,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 ,in this book1 as well as using to indicate the italic font1 the symbol has been used to show text printed in smaller capital letters in the original printed version4 ,please see the ,,html version for a more accurate reproduction4 ,bracketed words1 such as the81 were present in the original text4 ,they were not added by the transcriber4 ,obvious printing errors were repaired2 these changes are listed at the end of the text4 ,in ambiguous cases1 the text has been left as it appears in the original book4 ,in particular1 many mismatched quotation marks have not been changed4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,language1 ,,as ,,particularly ,,connected ,,with ,,english ,,grammar4 ,,designed ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,teachers ,,and ,,advanced ,,learners4 ,,by ,,wm4 ,s4 ,,balch4 ,silence is better than unmeaning words4--,pythagoras4 ,,providence3 ,b4 ,,cranston ,,co4 #ahch4 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahch1 ,,by ,b4 ,,cranston ,,co4 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of ,rhode-,island4 ,,providence1 ,feb4 #bd1 #ahch4 ,,to ,,wm4 ,s4 ,,balch1 ,,sir--,the undersigned1 in behalf of the ,young ,people's ,institute1 hasten to present to you the following ,resolutions1 together with their personal thanks1 for the ,lectures you have delivered before them1 on the ,philosophy of ,language4 ,the uncommon degree of interest1 pleasure and profit1 with which you have been listened to1 is conclusive evidence1 that whoever possesses taste and talents to comprehend and appreciate the philosophy of language1 which you have so successfully cultivated1 cannot fail to attain a powerful influence over the minds of his audience4 ,the ,committee respectfully request you to favor them with a copy of your ,lectures for the ,press4 ,very respectfully1 ,your most obedient servants1 ,c4 ,t4 ,,james1 ,e4 ,f4 ,,miller1 ,h4 ,l4 ,,webster4 99 99 99 99 99 ,resolved1 ,that we have been highly entertained and greatly instructed by the ,lectures of our ,president1 on the subject of ,language2 that we consider the principles he has advocated1 immutably true1 exceedingly important1 and capable of an easy adoption in the study of that important branch of human knowledge4 ,resolved1 ,that we have long regretted the want of a system to explain the grammar of our vernacular tongue1 on plain1 rational1 and consistent principles1 in accordance with philosophy and truth1 and in a way to be understood and practised by children and adults4 ,resolved1 ,that in our opinion1 the manifold attempts which have been made1 though doubtless undertaken with the purest intentions1 to simplify and make easy existing systems1 have failed entirely of their object1 and tended only to perplex1 rather than enlighten learners4 ,resolved1 ,that in our belief1 the publication of these ,lectures would meet the wants of the community1 and throw a flood of light upon this hitherto dark1 and intricate1 and yet exceedingly interesting department of a common education1 and thus prove of immense service to the present and future generations4 ,resolved1 ,that ,messrs4 ,charles ,t4 ,james1 ,edward ,f4 ,miller1 and ,henry ,l4 ,webster1 be a ,committee to wait on ,rev4 ,william ,s4 ,balch1 and request the publication of his very interesting ,course of ,lectures before this ,institute4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,providence1 ,feb4 #be1 #ahch4 ,,messrs4 ,c4 ,t4 ,,james1 ,e4 ,f4 ,,miller1 ,,and ,h4 ,l4 ,,webster3 ,,gentlemen--,your letter1 together with the ,resolutions accompanying it1 was duly and gratefully received4 ,it gives me no ordinary degree of pleasure to know that so deep an interest has been1 and still is1 felt by the members of our ,institute1 as well as the public generally1 on this important subject2 for it is one which concerns the happiness and welfare of our whole community2 but especially the rising generation4 ,the only recommendation of these ,lectures is the subject of which they treat4 ,they were written in the space of a few weeks1 and in the midst of an accumulation of engagements which almost forbade the attempt4 ,but presuming you will make all due allowances for whatever errors you may discover in the style of composition1 and regard the matter more than the manner1 ,i consent to their publication1 hoping they will be of some service in the great cause of human improvement4 ,i am1 gentlemen1 ,very respectfully yours1 ,,wm4 ,s4 ,,balch4 ,,preface4 ,there is no subject so deeply interesting and important to rational beings as the knowledge of language1 or one which presents a more direct and powerful claim upon all classes in the community2 for there is no other so closely interwoven with all the affairs of human life1 social1 moral1 political and religious4 ,it forms a basis on which depends a vast portion of the happiness of mankind1 and deserves the first attention of every philanthropist4 ,great difficulty has been experienced in the common method of explaining language1 and grammar has long been considered a dry1 uninteresting1 and tedious study1 by nearly all the teachers and scholars in the land4 ,but it is to be presumed that the fault in this case1 if there is any1 is to be sought for in the manner of teaching1 rather than in the science itself2 for it would be unreasonable to suppose that a subject which occupies the earliest attention of the parent1 which is acquired at great expense of money1 time1 and thought1 and is employed from the cradle to the grave1 in all our waking hours1 can possibly be dull or unimportant1 if rightly explained4 ,children have been required to learn verbal forms and changes1 to look at the mere signs of ideas1 instead of the things represented by them4 ,the consequence has been that the whole subject has become uninteresting to all who do not possess a retentive verbal memory4 ,the philosophy of language1 the sublime principles on which it depends for its existence and use1 have not been sufficiently regarded to render it delightful and profitable4 ,the humble attempt here made is designed to open the way for an exposition of language on truly philosophical principles1 which1 when correctly explained1 are abundantly simple and extensively useful4 ,with what success this point has been labored the reader will determine4 ,the author claims not the honor of entire originality4 ,the principles here advanced have been advocated1 believed1 and successfully practised4 ,william ,s4 ,cardell1 ,esq41 a bright star in the firmament of ,american literature1 reduced these principles to a system1 which was taught with triumphant success by ,daniel ,h4 ,barnes1 formerly of the ,new-,york ,high ,school1 one of the most distinguished teachers who ever officiated in that high and responsible capacity in our country4 ,both of these gentlemen1 so eminently calculated to elevate the standard of education1 were summoned from the career of the most active usefulness1 from the scenes they had labored to brighten and beautify by the aid of their transcendant intellects1 to unseen realities in the world of spirits2 where mind communes with mind1 and soul mingles with soul1 disenthraled from error1 and embosomed in the light and love of the ,great ,parent ,intellect4 ,the author does not pretend to give a system of exposition in this work suited to the capacities of small children4 ,it is designed for advanced scholars1 and is introductory to a system of grammar which he has in preparation1 which it is humbly hoped will be of some service in rendering easy and correct the study of our vernacular language4 ,but this book1 it is thought1 may be successfully employed in the instruction of the higher classes in our schools1 and will be found an efficient aid to teachers in inculcating the sublime principles of which it treats4 ,these ,lectures1 as now presented to the public1 it is believed1 will be found to contain some important information by which all may profit4 ,the reader will bear in mind that they were written for1 and delivered before a popular audience1 and published with very little time for modification4 ,this will be a sufficient apology for the mistakes which may occur1 and for whatever may have the appearance of severity1 irony1 or pleasantry1 in the composition4 ,on the subject of ,contractions much more might be said4 ,but verbal criticisms are rather uninteresting to a common audience2 and hence the consideration of that matter was made more brief than was at first intended4 ,it will however be resumed and carried out at length in another work4 ,the hints given will enable the student to form a tolerable correct opinion of the use of most of those words and phrases1 which have long been passed over with little knowledge of their meaning or importance4 ,the author is aware that the principles he has advocated are new and opposed to established systems and the common method of inculcation4 ,but the difficulties acknowledged on all hands to exist1 is a sufficient justification of this humble attempt4 ,he will not be condemned for his good intentions4 ,all he asks is a patient and candid examination1 a frank and honest approval of what is true1 and as honest a rejection of what is false4 ,but he hopes the reader will avoid a rash and precipitate conclusion1 either for or against1 lest he is compelled to do as the author himself once did1 approve what he had previously condemned4 ,with these remarks he enters the arena1 and bares himself to receive the sentence of the public voice4 ,,contents4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,language4 ,study of ,language long considered difficult4--,its importance4--,errors in teaching4--,not understood by ,teachers4--,attachment to old systems4--,improvement preferable4--,the subject important4--,its advantages4--,principles laid down4--,orthography4--,etymology4--,synt ax4-- ,prosody4 ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,,the ,,fundamental ,,principles ,,of ,,language4 ,general principles of ,language4--,business of ,grammar4--,children are ,philosophers4--,things1 ideas1 and words4--,actions4--,qualities of things4--,words without ideas4--,grammatical terms inappropriate4-- ,principles of ,language permanent4--,errors in mental science4--,facts admit of no change4--,complex ideas4--,ideas of qualities4--,an example4--,new ideas4--,unknown words4--,signs without things signified4--,fixed laws regulate matter and mind4 ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,,written ,,and ,,spoken ,,language4 ,principles never alter4--,they should be known4--,grammar a most important branch of science4--,spoken and written ,language4--,idea of a thing4--,how expressed4--,an example4--,picture writing4--,an anecdote4--,ideas expressed by actions4--,principles of spoken and written ,language4--,apply universally4--,two examples4--,english language4--,foreign words4--,words in science4--,new words4--,how formed4 ,,lecture ,,iv4 ,,on ,,nouns4 ,nouns defined4--,things4--,qualities of matter4--,mind4--,spiritual beings4--,qualities of mind4--,how learned4--,imaginary things4--,negation4 --,names of actions4--,proper nouns4--,characteristic names4--,proper nouns may become common4 ,,lecture ,v4 ,,on ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns4 ,nouns in respect to persons4--,number4--,singular4--,plural4 --,how formed4--,foreign plurals4--,proper names admit of plurals4--,gender4--,no neuter4--,in figurative language4--,errors4--,position or case4--,agents4-- ,objects4--,possessive case considered4--,a definitive word4--,pronouns4-- ,one kind4--,originally nouns4--,specifically applied4 ,,lecture ,,vi4 ,,on ,,adjectives4 ,definition of adjectives4--,general character4--,derivation4--,how understood4--,defining and describing4--,meaning changes to suit the noun4--,too numerous4--,derived from nouns4--,nouns and verbs made from adjectives4--,foreign adjectives4--,a general list4--,difficult to be understood4--,an example4--,often superfluous4--,derived from verbs4--,participles4--,some prepositions4--,meaning unknown4--,with4-- ,in4--,out4--,of4 ,,lecture ,,vii4 ,,on ,,adjectives4 ,adjectives4--,how formed4--,the syllable ly4--,formed from proper nouns4 --,the apostrophe and letter s4--,derived from pronouns4--,articles4--,a comes from an4--,indefinite4--,the4--,meaning of a and the4-- ,murray's example4--,that4--,what4--,pronoun adjectives4--,mon1 ma4--,degrees of comparison4--,secondary adjectives4--,prepositions admit of comparison4 ,,lecture ,,viii4 ,,on ,,verbs4 ,unpleasant to expose error4--,verbs defined4--,every thing acts4--,actor and object4--,laws4--,man4--,animals4--,vege tables4--,minerals4--,neutrality degrading4--,nobody can explain a neuter verb4--,one kind of verbs4--,you must decide4--,importance of teaching children the truth4--,active verbs4--,transitive verbs false4--,samples4--,neuter verbs examined4--,sit4--,sleep4--,stand4--,lie 4--,opinion of ,mrs4 ,w4--,anecdote4 ,,lecture ,,ix4 ,,on ,,verbs4 ,neuter and intransitive4--,agents4--,objects4--,no actions as such can be known distinct from the agent4--,imaginary actions4--,actions known by their effects4--,examples4--,signs should guide to things signified4-- ,principles of action4--,power4--,animals4--,vegetables 4--,minerals4--,all things act4--,magnetic needle4--,cause4--,explained4--,first ,cause4--,means4--,illustrated4--,sir ,i4 ,newton's example4--,these principles must be known4--,relative action4--,anecdote of ,gallileo4 ,,lecture ,x4 ,,on ,,verbs4 ,a philosophical axiom4--,manner of expressing action4--,things taken for granted4--,simple facts must be known4--,must never deviate from the truth4--,every cause will have an effect4--,an example of an intransitive verb4--,objects expressed or implied4--,all language eliptical4--,intransitive verbs examined4--,i run4--,i walk4--,to step4-- ,birds fly4--,it rains4--,the fire burns4--,the sun shines4--,to smile4--,eat and drink4--,miscellaneous examples4--,evils of false teaching4--,a change is demanded4--,these principles apply universally4--,their importance4 ,,lecture ,,xi4 ,,on ,,verbs4 ,the verb to be4--,compounded of different radical words4--,am4 --,defined4--,the name of ,deity4--,ei4--,is4--,are4--,were1 was4--,be4--,a dialogue4--,examples4--,passive ,verbs examined4--,cannot be in the present tense4--,the past participle is an adjective4 ,,lecture ,,xii4 ,,on ,,verbs4 ,mood4--,indicative4--,imperative4--,inf initive4--,former distinctions4-- ,subjunctive mood4--,time4--,past4--,present4--,futur e4--,the future explained4--,how formed4--,mr4 ,murray's distinction of time4--,imperfect4-- ,pluperfect4--,second future4--,how many tenses4--,auxiliary ,verbs4--,will4 --,shall4--,may4--,must4--,can4--,do4--, have4 ,,lecture ,,xiii4 ,,on ,,verbs4 ,person and number in the agent1 not in the action4--,similarity of agents1 actions1 and objects4--,verbs made from nouns4--,irregular verbs4--,some examples4--,regular ,verbs4--,ed4--,ing4--,conjugation of verbs4--,to love4--,to have4--,to be4--,the indicative mood varied4--,a whole sentence may be agent or object4--,imperative mood4--,infinitive mood4--,is always future4 ,,lecture ,,xiv4 ,,on ,,contractions4 ,a temporary expedient4--,words not understood4--,all words must have a meaning4--,their formation4--,changes of meaning and form4--,should be observed4--,adverbs4--,ending in ly4--,examples4--,ago4--,astray4--,awake 4 --,asleep4--,then1 when4--,there1 where1 here4--,while1 till4--,whether1 together4--,ever1 never1 whenever1 etc4--,oft4--,hence4--,perhaps4--,not4 --,or4--,nor4--,than4--,as4--,so4--,conj unctions4--,rule #ah4--;,if4--,but4--,tho4 --,yet4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,language4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,language4 ,study of ,language long considered difficult4--,its importance4--,errors in teaching4--,not understood by ,teachers4--,attachment to old systems4--,improvement preferable4--,the subject important4--,its advantages4--,principles laid down4--,orthography4--,etymology4-- ,syntax4--,prosody4 ,,ladies ,,and ,,gentlemen1 ,it is proposed to commence1 this evening1 a course of ,lectures on the ,grammar of the ,english ,language4 ,i am aware of the difficulties attending this subject1 occasioned not so much by any fault in itself1 as by the thousand and one methods adopted to teach it1 the multiplicity of books pretending to simplify it1 and the vast contrariety of opinion entertained by those who profess to be its masters4 ,by many it has been considered a needless affair1 an unnecessary appendage to a common education2 by others1 altogether beyond the reach of common capacities2 and by all1 cold1 lifeless1 and uninteresting1 full of doubts and perplexities1 where the wisest have differed1 and the firmest often changed opinions4 ,all this difficulty originates1 ,i apprehend1 in the wrong view that is taken of the subject4 ,the most beautiful landscape may appear at great disadvantage1 if viewed from an unfavorable position4 ,i would be slow to believe that the means on which depends the whole business of the community1 the study of the sciences1 all improvement upon the past1 the history of all nations in all ages of the world1 social intercourse1 oral or written1 and1 in a great measure1 the knowledge of ,god1 and the hopes of immortality1 can be either unworthy of study1 or1 if rightly explained1 uninteresting in the acquisition4 ,in fact1 on the principles ,i am about to advocate1 ,i have seen the deepest interest manifested1 from the small child to the grey-headed sire1 from the mere novice to the statesman and philosopher1 and all alike seemed to be edified and improved by the attention bestowed upon the subject4 ,i confess1 however1 that with the mention of grammar1 an association of ideas are called up by no means agreeable4 ,the mind involuntarily reverts to the days of childhood1 when we were compelled1 at the risk of our bodily safety1 to commit to memory a set of arbitrary rules1 which we could neither understand nor apply in the correct use of language4 ,formerly it was never dreamed that grammar depended on any higher authority than the books put into our hands4 ,and learners were not only dissuaded1 but strictly forbidden to go beyond the limits set them in the etymological and syntactical rules of the authors to whom they were referred4 ,if a query ever arose in their minds1 and they modestly proposed a plain question as to the why and wherefore things were thus1 instead of giving an answer according to common sense1 in a way to be understood1 the authorities were pondered over1 till some rule or remark could be found which would apply1 and this settled the matter with proof as strong as holy writ4 ,in this way an end may be put to the inquiry2 but the thinking mind will hardly be satisfied with the mere opinion of another1 who has no evidence to afford1 save the undisputed dignity of his station1 or the authority of books4 ,this course is easily accounted for4 ,rather than expose his own ignorance1 the teacher quotes the printed ignorance of others1 thinking1 no doubt1 that folly and nonsense will appear better second-handed1 than fresh from his own responsibility4 ,or else on the more common score1 that misery loves company4 ,teachers have not unfrequently found themselves placed in an unenviable position by the honest inquiries of some thinking urchin1 who has demanded why one noun governs another in the possessive case1 as master's slave2 why there are more tenses than three2 what is meant by a neuter verb1 which signifies neither action nor passion2 or an intransitive verb1 which expresses the highest possible action1 but terminates on no object2 a cause without an effect2 why that is sometimes a pronoun1 sometimes an adjective1 and not unfrequently a conjunction1 c4 c4 ,they may have succeeded1 by dint of official authority1 in silencing such inquiries1 but they have failed to give a satisfactory answer to the questions proposed4 ,long received opinions may1 in some cases1 become law1 pleading no other reason than antiquity4 ,but this is an age of investigation1 which demands the most lucid and unequivocal proof of the point assumed4 ,the dogmatism of the schoolmen will no longer satisfy4 ,the dark ages of mental servility are passing away4 ,the day light of science has long since dawned upon the world1 and the noon day of truth1 reason1 and virtue1 will ere long be established on a firm and immutable basis4 ,the human mind1 left free to investigate1 will gradually advance onward in the course of knowledge and goodness marked out by the ,creator1 till it attains to that perfection which shall constitute its highest glory1 its truest bliss4 ,you will perceive1 at once1 that our inquiries thro out these lectures will not be bounded by what has been said or written on the subject4 ,we take a wider range4 ,we adopt no sentiment because it is ancient or popular4 ,we refer to no authority but what proves itself to be correct4 ,and we ask no one to adopt our opinions any farther than they agree with the fixed laws of nature in the regulation of matter and thought1 and apply in common practice among men4 ,have we not a right to expect1 in return1 that you will be equally honest to yourselves and the subject before us8 ,so far as the errors of existing systems shall be exposed1 will you not reject them1 and adopt whatever appears conclusively true and practically useful8 ,will you1 can you1 be satisfied to adopt for yourselves and teach to others1 systems of grammar1 for no other reason than because they are old1 and claim the support of the learned and honorable8 ,such a course1 generally adopted1 would give the ever-lasting quietus to all improvement4 ,it would be a practical adoption of the philosophy of the ,dutchman1 who was content to carry his grist in one end of the sack and a stone to balance it in the other1 assigning for a reason1 that his honored father had always done so before him4 ,who would be content to adopt the astrology of the ancients1 in preferance to astronomy as now taught1 because the latter is more modern8 ,who would spend three years in transcribing a copy of the ,bible1 when a better could be obtained for one dollar1 because manuscripts were thus procured in former times8 ,what lady would prefer to take her cards1 wheel1 and loom1 and spend a month or two in manufacturing for herself a dress1 when a better could be earned in half the time1 merely because her respected grandmother did so before her8 ,who would go back a thousand years to find a model for society1 rejecting all improvements in the arts and sciences1 because they are innovations1 encroachments upon the opinions and practices of learned and honorable men8 ,i can not believe there is a person in this respected audience whose mind is in such voluntary slavery as to induce the adoption of such a course4 ,i see before me minds which sparkle in every look1 and thoughts which are ever active1 to acquire what is true1 and adopt what is useful4 ,and ,i flatter myself that the time spent in the investigation of the science of language will not be unpleasant or unprofitable4 ,i feel the greater confidence from the consideration that your minds are yet untrammeled2 not but what many1 probably most of you1 have already studied the popular systems of grammar1 and understood them2 if such a thing is possible2 but because you have shown a disposition to learn1 by becoming members of this ,institute1 the object of which is the improvement of its members4 ,let us therefore make an humble attempt1 with all due candor and discretion1 to enter upon the inquiry before us with an unflinching determination to push our investigations beyond all reasonable doubt1 and never rest satisfied till we have conquered all conquerable obstacles1 and come into the possession of the light and liberty of truth4 ,the attempt here made will not be considered unimportant1 by those who have known the difficulties attending the study of language4 ,if any course can be marked out to shorten the time tediously spent in the acquisition of what is rarely attained--a thoro knowledge of language--a great benefit will result to the community2 children will save months and years to engage in other useful attainments1 and the high aspirations of the mind for truth and knowledge will not be curbed in its first efforts to improve by a set of technical and arbitrary rules4 ,they will acquire a habit of thinking1 of deep reflection2 and never adopt1 for fact1 what appears unreasonable or inconsistent1 merely because great or good men have said it is so4 ,they will feel an independence of their own1 and adopt a course of investigation which cannot fail of the most important consequences4 ,it is not the saving of time1 however1 for which we propose a change in the system of teaching language4 ,in this respect1 it is the study of one's life4 ,new facts are constantly developing themselves1 new combinations of ideas and words are discovered1 and new beauties presented at every advancing step4 ,it is to acquire a knowledge of correct principles1 to induce a habit of correct thinking1 a freedom of investigation1 and at that age when the character and language of life are forming4 ,it is1 in short1 to exhibit before you truth of the greatest practical importance1 not only to you1 but to generations yet unborn1 in the most essential affairs of human life1 that ,i have broached the hated subject of grammar1 and undertaken to reflect light upon this hitherto dark and disagreeable subject4 ,with a brief sketch of the outlines of language1 as based on the fixed laws of nature1 and the agreement of those who employ it1 ,i shall conclude the present lecture4 ,we shall consider all language as governed by the invariable laws of nature1 and as depending on the conventional regulations of men4 ,words are the signs of ideas4 ,ideas are the impressions of things4 ,hence1 in all our attempts to investigate the important principles of language1 we shall employ the sign as the means of coming at the thing signified4 ,language has usually been considered under four divisions1 viz43 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 and ,prosody4 ,orthography is right spelling2 the combination of certain letters into words in such a manner as to agree with the spoken words used to denote an idea4 ,we shall not labor this point1 altho we conceive a great improvement might be effected in this department of learning4 ,my only wish is to select from all the forms of spelling1 the most simple and consistent4 ,constant changes are taking place in the method of making words1 and we would not refuse to cast in our mite to make the standard more correct and easy4 ,we would prune off by degrees all unnecessary appendages1 as unsounded or italic letters1 and write out words so as to be capable of a distinct pronunciation4 ,but this change must be gradually effected4 ,from the spelling adopted two centuries ago1 a wonderful improvement has taken place4 ,and we have not yet gone beyond the possibility of improvement4 ,let us not be too sensitive on this point1 nor too tenacious of old forms4 ,most of our dictionaries differ in many respects in regard to the true system of orthography1 and our true course is to adopt every improvement which is offered4 ,thro out this work we shall spell some words different from what is customary1 but intend not1 thereby1 to incur the ignominy of bad spellers4 ,let small improvements be adopted1 and our language may soon be redeemed from the difficulties which have perplexed beginners in their first attempts to convey ideas by written words4#a ,in that department of language denominated ,etymology1 we shall contend that all words are reducible to two general classes1 nouns and verbs2 or1 things and actions4 ,we shall1 however1 admit of subdivisions1 and treat of pronouns1 adjectives1 and contractions4 ,we shall contend for only two cases of nouns1 one kind of pronouns1 one kind of verbs1 that all are active2 three modes1 and as many tenses2 that articles1 adverbs1 prepositions1 conjunctions1 and interjections1 have no distinctive character1 no existence1 in fact1 to warrant a local habitation or a name4 ,in the composition of sentences1 a few general rules of ,syntax may be given2 but the principal object to be obtained1 is the possession of correct ideas derived from a knowledge of things1 and the most approved words to express them2 the combination of words in a sentence will readily enough follow4 ,prosody relates to the quantity of syllables1 rules of accent and pronunciation1 and the arrangement of syllables and words so as to produce harmony4 ,it applies specially to versification4 ,as our object is not to make poets1 who1 it is said1 are born1 and not made1 but to teach the true principles of language1 we shall give no attention to this finishing stroke of composition4 ,in our next we shall lay before you the principles upon which all language depends1 and the process by which its use is to be acquired4 ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,,fundamental ,,principles ,,of ,,language4 ,general principles of ,language4--,business of ,grammar4--,children are ,philosophers4--,things1 ideas1 and words4--,actions4--,qualities of things4--,words without ideas4--,grammatical terms inappropriate4-- ,principles of ,language permanent4--,errors in mental science4--,facts admit of no change4--,complex ideas4--,ideas of qualities4--,an example4--,new ideas4--,unknown words4--,signs without things signified4--,fixed laws regulate matter and mind4 ,all language depends on two general principles4 ,first4 ,the fixed and unvarying laws of nature which regulate matter and mind4 ,second4 ,the agreement of those who use it4 ,in accordance with these principles all language must be explained4 ,it is not only needless but impossible for us to deviate from them4 ,they remain the same in all ages and in all countries4 ,it should be the object of the grammarian1 and of all who employ language in the expression of ideas1 to become intimately acquainted with their use4 ,it is the business of grammar to explain1 not only verbal language1 but also the sublime principles upon which all written or spoken language depends4 ,it forms an important part of physical and mental science1 which1 correctly explained1 is abundantly simple and extensively useful in its application to the affairs of human life and the promotion of human enjoyment4 ,it will not be contended that we are assuming a position beyond the capacities of learners1 that the course here adopted is too philosophic4 ,such is not the fact4 ,children are philosophers by nature4 ,all their ideas are derived from things as presented to their observations4 ,no mother learns her child to lisp the name of a thing which has no being1 but she chooses objects with which it is most familiar1 and which are most constantly before it2 such as father1 mother1 brother1 sister4 ,she constantly points to the object named1 that a distinct impression may be made upon its mind1 and the thing signified1 the idea of the thing1 and the name which represents it1 are all inseparably associated together4 ,if the father is absent1 the child may think of him from the idea or impression which his person and affection has produced in the mind4 ,if the mother pronounces his name with which it has become familiar1 the child will start1 look about for the object1 or thing signified by the name1 father1 and not being able to discover him1 will settle down contented with the idea of him deeply impressed on the mind1 and as distinctly understood as if the father was present in person4 ,so with every thing else4 ,again1 after the child has become familiar with the name of the being called father2 the name1 idea and object itself being intimately associated the mother will next begin to teach it another lesson2 following most undeviatingly the course which nature and true philosophy mark out4 ,the father comes and goes1 is present or absent4 ,she says on his return1 father come1 and the little one looks round to see the thing signified by the word father1 the idea of which is distinctly impressed on the mind1 and which it now sees present before it4 ,but this loved object has not always been here4 ,it had looked round and called for the father4 ,but the mother had told it he was gone4 ,father gone1 father come1 is her language1 and here the child begins to learn ideas of actions4 ,of this it had1 at first1 no notion whatever1 and never thought of the father except when his person was present before it1 for no impressions had been distinctly made upon the mind which could be called up by a sound of which it could have no conceptions whatever4 ,now that it has advanced so far1 the idea of the father is retained1 even tho he is himself absent1 and the child begins to associate the notion of coming and going with his presence or absence4 ,following out this course the mind becomes acquainted with things and actions1 or the changes which things undergo4 ,next1 the mother begins to learn her offspring the distinction and qualities of things4 ,when the little sister comes to it in innocent playfulness the mother says1 good sister1 and with the descriptive word good it soon begins to associate the quality expressed by the affectionate regard1 of its sister4 ,but when that sister strikes the child1 or pesters it in any way1 the mother says naughty sister1 bad sister4 ,it soon comprehends the descriptive words1 good and bad1 and along with them carries the association of ideas which such conduct produces4 ,in the same way it learns to distinguish the difference between great and small1 cold and hot1 hard and soft4 ,in this manner the child becomes acquainted with the use of language4 ,it first becomes acquainted with things1 the idea of which is left upon the mind1 or1 more properly1 the impression of which1 left on the mind1 constitutes the idea2 and a vocabulary of words are learned1 which represent these ideas1 from which it may select those best calculated to express its meaning whenever a conversation is had with another4 ,you will readily perceive the correctness of our first proposition1 that all language depends on the fixed and unerring laws of nature4 ,things exist4 ,a knowledge of them produces ideas in the mind1 and sounds or signs are adopted as vehicles to convey these ideas from one to another4 ,it would be absurd and ridiculous to suppose that any person1 however great1 or learned1 or wise1 could employ language correctly without a knowledge of the things expressed by that language4 ,no matter how chaste his words1 how lofty his phrases1 how sweet the intonations1 or mellow the accents4 ,it would avail him nothing if ideas were not represented thereby4 ,it would all be an unknown tongue to the hearer or reader4 ,it would not be like the loud rolling thunder1 for that tells the wondrous power of ,god4 ,it would not be like the soft zephyrs of evening1 the radiance of the sun1 the twinkling of the stars2 for they speak the intelligible language of sublimity itself1 and tell of the kindness and protection of our ,father who is in heaven4 ,it would not be like the sweet notes of the choral songsters of the grove1 for they warble hymns of gratitude to ,god2 not like the boding of the distant owl1 for that tells the profound solemnity of night2 not like the hungry lion roaring for his prey1 for that tells of death and plunder2 not like the distant notes of the clarion1 for that tells of blood and carnage1 of tears and anguish1 of widowhood and orphanage4 ,it can be compared to nothing but a ,babel of confusion in which their own folly is worse confounded4 ,and yet1 ,i am sorry to say it1 the languages of all ages and nations have been too frequently perverted1 and compiled into a heterogeneous mass of abstruse1 metaphysical volumes1 whose only recommendation is the elegant bindings in which they are enclosed4 ,and grammars themselves1 whose pretended object is to teach the rules of speaking and writing correctly1 form but a miserable exception to this sweeping remark4 ,i defy any grammarian1 author1 or teacher of the numberless systems1 which come1 like the frogs of ,egypt1 all of one genus1 to cover the land1 to give a reasonable explanation of even the terms they employ to define their meaning1 if indeed1 meaning they have4 ,what is meant by an in-definite article1 a dis-junctive con-junction1 an ad-verb which qualifies an adjective1 and sometimes another ad-verb8 ,such parts of speech have no existence in fact1 and their adoption in rules of grammar1 have been found exceedingly mischievous and perplexing4 ,adverbs and conjunctions1 and adverbial phrases1 and conjunctive expressions1 may serve as common sewers for a large and most useful class of words1 which the teachers of grammar and lexicographers have been unable to explain2 but learners will gain little information by being told that such is an adverbial phrase1 and such1 a conjunctive expression4 ,this is an easy method1 ,i confess1 a sort of wholesale traffic1 in parsing 7passing7 language1 and may serve to cloak the ignorance of the teachers and makers of grammars4 ,but it will reflect little light on the principles of language1 or prove very efficient helps to speak or write with propriety4 ,those who think1 will demand the meaning of these words1 and the reason of their use4 ,when that is ascertained1 little difficulty will be found in giving them a place in the company of respectable words4 ,but ,i am digressing4 ,more shall be said upon this point in a future lecture1 and in its proper place4 ,i was endeavoring to establish the position that all language depends upon permanent principles2 that words are the signs of ideas1 and ideas are the impressions of things communicated to the mind thro the medium of some one of the five senses4 ,i think ,i have succeeded so far as simple material things are concerned1 to the satisfaction of all who have heard me4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be more difficult for me to explain the words employed to express complex ideas1 and things of immateriality1 such as mind1 and its attributes4 ,but the rules previously adopted will1 ,i apprehend1 apply with equal ease and correctness in this case2 and we shall have cause to admire the simple yet sublime foundation upon which the whole superstructure of language is based4 ,in pursuing this investigation ,i shall endeavor to avoid all abstruse and metaphysical reasoning1 present no wild conjectures1 or vain hypotheses2 but confine myself to plain1 common place matter of fact4 ,we have reason to rejoice that a wonderful improvement in the science and cultivation of the mind has taken place in these last days2 that we are no longer puzzled with the strange phantoms1 the wild speculations which occupied the giant minds of a ,descartes1 a ,malebranch1 a ,locke1 a ,reid1 a ,stewart1 and hosts of others1 whose shining talents would have qualified them for the brightest ornaments of literature1 real benefactors of mankind1 had not their education lead them into dark and metaphysical reasonings1 a continued tissue of the wildest vagaries1 in which they became entangled1 till1 at length1 they were entirely lost in the labyrinth of their own conjectures4 ,the occasion of all their difficulty originated in an attempt to investigate the faculties of the mind without any means of getting at it4 ,they did not content themselves with an adoption of the principles which lay at the foundation of all true philosophy1 viz41 that the facts to be accounted for1 do exist2 that truth is eternal1 and we are to become acquainted with it by the means employed for its development4 ,they quitted the world of materiality they inhabited1 refused to examine the development of mind as the effect of an existing cause2 and at one bold push1 entered the world of thought1 and made the unhallowed attempt to reason1 a priori1 concerning things which can only be known by their manifestations4 ,but they soon found themselves in a strange land1 confused with sights and sounds unknown1 in the explanation of which they1 of course1 choose terms as unintelligible to their readers1 as the ideal realities were to them4 ,this course1 adopted by ,aristotle1 has been too closely followed by those who have come after him4#b ,but a new era has dawned upon the philosophy of the mind1 and a corresponding change in the method of inculcating the principles of language must follow4#c ,in all our investigations we must take things as we find them1 and account for them as far as we can4 ,it would be a thankless task to attempt a change of principles in any thing4 ,that would be an encroachment of the ,creator's rights4 ,it belongs to mortals to use the things they have as not abusing them2 and to ,deity to regulate the laws by which those things are governed4 ,and that man is the wisest1 the truest philosopher1 and brightest ,christian1 who acquaints himself with those laws as they do exist in the regulation of matter and mind1 in the promotion of physical and moral enjoyment1 and endeavors to conform to them in all his thoughts and actions4 ,from this apparent digression you will at once discover our object4 ,we must not endeavor to change the principles of language1 but to understand and explain them2 to ascertain1 as far as possible1 the actions of the mind in obtaining ideas1 and the use of language in expressing them4 ,we may not be able to make our sentiments understood2 but if they are not1 the fault will originate in no obscurity in the facts themselves1 but in our inability either to understand them or the words employed in their expression4 ,having been in the habit of using words with either no meaning or a wrong one1 it may be difficult to comprehend the subject of which they treat4 ,a man may have a quantity of sulphur1 charcoal1 and nitre1 but it is not until he learns their properties and combinations that he can make gunpowder4 ,let us then adopt a careful and independent course of reasoning1 resolved to meddle with nothing we do not understand1 and to use no words until we know their meaning4 ,a complex idea is a combination of several simple ones1 as a tree is made up of roots1 a trunk1 branches1 twigs1 and leaves4 ,and these again may be divided into the wood1 the bark1 the sap1 c4 ,or we may employ the botanical terms1 and enumerate its external and internal parts and qualities2 the whole anatomy and physiology1 as well as variety and history of trees of that species1 and show its characteristic distinctions2 for the mind receives a different impression on looking at a maple1 a birch1 a poplar1 a tamarisk1 a sycamore1 or hemlock4 ,in this way complex ideas are formed1 distinct in their parts1 but blended in a common whole2 and1 in conformity with the law regulating language1 words1 sounds or signs1 are employed to express the complex whole1 or each distinctive part4 ,the same may be said of all things of like character4 ,but this idea ,i will illustrate more at large before the close of this lecture4 ,first impressions are produced by a view of material things1 as we have already seen2 and the notion of action is obtained from a knowledge of the changes these things undergo4 ,the idea of quality and definition is produced by contrast and comparison4 ,children soon learn the difference between a sweet apple and a sour one1 a white rose and a red one1 a hard seat and a soft one1 harmonious sounds and those that are discordant1 a pleasant smell and one that is disagreeable4 ,as the mind advances1 the application is varied1 and they speak of a sweet rose1 changing from taste and sight to smell1 of a sweet song1 of a hard apple1 c4 ,according to the qualities thus learned1 you may talk to them intelligibly of the sweetness of an apple1 the color of a rose1 the hardness of iron1 the harmony of sounds1 the smell or scent of things which possess that quality4 ,as these agree or disagree with their comfort1 they will call them good or bad1 and speak of the qualities of goodness and badness1 as if possessed by the thing itself4 ,in this apparently indiscriminate use of words1 the ideas remain distinct2 and each sign or object calls them up separately and associates them together1 till1 at length1 in the single object is associated all the ideas entertained of its size1 qualities1 relations1 and affinities4 ,in this manner1 after long1 persevering toil1 principles of thought are fixed1 and a foundation laid for the whole course of future thinking and speaking4 ,the ideas become less simple and distinct4 ,just as fast as the mind advances in the knowledge of things1 language keeps pace with the ideas1 and even goes beyond them1 so that in process of time a single term will not unfrequently represent a complexity of ideas1 one of which will signify a whole combination of things4 ,on the other hand1 there are many instances where the single declaration of a fact may convey to the untutored mind1 a single thought or nearly so1 when the better cultivated will take into the account the whole process by which it is effected4 ,to illustrate3 a man killed a deer4 ,here the boy would see and imagine more than he is yet fully able to comprehend4 ,he will see the obvious fact that the man levels his musket1 the gun goes off with a loud report1 and the deer falls and dies4 ,how this is all produced he does not understand1 but knowing the fact he asserts the single truth--the man killed the deer4 ,as the child advances1 he will learn that the sentence conveys to the mind more than he at first perceived4 ,he now understands how it was accomplished4 ,the man had a gun4 ,then he must go back to the gunsmith and see how it was made1 thence back to the iron taken from its bed1 and wrought into bars2 all the processes by which it is brought into the shape of a gun1 the tools and machinery employed2 the wood for the stock1 its quality and production2 the size1 form and color of the lock1 the principle upon which it moves2 the flint1 the effect produced by a collision with the steel1 or a percussion cap1 and its composition2 till he finds a single gun in the hands of a man4 ,the man is present with this gun4 ,the motives which brought him here2 the movements of his limbs1 regulated by the determinations of the mind1 and a thousand other such thoughts1 might be taken into the account4 ,then the deer1 his size1 form1 color1 manner of living1 next may claim a passing thought4 ,but ,i need not enlarge4 ,here they both stand4 ,the man has just seen the deer4 ,as quick as thought his eye passes over the ground1 sees the prey is within proper distance1 takes aim1 pulls the trigger1 that loosens a spring1 which forces the flint against the steel2 this produces a spark1 which ignites the charcoal1 and the sulphur and nitre combined1 explode and force the wad1 which forces the ball from the gun1 and is borne thro the air till it reaches the deer1 enters his body by displacing the skin and flesh1 deranges the animal functions1 and death ensues4 ,the whole and much more is expressed in the single phrase1 a man killed a deer4 ,it would be needless for me to stop here1 and examine all the operations of the mind in coming at this state of knowledge4 ,that is not the object of the present work4 ,such a duty belongs to another treatise1 which may some day be undertaken1 on logic and the science of the mind4 ,the hint here given will enable you to perceive how the mind expands1 and how language keeps pace with every advancing step1 and1 also1 how combinations are made from simple things1 as a house is made of timber1 boards1 shingles1 nails1 and paints2 or of bricks1 stone1 and mortar2 as the case may be1 and when completed1 a single term may express the idea1 and you speak of a wood1 or a brick house4 ,following this suggestion1 by tracing the operations of the mind in the young child1 or your own1 very minutely1 in the acquisition of any knowledge before wholly unknown to you1 as a new language1 or a new science2 botany1 mineralogy1 chemistry1 or phrenology2 you will readily discover how the mind receives new impressions of things1 and a new vocabulary is adopted to express the ideas formed of plants1 minerals1 chemical properties1 and the development of the capacities of the mind as depending on material organs2 how these things are changed and combined2 and how their existence and qualities1 changes and combinations1 are expressed by words1 to be retained1 or conveyed to other minds4 ,but suppose you talk to a person wholly unacquainted with these things1 will he understand you8 ,talk to him of stamens1 pistils1 calyxes2 of monandria1 diandria1 triandria2 of gypsum1 talc1 calcareous spar1 quartz1 topaz1 mica1 garnet1 pyrites1 hornblende1 augite1 actynolite2 of hexahedral1 prismatic1 rhomboidal1 dodecahedral2 of acids and alkalies2 of oxygen1 hydrogen1 nitrogen and carbon2 of the configuration of the brain1 and its relative powers2 do all this1 and what will he know of your meaning8 ,so of all science4 ,words are to be understood from the things they are employed to represent4 ,you may as well talk to a man in the hebrew1 chinese1 or choctaw languages1 as in our own1 if he does not know what is signified by the words selected as the medium of thought4 ,your language may be most pure1 perfect1 full of meaning1 but you cannot make yourself understood till your hearers can look thro your signs to the things signified4 ,you may as well present before them a picture of nothing4 ,the great fault in the popular system of education is easily accounted for1 particularly in reference to language4 ,children are taught to study signs without looking at the thing signified4 ,in this way they are mere copyists1 and the mind can never expand so as to make them independent1 original thinkers4 ,in fact1 they can1 in this way1 never learn to reason well or employ language correctly2 no more than a painter can be successful in his art1 by merely looking at the pictures of others without having ever seen the originals4 ,a good artist is a close observer of nature4 ,so children should be left free to examine and reflect1 and the signs will then serve their proper use--the means of acquiring the knowledge of things4 ,in vain you may give a scholar a knowledge of the ,hebrew1 ,greek1 or ,latin1 learn him to translate with rapidity or speak our own language fluently4 ,if he has not thereby learned the knowledge of things signified by such language1 he is1 in principle1 advanced no farther than the parrot which says pretty poll1 pretty poll4 ,i am happy1 however1 in the consideration that a valuable change is taking place in this respect4 ,geography is no longer taught on the old systems1 but maps are given to represent more vividly land and water1 rivers1 islands1 and mountains4 ,the study of arithmetic1 chemistry1 and nearly all the sciences have been materially improved within a few years4 ,grammar alone remains in quiet possession of its unquestioned authority4 ,its nine parts of speech1 its three genders1 its three cases1 its half dozen kinds of pronouns1 and as many moods and tenses1 have rarely been disquieted4 ,a host of book makers have fondled around them1 but few have dared molest them1 finding them so snugly ensconced under the sanctity of age1 and the venerated opinions of learned and good men4 ,of the numberless attempts to simplify grammar1 what has been the success8 ,wherein do modern simplifiers differ from ,murray8 and he was only a compiler6 ,they have all discovered his errors4 ,but who has corrected them8 ,they have all deviated somewhat from his manner4 ,but what is that but saying1 that with all his grammatical knowledge1 he could not explain his own meaning8 ,all the trouble originates in this2 the rules of grammar have not been sought for where they are only to be found1 in the laws that govern matter and thought4 ,arbitrary rules have been adopted which will never apply in practice1 except in special cases1 and the attempt to bind language down to them is as absurd as to undertake to chain thought1 or stop the waters