,transcriber's ,note3 ,typographical    
errors are listed at the end of the     
file4 ,misspelled ,greek names were     
treated as errors2 others are noted but 
not changed4         99       99        
99       99       99  ,president's      
,opening ,address to ,chemical ,section4
                  ,,on ,,the ,,antiquity
                        ,,of            
,,the ,,chemical ,,art4          ,by    
,,james ,,mactear1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,c4,i4 
,,the ,,president',s ,,opening ,,address
 ,,to ,,the ,,chemical ,,section4  ,on  
the ,antiquity of the ,chemical ,art4   
,by ,,james ,,mactear1   ,f4,c4,s41     
,f4,c4,i41 ,member of the ,international
 ,jury1   ,paris1 #ahgh1 and ,medalist  
of the ,society of ,arts4    ,read      
before the ,section1 ,december #hth1    
#ahgi4   ,the study of the ,history of  
,chemistry as an art1 or as a science1  
is one which possesses peculiar         
fascination for its votaries4 ,it has   
been the subject of deep research and   
much discussion1 much has been written  

upon the subject1 and many theories have
 been broached to account for its       
origin4 ,we have had laid before us by  
,professor ,ferguson1 in his papers on  
this subject of ,chemical ,history1 very
 clearly and fully the                  
generally-accepted position as regards  
the origin of the science1 and in the   
last of these papers1 entitled 8,eleven 
,centuries of ,chemistry10 he deals with
 the subject in a most complete manner1 
tracing back through its various        
mutations the development of the science
 to the time of ,geber1 in or about the 
year ,a4,d4 #ggh4  ,of ,geber1 as a     
chemist1 ,professor ,ferguson writes1   
8,he was the first--because1 although he
 himself speaks of the ancients1 meaning
 thereby his forerunners1 nothing is    
known of these older chemists40         
,rodwell1 in his 8,birth of ,chemistry10
 after a careful examination of the     
question1 comes to the conclusion that1 
8in spite of all that has been written  
on the subject1 there is no good        

evidence to prove that alchemy and      
chemistry did not originate in ,arabia  
not long prior to the eighth century1   
,a4,d410 bringing us again to the times 
of ,geber4  ,he is not alone in this    
opinion1 and it seems to be generally   
accepted that chemistry originated in   
the ,arabian schools about this period4 
,in dealing with the question of the    
antiquity of chemical art1 it has been  
too much the habit to look at the       
question with a view of discovering when
 and who it was that first brought      
forth1 fully clothed as a science1 the  
art of chemistry4  ,let us look at the  
definition of the science given by      
,boerhve1 about #agcb4 ,he describes    
chemistry as 8an art which teaches the  
manner of performing certain physical   
operations1 whereby bodies cognizable to
 the senses1 or capable of being        
rendered cognizable1 and of being       
contained in vessels1 are so changed by 
means of proper instruments as to       
produce certain determinate effects1 and

 at the same time discover the causes   
thereof1 for the service of the various 
arts40  ,now1 it is amply evident that1 
long before the various known facts     
could be collected and welded into one  
compact whole as a science1 there must  
have existed great store of intellectual
 wealth1 as well as mere hereditary     
practical knowledge of the various      
chemical facts4  ,i do not think it will
 be disputed that1 until comparatively  
recent times1 technical knowledge has   
constantly been in advance of theory1   
and that it is not too much to conclude 
that1 no matter where we first find     
actual records of our science1 its natal
 day must have long before dawned4 ,even
 in our day1 when theoretical science1  
as applied to chemistry1 has made such  
immense strides1 how often do we find   
that it is only now that theory comes in
 to explain facts1 known as such long   
previous1 and those engaged in practical
 chemical work know how much technical  
knowledge is still unwritten1 and what  

may even be called traditionary4  ,i    
purpose taking up the subject from this 
point of view1 and attempting1 with what
 little ability ,i can1 to follow back  
to a still more remote period than that 
of ,geber and the ,arabian school of    
philosophers the traces of what has     
often been called the divine art4  ,an  
aspect of the question that has often   
presented itself to me is this1 that the
 history of what we call our world      
extends over some #djjj years before    
,christ and #ahgh years since1 so that1 
according to the usually accepted idea1 
if chemistry originated in ,arabia in   
the eighth century1 it was not known    
during say the first #ejjj years of the 
world's history1 but has advanced to its
 present high position amongst the      
sciences in the last #ajjj years4  ,i   
hope to be able to show that1 while the 
,arabian school of philosophy get the   
credit of originating most of the       
sciences1 that it is as undeserved in   
the case of chemical science as in that 

of astronomy or mathematics4 ,at the    
same time let us not undervalue the     
services rendered to science by this    
school3 it is to them we owe the        
distribution of the knowledge of most of
 our sciences1 and the ,arabic          
literature of most of these was widely  
spread abroad over all the known world  
of their time4  ,the central portion of 
,baghdad between the eastern and western
 portions of the ,old ,world1 and the   
wise and enlightened policy of its      
rulers1 which welcomed to its schools1  
without reference to country or creed1  
the wise and learned men of every       
nation1 drew to it as to a centre the   
accumulated wisdom and knowledge of both
 the rising and the setting sun4 ,long  
ere this time1 however1 we find1 as     
regards the ,greeks1 that they          
constantly travelled eastward in search 
of learning1 while we know that the     
expedition of ,alexander the ,great1    
about ,b4,c4 #cbg1 in which he traversed
 a considerable portion of ,india1 had  

already opened up the store-houses of   
,indian lore to the minds of the ,west4 
,in connection with this1 the following 
extract from an old book3 called ,the   
,gunner1 dated #affd1 is interesting3-- 
8,in the life of ,apollonius ,tyanus1   
written by ,philostratus #aejj years    
ago1 we find1 in reference to the       
,indians called ,oxydra3 ,these truly   
wise men dwelled between the rivers     
,hyphasis and ,ganges2 their country    
,alexander the ,great never entered1    
being deterred1 not by fear of the      
inhabitants1 but1 as ,i suppose1 by1    
religious considerations1 for had he    
passed the ,hyphasis1 he might doubtless
 have made himself master of the country
 all round him2 but their cities he     
could never have taken1 though he had   
led a thousand as brave as ,achilles or 
ten thousand such as ,ajax to the       
assault4 ,for they come not out into the
 field to fight those who attack them2  
but these holy men1 beloved of the gods1
 overthrow their enemies with tempests  

and thunder-bolts shot from their walls4
  8,it is said that ,egyptian ,hercules 
and ,bacchus 7,dionysius71 when they    
overran ,india1 invaded this people     
also1 and having prepared warlike       
engines1 attempted to conquer them4     
,they made no show of resistance1 but   
upon the enemy's near approach to their 
cities they were repulsed with storms of
 lightning and thunder hurled upon them 
from above40  ,may we not here have the 
original of the ,greek fire1 that was in
 its day so celebrated and so           
destructive8  ,beginning then at the    
period of ,geber1 about #ggf ,a4,d41 let
 us try to work backwards and trace1 if 
we can1 the progress of chemical        
knowledge down the stream of time4      
,while the ,western ,roman ,empire had  
fallen1 the ,eastern still held its sway
 as far as the rivers ,tigris and       
,euphrates1 and continued the contest   
with the ,persian power for the         
supremacy in ,asia4 ,at this time the   
various creeds and beliefs of the       

,arabian tribes--which had been much    
influenced by the settlement amongst    
them of ,jews who had been dispersed at 
the time of the destruction of          
,jerusalem1 and many of the sects of    
,christians who had been driven from the
 ,roman empire by the more              
orthodox--were deeply stirred by the new
 doctrine of ,islam1 preached by        
,mahomet1 ,a4,d4 #fbb1 proclaiming the  
,koran as the rule of life1 and the     
destruction of the ancient ,arabian     
worship of the stars and sun and moon4  
,the religion of 8the one ,god and      
,mahomet his prophet0 took deep root1   
and the injunction to pursue the        
unbelieving with fire and sword was     
followed out with such unrelenting      
vigour that1 within less than a century 
from the death of ,mahomet1 the ,arabian
 power had extended its sway amongst    
nearly every tribe and nation that had  
owned the rule of the ,roman or ,persian
 empires1 and had reached from ,spain to
 ,india1 from ,samarcand to the ,indian 

,ocean4  ,egypt and ,syria were         
conquered between ,a4,d4 #fcb-ci1 and   
,persia about ,a4,d4 #fcb-ea4 ,their    
attempts to take ,constantinople by     
siege failed both in ,a4,d4 #fgc and    
#gaf4 ,but they were more successful on 
the ,african shores of the              
,mediterranean1 which they swept along  
till they crossed the ,straits of       
,gibraltar and entered ,spain in ,a4,d4 
#gji4 ,their further progress--through  
,france--was stayed by their defeat in a
 great battle fought at ,tour's1 when   
the ,gauls1 under ,charles ,martel1     
forced them to retire ultimately across 
the ,pyrenees4  ,internal dissension    
had1 however1 arisen amongst them1 and  
the ruling dynasty of the ,ommiades was 
overthrown in ,a4,d4 #gej by the        
,abassides1 who established themselves  
at ,damascus2 and with them began that  
cultivation of the arts and sciences    
which has thrown such lustre on the     
,arabian school4  ,one of the princes of
 the ,ommiades who had escaped made his 

way to ,spain and there re-established  
the power of his family1 with ,cordova  
as a centre1 about ,a4,d4 #gee4 ,thus it
 was that the ,saracenic power was      
divided into an ,eastern and a ,western 
,caliphate4  ,it was under the          
prosperous rule of the ,abassides that  
such an impulse was given to learning of
 every kind1 and that the ,arabian      
school of philosophy1 which has left    
behind it such glorious records of its  
greatness1 was founded4 ,the ,caliph    
,al-,mansour was the first1 so far as we
 know1 who earnestly encouraged the     
cultivation of learning2 but it was to  
,haroun ,al-,raschid1 ,a4,d4 #ghf-hjh   
7871 that the ,arabians owed the        
establishment of a college of           
philosophy4 ,he invited learned men to  
his kingdom from all nations1 and paid  
them munificently2 he employed them in  
translating the most famous books of the
 ,greeks and others1 and spread abroad  
throughout his dominions numerous copies
 of those works4  ,his second son1      

