,,how ,,to ,,listen ,,to ,,music ,,hints ,,and ,,suggestions ,,to ,,untaught ,,lovers ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,by ,,henry ,,edward ,,krehbiel ,author of ,studies in the ,wagnerian ,drama1 ,notes on the ,cultivation of ,choral ,music1 ,the ,philharmonic ,society of ,new ,york1 etc4 ,,seventh ,,edition ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #ahig ,,copyright1 #ahif1 ,,by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,,trow ,,directory ,,printing ,,and ,,bookbinding ,,company ,,new ,,york 99 99 99 99 99 ,,to ,w4,j4 ,,henderson ,,who ,,has ,,helped ,,me ,,to ,,respect ,,musical ,,criticism 99 99 99 99 99 ,,author',s ,,note ,the author is beholden to the ,messrs4 ,harper ,brothers for permission to use a small portion of the material in ,chapter ,i41 the greater part of ,chapter ,,iv41 and the ,plates which were printed originally in one of their publications2 also to the publishers of ,the ,looker-,on for the privilege of reprinting a portion of an essay written for them entitled ,singers1 ,then and ,now4 ,,contents ,sidenote3 ,,chap4 ,i4 ,introduction ,purpose and scope of this book--,not written for professional musicians1 but for untaught lovers of the art--neither for careless seekers after diversion unless they be willing to accept a higher conception of what entertainment means--,the capacity properly to listen to music as a touchstone of musical talent--,it is rarely found in popular concert-rooms--,travellers who do not see and listeners who do not hear--,music is of all the arts that which is practised most and thought about least--,popular ignorance of the art caused by the lack of an object for comparison--,how simple terms are confounded by literary men--,blunders by ,tennyson1 ,lamb1 ,coleridge1 ,mrs4 ,harriet ,beecher ,stowe1 ,f4 ,hopkinson ,smith1 ,brander ,matthews1 and others--,a warning against pedants and rhapsodists4 ,page #c ,sidenote3 ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,recognition of ,musical ,elements ,the dual nature of music--,sense-perception1 fancy1 and imagination--,recognition of ,design as ,form in its primary stages--,the crude materials of music--,the co-ordination of tones--,rudimentary analysis of ,form--,comparison1 as in other arts1 not possible--,recognition of the fundamental elements--,melody1 ,harmony1 and ,rhythm--,the value of memory--,the need of an intermediary--,familiar music best liked--,interrelation of the elements--,repetition the fundamental principle of ,form--,motives1 ,phrases1 and ,periods--,a ,creole folk-tune analyzed--,repetition at the base of poetic forms--,refrain and ,parallelism--,key-relationship as a bond of union--,symphonic unity illustrated in examples from ,beethoven--,the ,c minor symphony and ,appassionata sonata--,the ,concerto in ,g major--,the ,seventh and ,ninth symphonies4 ,page #ae ,sidenote3 ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,the ,content and ,kinds of ,music ,how far it is necessary for the listener to go into musical philosophy--,intelligent hearing not conditioned upon it--,man's individual relationship to the art--,musicians proceed on the theory that feelings are the content of music--,the search for pictures and stories condemned--,how composers hear and judge--,definitions of the capacity of music by ,wagner1 ,hauptmann1 and ,mendelssohn--,an utterance by ,herbert ,spencer--,music as a language--,absolute music and ,programme music--,the content of all true art works--,chamber music--,meaning and origin of the term--,haydn the servant of a ,prince--,the characteristics of ,chamber music--,pure thought1 lofty imagination1 and deep learning--,its chastity--,sympathy between performers and listeners essential to its enjoyment--,a correct definition of ,programme music--,programme music defended--,the value of titles and superscriptions--,judgment upon it must1 however1 go to the music1 not the commentary--,subjects that are unfit for music--,kinds of ,programme music--,imitative music--,how the music of birds has been utilized--,the cuckoo of nature and ,beethoven's cuckoo--,cock and hen in a seventeenth century composition--,rameau's pullet--,the ,german quail--,music that is descriptive by suggestion--,external and internal attributes--,fancy and ,imagination--,harmony and the major and minor mode--,association of ideas--,movement delineated--,handel's frogs--,water in the ,hebrides overture and ,ocean symphony--,height and depth illustrated by acute and grave tones--,beethoven's illustration of distance--,his rule enforced--,classical and ,romantic music--,genesis of the terms--,what they mean in literature--,archbishop ,trench on classical books--,the author's definitions of both terms in music--,classicism as the conservative principle1 ,romanticism as the progressive1 regenerative1 and creative--,a contest which stimulates life4 ,page #cf ,sidenote3 ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,the ,modern ,orchestra ,importance of the instrumental band--,some things that can be learned by its study--,the orchestral choirs--,disposition of the players--,model bands compared--,development of instrumental music--,the extent of an orchestra's register--,the ,strings3 ,violin1 ,viola1 ,violoncello1 and ,double-bass--,effects produced by changes in manipulation--,the wood-winds3 ,flute1 ,oboe1 ,english horn1 ,bassoon1 ,clarinet--,the ,brass3 ,french ,horn1 ,trumpet and ,cornet1 ,trombone1 ,tuba--,the ,drums--,the ,conductor--,rise of the modern interpreter--,the need of him--,his methods--,scores and ,score-reading4 ,page #ga ,sidenote3 ,,chap4 ,v4 ,at an ,orchestral ,concert ,classical and ,popular as generally conceived--,symphony ,orchestras and ,military bands--,the higher forms in music as exemplified at a classical concert--,symphonies1 ,overtures1 ,symphonic ,poems1 ,concertos1 etc4--,a ,symphony not a union of unrelated parts--,history of the name--,the ,sonata form and cyclical compositions--,the bond of union between the divisions of a ,symphony--,material and spiritual links--,the first movement and the sonata form--,exposition1 illustration1 and repetition--,the subjects and their treatment--,keys and nomenclature of the ,symphony--,the ,adagio or second movement--,the ,scherzo and its relation to the ,minuet--,the ,finale and the ,rondo form--,the latter illustrated in outline by a poem--,modifications of the symphonic form by ,beethoven1 ,schumann1 ,berlioz1 ,mendelssohn1 ,liszt1 ,saint-,saens and ,dvorak--,augmentation of the forces--,symphonies with voices--,the ,symphonic ,poem--,its three characteristics--,concertos and ,cadenzas--,m4 ,ysaye's opinion of the latter--,designations in ,chamber music--,the ,overture and its descendants--,smaller forms3 ,serenades1 ,fantasias1 ,rhapsodies1 ,variations1 ,operatic ,excerpts4 ,page #abb ,sidenote3 ,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,at a ,pianoforte ,recital ,the ,popularity of ,pianoforte music exemplified in ,m4 ,paderewski's recitals--,the instrument--,a universal medium of music study--,its defects and merits contrasted--,not a perfect melody instrument--,value of the percussive element--,technique2 the false and the true estimate of its value--,pianoforte literature as illustrated in recitals--,its division1 for the purposes of this study1 into four periods3 ,classic1 ,classic-romantic1 ,romantic1 and ,bravura--,precursors of the ,pianoforte--,the ,clavichord and ,harpsichord1 and the music composed for them--,peculiarities of ,bach's style--,his ,romanticism--,scarlatti's ,sonatas--,the ,suite and its constituents--,allemande1 ,courante1 ,sarabande1 ,gigue1 ,minuet1 and ,gavotte--,the technique of the period--,how ,bach and ,handel played--,beethoven and the ,sonata--,mozart and ,beethoven as pianists--,the ,romantic composers--,schumann and ,chopin and the forms used by them--,schumann and ,jean ,paul--,chopin's ,preludes1 ,etudes1 ,nocturnes1 ,ballades1 ,polonaises1 ,mazurkas1 ,krakowiak--,the technique of the ,romantic period--,idiomatic pianoforte music--,development of the instrument--,the ,pedal and its use--,liszt and his ,hungarian ,rhapsodies4 ,page #aed ,sidenote3 ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,at the ,opera ,instability of popular taste in respect of operas--,our lists seldom extend back of the present century--,the people of to-day as indifferent as those of two centuries ago to the language used--,use and abuse of foreign languages--,the ,opera defended as an art-form--,its origin in the ,greek tragedies--,why music is the language of emotion--,a scientific explanation--,herbert ,spencer's laws--,efforts of ,florentine scholars to revive the classic tragedy result in the invention of the lyric drama--,the various kinds of ,opera3 ,opera seria1 ,opera buffa1 ,opera semiseria1 ,french grand ,opera1 and ,opera comique--,operettas and musical farces--,romantic ,opera--,a popular conception of ,german opera--,a return to the old terminology led by ,wagner--,the recitative3 ,its nature1 aims1 and capacities--,the change from speech to song--,the arioso style1 the accompanied recitative and the aria--,music and dramatic action--,emancipation from set forms--,the orchestra--,the decay of singing--,feats of the masters of the ,roman school and ,la ,bastardella--,degeneracy of the ,opera of their day--,singers who have been heard in ,new ,york--,two generations of singers compared--,grisi1 ,jenny ,lind1 ,sontag1 ,la ,grange1 ,piccolomini1 ,adelina ,patti1 ,nilsson1 ,sembrich1 ,lucca1 ,gerster1 ,lehmann1 ,melba1 ,eames1 ,calve1 ,mario1 ,jean and ,edouard de ,reszke--,wagner and his works--,operas and lyric dramas--,wagner's return to the principles of the ,florentine reformers--,interdependence of elements in a lyric drama--,forms and the endless melody--,the ,typical ,phrases3 ,how they should be studied4 ,page #bjb ,sidenote3 ,,chap4 ,,viii4 ,choirs and ,choral ,music ,value of chorus singing in musical culture--,schumann's advice to students--,choristers and instrumentalists--,amateurs and professionals--,oratorio and ,maennergesang--,the choirs of ,handel and ,bach--,glee ,unions1 ,male ,clubs1 and ,women's ,choirs--,boys' voices not adapted to modern music--,mixed choirs--,american ,origin of amateur singing societies--,priority over ,germany--,the size of choirs--,large numbers not essential--,how choirs are divided--,antiphonal effects--,excellence in choir singing--,precision1 intonation1 expression1 balance of tone1 enunciation1 pronunciation1 declamation--,the cause of monotony in ,oratorio performances--,a capella music--,genesis of modern hymnology--,influence of ,luther and the ,germans--,use of popular melodies by composers--,the chorale--,preservation of the severe style of writing in choral music--,palestrina and ,bach--,a study of their styles--,latin and ,teuton--,church and individual--,motets and ,church ,cantatas--,the ,passions--,the ,oratorio--,sacred opera and ,cantata--,epic and ,drama--,characteristic and descriptive music--,the ,mass3 ,its secularization and musical development--,the dramatic tendency illustrated in ,beethoven and ,berlioz4 ,page #bec ,sidenote3 ,,chap4 ,,ix4 ,musician1 ,critic and ,public ,criticism justified--,relationship between ,musician1 ,critic and ,public--,to end the conflict between them would result in stagnation--,how the ,critic might escape--,the ,musician prefers to appeal to the public rather than to the ,critic--,why this is so--,ignorance as a safeguard against and promoter of conservatism--,wagner and ,haydn--,the ,critic as the enemy of the charlatan--,temptations to which he is exposed--,value of popular approbation--,schumann's aphorisms--,the ,public neither bad judges nor good critics--,the ,critic's duty is to guide popular judgment--,fickleness of the people's opinions--,taste and judgment not a birthright--,the necessity of antecedent study--,the ,critic's responsibility--,not always that toward the ,musician which the latter thinks--,how the newspaper can work for good--,must the ,critic be a ,musician8--,pedants and ,rhapsodists--,demonstrable facts in criticism--,the folly and viciousness of foolish rhapsody--,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,haweis cited--,ernst's violin--,intelligent rhapsody approved--,dr4 ,john ,brown on ,beethoven--,the ,critic's duty4 ,page #big 99 99 99 99 99 ,,plates ,i4 ,,violin--7,,clifford ,,schmidt74--,,ii4 ,,violoncello--7,,victor ,,herbert74--,,iii4 ,,piccolo ,,flute--7,c4 ,,kurth1 ,,jun474--,,iv4 ,,oboe--7,,joseph ,,eller74--,v4 ,,english ,,horn--7,,joseph ,,eller74--,,vi4 ,,bassoon 7,,fedor ,,bernhardi74--,,vii4 ,,clarinet--7,,henry ,,kaiser74--,,viii4 ,,bass ,,clarinet--7,,henry ,,kaiser74--,,ix4 ,,french ,,horn--7,,carl ,,pieper74--,x4 ,,trombone--7,j4 ,,pfeiffenschneider74--,,xi4 ,,bass ,,tuba--7,,anton ,,reiter74--,,xii4 ,,the ,,conductor',s ,,score4 ,page #cbe ,,index ,page #cea ,how to ,listen to ,music ,i ,introduction ,sidenote3 ,the book's appeal4 ,this book has a purpose1 which is as simple as it is plain2 and an unpretentious scope4 ,it does not aim to edify either the musical professor or the musical scholar4 ,it comes into the presence of the musical student with all becoming modesty4 ,its business is with those who love music and present themselves for its gracious ministrations in ,concert-,room and ,opera ,house1 but have not studied it as professors and scholars are supposed to study4 ,it is not for the careless unless they be willing to inquire whether it might not be well to yield the common conception of entertainment in favor of the higher enjoyment which springs from serious contemplation of beautiful things2 but if they are willing so to inquire1 they shall be accounted the class that the author is most anxious to reach4 ,the reasons which prompted its writing and the laying out of its plan will presently appear4 ,for the frankness of his disclosure the author might be willing to apologize were his reverence for music less and his consideration for popular affectations more2 but because he is convinced that a love for music carries with it that which1 so it be but awakened1 shall speedily grow into an honest desire to know more about the beloved object1 he is willing to seem unamiable to the amateur while arguing the need of even so mild a stimulant as his book1 and ingenuous1 mayhap even childish1 to the professional musician while trying to point a way in which better appreciation may be sought4 ,sidenote3 ,talent in listening4 ,the capacity properly to listen to music is better proof of musical talent in the listener than skill to play upon an instrument or ability to sing acceptably when unaccompanied by that capacity4 ,it makes more for that gentleness and refinement of emotion1 thought1 and action which1 in the highest sense of the term1 it is the province of music to promote4 ,and it is a much rarer accomplishment4 ,i cannot conceive anything more pitiful than the spectacle of men and women perched on a fair observation point exclaiming rapturously at the loveliness of mead and valley1 their eyes melting involuntarily in tenderness at the sight of moss-carpeted slopes and rocks and peaceful wood1 or dilating in reverent wonder at mountain magnificence1 and then learning from their exclamations that1 as a matter of fact1 they are unable to distinguish between rock and tree1 field and forest1 earth and sky2 between the dark-browns of the storm-scarred rock1 the greens of the foliage1 and the blues of the sky4 ,sidenote3 ,ill equipped listeners4 ,yet in the realm of another sense1 in the contemplation of beauties more ethereal and evanescent than those of nature1 such is the experience which in my capacity as a writer for newspapers ,i have made for many years4 ,a party of people blind to form and color cannot be said to be well equipped for a ,swiss journey1 though loaded down with alpenstocks and ,baedekers2 yet the spectacle of such a party on the top of the ,rigi is no more pitiful and anomalous than that presented by the majority of the hearers in our concert-rooms4 ,they are there to adventure a journey into a realm whose beauties do not disclose themselves to the senses alone1 but whose perception requires a co-operation of all the finer faculties2 yet of this they seem to know nothing1 and even of that sense to which the first appeal is made it may be said with profound truth that hearing they hear not1 neither do they understand4 ,sidenote3 ,popular ignorance of music4 ,of all the arts1 music is practised most and thought about least4 ,why this should be the case may be explained on several grounds4 ,a sweet mystery enshrouds the nature of music4 ,its material part is subtle and elusive4 ,to master it on its technical side alone costs a vast expenditure of time1 patience1 and industry4 ,but since it is1 in one manifestation or another1 the most popular of the arts1 and one the enjoyment of which is conditioned in a peculiar degree on love1 it remains passing strange that the indifference touching its nature and elements1 and the character of the phenomena which produce it1 or are produced by it1 is so general4 ,i do not recall that anybody has ever tried to ground this popular ignorance touching an art of which1 by right of birth1 everybody is a critic4 ,the unamiable nature of the task1 of which ,i am keenly conscious1 has probably been a bar to such an undertaking4 ,but a frank diagnosis must precede the discovery of a cure for every disease1 and ,i have undertaken to point out a way in which this grievous ailment in the social body may at least be lessened4 ,sidenote3 ,paucity of intelligent comment4 ,sidenote3 ,want of a model4 ,it is not an exaggeration to say that one might listen for a lifetime to the polite conversation of our drawing-rooms 7and ,i do not mean by this to refer to the ,united ,states alone7 without hearing a symphony talked about in terms indicative of more than the most superficial knowledge of the outward form1 that is1 the dimensions and apparatus1 of such a composition4 ,no other art provides an exact analogy for this phenomenon4 ,everybody can say something containing a degree of appositeness about a poem1 novel1 painting1 statue1 or building4 ,if he can do no more he can go as far as ,landseer's rural critic who objected to one of the artist's paintings on the ground that not one of the three pigs eating from a trough had a foot in it4 ,it is the absence of the standard of judgment employed in this criticism which makes significant talk about music so difficult4 ,nature failed to provide a model for this ethereal art4 ,there is nothing in the natural world with which the simple man may compare it4 ,sidenote3 ,simple terms confounded4 ,it is not alone a knowledge of the constituent factors of a symphony1 or the difference between a sonata and a suite1 a march and a mazurka1 that is rare4 ,unless you chance to be listening to the conversation of musicians 7in which term ,i wish to include amateurs who are what the word amateur implies1 and whose knowledge stands in some respectable relation to their love71 you will find1 so frequently that ,i have not the heart to attempt an estimate of the proportion1 that the most common words in the terminology of the art are misapplied4 ,such familiar things as harmony and melody1 time and tune1 are continually confounded4 ,let us call a distinguished witness into the box2 the instance is not new1 but it will serve4 ,what does ,tennyson mean when he says3 ,all night have the roses heard ,the flute1 violin1 bassoon2 ,all night has the casement jessamine stirr'd ,to the dancers dancing in tune8 ,sidenote3 ,tune and time4 ,unless the dancers who wearied ,maud were provided with even a more extraordinary instrumental outfit than the ,old ,lady of ,banbury ,cross1 how could they have danced in tune8 ,sidenote3 ,blunders of poets and essayists4 ,musical study of a sort being almost as general as study of the three ,rs1 it must be said that the gross forms of ignorance are utterly inexcusable4 ,but if this is obvious1 it is even more obvious that there is something radically wrong with the prevalent systems of musical instruction4 ,it is because of a plentiful lack of knowledge that so much that is written on music is without meaning1 and that the most foolish kind of rhapsody1 so it show a collocation of fine words1 is permitted to masquerade as musical criticism and even analysis4 ,people like to read about music1 and the books of a certain ,english clergyman have had a sale of stupendous magnitude notwithstanding they are full of absurdities4 ,the clergyman has a multitudinous companionship1 moreover1 among novelists1 essayists1 and poets whose safety lies in more or less fantastic generalization when they come to talk about music4 ,how they flounder when they come to detail6 ,it was ,charles ,lamb who said1 in his ,chapter on ,ears1 that in voices he could not distinguish a soprano from a tenor1 and could only contrive to guess at the thorough-bass from its being supereminently harsh and disagreeable2 yet dear old ,elia may be forgiven1 since his confounding the bass voice with a system of musical short-hand is so delightful a proof of the ignorance he was confessing4 ,sidenote3 ,literary realism and musical terminology4 ,but what shall the troubled critics say to ,tennyson's orchestra consisting of a flute1 violin1 and bassoon8 ,or to ,coleridge's loud bassoon1 which made the wedding-guest to beat his breast8 ,or to ,mrs4 ,harriet ,beecher ,stowe's pianist who played with an airy and bird-like touch8 ,or to our own clever painter-novelist who1 in ,snubbin' through ,jersey1 has ,brushes bring out his violoncello and play the symphonies of ,beethoven to entertain his fellow canal-boat passengers8 ,the tendency toward realism1 or veritism1 as it is called1 has brought out a rich crop of blunders4 ,it will not do to have a character in a story simply sing or play something2 we must have the names of composers and compositions4 ,the genial gentleman who enriched musical literature with arrangements of ,beethoven's symphonies for violoncello without accompaniment has since supplemented this feat by creating a ,german fiddler who1 when he thinks himself unnoticed1 plays a sonata for violin and contralto voice2 ,professor ,brander ,matthews permits one of his heroines to sing ,schumann's ,warum8 and one of his heroes plays ,the ,moonlight ,concerto2 one of ,ouida's romantic creatures spends hours at an organ playing the grand old masses of ,mendelssohn2 in ,moths the tenor never wearies of singing certain exquisite airs of ,palestrina1 which recalls the fact that an indignant correspondent of a ,st4 ,louis newspaper1 protesting against the ,teutonism and heaviness of an orchestra conductor's programmes1 demanded some of the lighter works of ,berlioz and ,palestrina4 ,sidenote3 ,a popular need4 ,alas6 these things and the many others equally amusing which ,mr4 ,g4 ,sutherland ,edwards long ago catalogued in an essay on ,the ,literary ,maltreatment of ,music are but evidences that even cultured folk have not yet learned to talk correctly about the art which is practised most widely4 ,there is a greater need than pianoforte teachers and singing teachers1 and that is a numerous company of writers and talkers who shall teach the people how to listen to music so that it shall not pass through their heads like a vast tonal phantasmagoria1 but provide the varied and noble delights contemplated by the composers4 ,sidenote3 ,a warning against writers4 ,sidenote3 ,pedants and rhapsodists4 ,ungracious as it might appear1 it may yet not be amiss1 therefore1 at the very outset of an inquiry into the proper way