 ,the chimney-piece1 of alabaster1 is surmounted by a ,caen-stone design1 on a rock of glass1 showing the entrance to the castle1 with the various figures mentioned in the poem1 carved in half-round relief1 and the gateway itself also richly and quaintly carved2 the rock of glass representing the ice on which the castle was supposed to be built1 and on it are cut the various famous names of the world's history4 ,in the frieze all round the room will be the figure of ,fame and the various groups of suppliants1 and the pillars with the groups upholding the renown of ancient cities and nations1 etc41 executed in very low relief1 and painted on a ground of blue and gold4 ,the panels of ceilings will have conventional designs and the heavenly bodies on ground of gold and blue4 ,the morning and other rooms have no particular scheme of decoration prepared1 and are simply painted and papered in quiet tones4 ,illustration3 ,,artists' ,,homes ,no4 #ab--,,little ,,sutton1 ,,chiswick4 ,we publish a longitudinal section1 taken through the hall and drawing-room1 with part of the dining-room on the left and part of the library on the right-hand side4 ,the beautifully-modeled plaster frieze1 with the central figure of ,fame1 is shown in the drawing-room1 and illustrates ,chaucer's ,house of ,fame1 the whole being elaborately colored in harmony with the purposes and general tone of the room1 which is in blue and gold4 ,the hooded mantelpiece in the library is entirely in concrete1 to be richly painted and gilded4 ,the drawing1 with the assistance of the description1 will explain itself4--,building ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,memorable ,,english ,,houses4 ,in the year #ahfd1 a letter appeared in the ,journal of the ,society of ,arts from a correspondent1 who suggested that the ,society of ,arts should offer a prize or prizes for designs of memorial tablets to be affixed to houses associated with distinguished persons1 and in the same year a series of suggested inscriptions was reprinted from the ,builder4 ,the subject having been brought under the notice of the council1 a committee was appointed in #ahff to consider and report how the society might promote the erection of statues or other memorials of persons eminent in arts1 manufactures1 and commerce1 and1 at the first meeting of the committee1 on ,may #g1 ,mr4 ,george ,c4,t4 ,bartley submitted some memoranda on the proposal to place labels on houses in the metropolis known to have been inhabited by celebrated persons ,in #ahcg1 the first tablet was erected by the society in ,holles ,street1 ,cavendish ,square1 on the house where ,byron was born4 ,other tablets were soon afterward put up1 and the erection of these memorials has been continued to the present time4 ,the house in ,leicester ,square1 upon which a tablet in memory of ,hogarth has been erected1 is occupied by ,archbishop ,tenison's school1 for which the house was rebuilt4 ,the original building1 in which ,hogarth lived for several years1 was long known as the ,sablonire ,hotel4 ,john ,hunter lived next door after ,hogarth's death4 ,of the four worthies who were intimately connected with ,leicester ,square1 viz1 ,hunter1 ,hogarth1 ,newton and ,reynolds1 and whose busts are now set up at the four corners of the inclosure1 the last three have tablets erected4 ,the house in ,st4 ,martin's ,street1 which is now occupied by the schools attached to the ,orange ,street ,chapel1 is in much the same condition as when ,sir ,isaac ,newton lived in it1 from #agaj to #agbg1 except that the old red bricks have been covered with stucco1 and an observatory on the roof has been taken away within the last few years4 ,illustration3 ,,newton',s ,,house1 ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,street4 ,flaxman had several ,london residences1 but the house in ,buckingham ,street1 ,fitzroy ,square1 is the one with which he is most intimately associated1 as he lived in it during the prime of his artistic career4 ,he went there in #agif1 when he returned from ,rome1 and there he died in #ahbf1 being buried in the ground adjoining old ,st4 ,pancras ,church and belonging to the parish of ,st4 ,giles-in-the fields4 ,the house is on the south side of the street1 close by ,great ,titchfield ,street4 ,illustration3 ,,flaxman',s ,,house1 ,,buckingham ,,street4 ,canning's house1 on the south side of ,conduit ,street is greatly changed since the great statesman lived in it4 ,it originally formed a wing of ,trinity ,chapel1 which has been swept away within the last few years4 ,this chapel was the successor of the chapel-on-wheels which was used at the ,hounslow camp in the reign of ,james ,,ii41 and was subsequently brought up to ,london4 ,it is shown in ,kip's view of old ,burlington ,house as standing in the fields at the back of that house4 ,when ,conduit ,street was built1 a chapel was erected on the south side to supersede the chapel-on-wheels4 ,the house on the west side of the chapel1 where ,canning lived for a time1 was subsequently inhabited for many years by the famous physician1 ,dr4 ,elliotson1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,after his death1 the front was altered1 and a large shop window made1 as seen in the accompanying figure4 ,it is now in the possession of ,mr4 ,streeter1 the jeweler4 ,illustration3 ,,canning',s ,,house4 ,dr4 ,johnson had so many residences in ,london that there is some difficulty in choosing the one that is most interesting to us4 ,the house in ,gough ,square has special claims to attention1 as it was there that the great lexicographer chiefly compiled his dictionary4 ,the garret1 with its slanting roof1 in which his amanuenses worked1 and his own study are still to be been4 ,johnson himself1 in his ,life of ,milton1 observes1 ,i cannot but remark a kind of respect1 perhaps unconsciously1 paid to this great man by his biographers2 every house in which he resided is historically mentioned1 as if it were an injury to neglect naming any place that he honored by his presence4 ,emboldened by this expression of opinion1 ,boswell one evening1 in the year #aggi1 ventured to ask ,johnson the names of some of his residences1 and he obtained the following list1 which he printed in his ,life of ,johnson3 7#a7 ,exeter ,street1 off ,catherine ,street1 ,strand1 7#b7 ,greenwich2 7#c7 ,woodstock ,street1 near ,hanover ,square2 7#d7 ,castle ,street1 ,cavendish ,square1 ,no4 #f1 7#e7 ,strand2 7#f7 ,boswell ,court2 7#g7 ,strand again2 7#h7 ,bow ,street2 7#i7 ,holborn2 7#aj7 ,fetter ,lane2 7#aa7 ,holborn again1 7#ab7 ,gough ,square2 7#ah7 ,staple's ,inn2 7#ad7 ,gray's ,inn2 7#ae7 ,inner ,temple ,lane1 ,no4 #a2 7#af7 ,johnson's ,court1 ,no4 #g2 7#ag7 ,bolt ,court1 ,no4 #h4 ,in this last place he died in #aghd4 ,illustration3 ,,johnson',s ,,house4 ,in ,april1 #ahgi1 the corporation of the city of ,london were asked to co-operate in this work1 and to undertake the erection of suitable memorial tablets within the city boundaries4 ,the matter was referred to the city lands committee1 with which body the secretary has had several communications with respect to the localities suggested for memorials1 the result being that the committee agreed to erect such tablets within the city boundaries4--,journal of the ,society of ,arts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,domestic ,,sugar ,,production4 ,the value of sugar imported into the ,united ,states1 is greater than that of any other single article of commerce4 ,in the year #ahhj it appears that over one thousand eight hundred and twenty-nine million pounds of sugar were brought here from other countries1 at a cost of nearly one hundred and twenty million dollars1 including customs duty4 ,moreover1 the consumption of sugar1 per capita1 in this country is rapidly increasing4 ,it was1 during the ten years next preceding #ahgj1 only #bh pounds on the average per annum1 but1 in the ten years next following1 an average of #ch pounds per annum were consumed for each person of the population of this country4 ,this appears to be an increase of #ce per centum in ten years4 ,the subject of domestic cultivation of sugar bearing plants is1 therefore1 one of great importance to this nation1 and it has accordingly engaged the attention of the ,u4,s4 ,commissioner of ,agriculture1 and many experiments have been made in different parts of the country in the propagation of the various canes1 roots1 etc41 from which sugar can be made4 ,among sugar-bearing plants1 beside the regular sugar cane1 are1 sorghum1 sugar beet1 maple1 watermelon1 sweet and white potato1 and corn stalk4 ,statistics show that of the #ab1jjj1jjj1jjj pounds of sugar produced in the world1 about three-fourths comes from the sugar cane1 and the other fourth comes mainly from the sugar beet4 ,of the total quantity1 only about one seventieth is produced in the ,united ,states1 and that is mainly cane sugar from ,louisiana4 ,the beet sugar has formerly been mainly produced in ,europe4 ,first ,france1 second ,germany1 third ,russia1 then ,belgium1 ,austria1 ,holland1 ,sweden1 and ,italy4 ,the consumption of sugar in ,great ,britain is much greater per capita than in the ,united ,states1 about #fe pounds1 or nearly double2 while in ,germany #ai pounds per annum are used on an average by each person1 and in ,russia the consumption is much less4 ,the importance of this subject to the ,united ,states1 where the consumption of sugar is increasing out of ratio to the production of sugar-bearing plants1 and where agricultural independence should be realized1 as we have already attained and maintained political independence1 and almost independence in manufacturing industries1 has called