,al-,mamoon1 while governor of the      
province of ,kohrassan1 we are told1    
formed a college of learned men from    
every country1 and appointed as the     
president ,john ,mesue1 of ,damascus4   
,it is said that his father1 complaining
 that so great an honour had been       
conferred on a ,christian1 received the 
reply--8,that ,mesue had been chosen1   
not as a teacher of religion1 but as an 
able preceptor in useful arts and       
sciences2 and my father well knows that 
the most learned men and the most       
skilful artists in his dominions are    
,jews and ,christians40  ,that this was 
the case can scarcely be doubted when we
 consider that the ,jews had always been
 familiar with many arts and sciences1  
and that1 as is well known1 at the      
destruction of ,jerusalem in ,a4,d4 #gj1
 when the ,jews were dispersed in every 
direction1 they spread over1 not alone  
the countries under the ,roman rule1 but
 to ,greece1 ,egypt1 and the            
,mediterranean coast1 as well as great  

part of ,asia ,minor1 carrying with     
them1 not only their peculiar religious 
traditions1 but also their arts1 which1 
we know1 especially as regards the      
working of metals1 were of no mean      
order1 and their sciences1 of which the 
so-called magic and astrology had been  
assiduously cultivated4  ,in ,asia the  
dispersed ,jews established             
patriarchates at ,tiberias in the west1 
and at ,mahalia1 and afterwards at      
,baghdad1 for the ,jews who were beyond 
the ,euphrates4  ,seminaries were       
founded at these centres for the rabbis1
 and constant intercourse was kept up   
between them4 ,it was in these schools  
that the ,talmud was compiled from the  
traditionary exposition of the ,old     
,testament1 between ,a4,d4 #bjj and     
,a4,d4 #ejj1 when it was completed1 and 
received as a rule of faith by most of  
the scattered ,jews4  ,that the         
cultivation of science was not neglected
 we may be sure from the keen interest  
taken in all ages by the ,jews in       

magical and astrological inquiries4 ,we 
read in ,apuleius1 in his defence on the
 accusation of magic brought against    
him1 that of the 8four tutors appointed 
to educate the princes of ,persia1 one  
had to instruct him specially in the    
magic of ,zoroaster and ,oromazes1 which
 is the worship of the gods40 ,apuleius 
wrote about #bjj ,a4,d41 and his works  
teem with references to magic and       
astrology4  ,the fact that ,jews and    
,christians were looked on as learned   
men will not surprise us1 when we find  
that the ,jews had established schools  
so long anterior to the foundation of   
the college of ,baghdad4 ,the rapid     
progress made by the ,arabians1 and the 
wise policy of the ,abasside ,caliphs1  
under whose judicious rule learning was 
so liberally encouraged1 aided by the   
position of ,baghdad1 which formed1 as  
it were1 a centre to which the wisdom of
 both eastern and western minds         
gravitated1 attracted to their schools  
all those of every nation who boasted   

themselves philosophers4  ,the first    
translations from the ,greek authors are
 supposed to have been made about ,a4,d4
 #gde1 and are known to have been on the
 subjects of philosophy1 mathematics1   
astronomy1 and medicine4 ,these         
translations are understood to have been
 made by ,christian or ,jewish          
physicians4  ,as we have seen1 the ,jews
 had already established themselves at  
,baghdad1 and had founded schools of    
their own previous to the formation of  
the college under ,caliph ,al-,mansour2 
but further than this we find the       
,christians spread widely over the      
countries of ,asia ,minor1 and we are   
told1 on the authority of               
,cosmo-,indicopleustes1 that so early as
 ,a4,d4 #ece there was in almost every  
large town in ,india a ,christian       
,church under the ,bishop of ,seleucia4 
,with these facts before us--#ast1 that 
,christian physicians were the leaders  
of the ,arabian school in the eighth    
century2 #bnd1 that large numbers of    

,christian churches were actually in    
existence in ,india at least two hundred
 years previously to the establishment  
of the college at ,baghdad2 and #crd1   
that ,baghdad was almost1 as it wore1   
the central point of the great caravan  
route which from time immemorial had    
been the course of communication between
 the ,east and ,west1 can we doubt that 
an extensive intercourse must have taken
 place1 and should we not expect to find
 some traces1 if not the effects1 of    
,indian science on the teaching of the  
,arabian school4#a      ,footnote #a3   
,as to communication1 the case of       
,saggid ,mahmud 7given     in ,bellew's 
,indus to the ,tigris71 who1 merely to  
pray for the     recovery of his sick   
son1 travelled with him from ,ghazni by 
way of     ,kandahur and ,shikarpur to  
,bombay1 thence by way of sea to        
,baghdad1     from there to ,karbola1   
and back to ,baghdad2 and then by       
,kirmanshah     and ,kum to ,teheran1 on
 his way home to ,ghazni1 gives an      

indication     of the long journeys     
taken under the most frightful          
difficulties4     ,this long journey had
 occupied six months only1 and we read  
that     in former times twelve years   
were sometimes taken in trading         
journeys4  ,in ,vol4 ,,viii4 of the     
,journal of ,education we find a notice 
that 8,professor ,dietz1 of the         
,university of ,knigsberg1 who had spent
 five years of his life in visiting the 
principal libraries of ,germany1 ,italy1
 ,switzerland1 ,spain1 ,france1 and     
,england1 in search of manuscripts of   
,greek1 ,roman1 and ,oriental writers on
 medicine1 is now engaged in publishing 
his #8,analecta ,medica4'  8,the work   
contains several interesting papers on  
the subject of physical science among   
the ,indians and ,arabians1 and         
communicates several introductory       
notices and illustrations from native   
,eastern writers4 ,dietz proves that the
 late ,greek physicians were acquainted 
with the medical works of the ,hindus1  

and availed themselves of their         
medicaments2 but he more particularly   
shows that the ,arabians were familiar  
with them1 and extolled the healing art1
 as practised by the ,indians1 quite as 
much as that in use among the ,greeks4  
8,it appears from ,ibn ,osaibe's        
testimony 7from whose biographical work 
,dietz has given a long abstract on the 
lives of ,indian physicians71 that a    
variety of treatises on medical science 
were translated from the ,sanscrit into 
,persian and ,arabic1 particularly the  
more important compilations of ,charaka 
and ,susruta1 which are still held in   
estimation in ,india2 and that ,manka   
and ,saleh--the former of whom          
translated a special treatise on poisons
 into ,persian--even held appointments  
as body-physicians at the ,court of     
,harun-al-,raschid40  ,as the age of the
 medical works of ,charaka and ,susruta 
is incontestably much more ancient than 
that of any other work on the subject   
7except the ,ayur ,veda7--as we shall   

see when we come to consider the science
 of the ,hindoos--this in itself would  
be sufficient to show that the ,arabians
 were certainly not the originators of  
either medical or chemical science4  ,we
 should not forget that it is only to   
their own works and their translations1 
chiefly by the ,greeks1 we owe our      
knowledge of the state of ,arabian      
science1 and that it is only in rare    
cases that we have given a list of works
 consulted1 so that we can gather the   
sources from which their knowledge was  
derived4 ,it would scarcely be imagined1
 from reading the works of ,roger       
,bacon1 or of ,newton1 that they had    
derived some1 at least1 of their        
knowledge from ,arabian sources2 and yet
 such is known to have been the case    
with them both4  ,let us now glance     
backwards from the ,arabians to the     
,greeks4  ,it is supposed that the first
 translations from the ,greek authors   
were made for the ,caliphs about #gde   
,a4,d41 and were first translated into  

,syriac1 and then into ,arabic4 ,the    
works of ,aristotle1 ,euclid1 ,ptolemy1 
,hippocrates1 ,galen1 and ,dioscorides  
are known to have been translated under 
the reign of ,al-,mansour4  ,granting   
for the moment that the first knowledge 
of the sciences was obtained by the     
,arabians from the ,greeks1 we are at   
once face to face with the question4    
,from whence did the ,greeks obtain     
their knowledge8 ,to any careful reader 
it will be clear that ,grecian science  
and philosophy1 like ,grecian theology1 
was not of native birth4 ,it is         
comparatively well known that the       
,greeks were indebted to the ,egyptians 
for much of their theology as well as   
science4 ,the great truths which really 
underlay the mysterious religious rites 
of ,egypt seem to have been altogether  
lost when the ,greeks wove their        
complicated system of theology2 and we  
read that the ,egyptian priests looked  
on the ,greeks as children who failed to
 understand the great mysteries involved

 in their religious rites1 disguised as 
they were in symbolic form4 ,but1       
besides their indebtedness to ,egypt1 we
 will find that they also owed much to  
,persia1 and through it again to ,indian
 sources of knowledge4  ,there was      
constant communication between the      
,grecian and ,persian nations4 ,we learn
 that it was not uncommon for ,grecian  
generals to take service under the      
,persian ,satraps1 tempted by the       
liberal recompence with which their     
services were rewarded4 ,about the year 
#cef ,b4,c4 this system of ,greeks      
accepting service under ,persian        
,satraps nearly caused the outbreak of  
war between ,greece and                 
,persia--,chares1 a ,grecian commander1 
having assisted with his fleet and men1 
,artabanus1 the ,satrap of ,propontis1  
who was then in revolt against the      
,persian king4 ,but before this1 during 
the great plague which desolated ,athens
 in #dcj ,b4,c41 and which also extended
 to ,persia1 ,hippocrates was invited to

 go to the ,persian ,court2 and it is on
 record that ,ctesias was for seventeen 
years physician at the ,persian ,court  
about #djj ,b4,c41 during which period  
he wrote his history of ,persia1 and an 
account of ,india1 which ,professor     
,wilson1 in a paper read to the         
,ashmolean ,society of ,oxford1 has     
shown to contain notices of the natural 
productions of the country1 8which1     
although often extravagant and absurd1  
are1 nevertheless1 founded on truth40   
,there were1 too1 ,grecian soldiers     
employed as paid auxiliaries1 and a     
colony of ,greeks who had been taken    
prisoners of war was founded within a   
day's journey of ,susa4  ,the great     
expedition to ,persia1 and the graphic  
description of the retreat of the 8ten  
thousand0 ,greeks1 given by ,xenophon in
 his ,anabasis1 must have been well     
known to ,alexander the ,great when he  
set out on his career of conquest4 ,he  
overthrew the ,persian empire in #cca   
,b4,c41 having destroyed ,tyre and      

subdued ,egypt in the previous year and 
carried his triumphant progress to the  
banks of the ,indus1 and there he 8held 
intercourse with the learned sages of   
,india40 ,on ,alexander's death         
,seleucus succeeded to the throne of    
,persia in #cjg ,b4,c41 and not long    
after he forced his way beyond the      
,indus1 and ultimately as far as the    
sacred river ,ganges4 ,he formed an     
alliance with the ,indian king          
,sandrocottus 7otherwise known as       
,chandra-gupta71 which was maintained   
for many years1 and it is said1 also1   
that he gave his daughter in marriage to
 the ,indian king1 and aided him with   
,grecian auxiliaries in his wars4  ,he  
sent an expedition by sea1 under the    
command of ,patrocles his admiral1 who  
visited the western shores of ,india1   
and a little later he despatched an     
embassy under ,megasthenes and          
,onesicrates1 the former of whom resided
 for some years at the 8great city0 of  
,palibothra 7supposed to be ,patna74    