in which to listen to music1 to utter a warning against much that is written on the art4 ,as a rule it will be found that writers on music are divided into two classes1 and that neither of these classes can do much good4 ,too often they are either pedants or rhapsodists4 ,this division is wholly natural4 ,music has many sides and is a science as well as an art4 ,its scientific side is that on which the pedant generally approaches it4 ,he is concerned with forms and rules1 with externals1 to the forgetting of that which is inexpressibly nobler and higher4 ,but the pedants are not harmful1 because they are not interesting2 strictly speaking1 they do not write for the public at all1 but only for their professional colleagues4 ,the harmful men are the foolish rhapsodists who take advantage of the fact that the language of music is indeterminate and evanescent to talk about the art in such a way as to present themselves as persons of exquisite sensibilities rather than to direct attention to the real nature and beauty of music itself4 ,to them ,i shall recur in a later chapter devoted to musical criticism1 and haply point out the difference between good and bad critics and commentators from the view-point of popular need and popular opportunity4 ,,ii ,recognition of ,musical ,elements ,sidenote3 ,the nature of music4 ,music is dual in its nature2 it is material as well as spiritual4 ,its material side we apprehend through the sense of hearing1 and comprehend through the intellect2 its spiritual side reaches us through the fancy 7or imagination1 so it be music of the highest class71 and the emotional part of us4 ,if the scope and capacity of the art1 and the evolutionary processes which its history discloses 7a record of which is preserved in its nomenclature71 are to be understood1 it is essential that this duality be kept in view4 ,there is something so potent and elemental in the appeal which music makes that it is possible to derive pleasure from even an unwilling hearing or a hearing unaccompanied by effort at analysis2 but real appreciation of its beauty1 which means recognition of the qualities which put it in the realm of art1 is conditioned upon intelligent hearing4 ,the higher the intelligence1 the keener will be the enjoyment1 if the former be directed to the spiritual side as well as the material4 ,sidenote3 ,necessity of intelligent hearing4 ,so far as music is merely agreeably co-ordinated sounds1 it may be reduced to mathematics and its practice to handicraft4 ,but recognition of design is a condition precedent to the awakening of the fancy or the imagination1 and to achieve such recognition there must be intelligent hearing in the first instance4 ,for the purposes of this study1 design may be held to be ,form in its primary stages1 the recognition of which is possible to every listener who is fond of music2 it is not necessary that he be learned in the science4 ,he need only be willing to let an intellectual process1 which will bring its own reward1 accompany the physical process of hearing4 ,sidenote3 ,tones and musical material4 ,without discrimination it is impossible to recognize even the crude materials of music1 for the first step is already a co-ordination of those materials4 ,a tone becomes musical material only by association with another tone4 ,we might hear it alone1 study its quality1 and determine its degree of acuteness or gravity 7its pitch1 as musicians say71 but it can never become music so long as it remains isolated4 ,when we recognize that it bears certain relationships with other tones in respect of time or tune 7to use simple terms71 it has become for us musical material4 ,we do not need to philosophize about the nature of those relationships1 but we must recognize their existence4 ,sidenote3 ,the beginnings of ,form4 ,thus much we might hear if we were to let music go through our heads like water through a sieve4 ,yet the step from that degree of discrimination to a rudimentary analysis of ,form is exceedingly short1 and requires little more than a willingness to concentrate the attention and exercise the memory4 ,everyone is willing to do that much while looking at a picture4 ,who would look at a painting and rest satisfied with the impression made upon the sense of sight by the colors merely8 ,no one1 surely4 ,yet so soon as we look1 so as to discriminate between the outlines1 to observe the relationship of figure to figure1 we are indulging in intellectual exercise4 ,if this be a condition precedent to the enjoyment of a picture 7and it plainly is71 how much more so is it in the case of music1 which is intangible and evanescent1 which cannot pause a moment for our contemplation without ceasing to be8 ,sidenote3 ,comparison with a model not possible4 ,there is another reason why we must exercise intelligence in listening1 to which ,i have already alluded in the first chapter4 ,our appreciation of beauty in the plastic arts is helped by the circumstance that the critical activity is largely a matter of comparison4 ,is the picture or the statue a good copy of the object sought to be represented8 ,such comparison fails us utterly in music1 which copies nothing that is tangibly present in the external world4 ,sidenote3 ,what degree of knowledge is necessary8 ,sidenote3 ,the ,elements4 ,sidenote3 ,value of memory4 ,it is then necessary to associate the intellect with sense perception in listening to music4 ,how far is it essential that the intellectual process shall go8 ,this book being for the untrained1 the question might be put thus3 ,with how little knowledge of the science can an intelligent listener get along8 ,we are concerned only with his enjoyment of music or1 better1 with an effort to increase it without asking him to become a musician4 ,if he is fond of the art it is more than likely that the capacity to discriminate sufficiently to recognize the elements out of which music is made has come to him intuitively4 ,does he recognize that musical tones are related to each other in respect of time and pitch8 ,then it shall not be difficult for him to recognize the three elements on which music rests--,melody1 ,harmony1 and ,rhythm4 ,can he recognize them with sufficient distinctness to seize upon their manifestations while music is sounding8 ,then memory shall come to the aid of discrimination1 and he shall be able to appreciate enough of design to point the way to a true and lofty appreciation of the beautiful in music4 ,the value of memory is for obvious reasons very great in musical enjoyment4 ,the picture remains upon the wall1 the book upon the library shelf4 ,if we have failed to grasp a detail at the first glance or reading1 we need but turn again to the picture or open the book anew4 ,we may see the picture in a changed light1 or read the poem in a different mood1 but the outlines1 colors1 ideas are fixed for frequent and patient perusal4 ,music goes out of existence with every performance1 and must be recreated at every hearing4 ,sidenote3 ,an intermediary necessary4 ,not only that1 but in the case of all1 so far as some forms are concerned1 and of all who are not practitioners in others1 it is necessary that there shall be an intermediary between the composer and the listener4 ,the written or printed notes are not music2 they are only signs which indicate to the performer what to do to call tones into existence such as the composer had combined into an art-work in his mind4 ,the broadly trained musician can read the symbols2 they stir his imagination1 and he hears the music in his imagination as the composer heard it4 ,but the untaught music-lover alone can get nothing from the printed page2 he must needs wait till some one else shall again waken for him the ,sound of a voice that is still4 ,sidenote3 ,the value of memory4 ,this is one of the drawbacks which are bound up in the nature of music2 but it has ample compensation in the unusual pleasure which memory brings4 ,in the case of the best music1 familiarity breeds ever-growing admiration4 ,new compositions are slowly received2 they make their way to popular appreciation only by repeated performances2 the people like best the songs as well as the symphonies which they know4 ,the quicker1 therefore1 that we are in recognizing the melodic1 harmonic1 and rhythmic contents of a new composition1 and the more apt our memory in seizing upon them for the operation of the fancy1 the greater shall be our pleasure4 ,sidenote3 ,melody1 ,harmony1 and ,rhythm4 ,sidenote3 ,comprehensiveness of ,melody4 ,in simple phrase ,melody is a well-ordered series of tones heard successively2 ,harmony1 a well-ordered series heard simultaneously2 ,rhythm1 a symmetrical grouping of tonal time units vitalized by accent4 ,the life-blood of music is ,melody1 and a complete conception of the term embodies within itself the essence of both its companions4 ,a succession of tones without harmonic regulation is not a perfect element in music2 neither is a succession of tones which have harmonic regulation but are void of rhythm4 ,the beauty and expressiveness1 especially the emotionality1 of a musical composition depend upon the harmonies which either accompany the melody in the form of chords 7a group of melodic intervals sounded simultaneously71 or are latent in the melody itself 7harmonic intervals sounded successively74 ,melody is ,harmony analyzed2 ,harmony is ,melody synthetized4 ,sidenote3 ,repetition4 ,sidenote3 ,a melody analyzed4 ,the fundamental principle of ,form is repetition of melodies1 which are to music what ideas are to poetry4 ,melodies themselves are made by repetition of smaller fractions called motives 7a term borrowed from the fine arts71 phrases1 and periods1 which derive their individuality from their rhythmical or intervallic characteristics4 ,melodies are not all of the simple kind which the musically illiterate1 or the musically ill-trained1 recognize as tunes1 but they all have a symmetrical organization4 ,the dissection of a simple folk-tune may serve to make this plain and also indicate to the untrained how a single feature may be taken as a mark of identification and a holding-point for the memory4 ,here is the melody of a ,creole song called sometimes ,pov' piti ,lolotte1 sometimes ,pov' piti ,momzelle ,zizi1 in the patois of ,louisiana and ,martinique3 ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,motives1 phrases1 and periods4 ,it will be as apparent to the eye of one who cannot read music as it will to his ear when he hears this melody played1 that it is built up of two groups of notes only4 ,these groups are marked off by the heavy lines across the staff called bars1 whose purpose it is to indicate rhythmical subdivisions in music4 ,the second1 third1 fifth1 sixth1 and seventh of these groups are repetitions merely of the first group1 which is the germ of the melody1 but on different degrees of the scale2 the fourth and eighth groups are identical and are an appendage hitched to the first group for the purpose of bringing it to a close1 supplying a resting-point craved by man's innate sense of symmetry4 ,musicians call such groups cadences4 ,a musical analyst would call each group a motive1 and say that each successive two groups1 beginning with the first1 constitute a phrase1 each two phrases a period1 and the two periods a melody4 ,we have therefore in this innocent ,creole tune eight motives1 four phrases1 and two periods2 yet its material is summed up in two groups1 one of seven notes1 one of five1 which only need to be identified and remembered to enable a listener to recognize something of the design of a composer if he were to put the melody to the highest purposes that melody can be put in the art of musical composition4 ,sidenote3 ,repetition in music4 ,repetition is the constructive principle which was employed by the folk-musician in creating this melody2 and repetition is the fundamental principle in all musical construction4 ,it will suffice for many merely to be reminded of this to appreciate the fact that while the exercise of memory is a most necessary activity in listening to music1 it lies in music to make that exercise easy4 ,there is repetition of motives1 phrases1 and periods in melody2 repetition of melodies in parts2 and repetition of parts in the wholes of the larger forms4 ,sidenote3 ,repetition in poetry4 ,the beginnings of poetic forms are also found in repetition2 in primitive poetry it is exemplified in the refrain or burden1 in the highly developed poetry of the ,hebrews in parallelism4 ,the ,psalmist wrote3 ,o ,lord1 rebuke me not in thy wrath1 ,neither chasten me in thy hot displeasure4 ,sidenote3 ,key relationship4 ,here is a period of two members1 the latter repeating the thought of the former4 ,a musical analyst might find in it an admirable analogue for the first period of a simple melody4 ,he would divide it into four motives3 ,rebuke me not in thy wrath neither chasten me in thy hot displeasure1 and point out as intimate a relationship between them as exists in the ,creole tune4 ,the bond of union between the motives of the melody as well as that in the poetry illustrates a principle of beauty which is the most important element in musical design after repetition1 which is its necessary vehicle4 ,it is because this principle guides the repetition of the tone-groups that together they form a melody that is perfect1 satisfying1 and reposeful4 ,it is the principle of key-relationship1 to discuss which fully would carry me farther into musical science than ,i am permitted to go4 ,let this suffice3 ,a harmony is latent in each group1 and the sequence of groups is such a sequence as the experience of ages has demonstrated to be most agreeable to the ear4 ,sidenote3 ,the rhythmical stamp4 ,sidenote3 ,the principle of ,unity4 ,in the case of the ,creole melody the listener is helped to a quick appreciation of its form by the distinct physiognomy which rhythm has stamped upon it2 and it is by noting such a characteristic that the memory can best be aided in its work of identification4 ,it is not necessary for a listener to follow all the processes of a composer in order to enjoy his music1 but if he cultivates the habit of following the principal themes through a work of the higher class he will not only enjoy the pleasures of memory but will frequently get a glimpse into the composer's purposes which will stimulate his imagination and mightily increase his enjoyment4 ,there is nothing can guide him more surely to a recognition of the principle of unity1 which makes a symphony to be an organic whole instead of a group of pieces which are only externally related4 ,the greatest exemplar of this principle is ,beethoven2 and his music is the best in which to study it for the reason that he so frequently employs material signs for the spiritual bond4 ,so forcibly has this been impressed upon me at times that ,i am almost willing to believe that a keen analytical student of his music might arrange his greater works into groups of such as were in process of composition at the same time without reference to his personal history4 ,take the principal theme of the ,c minor ,symphony for example3 ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,a rhythmical motive pursued4 ,this simple1 but marvellously pregnant1 motive is not only the kernel of the first movement1 it is the fundamental thought of the whole symphony4 ,we hear its persistent beat in the scherzo as well3 ,music illustration and also in the last movement3 ,music illustration ,more than this1 we find the motive haunting the first movement of the pianoforte sonata in ,f minor1 op4 #eg1 known as the ,sonata ,appassionata1 now gloomily1 almost morosely1 proclamative in the bass1 now interrogative in the treble3 ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,relationships in ,beethoven's works4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,c minor ,symphony and ,appassionata sonata4 ,sidenote3 ,beethoven's ,g major ,concerto4 ,schindler relates that when once he asked ,beethoven to tell him what the ,f minor and the ,d minor 7,op4 #ca1 ,no4 #b7 sonatas meant1 he received for an answer only the enigmatical remark3 ,read ,shakespeare's ',tempest4' ,many a student and commentator has since read the ,tempest in the hope of finding a clew to the emotional contents which ,beethoven believed to be in the two works1 so singularly associated1 only to find himself baffled4 ,it is a fancy1 which rests perhaps too much on outward things1 but still one full of suggestion1 that had ,beethoven said3 ,hear my ,c minor ,symphony1 he would have given a better starting-point to the imagination of those who are seeking to know what the ,f minor sonata means4 ,most obviously it means music1 but it means music that is an expression of one of those psychological struggles which ,beethoven felt called upon more and more to delineate as he was more and more shut out from the companionship of the external world4 ,such struggles are in the truest sense of the word tempests4 ,the motive1 which1 according to the story1 ,beethoven himself said indicates1 in the symphony1 the rappings of ,fate at the door of human existence1 is common to two works which are also related in their spiritual contents4 ,singularly enough1 too1 in both cases the struggle which is begun in the first movement and continued in the third1 is interrupted by a period of calm reassuring1 soul-fortifying aspiration1 which in the symphony as well as in the sonata takes the form of a theme with variations4 ,here1 then1 the recognition of a simple rhythmical figure has helped us to an appreciation of the spiritual unity of the parts of a symphony1 and provided a commentary on the poetical contents of a sonata4 ,but the lesson is not yet exhausted4 ,again do we find the rhythm coloring the first movement of the pianoforte concerto in ,g major3 ,music illustration ,symphony1 concerto1 and sonata1 as the sketch-books of the master show1 were in process of creation at the same time4 ,sidenote3 ,his ,seventh ,symphony4 ,thus far we have been helped in identifying a melody and studying relationships by the rhythmical structure of a single motive4 ,the demonstration might be extended on the same line into ,beethoven's symphony in ,a major1 in which the external sign of the poetical idea which underlies the whole work is also rhythmic--so markedly so that ,wagner characterized it most happily and truthfully when he said that it was the apotheosis of the dance4 ,here it is the dactyl1 dactyl symbol1 which in one variation1 or another1 clings to us almost as persistently as in ,hood's ,bridge of ,sighs3 ,one more unfortunate ,weary of breath1 ,rashly importunate1 ,gone to her death4 ,sidenote3 ,use of a dactylic figure4 ,we hear it lightly tripping in the first movement3 ,music illustration and ,music illustration2 gentle1 sedate1 tender1 measured1 through its combination with a spondee in the second3 ,music illustration2 cheerily1 merrily1 jocosely happy in the ,scherzo3 ,music illustration2 hymn-like in the ,trio3 ,music illustration and wildly bacchanalian when subjected to trochaic abbreviation in the ,finale3 ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,intervallic characteristics4 ,intervallic characteristics may place the badge of relationship upon melodies as distinctly as rhythmic4 ,there is no more perfect illustration of this than that afforded by ,beethoven's ,ninth ,symphony4 ,speaking of the subject of its finale1 ,sir ,george ,grove says3 ,and note--while listening to the simple tune itself1 before the variations begin--how very simple it is2 the plain diatonic scale1 not a single chromatic interval1 and out of fifty-six notes only three not consecutive4,a ,sidenote3 ,the melodies in ,beethoven's ,ninth ,symphony4 ,earlier in the same work1 while combating a statement by ,lenz that the resemblance between the second subject of the first movement and the choral melody is a thematic reference of the most striking importance1 vindicating the unity of the entire work1 and placing the whole in a perfectly new light1 ,sir ,george says3 ,it is1 however1 very remarkable that so many of the melodies in the ,symphony should consist of consecutive notes1 and that in no less than four of them the notes should run up a portion of the scale and down again--apparently pointing to a consistent condition of ,beethoven's mind throughout this work4 ,sidenote3 ,melodic likenesses4 ,like ,goethe1 ,beethoven secreted many a mystery in his masterpiece1 but he did not juggle idly with tones1 or select the themes of his symphonies at hap-hazard2 he would be open to the charge1 however1 if the resemblances which ,i have pointed out in the ,fifth and ,seventh ,symphonies1 and those disclosed by the following melodies from his ,ninth1 should turn out through some incomprehensible revelation to be mere coincidences3 ,from the first movement3 ,music illustration ,from the second3 ,music illustration ,the choral melody3 ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,design and ,form4 ,from a recognition of the beginnings of design1 to which identification of the composer's thematic material and its simpler relationships will lead1 to so much knowledge of ,form as will enable the reader to understand the later chapters in this book1 is but a step4 ,,footnotes3 ,a ,beethoven and ,his ,nine ,symphonies1 p4 #cgd4 ,,iii ,the ,content and ,kinds of ,music ,sidenote3 ,metaphysics to be avoided herein4 ,bearing in mind the purpose of this book1 ,i shall not ask the reader to accompany me far afield in the region of aesthetic philosophy or musical metaphysics4 ,a short excursion is all that is necessary to make plain what is meant by such terms as ,absolute music1 ,programme music1 ,classical1 ,romantic1 and ,chamber music and the like1 which not only confront us continually in discussion1 but stand for things which we must know if we would read programmes understandingly and appreciate the various phases in which music presents itself to us4 ,it is interesting and valuable to know why an art-work stirs up pleasurable feelings within us1 and to speculate upon its relations to the intellect and the emotions2 but the circumstance that philosophers have never agreed1 and probably never will agree1 on these points1 so far as the art of music is concerned1 alone suffices to remove them from the field of this discussion4 ,sidenote3 ,personal equation in judgment4 ,intelligent listening is not conditioned upon such knowledge4 ,even when the study is begun1 the questions whether or not music has a content beyond itself1 where that content is to be sought1 and how defined1 will be decided in each case by the student for himself1 on grounds which may be said to be as much in his nature as they are in the argument4 ,the attitude of man toward the art is an individual one1 and in some of its aspects defies explanation4 ,sidenote3 ,a musical fluid4 ,the amount and kind of pleasure which music gives him are frequently as much beyond his understanding and control as they are beyond the understanding and control of the man who sits beside him4 ,they are consequences of just that particular combination of material and spiritual elements1 just that blending of muscular1 nervous1 and cerebral tissues1 which make him what he is1 which segregate him as an individual from the mass of humanity4 ,we speak of persons as susceptible or insusceptible to music as we speak of good and poor conductors of electricity2 and the analogy implied here is particularly apt and striking4 ,if we were still using the scientific terms of a few decades ago ,i should say that a musical fluid might yet be discovered and