,,the ,,international ,,scientific      
,,series4  ,,vol4 ,,xxxviii4     ,,myth 
,,and ,,science  ,,an ,,essay  ,,by     
,,tito ,,vignoli     ,,third ,,edition  
,,london ,,kegan ,,paul1 ,,trench       
,,co41 #a ,,paternoster ,,squ4 #ahhe    
,,contents4     ,,on ,,ideas ,,and      
,,sources ,,of ,,myth                   
#a    ,,animal ,,sensation ,,and        
,,perception                            
#dh    ,,human ,,sensation ,,and        
,,perception                            
#fh    ,,the ,,statement ,,of ,,the     
,,problem                               
#ajd    ,,the ,,animal ,,and ,,human    
,,exercise ,,of ,,the ,,intellect   ,,on
 ,,the ,,perception ,,of ,,things       
#aaf    ,,intrinsic ,,law ,,of ,,the    
,,faculty ,,of ,,apprehension           
#ace    ,,the ,,historical ,,evolution  
,,of ,,myth ,,and ,,science             
#aee    ,,on ,,dreams1 ,,illusions1     
,,normal ,,and ,,abnormal               
,,hallucinations1 ,,delirium1   ,,and   
,,madness--,,conclusion                 

#bda     ,,myth ,,and ,,science4        
,,chapter ,i4  ,,the ,,ideas ,,and      
,,sources ,,of ,,myth4   ,myth1 as it is
 understood by us1 and as ,it will be   
developed and explained in this work1   
cannot be defined in summary terms1     
since its multiform and comprehensive   
nature embraces and includes all        
primitive action1 as well as much which 
is consecutive and historical in the    
intelligence and feelings of man1 with  
respect to the immediate and the reflex 
interpretation of the world1 of the     
,individual1 and of the society in which
 our common life is passed4  ,we hold   
that myth is1 in its most general and   
comprehensive nature1 the spontaneous   
and imaginative form in which the human 
intelligence and human emotions conceive
 and represent themselves and things in 
general2 it is the psychical and        
physical mode in which man projects     
himself into all those phenomena which  
he is able to apprehend and perceive4#a 
,we do not propose to consider in this  

treatise the myths peculiar to one      
people1 nor to one race2 we do not seek 
to estimate the intrinsic value of myths
 at the time when they were already     
developed among various peoples1 and    
constituted into an ,olympus1 or special
 religion2 we do not wish to determine  
the special and historical cause of     
their manifestations in the life of any 
one people1 since we now refrain from   
entering on the field of comparative    
mythology4 ,it is the scope and object  
of our modest researches to trace the   
strictly primitive origin of the human  
myths as a whole2 to reach the ultimate 
fact1 and the causes of this fact1      
whence myth1 in its necessary and       
universal form1 is evolved and has its  
origin4  ,we must therefore seek to     
discover whether1 in addition to the    
various causes assigned for myth in     
earlier ages1 and still more in modern  
times by our great philologists1        
ethnologists1 and philosophers of every 
school--causes which are for the most   

part extrinsic--there be not a reason   
more deeply seated in our nature1 which 
is first manifested as a necessary and  
spontaneous function of the             
intelligence1 and which is therefore    
intrinsic and inevitable4  ,in this case
 myth will appear to us1 not as an      
accident in the life of primitive       
peoples varying in intensity and extent1
 not as a vague conception of things due
 to the erroneous interpretation of     
words and phrases1 nor again as the     
fanciful creation of ignorant minds2 but
 it will appear to be a special faculty 
of the human mind1 inspired by emotions 
which accompany and animate its         
products4 ,since this innate faculty of 
myth is indigenous and common to all    
men1 it will not only be the portion of 
all peoples1 but of each individual in  
every age1 in every race1 whatever may  
be their respective conditions4  ,myth1 
therefore1 will not be resolved by us   
into a manifestation of an obsolete age1
 or of peoples still in a barbarous and 

savage state1 nor as part of the cycle  
through which nations and individuals   
have1 respectively passed1 or have      
nearly passed2 but it remains to this   
day1 in spite of the prevailing         
civilisation which has greatly increased
 and is still increasing1 it still      
persists as a mode of physical and      
intellectual force in the organic       
elements which constitute it4  ,nor1 let
 it be observed1 do ,i say that such a  
mythical faculty persists as such only  
among the ignorant masses in town or    
country1 in the form of those very      
ancient superstitions which have been   
collected with immense labour by learned
 mythologists and ethnologists2 on the  
contrary1 ,i maintain that the mythical 
faculty still exists in all men1        
independently of this survival of old   
superstitions1 to whatever people and   
class they may belong2 and it will      
continue to exist as an innate function 
of the intelligence1 if not with respect
 to the substance1 which may alter1 at  

any rate in the mode of its acts and    
proceedings4  ,i fear that this opinion 
will appear at first sight to be        
paradoxical and chimerical1 since it is 
well known that the mythical conception 
of the world and its origin is gradually
 disappearing among civilized nations1  
and it is supposed to be altogether     
extinct among men of culture and        
intelligence4 ,yet ,i flatter myself1   
perhaps too rashly1 that by the time he 
reaches the end of this work1 the reader
 will be convinced of the truth of my   
assertion1 since it is proved by so many
 facts1 and the psychical law from1     
which it results is so clear4  ,it must 
not1 however1 be forgotten that1 in     
addition to the mythical faculty of our 
minds1 there exists the scientific      
faculty1 the other factor of a perfect  
intellectual life2 the latter is most   
powerful in certain races1 and must in  
time prevail over the former1 which in  
its objective form precedes it2 yet they
 are subjectively combined in practice  

and are indissolubly united through     
life4  ,undoubtedly neither the mythical
 nor the scientific faculty is equal and
 identical in all peoples1 any more than
 they are equal and identical in        
individuals2 but they subsist together1 
while varying in intensity and degree1  
since they are both necessary functions 
of the intelligence4  ,whether we       
content ourselves with studying the     
mental and social conditions in the     
lower types of modern peoples1 or go    
back to the earliest times1 we find men 
everywhere and always possessed of the  
power of speech1 and holding mythical   
superstitions1 it may be of the rudest  
and most elementary kind2 so also do we 
find men possessed of rational ideas1   
although they may be very simple and    
empirical4 ,they have some knowledge of 
the causes of things1 of periods in the 
phenomena of nature1 which they know how
 to apply to the habits and necessities 
of their social and individual lives4   
,no one1 for example1 would deny that   

many mythical superstitions1 and        
fanciful beliefs in invisible powers1   
existed among the now extinct           
,tasmanians1 and are now found among the
 ,andaman islanders1 the ,fuegians1 the 
,australians1 the ,cingalese ,veddahs1  
and other rude and uncultured savages4  
,on the other hand1 those who are       
acquainted with their mode of life find 
that savages are not absolutely devoid  
of intellectual activity of an empirical
 kind1 since they partly understand the 
natural causes of some phenomena1 and   
are able1 in a rational1 not an         
arbitrary manner1 to ascribe to laws and
 the necessities of things many facts   
relating to the individual and to       
society4 ,they are1 therefore1 not      
without the scientific as well as the   
mythical faculty making due allowance   
for their intellectual condition2 and   
these primitive and natural instincts   
are due to the physical and intellectual
 organism of human nature4  ,in order to
 pursue this important inquiry into the 

first and final cause of the origin of  
myth1 it is evidently not enough to make
 a laborious and varied collection of   
myths1 and of the primitive             
superstitions of all peoples1 so as to  
exhaust the immense field of modern     
ethnography4 ,nor is it enough to       
consider the various normal and abnormal
 conditions of psychical phenomena1 nor 
to undertake the comparative study of   
languages1 to ascertain how far their   
speech will reveal the primitive beliefs
 of various races1 and the obscure      
metaphorical sayings which gave birth to
 many myths4 ,it is also necessary to   
subject to careful examination the      
simplest elementary acts of the mind1 in
 their physical and psychical           
complexity1 in order to discover in     
their spontaneous action the            
transcendental fact which inevitably    
involves the genesis of the same myth1  
the primary source whence it is diffused
 by subsequent reflex efforts in various
 times and varying forms4  ,in speaking 

of the transcendental fact1 it must not 
be supposed that ,i allude to certain   
well-known a priori speculations1 which 
are opposed to my temper of mind and to 
my mode of teaching4 ,i only use the    
term transcendental because this is     
actually the primitive condition of the 
fact in its inevitable beginning1       
whatever form the mythical              
representation may subsequently take4   
,this fact is not peculiar to any       
individual1 people1 or race1 but it is  
manifested as an essential organism of  
the human character1 which is in all    
cases universal1 permanent1 and uniform4
  ,in order to give a clear explanation 
of my estimate of the a priori idea1    
which also takes its place as the factor
 of experimental and positive teaching1 
,i must observe that for those who      
belong to the historical and            
evolutionary school1 a priori1 so far as
 respects any organism1 habit1 and      
psychological constitution in the whole 
animal kingdom1 in which man is also    

included1 signifies whatever in them is 
fixed and permanently organized2        
whatever is perpetuated by the          
indefinite repetition of habits1 organs1
 and functions1 by means of the heredity
 of ages4 ,the whole history of         
organisms abounds with positive and     
repeated proofs of this fact1 which no  
one can doubt who is not absolutely     
ignorant of elementary science4 ,every  
day adds to the number of these proofs1 
demonstrating one of those truths which 
become the common property of nations4  
,a priori is therefore reduced by us to 
the modification of organs in their     
physical and psychical constitution1 as 
it has ultimately taken place in the    
organism by the successive evolutions of
 forms which have gradually become      
permanent1 and are perpetuated by       
embryogenic reproduction4 ,this         
reproduction is in its turn the absolute
 condition of psychical and organic     
facts1 which are thus manifested as     
primitive facts in the new life of the  

individual4 ,by this law1 the psychical 
facts1 whether elementary or complex1 as
 they occur in the individual up to the 
point of their evolution1 have the      
necessary conditions of possibility1 and
 may therefore be termed a priori with  
respect to the laws of evolution1 and to
 the hereditary permanence of acts      
performed in the former environment of  
the organism at the time when they      
appeared4  ,this conception of a priori 
is1 it must be admitted1 very different 
from that of transcendental             
philosophers1 who seek to prove either  
that an independent artificer has not   
only produced the various organic forms 
in their present complexity1 and has    
specially provided the spiritual subject
 with its category of thought1          
independently of all experience2 or else
 they assert the intrinsic existence of 
such forms in the spirit1 from the      
beginning of time4  ,in this way1 as we 
have already said1 we must not only     
collect the facts which abound in       

history and ethnology respecting the    
general teaching of myths1 but we must  
also observe introspectively1 and by    
pursuing the experimental method1 the   
primitive and fundamental psychical     
facts1 so as to discover the a priori   
conditions of the myth itself4 ,we must 
ascertain1 from a careful psychological 
examination1 the absolutely primitive   
origin of all mythical representations1 
and how these are in their turn the     
actual historical result of the same    
conditions1 as they existed prior to    
their manifestations4  ,it must not be  
supposed that in this primary fact1 and 
in these a priori psychical and organic 
conditions1 we shall find the ulterior  
cause of the various and manifold forms1
 or of the successive evolution of      
myths4 ,this would be a grave mistake1  
equal to that of transcendentalists1 who
 imagine that the laws which actually   
exist1 and the order of cosmic and      
historic phenomena may be determined    
from the independent exercise of their  

own thoughts1 although such laws and    
order can only be traced and discovered 
by experience and the observation of    
facts4 ,in the a priori conditions of   
the psychical and organic nature1 and in
 the elementary acts which outwardly    
result from them1 we shall only trace   
the origin and necessary source of myth1
 not the variable forms of its          
successive evolution4  ,the ulterior    
form1 so far as the substance of the    
myth and its various modifications are  
concerned1 is in great part the reflex  
work of man2 its aspect changes in      
accordance with the attitude and force  
of the faculties of individuals1 peoples
 and races1 and it depends on an energy 
to which the a priori conditions1 as we 
have just defined them1 do not strictly 
apply so far as the determinate form is 
concerned4  ,it is precisely in this    
ulterior work of the evolution of myth1 
which in the elementary fact of its     
primitive essence had its origin in the 
predisposition of mind and body1 that we

 may discern the interchangeable germ   
and origin both of myth and science4    
,if1 therefore2 the rationale of science
 cannot be found in the general form of 
mythical representations1 the matter    
which serves to exercise the mind2 yet  
the mode of its exercise1 and of the    
logical and psychical faculty1 and the  
spontaneous method pursued1 are         
identical3 the two mythical and         
scientific faculties are1 in fact1      
considered in themselves1 fused into    
one4  ,as far as the origin of myth is  
concerned1 the mode of considering its  
evolution1 and its organic connection   
with science1 we differ from other      
mythologists as to the sources to which 
they trace this immense elaboration of  
the human intelligence4 ,we may be      
mistaken1 but we are in any case        
entering on unexplored ways1 and if we  
go astray1 the boldness of an enterprise
 which we undertake with diffidence     
pleads for indulgence4  ,omitting to    
notice the well-known opinions on the   

origin of myth which were current in    
classic antiquity1 in the ,grco-,latin  
world1 or in ,india1#b we restrict our  
inquiry to modern times subsequent to   
,creuzer's learned and extensive        
labours4 ,in a more scientific method1  
and divested of prejudice1 we propose to
 trace the sources of myth in general1  
and among various peoples in particular4
  ,the science of languages1 or         
comparative philology1 is the chief     
instrument required in such researches1 
and much light has been acquired in our 
days1 which has led to surprising       
results1 at least within the sphere of  
the special races to which it has been  
applied4 ,the names of ,kuhn1 ,weber1   
,sonne1 ,benfey1 ,grimm1 ,schwartz1     
,hanusch1 ,maury1 ,bral1 ,pictet1       
l',ascoli1 ,de ,gubernatis1 and many    
others1 are well known for their        
marvellous discoveries in this new and  
arduous field4 ,they have not only fused
 into one ancient and primitive image   
the various myths scattered in different

 forms among the ,aryan races1 but they 
have revealed the original conception1  
as it existed in the earliest meaning of
 words before their dispersion4 ,hence  
came the multiplicity of myths1         
developed in brilliant anthropomorphic  
groups in different theologies1         
gradually becoming more simple as time  
went on1 then uniting in the vague      
primitive personification of the winds1 
the storms1 the sun1 the dawn2 in short1
 of astral and meteorological phenomena4
  ,on the other hand1 ,max ,mller1 whose
 theory of original myths is peculiar to
 himself1 has made use of this          
philological instrument to prove that   
the ,aryan myths may at any rate be     
referred to a single source1 namely to  
metaphor1 or to the double meaning of   
words1 due to the poverty of primitive  
languages4 ,he calls this double meaning
 the infirmity of speech4  ,i do not    
deny that many conclusions to which some
 or other of the great authorities just 
mentioned have arrived may be as true as

 they are surprising4 ,i also admit that
 this may be a certain method of        
distinguishing the various mythical     
representations in their early          
beginnings from their subsequent and    
complex forms4 ,but in all the facts    
which have been ascertained1 or which   
may hereafter be ascertained1 from the  
comparative study of the languages of   
different races1 no explanation is      
afforded of the fact that into the      
natural and primitive phenomena of myth1
 or1 as ,mller holds1 into its various  
metaphors1 man has so far infused his   
own life1 that they have1 like man      
himself1 a subjective and deliberate    
consciousness and force4 ,it seems to me
 that this problem has not yet been     
solved by scholars2 they have stopped   
short after establishing the primary    
fact1 and are content to affirm that    
such is human nature1 which projects    
itself on external things4#c  ,this     
explanation establishes a true and      
universal fact1 but it is not the       

explanation of the fact itself2 yet it  
is not1 as we shall see1 incapable of   
solution1 and it appears to me that the 
ultimate source whence myths really     
proceed has not been reached4  ,again1  
if such an opinion and such a method can
 give us the key to the polytheistic    
origin of the respective ,olympuses of  
classic ,greece and ,rome1 it leaves    
unexplained the numerous and manifold   
superstitions which philology itself    
proves to have existed prior to the     
origin of cosmic myths4 ,these          
superstitions can by no means be        
referred to a common source1 to the     
astral and meteorological myths1 some of
 which were prior1 while others were    
subsequent to these superstitions4      
,taking1 therefore1 the general and more
 important opinions which are now       
current respecting the origin of myth1  
it may be said that in addition to the  
systems already mentioned1 two others   
are presented to us with the weight of  
authority and knowledge2 these1 while   

they do not renounce the appliances and 
linguistic analyses of the former1 try  
to unite all the mythical sources of    
mankind in general into a single head1  
whence all myths1 beliefs1              
superstitions1 and religions have their 
origin4 ,while ,france and ,germany and 
some other nations have achieved        
distinction in this field1 ,england has 
been especially remarkable for the      
nature of her attempts1 and the vastness
 of her achievements in every direction4
 ,we pass over many great minds which   
were first in the field in order to     
dwell on the two men who1 as it seems to
 me1 have summed up the knowledge of    
others1 and have formulated a theory in 
great measure peculiar to themselves4   
,tylor's well known name will at once   
suggest itself1 and that of ,herbert    
,spencer2 the former1 in his great work 
on the ,early ,history of ,mankind and  
of ,civilization1 and other writings1   
the latter1 in the first volume of his  
,sociology1 and in his earlier works1   

have respectively established the       
doctrine of the universal origin of     
myths on the basis of ethnography1 on   
the psychological examination of the    
primary facts of the intelligence1 and  
on the conception of the evolution of   
the general phenomena of nature4  ,it   
would1 indeed1 be difficult to excel the
 great mind1 the acute genius1 and the  
universal learning of ,herbert ,spencer1
 who has been termed the modern         
,aristotle by a learned writer2 and this
 is high praise when we remember how    
much knowledge is necessary in our      
times1 and in the present conditions of 
science1 before any one can be deemed   
worthy of such a comparison4 ,but with  
due respect to so great a man1 and with 
the diffidence of one who is only his   
disciple1 ,i venture to think that      
,herbert ,spencer's attempt to revive1  
at any rate in part1 ,evemero's theory  
of the origin of myths will not be      
successful1 and it may prove injurious  
to science4 ,first1 because all myths   

cannot be reduced1 to personal or       
historical facts2 and next1 because the 
primitive value of many of them is so   
clear and distinct in their mode of     
expression that it is not possible to   
derive them from any source but the     
direct personification of natural       
phenomena4 ,nor does it appear to me to 
be always and altogether certain that   
the origin of myths1 also caused by the 
double personality discerned in the     
shadow of the body itself1 in the images
 reflected by liquid substances1 in     
echoes and visions of the night1 can be 
all ascribed to the worship of the dead4
  ,the worship of the dead is           
undoubtedly universal4 ,there is no     
people1 ancient or modern1 civilized or 
savage1 by whom it has not been         
practised2 the fact is proved by        
history1 philology and ethnography4 ,but
 if the worship of the dead is a        
constant form1 manifested everywhere1 it
 flourishes and is interwoven with a    
multitude of other mythical forms and   

superstitious beliefs which cannot in   
any way be reduced to this single form  
of worship1 nor be derived from it4     
,this worship is undoubtedly one of the 
most abundant sources of myth1 and      
,spencer1 with his profound knowledge   
and keen discernment1 was able to       
discuss the hypothesis as it deserves2  
whence his book1 even from this point of
 view1 is a masterpiece of analysis1    
like all those which issue from his     
powerful mind4  ,yet even if the truth  
of this doctrine should be in great     
measure proved1 the question must still 
be asked how it happens that man        
vivifies and personifies his own image  
in duplicate1 or else the apparitions of
 dreams or their reflections1 and the   
echoes of nature1 and ultimately the    
spirits of the dead4  ,tylor developed  
his theory more distinctly and at       
greater length1 and he brought to bear  
upon it great genius1 extraordinary     
knowledge1 and a sound critical faculty1
 so that his work must be regarded as   

one of the most remarkable in the       
history of human thought4 ,he belongs to
 the school of evolution1 and his book  
strongly confirms the truths of that    
theory2 since from the primitive germs  
of myth1 from the various and most      
simple forms of fetishes among all      
races1 he gradually evolves these rude  
images into more1 complex and           
anthropomorphic forms1 until he attains 
the limits of natural and positive      
science4 ,he admits that there are in   
mankind various normal and abnormal     
sources of myth1 but he comes to the    
ultimate conclusion that they all depend
 on man's peculiar and spontaneous      
tendency to animate all things1 whence  
his general principle has taken the name
 of animism4 ,it is unnecessary to say  
much in praise of this learned work1    
since it is known to all1 and cannot be 
too much studied by those who wish for  
instruction on such subjects4  ,but     
while assenting to his general          
principle1 which remains as the sole    

ultimate source of all mythical         
representation1 ,i repeat the usual     
inquiry2 what causes man to animate all 
the objects which surround him1 and what
 is the cause of this established and   
universal fact8 ,the marvellous         
ethnographic learning of the author1 and
 his profound analysis1 do not answer   
this question1 and the problem still    
remains unsolved4  ,it is evident from  
what we have said1 that the theory of   
the origin of myth has of late made real
 and important progress in different    
directions2 it has been constituted by  
fitting methods1 and with dispassionate 
research1 laying aside fanciful         
hypotheses and systems more or less     
prompted by a desire to support or      
confute principles which have no        
connection with science4 ,we have now in
 great measure arrived at the           
fundamental facts whence myth is        
derived1 although1 if ,i do not deceive 
myself1 the ultimate fact1 and the cause
 of this fact1 have not yet been        

ascertained2 namely1 for what reason man
 personifies all phenomena1 first       
vaguely projecting himself into them1   
and then exercising a distinct purpose  
of anthropomorphism1 until in this way  
he has gradually modified the world     
according to his own image4  ,if we are 
able to solve this difficult problem1 a 
fact most important to science and to   
the advancement of these special studies
 must result from it3 the assimilation  
and concentration of all the sources of 
myth into a single act1 whether normal  
or abnormal to humanity4 ,to say that   
animism is the general principle of myth
 does not reduce the different sources  
whence it proceeds to a single psychical
 and organic act1 since they remain     
distinct and separate in their          
respective orbits4 ,to attain our       
object1 it is necessary that the direct 
personification of natural phenomena1 as
 well as the indirect personification of
 metaphor2 the infusion of life into a  
man's own shadow1 into reflex images and

 dreams2 the belief in the reality of   
normal illusions1 as well as of the     
abnormal hallucinations of delirium1 of 
madness1 and of all forms of nervous    
affections2 all these things must be    
resolved into a single generating act   
which explains and includes them4 ,it   
must be shown how and why there is found
 in man the possibility of modifying all
 these mythical forms into an image     
supposed to be external to himself1     
living and personal4 ,for if we are     
enabled to reply scientifically to such 
inquiries1 we shall not only have       
concentrated in a single fact all the   
most diverse normal and abnormal forms  
of myth peculiar to man1 but we shall   
also have given an ulterior and analytic
 explanation of this fact4  ,i certainly
 do not presume to declare myself       
competent to effect so much1 and ,i am  
more conscious than my critics how far  
,i fall short of my high aim2 but the   
modest attempt1 made with the resolution
 to accept all criticism offered with   

courtesy and good faith1 does not imply 
culpable presumption nor excessive      
vanity4  ,i regret to say that it is not
 on this point only that my theory of   
myth differs from that of others2 ,i    
shall not be satisfied if ,i only       
succeed in discovering in man the       
primitive act which issues the general  
animism of things1 which becomes the    
substance of the ulterior myths in their
 intellectual and historical evolution4 
,it is evident1 at least to those who do
 not cling obstinately to old           
traditions1 that man is evolved from the
 animal kingdom4 ,the comparative       
anatomy1 physiology1 and psychology of  
man and other animals distinctly show   
their intimate connection in            
conformation1 tissues1 organs1 and      
functions1 and above all1 in            
consciousness and intelligence4 ,this   
truth1 deduced from simple observation  
and experiment1 must lead to the        
conviction that all issued from the same
 germ1 and had the same genesis4  ,for  

those who do not cherish pedantic and   
sectarian prejudices1 this hypothesis is
 changed into assurance by modern       
discoveries2 it is shown in the         
transformations and transitions of      
paleontological forms2 in the           
embryogenic evolution of so many        
animals1 man included1 which1 according 
to their various species1 reveals the   
lower types whence they issued2 in the  
successive forms taken by the foetus2 in
 the powerful and indisputable laws of  
selection2 in the modifications by      
adaptation of the different organisms1  
and in the effects of isolation4 ,this  
is the only rational explanation1       
confirmed as it is by fresh facts every 
day1 of the multiplicity and variety of 
organic forms in the lapse of time2     
unless1 indeed1 we ascribe such variety 
to a miracle1 even more difficult to    
accept than the difficulties of the     
opposite-theory4  ,i admit that evidence
 for the complete demonstration of this 
theory is sometimes wanting2 the gaps   

between the fossil fauna and flora and  
those of modern times are neither few   
nor unimportant2 but on the other hand1 
such proofs are accumulating1 and the   
gaps are filled up every day1 so that we
 may almost assert that in some way or  
other1 by means somewhat different from 
those on which we now rely1 the great   
rational principle of evolution will be 
successfully and permanently            
established4  ,it is more than twenty   
years since1 in ways and by study       
peculiar to ourselves1 we first devoted 
ourselves to this theory1 and while we  
gave a conscientious consideration to   
opposite theories1 so as to estimate    
with sincerity their importance and     
value1 we could not relinquish our      
conviction that every advance in        
physical1 biological1 and social science
 served to confirm the theory of        
evolution4  ,it must not be supposed    
that ,i make any dogmatic assertion1    
which might possibly be erroneous1 when 
,i say that the evidence of facts does  

not contradict the assumptions of modern
 science4 ,sincere convictions should   
offend no one1 nor do they indicate an a
 priori conflict with other beliefs4    
,every one is justified in thinking his 
own thoughts when he speaks with        
moderation and supports his peculiar    
opinions with a certain amount of       
learning4  ,it is not denied1 even by   
those who oppose modern theories        
respecting the genesis of organisms1    
that there are1 excluding some psychical
 elements1 many and important points of 
resemblance between man and animals in  
the exercise of their consciousness1    
intelligence1 and emotions1 if indeed   
they are not identically the same4 ,the 
comparative psychology of man and       
animals plainly shows that the          
perceptions1 both in their respective   
organs and in their mode of action1 act 
in the same way1 especially in the      
higher animals2 and the origin1         
movements1 and associations of the      
imagination and the emotions are        

likewise identical4 ,nor will it be     
disputed that we find in animals        
implicit memory1 judgment1 and          
reasoning1 the inductions and deductions
 from one special fact to another1 the  
passions1 the physiological language of 
gestures1 expressive of internal        
emotions1 and even1 in the case of      
gregarious animals1 the combined action 
to effect certain purposes2 so that1 as 
far as their higher orders are          
concerned1 animals may be regarded as a 
simple and undeveloped form of man1     
while man1 by his later psychical and   
organic evolution1 has become a         
developed and complex animal4#d  ,in my 
book on the fundamental law of          
intelligence in the animal kingdom1 ,i  
attempted to show this great truth1 and 
to formulate a principle common to all  
animals in the exercise of their        
psychical emotions1 by setting forth the
 essential elements as they are         
generally displayed4 ,i think ,i was not
 far from the truth in establishing a   

law which seems indubitable2 although1  
while some men whose opinion is worthy  
of esteem have accepted it1 other very  
competent judges have objected to some  
parts of my theory1 but without         
convincing me of error4 ,i repeat my    
conclusions here1 since they are        
necessary to the theory of the genesis  
of myth1 which ,i propose to explain in 
this work4 ,i hold the complete identity
 between man and animals to be          
established by the adequate             
consideration of the faculties1 the     
psychical elements of consciousness and 
intelligence1 and the mode of their     
spontaneous exercise2 and ,i believe the
 superiority of man to consist not so   
much in new faculties as in the reflex  
effect upon themselves of those he      
possesses in common with the animals4   
,the old adage confirms this theory3    
,homo duplex4  ,no one now doubts that  
animals feel1 hear1 remember1 and the   
like1 while man is able to exercise his 
will1 to feel1 to remember1 deliberately

 to consider all his actions and        
functions1 because he not only possesses
 the direct and spontaneous intuition   
with respect to himself and things in   
general which he has in common with     
animals1 but he has an intuitive        
knowledge of that intuition itself1 and 
in this way he multiplies within himself
 the exercise of his whole psychical    
life4 ,we find the ultimate cause of    
this return upon himself1 and his       
intuition of things1 in his deliberate  
will1 which does not only immediately   
command his body and his manifold       
relative functions1 but also the complex
 range of his psychical acts4 ,this     
fact1 which as ,i believe has not been  
observed before1 is of great importance4
 ,it is manifest that the difference    
between man and other animals does not  
consist in the diversity or discrepancy 
of the elements of the intelligence1 but
 in its reflex action on itself2 an     
action which certainly has its          
conditions fixed by the organic and     

physiological composition of the brain4 
,if it should be said that the          
traditional opinion of science1 as well 
as the general sentence of mankind1 have
 always regarded reflection as the basis
 of the difference between animals and  
man1 so that there is no novelty in our 
principle1 the assertion is erroneous4  
,reflection1 as an inward psychical     
fact1 has certainly been observed by    
psychologists and philosophers in all   
civilized times1 and instinctively by   
every one2 nor could it be otherwise1   
since reflection is one of the facts    
most evident to human consciousness4    
,but although the fact1 or the intrinsic
 and characteristic action of human     
thought has been observed1 and has often
 been discussed and analyzed in some of 
its elements1 yet its genesis has not   
been declared1 nor has its ultimate     
cause been discovered4 ,we propose to   
discover this ultimate cause1 and we    
refer it to the exercise of the will    
over all the elements and acts which    

constitute human intelligence2 an       
intelligence only differing from that of
 animals by this inward and deliberate  
fact1 which enables man to consider and 
examine all his acts1 thus logically    
doubling their range4 ,this intelligence
 has in animals a simple and direct     
influence on their bodies and on the    
external world1 in proportion to their  
diverse forms and inherited instincts2  
while in man1 owing to his commanding   
attitude1 it falls back upon itself1 and
 gives rise to the inquiring and        
reflective habit of science4  ,we do    
not1 therefore1 divide man from other   
animals1 but rather assert that many    
proofs and subtle analyses show the     
identity of their intelligence in its   
fundamental elements1 while the         
difference is only the result of a      
reaction of the same intelligence on    
itself4 ,such a theory does not in any  
way interrupt the natural evolution and 
genesis of the animal kingdom1 while the
 distinctive peculiarity of man is shown

 in an act which1 as ,i believe1 clearly
 explains the new faculty of reason     
acquired by him4  ,i must admit that in 
speaking of the psychical faculty as a  
force which possesses laws peculiar to  
itself1 it has appeared to a learned and
 competent judge that ,i have conceded a
 real existence to this faculty1        
independently of the physiological      
conditions through which it manifests   
itself1 which might be called a mythical
 personality in the constitution of the 
world4 ,if ,i had really made such an   
assertion1 it would be an error which ,i
 am perhaps more ready than others to   
repudiate1 as it will appear in the     
present work4 ,i am far from blaming the
 courteous critics who allege such      
objections to my theory1 and indeed ,i  
am honoured by their notice4 ,i must    
blame myself for not having1 in my      
desire to be brief1 sufficiently defined
 my conception4  ,i hold the psychical  
manifestation to be not only conditioned
 by the organism1 to speak              

scientifically1 and to be rendered      
physiologically possible by these       
conditions1 but ,i consider it to be of 
the same nature as the other so-called  
forces of the universe2 such1 for       
example1 as the manifestations of light1
 of electricity1 of magnetism1 and the  
like4 ,when physicists speak of these   
forces--if the necessities of language  
and the brevity of the explanation      
constrain us to adopt the term forces1  
as though they were real                
substances--they certainly do not       
believe1 nor wish others to believe1    
that they are really such4 ,it is well  
known that such expressions are used to 
signify the appearance under certain    
circumstances of some special phenomena 
which group themselves by their mode and
 power of manifestation into one generic
 conception as a summary of the whole4  
,they always take place1 relatively to  
these circumstances1 in the same mode   
and with the same power1 so that they   
may at once be experimentally           

distinguished from others which have    
been grouped together in like manner4   
,such manifestations do not imply a real
 cosmic entity of these forces1 as if   
they were independent of the matter     
whence they issue2 they are simply      
determinate and determinate modes of    
motions1 of actions1 and reactions in   
the elements of the world4 ,for if      
magnetism appears to reveal itself in   
determinate elements1 its modes of      
manifestation are peculiar to itself1   
and its efficacy with respect to other  
forces is also peculiar2 yet it by no   
means follows that it possesses a       
substantial entity1 or1 as it were1     
displays personal activity among        
phenomena2 it rather indicates that the 
elements of the world will1 under given 
circumstances1 act reciprocally in such 
a manner that we perceive phenomena     
which group themselves together and     
which we call magnetic or magnetism4    
,and this explanation applies to other  
cases4  ,i therefore1 speaking of       

psychical force in general1 used the    
same terms2 ,i certainly did not wish to
 constitute it into a personal and      
material entity of the universe1 but ,i 
intended to assert that among the       
manifestations of the various forces of 
the world1 defined as above1 there is   
also this psychical force1 characterized
 by phenomena and laws peculiar to      
itself1 and which1 as ,i have shown1 is 
when exercised one of the greatest      
factors of the world4 ,i repeat that if 
this force varies with the greater or   
less perfection of the organisms in     
which1 it is manifested1 yet it         
possesses a law and fundamental elements
 by which it is so constituted that the 
same results will ensue in the simplest 
as in the most complex form4 ,this is   
the case with all the other forces of   
nature2 they may be modified by existing
 circumstances1 and yet they have laws  
and definite elements to distinguish    
them from all others4 ,these forces1    
however1 while they are distinct in     

their peculiar manifestations1 and take 
effect through special qualities1       
quantities1 and rhythmic movements1 are 
all fused together in the infinite and  
eternal unity which constitutes the life
 of the universe4 ,neither here nor in  
my former work is there any question of 
that most difficult problem1 the        
individual personality of man4#e  ,since
 there is between man and animals a     
relationship and a psychical identity1  
as well as a genetic continuity of      
evolution1 it is impossible to deny that
 there is also in some degree a like    
continuity in the products and acts of  
the consciousness1 the emotions1 and the
 intelligence4 ,this is asserted or     
admitted even by those who do not like  
to hear of the genetic continuity of    
evolution1 nor is there now any school  
of thought which impugns such a truth4  
,if this be true1 as it undoubtedly is1 
and since we are treating of the genesis
 of myth in its earliest beginning1 we  
will endeavour1 with daring prompted by 

the theory of evolution1 to discover if 
the first germ of these representations 
may not have already existed in the     
animal kingdom before it was evolved in 
man in the fetishtic and anthropomorphic
 form4 ,this is an arduous but necessary
 inquiry1 to which ,i am impelled by the
 doctrine of evolution1 as it is        
properly understood1 as well as by the  
universal logic of nature4  ,if ,i were 
to consider myth as it has ultimately   
been developed in man1 it would be a    
strange and absurd attempt to trace out 
any points of resemblance with animals1 
who are altogether devoid of the logical
 faculty which leads to such            
development4 ,but if1 on the contrary1  
we endeavour to trace the earliest1     
spontaneous1 and direct elements of myth
 as a product of animal emotions and    
implicit intelligence1 such research    
becomes not only legitimate but         
necessary2 since the instrument is the  
same1 the effects ought also to be the  
same4  ,we have already said that the   

fact has been observed and generally    
admitted that the primary origin of myth
 in its essential elements consists in  
the personification or animation of all 
extrinsic phenomena1 as well as of the  
dreams1 illusions1 and hallucinations   
which are intrinsic4 ,it is agreed that 
this animation is not the reflex and    
deliberate act of man1 but that it is   
the spontaneous and immediate act of the
 human intelligence in its elementary   
consciousness and emotions4 ,it must    
therefore be evident that this vague and
 continual animation of things ought to 
be found also in animals1 especially in 
those of the higher types1 in whom      
consciousness1 the emotions1 and the    
intelligence are implicitly identical   
with those of man4 ,consequently1 that  
which is at first sight absurd becomes  
obvious and natural1 and the fact is    
only strange and inexplicable to those  
who have not carefully considered it4   
,we must1 however1 declare that this    
primary fact is not irreducible1 and    

that science ought not to be content to 
stop there1 but should endeavour to     
explain and resolve it into its         
elements1 so as to be able to say we    
have reached the point at which the     
genesis of myth really begins4 ,this aim
 can only be attained by the            
decomposition by analysis of the        
primitive fact4 ,since intelligence in  
its essential elements1 and in its      
innate and implicit exercise1 appears to
 be the same in man and in animals1 it  
is necessary to reduce the analysis of  
animal nature to a primary psychical    
fact1 in order to see whether by this   
fact1 which is identical also in man1   
the generating element of myth is really
 revealed4  ,i propose to show that this
 research will reveal truths hitherto   
unattained1 and explain the general law1
 not merely of the extrinsic process of 
science and of myth1 but also of        
civilization4  ,starting from this wide 
basis1 we must trace1 step by step1 the 
dawn1 development1 and gradual          

disappearance of myth4 ,since it is our 
business to consider science as well as 
myth1 and their respective relations in 
the evolution common to both1 we must1  
as briefly as possible in the present   
work1 pause to consider these two       
factors of the human mind1 observing the
 beginnings1 conditions1 and modes in   
which the one arose and gradually       
disappeared1 while the other advanced   
and triumphed4 ,we must not only regard 
the progress and transformation of      
religions1 but also of science1 as it is
 revealed in the philosophic systems of 
every age1 in the partial or complete   
discoveries of genius1 and in the great 
and stupendous achievements of modern   
experimental science4 ,it would require 
a long treatise to fill so wide a field1
 which we must restrict to the limits of
 a few pages4 ,since our readers are now
 generally acquainted with the course   
pursued by human thought1 and with the  
progress of peoples1 but few landmarks  
or formulas are necessary to enable them

 to clear away obscurity and estimate   
facts at their just value1 so as to     
understand what civilization and science
 have to do with the evolution of myth1 
and of science itself4  ,a great        
corollary also ensues from studies      
undertaken with the aid of sociology1   
that is1 the genesis1 form1 and gradual 
evolution of human societies4 ,these    
vary in character1 in attitude1 in      
power1 form and duration1 with the      
different characters of races1 and thus 
fulfil in various ways the cycle of myth
 and science of which they are capable4 
,it would indeed be difficult to attain 
to a clear and adequate conception of   
the universal evolution of myth and     
science1 but for the existence of a     
privileged race distinguished for its   
psychical and organic power1 which from 
its beginning until now1 although       
subject to many partial eclipses1 has on
 the whole maintained its position in   
the world so as to present to us the    
long historical drama of its evolutions4

 ,other races1 peoples1 or tribes have  
disappeared in the struggle for         
existence1 or have remained essentially 
incapable of further progress even in a 
relatively inferior degree1 so as to    
afford no aid in following the          
successive development of myth and      
science2 while the ,aryan family1 a race
 to which ,i believe that the ,semitic  
originally belonged1#f furnishes the    
unbroken sequence of events and the     
stages of such complex evolution4 ,nor  
certainly is there any signs of the     
disappearance of this race1 since every 
day its intellectual and territorial    
achievements1 added to the instruments  
of a powerful material civilization1    
invigorate its strength and presage its 
indefinite duration in forms we are not 
able to foresee1 unless indeed fatal    
astral or telluric catastrophes should  
hinder its progress or bring it to an   
end4  ,if we compare this race with     
itself at different epochs1 and in the  
many different peoples into which it was

 severed1 and if at the same time we    
confront it with the types of other     
peoples at various stages1 from the     
rudest to the most civilized1 it becomes
 possible to form a clear conception of 
the genesis and successive evolution of 
myth and science of which the human race
 is capable1 and in this way we may     
understand the general law which governs
 such evolutions4 ,this study also      
teaches us that humanity1 whether we    
agree with monogenists or poligenists1  
is physically and psychically in all    
respects the same in its essential      
elements2 in all peoples without        
distinction1 as ethnography teaches us1 
the origin and genesis of myth1 the     
implicit exercise of reason and its     
development1 are1 at all events up to a 
given point1 absolutely identical4 ,all 
start from the same manifestations and  
mythical creations1 and these are       
afterwards developed according to the   
logical or scientific canons of thought1
 which are applied to their             

classification4 ,both among             
fetish-worshippers and polytheists there
 was a tendency towards monotheism1     
although sometimes it could only be     
discerned in a vague and confused       
manner4  ,if myth is1 as ,i have said1  
to be considered from another point of  
view1 as the spontaneous effect of the  
intelligence1 and a necessary function1 
relatively to the primary act from which
 it begins1 it might appear that myth   
would never cease to be1 and that       
humanity1 even as it is represented by  
the elect and enduring race1 must always
 remain in this original illusion2 so   
that every man would have to begin again
 for himself in his own peculiar cycle  
of myth4 ,but history shows that this is
 not the case1 and that the mythic      
faculty gradually wanes and becomes     
weaker1 even if it does not altogether  
cease to exist1 a result which would not
 occur if myth were a necessary function
 of the intelligence4  ,i shall         
presently reply to such an objection2 in

 the meanwhile1 regarding the question  
superficially1 ,i need only say that if 
the mythic faculty diminishes in one    
direction1 and with respect to some     
forms and their corresponding substance1
 it has certainly not ceased to appear  
in another1 exerting itself1 as we shall
 see1 in other forms and other          
substance4 ,the common people1 both     
urban and rural1 do for the most part   
adhere to primitive and very ancient    
superstitions1 as every one may know    
from his own experience1 as well as from
 the writings of well known authors of  
nearly all the civilized nations of     
,europe4 ,in fact1 every man in the     
early period of his life constructs a   
heaven for himself1 as those who study  
the ways of children are aware1 and this
 has given rise to a new science of     
infantine psychology1 set forth in the  
writings of ,taine1 ,darwin1 ,perez1 and
 others4  ,we also propose to show that 
the scientific faculty1 which gathers   
strength and is developed from the      

mythical faculty1 is in the first       
instance identical and confounded with  
it1 but that science corrects and       
controls the primitive function1 just as
 reason corrects and explains the errors
 and illusions of the senses2 so that   
the truly rational man issues1 like the 
foetus from its embryonic covering1 out 
of its primitive mythical covering into 
the light of truth4  ,every one must    
perceive that the study of the origin of
 myths has an important bearing on the  
clear and positive knowledge of mankind4
 ,in modern times biological science1   
such as ethnography and anthropology1   
have not only thrown much light on the  
genesis of organic bodies1 of animals   
and of man1 but they have afforded very 
important aid to psychological research1
 on account of the close connection     
between psychology and the general      
physical laws of the world4 ,the        
mythical faculty in man1 and its        
results1 have received much light from  
these sciences1 since the modifications 

induced in individuals and in peoples by
 many natural causes1 organic or        
climatological1 are based upon their    
physiological conditions4 ,in the first 
chapters of ,herbert ,spencer's book on 
,sociology1 there is a masterly         
investigation into the changes produced 
by climate1 with its accidents and      
organic products1 on the peculiar       
temperament of different peoples and    
races1 and we must refer our readers to 
his admirable summary4  ,we avail       
ourselves of the aid afforded by all    
these branches of science in order to   
comprehend the true nature of man1 and  
the place which he really occupies in   
the animal creation4 ,man should be     
estimated as all other products and     
phenomena of nature are estimated1      
according to his absolute value1        
divested1 as in the case of all other   
physical and organic sciences1 of       
preconceived ideas or prejudices in     
favour of the supernatural4 ,he should  
be studied as in physics we study bodies

 and the laws which govern them1 or as  
the laws of their motions and           
combinations are studied in chemistry1  
allowance always being made for their   
reciprocal relations1 and for their     
appearance as a whole4 ,for if there be 
in the universe a distinction of modes1 
there is no absolute separation of laws 
and phenomena4  ,the various branches of
 science are only subjective            
necessities1 consequent on the          
successive and gradual order of our     
comprehension of things2 they are       
classifications of method1 with no      
special reference to the undivided      
personality of nature4 ,all are parts of
 the whole1 and so also the whole is    
revealed in its several parts4 ,they    
come to be in thought1 as well as in    
reality1 reciprocal conditions of each  
other2 and he who is able to solve the  
problem of the world correctly in a     
simple movement of an atom1 would be    
able to explain all laws and all        
phenomena1 since every thing may        

ultimately be reduced to this movement4 
,it is precisely this which has been    
attained by certain laws1 so that the   
study of man must not be dissociated    
from this conception4 ,it is necessary  
to regard him as a product of the forces
 of nature1 with which he has certain   
properties in common4 ,although man may 
appear to be a special and peculiar     
subject1 yet he is connected with the   
universal system in which he lives by   
the elements1 phenomena1 and forces of  
which he consists4  ,it must not be     
supposed1 as it is asserted with        
ever-increasing clamour1 that such a    
method and theory can ever destroy the  
civilized basis of society1 and the     
morality and dignity with which it      
should be informed1 as if we were again 
reducing man to the condition of a      
beast4 ,such an outcry is in itself a   
plain and striking proof that we have   
not yet emerged from the mythical age of
 thought1 since it is precisely a       
mythical belief which prompts this angry

 protest against the noble and          
independent research after truth4  ,it  
is impossible that the results of       
positive and rational science should in 
any way destroy the necessary conditions
 of civilized life and of the high      
standard of goodness which should form1 
elevate1 and bring it to perfection4 ,we
 must1 however1 remember that it was not
 rational science1 nor the ethics of    
law1 which established the a priori     
rules of a just and free society1 but   
the necessities of society itself led to
 the a posteriori formulation of laws4  
,theoretic science subsequently         
explained these laws1 and perfected     
their form and organism1 infusing into  
them a nobler purpose2 but it was the   
necessities of nature which first       
dictated the balance1 system1 and       
harmony of the alliances and            
associations of materials and phenomena 
as they now exist1 which rendered       
possible the first nucleus of human     
society1 and which1 in course of time1  

brought the component parts into        
definite relations with each other4 ,it 
was subsequently the reflex and fitting 
work of thought to raise upon the       
foundation laid by nature a rational    
system of society1 and then to bring its
 rules and forms to perfection4  ,hence 
it follows that it was not man1 nor some
 extrinsic mythical power which         
arbitrarily dictated the code of private
 and social life1 but this presented    
itself to man as a spontaneous result of
 the world's law1 relatively to the     
conditions possible for social life4    
,for if1 as in fact is the case1 and as 
the progress of knowledge and1 of human 
civilization will abundantly show1 the  
true and eternal laws which make society
 possible1 and consequently its standard
 of righteousness1 are innate and       
genuine results of universal laws1 it is
 impossible for science to destroy the  
inevitable order of things1 and to      
reduce mankind to a hideous chaos4  ,it 
must be allowed that great truths1 not  

fully understood by incapable preachers1
 who sometimes from ignoble motives     
foment the turbid instincts of the      
ignorant multitude1 may bring about1 as 
they have done of old1 grave evils and  
even crimes in some places and for a    
short time4 ,but there is no one so     
foolish or so ignorant of history as to 
believe that all things happen in the   
best possible way1 and in a logical     
sequence4 ,such evils do not invalidate 
or destroy the force of our assertion   
that social order is derived from and is
 based upon the order of nature4        
,although savage passions1 excited by an
 imperfect understanding of the truth1  
do from time to time cause the overthrow
 of given societies1 and arouse the     
horror and alarm of pessimist votaries  
of myth1 nature is not thereby overcome2
 she still triumphs1 and restores the   
order which has been interrupted1 so far
 as the instinct of conservatism and the
 hereditary impulse to that special form
 of association to which each people are

 accustomed are opposed to the          
revolutionary spirit1 and in this way   
the balance which has been disturbed is 
re-established4  ,when men1 having      
brought their intellectual1 and         
consequently their moral sense to       
perfection1 are enabled to understand   
this natural order of laws and social   
facts1 divested of extrinsic mythical   
beliefs1 they will find in it so much   
reciprocal benefit1 and will have such a
 deep sense of their personal dignity1  
since they are intellectually their own 
artificers1 that they will be able to   
understand how the highest good has     
ensued and will ensue from the          
sacrifices or achievements made by a few
 for the benefit of all4 ,we are        
undoubtedly still a long way from such  
happy conditions1 either socially or as 
individuals1 but every day brings them  
nearer1 and it is to this end that our  
civilization plainly tends1 in spite of 
all the complaints1 the fears1 and      
sometimes even the malevolence of men4  