,not long after ,megasthenes was at     
,palibothra1 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus sent
 an expedition overland through ,persia 
to ,india1 and later ,ptolemy           
,euergetes1 who lived between #ade-aaf  
,b4,c41 sent a fleet under ,eudoxius on 
a voyage of discovery to the western    
shores of ,india1 piloted1 as is said1  
by an ,indian sailor who had been       
shipwrecked1 and who had been found in a
 boat on the ,red ,sea4 ,eudoxius       
reached ,india safely1 and returned to  
,egypt with a cargo of spices and       
precious stones4  ,the proof of very    
ancient communication between ,greece   
and ,india is quite clear1 both by way  
of ,persia and ,egypt1 and we find that 
the ,greeks1 who were in the habit of   
calling all other nations barbarians1   
speak constantly with respect of the    
gymnosophists--called 8,sapientes ,indi0
 by ,pliny4 ,we read also of the ,greek 
philosophers constantly travelling      
eastward in search of knowledge1 and on 
their return setting up new schools of  

thought4 ,thales1 it is affirmed1       
travelled in ,egypt and ,asia during the
 sixth century ,b4,c41 and it is said of
 him that he returned to ,miletus1 and  
transported that vast stock of learning 
which he had acquired into his own      
country4  ,he is generally considered as
 the first of the ,greek philosophers4  
,strabo says of him that he was the     
first of the ,grecian philosophers who  
made inquiry into natural causes and the
 mathematics4  ,the doctrine of ,thales1
 that water was the first elementary    
principle1 is exactly that of the       
ancient ,hindoos1 who held that water   
was the first element1 and the first    
work of the creative power4 ,this idea  
was not completely exploded even up till
 the #ahth century4 ,we find ,van       
,helmont affirming that all metals1 and 
even rocks1 may be resolved into water2 
and ,lavoisier1 so lately as #aggj1     
thought it worth while to communicate an
 elaborate paper 8,on the nature of     
water and the experiments by which it   

has been attempted to prove the         
possibility of converting it into       
earth40  ,pythagoras1 perhaps the       
greatest of all ,greek philosophers1 it 
is known1 travelled very widely1        
spending no less than twenty-two years  
in ,egypt4 ,he also spent some          
considerable time at ,babylon1 and was  
taught the lore of the ,magi4  ,in the  
famous satire of ,lucian on the         
philosophic quackery of his day 7about  
#abj ,a4,d471 8,the ,sale of the        
,philosophers10 we have a most          
interesting account of the system of    
,pythagoras4  ,scene--,a ,slave ,mart4  
,jupiter1 ,mercury1 philosophers1 in the
 garb of slaves1 for sale4 ,audience of 
buyers4  ,jupiter4--,now1 you arrange   
the benches1 and get the place ready for
 the company4 ,you bring out the goods  
and set them in a row2 but trim them up 
a little first1 and make them look their
 best1 to attract as many customers as  
possible4 ,you1 ,mercury1 must put up   
the lots1 and bid all comers welcome to 

the sale4 ,gentlemen1--,we are here     
going to offer you philosophical systems
 of all kinds1 and of the most varied   
and ingenious description4 ,if any      
gentleman happens to be short of ready  
money he can give his security for the  
amount1 and pay next year4  ,mercury 7to
 ,jupiter74--,there are a great many    
come2 so we had best begin at once1 and 
not keep them waiting4                  
,jupiter4--,begin the sale1 then4       
,mercury4--,whom shall we put up first8 
,jupiter4--,this fellow with the long   
hair--the ,ionian4 ,he's rather an      
imposing personage4  ,mercury4--,you1   
,pythagoras1 step out1 and show yourself
 to the company4  ,jupiter4--,put him   
up4  ,mercury4--,gentlemen1 we here     
offer you a professor of the very best  
and most select description4 ,who buys8 
,who wants to be a cut above the rest of
 the world8 ,who wants to understand the
 harmonies of the universe and to live  
two lives8  ,customer 7turning the      
philosopher round and examining         

him74--,he's not bad to look at4 ,what  
does he know best8                      
,mercury4--,arithmetic1 astronomy1      
prognostics1 geometry1 music1 and       
conjuring4 ,you've a first-rate         
soothsayer before you4  ,customer4--,may
 one ask him a few questions8           
,mercury4--,certainly--7aside71 and much
 good may the answers do you4           
,customer4--,what country do you come   
from8  ,pythagoras4--,samos4            
,customer4--,where were you educated8   
,pythagoras4--,in ,egypt1 among the wise
 men there4  ,customer4--,suppose ,i buy
 you1 now1 what will you teach me8      
,pythagoras4--,i will teach you         
nothing--only recall things to your     
memory4  ,customer4--,how will you do   
that8  ,pythagoras4--,first1 ,i will    
clean out your mind1 and wash out all   
the rubbish4  ,customer4--,well1 suppose
 that done1 how do you proceed to       
refresh the memory8                     
,pythagoras4--,first1 by long repose and
 silence1 speaking no word for five     

whole years4  ,customer4--,why1 look ye1
 my good fellow1 you'd best go teach the
 dumb son of ,crsus6 ,i want to talk and
 not be a dummy4 ,well--but after this  
silence1 and these five years8          
,pythagoras4--,you shall learn music and
 geometry4  ,customer4--,a queer idea1  
that one must be a fiddler before one   
can be a wise man6  ,pythagoras4--,then 
you shall learn the science of numbers4 
,customer4--,thank you1 but ,i know how 
to count already4  ,pythagoras4--,how do
 you count8  ,customer4--,one1 two1     
three1 four----  ,pythagoras4--,ha6 what
 you call four is ten1 and the perfect  
triangle1 and the great oath by which we
 swear4  ,customer4--,now1 so help me1  
the great ten and four1 ,i never heard  
more divine or more wonderful words6    
,pythagoras4--,and afterwards1 stranger1
 you shall learn about ,earth1 and ,air1
 and ,water1 and ,fire--what is their   
action1 and what their form1 and what   
their motion4  ,customer4--,what6 have  
,fire1 ,air1 or ,water bodily shape8    

,pythagoras4--,surely they have2 else1  
without form and shape1 how could they  
move6 ,besides1 you shall learn that the
 ,deity consists in ,number1 ,mind1 and 
,harmony4  ,customer4--,what you say is 
really wonderful4                       
,pythagoras4--,besides what ,i have just
 told you1 you shall understand that you
 yourself1 who seem to be one           
individual1 are really somebody else4   
,customer4--,what6 do you mean to say   
,i'm somebody else1 and not myself1 now 
talking to you8  ,pythagoras4--,just at 
this moment you are2 but once upon a    
time you appeared in another body1 and  
under another name2 and hereafter you   
will pass again into another shape      
still4  7,after a little more discussion
 of this philosopher's tenets1 he is    
purchased on behalf of a company of     
professors from ,magna ,grca for ten    
min4 ,the next lot is ,diogenes1 the    
,cynic47  ,apuleius says in the         
,florida1 ,section ,,xv41 in reference  
to ,pythagoras1 that he went to ,egypt  

to acquire learning1 8that he was there 
taught by the priests the incredible    
power of ceremonies1 the wonderful      
commutations of numbers1 and the most   
ingenious figures of geometry2 but that1
 not satisfied with these mental        
accomplishments1 he afterwards visited  
the ,chaldans and the ,brahmins1 and    
amongst the latter the ,gymnosophists4  
,the ,chaldans taught him the stars1 the
 definite orbits of the planets1 and the
 various effects of both kinds of stars 
upon the nativity of men1 as also1 for  
much money1 the remedies for human use  
derived from the earth1 the air1 and the
 sea 7the elements earth1 air1 and      
water1 or all nature74  8,but the       
,brahmins taught him the greater part of
 his philosophy--what are the rules and 
principles of the understanding2 what   
the functions of the body2 how many the 
faculties of the soul2 how many the     
mutations of life2 what torments or     
rewards devolve upon the souls of the   
dead1 according to their respective     

deserts40  ,there is ample evidence1    
therefore1 that the ,greeks had         
communication with1 and borrowed the    
philosophy of1 both ,persia and ,india  
at a very early date4  ,that there was  
intimate intercourse with ,india in very
 ancient times there can be no doubt4   
,in addition to the classical sources of
 information collected chiefly by the   
officers of ,alexander the ,great1      
,seleucus and the ,ptolemies1 and which 
was condensed and reduced to consistent 
shape by ,diodorus1 ,strabo1 ,pliny1 and
 ,arrian1 within the first century      
before and the first century after      
,christ1 we have the further proof of   
the fact by the constant finds of       
innumerable ,greek coins over a large   
portion of north-western ,india1 and    
even at ,cabul4 ,these1 so far as yet   
known1 commence with the third of the   
,seleucid1 and run on for many          
centuries1 the inscriptions showing that
 the ,greek characters were used in the 
provinces of ,cabul and the ,punjab even

 so late as the fourth century ,a4,d4   
,the consideration of these coins of the
 ,grco-,persian empire of the ,seleucid 
naturally leads us to the consideration 
of the ,persians4  ,i have already shown
 that the ,greeks and ,persians held    
intimate relations with each other as   
early as the fourth century ,b4,c41 and 
from the speech of ,demosthenes against 
a proposed war with ,persia1 delivered  
in #ced ,b4,c1 we may well believe that 
they had already had a long and intimate
 connection with each other4 ,the       
passage rends thus3-  8,all ,greeks know
 that1 so long as they regarded ,persia 
as their common enemy1 they were at     
peace with each other1 and enjoyed much 
prosperity1 but since they have looked  
upon the ,king 7of ,persia7 as a friend1
 and quarrelled about disputes with each
 other1 they have suffered worse        
calamities than any one could possibly  
imprecate upon them40  ,the ,persian    
empire was founded by ,cyrus1 about     
,b4,c4 #efj1 and rapidly rose to be     

