,,sextus ,,empiricus ,,& ,,greek ,,scepticism ,a ,!sis accept$ = ! ,degree ( ,doctor ( ,philosophy 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]n ,switz]l&1 ,novemb] #ahig by ,,m>y ,,mills ,,patrick ,,presid5t ,,( ,,! ,,am]ican ,,college1 ,,con/ant9ople ,,turkey ,?is ,!sis is accompani$ by a ,translation f ! ,greek ( ! ,fir/ ,book ( ! ,pyrrhonic ,sket*es by ,sextus ,empiricus ,,cambridge ,,deighton ,,bell ,,co4 ,,london ,,george ,,bell ,,sons #ahii ,,cambridge ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,jona?an ,,palm] ,,alex&ra ,,/reet ,,preface ,! foll[+ treatise on ,sextus ,empiricus & ,greek ,scepticism has be5 prep>$ to supply a ne$ mu* felt 9 ! ,engli% language by /ud5ts ( ,greek philosophy4 ,= :ile o!r s*ools ( ,greek philosophy h be5 exhau/ively & critically discuss$ by ,engli% s*ol>s1 !re are few s\rces ( in=mation available to ! /ud5t :o wi%es to make himself famili> ) ! tea*+s ( ,pyrrhonism4 ,! aim has be51 accord+ly1 to give a concise pres5tation ( ,pyrrhonism 9 relation to its hi/orical developm5t & ! ,scepticism ( ! ,academy1 ) critical ref]5ces to ! ,fr5* & ,g]man works exi/+ on ! subject4 ,! "t & mann] ( ! connection ( ,sextus ,empiricus ) ! ,pyrrhonean ,s*ool has also be5 discuss$4 ,z ! ,fir/ ,book ( ! ,hypotyposes1 or ,pyrrhonic ,sket*es by ,sextus ,empiricus1 conta9s ! sub/ance ( ! tea*+s ( ,pyrrhonism1 x has be5 hop$ t a translation ( x into ,engli% might prove a useful contribution to ! lit]ature on ,pyrrhonism1 & ?is translation has be5 add$ to ! critical "p ( ! "w4 ,9 mak+ ?is translation1 & 9 ! g5]al /udy ( ! works ( ,sextus1 ! ,greek text ( ,immanuel ,bekk]1 ,b]l91 #ahdb1 has be5 us$1 ) frequ5t consultation ( ! text ( ,j4,a4 ,fabricius1 #agah1 :i* 0 tak5 directly f ! exi/+ manuscripts ( ! works ( ,sextus4 ,! divisions into *apt]s1 ) ! head+s ( ! *apt]s 9 ! translation1 is ! same z ,fabricius gives f ! manuscripts1 al?\gh n us$ by ,bekk]1 & ! numb]s ( ! p>agraphs are ! same z ^? giv5 by bo? ,fabricius & ,bekk]4 ,ref]5ces to ,diog5es ,la]tius & o!r anci5t works h be5 c>efully v]ifi$4 ,! pr9cipal mod]n au?ors consult$ are ! foll[+3 ,ritt]1 ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 ,,ii4 ,auf41 ,hamburg1 #ahcf-ch4 ,zell]1 ,philosophie d] ,grie*51 ,,iii4 ,auf41 ,leipzig1 #ahgi-hi4 ,lewes1 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 ,vol4 ,i41 ,london1 #ahff4 ,ueb]weg1 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 ,,iv4 ed41 translat$ by ,morris1 #ahga4 ,bro*>d1 ,les ,sceptiques ,grecs1 ,p>is1 #ahgg4 ,bro*>d1 ,pyrrhon et le ,scepticism ,primitive1 ,no4 #e1 ,ribot's ,revue ,phil41 ,p>is1 #ahhe4 ,saisset1 ,le ,scepticism ,a5sidme-,pascal-,kant1 ,p>is1 #ahfg4 ,*aignet1 ,hi/oire de la ,psy*ologie des ,grecs1 ,p>is1 #ahhg-ij4 ,haas1 ,leb5 des ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,burghaus51 #ahhb4 ,natorp1 ,=s*ung5 zur ,ges*i*te des ,erk5ntnisproblems bei d5 ,alt51 ,b]l91 #ahhd4 ,hirzel1 ,unt]su*ung5 zu ,cic]o's philosophis*5 ,s*rift51 ,leipzig1 #ahgg-hc4 ,papp5heim1 ,erlut]ung zu des ,sextus ,empiricus ,pyrrhoneis*5 ,grundzg51 ,heidelb]g1 #ahhb4 ,papp5heim1 ,die ,trop5 d] ,grei*is*5 ,skeptik]1 ,b]l91 #ahhe4 ,papp5heim1 ,leb5sv]hltnisse des ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,b]l91 #ahhg4 ,papp5heim1 ,d] angebli*e ,h]aclitismus des ,skeptik]s ,a9esidemos1 ,b]l91 #ahhg4 ,papp5heim1 ,d] ,sitz d] ,s*ule d] ,grie*is*5 ,skeptik]1 ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 ,i4 #a1 ,s4 #dg1 #ahhg4 ,maccoll1 ,! ,greek ,sceptics f ,pyrrho to ,sextus1 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,my grateful ackn[l$gm5ts are due to ,dr4 ,ludwig ,/e91 ,pr(essor ( ,philosophy 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]n1 = valuable assi/ance 9 relation to ! plan ( ! "w & advice 9 reg>d to ! be/ au?orities to be consult$4 ,?anks are also due to ,dr4 ,l\isos ,ili\1 ( ,rob]t ,college1 ,con/ant9ople1 = k9d sugge/ions conc]n+ ! translation4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,hi/orical ,,relations ,,( ,,sextus ,,empiricus 444 #a ,introductory p>agraph4--,! "n ( ,sextus ,empiricus4 ,8 pr(ession4--,! "t :5 he liv$4--,! place ( 8 bir?4--,! seat ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool :ile ,sextus 0 at its head4--,! "* ( ! writ+s ( ,sextus ,empiricus4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,position ,,& ,,aim ,,( ,,pyrrhonic ,,scepticism 444 #bc ,! subject-matt] ( ! ,hypotyposes4--,! orig9 ( ,pyrrhonism4--,! nom5clature ( ,pyrrhonism4--,its crit]ion4--,its aim4--,greek3 epo* & ,greek3 at>axia4--,! /&po9t ( ,pyrrhonism4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,sceptical ,,tropes 444 #ca ,orig9 ( ! "n4--,! t5 ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo*4--,! ,fir/ ,trope4--,! ,second ,trope4--,! ,?ird ,trope4--,! ,f\r? ,trope4--,! ,fif? ,trope4--,! ,six? ,trope4--,! ,sev5? ,trope4--,! ,eigh? ,trope4--,! ,n9? ,trope4--,! ,t5? ,trope4--,! five ,tropes ( ,agrippa4--,! two ,tropes4--,! ,tropes ( ,a5esidemus aga9/ ,aetiology4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,a5esidemus ,,& ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,h]aclitus 444 #fc ,/atem5t ( ! problem4--,! !ory ( ,papp5heim4--,! !ory ( ,bro*>d4--,zell]'s !ory4--,! !ory ( ,ritt] & ,saisset4--,! !ory ( ,hirzel & ,natorp4--,critical exam9ation ( ! subject4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,critical ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,pyrrhonism 444 #ha ,pyrrhonism & ,pyrrho4--,pyrrhonism & ! ,academy4 ,/r5g? & weakness ( ,pyrrhonism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,book ,,( ,,! ,,pyrrhonic ,,sket*es ,,by ,,sextus ,,empiricus1 ,,translat$ ,,f ,,! ,,greek 444 #aja ,,*apt] ,i4 ,! ,hi/orical ,relations ( ,sextus ,empiricus4 ,int]e/ has reviv$ 9 ! works ( ,sextus ,empiricus 9 rec5t times1 especially1 "o may say1 s9ce ! date ( ,h]b>t4 ,!re is mu* 9 ! writ+s ( ,sextus t f9ds a p>allel 9 ! me?ods ( mod]n philosophy4 ,!re is a common />t+-po9t 9 ! /udy ( ! p[] & limitations ( human ?\ght4 ,!re is a common desire to inve/igate ! ph5om5a ( s5se-p]ception1 & ! g5etic relations ( man to ! l[] animals1 & a common int]e/ 9 ! !ory ( human k4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 "s ( ! pages ( ,sextus' works w\ld =m a possible introduction to c]ta9 l9es ( mod]n philosophical ?\ght1 we _c c>ry ! analogy f>!r1 = ,pyrrhonism z a :ole lack$ ! ess5tial elem5t ( all philosophical progress1 :i* is a belief 9 ! possibility ( f9d+ & e/abli%+ ! tru? 9 ! subjects inve/igat$4 ,be=e beg9n+ a critical /udy ( ! writ+s ( ,sextus ,empiricus1 & ! light :i* !y ?r[ on ! developm5t ( ,greek ,scepticism1 x is necess>y to make ourselves some:at famili> ) ! environm5t 9 :i* he liv$ & wrote4 ,we %all ?us be able to compreh5d m fully ! /&po9t f :i* he reg>d$ philosophical que/ions4 ,let u accord+ly attempt to give "s details ( 8 life1 includ+ 8 pr(ession1 ! "t :5 he liv$1 ! place ( 8 bir?1 ! c\ntry 9 :i* he taught1 & ! g5]al aim & "* ( 8 works4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 we enc\nt] great difficulties1 = al?\gh we possess mo/ ( ! writ+s ( ,sextus well pres]v$1 ! evid5ce :i* !y provide on ! po9ts m5tion$ is v slight4 ,he does n give u biographical details 9 reg>d to himself1 nor does he ref] to 8 contempor>ies 9 a way to af=d any exact k ( !m4 ,8 "n ev5 furni%es u ) a problem impossible ( solution4 ,he is call$ ,greek3 ,sextos ho empeirikos by ,diog5es ,la]tius#a3 ,greek3 ,hrodot\ de dik\se ,sextos ho empeirikos h\ kai ta deka tn skeptikn kai alla kalli/a' ,sext\ de dik\se ,satorn9os ho ,ky?nas1 empeirikos kai autos4 ,al?\gh 9 ?is passage ,diog5es speaks ( ,sextus ! second "t )\t ! surname1 we _c und]/& ! mean+ o!rwise ?an t ,diog5es consid]$ ,sextus a physician ( ! ,empirical ,s*ool4 ,o!r evid5ce also is n want+ t ,sextus bore ?is surname4 ,fabricius1 9 8 edition ( ! works ( ,sextus1 quotes f ! ,tabella de ,sectis ,m$icorum ( ,lambecius ! /atem5t t ,sextus 0 call$ ,empiricus because ( 8 position 9 m$ic9e4#b ,pseudo-,gal5 also ref]s to him z "o ( ! directors ( ! ,empirical ,s*ool1 & calls him ,greek3 ,sextos ho empeirikos4#c ,8 "n is (t5 f\nd 9 ! manuscripts writt5 ) ! surname1 z = example at ! end ( ,logic ,,ii4#d ,9 o!r places x is f\nd writt5 )\t ! surname1 z ,fabricius te/ifies1 :]e ,sextus is m5tion$ z a ,sceptic 9 connection ) ,pyrrho4 #a ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,ix4 #ab1 #aaf4 #b ,fabricius ,te/imonia1 p4 #b4 #c ,pseudo-,gal5 ,isag4 #d2 ,fabricius ,te/imonia1 p4 #b4 #d ,bekk] ,ma?4 ,,viii4 #dha4 ,! ,sceptical ,s*ool 0 long closely connect$ ) ! ,empirical ,s*ool ( m$ic9e1 & ! lat] ,pyrrhoneans1 :5 !y 7 physicians1 z 0 (t5 ! case1 belong$ = ! mo/ "p to ?is s*ool4 ,m5$otus ( ,nicom$ia is ! fir/ ,sceptic1 h[ev]1 :o is =mally spok5 ( z an ,empirical physician1#a & 8 contempor>y ,!odas ( ,laodicea 0 also an ,empirical physician4 ,! date ( ,m5$otus & ,!odas is difficult to fix1 b ,bro*>d & ,hass agree t x 0 ab\t #aej ,a4,d4#b ,aft] ! "t ( ^! two physicians1 :o 7 also ea* 9 turn at ! head ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool1#c !re seems to h be5 a def9ite alliance betwe5 ,pyrrhonism & ,empiricism 9 m$ic9e1 & we h e reason to believe t ?is alliance exi/$ until ! "t ( ,sextus4 #a ,diog4 ,,ix4 #ab1 #aae4 #b ,bro*>d ,op4 cit4 ,livre ,,iv4 p4 #caa4 #c ,diog4 ,,ix4 #ab1 #aaf4 ,! difficulty 9 reg>d to ! "n arises f ,sextus' own te/imony4 ,9 ! fir/ book ( ! ,hypotyposes he takes /rong gr\nd aga9/ ! id5tity ( ,pyrrhonism & ,empiricism 9 m$ic9e4 ,al?\gh he introduces 8 objections ) ! admission t "s say t !y are ! same1 9 recognition ( ! close union t _h exi/$ betwe5 !m1 he goes on to say t ,empiricism is nei!r ,scepticism itself1 nor w\ld x suit ! ,sceptic to take t sect ^u himself1#a = ! reason t ,empiricism ma9ta9s dogmatically ! impossibility ( k1 b he w\ld pref] to belong to ! ,me?odical ,s*ool1 :i* 0 ! only m$ical s*ool wor?y ( ! ,sceptic4 ,= ?is alone ( all ! m$ical sects1 does n proce$ ra%ly x seems to me1 9 reg>d to unkn[n ?+s1 & does n presume to say :e!r !y are compreh5sible or n1 b x is guid$ by ph5om5a4#b ,x w ?us be se5 t ! ,me?odical ,s*ool ( m$ic9e has a c]ta9 relation%ip to ,scepticism :i* is clos] ?an t ( ! o!r m$ical sects4#c #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #bcf4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #bcg4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #bda4 ,we "k f ! te/imony ( ,sextus himself t he 0 a physician4 ,9 "o case he uses ! fir/ p]son = himself z a physician1#a & 9 ano!r he speaks ( ,asclepius z ! f\nd] ( our sci5ce1#b & all 8 illu/rations %[ a bread? & v>iety ( m$ical k t only a physician c\ld possess4 ,he publi%$ a m$ical "w :i* he ref]s to once z ,greek3 iatrika hupomnmata1#c & aga9 z ,greek3 empeirika hupomnmata#d ,^! passages probably ref] to ! same "w1#e :i*1 un=tunately = ! solution ( ! difficult "q t we h 9 h&1 is lo/1 & no?+ is kn[n ( its cont5ts4 ,9 app>5t contradiction to 8 /atem5t 9 ,hypotyposes ,i41 t ,scepticism & ,empiricism are oppos$ to ea* o!r1 9 t ,empiricism d5ies ! possibility ( k1 & ,scepticism makes no dogmatic /atem5ts ( any k9d1 ,sextus classes ! ,sceptics & ,empirici/s toge!r 9 ano!r in/ance1 z reg>d+ k z impossible#f ,greek3 all oi m5 phas9 auta m katalambane/hai1 h/] hoi apo ts empeirias iatroi kai hoi apo ts skepses phiolosophoi4 ,9 ano!r case1 on ! contr>y1 he contra/s ! ,sceptics %>ply ) ! ,empirici/s 9 reg>d to ! ,greek3 apodeixeis4#g ,greek3 hoi de empeirikoi anair\s91 hoi de skeptikoi en epo* tautn ephylaxan4 #a ,hyp4 ii4 #bch4 #b ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,a4 #bfj4 #c ,adv4 ,ma?4 vii4 #bjb4 #d ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,a4 #fa4 #e ,zell] ,op4 cit44 iii4 #dc4 #f ,adv4 ,ma?4 viii4 #aia4 #g ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,viii4 #cbh4 ,papp5heim ?9ks t ,sextus belong$ to ! ,me?odical ,s*ool1 bo? f 8 /rong expression 9 favor ( t s*ool 9 ,hyp4 ,i4 #bcf1 z above1 & also because _m ( 8 m$ical op9ions1 z f\nd 9 8 works1 agree ) ! tea*+s ( ! ,me?odical ,s*ool1 m ne>ly ?an ) ^? ( ! ,empirici/s4 ,papp5heim also claims t we f9d no inconsi/5cy ) ?is view 9 ! passage giv5 :]e ,sextus classes ! ,sceptics ) ! ,empirici/s1 b consid]s t /atem5t an in/ance ( c>elessness 9 express+ himself1 on ! "p ( ,sextus4#a #a ,leb5sv]hltnisse des ,sex4 ,em4 #cf4 ,! position ( ,papp5heim is assailable = ! reason t 9 deal+ ) any problem reg>d+ an au?or on ! basis ( int]nal evid5ce1 we h no "r to consid] "o ( 8 /atem5ts wor?y ( weight1 & ano!r "o unwor?y1 on ! supposition t he express$ himself c>elessly 9 ! second in/ance4 ,r mu/ we attempt to f9d 8 true /&po9t by fairly meet+ all ! difficulties (f]$ 9 app>5tly conflict+ passages4 ,?is has be5 attempt$ by ,zell]1 ,bro*>d1 ,natorp & o!rs1 ) ! g5]al result t all ?+s consid]$ !y ?9k )\t d\bt t ,sextus belong$ to ! ,empirical ,s*ool4#a ,8 o!r ref]5ces are too /rong to all[ 8 fidelity to x to be d\bt$4 ,he is call$ "o ( ! lead]s ( ,empiricism by ,pseudo-,gal51 & 8 only m$ical "w bore ! title ,greek3 empeirika hupomnmata4 ,! op9ion ( ! writ]s above ref]r$ to is t ! passage :i* we h quot$ f ! ,hypotyposes does n necess>ily mean t ,sextus 0 n an ,empirici/1 b z he 0 m ( a ,sceptic ?an a physician1 he gave pref]5ce to ^? doctr9es t 7 mo/ consi/5t ) ,scepticism1 & accord+ly claim$ t x 0 n absolutely necess>y t a ,sceptic physician %\ld be an ,empirici/4 ,natorp consid]s t ! diff]5t /&po9t f :i* ,sextus judges ! ,empirical & ,me?odical ,s*ools 9 8 diff]5t works is acc\nt$ = on ! supposition t he 0 an ,empirici/1 b disagre$ ) t s*ool on ! "o po9t only4#b ,natorp po9ts out t ,sextus does n speak m fav\rably ( ! m$ical /& ( ! ,me?odical ,s*ool1 b only comp>es ! way 9 :i* bo? s*ools reg>d$ ! "q ( ! possibility ( k1 & ?9ks t ,sextus c\ld h be5 an ,empirici/ z a physician not)/&+ 8 condemnation ( ! attitude ( ! ,empirical ,s*ool 9 relation to ! !ory ( k4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! two s*ools 0 a small "o1 & on a subtle & unimportant po9t2 9 fact1 a diff]5ce 9 philosophical !ory1 & n 9 m$ical practice4 #a ,bro*>d ,op4 cit4 ,livre ,,iv4 #cag2 ,zell] ,op4 cit4 ,,iii4 #ae2 ,natorp ,op4 cit4 p4 #aee4 #b ,natorp ,op4 cit4 #aeg4 ,:ile we w\ld agree ) ! au?ors above ref]r$ to1 t ,sextus v probably recogniz$ ! bond betwe5 ! ,empirical ,s*ool ( m$ic9e & ,pyrrhonism1 yet to make 8 possible connection ) t s*ool ! explanation ( 8 "n1 gives him m prom95ce z a physician ?an is consi/5t ) :at we "k ( 8 c>e]4 ,! long cont9u$ union ( ,empiricism & ,scepticism w\ld naturally support ! view t ,sextus 01 at lea/ dur+ ! e>li] "p ( 8 life1 a physician ( t s*ool1 & yet x may be t he 0 n nam$ ,empiricus = t reason4 ,!re is "o in/ance 9 anci5t writ+s :]e ,empiricus is kn[n z a simple prop] "n4#a ,x may h be5 a prop] "n 9 ,sextus' case1 or !re are _m o!r ways 9 :i* x c\ld h orig9at$1 z ^? :o h /udi$ ! orig9 ( names w readily grant1 p]haps inde$1 f ! title ( ! above-nam$ "w1 ,greek3 empeirika hupomnmata4 ,! *ief argum5t = ?is view ( ! case is t !re 7 o!r lead]s ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool1 = :om we c claim f> great] influ5ce z ,empirici/s ?an = ,sextus1 & = :om ! surname ,empiricus w\ld h be5 m appropriate1 if x 0 giv5 9 consequ5ce ( prom95ce 9 ! ,empirical ,s*ool4 ,sextus is kn[n to ! _w z a ,sceptic1 & n z a physician4 ,he 0 class$ 9 lat] times ) ,pyrrho1 & 8 philosophical works surviv$1 :ile 8 m$ical writ+s did n1 b are *iefly kn[n f 8 own m5tion ( !m4 ,moreov]1 ! passage :i* we h quot$ f ! ,hypotyposes is too /rong to all[ u easily to believe t ,sextus rema9$ all 8 life a memb] ( ! ,empirical ,s*ool4 ,he c\ld h>dly h said1 ,nor w\ld x suit ! ,sceptic to take t sect ^u himself1 if he at ! same "t belong$ to x4 ,8 o!r ref]5ces to ! ,empirical ,s*ool1 ( a m favorable "*1 c be easily expla9$ on ! gr\nd ( ! long cont9u$ connection :i* _h exi/$ betwe5 ! two s*ools4 ,x is q possible to suppose t ,sextus 0 an ,empirici/ a "p ( 8 life1 & aft]w>ds f\nd ! ,me?odical ,s*ool m to 8 lik+1 & su* a *ange w\ld n 9 any way h affect$ 8 /& z a physician4 #a ,papp5heim ,leb4 ,v]4 ,sex4 ,em4 #f4 ,9 reg>d to ! exact "t :5 ,sextus ,empiricus liv$1 we ga9 v little k f int]nal evid5ce1 & outside s\rces ( in=mation are equally unc]ta94 ,diog5es ,la]tius mu/ h be5 a g5]ation y\ng] ?an ,sextus1 z he m5tions ! disciple ( ,sextus1 ,saturn9us1 z an ,empirical physician4#a ,! "t ( ,diog5es is usually e/imat$ z ! fir/ half ( ! ?ird c5tury ,a4,d41#b !re=e ,sextus _c be br\ght =w>d lat] ?an ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury4 ,sextus1 h[ev]1 directs 8 writ+s entirely aga9/ ! ,dogmatics1 by :om he di/9ctly /ates t he means ! ,/oics1#c & ! influ5ce ( ! ,/oics began to decl9e 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ?ird c5tury ,a4,d4 ,a fact (t5 us$ z a help 9 fix+ ! date ( ,sextus is 8 m5tion ( ,basilides ! ,/oic1#d ,greek3 alla kai oi /ikoi1 s oi p]i ton ,basileidn4 ,?is ,basilides 0 suppos$ to be id5tical ) "o ( ! tea*]s ( ,m>cus ,aurelius4#e ,?is is accept$ by ,zell] 9 ! second edition ( 8 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 b n 9 ! ?ird = ! reason t ,sextus1 9 all ! "w f :i* ?is ref]5ce is tak51 i4e4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4-,,xi41 m5tions no "o besides ,a5esidemus1 :o liv$ lat] ?an ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury ,b4,c4#f ,! ,basilides ref]r$ to by ,sextus may be "o m5tion$ 9 a li/ ( tw5ty ,/oics1 9 a fragm5t ( ,diog5es ,la]tius1 rec5tly publi%$ 9 ,b]l9 by ,val ,rose4#g ,too mu* importance has1 h[ev]1 be5 giv5 to ! relation ( ! m5tion ( ,basilides ! ,/oic to ! "q ( ! date ( ,sextus4 ,ev5 if ! ,basilides ref]r$ to by ,sextus is grant$ to h be5 ! tea*] ( ,m>cus ,aurelius1 x only s]ves to %[ t ,sextus liv$ ei!r at ! same "t ) ,m>cus ,aurelius or aft] him1 :i* is a conclusion t we mu/ 9 any case rea* = o!r reasons4 #a ,diog4 ,,ix4 #ab1 #aaf4 #b ,ueb]weg ,hi/4 ( ,phil4 p4 #ba4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #fe4 #d ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #beh4 #e ,fabricius ,vita ,sexti4 #f ,zell] ,op4 cit4 ,,iii4 #h4 #g ,bro*>d ,op4 cit4 ,,iv4 #cae4 ,! fact t has caus$ ! greate/ unc]ta9ty 9 reg>d to ! date ( ,sextus is t ,claudius ,gal5 9 8 works m5tions sev]al ,sceptics :o 7 also physicians ( ! ,empirical ,s*ool1#a & (t5 speaks ( ,h]odotus1 suppos$ to be id5tical ) ! tea*] ( ,sextus giv5 by ,diog5es ,la]tius1#b b makes no ref]5ce :atev] to ,sextus4 ,z ,gal5's "t passes ! limit ( ! second c5tury ,a4,d41 we mu/ ei!r inf] t ,sextus 0 n ! well-kn[n physician t he 0 /at$ to be by ,pseudo-,gal51 & consequ5tly n kn[n to ,gal51 or t ,gal5 wrote be=e ,sextus became prom95t z a ,sceptic4 ,?is sil5ce on ! "p ( ,gal5 9 reg>d to ,sextus increases ! d\bt1 caus$ by ,sextus' own criticism ( ! ,empirical ,s*ool ( m$ic9e1 z to 8 hav+ be5 an ,empirici/4 ,! "q is made m complicat$1 z x is difficult to fix ! id5tity ( ! ,h]odotus s (t5 ref]r$ to by ,gal54#c ,z ,gal5 di$ ab\t #bjj ,a4,d4 at ! age ( sev5ty1#d we %\ld fix ! date ( ,sextus e>ly 9 ! ?ird c5tury1 & t ( ,diog5es p]haps a little lat] ?an ! middle1 7 x n t e>ly 9 ! ?ird c5tury ! ,/oics began to decl9e 9 influ5ce1 & c\ld h>dly h excit$ ! w>m? ( animosity display$ by ,sextus4 ,we mu/ !n suppose t ,sextus wrote at ! v latt] "p ( ! second c5tury1 & ei!r t ,gal5 did n "k him1 or t ,gal5's books 7 publi%$ be=e ,sextus became prom95t ei!r z a physician or z a ,sceptic4 ,! fact t he may h be5 bett] kn[n z ! latt] ?an z ! =m] does n suffici5tly acc\nt = ,gal5's sil5ce1 z o!r ,sceptics are m5tion$ by him ( less importance ?an ,sextus1 & ! latt]1 ev5 if n z great a physician z ,pseudo-,gal5 ass]ts1 0 c]ta9ly bo? a ,sceptic & a physician1 & mu/ h belong$ to "o ( ! two m$ical s*ools s ?or\ghly discuss$ by ,gal5--ei!r ! ,empirical or ! ,me?odical4 ,!re=e1 if ,sextus 7 a contempor>y ( ,gal51 he 0 s f> remov$ f ! circle ( ,gal5's acqua9tances z to h made no impression ^u him1 ei!r z a ,sceptic or a physician1 a supposition t is v improbable4 ,we mu/ !n fix ! date ( ,sextus late 9 ! second c5tury1 & conclude t ! climax ( 8 public c>e] 0 rea*$ aft] ,gal5 _h f9i%$ ^? ( 8 writ+s :i* are /ill extant4 #a ,zell]1 ,,iii4 #g4 #b ,diog4 ,,xi4 #ab1 #aaf4 #c ,papp5heim ,leb5s4 ,v]4 ,sex4 ,em4 #cj4 #d ,zell] ,grundriss d] ,ges4 d] ,phil4 p4 #bfj4 ,sextus has a ,lat9 "n1 b he 0 a ,greek2 we "k ?is f 8 own /atem5t4#a ,we also "k t he mu/ h be5 a ,greek f ! beauty & facility ( 8 /yle1 & f 8 acqua9tance ) ,greek dialects4 ,! place ( 8 bir? c only1 h[ev]1 be conjectur$1 f argum5ts indirectly d]iv$ f 8 writ+s4 ,8 con/ant ref]5ces ?r\gh\t 8 works to ! m9ute cu/oms ( diff]5t nations ought to give u a clue to ! solution ( ?is "q1 b /range to say !y d n give u a decid$ "o4 ,( ^! ref]5ces a l>ge numb]1 h[ev]1 relate to ! cu/oms ( ,libya1 %[+ a m9ute k 9 reg>d to ! political & religi\s cu/oms ( ?is l& t he displays 9 reg>d to no o!r c\ntry except ,egypt4#b ,fabricius ?9ks ,libya 0 n 8 bir? place because ( a ref]5ce :i* he makes to x 9 ! ,hypotyposes--,greek3 ,?rakn de kai ,gait\ln 7,libyn de e?nos t\to74#c ,?is conclusion is1 h[ev]1 entirely unf\nd$1 z ! explanation ( ,sextus simply %[s t ! p :om he 0 !n address+ 7 n famili> ) ! nations ( ,libya4 ,suidas speaks ( two m5 call$ ,sextus1 "o f ,*ronea & "o f ,libya1 bo? ( :om he calls ,sceptics1 & to "o ( :om he attributes ,sextus' books4 ,all au?orities agree 9 ass]t+ t great confusion exi/s 9 ! works ( ,suidas2 & ,fabricius1 ,zell]1 & ,papp5heim place no weight ^u ?is te/imony ( ,suidas4#d ,haas1 h[ev]1 cont5ds#e t x is unreasonable to suppose t ?is confusion c\ld g z f> z to attribute ! writ+s ( ,sextus ,empiricus to ,sextus ( ,*ronea1 & also make ! latt] a ,sceptic1 & he consid]s x f> m reasonable to accept ! te/imony ( ,suidas1 z x co9cides s well ) ! int]nal evid5ce ( ,sextus' writ+s 9 reg>d to 8 native l&4 ,x is nev]!less evid5t1 f 8 famili>ity ) ! cu/oms1 language1 & laws ( ,a!ns1 ,alex&ria & ,rome1 t he mu/ h resid$ at "s "t 9 ea* ( ^! cities4 #a ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,a4 #bdf2 ,hyp4 ,i4 #aeb2 ,hyp4 ,,iii4 #baa1 #bad4 #b ,haas ,op4 cit4 p4 #aj4 #c ,hyp4 ,,iii4 #bac4 #d ,papp5heim ,leb5s4 ,v]4 ,sex4 ,em4 #e1 #bb2 ,zell] ,op4 cit4 ,,iii4 #ci2 ,fabricius ,vita de ,sextus4 #e ,haas ,op4 cit4 p4 #f4 ,( all ! problems connect$ ) ! hi/orical details ( ! life ( ,sextus1 ! "o t is ! mo/ difficult ( solution1 & also ! mo/ important = our pres5t purpose ( mak+ a critical /udy ( 8 tea*+1 is to fix ! seat ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool dur+ ! "t t he 0 9 *>ge ( x4 ,! ,hypotyposes are lectures deliv]$ 9 public 9 t p]iod ( 8 life4 ,:]e !n 7 !y deliv]$8 ,we "k t ! ,sceptical ,s*ool mu/ h _h a long cont9u$ exi/5ce z a def9ite philosophical movem5t1 al?\gh "s h cont5d$ o!rwise4 ,! fact ( its exi/5ce z an organiz$ direction ( ?\ght1 is demon/rat$ by its =mulat$ tea*+s1 & ! li/ giv5 by ,diog5es ,la]tius ( its pr9cipal lead]s1#a & by ref]5ces f ! writ+s ( ,sextus4 ,9 ! fir/ book ( ,hypotyposes he ref]s to ,scepticism z a di/9ct sy/em ( philosophy1 ,greek3 kai ta5 diakris9 taes skepseos apo ton p>akeim5on autae philosophion4#b ,he speaks also ( ! old] ,sceptics1#c & ! lat] ,sceptics4#d ,pyrrho1 ! f\nd] ( ! s*ool1 taught 9 ,elis1 8 native village2 b ev5 z e>ly z ! "t ( ,timon1 8 imm$iate foll[]1 8 tea*+s 7 some:at kn[n 9 ,alex&ria1 :]e ,timon = a :ile resid$4#e ,! imm$iate disciples ( ,timon1 z giv5 by ,diog5es1 7 n m5 kn[n 9 ,greece or m5tion$ 9 ,greek writ+s4 ,!n we h ! well-kn[n te/imony ( ,ari/ocles ! ,p]ipatetic 9 reg>d to ,a5esidemus1 t he taught ,pyrrhonism 9 ,alex&ria#f--;,greek3 e*!s kai proa5 en ,alex&reia tae kat' ,aigypton ,a9aesidaemos tis anazopyre9 a]xato ton hu?lon t\ton4 #a ,diog4 ,,xi4 #ab1 #aae1 #aaf4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #e4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #cf4 #d ,hyp4 ,i4 #afd4 #e ,*aignet ,op4 cit4 #de4 #f ,ari/ocles ( ,euseb4 ,praep4 ,ev4 ,,xiv4 ,e4 #ddf4 ,?is 0 aft] ! dogmatic t5d5cy ( ! ,academy "u ,antio*us & 8 foll[]s _h driv5 ,pyrrhonism f ! p>tial union ) ! ,academy1 :i* x _h exp]i5c$ aft] ! break+ up ( ! s*ool "u ! imm$iate successors ( ,timon4 ,a5esidemus taught ab\t ! "t ( our era 9 ,alex&ria1 & e/abli%$ ! s*ool !re anew2 & 8 foll[]s are spok5 ( 9 a way t presupposes _! cont9u+ 9 ! same place4 ,!re is e reason to ?9k t ! connection ( ,sextus ) ,alex&ria 0 an intimate "o1 n only because ,alex&ria _h be5 = s long a "t ! seat ( ,pyrrhonism1 b also f int]nal evid5ce f 8 writ+s & _! subsequ5t hi/orical influ5ce2 & yet ! ,hypotyposes c\ld n h be5 deliv]$ 9 ,alex&ria1 z he (t5 ref]s to t place 9 comp>ison ) ! place :]e he 0 !n speak+4 ,he says1 fur!rmore1 t he tea*es 9 ! same place :]e 8 ma/] taught4#a ,greek3 ,blepon te hoti en?a ho huphaegaetaes ho emos dielegeto1 entau?a ego nun dialegomai4 ,!re=e ! s*ool mu/ h be5 remov$ f ,alex&ria1 9 or be=e ! "t ( ! tea*] ( ,sextus1 to "s o!r c5tre4 ,! ,hypotyposes are f beg9n+ to end a direct attack on ! ,dogmatics2 !re=e ,sextus mu/ h taught ei!r 9 "s city :]e ! dogmatic philosophy 0 /rong1 or 9 "s rival philosophical c5tre4 ,! ,hypotyposes %[ also t ! writ] _h access to "s l>ge libr>y4 ,alex&ria1 ,rome & ,a!ns are ! ?ree places ! mo/ probable = selection = su* a purpose4 ,= :atev] reason ! seat ( ! s*ool 0 remov$ f ,alex&ria by ! ma/] ( ,sextus1 or by himself1 f ! place :]e x _h s long be5 unit$ ) ! ,empirical ,s*ool ( m$ic9e1 ,a!ns w\ld seem ! mo/ suitable city = its recont9uance1 9 ! l& :]e ,pyrrhonism fir/ _h its bir?4 ,sextus1 h[ev]1 9 "o in/ance1 9 ref]r+ to ?+s invisible because ( _! outw>d relations1 says 9 illu/ration1 z ! city ( ,a!ns is invisible to u at pres5t4#b ,9 o!r places also he contra/s ! ,a!nians ) ! p :om he is address+1 equally ) ! ,alex&rians1 ?us putt+ ,a!ns z well z ,alex&ria out ( ! "q4 #a ,hyp4 ,,iii4 #abj4 #b ,hyp4 ,,ii4 #ih4 ,( ! diff]5t writ]s on ,sextus ,empiricus1 ^? :o h treat$ ?is "p ( ! subject mo/ critically are ,haas & ,papp5heim4 ,we w !re=e consid]1 some:at at l5g?1 ! results pres5t$ by ^! two au?ors4 ,haas ?9ks t ! ,hypotyposes 7 deliv]$ 9 ,rome = ! foll[+ reasons4 ,sextus' lectures mu/ h be5 giv5 9 "s c5tre ( philosophical s*ools & ( le>n+4 ,he nev] opposes ,roman relations to ^? ( ! place :]e he is speak+1 z he does 9 reg>d to ,a!ns & ,alex&ria4 ,he uses ! "n ,romans only ?ree times1#a once comp>+ !m to ! ,rhodians1 once to ! ,p]sians1 & once 9 g5]al to o!r nations4#b ,9 ! fir/ two ( ^! ref]5ces1 ! expression among ! ,romans 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! anti!sis is foll[$ by ! expression1 among u1 9 ! second "p1 :i* ,haas und]/&s to be synonym\s4 ,! ?ird ref]5ce is 9 reg>d to a ,roman law1 & ! use ( ! ^w ',roman' does n at all %[ t ,sextus 0 n !n 9 ,rome4 ,! "* ( ! laws ref]r$ to by ,sextus z ,greek3 p>' haem9 %[s t !y 7 always ,roman laws1 & 8 def9ition ( law#c is especially a def9ition ( ,roman law4 ,?is argum5t might1 x w\ld seem1 apply to any "p ( ! ,roman ,empire1 b ,haas claims t ! :ole relation ( law to cu/om z treat$ ( by ,sextus1 & all 8 /atem5ts ( cu/oms =bidd5 at t "t by law1 po9t to ,rome z ! place ( 8 resid5ce4 ,fur!r1 ,haas consid]s ! ,h]odotus m5tion$ by ,gal5#d z a prom95t physician 9 ,rome1 to h be5 ! pr$ecessor & ma/] ( ,sextus1 9 ^: place ,sextus says t he is tea*+4#e ,haas also ?9ks t ,sextus' refutation ( ! id5tity ( ,pyrrhonism ) ,empiricism evid5tly ref]s to a p>agraph 9 ,gal5's ,subfiguratio ,empirica1#f :i* w\ld be natural if ! ,hypotyposes 7 writt5 %ortly aft] ,gal5's ,sub4 ,em41 & 9 ! same place4 ,fur!r1 ,hippolytus1 :o wrote 9 or ne> ,rome v soon aft] ! "t ( ,sextus1 app>5tly us$ ! ,hypotyposes1 :i* w\ld be m natural if he wrote 9 ! same place4 ,accord+ to ,haas1 e ?+ 9 int]nal evid5ce1 & outw>d te/imony1 po9ts to ,rome z hav+ be5 ! city :]e ,sextus occupi$ 8 position z ! head ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 #a ,haas ,op4 cit4 p4 #ae4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #adi1 #aeb2 ,,iii4 #baa4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #adf4 #d ,gal5 de puls4 ,,iv4 #aa2 ,bd4 ,,viii4 #gea4 #e ,hyp4 ,,iii4 #abj4 #f ,gal5 ,sub4 ,em4 #abc ,b-#abf ,d4 7,basileae1 #aedb74 ,com+ n[ to ! position ( ,papp5heim on ?is subject1 we f9d t he takes v decid$ gr\nd aga9/ ! seat ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool hav+ be5 9 ,rome1 ev5 = a %ort "t1 9 8 late/ publication reg>d+ x4#a ,?is op9ion is ! result ( late /udy on ! "p ( ,papp5heim1 = 9 8 "w on ! ,leb5sv]hltnisse des ,sextus ,empiricus ,b]l9 #ahge1 he says1 ,dass ,h]odotus 9 ,rom lebte sagt ,gal54 ,v]mu?li* au* ,sextus4 ,8 reasons giv5 9 ! lat] article = n connect+ ! ,sceptical ,s*ool at all ) ,rome are z foll[s4 ,he f9ds no pro( ( ! influ5ce ( ,scepticism 9 ,rome1 z ,cic]o rem>ks t ,pyrrhonism is ext9ct1#b & he also gives weight to ! well-kn[n s>ca/ic say+ ( ,s5eca1 ,quis e/ qui tradat praecepta ,pyrrhonis6#c ,:ile ,haas claims t ,sextus w\ld naturally seek "o ( ! c5tres ( dogmatism1 9 ord] mo/ effectively to combat x1 ,papp5heim1 on ! contr>y1 cont5ds t x w\ld h be5 fooli%ness on ! "p ( ,sextus to ?9k ( />t+ ! ,sceptical ,s*ool 9 ,rome1 :]e ,/oicism 0 ! favor$ philosophy ( ! ,roman ,emp]ors2 & :5 ei!r = ! possible reason ( /rife betwe5 ! ,empirical & ,me?odical ,s*ools1 or = "s o!r cause1 ! ,pyrrhonean ,s*ool 0 remov$ f ,alex&ria1 ,papp5heim claims t all te/imony po9ts to ! conclusion t x 0 f\nd$ 9 "s city ( ! ,ea/4 ,! "n ( ,sextus is nev] kn[n 9 ,roman lit]ature1 b 9 ! ,ea/1 on ! contr>y1 lit]ature speaks = c5turies ( ,sextus & ,pyrrho4 ,! ,hypotyposes1 especially1 7 well-kn[n 9 ! ,ea/1 & ref]5ces to ,sextus are f\nd !re 9 philosophical & religi\s dogmatic writ+s4 ,! ,emp]or ,julian makes use ( ! works ( ,sextus1 & he is frequ5tly quot$ by ! ,*ur* ,fa!rs ( ! ,ea/]n ,*ur*4#d ,papp5heim accord+ly concludes t ! seat ( ,pyrrhonism aft] ! s*ool 0 remov$ f ,alex&ria1 0 9 "s unkn[n city ( ! ,ea/4 #a ,papp5heim ,sitz d] ,skeptis*5 ,s*ule4 ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d] ,phil4 #ahhh4 #b ,cic]o ,de ,orat4 ,,iii4 #ag1 #fb4 #c ,s5eca nat4 qu4 ,,vii4 #cb4 #b4 #d ,fabricius de ,sexto ,empirico ,te/imonia4 ,9 e/imat+ ! weight ( ^! argum5ts1 we mu/ accept ) ,papp5heim ! close connection ( ,pyrrhonism ) ,alex&ria1 & ! subsequ5t influ5ce :i* x ex]t$ ^u ! lit]ature ( ! ,ea/4 ,all hi/orical relations t5d to fix ! p]man5t seat ( ,pyrrhonism1 aft] its sep>ation f ! ,academy1 9 ,alex&ria4 ,!re is no?+ to po9t to its removal f ,alex&ria be=e ! "t ( ,m5odotus1 :o is ! tea*] ( ,h]odotus1#a & = _m reasons to be consid]$ ! real tea*] ( ,sextus4 ,x 0 ,m5odotus :o p]fect$ ! ,empirical doctr9es1 & :o br\ght ab\t an (ficial union betwe5 ,scepticism & ,empiricism1 & :o gave ,pyrrhonism 9 great measure1 ! clat t x enjoy$ 9 ,alex&ria1 & :o appe>s to h be5 ! mo/ p[]ful influ5ce 9 ! s*ool1 f ! "t ( ,a5esidemus to t ( ,sextus4 ,fur!rmore1 ,sextus' famili>ity ) ,alex&rian cu/oms be>s ! impr9t ( orig9al k1 & he _c1 z ,zell] implies1 be accept$ z simply quot+4 ,"o c\ld h>dly agree ) ,zell]1#b t ! famili>ity %[n by ,sextus ) ! cu/oms ( bo? ,alex&ria & ,rome 9 ! ,hypotyposes does n necess>ily %[ t he ev] liv$ 9 ei!r ( ^? places1 because a l>ge "p ( 8 works are compilations f o!r books2 b on ! contr>y1 ! c>eful read] ( ,sextus' works mu/ f9d 9 all ( !m mu* evid5ce ( p]sonal k ( ,alex&ria1 ,a!ns & ,rome4 #a ,diog4 ,,ix4 #ab1 #aaf4 #b ,zell] ,op4 cit4 ,,iii4 p4 #ci4 ,a "p ( ,sextus' books also may h be5 writt5 9 ,alex&ria4 ,greek3 ,pros phusik\s c\ld h be5 writt5 9 ,alex&ria4#a ,if ^! 