out ,mr4 ,lewis ,s4 ,ware1 a member of the ,american ,chemical ,society1 etc41 in a pamphlet of over #fj pages1 entitled a ,study of the ,various ,sources of ,sugar4 ,from this publication it appears that the main source of sugar supply must still be sucrose1 cane sugar1 even in spite of the best efforts of the general government and of the ,state agricultural organizations to introduce sugar-bearing plants that will thrive in the temperate and colder latitudes of this country4 ,with the single exception of the sugar beet1 he seems to disparage all attempts to produce practical sugar from hardy plants1 or those that will mature in the region of frosts in winter4 ,even sorghum1 that has for twenty years held a place in the hopes of the northern farmer1 has declined so that the alleged production of half a million pounds in #ahff had became barely a twelfth of a million pounds in #ahgg4 ,in his remarks on the synopsis of one hundred and eleven experiments1 made at ,washington1 he says3 ,as may be noticed1 thirty-five of them 7#aaa7 would yield zero4 ,if we take the average of the hundred and eleven experiments1 we find as a yield #d4e per cent41 which result cannot possibly be practically accepted4 ,in other words1 our government1 notwithstanding the favorable conditions under which they were made1 prove that the sorghum utilization is fallacy in every sense of the word4 444 ,if sorghum is to be grown for its sirup1 or for fodder1 it will evidently render excellent service4 ,it seems that less than four per cent4 of crystallizable sugar in the sorghum juice will not pay the cost of making sugar from it1 as it will not crystallize in a reasonable time1 on account of the glucose in the juice1 which1 with the other impurities1 will prevent the ready crystallization of four or five times their own weight of sucrose4 ,from the early history of sorghum1 it appears that it was known as sorgo in the sixteenth century1 while twenty or thirty varieties were known under different names in ,egypt1 ,arabia1 and ,africa4 ,some of the names are1 ,chinese sugar cane1 7sorgo71 ,india cane1 emphee or ,coffers' bread1 paindes anges1 etc4 ,the later history of it shows that in #ahej1 ,count ,montigny sent the first samples from ,china to ,europe4 ,it had been used in the former country for thousands of years for the manufacture of red dye4 ,the seeds were afterward sold in ,france for a franc each4 ,a variety came later to this country from ,africa1 through the agency of an ,englishman named ,wray1 to whom is charged the effects of the delusive experiments of trying to make crystallized sugar from its juice1 which have been going on in this country for twenty years4 ,but two varieties of sorghum now remain1 known as the ,chinese and ,african types4 ,of all the other sugar plants1 none except the maple tree 7besides the sugar cane and the beet7 seem to have yielded sugar to pay the cost of manufacture4 ,the maple tree has yielded a total of #da1jjj1jjj pounds in #ahgg4 ,but as an industry by itself1 it appears to be unprofitable1 and maple sugar must be1 and generally is1 sold at a higher price per pound than cane sugar2 moreover1 it has not the qualities that are required in a general sweetner for culinary purposes4 ,the variety of sugar plant called amber cane is not very clearly defined1 but it may be taken1 from the description of the juice as to crystallizing qualities1 as no better sugar producer than sorghum4 ,it1 with sorghum1 is classed as a sub-variety of sugar cane1 which will yield sirup and fodder1 but will not crystallize under several months' time1 and even then in but small percentage4 ,on the whole it appears1 as before stated1 that the sugar beet is the only practicable source of sugar for the ,northern ,states1 which1 as experimentally shown1 can be raised at a profit of forty six dollars per acre1 against twenty dollars per acre1 the profit of sugar making from cane in ,louisiana4 ,upon this showing several beet sugar factories have been started in the ,united ,states and in ,canada1 and their products are said to be satisfactory1 and have been sold at a profit in competition with imported beet sugar4 ,mr4 ,ware recommends the establishment of beet sugar factories on a larger scale1 to be managed by men who have had experience in this particular kind of sugar making1 which seems to be a practical means of supplying ourselves with home-made sugar4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that the successful cultivation of an ample supply of beets to keep them at work is an essential prerequisite4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,herald ,,island4 ,john ,muir1 the geologist with the ,corwin ,arctic ,expedition1 describes1 as follows1 the characteristics of ,herald ,island1 hitherto known only as an inaccessible rock seen by a few