perhaps the greatest power of the world 
of that age4 ,the rise of the ,persian  
empire is not unlike that of the        
,arabian power in regard to the wide    
range of conquest achieved in a very    
limited period4 ,its actual existence1  
from the foundation of the empire by    
,cyrus in ,b4,c4 #efj to the death of   
,darius ,,iii41 was barely two centuries
 and a half4  ,previous to the ,persian 
empire there existed three principal    
powers in ,asia--the ,medes1 the        
,chaldans or ,babylonish1 and the       
,lydian4 ,of these the ,medes and       
,chaldans were the most ancient1 and    
their joint power would seem to have    
extended eastward as far as the ,oxus   
and ,indus4  ,of these nations the      
,babylonians were the most highly       
civilized1 and1 did time permit1 we     
might find much that would interest and 
instruct in examining the various facts 
relating to the arts and sciences       
amongst these nations4 ,we know that    
arts and sciences must have been        

diligently cultivated amongst them1 and 
that magic and astrology were held in   
high repute4  ,that the ,persians were  
well acquainted with other nations is   
shown clearly from the remains of their 
great city of ,persepolis1 where the    
sculptured figures represent many types 
of mankind--the negro1 with thick lips  
and flat nose1 and with his crisp1 wooly
 hair1 clearly cut2 and the half-naked  
,indian1 with his distinguishing        
features1 being easily singled out from 
many others4  ,persia held sway over a  
huge district of ,india--the limits of  
this are not known2 but1 in addition1   
they were well acquainted with a large  
portion of the north-western part of    
,india4  ,the traditions and historical 
records of the ,persians are contained  
in the famous series of writings culled 
the ,zend-avesta4 ,these writings are1  
it is thought1 of an age even before the
 ,persian dynasty was established2 and  
it has been shown by the researches of  
,m4 ,anguetil and ,sir ,w4 ,jones that  

there is indeed a great probability of  
the ,zend having been a dialect of the  
ancient ,sanscrit language4 ,in the     
vocabulary attached to ,m4 ,anguetil's  
great work on the ,zend-avesta no less  
than #fj to #gj per cent4 of the words  
are said to be pure ,sanscrit4  ,as the 
oldest known language of ,persia was    
,chaldic1 we are again thrown back on   
,indian sources for the origin of the   
great book of the ancient ,persians4    
,even the name of the priests of the    
,persian religion of ,zoroaster1 ,mag or
 ,magi1 is of ,sanscrit derivation4     
,the ,persians kept up an enormous army1
 which was spread through all the       
various provinces and ,satrapies1 and   
consisted in great part of paid         
auxiliaries4 ,in at least the later     
period of ,persian power the ,greeks    
were preferred to all others1 and in the
 time of ,cyrus the ,younger they       
composed the flower of the ,persian     
army1 and were employed in garrisoning  
most of the chief cities of ,asia       

,minor4  ,the description given by      
,herodotus of the vast army and fleet   
prepared for the expedition of ,xerxes  
against the ,greeks gives us an idea of 
the extent of the ,persian power1 and of
 the wide range of countries and nations
 over which they held sway4 ,the review 
held on the ,plain of ,doriscus was     
perhaps the greatest military spectacle 
ever beheld either before or since4     
,herodotus enumerates no less than #ef  
different nations1 all of them in their 
national dress and arms4 ,besides the   
,persians there were 8,medes and        
,bactrians2 ,libyans in war chariots    
with four horses2 ,arabs on camels2     
,sagartians1 wild huntsmen who employed1
 instead of the usual weapons of the    
time1 the lasso2 the nomadic tribes of  
,bucharia and ,mongolia2 ,ethiopians in 
lions' skins1 and ,indians in cotton    
robes2 ,phnician sailors1 and ,greeks   
from ,asia ,minor40 ,all these and many 
others were there assembled by the      
despotic power of the ,persian king4    

,the system of government employed by   
the ,persians1 and the constant reports 
and tributes sent from every province to
 the central court of the king1 were    
well calculated to bring to it1 as to a 
focus1 the curious lore of the various  
nations who came in contact with or were
 subdued by them4  ,the ,persians were  
famed for their knowledge of astronomy  
and astrology1 and were said 8to have   
anciently known the most wonderful      
powers of nature1 and to have therefore 
acquired great fame as magicians and    
enchanters40  ,the close relation       
between the ,persian religious          
traditions and those of the ,hindoos is 
very striking4 ,according to ,mohsan1   
8,the best informed ,persians1 who      
professed the faith of ,hu-shang as     
distinguished from that of ,zeratusht1  
believes that the first monarch of      
,iran1 and1 indeed1 of the whole world1 
was ,mahabad 7a word apparently         
,sanscrit71 who divided the people into 
four orders1--the religious1 the        

military1 the commercial1 and the       
servile1 to which he assigned names     
unquestionably the same as those now    
applied to the four primary classes of  
the ,hindoos40  ,they added1 8that he   
received from the ,creator and          
promulgated amongst men a sacred book in
 a heavenly language1 to which the      
,musselman author gives the ,arabic     
title of ,desatir1 or ,regulations1 but 
the original name of which he has not   
mentioned2 and that fourteen ,mahabads  
had appeared1 or would appear1 in human 
shapes for the government of this       
world40  8,now when we know that the    
,hindoos believe in fourteen ,menus1 or 
celestial persons with similar          
functions1 the first of whom left a book
 of regulations1 or divine ordinances1  
which they hold equal to the ,veda1 and 
the language of which they believe to be
 that of the gods1 we can hardly doubt  
that the first corruption of the purest 
and oldest religion was the system of   
,indian theology invented by the        

,brahmins and prevalent in those        
territories where the book of ,mahabad1 
or ,menu1 is at this moment the standard
 of all religious and moral duties40    
,having established1 then1 the long and 
intimate nature of the ,persian         
intercourse with ,india1 let us see how 
it bears on our more immediate subject4 
,the works on medicine which are known  
to exist1 and to have been written in   
,persian1 are not very many in number1  
but they cover a period of time of      
nearly #djj years4 ,the oldest of them  
is of the year #acib ,a4,d41 and in it  
and its successors there are long lists 
of ,arabian authors whose works had been
 consulted1 and also various ,indian    
works4  ,greek physicians were in great 
request at the ,persian court1 and when 
the daughter of the ,emperor ,aurelian  
was sent in marriage to the ,persian    
monarch1 ,sapor ,,ii41 she had a number 
of ,greek physicians in her train4 ,this
 king founded a new city called         
,jondisabour in honour of his ,queen1   

and owing to the settlement here of a   
number of ,greek physicians1 who had1 on
 account of religious differences1      
retired into ,persia1 this city became  
celebrated as a medical school4 ,dr4    
,friend gives the names of these as     
8,damascius the ,syrian1 ,simplicius of 
,cilicia1 ,diogenes of ,phnicea1        
,isidorus of ,gaza1 and others1 the most
 learned and greatest philosophers of   
the age40 ,it is thought by some authors
 that many of the ,arabian writers who  
belonged to the college of ,baghdad were
 educated at ,jondisabour4  ,the        
district of ,jondisabour is even yet one
 of the most nourishing in ,persia1 and 
contains mines which still yield        
turquoise1 salt1 lead1 copper1 antimony1
 iron1 and marble4  ,during the reign of
 the ,persian king ,nooshirwan1 his     
physician ,barzoueh made various        
journeys into ,india1 one of which was  
specially for the purpose of obtaining  
copies of ,indian literature1 and       
another to obtain medicaments and herbs4

  ,how to account for the strange fact  
that all schools of medicine which have 
risen1 flourished1 and disappeared1 have
 left some trace in historical records1 
with the exception of that of ,india1 is
 most difficult1 unless under the       
hypothesis that the language in which   
the science and philosophy of ,india was
 recorded has been almost a sealed book 
to the world1 and is even now quite     
unintelligible to the people of ,india  
itself1 generally speaking1 and that    
thus the only way in which the results  
of the long ages of philosophic study1  
which unquestionably have had a place in
 ,india1 have only been known by this   
dark reflection from the writings of    
,greek and ,arabic writers1 which were  
scattered broadcast over the ancient    
world4 ,the ,greeks1 we know1 borrowed  
their science largely from the          
,egyptians1 both in respect to theology 
and philosophy2 and we might1 with much 
profit1 pursue the examination of our   
subject amongst the records of that     

highly civilized amongst the ancient    
nations4  ,many authors have attempted  
to show that there is a wonderful       
resemblance between the ,egyptians and  
the ,hindoos1 the sculptures on the     
monuments of the former are most        
wonderfully like those of ,india1 and   
the features1 dress1 and arms are all as
 like as may be4  ,both nations had the 
various arts of weaving1 dyeing1        
embroidering1 working in metals1 and the
 manufacture of glass1 and practised    
them with but little difference in their
 methods4 ,the fine muslins of ,india   
find their counterparts as 8woven wind0 
in the transparent tissues figured on   
the ,egyptian temples4 ,the style of    
building1 the sciences of astronomy1    
music1 and medicine were assiduously    
cultivated by both nations1 and there   
was direct intercourse between them1    
perhaps even before historical time     
begins4  ,rameses the ,great 7,,iii471  
called also ,sesostris1 fitted out not  
only war ships but merchant vessels for 

the purpose of trading with ,india1 in  
,b4,c4 #abce1 and ,wilkinson in his book
 on the ,ancient ,egyptians1 tells us   
that in #bjjj ,b4,c4 there were no less 
than #djj ships trading to the ,persian 
,gulf4 ,there is1 after all1 nothing    
surprising in this when we remember the 
fact1 which is1 however1 not generally  
known1 ,i am afraid1 that under the     
reign of ,pharoah ,necho1 a fleet of his
 ships safely circumnavigated ,africa1  
from the ,red ,sea to the               
,mediterranean1 this being in advance of
 the celebrated voyage of ,diaz and     
,vasco da ,gama by no less than #bajj   
years4  ,no less than seven centuries   
before ,thales went to study in ,egypt1 
astronomical calculations were inscribed
 on the monuments at ,thebes1 so that we
 can see how modern by comparison the   
,greek philosophy appears4  ,in a note  
,wilkinson says that 8,the science of   
,medicine was one of the earliest       
cultivated in ,egypt4 ,athothes1 the    
successor of ,menes of the first        