,as ,i have already said1 the study of  
the beginnings and of1 the              
anthropological conditions of the       
various myths is necessary to enable us 
to understand their psychical phenomena1
 together with the hidden laws of the   
exercise of thought4 ,the learned and   
illustrious ,ribot has justly said that 
psychology1 dissociated from physiology 
and cognate sciences1 is extinct1 and   
that in order to bring it to life it is 
necessary to follow the progress and    
methods of all other contemporary       
sciences4#g ,the genesis of myth1 its   
development1 the specification and      
integration of its beliefs1 as well as  
the several intrinsic and extrinsic     
sources whence it proceeds1 will assign 
to it a clearer place among the obscure 
recesses of psychical facts2 they will  
reveal to us the connection between the 
facts of consciousness and their        
antecedents1 between the world and our  
normal and abnormal physiological       
conditions2 they will show what a       

complex drama is performed by the action
 and reaction between ourselves and the 
things within us1 and also will declare 
the nature of the laws which govern the 
various and manifold creation of forms1 
imaginations1 and ideas1 and the        
artificial world of phantasms derived   
from these4 ,in this way myth will      
appear to be not merely due to the      
direct animation of things1 varying in  
our waking state with the nature of the 
exciting cause2 but it also arises from 
the normal images and illusions of      
dreams1 and from the morbid             
hallucinations of madness1 both         
subjectively in the case of the person  
affected by them1 and objectively for   
those who observe the extrinsic effects 
in gesture and speech1 and the whole    
bearing of the sufferer4  ,every one    
must admit that all these phenomena1 and
 the beliefs which arise from them1 must
 tend to make the observation of        
psychical life more easy1 just as morbid
 psychical phenomena often explain the  

natural action of such life under normal
 conditions4 ,these phenomena1 so       
closely connected with physiological    
disturbances which are beyond the       
control of our personal will1 will      
inform us of the biological relations   
between consciousness and thought on the
 one side1 and our organism on the      
other4  ,the mythical faculty1 as we    
shall see in the following chapters1    
combined with physiological excitements1
 both normal and abnormal1 generally    
assumes constant forms in the various   
and manifold world of its creation2     
constant forms which conversely also    
reveal those of the scientific faculty4 
,in this way the development1           
composition1 and integration of a myth1 
into which others are fused by          
assimilation1 may be said to explain to 
us the mode in which systems of         
philosophy are constituted1 and to      
manifest to us in a fanciful way the    
underlying mode in which human thought  
is exercised4  ,nor do the effects and  

importance of these studies end here2   
they are also the necessary foundation  
of true and rational sociology4 ,in     
fact1 the relations of the individual to
 the world1 the manifold conditions     
caused by the relations of persons to   
each other1 the constitution of all     
social order1 and the various           
modifications of that order2 all these  
are resolved into the primitive thought1
 and into the emotional impulses of     
mythical prejudices and fancies1 and in 
these they have also their natural      
sanction1 and the cardinal point on     
which they rest and revolve4 ,there is  
no society1 however rude and primitive1 
in which all these relations1 both to   
the individual and to society at large1 
are not apparent1 and these are based on
 superstitious and mythical beliefs4    
,take the ,tasmanians1 for example1 one 
of the peoples which has recently become
 extinct1 and regarded as one of the    
most debased in the social scale1 and we
 have in a small compass a picture of   

the acts and beliefs to be found in     
their embryonic association4  ,in every 
society1 however rudimentary1 these are 
held to be important facts3 the birth of
 individuals1 which is their entrance   
into the society itself1 and into the   
possession of its privileges2 marriages1
 funerals1 reciprocal obedience between 
persons and classes1 or to the chief2   
public assemblies1 and the existence of 
powers equal or superior to living men4 
,among the ,tasmanians1 the placenta was
 religiously venerated1 and they        
carefully buried it1 lest it should be  
injured or devoured by animals4 ,if the 
mother died in childbirth her offspring 
was buried alive with her4 ,when a man  
attained puberty1 he was bound to submit
 to certain ceremonies1 some of them    
painful1 and dictated by phallic        
superstitions4 ,funeral rites were      
simple3 the corpse was either burnt1    
with howls and superstitious functions1 
or it was placed in the hollow trunk of 
a tree in a sitting position1 with the  

chin supported by the knees1 as was the 
custom with ,peruvian mummies2 and the  
belief in another world prompted them to
 place the weapons and utensils used1   
during life beside the corpse4          
,sometimes a wooden lance1 with         
fragments of human bones affixed to it1 
was placed below the tumulus1 as a      
defence for the dead during his long    
sleep4 ,it appears from these customs1  
and from others mentioned by ,clarke1   
that they had a vague idea of another   
life1 holding that the shades went up to
 inhabit the stars1 or flew to a distant
 island where they were born again as   
white men4 ,these beliefs were          
necessarily connected with the rites    
which they fulfilled when living1 and   
served as a kind of obscure sanction for
 them4  ,milligan and ,nixon tell us    
that the ,tasmanians believed in the    
existence of evil and sometimes of      
avenging spirits1 destroyers of the     
guilty4 ,they supposed that the shades  
of their friends or enemies returned1   

and caused good or evil to befal them2  
and according to ,milligan there were   
four kinds of spirits4 ,purely          
superstitious rites were used for       
marriage4 ,old women and witches were   
often the arbiters of peace and war     
between the tribes1 and they had the    
right of pardoning4 ,sorcerers          
intervened in many social acts1 and     
before beginning their operations and   
incantations they revolved the          
mysterious ,mooyumkarr1 an oval piece of
 wood with a cord1 which was certainly  
connected with phallic superstitions4   
,bonwick asserts that on many private   
and public occasions1 the more skilled  
sorcerers called up spirits with        
appropriate ceremonies and formulas4    
,they were powerful1 and produced       
diseases1 and were able to exert malign 
influence1 and the urine of women1 human
 blood1 and ashes were superstitiously  
used as remedies against their spells4  
,the ,tasmanian who wished to hurt or   
bewitch any one1 procured something     

belonging to his enemy1 and especially  
his hair2 this1 was enveloped in fat and
 then exposed to the action of fire1 and
 it was thought that as it melted1 the  
man himself would waste away4 ,they     
feared lest the evil spirit evoked by   
the enchantments of an enemy might creep
 behind them in the night to steal away 
the renal fat1 an organ with which      
various physiological superstitions were
 connected4 ,they believed that stones1 
especially certain kinds of quartz      
crystals1 were means of communication   
with spirits1 with the dead1 and also   
with absent persons4 ,a woman often wore
 round her neck the phallus extracted   
from the body of her dead husband4 ,the 
movements of the sun and moon1 and some 
of their phases1 had a mythical bearing 
on various social acts1 or on the date  
of their assemblies1 since the sun was  
the object of great veneration2 and the 
full moon1 the epoch of assemblies1 was 
celebrated with feasting and dancing4   
,dances of many different kinds were    

connected with traditional myths1       
astrological superstitions1 and the     
phallic worship4 ,some remains of       
circular buildings and concentric       
compartments1 discovered by ,field and  
others1 had reference to their feasts1  
assemblies1 and dances4 ,among their    
cosmic myths1 ,milligan has preserved   
one relating to the double stars which  
perhaps refers to the invention of fire4
  ,from this cursory view of the        
conditions of society in its simplest   
form1 and among the most savage peoples1
 and of the mythical beliefs which      
prevailed under such conditions1 it     
clearly appears how myth1 dating from   
the first beginnings of human           
association1 has regarded1 invested1    
sanctioned1 and generated all special   
acts and relations1 and the whole social
 order1 both private and public4 ,the   
exercise of thought in primitive times  
not only consisted of mythical beliefs  
and associations1 but this same         
condition of thought reacted on all the 

phenomena of nature1 and on all social  
facts4 ,for if1 as we have already      
observed1 more rational empirical       
notions1 and a certain rude form of     
scientific faculty made its appearance  
amid those mythical ideas which were    
still persistent1 its various forms were
 not animated1 sustained1 and preserved 
by myth4 ,hence it is evident that the  
basis of the genesis of sociology as a  
whole consists in myth1 which sanctions 
its acts and establishes their relations
 to each other4 ,the immense importance 
of these studies1 even for the right    
understanding of the laws and historical
 evolution which guide and govern       
sociology1 is evident from this fact4   
,it must not be supposed that such a    
vast and profound incarnation of myth in
 social facts is peculiar to the        
primitive ages2 it persists and is      
maintained in all the historical phases 
of civilization1 even of the higher     
races1 although sometimes in a dormant  
form4 ,even in our days1 any one who    

considers our modes of society1 the     
organism1 customs1 ceremonies1 and      
manifold and complex institutions of    
modern life1 will readily see that      
religious influences and their rites    
initiate1 sanction1 and accompany every 
individual and social fact1 although    
civil and religious societies are       
becoming ever more distinct4  ,since1   
therefore1 myth is a constant form of   
sociology1 completely invests it1 and   
accompanies and animates its            
transmutations down to our days1        
everyone must recognize the necessity of
 this study in order to understand and  
explain the true history of thought and 
of sociology4  ,the energy1 the power1  
the physical and intellectual worth of a
 people are revealed as a whole in its  
mythical products1 whether in the       
quality and greatness of their beliefs1 
in the greater or less definiteness of  
their system1 or in their development   
into more rational notions2 and from the
 complex whole we can estimate the worth

 of their civilization4 ,so that1 where 
other extrinsic testimony is wanting1   
the study of these primitive creations  
will reveal to us their psychological   
worth4 ,this is the origin of the       
comparative psychology of peoples1 a    
most fruitful science1 which not only   
teaches us to rank the various families 
of peoples according to their relative  
value1 but it is of great use in making 
man acquainted with himself1 and with   
psychology in general4  ,in fact1 modern
 psychology can only advance by means of
 observation and experiment1 which      
constitute it one of the natural        
sciences2 and this is abundantly proved 
by the modern ,english schools1 and the 
experimental school in ,germany4 ,yet   
observation of the states of            
consciousness taken alone is defective1 
unless it is enlarged by the comparative
 examination of a greater number of     
subjects2 nor must ethnical             
peculiarities be passed over1 and it is 
precisely these which are included in   

the comparative psychology of peoples4  
,the large amount of results1 their     
infinite variety1 and at the same time a
 certain uniformity in their modes of   
beginning1 of their development1 and of 
their place in the universe1 give a     
splendid illustration of the innate     
exercise of human thought2 the          
likenesses as well as the contrasts are 
instructive as to its real nature4  ,the
 comparative psychology of peoples1     
studied from this point of view1        
certainly does not include the whole of 
psychological science1 which requires   
other instruments and other modes of    
experience1 but it is a great help as a 
foundation4 ,we believe that the study  
of myth1 which throws so much light on  
comparative psychology1 is likewise of  
use for the special psychology of man1  
since this can only arise from          
individual and ethnical observation1 and
 from experiment1 dissociated from every
 hindrance1 and from metaphysical       
prejudice4 ,and if by our humble essay  

we can throw any light on this noble    
science1 we shall be abundantly         
rewarded4     ,,chapter ,,ii4  ,,animal 
,,sensation ,,and ,,perception4   ,all  
animals communicate with each other and 
with the external world through their   
senses1 and by means of their           
perception1 both internal and external1 
they possess knowledge and apprehension 
of one another4 ,in the vast organic    
series of the animal kingdom1 some are  
better provided than others with        
methods1 instruments1 and apparatus fit 
for effecting such communication4 ,the  
senses of relation are not found in the 
same degree in all animals1 nor when    
such senses are the same in number are  
they endowed with equal intensity1      
acuteness1 and precision4 ,but the      
fundamental fact remains the same in all
 cases2 they communicate with themselves
 and with the external world through    
their senses4  ,we must now inquire what
 value the external object of           
perception1 considered in itself1 has   

for the animal1 what character it has   
and assumes with respect to his inner   
sense in the act of perception or       
apprehension4 ,man1 and especially man  
in our days1 after so many ages of      
reflection1 and through the influence of
 contemporary science1 is so far removed
 from the primitive and simple exercise 
of his psychical life1 that he finds it 
difficult to picture to himself the     
ancient and spontaneous conditions under
 which his senses communicated with the 
world and with himself4 ,and therefore1 
without further consideration1 he thinks
 and believes that in primeval times    
everything took place in the same way as
 it does at present1 and1 which is a    
still greater error1 as it takes place  
in the lower animals4  ,this            
identification of the complex machinery 
of human perception with that of animals
 must not be regarded as an absurd      
paradox1 since1 as we have shown in an  
earlier work1 they were originally and  
in themselves the same4#h ,by pursuing  

an easy mode of observation1 divested of
 prejudice1 we may revert to that       
primeval state of human nature1 and may 
also comprehend with truth and certainty
 the condition of animals4 ,for the     
animal nature has not ceased to exist in
 man1 and it may be discerned by those  
who care to look for it2 and careful    
study1 with the constant aid of         
observation and experiment1 will reveal 
to us the hidden life of sensation and  
intelligence in the lower animals4      
,there is a continual self-consciousness
 in all animals2 it is inseparable from 
all their internal and external acts1   
from every fact1 passion1 and emotion2  
and this is clear and obvious4 ,this    
fundamental and persistent              
self-consciousness--persistent in       
dreams1 and even in the calmest sleep1  
which is always accompanied by a vague  
sensation--is the consciousness of a    
living subject1 active1 impressionable1 
exercising his will1 capable of emotions
 and passions4 ,it is not the           

consciousness of an inert thing1        
passive1 dead1 or extrinsic2 for animal 
life consists in sensation of greater or
 less intensity1 but always of          
sensation4 ,consequently1 such a        
consciousness signifies for the animal a
 constant apprehension of an active     
faculty exercised intrinsically in      
himself1 and it makes his life into a   
mobile drama1 of which he is implicitly 
conscious1 of acts and emotions1 of     
impulses1 desires1 and suspicions4      
,this inward form of emotional life and 
psychical and organic action1 into which
 the whole value of personal existence  
is resolved1 may be said to invest and  
modify all the animal's active relations
 to the external world1 which it        
vivifies and modifies according to its  
own image4 ,the subsequent act of       
doubling the faculties which takes place
 in man does not occur in the animal2 a 
process which modifies through the      
intellect the spontaneous and primitive 
act4 ,consequently1 the active and      

inward sense which is peculiar to the   
animal is renewed in him by the external
 things and phenomena of nature which   
stimulate and excite him4  ,two kinds of
 things present themselves to his       
perception3 other animals1 of whatever  
species1 and the inanimate objects of   
the world4 ,as far as the other animals 
are concerned1 which are obvious to his 
perception1 it is perfectly evident that
 upon these he will project his whole   
internal life of consciousness and      
emotions1 and will feel their identity  
with himself by his implicit and        
intuitive judgment4 ,and in fact1 the   
movements1 sounds1 gestures1 and forms  
of other animals necessarily cause this 
sense of inward psychical identity1     
whence arises the implicit notion of an 
animated and personal subject4 ,any one 
who observes1 however superficially1 the
 conduct of animals to each other when  
they first meet1 cannot doubt this truth
 for an instant4  ,although the external
 form and character of the animal       

perceived are important factors of the  
implicit notion of an animated personal 
subject1 this belief is even more due to
 the animal's inward consciousness of   
himself as a living subject which is    
reflected in the extrinsic form of the  
other and is identified with it4 ,the   
spontaneous and personal psychical      
effort does not decompose the object    
perceived into its proper elements by   
means of reflex attention1 but it is    
immediately projected on those phenomena
 which assume a form analogous to the   
sentient subject4  ,the fact of this law
 must never be forgotten in the analysis
 of animal intelligence and sensation4  
,all those who do not keep clearly in   
view the real and genuine character of  
the sentient and intelligent faculty in 
animals are liable to error4  ,in       
addition to the perceptions we have     
mentioned1 animals have a perception of 
inanimate things1 that is1 of various   
bodies and phenomena of nature4         
,although the form1 motion1 and gestures

 of an analogous and personal subject   
are wanting in these cases1 so that they
 do not cause extrinsically the same    
implicit idea1 neither do they remain1  
as with a cultivated and rational man1  
things and qualities of independent     
existence1 disconnected with the life of
 the animal which perceives them1       
exerting no intentional efficacy1 and   
governed by necessary laws by means of  
which they act and exist4  ,a cultivated
 and rational man1 by the reflex and    
calm examination of things1 can         
correctly distinguish these two classes 
of subjects and phenomena1 and cannot as
 a rule be deceived as to their real and
 relative value with respect to them and
 to himself4 ,but when he forgets his   
primary intellectual condition1 and does
 not perfectly understand the permanent 
condition of animals1 he believes that  
their faculties are identical1 and that 
things1 qualities1 and phenomena present
 the same appearance to the human and   
the animal perception4 ,yet the actual  

nature of the thing1 so far as it is    
estimated by our perception as an object
 different from ourselves and from any  
other animal1 cannot be so apprehended  
by animals which lack the analytical    
faculty in the perennial flow of their  
perceptions2 the actual and inanimate   
thing is presented to them only by the  
intrinsic1 peculiar1 personal1 and      
psychical quality of the animal itself4 
,if form1 and characteristic and        
deliberate action1 are wanting to the   
substances and phenomena of inanimate   
nature1 qualities which more readily    
arouse in animals the idea of a subject 
resembling and analogous to themselves1 
yet there always remains the            
apprehension of some sort of form in    
which--not distinguished from the others
 by reflex action--the inward faculty of
 sensation and emotion is repeated and  
impersonated by the perceiving animal4  
,thus every form1 every object1 every   
external phenomenon becomes vivified and
 animated by the intrinsic consciousness

 and personal psychical faculty of the  
animal itself4 ,every object1 fact1 and 
phenomenon of nature will not merely    
appear to him as the real object which  
it is1 but he will necessarily perceive 
it as a living and deliberating power1  
capable of affecting him agreeably or   
injuriously4  ,every one is aware of the
 jealous1 suspicious nature of animals1 
and that they are not only inquisitive  
about other animals1 but about every    
material object which they see          
unexpectedly1 which moves in an unusual 
way1 or which interferes with or injures
 them4  ,it must have been often        
observed how they turn against any      
object which has chanced to hurt them1  
or which has annoyed them by regular and
 repeated motions1 how they start at the
 sudden appearance or oscillation of    
some unlooked-for thing1 at an unusual  
light1 a colour1 a stone1 a plant1 at   
the fluttering of branches1 of clothes1 
or weathercocks1 at the rush of water1  
at the slightest movement or sound in   

the twilight1 or in the darkness of     
night4 ,they look about1 and consider   
all things and phenomena as subjects    
actuated by will1 and as having an      
immediate influence on their lives1     
either beneficent or injurious4         
,undoubtedly they do1 as a rule1 by     
means of their implicit judgment1       
distinguish animals as of a different   
type from other objects1 but they       
transfuse into everything their own     
personality and their intrinsic         
consciousness4 ,this is the case with   
the whole animal kingdom1 at least with 
those whose internal emotion can be     
gathered from their external movements  
and gestures4  ,an animal is sometimes  
aware that an enemy which may lie in    
wait for and destroy him has approached 
the neighbourhood of his haunts1 or at  
any rate may interfere with the freedom 
of his ordinary life1 and he withdraws  
as far as he can from this new peril or 
injury1 and seeks to defend himself from
 the malice of his enemy by special     

arts4 ,in this case1 the external       
subject or thing is what his own        
objective sense conceives it to be1 and 
his inward perception corresponds to an 
actual cosmic reality4  ,suppose that   
instead of this1 the neighbourhood of a 
fierce fire1 or violent rain and hail1  
or a stormy wind1 or some other natural 
phenomenon1 surprises or injures such   
creatures2 these facts do not affect    
them as if they were merely occurrences 
in accordance with cosmic laws1 for such
 a simple conception of things is not   
grasped by them4 ,such phenomena of     
nature are regarded by animals as living
 subjects1 actuated by a concrete and   
deliberate purpose of ill-will towards  
them4 ,any one who has observed animals 
as ,i have done for many years1 both in 
a wild and domestic state1 and under    
every variety of conditions and         
circumstances1 will readily admit the   
fact4  ,this truth1 which clearly       
appears from an accurate analysis of    
facts1 and from experiments1 can also be

 demonstrated by the arguments of       
reason4 ,since animals have no          
conception of the purely cosmic reality 
of the phenomena and laws which         
constitute nature1 it follows that such 
a reality must appear to their inner    
consciousness in its various effects as 
a subject vaguely identical with their  
own psychical nature4 ,hence they regard
 nature as if she were inspired with the
 same life1 will1 and purpose1 as those 
which they themselves exercise1 and of  
which they have an immediate and        
intrinsic consciousness4  ,it is true   
that after long experience animals      
become accustomed to regard as harmless 
the phenomena1 objects1 and forces by   
which they were at first sympathetically
 excited and terrified4 ,of this we have
 innumerable examples both among wild   
and domestic animals2 but although      
suspicion and anxiety are subdued by    
habit and experience1 yet these objects 
and phenomena are not thereby           
transformed into pure and simple        

realities4 ,in the same way1 if they are
 at first frightened by the sight and   
companionship of some other species or  
object1 habit and experience gradually  
calm their fears and suspicions1 and the
 association or neighbourhood may even  
become agreeable to them4 ,i have often 
observed that different species1 both   
when at liberty and in confinement1 are 
affected by the most lively surprise and
 perturbation when some new phenomenon  
has startled them2 they act as if it    
were really a living and insidious      
subject1 and then they gradually become 
calm and quiet1 and regard it as some   
indifferent or beneficent power4  ,i    
must adduce some observations and       
experiments from the many ,i have made  
on this subject4 ,it may be objected    
that if animals in their spontaneous    
perception personify the object in      
question1 they would give signs of this 
fact with respect to all the objects    
with which they come in contact1 and    
among which they live1 and yet they     

remain indifferent to many of them1     
which is a proof that they distinguish  
the animate from the inanimate4 ,in fact
 it cannot be disputed that a vast      
number of the phenomena and objects of  
nature are regarded by animals with     
indifference2 they are perceived by     
them1 but it does not appear that they  
suppose these things to be endowed with 
life4 ,it is1 however1 necessary in the 
first place to distinguish two modes and
 stages in this animation of things1 one
 of which we may term static1 and the   
other dynamic4 ,in the first instance1  
the sentient subject remains tranquil at
 the very moment when he vivifies the   
phenomenon or the thing perceived2 while
 the act is accomplished with so much   
animating force1 and with an implicit   
and fugitive consciousness1 it exerts no
 immediate and sudden influence on the  
perceiving animal1 and consequently he  
gives no external signs of the          
personifying character of his           
perception4 ,in the second instance1    

which we have termed dynamic1 that is1  
when the phenomenon or object has a     
direct and sudden effect on the animal  
himself1 he expresses by his movements2 
gestures1 cries1 and other signs1 how   
instantaneously he considers and feels  
the object in question to be alive1 for 
he behaves in exactly the same way      
towards real animals4  ,animals are     
accustomed to show such indifference    
towards numerous objects that it might  
be supposed that they have an accurate  
conception of what is inanimate2 but    
this arises from habit1 from long       
experience1 and partly also from the    
hereditary disposition of the organism  
towards this habit4 ,but if the object  
should act in any unusual way1 then the 
animating process which1 as we have just
 said1 was rendered static by its       
habitual exercise1 again becomes        
dynamic1 and the special and permanent  
character of the act is at once         
revealed4 ,we have experience of this   
fact in ourselves1 although we are now  

capable of immediately distinguishing   
between the animate and the inanimate1  
and man alone has1 or can have1 a       
rational conception of what are really  
cosmic objects or things4 ,yet if we    
suddenly and unexpectedly see some      
object move in a strange way1 which we  
know from experience to be inanimate1   
the innate inclination to personify it  
takes effect1 and for a moment we are   
amazed1 as if the phenomenon were       
produced by deliberate power proper to  
itself4  ,i have kept various kinds of  
animals for several years1 in order to  
observe them and try experiments at my  
convenience4 ,i have suddenly inserted  
an unfamiliar object in the various     
cages in which ,i have kept birds1      
rabbits1 moles1 and other animals4 ,at  
first sight the animal is always        
surprised1 timid1 curious1 or           
suspicious1 and often retreats from it4 
,by degrees his confidence returns1 and 
after keeping out of the way for some   
time1 he becomes accustomed to it1 and  

resumes his usual habits4 ,if then1 by a
 simple arrangement of strings already  
prepared1 ,i move the object to and fro1
 without showing myself1 the animal     
scuttles about and is much less easily  
reconciled to its appearance4 ,i have   
tried this experiment with various      
animals1 and the result is almost always
 the same4  ,in the cage of a very tame 
thrush1 ,i made a movable bottom to his 
feeding trough1 so arranged that by     
suddenly pulling a cord1 the food which 
it contained could be raised or lowered4
 ,when everything remained stationary in
 its place the thrush ate with lively   
readiness1 but as soon as ,i raised the 
food he nearly always flew off in alarm4
 ,when the experiment had been often    
repeated1 he did not like to come near  
the feeding trough1 and--which is a     
still stronger proof that he imagined   
the food itself to be endowed with      
life--he often refused to approach1 or  
only approached in fear the sopped bread
 which was placed outside the trough4 ,i

 tried the same experiment with other   
birds1 and nearly always with the same  
result4  ,on another occasion ,i        
repeatedly waved a white handkerchief   
before a spirited horse1 bringing it    
close to his eyes2 at first he looked at
 it suspiciously and shied a little1 but
 without being much discomposed1 and ,i 
continued the experiment until he became
 accustomed to its ordinary appearance4 
,one day ,i and a friend went out       
driving with this horse1 and ,i directed
 a man1 while we were passing at a      
moderate pace1 to wave the same         
handkerchief1 attached to a stick1 in   
such a way that his person on the other 
side of the hedge was invisible4 ,the   
horse was scared and shied violently1   
and even in the stable he could not see 
the handkerchief without trembling1 and 
it was difficult to reconcile him to the
 sight of it4 ,i repeated the experiment
 with slight variations on other horses1
 and the issue was always more or less  
the same4  ,again1 ,i placed a scarecrow

 or bogey in a parti-coloured dress in  
the spacious kennel of a hound while he 
was absent from it4 ,when the dog wished
 to return to his kennel1 he drew back  
at the sight of it1 and barked for a    
long while4 ,after going backwards and  
forwards1 snuffing suspiciously1 he     
decided to enter1 but he remained on the
 threshold of the kennel1 anxiously     
inspecting the bogey4 ,in a few days1   
however1 he became accustomed to it1 and
 was indifferent to its presence4 ,i    
ought to add that ,i had taught him on  
the first day1 by punishment and        
admonition1 that he must not destroy the
 bogey4 ,one day when the dog was lying 
down ,i violently moved the puppet's    
arms by a cord1 and he jumped up and ran
 barking out of the kennel1 soon        
returning to bark as he had done at     
first4 ,finally1 he again became        
accustomed to it1 but whenever ,i       
repeated the movement with greater      
violence1 it took a long while for him  
to become reconciled to it4  ,i put into

 a room various kinds of wild birds1    
which had been taken in nets after they 
were full grown4 ,the window1 which     
looked upon a garden1 was unglazed1 and 
closed by a wire netting1 through which 
the outer air entered and was constantly
 renewed4 ,i placed in the middle of the
 room a pot containing a shrub of some  
size1 on which the birds used to perch4 
,since they had been reared in the open 
air they were certainly accustomed to   
the wind1 and to the way in which it    
moves trees and branches1 so that they  
were not alarmed by a phenomenon which  
they recognized from experience4 ,i     
fastened a cord to the head of the shrub
 which ,i passed through a hole in the  
door1 making another to look through1   
and in this way ,i moved it to and fro  
as the wind might have done4 ,one day   
when there was a high wind which could  
be heard in the room1 and when the      
current of air through the window was   
perceptible1 ,i tried the experiment    
when the conditions of resemblance were 

perfect4 ,and yet when the violent      
movement and oscillation of the shrub   
was combined with the noise of the wind1
 the frightened birds all fluttered     
about1 and after repeating the movement1
 and then allowing it to subside1 they  
kept away from the shrub and did not    
dare to settle on it4  ,at another time1
 aided by an ingenious young friend1 ,i 
constructed a toy windmill1 of which the
 vanes were moved by weights4 ,i placed 
this toy in a cage1 so arranged that its
 motions could be regulated from the    
outside1 and ,i put into the cage a     
sparrow1 which had been taken from the  
nest1 and which consequently had no     
experience of the external world4 ,much 
patience was needed1 since the toy      
required careful adjustment and was     
easily thrown out of gear1 but ,i       
managed it at last4 ,the sparrow pecked 
at the little mill as soon as he was put
 into the cage1 and he grew up          
accustomed to its motions4 ,i then took 
the sparrow out of the cage and put in a

 finch1 which had also been taken from  
the nest1 but was reared far from such a
 machine1 and he was frightened and did 
not reconcile himself to it for some    
time4 ,i exchanged this bird for a      
goldfinch which had been caught after he
 was full grown1 and his alarm at the   
little mill was so great that he did not
 dare to move4  ,in a ground floor room 
which ,i used as my study1 ,i hung an   
old sheet1 which reached to the ground1 
on a long spear inserted in a heavy     
wooden disk2 ,i surmounted it with a    
ragged hunting cap1 and so arranged the 
sheet as to give it some resemblance to 
the human form4 ,when my dog came in as 
usual1 he looked suspiciously at the    
object1 snuffing about and gradually    
approaching to walk round and observe   
it4 ,at last he was satisfied1 and      
curled himself up by the skirts of the  
bogey1 where ,i had placed the mat on   
which he was accustomed to lie when he  
was with me4 ,one evening when the moon 
shone doubtfully and there was just     

light enough to distinguish the outline 
of things1 ,i carried the shapeless     
bogey into the garden near my room1 and 
placed it among some shrubs and bushes4 
,i went back to the house and called my 
dog1 who followed me quietly until he   
reached the spot from which he could see
 the bogey distinctly enough for him to 
recognize its identity with the one with
 which he was already familiar4 ,as soon
 as he saw the apparition he stood      
still1 growling furiously2 he began to  
bark1 and when ,i encouraged him to come
 on1 he turned round and ran back to the
 house4 ,i shut up the dog in another   
room1 brought back the bogey to its     
former place1 and threw a strong light  
upon it before recalling the dog4 ,at   
the first sight of the bogey the dog    
paused suspiciously for an instant1 but 
when ,i sat down to the table as usual1 
he hesitated a little and after snuffing
 at it went back to his couch4  ,i have 
made similar experiments with dogs1     
rabbits1 birds1 and other animals4 ,i   

took long wooden poles1 and put them    
inside their cages or hutches in such a 
way that the animals got to know and    
feel reconciled to the sight of them4   
,after some days had elapsed1 ,i        
contrived1 while screened from sight1 to
 take the poles from their usual place  
and to make them touch and annoy the    
animals with more or less violence1 thus
 causing them to flutter or scamper     
about and to shrink away1 as if from the
 touch of a living person1 although they
 were unable1 as ,i have said1 to see me
 or my hand4 ,those which were least    
agitated sprang forward with little     
leaps and looked about them1 doubtful   
and excited4 ,i might go on to describe 
many other experiments made with the    
same object1 and always with the same   
result1 but these are enough to show    
that ,i went to work cautiously and     
conscientiously1 that the spontaneous   
and innate personification of the       
objects perceived by animals is clearly 
apparent1 and also how we may account   

for their indifference to those to which
 they become accustomed4  ,among animals
 the necessity of finding food is the   
great and unfailing stimulus towards the
 exercise of their vital functions2 food
 which may1 as we all know1 be          
vegetable1 animal1 or a combination of  
both kinds4 ,it is evident that in the  
case of carnivorous animals the object  
which satisfies this desire is a living 
subject1 of which it is necessary to    
become possessed by arts1 wiles1        
sometimes by a fierce and cruel         
conflict4 ,in these cases1 animals are  
in constant communication with an animal
 world resembling their own1 and the    
objective reality is for the most part  
resolved into living subjects1 endowed  
with consciousness and will4 ,but       
neither is the vegetable food of        
herbivorous1 frugivorous1 and           
graminivorous animals regarded by them1 
as it is by us1 as a material and       
unconscious satisfaction of their wants2
 these grasses1 grains1 and leaves      

appear to animals to be living powers   
which it is necessary to conquer1       
animated subjects endowed with life1 but
 for the most part inoffensive1 and     
which1 unlike the living prey of        
carnivora1 offer no resistance4         
,observe the way in which an herbivorous
 or graminivorous animal becomes excited
 and angry when the branch or the ear of
 corn obstinately adheres to the ground1
 or offers any other difficulty to his  
immediate desire of obtaining food2 he  
acts like one who has to do with a      
resisting power4 ,observe how1 when they
 are quietly stripping the bough1       
picking out the grains1 or eating the   
grass1 they become suspicious1 or fly   
away if there should be any unusual     
movement in the bough1 the ears of corn1
 or the grass4 ,in one way or another   
their food is regarded as a subject     
endowed with sympathetic and deliberate 
consciousness4 ,and every one must have 
observed that animals at play act       
towards inanimate objects as if they    

were conscious and endowed with will4   
,every object of animal perception is   
therefore felt1 or implicitly assumed1  
to be a living1 conscious1 acting       
subject4 ,this is due to the external   
reflection and projection of the        
intrinsic and sentient faculty1 and     
therefore--since an animal has not the  
duplex faculty of deliberate and reflex 
attention--he cannot attain to the      
conception of simple external reality1  
of cosmic things and phenomena4 ,every  
object1 every phenomenon is for him a   
deliberating power1 a living subject1 in
 which consciousness and will act as    
they do in himself4 ,there are          
undoubtedly in the vast series of beings
 which compose the order of nature1 and 
which he is able to perceive1 degrees1  
differences1 and varieties of energy1   
power1 and efficacy with respect to     
himself and to the normal exercise of   
his life4 ,but he transfuses into all1  
in proportion to the effects which      
result from them1 his own nature1 and   

modifies them in accordance with the    
intrinsic form of his consciousness1 his
 emotions1 and his instincts4  ,the     
external world appears to animals to be 
a great and mighty movement and         
congeries of living1 conscious1         
deliberating beings1 and the value of   
the phenomenon or thing is great in     
proportion to its effect on the animal  
itself4 ,the objective and simple       
reality1 as it appears to man1 has no   
existence for animals2 from the nature  
of their intelligence they cannot attain
 to any explicit conception of it1 so   
that this reality is resolved and       
modified into their own image4 ,the     
eternal and infinite flux1 by which all 
things come and go in obedience to laws 
which are permanent and enduring1       
appears to animals to be a vast and     
confused dramatic company in which the  
subjects1 with or without organic form1 
are always active1 working in and       
through themselves1 with benign or      
malignant1 pleasing or hurtful          

influence4 ,it is for this reason1 and  
this reason only1 that their life of    
consciousness and of relation is so     
deeply seated and so readily excited4   
,nor do animals ever believe themselves 
to be alone among inanimate things2 even
 when not surrounded by allied or       
different species1 they have the sense  
of living amid the manifold forms of    
conscious and deliberating life which   
the world contains4  ,this constant and 
deliberate animation of all the objects 
and phenomena of nature is spontaneous  
and necessary owing to the psychical and
 organic constitution of the animal     
kingdom1 and it resolves itself into a  
universal personification of the        
phenomena themselves4 ,in fact1 the     
animal's intrinsic psychical personality
 is infused and transformed into each of
 them with more or less intensity and   
vigour2 the phenomena are perceived by  
each individual just as far as he       
assimilates them1 and he is constantly  
assimilating himself to them4 ,his      

communication with the external world is
 in proportion with its internal        
reflection on himself1 and he           
understands just as much as his own     
nature enables him to grasp4  ,a careful
 consideration therefore shows that the 
conditions of animal knowledge consist  
in endowing the phenomena and objects of
 nature with consciousness and will4 ,i 
think that this truth will prove a      
certain guide and beacon in the         
interpretation of the origin of myth and
 science in man4     ,,chapter ,,iii4   
,,human ,,sensation ,,and ,,perception4 
,in man1 as it has been clearly proved1 
sensations and perceptions occur both   
physiologically and psychically just as 
they do in animals4 ,if science and the 
rational process of the interpretation  
of things have their origin and are     
evolved in us by the duplication of our 
faculties1 such a function1 which is due
 to this duplication1 is very slowly    
developed and exercised1 and in its     
origin1 as an effort of the             

intelligence1 it does not differ from   
that of animals4  ,it is true that the  
internal act of the higher faculty of   
reflection has hardly taken place before
 man unconsciously enters on a new and  
vast apprenticeship1 which soon         
distinguishes him from and exalts him   
above the animal kingdom2 science has   
already put forth its first germ4 ,but  
the reasoning and simply animal         
faculties were so mingled1 that for a   
long while they were confounded together
 in their effects and results1 as well  
as in their natural methods4 ,we must   
therefore begin by considering the      
nature of this primitive human          
perception1 in some degree identical    
with that of animals1 so that they may  
be estimated to be of equal value1 at   
any rate in their first results and     
arts4  ,the vivid self-consciousness1   
inseparable at all times from every act1
 passion1 and emotion1 actuates man and 
animals alike2 he has this consciousness
 in common with all other animals1 and  

especially with those superior orders   
which are nearest to himself4 ,the      
further perception of extrinsic things  
and phenomena occurs after the same     
manner and in accordance with the same  
physiological and psychical laws4 ,by   
the intrinsic law of animal nature1 as  
it is adapted to his cosmic environment1
 we see the cause and necessity of the  
transfusion and projection of himself   
into everything which he perceives2     
whence it follows that he regards these 
things as living1 conscious1 and        
deliberating subjects2 and this is also 
the case with man1 who animates and     
endows with life all which surrounds him
 and which he perceives4  ,in fact1 in  
man's spontaneous and immediate         
perception and apprehension of any      
object or external phenomenon1          
especially in early life1 the innate    
effects are instantaneous1 and          
correspond with the real constitution of
 the function2 analysis and reflex      
attention necessarily and slowly succeed

 to this primitive animal act in the    
course of human development4            
,consequently the true character and    
value of its effect on the perception   
are the same in man and animals4  ,if in
 this psychical and organic fact of     
perception1 man is at first absolutely  
in the conditions of animals1 identical 
effects must be produced2 and this was  
originally the case1 as far as man      
himself and external things were        
concerned4 ,the powerful                
self-consciousness which actuates man   
and animals alike is projected on the   
objects or phenomena perceived1 and they
 see them transformed into living1      
deliberating subjects4 ,in this way the 
world and all which it contains appears 
to be a congeries of beings1 actuated by
 will and consciousness1 and powerful   
for good or evil1 and in practice they  
seek to modify1 to encourage1 or to     
avoid such influence4 ,the ultimate     
effect of this action1 assumed to be    
intentional in all and each of these    

subjects1 will be their personification1
 either vaguely or definitely1 but      
always as a power active for good or    
ill4  ,if we trace back the memories of 
historic and civilized peoples into the 
twilight of their origin1 at a time when
 they were still barbarous1 and little  
removed from their primitive savage     
conditions1 we shall find1 the further  
we go back1 the more vivid1 general1 and
 multiform will the mythological        
interpretation and conception of the    
world and its various phenomena appear  
to be2 everything was personified by    
these primitive peoples in a way common 
to the animal and human consciousness   
alike4  ,of this the testimony remaining
 in the most ancient verses of the first
 ,veda is a sufficient proof4 ,at the   
epoch of their composition the human    
race had made some relative progress in 
morals and civilization2 yet we find    
that psychical human life was transfused
 and projected into everything3 man     
personified each phenomenon and force of

 nature in accordance with his own      
image4  ,for example1 fire in general   
was personified and identified with     
humanity in ,agni2 even the shape taken 
by the flames1 all which was required to
 light the fire1 the whole process of   
the sacrifice1 even the doors of the    
altar-railing1 the prayer and oblation  
to the god4#i  ,we also learn from the  
solemn and ancient songs of the         
,rig-,veda that all terrestrial1        
meteorological1 and celestial phenomena 
were more or less vaguely personified4  
,these facts recur in all the earliest  
recollections of civilized peoples4 ,if 
we turn from these to observe the savage
 races of modern times1 and the most    
barbarous tribes still extant in        
continents and isles far removed from   
culture and science1 we shall again find
 the same beliefs4 ,the range of absurd 
personifications1 degenerating into the 
most trivial and varied forms of fetish 
worship1 becomes wider1 and its         
influence deeper1 in proportion to the  

rude and barbarous condition of the     
tribe or stock in which they appear4    
,even among ourselves1 in the midst of  
the most civilized ,european nations of 
modern times1 how much mythology still  
lingers in the lower classes1 both in   
cities and the country4 ,it flourishes  
in proportion to the ignorance and want 
of culture of the people1 as those know 
who have really studied the intellectual
 conditions of all classes in our       
time4#aj  ,in the child just beginning  
to walk1 to move freely1 and to talk1   
and even at a later age1 in cases in    
which the reflective faculty is weak1   
and when it approximates more to the    
psychical and organic conditions of     
animals1 such a projection of self and  
personification of surrounding objects  
is evident to all4 ,for this reason a   
child transforms all which it seizes or 
plays with into a person or animal1 and 
when alone with them it talks1 shouts1  
and laughs1 as if such objects could    
really feel1 act1 and obey2 in short1 as

 if they were real persons or animals4  
,so strong is the childish instinct1 or1
 as ,i might say1 the law of its being  
to project and transfuse itself into    
objects1 that it is apt to speak of     
itself in the third person4 ,a child    
seldom says1 ,i will1 or ,i am hungry1  
but ,louis wants1 ,louis is hungry1 or  
whatever his name may be4 ,this         
phenomenon reappears in the second      
childhood of old age1 when the power of 
reflection is weakened1 and there is a  
reversion to the primitive animal       
condition4 ,the same phenomenon also    
occurs in idiots1 in whom there is a    
morbid defect of reflective power4      
,this fact of the personification of the
 objects of perception is therefore     
evident and constant in the primitive   
man of civilized races1 in the barbarous
 condition of modern savages1 in the    
ignorant multitude1 and in              
children--intellectual conditions which 
approach most closely to the condition  
of animals--and conversely it is plain  

that it belongs in the highest degree to
 the intellectual life of animals1 and  
that myth1 into which such a            
personification and animation of things 
must be resolved1 has its original and  
innate necessity in animal life4 ,we    
think that this is a new scientific     
fact1 which throws much light on the    
history of human thought4  ,m',lennan   
observes1 ,some explanation of the      
phenomena of life a man must feign for  
himself2 and to judge from the          
universality of it1 the simplest        
hypothesis1 and the first to occur to   
men1 seems to have been that natural    
phenomena are ascribable to the presence
 in animals1 plants1 and things1 and in 
the forces of nature1 of such spirits   
prompting to action as men are conscious
 they themselves possess4#aa ,this fact1
 indicated by ,m',lennan and by all who 
have devoted themselves to              
anthropological researches with respect 
to the origin of religions1 and of myth 
in general1 is now recognized as        

certain2 but it seems to me that the    
interpretation and explanation of it are
 altogether implete4 ,they suppose it to
 be simply the effect of psychological  
laws as far as man is concerned1 whereas
 we have shown that it forms1 in the    
ultimate causes by which it is produced1
 the very essence of animal perception4 
,they ascribe it to man as a rational   
hypothesis to explain the primitive     
order of things1 whereas it is a        
spontaneous and primary intuition of the
 animal intelligence4  ,alger1 although 
he is also mistaken as to the true      
causes of myth in general1 expresses    
himself better when he asserts that the 
brain of a savage is always dominated by
 the idea that all objects whatsoever   
have a soul precisely similar to that of
 man4 ,the custom of burning and burying
 various things with the dead body was1 
he thinks1 in many cases prompted by the
 belief that every such object had its  
manes4#ab  ,in fact1 the innate         
psychical and organic constitution of   

the intelligence1 both animal and human1
 is such that it spontaneously and      
necessarily projects itself into every  
object of nature and perception1        
animating and personifying it by this   
special law1 and not by a reflective    
hypothesis1 such as would be the        
conscious and deliberate solution of a  
given problem4 ,such a solution cannot  
be made by animals1 since as we have    
shown they are without the faculty of   
making a deliberate research into any   
subject2 nor can it be effected by the  
primitive man1 in whom the reasoning    
faculty with which he is endowed is     
still undeveloped4  ,the real origin of 
reflection is not to be found in what   
may be called the mythical creation of  
nature1 which is the necessary result of
 the spontaneity of the intelligence1   
both in man and animals2 it is developed
 after long duration of barbarism and   
ignorance4 ,m',lennan and others have   
shown how the era of reflection and     
hypothesis begins in the evolution of   

human intelligence4 ,sekesa1 an         
intelligent ,kaffir1 said to            
,arbrousset1#ac ,for twelve years ,i    
have shepherded my flock4 ,it was dark1 
and ,i sat down upon a rock and asked   
myself such questions as these1 sad     
questions1 since ,i was unable to answer
 them4 ,who made the stars8 ,what       
supports them8 ,do the waters never grow
 weary of flowing from morning to       
evening1 from evening to morning1 and   
where do they find rest8 ,whence come   
the clouds1 which pass and re-pass1 and 
dissolve in rain8 ,who sends them8 ,our 
diviners certainly do not send rain1    
since they have no means of making it1  
nor do ,i see them with my eyes going up
 to heaven to seek it4 ,i cannot see the
 wind1 and know not what it is4 ,who    
guides and causes it to blow1 to rage1  
and overwhelm us8 ,nor do ,i know how   
the corn grows4 ,yesterday there was not
 a blade of grass in my field1 and      
to-day it is green2 who gave to the     
earth the wisdom and power to bring     

forth8 ,again1 there is a passage in the
 ,rig-,veda1 in which it is said1 ,where
 do the fixed stars of heaven which we  
see by night go by day8  ,it is in this 
intellectual condition that ignorant and
 savage man really begins the           
spontaneous yet reflective research into
 the causes of things1 and it is in this
 condition only that he hypothetically  
interprets the order of phenomena       
through myths1 which have then become   
secondary1 and are no longer primitive4 
,the true origin of the primitive myth  
which animates and personifies the      
universe is not to be found in this     
condition2 its origin is of much earlier
 date in the history of man1 and indeed 
it has its roots1 as we have shown1 in  
animal life4  ,certainly when we compare
 the two intellectual periods1 there is 
a wide difference between the age in    
which ,sekesa could be perplexed by such
 inquiries1 and that of more primitive  
peoples1 which still believe without    
question in the soul and informing      

spirit or shade of stones1 sticks1      
weapons1 food1 water1 springs--in short1
 of every object and phenomenon4 ,this  
is still the case with the ,algonquins1 
the ,fijians1 the ,karens1 the          
,caribbees1 the negroes of ,guinea1 the 
,new ,zealanders1 the ,tongusians1 the  
,greenlanders1 the ,esthonians1 the     
,australians1 the ,peruvians1 and a host
 of other savage and barbarous peoples4 
,they not only animate and personify    
material objects1 but even diseases and 
their remedies4  ,the incubus1 for      
example1 termed ,mara in ,northern      
mythology1 was the spirit which         
tormented sleepers4 ,this is the ,mar of
 the ,german proverb3 ,dich hat greitten
 der ,mar4 ,the word is derived from    
,mar1 a horse1 and becomes nightmare in 
,english1 ,cauchemar in ,french1 ,greek3
 ,ephialts in ,greek1 meaning one which 
rides upon another4 ,so with epilepsy1  
which signifies the act of being seized 
by any one2 it was1 like all nervous    
diseases1 held to be a sacred evil1 and 

those afflicted by it were supposed to  
be possessed4 ,insanity was regarded in 
the same way1 as we see in the ,bible   
where ,saul's melancholy is said to be  
an evil spirit sent from ,god4 ,a       
furious madman was supposed to have been
 carried off by a demon1 and in ,persia 
the insane were said to be ,god's fools4
 ,in ,tahiti they were called ,eatooa1  
that is1 possessed by a divine spirit2  
and in the ,sandwich ,isles they were   
worshipped as men into whom a divinity  
had entered4 ,in ,german the plica      
polonica is called ,alpzopf1 or         
hobgoblin's tail4 ,all nations believed 
that the malign beings which animated   
diseases could1 like men1 be propitiated
 by ceremonies and incantations4 ,the   
,redskins are always in fear of the     
assaults of evil spirits1 and have      
recourse to incantations1 and to the    
most absurd sacerdotal rites1 or to the 
influence of their manitu1 in order to  
be safe4 ,their devotions and sacrifices
 are prompted by fear rather than by    

gratitude4  ,tanner mentions1 in his    
,narrative of a ,captivity among the    
,indians1 that he once heard a          
convalescent patient reproved for his   
imprudence in exposing himself to the   
air1 since his shade had not altogether 
come back to abide within him4 ,for this
 purpose1 and in conformity with such   
ideas1 when the sorcerer ,malgaco wishes
 to cure a sick man1 he makes a hole in 
a tomb to let out the spirit1 which he  
then takes in his cap1 and constrains it
 to enter the patient's head4 ,the      
process of disease is supposed to be a  
struggle between the sick person and the
 evil spirit of sickness4 ,the          
,greek-word1 prophylak signifies the    
arrangements of outposts4 ,agonia is the
 hottest moment of conflict1 and krisis 
the decisive day of battle1 as we see in
 ,polybius1 liii41 c4 #hi4 ,medicine was
 from the earliest times confounded with
 magic1 which is only the primitive form
 of the conception of nature4 ,the      
,aryan rulers in ,india in ancient times

 believed that the savage races were    
autochthonic workers of magic who were  
able to assume any form they pleased4#ad
 ,the negro priests of fetish worship   
believe that they can pronounce on the  
disease without seeing the patient1 by  
the aid of his garments or of anything  
which belongs to him4#ae ,the           
superstition of the evil eye recurs in  
,vedic ,india1 as well as among many    
other peoples4 ,in the ,rig-,veda the   
wife is exhorted not to look upon her   
husband with an evil eye4 ,there was the
 same belief among the ancient ,greeks1 
and it is also found in the oculus      
fascinus of the ,romans1 and the ,german
 bses ,auge4 ,the early ,german ,rito1  
or fever1 was a spirit 7,alb7 which rode
 upon the sick man4 ,a passage in the   
,rig-,veda states that demons assume the
 form of an owl1 cock1 wolf1 etc4#af    
,such was the primitive attitude of the 
transfusion of individual psychical life
 into things1 and consequently of       
general metamorphosis4 ,kuhn identifies 

the ,greek verb ,greek3 iaomai with the 
,sanscrit yavayami1 to avert1 and in the
 ,rig-,veda this verb is used in        
connection with amiv1 disease2 so that  
it was necessary to drive away the      
demon1 as the cause of sickness4 ,a     
physician1 according to the meaning of  
the old ,sanscrit word1 was the         
exorciser of disease1 the man who fought
 with its demon4 ,we find the practice  
of incantations as a remedy for disease 
in use among the ancient ,greeks1 the   
,romans1 and all ,european nations1 as  
well as among savages in other parts of 
the world4  ,the objects and phenomena  
obvious to perception are therefore     
supposed by primitive man1 as well as by
 animals1 to be conscious subjects in   
virtue of their constitution1 and of the
 innate character of sensation and      
intelligence4 ,so that the universal    
personification of the things and       
phenomena of nature1 either vaguely1 or 
in an animal form1 is a fundamental and 
necessary fact1 both in animals and in  

man2 it is a spontaneous effect of the  
psychical faculty in its relations to   
the world4 ,we think that this truth    
cannot be controverted1 and it will be  
still more clearly proved in the course 
of this work4  ,such a fact1 considered 
in its first manifestation and in the   
laws which originally govern it in      
animals1 and in man as far as his animal
 nature is concerned1 assumes a fresh   
aspect1 and is of two-fold force when it
 is studied in man after he has begun to
 reason1 that is1 when his original     
psychical faculty is doubled4 ,the      
animation and personification of objects
 and phenomena by animals are always    
relative to those of the external world2
 that is1 animals transfuse and project 
themselves into every form which really 
excites1 affects1 alarms1 allures1 or   
threatens them2 and the spontaneous     
psychical faculty which such a vivifying
 process always produces necessarily    
remains within the sphere of their      
external perceptions and apprehensions4 

,in a word1 they live in the midst of   
the objective nature1 which they animate
 with consciousness and will1 and their 
internal power is altogether absorbed in
 this external transformation4  ,in man1
 in addition to this animation of the   
things and phenomena of the external    
world1 another more profound and vivid  
animation takes place1 the animation not
 merely of external forms1 but of       
internal perceptions1 ideas1 sentiments1
 and all kinds of emotions4 ,we know    
that man has not only the perception of 
external and internal things1 but also  
the perception of this perception4      
,hence the external form1 or the        
internal sentiment and emotion1 may by  
the dominion of his will over all the   
attributes of his intelligence be once  
more subjected to his deliberate        
observation and intuition2 by this      
process the external and internal world 
are doubled in their intrinsic ideal1   
and give birth to analysis and          
abstraction1 that is1 to the            

specification and generalization of the 
things observed4  ,when this spontaneous
 faculty of man has been developed      
within him1 his observation of the      
similarities1 analogies1 differences1   
and identities which are to be found in 
all things and phenomena1 in sentiments 
and emotions1 necessarily induces him to
 collect and simplify them in special   
forms1 to combine these various         
intuitions in a homologous type2 this   
type corresponds with an external or    
internal congeries of similar1          
identical1 or analogous images or ideas1
 out of which the species and genera of 
the intellect are formed4 ,in this way1 
for instance1 arose the mental          
classification of trees1 plants1        
flowers1 rivers1 springs1 animals1 and  
the like1 as well as that of love1      
hatred1 sorrow1 anger1 birth1 and death1
 strength1 weakness1 rule1 and          
obedience2 in short1 the generic        
conceptions of all natural phenomena1 as
 well as of psychical sentiments and    

emotions4  ,animals1 for example1       
perceive a given plant or tree1 as a    
thing presented at the moment to their  
individual consciousness1 and by        
infusing this consciousness into the    
object in question1 they animate and    
personify it1 especially if its fruits  
or leaves are attractive1 or if it is   
moved by the wind4 ,we have seen that   
all things are necessarily personified  
by animals1 for if they meet with any   
material obstacle1 they do not ascribe  
the sudden impediment to the            
impenetrability of matter1 or to        
superior force1 but rather to an        
intentional opposition to their aim or  
progress4 ,we often see that animals not
 only exert mechanical force to break   
through or destroy the material barriers
 intended to keep them in confinement1  
but they act in such a way as to show   
rage and fury towards a hostile and     
malevolent subject4  ,to return to our  
example2 if an animal vivifies and      
animates some special plant specially   

presented to him1 he does not go beyond 
this vivifying act2 when he goes on his 
way1 and no longer perceives the        
concrete phenomenon1 the animation at   
the same time disappears and ceases4    
,man1 however1 by means of the          
classifying faculty we have noticed1    
after repeatedly perceiving various     
plants similar or analogous to the      
first1 is able by spontaneous           
reflection1 and by the automatic        
exercise of his intelligence1 to refer  
them to a single type1 and in this way  
the specific idea of a tree is evolved  
in his mind and fixed in his memory4    
,the same thing gradually takes place   
with respect to flowers1 animals1       
springs1 rivers1 and the like4 ,these   
ideal types are not wholly wanting even 
among the most barbarous peoples1 in the
 most concrete and dissimilar languages1
 since without them any language would  
be impossible4  ,the same intrinsic and 
innate necessity which1 both in man and 
animals1 automatically effects the      

animation and personification of        
consciousness and will in the case of   
external objects and phenomena1 also    
impels man to vivify and personify the  
specific types which he has gradually   
formed1 and they take an objective place
 in his memory as the objects of nature 
do in the case of animals4 ,in this way 
man does not1 like animals1 merely      
vivify the special oak or chestnut tree 
presented to him in a concrete form at a
 given moment1 but he vivifies in the   
same way the psychical type of trees1 of
 flowers1 etc41 which has been evolved  
in his mind1 just as he vivifies the    
type of suffering1 of disease1 of death1
 of healing1 or of any other force4     
,for this reason the process of         
necessary and spontaneous               
personification is at first two-fold2   
namely1 the personification of          
individual and external objects and     
phenomena1 and that of their specific   
inward types1 whether of the objects    
themselves or of their sensations and   

emotions4 ,it must be observed that at  
this early stage of man's history1      
specific types1 or the classification of
 things1 were not ordered and determined
 with scientific precision2 they were   
undefined and confused1 running more or 
less into each other1 so as to be easily
 lost1 or constantly diverging more     
widely4 ,this internal movement of      
images and undefined conceptions was a  
stimulus to active and mobile life1 and 
an abundant source of vivid or obscure  
myths1 and of the sentiments            
corresponding to them4  ,these specific 
primordial types were openly referred to
 external phenomena1 and were based upon
 the life of nature1 since rational or  
scientific ideas had not yet made their 
appearance1 or only very sparsely4 ,in  
any case1 the reality of these types and
 their animation are facts1 as all the  
earliest records attest1 whether among  
civilized or savage races4  ,the        
personification of specific types1 which
 are in general the most obvious--those1

 namely1 which refer to animals1        
vegetables1 minerals1 and meteors1      
things useful or injurious to man--is   
the origin of the subsequent belief in  
fetishes1 genii1 demons1 and spirits1   
and these led to the vivification of the
 whole of nature1 her laws1 customs1 and
 forces4 ,man's personification of      
himself1 his projection of himself as a 
living being into external things1 was  
the result of reflection4 ,in fact1 the 
impersonation of the winds took place in
 very early times1 since they most      
frequently and universally excited the  
attention and anxiety of man and        
animals1 whether beneficially or        
otherwise1 and by their mechanical      
action1 their whistling and other       
sounds1 they readily struck the mobile  
fancy of primitive men1 and also of     
savage and ignorant peoples in our day4 
,just as the act of respiration is a    
faint wind which goes on whether in     
sleep or wakefulness1 and only ceases   
with death1 so it was with the          

phenomenon of nature which attracted    
their attention1 and it was invested by 
them with life4 ,since the winds of     
nature had already been animated and    
personified by a spontaneous act1 so our
 inmost being was certainly first       
considered as material1 and impersonated
 as breath and air4  ,this appears from 
the roots and words of all languages2   
the ,hebrew nephesh1 nshmh1 ruach--soul 
or spirit--are all derived from the idea
 of breathing4 ,the ,greek word ,greek3 
anemos1 the ,latin word animus1 signify 
breathing1 wind1 soul1 and spirit4 ,in  
the ,sanscrit tman we have the          
successive meanings which show the      
evolution of the myth3 breathing1 vital 
soul1 intelligence1 and then the        
individual1 the ego4 ,in ,polynesia we  
find the same process of things4 ,to    
think1 which in the ,aryan tongues comes
 from the root c'i1 and originally meant
 to collect1 to comprehend1 in ,german1 
begreifen1 becomes in the ,polynesian   
language1 to talk in the belly4 ,it is1 

therefore1 an evident historical fact   
that man first personified natural      
phenomena1 and then made use of these   
personifications to personify his inward
 acts1 his psychical ideas and          
conceptions4 ,this was the necessary    
process1 since animals were prior to    
man1 temporally and logically1 and      
external idols were formed before those 
which were internal and peculiar to     
himself4#ag  ,it is true that man       
unconsciously1 that is1 without         
deliberation1 not only animates external
 things and their specific types1 but he
 also1 by an exercise of memory1        
animates the psychical image of these   
special perceptions4 ,if1 for example1  
the primitive man personifies a stream  
of water which he has seen to issue from
 a fissure of the rocks1 and ascribes to
 it voluntary and intentional motion1 he
 also animates the image which reappears
 in his sphere of thought1 and conceives
 it to have a real existence4 ,he does  
not merely believe it to be a psychical 

and what may be called a photographic   
repetition of the thing1 but rather to  
have an actual1 concrete existence4     
,thus1 among all ancient peoples1 and   
among many which are still in the       
condition of savages1 the shadow of a   
man's body is held to be substantial    
with it1 and1 as it were1 his inmost    
essence1 and for this reason the spirits
 of the dead were in several languages  
called shades4  ,doubtless it is        
difficult for us to picture to ourselves
 the psychical conditions of primitive  
men1 at a time when the objects of      
perception and the apprehension of      
things were presented by an effort of   
memory to the mind as if they were      
actual and living things1 yet such      
conditions are not hypothetical but     
really existed1 as any one may ascertain
 for himself who is able to realize that
 primitive state of the mind1 and we    
have said enough to show that such was  
its necessary condition4  ,the fact     
becomes more intelligible when we       

consider man1 and especially the        
uneducated man1 under the exciting      
influence of any passion1 and how at    
such times he will1 even when alone1    
gesticulate1 speak aloud1 and reply to  
internal questions which he imagines to 
be put to him by absent persons1 against
 whom he is at the moment infuriated4   
,the images of these persons and things 
are as it were present and in agitation 
within him2 and these images1 in the    
fervour of emotion and under the        
stimulus of excitement1 appear to be    
actually alive1 although only presented 
to the inward psychical consciousness4  
,in the natural man1 in whom the        
intellectual powers were very slowly    
developed1 the animation and            
personification effected by his mind and
 consciousness were threefold3 first1 of
 the objects themselves as they really  
existed1 then of the idea or image      
corresponding to them in the memory1 and
 lastly of the specific types of these  
objects and images4 ,there was within   

him a vast and continuous drama1 of     
which we are no longer conscious1 or    
only retain a faint and distant echo1   
but which is partly revealed by a       
consideration of the primitive value of 
words and of their roots in all         
languages4 ,the meaning of these1 which 
is now for the most part lost and       
unintelligible1 always expressed a      
material and concrete fact1 or some     
gesture4 ,this is true of classic       
tongues1 as is well known to all        
educated people1 and it recurs in the   
speech of all savage and barbarous      
races4  ,ia rau is used to express all  
in the ,marquesas ,isles4 ,rau signifies
 leaves1 so that the term implies       
something as numerous as the leaves of a
 tree4 ,rau is also now used for sound1 
an expression which includes in itself  
the conception of all1 but which        
originally signified a fact1 a real and 
concrete phenomenon1 and it was felt as 
such in the ancient speech in which it  
was used in this sense4 ,so again in    