7 also lectures1 !n ,sextus taught 9 ,alex&ria z well z else:]e4 ,! hi/ory ( ,ea/]n lit]ature = ! c5turies imm$iately foll[+ ! "t ( ,sextus1 %[+ z x does 9 s _m in/ances ! influ5ce ( ,pyrrhonism1 & a k ( ! ,hypotyposes1 furni%es u ) an inconte/able pro( t ! s*ool c\ld n h be5 = a long "t remov$ f ! ,ea/1 & ! abs5ce ( su* k 9 ,roman lit]ature is also a /rong argum5t aga9/ its long cont9uance 9 t city4 ,x w\ld seem1 h[ev]1 f all ! data at comm&1 t dur+ ! ye>s t ! ,sceptical ,s*ool 0 remov$ f ,alex&ria1 its head qu>t]s 7 9 ,rome1 & t ! ,pyrrhonean ,hypotyposes 7 deliv]$ 9 ,rome4 ,let u briefly consid] ! argum5ts 9 fav\r ( su* a hypo!sis4 ,scepticism 0 n unkn[n 9 ,rome4 ,papp5heim quotes ! rem>k ( ,cic]o t ,pyrrhonism 0 long s9ce dead1 & ! s>casm ( ,s5eca1 ,quis e/ qui tradat praecepta ,pyrrhonis8 z an argum5t aga9/ ! k ( ,pyrrhonism 9 ,rome4 ,we mu/ rememb]1 h[ev]1 t 9 ,cic]o's "t ,a5esidemus _h n yet sep>at$ himself f ! ,academy2 or if we consid] ! ,lucius ,tub]o to :om ,a5esidemus d$icat$ 8 works1 z ! same ,lucius ,tub]o :o 0 ! fri5d ( ,cic]o 9 8 y\?1 & accord+ly fix ! date ( ,a5esidemus ab\t #ej ,b4,c41#b ev5 !n ,a5esidemus' "w 9 ,alex&ria 0 too late to h necess>ily be5 kn[n to ,cic]o1 ^: rem>k mu/ h be5 ref]r$ to ! old s*ool ( ,scepticism4 ,%\ld we grant1 h[ev]1 t ! /atem5ts ( ,cic]o & ,s5eca prove t 9 _! "t ,pyrrhonism 0 ext9ct 9 ,rome1 !y c]ta9ly d n %[ t aft] _! dea? x c\ld n h aga9 reviv$1 = ! ,hypotyposes 7 deliv]$ m ?an a c5tury aft] ! dea? ( ,s5eca4 ,!re are v few writ]s 9 ,a5esidemus' own "t :o %[$ any influ5ce ( 8 tea*+s4#c ,?is influ5ce 0 felt lat]1 z ,pyrrhonism became bett] kn[n4 ,t ,pyrrhonism receiv$ "s att5tion 9 ,rome be=e ! "t ( ,sextus is nev]!less demon/rat$ by ! tea*+s ( ,favor9us !re4 ,al?\gh ,favor9us 0 kn[n z an ,academician1 ! title ( 8 pr9cipal "w 0 ,greek3 t\s philosoph\m5\s aut tn logn1 hn ari/oi hoi ,purrhneioi4#d ,suidas calls ,favor9us a great au?or & le>n$ 9 all sci5ce & philosophy1#e & ,favor9us made ,rome ! c5tre ( 8 tea*+ & writ+4 ,8 date is fix$ by ,zell] at #hj-aej ,a4,d41 !re=e ,pyrrhonism 0 kn[n 9 ,rome %ortly be=e ! "t ( ,sextus4 #a ,papp5heim ,sitz d] ,skeptis*5 ,s*ule2 ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d] ,phil41 #ahhh2 ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,x4 #ae1 #ie4 #b ,zell] ,op4 cit4 ,,iii4 #aj4 #c ,zell] ,op4 cit4 p4 #fc4 #d ,zell] ,op4 cit4 p4 #fg4 #e ,bro*>d ,op4 cit4 #cbi4 ,! :ole tone ( ! ,hypotyposes1 ) ! con/ant ref]5ces to ! ,/oics z liv+ pres5t oppon5ts1 %[s t ^! lectures mu/ h be5 deliv]$ 9 "o ( ! c5tres ( ,/oicism4 ,z ,alex&ria & ,a!ns are out ( ! "q1 all te/imony po9ts to ,rome z hav+ be5 ! seat ( ! ,pyrrhonean ,s*ool1 = at lea/ a "p ( ! "t t ,sextus 0 at its head4 ,we w\ld !n accept ! tea*] ( ,sextus1 9 ^: place he says he taught1 z ! ,h]odotus s (t5 ref]r$ to by ,gal5#a :o liv$ 9 ,rome4 ,sextus' frequ5t ref]5ces to ,asclepiades1 :om he m5tions t5 diff]5t times by "n 9 8 works1#b speak 9 fav\r ( ,rome 9 ! matt] "u discussion1 z ,asclepiades made t city "o ( ! c5tres ( m$ical culture4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! fact t !re is no trace ( ! ,hypotyposes 9 lat] ,roman lit]ature1 ) ! "o exception ( ! works ( ,hippolytus1 z oppos$ to ! wide-spread k ( !m %[n 9 ! ,ea/ = c5turies1 is inconte/able hi/orical pro( t ! ,sceptical ,s*ool c\ld n long h _h its seat at ,rome4 ,f ! two passages giv5 above f ,sextus' "w aga9/ physics1 he mu/ ei!r h writt5 t book 9 ,alex&ria1 x w\ld seem1 or h quot$ ^? passages f "s o!r "w4 ,may we n !n conclude1 t ,sextus 0 at ! head ( ! s*ool 9 ,rome = a %ort "t1 :]e x may h be5 remov$ tempor>ily1 on acc\nt ( ! difficulty ) ! ,empirici/s1 impli$ 9 ,hyp4 ,i4 #bcf-bda1 or 9 ord] to be bett] able to attack ! ,/oics1 b t he also taught 9 ,alex&ria1 :]e ! real home ( ! s*ool 0 c]ta9ly f\nd8 ,!re x probably came to an end ab\t fifty ye>s aft] ! "t ( ,sextus1 & f t c5tre ! ,sceptical works ( ,sextus _h _! wide-spread influ5ce 9 ! ,ea/4 #a ,gal5 ,,viii4 #gea4 #b ,bekk] ,index4 ,! books ( ,sextus ,empiricus furni% u ) ! be/ & fulle/ pres5tation ( anci5t ,scepticism :i* has be5 pres]v$ to mod]n times1 & give ,sextus ! position ( "o ( ! greate/ m5 ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,8 works :i* are /ill extant are ! ,pyrrhonean ,hypotyposes 9 ?ree volumes1 & ! two works compris+ elev5 books :i* h be5 unit$ 9 lat] times "u ! title ( ,greek3 pros ma?matik\s1 "o ( :i* is direct$ aga9/ ! sci5ces 9 g5]al1 & ! o!r aga9/ ! dogmatic philosoph]s4 ,! six books compos+ ! fir/ ( ^! are writt5 respectively aga9/ gramm>ians1 rhetoricians1 geometricians1 ari?meticians1 a/ronom]s & musicians4 ,! five books ( ! latt] consi/ ( two aga9/ ! logicians1 two aga9/ physics1 & "o aga9/ sy/ems ( morals4 ,if ! la/ %ort "w ( ! fir/ book direct$ aga9/ ! ari?meticians is comb9$ ) ! "o prec$+ aga9/ ! geometricians1 z x well c\ld be1 ! two works toge!r w\ld be divid$ into t5 diff]5t p>ts2 !re is evid5ce to %[ t 9 anci5t times su* a division 0 made4#a ,!re 7 two o!r works ( ,sextus :i* are n[ lo/1 ! m$ical "w be=e ref]r$ to1 & a book entitl$ ,greek3 p]i psu*s4 ,! "* ( ! extant works ( ,sextus is simil>1 z !y are all direct$ ei!r aga9/ sci5ce or aga9/ ! dogmatics1 & !y all pres5t ! negative side ( ,pyrrhonism4 ,! va/ array ( argum5ts compris+ ! subject-matt]1 (t5 repeat$ 9 ! same & diff]5t =ms1 are evid5tly tak5 l>gely f ! ,sceptical works :i* ,sextus _h res\rce to1 & are1 9 fact1 a summ+ up ( all ! wisdom ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,! /yle ( ^! books is flu5t1 & ! ,greek rem9ds "o ( ,plut>* & ,?ucydides1 & al?\gh ,sextus does n claim orig9ality1 b pres5ts 9 all cases ! argum5ts ( ! ,sceptic1 yet ! illu/rations & ! =m 9 :i* ! argum5ts are pres5t$1 (t5 be> ! m>ks ( 8 own ?\ght1 & are *>act]iz$ "h & !re by a weal? ( humor t has n be5 suffici5tly notic$ 9 ! critical works on ,sextus4 ,( all ! au?ors :o h review$ ,sextus1 ,bro*>d is ! only "o :o seems to h und]/ood & appreciat$ 8 humor\s side4 ,we %all n[ proce$ to ! consid]ation ( ! g5]al position & aim ( ,pyrrhonism4 #a ,diog4 ,,ix4 #ab1 #aaf4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,! ,position & ,aim ( ,pyrrhonism4 ,! fir/ volume ( ! ,pyrrhonean ,hypotyposes gives ! mo/ complete /atem5t f\nd 9 any ( ! works ( ,sextus ,empiricus ( ! tea*+s ( ,pyrrhonism & its relation to o!r s*ools ( philosophy4 ,! *ief s\rce ( ! subject-matt] pres5t$ is a "w ( ! same "n by ,a5esidemus1#a ei!r directly us$ by ,sextus1 or ?r\gh ! writ+s ( ^? :o foll[$ ,a5esidemus4 ,! compreh5sive title ,greek3 ,purrhneioi hupotupseis 0 v probably us$ 9 g5]al to designate c\rses ( lectures giv5 by ! lead]s ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,9 ! op5+ *apt]s ( ! ,hypotyposes ,sextus und]takes to def9e ! position & aim ( ,pyrrhonism4#b ,9 introduc+ 8 subject he treats briefly ( ! diff]5ces betwe5 philosophical s*ools1 divid+ !m into ?ree classes2 ^? :i* claim t !y h f\nd ! tru?1 l ! s*ools ( ,ari/otle & ,epicurus & ! ,/oics2 ^? :i* d5y ! possibility ( f9d+ x1 l t ( ! ,academicians2 & ^? t /ill seek x1 l ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,! accusation aga9/ ! ,academicians1 t !y d5i$ ! possibility ( f9d+ ! tru?1 0 "o t ! ,sceptics 7 v fond ( mak+4 ,we %all discuss ! ju/ice ( x lat]1 simply rem>k+ "h1 t to affirm ! incompreh5sibility ( ! unkn[n1 0 a =m ( expression t ! ,pyrrhoni/s !mselves 7 sometimes betray$ into1 not)/&+ _! c>eful avoidance ( dogmatic /atem5ts4#c #a ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #gh4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #c1 #d4 #c ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,viii4 #aia4 ,aft] def9+ ! ?ree k9ds ( philosophy z ! ,dogmatic1 ! ,academic & ! ,sceptic1 ,sextus rem9ds 8 he>]s t he does n speak dogmatically 9 any?+ t he says1 b t he int5ds simply to pres5t ! ,sceptical argum5ts hi/orically1 & z !y appe> to him4 ,he *>act]izes 8 treatm5t ( ! subject z g5]al r ?an critical1 includ+ a /atem5t ( ! "* ( ,scepticism1 its idea1 its pr9ciples1 its mann] ( reason+1 its crit]ion & aim1 & a pres5tation ( ! ,tropes1 or aspects ( d\bt1 & ! ,sceptical =mulae & ! di/9ction betwe5 ,scepticism & ! relat$ s*ools ( philosophy4#a ,! result ( all ! gradual *anges :i* ! developm5t ( ?\ght _h br\ght ab\t 9 ! outw>d relations ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool1 0 to increase ! e>ne/ness ( ! claim ( ! ,sceptics to be simply foll[]s ( ,pyrrho1 ! great f\nd] ( ! movem5t4 ,9 discuss+ ! names giv5 to ! ,sceptics1 ,sextus gives prec$5ce v decid$ly to ! title ,pyrrhonean1 because ,pyrrho appe>s ! be/ repres5tative ( ,scepticism1 & m prom95t ?an all :o be=e him occupi$ !mselves ) x4#b ,x 0 a "q mu* discuss$ among philosoph]s 9 anci5t times1 :e!r ,pyrrhonism %\ld be consid]$ a philosophical sect or n4 ,?us we f9d t ,hippobotus 9 8 "w entitl$ ,greek3 p]i hairesen1 writt5 %ortly be=e our era1 does n include ,pyrrhonism among ! o!r sects4#c ,diog5es himself1 aft] "s hesitation rem>k+ t _m d n consid] x a sect1 f9ally decides to call x s4#d #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #e1 #f4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #g4 #c ,diog4 ,pro4 #ai4 #d ,diog4 ,pro4 #bj4 ,sextus 9 discuss+ ?is subject calls ,scepticism an ,greek3 agog1 or a movem5t1 r ?an a ,greek3 hairesis1 say+ t ,scepticism is n a sect1 if t ^w implies a sy/ematic arrangem5t ( dogmas1 = ! ,sceptic has no dogmas4 ,if1 h[ev]1 a sect may mean simply ! foll[+ ( a c]ta9 sy/em ( reason+ accord+ to :at appe>s to be true1 !n ,scepticism is a sect4#a ,f a quotation giv5 lat] on by ,sextus f ,a5esidemus1 we "k t ! latt] us$ ! t]m ,greek3 agog4#b ,sextus gives also ! o!r titles1 s well kn[n z hav+ be5 appli$ to ,scepticism1 namely1 ,greek3 zttik1 ,greek3 ephektik1 & ,greek3 aportik4#c ,! ,greek3 dunamis#d ( ,scepticism is to oppose ! ?+s ( s5se & intellect 9 e possible way to ea* o!r1 & ?r\gh ! equal weight ( ?+s oppos$1 or ,greek3 iso/h5eia1 to rea* fir/ ! /ate ( susp5sion ( judgem5t1 & aft]w>ds at>axia1 or repose & tranquillity ( s\l4#e ,! purpose ( ,scepticism is !n ! hope ( at>axia1 & its orig9 0 9 ! tr\bl$ /ate ( m9d induc$ by ! inequality ( ?+s1 & unc]ta9ty 9 reg>d to ! tru?4 ,!re=e1 says ,sextus1 m5 ( ! greate/ tal5t began ! ,sceptical sy/em by plac+ 9 opposition to e argum5t an equal "o1 ?us lead+ to a philosophical sy/em )\t a dogma1 = ! ,sceptic claims t he has no dogma4#f ,! ,sceptic is nev] suppos$ to /ate a decid$ op9ion1 b only to say :at appe>s to him4 ,ev5 ! ,sceptical =mulae1 su* z ,no?+ m1#g or ,i decide no?+1#h or ,all is false1 include !mselves ) o!r ?+s4 ,! only /atem5ts t ! ,sceptic c make1 are 9 reg>d to 8 own s5sations4 ,he _c d5y t he is w>m or cold or hungry4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #ae1 #ag4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #baj4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #g2 ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #gj4 #d ,hyp4 ,i4 #h4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #aj4 #f ,hyp4 ,i4 #ab4 #g ,hyp4 ,i4 #ad4 #h ,hyp4 ,i4 #ad4 ,sextus replies to ! *>ge t ! ,sceptics d5y ph5om5a by refut+ x4#a ,! ,sceptic does n d5y ph5om5a1 because !y are ! only crit]ia by :i* he c regulate 8 actions4 ,we call ! crit]ion ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool ! ph5om5on1 mean+ by ?is "n ! idea ( x4#b ,ph5om5a are ! only ?+s :i* ! ,sceptic does n d5y1 & he guides 8 life by !m4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 subjective4 ,sextus di/9ctly affirms t s5sations are ! ph5om5a1#c & t !y lie 9 susceptibility & volunt>y feel+1 & t !y con/itute ! appe>ances ( objects4#d ,we see f ?is t ,sextus makes ! only reality to consi/ 9 subjective exp]i5ce1 b he does n foll[ ?is to its logical conclusion1 & d\bt ! exi/5ce ( any?+ outside ( m9d4 ,he r takes = grant$ t !re is a some?+ unkn[n outside1 ab\t :i* ! ,sceptic c make no ass]tions4 ,ph5om5a are ! crit]ia accord+ to :i* ! ,sceptic ord]s 8 daily life1 z he _c be entirely inactive1 & !y affect life 9 f\r diff]5t ways4 ,!y con/itute ! guidance ( nature1 ! impulse ( feel+2 !y give rise to ! traditions ( cu/oms & laws1 & make ! tea*+ ( ! arts important4#e ,accord+ to ! tradition ( laws & cu/oms1 piety is a good 9 daily life1 b x is n 9 itself an ab/ract good4 ,! ,sceptic ( ,sextus' "t also inculcat$ ! tea*+ ( ! arts1 z inde$ mu/ be ! case ) pr(ess+ physicians1 z mo/ ( ! lead+ ,sceptics 74 ,sextus says1 ,we are n )\t en]gy 9 ! arts :i* we und]take4#f ,?is 0 a positive t5d5cy :i* no philosophy1 h[ev] negative1 c\ld escape1 & ! ,sceptic tri$ to avoid inconsi/5cy 9 ?is respect1 by sep>at+ 8 philosophy f 8 !ory ( life4 ,8 philosophy controll$ 8 op9ions1 & 8 life 0 gov]n$ by ph5om5a4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #ai4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #ai4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #bb2 ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #aje4 #d ,hyp4 ,i4 #bb4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #bc4 #f ,hyp4 ,i4 #bd4 ,! aim ( ,pyrrhonism 0 at>axia 9 ^? ?+s :i* p]ta9 to op9ion1 & mod]ation 9 ! ?+s :i* life imposes4#a ,9 o!r words1 we f9d "h ! same natural desire ( ! human be+ to rise above & beyond ! limitations :i* pa9 & passion impose1 :i* is express$ 9 o!r =ms1 & "u o!r names1 9 o!r s*ools ( philosophy4 ,! me?od1 h[ev]1 by :i* at>axia or peace ( m9d c\ld be rea*$1 0 peculi> to ! ,sceptic4 ,x is a /ate ( psy*ological equilibrium1 :i* results f ! equality ( ! weight ( diff]5t argum5ts t are oppos$ to ea* o!r1 & ! consequ5t impossibility ( affirm+ 9 reg>d to ei!r "o1 t x is correct4#b ,! discov]y ( at>axia 01 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 app>5tly accid5tal1 = :ile ! ,sceptic )held 8 op9ion1 unable to decide :at ?+s 7 true1 & :at ?+s 7 false1 at>axia =tunately foll[$4#c ,aft] he _h begun to philosophize1 ) a desire to discrim9ate 9 reg>d to ideas1 & to sep>ate ! true f ! false#d dur+ ! "t ( ,greek3 epo*1 or susp5sion ( judgem5t1 at>axia foll[$ z if by *ance1 z ! %ad[ foll[s ! body4#e #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #be4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #bf4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #bf4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ajg4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #bi4 ,! ,sceptic 9 seek+ at>axia 9 ! ?+s ( op9ion1 does n entirely escape f suff]+ f 8 s5sations4 ,he is n :olly undi/urb$1 = he is sometimes cold & hungry1 & s on4#a ,he claims1 nev]!less1 t he suff]s less ?an ! dogmati/1 :o is beset ) two k9ds ( suff]+1 "o f ! feel+s !mselves1 & also f ! conviction t !y are by nature an evil4#b ,to ! ,sceptic no?+ is 9 itself ei!r an evil or a good1 & s he ?9ks t he escapes f difficulties easi]4#c ,= in/ance1 he :o consid]s ri*es a good 9 !mselves1 is unhappy 9 ! loss ( !m1 & 9 possession ( !m is 9 fe> ( los+ !m1 :ile ! ,sceptic1 rememb]+ ! ,sceptical say+ ,no m1 is untr\bl$ 9 :atev] condition he may be f\nd1 z ! loss ( ri*es is no m an evil ?an ! possession ( !m is a good4#d ,= he :o consid]s any?+ good or bad by nature is always tr\bl$1 & :5 t :i* seem$ good is n pres5t ) him1 he ?9ks t he is tortur$ by t :i* is by nature bad1 & foll[s aft] :at he ?9ks to be good4 ,hav+ acquir$ x1 h[ev]1 he is n at re/1 = 8 reason tells him t a sudd5 *ange may deprive him ( ?is ?+ t he consid]s a good4#e ,! ,sceptic1 h[ev]1 endeav\rs nei!r to avoid nor seek any?+ eag]ly4#f #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #cj4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #cj4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #cj2 ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fa4 #d ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,xi4 #adf-afj4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #bg4 #f ,hyp4 ,i4 #bh4 ,at>axia came to ! ,sceptic z success 9 pa9t+ ! foam on a horse's m\? came to ,apelles ! pa9t]4 ,aft] _m attempts to d ?is1 & _m failures1 he gave up 9 despair1 & ?rew ! sponge at ! picture t he _h us$ to wipe ! colors f ! pa9t+ )4 ,z soon z x t\*$ ! picture x produc$ a repres5tation ( ! foam4#a ,?us ! ,sceptics 7 nev] able to atta9 to at>axia by exam9+ ! anomaly betwe5 ! ph5om5a & ! ?+s ( ?\ght1 b x came to !m ( its own accord j :5 !y despair$ ( f9d+ x4 ,! intellectual prep>ation = produc+ at>axia1 consi/s 9 plac+ argum5ts 9 opposition to ea* o!r1 bo? 9 reg>d to ph5om5a1 & to ?+s ( ! intellect4 ,by plac+ ! ph5om5al 9 opposition to ! ph5om5al1 ! intellectual to ! intellectual1 & ! ph5om5al to ! intellectual1 & vice v]sa1 ! pres5t to ! pres5t1 pa/1 & future1 "o w f9d t no argum5t exi/s t is incontrov]tible4 ,x is n necess>y to accept any /atem5t :atev] z true1 & consequ5tly a /ate ( ,greek3 epo* may always be ma9ta9$4#b ,al?\gh at>axia conc]ns ?+s ( ! op9ion1 & mu/ be prec$$ by ! intellectual process describ$ above1 x is n itself a function ( ! intellect1 or any subtle k9d ( reason+1 b seems to be r a unique =m ( moral p]fection1 lead+ to happ9ess1 or is itself happ9ess4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #bh1 #bi4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #cb-ce4 ,x 0 ! aim ( ,scepticism to "k no?+1 & to ass]t no?+ 9 reg>d to any subject1 b at ! same "t n to affirm t k on all subjects is impossible1 & consequ5tly to h ! attitude ( /ill seek+4 ,! /&po9t ( ,pyrrhonism 0 mat]iali/ic4 ,we f9d f ! tea*+s ( ,sextus t he affirm$ ! non-exi/5ce ( ! s\l1#a or ! ego1 & d5i$ absolute exi/5ce altoge!r4#b ,! introductory /atem5ts ( ,diog5es reg>d+ ,pyrrhonism w\ld agree ) ?is /&po9t4#c ,!re is no crit]ion ( tru? 9 ,scepticism4 ,we _c prove t ! ph5om5a repres5t objects1 or f9d out :at ! relation ( ph5om5a to objects is4 ,!re is no crit]ion to tell u :i* "o is true ( all ! diff]5t repres5tations ( ! same object1 & ( all ! v>ieties ( s5sation t arise ?r\gh ! _m phases ( relativity ( ! conditions :i* control ! "* ( ! ph5om5a4 ,e ef=t to f9d ! tru? c deal only ) ph5om5a1 & absolute reality c nev] be kn[n4 #a ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #ee2 ,hyp4 ,,ii4 #cb4 #b ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,xi4 #adj4 #c ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fa4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,! ,sceptical ,tropes4 ,! exposition ( ! ,tropes ( ,pyrrhonism con/itutes hi/orically & philosophically ! mo/ important "p ( ! writ+s ( ,sextus ,empiricus4 ,^! ,tropes repres5t ! sum total ( ! wisdom ( ! old] ,sceptical ,s*ool1 & 7 held 9 high respect = c5turies1 n only by ! ,pyrrhoneans1 b also by _m outside ! n>r[ limits ( t ,s*ool4 ,9 ! fir/ book ( ! ,hypotyposes ,sextus gives two classes ( ,tropes1 ^? ( ,greek3 epo* & ! eight ,tropes ( ,a5esidemus aga9/ ,aetiology4 ,! ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo* are arrang$ 9 gr\ps ( t51 five & two1 accord+ to ! p]iod ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool to :i* !y belong2 ! fir/ ( ^! gr\ps is hi/orically ! mo/ important1 or ! ,t5 ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo*1 z ^! are f> m closely connect$ ) ! g5]al developm5t ( ,scepticism1 ?an ! lat] ones4 ,by ! "n ,greek3 tropos or ,trope1 ! ,sceptic und]/ood a mann] ( ?\ght1 or =m ( argum5t1 or /&po9t ( judgem5t4 ,x 0 a t]m common 9 ,greek philosophy1 us$ 9 ?is s5se1 f ! "t ( ,ari/otle4#a ,! ,/oics1 h[ev]1 us$ ! ^w ) a diff]5t mean+ f t attribut$ to x by ! ,sceptics4#b ,/ephanus & ,fabricius translate x by ! ,lat9 ^w modus#c & ,greek3 tropos also is (t5 us$ int]*angeably ) ! ^w ,greek3 logos by ,sextus1 ,diog5es ,la]tius1 & o!rs2 sometimes also z synonym\s ) ,greek3 topos1#d & ,greek3 typos is f\nd 9 ! olde/ edition ( ,sextus4#e ,diog5es def9es ! ^w z ! /&po9t1 or mann] ( argum5t1 by :i* ! ,sceptics arriv$ at ! condition ( d\bt1 9 consequ5ce ( ! equality ( probabilities1 & he calls ! ,tropes1 ! t5 ,tropes ( d\bt4#f ,all writ]s on ,pyrrhonism aft] ! "t ( ,a5esidemus give ! ,tropes ! pr9cipal place 9 _! treatm5t ( ! subject4 ,sextus occupies two ?irds ( ! fir/ book ( ! ,hypotyposes 9 /at+ & discuss+ !m2 & ab\t "o f\r? ( 8 pres5tation ( ,scepticism is devot$ to ! ,tropes by ,diog5es4 ,9 addition to ^! two au?ors1 ,ari/ocles ! ,p]ipatetic ref]s to !m 9 8 attack on ,scepticism4#g ,favor9us wrote a book entitl$ ,pyrrhonean ,tropes1 & ,plut>* "o call$ ,! ,t5 7,greek3 topoi7 ,topes ( ,pyrrho4#h ,bo? ( ^! latt] works are lo/4 #a ,papp5heim ,erlaut]ung ,pyrrh4 ,grundzug51 p4 #ce4 #b ,diog ,i4 #gf2 ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,viii4 #bbg4 #c ,fabricius1 ,cap4 ,,xiv4 #g4 #d ,hyp4 ,i4 #cf4 #e ,fabricius on ,hyp4 ,i4 #cf2 ,cap4 ,,xiv4 ,g4 #f ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #gi-ajh4 #g ,ari/ocles ,euseb4 praep4 ev4 ,x4 #ad1 #ah4 #h ,fabricius on ,hyp4 ,i4 #cf4 ,all au?orities unite 9 attribut+ to ,a5esidemus ! "w ( sy/ematiz+ & pres5t+ to ! _w ! t5 ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo*4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to conceive ! project ( oppos+ an organiz$ philosophical sy/em ( ,pyrrhonism to ! dogmatism ( 8 contempor>ies4#a ,moreov]1 ! fact t ,diog5es introduces ! ,tropes into 8 life ( ,pyrrho1 does n necess>ily imply t he consid]$ ,pyrrho _! au?or1 = ,diog5es inv>iably comb9es ! tea*+s ( ! foll[]s ( a movem5t ) ^? ( ! f\nd]s !mselves2 he gives ^! ,tropes aft] speak+ ( ,a5esidemus' "w entitl$ ,pyrrhonean ,hypotyposes1 & app>5tly quotes f ?is book1 9 giv+ at lea/ a "p ( 8 pres5tation ( ,pyrrhonism1 ei!r directly or ?r\gh1 ! works ( o!rs4 ,nietzs*e proposes a correction ( ! text ( ,diog5es ,,ix4 #aa1 #gi1 :i* w\ld make him quote ! ,tropes f a book by ,!odosius1#b au?or ( a comm5t>y on ! works ( ,!odas4 ,no writ] ( antiquity claims = ! ,tropes an old] s\rce ?an ! books ( ,a5esidemus1 to :om ,ari/ocles also attributes !m4#c ,!y are n m5tion$ 9 ,diog5es' life ( ,timon1 ! imm$iate disciple ( ,pyrrho4 ,cic]o has no k ( !m1 & does n ref] to !m 9 8 discussion ( ,scepticism4 #a ,comp>e ,saisset ,op4 cit4 p4 #gh4 #b ,bro*>d ,op4 cit4 #bed1 ,note #d4 #c ,ari/ocles ,eus4 praep4 ev4 ,,xiv4 #ah4 #h4 ,a5esidemus 0 und\bt$ly ! fir/ to =mulate ^! ,tropes1 b _m ?+s t5d to %[ t !y result$1 9 reality1 f ! gradual classification ( ! results ( ! tea*+s ( ,pyrrho1 9 ! subsequ5t developm5t ( ?\ght f 8 own "t to t ( ,a5esidemus4 ,! ideas conta9$ 9 ! ,tropes 7 n orig9al ) ,a5esidemus1 b are m closely connect$ ) ! ?\ght ( e>li] times4 ,! decid$ly empirical "* ( ! ,tropes proves ?is connection1 = ! eight ,tropes ( ,aetiology1 :i* 7 orig9al ) ,a5esidemus1 be> a f> /rong] dialectic /amp1 ?us %[+ a m decid$ dialectic influ5ce ( ! ,academy ?an is f\nd 9 ! ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo*4 ,_m ( ! illu/rations giv5 ( ! ,tropes also1 te/ify to a "t ( great] antiquity ?an t ( ,a5esidemus4 ,! "n ,trope 0 well kn[n 9 anci5t times1 & ! numb] t5 rem9ds u ( ! t5 oppos+ pr9ciples ( ,py?agoras1 & ! t5 categories ( ,ari/otle1 ! f\r? ( :i* 0 ! same z ! eigh? ,trope4 ,! t]m9ology1 h[ev]1 ) v few exceptions1 po9ts to a lat] p]iod ?an t ( ,pyrrho4 ,zell] po9ts out a numb] ( expressions 9 bo? ,diog5es' & ,sextus' exposition ( ! ,tropes1 :i* c\ld n date back f>!r ?an ! "t ( ,a5esidemus4#a ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ features ( ! :ole pres5tation ( ! ,tropes1 especially z giv5 by ,sextus1 is _! mosaic "*1 /amp+ !m n z ! "w ( "o p]son1 b z a gr[?1 & also an agglut9\s gr[?1 lack+ v decid$ly ! symmetry ( ?\ght t ! "w ( "o m9d w\ld h %[n4 #a ,zell] ,op4 cit4 p4 #be4 ,at ! "t ( ! sep>ation ( ,pyrrhonism f ! ,academy1 no o!r =ce 0 z /rong 9 giv+ life to ! s*ool z ! sy/ematic treatm5t by ,a5esidemus ( ! ,t5 ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo*4 ,! reason ( ?is is evid5t4 ,x 0 n t ! ideas ( ! ,sceptical ,tropes 7 orig9al ) ,a5esidemus1 b because a def9ite /atem5t ( belief is always a f> m p[]ful influ5ce ?an pr9ciples :i* are vaguely und]/ood & accept$4 ,!re is always1 h[ev]1 ! dang] to ! ,sceptic1 9 mak+ a /atem5t ev5 ( ! pr9ciples ( ,scepticism1 t ! psy*ological result w\ld be a dogmatic t5d5cy ( m9d1 z we %all see lat] 0 ! case1 ev5 ) ,a5esidemus himself4 ,t ! ,sceptical ,s*ool c\ld n escape ! accusation ( dogmatiz+1 f ! ,dogmatics1 ev5 9 /at+ ! gr\nds ( _! ,scepticism1 we "k f ,diog5es4#a ,to avoid ?is dogmatic t5d5cy ( ! t5 ,tropes1 ,sextus makes ! frequ5t ass]tion t he does n affirm ?+s to be absolutely true1 b /ates !m z !y appe> to him1 & t !y may be o!rwise f :at he has said4#b #a ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ajb4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #d1 #bd4 ,sextus tells u t ,c]ta9 ,tropes1 t5 9 numb]1 = produc+ ! /ate ( ,greek3 epo* h be5 h&$ d[n f ! old] ,sceptics4#a ,he ref]s to !m 9 ano!r "w z ! ,tropes ( ,a5esidemus4#b ,!re is no evid5ce t ! sub/ance ( ^! ,tropes 0 *ang$ aft] ! "t ( ,a5esidemus1 al?\gh _m ( ! illu/rations giv5 by ,sextus mu/ h be5 ( a lat] date1 add$ dur+ ! two c5turies t elaps$ betwe5 ! "t ( ,a5esidemus & ,sextus4 ,9 giv+ ^! ,tropes ,sextus does n claim to (f] a sy/ematic me?odical classification1 & closes 8 li/ ( !m1 9 _! orig9al concise =m1 ) ! rem>k1 ,we make ?is ord] ourselves4#c ,! ord] is giv5 diff]5tly by ,diog5es1 & also by ,favor9us4#d ,! ,trope :i* ,sextus gives z ! t5? is ! fif? giv5 by ,diog5es1 ! sev5? by ,sextus is ! eigh? giv5 by ,diog5es1 ! fif? by ,sextus1 ! sev5? by ,diog5es1 ! t5? by ,diog5es1 ! eigh? by ,sextus4 ,diog5es says t ! "o he gives z ! n9? ,favor9us calls ! eigh?1 & ,sextus & ,a5esidemus ! t5?4 ,?is /atem5t does n correspond ) ! li/ ( ! ,tropes :i* ,sextus gives1 prov+ t ,diog5es took "s o!r text ?an t ( ,sextus z 8 au?ority4#e ,! diff]5ce 9 ! ord] ( ! ,tropes %[s1 also1 t ! ord] 0 n consid]$ a matt] ( great importance4 ,!re is a m>k$ contra/ 9 ! _s ( ! two pres5tations ( ! ,tropes giv5 by ,sextus & ,diog5es4 ,! =m] gives !m n only z an orator1 b z "o :o feels t he is def5d+ 8 own cause1 & ! s*ool ( :i* he is ! lead]1 aga9/ mortal enemies1 :ile ,diog5es relates !m z an hi/orian4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #cf4 #b ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #cde4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #ch4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #hg4 #e ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #hg4 ,papp5heim tries to prove#a t ,a5esidemus orig9ally gave only n9e ,tropes 9 8 ,pyrrhonean ,hypotyposes1 z ,ari/ocles m5tions only n9e 9 ref]r+ to ! ,tropes ( ,a5esidemus1 & t ! t5? 0 add$ lat]4 ,_h ?is be5 ! case1 h[ev]1 ! fact w\ld surely h be5 m5tion$ ei!r by ,diog5es or ,sextus1 :o bo? ref] to ! t5 ,tropes ( ,a5esidemus4 ,! ,tropes claim to prove t ! "* ( ph5om5a is s relative & *angeable1 t c]ta9 k _c be bas$ ^u !m1 & z we h %[n1 !re is no o!r crit]ion ( k = ! ,sceptic ?an ph5om5a4#b ,all ( ! ,tropes1 except ! t5?1 are connect$ ) s5se-p]ception1 & relate to ! diff]5ce ( ! results obta9$ ?r\gh ! s5ses "u diff]5t circum/ances4 ,!y may be divid$ into two classes1 i4e41 ^? bas$ ^u diff]5ces ( our physical organism1 & ^? bas$ ^u ext]nal diff]5ces4 ,to ! fir/ class belong ! fir/1 second1 ?ird & f\r?2 to ! second class1 ! fif?1 six?1 sev5? & eigh?1 & also ! n9?4 ,! eigh?1 or t ( relation1 is appli$ objectively bo? by ,sextus & ,diog5es 9 _! treatm5t ( ! ,tropes1 & is n us$ = objects ( ?\ght alone1 b pr9cipally to %[ ! relation ( outw>d objects to ea* o!r4 ,! t5? is ! only "o :i* has a moral significance1 & x has also a high] subjective value ?an ! o!rs2 x takes its argum5ts f an entirely diff]5t sph]e ( ?\ght1 & deals ) metaphysical & religi\s contradictions 9 op9ion1 & ) ! "q ( good & evil4 ,t ?is ,trope is "o ( ! olde/1 we "k f its di/9ct m5tion 9 connection ) ! f\ndation !ories ( ,pyrrho1 by ,diog5es4#c ,9 treat+ ( ! subjective reasons = d\bt z to ! "* ( ext]nal reality1 ! ,sceptics 7 v ne> ! d5ial ( all outw>d reality1 a po9t1 h[ev]1 :i* !y nev] q rea*$4 #a ,papp5heim1 ,die ,trop5 d] ,grie*51 p4 #bc4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #bb4 #c ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fa4 ,!re is evid5tly mu* ( ,sextus' own ?\ght mix$ ) ! illu/rations ( ! ,tropes1 b x is impossible to sep>ate ! orig9al p>ts f ! mat]ial t 0 ! common prop]ty ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,_m ( ^! illu/rations %[1 h[ev]1 p]fect famili>ity ) ! sci5tific & m$ical tea*+s ( ! "t4 ,be=e ent]+ ^u 8 exposition ( ! ,tropes1 ,sextus gives !m 9 ! %ort concise =m 9 :i* !y mu/ fir/ h exi/$#a-- 7i7 ,bas$ ^u ! v>iety ( animals4 7ii7 ,bas$ ^u ! diff]5ces betwe5 m54 7iii7 ,bas$ ^u diff]5ces 9 ! con/itution ( ! s5se organs4 7iv7 ,bas$ ^u circum/ances4 7v7 ,bas$ ^u position1 di/ance & place4 7vi7 ,bas$ ^u mixtures4 7vii7 ,bas$ ^u ! quantities & con/itutions ( objects4 7viii7 ,relation4 7ix7 ,bas$ ^u frequ5cy or r>ity ( occur5ces4 7x7 ,bas$ ^u sy/ems1 cu/oms & laws1 my?ical beliefs1 & dogmatic op9ions4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #cf-ch4 ,al?\gh ,sextus is c>eful n to dogmatise reg>d+ ! arrangem5t ( ! ,tropes1 yet !re is 9 8 classification ( !m a regul> gradation1 f ! argum5ts bas$ ^u diff]5ces 9 animals to ^? 9 man1 fir/ consid]+ ! latt] 9 relation to ! physical con/itution1 & !n to circum/ances outside ( u1 & f9ally ! treatm5t ( metaphysical & moral diff]5ces4 ,! ,fir/ ,trope4#a ,t ! same m5tal repres5tations are n f\nd 9 diff]5t animals1 may be inf]r$ f _! diff]5ces 9 con/itution result+ f _! diff]5t orig9s1 & f ! v>iety 9 _! organs ( s5se4 ,sextus takes up ! five s5ses 9 ord]1 giv+ illu/rations to prove ! relative results ( ! m5tal repres5tations 9 all ( !m1 z = example ! subjectivity ( color#b & s\nd4#c ,all k ( objects ?r\gh ! s5ses is relative & n absolute4 ,sextus does n1 accord+ly1 conf9e ! impossibility ( c]ta9 k to ! qualities t ,locke reg>ds z second>y1 b includes also ! prim>y ones 9 ?is /atem5t4#d ,! =m & %ape ( objects z !y appe> to u may be *ang$ by pressure on ! eyeball4 ,fur!rmore1 ! "* ( reflections 9 mirrors dep5d entirely on _! %ape1 z ! images 9 concave mirrors are v diff]5t f ^? 9 convex ones2 & s 9 ! same way z ! eyes ( animals are ( diff]5t %apes1 & suppli$ ) diff]5t fluids1 ! ideas ( dogs1 fi%es1 m5 & gras%opp]s mu/ be v diff]5t4#e #a ,hyp44 ,i4 #dj-fa4 #b ,hyp44 ,i4 #dd-df4 #c ,hyp44 ,i4 #ej4 #d ,hyp44 ,i4 #dg4 #e ,hyp44 ,i4 #di4 ,9 discuss+ ! m5tal repres5tations ( animals ( diff]5t grades ( intellig5ce1 ,sextus %[s a v good compreh5sion ( ! philog5etic developm5t ( ! organs ( s5se1 & draws ! f9al conclusion t ext]nal objects are reg>d$ diff]5tly by animals1 accord+ to _! diff]5ce 9 con/itution4#a ,^! diff]5ces 9 ! ideas :i* diff]5t animals h ( ! same objects are demon/rat$ by _! diff]5t ta/es1 z ! ?