dynasty1 is said to have written on the 
subject1 and five papyri on the subject 
have survived4  8,they are of the period
 of the eighteenth and nineteenth       
dynasties4  8,one known as the ,papyrus 
,ebers1 from its discoverer1 is         
attributed to the age of ,kherpheres or 
,bikheres4  8,the second1 that of       
,berlin1 found in the reign of ,usaphais
 of the first dynasty1 was completed by 
,senet or ,sethenes of the second line4 
8,the third1 that of the ,british       
,museum1 contains a receipt said to have
 been mysteriously discovered in the    
reign of ,cheops of the fourth dynasty4 
99   99   99   99   99   99   99   99   
99   99   99   99   99   99  8,the      
curatives employed were ointments1      
drinks1 plasters1 fumigations and       
clysters1 and the drugs employed were   
taken from vegetables1 minerals1 and    
animals4  8,those for each draught were 
mixed together1 pounded1 boiled1 and    
strained through linen4  8,the doctors  
belonged to the sacred class1 and were  

only permitted to practice their own    
particular branch4  8,these were        
oculists1 dentists1 those who confined  
their practice to diseases of the head1 
and those again who only attended to    
internal diseases2 they were paid from  
the public treasury1 and were compelled1
 before being permitted to practice1 to 
study the precepts laid down by their   
predecessors40  ,homer1 in the ,odyssey1
 describes ,egypt 8as a country whose   
fertile soil produces an infinity of    
drugs1 some salutary and some           
pernicious1 where each physician        
possesses knowledge above all other     
men40  ,the mixing of various drugs and 
minerals must have produced effects     
which could not be lost on such         
observant men as the doctors must1 from 
their training1 have been1 and it would 
be absurd to suppose that some1 at      
least1 of the simpler chemical          
decompositions and combinations were not
 known to them4  ,the manufacture of    
glass would seem to have been very      

ancient amongst the ,egyptians1 and the 
insufficiency of the old fable1 of its  
discovery by the fusing of blocks of    
stone in the fire is quite clear2       
besides1 ,egyptian glass has been found 
which contains potash1 and nothing is   
more probable than that the nitrate of  
potash1 found so plentifully in the soil
 of ,india1 was imported for this       
manufacture4  ,precious stones or       
amulets with ,sanscrit inscriptions have
 repeatedly been found in tombs1 which  
must date back to at least ,b4,c4 #adjj4
  ,in tracing back the history of       
,chemistry1 we constantly find reference
 to ,hermes1 ,trismegistus1 who would   
seem to be the god ,thoth1 or ,taaut of 
the ,egyptians4 ,the famous inscription 
of the ,emerald table ascribes to him   
the possession of three parts of the    
philosophy of the whole world4 ,i have  
been much struck with the resemblance of
 this god ,taaut with the ,menu of the  
,hindoos1 who also was credited with    
saving from destruction by the flood the

 three ,vedas1 which were supposed to   
contain all that was required for man's 
direction here below4  ,there would     
appear to have been also other ,hermes1 
but if we look at the condition of      
things which obtained in ,egypt when the
 ,pyramids of ,memphis are supposed to  
have been erected1 within #cjj years of 
the supposed date of the deluge1 and    
that the ,beni ,hassan tombs1 about #cjj
 years later1 depict the manners and    
customs of what we cannot help          
admitting1 was a highly civilized       
nation1 we must be struck with the fact 
that the distance of time between the   
deluge and the building of these        
pyramids and tombs is so short1 that it 
might be represented by a comparison of 
our own date with those of ,queen       
,elizabeth and ,henry the ,third4       
,jackson in his 8,antiquities0 tells us 
that1 ,sanchoniatho states that the most
 ancient ,phnician records show that    
letters were invented soon after the    
dispersion of mankind1 by ,tsaut1 the   

son of ,mizor or ,misraim1 who was the  
first ,egyptian ,hermes or ,thoth4 ,he  
went out of ,phnicia1 and first1 with a 
colony of ,mizrites1 settled and reigned
 in ,egypt1 and1 according to ,cicero1  
gave both laws and letters to the       
,egyptians4  ,this ,hermes was born in  
the second generation after the flood1  
and was not only the inventor of letters
 and writing1 but he is also said to    
have delineated the sacred characters or
 symbols of the elements and planets1   
viz41--sun1 moon1 earth1 air1 fire1     
water1 c4  ,these symbols are without   
doubt of very ancient origin1 and       
,boerhve in his ,theory of ,chemistry   
explains them hieroglyphically as       
follows3--      ,transcriber's ,note3   
,the listed symbols are included in the 
8images0 directory     accompanying the 
html version of this file4   ,denotes   
anything sharp1 gnawing1 or corrosive2  
as vinegar or fire3 being supposed to be
 stuck around with barbed spikes4       
,denotes a perfect immutable simple     

body1 such as gold1 which has nothing   
acrimonious or heterogeneous adhering to
 it4   ,denotes half gold1 whose inside1
 if turned outward1 would make it entire
 gold1 as having nothing foreign or     
corrosive in it2 which the alchemists   
observe of silver4   ,denotes the inside
 to be pure gold1 but the outer part of 
the colour of silver and a corrosive    
underneath1 which1 if taken away1 would 
leave it mere gold1 and this the adepts 
affirm of mercury4   ,denotes the chief 
part to be gold2 whereto1 however1      
adheres another large1 crude1 corrosive 
part1 which1 if removed1 would leave the
 rest possessed with all the properties 
of gold1 and this the adepts affirm of  
copper4   ,likewise denotes gold at the 
bottom1 but attended with a great       
proportion of a sharp corrosive1        
sometimes amounting to a half of the    
whole1 whence half the character        
expresses acrimony2 which1 accordingly1 
both alchemists and physicians observe  
of iron1 and hence that common opinion  

of the adepts that the aurum vivum1 or  
gold of the philosophers1 is contained  
in iron1 and that the universal medicine
 is rather to be sought in this metal   
than in gold itself4   ,denotes half the
 matter of tin to be silver1 the other a
 crude corrosive acid1 which is         
accordingly confirmed by the assayers2  
tin proving almost as fixed as silver in
 the cupel1 and discovering a large     
quantity of crude sulphur well known to 
the alchemists4   ,denotes almost the   
whole to be corrosive1 but retaining    
some resemblance with silver1 which the 
artists very well know holds true of    
lead4   ,denotes a chaos--world1 or one 
thing which includes all3 this is the   
character of antimony1 wherein is found 
gold1 with plenty of an arsenical       
corrosive4  ,the symbols1 or at least   
some of them1 may be traced even in the 
,chinese characters for gold1 silver1 c4
  ,the connection of ,egypt with ,india 
shortly after the ,christian era is     
distinctly indicated in the works of    

,apuleius4 ,he lived in the early part  
of the second century after ,christ1 and
 was educated first at ,carthage1 then  
renowned as a school of literature4 ,he 
then travelled extensively in ,greece1  
,asia1 and ,egypt1 and became initiated 
into many religious fraternities and an 
adept in their mysteries4 ,he was       
admitted a priest of the order of       
sculapius1 and describes the ceremony of
 the offering of the first-fruits by the
 priests of ,isis1 when the navigation  
opened in spring4 ,the vessel1 which was
 to be set adrift upon the ocean        
freighted with the offering1 was        
splendidly decorated and covered with   
hieroglyphics1 and after having been    
8purified with a lighted torch1 an egg1 
and sulphur10 was allowed to sail away  
into the unknown as a sacrifice to      
procure the safety of the convoy of     
ships which would soon after start upon 
their voyage4 ,these rites were of great
 antiquity4  ,he speaks1 in his first   
tale1 of a witch who1 by means of her   

magic charms1 made not only her         
fellow-countrymen love her1 but 8the    
,indians even10 and in his initiation   
into the mysteries of ,isis1 his robes  
8bore pictures of ,indian serpents40    
,from what ,i have now laid before you1 
in what must necessarily be a very      
imperfect manner1 you will see that     
there is good reason to believe that in 
the study of science and philosophy the 
,indian races were much in advance of   
the ,western nations4 ,the age of       
science amongst them is very great2 we  
fail utterly in trying to find its      
beginning1 unless we accept the         
tradition which ascribes to ,menu1 their
 great lawgiver 7who is supposed to have
 been ,noah71 the saving of three out of
 the four divine books or ,vedas from   
the deluge4 ,this would carry us back to
 the ,antediluvian times for the        
beginning of our investigations2 but    
without taking any such extreme view of 
the subject we will find traces of      
science clearly marked out for us in the

 history of the ,indian races4  ,the    
picture of the ,brahmins1 drawn by      
,apuleius in the second century1 shows  
how little they have changed in         
historical times4 ,he says3--  8,the    
,indians are a populous nation of vast  
extent of territory1 situated far from  
us to the east1 near the reflux of the  
ocean and the rising of the sun1 under  
the first beams of the stars1 and at the
 extreme verge of the earth1 beyond the 
learned ,egyptians and the superstitious
 ,jews and the mercantile ,nabathans2   
and the flowing robed ,aracidae1 and the
 ,ityraeans1 poor in crops1 and the     
,arabians1 rich in perfumes4  8,now1 ,i 
do not so much admire the heaps of ivory
 of the ,indians1 their harvests of     
pepper1 their bales of cinnamon1 their  
tempered steel1 their mines of silver1  
and their golden streams1 nor that among
 them1 the ,ganges1 the greatest of all 
rivers1    #8,rolls like a monarch on   
his course1 and pours   ,his eastern    
waters through a hundred streams1       