,tahiti huru1 ten1 originally signified 
hairs2 rima1 five1 was at first used for
 hand2 riri1 anger1 literally means1 he 
shouts4 ,uku in the ,marquesas ,isles   
means1 to lower the head1 and is now    
used for to enter a house4 ,rku1 which  
had the same original meaning in ,new   
,zealand1 now expresses the act of      
diving4 ,the ,polynesian word toro at   
first indicated anything in the position
 of a hand with extended fingers1 whence
 comes the ,tahitian term for an ox1    
puatoro1 stretching pig1 in allusion to 
the way in which an ox carries his head4
 ,to 7,marquesas71 to put forward the   
hand1 is now used for to take4 ,tongo   
7,marquesas71 to grope with extended    
arms1 leads to potongo tongo1 darkness4 
,in ,new ,zealand1 wairua1 in ,tahiti   
varua1 signifies soul or spirit1 from   
vai1 to remain in a recumbent position1 
and rua1 two2 that is1 to be in two     
places1 since they believed that in     
sickness or in dreams the soul left the 
body4#ah ,throughout ,polynesia moe also

 signifies a recumbent position or to   
sleep1 and in ,tahiti moe pipiti        
signifies a double sleep or dream1 from 
moe1 to sleep1 and piti1 two4 ,in ,new  
,zealand1 moenaku means1 to try to grasp
 something during sleep2 from naku1 to  
take in the fingers4  ,we can understand
 something of the mysterious exercise of
 human intelligence in its earliest     
development from this habit of          
symbolizing and presenting in an outward
 form an abstract conception1 thus      
giving a concrete meaning and material  
expression to the external fact4 ,we see
 how everything assumed a concrete1     
living form1 and can better understand  
the conditions we have established as   
necessary in the early days of the      
development of human life4 ,this        
attitude of the intelligence has been   
often stated before1 but in an          
incomplete way2 the primitive and the   
subsequent myths have been confounded   
together1 and it has been supposed that 
myth was of exclusively human origin1   

whereas it has its roots lower down in  
the vast animal kingdom4 ,we hope1      
therefore1 that it will be granted that 
we have given the true and full         
exposition of myth4  ,anthropomorphism1 
and the personification of the things   
and phenomena of nature1 of their images
 and specific types1 were the great     
source whence issued superstitions1     
mythologies1 and religions1 and also1 as
 we shall presently see1 the scientific 
errors to be found among all the        
families of the human race4  ,for the   
development of myth1 which is in itself 
always a human personification of       
natural objects and phenomena in some   
form or other1 the first and necessary  
foundation consists1 as we have         
abundantly shown1 in the conscious and  
deliberate vivification of objects by   
the perception and apprehension of      
animals4 ,and since this is a condition 
of animal perception1 it is also the    
foundation of all human life1 and of the
 spontaneous and innate exercise of the 

intelligence4 ,in fact1 man1 by a       
two-fold process1 raises above his      
animal nature a world of images1 ideas1 
and conceptions from the types he has   
formed of various phenomena1 and his    
attitude towards this internal world    
does not differ from his attitude       
towards that which is external4 ,he     
personifies the images1 ideas1 and      
conceptions by transforming them into   
living subjects1 just as he had         
originally personified cosmic objects   
and phenomena4  ,in myths1 since they   
owe their origin to the reflex power    
which is gradually organized and        
developed1 man carries on this faculty  
of personification which had already    
been exerted in him as an animal4 ,but  
the object of myth became two-fold just 
as the animal nature became duplex in   
man1 whether as a special image of      
special conception1 or as an            
intellectual definition of the specific 
type already formed4 ,the myths are1    
therefore1 from their very nature1      

either special1 that is1 derived from   
the psychical duplication of a          
personified image2 or they are specific1
 and are derived1 as we are about to    
explain1 from the personification of a  
type4  ,the deliberate intention to be  
beneficent or malign1 useful or         
injurious1 which is ascribed to any     
external object1 thus transforming it   
into an intelligent subject1 is the     
first and simplest stage of myth1 and   
the innate form of its genesis4 ,in this
 case1 it is always special1 extrinsic1 
and concrete1 and belongs implicitly to 
the animal kingdom1 although more or    
less vividly in proportion to the mental
 and physical evolution of the species4 
,it is for the same reason also proper  
to man1 in whose case it first appears  
in the indefinite multiplication of     
fetishes1 whatever may be the object    
venerated1 and whatever the form1       
aspect1 and character ascribed to it4   
,this constitutes the primordial        
impulses1 both of religious             

consciousness and of the spontaneous    
solution of the problems of the world   
among all peoples4  ,while the animation
 of special objects by animals generates
 actual myths1 yet it only occurs in the
 acts of momentary and transient        
perception2 they are born and die1 they 
arise and are dissolved in the very act 
of production1 and they neither have nor
 can have retrospective or future       
influence on the animal4 ,the world1 its
 laws and phenomena1 form for him one   
universal and persistent myth1 so far as
 he feels himself constrained to vivify 
and transform them into subjects        
actuated by will4 ,this consequently is 
the constant and normal condition of his
 conscious life with relation to things1
 and it leads to nothing further2 his   
mental attitude with respect to myth    
does not vary from his physical attitude
 towards the atmosphere1 the food and   
water which nourish and sustain him1 and
 the exercise of his functions are in   
conformity with it1 as though it were   

his natural and necessary element4      
,man1 on the contrary1 since he has     
acquired the power of reflection1 which 
enables him to reconsider past          
intuitions by an effort of memory1 as   
well as the psychical image which       
corresponds to them1 is not content with
 this normal and fugitive effect of     
apprehending the personified object     
presented to him4 ,the psychical image  
of his actual perception1 which he has  
ascertained from experience to be       
beneficent or malignant1 or which has   
been interpreted as such by his fancy1  
recurs to the mind even when it is      
absent and remote1 and it recurs in the 
vivid and personified form in which it  
was first perceived4  ,hence come the   
following psychical facts4 ,on the one  
side the actual object which he has     
assumed to be invested with the faculty 
of will still remains to exert the same 
external influence2 on the other1 its   
personified image is also present to his
 mind1 so that he can regard it with the

 vivid quickness of the fancy1 and      
invest it1 by its manifold relations to 
other and various phenomena1 with       
efficacy1 force1 and mysterious         
purposes4 ,it follows from this inward  
action and emotion that while in the    
case of animals the beneficent or       
malignant object is only invested with  
life at the moment of perception1 and   
has no more efficacy after its          
disappearance1 man on the contrary      
retains the same personified object in  
his memory1 and recalls it at pleasure1 
so that its special efficacy persists1  
and it continues to be the object of    
hopes and fears either in the past or in
 the future4 ,in a word1 the natural    
myth of animals is transformed by man   
into a fetish1 whether this object or   
its corresponding image in his mind be  
superstitiously regarded as good or     
evil1 pleasing or terrible4  ,this was  
the source of primitive1 confused1 and  
inorganic fetishism among all peoples2  
namely1 that they ascribed intentional  

and conscious life to a host of natural 
objects and phenomena4 ,hence came the  
fears1 the adoration1 the guardianship  
of1 or abhorrence for some given species
 of stones1 plants1 animals1 some       
strange forms or unusual natural object4
 ,the subsequent adoration of idols and 
images1 all sorts of talismans1 the     
virtue of relics1 dreams1 incantations1 
and exorcisms1 had the same origin and  
were all due to this primitive genesis  
of the fetish1 the internal duplication 
of the external animation and           
personification of objects4  ,it is     
evident that fetishism in its earliest  
and most primitive form was always      
inspired by special objects1 since the  
external perception of animals and of   
man is special and concrete4 ,but we    
have seen how our intelligence1 by a    
spontaneous and innate process1 was led 
to form types from the immense variety  
of special things and phenomena1 and    
these types are the specific forms of   
such things as are alike1 analogous1 or 

identical4 ,we have also seen that by   
the same necessity of the psychical     
faculty1 which is not inconsistent with 
the fundamental process of animal       
intelligence1 man animates and          
personifies these specific types1 just  
as he had animated the special          
perceptions whence they were generated  
in his mind4#ai  ,the second form of    
myth next occurs1 if considered as it   
exists in man1 but the third form of    
myth1 if regarded in his solidarity with
 the animal kingdom4 ,instead of        
investing the special fetish of a given 
object with superstitious fear1 he now  
adores or fears all objects of the same 
species1 or which1 in the imperfect     
classification of primitive times1 he   
believes to be of the same species4     
,thus1 to give a common example1 if some
 particular viper or other form of snake
 is the first form of fetish1 in the    
second stage the whole species of       
vipers1 and of the snakes which resemble
 them1 is regarded with the same dread4 

,he next supposes all the snakes which  
he comes across to emanate from a single
 power1 manifesting itself in this shape
 in various times and places4 ,in the   
same way1 according to the natural      
evolution of this law1 the individual1  
concrete plant will no longer be the    
fetish or object of myth1 but all those 
of the same species1 or which nearly    
resemble it4 ,it will no longer be a    
given spring1 but all springs1 no longer
 one particular grove1 cave1 or         
mountain1 but all groves1 caves1 and    
mountains2 in a word1 the species will  
be substituted for the individual1 the  
type for the fact4#bj  ,in this second  
stage to which myth spontaneously       
attained1 it must be observed that all  
fetishes could not be reduced to a      
specific or typical image1 since in     
nature1 and in ages and conditions when 
the intelligence was still rude and     
uncultured1 all phenomena or objects    
could not assume a specific form1 but   
were still regarded as individuals4 ,in 

this class are the sun1 the moon1       
certain stars and constellations1 as    
well as some other natural phenomena1   
volcanoes1 hot springs1 and the like2   
since these were unique within the range
 of country inhabited by the savage     
hordes1 they could not become specific4 
,hence1 while all other objects and     
their respective fetishes followed the  
natural evolution into a specific type1 
and through these into the simplest form
 of polytheism1 the special fetish which
 referred to unique things or phenomena 
remained special1 although it was       
modified1 as we shall see1 so as to     
harmonize with the aspect commonly      
assumed by other typical images4  ,it   
must be observed that we have gradually 
ascended from the special to the        
specific fetish1 and to types which are 
resolved by the intelligence into more  
ideal and less concrete images2         
precisely because they are ideal and    
less bound to the form they had before1 
they are incarnated in an               

anthropomorphic and anthropopathic form4
 ,released from the necessity of        
regarding them in a vague form1 or one  
different from that of man1 the image   
becomes more human1 and that not only as
 before in consciousness and purpose1   
but also in aspect and structure4  ,in  
fact1 in this stage man does not merely 
infuse his spiritual essence into these 
types1 but likewise his corporeal form1 
whence we have the true1 human image of 
myth4 ,this may be seen in the various  
primitive ,olympuses of all historic    
races as well as among savage peoples1  
only varying in the splendour of their  
imagery4 ,they consist in the           
transformation of the earlier fetish    
into an intelligent1 corporeal person1  
and result from the formation and       
personification of types4  ,beginning   
with the mysterious conception of some  
particular spring as a malignant or     
beneficent fetish which1 although       
personified1 still retains its concrete 
form1 the classifying action of the     

intelligence gradually constructs1 from 
its points of resemblance to other      
springs1 a generic type which includes  
them all4 ,this typical conception1     
personified in its turn1 next represents
 a unique power1 of which all the       
individual and accidental springs are   
only manifestations4 ,thus it is clear  
that man1 in the personification of this
 type or specific conception1 is no     
longer bound to the actual form of the  
special object which first represented  
it1 but he may be said to mould a more  
indefinite and plastic substance into   
which he can with spontaneous or facile 
art incarnate his whole person4 ,hence  
this substance will assume an           
anthropomorphic form1 and will issue1   
not in a mysterious being of extrinsic  
and indefinite form1 but in a person    
with human features1 obvious to human   
senses4  ,it was thus1 when the fetish  
attained to a specific type1 that       
mythical anthropomorphism was generated1
 and polytheism1 properly so-called2 a  

polytheism which represents in its      
figures and images the humanization and 
personification of specific types4      
,these afterwards diverge into          
specifications which vary with the      
number of phenomena that are united in a
 single idea or conception4 ,the first  
polytheistic ,olympus consisted of      
natural types1 and at a much later      
period they became moral or abstract1 in
 accordance with the spontaneous        
evolution of the intelligence itself4   
,it was in fact in this way that all the
 specific myths of the general phenomena
 of nature had their origin1 and in our 
,aryan race we can1 starting from the   
,rig-,veda1 follow their splendid       
development among ,grco-,latins1 ,celts1
 ,germans1 and ,slavs2 it may also be   
traced in the memory and historic       
evolution of other races1 and with less 
distinctness among those which are      
barbarous and savage4#ba  ,to take some 
example which may throw light upon our  
theory of the evolution of myth1 let us 

consider that of ,holda in the ,german  
,pantheon1 since it is a generic type of
 the special primitive fetishes of      
sources1 already in process of formation
 before the dispersion of the ,aryan    
tribes4 ,mannhardt 7,deutsche           
,mythologie7 has shown what was the     
primitive form of the conception of     
,holda and of the ,nornas1 that is1 of  
the phenomenal appearances of water2    
,holda1 the lady of waters1 first       
watched over the heavenly sources1 and  
then1 by a subsequent interweaving of   
myths and duplication of images1 she    
kept and guarded the souls of new-born  
infants4 ,this early conception by      
progressive specification gave birth to 
those of the ,nornas1 of ,valkuria1     
,undine1 and others4 ,the primitive     
fetish1 or fetishes of waters out of    
which the specific type1 afterwards     
personified1 was evolved and formed1    
were at first so bound to the concrete  
form of the phenomenon1 that although   
animated1 it could not assume a human   

aspect and form4 ,but when the specific 
type which ideally represented the power
 manifested in all the various modes of 
special phenomena was evolved1 then man 
was released from the concrete and      
individual forms of the fetish1 and     
readily moulded it in his own corporeal 
as well as in his moral image4 ,so      
,holda1 changed from a heavenly to an   
earthly deity1 was transformed into the 
goddess of wells and lakes1 and assumed 
a perfectly human and even artistic     
form4 ,she loved to bathe at noon-day1  
and was often seen to issue from the    
water and then plunge anew into the     
waves1 appearing as a very fair and     
lovely woman4  ,again1 we know that in  
the gradual mythical evolution which    
found its climax in ,apollo1 the        
animation of this type1 so fruitful in  
special instances1 extended even to the 
form of his arms1 his bow and arrows1   
and to the place of his habitation at   
,delphos4 ,he was armed1 according to   
,schwartz1 with the rainbow and with    

thunderbolts1 and ,delphos was esteemed 
to be the centre and navel of the world4
  ,these mythical ideas have their      
special reproduction in the mythology of
 the ,finns4 7,castren47 ,the god ,ukko 
with his great bow of fire sends forth  
trees as darts against his enemies2     
while fighting1 he stands erect upon a  
cloud1 called the umbilicus of heaven4  
,thus we see that the process of myth is
 similar1 even in different races4  ,by 
the primitive personification of the    
special fetishes whence he was evolved1 
the ,indra of ,vedic ,india is shepherd 
of the herd of heavenly kine4 ,vritra1 a
 three-headed monster in the form of a  
serpent1 steals away the herd and hides 
it in his cave4 ,indra pursues the      
robber1 enters the cave with fury1      
overwhelms the monster with his         
thunderbolt1 and leads back the kine to 
heaven1 their milk sprinkling the earth4
 ,this myth gradually assumed in the    
,vedic hymns more splendid and artistic 
forms1 and more amazing                 

personifications4 ,the original motive  
of the myth1 as it has been interpreted 
even by ,indian commentators1 was the   
storm with all its alternations which   
bursts forth with more terrific violence
 in hot climates4 ,the luminous clouds  
which bring rain are the purple kine    
whom a black-demon tries to steal2 the  
fruitfulness of the earth depends on the
 issue of the contest1 and the          
thunderbolt disperses the cloud1 which  
falls on the earth in rain1 while       
,indra1 that is1 the blue sky1 appears  
in his splendour4#bb  ,it may be clearly
 seen from these examples how the       
specific myth was gradually developed4  
,we have said that in addition to the   
myth which referred to types constructed
 from special and manifold suggestions1 
alike or analogous in extrinsic         
circumstances1 others were formed from  
definite natural objects1 in their      
relations to men and to their           
acquaintance with cosmic facts in those 
very early times4 ,these1 however1      

although definite1 assumed              
anthropomorphic forms1 like those which 
were specific4 ,the cause of this       
identity of construction is to be found 
in the influence exerted upon them by   
the earlier myths4 ,by a necessary      
equilibrium and spontaneous symmetry of 
mental creations1 these were also       
modified by the gradual formation of    
contemporary images4 ,in this way the   
solar myths were elaborated and         
developed among the ,aryan peoples and  
other races2 their aspects became much  
more anthropomorphic and anthropopathic 
in proportion as the typical myths      
assumed a human form4  ,the primitive   
myths of the secondary form were at     
first grouped round physical and        
external phenomena1 because these were  
originally the most obvious to man4 ,but
 the specific moral types had their     
origin by reaction1 and by a more       
strictly intellectual process1 and these
 were personified in the same way1      
although in this second stage they were 

not so numerous4 ,yet their appearance  
and creation were inevitable1 since the 
same faculty and classifying process had
 to be carried out in the intellectual  
and moral order as in that which was    
extrinsic and cosmic2 since the mind and
 consciousness and intrinsic faculty of 
the intelligence are identical4 ,and    
when once these ultimate types were     
formed1 the same necessity impelled     
their animation and personification in  
anthropomorphic images4 ,of this we have
 abundant instances in all the          
traditions of nearly all the peoples of 
the world4     ,,chapter ,,iv4          
,,statement ,,of ,,the ,,problem4   ,in 
the preceding chapters we have          
considered and1 as we hope1 demonstrated
 the origin and genesis of myth in      
general1 an origin and genesis which had
 their first impulses and causes in the 
animal kingdom as a whole1 since these  
beginnings were the necessary result of 
the psychical exercise of the perception
 and intelligence4 ,we next discovered  

in man1 as he issued from a simply      
animal condition and attained the power 
of reflection1 the origin of the special
 myth or fetish1 which was a higher     
evolution of that which is proper to    
animals2 hence the origin of the        
specific myth was altogether            
anthropomorphic1 whether physical or    
moral2 and hence came also the          
development and ramification of all     
mythologies1 and of universal           
polytheism4  ,it may be seen from the   
reality and truth of this theory how    
much mistaken those men are who hold1   
owing to their religious prejudices or  
to their systems of logic and history1  
that monotheism was the first intuition 
of man1 or at any rate of the privileged
 races4 ,this is altogether impossible1 
since such an opinion is opposed to the 
genuine development of the intelligence1
 to its primitive constitution and      
progress1 and to the essential          
solidarity of human and animal nature4  
,in the case of animals as well as of   

man the implicit act and psychical      
process of communication between the    
world and themselves consist in the     
individual and concrete animation of the
 thing or phenomenon perceived2 whence  
they are resolved into conscious        
subjects1 acting with a given purpose2  
the difference in man's case1 due to his
 power of reflection1 consists in the   
fact that he ascribes to the fetish     
distinct mental characteristics1        
regarding it as a subject1 actuated by  
will1 and invested with an external     
form4 ,hence it is impossible that man  
should have had any primitive intuition 
of a perfectly rational and universal   
,idea1 since his intelligence is so     
constituted that it is slowly developed 
from the animal condition into a        
humanity which is mythically reflex1 and
 he rises from the single to the        
specific1 from phenomena to the type    
which more or less exactly corresponds  
to them4  ,we are convinced that by     
these researches1 we have eradicated the

 previous misconception1 which cannot be
 revived or maintained except with the  
weapons of sophism1 and by defying      
evidence and the very nature of things4 
,while man has risen from the individual
 myth to that which is specific1        
infusing anthropomorphic life into the  
whole of nature1 and into his own       
sensations1 emotions1 and conceptions1  
he has pursued an art virtually the same
 as that whence science is generated4   
,the instrument1 both with respect to   
the formation of myths and to the       
formulation of science1 is in fact      
identical1 and the process also is the  
same4 ,science1 like myth1 observes1    
analyzes1 and classifies observations1  
and gradually rises to a conception of  
the specific type1 and hence to a unity 
which becomes ever more complete and    
universal4  ,in the composition and     
mythical animation of the world1 whether
 by special personifications or by those
 which are typical1 and by the          
sensations corresponding to them1 man   

makes a fanciful classification of      
phenomena1 he observes and studies their
 beneficial or injurious effects on     
himself1 and in this empirical way is   
able to estimate their value4 ,on the   
other hand1 he rises in the social scale
 by means of his superstitious and      
religious feelings1 which act as a      
stimulus and symbol1 so far as he       
subjects his animal and perverse        
instincts to the deliberate precepts    
which he imagines to be expressed by    
these myths4  ,in so far as the         
empirical observation of things is      
irrational1 and obedience is paid to the
 fanciful precepts of oracles1 it is not
 the result of an explicit moral law1   
yet there is on the one side some       
knowledge of the qualities1 habits1 and 
periods of things1 and on the other a   
civil and human order which is gradually
 formed and developed4 ,in fact1 in the 
case of the higher historical races it  
is important to make a more explicit and
 accurate study of the fetish religion1 

that is1 of the mythical animation of   
any special phenomenon or thing4        
,although the scope of such religion is 
superstitious veneration1 or abject     
fear1 yet it is impossible that it      
should not induce a more precise and    
less confused notion of the relative    
condition of things4 ,in this way       
observation becomes more accurate1 and  
the intrinsic use of the thing is often 
recognized4 ,by the gradual exercise of 
such analysis in the case of all or most
 phenomena1 man obtains a clearer       
knowledge of his environment4  ,while a 
juster estimate of the empiric value of 
special objects is obtained in this     
manner1 the subsequent1 though sometimes
 mistaken classification of their       
specific types enables the mind to      
arrange his knowledge of natural things 
in a more synthetic and orderly way1 and
 by such classification man is always   
tending towards a more universal unity3 
he places the general forms of phenomena
 in an ideal harmony1 which fancifully  

symbolizes their laws4  ,in the         
succeeding chapters we shall see how    
this process is accomplished1 and how it
 leads up to the explicit exercise of   
the reason4 ,a more definite empiric    
knowledge1 and the harmonious           
classification of specific types with a 
view to unity1 are a proof of a         
relatively greater improvement1 both in 
civilization and morality4 ,this is     
abundantly shown in all those peoples   
who have attained to an altogether      
anthropomorphic polytheism1 either among
 the ,aryans1 prior to their dispersion1
 in the ,vedic period in ,india1 among  
the ,celts1 ,grco-,latins1 ,germans1    
,slavs1 or in the ,finnish races1       
,mongols1 ,chinese1 ,assyrians1         
,egyptians1 ,mexicans1 and ,peruvians1  
as well as among the barbarous peoples  
of modern times4  ,the imagination1 the 
faculty which creates and excites       
phantasms in man1 is not1 as is         
erroneously supposed1 the primary source
 of myths1 but only that which in a     

secondary degree elaborates and perfects
 their spontaneous forms2 and precisely 
because it is near akin to this         
primordial mythical faculty1 it goes on 
to organize and classify these          
polytheistic myths4 ,by a moral and     
necessary development an approximation  
is made1 if not to truth itself1 at any 
rate to its symbols2 whence reason is   
afterwards more easily infused into myth
 on the one side1 and on the other it is
 resolved into rational ideas and cosmic
 laws4 ,it was in this way that poets   
perfected myth in its influence on      
virtue and civilization1 and by them it 
was directed into the paths of science  
and of truth4  ,as ,dr4 ,zeller has well
 said in his lecture on the development 
of monotheism in ,greece herself1 the   
great ,greek poets were her first       
thinkers1 her sages1 as they were       
afterwards called4 ,they sang of ,zeus1 
and exalted him as the defender of      
righteousness1 the representative of    
moral order4 ,archilocus says that ,zeus

 weighs and measures all the actions of 
good and evil men1 as well as those of  
animals4 ,he is1 said ,terpandros       
somewhat later1 the source and ruler of 
all things4 ,according to ,simonides of 
,amorgos1 the principle of all created  
things rests with him1 and he rules the 
universe by his will4 ,thus1 as time    
went on1 ,zeus became1 in the general   
conception1 the personification of the  
world's government1 which was delivered 
from the fatality of destiny and from   
the promptings of caprice4 ,destiny     
which1 according to the early mythical  
representation1 it was impossible to    
escape1 is resolved into the will of    
,zeus1 and the other gods which were at 
first supposed to be able to oppose him1
 become his faithful ministers4 ,such is
 the teaching of ,solon and of          
,epicharmos4 ,be assured that nothing   
escapes the eyes of the divinity2 ,god  
watches over us1 and to him nothing is  
impossible4  ,this impulse of the       
imaginative faculty combined with the   

process of reason is most plainly seen  
in the conceptions of the three great   
poets of the fifth century1 ,pindar1    
schylus1 and ,sophocles4 ,in the words  
of ,pindar3 ,all things depend on ,god  
alone2 all which befalls mortals1       
whether it be good or evil fortune1 is  
due to ,zeus3 he can draw light from    
darkness1 and can veil the sweet light  
of day in obscurity4 ,no human action   
escapes him3 happiness is found only in 
the way which leads to him2 virtue and  
wisdom flow from him alone4  ,we find   
the same order and manner of thought in 
schylus1 although he remained faithful  
to the polytheistic creed1 which indeed 
confirms the truth of our theory4 ,the  
moral law was gradually developed and   
purified by this long succession of     
poets1 and it clearly appears from      
schylus and his successors how man reaps
 that which he has sown3 he whose heart 
and hands are pure lives his life       
unmolested1 while guilt sooner or later 
brings its own punishment with it4 ,the 

,erynnyes rule the fates of men1 and may
 be said to sap the vital forces of the 
guilty2 they cleave to them1 excite and 
stimulate them to madness until death   
comes4 ,the ancient and mysterious      
mythical tradition of the strife between
 the old gods and the new was astutely  
used by schylus to teach us how the     
terrible vengeance of the ,eumenides    
gradually gave place to a gentler and   
more humane law2 just as the primitive  
despotism of ,zeus was gradually        
transformed into a providential and     
moral rule of the universe4  ,sophocles 
attained to a higher degree of          
perfection in the paths of gentleness4  
,no ancient poet has spoken more nobly  
of the ,deity1 although his language is 
altogether polytheistic4 ,he shows the  
highest reverence to the gods1 whose    
power and laws rule all human life4 ,on 
them all things depend1 both good and   
evil1 nor could any one violate with    
impunity the eternal order of things4   
,no act or thought escapes the gods2    

they are the source of wisdom and       
happiness4 ,man must meekly comply with 
their precepts1 and must offer up his   
pains and sorrows to ,zeus4  ,these     
utterances of the ancient poets never go
 beyond the range of polytheism1 yet    
they show how far intrinsic morality and
 truth were developed1 even by the      
imaginative and mythical faculty of the 
human mind1 during the gradual          
historical evolution of the race4 ,the  
plurality of gods appears to be the     
manifestation of the divine principle2  
their action on the world lost almost   
all trace of arbitrary power and of     
their former versatility and caprice4   
,the superstition of polytheism         
remained1 but it had an inward tendency 
to more rational conceptions and        
principles4  ,from this brief notice1 as
 well as from the remarks which preceded
 it1 it appears how the evolution of    
myth1 from its beginning and in its     
historic course1 led to a more perfect1 
although empiric acquaintance with the  

world1 and with the moral principles and
 civilization of peoples4 ,the logical  
faculty by which the development is     
gradually effected is the same by which 
from another point of view science      
becomes possible4  ,we have clearly     
demonstrated the indisputable fact that 
the absolute condition of intrinsic     
animal perception1 and consequently of  
the primary perception of man1 was the  
animation and vivification of the things
 and phenomena perceived4 ,this primary 
acquaintance with things depended on    
their spontaneous resolution into active
 and personal subjects4 ,nor could it be
 otherwise4 ,although the scientific    
idea or notion of objective reality in  
itself could not be grasped by simple   
animal intelligence1 the impression of  
the thing perceived was necessarily that
 of a subjectivity resembling that of   
the observer1 not indeed in outward form
 and figure but in intrinsic power1     
whatever might be the extrinsic form and
 figure of the object or phenomenon4    

,the original condition of animals1 and 
of man himself in his primordial life   
and consciousness1 is and was the       
intrinsic personification of the things 
perceived3 from this source the human   
intellect slowly and with difficulty    
attained to science1 by virtue of that  
psychical reduplication which has been  
so often mentioned4  ,the motive or     
subject of myth may be external1 cosmic1
 or it may be internal1 intellectual1   
and moral1 but in each case the cause   
and faculty at work are the same4 ,just 
as the primary condition of observation1
 and consequently the motive principle  
of science1 consists in the primitive   
exercise of the intelligence1 which     
leads to empirical and rational         
knowledge1 so myth and science have a   
common origin in the immediate          
transformation of natural objects and   
phenomena into living subjects1 and they
 flow from the same deep source4 ,the   
object in view is different1 but their  
constructive faculty is the same1 and   

they are1 up to a certain point in their
 long historic course1 evolved in the   
same way4 ,science1 therefore1 from one 
point of view1 is the gradual exhaustion
 and dissolution of myth into the       
objects which are scientifically        
investigated1 and this will appear more 
clearly in the sequel4  ,the series of  
various phenomena1 whether of light1 of 
meteors1 of water1 of vegetable and     
animal forms1 which were the first      
subjects of myths1 became so interwoven 
as finally to be represented in an      
anthropomorphic personality1 and were   
thus gradually lost and evaporated in   
the ideal symbol4 ,as time went on1 by  
the exercise of the intelligence1 and by
 the aid of the observations and        
collateral experiments naturally        
connected with them1 man ended where he 
had begun2 released from myth1 he only  
recognized the facts and laws of the    
world4 ,this clearly shows1 not only the
 formation of myths1 but the process of 
evolution by which they pass into       

science1 in which they find their       
termination4  ,if1 however1 myth and    
science have the same origin1 and start 
from a common fact1 a fundamental       
principle is necessary1 and an internal 
human act1 which is at once the cause   
and genesis both of myth and science4   
,and although the source is one1 myth   
and science vary in their aspects and   
effects1 and have different fields of   
historic activity1 so that it is        
necessary to trace the cause of this    
diversity in their progress and results1
 to enable us to make a scientific      
definition of the nature of myth and    
science1 their respective sources and   
objects4  ,if on the one side we        
continually see the birth of fresh      
myths1 which ramify into many fertile   
sources of superstitions1 of religions1 
of poetry and stheticism2 on the other  
side we see almost simultaneously a more
 or less distinct and lively            
manifestation of the scientific faculty1
 although still in an empirical form4   

,they are like two streams which issue  
from the same source and take a parallel
 course1 sometimes mingling their       
waters1 only to separate anew1 and then 
again to become united as they fall by a
 wide mouth into the sea4  ,in this     
manner we have ascertained the actual   
origin of science and of myth1 and have 
entered on a field perhaps never before 
attempted nor contemplated2 we have     
established a firm basis for such       
researches1 and1 which is perhaps still 
more important1 have shown the          
continuity of the mythical faculty      
between man and the animal kingdom4 ,we 
have ascertained this fact1 in its      
cosmic necessities1 both physiological  
and psychical1 but without considering  
the faculty on which it depends2 we have
 still to decompose the elements of     
which it consists1 and to consider their
 nature and number4  ,this inquiry forms
 the chief problem we have to solve1 and
 it is precisely what we have           
endeavoured to state in this chapter4   

,in the necessary order of things the   
fact has its physiological and cosmic   
conditions in man2 it is therefore      
necessarily internal and psychical1 and 
it is accomplished by the special and   
intrinsic exercise of the intelligence4 
,we shall be convinced of this truth if 
we only consider that science and myth  
have a common origin4  ,it is evident   
that there are great difficulties in    
such an inquiry2 for1 putting aside     
other extrinsic difficulties1 we have to
 reduce to a single act or fact the     
origin of the two vast worlds of myth   
and science2 it is needful to gauge the 
inmost psychical faculty of the         
intelligence1 and to discover the       
continuous yet rapid and delicate       
process of its exercise4  ,if we are    
able to attain our object and to tear   
away the veil which conceals this       
mysterious act1 we shall have a noble   
recompense in the laborious path on     
which we have entered1 inasmuch as we   
shall reveal one of the most important  

laws of life1 of the exercise of reflex 
intelligence and of the genesis of      
science4 ,yet we are very sensible how  
far we are from being equal to the      
enormous difficulties of this inquiry4  
,,chapter ,v4  ,,the ,,animal ,,and     
,,human ,,exercise ,,of ,,the           
,,intellect ,,in ,,the ,,perception ,,of
 ,,things4   ,apprehension is the act1  
both in animals and in man1 by which the
 spontaneous and immediate animation of 
things and of phenomena is accomplished4
 ,it is therefore necessary to pause and
 consider this act1 since it is1 even in
 man1 the source and foundation of the  
origin of myth1 and in it we shall find 
the causes1 elements1 and action by     
which such a genesis is effected4 ,this 
fact is so evident that the necessity of
 making such an inquiry might almost be 
taken for granted1 since the truth can  
be ascertained in no other way4  ,in the
 case of animal perception1 which we    
have already considered1 the external   
perception of an object is composed of  

three elements3 the phenomenon          
perceived1 the living subject with which
 this phenomenon is animated1 and the   
vague yet real power involved in the    
life thus infused into it by the animal4
 ,supposing any other animal to be the  
object perceived1 these three elements  
are self-evident2 since the phenomenon  
perceived in a given form causes the    
immediate assumption that it is a       
subject1 actuated by a purpose of       
offence or defence1 and hence follows   
the apprehension of a power capable of  
affecting him1 which has in this case a 
real existence4 ,phenomenon1 subject1   
effective power1 follow in a rapid and  
inevitable sequence1 and are instantly  
combined in the integral image formed of
 the object apprehended by the senses4  
,in fact1 an animal which fights with   
another1 which seizes on his food as a  
prey1 or which is in dread of some enemy
 or unfamiliar object1 recognizes either
 the species or the individual from its 
external form1 and constitutes it into  

an animated subject1 and ultimately into
 an actively offensive or defensive     
power1 or into one which satisfies his  
appetites4 ,such a fact1 and such       
elements of the fact1 recur in the whole
 animal kingdom1 even among those which 
only apprehend external things by the   
sense of touch4 ,as we ascend higher in 
the scale of animals to those who       
possess other senses and a more         
elaborate organism1 we find the same    
fact in a more perfect and distinct     
form4  ,those animals which1 since they 
are without the sense of sight1 have no 
perception of distance1 wait until their
 prey touches their antenn1 mouths1 or  
claws1 and yet the same distinct act is 
accomplished in these three specified   
elements4 ,they would not lie in wait   
for their prey1 unless they had already 
formed a conception of its possible     
image1 consisting of a form1 subject1   
and effective force1 combined in a      
single intuition4 ,when this external   
prey is presented to the senses1 the    

phenomenon1 subject1 and effective power
 arise in rapid succession1 and are     
united in one unique consciousness4     
,this truth appears from the animal's   
efforts not to let his prey escape      
destruction4  ,from the reciprocal      
apprehension of animals1 these three    
elements which constitute it may be     
clearly seen4 ,although such a truth1   
precisely because it is evident1 may    
appear simple to those who seek truth   
from the clouds1 or by means of logical 
or tortuous artifice1 yet such are the  
characteristics of true science4 ,for   
the new facts which she interprets and  
classifies appear old as soon as they   
are understood1 although they have never
 before been explained4  ,although such 
a fact is manifest in the case of       
reciprocal animal perceptions1 it may   
appear more difficult to verify it with 
respect to perceptions which do not     
refer to other animals1 but to natural  
phenomena1 or to inanimate1 unconscious 
things4 ,we have shown that all animal  

perception is possible only so far as   
they are able to infuse their own       
consciousness and psychical power into  
every object of nature1 since they are  
unable to comprehend the thing or       
phenomenon except as an objective       
reality1 without reference to its real  
cosmic importance4 ,since this is       
necessarily the case1 the object        
perceived1 even when it is not an       
animal1 is always transformed into a    
living subject1 acting deliberately4    
,and although this is sometimes done in 
a vague way1 when the object in question
 has not the external form and movements
 of an animal1 yet it is always regarded
 as a real power4  ,when a well broken  
horse1 for example1 goes on his way     
quietly1 perceiving nothing which       
strongly attracts nor alarms him1 the   
sudden flutter of a cloth1 the flaring  
of a lamp1 the rush of water1 or some   
violent noise will cause him to stop1 to
 plunge and kick1 or to bolt away4 ,we  
have already shown1 by experiment1 the  

exciting cause of his alarm and         
suspicion4 ,the sudden fluttering of the
 cloth in the wind was a phenomenon     
perceived by the horse1 and since he    
regarded this phenomenon as an animated 
subject1 and consequently as a real     
power1 it is evident that his fear was  
caused by the sudden appearance of a    
living form1 and the direct apprehension
 of a subject which might possibly be   
hurtful or dangerous4 ,in this way1 the 
circle is completed and combined in one 
unique phantasm2 a phenomenon1 a living 
subject1 and a real power4  ,in this    
instance1 the psychical law is so clear 
that it can hardly be disputed4 ,but if 
we consider any other animal            
perceptions1 we find that the law still 
holds good1 as we have already shown in 
various instances4 ,in all cases the    
apprehension takes place in the same    
way1 and consists of the same elements1 
namely1 of a phenomenon1 a living       
subject1 and a real power4 ,the exercise
 of animal apprehension is the rapid1   

necessary1 and perpetual concentration  
into a single image of the phenomenon1  
subject1 and cause2 that is1 given the  
perception of a phenomenon1 the animal  
endows it1 with respect to himself1 with
 consciousness1 and consequently with   
real power4  ,in fact1 the faculty of   
perception cannot be exercised in any   
other way1 nor can it consist of any    
other elements4 ,in nature1 the sensible
 qualities of things are all resolved   
into general and special phenomena1     
appearances1 and extrinsic forms1 as far
 as animal and human intuition1 and the 
character of the subject which perceives
 and feels them1 are concerned2 and they
 are perceived just so far as we and as 
animals are able to communicate by means
 of our senses with the world and with  
ourselves4 ,a phenomenon and an         
intrinsic form signify1 at the moment of
 perception1 the thing1 the object which
 the conditions of our senses enable us 
to perceive1 and the intrinsic power of 
this phenomenon implies a cause4        

,natural phenomena and beings are thus  
reciprocally linked together as causes  
and effects1 an effect becoming in its  
turn the cause of a subsequent fact2    
that is1 when we consider things in     
themselves1 and not relatively to the   
animal or man who apprehends them4  ,if1
 therefore1 there are in animal         
consciousness and intelligence three    
elements of apprehension1 afterwards    
fused into a single fact1 it follows    
that the extrinsic relations of beings  
and forces are subjectively reciprocal2 
there is the given form of a phenomenon1
 and1 intrinsically1 it consists of an  
active power1 eternally at work1 since  
there is no being nor form which stands 
still and is not reproduced in the      
infinite evolution of the universe4     
,since1 to the percipient1 the extrinsic
 form1 whatever it may be1 remains the  
same as that which was first presented  
to him1 the phenomenon is bounded by his
 faculty of perception1 followed by the 
immediate and implicit assumption of a  

subject1 and consequently of a possible 
and indefinite causality4 ,this internal
 and psychical process of the animal    
corresponds with the actual condition of
 things1 as they appear and really are2 
a correspondence which is in itself a   
powerful confirmation of the truth4     
,since an animal is devoid of the       
explicit and reflex process of the      
intellect1 it has not and cannot have   
any conception of the thing in itself1  
the intrinsic essence of the phenomenon1
 nor yet of the objective and cosmic    
cause2 because it animates the          
phenomenon with its own personality1    
which has assumed the external form of  
this phenomenon1 it is conscious of a   
cause1 like itself1 transfused into the 
object in question4 ,we have shown that 
phenomena affect animals in this way1   
and that they are conscious of being in 
a world of living subjects1 constantly  
actuated by the deliberate purpose of   
influencing them4  ,the faculty and     
elements of apprehension are precisely  

similar in man and animals1 since       
extrinsic things present the same       
appearance to both alike1 and the       
perceptive power acts in the same way4  
,we cannot1 indeed1 go back to our first
 beginnings1 and it is difficult for    
those who are not accustomed to such    
researches to discover the primitive    
facts of their own being1 which have    
been so much modified by exercise and   
the intrinsic use of reflection for many
 ages2 yet some certain signs remain1   
nor would it be now impossible to       
reproduce them4 ,no one can doubt that  
man also began to communicate with the  
world and with himself by his perception
 of a phenomenon1 of some extrinsic     
quality or form4 ,from this he directly 
apprehended the thing and its cause4 ,no
 intelligent person can believe that man
 had any direct intuition of the thing  
in itself1 independently of the         
extrinsic phenomenon by which it was    
presented to his perceptions3 he could  
not by the sudden apprehension of all   

natural objects intuitively grasp the   
,idea4 ,this will be more fully shown in
 the following chapter4  ,in accordance 
with this statement1 man1 who still     
retains his animal nature1 has exercised
 the same faculty of apprehension by the
 synthetic process of the three elements
 which compose it in the case of        
animals2 he attains therefore to the    
same results1 that is1 he animates the  
object of perception1 and considers it  
as an efficient cause4 ,this identical  
faculty of perception in man and animals
 was only differentiated when the reflex
 power of man subsequently enabled him  
to regard objects1 as we do now1 as     
inanimate1 and subject to the universal 
laws of nature4  ,even now1 after all   
our scientific attainments1 we are not  
wholly free from the former innate      
illusion2 we often act towards things as
 if we lived in the early days of our   
race1 and continue that primitive       
process of personification in the case  
of certain objects4  ,we have shown what

 was the origin of the fetish and of    
myth1 and how it arose from the         
impersonation of all natural objects and
 phenomena1 which are transformed into  
living subjects4 ,this shows that the   
faculty1 elements1 and results of the   
apprehension are identical in man and   
animals4 ,if man created the fetish     
which in process of differentiation     
generated all kinds of myths1 he1 like  
animals1 was directly and implicitly    
conscious of the living subject1 and in 
it of an active cause4 ,although in man 
the fetish retains its personality in   
his memory1 and becomes the cause of    
hopes and fears throughout his life1    
while its effect on the animal is only  
transitory1 and at the actual moment of 
perception2 yet this does not invalidate
 the truth of the principle1 nor prove  
that their impulses and genesis are not 
identical4 ,thus the analysis of the    
faculty of apprehension confirms and    
explains the proof before given of the  
origin of myths1 and explains their     

causes4  ,we have all1 however          
unaccustomed to give account of our acts
 and functions1 found ourselves in      
circumstances which produced the        
momentary personification of natural    
objects4 ,the sight of some             
extraordinary phenomenon produces a     
vague sense of some one acting with a   
given purpose1 and hence of an actual   
fetish4 ,a man will sometimes address   
the things which surround him1 and act  
towards them as if they possessed       
consciousness and will4 ,children1 who  
are still without experience and        
reflection1 will often invest external  
objects with solidity4  ,a child1 as    
soon as it can guide its own motions1   
will grasp anything which is pliant and 
yielding as firmly as if it were solid1 
thus implicitly judging the thing from  
its appearance4 ,in the same way1 a     
child confidently relies on any support1
 however weak and insufficient it may   
be1 arguing as usual from the appearance
 to the thing itself4 ,nor must it be   

said that experience is necessary to    
correct these errors4 ,the implicit     
faculty of apprehension is prior to     
experience1 which only becomes possible 
by means of this faculty4 ,the elements 
of this faculty unconsciously fulfil and
 pursue their office in the child1 aided
 by the reflex motions which are        
cerebro-spinal and peripheral1 as they  
have been produced and organized in the 
species by evolution2 but they1 as well 
as these reflex physiological motions1  
are prior to the same temporary         
experience4#bc  ,thus the new-born      
infant sucks the milk which serves for  
its nourishment from its mother's       
breast2 it is impossible in this case   
that such a class of elements should not
 be spontaneously developed2 the child  
feels the nipple and adapts its mouth   
and mode of breathing to it1 while      
pressing the breast with its hands to   
express the milk4 ,if much in this      
operation might be ascribed to reflex   
movements1 yet in association with them1

 supplementing and rendering them       
possible1 there is an implicit          
perception of the external phenomenon   
through the sense of touch1 and he      
becomes conscious of the object1 and of 
its causative power2 such power         
consisting in this case of its capacity 
to satisfy his wants4 ,in short1 all    
animals1 man included1 in every act of  
communication with the world1 exercise  
this faculty by means of the three      
elements which constitute it4 ,if we    
consider the actions of infants1 and    
still more of all young animals1 this   
truth will be vividly displayed4  ,in   
common speech1 even to this day1 all    
men1 both learned and unlearned1 speak  
of inanimate things as if they had      
consciousness and intelligence4 ,while  
this mode of expression bears witness to
 the extremely early origin of the      
general personification of natural      
objects1 it also shows that even now our
 intelligence is not emancipated from   
such a habit1 and our speech            

unconsciously retains the old custom4   
,thus we call weather good and bad1 the 
wind mad 7pazzo7 or furious1 the sea    
treacherous1 the waters insidious2 a    
stone is obstinate1 if we cannot easily 
move it1 and we inveigh against all     
kinds of material obstacles as if they  
could hear us4 ,we call the season      
inconstant or deceitful1 the sun        
melancholy and unwilling to shine1 and  
we say that the sky threatens snow4 ,we 
say that some plants are consumed by    
heat1 that some soils are indomitable1  
that well cultivated ground is no longer
 wild1 that in a good season the whole  
landscape smiles and leaps for joy4 ,a  
river is called malevolent1 and a lake  
swallows up men2 the earth is thirsty   
and sucks up moisture1 and plants fear  
the cold4 ,the people of ,pistoja say   
that some olive trees will not feel a   
thrashing1 that they are afraid of many 
things1 and that they live on1 despising
 the course of years4 ,again1 they say  
that olive trees are not afraid of the  

pruning knife1 and that they rejoice in 
its use by a skilled hand4 ,thousands of
 such expressions might be adduced1 and 
we refer our readers to ,giuliani's     
work1 ,linguaggio vivente toscano4  ,nor
 do we only ascribe our own feelings to 
inanimate things1 but we also invest    
them with the forms and members of the  
human body4 ,we speak of the head1      
shoulder1 back1 or foot of a mountain1  
of an arm of the sea1 a tongue of land1 
the mouth of a sea-port1 of a cave1 or  
crater4 ,so again we ascribe teeth to   
mountains1 a front 7fronte1 forehead7 to
 a house2 there is the eye-brow 7ciglio7
 of a ditch1 the eye of heaven1 a vein  
of metal1 the entrails of a mountain4   
,the ,alps are bald or bare1 the soil is
 wrinkled1 objects are sinister or the  
reverse 7sinistra1 destra71#bd and a    
mountain is gigantic ox dwarfish4  ,in  
like manner we ascribe our own functions
 to nature4 ,the river eats into the    
land2 the whirlpool swallows all which  
is thrown into it1 and the wind         

whistles1 howls and moans2 the torrent  
murmurs1 the sun is born and dies1 the  
heavens frown1 the fields smile4 ,this  
habit is also transferred to moral      
questions2 and we speak of the heart of 
the question1 the leading idea1 the body
 of doctrines1 the members of a         
philosophic system2 we infuse new blood 
into thought4 ,truth becomes palpable1 a
 theme is eviscerated1 thought is lame1 
science is childish4 ,history speaks    
clearly2 there is an embryo of          
knowledge1 a vacillating science2 the   
infancy1 youth1 maturity1 and death of a
 theory2 morality is crass1 the spirit  
meagre or acute2 the mind adapts itself1
 logic is maimed2 there is a conflict of
 ideas1 the inspiration of science1     
truncated thoughts4 ,again we talk of   
the head of the mob1 of the foot of the 
altar or the throne1 of the heart of the
 riot1 of the body of an army1 of a     
phalanx1 of trampling under foot1 duty1 
decency1 and justice4  ,from these      
examples1 and indeed we might say from  

the whole of speech1 especially if we go
 back to the primitive value of words   
and to their roots1 it appears to what a
 vast extent man originally projected   
himself1 his consciousness1 emotions1   
and purposes into inanimate things2 and 
how1 even under the historical          
conditions of civilization1 he still    
personifies the world1 and ascribes to  
it the forms of his own body and limbs4 
,again1 we have plainly shown that man1 
by the intrinsic reduplication of his   
psychical faculty1 spontaneously retains
 and personifies the inward phantasm    
generated by such a projection of       
special natural objects on his          
perception4 ,in the genesis of such     
fetishes1 and also when1 by an effort of
 will1 he recalls them to his mind1 this
 faculty with its constituent elements  
is brought into action4 ,in fact1 when  
the image is recalled to the mind1 it is
 represented like the external          
phenomenon2 and consequently it involves
 and generates the thing of which the   

phenomenon is the external vest1 that   
is1 its causative power2 and in this way
 the objective process of its formation 
is inwardly reproduced4 ,since the      
cosmic reality is thus ideally          
reproduced1 the inward substance of the 
fetish assumes a really efficacious     
power1 whether in its extrinsic form1 or
 in its intrinsic image1 and in this way
 primitive superstitions had their      
source4  ,in the case of savage and     
primitive man the inward image of the   
fetish without its bodily presence is1  
owing to the process already described1 
not merely valid as a real entity1 but  
it becomes a mysterious apparition in   
the sphere of fancy1 in a way analogous 
to our belief in the reality of things  
seen in a dream or in moments of        
hallucination4 ,this appears in the     
history of all peoples past and present1
 whence it is certain that primitive man
 not only formed personifications of    
external objects and of his own         
emotions1 but also of their images1 as  

they were retained in his memory4 ,in   
both cases the sequence of the three    
elements of apprehension1 the           
phenomenon1 subject1 and cause1 is due  
to the same unique faculty2 in a word1  
the inward perception is identical in   
its genesis and laws with that which is 
external4  ,these are not the only      
results which follow from the exercise  
of this faculty4 ,by the spontaneous    
classifying action of our intelligence  
we rise from the perception of special  
and individual objects and phenomena to 
their various types1 and hence to an    
inward and ideal world of specific      
representations1 as if these were       
causative powers1 informing the         
multitude of analogous and similar      
phenomena in which they are manifested4 
,these specific types1 which are more   
strongly present to the fancy in the    
primitive exercise of the intelligence1 
also become personified1 and they       
generate what is called polytheism in   
all its forms1 varying according to the 

races1 times1 places1 and respective    
conditions of morality and civilization 
in which they are found4  ,the same     
psychical faculty and the same elements 
are necessary for the personification of
 such types or idols4 ,the three        
elements appear in their proper sequence
 even in the amorphous phantasms which  
these types first shadow forth1 and     
which are subsequently perfected and    
embodied in human form4 ,for the        
consciousness of the external form      
always exists in the first vague and    
nebulous conception of the phantasm     
which gradually appears and formulates  
itself in the vivid imagination2 and    
hence follows the phenomenal vest1      
which1 as usual1 generates the          
corresponding subject1 informed with a  
causative power4 ,this process clearly  
shows1 and in fact constitutes1 the     
essence of myth4  ,since the types vary 
very much1 and are indeed unstable from 
their very nature1 constantly becoming  
formed and again decomposed1 the        

primitive mythologies of all people are 
in like manner very various1 indefinite1
 and subject to constant change4  ,it   
appears in the ,vedic mythology1 and    
also in that of the ancient ,greeks and 
,latins1 how often the typical myths of 
,agni1 ,varuna1 ,indra1 ,asvini1 and    
,maruti2 and again1 of ,zeus1 ,here1    
,athene1 and the rest1 are changed and  
reconstituted4 ,this shows how the same 
human faculty1 the same elements which  
constitute the perception and primitive 
personification of external phenomena1  
are those also of the specific and      
intrinsic phenomena4 ,just as man1 in   
the primitive conditions of his         
existence1 by the psychical and         
physiological law of his perception1    
which he has in common with animals1    
transformed the world and its phenomena 
into subjects endowed with conscious    
life2 so by his psychical faculty of    
reduplication he personified the mental 
images of these same subjects as        
fetishes and myths2 and subsequently    

invested them with more distinctly human
 forms1 and also with specific types of 
humanity4 ,the same faculty and         
conditions of animal perception         
afterwards become the true and only     
causes of the superstitions1            
mythologies1 and religions of mankind4  
,the law of continuity is unbroken1 and 
this is a certain confirmation of the   
truth4  ,this faculty1 inward function1 
and process of mythical and symbolic    
facts led in course of time to the      
evolution and beginning of knowledge1   
which is first empirical and then       
rational4 ,therefore1 we must repeat1   
the extrinsic and intrinsic perception1 
the specification of types1 and their   
modification into a unity which was     
always becoming more comprehensive1 are 
the conditions and method of science    
itself1 which is only developed by means
 of this faculty4 ,hence the elements   
and intrinsic logical form of science   
are identical with those through which  
mythical representations and the inward 

life of the human intelligence are      
developed4#be  ,besides1 as we have     
before remarked1 the empirical knowledge
 of things begins and is perfected in   
the superstitions of fetishes and myths4
 ,ideas are modified and become purer as
 they converge into types1 and the      
principle and method at once become more
 rational4 ,either in the faculty of    
perception and in its elements1 or in   
the inward classification of specific   
forms1 or again in the more perfect     
empirical knowledge of phenomena1 the   
progress of myth and science go on      
together1 and they are not only         
developed in a parallel direction1 but  
the form becomes the covering1          
involucre1 matrix1 or1 as ,i might say1 
the cotyledons1 by means of which the   
latter is developed and nourished4 ,even
 in more rational science this faculty1 
and these elements1 necessarily recur1  
since in every human conception we find 
the material aspect1 or its mental      
image1 the thing and its cause1 and1 as 

we shall see1 some mythical personality 
is insensibly identified with it4  ,the 
act which produces myth is therefore the
 same from which science proceeds1 so   
that their original source is identical4
 ,the same process which constitutes the
 fetish and myth also constitutes       
science in its conditions and form1 and 
here we find the unique fact which      
generates them both2 science1 like myth1
 would be impossible without            
apprehension1 without the individuation 
of ideas1 and the classification and    
specification of types4  ,before going  
further ,i must briefly recapitulate the
 order of ideas and facts which we have 
observed1 so that the process may be as 
strictly logical as it is practical4    
,since1 in the elements of apprehension1
 perception is absolutely identical in  
man and animals1 its primitive effects  
in animating natural phenomena are the  
same4 ,but man1 by means of his         
reduplicative faculty1 retains a mental 
image of the personified subject which  

is only transitory in the case of       
animals1 and it thus becomes an inward  
fetish1 by the same law1 and consisting 
of the same elements as that which is   
only extrinsic4 ,these phantasms are1   
moreover1 personified by the classifying
 process of types1 they are transformed 
into human images1 and arranged in a    
hierarchy1 and to this the various      
religions and mythologies of the world  
owe their origin4 ,since such a process 
is also the condition and form of       
knowledge1 the source of myth and       
science is fundamentally the same1 for  
they are generated by the same psychical
 fact4 ,it is in this way that the      
progress of human intelligence was      
developed in the course of ages2 its    
attitude varies in various races1 but   
the impulses1 the faculty1 and its      
elements are identical4 ,i do not think 
that this unique fact in which myth and 
science have their source has been      
observed before2 still less has any one 
defined the limits of human             

intelligence1 and recognized in the     
simple acts of animals the formal and   
absolute conditions of human science1   
and the origin of myth4  ,if ,i am not  
deluded by a prejudice in favour of my  
own researches1 this theory is a        
contribution to truth4 ,it is confirmed 
by the solidarity which it establishes  
between the acts and laws of the        
psychical human faculty1 and that of    
animals which necessarily preceded it4  
,no science can be constituted without  
such solidarity2 this great truth was   
felt and1 after their manner1           
demonstrated by scholastic philosophers1
 or1 as it was afterwards scientifically
 expressed by the genius of ,leibnitz3  
,natura non facit saltum6     ,,chapter 
,,vi4  ,,the ,,intrinsic ,,law ,,of     
,,the ,,faculty ,,of ,,apprehension4    
,we have now carefully considered the   
acts and dynamic activity of human      
thought4 ,we have seen in what animal   
and human perception consists1 and how  
it acts2 how the subjects developed in  