of ,niagara with a straw4 ,language will go on1 and keep pace with the mind1 and grammar should explain it so as to be correctly understood4 ,i wish you to keep these principles distinctly in view all thro my remarks1 that you may challenge every position ,i assume till proved to be correct--till you distinctly understand it and definite impressions are made upon your minds4 ,in this way you will discover a beauty and perfection in language before unknown2 its rules will be found few and simple1 holding with most unyielding tenacity to the sublime principles upon which they depend2 and you will have reason to admire the works and adore the character of the great ,parent ,intellect1 whose presence and protection pervade all his works and regulate the laws of matter and mind4 ,you will feel yourselves involuntarily filled with sentiments of gratitude for the gift of mind1 its affections1 powers1 and means of operation and communication1 and resolved more than ever to employ these faculties in human improvement and the advancement of general happiness4 ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,,written ,,and ,,spoken ,,language4 ,principles never alter4--,they should be known4--,grammar a most important branch of science4--,spoken and written ,language4--,idea of a thing4--,how expressed4--,an example4--,picture writing4--,an anecdote4--,ideas expressed by actions4--,principles of spoken and written ,language4--,apply universally4--,two examples4--,english language4--,foreign words4--,words in science4--,new words4--,how formed4 ,we now come to take a nearer view of language as generally understood by grammar4 ,but we shall have no occasion to depart from the principles already advanced1 for there is existing in practice nothing which may not be accounted for in theory2 as there can be no effect without an efficient cause to produce it4 ,we may1 however1 long remain ignorant of the true explanation of the principles involved2 but the fault is ours1 and not in the things themselves4 ,the earth moved with as much grandeur and precision around its axis and in its orbit before the days of ,gallileo ,gallilei1 when philosophers believed it flat and stationary1 as it has done since4 ,so the great principles on which depends the existence and use of all language are permanent1 and may be correctly employed by those who have never examined them2 but this does not prove that to be ignorant is better than to be wise4 ,we may have taken food all our days without knowing much of the process by which it is converted into nourishment and incorporated into our bodies1 without ever having heard of delutition chymification1 chylification1 or even digestion1 as a whole2 but this is far from convincing me that the knowledge of these things is unimportant1 or that ignorance of them is not the cause of much disease and suffering among mankind4 ,and it is1 or should be1 the business of the physiologist to explain these things1 and show the great practical benefit resulting from a general knowledge of them4 ,so the grammarian should act as a sort of physiologist of language4 ,he should analyze all its parts and show how it is framed together to constitute a perfect whole4 ,instead of exacting of you a blind submission to a set of technical expressions1 and arbitrary rules1 ,i most urgently exhort you to continue1 with unremitting assiduity1 your inquiries into the reason and propriety of the positions which may be taken4 ,it is the business of philosophy1 not to meddle with things to direct how they should be1 but to account for them and their properties and relations as they are4 ,so it is the business of grammar to explain language as it exists in use1 and exhibit the reason why it is used thus1 and what principles must be observed to employ it correctly in speaking and writing4 ,this method is adopted to carry out the principles already established1 and show their adaptation to the wants of the community1 and how they may be correctly and successfully employed4 ,grammar considered in this light forms a department in the science of the mind by no means unimportant4 ,and it can not fail to be deeply interesting to all who would employ it in the business1 social1 literary1 moral1 or religious concerns of life4 ,those who have thoughts to communicate1 or desire an acquaintance with the minds of others1 can not be indifferent to the means on which such intercourse depends4 ,i am convinced1 therefore1 that you will give me your most profound attention as ,i pursue the subject of the present lecture somewhat in detail4 ,and ,i hope you will not consider me tedious or unnecessarily prolix in my remarks4 ,i will not be particular in my remarks upon the changes of spoken and written language1 altho that topic of itself1 in the different sounds and signs employed in different ages and by different nations to express the same idea1 would form a most interesting theme for several lectures4 ,but that work must be reserved for a future occasion4 ,you are all acquainted with the signs1 written and spoken1 which are employed in our language as vehicles 7some of them like omnibusses7 of thought to carry ideas from one mind to another4 ,some of you doubtless are acquainted with the application of this fact in other languages4 ,in other words1 you know how to sound the name of a thing1 how to describe its properties as far as you understand them1 and its attitudes or changes4 ,this you can do by vocal sounds1 or written1 or printed signs4 ,on the other hand1 you can receive a similar impression by hearing the description of another1 or by seeing it written or printed4 ,but here you will bear in mind the fact that the word1 spoken or written1 is but the sign of the idea derived from the thing signified4 ,for example3 ,here is an apple4 ,i do not now speak of its composition1 the skin1 the pulp1 c42 nor of its qualities1 whether sour1 or sweet1 or bitter1 good or bad1 great or small1 long or short1 round or flat1 red1 or white1 or yellow4 ,i speak of a single thing--an apple4 ,here it is1 present before you4 ,look at it4 ,it is now removed4 ,you do not see it4 ,your minds are occupied with something else1 in looking at that organ1 or this representation of ,solomon's temple1 or1 perhaps1 lingering in melancholy review of your old systems of grammar thro which you plodded at a tedious rate1 goaded on by the stimulus of the ferule1 or the fear of being called ignorant4 ,from that unhappy reverie ,i recal your minds1 by saying apple4 ,an apple8 where8 ,there is none in sight4 ,no2 but you have distinct recollections of a single object ,i just now held before you4 ,you see it1 mentally1 and were you painters you might paint its likeness4 ,what has brought this object so vividly before you8 ,the single sound apple4 ,this sound has called up the idea produced in your mind on looking at this object which ,i now again present before you4 ,here is the thing represented--the apple4 ,again ,i lay it aside1 and commence a conversation with you on the varieties of apples1 the form1 color1 flavor1 manner of production1 their difference from other fruit1 where found1 when1 and by whom4 ,here6 look again4 ,what do you see8 ,a-,p-,p-,l-,e--,apple4 ,what is that8 ,the representation of the idea produced in the mind by a certain object you saw a little while ago4 ,here then you have the spoken and written signs of this single object ,i now again present to your vision4 ,this idea may also be called up by the sense of feeling1 smelling1 or tasting1 under certain restrictions4 ,here you would be no more liable to be mistaken than by seeing4 ,we can indeed imagine things which would feel1 and smell1 and taste1 and look some like an apple1 but it falls to the lot of more abstruse reasoners to make their suppositions1 and then account for them--to imagine things1 and then treat of them as realities4 ,we are content with the knowledge of things as they do exist1 and think there is little danger of mistaking a potato for an apple1 or a squash for a pear4 ,tho in the dark we may lay hold of the ,frenchman's pomme de terre--apple of the earth1 the first bite will satisfy us of our mistake if we are not too metaphysical4 ,the same idea may be called up in your minds by a picture of the apple presented to your sight4 ,on this ground the picture writing of the ancients may be accounted for2 and after that1 the hieroglyphics of ,egypt and other countries1 which was but a step from picture writing towards the use of the alphabet4 ,but these signs or vehicles for the conveyance or transmission of their thoughts1 compared with the present perfect state of language1 were as aukward and uncomly as the carriages employed for the conveyance of their bodies were compared with those now in use4 ,they were like ox carts drawn by mules1 compared with the most splendid barouches drawn by elegant dapple-greys4 ,a similar mode would be adopted now by those unacquainted with alphabetical writing4 ,it was so with the merchant who could not write4 ,he sold his neighbor a grindstone1 on trust4 ,lest he should forget it--lest the idea of it should be obliterated from the mind--he1 in the absence of his clerk1 took his book and a pen and drew out a round picture to represent it4 ,some months after1 he dunned his neighbor for his pay for a cheese4 ,i have bought no cheese of you1 was the reply4 ,yes1 you have1 for ,i have it charged4 ,you must be mistaken1 for ,i never bought a cheese4 ,we always make our own4 ,how then should ,i have one charged to you8 ,i cannot tell4 ,i have never had any thing here on credit except a grindstone4 ,ah6 that's it1 that's it1 only ,i forgot to make a hole through it6 ,ideas may also be exchanged by actions4 ,this is the first and strongest language of nature4 ,it may be employed1 when words have failed1 in the most effectual manner4 ,the angry man1 choked with rage1 unable to speak1 tells the violent passions1 burning in his bosom1 in a language which can not be mistaken4 ,the actions of a friend are a surer test of friendship than all the honied words he may utter4 ,actions speak louder than words4 ,the first impressions of maternal affection are produced in the infant mind by the soothing attentions of the mother4 ,in the same way we may understand the language of the deaf and dumb4 ,certain motions express certain ideas4 ,these being duly arranged and conformed to our alphabetic signs1 and well understood1 the pupil may become acquainted with book knowledge as well as we4 ,they go by sight and not by sound4 ,a different method is adopted with the blind4 ,letters with them are so arranged that they can feel them4 ,the signs thus felt correspond with the sounds they hear4 ,here they must stop4 ,they cannot see to describe4 ,those who are so unfortunate as to be blind and deaf1 can have but a faint knowledge of language1 or the ideas of others4 ,on similar principles we may explain the pantomime plays sometimes performed1 where the most entertaining scenes of love and murder are represented1 but not a word spoken4 ,three things are always to be born in mind in the use and study of all language3 #ast1 the thing signified2 #b;d1 the idea of the thing2 and #c;d1 the word or sign chosen to represent it4 ,things exist4 ,thinking beings conceive ideas of things4 ,those who employ language adopt sounds or signs to convey those ideas to others4 ,on these obvious principles rest the whole superstructure of all language1 spoken or written4 ,objects are presented to the mind1 impressions are there made1 which1 retained1 constitute the idea1 and1 by agreement1 certain words are employed as the future signs or representations of those ideas4 ,if we saw an object in early life and knew its name1 the mention of that name will recal afresh the idea which had long lain dormant in the memory1 7if ,i may so speak17 and we can converse about it as correctly as when we first saw it4 ,these principles1 ,i have said1 hold good in all languages4 ,proof of this may not improperly be offered here1 provided it be not too prolix4 ,i will endeavor to be brief4 ,in an open area of sufficient dimensions is congregated a delegation from every language under heaven4 ,all are so arranged as to face a common center4 ,a white horse is led into that spot and all look at the living animal which stands before them4 ,the same impression must be made on all minds so far as a single animal is concerned4 ,but as the whole is made up of parts1 so their minds will soon diverge from a single idea1 and one will think of his size1 compared with other horses2 another of his form2 another of his color4 ,some will think of his noble appearance1 others of his ability to travel1 or 7in jockey phrase7 his speed4 ,the farrier will look for his blemishes1 to see if he is sound1 and the jockey at his teeth1 to guess at his age4 ,the anatomist will1 in thought1 dissect him into parts and see every bone1 sinew1 cartilage1 blood vessel1 his stomach1 lungs1 liver1 heart1 entrails2 every part will be laid open2 and while the thoughtless urchin sees a single object--a white horse--others will1 at a single glance1 read volumes of instruction4 ,oh6 the importance of knowledge6 how little is it regarded6 ,what funds of instruction might be gathered from the lessons every where presented to the mind6 ,one impression would be made on all minds in reference to the single tangible object before them2 no matter how learned or ignorant4 ,there stands an animal obvious to all4 ,let him be removed out of sight1 and a very exact picture of him suspended in his place4 ,all again agree4 ,here then is the proof of our first general principle1 viz4 all language depends on the fixed and unvarying laws of nature4 ,let the picture be removed and a man step forth and pronounce the word1 ippos4 ,the ,greek starts up and says1 ,yes1 it is so4 ,the rest do not comprehend him4 ,he then writes out distinctly1 ,greek3 ,,ippos4 ,they are in the dark as to the meaning4 ,they know not whether a horse1 a man1 or a goose is named4 ,all the ,greeks1 however1 understand the meaning the same as when the horse or picture was before them1 for they had agreed that ippos should represent the idea of that animal4 ,forth steps another1 and pronounces the word cheval4 ,every ,frenchman is aroused3 ,oui1 monsieur8 ,yes1 sir4 ,comprenez vous8 ,do you understand8 he says to the rest4 ,but they are dumb4 ,he then writes ,c-,h-,e-,v-,a-,l4 ,all are as ignorant as before1 save the ,frenchmen who had agreed that cheval should be the name for horse4 ,next go yourself1 thinking all will understand you1 and say1 horse2 but1 lo6 none unacquainted with your language are the wiser for the sound you utter1 or the sign you suspended before them2 save1 perhaps1 a little old ,saxon1 who1 at first looks deceived by the similarity of sound1 but1 seeing the sign1 is as demure as ever1 for he omits the e1 and pronounces it shorter than we do1 more like a yorkshire man4 ,but why are you not understood8 ,because others have not entered into an agreement with you that h-o-r-s-e1 spoken or written1 shall represent that animal4 ,take another example4 ,place the living animal called man before them4 ,less trouble will be found in this case than in the former1 for there is a nearer agreement than before in regard to the signs which shall be employed to express the idea4 ,this word occurs with very little variation in the modern languages1 derived undoubtedly from the ,teutonic1 with a little change in the spelling1 as ,saxon mann or mon1 ,gothic manna1 ,german1 ,danish1 ,dutch1 ,swedish and ,icelandic like ours4 ,in the south of ,europe1 however1 this word varies as well as others4 ,our language is derived more directly from the old ,saxon than from any other1 but has a great similarity to the ,french and ,latin1 and a kind of cousin-german to all the languages of ,europe1 ancient and modern4 ,ours1 indeed1 is a compound from most other languages1 retaining some of their beauties and many of their defects4 ,we can boast little distinctive character of our own4 ,as ,england was possessed by different nations at different periods1 so different dialects were introduced1 and we can trace our language to as many sources1 ,german1 ,danish1 ,saxon1 ,french1 and ,roman1 which were the different nations amalgamated into the ,british empire4 ,we retain little of the real old english--few words which may not be traced to a foreign extraction4 ,different people settling in a country would of course carry their ideas and manner of expressing them2 and from the whole compound a general agreement would1 in process of time1 take place1 and a uniform language be established4 ,such is the origin and condition of our language1 as well as every other modern tongue of which we have any knowledge4 ,there is one practice of which our savans are guilty1 at which ,i do most seriously demur--the extravagant introduction of exotic words into our vocabulary1 apparently for no other object than to swell the size of a dictionary1 and boast of having found out and defined thousands of words more than any body else4 ,a mania seems to have seized our lexicographers1 so that they have forsaken the good old style of plainness of speech1 and are flourishing and brandishing about in a cloud of verbiage as though the whole end of instruction was to teach loquacity4 ,and some of our popular writers and speakers have caught the infection1 and flourish in borrowed garments1 prizing themselves most highly when they use words and phrases which no body can understand4 ,i will not contend that in the advancement of the arts and sciences it may not be proper to introduce foreign terms as the mean of conveying a knowledge of those improvements to others4 ,it is better than to coin new words1 inasmuch as they are generally adopted by all modern nations4 ,in this way all languages are approximating together2 and when the light of truth1 science1 and religion1 has fully shone on all the nations1 we may hope one language will be spoken1 and the promise be fulfilled1 that ,god has turned unto the people a pure language1 that they may call upon the name of the ,lord1 to serve him with one consent4 ,new ideas are formed like new inventions4 ,established principles are employed in a new combination1 so as to produce a new manifestation4 ,words are chosen as nearly allied to former ideas as possible1 to express or represent this new combination4 ,thus1 ,fulton applied steam power to navigation4 ,a new idea was produced4 ,a boat was seen passing along the waters without the aid of wind or tide4 ,instead of coining a new word to express the whole1 a word which nobody would understand1 two old ones were combined1 and steamboat became the sign to represent the idea of the thing beheld4 ,so with rail-road1 cotton-mill1 and gun-powder4 ,in the same way we may account for most words employed in science1 although in that case we are more dependant on foreign languages1 in as much as a large portion of our knowledge is derived from them4 ,but we may account for them on the same principle as above4 ,phrenology is a compound of two greek words1 and means the science or knowledge of the mind4 ,so of geology1 mineralogy1 c4 ,but when improvements are made by those who speak the english1 words in our own language are employed and used not only by ourselves1 but also by those nations who profit by our investigations4 ,i trust ,i have now said enough on the general principles of language as applied to things4 ,in the next lecture ,i will come down to a sort of bird's eye view of grammar4 ,but my soul abhors arbitrary rules so devoutly1 ,i can make no promises how long ,i will continue in close communion with set forms of speech4 ,i love to wander too well to remain confined to one spot1 narrowed up in the limits fixed by others4 ,freedom is the empire of the mind2 it abjures all fetters1 all slavery4 ,it kneels at the altar of virtue and worships at the shrine of truth4 ,no obstacles should be thrown in the way of its progress4 ,no limits should be set to it but those of the ,almighty4 ,,lecture ,,iv4 ,,on ,,nouns4 ,nouns defined4--,things4--,qualities of matter4--,mind4--,spiritual beings4--,qualities of mind4--,how learned4--,imaginary things4-- ,negation4--,names of actions4--,proper nouns4--,characteristic names4--,proper nouns may become common4 ,your attention is1 this evening1 invited to the first divisions of words1 called ,nouns4 ,this is a most important class1 and as such deserves our particular notice4 ,nouns are the names of things4 ,the word noun is derived from the ,latin nomen1 ,french nom4 ,it means name4 ,hence the definition above given4 ,in grammar it is employed to distinguish that class of words which name things1 or stand as signs or representatives of things4 ,we use the word thing in its broadest sense1 including every possible entity2 every being1 or thing1 animate or inanimate1 material or immaterial1 real or imaginary1 physical1 moral1 or intellectual4 ,it is the noun of the ,saxon thincan or thingian1 to think2 and is used to express every conceivable object of thought1 in whatever form or manner presented to the human mind4 ,every word employed to designate things1 or name them1 is to be ranked in the class called nouns1 or names4 ,you have only to determine whether a word is used thus1 to learn whether it belongs to this or some other class of words4 ,here let me repeat3 #a4 ,things exist4 #b4 ,we conceive ideas of things4 #c4 ,we use sounds or signs to communicate these ideas to others4 #d4 ,we denominate the class of words thus used1 nouns4 ,perhaps ,i ought to stop here1 or pass to another topic4 ,but as these lectures are intended to be so plain that all can understand my meaning1 ,i must indulge in a few more remarks before advancing farther4 ,in addition to individual1 tangible objects1 we conceive ideas of the qualities of things1 and give names to such qualities1 which become nouns4 ,thus1 the hardness of iron1 the heat of fire1 the color of a rose1 the bitterness of gall1 the error of grammars4 ,the following may serve to make my views more plain4 ,take two tumblers1 the one half filled with water1 the other with milk2 mix them together4 ,you can now talk of the milk in the water1 or the water in the milk4 ,your ideas are distinct1 tho the objects are so intimately blended1 that they can not be separated4 ,so with the qualities of things4 ,we also speak of mind1 intellect1 soul2 but to them we can give no form1 and of them paint no likeness4 ,yet we have ideas of them1 and employ words to express them1 which become nouns4 ,this accounts for the reason why the great ,parent ,intellect has strictly forbidden1 in the decalogue1 that a likeness of him should be constructed4 ,his being and attributes are discoverable only thro the medium of his works and word4 ,no man can see him and live4 ,it would be the height of folly--it would be more--it would be blasphemy--to attempt to paint the likeness of him whose presence fills immensity--whose center is every where1 and whose circumference is no where4 ,the name of this ,spirit or ,being was held in the most profound reverence by the ,jews1 as we shall have occasion to mention when we come to treat of the verb to be4 ,we talk of angels1 and have seen the unhallowed attempt to describe their likeness in the form of pictures1 which display the fancy of the artist very finely1 but give a miserable idea of those pure spirits who minister at the altar of ,god1 and chant his praises in notes of the most unspeakable delight4 ,we have also seen death and the pale horse1 the firy dragon1 the mystery of ,babylon1 and such like things1 represented on canvass2 but they betoken more of human talent to depict the marvellous1 than a strict regard for truth4 ,beelzebub1 imps1 and all ,pandemonium1 may be vividly imagined and finely arranged in fiction1 and we can name them4 ,wizzards1 witches1 and fairies1 may play their sportive tricks in the human brain1 and receive names as tho they were real4 ,we also think and speak of the qualities and affections of the mind as well as matter1 as wisdom1 knowledge1 virtue1 vice1 love1 hatred1 anger4 ,our conceptions in this case may be less distinct1 but we have ideas1 and use words to express them4 ,there is1 we confess1 a greater liability to mistake and misunderstand when treating of mind and its qualities1 than of matter4 ,the reason is evident1 people know less of it4 ,its operations are less distinct and more varying4 ,the child first sees material objects4 ,it is taught to name them4 ,it next learns the qualities of things2 as the sweetness of sugar1 the darkness of night1 the beauty of flowers4 ,from this it ascends by gradation to the higher attainments of knowledge as revealed in the empire of mind1 as well as matter4 ,great care should be taken that this advancement be easy1 natural1 and thoro4 ,it should be constantly impressed with the importance of obtaining clear and definite ideas of things1 and never employ words till it has ideas to express2 never name a thing of which it has no knowledge4 ,this is ignorance4 ,it would be well1 perhaps1 to extend this remark to those older than children1 in years1 but less in real practical knowledge4 ,the remark is of such general application1 that no specification need be made1 except to the case before us2 to those affected proficients in grammar1 whose only knowledge is the memory of words1 which to them have no meanings1 if1 indeed1 the writers themselves had any to express by them2 a fact we regard as questionable1 at best4 ,there is hardly a teacher of grammar1 whose self-esteem is not enormous1 who will not confess himself ignorant on many of the important principles of language2 that he has never understood1 and could never explain them4 ,he finds no difficulty in repeating what the books say1 but if called upon to express an opinion of his own1 he has none to give4 ,he has learned and used words without knowing their meaning4 ,children should be taught language as they are taught music4 ,they should learn the simple tones on which the whole science depends4 ,distinct impressions of sounds should be made on their minds1 and the characters which represent them should be inseparably associated with them4 ,they will then learn tunes from the compositions of those sounds1 as represented by notes4 ,by dint of application1 they will soon become familiar with these principles1 if possessed of a talent for song1 and may soon pass the acme with ease1 accuracy1 and rapidity4 ,but there are those who may sing very prettily1 and tolerably correct1 who have never studied the first rudiments of music4 ,but such can never become adepts in the science4 ,so there are those who use language correctly1 who never saw the inside of a grammar book1 and who never examined the principles on which it depends4 ,but this1 by no means1 proves that it is better to sing by rote1 than with the understanding4 ,these rudiments1 however1 should form the business of the nursery1 rather than the grammar school4 ,every mother should labor to give distinct and forcible impressions of such things as she learns her children to name4 ,she should carefully prevent them from employing words which have no meaning1 and still more strictly should she guard them against attaching a wrong meaning to those they do use4 ,in this way1 the foundation for future knowledge and eminence1 would be laid broad and deep4 ,but ,i wander4 ,we attach names to imaginary things2 as ghosts1 genii1 imps4 ,to this class belong the thirty thousand gods of the ancients1 who were frequently represented by emblems significant of the characters attached to them4 ,we employ words to name these imaginary things1 so that we read and converse about them understandingly1 tho our ideas may be exceedingly various4 ,nouns are also used to express negation1 of which no idea can be formed4 ,in this case1 the mind rests on what exists1 and employs a word to express what does not4 ,we speak of a hole in the paper4 ,but we can form no idea of a hole1 separated from the surrounding substances4 ,remove the parts of the paper till nothing is left1 and then you may look in vain for the hole4 ,it is not there4 ,it never was4 ,in the same way we use the words nothing1 nobody1 nonentity1 vacuum1 absence1 space1 blank1 annihilation1 and oblivion4 ,these are relative terms1 to be understood in reference to things which are known to exist4 ,we must know of something before we can talk of nothing1 of an entity before we can think of nonentity4 ,in a similar way we employ words to name actions1 which are produced by the changes of objects4 ,we speak of a race1 of a flight1 of a sitting or session1 of a journey1 of a ride1 of a walk1 of a residence1 etc4 ,in all these cases1 the mind is fixed on the persons who performed these things4 ,take for example1 a race4 ,of that1 we can conceive no idea separate from the agent or object which ran the race4 ,without some other word to inform us we could not decide whether a horse race1 a foot race1 a boat race1 the race of a mill1 or some other race1 was the object of remark4 ,the same may be said of flight1 for we read of the flight of birds1 the flight of ,mahommed1 the flight of armies1 and the flight of intellect4 ,we also give names to actions as tho they were taking place in the present tense4 ,the reading of the report was deferred2 steamboat racing is dangerous to public safety2 stealing is a crime2 false teaching deserves the reprobation of all4 ,the hints ,i have given will assist you in acquiring a knowledge of nouns as used to express ideas in vocal or written language4 ,this subject might be pursued further with profit1 if time would permit4 ,as the time allotted to this lecture is nearly exhausted1 ,i forbear4 ,i shall hereafter have occasion to show how a whole phrase may be used to name an idea1 and as such stand as the agent or object of a verb4 ,some nouns are specifically used to designate certain objects1 and distinguish them from the class to which they usually belong4 ,in this way they assume a distinctive character1 and are usually denominated proper nouns4 ,they apply to persons1 places and things2 as1 ,john ,smith1 ,boston1 ,hylax4 ,boy is applied in common to all young males of the human species1 and as such is a common noun or name4 ,john ,smith designates a particular boy from the rest4 ,proper names may be also applied to animals and things4 ,the stable keeper and stageman has a name for every horse he owns1 to distinguish it from other horses2 the dairyman for his cows1 the boy for his dog1 and the girl for her doll4 ,any word1 in fact1 may become a proper name by being specifically used2 as the ship ,fair ,trader1 the brig ,success1 sloop ,delight in ,peace1 the race horse ,eclipse1 ,black ,hawk1 ,round ,nose1 and ,red ,jacket4 ,proper names were formerly used in reference to certain traits of character or circumstances connected with the place or thing4 ,abram was changed to ,abraham1 the former signifying an elevated father1 the latter1 the father of a multitude4 ,isaac signified laughter1 and was given because his mother laughed at the message of the angel4 ,jacob signified a supplanter1 because he was to obtain the birthright of his elder brother4 ,a ridiculous rage obtained with our puritan fathers to express scripture sentiments in the names of their children1 as may be seen by consulting the records of the ,plymouth and ,massachusetts colonies4 ,this practice has not wholly gone out of use in our day1 for we hear of the names of ,hope1 ,mercy1 ,patience1 ,comfort1 ,experience1 ,temperance1 ,faith1 ,deliverance1 ,return1 and such like1 applied usually to females1 7being more in character probably17 and sometimes to males4 ,we have also the names of ,white1 ,black1 ,green1 ,red1 ,gray1 ,brown1 ,olive1 ,whitefield1 ,blackwood1 ,redfield1 ,woodhouse1 ,stonehouse1 ,waterhouse1 ,woodbridge1 ,swiftwater1 ,lowater1 ,drinkwater1 ,spring1 ,brooks1 ,rivers1 ,pond1 ,lake1 ,fairweather1 ,merryweather1 ,weatherhead1 ,rice1 ,wheat1 ,straw1 ,greatrakes1 ,bird1 ,fowle1 ,crow1 ,hawks1 ,eagle1 ,partridge1 ,wren1 ,goslings1 ,fox1 ,camel1 ,zebra1 ,bear1 ,wolf1 ,hogg1 ,rain1 ,snow1 ,haile1 ,frost1 ,fogg1 ,mudd1 ,clay1 ,sands1 ,hills1 ,valley1 ,field1 ,stone1 ,flint1 ,silver1 ,gould1 and ,diamond4 ,proper nouns may also become common when used as words of general import2 as1 dunces1 corrupted from ,duns ,scotus1 a distinguished theologian1 born at ,dunstane1 ,northumberland1 an opposer of the doctrines of ,thomas ,aquinus4 ,he is a real solomon1 jack tars1 judases1 antichrist1 and so on4 ,nouns may also be considered in respect to person1 number1 gender1 and positive1 or case4 ,there are three persons1 two numbers1 two genders1 and two cases4 ,but the further consideration of these things will be deferred1 which1 together with ,pronouns1 will form the subject of our next lecture4 ,,lecture ,v4 ,,on ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns4 ,nouns in respect to persons4--,number4--,singular4--,plural4 --,how formed4--,foreign plurals4--,proper names admit of plurals4--,gender4 --,no neuter4--,in figurative language4--,errors4--,position or case4-- ,agents4--,objects4--,possessive case considered4--,a definitive word4--,pronouns4--,one kind4--,originally nouns4--,specifically applied4 ,we resume the consideration of nouns this evening1 in relation to person1 number1 gender1 and position or case4 ,in the use of language there is a speaker1 person spoken to1 and things spoken of4 ,those who speak are the first persons1 those who hear the second1 and those who are the subject of conversation the third4 ,the first and second persons are generally used in reference to human beings capable of speech and understanding4 ,but we sometimes condesend to hold converse with animals and inanimate matter4 ,the bird trainer talks to his parrots1 the coachman to his horses1 the sailor to the winds1 and the poet to his landscapes1 towers1 and wild imaginings1 to which he gives a local habitation and a name4 ,by metaphor1 language is put into the mouths of animals1 particularly in fables4 ,by a still further license1 places and things1 flowers1 trees1 forests1 brooks1 lakes1 mountains1 towers1 castles1 stars1 c4 are made to speak the most eloquent language1 in the first person1 in addresses the most pathetic4 ,the propriety of such a use of words ,i will not stop to question1 but simply remark that such figures should never be employed in the instruction of children4 ,as the mind expands1 no longer content to grovel amidst mundane things1 we mount the pegasus of imagination and soar thro the blissful or terrific scenes of fancy and fiction1 and study a language before unknown4 ,but it would be an unrighteous demand upon others1 to require them to understand us2 and quite as unpardonable to brand them with ignorance because they do not4 ,most nouns are in the third person4 ,more things are talked about than talk themselves1 or are talked to by others4 ,hence there is little necessity for teaching children to specify except in the first or second person1 which is very easily done4 ,in ,english there are two numbers1 singular and plural4 ,the singular is confined to one1 the plural is extended to any indefinite number4 ,the ,greeks1 adopted a dual number which they used to express two objects united in pairs1 or couples2 as1 a span of horses1 a yoke of oxen1 a brace of pistols1 a pair of shoes4 ,we express the same idea with more words1 using the singular to represent the union of the two4 ,we also extend this use of words and employ what are called nouns of multitude2 as1 a people1 an army1 a host1 a nation4 ,these and similar words are used in the singular referring to many combined in a united whole1 or in the plural comprehending a diversity2 as1 the armies met1 the nations are at peace4 ,people admits no change on account of number4 ,we say many people are collected together and form a numerous people4 ,the plural is not always to be understood as expressing an increase of number1 but of qualities or sorts of things1 as the merchant has a variety of sugars1 wines1 teas1 drugs1 medicines1 paints and dye-woods4 ,we also speak of hopes1 fears1 loves1 anxieties4 ,some nouns admit of no plural1 in fact1 or in use2 as1 chaos1 universe1 fitness1 immortality1 immensity1 eternity4 ,others admit of no singular2 as1 scissors1 tongs1 vitals1 molasses4 ,these words probably once had singulars1 but having no use for them they became obsolete4 ,we have long been accustomed to associate the two halves of shears together1 so that in speaking of one whole1 we say shears1 and of apart1 half of a shears4 ,but of some words originally1 and in fact plural1 we have formed a singular2 as1 one twin died1 and1 tho the other one survived its dangerous illness1 the mother wept bitterly for her twins4 ,twin is composed of two and one4 ,it is found in old books1 spelled twane1 two-one1 or twin4 ,thus1 the twi-light is formed by the mingling of two lights1 or the division of the rays of light by the approaching or receding darkness4 ,they twain shall be one flesh4 ,sheep and deer are singular or plural4 ,most plurals are formed by adding s to the singular1 or1 when euphony requires it1 es2 as1 tree1 trees2 sun1 suns2 dish1 dishes2 box1 boxes4 ,some retain the old plural form2 as1 ox1 oxen2 child1 children2 chick1 chicken2 kit1 kitten4 ,but habit has burst the barrier of old rules1 and we now talk of chicks and chickens1 kits and kittens4 ,oxen alone stands as a monument raised to the memory of unaltered saxon plurals4 ,some nouns form irregular plurals4 ,those ending in f change that letter to v and then add es2 as1 half1 halves2 leaf1 leaves2 wolf1 wolves4 ,those ending in y change that to i and add the es2 as1 cherry1 cherries2 berry1 berries2 except when the y is preceded by a vowel1 in which case it only adds the s2 as1 day1 days2 money1 moneys 7not ies72 attorney1 attorneys4 ,all this is to make the sound more easy and harmonious4 ,f and v were formerly used indiscriminately1 in singulars as well as plurals1 and1 in fact1 in the composition of all words where they occurred4 ,the same may be said of i and y4 ,the ,fader 7,father7 ,almychty of the heven abuf 7above7 ,in the mene tyme1 unto ,juno his luf 7love7 ,thus spak2 and sayd4 ,douglas1 booke #ab1 pag4 #dda4 ,they lyued in ioye and in felycite ,for eche of hem had other lefe and dere4 ,chaucer1 ,monks ,tale1 fol4 #ha1 p4 #a4 ,when straite twane beefes he tooke ,and an the aultar layde4 ,the reason why y is changed into i in the formation of plurals1 and in certain other cases1 is1 ,i apprehend1 accounted for from the fact that words which now end in y formerly ended in ie1 as may be seen in all old books4 ,the regular plural was then formed by adding s4 ,and upon those members of the bodie1 which wee thinke most unhonest1 put wee more honestie on4 ,it rejoyceth not in iniquitie--diversitie of gifts--all thinges edifie not4 ,see old bible1 #a ,cor41 chap4 #ac and #ad4 ,other words form their plurals still more differently1 for which no other rule than habit can be given2 as1 man1 men2 foot1 feet2 tooth1 teeth2 die1 dice2 mouse1 mice2 penny1 pence1 and sometimes pennies1 when applied to distinct pieces of money1 and not to value4 ,many foreign nouns retain the plural form as used by the nations from whom we have borrowed them2 as1 cherub1 cherubim2 seraph1 seraphim2 radius1 radii2 memorandum1 memoranda2 datum1 data1 c4 ,we should be pleased to have such words carried home1 or1 if they are ours by virtue of possession1 let them be adopted into our family1 and put on the garments of naturalized citizens1 and no longer appear as lonely strangers among us4 ,there is great aukwardness in adding the english to the hebrew plural of cherub1 as the translators of the common version of the bible have done4 ,they use cherub in the singular and cherubims in the plural4 ,the s should be omitted and the ,hebrew plural retained1 or the preferable course adopted1 and the final s be added1 making cherubs1 seraphs1 c4 ,the same might be said of all foreign nouns4 ,it would add much to the regularity1 dignity1 and beauty1 of our vernacular tongue4 ,proper nouns admit of the plural number2 as1 there are sixty-four ,john ,smiths in ,new-,york1 twenty ,arnolds in ,providence1 and fifteen ,davises in ,boston4 ,as we are not accustomed to form the plurals of proper names there is not that ease and harmony in the first use of them that we have found in those with which we are more familiar2 especially those we have rarely heard pronounced4 ,habit surmounts the greatest obstacles and makes things the most harsh and unpleasant appear soft and agreeable4 ,gender is applied to the distinction of the sexes4 ,there are two--masculine and feminine4 ,the former is applied to males1 the latter to females4 ,those words which belong to neither gender1 have been called neuter1 that is1 no gender4 ,but it is hardly necessary to perplex the minds of learners with negatives4 ,let them distinguish between masculine and feminine genders1 and little need be said to them about a neuter4 ,there are some nouns of both genders1 as student1 writer1 pupil1 person1 citizen1 resident4 ,poet1 author1 editor1 and some other words1 have of late been applied to females1 instead of poetess1 authoress1 editress4 ,fashion will soon preclude the necessity of this former distinction4 ,some languages determine their genders by the form of the endings of their nouns1 and what is thus made masculine in ,rome1 may be feminine in ,france4 ,it is owing1 no doubt1 to this practice1 in other nations1 that we have attached the idea of gender to inanimate things2 as1 the sun1 he shines majestically2 while of the moon1 it is said1 she sheds a milder radiance4 ,but we can not coincide with the reason assigned by ,mr4 ,murray1 for this distinction4 ,his notion is not valid4 ,it does not correspond with facts4 ,while in the south of ,europe the sun is called masculine and the moon feminine1 the northern nations invariably reverse the distinction1 particularly the dialects of the ,scandinavian4 ,it was so in our own language in the time of ,shakspeare4 ,he calls the sun a fair wench4 ,by figures of rhetoric1 genders may be attached to inanimate matter4 ,where things are personified1 we usually speak of them as masculine and feminine2 but this practice depends on fancy1 and not on any fixed rules4 ,there is1 in truth1 but two genders1 and those confined to animals4 ,when we break these rules1 and follow the undirected wanderings of fancy1 we can form no rules to regulate our words4 ,we may have as many fanciful ones as we please1 but they will not apply in common practice4 ,for example3 poets and artists have usually attached female loveliness to angels1 and placed them in the feminine gender4 ,but they are invariably used in the masculine thro out the scriptures4 ,there is an apparent absurdity in saying of the ship ,general ,williams1 she is beautiful2 or1 of the steamboat ,benjamin ,franklin1 she is out of date4 ,it were far better to use no gender in such cases4 ,but if people will continue the practice of making distinctions where there are none1 they must do it from habit and whim1 and not from any reason or propriety4 ,there are three ways in which we usually distinguish the forms of words in reference to gender4 #ast4 ,by words which are different2 as boy1 girl2 uncle1 aunt2 father1 mother4 #b;d4 ,by a different termination of the same word2 as instructor1 instructress2 lion1 lioness2 poet1 poetess4 ,ess is a contraction from the hebrew essa1 a female4 #c;d4 ,by prefixing another word2 as1 a male child1 a female child2 a man servant1 a maid servant2 a he-goat1 a she-goat4 ,the last consideration that attaches to nouns1 is the position they occupy in written or spoken language1 in relation to other words1 as being agents1 or objects of action4 ,this is termed position4 ,there are two positions in which nouns stand in reference to their meaning and use4 ,first1 as agents of action1 as ,david killed ,goliath4 ,second1 as objects on which action terminates2 as1 ,richard conquered ,henry4 ,these two distinctions should be observed in the use of all nouns4 ,but the propriety of this division will be more evident when we come to treat of verbs1 their agents and objects4 ,it will be perceived that we have abandoned the use of the possessive case1 a distinction which has been insisted on in our grammars2 and also changed the names of the other two4 ,as we would adopt nothing that is new without first being convinced that something is needed which the thing proposed will supply2 so we would reject nothing that is old1 till we have found it useless and cumbersome4 ,it will be admitted on all hands that the fewer and simpler the rules of grammar1 the more readily will they be understood1 and the more correctly applied4 ,we should guard1 on the one hand1 against having so many as to perplex1 and on the other1 retain enough to apply in the correct use of language4 ,it is on this ground that we have proposed an improvement in the names and number of cases1 or positions4 ,the word noun signifies name1 and nominative is the adjective derived from noun1 and partakes of the same meaning4 ,hence the nominative or naming case may apply as correctly to the object as the agent4 ,john strikes ,thomas1 and ,thomas strikes ,john4 ,john and ,thomas name the boys who strike1 but in the first case ,john is the actor or agent and ,thomas the object4 ,in the latter it is changed4 ,to use a nominative name is a redundancy which should be avoided4 ,you will understand my meaning and see the propriety of the change proposed1 as the mind of the learner should not be burthened with needless or irrelevant phrases4 ,but our main objection lies against the possessive case4 ,we regard it as a false and unnecessary distinction4 ,what is the possessive case8 ,murray defines it as expressing the relation of property or possession2 as1 my father's house4 ,his rule of syntax is1 one substantive governs another1 signifying a different thing1 in the possessive or genitive case2 as1 my father's house4 ,i desire you to understand the definition and use as here given4 ,read it over again1 and be careful that you know the meaning of property1 possession1 and government4 ,now let a scholar parse correctly the example given4 ,father's is a common noun1 third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and governed by house3 ,rule1 ,one noun governs another1 c4 ,then my father does not govern his own house1 but his house him6 ,what must be the conduct and condition of the family1 if they have usurped the government of their head8 ,john ,jones1 hatter1 keeps constantly for sale all kinds of boy's hats4 ,parse boy's4 ,it is a noun1 possessive case1 governed by hats4 ,what is the possessive case8 ,it signifies the relation of property or possession4 ,do the hats belong to the boys8 ,oh no4 ,are they the property or in the possession of the boys8 ,certainly not4 ,then what relation is there of property or possession8 ,none at all4 ,they belong to ,john ,jones1 were made by him1 are his property1 and by him are advertised for sale4 ,he has used the word boy's to distinguish their size1 quality1 and fitness for boy's use4 ,the master's slave4 ,master's is in the possessive case1 and governed by slave6 ,if grammars are true there can be no need of abolition societies1 unless it is to look after the master and see that he is not abused4 ,the rider's horse2 the captain's ship2 the general's army2 the governor's cat2 the king's subject4 ,how false it would be to teach scholars the idea of property and government in such cases4 ,the teacher's scholars should never learn that by virtue of their grammars1 or the apostrophe and letter s1 they have a right to govern their teachers2 nor the mother's son1 to govern his mother4 ,our merchants would dislike exceedingly to have the ladies understand them to signify by their advertisements that the ladies' merino shawls1 the ladies's bonnets and lace wrought veils1 the ladies' gloves and elegant ,thibet1 silk and challa dresses1 were the property of the ladies2 for in that case they might claim or possess themselves of their property1 and no longer trouble the merchant with the care of it4 ,peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever4 ,his physician said that his disease would require his utmost skill to defeat its progress in his limbs4 ,phrases like these are constantly occurring1 which can not be explained intelligibly by the existing grammars4 ,in fact1 the words said to be nouns in the possessive case1 have changed their character1 by use1 from nouns to adjectives1 or definitive words1 and should thus be classed4 ,russia iron1 ,holland gin1 ,china ware1 ,american people1 the ,washington tavern1 ,lafayette house1 ,astor house1 ,hudson river1 7formerly ,hudson's17 ,baffin's bay1 ,van ,dieman's land1 ,john street1 ,harper's ferry1 ,hill's bridge1 a paper book1 a bound book1 a red book1 ,john's book--one which ,john is known to use1 it may be a borrowed one1 but generally known as some way connected with him1--,rev4 ,mr4 ,smith's church1 ,st4 ,john's church1 ,grace church1 ,murray's grammar2 not the property nor in the possession of ,lindley ,murray1 neither does it govern him2 for he has gone to speak a purer language than he taught on earth4 ,it is mine4 ,i bought it1 have possessed it these ten years2 but1 thank fortune1 am little governed by it4 ,but more on this point when we come to the proper place4 ,what ,i have said1 will serve as a hint1 which will enable you to see the impropriety of adopting the possessive case4 ,it may be said that more cases are employed in other languages4 ,that is a poor reason why we should break the barriers of natural language4 ,beside1 ,i know not how we should decide by that rule1 for none of them have a case that will compare with the ,english possessive4 ,the genitive of the ,french1 ,latin1 or ,greek1 will apply in only a few respects4 ,the former has three1 the latter five1 and the ,latin six cases1 neither of which correspond with the possessive1 as explained by ,murray and his satellites4 ,we should be slow to adopt into our language an idiom which does not belong to it1 and compel learners to make distinctions where none exist4 ,it is an easy matter to tell children that the apostrophe and letter s marks the possessive case2 but when they ask the difference in the meaning between the use of the noun and those which all admit are adjectives1 it will be no indifferent task to satisfy them4 ,what is the difference in the construction of language or the sense conveyed1 between ,hudson's river1 and ,hudson river8 ,davis's straits1 or ,bass straits8 ,st4 ,john's church1 or ,episcopal church8 the sun's beams1 or sun shine8 ,in all cases these words are used to define the succeeding noun4 ,they regard property or possession1 only when attending circumstances1 altogether foreign from any quality in the form or meaning of the word itself1 are so combined as to give it that import4 ,and in such cases1 we retain these words as adjectives1 long after the property has passed from the hands of the persons who gave it a name4 ,field's point1 ,fuller's rocks1 ,fisher's island1 ,fulton's invention1 will long be retained after those whose names were given to distinguish these things1 have slept with their fathers and been forgotten4 ,blannerhassett's ,island1 long since ceased to be his property or tranquil possession1 by confiscation2 but it will retain its specific name1 till the inundations of the ,ohio's waters shall have washed it away and left not a wreck behind4 ,the distinctions ,i have made in the positions of nouns1 will be clearly understood when we come to the verbs4 ,a few remarks upon pronouns will close the present lecture4 ,,pronouns4 ,pronouns are such as the word indicates4 ,pro is the latin word for2 pro-nomen1 for nouns4 ,they are words1 originally nouns1 used specifically for other nouns1 to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same words2 as1 ,washington was the father of his country2 he was a valiant