,j4 ,,cree ,,fischer ,,piano ,,tuning ,a ,,simple ,,and ,,accurate ,,method ,,for ,,amateurs ,,dover ,,publications1 ,,inc4 ,,new ,,york ,copyright #aijg by ,theo4 ,presser4 ,all rights reserved under ,pan ,american and ,international ,copyright ,conventions4 ,published in ,canada by ,general ,publishing ,company1 ,ltd41 #cj ,lesmill ,road1 ,don ,mills1 ,toronto1 ,ontario4 ,published in the ,united ,kingdom by ,constable and ,company1 ,ltd41 #aj ,orange ,street1 ,london ,,wc #b4 ,this ,dover edition1 first published in #aige1 is a republication of the work originally published in ,philadelphia in #aijg4 ,the following sections have been omitted from the present edition because they were out-of-date3 ,practical ,application of ,piano ,tuning as a ,profession1 ,business ,hints1 ,ideas in ,advertising1 and ,charges for ,services4 ,this edition is reprinted by special arrangement with ,theodore ,presser ,company1 ,presser ,place1 ,bryn ,mawr1 ,pennsylvania1 publisher of the original edition4 ,international ,standard ,book ,number3 #j-dhf-bcbfg-j ,library of ,congress ,catalog ,card ,number3 #ge-adgei ,manufactured in the ,united ,states of ,america ,dover ,publications1 ,inc4 #ahj ,varick ,street ,new ,york1 ,n4,y4 #ajjad ,,preface4 ,for some years past a lack of competent men in the profession of ,piano ,tuning has been generally acknowledged4 ,this may be accounted for as follows3 ,the immense popularity of the piano and the assiduous efforts of factories and salesmen have led to the result that nearly every well-to-do household is furnished with an instrument4 ,to supply this demand the annual production and sale for the year #aijf is estimated at three hundred thousand pianos in the ,united ,states4 ,these pianos must be tuned many times in the factory before they are shipped to the salesroom2 there they must be kept in tune until sold4 ,when1 finally1 they take up their permanent abode in the homes of the purchasers1 they should be given the attention of the tuner at least twice a year4 ,this means work for the tuner4 ,but this is not all4 ,presuming that the average life of the piano is about fifty years1 it is evident that there exists in this country an accumulation of instruments variously estimated at from four to five millions4 ,this means more work for tuners4 ,while production and accumulation have been increasing1 there has been little1 if any1 effort made to provide tuners to look after the needs of this ever-increasing number of instruments1 no provision for the thorough instruction of the learner of ,piano ,tuning1 outside the walls of the factories1 and of the few musical colleges where the art is taught4 ,doubtless there are many persons who are by nature well adapted to this agreeable and profitable occupation--persons who would make earnest effort to acquire the necessary skill and its honest application if they had a favorable opportunity4 ,musical colleges in which tuning is taught are few and far between2 piano factories are built for the purpose of producing pianos and not tuners1 for mechanics and laborers and not for teachers and pupils2 furthermore1 very little fine tuning is done in the factory2 rough tuning is the bulk of the work there1 and a long apprenticeship in the factory1 with its meager advantages1 is rarely sufficient to meet the demands of the would-be-thorough tuner4 ,this may account1 in part1 for the fact that many who are incompetent are following this profession1 and that there is an increasing demand for tuners of skill4 ,in view of these facts the author came to the opinion that if a course of instruction were prepared which would demonstrate clearly the many abstruse details of the art in an interesting and comprehensible way1 it would be appreciated by those who are desirous to learn4 ,acting upon this impulse1 he began the preparation of such a course4 ,the present book is the outgrowth of a course of instruction1 used successfully with pupils from various parts of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 conducted partly by correspondence2 partly at the school directed by the author4 ,although it has been necessary to revise the course somewhat for publication in the present form1 no essential matter has been omitted and much has been added4 ,in preparing this course of study the utmost effort has been made to present the various topics in the clearest1 most comprehensive manner1 literary excellence being a secondary consideration4 ,while the book is designed for self-instruction1 the systematic arrangement of the text1 and the review questions with each lesson1 suggest its use as a text-book for schools and colleges which give personal training in the care of the piano4 ,to the talented individual of either sex who is ambitious to acquire a dignified and profitable profession1 to the scientifically-inclined musician who is eager to learn the fundamental principles underlying all musical harmony1 and finally to the non-professional who loves to read because of a fondness for science1 the book is submitted2 if it should prove a boon to the former1 a benefit to the second1 or a pleasure to the latter1 ,i shall feel rewarded for the work of its preparation4 ,,the ,,author4 ,,contents4 page ,,lesson ,i4 #g ,introduction4 ,,lesson ,,ii4 #aa ,general construction of the piano and something of its evolution and history1 ,,lesson ,,iii4 #bj ,technical ,names and ,uses of the ,parts of the ,upright ,action1 ,,lesson ,,iv4 #cb ,action of the ,square ,piano4 ,action of the ,grand ,piano4 ,instructions for ,removing the ,square and ,grand ,piano ,actions1 ,,lesson ,v4 #dc ,regulating and ,repairing4 ,faults in ,pianos aside from the ,action and their ,remedies4 ,regulating and ,repairing the ,upright ,action1 ,,lesson ,,vi4 #ef ,regulating and ,repairing the ,square ,action4 ,miscellaneous ,repairs1 ,,lesson ,,vii4 #ff ,the ,study and ,practice of ,piano ,tuning1 ,,lesson ,,viii4 #gb ,the ,temperament4 ,beats1 ,waves1 ,pulsations4 ,the ,new ,system of ,temperament4 ,the ,octave4 ,the ,fifth4 ,pitch4 ,diagram of the ,fischer ,system of ,temperament1 ,,lesson ,,ix4 #he ,specific ,instructions in ,setting ,temperament4 ,the ,continuous ,mute1 ,,lesson ,x4 #ig ,theory of the ,temperament4 ,equal ,temperament4 ,unequal ,temperament1 ,,lesson ,,xi4 #aji ,technique or ,modus ,operandi in ,piano ,tuning4 ,manipulation of the ,tuning ,hammer4 ,setting the ,mutes or ,wedges in the ,upright ,piano4 ,setting the ,mutes or ,wedges in the ,square ,piano1 ,,lesson ,,xii4 #abf ,mathematics of the ,tempered ,scale4 ,rationale of the ,temperament4 ,proposition ,i1 ,,lesson ,,xiii4 #aci ,rationale of the ,temperament1 ,concluded4 ,proposition ,,ii4 ,proposition ,,iii4 ,numerical ,comparison of the ,diatonic with the ,tempered ,scale4 ,various ,mathematical ,tables and ,examples1 ,,lesson ,,xiv4 #aej ,miscellaneous ,topics ,pertaining to the ,practical ,work of ,tuning4 ,cause of the ,beats4 ,finishing up the ,temperament4 ,tuning the ,treble4 ,tuning the ,bass4 ,false ,waves1 ,,lesson ,,xv4 #afc ,miscellaneous ,items ,pertaining to the ,practical ,work of ,tuning1 ,regulating1 and ,repairing4 ,comparison of the ,different ,systems of ,temperament4 ,system ,a4 ,system ,b4 ,system ,c4 ,final ,inspection4 ,loose ,pins4 ,split ,bridges4 ,stringing4 ,wire ,splicing1 ,,lesson ,,xvi4 #agh ,tuning and ,repairing the ,reed ,organ4 ,cleaning4 ,stops4 ,examination4 ,sticking ,keys4 ,leaks4 ,pedal ,defects4 ,sympathetic ,vibrations4 ,tuning1 ,,lesson ,,xvii4 #aic ,concluding ,professional ,hints4 ,peculiar ,expressions ,used in ,designating ,qualities of ,tone4 ,questions often ,asked the ,piano ,tuner4 ,seasons for ,tuning1 ,,index1 #aii ,,lesson ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,undoubtedly every human being is fitted for some sphere of usefulness--some industry by which he can benefit mankind and support himself in comfort4 ,just what we are fitted for must1 almost invariably1 be decided by ourselves2 and the sooner the better1 else we may plod among the thousands whose lives are miserable failures for the reason that they have missed their calling4 ,in the consideration of ,piano ,tuning as a profession1 one should first determine if he possesses the necessary qualifications1 the most important of which are a musical ear and some degree of mechanical ability4 ,having these1 all else may be acquired by study4 ,it is not necessary to possess a musical education or to be a musician2 although a knowledge of music will be found a great aid4 ,still1 an elementary knowledge of the principles of music is a necessity to the student of this course1 as it has been found impossible to avoid the use of a few technical terms4 ,in most cases1 however1 they are set forth in such a way that they will be readily apprehended by anyone who has even a slight knowledge of the fundamental principles of music4 ,in teaching ,piano ,tuning1 it is the custom of the ,central ,school of ,piano ,tuning1 for which these lessons were originally prepared1 to have all students prepare two lessons in harmony as a test of their acquaintance with the intervals and chords used in tuning4 ,the lessons are not difficult1 and they embody only those principles which are essential to the proper understanding of the key-board3 the intervals of the diatonic scale and the major common chord in the twelve different keys1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,a1 ,b1 ,b-flat1 ,d-flat1 ,e-flat1 ,g-flat1 and ,a-flat4 ,in connection with the harmony lessons1 we use as a text-book ,clarke's ,harmony1,a and the student is required to master the first two chapters and prepare manuscripts upon each of the lessons4 ,below is a number of the most important questions selected from those lessons upon which manuscripts have been written3 #a4 ,every white key on the piano represents an absolute pitch4 ,by what names are these pitches known8 ,how are the black keys named8 #b4 ,how many tones constitute the diatonic scale8 ,give numerical names4 #c4 ,intervals are measured by steps and half-steps4 ,how many steps from #a to #c in the diatonic scale8 #a to #d8 #a to #e8 #c to #e8 #e to #h8 #a to #h8 #d4 ,why is there no black key between ,e and ,f1 and between ,b and ,c8 #e4 ,from #a to #c is called an interval of a third2 from #c to #e1 also a third2 from #a to #e1 a fifth3 they are so called because they include1 respectively1 three and five members of the diatonic scale4 ,what is the interval #c to #f8 #b to #e8 #e to #h8 #b to #f8 #a to #h8 #f4 ,thirds are of two kinds3 major 7larger7 thirds embrace two whole-steps2 minor 7smaller7 thirds embrace a step and a half4 ,what kind of a third is #a-c in the diatonic scale8 #b-d8 #c-e8 #f-h8 #g4 ,what do we mean by the term1 ,fundamental of a chord8 ,what is added to it to complete the common chord8 #h4 ,what absolute pitches comprise the common chord of ,c8 ,what kind of interval between the first two members8 ,what between the first and last8 ,what between the second and last8 #i4 ,what tones would you use if told to strike the common chord of ,c in four-part1 close harmony1 using the fundamental for the highest tone8 #aj4 ,how many keys 7white and black7 are there between the fundamental and the third8 ,how many between the third and the fifth8 ,how many between the fundamental and the fifth when the fifth is played above the fundamental8 #aa4 ,how many keys 7white and black7 are there between two keys comprising a perfect fourth8 #ab4 7,most important of all47 ,what keys of the piano keyboard comprise the common chord founded upon ,g as the fundamental8 ,upon ,f8 ,upon ,f8 ,upon ,g8 ,upon ,b8 ,upon ,d8 ,upon ,e8 ,upon ,d8 ,upon ,e8 ,upon ,a8 ,upon ,b8 ,if one is able to answer these questions correctly he is qualified to begin the study of ,piano ,tuning4 ,a ,published by ,theodore ,presser1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,lesson ,,ii4 ,,general ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,piano2 ,,something ,,of ,,its ,,evolution ,,and ,,history4 ,the piano of today is1 unquestionably1 the most perfect1 and consequently the most popular and beloved of all musical instruments4 ,that enchanting ,queen of the home1 ,whose place in the hearts of the family ,is as dear as though it could speak ,in words of joy and sorrow1 ,sadness or consolation2 ,soothing1 animating1 enrapturing1 ,charming away the soul ,from its worldly weight of cares1 ,and wafting it softly ,into the realm of celestial dreams4 ,the untiring efforts of genius for over a century have succeeded in producing a musical instrument that falls little short of perfection4 ,yet other inventions and improvements are sure to come1 for we are never content with good enough4 ,the student of these lessons may1 in his practice1 discover defective mechanical action and by his ingenuity be able to improve it2 he may likewise see where an improvement can be made in acoustic construction2 where a better scale can be drawn2 or where different and perhaps new materials may be used for the component parts of the instrument4 ,the possibilities are numerous along these lines1 and in addition to bestowing a favor upon the general public1 the man who has the originality to produce something new1 places himself beyond want4 ,the inevitable inference is that the piano is an evolution of the harp principle4 ,this instrument was known centuries previous to the ,christian era4 ,from the best history obtainable1 we learn that about three hundred years ago1 the first effort was made to interpose a mechanical contrivance between the performer and the strings whereby it would only be necessary to strike the keys to produce tone from the strings1 thereby decreasing the difficulty in finding the strings and picking them with the fingers1 and greatly increasing the possibilities in musical rendition4 ,history gives credit to ,italy for the first productions of this kind1 about #afjj ,a4,d41 when the faculty of music was beginning to manifest itself more boldly4 ,scientists saw that wonderful developments were possible1 and we have reason to believe that experiments were made in ,england1 ,france1 ,germany and all civilized countries about this time1 for the production of the instrument which we call1 in this day1 a ,pianoforte4 7,piano e forte3 soft and loud47 ,at this time communication between the different countries was1 of course1 slow and uncertain1 and experiments of this kind were probably unknown outside of the immediate neighborhood in which they were tried2 therefore1 much valuable and interesting history has not come to light4 ,however1 from the specimens which we have had the pleasure of seeing1 and some of which we have had the opportunity to work on1 we infer that about the same line of difficulties presented themselves to all of these early experimenters1 most of which were not efficiently overcome until in the last century1 and the most important of which it fell to the lot of ,american inventors to overcome4 ,some of these early instruments were not even provided with dampers for stopping the tone when the key was released2 consequently1 when a number of keys were struck in succession1 the tone continued from all1 so long as the strings would vibrate4 ,the strings and sound-board being very light1 the sustaining qualities were meager compared to those of the modern piano2 consequently the dampers were not so much missed as they would be if removed from a modern upright or grand1 which would surely render them unfit for use4 ,in the first attempts at piano building1 the difficulties to be overcome may be enumerated as follows3 ,the frames were not strong enough to resist the tension of the strings2 they were made almost entirely of wood which yields to the pull of the strings and is subject to climatic changes2 the scale was very imperfect1 that is1 the length1 tension and weight of the strings were not properly proportioned1 the result being a different quality of tone from different portions of the keyboard2 the actions were either heavy and imperfect1 or too light to produce sufficient vibration2 the proper point upon the strings for the hammers to strike and for the dampers to bear had not yet been ascertained2 the preparation and seasoning of the wood for the different parts of the instrument had not received sufficient attention4 ,one cannot conceive how difficult it is to produce something that has never existed1 until he tries4 ,the requirements necessary to such results as are obtainable from the modern piano are numerous and rigid and the result of many costly experiments4 ,probably the most important essential in piano building is the production of a frame of such strength and stability that the enormous tension of the strings is completely resisted in all parts of the scale4 ,in many of the cheaper pianos of this day1 the lack of this essential manifests itself in an annoying degree to the piano tuner4 ,in tuning1 the workman brings up his temperament in the middle of the instrument2 in most cases the temperament stands all right4 ,he next tunes the treble1 then the bass2 after doing his work perfectly he will often find that the treble fell somewhat while he was bringing up the bass2 or1 in a few cases1 he may find that the treble sharpened1 thus showing that there was yielding of the frame4 ,of course1 this defect might be overcome by using an extremely heavy metal plate and wooden frame2 but the commercial side of the question1 in this day1 calls for lightness in the instrument as a check to the expense of production1 and1 consequently1 pianos that are made to sell are often much too light to fulfil this requirement4 ,in the upright piano1 the back frame of wood is first made2 at the top of this is the pin-block1 sometimes called the wrest-plank4 ,this is composed of several layers of wood firmly glued together with the grain running in different directions to prevent splitting and warping4 ,into this plank the tuning pins are driven4 ,the sound-board is fitted firmly into this frame of wood below the pin-block4 ,next1 the strong metal plate is secured to the frame by large bolts and screws4 ,openings are left in the plate for the bridges1 which project from the sound-board beyond the metal plate2 also for the tuning pins1 action bracket bolts1 etc4 ,at the lower end of the plate1 and just below the bridges1,b the hitchpins are driven firmly into holes drilled to receive them4 ,their purpose is to support the lower ends of the strings4 ,the bass strings are separate1 and each has a loop with which to fasten it to the hitchpin4 ,in the treble1 one piece of wire forms two strings2 the two ends are secured to the tuning pins above1 and the string is simply brought around the hitchpin4 ,the bridges communicating with the sound-board are at the lower end of the sound-board4 ,notice1 there is a portion of the length of each string between the bridge and the hitchpin4 ,b ,there are two sections of the lower bridge1 one for the treble and one for the overstrung bass4 ,illustration ,at the upper end of the strings1 a bearing-bar1 situated between the tuning pins and upper bridge1 is attached to the pin-block by screws which draw it inward2 its function is to hold the strings firmly in position4 ,you will notice that the lengths of the strings1 above the bearing-bar1 vary considerably1 even in the three strings comprising the unison4 7,we will speak of the effect of this in tuning1 farther on47 ,after that portion of the case is completed which forms the key-bed or action frame1 we are ready to set in the ,,action4 ,by this is meant the keys and all those intricate parts which convey the motion of the key to the hammers which strike the strings1 and the dampers which mute them4 ,the requisites of the action are as follows3 ,the keys must descend quickly and easily at the touch of the performer1 giving quick response4 ,the weight of the hammer must be properly proportioned to the strings it causes to vibrate4 ,the hammer must rebound after striking the string4 7,where the hammer remains against the string1 thereby preventing vibration1 the term blocking is used to designate the fault47 ,the action must be capable of quick repetition2 that is1 when a key is struck a number of times in quick succession1 it must respond perfectly every time4 ,after striking and rebounding from the string1 the hammer should not fall to its lowest position where it rests when not in use1 as this would prevent quick repetition4 ,for catching the hammer at a short distance from the string1 a felted piece of wood suspended on a wire1 called the back check1 rises when the key is depressed1 and returns when the key is released1 allowing the hammer to regain its resting position4 ,a damper1 for stopping the tone of the string when a key is released1 must leave the string just before the hammer strikes1 and return the instant the key is released4 ,a means must be provided for releasing all the dampers from the strings at the will of the performer4 ,the loud pedal1 as it is called1 but more properly1 the damper pedal1 accomplishes this end by raising the dampers from the strings4 ,in the square and the grand piano1 the action is under the sound-board1 while the strings are over it2 so the hammers are made to strike through an opening in the sound-board4 ,in the upright1 the strings are between the action and the sound-board2 so no opening is necessary in the latter4 ,the trap-action consists of the pedals and the parts which convey motion to the action proper4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,,ii4 #a4 ,what have been some of the salient obstacles necessary to overcome in producing the perfected piano8 #b4 ,of what use are the dampers8 ,explain their mechanical action4 #c4 ,mention several of the qualities necessary to a good action4 #d4 ,describe the building of an upright piano4 #e4 ,contrast the musical capacity and peculiar characteristics of the piano with those of the organ1 which has the same keyboard4 ,,lesson ,,iii4 ,,technical ,,names ,,and ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,upright ,,piano ,,action4 ,in the practice of piano tuning1 the first thing is to ascertain if the action is in first-class condition4 ,the tuner must be able to detect1 locate and correct the slightest defect in any portion of the instrument4 ,any regulating or repairing of the action should be attended to before tuning the instrument2 the latter should be the final operation4 ,as a thorough knowledge of regulating and repairing is practically indispensable to the professional tuner1 the author has spared neither means1 labor nor research to make this part of the lessons very complete1 and feels sure that it will meet with the hearty approval of most1 if not all1 students4 ,the piano tuner who knows nothing of regulating and repairing will miss many an opportunity to earn extra money4 ,the illustration accompanying this lesson is from a ,wessell1 ,nickel and ,gross ,upright action4 ,this firm1 whose product is considered the acme of perfection1 makes nothing but actions4 ,most manufacturers of pianos1 of the present day1 build the wooden frame1 the sound-board and the case only2 the action1 metal plate1 strings1 tuning-pins1 etc41 being purchased from different firms who make a specialty of the manufacture of these parts4 ,a few concerns1 however1 make every piece that enters into the composition of the instruments bearing their names4 ,illustration ,ky1 is the ,key in its resting position4 c1 wherever found1 represents a cushion of felt or soft leather upon which the different parts of the action rest or come in contact with each other4 ,their purpose1 as is readily seen1 is that of rendering the action noiseless and easy of operation4 ,bnc ,r1 shows the end of the balance rail1 extending the entire length of the keyboard4 ,b ,p1 is the balance pin4 ,this is a perfectly round pin driven firmly in the balance rail4 ,the bottom of the hole in the key fits closely around the balance pin2 at the top1 it is the shape of a mortise1 parallel with the key1 which allows the key to move only in the direction intended4 ,the mortise in the wooden cap on top of the key at this point is lined with bushing cloth which holds the key in position laterally1 and prevents looseness and rattling1 yet allows the key to move easily4 ,l1 is the lead put in this portion of the key to balance it1 and to insure uniformity of touch1 and quick and certain return of key to its rest position4 ,as there is more or less difference in the length of keys1 and also in the weight of the hammers operated by them1 some keys are leaded much more heavily than others4 ,in some cases the lead is inserted in the extreme back end of the key2 in others it is put near the balance rail according to the requirement4 ,in some actions the lead is omitted entirely2 but in the best actions it is almost invariably present4 ,in the action of the grand piano the keys are leaded in front of the balance rail instead of back of it4 ,this is due to the fact that in the grand piano the hammer rests in a horizontal position and its whole weight must be actually lifted and the force of gravity overcome1 while in the upright1 the hammer rests in a vertical position1 only requiring to be thrown forward4 ,g ,p1 is the guide pin1 generally of oval shape1 with the longest diameter in line with the key4 ,the hole in the lower portion of the key1 in which the guide pin works1 is bushed with bushing cloth and is made to fit so closely that the key will not move laterally1 yet not so tightly that the key will not work easily4 ,bm1 is a wooden block called the bottom2 sometimes called the key-rocker4 ,it is held in position by the two screws shown in cut by which it can be adjusted or regulated4 ,e1 is the extension communicating the motion of the key to the upper part of the action4 ,there are various ways in which the extension is connected to the bottom4 ,in this action1 the extension is made round at the lower end and fits snugly into a hole in the bottom upon a felt disc4 ,when the action is taken out1 the extensions simply lift out of the holes1 and when it is put back it is necessary to enter each one in its place4 ,in other actions1 the upper side of the bottom where the extension rests has no hole but simply a felt covering upon which the extension rests2 in this case it is necessary to provide what is called an extension guide which is hinged to the extension guide rail shown in the cut at the left of the extension4 ,in actions of this kind1 the extensions remain in place at all times and the trouble of placing them properly on the bottom when replacing the action is obviated4 ,other methods also are employed which are readily understood upon slight examination1 but are essentially similar to the above4 ,instead of the bottom1 a capstan screw is used in some actions as follows3 ,cpn1 is a capstan screw used in some actions in place of the bottom4 ,it is turned by inserting a pointed instrument in one of the four holes1 thus raising or lowering the capstan in regulating4 ,the lower end of the extension is felted4 ,in such actions the extension is invariably provided with the extension guide4 ,b1 is the metal action bracket4 ,the bracket is one solid piece of metal4 ,there are generally four brackets in the upright action4 ,the brackets rest on supports in and at the sides of the keybed1 and are secured at the top by large bolts1 ,,bb1 which go through the metal plate and into the wooden frame or pin block4 ,at the top of each bracket is an opening to receive this bolt and a thumbscrew 7not shown in the cut1 being