its laws correlated with those of heat1 light1 and electricity4 ,like them1 when reduced to its lowest terms1 music is a form of motion1 and it should not be difficult on this analogy to construct a theory which would account for the physical phenomena which accompany the hearing of music in some persons1 such as the recession of blood from the face1 or an equally sudden suffusion of the same veins1 a contraction of the scalp accompanied by chilliness or a prickling sensation1 or that roughness of the skin called goose-flesh1 flesh moved by an idea1 flesh horripilated by a thought4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of musical elements4 ,sidenote3 ,feelings and counterpoint4 ,it has been denied that feelings are the content of music1 or that it is the mission of music to give expression to feelings2 but the scientific fact remains that the fundamental elements of vocal music--pitch1 quality1 and dynamic intensity--are the results of feelings working upon the vocal organs2 and even if ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's theory be rejected1 it is too late now to deny that music is conceived by its creators as a language of the emotions and so applied by them4 ,the ,german philosopher ,herbarth sought to reduce the question to an absurdity by expressing surprise that musicians should still believe that feelings could be the proximate cause of the rules of simple and double counterpoint2 but ,dr4 ,stainer found a sufficient answer by accepting the proposition as put1 and directing attention to the fact that the feelings of men having first decided what was pleasurable in polyphony1 and the rules of counterpoint having afterward been drawn from specimens of pleasurable polyphony1 it was entirely correct to say that feelings are the proximate cause of the laws of counterpoint4 ,sidenote3 ,how composers hear music4 ,it is because so many of us have been taught by poets and romancers to think that there is a picture of some kind1 or a story in every piece of music1 and find ourselves unable to agree upon the picture or the story in any given case1 that confusion is so prevalent among the musical laity4 ,composers seldom find difficulty in understanding each other4 ,they listen for beauty1 and if they find it they look for the causes which have produced it1 and in apprehending beauty and recognizing means and cause they unvolitionally rise to the plane whence a view of the composer's purposes is clear4 ,having grasped the mood of a composition and found that it is being sustained or varied in a manner accordant with their conceptions of beauty1 they occupy themselves with another kind of differentiation altogether than the misled disciples of the musical rhapsodists who overlook the general design and miss the grand proclamation in their search for petty suggestions for pictures and stories among the details of the composition4 ,let musicians testify for us4 ,in his romance1 ,ein ,gluecklicher ,abend1 ,wagner says3 ,sidenote3 ,wagner's axiom4 ,that which music expresses is eternal and ideal4 ,it does not give voice to the passion1 the love1 the longing of this or the other individual1 under these or the other circumstances1 but to passion1 love1 longing itself4 ,moritz ,hauptmann says3 ,sidenote3 ,hauptmann's4 ,the same music will admit of the most varied verbal expositions1 and of not one of them can it be correctly said that it is exhaustive1 the right one1 and contains the whole significance of the music4 ,this significance is contained most definitely in the music itself4 ,it is not music that is ambiguous2 it says the same thing to everybody2 it speaks to mankind and gives voice only to human feelings4 ,ambiguity only then makes its appearance when each person attempts to formulate in his manner the emotional impression which he has received1 when he attempts to fix and hold the ethereal essence of music1 to utter the unutterable4 ,sidenote3 ,mendelssohn's4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,songs without ,words4 ,mendelssohn inculcated the same lesson in a letter which he wrote to a young poet who had given titles to a number of the composer's ,songs ,without ,words1 and incorporated what he conceived to be their sentiments in a set of poems4 ,he sent his work to ,mendelssohn with the request that the composer inform the writer whether or not he had succeeded in catching the meaning of the music4 ,he desired the information because music's capacity for expression is so vague and indeterminate4 ,mendelssohn replied3 ,you give the various numbers of the book such titles as ',i ,think of ,thee1' ',melancholy1' ',the ,praise of ,god1' ',a ,merry ,hunt4' ,i can scarcely say whether ,i thought of these or other things while composing the music4 ,another might find ',i ,think of ,thee' where you find ',melancholy1' and a real huntsman might consider ',a ,merry ,hunt' a veritable ',praise of ,god4' ,but this is not because1 as you think1 music is vague4 ,on the contrary1 ,i believe that musical expression is altogether too definite1 that it reaches regions and dwells in them whither words cannot follow it and must necessarily go lame when they make the attempt as you would have them do4 ,sidenote3 ,the tonal language4 ,sidenote3 ,herbert ,spencer's definition4 ,sidenote3 ,natural expression4 ,sidenote3 ,absolute music4 ,if ,i were to try to say why musicians1 great musicians1 speak thus of their art1 my explanation would be that they have developed1 farther than the rest of mankind have been able to develop it1 a language of tones1 which1 had it been so willed1 might have been developed so as to fill the place now occupied by articulate speech4 ,herbert ,spencer1 though speaking purely as a scientific investigator1 not at all as an artist1 defined music as a language of feelings which may ultimately enable men vividly and completely to impress on each other the emotions they experience from moment to moment4 ,we rely upon speech to do this now1 but ever and anon when1 in a moment of emotional exaltation1 we are deserted by the articulate word we revert to the emotional cry which antedates speech1 and find that that cry is universally understood because it is universally felt4 ,more than speech1 if its primitive element of emotionality be omitted1 more than the primitive language of gesture1 music is a natural mode of expression4 ,all three forms have attained their present stage of development through conventions4 ,articulate speech has led in the development2 gesture once occupied a high plane 7in the pantomimic dance of the ancients7 but has now retrograded2 music1 supreme at the outset1 then neglected1 is but now pushing forward into the place which its nature entitles it to occupy4 ,when we conceive of an art-work composed of such elements1 and foregoing the adventitious helps which may accrue to it from conventional idioms based on association of ideas1 we have before us the concept of ,absolute music1 whose content1 like that of every noble artistic composition1 be it of tones or forms or colors or thoughts expressed in words1 is that high ideal of goodness1 truthfulness1 and beauty for which all lofty imaginations strive4 ,such artworks are the instrumental compositions in the classic forms2 such1 too1 may be said to be the high type of idealized ,programme music1 which1 like the ,pastoral symphony of ,beethoven1 is designed to awaken emotions like those awakened by the contemplation of things1 but does not attempt to depict the things themselves4 ,having mentioned ,programme music ,i must1 of course1 try to tell what it is2 but the exposition must be preceded by an explanation of a kind of music which1 because of its chastity1 is set down as the finest form of absolute music4 ,this is ,chamber music4 ,sidenote3 ,chamber music4 ,sidenote3 ,history of the term4 ,sidenote3 ,haydn a servant4 ,in a broad sense1 but one not employed in modern definition1 ,chamber music is all music not designed for performance in the church or theatre4 7,out-of-door music cannot be considered among these artistic forms of aristocratic descent47 ,once1 and indeed at the time of its invention1 the term meant music designed especially for the delectation of the most eminent patrons of the art--the kings and nobles whose love for it gave it maintenance and encouragement4 ,this is implied by the term itself1 which has the same etymology wherever the form of music is cultivated4 ,in ,italian it is ,musica da ,camera2 in ,french1 ,musique de ,chambre2 in ,german1 ,kammermusik4 ,all the terms have a common root4 ,the ,greek ,greek3 kamara signified an arch1 a vaulted room1 or a covered wagon4 ,in the time of the ,frankish kings the word was applied to the room in the royal palace in which the monarch's private property was kept1 and in which he looked after his private affairs4 ,when royalty took up the cultivation of music it was as a private1 not as a court1 function1 and the concerts given for the entertainment of the royal family took place in the king's chamber1 or private room4 ,the musicians were nothing more nor less than servants in the royal household4 ,this relationship endured into the present century4 ,haydn was a ,hausofficier of ,prince ,esterhazy4 ,as vice-chapelmaster he had to appear every morning in the ,prince's ante-room to receive orders concerning the dinner-music and other entertainments of the day1 and in the certificate of appointment his conduct is regulated with a particularity which we1 who remember him and reverence his genius but have forgotten his master1 think humiliating in the extreme4 ,sidenote3 ,beethoven's ,chamber music4 ,out of this cultivation of music in the private chamber grew the characteristics of ,chamber music1 which we must consider if we would enjoy it ourselves and understand the great reverence which the great masters of music have always felt for it4 ,beethoven was the first great democrat among musicians4 ,he would have none of the shackles which his predecessors wore1 and compelled aristocracy of birth to bow to aristocracy of genius4 ,but such was his reverence for the style of music which had grown up in the chambers of the great that he devoted the last three years of his life almost exclusively to its composition2 the peroration of his proclamation to mankind consists of his last quartets--the holiest of holy things to the ,chamber musicians of to-day4 ,sidenote3 ,the characteristics of ,chamber music4 ,chamber music represents pure thought1 lofty imagination1 and deep learning4 ,these attributes are encouraged by the idea of privacy which is inseparable from the form4 ,composers find it the finest field for the display of their talents because their own skill in creating is to be paired with trained skill in hearing4 ,its representative pieces are written for strings alone--trios1 quartets1 and quintets4 ,with the strings are sometimes associated a pianoforte1 or one or more of the solo wind instruments--oboe1 clarinet1 or ,french horn2 and as a rule the compositions adhere to classical lines 7see ,chapter ,v474 ,of necessity the modesty of the apparatus compels it to forego nearly all the adventitious helps with which other forms of composition gain public approval4 ,in the delineative arts ,chamber music shows analogy with correct drawing and good composition1 the absence of which cannot be atoned for by the most gorgeous coloring4 ,in no other style is sympathy between performers and listeners so necessary1 and for that reason ,chamber music should always be heard in a small room with performers and listeners joined in angelic wedlock4 ,communities in which it flourishes under such conditions are musical4 ,sidenote3 ,programme music4 ,sidenote3 ,the value of superscriptions4 ,sidenote3 ,the rule of judgment4 ,properly speaking1 the term ,programme music ought to be applied only to instrumental compositions which make a frank effort to depict scenes1 incidents1 or emotional processes to which the composer himself gives the clew either by means of a descriptive title or a verbal motto4 ,it is unfortunate that the term has come to be loosely used4 ,in a high sense the purest and best music in the world is programmatic1 its programme being1 as ,i have said1 that high ideal of goodness1 truthfulness1 and beauty which is the content of all true art4 ,but the origin of the term was vulgar1 and the most contemptible piece of tonal imitation now claims kinship in the popular mind with the exquisitely poetical creations of ,schumann and the ,pastoral symphony of ,beethoven2 and so it is become necessary to defend it in the case of noble compositions4 ,a programme is not necessarily1 as ,ambros asserts1 a certificate of poverty and an admission on the part of the composer that his art has got beyond its natural bounds4 ,whether it be merely a suggestive title1 as in the case of some of the compositions of ,beethoven1 ,schumann1 and ,mendelssohn1 or an extended commentary1 as in the symphonic poems of ,liszt and the symphonies of ,berlioz and ,raff1 the programme has a distinct value to the composer as well as the hearer4 ,it can make the perceptive sense more impressible to the influence of the music2 it can quicken the fancy1 and fire the imagination2 it can prevent a gross misconception of the intentions of a composer and the character of his composition4 ,nevertheless1 in determining the artistic value of the work1 the question goes not to the ingenuity of the programme or the clearness with which its suggestions have been carried out1 but to the beauty of the music itself irrespective of the verbal commentary accompanying it4 ,this rule must be maintained in order to prevent a degradation of the object of musical expression4 ,the vile1 the ugly1 the painful are not fit subjects for music2 music renounces1 contravenes1 negatives itself when it attempts their delineation4 ,a classification of ,programme music might be made on these lines3 ,sidenote3 ,kinds of ,programme music4 ,i4 ,descriptive pieces which rest on imitation or suggestion of natural sounds4 ,,ii4 ,pieces whose contents are purely musical1 but the mood of which is suggested by a poetical title4 ,,iii4 ,pieces in which the influence which determined their form and development is indicated not only by a title but also by a motto which is relied upon to mark out a train of thought for the listener which will bring his fancy into union with that of the composer4 ,the motto may be verbal or pictorial4 ,,iv4 ,symphonies or other composite works which have a title to indicate their general character1 supplemented by explanatory superscriptions for each portion4 ,sidenote3 ,imitation of natural sounds4 ,sidenote3 ,the nightingale4 ,sidenote3 ,the cat4 ,sidenote3 ,the cuckoo4 ,the first of these divisions rests upon the employment of the lowest form of conventional musical idiom4 ,the material which the natural world provides for imitation by the musician is exceedingly scant4 ,unless we descend to mere noise1 as in the descriptions of storms and battles 7the shrieking of the wind1 the crashing of thunder1 and the roar of artillery--invaluable aids to the cheap descriptive writer71 we have little else than the calls of a few birds4 ,nearly thirty years ago ,wilhelm ,tappert wrote an essay which he called ,zooplastik in ,toenen4 ,he ransacked the musical literature of centuries1 but in all his examples the only animals the voices of which are unmistakable are four fowls--the cuckoo1 quail 7that is the ,german bird1 not the ,american1 which has a different call71 the cock1 and the hen4 ,he has many descriptive sounds which suggest other birds and beasts1 but only by association of idea2 separated from title or text they suggest merely what they are--musical phrases4 ,a reiteration of the rhythmical figure called the ,scotch snap1 breaking gradually into a trill1 is the common symbol of the nightingale's song1 but it is not a copy of that song2 three or four tones descending chromatically are given as the cat's mew1 but they are made to be such only by placing the syllables ,mi-au 7taken from the vocabulary of the ,german cat7 under them4 ,instances of this kind might be called characterization1 or description by suggestion1 and some of the best composers have made use of them1 as will appear in these pages presently4 ,the list being so small1 and the lesson taught so large1 it may be well to give a few striking instances of absolutely imitative music4 ,the first bird to collaborate with a composer seems to have been the cuckoo1 whose notes ,music illustration3 ,cuck-oo6 had sounded in many a folk-song ere ,beethoven thought of enlisting the little solo performer in his ,pastoral symphony4 ,it is to be borne in mind1 however1 as a fact having some bearing on the artistic value of ,programme music1 that ,beethoven's cuckoo changes his note to please the musician1 and1 instead of singing a minor third1 he sings a major third thus3 ,music illustration3 ,cuck-oo6 ,sidenote3 ,cock and hen4 ,as long ago as #afhh ,jacob ,walter wrote a musical piece entitled ,gallina et ,gallo1 in which the hen was delineated in this theme3 ,music illustration3 ,gallina4 while the cock had the upper voice in the following example1 his clear challenge sounding above the cackling of his mate3 ,music illustration3 ,gallo4 ,the most effective use yet made of the song of the hen1 however1 is in ,la ,poule1 one of ,rameau's ,pieces de ,clavecin1 printed in #agcf1 a delightful composition with this subject3 ,music illustration3 ,co co co co co co co dai1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,the quail4 ,the quail's song is merely a monotonic rhythmical figure to which ,german fancy has fitted words of pious admonition3 ,music illustration3 ,fuerch-te ,gott6 ,lo-be ,gott6 ,sidenote3 ,conventional idioms4 ,sidenote3 ,association of ideas4 ,sidenote3 ,fancy and imagination4 ,sidenote3 ,harmony and emotionality4 ,the paucity of examples in this department is a demonstration of the statement made elsewhere that nature does not provide music with models for imitation as it does painting and sculpture4 ,the fact that1 nevertheless1 we have come to recognize a large number of idioms based on association of ideas stands the composer in good stead whenever he ventures into the domain of delineative or descriptive music1 and this he can do without becoming crudely imitative4 ,repeated experiences have taught us to recognize resemblances between sequences or combinations of tones and things or ideas1 and on these analogies1 even though they be purely conventional 7that is agreed upon1 as we have agreed that a nod of the head shall convey assent1 a shake of the head dissent1 and a shrug of the shoulders doubt or indifference71 the composers have built up a voluminous vocabulary of idioms which need only to be helped out by a suggestion to the mind to be eloquently illustrative4 ,sometimes hearing a melody or harmony arouses an emotion like that aroused by the contemplation of a thing4 ,minor harmonies1 slow movements1 dark tonal colorings1 combine directly to put a musically susceptible person in a mood congenial to thoughts of sorrow and death2 and1 inversely1 the experience of sorrow1 or the contemplation of death1 creates affinity for minor harmonies1 slow movements1 and dark tonal colorings4 ,or we recognize attributes in music possessed also by things1 and we consort the music and the things1 external attributes bringing descriptive music into play1 which excites the fancy1 internal attributes calling for an exercise of the loftier faculty1 imagination1 to discern their meaning4,b ,the latter kind is delineative music of the higher order1 the kind that ,i have called idealized programme music1 for it is the imagination which1 as ,ruskin has said1 sees the heart and inner nature and makes them felt1 but is often obscure1 mysterious1 and interrupted in its giving out of outer detail1 which is a seer in the prophetic sense1 calling the things that are not as though they were1 and forever delighting to dwell on that which is not tangibly present4 ,in this kind of music1 harmony1 the real seat of emotionality in music1 is an eloquent factor1 and1 indeed1 there is no greater mystery in the art1 which is full of mystery1 than the fact that the lowering of the second tone in the chord1 which is the starting-point of harmony1 should change an expression of satisfaction1 energetic action1 or jubilation into an accent of pain or sorrow4 ,the major mode is to do1 the minor1 to suffer3 ,sidenote3 ,major and minor4 ,music illustration3 ,hur-rah6 ,a-las6 ,sidenote3 ,music and movement4 ,how near a large number of suggestions1 which are based wholly upon experience or association of ideas1 lie to the popular fancy1 might be illustrated by scores of examples4 ,thoughts of religious functions arise in us the moment we hear the trombones intone a solemn phrase in full harmony2 an oboe melody in sixth-eighth time over a drone bass brings up a pastoral picture of a shepherd playing upon his pipe2 trumpets and drums suggest war1 and so on4 ,the delineation of movement is easier to the musician than it is to the poet4 ,handel1 who has conveyed the sensation of a darkness which might be felt1 in a chorus of his ,israel in ,egypt1 by means which appeal solely to the imagination stirred by feelings1 has in the same work pictured the plague of frogs with a frank naivete which almost upsets our seriousness of demeanor1 by suggesting the characteristic movement of the creatures in the instrumental accompaniment to the arioso1 ,their land brought forth frogs1 which begins thus3 ,sidenote3 ,handel's frogs4 ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,the movement of water4 ,we find the gentle flux and reflux of water as if it were lapping a rocky shore in the exquisite figure out of which ,mendelssohn constructed his ,hebrides overture3 ,music illustration and in fancy we ride on mighty surges when we listen to the principal subject of ,rubinstein's ,ocean symphony3 ,music illustration ,in none of these instances can the composer be said to be imitative4 ,music cannot copy water1 but it can do what water does1 and so suggest water4 ,sidenote3 ,high and low4 ,some of the most common devices of composers are based on conceptions that are wholly arbitrary4 ,a musical tone cannot have position in space such as is indicated by high or low1 yet so familiar is the association of acuteness of pitch with height1 and gravity of pitch with depth1 that composers continually delineate high things with acute tones and low things with grave tones1 as witness ,handel in one of the choruses of ,the ,messiah3 ,music illustration3 ,glo-ry to ,god in the high-est1 and peace on earth4 ,sidenote3 ,ascent1 descent1 and distance delineated4 ,similarly1 too1 does ,beethoven describe the ascent into heaven and the descent into hell in the ,credo of his mass in ,d4 ,beethoven's music1 indeed1 is full of tone-painting1 and because it exemplifies a double device ,i make room for one more illustration4 ,it is from the cantata ,becalmed at ,sea1 and a ,prosperous ,voyage1 and in it the composer pictures the immensity of the sea by a sudden1 extraordinary spreading out of his harmonies1 which is musical1 and dwelling a long time on the word distance 7,weite7 which is rhetorical3 ,music illustration3 ,in der un-ge-heu-'ren ,wei-te4 ,sidenote3 ,bald imitation bad art4 ,sidenote3 ,vocal music and delineation4 ,sidenote3 ,beethoven's canon4 ,the extent to which tone-painting is justified is a question which might profitably concern us2 but such a discussion as it deserves would far exceed the limits set for this book1 and must be foregone4 ,it