officer4 ,we ought to respect him4 ,the word we1 stands for the speaker and all present1 and saves the trouble of naming them2 he and him1 stand for ,washington1 to avoid the monotony which would be produced by a recurrence of his name4 ,pronouns are all of one kind1 and few in number4 ,i will give you a list of them in their respective positions4 ,agents4 ,objects4 #ast person1 ,i1 me1 #b;d thou1 thee1 ,singular #c;d mas4 he1 him1 fem4 she1 her1 it1 it4 #ast person1 we1 us1 ,plural #b;d ye1 or you1 you1 #c;d they1 them1 who1 whom4 ,the two last may be used in either person1 number1 or gender4 ,the frequent use of these words render them very important1 in the elegant and rapid use of language4 ,they are so short1 and their sound so soft and easy1 that the frequency of their recurrence does not mar the beauty of a sentence1 but saves us from the redundancy of other words4 ,they are substituted only when there is little danger of mistaking the nouns for which they stand4 ,they are1 however1 sometimes used in a very broad sense2 as1 they say it is so2 meaning no particular persons1 but the general sentiment4 ,it frequently takes the lead of a sentence1 and the thing represented by it comes after2 as1 ,it is currently reported1 that things were thus and so4 ,here it represents the single idea which is afterward stated at length4 ,it is so4 ,it may be that the nations will be destroyed by wars1 earthquakes1 and famines4 ,but more of this when we come to speak of the composition of sentences4 ,the words now classed as pronouns were originally names of things1 but in this character they have long been obsolete4 ,they are now used only in their secondary character as the representatives of other words4 ,the word he1 for instance1 signified originally to breathe4 ,it was applied to the living beings who inhaled air4 ,it occurs with little change in the various languages of ,europe1 ancient and modern1 till at length it is applied to the male agent which lives and acts4 ,the word her means light1 but is specifically applied to females which are the objects of action4 ,was it in accordance with the design of these lectures1 it would give me pleasure to go into a minute examination of the origin1 changes and meaning of these words till they came to be applied as specific words of exceeding limited character4 ,most of them might be traced thro all the languages of ,europe2 the ,arabic1 ,persic1 ,arminian1 ,chaldean1 ,hebrew1 and1 for ought ,i know1 all the languages of ,asia4 ,but as they are now admitted a peculiar position in the expression of thought from which they never vary2 and as we are contending about philosophic principles rather than verbal criticisms1 ,i shall forbear a further consideration of these words4 ,in the proper place ,i shall consider those words formerly called ,adjective ,pronouns1 ,pronoun ,adjectives1 or ,pronominal ,adjectives1 to suit the varying whims of those grammar makers1 who desired to show off a speck of improvement in their simplifying works without ever having a new idea to express4 ,it is a query in some minds whether the seventy-two simplifiers and improvers of ,murray's grammar ever had any distinct notions in their heads which they did not obtain from the very man1 who1 it would seem by their conduct1 was unable to explain his own meaning4 ,,lecture ,,vi4 ,,on ,,adjectives4 ,definition of adjectives4--,general character4--,derivation4--,how understood4--,defining and describing4--,meaning changes to suit the noun4--,too numerous4--,derived from nouns4--,nouns and verbs made from adjectives4--,foreign adjectives4--,a general list4--,difficult to be understood4--,an example4--,often superfluous4--,derived from verbs4--,participles4--,some prepositions4--,meaning unknown4--,with4-- ,in4--,out4--,of4 ,the most important sub-division of words is the class called ,adjectives1 which we propose to notice this evening4 ,adjective signifies added or joined to4 ,we employ the term in grammar to designate that class of words which are added to nouns to define or describe them4 ,in doing this1 we strictly adhere to the principles we have already advanced1 and do not deviate from the laws of nature1 as developed in the regulation of speech4 ,in speaking of things1 we had occasion to observe that the mind not only conceived ideas of things1 but of their properties2 as1 the hardness of flint2 the heat of fire2 and that we spoke of one thing in reference to another4 ,we come now to consider this subject more at large4 ,in the use of language the mind first rests on the thing which is present before it1 or the word which represents the idea of that thing4 ,next it observes the changes and attitudes of these things4 ,thirdly1 it conceives ideas of their qualities and relations to other things4 ,the first use of these words is to name things4 ,this we call nouns4 ,the second is to express their actions4 ,this we call verbs4 ,the last is to define or describe things4 ,this we call adjectives4 ,there is a great similarity between the words used to name things and to express their actions2 as1 builders build buildings2 singers sing songs2 writers write writings2 painters paint paintings4 ,in the popular use of language we vary these words to avoid the monotony and give pleasantness and variety4 ,we say builders erect houses1 barns1 and other buildings2 singers perform pieces of music2 musicians play tunes2 the choir sing psalm tunes2 artists paint pictures4 ,from these two classes a third is derived which partakes somewhat of the nature of both1 and yet from its secondary use1 it has obtained a distinctive character1 and as such is allowed a separate position among the classes of words4 ,it might perhaps appear more in order to pass the consideration of adjectives till we have noticed the character and use of verbs1 from which an important portion of them is derived4 ,but as they are used in connexion with nouns1 and as the character they borrow from the verb will be readily understood1 ,i have preferred to retain the old arrangement1 and consider them in this place4 ,adjectives are words added to nouns to define or describe them4 ,they are derived either1 #ast1 from nouns2 as1 window glass1 glass window1 a stone house1 building stone1 maple sugar1 sugar cane2 or1 #b;d1 from verbs2 as1 a written paper1 a printed book1 a painted house1 a writing desk4 ,in the first case we employ one noun1 or the name of one thing1 to define another1 thus giving it a secondary use4 ,a glass window is one made of glass1 and not of any thing else4 ,it is neither a board window1 nor a paper window4 ,maple sugar is not cane sugar1 nor beet sugar1 nor molasses sugar2 but it may be brown sugar1 if it has been browned1 or white if it has been whited or whitened4 ,in this case1 you at once perceive the correctness of our second proposition1 in the derivation of adjectives from verbs1 by which we describe a thing in reference to its condition1 in some way affected by the operation of a prior action4 ,a printed book is one on which the action of printing has been performed4 ,a written book differs from the former1 in as much as its appearance was produced by writing and not by printing4 ,in the definition or description of things1 whatever is best understood is employed as a definitive or descriptive term1 and is attached to the object to make known its properties and relations4 ,speaking of nations1 if we desire to distinguish some from others1 we choose the words supposed to be best known1 and talk of ,european1 ,african1 ,american1 or ,indian nations2 northern1 southern1 eastern1 or western nations4 ,these last words are used in reference to their relative position1 and may be variously understood2 for we speak of the northern1 eastern1 western1 and southern nations of ,europe1 of ,africa1 and the world4 ,again1 we read of civilized1 half-civilized1 and barbarous nations2 learned1 unlearned1 ignorant1 and enlightened2 rich1 powerful1 enterprising1 respected1 ancient or modern1 christian1 mahomedan or pagan4 ,in these1 and a thousand similar cases1 we decide the meaning1 not alone from the word employed as an adjective1 but from the subject of remark2 for1 were we to attach the same meaning to the same word1 wherever used1 we could not receive correct or definite impressions from the language of others--our inferences would be the most monstrous4 ,a great mountain and a great pin1 a great continent and a great farm1 a great ocean and a great pond1 a great grammar and a great scholar1 refer to things of very different dimensions and character2 or1 as ,mr4 ,murray would say1 qualities4 ,a mountain is great by comparison with other mountains2 and a pin1 compared with other pins1 may be very large--exceeding great--and yet fall very far short of the size of a very small mountain4 ,a small man may be a great scholar1 and a rich neighbor a poor friend4 ,a sweet flower is often very bitter to the taste4 ,a good horse would make a bad dinner1 but false grammar can never make true philologists4 ,all words are to be understood according to their use4 ,their meaning can be determined in no other way4 ,many words change their forms to express their relations1 but fewer in our language than in most others1 ancient or modern4 ,other words remain the same1 or nearly so1 in every position2 noun1 adjective1 or verb1 agent or object1 past or present4 ,to determine whether a word is an adjective1 first ascertain whether it names a thing1 defines or describes it1 or expresses its action1 and you will never be at a loss to know to what class it belongs4 ,the business of adjectives is twofold1 and they may be distinguished by the appellations of defining or describing adjectives4 ,this distinction is in many cases unimportant2 in others it is quite essential4 ,the same word in one case may define1 in others describe the object1 and occasionally do both1 for we often specify things by their descriptions4 ,the learner has only to ascertain the meaning and use of the adjective to decide whether it defines or describes the subject of remark4 ,if it is employed to distinguish one thing from the general mass1 or one class from other classes1 it has the former character2 but after such thing is pointed out1 if it is used to give a description of its character or properties1 its character is different1 and should be so understood and explained4 ,defining adjectives are used to point out1 specify or distinguish certain things from others of their kind1 or one sort from other sorts1 and answer to the questions which1 what1 how many1 or how much4 ,describing adjectives express the character and qualities of things1 and give a more full and distinct knowledge than was before possessed4 ,in a case before mentioned1 we spoke of the ,indian nations4 ,the word ,indian was chosen to specify or define what nations were alluded to4 ,but all may not decide alike in this case4 ,some may think we meant the aborigines of ,america2 others1 that the southern nations of ,asia were referred to4 ,this difficulty originates in a misapprehension of the definitive word chosen4 ,india was early known as the name of the south part of ,asia1 and the people there1 were called ,indians4 ,when ,columbus discovered the new world1 supposing he had reached the country of ,india1 which had long been sought by a voyage round the coast of ,africa1 he named it ,india1 and the people ,indians4 ,but when the mistake was discovered1 and the truth fully known1 instead of effecting a change in the name already very generally understood1 and in common use1 another word was chosen to distinguish between countries so opposite and ,west ,india became the word to distinguish the newly discovered islands2 and as ,india was little better known in ,europe at that time1 instead of retaining their old name unaltered1 another word was prefixed1 and they called it ,east ,india4 ,when1 therefore1 we desire to be definite1 we retain these words1 and say1 ,east ,indians and ,west ,indians4 ,without this distinction1 we should understand the native people of our own country2 but in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 they would think we alluded to those in ,asia4 ,so with all other adjectives which are not understood4 ,indian1 as an adjective1 may also be employed to describe the character and condition of the aborigines4 ,we talk of an indian temper1 indian looks1 indian blankets1 furs1 c4 ,in writing and conversation we should employ words to explain1 to define and describe1 which are better understood than those things of which we speak4 ,the pedantry of some modern writers in this respect is ridiculous4 ,not satisfied to use plain terms which every body can understand1 they hunt the dictionaries from alpha to omega1 and not unfrequently overleap the king's english1 and ransack other languages to find an unheard of word1 or a list of adjectives never before arranged together1 in so nice a manner1 so that their ideas are lost to the common reader1 if not to themselves4 ,this fault may be alleged against too many of our public speakers1 as well as the affected gentry of the land4 ,they are like ,shakspeare's ,gratiano1 who speaks an infinite deal of nothing1 more than any man in all ,venice2 his reasons are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of chaff3 you shall seek all day ere you find them2 and1 when you have found them1 they are not worth the search4 ,such sentences remind us of the painting of the young artist who drew the form of an animal1 but apprehensive that some might mistake it1 wrote under it1 ,this is a horse4 ,in forming our notions of what is signified by an adjective1 the mind should pause to determine the meaning of such word when used as a distinct name for some object1 in order to determine the import of it in this new capacity4 ,a tallow candle is one made of a substance called tallow1 and is employed to distinguish it from wax or spermaceti candles4 ,the adjective in this case1 names the article of which the candle is made1 and is thus a noun1 but1 as we are not speaking of tallow1 but of candles1 we place it in a new relation1 and give it a new grammatical character4 ,but you will perceive the correctness of a former assertion1 that all words may be reduced to two classes1 and that adjectives are derived from nouns or verbs4 ,but you may inquire if there are not some adjectives in use which have no corresponding verb or noun from which they are derived4 ,there are many words in our language which in certain uses have become obsolete1 but are retained in others4 ,we now use some words as verbs which originally were known only as nouns1 and others as nouns which are unknown as verbs4 ,we also put a new construction upon words and make nouns1 verbs and adjectives promiscuously and with little regard to rule or propriety4 ,words at one time unknown become familiar by use1 and others are laid aside for those more new or fashionable4 ,these facts are so obvious that ,i shall be excused from extending my remarks to any great length4 ,but ,i will give an example which will serve as a clew to the whole4 ,take the word happy1 long known only as an adjective4 ,instead of following this word back to its primitive use and deriving it directly from its noun1 or as a past participle1 such as it is in truth1 we have gone forward and made from it the noun happiness1 and1 in more modern days1 are using the verb happify1 a word1 by the way1 in common use1 but which has not yet been honored with a place in our dictionaries2 altho ,mr4 ,webster has given us1 as he says1 the unauthorised 7un-author-ised7 word happifying4 ,perhaps he had never heard or read some of our greatest savans1 who1 if not the authors1 employ the word happify very frequently in the pulpit and halls of legislation1 and at the bar1 as well as in common parlance4 ,happy is the past participle of the verb to hap1 or1 as afterwards used1 with a nice shade of change in the meaning1 to happen4 ,it means happied1 or made happy by those favorable circumstances which have happened to us4 ,whoever will read our old writers no further back than ,shakspeare1 will at once see the use and changes of this word4 ,they will find it in all its forms1 simple and compound1 as a verb1 noun1 and adjective4 ,it may hap that he will come4 ,it happened as ,i was going that ,i found my lost child1 and was thereby made quite happy4 ,the man desired to happify himself and family without much labor1 so he engaged in speculation2 and happily he was not so hapless in his pursuit of happiness as often happens to such hap-hazard fellows1 for he soon became very happy with a moderate fortune4 ,but to the question4 ,there are many adjectives in our language which are borrowed from foreign words4 ,instead of adjectiving our own nouns we go to our neighbors and adjective and anglicise english-ise their words1 and adopt the pampered urchins into our own family and call them our favorites4 ,it is no wonder that they often appear aukward and unfamiliar1 and that our children are slow in forming an intimate acquaintance with them4 ,you are here favored with a short list of these words which will serve as examples1 and enable you to comprehend my meaning and apply it in future use4 ,some of them are regularly used as adjectives1 with or without change2 others are not4 ,,english ,,nouns4 ,,foreign ,,adjectives4 ,alone ,sole1 solitary ,alms ,eleemosynary ,age ,primeval ,belief ,credulous ,blame ,culpable ,breast ,pectoral ,being ,essential ,bosom ,graminal1 sinuous ,boy1 boyish ,puerile ,blood1 bloody ,sanguinary1 sanguine ,burden ,onerous ,beginning ,initial ,boundary ,conterminous ,brother ,fraternal ,bowels ,visceral ,body ,corporeal ,birth ,natal1 native ,calf ,vituline ,carcass ,cadaverous ,cat ,feline ,cow ,vaccine ,country ,rural1 rustic ,church ,ecclesiastical ,death ,mortal ,dog ,canine ,day ,diurnal1 meridian1 ephemeral ,disease ,morbid ,east ,oriental ,egg ,oval ,ear ,auricular ,eye ,ocular ,flesh ,carnal1 carnivorous ,father ,paternal ,field ,agrarian ,flock ,gregarious ,foe ,hostile ,fear ,timorous1 timid ,finger ,digital ,flattery ,adulatory ,fire ,igneous ,faith ,fiducial ,foot ,pedal ,groin ,inguinal ,guardian ,tutelar ,glass ,vitreous ,grape ,uveous ,grief ,dolorous ,gain ,lucrative ,help ,auxiliary ,heart ,cordial1 cardiac ,hire ,stipendiary ,hurt ,noxious ,hatred ,odious ,health ,salutary1 salubrious ,head ,capital1 chief ,ice ,glacial ,island ,insular ,king ,regal1 royal ,kitchen ,culinary ,life ,vital1 vivid1 vivarious ,lungs ,pulmonary ,lip ,labial ,leg ,crural1 isosceles ,light ,lucid1 luminous ,love ,amorous ,lust ,libidinous ,law ,legal1 loyal ,mother ,maternal ,money ,pecuniary ,mixture ,promiscuous1 miscellaneous ,moon ,lunar1 sublunary ,mouth ,oral ,marrow ,medulary ,mind ,mental ,man ,virile1 male1 human1 masculine ,milk ,lacteal ,meal ,ferinaceous ,nose ,nasal ,navel ,umbilical ,night ,nocturnal1 equinoctial ,noise ,obstreperous ,one ,first ,parish ,parochial ,people ,popular1 populous1 public1 epidemical1 endemical ,point ,punctual ,pride ,superb1 haughty ,plenty ,copious ,pitch ,bituminous ,priest ,sacerdotal ,rival ,emulous ,root ,radical ,ring ,annular ,reason ,rational ,revenge ,vindictive ,rule ,regular ,speech ,loquacious1 garrulous1 eloquent ,smell ,olfactory ,sight ,visual1 optic1 perspicuous1 conspicuous ,side ,lateral1 collateral ,skin ,cutaneous ,spittle ,salivial ,shoulder ,humeral ,shepherd ,pastoral ,sea ,marine1 maritime ,share ,literal ,sun ,solar ,star ,astral1 sideral1 stellar ,sunday ,dominical ,spring ,vernal ,summer ,estival ,seed ,seminal ,ship ,naval1 nautical ,shell ,testaceous ,sleep ,soporiferous ,strength ,robust ,sweat ,sudorific ,step ,gradual ,sole ,venal ,two ,second ,treaty ,federal ,trifle ,nugatory ,tax ,fiscal ,time ,temporal1 chronical ,town ,oppidan ,thanks ,gratuitous ,theft ,furtive ,threat ,minatory ,treachery ,insidious ,thing ,real ,throat ,jugular1 gutteral ,taste ,insipid ,thought ,pensive ,thigh ,femoral ,tooth ,dental ,tear ,lachrymal ,vessel ,vascular ,world ,mundane ,wood ,sylvan1 savage ,way ,devious1 obvious1 impervious1 trivial ,worm ,vermicular ,whale ,cutaceous ,wife ,uxorious ,word ,verbal1 verbose ,weak ,hebdomadal ,wall ,mural ,will ,voluntary1 spontaneous ,winter ,brumal ,wound ,vulnerary ,west ,occidental ,war ,martial ,women ,feminine1 female1 effeminate ,year ,annual1 anniversary1 perennial1 triennial ,such are some of the adjectives introduced into our language from other nations4 ,the list will enable you to discover that when we have no adjective of our own to correspond with the noun1 we borrow from our neighbors an adjective derived from one of their nouns1 to which we give an english termination4 ,for example3 ,english ,noun4 ,latin ,noun4 ,adjective4 ,boy ,puer ,puerile ,grief ,dolor ,dolorous ,thought ,pensa ,pensive ,wife ,uxor ,uxorious ,word ,verbum ,verbal1 verbose ,year ,annum ,annual ,body ,corpus ,corporeal ,head ,caput ,capital ,church ,ekklesia 7,greek7 ,ecclesiastical ,king ,roi 7,french7 ,royal ,law ,loi ,loyal ,it is exceedingly difficult to understand the adjectives of many nouns with which we are familiar1 from the fact above stated1 that they are derived from other languages1 and not our own4 ,the most thoro scholars have found this task no easy affair4 ,most grammarians have let it pass unobserved2 but every person has seen the necessity of some explanation upon this point1 to afford a means of ascertaining the etymological derivation and meaning of these words4 ,i would here enter farther into this subject1 but ,i am reminded that ,i am surpassing the limits set me for this course of lectures4 ,the attention ,i have bestowed on this part of the present subject1 will not be construed into a mere verbal criticism4 ,it has been adopted to show you how1 in the definition or description of things1 the mind clings to one thing to gain some information concerning another4 ,when we find a thing unlike any thing else we have ever known1 in form1 in size1 in color1 in every thing2 we should find it a difficult task1 if not an impossibility1 to describe it to another in a way to give any correct idea of it4 ,having never seen its like before1 we can say little of its character4 ,we may give it a name1 but that would not be understood4 ,we could say it was as large as--no1 it had no size2 that it was like--but no1 it had no likeness2 that it resembled--no1 it had no resemblance4 ,how could we describe it8 ,what could we say of it8 ,nothing at all4 ,what idea could the ,pacha of ,egypt form of ice1 having never seen any till the french chemists succeeded in freezing water in his presence8 ,they told him of ice2 that it was cold2 that it would freeze2 that whole streams were often frozen over1 so that men and teams could walk over them4 ,he believed no such thing--it was a christian lie4 ,this idea was confirmed on the first trial of the chemists1 which failed of success4 ,but when1 on the second attempt1 they succeeded1 he was all in raptures4 ,a new field was open before him4 ,new ideas were produced in his mind4 ,new qualities were learned2 and he could now form some idea of the ice bergs of the north2 of frozen regions1 which he had never seen2 of icy hearts1 and storms of frozen rain4 ,we often hear it said1 such a man is very stoical2 another is an epicurean2 and another is a bacchanal1 or bacchanalian4 ,but what idea should we form of such persons1 if we had never read of the ,stoics and their philosophy2 of ,epicurus and his notions of happiness and duty2 or of ,bacchus1 the god of wine and revelry1 whose annual feasts1 or ,dionysia1 were celebrated with the most extravagant licentiousness thro out ,greece and ,rome1 till put down by the ,senate of the latter4 ,you can not fail to see the importance of the knowledge on which we here insist4 ,the meaning you attach to words is exceedingly diverse2 and hence you are not always able to think alike1 or understand each other1 nor derive the same sentiment from the same language4 ,the contradictory opinions which exist in the world may be accounted for1 in a great measure1 in this way4 ,our knowledge of many things of which we speak1 is limited1 either from lack of means1 or disposition to employ them4 ,people always differ and contend most about things of which they know the least4 ,did we all attach the same meaning to the same words1 our opinions would all be the same1 as true as the forty-fifth problem of ,euclid4 ,how important1 then1 that children should always be taught the same meaning of words1 and learn to use them correctly4 ,etymology1 viewed in this light1 is a most important branch of science4 ,whenever a word is sufficiently understood1 no adjective should be connected with it4 ,there is a ridiculous practice among many people1 of appending to every noun one or more adjectives1 which have no other effect than to expose their own folly4 ,some writers are so in the habit of annexing adjectives to all nouns1 that they dare not use one without4 ,you will not unfrequently see adjectives different in form1 added to a noun of very similar meaning2 as1 sad melancholy1 an ominous sign1 this mundane earth1 pensive thoughts4 ,when words can be obtained1 which not only name the object1 but also describe its properties1 it should be preferred to a noun with an adjective2 as pirate1 for sea robber2 savan1 for a learned or wise man4#d ,in relation to that class of adjectives derived from verbs1 we will be brief4 ,they include what have been termed participles1 not a distinct part of speech1 but by some included in the verbs4 ,we use them as adjectives to describe things as standing in some relation to other things on the account of the action expressed by the verb from which they are derived4 ,the man is respected4 ,respected1 in this case1 describes the man in such a relation to those who have become acquainted with his good qualities1 that he now receives their respect4 ,he is respectable1 7able to command1 or worthy of respect17 and of course1 respected for his respectability4 ,to avoid repetition1 we select different words to assist in the expression of a complex idea4 ,but ,i indulge in phrases like the above1 to show the nice shades of meaning in the common use of words1 endeavoring to analyze1 as far as possible1 our words and thoughts1 and show their mutual connexion and dependencies4 ,what has been termed the present participle is also an adjective1 describing things in their present condition in reference to actions4 ,the man is writing4 ,here1 writing describes the man in his present employment4 ,but the consideration of this matter more properly belongs to the construction of sentences4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is another class or variety of words properly belonging to this division of grammar1 which may as well be noticed in this place as any other4 ,i allude to those words generally called ,prepositions4 ,we have not time now to consider them at large1 but will give you a brief view of our opinion of them1 and reserve the remainder of our remarks till we come to another part of these lectures4 ,most of the words called prepositions1 in books of grammar1 are participles1 derived from verbs1 many of which are still in use1 but some are obsolete4 ,they are used in the true character of adjectives1 describing one thing by its relation to another4 ,but their meaning has not been generally understood4 ,our dictionaries have afforded no means by which we can trace their etymology4 ,they have been regarded as a kind of cement to stick other words together1 having no meaning or importance in themselves4#e ,until their meaning is known1 we can not reasonably expect to draw them from their hiding places1 and give them a respectable standing in the transmission of thought4 ,many words1 from the frequency of their use1 fail to attract our attention as much as those less employed2 not because they are less important1 but because they are so familiarly known that the operations of thought are not observed in the choice made of them to express ideas4 ,if we use words of which little is known1 we ponder well before we adopt them1 to determine whether the sense usually attached to them accords exactly with the notions we desire to convey by them4 ,the same can not be said of small words which make up a large proportion of our language1 and are1 in fact1 more necessary than the others1 in as much as their meaning is more generally known4 ,those who employ carriages to convey their bodies1 observe little of their construction1 unless there is something singular or fine in their appearance4 ,the common parts are unobserved1 yet as important as the small words used in the common construction of language1 the vehicle of thought4 ,as the apostle says of the body politic1 those members of the body1 which seem to be more feeble1 are necessary2 so the words least understood by grammarians are most necessary in the correct formation of language4 ,it is an easy matter to get along with the words called prepositions1 after they are all learned by rote2 but when their meaning and use are inquired into1 the best grammarians have little to say of them4 ,a list of prepositions1 alphabetically arranged1 is found in nearly every grammar1 which scholars are required to commit to memory1 without knowing any thing of their meaning or use1 only that they are prepositions when an objective word comes after them1 because the books say so2 but occasionally the same words occur as adverbs and adjectives4 ,there is1 however1 no trouble in parsing them1 unless the list is forgotten4 ,in that case1 you will see the pupil1 instead of inquiring after the meaning and duty of the word1 go to the book and search for it in the lists of prepositions or conjunctions2 or to the dictionary1 to see if there is a prep4 appended to it4 ,what will children ever learn of language in this way8 ,of what avail is all such grammar teaching8 ,as soon as they leave school it is all forgotten2 and you will hear them say1 at the very time they should be reaping the harvest of former toil1 that they once understood grammar1 but it is all gone from them4 ,poor souls6 their memory is very treacherous1 else they have never learned language as they ought4 ,there is a fault somewhere4 ,to us it is not difficult to determine where it is4 ,that certain words are prepositions1 there can be no doubt1 because the books say they are2 but why they are so1 is quite another matter4 ,all we desire is to have their meaning understood4 ,little difficulty will then be found in determining their use4 ,i have said they are derived from verbs1 many of which are obsolete4 ,some are still in use1 both as verbs and nouns4 ,take for example the word with4 ,this word signifies joined or united4 ,it is used to show that two things are some how joined together so that they are spoke of in connexion4 ,it frequently occurs in common conversation1 as a verb and noun1 but not as frequently in the books as formerly4 ,the farmer says to his hired man1 ,go and get a withe and come and withe up the fence2 that is1 get some pliant twigs of tough wood1 twist them together1 and withe or bind them round these posts1 so that one may stand firm with1 or withed to1 the other4 ,a book with a cover1 is one that has a cover joined1 bound1 or attached to it4 ,a father with a son1 a man with an estate1 a nation with a constitution4 ,in all such cases with expresses the relation between the two things mentioned1 produced by a union or connexion with each other4#f ,in is used in the same way4 ,it is still retained as a noun and is suspended on the signs of many public houses4 ,the traveller's inn1 is a house where travellers in themselves1 or go in1 for entertainment4 ,it occurs frequently in ,shakspeare and in more modern writers1 as a verb1 and is still used in common conversation as an imperative4 ,go1 in the crops of grain4 ,in with you4 ,in with it4 ,in describes one thing by its relation to another1 which is the business of adjectives4 ,it admits of the regular degrees of comparison2 as1 in1 inner1 innermost or inmost4 ,it also has its compounds4 ,instep1 the inner part of the foot1 inlet1 investment1 inheritance4 ,in this capacity it is extensively used under its different shades of meaning which ,i cannot stop to notice4 ,of signifies divided1 separated1 or parted4 ,the ship is off the coast4 ,i am bound off1 and you are bound out4 ,a part of a pencil1 is that part which is separated from the rest1 implying that the act of separating1 or offing1 has taken place4 ,a branch of the tree4 ,there is the tree2 this branch is from it4 ,our communication was broken off several years ago4 ,sailors record their offings1 and parents love their offspring1 or those children which sprung from them4#g ,we also are his offspring2 that is1 sprung from ,god4#h ,in all these1 and every other case1 you will perceive the meaning of the word1 and its office will soon appear essential in the expression of thought4 ,had all the world been a compact whole1 nothing ever separated from it1 we could never speak of a part of it1 for we could never have such an idea4 ,but we look at things1 as separated1 divided1 parted2 and speak of one thing as separated from the others4 ,hence1 when we speak of the part of the earth we inhabit1 we1 in imagination1 separate it from some other part1 or the general whole4 ,we can not use this word in reference to a thing which is indivisible1 because we can conceive no idea of a part of an indivisible thing4 ,we do not say1 a portion of our mind taken as a whole1 but as capable of division4 ,a share of our regards1 supposes that the remainder is reserved for something else4 ,out1 outer or utter1 outermost or utmost1 admits of the same remark as in4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in this manner1 we might explain a long list of words1 called adverbs1 conjunctions1 and prepositions4 ,but ,i forbear1 for the present1 the further consideration of this subject1 and leave it for another lecture4 ,,lecture ,,vii4 ,,on ,,adjectives4 ,adjectives4--,how formed4--,the syllable ly4--,formed from proper nouns4--,the apostrophe and letter s4--,derived from pronouns4-- ,articles4--,a comes from an4--,indefinite4--,the4--,meaning of a and the4--,murray's example4--,that4--,what4--,pronoun adjectives4--,mon1 ma4--,degrees of comparison4--,secondary adjectives4--,prepositions admit of comparison4 ,we resume the consideration of ,adjectives4 ,the importance of this class of words in the expression of our thoughts1 is my excuse for bestowing upon it so much labor4 ,had words always been used according to their primitive meaning1 there would be little danger of being misunderstood4 ,but the fact long known1 ,verba mutanter--words change--has been the prolific source of much of the diversity of opinion1 asperity of feeling1 and apparent misconstruction of other's sentiments1 which has disturbed society1 and disgraced mankind4 ,i have1 in a former lecture1 alluded to this point1 and call it up in this place to prepare your minds to understand what is to be said on the secondary use of words in the character of adjectives4 ,i have already spoken of adjectives in general1 as derived from nouns and verbs1 and was somewhat particular upon the class sometimes called prepositions1 which describe one thing by its relation to another1 produced by some action which has placed them in such relation4 ,we will now pass to examine a little more minutely into the character and use of certain adjectives1 and the manner of their derivation4 ,we commence with those derived from nouns1 both common and proper1 which are somewhat peculiar in their character4 ,i wish you distinctly to bear in mind the use of adjectives4 ,they are words added to nouns to define or describe them4 ,many words which name things1 are used as adjectives1 with out change2 as1 ox beef1 beef cattle1 paper books1 straw hats1 bonnet paper4 ,others admit of change1 or addition2 as1 national character1 a merciful 7mercy-ful7 man1 a gloomy prospect1 a famous horse1 a golden ball4 ,the syllables which are added1 are parts of words1 which are at first compounded with them1 till1 by frequency of use1 they are incorporated into the same word4 ,a merciful man is one who is full of mercy4 ,a golden ball is one made of gold4 ,this word is sometimes used without change2 as1 a gold ring4 ,a numerous portion of these words take the syllable ly1 contracted from like1 which is still retained in many words2 as1 ,judas-like1 lady-like1 gentleman-like4 ,these two last words1 are of late1 occasionally used as other words1 ladyly1 gentlemanly2 but the last more frequently than the former4 ,she behaved very ladily1 or ladylike2 and his appearance was quite gentlemanly4 ,but to say ladily appearance1 does not yet sound quite soft enough2 but it is incorrect only because it is uncommon4 ,godly and godlike are both in use1 and equally correct1 with a nice shade of difference in meaning4 ,all grammarians have found a difficulty in the word like1 which they were unable to unravel4 ,they could never account for its use in expressing a relation between two objectives4 ,they forgot that to be like1 one thing must be likened to another1 and that it was the very meaning of this word to express such likeness4 ,john looks like his brother4 ,the looks1 the countenance1 or appearance of ,john1 are likened to his brother's looks or appearance4 ,this machine is more like the pattern than any ,i have seen4 ,here the adjective like takes the comparative degree1 as it is called1 to show a nearer resemblance than has been before observed between the things compared4 ,he has a statesman-like appearance4 ,i like this apple1 because it agrees with my taste2 it has qualities like my notion of what is palateable4 ,in every situation the word is used to express likeness between two things4 ,it describes one thing by its likeness to another4 ,many adjectives are formed from proper nouns by adding an apostrophe and the letter s1 except when the word ends in s1 in which case the final s is usually omitted for the sake of euphony4 ,this1 however1 was not generally adopted by old writers4 ,it is not observed in the earliest translations of the ,bible into the english language4 ,it is now in common practice4 ,thus1 ,montgomery's monument in front of ,st4 ,paul's church2 ,washington's funeral2 ,shay's rebelion2 ,england's bitterest foes2 ,hamlet's father's ghost2 ,peter's wife's mother2 ,todd's1 ,walker's1 ,johnson's dictionary2 ,winchell's ,watts' hymns2 ,pond's ,murray's grammar4 ,no body would suppose that the relation of property or possession was expressed in these cases1 as our grammar books tell us1 but that the terms employed are used to define certain objects1 about which we are speaking4 ,they possess the true character and use of adjectives1 and as such let them be regarded4 ,it must be as false as frivolous to say that ,montgomery1 who nobly fell at the siege of ,quebec1 owns the monument erected over his remains1 which were conveyed to ,new-,york many years after his death2 or that ,st4 ,paul owns or possesses the church beneath which they were deposited2 that ,hamlet owned his father1 and his father his ghost2 that ,todd owns ,walker1 and ,walker owns ,johnson1 and ,johnson his dictionary which may have had a hundred owners1 and never been the property of its author1 but printed fifty years after his death4 ,these words1 ,i repeat1 are merely definitive terms1 and like others serve to point out or specify particular objects which may thus be better known4 ,words1 however1 in common use form adjectives the same as other words2 as1 ,russia iron1 ,china ships1 ,india silks1 ,vermont cheese1 ,orange county butter1 ,new-,york flour1 ,carolina potatoes4 ,morocco leather was first manufactured in a city of ,africa called by that name1 but it is now made in almost every town in our country4 ,the same may be said of ,leghorn hats1 ,russia binding1 ,french shoes1 and ,china ware4 ,although made in our own country we still retain the words1 morocco1 leghorn1 russia1 french1 and china1 to define the fashion1 kind1 or quality of articles to which we allude4 ,much china ware is made in ,liverpool1 which1 to distinguish it from the real1 is called liverpool china4 ,many french shoes are made in ,lynn1 and many ,roxbury russets1 ,newton pippins1 and ,rhode-,island greenings1 grow in ,vermont4 ,it may not be improper here to notice the adjectives derived from pronouns1 which retain so much of their character as relates to the persons who employ them4 ,these are my1 thy1 his1 her1 its1 our1 your1 their1 whose4 ,this is my book1 that is your pen1 this is his knife1 and that is her letter4 ,some of these1 like other words1 vary their ending when standing alone2 as1 two apples are yours1 three hers1 six theirs1 five ours1 and the rest mine4 ,his does not alter in popular use4 ,hence the reason why you hear it so often1 in common conversation1 when standing without the noun expressed1 pronounced as if written hisen4 ,the word other1 and some others1 come under the same remark4 ,when the nouns specified are expressed1 they take the regular termination2 as1 give me these ,baldwin apples1 and a few others--a few other apples4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is a class of small words which from the frequency of their use have1 like pronouns1 lost their primitive character1 and are now preserved only as adjectives4 ,let us examine a few of them by endeavoring to ferret out their true meaning and application in the expression of ideas4 ,we will begin with the old articles1 a1 an1 and the1 by testing the truth and propriety of the duty commonly assigned to them in our grammars4 ,the standard grammar asserts that an article is a word prefixed to substantives1 to point them out1 and to show how far their signification extends2 as1 a garden1 an eagle1 the woman4 ,skepticism in grammar is no crime1 so we will not hesitate to call in question the correctness of this best of all grammars beyond all comparison4 ,let us consider the very examples given4 ,they were doubtless the best that could be found4 ,does a point out the garden1 or show how far its signification extends8 ,it does neither of these things4 ,it may name any garden1 and it certainly does not define whether it is a great or a small one4 ,it simply determines that one garden is the subject of remark4 ,all else is to be determined by the word garden4 ,we are told there are two articles1 the one indefinite1 the other definite--a is the former1 and the the latter4 ,i shall leave it with you to reconcile the apparent contradiction of an indefinite article which is used in a vague sense1 to point out the signification of another word4 ,but ,i challenge teachers to make their pupils comprehend such a jargon1 if they can do it themselves4 ,but it is as good sense as we find in many of the popular grammars of the day4 ,again1 ,murray says a becomes an before a vowel or silent h2 and so say all his simplifying satellites after him4 ,is such the fact8 ,is he right8 ,he is1 ,i most unqualifiedly admit1 with this little correction1 the addition of a single word--he is right wrong6 ,instead of a becoming an1 the reverse is the fact4 ,the word is derived directly from the same word which still stands as our first numeral4 ,it was a short time since written ane1 as any one may see by consulting all old books4 ,by and by it dropped the e1 and afterwards1 for the sake of euphony1 in certain cases1 the n1 so that now it stands a single letter4 ,you all have lived long enough to have noticed the changes in the word4 ,formerly we said an union1 an holiday1 an universalist1 an unitarian1 c41 expressions which are now rarely heard4 ,we now say a union1 c4 ,this single instance proves that arbitrary rules of grammar have little to do in the regulation of language4 ,its barriers are of sand1 soon removed4 ,it will not be said that this is an unimportant mistake1 for1 if an error1 it is pernicious1 and if a grammarian knows enough to say that a becomes an1 he ought to know that he tells a falsehood1 and that an becomes a under certain circumstances4 ,mr4 ,murray gives the following example to illustrate the use of a4 ,give me a book2 that is1 any book4 ,how can the learner understand such a rule8 ,how will it apply8 ,let us try it4 ,a man has a wife2 that is1 any man has any wife4 ,i have a hat2 that is1 any hat4 ,a farmer has a farm--any farmer has any farm4 ,a merchant in ,boston has a beautiful piece of broadcloth--any merchant in ,boston has any beautiful piece of broadcloth4 ,a certain king of ,europe decreed a protestant to be burned--any king of ,europe decreed any protestant to be burned4 ,how ridiculous are the rules we have learned and taught to others1 to enable them to speak and write with propriety4 ,no wonder we never understood grammar1 if so at variance with truth and every day's experience4 ,the rules of grammar as usually taught can never be observed in practice4 ,hence it is called a dry study4 ,in every thing else we learn something that we can understand1 which will answer some good purpose in the affairs of life4 ,but this branch of science is among the things which have been tediously learned to no purpose4 ,no good account can be given of its advantages4 ,the1 we are told1 is called the definite article1 because it ascertains what particular thing or things are meant4 ,a most unfortunate definition1 and quite as erroneous as the former4 ,let us try it4 ,the stars shine1 the lion roars1 the camel is a beast of burden1 the deer is good for food1 the wind blows1 the clouds appear1 the ,indians are abused4 ,what is there in these examples1 which ascertain what particular thing or things are meant8 ,they are expressions as indefinite as we can imagine4 ,on the other hand1 should ,i say a star shines1 a lion roars1 an ,indian is abused1 a wind blows1 a cloud appears1 you would understand me to allude very definitely to one particular object1 as separate and distinguished from others of its kind4 ,but what is the wonderful peculiarity in the meaning and use of these two little words that makes them so unlike every thing else1 as to demand a separate part of speech8 ,you may be surprised when ,i tell you that there are other words in our language derived from the same source and possessed of the same meaning2 but such is the fact1 as will soon appear4 ,let us ask for the etymology of these important words4 ,a signifies one1 never more1 never less4 ,in this respect it is always definite4 ,it is sometimes applied to a single thing1 sometimes to a whole class of things1 to a one man1 or to a one hundred men4 ,it may be traced thro other languages1 ancient and modern1 with little modification in spelling2 ,greek eis1 ein2 ,latin unus2 ,armoric unan2 ,spanish and ,italian uno2 ,portuguese hum2 ,french un2 ,german ein2 ,danish een1 en2 ,dutch een2 ,swedish en2 ,saxon1 an1 aen1 one--from which ours is directly derived--old ,english ane2 and more modernly one1 an1 a4 ,in all languages it defines a thing to be one1 a united or congregated whole1 and the word one may always be substituted without affecting the sense4 ,from it is derived our word once1 which signifies oned1 united1 joined1 as we shall see when we come to speak of contractions4 ,in some languages a is styled an article1 in others it is not4 ,the ,latin1 for instance1 has no article1 and the ,greek has no indefinite4 ,but all languages have words which are like ours1 pure adjectives1 employed to specify certain things4 ,the argument drawn from the fact that some other languages have articles1 and therefore ours should1 is fallacious4 ,the ,latin1 which was surpassed for beauty of style or power in deliverance by few1 if any others1 never suffered from the lack of articles4 ,nor is there any reason why we should honor two small adjectives with that high rank to the exclusion of others quite as worthy4 ,the is always used as a definitive word1 tho it is the least definite of the defining adjectives4 ,in fact when we desire to ascertain particularly what thing is meant1 we select some more definite word4 ,give me the books4 ,which8 ,those with red covers1 that in calf1 and this in ,russia binding4 ,the nations are at peace4 ,what nations8 ,those which were at war4 ,you perceive how we employ words which are more definite1 that is1 better understood1 to point out the object of conversation1 especially when there is any doubt in the case4 ,what occasion1 then1 is there to give these the8 words a separate part of speech1 since in character they do not differ from others in the language8 ,we will notice another frivolous distinction made by ,mr4 ,murray1 merely to show how learned men may be mistaken1 and the folly of trusting to special rules in the general application of words4 ,he says1 ,thou art a man1 is a very general and harmless expression2 but1 thou art the man1 7as ,nathan said to ,david17 is an assertion capable of striking terror and remorse into the heart4 ,the distinction in meaning here1 on which he insists1 attaches to the articles a and the4 ,it is a sufficient refutation of this definition to make a counter statement4 ,suppose we say1 ,murray is the best grammarian in the world2 or1 he is a fool1 a knave1 and a liar4 ,which1 think you1 would be considered the most harmless expression8 ,suppose it had been said to ,aaron ,burr1 thou art a traitor1 or to ,general ,william ,hull1 thou art a coward1 would they regard the phrase as harmless6 ,on the other hand1 suppose a beautiful1 accomplished1 and talented young lady1 should observe to one of her suitors1 ,i have received offers of marriage from several gentlemen besides yourself1 but thou art the man of my choice2 would it1 think you1 strike terror and remorse into his heart8 ,i should pity the young student of ,murray whose feelings had become so stoical from the false teaching of his author as to be filled with terror and remorse under such favorable circumstances1 while fair prospects of future happiness were thus rapidly brightening before him4 ,i speak as to the wise1 judge ye what ,i say4 ,the adjective that has obtained a very extensive application in language4 ,however1 it may seem to vary in its different positions1 it still retains its primitive meaning4 ,it is comprised of the and it1 thait1 theat1 thaet 7,saxon17 thata 7,gothic17 dat 7,dutch47 ,it is the most decided definitive in our language4 ,it is by use applied to things in the singular1 or to a multitude of things regarded as a whole4 ,by use1 it applies to a collection of ideas expressed in a sentence2 as1 it was resolved1 that4 ,what8 ,then follows that fact which was resolved4 ,provided that1 in case he does so and so4 ,it was agreed that1 that fact was agreed to which is about to be made known4 ,i wish you to understand1 all thro these lectures1 that ,i shall honestly endeavor to expose error and establish truth4 ,wish you to understand what8 that fact1 afterwards stated1 ,i shall endeavor1 c4 ,you can not mistake my meaning3 that would be impossible4 ,what would be impossible8 ,why1 to mistake my meaning4 ,you can not fail to observe the true character of this word called by our grammarians adjective pronoun1 relative pronoun1 and conjunction4 ,they did not think to look for its meaning4 ,had that 7duty7 been done1 it would have stood forth in its true character1 an important defining word4 ,the only difficulty in the explanation of this word1 originates in the fact1 that it was formerly applied to the plural as well as singular number4 ,it is now applied to the singular only when referring directly to an object2 as1 that man4 ,and it never should be used otherwise4 ,but we often see phrases like this2 ,these are the men that rebeled4 ,it should be1 these are the men who rebeled4 ,this difficulty can not be overcome in existing grammars on any other ground4 ,in modern writings1 such instances are rare4 ,this and that are applied to the singular2 these and those to the plural4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what is a compound of two original words1 and often retains the meaning of both1 when employed