behind the hammer7 which fastens the action securely in position4 ,m ,r1 is the main rail2 so called because the main constituents of the action are attached to it4 7,everything designated as rail in the action runs the entire length of the action in one solid piece47 ,w1 is the wippen4 ,those pieces upon which or by which the small letter g is shown are the flanges4 ,the one at the left of the wippen is called the wippen flange4 ,it is made fast to the main rail by a screw1 and upon it the wippen is hinged by means of a center-pin at the lower end4 ,the center-pin in the wippen is driven through a hole in which it fits tightly and immovably in the middle part1 and it 7the center-pin7 is consequently stationary in the wippen4 ,the flange extends down at the sides of the wippen and the holes in flange are made large enough to receive bushing cloth in which the center-pin works freely but not loosely4 ,all flange joints are of this nature2 some1 however1 are provided with a means for tightening the center-pin in the middle portion of the joint4 j1 is the jack4 ,the purpose of the jack is to communicate the motion of the wippen to the hammer4 ,the precise adjustment of the jack and the adjacent parts upon which it depends for its exact movements1 play an important part in regulating the touch of the piano1 and will be fully entered into in following lessons4 js1 jack spring4 ,its purpose is to hold the jack inward against the nose or heel of the hammer butt4 7,see ,bt1 hammer butt47 ,rr1 regulating rail4 ,the regulating button is shown attached to the rail by the regulating screw which is turned by means of its ring on top of ,rr4 ,the purpose of the regulating button is to throw the point of the jack out of the nose of the hammer butt1 and allow the hammer to rebound from the string4 ,if the button is too high1 it does not throw or trip the jack in time to prevent blocking4 ,when the button is too low1 it disengages too soon1 and much of the force of the key is lost before it reaches the hammer4 ,,br1 is the block rail1 felted on the side next to the jack which strikes against it when thrown from nose4 ,this rail is absent in some actions1 in which case the back of the jack is felted and strikes against the back catch1 which is also felted on inner side4 7,the back catch has no mark in the cut1 but is explained below in connection with the back check47 ,,bc1 is the back check which is simply a piece of wood with a thick piece of felt glued to the inner face and suspended on a wire4 ,,bcw1 back check wire supporting the back check1 and screwed to the wippen4 ,the purpose of the back check is to check the hammer by coming in contact with the back catch 7the backward projection of the butt71 at a short distance from the string in its return1 and prevent the hammer from falling entirely back to its rest position1 thereby preventing quick repetition4 ,bl1 bridle4 ,this is a piece of tape about an eighth of an inch wide with a piece of leather glued to the end and a hole near the end for the point of the stirrup or bridle wire4 ,the cut shows where the bridle is fastened in the hammer butt by being put into the hole in the butt1 and the back catch stem covered with glue and driven in by it which precludes all possibility of its coming loose4 ,the bridle passes through a hole in the lower part of the back catch4 ,its purpose is to assist the hammer to return quickly by hanging to it with the weight of the wippen1 extension1 jack1 etc41 when the key is released4 ,thus the bridle becomes the main factor in the matter of quick repetition4 ,bl ,w1 bridle wire1 screwed into wippen1 bent in the shape of a buckle at top to hold bridle4 ,bt1 butt2 or1 more specifically1 hammer butt4 ,in some cheap actions the butt is joined to its flange g1 by the means described under the head of wippen flange2 but in this action the center-pin is held firmly in the butt by a small strip of brass containing a set screw2 somewhat obscure in the cut1 but discernible4 ,as explained elsewhere1 all center-pins turn in the flange and not in the middle part4 ,,hs1 hammer shank in rest position4 ,h1 hammer showing wood body or head1 and covering of two layers of felt4 ,h ,r1 hammer rail1 resting on felt cushion1 c1 glued to rail or bracket4 ,the hammer rail is held in position by the rod1 shown under the hammer shank1 which is hinged to the bracket at the lower end1 and which allows it to be moved forward when the soft pedal is used4 ,the soft pedal communicates with this rail by a rod which moves it forward and thereby shortens the stroke of the hammers and produces a softer tone4 sr1 spring rail screwed to the brackets4 ,this rail supports the light wire springs which assist the hammers in returning to rest position4 ,s1 string4 ,d1 is the damper head secured to the damper wire by a set screw4 ,,dl1 damper lever1 working in damper flange g1 which is screwed to main rail4 s1 spoon2 so called from its shape4 ,it is screwed into the wippen4 ,when the key is struck1 the motion on the wippen throws the spoon forward1 pushing the lower end of damper lever forward1 and releasing the damper from its contact with the string4 ,the damper is held against the string by the wire spring which is seen running from the damper flange to the top of the damper lever4 ,,dr1 damper rod4 ,this is a rod running from the left or bass end of the action to the right as far as the dampers are continued in the treble4 ,it is acted upon by the loud or damper pedal1 which raises the outer projection1 and by being hinged to the main rail about the same height as this projection1 the entire rod is thrown outward against the lower ends of the damper levers1 releasing all the dampers simultaneously4 ,this being the only office of the right pedal1 it is readily seen that this pedal does not increase the loudness1 but simply sustains any number of tones struck successively1 giving the effect of more volume4 ,the student should familiarize himself with all technical terms used in this lesson1 as they will be referred to frequently in the succeeding lessons on repairing and regulating4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,,iii4 ,without reference to anything but the cut1 give technical names for parts of action represented by the following letters or abbreviations3 #a4 ,bnc ,r1 c1 ,g ,p1 ,,bp1 ,ky1 ,l4 #b4 ,bm1 ,cpn1 ,e1 ,w1 j1 js1 g1 and ,m ,r4 #c4 ,rr1 ,b ,c1 ,b ,r1 ,b ,c ,w1 ,bl1 and ,bl ,w4 #d4 ,bt1 ,h1 ,h ,s1 ,h ,r1 and sr4 #e4 ,s1 ,d1 ,d ,l1 ,d ,r1 s1 ,b1 and ,b ,b4 #f4 ,explain the purpose and movements of the jack4 #g4 ,describe a flange and the joint of same4 #h4 ,give names of the four flanges shown in cut4 #i4 ,what is the purpose of the back catch and back check8 #aj4 ,explain the mechanical action of the damper pedal1 and its effect when used2 also1 that of the soft pedal4 ,,lesson ,,iv4 ,,action ,,of ,,square ,,and ,,grand ,,pianos4 ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,square ,,piano4 ,up to about the year #ahgj1 the square was the popular piano4 ,the grand has always been too expensive for the great music-loving masses1 and previous to this time the upright had not been developed sufficiently to assert itself as a satisfactory instrument4 ,the numerous objections to the square piano forced its manufacture to be discontinued a few years after the introduction of the improved new upright4 ,square pianos that come1 at the present day1 under the hand of the tuner1 are usually at least fifteen years old1 and more frequently twenty or more4 ,however1 in some localities the tuner will meet numbers of these pianos and he will find them a great source of revenue1 as they are almost invariably in need of repair4 ,compare the three cuts of actions in the study of this lesson4 ,the main constituent parts of the square action are similar in appearance to those of the upright2 in fact1 most of the parts are the same in name and office4 ,however1 the parts are necessarily assembled very differently4 ,in the square action1 the hammers strike in a vertical direction1 while in the upright they strike in a horizontal direction2 the motion of the key being the same in both4 ,of the three types1 the square is the simplest action1 as many of the parts seen in the upright and grand are entirely absent in the square4 ,beginning with the key1 it has its balance pin1 guide pin1 cushions1 etc41 practically the same as in the other types4 ,the bottom1 or key rocker1 is reversed in the square2 the end transmitting the motion being nearest the performer4 ,the extension and wippen are absent in the square1 as the jack is attached directly to the bottom or key-rocker4 ,the back check is screwed to the key1 and as the hammer head rests against it after striking1 the use of the contrivance called the back catch in the upright is unnecessary4 ,illustration3 ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,square ,,piano4 ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,square ,,piano4 ,a4 ,action ,frame4 ,b's ,indicate the ,cushions1 or ,bushing1 of felt1 cloth or leather4 ,c4 ,balance ,rail4 ,d4 ,balance ,pin4 ,round4 ,e4 ,mortised ,cap for ,balance ,pin4 ,bushed4 ,f4 ,key4 ,g4 ,lead4 ,h4 ,back ,check4 ,i4 ,bottom or ,key ,rocker4 ,j4 ,bottom ,screws2 used to regulate height of ,jack4 ,k4 ,jack4 ,l4 ,jack ,spring2 concealed under ,bottom4 ,m4 ,center ,pin to ,jack4 ,n4 ,hammer ,rail4 ,o4 ,regulating ,screw4 ,p4 ,regulating ,button4 ,q4 ,flange ,rail4 ,r4 ,flange4 ,split4 ,s4 ,flange ,rail ,screw4 ,t4 ,flange ,screw1 to regulate jaws of flange4 ,u4 ,hammer ,butt4 ,v4 ,center ,pin4 ,w4 ,hammer ,stem or ,shank4 ,x4 ,hammer ,head4 ,y4 ,hammer ,felt4 ,treble hammers sometimes capped with buckskin in old instruments4 ,,top ,,action ,,of ,,square ,,piano4 #a4 ,damper ,lifter ,wire4 #b4 ,damper ,lifter ,buttons4 #c4 ,damper ,felt4 #d4 ,damper ,head4 #e4 ,damper ,lever4 #f4 ,damper ,leads4 #g4 ,shade1 supported by wire stanchions1 on top of which are screwed shade buttons4 #h4 ,damper ,rail4 ,tilted by ,loud ,pedal ,rod which raises all the dampers simultaneously4 #i4 ,damper ,flange4 #aj4 ,flange ,screw4 #aa4 ,damper ,lever ,center ,pin4 ,,the ,,trap ,,action consists of ,pedals1 ,pedal ,braces1 ,pedal ,feet1 ,pedal ,rods1 ,roller ,boards or ,elbows1 ,studs1 ,plugs1 ,trap ,springs1 ,wires and ,lifter ,rods4 ,the cut is from the ,french action4 ,nearly all square pianos in use at the present time are of this type4 ,the hammer rail in the square1 in addition to serving its purpose as a rest for the hammers1 also serves the purpose of the regulating rail1 as you will see the regulating screw1 with its button1 attached to it4 ,this rail is stationary in the square1 not moving toward the strings and shortening the stroke as it does in the upright when the soft pedal is used4 ,the soft pedal in the square piano simply interposes a piece of felt between each hammer and its corresponding string or strings4 ,this felt being much softer than that of the hammers1 the tone is greatly subdued4 ,the mechanical arrangement of the dampers is very different in the square from that in the upright4 ,the dampers are above the strings4 ,instead of springs to hold them against the strings1 they simply rest upon them with their weight4 ,in many old squares some of the dampers fall upon nodal points1 causing defective damping or harmonic after-tones4 ,the stationary parts of the square action are3 action frame1 to which is secured the balance rail1 balance pins and guide pins1 hammer rail1 flange rail1 and damper rail4 ,when the key is struck1 the parts that move upward are3 the back end of the key1 bottom1 jack1 hammer1 back check1 damper wire and damper lever4 ,the hammer falls back upon the back check immediately after striking1 and remains there until the key is released1 when all movable parts fall to rest position4 ,the action of the jack is the same in all types4 ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,grand ,,piano4 ,after thoroughly going over the details of the action of the square and upright pianos1 there remains very little to describe in the action of the grand4 ,the grand action partakes of the characteristics of both the upright and the square1 and is somewhat more complicated than either4 ,the bottom and extension are almost identical with those of the upright2 the extension1 however1 is necessarily very short4 ,the wippen is of different construction1 and somewhat more complicated in the grand4 ,the flange rail in the grand is made also to serve the purpose of regulating rail1 as the hammer rail is made to do in the square4 ,the back check is identical with that of the square4 ,the dampers are the same in their working principles as those of the square1 but are generally different in construction2 yet1 some squares have the same arrangement of dampers as those shown in the cut of the grand action4 ,the soft pedal of the grand shifts the entire action to the right so that the hammers strike only two and in some cases only one of the strings4 ,the student should study the three types of actions from the actions themselves1 if possible4 ,illustration3 ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,grand ,,piano4 ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,grand ,,piano4 #a4 ,indicates the felt1 cloth or leather1 upon which the various parts of the action rest1 or fall noiselessly4 #b4 ,key4 #c4 ,bottom2 sometimes called ,key ,rocker4 #d4 ,extension2 split at lower end to receive center pin in ,bottom4 #e4 ,wippen ,support4 #f4 ,jack4 #g4 ,jack ,spring4 #h4 ,flange and ,regulating ,rail4 #i4 ,regulating ,screw1 ,button and ,cushion4 #aj4 ,escapement ,lever4 #aa4 ,regulating ,screw in ,hammer ,flange1 for ,escapement ,lever4 #ab4 ,check ,wire1 for ,escapement ,lever4 #ac4 ,screw to regulate fall of ,escapement ,lever4 #ad4 ,lever ,flange1 screwed to ,flange ,rail4 #ae4 ,hammer ,shank4 #af4 ,hammer4 #ag4 ,back ,check4 #ah4 ,damper ,lever1 leaded4 #ai4 ,damper ,wire1 screwed into upright4 #bj4 ,damper ,wire ,guide1 fastened to ,sound-,board4 #ba4 ,damper ,head and ,felt4 #j4 ,center ,pins4 ,holes lined with ,bushing ,cloth4 ,,instructions ,,for ,,removing ,,the ,,square ,,and ,,grand ,,actions4 ,first1 feel or look underneath the keyboard and see if there are screws that go up into the action4 ,in most of the better grade instruments the action is fastened in this way4 ,if the screws have square heads1 your tuning hammer will fit them and bring them out2 if common screws1 a screw-driver will suffice4 ,look through the opening in the sound board where the hammers strike and see that they are all down before pulling out the action1 lest they break off by catching on the under side of the sound board4 ,this is almost sure to happen if actions are out of order4 ,in most square pianos1 the narrow board just below the keys can be removed by being raised straight up1 as it simply sets over screw heads in the key frame4 ,when this strip is removed1 a wire handle will be found in the middle of the key frame by which to draw out the action4 ,in some cases1 and especially in grands1 this strip is secured by screws found underneath the piano4 ,in other pianos1 the action is held by screws in front of the key frame1 which will be revealed by the removal of the front strip1 above referred to4 ,be especially careful in placing the action back into the piano4 ,as a rule1 it is safe to keep the right 7long7 end of the square action bearing against the right side of entrance1 being sure that one end of action does not get ahead1 which might cause some of the hammers to strike the props for which the openings are left in the back extremities of action4 ,while the action is out1 study carefully the purpose of every part and its movements1 referring to this and the previous lesson until you have thoroughly mastered the entire mechanism4 ,do not rest until you can name correctly everything you see and know its use so well that you could explain it satisfactorily to an inquirer4 ,sometimes the tuner is asked a great many perplexing questions and is expected to respond intelligently4 ,we have dealt with the three types of actions that are most commonly found in the three types of pianos4 ,the student must bear in mind that there are numerous manufacturers of actions1 and that each has his peculiar method of constructing his special action to bring about the desired results1 which are practically the same in all cases2 and consequently1 while a variety of construction will confront the beginner in piano regulating and repairing1 he will understand the construction and requirements of any action that may demand his skill from the foregoing instruction1 if properly mastered4 ,in this1 as in all other mechanical professions1 one's inventive genius must often be summoned to assist in surmounting obstacles which are sure to arise unexpectedly4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,,iv4 #a4 ,from a philosophical point of view1 which do you consider the easiest and most perfect of the three types of actions8 ,also give reasons4 #b4 ,considering the wippen and its attachments as one part1 how many parts move when a key is struck in the upright piano8 ,how many in the square8 #c4 ,name the parts found in the upright action that are absent in the square4 #d4 ,describe the three methods by which soft tone is obtained from use of soft pedal in the three types of actions4 #e4 ,what rail serves two purposes in the square action1 and what are they8 ,what rail serves two purposes in the grand action1 and what are they8 ,,lesson ,v4 ,,regulating ,,and ,,repairing4 ,,faults ,,in ,,pianos1 ,,aside ,,from ,,the ,,action1 ,,and ,,their ,,remedies4 ,one of the most common1 and1 at the same time1 most annoying conditions both to the owner of the piano and the tuner1 is the sympathetic rattle4 ,this trouble is most usual in the square and the grand pianos and is generally due to some loose substance lying on the sound board4 ,the rattle will be apparent only when certain keys are struck1 other tones being perfectly free from it4 ,these tones cause the sound board to vibrate in sympathy1 so to speak1 with the weight of the intruding substance at the point where it lies1 and if it be moved the distance of six inches it will sometimes cease to respond to these particular tones1 but may respond to others1 or cease to cause any trouble4 ,the article may generally be found near the front of the sound board under the top piece of the case1 this being the place where it would most likely fall4 ,no special instrument is made for the purpose of searching for such objects1 but one can be easily devised with which the tuner can feel all over the sound board1 and remove such articles as well as dust and dirt4 ,secure a piece of rattan or good pliable hickory1 and draw it down to the width of half an inch1 thin enough to bend easily1 and long enough to reach anywhere under the stringing or metal plate4 ,by putting a cloth over this stick you can remove anything that comes in its way4 ,some difficulty will be found1 however1 in getting under the plate in some pianos4 ,in case you cannot procure a suitable piece of wood1 a piece of clock spring will be found to answer very well4 ,we have taken from pianos such articles as pencils1 pieces of candy1 dolls1 pointers used by music teachers1 tacks1 nails1 pennies1 buttons1 pieces of broken lamp chimneys1 etc41 etc41 any one of which is sufficient to render the piano unfit for use4 ,the sound board of the upright being vertical prevents its being subject to the above difficulty4 ,a split in the sound board1 in any style of piano1 sometimes causes trouble due to the vibrating edges of the board coming in contact with each other4 ,insert the point of your screwdriver in the crack1 holding it there firmly2 if the rattling stops1 the difficulty is discovered1 and may be remedied by placing a screw or wedge in the crack1 or a wedge of wood1 cork or rubber between the sound board and iron plate or casing1 if the location of the trouble permits4 ,while this method seems a perfunctory one1 it is nevertheless the best the tuner is prepared to do1 for it is next to impossible to glue a crack in the sound board successfully outside of a regular factory or repair shop1 where the instrument may be taken all apart and a new sound board put in or the old one properly repaired4 ,sometimes the sound board gets loose or unglued at the edges1 or the bridges or ribs come loose4 ,any part of the piano where there is vibration or loose material may become the source of the sympathetic rattle1 as even parts of the case vibrate with the tones struck2 so you must examine the panels1 lock1 hinges1 soft pedal bar 7in square71 in fact all parts of the case and woodwork for the location of the trouble4 ,once found1 the remedy will suggest itself4 ,the greatest difficulty is to locate the cause4 ,very frequently this will be found entirely outside of the piano2 a loose window glass1 picture glass1 lamp or other article of furniture in the room may respond to a particular tone or its octave4 ,we have never found the sympathetic rattle in the action2 it has rattles1 but not of this character4 ,any other defect which may be found under this head will only require the exercise of a little mechanical ingenuity to suggest a remedy4 ,,regulating ,,and ,,repairing ,,the ,,upright ,,action4 7,use cut of upright action for reference in following study47 ,we will begin with the key and take up each part of the action in the succession in which motion is transmitted4 #a4 ,key4--,keys stick2 that is1 after being struck1 they fail to come up quickly1 if at all4 ,first ascertain if the trouble is really in the key1 or in the upper part of the action4 ,to do this1 lift the extension or wippen until the upper part of the action is entirely free from the key1 so that you may test the key independently4 ,some keys are leaded so that they will fall in front of the balance rail1 others so that they will fall back of it2 in either case1 lift the low end and let go1 to see if it will fall by its own weight4 ,if it seems quite free1 you may know the trouble is not in the key2 you will also find that when you release the extension or wippen1 it will not fall readily1 showing that the trouble lies in the upper part4 ,if the trouble is found in the key1 examine the guide pin4 ,see if it is placed in a direct line with the key4 ,if so1 and it still binds1 enlarge the hole by pressing the wood back slightly with some wedge-shaped instrument1 if you have not a pair of the key pliers which are used for this purpose4 ,see that the cloth1 with which the hole is bushed1 is not loose and wrinkled4 ,do not oil or grease the guide pin unless such treatment has been previously resorted to1 as the polished pin will work more freely in the dry cloth4 ,do not pinch hard on the pin with rough pliers and spoil the polished surface4 ,sometimes you will find one key warped so that it rubs on the next1 in which case1 plane off a slight shaving to free it4 ,sometimes changing the position of the guide pin will straighten or level the key and make it work all right4 ,the balance pin is subject to some of the same difficulties as the guide pin4 ,see that it sets properly and is not bound by the mortise4 ,sometimes a splinter will be found on one side of a key where the lead has been put in4 ,a piece of any foreign material between two keys generally causes both to stick4 ,where the action is too deep1 that is1 the keys go down farther than they ought1 place cardboard washers under the felt ones around the guide pin1 or raise the felt strip under back end of keys4 ,where the action is too shallow1 place thin washers under those around the balance pin4 ,when this is done1 the whole action must be regulated accordingly1 as this alteration will make a change in the working of the upper part of the action4 #b4 ,the ,bottom or ,capstan4--,this should be so adjusted that when the key falls back to its rest position1 the point of the jack will just spring into its place in the nose of the hammer butt4 ,if held too high1 the jack fails to catch in the nose1 and the key may be struck without producing any effect on the hammer4 ,when the bottom or capstan is too low1 the point of the jack will be some distance below the notch1 which will cause what is known as lost motion1 it being necessary to depress the key a portion of its depth before the jack can act upon the hammer4 ,depress the key slowly1 watching the hammer1 and the fault will be discovered4 ,after a piano has been used for some time1 the keys that are struck most frequently 7those in the middle of the instrument7 will be found to have this fault4 ,the felts under the keys and those which are between the working parts of the action become compressed or worn so that the jack will be found to set so low that there will be lost motion in the key4 ,in this case1 loosen one of the screws in the bottom and turn the other down so as to move the jack upward until nearly all lost motion is taken up4 ,a little play is generally necessary1 but very little4 ,in case the action has a capstan1 simply turn it upward4 #c4 ,back ,check4--,blocking is most usually caused by the back check being too near the back catch1 so that when the key is struck1 the back check holds the hammer against the string4 ,this should be seen after raising the bottom or capstan as above referred to4 ,it will be observed that when this is done on account of the wear of the felts1 the back check will stand much nearer the back catch than it did before1 and will need bending back so as to give the hammer plenty of rebound4 ,a steel instrument with properly shaped notches at the point1 called a regulator1 is used for bending wires in regulating the action4 ,see that the wires stand as nearly in line as is possible4 ,in old actions that are considerably worn1 however1 you will be obliged to alter some more than others4 #d4 ,bridle and ,bridle ,wire4--,in putting in a new bridle1 it should be doubled over at the end and secured to the hammer butt by a small tack4 ,be sure you get it exactly the same length as the others2 otherwise it will be necessary to bend the bridle wire out of line4 ,some tuners glue the bridle around the back catch stem1 but the above method is preferable4 ,the purpose of the bridle is to jerk the hammer back quickly and the wire must be set1 neither so far back as to check the stroke of the hammer1 nor so far forward that the bridle is too slack to draw upon the hammer4 #e4 ,jack4--,the jack itself seldom gets out of order4 ,so long as its flange does not come unglued in the wippen1 or its spring get out of place or broken1 or get tight in its joint1 it will need nothing4 ,its adjustment and action is controlled by the bottom or capstan1 and the regulating button4 #f4 ,regulating ,button4--,this button determines the point in the stroke of the hammer where the jack flies off from the nose of the butt4 ,if the button is too high1 the jack does not fly off soon enough1 and the result is1 that the hammer either blocks against the string or bounces from the jack after the stroke has been made1 striking the string a second or third time from one stroke of the key4 ,the felt punching on the lower side of the button often wears until this trouble prevails4 ,lower the button by turning down the screw on top of the regulator rail2 if lowered too far1 however1 the action is weakened by causing the jack to fly off too soon1 without giving the hammer a sufficient impulse4 ,a regulating screwdriver is used for this1 but in its absence1 a wire hook1 similar to a shoe