cannot be too forcibly urged1 however1 as an aid to the listener1 that efforts at musical cartooning have never been made by true composers1 and that in the degree that music attempts simply to copy external things it falls in the scale of artistic truthfulness and value4 ,vocal music tolerates more of the descriptive element than instrumental because it is a mixed art2 in it the purpose of music is to illustrate the poetry and1 by intensifying the appeal to the fancy1 to warm the emotions4 ,every piece of vocal music1 moreover1 carries its explanatory programme in its words4 ,still more tolerable and even righteous is it in the opera where it is but one of several factors which labor together to make up the sum of dramatic representation4 ,but it must ever remain valueless unless it be idealized4 ,mendelssohn1 desiring to put ,bully ,bottom into the overture to ,a ,midsummer ,night's ,dream1 did not hesitate to use tones which suggest the bray of a donkey1 yet the effect1 like ,handel's frogs and flies in ,israel1 is one of absolute musical value4 ,the canon which ought continually to be before the mind of the listener is that which ,beethoven laid down with most painstaking care when he wrote the ,pastoral symphony4 ,desiring to inform the listeners what were the images which inspired the various movements 7in order1 of course1 that they might the better enter into the work by recalling them71 he gave each part a superscription thus3 ,sidenote3 ,the ,pastoral symphony4 ,i4 ,the agreeable and cheerful sensations awakened by arrival in the country4 ,,ii4 ,scene by the brook4 ,,iii4 ,a merrymaking of the country folk4 ,,iv4 ,thunder-storm4 ,v4 ,shepherds' song--feelings of charity combined with gratitude to the ,deity after the storm4 ,in the title itself he included an admonitory explanation which should have everlasting validity3 ,pastoral ,symphony2 more expression of feeling than painting4 ,how seriously he thought on the subject we know from his sketch-books1 in which occur a number of notes1 some of which were evidently hints for superscriptions1 some records of his convictions on the subject of descriptive music4 ,the notes are reprinted in ,nottebohm's ,zweite ,beethoveniana1 but ,i borrow ,sir ,george ,grove's translation3 ,sidenote3 ,beethoven's notes on descriptive music4 ,the hearers should be allowed to discover the situations4 ,sinfonia caracteristica1 or a recollection of country life4 ,all painting in instrumental music1 if pushed too far1 is a failure4 ,sinfonia pastorella4 ,anyone who has an idea of country life can make out for himself the intentions of the author without many titles4 ,people will not require titles to recognize the general intention to be more a matter of feeling than of painting in sounds4 ,pastoral symphony3 ,no picture1 but something in which the emotions are expressed which are aroused in men by the pleasure of the country 7or71 in which some feelings of country life are set forth4,c ,as to the relation of programme to music ,schumann laid down an admirable maxim when he said that while good music was not harmed by a descriptive title it was a bad indication if a composition needed one4 ,sidenote3 ,classic and ,romantic4 ,there are1 among all the terms used in music1 no words of vaguer meaning than ,classic and ,romantic4 ,the idea which they convey most widely in conjunction is that of antithesis4 ,when the ,romantic ,school of composers is discussed it is almost universally presented as something opposed in character to the ,classical ,school4 ,there is little harm in this if we but bear in mind that all the terms which have come into use to describe different phases of musical development are entirely artificial and arbitrary--that they do not stand for anything absolute1 but only serve as platforms of observation4 ,if the terms had a fixed meaning we ought to be able1 since they have established themselves in the language of history and criticism1 to describe unambiguously and define clearly the boundary which separates them4 ,this1 however1 is impossible4 ,each generation1 nay1 each decade1 fixes the meaning of the words for itself and decides what works shall go into each category4 ,it ought to be possible to discover a principle1 a touchstone1 which shall emancipate us from the mischievous and misleading notions that have so long prompted men to make the partitions between the schools out of dates and names4 ,sidenote3 ,trench's definition of classical4 ,the terms were borrowed from literary criticism2 but even there1 in the words of ,archbishop ,trench1 they either say nothing at all or say something erroneous4 ,classical has more to defend it than ,romantic1 because it has greater antiquity and1 in one sense1 has been used with less arbitrariness4 ,the term1 says ,trench1 is drawn from the political economy of ,rome4 ,such a man was rated as to his income in the third class1 such another in the fourth1 and so on1 and he who was in the highest was emphatically said to be of the class1 classicus1 a class man1 without adding the number as in that case superfluous2 while all others were infra classem4 ,hence by an obvious analogy the best authors were rated as classici1 or men of the highest class2 just as in ,english we say 'men of rank' absolutely for men who are in the highest ranks of the ,state4 ,thus ,trench1 and his historical definition1 explains why in music also there is something more than a lurking suggestion of excellence in the conception of classical2 but that fact does not put away the quarrel which we feel exists between ,classic and ,romantic4 ,sidenote3 ,romantic in literature4 ,sidenote3 ,schumann and ,jean ,paul4 ,sidenote3 ,weber's operas4 ,sidenote3 ,mendelssohn4 ,as applied to literature ,romantic was an adjective affected by certain poets1 first in ,germany1 then in ,france1 who wished to introduce a style of thought and expression different from that of those who followed old models4 ,intrinsically1 of course1 the term does not imply any such opposition but only bears witness to the source from which the poets drew their inspiration4 ,this was the imaginative literature of the ,middle ,ages1 the fantastical stories of chivalry and knighthood written in the ,romance1 or ,romanic languages1 such as ,italian1 ,spanish1 and ,provencal4 ,the principal elements of these stories were the marvellous and the supernatural4 ,the composers whose names first spring into our minds when we think of the ,romantic ,school are men like ,mendelssohn and ,schumann1 who drew much of their inspiration from the young writers of their time who were making war on stilted rhetoric and conventionalism of phrase4 ,schumann touches hands with the ,romantic poets in their strivings in two directions4 ,his artistic conduct1 especially in his early years1 is inexplicable if ,jean ,paul be omitted from the equation4 ,his music rebels against the formalism which had held despotic sway over the art1 and also seeks to disclose the beauty which lies buried in the world of mystery in and around us1 and give expression to the multitude of emotions to which unyielding formalism had refused adequate utterance4 ,this1 ,i think1 is the chief element of ,romanticism4 ,another has more of an external nature and genesis1 and this we find in the works of such composers as ,von ,weber1 who is ,romantic chiefly in his operas1 because of the supernaturalism and chivalry in their stories1 and ,mendelssohn1 who1 while distinctly ,romantic in many of his strivings1 was yet so great a master of form1 and so attached to it1 that the ,romantic side of him was not fully developed4 ,sidenote3 ,a definition of ,classical in music4 ,sidenote3 ,the creative and conservative principles4 ,sidenote3 ,musical laws of necessity progressive4 ,sidenote3 ,bach and ,romanticism4 ,sidenote3 ,creation and conservation4 ,if ,i were to attempt a definition it would be this3 ,classical composers are those of the first rank 7to this extent we yield to the ancient ,roman conception7 who have developed music to the highest pitch of perfection on its formal side and1 in obedience to generally accepted laws1 preferring aesthetic beauty1 pure and simple1 over emotional content1 or1 at any rate1 refusing to sacrifice form to characteristic expression4 ,romantic composers are those who have sought their ideals in other regions and striven to give expression to them irrespective of the restrictions and limitations of form and the conventions of law--composers with whom1 in brief1 content outweighs manner4 ,this definition presents ,classicism as the regulative and conservative principle in the history of the art1 and ,romanticism as the progressive1 regenerative1 and creative principle4 ,it is easy to see how the notion of contest between them grew up1 and the only harm which can come from such a notion will ensue only if we shut our eyes to the fact that it is a contest between two elements whose very opposition stimulates life1 and whose union1 perfect1 peaceful1 mutually supplemental1 is found in every really great art-work4 ,no law which fixes1 and hence limits1 form1 can remain valid forever4 ,its end is served when it enforces itself long enough to keep lawlessness in check till the test of time has determined what is sound1 sweet1 and wholesome in the innovations which are always crowding eagerly into every creative activity in art and science4 ,in art it is ever true1 as ,faust concludes1 that ,in the beginning was the deed4 ,the laws of composition are the products of compositions2 and1 being such1 they cannot remain unalterable so long as the impulse freshly to create remains4 ,all great men are ahead of their time1 and in all great music1 no matter when written1 you shall find instances of profounder meaning and deeper or newer feeling than marked the generality of contemporary compositions4 ,so ,bach frequently floods his formal utterances with ,romantic feeling1 and the face of ,beethoven1 serving at the altar in the temple of ,beauty1 is transfigured for us by divine light4 ,the principles of creation and conservation move onward together1 and what is ,romantic to-day becomes ,classic to-morrow4 ,romanticism is fluid ,classicism4 ,it is the emotional stimulus informing ,romanticism which calls music into life1 but no sooner is it born1 free1 untrammelled1 nature's child1 than the regulative principle places shackles upon it2 but it is enslaved only that it may become and remain art4 ,,footnotes3 ,b ,studies in the ,wagnerian ,drama1 p4 #bb4 ,c ,beethoven and ,his ,nine ,symphonies1 by ,george ,grove1 ,c4,b41 #b;d ed41 p4 #aia4 ,,iv ,the ,modern ,orchestra ,sidenote3 ,the orchestra as an instrument4 ,sidenote3 ,what may be heard from a band4 ,the most eloquent1 potent1 and capable instrument of music in the world is the modern orchestra4 ,it is the instrument whose employment by the classical composers and the geniuses of the ,romantic ,school in the middle of our century marks the high tide of the musical art4 ,it is an instrument1 moreover1 which is never played upon without giving a great object-lesson in musical analysis1 without inviting the eye to help the ear to discern the cause of the sounds which ravish our senses and stir up pleasurable emotions4 ,yet the popular knowledge of its constituent parts1 of the individual value and mission of the factors which go to make up its sum1 is scarcely greater than the popular knowledge of the structure of a symphony or sonata4 ,all this is the more deplorable since at least a rudimentary knowledge of these things might easily be gained1 and in gaining it the student would find a unique intellectual enjoyment1 and have his ears unconsciously opened to a thousand beauties in the music never perceived before4 ,he would learn1 for instance1 to distinguish the characteristic timbre of each of the instruments in the band2 and after that to the delight found in what may be called the primary colors he would add that which comes from analyzing the vast number of tints which are the products of combination4 ,noting the capacity of the various instruments and the manner in which they are employed1 he would get glimpses into the mental workshop of the composer4 ,he would discover that there are conventional means of expression in his art analogous to those in the other arts2 and collating his methods with the effects produced1 he would learn something of the creative artist's purposes4 ,he would find that while his merely sensuous enjoyment would be left unimpaired1 and the emotional excitement which is a legitimate fruit of musical performance unchecked1 these pleasures would have others consorted with them4 ,his intellectual faculties would be agreeably excited1 and he would enjoy the pleasures of memory1 which are exemplified in music more delightfully and more frequently than in any other art1 because of the role which repetition of parts plays in musical composition4 ,sidenote3 ,familiar instruments4 ,sidenote3 ,the instrumental choirs4 ,the argument is as valid in the study of musical forms as in the study of the orchestra1 but it is the latter that is our particular business in this chapter4 ,everybody listening to an orchestral concert recognizes the physical forms of the violins1 flutes1 cornets1 and big drum2 but even of these familiar instruments the voices are not always recognized4 ,as for the rest of the harmonious fraternity1 few give heed to them1 even while enjoying the music which they produce2 yet with a few words of direction anybody can study the instruments of the band at an orchestral concert4 ,let him first recognize the fact that to the mind of a composer an orchestra always presents itself as a combination of four groups of instruments--choirs1 let us call them1 with unwilling apology to the lexicographers4 ,these choirs are3 first1 the viols of four sorts--violins1 violas1 violoncellos1 and double-basses1 spoken of collectively as the string quartet2 second1 the wind instruments of wood 7the wood-winds in the musician's jargon7--flutes1 oboes1 clarinets1 and bassoons2 third1 the wind instruments of brass 7the brass7--trumpets1 horns1 trombones1 and bass tuba4 ,in all of these subdivisions there are numerous variations which need not detain us now4 ,a further subdivision might be made in each with reference to the harmony voices 7showing an analogy with the four voices of a vocal choir--soprano1 contralto1 tenor1 and bass72 but to go into this might make the exposition confusing4 ,the fourth choir 7here the apology to the lexicographers must be repeated with much humility and earnestness7 consists of the instruments of percussion--the kettle-drums1 big drum1 cymbals1 triangle1 bell chime1 etc4 7sometimes spoken of collectively in the ,united ,states as the battery74 ,illustration3 ,,seating ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,philharmonic ,,society4 ,sidenote3 ,how orchestras are seated4 ,sidenote3 ,plan of the ,new ,york ,philharmonic4 ,the disposition of these instruments in our orchestras is largely a matter of individual taste and judgment in the conductor1 though the general rule is exemplified in the plan given herewith1 showing how ,mr4 ,anton ,seidl has arranged the desks for the concerts of the ,philharmonic ,society of ,new ,york4 ,mr4 ,theodore ,thomas's arrangement differed very little from that of ,mr4 ,seidl1 the most noticeable difference being that he placed the viola-players beside the second violinists1 where ,mr4 ,seidl has the violoncellists4 ,mr4 ,seidl's purpose in making the change was to gain an increase in sonority for the viola part1 the position to the right of the stage 7the left of the audience7 enabling the viola-players to hold their instruments with the ,f-holes toward the listeners instead of away from them4 ,the relative positions of the harmonious battalions1 as a rule1 are as shown in the diagram4 ,in the foreground1 the violins1 violas1 and 'cellos2 in the middle distance1 the wood-winds2 in the background1 the brass and the battery2 the double-basses flanking the whole body4 ,this distribution of forces is dictated by considerations of sonority1 the most assertive instruments--the brass and drums--being placed farthest from the hearers1 and the instruments of the viol tribe1 which are the real backbone of the band and make their effect by a massing of voices in each part1 having the place of honor and greatest advantage4 ,of course it is understood that ,i am speaking of a concert orchestra4 ,in the case of theatrical or operatic bands the arrangement of the forces is dependent largely upon the exigencies of space4 ,sidenote3 ,solo instruments4 ,outside the strings the instruments are treated by composers as solo instruments1 a single flute1 oboe1 clarinet1 or other wind instrument sometimes doing the same work in the development of the composition as the entire body of first violins4 ,as a rule1 the wood-winds are used in pairs1 the purpose of this being either to fill the harmony when what ,i may call the principal thought of the composition is consigned to a particular choir1 or to strengthen a voice by permitting two instruments to play in unison4 ,sidenote3 ,groupings for harmony effects4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner's instrumental characterization4 ,sidenote3 ,an instrumental language4 ,each choir1 except the percussion instruments1 is capable of playing in full harmony2 and this effect is frequently used by composers4 ,in ,lohengrin1 which for that reason affords to the amateur an admirable opportunity for orchestral study1 ,wagner resorts to this device in some instances for the sake of dramatic characterization4 ,elsa1 a dreamy1 melancholy maiden1 crushed under the weight of wrongful accusation1 and sustained only by the vision of a seraphic champion sent by ,heaven to espouse her cause1 is accompanied on her entrance and sustained all through her scene of trial by the dulcet tones of the wood-winds1 the oboe most often carrying the melody4 ,lohengrin's superterrestrial character as a ,knight of the ,holy ,grail is prefigured in the harmonies which seem to stream from the violins1 and in the prelude tell of the bringing of the sacred vessel of ,christ's passion to ,monsalvat2 but in his chivalric character he is greeted by the militant trumpets in a strain of brilliant puissance and rhythmic energy4 ,composers have studied the voices of the instruments so long and well1 and have noted the kind of melodies and harmonies in which the voices are most effective1 that they have formulated what might almost be called an instrumental language4 ,though the effective capacity of each instrument is restricted not only by its mechanics1 but also by the quality of its tones--a melody conceived for one instrument sometimes becoming utterly inexpressive and unbeautiful by transferrence to another--the range of effects is extended almost to infinity by means of combination1 or1 as a painter might say1 by mixing the colors4 ,the art of writing effectively for instruments in combination is the art of instrumentation or orchestration1 in which ,berlioz and ,wagner were ,past ,grand ,masters4 ,sidenote3 ,number of instruments4 ,the number of instruments of each kind in an orchestra may also be said to depend measurably upon the music1 or the use to which the band is to be put4 ,neither in instruments nor in numbers is there absolute identity between a dramatic and a symphonic orchestra4 ,the apparatus of the former is generally much more varied and complex1 because of the vast development of variety in dramatic expression stimulated by ,wagner4 ,sidenote3 ,symphony and dramatic orchestras4 ,the modern symphony1 especially the symphonic poem1 shows the influence of this dramatic tendency1 but not in the same degree4 ,a comparison between model bands in each department will disclose what is called the normal orchestral organization4 ,for the comparison 7see page #hb71 ,i select the bands of the first ,wagner ,festival held in ,bayreuth in #ahgf1 the ,philharmonic ,society of ,new ,york1 the ,boston ,symphony ,orchestra1 and the ,chicago ,symphony ,orchestra4 ,sidenote3 ,instruments rarely used4 ,instruments like the corno di bassetto1 bass trumpet1 tenor tuba1 contra-bass tuba1 and contra-bass trombone are so seldom called for in the music played by concert orchestras that they have no place in their regular lists4 ,they are employed when needed1 however1 and the horns and other instruments are multiplied when desirable effects are to be obtained by such means4 ,sidenote3 ,orchestras compared4 ,new ,york ,instruments ,bayreuth4 ,philharmonic4 ,boston4 ,chicago4 ,first violins #af #ah #af #af ,second violins #af #ah #ad #af ,violas #ab #ad #aj #aj ,violoncellos #ab #ad #h #aj ,double-basses #h #ad #h #i ,flutes #c #c #c #c ,oboes #c #c #b #c ,english horn #a #a #a #a ,clarinets #c #c #c #c ,basset-horn #a #j #j #j ,bassoons #c #c #c #c ,trumpets or cornets #c #c #d #d ,horns #h #d #d #d ,trombones #c #c #c #c ,bass trumpet #a #j #j #a ,tenor tubas #b #j #b #d ,bass tubas #b #a #b #a ,contra-bass tuba #a #j #a #j ,contra-bass trombone #a #j #j #a ,tympani 7pairs7 #b #b #b #b ,bass drum #a #a #a #a ,cymbals 7pairs7 #a #a #a #a ,harps #f #a #a #b ,sidenote3 ,the string quartet4 ,sidenote3 ,old laws against instrumentalists4 ,sidenote3 ,early instrumentation4 ,sidenote3 ,handel's orchestra4 ,the string quartet1 it will be seen1 makes up nearly three-fourths of a well-balanced orchestra4 ,it is the only choir which has numerous representation of its constituent units4 ,this was not always so1 but is the fruit of development in the art of instrumentation which is the newest department in music4 ,vocal music had reached its highest point before instrumental music made a beginning as an art4 ,the former was the pampered child of the ,church1 the latter was long an outlaw4 ,as late as the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries instrumentalists were vagabonds in law1 like strolling players4 ,they had none of the rights of citizenship2 the religious sacraments were denied them2 their children were not permitted to inherit property or learn an honourable trade2 and after death the property for which they had toiled escheated to the crown4 ,after the instruments had achieved the privilege of artistic utterance1 they were for a long time mere slavish imitators of the human voice4 ,bach treated them with an insight into their possibilities which was far in advance of his time1 for which reason he is the most modern composer of the first half of the eighteenth century2 but even in ,handel's case the rule was to treat them chiefly as supports for the voices4 ,he multiplied them just as he did the voices in his choruses1 consorting a choir of oboes and bassoons1 and another of trumpets of almost equal numbers with his violins4 ,sidenote3 ,the modern band4 ,the so-called purists in ,england talk a great deal about restoring ,handel's orchestra in performances of his oratorios1 utterly unmindful of the fact that to our ears1 accustomed to the myriad-hued orchestra of to-day1 the effect would seem opaque1 heavy1 unbalanced1 and without charm were a band of oboes to play in unison with the violins1 another of bassoons to double the 'cellos1 and half a dozen trumpets to come flaring and crashing into the musical mass at intervals4 ,gluck in the opera1 and ,haydn and ,mozart in the symphony1 first disclosed the charm of the modern orchestra with the wind instruments apportioned to the strings so as to obtain the multitude of tonal tints which we admire to-day4 ,on the lines which they marked out the progress has been exceedingly rapid and far-reaching4 ,sidenote3 ,capacity