as a compound relative1 having in itself both the antecedent and the relative1 as our authors tell us4 ,but when it is dissected1 it will readily enough be understood to be an adjective1 defining things under particular relations4 ,but ,i shall weary your patience1 ,i fear1 if ,i stay longer in this place to examine the etymology of small words4 ,i intended to have shown the meaning and use of many words included in the list of conjunctions1 which are truly adjectives1 such as both1 as1 so1 neither1 and1 etc42 but ,i let them pass for the present1 to be resumed under the head of contractions4 ,from the view we have given of this class of words1 we are saved the tediousness of studying the grammatical distinctions made in the books1 where no real distinctions exist4 ,in character these words are like adjectives2 their meaning1 like the meaning of all other words1 is peculiar to themselves4 ,let that be known1 and there will be little difficulty in classing them4 ,we need not confuse the learner with adjective pronouns1 possessive adjective pronouns1 distributive adjective pronouns1 demonstrative adjective pronouns1 indefinite adjective pronouns1 nor any other adjective pronouns1 which can never be understood nor explained4 ,children will be slow to apprehend the propriety of a union of adjectives and pronouns1 when told that the former is always used with a noun1 and never for one2 and the latter always for a noun1 but never with one2 and yet1 that there is such a strange combination as a distributive or indefinite adjective pronoun1--confusion worse confounded4 ,in the french language1 the gender of adjectives is varied so as to agree with the nouns to which they belong4 ,possessive pronouns1 as they are called1 come under the same rule1 which proves them to be in character1 and formation1 adjectives2 else the person using them must change gender4 ,the father says1 ma 7feminine7 fille1 my daughter2 and the mother1 mon 7masculine7 fils1 my son2 the same as they would say1 bon pere1 good father2 bonne mere1 good mother2 or1 in ,latin1 bonus pater1 or bona mater2 or1 in ,spanish1 bueno padre1 buena madre4 ,in the two last languages1 as well as all others1 where the adjectives vary the termination so as to agree with the noun1 the same fact may be observed in reference to their pronouns4 ,if it is a fact that these words are pronouns1 that is1 stand for other nouns1 then the father is feminine1 and the mother is masculine2 and whoever uses them in reference to the opposite sex must change gender to do so4 99 99 99 99 99 ,describing adjectives admit of variation to express different degrees of comparison4 ,the regular degrees have been reckoned three2 positive1 comparative1 and superlative4 ,these are usually marked by changing the termination4 ,the positive is determined by a comparison with other things2 as1 a great house1 a small book1 compared with others of their kind4 ,this is truly a comparative degree4 ,the comparative adds er2 as1 a greater house1 a smaller book4 ,the superlative1 est2 as1 the greatest house1 the smallest book4 ,several adjectives express a comparison less than the positive1 others increase or diminish the regular degrees2 as1 whitish white1 very white1 pure white2 whiter1 considerable whiter1 much whiter2 whitest1 the very whitest1 much the whitest beyond all comparison1 so that there can be none whiter1 nor so white4 ,we make an aukward use of the words great and good1 in the comparison of things2 as1 a good deal1 or great deal whiter2 a good many men1 or a great many men4 ,as we never hear of a small deal1 or a bad deal whiter1 nor of a bad many1 nor little many1 it would be well to avoid such phrases4 ,the words which are added to other adjectives1 to increase or diminish the comparison1 or assist in their definition1 may properly be called secondary adjectives1 for such is their character4 ,they do not refer to the thing to be defined or described1 but to the adjective which is affected1 in some way1 by them4 ,they are easily distinguished from the rest by noticing this fact4 ,take for example3 ,a very dark red raw silk lady's dress handkerchief4 ,the resolution of this sentence would stand thus3 ,a 7 7 handkerchief4 ,a 7 7 red 7 7 handkerchief4 ,a 7 7 dark red 7 7 handkerchief4 ,a very dark red 7 7 handkerchief4 ,a very dark red 7 7 silk 7 7 handkerchief4 ,a very dark red raw silk 7 7 handkerchief4 ,a very dark red raw silk 7 7 dress handkerchief4 ,a very dark red raw silk lady's dress handkerchief4 ,we might also observe that hand is an adjective1 compounded by use with kerchief4 ,it is derived from the french word couvrir1 to cover1 and chef1 the head4 ,it means a head dress1 a cloth to cover1 a neck cloth1 a napkin4 ,by habit we apply it to a single article1 and speak of neck handkerchief4 ,the nice shade of meaning1 and the appropriate use of adjectives1 is more distinctly marked in distinguishing colors than in any thing else1 for the simple reason1 that there is nothing in nature so closely observed4 ,for instance1 take the word green1 derived from grain1 because it is grain color1 or the color of the fair carpet of nature in spring and summer4 ,but this hue changes from the deep grass green1 to the light olive1 and words are chosen to express the thousand varying tints produced by as many different objects4 ,in the adaptation of language to the expression of ideas1 we do not separate these shades of color from the things in which such colors are supposed to reside4 ,hence we talk of grass1 pea1 olive1 leek1 verdigris1 emerald1 sea1 and bottle green2 also1 of light1 dark1 medium2 very light1 or dark grass1 pea1 olive1 or invisible green4 ,red1 as a word1 means rayed4 ,it describes the appearance or substance produced when rayed1 reddened1 or radiated by the morning beams of the sun1 or any other radiating cause4 ,wh is used for qu1 in white1 which means quite1 quited1 quitted1 cleared1 cleansed of all color1 spot1 or stain4 ,blue is another spelling for blew4 ,applied to color1 it describes something in appearance to the sky1 when the clouds and mists are blown away1 and the clear blue ether appears4 ,you will be pleased with the following extract from an eloquent writer of the last century1#i who1 tho somewhat extravagant in some of his speculations1 was1 nevertheless1 a close observer of nature1 which he studied as it is1 without the aid of human theories4 ,the beauty of the style1 and the correctness of the sentiment1 will be a sufficient apology for its length4 ,we shall employ a method1 not quite so learned1 to convey an idea of the generation of colors1 and the decomposition of the solar ray4 ,instead of examining them in a prism of glass1 we shall consider them in the heavens1 and there we shall behold the five primordial colours unfold themselves in the order which we have indicated4 ,in a fine summer's night1 when the sky is loaded only with some light vapours1 sufficient to stop and to refract the rays of the sun1 walk out into an open plain1 where the first fires of ,aurora may be perceptible4 ,you will first observe the horizon whiten at the spot where she is to make her appearance2 and this radiance1 from its colour1 has procured for it1 in the ,french language1 the name of aube1 7the dawn17 from the ,latin word alba1 white4 ,this whiteness insensibly ascends in the heavens1 assuming a tint of yellow some degrees above the horizon2 the yellow as it rises passes into orange2 and this shade of orange rises upward into the lively vermilion1 which extends as far as the zenith4 ,from that point you will perceive in the heavens behind you the violet succeeding the vermilion1 then the azure1 after it the deep blue or indigo colour1 and1 last of all1 the black1 quite to the westward4 ,though this display of colours presents a multitude of intermediate shades1 which rapidly succeed each other1 yet at the moment the sun is going to exhibit his disk1 the dazzling white is visible in the horizon1 the pure yellow at an elevation of forty-five degrees2 the fire color in the zenith2 the pure blue forty-five degrees under it1 toward the west2 and in the very west the dark veil of night still lingering on the horizon4 ,i think ,i have remarked this progression between the tropics1 where there is scarcely any horizontal refraction to make the light prematurely encroach on the darkness1 as in our climates4 ,sometimes the trade-winds1 from the north-east or south-east1 blow there1 card the clouds through each other1 then sweep them to the west1 crossing and recrossing them over one another1 like the osiers interwoven in a transparent basket4 ,they throw over the sides of this chequered work the clouds which are not employed in the contexture1 roll them up into enormous masses1 as white as snow1 draw them out along their extremities in the form of a crupper1 and pile them upon each other1 moulding them into the shape of mountains1 caverns1 and rocks2 afterwards1 as evening approaches1 they grow somewhat calm1 as if afraid of deranging their own workmanship4 ,when the sun sets behind this magnificent netting1 a multitude of luminous rays are transmitted through the interstices1 which produce such an effect1 that the two sides of the lozenge illuminated by them have the appearance of being girt with gold1 and the other two in the shade seem tinged with ruddy orange4 ,four or five divergent streams of light1 emanated from the setting sun up to the zenith1 clothe with fringes of gold the undeterminate summits of this celestial barrier1 and strike with the reflexes of their fires the pyramids of the collateral aerial mountains1 which then appear to consist of silver and vermilion4 ,at this moment of the evening are perceptible1 amidst their redoubled ridges1 a multitude of valleys extending into infinity1 and distinguishing themselves at their opening by some shade of flesh or of rose colour4 ,these celestial valleys present in their different contours inimitable tints of white1 melting away into white1 or shades lengthening themselves out without mixing over other shades4 ,you see1 here and there1 issuing from the cavernous sides of those mountains1 tides of light precipitating themselves1 in ingots of gold and silver1 over rocks of coral4 ,here it is a gloomy rock1 pierced through and through1 disclosing1 beyond the aperture1 the pure azure of the firmament2 there it is an extensive strand1 covered with sands of gold1 stretching over the rich ground of heaven2 poppy-coloured1 scarlet1 and green as the emerald4 ,the reverberation of those western colours diffuses itself over the sea1 whose azure billows it glazes with saffron and purple4 ,the mariners1 leaning over the gunwale of the ship1 admire in silence those aerial landscapes4 ,sometimes this sublime spectacle presents itself to them at the hour of prayer1 and seems to invite them to lift up their hearts with their voices to the heavens4 ,it changes every instant into forms as variable as the shades1 presenting celestial colors and forms which no pencil can pretend to imitate1 and no language can describe4 ,travellers who have1 at various seasons1 ascended to the summits of the highest mountains on the globe1 never could perceive1 in the clouds below them1 any thing but a gray and lead-colored surface1 similar to that of a lake4 ,the sun1 notwithstanding1 illuminated them with his whole light2 and his rays might there combine all the laws of refraction to which our systems of physics have subjected them4 ,hence not a single shade of color is employed in vain1 through the universe2 those celestial decorations being made for the level of the earth1 their magnificent point of view taken from the habitation of man4 ,these admirable concerts of lights and forms1 manifest only in the lower region of the clouds the least illuminated by the sun1 are produced by laws with which ,i am totally unacquainted4 ,but the whole are reducible to five colors3 yellow1 a generation from white2 red1 a deeper shade of yellow2 blue1 a strong tint of red2 and black1 the extreme tint of blue4 ,this progression cannot be doubted1 on observing in the morning the expansion of the light in the heavens4 ,you there see those five colors1 with their intermediate shades1 generating each other nearly in this order3 white1 sulphur yellow1 lemon yellow1 yolk of egg yellow1 orange1 aurora color1 poppy red1 full red1 carmine red1 purple1 violet1 azure1 indigo1 and black4 ,each color seems to be only a strong tint of that which precedes it1 and a faint tint of that which follows2 thus the whole together appear to be only modulations of a progression1 of which white is the first term1 and black the last4 ,indeed trade cannot be carried on to any advantage1 with the ,negroes1 ,tartars1 ,americans1 and ,east-,indians1 but through the medium of red cloths4 ,the testimonies of travellers are unanimous respecting the preference universally given to this color4 ,i have indicated the universality of this taste1 merely to demonstrate the falsehood of the philosophic axiom1 that tastes are arbitrary1 or that there are in ,nature no laws for beauty1 and that our tastes are the effects of prejudice4 ,the direct contrary of this is the truth2 prejudice corrupts our natural tastes1 otherwise the same over the whole earth4 ,with red ,nature heightens the brilliant parts of the most beautiful flowers4 ,she has given a complete clothing of it to the rose1 the queen of the garden3 and bestowed this tint on the blood1 the principle of life in animals3 she invests most of the feathered race1 in ,india1 with a plumage of this color1 especially in the season of love2 and there are few birds without some shades1 at least1 of this rich hue4 ,some preserve entirely the gray or brown ground of their plumage1 but glazed over with red1 as if they had been rolled in carmine2 others are besprinkled with red1 as if you had blown a scarlet powder over them4 ,the red 7or rayed7 color1 in the midst of the five primordial colors1 is the harmonic expression of them by way of excellence2 and the result of the union of two contraries1 light and darkness4 ,there are1 besides1 agreeable tints1 compounded of the oppositions of extremes4 ,for example1 of the second and fourth color1 that is1 of yellow and blue1 is formed green1 which constitutes a very beautiful harmony1 and ought1 perhaps1 to possess the second rank in beauty1 among colors1 as it possesses the second in their generation4 ,nay1 green appears to many1 if not the most beautiful tint1 at least the most lovely1 because it is less dazzling than red1 and more congenial to the eye4 ,many words come under the example previously given to illustrate the secondary character of adjectives1 which should be carefully noticed by the learner1 to distinguish whether they define or describe things1 or are added to increase the distinction made by the adjectives themselves1 for both defining and describing adjectives admit of this addition2 as1 old ,english coin1 ,new ,england rebelion2 a mounted whip1 and a gold mounted sword--not a gold sword2 a very fine ,latin scholar4 ,secondary adjectives1 also1 admit of comparison in various ways2 as1 dearly beloved1 a more beloved1 the best beloved1 the very best beloved brother4 ,words formerly called prepositions1 admit of comparison1 as ,i have before observed4 ,benhadad fled into an inner chamber4 ,the inner temple4 ,the inmost recesses of the heart4 ,the out fit of a squadron4 ,the outer coating of a vessel1 or house4 ,the utmost reach of grammar4 ,the up and down hill side of a field4 ,the upper end of the lot4 ,the uppermost seats4 ,a part of the book4 ,take it farther off4 ,the off cast4 ,india beyond the ,ganges4 ,far beyond the boundaries of the nation4 ,i shall go to the city4 ,i am near to the town4 ,near does not qualify the verb1 for it has nothing to do with it4 ,i can exist in one place as well as another4 ,it is below the surface2 very far below it4 ,it is above the earth--high above all height4 ,such expressions frequently occur in the expression of ideas1 and are correctly understood2 as difficult as it may have been to describe them with the theories learned in the books--sometimes calling them one thing1 sometimes another--when their character and meaning was unchanged1 or1 according to old systems1 had no meaning at all of their own6 ,but ,i fear ,i have gone far beyond your patience1 and1 perhaps1 entered deeper into this subject than was necessary1 to enable you to discover my meaning4 ,i desired to make the subject as distinct as possible1 that all might see the important improvement suggested4 ,i am apprehensive even now1 that some will be compelled to think many profound thoughts before they will see the end of the obscurity under which they have long been shrouded1 in reference to the false rules which they have been taught4 ,but we have one consolation--those who are not bewildered by the grammars they have tried in vain to understand1 will not be very likely to make a wrong use of adjectives1 especially if they have ideas to express2 for there is no more danger of mistaking an adjective for a noun1 or verb1 than there is of mistaking a horse chestnut for a chestnut horse4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in our next we shall commence the consideration of ,verbs1 the most important department in the science of language1 and particularly so in the system we are defending4 ,i hope you have not been uninterested thus far in the prosecution of the subject of language1 and ,i am confident you will not be in what remains to be said upon it4 ,the science1 so long regarded dry and uninteresting1 becomes delightful and easy2 new and valuable truths burst upon us at each advancing step1 and we feel to bless ,god for the ample means afforded us for obtaining knowledge from1 and communicating it to others1 on the most important affairs of time and eternity4 ,,lecture ,,viii4 ,,on ,,verbs4 ,unpleasant to expose error4--,verbs defined4--,every thing acts4-- ,actor and object4--,laws4--,man4--,animals4--,vege tables4--,minerals4-- ,neutrality degrading4--,nobody can explain a neuter verb4--,one kind of verbs4--,you must decide4--,importance of teaching children the truth4--,active verbs4--,transitive verbs false4--,samples4--,neuter verbs examined4--,sit4--,sleep4--,stand4--,lie 4--,opinion of ,mrs4 ,w4--,anecdote4 ,we now come to the consideration of that class of words which in the formation of language are called ,verbs4 ,you will allow me to bespeak your favorable attention1 and to insist most strenuously on the propriety of a free and thoro examination into the nature and use of these words4 ,i shall be under the necessity of performing the thankless task of exposing the errors of honest1 wise1 and good men1 in order to remove difficulties which have long existed in works on language1 and clear the way for a more easy and consistent explanation of this interesting and essential department of literature4 ,i regret the necessity for such labors2 but no person who wishes the improvement of mankind1 or is willing to aid the growth of the human intellect1 in its high aspirations after truth1 knowledge1 and goodness1 should shrink from a frank exposition of what he deems to be error1 nor refuse his assistance1 feeble tho it may be1 in the establishment of correct principles4 ,in former lectures we have confined our remarks to things and a description of their characters and relations1 so that every entity of which we can conceive a thought1 or concerning which we can form an expression1 has been defined and described in the use of nouns and adjectives4 ,every thing in creation1 of which we think1 material or immaterial1 real or imaginary1 and to which we give a name1 to represent the idea of it1 comes under the class of words called nouns4 ,the words which specify or distinguish one thing from another1 or describe its properties1 character1 or relations1 are designated as adjectives4 ,there is only one other employment left for words1 and that is the expression of the actions1 changes1 or inherent tendencies of things4 ,this important department of knowledge is1 in grammar1 classed under the head of ,verbs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,verb is derived from the ,latin verbum1 which signifies a word4 ,by specific application it is applied to those words only which express action1 correctly understood2 the same as ,bible1 derived from the ,greek biblos means literally the book1 but1 by way of eminence1 is applied to the sacred scriptures only4 ,this interesting class of words does not deviate from the correct principles which we have hitherto observed in these lectures4 ,it depends on established laws1 exerted in the regulation of matter and thought2 and whoever would learn its sublime use must be a close observer of things1 and the mode of their existence4 ,the important character it sustains in the production of ideas of the changes and tendencies of things and in the transmission of thought1 will be found simple1 and obvious to all4 ,things exist2 ,nouns name them4 ,things differ2 ,adjectives define or describe them4 ,things act2 ,verbs express their actions4 ,all ,verbs denote action4 ,by action1 we mean not only perceivable motion1 but an inherent tendency to change1 or resist action4 ,it matters not whether we speak of animals possessed of the power of locomotion2 of vegetables1 which send forth their branches1 leaves1 blossoms1 and fruits2 or of minerals1 which retain their forms1 positions1 and properties4 ,the same principles are concerned1 the same laws exist1 and should be observed in all our attempts to understand their operations1 or employ them in the promotion of human good4 ,every thing acts according to the ability it possesses2 from the small particle of sand1 which occupies its place upon the sea shore1 up thro the various gradation of being1 to the tall archangel1 who bows and worships before the throne of the uncreated ,cause of all things and actions which exist thro out his vast dominions4 ,as all actions presuppose an actor1 so every action must result on some object4 ,no effect can exist without an efficient cause to produce it2 and no cause can exist without a corresponding effect resulting from it4 ,these mutual relations1 helps1 and dependencies1 are manifest in all creation4 ,philosophy1 religion1 the arts1 and all science1 serve only to develope these primary laws of nature1 which unite and strengthen1 combine and regulate1 preserve and guide the whole4 ,from the ,eternal ,i ,,am1 the uncreated1 self-existent1 self-sustaining ,cause of all things1 down to the minutest particle of dust1 evidences may be traced of the existence and influence of these laws1 in themselves irresistible1 exceptionless1 and immutable4 ,every thing has a place and a duty assigned it2 and harmony1 peace1 and perfection are the results of a careful and judicious observance of the laws given for its regulation4 ,any infringement of these laws will produce disorder1 confusion1 and distraction4 ,man is made a little lower than the angels1 possessed of a mind capable of reason1 improvement1 and happiness2 an intellectual soul inhabiting a mortal body1 the connecting link between earth and heaven--the material and spiritual world4 ,as a physical being1 he is subject1 in common with other things1 to the laws which regulate matter3 as an intellectual being1 he is governed by the laws which regulate mind3 as possessed of both a body and mind1 a code of moral laws demand his observance in all the social relations and duties of life4 ,obedience to these laws is the certain source of health of body1 and peace of mind4 ,an infringement of them will as certainly be attended with disease and suffering to the one1 and sorrow and anguish to the other4 ,lower grades of animals partake of many qualities in common with man4 ,in some they are deficient2 in others they are superior4 ,some animals are possessed of all but reason1 and even in that1 the highest of them come very little short of the lowest of the human species4 ,if they have not reason1 they possess an instinct which nearly approaches it4 ,these qualities dwindle down gradually thro the various orders and varieties of animated nature1 to the lowest grade of animalculae1 a multitude of which may inhabit a single drop of water2 or to the zoophytes and lythophytes1 which form the connecting link between the animal and vegetable kingdom2 as the star-fish1 the polypus1 and spunges4 ,then strike off into another kingdom1 and observe the laws vegetable life4 ,mark the tall pine which has grown from a small seed which sent forth its root downwards and its trunk upwards1 drawing nourishment from earth1 air1 and water1 till it now waves its top to the passing breeze1 a hundred feet above this dirty earth3 or the oak or olive1 which have maintained their respective positions a dozen centuries despite the operations of wind and weather1 and have shed their foliage and their seeds to propagate their species and extend their kinds to different places4 ,while a hundred generations have lived and died1 and the country often changed masters1 they resist oppression1 scorn misrule1 and retain rights and privileges which are slowly encroached upon by the inroads of time1 which will one day triumph over them1 and they fall helpless to the earth1 to submit to the chemical operations which shall dissolve their very being and cause them to mingle with the common dust1 yielding their strength to give life and power to other vegetables which shall occupy their places4#aj ,or mark the living principle in the sensitive plant1 which withers at every touch1 and suffers long ere it regains its former vigor4 ,descend from thence1 down thro the various gradations of vegetable life1 till you pass the narrow border and enter the mineral world4 ,here you will see displayed the same sublime principle1 tho in a modified degree4 ,minerals assume different shapes1 hues and relations2 they increase and diminish1 attach and divide under various circumstances1 all the while retaining their identity and properties1 and exerting their abilities according to the means they possess1 till compelled to yield to a superior power1 and learn to submit to the laws which operate in every department of this mutable world4 ,every thing acts according to the ability ,god has bestowed upon it2 and man can do no more4 ,he has authority over all things on earth1 and yet he is made to depend upon all4 ,his authority extends no farther than a privilege1 under wholesome restrictions1 of making the whole subservient to his real good4 ,when he goes beyond this1 he usurps a power which belongs not to him1 and the destruction of his happiness pays the forfeit of his imprudence4 ,the injured power rises triumphant over the aggressor1 and the glory of ,god's government1 in the righteous and immediate execution of his laws1 is clearly revealed4 ,so long as man obeys the laws which regulate health1 observes temperance in all things1 uses the things of this world as not abusing them1 he is at rest1 he is blessed1 he is happy3 but no sooner has he violated heaven's law than he becomes the slave1 and the servant assumes the master4 ,but ,i am digressing4 ,i would gladly follow this subject further1 but ,i shall go beyond my limits1 and1 it may be1 your patience4 ,i would insist1 however1 on the facts to which your attention has been given1 for it is impossible1 as ,i have before contended1 to use language correctly without a knowledge of the things and ideas it is employed to represent4 ,grovelling1 indeed1 must be the mind which will not trace the sublime exhibitions of ,divine power and skill in all the operations of nature2 and false must be that theory which teaches the young mind to think and speak of neutrality as attached to things which do exist4 ,as low and debasing as the speculations of the schoolmen were1 they gave to things which they conceived to be incapable of action1 a principle which they called vis inertiae1 or1 power to lie still4 ,shall our systems of instruction descend below them1 throw an insurmountable barrier in the way of human improvement1 and teach the false principles that actions can exist without an effect1 or that there is a class of words which express neither action or passion4 ,such a theory is at war with the first principles of philosophy1 and denies that like causes produce like effects4 ,the ablest minds have never been able to explain the foundation of a neuter verb1 or to find a single word1 with a solitary exception1 which does not1 in certain conditions1 express a positive action1 and terminate on a definite object2 and that exception we shall see refers to a verb which expresses the highest degree of conceivable action4 ,still they have insisted on three and some on four kinds of verbs1 one expressing action1 another passion or suffering1 and the third neutrality4 ,we propose to offer a brief review of these distinctions1 which have so long perplexed1 not only learners1 but teachers themselves1 and been the fruitful source of much dissention among grammarians4 ,it is to be hoped you will come up to this work with as great candor as you have heretofore manifested1 and as fully resolved to take nothing for granted1 because it has been said by good or great men1 and to reject nothing because it appears new or singular4 ,let truth be our object and reason our guide to direct us to it4 ,we can not fail of arriving at safe and correct conclusions4 ,mr4 ,murray tells us that verbs are of three kinds1 active1 passive1 and neuter4 ,in a note he admits of active transitive and intransitive verbs1 as a subdivision of his first kind4 ,most of his improvers have adopted this distinction1 and regard it as of essential importance4 ,we shall contend1 as before expressed1 that all verbs are of one kind1 that they express action1 for the simple yet sublime reason1 that every thing acts1 at all times1 and under every possible condition2 according to the true definition of action as understood and employed by all writers on grammar1 and natural and moral science4 ,here we are at issue4 ,both1 contending for principles so opposite1 can not be correct4 ,one or the other1 however pure the motives1 must be attached to a system wrong in theory1 and of course pernicious in practice4 ,you are to be the umpires in the case1 and1 if you are faithful to your trust1 you will not be bribed or influenced in the least by the opinions of others4 ,if divested of all former attachments1 if free from all prejudice1 there can be no doubt of the safety and correctness of your conclusions4 ,but ,i am apprehensive ,i expect too much1 if ,i place the new system of grammar on a footing equally favorable in your minds with those you have been taught to respect1 as the only true expositions of language1 from your childhood up1 and which are recommended to you on the authority of the learned and good of many generations4 ,i have to combat early prejudices1 and systems long considered as almost sacred4 ,but ,i have in my favor the common sense of the world1 and a feeling of opposition to existing systems1 which has been produced1 not so much by a detection of their errors1 as by a lack of capacity1 as the learner verily thought1 to understand their profound mysteries4 ,i am1 therefore1 willing to risk the final decision with you1 if you will decide4 ,but ,i am not willing to have you made the tools of the opposite party1 determined1 whether convinced or not1 to hold to your old neuter verb systems1 right or wrong1 merely because others are doing so4 ,all ,i ask is your adoption of what is proved to be undeniably true1 and rejection of whatever is found to be false4 ,here is where the matter must rest1 for it will not be pretended that it is better to teach falsehood because it is ancient and popular1 than truth because it is novel4 ,teachers1 in this respect1 stand in a most responsible relation to their pupils4 ,they should always insist with an unyielding pertinacity1 on the importance of truth1 and the evils of error4 ,every trifling incident1 in the course of education1 which will serve to show the contrast1 should be particularly observed4 ,if an error can be detected in their books1 they should be so taught as to be able to correct it2 and they should be so inclined as to be willing to do it4 ,they should not be skeptics1 however1 but close observers1 original thinkers1 and correct reasoners4 ,it is degrading to the true dignity and independence of man1 to submit blindly to any proposition4 ,freedom of thought is the province of all4 ,children should be made to breathe the free air of honest inquiry1 and to inhale the sweet spirit of truth and charity4 ,they should not study their books as the end of learning1 but as a means of knowing4 ,books should be regarded as lamps1 which are set by the way side1 not as the objects to be looked at1 but the aids by which we may find the object of our search4 ,knowledge and usefulness constitute the leading motives in all study1 and no occasion should be lost1 no means neglected1 which will lead the young mind to their possession4 ,your attention is now invited to some critical remarks on the distinctions usually observed in the use of verbs4 ,let us carefully examine the meaning of these three kinds and see if there is any occasion for such a division2 if they have any foundation in truth1 or application in the correct use of language4 ,we will follow the arrangements adopted by the most popular grammars4 ,a verb active expresses an action1 and necessarily implies an agent1 and an object acted upon2 as1 to love1 ,i love ,penelope4 ,a very excellent definition1 indeed6 ,had grammarians stopped here1 their works would have been understood1 and proved of some service in the study of language4 ,but when they diverge from this bright spot in the consideration of verbs--this oasis in the midst of a desert--they soon become lost in the surrounding darkness of conjecture1 and follow each their own dim light1 to hit on a random track1 which to follow in the pursuit of their object4 ,we give our most hearty assent to the above definition of a verb4 ,it expresses action1 which necessarily implies an actor1 and an object influenced by the action4 ,in our estimation it matters not whether the object on which the action terminates is expressed or understood4 ,if ,i love1 ,i must love some object2 either my neighbor1 my enemy1 my family1 myself1 or something else4 ,in either case the action is the same1 tho the objects may be different2 and it is regarded1 on all hands1 as an active verb4 ,hence when the object on which the action terminates is not expressed1 it is necessarily understood4 ,all language is1 in this respect1 more or less eliptical1 which adds much to its richness and brevity4 ,active verbs1 we are told1 are divided into transitive and intransitive4 ,mr4 ,murray does not exactly approve of this distinction1 but prefers to class the intransitive and neuter together4 ,others1 aware of the fallacy of attempting to make children conceive any thing like neutrality in the verbs1 run1 fly1 walk1 live1 c41 have preferred to mark the distinction and call them intransitive2 because1 say they1 they do not terminate on any object expressed4 ,a transitive verb expresses an action which passes from the agent to the object2 as1 ,caesar conquered ,pompey4 ,to this definition we can not consent4 ,it attempts a distinction where there is none4 ,it is not true in principle1 and can not be adopted in practice4 ,caesar conquered ,pompey4 ,did the act of conquering pass transitively over from ,caesar to ,pompey8 ,they might not have seen each other during the whole battle1 nor been within many miles of each other4 ,they1 each of them1 stood at the head of their armies1 and alike gave orders to their subordinate officers1 and they again to their inferiors1 and so down1 each man contending valiantly for victory1 till1 at last1 the fate of the day sealed the downfall of ,pompey1 and placed the crown of triumph on the head of ,caesar4 ,the expression is a correct one1 but the action expressed by the verb conquered1 is not transitive1 as that term is understood4 ,a whole train of causes was put in operation which finally terminated in the defeat of one1 and the conquest of the other4 ,bonaparte lost the battle of ,waterloo4 ,what did he do to lose the battle8 ,he exerted his utmost skill to gain the battle and escape defeat4 ,he did not do a single act1 he entertained not a single thought1 which lead to such a result2 but strove against it with all his power4 ,if the fault was his1 it was because he failed to act1 and not because he labored to lose the battle4 ,he had too much at stake to adopt such a course1 and no man but a teacher of grammar1 would ever accuse him of acting to lose the battle4 ,a man was sick2 he desired to recover 7his health74 ,he took1 for medicine1 opium by mistake1 and lost his life by it4 ,was he guilty of suicide8 ,certainly1 if our grammars are true4 ,but he lost his life in trying to get well4 ,a man in ,america possesses property in ,europe1 and his children inherit it after his death4 ,what do the children do to inherit this property1 of which they know nothing8 ,the geese1 by their gabbling1 saved ,rome from destruction4 ,how did the geese save the city8 ,they made a noise1 which waked the sentinels1 who roused the soldiers to arms2 they fought1 slew many ,gauls1 and delivered the city4 ,a man in ,new-,york transacts business in ,canton4 ,how does he do it8 ,he has an agent there to whom he sends his orders1 and he transacts the business4 ,but how does he get his letters8 ,the clerk writes them1 the postman carries them on board the ship1 the captain commands the sailors1 who work the ropes which unfurl the sails1 the wind blows1 the vessel is managed by the pilot1 and after a weary voyage of several months1 the letters are delivered to the agent1 who does the business that is required of him4 ,the miser denies himself every comfort1 and spends his whole life in hoarding up riches2 and yet he dies and leaves his gold to be the possession of others4 ,christians suffer insults almost every day from the ,turks4 ,windows admit light and exclude cold4 ,who can discover any thing like transitive action--a passing from the agent to the object--in these cases8 ,what transitive action do the windows perform to admit the light2 or the christians1 to suffer insults2 or the miser1 to leave his money8 ,if there is neutrality any where1 we would look for it here4 ,the fact is1 these words express relative action1 as we shall explain when we come to the examination of the true character of the verb4 ,neutrality signifies 7transitive verb67 no action1 and neuter verbs express a state of being6 ,a class of words which can not act1 which apply to things in a quiescent state1 perform the transitive action of expressing a state of being6 ,who does not perceive the inconsistency and folly of such distinctions8 ,and who has not found himself perplexed1 if not completely bewildered in the dark and intricate labyrinths into which he has been led by the false grammar books6 ,every attempt he has made to extricate himself1 by the dim light of the simplifiers1 has only tended to bewilder him still more1 till he is utterly confounded1 or else abandons the study altogether4 99 99 99 99 99 ,an intransitive verb denotes action which is confined to the actor1 and does not pass over to another object2 as1 ,i sit1 he lives1 they sleep4 ,a verb neuter expresses neither action nor passion1 but being1 or a state of being2 as1 ,i am1 ,i sleep1 ,i sit4 ,these verbs are nearly allied in character2 but we will examine them separately and fairly4 ,the examples are the same1 with exception of the verb to be1 which we will notice by itself1 and somewhat at large1 in another place4 ,our first object will be to ascertain the meaning and use of the words which have been given as samples of neutrality4 ,it is unfortunate for the neuter systems that they can not define a neuter verb without making it express an action which terminates on some object4 99 99 99 ,the man sits in his chair4 ,sits1 we are told1 is a neuter verb4 ,what does it mean8 ,the man places himself in a sitting posture in his seat4 ,he keeps himself in his chair by muscular energy1 assisted by gravitation4 ,the chair upholds him in that condition4 ,bring a small child and sit it 7active verb17 in a chair beside him4 ,can it sit8 ,no2 it falls upon the floor and is injured4 ,why did it fall8 ,it was not able to keep itself from falling4 ,the lady fainted and fell from her seat4 ,if there is no action in sitting1 why did she not remain as she was8 ,a company of ladies and gentlemen from the boarding school and college1 entered the parlor of a teacher of neuter verbs2 and he asked them to sit down1 or be seated4 ,they were neutral4 ,he called them impolite4 ,but they replied1 that sit expresses neither action nor passion1 and hence he could not expect them to occupy his seats4 ,sit or set it away2 sit near me2 sit farther along2 sit still2 are expressions used by every teacher in addressing his scholars4 ,on the system we are examining1 what would they understand by such inactive expressions8 ,would he not correct them for disobeying his orders8 ,but what did he order them to do8 ,nothing at all1 if sit denotes no action4 ,i sat me down and wept4 ,he sat him down by a pillar's base1 ,and drew his hand athwart his face4 ,byron4 ,then1 having shown his wounds1 he'd sit him down1 ,and1 all the live long day1 discourse of war4 ,tragedy of ,douglass4 ,but wherefore sits he there8 ,death on my state6 ,this act convinces me ,that this retiredness of the duke and her1 ,is plain contempt4 ,king ,lear4 ,sitting1 the act of resting on a seat4 ,session1 the act of sitting4 ,johnson's ,dictionary4 99 99 99 ,i sleep4 ,is sleep a neuter verb8 ,so we are gravely told by our authors4 ,can grammarians follow their own rules8 ,if so1 they may spend the live long night and its waking hours1 without resorting to tired nature's sweet restorer1 balmy sleep2 for there is no process under heaven whereby they can procure sleep1 unless they sleep it4 ,for one1 ,i can never sleep without sleeping sleep--sometimes only a short nap4 ,it matters not whether the object is expressed or not4 ,the action remains the same4 ,the true object is necessarily understood1 and it would be superfluous to name it4 ,cases1 however1 often occur where1 both in speaking and writing1 it becomes indispensable to mention the object4 ,the stout hearted have slept their sleep4 ,they shall sleep the sleep of death4 ,they shall sleep the perpetual sleep1 and shall not awake4 ,sleep on now and take your rest4 ,the child was troublesome and the mother sung it to sleep1 and it slept itself quiet4 ,a lady took opium and slept herself to death4 ,many persons sleep themselves into a kind of unnatural stupidity4 ,rip ,van ,winkle1 according to the legend1 slept away a large portion of a common life4 ,sleep1 sleep to-day1 tormenting cares4 ,and sleep dull cares away4 ,was your sleep refreshing last night8 ,how did you procure it8 ,let a person who still adheres to his neuter verbs1 that sleep expresses no action1 and has no object on which it terminates1 put his theory in practice2 he may as well sleep with his eyes open1 sitting up1 as to lie himself upon his bed4 ,a man lodged in an open chamber1 and while he was sleeping 7doing nothing7 he caught a severe cold 7active transitive verb7 and had a long run of the fever4 ,who does not see1 not only the bad1 but also the false philosophy of such attempted distinctions8 ,how can you make a child discover any difference in the act of sleeping1 whether there is an object after it1 or not8 ,is it not the same8 ,and is not the object necessarily implied1 whether expressed or not8 ,can a person sleep1 without procuring sleep8 99 99 99 ,i stand4 ,the man stands firm in his integrity4 ,another stands in a very precarious condition1 and being unable to retain his hold1 falls down the precipice and is killed4 ,who is killed8 ,the man1 surely4 ,why did he fall8 ,because he could not stand4 ,but there is no action in standing1 say the books4 ,stand by thyself1 come not near me8 ,stand fast in the liberty wherewith ,christ hath made you free1 and be not again entangled in the yoke of bondage4 ,let him that thinketh he standeth1 take heed lest he fall4 ,if it requires no act to stand1 there can be no danger of falling4 ,two pillars stood together2 the rest had fallen to the ground4 ,the one on the right was quite perfect in all its parts4 ,the other resembled it very much1 except it had lost its capital1 and suffered some other injuries4 ,how could the latter column1 while performing no action in standing1 act transitively1 according to our grammars1 and do something to resemble the other8 or1 what did it do to lose its capital1 and suffer other injury8 99 99 99 ,to lie1 or lay4 ,it has been admitted that the verbs before considered are often used as active verbs1 and that there is1 in truth1 action expressed by them4 ,but when the man has fallen from his seat and lies upon the floor1 it is contended that he no longer acts1 and that lie expresses no action4 ,he has ceased from physical1 muscular action regulated by his will1 and is now subject to the common laws which govern matter4 ,let us take a strong example4 ,the book lies or lays on the desk4 ,now you ask1 does that book perform any action in laying on the desk8 ,i answer1 yes2 and ,i will prove it on the principles of the soundest philosophy1 to the satisfaction of every one present4 ,nor will ,i deviate from existing grammars to do it1 so far as real action is concerned4 ,the book lies on the desk4 ,the desk supports the book4 ,will you parse supports8 ,it is1 according to every system1 an active transitive verb4 ,it has an objective case after it on which the action terminates4 ,but what does the desk do to support the book8 ,it barely resists the action which the book performs in lying on it4 ,the action of the desk and book is reciprocal4 ,but if the book does not act1 neither can the desk act1 for that only repels the force of the book in pressing upon it in its tendency towards the earth1 in obedience to the law of gravitation4 ,and yet our authors have told us that the desk is active in resisting no action of the book6 ,no wonder people are unable to understand grammar4 ,it violates the first principles of natural science1 and frames to itself a code of laws1 unequal1 false1 and exceptionable1 which bear no affinity to the rest of the world1 and will not apply in the expression of ideas4 ,i was once lecturing on this subject in one of the cities of ,new-,york4 ,mrs4 ,w41 the distinguished teacher of one of the most popular ,female ,seminaries in our country1 attended4 ,at the close of one lecture she remarked that the greatest fault she had discovered in the new system1 was the want of a class of words to express neutrality4 ,children1 she said1 conceived ideas of things in a quiescent state1 and words should be taught them by which to communicate such ideas4 ,i asked her for an example4 ,she gave the rock in the side of the mountain4 ,it had never moved4 ,it could never act4 ,there it had been from the foundation of the earth1 and there it would remain unaltered and unchanged till time should be no longer4 ,i remarked1 that ,i would take another small stone and lay it on the great one which could never act1 and now we say the great rock upholds1 sustains or supports the small one--all active transitive verbs with an object expressed4 ,she replied1 she would give it up1 for it had satisfied her of a new principle which must be observed in the exposition of all language1 which accords with facts as developed in physical and mental science4 ,i continued1 not only does that rock act in resisting the force of the small one which lays upon it1 but1 by the attraction of gravitation it is able to maintain its position in the side of the mountain2 by cohesion it retains its distinct identity and solidity1 and repels all foreign bodies4 ,it is also subject to the laws which govern the earth in its diurnal and annual revolutions1 and moves in common with other matter at the astonishing rate of a thousand miles in an hour6 ,who shall teach children1 in these days of light and improvement1 the grovelling doctrine of neutrality1 this relic of the peripatetic philosophy8 ,will parents send their children to school to learn falsehood8 ,and can teachers be satisfied to remain in ignorance1 following with blind reverence the books they have studied1 and refuse to examine new principles1 fearing they shall be compelled to acknowledge former errors and study new principles8 ,they should remember it is wiser and more honorable to confess a fault and correct it1 than it is to remain permanent in error4 ,let us take another example of the verb to lie4 ,a country pedagogue who has followed his authorities most devotedly1 and taught his pupils that lie is a neuter verb1 expressing neither action nor passion1 but simply being1 or a state of being1 goes out1 during the intermission1 into a grove near by1 to exercise himself4 ,in attempting to roll a log up the hill1 he makes a mis-step1 and falls 7intransitive verb1 nothing falls67 to the ground1 and the log rolls 7nothing7 on to him1 and lies across his legs4 ,in this condition he is observed by his scholars to whom he cries 7nothing7 for help4 ,do 7nothing7 come 7intransitive7 and help me4 ,they obey him and remain neuter1 or at least act intransitively1 and produce no effects4 ,he cries again for help and his cries are regarded4 ,they present themselves before him4 ,do roll this log off2 it will break my legs4 ,oh no1 master2 how can that be8 ,the log lies on you1 does it not8 ,yes1 and it will press me to death4 ,no1 no2 that can never be4 ,the log can not act4 ,lies is a neuter verb1 signifying neither action nor passion1 but simply being or a state of being4 ,you have a state of being1 and the log has a state of being4 ,it can not harm you4 ,you must have forgotten the practical application of the truths you have been teaching us4 ,it would be difficult to explain neuter verbs in such a predicament4 ,now ,i lay me down to sleep4 ,she died and they laid her beside her lover under the spreading branches of the willow4 ,they laid it away so secure that they could never find it4 ,they laid down to rest themselves after the fatigue of a whole day's journey4 ,we have now considered the model verbs of the neuter kind1 with the exception of the verb to be1 which is left for a distinct consideration1 being the most active of all verbs4 ,it is unnecessary to spend much time on this point4 ,the errors ,i have examined have all been discovered by teachers of language1 long ago1 but few have ventured to correct them4 ,an alleviation of the difficulty has been sought in the adoption of the intransitive verb1 which expresses an action that is confined to the actor or agent4 ,the remarks which have been given in the present lecture will serve as a hint to the course we shall adopt in treating of them1 but the more particular examination of their character and uses1 together with some general observation on the agents and objects of verbs1 will be deferred to our next lecture4 ,,lecture ,,ix4 ,,on ,,verbs4 ,neuter and intransitive4--,agents4--,objects4--,no actions as such can be known distinct from the agent4--,imaginary actions4--,actions known by their effects4--,examples4--,signs should guide to things signified4--,principles of action4--,power4--,animals4--,vegetables 4 --,minerals4--,all things act4--,magnetic needle4--,cause4--,explained4 --,first ,cause4--,means4--,illustrated4--,sir ,i4 ,newton's example4-- ,these principles must be known4--,relative action4--,anecdote of ,gallileo4 ,we resume the consideration of verbs4 ,we closed our last lecture with the examination of neuter verbs1 as they have been called4 ,it appears to us that evidence strong enough to convince the most skeptical was adduced to prove that sit1 sleep1 stand and lie1 stand in the same relation