,mingling with ocean by a hundred       
mouths1'  8nor that these ,indians1     
though situated at the dawn of day1 are 
yet of the colour of night1 nor that    
among them1 immense dragons fight with  
enormous elephants1 with parity of      
danger to their mutual destruction1 for 
they hold them enwrapped in their       
slippery folds1 so that the elephants   
cannot disengage their legs or in any   
way extricate themselves from the scaly 
bonds of the tenacious dragons4 ,they   
are forced to seek revenge from the fall
 of their own bulk and to crush their   
captors by the mass of their own bodies4
  8,there are amongst them various kinds
 of inhabitants4 ,i will rather speak of
 the marvellous things of men than of   
those of nature4  8,there is among them 
a race who know nothing but to tend     
cattle1 hence they are called neatherds2
 there are races clever in trafficking  
with merchandise1 and others stout in   
fight1 whether with arrows1 or hand to  
hand with swords4  8,there is also among

 them a pre-eminent race called         
,gymnosophists4  8,these ,i exceedingly 
admire1 for they are men skilled not in 
propagating the vine1 nor in grafting   
trees1 nor in tilling the ground4 ,they 
know not how to cultivate the fields1   
nor to wash gold1 or to break horses1 or
 to shear or feed sheep or goats4       
8,what is it1 then1 they know8 ,one     
thing instead of all these4 ,they       
cultivate wisdom1 both the aged         
professors and the young students4      
,nothing do ,i so much admire in them as
 that they hate torpor of mind and      
sloth40  ,this does not look as if the  
,indians had been unknown or            
unappreciated in the second century     
,a4,d4  ,apuleius is not alone in his   
respect for the ,brahmins4 ,many of the 
,greek writers speak of them under the  
names of ,brahmins or ,gymnosophists1   
but always with great respect4  ,strabo 
states1 on the authority of ,megasthenes
 7who it will be remembered was         
,ambassador from ,persia1 and lived for 

some years at ,palibothra1 about #cjg   
,b4,c471 that 8there were two classes of
 philosophers or priests1 the           
,brachmanes and the ,germanes1 but the  
,brachmanes are best esteemed40 ,towards
 the close of his account of the        
8,brachmanes0 he says3--  8,in many     
things they agree with the ,greeks1 for 
they affirm that the world was produced1
 and is perishable1 and that it is      
spherical2 that ,god1 governing it as   
well as framing it1 pervades the whole2 
that the principles of all things are   
various1 but water is the principle of  
the construction of the world2 that     
besides the four elements there is a    
fifth1 nature--whence heaven and the    
stars2 that the earth is placed in the  
centre of all4  8,such1 and many other  
things are affirmed of reproduction and 
of the soul4 ,like ,plato1 they devise  
fables concerning the immortality of the
 soul1 and the judgment in the infernal 
regions1 and other similar notions4     
,these things are said of the           

,brachmanes40  ,clemens ,alexandrinus1  
after saying that philosophy flourished 
in ancient times amongst the barbarians1
 and afterwards was introduced amongst  
the ,greeks1 instances the prophets of  
the ,egyptians1 the ,chaldees of the    
,assyrians1 the ,druids of the ,gauls   
7,galat71 the ,samauans of the          
,bactrians1 the philosophers of the     
,celts1 the ,magi of the ,persians1 and 
the ,gymnosophists of the ,indians4 ,the
 ,greek authors distinctly speak of the 
,brahmins as the chief of the castes or 
divisions of the ,indian people from the
 time of ,megasthenes1 who wrote of them
 in the fourth century ,b4,c4  ,sir     
,william ,jones1 in a paper on the      
philosophy of the ,asiatics1 pointed out
 that 8the old philosophers of ,europe  
had some idea of centripetal force1 and 
a principle of universal gravitation10  
and affirms that 8much of the theology  
and philosophy of our immortal ,newton  
may be found in the ,vedas40  8,that    
most subtle spirit which he suspected to

 pervade natural bodies1 and lying      
concealed in them1 to cause attraction  
and repulsion1 the emission1 reflection 
and refraction of light1 electricity1   
calefaction1 sensation1 and muscular    
motion1 is described by the ,hindus as a
 fifth element1 endowed with these very 
powers2 and the ,vedas abound with      
allusions to a force universally        
attractive1 which they chiefly ascribe  
to the sun1 thence called #8,aditya1 or 
the attractor1' a name designed by the  
mythologists to mean the child of the   
goddess ,aditi4 ,but the most wonderful 
passage on the theory of attractions    
occurs in the charming allegorical poem 
of ',shi'ri'n and ,ferhai'd1 or the     
,divine ,spirit1 and a human soul       
disinterestedly pious1' a work which1   
from the first verse to the last1 is a  
blaze of religious and poetical fire4   
8,the whole passage appears to me so    
curious that ,i make no apology for     
giving you a faithful translation of    
it3--  8,there is a strong propensity   

which dances through every atom1 and    
attracts the minutest particle to some  
peculiar object2 search this universe   
from its base to its summit1 from fire  
to air1 from water to earth 7the four   
elements671 from all below the moon to  
all above the celestial spheres1 and    
thou wilt not find a corpuscle destitute
 of that natural attractability4 ,the   
very point of the first thread in this  
apparently tangled skein is no other    
than such a principle of attraction1 and
 all principles beside are void of a    
real basis3 from such a propensity      
arises every motion perceived in        
heavenly or in terrestrial bodies2 it is
 a disposition to be attracted which    
taught hard steel to rush from its place
 and rivet itself on the magnet2 it is  
the same disposition which impels the   
light straw to attach itself firmly on  
amber2 it is this quality which gives   
every substance in nature a tendency    
towards another1 and an inclination     
forcibly directed to a determinate      

point40  ,in ,sir ,w4 ,ainslie's        
,materia ,medica of ,india the opinion  
of an old ,hindoo author is given as to 
the qualifications required in a        
physician4  8,he must be a person of    
strict veracity1 and of the greatest    
sobriety and decorum3 he ought to be    
skilled in all the commentaries on the  
#8,ayur-,veda1' and be otherwise a man  
of sense and benevolence3 his heart must
 be charitable1 his temper calm1 and his
 constant study how to do good4  8,such 
a man is properly called a good         
physician1 and such a physician ought   
still daily to improve his mind by an   
attentive perusal of scientific books4  
99   99   99   99   99   99   99   99   
99   99   99   99   99   99  8,should   
death come upon us while under the care 
of a person of this description1 it can 
only be considered as inevitable fate1  
and not the consequence of presumptuous 
ignorance40  ,the knowledge of the      
,hindoos may be all said to be contained
 in their sacred books called the       

,vedas1 which1 although perfect as a    
whole1 are actually divided into four   
parts1 each in itself constituting a    
separate ,veda under a special title4   
,these are the ,rig-,veda1 the          
,yajur-,veda 7white and black71 the     
,sama-,veda1 and the ,atharva-,veda1 or 
,ayur-,veda4 ,although the last is      
admitted to be as a whole not so ancient
 as the other three1 still there are    
portions of it that are probably as old 
as any of the others4 ,even in the      
oldest epic poems of the ,hindoos       
mention is made of four ,vedas as       
already in existence and as of great    
antiquity4 ,sir ,william ,jones         
estimates the date of its compilation as
 certainly not after ,b4,c4 #aehj4      
,these ,vedas are considered by the     
,hindoos to contain the groundwork of   
all their philosophy1 as well as of     
their arts and sciences1 and they       
contain treatises on music1 medicine1   
the art of war1 and architecture4  ,sir 
,william ,jones1 in referring to the    

,ayur-,veda1 says that1 to his          
astonishment1 he found in it an entire  
,upanishad on the internal parts of the 
human body1 enumerating the nerves1     
veins1 and arteries4  ,the ,ayur-,veda  
was considered by the ,brahmins to be   
the work of ,brahma--by him it was      
communicated to ,dacsha1 the ,prajapati1
 and by him1 the two ,aswins1 or sons of
 ,surya--the sun--were instructed in it1
 and thus became the medical attendants 
of the gods4 ,a legend that cannot but  
recall to our mind the ,greek myth of   
the two sons of sculapius and their     
descent from ,apollo4  ,in the case of  
immortal gods the practice was confined 
to surgery1 in treating the wounds      
received in the conflicts which were    
constantly described as occurring       
amongst the gods themselves1 or between 
the gods and the demons4 ,of course they
 performed many miraculous cures1 as    
would be expected from their superhuman 
character4  ,professor ,wilson published
 in the ,oriental ,magazine1 in #ahbc1  

some notices on early ,hindoo ,medicine1
 and he points out that the tradition   
is1 that the above 8two ,aswins         
instructed ,indra in medical and        
surgical art1 that ,indra instructed    
,dahnwantari2 although others make      
,atreya1 ,bharadwaja1 and ,charaka prior
 to the latter3--,charaka's work1 which 
goes by his name1 is extant4            
,dahnwantari is also styled ,kasi-rajah1
 or ,prince of ,kasi1 or ,benares4 ,his 
disciple was ,susruta1 his work also    
exists40  ,the ,ayur-,veda1 as the      
oldest medical writings of the ,hindoos 
are collectively called1 was divided    
into eight divisions4 ,these are        
described by ,professor ,wilson as      
follows3--  8#ast4 ,salya4--,the art of 
extracting extraneous substances1       
violently or accidentally introduced    
into the body1 with the treatment of the
 inflammation and suppuration thereby   
induced4  8,the word ,salya means a dart
 or arrow1 and points clearly to the    
origin of this branch of ,hindoo        

science4  8#bnd4 ,salakya4--,the        
treatment of external affections or     
diseases of the eyes1 nose1 ears1 c4    
8#crd1 ,kayao ,chikitsa4--,the general  
application of medicine to the body1 or 
the science of medicine1 as opposed to  
surgery under the two first heads4      
8#dth4 ,bhutavidya1 or demonology3 the  
act of casting out demons1 which we may 
take to mean the treatment of insanity1 
such as it was4  8#eth4 ,kaumara        
bhritya1 or the treatment of the        
diseases of women and children4  8#fth4 
,agada4--,the administration of         
antidotes4  8,we do not appreciate this 
as an eastern nation would when poison  
was only too common an instrument of    
ambition or revenge4  8#gth4            
,rasayana4--,is chemistry1 or perhaps it
 were better to say alchemy1 as its     
chief aim was the study of combinations 
of substances mostly metallurgic1 with a
 view of obtaining the universal        
medicine or elixir which was to give    
immortal life4  8#hth4                  