+s desir$ by "s are fatal to o!rs4#b ,! practical illu/rations giv5 ( ?is result %[ a famili>ity ) natural hi/ory1 & cognizance ( ! ta/es & habits ( _m animals1#c b 7 probably few ( !m orig9al ) ,sextus1 unless p]haps 9 _! application2 t ?is tra9 ( reason+ 0 ! common prop]ty ( ! ,sceptic ,s*ool1 we "k f ! fact t ,diog5es beg9s 8 exposition ( ! fir/ ,trope 9 a way simil> to t ( ,sextus4#d ,8 illu/rations are1 h[ev]1 few & meagre comp>$ ) ^? ( ,sextus1 & ! sci5tific facts us$ by bo? ( !m may mo/ly be f\nd 9 o!r au?ors ( antiquity giv5 9 a simil> way4#e ,! logical result ( ! reason+ us$ to expla9 ! fir/ ,trope1 is t we _c comp>e ! ideas ( ! animals ) ea* o!r1 nor ) our own2 nor c we prove t our ideas are m tru/wor?y ?an ^? ( ! animals4#f ,z !re=e an exam9ation ( ideas is impossible1 any decid$ op9ion ab\t _! tru/wor?9ess is also impossible1 & ?is ,trope leads to ! susp5sion ( judgm5t reg>d+ ext]nal objects1 or to ,greek3 epo*4#g #a ,hyp44 ,i4 #ed4 #b ,hyp44 ,i4 #ee4 #c ,hyp44 ,i4 #ee-ei4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #gi-hj4 #e ,papp5heim ,erlaut]ung ,pyrr4 ,grundzge ,p>4 #da4 #f ,hyp4 ,i4 #ei4 #g ,hyp4 ,i4 #fa4 ,aft] rea*+ ?is conclusion1 ,sextus introduces a long *apt] to prove t animals c reason4 ,!re is no ref]5ce to ?is 9 ,diog5es1 b !re is o!r te/imony to %[ t x 0 a fav\rite l9e ( argum5t ) ! ,sceptics4#a ,sextus1 h[ev]1 says t 8 c\rse ( reason+ is diff]5t f t ( mo/ ( ! ,sceptics on ! subject1#b z !y usually appli$ _! argum5ts to all animals1 :ile he select$ only "o1 namely ! dog4#c ,?is *apt] is full ( s>ca/ic attacks on ! ,dogmatics1 & conta9s ! special allusion to ! ,/oics z ! greate/ oppon5ts ( ! ,sceptics1 :i* has be5 be=e ref]r$ to4#d ,sextus claims ) a great] fre$om ( diction ?an 9 "s app>5tly less orig9al *apt]s1 & ) a weal? ( special illu/rations1 t ! dog is sup]ior to man 9 acut5ess ( p]ception1#e t he has ! p[] ( *oice1 & possesses an art1 t ( hunt+1#f &1 also1 is n depriv$ ( virtue1#g z ! true nature ( virtue is to %[ ju/ice to all1 :i* ! dog does by gu>d+ loyally ^? :o are k9d to him1 & keep+ (f ^? :o d evil4#h ,! reason+ p[] ( ?is animal is prov$ by ! /ory tak5 f ,*rysippus1 ( ! dog t came to a meet+ ( ?ree roads 9 foll[+ a sc5t4 ,aft] seek+ ! sc5t 9 va9 9 two ( ! roads1 he takes ! ?ird road )\t sc5t+ x z a result ( a quick process ( ?\ght1 :i* proves t he %>es 9 ! fam\s dialectic ( ,*rysippus1#i ! five =ms ( ,greek3 anapodeiktoi logoi1 ( :i* ! dog *ooses ! fif?4 ,ei!r ,a or ,b or ,c1 n ,a or ,b1 !re=e ,c4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #bch4 #b ,comp>e ,bro*>d ,op4 cit4 #bef4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #fb-fc4 #d ,hyp4 ,i4 #fe4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #fd4 #f ,hyp4 ,i4 #ff4 #g ,hyp4 ,i4 #fg4 #h ,hyp4 ,i4 #fg4 #i ,hyp4 ,i4 #fi2 ,hyp4 ,,ii4 #aff2 ,diog4 ,,vii4 #a1 #gi4 ,! dog & o!r irrational animals may also possess spok5 language1 z ! only pro( t we h to ! contr>y1 is ! fact t we _c und]/& ! s\nds t !y make4#a ,we h an example 9 ?is *apt] ( ! humor ( ,sextus1 :o aft] enl>g+ on ! p]fect "* ( ! dog1 rem>ks1 ,= :i* reason x seems to me "s philosoph]s h hon\r$ !mselves ) ! "n ( ?is animal1#b ?us mak+ a s>ca/ic allusion to ! ,cynics1 especially ,anti/h5es4#c #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #gd4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #gb4 #c ,diog4 ,,vi4 #a1 #ac4 ,! ,second ,trope4 ,pass+ on to ! second ,trope1 ,sextus aims to prove t ev5 if we leave ! diff]5ces ( ! m5tal images ( animals out ( ! discussion1 !re is n a suffici5t unanimity 9 ! m5tal images ( human be+s to all[ u to base any ass]tions ^u !m 9 reg>d to ! "* ( ext]nal objects4#a ,he _h previ\sly ann\nc$ t he int5d$ to oppose ! ph5om5al to ! intellectual 9 any way :atev]1#b s he beg9s "h by ref]r+ to ! two p>ts ( :i* man is said to be compos$1 ! s\l & ! body1 & proce$s to discuss ! diff]5ces among m5 9 s5se-p]ception & 9 op9ion4#c ,mo/ ( ! illu/rations giv5 ( diff]5ces 9 s5se-p]ception are m$ical ones2 ( ! m g5]al ( ^! ,i w note ! only two :i* are also giv5 by ,diog5es 9 8 exposition ( ?is ,trope1#d viz41 ,demophon1 ,alex&]'s table wait]1 :o %iv]$ 9 ! sun1 & ,&ron ! ,argive1 :o 0 s free f ?ir/ t he travell$ ?r\gh ! des]t ( ,libya )\t seek+ a dr9k4 ,"s h reason$ f ! pres5ce ( ! fir/ ( ^! illu/rations 9 ! exposition ( ! ,tropes1 t a "p ( ?is mat]ial at lea/ goes back to ! "t ( ,pyrrho1 z ,pyrrho f 8 intimacy ) ,alex&]1 :5 he accompani$ him to ,india1 _h abundant opportunities to obs]ve ! peculi>ities ( 8 s]vant ,demophon4#e ,! illu/ration ( ,&ron ! ,argive is tak5 f ,ari/otle1 accord+ to ,diog5es4#f #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #gi4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #h4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #hj4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #hj-ha4 #e ,comp>e ,pyrrhon et le ,scepticism primitive1 ,revue phil41 ,p>is #ahhe1 ,no4 #e2 ,victor ,bro*>d1 p4 #eba4 #f ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ha4 ,pass+ on to diff]5ces ( op9ion1 we h ano!r example ( ! s>ca/ic humor ( ,sextus1 z he ref]s to ! ,greek3 physiognmonik sophia#a z ! au?ority = believ+ t ! body is a type ( ! s\l4 ,z ! bodies ( m5 diff]1 s ! s\ls also probably diff]4 ,! diff]5ces ( m9d among m5 is n ref]r$ to by ,diog5es1 except 9 ! g5]al /atem5t t !y *oose diff]5t pr(essions2 :ile ,sextus elaborates ?is po9t1 speak+ ( ! great diff]5ces 9 oppos+ s*ools ( philosophy1 & 9 ! objects ( *oice & avoidance1 & s\rces ( pleasure = diff]5t m54#b ,! poets well und]/& ?is m>k$ diff]5ce 9 human desires1 z ,hom] says1 ,"o man enjoys ?is1 ano!r enjoys t4 ,sextus also quotes ! beautiful l9es ( ,p9d>1#c ,"o delights 9 gett+ hon\rs & cr[ns ?r\gh /ormfoot$ horses1 ,o!rs 9 pass+ life 9 rooms ri* 9 gold1 ,ano!r safe travell+ enjoys1 9 a swift %ip1 on a wave ( ! sea4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #he4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #hg-hi4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #hf4 ,! ,?ird ,trope4 ,! ?ird ,trope limits ! argum5t to ! s5se-p]ceptions ( "o man1 a ,dogmatic1 if pref]r$1 or to "o :om ! ,dogmatics consid] wise1#a & /ates t z ! ideas giv5 by ! diff]5t s5se organs diff] radically 9 a way t does n admit ( _! be+ comp>$ ) ea* o!r1 !y furni% no reliable te/imony reg>d+ ! nature ( objects4#b ,ea* ( ! ph5om5a p]ceiv$ by u seems to pres5t itself 9 _m =ms1 z ! apple1 smoo?1 fragrant br[n & sweet4 ,! apple 0 evid5tly ! ord9>y example giv5 = ?is ,trope1 = ,diog5es uses ! same1 b 9 a mu* m cond5s$ =m1 & n ) equal und]/&+ ( ! results to be d$uc$ f x4#c ,! consequ5ce ( ! incompatibility ( ! m5tal repres5tations produc$ ?r\gh ! sev]al s5se organs by ! apple1 may be ! acceptance ( ei!r ( ! ?ree foll[+ propositions3 7i7 ,t only ^? qualities exi/ 9 ! apple :i* we p]ceive4 7ii7 ,t m ?an ^! exi/4 7iii7 ,t ev5 ^? p]ceiv$ d n exi/4#d ,accord+ly1 any exp]i5ce :i* c give rise to su* diff]5t views reg>d+ outw>d objects1 _c be reli$ ^u z a te/imony conc]n+ !m4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #ij4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #id4 #c ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa #ha4 #d ,hyp4 ,i4 #ii4 ,! non-homog5e\s nature ( ! m5tal images connect$ ) ! diff]5t s5se organs1 z pres5t$ by ,sextus1 rem9ds u ( ! discussion ( ! same subject by ,b]keley 9 8 ,!ory ( ,vision4 ,sextus says t a man born ) less ?an ! usual numb] ( s5ses1 w\ld =m altoge!r diff]5t ideas ( ! ext]nal _w ?an ^? :o h ! usual numb]1 & z our ideas ( objects dep5d on our m5tal images1 a great] numb] ( s5se organs w\ld give u /ill diff]5t ideas ( outw>d reality4#a ,! /rong argum5t ( ! ,/oics aga9/ su* reason+ z ?is1 0 _! doctr9e ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony betwe5 nature & ! s\l1 s t :5 a repres5tation is produc$ 9 u ( a real object1 a ,greek3 katalptik phantasia1#b by ?is repres5tation ! s\l grasps a real exi/5ce4 ,!re is a ,greek3 logos 9 u :i* is ( ! same k9d1 ,greek3 syng5os1 or 9 relation to all nature4 ,?is argum5t ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony betwe5 ! faculties ( ! s\l & ! objects ( nature1 is ! "o t has be5 us$ 9 all ages to combat philosophical tea*+ t d5ies t we appreh5d ! ext]nal _w z x is4 ,x 0 us$ aga9/ ,kant by 8 oppon5ts1 :o ?\ght 9 ?is way to refute 8 tea*+s4#c ,! ,sceptics c\ld n1 ( c\rse1 accept a !ory ( nature t includ$ ! s\l & ! ext]nal _w 9 "o h>moni\s :ole1 b ,sextus 9 8 discussion ( ! ?ird ,trope does n refute ?is argum5t z fully z he does lat] 9 8 "w aga9/ logic4#d ,he simply /ates "h t philosoph]s !mselves _c agree z to :at nature is1 & fur!rmore1 t a philosoph] himself is a "p ( ! discord1 & to be judg$1 r ?an be+ capable ( judg+1 & t no conclusion c be rea*$ by ^? :o are !mselves an elem5t ( ! unc]ta9ty4#e #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #if-ig4 #b ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #ic4 #c ,ueb]weg ,op4 cit4 #aie4 #d ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #ced4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #ih-ii4 ,! ,f\r? ,trope4 ,?is ,trope limits ! argum5t to ea* sep>ate s5se1 & ! effect is consid]$ ( ! condition ( body & m9d ^u s5se-p]ception 9 relation to ! sev]al s5se-organs4#a ,! physical /ates :i* modify s5se-p]ception are heal? & illness1 sleep+ & wak+1 y\? & age1 hung] & satiety1 drunk5ness & sobriety4 ,all ( ^! conditions ( ! body entirely *ange ! "* ( ! m5tal images1 produc+ diff]5t judgm5ts ( ! color1 ta/e1 & temp]ature ( objects1 & ( ! "* ( s\nds4 ,a man :o is asleep is 9 a diff]5t _w f "o awake1 ! exi/5ce ( bo? worlds be+ relative to ! condition ( wak+ & sleep+4#b ,! subjective /ates :i* ,sextus m5tions "h z modify+ ! "* ( ! m5tal repres5tations are hat+ or lov+1 c\rage or fe>1 sorr[ or joy1 & sanity or insanity4#c ,no man is ev] twice 9 exactly ! same condition ( body or m9d1 & nev] able to review ! diff]5ces ( 8 ideas z a sum total1 = ^? ( ! pres5t mom5t only are subject to c>eful inspection4#d ,fur!rmore1 no "o is free f ! influ5ce ( all conditions ( body or m9d1 s t he c be unbiass$ to judge 8 ideas1 & no crit]ion c be e/abli%$ t c be %[n to be true1 b on ! contr>y1 :atev] c\rse is pursu$ on ! subject1 bo? ! crit]ion & ! pro( w be ?r[n into ! circulus 9 prob&o1 = ! tru? ( ea* re/s on ! o!r4#e #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #ajj4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #ajd4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #ajj4 #d ,hyp4 ,i4 #aab4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #aag4 ,diog5es gives 9 "p ! same illu/rations ( ?is ,trope1 b 9 a mu* m cond5s$ =m4 ,! m>k$ *>act]i/ic ( ?is tra9 ( reason+ is ! attempt to prove t abnormal conditions are also natural4 ,9 ref]r+ at fir/ to ! oppos+ /ates ( body & m9d1 :i* s *ange ! "* ( s5se-p]ception1 ,sextus classifies !m accord+ to ! popul> usage z ,greek3 kata phys9 & ,greek3 p>a phys94 ,?is di/9ction 0 an important "o1 ev5 ) ,ari/otle1 & 0 especially develop$ by ! ,/oics#a 9 a broad] s5se ?an ref]r+ m]ely to heal? & sickness4 ,! ,/oics1 h[ev]1 consid]$ only normal conditions z be+ accord+ to nature4 ,sextus1 on ! contr>y1 decl>es t abnormal /ates are also conditions accord+ to nature1#b & j z ^? :o are 9 heal? are 9 a /ate t is natural to ^? :o are 9 heal?1 s also ^? n 9 heal? are 9 a /ate t is natural to ^? n 9 heal?1 & 9 "s respects accord+ to nature4 ,exi/5ce1 !n1 & non-exi/5ce are n absolute1 b relative1 & ! _w ( sleep z really exi/s = ^? :o are asleep z ! ?+s t exi/ 9 wak+ exi/1 al?\gh !y d n exi/ 9 sleep4#c ,"o m5tal repres5tation1 !re=e1 _c be judg$ by ano!r1 :i* is also 9 a /ate ( relation to exi/+ physical & m5tal conditions4 ,diog5es /ates ?is pr9ciple ev5 m decid$ly 9 8 exposition ( ?is ,trope4 ,! insane are n 9 a condition oppos$ to nature2 :y !y m ?an we8 ,= we also see ! sun z if x 7 /ation>y4#d ,fur!rmore1 9 diff]5t p]iods ( life ideas diff]4 ,*ildr5 are fond ( balls & hoops1 :ile ^? 9 _! prime pref] o!r ?+s1 & ! ag$ /ill o!rs4#e ,! wisdom conta9$ 9 ?is ,trope 9 ref]5ce to ! relative value ( ! ?+s mo/ s\ght aft] is n orig9al ) ,sextus1 b is f\nd 9 ! m e>ne/ e?ical tea*+s ( old] writ]s4 ,sextus does n1 h[ev]1 draw any moral conclusions f ?is reason+1 b only uses x z an argum5t = ,greek3 epo*4 #a ,diog4 ,,vii4 #a1 #hf4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #ajc4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #ajd4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #hb4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #ajf4 ,! ,fif? ,trope4 ,?is ,trope leaves ! discussion ( ! dep5d5ce ( ! ideas ^u ! physical nature1 & takes up ! influ5ce ( ! environm5t ^u !m4 ,x makes ! diff]5ce 9 ideas dep5d ^u ! position1 di/ance1 & place ( objects1 ?us tak+ app>5tly _! real exi/5ce = grant$4 ,?+s *ange _! =m & %ape accord+ to ! di/ance f :i* !y are obs]v$1 & ! position 9 :i* !y /&4#a ,! same light or tone alt]s decid$ly 9 diff]5t surr\nd+s4 ,p]spective 9 pa9t+s dep5ds on ! angle at :i* ! picture is susp5d$4#b ,) ,diog5es ?is ,trope is ! sev5?1#c & 8 exposition ( x is simil>1 b z usual1 %ort]4 ,bo? ,sextus & ,diog5es give ! illu/ration#d ( ! neck ( ! dove diff]+ 9 color 9 diff]5t degrees ( incl9ation1 an illu/ration us$ by ,protagoras also to prove ! relativity ( p]ception by ! s5ses4 ,! black neck ( ! dove 9 ! %ade appe>s black1 b 9 ! light sunny & purple4#e ,s9ce1 !n1 all ph5om5a are reg>d$ 9 a c]ta9 place1 & f a c]ta9 di/ance1 & accord+ to a c]ta9 position1 ea* ( :i* relations makes a great diff]5ce ) ! m5tal images1 we %all be oblig$ also by ?is ,trope to come to ! res]v+ ( ! op9ion4#f #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #aah4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #abj4 #c ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #he4 #d ,hyp4 ,i4 #abj2 ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #hf4 #e ,s*ol4 zu ,ari/4 #fj1 #ah1 ed4 ,br&is2 ,papp54 ,er4 ,pyrr4 ,grundzge1 p4 #ed4 #f ,hyp4 ,i4 #aba4 ,! ,six? ,trope4 ,?is ,trope leads to ,greek3 epo* reg>d+ ! nature ( objects1 because no object c ev] be pres5t$ to ! organs ( s5se directly1 b mu/ always be p]ceiv$ ?r\gh "s m$ium1 or 9 "s mixture4#a ,?is mixture may be an outw>d "o1 connect$ ) ! temp]ature1 or ! r>ity ( ! air1 or ! wat]#b surr\nd+ an object1 or x may be a mixture result+ f ! diff]5t humors ( ! s5se-organs4#c ,a man ) ! jaundice1 = example1 sees colors diff]5tly f "o :o is 9 heal?4 ,! illu/ration ( ! jaundice is a favorite "o ) ! ,sceptics4 ,diog5es uses x sev]al times 9 8 pres5tation ( ,scepticism1 & x occurs 9 ,sextus' writ+s 9 all1 z an illu/ration1 9 eight diff]5t places4#d ,! condition ( ! organ ( ! ,greek3 hgemonikon1 or ! rul+ faculty1 may also cause mixtures4 ,papp5heim ?9ks t we h "h ,kant's idea ( a priori1 only on a mat]iali/ic f\ndation4#e ,a c>eful consid]ation ( ! passage1 h[ev]1 %[s u t ,sextus' ?\ght is m 9 h>mony ) ! discov]ies ( mod]n psy*iatry ?an ) ! philosophy ( ,kant4 ,if ! s5t5ce1 ,greek3 iss de kai aut 7h dianoia7 epimixian t9a idian poieitai pros ta hypo tn ai/hsen anangellom5a1#f /ood alone1 )\t fur!r explanation1 x might well ref] to a priori laws ( ?\ght1 b ! explanation :i* foll[s beg9n+ ) because makes t impossible4#g ,because 9 ea* ( ! places :]e ! ,dogmatics ?9k t ! rul+ faculty is1 we see pres5t c]ta9 humors1 :i* are ! cause ( mixtures4 ,sextus does n advance any op9ion z to ! place ( ! rul+ faculty 9 ! body1 :i* is1 accord+ to ! ,/oics1 ! pr9cipal "p ( ! s\l1 :]e ideas1 desires1 & reason+ orig9ate1#h b simply ref]s to ! two !ories ( ! ,dogmatics1 :i* claim on ! "o h& t x is 9 ! bra91 & on ! o!r t x is 9 ! he>t4#i ,?is subject he deals ) m fully 9 8 "w aga9/ logic4#aj ,z1 h[ev]1 he bases 8 argum5t1 9 discuss+ possible intellectual mixtures 9 illu/ration ( ! six? ,trope1 entirely on ! condition ( ! organ ( ! intellect1 x is evid5t t 8 !ory ( ! s\l 0 a mat]iali/ic "o4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #abd4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #abe4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #abf4 #d ,see ,index to ,bekk]'s edition ( ,sextus4 #e ,papp4 ,er4 ,pyr4 ,gr4 p4 #ee4 #f ,hyp4 ,i4 #abh4 #g ,hyp4 ,i4 #abh4 #h ,diog4 ,,vii4 #a1 #aei4 #i ,hyp4 ,i4 #abh4 #aj ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #cac4 ,! ,sev5? ,trope4 ,?is ,trope1 bas$ ^u ! quantities & compositions ( objects1 is illu/rat$ by examples ( diff]5t k9ds ( food1 dr9k1 & m$ic9e1 %[+ ! diff]5t effects accord+ to ! quantity tak51 z ! h>mfulness & ! usefulness ( mo/ ?+s dep5d on _! quantity4 ,?+s act diff]5tly ^u ! s5ses if appli$ 9 small or l>ge quantities1 z fil+s ( metal or horn1 & sep>ate gra9s ( s& h a diff]5t color & t\* f ! same tak5 9 ! =m ( a solid4#a ,! result is t ideas v>y accord+ to ! composition ( ! object1 & ?is ,trope also br+s to confusion ! exi/5ce ( outw>d objects1 & leads u to res]ve our op9ion 9 reg>d to !m4#b ,?is ,trope is illu/rat$ by ,diog5es ) exce$+ brevity4#c #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #abi-aca4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #acd4 #c ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #hf4 ,! ,eigh? ,trope4 ,! ,trope bas$ ^u relation conta9s1 z ,sextus rightly rem>ks1 ! sub/ance ( ! o!r n9e1#a = ! g5]al /atem5t ( ! relativity ( k includes ! o!r /atem5ts made4 ,! prom95ce :i* ,sextus gave ?is ,trope 9 8 introduction to ! t5 ,tropes leads "o to expect "h new illu/rations & add$#b argum5ts = ,greek3 epo*4 ,we f9d1 h[ev]1 nei!r ( ^!1 b simply a /atem5t t all ?+s are 9 relation 9 "o ( two ways1 ei!r directly1 or z be+ a "p ( a diff]5ce4 ,^! two k9ds ( relation are giv5 by ,protagoras1 & might h be5 us$ to good purpose 9 ! introduction to ! ,tropes1 or at ! end1 to prove t all ! o!rs 7 really subord9ate to ! eigh?4 ,! reason+ is1 h[ev] simply appli$ to ! relation ( objects to ea* o!r1 & no?+ is add$ t is n f\nd else:]e :]e z an argum5t = ,greek3 epo*4#c ,?is ,trope is ! t5? by ,diog5es1 & he /r5g!ns 8 reason+ 9 reg>d to x1 by a /atem5t t ,sextus does n directly make1 i4e41 t ev]y?+ is 9 relation to ! und]/&+4#d #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #ci4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #ace-adj4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #ace-adj4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #hh4 ,! ,n9? ,trope4 ,?is is bas$ ^u ! frequ5cy & r>ity ( ev5ts1 & ref]s to "s ( ! ph5om5a ( nature1 su* z ! ris+ ( ! sun1 & ! sea1 z no long] a s\rce ( a/oni%m5t1 :ile a comet or an e>?quake are wond]s to ^? n accu/om$ to !m4#a ,! value ( objects also dep5ds on _! r>ity1 z = example ! value ( gold4#b ,fur!rmore1 ?+s may be valuable at "o "t1 & at ano!r n s1 accord+ to ! frequ5cy & r>ity ( ! occurr5ce4#c ,!re=e ?is ,trope also leads to ,greek3 epo*4 ,diog5es gives only two illu/rations to ?is ,trope1 t ( ! sun & ! e>?quake4#d #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #ada-adb4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #adc4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #add4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #hg4 ,! ,t5? ,trope4 ,we h already rem>k$ on ! diff]5ce 9 ! "* ( ! t5? ,trope1 deal+ z x does1 n ) ! ideas ( objects1 l ! o!r n9e ,tropes1 b ) philosophical & religi\s op9ions1 & que/ions ( "r & wrong4 ,x 0 ! well-kn[n aim ( ! ,sceptics to submit to ! laws & cu/oms ( ! l& :]e !y 7 f\nd1 & to con=m to c]ta9 moral tea*+s & religi\s c]emonies2 ?is !y did )\t ei!r affirm+ or d5y+ ! tru? ( ! pr9ciples ^u :i* ^! tea*+s 7 bas$1#a & also )\t any passion or /rong feel+ 9 reg>d to !m1#b z no?+ 9 itself c be prov$ to be good or evil4 ,! t5? ,trope accord+ly1 br+s =w>d contradictions 9 cu/oms1 laws1 & ! beliefs ( diff]5t l&s1 to %[ t !y are also *angeable & relative1 & n ( absolute wor?4 ,! f\ndation-?\ght ( ?is ,trope is giv5 twice by ,diog5es1 once z we h be=e /at$ 9 8 introduction#c to ! life ( ,pyrrho1 & also z "o ( ! ,tropes4#d ,z x is app>5tly "o ( ! olde/ ( ! ,tropes1 x w\ld naturally be mu* us$ 9 discuss+ ) ! ,/oics1 ^: philosophy _h su* a wide e?ical significance1 & mu/ also h held an important place 9 ! ,sceptical ,s*ool 9 all metaphysical & philosophical discussions4 ,! def9ition#e 9 ! beg9n+ ( ,sextus' exposition ( ?is ,trope ,fabricius ?9ks 0 tak5 f ,ari/otle1 ( s*ools1 laws1 cu/oms1 my?ical beliefs & dogmatic op9ions1#f & ! def9ition :i* ,diog5es gives ( law 9 8 life ( ,plato#g is simil>4 ,papp5heim1 h[ev]1 ?9ks !y 7 tak5 f ! ,/oics1 p]haps f ,*rysippus4#h ,! argum5t is bas$ ^u ! diff]5ces 9 developm5t ( ?\ght1 z affect+ ! /&po9t ( judgm5t 9 philosophy1 9 morals1 & religion1 ! results ( :i* we f9d 9 ! widely oppos+ s*ools ( philosophy1 9 ! v>iety 9 religi\s belief1 & 9 ! laws & cu/oms ( diff]5t c\ntries4 ,!re=e ! decisions rea*$ 9 ! _w ( ?\ght leave u equally 9 d\bt reg>d+ ! absolute value ( any /&>ds1 ) ^? obta9$ ?r\gh s5se-p]ception1 & ! univ]sal conflict ( op9ion reg>d+ all que/ions ( philosophy & e?ics leads u also accord+ to ?is ,trope to ! res]v+ ( ! op9ion4#i ,?is ,trope is ! fif? z giv5 by ,diog5es1 :o plac$ x directly aft] ! fir/ f\r :i* relate m especially to human developm5t1#aj :ile ,sextus uses x z ! f9al "o1 p]haps ?9k+ t an argum5t bas$ ^u ! high] p[]s ( man des]ves ! la/ place1 or is ! summation ( ! o!r argum5ts4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #bd4 #b ,hyp4 ,,iii4 #bce4 #c ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fa4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #hc4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #ade-adg4 #f ,fabricius1 ,cap4 ,,iv4 ,h4 #g ,diog4 ,,iii4 #hf4 #h ,papp5heim ,gr4 ,pyrr4 ,grundzge1 p4 #ej4 #i ,hyp4 ,i4 #afc4 #aj ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #hc4 ,foll[+ ! exposition ( ! t5 ,tropes ( ! old] ,sceptics1 ,sextus gives ! five ,tropes :i* he attributes to ! lat] ,sceptics4#a ,sextus n[h]e m5tions ! au?or ( ^! ,tropes4 ,diog5es1 h[ev]1 attributes !m to ,agrippa1 a man ( :om we "k no?+ except 8 m5tion ( him4 ,he 0 evid5tly "o ( ! foll[]s ( ,a5esidemus1 & a s*ol> ( influ5ce 9 ! ,sceptical ,s*ool1 :o mu/ h himself _h disciples1 z ,diog5es says1 ,greek3 hoi p]i ,agrippan#b add to ^! tropes o!r five tropes1 us+ ! plural v]b4 ,ano!r ,sceptic1 also m5tion$ by ,diog5es1 & a man unkn[n f o!r s\rces1 nam$ "s ( 8 books aft] ,agrippa4#c ,agrippa is n giv5 by ,diog5es 9 ! li/ ( ! lead]s ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool1 b#d 8 influ5ce 9 ! developm5t ( ! ?\ght ( ! ,s*ool mu/ h be5 great1 z ! transition f ! t5 ,tropes ( ! old] ,sceptics to ! five attribut$ to ,agrippa is a m>k$ "o1 & %[s ! entrance into ! s*ool ( a logical p[] be=e unkn[n 9 x4 ,! latt] are n a r$uction ( ! ,tropes ( ,a5esidemus1 b are writt5 f an entirely diff]5t /&po9t4 ,! t5 ,tropes are empirical1 & aim to furni% objective pro(s ( ! f\ndation !ories ( ,pyrrhonism1 :ile ! five are r rules ( ?\ght lead+ to logical pro(1 & are dialectic 9 _! "*4 ,we f9d ?is di/9ction illu/rat$ by ! diff]5t way 9 :i* ! ,trope ( relativity is treat$ 9 ! two gr\ps4 ,9 ! fir/ x po9ts to an objective relativity1 b ) ,agrippa to a g5]al subjective logical pr9ciple4 ,! orig9ality ( ! ,tropes ( ,agrippa does n lie 9 _! sub/ance matt]1 b 9 _! =mulation & use 9 ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,^! me?ods ( pro( 71 ( c\rse1 n new1 b 7 well kn[n to ,ari/otle1 & 7 us$ by ! ,sceptical ,academy1 & probably also by ,timon1#e :ile ! ,greek3 pros ti goes back at lea/ to ,protagoras4 ,! five ,tropes are z foll[s4 7i7 ,! "o bas$ ^u discord4 7ii7 ,! regressus 9 inf9itum4 7iii7 ,relation4 7iv7 ,! hypo!tical4 7v7 ,! circulus 9 prob&o4 ,two ( ^! are tak5 f ! old li/1 ! fir/ & ! ?ird1 & ,sextus says t ! five ,tropes are int5d$ to supplem5t ! t5 ,tropes1 & to %[ ! audacity ( ! ,dogmatics 9 a v>iety ( ways4#f ,! ord] ( ^! ,tropes is ! same ) ,diog5es z ) ,sextus1 b ! def9itions ( !m diff] suffici5tly to %[ t ! two au?ors took _! mat]ial f diff]5t s\rces4 ,accord+ to ! fir/ "o ev]y?+ 9 "q is ei!r s5sible or intellectual1 & 9 attempt+ to judge x ei!r 9 life1 practically1 or among philosoph]s1 a position is develop$ f :i* x is impossible to rea* a conclusion4#g ,accord+ to ! second1 e pro( requires ano!r pro(1 & s on to inf9ity1 & !re is no /&po9t f :i* to beg9 ! reason+4#h ,accord+ to ! ?ird1 all p]ceptions are relative1 z ! object is color$ by ! condition ( ! judge1 & ! influ5ce ( o!r ?+s ar\nd x4#i ,accord+ to ! f\r?1 x is impossible to escape f ! regressus 9 inf9itum by mak+ a hypo!sis ! />t+ po9t1 z ! ,dogmatics attempt to d4#aj ,& ! fif?1 or ! circulus 9 prob&o1 arises :5 t :i* %\ld be ! pro( ne$s to be su/a9$ by ! ?+ to be prov$4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #afd4 #b ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #hh4 #c ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ajf4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #ab1 #aae-aaf4 #e ,comp>e ,natorp4 ,op4 cit4 p4 #cjb4 #f ,hyp4 ,i4 #agg4 #g ,hyp4 ,i4 #afe4 #h ,hyp4 ,i4 #aff4 #i ,hyp4 ,i4 #afg4 #aj ,hyp4 ,i4 #afh4 ,sextus claims t all ?+s c be includ$ 9 ^! ,tropes1 :e!r s5sible or intellectual4#a ,= :e!r1 z "s say1 only ! ?+s ( s5se are true1 or z o!rs claim1 only ^? ( ! und]/&+1 or z /ill o!rs cont5d1 "s ?+s bo? ( s5se & und]/&+ are true1 a discord mu/ arise t is impossible to be judg$1 = x _c be judg$ by ! s5sible1 nor by ! intellectual1 = ! ?+s ( ! intellect !mselves require a pro(2 accord+ly1 ! result ( all reason+ mu/ be ei!r hypo!tical1 or fall into ! regressus 9 inf9itum or ! circulus 9 prob&o4#b ,! ref]5ce above to "s :o say t only ! ?+s ( s5se are true1 is to ,epicurus & ,protagoras2 to "s t only ! ?+s ( ?\ght are true1 to ,democritus & ,plato2 & to ^? t claim$ "s ( bo? to be true1 to ! ,/oics & ! ,p]ipatetics4#c ,! ?ree new ,tropes add$ by ,agrippa h no?+ to d ) s5se-p]ception1 b be> entirely ^u ! possibility ( reason+1 z dem&$ by ! sci5ce ( logic1 9 contra/ to ! e>li] ones :i* relat$ almo/ entirely1 ) ! exception ( ! t5?1 to mat]ial objects4 ,sextus claims t ^! five ,tropes also lead to ! susp5sion ( judgm5t1#d b _! logical result is r ! dogmatic d5ial ( all possibility ( k1 %[+ z ,hirzel has well demon/rat$1 f> m ! influ5ce ( ! ,new ,academy ?an ! _s ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4#e ,x 0 ! /&po9t ( ! old] ,sceptics1 t al?\gh ! se>* = ! tru? _h n yet succe$$1 yet !y 7 /ill seek]s1 & ,sextus claims to be fai?ful to ?is old aim ( ! ,pyrrhoni/s4 ,he calls himself a seek]1#f & 9 reproa*+ ! ,new ,academy = affirm+ t k is impossible1 ,sextus says1 ,moreov]1 we say t our ideas are equal z reg>ds tru/wor?9ess & untru/wor?9ess4#g ,! t5 ,tropes claim to e/abli% d\bt only 9 reg>d to a k ( ! tru?1 b ! five ,tropes ( ,agrippa aim to logically prove ! impossibility ( k4 ,x is v /range t ,sextus does n see ?is decid$ contra/ 9 ! attitude ( ! two sets ( ,tropes1 & expresses 8 approval ( ^? ( ,agrippa1 & makes m frequ5t use ( ! fif? ( ^!1 ,greek3 ho dialllos1 9 8 subsequ5t reason+ ?an ( any o!r argum5t4#h #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #afi4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #agj-aga4 #c ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,viii4 #ahe-ahf2 ,,viii4 #ef2 ,,vii4 #cfi4 #d ,hyp4 ,i4 #agg4 #e ,hirzel ,op4 cit4 p4 #aca4 #f ,hyp4 ,i4 #c1 #g4 #g ,hyp4 ,i4 #bbg4 #h ,see ,index ( ,bekk]'s edition ( ,sextus' works4 ,we f9d "h 9 ! ,sceptical ,s*ool1 %ortly aft] ! "t ( ,a5esidemus1 ! same t5d5cy to dogmatic tea*+ t--s f> z ! dim & %ad[y hi/ory ( ! la/ ye>s ( ! ,new ,academy c be unravell$1 & ! sep>ation ( ,pyrrhonism c be und]/ood1 at ! "t t ! ,academy pass$ ov] into eclecticism--0 "o ( ! causes ( t sep>ation4 ,x is true t ! ,tropes ( ,agrippa %[ great progress 9 ! developm5t ( ?\ght4 ,!y furni% an organisation ( ! ,s*ool f> sup]ior to :at w5t be=e1 plac+ ! reason+ on ! firm basis ( ! laws ( logic1 & simplify+ ! am\nt ( mat]ial to be us$4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se ,saisset is correct 9 say+ t ,agrippa contribut$ m ?an any o!r 9 complet+ ! organisation ( ,scepticism1#a b x is n correct :5 we consid] ! true _s ( ,scepticism ) :i* ! ,tropes ( ,agrippa 7 n 9 h>mony4 ,x 0 ?r\gh ! v progress %[n 9 ! production ( ^! ,tropes t ! s*ool f9ally lo/ ! /r5g? ( its position4 ,n cont5t ) hav+ r$uc$ ! numb] ( ! ,tropes f t5 to five1 o!rs tri$ to limit ! numb] /ill fur!r to two4#b ,sextus gives u no h9t ( ! au?or%ip ( ! two ,tropes4 ,ritt] attributes !m to ,m5odotus & 8 foll[]s1 & ,zell] agrees ) t op9ion1#c :ile ,saisset ?9ks t ,agrippa 0 also ! au?or ( ^!1#d :i* is a /range !ory to prop\nd1 z "s ( ! mat]ial ( ! five is repeat$ 9 ! two1 & ! same man c\ld c]ta9ly n appe> z an advocate ( five1 & at ! same "t ( two ,tropes4 #a ,saisset ,op4 cit4 p4 #bcg4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #agh4 #c ,zell] ,,iii4 #ch2 ,ritt] ,,iv4 #bgg4 #d ,saisset ,op4 cit4 p4 #bca4 ,! two ,tropes are f\nd$ on ! pr9ciple t any?+ mu/ be kn[n ?r\gh itself or ?r\gh some?+ else4 ,x _c be kn[n ?r\gh itself1 because ( ! discord exi/+ betwe5 all ?+s ( ! s5ses & intellect1 nor c x be kn[n ?r\gh some?+ else1 z !n ei!r ! regressus 9 inf9itum or ! circulus 9 prob&o foll[4#a ,diog5es ,la]tius does n ref] to ^! two ,tropes4 ,9 reg>d to all ^! ,tropes ( ! susp5sion ( judgm5t1 ,sextus has well rem>k$ 9 8 introduction to !m1 t !y are includ$ 9 ! eigh?1 or t ( relation4#b #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #agh-agi4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #ci4 ,! ,tropes ( ,aetiology4 ,! eight ,tropes aga9/ causality belong *ronologically be=e ! five ,tropes ( ,agrippa1 9 ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( sceptical ?\ght4 ,!y h a mu* clos] connection ) ! _s ( ,scepticism ?an ! ,tropes ( ,agrippa1 includ+1 z !y d1 ! fundam5tal ?\ght ( ,pyrrhonism1 i4e41 t ! ph5om5a d n reveal ! unkn[n4 ,! ,sceptics did n d5y ! ph5om5a1 b !y d5i$ t ! ph5om5a are signs capable ( be+ int]pret$1 or ( reveal+ ! reality ( causes4 ,x is impossible by a rese>* ( ! signs to f9d out ! unkn[n1 or ! explanation ( ?+s1 z ! ,/oics & ,epicureans claim4 ,! !ory ( ,a5esidemus :i* lies at ! f\ndation ( 8 eight ,tropes aga9/ aetiology1 is giv5 to u by ,photius z foll[s3#a ,!re are no visible signs ( ! unkn[n1 & ^? :o believe 9 its exi/5ce are ! victims ( a va9 illusion4 ,?is /atem5t ( ,a5esidemus is confirm$ by a full] explanation ( x giv5 lat] on by ,sextus4#b ,if ph5om5a are n signs ( ! unkn[n !re is no causality1 & a refutation ( causality is a pro( ( ! impossibility ( sci5ce1 z all sci5ce is ! sci5ce ( causes1 ! p[] ( /udy+ causes f effects1 or z ,sextus calls !m1 ph5om5a4 ,x is v noticeable to any "o :o reads ! refutation ( causality by ,a5esidemus1 z giv5 by ,sextus1#c t !re is no ref]5ce to ! /ronge/ argum5t ( mod]n ,scepticism1 s9ce ! "t ( ,hume1 aga9/ causality1 namely t ! orig9 ( ! idea ( causality _c be s acc\nt$ = z to ju/ify our rely+ ^u x z a =m ( cognition4#d #a ,myriob4 #agj ,b4 #ab4 #b ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,viii4 #bjg4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #ahj-ahf4 #d ,ueb]weg ,op4 cit4 p4 #bag4 ,! eight ,tropes are direct$ aga9/ ! possibility ( k ( nature1 :i* ,a5esidemus conte/$ aga9/ 9 all 8 ,tropes1 ! t5 z well z ! eight4#a ,!y are writt5 f a mat]iali/ic /&po9t4 ,^! ,tropes are giv5 ) illu/rations by ,fabricius z foll[s3 ,i4 ,s9ce aetiology 9 g5]al ref]s to ?