to language as other verbs1 that they do not1 in any case1 express neutrality1 but frequently admit an objective word after them4 ,these are regarded as the most neutral of all the verbs except to be1 which1 by the way1 expresses the highest degree of action1 as we shall see when we come to inquire into its meaning4 ,grammarians have long ago discovered the falsity of the books in the use of a large portion of verbs which have been called neuter4 ,to obviate the difficulty1 some of them have adopted the distinction of ,intransitive verbs1 which express action1 but terminate on no object2 others still use the term neuter1 but teach their scholars that when the object is expressed1 it is active4 ,this distinction has only tended to perplex learners1 while it afforded only a temporary expedient to teachers1 by which to dodge the question at issue4 ,so far as the action is concerned1 which it is the business of the verb to express1 what is the difference whether ,i run1 or run myself8 ,a man started in haste4 ,he ran so fast that he ran himself to death4 ,i strike ,thomas1 ,thomas strikes ,david1 ,thomas strikes himself4 ,where is the difference in the action8 ,what matters it whether the action passes over to another object1 or is confined within itself8 ,but1 says the objector1 you mistake4 ,an intransitive verb is one where the 'effect is confined within the subject1 and does not pass over to any object4' ,very well1 ,i think ,i understand the objection4 ,when ,thomas strikes ,david the effects of the blow passes over to him4 ,and when he strikes himself1 it is confined within the subject1 and hence the latter is an intransitive verb4 ,no1 no2 there is an object on which the action terminates1 in that case1 and so we must call it a transitive verb4 ,will you give me an example of an intransitive verb8 ,i run1 he walks1 birds fly1 it rains1 the fire burns4 ,no objects are expressed after these words1 so the action is confined within themselves4 ,i now get your meaning4 ,when the object is expressed the verb is transitive1 when it is not it is intransitive4 ,this distinction is generally observed in teaching1 however widely it may differ from the intention of the makers of grammars4 ,and hence children acquire the habit of limiting their inquiries to what they see placed before them by others1 and do not think for themselves4 ,when the verb has an objective word after it expressed1 they are taught to attach action to it2 but tho the action may be even greater1 if the object is not expressed1 they consider the action as widely different in its character1 and adopt the false philosophy that a cause can exist without an effect resulting from it4 ,we assume this ground1 and we shall labor to maintain it1 that every verb necessarily presupposes an agent or actor1 an action1 and an object acted upon1 or affected by the action4 ,no action1 as such1 can be known to exist separate from the thing that acts4 ,we can conceive no idea of action1 only by keeping our minds fixed on the acting substance1 marking its changes1 movements1 and tendencies4 ,the book moves4 ,in this case the eye rests on the book1 and observes its positions and attitudes1 alternating one way and the other4 ,you can separate no action from the book1 nor conceive any idea of it1 as a separate entity4 ,let the book be taken away4 ,where now is the action8 ,what can you think or say of it8 ,there is the same space just now occupied by the book1 but no action is perceivable4 ,the boy rolls his marble upon the floor4 ,all his ideas of the action performed by it are derived from an observation of the marble4 ,his eye follows it as it moves along the floor4 ,he sees it in that acting condition4 ,when he speaks of the action as a whole1 he thinks where it started and where it stopped4 ,it is of no importance1 so far as the verb is concerned1 whether the marble received an impulse from his hand1 or whether the floor was sufficiently inclined to allow it to roll by its own inherent tendency4 ,the action is1 in this case1 the obvious change of the marble4 ,our whole knowledge of action depends on an observance of things in a state of motion1 or change1 or exerting a tendency to change1 or to counteract an opposing substance4 ,this will be admitted so far as material things are concerned4 ,the same principle holds good in reference to every thing of which we form ideas1 or concerning which we use language4 ,in our definition of nouns we spoke of immaterial and imaginary things to which we gave names and which we consider as agencies capable of exerting an influence in the production of effects1 or in resisting actions4 ,it is therefore unimportant whether the action be real or imaginary4 ,it is still inseparably connected with the thing that acts2 and we employ it thus in the construction of language to express our thoughts4 ,thus1 lions roar2 birds sing2 minds reflect2 fairies dance2 knowledge increases2 fancies err2 imagination wanders4 ,this fact should be borne in mind in all our attempts to understand or explain language4 ,the mind should remain fixed to the acting substance1 to observe its changes and relations at different periods1 and in different circumstances4 ,there is no other process by which any knowledge can be gained of actions4 ,the mind contemplates the acting thing in a condition of change and determines the precise action by the altered condition of the thing1 and thus learns to judge of actions by their effects4 ,the only method by which we can know whether a vegetable grows or not is by comparing its form to-day with what it was some days ago4 ,we can not decide on the improvement of our children only by observing the same rule4 ,by their fruits ye shall know them1 will apply in physics as well as in morals2 for we judge of causes only by their effects4 ,first principles can never be known4 ,we observe things as they are1 and remember how they have been2 and from hence deduce our conclusions in reference to the cause of things we do not fully understand1 or those consequences which will follow a condition of things as now existing4 ,it is the business of philosophy to mark these effects1 and trace them back to the causes which produced them1 by observing all the intermediate changes1 forms1 attitudes1 and conditions1 in which such things have1 at different times1 been placed4 ,we say1 trees grow4 ,but suppose no change had ever been observed in trees1 that they had always been as they now are2 in stature as lofty1 in foliage as green and beautiful1 in location unaltered4 ,who would then say1 trees grow8 ,in this single expression a whole train of facts are taken into the account1 tho not particularly marked4 ,as a single expression we imply that trees increase their stature4 ,but this we all know could never be effected without the influence of other causes4 ,the soil where it stands must contain properties suited to the growth of the tree4 ,a due portion of moisture and heat are also requisite4 ,these facts all exist1 and are indispensable to make good the expression that the tree grows4 ,we might also trace the capabilities of the tree itself1 its roots1 bark1 veins or pores1 fibres or grains1 its succulent and absorbent powers4 ,but1 as in the case of the man that killed the deer1 noticed in a former lecture1 the mind here conceives a single idea of a complete whole1 which is signified by the single expression1 trees grow4 ,let the following example serve in further illustration of this point4 ,take two bricks1 the one heated to a high temperature1 the other cold4 ,put them together1 and in a short time you will find them of equal temperature4 ,one has grown warm1 the other cool4 ,one has imparted heat and received cold1 the other has received heat and imparted cold4 ,yet all this would remain forever unknown1 but for the effects which must appear obvious to all4 ,from these effects the causes are to be learned4 ,it must1 ,i think1 appear plain to all who are willing to see1 that action1 as such1 can never exist distinct from the thing that acts2 that all our notions of action are derived from an observance of things in an acting condition2 and hence that no words can be framed to express our ideas of action on any other principle4 ,i hope you will bear these principles in mind4 ,they are vastly important in the construction of language1 as will appear when we come to speak of the agents and objects of action4 ,we still adhere to the fact1 that no rules of language can be successfully employed1 which deviate from the permanent laws which operate in the regulation of matter and mind2 a fact which can not be too deeply impressed on your minds4 ,in the consideration of actions as expressed by verbs1 we must observe that power1 cause1 means1 agency1 and effects1 are indispensable to their existence4 ,such principles exist in fact1 and must be observed in obtaining a complete knowledge of language2 for words1 we have already seen1 are the expression of ideas1 and ideas are the impression of things4 ,in our attempts at improvement1 we should strip away the covering1 and come at the reality4 ,words should be measurably forgotten1 while we search diligently for the things expressed by them4 ,signs should always conduct to the things signified4 ,the weary traveller1 hungry and faint1 would hardly satisfy himself with an examination of the sign before the inn1 marking its form1 the picture upon it1 the nice shades of coloring in the painting4 ,he would go in1 and search for the thing signified4 ,it has been the fault in teaching language1 that learners have been limited to the mere forms of words1 while the important duty of teaching them to look at the thing signified1 has been entirely disregarded4 ,hence they have only obtained book knowledge4 ,they know what the grammars say2 but how to apply what they say1 or what is in reality meant by it1 they have yet to learn4 ,this explains the reason why almost every man who has studied grammar will tell you that he used to understand it1 but it has all gone from him1 for he has not looked into a book these many years4 ,has he lost a knowledge of language8 ,oh1 no1 he learned that before he saw a grammar1 and will preserve it to the day of his death4 ,what good did his two or three years study of grammar do him8 ,none at all2 he has forgotten all that he ever knew of it1 and that is not much1 for he only learned what some author said1 and a few arbitrary rules and technical expressions which he could never understand nor apply in practice1 except in special cases4 ,but ,i wander4 ,i throw in this remark to show you the necessity of bringing your minds to a close observance of things as they do in truth exist2 and from them you can draw the principles of speech1 and be able to use language correctly4 ,for we still insist on our former opinion1 that all language depends on the permanent laws of nature1 as exerted in the regulation of matter and mind4 99 99 99 ,to return4 ,i have said that all action denotes power1 cause1 means1 agency1 and effects4 99 99 99 ,power depends on physical energy1 or mental skill4 ,i have hinted at this fact before4 ,things act according to the power or energy they possess4 ,animals walk1 birds fly1 fishes swim1 minerals sink1 poisons kill4 ,or1 according to the adopted theories of naturalists3 ,minerals grow4 ,vegetables grow and live4 ,animals grow1 and live1 and feel4 ,every thing acts according to the ability it possesses4 ,man1 possessed of reason1 devises means and produces ends4 ,beasts change locations1 devour vegetables1 and sometimes other beasts4 ,the lowest grade of animals never change location1 but yet eat and live4 ,vegetables live and grow1 but do not change location4 ,they have the power to reproduce their species1 and some of them to kill off surrounding objects4 ,the carraguata of the ,west ,indies1 clings round1 says ,goldsmith1 whatever tree it happens to approach2 there it quickly gains the ascendant1 and1 loading the tree with a verdure not its own1 keeps away that nourishment designed to feed the trunk1 and at last entirely destroys its supporter4 ,in our country1 many gardens and fields present convincing proof of the ability of weeds to kill out the vegetables designed to grow therein4 ,you all have heard of the ,upas1 which has a power sufficient to destroy the lives of animals and vegetables for a large distance around4 ,its very exhalations are death to whatever approaches it4 ,it serves in metaphor to illustrate the noxious effects of all vice1 of slander and deceit1 the effects of which are to the moral constitution1 what the tree itself is to natural objects1 blight and mildew upon whatever comes within its reach4 ,minerals are possessed of power no less astonishing1 which may be observed whenever an opportunity is offered to call it forth4 ,active poisons1 able to slay the most powerful men and beasts1 lie hid within their bosoms4 ,they have strong attractive and repelling powers4 ,from the iron is made the strong cable which holds the vessel fast in her moorings1 enabling it to outride the collected force of the winds and waves which threaten its destruction4 ,from it also are manufactured the manacles which bind the strong man1 or fasten the lion in his cage4 ,gold possesses a power which charms nearly all men to sacrifice their ease1 and too many their moral principles1 to pay their blind devotions at its shrine4 ,who will contend that the power of action is confined to the animal creation alone1 and that inanimate matter can not act8 ,that there is a superior power possessed by man1 endowed with an immaterial spirit in a corporeal body1 none will deny4 ,by the agency of the mind he can accomplish wonders1 which mere physical power without the aid of such mental skill1 could never perform4 ,but with all his boasted superiority1 he is often made the slave of inanimate things4 ,his lofty powers of body and soul bend beneath the weight of accumulated sorrows1 produced by the secret operations of contagious disease1 which slays his wife1 children1 and friends1 who fall like the ripened harvest before the gatherers scythe4 ,nay1 he often submits to the controlling power of the vine1 alcohol1 or tobacco1 which gain a secret influence over his nobler powers1 and fix on him the stamp of disgrace1 and throw around him fetters from which he finds it no easy matter to extricate himself4 ,by the illusions of error and vice he is often betrayed1 and long endures darkness and suffering1 till he regains his native energies1 and finds deliverance in the enjoyment of truth and virtue4 ,what is that secret power which lies concealed beyond the reach of human ken1 and is transported from land to land unknown1 till exposed in conditions suited to its operation1 will show its active and resistless force in the destruction of life1 and the devastation of whole cities or nations8 ,you may call it plague1 or cholera1 or small pox1 miasma1 contagion1 particles of matter floating in the air surcharged with disease1 or any thing else4 ,it matters not what you call it4 ,it is sufficient to our present purpose to know that it has the ability to put forth a prodigious power in the production of consequences1 which the highest skill of man is yet unable to prevent4 ,i might pursue this point to an indefinite length1 and trace the secret powers possessed by all created things1 as exhibited in the influence they exert in various ways1 both as regards themselves and surrounding objects4 ,but you will at once perceive my object1 and the truth of the positions ,i assume4 ,a common power pervades all creation1 operating by pure and perfect laws1 regulated by the ,great ,first ,cause1 the ,moving ,principle1 which guides1 governs1 and controls the whole4#aa ,degrading indeed must be those sentiments which limit all action to the animal frame as an organized body1 moved by a living principle4 ,ours is a sublimer duty2 to trace the operations of the ,divine ,wisdom which acts thro out all creation1 in the minutest particle of dust which keeps its position secure1 till moved by some superior power2 or in the needle which points with unerring skill to its fixed point1 and guides the vessel1 freighted with a hundred lives1 safe thro the midnight storm1 to its destined haven2 tho rocked by the waves and driven by the winds1 it remains uninfluenced1 and tremblingly alive to the important duties entrusted to its charge1 continues its faithful service1 and is watched with the most implicit confidence by all on board1 as the only guide to safety4 ,the same ,wisdom is displayed thro out all creation2 in the beauty1 order1 and harmony of the universe2 in the planets which float in the azure vault of heaven2 in the glow worm that glitters in the dust2 in the fish which cuts the liquid element2 in the pearl which sparkles in the bottom of the ocean2 in every thing that lives1 moves1 or has a being2 but more distinctly in man1 created in the moral image of his ,maker1 possessed of a heart to feel1 and a mind to understand--the third in the rank of intelligent beings4 ,i cannot refuse to favor you with a quotation from that inimitable poem1 ,pope's ,essay on ,man4 ,it is rife with sentiment of the purest and most exalted character4 ,it is direct to our purpose4 ,you may have heard it a thousand times2 but ,i am confident you will be pleased to hear it again4 ,ask for what end the heavenly bodies shine1 ,earth for whose use8 ,pride answers1 ',tis for mine3 ,for me kind nature wakes her genial pow'r1 ,suckles each herb1 and spreads out every flow'r2 ,annual for me1 the grape1 the rose renew ,the juice nectareous1 and the balmy dew2 ,for me1 the mine a thousand treasures brings2 ,for me health gushes from a thousand springs2 ,seas roll to waft me1 suns to light me rise2 ,my footstool earth1 my canopy the skies4 ,but errs not nature from this gracious end1 ,from burning suns when livid deaths descend1 ,when earthquakes swallow1 or when tempests sweep ,towns to one grave1 whole nations to the deep8 ,no1 7'tis replied17 the first ,almighty ,cause ,acts not by partial1 but by general laws2 ,th' exceptions few2 some change since all began3 ,and what created perfect8 ,why then man8 ,if the great end be human happiness1 ,then nature deviates--and can man do less8 ,as much that end a constant course requires ,of show'rs and sunshine1 as of man's desires2 ,as much eternal springs and cloudless skies1 ,as man forever temp'rate1 calm1 and wise4 ,if plagues or earthquakes break not heaven's design4 ,why then a ,borgia1 or a ,cataline8 ,who knows but ,he whose hand the lightning forms1 ,who heaves old ocean1 and who wings the storms2 ,pours fierce ambition in a ,caesar's mind2 ,or turns young ,ammon loose to scourge mankind8 ,from pride1 from pride our very reas'ning springs2 ,account for moral as for nat'ral things3 ,why charge we heaven in those1 in these acquit8 ,in both1 to reason right1 is to submit4 ,better for us1 perhaps1 it might appear1 ,were there all harmony1 all virtue here2 ,that never air or ocean felt the wind2 ,that never passion discomposed the mind4 ,but all subsists by elemental strife2 ,and passions are the elements of life4 ,the general order1 since the whole began1 ,is kept in nature1 and is kept in man4 99 99 99 99 99 ,look round our world1 behold the chain of love4 ,combining all below and all above2 ,see plastic nature working to this end1 ,the single atoms each to other tend2 ,attract1 attracted to1 the next in place ,formed and impelled its neighbor to embrace1 ,see matter next1 with various life endued1 ,press to one center still the gen'ral good4 ,see dying vegetables life sustain1 ,see life dissolving1 vegetate again2 ,all forms that perish1 other forms supply1 7,by turns we catch the vital breath1 and die7 ,like bubbles on the sea of matter borne1 ,they rise1 they break1 and to that sea return1 ,nothing is foreign--parts relate to whole2 ,one all-extending1 all-preserving soul ,connects each being greatest with the least2 ,made beast in aid of man1 and man of beast2 ,all served1 all serving2 nothing stands alone2 ,the chain holds on1 and where it ends1 unknown4 ,but power alone is not sufficient to produce action4 ,there must be a cause to call it forth1 to set in operation and exhibit its latent energies4 ,it will remain hid in its secret chambers till efficient causes have set in operation the means by which its existence is to be discovered in the production of change1 effects1 or results4 ,there is1 it is said1 in every created thing a power sufficient to produce its own destruction1 as well as to preserve its being4 ,in the human body1 for instance1 there is a constant tendency to decay1 to waste2 which a counteracting power resists1 and1 with proper assistance1 keeps alive4 ,the same may be said of vegetables which are constantly throwing off1 or exhaling the waste1 offensive1 or useless matter1 and yet a restoring power1 assisted by heat1 moisture1 and the nourishment of the earth1 resists the tendency to decay and preserves it alive and growing4 ,the air1 the earth1 nay1 the ocean itself1 philosophers assure us1 contain powers sufficient to self-destruction4 ,but ,i will not enlarge here4 ,let the necessary cause be exerted which will give vent to this hidden power and actions the most astonishing and destructive would be the effect4 ,these are often witnessed in the tremendous earthquakes which devastate whole cities1 states1 and empires2 in the tornados which pass1 like the genius of evil1 over the land1 levelling whatever is found in its course2 or in the waterspouts and maelstroms which prove the grave of all that comes within their grasp4 ,in the attempted destruction of the royal family and parliament of ,england1 by what is usually called the gunpowder plot1 the arrangements were all made2 two hogsheads and thirty-six barrels of powder1 sufficient to blow up the house of lords and the surrounding buildings1 were secreted in a vault beneath it1 strown over with faggots4 ,guy ,fawkes1 a spanish officer1 employed for the purpose1 lay at the door1 on the #eth of ,november1 #afje1 with the matches1 or means1 in his pocket1 which should set in operation the prodigious dormant power1 which would hurl to destruction ,james ,i41 the royal family1 and the protestant parliament1 give the ascendancy to the ,catholics1 and change the whole political condition of the nation4 ,the project was discovered1 the means were removed1 the cause taken away1 and the threatened effects were prevented4 ,the cause of action is the immediate subject which precedes or tends to produce the action1 without which it would not take place4 ,it may result from volition1 inherent tendency1 or communicated impulse2 and is known to exist from the effects produced by it1 in the altered or new condition of the thing on which it operates2 which change would not have been effected without it4 ,causes are to be sought for by tracing back thro the effects which are produced by them4 ,the factory is put in operation1 and the cloth is manufactured4 ,the careless observer would enter the building and see the spindles1 looms1 and wheels operated by the hands1 and go away satisfied that he has seen enough1 seen all4 ,but the more careful will look farther4 ,he will trace each band and wheel1 each cog and shaft1 down by the balance power1 to the water race and floom2 or thro the complicated machinery of the steam engine to the piston1 condenser1 water1 wood1 and fire2 marking a new1 more secret1 and yet more efficient cause at each advancing step4 ,but all this curiously wrought machinery is not the product of chance1 operated without care4 ,a superior cause must be sought in human skill1 in the deep and active ingenuity of man4 ,every contrivance presupposes a contriver4 ,hence there must have been a power and means sufficient to combine and regulate the power of the water1 or generate and direct the steam4 ,that power is vested in man2 and hence1 man stands as the cause1 in relation to the whole process operated by wheels1 bands1 spindles1 and looms4 ,yet we may say1 with propriety1 that the water1 or the steam2 the water-wheel1 or the piston2 the shafts1 bands1 cogs1 pullies1 spindles1 springs1 treddles1 harnesses1 reeds1 shuttles1 an almost endless concatenation of instruments1 are alike the causes1 which tend to produce the final result2 for let one of these intermediate causes be removed1 and the whole power will be diverted1 and all will go wrong--the effect will not be produced4 ,there must be a first cause to set in operation all inferior ones in the production of action2 and to that first cause all action1 nay1 the existence of all other causes1 may be traced1 directly1 or more distant4 ,the intervening causes1 in the consecutive order of things1 may be as diversified as the links in the chain of variant beings4 ,yet all these causes are moved by the all-sufficient and ever present agency of the ,almighty ,father1 the ,uncaused ,cause of all things and beings2 who spoke into existence the universe with all its various and complicated parts and orders2 who set the sun1 moon1 and stars in the firmament1 gave the earth a place1 and fixed the sea a bed2 throwing around them barriers over which they can never pass4 ,from the height of his eternal throne1 his eye pervades all his works2 from the tall archangel1 that adores and burns1 down to the very hairs of our heads1 which are all numbered1 his wise1 benevolent1 and powerful supervision may be traced in legible lines1 which may be seen and read of all men4 ,and from effects1 the most diminutive in character1 may be traced back1 from cause to cause1 upward in the ascending scale of being1 to the same unrivalled ,source of all power1 splendor1 and perfection1 the presence of ,him1 who spake1 and it was done2 who commanded1 and it stood still2 or1 as the poet has it3 ,look thro nature up to nature's ,god4 ,the means of action are those aids which are displayed as the medium thro which existing causes are to exhibit their hidden powers in producing changes or effects4 ,the matches in the pocket of ,guy ,fawkes were the direct means by which he intended to set in operation a train of causes which should terminate in the destruction of the house of lords and all its inmates4 ,those matches1 set on fire1 would convey a spark to the faggots1 and thence to the powder1 and means after means1 and cause after cause1 in the rapid succession of events1 would ensue1 tending to a final1 inevitable1 and melancholy result4 ,a ball shot from a cannon1 receives its first impulse from the powder2 but it is borne thro the air by the aid of a principle inherent in itself1 which power is finally overcome by the density of the atmosphere which impedes its progress1 and the law of gravitation finally attracts it to the earth4 ,these contending principles may be known by observing the curved line in which the ball moves from the cannon's mouth to the spot where it rests4 ,but if there is no power in the ball1 why does not the ball of cork discharged from the same gun with the same momentum1 travel to the same distance1 at the same rate8 ,the action commences in both cases with the same projectile force1 the same exterior means are employed1 but the results are widely different4 ,the cause of this difference must be sought for in the comparative power of each substance to continue its own movements4 ,every boy who has played at ball has observed these principles4 ,he throws his ball1 which1 if not counteracted1 will continue in a straight line1 ad infinitum--without end4 ,but the air impedes its progress1 and gravitation brings it to the ground4 ,when he throws it against a hard substance1 its velocity is not only overcome1 but it is sent back with great force4 ,but if he takes a ball of wax1 of snow1 or any strong adhesive substance1 it will not bound4 ,how shall we account to him for this difference8 ,he did the same with both balls4 ,the impetus given the one was as great as the other1 and the resistance of the intervening substance was as great in one case as the other2 and yet1 one bounds and rebounds1 while the other sticks fast as a friend1 to the first object it meets4 ,the cause of this difference is to be sought for in the different capabilities of the respective balls4 ,one possesses a strong elastic and repelling power2 in the other1 the attraction of cohesion is predominant4 ,take another example4 ,let two substances of equal size and form1 the one made of lead1 the other of cork1 be put upon the surface of a cistern of water4 ,the external circumstances are the same1 but the effects are widely different--one sinks1 the other floats4 ,we must look for the cause of this difference1 not in the opposite qualities of surrounding matter1 but in the things themselves4 ,if you add to the cork another quality possessed by the lead1 and give it the same form1 size1 and weight1 it will as readily sink to the bottom4 ,but this last property is possessed in different degrees by the two bodies1 and hence1 while the one floats upon the water1 the other displaces its particles and sinks to the bottom4 ,you may take another substance2 say the mountain ebony1 which is heavier than water1 but lighter than lead1 and immerse it in the water2 it will not sink with the rapidity of lead1 because its inherent power is not so strong4 ,take still another case4 ,let two balls1 suspended on strings1 be equally1 or1 to use the technical term1 positively electrified4 ,bring them within a certain distance1 and they will repel each other4 ,let the electric fluid be extracted from one1 and the other will attract it4 ,before1 they were as enemies2 now they embrace as friends4 ,the magnet furnishes the most striking proof in favor of the theory we are laboring to establish4 ,let one of sufficient power be let down within the proper distance1 it will overcome the power of gravitation1 and attract the heavy steel to itself4 ,what is the cause of this wonderful fact8 ,who can account for it8 ,who can trace out the hidden cause2 the primum mobile of the ,ptolmaic philosophy--the secret spring of motion8 ,but who will dare deny that such effects do exist1 and that they are produced by an efficient cause8 ,or who will descend into the still more dark and perplexing mazes of neuter verb grammars1 and deny that matter has such a power to act8 ,these instances will suffice to show you what we mean when we say1 every thing acts according to the ability ,god has given it to act4 ,i might go into a more minute examination of the properties of matter1 affinity1 hardness1 weight1 size1 color1 form1 mobility1 c41 which even old grammars will allow it to possess2 but ,i shall leave that work for you to perform at your leisure4 ,whoever has any doubts remaining in reference to the abilities of all things to produce1 continue1 or prevent motion1 will do well to consult the prince of philosophers1 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 who1 after ,gallileo1 has treated largely upon the laws of motion4 ,he asserts as a fact1 full in illustration of the principles ,i am laboring to establish1 that in ascending a hill1 the trace rope pulls the horse back as much as he draws that forward1 only the horse overcomes the resistance of the load1 and moves it up the hill4 ,on the old systems1 no power would be requisite to move the load1 for it could oppose no resistance to the horse2 and the small child could move it with as much ease as the strong team4 ,who has not an acquaintance sufficiently extensive to know these things8 ,i can not believe there is a person present1 who does not fully comprehend my meaning1 and discover the correctness of the ground ,i have assumed4 ,and it should be borne in mind1 that no collection or arrangement of words can be composed into a sentence1 which do not obtain their meaning from a connection of things as they exist and operate in the material and intellectual world1 and that it is not in the power of man to frame a sentence1 to think or speak1 but in conformity with these general and exceptionless laws4 ,this important consideration meets us at every advancing step1 as if to admonish us to abandon the vain project of seeking a knowledge of language without an acquaintance with the great principles on which it depends4 ,to look for the leading rules of speech in set forms of expression1 or in the capricious customs of any nation1 however learned1 is as futile as to attempt to gain a knowledge of the world by shutting ourselves up in a room1 and looking at paintings and drawings which may be furnished by those who know as little of it as we do4 ,how fallacious would be the attempt1 how much worse than time thrown away1 for the parent to shut up his child in a lonely room1 and undertake to impress upon its mind a knowledge of man1 beasts1 birds1 fish1 insects1 rivers1 mountains1 fields1 flowers1 houses1 cities1 c41 with no other aid than a few miserable pictures1 unlike the reality1 and in many respects contradictory to each other4 ,and yet that would be adopting a course very similar to the one long employed as the only means of acquiring a knowledge of language2 limited to a set of arbitrary1 false1 and contradictory rules1 which the brightest geniuses could never understand1 nor the most erudite employ in the expression of ideas4 ,the grammars1 it was thought1 must be studied to acquire the use of language1 and yet they were forgotten before such knowledge was put in practice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a simple remark on the principles of relative action1 and we will pass to the consideration of agents and objects1 or the more immediate causes and effects of action4 ,we go forth at the evening hour and look upon the sun sinking beneath the horizon2 we mark the varying hues of light as they appear1 and change1 and fade away4 ,we see the shades of night approaching1 with a gradual pace1 till the beautiful landscape on which we had been gazing1 the hills and the meadows2 the farm house and the cultivated fields1 the grove1 the orchard1 and the garden2 the tranquil lake and the babbling brook2 the dairy returning home1 and the lambkins gambolling beside their dams2 all recede from our view1 and appear to us no longer4 ,all this is relative action4 ,but so far as language and ideas are concerned1 it matters not whether the sun actually sinks behind the hills1 or the hills interpose between it and us2 whether the landscape recedes from our view1 or the shades of night intercept so as to obscure our vision4 ,the habit of thought is the same1 and the form of expression must agree with it4 ,we say the sun rises and sets1 in reference to the obvious fact1 without stopping to inquire whether it really moves or not4 ,nor is such an inquiry at all necessary1 as to matter of fact1 for all we mean by such expressions1 is1 that by some process1 immaterial to the case in hand1 the sun stands in a new relation to the earth1 its altitude is elevated or depressed1 and hence the action is strictly relative4 ,for we should remember that rising and setting1 up and down1 above and below1 in reference to the earth1 are only relative terms4 ,we speak and read of the changes of the moon1 and we correctly understand each other4 ,but in truth the moon changes no more at one time than at another4 ,the action is purely relative4 ,one day we observe it before the sun1 and the next behind it1 as we understand these terms4 ,the precise time of the change1 when it will appear to us in a different relation to the sun1 is computed by astronomers1 and set down in our almanacs2 but it changes no more at that time than at any other1 for like every thing else1 it is always changing4 ,in a case we mentioned in a former lecture1 ,john looks like or resembles his brother1 we have an example of relative action4 ,so in the case of two men travelling the same way1 starting together1 but advancing at different rates2 one1 we say1 falls behind the other4 ,in this manner of expression1 we follow exactly the principles on which we started1 and suit our language to our ideas and habits of thinking4 ,by the law of optics things are reflected upon the retina of the eye inversely1 that is1 upside down2 but they are always seen in a proper relation to each other1 and if there is any thing wrong in the case1 it is overcome by early habit2 and so our language accords with things as they are manifested to our understandings4 ,these examples will serve to illustrate what we mean by relative action1 when applied to natural philosophy or the construction of language4 ,i had intended in this lecture to have treated of the agents and objects of verbs1 to prove1 in accordance with the first and closest principles of philosophy1 that every cause must have an effect1 or1 in other words1 that every action must terminate on some object1 either expressed or necessarily understood2 but ,i am admonished that ,i have occupied more than my usual quota of time in this lecture already1 and hence ,i shall leave this work for our next4 ,i will conclude by the relation of an anecdote or two from the life of that wonderful man1 ,gallileo ,gallilei1 who was many years professor of mathematics at ,padua4 ,possessed of a strong1 reflecting mind1 he had early given his attention to the observation of things1 their motions1 tendencies1 and power of resistance1 from which he ascended1 step by step1 to the sublime science of astronomy4 ,being of an honest and frank1 as well as benevolent disposition1 he shunned not to state and defend theories at war with the then received opinions4 ,all learning was1 at that time1 in the hands or under the supervision of the ecclesiastics1 who were content to follow blindly the aristotelian philosophy1 which1 in many respects1 was not unlike that still embraced in our neuter verb systems of grammar4 ,there was a sworn hostility against all improvement1 or innovation as it was called1 in science as well as in theology4 ,the copernican system1 to which ,gallileo was inclined1 if it had not been formally condemned1 had been virtually denounced as false1 and its advocates heretical4 ,hence ,gallileo never dared openly to defend it1 but1 piece by piece1 under different names1 he brought it forth1 which1 carried out1 would establish the heretical system4 ,dwelling as a light in the midst of surrounding darkness1 he cautiously discovered the precious truths revealed to his mind1 lest the flood of light should distract and destroy the mental vision1 break up the elements of society1 let loose the resistless powers of ignorance1 prejudice and bigotry1 and envelope himself and friends in a common ruin4 ,at length having prepared in a very guarded manner his famous ,dialogues on the ,ptolmaic and ,copernican ,systems1 he obtained permission1 and ventured to publish it to the world1 altho an edict had been promulgated enjoining silence on the subject1 and he had been personally instructed not to believe or teach the motion of the earth in any manner4 ,by the false representation of his enemies1 suspicions were aroused and busily circulated prejudicial to ,gallileo4 ,pope ,urban himself1 his former friend1 became exasperated towards him1 and a sentence against him and his books was fulminated by the ,cardinals1 prohibiting the sale and vending of the latter1 and condemning him to the formal prison of the ,holy ,office for a period determined at their pleasure4 ,the sentence of the ,inquisition was in part couched in these words--,we pronounce1 judge1 and declare1 that you1 the said ,gallileo1 by reason of these things1 which have been detailed in the course of this investigation1 and which1 as above1 you have confessed1 have rendered yourself vehemently suspected by this ,holy ,office1 of heresy2 that is to say1 that you believe and hold the false doctrine1 and contrary to the ,holy and ,divine ,scriptures1 namely1 that the sun is the center of the world1 and that it does not move from east to west1 and that the earth does move1 and is not the center of the world2 also1 that an opinion can be held and supported as probable1 after it has been declared1 and finally decreed contrary to the ,holy ,scriptures--by the ,holy ,see66 ,from which1 they continue1 it is our pleasure that you be absolved1 provided that1 first1 with a sincere heart1 and unfeigned faith1 in our presence1 you abjure1 curse1 and detest the said errors and heresies1 and every other error and heresy contrary to the ,catholic and ,apostolic ,church of ,rome1 in the form now shown to you4 ,after suffering under this anathema some time1 ,gallileo1 by the advice of his friends1 consented to make a public abjuration of his former heresies on the laws of motion4 ,kneeling before the ,most ,eminent and ,most ,reverend ,lords ,cardinals1 ,general ,inquisitors of the universal ,christian republic1 against heretical depravity1 having before his eyes the ,holy ,gospels1 he swears that he always believed1 and now believes1 and with the help of ,god1 will in future believe1 every article which the ,holy ,catholic ,church of ,rome holds1 teaches1 and preaches--that he does altogether abandon the false opinion which maintains that the 'sun is the center of the world1 and that the earth is not the center and movable1' that with a sincere heart and unfeigned faith1 he abjures1 curses1 and detests the said errors and heresies1 and every other error and sect contrary to the said ,holy ,church1 and that he will never more in future1 say or assert any thing verbally1 or in writing1 which may give rise to similar suspicion4 ,as he arose from his knees1 it is said1 he whispered to a friend standing near him1 ,e pur si muove--it does move1 tho4 ,in our times we are not fated to live under the terrors of the ,inquisition2 but prejudice1 if not as strong in power to execute1 has the ability to blind as truly as in other ages1 and keep us from the knowledge and adoption of practical improvements4 ,and it is the same philosophy now1 which asks if inanimate matter can act1 which demanded of ,gallileo if this ponderous globe could fly a thousand miles in a minute1 and no body feel the motion2 and with ,deacon ,homespun1 in the dialogue1 why1 if this world turned upside down1 the water did not spill from the mill ponds1 and all the people fall headlong to the bottomless pit8 ,if there are any such peripatetics in these days of light and science1 who still cling to the false and degrading systems of neutrality1 because they are honorable for age1 or sustained by learned and good men1 and who will oppose all improvement1 reject without examination1 or1 what is still worse1 refuse to adopt1 after being convinced of the truth of it1 any system1 because it is novel1 an innovation upon established forms1 ,i can only say of them1 in the language of ,micanzio1 the ,venetian friend of ,gallileo--,the efforts of such enemies to get these principles prohibited1 will occasion no loss either to your reputation1 or to the intelligent part of the world4 ,as to posterity1 this is just one of the surest ways to hand them down to them4 ,but what a wretched set this must be1 to whom every good thing1 and all that is found in nature1 necessarily appears hostile and odious4 ,,lecture ,x4 ,,on ,,verbs4 ,a philosophical axiom4--,manner of expressing action4--,things taken for granted4--,simple facts must be known4--,must never deviate from the truth4--,every cause will have an effect4--,an example of an intransitive verb4--,objects expressed or implied4--,all language eliptical4--,intransitive verbs examined4--,i run4--,i walk4--,to step4--,birds fly4--,it rains4--,the fire burns4--,the sun shines4--,to smile4--,eat and drink4--,miscellaneous examples4--,evils of false teaching4--,a change is demanded4--,these principles apply universally4--,their importance4 ,we have made some general remarks on the power1 cause1 and means1 necessary in the production of action4 ,we now approach nearer to the application of these principles as observed in the immediate agency and effects which precede and follow action1 and as connected with the verb4 ,it is an axiom in philosophy which cannot be controverted1 that every effect is the product of a prior cause1 and that every cause will necessarily produce a corresponding effect4 ,this fact has always existed and will forever remain unchanged4 ,it applies universally in physical1 mental1 and moral science2 to ,god or man2 to angels or to atoms2 in time or thro eternity4 ,no language can be constructed which does not accord with it1 for no ideas can be gained but by an observance of its manifestations in the material or spiritual universe4 ,the manner of expressing this cause and effect may differ in different nations or by people of the same nation1 but the fact remains unaltered1 and so far as understood the idea is the same4 ,in the case of the horse mentioned in a former lecture1#ab the idea was the same1 but the manner of expressing it different4 ,let that horse walk1 lay down1 roll over1 rise up1 shake himself1 rear1 or stand still1 all present will observe the same attitude of the horse1 and will form the same ideas of his positions4 ,some will doubtless inquire more minutely into the cause and means by which these various actions are produced1 what muscles are employed1 what supports are rendered by the bones2 and the whole regulated by the will of the horse1 and their conclusions may be quite opposite4 ,but this has nothing to do with the obvious fact expressed by the words above2 or1 more properly1 it is not necessary to enter into a minute detail of these minor considerations1 these secret springs of motion1 in order to relate the actions of the horse4 ,for were we to do this we should be required to go back1 step by step1 and find the causes still more numerous1 latent1 and perplexing4 ,the pursuit of causes would lead us beyond the mere organization of the horse1 his muscular energy1 and voluntary action2 for gravitation has no small service to perform in the accomplishment of these results2 as well as other principles4 ,let gravitation be removed1 and how could the horse lay down8 ,he could roll over as well in the air as upon the ground4 ,but the particular notice of these things is unnecessary in the construction of language to express the actions of the horse2 for he stands as the obvious agent of the whole1 and the effects are seen to follow--the horse is laid down1 his body is rolled over1 the fore part of it is reared up1 himself is shaken1 and the whole feat is produced by the direction of his master4 ,allow me to recal an idea we considered in a former lecture4 ,i said no action as such could be known distinct from the thing which acts2 that action as such is not perceptible1 and that all things act1 according to the ability they possess4 ,to illustrate this idea3 ,take a magnet and lower it down over a piece of iron1 till it attracts it to itself and holds it suspended there4 ,if you are not in possession of a magnet you can make one at your pleasure1 by the following process4 ,lay your knife blade on a flat iron1 or any hard1 smooth surface2 let another take the old tongs or other iron which have stood erect for a considerable length of time1 and draw it upon the blade for a minute or more4 ,a magnetic power will be conveyed from the tongs to the blade sufficient to take up a common needle4 ,the tongs themselves may be manufactured into a most perfect magnet4 ,now as the knife holds the needle suspended beneath it you perceive there must be an action1 a power1 and cause exerted beyond our comprehension4 ,let the magnetic power be extracted from the blade1 and the needle will drop to the floor4 ,a common unmagnetized blade will not raise and hold a needle as this does4 ,how those tongs come in possession of such astonishing power2 by what process it is there retained2 the power and means of transmission of a part of it to the knife blade1 and the reason of the phenomena you now behold--an inanimate blade drawing to itself and there holding this needle suspended--will probably long remain unknown to mortals4 ,but that such are the facts1 incontestibly true1 none will deny1 for the evidence is before us4 ,now fix your attention on that needle4 ,there is an active and acting principle in that as well as in the magnetized blade2 for the blade will not attract a splinter of wood1 of whalebone1 or piece of glass1 tho equal in size and weight4 ,it will have no operation on them4 ,then it is by a sort of mutual affinity1 a reciprocity of attachment1 between the blade and needle1 that this phenomena is produced4 ,to apply this illustration you have only to reverse the case--turn the knife and needle over--and see all things attracted to the earth by the law of gravitation1 a principle abiding in all matter4 ,all that renders the exhibition of the magnet curious or wonderful is that it is an uncommon condition of things1 an apparent counteraction of the regular laws of nature4 ,but we should know that the same sublime principle is constantly operating thro out universal nature4 ,let that be suspended1 cease its active operations for a moment1 and our own earth will be decomposed into particles2 the sun1 moon and stars will dissolve and mingle with the common dust2 all creation will crumble into atoms1 and one vast ocean of darkness and chaos will fill the immensity of space4 ,are you then prepared to deny the principles for which we are contending8 ,i think you will not2 but accede the ground1 that such being the fact1 true in nature1 language1 correctly explained1 is only the medium by which the ideas of these great truths1 may be conveyed from one mind to another1 and must correspond therewith4 ,if language is the sign of ideas1 and ideas are the impressions of things1 it follows of necessity1 that no language can be employed unless it corresponds with these natural laws1 or first principles4 ,the untutored child cannot talk of these things1 nor comprehend our meaning till clearly explained to it4 ,but some people act as tho they thought children must first acquire a knowledge of words1 and then begin to learn what such words mean4 ,this is putting the cart before the horse4 ,much1 in this world1 is to be taken for granted4 ,we can not enter into the minutiae of all we would express1 or have understood4 ,we go upon the ground that other people know something as well as we1 and that they will exercise that knowledge while listening to our relation of some new and important facts4 ,hence it is said that brevity is the soul of wit4 ,but suppose you should talk of surds1 simple and quadratic equations1 diophantine problems1 and logarithms1 to a person who knows nothing of proportion or relation1 addition or subtraction4 ,what would they know about your words8 ,you might as well give them a description in ,arabic or ,esquimaux4 ,they must first learn the simple rules on which the whole science of mathematics depends1 before they can comprehend a dissertation on the more abstruse principles or distant results4 ,so children must learn to observe things as they are1 in their simplest manifestations1 in order to understand the more secret and sublime operations of nature4 ,and our language should always be adapted to their capacities2 that is1 it should agree with their advancement4 ,you may talk to a zealot in politics of religion1 the qualities of forbearance1 candor1 and veracity2 to the enthusiast of science and philosophy2 to the bigot of liberality and improvement2 to the miser of benevolence and suffering2 to the profligate of industry and frugality2 to the misanthrope of philanthropy and patriotism2 to the degraded sinner of virtue1 truth1 and heaven2 but what do they know of your meaning8 ,how are they the wiser for your instruction8 ,you have touched a cord which does not vibrate thro their hearts1 or1 phrenologically1 addressed an organ they do not possess1 except in a very moderate degree1 at least4 ,food must be seasoned to the palates of those who use it4 ,milk is for babes and strong meat for men4 ,our instruction must be suited to the capacities of those we would benefit1 always elevated just far enough above them to attract them along