venturesome whalers and explorers3 ,after so many futile efforts had been made to reach this little ice bound island1 everybody seemed wildly eager to run ashore and climb to the summit of its sheer granite cliffs4 ,at first a party of eight jumped from the bowsprit chains and ran across the narrow belt of margin ice and madly began to climb up an excessively steep gully1 which came to an end in an inaccessible slope a few hundred feet above the water4 ,those ahead loosened and sent down a train of granite bowlders1 which shot over the heads of those below in a far more dangerous manner than any of the party seemed to appreciate4 ,fortunately nobody was hurt1 and all made out to get down in safety4 ,while this remarkable piece of mountaineering and ,arctic exploration was in progress1 a light skin-covered boat was dragged over the ice and launched on a strip of water that stretched in front of an accessible ravine1 the bed of an ancient glacier1 which ,i felt assured would conduce by an easy grade to the summit of the island4 ,the slope of this ravine for the first hundred feet or so was very steep1 but inasmuch as it was full of firm1 icy snow1 it was easily ascended by cutting steps in the face of it with an ax that ,i had brought from the ship for the purpose4 ,beyond this there was not the slightest difficulty in our way1 the glacier having graded a fine1 broad road4 ,,on ,,the ,,summit4 ,kellet1 who discovered this island in #ahdi1 and landed on it under unfavorable circumstances1 describes it as an inaccessible rock4 ,the sides are1 indeed1 in general1 extremely sheer and precipitous all around1 though skilled mountaineers would find many gullies and slopes by which they might reach the summit4 ,i first pushed on to the head of the glacier valley1 and thence along the back bone of the island to the highest point1 which ,i found to be about twelve hundred feet above the level of the sea4 ,this point is about a mile and a half from the northwest end1 and four and a half from the northeast end1 thus making the island about six miles in length4 ,it has been cut nearly in two by the glacial action it has undergone1 the width at this lowest portion being about half a mile1 and the average width about two miles4 ,the entire island is a mass of granite with the exception of a patch of metamorphic slate near the center1 and no doubt owes its existence with so considerable a height to the superior resistance this granite offered to the degrading action of the northern ice sheet1 traces of which are here plainly shown1 as well as on the shores of ,siberia and ,alaska1 and down through ,behring ,strait1 southward1 beyond ,vancouver ,island4 ,traces of the subsequent partial glaciation it has been subjected to are also manifested in glacial valleys of considerable depth as compared with the size of the island4 ,i noticed four of these1 besides many marginal glacial grooves around the sides4 ,one small remnant with feeble action still exists near the middle of the island4 ,i also noted several scored and polished patches on the hardest and most enduring of the outswelling rock bosses4 ,this little island1 standing as it does alone out in the ,polar ,sea1 is a fine glacial monument4 ,a ,,midnight ,,observation4 ,the midnight hour ,i spent alone on the highest summit1 one of the most impressive hours of my life4 ,the deepest silence seemed to press down on all the vast1 immeasurable1 virgin landscape4 ,the sun near the horizon reddened the edges of belted cloud bars near the base of the sky1 and the jagged ice bowlders crowded together over the frozen ocean stretching indefinitely northward1 while more than a hundred miles of that mysterious ,wrangell ,land was seen blue in the northwest--a wavering line of hill and dale over the white and blue ice prairie and pale gray mountains beyond1 well calculated to fix the eye of a mountaineer2 but it was to the far north that ,i ever found myself turning1 where the ice met the sky4 ,i would fain have watched here all the strange night1 but was compelled to remember the charge given me by the captain1 to make haste and return to the ship as soon as ,i should find it possible1 as there was ten miles of shifting1 drifting ice between us and the open sea4 ,,plant ,,life ,,on ,,herald ,,island4 ,i therefore began the return journey about one o'clock this morning1 after taking the compass bearings of the principal points within sight on ,wrangell ,land1 and making a hasty collection of the flowering plants on my way4 ,i found one species of poppy1 quite showy1 and making considerable masses of color on the sloping uplands1 three or four species of saxifrage1 one silene1 a draba1 dwarf willow1 stellaria1 two golden composit1 two sedges1 one grass1 and a veronica1 together with a considerable number of mosses and lichens1 some of them