+s t are unse51 x does n give te/imony t is inconte/able 9 reg>d to ph5om5a4 ,= example1 ! ,py?agoreans expla9 ! di/ance ( ! planets by a musical proportion4 ,,ii4 ,f _m equally plausible reasons :i* might be giv5 = ! same ?+1 "o only is arbitr>ily *os51 z "s expla9 ! inundation ( ! ,nile by a fall ( sn[ at its s\rce1 :ile !re c\ld be o!r causes1 z ra91 or w9d1 or ! action ( ! sun4 ,,iii4 ,?+s take place 9 an ord]ly mann]1 b ! causes pres5t$ d n %[ any ord]1 z = example1 ! motion ( ! />s is expla9$ by _! mutual pressure1 :i* does n take into acc\nt ! ord] t reigns among !m4 ,,iv4 ,! unse5 ?+s are suppos$ to take place 9 ! same way z ph5om5a1 z vision is expla9$ 9 ! same way z ! appe>ance ( images 9 a d>k room4 ,v4 ,mo/ philosoph]s pres5t !ories ( aetiology :i* agree ) _! own individual hypo!ses ab\t ! elem5ts1 b n ) common & accept$ ideas1 z to expla9 ! _w by atoms l ,epicurus1 by homoeom]iae l ,anaxagoras1 or by matt] & =m l ,ari/otle4 ,,vi4 ,!ories are accept$ :i* agree ) individual hypo!ses1 & o!rs equally probable are pass$ by1 z ,ari/otle's explanation ( comets1 t !y are a collection ( vapors ne> ! e>?1 because t co9cid$ ) 8 !ory ( ! univ]se4 ,,vii4 ,!ories ( aetiology are pres5t$ :i* conflict n only ) individual hypo!ses1 b also ) ph5om5a1 z to admit l ,epicurus an incl9ation or desire ( ! s\l1 :i* 0 incompatible ) ! necessity :i* he advocat$4 ,,viii4 ,! inscrutable is expla9$ by ?+s equally inscrutable1 z ! ris+ ( sap 9 plants is expla9$ by ! attraction ( a sponge = wat]1 a fact conte/$ by "s4#b #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #ih4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #ahj-ahf2 ,fabricius1 ,cap4 ,,xvii4 #ahj z4 ,diog5es does n m5tion ^! ,tropes 9 ?is =m1 b he gives a resum ( ! g5]al argum5ts ( ! ,sceptics aga9/ aetiology1#a :i* has less 9 common ) ! eight ,tropes ( ,a5esidemus1 ?an ) ! pres5tation ( ! subject by ,sextus lat]1#b :5 he multiplies 8 pro(s exce$+ly to %[ ,greek3 md5 e9ai aition4 ,al?\gh ! ,tropes ( ,a5esidemus h a dialectic r ?an an objective "*1 x w\ld n seem t he made ! di/9ction1 :i* is s prom95t ) ,sextus1 betwe5 ! signs ,greek3 hypomn/ika & ,greek3 endeiktika1#c especially z ,diog5es sums up 8 argum5t on ! subject ) ! g5]al ass]tion1 ,greek3 ,smeion ouk e9ai1#d & proce$s to introduce ! logical consequ5ce ( ! d5ial ( aetiology4 ,! summ+ up ( ! ,tropes ( ,a5esidemus is giv5 z foll[s1 9 ! ,hypotyposes1 by ,sextus3--,a cause 9 h>mony ) all ! sects ( philosophy1 & ) ,scepticism1 & ) ph5om5a1 is p]haps n possible1 = ! ph5om5a & ! unkn[n altoge!r disagree4#e ,x is int]e/+ to rem>k 9 connection ) ! sev5? ( ^! ,tropes1 t ,a5esidemus ass]ts t causality has only a subjective value1 :i* f 8 mat]iali/ic /&po9t 0 an argum5t aga9/ its real exi/5ce1 & ! same argum5t is us$ by ,kant to prove t causality is a necess>y condition ( ?\ght4#f ,*aignet *>act]ises ! ,tropes ( ,a5esidemus z false & sophi/ical1#g b z ,maccoll has well said1 !y are rem>kable = _! judici\s & /rong criticism1 & are direct$ aga9/ ! false me?od ( obs]v+ facts ?r\gh ! light ( preconceiv$ op9ion4#h ,!y h1 h[ev]1 a /rong] critical side ?an sceptical1 & %[ ! positive t5d5cy ( ! ?\ght ( ,a5esidemus4 #a ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #if-ih4 #b ,hyp4 ,,iii4 #bd-bh4 #c ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,viii4 #aea4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #if4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #ahe4 #f ,comp>e ,maccoll ,op4 cit4 p4 #gg4 #g ,*aignet ,op4 cit4 #ejg4 #h ,maccoll ,op4 cit4 p4 #hh4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,a5esidemus & ! ,philosophy ( ,h]aclitus4 ,a p>agraph 9 ! ,fir/ ,book ( ! ,hypotyposes :i* has giv5 rise to mu* speculation & _m diff]5t !ories1 is ! comp>ison :i* ,sextus makes ( ,scepticism ) ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus4#a ,9 ?is p>agraph ! /atem5t is made t ,a5esidemus & 8 foll[]s1 ,greek3 hoi p]i ton ,a9sidmon1 said t ,scepticism is ! pa? to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus1 because ! doctr9e t contradictory pr$icates appe> to be applicable to ! same ?+1 leads ! way to ! "o t contradictory pr$icates are 9 reality applicable to ! same ?+4#b ,greek3 hoi p]i ton ,a9sidmon elegon hodon e9ai tn skeptikn aggn epi tn ,hrakleiteion philosophian1 dioti progeitai t\ tanantia p]i to auto hyp>*e9 to tanantia p]i to auto pha9e/hai4 ,z ! ,sceptics say t contradictory pr$icates appe> to be applicable to ! same ?+1 ! ,h]aclitans come f ?is to ! m positive doctr9e t !y are 9 reality s4#c #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #baj4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #baj4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #baj4 ,?is connection :i* ,a5esidemus is said to h affirm$ betwe5 ,scepticism & ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus is e>ne/ly combat$ by ,sextus1 :o decl>es t ! fact t contradictory pr$icates appe> to be applicable to ! same ?+ is n a dogma ( ! ,sceptics1 b a fact :i* pres5ts itself to all m51 & n to ! ,sceptics only4 ,no "o = in/ance1 :e!r he be a ,sceptic or n1 w\ld d>e to say t honey does n ta/e sweet to ^? 9 heal?1 & bitt] to ^? :o h ! jaundice1 s t ,h]aclitus beg9s f a preconception common to all m51 z to u also1 & p]haps to ! o!r s*ools ( philosophy z well4#a ,z ! /atem5t conc]n+ ! appe>ance ( contradictory pr$icates 9 reg>d to ! same ?+ is n an exclusively sceptical "o1 !n ,scepticism is no m a pa? to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus ?an to o!r s*ools ( philosophy1 or to life1 z all use common subject matt]4 ,b we are afraid t ! ,sceptical ,s*ool n only does n help t[>ds ! k ( ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus1 b ev5 h9d]s t result4 ,s9ce ! ,sceptic accuses ,h]aclitus ( hav+ ra%ly dogmatis$1 pres5t+ on ! "o h& ! doctr9e ( 'conflagration' & on ! o!r t 'contradictory pr$icates are 9 reality applicable to ! same ?+4'#b ,x is absurd1 !n1 to say t ?is conflict+ s*ool is a pa? to ! sect ) :i* x conflicts4 ,x is !re=e absurd to say t ! ,sceptical ,s*ool is a pa? to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus4#c #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #baa4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #bab4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #bab4 ,?is is n ! only place 9 ! writ+s ( ,sextus :i* /ates t ,a5esidemus at "s "t ( 8 life 0 an advocate ( ! doctr9es ( ,h]aclitus4 ,9 no in/ance1 h[ev]1 :]e ,sextus ref]s to ?is rem>kable fact1 does he (f] any explanation ( x1 or express any bitt]ness aga9/ ,a5esidemus1 :om he always speaks ( ) respect z a lead] ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,we are ?us furni%$ ) "o ( ! mo/ difficult problems ( anci5t ,scepticism1 ! problem ( reconcil+ ! app>5t advocacy ( ,a5esidemus ( ! tea*+s ( ,h]aclitus ) 8 position 9 ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,a comp>ison ) ea* o!r ( ! ref]5ces made by ,sextus & o!r writ]s to ! tea*+s ( ,a5esidemus1 & a consid]ation ( ! result1 gives u two pictures ( ,a5esidemus :i* conflict mo/ decid$ly ) ea* o!r4 ,we h on ! "o h&1 ! man :o 0 ! fir/ to give ,pyrrhonism a position z an influ5tial s*ool1 & ! fir/ to collect & pres5t to ! _w ! results ( prec$+ ,sceptical ?\ght4 ,he 0 ! compil] ( ! t5 ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo*1 & p]haps 9 "p _! au?or1 & ! au?or ( ! eight ,tropes aga9/ aetiology4#a ,he develops 8 ,scepticism f ! /&po9t t nei!r ! s5ses nor ! intellect c give u any c]ta9 k ( reality4#b ,he d5i$ ! possibility ( /udy+ ph5om5a z signs ( ! unkn[n4#c ,he d5i$ all possibility ( tru?1 & ! reality ( motion1 orig9 & decay4 ,!re 0 accord+ to 8 tea*+ no pleasure or happ9ess1 & no wisdom or supreme good4 ,he d5i$ ! possibility ( f9d+ out ! nature ( ?+s1 or ( prov+ ! exi/5ce ( ! gods1 & f9ally he decl>$ t no e?ical aim is possible4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #ahj4 #b ,photius #agj1 ,b4 #ab4 #c ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,viii4 #dj4 ,! picture on ! o!r h&1 pres5t$ to u by ,sextus & ,t]tullian1 is t ( a man ) a sy/em ( beliefs & dogmas1 :i* lead1 he says1 to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus4 ,9 /range contradiction to 8 ass]tion ( ! impossibility ( all k1 he advocates a !ory t ! orig9al sub/ance is air1#a :i* is mo/ c]ta9ly a dogma1 al?\gh inde$ a deviation f ! tea*+s ( ,h]aclitus1 ( :i* ,sextus seem$ unconsci\s1 z he says1 ,greek3 to te on kata ton ,hrakleiton ar e/91 hs phys9 ho ,a9sidmos4 ,a5esidemus dogmatis$ also reg>d+ numb] & "t & unity ( ! orig9al _w-/uff4#b ,he seems to h dogmatis$ fur!r ab\t motion1#c & ab\t ! s\l4#d ,if ,sextus' language is tak5 accord+ to its app>5t mean+1 we f9d ourselves "h 9 ! pres5ce ( a sy/em ( beliefs :i* w\ld be naturally held by a foll[] ( ! ,/oic-,h]aclitan physics1#e & absolutely inexplicable f ! /&po9t ( a man :o advocat$ s radical a ,scepticism z ,a5esidemus4 ,sextus 9 ! passage t we fir/ quot$1#f expresses great indignation aga9/ ! idea t ,scepticism c\ld =m ! pa? to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus1 b he does n express surprise or indignation aga9/ ,a5esidemus p]sonally1 or (f] any explanation ( ! app>5t contradiction2 & :ile 8 writ+s ab\nd 9 ref]5ces to him z a respect$ lead] ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool1 he sometimes seems to include him ) ! ,dogmatics1 m5tion+ him ) ! ,greek3 dogmatikn philosophn4#g ,9 fact1 ! task ( pres5t+ any consi/5t hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ?\ght ?r\gh :i* ,a5esidemus pass$ is su* a puzzl+ "o1 t ,bro*>d brilliantly rem>ks t possibly ! be/ attitude to take t[>ds x w\ld be to foll[ ! advice ( ,a5esidemus himself1 & susp5d "o's judgm5t altoge!r reg>d+ x4 ,is x possible to suppose t s %>p & subtle a ?9k] z ,a5esidemus held at ! same "t su* oppos+ op9ions8 #a ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,x4 #bcc4 #b ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,ix4 #ccg2 ,x4 #baf4 #c ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,x4 #ch4 #d ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #cdi4 #e ,comp>e ,zell] ,op4 cit4 ,,iii4 p4 #cc4 #f ,hyp4 ,i4 #baj-bab4 #g ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,viii4 #h2 ,x4 #bae4 ,! conjecture t he 0 fir/ a ,h]aclitan ,/oic1 & lat] a ,sceptic1 :i* might be possible1 does n (f] any explanation ( ,sextus' /atem5t1 t he reg>d$ ,scepticism z a pa? to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus4 ,nor w\ld x be logical to ?9k t aft] e/abli%+ ! ,sceptical ,s*ool 9 r5ew$ influ5ce & p[]1 he rev]t$ to ! ,h]aclitan !ories z !y 7 modifi$ by ! ,/oics4 ,^! same !ories 7 ! cause ( 8 sep>ation f ! ,academy1 = 8 *ief accusation aga9/ ! ,academy 0 t x 0 adopt+ ! dogmatism ( ! ,/oics4#a ,! matt] is complicat$ by ! fact t ,t]tullian also attributes to ,a5esidemus an?ropological & physical tea*+s t agree ) ! ,/oical ,h]aclitan doctr9es4 ,x is n /range t 9 view ( ^! contradictory ass]tions 9 reg>d to ! same man1 "s h sugge/$ ! possibility t !y ref]r$ to two diff]5t m5 ( ! same "n1 a supposition1 h[ev]1 t no "o has be5 able to au?oritatively v9dicate4 ,let u consid] briefly "s ( ! explanations :i* h be5 attempt$ ( ! app>5t h]esy ( ,a5esidemus t[>ds ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,we w beg9 ) ! mo/ +5i\s1 t ( ,papp5heim4#b ,papp5heim claims t ,sextus 0 n ref]r+ to ,a5esidemus himself 9 ^! /atem5ts :i* he jo9s ) 8 "n4 ,9 ! mo/ important ( ^!1 ! "o quot$ f ! ,hypotyposes1#c :i* repres5ts ,a5esidemus z claim+ t ,scepticism is ! pa? to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus1 ! expression us$ is ,greek3 hoi p]i ton ,a9sidmon1 & 9 _m ( ! o!r places :]e ,sextus ref]s to ! dogmatic /atem5ts ( ,a5esidemus1 ! expression is ei!r ,greek3 hoi p]i ton ,a9sidmon1 or ,greek3 ,a9sidmos ka?' ,hrakleiton1 :ile :5 ,sextus quotes ,a5esidemus to su/a9 ,scepticism1 he uses 8 "n alone4 #a ,comp>e ,zell] ,op4 cit4 ,,iii4 p4 #af4 #b ,die angebli*e ,h]aclitismus des ,skeptik]s ,a9esidemos1 ,b]l9 #ahhi4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #baj-bab4 ,papp5heim ?9ks t ,sextus' conflict 0 n ) ! dead ,a5esidemus1 :o _h liv$ two c5turies be=e him1 b ) 8 own contempor>ies4 ,he also seeks to prove t ,sextus c\ld n h ga9$ 8 k ( ^! say+s ( ,a5esidemus f any ( ,a5esidemus' own writ+s1 z nei!r by ! anci5ts1 nor by lat] writ]s1 0 any book spok5 ( :i* c\ld well h conta9$ !m4 ,nei!r ,ari/ocles nor ,diog5es m5tions any su* book4 ,papp5heim also makes mu* ( ! argum5t t ,sextus 9 no in/ance seems consci\s ( inconsi/5cy on ! "p ( ,a5esidemus1 ev5 :5 mo/ e>ne/ly combat+ 8 alleg$ tea*+s1 b 9 ref]r+ to him p]sonally he always speaks ( him ) great respect4 ,papp5heim sugge/s1 accord+ly1 t ! polemic ( ,sextus 0 aga9/ contempor>ies1 ^? :o accept$ ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus 9 consequ5ce (1 or 9 "s connection )1 ! tea*+s ( ,a5esidemus4 ,he entirely ignores ! fact t !re is no trace ( any su* s*ool or sect 9 hi/ory1 call+ !mselves foll[]s ( ,a5esidemus accord+ to ,h]aclitus1 b /ill ?9ks x possible t su* a movem5t exi/$ 9 ,alex&ria at ! "t ( ,sextus1 :]e s _m diff]5t sects 7 f\nd4 ,sextus use ,a5esidemus' "n 9 f\r diff]5t ways3--alone1 ,greek3 hoi p]i ton ,a9esidmon1 ,greek3 ,a9sidmos ka?' ,hrakleiton1 & 9 "o in/ance ,greek3 hoi p]i ton ,a9sidmon ka?' ,hrakleiton4#a #a ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,viii4 #h4 ,papp5heim advances ! !ory t "s ( ^! contempor>ies aga9/ :om ,sextus direct$ 8 argum5ts _h writt5 a book entitl$ ,greek3 ,a9sidmos ka?' ,hrakleiton1 to prove ! h>mony betwe5 ,a5esidemus & ,h]aclitus1 & t x 0 f ?is book t ,sextus quot$ ! dogmatic /atem5ts :i* he introduc$ ) t =mula4 ,he claims1 fur!r1 t ! passage quot$ f ,hypotyposes ,i4 ev51 is direct$ aga9/ contempor>ies1 :o f\nd$ _! sy/em ( pro(s ( ! h>mony betwe5 ,a5esidemus & ,h]aclitus on ! connection ( ! celebrat$ =mula :i* 0 su* a fav\rite ) ! ,sceptics3 ,contr>y pr$icates appe> to apply to ! same ?+1 ) ! app>5t d$uction f ?is1 t ,contr>y pr$icates 9 reality apply to ! same ?+4 ,sextus wi%es1 accord+ to ,papp5heim1 to prove to ^! contempor>ies t !y _h misund]/ood ,a5esidemus1 & ,sextus does n report ,a5esidemus to be a ,dogmatic1 nor to h taught ! doctr9es ( ,h]aclitus2 nei!r has he misund]/ood ,a5esidemus1 nor consequ5tly misrepres5t$ him2 b on ! contr>y1 ^! dogmatic quotations h no?+ to d ) ,a5esidemus1 b ref] altoge!r to contempor>ies :o pret5d$ to be ,sceptics :ile !y accept$ ! tea*+s ( ,h]aclitus4 ,sextus naturally w>mly combats ?is t5d5cy1 z he wi%es to pres]ve ,pyrrhonism pure4 ,bro*>d advocates a *ange ( op9ion on ! "p ( ,a5esidemus z an explanation ( ! difficulty 9 "q4#a ,he />ts f ! supposition1 ! reasonabl5ess ( :i* we %all consid] lat]1 t ,a5esidemus _h pass$ ?r\gh "o *ange ( op9ion already :5 he sev]$ 8 connection ) ! ,new ,academy2 & to ! two phases ( 8 life1 :i* su* a *ange has already made u famili> )1 he adds a ?ird4 ,a5esidemus w\ld n be ! fir/ :o has accept$ diff]5t beliefs at diff]5t p]iods ( 8 life1 & ,bro*>d claims t su* a developm5t 9 ! op9ions ( ,a5esidemus is logical4 ,he does n accuse ,a5esidemus ( hav+1 z might seem f ! p]usal ( ,sextus1 sudd5ly *ang$ 8 basis1 b r ( hav+ gradually come to accept mu* 9 ! tea*+s ( ,h]aclitus4 ,a5esidemus modifies 8 ,scepticism only to ! ext5t ( pret5d+ to "k some?+ ( absolute reality4 ,! ,sceptic says1 ,contradictory pr$icates are app>5tly applicable to ! same ?+1 & ,a5esidemus accepts ! ,h]aclitan result--,contradictory pr$icates are 9 reality applicable to ! same ?+4 ,f ,sextus' report1 ,a5esidemus w\ld seem to h r5\nc$ 8 position z a ,sceptic 9 say+ t ,scepticism is ! pa? to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus4 ,he does n1 h[ev]1 r5\nce ,scepticism1 b he f9ds x incomplete4 ,9 delib]at+ conc]n+ ! appe>ance ( contradictory pr$icates 9 reg>d to ! same object1 he w\ld naturally ask1 ,:5ce come ^! contradictory appe>ances8 ,aft] hav+ d\bt$ all ?+s1 he wi%$ to "k :]e=e he d\bts4 ,! sy/em ( ,h]aclitus (f]s a solution1 & he accepts x4 ,contradictory pr$icates produce equilibrium 9 ! s\l because !y are an expression ( reality4 #a ,bro*>d ,op4 cit4 #bgb4 ,z a ,sceptic he claims t k is impossible1 & he does n f9d t ! /atem5t ( ,h]aclitus disproves ?is1 b r t x supports 8 !ory4 ,he _h d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( sci5ce4 ,he /ill does s1 b n[ he kn[s :y he d5ies x4 ,bro*>d asks :y x is any m impossible t ,a5esidemus %\ld h be5 a foll[] ( ,h]aclitus ?an t ,protagoras 0 s1 z ,protagoras 0 aft] all a ,sceptic4 ,9 conclusion1 ,bro*>d claims t ! dogmatic !ories attribut$ to ,a5esidemus relate to ! doctr9e ( ! tru? ( contradictory pr$icates1 :i* seem$ to him a logical explanation ( ! f\ndation !ories ( ,scepticism4 ,x is "r to call him a ,sceptic1 = he 0 s1 & t s9c]ely2 & he des]ves 8 rank z "o ( ! *iefs ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,com+ n[ to ! op9ion ( ,zell]1#a we f9d t he advocates a misconception ( ,a5esidemus on ! "p ( ,sextus4 ,! :ole difficulty is remov$1 ,zell] ?9ks1 by ! simple fact t ,sextus _h n und]/ood ,a5esidemus2 & z ,t]tullian & ,sextus agree 9 ?is misconception ( ! views ( ,a5esidemus1 !y mu/ h be5 misl$ by consult+ a common au?or 9 reg>d to ,a5esidemus1 :o confus$ :at ,a5esidemus said ( ,h]aclitus ) 8 own op9ion4 ,zell] ma9ta9s t ! expression s (t5 repeat$ by ,sextus--,greek3 ,a9sidmos ka?' ,hrakleiton--%[s t "s "o ( ,a5esidemus' books conta9$ a report ( ,h]aclitus' doctr9es1 z ,a5esidemus 0 9 ! habit ( quot+ z _m au?orities z possible to su/a9 8 ,scepticism4 ,to ju/ify 8 quotations f ,h]aclitus1 he _h possibly giv5 a %ort ab/ract ( ,h]aclitus' tea*+s2 & ! misconception advocat$ by ,zell] & f\nd bo? 9 ,t]tullian & ,sextus1 ref]s r to ! _s ?an to ! words quot$ f ,a5esidemus1 & is a misconception due to "s e>li] au?or1 :o _h giv5 a false impression ( ! mean+ ( ,a5esidemus 9 quot+ :at ,a5esidemus wrote ab\t ,h]aclitus4 ,t is to say1 ,h]aclitus 0 class$ by ,a5esidemus only among ^? :o prep>$ ! way = ,scepticism1 j z ,diog5es#b m5tions _m philosoph]s 9 t way2 & t ,soranus#c & ,sextus bo? _h ! same misund]/&+ c only be expla9$ by a mi/ake on ! "p ( ! au?ority :om !y consult$4 #a ,zell] ,op4 cit4 ,,iii1 pp4 #ca-ce2 ,grundriss d] ,ges*i*te d] ,grie*is*5 ,phil4 p4 #bfc4 #b ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ga-gd4 #c ,t]tullian4 ,?is explanation1 h[ev]1 makes ,sextus a v /upid man4 ,a5esidemus' books 7 well kn[n1 & ,sextus w\ld mo/ c]ta9ly take ! tr\ble to read !m4 ,8 reputation z an hi/orian w\ld n su/a9 su* an accusation1 z ,diog5es calls 8 books ,greek3 ta deka tn skeptikn kai alla kalli/a4#a ,fur!rmore1 t ,sextus us$ ,a5esidemus' own books we "k f ! direct quotation f !m 9 reg>d to ,plato1#b :i* he comb9es ) ! ideas ( ,m5odotus#c & 8 own4 #a ,diog4 ,,ix4 #ab1 #aaf4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #bbb4 #c ,foll[+ ! ,greek ( ,bekk]4 ,sextus' ref]5ces to ,a5esidemus 9 connection ) ,h]aclitus are v num]\s1 & x is absurd to suppose t he w\ld h tru/$ entirely to "s "o :o report$ him = au?ority on su* a subject4 ,ev5 7 x possible t ,sextus did n ref] directly to ! works ( ,a5esidemus1 :i* we d n admit1 ev5 !n1 !re _h be5 _m writ]s 9 ! ,sceptical ,s*ool s9ce ! "t ( ,a5esidemus1 & !y c]ta9ly c\ld n all h misrepres5t$ him4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ,sextus 0 at ! head ( ! ,s*ool1 & _h access to all ( its lit]ature4 ,8 honor w\ld n all[ ( su* a mi/ake1 & if he _h inde$ made x1 8 contempor>ies mu/ surely h discov]$ x be=e ,diog5es *>act]is$ 8 books z ,greek3 kalli/a4 ,:atev] may be said aga9/ ! accuracy ( ,sextus z a g5]al hi/orian ( philosophy1 especially 9 reg>d to ! old] s*ools1 he _c c]ta9ly be accus$ ( ignorance respect+ ! s*ool ( :i* he 0 at t "t ! head4 ,! op9ion ( ,ritt] on ?is subject is t ,a5esidemus mu/ h be5 a ,dogmatic4#a ,saisset cont5ds#b t ,a5esidemus really pass$ f ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus to t ( ,pyrrho1 & made ! /atem5t t ,scepticism is ! pa? to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus to def5d 8 *ange ( view1 al?\gh 9 8 case ! *ange _h be5 j ! opposite to ! "o he def5ds4 ,saisset prop\nds z a law 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy a fact :i* he claims to be true1 t ,scepticism always foll[s s5sationalism1 = :i* he gives two examples1 ,pyrrho1 :o 0 fir/ a disciple ( ,democritus1 & ,hume1 :o 0 a disciple ( ,locke ,x is n necess>y to discuss ! absurdity ( su* a law1 :i* someone has well rem>k$ w\ld involve an a priori con/ruction ( hi/ory4 ,!re is no app>5t reason = ,saisset's conjecture 9 reg>d to ,a5esidemus1 = x is exactly ! opposite ( :at ,sextus has report$4 ,/range to say1 ,saisset himself rem>ks 9 ano!r place t we owe religi\s respect to any text1 & t x %\ld be ! fir/ law ( criticism to r5d] ?is4#c ,su* respect to ! text ( ,sextus1 z he himself advocates1 puts ,saisset's explanation ( ! subject "u discussion out ( ! "q4 #a ,ritt]1 ,op4 cit4 p4 #bhj4 ,book ,,iv4 #b ,saisset1 ,op4 cit4 p4 #bjf4 #c ,saisset ,op4 cit4 p4 #bjf4 ,hirzel & ,natorp d n f9d su* a m>k$ contradiction 9 ! two views pres5t$ ( ! !ories ( ,a5esidemus1 nor d !y ?9k t ,sextus has misrepres5t$ !m4 ,!y r ma9ta91 t 9 decl>+ ! coexi/5ce ( contradictory pr$icates reg>d+ ! same object1 ,a5esidemus does n cease to be a ,sceptic1 = he did n believe t ! pr$icates are applicable 9 a dogmatic s5se ( ! ^w1 b are only applicable 9 appe>ance1 t is1 applicable to ph5om5a4 ,! ,h]aclitism ( ,a5esidemus w\ld be !n only 9 appe>ance1 z he und]/ood ! /atem5t1 t ,contradictory pr$icates are 9 reality applicable to ! same ?+1 only 9 ! ph5om5al s5se4#a ,hirzel says 9 addition1 t contradictory pr$icates are 9 reality applicable to ^? ph5om5a :i* are ! same = all1 & consequ5tly true1 = ,a5esidemus consid]$ ^? ph5om5a true t are ! same = all4#b ,z ,protagoras1 ! disciple ( ,h]aclitus1 decl>$ ! relative "* ( s5sations1 t ?+s exi/ only = u1 & t _! nature dep5ds on our p]ception ( !m2 s1 9 ! ph5om5al s5se1 ,a5esidemus accepts ! app>5t fact t contradictory pr$icates 9 reality apply to ! same ?+4 #a ,natorp ,op4 cit4 #aae1 #abb4 #b ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,viii4 #h2 ,hirzel ,op4 cit4 p4 #ie4 ,?is explanation entirely ov]looks ! fact t we h to d ) ! ^w ,greek3 hup>*e91 9 ! /atem5t t contradictory pr$icates 9 reality apply to ! same ?+2 :ile 9 ! passage quot$ :]e ,a5esidemus decl>es common ph5om5a to be true ones1 we h ! ^w ,greek3 al?1 s t ?is explanation ( ! difficulty w\ld advocate a v /range use ( ! ^w ,greek3 hup>*e94 ,all ( ^! diff]5t views ( ! possible solution ( ?is p]plex+ problem are wor?y ( respect1 z ! op9ion ( m5 :o h giv5 mu* ?\ght to ?is & o!r closely ,belat$ subjects4 ,:ile we may n altoge!r agree ) any "o ( !m1 !y nev]!less furni% _m sugge/ions1 :i* are v valuable 9 help+ to con/ruct a !ory on ! subject t %all satisfactorily expla9 ! difficulties1 & pres5t a consi/5t view ( ! attitude ( ,a5esidemus4 ,fir/1 9 reg>d to ! ,greek expression ,greek3 hoi p]i 9 connection ) prop] names1 ^u :i* ,papp5heim bases s mu* ( 8 argum5t4 ,all ,greek s*ol>s w\ld agree t ! expression does n apply usually only to ! disciples ( any tea*]1 b ,greek3 hoi p]i ton ,a9sidmon1 = in/ance1 includes ,a5esidemus ) 8 foll[]s1 & is lit]ally translat$1 ,a5esidemus & 8 foll[]s4 ,x is noticeable1 h[ev]1 9 ! writ+s ( ,sextus t he uses ! expression ,greek3 hoi p]i (t5 = ! "n ( ! f\nd] ( a s*ool alone1 z ,papp5heim himself admits4#a ,we f9d examples ( ?is 9 ! m5tion ( ,plato & ,democritus & ,arcesilaus1 z ,greek3 hoi p]i ton ,platna kai ,dmokriton#b & ,greek3 hoi p]i ton ,arkesilaon1#c & accord+ly we h no "r to inf] t 8 use ( ! "n ,a5esidemus 9 ?is way has an exceptional significance4 ,x may mean ,a5esidemus alone1 or x may signify ,a5esidemus 9 connection ) 8 foll[]s4 #a ,papp5heim ,op4 cit4 p4 #ba4 #b ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,viii4 #f4 #c ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #aej4 ,9 reply to ,zell]'s position1 t ,sextus & ,t]tullian h misund]/ood ,a5esidemus1 & quote f "s common au?or :o misrepres5ts him1 we w\ld admit t su* a misund]/&+ might be possible :]e ,sextus gives long explanations ( ,h]aclitus' tea*+s1 beg9n+ ) quot+ ,a5esidemus1 & cont9u+ 9 su* a way t x is n always possible to di/+ui% j ! "p t is attribut$ to ,a5esidemus2 b su* a misund]/&+ c]ta9ly _c be ass]t$ 9 reg>d to ! direct /atem5t t ,a5esidemus reg>d$ ,scepticism z ! pa? to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus1 = ! reasons previ\sly giv54 ,nei!r w\ld we agree ) ,bro*>d1 ^: solution ( ! difficulty is on ! :ole ! mo/ logical1 i4e41 t ,a5esidemus _h necess>ily already pass$ ?r\gh two phases ( philosophical belief4 ,x is possible to admit a gradual evolution ( ?\ght 9 ,a5esidemus )\t suppos+ 9 ei!r case a *ange ( basis4 ,8 )drawal f ! ,academy is an argum5t aga9/1 r ?an 9 favor ( a *ange on 8 "p1 & 0 caus$ by ! well-kn[n *ange 9 ! attitude ( ! ,academy4 ,_m ( ! tea*+s ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool 7 tak5 directly f ! ,academy1 belong+ to ^? doctr9es advocat$ 9 ! ,academy be=e ! eclectic dogmatic t5d5cy introduc$ by ,antio*us4 ,9 fact1 ,sextus himself claims a close relation betwe5 ! ,middle ,academy & ,pyrrhonism4#a ,a5esidemus1 al?\gh he 0 a ,sceptic1 belong$ to ! ,academy1 & on leav+ x became1 z x 71 a pione] 9 ,pyrrhonism1 & _c be judg$ 9 ! same way z we %\ld judge a ,sceptic ( ,sextus' "t4 ,x seems a self-evid5t fact t dur+ ! two c5turies :i* elaps$ betwe5 ! "t ( ,a5esidemus & ,sextus1 ! /&po9t ( judgm5t 9 ! ,sceptical ,s*ool _h greatly *ang$4 ,an example illu/rat+ ?is *ange we f9d 9 a comp>ison ( ! pres5tation ( ,scepticism by ,diog5es ) t ( ,sextus4 ,! au?or ,:om ,diog5es foll[s1 probably "o ( ! ,sceptical writ]s1 consid]s ,x5ophanes1 ,z5o1 & ,democritus1 ,sceptics1 & also ,plato1#b :ile ,sextus1 9 reg>d to all ( ^! m51 opposes ! idea t !y 7 ,sceptics4#c ,diog5es also calls ,h]aclitus a ,sceptic1 & ev5 ,hom]1#d & quotes sceptical say+s f ! ,sev5 ,wise ,m52#e he includes 9 ! li/ ( ,sceptics1 ,ar*ilo*us1 ,euripides1 ,emp$ocles1 & ,hippocrates1#f &1 fur!rmore1 says t ,!odosius1 probably "o ( ! y\ng] ,sceptics1 object$ to ! "n ',pyrrhonean' on ! gr\nd t ,pyrrho 0 n ! fir/ ,sceptic4#g #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #bcb4 #b ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ag-gb4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #bac-bad2 ,i4 #bbc-bbe4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ga4 #e ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ga4 #f ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ga-gc4 #g ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa4 #gj4 ,we h giv5 ! te/imony f _m s\rces to ! effect t be=e ! "t ( ,sextus ! ,empirical ,s*ool ( ,m$ic9e 0 consid]$ id5tical ) ,scepticism1 al?\gh n s by ,sextus himself4 ,f all ( ^! ?+s we may inf] a n>r[+ ( ! limits ( ,pyrrhonism 9 ! "t ( ,sextus4 ,let u accept ) ,bro*>d ! developm5t ( ?\ght se5 9 ,a5esidemus f ! beg9n+ to ! end ( 8 c>e]1 )\t agree+ ) him t ,a5esidemus ev] consci\sly *ang$ 8 basis4 ,he 0 a ,sceptic 9 ! ,academy4 ,he left ! ,academy on t acc\nt1 & he rema9$ a ,sceptic to ! end1 9 s f> z a man c be a ,sceptic1 & take ! positive /& t ,a5esidemus did4 ,two ?+s might acc\nt = 8 app>5t dogmatism-- 7i7 ,! eclectic _s ( 8 "t4 7ii7 ,! psy*ological effect ^u himself ( ?is c>eful sy/emisation ( ! ,sceptical tea*+s4 ,let u consid] ! fir/ ( ^! causes4 ,a5esidemus1 al?\gh n ! fir/ ( ! lat] ,sceptics1 0 app>5tly ! fir/ to sep>ate himself f ! ,academy4 ,he 0 ! f\nd] ( a new movem5t1 ! attempt to revive ! old] ,scepticism z taught by ,pyrrho & ,timon1 & sep>ate x f ! dogmatic tea*+s ( ! ,/oics :i* 7 s greatly affect+ ! ,scepticism ( ! ,new ,academy4 ,x 0 ! _s ( 8 "t to seek to su/a9 all philosophical tea*+ by ! au?ority ( z _m z possible ( ! old] philosoph]s1 & he c\ld h>dly escape ! t5d5cy :i* 8 tra9+ 9 ! ,academy _h unconsci\sly giv5 him4 ,!re=e we f9d him try+ to prove t ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus foll[s f ,scepticism4 ,x is n necess>y ei!r to expla9 ! matt]1 z bo? ,hirzel & ,natorp s +5i\sly attempt to d1 by claim+ t ! tru? ( contradictory pr$icates :i* ,a5esidemus accept$ f ,h]aclitus ref]r$ only to ph5om5a4 ,! hi/ory ( philosophy gives u abundant pro( ( ! impossibility ( absolute ,scepticism1 & ,a5esidemus furni%es u ) "o example ( _m ( ?is impossibility1 & ( ! dogmatism t mu/ exi/ 9 connection ) all ?\ght4 ,9 ! case ( ,a5esidemus1 :o evid5tly gave ! be/ ef=ts ( 8 life to e/abli% ! ,sceptical ,s*ool1 ! dogmatism 0 probably unconsci\s4 ,t he rema9$ to ! end a ,sceptic is %[n by ! fact t he 0 kn[n z su* to po/]ity4 ,n[h]e d we f9d a *ange ( basis ref]r$ to 9 reg>d to him1 & ,sextus1 9 refut+ ! mi/akes :i* he attributes to ,a5esidemus1 does x1 z x 71 to po9t out some?+ ( :i* ,a5esidemus _h be5 unconsci\s4 ,let u consid] "h ! second cause ( ,a5esidemus' ,dogmatism1 ! psy*ological effect ^u himself ( =mulat+ ,sceptical beliefs4 ,! "w t he did = ! ,sceptical ,s*ool 0 a positive "o4 ,x occupi$ ye>s ( 8 life1 & /amp$ itself ^u 8 m5tal developm5t4 ,9 =mulat+ ,scepticism1 & 9 advocat+ x aga9/ ! _m enemies ( ! ,s*ool1 & amid/ all ! excitem5t ( ! disruption f ! ,academy1 & ( e/abli%+ a new ,s*ool1 x 0 inevitable t 8 m9d %\ld take a dogmatic t5d5cy4 ,he rema9$ a ,sceptic z he _h always be51 b mu/ h gr[n dogmatic 9 8 attitude t[>ds ! ,sceptical =mulae1 & 0 ?us able to adopt "s ( ! tea*+s ( ,h]aclitus1 unconsci\s ( _! inconsi/5cy4 ,:]e %\ld we f9d a mod]n writ] :o is consi/5t 9 all 8 /atem5ts8 ,c\ld we read ! works ( ,a5esidemus1 we might bett] und]/& ! connection betwe5 ! app>5tly contradictory ideas 9 8 tea*+1 b ! inconsi/5cies 9 /atem5t w\ld probably rema94 ,x is necess>y to rememb] ! position ( ,a5esidemus 9 break+ away f ! ,academy & 9 f\nd+ a new s*ool1 ! full significance ( :i* he c\ld n =esee4 ,!re mu/ necess>ily be "s crud5ess 9 pione] "w1 & "s failure to see ! be>+ ( all its p>ts1 & a compil] l ,sextus c\ld po9t out ! inconsi/5cies :i* ! two c5turies s9ce ! "t ( ,a5esidemus _h made pla94 ,a5esidemus 0 too positive a "* to admit ( absolute ,sceptical consi/5cy4 ,he 0 nev]!less ! greate/ ?9k] ! ,sceptical ,s*ool _h kn[n s9ce ! age ( ,pyrrho1 its f\nd]4 ,9 claim+ a union betwe5 ,pyrrhonism & ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus1 he recognis$ also ! pre-,socratic t5d5cy ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,! "n ( ,socrates 0 all p[]ful 9 ! ,academy1 b ,a5esidemus compreh5d$ ! fact t ! true _s ( ,pyrrhonism 0 ( e>li] orig9 ?an ! ,academic ,scepsis4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,critical ,exam9ation ( ,pyrrhonism4 ,! di/9ct philosophical movem5t ( :i* ,pyrrho 0 ! au?or bore 8 "n = five c5turies aft] 8 dea?4 ,x _h an ackn[l$g$ exi/5ce z a philosophical t5d5cy1 if inde$ n a sect1 = a great "p ( t "t4 ,yet1 :5 we c>efully analyse ! relation ( ,pyrrhonism1 z pres5t$ to u by ,sextus1 to ! tea*+s ( ,pyrrho himself1 9 s f> z !y c be kn[n1 we f9d _m ?