the upward course of improvement4 ,but it should be remembered that evils will only result from a deviation from truth1 and that we can never be justified in doing wrong because others have1 or for the sake of meeting them half way4 ,and yet this very course is adopted in teaching1 and children are learned to adopt certain technical rules in grammar1 not because they are true1 but because they are convenient6 ,in fact1 it is said by some1 that language is an arbitrary affair altogether1 and is only to be taught and learned mechanically6 ,but who would teach children that seven times seven are fifty1 and nine times nine a hundred1 and assign as a reason for so doing1 that fifty and a hundred are more easily remembered than forty-nine and eighty-one8 ,yet there would be as much propriety in adopting such a principle in mathematics1 as in teaching for a rule of grammar that when an objective case comes after a verb1 it is active2 but when there is none expressed1 it is intransitive or neuter4 ,the great fault is1 grammarians do not allow themselves to think on the subject of language1 or if they do1 they only think intransitively1 that is1 produce no thoughts by their cogitations4 ,this brings us to a more direct consideration of the subject before us4 ,all admit the correctness of the axiom that every effect must have a cause1 and that every cause will have an effect4 ,it is equally true that like causes will produce like effects1 a rule from which nature itself1 and thought1 and language1 can never deviate4 ,it is as plain as that two things mutually equal to each other1 are equal to a third4 ,on this immutable principle we base our theory of the activity of all verbs1 and contend that they must have an object after them1 either expressed or necessarily understood4 ,we can not yield this position till it is proved that causes can operate without producing effects1 which can never be till the order of creation is reversed6 ,there never was1 to our knowledge1 such a thing as an intransitive action1 with the solitary exception of the burning bush4#ac ,in that case the laws of nature were suspended1 and no effects were produced2 for the bush burned1 but there was nothing burnt2 no consequences followed to the bush2 it was not consumed4 ,the records of the past present no instance of like character1 where effects have failed to follow1 direct or more distantly1 every cause which has been set in operation4 ,it makes no difference whether the object of the action is expressed or not4 ,it is the same in either case4 ,but where it is not necessarily implied from the nature and fitness of things1 it must be expressed1 and but for such object or effect the action could not be understood4 ,for example1 ,i run2 but if there is no effect produced1 nothing run1 how can it be known whether ,i run or not4 ,if ,i write1 it is necessarily understood that ,i write something--a letter1 a book1 a piece of poetry1 a communication1 or some other writing4 ,when such object is not liable to be mistaken1 it would be superfluous to express it--it would be a redundancy which should be avoided by all good writers and speakers4 ,all languages are1 in this respect1 more or less eliptical1 which constitutes no small share of their beauty1 power1 and elegance4 ,this elipsis may be observed not only in regard to the objects of verbs1 but in the omission of many nouns after adjectives1 which thus assume the character of nouns2 as1 the ,almighty1 the ,eternal1 the ,allwise1 applied to ,god1 understood4 ,so we say the wise1 the learned1 the good1 the faithful1 the wicked1 the vile1 the base1 to which1 if nouns1 it would sound rather harsh to apply plurals4 ,so we say1 take your hat off 7 72 put your gloves on 7 72 lay your coat off 7 72 and pull your boots on 7 72 presuming the person so addressed knows enough to fill the elipsis1 and not take his hat off his back1 pull his gloves on his feet1 or his boots on his head4 ,in pursuing this subject farther1 let us examine the sample words which are called intransitive verbs1 because frequently used without the object expressed after them2 such as run1 walk1 step1 fly1 rain1 snow1 burn1 roll1 shine1 smiles1 c4 ,i run4 ,that here is an action of the first kind1 none will deny4 ,but it is contended by the old systems that there is no object on which the action terminates4 ,if that be true then there is nothing run1 no effect produced1 and the first law of nature is outraged1 in the very onset2 for there is a cause1 but no effect2 an action1 but no object4 ,how is the fact8 ,have you run nothing8 conveyed nothing1 moved nothing from one place to another8 no change1 no effect1 nothing moved8 ,look at it and decide4 ,it is said that a neuter or intransitive verb may be known from the fact that it takes after it a preposition4 ,try it by this rule4 ,a man run against a post in a dark night1 and broke his neck2 that is1 he run nothing against a post--no object to run--and yet he broke his neck4 ,unfortunate man6 ,the fact in relation to this verb is briefly this3 ,it is used to express the action which more usually terminates on the actor1 than on any other object4 ,this circumstance being generally known1 it would be superfluous to mention the object1 except in cases where such is not the fact4 ,but whenever we desire to be definite1 or when there is the least liability to mistake the object1 it is invariably expressed4 ,instances of this kind are numerous4 ,they ran the boat ashore4 ,the captain ran his men to rescue them from the enemy4 ,they ran the gauntlet4 ,they run a stage to ,boston4 ,he ran himself into discredit4 ,one bank runs another4 ,the man had a hard run of it4 ,run the account over1 and see if it is right4 ,they run forty looms and two thousand spindles4 ,he runs his mill evenings4 ,such expressions are common and correct1 because they convey ideas1 and are understood4 ,two men were engaged in argument4 ,the believer in intransitive verbs set out to run his opponent into an evident absurdity1 and1 contrary to his expectation1 he ran himself into one4 ,leave out the objects of this verb1 run1 and the sense is totally changed4 ,he set out to run into an evident absurdity1 and he ran into one2 that is1 he did the very absurd thing which he intended to do4#ad ,i walk4 ,the action expressed by this verb is very similar in character to the former1 but rather slower in performance4 ,writers on health tell us that to walk is a very healthy exercise1 and that it would be well for men of sedentary habits to walk several miles every day4 ,but if there is no action in walk1 or if it has no object necessarily walked1 it would be difficult to understand what good could result from it4 ,did you have a pleasant walk this morning8 says a teacher to his grammar class4 ,we did have a very pleasant one4 ,the flowers were blooming on each side of the walk1 and sent forth their sweetest aroma1 perfuming the soft breezes of the morning4 ,birds were flitting from spray to spray1 carolling their hymns of praise to ,deity4 ,the tranquil waters of the lake lay slumbering in silence1 and reflected the bright rays of the sun1 giving a sweet but solemn aspect to the whole scene4 ,to go thro the grove1 down by the lake1 and up thro the meadow1 is the most delightful walk a person can take4 ,how did you get your walk8 ,we walked it1 to be sure2 how did you think we got it8 ,oh1 ,i did not know4 ,walk1 your books tell you1 is an intransitive verb1 terminating on no object2 so ,i supposed1 if you followed them1 you obtained it some other way2 by riding1 running1 sailing1 or1 may be1 bought it1 as you could not have walked it6 ,were you tired on your return8 ,we were exceedingly fatigued1 for you know it is a very long walk1 and we walked it in an hour4 ,but what tired you8 ,if there are no effects produced by walking1 ,i can not conceive why you should be fatigued by such exercise4 ,who does not perceive what flagrant violations of grammar rules are committed every day1 and every hour1 and in almost every sentence that is framed to express our knowledge of facts4 ,to step4 ,this verb is the same in character with the two just noticed4 ,it expresses the act of raising each foot alternately1 and usually implies that the body is1 by that means1 conveyed from one place to another4 ,but as people step their feet and not their hands1 or any thing else1 it is entirely useless to mention the object2 for generally1 that can not be mistaken any more than in the case of the gloves1 boots1 and hat4 ,but it would be bad philosophy to teach children that there is no objective word after it1 because it is not written out and placed before their eyes4 ,they will find such teaching contradicted at every step they take4 ,let a believer in intransitive verbs step on a red hot iron2 he will soon find to his sorrow1 that he was mistaken when he thought that he could step without stepping any thing4 ,it would be well for grammar1 as well as many other things1 to have more practice and less theory4 ,the thief was detected by his steps4 ,step softly2 put your feet down carefully4 ,birds fly4 ,we learned from our primers1 that ,the eagle's flight ,is out of sight1 ,how did the eagle succeed in producing a flight8 ,i suppose he flew it4 ,and if birds ever fly1 they must produce a flight4 ,such being the fact1 it is needless to supply the object4 ,but the action does not terminate solely on the flight produced1 for that is only the name given to the action itself4 ,the expression conveys to the mind the obvious fact1 that1 by strong muscular energy1 by the aid of feathers1 and the atmosphere1 the bird carries itself thro the air1 and changes its being from one place to another4 ,as birds rarely fly a race1 or any thing but themselves and a flight1 it is not necessary to suffix the object4 ,it rains4 ,this verb is insisted on as the strongest proof of intransitive action2 with what propriety1 we will now inquire4 ,it will serve as a clear elucidation of the whole theory of intransitive verbs4 ,what does the expression signify8 ,it simply declares the fact1 that water is shed down from the clouds4 ,but is there no object after rains8 ,there is none expressed4 ,is there nothing rained8 no effect produced8 ,if not1 there can be no water fallen1 and our cisterns would be as empty1 our streams as low1 and fields as parched1 after a rain as before it6 ,but who that has common sense1 and has never been blinded by the false rules of grammar1 does not know that when it rains1 it never fails to rain rain1 water1 or rain-water1 unless you have one of the paddy's dry rains8 ,when it hails1 it hails hail1 hail-stones1 or frozen rain4 ,when it snows1 it snows snow1 sometimes two feet of it1 sometimes less4 ,i should think teachers in our northern countries would find it exceeding difficult to convince their readers that snow is an intransitive verb--that it snows nothing4 ,and yet so it is2 people will remain wedded to their old systems1 and refuse to open their eyes and behold the evidences every where around them4 ,teachers themselves1 the guides of the young--and ,i blush to say it1 for ,i was long among the number--have1 with their scholars1 labored all the morning1 breaking roads1 shovelling snow1 and clearing paths1 to get to the school-house1 and then set down and taught them that to snow is an intransitive verb4 ,what nonsense2 nay1 worse1 what falsehoods have been instilled into the youthful mind in the name of grammar6 ,can we be surprised that people have not understood grammar8 that it is a dry1 cold1 and lifeless business8 ,i once lectured in ,poughkeepsie1 ,n4 ,y4 ,in a conversation with ,miss ,b41 a distinguished scholar1 who had taught a popular female school for twenty years2 was remarking upon the subject of intransitive verbs1 and the apparent inconsistency of the new system1 that all verbs must have an object after them1 expressed or understood2 she said1 there was the verb rain1 7it happened to be a rainy day17 the whole action is confined to the agent2 it does not pass on to another object2 it is purely intransitive4 ,her aged mother1 who had never looked into a grammar book1 heard the conversation1 and very bluntly remarked1 ,why1 you fool you1 ,i want to know if you have studied grammar these thirty years1 and taught it more than twenty1 and have never larned that when it rains it always rains rain8 ,if it didn't1 do you s'pose you'd need an umbrella to go out now into the storm8 ,i should think you'd know better4 ,i always told you these plaguy grammars were good for nothing1 ,i didn't b'lieve4 ,amen1 said ,i1 to the good sense of the old lady1 you are right1 and have reason to be thankful that you have never been initiated into the intricate windings1 nor been perplexed with the false and contradictory rules1 which have blasted many bright geniuses in their earliest attempts to gain a true knowledge of the sublime principles of language1 on which depends so much of the happiness of human life4 ,the good matron's remark was a poser to the daughter1 but it served as a means of her entire deliverance from the thraldom of neuter verbs1 and the adoption of the new principles of the exposition of language4 ,the anecdote shows us how the unsophisticated mind will observe facts1 and employ words as correctly1 if not more so1 than those schooled in the high pretensions of science1 falsely taught4 ,who does not know from the commonest experience1 that the direct object of raining must follow as the necessary sequence8 that it can never fail8 ,and yet our philologists tell us that such is not always the case2 and that the exception is to be marked on the singular ground1 whether the word is written out or omitted6 ,what a narrow view of the sublime laws of motion6 ,what a limited knowledge of things6 or else1 what a mistake6 ,then the ,lord said unto ,moses1 behold1 ,i will rain bread for you from heaven4 ,then the ,lord rained down1 upon ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 brimstone and fire1 from the ,lord out of heaven4--,bible4 ,the fire burns4 ,the fire burns the wood1 the coal1 or the peat4 ,the great fire in ,new-,york burned the buildings which covered fifty-two acres of ground4 ,mr4 ,experiment burns coal in preference to wood4 ,his new grate burns it very finely4 ,red ash coal burns the best2 it makes the fewest ashes1 and hence is the most convenient4 ,the cook burns too much fuel4 ,the house took fire and burned up4 ,burned what up8 ,burn is an intransitive verb4 ,it would not trouble the unfortunate tenant to know that there must be an object burned1 or what it was4 ,he would find it far more difficult to rebuild his house4 ,do you suppose fires never burn any thing belonging to neuter verb folks8 ,then they never need pay away insurance money4 ,with the solitary exception ,i have mentioned--the burning bush--this verb can not be intransitive4 ,the sun shines4 ,this is an intransitive verb if there ever was one1 because the object is not often expressed after it4 ,but if the sun emits no rays of light1 how shall it be known whether it shines or not8 ,the radiance of the sun's bright beaming is produced by the exhibition of itself1 when it brightens the objects exposed to its rays or radiance4 ,we talk of sun shine and moon shine1 but if these bodies never produce effects how shall it be known whether such things are real8 ,sun shine is the direct effect of the sun's shining4 ,but clouds sometimes intervene and prevent the rays from extending to the earth2 but then we do not say the sun shines4 ,you see at once1 that all we know or can know of the fact we state as truth1 is derived from a knowledge of the very effects which our grammars tell us do not exist4 ,strange logic indeed6 ,it is a mark of a wiser man1 and a better scholar1 not to know the popular grammars1 than it is to profess any degree of proficiency in them6 ,to smile4 ,the smiles of the morning1 the smiles of affection1 a smile of kindness1 are only produced by the appearance of something that smiles upon us4 ,smiles are the direct consequence of smiling4 ,if a person should smile ever so sweetly and yet present no smiles1 they might1 for aught we could know to the contrary1 be sour as vinegar4 ,but this verb frequently has another object after it2 as1 to smile the wrinkles from the brow of age1 or smile dull cares away4 ,a sensible wife would soon reason and smile him into good nature4 ,but ,i need not multiply examples4 ,when such men as ,johnson1 ,walker1 ,webster1 ,murray1 ,lowthe1 and a host of other wise and renowned men1 gravely tell us that eat and drink1 which they define1 to take food2 to feed2 to take a meal2 to go to meals2 to be maintained in food2 to swallow liquors2 to quench thirst2 to take any liquid2 are intransitive or neuter verbs1 having no objects after them1 we must think them insincere1 egregiously mistaken1 or else possessed of a means of subsistence different from people generally6 ,did they eat and drink1 take food and swallow liquors1 intransitively2 that is1 without eating or drinking any thing8 ,is it possible in the nature of things8 ,who does not see the absurdity8 ,and yet they were great men1 and nobody has a right to question such high authority4 ,and the simplifiers who have come after1 making books and teaching grammar to earn their bread1 have followed close in their footsteps1 and1 ,i suppose1 eaten nothing1 and thrown their bread away6 ,was ,i a believer in neuter verbs and desired to get money1 my first step would be to set up a boarding house for all believers in1 and practisers of1 intransitive verbs4 ,i would board cheap and give good fare4 ,i could afford it1 for no provisions would be consumed4 ,some over cautious minds1 who are always second1 if not last1 in a good cause1 ask us why these principles1 if so true and clear1 were not found out before8 ,why have not the learned who have studied for many centuries1 never seen and adopted them8 ,it is a sufficient answer to such a question1 to ask why the copernican system of astronomy was not sooner adopted1 why the principles of chemistry1 the circulation of the blood1 the power and application of steam1 nay1 why all improvement was not known before4 ,when grammar and dictionary makers1 those wise expounders of the principles of speech1 have so far forgotten facts as to teach that eat and drink1 express neither action nor passion1 or are confined to the agents2 that when a man eats1 he eats nothing1 or when he drinks1 he drinks nothing1 we need not stop long to decide why these things were unknown before4 ,the wisest may sometimes mistake2 and the proud aspirant for success1 frequently passes over1 unobserved1 the humble means on which all true success depends4 ,allow me to quote some miscellaneous examples which will serve to show more clearly the importance of supplying the elipses1 in order to comprehend the meaning of the writers1 or profit by their remarks4 ,you will supply the objects correctly from the attendant circumstances where they are not expressed4 ,ask 7 7 and ye shall receive 7 72 seek 7 7 and ye shall find 7 72 knock 7 7 and it shall be opened unto you4 ,ask what8 ,seek what8 ,knock what8 ,that it may be opened8 ,our ,grammars ,made ,easy would teach us to ask and seek nothing6 no objectives after them4 ,what then could we reasonably expect to receive or find8 ,the thing we asked for1 of course1 and that was nothing6 ,well might the language apply to such1 ,ye ask 7 7 and receive not 7naught7 because ye ask 7 7 amiss4 ,false teaching is as pernicious to religion and morals as to science4 ,charge them that are rich in this world--that they do good1 that they be rich in good works1 ready to distribute 7 71 willing to communicate 7 74--,paul to ,timothy4 ,the hearer is to observe that there is no object after these words--nothing distributed1 or communicated6 ,there is too much such charity in the world4 ,he spoke 7 71 and it was done2 he commanded 7 71 and it stood fast4 ,bless 7 71 and curse 7 7 not4--,bible4 ,strike 7 7 while the iron is hot4--,proverb4 ,i came 7 71 ,i saw 7 71 ,i conquered 7 74--,caesar's ,letter4 ,he lives 7 7 contented and happy4 ,the life that ,i now live1 in the flesh1 ,i live by the faith of the son of ,god4--,paul4 ,let me die the death of the righteous1 and let my last end be like his4--,numbers4 ,as bodily exercise particularly strengthens 7 71 as it invites 7 7 to sleep 7 71 and secures 7 7 against great disorders1 it is to be generally encouraged4 ,gymnastic exercises may be established for all ages and for all classes4 ,the ,jews were ordered to take a walk out of the city on the ,sabbath day2 and here rich and poor1 young and old1 master and slave1 met 7 7 and indulged 7 7 in innocent mirth or in the pleasures of friendly intercourse4--,spurzheim on ,education4 ,men will wrangle 7 7 for religion2 write 7 7 for it2 fight 7 7 for it2 die 7 7 for it2 any thing but live 7 7 for it4--,lacon4 ,i have addressed this volume to those that think 7 71 and some may accuse me of an ostentatious independence1 in presuming 7 7 to inscribe a book to so small a minority4 ,but a volume addressed to those that think 7 7 is in fact addressed to all the world2 for altho the proportion of those who do 7 7 think 7 7 be extremely small1 yet every individual flatters himself that he is one of the number4--,idem4 ,what is the difference whether a man thinks or not1 if he produces no thoughts8 ,he that thinks himself the happiest man1 really is so2 but he that thinks himself the wisest1 is generally the greatest fool4--,idem4 ,a man has many workmen employed2 some to plough 7 7 and sow 7 71 others to chop 7 7 and split 7 72 some to mow 7 7 and reap 7 72 one to score 7 7 and hew 7 72 two to frame 7 7 and raise 7 74 ,in his factory he has persons to card 7 71 spin 7 71 reel 7 71 spool 7 71 warp 7 71 and weave 7 71 and a clerk to deliver 7 7 and charge 7 71 to receive 7 7 and pay 7 74 ,they eat 7 71 and drink 7 71 heartily1 three times a day2 and as they work 7 7 hard1 and feel 7 7 tired at night1 they lay 7 7 down1 sleep 7 7 soundly1 and dream 7 7 pleasantly2 they rise 7 7 up early to go 7 7 to work 7 7 again4 ,in the morning the children wash 7 7 and dress 7 7 and prepare 7 7 to go 7 7 to school1 to learn 7 7 to read 7 71 write 7 71 and cipher 7 74 ,all neuter or intransitive verbs66 ,the celebrated horse1 ,corydon1 will perform 7 7 on ,tuesday evening in the circus4 ,he will leap 7 7 over four bars1 separately1 in imitation of the english hunter4 ,he will lie 7 7 down1 and rise 7 7 up instantly at the word of command4 ,he will move 7 7 backwards and sideways1 rear 7 7 and stand 7 7 on his hind feet2 he will sit 7 7 down1 like a ,turk1 on a cushion4 ,to conclude 7 71 he will leap 7 71 in a surprising manner1 over two horses4--,cardell's ,grammar4 ,the gymnastic is not a mountebank2 he palms off no legerdemain upon the public4 ,he will stretch a line across the room1 several feet from the floor1 over which he will leap 7 7 with surprising dexterity4 ,he will stand 7 7 on his head1 balance1 7 7 on one foot1 and swing 7 7 from side to side of the room2 lay 7 7 crosswise1 and sideways2 spring 7 7 upon his feet2 bound 7 7 upon the floor2 dance 7 7 and keel 7 7 over with out touching his hands4 ,he will sing 7 71 play 7 71 and mimic 7 72 look 7 7 like a king1 and act 7 7 like a fool4 ,he will laugh 7 7 and cry 7 71 as if real2 roar 7 7 like a lion1 and chirp 7 7 like a bird4 ,to conclude 7 73 ,he will do all this to an audience of neuter grammarians1 without either action or passion1 all the while having a state of being1 motionless1 in the center of the room66 ,what a lie6 say you4 ,a lie8 ,i hope you do not accuse me of lying4 ,if there is any thing false in this matter it all lies in the quotation1 at the conclusion1 from the standard grammar4 ,if that is false1 whose fault is it8 ,not mine1 certainly4 ,but what if ,i should lie 7 71 intransitively8 ,i should tell no falsehoods4 ,but enough of this4 ,if there is any thing irrational or inconsistent1 any thing false or ridiculous1 in this view of the subject1 it should be remembered that it has been long taught1 not only in common schools1 but in our academies and colleges1 as serious1 practical truth2 as the only means of acquiring a correct knowledge of language1 or fitting ourselves for usefulness or respectability in society4 ,you smile at such trash1 and well you may2 but you must bear in mind that grammar is not the only thing in which we may turn round and laugh 7 7 at past follies4 ,but ,i am disposed to consider this matter of more serious consequence than to deserve our laughter4 ,when ,i see the rising generation spend months and years of the best and most important part of their lives1 which should be devoted to the acquisition of that which is true and useful1 studying the dark and false theory of language as usually taught1 ,i am far from feeling any desire to laugh at the folly which imposes such a task upon them4 ,i remember too distinctly the years that have just gone by4 ,i have seen too many blighted hopes1 too many wearisome hours1 too many sad countenances1 too many broken resolutions2 to say nothing of corporeal chastisements2 to think it a small matter that children are erroneously taught the rudiments of language1 because sanctioned by age1 or great names4 ,a change1 an important change1 a radical change1 in this department of education1 is imperiously demanded1 and teachers must obey the call1 and effect the change4 ,there is a spirit abroad in the land which will not bow tamely and without complaint1 to the unwarranted dictation of arbitrary1 false1 and contradictory rules1 merely from respect to age4 ,it demands reason1 consistency and plainness2 and yields assent only where they are found4 ,and teachers1 if they will not lead in the reformation1 must be satisfied to follow after2 for a reformation is loudly called for1 and will be had4 ,none are satisfied with existing grammars1 which1 in principle1 are nearly alike4 ,the seventy-three attempts to improve and simplify ,murray1 have only acted intransitively1 and accomplished very little1 if any good1 save the employment given to printers1 paper makers1 and booksellers4 ,but ,i will not enlarge4 ,we have little occasion to wonder at the errors and mistakes of grammar makers1 when our lexicographers tell us for sober truth1 that to act1 to be in action1 not to rest1 to be in motion1 to move1 is v4 n4 a verb neuter1 signifying no action66 or v4 i4 verb intransitive1 producing no effects2 and that a neuter verb expresses 7active transitive verb7 a state of being66 ,there are few minds capable of adopting such premises1 and drawing therefrom conclusions which are rational or consistent4 ,truth is rarely elicted from error1 beauty from deformity1 or order from confusion4 ,while1 therefore1 we allow the neuter systems to sink into forgetfulness1 as they usually do as soon as we leave school and shut our books1 let us throw the mantle of charity over those who have thoughtlessly 7without thinking thoughts7 and innocently lead us many months in dark and doleful wanderings1 in paths of error and contradiction1 mistaken for the road to knowledge and usefulness4 ,but let us resolve to save ourselves and future generations from following the same unpleasant and unprofitable course1 and endeavor to reflect the light which may shine upon our minds1 to dispel the surrounding darkness1 and secure the light and knowledge of truth to those who shall come after us4 ,many philologists have undertaken to explain our language by the aid of foreign tongues4 ,because there are genitive cases1 different kinds of verbs1 six tenses1 etc4 in the ,latin or ,greek1 the same distinctions should exist in our grammars4 ,but this argument will not apply1 admitting that other languages will not allow of the plan of exposition we have adopted1 which we very seriously question1 tho we have not time to go into that investigation4 ,we believe that the principles we have adopted are capable of universal application2 that what is action in ,england would be action in ,greece1 ,rome1 ,turkey1 and every where else2 that like causes will produce like effects all the world over4 ,it matters not by whom the action is seen1 it is the same1 and all who gather ideas therefrom will describe it as it appears to them1 let them speak what language they may4 ,but if they have no ideas to express1 they need no language to speak4 ,monkeys1 for aught ,i know to the contrary1 can speak as well as we2 but the reason they do not1 is because they have nothing to say4 ,let ,maelzael's automaton chess-player be exhibited to a promiscuous multitude4 ,they would all attempt a description of it1 so far as they were able to gain a knowledge of its construction1 each in his own language4 ,some might be unable to trace the cause1 the moving power1 thro all the curiously arranged means1 to the agent who acted as prime mover to the whole affair4 ,others1 less cautious in their conclusions1 might think it a perpetual motion4 ,such would find a first cause short of the ,creator1 the great original of all things and actions2 and thus violate the soundest principles of philosophy4 ,heaven has never left a vacuum where a new and self sustaining power may be set in operation independent of his ever-present supervision2 and hence the long talked of perpetual motion is the vainest chimera which ever occupied the human brain4 ,it may well appear as the opposite extreme of neuter verbs2 for1 while one would give no action to matter according to the physical laws which regulate the world1 the other would make matter act of itself1 independent of the ,almighty4 ,be it ours to take a more rational and consistent stand2 to view all things and beings as occupying a place duly prescribed by ,infinite ,wisdom1 acting according to their several abilities1 and subject to the regulation of the all-pervading laws which guide1 preserve1 and harmonize the whole4 ,if there is a subject which teaches us beyond controversy the existence of a ,supreme ,power1 a ,universal ,father1 an all-wise and ever-present ,god1 it is found in the order and harmony of all things1 produced by the regulation of ,divine laws2 and man's superiority to the rest of the world is most clearly proved1 from the possession of a power to adapt language to the communication of ideas in free and social converse1 or in the transmission of thought1 drawn from an observation and knowledge of things as presented to his understanding4 ,there is no science so directly important to the growth of intellect and the future happiness of the child1 as the knowledge of language4 ,without it1 what is life8 ,wherein would man be elevated above the brute8 ,and what is language without ideas8 ,a sound without harmony--a shadow without a substance4 ,let language be taught on the principles of true philosophy1 as a science1 instead of an arbitrary1 mechanical business1 a mere art1 and you will no longer hear the complaint of a dry1 cold1 uninteresting study4 ,its rules will be simple1 plain1 and easy2 and at every step the child will increase in the knowledge of more than words1 in an acquaintance with principles of natural and moral science4 ,and if there is any thing that will carry the mind of the child above the low and grovelling things of earth1 and fill the soul with reverence and devotion to the ,holy ,being who fills immensity with his presence1 it is when1 from observing the laws which govern matter1 he passes to observe the powers and capabilities of the mind1 and thence ascends to the ,intellectual ,source of light1 life1 and being1 and contemplates the perennial and ecstatic joys which flow from the presence of ,deity2 soul mingling with soul1 love absorbed in love1 and ,god all in all4 ,,lecture ,,xi4 ,,on ,,verbs4 ,the verb to be4--,compounded of different radical words4--,am4 --,defined4--,the name of ,deity4--,ei4--,is4--,are4--,were1 was4--,be4--,a dialogue4--,examples4--,passive ,verbs examined4-- ,cannot be in the present tense4--,the past participle is an adjective4 ,we have gone through the examination of neuter and intransitive verbs1 with the exception of the verb to be1 which we propose to notice in this place4 ,much more might be said on the subjects ,i have discussed1 and many more examples given to illustrate the nature and operation of actions as expressed by verbs1 and also in reference to the objects of action2 but ,i trust the hints ,i have given will be satisfactory4 ,i am confident1 if you will allow your minds to think correct thoughts1 and not suffer them to be misled by erroneous teaching1 you will arrive at the same conclusion that ,i have1 viz4 that all verbs depend on a common principle for their explanation2 that they are alike active1 and necessarily take an object after them1 either expressed or understood1 in accordance with the immutable law of nature1 which teaches that like causes will produce like effects4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the verb to be1 as it is called1 is conjugated by the aid of six different words1 in its various modes and tenses2 am1 is1 are1 was1 were1 be4 ,am is unchanged1 always in the indicative mood1 present tense1 agreeing with the first person singular4 ,is is also unchanged1 in the same mood and tense1 agreeing with the third person singular4 ,art1 in the singular1 is the same as are in the plural4 ,was and wast1 are the same as were and wert in meaning1 being derived from the same etymon4 ,be1 being1 and been1 are changes of the same word4 ,be was formerly extensively used in the indicative present1 but in that condition it is nearly obsolete4 ,were was also used in the singular as well as plural1 especially when coming before the agent2 as1 were ,i to go1 ,i would do your business4 ,but it is now more common to have was correctly used in that case4 ,but1 as one extreme often follows another1 people have laid were quite too much aside1 and often crowd was into its place in common conversation2 as we was 7were7 there yesterday4 ,there was 7were7 five or six men engaged in the business4 ,this error appears to be gaining ground1 and should be checked before it goes farther4 ,the combination of these different words was produced by habit1 to avoid the monotony which the frequent recurrence of one word1 so necessary in the expression of thought1 would occasion3 the same as the past tense of go is made by the substitution of another word radically different1 went1 the past tense of wend or wind4 ,o'er hills and dales they wend their way4 ,the lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea4 ,go and wend convey to our minds nearly the same ideas4 ,the latter is a little more poetical1 because less used4 ,but originally their signification was quite different4 ,so with the parts of the verb to be4 ,they were consolidated as a matter of convenience1 and now appear in their respective positions to express the idea of being1 life1 or existence4 ,i have said this verb expresses the highest degree of action4 ,i will now attempt to prove it4 ,i should like to go into a labored and critical examination of the words1 and trace their changes thro various languages1 was it in accordance with the design of these lectures4 ,but as it is not1 ,i shall content myself with general observations4 ,i am4 ,this word is not defined in our dictionaries4 ,it is only said to be the first person of to be4 ,we must look for its meaning some where else4 ,it is a compound of two ancient words1 ah1 breath1 to breathe1 life1 to live1 light1 to light2 and ma1 the hand1 or to hand4 ,it signifies to vivify1 sustain1 or support one's self in being or existence4 ,in process of time1 like other things in this mutable world1 its form was changed1 but the meaning retained4 ,but as one person could not vivify or live another1 inflate another's lungs1 or breathe another's breath1 it became restricted to the first person4 ,it means1 ,i breathe breath1 vivify myself1 live life1 or exercise the power of being or living4 ,it conveys this fact in every instance1 for no person incapable of breathing can say ,i am4 ,let any person pronounce the word ah-ma1 and they will at once perceive the appropriateness of the meaning here given4 ,it is very similar to the letter h1 and the pronoun1 7originally noun17 he1 or the rough breathing in the ,greek language4 ,ma is compounded with many words which express action done by the hand2 as1 manufacture1 manumit4 ,it denoted any action or work done by the hand as the instrument2 but1 like other words1 it gradually changed its import1 so as to express any effective operation4 ,hence the union of the words was natural and easy1 and ahma denoted breathing1 to live or sustain life4 ,h is a precarious letter in all languages that use it1 as the pronunciation of it by many who speak the ,english language1 will prove4 ,it was long ago dropt1 in this word1 and after it the last a1 so that we now have the plain word am4 ,it was formerly used as a noun in our language1 and as such may be found in ,exodus #c3 #ac1 #ad4 ,and ,moses said unto ,god1 ,behold when ,i come unto the children of ,israel and shall say unto them1 ,the ,god of your fathers sent me unto you2 and they shall say to me1 ,what is his name8 what shall ,i say unto them8 ,and ,god said unto ,moses1 ,i am the ,i ,,am2 and he said1 ,thus shalt thou say unto the children of ,israel1 ,i ,,am hath sent me unto you4 ,chap4 #f3 #c4--;,i appeared unto ,abraham1 unto ,isaac1 and unto ,jacob1 by the name of ,god ,almighty2 but by my name ,jehovah 7,i ,,am7 was ,i not known unto them4 ,the word ,jehovah is the same as am4 ,it is the name of the self-existent1 self-sustaining ,being1 who has not only power to uphold all things1 but to perform the still more sublime action of upholding or sustaining himself4 ,this is the highest possible degree of action4 ,let this fail1 and all creation will be a wreck4 ,he is the ever-living1 uncontrolled1 unfailing1 unassisted1 and never-changing ,god1 the ,creator1 ,preserver1 ,alpha and ,omega1 the ,beginning and ,end of all things4 ,he is the ,first ,cause of all causes1 the ,agent1 original moving ,power1 and guiding ,wisdom1 which set in motion the wheels of universal nature1 and guides and governs them without variableness or the shadow of turning4 ,i ,,am the first1 and ,i1 the last1 ,thro endless years the same2 ,i ,,am is my memorial still1 ,and my eternal name4 ,watts' ,hymn4 ,ask the ,jews the meaning of this neuter verb in their language4 ,they hold it in the most profound and superstitious reverence4 ,after the captivity of their nation they never dared pronounce the name except once a year when the high priest went into the ,holy of ,holies1 and hence the true pronunciation of it was lost4 ,unto this day they dare not attempt to utter it4 ,in all their writings it remains in characters untranslated4 ,when their ,messiah comes they expect he will restore the pronunciation1 and by it they shall be able to accomplish all things4#ae ,according to ,plutarch the ,greeks had the letters ,,ei1 thou art1 engraven on the temple of ,apollo at ,delphi1 which is the second person of ,eimi1 ,i am4#af ,this motto was doubtless borrowed from the ,jews1 to whom it was given as the name of the ,god of ,jacob4 ,the same name you may see engraven on monuments1 on pictures of the bible1 on masonic implements1 and in various places1 untranslated4 ,who can suppose that this word expresses no action1 when the very person incapable of it can not utter it1 and no one else can speak it for him8 ,it denotes the highest conceivable action applied to ,deity or to man1 and it is questionable philosophy which dares contradict this fact4 ,the action expressed by it1 is not changed1 because it does not terminate on a foreign object4 ,it remains the same4 ,it is self-action4 ,he is4 ,this word is constructed from an old verb signifying to stand forth1 to appear1 to show one's self1 and may be traced1 ,i think1 to the latin eo1 to go1 and exist1 to exeo1 to go from2 that is1 our being or existence1 came or stood forth from ,god4 ,it is certainly a contraction from the old english to exist4 ,ist is the spelling still retained in the german and some other languages4 ,it denotes self-action4 ,one man does not exist another1 but himself4 ,he keeps himself in existence4 ,we are1 thou are-est1 arst1 or art4 ,be not surprised when ,i tell you this is the same word as air1 for such is the fact4 ,it signifies to inhale air1 to air ourselves1 or breathe air4 ,god breathed into man the breath of life1 and man became a living soul4 ,the new born infant inhales air1 inflates its lungs with air1 and begins to live4 ,we all know how essential air is to the preservation of life4 ,no animal can live an instant without it4 ,drop a squirrel into a receiver from which all air has been extracted1 and it can not live4 ,even vegetables will die where there is no air4 ,light is also indispensable to life and health4 ,air is inhaled and exhaled1 and from it life receives support4 ,the fact being common1 it is not so distinctly observed by the careless1 as tho it was more rare4 ,but did you never see the man dying of a consumption1 when the pulmonary or breathing organs were nearly decayed8 ,how he labors for breath6 ,he asks to have the windows thrown open4 ,at length he suffocates and dies4 ,most persons struggle hard for breath in the hour of dissolving nature4 ,the heaving bosom1 the hollow gasp for air1 tells us that the lamp of life is soon to be extinguished1 that the hour of their departure has come4 ,when a person faints1 we carry them into the air1 or blow air upon them1 that nature may be restored to its regular course4 ,in certain cases physicians find it necessary to force air into the lungs of infants2 they can after that air1 themselves1 imbibe or drink in air1 or inspirit themselves with air4 ,but ,i need not enlarge4 ,whoever has been deprived of air and labored hard for breath in a stifled or unwholesome air1 can appreciate what we mean4 ,we were2 he was4 ,i have said before that these words are the same1 and are used in certain cases irrespective of number4 ,i have good authority for this opinion1 altho some etymologists give them different derivations4 ,were1 wert2 worth1 werth2 word and werde1 are derived from the same etymon and retain a similarity of meaning4 ,they signify spirit1 life1 energy4 ,in the beginning was the word1 and the word was with ,god4 ,by the word of his grace4 ,they were1 they inspirited themselves1 possessed the life1 vitality1 or spirit1 the ,creator gave them1 and having that spirit1 life1 or energy1 under proper regulation1 in due degree1 they were worthy of the esteem1 regard1 sympathy1 and good word of others4 ,to be4 ,this is considered the root of all the words we have considered1 and to it all others are referred for a definition4 ,dictionaries give no definition to am1 is1 are1 was1 and were1 all of them as truly principal verbs as be1 and possessed of as distinct a meaning4 ,it can hardly be possible that they should form so important a part of our language1 and yet be incapable of definition4 ,but such is the fact1 the most significant words in our language1 and those most frequently used1 are undefined in the books4 ,mr4 ,webster says to be signifies1 to exist1 to have a real state or existence1 and so say ,walker and ,johnson4 ,now if it is possible to have a state of being without action or passion1 then may this word express neutrality4 ,but the very definition requires activity1 and an object expressed4 ,it denotes the act of being1 or living2 to exercise the powers of life1 to maintain a position or rank in the scale of existent things4 ,the name of the action is being1 and applies to the ,almighty ,,being who exists unchanged as the source of all inferior beings and things1 whose name is ,jehovah1 ,i ,,am1 the ,being of beings1 the ,fountain of light1 life1 and wisdom4 ,be is used in the imperative and infinitive moods correctly1 by every body who employs language4 ,be here in ten minutes4 ,be it far from thee4 ,i will be in ,boston before noon4 ,if there is any action in going from ,providence to ,boston at rail-road speed1 in two hours1 or before noon1 it is all expressed by the verb be1 which we are told expresses no action4 ,the teacher says to his scholars when out at play1 ,i want you to be in your seats in five minutes4 ,what would they understand him to mean8 that they should stand still8 or that they should change their state of being from play in the yard1 to a state of being in their seats8 ,there is no word to denote such change1 except the word to be4 ,be off1 be gone1 be here1 be there1 are commands frequently given and correctly understood4 ,the master says to a bright little lad1 who has well learned his grammar1 ,be here in a minute4 ,yes1 sir1 ,i will be there2 but he does not move4 ,be here immediately4 ,yes1 yes1 ,i will be there4 ,don't you understand me8 ,i say1 be here instantly4 ,oh1 yes1 ,i understand you and will obey4 ,the good man is enraged4 ,you scoundrel1 says he1 do you mean to disobey my orders and insult me8 ,insult you and disobey you2 ,i have done neither1 replies the honest boy4 ,yes you have1 and ,i will chastise you severely for it4 ,no1 master1 ,i have not2 ,i declare1 ,i have not4 ,i have obeyed you as well as ,i know how1 to the very letter and spirit of your command4 ,didn't ,i tell you to be here in a minute1 and have not you remained where you were8 and didn't you say you would be here8 ,yes1 sir2 and did not ,i do just what you told me to8 ,why1 no1 you blockhead2 ,i told you to be here4 ,well1 ,i told you ,i would be there4 ,you was not here4 ,nor did you expect ,i would be1 if you have taught me to speak1 write1 and understand correctly4 ,what do you mean1 you saucy boy8 ,i mean to mind my master1 and do what he tells me to4 ,why didn't you do so then8 ,i did4 ,you didn't4 ,i did4 ,you lie1 you insult me1 you contradict me1 you saucy fellow4 ,you are not fit to be in school4 ,i will punish you severely4 ,and in a passion he starts for his ferrule1 takes the boys hand1 and bruises him badly2 the honest little fellow all the while pleading innocence of any intended wrong4 ,in a short time they commence parsing this sentence3 ,it is necessary to be very particular in ascertaining the meaning of words before we use them4 ,the master puts to be to the same boy4 ,he says it is an active verb1 infinitive mood4 ,how is that8 an active verb8 ,yes1 sir4 ,no1 it is not4 ,it is a neuter verb4 ,begging your pardon1 master1 it is not4 ,it is active4 ,have ,i got to punish you again so soon1 you impudent fellow4 ,you are not fit to be in school4 ,i will inform your parents of your conduct4 ,what have ,i done that is wrong8 ,you say to be is an active verb1 when ,i tell you1 and the grammar and dictionary tell you1 it is neuter6 ,what is a neuter verb1 master8 ,it expresses 'neither action nor passion1 but being or a state of being4' ,have you forgotten it8 ,no1 sir1 ,i thought that was the case4 ,what did you ask me for then8 ,because ,i supposed you had found another meaning for it4 ,to what do you allude1 you troublesome fellow1 you8 ,i'll not bear your insults much longer4 ,for what did you punish me so severely just now8 ,for disobeying my orders4 ,what did you order me to do8 ,to be here in a minute4 ,well1 did not ,i do what you told me8 ,no2 you kept your seat1 and did not come near me4 ,well1 ,i thought and did just what you now tell me2 that to be is a neuter verb1 expressing no action1 but being4 ,i had a state of being1 and promised to keep it1 and did keep it1 and you punished me for doing the very thing you told me to do66 ,the master looked down1 shut up his book1 and began to say that grammar is a dry1 cold1 and useless study1 hardly worth the trouble of learning it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i am ,alpha and ,omega1 the beginning and the ending1 saith the ,lord1 who is1 and who was1 and who is to come1 the ,almighty4--,rev4 #a3 #h4 ,if there is any action in maintaining eternal existence1 by which all things were created and are upheld1 it is expressed in the verbs am1 is1 and was4 ,god said1 ,let there be light1 and there was light2 or more properly rendered1 ,light be1 and light was4 ,was there no action in setting the sun1 moon and stars in the firmament1 and in causing them to send forth the rays of light to dispel the surrounding darkness8 ,if there was1 be and was denote that action4 ,you are commanded to be and appear before the court of common pleas1 etc4 ,a heavy penalty is imposed upon those who fail to comply with this citation--for neglecting to do what is expressed by the neuter verb to be4 ,such cases might be multiplied without number1 where this verb is correctly used by all who employ language1 and correctly understood by all who are capable of knowing the meaning of words4 ,but ,i think you must all be convinced of the truth of our proposition1 that all verbs express action1 either real or relative2 and in all cases have an object1 expressed or necessarily implied1 which stands as the effect1 and an agent1 as the cause of action3 and hence that language1 as a means for the communication of thought1 does not deviate from the soundest principles of philosophy1 but in all cases1 rightly explained1 serves to illustrate them1 in the plainest manner4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a few remarks on the ,passive ,verb1 and ,i will conclude this part of our subject1 which has already occupied much more of our attention than ,i expected at the outset4 ,a verb passive expresses a passion or a suffering1 or the receiving of an action2 and necessarily implies an object acted upon1 and an agent by which it is acted upon2 as1 to be loved2 ,penelope is loved by me4 ,in the explanation of this verb1 grammarians further tell us that a passive verb is formed by adding the verb to be1 which is thus made auxiliary1 to a past participle2 as1 ,portia was loved4 ,pompey was conquered4 ,it is singular how forgetful our great men sometimes are about observing their own rules4 ,take an instance in ,mr4 ,walker's octavo dictionary4 ,look for the word simeter1 a small sword4 ,you will find it spelled scimitar4 ,then turn over1 and you will find it simitar1 with the same definition1 and the remark1 more properly cimetar4 ,then turn back1 and find the correct word as he spells it1 and there you will find it cimeter4 ,unsettled as to the true spelling1 go to our own honored ,webster4 ,look for scimiter4 ,he says1 see cimitar4 ,then look for cimitar2 see cimeter4 ,then hunt up the true word1 be it ar or er1 and you will find it still another way1 cimiter4 ,here the scholar has seven different ways to spell this word1 and neither of his authorities have followed their own examples4 ,i cite this as one of a thousand instances1 where our savans have laid down rules for others1 and disregarded them themselves4 ,portia is loved and happy4 ,she is respectable1 virtuous1 talented1 and respected by all who know her4 ,she is seated by the door4 ,does the door seat her8 ,what agent1 then1 causes her passion or suffering8 ,the book is printed4 ,will you parse is printed8 ,it is a passive verb1 indicative mood1 present tense4 ,who is printing it8 causing it1 in the present tense1 to suffer or receive the action8 ,the act of printing was performed a hundred years ago4 ,how can it be present time8 ,penelope is loved by me4 ,the blow is received by me4 ,it is given by me4 ,penelope is seated by me4 ,the earthquake is felt by her4 ,the evils are suffered by her4 ,the thunder is heard by her4 ,does this mean that she is the agent1 and the earthquake1 evils1 and thunder1 are the objects which receive the effects which she produces8 ,that would be singular philosophy1 indeed4 ,but to feel1 to suffer1 and to hear1 are active1 and are constructed into passive verbs4 ,why is it not as correct to say she is suffering by another's wrongs1 is raging by the operation of passion1 or is travelling by rail-road1 are passive verbs8 ,the fact is1 our language can not be explained by set rules or forms of speech4 ,we must