buttoner1 will turn the screw4 ,the block rail is properly adjusted at the factory and requires no attention4 #g4 ,hammer ,butt4--,the felts and leather on the heel of the hammer butt wear out and must be replaced4 ,the felt cushion1 that is lowest and farthest to the left 7see illustration71 is the one that wears out first4 ,the jack1 in returning to the notch1 strikes this cushion1 and in time wears it away so that the jack in returning strikes the wood of the hammer butt1 producing a sharp click1 which is very annoying1 to say the least4 ,this click is heard at the instant the key rises to its rest position4 ,sometimes1 however1 a similar click is produced by the top of the key striking the board which is set over the keys1 due to the cloth being eaten off by moths1 or a pencil or some other article lying on the keys back of this board4 ,the center pin in the butt of some cheap actions is not held in the butt by metal clip and screw1 and if it gets loose so that it works out1 must be replaced by a larger pin4 ,the size of center pins generally used in the factory1 is 4#jej of an inch in diameter2 the size for repairing should be 4#jec4 ,all of the best actions have the set screw with which to make the pin fast in the butt4 ,hammers stick when the center pin is too tight in the flange4 ,the bushing in the flange often expands4 ,some tuners oil at the ends of the pin with kerosene or wet it with alcohol1 which is very good2 but a better plan is to shrink the bushing with a drop of water on each side so that it will penetrate the bushing4 ,after this is done1 the piano cannot be used for a day or two1 as the water first swells the bushing1 making all the hammers stick2 but when they are dry again1 they will be found free4 ,this may seem a curious method1 but you need not be afraid of it2 it is the most effective4 ,before leaving the hammer butt1 see that the hammer spring is in its place4 #h4 ,hammer ,stem4--,these sometimes warp1 split1 crack1 or come unglued at the butt or hammer4 ,if twisted so far that it does not strike properly on the strings1 or that it binds against the next hammer1 the best thing is to put in a new stem4 ,if merely split or unglued1 it may be repaired4 ,sometimes a click is heard and it will seem impossible to find the cause1 the hammer and stem apparently perfect1 but a close examination will reveal a looseness in the stem somewhere4 ,in putting in a new shank1 drill or chip out the old one1 scrape the holes out clean1 take your measure carefully1 and do not make the new shank too tight1 but large enough to fill the hole snugly4 ,apply glue to the ends of the shank and also in the holes4 ,cedar is used in some makes1 but good maple is stronger1 and is more generally used4 #i4 ,hammers4--,when too hard1 soften with a felt pick4 ,do not raise the felt up1 but stick the pick in the felt just back of the point and this will loosen it up and make it softer and more elastic4 ,where the strings have worn deep grooves1 sandpaper them down nearly even and soften the felt as above4 ,in regluing the felt to the head1 glue only the back ends of the felt1 and clamp with strong rubber band till the glue sets4 ,use tailor's chalk 7fuller's earth7 to clean hammer felts4 ,to harden or draw felts back in shape1 place a damp cloth over them1 and then pass a hot iron over it4 #aj4 ,dampers4--,damper felt often gets hardened so that when it comes against the vibrating string1 it causes a sort of buzzing sound4 ,loosen it up with the pick4 ,imperfect damping can sometimes be corrected in the same way4 ,the damper head sometimes turns round on its wire1 leaving one or two strings undamped4 ,tighten the set screw4 ,see that the dampers are in line2 and that they will stop the tone properly when the key is released4 ,damper springs sometimes break4 ,it is necessary to take out the damper lever to put in a new one4 ,see that the spoons are in line and work properly4 ,press the sustaining pedal down1 and see if all the dampers are in line2 if not1 bend the damper wires with the regulator until they line up perfectly4 #aa4 ,damper ,rod4--,when the sustaining pedal squeaks1 look first to the pedal1 then to the wooden rods leading up to the damper rod4 ,if the trouble is found in any of these1 or the springs1 use sperm oil or vaseline4 ,catch hold of the damper rod at the left behind the action and work it4 ,if it squeaks1 you will have to take out the action and oil the swings where they are hinged to the main rail4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,v4 #a4 ,if you should find a key sticking1 how would you determine the cause8 #b4 ,name all the defects to which the key is subject4 #c4 ,describe the proper adjustment of bottom or capstan4 #d4 ,give two causes of blocking4 #e4 ,give the purpose of the regulating button1 and its proper adjustment4 ,,lesson ,,vi4 ,,regulating ,,and ,,repairing4--7,continued47 ,,the ,,square ,,action4 #a4 ,the key in the square piano is subject to the same troubles as that of the upright1 and requires the same treatment4 ,however1 the keys being much longer are more liable to cause trouble by warping4 #b4 ,bottom or ,key ,rocker4--,unlike in the upright action1 the jack is attached directly to the bottom2 but1 lowering or raising the bottom has the same effect in both cases4 ,the screws regulating the height of the jack can be gotten at with a proper screwdriver4 ,if you have to take out the key in order to regulate the bottom1 first take particular notice of the conditions in respect to the operation of the jack on the hammer4 ,work the key slowly1 to discover if there is lost motion4 ,decide which way the bottom must go and how far1 so that you will not have to remove and replace the key more than once or twice to adjust it4 ,in taking out the key1 remove the board which is set edgewise over the keys immediately back of where the fingers strike1 by taking out the screw at each end4 ,lift the hammer with the finger until the jack falls out of place2 then by lifting the key off the balance pin it can be drawn out4 ,the back check will sometimes rub so hard against the regulating button that it will be bent somewhat1 and must be adjusted after the key is replaced4 ,the bottom is often found to have shrunken2 it rattles at every stroke of the key4 ,this can generally be stopped by simply turning the back screw down until tight1 which can be done without taking the key out4 ,this will rarely be found to alter the jack enough to cause it to fail to return to the notch in the butt4 ,after doing this1 however1 it is well to examine for such a condition4 ,a sluggish motion of the jack is often found in old square pianos caused by the swelling of the wood1 at the point where the jack is hinged to the bottom1 or by the center pin's becoming foul from oxide4 ,this will cause the jack to fail at times to operate on the hammer1 especially in quick repetition4 ,the key is struck with no response4 ,take out the bottom entirely1 and with the fingers press the sides of the bottom inward2 at the same time1 work the jack back and forth4 ,this will generally free it if the jack-spring is all right4 #c4 ,jack4--,as in the upright1 the behavior of the jack depends entirely upon the surrounding members4 ,a very common occurrence in the square piano is a broken jack-spring4 ,this spring is concealed in a groove on the under side of the bottom1 with a linen thread leading around the end of the jack and held fast by a wooden plug4 ,if the spring is found to be long enough1 drive out the plug1 attach a new thread to the spring1 and fasten as before4 ,if a new spring is needed1 one may be made by wrapping some small wire round a piece of music wire of the right size4 #d4 ,the back check1 hammer stem and regulating button are subject to the same faults as their counterparts in the upright1 which may be remedied in the same way4 ,bridles and hammer springs are not needed in the square1 as the weight of the hammer1 moving in a vertical direction1 is sufficient to bring it to its rest position4 #e4 ,hammers1 when made of felt1 will of course require the same treatment as those in the upright4 ,in many old squares the hammers are built up of buckskin4 ,if this becomes beaten down hard1 it is well to cap the hammer with a new soft piece of buckskin1 gluing only at the back ends4 #f4 ,butts and ,flanges4--,a click just as the key comes up1 indicates that the felt cushion1 against which the jack rests1 is worn out and must be replaced4 ,in all square actions the center pin1 in the butt1 is held by friction alone1 but rarely gets loose2 if it should be found loose1 put in a larger pin4 ,the flange1 shown in the cut1 is what is called a split flange4 ,by the set screw ,t1 the jaws can be regulated so that they neither clamp the center pin so tightly as to make the action sluggish nor so loosely as to let the hammer wabble4 ,if the bushing cloth is found to be badly worn1 it is better to put in new1 which must be done neatly1 or the result will not be satisfactory4 ,hammer flanges1 like all other wooden parts1 shrink away from the screw heads and allow the hammer to drift to one side or rattle4 ,while the action is in the piano1 strike the keys to see if there are any that strike improperly4 ,mark the keys so as to indicate just what the trouble is1 so that you will know how to remedy it when the action is out4 ,if the hammers are set so close that they rub against each other1 you may have to cut off a slight shaving of felt1 but this is rarely necessary2 for if properly placed1 there is generally room for all2 yet sometimes the expansion of the felt or warping of the shank makes cutting necessary4 #g4 ,dampers4--,the dampers in the square action depend entirely upon their weight for their efficiency in damping the strings and returning after being raised by the key4 ,often1 after the key is struck1 the damper will not return to its place and the string is undamped4 ,this is generally found to be caused by the wire sticking in the hole through which it passes1 the wire being rusty or bent or some foreign substance being in the hole round the wire4 ,the bushing cloth in the hole may be in such condition as to retard the free passage of the damper wire1 in which case the wire may be heated with a match and run up and down a few times through the hole1 which will free it4 ,the damper may not fall readily on account of a sluggish joint in the flange4 ,work it back and forth as far as it will go a few times2 if necessary1 take it off the damper rail and look for the cause of the trouble4 ,damper flanges get loose on the damper rail and work to one side1 causing defective damping and rattling4 ,see that they are all tight1 and in their places4 ,damper lifter buttons sometimes hold the damper off the string4 ,see that the top button falls so low that the damper lever does not touch it when the key is released4 ,this is accomplished by altering the lower button4 ,examine the damper felts to see if they are moth-eaten1 or have become hardened or in any way impaired4 ,notice the adjustment of the shade2 that it is not too low or too high4 ,the purpose of the shade is to prevent the damper levers from flying up2 but it should be high enough so that the levers do not touch it when the key is depressed gently4 ,defective damping is one of the most annoying conditions1 and when one is employed to regulate a piano thoroughly and put it in order1 he should see that no key is left in which this occurs4 ,strike each key and immediately let it up to see if it stops the sound quickly1 or1 in other words1 damps perfectly2 if it does not1 find the cause and regulate until satisfactory4 #h4 ,the grand action being1 in principle1 practically the same as that of the square and the upright1 containing the same mechanism as is found in those actions1 it is needless to give special instructions concerning it2 as the previous work has given the pupil a thorough knowledge of the requirements of all actions1 their common faults1 and proper methods of regulating to bring about satisfactory results4 ,let us merely remark3 ,study thoroughly the behavior of every component part of each action that comes under your observation2 understand what each part is for1 why it is there1 and how it works or should work properly to fill its office4 ,then regulate and try for results4 ,if you have natural mechanical genius1 a little experience will prepare you to do all regulating and repairing with skill and quickness4 ,,miscellaneous ,,repairs4 ,a few miscellaneous difficulties1 common to all styles of actions1 are occasionally met with and need to be rectified4 #a4 ,broken ,hammer ,shank4--,glue the ends1 lay a nicely fitting piece of wood1 well coated with glue1 on each side and wrap with binding wire4 ,if it is broken off up so close to the hammer as not to permit this1 drill a hole through the hammer head in line with the center of the shank1 with a small-sized screwdriver such as watchmakers use1 and run the wire through this and around the shank1 drawing it firm2 glue as before2 when dry it will be as strong as ever4 ,when the shank is broken off close to the butt1 the same treatment will sometimes answer1 but the strain here is so much greater that it is sometimes necessary to put in a new shank4 ,in fact1 it is always better to do so4 #b4 ,flanges1 damper heads1 and all small wooden parts are liable to break or come unglued4 ,the watchmaker's screwdriver1 the binding wire and the glue must always be at hand for these emergencies4 ,these breaks are generally in places where wrapping is not permissible1 and you are compelled to drill4 ,keep the screwdriver well sharpened and the drilling is easy4 #c4 ,ivories4--,when unglued1 scrape the old glue off1 apply glue to both surfaces and clamp with an ivory clamp or rubber band until the glue is firm4 ,apply the same treatment to ebony sharps4 #d4 ,leads in the keys and the dampers of the square piano get loose and rattle4 ,hammer them just enough to tighten2 too much might split the key4 #e4 ,friction4--,where different materials1 such as wood and felt1 would rub together they are covered with black lead to lubricate them4 ,the point of the jack where it comes in contact with the butt1 the toe of the jack which strikes the regulating button1 and the long wooden capstan which takes the place of the extension and works directly on the under side of the wippen1 which is covered with felt1 are black-leaded4 ,when a key squeaks and goes down reluctantly1 the trouble can usually be traced to these places2 especially to the wooden capstan1 the black lead having worn away4 ,use powdered black lead on these parts4 ,there are many things in this kind of work that require only the exercise of common sense4 ,these we have omitted to mention1 treating only of those things the student does not know intuitively4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,,vi4 #a4 ,when a key snaps or clicks at the instant it is let up1 give two or more conditions that might cause it4 #b4 ,when a key simply rattles1 what parts of the action would you examine for the trouble8 #c4 ,when a key is struck and there is no response1 what may be the cause8 #d4 ,give two causes for defective damping in a square piano4 #e4 ,give cause of and remedy for a squeaking key4 ,,lesson ,,vii4 ,,the ,,study ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,piano ,,tuning4 ,before commencing the systematic study of piano tuning1 we want to impress the student with a few important facts that underlie the great principles of scale building and general details of the art4 ,if you have followed the suggestions1 and thoroughly mastered the work up to this point you should now have some idea of the natural and artificial phenomena of musical tones2 you should have a clear knowledge at least of the fundamental principles of harmony and the technical terms by which we designate intervals and their relation to each other2 a knowledge of the general and specific construction of the different types of pianos and their actions1 and the methods employed to put them in perfect working condition mechanically4 ,this admitted1 we are ready to consider the art of tuning--one1 the appreciation of which is in direct proportion to the understanding of it4 ,let us now view this art for a moment in its past1 present and future phases4 ,you may be a little surprised at what we are about to tell you1 but it is a fact1 gleaned from long experience in traveling and observation1 that many1 verily1 the majority of pretending tuners have not so much practical knowledge of a piano as you should now have4 ,we have no doubt that you1 if you have a musical ear1 could1 without further instruction1 improve an instrument that was extremely out of tune4 ,you could detect and improve a tone which you should find extremely sharp or flat2 you could detect and improve a unison that might be badly out1 and you might produce an entire scale in which none of the chords would be unbearably rasping4 ,but this is not enough4 ,you should aspire to perfection1 and not stop short of it4 ,it may seem to us who are musicians with thorough knowledge of the simpler laws of music1 that a scale of eight tones is a simple affair2 simply a natural consequence2 the inevitable arrangement2 but a historical investigation will prove our mistake4 ,we will not go into the complexities of musical history2 suffice it to say that the wisest philosophers who lived prior to the fourteenth century had no idea of a scale like that we have at the present day4 ,in piano tuning1 as in other arts1 many theories and conjectures have been advanced regarding the end to be sought and the means by which to gain it4 ,there must be a plan--a system by which to work4 ,the question is3 ,what plan will insure the most perfect results with the least amount of labor8 ,in ,piano ,tuning1 this plan is called the ,temperament4 ,webster defines the word thus3 ,a system of compromises in the tuning of pianofortes1 organs1 etc4 ,later on we will discuss fully what these compromises are1 and why they exist2 for it is in them that the tuner demonstrates his greatest skill1 and to them that the piano owes its surpassing excellence as a musical instrument1 and1 consequently1 its immense popularity4 ,for the present1 the term temperament may be considered as meaning the plan or pattern from which the tuner works4 ,no subject of so great importance in the whole realm of musical science has been so strangely neglected as the method of setting a temperament4 ,even musicians of high learning1 in other respects1 give little attention to scale building1 and hence they differ widely on this topic4 ,there can be but one best way of doing a thing1 and that best way should be known and followed by the profession2 but1 strange to say1 there are a half dozen systems of setting the temperament in vogue at the present time4 ,the author has1 in his library1 a book on ,temperament which1 if followed1 would result in the production of a scale in which every chord would be unbalanced1 harsh and unbearable4 ,this is mentioned merely to call attention to the fact that great differences of opinion exist among scientific men regarding this important subject4 ,in the author's practice1 he was curious to try the different methods1 and has tuned by all the systems of temperament in vogue at the present1 or that have ever been used extensively4 ,his experience has proved that all but one is hampered with uncertainty1 difficulty of execution or imperfection in some respect4 ,a system which will positively insure the strictest uniformity of difference in pitch of any given interval in all the keys1 and that makes use of the fewest intervals in tuning and the easiest ones--those in which a discrepancy is most readily perceived by the ear1 is the best system to adopt and follow4 ,such a system is the one followed by the author for years with the most satisfying results4 ,he does not claim any high honor by this statement1 but does claim that1 while his system differs but slightly from some of the others1 it is more certain to produce the best results1 is the simplest to understand1 is the easiest to follow1 and1 consequently1 is the best4 ,to become a piano tuner of the highest skill1 many things are necessary2 but what may be lacking at the outset may be acquired by study and practice4 ,more depends upon the ear than upon anything else2 but no person1 however talented1 has a sufficiently acute perception to tune perfectly without some culture4 ,some practice in tuning is necessary to bring the ear to that acuteness of perception so indispensable in certain portions of the instrument4 ,it may also be said that no extraordinary talent for music is absolutely necessary1 since many of the best tuners are not musicians in any sense of the word4 ,patience and perseverance1 associated with conscientiousness and an insatiable desire to excel1 are among the foremost requirements4 ,having these it only remains to gain a thorough knowledge of every detail of the work2 a little practice will bring skill and dexterity4 ,finally1 we would impress the student with the strenuous importance of thoroughly mastering the lessons which immediately follow4 ,you should be inspired with the utmost confidence1 both in yourself and in the possibilities of the profession to those who merit a reputation4 ,and1 while this lesson contains little technical instruction1 if by its study the pupil is impressed with the maxims herein presented1 and is inspired to make earnest effort in his future work1 both in acquiring and in practicing the art of ,piano ,tuning1 the author will feel that its mission is1 by no means1 the least significant one in the course4 ,,lesson ,,viii4 ,,the ,,temperament4 ,some tuners favor the term1 laying the bearings1 others say setting the temperament4 ,the former is more commonplace1 as it merely suggests the idea of laying a number of patterns by which all others are to be measured4 ,the latter term is extremely comprehensive4 ,a lucid definition of the word temperament1 in the sense in which it is used here1 would require a discourse of considerable length4 ,the following statements will elicit the full meaning of the term3 ,the untutored would1 perhaps1 not think of setting a temperament to tune by4 ,he would likely begin at some unfavorable point1 and tune by various intervals1 relying wholly upon his conception of pitch for the accuracy of the tones tuned1 the same as a violinist in tuning his four strings4 ,to be sure1 pitch has to be reckoned as a rude guide in setting the tones2 but if pitch alone were the guide we would never attain to any degree of perfection in scale forming4 ,we could never adjust our tones to that delicate fineness so much appreciated1 which gives to the instrument its surpassing brilliancy4 ,beats1 ,waves1 ,pulsations4--,to obtain absolute accuracy the tuner is guided by beats1 waves or pulsations4 ,these three words refer to one and the same thing1 a phenomenon that occurs in certain intervals when two tones are sounded together that are not in exact tune4 ,these terms must not be confounded with the term sound wave or vibrations so often used in discussions on the theory of sound4 ,however1 we think the student is thoroughly familiar with these terms4 ,the rate of vibration of two tones not in a favorable ratio1 may produce the phenomenon known as beats1 waves1 or pulsations4 ,vibrations may exist either with or without pulsations4 ,these pulsations are most perceptible in the unison1 the octave and the fifth4 ,they are more easily perceived in the unison than in the octave1 and more easily in the octave than in the fifth4 ,they are also perceptible in the perfect fourth1 the major and minor third and some other intervals1 but on account of their obscurity1 and because these intervals are unnecessary in tuning they have long since been abandoned in temperament making 7with the exception of the perfect fourth7 by most tuners1 although a few still make use of it4 ,we do not say that the fourth is unsafe to tune by1 but you will see later on why it is not best to make use of it4 ,the ,fischer ,system or method of setting the temperament has these advantages3 ,it uses but two kinds of intervals3 the fifth and octave2 by employing two whole octaves in place of one or one and a half1 nearly all of the middle section of strings is brought up in pitch which insures that the temperament will stand better while the remaining strings are being tuned2 and the alternate tuning of the fifth and octave makes the system exceedingly easy to learn1 enabling the tuner to work with less mental strain4 ,also the two-octave system gives a greater compass for testing1 thus insuring greater accuracy4 ,if you have access to a piano1 it will now be well for you to begin training the ear to perceive the pulsations4 ,if you cannot use a piano1 you can train very well by the use of a mandolin1 guitar1 violin1 zither1 or any stringed instrument4 ,an instrument with metal strings1 however1 is better1 as the vibrations are more perfect4 ,you will1 of course1 know that the front top panel of the case has to be removed to give access to the tuning pins1 and that you should have a regular tuning hammer and set of mutes to begin with4 ,the panel is held in place in various ways3 sometimes with buttons1 sometimes with pins set in slots1 and sometimes with patent fastenings2 but a little examination will reveal how it may be removed4 ,to produce a tone of a certain pitch1 the string must be of the right thickness and length4 ,these items are decided by the scale draughtsman in the factory2 if incorrect1 the tuner can do nothing to improve them4 ,to produce the correct pitch1 the string must be of the right tension1 which is brought about by winding one end of the string around the tuning pin until the proper degree of tension is reached4 ,this must be decided by the ear of the tuner4 ,two strings of equal thickness and equal length produce the same tone when brought to the same tension2 the result being known as unison4 ,a defect in the unison being the easiest way in which to detect the beats1 we advise that the student practice on it first4 ,after taking out the panel1 the first thing to do is to place your rubber mute between two trios of strings 7if the piano is an upright which usually has three strings to a note7 so that only two strings sound when the key is struck4 ,select some key near the middle of the keyboard4 ,strike the key strongly and hold it down4 ,if the two sounding strings give forth a smooth1 unwavering tone--a tone that sounds as if it came from one string1 the unison is perfect4 ,if you find it so1 remove the mute and place it on the other side of the trio of strings4 ,if the piano has been tuned recently by an expert1 you may have to continue your search over several keys before you find an imperfect unison2 but you will rarely find a piano in such perfect tune that it will not contain some defective unisons4 ,however1 if you do not succeed in finding a defective unison1 select a key near the middle of the key-board1 place your mute so that but two strings sound1 and with your tuning hammer loosen one of the strings very slightly4 ,now you will notice a throbbing1 beating sound1 very unlike the tone produced when the strings were in exact unison4 ,see if you can count the beats4 ,if you have lowered the tension too much1 the beats will be too rapid to permit counting4 ,now with a steady and gradual pull1 with the heel of the hand against some stationary part1 bring the string up slowly4 ,you will notice