+s 9 ,pyrrhonism = :i* ,pyrrho 0 n responsible4 ,! f\ndation elem5ts ( ! movem5t1 ! _s ( ,empirical d\bt t lay und]nea? & caus$ its developm5t 9 c]ta9 directions r ?an o!rs1 are due to ,pyrrho4 ,! me?ods ( ! s*ool1 h[ev]1 7 v =eign to any?+ f\nd 9 ! life or tea*+s ( ,pyrrho4 ,pyrrho 0 em95tly a morali/4 ,he 0 also to a great degree an ascetic1 & he liv$ 8 philosophy1 giv+ x ?us a positive side want+ 9 ! ,pyrrhonism pres5t$ to u by ,sextus4 ,timon repres5ts him z desir+ to escape f ! t$i\s philosophical discussions ( 8 "t-- ,greek3 g]on ,purrhn1 ps po!n ekdus9 heures latreis doxn te k5ophrosuns te sophi/n2 & aga9 he speaks ( 8 mode/ & tranquil life-- ,greek3 t\to moi1 ,purrhn1 himeiretai tor ak\sai ps pot' anr et' ageis panta me?' hsu*is m\nos d'an?rpoisi !\ tropon hgemoneueis 44444 phi/a me?' hsu*is aiei aphronti/s kai ak9ts kata tauta m prose*' indalmois hdulog\ sophis4#a ,pyrrho wi%$ m ?an any?+ else to live 9 peace1 & 8 dislike ( ! ,sophi/s#b may well h made him try to avoid dialectic2 :ile1 on ! contr>y1 9 ! ,pyrrhonean ,s*ool ( lat] times discussion 0 "o ( ! pr9cipal me?ods ( conte/1 at lea/ aft] ! "t ( ,agrippa4 ,pyrrhonism seems to h be5 orig9ally a !ory ( life1 l ! philosophy ( ,socrates1 to :om ,pyrrho is (t5 comp>$1#c & ,pyrrho1 l ,socrates1 liv$ 8 philosophy4 ,our k ( ,pyrrho is ga9$ f ,ari/ocles1 ,sextus ,empiricus1 & ,diog5es1 & f ! ,academic traditions giv5 by ,cic]o4 ,diog5es gives u details ( 8 life :i* he attributes to ,antigonus ( ,c>y/ius1 :o liv$ ab\t ! "t ( ,pyrrho4#d ,pyrrho 0 a disciple & admir] ( ,democritus1#e "s ( ^: tea*+s bore a la/+ influ5ce ov] ! subsequ5t developm5t ( ,pyrrhonism4 ,he accompani$ ,alex&] ! ,great to ,india1 :]e he rema9$ z a memb] ( 8 suite = "s "t1 & ! philosophical ideas ( ,india 7 n )\t influ5ce on 8 tea*+s4 ,ori5tal philosophy 0 n unkn[n 9 ,greece long be=e ! "t ( ,pyrrho1 b 8 p]sonal contact ) ! ,magi & ! ,gymnosophi/s ( ! f> ,ea/1 app>5tly impress$ ^u 8 m9d tea*+s = :i* he 0 n unprep>$ by 8 previ\s /udy & natural disposition4 ,9 8 indiff]5ce to worldly goods we f9d a /rong trace ( ! ,buddhi/ic tea*+ reg>d+ ! vanity ( human life4 ,he %[$ also a simil> hopelessness 9 reg>d to ! possibility ( f9d+ a satisfactory philosophy1 or absolute tru?4 ,he evid5tly return$ f ,india ) ! conviction t tru? 0 n to be atta9$4#f #a ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fe4 ,giv5 f ,mulla*'s edition ( ,timon by ,bro*>d1 ,pyrrhon et le ,scepticism primitive1 p4 #ebe4 #b ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fi4 #c ,lewes ,op4 cit4 p4 #dfj4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fb4 #e ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fg4 #f ,comp>e ,maccoll ,op4 cit4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,alex&] & ,pyrrho's return to ,greece1 he liv$ quietly ) 8 si/] at ,elis1 & ,diog5es says t he 0 consi/5t 9 8 life1 ass]t+ & d5y+ no?+1 b 9 ev]y?+ )hold+ 8 op9ion1 z no?+ 9 itself is good or %ameful1 j or unju/4#a ,he 0 n a victim ( false pride1 b sold animals 9 ! m>ket place1 &1 if necess>y1 wa%$ ! ut5sils himself4#b ,he liv$ 9 equality ( _s1 & practis$ 8 tea*+s ) s]5ity4 ,if "o w5t out :ile he 0 talk+ he paid no att5tion1 b w5t calmly on ) 8 rem>ks4#c ,he lik$ to live alone1 & to travel alone1 & on "o occasion1 be+ knock$ ab\t 9 a vessel by a /orm at sea1 he did n lose 8 imp]turbability1 b po9t$ to a sw9e calmly eat+ on bo>d1 & said t ! wise man %\ld h z mu* calmness ( s\l z t4 ,he endur$ difficult surgical op]ations ) indiff]5ce1#d & :5 8 fri5d ,anax>*us 0 once un=tunate en\gh to fall into a morass1 he w5t calmly by )\t /opp+ to help him1 = :i* consi/5cy ( conduct ,anax>*us aft]w>ds prais$ him4 ,!re are two in/ances giv5 by ,diog5es :5 he lo/ control ( himself2 once 9 gett+ angry ) 8 si/]1 & once 9 try+ to save himself :5 *as$ by a dog4 ,:5 accus$ ( inconsi/5cy1 he said x 0 difficult to entirely give up "o's humanity4#e ,he 0 greatly v5]at$ by ! p among :om he liv$1 :o made him high prie/1 & on 8 acc\nt exempt$ all philosoph]s f taxation1#f & aft] 8 dea? erect$ a /atue to 8 memory4 ,^! facts te/ify to 8 moral "*1 & also to fulfil ! functions ( high prie/ a c]ta9 am\nt ( dogmatism mu/ h be5 necess>y4 #a ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fa1 #fb4 #b ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ff4 #c ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fc4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fg4 #e ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #ff4 #f ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fd4 ,accord+ to ,diog5es1 ,we _c "k1 said ,pyrrho1 :at ?+s are 9 !mselves1 ei!r by s5sation or by judgm5t1 &1 z we _c di/+ui% ! true f ! false1 !re=e we %\ld live impassively1 & )\t an op9ion4 ,! t]m ,greek3 epo*1 s *>act]i/ic ( ,pyrrhonism1 goes back1 accord+ to ,diog5es1 to ! "t ( ,pyrrho4#a ,no?+ is1 9 itself1 "o ?+ m ?an ano!r1 b all exp]i5ce is relat$ to ph5om5a1 & no k is possible ?r\gh ! s5ses4#b ,pyrrho's aim 0 ,greek3 at>axia & 8 life furni%$ a m>k$ example ( ! _s ( indiff]5ce1 = :i* ! expression ,greek3 apa!ia is bett] suit$ ?an ! lat] "o1 ,greek3 at>axia4 ,! description ( 8 life ) 8 si/] confirms ?is1 :]e ! t]m ,greek3 adiaphoria is us$ to describe 8 conduct4#c ,he f\nd$ 8 ,scepticism on ! equival5ce ( oppos+ argum5ts4#d #a ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fa4 #b ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fa-fb4 #c ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa4 #ff4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa4 #ajf4 ,! picture giv5 ( ,pyrrho by ,cic]o is entirely diff]5t f t ( ,diog5es1 & contra/s decid$ly ) x4#a ,cic]o kn[s ,pyrrho z a sev]e morali/1 n z a ,sceptic4 ,bo? au?ors attribute to ,pyrrho ! doctr9e ( indiff]5ce & apa?y1 b1 accord+ to ,cic]o1 ,pyrrho taught ( virtue1 hone/y1 & ! summum bonum1 :ile ,diog5es pla9ly tells u t he consid]$ no?+ z good 9 itself1 & ( all ?+s no?+ z true4#b ,cic]o does n once allude to ,pyrrhonean d\bt4 ,we see on ! "o h&1 9 ,cic]o's idea ( ,pyrrho1 ! influ5ce ( ! ,academy1 p]haps ev5 ( ,antio*us himself1#c :i* probably color$ ! repres5tations giv5 ( ,pyrrho2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 !re is mu* 9 ,diog5es' acc\nt ( ,pyrrho's life & tea*+s1 & 9 ! writ+s ( ,timon1 :i* %[s u ! positive side ( ,pyrrho4 ,pyrrho1 9 d5y+ ! possibility ( all k1 made t r a motive = indiff]5ce 9 ! relations ( life1 ?an ! f\ndation ?\ght ( a philosophical sy/em4 ,8 tea*+ has a decid$ e?ical side1 %[+ 9 t respect ! /rong influ5ce ( ,democritus ov] him1 :o1 l ,pyrrho1 made happ9ess to consi/ 9 a /ate ( feel+4#d ,! "o motive ( all ( ,pyrrho's tea*+ is a positive "o1 ! desire = happ9ess4 #a ,de orat4 ,,iii1 #fb4 #b ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fa4 #c ,comp>e ,natorp ,op4 cit4 p4 #ga4 #d ,zell] ,grundriss d] ,grie*is*5 ,phil4 p4 #gj4 ,! ess5ce ( ,pyrrhonism z giv5 by ,timon is z foll[s3#a ,man desires to be happy4 ,to realise 8 desire he mu/ consid] ?ree ?+s3 7i7 ,:at is ! nature ( ?+s8 7ii7 ,h[ %\ld man conduct himself 9 relation to !m8 7iii7 ,:at is ! result to him ( ?is relation8 ,! nature ( ?+s is unkn[n4 ,our relation to !m mu/ be "o ( susp5sion ( judgm5t1 )\t activity1 desire1 or belief1--t is1 an entirely negative relation4 ,! result is t /ate ( hav+ no op9ion1 call$ ,greek3 epo*1 :i* is foll[$ 9 turn by ,greek3 at>axia4 #a ,ari/ocles ap4 ,eusebium ,praep4 ,ev4 ,,xiv4 #ah4 #a,! problem ( philosophy is "h propos$ v ne>ly 9 ! t]ms ( ,kant1 b n ) ! positive motive1 l t ( ! great philosoph] ( ,g]many1 ( evolv+ a sy/em to pres5t ! tru?4 ,yet ! importance ( ^! que/ions %[s ! orig9ality ( ,pyrrho4 ,! e>ne/ness ( ,pyrrho is fur!r %[n by an example giv5 by ,diog5es4 ,once on be+ f\nd talk+ to himself alone1 he said1 :5 ask$ ! reason1 t he 0 m$itat+ h[ to become a good man 7,greek3 *r/os71#b ?us %[+ an entirely diff]5t _s f any?+ f\nd 9 ,sextus' books4 ,! explanation ( 8 life & tea*+s is to be f\nd l>gely 9 8 own disposition4 ,su* an attitude ( indiff]5ce mu/ belong to a placid nature1 & _c be entirely ! result ( a philosophical sy/em1 &1 :ile x c be aim$ at1 x c nev] be p]fectly imitat$4 ,"o ( 8 disciples recognis$ ?is1 & said t x 0 necess>y to h ! disposition ( ,pyrrho 9 ord] to hold 8 doctr9es4#c ,diog5es tells u t he 0 ! fir/ to advance any =mulae ( ,scepticism1#d b !y mu/ h be5 v elem5t>y1 z ,pyrrho himself wrote no?+4 ,we f9d no trace ( =mulat$ ,tropes 9 ,pyrrho's tea*+s1 yet x is probable t he indicat$ "s ( ! contradictions 9 s5sation1 & possibly ! ,tropes 9 "s rudim5t>y =m4 ,( ! l>ge numb] ( sceptical =mulae1 or ,greek3 phnai1 ! ?ree :i* seem to h ! olde/ connection ) ,scepticism are ! ,greek3 antilogia1 ! ,greek3 oud5 horiz1 & ! ,greek3 ou mallon4#e ,we "k f ,diog5es t ,protagoras is ! au?ority = say+ t 9 reg>d to ev]y?+ !re are two oppos+ argum5ts4#f ,! say+ to det]m9e no?+ is quot$ f ,timon's ,py?on by ,diog5es1#g & ! o!r two m5tion$ are also attribut$ to him by ,ari/ocles4#h ,we h also 9 ! ,greek3 ou mallon a direct connection ) ,democritus1 al?\gh ! diff]5ce 9 ! mean+ :i* he attribut$ to x is %[n by ,sextus4#i ,s :ile ! expression is ! same1 ! explanation ( x giv5 by ,pyrrho mu/ h be5 diff]5t4 ,x w\ld seem probable t ,pyrrho us$ all ( ^! ?ree say+s1 f ! acc\nt ( ,diog5es1 & t ev5 !n !y gave rise to ! accusation ( ! ,dogmatics1 t simply by possess+ su* say+s ! ,sceptics dogmatis$1#aj = ! refutation ( ?is us$ by ,sextus occurs 9 ! old acc\nt ( ! say+s1 namely1 t ^! =mulae include also !mselves 9 ! mean+1 z a ca?>tic removes itself toge!r ) o!r h>mful objects4#aa #a ,comp>e ,maccoll ,op4 cit4 p4 #ba4 #b ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fd4 #c ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #gj1 #fd4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fi2 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fa4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #bjb2 ,diog4 ,,ix4 #h1 #ea2 ,photius ,bekk]'s ed4 #bhj ,h4 #f ,photius ,bekk]'s ed4 #bhj ,h4 #g ,hyp4 ,i4 #aig2 ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #gf4 #h ,ari/ocles ap4 ,eusebium1 ,praep4 ,ev4 ,,xiv4 #ah4 #i ,hyp4 ,i4 #bac4 #aj ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fh-gf4 #aa ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #gf2 ,hyp4 ,i4 #bjf4 ,9 comp>+ ! lat] ,pyrrhonism ) ! tea*+s ( ,pyrrho1 we w\ld %>ply contra/ ! moral attitude ( ! two4 ,) ,pyrrho equilibrium ( s\l 0 a means to be appli$ to 8 positive !ory ( life2 ) ! lat] ,pyrrhoneans x 0 ! end to be atta9$4 ,we w\ld attribute1 h[ev]1 ! empirical t5d5cy %[n dur+ ! :ole hi/ory ( ,pyrrhonism to ,pyrrho z its orig9ator4 ,he 0 an empirical philosoph]1 & ! result ( 8 influ5ce 9 ?is respect1 z se5 9 ! subsequ5t developm5t ( ! s*ool1 /&s 9 m>k$ contra/ to ! dialectic _s ( ! ,academic ,scepsis4 ,! empiricism ( ! s*ool is %[n 9 its sci5tific lore1 9 ! fact t s _m ( ! ,sceptics 7 physicians1 & 9 ! "* ( ! t5 ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo*4 ,we may safely affirm t ! f\ndation pr9ciples ( ,pyrrhonism are due to ,pyrrho1 & ! orig9ality :i* gave ! s*ool its p[]4 ,! elaborat$ argum5ts1 h[ev]1 & ! details ( its =mulae belong to lat] times4 ,com+ n[ to ! relation ( ,pyrrhonism to ! ,academy1 ! connection betwe5 ! two is difficult to exactly det]m9e1 betwe5 ! "t ( ,pyrrho & t ( ,a5esidemus4 ,scepticism 9 ! ,academy 01 h[ev]1 nev] absolutely id5tical ) ,pyrrhonism1 al?\gh at c]ta9 p]iods ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,academy ! diff]5ce 0 slight4 ,we c trace ?r\gh\t ! evolution ( d\bt1 z %[n to u 9 ,pyrrhonism1 & 9 ,academic ,scepticism1 ! diff]5t results :i* foll[$ ! diff]5ce 9 orig9 ( ! two movem5ts1 & ^! diff]5ces foll[$ accord+ to g5]al laws ( developm5t ( ?\ght4 ,arcesilaus1 :o introduc$ d\bt into ! ,academy1 claim$ to return to ! dialectic ( ,socrates1 & suppress+ ! lectures1#a :i* 7 ! me?od ( tea*+ 9 ! lat] s*ools ( philosophy1 introduc$ discussions in/ead1 z be+ m decid$ly a ,socratic me?od4 ,al?\gh1 accord+ to ,sextus1 he 0 ! "o lead] ( ! ,academy ^: ,scepticism mo/ ne>ly approa*$ t ( ,pyrrhonism1#b yet und]nea? 8 :ole tea*+ lay t dialectic pr9ciple s ?or\ghly 9 opposition to ! empiricism ( ,pyrrho4 ,! belief ( ,socrates & ,plato 9 ! exi/5ce ( absolute tru? nev] entirely lo/ its influ5ce ov] ! ,academy1 b 0 l a hidd5 g]m1 de/9$ to reappe> aft] ,scepticism _h pass$ away4 ,x f9ally l$ ! ,academy back to ,dogmatism1 & prep>$ ! way = ! ,eclecticism ) :i* x disappe>$ f hi/ory4 #a ,comp>e ,maccoll ,op4 cit4 p4 #cf4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #bcb4 ,! hi/ory ( ,pyrrhonism & t ( ,academic ,scepticism 7 = a "t contemporane\s4 ,! imm$iate foll[] ( ,pyrrho1 ,timon1 call$ by ,sextus ! prophet ( ,pyrrho1#a 0 a contempor>y ( ,arcesilaus4 ,t he did n consid] ! ,scepticism ( ! ,academy id5tical ) ,pyrrhonism is prov$ f ! fact t he did n himself jo9 ! ,academy1 b 01 on ! contr>y1 f> f do+ s4 ,t he reg>d$ ,arcesilaus z a ,dogmatic is evid5t f 8 writ+s4#b ,"o day1 on see+ ! *ief ( ! ,academy approa*+1 he cri$ out1 ,:at are y do+ "h among u :o are free8#c ,aft] ! dea? ( ,timon1 ! ,pyrrhonean ,s*ool _h no repres5tative till ! "t ( ,ptolemy ( ,cyr5e1#d & ,greek ,scepticism 0 repres5t$ by ! ,academy4 ,t ,pyrrho _h a /rong influ5ce ov] ,arcesilaus1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,middle ,academy1 is evid5t#e2 b !re 0 also nev] a "t :5 ! ,academy entirely broke away f all ! tea*+s ( ,plato1 ev5 9 _! deepe/ d\bt4#f ,x is true t ,arcesilaus remov$1 nom9ally z well z 9 _s1 "s ( ! dialogues ( ,plato f ! ,academy1 b only ^? t bore a dogmatic "*1 :ile ^? t pres5t$ a m decid$ ,socratic mode ( que/ion+ )\t rea*+ any decid$ result1 m5 reg>d$ z au?ority = ,scepticism4 #a ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,i4 #ec4 #b ,diog4 ,,iv4 #f1 #cc1 #cd4 #c ,diog4 ,,ix4 #ab1 #aad4 #d ,diog4 ,,ix4 #ab1 #aae4 #e ,diog4 ,,iv4 #f1 #cc4 #f ,diog4 ,,iv4 #f1 #cb4 ,sextus does n d5y t ,arcesilaus 0 almo/ a ,pyrrhonean1 b he claims t 8 ,pyrrhonism 0 only app>5t1 & n real1 & 0 us$ z a cloak to hide 8 loyalty to ! tea*+s ( ,plato4#a ,z ,ari/on said ( him1#b ,plato be=e1 ,pyrrho beh9d1 ,diodorus 9 ! middle4 ,sextus also *>act]ises ! me?od ( ,arcesilaus z dialectic1#c & we "k f ,cic]o t x 0 8 pride to pret5d to return to ! dialectic ( ,socrates4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ,sextus1 9 8 refutation ( ! position t ! ,academy is ! same z ,pyrrhonism1 takes up ! entire developm5t ( ,academic ?\ght f ! "t ( ,plato till t ( ,antio*us1 & does n limit ! argum5t to ,scepticism "u ,arcesilaus4 ,! claim made by "s t ! two s*ools 7 ! same1 is /at$ by him1#d & ! ^w '"s' probably ref]s to memb]s ( bo? s*ools at diff]5t p]iods ( _! hi/ory4 ,sextus recognises ?ree ,academies1 al?\gh he rem>ks t "s make ev5 a fur!r division1 call+ t ( ,philo & ,*>mides1 ! f\r?1 & t ( ,antio*us & 8 foll[]s1 ! fif?4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #bcd4 #b ,diog4 ,,iv4 #f1 #cc4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #bcd4 #d ,hyp4 ,i4 #bbj4 ,t _m 9 ! ,academy1 & ev5 outside ( x1 reg>d$ ,plato z a ,sceptic1 & an au?ority = subsequ5t ,scepticism1 we f9d bo? f ,sextus & ,diog5es4#a ,z ,lewes ju/ly rem>ks1 "o c\ld well f9d au?ority = ,scepticism 9 ! works ( ,plato1 z inde$ ! ,academicians did1 b n :5 ! sum total ( 8 tea*+s 0 consid]$4 ,! _s ( ,plato's tea*+s 0 dogmatic1 z ,sextus mo/ decid$ly recognises1 & z ,a5esidemus & ,m5odotus#b recognis$ be=e him4#c ,sextus himself %[s u t ,plato's idealism & e?ical tea*+s c h no?+ 9 common ) ,scepticism1 = if he accepts ! desirability ( ! virtu\s life1 & ! exi/5ce ( ,provid5ce1 he dogmatises2 & if he ev5 reg>ds !m z probable1 he gives pref]5ce to "o set ( ideas ov] ano!r1 & dep>ts f ! sceptical "*4 ,sextus *>act]ises ! sceptical side ( ,plato's writ+s z m5tal gymna/ics1#d :i* d n au?orise 8 be+ call$ a ,sceptic1 & affirms t ,plato is n a ,sceptic1 s9ce he pref]s "s unkn[n ?+s to o!rs 9 tru/wor?9ess4 ,! e?ical diff]5ce und]ly+ ! tea*+s ( ! ,academy & ,pyrrhonism1 ,sextus 0 v quick to see1 & al?\gh x is v probable t ! "p ( ! ,hypotyposes :i* def9es ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,academy & ,pyrrhonism may be l>gely quot$ f ! introduction to ,a5esidemus' works1 yet ,sextus c]ta9ly gives ^! /atem5ts ! /rong /amp ( 8 approval4 ,he condemns ! ,academy because ( ! !ory t good & evil exi/1 or if ?is _c be decid$ly prov$1 yet t x is m probable t :at is call$ good exi/s ?an ! contr>y4#e #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #bba2 ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #gb4 #b ,bekk]'s edition ( ,hyp4 ,i4 #bbb4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #bbb4 #d ,hyp4 ,i4 #bbc4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #bbf4 ,! :ole ,academic tea*+ ( probabilities contradict$ ! /&po9t ( ! ,sceptics--t our ideas are equal z reg>ds tru/wor?9ess & untru/wor?9ess1#a = ! ,academicians decl>$ t "s ideas are probable & "s improbable1 & !y make a diff]5ce ev5 9 ^? ideas t !y call probable4 ,sextus claims t !re are ?ree fundam5tal gr\nds ( diff]5ce betwe5 ,pyrrhonism & ! ,academy4 ,! fir/ is ! doctr9e ( probability :i* ! ,academicians accept 9 reg>d to ! sup]ior tru/wor?9ess ( "s ideas ov] o!rs4#b ,! second is ! diff]5t way 9 :i* ! two s*ools foll[ _! tea*]s4 ,! ,pyrrhoneans foll[ )\t /riv+ or /rong ef=t1 or ev5 /rong incl9ation1 z a *ild foll[s 8 tea*]1 :ile ! ,academicians foll[ ) sympa?y & ass5t1 z ,c>neades & ,clitoma*us affirm4#c ,! ?ird diff]5ce is 9 ! aim1 = ! ,academicians foll[ :at is probable 9 life4 ,! ,sceptics foll[ no?+1 b live accord+ to laws1 cu/oms1 & natural feel+s undogmatically4#d ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! lat] tea*+ ( ! ,academy & ,pyrrhonism is evid5t1 & ,sextus treats ( x briefly1 z n requir+ discussion1#e z ,philo taught t ! nature ( facts is incompreh5sible1 & ,antio*us transf]r$ ! ,/oa to ! ,academy4 ,x is !re=e evid5t1 f ! comp>ison :i* we h made1 t we d n f9d 9 ! ,academy1 ) :i* ,scepticism aft] ! dea? ( ,timon 0 s long unit$1 ! exact cont9uance ( ,pyrrhonism4 ,! philosophical enmity ( ! two contempor>ies1 ,timon & ,arcesilaus1 ! ,academician :o _h mo/ 9 common ) ,pyrrhonism1 is an expression ( ! fundam5tal incompatibility betwe5 ! two s*ools4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #bbg4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #bbi4 #c ,hyp4 ,i4 #bcj4 #d ,hyp4 ,i4 #bca4 #e ,hyp4 ,i4 #bce4 ,dur+ all ! *equ]$ hi/ory ( ! ,academy ! dormant idealism 0 !re1 und]ly+ ! outw>d developm5t4 ,al?\gh dur+ ! "t ( ,arcesilaus & ,c>neades ! diff]5ce 0 s slight z to seem a m]e matt] ( =m ( expression1 yet ! diff]5t f\ndations on :i* ! two s*ools /ood 0 always recognisable4 ,on ! "o h& !re 0 ! g]m ( idealism :i* 0 de/9$ to awake to a new life1 & on ! o!r1 ! attempt at absolute negation :i* 0 to result 9 ! f9al ext9ction ( ,pyrrhonism4 ,we f9d 9 bo?1 x is true1 especially 9 ! "t ( ,arcesilaus1 ! aim ( ,greek3 epo*4#a ,bo? plac$ great weight on ,greek3 iso/h5eia1 or ! equal value ( oppos+ argum5ts4#b ,! f\ndation ( ! ,greek3 epo* 01 h[ev]1 diff]5t 9 ! two cases4 ,arcesilaus f\nd$ 8 on dialectic1 :ile ,pyrrho's 0 empirical4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #bcb4 #b ,diog4 ,,ix4 #gc2 ,hyp4 ,,ii4 #acj2 ,,iii4 #fe4 ,! ,pyrrhonean believ$ t ideas give u no k ( ! out] _w2 ! ,academic ,sceptic believ$ t we _c di/+ui% betwe5 true & false ideas1 s su* k is impossible4 ,! ,pyrrhonean d5i$ t tru? c\ld exi/ 9 ideas because ( _! contradictory nature1 & consequ5tly ! exi/5ce ( all tru?1 ,greek3 md5 e9ai t al!ia epi pantn4#a ,! ,academic ,sceptic grant$ t ! tru? 0 possibly conta9$ 9 ideas1 b affirm$ t x c\ld nev] be kn[n to u4 ,! ,pyrrhoneans prid$ !mselves on /ill be+ seek]s1 = al?\gh ord9>y ideas are too contradictory to give k ( ! out] _w1 !y did n d5y t su* k might be possible1 b simply susp5d$ ! judgm5t reg>d+ x4 ,to ! ,pyrrhonean ! result correspond$ to ! me?od4 ,all ideas ?us f> kn[n reveal$ no?+ ( ! tru?1 !re=e he /ill s\ght4 ,! ,academician tri$ logically to prove t ! tru? is impossible to f9d4 ,x is ! relation ( ! dialectician to ! empirici/1 & ! two v>ieties ( ,scepticism are expla9$ by _! diff]5ce 9 orig94 ,9 ,pyrrhonism !re 0 no con/ructive elem5t4 ,9 ! ,academic ,scepsis su* an elem5t 0 f\nd ?r\gh\t all its hi/ory 9 ! !ory ( ,probability4 ,arcesilaus himself laid great /ress ^u ?is doctr9e1 :i* ,sextus c>efully %[s u#b is utt]ly inconsi/5t ) ,pyrrhonism4 ,arcesilaus pla9ly tea*es t1 hav+ susp5d$ "o's judgm5t 9 reg>d to matt]s ( k1 "o %\ld control 8 *oices1 8 refusals1 & 8 actions by ! probable4#c #a ,diog4 ,,ix4 #aa1 #fa4 #b ,hyp4 ,i4 #bbi4 #c ,comp>e ,maccoll ,op4 cit4 #ci4 ,aft] ,antio*us introduc$ ,eclecticism into ! ,academy1 ,pyrrhonism 0 ! only repres5tative ( ,greek ,scepticism1 & x fl\ri%$ = ov] two c5turies aft] our era1 & !n also disappe>$1 no m to exi/ z a regul> philosophical s*ool4 ,hav+ consid]$ at l5g? ! ess5ce ( ,pyrrhonism z pres5t$ by ,sextus ,empiricus1 x n[ rema9s to briefly note ! *>act]i/ics t =m$ its /r5g? & weakness1 & ! causes ( its f9al d[nfall4 ,h]b>t says t e philosoph] is a ,sceptic 9 ! beg9n+1 b e ,sceptic rema9s always 9 ! beg9n+4 ,?is rem>k may well be appli$ to ,pyrrhonism4 ,we f9d 9 its tea*+s _m fundam5tal philosophical tru?s :i* might h =m$ ! beg9n+ ( great philosophical progress1 b :i* 7 nev] develop$ to any positive results4 ,! tea*+s ( ,pyrrhonism 7 "s ( !m well fitt$ to prep>e ! way to idealism4 ,! great idea ( ! relativity ( ,vor/ellung5 is made v prom95t by ! t5 ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo*4 ,a5esidemus1 9 8 eight ,tropes aga9/ aetiology1 %[s ! absurdity ( ! doctr9e ( causality :5 upheld on mat]iali/ic gr\nds4 ,t 0 to him f9al1 ,greek3 epei ouk e/ai aition4 ,he c\ld n div9e t al?\gh ! result :i* he pres5t$ 0 logical1 x only l$ to a high] tru?4 ,x 0 res]v$ = ! greate/ ( mod]n philosoph]s to reveal to ! _w t causality is a condition1 & a necess>y condition1 ( ?\ght4 ,:5 ,a5esidemus prov$ by 8 sev5? ,trope t causality is subjective1 he reg>d$ x z fatal to ! doctr9e2 yet ?is conclusion 0 a m>k$ /ep 9 advance 9 critical philosophy1 al?\gh ,a5esidemus c\ld n himself see x 9 all its be>+s4 ,! great diff]5ce betwe5 ,a5esidemus & ,kant is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! mat]iali/ & ! believ] 9 subjective reality4 ,bo? agre$ 9 ! unkn[n nature ( ! ,d+ an si*1 b ?is 0 to ! ,pyrrhoni/ ! end ( all 8 philosophy2 to ,kant1 h[ev]1 ! beg9n+4 ,pyrrhonism has r5d]$1 not)/&+ its po9ts ( fatal weakness1 m>k$ s]vice to ! _w 9 sci5ce1 philosophy1 e?ics1 & religion4 ,x quick5$ sci5tific ?\ght by emphasis+ empirical me?ods ( inve/igation1 & by criticis+ all results f\nd$ )\t suffici5t data ^u false hypo!ses4 ,if1 in/ead ( d5y+ ! possibility ( all sci5ce because ( ! want ( a crit]ion ( ! tru? ( ph5om5a1 ! ,pyrrhoni/s _h compreh5d$ ! possibility ( a sci5ce ( ph5om5a1 !y might h l$ ! _w 9 sci5tific progress4#a ,_! s]vice to philosophy lay 9 ! /imulus to ?\ght t _! frequ5t attacks on dogmatic beliefs occasion$4 ,pyrrhonism br\ght toge!r all ! mo/ prom95t !ories ( ! old s*ools ( philosophy to te/ _! weakness & expose _! contradictions1 & ?is v process ( criticism (t5 demon/rat$ ! p[] ( ! tru? :i* !y conta9$4 ,sextus ,empiricus 0 (t5 *>g$ by ! ,*ur* ,fa!rs ) corrupt+ religi\s belief1 & yet ! greate/ s]vice :i* ,pyrrhonism has r5d]$ ! _w 0 9 religi\s & e?ical l9es4 ,?is s]vice did n1 naturally1 consi/ 9 de/roy+ belief 9 absolute tru?1 z ! ,sceptic pr(ess$ to d1 b 9 prep>+ ! way to f9d x4 ,! bold attacks ( ,scepticism on all tru? l$ m5 to inve/igate e?ical & religi\s tea*+s1 to exam9e ! gr\nds ( _! belief1 & to put 9 practical use ! "r ( reason & free discussion4 ,scepticism 0 ! antec$5t ( fre$om ( consci5ce & rational criticism1#b & ! absolute "r ( sci5tific ?\ght4 ,! ,sceptics1 h[ev]1 reap$ none ( ! b5efits ( _! own sy/em4 ,!y rema9$1 z x 71 always on ! ?re%old ( possible progress4 ,) ! keys to great discov]ies 9 _! h&s1 ! doors ( philosophical & sci5tific advancem5t 7 = ev] clos$ to !m by ! limitations ( _! own sy/em4 ,! inh]5t weakness ( ,pyrrhonism lay 9 its psy*ological inconsi/5cy & 9 its negative "*4 ,i ?9k t we may safely say t ,pyrrhonism 0 ! mo/ consi/5t sy/em ( ,scepticism ev] (f]$ to ! _w1 & yet x proves mo/ decid$ly t complete ,scepticism is psy*ologically impossible4 ,a man may give up 8 belief 9 "o set ( ideas1 &1 if !y are ideas t are popul>ly accept$1 he w be call$ a ,sceptic1 z 0 ! case ) ,hume4 ,he mu/1 h[ev]1 replace ^! ideas by o!rs equally positive1 & !n he is no long] a ,sceptic1 b a ,dogmatic1 = he believes 9 some?+4 #a ,comp>e ,lewes ,op4 cit4 p4 #dfc4 #b ,comp>e ,*aignet ,op4 cit4 p4 #dfj4 ,we h %[n t ! greate/ ?9k]s ( ,pyrrhonism1 ,pyrrho1 ,a5esidemus1 & ,agrippa1 7 n examples ( absolute ,scepticism1 & al?\gh ,sextus ,empiricus realis$ :at consi/5cy dem&$ 9 ?is respect1 & affirm$ on almo/ e page t he 0 ass]t+ no?+1 yet !re is n a p>agraph ( 8 books 9 :i* he does n1 aft] all1 dogmatise on "s subject4 ,complete ,scepticism is contr>y to ! fundam5tal laws ( language1 z all use ( v]bs involves "s affirmation4 ,! ,pyrrhoni/s realis$ ?is1 & !re=e "s ( !m wrote no?+1 l ,pyrrho1 _! lead]1 & o!rs advocat$ ,greek3 aphasia#a z "o ( ! doctr9es ( _! sy/em4 #a ,hyp4 ,i4 #aib4 ,! v aim ( ,pyrrhonism 0 an inconsi/5t "o4 ,greek3 ,at>axia 0 only ano!r "n = happ9ess1 & 9 "o in/ance1 ev51 is giv5 z ,greek3 hdon1 & ?us1 9 spite ( !mselves1 ! ,sceptics introduc$ a !ory ( happ9ess4 ,pyrrho1 l o!rs ( 8 "t1 s\ght ! highe/ good1 & ?\ght t he _h f\nd x 9 ,greek3 at>axia1 ! peace ( m9d t appe>s 9 o!r sy/ems ( philosophy 9 o!r =ms4 ,! diff]5ce ( aim betwe5 ! ,pyrrhoni/s1 ,/oics1 & ,epicureans 0 m app>5t ?an real4 ,to !m all philosophy 0 a pa? to lead to happ9ess4 ,! me?od ( ,pyrrhonism 01 h[ev]1 negative4 ,its /r5g? consi/$ 9 its attacks on ,dogmatism1 & n 9 any positive aim ( its own1 = its positive side c\ld n be recognis$ accord+ to its own doctr9es4 ,!re=e !re 0 no real developm5t 9 ,pyrrhonism1 = a negative ?\ght _c be develop$4 ,we f9d1 accord+ly1 f ! "t ( ,pyrrho to ,sextus1 no gr[? 9 bread? ( philosophical outlook1 only improvem5t 9 me?ods4 ,philosophical activity c nev] h d\bt z its aim1 z t w\ld =m1 z we h %[n1 a psy*ological contradiction4 ,! true ess5ce ( ,pyrrhonism 0 passivity1 b passivity c nev] lead to progress4 ,mu* ( ! polemical "w ( ,pyrrhonism prep>$ ! way = sci5tific progress by provid+ a va/ /ore ( sci5tific data1 b progress 0 to ! ,pyrrhoni/s impossible4 ,!y s\nd$ _! own sci5tific dea?-knell by decl>+ ! impossibility ( sci5ce1 & putt+ an end to all !ories4 ,! life ( all sci5tific & philosophic progress is 9 ! attempt to f9d ! hidd5 tru?4 ,to ! ,sceptic !re 0 no tru?1 & !re c\ld be no progress4 ,z progress is a law 9 ! evolution ( ! human race1 s ,scepticism z a philosophy c\ld nev] be a p]man5t gr[?1 any m ?an asceticism 9 religion c be a la/+ influ5ce4 ,bo? ( !m are only outgr[?s4 ,z ! f\ndation pr9ciples ( ,scepticism 7 oppos$ to any?+ l real gr[?1 x 0 a sy/em t c\ld nev] orig9ate any?+4 ,pyrrho taught f ! beg9n+ t ! ,sceptic mu/ live accord+ to law & cu/om2 n1 h[ev]1 because "o law or cu/om is bett] ?an ano!r 9 itself1 b simply = ! sake ( peace4 ,?is basis ( action 0 itself a dea?-bl[ to all re=m 9 social or political life4 ,x 0 a selfi%1 negative way ( seek+ :at 01 aft] all1 a positive ?+1 ! ,greek3 at>axia t ! ,sceptic desir$4 ,life ) ! ,pyrrhoni/ 0 ph5om5al1 & n ph5om5al simply 9 reg>d to ! out] _w1 b also subjectively1 & no absolute k ( ! subjective life or ( p]sonal exi/5ce 0 possible4 ,! cause ( ! d[nfall ( ,pyrrhonism lay 9 ! fact t x _h no?+ to (f] to humanity 9 ! place ( :at x _h de/roy$4 ,x made no appeal to human sympa?ies1 & ignor$ all ! highe/ motives to human action4 ,! especial mat]iali/ic /&po9t f :i* ,pyrrhonism judg$ all t p]ta9s to k & life %ut out ! ideal1 & all possibility ( absolute tru?4 ,x 0 an expression ( ! philosophic decad5ce ( ! age :5 x fl\ri%$1 & al?\gh x possess$ "s philosophic wor?1 yet x bore 9 itself ! causes ( its decay4 ,,pyrrhonic ,,sket*es ,,by ,,sextus ,,empiricus4 ,,book ,i4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,! ,pr9cipal ,diff]5ces betwe5 ,philosoph]s4 ,x is probable t ^? :o seek aft] any?+ :atev]1 w #a ei!r f9d x z !y cont9ue ! se>*1 w d5y t x c be f\nd & confess x to be out ( rea*1 or w g on seek+ x4 ,"s h said1 accord+ly1 9 reg>d to ! ?+s s\ght 9 philosophy1 t !y h f\nd ! tru?1 :ile #b o!rs h decl>$ x impossible to f9d1 & /ill o!rs cont9ue to seek x4 ,^? :o ?9k t !y h f\nd x are ^? :o are especially call$ ,dogmatics1 z = example1 ! ,s*ools ( ,ari/otle & ,epicurus1 ! ,/oics & "s o!rs4 ,^? :o h decl>$ x impossible to f9d are ,clitoma*us1 #c ,c>neades1 ) _! respective foll[]s1 & o!r ,academicians4 ,^? :o /ill seek x are ! ,sceptics4 ,x appe>s !re=e1 reasonable to conclude t ! ?ree #d pr9cipal k9ds ( philosophy are ! ,dogmatic1 ! ,academic1 & ! ,sceptic4 ,o!rs may suitably treat ( ! o!r ,s*ools1 b z = ! ,sceptical ,s*ool1 we %all n[ give an outl9e ( x1 rem>k+ 9 advance t 9 respect to no?+ t w be said d we speak positively1 t x mu/ be absolutely s1 b we %all /ate ea* ?+ hi/orically z x n[ appe>s to u4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,ways ( ,treat+ ,scepticism4 ,"o way ( treat+ ! ,sceptical philosophy is call$ #e g5]al1 & ! o!r special4 ,! g5]al me?od is t by :i* we set =? ! "* ( ,scepticism1 decl>+ :at its idea is1 :at its pr9ciples are1 its mode ( reason+1 its crit]ion1 & its aim4 ,x pres5ts also1 ! aspects ( d\bt1 ,greek3 hoi tropoi ts epo*s1 & ! way 9 :i* we %\ld und]/& ! ,sceptical =mulae1 & ! di/9ction betwe5 ,scepticism & ! relat$ ,s*ools ( philosophy4 ,! special me?od1 on ! contr>y1 is t by :i* we #f speak aga9/ #f ea* "p ( s-call$ philosophy4 ,let u !n treat ,scepticism at fir/ 9 ! g5]al way1 beg9n+ our del9eation ) ! nom5clature ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,! ,nom5clature ( ,scepticism4 ,! ,sceptical ,s*ool is also call$ ! ,seek+ ,s*ool1 f #g its _s ( rese>* & exam9ation2 ! ,susp5d+ ,s*ool1 f ! condition ( m9d 9 :i* "o is left aft] ! se>*1 9 reg>d to ! ?+s t he has exam9$2 & ! ,d\bt+ ,s*ool1 ei!r because1 z "s say1 ! ,sceptics d\bt & are seek+ 9 reg>d to ev]y?+1 or because !y nev] "k :e!r to d5y or affirm4 ,x is also call$ ! ,pyrrhonean ,s*ool1 because ,pyrrho appe>s to u ! be/ repres5tative ( ,scepticism1 & is m prom95t ?an all :o be=e him occupi$ !mselves ) x4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,:at is ,scepticism8 ,! ,greek3 dynamis ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool is to place ! #h ph5om5al 9 opposition to ! intellectual 9 any way :atev]1 & ?us ?r\gh ! equilibrium ( ! reasons & ?+s 7,greek3 iso/h5eia tn logn7 oppos$ to ea* o!r1 to rea*1 fir/ ! /ate ( susp5sion ( judgm5t1 ,greek3 epo* & aft]w>ds t ( imp]turbability1 ,greek3 at>axia4 ,we d n use ! ^w ,greek3 dynamis 9 any #i unusual s5se1 b simply1 mean+ ! =ce ( ! sy/em4 ,by ! ph5om5al1 we und]/& ! s5sible1 h5ce we place ! intellectual 9 opposition to x4 ,! phrase 9 any way :atev]1 may ref] to ! ^w ,greek3 dynamis 9 ord] t we may und]/& t ^w 9 a simple s5se z we said1 or x may ref] to ! plac+ ! ph5om5al & intellectual 9 opposition4 ,= we place ^! 