our imagination are gradually united in 
specific forms or types1 and are        
arranged in a system1 whence follow the 
first symbolic representations of       
science4 ,but our task is not yet       
accomplished1 since much more is needed 
to display all that this fact involves1 
so that we may fully understand the     
inward evolution of myth and science in 
history and in our race1 and not merely 
in the individual man4  ,the faculty and
 its effects1 which could primarily be  
reduced to this unique and indivisible  
fact1 do not exclusively belong to      
primordial ages1 but go on through all  
time1 our own included1 while assuming  
divers forms and fresh aspects as the   
faculty of the intellect becomes more   
developed4 ,it is an indisputable truth 
that the influence of myth on thought   
and fancy1 a survival from prehistoric  
ages1 still prevails among the common   
people both in town and country1 among  
those who are uncultivated1 and even in 
the higher classes conventionally called

 good society4  ,it is more difficult to
 trace the occasional existence of the  
same influence among those who think    
rationally and investigate the laws of  
the universe while acquainted with the  
earlier mythical process2 and yet1 as we
 shall show1 the greatest and most able 
men are not unfettered by it4 ,myth has 
hitherto been regarded as a secondary   
and fanciful product of the psychical   
human faculty1 due to extrinsic         
impulses1 rather than as the primitive  
and intrinsic necessity of the          
intelligence--a necessity which has its 
roots in animal intelligence itself2 and
 the unique fact which generates both   
myth and science has not been           
ascertained4 ,if this fact and law had  
been discovered before1 we should have  
more readily understood religions1      
philosophic systems1 and the successive 
forms of science1 and pure reason would 
have made more rapid progress4 ,our     
theory1 besides giving a rational       
explanation of the different forms      

assumed by thought in the course of its 
historic evolution1 will1 ,i hope1 also 
account for many psychological phenomena
 which have hitherto been imperfectly   
understood1 such as dreams1             
hallucinations1 the aberrations of      
insanity1 and the like4 ,the primitive  
fact and its effects reappear in these  
conditions1 and this influence is       
persistent and enters into all our acts1
 conscious or unconscious1 voluntary or 
involuntary4  ,it follows from the      
innate necessity of the perception that 
objects and their extrinsic and         
intrinsic causes are resolved into      
living subjects1 and are classified in a
 hierarchy of specific types1 which are 
accepted by the primitive and ignorant  
mind as the universal mythical forms4#bf
 ,but the necessities of human speech1  
which is however involved in mythical   
representations1 from the very beginning
 essentially reflex1 require other terms
 than those of individual and specific  
animations4 ,it is clear that the simple

 personifying faculty of the intellect  
sufficed in its earliest emotions1 but  
that after the slow development of      
psychical reduplication1 and the        
enlargement of languages and ideas1 it  
no longer satisfied the logical         
requirements of the mind4               
,consequently1 explicit1--that is1      
rational--singular1 and specific ideas  
gradually arose and assumed a definite  
form2 they were interwoven and fused    
into these individual and specific      
types1 and thus obtained a place in the 
thoughts and language of primitive man4 
,the gradual intrusion of specific      
rational ideas is natural to the human  
mind1 since it is logically progressive1
 and the fact may be observed by those  
who watch the mental growth of children1
 and of ignorant and untaught adults4   
,while the mythical intelligence        
continues as before to give its habitual
 mythical interpretation of many natural
 phenomena1 the use is gradually        
acquired of special and generic symbols 

which express special and specific      
ideas1 and these no longer include a    
personification of the individual thing 
or idea4 ,without this intrusion of     
rational ideas any progress would be    
impossible1 as well as the power of     
expressing all which time and education 
present to the mind1 and gradually      
enable it to comprehend2 the fanciful   
image is fused in a rational conception1
 which is1 however1 not yet definite and
 explicit4  ,what are commonly termed   
abstract ideas arise from this          
necessity1 as the result of the         
perfection and development of speech1   
but these were not at first abstract1   
although they made use of the abstract  
idea4 ,unconscious abstraction is       
certainly one of the primary acts of the
 intelligence1 since abstraction follows
 from the consideration of a part or of 
some parts of a whole1 which are        
themselves presented as a whole to the  
perception4 ,but this primitive         
abstraction was so far a concrete fact  

for the perception1 in that each act of 
the apprehension constituted a          
phenomenon of which the apparent        
character was abstracted from the other 
parts which formed a whole1 and was     
transformed into a living subject1 as we
 have already shown at length4 ,the     
really explicit abstraction1 to which   
man only attained after many ages1      
consisting in the simple representation 
of a quality or part of a thing1 could  
not at that time be effected1 although  
special and specific ideas gradually    
found their way into thought and speech4
 ,all the terms for form and relation in
 primitive speech1 and also among modern
 savages1 confirm this assertion1 as    
linguists are aware2 the form and       
relation now expressing an abstract     
reference to actions and passions in the
 verbs1 nouns1 and adverbs1 originally  
referred to a concrete object4  ,three  
modes or degrees of abstract            
representations occur in the progressive
 exercise of the intellectual faculty2  

these1 combined with the special        
apprehensions of the individual memory1 
and with imaginative types1 constitute  
the life of human thought1 and are the  
conditions by which we attain to        
rational knowledge4 ,while the specific 
mythical type may take the place of the 
general type in the logical exercise of 
thought1 and may suffice for an         
imaginative comprehension of the system 
of the world1 the abstract conception   
intervenes in the daily necessity for   
communication between these general     
mythical types1 and serves to cement    
them together1 thus rendering the       
commerce of ideas among men and in the  
human mind more easy4  ,the abstract    
conceptions which are formed in this way
 may be divided into three              
classes--physical1 moral1 and           
intellectual4 ,to begin with the first2 
it is impossible for human speech to    
point out and define a subject or       
phenomenon in the series to which it    
belongs by resemblance1 identity1 or    

analogy1 unless there is already in the 
mind a conception which includes the    
general qualities1 or quality proper to 
the series of similar phenomena2 this is
 essentially an abstract type1 but it   
primarily assumes a concrete form4 ,i   
cannot say that anything is white or    
heavy1 until by repetitions of the same 
sensation ,i have been able to combine  
in a single conception the sensations   
diffused over an infinite number of     
objects4 ,the genesis of these          
conceptions is found in the comparative 
explicit judgment which depends on the  
memory for the necessary conditions of  
its formation4  ,the typical and        
abstract idea of white has not merely a 
nominal value1 as it is asserted in some
 schools of thought1 for an empty term  
could express no idea1 whereas this idea
 is perfectly clear4 ,neither is it a   
real thing1 but rather an ideal reality1
 not a pure abstraction of the spirit1  
extracted1 so to speak1 from the        
material substance4 ,the conception of  

whiteness formed by the comparative     
judgment is limited by the perception of
 the concrete1 external fact perceived  
as one special quality among all other  
qualities in nature1 and it is therefore
 a physiological fact of inward         
consciousness4  ,in the abstract idea of
 white or whiteness we do not only      
picture to ourselves a quality common to
 many things1 but by this term1 and by  
the idea which corresponds to it1 the   
same sensation is actually present to   
our inward intuition1 or the same       
quality of the sensation which was      
previously generated by our external    
senses in a concrete form4 ,although1   
therefore1 the idea is generic1 the     
sensation itself is represented to the  
mind in the form of a concrete          
perception4 ,it is not concrete in the  
sense of belonging to a special object  
or definite form1 as it is presented to 
the outward perception1 but only so far 
as there is actually an inward and      
physiological sensation of whiteness1   

which the word recalls to the memory4   
,there can be no mental confusion with  
the quality of red1 or of any colour1   
when ,i speak or think of what is white4
  ,when ,i speak or think of any object 
as white1 ,i and others perfectly       
understand what is meant1 and a         
representation of this quality is       
instantly formed in our minds1 in the   
generic type which was gradually        
constituted by primitive man by the     
combination of numerous special         
sensations1 obvious to the sight1 and   
subsequently expressed in speech4  ,in  
order that the word which corresponds to
 the quality may have a given sense1 it 
is necessary to perceive the form of the
 concrete sensation which gave rise to  
it2 for although the representation is  
indefinite or generic1 that is1 not     
obvious to the external senses1 yet it  
is not physiologically distinct from the
 sensation of the quality described2 the
 perception of that quality is present  
by the aid of memory to the inner       

consciousness4  ,it is therefore evident
 that the physiological elements of     
consciousness are actually contained in 
so-called abstract ideas1 although it is
 sometimes asserted that they are purely
 spiritual and intellectual acts1 remote
 from every physiological process of    
fact and sense4 ,an actual physiological
 fact 7colour in this instance7         
corresponds to the idea in the nervous  
centres1 and reproduces the sensation   
due to the perception of special        
objects1 whose physical quality of      
whiteness we have perceived1 and this   
sensation makes part of the abstract1 or
 rather indefinite conception4  ,in     
fact1 all which is not actually present 
to the mind--and the present is an      
infinitesimal fraction of knowledge--is 
reproduced by the memory1 and this is   
effected by the molecular movements of  
the human brain1 and by what may be     
called the ethereal modifications which 
took place when the sensations1         
perceptions1 and acts first occurred4   

,if the cells vibrate1 and the organs of
 the brain are affected by the          
recollection of past ideas and acts1    
just as when they actually occurred 7and
 this appears from ,schiff's experiences
 as to the increase of the brain in heat
 and volume during dreams71 this        
vibration will be still more marked when
 any quality which affects our senses is
 reproduced in the mind4  ,the          
particular form of the quality as it    
appears in a definite object is         
certainly wanting in the abstract       
conception2 it remains in the first     
stage of pure sensation1 like a         
spontaneous act of observation1 and it  
is transformed into apprehension by the 
mental faculty4 ,but the inward         
consciousness of the quality is actual1 
psychical1 and physical4 ,the abstract  
conception is a psychical symbol        
composed of idea and consciousness1 or  
rather of act and consciousness2 both   
are fused into a logical conception of  
indefinite form1 yet consisting of real 

elements1 that is1 of cerebral motions  
and of sensations4  ,estimated according
 to its genuine value1 therefore1 an    
abstract conception may be divided into 
three classes--physical1 moral1 and     
intellectual4 ,whiteness and colours in 
general1 levity and weight1 hardness1   
sound1 and the like qualities1 are all  
abstract types which belong to the      
physical class4 ,goodness1 virtue1 love1
 hatred1 and anger must be assigned to  
the moral class2 and equality1 identity1
 number1 and quantity1 etc41 to the     
intellectual class4 ,such abstract      
conceptions1 without which human speech 
would be impossible1 did not in the case
 of primitive man take the explicit and 
reflex form in which they are presented 
by mature science1 and it is expedient  
to inquire what character they really   
assumed in the spontaneous exercise of  
thought and speech4  ,there is certainly
 a difference between the mythical and  
specific types and the intrinsic value  
of these abstract conceptions4 ,the     

former served for the causative         
interpretation of the living system of  
the world1 and had a superstitious      
influence on the moral and social       
progress of mankind2 the latter were    
merely the instrument of thought and    
speech1 and were in spontaneous and     
daily use4 ,but in spite of this        
difference1 there was no radical and    
substantial diversity in the genesis of 
such conceptions1 and the fundamental   
elements of perception were common to   
both4 ,while the form varied1 the       
primitive law and genesis remained the  
same4  ,we have shown that the          
perception of the phenomenon1 as it     
affects the inner and external          
consciousness1 necessarily involves the 
form of the subject1 and the causative  
power which animates that form1 and this
 becomes the intellectual source of     
special and specific myths4 ,these      
myths1 whether they are derived from    
physical or moral phenomena1 are        
subsequently so completely impersonated 

as to be resolved into a perfectly human
 form4 ,in the case of the abstract     
conceptions necessary in speech1 such   
anthropomorphism does not generally     
occur2 yet we see that sensation and a  
physiological genesis are inseparable   
from an abstract conception4 ,without   
such sensation of the phenomenon these  
conceptions would be unintelligible to  
the percipient himself and to others4   
,in direct sensation1 the phenomenon is 
external1 and when it is reproduced in  
the mind the same cerebral motions to   
which that sensation was due are        
repeated4  ,it is an absolute law1 not  
only of the human mind but of animal    
intelligence1 that the phenomenon should
 generate the implicit idea of a thing  
and cause1 and the necessity of this    
psychical law is also apparent in the   
abstract conception of some given       
quality4 ,if the effect is not          
identical1 it is at any rate analogous4 
,primitive man did not take whiteness1  
for example1 considered in itself1 to be

 an active subject1 like the specific   
natural myths which we have mentioned1  
but he regarded it as something which   
had a real existence1 and he might under
 certain circumstances invest it with   
deliberate power4  ,if we have fully    
grasped this deep faculty of the mind1  
and the spontaneous animation of all    
phenomena1 both external and internal1  
it will not be difficult to understand  
the reappearance of the same law in     
abstract conceptions4 ,the sensation of 
the quality1 and consequently of the    
phenomenon1 is reproduced1 and the      
phenomenon generates the implicit idea  
of a subject1 and therefore of a        
possible cause in given circumstances4  
,if such a law did not produce upon man 
the mythical personification of his     
primitive abstract conceptions1 at any  
rate it involved a belief in the        
objective reality of these conceptions1 
which were implicitly held to possess an
 independent existence4  ,among         
prehistoric and savage races1 who were  

ignorant of the laws and nature of      
cosmic forces1 the greater or less      
weight of a thing did not involve any   
examination of the mass of a phenomenon1
 its distance1 and the general laws of  
gravity2 this differential weight was   
itself believed to be a thing which     
acted1 and sometimes deliberately1 acted
 in different ways on the different     
objects which they were comparing at the
 moment4 ,in other words1 gravity was   
regarded as something which existed     
independently of the bodies in which its
 properties were manifested4  ,this     
estimate of gravity1 as an abstract     
quality or property1 might be repeated  
of all other physical properties1 as    
well as of those abstract conceptions   
which are moral and intellectual4       
,goodness came to be considered as a    
type1 varying indeed in different       
peoples1 according to their race1 and   
their local1 moral1 and civil           
conditions1 but as a type which         
corresponded to the mutual relations of 

men1 and to their superstitions and     
religious beliefs as to the nature of   
things4  ,in this case also the abstract
 conception of the good1 the fitting1   
the useful1 which constantly recur in   
popular speech are regarded1 not as     
mythical powers personified in a human  
form1 but as having a real existence in 
nature1 as something extrinsic to the   
person or thing in which they are       
manifested1 and as acting upon them as a
 living and causative power4 ,the same  
may be said of all other abstract       
conceptions4 ,hence1 in addition to the 
formation of cosmic1 moral1 and         
intellectual myths1 fashioned after the 
pattern of humanity1 logical conceptions
 arose in the mind1 necessary for the   
exercise of human speech and for a man's
 converse with himself1 and these were  
regarded as having a real existence1    
manifested in things and persons and in 
the system of nature4 ,these entities   
have their origin in the same faculty as
 the others2 in every conception        

presented to the mind and reproducing   
the primitive sensation or emotion1 the 
external or internal phenomenon         
implicitly generates the subject1 and   
with this the cause4 ,these abstract    
conceptions did not and do not result in
 the anthropomorphism of phenomena or   
ideas1 but are transformed into entities
 which have a real existence4  ,we must 
also observe the mobility and           
interchangeableness of these fetishes1  
myths1 and imaginary entities in the    
primitive times of the human race1 and  
even in later ages2 at one time the     
fetish acts as a myth1 at another the   
myth has a logical existence4 ,of this  
there are many proofs in the traditions 
of ancient peoples1 in the intellectual 
life of modern savages1 and in that of  
the civilized nations to which we       
ourselves belong4 ,the historic         
development does not always follow the  
regular course we have just described1  
although these are1 in a strictly       
logical sense1 the necessary stages of  

intellectual evolution4 ,historically   
they are often jostled and confounded   
together by the lively susceptibility   
and alacrity of the imagination of      
primitive man1 and it is precisely this 
characteristic which makes these        
marvellous ages so fertile in fanciful  
creations1 and also in scientific       
intuitions4  ,any one who is            
sufficiently acquainted with the ancient
 literature of civilized peoples1 and   
with the legends of those which are rude
 and savage2 any one who has reflected  
on the spontaneous value of words and   
conceptions in modern speech1 must often
 have observed how myth assumed the form
 of a logical conception as time went   
on2 and conversely how the logical      
entity assumed the form of a myth1 and  
how interchangeable they are4 ,it is    
well known that the myths have been so  
far adapted to the necessities of speech
 as to be transmuted into verbs2 libare 
from liber1 which perhaps came in its   
turn from liba1 a propitiatory cake1    

while ,libra was the genius who in      
mythological ages presided over         
fruitfulness and plenty4 ,so again      
juvare1 from the root jov1 after it had 
already been used for the               
anthropomorphic ,jove4 ,we find in      
,plautus the verb summanare1 from the   
god ,summanus1 the nocturnal sky4 ,not  
only verbs but adjectives were derived  
in common speech from the mythical names
 of gods2 from ,genius1 a multiform and 
universal power in ancient ,latin       
mythology1 we have genialis and hence   
the expressions genialis lectus1        
genialis homo1 genialis hiems1 and poets
 and philosophers apply the same epithet
 even to the elements and the stars4 ,on
 the other hand1 ,virtue1 ,faith1       
,piety1 and other like moral            
conceptions1 first regarded as real1 yet
 impersonal entities1 were transformed  
into a perfect myth1 and into human     
forms worthy of divine worship4  ,even  
in our own time1 and not only among the 
uneducated people but among men of high 

culture--when they do not pause to      
consider the real value of words in the 
familiarity of daily conversation--any  
one who seeks for the direct meaning of 
the terms he uses will admit the truth  
of what ,i say4 ,we constantly ascribe a
 real existence to abstract conceptions 
and qualities1 treating them as subjects
 which have a substantial being1 and    
which act for the most part with        
deliberate purpose1 although they are   
not transformed as in the case of myths 
into human shapes4  ,in abstract1       
intellectual conceptions1 such as those 
of equality1 distance1 number1 and the  
like1 the same faculty and the same     
elements are at work as in those which  
express physical and moral qualities4   
,these conceptions1 which as            
civilization advances ultimately become 
mere intellectual symbols necessary for 
logical speech1 are at first formed by  
the actual comparison of things1 and    
therefore by the aid of the senses4     
,even if we were to assert with some    

schools of thought that they were formed
 a priori in the mind1 sensation would  
still be necessary as the occasion of   
displaying them4 ,when such conceptions 
are expressed in words there is a       
physiological recurrence to the mind of 
what may be termed the shadow of        
previous sensations or perceptions1     
which are united in an intellectual type
 to give rise to such conceptions4 ,and 
in the appearance of this phenomenal    
basis1 thought unconsciously fulfils the
 fundamental law of assuming1 or ,i     
might say of actually feeling1 the      
reality of the subject4  ,it must be    
remembered that in speaking of these    
entities created by the intellect1 ,i   
refer to the primitive ages of human    
thought1 or to the notions of ignorant  
people1 and also to the spontaneous     
language of educated men1 who in        
ordinary conversation do not pause to   
consider the simple and logical value of
 their expressions4 ,we are only giving 
the natural history of the intelligence1

 which necessarily excludes the analytic
 and refining processes of rational     
science4 ,an educated man will1 for     
example1 say or write that identity is a
 most important principle of logic as   
well as that of contradiction1 although 
he is perfectly aware that such         
expressions only imply an abstract form 
of cognition2 he follows the natural and
 primitive process of the intellect1 and
 for the moment expresses these         
conceptions as if they were real        
entities in the organism of science and 
of the world4 ,any one may find a proof 
of this fact in himself1 if he will     
consider the ideas immediately at work  
in his mind at the moment of expressing 
similar conceptions4 ,and if this is    
true of those who pursue a rational     
course of thought1 it is true in a still
 more imaginative and mythical sense at 
the dawn of intellectual life1 both     
among modern savages and in the case of 
the ignorant common people4  ,let us    
briefly sum up the truth we have sought 

to establish4 ,special fetishes first   
had their origin by the innate exercise 
and historical development of the human 
intelligence1 by the necessary          
conditions of the perception1 and of    
subsequent apprehension2 these were only
 the animation of each external or      
internal phenomenon1 as it occurred1 and
 this was the primitive origin of myth1 
both in man and animals4 ,in the case of
 animals the fetish or special myth is  
transitory1 appearing and disappearing  
in accordance with his actual           
perceptions2 while in man there is a    
persistent image of the fetish in his   
mind1 to which he timidly ascribes the  
same power as to the thing itself4 ,the 
specific types of these fetishes        
naturally arise from the mental         
combination of images1 emotions1 and    
ideas into a whole1 and these           
impersonations generate the various     
forms of anthropomorphic polytheism4 ,as
 the synthetic mental process goes on1  
these varied forms of polytheism are    

gradually united in one general but     
still anthropomorphic form1 which is    
commonly called monotheism4  ,in        
addition to these spontaneous and       
anthropomorphic myths1 which serve for  
the fanciful explanation of the system  
of the world1 and the moral ideas of    
social and individual life1 other myths 
arise which are not anthropomorphic1 but
 which ascribe a substantial existence  
to abstract conceptions of physical1    
moral1 or intellectual matters2         
conceptions necessary for the           
formulation of human speech4 ,for       
although primitive languages1 of which  
we have some examples remaining in the  
language of savage peoples1 are almost  
inconceivably concrete1 yet speech is   
impossible without expressions of form1 
or abstract conceptions which are       
moulded and adapted to that intuition of
 the relations of things which is always
 taking place in the mind4#bg ,the      
mythical human form does not indeed     
appear in these conceptions1 but a      

substantial entity is involved in them  
which sometimes1 as we have seen1 may   
even assume the aspect of a complete    
myth4  ,a careful analysis of the       
process of our intelligence has shown   
that this habitual personification of   
the phenomenon or abstract conception is
 due to the innate faculty of           
perception1 since the appearance of any 
phenomenon necessarily produces the idea
 of a subject actuated by deliberate    
purpose2 this law is equally constant in
 the case of animals1 in whom1 however1 
it does not issue in a rational         
conception4 ,the objection of ourselves 
into nature1 the personification of its 
phenomena and myths in general1 are     
common to all1 while they take a more   
fanciful form in the case of primitive  
man2 they are the constant and necessary
 result of the perception of external   
and internal phenomena4 ,this           
personification includes moral and      
intellectual as well as physical        
phenomena1 and it always proceeds in the

 same way1 from special phenomena to    
specific types1 and hence to abstract   
perceptions4  ,in this way we have      
established the important fact that the 
primitive personification of every      
external or internal phenomenon1 the    
origin of all myths1 religions1 and     
superstitions1 is accomplished by the   
same necessary psychical and physical   
law as that which produces sensation4   
,that is1 men1 as well as animals1 begin
 by thinking and feeling in a mythical  
way1 owing to the intrinsic constitution
 of their intellectual life2 and while  
animals never emerge from these         
psychical conditions1 men are gradually 
emancipated from them1 as they become   
able to think more rationally1 thus     
finding redemption1 truth1 and liberty  
by means of science4  ,we now propose to
 unite in a single conception this      
necessity of our intellect1 at once the 
product and the cause of perception1 and
 of the spontaneous vivification of     
phenomena2 since the law may be         

expressed in a compendious form4  ,both 
in physical1 moral1 and intellectual    
myths1 and in the substantial entity    
infused into abstract conceptions1 the  
external or internal phenomenon         
immediately generates the idea of a     
subject1 since it is a fundamental law  
of our mind to entify 7entificare7 every
 object of our perception1 emotion1 or  
consciousness4 ,if any one should object
 to this neologism1 in spite of its     
adequate expression of the original     
function of the intelligence1 we reply  
that the use and necessity of the verb  
identify have been accepted in the      
neo-,latin tongues1 and therefore       
entify1 which has the same root and     
form1 can hardly be rejected1 since it1 
like the former1 signifies an actual    
process of thought4 ,we therefore adopt 
the word without scruple1 since new     
words have often been coined before when
 they were required to express new      
conceptions and theories4  ,the         
primitive and constant act of all       

animals1 including man1 when external or
 internal sensation has opened to them  
the immense field of nature1 is that of 
entifying the object of sensation1 or1  
in a word1 all phenomena4 ,such         
entification is the result of           
spontaneous necessity1 by the law of the
 intrinsic faculty of perception2 it is 
not the result of reflection1 but it is 
immediate1 innate1 and inevitable4 ,it  
is an eternal law of the evolution of   
the intelligence1 like all those which  
rule the order of the world4  ,we do not
 only proclaim in this fact a law of    
psychological importance1 but also the  
origin of myths1 and in a certain sense 
of science1 since myth is developed by  
the same methods as science4 ,these two 
streams flow from one and the same      
source1 since the entification of       
phenomena is proper both to myth and    
science2 the former entifies sensations1
 and the latter ideas1 since science by 
reversion to law and rational conception
 finally attains to the primitive       

entity4 ,and finally1 if an imaginative 
idea of a cause is active in myth from  
the first1 the conception of a cause is 
equally necessary to science4 ,it is her
 business to explain the reason of      
things1 and in what they rationally     
consist3    ,felix qui potuit rerum     
cognoscere causas4     ,,chapter ,,vii4 
,,the ,,historical ,,evolution ,,of     
,,myth ,,and ,,science4   ,in the       
foregoing pages we have reached the     
primordial fact of our psychical and    
physical nature1 in which1 as it appears
 to us1 both myth and science have their
 origin4 ,after first considering the   
animal kingdom as a whole1 we have seen 
that the interaction between external   
phenomena and the consciousness of an   
organism results in the spontaneous     
vivification of the phenomenon in       
question1 so that the origin of the     
mythical representation of nature is    
found in the innate faculty of animal   
perception4  ,nor could it be otherwise4
 ,the internal activity and intrinsic   

sense of conscious and deliberate life  
which inspires animals and men1 while   
the latter are still ignorant of the    
rational order of things1 is necessarily
 reflected both in the external objects 
of perception and in the internal       
emotions1 as if they were operating     
causes independent of the will of the   
percipient4 ,it is impossible for an    
animal1 which is unable by voluntary    
observation to make1 any analytic       
distinction between the subject and the 
object1 and their respective effects1 to
 consider such phenomena as mechanical  
entities1 subject to necessary and      
eternal laws4 ,the animal therefore     
accepts the idea suggested by his       
spontaneous and subjective nature1 that 
these phenomena are alive4 ,grass1      
fruits1 plants1 water1 the movement of  
material bodies1 ordinary and           
extraordinary meteors1 all are          
implicitly apprehended by him as        
subjects endowed with will and purpose  
after the manner of mankind4 ,nor can   

the living subjectivity of the          
phenomenon ever be gauged by the animal 
in whom the deliberate power of         
reflection is wanting4 ,his life is     
consequently passed in a world of living
 subjects1 not of phenomena and laws    
which mechanically act together2 it is1 
so to speak1 a permanent metaphor4  ,man
 himself1 so far as his animal nature is
 concerned1 acts in the same way1 and   
although he subsequently attains to the 
exercise of reasoning powers in virtue  
of the psychical reduplication of       
himself1 the primitive faculty persists1
 and hence comes the mythical creation  
of a peculiar world of conceptions which
 give rise to all superstitions1        
mythologies1 and religions4 ,this is    
also the process of science itself1 as  
far as the classifying method and       
intrinsic logical form are concerned4   
,the historical source of the two great 
streams of the intellect1 the mythical  
and the scientific1 is found in the     
primitive act of entifying the          

phenomenon presented to the senses4  ,we
 must briefly describe the evolution of 
these two mythical and scientific       
faculties of the mind2 we must          
investigate the mode and cause of their 
divergence from a common source1 through
 what transformations they pass1 in     
order to see in what way the one is     
gradually dried up1 while the other     
increases in volume and force4 ,the     
reader must forgive us if we use some   
repetition in developing a subject on   
which we have already touched1 since    
without such repetition the present     
historical explanation would be obscure4
  ,the first stage of knowledge consists
 in the observation of the things which 
surround us1 and this first stage1 which
 is necessary also in science1 is the   
common property of animals4 ,their      
observation of themselves and of        
external things is psychologically and  
physiologically the same as that of man1
 and in both cases there is a subjective
 animation of the phenomena themselves4 

,the primitive source of science in its 
observation of phenomena was the same as
 that of myth and of the special fetish2
 without such observation it would have 
had no existence4  ,in immediate        
succession to this primitive fact1 which
 is common to the whole animal kingdom1 
there arose--if we consider the general 
process without the limitations of      
circumstances1 places1 time1 and a      
thousand accidents--two kinds of        
faculties which were identical in form1 
although they had different effects1 and
 produced opposite results4 ,for in the 
case of mythical entification the       
tendency to impersonation was always    
increasing and becoming more distinctly 
zoomorphic and anthropomorphic1 and in  
this form it was crystallized or        
mummified1 while science on the other   
hand was always enlarging its sphere and
 dissipating the first mythical form of 
its conception1 until nothing was left  
but a purely rational idea4  ,when this 
evolution takes place in peoples and    

races which are incapable of            
improvement1 or have a limited capacity 
for advanced civilization1 the faculty  
of myth remains in the ascendant2 and as
 past and present history shows1        
mythical stagnation and intellectual    
barrenness may follow1 until            
intellectual development is arrested and
 even destroyed4 ,if on the other hand  
the evolution takes place in peoples and
 races capable of indefinite            
civilization1 myth gradually disappears 
and science shines forth victoriously4  
,even in historical and civilized races 
the two cycles go on together1 since    
while robust intellects throw off as    
they advance the mythical shell in which
 they were first inclosed1 the ignorant 
masses continue their devotions to      
fetishes and myths1 which they can      
infuse even into the grandest religious 
teaching4 ,they perhaps might also      
perish1 crystallized in their miserable 
superstitions1 unless1 in virtue of the 
race to which they belong1 the nobler   

minds were gradually to succeed in      
illuminating and raising them into a    
purer atmosphere4 ,in our ,aryan race1  
and in our own country we have all seen 
the ideas of ,christianity transformed  
into the earlier fetishes and pagan     
myths2 the saints are merely substituted
 for the gods and demi-gods1 for the    
deities of groves1 of the sea and of    
war1 as they are found in ancient       
mythology4 ,the legends of the saints   
and of ,christ himself are grafted on   
similar legends of the ancient religions
 of ,greece and ,rome1 and ,paradise has
 assumed the appearance and form of     
,olympus4 ,the paintings still extant in
 the catacombs of ,rome1 which mark the 
transformation of the old into the new  
religion1 speak plainly enough by their 
symbols and figures4  ,myth is logically
 identical with the scientific process  
in its intrinsic character2 starting    
from a vague subjectivity which         
gradually assumes a human shape1 the    
first intellectual vitality is lost1    

unless it is revived by a higher        
impulse4 ,science1 on the other hand1   
which begins in myth1 gradually divests 
this subjectivity of its anthropomorphic
 character1 until pure reason is        
attained1 and with this the power of    
indefinite progress4  ,the theory which 
has hitherto been generally accepted by 
mythologists1 even by those who profess 
,comte's great principle of historical  
evolution1 is that man began with       
special fetishes1 that these were       
combined in comprehensive types to form 
polytheistic hierarchies1 and hence he  
rose by an analogous process to a more  
or less vague conception of monotheism4 
,this theory1 true as to the principal  
forms which myth successively assumes1  
is not accurate with respect to the     
stages of development1 and it is also   
erroneous in some particulars of the    
actual history of the various           
mythologies of different peoples4  ,in  
the early chapters of this work we have 
briefly touched on such a development1  

and the reader must pardon us for       
returning to the subject1 now that we   
have to give an historical account of   
the process of evolution4 ,in fact1 the 
fetish1 in the general sense of the     
term1 is not the first form of myth     
which is revealed in the dawn of human  
life4 ,in order to estimate its positive
 value1 it is necessary to analyze such 
a conception with greater accuracy1 and 
then to verify it historically with the 
help of the science of ethnology4  ,the 
first manifestations of mythical ideas  
must be considered in man as an animal2 
that is1 as the result of his           
spontaneous intercourse with the world1 
independently of the psychical faculty  
peculiar to himself1 after he had       
acquired by subsequent evolution of mind
 and body the faculty and habit of      
reflection4 ,this first stage does not  
involve any definite fetish1 that is1 an
 immediate belief in a special object   
which exerts its influence on the human 
soul1 even when it is remote and unseen3

 such a fetish is a secondary stage in  
human development4 ,the first mythical  
representations of animals1 and of man1 
so far as his animal nature is          
concerned1 are not confined to fixed    
objects1 which can be retained in the   
mind as operative under all             
circumstances2 they are indefinite1 and 
diffused through all the phenomena which
 are successively perceived and         
vivified4 ,the unseen wind which rises  
and falls1 the moving cloud1 the flash  
of lightning and roar of thunder1 the   
dawn1 the rushing torrent--when any of  
these things are perceived by animals   
and primitive men1 they are endowed with
 subjective life and are supposed to act
 with deliberate purpose2 and this is   
the first form of myth4 ,but when they  
are not present 7,i here speak of the   
animal nature of man7 they do not remain
 in the mind as persistent beings to    
which the tribute of worship inspired by
 hope or fear must be paid2 these and   
other phenomena only inspire such       

sentiments when they are actually       
present4  ,it is no vain distinction    
which ,i mate between the first vague   
and intermittent form of myth suggested 
by phenomena actually present1 and that 
of the first stage of fetish3 this      
distinction marks the difference between
 the mythical representation of animals 
and the classifying and reflective      
process peculiar to man4  ,comte was the
 first to remark1 quite incidentally1   
that animals might sometimes attain to  
the idea of a fetish2 ,darwin gave the  
instance of a dog which was scared by   
the movement of an open umbrella in a   
meadow1 although he remained quiet when 
it was unshaken by the wind2 and        
,herbert ,spencer1 partly accepting     
these ideas1 adduces two somewhat       
similar instances of the behaviour of   
dogs4 ,it seems to us that these great  
men are mistaken on the one hand in     
assuming that the first essential origin
 of myth is not to be found in the      
animal kingdom1 and on the other in     

supposing that these facts have only an 
accidental value1 and that animals only 
occasionally acquire a vague            
consciousness of the fetish4  ,those    
readers who have gone with us so far    
will perceive that these were not mere  
accidents of rare occurrence in animal  
life1 but that they are the necessary   
effect of mythical representation in its
 first stage1 although they cannot in   
any way be supposed to be produced by   
fetishism1 properly so called4 ,for if  
the dog were frightened and agitated by 
the movement of the umbrella1 or ran    
away1 as ,herbert ,spencer tells us1    
from the stick which had hurt him while 
he was playing with it1 it was because  
an unusual movement or pain produced by 
an object to which habit had rendered   
him indifferent1 aroused in the animal  
the congenital sense of the intentional 
subjectivity of phenomena1 and this is  
really the first stage of myth1 and not 
of its subsequent form of fetishism4  ,i
 must therefore repeat that the first   

form of myth which spontaneously arises 
in man as an animal1 is the vague but   
intentional subjectivity of the         
phenomena presented to his senses4 ,this
 subjectivity is sometimes quiescent and
 implicit1 and sometimes active1 in     
which case it may arouse the fear of    
evil1 or the hope of physical pleasures4
  ,as in man the reflex power slowly and
 gradually grows--although at first in  
an exclusively empirical form--so he    
slowly and gradually accepts the first  
form of fetishism1 which consists in the
 permanent and fixed individuation of a 
phenomenon or object of nature1 as a    
power which he reflectively believes to 
be the artificer of good or evil4  ,in  
this stage it is no longer the          
phenomenon actually present which       
arouses the apprehension of an          
intentional subjectivity1 while its     
image and efficacy disappear with the   
sensible object2 the phenomenon1 or the 
inanimate or animate form1 is           
reflectively retained by the memory1 in 

which it appears as a malignant or      
benignant power4 ,in a word1 the first  
stage of fetishism1 which is the second 
form of the evolution of myth1 is the   
universal and primitive sense of myth in
 nature1 which man alone is capable of  
applying permanently to some given      
phenomenon1 such as wind1 rain1 and the 
like1 or lakes1 volcanoes1 and rocks1   
and these remain fixed in the mind as   
powers of good or evil4 ,in the earlier 
stage of myth the scene is constantly   
changing1 while in the latter1 certain  
objects or phenomena remain fixed in the
 memory1 exciting the same emotions     
whether they are present or absent1 and 
to this consciousness we may trace the  
dawn of worship4  ,ethnography affords  
plain proofs of the fetishism which     
preceded the civilization of many       
peoples1 and among those which still    
remain in the stage of fetishism we can 
trace the primitive form of a vague     
impersonation of natural objects and    
phenomena4#bh  ,as we have already seen1

 every animal and unfamiliar object is  
in this first stage of fetishism        
regarded as the external covering of a  
spiritual power which has assumed what  
is believed to be the primordial form of
 the fetish2 this fetish takes the place
 of the natural phenomenon1 and is      
believed to be capable of exercising a  
direct subjectivity which is vague but  
perfectly real4  ,we pass from this     
first form of fetish to the second1     
namely to the veneration of objects1    
animals1 plants1 and the like1 in which 
an extrinsic power is supposed to be    
incarnated4 ,many ages elapsed before   
man attained to this second stage of    
fetishism1 since it was necessarily     
preceded by a further and reflex        
elaboration of myth1 namely1 the genesis
 of a belief in spirits4  ,herbert      
,spencer and ,tylor are among the       
writers who have given a masterly       
description of this phase of the human  
intellect1 and history and ethnography  
have confirmed the accuracy of their    

researches and conclusions4 ,the shadow 
cast by a man's own body1 the reflection
 of images in the water1 natural echoes1
 the reappearance of images of the      
departed in dreams1 the general instinct
 which leads man to vivify all he sees1 
produced what may be called the         
reduplication of man in himself1 and the
 savage's primitive theory of the human 
soul4 ,originally this soul was         
multiplied into all these natural       
phenomena1 but it was afterwards        
distributed by the mythical faculty into
 three1 four1 five1 or more powers1     
personifying the spirits4 ,this belief  
in a multiplicity of souls in man is not
 only still extant among more or less   
rude peoples of the present day in      
,asia1 ,europe1 ,africa1 ,america1 and  
,polynesia1 but it is also the          
foundation of the belief of more        
civilized nations on the subject1       
including our own ,aryan race4 ,birch   
and others observe that the ,egyptians  
ascribed four spirits to man--,ba1      

,akba1 ,ka1 and ,khaba4 ,the ,romans    
give three3    ,bis duo sunt homines1   
manes1 caro1 spiritus1 umbra4  ,the same
 belief is found among nearly all       
savages4 ,the ,fijians distinguish      
between the spirit which is buried with 
the dead man and that more ethereal     
spirit which is reflected in the water  
and lingers near the place where he     
died4 ,the ,malagasy believe in three   
souls1 the ,algonquin in two1 the       
,dakotan in three1 the native of ,orissa
 in four4  ,since a fetish1 strictly so 
called1 is the incarnation of a power in
 some given object1 it must be preceded 
by this rude belief in spirits and      
shades4 ,such a complex elaboration     
takes time1 since it involves a previous
 creation of powers1 spirits or the     
shades of men2 these lead to the belief 
in independent spirits of various       
origin1 which people the heavens and all
 parts of the world4 ,hence arose the   
belief in transmigration1 the necessary 
prelude to the theory of the            

incarnation1 which was ultimately       
constituted by fetishism4 ,the          
comparative study of languages shows    
that including the ,aryan and ,semitic  
races1 the belief in spirits was        
developed in all peoples1 and in all of 
them we also find a belief in the       
transmigration of souls4  ,the          
transmigration of the human soul was    
first believed to take place in the body
 of a new-born child1 since at the      
moment of death the soul of the dying   
person entered into the foetus4 ,the    
,algonquins buried the corpses of their 
children by the wayside1 so that their  
souls might easily enter into the bodies
 of the pregnant women who passed that  
way4 ,some of the ,north ,american      
tribes believed that the mother saw in a
 dream the dead relation who was to     
imprint his likeness on her unborn      
child4 ,at ,calabar1 when the mother who
 has lost a child gives birth to        
another1 she believes that the dead     
child is restored to her4 ,the natives  

of ,new ,guinea believe that a son who  
greatly resembles his dead father has   
inherited his soul4 ,among the ,yorubas 
the new-born child is greeted with the  
words3 ,thou hast returned at last6 ,the
 same ideas prevail among the ,lapps and
 ,tartars1 as well as among the negroes 
of the ,west ,coast of ,africa4 ,among  
the aborigines of ,australia the belief 
is widely diffused that those who die as
 black return as white men4  ,primitive 
and ignorant peoples perceive no precise
 distinction between man and brutes1 so 
that1 as ,tylor observes1 they readily  
accept the belief of the transmigration 
of the human soul into an animal1 and   
then into inanimate objects1 and this   
belief culminates in the incarnation of 
the true fetish4 ,among some of the     
,north ,american tribes the spirits of  
the dead are supposed to pass into      
bears4 ,an ,eskimo widow refused to eat 
seal's flesh because she supposed that  
her husband's soul had migrated into    
that animal4 ,others have imagined that 

the souls of the dead passed into birds1
 beetles1 and other insects1 according  
to their social rank when still alive4  
,some ,african tribes believe that the  
dead migrate into certain species of    
apes4  ,by pursuing this theory1 as we  
shall presently show more fully1 the    
transition was easy to the incarnation  
of a spirit1 whether that of a man or of
 some other being1 into any object      
whatever1 which was thereby invested    
with beneficent or malignant power4 ,it 
is easy to show that in this second     
stage of fetishism1 which some have     
believed to be the primitive form of    
myth1 there would be no further progress
 in the mythical elaboration of spirits1
 their mode of life1 their influence and
 possible transmigrations4 ,this        
elaboration is indeed a product of the  
mythical faculty1 but in a rational     
order2 it is a logical process1 mythical
 in substance1 but purely reflective in 
form4 ,for which reason it was          
impossible for animals to attain to this

 stage4  ,some peoples remained in this 
phase of belief1 while others advanced  
to the ulterior and polytheistic form4  
,this may also be divided into two      
classes2 those who classify and         
ultimately reduce fetishes into a more  
general conception1 and those whose     
conception takes an anthropomorphic     
form4 ,let us examine the genesis of    
both classes4  ,when the popular belief 
in spirits had free development1 the    
number of spirits and powers was        
countless1 as many examples show4 ,to   
give a single instance--the ,australians
 hold that there is an innumerable      
multitude of spirits2 the heavens1 the  
earth1 every nook1 grove1 bush1 spring1 
crag1 and stone are peopled with them4  
,in the same way1 some ,american tribes 
suppose the visible and invisible world 
to be filled with good and evil spirits2
 so do the ,khonds1 the ,negroes of ,new
 ,guinea1 and1 as ,castren tells us1 the
 ,turanian tribes of ,asia and ,europe4 
,consequently1 fetishes1 which are the  

incarnation of these spirits in some    
object1 animate or inanimate1 natural or
 artificial1 are innumerable1 since     
primitive man and modern savages have   
created such fetishes1 either at their  
own pleasure or with the aid of their   
priests1 magicians1 and sorcerers4      
,man's co-ordinating faculty1 in those  
races which are capable of progressive  
evolution1 does not stop short at this  
inorganic disintegration of things2 he  
begins a process of classification and1 
at the same time1 of reduction1 by which
 the numerous fetishes are1 by their    
natural points of likeness and          
unlikeness in character and form1       
reduced to types and classes1 which1 as 
we have already shown1 comprise in      
themselves the qualities of all the     
particular objects of the same species  
which are diffused throughout nature4   
,by this spontaneous process of human   
thought1 due to the innate power of     
reasoning1 man has gradually reduced the
 chaos of special fetishes to a         

tolerably systematic order1 and he then 
goes on to more precise simplification4 
,let us try to trace in this historic   
fact the classifying process at the     
moment when the first form of polytheism
 succeeds to irregular and anarchical   
fetishism4  ,in the ,samoan islands1 a  
local god is wont to appear in the form 
of an owl1 and the accidental discovery 
of a dead owl would be deplored1 and its
 body would be buried with solemn rites4
 ,the death of this particular bird does
 not1 however1 imply the death of the   
god himself1 since the people believe   
him to be incarnated in the whole       
species4 ,in this fact we see that a    
special fetish is developed into a      
specific form2 thus a permanent type is 
evolved from special appearances4       
,acosta has handed down to us another   
belief of the comparatively civilized   
,peruvians1 which recalls the primitive 
genesis of their mythical ideas4 ,he    
says that the shepherds used to adore   
various stars1 to which they assigned   

the names of animals2 stars which       
protected men against the respective    
animals after whom they were called4    
,they held the general belief that all  
animals whatever had a representative in
 heaven1 which watched over their       
reproduction1 and of which they were1 so
 to speak1 the essence4 ,this affords   
another example of the more general     
extension and classification1 and1 at   
the same time1 of the reduction of the  
original multitude of fetishes4  ,some  
of the ,north ,american ,indians        
asserted that every species of animal   
had an elder brother1 who was the origin
 of all the individuals of the species4 
,they said1 for example1 that the       
beaver1 which was the elder brother of  
this species of rodents1 was as large as
 one of their cabins4 ,others supposed  
that all kinds of animals had their type
 in the world of souls1 a manitu1 which 
kept guard over them4 ,ralston1 in his  
,songs of the ,russian ,people1 tells us
 that ,buyan1 the island paradise of    

,russian mythology1 contains a serpent  
older than all others1 a larger raven1 a
 finer queen bee1 and so of all other   
animals4 ,morgan1 in his work upon the  
,iroquois1 observes that they believe in
 a spirit or god of every species of    
trees and plants4  ,from these beliefs  
and facts1 drawn from different peoples 
and different parts of the world1 we can
 understand how a vague and inorganic   
fetishism gradually became classified   
into types which constitute the first   
phase of polytheism4 ,the logical effort
 which transformed the manifold beliefs 
into types goes on1 but from their vague
 and indefinite nature1 not only the    
power1 but also the extrinsic form of   
man is easily infused into them1 so that
 they are invested with human faculties 
and sensations1 and also with the       
anthropomorphic form and countenance of 
which we have spoken elsewhere4 ,in     
fact1 when the special fetishes which   
are naturally alike are united in a     
single type1 the object1 animal1 or     

phenomenon which corresponds to it in   
this early stage of polytheism is no    
longer perceived1 but a numen is evolved
 from this type1 which has not only     
human power1 but a human form2 and hence
 follow the specific idols of serpents1 
birds1 and all natural phenomena1 in    
which the primitive fetish has been     
incarnated4#bi  ,in this second stage of
 polytheism1 anthropomorphism appears in
 an external form1 and the specific type
 is transformed into the idol which     
represents and dominates over it1       
inspiring the commission of beneficent  
or hurtful acts4 ,of this it is         
unnecessary to adduce examples1 since   
all the mythologies which have reached  
this polytheistic stage are             
anthropomorphic1 and in these the       
specific type1 which serves as the first
 step to polytheism1 subsequently       
becomes a completely human idol4  ,after
 this anthropomorphic classification has
 been reached by logical elaboration1 a 
new field is opened for the reduction of

 special types into those which are more
 general1 as had been previously the    
case in the early stages of myth4 ,by   
continually concentrating1 and at the   
same time by enlarging the value of the 
conception1 it is united in a single    
form which constitutes the dawn and     
genesis of monotheism4 ,this methodical 
process1 which is characteristic of     
human thought1 may be traced in all     
peoples which have really attained to   
the monotheistic idea1 in the ,aryan and
 ,semitic races1 in ,china1 ,japan1 and 
,egypt1 in ,peru and ,mexico2 the belief
 may also be obscurely traced in an     
inchoate form among savage and inferior 
tribes1 as1 for example1 among the      
,indians of ,central and ,north         
,america1 and among some of the         
inhabitants of ,africa and barbarous    
,asia4  ,while this conception took a   
more or less definite form among the    
more advanced peoples1 the earlier and  
debased myths maintained their ground1  
and still continue to do so4 ,of this we

 have examples in ,europe itself1 and   
among its more civilized peoples which  
have been transplanted elsewhere2 for   
while in one direction a capacity for   
classification leads to a purer         
monotheistic conception1 and even to    
rational science1 the great majority of 
the common people1 and even of those of 
higher culture1 still hold many ideas   
which are polytheistic and              
anthropomorphic1 and some which really  
belong to the debased stage of fetishism
 and vulgar superstition4  ,other causes
 contribute to produce the natural and  
intrinsic concurrence of the several    
stages of myth which are found existing 
together in the life of a people4 ,such1
 for example1 is the conquest effected  
by a more civilized nation over another 
race1 inferior by nature or retarded by 
other circumstances4 ,the mythical ideas
 of the conquered people remain1 and are
 even diffused through the lower classes
 of the conquering race2 or they are    
ingrafted by a synthetic and            

assimilating process1 so as to modify   
other mythical and religious beliefs4   
,this compound of various stages and    
various beliefs also occurs through the 
moral and intellectual diffusion of     
dogma1 without the acquisition of really
 new matter4 ,manifest proofs of these  
various stages of myth1 co-existent     
together1 may be traced in the          
development of the ,vedic ideas among   
the earlier aboriginal nations1 and     
conversely2 as in the case of the       
,aztecs and ,incas in ,mexico and ,peru1
 whose earlier beliefs were mixed with  
those of their conquerors4 ,the same    
thing may be observed in the development
 of ,judaism during the ,babylonish     
captivity1 in the biblical and messianic
 doctrines which were grafted on pagan  
beliefs1 and in the teaching of ,islam1 
as it was adopted in the ,east and among
 the black races of ,africa4  ,we must  
make allowance for these extrinsic      
accidents if we are to describe         
correctly the natural course and logical

 evolution of myth4 ,even with respect  
to the special evolution of myth in a   
separate people1 unmixed with others1   
while it is normal in what may be termed
 its general form and categorical       
phases1 yet like all natural objects and
 phenomena1 and much more in all which  
concerns the human mind1 there are      
variations in its forms1 and it attains 
its ends by many ways4  ,if we take a   
wider view of the general and reciprocal
 influences of ethnic myths2 as respects
 the historic results of mythologies1 we
 shall see that if every race evolved   
its sphere of myth in accordance with   
the canons laid down by us1 their effect
 upon each other would work together for
 a common result more quickly than when 
each is taken apart4 ,the reader must   
allow me to make my meaning clear by the
 following passage from my work on the  
,dottrina razionale del ,progresso1     
which ,i published in #ahfc1 in the     
,politecnico1 ,milan1 on the fusion of  
the monotheistic conception of the      

,semitic race with the beliefs of       
,greece and ,rome at the dawn of        
,christianity3--  ,christianity was     
originally based on the absolute idea of
 the divine first ,principle1 to which  
one portion of the ,semitic race had    
attained by intellectual evolution1 and 
by the acumen of the great men who      
brought this idea to perfection4 ,either
 because of their clearer consciousness1
 or from their environment and the      
physical circumstances of the race1 the 
,semitic people passed from the         
primitive ideas of mythology to the     
conception of the absolute and infinite 
,being1 while other races still adhered 
to altogether fanciful and              
anthropomorphic ideas of this ,being4   
,our race had an ,olympus1 like the     
others1 and throughout its history this 
,olympus was always assuming new forms1 
although a human conception was the     
basis of its religious ideas4 ,the      
,chinese and ,semitic races were the    
first to rise to the conception of an   

absolute first principle1 but in both   
cases the conception was more or less   
unfruitful4  ,the gradual transition    
from consciousness to conception1 from  
the fact to the idea1 from the idol to  
the law1 from the symbol to the thought1
 from the finite to the infinite1 is the
 characteristic and essential course    
taken by the human mind4 ,but1          
practically1 this process is more       
gradual or more rapid1 is retarded or   
advanced1 attains its aim or stops short
 in its first rudiments1 according to   
the race in which it occurs4 ,so it was 
that1 as we have just said1 the ,chinese
 and ,semitic races were the first to   
reach the final goal of this            
psychological progress2 other peoples1  
such as the ,aryans and their offshoots1
 savages and partially civilized races1 
remained in the early stages of this    
dialectic scale4 ,undoubtedly1 in our   
own race1 the early religious           
conceptions which constituted a simple  
worship of nature in various forms were 

constantly becoming of purer character1 
and they were not only exalted in their 
spiritual quality1 but in the ,greek and
 ,roman religions they attained to      
something like scientific precision4    
,yet even in these higher aspirations   
the race did not surrender its mythical 
faculty1 to which it was impelled by its
 physical and psychological             
constitution1 and the pure conception   
was unconsciously overshadowed by       
symbolic ideas4 ,we can plainly see how 
far this symbolism1 peculiar to the     
race1 obscured the minds of ,plato and  
,aristotle1 and of almost all the       
subsequent philosophers4 ,in the        
,semitic and ,chinese races this inner  
symbolism of the mind1 with reference to
 the interpretation of nature1 was less 
tenacious1 intense1 and productive1 and 
they soon freed themselves from their   
mental bonds in order to rise to the    
conception of the absolute ,being1      
distinct from the world4 ,when this idea
 had been grasped by rude and popular   

intuition1 men of the highest           
intellectual power perfected the still  
confused conception1 and founded upon it
 science1 civil and political           
institutions1 and national customs4     
,the idea of ,christianity arose in the 
midst of the ,semitic people through him
 whose name it bears1 and who perfected 
the religious idea of his nation4 ,this 
idea1 in its ,semitic simplicity1       
consisted in a belief in the existence  
of one1 eternal1 infinite ,god1 the     
immediate creator of all things2 it     
included the tradition of man's loss of 
his original felicity1 and the promise  
of a restoration of all peoples1 and of 
the ,israelites in particular1 to their 
former condition of earthly happiness4  
,christ appeared1 and while he upheld   
the ,mosaic law and its original idea1  
he declared himself to be the promised  
deliverer1 sent of ,god2 the ,son of    
,god1 which among the ,semitic people   
was the term applied to their prophets4 
,his moral teaching gave a more perfect 

form to the old law1 and by his example 
he afforded a model of human virtue     
worthy of all veneration2 the germs of a
 marvellous civilization were to be     
found in his moral and partially new    
teaching4 ,the same doctrine had been1  
to some extent1 inculcated by the       
,jewish teachers1 and the schools of    
,hillel and ,gamaliel were certainly not
 morally inferior to his own1 as we     
learn from the tradition of the ,talmud1
 and from some passages in the ,acts of 
the ,apostles4 ,the origin1 development1
 and teaching of primitive ,christianity
 were therefore essentially ,semitic1   
since it had its origin in a people of  
that race1 and in a man of that people4 
,yet the ,semitic race did not become   
,christian2 and1 after so many ages have
 elapsed1 it still rejects              
,christianity4 ,it was the ,aryan race1 
to which we ,europeans belong1 which    
adopted this teaching and became        
essentially ,christian1 although this   
race is psychologically the most        

idolatrous of the world1 as far as the  
sthetic idol--not the common fetish--is 
concerned4 ,let us inquire into the     
cause of this remarkable fact4  ,as soon
 as the teaching of ,christ was adopted 
by those familiar with ,aryan           
civilization and opinions1 an idea      
repugnant to ,semitic conceptions1 and  
still unintelligible to that race1 was  
evolved from it--,i mean the idea that  
the human ,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 was
 ,god himself4 ,the ,semite holds that  
,god is so far exalted above all        
creation1 so great and eternal in       
comparison with the littleness of the   
world and of man1 that ,god incarnate is
 not merely a blasphemy but an unmeaning
 and absurd phrase4 ,such a dogma was   
therefore energetically repudiated1 and 
the ,semitic race submitted to          
persecution and dispersal rather than   
accept it4 ,this is the real reason why 
,christianity has not been received and 
will never be received by the ,semitic  
race4 ,when ,mahomet reorganized and    

perfected the ,arab creed1 he preserved 
intact the ,semitic principle of the    
absolute and incommunicable nature of   
,god3 the ,semitic religion has ever    
held that there is one ,god1 and his    
prophet4  ,on the other hand1           
,christianity was rapidly diffused among
 the ,greek and ,latin peoples1 and in  
all parts of ,europe inhabited by our   
race3 even savages and barbarians       
accepted more or less frankly a doctrine
 rejected by the ,semites in whom it had
 its origin4 ,many and various causes   
have been assigned for this rapid       
diffusion of the new doctrine1 and the  
old ,greek and ,latin fathers ascribed  
it to the fact that men's minds had been
 naturally and providentially prepared  
for it4 ,it was attributed by others to 
the miseries and sufferings of the slave
 population1 and of the poor1 who found 
a sweet illusion and comfort in the     
,christian hope of a world beyond the   
grave4 ,some1 again1 suggest the        
omnipotent will of a tyrant1 or the     

extreme ignorance of the common and     
barbarous people4 ,although all these   
causes had a partial effect1 they were  
secondary and accidental4 ,the true and 
unique cause lay deeper1 in the         
intellectual constitution of the race to
 which ,christianity was preached2 just 
as physiological characteristics are    
reproduced in the species until they    
become permanent1 so do intellectual    
inclinations become engrained in the    
nature4  ,we have said that our race is 
sthetically more mythological than all  
others4 ,if we consider the religious   
teaching of various ,aryan peoples1 from
 the most primitive ,vedic idolatry to  
the successive religions of ,brahma and 
,zend1 of the ,celts1 ,greeks1 ,latins1 
,germans1 and ,slavs1 we shall see how  
widely they differ from the religious   
conceptions and ideas of other races4   
,the vein of fanciful creations is      
inexhaustible1 and there is a wealth of 
symbolic combinations and a profusion of
 celestial and semi-celestial dramas4   