,bajikarana4--,was connected with the   
means of promoting the increase of the  
human race40  ,one of the articles of   
,hindoo medicine was ,kshara or alkaline
 salts1--these are directed to be       
obtained by burning different substances
 of vegetable origin1 boiling the ashes 
with five or six times their measure of 
water and filtering the solution1 which 
was used both internally and externally4
 ,care is enjoined in their use1 and    
emollient applications are to be used if
 the caustic should occasion great pain4
  ,i have already spoken of the fact of 
,indian physicians having been at the   
,court of ,persia1 and also at that of  
,haroun al ,raschid1 and also that the  
ancient writers on medicine were known  
to the ,arabs of the time of the schools
 of ,baghdad and ,cordova4 ,there is no 
manner of doubt concerning this fact1 as
 in ,serapion's works we find ,charak   
actually mentioned by name2 under the   
head ,de ,mirobalanis we find 8,et      
,xarch indus dixit20 and again1 in      

another section 8,xarcha indus20 there  
being no corresponding sound to che in  
,arabic1 there is a slight change in the
 name1 but it is quite clear what it is 
intended for4 ,in ,avicenna1 again1 we  
find reference to 8,scirak indum40      
,rhazes1 again1 who was previous to     
,avicenna1 has 8,inquit ,scarac         
indianus10 and again 8,dixit ,sarac20 in
 another place an ,indian author is     
quoted1 who has not as yet been traced1 
8,sindifar10 or1 as it is in another    
place1 8,sindichar indianus40           
,professor ,wilson1 in a notice on the  
medical science of the ,hindoos1        
published in the ,oriental ,magazine1   
examines into the distinctive qualities 
of the various sorts of leeches1 and    
shows that the description given in     
,avicenna1 in the section 8,de          
,sanguisugis10 is almost identical with 
the ,hindoo author's description of the 
twelve sorts of leeches1 in             
distinguishing the appearance and       
properties of the various sorts4  ,that 

this is more than a mere coincidence is 
clear from the fact that ,avicenna says 
8,indi dixerunt40  ,i do not think it   
will be seriously disputed that the     
,arabs had access to the ,hindoo works  
of and before their time1 and we will   
find1 if we carefully examine the       
subject1 that the science of medicine as
 distinguished from surgery1 and of     
chemistry as a part of that science of  
medicine1 was much more ancient than we 
have been prepared to admit4  ,it would 
be incredible to believe that amongst a 
people so observant and highly cultured 
as the ,brahmins must have been1 that   
medicine and the changes occurring in   
mixtures of various substances should   
have been unstudied1 and there is no    
doubt that this subject was far from    
being neglected by them4  ,many natural 
productions of the country1 such as     
nitrate of potash1 borax1 carbonate and 
sulphate of soda1 sulphate of iron1     
alum1 common salt1 and sulphur1 could   
scarcely escape the notice of even      

ordinary men2 but ,dr4 ,ainslie has     
shown1 from the evidence of old ,indian 
medical works1 that they were not only  
acquainted with ammonia 7which they made
 by distilling salammoniac one part1 and
 chalk two parts71 but that they        
prepared sulphuric acid by burning      
sulphur and nitre together in earthen   
pots1 calling it ,gunduk ,ka ,attar1 or 
8attar of sulphur40 ,nitric acid1 which 
was prepared1 not by the process        
described by ,geber1 but by mixing      
saltpetre1 alum1 and a portion of a     
liquor obtained by spreading cloths over
 the common gram plant1 and leaving them
 exposed to the dew1 when they were     
found to absorb the acid salt so        
abundantly secreted by the plant on the 
surface of its leaves1 and which1 when  
examined by ,vauquelin1 was found to    
contain both oxalic and acetic acids4   
,muriatic acid was also made by         
distilling alum and common salt1 dried  
and pounded with the above acid liquor4 
,arsenic was used by them for the cure  

of palsy1 and also for venereal         
diseases1 and is still used by them for 
this purpose1 and in intermittent       
fevers4  ,it would occupy too much time 
to go further into this subject at the  
present time1 but there are many        
chemical compounds which are still made 
and sold in the ,indian bazaars which   
have been used from time immemorial1 and
 which require a knowledge of chemical  
manipulation in the arts of subliming1  
distilling1 c4  ,mr4 ,rodwell says1     
8that the distillation of cinnabar with 
iron1 described by ,dioscorides1 is the 
first crude example of distillation1    
which afterwards became a principal     
operation among the alchemists and      
chemists for separating the volatile    
from the fixed40  ,that this is an      
assumption which has no foundation in   
fact is evident1 when we find in the    
,institutes of ,menu many enactments    
against the drinking of distilled       
spirits1 and these made of various kinds
 and distilled from molasses 7or        

sugar-cane juice71 rice1 and the madhuca
 flowers4  8,a soldier or merchant      
drinking arak1 mead1 or rum are to be   
considered offenders in the highest     
degree10 and 8for drinking spirits are  
to be branded on the forehead with a    
vintner's flag10 rather a summary way of
 treating a drunkard1 and one which     
would indicate that the ill effects of  
over-indulgence in spirituous liquors   
had been long known1 when such severe   
enactments were made against it4  ,the  
method of distilling described by ,mr4  
,kerr in the ,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 
#a1 is so simple that it is almost      
certain that it was employed in very    
ancient times for the purpose of        
distilling spirits1 and also attars of  
various sorts1 which1 from time         
immemorial1 would seem to have been a   
special production of ,india4  8,the    
body of the still is a common large     
unglazed earthen water jar1 nearly      
globular1 of about #be inches diameter  
at the widest part of it1 and #bb inches

 deep to the neck1 which neck rises #b  
inches more1 and is #aa inches wide in  
the opening2 this was filled about a    
half with fermented mhwah flowers1 which
 swam about in the liquor to be         
distilled4  8,this jar they placed in a 
furnace1 not the most artificial1 though
 not seemingly ill adapted to give a    
great heat with but very little fuel4   
,this they made by digging a round hole 
in the ground1 about #bj inches wide and
 full #c feet deep1 cutting an opening  
in the front sloping down to the bottom1
 perpendicular at the sides1 about #i   
inches wide and about #ae inches long1  
reckoning from the edge of the circle3  
this is to serve to throw in the wood   
and to allow a passage for the air2 at  
the other side a small opening about #d 
inches by #c inches is made to serve as 
an outlet for the smoke1 the bottom of  
the hole thus made was rounded like a   
cup4  8,the jar was placed in this as   
far as it would go1 and banked up with  
clay all round to about a fifth of its  

height1 except at the two openings1 when
 all was completed so far as the furnace
 was concerned4  8,fully one third of   
the still or jar was exposed to the heat
 when the fire was lighted2 the fuel was
 at least #b feet from the bottom of the
 jar4  8,on to this jar there was now   
fitted what is called an adkur1 this    
being made of two earthen pans with     
their bottoms turned towards each other1
 and a hole of about #d inches diameter 
in the middle of each of them1 the lower
 of these pans fitted the hole in the   
jar1 and was luted with clay1 the upper 
was luted to the lower one1 and had a   
diameter of about #ad inches1 the       
juncture formed a neck of about #c      
inches1 the upper pan was about #d      
inches deep1 with a rim round the       
central hole1 this formed a gutter1 and 
by means of a hollow bamboo luted to    
this1 the spirit1 as it condensed1 ran  
off into the receiver4  8,the           
arrangement was now completed by luting 
on a small copper pot or vessel about #e

 inches deep1 #h inches wide at mouth1  
and about #aj inches at bottom1 with its
 mouth downwards4  8,the cooler was     
formed by placing on a support at the   
back of the furnace an earthen vessel   
containing a few gallons of water1 from 
which1 by means of a bamboo tube1 the   
water was allowed to run on to the      
centre of the copper pot1 from where it 
collected in the clay saucer1 and ran   
off by a small hole and bamboo tube for 
use again4  8,in about three hours' time
 from lighting the fire1 they draw off  
fully fifteen bottles of spirits40      
,comparing this simple form of apparatus
 with those described by ,geber1 we must
 admit that there is no doubt of the    
earlier date of this simple apparatus2  
and1 as we have seen1 distilled spirit  
is expressly mentioned in the           
,institutes of ,menu1 we are bound to   
admit that distillation was in use long 
ere the ,arabian times and that of      
,dioscorides4  ,many such examples might
 be examined1 but ,i will take one for  

illustration--that of the manufacture of
 common salt4  ,let us take this        
manufacture as a typical one4  ,we find 
in ,jackson's ,antiquities and          
,chronology of the ,chinese that1 #bejj 
,b4,c41 ,shin-nong invented the method  
of obtaining salt from sea-water4 ,he   
also gets credit for having composed    
books on medicine4  ,in ,george         
,agricola's ,de ,re ,metallica 7#aefa7  
there is a curious set of woodcuts      
representing the manufacture of salt1   
and in the first1 in which the whole    
process of evaporating sea-water by the 
sun's rays is shown most completely from
 the raising of the sluices to allow the
 water to flow into the various         
evaporating ponds1 to the packing of the
 finished salt in barrels--it is a      
curious fact that the trees which are   
introduced are palms1 and the figure in 
the distance is dressed in ,oriental    
costume1 while even the ship seems to   
partake of this character4  ,a more     
advanced state of things is shown in the

 third drawing of the #abth book1 where 
a pan is shown1 made of iron plates     
riveted together so as to form a flat   
sheet1 which forms the bottom of the    
pan1 of which the sides are composed of 
thick wood1 strengthened with plates of 
iron at the corners4  ,the bottom of the
 pan has a series of iron eyes or loops1
 and these1 when it is fixed over its   
furnace1 are attached to iron rods1     
which are hung from a network of wooden 
bars1 so that the whole bottom of the   
pan is supported securely at a          
considerable number of points4  ,the    
furnace is very simple1 being simply a  
wall surrounding an oblong space1 a     
little smaller than the pan1 so that the
 sides of the latter may rest on the    
walls all round1 except for a small     
space in front where the fuel is        
introduced1 which apparently burns on   
the ground alone4  ,the method of       
manufacturing salt in ,japan is almost  
identical with that figured in          
,agricola4 ,there is the same           