these waves become slower and slower4 ,when they become quite slow1 stop and count1 or wave the hand in time with the pulsations4 ,after practicing this until you are sure your ear has become accustomed to the beats and will recognize them again1 you may proceed to perfect the unison4 ,bring the string up gradually as before1 and when the unison is reached you will hear one single1 simple1 musical tone1 as though it were from a single string4 ,never have more than two strings sounding at once4 ,you might go over the entire key-board now and correct all the unisons if the scale is yet fairly good4 ,see which string is1 in your opinion1 the nearest to correctness with respect to the scale1 and tune the other one1 or two1 as the case may be1 to it4 ,if the scale is badly out of symmetry1 you will not get very good results without setting a temperament2 but the tones will sound better individually4 ,this experiment is more for practice than for improving the piano4 ,the cause of the waves in a defective unison is the alternate recurring of the periods when the condensations and rarefactions correspond in the two strings and then antagonize4 ,this is known in physics as interference of sound-waves4 ,the ,octave4--,when perfectly tuned1 the upper tone of the octave has exactly double the number of vibrations of the lower4 ,if the lower tone vibrates #ajjj per second1 the upper will vibrate #bjjj4 ,of course1 the ear cannot ascertain in any way the number of vibrations per second2 we use these figures for scientific demonstration only4 ,however1 there is an instrument called the ,siren which is constructed for the purpose of ascertaining the number of vibrations per second of any given tone1 and which is delicately accurate in its work4 ,by its assistance we know1 definitely1 a great many things regarding our musical scale of which we would otherwise be ignorant4 ,but1 while we cannot1 by the ear1 ascertain these numbers1 we can1 by the interference of sound-waves above referred to1 ascertain1 to the most delicate point1 when the relative vibration of two strings is mathematically exact1 if they are tuned to a unison1 octave1 fifth1 etc4 ,practice now on tuning the octave4 ,find an octave in which the upper tone is flat4 ,mute all but one string in the lower tone to make sure of getting a pure tone1 then select one string 7the middle one if a piano has three strings7 of the upper octave and proceed to pull it up gradually until all beats disappear4 ,this being done1 bring up the unisons4 ,the ,fifth4--,in our system1 when we speak of a fifth1 we mean a fifth upward4 ,the fifth to ,c is ,g1 to ,g is ,d1 and so on4 ,the vibration of the fifth is one and a half times that of its fundamental4 ,if a certain ,f vibrates #ajj1 the ,c1 a fifth above1 will vibrate #aej1 if tuned so that no waves are heard2 but for reasons which will be fully explained later1 the fifth cannot be tuned with mathematical precision4 ,on account of certain peculiarities in our tempered scale1 the fifth must always be left somewhat flatter than perfect4 ,this fact is always learned with some astonishment by beginners4 ,in your practice on tuning the fifth1 first tune it perfectly1 so that no waves are perceptible2 then flat it so that there are very slow waves2 less than one per second4 ,some authorities say there should be three beats in five seconds2 but the tuner must learn to determine this by his own judgment4 ,the tempering of the fifth will be treated exhaustively in subsequent lessons4 ,we advise that you confine your practice to the unison until you are sure you have a clear conception of its peculiarities in all portions of the key-board1 except the extreme lower and upper octaves2 do not try these yet4 ,do not begin to practice on the octave until you are very familiar with the beats in the unison4 ,by gradual progress you will avoid confusing the ear1 each step being thoroughly mastered before advancing to the next4 ,remember1 there is nothing that is extremely difficult in learning to tune if you but understand what has to be done1 go about it systematically1 and have plenty of patience4 ,in this lesson we give you our system of setting the temperament2 that is1 the succession in which the different tones of the temperament are tuned4 ,we advise1 however1 that you do not attempt to set a temperament until after studying ,lesson ,,ix1 which enters into the theory of temperament1 testing1 etc4 ,two octaves are used for the temperament3 an octave above1 and an octave below middle ,c4 ,middle ,c can be told by its being1 the ,c nearest the name of the piano on the name board4 ,in other words1 it is the fifth ,c from the highest ,c1 and the fourth from the lowest in the modern piano1 which has seven and a third octaves4 ,the diagram illustrates the two octaves of the key-board1 and shows how each key is designated in giving the system of temperament4 ,pitch4--,the ,piano ,manufacturers' ,association has established what is known as international pitch4 ,tuning-forks made to this pitch are marked ,c-#eag4c1 meaning that our #c;,c vibrates #eag4c per second4 ,concert pitch is nearly a half step higher than this4 ,some manufacturers still tune their instruments to this higher pitch4 ,if it is desired to tune a piano to a certain pitch1 say concert pitch1 tune the ,c that is an octave above middle ,c by a concert pitch tuning-fork or pipe4 ,if1 however1 the piano is too much below that1 it is not safe to bring it up to it at one tuning4 ,but1 say it will permit tuning to concert pitch2 after this ,c 7#c;,c7 is well laid1 tune middle ,c 7#b;,c7 by it1 then tune the ,c octave below middle ,c 7#a;,c7 to middle ,c4 ,having #a;,c for a starting point1 proceed by tuning a fifth up1 then its octave1 then a fifth1 then an octave1 always tuning the octave whichever way is necessary to keep within the two octaves4 ,the simplicity of this system can be readily seen2 yet for the use of beginners1 we give on the following page the whole succession of intervals as they are taken in setting the temperament4 ,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,octaves ,,used ,,in ,,temperament1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,succession ,,in ,,which ,,they ,,are ,,tuned4 ,c ,d ,f ,g ,a ,c ,d ,f ,g ,a ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,a ,b ,c 99 #a;,c1 #a;,d1 #a;,e1 etc4 #b;,c1 #b;,d1 #b;,e1 etc4 #c;,c -------------------- --------------------- ,middle ,c begins second octave2 known by the asterisk 7997 under it4 ,,the ,,fischer ,,system ,,of ,,setting ,,temperament4 ,first1 tune #c;,c by tuning pipe1 or as directed4 ,by this1 tune #b;,c1 and by #b;,c tune #a;,c2 then tune as follows3 ,by #a;,c tune #a;,g fifth above1 #a;,g #b;,g octave above1 #a;,g #b;,d fifth above1 #b;,d #a;,d octave below1 ,by #a;,d tune #a;,a fifth above1 #a;,a #b;,a octave above1 #a;,a #b;,e fifth above1 #b;,e #a;,e octave below1 #a;,e #a;,b fifth above1 #a;,b #b;,b octave above1 #a;,b #b;,f fifth above1 #b;,f #a;,f octave below1 #a;,f #b;,c fifth above1 #b;,c #a;,c octave below1 #a;,c #a;,g fifth above1 #a;,g #b;,g octave above1 #a;,g #b;,d fifth above1 #b;,d #a;,d octave below1 #a;,d #a;,a fifth above1 #a;,a #b;,a octave above1 #a;,a7,b7 #b;,f fifth above1 #b;,f #a;,f octave below1 #a;,f try #b;,c fifth above4 ,you will observe this last fifth brings you back to the starting-point 7,c74 ,it is called the wolf1 from the howling of its beats when the tuner has been inaccurate or the piano fails to stand4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,,viii4 #a4 ,what is the cause of the beats or pulsations8 #b4 ,have you practiced tuning the unison8 #c4 ,can you distinguish the beats clearly8 #d4 ,have you practiced tuning the octave8 #e4 ,do you thoroughly understand the system of setting the temperament as set forth in this lesson8 ,,lesson ,,ix4 ,,specific ,,instructions ,,in ,,temperament ,,setting4 ,pitch4--,it is a matter of importance in tuning an instrument that it be tuned to a pitch that will adapt it to the special use to which it may be subjected4 ,as previously explained1 there are at present two different pitches in use1 international pitch and concert pitch1 the latter being about a half-step higher than the former4 ,the tuner should carry with him a tuning pipe or fork tuned to #c;,c in one or the other of these pitches4 ,the special uses to which pianos are subjected are as follows3 #ast1 ,as a concert piano4--,in the opera house1 music hall1 and occasionally in the church1 or even in a private dwelling1 the piano is used along with orchestral instruments4 ,all orchestral instruments are supposed to be tuned to concert pitch4 ,the stringed instruments can1 of course1 be tuned to any pitch2 but the brass and wood-wind instruments are not so adjustable4 ,the brass instruments are provided with a tuning slide and their pitch can be lowered somewhat1 but rarely as much as a half-step1 while the clarinet should not be varied from its fixed pitch if it can be avoided4 ,it is desirable1 then1 that all pianos used with orchestra should be tuned to concert pitch if possible4 #b;d1 ,as an accompaniment for singing4--,some persons use their pianos mainly for accompanying4 ,it may be that singers cannot sing high1 in which case they are better pleased if the piano is tuned to international pitch1 while others1 especially concert singers1 have their pianos at a higher pitch4 ,where a piano is used in the home to practice by1 and the singer goes out to various places to sing with other instruments1 we have always advised to have the piano tuned as near concert pitch as it would bear1 for the reason that if one practices with an instrument tuned to concert pitch he may feel sure of reaching the pitch of any instrument he may be called upon to sing with elsewhere4 ,the great majority of pianos are left entirely to the tuner's judgment in regard to pitch4 ,the tuner knows1 or should know1 to what pitch to tune the piano to insure the best results4 ,the following suggestions will be found entirely safe to follow in deciding the question of the pitch to which to tune3 ,ascertain if the piano is used with orchestra1 and if clarinets and cornets are used4 ,if so1 and the piano is not too much below concert pitch1 and bids fair to stand the tension1 draw your #c;,c up to concert pitch and proceed to lay your temperament4 ,if the piano is nearly as low as international pitch1 do not try to bring it up at one tuning to concert unless the owner demands it1 when you may explain that it will not stand in tune long4 ,the slightest alteration possible1 in the pitch of an instrument1 insures the best results1 so far as standing in tune is concerned4 ,if everything be left to your judgment1 as it generally is1 and the instrument is for general1 rather than special use1 set your temperament at such a pitch as will require the least possible alteration4 ,this may be arrived at in the following way3 ,ascertain which portion of the instrument has fallen the most4 ,the overstrung bass strings generally stand better than any other1 and in most cases you will find the ,c which is two octaves below middle ,c to be higher 7relatively7 than any other ,c in the piano4 ,if so1 take it as a basis and tune by perfect octaves up to #c;,c4 ,the supposition is1 that all strings in an instrument gradually grow flatter2 and in a well-balanced instrument they should do so2 but the fact is1 that in certain cases some of the strings will grow sharper4 ,the cause is this3 ,the tension of the strings on one side of a brace in the metal plate or frame is greater than on the other side2 and if there is any yielding of the structure1 the result is that the overpowered strings are drawn tighter4 ,this condition1 however1 is rare in the better grade of pianos4 ,here is a rule which is safe1 and will prove satisfactory in ninety-nine per cent4 of your practice where no specific pitch is prescribed3 ,take the three ,cs included in the temperament and the ,c that is an octave below #a;,c1 and try each of them with its octave until you ascertain which is the sharpest with respect to the others2 then1 bring the others up to it4 ,you now have your pitch established in the ,cs and can begin on #a;,c and proceed to set the temperament4 ,before applying this rule1 it is well to try #c;,c with tuning pipe or fork to see if the piano is below international pitch4 ,we would not advise tuning any modern piano below international pitch4 ,aim to keep within the bounds of the two prescribed pitches2 never higher than concert1 nor lower than international4 ,if1 however1 you should be called on to tune an old instrument that has become extremely low1 with very rusty strings1 and perhaps with some of them broken1 that by all appearances will not stand even international pitch1 you may be compelled to leave it somewhat below4 ,the ,continuous ,mute4--,do not try to set a temperament without a continuous mute4 ,its purpose is to mute all outside 7#ast and #c;d,c7 strings of all the trios included in the temperament so that none but the middle strings sound when struck by the hammers4 ,the advantage of this can be seen at once4 ,the tuner tunes only the middle strings in setting the temperament and thereby avoids the confusion of hearing more than two strings at once4 ,the continuous mute is then removed and the outside strings tuned to the middle4 ,without the continuous mute1 he would be obliged to tune all three of the strings of the unison before he could tune another interval by it1 and it would not be so safe to tune by as a single string1 as there might be a slight discrepancy in the unison giving rise to waves which would confuse the ear4 ,the tuner should hear but two strings at once while setting a temperament2 the one he is tuning by and the one he is tuning4 ,a continuous mute is a strip of muting felt of the proper thickness to be pushed in between the trios of strings4 ,simply lay it across a portion of the strings and with a screwdriver push it in between the trios just above where the hammers strike4 ,in the square piano1 which has but two strings to a key1 the continuous mute cannot be used and you will be obliged to tune both strings in unison before leaving to tune another interval4 ,this is one of the reasons why the square piano does not1 as a rule1 admit of as fine tuning as the upright4 ,c ,the three strings composing the trio or unison are numbered #ast1 #b;d or middle1 and #c;d1 from left to right4 ,it is presumed that you are now familiar with the succession of tones and intervals used in setting the temperament4 ,fix these things in your mind and the system is easy to understand and remember4 ,keep within the bounds of the two octaves laid out in ,lesson ,x4 ,tune all fifths upward2 that is1 tune all fifths by their fundamentals4 ,for example1 starting on #a;,c1 use it as fundamental1 and by it1 tune its fifth1 which is ,g2 then1 having ,g tuned1 use it as fundamental1 and by it tune its fifth1 which is ,d1 and so on through4 ,after tuning a fifth1 always tune its octave either above or below1 whichever way it lies within the bounds of the two octaves4 ,after going through one or two experiments in setting temperament you will see the simplicity of this system and will1 perhaps1 not be obliged to refer to the diagram any more4 ,for various reasons1 it is better to try your experiments on an upright piano1 and the better the piano1 the more satisfactory will be the result of the experiment4 ,you should have no hesitancy or timidity in taking hold of a good piano1 as you cannot damage it if you use good judgment1 follow instructions1 and work carefully4 ,the first caution is1 be very careful that you draw a string but slightly sharper than it is to be left4 ,rest the heel of the hand against some stationary part of the piano and pull very slowly1 and in a direct right angle with the tuning pin so as to avoid any tendency to bend or spring the pin4 ,we would advise now that you find an upright piano that is badly out of tune1 if you have none of your own1 and proceed to set a temperament4 ,the following instructions will suffice for your first experiments1 and by them you may be able to get fairly good results2 however1 the theory of temperament1 which is more thoroughly entered into in ,lesson ,,xii1 must be studied before you can have a thorough understanding of the causes and effects4 ,after deciding1 as per instructions on pitch which ,c you will tune first1 place the tuning hammer 7using the star head if pins are square7 on the pin with the handle extending upwards or inclined slightly to the right4 7,the star head1 which will fit the pin at eight different angles1 enables the tuner to select the most favorable position47 ,to raise the pitch1 you will1 of course1 pull the hammer to the right4 ,in order to make a string stand in tune1 it is well to draw it very slightly above the pitch at which it is to remain1 and settle it back by striking the key repeatedly and strongly1 and at the same time bearing gently to the left on the tuning hammer4 ,the exact amount of over-tension must be learned by practice2 but it should be so slight as to be barely perceptible4 ,aim to get the string tuned with the least possible turning of the hammer4 ,the tension of the string should be evenly distributed over its entire length2 that is1 over its vibrating middle and its dead ends beyond the bridges4 ,therefore it is necessary to strike the key strongly while tuning so as to make the string draw through the bridges4 ,by practice1 you will gain control of the hammer and become so expert that you can feel the strings draw through the bridges and the pins turn in the block4 ,having now tuned your three ,cs1 you will take #a;,c as a starting point1 and by it1 tune #a;,g a perfect fifth above4 ,tune it perfect by drawing it gradually up or down until all pulsations disappear4 ,now after making sure you have it perfect1 flatten it until you can hear slow1 almost imperceptible waves2 less rapid than one per second4 ,this flattening of the fifth is called tempering1 and from it comes the word temperament4 ,the fact that the fifth must always be tuned a little flatter than perfect1 is a matter which always causes some astonishment when first learned4 ,it seems1 to the uninitiated1 that every interval should be made perfect2 but it is impossible to make them so1 and get a correct scale1 as we shall see later on4 ,now tune #b;,g by the #a;,g just tuned1 to a perfect octave4 ,remember that all octaves should be left perfect--all waves tuned out4 ,now try #b;,g with #b;,c4 ,if your octaves are perfect1 this upper fifth will beat a little faster than the lower one1 but the dissonance should not be so great as to be disagreeable4 ,proceed to your next fifth1 which is #b;,d1 then its octave1 #a;,d1 then its fifth and so on as per directions on the system card4 ,you can make no chord trials until you have tuned ,e1 an interval of a major third from ,c4 ,having tuned #b;,e1 you can now make your first trial3 the chord of ,c4 ,if you have tempered your fifths correctly1 this chord will come out in pleasing harmony1 and yet the ,e will be somewhat sharper than a perfect major third to ,c4 ,now1 just for experiment1 lower #b;,e until all waves disappear when sounded with #b;,c4 ,you now have a perfect major third4 ,upon sounding the chord1 you will find it more pleasing than before2 but you cannot leave your thirds perfect4 ,draw it up again to its proper temperament with ,a1 and you will notice it has very pronounced beats when sounded with ,c4 ,proceed with the next step1 which is that of tuning #a;,b1 fifth to #a;,e4 ,when tuned1 try it as a major third in the chord of ,g4 ,at each step from this on1 try the note just tuned as a major third in its proper chord4 ,remember1 the third always sounds better if lower than you dare to leave it2 but1 on the other hand1 it must not be left so sharp as to be at all unpleasant when heard in the chord4 ,as to the position of the chord for these trials1 the second position1 that is1 with the third the highest1 is the most favorable1 as in this position you can more easily discern excessive sharpness of the third1 which is the most common occurrence4 ,when you have gone through the entire system and arrived at the last fifth1 #a;,f-#b;,c1 you should find it nearly as perfect as the rest1 but you will hardly be able to do so in your first efforts4 ,even old tuners frequently have to go over their work a second or third time before all fifths are properly tempered4 ,by this system1 however1 you cannot go far wrong if you test each step as directed1 and your first chord comes up right4 ,if the first test1 ,g-,c-,e1 proves that there is a false member in the chord1 do not proceed with the system1 but go over the first seven steps until you find the offending members and rectify4 ,do not be discouraged on account of failures4 ,no one ever set a correct temperament at the first attempt4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,,ix4 #a4 ,define the terms1 ,international ,pitch1 and ,concert ,pitch4 #b4 ,how would you arrive at the most favorable pitch at which to tune a piano1 if the owner did not suggest any certain pitch8 #c4 ,what is the advantage in using the continuous mute8 #d4 ,tell what is necessary in the tuning of a string to insure it to stand well8 #e4 ,what would result in the major third ,c-,e1 if all the fifths1 up to ,e1 were tuned perfect8 ,,lesson ,x4 ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,temperament4 ,the instructions given in ,lessons ,,viii and ,,ix cover the subject of temperament pretty thoroughly in a way1 and by them alone1 the student might learn to set a temperament satisfactorily2 but the student who is ambitious and enthusiastic is not content with a mere knowledge of how to do a thing2 he wants to know why he does it2 why certain causes produce certain effects2 why this and that is necessary1 etc4 ,in the following lessons we set forth a comprehensive demonstration of the theory of ,temperament1 requirements of the correct scale and the essentials of its mathematics4 ,equal ,temperament4--,equal temperament is one in which the twelve fixed tones of the chromatic scale,d are equidistant4 ,any chord will be as harmonious in one key as in another4 ,d ,the chromatic scale is a succession of all the half steps in the compass of one octave4 ,counting the octave tone1 it contains thirteen tones1 but we speak of twelve1 as there are only twelve which differ in name4 ,unequal ,temperament4--,unequal temperament was practiced in olden times when music did not wander far from a few keys which were favored in the tuning4 ,you will see1 presently1 how a temperament could be set in such a way as to favor a certain key 7family of tones7 and also those keys which are nearly related to it2 but1 that in favoring these keys1 our scale must be constructed greatly to the detriment of the remote keys4 ,while a chord or progression of chords would sound extremely harmonious in the favored keys1 they would be so unbalanced in the remote keys as to render them extremely unpleasant and almost unfit to be used4 ,in this day1 when piano and organ music is written and played in all the keys1 the unequal temperament is1 of course1 out of the question4 ,but1 strange to say1 it is only within the last half century that the system of equal temperament has been universally adopted1 and some tuners1 even now1 will try to favor the flat keys because they are used more by the mass of players who play little but popular music1 which is mostly written in keys having flats in the signature4 ,upon the system table you will notice that the first five tones tuned 7not counting the octaves7 are ,c1 ,g1 ,d1 ,a and ,e2 it being necessary to go over these fifths before we can make any tests of the complete major chord or even the major third4 ,now1 just for a proof of what has been said about the necessity of flattening the fifths1 try tuning all these fifths perfect4 ,tune them so that there are absolutely no waves in any of them and you will find that1 on trying the chord ,g-,c-,e1 or the major third ,c-,e1 the ,e will be very much too sharp4 ,now1 let your ,e down until perfect with ,c1 all waves disappearing4 ,you now have the most perfect1 sweetest harmony in the chord of ,c 7,g1 ,c1 ,e7 that can be produced2 all its members being absolutely perfect2 not a wave to mar its serene purity4 ,but1 now1 upon sounding this ,e with the ,a below it1 you will find it so flat that the dissonance is unbearable4 ,try the minor chord of ,a 7,a-,c-,e7 and you will hear the rasping1 throbbing beats of the too greatly flattened fifth4 ,so1 you see1 we are confronted with a difficulty4 ,if we tune our fifths perfect 7in which case our fourths would also be perfect71 our thirds are so sharp that the ear will not tolerate them2 and1 if we tune our thirds low enough to banish all beats1 our fifths are intolerably flat4 ,the experiment above shows us beautifully the prominent inconsistency of our scale4 ,we have demonstrated1 that if we tune the members of the chord of ,c so as to get absolutely pure harmony1 we could not use the chord of ,a on account of the flat fifth ,e1 which did duty so perfectly as third in the chord of ,c4 ,there is but one solution to this problem3 ,since we cannot tune either the fifth or the third perfect1 we must compromise1 we must strike the happy medium4 ,so we will proceed by a method that will leave our fifths flatter than perfect1 but not so much as to make them at all displeasing1 and that will leave our thirds sharper than perfect1 but not intolerably so4 ,we have1 thus far1 spoken only of the octave1 fifth and third4 ,the inquisitive student may1 at this juncture1 want to know something about the various other intervals1 such as the minor third1 the major and minor sixth1 the diminished seventh1 etc4 ,but please bear in mind that there are many peculiarities in the tempered scale1 and we are going to have you fully and explicitly informed on every point1 if you will be content to absorb as little at a time as you are prepared to receive4 ,while it may seem to us that the tempered scale is a very complex institution when viewed as a specific arrangement of tones from which we are to derive all the various kinds of harmony1 yet1 when we consider that the chromatic scale is simply a series of twelve half-steps--twelve perfectly similar intervals--it seems very simple4 ,bear in mind that the two cardinal points of the system of tuning are3 #a4 ,all octaves shall be tuned perfect4 #b4 ,all fifths shall be tuned a little flatter than perfect4 ,you have seen from ,lesson ,,viii that by this system we begin upon a certain tone and by a circle of twelve fifths cover every chromatic tone of the scale1 and that we are finally brought around to a fifth1 landing upon the tone upon which we started4 ,so you see there is very little to remember4 ,later on we will speak of the various other intervals used in harmony3 not that they form any prominent part in scale forming1 for they do not2 but for the purpose of giving the learner a thorough understanding of all that pertains to the establishing of a correct equal temperament4 ,if the instruction thus far is understood and carried out1 and the student can properly tune fifths and octaves1 the other intervals will take care of themselves1 and will take their places gracefully in any harmony in which they are called upon to take part2 but if there is a single instance in which an octave or a fifth is allowed to remain untrue or untempered1 one or more chords will show it