of the orchestra4 ,sidenote3 ,the extremes of range4 ,in the hands of the latter-day ,romantic composers1 and with the help of the instrument-makers1 who have marvellously increased the capacity of the wind instruments1 and remedied the deficiencies which embarrassed the ,classical writers1 the orchestra has developed into an instrument such as never entered the mind of the wildest dreamer of the last century4 ,its range of expression is almost infinite4 ,it can strike like a thunder-bolt1 or murmur like a zephyr4 ,its voices are multitudinous4 ,its register is coextensive in theory with that of the modern pianoforte1 reaching from the space immediately below the sixth added line under the bass staff to the ninth added line above the treble staff4 ,these two extremes1 which belong respectively to the bass tuba and piccolo flute1 are not at the command of every player1 but they are within the capacity of the instruments1 and mark the orchestra's boundaries in respect of pitch4 ,the gravest note is almost as deep as any in which the ordinary human ear can detect pitch1 and the acutest reaches the same extremity in the opposite direction4 ,sidenote3 ,the viols4 ,sidenote3 ,the violin4 ,with all the changes that have come over the orchestra in the course of the last two hundred years1 the string quartet has remained its chief factor4 ,its voice cannot grow monotonous or cloying1 for1 besides its innate qualities1 it commands a more varied manner of expression than all the other instruments combined4 ,the viol1 which term ,i shall use generically to indicate all the instruments of the quartet1 is the only instrument in the band1 except the harp1 that can play harmony as well as melody4 ,its range is the most extensive2 it is more responsive to changes in manipulation2 it is endowed more richly than any other instrument with varieties of timbre2 it has an incomparable facility of execution1 and answers more quickly and more eloquently than any of its companions to the feelings of the player4 ,a great advantage which the viol possesses over wind instruments is that1 not being dependent on the breath of the player1 there is practically no limit to its ability to sustain tones4 ,it is because of this long list of good qualities that it is relied on to provide the staff of life to instrumental music4 ,the strings as commonly used show four members of the viol family1 distinguished among themselves by their size1 and the quality in the changes of tone which grows out of the differences in size4 ,the violins 7,appendix1 ,plate ,i47 are the smallest members of the family4 ,historically they are the culmination of a development toward diminutiveness1 for in their early days viols were larger than they are now4 ,when the violin of to-day entered the orchestra 7in the score of ,monteverde's opera ,orfeo7 it was specifically described as a little ,french violin4 ,its voice1 ,berlioz says1 is the true female voice of the orchestra4 ,generally the violin part of an orchestral score is two-voiced1 but the two groups may be split into a great number4 ,in one passage in ,tristan und ,isolde ,wagner divides his first and second violins into sixteen groups4 ,such divisions1 especially in the higher regions1 are productive of entrancing effects4 ,sidenote3 ,violin effects4 ,sidenote3 ,pizzicato4 ,sidenote3 ,col legno dall'arco4 ,sidenote3 ,harmonics4 ,sidenote3 ,vibrato4 ,sidenote3 ,con sordino4 ,the halo of sound which streams from the beginning and end of the ,lohengrin prelude is produced by this device4 ,high and close harmonies from divided violins always sound ethereal4 ,besides their native tone quality 7that resulting from a string stretched over a sounding shell set to vibrating by friction71 the violins have a number of modified qualities resulting from changes in manipulation4 ,sometimes the strings are plucked 7pizzicato71 when the result is a short tone something like that of a banjo with the metallic clang omitted2 very dainty effects can thus be produced1 and though it always seems like a degradation of the instrument so pre-eminently suited to a broad singing style1 no less significant a symphonist than ,tschaikowsky has written a ,scherzo in which the violins are played pizzicato throughout the movement4 ,ballet composers frequently resort to the piquant effect1 but in the larger and more serious forms of composition1 the device is sparingly used4 ,differences in quality and expressiveness of tone are also produced by varied methods of applying the bow to the strings3 with stronger or lighter pressure2 near the bridge1 which renders the tone hard and brilliant1 and over the end of the finger-board1 which softens it2 in a continuous manner 7legato71 or detached 7staccato74 ,weird effects in dramatic music are sometimes produced by striking the strings with the wood of the bow1 ,wagner resorting to this means to delineate the wicked glee of his dwarf ,mime1 and ,meyerbeer to heighten the uncanniness of ,nelusko's wild song in the third act of ,l',africaine4 ,another class of effects results from the manner in which the strings are stopped by the fingers of the left hand4 ,when they are not pressed firmly against the finger-board but touched lightly at certain places called nodes by the acousticians1 so that the segments below the finger are permitted to vibrate along with the upper portion1 those peculiar tones of a flute-like quality called harmonics or flageolet tones are produced4 ,these are oftener heard in dramatic music than in symphonies2 but ,berlioz1 desiring to put ,shakespeare's description of ,queen ,mab1 ,her wagon-spokes made of long spinner's legs2 ,the cover1 of the wings of grasshoppers2 ,the traces1 of the smallest spider's web2 ,the collars1 of the moonshine's watery beams-- into music in his dramatic symphony1 ,romeo and ,juliet1 achieved a marvellously filmy effect by dividing his violins1 and permitting some of them to play harmonics4 ,yet so little was his ingenious purpose suspected when he first brought the symphony forward in ,paris1 that one of the critics spoke contemptuously of this effect as sounding like an ill-greased syringe4 ,a quivering motion imparted to the fingers of the left hand in stopping the strings produces a tremulousness of tone akin to the vibrato of a singer2 and1 like the vocal vibrato1 when not carried to excess1 this effect is a potent expression of sentimental feeling4 ,but it is much abused by solo players4 ,another modification of tone is caused by placing a tiny instrument called a sordino1 or mute1 upon the bridge4 ,this clamps the bridge1 makes it heavier1 and checks the vibrations1 so that the tone is muted or muffled1 and at times sounds mysterious4 ,sidenote3 ,pizzicato on the basses4 ,sidenote3 ,tremolo4 ,these devices1 though as a rule they have their maximum of effectiveness in the violins1 are possible also on the violas1 violoncellos1 and double-basses1 which1 as ,i have already intimated1 are but violins of a larger growth4 ,the pizzicato is1 indeed1 oftenest heard from the double-basses1 where it has a much greater eloquence than on the violins4 ,in music of a sombre cast1 the short1 deep tones given out by the plucked strings of the contra-bass sometimes have the awfulness of gigantic heart-throbs4 ,the difficulty of producing the other effects grows with the increase of difficulty in handling the instruments1 this being due to the growing thickness of the strings and the wideness of the points at which they must be stopped4 ,one effect peculiar to them all--the most used of all effects1 indeed1 in dramatic music--is the tremolo1 produced by dividing a tone into many quickly reiterated short tones by a rapid motion of the bow4 ,this device came into use with one of the earliest pieces of dramatic music4 ,it is two centuries old1 and was first used to help in the musical delineation of a combat4 ,with scarcely an exception1 the varied means which ,i have described can be detected by those to whom they are not already familiar by watching the players while listening to the music4 ,sidenote3 ,the viola4 ,the viola is next in size to the violin1 and is tuned at the interval of a fifth lower4 ,its highest string is ,a1 which is the second string of the violin1 and its lowest ,c4 ,its tone1 which sometimes contains a comical suggestion of a boy's voice in mutation1 is lacking in incisiveness and brilliancy1 but for this it compensates by a wonderful richness and filling quality1 and a pathetic and inimitable mournfulness in melancholy music4 ,it blends beautifully with the violoncello1 and is often made to double that instrument's part for the sake of color effect--as1 to cite a familiar instance1 in the principal subject of the ,andante in ,beethoven's ,fifth ,symphony4 ,sidenote3 ,the violoncello4 ,sidenote3 ,violoncello effects4 ,the strings of the violoncello 7,plate ,,ii47 are tuned like those of the viola1 but an octave lower4 ,it is the knee-fiddle 7viola da gamba7 of the last century1 as the viola is the arm-fiddle 7viola da braccio71 and got its old name from the position in which it is held by the player4 ,the 'cello's voice is a bass--it might be called the barytone of the choir--and in the olden time of simple writing1 little else was done with it than to double the bass part one octave higher4 ,but modern composers1 appreciating its marvellous capacity for expression1 which is next to that of the violin1 have treated it with great freedom and independence as a solo instrument4 ,its tone is full of voluptuous languor4 ,it is the sighing lover of the instrumental company1 and can speak the language of tender passion more feelingly than any of its fellows4 ,the ravishing effect of a multiplication of its voice is tellingly exemplified in the opening of the overture to ,william ,tell1 which is written for five solo 'celli1 though it is oftenest heard in an arrangement which gives two of the middle parts to violas4 ,when ,beethoven wished to produce the emotional impression of a peacefully rippling brook in his ,pastoral symphony1 he gave a murmuring figure to the divided violoncellos1 and ,wagner uses the passionate accents of four of these instruments playing in harmony to support ,siegmund when he is pouring out the ecstasy of his love in the first act of ,die ,walkuere4 ,in the love scene of ,berlioz's ,romeo and ,juliet symphony it is the violoncello which personifies the lover1 and holds converse with the modest oboe4 ,sidenote3 ,the double-bass4 ,the patriarchal double-bass is known to all1 and also its mission of providing the foundation for the harmonic structure of orchestral music4 ,it sounds an octave lower than the music written for it1 being what is called a transposing instrument of sixteen-foot tone4 ,solos are seldom written for this instrument in orchestral music1 though ,beethoven1 with his daring recitatives in the ,ninth ,symphony1 makes it a mediator between the instrumental and vocal forces4 ,dragonetti and ,bottesini1 two ,italians1 the latter of whom is still alive1 won great fame as solo players on the unwieldy instrument4 ,the latter uses a small bass viol1 and strings it with harp strings2 but ,dragonetti played a full double-bass1 on which he could execute the most difficult passages written for the violoncello4 ,sidenote3 ,the wood-winds4 ,since the instruments of the wood-wind choir are frequently used in solos1 their acquaintance can easily be made by an observing amateur4 ,to this division of the orchestra belong the gentle accents in the instrumental language4 ,violent expression is not its province1 and generally when the band is discoursing in heroic style or giving voice to brave or angry emotion the wood-winds are either silent or are used to give weight to the body of tone rather than color4 ,each of the instruments has a strongly characteristic voice1 which adapts itself best to a certain style of music2 but by use of different registers and by combinations among them1 or with the instruments of the other choirs1 a wide range of expression within the limits suggested has been won for the wood-winds4 ,sidenote3 ,the flute4 ,sidenote3 ,the piccolo flute4 ,sidenote3 ,janizary music4 ,sidenote3 ,the story of the flute4 ,the flute1 which requires no description1 is1 for instance1 an essentially soulless instrument2 but its marvellous agility and the effectiveness with which its tones can be blended with others make it one of the most useful instruments in the band4 ,its native character1 heard in the compositions written for it as a solo instrument1 has prevented it from being looked upon with dignity4 ,as a rule1 brilliancy is all that is expected from it4 ,it is a sort of soprano leggiero with a small range of superficial feelings4 ,it can sentimentalize1 and1 as ,dryden says1 be soft1 complaining1 but when we hear it pour forth a veritable ecstasy of jubilation1 as it does in the dramatic climax of ,beethoven's overture ,leonore ,no4 #c1 we marvel at the transformation effected by the composer4 ,advantage has also been taken of the difference between its high and low tones1 and now in some romantic music1 as in ,raff's ,lenore symphony1 or the prayer of ,agathe in ,der ,freischuetz1 the hollowness of the low tones produces a mysterious effect that is exceedingly striking4 ,still the fact remains that the native voice of the instrument1 though sweet1 is expressionless compared with that of the oboe or clarinet4 ,modern composers sometimes write for three flutes2 but in the older writers1 when a third flute is used1 it is generally an octave flute1 or piccolo flute 7,plate ,,iii47--a tiny instrument whose aggressiveness of voice is out of all proportion to its diminutiveness of body4 ,this is the instrument which shrieks and whistles when the band is playing at storm-making1 to imitate the noise of the wind4 ,it sounds an octave higher than is indicated by the notes in its part1 and so is what is called a transposing instrument of four-foot tone4 ,it revels in military music1 which is proper1 for it is an own cousin to the ear-piercing fife1 which annually makes up for its long silence in the noisy days before political elections4 ,when you hear a composition in march time1 with bass and snare drum1 cymbals and triangle1 such as the ,germans call ,turkish or ,janizary music1 you may be sure to hear also the piccolo flute4 ,the flute is doubtless one of the oldest instruments in the world4 ,the primitive cave-dwellers made flutes of the leg-bones of birds and other animals1 an origin of which a record is preserved in the ,latin name tibia4 ,the first wooden flutes were doubtless the ,pandean pipes1 in which the tone was produced by blowing across the open ends of hollow reeds4 ,the present method1 already known to the ancient ,egyptians1 of closing the upper end1 and creating the tone by blowing across a hole cut in the side1 is only a modification of the method pursued1 according to classic tradition1 by ,pan when he breathed out his dejection at the loss of the nymph ,syrinx1 by blowing across the tuneful reeds which were that nymph in her metamorphosed state4 ,sidenote3 ,reed instruments4 ,sidenote3 ,double reeds4 ,the flute or pipe of the ,greeks and ,romans was only distantly related to the true flute1 but was the ancestor of its orchestral companions1 the oboe and clarinet4 ,these instruments are sounded by being blown in at the end1 and the tone is created by vibrating reeds1 whereas in the flute it is the result of the impinging of the air on the edge of the hole called the embouchure1 and the consequent stirring of the column of air in the flue of the instrument4 ,the reeds are thin slips or blades of cane4 ,the size and bore of the instruments and the difference between these reeds are the causes of the differences in tone quality between these relatives4 ,the oboe or hautboy1 ,english horn1 and the bassoon have what are called double reeds4 ,two narrow blades of cane are fitted closely together1 and fastened with silk on a small metal tube extending from the upper end of the instrument in the case of the oboe and ,english horn1 from the side in the case of the bassoon4 ,the reeds are pinched more or less tightly between the lips1 and are set to vibrating by the breath4 ,sidenote3 ,the oboe4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,english horn4 ,the oboe 7,plate ,,iv47 is naturally associated with music of a pastoral character4 ,it is pre-eminently a melody instrument1 and though its voice comes forth shrinkingly1 its uniqueness of tone makes it easily heard4 ,it is a most lovable instrument4 ,candor1 artless grace1 soft joy1 or the grief of a fragile being suits the oboe's accents1 says ,berlioz4 ,the peculiarity of its mouth-piece gives its tone a reedy or vibrating quality totally unlike the clarinet's4 ,its natural alto is the ,english horn 7,plate ,v471 which is an oboe of larger growth1 with curved tube for convenience of manipulation4 ,the tone of the ,english horn is fuller1 nobler1 and is very attractive in melancholy or dreamy music4 ,there are few players on the ,english horn in this country1 and it might be set down as a rule that outside of ,new ,york1 ,boston1 and ,chicago1 the ,english horn parts are played by the oboe in ,america4 ,no melody displays the true character of the ,english horn better than the ,ranz des ,vaches in the overture to ,rossini's ,william ,tell--that lovely ,alpine song which the flute embroiders with exquisite ornament4 ,one of the noblest utterances of the oboe is the melody of the funeral march in ,beethoven's ,heroic symphony1 in which its tenderness has beautiful play4 ,it is sometimes used effectively in imitative music4 ,in ,haydn's ,seasons1 and also in that grotesque tone poem by ,saint-,saens1 the ,danse ,macabre1 it gives the cock crow4 ,it is the timid oboe that sounds the ,a for the orchestra to tune by4 ,sidenote3 ,the bassoon4 ,sidenote3 ,an orchestral humorist4 ,sidenote3 ,supernatural effects4 ,the grave voice of the oboe is heard from the bassoon 7,plate ,,vi471 where1 without becoming assertive1 it gains a quality entirely unknown to the oboe and ,english horn4 ,it is this quality that makes the bassoon the humorist par excellence of the orchestra4 ,it is a reedy bass1 very apt to recall to those who have had a country education the squalling tone of the homely instrument which the farmer's boy fashions out of the stems of the pumpkin-vine4 ,the humor of the bassoon is an unconscious humor1 and results from the use made of its abysmally solemn voice4 ,this solemnity in quality is paired with astonishing flexibility of utterance1 so that its gambols are always grotesque4 ,brahms permits the bassoon to intone the ,fuchslied of the ,german students in his ,academic overture4 ,beethoven achieves a decidedly comical effect by a stubborn reiteration of key-note1 fifth1 and octave by the bassoon under a rustic dance intoned by the oboe in the scherzo of his ,pastoral symphony2 and nearly every modern composer has taken advantage of the instrument's grotesqueness4 ,mendelssohn introduces the clowns in his ,midsummer-,night's-,dream music by a droll dance for two bassoons over a sustained bass note from the violoncellos2 but when ,meyerbeer wanted a very different effect1 a ghastly one indeed1 in the scene of the resuscitation of the nuns in his ,robert le ,diable1 he got it by taking two bassoons as solo instruments and using their weak middle tones1 which1 ,berlioz says1 have a pale1 cold1 cadaverous sound4 ,singularly enough1 ,handel resorted to a similar device in his ,saul1 to accompany the vision of the ,witch of ,endor4 ,sidenote3 ,the double bassoon4 ,in all these cases a great deal depends upon the relation between the character of the melody and the nature of the instrument to which it is set4 ,a swelling martial fanfare may be made absurd by changing it from trumpets to a weak-voiced wood-wind4 ,it is only the string quartet that speaks all the musical languages of passion and emotion4 ,the double-bassoon is so large an instrument that it has to be bent on itself to bring it under the control of the player4 ,it sounds an octave lower than the written notes4 ,it is not brought often into the orchestra1 but speaks very much to the purpose in ,brahms's beautiful variations on a theme by ,haydn1 and the glorious finale of ,beethoven's ,fifth ,symphony4 ,sidenote3 ,the clarinet4 ,sidenote3 ,the bass clarinet4 ,the clarinet 7,plate ,,vii47 is the most eloquent member of the wood-wind choir1 and1 except some of its own modifications or the modifications of the oboe and bassoon1 the latest arrival in the harmonious company4 ,it is only a little more than a century old4 ,it has the widest range of expression of the wood-winds1 and its chief structural difference is in its mouth-piece4 ,it has a single flat reed1 which is much wider than that of the oboe or bassoon1 and is fastened by a metallic band and screw to the flattened side of the mouth-piece1 whose other side is cut down1 chisel shape1 for convenience4 ,its voice is rich1 mellow1 less reedy1 and much fuller and more limpid than the voice of the oboe1 which ,berlioz tries to describe by analogy as sweet-sour4 ,it is very flexible1 too1 and has a range of over three and a half octaves4 ,its high tones are sometimes shrieky1 however1 and the full beauty of the instrument is only disclosed when it sings in the middle register4 ,every symphony and overture contains passages for the clarinet which serve to display its characteristics4 ,clarinets are made of different sizes for different keys1 the smallest being that in ,e-flat1 with an unpleasantly piercing tone1 whose use is confined to military bands4 ,there is also an alto clarinet and a bass clarinet 7,plate ,,viii474 ,the bell of the latter instrument is bent upward1 pipe fashion1 and its voice is peculiarly impressive and noble4 ,it is a favorite solo instrument in ,liszt's symphonic poems4 ,sidenote3 ,lips and reeds4 ,sidenote3 ,the brass instruments4 ,sidenote3 ,improvements in brass instruments4 ,sidenote3 ,valves and slides4 ,the fundamental principle of the instruments last described is the production of tone by vibrating reeds4 ,in the instruments of the brass choir1 the duty of the reeds is performed by the lips of the player4 ,variety of tone in respect of quality is produced by variations in size1 shape1 and modifications in parts like the bell and mouth-piece4 ,the forte of the orchestra receives the bulk of its puissance from the brass instruments1 which1 nevertheless1 can give voice to an extensive gamut of sentiments and feelings4 ,there is nothing more cheery and jocund than the flourishes of the horns1 but also nothing more mild and soothing than the songs which sometimes they sing4 ,there is nothing more solemn and religious than the harmony of the trombones1 while the trumpet's loud clangor is the very voice of a war-like spirit4 ,all of these instruments have undergone important changes within the last few score years4 ,the classical composers1 almost down to our own time1 were restricted in the use of them because they were merely natural tubes1 and their notes were limited to the notes which inflexible tubes can produce4 ,within this century1 however1 they have all been transformed from imperfect diatonic instruments to perfect chromatic instruments2 that is to say1 every brass instrument which is in use now can give out all the semitones within its compass4 ,this has been accomplished through the agency of valves1 by means of which differing lengths of the sonorous tube are brought within the command of the players4 ,in the case of the trombones an exceedingly venerable means of accomplishing the