arrangement of salt garden or series of 
ponds and ditches1 and the dirty salts  
mixed with sand are again lixiviated1   
and the filtered liquid is boiled down  
in curiously formed pans or boilers4    
,of these there are two chief forms1 the
 first being a tank or pan formed of    
large pieces of slate1 with the joints  
made with clay1 and surrounded with a   
mud wall4 ,the whole is covered with an 
arch or vault and is filled with the    
brine1 which is then evaporated by      
surface heat1 the fire being placed at  
one end and the flue at the other4  ,the
 other form is very curious and         
interesting1 and is almost identical in 
its principle of construction with the  
pan ,i have referred to as figured in   
,agricola1 only in this case the        
materials are very different1 being1    
instead of wood and iron1 nothing more  
than clay or mud4  ,it was described    
officially by the ,japanese1 in their   
publications at the ,philadelphia       
,exhibition in #ahgf4 ,the ,japanese    

description of this apparatus is highly 
interesting4 ,it is as follows3--  ,a   
low wall is built1 enclosing a space of 
about #ac feet by #i feet1 the bottom   
forming a kind of prismatical           
depression1 #c feet deep in the centre  
line4 ,an ashpit1 #c feet deep1 is then 
excavated1 starting from the front wall1
 and extending about #d feet into this  
depression at its deepest place2 it     
communicates with the outside by a      
channel sloping gradually upwards1 and  
passing underneath the front wall4 ,the 
ashpit is covered by a clay vault1 with 
holes in its sides1 so as to establish a
 communication between the ashpit and   
the hollow space under the pan4 ,this   
vault is used as a fire grate1 the fuel 
7brown coal and small wood7 being       
inserted by the fire-door in the front  
wall4 ,the air-draught necessary for    
burning the fuel enters partly by the   
fire-door1 partly through the ashpit and
 the openings left in the vaulted grate4
 ,through these same openings the ashes 

and cinders are from time to time pushed
 down into the ashpit1 for which purpose
 small openings are left in the         
side-wall of the furnace1 through which 
the rakes may be introduced4 ,a passage 
in the back wall supporting the pan     
leads off the products of combustion and
 the hot air into a short flue1 sloping 
upwards1 and ending in a short vertical 
chimney4 ,at the lower part some iron   
kettles are placed in the flue for the  
purpose of heating the lye before it is 
ladled into the evaporating pan4  ,with 
reference to the pan1 it is made in a   
way that requires a great deal of skill 
and practice4 ,in the first place1 beams
 reaching from the one side to the other
 are laid on the top of the furnace     
walls1 and are covered with wooden      
boards1 forming a temporary floor4 ,two 
or three feet above this floor a strong 
horizontal network of poles of wood     
sustains a number of straw ropes1 with  
iron hooks hanging down1 and of such a  
length that the hooks nearly touch the  

wooden floor4 ,the floor is thereupon   
covered with a mixture of clay and small
 stones1 #d to #e inches thick1 the     
workman being careful to incrustate the 
iron hooks into this material4 ,it is   
allowed to dry gradually1 and when      
considered sufficiently hardened1 the   
wooden beams and flooring are removed   
with the necessary precautions4 ,the    
bottom of the pan remains suspended by  
means of the ropes4 ,the open spaces    
left all round between the bottom and   
the top of the furnace walls are then   
filled up1 and the border of the pan1 #i
 inches to #aj inches high1 is made of a
 similar mixture4 ,it is said that this 
extraordinary construction lasts from   
#dj to #ej days when well made1 and that
 it can be filled #af times in #bd      
hours1 with an average of #ejj litres of
 concentrated lye at each filling2 but  
the quantity depends upon the weather1  
and is less in winter than in summer4   
,during the cold season one pan yields  
#adj litres 7of salt7 each time it is   

filled1 and in the hot season from #aij 
to #baj litres4 ,the average consumpt of
 fuel is said to be #aejj kilos4 in #bd 
hours4  ,in ,persia1 near ,ballakhan1   
salt is still made1 and has been made   
from time immemorial1 in a very         
primitive way1 which is described by    
,bellen1 in his description of his      
journey in #ahgb from the ,indus to the 
,tigris1 as follows3--  8,for several   
miles our road led over a succession of 
salt pits and ovens1 and lying about we 
found several samples of the alimentary 
salt prepared here from the soil4 ,it   
was in fine white granules massed       
together in the form of the earthen     
vessel in which the salt had been       
evaporated4 ,the process of collecting  
the salt is very rough and simple4 ,a   
conical pit or basin1 #g or #h feet deep
 and about #ab feet in diameter is dug1 
and around it are excavated a succession
 of smaller pits1 each about #b feet    
diameter by #a feet deep4 ,on one side  
of the large pit is a deep excavation1  

to which the descent from the pit is by 
a sloping bank4 ,in this excavation is a
 domed oven with a couple of fireplaces4
 ,at a little distance off are the piles
 of earth scraped from the surface and  
ready for treatment4 ,and1 lastly1      
circling round each pit is a small      
water-cut led off from a larger stream  
running along the line of pits4  8,such 
is the machinery4 ,the process is simply
 this3--,a shovelful of earth is taken  
from the heap and washed in the basins  
7a shovelful to each7 circling the pit4 
8,the liquor from these is1 whilst yet  
turbid1 run into the great central pit1 
by breaking away a channel for it with  
the fingers4 ,the channel is then closed
 with a dab of clay1 and a fresh lot of 
earth washed1 and the liquor run off as 
before2 and so on till the pit is nearly
 full of brine4 ,this is allowed to     
stand till the liquor clears4 ,it is    
then ladled out into earthen jars1 set  
on the fire and boiled to evaporation   
successively1 till the jar is filled    

with a cake of granular salt4 ,the jars 
are then broken1 and the mass of salt   
7which retains its shape7 is ready for  
conveyance to market4  8,large          
quantities of this salt are used by the 
nomad population1 and a good deal is    
taken to ,kandahar4 ,the quantity turned
 out here must annually be very great4  
,the salt pits extend over at least ten 
miles of the country we traversed1 and  
we certainly saw some thousands of      
pits40   ,from what ,i have laid before 
you1 it will be seen that ,i am strongly
 of opinion that we must go far beyond  
the time of ,geber or the ,arabian      
school for the origin of our science4   
,the study of the question of its       
antiquity leads up to such remote times 
that there is little probability of any 
date being assigned to its beginning1   
and to some it may appear but a waste of
 time to indulge in researches upon the 
subject2 but it has a fascination       
peculiar to itself1 and1 in addition1   
brings before our minds so many phases  

in the philosophical thought of the     
world1 that it will no doubt long       
continue to exercise the minds and      
attract the attention of chemists4  ,in 
the course of my own study of the       
subject1 ,i have felt much dissatisfied 
with the derivation of the name         
chemistry or alchemy1 as it is given in 
all works to which ,i have had access4  
,it is said to be derived from a word   
meaning dark1 hidden1 black1 and from   
the ancient name for ,egypt1 but to my  
own mind this is an unsatisfactory      
explanation1 and seeking for another    
more consonant with the character of the
 science1 ,i think ,i have found it in  
quite a different direction4  ,it is    
well known that in the old ,hindoo      
philosophy there were recognized five   
elementary bodies or rather types4      
,these were ,water1 ,fire1 ,ether1      
,earth1 and ,air1 and the system of     
,menu1 of which the antiquity is        
enormous1 recognizes as the greatest    
conception of the universe--    #ast1   

,god4   #bnd1 ,mind4   #crd1            
,consciousness4   #dth1 ,matras4   #eth1
 ,elements4  7matras being the invisible
 types of the visible atoms which       
compose the five elements previously    
named--viz41 ,water1 ,fire1 ,ether1     
,earth1 and ,air74  ,now1 these         
elements1 with the sun and moon1        
composed the attributes of the dual     
deity ,iswara and ,isi1 representing the
 male and female natural powers1 and1   
applying this to the famous ,pythagorean
 triangle1 we find that the upright     
symbol or male1 which was the number or 
power #c1 when combined with the female 
prostrate symbol1 which was the number  
or power #d1 gives a product in the     
,hypotenuse of #e1 which is the number  
of the typical elements of the oldest   
known ,hindoo philosophy4 ,it is also   
the product of the first male and female
 numbers1 and was anciently called the  
number of the world--repeated anyhow by 
an odd multiple it always reappears4    
,if now we consider chemistry as that   

science which has to deal with the      
changes and combinations of the five    
elements1 and if we call it--  ,the     
science of the five parts or elements1  
should we not1 when we find that the    
,arabic word for five is khams1 rather  
refer the name of our science to this   
word khams1 and read it as              
,al-,khams1   ,the five-part science8   
,i am inclined1 however1 to go yet a    
step further1 and remembering that the  
fifth element or ,ether of the most     
ancient ,hindoo philosophy1 was in      
reality an expression for active force1 
or1 that emanating from the central sun 
caused the natural phenomena of         
attraction and repulsion1 the emission  
and refraction of light1 and other      
sensible changes of condition1 would    
read the compound word    ,al-,khamis   
7,the fifth71  as the grand and simple  
title of our ancient science1 meaning   
,the force--  that which causes the     
changes in the elementary types and     
their combinations--than which no more  

descriptive title could be assigned to  
it1 even in the present enlightened age4
         99       99       99       99  
99            99       99       99      
99        99       99       99       99 
99  ,errors and ,anomalies  ,apollonius 
,tyanus  text reads 8,appolonius0       
,hercules and ,bacchus 7,dionysius7     
text reads 8,dionsyius0  ,ommiades 444  
,abassides  standard spellings for this 
text  ,ibn ,osaibe's testimony  text    
reads 8,ibu0  body-physicians at the    
,court of ,harun-al-,raschid            
spelling as in original1 but elsewhere  
spelled 8,haroun0  ,xenophon in his     
,anabasis  text reads 8,zenophon0       
,megasthenes  text reads 8,megesthenes0 
the first of the ,grecian philosophers  
text reads 8philosphers0  the ,hindoos  
believe in fourteen ,menus     and six  
further occurrences of 8,menu0          
standard spelling in this text3 correct 
form is 8,manu0  ,libyans in war        
chariots with four horses  text reads   
8,lybians0  under the reign of ,pharoah 

,necho  spelling as in original  from   
the ,red ,sea to the ,mediterranean     
text reads 8,mediterreanean0  ,jackson  
in his 8,antiquities0 tells us that1    
comma in original   ,denotes a chaos    
,the symbol should look like an inverted
 8female0 or 8,venus0--     a cross     
above a circle-- but some fonts         
represent it as a cross     within a    
circle4  ,indra instructed ,dahnwantari 
,dahnwantari is also styled ,kasi-rajah 
correct form is 8,dhanwantari0