up4 ,it may manifest itself in one chord only4 ,a tone may be untrue to our tempered scale1 and yet sound beautifully in certain chords1 but there will always be at least one in which it will howl4 ,for instance1 if in the seventh step of our system1 we tune ,e a little too flat1 it sounds all the better when used as third in the chord of ,c1 as we have shown in the experiment mentioned on page #id of this lesson4 ,but1 if the remainder of the temperament is accurate1 this ,e1 in the chord in which ,e acts as tonic or fundamental1 will be found to be too flat1 and its third1 ,g sharp1 will demonstrate the fact by sounding too sharp4 ,the following suggestions will serve you greatly in testing3 ,when a third sounds disagreeably sharp1 one or more fifths have not been sufficiently flattened4,e ,while it is true that thirds are tuned sharp1 there is a limit beyond which we cannot go1 and this excessive sharpness of the third is the thing that tuners always listen for4 ,e ,in making these suggestions1 no calculation is made for the liability of the tones tuned to fall4 ,this often happens1 in which case your first test will display a sharp third4 ,in cases like this it is best to go on through1 taking pains to temper carefully1 and go all over the temperament again1 giving all the strings an equal chance to fall4 ,if the piano is very bad1 you may have to bring up the unisons roughly1 inuring this portion of the instrument to the increased tension1 when you may again place your continuous mute and set your temperament with more certainty4 ,the fundamental sounds better to the ear when too sharp4 ,the reason for this is the same as has already been explained above2 namely1 if the fundamental is too sharp the third will be less sharp to it1 and1 therefore1 nearer perfect4 ,after you have gone all over your temperament1 test every member of the chromatic scale as a fundamental of a chord1 as a third1 and as a fifth4 ,for instance3 try middle ,c as fundamental in the chord of ,c 7,g-,c-,e or ,e-,g-,c or ,c-,e-,g74 ,then try it as third in the chord ,a flat 7,e flat-,a flat-,c or ,c-,e flat-,a flat or ,a flat-,c-,e flat74 ,then try it as fifth in the chord of ,f 7,c-,f-,a or ,a-,c-,f or ,f-,a-,c74 ,take ,g likewise and try it as fundamental in the chord of ,g in its three positions1 then try it as a third in the chord of ,e flat1 then as fifth in the chord of ,c4 ,in like manner try every tone in this way1 and if there is a falsely tempered interval in the scale you will be sure to find it4 ,you now understand that the correctness of your temperament depends entirely upon your ability to judge the degree of flatness of your fifths2 provided1 of course1 that the strings stand as tuned4 ,we have told you something about this1 but you may not be able at once to judge with sufficient accuracy to insure a good temperament4 ,now1 we have said1 let the fifths beat a little more slowly than once a second2 but the question crops up1 ,how am ,i to judge of a second of time8 ,the fact is that a second of time is quickly learned and more easily estimated1 perhaps1 than any other interval of time2 however1 we describe here a little device which will accustom one to estimate it very accurately in a short time4 ,the pendulum oscillates by an invariable law which says that a pendulum of a certain length will vibrate always in a corresponding period of time1 whether it swings through a short arc or a long one4 ,a pendulum thirty-nine and a half inches long will vibrate seconds by a single swing2 one nine and seven-eighths inches long will vibrate seconds at the double swing1 or the to-and-fro swing4 ,you can easily make one by tying any little heavy article to a string of either of these lengths4 ,measure from the center of such heavy article to the point of contact of the string at the top with some stationary object4 ,this is a sure guide4 ,set the pendulum swinging and count the vibrations and you will soon become quite infallible4 ,having acquired the ability to judge a second of time you can go to work with more confidence4 ,now1 as a matter of fact1 in a scale which is equally tempered1 no two fifths beat exactly alike1 as the lower a fifth1 the slower it should beat1 and thus the fifths in the bass are hardly perceptibly flat1 while those in the treble beat more rapidly4 ,for example1 if a certain fifth beat once a second1 the fifth an octave higher will beat twice a second1 and one that is two octaves higher will beat four times a second1 and so on1 doubling the number of beats with each ascending octave4 ,in a subsequent lesson1 in which we give the mathematics of the temperament1 these various ratios will be found accurately figured out2 but for the present let us notice the difference between the actual tempered scale and the exact mathematical scale in the point of the flattening of the fifth4 ,take for example #a;,c1 and for convenience of figuring1 say it vibrates #abh per second4 ,the relation of a fundamental to its fifth is that of #b to #c4 ,so if #abh is represented as #b1 we think of it as #b times #fd4 ,then with another #fd added1 we have #aib1 which represents #c4 ,in other words1 a fundamental has just two-thirds of the number of vibrations per second that its fifth has1 in the exact scale4 ,this would mean a fifth in which there would be no beats4 ,now in the tempered scale we find that ,g vibrates #aia4gh instead of #aib2 so we can easily see how much variation from the mathematical standard there is in this portion of the instrument4 ,it is only about a fourth of a vibration4 ,this would mean that1 in this fifth we would hear the beats a little slower than one per second4 ,take the same fifth an octave higher and take #b;,c as fundamental1 which has #bef for its vibration number4 ,the ,g1 fifth above1 should vibrate #chd1 but in the tempered scale it beats but #chc4eg1 almost half a vibration flat4 ,this would give nearly #b beats in #c seconds4 ,these figures simply represent to the eye the ratios of these sounds1 and it is not supposed that a tuner is to attain to such a degree of accuracy1 but he should strive to arrive as near it as possible4 ,it is well for the student to practice temperament setting and regular tuning now if he can do so4 ,after getting a good temperament1 proceed to tune by octaves upward1 always testing the tone tuned as a fifth and third until his ear becomes sufficiently true on the octave that testing otherwise is unnecessary4 ,tune the overstrung bass last and your work is finished4 ,if your first efforts are at all satisfactory you should be greatly encouraged and feel assured that accuracy will reward continued practice4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,x4 #a4 ,what is meant by the term equal temperament8 #b4 ,what is meant by the term unequal temperament8 #c4 ,webster defines the term temperament thus3 ,a system of compromises in the tuning of pianofortes1 organs1 etc4 ,explain fully what these compromises are4 #d4 ,in testing chords to ascertain if temperament is correct1 what is the main thing to listen for as a guide8 #e4 ,in what three chords would you try the tone ,a1 in testing your temperament8 #f4 ,with what results have you demonstrated the experiments in this and the previous lesson8 ,,lesson ,,xi4 ,,the ,,technique ,,or ,,modus ,,operandi ,,of ,,piano ,,tuning4 ,at this juncture1 it is thought prudent to defer the discussion of scale building and detail some of the requirements connected with the technical operations of tuning4 ,we do this here because some students are1 at this stage1 beginning to tune and unless instructed in these things will take hold of the work in an unfavorable way and1 perhaps1 form habits that will be hard to break4 ,especially is this so in the matter of setting the mutes or wedges4 ,as to our discussion of scale building1 we shall take that up again1 that you may be more thoroughly informed on that subject4 ,some mechanics do more work in a given time than others1 do it as well or better1 and with less exertion4 ,this is because they have method or system in their work so that there are no movements lost4 ,every motion is made to count for the advancement of the cause4 ,others go about things in a reckless way1 taking no thought as to time and labor-saving methods4 ,in spite of any instruction that can be given1 the beginner in piano tuning will not be able to take hold of his work with the ease and the grace of the veteran1 nor will he ever be able to work with great accuracy and expedition unless he has a systematic method of doing the various things incident to his profession4 ,in this lesson1 as its subject implies1 we endeavor to tell you just how to begin and the way to proceed1 step by step1 through the work1 to obtain the best results in the shortest time1 with the greatest ease and the least confusion4 ,,manipulation ,,of ,,the ,,tuning ,,hammer4 ,it may seem that the tightening of a string by turning a pin1 around which it is wound1 by the aid of an instrument fitting its square end1 is such a simple operation that it should require no skill4 ,simply tightening a string in this manner is1 to be sure1 a simple matter2 but there is a definite degree of tension at which the vibrating section of the string must be left1 and it should be left in such a condition that the tension will remain invariable1 or as near so as is possible4 ,the only means given the tuner by which he is to bring about this condition are his tuning hammer and the key of the piano1 with its mechanism1 whereby he may strike the string he is tuning4 ,the purpose of the tuning hammer is that of altering the tension4 ,the purpose of striking the string by means of the key is twofold3 first1 to ascertain the pitch of the string1 and second1 to equalize the tension of the string over its entire length4 ,consider the string in its three sections1 viz43 lower dead end 7from hitch pin to lower bridge71 vibrating section 7section between the bridges71 and upper dead end 7from upper bridge to tuning pin74 ,when placing the hammer on the tuning pin and turning to the right1 it is evident that the increased tension will be manifest first in the upper dead end4 ,in pianos having agraffes or upper bridges with a tightly screwed bearing bar which makes the strings draw very hard through the bridge1 some considerable tension may be produced in the upper dead end before the string will draw through the bridge and increase the tension in the vibrating middle4 ,in other pianos the strings render very easily over the upper bridge1 and the slightest turn of the hammer manifests an alteration of pitch in the vibrating section4 ,as a rule1 strings render much more easily through the upper1 than the lower bridge4 ,there are two reasons for this3 ,one is1 that the construction of the lower bridge is such as to cause a tendency in this direction1 having two bridge-pins which stand out of line with the string and bear against it in opposite directions2 the other is that the lower bridge is so much farther from the point where the hammer strikes the string that its vibration does not help it through as it does at the upper bridge4 ,now1 the thing desired is to have the tension equally distributed over the entire length of the string4 ,tension should be the same in the three different sections4 ,this is of paramount importance4 ,if this condition does not obtain1 the piano will not stand in tune4 ,yet1 this is not the only item of importance4 ,the tuning pin must be properly set1 as tuners term it4 ,by setting the pins1 we mean1 leaving it so balanced with respect to the pull of the string that it will neither yield to the pull of the string nor tend to draw it tighter4 ,coming now to the exact manipulation of the tuning hammer1 there are some important items to consider4,f ,now1 if the tuning hammer is placed upon the tuning pin with the handle straight upward1 and it is pulled backward 7from the tuner7 just a little1 before it is turned to the right1 the tension will be increased somewhat before the pin is turned1 as this motion1 slight as it may seem1 pulls the pin upward enough to draw the string through the upper bridge an infinitesimally small distance1 but enough to be perceptible to the ear4 ,now if the hammer were removed1 the tendency of the pin would be to yield to the pull of the string2 but if the pin is turned enough to take up such amount of string as was pulled through the bridge1 and1 as it is turned1 is allowed to yield downward toward the pull of the string1 it will resume its balance and the string will stand at that pitch1 provided it has been rendered properly over the bridges4 ,f ,bear in mind1 the foregoing and following instructions are written with reference to the upright piano4 ,the square does not permit the observance of these suggestions so favorably as the upright4 ,we set forth these details that you may have a thorough understanding of what is meant by setting the pins1 and while it is not always advisable to follow this method in tuning1 there are some pianos that will stand more satisfactorily when treated in this way4 ,this method is recommended where the string has become rusty at the upper bridge1 as it is loosened at the bridge before it is started to wind around the pin which prevents it breaking at that point4 ,we believe that ninety per cent4 of strings break right where they start around tuning pin4 ,a very good way to draw a string up is to give the hammer an alternate up and down motion1 pulling the handle lightly to you1 then from you1 as you draw it up2 not enough to bend or break the pin or to crush the wood around the pin1 but just enough to make the string take on its increased tension equally4 ,in regard to the lower bridge1 the strings will rarely render through them properly unless brought to a tension a little higher than it is desired they shall be left4 ,if this is done1 a few sharp blows of key will generally make them equalize all right2 then press the hammer gently to the left1 not enough to turn the pin in the socket1 but to settle it back to a well-balanced position4 ,after a little practice the tuner can generally guess precisely how much over-tension to allow4 ,if the pin is left slightly sprung downward1 its tendency will be to spring upward1 thereby sharpening the string2 so be careful to leave the pins in perfect balance1 or as tuners say1 properly set4 ,the foregoing1 while applicable to the whole scale1 is not so urgent in the over-strung bass4 ,the strings are so heavy and the tension is so great that they will generally render quite freely over the bridges1 and it is only necessary to bring them up to pitch1 handling the hammer in such a manner as to leave the pins well balanced2 but it is not necessary to give them over-tension and beat them down again2 in fact it is not advisable1 as a rule4 ,at all times1 place the hammer on the pin as far as it will go1 and strike the key while drawing a string up4 ,in tuning the square piano1 it is not possible to set the hammer upon the pin with the handle in line with1 and beyond the string1 as is the rule in the upright4 ,where the square has the square pin1 the hammer 7with star head7 can always be set with the handle to the right of the string somewhat1 but usually almost in line with the string and almost directly over it1 and the manipulation of the hammer is much the same1 though the tuner is at a greater disadvantage1 the pins being farther from him and he has not such a good rest for his hand4 ,many old squares have the oblong pin4 ,in this case1 use the double hammer head4 ,on the one side the hole in the head is made with the longer diameter in line with the handle1 and on the other side the hole is made with the longer diameter at right angles with the handle2 so that if you cannot get a favorable position with one end you can with the other4 ,we have said nothing about which hand to use in striking the keys and in wielding the hammer1 but it is customary to handle the hammer with the right hand and it is always advisable for two very good reasons3 ,it gives the tuner a much more favorable position at the instrument2 and1 as the right hand is more used in ordinary every-day operations and is more trained in applying degrees of force and guiding tools1 it is more easily trained to manipulate the hammer properly4 ,training the hand in the skilful use of the hammer is of the utmost importance and comes only by continued practice1 but when it is trained1 one can virtually feel the tones with the hammer4 ,at first1 the young tuner is almost invariably discouraged by his slow progress4 ,he must remember that1 however fine his ear and however great his mechanical ability1 he has much to acquire by training in both1 and he must expect to be two or three times longer in finishing off a job of tuning at the outset than will be necessary after he has had a few months' practice4 ,you can be your own trainer in these things if you will do a little rational thinking and be content to hasten slowly4 ,and as to using the left hand1 we would not advise it in any event4 ,,setting ,,the ,,mutes ,,or ,,wedges ,,in ,,the ,,upright4 ,as stated in a previous lesson1 the mutes should be so placed that only two strings are heard at one time3 the one the tuner is tuning1 and the one he is tuning by4 ,it is true that this is an easy matter1 but it is also true that very few tuners know how to do it in a way to save time and avoid placing the mutes two or more times in the same place4 ,by using a little inventive genius during early practice the author succeeded in formulating a system of muting by which he accomplished the ends as stated above1 and assures the reader that a great deal of time can be saved by following it4 ,after removing the muffler or any other instrumental attachment which may be in the piano in the way of placing the mutes1 the first thing to do is to place the continuous mute so that all the outside strings of the trios are damped4 ,the temperament is then set by tuning the middle strings1 of the twenty-five trios comprised in the two-octave temperament as demonstrated in a previous lesson4 ,after satisfying yourself by trials or test that the temperament is true1 you then remove the continuous mute and proceed to bring the outside strings in unison with the middle one4 ,now1 your #a;,c is sometimes found to be the first pair in the over-strung bass1 which usually has two strings to a key1 while in other pianos1 #a;,c is the first trio in the treble stringing1 and in many cases it is the second trio in the treble4 ,for illustration1 we will say it is the second in the treble4 ,in speaking of the separate strings of a trio we will number them #ast1 #b;d1 and #c;d1 from left to right1 as in foot-note1 page #hi1 ,lesson ,,ix4 ,setting the mutes in bringing up the unisons in the temperament is exceedingly simple4 ,the following diagram will1 we think1 demonstrate clearly the method employed3 ,upper row---- o o o o o o o o o o ,tim- ,middle row--- o o o o o o o o o o ing ,lower row---- o o o o o o o o o o ,pins4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,bridge4 99 #a 99 #b 99 #c 99 #d 99 #e 99 #f 99 #g 99 #h 99 #i 99 c _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ ,treble stringing4 ,b ,c ,c ,d ,d ,e ,f ,f ,g ,g c ,the upper row of ,o's represents the upper row of tuning pins4 ,to these are attached the first string of each unison4 ,to the middle row are attached the second or middle strings1 and to the lower row are attached the third strings4 ,the diagonal lines represent the three strings of the unison 7trio74 ,the asterisk on the middle one indicates that it has been tuned4 ,but one mute is used in tuning these unisons4 ,it is inserted between the trios in the order indicated by the figures #a1 #b1 #c1 etc4 ,when inserted in place #a1 between unisons ,b and ,c1 it will mute the first string of ,c2 so the first string of the trio to tune is always the third4 ,then place your mute in place #b and tune the first string of ,c4 ,then1 without moving your mute1 bring up third string of ,c1 then third string of ,d and so on4 ,by this method1 you tune two strings every time you reset your mute4 ,when through with the temperament1 the next step is usually that of tuning the bass2 but while we are in the treble we will proceed to give the method of setting the mutes in the upper treble beyond the temperament4 ,all three strings have yet to be tuned here1 and we have to use two mutes4 ,the unisons are tuned in regular succession upward the same as in the example above4 ,the mute that is kept farthest to the left1 is indicated by the letter ,a1 and the one kept to the right1 by the letter ,b1 as in diagram below4 7,t e m p e r a m e n t 7 #a #b #c #d #e #f #g c4 999999 999999 999999 999999 999999 999999 ,a ,b _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ _/_/_/ ,c ,d ,d ,e ,f ,f ,g c4 ,the mutes are first placed in the places indicated by the figures #a and #b1 thereby muting first and third strings of the first unison beyond the temperament1 which is #c;,c4 ,the middle string of this unison is now tuned by its octave below4 7,if you have left imperfect unisons in your temperament1 rendering it difficult to tune octaves by them1 it will be well to replace your continuous mute so as to tune from a single string47 ,having tuned the middle string of ,c1 move mute ,b to place #c and tune third string of ,c4 ,then1 move mute ,a to place #b and tune first string of ,c4 ,your mutes are now already set for tuning the middle string of ,d4 ,after this is done1 proceed to move mute ,b first1 then mute ,a2 tuning middle string1 then third1 then first1 moving step by step as indicated in example above until the last unison is reached4 ,by this system you tune three strings every time the mutes are set twice4 ,the over-strung bass usually has but two strings to a unison and only one mute is needed4 ,in the extreme low or contra-bass1 pianos have but one string1 in tuning which the mute is discarded4 ,set the mute as indicated by the figures #a1 #b1 #c1 etc41 in the diagram below1 always tuning the string farthest to the right by its octave above2 then move the mute to its next place and tune the left string by the right4 ,here1 again1 you tune two strings every time you reset your mute4 ,the ,i's represent bass strings4 #i #h #g #f #e #d #c #b #a ,i ,i ,i ,i ,i ,i ,i ,,ii ,,ii ,,ii ,,ii ,,ii ,,ii ,,ii ,,ii ,,ii ,c ,c ,d ,d ,e ,f ,f ,g ,g ,a ,a ,b ,c ,contra-,bass4 ,bass4 ,treble4 ,,setting ,,the ,,mutes ,,in ,,the ,,square ,,piano4 ,in setting the temperament in the square piano1 simply mute the string farthest to the left and tune the one to the right until the temperament is finished1 then set the mutes in the bass the same as in the upright4 ,in tuning the treble1 if the piano has three strings1 the same system is used as has been described for the upright4 ,when the piano has but two strings to a unison1 as is usually the case1 employ the system described for the bass of the upright1 but reversed1 as you are proceeding to the right instead of to the left4 ,remove the shade before beginning to tune a square piano1 and if necessary1 lay the dampers back and trace the strings to their pins so as to mark them4 ,certain pins are marked to guide the tuner in placing his hammer4 ,the way we have always marked them is as follows3 ,mark both pins of each pair of ,c strings with white crayon4 ,mark only one pin of each pair of ,g's4 ,knowing the intervals of the other keys from the marked ones1 you can easily calculate correctly1 upon which pin to set your hammer to tune any string desired4 ,for instance1 if you are striking ,d1 next above middle ,c1 you calculate that1 as ,d is the third chromatic interval from middle ,c1 you are to set the hammer on one or the other of the pins belonging to the third pair to the right of the pair marked as middle ,c4 ,b would be first pair to the left1 ,f would be first pair to the left of the marked ,g1 and so on4 ,it is usually necessary to mark only those pairs near the middle of the piano1 but we advise the beginner to mark throughout the scale1 as by so doing he may avoid breaking a string occasionally by pulling on some other than the one he is sounding4 ,this will occur in your early practice if you do not use caution4 ,and for safety1 some tuners always mark throughout4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,,xi4 #a4 ,by what means is the tuner enabled to make the strings draw through the bridges and equalize the tension throughout their entire length8 #b4 ,state conditions that may result from a tuning pin's not being properly set4 #c4 ,in this system of muting1 state definitely which string is tuned first after the continuous mute is removed4 ,which second8 ,which third8 #d4 ,after the unisons are finished in the temperament1 which string is tuned next1 if we go immediately from the temperament to the over-strung bass8 ,which second8 ,which third8 #e4 ,upon beginning to tune the treble beyond the temperament1 which string is tuned first8 ,which second8 ,which third8 #f4 7a7 ,how many mutes are used in tuning outside the strings of the temperament8 7b7 ,in what proportion is the number of times the mute is changed to the number of strings tuned8 #g4 7a7 ,how many mutes are used in tuning the treble beyond the temperament8 7b7 ,in what proportion is the number of times the mute is changed to the number of strings tuned8 #h4 ,which pairs of pins are marked in the square piano to guide the tuner in placing his hammer8 ,also1 how are they marked8 #i4 ,having marked your pins as instructed1 how would you find the pins belonging to a pair of strings struck by ,f on key-board8 ,how those struck by ,g8 #aj4 ,tell what you can of the requirements necessary to insure that a piano will stand in tune4 ,,lesson ,,xii4 ,,mathematics ,,of ,,the ,,tempered ,,scale4 ,one of the first questions that arises in the mind of the thinking young tuner is3 ,why is it necessary to temper certain intervals in tuning8 ,we cannot answer this question in a few words2 but you have seen1 if you have tried the experiments laid down in previous lessons1 that such deviation is inevitable4 ,you know that practical scale making will permit but two pure intervals 7unison and octave71 but you have yet to learn the scientific reasons why this is so4 ,to do this1 requires a little mathematical reasoning4 ,in this lesson we shall demonstrate the principles of this complex subject in a clear and comprehensive way1 and if you will study it carefully you may master it thoroughly1 which will place you in possession of a knowledge of the art of which few tuners of the present can boast4 ,in the following demonstrations of relative pitch numbers1 we adopt a pitch in which middle ,c has #bef vibrations per second4 ,this is not a pitch which is used in actual practice1 as it is even below international 7middle ,c #beh4fe72 but is chosen on account of the fact that the various relative pitch numbers work out more favorably1 and hence1 it is called the ,philosophical ,standard4 ,below are the actual vibration numbers of the two pitches in vogue2 so you can see that neither of these pitches would be so favorable to deal with mathematically4 ,international--#c;,c--#eag4c4 ,concert--#c;,c--#edj4 7,let us state here that the difference in these pitches is less than a half-step1 but is so near that it is generally spoken of as being just a half-step47 ,temperament denotes the arrangement of a system of musical sounds in which each one will form a serviceable interval with any one of the others4 ,any given tone