regard the sense4 ,the past participle1 as it is called1 becomes an adjective by use1 and describes her as some way affected by a previous action4 ,she is learned1 handsome1 modest1 and1 of course1 beloved by all who know her4 ,to say she is placed by the water's edge1 is a passive verb1 and that the water's edge1 as the agent1 causes her passion1 suffering1 or receiving of the action1 is false and ridiculous1 for she placed herself there4 ,we are seated on our seats by the stove4 ,what power is now operating on us to make us suffer or receive the action of being seated on our seats8 ,does the stove perform this action8 ,this is a passive verb1 present tense1 which requires an object acted upon1 and an agent by which it is acted upon4 ,but we came in and seated ourselves here an hour ago4 ,the man is acquitted4 ,he stands acquitted before the public4 ,he is learned1 wise1 and happy1 very much improved within a few years4 ,he is always active1 studious1 and engaged in his own affairs4 ,he is renowned1 and valorous4 ,she is respected4 ,she lives respected4 ,if there is such a thing as a passive verb1 it can never be used in the present tense1 for the action expressed by the principal verb which is produced by the agent operating upon the object1 is always past tense1 and the auxiliary1 or helping verb to be1 is always present4 ,let this verb be analyzed1 and the true meaning of each word understood1 little difficulty will be found in giving it an explanation4 ,i will not spend more time in exposing the futility of this attempted distinction4 ,it depends solely on a verbal form1 but can never be explained so as to be understood by any scholar4 ,most grammarians have seen the fallacy of attempting to give the meaning of this verb4 ,they can show its form1 but are frequently compelled1 as in the cases above1 to sort out the passed participles from a host of adjectives1 and it will be found exceeding troublesome to make scholars perceive any difference in the use of the words1 or in the construction of a sentence4 ,but it may be they have never thought that duty belonged to them2 that they have nothing to do but to show them what the book says4 ,suppose they should teach arithmetic on the same principles1 and learn the scholars to set down #add as the product of #ab times #ab4 ,let them look at the form of the figures1 observe just how they appear1 and make some more like them1 and thus go thro the book4 ,what would the child know of arithmetic8 ,just as much as they do of grammar1 and no more4 ,they would understand nothing of the science of numbers1 of proportion1 or addition4 ,they would exercise the power of imitation1 and make one figure look like another4 ,beyond that1 all would be a terra incognita1 a land unknown4 ,so in the science of language2 children may learn that the verb to be1 joined with the past participle of an active verb1 makes a passive verb2 but what that passive verb is when made1 or how to apply it1 especially in the present tense1 they have no means of knowing4 ,their knowledge is all taken on trust1 and when thrown upon their own resources1 they have none on which to rely4 ,,lecture ,,xii4 ,,on ,,verbs4 ,mood4--,indicative4--,imperative4--,inf initive4--,former distinctions4 --,subjunctive mood4--,time4--,past4--,present4--,futur e4--,the future explained4--,how formed4--,mr4 ,murray's distinction of time4-- ,imperfect4--,pluperfect4--,second future4--,how many tenses4-- ,auxiliary ,verbs4--,will4--,shall4--,may4--,must4- -,can4--,do4--,have4 ,we are now come to consider the different relations of action in reference to manner and time4 ,we shall endeavor to be as brief as possible upon this subject1 keeping in view meanwhile that candor and perspicuity which are indispensable in all our attempts to explain new views4 ,mood signifies manner4 ,applied to verbs it explains how1 in what manner1 by what means1 under what circumstances1 actions are performed4 ,there are three moods1 the indicative or declarative1 the imperative or commanding1 and the infinitive or unlimited4 ,the indicative mood declares an action to be done or doing1 not done1 or not doing4 ,it is always in the past or present tense2 as1 ,david killed ,goliath2 scholars learn knowledge2 ,i spoke not a word2 they sing not4 ,the imperative mood denotes a command given from the first person to the second1 to do or not do an action4 ,it expresses the wish or desire of the first person to have a certain action performed which depends on the agency of the second4 ,the command is present1 but the action signified by the word is future to the giving of the command4 ,the second person cannot comply with the will of the first till such will is made known2 as1 bring me a book2 go to the door4 ,the infinitive mood has no direct personal agent1 but is produced as a necessary consequence1 growing out of a certain condition of things4 ,it is always future to such condition2 that is1 some prior arrangement must be had before such consequences will follow4 ,it is always future2 as1 they are collecting a force to besiege the city4 ,we study grammar to acquire a knowledge of language4 ,windows are made to admit light4 ,the act of besieging the city depends on the previous circumstance1 the collection of a force to do it4 ,were there no windows1 the light would not be admitted to the room4 ,these distinctions in regard to action must be obvious to every hearer4 ,you all are aware of the fact that action necessarily implies an actor1 as every effect must have an efficient cause2 and such action clearly or distinctly indicated1 must have such an agent to produce it4 #b;d4 ,you are acquainted with the fact that one person can express his will to the second1 directing him to do or avoid some thing4 #c;d4 ,from an established condition of things1 it is easy to deduce a consequence which will follow1 in the nature of things1 as an unavoidable result of such a combination of power1 cause1 and means4 ,with these principles you are all familiar1 whether you have studied grammar or not4 ,they are clearly marked1 abundantly simple1 and must be obvious to all4 ,they form the only necessary1 because the only real1 distinction1 in the formation and use of the verb to express action4 ,any minor distinctions are only calculated to perplex and embarrass the learner4 ,but some grammarians have passed these natural barriers1 and built to themselves schemes to accord with their own vain fancies4 ,the remarks of ,mr4 ,murray upon this point are very appropos4 ,he says3 ,some writers have given our moods a much greater extent than we have assigned to them4 ,they assert that the english language may be said1 without any great impropriety1 to have as many moods as it has auxiliary verbs2 and they allege1 in support of their opinion1 that the compound expression which they help to form1 point out those various dispositions and actions1 which1 in other languages1 are expressed by moods4 ,this would be to multiply the moods without advantage4 ,it is1 however1 certain1 that the conjugation or variation of verbs1 in the english language1 is effected1 almost entirely1 by the means of auxiliaries4 ,we must1 therefore1 accommodate ourselves to this circumstance2 and do that by their assistance1 which has been done in the learned languages 7a few instances to the contrary excepted7 in another manner1 namely1 by varying the form of the verb itself4 ,at the same time1 it is necessary to set proper bounds to this business1 so as not to occasion obscurity and perplexity1 when we mean to be simple and perspicuous4 ,instead1 therefore1 of making a separate mood for every auxiliary verb1 and introducing moods interrogative1 optative1 promissive1 hortative1 precative1 c41 we have exhibited such only as are obviously distinct2 and which1 whilst they are calculated to unfold and display the subject intelligibly to the learner1 seem to be sufficient1 and not more than sufficient1 to answer all the purposes for which moods were introduced4 ,from grammarians who form their ideas1 and make their decisions1 respecting this part of english grammar1 on the principles and constructions of languages which1 in these points1 do not suit the peculiar nature of our own1 but differ considerably from it1 we may naturally expect grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous nor perfectly consistent1 and which will tend more to perplex than to inform the learner4 ,had he followed this rule1 he would have saved weeks and months to every student in grammar in the community4 ,but his remarks were aimed at ,mr4 ,harris1 who was by far the most popular writer on language in ,england at that time4 ,he has adopted the very rules of ,mr4 ,murray1 and carried them out4 ,by a careful observance of the different forms and changes of the verb and its auxiliaries1 he makes out quite evidently to his own mind1 fourteen moods1 which ,i forbear to name4 ,most grammarians contend for five moods1 two of which1 the potential or powerful1 and the subjunctive1 are predicated on the same principles as ,mr4 ,harris' optative1 interrogative1 etc41 which they condemn4 ,it is impossible to explain the character of these moods so as to be understood4 ,if1 it is said1 is the sign of the subjunctive1 and may and can of the potential2 and yet they are often found together2 as1 ,i will go if ,i can4 ,no scholar can determine in what mood to put this last verb4 ,it of right belongs to both the potential and subjunctive4 ,if ,i may be allowed to speak my mind1 ,i should say that such distinctions were false4 ,i will not go into an exposure of these useless and false distinctions1 which are adopted to help carry out erroneous principles4 ,the only pretence for a subjunctive mood is founded on the fact that be and were were formerly used in a character different from what they are at present4 ,be was used in the indicative mood1 present tense1 when doubt or supposition was implied2 as1 ,if ,i be there2 if they be wise4 ,be ,i a man1 and receive such treatment8 ,were was also used instead of was in the past tense2 as1 ,were ,i an ,american ,i would fight for liberty4 ,if ,i were to admit the fact4 ,in this character these words are rapidly becoming obsolete4 ,we now say1 ,if ,i am there2 am ,i a man1 and receive such abuses8 was ,i an ,american2 if ,i was to admit1 etc4 ,all the round about1 perplexing1 and tedious affair of conjugating verbs thro the different modes and tenses will appear in its true character1 when we come to give you a few brief examples1 according to truth and plain sense4 ,but before doing that it will be necessary to make some remarks on time4 ,tense means time4 ,we distinguish time according to certain events which are generally observed4 ,in the use of the verb we express action in reference to periods of time when it is performed4 ,there are three tenses1 or divisions of time2 past1 present1 and future4 ,past tense applies to actions which are accomplished2 as1 ,i wrote a book2 he recited his lesson4 ,present tense denotes actions commenced1 but not finished1 and now in operation2 as1 he reads his book2 we sit on our seats and hear the lecture4 ,future tense refers to actions1 which are to take place hereafter2 as1 ,i am to go from the ,institute2 we desire to learn grammar correctly4 ,every body can mark three plain distinctions of time1 past1 present1 and future4 ,with the past we have been acquainted4 ,it has ceased to be4 ,its works are ended4 ,the present is a mere line--1 nothing as it were--which is constantly passing unchecked from the past to the future4 ,it is a mere division of the past and future4 ,the ,hebrew1 which is strictly a philosophic language1 admits no present2 only a past and future4 ,we speak of the present as denoting an action begun and not finished4 ,in the summer1 we say the trees grow1 and bear fruit4 ,but when the fruit is fallen1 and the leaves seared by the frost1 we change the expression1 and say1 it grew and bore fruit4 ,of the future we can know nothing definitely4 ,heaven has hung before all human eyes an impenetrable veil which obscures all future events4 ,no man without prophetic vision bestowed by ,him who sees the end from the beginning1 can know what is to be1 and no expression can be made1 no words employed which will positively declare a future action4 ,we may see a present condition of things1 and from it argue what is to be1 or take place hereafter2 but all that knowledge is drawn from the past and deduced from a review of the present relation and tendencies of things4 ,i hold the paper near the fire and you say it will burn1 and you say truly1 for it has a will1 or what is the same1 an inherent tendency to burn4 ,it is made of combustible matter1 like paper which we have seen burn1 and hence we argue this has the same tendency to be consumed4 ,but how does your mind arrive at that fact8 ,if you had never seen a substance like it burn1 why should you conclude this will8 ,does the child know it will burn8 ,no2 for it has not yet learned the quality of the paper4 ,it is not till the child has been burned that it dreads the fire4 ,suppose ,i take some asbestus1 of the kind called amianthus1 which is a mineral1 and is formed of slender flexible fibres like flax2 and in eastern countries1 especially in ,savoy and ,corsica1 is manufactured into cloth1 paper1 and lamp wicks4 ,it was used in making winding sheets for the dead1 in which the bodies were burned1 and the ashes1 retained in the incombustible sheet1 were gathered into an urn1 and revered as the manes of the dead4 ,suppose ,i take some of this incombustible paper or cloth1 and present to you4 ,you say it will burn4 ,why do you say thus8 ,because you have seen other materials which appear like this1 consume to ashes4 ,let us put it into the fire4 ,it will not burn4 ,it has no tendency to burn2 no quality which will consume4 ,but this is a new idea to you and hence your mistake4 ,you did not know it would burn1 nor could you indicate such a fact4 ,you only told your opinion derived from the present appearance of things1 and hence you made an assertion in the indicative mood1 present tense1 and added to it an infinitive mood1 in order to deduce the consequence of this future action--it wills1 or has a tendency to burn4 ,but you were mistaken1 because ignorant of the nature of things4 ,this amianthus looks like flax1 and to a person unacquainted with it1 appears to be as truly combustible2 but the mineralogist1 and all who know its properties1 know very well that it will not--wills nothing1 has no inclination1 or tendency1 to burn4 ,take another example4 ,here is a steel needle4 ,i hold it before you4 ,you say1 if ,i let go of it1 it will fall1 and you say correctly1 for it has such a tendency4 ,but suppose a magnet1 as great as that which is said to have drawn the iron coffin of ,mohammed to the roof of the temple at ,mecca1 should be placed in the room above us4 ,the needle1 instead of falling to the floor1 would be drawn in the nearest direction to that magnet4 ,the will or tendency of the needle1 as generally understood1 would be overcome1 the natural law of gravitation would lose its influence1 by the counteracting power of the loadstone4 ,i say1 ,i will go home in an hour4 ,but does that expression indicate the act of going8 ,it is placed in the indicative mood in our grammars2 and go is the principal1 and will the auxiliary verb4 ,may be ,i shall fall and die before ,i reach my home4 ,but the expression is correct2 will is present1 go future4 ,i will1 ,i now resolve1 am now inclined to go home4 ,you see the correctness of our position1 that we can not positively assert a future active in the indicative mood4 ,try and form to yourselves a phrase by which it can be done4 ,should you succeed1 you would violate a law of nature4 ,you would penetrate the dark curtain of the future1 and claim to yourself what you do not possess1 a power to declare future actions4 ,prophets1 by the help of the ,almighty1 had this power conferred upon them4 ,but in the revelation of the sublime truths they were instructed to make known1 they were compelled to adopt human language1 and make it agree with our manner of speech4 ,the only method by which we express a future event1 is to make an assertion in the indicative mood1 present tense1 and to that append the natural consequence in the infinitive or unlimited2 as1 ,i am to go to ,boston4 ,he is preparing to visit ,new-,york4 ,the infinitive mood is always future to the circumstance on which it depends4 ,mr4 ,murray says1 that tense1 being the distinction of time1 might seem to admit of only the present1 past1 and future2 but to mark it more accurately1 it is made to consist of six variations1 viz43 the present1 imperfect1 perfect1 pluperfect1 first and second future tenses4 ,this more accurate mark1 only serves to expose the author's folly1 and distract the learner's mind4 ,before1 all was plain4 ,the past1 present1 and future are distinct1 natural divisions1 easily understood by all4 ,but what idea can a person form of an imperfect tense in action4 ,if there was ever such an action in the world1 it was when grammarians made their grammars1 which is1 if ,i mistake not1 according to their own authority1 in the im-perfect tense6 ,i wrote a letter4 ,he read his piece well4 ,the scholar learned and recited his lesson perfectly2 and yet learned1 tho made perfect by the qualification of an adverb1 is an imperfect action6 ,but this explains the whole mystery in the business of grammar4 ,we can here discover the cause of all the troubles and difficulties we have encountered in the whole affair4 ,when authors made their books1 they did it imperfectly2 when teachers taught them1 it was imperfectly2 and when scholars learned them1 it was imperfectly66 ,so at last1 we have found the origin of this whole difficulty1 in the grammars themselves2 it was all imperfectly done4 ,but here1 again1 mirabile dictu6 wonderful to tell1 we are presented with a plu-perfect tense2 that is1--plus means more1--a more than perfect tense6 ,what must that be8 ,if a thing is perfect1 we can not easily conceive any thing beyond4 ,that is a ne plus ultra to all advancement--there can be no more beyond4 ,if any change is introduced1 it must be by falling from perfect back to imperfect4 ,i have said1 many of the distinctions in the grammar books have proved mischievous2 that they are as false as frivolous2 and this is said perfectly1 in the perfect tense4 ,if ,i should say1 they had been of some benefit1 that would be more than perfect--plu-perfect4 ,but when ,i say1 they exhibited great depth of research1 and conveyed some light on the subject of which they treated1 it would all be im-perfect4 ,next1 we are presented with a second future tense1 which attempts a division of time unbounded and unknown4 ,in the greek1 they have what is called a paulo post future1 which in plain english1 means a little after the future2 that is1 ,i suppose1 when futurity has come to an end1 this tense will commence6 ,at that time we may expect to meet a praeter plus quam perfectum--a more than perfect tense6 ,but till that period shall arrive1 we see little need of making such false and unphilosophic distinctions4 ,a teacher once told me that he explained the distinctions of time to his scholars from the clock dial which stood in the school room4 ,suppose twelve o'clock represents the present tense2 nine would signify the perfect2 any thing between nine and twelve would be imperfect2 any thing beyond1 pluperfect4 ,on the other hand1 any act1 forward of twelve1 would be future2 and at three the second future would commence4 ,i remarked that ,i thought this a wonderful improvement1 especially to those who were able to have clocks by which to teach grammar1 but that ,i could not discover why he did not have three future1 as well as three past tenses4 ,why1 he said1 there were no such tenses marked in the books1 and hence there was no occasion to explain them4 ,i asked him why he did not have a tense for every hour1 and so he could distinguish with ,mr4 ,webster1 twelve tenses1 without any trouble whatever2 and1 by going three times round the dial1 he could easily prove the correctness of ,dr4 ,beattie's division2 for he says1 in his grammar1 there are thirty-six tenses1 and thinks there can not be less without introducing confusion in the grammatical art4 ,but he thought such a course would serve rather to perplex than enlighten2 and so thought ,i4 ,but he was the teacher of a popular school in the city of ----1 and had published a duodecimo grammar of over #cjj pages1 entitled ,murray's ,grammar1 improved1 by ----4 ,i will not give his name2 it would be libellous6 ,mr4 ,murray thinks because certain things which he asserts1 but does not prove1 are found in greek and latin1 we may doubtless apply them to the english verb2 and extend the principle as far as convenience1 and the idiom of our language require4 ,he found it to his convenience to note six principal1 and as many indefinite tenses4 ,mr4 ,webster does the same4 ,dr4 ,beattie found it convenient to have thirty-six4 ,in the greek they have nine4 ,mr4 ,bauzee distinguishes in the french twenty tenses2 and the royal academy of ,spain present a very learned and elaborate treatise on seven future tenses in that language4 ,the clock dial of my friend would be found quite convenient in aiding the convenience of such distinctions4 ,the fact is1 there are only three real divisions of time in any language1 because there are only three in nature1 and the ideas of all nations must agree in this respect4 ,in framing language it was found impossible to mark any other distinctions1 without introducing other words than those which express simple action4 ,these words became compounded in process of time1 till they are now used as changes of the same verb4 ,i would here enter into an examination of the formation of the tenses of greek1 latin1 french1 spanish1 and german verbs1 did ,i conceive it necessary1 and show you how1 by compounding two words1 they form the various tenses found in the grammars4 ,but it will be more edifying to you to confine my remarks to our own language4 ,here it will be found impossible to distinguish more than three tenses1 or find the verb in any different form1 except by the aid of other words1 wholly foreign from those that express the action under consideration4 ,it is by the aid of auxiliary verbs that the perfect1 pluperfect1 or future tenses are formed4 ,but when it is shown you that these are principal verbs1 and like many other words1 are used before the infinitive mood without the word to prefixed to them1 you will perceive the consistency of the plan we propose4 ,that such is the fact we have abundant evidence to show1 and with your consent we will introduce it in this place4 ,i repeat1 all the words long considered auxiliaries1 are principal verbs1 declarative of positive action1 and as such are in extensive use in our language4 ,we can hardly agree that the words will1 shall1 may1 must1 can1 could1 would1 should1 etc4 have no meaning1 as our grammars and dictionaries would teach us2 for you may look in vain for a definition of them1 as principal verbs1 with a few exceptions4 ,the reason these words are not found in the same relation to other words1 with a to after them1 is because they are so often used that we are accustomed to drop that word4 ,the same may be said of all small words in frequent use2 as1 bid1 do1 dare1 feel1 hear1 have1 let1 make1 see1 and sometimes needs1 tell1 and a few others4 ,bid him go4 ,i dare say so4 ,i feel it move4 ,we hear him sing4 ,let us go4 ,make him do it4 ,he must go thro ,samaria4 ,tell him do it immediately4 ,it is a singular fact1 but in keeping with neuter verb systems1 that all the neuter verbs as well as the active1 take these auxiliary or helping verbs1 which1 according to their showing help them do nothing--express neither action or passion4 ,a wonderful help indeed6 99 99 99 99 99 ,will4 ,this verb signifies to wish1 to resolve1 to exercise volition1 in reference to a certain thing or action4 ,i will go4 ,i now resolve to perform the act of going4 ,when applied to inanimate things incapable of volition1 it signifies what is analogous to it1 inherent tendency2 as1 paper will burn2 iron will sink2 water will run4 ,all these things have an inherent or active tendency to change4 ,water is composed of minute particles of a round form1 piled together4 ,while on a level they do not move2 but let a descent be made1 and these particles1 under the influence of gravitation1 will change position1 and roll one over another with a rapidity equalled to the condition in which they are placed4 ,the same may be observed in a quantity of shot opened at one side which will run thro the aperture2 but the particles being larger1 they will not find a level like water4 ,grain1 sand1 and any thing composed of small particles1 will exhibit the same tendency4 ,iron1 lead1 or any mineral1 in a state of igneous solution1 will run1 has the same inclination to run as water1 or any other liquid4 ,in oil1 tallow1 and lard1 when expanded by heat1 the same tendency is observed2 but severely chilled with the cold1 it congeals1 and will not1 has no such tendency1 to run4 ,you have doubtless observed a cask filled with water and nearly tight1 7if it is possible1 make it quite so17 and when an aperture is made in the side1 it will run but a trifle before it will stop4 ,open a vent upon the top of the cask and it will run freely4 ,this will or tendency was counteracted by other means which ,i will not stop here to explain4 ,this is a most important word in science1 physical and moral1 and may be traced thro various languages where it exerts the same influence in the expression of thought4 ,to avoid multiplying of words1 ,i would crave leave here1 under the word action1 to comprehend the forbearance too of any action proposed2 sitting still1 or holding one's peace1 when walking or speaking are proposed1 tho mere forbearances1 requiring as much the determination of the will1 and being as often weighty in their consequences as the contrary actions1 may1 on that consideration1 well enough pass for actions too4 ,for he that shall turn his thoughts inwards upon what passes in his mind when he wills1 shall see that the will or power of volition is conversant about nothing4--,locke's ,essay1 b4 ,,ii4 c4 #ba4 ,sec4 #cj4 ,it is correctly applied by writers to matter as well as mind1 as may be seen by consulting their works4 ,meanwhile as nature wills1 night bids us rest4 ,milton4 ,the lupulis1 or common hop1 feels for some elevated object which will assist it in its high aspirations1 and will climb it by winding from left to right1 and will not be obliged to go in an opposite direction2 while the phaseolus1 or kidney bean1 takes the opposite direction4 ,neither will be compelled to change its course4 ,they will have their own way1 and grow as they please1 or they will die in the contest for liberty4 ,arsenic has a tendency in itself1 a latent power1 which only requires an opportunity suited to its objects1 when it will act in the most efficacious manner4 ,it will destroy the life of the ,emperor1 who has voluntarily slain his thousand and tens of thousands4 ,this secret power does not reside in the flour of wheat1 for that will not1 has no tendency1 to produce such disastrous consequences4 ,this word is applied in a similar manner to individuals and nations4 ,the man will fall1 not of intention1 but of accident4 ,he will kill himself4 ,the man will drown1 and the boat will swim4 ,the water will hold up the boat1 but it will allow the man to sink4 ,the ,russians will conquer the ,turks4 ,if conquest depended solely on the will1 the ,turks would as soon conquer as the ,russians4 ,but ,i have not time to pursue this topic farther4 ,you can follow out these hints at your leisure4 ,shall signifies to be bound1 obligated1 or required1 from external necessity4 ,its etymology may be traced back thro various languages4 ,it is derived direct from the saxon scaelan or scylan1 and is found as a principal verb in that language1 as well as in ours4 ,in the church homily they say1 ,to ,him alone we schall us to devote ourselves2 we bind or obligate ourselves4 ,chaucer1 an early english poet1 says4 ,the faith we shall to ,god4 ,great difficulty has been found in distinguishing between shall and will1 and frequent essays have been written1 to give arbitrary rules for their use4 ,if the words were well understood1 there could be no difficulty in employing them correctly4 ,will signifies inherent tendency1 aptitude1 or disposition1 and volition in beings capable of using it4 ,shall implies external necessity1 or foreign obligation4 ,the parent says1 ,you will suffer misery if you do evil1 for it is in accordance with the nature of things for evil to produce misery4 ,you shall regard my wishes1 for you are under obligation1 from the relation in which you stand to me1 to do so4 ,let these words be clearly explained1 and there will be no difficulty in using them correctly4 ,may1 past tense might4 ,this verb expresses power1 strength1 or ability to perform an action4 ,it is a mistake that it means permission or liberty only4 ,it implies more than that1 the delegation of a power to perform the contemplated action4 ,suppose the scholar should faint1 would the teacher say to him you may go into the open air8 ,he has no power1 might1 or strength1 communicated by such liberty1 and must receive the might or strength of others to carry him out4 ,but to the scholar in health he says you may go out1 thereby giving to him a power and liberty sufficient to perform the action4 ,this is done on the same principle that one man gives another a power of attorney to transact his business2 and that power constitutes his liberty of action4 ,must signifies to be confined1 limited1 bound1 or restrained4 ,i must1 or am bound1 to obey2 certain obligations require me to obey4 ,the adjective of this word is in common use4 ,the air in the cask is musty4 ,it has long been bound or confined there1 and prevented from partaking of the purifying qualities of the atmosphere1 and hence has become musty4 ,can4 ,this word is found as a principal verb and as a noun in our language1 especially in the ,scotch dialect4 ,i ken nae where he'd gone4 ,beyond the ken of mortals4 ,far from all human ken4 ,it signifies to know1 to perceive1 to understand4 ,i knew not where he had gone4 ,beyond the knowledge of mortals4 ,far from all human reach4 ,to con or cun is a different spelling of the same word4 ,cunning is that quick perception of things1 which enables a person to use his knowledge adroitly4 ,the child can read2 knows how to read4 ,it can walk4 ,here it seems to imply power2 but power1 in this case1 as in most others1 is gained only by knowledge1 for knowledge is power4 ,many children have strength sufficient to walk1 long before they do4 ,the reason why they can not walk1 is1 they do not know how2 they have not learned to balance themselves in an erect position1 so as to move forward without falling4 ,a vast proportion of human ability is derived from knowledge4 ,there is not a being in creation so entirely incapable of self-support1 as the new-born infant2 and yet1 by the help of knowledge1 he becomes the lord of this lower world4 ,bonaparte was once as helpless as any other child1 and yet by dint of can1 ken1 cunning1 or knowledge1 he made all ,europe tremble4 ,but his knowledge was limited4 ,he became blind to danger1 bewildered by success1 and he could no longer follow the prudent course of wisdom1 but fell a sacrifice to his own unbridled ambition1 and blinded folly4 ,an enlightened people can govern themselves2 but power of government is gained by a knowledge of the principles of equality1 and mutual help and dependency2 and whenever the people become ignorant of that fact1 they will fall1 the degraded victims of their own folly1 and the wily influence of some more knowing aspirant for power4 ,this is a most important topic2 but ,i dare not pursue it farther1 lest ,i weary your patience4 ,a few examples must suffice4 ,jason1 she cried1 for aught ,i see or can1 ,this deed1 c4 ,chaucer4 ,a famous man1 ,of every witte somewhat he can1 ,out take that him lacketh rule1 ,his own estate to guide and rule4 ,gower4 ,do has been called a helping verb2 but it needs little observation to discover that it is no more so than a hundred other words4 ,do thy diligence to come before winter4 ,do the work of an evangelist4--,paul to ,timothy4 ,i do all in my power to expose the error and wickedness of false teaching4 ,do afford relief4 ,do something to afford relief4 ,have has also been reckoned as an auxiliary by the helping verb grammars1 which has no other duty to perform than help conjugate other verbs thro some of their moods and tenses4 ,it is a word in very common use1 and of course must possess a very important character1 which should be carefully examined and distinctly known by all who desire a knowledge of the construction of our language4 ,the principal difficulty in the explanation of this word1 is the peculiar meaning which some have attached to it4 ,it has been defined to denote possession merely4 ,but when we say1 a man has much property destroyed by fire1 we do not mean that he gains or possesses much property by the fire2 nor can we make has auxiliary to destroyed1 for in that case it would stand thus3 a man has destroyed much property by fire1 which would be false1 for the destruction was produced by an incendiary1 or some other means wholly unknown to him4 ,you at once perceive that to possess is not the only meaning which attaches to have4 ,it assumes a more important rank4 ,it can be traced1 with little change in form1 back thro many generations4 ,it is the same word as heave1 originally1 and retains nearly the same meaning4 ,saxon habban1 ,gothic haban1 ,german haben1 ,latin habeo1 ,french avoir1 are all the same word1 varied in spelling more than in sound2 for b in many languages is sounded very much like v1 or bv4 ,it may mean to hold1 possess1 retain1 sway1 control1 dispose of1 either as a direct or relative action2 for a man sustains relations to his actors1 duties1 family1 friends1 enemies1 and all the world1 as well as to his possessions4 ,he has a hard task to perform4 ,he has much pain to suffer4 ,he has suffered much unhappiness4 ,i have written a letter4 ,i have a written letter4 ,i have a letter written4 ,these expressions differ very little in meaning1 but the verb have is the same in each case4 ,by the first expression1 ,i signify that ,i have caused the letter to be written2 by the second that ,i have a letter on which such action has been performed2 and by the third1 that such written letter stands in such relation to myself4 ,i have written a letter and sent it away4 ,written is the past participle from write2 as an adjective it describes the letter in the condition ,i placed it2 so that it will be defined1 wherever it is found1 as my letter2 that is1 some way related to me4 ,we can here account for the old perfect tense1 which is said1 not only to refer to what is past1 but also to convey an allusion to the present time4 ,the verb is in the present tense1 the participle is in the past1 and hence the reason of this allusion4 ,i have no space allowed me to go into a full investigation of this word1 in its application to the expression of ideas4 ,but it is necessary to have it well understood1 as it has an important service entrusted to it2 and ,i hope you will have clear views presented to your minds1 strong enough to have former errors eradicated therefrom4 ,if you have leisure granted1 and patience and disposition equal-ed to the task1 you have my consent to go back and read this sentence over again4 ,you will find it has in it embodied much important information in relation to the use of have and the perfect tense4 ,,lecture ,,xiii4 ,,on ,,verbs4 ,person and number in the agent1 not in the action4--,similarity of agents1 actions1 and objects4--,verbs made from nouns4--,irregular verbs4--,some examples4--,regular ,verbs4--,ed4--,ing4--,conjugation of verbs4--,to love4--,to have4--,to be4--,the indicative mood varied4--,a whole sentence may be agent or object4--,imperative mood4--,infinitive mood4--,is always future4 ,i have said before that action can never be known separate from the actor2 that the verb applies to the agent in an acting condition1 as that term has been defined and should be understood4 ,hence ,person and ,number can never attach to the verb1 but to the agent with which1 of course1 the action must1 in every respect1 agree2 as1 ,i write4 ,in this case the action corresponds with myself4 ,but to say that write is in the first person1 singular number1 would be wrong1 for no such number or person belongs to the verb1 but is confined to myself as the agent of the action4 ,the form of the verb is changed when it agrees with the second or third person singular2 more on account of habit1 ,i apprehend1 than from any reason1 or propriety as to a change of meaning in the word4 ,we say1 when using the regular second person singular1 thou writest1 a form rarely observed except in addresses to ,deity1 or on solemn occasions4 ,in the third person1 an s is added to the regular form2 as1 he writes4 ,the old form1 which was in general use at the time the common version of the ,bible was published1 was still different1 ending in eth2 as1 he thinketh1 he writeth4 ,this style1 altho considerably used in the last century1 is nearly obsolete4 ,when the verb agrees with the plural number it is usually the same as when it agrees with the first person2 as1 ,we write1 you write1 they write4 ,there are few exceptions to these rules4 ,some people have been very tenacious about retaining the old forms of words1 and our books were long printed without alteration2 but change will break thro every barrier1 and book-makers must keep pace with the times1 and put on the dress that is catered for them by the public taste2 bearing in mind1 meanwhile1 that great and practical truths are more essential than the garb in which they appear4 ,we should be more careful of our health of body and purity of morals than of the costume we put on4 ,many genteel coats wrap up corrupt hearts1 and fine hats cover silly heads4 ,what is the chaff to the wheat8 ,even our good friends1 the quakers1 who have particularly labored to retain old forms--the plain language1--have failed in their attempt1 and have substituted the object form of the pronoun for the agent1 and say1 thee thinks1 for thou thinkest4 ,their mistake is even greater than the substitution of you for thou4 ,so far as language depends on the conventional regulation of those who use it1 it will be constantly changing2 new words will be introduced1 and the spelling of old ones altered1 so as to agree with modern pronounciation4 ,we have all lived long enough to witness the truth of this remark4 ,the only rule we can give in relation to this matter is1 to follow our own judgments1 aided by our best writers and speakers4 ,the words which express action1 are in many cases very similar to the agents which produce them2 and the objects which are the direct results produced by such action1 do not differ very materially4 ,i will give you a few examples4 ,agent4 ,verb4 ,object4 ,actors ,act ,actions ,breathers ,breathe ,breath ,builders ,build ,buildings ,coiners ,coin ,coins ,casters ,cast ,casts or castings ,drinkers ,drink ,drink ,dreamers ,dream ,dreams ,earners ,earn ,earnings ,fishers ,fish ,fishes ,gainers ,gain ,gain ,hewers ,hew ,hewings ,innkeepers ,keep ,inns ,light or lighters ,light or shed ,lights ,miners ,mine or dig ,mines ,pleaders ,plead or make ,pleas ,producers ,produce ,products ,raisers ,raise ,raisings or houses ,runners or racers ,run ,runs or races ,sufferers ,suffer ,sufferings ,speakers ,speak ,speeches ,thinkers ,think ,thoughts ,writers ,write ,writings ,workers ,work ,works ,i give you these examples to show you the near alliance between actors1 7 17 and actions2 or agents1 actions1 and objects4 ,such expressions as the above are inelegant1 because they are uncommon2 but for no other reason1 for we1 in numberless cases1 employ the same word for agent and verb2 as1 painters paint buildings1 and artists paint paintings2 bookbinders bind books2 printers print books1 and other prints4 ,a little observation will enable you to carry out these hints1 and profit by them4 ,you have observed the disposition in children1 and foreigners1 who are partially acquainted with our language1 to make verbs out of almost every noun1 which appears to us very aukward2 but was it common1 it would be just as correct as the verbs now used4 ,there are very few verbs which have not a noun to correspond with them1 for we make verbs1 that is1 we use words to express action1 which are nearly allied to the agent with which such action agrees4#ag ,from botany we have made botanize2 from ,mr4 ,mc,adam1 the inventor of a particular kind of road1 macadamize1 which means to make roads as he made them4 ,words are formed in this way very frequently4 ,the word church is often used as a noun to express a building used for public worship2 for the services performed in it2 for the whole congregation2 for a portion of believers associated together2 for the ,episcopal order1 etc4 ,it is also used as a verb4 ,mr4 ,webster defines it1 ,to perform with any one the office of returning thanks in the church after any signal deliverance4 ,but the word has taken quite a different turn of late4 ,to church a person1 instead of receiving him into communion1 as that term would seem to imply1 signifies to deal with an offending member1 to excommunicate1 or turn him out4 ,but ,i will not pursue this point any farther4 ,the brief hints ,i have thrown out1 will enable you to discover how the meaning and forms of words are changed from their original application to suit the notions and improvements of after ages4 ,a field is here presented which needs cultivation4 ,the young should be taught to search for the etymology of words1 to trace their changes and meaning as used at different times and by different people1 keeping their minds constantly directed to the object signified by such verbal sign4 ,this is the business of philosophy1 under whatever name it may be taught2 for grammar1 rhetoric1 logic1 and the science of the mind1 are intimately blended1 and should always be taught in connexion4 ,we have already seen that words without meaning are like shadows without realities4 ,and persons can not employ language correctly1 or with propriety1 till they have acquainted themselves with the import of such language--the ideas of things signified by it4 ,let this course be adopted in the education of children1 and they will not be required to spend months and years in the study of an art which they can not comprehend1 for the simple reason that they can not apply it in practice4 ,grammar has been taught as a mere art1 depending on arbitrary rules to be mechanically learned1 rather than a science involving the soundest and plainest principles of philosophy1 which are to be known only as developed in common practice among men1 and in accordance with the permanent laws which govern human thought4 ,verbs differ in the manner of forming their past tenses1 and participles1 or adjectives4 ,those ending in ed are called regular2 those which take any other termination are irregular4 ,there are about two hundred of the latter in our language1 which differ in various ways4 ,some of them have the past tense and the past participle the same2 as1 ,bid ,bid ,bid ,knit ,knit ,knit ,shut ,shut ,shut ,let ,let ,let ,spread ,spread ,spread1 etc4 ,others have the past tense and participle alike1 but different from the present2 as1 ,lend ,lent ,lent ,send ,sent ,sent ,bend ,bent ,bent ,wend ,went ,went ,build ,built or builded ,built ,think ,thought ,thought1 etc4 ,some have the present and past tense and participle different2 as1 ,blow ,blew ,blown ,grow ,grew ,grown ,begin ,began ,begun ,see ,saw ,seen ,write ,wrote ,written ,give ,gave ,given ,speak ,spoke ,spoken ,rise ,rose ,risen ,fall ,fell ,fallen1 etc4 ,there are a few which are made up of different radicals1 which have been wedded together by habit1 to avoid the frequent and unpleasant recurrence of the same word2 as1 ,am ,was ,been ,go 7wend7 ,went ,gone1 etc4 ,some which were formerly irregular1 are now generally used with the regular termination1 in either the past tense or participle1 or both2 as1 ,hang ,hung or hanged ,hung or hanged ,dare ,dared or durst ,dared ,clothe ,clad or clothed ,clad or clothed ,work ,worked or wrought ,worked ,shine ,shined or shone ,shone or shined ,spill ,spilled or spilt ,spilt or spilled1 etc4 ,the syllable ed is a contraction of the past tense of do2 as1 ,i loved1 love did1 did love1 or love-ed4 ,he learned1 learn did1 did learn1 or learned4 ,it signifies action1 did1 done1 or accomplished4 ,you have all lived long enough to have noticed the change in the pronounciation of this syllable4 ,old people sound it full and distinct2 and so do most others in reading the scriptures2 but not so generally as in former times4 ,in poetry it was usually abbreviated so as to avoid the full sound2 and hence we may account for the irregular termination of many words1 such as heard1 for heared2 past1 for passed2 learnt1 for learned2 built1 for builded4 ,in modern poetry1 however1 the e is retained1 tho sounded no more than formerly4 ,ing is derived from the verb to be1 and signifies being1 existing2 and1 attached to a verb1 is used as a noun1 or adjective1 retaining so much of its former character as to have an object after it which is affected by it2 as1 ,i am writing a lecture4 ,here writing1 the present participle of write1 describes myself in my present employment1 and yet retains its action as a verb1 and terminates on lecture as the thing written4 ,the man was taken in the act of stealing some money4 ,in this case stealing names the action which the man was performing when detected1 which action thus named1 has money for the object on which it terminates4 ,i barely allude to this subject in this place to give you an idea of the method we adopt to explain the meaning and use of participles4 ,it deserves more attention1 perhaps1 to make it plain to your minds2 but as it is not an essential feature in the new system1 ,i shall leave it for consideration in a future work4 ,whoever is acquainted with the formation of the present participle in other languages1 can carry out the suggestions ,i have made1 and fully comprehend my meaning4 ,i will present you with an example of the conjugations of a few verbs which you are requested to compare with the might could would should have been loved systems1 which you were required to learn in former times4 ,you will find the verb in every form or position in which it ever occurs in our language1 written or spoken4 ,conjugation of the regular verb to love4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,singular ,plural ,i love ,we love ,present tense ,thou lovest ,you love ,he1 she1 or it loves ,they love ,i loved ,we loved ,past tense ,thou lovedst ,you loved ,he1 she1 or it loved ,they loved ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,love4 ,,infinitive ,,mood4 ,to love4 ,,participles4 ,present1 ,loving ,past1 ,loved ,the irregular verb to have1 is thus conjugated4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,i have ,we have ,present tense ,thou hast ,you have ,he has ,they have ,i had ,we had ,past tense ,thou hadst ,you had ,he had ,they had ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,have4 ,,infinitive ,,mood4 ,to have4 ,,participles4 ,present1 ,having ,past1 ,had ,the irregular verb to be1 stands thus3 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,i am ,we are ,present tense ,thou art ,you are ,he is ,they are ,i was ,we were ,past tense ,thou wast ,you were ,he was ,they were ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,be4 ,,infinitive ,,mood4 ,to be4 ,,participles4 ,present1 ,being ,past1 ,been ,these examples will suffice to give you an idea of the ease and simplicity of the construction of verbs1 and by a comparison with old systems1 you can1 for yourselves1 determine the superiority of the principles we advocate4 ,the above tabular views present every form which the verb assumes1 and every position in which it is found4 ,in use1 these words are frequently compounded together2#ah but with a knowledge of the above principles1 and the meaning of the words--a most essential consideration--you will always be able to analyze any sentence1 and parse it correctly4 ,i have not time to enlarge on this point1 to show how words are connected together4 ,nor do ,i think it necessary to enable you to understand my views4 ,to children such a work would be indispensable1 and shall be attended to if we are able to publish a grammar containing the simple principles of language4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the indicative mood is varied four ways4 #ast1 affirmatively1 he writes2 #b;d1 negatively1 he writes not2 #c;d1 interrogatively1 does he write8 or writes he8 #dth1 suppositively1 if he writes1 suppose he writes1 allow he writes4 ,the first is a simple affirmation of a fact1 and is easily understood4 ,the second is formed by annexing a term to express negation4 ,not is a contraction from nought or naught1 which is a compound of ne1 negative1 and ought or aught1 ne-aught1 meaning no-thing4 ,he writes not2 he writes nothing4 ,he does not write2 he does nothing to write4 ,neither is a compound of ne and either1 not either4 ,he can not read2 he can1 kens1 knows nothing1 has no ability to read4 ,the third is constructed into a question by placing the verb before the agent1 or by prefixing another word before the agent1 and then placing the former verb as an infinitive after it2 as1 ,does he write8 or writes he8 ,when another verb is prefixed1 one is always chosen which will best decide the query4 ,does he any thing to write8 ,does he make any motions or show any indications to write8 ,when the will or disposition of a person is concerned1 we choose a word accordingly4 ,will he write8 ,has he the will or disposition to write8 ,can he write8 ,is he able--knows he how to write8 ,a little observation will enable you to understand my meaning4 ,in the fourth place1 a supposition is made in the imperative mood1 in accordance with which the action is performed4 ,if ye love me1 keep my commandments4 ,give1 grant1 allow1 suppose this fact--you love me1 keep my commandments4 ,i will go if ,i can4 ,i resolve1 will1 or determine to go2 if1 gif1 give1 grant1 allow this fact1 ,i can1 ken1 know how1 or am able to go4 ,but more on this point when we come to the consideration of contractions4 ,in this mood the verb must have an agent and object1 expressed or implied2 as1 farmers cultivate the soil4 ,but a whole sentence1 that is1 an idea written out1 may perform this duty2 as1 ,the study of grammar1 on false principles1 is productive of no good4 ,what is productive of no good8 ,what is the agent of is8 ,the study1 our books and teachers tell us4 ,but does such a construction give the true meaning of the sentence8 ,i think not1 for study is indispensable to knowledge and usefulness1 and the study of grammar1 properly directed1 is a most useful branch of literature1 which should never be dispensed with4 ,it is the study of grammar on false principles1 which is productive of no good4 ,you discover my meaning1 and will not question its correctness4 ,you must also see how erroneous it would be to teach children that to study is productive of no good4 ,the force of the sentence rests on the false principles taught4 ,hence the whole statement is truly the agent of the verb4 ,the object on which the action terminates is frequently expressed in a similar manner2 as1 ,he wrote to me1 that he will adopt the new system of grammar1 if he can procure some books to give his scholars to learn4 ,will you parse wrote8 ,most grammarians will call it an intransitive verb1 and make