9 opposition to ea* o!r 9 a v>iety ( ways1 ! ph5om5al to ! ph5om5al1 & ! intellectual to ! intellectual1 or reciprocally1 & we say 9 any way :atev]1 9 ord] t all me?ods ( opposition may be includ$4 ,or 9 any way :atev] may ref] to ! ph5om5al & ! intellectual1 s t we ne$ n ask h[ does ! ph5om5al appe>1 or h[ are ! ?\ghts conceiv$1 b t we may und]/& ^! ?+s 9 a simple s5se4 ,by reasons oppos$ to ea* o!r1 we d n by any means #aj und]/& t !y d5y or affirm any?+1 b simply t !y (fset ea* o!r4 ,by equilibrium1 we mean equality 9 reg>d to tru/wor?9ess & untru/wor?9ess1 s t ( ! reasons t are plac$ 9 opposition to ea* o!r1 "o %\ld n excel ano!r 9 tru/wor?9ess4 ,greek3 epo* is a hold+ back ( ! op9ion1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* we nei!r d5y nor affirm any?+4 ,greek3 at>axia is repose & tranquillity ( s\l4 ,we %all expla9 h[ ,greek3 at>axia accompanies ,greek3 epo* :5 we speak ( ! aim4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,! ,sceptic4 ,:at is meant by a ,pyrrhonean philosoph] c be und]/ood f #aa ! idea ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,he is a ,pyrrhonean1 namely1 :o id5tifies himself ) ?is sy/em4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! ,orig9 ( ,scepticism4 ,scepticism arose 9 ! beg9n+ f ! hope ( atta9+ #ab ,greek3 at>axia2 = m5 ( ! greate/ tal5t 7 p]plex$ by ! contradiction ( ?+s1 & be+ at a loss :at to believe1 began to "q :at ?+s are true1 & :at false1 hop+ to atta9 ,greek3 at>axia z a result ( ! decision4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! ,sceptical sy/em is especially ?is1 namely1 to oppose e argum5t by "o ( equal weight1 = x seems to u t 9 ?is way we f9ally rea* ! position :]e we h no dogmas4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,does ! ,sceptic ,dogmatise8 ,we say t ! ,sceptic does n dogmatise4 ,we d n say #ac ?is1 mean+ by ! ^w dogma ! popul> ass5t to c]ta9 ?+s r ?an o!rs 7= ! ,sceptic does ass5t to feel+s t are a necess>y result ( s5sation1 z = example1 :5 he is w>m or cold1 he _c say t he ?9ks he is n w>m or cold71 b we say ?is1 mean+ by dogma ! acceptance ( any op9ion 9 reg>d to ! unkn[n ?+s inve/igat$ by sci5ce4 ,= ! ,pyrrhonean ass5ts to no?+ t is unkn[n4 ,fur!rmore1 he does n dogmatise ev5 :5 #ad he utt]s ! ,sceptical =mulae 9 reg>d to ?+s t are unkn[n1 su* z ,no?+ m1 or ,i decide no?+1 or any ( ! o!rs ab\t :i* we %all speak lat]4 ,= ! "o :o dogmatises reg>ds ! ?+ ab\t :i* he is said to dogmatise1 z exi/+ 9 itself2 ! ,sceptic does n h[ev] reg>d ^! =mulae z hav+ an absolute exi/5ce1 = he assumes t ! say+ ,all is false1 includes itself ) o!r ?+s z false1 & likewise ! say+ ,no?+ is true2 9 ! same way ,no?+ m1 /ates t toge!r ) o!r ?+s x itself is no?+ m1 & cancels itself !re=e1 z well z o!r ?+s4 ,we say ! same also 9 reg>d to ! o!r ,sceptical expressions4 ,9 %ort1 if he :o #ae dogmatises1 assumes z exi/+ 9 itself t ab\t :i* he dogmatises1 ! ,sceptic1 on ! contr>y1 expresses 8 say+s 9 su* a way t !y are und]/ood to be !mselves includ$1 & x _c be said t he dogmatises 9 say+ ^! ?+s4 ,! pr9cipal ?+ 9 utt]+ ^! =mulae is t he says :at appe>s to him1 & communicates 8 own feel+s 9 an unprejudic$ way1 )\t ass]t+ any?+ 9 reg>d to ext]nal objects4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,is ,scepticism a ,sect8 ,we respond 9 a simil> way if we are ask$ :e!r #af ,scepticism is a sect or n4 ,if ! ^w sect is def9$ z mean+ a body ( p]sons :o hold dogmas :i* are 9 con=mity ) ea* o!r1 & also ) ph5om5a1 & dogma means an ass5t to any?+ t is unkn[n1 !n we reply t we h no sect4 ,if1 h[ev]1 "o means by sect1 a s*ool #ag :i* foll[s a c]ta9 l9e ( reason+ bas$ on ph5om5a1 & t reason+ %[s h[ x is possible to app>5tly live rightly1 n und]/&+ rightly z ref]r+ to virtue only1 b 9 a broad] s5se2 if1 also1 x leads "o to be able to susp5d ! judgm5t1 !n we reply t we h a sect4 ,= we foll[ a c]ta9 k9d ( reason+ :i* is bas$ ^u ph5om5a1 & :i* %[s u h[ to live accord+ to ! habits1 laws1 & tea*+s ( ! fa!rl&1 & our own feel+s4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,does ! ,sceptic ,/udy ,natural ,sci5ce8 ,we reply simil>ly also to ! "q :e!r ! ,sceptic #ah %\ld /udy natural sci5ce4 ,= we d n /udy natural sci5ce 9 ord] to express ourselves ) confid5ce reg>d+ any ( ! dogmas t x tea*es1 b we take x up 9 ord] to be able to meet e argum5t by "o ( equal weight1 & also = ! sake ( ,greek3 at>axia4 ,9 ! same way we /udy ! logical & e?ical "p ( s-call$ philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,d ! ,sceptics d5y ,ph5om5a8 ,^? :o say t ! ,sceptics d5y ph5om5a appe> to me to #ai be 9 ignorance ( our tea*+s4 ,= z we said be=e1 we d n d5y ! s5sations :i* we ?9k we h1 & :i* lead u to ass5t involunt>ily to !m1 & ^! are ! ph5om5a4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we ask :e!r ! object is su* z x appe>s to be1 :ile we conc$e t x appe>s s & s1 we "q1 n ! ph5om5on1 b 9 reg>d to t :i* is ass]t$ ( ! ph5om5on1 & t is diff]5t f d\bt+ ! ph5om5on itself4 ,= example1 x appe>s to u t honey is sweet4 ,?is we conc$e1 = we exp]i5ce sweetness ?r\gh #bj s5sation4 ,we d\bt1 h[ev]1 :e!r x is sweet by reason ( its ess5ce1 :i* is n a "q ( ! ph5om5on1 b ( t :i* is ass]t$ ( ! ph5om5on4 ,%\ld we1 h[ev]1 argue directly aga9/ ! ph5om5a1 x is n ) ! int5tion ( d5y+ _! exi/5ce1 b to %[ ! ra%ness ( ! ,dogmatics4 ,= if reason+ is su* a deceiv] t x well nigh snat*es away ! ph5om5a f be=e y\r eyes1 h[ %\ld we n di/ru/ x 9 reg>d to ?+s t are unkn[n1 s z n to ra%ly foll[ x8 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,! ,crit]ion ( ,scepticism4 ,x is evid5t t we pay c>eful att5tion to ph5om5a f #ba :at we say ab\t ! crit]ion ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,! ^w crit]ion is us$ 9 two ways4 ,fir/1 x is und]/ood z a pro( ( exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce1 9 reg>d to :i* we %all speak 9 ! oppos+ argum5t4 ,secondly1 :5 x ref]s to action1 mean+ ! crit]ion to :i* we give he$ 9 life1 9 do+ "s ?+s & refra9+ f do+ o!rs1 & x is ab\t ?is t we %all n[ speak4 ,we say1 consequ5tly1 t ! crit]ion ( ! ,sceptical ,s*ool is ! ph5om5on1 & 9 call+ x s1 we mean ! idea ( x4 ,x _c be d\bt$1 #bb z x is bas$ ^u susceptibility & involunt>y feel+4 ,h5ce no "o d\bts1 p]haps1 t an object appe>s s & s1 b "o que/ions if x is z x appe>s4 ,!re=e1 z we _c be entirely inactive z reg>ds ! obs]vances ( daily life1 we live by giv+ he$ to ph5om5a1 & 9 an unprejudic$ way4 ,b ?is obs]vance ( :at p]ta9s to ! #bc daily life1 appe>s to be ( f\r diff]5t k9ds4 ,sometimes x is direct$ by ! guidance ( nature1 sometimes by ! necessity ( ! feel+s1 sometimes by ! tradition ( laws & ( cu/oms1 & sometimes by ! tea*+ ( ! arts4 ,x is direct$ by ! guidance ( nature1 = by nature we are #bd capable ( s5sation & ?\ght2 by ! necessity ( ! feel+s1 = hung] leads u to food1 & ?ir/ to dr9k2 by ! traditions ( laws & cu/oms1 = accord+ to !m we consid] piety a good 9 daily life1 & impiety an evil2 by ! tea*+ ( ! arts1 = we are n inactive 9 ! arts we und]take4 ,we say all ^! ?+s1 h[ev]1 )\t express+ a decid$ op9ion4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,:at is ! aim ( ,scepticism8 ,x foll[s naturally 9 ord] to treat ( ! aim ( ! #be ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,an aim is t = :i* z an end all ?+s are done or ?\ght1 itself dep5d+ on no?+1 or 9 o!r words1 x is ! ultimatum ( ?+s to be desir$4 ,we say1 !n1 t ! aim ( ! ,sceptic is ,greek3 at>axia 9 ^? ?+s :i* p]ta9 to ! op9ion1 & mod]ation 9 ! ?+s t life imposes4 ,= z soon z he began to #bf philosophise he wi%$ to discrim9ate betwe5 ideas1 & to und]/& :i* are true & :i* are false1 9 ord] to atta9 ,greek3 at>axia4 ,he met1 h[ev]1 ) contradictions ( equal weight1 &1 be+ unable to judge1 he )held 8 op9ion2 & :ile 8 judgm5t 0 9 susp5sion ,greek3 at>axia foll[$1 z if by *ance1 9 reg>d to matt]s ( op9ion4 ,= he :o is ( ! op9ion t any?+ is ei!r #bg good or bad by nature is always tr\bl$1 & :5 he does n possess ^? ?+s t seem to him good he ?9ks t he is tortur$ by ! ?+s :i* are by nature bad1 & pursues ^? t he ?9ks to be good4 ,hav+ acquir$ !m1 h[ev]1 he falls into great] p]turbation1 because he is excit$ beyond reason & )\t measure f fe> ( a *ange1 & he does ev]y?+ 9 8 p[] to reta9 ! ?+s t seem to him good4 ,b he :o is undecid$1 on ! contr>y1 reg>d+ #bh ?+s t are good & bad by nature1 nei!r seeks nor avoids any?+ eag]ly1 & is !re=e 9 a /ate ( ,greek3 at>axia4 ,= t :i* is relat$ ( ,apelles ! pa9t] happ5$ to ! ,sceptic4 ,x is said t z he 0 once pa9t+ a horse he wi%$ to repres5t ! foam ( 8 m\? 9 ! picture1 b he c\ld n succe$ 9 do+ s1 & he gave x up & ?rew ! sponge at ! picture ) :i* he _h wip$ ! colors f ! pa9t+4 ,z soon1 h[ev]1 z x t\*$ ! picture x produc$ a good copy ( ! foam4 ,! ,sceptics likewise hop$ to ga9 ,greek3 at>axia by =m+ judgm5ts #bi 9 reg>d to ! anomaly betwe5 ph5om5a & ! ?+s ( ?\ght1 b !y 7 unable to d ?is1 & s !y susp5d$ _! judgm5t2 & :ile _! judgm5t 0 9 susp5sion ,greek3 at>axia foll[$1 z if by *ance1 z ! %ad[ foll[s a body4 ,nev]!less1 we d n consid] ! ,sceptic :olly undi/urb$1 b he is di/urb$ by "s ?+s t are inevitable4 ,we confess t sometimes he is cold & ?ir/y1 & t he suff]s 9 su* ways4 ,b 9 ^! ?+s ev5 ! ignorant are beset 9 two ways1 f ! feel+s !mselves1 #cj & n less also f ! fact t !y ?9k ^! conditions are bad by nature4 ,! ,sceptic1 h[ev]1 escapes m easily1 z he rejects ! op9ion t any?+ is 9 itself bad by nature4 ,!re=e we say t ! aim ( ! ,sceptic is ,greek3 at>axia 9 matt]s ( op9ion1 & mod]ation ( feel+ 9 ^? ?+s t are inevitable4 ,"s notable ,sceptics h add$ also susp5sion ( judgm5t 9 inve/igation4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,! ,g5]al ,me?od ( ,scepticism4 ,s9ce we h said t ,greek3 at>axia foll[s ! susp5sion #ca ( judgm5t 9 reg>d to ev]y?+1 x behooves u to expla9 h[ ! susp5sion ( judgm5t takes place4 ,speak+ 9 g5]al x takes place ?r\gh plac+ ?+s 9 opposition to ea* o!r4 ,we ei!r place ph5om5a 9 opposition to ph5om5a1 or ! intellectual 9 opposition to ! intellectual1 or reciprocally4 ,= example1 we place #cb ph5om5a 9 opposition to ph5om5a :5 we say t ?is t[] appe>s r\nd f a di/ance b squ>e ne> by2 ! intellectual 9 opposition to ! intellectual1 :5 to ! "o :o f ! ord] ( ! heav5s builds a t[] ( reason+ to prove t a provid5ce exi/s1 we oppose ! fact t adv]sity (t5 falls to ! good & prosp]ity to ! evil1 & t !re=e we draw ! conclusion t !re is no provid5ce4 ,! intellectual is plac$ 9 opposition to #cc ph5om5a1 z :5 ,anaxagoras oppos$ ! fact t sn[ is :ite1 by say+ t sn[ is froz5 wat]1 &1 z wat] is black1 sn[ mu/ also be black4 ,likewise we sometimes place ! pres5t 9 opposition to ! pres5t1 simil>ly to ! above-m5tion$ cases1 & sometimes also ! pres5t 9 opposition to ! pa/ or ! future4 ,z = example1 :5 someone proposes an argum5t to u t we _c refute1 we say to him1 ,be=e ! f\nd] ( ! sect to :i* y belong #cd 0 born1 ! argum5t :i* y propose 9 accordance ) x _h n appe>$ z a valid argum5t1 b 0 dormant 9 nature1 s 9 ! same way x is possible t its refutation also exi/s 9 nature1 b has n yet appe>$ to u1 s t x is n at all necess>y = u to agree ) an argum5t t n[ seems to be /rong4 ,9 ord] to make x cle>] to u :at #ce we mean by ^! oppositions1 ,i w proce$ to give ! ,tropes 7,greek3 tropoi71 ?r\gh :i* ! susp5sion ( judgm5t is produc$1 )\t ass]t+ any?+ ab\t _! mean+ or _! numb]1 because !y may be uns\nd1 or !re may be m ?an ,i %all enum]ate4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,! ,t5 ,tropes4 ,c]ta9 ,tropes 7 commonly h&$ d[n by ! old] ,sceptics1 #cf by means ( :i* ,greek3 epo* seems to take place4 ,!y are t5 9 numb]1 & are call$ synonym\sly ,greek3 logoi & ,greek3 tropoi4 ,!y are ^!3 ,! fir/ is bas$ ^u ! diff]5ces 9 animals2 ! second ^u ! diff]5ces 9 m52 ! ?ird ^u ! diff]5ce 9 ! con/itution ( ! organs ( s5se2 ! f\r? ^u circum/ances2 ! fif? ^u position1 di/ance1 & place2 ! six? ^u mixtures2 ! sev5? ^u ! quantity & con/itution ( objects2 ! eigh? ^u relation2 ! n9? ^u frequ5cy or r>ity ( #cg occur5ces2 ! t5? ^u sy/ems1 cu/oms1 laws1 my?ical beliefs1 & dogmatic op9ions4 ,we make ?is ord] ourselves4 #ch ,^! ,tropes come "u ?ree g5]al heads3 ! /&po9t ( ! judge1 ! /&po9t ( ! ?+ judg$1 & ! /&po9t ( bo? toge!r4 ,"u ! /&po9t ( ! judge come ! fir/ f\r1 = ! judge is ei!r an animal1 or a man1 or a s5se1 & exi/s "u c]ta9 circum/ances4 ,"u ! /&po9t ( t :i* is judg$1 come ! sev5? & ! t5?4 ,"u ! "o compos$ ( bo? toge!r1 come ! fif? & ! six?1 ! eigh? & ! n9?4 ,aga91 ^! ?ree divisions are includ$ "u ! ,trope ( relation1 because #ci t is ! mo/ g5]al "o2 x includes ! ?ree special divisions1 & ^! 9 turn include ! t54 ,we say ^! ?+s 9 reg>d to _! probable numb]1 & we proce$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt] to speak ( _! mean+4 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,trope4 ,! fir/ ,trope1 we said1 is ! "o bas$ ^u ! #dj diff]5ces 9 animals1 & accord+ to ?is ,trope1 diff]5t animals d n get ! same ideas ( ! same objects ?r\gh ! s5ses4 ,?is we conclude f ! diff]5t orig9 ( ! animals1 & also f ! diff]5ce 9 ! con/itution ( _! bodies4 ,9 reg>d to ! diff]5ce 9 orig91 "s animals orig9ate )\t mixture ( ! sexes1 :ile o!rs orig9ate ?r\gh sexual int]c\rse4 ,( ^? :i* #da orig9ate )\t int]c\rse ( ! sexes1 "s come f fire1 z ! little animals :i* appe> 9 ! *imneys1 o!rs f /agnant wat]1 z musquitoes1 o!rs f f]m5t$ w9e1 z ! /++ ants1 o!rs f ! e>?1 o!rs f ! mud1 l ! frogs1 o!rs f slime1 z ! worms1 o!rs f donkeys1 z ! beetles1 o!rs f cabbage1 z cat]pill>s1 o!rs f fruit1 z ! gall insect f ! wild figs1 o!rs f putrifi$ animals1 z bees f bulls1 & wasps f horses4 ,aga91 ( ^? orig9at+ f int]c\rse ( ! #db sexes1 "s come f animals ( ! same k9d1 z 9 mo/ cases1 & o!rs f ^? ( diff]5t k9ds1 z mules4 ,aga91 ( animals 9 g5]al1 "s are born alive1 z m51 o!rs f eggs1 z birds1 & o!rs are born a lump ( fle%1 z be>s4 ,x is probable !re=e1 t ! inequalities & #dc diff]5ces 9 orig9 cause great antipa?ies 9 ! animals1 & ! result is incompatibility1 discord1 & conflict betwe5 ! s5sations ( ! diff]5t animals4 ,aga91 ! diff]5ces 9 ! pr9cipal p>ts ( ! body1 especially 9 ^? #dd fitt$ by nature to judge & to p]ceive1 may cause ! greate/ diff]5ces 9 _! ideas ( objects1 accord+ to ! diff]5ces 9 ! animals !mselves4 ,z = example1 ^? :o h ! jaundice call t yell[ :i* appe>s to u :ite1 & ^? :o h blood%ot eyes call x blood-r$4 ,accord+ly1 z "s animals h yell[ eyes1 & o!rs blood-%ot ones1 & /ill o!rs :iti% ones1 & o!rs eyes ( o!r colors1 x is probable1 ,i ?9k1 t !y h a diff]5t p]ception ( colors4 ,fur!rmore1 :5 we look /eadily at ! sun = a long "t1 & !n look d[n at a #de book1 ! lett]s seem to u gold color$1 & dance ar\nd4 ,n[ "s animals h by nature a lu/re 9 _! eyes1 & ^! emit a f9e & sp>kl+ light s t !y see at night1 & we may reasonably suppose t ext]nal ?+s d n appe> ! same to !m z to u4 ,juggl]s by lightly rubb+ ! wick #df ( ! lamp ) metal ru/1 or ) ! d>k yell[ fluid ( ! sepia1 make ^? :o are pres5t appe> n[ copp]-color$ & n[ black1 accord+ to ! am\nt ( ! mixture us$2 if ?is be s x is mu* m reasonable to suppose t because ( ! mixture ( diff]5t fluids 9 ! eyes ( animals1 _! ideas ( objects w\ld be diff]5t4 ,fur!rmore1 :5 we #dg press ! eye on ! side1 ! figures1 =ms & sizes ( ?+s se5 appe> elongat$ & n>r[4 ,x is !re=e probable t su* animals z h ! pupil oblique & long1 z goats1 cats1 & simil> animals1 h ideas diff]5t f ^? ( ! animals :i* h a r\nd pupil4 ,mirrors accord+ to _! diff]5t con/ruction1 sometimes %[ ! ext]nal #dh object small] ?an reality1 z concave ones1 & sometimes long & n>r[1 z ! convex ones d2 o!rs %[ ! head ( ! "o look+ into x d[n1 & ! feet up4 ,z "s ( ! vessels ar\nd ! eye fall entirely outside ! eye1 on #di acc\nt ( _! protub]ance1 :ile o!rs are m sunk51 & /ill o!rs are plac$ 9 an ev5 surface1 x is probable t = ?is reason also ! ideas v>y1 & dogs1 fi%es1 lions1 m51 & gras%opp]s d n see ! same ?+s1 ei!r ( ! same size1 or ( simil> =m1 b accord+ to ! impression on ! organ ( sight ( ea* animal respectively4 ,! same ?+ is true 9 reg>d to ! o!r s5ses2 = h[ c x #ej be said t %ell-fi%1 birds ( prey1 animals cov]$ ) sp9es1 ^? ) fea!rs & ^? ) scales w\ld be affect$ 9 ! same way by ! s5se ( t\*8 & h[ c ! s5se ( he>+ p]ceive alike 9 animals :i* h ! n>r[e/ auditory passages1 & 9 ^? t are furni%$ ) ! wide/1 or 9 ^? ) hairy e>s & ^? ) smoo? ones8 ,= we1 ev51 he> diff]5tly :5 we p>tially /op up ! e>s1 f :at we d :5 we use !m naturally4 ,! s5se ( smell also v>ies accord+ to diff]5ces 9 #ea animals1 s9ce ev5 our s5se ( smell is affect$ :5 we h tak5 cold & ! phlegm is too abundant1 & also :5 p>ts ar\nd our head are flood$ ) too mu* blood1 = we !n avoid odors t seem agreeable to o!rs1 & feel z if we 7 injur$ by !m4 ,s9ce also "s ( ! animals are moi/ by nature & full ( secretions1 & o!rs are v full ( blood1 & /ill o!rs h ei!r yell[ or black bile preval5t & abundant1 x is reasonable because ( ?is to ?9k t odor\s ?+s appe> diff]5t to ea* "o ( !m4 ,& x is ! same 9 reg>d to ?+s ( ta/e1 z "s #eb animals h ! tongue r\gh & dry & o!rs v moi/4 ,we too1 :5 we h a dry tongue 9 fev]1 ?9k t :atev] we take is gritty1 bad ta/+1 or bitt]2 & ?is we exp]i5ce because ( ! v>y+ degrees ( ! humors t are said to be 9 u4 ,s9ce1 !n1 diff]5t animals h diff]5t organs = ta/e1 & a great] or less am\nt ( ! v>i\s humors1 x c well be t !y =m diff]5t ideas ( ! same objects z reg>ds _! ta/e4 ,= j z ! same food on be+ #ec absorb$ becomes 9 "s places ve9s1 9 o!r places art]ies1 & 9 o!r places bones1 n]ves1 or o!r tissues1 %[+ diff]5t p[] accord+ to ! diff]5ce ( ! p>ts receiv+ x2 j z ! same wat] absorb$ by ! trees becomes 9 "s places b>k1 9 o!r places bran*es1 & 9 o!r places fruit1 p]haps a fig or a pomegranate1 or some?+ else2 j z ! brea? ( ! musician1 "o & ! same #ed :5 bl[n into ! flute1 becomes sometimes a high tone & sometimes a l[ "o1 & ! same pressure ( ! h& ^u ! lyre sometimes causes a deep tone & sometimes a high tone1 s x is natural to suppose t ext]nal objects are reg>d$ diff]5tly accord+ to ! diff]5t con/itution ( ! animals :i* p]ceive !m4 ,we may see ?is m cle>ly 9 #ee ! ?+s t are s\ght = & avoid$ by animals4 ,= example1 myrrh appe>s v agreeable to m5 & intol]able to beetles & bees4 ,oil also1 :i* is useful to m51 de/roys wasps & bees if spr9kl$ on !m2 & sea-wat]1 :ile x is unpleasant & poison\s to m5 if !y dr9k x1 is mo/ agreeable & sweet to fi%es4 ,sw9e also pref] to wa% 9 vile fil? r ?an 9 pure clean wat]4 ,fur!rmore1 "s #ef animals eat grass & "s eat h]bs2 "s live 9 ! woods1 o!rs eat se$s2 "s are c>nivor\s1 & o!rs lactivor\s2 "s enjoy putrifi$ food1 & o!rs fre% food2 "s raw food & o!rs t :i* is prep>$ by cook+2 & 9 g5]al t :i* is agreeable to "s is disagreeable & fatal to o!rs1 & %\ld be avoid$ by !m4 ,?us hemlock makes ! #eg quail fat1 & h5bane ! hogs1 & ^!1 z x is kn[n1 enjoy eat+ liz>ds2 de] also eat poison\s animals1 & swall[s1 ! can?>idae4 ,moreov]1 ants & fly+ ants1 :5 swall[$ by m51 cause discom=t & colic2 b ! be>1 on ! contr>y1 :atev] sickness he may h1 becomes /rong] by dev\r+ !m4 ,! vip] is b5umb$ if "o twig ( ! oak #eh t\*es x1 z is also ! bat by a leaf ( ! plane-tree4 ,! elephant flees be=e ! ram1 & ! lion be=e ! cock1 & seals f ! rattl+ ( beans t are be+ p\nd$1 & ! tig] f ! s\nd ( ! drum4 ,_m o!r examples c\ld be giv51 b t we may n seem to dwell long] ?an is necess>y on ?is subject1 we conclude by say+ t s9ce ! same ?+s are pleasant to "s & unpleasant to o!rs1 & ! pleasure & displeasure dep5d on ! ideas1 x mu/ be t diff]5t animals h diff]5t ideas ( objects4 ,& s9ce ! same ?+s appe> diff]5t accord+ to ! #ei diff]5ce 9 ! animals1 x w be possible = u to say h[ ! ext]nal object appe>s to u1 b z to h[ x is 9 reality we %all susp5d our judgm5t4 ,= we _c ourselves judge betwe5 our own ideas & ^? ( o!r animals1 be+ ourselves involv$ 9 ! diff]5ce1 & !re=e mu* m 9 ne$ ( be+ judg$ ?an be+ ourselves able to judge4 ,& fur!rmore1 we _c give ! pref]5ce to our own m5tal #fj repres5tations ov] ^? ( o!r animals1 ei!r )\t evid5ce or ) evid5ce1 = besides ! fact t p]haps !re is no evid5ce1 z we %all %[1 ! evid5ce s call$ w be ei!r manife/ to u or n4 ,if x is n manife/ to u1 !n we _c accept x ) conviction2 if x is manife/ to u1 s9ce ! "q is 9 reg>d to :at is manife/ to animals1 & we use z evid5ce t :i* is manife/ to u :o are animals1 !n x is to be que/ion$ if x is true z x is manife/ to u4 ,x is absurd1 h[ev]1 to try to base ! #fa que/ionable on ! que/ionable1 because ! same ?+ is to be believ$ & n to be believ$1 :i* is c]ta9ly impossible4 ,! evid5ce is to be believ$ 9 s f> z x w furni% a pro(1 & disbeliev$ 9 s f> z x is itself to be prov$4 ,we %all !re=e h no evid5ce accord+ to :i* we c give pref]5ce to our own ideas ov] ^? ( s-call$ irrational animals4 ,s9ce !re=e ideas diff] accord+ to ! diff]5ce 9 animals1 & x is impossible to judge !m1 x is necess>y to susp5d ! judgm5t 9 reg>d to ext]nal objects4 ,h ! ,s-call$ ,irrational ,animals ,reason8 ,we cont9ue ! comp>ison ( ! s-call$ irrational animals #fb ) man1 al?\gh x is ne$less to d s1 = 9 tru? we d n refuse to hold up to ridicule ! conceit$ & bragg+ ,dogmatics1 aft] hav+ giv5 ! practical argum5ts4 ,n[ mo/ #fc ( our numb] 7 accu/om$ to comp>e all ! irrational animals toge!r ) man1 b because ! ,dogmatics play+ ^u words say t ! comp>ison is unequal1 we c>ry our ridicule f>!r1 al?\gh x is mo/ sup]flu\s to d s1 & fix ! discussion on "o animal1 z ! dog1 if x suits y1 :i* seems to be ! mo/ contemptible animal2 = we %all ev5 !n f9d t animals1 ab\t :i* we are speak+1 are n inf]ior to u 9 respect to ! tru/wor?9ess ( _! p]ceptions4 ,n[ ! ,dogmatics grant t ?is animal is #fd sup]ior to u 9 s5se p]ception1 = he p]ceives bett] ?r\gh smell ?an we1 z by ?is s5se he tracks wild animals t he _c see1 & he sees !m quick] ) 8 eyes ?an we d1 & he p]ceives !m m acutely by he>+4 ,let u also consid] reason+1 :i* is ( two k9ds1 reason+ 9 #fe ?\ght & 9 spee*4 ,let u look fir/ to t ( ?\ght4 ,?is k9d ( reason+1 judg+ f ! tea*+s ( ^? ,dogmatics :o are n[ our greate/ oppon5ts1 ^? ( ! ,/oa1 seems to fluctuate betwe5 ! foll[+ ?+s3 ! *oice ( ! famili>1 & avoidance ( ! ali52 ! k ( ! arts t lead to ?is *oice2 & ! compreh5sion ( ^? virtues t belong to ! individual nature1 z reg>ds ! feel+s4 ,! dog !n1 ^u :om x 0 decid$ to fix ! argum5t z an example1 makes a *oice ( ?+s suitable to #ff him1 & avoids ^? t are h>mful1 = he hunts = food1 b draws back :5 ! :ip is lift$ up2 he possesses also an art by :i* he procures ! ?+s t are suitable = him1 ! art ( hunt+4 ,he is n also )\t virtue2 s9ce ! #fg true nature ( ju/ice is to give to e "o accord+ to 8 m]it1 z ! dog wags 8 tail to ^? :o belong to ! family1 & to ^? :o behave well to him1 gu>ds !m1 & keeps (f /rang]s & evil do]s1 he is surely n )\t ju/ice4 ,n[ if he has ?is virtue1 s9ce ! virtues foll[ #fh ea* o!r 9 turn1 he has ! o!r virtues also1 :i* ! wise m5 say1 mo/ m5 d n possess4 ,we see ! dog also brave 9 w>d+ (f attacks1 & sagaci\s1 z ,hom] te/ifi$ :5 he repres5t$ ,odysseus z unrecognis$ by all 9 8 h\se1 & recognis$ only by ,argos1 because ! dog 0 n deceiv$ by ! physical *ange 9 ! man1 & _h n lo/ ! ,greek3 phantasia katalptik :i* he prov$ t he _h kept bett] ?an ! m5 _h4 ,b accord+ to ,*rysippus ev51 :o mo/ #fi attack$ ! irrational animals1 ! dog takes a "p 9 ! dialectic ab\t :i* s mu* is said4 ,at any rate1 ! man above ref]r$ to said t ! dog foll[s ! fif? ( ! sev]al non-apodictic syllogisms1 = :5 he comes to a meet+ ( ?ree roads1 aft] seek+ ! sc5t 9 ! two roads1 ?r\gh :i* 8 prey has n pass$1 he presses =w>d quickly 9 ! ?ird )\t sc5t+ x4 ,= ! dog reasons 9 ?is way1 pot5tially said ! man ( old5 "t2 ! animal pass$ ?r\gh ?is1 or ?is1 or ?is2 x 0 nei!r ?r\gh ?is nor ?is1 !re=e x 0 ?r\gh ?is4 ,! dog also und]/&s 8 own suff]+s & mitigates !m4 ,z soon z #gj a %>p /ick is ?ru/ into him1 he sets out to remove x1 by rubb+ 8 foot on ! gr\nd1 z also ) 8 tee?2 & if ev] he has a w\nd any:]e1 = ! reason t uncleans$ w\nds are difficult to cure1 & ^? t are cleans$ are easily cur$1 he g5tly wipes (f ! collect$ matt]2 & #ga he obs]ves ! ,hippocratic advice exce$+ly well1 = s9ce quiet is a relief = ! foot1 if he has ev] a w\nd 9 ! foot1 he lifts x up1 & keeps x undi/urb$ z mu* z possible4 ,:5 he is tr\bl$ by di/urb+ hum\rs1 he eats grass1 ) :i* he vomits up t :i* 0 unfitt+1 & recov]s4 ,s9ce !re=e x has be5 %[n t ! animal #gb t we fix$ ! argum5t ^u = ! sake ( an example1 *ooses t :i* is suitable = him1 & avoids :at is h>mful1 & t he has an art by :i* he provides :at is suitable1 & t he compreh5ds 8 own suff]+s & mitigates !m1 & t he is n )\t virtue1 ?+s 9 :i* p]fection ( reason+ 9 ?\ght consi/s1 s accord+ to ?is x w\ld seem t ! dog has rea*$ p]fection4 ,x is = ?is reason1 x appe>s to me1 t "s philosoph]s h hon\r$ !mselves ) ! "n ( ?is animal4 ,9 reg>d to reason+ 9 spee*1 x is n necess>y at pres5t to br+ #gc ! matt] 9 "q4 ,= "s ( ! ,dogmatics1 ev51 h put ?is aside1 z oppos+ ! acquisition ( virtue1 = :i* reason !y practic$ sil5ce :5 /udy+4 ,besides1 let x be suppos$ t a man is dumb1 no "o w\ld say t he is consequ5tly irrational4 ,h[ev]1 aside f ?is1 we see aft] all1 t animals1 ab\t :i* we are speak+1 d produce human s\nds1 z ! jay & "s o!rs4 ,aside f ?is also1 ev5 if we d n und]/& ! s\nds ( ! s-call$ irrational #gd irrational animals1 x is n at all unlikely t !y conv]se1 & t we d n und]/& _! conv]sation4 ,= :5 we he> ! language ( =eign]s1 we d n und]/& b x all seems l "o s\nd to u4 ,fur!rmore1 we he> dogs giv+ out "o k9d ( s\nd :5 !y are resi/+ someone1 #ge & ano!r s\nd :5 !y h[l1 & ano!r :5 !y are beat51 & a diff]5t k9d :5 !y wag _! tails1 & g5]ally speak+1 if "o exam9es into ?is1 he w f9d a great diff]5ce 9 ! s\nds ( ?is & o!r animals "u diff]5t circum/ances2 s t 9 all likelihood1 x may be said t ! s-call$ irrational animals p>take also 9 spok5 language4 ,if !n1 !y are n inf]ior to m5 9 ! #gf accuracy ( _! p]ceptions1 nor 9 reason+ 9 ?\ght1 nor 9 reason+ by spee*1 z x is sup]flu\s to say1 !n !y are n m untru/wor?y ?an we are1 x seems to me1 9 reg>d to _! ideas4 ,p]haps x w\ld be possible to prove ?is1 %\ld we direct ! argum5t to ea* ( ! irrational #gg animals 9 turn4 ,z = example1 :o w\ld n say t ! birds are di/+ui%$ = %rewdness1 & make use ( articulate spee*8 = !y n only "k ! pres5t b ! future1 & ?is !y augur to ^? t are able to und]/& x1 audibly z well z 9 o!r ways4 ,i h made ?is comp>ison sup]flu\sly1 z ,i po9t$ out above1 z ,i ?9k #gh ,i _h suffici5tly %[n be=e1 t we _c consid] our own ideas sup]ior to ^? ( ! irrational animals4 ,9 %ort1 if ! irrational animals are n m untru/wor?y ?an we 9 reg>d to ! judgm5t ( _! ideas1 & ! ideas are diff]5t accord+ to ! diff]5ce 9 ! animals1 ,i %all be able to say h[ ea* object appe>s to me1 b 9 reg>d to :at x is by nature ,i %all be oblig$ to susp5d my judgm5t4 ,,! ,,second ,,trope4 ,su* is ! fir/ ,trope ( ,greek3 epo*4 ,! second1 we said #gi above1 is bas$ ^u ! diff]5ces 9 m54 ,= ev5 if "o ass5t to ! hypo!sis t m5 are m tru/wor?y ?an ! irrational animals1 we %all f9d t d\bt arises z soon z we consid] our own diff]5ces4 ,= s9ce man is said to be compos$ ( two ?+s1 s\l & body1 we diff] f ea* o!r 9 respect to bo? ( ^! ?+s2 = example1 z reg>ds ! body1 we diff] bo? 9 =m & p]sonal peculi>ities4 ,= ! #hj body ( a ,scy?ian diff]s f ! body ( an ,indian 9 =m1 ! diff]5ce result+1 x is said1 f ! diff]5t control ( ! humors4 ,accord+ to diff]5t control ( ! humors1 diff]5ces 9 ideas arise also1 z we repres5t$ "u ! fir/ ,trope4 ,= ?is reason !re is c]ta9ly a great diff]5ce among m5 9 ! *oice & avoidance ( ext]nal ?+s4 ,! ,indians delight 9 diff]5t ?+s f our own p1 & ! enjoym5t ( diff]5t ?+s is a sign t diff]5t ideas are receiv$ ( ! ext]nal objects4 ,we diff] #ha 9 p]sonal peculi>ities1 z "s dige/ beef bett] ?an ! little fi% f rocky places1 & "s are affect$ ) purg+ by ! weak w9e ( ,lesbos4 ,!re 01 !y say1 an old woman 9 ,attica :o c\ld dr9k ?irty dra*mas ( hemlock )\t dang]1 & ,lysis took f\r dra*mas ( opium unhurt1 & ,demophon1 ,alex&]'s table wait]1 %iv]$ :5 he 0 #hb 9 ! sun or 9 a hot ba?1 & felt w>m 9 ! %ade2 ,a!nagoras also1 f ,argos1 did n suff] h>m if /ung by scorpions & v5om\s spid]s2 ! s-call$ ,psylli 7 n injur$ :5 bitt5 by snakes or by ! aspis1 & ! ,t5tyrites among ! ,egyptians are n h>m$ by ! crocodiles ar\nd !m2 ^? also ( ! ,e?iopians :o live on ! #hc ,hydaspes riv]1 opposite ,m]oe1 eat scorpions & s]p5ts1 & simil> ?+s )\t dang]2 ,ruf9us 9 ,*alcis c\ld dr9k hellebore )\t vomit+ or purg+1 & he enjoy$ & dige/$ x z some?+ to :i* he 0 accu/om$2 ,*rys]mos1 ! ,h]ophilian1 ran ! risk ( /oma*-a*e if he ev] took #hd pepp]1 & ,sot]i*us1 ! surgeon1 0 seiz$ by purg+ if he p]ceiv$ ! odor ( roa/+ %ad2 ,&ron1 ! ,argive1 0 s free f ?ir/ t he c\ld travel ev5 ?r\gh ! wat]less ,libya )\t look+ = a dr9k2 ,tib]ius1 ! emp]or1 saw 9 ! d>k1 & ,ari/otle tells ! /ory ( a c]ta9 ,?racian1 :o ?\ght t he saw ! figure ( a man always go+ be=e him z a guide4 ,:ile !re=e su* a diff]5ce exi/s 9 m5 #he 9 reg>d to ! body1 & we mu/ be satisfi$ ) ref]r+ to a few only ( ! _m examples giv5 by ! ,dogmatics1 x is probable t m5 also diff] f ea* o!r 9 respect to ! s\l itself1 = ! body is a k9d ( type ( ! s\l1 z ! physiognomical craft also %[s4 ,! be/ example ( ! num]\s & inf9ite diff]5ces ( op9ion among m5 is ! contradiction 9 ! say+s ( ! ,dogmatics1 n only ab\t o!r ?+s1 b ab\t :at x is well to seek & to avoid4 ,! poets h also fitt+ly spok5 ab\t #hf ?is1 = ,p9d> said-- ,"o delights 9 gett+ honors & cr[ns ?r\gh /orm-foot$ horses1 ,ano!r 9 pass+ life 9 rooms ri* 9 gold1 ,ano!r /ill1 safe travell+ enjoys1 9 a swift %ip1 on a wave ( ! sea4 ,& ! poet says-- ,"o man enjoys ?is1 ano!r enjoys t4 ,! trag$ies also ab\nd 9 su* expressions1 = in/ance1 x is said-- ,if to all1 ! same 7 good & wise1 ,qu>rels & disputes among m5 w\ld n h be54 ,& aga9-- ,x is awful inde$1 t ! same ?+ "s mortals %\ld please1 ,& by o!rs be hat$4 ,s9ce !re=e ! *oice & ! avoidance ( ?+s1 #hg dep5ds on ! pleasure & displeasure :i* !y give1 & ! pleasure & displeasure h _! seat 9 p]ception & ideas1 :5 "s *oose ! ?+s t o!rs avoid1 x is logical = u to conclude t !y are n act$ ^u simil>ly by ! same ?+s1 = o!rwise !y w\ld h *os5 or avoid$ alike4 ,n[ if ! same ?+s act ^u diff]5t m5 diff]5tly1 on acc\nt ( ! diff]5ce 9 ! m51 = ?is cause also susp5sion ( ! judgm5t may reasonably be introduc$1 & we may p]haps say h[ ea* object appe>s to u1 & :at its individual diff]5ces are1 b we %all n be able to decl>e :at x is z to ! nature ( its ess5ce4 ,= we mu/ ei!r believe all m5 or "s m52 b #hh to believe all is to und]take an impossibility1 & to accept ?+s t are 9 opposition to ea* o!r4 ,if we believe "s only1 let someone tell u ) :om to agree1 = ! ,platoni/ w\ld say ) ,plato1 ! ,epicurean ) ,epicurus1 & o!rs w\ld advise 9 a correspond+ mann]2 & s z !y disagree1 ) no "o to decide1 !y br+ u r\nd aga9 to ! susp5sion ( judgm5t4 ,fur!rmore1 he :o tells u to agree #hi ) ! majority proposes some?+ *ildi%1 z no "o c\ld g to all m5 & f9d out :at pleases ! majority1 = x is possible t 9 "s nations :i* we d n "k ! ?