quite showy and so abundant as to form the bulk of the color over the gray granite4 ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,cliffs4 ,innumerable gulls and murres breed on the steep cliffs1 the latter most abundant4 ,they kept up a constant din of domestic notes4 ,some of them are sitting on their eggs1 others have young1 and it seems astonishing that either eggs or the young can find a resting place on cliffs so severely precipitous4 ,the nurseries formed a lively picture--the parents coming and going with food or to seek it1 thousands in rows standing on narrow ledges like bottles on a grocer's shelves1 the feeding of the little ones1 the multitude of wings1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,bouchut's experiments with pepsine for destroying worms in the stomach and bowels have been continued with extremely promising results4 ,even the tapeworm succumbs to the digestive action of pepsine in large doses1 while the more highly organized tissues of the stomach are unaffected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,franz ,,liszt4 ,on the #bb;d day of ,october1 #ahaa1 ,franz ,liszt1 the greatest pianist of the last half century1 was born at ,raiding1 in ,hungary1 and the entire musical world was united in celebrating his seventieth birthday1 which took place this year4 ,what can be more appropriate than to take a look at the past and recall some of the important events of ,liszt's so very interesting life8 ,to recall his first appearance as a wonder child in his native town1 the blessing and kiss he received a few years later from the immortal ,beethoven1 his great triumphs in the ,paris salons and the defeat of his rival ,thalberg4 ,after the appearance of the violin virtuoso ,paganini1 he resolved to attain the highest development of his musical genius and to become so world-renowned as none has been before him1 and in this was successful4 ,he has not only maintained his standing as the greatest master of modern piano virtuosos1 but has had the greatest influence on his followers and scholars1 ,taussig1 v4 ,bulow1 ,mr4 and ,mme4 ,bronsart1 ,menter1 and other younger and older pianists who have had the benefits of his instruction for a greater or less length of time1 so that it can be justly claimed that the majority of our present virtuosos owe their success and fame directly or indirectly to the abilities of ,liszt4 ,liszt is endowed with that great gift of treating every individual in the manner most favorable to the development of its traces of artistic ability and desires1 and this accounts for his wonderful results as instructor and master4 ,illustration3 ,,franz ,,liszt4 ,but no picture of ,liszt would be perfect without a rsum or recapitulation of his compositions4 ,after a most perfect transposition and preparation of numerous works of ,beethoven1 ,schubert1 and ,berlioz1 and after making their compositions popular and introducing numerous valuable novelties in the art of playing piano1 he produced his ,symphonische ,dichtungen 7,symphonic ,poems74 ,these highly dramatic compositions1 in which he follows ,berlioz and often produces the most astonishing effects of sounds1 however1 did not find entire approbation with the public1 and did not succeed in popularizing themselves4 ,but that fact can be recorded in his favor that every programme containing ,liszt's ,dante1 or ,faust ,symphony1 or ,mazeppa1 receives more than ordinary attention from the public4 ,the same is the case with his solo songs with piano accompaniment1 in which1 however1 ingenious details often tend to drown the original melody4 ,of his quartets1 some have become highly popular with singing societies and form part of their repertoire4 ,the crowning point of ,liszt's compositions is to be found in sacred music1 for instance in his mass known as the ,grauer ,messe1 composed for the dedication of the ,cathedral at ,grau1 in ,hungary2 the ,crowning mass1 and his two oratorios1 ,die heilige ,elisabeth and ,christus4 ,but even they caused a decided difference of opinion2 and if some knew no bounds for their enthusiasm1 others could not find an end for their condemnation4 ,such works should not be treated too lightly1 and a thorough and impartial examination will show that a place of honor must be accorded to them in the history of music4 ,since the ,heilige ,elisabeth has been produced in several cities of ,germany it has been viewed more favorably and disarmed many of the opponents4 ,but ,liszt also belongs to the literary fraternity1 and his works1 published by ,breitkopf ,hartel1 contain some of the best ever written in regard to art and artists4 ,they were mostly written in elegant ,french originally1 and relate to the social position of artists and the state of the art of music in certain cities or even an entire country4 ,a part of his works