out that he wrote nothing to me1 because there is no regular objective word after it4 ,will you parse that8 ,it is a conjunction copulative4 ,what does it connect8 ,he wrote to the following sentence1 according to ,rule #ah of ,mr4 ,murray2 conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs and cases of nouns and pronouns4 ,unluckily you have two different tenses connected in this case4 ,will you parse if8 ,it is a copulative conjunction1 connecting the two members of the sentence--he will adopt if he can procure3 ,rule1 as above4 ,how exceeding unfortunate6 ,you have two different moods1 and too different tenses1 connected by a copulative conjunction which the rule says connects the same moods and tenses6 ,what nonsense6 ,what a falsehood6 ,what a fine thing to be a grammarian6 ,and yet1 ,i venture the opinion1 and ,i judge from what ,i have seen in myself and others1 there is not one teacher in a hundred who will not learn children to parse as above1 and apply the same rule to it4 ,i will go if ,i can4 ,i do and will contend4 ,as it was in the beginning1 is now1 and ever shall be4 ,i am here and must remain4 ,he will do your business if he has time4 ,i am resolved to expose the errors of grammar1 and will do it thoroly if ,i can4 ,in these examples you have different moods and tenses1 indiscriminately1 yet correctly coupled together1 despite the rules of syntax which teach us to explain language with propriety4 ,that1 in the sentence before us1 is an adjective1 referring to the following sentence1 which is the object of wrote1 or is the thing written4 ,he wrote to me that fact1 sentiment1 opinion1 determination1 or resolution1 that writing1 letter1 or word--he will adopt the new system of grammar1 if he can procure some books4 ,this subject properly belongs to that department of language called syntax2 but as ,i shall not be able to treat of that in this course of lectures1 ,i throw in here these brief remarks to give you some general ideas of the arrangement of words into sentences1 according to their true meaning1 as obtained from a knowledge of their etymology4 ,you cannot fail to observe this method of constructing language if you will pay a little attention to it when reading2 keeping all the time in view the fact that words are only the signs of ideas1 derived from an observation of things4 ,you all know that it is not merely the steam that propels the boat1 but that it is steam applied to machinery4 ,steam is the more latent cause2 and the engine with its complicated parts is the direct means4 ,in the absence of either1 the boat would not be propelled4 ,in the formation of language1 ,i may say correctly1 ,solomon built the temple2 for he stood in that relation to the matter which supposes it would not have been built without his direction and command4 ,to accomplish such an action1 however1 he need not raise a hammer or a gavel1 or draw a line on the trestle board4 ,his command made known to his ministers was sufficient to cause the work to be done4 ,hence the whole fact is indicated or declared by the single expression1 ,solomon built the temple4 ,the ,imperative mood is unchanged in form4 ,i can say to one man1 go1 or to a thousand1 go4 ,the commander when drilling one soldier1 says1 march2 and he bids the whole battalion1 march4 ,the agent who is to perform the action is understood when not expressed2 as1 go1 go thou1 or go you4 ,the agent is generally omitted1 because the address is given direct to the person who is expected to obey the instruction1 request1 or command4 ,this verb always agrees with an agent in the second person4 ,and yet our grammars made easy have given us three persons in this mood--,let me love2 love1 love thou1 or do thou love2 let him love4 ,in the name of common sense1 ,i ask1 what can children learn by such instruction8 ,let me love1 in the conjugation of the verb to love6 ,to whom is this command given8 ,to myself of course6 ,i command myself to let me love6 ,what nonsense6 ,let him love4 ,i stand here1 you set there1 and the third person is in ,philadelphia4 ,i utter these words1 ,let him love4 ,what is my meaning8 ,why1 our books tell us1 that the verb to love is third person4 ,then ,i command him to let himself love6 ,what jargon and falsehood6 ,you all know that we can address the second person only4 ,you would call me insane if ,i should employ language according to the rules of grammar as laid down in the standard books4 ,in my room alone1 no person near me1 ,i cry out1 let me be quiet--imperative mood1 first person of to be6 ,do ,i command myself to let myself be quiet8 ,most certainly1 if be is the principal verb in the first person1 and let the auxiliary4 ,the teacher observes one of his pupils take a pencil from a classmate who sets near him4 ,he says1 let him have it4 ,to whom is the command given8 ,it is the imperative mood1 third person of the verb to have4 ,does he command the third person1 the boy who has not the pencil8 ,such is the resolution of the sentence1 according to the authority of standard grammars4 ,but where is there a child five years old who does not know better4 ,every body knows that he addresses the second person1 the boy who has the pencil1 to let the other have it4 ,teachers have learned their scholars the first and third persons of this mood when committing the conjugation of verbs2 but not one in ten thousand ever adopted them in parsing4 ,let me love4 ,let1 all parse1 ,mr4 ,murray not excepted1 in the second person1 and love in the infinitive mood after it1 without the sign to2 according to the rule1 that verbs which follow bid1 dare1 feel1 hear1 let1 needs1 speak1 etc4 are in the infinitive mood4 ,it is strange people will not eat their own cooking4 ,there can be no trouble in understanding this mood1 as we have explained it1 always in the future tense1 that is1 future to the command or request1 agreeing with the second person1 and never varied on account of number4 ,the only variation in the infinitive mood is the omission of to in certain cases1 which is considered as a part of the verb2 tho in truth it is no more so than when used in the character of an old fashioned preposition4 ,in certain cases1 as we have before observed1 it is not expressed4 ,this is when the infinitive verb follows small words in frequent use2 as1 shall1 will1 let1 can1 must1 may1 bid1 do1 have1 make1 feel1 hear1 etc4 ,this mood is always in the future tense2 that is1 it is future to the circumstances or condition of things upon which it depends2 as1 they are making preparations to raise the building4 ,here to raise is future to the preparations1 for if they make no preparations1 the buildings will not be raised4 ,the boy studies his book to learn his lesson4 ,if he does not study1 he will not be likely to learn his lesson4 ,the allied powers of ,europe combined their forces to defeat ,napoleon4 ,in this instance the whole expression is in the past tense2 nevertheless1 the action expressed in the infinitive mood1 was future to the circumstance on which it depended2 that is1 the defeat was future to the combination of the forces4 ,abraham raised the knife to slay his son4 ,not that he did slay him1 as that sentence must be explained on the common systems1 which teach us that to slay is in the present tense2 but he raised the fatal knife for that purpose1 the fulfilment of which was future2 but the angel staid his hand1 and averted the blow4 ,the patriots of ,poland made a noble attempt to gain their liberty4 ,but they did not gain it1 as our grammars would teach us4 ,to gain was future to the attempt1 and failed because the circumstances indicated by the event1 were insufficient to produce so favorable a result4 ,no person of common discernment can fail to observe the absolute falsehood of existing systems in respect to this mood4 ,it is used by our authors of grammar in the present and past tenses1 but never in the future4 ,let us give a moment to the consideration of this matter4 ,take the following example4 ,he will prepare himself next week to go to ,europe4 ,let the school master parse will prepare4 ,it is a verb1 indicative mood1 first future tense4 ,next week is the point in futurity when the preparation will be made4 ,now parse to go4 ,it is a verb1 infinitive mood1 present tense6 ,then he is already on his way to ,europe1 when he is not to prepare himself till next week6 ,an army is collected to fight the enemy4 ,is the fight already commenced8 ,to fight is present tense1 say the books4 ,we shall study grammar next year1 to obtain a knowledge of the principles and use of language4 ,is to obtain present tense8 ,if so there is little need of spending time and money to study for a knowledge we already possess4 ,hope springs eternal in the human breast2 ,man never is1 but always to be blest4 ,pope4 ,who was1 and who is1 and who is to come4--,bible4 ,it is not that a man thinks himself already in possession of a sufficiency1 but hopes to be qualified1 etc4 ,i am to go in an hour4 ,he is to go to-morrow4 ,i am ready to hear you recite your lesson4 ,he has been waiting a long time to see if some new principles will not be introduced4 ,he is prepared to appear before you whenever you shall direct4 ,we are resolved to employ neuter verbs1 potential and subjunctive moods1 im-perfect1 plu-perfect1 and second future tenses1 no longer4 ,false grammars are only fit-ted to be laid aside4 ,we are in duty bound to regard and adopt truth1 and reject error2 and we are determined to do it in grammar1 and every thing else4 ,we are not surprised that people cannot comprehend grammar1 as usually taught1 for it is exceedingly difficult to make error appear like truth1 or false teaching like sound sentiment4 ,but ,i will not stop to moralize4 ,the hints ,i have given must suffice4 ,much more might be said upon the character and use of verbs2 but as these lectures are not designed for a system of grammar to be taught1 but to expose the errors of existing systems1 and prepare the way for a more rational and consistent exposition of language1 ,i shall leave this department of our subject1 presuming you will be able to comprehend our views1 and appreciate their importance4 ,we have been somewhat critical in a part of our remarks1 and more brief than we should have been1 had we not found that we were claiming too much of the time of the ,institute1 which is designed as a means of improvement on general subjects4 ,enough has been said1 ,i am sure1 to convince you1 if you were not convinced before1 why the study of grammar is so intricate and tedious1 that it is to be accounted for from the fact that the theories by which it is taught are false in principle1 and can not be adopted in practice2 and that something ought to be done to make the study of language easy1 interesting1 and practical4 ,such a work is here attempted2 but it remains with the public to say whether these plain philosophical principles shall be sustained1 matured1 perfected1 and adopted in schools1 or the old roundabout course of useless and ineffectual teaching be still preserved4 ,,lecture ,,xiv4 ,,on ,,contractions4 ,a temporary expedient4--,words not understood4--,all words must have a meaning4--,their formation4--,changes of meaning and form4--,should be observed4--,adverbs4--,ending in ly4--,examples4--,ago4--,astray4 --,awake4--,asleep4--,then1 when4--,there1 where1 here4--,while1 till4--,whether1 together4--,ever1 never1 whenever1 etc4--,oft4--,hence4 --,perhaps4--,not4--,or4--,nor4--,than4- -,as4--,so4--,distinctions false4--,rule #ah4--;,if4--,but4--,tho4--,yet4 ,we have concluded our remarks on the necessary divisions of words4 ,things named1 defined and described1 and their actions1 relations1 and tendencies1 have been considered under the classes of ,nouns1 ,adjectives1 and ,verbs4 ,to these classes all words belong when properly explained2 a fact we desire you to bear constantly in mind in all your attempts to understand and employ language4 ,but there are many words in our language as well as most others1 which are so altered and disguised that their meaning is not easily comprehended4 ,of course they are difficult of explanation4 ,these words we have classed under the head of ,contractions1 a term better calculated than any other we have seen adopted to express their character4 ,we do not however lay any stress on the appropriateness of this appellation1 but adopt it as a temporary expedient1 till these words shall be better understood4 ,they will then be ranked in their proper places among the classes already noticed4 ,under this head may be considered the words usually known as adverbs1 conjunctions1 prepositions1 and interjections4 ,that the etymology and meaning of these words have not been generally understood will be conceded1 ,i presume1 on all hands4 ,in our opinion1 that is the only reason why they have been considered under these different heads1 for in numberless cases there is nothing in their import to correspond with such distinctions4 ,why an adverb expresses some quality or circumstance respecting a verb1 adjective1 or other adverb2 why a conjunction is chiefly used to connect sentences1 so as out of two to make only one sentence2 or why prepositions serve to connect words with one another1 and show the relation between them1 has never been explained4 ,they have been passed over with little difficulty by teachers1 having been furnished with lists of words in each part of speech1 which they require their pupils to commit to memory1 and for ever after hold their peace concerning them4 ,but that these words have been defined or explained in a way to be understood will not be pretended4 ,in justification of such ignorance1 it is contended that such explanation is not essential to their proper and elegant use4 ,if such is the fact1 we may easily account for the incorrect use of language1 and exonerate children from the labor of studying etymology4 ,but these words have meaning1 and sustain a most important rank in the expression of ideas4 ,they are1 generally1 abbreviated1 compounded1 and so disguised that their origin and formation are not generally known4 ,horne ,tooke calls them the wheels of language1 the wings of ,mercury4 ,he says tho we might be dragged along without them1 it would be with much difficulty1 very heavily and tediously4 ,but when he undertakes to show that they were constructed for this object1 he mistakes their true character2 for they were not invented for that purpose1 but were originally employed as nouns or verbs1 from which they have been corrupted by use4 ,and he seems to admit this fact when he says1#ai abbreviation and corruption are always busiest with the words which are most frequently in use4 ,letters1 like soldiers1 being very apt to desert and drop off in a long march1 and especially if their passage happens to lie near the confines of an enemy's country4 ,in the original construction of language a set of literary men did not get together and manufacture a lot of words1 finished thro out and exactly adapted to the expression of thought4 ,had that been the case1 language would doubtless have appeared in a much more regular1 stiff1 and formal dress1 and been deprived of many of its beautiful and lofty figures1 its richest and boldest expressions4 ,necessity is the mother of invention4 ,it was not until people had ideas to communicate1 that they sought a medium for the transmission of thought from one to another2 and then such sounds and signs were adopted as would best answer their purpose4 ,but language was not then framed like a cotton mill1 every part completed before it was set in operation4 ,single expressions1 sign-ificant of things1 or ideas of things and actions1 were first employed1 in the most simple1 plain1 and easy manner4#bj ,as the human mind advanced in knowledge1 by observing the character1 relations1 and differences of things1 words were changed1 altered1 compounded1 and contracted1 so as to keep pace with such advancement2 just as many simple parts of a machine1 operating on perfect and distinct principles1 may be combined together and form a most complicated1 curious1 and powerful engine1 of astonishing power1 and great utility4 ,in the adaptation of steam to locomotives1 the principles on which stationary engines operated were somewhat modified4 ,some wheels1 shafts1 bands1 screws1 etc41 were omitted1 others of a different kind were added1 till the whole appeared in a new character1 and the engine1 before fixed to a spot1 was seen traversing the road with immense rapidity4 ,the principles of the former engine1 so far from being unessential1 were indispensable to the construction of the new one1 and should be clearly understood by him who would build or use the latter4 ,so1 in the formation of language1 simple first principles must be observed and traced thro all their ramifications1 by those who would obtain a clear and thoro knowledge of it1 or read and write it with propriety4 ,in mathematics1 the four simple rules1 addition1 subtraction1 multiplication1 and division1 form the basis on which that interesting science depends4 ,the modifications of these rules1 according to their various capabilities1 will give a complete knowledge of all that can be known of numbers1 relations1 and proportions1 an acme to which all may aspire1 tho none have yet attained it4 ,the principles of language are equally simple1 and1 if correctly explained1 may be as well understood4 ,but the difficulty under which we labor in this department of science1 is the paucity of means to trace back to their original form and meaning many words and phrases in common use among us4 ,language has been employed as the vehicle of thought1 for six thousand years1 and in that long space has undergone many and strange modifications4 ,at the dispersion from ,babel1 and the confusion of tongues occasioned thereby1 people were thrown upon their own resources1 and left to pick up by piecemeal such shreds as should afterwards be wove into a system1 and adopted by their respective nations4 ,wars1 pestilence1 and famine1 as well as commerce1 enterprize1 literature1 and religion1 brought the different nations into intercourse with each other2 and changes were thus produced in the languages of such people4 ,whoever will take the trouble to compare the idioms of speech adopted by those nations whose affairs1 civil1 political1 and religious1 are most intimately allied1 will be convinced of the correctness of the sentiment now advanced4 ,in the lapse of ages1 words would not only change their form1 but in a measure their meaning1 so as to correspond with the ideas of those who use them4 ,some would become obsolete1 and others be adopted in their stead4 ,many words are found in the ,bible which are not in common use2 and the manner of spelling1 as well as some entire words1 have been changed in that book1 since it was translated and first published in #afaj4 ,with these examples you are familiar1 and ,i shall be spared the necessity of quoting them4 ,i have already made some extracts from old writers1 and may have occasion to do so again before ,i close this lecture4 ,the words which we class under the head of ,contractions1 are so altered and disguised in their appearance1 that their etymology and connexion are not generally understood4 ,it may appear like pedantry in me to attempt an investigation into their origin and meaning4 ,but to avoid that charge1 ,i will frankly acknowledge the truth1 and own my inability to do justice to this subject1 by offering a full explanation of all the words which belong to this class4 ,i will be candid1 if ,i am not successful4 ,but ,i think most of the words long considered difficult1 may be easily explained2 enough to convince you of the feasibility of the ground we have assumed1 and furnish a sample by which to pursue the subject in all our future inquiries into the etymology of words4 ,but even if ,i fail in this matter1 ,i shall have one comfort left1 that ,i am not alone in the transgression2 for no philologist1 with few exceptions1 has done any thing like justice to this subject4 ,our common grammars have not even attempted an inquiry into the meaning of these words1 but have treated them as tho they had none4 ,classes1 like pens or reservoirs1 are made for them1 into which they are thrown1 and allowed to rest1 only to be named1 without being disturbed4 ,sometimes1 however1 they are found in one enclosure1 sometimes in another1 more by mistake1 ,i apprehend1 than by intention2 for prepositions under certain circumstances are parsed as adverbs1 and adverbs as adjectives1 and conjunctions as either adverbs or prepositions2 and not unfrequently the whole go off together1 like the tail of the dragon1 drawing other respectable words along with them1 under the sweeping cognomen of adverbial phrases1 or conjunctive expressions2 as1 ,can you write your lesson8 ,not yet quite well enough4 ,but and if that evil servant1#ba etc4 ,mr4 ,murray says1 the same word is occasionally used both as a conjunction and as an adverb1 and sometimes as a preposition4 ,let these words be correctly defined1 their meaning be ferreted out from the rubbish in which they have been enclosed2 or have their dismembered parts restored to them1 they will then appear in their true character1 and their connexion with other words will be found regular and easy4 ,until such work is accomplished1 they may as well be called contractions1 for such they mostly are1 as adverbs or any thing else2 for that appellation we regard as more appropriate than any other4 ,in the attempts we are about to make1 we shall endeavor to be guided by sound philosophic principles and the light of patient investigation2 and whatever advances we may make shall be in strict accordance with the true and practical use of these words4 ,let us begin with ,adverbs4 ,i have not time to go into a thoro investigation of the mistakes into which grammarians have fallen in their attempts to explain this part of speech4 ,mr4 ,murray says they seem originally to have been contrived to express compendiously in one word1 what must otherwise have required two or more2 as1 he acted wisely4 ,they could have been contrived for no such purpose1 for we have already seen that they are made up of various words combined together1 which are used to express relation1 to define or describe other things4 ,take the very example ,mr4 ,m4 has given4 ,wisely is made up of two words2 wise and like4 ,he acted wisely1 wise-like4 ,what did he act8 ,wisely1 we are taught1 expresses the manner or quality of the verb act4 ,but act1 in this case1 is a neuter or intransitive verb1 and wisely expresses the manner of action where there is none6 ,but he must have acted something which was wise like something else4 ,what did he act8 ,if he produced no actions1 how can it be known that he acted wisely or unwisely8 ,action or acts is the direct object of to act4 ,hence the sentence fully stated would stand thus3 ,he acted acts or actions like wise actions or acts4 ,but stated at length1 it appears aukward and clumsy1 like old fashioned vehicles4 ,we have modified1 improved1 cut down1 and made eliptical1 all of our expressions1 as we have previously observed1 to suit the fashions and customs of the age in which we live2 the same as tailors cut our garments to correspond with the latest fashions4 ,the bird sings sweetly4 ,the bird sings songs1 notes1 or tunes1 like sweet notes1 tunes1 or songs4 ,the comparison here made1 is not in reference to the agent or action1 but the object of the action2 and this explains the whole theory of those adverbs1 which are said to qualify manner of action4 ,we have already seen that no action1 as such1 can exist1 or be conceived to exist1 separate7-ed7 from the thing or agent which acts2 and such action can only be determined by the changed or altered condition of something which is the object of such action4 ,how then1 can any word1 in truth1 or in thought1 be known to qualify the action1 as distinct from the object or agent8 ,and if it does not in fact1 how can we explain words to children1 or to our own minds1 so as to understand what is not true8 ,hence all words of this character are adjectives1 describing one thing by its relation or likeness to another1 and as such1 admit of comparison2 as1 a likely man1 a very likely man1 a likelier1 and the likeliest man4 ,he is the most likely pedlar ,i ever knew4 ,he is more liable to be deceived4 ,a lively little fellow4 ,he is worthless4 ,he is worth less1 less worthy of respect and confidence4 ,he writes very correctly4 ,he writes his letters and words like very correct letters4 ,but ,i need not enlarge4 ,you have only to bear in mind the fact1 that ly is a contraction of like1 which is often retained in many words2 as godlike1 christianlike1 etc41 and search for a definition accordingly2 and you will find no trouble in disposing of a large portion of this adverb family4 ,it is a curious fact1 and should be maturely considered by all who still adhere to the neuter verb theory1 that adverbs qualify neuter as well as active verbs1 and express the quality or manner of action1 where there is none6 ,adverbs express manner of action in a neuter verb6 ,when a person starts wrong it is very difficult to go right4 ,the safest course is to return back and start again4 ,adverbs have been divided into classes1 varying from eleven to seventy-two1 to suit the fancies of those who have only observed the nice shades of form which these words have assumed4 ,but a bonnet is a bonnet1 let its shape1 form1 or fashion1 be what it may4 ,you may put on as many trimmings1 flowers1 bows1 and ribbons1 as you please2 it is a bonnet still2 and when we speak of it we will call it a bonnet1 and talk about its appendages4 ,but when it is constructed into something else1 then we will give it a new name4 ,adjectives1 we have said1 are derived from either nouns or verbs1 and we now contend that the words formerly regarded as adverbs are either adjectives1 nouns1 or verbs4 ,in defence of this sentiment we will adduce a few words in this place for examples4 ,ago4 ,three years ago1 we dwelt in the country4 ,this word is a past participle from the verb ago1 meaning the same as gone or agone1 and was so used a few centuries ago--agone1 or gone by4 ,for euer the latter ende of ioye is wo1 ,god wotte1 worldly ioye is soone ago4 ,chaucer4 ,for if it erst was well1 tho was it bet ,a thousand folde1 this nedeth it not require ,ago was euery sorowe and euery fere4 ,troylus1 boke #c1 p4 #b4 ,of such examples as ,i finde ,upon this point of tyme agone ,i thinke for to tellen one4 ,gower1 lib4 #e1 p4 #a4 ,which is no more than has been done ,by knights for ladies1 long agone4 ,hudibras4 ,twenty years agone4 ,tillotson's sermon4 ,are all the go4 ,knickerbocker4 ,astray4 ,they went astray4 ,astrayed1 wandered or were scattered1 and of course soon became estranged from each other4 ,farmers all know what it is for cattle to stray from home2 and many parents have felt the keen pangs of sorrow when their sons strayed from the paths of virtue4 ,in that condition they are astray-ed4 ,this prest was drank and goth astrayede4 ,achab to the bottle went4 ,when ,benedad for all his shelde ,him slough1 so that upon the felde ,his people goth aboute astraie4 ,gower4 ,awake4 ,he is awake4 ,samson awaked out of his sleep4 ,that ,i may awake him out of sleep4 ,it is high time to awake4 ,as a man that is wakened out of sleep4 ,the ,irish hold a wake--they do not sleep the night after the loss of friends4 ,asleep4 ,when that pyte1 which longe on sleep doth tary ,hath set the fyne of al my heuynesse4 ,chaucer1 ,la belle dame1 p4 #a4 c4 #a4 ,ful sound on sleep did caucht thare rest be kind4 ,douglas1 b4 #i1 p4 #bhc4 ,in these provynces the fayth of ,chryste was all quenchyd and in sleepe4--,fabian4 ,a numerous portion of these contractions are nouns1 which1 from their frequent recurrence1 are used without their usual connexion with small words4 ,the letter a is compounded with many of these words1 which may have been joined to them by habit1 or as a preposition1 meaning on1 to1 at1 in1 as it is used in the french and some other languages4 ,you often hear expressions like these1 he is a-going2 he is a-writing2 he began a-new1 etc4 ,the old adverbs which take this letter1 you can easily analyze2 as1 ,the house is a-fire--on fire2 ,he fell a-sleep--he fell on sleep4 ,when deep sleep falleth on men4--,job4 ,he stept a-side--on one side4 ,he came a-board--on board4 ,they put it a-foot--on foot4 ,he went a-way--a way1 followed some course1 to a distance4 ,blue bonnets are all the go now a-days1 etc4 ,the following extracts will give you an idea of the etymology of these words3 ,turnus seyes the ,troianis in grete yre1 ,and al thare schyppis and navy set in fire4 ,douglas1 b4 #i1 p4 #bgd4 ,now hand in hand the dynt lichtis with ane swak1 ,now bendis he up his bourdon with ane mynt1 ,on side 7a-side7 he bradis for to eschew the dynt4 ,idem4 ,that easter fire and flame aboute ,both at mouth and at nase ,so that thei setten all on blaze1 7ablaze47 ,gower4 ,and tyl a wicked deth him take ,him had leuer asondre 7a-sunder7 shake ,and let al his lymmes asondre ryue ,thane leaue his richesse in his lyue4 ,chaucer4 ,examples of this kind might be multiplied to an indefinite length4 ,but the above will suffice to give you an idea of the former use of these words1 and also1 by comparison with the present1 of the changes which have taken place in the method of spelling within a few centuries4 ,a large portion of adverbs relate to time and place1 because many of our ideas1 and much of our language1 are employed in reference to them2 as1 then1 when1 where1 there1 here1 hence1 whence1 thence1 while1 till1 whether1 etc4 ,these are compound words considerably disguised in their meaning and formation4 ,let us briefly notice some of them4 ,per annum is a latin phrase1 for the year1 a year2 and the annum is the year1 round or period of time1 from which it was corrupted gradually into its present shape4 ,thanne1 tha anne1 thane1 thenne1 then1 than1 are different forms of the same word4 ,we see nowe bi a mirror in darcnesse3 thanne forsathe1 face to face4 ,nowe ,i know of partye2 thanne forsathe schal know as ,i am knowen4--#a4 ,cor4 #ac3 #ab4 ,translation in #acej4 ,i have a translation of the same passage in #aehf1 which stands thus3 ,for nowe we see through a glasse darkley3 but thene face to face3 now ,i know in part3 but then shal ,i know even as ,i am knowen4 ,here several words are spelled differently in the same verse4 ,then1 the anne1 that time4 ,when1 wha anne1 wha-icht-anne1 which1 or what anne1 period of time4 ,area means an open space1 a plat of ground1 a spot or place4 ,arena is from the same etymon1 altered in application4 ,there1 the area1 the place or spot4 ,if we go there1 to that place4 ,where1 which1 or what 7wha-icht area7 place4 ,here1 his 7latin word for this17 area1 this place4 ,these words refer to place1 state1 or condition4 ,while is another spelling for wheel4 ,to while away our time1 is to pass1 spend1 or wheel it away4 ,while applies to the period1 or space of time1 in which something wheels1 whirls1 turns round1 or transpires2 as1 ,you had better remain here while 7during the time7 he examines whether it is prudent for you to go4 ,till is to while1 to the period at which something is expected to follow4 ,if ,i will that he tarry till 7to the time7 ,i come what is that to thee8 ,the idea of time and place are often blended together4 ,it is not uncommon to hear lads and professed scholars1 in some parts of our country say down till the bottom1 over till the woods4 etc4 ,altho we do not regard such expressions correct1 yet they serve to explain the meaning of the word4 ,the only mistake is in applying it to place instead of time4 ,whether is which either4 ,shew whether of these two thou hast chosen4--,acts #a3 #bd4 ,it is more frequently applied in modern times to circumstance and events than to persons and things4 ,i will let you know whether ,i will or will not adopt it1 one or the other4 ,together signifies two or more united4 ,gethered is the past participle of gather4 ,as ,mailie1 an' her lambs thegither1 ,were ae day nibbling on the tether4 ,burns4 ,ever means time1 age1 period4 ,it originally and essentially signified life4 ,for ever is for the age or period4 ,for ever and ever1 to the ages of ages4 ,ever-lasting is age-lasting4 ,ever-lasting hills1 snows1 landmarks1 etc4 ,never1 ne-ever1 not ever1 at no time1 age or period4 ,when-ever4--,at what point or space of time or age4 ,what-ever4--,what thing1 fact1 circumstance1 or event4 ,where-ever4--,to1 at1 or in what place1 period1 age1 or time4 ,whither-so-ever1 which-way-so-ever1 where-so-ever1 never-the-less1 etc4 need only be analyzed1 and their meaning will appear obvious to all4 ,oft1 often1 oft-times1 often-times1 can be understood by all1 because the noun to which they belong is oft-en retained in practice4 ,once1 twice1 at one time1 two times4 ,hence1 thence1 whence1 from this1 that1 or what1 place1 spot1 circumstance1 post1 or starting place4 ,hence-for-ward1 hence-forth1 in time to come1 after this period4 ,here-after1 after this era1 or present time4 ,hither1 to this spot or place4 ,thither1 to that place4 ,hither-to1 hither-ward1 etc4 the same as to you ward1 or to ,god ward1 still retained in our bibles4 ,per-haps1 it may hap4 ,perchance1 peradventure1 by chance1 by adventure4 ,the latin per means by4 ,not1 no ought1 not any1 nothing4 ,it is a compound of ne and ought or aught4 ,or is a contraction from other1 and nor from ne-or1 no-or1 no other4 ,no-wise1 no ways4 ,i will go1 or1 other-wise1 in another way or manner1 you must go4 ,than1 the ane1 the one1 that one1 alluding to a particular object with which a comparison is made2 as1 ,this book is larger than that bible4 ,that one bible1 this book is larger4 ,it is always used with the comparative degree1 to define particularly the object with which the comparison is made4 ,talent is better than flattery4 ,than flattery1 often bestowed regardless of merit1 talent is better4 ,as is an adjective1 in extensive use4 ,it means the1 this1 that1 these1 the same1 etc4 ,it is a defining word of the first kind4 ,you practice as you have been taught--the same duties or principles understood4 ,we use language as we have learned it2 in the same way or manner4 ,it is often associated with other words to particularly specify the way1 manner1 or degree1 in which something is done or compared4 ,i can go as well as you4 ,in the same well1 easy1 convenient way or manner you can go1 ,i can go in the same way4 ,he was as learned1 as pious1 as benevolent1 as brave1 as faithful1 as ardent4 ,these are purely adjectives1 used to denote the degree of the likeness or similarity between the things compared4 ,secondary words are often added to this1 to aid the distinction or definition2 as1 7the same illustrated17 ,he is just as willing4 ,i am quite as well pleased without it4 ,as1 like many other adjectives1 often occurs without a noun expressed1 in which case it was formerly parsed by ,murray himself as 7like1 or the same7 a relative pronoun2 as1 ,and indeed it seldom at any period extends to the tip1 as happens in acute diseases4--,dr4 ,sweetster4 ,the ground ,i have assumed is tenable1 as will appear4--,webster4 ,bonaparte had a special motive in decorating ,paris1 for ',paris is ,france1 as has often been observed4--,channing4 ,the words are such as seem4--,murray's ,reader6 p4 #af1 intro4 ,so has nearly the same signification as the word last noticed1 and is frequently used along with it1 to define the other member of the comparison4 ,as far as ,i can understand1 so far ,i approve4 ,as he directed1 so ,i obeyed4 ,it very often occurs as a secondary adjective2 as1 ,in pious and benevolent offices so simple1 so minute1 so steady1 so habitual1 that they will carry1 etc4 ,he pursued a course so unvarying4--,channing4 ,these words are the most important of any small ones in our vocabulary1 because 7for this cause1 be this the cause1 this is the cause7 they are the most frequently used2 and yet there are no words so little understood1 or so much abused by grammarians1 as these are4 ,we have barely time to notice the remaining parts of speech4 ,conjunctions are defined to be a part of speech void of signification1 but so formed as to help signification1 by making two or more significant sentences to be one significant sentence4 ,mr4 ,harris gives about forty species4 ,murray admits of only the dis-junctive and copulative1 and reduces the whole list of words to twenty-four4 ,but what is meant by a dis-junctive con-junctive word1 is left for you to determine4 ,it must be in keeping with indefinite defining articles1 and post-positive pre-positions4 ,he says1 it joins words1 but disjoins the sense4#bb ,and what is a word with out sense1 pray tell us8 ,if words are the signs of ideas1 how1 in the name of reason1 can you give the sign and separate the sense8 ,you can as well separate the shadow from the substance1 or a quality from matter4 ,we have already noticed ,rule #ah1 which teaches the use of conjunctions4 ,under that rule1 you may examine these examples4 ,as it was in the beginning1 is now1 and ever shall be4--,common ,prayer4 ,what ,i do1 have done1 or may hereafter do1 has been1 and will always be matter of inclination1 the gratifying of which pays itself3 and ,i have no more merit in employing my time and money in the way ,i am known to do1 than another has in other occupations4--,howard4 ,the following examples must suffice4 ,if4 ,this word is derived from the saxon gifan1 and was formerly written giff1 gyff1 gif1 geve1 give1 yiff1 yef1 yeve4 ,it signifies give1 grant1 allow1 suppose1 admit1 and is always a verb in the imperative mood1 having the following sentence or idea for its object4 ,if a pound of sugar cost ten cents1 what will ten pounds cost8 ,give1 grant1 allow1 suppose1 7the fact17 one pound cost1 etc4 ,in this case the supposition which stands as a predicate--one pound of sugar cost ten cents1 is the object of if--the thing to be allowed1 supposed1 or granted1 and from which the conclusion as to the cost of ten pounds is to be drawn4 ,he will assist us if he has the means4 ,allow1 admit1 7the fact17 he has the means1 he will assist us4 ,gif luf be vertew1 than is it leful thing2 ,gif it be vice1 it is your undoing4 ,douglas p4 #ie4 ,ne ,i ne wol non reherce1 yef that ,i may4 ,chaucer4 ,she was so charitable and so pytous ,she wolde wepe yf that she sawe a mous ,caught in a trappe1 if it were deed or bledde4 ,prioresse4 ,o haste and come to my master dear4 ,gin ye be ,barbara ,allen4 ,burns4 ,but4 ,this word has two opposite significations4 ,it is derived from two different radicals4 ,but1 from the saxon be and utan1 out1 means be out1 leave out1 save1 except1 omit1 as1 all but one are here4 ,leave out1 except1 one1 all are here4 ,heaven from all creation hides the book of fate ,all but 7save1 except7 the page prescribed our present state4 ,when nought but 7leave out7 the torrent is heard on the hill1 ,and nought but 7save7 the nightingale's song in the grove4 ,nothing but fear restrains him4 ,in these cases the direct objects of the verb1 the things to be omitted are expressed4 ,but is also derived from botan1 which signifies to add1 superadd1 join or unite2 as1 in the old form of a deed1 it is butted and bounded as follows4 ,two animals butt their heads together4 ,the butt of a log is that end which was joined to the stump4 ,a butt1 butment or a-butment is the joined end1 where there is a connexion with something else4 ,a butt of ridicule is an object to which ridicule is attached4 ,not only saw he all that was1 ,but 7add7 much that never came to pass4 ,m',fingal4 ,to button1 butt-on1 is derived from the same word1 to join one side to the other1 to fasten together4 ,it was formerly spelled botan1 boote1 bote1 bot1 butte1 bute1 but4 ,it is still spelled boot in certain cases as a verb2 as1 ,what boots it thee to fly from pole to pole1 ,hang o'er the earth1 and with the planets roll8 ,what boots 7 7 thro space's fartherest bourns to roam1 ,if thou1 ,o man1 a stranger art at home8 ,grainger4 ,if love had booted care or cost4 ,a man exchanged his house in the city for a farm1 and received fifty dollars to boot2 to add to his property1 and make the exchange equal4 ,let presents the same construction in form and meaning as but1 for it is derived from two radicals of opposite significations4 ,it means sometimes to permit or allow2 as1 let me go2 let me have it2 and to hinder or prevent2 as1 ,i proposed to come unto you1 but 7add this fact7 ,i was let hitherto4--,rom4 #a3 #ac4 ,he who now letteth1 will let until he be taken out of the way4--#b ,thess4 #b3 #g4 ,and is a past participle signifying added1 one-ed1 joined4 ,it was formerly placed after the words2 as1 ,james1 ,john1 ,david1 and1 7united to-gether-ed17 go to school4 ,we now place it before the last word4 ,tho1 altho1 yet4 ,tho 7admit1 allow1 the fact7 he slay me1 yet 7get1 have1 know1 the fact7 ,i will trust in him4 ,yes is from the same word as yet4 ,it means get or have my consent to the question asked4 ,nay is the opposite of yes1 ne-aye1 nay1 no4 ,the ayes and noes were called for4 ,i can pursue this matter no farther4 ,the limits assigned me have been overrun already4 ,what light may have been afforded you in relation to these words1 will enable you to discover that they have meaning which must be learned before they can be explained correctly2 that done1 all difficulty is removed4 ,interjections deserve no attention4 ,they form no part of language1 but may be used by beasts and birds as well as by men4 ,they are indistinct utterances of emotions1 which come not within the range of human speech4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the reader is referred to ,the ,red ,book1 by ,william ,bearcroft1 revised by ,daniel ,h4 ,barnes1 late of the ,new-,york ,high ,school1 as a correct system of teaching practical orthography4 #b ,gall1 ,spurzheim1 and ,combe1 have reflected a light upon the science of the mind1 which cannot fail of beneficial results4 ,tho the doctrines of phrenology1 as now taught1 may prove false--which is quite doubtful--or receive extensive modifications1 yet the consequences to the philosophy of the mind will be vastly useful4 ,the very terms employed to express the faculties and affections of the mind1 are so definite and clear1 that phrenology will long deserve peculiar regard1 if for no other reason than for the introduction of a vocabulary1 from which may be selected words for the communication of ideas upon intellectual subjects4 #c ,metaphysics originally signified the science of the causes and principles of all things4 ,afterwards it was confined to the philosophy of the mind4 ,in our times it has obtained still another meaning4 ,metaphysicians became so abstruse1 bewildered1 and lost1 that nobody could understand them2 and hence1 metaphysical is now applied to whatever is abstruse1 doubtful1 and unintelligible4 ,if a speaker is not understood1 it is because he is too metaphysical4 ,how did you like the sermon1 yesterday8 ,tolerably well2 but he was too metaphysical for common hearers4 ,they could not understand him4 #d ,in this respect1 many foreign languages possess a great advantage over ours4 ,they can augment or diminish the same word to increase or lessen the meaning4 ,for instance2 in the ,spanish1 we can say ,hombre1 a man2 ,hombron1 a large man2 ,hombrecito1 a young man1 or youth2 ,hombrecillo1 a miserable little man2 ,pagaro1 a bird2 ,pagarito1 a pretty little bird2 ,perro1 a dog2 ,perrillo1 an ugly little dog2 ,perrazo1 a large dog4 ,the ,indian languages admit of diminutives in a similar way4 ,in the ,delaware dialect1 they are formed by the suffix tit1 in the class of animate nouns2 but by es1 to the inanimate2 as1 ,senno1 a man2 ,sennotit1 a little man2 ,wikwam1 a house2 ,wikwames1 a small house4--,enc4 ,amer4 ,art4 ,indian ,languages1 vol4 #f1 p4 #ehf4 #e ,mr4 ,harris1 in his ,hermes1 says1 ,a preposition is a part of speech1 devoid itself of signification2 but so formed as to unite two words that are significant1 and that refuse to coalesce or unite themselves4 ,mr4 ,murray says1 ,prepositions serve to connect words with one another1 and show the relation between them4 #f ,me thou shalt use in what thou wilt1 and doe that with a slender twist1 that none can doe with a tough with4 ,euphues and his ,england1 p4 #acf4 ,they had arms under the straw in the boats1 and had cut the withes that held the oars of the town boats1 to prevent any pursuit4 ,ludlow's ,memoirs1 p4 #dce4 ,the only furniture belonging to the houses1 appears to be an oblong vessel made of bark1 by tying up the ends with a withe4 ,cooke's ,description of ,botany ,bay4 #g ,see ,galatians1 chap4 #a1 verse #ae4 ,when it pleased ,god1 who separated me1 c4 #h ,acts1 xvii1 #bh4 #i ,st4 ,pierre's ,studies of ,nature4--,dr4 ,hunter's translation1 pp4 #agb-agf4 #aj ,it is reported on very good authority that the same olive trees are now standing in the garden of ,gethsemane under which the ,saviour wept and near which he was betrayed4 ,this is rendered more probable from the fact1 that a tax is laid1 by the ,ottoman ,porte1 on all olive trees planted since ,palestine passed into the possession of the ,turks1 and that several trees standing in ,gethsemane do not pay such tribute1 while all others do4 #aa ,we do not assent to the notions of ancient philosophers and poets1 who believed the doctrine that the world is animated by a soul1 like the human body1 which is the spirit of ,deity himself2 but that by the operation of wise and perfect laws1 he exerts a supervision in the creation and preservation of all things animate and inanimate4 ,virgil stated the opinions of his times1 in his ,a,eneid1 ,b4 ,,vi4 l4 #gbd4 ,principio coelum1 ac terras1 camposque liquentes1 ,lucentemque globum1 ,lunae1 ,titaniaque astra ,spiritus intus alit1 totamque infusa per artus ,mens agitat molem1 et magno se corpore miscet4 ,know1 first1 that heaven1 and earth's compacted frame1 ,and flowing waters1 and the starry flame1 ,and both the radiant lights1 one common soul ,inspires and feeds--and animates the whole4 ,this active mind1 infused thro all the space1 ,unites and mingles with the mighty mass4 ,dryden1 b4 ,,vi4 l4 #ihj4 ,this sentiment1 he probably borrowed from ,pythagoras and ,plato1 who argue the same sentiment1 and divide this spirit into intellectus1 intelligentia1 et natura--intellectual1 intelligent1 and natural4 ,whence1 ,ex hoc ,deo1 qui est mundi anima3 quasi decerptae particulae sunt vitae hominum et pecudum4 ,or1 ,omnia animalia ex quatuor elementis et divino spiritu constare manifestum est4 ,trahunt enim a terra carnem1 ab aqua humorem1 ab aere anhelitum1 ab igne fervorem1 a divino spiritu ingenium4--,timeus1 chap4 #bd1 and ,virgil's ,geor4 b4 #d1 l4 #bbj1 ,dryden's trans4 l4 #cbb4 ,pope alludes to the same opinion in these lines3 ,all are but parts of one stupendous whole4 ,whose body nature is1 and ,god the soul4 #ab ,page #da4 #ac ,exodus1 iii4 #b1 #c4 #ad ,cardell's grammar4 #ae ,the ,jews long preserved this name in ,samaritan letters to keep it from being known to strangers4 ,the modern ,jews affirm that by this mysterious name1 engraven on his rod1 ,moses performed the wonders recorded of him2 that ,jesus stole the name from the temple and put it into his thigh between the flesh and skin1 and by its power accomplished the miracles attributed to him4 ,they think if they could pronounce the word correctly1 the very heavens and earth would tremble1 and angels be filled with terror4 #af ,plutarch says1 ,this title is not only proper but peculiar to ,god1 because ,he alone is being2 for mortals have no participation of true being1 because that which begins and ends1 and is constantly changing1 is never one nor the same1 nor in the same state4 ,the deity on whose temple this word was inscribed was called ,apollo1 ,apollon1 from a negative and pollus1 many1 because ,god is one1 his nature simple1 and uncompounded4--,vide1 ,clark's ,com4 #ag ,the same fact may be observed in other languages1 for all people form language alike1 in a way to correspond with their ideas4 ,the following hasty examples will illustrate this point4 ,agent4 ,verb4 ,object4 ,english ,singers ,sing ,songs ,french ,les chanteurs ,chantent ,les chansons ,spanish ,los cantores ,cantan ,las cantinelas ,italian ,i cantori ,cantano ,i canti ,latin ,cantores ,canunt ,cantus ,english ,givers ,give ,gifts ,french ,les donneurs ,donnent ,les dons ,spanish ,los donadores ,dan o donan ,los dones ,italian ,i danatori ,dano o danano ,i doni ,latin ,datores ,donant ,dona ,english ,fishers ,fish ,fishes ,french ,les pecheurs ,pechent ,les poissons ,spanish ,los pescadores ,pescan ,los peces ,italian ,i pescatori ,pescan ,i pesci ,latin ,piscatores ,piscantur ,pisces ,english ,students ,study ,studies ,french ,les etudiens ,etudient ,les etudes ,spanish ,los estudiantes ,estudian ,los estudios ,italian ,i studienti ,studiano ,i studii ,latin ,studiosi ,student ,studia #ah ,mr4 ,murray says1 ,these compounds1 have1 shall1 will1 may1 can1 must1 had1 might1 could1 would1 and should1 which he uses as auxiliaries to help conjugate other verbs1 are1 however1 to be considered as different forms of the same verb4 ,i should like to know1 if these words have any thing to do with the principal verbs2 if they only alter the form of the verb which follows them4 ,i may1 can1 must1 shall1 will1 or do love4 ,are these only different forms of love8 or rather1 are they not distinct1 important1 and original verbs1 pure and perfect in and of themselves8 ,ask for their etymons and meaning1 and then decide4 #ai ,diversions of ,purley1 vol4 #a1 p4 #gg4 #bj ,dr4 ,edwards observes1 in a communication to the ,connecticut ,society of ,arts and ,sciences1 from personal knowledge1 that the ,mohegans 7,indians7 have no adjectives in all their language4 ,altho it may at first seem not only singular and curious1 but impossible1 that a language should exist without adjectives1 yet it is an indubitable fact4 ,but it is proved that in later times the ,indians employ adjectives1 derived from nouns or verbs1 as well as other nations4 ,altho many of their dialects are copious and harmonious1 yet they suffered no inconvenience from a want of contracted words and phrases4 ,they added the ideas of definition and description to the things themselves1 and expressed them in the same word1 in a modified form4 #ba ,matthew1 chap4 #bd1 v4 #dh4 #bb ,examples of a dis-junctive conjunction4 ,they came with her1 but they went without her4--,murray4 ,murray is wrong1 and ,cardell is right4 ,the simplifiers are wrong1 but their standard is so likewise4 ,me he restored to my office1 and him he hanged4--,pharaoh's ,letter4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,the following printer's errors have been corrected in this etext4 ,changes are indicated in brackets4 ,contents ,,on ,,nouns ,,amd ,,and ,,pronouns ,lecture ,i process of time as ingle a single will not unfrequenly unfrequently represent ,lecture ,,iii ,german1 ,danish1 ,dutch1 ,sweedish ,swedish ,lecture ,v ,david killed ,goliah ,goliath ,lecture ,,vi and cosinder consider them in this place ,lecture ,,vii ,we are told there are are are two articles the mother is mascu4line masculine dress handkerchief4 ,the resolution ,lecture ,,viii object will be to ascertion ascertain ,but wherefore sits he there8 act transitively1 acording according to ,lecture ,,ix the pocket of ,guy ,fawks ,fawkes ,for we should rember remember looks like or resembles his brother1 ,lecture ,x ,a philosophical axiom4--,manner ,and our languge language should ,i have addressed this volume ,lecture ,,xi ,be not surprized surprised when ,i tell you ,lecture ,,xii the qualifification qualification of an adverb1 --express neither actionn action or passion4 ,lecture ,,xiv trace back to their orignal original form ,he stept a-side ,as ,mailie1 an' her lambs ,not only saw he all that was1 ,footnote #bb ,murray is wroug wrong