must do duty as the initial or key-note of a major or of a minor scale and also as any other member2 thus3 ,c must serve as #a1 in the key of ,c major or ,c minor4 #b1 ,b ,b #c1 ,a ,a #d1 ,g ,g #e1 ,f ,f #f1 ,e ,e #g1 ,d ,c ,likewise1 all other tones of the instrument must be so stationed that they can serve as any member of any scale1 major or minor4 ,this is rendered necessary on account of the various modulations employed in modern music1 in which every possible harmony in every key is used4 ,,rationale ,,of ,,the ,,temperament4 ,writers upon the mathematics of sound tell us1 experience teaches us1 and in previous lessons we have demonstrated in various ways1 that if we tune all fifths perfect up to the seventh step 7see diagram1 pages #hb1 #hc7 the last ,e obtained will be too sharp to form a major third to ,c4 ,in fact1 the third thus obtained is so sharp as to render it offensive to the ear1 and therefore unfit for use in harmony1 where this interval plays so conspicuous a part4 ,to remedy this1 it becomes necessary to tune each of the fifths a very small degree flatter than perfect4 ,the ,e thus obtained will not be so sharp as to be offensive to the ear2 yet1 if the fifth be properly altered or tempered1 the third will still be sharper than perfect2 for if the fifths were flattened enough to render the thirds perfect1 they 7the fifths7 would become offensive4 ,now1 it is a fact1 that the third will bear greater deviation from perfect consonance than the fifth2 so the compromise is made somewhat in favor of the fifth4 ,if we should continue the series of perfect fifths1 we will find the same defect in all the major thirds throughout the scale4 ,we must1 therefore1 flatten each fifth of the complete circle1 ,c-,g-,d-,a-,e-,b-,f-,c-,g or ,a-,e-,b-,f-,c1 successively in a very small degree2 the depression1 while it will not materially impair the consonant quality of the fifths1 will produce a series of somewhat sharp1 though still agreeable and harmonious major thirds4 ,we wish1 now1 to demonstrate the cause of the foregoing by mathematical calculation1 which1 while it is somewhat lengthy and tedious1 is not difficult if followed progressively4 ,first1 we will consider tone relationship in connection with relative string length4 ,students who have small stringed instruments1 guitar1 violin1 or mandolin1 may find pleasure in demonstrating some of the following facts thereupon4 ,one-half of any string will produce a tone exactly an octave above that yielded by its entire length4 ,harmonic tones on the violin are made by touching the string lightly with the finger at such points as will cause the string to vibrate in segments2 thus if touched exactly in the middle it will produce a harmonic tone an octave above that of the whole string4 ,two-thirds of the length of a string when stopped produces a tone a fifth higher than that of the entire string2 one-third of the length of a string on the violin1 either from the nut or from the bridge1 if touched lightly with the finger at that point1 produces a harmonic tone an octave higher than the fifth to the open tone of that string1 because you divide the string into three vibrating segments1 each of which is one-third its entire length4 ,reason it thus3 ,if two-thirds of a string produce a fifth1 one-third1 being just half of two-thirds1 will produce a tone an octave higher than two-thirds4 ,for illustration1 if the string be tuned to #a;,c1 the harmonic tone produced as above will be #b;,g4 ,we might go on for pages concerning harmonics1 but for our present use it is only necessary to show the general principles4 ,for our needs we will discuss the relative length of string necessary to produce the various tones of the diatonic scale1 showing ratios of the intervals in the same4 ,in the following table1 #a represents the entire length of a string sounding the tone ,c4 ,the other tones of the ascending major scale require strings of such fractional length as are indicated by the fractions beneath them4 ,by taking accurate measurements you can demonstrate these figures upon any small stringed instrument4 ,funda- ,major ,major ,perfect ,perfect ,major ,major ,oc- mental ,second ,third ,fourth ,fifth ,sixth ,seventh tave ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,a ,b ,c #a #h_/i #d_/e #c_/d #b_/c #c_/e #h_/ae #a_/b ,to illustrate this principle further and make it very clear1 let us suppose that the entire length of the string sounding the fundamental ,c is #cfj inches2 then the segments of this string necessary to produce the other tones of the ascending major scale will be1 in inches1 as follows3 ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,a ,b ,c #cfj #cbj #bhh #bgj #bdj #baf #aib #ahj ,comparing now one with another 7by means of the ratios expressed by their corresponding numbers7 the intervals formed by the tones of the above scale1 it will be found that they all preserve their original purity except the minor third1 ,d-,f1 and the fifth1 ,d-,a4 ,the third1 ,d-,f1 presents itself in the ratio of #cbj to #bgj instead of #cbd to #bgj 7which latter is equivalent to the ratio of #f to #e1 the true ratio of the minor third74 ,the third1 ,d-,f1 therefore1 is to the true minor third as #cbj to #cbd 7reduced to their lowest terms by dividing both numbers by #d1 gives the ratio of #hj to #ha74 ,again1 the fifth1 ,a-,f1 presents itself in the ratio of #cbj to #baf1 or 7dividing each term by #d7 #hj to #ed2 instead of #c to #b 7#ha to #ed--multiplying each term by #bg71 which is the ratio of the true fifth4 ,continuing the scale an octave higher1 it will be found that the sixth1 ,f-,d1 and the fourth1 ,a-,d1 will labor under the same imperfections4 ,the comparison1 then1 of these ratios of the minor third1 ,d-,f1 and the fifth1 ,d-,a1 with the perfect ratios of these intervals1 shows that each is too small by the ratio expressed by the figures #hj to #ha4 ,this is called1 by mathematicians1 the syntonic comma4 ,as experience teaches us that the ear cannot endure such deviation as a whole comma in any fifth1 it is easy to see that some tempering must take place even in such a simple and limited number of sounds as the above series of eight tones4 ,the necessity of temperament becomes still more apparent when it is proposed to combine every sound used in music into a connected system1 such that each individual sound shall not only form practical intervals with all the other sounds1 but also that each sound may be employed as the root of its own major or minor key2 and that all the tones necessary to form its scale shall stand in such relation to each other as to satisfy the ear4 ,the chief requisites of any system of musical temperament adapted to the purposes of modern music are3-- #a4 ,that all octaves must remain perfect1 each being divided into twelve semitones4 #b4 ,that each sound of the system may be employed as the root of a major or minor scale1 without increasing the number of sounds in the system4 #c4 ,that each consonant interval1 according to its degree of consonance1 shall lose as little of its original purity as possible2 so that the ear may still acknowledge it as a perfect or imperfect consonance4 ,several ways of adjusting such a system of temperament have been proposed1 all of which may be classed under either the head of equal or of unequal temperament4 ,the principles set forth in the following propositions clearly demonstrate the reasons for tempering1 and the whole rationale of the system of equal temperament1 which is that in general use1 and which is invariably sought and practiced by tuners of the present4 ,,proposition ,i4 ,if we divide an octave1 as from middle ,c to #c;,c1 into three major thirds1 each in the perfect ratio of #e to #d1 as ,c-,e1 ,e-,g 7,a71 ,a-,c1 then the ,c obtained from the last third1 ,a-,c1 will be too flat to form a perfect octave by a small quantity1 called in the theory of harmonics a diesis1 which is expressed by the ratio #abh to #abe4 ,,explanation4--,the length of the string sounding the tone ,c is represented by unity or #a4 ,now1 as we have shown1 the major third to that ,c1 which is ,e1 is produced by #d_/e of its length4 ,in like manner1 ,g1 the major third to ,e1 will be produced by #d_/e of that segment of the string which sounds the tone ,e2 that is1 ,g will be produced by #d_/e of #d_/e 7#d_/e multiplied by #d_/e7 which equals #af_/be of the entire length of the string sounding the tone ,c4 ,we come1 now1 to the last third1 ,g 7,a7 to ,c1 which completes the interval of the octave1 middle ,c to #c;,c4 ,this last ,c1 being the major third from the ,a1 will be produced as before1 by #d_/e of that segment of the string which sounds ,a2 that is1 by #d_/e of #af_/be1 which equals #fd_/abe of the entire length of the string4 ,keep this last fraction1 #fd_/abe1 in mind1 and remember it as representing the segment of the entire string1 which produces the upper ,c by the succession of three perfectly tuned major thirds4 ,now1 let us refer to the law which says that a perfect octave is obtained from the exact half of the length of any string4 ,is #fd_/abe an exact half8 ,no2 using the same numerator1 an exact half would be #fd_/abh4 ,hence1 it is clear that the octave obtained by the succession of perfect major thirds will differ from the true octave by the ratio of #abh to #abe4 ,the fraction1 #fd_/abe1 representing a longer segment of the string than #fd_/abh 7#a_/b71 it would produce a flatter tone than the exact half4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that all major thirds must be tuned somewhat sharper than perfect in a system of equal temperament4 ,the ratio which expresses the value of the diesis is that of #abh to #abe4 ,if1 therefore1 the octaves are to remain perfect1 which they must do1 each major third must be tuned sharper than perfect by one-third part of the diesis4 ,the foregoing demonstration may be made still clearer by the following diagram which represents the length of string necessary to produce these tones4 7,this diagram is exact in the various proportional lengths1 being about one twenty-fifth the actual length represented47 ,middle ,c 7#b;,c7 #fj inches4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,o ,o ,e 7#d_/e of #fj7 #dh inches4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,o ,o ,g 7,a7 7#d_/e of #dh7 #ch-b_/e inches4 -------------------------------------- ,o ,o #c;,c 7#d_/e of #ch-b_/e7 #cj-ah_/be inches4 -------------------------------- ,o ,o ,this diagram clearly demonstrates that the last ,c obtained by the succession of thirds covers a segment of the string which is #ah_/be longer than an exact half2 nearly three-fourths of an inch too long1 #cj inches being the exact half4 ,to make this proposition still better understood1 we give the comparison of the actual vibration numbers as follows3-- ,perfect thirds in ratio #d_/e have these vibration numbers3 #ast third #b;d third #c;d third 7,c #bef - ,e #cbj7 7,e #cbj - ,g #djj7 7,g #djj - ,c #ejj7 --------------- ----------------- ----------------- no beats no beats no beats ,tempered thirds qualified to produce true octave3 7,c #bef - ,e #cbb #e_/aj7 7,e #cbb #e_/aj - ,g #djf #d_/aj7 7,g #djf #d_/aj - ,c #eab7 -------------------- -------------------------- ---------------------- #aj beats #ac-a_/aj beats #af beats ,we think the foregoing elucidation of ,proposition ,i sufficient to establish a thorough understanding of the facts set forth therein1 if they are studied over carefully a few times4 ,if everything is not clear at the first reading1 go over it several times1 as this matter is of value to you4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,,xii4 #a4 ,why is the pitch1 ,c-#bef1 adopted for scientific discussion1 and what is this pitch called8 #b4 ,the tone ,g forms the root 7#a7 in the key of ,g4 ,what does it form in the key of ,c8 ,what in ,f8 ,what in ,d8 #c4 ,what tone is produced by a #b_/c segment of a string8 ,what by a #a_/b segment8 ,what by a #d_/e segment8 #d4 7a7 ,what intervals must be tuned absolutely perfect8 7b7 ,in the two intervals that must be tempered1 the third and the fifth1 which will bear the greater deviation8 #e4 ,what would be the result if we should tune from #b;,c to #c;,c by a succession of perfect thirds8 #f4 ,do you understand the facts set forth in ,proposition ,i1 in this lesson8 ,,lesson ,,xiii4 ,,rationale ,,of ,,the ,,temperament4 7,concluded from ,lesson ,,xii47 ,,proposition ,,ii4 ,that the student of scientific scale building may understand fully the reasons why the tempered scale is at constant variance with exact mathematical ratios1 we continue this discussion through two more propositions1 ,no4 ,,ii1 following1 demonstrating the result of dividing the octave into four minor thirds1 and ,proposition ,,iii1 demonstrating the result of twelve perfect fifths4 ,the matter in ,lesson ,,xii1 if properly mastered1 has given a thorough insight into the principal features of the subject in question2 so the following demonstration will be made as brief as possible1 consistent with clearness4 ,let us figure the result of dividing an octave into four minor thirds4 ,the ratio of the length of string sounding a fundamental1 to the length necessary to sound its minor third1 is that of #f to #e4 ,in other words1 #e_/f of any string sounds a tone which is an exact minor third above that of the whole string4 ,now1 suppose we select1 as before1 a string sounding middle ,c1 as the fundamental tone4 ,we now ascend by minor thirds until we reach the ,c1 octave above middle ,c1 which we call #c;,c1 as follows3 ,middle ,c-,e2 ,e-,f2 ,f-,a2 ,a-#c;,c4 ,demonstrate by figures as follows3--,let the whole length of string sounding middle ,c be represented by unity or #a4 ,e will be sounded by #e_/f of the string #e_/f ,f1 by #e_/f of the ,e segment2 that is1 by #e_/f of #e_/f of the entire string1 which equals #be_/cf ,a1 by #e_/f of #be_/cf of entire string1 which equals #abe_/baf #c;,c1 by #e_/f of #abe_/baf of entire string1 which equals #fbe_/abif ,now bear in mind1 this last fraction1 #fbe_/abif1 represents the segment of the entire string which should sound the tone #c;,c1 an exact octave above middle ,c4 ,remember1 our law demands an exact half of a string by which to sound its octave4 ,how much does it vary8 ,divide the denominator 7#abif7 by #b and place the result over it for a numerator1 and this gives #fdh_/abif1 which is an exact half4 ,notice the comparison4 #c;,c obtained from a succession of exact minor thirds1 #fbe_/abif #c;,c obtained from an exact half of the string #fdh_/abif ,now1 the former fraction is smaller than the latter2 hence1 the segment of string which it represents will be shorter than the exact half1 and will consequently yield a sharper tone4 ,the denominators being the same1 we have only to find the difference between the numerators to tell how much too short the former segment is4 ,this proves the ,c obtained by the succession of minor thirds to be too short by #bc_/abif of the length of the whole string4 ,if1 therefore1 all octaves are to remain perfect1 it is evident that all minor thirds must be tuned flatter than perfect in the system of equal temperament4 ,the ratio1 then1 of #fdh to #fbe expresses the excess by which the true octave exceeds four exact minor thirds2 consequently1 each minor third must be flatter than perfect by one-fourth part of the difference between these fractions4 ,by this means the dissonance is evenly distributed so that it is not noticeable in the various chords1 in the major and minor keys1 where this interval is almost invariably present4 7,we find no record of writers on the mathematics of sound giving a name to the above ratio expressing variance1 as they have to others47 ,,proposition ,,iii4 ,proposition ,,iii deals with the perfect fifth1 showing the result from a series of twelve perfect fifths employed within the space of an octave4 ,,method4--,taking #a;,c as the fundamental1 representing it by unity or #a1 the ,g1 fifth above1 is sounded by a #b_/c segment of the string sounding ,c4 ,the next fifth1 ,g-,d1 takes us beyond the octave1 and we find that the ,d will be sounded by #d_/i 7#b_/c of #b_/c equals #d_/i7 of the entire string1 which fraction is less than half2 so to keep within the bounds of the octave1 we must double this segment and make it sound the tone ,d an octave lower1 thus3 #d_/i times #b equals #h_/i1 the segment sounding the ,d within the octave4 ,we may shorten the operation as follows3 ,instead of multiplying #b_/c by #b_/c1 giving us #d_/i1 and then multiplying this answer by #b1 let us double the fraction1 #b_/c1 which equals #d_/c1 and use it as a multiplier when it becomes necessary to double the segment to keep within the octave4 ,we may proceed now with the twelve steps as follows3-- ,steps-- #a4 #a;,c to #a;,g segment #b_/c for #a;,g #b4 #a;,g #a;,d ,multiply #b_/c by #d_/c1 gives segment #h_/i #a;,d #c4 #a;,d #a;,a #h_/i #b_/c #af_/bg #a;,a #d4 #a;,a #a;,e #af_/bg #d_/c #fd_/ha #a;,e #e4 #a;,e #a;,b #fd_/ha #b_/c #abh_/bdc #a;,b #f4 #a;,b #a;,f #abh_/bdc #d_/c #eab_/gbi #a;,f #g4 #a;,f #a;,c #eab_/gbi #d_/c #bjdh_/bahg #a;,c #h4 #a;,c #a;,g #bjdh_/bahg #b_/c #djif_/fefa #a;,g #i4 #a;,g #a;,d #djif_/fefa #d_/c #afchd_/aifhc #a;,d #aj4 #a;,d #a;,a #afchd_/aifhc #b_/c #cbgfh_/eijdi #a;,a #aa4 #a;,a #a;,f #cbgfh_/eijdi #d_/c #acajgb_/aggadg #a;,f #ab4 #a;,f #b;,c #acajgb_/aggadg #b_/c #bfbadd_/ecadda #b;,c ,now1 this last fraction should be equivalent to #a_/b1 when reduced to its lowest terms1 if it is destined to produce a true octave2 but1 using this numerator1 #bfbadd1 a half would be expressed by #bfbadd_/ebdbhh1 the segment producing the true octave2 so the fraction #bfbadd_/ecadda1 which represents the segment for #b;,c1 obtained by the circle of fifths1 being evidently less than #a_/b1 this segment will yield a tone somewhat sharper than the true octave4 ,the two denominators are taken in this case to show the ratio of the variance2 so the octave obtained from the circle of fifths is sharper than the true octave in the ratio expressed by #ecadda to #ebdbhh1 which ratio is called the ditonic comma4 ,this comma is equal to one-fifth of a half-step4 ,we are to conclude1 then1 that if octaves are to remain perfect1 and we desire to establish an equal temperament1 the above-named difference is best disposed of by dividing it into twelve equal parts and depressing each of the fifths one-twelfth part of the ditonic comma2 thereby dispersing the dissonance so that it will allow perfect octaves1 and yet1 but slightly impair the consonance of the fifths4 ,we believe the foregoing propositions will demonstrate the facts stated therein1 to the student's satisfaction1 and that he should now have a pretty thorough knowledge of the mathematics of the temperament4 ,that the equal temperament is the only practical temperament1 is confidently affirmed by ,mr4 ,w4,s4,b4 ,woolhouse1 an eminent authority on musical mathematics1 who says3-- ,it is very misleading to suppose that the necessity of temperament applies only to instruments which have fixed tones4 ,singers and performers on perfect instruments must all temper their intervals1 or they could not keep in tune with each other1 or even with themselves2 and on arriving at the same notes by different routes1 would be continually finding a want of agreement4 ,the scale of equal temperament obviates all such inconveniences1 and continues to be universally accepted with unqualified satisfaction by the most eminent vocalists2 and equally so by the most renowned and accomplished performers on stringed instruments1 although these instruments are capable of an indefinite variety of intonation4 ,the high development of modern instrumental music would not have been possible1 and could not have been acquired1 without the manifold advantages of the tempered intonation by equal semitones1 and it has1 in consequence1 long become the established basis of tuning4 ,,numerical ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,diatonic ,,scale ,,with ,,the ,,tempered ,,scale4 ,the following table1 comparing vibration numbers of the diatonic scale with those of the tempered1 shows the difference in the two scales1 existing between the thirds1 fifths and other intervals4 ,notice that the difference is but slight in the lowest octave used which is shown on the left2 but taking the scale four octaves higher1 shown on the right1 the difference becomes more striking4 ,,diatonic4,,tempered4 ,,diatonic4,,tempered4 ,c#cb4 #cb4 ,c#eab4 #eab4 ,d#cf4 #ce4ib ,d#egf4 #egd4gj ,e#dj4 #dj4cb ,e#fdj4 #fde4jh ,f#db4ff #db4ga ,f#fhb4ff #fhc4dd ,g#dh4 #dg4ie ,g#gfh4 #gfg4ac ,a#ec4cc #ec4hb ,a#hec4cc #hfa4jh ,b#fj4 #fj4da ,b#ifj4 #iff4ec ,c#fd4 #fd4 ,c#ajbd4 #ajbd4 ,following this paragraph we give a reference table in which the numbers are given for four consecutive octaves1 calculated for the system of equal temperament4 ,each column represents an octave4 ,the first two columns cover the tones of the two octaves used in setting the temperament by our system4 ,,table ,,of ,,vibrations ,,per ,,second4 ,c #abh4 #bef4 #eab4 #ajbd4 ,c #ace4fa #bga4bb #edb4dd #ajhd4hi ,d #adc4fh #bhg4ce #egd4gj #aadi4dj ,d #aeb4bb #cjd4dd #fjh4hg #abag4ge ,e #afa4bg #cbb4ed #fde4jh #abij4af ,f #agj4hf #cda4gb #fhc4dd #acff4hg ,f #aha4jb #cfb4jd #gbd4jh #addh4ae ,g #aia4gh #chc4eg #gfg4ac #aecd4bg ,g #bjc4ai #djf4cg #hab4ge #afbe4ej ,a #bae4bg #dcj4ed #hfa4jh #agbb4af ,a #bbh4jg #def4ad #iab4bh #ahbd4ef ,b #bda4fc #dhc4bf #iff4ec #aicc4jf ,c #bef4 #eab4 #ajbd4 #bjdh4 ,much interesting and valuable exercise may be derived from the investigation of this table by figuring out what certain intervals would be if exact1 and then comparing them with the figures shown in this tempered scale4 ,to do this1 select two notes and ascertain what interval the higher forms to the lower2 then1 by the fraction in the table below corresponding to that interval1 multiply the vibration number of the lower note4 ,,example4--,say we select the first ,c1 #abh1 and the ,g in the same column4 ,we know this to be an interval of a perfect fifth4 ,referring to the table below1 we find that the vibration of the fifth is #c_/b of1 or #c_/b times1 that of its fundamental2 so we simply multiply this fraction by the vibration number of ,c1 which is #abh1 and this gives #aib as the exact fifth4 ,now1 on referring to the above table of equal temperament1 we find this ,g quoted a little less 7flatter71 viz41 #aia4gh4 ,to find a fourth from any note1 multiply its number by #d_/c1 a major third1 by #e_/d1 and so on as per table below4 ,,table ,,showing ,,relative ,,vibration ,,of ,,intervals ,,by ,,improper ,,fractions4 ,the relation of the ,octave to a ,fundamental is expressed by #b_/a ,fifth to a #c_/b ,fourth to a #d_/c ,major ,third to a #e_/d ,minor ,third to a #f_/e ,major ,second to a #i_/h ,major ,sixth to a #e_/c ,minor ,sixth to a #h_/e ,major ,seventh to a #ae_/h ,minor ,second to a #af_/ae ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,,xiii4 #a4 ,state what principle is demonstrated in ,proposition ,,ii4 #b4 ,state what principle is demonstrated in ,proposition ,,iii4 #c4 ,what would be the vibration per second of an exact 7not tempered7 fifth1 from ,c-#eab8 #d4 ,give the figures and the process used in finding the vibration number of the exact major third to ,c-#bef4 #e4 ,if we should tune the whole circle of twelve fifths exactly as detailed in ,proposition ,,iii1 how much too sharp would the last ,c be to the first ,c tuned8 ,,lesson ,,xiv4 ,,miscellaneous ,,topics ,,pertaining ,,to ,,the ,,practical ,,work ,,of ,,tuning4 ,beats4--,the phenomenon known as beats has been but briefly alluded to in previous lessons1 and not analytically discussed as it should be1 being so important a feature as it is1 in the practical operations of tuning4 ,the average tuner hears and considers the beats with a vague and indefinite comprehension1 guessing at causes and effects1 and arriving at uncertain results4 ,having now become familiar with vibration numbers and ratios1 the student may1 at this juncture1 more readily understand the phenomenon1 the more scientific discussion of which it has been thought prudent to withhold until now4 ,in speaking of the unison in ,lesson ,,viii1 we stated that the cause of the waves in a defective unison is the alternate recurring of the periods when the condensations and the rarefactions correspond in the two strings1 and then antagonize4 ,this concise definition is complete2 but it may not as yet have been fully apprehended4 ,the unison being the simplest interval1 we shall use it for consideration before taking the more complex intervals into account4 ,let us consider the nature of a single musical tone3 that it consists of a chain of sound-waves2 that each sound-wave consists of a condensation and a rarefaction1 which are directly opposed to each other2 and that sound-waves travel through air at a specific rate per second4 ,let us also remark1 here1 that in the foregoing lessons1 where reference is made to vibrations1 the term signifies sound-waves4 ,in other words1 the terms1 vibration and sound-wave1 are synonymous4 ,if two strings1 tuned to give forth the same number of vibrations per second1 are struck at the same time1 the tone produced will appear to come from a single source2 one sweet1 continuous1 smooth1 musical tone4 ,the reason is this3 ,the condensations sent forth from each of the two strings occur exactly together2 the rarefactions1 which1 of course1 alternate with the condensations1 are also simultaneous4 ,it necessarily follows1 therefore1 that the condensations from each of the two strings travel with the same velocity4 ,now1 while this condition prevails1 it is evident that the two strings assist each other1 making the condensations more condensed1 and1 consequently1 the rarefactions more rarefied1 the result of which is1 the two allied forces combine to strengthen the tone4 ,in opposition to the above1 if two strings1 tuned to produce the same tone1 could be so struck that the condensation of one would occur at the same instant with the rarefaction of the other1 it is readily seen that the two forces would oppose1 or counteract each other1 which1 if equal1 would result in absolute silence4,g ,g ,when the bushing of the center-pin of the hammer butt becomes badly worn or the hammer-flange becomes loose1 or the condition of the hammer or flange becomes so impaired that the hammer has too much play1 it may so strike the strings as to tend to produce the phenomenon described in the above paragraph4 ,when in such a condition1 one side of the hammer may strike in advance of the other just enough to throw the vibrations in opposition4 ,once you may get a strong tone1 and again you strike with the same force and hear but a faint1 almost inaudible sound4 ,for this reason1 as well as that of preventing excessive wear1 the hammer joint should be kept firm and rigid4 ,if one of the strings vibrates #ajj times in a second1 and the other #aja1 there will be a portion of time during each second when the vibrations will coincide1 and likewise a portion of time when they will antagonize each other4 ,the periods of coincidence and of antagonism pass by progressive transition from one to the other1 and the portion of time when exactitude is attained is infinitesimal2 so there will be two opposite effects noticed in every second of time3 the one1 a progressive augmentation of strength and volume1 the other1 a gradual diminution of the same2 the former occurring when the vibrations are coming into coincidence1 the latter1 when