is devoted to the music of gypsies1 and to a true and honest history of the life of his friend ,chopin4 ,then again we find him preparing the path to the hearts of the public for ,berlioz1 ,schumann1 ,wagner1 ,robert ,franz1 and ,meyerbeer4 ,liszt has certainly collected enormous sums of money in his successful career1 but as fast as he reaps his earnings he gives them to those needing assistance1 and it is almost entirely to him that the inhabitants of ,bonn1 on the ,rhine1 owe their beautiful ,beethoven ,monument1 and during the last years ,liszt has been untiring in giving concerts and collecting money for a monument for the greatest of the great1 ,johann ,sebastian ,bach4 ,liszt is an artist in every sense of the word1 and we should all wish that he will remain among us for many years more4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,,garnier',s ,,new ,,methods ,,of ,,photoengraving4 ,by ,,major ,j4 ,,waterhouse1 ,b4,,sc4 ,in one of the upper rooms of the ,electrical ,exhibition in ,paris1 there is an interesting collection of plates and proofs produced by various methods of photo-engraving1 invented by ,m4 ,henri ,garnier1 whose name is so well known in connection with these processes1 and whose beautiful plate of the ,chateau of ,maintenon gained for him a gold medal at the ,paris ,international ,exhibition of #ahfg4 ,some interesting details of these processes are given in an extract from a report on them by ,m4 ,davanne to the ,socit d',encouragement pour l',industrie ,nationale1 read at its sitting on the #bb;d ,july last1 of which copies are distributed gratis in the exhibition4 ,the report opens with a brief allusion to ,m4 ,garnier's continuous labors in permanent photographic printing1 commencing with the ingenious mercury process worked out in conjunction with ,m4 ,salmon1 and published in #ahee1 in which a print which has been exposed to the fumes of iodine is laid down on a plate of polished brass1 so that the iodine1 absorbed by the printed lines1 slightly attacks the brass2 mercury being then rubbed over the brass1 forms an amalgam with the iodized parts4 ,if a roller charged with printing ink be now passed over the plate1 the ink will only be taken on the pure brass1 and not on the iodized parts4 ,the plate is next bitten with acid nitrate of silver1 and may then be treated in various ways1 so as to form either a printing-block or an engraved plate4 ,the process never came to any practical use1 but led ,m4 ,garnier to the invention of the very valuable and largely used process of acierage or steel-facing1 by which the surface of engraved copper-plates is so hardened and protected by a thin coating of iron that instead of only a few hundred impressions1 many thousands can be printed from a plate without the slightest deterioration4 ,the next invention noticed is the citrate of iron process of ,m4,m4 ,salmon and ,garnier1 in which a paper1 coated with a sirupy solution of citrate of iron1 is exposed to light under a positive print for a period varying from eight to ten minutes in the sun1 to half or three-quarters of an hour in the shade4 ,in the parts where the light has acted the paper becomes non-hygroscopic in proportion to the intensity of the action of the light upon it4 ,the paper being left for a short time to absorb moisture from the air1 is dusted over with lamp-black1 which1 attaching itself to the unexposed parts1 reproduces an exact image of the original drawing4 ,m4 ,garnier has since greatly modified this method of obtaining an image by dusting1 and applied it to various processes of photo-engraving4 ,the report then proceeds to give the following details of a process of photo-engraving1 which was exhibited before the society by ,m4 ,garnier in ,march last3 ,,photogravure4 ,in photo-engraving a distinction must always be made between the reproduction of drawings in line and those with shaded tints4 ,a4--,photo-engraving of ,line-work4--,a plate of copper is prepared by covering it1 either by flowing or with a roller1 with a very thin coating of a solution of3 ,sugar #b grammes4 ,bichromate of ammonia #a gramme4 ,water #ad grammes4 ,this coating is equalized and quickly dried by means of an arrangement which keeps it in rotation over a warm plate4 ,as soon as the plate is dry1 a positive clich of the drawing to be reproduced is laid upon it1 and the whole exposed to the sun for a minute1 or to the electric light for three minutes4 ,the reaction produced is the same as with the citrate of iron1 but much quicker2 the exposed parts are no longer hygroscopic1 but in the parts protected by the lines of the drawing the sensitive coating has retained its stickiness1 and will hold any powder that may be passed over it1 thus producing a very clear image of the drawing4 ,the coating being excessively thin1 the little moisture it