,the intrinsic habit of forming mythical
 representations of nature is due to a  
more vivid sense of her power1 to a     
rapid succession of images1 and to a    
constant projection of the observer's   
own personality into phenomena4 ,this   
peculiar characteristic of our race is  
never wholly overcome1 and to it is     
added a proud self-consciousness1 an    
energy of thought and action1 a constant
 aspiration after grand achievements1   
and a haughty contempt for all other    
nations4  ,the very name of ,aryan1     
transmitted in a modified form to all   
successive generations1 denotes dominion
 and valour2 the ,brahmanic cosmogony1  
and the epithet of apes1 given to all   
other races in the epic of ,valmiki1    
bear witness to the same fact2 it is    
shown in the slavery imposed on         
conquered peoples1 in the hatred of     
foreigners felt by all the ,hellenic    
tribes2 in the omnipotence of ,rome1 the
 haughtiness of the ,germanic orders2 in
 the feudal system1 in the ,crusades2   

and finally1 in the modern sense of our 
superiority to all other existing races4
 ,the quickness of perception1 and the  
facile projection of human personality  
into natural objects1 led to the        
manifold creations of ,olympus1 and this
 was an sthetic obstacle to any nearer  
approach to the pure and absolute       
conception of ,god1 while the innate    
pride of race was a hindrance to our    
humiliation in the dust before ,god4    
,the ,semites declared that man was     
created in the image of ,god1 and we    
created ,god in our own image2 while    
conscious of the power of the numina we 
confronted them boldly1 and were ready  
to resist them4 ,the ,indian legends1   
and those of the ,hellenes1 the         
,scandinavians1 and the whole ,aryan    
race1 are full of conflicts between gods
 and men4 ,the demi-gods must be        
remembered1 showing that the ,aryans    
believed themselves to be sufficiently  
noble and great for the gods to love    
them1 and to intermarry with them4 ,thus

 the ,aryan made himself into a ,god1   
and often took a glorious place in      
,olympus1 while he declared that ,god   
was made man4  ,we might imagine that   
the doctrine of ,god incarnate would be 
as repugnant to the ideas1 feelings1 and
 intellect of the ,aryan as it was to   
the ,semitic race4 ,but the             
anthropomorphic side of ,christianity   
was readily embraced by the former as a 
mythical and sthetic conception1 and    
indeed it was they who made a           
metaphorical expression into an         
essential dogma3 the pride natural to   
the ,aryan race made them eager to      
accept a religion which placed man in a 
still higher ,olympus3 a belief in      
,christ was rapidly diffused1 not as    
,god but as the ,man-,god4 ,these are   
the true reasons1 not only for the rapid
 spread of ,christianity in ,europe1 but
 also for the philosophic systems of the
 ,platonists and ,alexandrines which    
preceded it4 ,although ,philo was a     
,hebrew1 and probably knew nothing of   

,christ1 he attained by means of        
,hellenism to the idea of the ,man-,god2
 the ,platonic ,word1 which was merely  
the projection of ,god into human       
reason1 was accepted for the same reason
 as the ,christian dogma of the ,word   
made man4  ,let us see what new         
principles1 what higher morality and    
civilization were added by the diffusion
 of ,christianity to those principles   
which were the spontaneous product of   
the race4 ,we must first consider what  
part the pagan gods1 as they were       
regarded by educated men1 played in the 
history of the ,european race1 with     
respect to the individual and to the    
commonwealth4 ,the pagan ,olympus1      
considered as a whole1 and without      
reference to the various forms which it 
assumed in different peoples1 was not   
essentially distinct from human society4
 ,although the gods formed a higher     
order of immortal beings1 they were     
mixed up with men in a thousand ways in 
practical life1 and conformed to the    

ways of humanity2 they were constantly  
occupied in doing good or ill to        
mortals2 they were warmly interested in 
the disputes of men1 taking part in the 
conflicts of persons1 cities1 and       
peoples2 special divinities watched over
 men from the cradle to the grave1 and  
they were loved or hated by the gods by 
reason of their family and race4 ,in    
short1 the heavenly and earthly         
communities were so intermixed that the 
gods were only superior and immortal    
men4  ,the people were accustomed to    
consider their deities as ever present1 
distinct from1 and yet inseparably      
joined with them2 so that the           
individual1 the country1 the tribes1    
were ever governed1 guarded1 favoured1  
or opposed by special and peculiar gods4
 ,olympus had a history1 since the acts 
of the gods took place in time and were 
coincident with the history of nations1 
so that every event in heaven           
corresponded with one on earth2 the idea
 of divine justice was exemplified in   

that of men1 and both were perfected    
together4 ,among pagans of the ,aryan   
race there was a perpetual and repeated 
alliance between men and gods made in   
the image of man4 ,this action of the   
gods both for good and evil became in   
its turn the rule of life for the       
ignorant multitude1 and they acted in   
conformity with the supposed will and   
actions of the gods2 the divine will    
was1 however1 nothing but an a priori   
religious conception of an idol         
representing the forces of nature or    
some moral or religious idea4 ,the moral
 perfection of nations1 as time went on1
 also perfected the supreme justice of  
,olympus1 and the moral worth of the    
gods increased as men became better4 ,so
 that it was not the original           
theological idea1 but man himself1 who  
made heaven more perfect1 and the gods  
morally better and more just4  ,the     
explicit power of mental reasoning and  
of science was added to this spontaneous
 evolution of the religious idea1 so far

 as the improved morality of the race   
perfected the heavenly justice which was
 its own creation4 ,the pagan ,olympus  
was gradually simplified by sages and   
philosophers2 the illicit passions of   
the gods were set aside1 and it was     
transformed into a providential         
government of individuals and of        
society1 much more remote from direct   
contact with men4 ,the conception of the
 immortal gods included one supreme     
power1 formative1 protecting or         
avenging1 and this conception bordered  
on the ,semitic idea of the absolute    
,being1 although without quite attaining
 to it4 ,god was confounded with the    
order of things1 his laws were those of 
the universe1 by which he was also      
bound1 and the righteous man lived in   
conformity with these laws4 ,when       
,christianity began1 pagan rationalism  
had arrived at the idea of a spiritual  
and directing power1 organically        
identical with the universe4 ,it was    
neither the ,olympus of the common      

people1 nor the ,semitic ,jehovah1 but  
rather the conscious and inevitable     
order of nature4 ,although1 either as an
 ,olympus or as a dogma1 the deity was  
confounded with men or constrained them 
to follow a more rational rule of life1 
yet paganism clearly distinguished the  
gods from men in their concrete         
personality1 and the action of humanity 
was therefore distinct from that of the 
deity4  ,when ,christianity began1 the  
peoples of the ,aryan race in ,europe1  
or at least those of more advanced      
civilization1 had constituted for       
themselves a heavenly ,pantheon1 which  
contained nearly all the primitive      
deities1 but in a more human form and   
exercising a juster rule over the world1
 while at the same time they were       
regarded as quite distinct from the     
society of men4 ,although there was in  
this multiplicity of divine forms an    
hierarchical order of different ranks1  
there was no general conception to      
include the destinies of the whole human

 race1 and to manifest by its unity its 
providential and historical development4
 ,each people believed in their own     
special destiny1 which should either    
raise them to greater glory and power or
 bring them to a speedy and inevitable  
end2 but there was no common fate1 no   
common prosperity nor disaster4 ,rome   
had1 as far as possible1 united these   
various peoples by the idea of her      
power1 by the inforcement of her laws1  
and by the benefits of her citizenship1 
yet the ,roman unity was external1 and  
did not spring from the intimate sense  
of a common lineage4 ,while the nations 
were so closely united to ,rome by brute
 force1 the subject peoples were        
agitated by a desire for their ancient  
independence and self-government4 ,some 
of these pagan multitudes advanced in   
civilization through their education in 
the learning of the ,romans1 and in     
morality through their spontaneous      
activity1 but they did not possess any  
deep sense of a general providence1 and 

heaven and earth continued to be under  
the sway of an incomprehensible fate4   
,if we now turn to consider the mental  
conditions of educated men at that time1
 we shall see that they transformed the 
,olympus of personal and concrete gods  
into symbols of the forces of nature1   
and that they had risen to a purer      
conception of the deity by making it    
agree with the progress of reason2 but  
this deity was so remote from earth as  
to have scarcely anything to do with the
 government of the world4 ,according to 
the teaching of the ,stoics1 which was  
very generally diffused1 man was        
supposed to be so far left to himself   
that he was the creator of his own      
virtue1 and had to struggle1 not only   
against nature and his fellow-man1 but  
against fate1 the underlying essence of 
every cosmic form and motion4 ,if this  
pagan rationalism gave rise to great    
theoretic morality1 and produced amazing
 examples of private and public virtue1 
it had little effect on the multitudes1 

nor did it contain any guiding principle
 for the historical life of humanity as 
a whole4  ,christianity proclaimed the  
spiritual unity of ,god1 the unity of   
the race1 the brotherhood of all        
peoples1 the redemption of the world1   
and consequently a providential         
influence on mankind4 ,christianity     
taught that ,god himself was made man1  
and lived among men4 ,such teaching was 
offered to the people as a truth of     
consciousness rather than of dogma1     
although it was afterwards preserved in 
a theological form by the preaching of  
,paul1 and the pagan mind was more      
affected by sentiment than by reason4   
,the unity of ,god was associated in    
their sthetic imagination with the      
earlier conception of the supreme ,zeus1
 which now took a more ,semitic form1   
and ,olympus was gloriously transformed 
into a company of elect ,christians and 
holy fathers of the new faith4 ,a       
confused sentiment as to the mystic     
union of peoples1 who became brothers in

 ,christ1 had a powerful effect on the  
imagination and the heart1 since they   
had already learned to regard the world 
as the creation of one eternal ,being4  
,in the ardour of proselytism and of the
 diffusion of the new creed1 they hailed
 the historical transformation of the   
earthly endeavour after temporal        
acquisitions and pleasures into a       
providential preparation for the        
heavenly kingdom4  ,in ,christ1 the     
incarnation of the supreme ,god1 they   
beheld the apotheosis of man1 so        
acceptable to the ,aryan race1 since he 
thus became the absolute ruler of the   
world and its fates4 ,ideas and         
sentiments1 of which the ,semitic mind  
was incapable1 and which were opposed to
 their historical and intellectual      
development1 moved and satisfied the    
,aryan mind1 and became associated as   
far as possible with the dogma and      
belief to which the race had attained in
 their pagan civilization4 ,thus heaven1
 dogma1 and ,christian rites assumed    

from the first a pagan form2 and while  
the original idols were repudiated in   
the zeal for new principles1 their      
common likeness was maintained by the   
imaginative power of the race4  ,in this
 way ,christianity became popular1 and  
the ,semitic idea was invested with     
pagan forms1 in order to carry on the   
gradual and more intimate spiritual     
transformation which is not yet         
terminated4 ,its teaching was at first  
decidedly rejected and opposed by       
cultivated minds1 accustomed as the     
,greeks were with few exceptions to use 
their reason4 ,among philosophers1 the  
popular belief in a personal ,olympus   
had disappeared1 and a more rational    
study of mankind did not allow them to  
understand or comprehend a dogma which  
re-established anthropomorphism under   
another aspect1 so that this new and    
impious superstition became the object  
of persecution4 ,these were1 however1   
mere exceptions1 an anticipation of the 
opposition of reason to mythical ideas1 

which became more vigorous in every     
successive age1 until the time arrived  
when reason1 educated by a long course  
of exercise1 was able to renew the      
effort with greater authority and       
success4 ,the common people gradually   
became ,christian1 and so also did      
educated men1 who thus added the        
authority of the schools to a teaching  
accepted by the feelings and innate     
inclination of the race1 and hence      
followed the theological development of 
,christian dogma4  ,these new principles
 and beliefs1 eventually accepted by all
 the nations of ,europe1 both barbarous 
and civilized1 not only brought to      
perfection the religious intuition      
characteristic of the morality and      
civilization of the race1 but they      
produced a new and renovating power in  
historical and social life4 ,this fresh 
virtue consisted in the belief in a     
power consubstantially divine and human4
 ,although the pagan gods were human in 
their extrinsic and intrinsic form1 only

 differing from mortals by their mighty 
privileges1 yet they were personally    
distinct from men1 and while the acts of
 ,olympus mingled with those of earth1  
they had an habitation and destinies    
apart4 ,but by the new dogma1 the one   
,god who was a ,spirit took on him the  
substance of man and was united with    
humanity as a whole1 according to the   
,pauline interpretation1 which was      
generally accepted by our race4 ,the    
divine nature was continually imparted  
to man1 the body and members in which   
the divine spirit was incarnated1 since 
the ,church or mystical community of    
,christians was the temple of ,god4     
,through this lively sense of the divine
 incarnation1 the ,christian avatar with
 which the race had been acquainted     
under other forms1 ,god was no longer   
essentially distinguished from mankind  
in the form of a number of concrete     
beings1 but was spiritually infused into
 men and acted through them4 ,the       
,christian as man felt himself to be a  

participator with ,god himself by a     
mystic intercourse4 ,since1 therefore1  
the human faculty was historically      
identical with the divine1 and shared in
 the spiritual work which was to effect 
the redemption of society1 this new and 
,christian civilization added daring1   
confidence1 and virtue to the natural   
energy of the race4  ,not many years    
elapsed before men ceased to contemplate
 the immediate end of the world         
predicted by the first apostles and the 
,apocalypse2 they looked forward to a   
more distant future1 and except in the  
case of some particular sects1 they     
applied the prophecies which referred to
 the first generation of ,christians to 
the future history of the race4 ,it was 
therefore ,christianity which introduced
 into the consciousness of our ,aryan   
peoples the principles of a divine      
historic power acting on the social     
economy of mankind1 and in this way the 
natural dignity and enterprising pride  
of the race was increased4 ,through this

 fresh religious intuition and spiritual
 exaltation1 the purity and moral       
sweetness of the ,semitic ,nazarene     
became the law of society1 and the      
church organization gradually           
assimilated everything to itself1 and   
received divine worship in the person of
 the supreme ,pontiff1 who continued for
 many ages to be the temporal ruler of  
consciences1 of public institutions1 and
 of civilization4 ,strange daring in a  
race which from its early beginnings    
down to our own days has been always    
true to its own character1 and in one   
form or other has displayed vigour1     
energy1 ambition1 transforming power1   
and great designs4  ,this remarkable    
process could only go on in and through 
those peoples whose vigour and pride    
equalled their physical strength2 to    
whom it is death to sit still1 and life 
to be always busy1 to transform all     
things to their own image1 to dominate  
over all--over ,god by the intellect1   
over the world by science1 over other   

races by force of arms4 ,after the      
anthropomorphic form was given to       
natural phenomena1 which is done to some
 extent by all races1 the gods were made
 in the image of man2 full of sthetic   
imagination1 of grand and vigorous      
conceptions1 they modified and          
transformed the truth of the ,semitic   
idea1 to suit their own genius and      
imagination1 and in this way they       
produced the wonderful fabric of        
,christian civilization and of          
,catholicism4 ,they alone accepted a    
teaching which infused new spirit into  
social life and produced the rule of    
religion over the world1 and the race   
still stands alone in the maintenance of
 its beliefs1 to which science has added
 the powerful simplicity of the ,semitic
 idea1 and their vigorous influence has 
perpetuated and perfected human progress
 upon earth4#cj ,the ,aryan race        
attained to the ,semitic conception in  
its purity and cosmic reality by the    
process of reason1 and only because it  

was endowed with all the civilizing and 
moral qualities which were acquired in  
so many ages of moral and intellectual  
energy1 has the old conception been so  
vigorous and productive4  ,the ,semitic 
race1 on the other hand1 adhered to     
their old faith1 rejected ,christianity1
 as it had been formulated by the       
,aryans1 and had little influence on the
 world4 ,the ,israelites1 indeed1       
dispersed among other nations1 retained 
the idea of the one spiritual ,god in   
all its purity1 and civilization would  
have been much indebted to them for this
 rational idea of ,god if they had more 
clearly understood its scientific       
bearing and the nature of man2 many of  
them are indeed justly entitled to fame 
in every department of science4 ,but    
taken by themselves and as a people1    
they had little effect on civilization1 
since they lacked the energy of purpose1
 courage1 mental superiority1 and       
imagination1 which create a durable and 
powerful civilization4  ,the ,arabs1    

aroused for a time by ,mahometan        
fanaticism1 overran great part of       
,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 but without
 influencing civilization4 ,while in    
possession of a great and productive    
idea1 they remained a sterile and nomad 
people1 or founded unproductive         
dynasties4 ,for the ,semitic race1 the  
interval between ,god and man1 and      
consequently between ,god and           
civilization1 was and is infinite1      
impassable4 ,the ,arabs possessed       
nothing but the devastating force of    
proselytism to fertilize their minds and
 social relations2 and1 with the        
exception of architecture1 geography1   
and cognate sciences1 they were for the 
most part only the transmitters of the  
science of others4 ,we1 on the contrary1
 filled up the gulf by placing the      
,man-,god between ,god and man1 and     
civilization has a power and vigour     
which has never flagged1 and which1 now 
that dogma is transformed into reason1  
will not flag while the world lasts4#ca 

,this extract from a work published many
 years ago1 seems to me to confirm the  
theory of myths which ,i have explained2
 it shows how they are ultimately fused 
into a simple form1 in conformity with  
the ideas of civilized society1 and it  
will also throw light on what is to     
follow4  ,if we consider the primitive  
genesis and evolution of myth1 confirmed
 by all the facts of history and        
ethnography1 it will appear that        
although the matter on which thought was
 exercised was mythical and fanciful1   
the form and organizing method were the 
same as those of science4 ,it is1 in    
fact1 a scientific process to observe1  
spontaneously at first1 and then        
deliberately1 the points of likeness and
 unlikeness between special objects of  
perception2 we must rise from the       
particular to the general1 from the     
individual to the species1 thus ever    
enlarging the circle of observation1 in 
order to arrive at types1 laws1 and     
ultimate unity1 or at least a unity     

supposed to be ultimate1 to which       
everything is reduced4 ,so that the     
mythical faculty of thought was         
scientific in its logical form1 and was 
exercised in the same way as the        
scientific faculty4  ,but science does  
not merely consist in the systematic    
arrangement of facts in which it begins1
 nor in their combination into general  
and comprehensive laws2 the sequence of 
causes and effects must also be         
understood1 and it is not enough to     
classify the fact without explaining its
 genesis and cause4 ,we have seen that  
the innate faculty of perception        
involved the idea of a cause in the     
supposition that the phenomenon was     
actuated by a subject1 and while thought
 classified fetishes and idols in a     
mythical way1 an inherent power for good
 or evil was ascribed to them1 not only 
in their relation to man1 but in their  
effects on nature4 ,what ,vico has      
called the poetry of physics consisted  
in the explanation of natural phenomena 

by the efficacy of mythical and         
supernatural agents4 ,from this point of
 view again1 myth and science pursue    
identically the same method and the same
 general form of cognition4  ,nor is    
this all4 ,science is1 in fact1 the     
de-personification of myth1 arriving at 
a rational idea of that which was       
originally a fantastic type by divesting
 it of its wrappings and symbols4 ,in   
the natural evolution of myth1 man      
passes from the extrinsic mythical      
substance to the intrinsic ideal by the 
same intellectual process1 and when the 
types have become ideas1 he carries on  
intrinsically the entifying process     
which he first applied to the material  
and external phenomena4  ,in this case  
also the process is gradual2 by         
attempting a more rational explanation  
of physical phenomena1 man attains to   
ultimate conceptions which express      
direct cosmic laws1 and he regards these
 laws as substantial entities1 which in 
their originally polytheistic form were 

the gods who directed all things4 ,here 
the scientific myth really begins1 since
 natural forces and phenomena are no    
longer personified in anthropomorphic   
beings2 but the laws or general         
principles of physics are transformed   
into material subjects1 which are still 
analogous to human consciousness and    
tendencies1 although the idolatrous     
anthropomorphism has disappeared4  ,the 
combination of myth and science in the  
human mind does not stop here1 since1 as
 ,i have said1 it goes on to form ideal 
representations4 ,when thought          
penetrates more deeply into the physical
 laws of the universe1 and is also more 
rationally engaged in the psychical     
examination of man's own nature1 ideas  
are classified in more general types1 as
 in the primitive construction of       
fetishes1 anthropomorphic idols1 and    
physical principles2 and in this way an 
explicit and purely ideal system is     
formed1 in which the images correspond  
with the fanciful and physical types    

which were previously created4  ,it     
usually happens that thought1 by the    
innate faculty of which we have so often
 spoken1 regards the ideas produced by  
this complex mental labour as material  
entities endowed with eternal and       
independent existence2 and this produced
 the ,platonic teaching1 the schools in 
,greece and ,italy1 and other brilliant 
illustrations of this phase of thought4 
,such teaching1 the result of explicit  
reflection1 is a rival of the critical  
science which followed from it4 ,it is  
always active1 while constantly varying 
and assuming fresh forms2 and it not    
only flourishes in our time in the      
religions in which it finds a suitable  
soil1 but also1 as we shall see1 in     
science itself4  ,in addition to this   
complex evolution of myth as a whole1   
special myths follow similar laws2 since
 they are generated from the same facts1
 and pass through the same phases1 they 
culminate in a partial ideality1 and    
this involves a simple and comprehensive

 law of the phenomena in question1 and  
even a moral or providential order4 ,for
 example1 we may trace the ,promethean  
myth to the end of the ,hellenic era1   
and the different phases and final      
extinction of this particular myth are  
quite apparent4  ,the origin of the     
myth1 which was directly connected with 
the perception of the natural phenomena 
of light and heat1 was due to the same  
causes as all others1 but we will       
consider it in its ,vedic phase1 as it  
may be gathered from tradition1 and from
 the discoveries of comparative         
philology1 and we have a sure guide in  
this research in the great linguist     
,kuhn1 whose remarks have been enlarged 
and illustrated by ,baudry4  ,the       
,sanscrit word for the act of producing 
fire by friction is manthmi1 to rub or  
agitate1 and this appears from its      
derivative mandala1 a circle2 that is1  
circular friction4 ,the pieces of wood  
used for the production of fire were    
called pramantha1 that which revolves1  

and arani was the disc on which the     
friction was made4 ,in this phase1 the  
fetishes are1 according to our theory1  
in the second stage4 ,the ,greeks and   
,romans1 and indeed almost all other    
peoples1 knew no other way of kindling a
 fire1 and in the sacred rites of the   
,peruvians the task was assigned to the 
,incas at the annual festival of fire4  
,the wood of the oak was used in        
,germany1 on account of the red colour  
of its bark1 which led to the           
supposition that the god of fire was    
concealed in it4 ,tan is called lohe1 or
 flame1 in ,germany4 ,this primitive    
mode of kindling a fire was known to the
 ,aryans before their dispersion1 and   
friction with this object was equivalent
 to the birth of the fire-god1          
constraining him to come down to earth  
from the air1 from thunder1 etc42 indeed
 fire was also called dta1 the messenger
 between heaven and earth4 ,the question
 arose who had drawn fire from heaven1  
and developed it in the arani4 ,a       

resemblance was also traced between the 
instruments for kindling fire and the   
organs of generation1 a reciprocal      
interchange of various myths1 as we have
 before observed4 ,agni is concealed in 
arani1 like the embryo in the womb      
7,rig-,veda74 ,thus pramantha is the    
masculine instrument1 arani the         
feminine1 and the act of uniting them is
 copulation4  ,agni had disappeared from
 earth and was concealed in a cavern1   
whence it was drawn by a divine person2 
that is1 fire had disappeared and was   
concealed within the arani1 whence it   
was extracted by the pramantha and      
bestowed upon man4 ,mtarivan1 the divine
 deliverer1 is therefore only the       
personification of the male organ4  ,in 
virtue of the idea that the soul is a   
spark1 and that the production of fire  
resembles generation1 ,bhrigu1          
lightning1 is a creator4 ,the son of    
,bhrigu marries the daughter of ,manu1  
and they have a son who at his birth    
breaks his mother's thigh1 and therefore

 takes the name of ,aurva 7from uru a   
thigh74 ,this is only the lightning     
which rends the clouds asunder4  ,many  
,grco-,latin myths1 beginning with that 
of ,prometheus must be referred to      
,mtarivan and to the ,bhrigu1 and we can
 trace in the name of ,prometheus the   
equivalent of a ,sanscrit form          
prmathyus1 one who obtains fire by      
friction4 ,prometheus is1 in fact1 the  
ravisher of celestial fire 7a phase of  
the polytheistic myth in a perfectly    
human form72 he is a divine pramantha4  
,it is ,prometheus who in one version of
 the myth cleaves open the head of      
,zeus1 and causes ,athene1 the goddess  
who uses the lightning as her spear1 to 
issue from it4 ,the ,greeks afterwards  
carried on the evolution of myth in its 
transition from the physical to the     
moral phenomenon1 and1 forgetful of his 
origin1 they made ,prometheus into a    
seer4 ,as ,bhrigu1 he created man of    
earth and water1 and breathed into him  
the spark of life4 ,villemarqu tells us 

that in ,celtic antiquity there was an  
analogous myth1 as we might naturally   
expect1 since the ,celts belong to the  
,aryan stock2 ,gwenn-,aran 7albus       
superus7 was a supernatural being which 
issued like lightning from a cloud4     
,the more thoughtful ,greeks did not    
limit the ,promethean myth to the idol  
and to anthropomorphic fancies1 but it  
passed into a moral conception1 and we  
have a proof of this transition in      
schylus4  ,in fact1 as ,silvestro       
,centofonti observes in a lecture on the
 characteristics of ,greek literature1  
the grand figure of the schylean        
,prometheus is a poetic personification 
of ,thought1 and of its mysterious fates
 in the sphere of life as a whole4      
,first1 in its eternal existence1 as a  
primitive and organic force in the      
system of the world2 then in the order  
of human things1 fettered by the bonds  
of civilization1 and subject to the     
necessities1 lusts1 and evils which     
constantly1 arise from the union of soul

 and matter in unsatisfied mortals4     
,thought is itself the source of        
tormenting cares in this earthly        
slavery1 yet the sense of power makes it
 invincible1 firm in its purpose to     
endure all sufferings1 to be superior to
 all events2 assured of future freedom1 
and always on the way to achieve it by  
reverting to the grandeur of its innate 
perfection2 finally attaining to this   
happy state1 by shaking off all the     
enslaving bonds and anxious cares of the
 kingdom of ,zeus1 and by obtaining a   
perfect life through the inspirations of
 wisdom1 when the revolutions of the    
heavens should fill the earth with      
divine power1 and restore the happiness 
of primeval times4 ,it is evident that  
in this stupendous tragedy schylus is   
leading us to the truth in a threefold  
sense3 sthetic1 morally political1 and  
cosmic4 ,the supreme idea which sums up 
the whole value of the composition is   
perhaps that of an inevitable           
reciprocity of action and reaction      

between mind and effective force1       
between the primitive providence of     
nature and the subsequent laws of art1  
both in the civilization of mankind and 
in the order and life of the universe4  
,in this way the evolution of the       
special myth was transformed into poetry
 by the interweaving1 collection1 and   
fusion with other myths1 and in the     
minds of a higher order it was resolved 
into an allegory or symbol of the forces
 of nature1 into providential laws or a 
moral conception4  ,this law of         
progressive transformation also occurs  
in the successive modifications of the  
special meaning of words1 so far as they
 indicate not only the thing itself1 but
 the image which gave rise to the       
primitive roots4 ,for a long while1     
those who heard the word were not only  
conscious of the object which it        
represented1 but of its image1 which    
thus became a source of sthetic         
enjoyment to them4 ,as time went on1    
this image was no longer reproduced1 and

 the bare indication remained1 until the
 word gradually lost all material       
representation1 and became an           
algebraical sign1 which merely recalled 
the object in question to the mind4     
,when1 for example1 we now use the word 
7coltello71 coulter1 the instrument     
indicated by this phonetic sign         
immediately recurs to the mind and      
nothing else2 the intelligence would see
 no impropriety in the use of some other
 sign if it were generally intelligible4
 ,but in the times of primitive speech1 
the inventors of this rude instrument   
were conscious of the material image    
which gave rise to it1 and they were    
likewise conscious of all the cognate   
images which diverged from the same     
root1 and in this way a brief but vivid 
drama was presented to the imagination4 
,if we examine this word with ,pictet   
and others1 we shall find that the name 
of the plough comes from the ,sanscrit  
krt1 krnt1 kart1 to cleave or divide4   
,hence krntatra1 a plough or dividing   

instrument4 ,the root krt subsequently  
became kut or kutt1 to which we must    
refer kta1 ktaka1 the body of the       
plough4 ,this root krt1 kart1 is found  
in many ,european languages in the      
general sense of cutting or breaking1 as
 in the old ,slav word kratiti1 to cut  
off4 ,it is also applied to labour and  
its instruments3 kartti1 to plough over 
again1 karta1 a line or furrow1 and in  
the ,vedic ,sanscrit1 karta1 a ditch or 
hole4 ,hence the ,latin culter a saw1   
cultellus1 a coulter1 and the ,sanscrit 
kartari1 a coulter4 ,the ,slav words for
 the mole which burrows in the earth are
 connected with the root krt1 or the    
,slav krat4 ,in very remote times1 men  
not only understood the object indicated
 in the word for a coulter1 but they    
were sensible of the image of the       
primitive krt and its affixes1 which    
were likewise derived from the primitive
 images1 and with these they included   
the cognate images of the several       
derivatives from the root4 ,in these    

days the word coulter and the ,sanscrit 
kartari are simply signs or phonetic    
notations1 insignificant in themselves1 
and everything else has disappeared4    
,but in primitive times an image        
animated the word1 which by the         
necessary faculty of perception so often
 described was transformed into a kind  
of subject which effected the action    
indicated by the root4 ,as this         
personality gradually faded away1 the   
actual representation of the image was  
lost1 and even its remote echo finally  
vanished1 while the phonetic notation   
remained1 devoid of life and memory1 and
 without the recurrence of cognate      
images which strengthened the original  
idea by association4 ,all words undergo 
the like evolution1 and this may be     
called the mythical evolution of speech4
  ,thus the ,sanscrit word for daughter 
is duhitar2 in ,persian it is dchtar1 in
 ,greek ,greek3 ,thugatr1 in ,gothic    
dauhtar1 in ,german ,tochter4 ,the word 
is derived from the root duh1 to milk1  

since this was the girl's business in a 
pastoral family4 ,the sign still        
remains1 but it has lost its meaning1   
since the image and the drama have      
vanished4 ,this analysis applies to all 
languages1 and it may also be traced in 
the words for numbers4 ,the number five1
 for example1 among the ,aryans and in  
many other tongues1 signifies hand4     
,this is the case in ,thibet1 in ,siam1 
and cognate languages1 in the ,indian   
,archipelago and in the whole of        
,oceania1 in ,africa1 and in many of the
 ,american peoples and tribes1 where it 
is the origin of the decimal system4 ,in
 ,homer we find the verb ,greek3        
pempazein1 to count in fives1 and then  
for counting in general2 in ,lapland    
lokket1 and in ,finland lukea1 to count1
 is derived from lokke1 ten2 and the    
,bambarese adang1 to count1 is the      
origin of tank1 ten4  ,when the         
numerical idea of five was first        
grasped1 the conception was altogether  
material1 and was expressed by the image

 of the five-fingered hand4 ,in the mind
 of the earliest rude calculators1 the  
number five was presented to them as a  
material hand1 and the word involved a  
real image1 of which they became        
conscious in uttering it4 ,the number   
and the hand were consequently fused    
together in their respective images1 and
 signified something actually combined  
together1 which effected in a material  
form the genesis of this numerical      
representation4 ,but the material entity
 gradually disappeared1 the image faded 
and was divested of its personality1 and
 only the phonetic notation five        
remained1 which no longer recalls a     
hand1 the origin of the several         
numerals1 nor words connected with it4  
,it is now a mere sign1 apart from any  
rational idea4 ,the same may be said of 
the other numerals4  ,we give these few 
examples1 which apply to all words1     
since they all follow the same course1  
beginning with the real and primitive   
image1 subjectively effecting their     

peculiar meaning4 ,hence we see how the 
intrinsic law of myth is evolved in     
every human act in diverse ways1 but    
always with the same results4  ,in fact1
 before articulate speech1 for which man
 was adapted by his organs and          
physiological conditions1 was formulated
 into words for things and words for    
shape1 man like animals thought in      
images2 he associated and dissociated1  
he composed and decomposed1 he moved and
 removed images1 which sufficed for all 
individual and immediate operations of  
his mind4 ,the relations of things were 
felt1 or rather seen through his inward 
representation of them as in a picture1 
expressing in a material form the       
respective positions of figures and     
objects which1 since they are remote    
from him1 can only be expressed by such 
words as nearer1 lower or higher1 faint 
or clear1 by more vivid or paler tints1 
such as we see in a running stream1 in  
the forms of clouds1 in the reciprocal  
relations of all objects represented in 

painting4  ,in order to understand the  
primeval process of thought by means of 
images1 it is necessary to conceive such
 a picture as living and mobile1 and    
constantly forming a fresh combination  
of parts4 ,animals have not1 and        
primeval man had not1 the phonetic signs
 or words which give an individual      
character to the images1 and so         
represent them that by combining these  
images in an articulate form1 thought   
may be represented by signs2 and in and 
through these a universal and objective 
mode of exercising the intellectual     
faculty of reasoning has been created4  
,speech can1 by means of reflex memory1 
produce at will the particular images   
already classified in the mind1 and this
 makes the process of reasoning         
possible2 since such a process becomes  
more easy by the use of signs to which  
the attention can revert4 ,the relative 
size of objects1 and the like qualities1
 which are at first regarded as so many 
different intuitions in space1 are      

defined by words or gestures1 and are   
thus subjected to comparative analogy2  
but in the early stages of language     
these relations were presented in an    
extrinsic form by phonetic signs1 and   
became images which in some sort        
represented one particular state of     
consciousness with respect to the two   
things compared4 ,galton1 speaking of   
the ,damaras1 tells us that they find   
great difficulty in counting more than  
five1 since they have not another hand  
with which to grasp the fingers which   
represent the units4 ,when they lose any
 of their cattle1 they do not discover  
the loss by the diminution of the       
number1 but by missing a familiar       
object4 ,if two packets of tobacco are  
given to them as the regulation price of
 a sheep1 they will be altogether at a  
loss to understand the receipt of four  
packets in exchange for two sheep4 ,such
 examples might be multiplied to any    
extent4  ,we repeat that when not       
endowed with speech1 or some analogous  

means1 animals and man think in images1 
and the relations between these images  
are observed in the simultaneousness and
 succession of their real differences2  
these images are combined1 associated1  
and compared by the development of      
reflex power1 and hence arises the      
estimate of their concrete relations4   
,of this we have another proof1 observed
 by ,romanes in a lecture on the        
intelligence of animals1 and confirmed  
by myself1 in the condition of          
deaf-mutes before they are educated1 in 
whose case the extrinsic sign and figure
 takes the place of the phonetic and    
articulate sign4 ,where speech is       
wanting1 it is still possible to follow 
a conscious and imaginative process of  
reasoning1 but not to rise to the higher
 abstract ideas which may be generated  
by such reasoning4 ,the thought of      
deaf-mutes always assumes the most      
concrete form1 and one who was educated 
late in life informed ,romanes that he  
had always before thought in images4 ,i 

know no instance of a deaf-mute who has 
independently attained to an advanced   
intellectual stage1 or who has been able
 without education to form any          
conception of a supernatural world4     
,r4,s4 ,smith asserts that one of his   
deaf-mute pupils believed1 before his   
education1 that the ,bible had been     
printed in the heavens by a printing    
press of enormous power2 and ,graham    
,bell speaks of a deaf-mute who supposed
 that people went to church to do honour
 to the clergyman4 ,in short1 the       
intellectual condition of uneducated    
deaf-mutes is on a level with that of   
animals1 as far as the possibility of   
forming abstract ideas is concerned1 and
 they think in images4 ,there is a      
well-known instance in the deplorable   
condition of ,laura ,bridgman1 who from 
the time she was two years old1 was deaf
 and dumb1 blind1 and even without the  
sense of taste1 so that the sense of    
touch was all that remained4 ,by        
persevering and tender instruction1 she 

attained to an intellectual condition   
which was relatively high4 ,a careful   
study of her case showed that she had   
been altogether without intuitive       
knowledge of causes1 of the absolute1   
and of ,god4 ,howe doubts whether she   
had any idea of space and time1 but this
 was not absolutely proved1 since as far
 as distance was concerned1 she seemed  
to estimate it1 by muscular sensation4  
,everything showed that she thought in  
images4 ,although without any sensation 
of light or sound1 she made certain     
noises in her throat to indicate        
different people when she was conscious 
of their presence or when she thought of
 them1 so that she was naturally        
impelled to express every thought or    
sensation1 not externally perceived1 by 
a sign2 and this shows the tendency of  
every idea and image towards an         
extrinsic form4 ,she often conversed    
with herself1 generally making signs    
with one hand and replying with the     
other4 ,it was evident that a muscular  

sign or the motion of the fingers was   
substituted for the phonetic signs of   
speech1 and in this way ideas and images
 received their necessarily extrinsic   
form4 ,the image was embodied in a      
muscular act and motion1 and in this way
 thought had its concrete               
representation4 ,the same results would1
 as far as we know1 be obtained from    
others in the same unhappy conditions as
 ,laura ,bridgman4  ,it is therefore    
clear that primitive language was only a
 vocal and individual sign of material  
images1 and it was for a long while     
restricted to these concrete limits4    
,since the vocal signs of the relations 
of things are less easily expressed1    
these relations were at first set forth 
by gestures1 by a movement of the whole 
person1 and especially of the hands and 
face4 ,this preliminary action is helped
 by the imitative faculty with which    
children and uncultured peoples are more
 especially endowed1 of which we have   
also instances in the higher animals    

nearest to man4 ,the negroes imitate the
 gestures1 clothing1 and customs of     
white men in the most extraordinary and 
grotesque manner1 and so do the natives 
of ,new ,zealand4 ,the ,kamschatkans    
have a great power of imitating other   
men and animals1 and this is also the   
case with the inhabitants of ,vancouver4
 ,herndon was astonished by the mimic   
arts of the ,brazilian ,indians1 and    
,wilkes made the same observation on the
 ,patagonians4 ,this faculty is still   
more apparent in the lower races4 ,many 
travellers have spoken of the           
extraordinary tendency to imitation     
among the ,fuegians2 and1 according to  
,monat1 the ,andaman islanders are not  
less disposed to mimicry and imitation4 
,mitchell states that the ,australians  
possess the same power4  ,this fact also
 applies to the languages of extremely  
rude and savage peoples4 ,some ,american
 ,indians1 for instance1 help out their 
sentences and make them intelligible by 
contortion of their features and other  

gesticulations1 and the same observation
 was made by ,schweinwurth of an        
,african tribe4 ,the language of the    
,bosjesmanns requires so many signs to  
make the meaning of their words         
intelligible that it cannot be          
understood in the dark4 ,these facts    
partly explain the natural genesis of   
human languages4  ,we have learned from 
our earlier observations that phenomena 
appear to the perceptive faculty of     
primitive man as subjects endowed with  
power4 ,the subjectivity of these       
phenomena1 their intrinsic conditions   
and actions are fused into speech1 which
 is their living and conscious symbol2  
and it is clear that the evolution of   
language from the concrete to the       
symbolical1 and hence to the simple sign
 of the object1 divested of its original
 power1 is analogous to that of myth4   
,this law of evolution also applies to  
the art of writing1 which is at first   
only the precise copy of the image2 it  
is next transformed into an analogous   

symbol1 and then into an alphabetical   
sign1 which serves as the simple        
expression of the conception1 divested  
of its originally representative        
faculty4 ,hence it is apparent that the 
evolution of myth conforms to the       
general law of the evolution of human   
thought1 of all its products and arts in
 their manifold ramifications4 ,from the
 image1 the informing subject1 from the 
conception and the myth1 the necessary  
cycle is accomplished in regular phases1
 wherever the ethnic temperament and    
capacity and extrinsic circumstances    
permit it1 until the rational idea is   
reached1 the sign or cipher which       
becomes the powerful instrument of the  
exercise and generalization of thought4 
,in order to show the efficacy of the   
mythical and scientific faculty of      
thought comprised in the systems of     
ancient and modern philosophy1 and its  
slow progress towards positive and      
rational science1 we will adduce an     
instance from the people in whom such an

 evolution was accomplished1 aided by   
all the civilized peoples in reciprocal 
communication with them4 ,let us see how
 this faculty was manifested in the     
,greeks at a time when they first       
attempted to reduce the earlier and     
scanty knowledge of nature to a system4 
,in ,greece the historical course of    
this faculty ramified into two classes  
of research1 which were at that time    
objective1 the ,ionic and the           
,pythagorean schools4 ,in the former1   
the phenomenon and nature were assumed  
to be the direct object of knowledge1   
while in the latter the object in view  
was the idea and harmony of things4     
,influenced by earlier and popular      
traditions1 a mythical and philosophic  
system arose in the ,ionic school1 which
 was exclusively devoted to physical    
speculations4 ,in ,lower ,italy1 on the 
contrary1 and in colonies which were for
 the most part ,doric1 a science was    
constituted which1 although it included 
physics and natural phenomena1 did not  

only consider their material value1 but 
sought to extract from their laws and   
harmony a criterion of good and evil4   
,ritter observes that the intimate      
connection between the ,pythagorean     
philosophy and lyrical music--of which  
the origin was sought as a clue to      
explain the world--shows how far this   
philosophy was consonant with ,doric    
thought4 ,this historic process is quite
 natural1 since the speculations of     
philosophy are first directed to        
physical phenomena1 as they are         
displayed in inward and in external     
life1 and then rise to the consideration
 of specific types1 in a word1 to the   
general and the universal4  ,throughout 
this philosophical evolution the        
consideration is mainly from the        
objective point of view1 and this is in 
conformity with the intellectual        
evolution of reason1 since the mind is  
first occupied with the knowledge of    
things4 ,in accordance with tradition   
and the logic of things1 ,ionic         

speculation was developed before the    
,doric4 ,the ,eleatic school followed   
from the two former1 although its       
development was contemporary with the   
more perfect stage of these1 and its    
influence upon them was to some extent  
reactionary4  ,thales taught that       
everything was derived from one unique  
principle1 namely water4 ,the ancients  
believed that the land was separated    
from the water by a primitive and       
mythical process1 a belief which had its
 source in the appearance of aqueous and
 meteorological phenomena2 so that the  
teaching of ,thales followed the        
earliest popular traditions1 of which we
 find traces in the ,indies1 in ,egypt1 
in the book of ,genesis1 and in many    
legends diffused through the world even 
in modern times4 ,he said that          
everything was nourished by moisture1   
from which heat itself was derived1 and 
that moisture was the seed of all       
things2 that water is the origin of this
 moisture1 and since all things are     

derived from it it is the primitive     
principle of the world4 ,we see how much
 this theory is concerned with natural  
phenomena in their life1 nutrition1 and 
birth by means of seed4 ,he regarded the
 world as a living being1 which had been
 evolved from an imperfect germ of      
moisture4 ,this mode of animating the   
world1 which consists in tracing the    
development of a germ already in        
existence1 reappears in other parts of  
his philosophy4 ,he saw life in the     
appearance of death1 and held the       
loadstone and yellow amber to be animate
 bodies1 declaring generally that the   
world is alive1 and filled with demons  
and genii4#cb  ,we trace the basis of   
these ideas in traditions prior to      
,thales1 declaring the world to be a    
living being1 and that everything was   
derived from a primitive condition of   
germs4 ,the same opinion was held by    
,hippo1 by ,diogenes of ,apollonia1 by  
,heraclitus1 and by ,anaxagoras4        
,aristotle states that the theory of    

development by germs was extremely      
ancient in his time4 ,the other         
philosophers of the ,ionic and          
successive schools mingled these        
fanciful ideas with the systematic      
arrangement of their theories as to the 
origin and constitution of the world1 so
 that it is unnecessary to refer to     
them1 since the method and conceptions  
are identical4  ,it is evident from this
 sketch that while thought gradually    
evolved a more rational system of       
general knowledge1 the earlier idols and
 primitive mythical interpretations were
 not abandoned1 although they assumed a 
larger and more scientific form4 ,thales
 and others assigned a mechanical origin
 to things1 such as water1 fire1 or the 
like1 which was contrary to             
anthropomorphic ideas2 yet they still   
regarded the world as a living being1   
developed and perfected by the same laws
 and functions as all plants and        
animals1 and they peopled it with genii 
and demons1 thus handing on the earliest

 and rudest traditions of the race4     
,while the scientific faculty was       
gathering strength and leading the way  
to a more rational consideration of the 
world and natural phenomena1 really     
advancing beyond the earlier ideas which
 had been almost wholly mythical1 myth  
was still the matrix of thought1        
although its envelopment was partly rent
 asunder and was becoming transparent4  
,from this brief notice of the ,ionic   
philosophy1 sufficient for our purpose1 
let us return to the ,pythagorean       
school1 in which1 although the faculty  
at work is essentially objective1 there 
is a closer consideration of the        
analogies between thought and the world1
 and the ground is more often retraced1 
so that theory assumes a more           
intellectual form4  ,the ,pythagoreans  
represented the origin of the world as  
the union of the two opposite principles
 of the illimitable and the limited1 of 
the equal and the unequal4 ,yet they    
conceive this to be a primitive union1  

since they formulated the supreme       
principle as equal--unequal 7,arist4    
,met4 xii4 #g47 ,they held the infinite 
to be the place of the one4 ,there was  
an attraction between the two           
principles1 which was termed the act of 
breathing2 hence the void entered into  
the world and separated things from each
 other4 ,thus their conception of the   
world was that of a concourse of        
opposite principles4 ,they represented  
its limits as a unity and as the true   
beginning of multiplicity4 ,they        
regarded the development of the world as
 a process of life regulated by the     
primitive principles contained in the   
world2 its breath or life depended on   
the breaking forth of the infinite void 
in ,uranus1 and the time which is termed
 the interval of all nature penetrates  
at once and with the breath into the    
world4 ,all therefore emanates from one1
 and all is at the same time governed by
 one supreme power4 ,number is          
everything1 and is the essence of       

things1 but the triad includes all      
number1 since it contains the beginning1
 middle1 and end4 ,everything is derived
 from the primitive one and from the    
principal number2 and since this number 
in breathing its vital evolution into   
the void is divided into many units1    
everything is derived from the          
multiplicity of these units or numbers4 
,since1 by his idea of the source of    
universal order1 ,pythagoras partly     
accepted the theocosmic monad as the    
final and necessary root of all life1   
and of all that is knowable1 he could   
not fail to see the convertibility of   
the unit into the ,being4 ,but if the   
unit must always precede the manifold1  
there is a first unit from which all the
 others proceed2 if this first and      
eternal unit is at the same time the    
absolute being1 it follows that number  
and the world have a common origin and a
 common essence1 and that the intrinsic 
causes and possible combinations of     
number are virtually accomplished in the

 development of the world1 and these    
causes and combinations are ideal forms 
of this development4 ,the monad is      
developed by these laws through all the 
generative processes of nature1 while at
 the same time it remains eternal in the
 system of the universe2 so that things 
not only have their origin and essence1 
their place and time according to       
numerical causes1 but each is in effect 
a number as far as its individual       
properties and the universal process of 
cosmic life are concerned4 ,the reason  
of the number must depend upon the      
substance1 by the configurations of     
which it is defined1 divided1 added1 and
 multiplied1 and to this geometry is    
added1 which measures all things in     
relation to themselves and others4 ,this
 eternal cause makes it intelligible    
that if immaterial principles precede   
and govern the whole material world1 it 
is also by means of these that the      
classification of science is in         
intrinsic agreement with that of nature4

 ,numbers have their value in music1 in 
gymnastics1 in medicine1 in morals1 in  
politics1 in all branches of science4   
,the ,pythagorean arithmetic is the bond
 and universal logic of the knowable4   
,but at the same time ,pythagoras and   
his school peopled the world with demons
 and genii1 which were the causes of    
disease2 they did not abandon the old   
mythical ideas of the incarnation of    
spirits and the transmigration of       
souls--theories and beliefs which recur 
in nearly all primitive and savage      
peoples4  ,in this vast ,pythagorean    
scheme1 which contrasts with that of the
 ,ionic school of physics1 thought is   
more explicitly freed from the ruder    
mythical ideas1 and rises to a more     
intelligent and rational conception of  
the world1 but the ancient popular      
traditions still persist1 and there is  
an evident entification of number4 ,the 
primitive monad1 numbers1 their genesis 
and relations1 are not regarded as      
abstract conceptions1 necessary for     

understanding the order of nature1 and a
 merely logical function of the mind2   
they are the substantial essence which  
underlies all mythical representations4 
,although the essential life of the     
world is considered from a more abstract
 point of view1 yet the mythical analogy
 of animal life evidently finds a place 
in the breath of the void and of time1  
assumed to be independent entities4 ,the
 subsequent train of beliefs in spirits1
 of their incarnations and              
transmigrations1 are closely connected  
with the phantasmagoria of the past1 and
 display their mythical genesis2 yet by 
their deeper and more explicit thought  
they may be said to infuse intellectual 
life into the world and into science    
which relates to it4 ,in this first     
rational classification of science by   
the ,greeks1 both on its physical and   
its ideal side1 thought sometimes issues
 in the simple contemplation of manifold
 nature1 while it still continues       
mythical in its fundamental conceptions 

and spiritual corollaries2 myth1        
however1 instead of being altogether    
anthropomorphic1 begins to become       
scientific4  ,i must here be allowed to 
quote a hymn in the ,rig-,veda1 which   
was historically earlier than the       
primitive philosophy of ,greece1 but    
which reveals the same tendency1 the    
same mythical and scientific teaching in
 its interpretation of the world4 ,in   
this hymn1 which has been translated and
 explained by ,max ,mller1 we see how   
boldly the problem of the origin of the 
world is stated 7hymn #abi1 book x47--  
,nor ,aught nor ,nought existed2 yon    
bright sky   ,was not1 nor heaven's     
broad woof outstretched above4   ,what  
covered all8 what sheltered8 what       
concealed8   ,was it the water's        
fathomless abyss8   ,there was not      
death--yet was there nought immortal1   
,there was no confine betwixt day and   
night2   ,the only ,one breathed        
breathless by itself1   ,other than ,it 
there nothing since has been4           

,darkness there was1 and all at first   
was veiled   ,in gloom profound--an     
ocean without light--   ,the germ that  
still lay covered in the husk   ,burst  
forth1 one nature1 from the fervent     
heat4   ,then first came love upon it1  
the new spring   ,of mind--yea1 poets in
 their hearts discerned1   ,pondering1  
this bond between created things   ,and 
uncreated4 ,comes this spark from earth1
   ,piercing and all-pervading1 or from 
heaven8   ,then seeds were sown1 and    
mighty powers arose--   ,nature below1  
and power and will above--   ,who knows 
the secret8 who proclaimed it here1     
,whence1 whence this manifold creation  
sprang8   ,the gods themselves came     
later into being--   ,who knows from    
whence this great creation sprang8   ,he
 from whom all this great creation came1
   ,whether his will created or was     
mute1   ,the ,most ,high ,seer that is  
in highest heaven1   ,he knows it--or   
perchance even ,he knows not4  ,it is   
evident that in this hymn1 the          

expression of the moment when human     
thought was partly freed from the       
earlier anthropomorphic ideas1 the      
scientific faculty which attempts a     
rational explanation of the world is    
shown2 and although this is an isolated 
inspiration of the prophet1 yet it      
shadows forth the conclusions to which  
the primitive ,hellenic speculation came
 when it was deliberately exerted to    
solve the problem of creation4 ,in fact1
 there is here an intimation of the     
waters1 of the void or deep abyss1 as   
the beginnings of the world2 of the     
breath of the ,one1 the hidden germ of  
things developed by means of heat2 of   
productive powers as a lower1 and energy
 as a higher form of nature2 of         
conceptions found in the ,ionic1 the    
,pythagorean1 and the ,eleatic          
philosophies1 which all converge into   
the one4 ,all belong to the same ,aryan 
race4  ,the ,vedic composition          
represents in ,dyvprthiv the close      
connection between the two divinities1  