+s :i* to u are r>e are common to ! majority1 & ^? ?+s :i* happ5 commonly to u are r>e4 ,z = example1 x might happ5 t ! majority %\ld n suff] :5 bitt5 by v5om\s spid]s1 or t !y %\ld seldom feel pa91 or h o!r p]sonal peculi>ities simil> to ^? spok5 ( above4 ,x is necess>y !re=e to susp5d ! judgm5t on acc\nt ( ! diff]5ces 9 m54 ,,! ,,?ird ,,trope4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 ! ,dogmatics are conceit$ en\gh to ?9k #ij t !y %\ld be pref]r$ to o!r m5 9 ! judgem5t ( ?+s1 we "k t _! claim is absurd1 = !y !mselves =m a "p ( ! disagreem5t2 & if !y give !mselves pref]5ce 9 ?is way 9 ! judgm5t ( ph5om5a1 !y beg ! "q be=e !y beg9 ! judgm5t1 z !y tru/ ! judgm5t to !mselves4 ,nev]!less1 9 ord] t we %\ld #ia rea* ! result ( ! susp5sion ( judgm5t by limit+ ! argum5t to "o man1 "o :o = example !y deem to be wise1 let u take up ! ?ird ,trope4 ,?is is ! "o t is bas$ ^u diff]5ces 9 p]ception4 ,t ! p]ceptions #ib diff] f ea* o!r is evid5t4 ,= example1 pa9t+s seem to h holl[s & prom95ces to ! s5se ( sight1 b n to ! s5se ( t\*1 & honey to ! tongue ( "s p appe>s pleasant1 b unpleasant to ! eyes2 !re=e x is impossible to say :e!r x is really pleasant or unpleasant4 ,9 reg>d to myrrh x is ! same1 = x delights ! s5se ( smell1 b disgu/s ! s5se ( ta/e4 ,also 9 reg>d to #ic euphorbium1 s9ce x is h>mful to ! eyes & h>mless to all ! re/ ( ! body1 we are n able to say :e!r x is really h>mless to bodies or n1 z f> z its own nature is conc]n$4 ,ra9-wat]1 too1 is useful to ! eyes1 b x makes ! tra*ea & ! lungs r\gh1 j z oil does1 al?\gh x soo!s ! sk92 & ! sea-torp$o plac$ on ! extremities makes !m numb1 b is h>mless :5 plac$ on ! re/ ( ! body4 ,:]e=e we _c say :at ea* ( ^! ?+s is by nature4 ,x is possible only to say h[ x appe>s ea* "t4 ,we #id c\ld cite m examples ?an ^!1 b 9 ord] n to sp5d too long 9 lay+ out ! plan ( ?is book we %all simply say ! foll[+3 ,ea* ( ! ph5om5a p]ceiv$ by u seems to pres5t itself 9 _m =ms1 z ! apple1 smoo?1 fragrant1 sweet1 yell[4 ,n[ x is n kn[n :e!r x has 9 reality only ^? qualities :i* appe> to u1 or if x has only "o quality1 b appe>s diff]5t on acc\nt ( ! diff]5t con/itution ( ! s5se organs1 or if x has m qualities ?an appe> to u1 b "s ( !m d n affect u4 ,t x has only "o quality might be conclud$ f :at we #ie h said ab\t ! food di/ribut$ 9 bodies1 & ! wat] di/ribut$ 9 trees1 & ! brea? 9 ! flute & syr9x1 & 9 simil> in/rum5ts2 = x is possible t ! apple also has only "o quality1 b appe>s diff]5t on acc\nt ( ! diff]5ce 9 ! s5se organs by :i* x is p]ceiv$4 ,on #if ! o!r h&1 t ! apple has m qualities ?an ^? t appe> to u1 c be argu$ 9 ?is way3 ,let u imag9e someone born ) ! s5se ( t\*1 ( smell1 & ( ta/e1 b nei!r he>+ nor see+4 ,he w !n assume t nei!r any?+ visible nor any?+ audible exi/s at all1 b only ! ?ree k9ds ( qualities :i* he c appreh5d4 ,x is #ig possible !n t z we h only ! five s5ses1 we appreh5d only ^? qualities ( ! apple :i* we are able to grasp1 b x may be suppos$ t o!r qualities exi/ :i* w\ld affect o!r s5se organs if we possess$ !m2 z x is1 we d n feel ! s5sations :i* w\ld be felt ?r\gh !m4 ,b #ih nature1 "o w say1 has br\ght ! s5ses into h>mony ) ! objects to be p]ceiv$4 ,:at k9d ( nature8 ,among ! ,dogmatics a great diff]5ce ( op9ion reigns ab\t ! real exi/5ce ( nature anyway2 = he :o decides :e!r !re is a nature or n1 if he is an un$ucat$ man1 w\ld be accord+ to !m untru/wor?y2 if he is a philosoph]1 he is a "p ( ! disagreem5t1 & is himself to be judg$1 b is n a judge4 ,9 %ort1 if x is possible t only ^? qualities #ii exi/ 9 ! apple :i* we seem to p]ceive1 or t m ?an ^! are !re1 or t n ev5 ^? :i* we p]ceive exi/1 x w be unkn[n to u :at k9d ( a ?+ ! apple is4 ,! same argum5t holds = o!r objects ( p]ception4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! s5ses d n compreh5d ! ext]nal _w1 ! intellect _c compreh5d x ei!r1 s t = ?is reason also x w appe> t ! susp5sion ( judgm5t foll[s 9 reg>d to ext]nal objects4 ,,! ,,f\r? ,,trope4 ,9 ord] to atta9 to ,greek3 epo* by fix+ ! argum5t on #ajj ea* sep>ate s5se1 or ev5 by putt+ aside ! s5ses altoge!r1 we take up ! f\r? ,trope ( ,greek3 epo*4 ,?is is ! "o bas$ ^u circum/ances1 & by circum/ances we mean conditions4 ,?is ,trope comes "u consid]ation1 we may say1 ) reg>d to conditions t are accord+ to nature1 or contr>y to nature2 su* z wak+ or sleep+1 ! age ( life1 mov+ or keep+ /ill1 hat+ or lov+1 ne$ or satiety1 drunk5ness or sobriety1 pr$ispositions1 be+ c\rage\s or afraid1 sorr[+ or rejoic+4 ,= example1 ?+s appe> #aja diff]5t z !y are accord+ to nature1 or contr>y to x2 z = in/ance1 ! insane & ^? inspir$ by a god1 ?9k t !y he> gods1 :ile we d n2 9 l mann] !y (t5 say t !y p]ceive ! odor ( /orax or frank9c5se1 or ! l1 & _m o!r ?+s :i* we d n p]ceive4 ,wat]1 also1 t seems lukew>m to u1 if p\r$ ov] places t are inflam$1 w feel hot1 & a g>m5t t appe>s orange-col\r$ to ^? t h blood-%ot eyes1 w\ld n look s to me1 & ! same honey appe>s sweet to me1 b bitt] to ^? :o h ! jaundice4 ,if "o %\ld say #ajb t ^? :o are n 9 a natural /ate h unusual ideas ( objects1 because ( ! int]m+l+ ( c]ta9 humors1 !n "o mu/ also say1 t x may be t objects :i* are really :at !y seem to be to ^? :o are 9 an unnatural condition1 appe> diff]5t to ^? :o are 9 heal?1 = ev5 ^? :o are 9 heal? h humors t are mix$ ) ea* o!r4 ,= to #ajc give to "o k9d ( fluid a p[] to *ange objects1 & n to ano!r k9d1 is a fiction ( ! m9d2 = j z ^? :o are 9 heal? are 9 a condition t is natural to ^? :o are 9 heal?1 & contr>y to ! nature ( ^? :o are n 9 heal?1 s also ^? :o are n 9 heal?1 are 9 a condition contr>y to ! nature ( ^? 9 heal?1 b natural to ^? n 9 heal?1 & we mu/ !re=e believe t !y also are 9 "s respect 9 a natural condition4 ,fur!rmore1 #ajd 9 sleep or 9 wak+1 ! ideas are diff]5t1 because we d n see ?+s 9 ! same way :5 we are awake z we d 9 sleep2 nei!r d we see !m 9 ! same way 9 sleep z we d :5 awake1 s t ! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce ( ^! ?+s is n absolute1 b relative1 t is 9 relation to a sleep+ or wak+ condition4 ,x is !re=e probable t we see ^? ?+s 9 sleep :i* 9 a wak+ condition d n exi/1 b !y are n altoge!r non-exi/5t1 = !y exi/ 9 sleep1 j z ^? ?+s :i* exi/ :5 we are awake1 exi/1 al?\gh !y d n exi/ 9 sleep4 ,fur!rmore1 ?+s #aje pres5t !mselves diff]5tly accord+ to ! age ( life1 = ! same air seems cold to ! ag$1 b temp]ate to ^? 9 _! prime1 & ! same color appe>s dim to ^? :o are old1 & bright to ^? 9 _! prime1 & likewise ! same tone seems fa9t to ! =m]1 & audible to ! latt]4 ,p 9 diff]5t ages are also diff]5tly dispos$ #ajf t[>ds ?+s to be *os5 or avoid$2 *ildr51 = example1 are v fond ( balls & hoops1 :ile ^? 9 _! prime pref] o!r ?+s1 & ! old /ill o!rs1 f :i* x foll[s t ! ideas 9 reg>d to ! same objects diff] 9 diff]5t p]iods ( life4 ,fur!rmore1 ?+s appe> diff]5t #ajg 9 a condition ( motion & re/1 s9ce t :i* we see at re/ :5 we are /ill1 seems to move :5 we are sail+ by x4 ,!re are also diff]5ces :i* dep5d on lik+ or #ajh dislik+1 z "s dete/ sw9e fle% exce$+ly1 b o!rs eat x ) pleasure4 ,z ,m5&] said-- ,o h[ 8 face appe>s ,s9ce he became su* a man6 ,:at a creature6 ,do+ no inju/ice w\ld make u also beautiful4 ,_m also t love ugly wom5 consid] !m v beautiful ,fur!rmore1 !re are diff]5ces :i* dep5d on hung] or #aji satiety1 z ! same food seems agreeable to ^? :o are hungry1 & disagreeable to ^? :o are satisfi$4 ,!re are also diff]5ces dep5d+ on drunk5ness & sobriety1 z t :i* we consid] ugly :5 we are sob] does n appe> ugly to u :5 we are drunk4 ,aga91 !re are diff]5ces dep5d+ #aaj on pr$ispositions1 z ! same w9e appe>s s\ri% to ^? :o h previ\sly eat5 dates or dri$ figs1 b agreeable to ^? :o h tak5 nuts or *ickpeas2 ! ve/ibule ( ! ba? w>ms ^? :o ent] f )\t1 b cools ^? :o g out1 if !y re/ 9 x4 ,fur!rmore1 !re are diff]5ces #aaa dep5d+ on be+ afraid or c\rage\s1 z ! same ?+ seems fe>ful & t]rible to ! c[>d1 b 9 no wise s to him :o is brave4 ,!re are diff]5ces1 also1 dep5d+ on be+ sad or joyful1 z ! same ?+s are unpleasant to ! sad1 b pleasant to ! joyful4 ,s9ce !re=e ! #aab anomalies dep5d+ on conditions are s great1 & s9ce m5 are 9 diff]5t conditions at diff]5t times1 x is p]haps easy to say h[ ea* object appe>s to ea* man1 b n s ( :at k9d x is1 because ! anomaly is n ( a k9d to be judg$4 ,= he :o w\ld pass judgm5t ^u ?is is ei!r 9 "s "o ( ! conditions m5tion$ above1 or is 9 absolutely no condition :atev]2 b to say t he is 9 no condition at all1 z1 = example1 t he is nei!r 9 heal? nor 9 illness1 t he is nei!r mov+ nor quiet1 t he is n ( any age1 & also t he is free f ! o!r conditions1 is :olly absurd4 ,b if he judges ! ideas :ile he is 9 any #aac condition :atev]1 he is a "p ( ! contradiction1 &1 besides1 he is no g5u9e critic ( ext]nal objects1 because he is confus$ by ! condition 9 :i* he f9ds himself4 ,!re=e nei!r c ! "o :o is awake comp>e ! ideas ( ^? :o are asleep ) ^? :o are awake1 nor c he :o is 9 heal? comp>e ! ideas ( ! sick ) ^? ( ! well2 = we believe m 9 ! ?+s t are pres5t1 & affect+ u at pres5t1 ?an 9 ! ?+s n pres5t4 ,9 #aad ano!r way1 ! anomaly 9 su* ideas is impossible to be judg$1 = :oev] pref]s "o idea to ano!r1 & "o condition to ano!r1 does ?is ei!r )\t a crit]ion & a pro(1 or ) a crit]ion & a pro(2 b he c d ?is nei!r )\t !m1 = he w\ld !n be untru/wor?y1 nor ) !m2 = if he judges ideas1 he judges !m :olly by a crit]ion1 & he w say t ?is crit]ion is ei!r true or false4 ,b if x is false1 he w be untru/wor?y2 if1 on #aae ! contr>y1 he says t x is true1 he w say t ! crit]ion is true ei!r )\t pro( or ) pro(4 ,if )\t pro(1 he w be untru/wor?y2 if he says t x is true ) pro(1 x is c]ta9ly necess>y t ! pro( be true1 or he w be untru/wor?y4 ,n[ w he say t ! pro( :i* he has accept$ = ! accr$it+ ( ! crit]ion is true1 hav+ judg$ x1 or )\t hav+ judg$ x8 ,if he says s #aaf )\t judg+ x1 he w be untru/wor?y2 if he has judg$ x1 x is evid5t t he w say t he has judg$ accord+ to "s crit]ion1 & we mu/ seek a pro( = ?is crit]ion1 & = t pro( a crit]ion4 ,= ! pro( always ne$s a crit]ion to e/abli% x1 & ! crit]ion ne$s a pro( t x may be %[n to be true2 & a pro( c nei!r be s\nd )\t a pre-exi/+ crit]ion t is true1 nor a crit]ion true )\t a pro( t is %[n be=eh& to be tru/wor?y4 ,& s bo? ! crit]ion & ! pro( are ?r[n into ! #aag circulus 9 prob&o1 by :i* x is f\nd t !y are bo? ( !m untru/wor?y1 = z ea* looks = pro( f ! o!r1 ea* is z untru/wor?y z ! o!r4 ,s9ce !n "o _c pref] "o idea to ano!r1 ei!r )\t a pro( & a crit]ion or ) !m1 ! ideas t diff] accord+ to diff]5t conditions _c be judg$1 s t ! susp5sion ( judgm5t 9 reg>d to ! nature ( ext]nal objects foll[s ?r\gh ?is ,trope also4 ,,! ,,fif? ,,trope4 ,! fif? ,trope is t bas$ ^u position1 di/ance1 & #aah place1 =1 accord+ to ea* ( ^!1 ! same ?+s appe> diff]5t1 z = example1 ! same arcade se5 f ei!r end appe>s curtail$1 b f ! middle x looks symmetrical on e side2 & ! same %ip appe>s small & motionless f af>1 & l>ge & 9 motion ne> by1 & ! same t[] appe>s r\nd f a di/ance1 b squ>e ne> by4 ,s mu* = di/ance4 ,n[ 9 ref]5ce to place1 we say t ! light #aai ( ! lamp appe>s dim 9 ! sun1 b bright 9 ! d>k2 & ! same rudd] appe>s brok5 9 ! sea1 b /raight out ( x2 & ! egg 9 ! bird is s(t1 b 9 ! air h>d2 & ! lyngurion is a fluid 9 ! lynx1 b is h>d 9 ! air2 & ! coral is s(t 9 ! sea1 b h>d 9 ! air2 & a tone ( voice appe>s diff]5t produc$ by a syr9x1 & by a flute1 & diff]5t simply 9 ! air4 ,also 9 ref]5ce to #abj position1 ! same picture lean$ back appe>s smoo?1 & lean$ =w>d a little seems to h holl[s & protub]ances1 & ! necks ( doves appe> diff]5t 9 color accord+ to ! diff]5ce 9 incl9ation4 ,s9ce !n all ph5om5a are #aba se5 9 relation to place1 di/ance1 & position1 ea* ( :i* relation makes a great diff]5ce ) ! idea1 z we h m5tion$1 we %all be oblig$ by ?is ,trope also to come to ! susp5sion ( judgm5t4 ,= he :o wi%es to give pref]5ce to c]ta9 ones ( ^! ideas w attempt ! impossible4 ,= if #abb he simply makes ! decision )\t pro( he w be untru/wor?y4 ,if1 h[ev]1 he wi%es to make use ( a pro(1 %\ld he say t ! pro( is false1 he contradicts himself1 b if he decl>es ! pro( to be true1 pro( ( its pro( w be dem&$ ( him1 & ano!r pro( = t1 :i* pro( also mu/ be true1 & s on to ! regressus 9 inf9itum4 ,x is impossible1 h[ev]1 to pres5t pro(s 9 inf9itum1 s #abc t "o w n be able to prove t "o idea is to be pref]r$ to ano!r4 ,s9ce !n "o _c ei!r )\t pro( or ) pro( judge ! ideas 9 "q1 ! susp5sion ( judgm5t results1 & h[ ea* ?+ appe>s accord+ to ?is or t position1 or ?is or t di/ance1 or ?is or t place1 we p]haps are able to say1 b :at x really is x is impossible to decl>e1 = ! reasons :i* we h m5tion$4 ,,! ,,six? ,,trope4 ,! six? ,trope is ! "o bas$ ^u mixtures1 accord+ to #abd :i* we conclude t s9ce no object pres5ts itself alone1 b always toge!r ) some?+ else1 x is p]haps possible to say ( :at nature ! mixture is1 ( ! ?+ itself1 & ( t ) :i* x is se51 b ( :at sort ! ext]nal object really is we %all n be able to say4 ,n[ x is evid5t1 ,i ?9k1 t no?+ f )\t is kn[n to u by itself1 b always ) some?+ else1 & t because ( ?is fact x appe>s diff]5t4 ,! color ( our sk91 = example1 is #abe diff]5t se5 9 w>m air f :at x is 9 cold1 & we c\ld n say :at our color really is1 only :at x is :5 view$ "u ea* ( ^! conditions4 ,! same s\nd appe>s diff]5t 9 r>e air f :at x is 9 d5se1 & aromas are m ov]p[]+ 9 ! w>m ba? & 9 ! sun ?an !y are 9 ! cold air1 & a body surr\nd$ by wat] is light1 b by air heavy4 ,leav+ aside1 h[ev]1 out] mixtures1 our eyes #abf h inside ( !m coat+s & humors4 ,s9ce !n visible ?+s are n se5 )\t ^!1 !y w n be accurately compreh5d$1 = x is ! mixture t we p]ceive1 & = ?is reason ^? :o h ! jaundice see ev]y?+ yell[1 & ^? ) blood%ot eyes bloody4 ,s9ce ! same s\nd appe>s diff]5t 9 broad op5 places f :at x does 9 n>r[ & w9d+ ones1 & diff]5t 9 pure air & 9 impure1 x is probable t we d n p]ceive ! tones unmix$2 = ! e>s h n>r[ w9d+ passages fill$ ) vapor\s secretions1 :i* x is said ga!r f places ar\nd ! head4 ,s9ce also !re are sub/ances pres5t 9 ! #abg no/rils & 9 ! seat ( ! s5se ( ta/e1 we p]ceive ! ?+s smell$ & ! ?+s ta/$ 9 connection ) !m1 & n unmix$4 ,s t because ( mixture ! s5ses d n p]ceive accurately :at ! ext]nal objects are4 ,! intellect #abh ev5 does n d ?is1 *iefly because its guides1 ! s5ses1 make mi/akes1 & p]haps x itself adds a c]ta9 special mixture to ^? messages communicat$ by ! s5ses2 = 9 ea* place :]e ! ,dogmatics ?9k t ! rul+ faculty is situat$1 we see t c]ta9 humors are pres5t1 :e!r "o w\ld locate x 9 ! region ( ! bra91 9 ! region ( ! he>t1 or some:]e else4 ,s9ce !re=e accord+ to ?is ,trope also1 we see t we _c say any?+ reg>d+ ! nature ( ext]nal objects1 we are oblig$ to susp5d our judgm5t4 ,,! ,,sev5? ,,trope4 ,! sev5? ,trope is ! "o :i*1 z we said1 is bas$ #abi ^u ! quantity & con/itution ( objects1 con/itution commonly mean+ composition4 ,& x is evid5t t we are oblig$ to susp5d our judgm5t accord+ to ?is ,trope also 9 reg>d to ! nature ( ?+s4 ,z = example1 fil+s f ! horn ( ! goat appe> :ite :5 !y are se5 sep>ately & )\t be+ put toge!r2 put toge!r1 h[ev]1 9 ! =m ( a horn1 !y look black4 ,& ! p>ts ( silv]1 ! fil+s t is1 by !mselves appe> black1 b z a :ole appe> :ite2 & p>ts ( ! ,ta5>us /one look :ite :5 gr\nd1 b 9 ! :ole /one appe> yell[2 gra9s ( s& #acj scatt]$ ap>t f ea* o!r appe> to be r\gh1 b put toge!r 9 a heap1 !y produce a s(t feel+2 hellebore tak5 f9e & d[ny1 causes *ok+1 b x no long] does s :5 tak5 co>se2 w9e also tak5 mod]ately /r5g!ns u1 b #aca :5 tak5 9 excess relaxes ! body2 food simil>ly1 has a diff]5t effect accord+ to ! quantity1 at lea/1 x (t5 di/urbs ! body :5 too mu* is tak51 caus+ dyspepsia & dis*>ge4 ,we %all be able "h also to say ( :at k9d #acb ! cutt+ f ! horn is1 & :at _m cutt+s put toge!r are1 ( :at k9d a fil+ ( silv] is1 & :at _m ( !m put toge!r are1 ( :at k9d ! t9y ,ta5>us /one1 & :at "o compos$ ( _m small ones is1 & 9 reg>d to ! gra9s ( s&1 & ! hellebore1 & ! w9e1 & ! food1 :at !y are 9 relation1 b no long] ! nature ( ! ?+ by itself1 because ( ! anomaly 9 ! ideas :i* we h ( ?+s1 accord+ to ! way 9 :i* !y are put toge!r4 ,9 g5]al x appe>s t useful ?+s become #acc h>mful :5 an intemp]ate use is made ( !m1 & ?+s t seem h>mful :5 tak5 9 excess1 are n injuri\s 9 a small quantity4 ,:at we see 9 ! effect ( m$ic9es witnesses especially to ?is fact1 z an exact mixture ( simple rem$ies makes a comp\nd :i* is helpful1 b sometimes :5 a v small incl9ation ( ! balance is ov]look$1 ! m$ic9e is n only n helpful1 b v h>mful1 & (t5 poison\s4 ,s #acd ! argum5t bas$ ^u ! quantity & con/itution ( objects1 puts 9 confusion ! exi/5ce ( ext]nal objects4 ,!re=e ?is ,trope naturally leads u to susp5d our judgm5t1 z we are n able to decl>e exactly ! nature ( ext]nal objects4 ,,! ,,eigh? ,,trope4 ,! eigh? ,trope is ! "o bas$ ^u relation1 f :i* #ace we conclude to susp5d our judgm5t z to :at ?+s are absolutely1 9 _! nature1 s9ce e ?+ is 9 relation to some?+ else4 ,& we mu/ be> 9 m9d t we use ! ^w is incorrectly1 9 place ( appe>s1 mean+ to say1 e ?+ appe>s to be 9 relation4 ,?is is said1 h[ev]1 ) two mean+s3 fir/1 t e ?+ is 9 relation to ! "o :o judges1 = ! ext]nal object1 i4e4 ! ?+ judg$1 appe>s to be 9 relation to ! judge2 ! o!r way is t e ?+ is 9 relation to ! ?+s consid]$ toge!r ) x1 z ! relation ( ! "r h& to ! left4 ,b we #acf came to ! conclusion above1 t e ?+ is 9 relation to some?+1 z = example1 to ! "o judg+2 ea* ?+ appe>s 9 relation to ?is or t animal1 & ?is or t man1 & ?is or t s5se1 & 9 c]ta9 circum/ances2 z reg>ds ?+s consid]$ toge!r1 also1 ea* ?+ appe>s 9 relation to ?is or t mixture1 & ?is or t ,trope1 & ?is or t composition1 quantity & place4 ,& 9 ano!r way x is possible to conclude t e ?+ is 9 relation #acg to some?+1 z foll[s3 does ! be+ 9 diff]5ce diff] f ! be+ 9 relation1 or n8 ,if x does n diff]1 !n x is ! same z relation2 if x does diff]1 s9ce e ?+ :i* diff]s is 9 "s relation1 = x is said to be 9 relation to t f :i* x diff]s1 ^? ?+s :i* are 9 a diff]5ce are 9 a relation to some?+4 ,n[ accord+ #ach to ! ,dogmatics1 "s be+s belong to ! highe/ g5]a1 o!rs to ! l[e/ species1 & o!rs to bo? g5]a & species at ! same "t2 all ( ^! are 9 relation to some?+1 !re=e e ?+ is 9 relation to some?+4 ,fur!rmore1 among ?+s1 "s ?+s are manife/1 & o!rs are hidd51 z ! ,dogmatics !mselves say1 & ! ?+s t make !mselves kn[n to u are ! ph5om5a1 & ! ?+s t are made kn[n to u by ! ph5om5a are ! hidd5 ?+s1 = accord+ to ! ,dogmatics1 ! ph5om5a are ! outw>d appe>ance ( ! unkn[n2 !n t :i* makes kn[n1 & t :i* is made kn[n1 are 9 relation to some?+2 e ?+1 !re=e1 is 9 relation to some?+4 ,9 #aci addition to ?is1 "s ?+s are simil> to ea* o!r1 & o!rs are dissimil>1 "s are equal1 & o!rs are unequal4 ,n[ ^! ?+s are 9 relation to some?+1 !re=e e ?+ is 9 relation to some?+1 & :oev] says t e ?+ is n 9 relation to some?+1 himself e/abli%es ! fact t e ?+ is 9 relation to some?+1 = ev5 9 say+ t e ?+ is n 9 relation to some?+1 he #adj proves x 9 ref]5ce to u1 & n 9 g5]al1 by 8 objections to u4 ,9 %ort1 z we h %[n t e ?+ is 9 relation to some?+1 x is !n evid5t t we %all n be able to say exactly :at ea* object is by nature1 b :at x appe>s to be l 9 relation to some?+ else4 ,x foll[s f ?is1 t we mu/ susp5d our judgm5t reg>d+ ! nature ( ?+s4 ,,! ,,n9? ,,trope4 ,9 reg>d to ! ,trope bas$ on ! frequ5cy & r>ity ( #ada ev5ts1 :i* we call ! n9? ( ! s]ies1 we give ! foll[+ explanation3 ,! sun is c]ta9ly a mu* m a/oni%+ ?+ ?an a comet1 b because we see ! sun cont9ually & ! comet r>ely we are s mu* a/oni%$ at ! comet t x ev5 seems an om51 :ile we are n at all a/oni%$ at ! sun4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we %\ld imag9e ! sun appe>+ at r>e int]vals1 & at r>e int]vals sett+1 9 ! fir/ in/ance sudd5ly light+ up all ?+s1 & 9 ! second ca/+ ev]y?+ into %ade1 we %\ld see great a/oni%m5t at ! sight4 ,an e>?quake1 too1 does n tr\ble #adb ^? :o exp]i5ce x = ! fir/ "t 9 ! same mann] z ^? :o h become accu/om$ to x4 ,h[ great ! a/oni%m5t ( a man :o beholds ! sea = ! fir/ "t6 ,& ! beauty ( ! human body1 se5 sudd5ly = ! fir/ "t1 moves u m ?an if we are accu/om$ to see+ x4 ,t :i* is r>e seems valuable1 :ile ?+s t are famili> #adc & easily obta9$ seem by no means s4 ,if1 = example1 we %\ld imag9e wat] z r>e1 ( h[ mu* great] value w\ld x seem ?an all o!r valuable ?+s6 or if we imag9e gold z simply ?r[n ab\t on ! gr\nd 9 l>ge quantities l /ones1 to :om d we ?9k x w\ld be valuable1 or by :om w\ld x be ho>d$1 z x is n[8 ,s9ce !n ! same ?+s accord+ to ! frequ5cy or r>ity t !y are met ) seem to be n[ valuable & n[ n s1 we conclude t x may be t we %all be able to say :at k9d ( a ?+ ea* ( #add !m appe>s to be accord+ to ! frequ5cy or r>ity ) :i* x occurs1 b we are n able to say :at ea* ext]nal object is absolutely4 ,!re=e1 accord+ to ?is ,trope also1 we susp5d our judgm5t reg>d+ ^! ?+s4 ,,! ,,t5? ,,trope4 ,! t5? ,trope is ! "o pr9cipally connect$ ) #ade morals1 relat+ to s*ools1 cu/oms1 laws1 my?ical beliefs1 & dogmatic op9ions4 ,n[ a s*ool is a *oice ( a mann] ( life1 or ( some?+ held by "o or _m1 z = example ! s*ool ( ,diog5es or ! ,laconians4 ,a law is a writt5 #adf contract among citiz5s1 ! transgressor ( :i* is puni%$4 ,a cu/om or habit1 = !re is no diff]5ce1 is a common acceptance ( a c]ta9 ?+ by _m1 ! deviator f :i* is 9 no wise puni%$4 ,= example1 x is a law n to commit adult]y1 & x is a cu/om ) u ,greek3 to m dmosia gynaiki mignu/hai4 ,a my?ical belief is a tradition #adg reg>d+ ?+s :i* nev] took place1 b 7 inv5t$1 z among o!rs1 ! tales ab\t ,cronus1 = _m are l$ to believe !m4 ,a dogmatic op9ion is ! acceptance ( some?+ t seems to be e/abli%$ by a c\rse ( reason+1 or by "s pro(1 z = example1 t atoms are elem5ts ( ?+s1 & t !y are ei!r homog5e\s1 or inf9itesimal1 or ( "s o!r description4 ,n[ we place ea* ( ^! ?+s sometimes 9 opposition to itself1 & sometimes 9 opposition to ea* "o ( ! o!rs4 ,= example1 we place a cu/om 9 #adh opposition to a cu/om ?us3 "s ( ! ,e?iopians tattoo new-born *ildr51 b we d n1 & ! ,p]sians ?9k x is seemly to h a g>m5t ( _m colors & rea*+ to ! feet1 b we ?9k x n s4 ,! ,indians ,greek3 tais gynaixi domosia mignyntai b mo/ ( ! o!r nations consid] x a %ame4 ,we place a law 9 opposition to a law 9 ?is way3 #adi among ! ,romans he :o r5\nces 8 pat]nal inh]itance does n pay 8 fa!r's debts1 b among ! ,rhodians he pays !m 9 any case2 & among ! ,tauri 9 ,scy?ia x 0 a law to (f] /rang]s 9 sacrifice to ,artemis1 b ) u x is =bidd5 to kill a man ne> a temple4 ,we place a s*ool 9 #aej opposition to a s*ool :5 we oppose ! s*ool ( ,diog5es to t ( ,ari/ippus1 or t ( ! ,laconians to t ( ! ,italians4 ,we place a my?ical belief 9 opposition to a my?ical belief1 z by "s traditions ,jupit] is said to be ! fa!r ( m5 & gods1 & by o!rs ,oceanus1 z we say-- ,oceanus fa!r ( ! gods1 & ,te?ys ! "m4 ,we place dogmatic op9ions 9 opposition to ea* o!r1 :5 #aea we say t "s decl>e t !re is only "o elem5t1 b o!rs t !y are inf9ite 9 numb]1 & "s t ! s\l is mortal1 o!rs t x is immortal2 & "s say t our affairs are direct$ by ! provid5ce ( ! gods1 b o!rs t !re is no provid5ce4 ,we place cu/om 9 opposition #aeb to o!r ?+s1 z = example to a law1 :5 we say t among ! ,p]sians x is ! cu/om to practice ,greek3 arr5omixiai1 b among ! ,romans x is =bidd5 by law to d x2 by u adult]y is =bidd51 b among ! ,massagetae indiff]5ce 9 ?is respect is all[$ by cu/om1 z ,eudoxos ( ,cnidus relates 9 ! fir/ "p ( 8 book ( travels2 among u x is =bidd5 ,greek3 mtrasi mignu/hai1 b among ! ,p]sians x is ! cu/om by pref]5ce to m>ry s2 ! ,egyptians m>ry si/]s also1 :i* among u is =bidd5 by law4 ,fur!r1 #aec we place a cu/om 9 opposition to a s*ool1 :5 we say t mo/ m5 ,greek3 ana*r\ntes mignuntai tais heautn gunaix91 ho de ,krats t ,hipp>*ia dmosia1 & ,diog5es w5t ar\nd ) "o %\ld] b>e1 b we g ar\nd ) our cu/om>y clo!s4 ,we place a cu/om 9 opposition to a my?ical #aed belief1 z :5 ! my?s say t ,cronus ate 8 own *ildr51 :ile ) u x is ! cu/om to take c>e ( our *ildr52 & among u x is ! cu/om to v5]ate ! gods z good1 & n liable to evil1 b !y are describ$ by ! poets z be+ w\nd$1 & also z be+ jeal\s ( ea* o!r4 ,we place a cu/om 9 opposition to a dogmatic op9ion :5 we say t #aee x is a cu/om ) u to seek good ?+s f ! gods1 b t ,epicurus says t ! div9e pays no he$ to u2 ,ari/ippus also held x to be a matt] ( indiff]5ce to we> a woman's robe1 b we consid] x %ameful4 ,we place a s*ool 9 opposition to a law1 z accord+ to ! law x is n all[$ #aef to beat a free & noble born man1 b ! wre/l]s & box]s /rike ea* o!r accord+ to ! tea*+ ( _! mann] ( life1 & al?\gh murd] is =bidd51 ! gladiators kill ea* o!r = ! same reason4 ,we place a my?ical #aeg belief 9 opposition to a s*ool :5 we say t1 al?\gh ! my?s say ( ,h]cules t 9 company ) ,omphale-- ,he c>d$ wool1 & bore s]vitude1 & did ?+s t n ev5 an ord9>y good man w\ld h done1 yet ,h]cules' !ory ( life 0 noble4 ,we place a #aeh my?ical belief 9 opposition to a dogmatic op9ion :5 we say t a?letes seek+ aft] glory z a good1 ent] = its sake ^u a labori\s pr(ession1 b _m philosoph]s1 on ! o!r h&1 tea* t glory is wor?less4 ,we place law 9 opposition to my?ical belief :5 we say ! poets #aei repres5t ! gods z work+ adult]y & s91 b among u ! law =bids ^? ?+s4 ,we place law 9 opposition to dogmatic op9ion :5 we say t ! foll[]s ( ,*rysippus hold #afj t x is a matt] ( indiff]5ce to m>ry "o's "m or si/]1 b ! law =bids ^! ?+s4 ,we place a my?ical belief 9 opposition to a dogmatic op9ion :5 we say t #afa ! poets repres5t ,jupit] z desc5d+ & hold+ int]c\rse ) mortal wom51 b ! ,dogmatics ?9k ?is 0 impossible2 also t ! poet says t ,jupit]1 on acc\nt #afb ( 8 sorr[ = ,s>p$on1 ra9$ drops ( blood ^u ! e>?1 b x is a dogma ( ! philosoph]s t ! div9e is exempt f suff]+2 & !y d5y ! my? ( ! horse-c5taurs1 giv+ u ! horse-c5taur z an example ( non-exi/5ce4 ,n[ we c\ld give _m o!r examples ( ea* #afc ( ! anti!ses m5tion$ above1 b = a brief argum5t1 ^! are suffici5t4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 su* anomaly ( ?+s is %[n by ?is ,trope also1 we %all n be able to say :at objects are by nature1 b only :at ea* ?+ appe>s to be l1 accord+ to ?is or t s*ool1 or ?is or t law1 or ?is or t cu/om1 or accord+ to ea* ( ! o!r conditions4 ,!re=e1 by ?is ,trope also1 we mu/ susp5d our judgm5t 9 reg>d to ! nature ( ext]nal objects4 ,?us we arrive at ,greek3 epo* ?r\gh ! t5 ,tropes4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,! ,five ,tropes4 ,! lat] ,sceptics1 h[ev]1 tea* ! foll[+ five ,tropes #afd ( ,greek3 epo*3 fir/1 ! "o bas$ ^u contradiction2 second1 ! regressus 9 inf9itum2 ?ird1 relation2 f\r?1 ! hypo!tical2 fif?1 ! circulus 9 prob&o4 ,! "o #afe bas$ ^u contradiction is ! "o f :i* we f9d1 t 9 ref]5ce to ! ?+ put be=e u = inve/igation1 a position has be5 develop$ :i* is impossible to be judg$1 ei!r practically1 or !oretically1 & !re=e1 z we are n able to ei!r accept or reject any?+1 we end 9 susp5d+ ! judgm5t4 ,! "o bas$ ^u ! regressus #aff 9 inf9itum is t 9 :i* we say t ! pro( br\ght =w>d = ! ?+ set be=e u calls = ano!r pro(1 & t "o ano!r1 & s on to inf9ity1 s t1 n hav+ any?+ f :i* to beg9 ! reason+1 ! susp5sion ( judgm5t foll[s4 ,! "o bas$ ^u relation1 z we h #afg said be=e1 is t "o 9 :i* ! object appe>s ( ?is k9d or t k9d1 z relat$ to ! judge & to ! ?+s reg>d$ toge!r ) x1 b we susp5d our judgm5t z to :at x is 9 reality4 ,! "o bas$ ^u hypo!sis is #afh illu/rat$ by ! ,dogmatics1 :5 9 ! regressus 9 inf9itum !y beg9 f some?+ t !y d n f\nd on reason1 b :i* !y simply take = grant$ )\t pro(4 ,! ,trope1 circulus 9 prob&o1 arises :5 ! ?+ #afi :i* ought to prove ! ?+ s\ght =1 ne$s to be su/a9$ by ! ?+ s\ght =1 & z we are unable to take ! "o = ! pro( ( ! o!r1 we susp5d our judgm5t 9 reg>d to bo?4 ,n[ we %all briefly %[ t x is possible to ref] e ?+ "u inve/igation to "o or ano!r ( ^! ,tropes1 z foll[s3 ! ?+ be=e u is ei!r s5sible or intellectual2 diff]5ce ( op9ion exi/s1 h[ev]1 z to :at x is 9 itself1 = "s say t only ! ?+s ( s5se #agj are true1 o!rs1 only ^? belong+ to ! und]/&+1 & o!rs say t "s ?+s ( s5se1 & "s ( ?\ght1 are true4 ,n[1 w x be said t ?is diff]5ce ( op9ion c be judg$ or _c be judg$8 ,if x _c be judg$1 !n we h ! result necess>ily ( susp5sion ( judgm5t1 because x is impossible to express op9ion 9 reg>d to ?+s ab\t :i* a diff]5ce ( op9ion exi/s :i* _c be judg$4 ,if x c be judg$1 !n we ask h[ x is to be judg$8 ,= #aga example1 ! s5sible1 = we %all limit ! argum5t fir/ to ?is--,is x to be judg$ by s5sible or by intellectual /&>ds8 ,= if x is to be judg$ by a s5sible "o1 s9ce we are 9 d\bt ab\t ! s5sible1 t w also ne$ some?+ else to su/a9 x2 & if t pro( is also some?+ s5sible1 some?+ else w aga9 be necess>y to prove x1 & s on 9 inf9itum4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! s5sible mu/ be judg$ by some?+ intellectual1 z !re is disagreem5t #agb 9 reg>d to ! intellectual1 ?is intellectual ?+ w require also judgm5t & pro(4 ,n[1 h[ is x to be prov$8 ,if by some?+ intellectual1 x w likewise be ?r[n into inf9itum2 if by some?+ s5sible1 z ! intellectual has be5 tak5 = ! pro( ( ! s5sible1 & ! s5sible has be5 tak5 = t ( ! intellectual1 ! circulus 9 prob&o is introduc$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 9 ord] to escape #agc f ?is1 ! "o :o is speak+ to u expects u to take some?+ = grant$ :i* has n be5 prov$1 9 ord] to prove :at foll[s1 ! hypo!tical ,trope is introduc$1 :i* provides no way ( escape4 ,= if ! "o :o makes ! hypo!sis is wor?y ( confid5ce1 we %\ld 9 e case be no less wor?y ( confid5ce 9 mak+ a contr>y hypo!sis4 ,if ! "o :o makes ! assumption assumes some?+ true1 he makes x suspici\s by us+ x z a hypo!sis1 & n z an e/abli%$ fact2 if x is false1 ! f\ndation ( ! reason+ is uns\nd4 ,if a hypo!sis is any help t[>ds a #agd tru/wor?y result1 let ! ?+ 9 "q itself be assum$1 & n some?+ else1 by :i*1 =soo?1 "o w\ld e/abli% ! ?+ "u discussion4 ,if x is absurd to assume ! ?+ que/ion$1 x is also absurd to assume t ^u :i* x re/s4 ,t all ?+s belong+ to ! s5ses are also 9 #age relation to some?+ else is evid5t1 because !y are 9 relation to ^? :o p]ceive !m4 ,x is cle> !n1 t :atev] ?+ ( s5se is br\ght be=e u1 x may be easily ref]r$ to "o ( ! five ,tropes4 ,& we come to a simil> conclusion 9 reg>d to intellectual ?+s4 ,= if x %\ld be said t !re is a diff]5ce ( op9ion reg>d+ !m :i* _c be judg$1 x w be grant$ t we mu/ susp5d ! judgm5t conc]n+ x4 ,9 case ! diff]5ce ( op9ion #agf c be judg$1 if x is judg$ ?r\gh any?+ intellectual1 we fall into ! regressus 9 inf9itum1 & if ?r\gh any?+ s5sible into ! circulus 9 prob&o2 =1 z ! s5sible is aga9 subject to diff]5ce ( op9ion1 & _c be judg$ by ! s5sible on acc\nt ( ! regressus 9 inf9itum1 x w h ne$ ( ! intellectual1 j z ! intellectual has ne$ ( ! s5sible4 ,b he :o accepts any?+ :i* is hypo!tical aga9 is absurd4 ,intellectual ?+s /& also #agg 9 relation1 because ! =m 9 :i* !y are express$ dep5ds on ! m9d ( ! ?9k]1 &1 if !y 7 9 reality exactly z !y are describ$1 !re w\ld n h be5 any diff]5ce ( op9ion ab\t !m4 ,!re=e ! intellectual also is br\ght "u ! five ,tropes1 & consequ5tly x is necess>y to susp5d ! judgm5t altoge!r ) reg>d to e ?