same end is applied4 ,the tube is in part made double1 one part sliding over the other4 ,by moving his arm1 the player lengthens or shortens the tube1 and thus changing the key of the instrument1 acquires all the tones which can be obtained from so many tubes of different lengths4 ,the mouth-pieces of the trumpet1 trombone1 and tuba are cup-shaped1 and larger than the mouth-piece of the horn1 which is little else than a flare of the slender tube1 sufficiently wide to receive enough of the player's lips to form the embouchure1 or human reed1 as it might here be named4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,french horn4 ,sidenote3 ,manipulation of the ,french horn4 ,the ,french horn 7,plate ,,ix471 as it is called in the orchestra1 is the sweetest and mellowest of all the wind instruments4 ,in ,beethoven's time it was but little else than the old hunting-horn1 which1 for the convenience of the mounted hunter1 was arranged in spiral convolutions that it might be slipped over the head and carried resting on one shoulder and under the opposite arm4 ,the ,germans still call it the ,waldhorn1 i4e41 forest horn2 the old ,french name was cor de chasse1 the ,italian corno di caccia4 ,in this instrument formerly the tones which were not the natural resonances of the harmonic division of the tube were helped out by partly closing the bell with the right hand1 it having been discovered accidentally that by putting the hand into the lower end of the tube--the flaring part called the bell--the pitch of a tone was raised4 ,players still make use of this method for convenience1 and sometimes because a composer wishes to employ the slightly muffled effect of these tones2 but since valves have been added to the instrument1 it is possible to play a chromatic scale in what are called the unstopped or open tones4 ,sidenote3 ,kinds of horns4 ,sidenote3 ,the trumpet4 ,sidenote3 ,the cornet4 ,formerly it was necessary to use horns of different pitch1 and composers still respect this tradition1 and designate the key of the horns which they wish to have employed2 but so skilful have the players become that1 as a rule1 they use horns whose fundamental tone is ,f for all keys1 and achieve the old purpose by simply transposing the music as they read it4 ,if these most graceful instruments were straightened out they would be seventeen feet long4 ,the convolutions of the horn and the many turns of the trumpet are all the fruit of necessity2 they could not be manipulated to produce the tones that are asked of them if they were not bent and curved4 ,the trumpet1 when its tube is lengthened by the addition of crooks for its lowest key1 is eight feet long2 the tuba1 sixteen4 ,in most orchestras 7in all of those in the ,united ,states1 in fact1 except the ,boston and ,chicago ,orchestras and the ,symphony ,society of ,new ,york7 the word trumpet is merely a euphemism for cornet1 the familiar leading instrument of the brass band1 which1 while it falls short of the trumpet in the quality of its tone1 in the upper registers especially1 is a more easily manipulated instrument than the trumpet1 and is preferable in the lower tones4 ,sidenote3 ,the trombone4 ,mendelssohn is quoted as saying that the trombones 7,plate ,x47 are too sacred to use often4 ,they have1 indeed1 a majesty and nobility all their own1 and the lowest use to which they can be put is to furnish a flaring and noisy harmony in an orchestral tutti4 ,they are marvellously expressive instruments1 and without a peer in the whole instrumental company when a solemn and spiritually uplifting effect is to be attained4 ,they can also be made to sound menacing and lugubrious1 devout and mocking1 pompously heroic1 majestic1 and lofty4 ,they are often the heralds of the orchestra1 and make sonorous proclamations4 ,sidenote3 ,trombone effects4 ,sidenote3 ,the tuba4 ,the classic composers always seemed to approach the trombones with marked respect1 but nowadays it requires a very big blue pencil in the hands of a very uncompromising conservatory professor to prevent a student engaged on his ,opus #a from keeping his trombones going half the time at least4 ,it is an old story how ,mozart keeps the instruments silent through three-fourths of his immortal ,don ,giovanni1 so that they may enter with overwhelming impressiveness along with the ghostly visitor of the concluding scene4 ,as a rule1 there are three trombones in the modern orchestra--two tenors and a bass4 ,formerly there were four kinds1 bearing the names of the voices to which they were supposed to be nearest in tone-quality and compass--soprano1 alto1 tenor1 and bass4 ,full four-part harmony is now performed by the three trombones and the tuba 7,plate ,,xi474 ,the latter instrument1 which1 despite its gigantic size1 is exceedingly tractable can roar you as gently as any sucking dove4 ,far-away and strangely mysterious tones are got out of the brass instruments1 chiefly the cornet and horn1 by almost wholly closing the bell4 ,sidenote3 ,instruments of percussion4 ,sidenote3 ,the xylophone4 ,sidenote3 ,kettle-drums4 ,sidenote3 ,pfund's tuning device4 ,sidenote3 ,pitch of the drums4 ,sidenote3 ,qualifications of a drummer4 ,the percussion apparatus of the modern orchestra includes a multitude of instruments scarcely deserving of description4 ,several varieties of drums1 cymbals1 triangle1 tambourine1 steel bars 7,glockenspiel71 gongs1 bells1 and many other things which we are now inclined to look upon as toys1 rather than as musical instruments1 are brought into play for reasons more or less fantastic4 ,saint-,saens has even utilized the barbarous xylophone1 whose proper place is the variety hall1 in his ,danse ,macabre4 ,there his purpose was a fantastic one1 and the effect is capital4 ,the pictorial conceit at the bottom of the poem which the music illustrates is ,death1 as a skeleton1 seated on a tombstone1 playing the viol1 and gleefully cracking his bony heels against the marble4 ,to produce this effect1 the composer uses the xylophone with capital results4 ,but of all the ordinary instruments of percussion1 the only one that is really musical and deserving of comment is the kettle-drum4 ,this instrument is more musical than the others because it has pitch4 ,its voice is not mere noise1 but musical noise4 ,kettle-drums1 or tympani1 are generally used in pairs1 though the vast multiplication of effects by modern composers has resulted also in the extension of this department of the band4 ,it is seldom that more than two pairs are used1 a good player with a quick ear being able to accomplish all that ,wagner asks of six drums by his deftness in changing the pitch of the instruments4 ,this work of tuning is still performed generally in what seems a rudimentary way1 though a ,german drum-builder named ,pfund invented a contrivance by which the player1 by simply pressing on a balanced pedal and watching an indicator affixed to the side of the drums1 can change the pitch to any desired semitone within the range of an octave4 ,the tympani are hemispherical brass or copper vessels1 kettles in short1 covered with vellum heads4 ,the pitch of the instrument depends on the tension of the head1 which is applied generally by key-screws working through the iron ring which holds the vellum4 ,there is a difference in the size of the drums to place at the command of the player the octave from ,f in the first space below the bass staff to ,f on the fourth line of the same staff4 ,formerly the purpose of the drums was simply to give emphasis1 and they were then uniformly tuned to the key-note and fifth of the key in which a composition was set4 ,now they are tuned in many ways1 not only to allow for the frequent change of keys1 but also so that they may be used as harmony instruments4 ,berlioz did more to develop the drums than any composer who has ever lived1 though ,beethoven already manifested appreciation of their independent musical value4 ,in the last movement of his ,eighth ,symphony and the scherzo of his ,ninth1 he tunes them in octaves1 his purpose in the latter case being to give the opening figure1 an octave leap1 of the scherzo melody to the drums solo4 ,the most extravagant use ever made of the drums1 however1 was by ,berlioz in his ,messe des ,morts1 where he called in eight pairs of drums and ten players to help him to paint his tonal picture of the terrors of the last judgment4 ,the post of drummer is one of the most difficult to fill in a symphonic orchestra4 ,he is required to have not only a perfect sense of time and rhythm1 but also a keen sense of pitch1 for often the composer asks him to change the pitch of one or both of his drums in the space of a very few seconds4 ,he must then be able to shut all other sounds out of his mind1 and bring his drums into a new key while the orchestra is playing--an extremely nice task4 ,sidenote3 ,the bass drum4 ,the development of modern orchestral music has given dignity also to the bass drum1 which1 though definite pitch is denied to it1 is now manipulated in a variety of ways productive of striking effects4 ,rolls are played on it with the sticks of the kettle-drums1 and it has been emancipated measurably from the cymbals1 which in vulgar brass-band music are its inseparable companions4 ,sidenote3 ,the conductor4 ,sidenote3 ,time-beaters and interpreters4 ,sidenote3 ,the conductor a necessity4 ,in the full sense of the term the orchestral conductor is a product of the latter half of the present century4 ,of course1 ever since concerted music began1 there has been a musical leader of some kind4 ,mural paintings and carvings fashioned in ,egypt long before ,apollo sang his magic song and ,ilion1 like a mist1 rose into towers1 show the conductor standing before his band beating time by clapping his hands2 and if we are to credit what we have been told about ,hebrew music1 ,asaph1 ,heman1 and ,jeduthun1 when they stood before their multitudinous choirs in the temple at ,jerusalem1 promoted synchronism in the performance by stamping upon the floor with lead-shodden feet4 ,before the era which developed what ,i might call star conductors1 these leaders were but captains of tens and captains of hundreds who accomplished all that was expected of them if they made the performers keep musical step together4 ,they were time-beaters merely--human metronomes4 ,the modern conductor is1 in a sense not dreamed of a century ago1 a mediator between the composer and the audience4 ,he is a virtuoso who plays upon men instead of a key-board1 upon a hundred instruments instead of one4 ,music differs from her sister arts in many respects1 but in none more than in her dependence on the intermediary who stands between her and the people for whose sake she exists4 ,it is this intermediary who wakens her into life4 ,heard melodies are sweet1 but those unheard ,are sweeter1 is a pretty bit of hyperbole which involves a contradiction in terms4 ,an unheard melody is no melody at all1 and as soon as we have music in which a number of singers or instrumentalists are employed1 the taste1 feeling1 and judgment of an individual are essential to its intelligent and effective publication4 ,in the gentle days of the long ago1 when suavity and loveliness of utterance and a recognition of formal symmetry were the be-all and end-all of the art1 a time-beater sufficed to this end2 but now the contents of music are greater1 the vessel has been wondrously widened1 the language is become curiously complex and ingenious1 and no composer of to-day can write down universally intelligible signs for all that he wishes to say4 ,someone must grasp the whole1 expound it to the individual factors which make up the performing sum and provide what is called an interpretation to the public4 ,sidenote3 ,star conductors4 ,that someone1 of course1 is the conductor1 and considering the progress that music is continually making it is not at all to be wondered at that he has become a person of stupendous power in the culture of to-day4 ,the one singularity is that he should be so rare4 ,this rarity has had its natural consequence1 and the conductor who can conduct1 in contradistinction to the conductor who can only beat time1 is now a star4 ,at present we see him going from place to place in ,europe giving concerts in which he figures as the principal attraction4 ,the critics discuss his readings just as they do the performances of great pianists and singers4 ,a hundred blowers of brass1 scrapers of strings1 and tootlers on windy wood1 labor beneath him transmuting the composer's mysterious symbols into living sound1 and when it is all over we frequently find that it seems all to have been done for the greater glory of the conductor instead of the glory of art4 ,that1 however1 is a digression which it is not necessary to pursue4 ,sidenote3 ,mistaken popular notions4 ,sidenote3 ,what the conductor does4 ,sidenote3 ,rests and cues4 ,questions and remarks have frequently been addressed to me indicative of the fact that there is a widespread popular conviction that the mission of a conductor is chiefly ornamental at an orchestral concert4 ,that is a sad misconception1 and grows out of the old notion that a conductor is only a time-beater4 ,assuming that the men of the band have played sufficiently together1 it is thought that eventually they might keep time without the help of the conductor4 ,it is true that the greater part of the conductor's work is done at rehearsal1 at which he enforces upon his men his wishes concerning the speed of the music1 expression1 and the balance of tone between the different instruments4 ,but all the injunctions given at rehearsal by word of mouth are reiterated by means of a system of signs and signals during the concert performance4 ,time and rhythm are indicated by the movements of the baton1 the former by the speed of the beats1 the latter by the direction1 the tones upon which the principal stress is to fall being indicated by the down-beat of the baton4 ,the amplitude of the movements also serves to indicate the conductor's wishes concerning dynamic variations1 while the left hand is ordinarily used in pantomimic gestures to control individual players or groups4 ,glances and a play of facial expression also assist in the guidance of the instrumental body4 ,every musician is expected to count the rests which occur in his part1 but when they are of long duration 7and sometimes they amount to a hundred measures or more7 it is customary for the conductor to indicate the entrance of an instrument by a glance at the player4 ,from this mere outline of the communications which pass between the conductor and his band it will be seen how indispensable he is if music is to have a consistent and vital interpretation4 ,sidenote3 ,personal magnetism4 ,the layman will perhaps also be enabled1 by observing the actions of a conductor with a little understanding of their purposes1 to appreciate what critics mean when they speak of the magnetism of a leader4 ,he will understand that among other things it means the aptitude or capacity for creating a sympathetic relationship between himself and his men which enables him the better by various devices1 some arbitrary1 some technical and conventional1 to imbue them with his thoughts and feelings relative to a composition1 and through them to body them forth to the audience4 ,sidenote3 ,the score4 ,sidenote3 ,its arrangement4 ,sidenote3 ,score reading4 ,what it is that the conductor has to guide him while giving his mute commands to his forces may be seen in the reproduction1 in the ,appendix1 of a page from an orchestral score 7,plate ,,xii74 ,a score1 it will be observed1 is a reproduction of all the parts of a composition as they lie upon the desks of the players4 ,the ordering of these parts in the score has not always been as now1 but the plan which has the widest and longest approval is that illustrated in our example4 ,the wood-winds are grouped together on the uppermost six staves1 the brass in the middle with the tympani separating the horns and trumpets from the trombones1 the strings on the lowermost five staves4 ,the example has been chosen because it shows all the instruments of the band employed at once 7it is the famous opening tutti of the triumphal march of ,beethoven's ,fifth ,symphony71 and is easy of comprehension by musical amateurs for the reason that none of the parts requires transposition except it be an octave up in the case of the piccolo1 an instrument of four-foot tone1 and an octave down in the case of the double-basses1 which are of sixteen-foot tone4 ,all the other parts are to be read as printed1 proper attention being given to the alto and tenor clefs used in the parts of the trombones and violas4 ,the ability to read score is one of the most essential attributes of a conductor1 who1 if he have the proper training1 can bring all the parts together and reproduce them on the pianoforte1 transposing those which do not sound as written and reading the different clefs at sight as he goes along4 ,v ,at an ,orchestral ,concert ,sidenote3 ,classical and ,popular4 ,sidenote3 ,orchestras and military bands4 ,in popular phrase all high-class music is classical1 and all concerts at which such music is played are classical concerts4 ,here the word is conceived as the antithesis of popular1 which term is used to designate the ordinary music of the street and music-hall4 ,elsewhere ,i have discussed the true meaning of the word and shown its relation to romantic in the terminology of musical critics and historians4 ,no harm is done by using both classical and popular in their common significations1 so far as they convey a difference in character between concerts4 ,the highest popular conception of a classical concert is one in which a complete orchestra performs symphonies and extended compositions in allied forms1 such as overtures1 symphonic poems1 and concertos4 ,change the composition of the instrumental body1 by omitting the strings and augmenting the reed and brass choirs1 and you have a military band which is best employed in the open air1 and whose programmes are generally made up of compositions in the simpler and more easily comprehended forms--dances1 marches1 fantasias on popular airs1 arrangements of operatic excerpts and the like4 ,these1 then1 are popular concerts in the broadest sense1 though it is proper enough to apply the term also to concerts given by a symphonic band when the programme is light in character and aims at more careless diversion than should be sought at a classical concert4 ,the latter term1 again1 is commended to use by the fact that as a rule the music performed at such a concert exemplifies the higher forms in the art1 classicism in music being defined as that principle which seeks expression in beauty of form1 in a symmetrical ordering of parts and logical sequence1 preferring aesthetic beauty1 pure and simple1 over emotional content1 as ,i have said in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,symphony4 ,sidenote3 ,mistaken ideas about the form4 ,as the highest type of instrumental music1 we take the ,symphony4 ,very rarely indeed is a concert given by an organization like the ,new ,york and ,london ,philharmonic ,societies1 or the ,boston and ,chicago ,orchestras1 at which the place of honor in the scheme of pieces is not given to a symphony4 ,such a concert is for that reason also spoken of popularly as a ,symphony concert1 and no confusion would necessarily result from the use of the term even if it so chanced that there was no symphony on the programme4 ,what idea the word symphony conveys to the musically illiterate it would be difficult to tell4 ,i have known a professional writer on musical subjects to express the opinion that a symphony was nothing else than four unrelated compositions for orchestra arranged in a certain sequence for the sake of an agreeable contrast of moods and tempos4 ,it is scarcely necessary to say that the writer in question had a very poor opinion of the ,symphony as an ,art-form1 and believed that it had outlived its usefulness and should be relegated to the limbo of ,archaic ,things4 ,if he1 however1 trained in musical history and familiar with musical literature1 could see only four unrelated pieces of music in a symphony by ,beethoven1 we need not marvel that hazy notions touching the nature of the form are prevalent among the untaught public1 and that people can be met in concert-rooms to whom such words as ,symphony in ,c minor1 and the printed designations of the different portions of the work--the movements1 as musicians call them--are utterly bewildering4 ,sidenote3 ,history of the term4 ,sidenote3 ,changes in meaning4 ,sidenote3 ,handel's ,pastoral ,symphony4 ,the word symphony has itself a singularly variegated history4 ,like many another term in music it was borrowed by the modern world from the ancient ,greek4 ,to those who coined it1 however1 it had a much narrower meaning than to us who use it1 with only a conventional change in transliteration1 now4 ,by ,greek3 symphonia the ,greeks simply expressed the concept of agreement1 or consonance4 ,applied to music it meant first such intervals as unisons2 then the notion was extended to include consonant harmonies1 such as the fifth1 fourth1 and octave4 ,the study of the ancient theoreticians led the musicians of the ,middle ,ages to apply the word to harmony in general4 ,then in some inexplicable fashion it came to stand as a generic term for instrumental compositions such as toccatas1 sonatas1 etc4 ,its name was given to one of the precursors of the pianoforte1 and in ,germany in the sixteenth century the word ,symphoney came to mean a town band4 ,in the last century and the beginning of this the term was used to designate an instrumental introduction to a composition for voices1 such as a song or chorus1 as also an instrumental piece introduced in a choral work4 ,the form1 that is the extent and structure of the composition1 had nothing to do with the designation1 as we see from the ,italian shepherds' tune which ,handel set for strings in ,the ,messiah2 he called it simply pifa1 but his publishers called it a ,pastoral symphony1 and as such we still know it4 ,it was about the middle of the eighteenth century that the present signification became crystallized in the word1 and since the symphonies of ,haydn1 in which the form first reached perfection1 are still to be heard in our concert-rooms1 it may be said that all the masterpieces of symphonic literature are current4 ,sidenote3 ,the allied forms4 ,sidenote3 ,sonata form4 ,sidenote3 ,symphony1 sonata1 and concerto4 ,i have already hinted at the fact that there is an intimate relationship between the compositions usually heard at a classical concert4 ,symphonies1 symphonic poems1 concertos for solo instruments and orchestra1 as well as the various forms of chamber music1 such as trios1 quartets1 and quintets for strings1 or pianoforte and strings1 are but different expressions of the idea which is best summed up in the word sonata4 ,what musicians call the sonata form lies at the bottom of them all--even those which seem to consist of a single piece1 like the symphonic poem and overture4 ,provided it follow1 not of necessity slavishly1 but in its general structure1 a certain scheme which was slowly developed by the geniuses who became the law-givers of the art1 a composite or cyclical composition 7that is1 one composed of a number of parts1 or movements7 is1 as the case may be1 a symphony1 concerto1 or sonata4 ,it is a sonata if it be written for a solo instrument like the pianoforte or organ1 or for one like the violin or clarinet1 with pianoforte accompaniment4 ,if the accompaniment be written for orchestra1 it is called a concerto4 ,a sonata written for an orchestra is a symphony4 ,the nature of the interpreting medium naturally determines the exposition of the form1 but all the essential attributes can be learned from a study of the symphony1 which because of the dignity and eloquence of its apparatus admits of a wider scope than its allies1 and must be accepted as the highest type1 not merely of the sonata1 but of the instrumental art4 ,it will be necessary presently to point out the more important modifications which compositions of this character have undergone in the development of music1 but the ends of clearness will be best subserved if the study be conducted on fundamental lines4 ,sidenote3 ,what a symphony is4 ,sidenote3 ,the bond of unity between the parts4 ,the symphony then1 as a rule1 is a composition for orchestra made up of four parts1 or movements1 which are not only related to each other by a bond of sympathy established by the keys chosen but also by their emotional contents4 ,without this higher bond the unity of the work would be merely mechanical1 like the unity accomplished by sameness of key in the old-fashioned suite4 7,see ,chapter ,,vi47 ,the bond of key-relationship1 though no longer so obvious as once it was1 is yet readily discovered by a musician2 the spiritual bond is more elusive1 and presents itself for recognition to the imagination and the feelings of the listener4 ,nevertheless1 it is an element in every truly great symphony1 and ,i have already indicated how it may sometimes become patent to the ear alone1 so it be intelligently employed1 and enjoy the co-operation of memory4 ,sidenote3 ,the first movement4 ,sidenote3 ,exposition of subjects4 ,sidenote3 ,repetition of the first subdivision4 ,it is the first movement of a symphony which embodies the structural scheme called the sonata form4 ,it has a triple division1 and ,mr4 ,edward ,dannreuther has aptly defined it as the triune symmetry of exposition1 illustration1 and repetition4 ,in the first division the composer introduces the melodies which he has chosen to be the thematic material of the movement1 and to fix the character of the entire work2 he presents it for identification4 ,the themes are two1 and their exposition generally exemplifies the principle of key-relationship1 which was the basis of my analysis of a simple folk tune in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,in the case of the best symphonists the principal and second subjects disclose a contrast1 not violent but yet distinct1 in mood or character4 ,if the first is rhythmically energetic and assertive--masculine1 let me say--the second will be more sedate1 more gentle in utterance--feminine4 ,after the two subjects have been introduced along with some subsidiary phrases and passages which the composer uses to bind them together and modulate from one key into another1 the entire division is repeated4 ,that is the rule1 but it is now as often honored in the breach as in the observance1 some conductors not even hesitating to ignore the repeat marks in ,beethoven's scores4 ,sidenote3 ,the free fantasia or working-out portion4 ,sidenote3 ,repetition4 ,the second division is now taken up4 ,in it the composer exploits his learning and fancy in developing his thematic material4 ,he is now entirely free to send it through long chains of keys1 to vary the harmonies1 rhythms1 and instrumentation1 to take a single pregnant motive and work it out with all the ingenuity he can muster2 to force it up steep-up spouts of passion and let it whirl in the surge1 or plunge it into steep-down gulfs of liquid fire1 and consume its own heart4 ,technically this part is called the free fantasia in ,english1 and the ,durchfuehrung--working out--in ,german4 ,i mention the terms because they sometimes occur in criticisms and analyses4 ,it is in this division that the genius of a composer has fullest play1 and there is no greater pleasure1 no more delightful excitement1 for the symphony-lover than to follow the luminous fancy of ,beethoven through his free fantasias4 ,the third division is devoted to a repetition1 with modifications1 of the first division and the addition of a close4 ,sidenote3 ,introductions4 ,sidenote3 ,keys and ,titles4 ,first movements are quick and energetic1 and frequently full of dramatic fire4 ,in them the psychological story is begun which is to be developed in the remaining chapters of the work--its sorrows1 hopes1 prayers1 or communings in the slow movement2 its madness or merriment in the scherzo2 its outcome1 triumphant or tragic1 in the finale4 ,sometimes the first movement is preceded by a slow introduction1 intended to prepare the mind of the listener for the proclamation which shall come with the ,allegro4 ,the key of the principal subject is set down as the key of the symphony1 and unless the composer gives his work a special title for the purpose of providing a hint as to its poetical contents 7,eroica1 ,pastoral1 ,faust1 ,in the ,forest1 ,lenore1 ,pathetique1 etc471 or to characterize its style 7,scotch1 ,italian1 ,irish1 ,welsh1 ,scandinavian1 ,from the ,new ,world71 it is known only by its key1 or the number of the work 7opus7 in the composer's list4 ,therefore we have ,mozart's ,symphony in ,g minor1 ,beethoven's in ,a major1 ,schumann's in ,c1 ,brahms's in ,f1 and so on4 ,sidenote3 ,the second movement4 ,sidenote3 ,variations4 ,the second movement in the symphonic scheme is the slow movement4 ,musicians frequently call it the ,adagio1 for convenience1 though the tempi of slow movements ranges from extremely slow 7,largo7 to the border line of fast1 as in the case of the ,allegretto of the ,seventh ,symphony of ,beethoven4 ,the mood of the slow movement is frequently sombre1 and its instrumental coloring dark2 but it may also be consolatory1 contemplative1 restful1 religiously uplifting4 ,the writing is preferably in a broadly sustained style1 the effect being that of an exalted hymn1 and this has led to a predilection for a theme and variations as the mould in which to cast the movement4 ,the slow movements of ,beethoven's ,fifth and ,ninth ,symphonies are made up of variations4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,scherzo4 ,sidenote3 ,genesis of the ,scherzo4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,trio4 ,the ,scherzo is1 as the term implies1 the playful1 jocose movement of a symphony1 but in the case of sublime geniuses like ,beethoven and ,schumann1 who blend profound melancholy with wild humor1 the playfulness is sometimes of a kind which invites us to thoughtfulness instead of merriment4 ,this is true also of some ,russian composers1 whose scherzos have the desperate gayety which speaks from the music of a sad people whose merrymaking is not a spontaneous expression of exuberant spirits but a striving after self-forgetfulness4 ,the ,scherzo is the successor of the ,minuet1 whose rhythm and form served the composers down to ,beethoven4 ,it was he who substituted the ,scherzo1 which retains the chief formal characteristics of the courtly old dance in being in triple time and having a second part called the ,trio4 ,with the change there came an increase in speed1 but it ought to be remembered that the symphonic minuet was quicker than the dance of the same name4 ,a tendency toward exaggeration1 which is patent among modern conductors1 is threatening to rob the symphonic minuet of the vivacity which gave it its place in the scheme of the symphony4 ,the entrance of the ,trio is marked by the introduction of a new idea 7a second minuet7 which is more sententious than the first part1 and sometimes in another key1 the commonest change being from minor to major4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,finale4 ,sidenote3 ,rondo form4 ,the final movement1 technically the ,finale1 is another piece of large dimensions in which the psychological drama which plays through the four acts of the symphony is brought to a conclusion4 ,once the purpose of the ,finale was but to bring the symphony to a merry end1 but as the expressive capacity of music has been widened1 and mere play with aesthetic forms has given place to attempts to convey sentiments and feelings1 the purposes of the last movement have been greatly extended and varied4 ,as a rule the form chosen for the ,finale is that called the ,rondo4 ,borrowed from an artificial verse-form 7the ,french ,rondeau71 this species of composition illustrates the peculiarity of that form in the reiteration of a strophe ever and anon after a new theme or episode has been exploited4 ,in modern society verse1 which has grown out of an ambition to imitate the ingenious form invented by mediaeval poets1 we have the ,triolet1 which may be said to be a rondeau in miniature4 ,i choose one of ,mr4 ,h4,c4 ,bunner's dainty creations to illustrate the musical refrain characteristic of the rondo form because of its compactness4 ,here it is3 ,sidenote3 ,a ,rondo pattern in poetry4 ,a pitcher of mignonette ,in a tenement's highest casement3 ,queer sort of a flower-pot--yet ,that pitcher of mignonette ,is a garden in heaven set1 ,to the little sick child in the basement-- ,the pitcher of mignonette1 ,in the tenement's highest casement4 ,sidenote3 ,other forms for the ,finale4 ,if now the first two lines of this poem1 which compose its refrain1 be permitted to stand as the principal theme of a musical piece1 we have in ,mr4 ,bunner's triolet a rondo in nuce4 ,there is in it a threefold exposition of the theme alternating with episodic matter4 ,another form for the finale is that of the first movement 7the ,sonata form71 and still another1 the theme and variations4 ,beethoven chose the latter for his ,eroica1 and the choral close of his ,ninth1 ,dvorak1 for his symphony in ,g major1 and ,brahms for his in ,e minor4 ,sidenote3 ,organic ,unities4 ,sidenote3 ,how enforced4 ,sidenote3 ,berlioz's idee fixe4 ,sidenote3 ,recapitulation of themes4 ,i am attempting nothing more than a characterization of the symphony1 and the forms with which ,i associated it at the outset1 which shall help the untrained listener to comprehend them as unities despite the fact that to the careless hearer they present themselves as groups of pieces each one of which is complete in itself and has no connection with its fellows4 ,the desire of composers to have their symphonies accepted as unities instead of compages of unrelated pieces has led to the adoption of various devices designed to force the bond of union upon the attention of the hearer4 ,thus ,beethoven in his symphony in ,c minor not only connects the third and fourth movements but also introduces a reminiscence of the former into the midst of the latter2 ,berlioz in his ,symphonie ,fantastique1 which is written to what may be called a dramatic scheme1 makes use of a melody which he calls l'idee fixe1 and has it recur in each of the four movements as an episode4 ,this1 however1 is frankly a symphony with programme1 and ought not to be treated as a modification of the pure form4 ,dvorak in his symphony entitled ,from the ,new ,world1 in which he has striven to give expression to the ,american spirit1 quotes the first period of his principal subject in all the subsequent movements1 and then sententiously recapitulates the principal themes of the first1 second1 and third movements in the finale2 and this without a sign of the dramatic purpose confessed by ,berlioz4 ,sidenote3 ,introduction of voices4 ,sidenote3 ,abolition of pauses4 ,in the last movement of his ,ninth ,symphony ,beethoven calls voices to the aid of his instruments4 ,it was a daring innovation1 as it seemed to disrupt the form1 and we know from the story of the work how long he hunted for the connecting link1 which finally he found in the instrumental recitative4 ,having hit upon the device1 he summons each of the preceding movements1 which are purely instrumental1 into the presence of his augmented forces and dismisses it as inadequate to the proclamation which the symphony was to make4 ,the double-basses and solo barytone are the spokesmen for the tuneful host4 ,he thus achieves the end of connecting the ,allegro1 ,scherzo1 and ,adagio with each other1 and all with the ,finale1 and at the same time points out what it is that he wishes us to recognize as the inspiration of the whole2 but here1 again1 the means appear to be somewhat extraneous4 ,schumann's example1 however1 in abolishing the pauses between the movements of the symphony in ,d minor1 and having melodic material common to all the movements1 is a plea for appreciation which cannot be misunderstood4 ,before ,schumann ,mendelssohn intended that his ,scotch symphony should be performed without pauses between the movements1 but his wishes have been ignored by the conductors1 ,i fancy because he having neglected to knit the movements together by community of ideas1 they can see no valid reason for the abolition of the conventional resting-places4 ,sidenote3 ,beethoven's choral symphony followed4 ,beethoven's augmentation of the symphonic forces by employing voices has been followed by ,berlioz in his ,romeo and ,juliet1 which1 though called a dramatic symphony1 is a mixture of symphony1 cantata1 and opera2 ,mendelssohn in his ,hymn of ,praise 7which is also a composite work and has a composite title--,symphony ,cantata71 and ,liszt in his ,faust symphony1 in the finale of which we meet a solo tenor and chorus of men's voices who sing ,goethe's ,chorus mysticus4 ,sidenote3 ,increase in the number of movements4 ,a number of other experiments have been made1 the effectiveness of which has been conceded in individual instances1 but which have failed permanently to affect the symphonic form4 ,schumann has two trios in his symphony in ,b-flat1 and his ,e-flat1 the so-called ,rhenish1 has five movements instead of four1 there being two slow movements1 one in moderate tempo 7,nicht schnell71 and the other in slow 7,feierlich74 ,in this symphony1 also1 ,schumann exercises the license which has been recognized since ,beethoven's time1 of changing the places in the scheme of the second and third movements1 giving the second place to the jocose division instead of the slow4 ,beethoven's ,pastoral has also five movements1 unless one chooses to take the storm which interrupts the ,merry-making of the ,country ,folk as standing toward the last movement as an introduction1 as1 indeed1 it does in the composer's idyllic scheme4 ,certain it is1 ,sir ,george ,grove to the contrary notwithstanding1 that the sense of a disturbance of the symphonic plan is not so vivid at a performance of the ,pastoral as at one of ,schumann's ,rhenish1 in which either the third movement or the so-called ,cathedral ,scene is most distinctly an interloper4 ,sidenote3 ,further extension of boundaries4 ,sidenote3 ,saint-,saens's ,c minor symphony4 ,usually it is deference to the demands of a programme that influences composers in extending the formal boundaries of a symphony1 and when this is done the result is frequently a work which can only be called a symphony by courtesy4 ,m4 ,saint-,saens1 however1 attempted an original excursion in his symphony in ,c minor1 without any discoverable1 or at least confessed1 programmatic idea4 ,he laid the work out in two grand divisions1 so as to have but one pause4 ,nevertheless in each division we can recognize1 though as through a haze1 the outlines of the familiar symphonic movements4 ,in the first part1 buried under a sequence of time designations like this3 ,adagio--,allegro moderato--,poco adagio1 we discover the customary first and second movements1 the former preceded by a slow introduction2 in the second division we find this arrangement3 ,allegro moderato--,presto--,maestoso--,allegro1 this multiplicity of terms affording only a sort of disguise for the regulation scherzo and finale1 with a cropping out of reminiscences from the first part which have the obvious purpose to impress upon the hearer that the symphony is an organic whole4 ,m4 ,saint-,saens has also introduced the organ and a pianoforte with two players into the instrumental apparatus4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,symphonic ,poem4 ,sidenote3 ,its characteristics4 ,three characteristics may be said to distinguish the ,symphonic ,poem1 which in the view of the extremists who follow the lead of ,liszt is the logical outcome of the symphony and the only expression of its aesthetic principles consonant with modern thought and feeling4 ,first1 it is programmatic--that is1 it is based upon a poetical idea1 a sequence of incidents1 or of soul-states1 to which a clew is given either by the title or a motto2 second1 it is compacted in form to a single movement1 though as a rule the changing phases delineated in the separate movements of the symphony are also to be found in the divisions of the work marked by changes in tempo1 key1 and character2 third1 the work generally has a principal subject of such plasticity that the composer can body forth a varied content by presenting it in a number of transformations4 ,sidenote3 ,liszt's first pianoforte concerto4 ,the last two characteristics ,liszt has carried over into his pianoforte concerto in ,e-flat4 ,this has four distinct movements 7viz43 ,i4 ,allegro maestoso2 ,,ii4 ,quasi adagio2 ,,iii4 ,allegretto vivace1 scherzando2 ,,iv4 ,allegro marziale animato71 but they are fused into a continuous whole1 throughout which the principal thought of the work1 the stupendously energetic phrase which the orchestra proclaims at the outset1 is presented in various forms to make it express a great variety of moods and yet give unity to the concerto4 ,thus1 by means of this metamorphosis1 says ,mr4 ,edward ,dannreuther1 the poetic unity of the whole musical tissue is made apparent1 spite of very great diversity of details2 and ,coleridge's attempt at a definition of poetic unity--unity in multiety--is carried out to the letter4 ,sidenote3 ,other cyclical forms4 ,sidenote3 ,pianoforte and orchestra4 ,it will readily be understood that the other cyclical compositions which ,i have associated with a classic concert1 that is1 compositions belonging to the category of chamber music 7see ,chapter ,,iii471 and concertos for solo instruments with orchestral accompaniment1 while conforming to the scheme which ,i have outlined1 all have individual characteristics conditioned on the expressive capacity of the apparatus4 ,the modern pianoforte is capable of asserting itself against a full orchestra1 and concertos have been written for it in which it is treated as an orchestral integer rather than a solo instrument4 ,in the older conception1 the orchestra1 though it frequently assumed the privilege of introducing the subject-matter1 played a subordinate part to the solo instrument in its development4 ,in violin as well as pianoforte concertos special opportunity is given to the player to exploit his skill and display the solo instrument free from structural restrictions in the cadenza introduced shortly before the close of the first1 last1 or both movements4 ,sidenote3 ,cadenzas4 ,sidenote3 ,improvisations by the player4 ,sidenote3 ,m4 ,ysaye's opinion of ,cadenzas4 ,cadenzas are a relic of a time when the art of improvisation was more generally practised than it is now1 and when performers were conceded to have rights beyond the printed page4 ,solely for their display1 it became customary for composers to indicate by a hold 7fermata symbol7 a place where the performer might indulge in a flourish of his own4 ,there is a tradition that ,mozart once remarked3 ,wherever ,i smear that thing1 indicating a hold1 you can do what you please2 the rule is1 however1 that the only privilege which the cadenza opens to the player is that of improvising on material drawn from the subjects already developed1 and since1 also as a rule1 composers are generally more eloquent in the treatment of their own ideas than performers1 it is seldom that a cadenza contributes to the enjoyment afforded by a work1 except to the lovers of technique for technique's sake4 ,i never knew an artist to make a more sensible remark than did ,m4 ,ysaye1 when on the eve of a memorably beautiful performance of ,beethoven's violin concerto1 he said3 ,if ,i were permitted to consult my own wishes ,i would put my violin under my arm when ,i reach the fermate and say3 ',ladies and gentlemen1 we have reached the cadenza4 ,it is presumptuous in any musician to think that he can have anything to say after ,beethoven has finished4 ,with your permission we will consider my cadenza played4' ,that ,beethoven may himself have had a thought of the same nature is a fair inference from the circumstance that he refused to leave the cadenza in his ,e-flat pianoforte concerto to the mercy of the virtuosos but wrote it himself4 ,sidenote3 ,concertos4 ,sidenote3 ,chamber music4 ,concertos for pianoforte or violin are usually written in three movements1 of which the first and last follow the symphonic model in respect of elaboration and form1 and the second is a brief movement in slow or moderate time1 which has the character of an intermezzo4 ,as to the nomenclature of chamber music1 it is to be noted that unless connected with a qualifying word or phrase1 ,quartet means a string quartet4 ,when a pianoforte is consorted with strings the work is spoken of as a ,pianoforte ,trio1 ,quartet1 or ,quintet1 as the case may be4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,overture4 ,sidenote3 ,pot-pourris4 ,the form of the overture is that of the first movement of the sonata1 or symphony1 omitting the repetition of the first subdivision4 ,since the original purpose1 which gave the overture its name 7,ouverture aperture1 opening71 was to introduce a drama1 either spoken or lyrical1 an oratorio1 or other choral composition1 it became customary for the composers to choose the subjects of the piece from the climacteric moments of the music used in the drama4 ,when done without regard to the rules of construction 7as is the case with practically all operetta overtures and ,rossini's7 the result is not an overture at all1 but a pot-pourri1 a hotch-potch of jingles4 ,the present beautiful form1 in which ,beethoven and other composers have shown that it is possible to epitomize an entire drama1 took the place of an arbitrary scheme which was wholly aimless1 so far as the compositions to which they were attached were concerned4 ,sidenote3 ,old styles of overtures4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,prelude4 ,sidenote3 ,gluck's principle4 ,sidenote3 ,descriptive titles4 ,the earliest fixed form of the overture is preserved to the current lists of to-day by the compositions of ,bach and ,handel4 ,it is that established by ,lully1 and is tripartite in form1 consisting of a rapid movement1 generally a fugue1 preceded and followed by a slow movement which is grave and stately in its tread4 ,in its latest phase the overture has yielded up its name in favor of ,prelude 7,german1 ,vorspiel71 ,introduction1 or ,symphonic ,prologue4 ,the finest of these1 without borrowing their themes from the works which they introduce1 but using new matter entirely1 seek to fulfil the aim which ,gluck set for himself1 when1 in the preface to ,alceste1 he wrote3 ,i imagined that the overture ought to prepare the audience for the action of the piece1 and serve as a kind of argument to it4 ,concert overtures are compositions designed by the composers to stand as independent pieces instead of for performance in connection with a drama1 opera1 or oratorio4 ,when1 as is frequently the case1 the composer1 nevertheless1 gives them a