,heaven and ,earth1 the one considered  
as the active and creative principle1   
the other as that which is passive and  
fertilized2 the same ideas1 more or less
 worked out1 underlie not only the first
 philosophies1 but successive theories  
and systems4 ,the worship of water1 of  
fire1 and of air involved their         
personification1 and they then became   
exciting principles1 in accordance with 
the law of evolution which we have laid 
down4 ,in the ,rig-,veda1 as well as in 
the ,zendavesta1 the waters are         
collectively invoked by their special   
name pas1 and they are termed the       
mothers1 the divine1 which contain the  
amrta or ambrosia1 and all healing      
powers4 ,in ,agni and its ,vedic        
transformations we clearly trace the    
worship of fire1 and its cosmic value4  
,the ,vedic worship of the air is ,vyu1 
from va1 to breathe1 who is associated  
with the higher gods1 and especially    
with ,indra1 ruler of the atmosphere3   
next comes ,rudra1 the god of storms1   

accompanied by the ,maruti1 the winds2  
and in the ,zendavesta the air is       
invoked as an element4 ,hence we see    
that a more rational conception of the  
genesis of the world succeeds to these  
earlier representations and             
personifications of the elements2       
representations which in another form   
endure throughout the course of human   
thought4  ,it is now necessary to       
consider the other period of the        
mythical and scientific evolution which 
had its definitive conclusion in ,plato 
and ,aristotle1 teachers who even now to
 some extent influence the two great    
currents of speculative science4 ,for   
us1 however1 it is more important to    
consider the ,platonic teaching as that 
in which the mythical evolution of the  
earlier representations has full and    
clear expression2 while in the          
,aristotelian philosophy an element of  
dissolution is already at work which    
throws some light on the illusions of   
the ,platonic school4  ,we must bear in 

mind that the spontaneous and even the  
reflective intellectual faculty         
gradually assimilated special and       
independent myths into comprehensive    
types1 which referred to all natural    
objects4 ,next1 the incarnation of      
spirits produced the earliest forms of  
polytheism1 and these were slowly       
classified into more concentric circles1
 and finally into a single hierarchical 
system4 ,owing to the attitude and      
ethnic temperament of the ,greeks1 the  
glorious anthropomorphism of their      
,olympus arose in a more vivid form than
 elsewhere1 and it was impersonated in  
the all-powerful and all-seeing ,zeus1  
ruler of the world1 of gods and men4    
,this process1 modified in a thousand   
ways1 was carried on in all races4      
,hence it resulted that every object had
 a type1 its god2 everything was        
typically individuated in an            
anthropomorphic entity in such a way    
that there arose a natural dualism      
between the phenomena1 facts1 and cosmic

 orders on the one side1 and on the     
other the hierarchy of gods who         
represented them and over whom they     
presided4 ,the ,hellenic philosophies   
prior to ,plato1 both physical and      
intellectual1 and also the psychological
 morality of ,socrates1 had already     
accomplished the first evolution of this
 typical stage of universal polytheism1 
substituting for anthropomorphic        
representations physical and            
intellectual principles and powers4     
,thought was educated in its inward     
exercise1 as well as in the observation 
of facts and ideal representations4     
,but--and this constituted the first    
evolution of anthropomorphism in        
general--these powers all expressed the 
thing in its general and phenomenal     
form2 it was endowed with merely        
zoomorphic force1 and the world was     
regarded as physiologically living4     
,plato1 impelled by the foregoing       
evolution1 and by the large and         
exquisitely sthetic character of his    

genius1 accomplished the second and     
altogether intellectual stage of        
evolution by inverting the problem2 he  
affirmed that the final and intrinsic   
result of the exercise of thought was   
its earlier and eternal essence1        
extrinsic and objective4 ,the types     
which were first fetishes and then      
polytheistic were transformed into the  
physical and intellectual principles of 
the world1 divested of all mythical and 
extrinsic form as far as their material 
organization was concerned4 ,plato held 
that such types were really ideal1 as in
 fact they had unconsciously been from  
the first2 that is1 that it was simply a
 logical conception of species and      
genera which is natural to human        
thought2 a conception necessary for the 
spontaneous as well as for the reflex   
and scientific processes of thought4    
,from the type1 the specific idea1 the  
generalization into the idea of each    
special object was easy1 since each     
object has its psychical representation 

in the mind4 ,special and specific ideas
 were then arranged in a certain order1 
and those which are more general in a   
concentric and systematic               
classification2 this had been also the  
case in the earlier polytheistic system1
 since the process of the intelligence  
naturally arranges all its              
representations4 ,but he did not stop   
here1 nor indeed was it possible for him
 to do so4  ,we know that the           
intelligence does not only understand   
objects1 but their relations to each    
other1 by means of its comparative      
faculty2 these relations were1 as in the
 case of animals1 at first intuitively  
perceived by direct observation and the 
alternate and reciprocal motion of the  
images1 and they were first presented to
 the imagination and then embodied in   
speech4 ,we have said in the foregoing  
chapters that in primitive thought these
 relations involved an active entity1   
and were in a word entified4 ,plato1    
pursuing his intellectual process of    

reasoning1 and the reciprocal properties
 of ideas1 noted the ideality of these  
relations so far as they are a psychical
 representation1 and hence he was       
constrained by the unconscious evolution
 of thought to affirm that an idea was  
present in every relation1 and thus the 
great1 the little1 the less1 the more1  
had their ideal representatives in the  
general construction of his theory4 ,but
 man is not only an intellectual1 but an
 active1 sentient1 living being1 tending
 to an object as an individual and a    
social subject4 ,so that he not only    
attains to the understanding of ideal   
truth1 but also of the good and the     
beautiful4 ,according to ,plato1 the    
,good and the ,beautiful must also      
necessarily be ,ideas of a general      
character1 like those which embrace all 
ideal relations whatever4 ,since they   
are universal1 and due to the innate    
impulse of thought towards concentric   
ascension1 they must rank as the sum and
 apex of ideas1 so that the ,good is    

emphatically the ,idea1 or ,god4 ,on    
turning to the world of sensations1 or  
of particular objects1 ideas are the    
eternal model 7paradigm7 according to   
which things are made2 these are the    
images 7idoli7 of which the others are  
the imperfect copies 7mimesi74 ,the     
world of sense is itself only a symbol1 
an allegory1 a figure4 ,as in the       
sensible world there is a scale of      
beings from the lowest to the most      
perfect1 that is to the material        
universe1 so in the sphere of intellect1
 the type of the world1 ideas are       
combined together by higher ideas1 and  
these again by others still higher1 and 
so on to the apex1 the ultimate1        
supreme1 omnipotent ,idea1 the ,good    
which includes and sums up the whole4   
,plato holds that matter is not the     
body1 but that which may become the body
 by the plastic action of the idea1 as  
,weber well expresses it2 matter        
considered in itself is the indefinite  
7apeiron71 the indefinable 7aoriston71  

and the amorphous1 and it is co-eternal 
with ideas1 and inert2 from the union of
 ideas and matter the cosmos had its    
origin1 the image of the invisible      
deity1 ,god in power1 the living        
organism 7,zoon71 possessing a body1    
sense1 a definite object1 a soul4 ,the  
body of the universe has the form of a  
sphere1 the most beautiful which can be 
conceived2 the circle described in      
revolving is also the most perfect      
motion4  ,the stars first had their     
source in the ,idea of ,good2 first the 
fixed stars1 then the planets1 then the 
earth1 created deities2 the earth       
produced organized beings1 beginning    
with man1 the crowning work and object  
of all the rest2 the fruits of the earth
 were made to nourish him1 and animals  
were made to become the abode of fallen 
souls4 ,man1 the microcosm1 is reason   
within a soul1 which is in its turn     
contained in a body4 ,the whole body is 
organized with a view to this reason4   
,the head1 the seat of reason1 is round 

because this is the most perfect form4  
,the breast is the seat of generous     
passions1 while the bestial appetites   
are found in the belly and intestines4  
,the human soul1 like the soul of the   
world1 contains immortal and mortal     
elements2 the intelligence or reason1   
and sensuality4 ,the immortality of the 
soul is also proved by the memory4 ,the 
subsequent union of life and matter in  
the production of the universe is the   
work of an intermediate1 equivocal      
being1 the demiurgos4 ,thus ,plato      
opposes the eternity of the intelligence
 to ,ionic materialism1 and the eternity
 of matter to the monistic theory of the
 ,eleatics4  ,in the genesis of nature  
we again find the synthetic conception  
of the elements1 which he estimates to  
be four2 to which geometrical forms     
correspond1 and the world was finally   
organized after its human type4 ,he     
divides the soul into several distinct  
and independent powers1 which are ever  
revolving between life and death3 they  

inhabit the stars and depend upon them1 
since the soul which has been righteous 
on earth will be happy after death in   
the star to which it was originally     
destined2 but those who on earth only   
desire here bodily pleasures will wander
 as shades round the tombs1 or will     
migrate into the bodies of various      
animals4 ,he constitutes the stars into 
contingent and sensible gods3 they have 
beautiful and immortal bodies of a round
 form1 and are made of fire4 ,he asserts
 poetic inspiration and madness to be   
the result of demoniac possession1 and  
says with ,socrates that those who deny 
demoniac powers are themselves          
demoniacs4  ,we see from this account   
the mythical origin of all that concerns
 the organization and genesis of the    
world1 the destinies and nature of the  
soul1 since these are sublimated myths2 
the elements are first regarded as      
deities1 and the world is made in the   
image of man1 and considered to be      
alive2 the stars and the earth are      

endowed with life and intelligence2 the 
fate of souls before and after death1   
their recollection of a prior existence1
 their transmigrations and wanderings   
around the tombs1 demoniac possession in
 inspiration and madness1 are all very  
ancient mythical representations1 which 
form a great part of the theoretical and
 spiritual cosmogony of savages in all  
times and places4 ,we have seen that not
 only relatively civilized peoples1 but 
those which are quite savage divide     
souls into distinct parts3 throughout   
,africa1 ,america1 and ,asia1 there is a
 belief in the transmigration of souls  
into animals1 plants1 and other objects4
 ,the ,tasmanians believed that their   
souls would ascend to the stars and     
abide there2 and all savages hold the   
demoniac possession of inspired persons1
 of madmen1 and of the sick1 which has  
led to what may be called a diabolic    
pathology4 ,the general conception of   
the world as a living animal1 with all  
the tendencies ascribed to it by ,plato1

 is only the primeval fact of the       
animation and personification of        
phenomena applied to the general idea of
 the universe4 ,hence it is easy to see 
how much of ,plato's physics and        
psychology are due to the necessary and 
historic course of myth1 and to the     
schools into which myth had been        
modified before his time4  ,we must     
dwell more particularly on his theory of
 ideas1 since in this the advance made  
by ,plato in the evolution of myth      
really consists1 and it marks a very    
definite stage which had and still has a
 powerful influence on subsequent and   
modern thought4  ,we have already shown 
how1 by the logical power of thought1   
this phase in the ideal evolution of    
myth was reached1 and we have traced it 
in an inchoate form in various rude     
peoples1 as well as in its ultimate     
modification in ,plato4 ,in his writings
 it takes the form of a complete1 vast1 
and organic theory4 ,the logical        
conceptions and representative ideas1   

idols peculiar to the mind1 which were  
at first involved in fetishtic and      
anthropomorphic images1 are now divested
 of their earlier wrappings1 and are    
classified as the intellectual ideas    
which they really are1 and which they   
have become by the innate and reflex    
exercise of human thought4 ,but on      
account of the faculty which ever       
governs our immediate perception of     
internal and external things they could 
not in ,plato's time1 nor indeed in that
 of many subsequent philosophers1 remain
 as simple intellectual signs of the    
process of reason4 ,this faculty        
influenced these conceptions1 these     
psychical forms1 whether particular1    
specific1 or general1 and they became   
living subjects1 like phenomena1        
objects1 shades1 images in dreams1      
normal and abnormal hallucinations4     
,thus the ,ideas in ,plato became1      
reflectively and theoretically1 entities
 with an intrinsic existence1 eternal1  
divine1 and absolute essences4 ,but the 

fetish1 the anthropomorphic idol1 was   
not only regarded as a living but as a  
causative subject2 the same power was   
likewise infused into the ,ideas1 and   
they were held to be causes of          
particular things1 of which they were   
the earlier and eternal type4 ,thus the 
myth in the ,platonic ,ideas became     
scientific1 but it continued to be a    
myth2 the substance varied1 but the form
 was the same4 ,the objective phenomena 
of the world had first been personified1
 or their fanciful images were assumed  
to be objective2 now the world of reason
 was personified1 and mythology became  
intellectual instead of cosmic4  ,those 
who opposed ,plato's theory of ideas    
said that he realized abstractions1 or  
personified ideas2 but no one1 as ,i    
think1 perceived the natural process    
which led him to do so1 nor explained   
the faculty by which he was necessarily 
influenced4 ,plato's theory was only an 
ultimate phase of the evolution of the  
vague and primitive animation of the    

world1 which had passed through         
fetishism1 polytheism1 and the worship  
of the elements of nature1 and had      
reached the entification and            
subjectivity of ideas1 which was also   
attained by natural science1 after      
passing through its mythical            
envelopment4 ,we have noted the causes1 
which in the case of the earlier        
philosophers happened to be objective1  
while they were in ,plato's case        
subjective1 owing to the character and  
temperament of his mind2 both conduced  
to the development and sthetic splendour
 of this teaching among the ,greeks4    
,the teaching of ,plato1 which had more 
or less influence on all the earlier    
civilized peoples1 of his own and       
subsequent times1 and which was also    
involved in the mythical representations
 of later savages1 assumed an aspect    
which varied with the special history1  
the ethnic temperament1 the geographical
 and extrinsic conditions of different  
peoples2 but considered in itself1 it is

 always the same1 and is the necessary  
result of the evolution of myth and of  
thought4 ,since the evolution of myth   
leads to the gradual genesis of science1
 which becomes more rational as myth is 
transformed from the material to the    
ideal1 ideas are substituted for myths1 
and laws1 as ,vico well observes1 for   
the canons of poetry4  ,this noble and  
more rational theory of eternal and     
causative ,ideas resembles              
anthropomorphic polytheism in           
concentrating into one supreme ,idea the
 intellectual ,zeus1 the ,being of      
beings1 according to another mythical   
and scientific representation by        
,aristotle1 and it was afterwards       
combined with the ,semitic idea of the  
,absolute4 ,this was fused with the     
,logos1 the ,platonic demiurgos of      
,messianic ideas1 and afterwards        
produced the universal philosophy and   
religion of ,catholicism1 which         
dominated and still dominates over      
thought with vigorous tenacity1 and     

extends into all the civilized world    
inhabited by ,european races4 ,we do not
 only trace the same thought1 modified1 
classified1 and perfected in the ,fourth
 ,gospel1 in the ,councils1 the         
,fathers1 and the schoolmen1 but also in
 independent philosophies4 ,in our own  
time it has assumed new forms1 derived  
from the rapid progress made in cosmic  
and experimental sciences1 even in those
 which are apparently the most          
rationalizing4 ,it is manifest in       
,hegel1 ,fichte1 and ,schelling1 nor is 
it difficult to trace it in the latest  
and artificial theories of the schools  
of ,schopenhauer and ,hartmann4 ,in all 
these cases the entification of logical 
conceptions is evident2 in all there is 
an arbitrary personification of a       
conception or of a fundamental ,idea4   
,in order fully to understand the       
evolution of thought in myth and        
science1 it is necessary to consider the
 other schools which arose in ,greece1  
prior to1 and contemporaneously with1   

,plato1 as we shall thus obtain a more  
comprehensive idea of the course of such
 a development4 ,in addition to the     
natural and partly ideal schools1 the   
,ionic1 the ,eleatic1 the ,pythagorean  
and the ,platonic1 there arose those of 
,leucippus1 ,democritus1 and ,epicurus1 
which might be called mechanical1 and   
that of ,aristotle1 which takes a middle
 course between the idea and the fact1  
between the dynamic and the mechanical  
explanation of the universe4  ,in an    
intellectual people like the ,greeks    
there arose1 in addition to the         
speculative theories already mentioned1 
other opinions which were derived from  
minds singularly free from mythical     
ideas2 the world was considered as a    
concourse of independent atoms2 its     
genesis thus became more conformable    
with abstract mathematical calculation1 
effected by this combination of simple  
bodies and the evolution of elements4   
,this was what ,leucippus1 ,democritus1 
and ,epicurus undertook to teach1       

passing beyond the natural and ideal    
myths1 in order to take their stand on  
the movement of isolated parts as the   
maker of the universe4 ,hence followed  
the theory of atoms1 and the mechanical 
construction of the world1 of bodies and
 souls1 their continual composition and 
decomposition4 ,since1 however1 these   
were mere speculations1 not supported by
 experimental methods and adequate      
instruments1 mythical forms were        
confounded with the mechanical          
explanation of the world1 such as the   
altogether anthropomorphic conception of
 gods who were dissolved and formed     
again2 the sensible effluvium from      
images1 an effluvium which revealed the 
ancient belief in the normal and        
abnormal personification of imaginary   
forms1 and of ideas4 ,yet the character 
of this teaching was progressive and    
rational in comparison with the mythical
 and ideal theory of ,plato1 and with   
the schools and religions which emanated
 from him1 even up to our time1 and     

thought was strongly stimulated in its  
opposition to the continuance of myth4  
,the influence of this school was       
confirmed by the ,aristotelian teaching2
 if on the one side ,aristotle inclined 
towards the mythical entities of ,plato1
 and the old zoomorphic conception of   
the world1 on the other his theory of   
perception and of ideas1 his amazing    
observations in physiology and anatomy1 
and his natural classification of the   
animal kingdom1 induced a positive      
tendency of thought1 an a posteriori    
method of observation1 which awakened   
the intelligence and predisposed it to a
 more rational and scientific evolution4
 ,his geocentric ideas of cosmogony1 his
 logical forms1 the human architecture  
of the world1 his conception of the     
,being who was the end and cause of     
motion in all things1 were indeed       
obstinately maintained by the philosophy
 of ,catholics and schoolmen1 and served
 as an obstacle to the real progress of 
science2 but on the other hand1 his     

general method of observing nature1 the 
discoveries which he made1 and the      
tendency of his researches1 as well as  
the importance he assigned to           
consciousness in the formation of ideas1
 did much to foster independent inquiry 
in the history of human thought2 and    
coupled with the earlier mechanical     
schools1 he prepared the way for the    
evolution of modern science4 ,this is   
not the place for tracing the           
simultaneous course of the evolution of 
the ideal and mechanical schools during 
the ages which separate us from their   
origin2 and while the influence of the  
one gradually waned1 the other gained   
strength1 although in a sporadic way1   
first among privileged minds1 and then  
more generally4  ,it necessarily        
happened that as the evolution of       
thought went on1 impelled by its early  
tendencies1 both mechanical and         
positive1 the ideal system was also     
modified1 and gave place to sounder and 
truer theories4 ,this great fact1 the   

ultimate evolution of our own time1 was 
effected on the one side by             
psychological analysis1 and on the other
 by the direct and experimental         
observation of nature4 ,setting aside   
the gradual preparation which led up to 
this point1 we can consider ,descartes  
and ,galileo as the representatives of  
these two great factors2 since the one  
by the analysis of thought1 the other by
 natural experiments1 overthrew the     
mythical ideas1 although without being  
aware that the achievement would produce
 such grand results4  ,the ,platonic    
,ideas were objective to the mind1 and  
independent of it1 since they were      
regarded as a divine1 concrete1 absolute
 world in themselves4 ,the earlier      
evolution of myth and science relied    
upon this and were resolved into it4    
,but we know that the process of thought
 is continuous in historic races1 and   
that myth is gradually divested of its  
personality and assumes a more          
intellectual form in the mind4 ,thus the

 material ,idea passed into an          
intellectual conception2 that which     
first appeared in an objective and      
extrinsic form became subjective and    
intrinsic1 a transition which was       
effected by the nominalists4 ,this gave 
rise to a cognition which was altogether
 psychological2 at first reality was    
wholly objective1 and the ideas were    
only a sublime intellectual myth1 but   
now the objective world disappeared1 and
 the intellect which formulated the     
conception was the only real thing4 ,in 
virtue of the faculty of entification1  
only the mind and its ideas were real1  
the world and all which it contained had
 a doubtful existence4 ,this tendency   
had its ultimate expression in ,fichte1 
who created the universe by means of the
 ,ego1 thus transforming the earlier    
objective myth into one which was       
wonderfully subjective4 ,descartes      
doubted about everything beyond the     
range of his own thought1 and was the   
first to overthrow the former ideal     

realism1 and to lead the way to science1
 and to more rational analysis4 ,to him 
the teaching of ,spinoza and ,kant was  
really due1 as well as the ,english     
schools which had so much to do with the
 destruction of the earlier mythical    
edifice of ideas4  ,but1 as ,i have     
already observed1 if this great rational
 progress were important on the one     
side1 on the other it produced a more   
spiritualized form of myth1 namely the  
subjective1 which became still more     
powerful in the philosophy of ,kant4    
,while some thinkers sought to resolve  
and dissolve the objective myth1 they   
did it in such a way as to add strength 
to the subjective form of myth and      
science1 for which ,descartes had       
prepared the way2 the theory of ,spinoza
 and of the ,german school in general   
fundamentally consists in the           
substitution of entified forms and      
dialectics of the mind for the earlier  
objective forms of ideas4 ,a great error
 was rectified1 and the former phase of 

the intellectual evolution of myth      
disappeared1 in favour of another which1
 although still erroneous1 was more     
rational and independent4  ,the         
subjective and still mythical           
representations1 either of the mind or  
of external objects1 were afterwards    
reduced to true science by positive and 
experimental methods1 aided by          
instruments1 and confirmed by the       
discoveries of ,galileo and of his      
disciples throughout the civilized      
world4 ,he was in modern times another  
great factor of the dissolution of myth1
 so far as it is definitive4 ,nature was
 made subordinate to weight and measure1
 and to their mathematical and          
mechanical proportions in various       
phenomena2 these were deduced from      
experiment and the use of instruments1  
the factors which in the hands of       
,galileo and his great successors in all
 civilized nations1 destroyed and are   
still destroying the old mythical       
conception of the world4 ,in astronomy  

they overthrew the catholic tenet of the
 geocentric constitution of the heavens2
 they shattered the spheres in which    
they were confined1 opened infinite     
space1 and peopled it with an infinite  
number of stars1 and in the attraction  
of gravity they discovered the universal
 law of motion in the firmament4 ,thus  
all the mythical representations of the 
system of the world1 whether            
,aristotelian1 ,ptolemaic1 or ,biblical1
 vanished for ever1 and the great       
zoomorphic body of the universe was     
dissolved2 to be replaced by worlds     
circulating in infinite space1 subject  
to the laws of number and of geometry4  
,measure1 weight1 and proportion were   
applied to all celestial and terrestrial
 phenomena1 and physics1 chemistry1 and 
all the organic sciences became the     
manifestation of facts1 of observed and 
calculated laws1 arranged in a natural  
order1 and in this way an immense       
advance was made in all branches of     
science4 ,the history of mankind1 first 

regarded as the arbitrary arrangement of
 a superior being1 as it was formulated 
in the teaching of ,judaism and         
,christianity1 had its own laws in the  
facts of which it consisted1 and thus   
the mythical conception which endowed it
 with personal life was dissolved4 ,the 
origin of things was explained by this  
method of observation1 and by these     
positive conceptions2 the records which 
had hitherto been regarded as a divine1 
extrinsic revelation came to be         
considered as simple documents1 in which
 truth was to be separated from the myth
 which obscured and encompassed it4 ,so 
by degrees1 from fact to fact1 from     
analysis to analysis1 by observation1   
experiment1 and decomposition1 the      
rational1 mechanical explanation arose  
and gathered strength4 ,the generation  
of things1 the variety of phenomena and 
their order1 were derived from the      
primitive chemical atom1 and from the   
various changes of form and rapidity of 
motion to which they are subjected4 ,the

 old conception of atoms1 which had     
never been forgotten1 and which had     
unconsciously swayed and influenced the 
minds of men1 reappears2 but it         
reappears transformed by observation1 by
 weight and measure and experiment1 and 
it has become a science instead of a    
simple speculation4 ,the atomistic      
evolution of the ancients1 accepted by  
one school of speculative thought1 which
 sought to overthrow the mythical       
representation of the world1 was only an
 isolated anticipation of a few         
philosophers2 it has now become a       
scientific evolution1 common to all     
modern civilization4 ,the theory of     
descent1 transformation1 and the general
 evolution of species1 followed as a    
necessary corollary and immediate result
 of the dissolution of ,plato's mythical
 conception of specific ideas1 and of   
all the generic but material            
personifications with which nature had  
been peopled4 ,when such conceptions of 
the ideal world were dissipated1 those  

of the actual world of nature soon      
followed1 and this de-personification of
 natural1 mythical species in the vast  
organic kingdom is one of the most      
splendid intellectual achievements of   
the age4  ,this victory of the natural  
sciences has reacted on those which are 
psychological1 and on the theory of the 
mind1 and has subjected them to the     
necessities and form of this new phase  
of the evolution of thought4 ,the       
subjective had been substituted for the 
objective myth and had created the forms
 of mind1 its logical laws and intrinsic
 process1 the objective synthesis of the
 world1 and it was now influenced by the
 stupendous discoveries and analyses of 
other sciences1 so that psychology was  
in its turn transformed into a science1 
not only of observation1 but of         
experiment4 ,measure1 weight1 numerical 
proportion1 in short the experimental   
method1 took possession of the facts1   
acts1 and processes of the mind1 as of  
every other object and subject of       

nature4 ,in addition to the great names 
of modern psychologists in ,england1 we 
may mention among other experimental    
psychologists in ,germany1 ,fechner1    
,wundt1 ,lotze1 ,helmholtz1 ,weber1     
,kammler1 etc42 illustrious men in      
,france and elsewhere might also be     
cited to show what progress has been    
made and is about to be made in this    
field4 ,the destruction of myth and of  
the subjective myths of psychology is   
always going on1 and a positive science 
of mental phenomena has arisen1 like    
that of natural phenomena4 ,the ultimate
 phase of myth is so near its end that  
it has been possible to create a        
psychology implying the absence of a    
soul4 ,the scientific faculty has now   
indeed a complete ascendency over the   
mythical representation with which it   
was originally coeval4  ,yet we do not  
mean to say that myth is extinct4 ,in   
the case of the great majority of the   
human race1 a small and elect portion   
excepted1 myth and all the superstitions

 which proceed from it persist in an    
ideal1 cosmic1 spiritual1 or religious  
form1 and these are only slowly         
disappearing among the common people1   
and even among the educated classes4    
,owing to the primordial and innate     
necessity which it is so difficult to   
overcome1 science itself still nourishes
 myths within its pale1 although        
unconsciously and in their most rational
 form4 ,within our own recollection the 
imponderable was a tenet of physics1 and
 this was indeed1 in spite of all the   
enlightenment of science1 a mythical    
entification of forces4 ,the same       
mythical entifications were found in    
physiology1 in chemistry1 in nearly all 
the sciences4 ,undoubtedly these        
scientific myths had no anthropomorphic 
value1 yet they are notwithstanding     
truly mythical entifications1 inasmuch  
as they virtually personify laws1 or    
mere modes of motion4  ,ether1 according
 to our present conception of it1       
differing in its laws and influences    

from the atoms which constitute the     
world1 and working among and above them1
 is perhaps only a grand myth like that 
of the imponderable1 which has been     
exploded2 that is1 it is held to be a   
material entity1 while it may be only   
another modification of the elementary  
matter in a state differing from the    
three already known to us2 some of      
,crooke's late experiments on one       
condition of extremely gaseous matter   
leads to this assumption4 ,the divided  
forces of matter1 and the dualism which 
still survives1 are also mythical       
conceptions4 ,although so much progress 
has been made in a rational direction1  
and truth is widely diffused1 yet the   
old mythical instinct constantly        
reappears in some form or other4 ,i must
 be permitted to say that this is an    
evident proof of the truth of my theory4
 ,unless myth were due to an intrinsic  
psychical and organic law1 it would not 
so persistently reappear4 ,as soon as   
men are rationally conscious of this    

entifying faculty and its immediate     
effects on knowledge1 the illusion will 
cease4 ,myth will be destroyed in every 
kind of facts and phenomena1 and        
science1 no longer the unconscious      
victim of this illusion1 will advance   
with caution and assurance4             
,,chapter ,,viii4  ,,of ,,dreams1       
,,illusions1 ,,normal ,,and ,,abnormal  
,,hallucinations1 ,,delirium1 ,,and     
,,madness--,,conclusion4   ,in the      
preceding chapters1 ,i have shown1 as ,i
 believe1 the genesis of myth1 the      
fundamental faculty in which it         
necessarily originates1 and its         
evolution in man1 particularly in the   
,aryan and ,semitic races4 ,we have seen
 that the primitive and universal fact  
consists in the immediate and           
spontaneous entification of natural     
phenomena and of the ideas themselves2  
and we have resolved this fact into its 
elements1 from which all the generating 
sources of myth issue1 that is1 from the
 immediate effects of the perception4   

,putting man out of the question1 we    
ascertained that the same innate        
necessity was common to the animal      
kingdom4  ,in order to complete the     
theory1 we must consider some other     
facts and psychical phenomena1 both     
normal and abnormal1 so as to ascertain 
whether these are not due to the same   
cause1 as far as respects their         
intrinsic forms2 namely1 the belief in  
the reality of images seen in dreams1 as
 well as in those which appear in       
illusions1 in normal hallucinations of  
the senses1 and in those which are      
abnormal1 in ecstasy1 in delirium1 in   
madness1 in idiocy1 and dementia4 ,in   
all these mental conditions1 we ascribe 
a body and material existence to images 
which for various causes appear to be   
really presented to our senses4  ,if we 
are able to show that all such          
appearances are believed to have a real 
existence in virtue of the same law and 
faculty of perception which generated   
myth in its earliest manifestation1 we  

shall have succeeded in establishing a  
common genesis for all these various    
psychical phenomena1 thus affording no  
contemptible contribution to psychology 
in general1 and to the science of human 
thought4  ,to dream is not merely a     
normal act of man1 but1 as it appears   
from many witnesses1 it is common to all
 animals4 ,in dreams the ordinary laws  
of time and space are strangely         
modified1 and images of all kinds       
appear1 sometimes confusedly1 sometimes 
in a rational order1 often in accordance
 with the laws of association1 while the
 voluntary exercise of thought may be   
said to be dormant4 ,this is1 speaking  
generally1 the condition and nature of  
dreams1 which we must presently consider
 adequately with more subtle and exact  
analysis4  ,before we trace the cause of
 the apparent reality of these images1  
and the laws which govern it1 let us    
consider man in his waking condition1 so
 as to ascertain at once the likeness   
and the difference between these two    

states4 ,we must first inquire whether  
the waking is absolutely distinct from  
the dreaming state as far as the        
appearance of the images1 their nature1 
and mode of action are concerned4 ,it   
has been observed by many psychologists 
and physiologists that in the waking    
state1 when images do not arise from the
 immediate presence of objects1 or are  
not directed by the will to a definite  
aim1 they appear1 group themselves1 and 
disperse by the immediate association of
 ideas1 and the measurements of time and
 space are modified just as they are in 
dreams4 ,these observations are correct1
 and the phenomena may be verified by   
every one for himself4  ,in this waking 
state1 which really resembles that of   
dreams1 only the analogy of form has    
been perceived2 the ideas of the objects
 present to the mind have resembled     
those of images seen in dreams1 but they
 have continued to be mere ideas1       
presented to the imagination1 whereas in
 dreams the things seen have been       

supposed to have a real existence4 ,in  
this respect the analysis is partly true
 and partly false2 it is not1 as we     
shall see1 perfect and exact4  ,it      
sometimes happens1 owing to special     
circumstances and conditions of mind1 or
 to peculiar temperaments1 that the     
ideas of things do not remain as mere   
thoughts in the thinker's mind1 but that
 they become so intense that they are   
for the moment held to be real1         
precisely as in a dream4  ,i do not here
 speak of abnormal or pathological      
conditions1 or of extraordinary         
phenomena1 but of a normal and common   
condition4 ,if there is any novelty in  
the assertion1 it is owing to a want of 
observation and reflection1 and to not  
attempting to trace the real nature of  
the phenomena in which we take part1 and
 which occur every day4 ,the habitual   
inaccuracy of observation has led to the
 use of many proverbs and aphorisms in  
the interpretation of things which have 
been transmitted from one generation to 

another1 and are now accepted as        
indubitable axioms4 ,these are to be    
found in every branch of knowledge1 and 
we have an instance in the popular and  
scientific aphorism that in dreams      
images appear to be real1 and that in   
the waking state they always continue to
 be mere thoughts and ideas4  ,this is  
not the fact1 since1 putting illusions  
and hallucinations out of the question1 
thoughts and ideas sometimes assume the 
character and nature of real objects1   
just as they do in dreams4 ,this fact   
constitutes the link and gradual        
assimilation of the two states1 since in
 no series of phenomena natura facit    
saltum4  ,when1 for instance1 as often  
happens1 we abandon ourselves to a train
 of thought1 and our perception of      
surrounding objects is weakened by      
inattention1 we become as it were       
unconscious1 and are only intent on the 
thoughts and ideas which move us4 ,since
 no definite object constrains the will 
to rule and guide these thoughts and    

ideas1 that condition of mind is        
established which we have shown to be   
identical in form with the act of       
dreaming1 for in this case also thoughts
 and ideas have their origin in         
association alone4 ,in this condition a 
phenomenon peculiar to dreams may also  
occur which may be termed the suggestive
 impulse2 a sound or some sudden        
sensation produces an immediate         
transformation of the image itself1 and 
a new dream arises in conformity with   
the nature of the new impression4 ,every
 one must1 consciously or unconsciously1
 have experienced such a phenomenon1 and
 this special characteristic of dreams  
may also take place in the waking       
condition which ,i have described4 ,i   
myself can bear witness to this fact1   
and will mention one among several      
instances3 ,i was once reading          
inattentively1 seated at my ease in a   
lounging chair1 and my thoughts took    
quite another direction1 wandering      
vaguely from one thing to another4 ,all 

at once some people entered an adjoining
 room talking together2 ,i heard what   
they said indistinctly1 but the word    
,florence reached my ears1 and ,i soon  
imagined myself to be in that city1 and 
going on from one association to another
 ,i continued for some time to see again
 the places1 monuments1 and people ,i   
had known there4 ,yet ,i was fully      
awake1 and from time to time ,i brushed 
the flies from my face and glanced at   
the clock on the chimney-piece1 since ,i
 had to go out at three o'clock4  ,it   
appears from this fact1 which will be   
confirmed by many of my readers1 that   
some waking states resemble those of    
dreams in form1 and moreover they are   
sometimes even alike in substance4      
,ideas and thoughts in the conditions   
just indicated may not only be latent1  
active1 combined1 or transformed by     
suggestive impulses1 but ideas are      
represented by images in such vivid     
relief that1 until the observer         
recollects himself1 they are seen and   

felt by him with the same sense of      
reality as in a dream4 ,this mental     
transformation is however so habitual1  
that the implicit conviction of being   
really awake1 does not allow us to      
observe what the actual nature of the   
phenomenon is1 since there is an        
immediate transition from an implicit   
perception of the image as real to the  
habitual form of simple thought1 without
 distinguishing the difference between  
these two states of consciousness4 ,any 
one who has long practised himself in   
the observation of such distinctions    
will1 however1 be able to understand the
 psychical process and to estimate its  
value4  ,it has often occurred to       
myself1 in circumstances analogous to   
the above1 when thinking of persons or  
places at a distance1 to see them imaged
 before me in such vivid relief that ,i 
have been startled as if by a morbid    
hallucination4 ,once1 in passing through
 my chamber1 my attention was so        
strongly fixed on an absent person that 

,i was not only vividly conscious of his
 form1 but also of his voice and        
gestures1 so that ,i was amazed by the  
lively image brought before me4 ,i could
 adduce other instances from my own     
experience and that of others to show   
that in a waking and altogether normal  
state we may believe in the reality of  
the image as we do in dreams4  ,this    
vivid and momentary realization of      
images is very common in the lower      
classes1 who often talk to themselves1  
and use gestures which show that they   
are conversing at the moment with       
imaginary persons1 who stand before     
them1 as if they were really there1 in  
the same manner as in dreams4 ,indeed1  
every one has experienced this          
phenomenon for himself1 especially when 
strongly excited by anger1 sorrow1 or   
hope4 ,if it were possible to reflect on
 the process of thought at the time we  
should distinctly understand that we    
were dreaming while still awake4  ,the  
vivid imagination of artists is well    

known1 so that they are able to see and 
represent things and persons1 either in 
words1 with the pencil1 or the chisel1  
just as if they were actually present4  
,the image so vividly realized is a     
necessary condition of the exercise of  
their respective arts4 ,when great      
poets1 such as ,dante1 ,ariosto1        
,milton1 and ,goethe1 conceived and     
idealized their thoughts with every     
detail of circumstances1 persons1       
actions1 expressions1 and movements1 no 
one can deny that the images were       
vividly present to their minds1 and that
 while in the act of composition these  
were unconsciously regarded as having a 
real existence4 ,if these poetic        
descriptions are presented to the       
attentive reader in such a vivid form as
 to transport him into a real world1    
much more must the authors of these     
marvellous creations have looked upon   
them as real at the moment of           
composition4 ,the impression of         
truthfulness is indeed produced by the  

fact that the writers saw these things  
as though they were real4 ,i speak of   
states of consciousness1 not of reflex  
observation1 of intense moments of      
sensation and imagination1 which are    
unnoticed by the man who experiences    
them in his waking moments4 ,such is the
 reader of a poem1 a romance1 or        
history1 the spectator of a picture1 who
 is able for the time to abstract       
himself from surrounding objects1 and   
who implicitly believes that he sees    
those places and persons1 or whatever   
the book or painter has described or    
represented4 ,if suddenly interrupted1  
he rouses himself1 and may be said to   
awake to the present reality of things1 
as if startled from a dream4  ,wigan    
relates that a celebrated portrait      
painter worked with such quickness and  
facility that he painted more than three
 hundred portraits in a year4 ,when he  
was asked the secret of his rapid       
execution and of the faithfulness of the
 likeness1 he replied1 ,when any one    

proposes to have his portrait taken1 ,i 
look at him attentively for half an     
hour1 while sketching his features on   
the canvas2 ,i then lay the canvas aside
 and pursue the same method with another
 portrait1 and so on4 ,when ,i wish to  
return to the first1 ,i take his person 
into my mind and place it before me as  
distinctly as if he were actually       
present4 ,i set to work1 looking at the 
sitter from time to time1 since ,i am   
able to see him whenever ,i look that   
way4 ,talma asserted that when he was on
 the stage1 he was able by mere force of
 will to transform his audience into    
skeletons1 which affected him with such 
emotion as to add force and energy to   
his action4 ,abercromby speaks of a man 
who had the faculty of calling up       
visions with all the vividness of       
reality whenever he pleased1 by strongly
 fixing his attention on mental         
conceptions which corresponded to them4 
,yet he was a sane man1 in the prime of 
life1 perfectly intelligent1 and versed 

in practical affairs4  ,a very slight   
withdrawal of the attention from        
surrounding objects is all that is      
necessary to enable artists and some    
other persons to call up these images   
with vivid distinctness1 since even in  
the waking state the image may for the  
moment appear to be actually before     
them4 ,any one might attain to the same 
power of verification if the transition 
from the real to the merely ideal image 
were not in the waking state so         
instantaneous and easy2 whereas in a    
dream the state of illusion is          
uninterrupted1 and it is physiologically
 impossible for the mind to pass        
immediately from the image1 which is    
believed to be real1 to the simply      
representative idea of the thing4  ,even
 in the waking state1 the image and     
representative idea of the thing        
naturally tend to become1 or to appear  
to be1 actual realities1 even in a      
strictly normal condition of mind and   
body4 ,nor do they only implicitly tend 

to become such by the innate impulse of 
the mind1 but they actually become so in
 fugitive moments of which man is       
scarcely conscious1 and they appear to  
him exactly as they do in dreams4 ,hence
 it follows that there is no hard and   
fast line between the sleeping and      
waking states1 so far as the nature of  
images1 their source1 action1 and       
combinations are concerned1 when men are
 distracted in mind1 and the course of  
their thoughts is not voluntarily       
directed to some definite object2 so    
that by a psychological process the     
phenomena of the waking state may be    
partly transformed into those of dreams4
 ,the vivid character of the image1     
presented to the senses as if actually  
there1 is common to both phenomena4 ,the
 way in which we begin to dream shows   
how1 owing to our physiological         
conditions1 we pass through regular     
stages from the waking state into that  
of sleep4    ,nuovo pensiero dentro a me
 si mise1      ,dal qual pi altri       

nacquero e diversi2      ,e tanto di uno
 in altro vaneggiai      ,che gli occhi 
per vaghezza ricopersi1    ,e il        
pensamento in sogno trasmutai4#cc  ,so  
,dante writes in the ,purgatorio with   
deep and subtle truth4 ,each man can    
verify for himself the exactness of the 
great poet's description4  ,i myself can
 readily study the phenomena of dreams1 
since ,i never sleep without dreaming so
 vividly that ,i remember all the       
circumstances in the morning4 ,i have   
used all sorts of artifices in order to 
trace the beginning of sleep and dreams1
 and always with the same result1 so    
that ,i am certain of the accuracy of   
experiments which have been repeated a  
hundred times4 ,i have examined other   
persons who have made the same          
observations1 all of whom agree with me4
  ,when repose1 the herald of sleep and 
dreams1 begins1 my thoughts wander in an
 irregular and somewhat confused manner4
 ,as they are gradually subjected to the
 associations to which they successively

 give rise1 they are transformed into   
more vivid images1 a vividness which is 
always in inverse proportion to the     
attention4 ,this gradually produces the 
state which has been described by ,maury
 and others as hypnagogic hallucination2
 that is1 the images seem to be real1   
although the subject is still partly    
awake1 and the voluntary exercise of    
thought is lost from time to time in    
this species of incipient chaos4 ,it is 
at this point that images are really    
most intense1 and that every idea       
assumes a body and form1 every image a  
reality3 finally1 when the body and the 
brain have reached the physiological    
conditions of sleep1 thoughts which had 
been changed into hypnagogic images in  
the intermediate stage between sleep and
 waking1 are altogether transformed into
 the real images of dreams4  ,by an     
effort of will ,i have often been able  
to surprise myself in this intermediate 
stage1 and the same thing has been done 
by others1 and it always appears that   

this is the real moment of transition   
from wakefulness to dreaming1 ,i have   
been able to verify the fact that the   
first dream is only the continuation of 
our last waking thoughts1 which have now
 become dramatic and real ,i have also  
observed that this intermediate stage   
between waking and dreaming1 during     
which the images are real and vivid1    
although we are still conscious of our  
real condition1 goes on for a long      
while1 sometimes for a whole night1 with
 brief intervals of sleep4 ,this has    
occurred to me when ,i was kept awake1  
either when travelling at night1 or when
 ,i had taken a large draught of water  
before lying down 7other liquids or food
 does not produce the phenomenon7 or if 
,i have been looking during the day at  
objects illuminated by dazzling         
sunshine4 ,in all these circumstances   
the bright and vivid images appear      
reduced to an almost microscopic scale1 
although very distinct in form and      
colour2 in ordinary cases1 the images   

appear of the ordinary size1 but not    
without a tendency to become smaller4   
,i believe that there is a physical     
cause for the reduction and attenuation 
of the images in the excessive          
excitement of the retina1 or central    
encephalic organ in which images are    
formed in conscious concurrence with the
 cortical part of the hemispheres4      
,owing to the excitement caused by      
wakefulness1 by fatigue1 by sunshine1 or
 in some cases by the condition of the  
nerves of the stomach1 the objective    
projection on psychical space1 partly   
transmitted by heredity and gradually   
formed by associations and local        
signs1#cd is arrested by the innate     
force of the image on the organ1 and it 
appears to be smaller and in proportion 
with the relative smallness of the image
 which is produced by minute vibrations 
and by the susceptibility of the        
cellule4 ,this intermediate and         
persistent stage of hypnagogic images   
serves in every way to explain the      

physical genesis of involuntary         
hallucinations4  ,as a proof that the   
image physiologically assumes the form  
of a real appearance1 ,i may mention the
 experience of myself and others4 ,when 
suddenly awakened from a vivid dream ,i 
have sometimes1 even when ,i was fully  
awake1 seen for an instant the figures  
of my dream still moving1 and projected 
on the wall4 ,this fact shows that even 
the images of our waking state have1 in 
the physiological conditions of the     
brain1 a tendency to take real forms1 so
 that they may be termed normal1 or more
 properly1 inchoate hallucinations1     
corrected by the conscious efforts of   
our waking state and external           
consciousness4 ,so that it might be said
 that dreams are at first the           
transformation of our waking thoughts   
into normal images and hallucinations1  
and afterwards into those of dreams1    
properly so called4  ,if the hypnagogic 
phase actually affects the cerebral     
cellules in connection with the various 

senses of which they are the organs1 the
 phases of sleep and dreams1 strictly so
 called1 have more general conditions4  
,the idea1 converted into an image      
presented to the senses1 may thus be    
said to have three stages3 that of the  
waking state1 which depends as we have  
said on the intensity and vividness with
 which it is reproduced1 aided by a     
momentary detachment from the real      
environment2 secondly1 the hypnagogic   
phase1 in which there is the            
physiological action of the nervous     
centres1 which produce the image1 though
 still with the implicit consciousness  
of the waking state2 and finally1 the   
actual dream1 in which this implicit    
consciousness is almost always wanting1 
and the psychical exercise of thought is
 completely transformed into visions and
 figures which are believed to be real4 
,this in its turn depends upon the other
 two causes1 and on the physiological   
relaxation of the body1 which is to a   
great extent isolated1 so that the      

effectual impulses of external nature   
are greatly attenuated4  ,in the waking 
state1 the whole body and all its organs
 of relation and movement are in        
tension4 ,the cerebro-spinal axis       
virtually excites the whole muscular and
 peripheral system in such a way that   
relaxation or relative repose becomes   
impossible4 ,but the brain1 with all its
 dependencies and appendices1 is not    
only the organ of thought1 but it       
stimulates and directs our whole system1
 as numerous experiments have shown4 ,in
 the waking state both these functions  
are exercised equally1 as far as the    
impulses and functions of the body are  
concerned1 and as long as the psychical 
and organic characteristics of the      
waking state continue4 ,but in sleep the
 exciting influence of the brain is     
diminished1 and the brain transmits much
 less of the normal excitement and      
normal tension to the spinal axis with  
its ramifications in the afferent and   
efferent nerves2 in the waking state an 

external impression is promptly conveyed
 to the centres1 whence it returns in   
corresponding movements with the usual  
connection and rapidity1 whether reflex 
or deliberate4 ,since in sleep the      
relative condition is flaccid and       
torpid1 this action no longer takes     
place4 ,for if the brain be affected by 
strong impressions1 and these are       
followed by corresponding movements due 
to reflex action1 as is often the case1 
even in sleep1 the dreamer is only      
obscurely conscious of them1 and they   
almost wholly depend on the spinal axis1
 and the peripheral ganglia4  ,as we    
have said1 the function of the brain is 
duplex2 it stimulates and directs1 and  
it is also sentient and conscious1 and  
this second function is persistent in   
dreams4 ,although the brain is no longer
 directed by a power which dictates     
psychical acts and phenomena1 yet its   
automatic action is not destroyed1 and  
to this the apparent reality of images  
seen is owing1 since there is no longer 

any distraction from the external world1
 or1 at all events1 its impulses are so 
attenuated as to be unobserved4 ,in such
 conditions past images recur with an   
appearance of reality owing to the      
mnemonic and automatic action of the    
brain2 such a tendency exists in the    
waking state1 and the images are        
associated and dissociated in a thousand
 ways1 by means of analogies1           
resemblances1 former combinations of    
facts1 and series of facts analogous to 
those of the waking state1 and are      
modified by suggestive impulses4 ,we    
have experimental proof1 to which ,i can
 add my own irrefragable witness1 that  
the stimulating influence exerted by the
 brain in the waking state is dormant in
 sleep1 and that only its automatic act 
of representation remains active1 with  
the occasional exercise of an aroused   
and conscious will4  ,the following     
strange and unpleasant phenomenon       
generally occurs to me once or twice a  
year4 ,all at once1 in the midst of a   

deep sleep1 ,i become wide awake2 ,i am 
fully conscious of myself1 of the place 
where ,i am1 of my position and the     
like1 and wish to move like a person who
 is fully awake4 ,yet for some time this
 is impossible2 the psychical1 cerebral 
faculty is perfectly awake1 and master  
of itself1 but not the stimulating      
faculty1 so that the limbs do not       
respond to the first impulse of the     
will4 ,all my efforts are unsuccessful2 
,i only succeed in escaping from this   
unpleasant situation by uttering with   
great difficulty some inarticulate      
sound1 which acts as a shock1 and ,i    
thus obtain the mastery of my body1 for 
the nerves of speech and the muscular   
movements of articulation also fail to  
answer to my will4 ,if this occurs when 
,i am alone1 the struggle is severe1 and
 there is a violent shock to the whole  
body before its equilibrium is restored 
and the motor function of the brain     
resumes its office4  ,it is therefore   
manifest that the stimulating function  

of the brain is dormant in sleep and    
dreams1 but its automatic1 psychical    
function persists2 it sometimes happens 
that the stimulus of the will is        
awakened before the stimulus of motion1 
and that the brain may be aroused to    
consciousness for some moments before it
 has resumed its normal functions as a  
stimulating organ1 which were attenuated
 and relaxed in sleep4 ,the abnormal    
condition of paralysis proves and       
confirms this fact4  ,let us now        
ascertain the cause of the various      
psychical and physiological conditions  
which aim at and often succeed in       
presenting to the mind a mere           
representative sign as a substantial and
 real image4 ,what is the cause of the  
apparent reality of dreams8 ,the image  
is clearly a psychical phenomenon1      
containing a sensible element of which  
we are conscious2 the fundamental       
faculty of the perception is exerted on 
it as on a real object1 and the         
immediate results are precisely         

identical4 ,the reader will remember    
that we have shown that a phenomenon    
involves the intuitive idea of an active
 subject1 so that the image also1 in    
accordance with the innate faculty of   
perception1 must normally appear to the 
mind as such4 ,when this is not the     
case1 it is because the normal effect of
 natural phenomena1 to which our        
attention is constantly directed1 and   
our mental education and hereditary     
influence1 have accustomed us to        
distinguish at once between the mere    
idea and the real object1 and thus we   
discern the difference between the      
normal action of thought and sense1 and 
illusions1 hallucinations1 and dreams4  
,but since these psychical and          
physiological conditions lose their     
force when the habit and actions of our 
waking state are dormant1 the primitive 
and innate entification of the image    
quickly recurs1 as we can plainly see   
from the previous analysis4  ,this is so
 much the case1 that some savage peoples

 even now find it hard to distinguish   
real events from those of dreams1 and   
this is owing to a defect in their      
memory or to the imperfection of their  
language4 ,in fact1 all civilized and   
barbarous peoples in the world have     
without exception believed1 and still   
believe1 in the reality of images seen  
in dreams1 and their personification has
 been the source of an immense number of
 myths4 ,even now1 with all our         
civilization and advanced science1 not  
only the common people1 but many of     
those in fashionable and tolerably      
cultivated society1 believe in the      
reality of dreams and in their          
hallucinations1 and derive from them    
fears1 hopes1 and warnings for their    
future life4  ,i will give one instance 
in a thousand to prove the innate       
tendency even in the act of dreaming to 
transform the image into a real object4 
,it appeared to me that ,i was in a     
large room filled with acquaintances and
 strangers1 who discussed an event which

 had really occurred in the city a few  
days before4 ,all at once ,i raised my  
eyes to the wall of the room1 and saw a 
large picture1 representing a landscape 
with distant mountains1 streams1        
cottages1 and animals4 ,as ,i looked1   
the picture was gradually transformed   
into a real object1 and ,i found myself1
 together with the company before       
mentioned1 in the midst of the fields1  
on the bank of the river1 and within one
 of the cottages4  ,in another dream1 ,i
 appeared to be conversing with an old  
soldier on the shores of a lake2 after  
some incoherent talk1 he began to       
describe a bloody battle in which he had
 taken part2 he had not gone far before 
the narrative was changed for an actual 
occurrence1 and ,i was in the midst of a
 real battle1 such as the soldier had   
undertaken to describe4 ,another night  
,i dreamed that ,i was reading a tragic 
poem1 relating terrible deeds of blood  
and rapine1 and suddenly ,i seemed to   
have become an actor or real spectator  

of that which ,i had at first read in a 
book4 ,in another strange dream ,i was  
going over a difficult pass in a hired  
carriage1 and ,i seemed to see before me
 a friend from whom ,i had parted on the
 previous day1 when he got into an      
omnibus to return to the country4 ,i    
soon saw in the distance a large        
coach-builder's establishment1 a vast   
enclosure with sheds and carriages1 and 
in the piazza ,i saw the manager1 a man 
,i knew1 who had really some appointment
 in a carriage manufactory2 the building
 recalled by association the familiar   
appearance of the high chimneys which   
rose above the roof1 and while thinking 
of those chimneys with my eyes fixed on 
the manager1 he appeared to me to be    
changed into a very high chimney1 still 
bearing a human face4 ,finally1 not to  
multiply examples1 ,i remember a dream  
in which ,i was present at a popular    
disturbance1 where one woman1 more      
furious than the rest1 came to blows    
with her husband1 and called him a dog4 