+ t is br\ght be=e u4 ,su* are ! five ,tropes taught by ! lat] ,sceptics4 ,!y set !m =?1 n to ?r[ out ! t5 ,tropes1 b 9 ord] to put to %ame ! audacity ( ! ,dogmatics 9 a v>iety ( ways1 by ^! ,tropes z well z by ^?4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,! ,two ,tropes4 ,two o!r ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo* are also taught4 ,= z x #agh appe>s t ev]y?+ t is compreh5d$ is ei!r compreh5d$ ?r\gh itself or ?r\gh some?+ else1 x is ?\ght t ?is fact introduces d\bt 9 reg>d to all ?+s4 ,& t no?+ c be und]/ood ?r\gh itself is evid5t1 x is said1 f ! disagreem5t :i* exi/s altoge!r among ! physici/s 9 reg>d to s5sible & intellectual ?+s4 ,i mean1 ( c\rse1 a disagreem5t :i* _c be judg$1 z we are n able to use a s5sible or an intellectual crit]ion 9 judg+ x1 = ev]y?+ t we w\ld take has a "p 9 ! disagreem5t1 & is untru/wor?y4 ,nor is x conc$$ t any?+ c be compreh5d$ ?r\gh some?+ else2 = if #agi a ?+ is compreh5d$ ?r\gh some?+1 t mu/ always 9 turn be compreh5d$ ?r\gh some?+ else1 & ! regressus 9 inf9itum or ! circulus 9 prob&o foll[4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 a ?+ is compreh5d$ ?r\gh some?+ t "o wi%es to use z if x _h be5 compreh5d$ ?r\gh itself1 ?is is oppos$ to ! fact t no?+ c be compreh5d$ ?r\gh itself1 accord+ to :at we h said4 ,we d n "k h[ t :i* contradicts itself c be compreh5d$1 ei!r ?r\gh itself or ?r\gh some?+ else1 z no crit]ion ( ! tru? or ( compreh5sion appe>s1 & signs )\t pro( w\ld be reject$1 z we %all see 9 ! next book4 ,s mu* w suffice = ! pres5t ab\t susp5sion ( judgm5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,:at are ! ,tropes = ! ov]turn+ ( ,aetiology8 ,9 ! same mann] z we tea* ! ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo*1 #ahj "s set =? ,tropes ?r\gh :i* we oppose ! ,dogmatics1 by express+ d\bt 9 reg>d to ! aetiology ( :i* !y are especially pr\d4 ,s ,a5esidemus tea*es eight ,tropes1 by :i* he ?9ks t he c prove all ! dogmatic aetiology useless4 ,! fir/ ( ^! ,tropes1 he said1 relates to ! "* #aha ( aetiology 9 g5]al1 :i* does n give inconte/able te/imony 9 reg>d to ph5om5a1 because x treats ( unse5 ?+s4 ,! second ,trope /ates t al?\gh abundant res\rces exi/ by :i* to inve/igate ! cause ( a ?+ 9 "q1 "s ,dogmatics inve/igate x 9 "o way only4 ,! ?ird ,trope #ahb /ates t ! ,dogmatics assign causes :i* d n %[ any ord] = ?+s :i* h tak5 place 9 an ord]ly mann]4 ,! f\r? ,trope /ates t ! ,dogmatics1 accept+ ph5om5a z !y take place1 ?9k t !y also und]/& h[ unse5 ?+s take place1 al?\gh p]haps ! unse5 ?+s h tak5 place 9 ! same way z ! ph5om5a1 & p]haps 9 "s o!r way peculi> to !mselves4 ,! fif? ,trope /ates #ahc t !y all1 s to speak1 assign causes accord+ to _! own hypo!ses ab\t ! elem5ts1 b n accord+ to any commonly accept$ me?ods4 ,! six? /ates t !y (t5 expla9 ?+s inve/igat$ accord+ to _! own hypo!ses1 b ignore oppos+ hypo!ses :i* h equal probability4 ,! sev5? /ates t !y (t5 give reasons = ?+s t #ahd n only conflict ) ph5om5a1 b also ) _! own hypo!ses4 ,! eigh? /ates t al?\gh t :i* seems manife/1 & t :i* is to be inve/igat$1 are (t5 equally inscrutable1 !y build up a !ory f ! "o ab\t ! o!r1 al?\gh bo? are equally inscrutable4 ,x is n impossible1 ,a5esidemus said also1 t "s ,dogmatics #ahe %\ld fail 9 _! !ories ( causality f o!r comb9ations ( reasons d$ucible f ! ,tropes giv5 above4 ,p]haps also ! five ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo* are suffici5t to refute aetiology1 = he :o proposes a cause w propose "o :i* is ei!r 9 h>mony ) all ! sects ( philosophy1 ) ,scepticism1 & ) ph5om5a1 or "o t is n4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 x is n possible t a cause %\ld be 9 h>mony ) !m1 = ph5om5a & unkn[n ?+s altoge!r disagree ) ea* o!r4 ,if x is n 9 h>mony ) !m1 ! reason ( ?is w also be dem&$ ( ! "o :o propos$ #ahf x2 & if he accepts a ph5om5on z ! cause ( a ph5om5on1 or some?+ unkn[n z ! cause ( ! unkn[n1 he w be ?r[n into ! regressus 9 inf9itum2 if he uses "o cause to acc\nt = ano!r "o1 into ! circulus 9 prob&o2 b if he /ops any:]e1 he w ei!r say t ! cause t he proposes holds good s f> z reg>ds ! ?+s t h be5 said1 & introduce relation1 aboli%+ an absolute /&po9t2 or if he accepts any?+ by hypo!sis1 he w be attack$ by u4 ,!re=e x is p]haps possible to put ! tem]ity ( ! ,dogmatics to %ame 9 aetiology by ^! ,tropes4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,! ,sceptical ,=mulae4 ,:5 we use any "o ( ^! ,tropes1 or ! ,tropes ( #ahg ,greek3 epo*1 we employ ) !m c]ta9 =mulae :i* %[ ! ,sceptical me?od & our own feel+1 z = in/ance1 ! say+s1 ,no m1 ,"o mu/ det]m9e no?+1 & c]ta9 o!rs4 ,x is fitt+ !re=e to treat ( ^! 9 ?is place4 ,let u beg9 ) ,no m4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,! ,=mula ,no m4 ,we sometimes express ?is z ,i h giv5 x1 & sometimes #ahh ?us1 ,no?+ m4 ,= we d n accept ! ,no m1 z "s und]/& x1 = ! exam9ation ( ! special1 & ,no?+ m = t ( ! g5]al1 b we use ,no m & ,no?+ m )\t any diff]5ce1 & we %all at pres5t treat ( !m z "o & ! same expression4 ,n[ ?is =mula is defective1 = z :5 we say a d\ble "o we really mean a d\ble g>m5t1 & :5 we say a broad "o we really mean a broad road2 s :5 we say ,no m we mean really no m ?an ?is1 or 9 e way ! same4 ,b "s ( ! ,sceptics use #ahi in/ead ( ! int]rogation ,no8 ! int]rogation ,:at1 ?is r ?an ?is8 us+ ! ^w :at 9 ! s5se ( :at is ! reason1 s t ! =mula means1 ,:at is ! reason = ?is r ?an = ?is8 ,x is a cu/om>y ?+1 h[ev]1 to use an int]rogation in/ead ( a /atem5t1 z ,:o ( ! mortals does n "k ! wife ( ,jupit]8 & also to use a /atem5t in/ead ( an int]rogation1 z ,i seek :]e ,dion dwells1 & ,i ask :y "o %\ld admire a poet4 ,! ^w :at is also us$ in/ead ( :at = by ,m5&]--7,=7 :at did ,i rema9 beh9d8 ,! =mula ,n m ?is ?an ?is expresses our own condition ( m9d1 & signifies t #aij because ( ! equality ( ! ?+s t are oppos$ to ea* o!r we f9ally atta9 to a /ate ( equilibrium ( s\l4 ,we mean by equality t equality :i* appe>s to u z probable1 by ?+s plac$ 9 opposition to ea* o!r we mean simply ?+s :i* conflict ) ea* o!r1 & by a /ate ( equilibrium we mean a /ate 9 :i* we d n ass5t to "o ?+ m ?an to ano!r4 ,ev5 if ! =mula ,no?+ #aia m seems to express ass5t or d5ial1 we d n use x s1 b we use x loosely1 & n ) accuracy1 ei!r in/ead ( an int]rogation or in/ead ( say+1 ,i d n "k to :i* ( ^! ,i w\ld ass5t1 & to :i* ,i w\ld n4 ,:at lies be=e u is to express :at appe>s to u1 b we are indiff]5t to ! words by :i* we express x4 ,?is mu/ be und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t we use ! =mula ,no?+ m )\t affirm+ 9 reg>d to x t x is :olly sure & true1 b we pres5t x z x appe>s to u4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,aphasia4 ,we expla9 ,aphasia z foll[s3 ,! ^w ,greek3 phasis is us$ #aib 9 two ways1 hav+ a g5]al & a special signification4 ,accord+ to ! g5]al signification1 x expresses affirmation or negation1 z ,x is day or ,x is n day2 accord+ to ! special signification1 x expresses an affirmation only1 & negations are n call$ ,greek3 phaseis4 ,n[ ,aphasia is ! opposite ( ,greek3 phasis 9 its g5]al signification1 :i*1 z we said1 comprises bo? affirmation & negation4 ,x foll[s t ,aphasia is a condition ( m9d1 accord+ to :i* we say t we nei!r affirm nor d5y any?+4 ,x is evid5t f ?is t we d n und]/& by ,aphasia some?+ t #aic inevitably results f ! nature ( ?+s1 b we mean t we n[ f9d ourselves 9 ! condition ( m9d express$ by x 9 reg>d to ! ?+s t are "u inve/igation4 ,x is necess>y to rememb] t we d n say t we affirm or d5y any ( ^? ?+s t are dogmatically /at$ 9 reg>d to ! unkn[n1 = we yield ass5t only to ^? ?+s :i* affect our feel+s & oblige u to ass5t to !m4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,p]haps1 & ,x is possible1 & ,x may be4 ,! =mulae ,p]haps1 & ,p]haps n1 & ,x is #aid possible1 & ,x is n possible1 & ,x may be1 & ,x may n be1 we use in/ead ( ,p]haps x is1 & ,p]haps x is n1 & ,x is possible t x is1 & ,x is possible t x is n1 & ,x may be t x is1 & ,x may be t x is n4 ,t is1 we use ! =mula ,x is n possible = ! sake ( brevity1 in/ead ( say+ ,x is n possible to be1 & ,x may n be in/ead ( ,x may n be t x is1 & ,p]haps n in/ead ( ,p]haps x is n4 ,aga91 we d n "h dispute ab\t words1 nei!r d we "q if ! #aie =mulae mean ^! ?+s absolutely1 b we use !m loosely1 z ,i said be=e4 ,yet ,i ?9k x is evid5t t ^! =mulae express ,aphasia4 ,= c]ta9ly ! =mula ,p]haps x is really includes t :i* seems to contradict x1 i4e4 ! =mula ,p]haps x is n1 because x does n affirm 9 9 reg>d to any?+ t x is really s4 ,x is ! same also 9 reg>d to ! o!rs4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,greek3 epo* or ! ,susp5sion ( ,judgm5t4 ,:5 ,i say t ,i susp5d my judgm5t1 ,i mean t ,i _c #aif say :i* ( ^? ?+s pres5t$ %\ld be believ$1 & :i* %\ld n be believ$1 %[+ t ?+s appe> equal to me 9 respect to tru/wor?9ess & untru/wor?9ess4 ,n[ we d n affirm t !y are equal1 b we /ate :at appe>s to u 9 reg>d to !m at ! "t :5 !y pres5t !mselves to u4 ,greek3 epo* means ! hold+ back ( ! op9ion1 s z nei!r to affirm nor d5y any?+ because ( ! equality ( ! ?+s 9 "q4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,! ,=mula ,i det]m9e ,no?+4 ,9 reg>d to ! =mula ,i det]m9e no?+1 we say ! #aig foll[+3 ,by det]m9e we mean1 n simply to speak1 b to give ass5t to an affirmation ) reg>d to "s unkn[n ?+4 ,= x w soon be f\nd t ! ,sceptic det]m9es no?+1 n ev5 ! =mula ,i det]m9e no?+1 = ?is =mula is n a dogmatic op9ion1 t is an ass5t to some?+ unkn[n1 b an expression decl>+ :at our condition ( m9d is4 ,:51 = example1 ! ,sceptic says1 ,i det]m9e no?+1 he means ?is3 ,accord+ to my pres5t feel+ ,i c ass]t or d5y no?+ dogmatically reg>d+ ! ?+s "u inve/igation1 & 9 say+ ?is he expresses :at appe>s to him 9 ref]5ce to ! ?+s "u discussion4 ,he does n express himself positively1 b he /ates :at he feels4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,! ,=mula ,e ?+ is ,undet]m9$4 ,! expression ,indet]m9ation fur!rmore %[s a /ate #aih ( m9d 9 :i* we nei!r d5y nor affirm positively any?+ reg>d+ ?+s t are inve/igat$ 9 a dogmatic way1 t is ! ?+s t are unkn[n4 ,:5 !n ! ,sceptic says ,e ?+ is undet]m9$1 he uses is undet]m9$1 9 ! s5se ( x appe>s undet]m9$ to him4 ,! words e ?+ d n mean all exi/5ces1 b ^? t he has exam9$ ( ! unkn[n ?+s t are inve/igat$ by ! ,dogmati/s4 ,by undet]m9$1 he means t !re is no pref]5ce 9 ! ?+s t are plac$ 9 opposition to ea* o!r1 or t !y simply conflict ) ea* o!r 9 respect to tru/wor?9ess or untru/wor?9ess4 ,& z ! "o :o #aii says ,i am walk+ really means ,x is ,i t am walk+1 s he :o says ,e ?+ is undet]m9$ means at ! same "t1 accord+ to our tea*+s1 z f> z ,i am conc]n$1 or z x appe>s to me1 z if he 7 say+ ,z f> z ,i h exam9$ ! ?+s t are "u inve/igation 9 a dogmatic mann]1 x appe>s to me t no "o ( !m excels ! "o :i* conflicts ) x 9 tru/wor?9ess or untru/wor?9ess4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,! ,=mula ,e ?+ is ,incompreh5sible4 ,we treat ! =mula ,e ?+ is incompreh5sible 9 #bjj ! same way4 ,= e ?+ we int]pret 9 ! same way z above1 & we supply ! words to me s t :at we say is ?is3 ,z f> z ,i h inspect$ ! unkn[n ?+s :i* are dogmatically exam9$1 x appe>s to me t e ?+ is incompreh5sible4 ,?is is n1 h[ev]1 to affirm t ! ?+s :i* are exam9$ by ! ,dogmati/s are ( su* a nature z to be necess>ily incompreh5sible1 b "o expresses 8 own feel+ 9 say+ ,i see t ,i h n ?us f> compreh5d$ any ( ^? ?+s because ( ! equilibrium ( ! ?+s t are plac$ 9 opposition to ea* o!r4 ,:5ce x seems to me t e ?+ t has be5 br\ght =w>d to dispute our =mulae has fall5 wide ( ! m>k4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,! ,=mulae ,i d n compreh5d & ,i d n und]/&4 ,! =mulae ,i d n compreh5d & ,i d n und]/& #bja %[ a condition ( m9d 9 :i* ! ,sceptic /&s alo( = ! pres5t f ass]t+ or d5y+ any?+ 9 reg>d to ! unkn[n ?+s "u inve/igation1 z is evid5t f :at we said be=e ab\t ! o!r =mulae4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,! ,=mula ,to place an equal ,/atem5t 9 opposition to e ,/atem5t4 ,fur!rmore1 :5 we say ,e /atem5t may h an equal #bjb /atem5t plac$ 9 opposition to x1 by e1 we mean all ! /atem5ts t we h exam9$2 we d n use ! ^w /atem5t simply1 b = a /atem5t :i* seeks to prove some?+ dogmatically ab\t ?+s t are unkn[n1 & n at all "o t %[s a process ( reason+ f premises & conclusions1 b some?+ :i* is put toge!r 9 any sort ( way4 ,we use ! ^w equal 9 ref]5ce to tru/wor?9ess or untru/wor?9ess4 ,is plac$ 9 opposition we use in/ead ( ! common expression to conflict )1 & we supply z x appe>s to me4 ,:5 !re=e "o says1 ,x seems to me #bjc t e /atem5t :i* ,i h exam9$1 :i* proves some?+ dogmatically1 may h ano!r /atem5t plac$ 9 opposition to x :i* also proves some?+ dogmatically1 & :i* is equal to x 9 tru/wor?9ess & untru/wor?9ess1 ?is is n ass]t$ dogmatically1 b is an expression ( human feel+ z x appe>s to ! "o :o feels x4 ,"s ,sceptics #bjd express ! =mula z foll[s3 ,e /atem5t %\ld h an equal "o plac$ 9 opposition to x1 dem&+ x au?oritatively ?us3 ,let u place 9 opposition to e /atem5t t proves some?+ dogmatically ano!r conflict+ /atem5t :i* also seeks to prove some?+ dogmatically1 & is equal to x 9 tru/wor?9ess & untru/wor?9ess4 ,naturally ?is is direct$ to ! ,sceptics1 b ! inf9itive %\ld be us$ in/ead ( ! imp]ative1 t is1 to oppose in/ead ( let u oppose4 ,?is =mula is recomm5d$ to ! #bje ,sceptic1 le/ he %\ld be deceiv$ by ! ,dogmati/s & give up 8 inve/igations1 & ra%ly fail ( ! ,greek3 at>axia :i* is ?\ght to accompany ,greek3 epo* 9 reg>d to ev]y?+1 z we h expla9$ above4 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,g5]al ,obs]vations on ! ,=mulae ( ! ,sceptics4 ,we h treat$ ( a suffici5t numb] ( ^! =mulae = #bjf an outl9e1 especially s9ce :at we h said ab\t ^? m5tion$ applies also to o!rs t we h omitt$4 ,9 reg>d to all ! ,sceptical =mulae1 x mu/ be und]/ood 9 advance t we d n affirm !m to be absolutely true1 because we say t !y c ev5 refute !mselves1 s9ce !y are !mselves includ$ 9 ^? ?+s to :i* !y ref]1 j z ca?>tic m$ic9es n only purge ! body ( humors1 b c>ry (f !mselves ) ! humors4 ,we say !n t we use ^! #bjg =mulae1 n z lit]ally mak+ kn[n ! ?+s = :i* !y are us$1 b loosely1 & if "o wi%es1 inaccurately4 ,x is n fitt+ = ! ,sceptic to dispute ab\t words1 especially z x contributes to our purpose to say t ^! =mulae h no absolute mean+2 _! mean+ is a relative "o1 t is1 relative to ! ,sceptics4 ,besides1 x is to be #bjh rememb]$ t we d n say !m ab\t all ?+s 9 g5]al1 b ab\t ! unkn[n1 & ?+s t are dogmatically inve/igat$1 & t we say :at appe>s to u1 & t we d n express ourselves decid$ly ab\t ! nature ( ext]nal objects4 ,by ?is means ,i ?9k t e sophism br\ght aga9/ ! ,sceptical =mulae c be ov]turn$4 ,we h n[ #bji %[n ! "* ( ,scepticism by exam9+ its idea1 its p>ts1 its crit]ion & aim1 & also ! ,tropes ( ,greek3 epo*1 & by treat+ ( ! ,sceptical =mulae4 ,we ?9k x !re=e appropriate to ent] briefly into ! di/9ction betwe5 ,scepticism & ! ne>ly relat$ s*ools ( philosophy 9 ord] to m cle>ly und]/& ! ,sceptical ,s*ool4 ,we w beg9 ) ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus4 ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,9 :at does ! ,sceptical ,s*ool diff] f ! ,philosophy ( ,h]aclitus8 ,n[ t ?is s*ool diff]s f ours is evid5t1 = #baj ,h]aclitus expresses himself ab\t _m unkn[n ?+s dogmatically1 :i* we d n1 z has be5 said4 ,a5esidemus & 8 foll[]s said t ! ,sceptical ,s*ool is ! way to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus4 ,!y gave z a reason = ?is t ! /atem5t t contradictory pr$icates appe> to be applicable to ! same ?+1 leads ! way to ! /atem5t t contradictory pr$icates are 9 reality applicable to ! same ?+2 & z ! ,sceptics say t contradictory pr$icates appe> to be applicable to ! same ?+1 ! ,h]aclitans proce$ f ?is to ! doctr9e t su* pr$icates are 9 reality applicable4 ,we reply to ?is t ! /atem5t t contradictory pr$icates appe> to be applicable to ! same ?+ is n a dogma ( ! ,sceptics1 b is a fact t pres5ts itself n only to ! ,sceptics1 b to o!r philosoph]s1 & to all m54 ,no "o1 = in/ance1 w\ld #baa v5ture to say t honey does n ta/e sweet to ^? 9 heal?1 & bitt] to ^? :o h ! jaundice1 s t ! ,h]aclitans />t f a preconception common to all m51 z d we also1 & p]haps ! o!r s*ools ( philosophy likewise4 ,if1 h[ev]1 !y _h attribut$ ! orig9 ( ! /atem5t t contradictory pr$icates are pres5t 9 ! same ?+ to any ( ! ,sceptical tea*+s1 z1 = example1 to ! =mula ,e ?+ is incompreh5sible1 or ,i det]m9e no?+1 or any ( ! o!r simil> ones1 x may be t :i* !y say w\ld foll[2 b s9ce !y />t f t :i* is a common exp]i5ce1 n only to u1 b to o!r philosoph]s1 & 9 life1 :y %\ld "o say t our s*ool is a pa? to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus m ?an any ( ! o!r s*ools ( philosophy1 or ?an life itself1 z we all make use ( ! same subject matt]8 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,sceptical ,s*ool may n #bab only fail to help t[>ds ! k ( ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus1 b may ev5 h9d] x6 ,= ! ,sceptic attacks all ! dogmas ( ,h]aclitus z hav+ be5 ra%ly giv51 & opposes on ! "o h& ! doctr9e ( conflagration1 & on ! o!r1 ! doctr9e t contradictory pr$icates 9 reality apply to ! same ?+1 & 9 reg>d to e dogma ( ,h]aclitus he scorns 8 dogmatic ra%ness1 & !n1 9 ! mann] t ,i h be=e ref]r$ to1 adduces ! =mulae ,i d n und]/& & ,i det]m9e no?+1 :i* conflict ) ! ,h]aclitan doctr9es4 ,x is absurd to say t ?is conflict+ s*ool is a pa? to ! v sect ) :i* x conflicts4 ,x is !n absurd to say t ! ,sceptical ,s*ool is a pa? to ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,9 :at does ! ,sceptical ,s*ool diff] f ! ,philosophy ( ,democritus8 ,! philosophy ( ,democritus is also said to h community #bac ) ,scepticism1 because x seems to use ! same matt] t we d4 ,=1 f ! fact t honey seems sweet to "s & bitt] to o!rs1 ,democritus reasons1 x is said1 t honey is nei!r sweet nor bitt]1 & !re=e he accords ) ! =mula ,no m1 :i* is a =mula ( ! ,sceptics4 ,b ! ,sceptics & ! ,democritans use ! =mula ,no m diff]5tly f ea* o!r1 = !y emphasise ! negation 9 ! expression1 b we1 ! n kn[+ :e!r bo? ( ! ph5om5a exi/ or nei!r "o1 & s we diff] 9 ?is respect4 ,! di/9ction1 h[ev]1 becomes mo/ evid5t :5 ,democritus says t #bad atoms & empty space are real1 = by real he means exi/+ 9 reality4 ,n[1 al?\gh he beg9s ) ! anomaly 9 ph5om5a1 yet1 s9ce he says t atoms & empty space really exi/1 x is sup]flu\s1 ,i ?9k1 ev5 to say t he diff]s f u4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,9 :at does ,scepticism diff] f ! ,cyr5aic ,philosophy8 ,"s say t ! ,cyr5aic ,s*ool is ! same z ! #bae ,sceptical1 because t s*ool also claims to compreh5d only conditions ( m9d4 ,x diff]s1 h[ev]1 f x1 because1 :ile ! =m] makes pleasure & ! g5tle motion ( ! fle% its aim1 we make ,greek3 at>axia ours1 & ?is is oppos$ to ! aim ( _! s*ool4 ,= :e!r pleasure is pres5t or n1 confusion awaits him :o ma9ta9s t pleasure is an aim1 z ,i h %[n 9 :at ,i said ab\t ! aim4 ,& !n1 9 addition1 we susp5d our judgm5t z f> z ! reason+ ) reg>d to ext]nal objects is conc]n$1 b ! ,cyr5aics pron\nce ! nature ( ^! inscrutable4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,9 :at does ,scepticism diff] f ! ,philosophy ( ,protagoras8 ,protagoras makes man ! measure ( all ?+s1 ( ?+s #baf t are t !y are1 & ?+s t are n t !y are n1 mean+ by measure1 crit]ion1 & by ?+s1 ev5ts1 t is to say really1 man is ! crit]ion = all ev5ts1 ( ?+s t are t !y are1 & ( ?+s t are n t !y are n4 ,& = t reason he accepts only ! ph5om5a t appe> to ea* man1 & ?us he introduces relation4 ,!re=e #bag he seems to h community ) ! ,pyrrhoneans4 ,he diff]s1 h[ev]1 f !m1 & we %all see ! diff]5ce aft] we h some:at expla9$ h[ ?+s seem$ to ,protagoras4 ,he says1 = example1 t matt] is fluid1 & z x fl[s1 additions are con/antly made 9 ! place ( t :i* is c>ri$ away2 ! p]ceptions also are arrang$ anew & *ang$1 accord+ to ! age & accord+ to o!r conditions ( ! body4 ,he says also1 t ! reasons ( all ph5om5a #bah are pres5t 9 matt]1 s t matt] c be all t x appe>s to be to all m5 z f> z its p[] is conc]n$4 ,m51 h[ev]1 appreh5d diff]5tly at diff]5t times1 accord+ to ! diff]5t conditions t !y are 92 = he t is 9 a natural condition w appreh5d ^? qualities 9 matt] t c appe> to ^? :o are 9 a natural condition1 :ile on #bai ! contr>y1 ^? :o are 9 an unnatural condition w appreh5d ^? qualities t c appe> to ! abnormal4 ,fur!rmore1 ! same reason+ w\ld hold true 9 reg>d to diff]5ces 9 age1 to sleep+ & wak+1 & ea* ( ! o!r diff]5t conditions4 ,!re=e man becomes ! crit]ion ( ?+s t are1 = all ?+s t appe> to m5 exi/ = m51 & ^? ?+s t d n appe> to any "o among m5 d n exi/4 ,we see t he dogmatises 9 say+ t matt] is fluid1 & also 9 say+ t ! reasons = all ph5om5a h _! f\ndation 9 matt]1 :ile ^! ?+s are unkn[n1 & to u are ?+s reg>d+ :i* we susp5d our judgm5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,9 :at does ,scepticism diff] f ! ,academic ,philosophy8 ,"s say fur!r t ! ,academic philosophy is ! same z #bbj ,scepticism1 !re=e x seems appropriate to me to treat ( t also4 ,!re h be51 z ! mo/ say1 ?ree ,academies--! mo/ anci5t "o1 t ( ,plato & 8 foll[]s2 ! second & middle "o1 t ( ,arcesilaus & 8 foll[]s1 ,arcesilaus be+ ! pupil ( ,polemo2 ! ?ird & new ,academy1 t ( ,c>neades & ,clitoma*us & _! foll[]s2 "s add also a f\r?1 t ( ,philo & ,*>mides1 & _! foll[]s2 & "s c\nt ev5 a fif?1 t ( ,antio*us & 8 foll[]s4 ,beg9n+ !n f ! old ,academy1 let u consid] ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! s*ools ( philosophy m5tion$4 ,n[ "s h said t ,plato 0 a #bba ,dogmatic1 o!rs t he 0 a ,sceptic1 & o!rs t he 0 9 "s ?+s a ,sceptic & 9 "s ?+s a ,dogmatic4 ,= 9 ! f5c+ dialogues1 :]e ,socrates is introduc$ z ei!r mak+ sport ( someone or cont5d+ aga9/ ! ,sophi/s1 ,plato has1 !y say1 a f5c+ & sceptical "*1 b he is dogmatic :5 he expresses himself s]i\sly1 ei!r ?r\gh ,socrates or ,timaeus or any su* p]son4 ,9 reg>d to ^? #bbb :o say t he is a ,dogmatic1 or a ,dogmatic 9 "s ?+s & a ,sceptic 9 o!rs1 x w\ld be sup]flu\s1 x seems to me1 to speak n[1 = !y !mselves grant t he is diff]5t f u4 ,! "q z to :e!r he 0 really a ,sceptic or n we treat m fully 9 ! ,memor&a1 b "h we /ate briefly t accord+ to ,m5odotus & ,a5esidemus 7= ^! especially def5d$ ?is position7 ,plato dogmatises :5 he expresses himself reg>d+ ideas1 & reg>d+ ! exi/5ce ( ,provid5ce1 & :5 he /ates t ! virtu\s life is m to be *os5 ?an ! "o ( vice4 ,if he ass5ts to ^! ?+s z true1 he dogmatises2 or ev5 if he accepts !m z m probable ?an o!rwise he dep>ts f ! sceptical "*1 s9ce he gives a pref]5ce to "o ?+ above ano!r 9 tru/wor?9ess or untru/wor?9ess2 = h[ =eign ?is is to u is evid5t f :at we h said be=e4 ,ev5 if :5 he #bbc p]=ms m5tal gymna/ics1 z !y say1 he expresses "s ?+s sceptically1 he is n because ( ?is a ,sceptic4 ,= he :o dogmatises ab\t "o ?+1 or1 9 %ort1 gives pref]5ce to "o m5tal image ov] ano!r 9 tru/wor?9ess or untru/wor?9ess 9 respect to any?+ t is unkn[n1 is a ,dogmatic 9 "*1 z ,timon %[s by :at he said ( ,x5ophanes4 ,= aft] hav+ prais$ ,x5ophanes 9 _m #bbd ?+s1 & ev5 aft] hav+ d$icat$ 8 ,satires to him1 he made him m\rn & say-- ,w\ld t ,i also might ga9 t m9d pr(\nd1 ,able to look bo? ways4 ,9 a trea*]\s pa? h ,i be5 decoy$1 ,& /ill 9 old age am ) all wisdom unw$4 ,= :]ev] ,i turn$ my view ,all ?+s 7 resolv$ into unity2 all ?+s1 alway ,f all s\rces drawn1 7 m]g$ into nature ! same4 ,timon calls him some:at1 b n entirely1 free f vanity1 :5 he said-- ,x5ophanes some:at free f vanity1 mock] ( ,hom]ic deceit1 ,f> f m5 he conceiv$ a god1 on all sides equal1 ,above pa91 a be+ spiritualis$1 or intellect4 ,9 say+ t he 0 some:at free f vanity1 he meant t he 0 9 "s ?+s free f vanity4 ,he call$ him a mock] ( ! ,hom]ic deceit because he _h sc(f$ at ! deceit 9 ,hom]4 ,x5ophanes also dogmatis$1 contr>y to ! assumptions #bbe ( o!r m51 t all ?+s are "o1 & t ,god is gr[n toge!r ) all ?+s1 t ,he is sph]ical1 ins5sible1 un*angeable1 & reasonable1 :5ce ! diff]5ce ( ,x5ophanes f u is easily prov$4 ,9 %ort1 f :at has be5 said1 x is evid5t t al?\gh ,plato expresses d\bt ab\t "s ?+s1 s long z he has express$ himself 9 c]ta9 places 9 reg>d to ! exi/5ce ( unkn[n ?+s1 or z pref]r+ "s ?+s to o!rs 9 tru/wor?9ess1 he _c be1 x seems to me1 a ,sceptic4 ,^? ( ! ,new ,academy1 al?\gh !y say t all ?+s are incompreh5sible1 #bbf diff] f ! ,sceptics1 p]haps ev5 9 say+ t all ?+s are incompreh5sible 7= !y ass]t decid$ly 9 reg>d to ?is1 b ! ,sceptic ?9ks x possible t "s ?+s may be compreh5d$71 b !y diff] evid5tly /ill fur!r f u 9 _! judgm5t ( good & evil4 ,= ! ,academicians say t !re is su* a ?+ z good & evil1 n z we say x1 b m ) ! conviction t t :i* !y call good exi/s ?an t x does n2 & likewise 9 reg>d to ! evil1 :ile we d n say any?+ is good or evil ) ! conviction t x is probably s1 b we live our lives 9 an unprejudic$ way 9 ord] n to be inactive4 ,moreov]1 we say t our ideas are equal to ea* o!r 9 tru/wor?9ess #bbg & untru/wor?9ess1 z f> z _! nature goes1 :ile !y say t "s are probable & o!rs improbable4 ,!y make a diff]5ce also betwe5 ! improbable ones1 = !y believe t "s ( !m are only probable1 o!rs probable & undisput$1 /ill o!rs probable1 undisput$1 & te/$4 ,z = example1 :5 a coil$ rope is ly+ 9 a some:at d>k room1 he :o comes 9 sudd5ly gets only a probable idea ( x1 & ?9ks t x is a s]p5t2 b x appe>s to be a rope #bbh to him :o has look$ c>efully ar\nd1 & f\nd out t x does n move1 & t x is ( su* a color1 & s on1 accord+ to an idea :i* is probable & undisput$4 ,! te/$ idea is l ?is3 ,x is said t ,h]cules l$ ,alce/is aft] %e 0 dead back aga9 f ,hades & %[$ h] to ,admetus1 & he receiv$ an idea t 0 probable & undisput$ reg>d+ ,alce/is4 ,z1 h[ev]1 he knew t %e 0 dead1 8 m9d drew back f belief & incl9$ to disbelief4 ,n[ ^? belong+ to ! ,new ,academy pref] ! idea :i* #bbi is probable & undisput$ to ! simply probable "o4 ,to bo? ( ^!1 h[ev]1 !y pref] t :i* is probable1 undisput$1 & te/$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 bo? ^? ( ! ,academy & ! ,sceptics say t !y believe c]ta9 ?+s1 !re is an evid5t diff]5ce betwe5 ! two s*ools ( philosophy ev5 9 ?is2 = to believe is us$ 9 a diff]5t s5se1 #bcj mean+1 on ! "o h&1 n to resi/1 b simply to accept )\t /rong incl9ation & approval1 z ! *ild is said to believe ! tea*]2 on ! o!r h&1 to believe is us$ to signify ass5t+ to some?+ ) *oice1 &1 z x 71 ) ! sympa?y t accompanies /rong w1 z ! prodigal foll[s ! "o :o *ooses to live a luxuri\s life4 ,!re=e1 s9ce ,c>neades1 ,clitoma*us1 & _! foll[]s say t !y are /rongly incl9$ to believe t a ?+ is probable1 & we simply all[ t x may be s )\t ass5t1 we diff] #bca f !m1 ,i ?9k1 9 ?is way4 ,we diff] f ! ,new ,academy likewise 9 ?+s conc]n+ ! aim2 = :ile ! m5 :o say t !y gov]n !mselves accord+ to t ,s*ool avail !mselves ( ! idea ( ! probable 9 life1 we live accord+ to ! laws & cu/oms1 & our natural feel+s1 9 an unprejudic$ way4 ,we c\ld say m reg>d+ ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two s*ools if we did n aim at brevity4 ,nev]!less1 ,arcesilaus1 :o z we said 0 ! lead] & #bcb *ief ( ! ,middle ,academy1 seems to me to h v mu* 9 common ) ! ,pyrrhonean tea*+s1 s t 8 s*ool & ours are almo/ "o4 ,= nei!r does "o f9d t he express$ an op9ion ab\t ! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce ( any?+1 nor does he pref] "o ?+ to ano!r z reg>ds tru/wor?9ess or untru/wor?9ess2 he susp5ds 8 judgm5t reg>d+ all ?+s1 & ! aim ( 8 philosophy is ,greek3 epo*1 :i* is accompani$ by ,greek3 at>axia1 & ?is agrees ) :at we h said4 ,b he calls ! p>ticul> in/ances ( #bcc ,greek3 epo* bona1 & ! p>ticul> in/ances ( ass5t mala4 ,! diff]5ce is t we say ^! ?+s accord+ to :at appe>s to u1 & n affirmatively1 :ile he says !m z if speak+ ( realities1 t is1 he says t ,greek3 epo* is 9 itself good1 & ass5t an evil4 ,if we are to believe also ! ?+s t are said ab\t him1 he appe>$ at fir/ #bcd sight to be a ,pyrrhonean1 b he 0 9 tru? a ,dogmatic1 = he us$ to te/ 8 companions by ! me?od ( d\bt to see :e!r !y 7 gift$ en\gh to take 9 ,plato's dogmas1 s t he appe>$ to be a ,sceptic1 b at ! same "t he communicat$ ! doctr9es ( ,plato to ^? ( 8 companions :o 7 gift$4 ,h5ce ,ari/on also said ab\t him-- ,plato 9 front1 ,pyrrhon beh9d1 ,diodorus 9 ! middle1 because he avail$ himself ( ! dialectic ( ,diodorus1 b 0 #bce :olly a ,platoni/4 ,n[ ,philo & 8 foll[]s say t z f> z ! ,/oic crit]ion is conc]n$1 t is to say ! ,greek3 phantasia katalptik1 ?+s are incompreh5sible1 b z f> z ! nature ( ?+s is conc]n$1 !y are compreh5sible4 ,antio*us1 h[ev]1 transf]r$ ! ,/oa to ! ,academy1 s t x 0 ev5 said ( him t he taught ! ,/oic philosophy 9 ! ,academy1 because he tri$ to %[ t ! ,/oic doctr9es are f\nd 9 ,plato4 ,! diff]5ce1 !re=e1 betwe5 ! ,sceptical ,s*ool & ! ,f\r? & ,fif? ,academy is evid5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,is ,empiricism 9 ,m$ic9e ! same z ,scepticism8 ,"s say t ! m$ical sect call$ ,empiricism is ! same #bcf z ,scepticism4 ,yet ! fact mu/ be recognis$1 t ev5 if ,empiricism does ma9ta9 ! impossibility ( k1 x is nei!r ,scepticism itself1 nor w\ld x suit ! ,sceptic to take t sect ^u himself4 ,he c\ld r1 x seems to me1 belong to ! s-call$ ,me?odic ,s*ool4 ,= ?is alone1 ( all ! m$ical sects1 does n seem to proce$ ra%ly 9 reg>d to #bcg unkn[n ?+s1 & does n presume to say :e!r !y are compreh5sible or n1 b is guid$ by ph5om5a1 & receives f !m ! same help :i* !y seem to give to ! ,sceptical sy/em4 ,= we h said 9 :at has gone be=e1 t ! e-day life :i* ! ,sceptic lives is ( f\r p>ts1 dep5d+ on ! guidance ( nature1 on ! necessity ( ! feel+s1 on ! traditions ( laws & cu/oms1 & on ! tea*+ ( ! arts4 ,n[ z by necessity ( ! feel+s #bch ! ,sceptic is l$ by ?ir/ to dr9k1 & by hung] to food1 & to supply simil> ne$s 9 ! same way1 s also ! physician ( ! ,me?odic ,s*ool is l$ by ! feel+s to f9d suitable rem$ies2 9 con/ipation he produces a relaxation1 z "o takes refuge 9 ! sun f ! %r9k+ on acc\nt ( int5se cold2 he is l$ by a flux to ! /opp+ ( x1 z ^? 9 a hot ba? :o are dripp+ f a pr(use p]spiration & are relax$1 ha/5 to *eck x by go+ into ! cold air4 ,moreov]1 x is evid5t t ! ,me?odic physician =ces ^? ?+s :i* are ( a =eign nature to adapt !mselves to _! own nature1 z ev5 ! dog tries to get a %>p /ick out t is ?ru/ into him4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 t ,i %\ld #bci n ov]/ep ! outl9e "* ( ?is "w by discuss+ details1 ,i ?9k t all ! ?+s t ! ,me?odics h ?us said c be classifi$ z ref]r+ to ! necessity ( ! feel+s t are natural or ^? t are unnatural4 ,besides ?is1 x is common to bo? s*ools to h no dogmas1 & to use words loosely4 ,= z ! ,sceptic uses ! =mula ,i #bdj det]m9e no?+1 & ,i und]/& no?+1 z we said above1 s ! ,me?odic also uses ! expressions ,community1 & ,to g ?r\gh1 & o!r simil> ones )\t ov] mu* c>e4 ,9 a simil> way he uses ! ^w ,indication undogmatically1 mean+ t ! symptoms ( ! pati5t ei!r natural or unnatural1 indicate ! rem$ies t w\ld be suitable1 z we said 9 speak+ ( ?ir/1 hung]1 & o!r ?+s4 ,x w ?us be se5 t ! ,me?odic ,s*ool ( #bda m$ic9e has a c]ta9 relation%ip to ,scepticism :i* is clos] ?an t ( ! o!r m$ical sects1 speak+ comp>atively if n absolutely f ^! & simil> tok5s4 ,hav+ said s mu* 9 ref]5ce to ! s*ools t seem to closely resemble ,scepticism1 we conclude ! g5]al consid]ation ( ,scepticism & ! ,fir/ ,book ( ! ,sket*es4