holds and the powder applied suffice to break its continuity1 especially if the powder be slightly alkaline4 ,if the rest of the surface were sufficiently resisting1 the plate might be bitten at once2 but light alone is not enough to produce complete impermeability3 the action of heat must be combined with it4 ,the plate is1 therefore1 placed on a grating1 with wide openings1 a large flame is applied underneath1 and it is heated till the borders where the copper is bare show iridescent colors4 ,the sugary coating thus becomes very hard in the exposed parts1 but under the powder it is broken1 porous1 and permeable to acids4 ,the surface is then covered with the biting fluid1 which is a solution of perchloride of iron at #de ,baum1 and after few minutes' contact the plate is engraved4 ,it only remains to clear off the bichromated sugary coating which forms the reserve1 and which1 being hardened by the heat1 resists ordinary washing4 ,it is removed perfectly by rubbing the surface with a hard brush and warm potash lye2 the plate is then ready for printing4 ,sometimes it may be necessary to give several successive bitings1 or to use a resinous grain2 in such cases the various methods of the engraver's art are employed4 ,b4--,photo ,engraving for ,half-,tones4--,to reproduce by engraving the image of any object1 a portrait1 or a landscape1 the gradation of tint is obtained by repeating three times in the following manner the operation ,a1 just described3 ,the copper plate being prepared as before1 it is exposed to the light under a positive1 and given a long exposure1 say four minutes1 in the electric light4 ,the sugary coating hardens under the whites and the lighter shades--it only remains tacky under the blacks4 ,the positive clich is removed1 the plate powdered1 and bitten2 the blacks alone come out4 ,the plate is cleaned1 then coated again with the sugary preparation1 and exposed a second time under the positive1 care being taken to preserve an accurate register1 which may easily be done4 ,the second exposure is not so long as the first--say two minutes1 and gives the image of the middle tints and blacks4 ,the plate is powdered and bitten as before1 bringing out the middle tints1 and1 at the same time1 giving greater depth to the shadows4 ,in the third operation1 the plate is exposed still less to the light--say one minute4 ,the high-lights alone harden2 the light shades1 middle tints1 and the shadows remain permeable4 ,after powdering and biting1 the plate is finished4 ,when necessary1 after each operation1 a resinous grain may be applied in the manner usual with engravers4 ,it is important to note that ,m4 ,garnier affirms that in both cases the engravings are untouched1 and that this is one of the essential characteristics of his process4 ,c4--,engraving in ,relief for ,letter-,press4--,in the case of drawings in lines to be made into printing-blocks for letter-press printing1 the operation is conducted in its first phase absolutely in the same manner as the foregoing1 only1 after exposure1 instead of producing the image with a slightly alkaline powder1 powdered bitumen is used1 and the plate is slightly warmed1 so that the powder may slightly fuse and adhere to the metal1 but not enough to make the bichromated sugar become insoluble4 ,the plate is then washed with water1 and all the sugary coating removed1 leaving the surface of the copper bare1 except where it is protected by the bitumen forming the image4 ,the plate is then bitten with perchloride of iron1 which gives a first biting1 leaving all the lines in relief4 ,further depth is obtained by alternate inkings and bitings1 as in the ,gillotype method4 ,the above processes are very interesting1 the use of the sugary coating1 the hardening it by heat1 and the triple exposure and biting are new--at any rate1 have not1 so far as ,i know1 been published before4 ,the report then goes on to describe a further application of the same principle to obtaining photographic images recently invented by ,m4 ,garnier1 and called by him atmography4 ,,photographic ,,printing ,,by ,,vapor--,,atmography4 ,this process consists in tracing or transferring by means of vapors or fumes an image of any object from one surface to another1 whence the name of atmography it is proposed to give it4 ,the operations are as follows3 ,when an image formed of a powdery substance has been obtained either by dusting 7as described above71 or by filling an engraved plate with the powder1 the plate bearing the image is exposed to a vapor1 which has no effect upon it4 ,the powder alone absorbs the vapor1 and if the plate be then applied to a surface coated with some substance capable of being acted upon by the vapor1 an image is obtained upon this second surface4 ,for example1 the lines of an engraved copper-plate are filled with powdered