,suddenly the scene changed1 and ,i was 
transported to a courtyard in which     
there were poultry1 pigs1 and a fine dog
 of my acquaintance1 called ,lightning4 
,again the scene changed1 and ,i found  
myself in a country district with some  
friends1 exposed to a violent storm of  
thunder and lightning4  ,we clearly see 
from these facts that whatever may be   
presented to the imagination is         
transformed into a real object in the   
dream itself1 so that it might be called
 a dream within a dream1 and in the last
 instance the transmutation passes      
through three images and consecutive    
objects4 ,this transmutation not only   
consists in the transition from our     
waking thoughts to the image of our     
dreams1 but it takes place in the act of
 dreaming2 such is the power of the     
faculty of perception1 in which we find 
the first origin of myth in man1 and its
 roots also in the animal kingdom4 ,thus
 the genesis of myth1 as far as the     
entification of the image is concerned1 

is the same as that of dreams4  ,the    
normal illusions of the senses1 which   
are believed to be real by primitive    
men1 and by those ignorant of physical  
laws1 have a similar origin4 ,the       
objection of such phenomena as a mirage1
 or the tremulous effect produced in    
tropical regions by the refraction and  
reflection of light on trees1 rocks1 and
 mountains1 so well described by        
,humboldt1 is due to ignorance of the   
laws of nature1 and this is in fact an  
entification of the phenomenon1         
occasioned by the innate tendency to    
animation which is proper to the        
perception4 ,in this it is easy to trace
 the genesis both of myth and dreams4   
,the fact of hallucination is more      
complex1 even in its normal state1 that 
is1 in those general conditions of mind 
and body in which reason has complete   
command over us4  ,without entering into
 any analysis of the various forms of   
hallucination of which many able        
psychologists and physicians of the     

insane have treated1 let us turn to the 
more ordinary cases in which an image of
 the mind is projected on the external  
world so as to appear real4 ,the roots  
of such a phenomenon are strictly       
organic1 and belong to the centres in   
which the image is formed1 as we have   
already observed2 this image sometimes  
stands out in such vivid relief on the  
psychical space that it seems to be an  
external1 not1 as it usually appears in 
less vivid form1 an internal intuition4 
,the hallucinations which ,nicolai      
describes himself to have experienced   
may be taken as a classical example4    
,when ,andral was returning from an     
autopsy1 he clearly saw the corpse      
stretched before him as he entered his  
room4 ,goethe1 ,byron1 and many others1 
have been affected in the same way4 ,i  
myself have occasionally had            
hallucinations of the kind when in a    
perfectly healthy condition of mind and 
body2 one1 in particular1 of a very     
vivid character1 occurred when ,i awoke 

one morning and seemed to see a tall and
 venerable priest entering my chamber4  
,it is needless to multiply examples2   
similar facts abound in classic books in
 ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 and other  
languages4 ,let us rather study the     
phenomenon and trace its origin4  ,it is
 clear on the one side that the images  
of the hallucinations of sight or       
hearing appear to have a real existence1
 so that they may be observed and       
studied with ease2 and it is also       
certain that this image has no external 
existence1 and is simply a cerebral     
fact1 due to the organs adapted for     
perception4 ,without considering the    
cause of the external projection1 to    
which ,i have already alluded1 since    
perhaps its physiological and psychical 
genesis is not yet fully understood1 we 
must consider the image1 so far as it is
 believed to be real4  ,in cases of     
normal hallucination the reason is      
intact1 and the observer is conscious of
 the illusion1 yet notwithstanding this 

positive judgment the image has an      
appearance of complete reality4 ,the    
cause of this illusion is evidently the 
same as that of the illusions of dreams1
 and of the origin of myth2 namely1 that
 everywhere and always the mental or    
natural phenomenon and its image are    
respectively entified4 ,in the normal   
waking state1 habit and other causes on 
which we have touched render our ideas  
of things altogether immaterial1 as     
merely psychical forms and              
representative signs1 but when the      
excitement of the organs increases1 so  
as to present them to the consciousness 
as objective images1 then1 owing to the 
interruption of the ordinary process1   
they are suddenly entified1 and appear  
as an external phenomenon4              
,hallucinations are therefore explained 
by our theory1 and it is further        
confirmed by the hallucinations of      
animals1 and especially by the delirium 
of dogs and other animals affected by   
hydrophobia1 or by cerebral excitement  

artificially produced by alcoholic and  
exhilarating drugs4  ,if a man is       
habitually subject to many and various  
hallucinations1 and his sane judgment   
esteems them to be such1 they are       
undoubtedly unusual phenomena1 but they 
do not in any way injure the rational   
exercise of the mind4 ,it is only when  
he believes the images to be real that  
the abnormal state begins1 termed       
delirium if it is of short duration1 and
 madness if it is permanent4 ,we must   
examine hallucination under these new   
conditions4  ,in the delirium of fever1 
or in various forms of disease1 the     
cerebral excitement is so great that not
 only the deliberate exercise of reason1
 but the power of estimating external   
objects is lost1 and the organs of the  
senses are so completely altered1 that  
the perceptions themselves are          
exaggerated and confused4 ,in this state
 hallucination reaches its highest      
point1 and the patient sees1 hears1 and 
feels1 directly or indirectly1 strange  

and terrible things3 wild beasts1       
enemies of all kind1 torments2 or again1
 pleasing and agreeable images4         
,independently of the alteration in     
various sensations produced by the      
morbid alteration of the special organs 
which induce them1 the real cause of    
this phenomenon consists in the         
objection of mental sensations and      
images4 ,such an objection of images or 
sensations1 considered in the act which 
transforms them into a reality1 depends 
on the same cause as all other acts of  
perception2 there is always an          
entification of the phenomenon1 which in
 this case is a vivid internal image1   
appearing to be external and real4  ,the
 entification of images is still more   
direct and powerful because in this     
morbid crisis the necessary corrections 
made by reason cannot take place1 since 
the sick man is for the time deprived of
 it1 and he is in fact a dreamer1 whose 
condition is intensified by abnormal    
excitement4 ,entification is now        

displayed in its nude and native state1 
and serves to explain the constant      
mental process1 and the true nature of  
the representations of the intellect4   
,the transition is easy from delirium to
 madness1 for although an insane person 
is not always delirious1 but sometimes  
calm and composed1 yet there is a       
fundamental resemblance to delirium in  
the change in his states of             
consciousness and its relative organs1  
which imply a constant hallucination4   
,the most famous and acute physicians of
 the insane estimate that eighty out of 
a hundred insane persons are subject to 
hallucinations4 ,the morbid condition   
which generates them is also produced by
 debility1 by anmia1 and the senile     
decay of the cerebral organs1 since they
 occur in dementia1 idiocy1 and old age1
 and the physiological and mental causes
 are the same2 the power of fixing the  
attention and governing the thoughts is 
diminished1 owing to the weakening of   
the vivid consciousness of the external 

world1 produced by a torpidity of the   
afferent organs4 ,in these cases the    
recollections which are not altogether  
lost sometimes reappear as              
hallucinations4 ,the hallucinations of  
madness1 in its various forms of        
dementia1 idiocy1 and dotage1 are all1  
apart from their morbid and organic     
conditions1 derived from the same source
 which produces myths1 dreams1 and      
normal hallucinations2 the objective    
entification of images is due to the    
innate faculty of the perception1 which 
leads to the immediate personification  
of any given phenomenon4 ,we have shown 
that1 given a sensation1 there naturally
 arises the implicit notion of a subject
 and a cause1 and this natural impulse  
is further developed by the influence of
 heredity2 both in man and animals the  
constant and powerful sense of          
individual life is infused into the     
phenomenon perceived4  ,the various     
forms of madness throw a clearer light  
on this necessary and primitive fact of 

human and animal perception4 ,the act of
 sensation may then be said to be under 
its own direction1 and generates itself 
in the automatic exercise of the brain1 
as in dreams1 without the explicit1     
disturbing1 and modifying influence of  
reflection1 and the habit of rational   
analysis4 ,the act of sensation is      
spontaneously completed and developed in
 and with its own constituents1 and     
since it is isolated from other modes   
and exercises of thought1 its real      
nature appears4 ,the hallucinations of  
madness1 produced by the mental         
realization of images1 either detached  
or in association1 prove that all our   
mental images or ideas have a tendency  
in themselves to become real objects of 
consciousness2 with this difference1    
that a sane man recognizes these mental 
entifications by their mobility and     
incessant alterations1 which contrast   
with the fixity and permanence of       
external and cosmic phenomena4  ,the    
following considerations will confirm   

the truth of these facts4 ,in our       
advanced state of civilization1 thought 
may1 after so many ages' exercise1      
almost be said to have become part of   
the organism by the indisputable effect 
of heredity2 and the phenomenon of the  
recurrence to memory of past facts and  
distant places is obvious and           
intelligible1 since our judgment of them
 is never subject to illusion1 or only  
in rare instances and in abnormal       
conditions4 ,but this judgment is less  
obvious and easy in the case of         
primitive savages who have advanced     
little beyond the innate exercise of the
 intelligence4 ,the rational analysis of
 the states of consciousness has not    
been made1 and hence their special and  
general distinctions are seen with      
difficulty or not seen at all4          
,consequently the primitive and natural 
amazement of man must have been great1  
when by day1 and still more in the      
lonely silence of night1 persons1       
places1 and his own past acts recurred  

to his mind1 and he was able to         
contemplate them as if they were        
actually present4 ,he was incapable of  
giving an explanation of this marvellous
 fact in the rational and reflective    
manner which is possible to             
psychologists and to all civilized men4 
,this revival of the past appeared to   
him as a fact in its simple and         
spontaneous reality2 he made no attempt 
to explain it1 but it was presented to  
his consciousness like all other natural
 facts4 ,the only explanation of the    
phenomenon appeared to him to be that   
these images did not recur to the mind  
by the necessary action of the brain1   
but that by their own spontaneous power 
they were recalled to take their part   
within his breast3 he supposed the      
phenomenon to be objective1 not         
subjective4  ,prophecy1 for instance1   
was often supposed to be a recollection1
 and some primitive accounts of the     
genesis of things1 handed down by       
tradition1 were reputed to be inspired1 

and objectively dictated to the mind4   
,the ,platonic theory of reminiscence   
relies on these conceptions4 ,the power 
which recalled the images to memory was 
supposed to be external1 and identical  
with that which raises up the images of 
dreams2 primitive man traced a fanciful 
identity between the phenomena of memory
 and of dreams1 and the distinction     
between them was not supposed to consist
 in the actual images1 but in the modes 
of their appearance in the waking or    
sleeping state4 ,the images assumed in  
the memory a relative reality1 somewhat 
resembling those of dreams4 ,in fact1   
some savages do not clearly distinguish 
between the images of these states1 and 
see little difference between the       
spontaneous recollection of things1 the 
fancy1 and dreaming4 ,this also occurs  
in children1 who at a very early age    
often call by name absent persons and   
things which recur to their memory2 and 
on the other hand they do not           
distinguish the facts of real life from 

those of dreams4 ,i have observed this  
fact in several children4  ,among       
primitive peoples it often happens that 
an object with which they are           
unfamiliar1 but which has some analogy  
with those with which they are          
acquainted1 becomes associated with the 
latter1 and is constituted into a       
compound being1 endowed with life4 ,the 
,esquimaux believed the vessels         
commanded by ,ross to be alive1 since   
they moved without oars4 ,when ,cook    
touched at ,new ,zealand1 the           
inhabitants supposed his ship to be a   
whale with sails4 ,the ,bosjesmanns     
ascribed life to a waggon1 and imagined 
that it required the nourishment of     
grass4 ,when an ,arauco saw a compass1  
he believed that it was an animal2 and  
the same belief has been held by savages
 of musical instruments1 such as        
grinding organs1 which play tunes       
mechanically4 ,herbert ,spencer mentions
 similar behaviour in some men belonging
 to one of the hill tribes in ,india2   

when they saw ,dr4 ,hooker pull out a   
spring measuring tape1 which went back  
into its case of itself1 they were      
terrified and ran away1 convinced that  
it was a snake4 ,from these facts1 which
 might be multiplied indefinitely1 it   
not only appears that everything is     
spontaneously animated by man1 but also 
that the images of his memory are fused 
with those which are actually present1  
since their respective factors are      
esteemed to be equally real4 ,this      
primitive objection of the images of the
 memory also occurs in the mythical     
representations of dreams1 which1 as the
 images of absent objects1 have much in 
common with the images of the memory4   
,in fact1 all peoples1 as we have seen1 
have believed in the reality of dreams4 
,the ,north ,american ,indians believe  
in the existence of two souls1 one of   
which remains in the body while the     
other wanders at pleasure during the    
dream4 ,the ,new ,zealander supposes    
that the dreamer's soul leaves his body1

 and that he meets the things of which  
he dreams in the course of his          
wanderings4 ,the ,dyak also believes    
that the soul is absent during sleep1   
and that the things seen in dreams      
really occur4 ,garcilasso asserts that  
this was likewise the ,peruvians'       
belief4 ,a tribe in ,java abstains from 
waking a sleeper1 since his soul is     
absent in dreams4 ,the ,karens say that 
dreams are what the l or soul sees      
during sleep4 ,this theory is also found
 among more civilized peoples1 as for   
instance in the ,vedic philosophy and   
the ,kabbala1 and it has come down to   
our days among the common people1 and   
even among those of some culture4  ,one 
belief connected with dreams1 generally 
diffused among all savage and civilized 
peoples1 is that of the appearance of   
dead men1 or of their ghosts4 ,of this  
all the traditions and popular myths in 
the world are full4 ,such a belief1     
first excited by the vision of the dead 
in dreams1 is easily aroused in the     

savage or uneducated mind1 even when he 
recalls to memory while he is alone1 and
 especially at night1 the image of one  
whom he loved in life4 ,affection1 and  
the lively emotion of sorrow and desire 
give such a life-like appearance to     
these images that they become           
objectively present to the mind1 to     
console the mourner1 or1 on the other   
hand1 to threaten the murderer4 ,i have 
more than once heard persons of all     
classes1 after the death of children1 of
 a husband or wife1 whom they have      
injured or imagine that they have       
injured1 either during life or by not   
fulfilling their last wishes1 declare in
 all good faith that the form of the    
dead is often present to their memory   
and visible while they are awake2 thus  
implying that the dead mercifully appear
 to comfort their mourning friends1 or  
else to reproach them for not fulfilling
 their promises4 ,in a word1 these      
images did not seem to them to be       
subjective1 and an ordinary phenomenon  

of the memory1 but objective and        
personal apparitions within the soul4   
,the cases are not rare in certain      
dispositions of mind1 in which the      
projection of these images on the memory
 gradually produces madness4 ,we must   
not forget that psychical phenomena in  
general are very differently regarded by
 the savage and the civilized man1 since
 the latter is accustomed to analysis1  
and to the real distinctions of things4 
,if this canon is forgotten we shall    
fall into grave errors in the attempt to
 interpret the evolution and primitive  
history of thought and of humanity4  ,we
 shall more readily understand the      
nature and genesis of all these         
hallucinations1 and of normal and       
abnormal illusions1 if we study another 
phenomenon of frequent occurrence which 
,i myself have often had occasion to    
observe4 ,i mean the illusion or        
hallucination which does not consist in 
the absolute projection of an internal  
image with an external semblance of     

reality1 but which presents it in the   
twilight as an object of uncertain form1
 either in a room or out of doors4 ,it  
often happens1 as ,i and others have    
experienced from childhood1 that a dress
 or other object lying by chance on a   
chair1 or on the ground1 or hanging on a
 piece of furniture or a peg1 seen in   
connection with the other things near   
it1 is transformed into a person or     
animal1 in a sitting or standing posture
 or lying at full length1 as if it had  
been a spectre or phantasm2 somewhat    
like the figures which we all take      
pleasure in tracing in the strange and  
mobile forms of clouds4 ,the fantastic  
figure sometimes appears instantaneously
 and at the first glance1 sometimes it  
is only gradually made out2 but in both 
cases1 as we shall see1 its genesis is  
the same4 ,although in the former case  
that which in the latter is gradually   
developed appears to be developed all at
 once1 yet in reality it passes through 
the same stages4  ,let us now consider  

the second mode2 and in order to be     
perfectly accurate1 ,i will describe one
 out of many apparitions which ,i saw so
 recently that its gradual formation is 
retained distinctly in my memory4 ,on a 
small three-legged table beside my bed  
there was a little oval mirror1 on which
 hung a woman's cap1 which fell partly  
over the glass3 there was also an easy  
chair1 on which ,i had thrown my shirt  
before going to bed1 while my shoes were
 as usual on the floor4 ,i awoke towards
 morning1 and as ,i chanced to look     
round the large room1 in the uncertain  
light of a night-light which was almost 
burnt out1 my eyes fell upon the easy   
chair4 ,immediately ,i seemed to see a  
head above it1 corresponding to the     
mirror1 and a vague and confused image  
of a person seated there4 ,as ,i am     
accustomed to do in similar cases1 ,i   
closed my eyes for a little1 and on     
reopening them ,i looked at the         
appearance with attention and interest2 
this time the person or phantasm had a  

less confused outline1 although ,i did  
not see the form distinctly1 nor the    
features1 nor its precise position4 ,yet
 in this second observation1 ,i obtained
 an idea of it as a whole1 and in       
details4  ,on further examination the   
face and person stood out more clearly1 
and the features became more distinct1  
the longer ,i looked4 ,each accidental  
fold or shadow on the cap was           
transformed into bright eyes1 strongly  
marked eyebrows1 into the nose1 mouth1  
hair1 beard1 and neck2 so that as ,i    
went on ,i had before me a perfectly    
chiselled face corresponding to the type
 which had first flashed across my mind 
as the confused impression of a face    
conveyed by the cap and mirror4 ,the    
same process of evolution was pursued   
with respect to the limbs1 the breast1  
arms1 legs1 and feet2 parts of the body 
which at first appeared to be vague and 
indeterminate gradually1 and as if by   
enchantment issued distinctly from every
 fold of the shirt1 from every shadow1  

angle1 and line1 so as to compose what  
,dante would call una persona certa4    
,finally ,i saw before me a man dressed 
in white1 of an athletic form1 sitting  
in the easy chair and looking fixedly at
 me3 the whole body was in harmony with 
the head1 which had first resulted from 
the rude resemblance to a human face4   
,the image appeared to me so real and   
distinct that on rising from the bed and
 gradually approaching it1 its form did 
not vanish1 even when ,i was near enough
 to touch the object which produced it4 
,an analysis showed that the features1  
limbs1 and position corresponded in     
every point with the folds and relative 
position of the articles of dress which 
had formed it4 ,a similar process1      
issuing in such apparitions1 is a       
frequent cause of illusions1 which in   
the case of ingenuous1 superstitious1   
and primitive peoples1 may lead to the  
firm conviction that they have seen an  
apparition4 ,this has certainly been the
 case in primitive and even in civilized

 times1 and has given occasion to myths1
 legends1 and the worship of tutelary   
deities and saints4  ,if we consider the
 causes of such a phenomenon1 and       
analyze its elements and motives1 we    
shall1 ,i think1 discover that it goes  
far to explain many normal and abnormal 
hallucinations4  ,in the first place1   
there is in man a deep sense of the     
analogies of things1 partly developed by
 the organic tendency to regard any     
given object of perception as subjective
 and causative1 and to infuse into it   
our own animal life1 a tendency         
confirmed by education and the practice 
of daily life4 ,such analogies1 which   
find their expression in metaphor1 are  
very vivid and persistent in the vulgar 
and in those persons who approximate    
most closely to the primitive           
ingenuousness of the intelligence4 ,the 
most frequent analogies are between     
natural phenomena and objects and animal
 forms4 ,analogies are also found       
between the various forms of inanimate  

natural objects1 but the former are more
 usual1 and especially those which refer
 to the human form4 ,there are numerous 
and familiar instances of the names of  
men or women given to mountains1 rocks1 
and crags1 because they have some remote
 resemblance to some human feature or   
limb4 ,every day we may be called upon  
to see a face in some mountain1 stone1  
or trunk of a tree1 in the outline of   
the landscape1 a wreath of mist or      
cloud4 ,we are told to observe the eyes1
 nose1 mouth1 the arms and legs1 and so 
on4#ce ,every one must remember to have 
often heard of such resemblances1 even  
if he has not himself observed them4    
,all the facts and laws which we have   
observed explain why the sudden         
appearance of some vague form in an     
uncertain light1 reminding us in a      
confused way of the human figure1       
instantly causes us to trace a          
resemblance to man rather than to any   
thing else4 ,it must be noted1 as my    
experiment has already proved1 that in  

this first sketch of a phantasm in human
 form1 a general1 though indefinite type
 of the whole figure has spontaneously  
arisen1 to which it is made to          
correspond4 ,this is the key to the     
ultimate perception of the phenomenon4  
,what may be called the prophetic type  
of the figure which will afterwards     
appear to us in all its details1        
although it may seem to be produced by  
external resemblance1 is in fact the    
product of the mind1 which has been     
unconsciously exercised in its          
construction4  ,in fact1 out of the     
immense variety in faces1 and in the    
general form of persons1 of gestures1   
fashions of dress1 attitudes in rest and
 motion1 which are indelibly impressed  
on the memory1 every one constructs     
general types for himself2 types which  
are revealed in the allusions made in   
our daily conversation to the           
resemblances which we are continually   
observing4 ,these remain in the memory1 
with all the manifold resemblances1 as  

well as the ideal of certain types in   
which the numerous forms we have seen   
and compared are formulated4 ,we know   
that when the memory has been dormant1  
which is often the case1 it may be      
awakened by the stimulus of association1
 of analogy1 or of will1 so as to       
reproduce the forgotten ideas and       
sensations which are thus again         
presented to the consciousness4 ,when1  
therefore1 one or more objects are seen 
in an uncertain light1 so as to present 
a confused appearance of the human form1
 its general lineaments are             
unconsciously made by us to correspond  
with the human type already existing in 
the memory1 and this type presides in   
the subsequent composition of the       
reproducing artist who observes the     
phantasm4 ,the unconscious mental labour
 which is accomplished in the           
reproducing cellules of past impressions
 and ideas by the instantaneous creation
 of the type1 gathers round this type   
the form and features corresponding with

 it1 which had its earlier existence in 
our own experience4 ,the external pose  
and indefinite modification of the      
objects appear to correspond with the   
gradual mnemonic revival of the typal   
form1 and they reciprocally stimulate   
and react on each other4 ,for while a   
fold1 shadow1 or line of the objects    
seen appear to correspond with some     
feature of the mnemonic type1 on the    
other hand1 a fold1 shadow1 or outline  
of the object recalls a feature of the  
inward phantasm composed by the memory4 
,in this process the mnemonic details   
which are in accordance with the        
pre-existing type1 and sometimes also in
 accordance with some remarkable face or
 person which was the first to present  
itself to the mind1 serve as a model for
 the accidental form of the external    
object or objects which correspond to   
it2 this in its turn recalls features   
which remain in the memory1 and in this 
way the external form of this particular
 phantasm is gradually chiselled into   

full relief4 ,the more intently we      
regard the object which is modified to  
suit the mental image1 the more         
perfectly they agree together1 and the  
apparition stands out with more vivid   
distinctness4 ,this will be the         
experience of every one to whom such a  
phenomenon appears1 and a dispassionate 
analysis of all the phases of this fact 
must fully confirm our theory4  ,such a 
fact1 which is implicitly included in   
the general law we have laid down for   
the origin of myth1 will also as ,i     
think throw further light on the origin 
of many hallucinations1 both in normal  
conditions of mind and in the abnormal  
state of nervous disorders4 ,the        
different appearances of objects1       
animals1 and men1 the voices1 words1    
songs1 and conversations seen and heard 
in these hallucinations1 are produced1  
by an internal impulse as well as by a  
stimulus from without2 they are internal
 in the images and sensation already    
unconsciously impressed upon the memory1

 and they are external in the           
accidentally modified form in which they
 occur in sensible objects1 so that they
 act reciprocally as an incentive and   
impulse to each other4  ,if in normal   
hallucinations the vividness of the     
internal image is in certain            
physiological conditions projected      
outwardly1 the configuration and        
accidental form of the external objects 
contribute to complete the composition  
in accordance with the nature and design
 of this internal image4 ,sometimes the 
physiological conditions of             
hallucination are so powerful that it is
 at once produced by the appearance of  
an object which has some analogy with   
the mental image4 ,whatever may be the  
genesis and primitive character of the  
idea of space1 and its psychical and    
physiological relations to actual       
space--a question which has been the    
theme of so much discussion in our      
time--it is certain that first habit and
 then hereditary influence cause us to  

have the sensation and apprehension of a
 psychical space1 which may be termed   
artificial and congenital1 and upon     
which the various impressions of the    
senses are spontaneously projected4 ,of 
this there is an evident proof in the   
fact that if we look at the sun or any  
bright object1 such as the windows of a 
room in the day time1 and then close our
 eyes1 so as to make the vision of      
external space impossible1 the image of 
the sun1 sometimes of a different       
colour1 or of the window1 is projected  
into the darkness at some distance from 
us1 and moves about this psychical      
space4 ,this phenomenon also occurs in  
the subjective sensations of hearing1   
since the sounds do not appear to be    
close to the ear1 but at a distance4 ,we
 are not here called upon to discuss the
 causes which generate the appearance of
 this psychical space1 but the fact is  
indisputable2 so that conversely it     
becomes intelligible how the internal   
image may be projected in the same way1 

or may at least appear to be externally 
projected in hallucinations4 ,this      
surprising phenomenon is only a         
modification of the ordinary exercise of
 the psychical and physiological        
faculties in the projection of images2  
of which1 after the idea of space has   
been formed by primitive experience1    
habit and education are the chief       
factors4  ,hallucinations1 in the cases 
observed above1 are due to an external  
impulse2 and this is especially the case
 in madness and other nervous disorders2
 since a critical observation and clear 
discernment of things is wanting1 some  
object of vision1 a voice1 phrases1 or  
sounds are much more apt to act as a    
stimulus to a vast field of visual      
hallucinations1 or to a long succession 
of sentences and speeches4 ,it is not1  
therefore1 wonderful that in an ecstasy1
 for instance1 in which all the         
faculties are concentrated on very few  
ideas and images1 or perhaps on one     
only1 every external sign1 whether      

obvious to sight or hearing1 combined   
with the mnemonic effort already        
explained1 is modified to correspond    
with these vivid and exalted images2    
thus constituting the wonderful         
phenomenon of ecstasy4 ,in such a case  
the ecstatic phenomenon in persons      
subject to these nervous affections is  
often invested with fresh wonders by the
 additional sensations of light and     
subjective colours2 this is not uncommon
 even in persons of a sane mind and     
body1 but undoubtedly it is more        
frequently the case in those whose      
mental and physical conditions are      
abnormal4 ,it is not rare to hear an    
ecstatic person recount divine visions1 
suffused with extraordinary light and   
glory4  ,in order to contribute to the  
researches of others into the nature of 
this phenomenon1 ,i must be             
permitted--not from vanity1 but from a  
desire that my own imperfections may    
serve the cause of science however      
slightly--to relate some facts1 personal

 to myself1 which bear upon the         
question1 facts of very general         
experience4 ,from my childhood ,i have  
had1 both by day and night1 various     
subjective sensations of light which ,i 
was1 as a person of perfectly sane mind1
 able to observe dispassionately4 ,after
 reading for a long while1 or when      
fatigued by sleeplessness1 mental       
excitement1 or some temporary gastric   
derangement1 ,i see clear flames        
circling before my eyes4 ,these are in a
 small1 oblong form1 arranged at brief  
intervals in concentric curves1 and     
composing a moving garland projected    
upon space1 tinged with a yellowish     
light1 shading into vivid blue4         
,sometimes this figure is changed for   
stars1 twinkling in a vast and remote   
space1 as in a firmament4 ,in addition  
to this phenomenon1 ,i have about twenty
 times in the course of my life         
experienced other subjective and more   
extraordinary sensations of light1 not  
unknown to others4 ,this phenomenon     

occurs when ,i am in a normal condition 
of health1 and always begins with a     
confusion of sight1 so that ,i am unable
 to see objects and the faces of people 
distinctly2 after which everything      
within the range of vision becomes      
mobile and tremulous4 ,this state       
continues for ten minutes1 and then     
clear and distinct vision returns4 ,next
 a lucid circle1 zig-zagged in acute    
angles1 appears close to the eyes1 now  
on the right1 now on the left4 ,it moves
 in a somewhat serpentine course1 and is
 broken in the centre of the lower half4
 ,it withdraws from the eye into        
subjective space1 and the shining band  
of which it is composed gradually loses 
its sharp angles1 and becomes wider and 
undulated1 while still in motion4       
,another remarkable sensation follows4  
,the shining band1 which has dilated    
until it is withdrawn from the eyes1    
whether closed or open1 to an apparent  
distance of several yards1 becomes      
tinted with all the colours of the      

rainbow1 standing out in such vivid     
splendour on the dark background that ,i
 have never seen them equalled in       
nature4 ,indeed the beauty of this      
phenomena is amazing4 ,the band1 inlaid 
with various colours1 now occupies the  
whole space1 maintaining an equal       
distance from the closed eyes1 and      
moving continually with a rhythmic      
undulation1 while it constantly becomes 
more vivid4 ,the moving circle continues
 to dilate until it slowly fades1 and at
 last completely disappears4 ,from its  
beginning to the end1 the vision        
occupies from twenty to twenty-five     
minutes4  ,throughout the phenomenon ,i 
continue to be perfectly collected and  
free in mind1 so that ,i can observe it 
in all its details with perfect         
calmness1 and can also impart my        
observations to the persons with whom ,i
 happen to be4 ,only when the subjective
 sensation has ceased1 ,i feel an       
obscure pain in the brow of the eye in  
which the phenomenon occurred4 ,this is 

readily explained by the well-known     
interlacing of the nerves1 and the      
action of the hemispheres4  ,supposing  
that such phenomena occur1 as they more 
readily do1 in persons predisposed to   
nervous affections1 although not insane1
 in times and in a society agitated by  
religious excitement1 or in persons     
habitually contemplative and occupied   
with spiritual images and thoughts2 if  
in moments of ecstatic emotion they     
should perceive1 in addition to the     
images proper to such conditions1 these 
circling flames1 which is very likely to
 be the case1 or the iridescent aureole 
we have described1 they would certainly 
accept and glorify the heavenly vision  
revealed to them4 ,the revolution of the
 bright stars or iridescent band1       
preceded by the obscurity of vision     
which accompanies the ordinary ecstatic 
hallucination1 would certainly be       
ascribed to the saints or angels1 and   
would thus become more supernatural and 
consonant with the believer's idea of   

heaven2 and these very subjective       
sensations might often produce the      
ecstatic vision1 so ready to appear in  
the morbid conditions which lead to     
hallucination4  ,according to the       
process previously described1 by which  
the phenomenon of natural hallucinations
 is produced by an external stimulus1   
these luminous phenomena would revive   
the memory of angelic and saintly forms1
 of which men were so profoundly        
conscious in times of religious         
excitement1 and would be regarded as    
their external signs1 while they would  
at the same time stimulate the          
appearance of such angelic visions4     
,ultimately this would lead to the vast 
drama of celestial hallucinations       
described for us in the accounts of many
 ecstatic visions4 ,they do not only    
occur in modern religions1 but in those 
of the old heathen1 and in the rude and 
unformed beliefs of savages4 ,the       
ethnography of the most savage peoples  
of our time teaches us that the origin  

of very many myths is to be found in    
normal and abnormal hallucinations1 and 
in the luminous visions which conform to
 their mental conditions4 ,persons      
subject to nervous affections1 from     
simple epilepsy to madness and idiocy1  
were and still are supposed to be       
inspired1 and endowed with the power of 
prophesying and working miracles2 they  
are also venerated for relating the     
strange visions presented to them in the
 crisis of their disorder4 ,africa1     
barbarous ,asia1 ,america1 ,oceania1 and
 the ignorant and superstitious people  
in ,europe itself1 abound with such     
facts2 they have occurred and are likely
 to recur in civilized peoples of all   
times1 including our own1 as we know    
only too well4  ,we have thus reduced   
the primitive origin of myth1 of dreams1
 of all illusions1 of normal and        
abnormal hallucinations1 to one unique  
fact and genesis1 to a fundamental      
principle2 that is1 to the primitive and
 innate entification of the phenomenon1 

to whatever sensation it may be         
referred4 ,this fact is not exclusively 
human in its simple expression and      
genesis1 since it occurs in the lower   
animals2 evidently in those which are   
nearest to man1 and by the necessary    
logic of induction in all others1       
according to their sensations and modes 
of perception4 ,in the vast historic    
drama of opinions1 beliefs1 religions1  
mythical and mytho-scientific theories  
which are developed in all peoples2 and 
again1 in the infinite variety of       
dreams1 illusions1 mystic and nervous   
hallucinations1 all depend on the       
primitive and unique fact which is also 
common to the animal kingdom1 and       
identical with it2 in man this is also  
the condition of science and knowledge4 
,i think that this conclusion is not    
unworthy of the consideration of wise   
men and honest critics1 and that it will
 contribute to establish the definitive 
unity of the general science of         
psychology1 considered in the vast      

animal kingdom as a whole1 and in       
connection with the great theory of     
evolution4  ,this primitive act of      
perception1 the radical cause and       
genesis of all mythical representations1
 and the physical and intellectual      
condition of science itself1 is also one
 of the factors and the sthetic germ of 
all the arts4 ,the constraining power   
which generates the intentional         
subjectivity of the phenomenon1 and the 
entification of images1 ideas1 and      
numerous normal and abnormal            
appearances1 also unconsciously impels  
man to project the image into a design1 
a sculpture1 or a monument4 ,since an   
idea or emotion naturally tends1 as we  
have seen1 to take an external form in  
speech1 gesture1 or some other outward  
fact2 so also it tends to manifest      
itself materially and by means of       
various arts1 and to take the permanent 
form of some object4 ,it is embodied in 
this way1 as it was embodied in fetishes
 in the way described in the foregoing  

chapters4 ,owing to this innate cause1  
and by the instinct of imitation which  
results from it1 children as well as    
savages always attempt some rude sketch 
of natural objects1 or of the fanciful  
images to which they have given rise4   
,drawings of animals and some other     
objects are found among the lowest      
savages1 such as the ,tasmanians and    
,australians4 ,nor is this fact peculiar
 to the lower historic races1 and to    
those which are still in existence1 but 
it is also to be found in the dwellings 
and remains of prehistoric man2 carvings
 on stone of very ancient date have been
 found1 coeval with extinct and fossil  
animals1 prior to the age of our flora  
and fauna and to the present            
conformation of land and water4 ,there  
are many clear proofs of the extreme    
antiquity of the primitive impulse to   
imitative arts4 ,a stag's meta-tarsal   
bone1 on which there was a carving of   
two ruminants1 was found in the cave of 
,savigny3 in a cave at ,eyzies there was

 a fragmentary carving of two animals on
 two slabs of schist2 at ,la ,madelaine 
there were found two so-called staves of
 office1 on which were representations  
of a horse1 of reindeer1 cattle1 and    
other animals2 two outlines of men1 one 
of a fore-arm1 and one of a naked man in
 a stooping position1 with a short staff
 on his shoulder2 there is also the     
outline of a mammoth on a sheet of      
ivory2 a statuette of a thin woman      
without arms1 found by ,m4 ,vibraye at  
,laugerie-,basse1 and known by the name 
of the immodest ,venus2 a drawing       
representing a man1 or so-called hunter1
 armed with a bow1 and pursuing a male  
auroch1 going with its head down and of 
a fierce aspect2 the man is perfectly   
naked1 and wears a pointed beard4 ,other
 designs of the chase and of animals    
afford a clear proof of the remote      
period at which the primitive instinct  
towards the imitative arts existed4  ,it
 is peculiar to man to portray things   
and animals1 and to erect monuments out 

of a superstitious feeling1 or to       
glorify an individual or the nation2 the
 bower-birds and some cognate species   
may perhaps be regarded as an exception1
 since they show a certain sense of     
beauty1 and an extrinsic satisfaction in
 gay colours1 which indeed appears in   
many animals4 ,but art in the true sense
 and in its essential principle are the 
act and product of man alone1 of which  
,i have demonstrated the cause and      
comparative reasons in another work1 so 
that it is unnecessary to repeat them   
here4 ,some rare cases indicate an      
artistic construction which is not an   
essential part of animal functions1 and 
the sense of form and colour occurs in  
some species4 ,but this only shows that 
there exist in the animal kingdom the   
roots of every art and sentiment        
peculiar to man1 subsequently perfected 
by him in an exclusive and reflex       
manner1 and this confirms the general   
truths of heredity and evolution4  ,when
 primitive man draws or carves objects1 

he does not merely obey the innate      
impulse to give an external form to the 
image already in his mind1 but while    
satisfying the sthetic sentiment which  
actuates him1 he is conscious of some   
mysterious power and superstitious      
influence4 ,this sentiment is not only  
apparent in our own children1 but among 
nearly all savages1 of which many       
instances might be given2 some of them  
are even afraid to look at a portrait1  
and shrink from it as from a living     
person4  ,as time went on1 a belief in  
spirits was developed from causes       
already mentioned1 the rude theory of   
incarnation followed as its corollary1  
and this sentiment was naturally        
confirmed by incised and sculptured     
images2 for since they supposed a spirit
 to be present in every object whatever1
 this was much more the case with       
incised or sculptured figures of men and
 animals4 ,in these figures the amulet1 
talisman1 or gris-gris of savages       
especially consisted2 portraits1 however

 rude1 of animals1 monsters1 of the     
human form as a whole or in parts1 as in
 the universal phallic superstitions4   
,the belief in spirits1 resulting from  
the personification of shadows1 or of   
the image of a man's own soul which was 
supposed to return from the tomb1 had a 
mythical influence on the mode and      
ceremonies of sepulture1 on the position
 of corpses1 on the orientation of      
tombs1 and their form4 ,in fact1 the    
mythical ideas of spirits1 and the      
fanciful place they took in the         
primitive idea of the world1 produced   
the custom of burying corpses in an     
upright1 stooping1 or sitting position1 
and their situation with reference to   
the four cardinal points4 ,in ,america  
the cross which was placed in very early
 times above the tombs is rightly       
supposed by ,brinton to have been a     
symbol of the four zones of the earth1  
relatively to the tomb itself and to the
 human remains enclosed in it4 ,one     
,australian tribe buries its dead with  

their faces to the east2 the ,fijians   
are buried with the head and feet to the
 west1 and many of the ,north ,american 
,indians follow the same custom4 ,others
 in ,south ,america double up the       
corpse1 turning the face to the east4   
,the ,peruvians place their mummies in a
 sitting position1 looking to the west2 
the natives of ,jesso also turn the head
 to the west4 ,the modern ,siamese never
 sleep with their faces turned to the   
west1 because this is the attitude in   
which they place their dead before      
burning them on the funeral pile4       
,finally1 the ,greeks and all other     
peoples1 both civilized and barbarous1  
including ourselves1 had and continue to
 have special customs in burying their  
dead4  ,all the primitive artistic      
representations of the human form1 the  
orientation of tombs and temples and    
their peculiar form1 were prompted by   
these spiritualist and superstitious    
ideas2 they expressed a symbolism       
derived from mythical ideas of the      

constitution of the world1 of its       
organism1 elements1 and cosmic legends4 
,this assertion might be verified by all
 funereal1 religious1 and civil         
monuments1 among all peoples of the     
earth1 in their most rudimentary form   
down to those of our times1 and above   
all in ,india1 ,china1 ,central ,asia1  
in ,africa1 and particularly in ,egypt1 
in ,america1 in ,europe1 beginning with 
the ,greeks and passing through the     
,latins down to the ,christianity of our
 day2 nor need we exclude the ,oceanic  
races1 and those of the two frigid      
zones4  ,doubtless the purest sthetic   
sentiment was gratified in the          
productions of the plastic arts and of  
design in general when civilization was 
at its highest perfection1 among people 
peculiarly alive to this sentiment4 ,at 
the same time1 for the great majority of
 peoples in early and subsequent ages   
down to our own time1 there was and is  
the consciousness of a numen1 in the    
proper meaning of the word1 within the  

statue or effigy1 and these were        
unconsciously entified by the same law  
which leads to the entification of      
natural phenomena2 the august presence  
of the gods and an artificial symbol of 
the living organism of the world were   
contained in the material form4 ,while  
this sentiment took a higher development
 in art1 and was gradually emancipated  
from its mythical bonds1 it never       
altogether disappeared in artistic      
creations2 and there are still many who 
would1 like some uncultured peoples of  
early and modern times1 cover up their  
images when they are about to commit    
some action which might be displeasing  
to these idols of the gods or saints4   
,if we were to gauge the sentiments     
which really animate a man of the       
people1 even when he2 looks at the      
statue of a great man1 we should find   
that in addition to his sthetic         
satisfaction1 he unconsciously imagines 
that the spirit of the dead man is      
infused into the image and is able to   

enjoy the admiration of the observers4  
,the-worship of images in all times and 
places is essentially founded on this   
belief in the incarnation of spirits and
 the numen of fetishes4 ,there is indeed
 no real difference between the         
superstitious adoration of a savage1    
addressed to his fetish1 and the worship
 of images in many religions of modern  
civilization4 ,although people of       
culture1 and the scholastic theory of   
religions1 may distinguish indirect and 
respectful veneration from direct       
worship1 yet it cannot be denied that   
the majority of the faithful directly   
adore the image4 ,the general belief in 
relics1 consisting of bones1 hair1      
clothes1 etc41 is plainly an evolution  
of the amulets and gris-gris of savages4
 ,this fetishtic and idolatrous         
sentiment has by a gradual and necessary
 development been infused even into     
speech and writing1 for written forms   
have been hung on plants as fetishes and
 idols1 or placed in the temples as the 

symbol of perpetual prayer1 and the     
,buddhists even erect prayer-mills4 ,we 
have analogous instances among          
ourselves1 when texts of ,scripture or  
the words of some saint are rolled up   
into a kind of amulet and worn round the
 neck4 ,the same sentiment is shown in  
the costly offering of lamps kept       
constantly burning before images as the 
means of obtaining help and favour2 and 
in the visits made to a given number of 
churches1 thus transforming number into 
a mysterious1 entified1 and efficacious 
power1 in the same way that every       
ancient people1 whether barbarous or    
civilized1 mythically venerated certain 
numbers2 the ,peruvians1 for instance1  
and some other ,american peoples        
regarded the number four as sacred4  ,in
 addition to the cherished remembrance  
always inspired by portraits of those we
 love1 a breathing of life1 as if the   
dead or absent person were communicating
 with us in spirit1 is perhaps          
unconsciously infused into the picture  

while we look at it4 ,these are         
transient states of consciousness1 of   
which we are scarcely aware1 although   
they do not escape the notice of careful
 observers4 ,any dishonour or insult    
offered to images1 whether sacred or    
profane1 deeply moves both the learned  
and unlearned1 both barbarous and       
civilized peoples1 not merely as a base 
and sacrilegious act against the person 
represented1 but from an instinctive and
 spontaneous feeling that he is actually
 present in the image4 ,any one who     
analyzes the matter will find it        
impossible to separate these two        
sentiments1 and many disgraceful and    
sanguinary scenes which have led to the 
gallows or the stake have actually      
resulted from the identification of the 
image with the thing represented4  ,even
 when a man of high culture and refined 
taste for beauty stands before the      
canvas or sculpture of some great       
ancient or modern artist1 his spiritual 
and sthetic enjoyment of these wonderful

 works is1 as he will find from the     
observation of his inmost emotions1     
combined with the animation and         
personification of what he sees2 he is  
so far carried away by the beauty and   
truth of the representation that the    
passions represented affect him as if   
they were those of real persons4 ,this  
relative perfection of a work of art1   
either in the way the objects stand out1
 in the varied diffusion of light and   
shade1 in the movement and expression of
 figures1 in the effect of the whole in 
its details and background1 is all      
heightened and confirmed by the         
underlying entification of images4 ,the 
process we have before described by     
which a confused group of objects appear
 to us as a human form or phantasm is   
also effected in this case in a more    
subtle way and with less effort of      
memory2 it is all ultimately due to the 
primitive fact of animal perception4    
,our imagination can supply the         
resemblance1 the limbs1 colour1 and     

design in a picture in which a face1    
figure1 or landscape are slightly       
sketched1 or in a roughly chiselled     
statue4 ,we often hear the complaint    
that a work of art is too highly        
finished1 and it wearies and displeases 
us because it leaves nothing for the    
imagination to supply4 ,the remark      
reveals the fact1 of which we are all   
implicitly conscious1 that we are       
ourselves in part the artificers of     
every external phenomenon4  ,we need not
 stop to prove a truth well-known to    
all1 that architecture and all kinds of 
monuments lend themselves to a symbolism
 derived from ancient and primitive     
popular ideas4 ,this was the case in    
,india1 ,mesopotamia1 ,phoenicia1       
,egypt1 ,juda1 ,greece1 ,ancient and    
,christian ,rome1 and in the ancient    
remains found in savage countries and in
 ,america4 ,the freemasons of the       
,middle ,ages united the earliest and   
most varied traditions with the symbols 
of ,christianity4 ,we unconsciously     

carry on the same traditions1 preserving
 some of their forms1 although the      
meaning of the symbol is lost4 ,tombs in
 the open air which enclosed a spirit1  
and round which the shades roamed1 were 
the first sacred buildings1 from which  
by an easy and intelligible evolution of
 ideas1 temples1 with a similar         
orientation1 and other works of         
architecture1 both religious and civil1 
were derived4 ,if we follow1 step by    
step1 the development of the tomb into  
the temple1 the palace1 and the         
triumphal arch1 we shall see how the    
outward form and the human and cosmic   
myth were reciprocally enlarged4        
,ethnography1 archology1 and the history
 of all peoples indicate their gradual  
evolution1 so that it is only necessary 
to allude to it2 proofs abound for any  
intelligent reader4 ,even in modern     
architecture the arrangement of parts1  
the general form1 the ornaments and     
symbols relating to mythical ideas1     
still persist1 although we are no longer

 conscious of their meaning2 just as    
human speech now makes use of a simple  
phonetic sign as if it were an algebraic
 notation1 in which the philologist can 
trace the primitive and concrete image  
whence it proceeded4 ,the arts also1    
like other human products1 follow the   
general evolution of myth in their      
historic course2 the primitive fetish is
 afterwards perfected by more explicit  
spiritual beliefs1 and is combined with 
cosmic myths2 these are slowly          
transformed into symbolic               
representations1 which dissolve in their
 turn1 and give place to the expression 
of the truth and to forms which more    
fully satisfy the natural sense of      
beauty and its adaptation to special    
ends4  ,the arts of singing and of      
instrumental music have the same origin 
and evolution as the others4 ,vico1     
,strabo1 and others have asserted that  
primitive men spoke in song1 and there  
is great truth in the remark4 ,since    
gesture and pantomime help out the      

meaning of imperfect speech1 which was  
at first poor in the number of words and
 their relative forms1 and this is still
 the case among many peoples1 so song1  
vocal modulation1 and the rhythmic      
expression of speech seem to stimulate  
emotion4 ,in truth1 the mental and      
physiological effort which tends by     
vocal enunciation to present the image  
or emotion in an external form1 is on   
the one hand not yet fully              
disintegrated1 and on the other the     
greater or less intensity of feeling    
involved in primitive languages a       
corresponding vocal modulation to       
supplement it1 just as it required      
gesture and pantomime4 ,thus speech1    
gesture1 and song1 in the larger sense  
of the word1 had their origin together4 
,this is also true of many of the       
languages of modern savages1 and of     
those of more civilized peoples1 such as
 the ,chinese1 which have not quite     
attained inflection2 in this case the   
frequent repetition of the same         

monosyllable conveys a different        
meaning1 not only from its relative     
position1 but from the modulation and   
tone in which it is uttered4 ,the same  
thing may be observed in children who   
are just beginning to talk4  ,rhythm1 or
 the graduated and alternate action and 
reaction with which a vibration begins  
and ends1 is a universal law in the     
manifestation and movements of all      
natural phenomena2 a law which is       
revealed on a grand scale in all the    
recurring periods of nature1 whether    
astral1 telluric1 or meteorological1 as 
well as in the form and manifold phases 
of organisms and their modes of         
reproduction4 ,this universal law also  
applies to the whole mental and organic 
system of animals and men1 whenever they
 become conscious of their own          
existence4 ,the same universal rhythm   
constitutes the fundamental form of     
sound in the vibration of metallic bars1
 or of strings1 and becomes perceptible 
to the external senses by means of our  

organ of hearing1 as also by the        
external and innate necessity slowly    
developed by our habits of              
consciousness1 which may be termed the  
external causes of its organic evolution
 and constitution4  ,by these organic   
and cosmic tendencies1 and by the       
intrinsic impulse towards modulation of 
sound already explained1 speech first   
issued from the human breast in         
harmonious accents and rhythmic form1   
and these became in their turn the      
causes and genesis of versification and 
metre4 ,the classic experiments of      
,helmholtz show that each note may be   
regarded as a harmonic whole1 owing to  
the complementary sounds which accompany
 it in its complete development4 ,with  
reference to our own race1 the genesis  
of the composition of verse and metre   
are shown by the researches made by     
,westphal and others into the metrical  
system of the ,vedic ,aryans1 the       
,turanians1 and the ,greeks1 since the  
fact that their metres were the same    

implies a common origin4 ,the           
demonstration is complete1 if we compare
 the iambic metre of ,archilochus with  
that of the ,vedic hymns4 ,there are in 
both three series of iambuses--the      
dimeter1 the cataleptic trimeter1 and   
the acataleptic4#cf  ,this observation  
applies to the physical and             
physiological conditions of the         
phenomenon1 since primitive men could   
not speak without rhythmic modulation of
 words4 ,we are not quite without hope  
of discovering by induction the origin  
of wind or stringed instruments which   
accompanied the songs1 after the        
specification of the modes of speech was
 so far advanced as to distinguish      
singing--which had already become an    
art--from the daily necessity of        
reciprocal communication in words4 ,in  
this research we must proceed step by   
step1 aided by minute observation1 lest 
we should accept an hypothesis which    
does not correspond with the facts4     
,not only man1 but some animals--among  

others a species of mouse found in      
,south ,africa--naturally uses his limbs
 to moderate or strengthen the light of 
vision4 ,this mouse was observed to     
shade its eyes with its forepaws in     
order to look at some distant object    
under a blazing sun1 as we should do in 
like conditions4 ,in man1 whose arms and
 hands are readily adapted to this      
primitive art1 the habit is common1 even
 among the rudest savages4 ,putting     
sight out of the question that we may   
consider hearing1 which is our present  
theme1 reflex movements1 either casual  
or habitual1 have certainly induced     
primitive men to place their hands on   
the mouth1 either so as to suppress the 
sound or to augment it by using both    
hands as a kind of shell4 ,it is easy to
 imagine the use of shells or other     
hollow objects as a vehicle of sound1   
either for amusement or some other      
cause1 and these rude instruments might 
serve as the first step to the invention
 of wind instruments4 ,reflection on    

these spontaneous experiments would     
readily lead to the search for some mode
 of prolonging or imitating the voice4  
,in these attempts men might be guided  
by their observation of the whistle and 
song of birds1 whose beaks may have     
served as a model for the construction  
of the flute and reed-pipe4 ,pott traces
 the word for sound to the root svar1   
and hence1 after some natural phonetic  
changes1 we have in ,lithuanian szwilpti
 for the song of birds4 ,of all natural 
objects1 different kinds of reeds and   
the hollow stalks of plants are1 owing  
to their hollow and cylindrical form1   
best adapted for the imitation of a     
bird's beak and the sonorous            
transmission of breath4 ,in many        
languages the word for a flute is the   
same as that for a reed4 ,in ,sanscrit1 
vana and vnu mean a flute and bamboo2 in
 ,persian1 n and ny mean a flute and    
reed2 in ,greek ,greek3 donas1 and in   
,latin calamus1 have the same double    
meaning1 and many more examples might be

 given4  ,stringed instruments are a    
more elaborate invention1 and may have  
been suggested by the vibration of a    
bow-string when it is twanged4 ,the bow 
is common to all modern savages1 and was
 also found among extinct peoples and   
those which are now civilized1 as well  
as in prehistoric times4 ,the ,sanscrit 
word for a stringed instrument1 tata or 
vitata1 is derived from the root tan1 to
 stretch4 ,pictet observes that one name
 for a lute is rudri1 from rud1 to      
lament1 that is1 a plaintive instrument2
 in ,persian we have rod for song1      
music1 or a stringed instrument4 ,the   
etymology of arcus is the same2 the root
 arc not only means to hurl1 but to sing
 or resound4 ,homer and ,rannjana often 
allude to the sonorousness of the bow   
and its string4 ,homer says in speaking 
of the bow of ,pandarus1 stridit funis1 
et nervus valde sonuit4 ,and when       
,ulysses drew his avenging bow1 the cord
 emitted a clear sound like the voice of
 a swallow4 ,lcka1 another name for a   

cord1 also means one who speaks1 from   
lc1 loqui2 and the ,persian rd1 rda1 a  
bow-string1 also means a song4 ,in the  
,veda the root arc' is used in speaking 
of the roaring wind1 or of a long       
echoing sound4 ,again tvara1 a          
bow-string1 is from tan1 to stretch1 to 
sound4 ,the ,greek ,greek3 tonos must be
 referred to the same root1 and         
signifies1 a bow-string1 a sound1 an    
accent1 a tone4 ,benfey traces the      
,greek ,greek3 lura1 in which this root 
is wanting1 through ,greek3 ludra1 or   
rudra4 ,kuhn confirms this              
transformation by the analogy between   
the ,vedic god ,rudra and the ,greek    
,apollo1 both of whom are armed with a  
bow4 ,rudra1 like ,apollo1 is a great   
physician2 the former is called         
kapardin1 from his mode of wearing his  
long hair1 and vanku from his tortuous  
gait as the god of storms2 to the latter
 the epithets of ,greek3 achers echomes 
and ,greek3 loxias are applied2 the     
mouse was sacred to ,rudro1 and ,apollo 

had the surname of ,smintheus1 from the 
mouse1 ,greek3 ,smintha1 which was his  
symbol4  ,these wind and stringed       
instruments were not1 in their primitive
 forms1 at once used as an accompaniment
 to song4 ,before such use was possible1
 there must have been considerable      
progress in the specification of        
language1 and special songs must have   
been disintegrated from common speech1  
which was at first an inchoate song4    
,possibly some rude instruments were    
invented for amusement or some other    
purpose before this specification had   
taken place4 ,at any rate the use of    
various instruments for accompaniment   
was preceded by gesticulation1 or the   
spontaneous striking of some object     
which coincided with animated speech1 or
 which accompanied it in sonorous       
cadences4  ,the rhythm which stimulated 
primitive men to speak in song1 also    
impelled them to accompany it with      
gestures and movements of the body1 and 
this was the origin of the dance1 which1

 when the body moved in correspondence  
with cadenced utterances1 was at first  
merely the accompaniment of song4       
,tradition1 modern ethnography1 and the 
primitive habits of children bear       
witness to this fact4 ,in addition to   
the rhythmic motion of all parts of the 
body1 there is the practice of          
spontaneously beating time with the     
hands and feet1 which were doubtless the
 first instruments used by man as a     
musical accompaniment4 ,hence1 owing to 
the facility of1 construction1 there    
arose percussion instruments1 which were
 at first made of stone or pieces of    
wood4 ,so that singing1 dancing1        
accompaniment with the limbs or with    
some rudely fashioned object arose      
almost simultaneously1 as soon as the   
process of specification had established
 a distinction between song and ordinary
 speech4 ,the first simple instruments  
which we have described only made the   
song1 shout1 war-dance1 or religious    
ceremony more effective4  ,when chanted 

speech was formulated in a fixed order  
by means of rhythm and the modulations  
of the voice1 it became verse1 and the  
melody itself1 as the simple expression 
of the song which had been cast into    
verse1 or even into an inarticulate     
chant1 was naturally evolved from it4   
,an artistic education is not needed in 
order to experience the pleasure of     
rhythmic order in the succession of     
sound1 for a predisposition of the      
nervous system will suffice4 ,savages1  
children1 and even animals are sensible 
of rhythm1 which is the order and       
symmetry of sensations4 ,the dance1 as  
,beauquier justly observes1 is the      
practical form of rhythmic motion and   
the gesture of music4 ,the motion       
impressed by sound on the internal      
organism tends to manifest itself in    
external gesture1 and in fact1 the      
rhythm of the music is repeated in      
dancing in the limbs and in the whole   
body of the dancer4 ,the rhythm1        
regarded in its material cause1 need not

 be accompanied by any very musical     
sound4 ,the percussion instruments were 
at first only used to mark and intensify
 the rhythm4  ,melody may be termed a   
fusion of rhythm and sounds of different
 pitches1 united in time1 and assuming a
 regular and symmetrical form2 melody1  
as others also have observed1           
constitutes the whole of music1 since   
without it harmony itself is vague and  
indefinite4 ,notwithstanding the        
numerous elements which may be discerned
 in melody1 and the labour implied in   
its analysis1 it is the facile and      
spontaneous creation of man1 at any rate
 in its simplest expression2 uneducated 
people1 ignorant of music1 are able to  
invent very tolerable melodies1 of which
 we have instances in popular and       
national songs1 which are generated by  
the musical fancy of those unconscious  
of the laws of music4 ,melody has an    
independent existence1 while harmony    
serves to accentuate its form1 and      
conduces to its subsequent progress     

among peoples capable of developing it  
in all its power4#cg  ,music has a      
powerful influence upon all the senses4 
,it has at all times been supposed to   
have a healing power1 and in the ,middle
 ,ages it was believed to cure epilepsy1
 madness1 convulsions1 hysteria1 and all
 forms of nervous affections2 while in  
our own time it is usefully employed in 
cerebral diseases1 since it has both a  
stimulating and soothing effect4 ,women1
 since they are generally more nervous  
and sensitive than men1 are more        
especially affected by music4 ,animals  
as well as man are influenced by it1 as 
it has been shown by exact and numerous 
experiments4 ,every one knows that many 
birds can be taught airs1 which they    
sing with taste and lively satisfaction4
 ,the major key1 with its regular       
proportions1 its full and gradual       
sounds1 arouses in man a sense of life  
and joy1 while the minor key excites    
languor and invincible sadness1 and     
animals are affected in the same way4   