they are approaching the point of antagonism4 ,therefore1 when we speak of one beat per second1 we mean that there will be one period of augmentation and one period of diminution in one second4 ,young tuners sometimes get confused and accept one beat as being two1 taking the period of augmentation for one beat and likewise the period of diminution4 ,this is most likely to occur in the lower fifths of the temperament where the beats are very slow4 ,two strings struck at the same time1 one tuned an octave higher than the other1 will vibrate in the ratio of #b to #a4 ,if these two strings vary from this ratio to the amount of one vibration1 they will produce two beats4 ,two strings sounding an interval of the fifth vibrate in the ratio of #c to #b4 ,if they vary from this ratio to the amount of one vibration1 there will occur three beats per second4 ,in the case of the major third1 there will occur four beats per second to a variation of one vibration from the true ratio of #e to #d4 ,you should bear this in mind in considering the proper number of beats for an interval1 the vibration number being known4 ,it will be seen1 from the above facts in connection with the study of the table of vibration numbers in ,lesson ,,xiii1 that all fifths do not beat alike4 ,the lower the vibration number1 the slower the beats4 ,if1 at a certain point1 a fifth beats once per second1 the fifth taken an octave higher will beat twice2 and the intervening fifths will beat from a little more than once1 up to nearly twice per second1 as they approach the higher fifth4 ,vibrations per second double with each octave1 and so do beats4 ,by referring to the table in ,lesson ,,xiii1 above referred to1 the exact beating of any fifth may be ascertained as follows3-- ,ascertain what the vibration number of the exact fifth would be1 according to the instructions given beneath the table2 find the difference between this and the tempered fifth given in the table4 ,multiply this difference by #c1 and the result will be the number of beats or fraction thereof1 of the tempered fifth4 ,the reason we multiply by #c is because1 as above stated1 a variation of one vibration per second in the fifth causes three beats per second4 ,example4--,take the first fifth in the table1 ,c-#abh to ,g-#aia4gh1 and by the proper calculation 7see example1 page #adg1 ,lesson ,,xiii7 we find the exact fifth to this ,c would be #aib4 ,the difference1 then1 found by subtracting the smaller from the greater1 is 4#bb 7#bb_/ajj74 ,multiply 4#bb by #c and the result is 4#ff1 or about two-thirds of a beat per second4 ,by these calculations we learn that the fifth1 ,c-#bef to ,g-#chc4eg1 should have #a4bi beats3 nearly one and a third per second1 and that the highest fifth of the temperament1 ,f-#cda4gb to ,c-#eab1 should be #a4gd1 or nearly one and three-quarters4 ,by remembering these figures1 and endeavoring to temper as nearly according to them as possible1 the tuner will find that his temperament will come up most beautifully4 ,this is one of the features that is overlooked or entirely unknown to many fairly good tuners2 their aim being to get all fifths the same4 ,finishing up the ,temperament4--,if your last trial1 ,f-,c1 does not prove a correct fifth1 you must consider how best to rectify4 ,the following are the causes which result in improper temperament3 #a4 ,fifths too flat4 #b4 ,fifths not flat enough4 #c4 ,some fifths correctly tempered and others not4 #d4 ,some fifths sharper instead of flatter than perfect2 a condition that must be watched with vigilance4 #e4 ,some or all of the strings tuned fall from the pitch at which they were left4 ,from a little reflection upon these causes1 it is seen that the last trial may prove a correct fifth and yet the temperament be imperfect4 ,if this is the case1 it will be necessary to go all over the temperament again4 ,generally1 however1 after you have had a little experience1 you will find the trouble in one of the first two causes above1 unless it be a piano wherein1 the strings fall as in ,cause #e4 ,this latter cause can be ascertained in cases only where you have started from a tuning pipe or fork4 ,sometimes you may find that the temperament may be corrected by the alteration of but two or three tones2 so it is always well to stop and examine carefully before attempting the correction4 ,a haphazard attempt might cause much extra work4 ,in temperament setting by our system1 if the fifths are properly tempered and the octaves are left perfect1 the other intervals will need no attention1 and will be found beautifully correct when used in testing4 ,the mistuned or tempered intervals are as follows3-- ,,intervals ,,flattened4 ,,intervals ,,sharpened4 ,the ,fifth1 slightly4 ,the ,fourth1 slightly4 ,the ,minor ,third1 ,the ,major ,third1 considerably4 greatly4 ,the ,minor ,sixth1 ,the ,major ,sixth1 considerably4 greatly4 ,tuning the ,treble4--,in tuning the treble1 which is always tuned by exact octaves1 from their corresponding tones within the temperament1 the ear will often accept an octave as true before its pitch has been sufficiently raised4 ,especially is this true in the upper octaves4 ,after tuning a string in the treble by its octave in the temperament1 test it as a fifth4 ,for instance1 after tuning your first string beyond the temperament1 #c;,c1 test it as a fifth to #b;,f4 ,if you are yet uncertain1 try it as a major third in the chord of ,a4 ,the beats will serve you as a guide in testing by fifths1 up to about an octave and a half above the highest tone of the temperament2 but beyond this point they become so rapid as to be only discernible as degrees of roughness4 ,the beats will serve as a guide in tuning octaves higher in the treble than the point at which the beats of the fifth become unavailable2 and in tuning unisons1 the beats are discernible almost to the last tone4 ,the best method to follow in tuning the treble may be summed up as follows3 ,tune the first octave with the beats as guides both in the octave and in testing it by the fifth4 ,if yet uncertain1 test by chords4 ,above this octave1 rely somewhat upon the beats in the octave1 still use the fifth for testing1 but listen for the pitch in the extreme upper tones and not so much for the beats except in bringing up unisons1 in which the beats are more prominent4 ,in the extreme upper tones1 the musical ear of the tuner is tried to the utmost4 ,here1 his judgment of correct harmonic relation is the principal or only guide1 while in the middle octaves the beats serve him so faithfully1 his musical qualifications being brought into requisition only as a rough guide in determining pitch of the various intervals4 ,to tune by the beats requires a sharp ear and mental discernment2 to tune by pitch requires a fine musical ear and knowledge of the simpler laws of harmony4 ,as stated above1 the tuner will fail in many cases to tune his high octaves sharp enough4 ,rarely1 if ever1 will a tuner with a good ear leave the upper tones too sharp4 ,now1 there is one more fact which is of the utmost importance in tuning the treble3 it is the fact that the extreme upper octave and a half must be tuned slightly sharper than perfect2 if the octaves are tuned perfect1 the upper tones of the instrument will sound flat when used in scale and arpeggio passages covering a large portion of the key-board4 ,begin to sharpen your octaves slightly from about the seventeenth key from the last2 counting both black and white4 ,in other words1 begin to sharpen from the last ,a but one1 in the standard scale of seven and a third octaves of which the last key is ,c4 ,sharpen but slightly1 and increase the degree of sharpening but little as you proceed4 ,tuning the ,bass4--,in tuning the bass1 listen for the beats only1 in bringing up the octaves4 ,it is sometimes well to try the string tuned1 with its fifth1 but the octave in the bass should suffice1 as the vibrations are so much slower here that if you listen acutely the octave beats will guide you4 ,it is not necessary to pull the strings higher than the pitch at which they are to stand4 ,learn to pull them up gradually and in a way that will render the string over the bridges1 which is an easy thing to do1 the strings being so much heavier here than elsewhere4 ,never leave a bass string the slightest amount too sharp4 ,as flatness is so obnoxious in the treble1 just so is sharpness in the bass1 so if there must be any variation in any bass tone let it be flat2 but aim at perfect octaves throughout the bass4 ,false ,waves4--,we say false waves for want of a better name4 ,you will find a string occasionally that will give forth waves or beats so similar to the real ones that it takes a practiced ear to distinguish the difference4 ,where a unison contains a string of this kind1 select some other string by which to tune the interval1 and leave the bad string until the last2 you may then find difficulty in being able to tell when you have it in unison4 ,the cause may be a twisted string1 a fault in the string by imperfect drawing of the wire1 or in the construction of the sound-board4 ,in the low bass tones1 a kind of false waves are always present1 and will annoy the tuner long after he has been in regular practice4 ,they are1 however1 of a different nature from the true waves in that they are of a metallic timbre and of much greater rapidity than the latter4 ,close attention will generally enable the tuner to distinguish between them4 ,they are caused by what is known as harmonics or over-tones2 the string vibrating in fractional segments4 ,false waves will occur in an annoying degree when the tuner sets a mute on a nodal point in the string2 it will cause the muted string to sound a real harmonic tone4 ,this does not happen in the upright1 as the mutes are set so near the end of the string as to preclude this possibility4 ,in the square1 however1 it very frequently happens1 as there are so many nodes between the dampers and the bridge1 where the tuner sets his mutes4 ,if1 for instance1 he is tuning an octave and has his mute set precisely in the middle of the vibrating segment1 in place of muting the string it sounds its own octave1 which will disturb the ear in listening for the tone from the one free string4 ,move the mute either way until it is found to mute the string entirely4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,,xiv4 #a4 ,explain the cause of the beats4 #b4 ,how many beats per second in a unison of two strings1 one tuned to #ajj1 the other to #aja vibrations per second8 #c4 ,how many beats per second in an octave1 the lower tone of which is tuned to #ajj1 the upper to #bja vibrations per second8 #d4 ,how many beats per second in a fifth1 the fundamental of which is tuned to #ajj1 the fifth to #aea8 #e4 ,the fifth1 #b;,f-#c;,c1 when properly tempered1 should beat #a-c_/d times per second4 ,how often should a fifth1 an octave higher1 beat8 ,,lesson ,,xv4 ,,miscellaneous ,,topics ,,pertaining ,,to ,,the ,,practical ,,work ,,of ,,tuning1 ,,regulating1 ,,and ,,repairing4 ,comparison of the ,different ,systems4--,up to this time1 we have given no account of any system of tuning except the one recommended4 ,for the purpose of making the student more thoroughly informed we detail here several different systems which have been devised and practiced by other tuners4 ,it is a matter of history that artisans in this profession and leaders in musical science have endeavored to devise a system of temperament having all the desirable qualifications4 ,the aims of many have been to invent a system which uses the fewest number of tones2 working under the impression that the fewer the tones used in the temperament1 the easier the tuner's work4 ,these have reduced the compass of the temperament to the twelve semi-tones from middle ,c to ,b above2 or from ,f below1 to ,e above middle ,c4 ,this system requires the tuner to make use of both fourths and fifths4 ,not only does he have to use these two kinds of intervals in tuning1 but he has to tune by fourths up and fourths down1 and1 likewise1 by fifths up and fifths down4 ,when tuning a fifth upward1 he flattens it2 and when tuning a fifth downward he sharpens the lower tone2 when tuning a fourth upward1 he sharpens it2 when tuning a fourth downward1 he flattens the lower tone4 ,it is readily seen that by a system of this kind the tuner's mind is constantly on a strain to know how to temper the interval he is tuning1 and how much to temper it1 as fourths require a different degree of tempering from the fifths2 and he is constantly changing from an interval upward to one downward2 so1 this system must be stamped as tedious and complicated1 to say the least4 ,yet this system is much followed in factories for rough tuning1 and also by many old professional tuners4 ,the table on the following page gives the succession of intervals generally taken by tuners employing this system using the tones within the ,f octave mentioned above4 ,middle ,c is obtained in the usual way1 from the tuning fork4 ,,system ,a4 ,by middle ,c tune ,f fifth below4 ,temper sharp4 ,by ,f ,b 7,a7 fourth above4 ,c ,g fourth below4 flat ,g ,d fifth above4 ,d ,a fourth below4 ,a ,e fifth above4 ,e ,b fourth below4 ,b ,f fourth below4 ,f ,c fifth above4 ,c ,g fourth below4 ,g ,d fifth above4 ,then try ,d with ,a previously tuned for wolves4 ,we think a little study and trial of this system will produce the conviction that it is a very difficult and precarious one1 and that it has every disadvantage but one1 namely1 that it uses the smallest possible number of tones1 which is really of little value1 and does not compensate for the difficulty encountered and the uncertainty of the results4 ,another system which has many advantages over the above1 is one which employs fifths only and covers a compass of an octave and a half4 ,this system is similar to ours in that it employs fifths in the same succession as far as ,g1 the most of them1 however1 being an octave higher4 ,from this ,g there is a break in the succession1 and the tuner goes back to middle ,c from which he started and tunes by fifths downward until he reaches the ,g at which he left off4 ,this system employs the tones from ,f below middle ,c to ,c1 octave above4 ,below is the succession1 starting upon #c;,c1 whose pitch is determined as usual4 ,,system ,b4 ,by #c;,c tune #b;,c octave below4 #b;,c #b;,g fifth above4 #b;,g #a;,g octave below4 #a;,g #b;,d fifth above4 #b;,d #b;,a fifth above4 #b;,a #a;,a octave below4 #a;,a #b;,e fifth above4 #b;,e #b;,b fifth above4 #b;,b #a;,b octave below4 #a;,b #b;,f fifth above4 #b;,f #a;,f octave below4 #a;,f #b;,c fifth above4 #b;,c #b;,g fifth above4 #b;,g #a;,g octave below4 ,by #b;,c tune #a;,f fifth below4 ,temper sharp4 #a;,f #b;,f octave above4 #b;,f #a;,b fifth below4 ,temper sharp4 #a;,b #b;,b octave above4 #b;,b #b;,e fifth below4 ,temper sharp4 ,now by #b;,e try #a;,a 7,g7 fifth below for the wolf4 ,note that this last trial brings you back to the last tone tuned before the break4 ,this system is used by a great number of very successful tuners1 and it has but one appreciable disadvantage1 which is that involved in changing from fifths upward to fifths downward4 ,this difficulty is easily overcome1 if it were all there is to encounter2 but in practice1 we find that after tuning the intervals in the above succession down to the last step in the first series1 middle ,c will often have changed pitch somewhat1 and the last five tones with their octaves tuned from it will not be in true harmony with the intervals tuned in the first series4 ,for this reason it is better to go on through1 as in our system1 tuning by fifths upward1 and if there is any change of pitch in the first tones tuned1 they may be more easily corrected by going over them in the same way as at the start2 also1 the amount of difficulty in locating discrepancies is greatly lessened4 ,,system ,c4 ,the following system is one that is followed by many good tuners of the present day and has many advantages4 ,to use this system successfully1 however1 one must be familiar with the number of beats necessary in each interval used4 ,take #a;,f as a standard4 ,by #a;,f1 tune #b;,c1 fifth above4 ,by #a;,f1 tune #a;,b1 fourth above4 ,by #a;,f1 tune #a;,a1 major third above4 ,by #a;,f1 tune #b;,d1 sixth above4 ,by #a;,f1 tune #a;,a1 minor third above4 ,by #a;,f1 tune #b;,f1 octave above4 ,by #b;,c or #b;,d1 tune #a;,g1 fourth or fifth below4 ,by #a;,g1 #a;,a or #b;,c1 tune #b;,e1 sixth1 fifth or third above4 ,by #a;,g or #b;,e1 tune #a;,b1 third above or fourth below4 ,by #a;,a or ,a1 tune #b;,c1 major or minor third above4 ,by #a;,a1 #a;,b or #a;,b1 tune #b;,e1 fifth1 fourth or major third above4 ,by #a;,b1 #a;,b1 #b;,c or #b;,e1 tune #a;,f1 major third1 fourth1 fifth or sixth below4 ,as each step is taken in this system1 the tone tuned is tested with any or all of the tones previously tuned4 ,you will notice that six tones are tuned by the first standard1 ,f4 ,therefore1 if any error is left in any one of the intervals it exists in this only and is not transmitted to other tones1 if corrected before such other tones are used to tune by4 ,the numerous tests possible1 early in the system1 and the small compass used1 one octave1 may be said to be the chief advantages of the system4 ,the intervals used are the minor and major third1 perfect fourth and fifth1 and major sixth4 ,the thirds and sixths beat from about #g to nearly #ab per second4 ,the exact number of beats for each step in the system may be calculated from the ,table of ,vibration ,numbers in ,lesson ,,xiii4 ,for instance1 take middle ,c 7#b;,c7 at #bef1 and its major third1 #b;,e4 ,the exact third1 determined by multiplying #bef by #e_/d1 is found to be #cbj4 ,by reference to the table1 we find the tempered third vibrates #cbb4ed4 ,the difference then is #b4ed vibrations per second1 and1 knowing that a difference of one vibration from the exact major third produces #d beats1 we simply multiply #b4ed by #d and we have #aj4af1 the number of beats we should hear per second when this third is tempered correctly4 ,other intervals may be figured out in like manner by reference to the various tables given4 ,it is very doubtful if a beginner could succeed with this system4 ,he should tune by an easier system until he can hear the beats very distinctly and judge quite accurately the rapidity of them4 ,having acquired this ability1 he may try this system and follow it in preference to others4 ,in any system used it is well to test your work in the following manner3 ,begin with your lowest major third and strike each third in succession1 ascending chromatically4 ,of course1 each third should beat slightly faster than the one below it4 ,for instance1 in our system of two octaves1 take #a;,c-,e2 this third should beat about #e per second4 ,next1 take #a;,c-,f1 which should beat about #e-a_/b per second4 ,the beats should increase each test nearly a half beat1 or the amount of #e beats in this octave2 hence1 #b;,c-,e will beat about #aj per second2 or1 using the exact figures1 #aj4af4 ,after arriving at the last-named test1 #b;,c-,e1 you may test the remainder of the two octaves by tenths1 beginning with #a;,c-#b;,e4 ,the tenth is similar to the third mathematically1 and its beats are even more distinct4 ,we may remark here that our system may be reduced to the compass of an octave and a half by simply not tuning the octaves upward which reach beyond #b;,f2 and if anything were to be gained and nothing lost by shortening the compass of the temperament1 we would advise using only the octave and a half4 ,but in many years of experience in tuning all imaginable types1 styles and kinds of pianos1 and by all systems1 we have found good reasons for adopting the two-octave temperament as laid down in ,lesson ,,viii1 for universal application4 ,its advantages may be summed up as follows3 ,simplicity4--,but two kinds of intervals are employed3 the fifth and the octave4 ,the fifth is always tuned to a fundamental below and hence always flattened1 which relieves the tuner of any mental operation to determine which way he is to temper4 ,being a regular succession of fifths and octaves1 without a break1 the system is easily learned1 and can be followed with little mental strain4 ,uniformity4--,after the tuner has become well trained in tempering his fifths1 there is little danger of an uneven temperament1 as the various intervals used in trials will prove a false member in some chord in time to correct it before he has gotten so far from it as to make the correction difficult4 ,when a correction is necessary1 the offending point is most easily found4 ,precision4--,in our experience1 we have never known another system by which we could attain the absolute precision gained by this4 ,stability4--,stability is the feature wherein rests the paramount reason for employing two octaves4 ,from what has been said in previous lessons concerning the liability of some strings to flatten or sharpen by reason of altering the tension of other strings1 the student will readily see that the temperament should cover a sufficient portion of the instrument1 if possible1 to insure that it will stand while the remaining portion is being tuned4 ,our two octaves cover nearly all the strings between the over-strung bass and the brace in the metal plate4 ,this being the case1 any reasonable alteration of the strings beyond1 or outside1 the braces from the temperament1 will rarely1 if ever1 affect it noticeably4 ,final ,inspection4--,always test every key on the piano1 or especially those of the middle five octaves1 for bad unisons4 ,upon finding one1 search for the string that has stood in tune1 by testing each string of the unison with its octave4 ,this being done1 simply bring the other to it4 ,go over the whole key-board1 striking octaves1 and correct any that might offend4 ,one extremely bad tone or octave may disparage your reputation1 when in reality your work merits commendation4 ,loose ,pins4--,you will occasionally find pianos in which the tuning pins have become so loose that they will not resist the pull of the strings4 ,if many of them are in this condition it is better1 before you begin to tune1 to take a hammer of considerable weight and drive them a little4 ,commence at one end of the row of pins and aim to strike all the pins with the same force4 ,those which are tight enough will not yield to the blow1 while those which are loose may require two or three blows to tighten them sufficiently4 ,this defect is generally found in very old squares or cheap uprights wherein the pin-block is of poor material or defective in manufacture or in pianos which have been abused4 ,split ,bridges4--,even in pianos of the highest grade1 we sometimes find a string sounding as if there was a pin or some metallic substance bearing against it4 ,in such cases1 find the string and examine the place where it crosses the bridge4 ,you will often find the bridge split at that point or the bridge-pin1 having yielded to the pressure of the string1 vibrates against the next pin1 giving rise to the singing effect4 ,you can do little if anything toward repairing a split bridge4 ,you may1 however1 stop the singing by inserting the point of your screw-driver between the close pins and pressing them apart4 ,this will generally stop the difficulty for the time being at least4 ,strings crossing the bridge near a split will not stand in tune well1 and will1 perhaps1 have to be gone over two or three times4 ,the same may be said of a broken metal plate4 ,many old squares have broken plates2 generally found near the overstrung bass1 or within the first octave of the treble4 ,all the tuner can do is to apprise the owner of the defect and inform her that it will not stand well at this point1 as the intense strain is thrown largely upon the wooden frame1 which will have a tendency to yield gradually to it4 ,stringing4--,strings break while the tuner is drawing them up1 sometimes because he does not pull them gradually1 gives them an abrupt turn or draws them too far above the pitch at which they are intended to stand4 ,more often1 however1 they break from being rusty at the point where they pass over the bridge or around the tuning pin4 ,the best instruction concerning putting on new strings is1 follow appearances4 ,make the string you put on look just like those on the instrument4 ,in most modern pianos the string is wound with three coils around the pin4 ,you will1 of course1 have to take out the action2 not the key-board1 however1 unless it be one of those rare cases where the key-board and upper action are built to come out together4 ,in the square it is only necessary to remove the shade over the dampers1 and the dampers1 which are all removed easily by taking out the screw at the left4 ,this allows the whole set of dampers with their support to come out together4 ,treble strings are nearly always passed around the hitch-pin1 one wire thus forming two strings4 ,take out the old string1 noticing how it passes over and under the felt at the dead end4 ,after removing the string always give the pin about three turns backward to draw it out sufficiently so that when a new string is put on1 the pin will turn into the block as far as it did originally4 ,run one end of the string barely through the hole in the tuning pin and turn it about twice around1 taking pains that the coils lie closely2 then unwind enough wire 7of the same size of course7 from your supply to reach down to the hitch pin and back4 ,place the string on the bridge pins properly1 draw it as tight as you can by hand and cut it off about three fingers' width beyond the pin upon which it is to be wound4 ,this will make about three coils around the pin4 ,place the end in the hole and turn up gradually1 watching that the string is clear down on hitch pin and properly laid on the bridge4 ,new strings will require drawing up two or three times before they will stand in tune1 and even then they will run down in a short time4 ,it is well on this account to leave them slightly sharp1 calling the owner's attention to the fact4 ,illustration3 ,,knot ,,for ,,splicing ,,wire4 ,when a bass string breaks at the point where it starts around the tuning pin1 it can nearly always be spliced and the trouble of sending it away to have a new one made be avoided4 ,take a piece of new wire as large or larger than the old string and splice it to the broken end by a good secure knot4 ,a knot called the square or ruft knot is the best for this purpose4 ,when a bass string breaks too far from the pin to permit of a splice1 the only resort will be to send the broken string to some factory and have a new one made from it4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,,xv4 #a4 ,name the advantages and disadvantages of system ,a4 #b4 ,name the advantages and disadvantages of system ,b4 #c4 ,what are the important points to be desired in any system of setting temperament8 #d4 ,state three or four items of importance in the operation of putting on a new string4 #e4 ,why do pianos get out of tune8 ,,lesson ,,xvi4 ,,tuning ,,and ,,repairing ,,the ,,reed ,,organ4 ,an impression seems to be prevalent among some musicians of the more advanced class1 that the reed organ has gone or is going out of use2 in certain communities there appears to be sufficient ground for such an impression2 in other communities1 however1 we find the number of organs largely in excess of the number of pianos4 ,not only is this the case1 but statistics of the various organ factories throughout the ,united ,states show that