albumen4 ,on the other hand1 a few drops of hydrofluoric acid are spread over a wooden board1 and the powdered engraving is exposed for ten to fifteen seconds to the fumes disengaged by holding it about a quarter-of-an-inch above the board4 ,the acid is absorbed by the powdered albumen without attacking the copper4 ,if this plate be now placed in close contact with any surface 7metal1 paper1 or glass7 which has been covered with a coating of sugar and borax1 and dried immediately1 a deliquescent fluoborate of soda is produced under the action of the acid vapors1 the sugar becomes tacky1 and1 by brushing a powder over this surface1 the image appears immediately4 ,in ,m4 ,davanne's opinion this new invention of ,m4 ,garnier's seems likely to have a useful and extended application4 ,the image may be made with powder of any desired color4 ,if it is on glass1 it may be transferred to paper or other support by means of collodion or gelatine4 ,by employing enamel powders1 this process gives a new method of producing vitrified images4 ,it may also be used as a simple method of reproducing engravings under certain circumstances2 copies of diagrams1 however intricate1 could easily be produced on glass by it1 and used for the illustration of lectures by means of the magic lantern4--,photo4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dangers ,,of ,,pyrogallic ,,acid4 ,by ,,dr4 ,t4,l4 ,,phipson4 ,some time ago1 ,dr4 ,napias1 of ,paris1 who devotes much of his time to matters connected with hygiene1 took up the subject of the hygiene of the photographer1 and published in the ,moniteur de la ,photographie a series of papers which were afterward translated into ,english and published by ,messrs4 ,piper ,carter1 of ,london4 ,in them the worthy author has considered the action on the economy of the various poisonous substances which pass daily through the hands of our readers1 and the best means of counteracting their influence4 ,since then--in fact1 quite recently--attention has been called in the medical journals to certain properties of pyrogallic acid which were perfectly unknown1 and show that this substance1 even when applied externally1 may act as a violent poison causing death by its great affinity for oxygen4 ,i published a short note upon the subject in the ,journal of ,medicine1 etc41 for ,april last1 and it may perhaps be useful to reproduce the facts here4 ,physicians who were unacquainted with this energetic deoxidizing property of pyrogallic acid have proposed it as a substitute for chrysophanic acid in the treatment of skin diseases2 but ,dr4 ,neisser has made known a case of poisoning by an ointment of pyrogallic acid1 which at once shows that considerable danger attends its use for this purpose4 ,a man of strong constitution was admitted into one of the wards of the ,breslau ,hospital to be treated for general psoriasis4 ,he appears to have been submitted to a kind of experimental treatment in order to test the curative properties of pyrogallic acid as compared with chrysarobine4 ,he was treated by friction with chrysarobine 7in the form of a pomade of alcoholic extract of rhubarb1 containing one-twentieth7 on the one-half of the body1 while the other half was treated in the same manner by a pomade containing ten per cent4 of pyrogallic acid4 ,six hours after the application the patient had violent shivering with vomiting and intense collapsus4 ,death occurred on the fourth day4 ,experiments were at once undertaken on rabbits1 and proved that this catastrophe was due entirely to the pyrogallic acid pomade1 and that the chrysarobine was innocuous4 ,in some instances the rabbit died within two hours4 ,it was also found that in the case of the patient in the ,breslau ,hospital the pyrogallic acid had acted by its extreme avidity for oxygen when in contact with alkaline fluids4 ,the blood had been affected1 and the red corpuscles were destroyed and turned brown4 ,very little urine was voided1 but it presented a most extraordinary character1 being dark brown and very thick2 it contained no blood corpuscles1 but a considerable amount of hmoglobine 7the coloring matter of the corpuscles71 which was recognized by the absorption bands it gave in the spectroscope4 ,the kidneys were uniformly bluish black4 ,the blood had a dirty brownish red tint1 and contained an abundance of detritus of red corpuscles4 ,this case points out once more that photographers cannot use too much prudence in dealing with chemical products which are in daily use by them1 and the noxious properties of which1 they are apt to forget4--,photo ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,terms of ,subscription1 #e a ,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january #a1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 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