,it is evident that the formation of the
 scale1 the essential foundation of     
music1 varies with1 the epoch1 climate1 
habits1 and physiological conditions of 
the different races which have          
successively adopted the diatonic1 the  
major1 and minor scales4 ,the music of  
the ,chinese differs from our own1 and  
while it is equally elaborate1 it does  
not quite please us1 and the same may be
 said of the music of the ,indians1 of  
the ancient ,egyptians1 and others4     
,undoubtedly our scale is more          
convenient and conformable to art1      
setting aside the physiological         
conditions of race1 since the notes     
separated by regular intervals form a   
more spiritual and independent1 in short
 a more artistic system4  ,such are     
briefly the characteristics of the      
genesis of song and of music1 the actual
 conditions which make them possible1   
and their effect on man and animals4 ,we
 must now consider the subject from the 
mythical point of view1 as we have done 

in the case of the other arts4 ,we know 
that the image and emotions are         
mythically personified by us1 and this  
fanciful reality is afterwards infused  
into the words used in its expression4  
,it follows from this that speech is not
 only spontaneously and unconsciously   
personified as the material covering of 
the idea or emotion enclosed in it1 but 
that the same thing occurs in language  
as a whole1 at first vaguely1 but       
afterwards in a definite and reflective 
manner1 in consequence of intellectual  
development4 ,among all civilized       
peoples1 whether extinct or still in    
existence1 speech is not only           
personified in the complex idea or      
language1 but it is deified4 ,it is well
 known that this is the case in all     
phases of ,eastern ,christianity1 and   
that the other ,christian churches have 
since identified the ,grco-,eastern idea
 of the ,logos with the ,messianic ideas
 engrafted upon it4 ,if among the       
prehistoric peoples which most resemble 

modern savages1 speech was personified  
by the necessity of the perceptive      
faculty1 a vague power was certainly    
ascribed to it1 and even a simple murmur
 or whisper was supposed to have a      
direct and personal influence on things1
 men1 and animals4 ,magic1 which is the 
primitive expression of fetishtic power1
 embodied in a man1 had its most        
efficacious form in the utterance of    
words1 cries1 whispers1 or songs1       
referring to the malign or to the       
healing and beneficent arts1 and it was 
employed to arouse or to calm storms1 to
 destroy or improve the harvest1 or for 
like purposes4  ,beginning with the     
traditions of our race1 even prior to   
its dispersion1 there are plain proofs  
that words and songs were originally    
employed for exorcisms and magic in     
various diseases1 and for incantations  
directed against men or things4 ,kar    
means to bewitch1 as in ,german we have 
einem etwas anthun1 in low ,latin       
facturare1 in ,italian fattucchiere1 and

 from ,kar we have carmen1 a song or    
magic formula4 ,the goddess ,carmenta1  
who was supposed to watch over          
childbirth1 derived her name from       
carmen1 the magic formula which was used
 to aid the delivery4 ,the name was also
 used for a prophetess1 as ,carmenta1   
the mother of ,evander4 ,servio tells us
 that the augurs were termed            
carmentes4#ch ,the ,sanscrit mya1       
meaning magic or illusion and1 in the   
,veda1 wisdom1 is derived from man1 to  
think or know2 from man we have mantra1 
magic formula or incantation2 in ,zend1 
manthra is an incantation against       
disease1 and hence we have the ,erse    
manadh1 incantation or juggling1 and    
mniti in ,lithuanian4 ,the linguistic   
researches of ,pictet1 ,pott1 ,benfey1  
,kuhn1 and others show that in primitive
 times singing1 poetry1 hymns1 the      
celebration of rites1 and the relation  
of tales1 were identical ideas1         
expressed in identical forms1 and even  
the name for a nightingale had the same 

derivation4 ,so also the names of a     
singer1 poet1 a wise man1 and a         
magician1 came from the same root4      
,among all historic and savage peoples  
it was the general practice to use      
exorcism by means of magic formulas and 
incantations1 combined with the noise of
 rude instruments2 this was part of the 
pathology1 meteorology1 and demonology  
which dated from the beginning of       
speech1 and the first rude ideas of     
fetishes and spirits have persisted in  
various forms down to our days4 ,we have
 a plain proof of this in a work        
dedicated to ,pius ,,ix4 by ,m4 ,gaume1 
in which he sets forth the virtue of    
holy water against the innumerable      
powers of evil which1 as he declares1   
still people the cosmic spaces1 and     
similar rites may be traced in the      
liturgies of all modern religions4 ,this
 belief is directly founded on the      
fanciful personification and incarnation
 of a power in speech itself1 in song1  
and in sound4 ,david had similar ideas  

of dancing and its accessories1 and the 
walls of ,jericho are said to have      
fallen at the sound of the trumpets1 as 
if these contained the spirit of ,god4  
,the ,patagonians1 to quote a single    
instance from among savages1 drive away 
the evil spirits of diseases with magic 
songs1 accompanied by drums on which    
demons are painted4 ,to these mythical  
ideas we must refer the worship of      
trees1 which involves that of birds1 so 
far as they whistle and sing4  ,the     
worship of trees and groves is          
universal3 peculiar trees1 groves1 and  
woods are worshipped in ,tahiti1 in the 
,fiji ,islands1 and throughout          
,polynesia2 in barbarous ,asia1 in      
,europe1 ,america1 and the whole of     
,africa4 ,cameron1 ,schweinfurth1       
,stanley1 and other modern travellers in
 ,africa give many instances of this4   
,schweinfurth describes such a worship  
among the ,niam-,niam1 who hold that the
 forest is inhabited by invisible       
beings4 ,this worship is naturally      

combined with that of birds1 which      
become the confidants of the forest1    
repeat the mysteries of mother earth1   
and sometimes become interpreters and   
prophets to man4  ,birds1 by their power
 of moving through the air as lords of  
the aerial space1 by their arts of      
building1 by the beauty of their        
plumage1 their secret haunts in the     
forests and rocks1 by their frequent    
appearance both by day and night1 and by
 the variety of their songs1 must       
necessarily have excited the fetishtic  
fancy of primitive men4 ,the worship of 
birds was therefore universal1 in       
connection with that of trees1 meteors1 
and waters4 ,they were supposed to cause
 storms2 and the eagle1 the falcon1 the 
magpie1 and some other birds brought the
 celestial fire on the earth4 ,the      
worship of birds is also common in      
,america1 and in ,central ,america the  
bird voc is the messenger of ,hurakau1  
the god of storms4 ,the magic-doctors of
 the ,cri1 of the ,arikari1 and of the  

,indians of the ,antilles1 wore the     
feathers and images of the owl as an    
emblem of the divine inspiration by     
which they were animated4 ,similar      
beliefs are common in ,africa and       
,polynesia4#ci ,it is well known that   
the ,egyptians worshipped the ibis1 the 
hawk1 and other birds1 and that the     
,greeks worshipped birds and trees at   
,dodona1 in consequence of a celebrated 
oracle4 ,in ,italy the lapwing and the  
magpie became ,pilumnus and ,picus1 who 
led the ,sabines into ,picenus4         
,divination by eagles and other birds   
was practised at ,rome1 and ,german1    
,slav1 and ,celtic traditions abound in 
similar myths4#dj ,nor are they wanting 
in the ,bible itself1 in which we hear  
of the trees of knowledge and of life1  
of some celebrated trees in the times of
 the patriarchs1 of the raven and the   
dove sent out as messengers4 ,the ,old  
,testament speaks of the worship of     
groves at ,ashtaroth in ,canaan1 of     
sacrifices under the green trees1 and we

 know that such worship occurred in the 
,semitic races of ,numidia and          
elsewhere4  ,the simultaneous           
elaboration of myths relating to trees  
and birds as objects of worship1 as     
beneficent or malign powers1 and as the 
transmitters of oracles1 necessarily    
confirmed and extended the              
personifications of speech and song1 and
 were fused through many sources into a 
whole1 which represented a supernatural 
agent1 endowed with the power of a      
mediator1 of a good or evil spirit or   
idol4 ,this ultimately led to a         
universal conception of the efficacy of 
sound1 considered as the manifestation  
of occult powers4 ,in this mythically   
spiritual atmosphere1 all peoples       
formerly lived and in great part still  
continue to live4  ,as the innate       
impulse led to the entification of      
speech and of the singing of men and    
animals1 so it also led to the mythical 
personification of dancing and          
instrumental music1 in which nearly all 

peoples have recognized a demoniac and  
deliberate power4 ,for this reason1     
dancing and the noise of rude           
instruments generally accompanied solemn
 religious and civil ceremonies1 and any
 remarkable cosmic1 astral1 or          
meteorological fact2 and in polytheistic
 times the deities of poetry1 dancing1  
and music served to accentuate and      
classify ideas4  ,the instrument became 
a fetish1 and was invested with a       
mysterious power resembling that which  
was supposed to exist in all utterances 
of the animal world4 ,indeed1           
instruments were1 and still are among   
savages1 regarded as sacred and as an   
integral part of public worship1 so that
 each had its definite function and     
office4 ,this need not surprise us1     
since for such men every object is a    
fetish1 which contains a soul4 ,the     
,karens1 a tribe in ,burmah1 believe    
that their arms1 knives1 utensils1 etc41
 have all a kelap or soul1 which is     
termed a wong by the negroes of ,west   

,africa4 ,the same belief is found in a 
more explicit form among the            
,algonquins1 the ,fijians1 and the      
aforesaid ,karens1 whose beliefs are    
characteristic of all peoples which have
 reached this stage of mythical         
conceptions4 ,the different objects     
belonging to a dead man1 and his        
instruments1 arms1 and utensils1 are    
laid in his tomb1 or burnt with his     
body1 and this is owing to the belief   
that the souls of these objects follow  
their possessor into another life4 ,the 
same custom unfortunately extends to    
persons1 and there are instances of this
 evil practice among relatively         
civilized nations2 the massacre which   
takes place at the death of a king of   
,dahomey is well known1 and is revolting
 from the number of victims and from the
 mode of their sacrifice4 ,it is        
therefore easy to imagine the way in    
which musical instruments and the sounds
 produced by them were personified1     
since these manifestations seemed to    

approximate more closely to those of    
animals4  ,fetishtic beliefs concerning 
magic songs or sounds were1 as we have  
seen1 confirmed by the influence        
naturally exerted on men and animals in 
their normal or abnormal state by       
rhythmic and musical sounds1 however    
rude and unformed they may be4          
,theophrastus tells us that blowing a   
flute over the affected limb was        
supposed to cure gout2 the ,romans      
recited carmina to drive away disease   
and demons3 the old ,slav word for      
physician1 vrai1 comes from a root which
 means to murmur2 in ,servian1 vrac is a
 physician1 and balii1 an enchanter or  
physician4 ,the use of incantations as a
 remedy prevailed among the ,greeks in  
,homer's time4 ,the ,atarva-,veda       
retains the old formula of imprecation  
against disease1 and the ,zendavesta    
divides physicians into three classes1  
those which cure with the knife1 with   
herbs1 and with magic formulas4 ,kuhn   
believes that the ,latin word mederi    

refers to these proceedings1 comparing  
with it the ,sanscrit mth1 mdh1 to      
oppose or curse4 ,pictet traces the     
meaning of exorciser in another         
,sanscrit word for a physician3 ,bhisag 
from sag1 sang1 tojurbo gate4  ,as the  
civilization of the historic races      
advanced1 poetry1 singing1 and musical  
instruments became more perfect1 and    
were classified as reflex arts4 ,among  
the more intellectual classes the       
earlier fetishtic ideas connected with  
them almost disappeared1 while in the   
case of the common people1 the fetish   
was idealized1 but not therefore lost2  
it persisted1 and still persists1 under 
other forms4 ,polytheism1 modified to   
suit the place1 time1 and race1 and yet 
essentially the same1 offers us a more  
ideal form of the arts1 each of which   
was personified as a god1 and taken     
together they formed a heavenly company1
 which generated and presided over the  
arts4 ,the greatest poets and           
philosophers of antiquity retained a    

sincere belief in the inspiration of    
every creation of art2 and this was only
 a more noble and intellectual form of  
the first rude and indefinite conception
 by which the arts were embodied in a   
material shape4  ,of all the ,aryan     
peoples1 ,greece represented her        
,olympus in the most glorious mythical  
form1 set forth by all the arts of      
description4 ,from the polytheistic     
point of view1 nothing can be           
sthetically more perfect than the myths 
of ,apollo and the ,muses1 which        
personify harmony in general1 and       
whatever is peculiar to the arts4 ,such 
conceptions1 by which the arts of       
speech1 song1 vocal and instrumental    
music were embodied in myths1 did not   
disappear as time went on1 but were     
perpetuated in another form4 ,music1    
which was always becoming more          
elaborate1 continued to be the highest  
inspiration1 a divine power1 an external
 and harmonious manifestation of        
celestial beings1 of eternal life1 and  

the order of the world4 ,this conception
 was shadowed forth in the ,pythagorean 
theory of the mythical harmony of the   
spheres3 that school regarded the world 
as a musical system1 an harmonious dance
 of planets4  ,the fetishtic and        
mythical origin common to all the arts  
is clearly shown by the fact that at a  
period relatively advanced1 but still   
very remote1 they were formulated in the
 temple1 a symbolic representation of   
their deities1 to be found even among   
the most primitive peoples4 ,the        
evolution of the arts towards a more    
rational conception1 divested of        
mythical and religious influence1 took  
the form of releasing each art from     
bondage to the temple1 and enabling it  
to assume a more distinct1 free1 and    
secular personality1 an evolution which 
was however somewhat difficult and slow 
in the case of vocal and instrumental   
music4 ,although in our own time it has 
achieved a field for itself1 yet in     
oratorios and ecclesiastical music the  

old conception remains4  ,the joys of   
the ,elysian fields and of ,paradise1 as
 rewards of the good and faithful after 
death1 varying in details with the moral
 and mythical beliefs of various        
peoples1 were heightened by concerts and
 musical symphonies1 as1 owing to       
natural evolution and the introduction  
of ,oriental ideas1 if appears even in  
the ,christian conception of ,paradise4 
,for the great majority of believers1   
earthly music is only an echo of that   
celestial music1 and participates in its
 divine efficacy4 ,in the ,christian    
,paradise there were saints to preside  
over the instruments1 the singing1 and  
music2 the visions of the ecstatic1 the 
hallucinations of the mystic1 and the   
precious memories and images of the     
dead1 are often combined with sweet and 
heavenly music1 and this completes the  
fetishtic idea which enters into every  
phenomenon with which man has to do4    
,for if inanimate objects and           
instruments were supposed by the        

primitive savage to have a soul which   
followed the shade of the dead man into 
the mythical abode beyond the grave1 in 
modern religions the earthly            
instruments1 the fanciful idols of the  
common people and of mystics1 also      
resound in ,elysium and the heavens1    
touched and inspired by choirs of angels
 and by seraphic powers4  ,the deep and 
sonorous music of bells1 of organs1 and 
other ecclesiastical instruments1 the   
chants which resound through vaulted    
roofs amid the assembled worshippers1   
ecclesiastical lights1 and the fumes of 
incense1 inspire many ,christians with a
 deep and sthetic sense of the divine   
presence2 and at such moments their     
vivid faith joins heaven and earth in   
the same harmonious emotion4 ,the music1
 chants1 and harmony1 combined with     
other solemn rites1 are unconsciously   
embodied by us1 entering into our hearts
 as they circle round the church1 and   
they become the mysterious language of  
celestial powers4 ,we are once more     

immersed in the world of fancy and of   
myth1 purified however by the evolution 
it has undergone4 ,this exalted state of
 mind is also experienced by those who  
listen to profane music1 since the      
harmony and modulation of sound1 and the
 expression given to it by the          
combination of various instruments1     
immediately affect the soul of the      
listener as a whole1 without the aid of 
reflection1 and a substantial entity    
which deliberately fulfils its          
spontaneous cycle of development is thus
 created2 in a word1 the harmonies they 
hear are unconsciously personified4 ,any
 one who makes a deep and careful       
analysis of his states of consciousness 
in these circumstances will admit the   
truth of this assertion4  ,the ordinary 
modes of expression respecting music1   
which are in use not only among         
uneducated people1 but among those who  
are educated and civilized1 display the 
earlier and innate belief in the        
mythical representations of this art4   

,the expressions may be often heard3    
,what divine music6 ,what angelic       
harmony6 ,this song is really seraphic6 
and the like4 ,such expressions not only
 bear witness to the old mythical       
sentiment1 and to the ultimate          
development of its form1 but they also  
indicate the actual sentiments of the   
speaker4 ,the personifying power of the 
human intelligence is such as to recur  
spontaneously1 even in one who has      
abandoned these ancient illusions1 if he
 surrenders himself for a while to his  
natural instinct4 ,it has often happened
 that a man who listens to a melodious  
and beautiful piece of music is         
gradually aroused and excited by its    
sweet power1 so as to be carried away   
into a world of new sensations1 in which
 all our sentiments and affections1 our 
deepest1 tenderest1 and dearest         
aspirations blossom afresh in our       
memory1 and are fused into and          
strengthened by these harmonies2 we seem
 to be transported into ethereal        

regions1 and unconsciously surrender    
ourselves to their influence4 ,this kind
 of natural ecstasy is not produced     
merely by the physiological effects of  
music on the organism1 by the education 
of our sense of beauty1 and of our      
reminiscences of earlier mythical       
emotions1 but also by the innate impulse
 which still persists1 leading us to    
idealize and vivify all natural         
phenomena1 and also our own sensations4 
,but if among the common people1 the    
devout1 and occasionally also among     
people of culture1 this highest art is  
not divested of its mythical            
environment1 which still persists1      
although in a more ideal form1 yet it   
has followed and still follows the      
general evolution of human ideas4 ,the  
art of music was identified with song   
and with the mythical personality       
ascribed to it1 of which these          
instruments were the extrinsic and      
harmonious echo2 at first1 like the     
other arts1 it1 was a religious         

conception and entity pertaining to the 
,church1 but it gradually assumed a     
character of its own1 was dissociated   
from the ,church1 and became a secular  
art1 diverging more and more from the   
mythical ideas with which it had before 
been filled4 ,when instruments increased
 in number1 and became more perfect in  
quality2 when harmony1 strictly so      
called1 was developed and became more   
efficient1 instrumental music still     
continued to be the servant of vocal    
music1 and was employed to give         
emphasis1 relief1 warmth1 and colour to 
the art of song1 which continued to be  
supreme4 ,song had its peculiar musical 
character1 and the human voice1 alone or
 in a chorus1 might be regarded as the  
type of instrumental music1 rendered    
more effective by the words which       
expressed the ideas and sentiments of   
such songs by harmonizing the various   
vocal instruments in accordance with    
their tones and varying timbre4         
,instrumental music1 by the melodious   

harmony of artificial sounds1 had       
however a vast field peculiar to itself1
 and an existence independent of the    
human voice4 ,this was and is1 in       
addition to its release from the bonds  
of myth1 the necessary result of the    
evolution of this highest art4          
,instrumental music1 considered in      
itself1 with the symphony as its highest
 expression1 has been declared by a     
learned writer to be the grandest       
artistic creation1 and the ultimate form
 of art in which the vast cycle of all  
things human will find its development4 
,a symphony is an architectural         
construction of sounds1 mobile in form1 
and not absolutely devoid of a literary 
meaning4 ,yet we must not seek in       
instrumental music for that which it    
cannot afford1 such as the ideas        
contained in words4 ,any one must admit 
the futility of the attempt to give a   
dramatic interpretation or language to  
instrumental music1 who reads the       
description attempted by ,lenz and other

 writers of some of ,beethoven's        
sonatas4 ,instrumental music does not   
lend itself to these interpretations1   
since it is an art with an independent  
existence4 ,we have observed that in its
 first development it was used as an    
accompaniment to the voice1 or          
associated with the movements of the    
body1 or with the dance1 and            
consequently had not the independence   
which was gradually achieved1 until it  
culminated in the symphony4             
,instrumental music adds nothing to     
literature1 nor to the expression of    
ideas and sentiments1 but in it pure    
music consists1 and it is the very      
essence of the art4 ,literature and     
poetry belong to a definite order of    
ideas and emotions2 music is only able  
to afford musical ideas and sentiments4 
,instrumental music has its peculiar    
province as the supreme art which       
composes its own poems by means of the  
order1 succession1 and harmony of       
sounds2 it delights1 ravishes1 and moves

 us by exciting the emotional part of   
our nature1 and thus arouses a world of 
ideas which may be modified at pleasure1
 and which may1 by the powerful means at
 its disposal1 produce effects of which 
instruments merely used for accompanying
 the voice are incapable4 ,when         
instrumental music was released from all
 servitude to other arts1 as well as    
from all positive sense of religious    
emotions or mythical and symbolic       
prejudice1 thought was able to create   
the art of sounds1 which contains in    
itself a special aim and meaning4  ,we  
have thus reached the term of our       
arduous and fatiguing journey4 ,we      
flatter ourselves that a truth has been 
gleaned from it1 and this conviction is 
not1 due to a presumptuous reliance on  
our powers1 but on the conscientious    
honesty of our researches1 combined with
 a great yet humble love of truth4      
,others1 who are better endowed with    
genius and learning will judge of our   
success1 and we shall willingly submit  

to their criticism and correction1 so   
long as they are fair and unprejudiced  
and only aim at the truth4 ,from animal 
perception1 and the mental and physical 
fact into which it is to be resolved1 we
 have traced the root which in man's    
case grows into a mighty tree2 the first
 germ of all the mythical ideas of every
 people upon earth4 ,the subjectivity of
 which animals and man are spontaneously
 conscious in every internal and        
external phenomenon1 the subsequent     
entification of ideas1 even after       
thought has attained to these more      
rational forms1 are the great factors of
 myth in all its forms1 of              
superstitions1 of religions1 and also of
 science4 ,we have reduced all the      
normal and abnormal sources of these    
fanciful ideas to that single source    
which we have just indicated4           
,penetrating below the kingdom of man   
into that of animals1 we have there     
discovered where the germ was formed1   
and this completes the doctrine of      

evolution and bears witness to its      
truth4 ,the evolution of myth went      
through the regular process1 by which it
 was formulated and simplified1 until it
 was resolved into all the sciences and 
rational arts1 and was thus transformed 
into a positive science1 passing through
 an ulterior stage of myth and science  
before it took the definitive form of a 
purely intellectual conception4  ,we    
have seen that the source of myth is the
 same as that of science1 since         
perception is the condition of both1 and
 the process pursued is identical1      
although the subject on which the       
faculty of thought is exercised is      
changed4 ,therefore the problem of myth1
 which includes every achievement of the
 human understanding1 and fills all     
sociology1 is transformed into the      
problem of civilization4 ,thought has   
run its course in the vast evolution    
from myth to science1 which is rendered 
possible by the permanence and duration 
of a powerful and vigorous race1 and    

hence came the gradual transition from  
the illusions which involve the         
ignorance and servitude of the majority 
of the people to truth and liberty1     
since these are released from their     
earlier wrappings1 and the human race   
rises to a sense of its nobility and    
highest good4 ,we have considered this  
evolution as a whole and in its details1
 and have seen that every achievement of
 the human understanding passes through 
the same phases1 and reaches the same   
goal4 ,we have adduced witnesses to     
confirm our own observation from history
 and ethnography in general1 apart from 
any bias for a religious and scientific 
system4 ,we believe that in this way    
alone there can be any true progress in 
the science which we have undertaken to 
consider in this essay4  ,the result of 
the inquiry shows that by a slow yet    
inevitable evolution man rose from his  
primeval condition of error1 illusion1  
and servitude to his fellow man1 to that
 degree of truth and liberty of which he

 is capable3 he was so made that he     
necessarily advanced to the grand height
 which has been attained by the most    
laborious and intelligent of the human  
race4 ,he rises higher1 and is more     
sensible of his own dignity1 in         
proportion as he becomes1 within the    
limits of his nature1 the artificer of  
his own greatness and civilization4     
,while many peoples have become extinct1
 others have1 owing to their natural    
incapacity1 remained in a savage and    
barbarous condition1 while others again 
have attained to a certain amount of    
civilization1 but their mental evolution
 has stopped short4 ,our own race1      
originally1 as ,i believe1              
,aryo-,semitic1 for it is possible that 
these two powerful branches were derived
 from a common stock1 has persisted     
without interruption in spite of many   
adversities and revolutions1 and has    
displayed in successive generations the 
progress of general civilization1 and   
the goal which man is able to reach in  

his highest perfection of mind and body1
 favoured by the physical and biological
 conditions of climate4 ,in this race1  
whether with respect to myth and science
 or to civilization1 the theory of      
evolution has practically been carried  
out in all its phases and degrees4      
,science and freedom were the great     
factors of civilization1 or of progress 
in every kind of conceptions1           
sentiments1 and social conditions3 the  
first dissolved and destroyed the matrix
 of myth in which the intelligence was  
at first enveloped1 and liberty1 which  
was wholly due to science1 made steady  
progress a matter of certainty4 ,so that
 it may be said that the whole web of   
human history1 so far as it consists in 
civilization or the progress of all good
 things1 of the arts1 and of every      
intellectual and material achievement1  
was the conflict of science1 and her    
offspring freedom1 against ignorance1   
and the despotism which results from    
ignorance1 under all the social forms in

 which they are manifested4 ,so that all
 good and wise men1 sincere lovers of   
the dignity of mankind and of the       
welfare of society and of the           
individual1 ought to feel a deep        
reverence and love for these two powers1
 and to be ready to give up their lives 
to them4 ,for if--which in the present  
condition of the world is an impossible 
hypothesis--they were to fail1 the human
 race would be irretrievably lost1 since
 these are our real liberators from     
barbarism1 which have upheld mankind in 
the struggle against it1 under whatever 
name these principles have appeared4  ,i
 am aware that my theory will meet with 
many obstinate and zealous opponents in 
,italy1 since ,i use the simple terms of
 reason and science1 unqualified by     
other arguments1 and ,i maintain the    
absolute independence of free thought4  
,opposition is the more likely since    
science and freedom have been held      
responsible for sectarian intemperance1 
for the disturbances of the lower       

orders1 for the inevitable disasters1   
the social and intellectual aberrations 
both of the learned and of the common   
peoples3 science and freedom are held to
 have repeated the wiles of the serpent 
in ,eden4 ,but ,i am not uneasy at the  
thought of such opposition1 since the   
progress of the human race has been     
owing to the fact that men convinced of 
the truth took no heed of the           
superstitious and interested war waged  
against them1 sometimes from ignorance  
of things in general and of the law     
which governs civilization1 sometimes   
from honest conviction4  ,the falsity of
 the accusation so generally made       
against science and freedom will appear 
if we consider that all the benefits we 
now enjoy1 civil1 scientific1 and       
material1 and which are especially      
enjoyed by the men who inveigh most     
strongly against these two factors1 are 
solely derived from science and freedom4
 ,without them we should be in the      
civil1 intellectual1 and material       

condition of the kingdom of ,dahomey1   
and in the savage and barbarous state of
 all primitive peoples4 ,if the         
misunderstanding of truth or an         
imperfect science is injurious1 it must 
not therefore be rejected4 ,science is  
the constant and vigilant generator of  
all social improvement1 and the most    
formidable enemy of the tyranny of a    
despot1 of an oligarchy1 or of the      
multitude1 whether it take a religious  
or secular form4 ,since sharp           
instruments are powerful aids to        
civilization and material prosperity1   
they are not to be altogether set aside 
because some persons die miserably by   
them4 ,as ,i have always maintained1 and
 now repeat with still stronger         
conviction1 science and freedom1 the    
ever watchful guardians of the human    
race1 are and must always remain the    
sole remedies for the evils which       
threaten us4 ,i do not dispute the      
beneficent influence of other factors   
combined with these1 but1 taken alone1  

they would be powerless1 and if science 
were eclipsed they would be transformed 
into fresh causes of servitude and      
ignorance1 as it has often appeared in  
past times when the laws of science and 
of freedom have been set at nought4 ,i  
therefore declare science and freedom to
 be the portion of all1 and they should 
be as widely diffused as possible1 since
 the way to knowledge and a worthy life 
is open to all men4 ,it is a blasphemy  
against heaven and earth to presume1 in 
the so-called interest of civil order1  
to keep the majority of the people in   
the ignoble servitude of ignorance1 and 
men do not perceive that they thus      
become ready for any disturbance1 and   
the tools of rogues and agitators4  ,i  
hope and pray that reverence for science
 and freedom may ever increase in       
,italy4 ,it will be an evil day for her 
if such reverence be lost1 and she will 
become with every other people in like  
case a wretched spectacle1 and will fall
 into such abject misery as to become   

the laughing-stock of every civilized   
nation4 ,it will be understood that ,i  
do not erect science and liberty into   
fetishes to be generally adored3 they   
are only sacred means to a more sacred  
end1 namely1 to enable men to practise  
and not merely to apprehend the truth1  
which in other words is goodness4       
,science and freedom are valuable only  
so far as they teach1 persuade1 and     
enable us to improve ourselves and      
others2 to exercise every private and   
public virtue2 to claim only what is due
 to ourselves1 while making the needful 
sacrifice to the common good2 to have a 
respect for humanity1 and to venerate   
knowledge only so far as it is combined 
with virtue2 to attempt in every way to 
alleviate the miseries of others1 to    
deliver their minds from ignorance and  
error2 to do right for its own sake     
without coveting rewards in heaven or on
 earth2 to submit to no dictation but   
that of truth and goodness4  ,with these
 sacred objects in view1 whatever may be

 said to the contrary1 we shall1 in     
addition to the ineffable fruition of   
truth for its own sake1 ever draw nearer
 to the ideal of the human race1 and the
 time will come when an apparent ,utopia
 shall be actually realized1 in         
accordance with the mode and process of 
growing civilization4 ,not by excesses1 
tumults1 and folly1 but by unshaken     
firmness and tenacity we shall promote  
science and freedom4 ,if this modest    
essay has done anything to show the     
necessity of such culture1 and in what  
way science and freedom1 and these two  
factors only1 have brought forth fruit  
throughout the history of the human     
race1 my labour will be richly rewarded1
 and ,i may say with satisfaction--dies 
non perdidi6     ,,footnotes4  #a       
,simrock wrote3 ,myth is the earliest   
form in which the mind of heathen       
peoples recognized the universe and     
things divine4  #b ,kumarla1 in reply to
 the opponents who inveighed against the
 immorality of his gods1 wrote that the 

fable relates how ,prajpati1 the lord of
 creation1 violated his own daughter4   
,but what does this signify8 ,prajpati  
is one name for the sun1 so called      
because he is the lord of light4 ,his   
daughter ,ushas is the dawn1 and in     
declaring that he fell in love with her1
 it is only meant that when the sun     
rises1 it follows the dawn4 ,so also1   
when it is said that ,indra seduced     
,ahaly1 we are not to suppose that ,god 
committed such a crime1 but ,indra is   
the sun1 and ,ahaly is the night2 and so
 we may say that the night is seduced   
and conquered by the morning sun4 ,this1
 and other instances may be found in    
,max ,mller's ,history of ,ancient      
,sanscrit ,literature4 ,other instances 
might be given4  #c ,vico writes3 ,the  
human mind is naturally inclined to     
project itself on the object of its     
external senses4 ,and again1 ,common    
speech ought to bear witness to ancient 
popular customs1 celebrated in times    
when the language was formed4 ,so again3

 ,men ignorant of the natural causes of 
things assign to them their own         
nature4444 ,in another place3 ,the      
physical science of ignorant men is a   
kind of common metaphysics1 by which    
they assign the causes of things which  
they do not understand to the will of   
the gods4 ,again3 ,ignorant and         
primitive men transform all nature into 
a vast living body1 sentient of passions
 and affections4  #d ,see1 among other  
authorities for the most important      
phenomena of animals in their natural   
associations1 the profoundly learned    
work by the well-known ,a4 ,espinas3    
,des socits animales3 tude de           
,psychologie compare1 ,paris1 #bnd      
edit41 #ahgi4  #e ,i stated in my former
 essay on the fundamental law of the    
intelligence in the animal kingdom that 
philosophy was only the research into   
the psychical manifestations of the     
animal kingdom1 and into those peculiar 
to man1 in connection with the          
respective organisms in which they act1 

and with the estimate of their power as 
cosmic factors in the general harmony of
 the forces of the world4  #f ,see1 with
 respect to the primitive unity of the  
,aryan and ,semitic races1 the works of 
the great philologist1 ,t4,g4 ,ascoli1  
and others4  #g ,although it            
7psychology71 still makes some show1 yet
 the old psychology is condemned4 ,its  
conditions of existence have disappeared
 in its new environment4 ,its methods no
 longer suffice for the increasing      
difficulties of the task and the larger 
requirements of the scientific spirit4  
,it is constrained to live upon its     
past4 ,its wisest representatives have  
vainly attempted a compromise1 loudly   
asserting that facts must be observed1  
and that a large part should be assigned
 to experience4 ,their concessions are  
unavailing1 for however sincerely meant1
 they are not actually carried out4 ,as 
soon as they set to work the taste for  
pure speculation again possesses them4  
,moreover1 no reform of what is         

radically false can be effectual1 and   
ancient psychology is a bastard         
conception1 doomed to perish from the   
contradictions which it                 
involves4--,ribot1 ,psychologie         
,allemande ,contemporaine4 ,paris1      
#ahgi4  #h ,della legge fondamentale    
della intelligenza nel regno animale4   
,milano4 ,dumolard1 #ahgg4  #i ,see1    
among other works on the subject1 ,die  
,herabkunft des ,feuers und des         
,gottertranks1 by ,adalbert ,kuhn2 and  
,croyances et ,lgendes de l',antiquit1  
by ,a4 ,maury4  #aj ,see ,wuttke1       
,deutscher ,volksaberglauber2 ,tylor1   
,primitive ,culture2 ,hanusch1          
,rochholz1 and others4  #aa ,the        
,worship of ,animals and ,plants1 ,part 
,i4 ,fortnightly ,review1 #ahfi4 ,the   
same argument is generally used2 see    
,tylor1 ,early ,history of ,mankind1    
#ahfe2 ,lubbock1 ,origin of             
,civilization1 #ahgj2 ,herbert ,spencer1
 ,fortnightly ,review1 ,may1 #ahgj2     
,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker2 

,bastian1 ,mensch in der ,geschichte4   
#ab ,see ,alger's ,critical ,history of 
the ,doctrine of a ,future ,life4  #ac  
,arbrousset1 ,the ,basutos4  #ad ,muir1 
,sanscrit ,texts4  #ae ,burton1 ,west   
,africa2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture4   
#af ,pictet1 ,origines                  
,indo-,eoropennes4  #ag ,the ,hawaans1  
for example1 have only one term for     
love1 friendship1 esteem1 gratitude1    
benevolence1 etc4--aloha2 while they    
have distinct words for different       
degrees in a single natural phenomenon4 
,thus aneane1 gentle breeze2 matani1    
wind2 pahi1 the act of breathing through
 the mouth2 hano1 breathing through the 
nose4 ,see ,hale's ,polynesian          
,dictionary4 ,all peoples have slowly   
attained to typical ideas1 and many are 
even now in process of formation4 ,thus1
 the ,finns1 ,lapps1 ,tartars1 and      
,mongols1 have no generic words for     
river1 although even the smallest       
streams have their names4 ,they have not
 a word to express fingers in general1  

but special words for thumb1            
fore-finger1 etc4 ,they have no word for
 tree1 but special words for pine1      
birch1 ash1 etc4 ,in the ,finn language1
 the word first used for thumb was      
afterwards applied to fingers generally1
 and the special word for the bay in    
which they lived came to be used for all
 bays4 ,see ,castren1 ,vorlesungen ber  
,finnische ,mythologie4 ,this original  
confusion in the definition of          
scientific ideas1 and the successive    
alternations by which they were re-cast1
 may be gathered from the analysis of   
language1 and from facts which still    
occur among uncultured and ignorant     
people4 ,when the inhabitants of        
,mallculo saw dogs for the first time1  
they called them broos1 or pigs4 ,the   
inhabitants of ,tauna also call the dogs
 imported thither buga1 or pigs4 ,when  
the inhabitants of a small island in the
 ,mediterranean saw oxen for the first  
time1 they called them horned asses4    
#ah ,see ,gaussin's ,langue             

,polynsienne4  #ai ,this process of the 
evolution of primitive myth and of      
fetishes1 will be more elaborately      
considered in ,chapter ,,vii41 when we  
come to speak generally of the historic 
evolution of science and of myth4 ,the  
repetition is not superfluous1 since it 
is necessary for the complete           
understanding of my theory4  #bj ,for   
example1 in ancient ,roman mythology the
 ,fons was first adored1 then ,fontus1  
the father of all sources1 and finally  
,janus1 a solar myth1 the father of     
,fontus4 ,janus1 as the sun1 was the    
producer of all water1 which rose by    
evaporation and fell again in rain4  #ba
 ,the ,sanscrit word ,vayn1 meaning     
light1 was personified in ,aurora1 and  
afterwards signified the intelligence1  
or inward light2 a symbolical evolution 
of myth towards a rational conception4  
,the worship of heaven and earth1 united
 in a common type1 is found among all   
,aryan peoples1 and among other races4  
,the ,germans worshipped ,hertha1 the   

original form of ,erde1 earth4 ,the     
,letts worshipped ,mahte1 or ,mahmine1  
mother earth4 ,so did the ,magyars1 and 
the ,ostiaks adored the earth under the 
,slavonic name of ,imlia4 ,in ,china    
sacrifices to the divine earth ,heou-tou
 and to the heaven ,tien were           
fundamental rites4 ,in ,north ,america  
the ,shawnees invoked earth as their    
great ancestress4 ,the ,comanchi adored 
her as their common mother4 ,in ,new    
,zealand heaven and earth are worshipped
 as ,rangi and ,papi4 7,grey3           
,polynesian ,mythology47 ,the myth of   
,apollo1 light1 sun1 heat1 combined also
 with serpent worship1 is found modified
 in a thousand ways among all peoples1  
savages included4 ,see ,schwartz1       
,urspung der ,mythologie2 ,j4           
,fergusson1 ,tree and ,serpent ,worship2
 ,herbert ,spencer1 ,the ,origin of     
,animal ,worship2 ,maury1 ,religions de 
la ,grce ,antique4 ,they also appeared  
among the ,hebrew and kindred races4 ,we
 find in the book of ,job that ,god by  

,his spirit had garnished the heavens2  
,his hand has formed the crooked serpent
 7,job xxvi4 #ac71 expressions which are
 almost ,vedic4 ,from celestial         
phenomena the myth of the ,apollo       
,serpent descended to impersonate the   
phenomena of earth1 of which we have    
examples in the ,greek fable of the     
,python1 and others4 ,apollo again      
appears as the god which agitates and   
dissolves the waters1 and the serpent as
 the winding course of a river1 and also
 as other sources of water4 ,the sun    
causes the river water to evaporate1    
which is symbolized by the dragon's     
conflict with ,apollo1 and the victory  
of the latter4 ,the monster1 as         
,forchhammer observes1 is formed during 
the childhood of ,apollo1 that is1 at a 
time of year when the sun has not       
attained his full force4 ,when the      
serpent's body begins to putrefy1 the   
reptile1 in mythical language1 takes the
 new name of ,python1 or he who becomes 
putrid4 ,the serpent ,python1 in        

accordance with the continual           
transformations of myth1 becomes the    
,hydra of ,lerna1 and ,hercules1 another
 solar myth1 is substituted for ,apollo4
 ,this ,hydra is transformed again into 
,typhon1 a fresh personification of the 
forces of nature and of the atmosphere1 
conspiring against heaven4 ,the         
seven-headed ,hydra reappears in another
 form in the ,rig-,veda1 where the rain 
cloud is compared to the serpent whom   
head rests on seven springs4 ,i have    
,max ,mller's authority for the vigorous
 alternation of myths in those primitive
 ages1 their extreme mobility1 their    
resolution into vivified physical forms1
 and the slight consistency of specific 
types4 ,aurora and ,night are often     
substituted for each other1 and although
 in the original conception of the birth
 of ,apollo and ,artemis they were      
certainly both considered to be children
 of the night1 ,leto and ,latona1 yet   
even so the place or island where1      
according to the fable1 they were born  

is ,ortygia or ,delos1 or sometimes     
called by both names at once4 ,delos    
means the land of light1 but ,ortygia1  
although the name is given to different 
places1 is ,aurora1 or the land of      
,aurora4 7,gerhard1 ,griechische        
,mythologie47 ,ortygia is derived from  
,ortyx1 a quail4 ,in ,sanscrit the quail
 is called ,vartik1 the bird which      
returns1 because it is one of the birds 
to return in spring4 ,this name ,vartik 
is given in the ,veda to one of the     
numerous beings which are set free and  
brought to life by the ,ascini1 that is1
 by day and night1 and ,vartik is one of
 several names for the dawn4 ,vartik's  
story is very short3 she was swallowed1 
but delivered by the ,asvini4 ,she was  
drawn by them from the wolf's throat4   
,hence we have ,ortygia1 the land of    
quails1 the east2 the isle which issued 
miraculously from the floods1 where     
,leto begot his solar twins1 and also   
,ortygia1 a name given to ,artemis1 the 
daughter of ,leto1 because she was born 

in the east4 ,the ,druh1 crimes and     
darkness may in their subsequent        
development be contrasted with these    
ancient myths4 ,aurora is represented by
 them as driving away the odious gloom  
of the ,druh4 ,the powers of darkness1  
the ,druh and ,rakshas were called      
,adeva1 and the shining gods were called
 ,adruh4 ,kuhn believes that the ,german
 words trgen and lgen are derived from  
,druh4  #bb ,michel ,bral3 ,hercule et  
,cacus4  #bc ,we are not here concerned 
with a priori metaphysics1 but with the 
psychical and organic dispositions      
slowly produced by evolution and by     
consciousness in its cosmic relations4  
,the organic nature of these reflex     
phenomena is due to the fact that in the
 long course of ages their exercise has1
 through physiological evolution1 first 
become voluntary or spontaneous1 and    
then unconscious4  #bd ,the double      
meaning is projected into objects4 ,the 
primitive meaning of dexter was fitting1
 capable1 and it was then applied to the

 side of the material body4 ,sansc4     
dacs1 to hasten4 ,ascoli1 ,studi        
linquistici4  #be ,a careful reader will
 not hold this repetition to be         
unnecessary1 since it explains from     
another point of view the fundamental   
fact of perception and its results4 ,it 
is here considered with reference to the
 three elements which constitute this   
fact4  #bf ,this great truth was        
observed by ,vico1 the most advanced of 
modern psychologists1 in his views of   
primitive psychology4  #bg ,in ,chinese1
 for example1 and in many other         
languages1 there are many words to      
indicate the tail of a fish1 a bird1    
etc41 but no word for a tail in general4
 ,even an intelligent savage does not   
accurately distinguish between the      
subjective and the objective1 between   
the imaginary and the real2 this is the 
most important result of a scientific   
education4 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture2 
,steinhauser1 ,religion des ,ngres2     
,brinton1 ,myths of the ,world4 ,the    

objective form of conceptions and       
emotions1 which are subsequently        
transformed into spirits1 are found     
among the superior races of our day1 in 
the ,christian hierarchy of angels1 in  
popular tradition1 and in spiritualism4 
#bh ,fetishism may be observed in the   
civilized ,aryan races1 but still more  
plainly among the ,chinese and cognate  
races1 among the ,peruvians1 ,mexicans1 
etc4 ,castren1 in his ,finnische        
,mythologie says that we find           
extraordinary instances of the lowest   
stage of fetishism among the ,samoeides1
 who directly worship all natural       
objects in themselves4 ,the ,finns1 who 
are comparatively civilized heathens1   
have attained to a higher phase of      
belief4 ,but numerous examples1 in every
 part of the world1 will occur to the   
intelligent reader4  #bi ,numen really  
means the manifestation of power1 from  
nuere4 ,varro makes ,attius say3 ,multis
 nomen vestrum numenque ciendo4 ,in     
,lucretius we have mentis numen1 and    

also ,numen ,augusti4 ,an inscription   
discovered by ,mommsen runs as follows3 
,p4 ,florus1 etc4 ,dianae numine jussu  
posuit4   #cj ,the illustrious ,du ,bois
 ,reymond delivered a lecture a few     
years ago1 in which he made it clear    
that the ,semitic idea of one ,almighty 
,god led to the later and modern        
conception of the unity of forces and   
the rational interpretation of the      
system of the universe4 ,this important 
testimony of so able a man confirms the 
theory set forth some years ago in the  
work of which ,i have reproduced a part 
in the text4  #ca ,some ,jewish         
,christians of the ,semitic race took   
refuge in a district of ,syria1 and     
retained their primitive faith without  
further development1 under the name of  
,nazarenes or ,ebionites4 ,in the fourth
 century1 ,epiphanius and ,jerome found 
these primitive ,christians constant to 
the old dogma1 while ,aryan             
,christianity had made gigantic strides1
 both in its ideas and social           

organization4 ,among the ,semites1 even 
when they have partially accepted the   
dogma1 it was and is unproductive4  #cb 
,aristot41 ,de anima2 ,cic41 ,de        
legibus2 ,diog41 ,lae4  #cc ,a new      
thought entered my mind1 whence others1 
differing from the first1 arose2 and as 
,i roamed from one to another ,i was    
tempted to close my eyes1 and thought   
was changed into a dream4  #cd ,see the 
theory by ,lotze of local signs in the  
formation of the idea of space1         
completed and modified by ,wundt and    
others4  #ce ,sometimes the name of a   
person1 or of some part of the human    
form1 has been bestowed on a natural    
object without reference to their       
analogy1 but in this case the epithet   
has the converse effect of leading us to
 imagine that it possesses the features 
or limbs of the human form4 ,and this is
 of equal value for our present inquiry4
  #cf ,while these sheets were passing  
through the press1 ,i was informed of   
,berg's work on the ,enjoyment of       

,music4 7,die ,lust an der ,musik4      
,berlin1 #ahgi47 ,berg1 who is a        
realist1 inquires what is the source of 
the pleasure we experience from the     
regular succession of sounds1 which he  
holds to be the primary essence of      
music4 ,he finds the cause in some of   
,darwin's theories and researches4      
,darwin observes that the epoch of song 
coincides with that of love in the case 
of singing animals1 birds1 insects1 and 
some mammals2 and from this ,berg       
concludes that primitive men1 or rather 
anthropoids1 made use of the voice to   
attract the attention of females4 ,hence
 a relation was established between     
singing and the sentiments of love1     
rivalry1 and pleasure2 this relation was
 indissolubly fused into the nature by  
heredity1 and it persisted even after   
singing ceased to be excited by its     
primitive cause4 ,this applies to the   
general sense of pleasure in music4 ,we 
have next to inquire why the ear prefers
 certain sounds to others1 certain      

combinations to others1 etc4 ,berg holds
 that it depends on negative causes1    
that the ear does not select the most   
pleasing but the least painful sounds4  
,he relies on ,helmholtz's fundamental  
theory of sounds4 ,it seems to me that  
although ,helmholtz's theory is true1   
that of ,berg is erroneous1 since he is 
quite unable to prove his assertion that
 the effect produced by music is a      
negative pleasure4 ,moreover1 the       
,darwinian observations to which he     
traces the origin of the enjoyment of   
music1 not only rely on an arbitrary    
hypothesis1 but do not explain why males
 should derive any advantage from their 
voice1 nor what pleasure and            
satisfaction females find in it4 ,and   
this1 as ,reinach justly observes in the
 ,revue ,philosophique1 is the point on 
which the problem turns4  ,clark has    
recently suggested in the ,american     
,naturalist another theory worthy of    
consideration4 ,a musical sound is never
 simple but complex2 it consists of one 

fundamental sound1 and of other harmonic
 sounds at close intervals2 the first   
and most perceptible intervals are the  
#hth1 #eth1 #dth1 and #crd major4 ,each 
of the simple sounds which1 taken       
together1 constitute the whole sound1   
causes the vibration of a special group 
of fibres in the auditory nerve4 ,this  
fact1 often repeated1 generates a kind  
of organic predisposition which is      
confirmed by heredity4 ,if from any     
cause one of these groups is set in     
motion1 the other groups will have a    
tendency to vibrate4 ,therefore1 if a   
singing animal1 weary of always         
repeating the same note1 wishes to vary 
its height1 he will naturally choose one
 of the harmonic sounds of the first4   
,the ultimate origin of the law of      
melody in organized beings is therefore 
only the simultaneous harmony1 realized 
in sounds1 of inorganic nature4 ,this   
theory is confirmed by the analysis     
which has been often made of the song of
 some birds3 the intervals employed by  

these are generally the same as those on
 which human melody is founded1 the     
#hth1 #eth1 #dth1 and #crd major4       
,reinach1 however1 observes that        
,beethoven1 who in his ,pastoral        
,symphony has reproduced the song of the
 nightingale1 the cuckoo1 and the quail1
 makes their melodies to differ from    
those assigned to them by ,clark4  ,the 
method and direction of the theories    
proposed by these authors are excellent2
 but ,i do not believe that they have   
discovered the real origin of the sense 
of music and dancing4 ,i think that the 
suggestion given in the text1 although  
it requires development1 is nearer the  
truth4 ,consciousness of the great law  
by which things exist in a classified   
form seems to me to be the cause of the 
sense of graduated pleasure1 which      
constitutes the essence of all the arts4
  #cg ,see ,beauquier's ,philosophie de 
la ,musique4  #ch ,serv4 on the neid4   
,what the oracles sang was termed       
carmentis3 the seers used to be called  

carmentes1 and the books in which their 
sayings were inscribed were termed      
carmentorios4  #ci ,see ,girard de      
,rialle3 ,mythologie ,compare4 ,vol4 ,i4
 ,paris1 #ahgh4 ,a valuable and learned 
work4  #dj ,the intense character of the
 worship of groves in ,italy appears    
from ,quintilianus1 who says1 in        
speaking of ,ennius3 ,ennium sicut      
sacros vetustate lucos adoremus4        
,,index4    ,a priori ideas1 their      
definition1 #g1 #h2     the source of   
myth1 #i   ,abstraction1 unconscious and
 explicit1 #ach2     its degrees1       
#aci-aej4   schylus1 #aaj   ,alger on   
the doctrine of a future life1 #gd      
,animals and man1 their intimate        
connection1 #ai2     their embryogenic  
evolution1 #ai2     their complete      
identity1 #bb2     their                
self-consciousness1 #ej2     the        
projection of themselves on other       
animals and phenomena1 #ea1 #ec1 #ed1   
#ee1 #afa2     experiments on1 #fj-fd4  
,animation of extrinsic phenomena1 #bh1 

#eh-fe1 #aaa1 #abe-abh                  
,anthropomorphism1 #ij1 #ig1 #ajf1 #aha 
,apprehension1 act of1 #aaf2     by     
animals1 #aah2     psychical law of1    
#aai2     three elements of1 #abj2      
by a man1 #abb-abg   ,arbrousset on the 
,basutos1 #ge   ,aristotle1 his         
teaching1 #bca   ,aryan family1 its     
primitive unity with the ,semitic1 #ca2 
its mythology1 #agi1 #aig1 #bai2     its
 conception of ,christianity1 #ahd-aib  
,bridgman1 ,laura1 #bjg    ,christ1 the 
apotheosis of man1 #ahg   ,christianity1
 its diffusion1 #agh-aib2     its       
anthropomorphism1 #aha    ,dead1 the    
worship of1 #ae   ,demoniacal beliefs1  
#gg1 #gh1 #gi   ,descartes1 #bcd        
,doric school1 #baa   ,dreams1 #bec1    
#bei1 #bgj    ,entification1 the term1  
#aec2     of speech1 #caj   ,eleatic    
school1 #baa   ,epicarmos1 #aji         
,evolution1 of monotheism1 #aea2     of 
the faculties of myth and science1 #aeg2
     of language1 #bja-bjd2     of      
writing1 #bji2     of music1 #bie-cjc   

,experiments on animals1 #fj-fd         
,fetish worship1 #gh1 #id-ig1 #afc1     
#afh1 #bia1 #caa   ,finns1 their        
mythology1 #aja    ,galileo1 #bce       
,greece1 her philosophy1 #baj-bag2      
her mythology1 #ii1 #acj                
,hallucinations1 #bgb1 #bha   ,hawaans1 
their concrete language1 #hf    ,ionic  
school1 #baj    ,kant1 #bcc             
,m',lennan on the worship of plants and 
animals1 #gc   ,man1 his intimate       
connection with animals1 #ai-bc2     his
 psychical force1 #bf2     estimated    
according to his absolute value1 #ce2   
his power of reflection1 #bc1 #eb1 #afc2
     his connection with the universal  
system1 #cf   ,mannhardt1 his ,deutsche 
,mythologie1 #ajj   ,max ,mller1 his    
theory of myth1 #aa1 #ii   ,mara1       
incubus1 #gg   ,monotheism1 not the     
first intuition of man1 #ajd     its    
evolution1 #aea   ,multiplicity of      
souls1 believed by various races1 #afe  
,myth1 the spontaneous form of human    
intelligence1 #a2     its persistence1  

#c1 #cc1 #acf2     its germ             
interchangeable with that of science1   
#i1 #aca1 #acb2     its problem         
unsolved1 #ab2     its gradual          
disappearance1 #cc2     its constant    
forms1 #dj2     its origin in reflex    
power1 #ia2     its second form1 #ie2   
its evolution into science1 #aac2       
its various stages1 #afj-agd            
,mythology1 ,indian1 #aj2     ,finnish1 
#aja2     ,vedic1 ,greek1 and ,latin1   
#acj1 #aih2     its historic results1   
#age-aib2     ,aryan1 #agi1 #aif1 #bai2 
,pagan1 #ahd   ,music1 its evolution1   
#bie-cje    ,new ,zealand1 original     
meaning of words1 #hi    ,perception1   
primitive human1 #fi2     identical in  
man and in animals1 #acc2     the       
product and cause of myth1 #aec         
,personification1 by animals1 #ff2      
by man1 #hj2     of internal            
perceptions1 #ha2     of homologous     
types1 #ha2     of specific types1 #hd2 
,pindar1 #aii   ,platonic school1       
#bbj-bcj   ,polynesian language1 #hi    

,polytheism1 its origin1 #ih            
,pythagorean school1 #bad-bag    ,reflex
 power in man1 #bc1 #eb2     its slow   
growth1 #afc   ,ribot1 his ,psychologie 
,allemande1 #ci   ,roman mythology1 #ie 
,sanscrit roots1 #bja   ,science1 a     
factor of intellectual life1 #d2     its
 germ interchangeable with myth1 #i1    
#aca1 #acb2     as a whole1 revealed in 
its several parts1 #ce2     its effect  
on myth1 #aab1aid   ,semitic idea1 #agg2
     race1 #aia   ,social life based on 
the order of nature1 #ch   ,societies1  
the genesis of1 #cj   ,sociology1 its   
foundation in the study of myth1 #da1   
#de   ,sophocles1 #aaj   ,spencer1 his  
,sociology1 #ad    ,tahiti1 #hi         
,tasmanians1 their customs1 #db-dd      
,thales1 his teaching1 #bab             
,transmigration of souls1 #aff   ,tylor 
on ,primitive ,culture1 #ad1 #af2       
his theory of animism1 #af    ,veda1 the
 personification of phenomena1 #ga2     
,vedic mythology1 #gf1 #ih1 #acj1 #bai2 
,vedic hymn1 #bag   ,victory of the     

natural sciences1 #bcg    ,zeller on    
monotheism1 #ajh    ,,the ,,end4