the output is enormous1 which is a sufficient assurance that the reed organ is not an obsolete instrument by any means4 ,to be sure1 the organ has been superseded in numerous cases by the piano1 which is1 in many respects1 a greatly superior instrument1 and1 generally speaking1 is more popular2 yet1 the reed organ has its special features of tone quality and adaptation1 which render it even more desirable to many than the piano1 aside from the fact of its being less expensive4 ,the musical effects possible on the organ and not on the piano may be few2 but they are of no small value1 when certain kinds of musical compositions are to be rendered4 ,one great point in favor of the organ is1 that it is capable of continuing any tone or chord for any length of time1 without diminution1 while in the piano1 the bass tones may be continued for considerable time1 the middle tones a shorter length of time1 and the extreme high tones of the treble have but the slightest duration2 every tone in the piano gradually grows weaker from the instant of its sounding until it fades into silence4 ,another feature of the organ1 not possible in the piano1 is its ability of making the crescendo 7a gradual increase of strength or volume7 in single tones or chords4 ,still another point in favor of the organ 7not in the tuner's favor1 however7 is that it rarely gets out of tune and does not require being gone over by the tuner at short intervals in order to keep it in fit condition to be used4 ,the idea with which we desire to impress the student by the foregoing remarks is1 that while the piano is a superior instrument1 and the art of tuning the piano is a much deeper study from the general tuner's standpoint than that of doing the various things the tuner is called to do on the organ1 he should not consider the reed organ of minor importance1 or slight the organ when called upon to put it in order4 ,the fact is1 persons having organs in their homes cherish them as much as others do their pianos1 and there is no reason why they should not have as good service4 ,it will be impossible to give anything more than general instruction in organ work1 as the difference in construction is so pronounced4 ,pianos are built practically on the same plan1 and when the construction of one is learned1 the tuner will find little difficulty in others of the same type2 but it seems that every organ manufacturer has his own hobbies as to the best means of securing results2 however1 the general principles are the same1 and1 like many operations coming under the hand of the tuner1 all that is necessary is to examine1 reason1 and use good mechanical judgment4 ,,cleaning4 ,organs need cleaning about once a year1 or oftener if they are kept and used in dusty places4 ,the bellows are suction or exhaustion bellows1 and they draw the air in at the top of the organ through the reeds and discharge it below4 ,the effect of this is that if any dust is floating in the air it is drawn in about the action and reeds1 where it settles and clogs the working parts1 stopping the vibration of the reeds entirely4 ,the front board or key strip is usually held in place by a screw at each end1 but sometimes by slides entering the holes in the side of the case1 which may be disconnected by wooden buttons at each end1 which are pulled toward the center4 ,the back of all organs may be entered by removing the board at the back of the case1 held in place by screws or buttons4 ,close all the stops1 then take your dust blower1 if you have one1 or a cloth1 and remove all the dirt possible in this way4 ,lift the muffler boards worked by the right knee-swell1 take a brush and clean thoroughly next to the reeds which will be exposed when the muffler boards are raised4 ,if any dirt is left here it will be drawn into the reeds the instant the organ is played4 ,in bad cases1 in fact it is better in every case1 to draw every reed1 letting them lie in a row on the reed board and going over each one separately1 brush the dust from it4 ,this will improve the tone1 or1 rather1 the tune of the instrument4 ,dirt on the tongue of a reed adds sufficient weight to alter the pitch1 and if it is removed1 the instrument will generally be in as good tune as when it left the factory4 ,simply cleaning an organ in this way is often called tuning1 by inexperienced persons4 ,if it happens that there are only a few reeds that do not speak1 and the owner does not care to pay for a thorough cleaning1 you will find the silent reeds by the method given under the head ,examination1 and1 drawing them1 clean and replace4 ,,stops4 ,each stop on the organ 7if there be no dummies7 affects either the tone quality or the power of the instrument4 ,the ,vox ,humana stop affects the quality of the tone by operating a fan in the rear of the instrument or a contrivance contained in a small box1 which produces a tremolo effect4 ,all other stops may be said to affect the power4 ,stops having such names as ,diapason1 ,melodia1 ,dulcet1 ,celeste1 ,cremona1 ,echo1 ,principal1 ,bourdon1 ,sub ,bass1 ,piccolo1 ,flute1 ,dulciana1 etc41 etc41 open certain sets of reeds supposed to give forth a tone quality similar to the instrument whose name it bears1 or the tone of the pipes of the pipe organ bearing such names4 ,these stops operate on the sets of reeds by raising the mutes which1 when closed1 stop the passage of air through the reeds4 ,the octave coupler stop1 sometimes called ,harmonique1 controls an arrangement whereby1 when a key is depressed1 its octave is made to sound also4 ,forte stops lift the mufflers or swells1 and as these are controlled by the right knee-swell1 the ,forte stop may be considered of little value4 ,the left knee-swell1 called the ,full ,organ swell1 as its name implies1 opens up the full power of all sets of reeds and throws on the couplers4 ,a mere peep into any organ will disclose the mechanical working of stops1 which is in such great variety that we will not attempt to detail it here4 ,,examination4 ,after a little experience you will be able to make an examination of an organ and tell just what it needs without so much as drawing a screw4 ,the reeds are usually divided into treble sets and bass sets2 two octaves of bass reeds1 and three octaves of treble reeds constitute a set4 ,the ,diapason stop is nearly always present1 and controls the heaviest reeds in the bass except the ,bourdon or ,sub ,bass1 if the organ should have either of these4 ,in examining an organ1 close all stops but the ,diapason1 for instance1 then successively press every key in the two bass octaves4 ,now if1 for instance1 a key is found silent1 that is1 just an octave from the lowest tone1 by counting the keys from the lowest tone1 you will find the silent key is number thirteen4 ,look into the organ1 find the mute that is up by reason of this ,diapason stop's being pulled1 and count the reeds from the lowest to the thirteenth2 pull the reed and you will find it obstructed or perhaps broken4 ,most organs have a ,dulciana stop in the treble which corresponds with the ,diapason in the bass4 ,test the reeds of this set just as you did those of the ,diapason4 ,go over each set of reeds in like manner4 ,broken reeds should be sent to the factory where the organ was built4 ,the manufacturers will send a new one1 often without cost4 ,stops are sometimes found disconnected from the mutes1 which deprives the player of the use of certain sets of reeds1 and while it is a small matter to connect them1 it adds much to the improvement imparted to the instrument by the tuner4 ,after disconnecting the stops for any purpose1 always be sure you connect them properly before leaving your work4 ,,sticking ,,keys4 ,the key itself is subject to many of the same faults as is that of the piano4 ,it may bind in the guide pin or warp so as to cause it to stick1 or it may stick from some substance between the keys4 ,sometimes the front board is so near the front of the keys that when the latter are depressed they stick against it4 ,a screw is generally found in the center1 the head of which comes against the front board and holds it out4 ,if the board is too near give the screw a turn or two back4 ,if there is no screw1 place a piece of card against the board and the case at the ends4 ,the end keys sometimes stick against the blocks at the ends of the key-board4 ,scrape the block or key where it sticks4 ,a key may stay down because of the cedar pin1 sometimes called the tracker pin or pitman1 sticking in the hole4 ,take out the key-board which is held by a screw at each end1 sometimes by another in the middle2 in which case a key or two must be removed to get at it4 ,to remove a key1 take off the strip at the back of the keys1 held in place by small screws1 and the key may be lifted up4 ,now1 finding the sticking pin1 pull it out and sandpaper or rub it with black lead until it is found to work quite freely in the guide hole of the guide board and the hole in the reed board4 ,just under the reed board is a wooden slip covered with soft leather1 called the valve or pallet1 which covers the openings in the reed board which admit air to pass down through the reeds4 ,the tracker pin1 pushed down by the key1 opens the pallet which is held against the reed board by a spring and kept in place by a guide pin at each end4 ,it sometimes happens that a pallet will be pushed down so far as to catch on the guide pins and cause the tone to sound continually4 ,in other cases a piece of dirt will get in the way of the pallet and prevent it from closing the opening4 ,if this be the case1 draw the reeds that sound when this key is depressed and also a reed at each side of it1 and pump the bellows briskly1 at the same time pressing the three keys4 ,this will generally create enough air to remove the obstacle4 ,if the key still sounds and cannot be made to hush up in this way1 you may be compelled to take out the entire action so that you can get to the pallets1 which can be done by removing all the screws that hold the reed board in place4 ,at the back1 these screws are on top of the board and sometimes they are on top in front2 but often they are under the air chamber in front4 ,be sure the screws are all out before trying to pull the board loose1 as you might crack the board and thereby cause a leak4 ,a moment's notice will reveal the cause of the trouble in the pallet4 ,new pallet springs may be made of piano wire1 using old springs for a pattern4 ,,leaks4 ,if a leak is found in the air boards1 such as a crack or split1 it can be stopped permanently by gluing a piece of bellows cloth or any good rubber cloth over the split4 ,a leak in the bellows can be repaired in the same way1 but if it happens to be a hole at or near a part of the cloth which is compelled to bend in the working of the bellows1 you will have to use some kind of rubber or leather cement1 preferably the latter4 ,this can be made by dissolving gutta-percha in bisulphide of carbon1 but a good leather cement may be had at almost any shoe store4 ,if the bellows are porous1 it may be well to give them a coat of cement1 but never paint them2 the paint cracks and the leaks are made worse4 ,,pedal ,,detects4 ,broken pedal straps are the most frequent annoyance4 ,in all modern organs there is a panel above the pedals which will come out and admit the mechanic to the bellows1 straps1 springs1 etc42 but in some old instruments the case is made solid1 in which case the workman must do his work from the bottom1 turning the organ down so as to get at it4 ,pedal straps are easily put on2 generally with screws at either end4 ,if the pedal squeaks examine the springs or oil and change their position slightly4 ,examine the pulleys over which the straps work and oil or rub them on the outside with soap4 ,broken pedal hinges may be duplicated by any blacksmith2 the ordinary hinges1 such as can be bought at hardware stores1 are sometimes substituted1 but they rarely answer the purpose as well as the regular pedal hinge4 ,the leather flaps over the holes in the exhausters sometimes get too tight by shrinkage so that they will not let the air escape readily1 and consequently the pedals come up slowly1 often making it difficult to keep the instrument sufficiently supplied with power4 ,simply stretch the leather flaps1 being careful not to pull the tacks loose or tear the leather4 ,,sympathetic ,,vibrations4 ,organs1 like pianos1 are subject to sympathetic vibrations4 ,a reed fitting loosely in the reed chamber will sometimes buzz when sounded4 ,a bit of paper under the back end of the reed will stop it4 ,any loose material about the instrument may cause trouble of this kind4 ,trace up the cause and the remedy will suggest itself4 ,a buzzing sound may be caused by a reed's being too tight in the reed chamber1 causing the tongue to vibrate against the sides of the brass body4 ,in some rare cases1 not being firmly riveted1 the tongue will move to one side1 causing the same trouble4 ,care and pains must be taken in working with reeds1 but when in this condition they must be repaired4 ,tap the rivet lightly with a hammer and try it2 if it still does not sound clear1 catch the butt of the reed 7riveted end7 with a pair of parallel pliers1 and turn it toward the center until1 when vibrating1 it clears the jaws4 ,,tuning4 ,the method of tuning the organ is very simple4 ,to flatten the tone of a reed1 scrape the tongue near the butt or rivet1 making it thinner at that point1 which will cause it to vibrate at a slower rate4 ,to sharpen the tone1 scrape it at the point1 thereby lightening the vibrating end1 which will cause a more rapid rate of vibration4 ,when a reed has been scraped or filed so thin at the point that it will bear no more scraping1 it can sometimes be sharpened by bending it up and down a few times1 which has a tendency to put temper in the metal4 ,some reeds are curved at the point purposely to secure a certain voice4 ,do not interfere with the proper curvature when tuning4 ,in tuning organs1 the same system and general instruction given for piano tuning will apply2 however1 it is rarely1 if ever1 necessary to give an organ as thorough tuning as you would a piano4 ,it is a very tedious job where you have to draw each reed1 apply the proper method1 insert it and try the result1 thus cutting and trying each one perhaps several times before getting the desired result4 ,in factories devices are used which render the operation very much easier4 ,one thing you should know is1 that organs are not tempered as finely as pianos1 nor is there the pains taken to secure perfect unisons4 ,in fact1 you can hardly find a perfect unison in an organ of modern make1 much less1 a correct temperament4 ,finding a tone that is so far out as to be very disagreeable1 adjust it between the octave below and the octave above1 try it in the proper chords and equalize it in the best possible way2 but it is not often you will be able to tune it to absolute precision with its octaves4 ,it is thought by many that a slight deviation from correct unisons1 sufficient to give a series of waves1 gives the organ a more mellow voice and consequently a more musical 787 tone2 and while we do not agree with any such proposition1 it makes the tuner's work less exacting4 ,we feel that an apology is in order for not giving illustrations of the action of the organ1 but if the student will study this lesson in connection with the instrument itself1 we believe he will have no trouble in learning all about its mechanical action and its demands upon the tuner4 ,,questions ,,on ,,lesson ,,xvi4 #a4 ,name the musical advantages possessed by the organ which are absent in the piano4 #b4 ,name the musical advantages possessed by the piano which are absent in the organ4 #c4 ,describe the mechanical operations taking place in the organ when a key is being sounded4 #d4 ,state what you would do to flatten the tone of a reed and give reasons4 #e4 ,state what you would do to sharpen the tone of a reed and give reasons4 ,,lesson ,,xvii4 ,,concluding ,,professional ,,hints4 ,peculiar incidents occur in the experience of the piano tuner1 some of which have come under the observation of the author so frequently that he deems it advisable to mention them here2 there are incidents also that happen once in a life-time which must be treated in their time with tact and good judgment1 and which it is impossible to describe here1 as each tuner1 in his special field1 will elicit new developments4 ,occasion often requires the tuner to summon all his wits and tact in order to dispose of questions put to him1 both by pianos and owners4 ,among the perplexing things that come to the tuner are the terms used by musicians and piano owners to express certain qualities of tone and certain discrepancies of the instrument4 ,we will define a number of these4 ,brilliant4--,the sense in which this term is used is astonishing to one who is accustomed to using words according to their dictionary meanings4 ,we have heard persons say their piano was too brilliant2 or1 that it was not brilliant enough4 ,they mean this term to apply to what we are pleased to call the voice of the instrument4 ,when the hammers are hard1 producing a sharp1 penetrating tone1 they call it brilliant2 when the hammers are soft and produce what a trained ear would accept as a soft1 sweet1 musical tone1 some persons will say that the instrument lacks brilliancy4 ,persons of a different taste1 and1 we would say1 a more cultured ear1 call the tone harsh when the hammers are hard1 and they usually desire the tuner to soften the tone1 which he does by softening the hammer ends as has been described in ,lesson ,,vii4 ,this operation1 which we call voicing1 is a very delicate piece of work1 and the tuner should exercise care and pains in doing it2 so we will deviate from the trend of the discourse and offer a few directions here1 as the previous instructions are hardly complete4 ,insert the felt pick 7which should contain only one point1 and not three or four1 as they usually do7 in the point of the hammer and give it a rotary motion1 so to speak1 loosening up the felt and giving it its original elasticity4 ,do not pick up the felt at the point4 ,this method1 which is resorted to by many tuners1 is injurious to the hammers and really does no permanent good4 ,another method which is very good1 and a very easy one1 is to take your parallel pliers and squeeze the felt slightly at the point4 ,apply the pliers at right angles with the hammer 7if the action of the upright1 your pliers will be in an upright position7 and catch the hammer at a depth of about three-quarters of the thickness of the felt4 ,if the hammers are very hard it may be well to use both the pliers and the pick2 but care must always be taken not to get the hammers too soft1 and extreme care must be taken not to get some softer than others4 ,some hammers are always used more than others and1 of course1 these will need more softening4 ,usually those at the extreme ends of the instrument will need no softening at all1 but sometimes the bass will bear considerable softening4 ,after going over them in the above way1 try them by playing the chromatic scale and you will invariably find some that need additional attention4 ,be sure that no hard tone is left1 as such a condition is a great annoyance to a delicate ear4 ,singing4--,when a damper is out of order and does not do its work properly1 they often say the tone sings4 ,they say the same thing about the reed organ when a pallet sticks or a key stays down4 ,sometimes this term is used to express the grating vibration which has been treated under the head of sympathetic rattle4 ,tin-panny4--,this term is often used and generally means that the instrument is out of tune1 and especially that the unisons are out4 ,sometimes it is used to express a hollow quality of tone2 but you will rarely1 if ever1 hear a piano spoken of in this way if it is in correct tune4 ,any piano out of tune badly may be said to sound tin-panny4 ,bass-ey4--,this term expresses a very harsh bass4 ,imperfect octaves or unisons in the bass of a piano give rise to the use of this term4 ,if the bass of the instrument is decidedly flat1 the same term is sometimes used to express the condition4 ,harsh4--,this term1 when it does not apply to the voice of the piano1 generally reflects upon the work of the tuner 7874 ,chords are harsh when they contain over-sharp thirds1 bad fifths1 octaves1 etc4 ,take care that your temperament contains no bad chords1 and after you are all through1 see that all tones have stood1 and that you have left no bad unisons or octaves4 ,one or two carelessly tuned tones may disparage your otherwise creditable work4 ,questions4--,questions are often asked the tuner concerning the care of the piano4 ,be prepared to answer any reasonable question that may come up1 which your knowledge of the instrument should enable you to do4 ,in regard to temperature1 moisture1 etc41 an extreme either way is the thing to avoid4 ,a very dry or hot atmosphere will crack the varnish1 warp the wooden parts1 crack the sound-board1 cause parts to come unglued1 etc4 ,on the other hand1 too much moisture will rust the steel parts1 strings1 etc42 so the happy medium is the condition to be desired4 ,as to keeping pianos closed1 a question you will often be asked1 we think it is better to keep them open at all times than to keep them closed at all times2 because1 if they are kept open they are subjected to the changes of the atmosphere1 which will rarely permit the piano to become either very damp or too dry4 ,in a word1 a room that is healthy for human beings is all right for the piano4 ,seasons for ,tuning4--,the prevalent idea in regard to this matter is that pianos should be tuned either at the beginning of cold or of warm weather4 ,in our experience1 we have found that it makes no difference when the piano is tuned if it is kept in the living room4 ,if1 however1 a piano were tuned upon a warm day in the fall and then allowed to remain in a room in which the temperature suddenly fell to zero1 we could not expect it to stand in tune2 and much less1 if the room is heated up occasionally and then left for an interval at the mercy of the weather4 ,persons who treat their pianos in this way should have them tuned about four times a year4 ,,index4 ,action1 #ag brackets1 #bd of grand piano1 #cg1 #ch1 #fb of square piano1 #cb1 #cd removing1 square and grand1 #ch replacing1 square and grand1 #ci requisites of1 #ag1 #ah top1 of square piano1 #cd trap1 of square piano1 #ai1 #cd ,advantages of two-octave temperament1 #aga ,ancient instruments1 #ac ,back check1 adjustment of1 #di and back catch1 #ah1 #bg1 #bh1 #cc1 #cg wire1 #bg ,balance pin1 #ba rail1 #ba ,bearing bar1 #ag ,beats1 waves1 and pulsations1 #gc1 #aej of unison1 octave1 and major third1 #aed cause of1 #gg1 #aej ,black lead1 use of1 #fd ,block rail1 #bg1 #ea ,bottom or capstan1 adjustment of1 #dh1 #ii or key rocker1 #bc1 #cc1 #dh1 #ef1 #eg ,bracket bolts1 #be ,bridle1 #bh putting in new1 #ej wire1 #bh1 #ej ,bridges1 #af1 #ag split1 #agc ,building of upright piano1 #af ,butts1 #bh and flanges1 repairing of1 #ei ,capstan1 #bd1 #dh ,cause of beats #bg1 #aej ,center-pins1 #be putting in new #eb ,clicks at release of key1 #ea1 #eb ,compromises1 the1 #ii1 #ajj ,continuous mute1 #hi ,damper lever1 #bi felt1 softening1 #ed ,damper1 of grand piano1 #cg of square piano1 #cf1 #fj rod1 #cj rod1 squeaking of1 #ee spoon1 #bi springs broken1 #ed ,dampers1 #ah1 #bi ,damping1 defective1 #ed1 #fj1 #fa ,ditonic comma #add ,evolution of the piano1 #ab ,extension1 #bc ,false waves1 #afj1 #afa ,fifths1 beats of1 #gi not all tempered alike1 #aje1 #ajf tempering of1 #gi1 #ajd ,final inspection1 #agb ,fischer ,system of temperament1 diagram of1 #hb ,flanges1 #be repairing of1 #ei ,guide pins1 #bc ,hammer1 butt1 refelting1 #ea capping with buckskin1 #ei felts1 cleaning1 #cd gluing1 #ed hardening1 #ed softening1 #ed trimming1 #fj voicing1 #ed1 #ajd head #bi rail1 #bi1 #cc shank or stem1 #bi1 #ec broken1 #fc renewing1 #ec spring1 #eb sticking1 #eb ,hitch-pins1 #af1 #ag ,instrumental attachments1 removal of1 #aah ,intervals flattened1 #aeg sharpened1 #aeg ,ivories1 regluing1 #fd ,jack1 #bf repairing of1 #ej1 #eh sluggish1 #eg -spring broken1 #eh ,key1 defects in1 #dg1 #dh leads1 #bb organ1 sticking1 #ahe1 #ahf removing1 square piano1 #ef squeaking1 #fd sticking1 #df ,lead1 in keys1 #bb black1 use of1 #fd loose in key1 #fd ,length1 tension1 and weight of strings1 #ge ,loud pedal1 #ai1 #cj ,main rail1 #be ,mathematics of tempered scale1 #abf ,metal plates1 #ae ,mute1 continuous1 #hi1 #ij ,mutes1 setting in upright piano1 #aag-abj in bass1 #aba beyond temperament1 #abj in square piano1 #abb on nodal points1 #afa ,octave1 dividing into major thirds1 #acd into minor thirds1 #adj perfect fifths1 #adb ,octaves1 relative vibration of1 #gh ,organ1 reed1 tuning and repairing the1 #agh bellows1 leaks in1 #ahg capabilities of1 #agi cleaning1 #ahj examination1 #ahc keys sticking1 #ahe1 #ahf pallets1 #ahf pedal defects1 #ahh reeds1 to find1 #ahd tuning1 #aij stops1 #ahb disconnected1 #ahd sympathetic vibration1 #ahi ,over-tension1 #aad ,panel1 removing of1 #ge ,parts of grand action1 #ch of square action1 #cd ,pendulum to aid in judgment of a second of time1 #ajd ,piano frame1 #ae tuner1 requisites of1 #g1 #gj ,pianos1 special use of1 #he1 #hf ,pitch1 concert1 #abg international1 #ha1 #abg ,pitch1 left to tuner's judgment1 #hf1 #hg1 #hi to determine most favorable1 #he ,professional hints1 #aic ,questions asked by owners1 #baa ,ratio of intervals1 #acb ,reed organ4 ,see ,organ4 ,regulating button1 #bf1 #ea rail1 #bf1 #cf ,repairing small wooden parts1 #fc ,repetition of stroke1 #ah1 #bg ,searching for articles on sound board1 #dd ,seasons for tuning1 #aih ,soft pedal1 #bi1 #cf1 #ch ,sound board1 #af split1 #dd unglued1 #de waves1 interference of1 #gh1 #aej ,splicing piano wire1 #agf ,spring rail1 #bi ,stringing of upright1 #af1 #ag ,strings growing sharper1 #hh putting in new1 #agd1 #age rendering through bridges1 #aab1 #aad splicing1 #agf ,study and practice of tuning1 #ff ,sustaining pedal1 #cj squeaking of1 #ee ,sympathetic rattle1 #dc ,syntonic comma1 #acb ,systems of temperament1 various1 #afc ,system ,a1 #afe ,b1 #aff ,c1 #afg1 #afh ,tables of relative string length1 #aca1 #acf1 #adj1 #adc ,temperament1 advantages of the two-octave1 #aga equal1 #ig1 #add ,fischer system1 #gd finishing up1 #aef introductory remarks on1 #fh1 #gb rationale of1 #abh1 #aci requisites of1 #acc setting1 specific instructions1 #he theory of1 #ig unequal1 #ih various systems1 #afc-afh ,tension1 equalization of1 #aaa1 #aab ,terms to express tone qualities1 #aic-aif ,testing by thirds and tenths1 #agj ,tests1 chords1 #id1 #ii1 #ajc ,third1 excessive sharpness of1 #ie1 #ajc ,thirds1 major1 #ace major1 sharper than perfect1 #ace minor1 flatter than perfect1 #ada ,tones1 harmonic1 #abj1 #acj ,touch1 altering the1 #dh ,treble1 extreme1 sharper than perfect1 #aei ,tuning1 instructions for first experiments in1 #ib-ie hammer1 manipulation of1 #aaj1 #aae1 #aaf pins1 marking of in square1 #abb loose1 #agc setting of1 #aab-aad the bass1 #afj the treble1 #aeg1 #aei ,vibration numbers1 comparison of1 #acg1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh ,watchmaker's screwdriver1 use of in piano repairing1 #fc ,wippen1 #be ,wire splicing1 #agf ,wooden parts1 shrinking1 rattling1 #ei repairing of small1 #fc ,transcriber's note3 #a4 ,bold text is enclosed in tilde 77 characters4 #b4 ,on page #aig1 'tones' has been misspelt in the original text as 'tonse'4