descriptive title 7,hebrides1 ,sakuntala71 their poetical contents are to be sought in the associations aroused by the title4 ,thus1 in the instances cited1 ,hebrides suggests that the overture was designed by ,mendelssohn to reflect the mood awakened in him by a visit to the ,hebrides1 more particularly to ,fingal's ,cave 7wherefore the overture is called the ,fingal's ,cave overture in ,germany7--,sakuntala invites to a study of ,kalidasa's drama of that name as the repository of the sentiments which ,goldmark undertook to express in his music4 ,sidenote3 ,serenades4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,serenade in ,shakespeare4 ,a form which is variously employed1 for solo instruments1 small combinations1 and full orchestra 7though seldom with the complete modern apparatus71 is the ,serenade4 ,historically1 it is a contemporary of the old suites and the first symphonies1 and like them it consists of a group of short pieces1 so arranged as to form an agreeable contrast with each other1 and yet convey a sense of organic unity4 ,the character of the various parts and their order grew out of the purpose for which the serenade was originated1 which was that indicated by the name4 ,in the last century1 and earlier1 it was no uncommon thing for a lover to bring the tribute of a musical performance to his mistress1 and it was not always a woful ballad sung to her eyebrow4 ,frequently musicians were hired1 and the tribute took the form of a nocturnal concert4 ,in ,shakespeare's ,two ,gentlemen of ,verona1 ,proteus1 prompting ,thurio what to do to win ,silvia's love1 says3 ,visit by night your lady's chamber window ,with some sweet concert3 to their instruments ,tune a deploring dump2 the night's dread silence ,will well become such sweet complaining grievance4 ,sidenote3 ,out-of-doors music4 ,sidenote3 ,old forms4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,dump4 ,sidenote3 ,beethoven's ,serenade1 op4 #h4 ,it was for such purposes that the serenade was invented as an instrumental form4 ,since they were to play out of doors1 ,sir ,thurio's musicians would have used wind instruments instead of viols1 and the oldest serenades are composed for oboes and bassoons4 ,clarinets and horns were subsequently added1 and for such bands ,mozart wrote serenades1 some of which so closely approach the symphony that they have been published as symphonies4 ,a serenade in the olden time opened very properly with a march1 to the strains of which we may imagine the musicians approaching the lady's chamber window4 ,then came a minuet to prepare her ear for the deploring dump which followed1 the dump of ,shakespeare's day1 like the dumka of ours 7with which ,i am tempted to associate it etymologically71 being a mournful piece of music most happily characterized by the poet as a sweet complaining grievance4 ,then followed another piece in merry tempo and rhythm1 then a second adagio1 and the entertainment ended with an allegro1 generally in march rhythm1 to which we fancy the musicians departing4 ,the order is exemplified in ,beethoven's serenade for violin1 viola1 and violoncello1 op4 #h1 which runs thus3 ,march2 ,adagio2 ,minuet2 ,adagio with episodic ,scherzo2 ,polacca2 ,andante 7variations71 the opening march repeated4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,orchestral ,suite4 ,sidenote3 ,ballet music4 ,the ,suite has come back into favor as an orchestral piece1 but the term no longer has the fixed significance which once it had4 ,it is now applied to almost any group of short pieces1 pleasantly contrasted in rhythm1 tempo1 and mood1 each complete in itself yet disclosing an aesthetic relationship with its fellows4 ,sometimes old dance forms are used1 and sometimes new1 such as the polonaise and the waltz4 ,the ballet music1 which fills so welcome a place in popular programmes1 may be looked upon as such a suite1 and the rhythm of the music and the orchestral coloring in them are frequently those peculiar to the dances of the countries in which the story of the opera or drama for which the music was written plays4 ,the ballets therefore afford an excellent opportunity for the study of local color4 ,thus the ballet music from ,massenet's ,cid is ,spanish1 from ,rubinstein's ,feramors ,oriental1 from ,aida ,egyptian--,oriental rhythms and colorings being those most easily copied by composers4 ,sidenote3 ,operatic excerpts4 ,sidenote3 ,gluck and ,vestris4 ,the other operatic excerpts common to concerts of both classes are either between-acts music1 fantasias on operatic airs1 or1 in the case of ,wagner's contributions1 portions of his dramas which are so predominantly instrumental that it has been found feasible to incorporate the vocal part with the orchestral4 ,in ballet music from the operas of the last century1 some of which has been preserved to the modern concert-room1 local color must not be sought4 ,gluck's ,greeks1 like ,shakespeare's1 danced to the rhythms of the seventeenth century4 ,vestris1 whom the people of his time called ,the god of the dance1 once complained to ,gluck that his ,iphigenie en ,aulide did not end with a chaconne1 as was the rule4 ,a chaconne6 cried ,gluck2 when did the ,greeks ever dance a chaconne8 ,didn't they8 ,didn't they8 answered ,vestris2 so much the worse for the ,greeks4 ,there ensued a quarrel4 ,gluck became incensed1 withdrew the opera which was about to be produced1 and would have left ,paris had not ,marie ,antoinette come to the rescue4 ,but ,vestris got his chaconne4 ,,vi ,at a ,pianoforte ,recital ,sidenote3 ,mr4 ,paderewski's concerts4 ,no clearer illustration of the magical power which lies in music1 no more convincing proof of the puissant fascination which a musical artist can exert1 no greater demonstration of the capabilities of an instrument of music can be imagined than was afforded by the pianoforte recitals which ,mr4 ,paderewski gave in the ,united ,states during the season of #ahie-if4 ,more than threescore times in the course of five months1 in the principal cities of this country1 did this wonderful man seat himself in the presence of audiences1 whose numbers ran into the thousands1 and were limited only by the seating capacity of the rooms in which they gathered1 and hold them spellbound from two to three hours by the eloquence of his playing4 ,each time the people came in a gladsome frame of mind1 stimulated by the recollection of previous delights or eager expectation4 ,each time they sat listening to the music as if it were an evangel on which hung everlasting things4 ,each time there was the same growth in enthusiasm which began in decorous applause and ended in cheers and shouts as the artist came back after the performance of a herculean task1 and added piece after piece to a programme which had been laid down on generous lines from the beginning4 ,the careless saw the spectacle with simple amazement1 but for the judicious it had a wondrous interest4 ,sidenote3 ,pianoforte recitals4 ,sidenote3 ,the pianoforte's underlying principles4 ,i am not now concerned with ,mr4 ,paderewski beyond invoking his aid in bringing into court a form of entertainment which1 in his hands1 has proved to be more attractive to the multitude than symphony1 oratorio1 and even opera4 ,what a world of speculation and curious inquiry does such a recital invite one into1 beginning with the instrument which was the medium of communication between the artist and his hearers6 ,to follow the progressive development of the mechanical principles underlying the pianoforte1 one would be obliged to begin beyond the veil which separates history from tradition1 for the first of them finds its earliest exemplification in the bow twanged by the primitive savage4 ,since a recognition of these principles may help to an understanding of the art of pianoforte playing1 ,i enumerate them now4 ,they are3 #a4 ,a stretched string as a medium of tone production4 #b4 ,a key-board as an agency for manipulating the strings4 #c4 ,a blow as the means of exciting the strings to vibratory action1 by which the tone is produced4 ,sidenote3 ,their ,genesis4 ,sidenote3 ,significance of the pianoforte4 ,many interesting glimpses of the human mind and heart might we have in the course of the promenade through the ancient1 mediaeval1 and modern worlds which would be necessary to disclose the origin and growth of these three principles1 but these we must forego1 since we are to study the music of the instrument1 not its history4 ,let the knowledge suffice that the fundamental principle of the pianoforte is as old as music itself1 and that scientific learning1 inventive ingenuity1 and mechanical skill1 tributary always to the genius of the art1 have worked together for centuries to apply this principle1 until the instrument which embodies it in its highest potency is become a veritable microcosm of music4 ,it is the visible sign of culture in every gentle household2 the indispensable companion of the composer and teacher2 the intermediary between all the various branches of music4 ,into the study of the orchestral conductor it brings a translation of all the multitudinous voices of the band2 to the choir-master it represents the chorus of singers in the church-loft or on the concert-platform2 with its aid the opera director fills his imagination with the people1 passions1 and pageantry of the lyric drama long before the singers have received their parts1 or the costumer1 stage manager1 and scene-painter have begun their work4 ,it is the only medium through which the musician in his study can commune with the whole world of music and all its heroes2 and though it may fail to inspire somewhat of that sympathetic nearness which one feels toward the violin as it nestles under the chin and throbs synchronously with the player's emotions1 or those wind instruments into which the player breathes his own breath as the breath of life1 it surpasses all its rivals1 save the organ1 in its capacity for publishing the grand harmonies of the masters1 for uttering their sevenfold chorus of hallelujahs and harping symphonies4 ,sidenote3 ,defects of the pianoforte4 ,sidenote3 ,lack of sustaining power4 ,this is one side of the picture and serves to show why the pianoforte is the most universal1 useful1 and necessary of all musical instruments4 ,the other side shows its deficiencies1 which must also be known if one is to appreciate rightly the many things he is called upon to note while listening intelligently to pianoforte music4 ,despite all the skill1 learning1 and ingenuity which have been spent on its perfection1 the pianoforte can be made only feebly to approximate that sustained style of musical utterance which is the soul of melody1 and finds its loftiest exemplification in singing4 ,to give out a melody perfectly1 presupposes the capacity to sustain tones without loss in power or quality1 to bind them together at will1 and sometimes to intensify their dynamic or expressive force while they sound4 ,the tone of the pianoforte1 being produced by a blow1 begins to die the moment it is created4 ,the history of the instrument's mechanism1 and also of its technical manipulation1 is the history of an effort to reduce this shortcoming to a minimum4 ,it has always conditioned the character of the music composed for the instrument1 and if we were not in danger of being led into too wide an excursion1 it would be profitable to trace the parallelism which is disclosed by the mechanical evolution of the instrument1 and the technical and spiritual evolution of the music composed for it4 ,a few points will be touched upon presently1 when the intellectual activity invited by a recital is brought under consideration4 ,sidenote3 ,the percussive element4 ,sidenote3 ,melody with drum-beats4 ,sidenote3 ,rhythmical accentuation4 ,sidenote3 ,a universal substitute4 ,it is to be noted1 further1 that by a beautiful application of the doctrine of compensations1 the factor which limits the capacity of the pianoforte as a melody instrument endows it with a merit which no other instrument has in the same degree1 except the instruments of percussion1 which1 despite their usefulness1 stand on the border line between savage and civilized music4 ,it is from its relationship to the drum that the pianoforte derives a peculiarity quite unique in the melodic and harmonic family4 ,rhythm is1 after all1 the starting-point of music4 ,more than melody1 more than harmony1 it stirs the blood of the savage1 and since the most vital forces within man are those which date back to his primitive state1 so the sense of rhythm is the most universal of the musical senses among even the most cultured of peoples to-day4 ,by themselves the drums1 triangles1 and cymbals of an orchestra represent music but one remove from noise2 but everybody knows how marvellously they can be utilized to glorify a climax4 ,now1 in a very refined degree1 every melody on the pianoforte1 be it played as delicately as it may1 is a melody with drum-beats4 ,manufacturers have done much toward eliminating the thump of the hammers against the strings1 and familiarity with the tone of the instrument has closed our ears against it to a great extent as something intrusive1 but the blow which excites the string to vibration1 and thus generates sound1 is yet a vital factor in determining the character of pianoforte music4 ,the recurrent pulsations1 now energetic1 incisive1 resolute1 now gentle and caressing1 infuse life into the melody1 and by emphasizing its rhythmical structure 7without unduly exaggerating it71 present the form of the melody in much sharper outline than is possible on any other instrument1 and much more than one would expect in view of the evanescent character of the pianoforte's tone4 ,it is this quality1 combined with the mechanism which places all the gradations of tone1 from loudest to softest1 at the easy and instantaneous command of the player1 which1 ,i fancy1 makes the pianoforte1 in an astonishing degree1 a substitute for all the other instruments4 ,each instrument in the orchestra has an idiom1 which sounds incomprehensible when uttered by some other of its fellows1 but they can all be translated1 with more or less success1 into the language of the pianoforte--not the quality of the tone1 though even that can be suggested1 but the character of the phrase4 ,the pianoforte can sentimentalize like the flute1 make a martial proclamation like the trumpet1 intone a prayer like the churchly trombone4 ,sidenote3 ,the instrument's mechanism4 ,sidenote3 ,tone formation and production4 ,in the intricacy of its mechanism the pianoforte stands next to the organ4 ,the farther removed from direct utterance we are the more difficult is it to speak the true language of music4 ,the violin player and the singer1 and in a less degree the performers upon some of the wind instruments1 are obliged to form the musical tone--which1 in the case of the pianist1 is latent in the instrument1 ready to present itself in two of its attributes in answer to a simple pressure upon the key4 ,the most unmusical person in the world can learn to produce a series of tones from a pianoforte which shall be as exact in pitch and as varied in dynamic force as can ,mr4 ,paderewski4 ,he cannot combine them so ingeniously nor imbue them with feeling1 but in the simple matter of producing the tone with the attributes mentioned1 he is on a level with the greatest virtuoso4 ,very different is the case of the musician who must exercise a distinctly musical gift in the simple evocation of the materials of music1 like the violinist and singer1 who both form and produce the tone4 ,for them compensation flows from the circumstance that the tone thus formed and produced is naturally instinct with emotional life in a degree that the pianoforte tone knows nothing of4 ,sidenote3 ,technical manipulation4 ,sidenote3 ,touch and emotionality4 ,in one respect1 it may be said that the mechanics of pianoforte playing represent a low plane of artistic activity1 a fact which ought always to be remembered whenever the temptation is felt greatly to exalt the technique of the art2 but it must also be borne in mind that the mechanical nature of simple tone production in pianoforte playing raises the value of the emotional quality which1 nevertheless1 stands at the command of the player4 ,the emotional potency of the tone must come from the manner in which the blow is given to the string4 ,recognition of this fact has stimulated reflection1 and this in turn has discovered methods by which temperament and emotionality may be made to express themselves as freely1 convincingly1 and spontaneously in pianoforte as in violin playing4 ,if this were not so it would be impossible to explain the difference in the charm exerted by different virtuosi1 for it has frequently happened that the best-equipped mechanician and the most intellectual player has been judged inferior as an artist to another whose gifts were of the soul rather than of the brains and fingers4 ,sidenote3 ,the technical cult4 ,sidenote3 ,a low form of art4 ,the feats accomplished by a pianoforte virtuoso in the mechanical department are of so extraordinary a nature that there need be small wonder at the wide prevalence of a distinctly technical cult4 ,all who know the real nature and mission of music must condemn such a cult4 ,it is a sign of a want of true appreciation to admire technique for technique's sake4 ,it is a mistaking of the outward shell for the kernel1 a means for the end4 ,there are still many players who aim to secure this admiration1 either because they are deficient in real musical feeling1 or because they believe themselves surer of winning applause by thus appealing to the lowest form of appreciation4 ,in the early part of the century they would have been handicapped by the instrument which lent itself to delicacy1 clearness1 and gracefulness of expression1 but had little power4 ,now the pianoforte has become a thing of rigid steel1 enduring tons of strain from its strings1 and having a voice like the roar of many waters2 to keep pace with it players have become athletes with ,thews of ,anakim ,and pulses of a ,titan's heart4 ,sidenote3 ,technical skill a matter of course4 ,they care no more for the murmurs made to bless1 unless it be occasionally for the sake of contrast1 but seek to astound1 amaze1 bewilder1 and confound with feats of skill and endurance4 ,that with their devotion to the purely mechanical side of the art they are threatening to destroy pianoforte playing gives them no pause whatever4 ,the era which they illustrate and adorn is the technical era which was1 is1 and ever shall be1 the era of decay in artistic production4 ,for the judicious technique alone1 be it never so marvellous1 cannot serve to-day4 ,its possession is accepted as a condition precedent in the case of everyone who ventures to appear upon the concert-platform4 ,he must be a wonder1 indeed1 who can disturb our critical equilibrium by mere digital feats4 ,we want strength and velocity of finger to be coupled with strength1 velocity1 and penetration of thought4 ,we want no halting or lisping in the proclamation of what the composer has said1 but we want the contents of his thought1 not the hollow shell1 no matter how distinctly its outlines be drawn4 ,sidenote3 ,the plan of study in this chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,a typical scheme of pieces4 ,the factors which present themselves for consideration at a pianoforte recital--mechanical1 intellectual1 and emotional--can be most intelligently and profitably studied along with the development of the instrument and its music4 ,all branches of the study are invited by the typical recital programme4 ,the essentially romantic trend of ,mr4 ,paderewski's nature makes his excursions into the classical field few and short2 and it is only when a pianist undertakes to emulate ,rubinstein in his historical recitals that the entire pre-,beethoven vista is opened up4 ,it will suffice for the purposes of this discussion to imagine a programme containing pieces by ,bach1 ,d4 ,scarlatti1 ,handel1 and ,mozart in one group2 a sonata by ,beethoven2 some of the shorter pieces of ,schumann and ,chopin1 and one of the transcriptions or rhapsodies of ,liszt4 ,sidenote3 ,periods in pianoforte music4 ,such a scheme falls naturally into four divisions1 plainly differentiated from each other in respect of the style of composition and the manner of performance1 both determined by the nature of the instrument employed and the status of the musical idea4 ,simply for the sake of convenience let the period represented by the first group be called the classic2 the second the classic-romantic2 the third the romantic1 and the last the bravura4 ,i beg the reader1 however1 not to extend these designations beyond the boundaries of the present study2 they have been chosen arbitrarily1 and confusion might result if the attempt were made to apply them to any particular concert scheme4 ,i have chosen the composers because of their broadly representative capacity4 ,and they must stand for a numerous epigonoi whose names make up our concert lists3 say1 ,couperin1 ,rameau1 and ,haydn in the first group2 ,schubert in the second2 ,mendelssohn and ,rubinstein in the third4 ,it would not be respectful to the memory of ,liszt were ,i to give him the associates with whom in my opinion he stands2 that matter may be held in abeyance4 ,sidenote3 ,predecessors of the pianoforte4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,clavichord4 ,sidenote3 ,bebung4 ,the instruments for which the first group of writers down to ,haydn and ,mozart wrote1 were the immediate precursors of the pianoforte--the clavichord1 spinet1 or virginal1 and harpsichord4 ,the last was the concert instrument1 and stood in the same relationship to the others that the grand pianoforte of to-day stands to the upright and square4 ,the clavichord was generally the medium for the composer's private communings with his muse1 because of its superiority over its fellows in expressive power2 but it gave forth only a tiny tinkle and was incapable of stirring effects beyond those which sprang from pure emotionality4 ,the tone was produced by a blow against the string1 delivered by a bit of brass set in the farther end of the key4 ,the action was that of a direct lever1 and the bit of brass1 which was called the tangent1 also acted as a bridge and measured off the segment of string whose vibration produced the desired tone4 ,it was therefore necessary to keep the key pressed down so long as it was desired that the tone should sound1 a fact which must be kept in mind if one would understand the shortcomings as well as the advantages of the instrument compared with the spinet or harpsichord4 ,it also furnishes one explanation of the greater lyricism of ,bach's music compared with that of his contemporaries4 ,by gently rocking the hand while the key was down1 a tremulous motion could be communicated to the string1 which not only prolonged the tone appreciably but gave it an expressive effect somewhat analogous to the vibrato of a violinist4 ,the ,germans called this effect ,bebung1 the ,french ,balancement1 and it was indicated by a row of dots under a short slur written over the note4 ,it is to the special fondness which ,bach felt for the clavichord that we owe1 to a great extent1 the cantabile style of his music1 its many-voicedness and its high emotionality4 ,sidenote3 ,quilled instruments4 ,sidenote3 ,tone of the harpsichord and spinet4 ,sidenote3 ,bach's ,music of the future4 ,the spinet1 virginal1 and harpsichord were quilled instruments1 the tone of which was produced by snapping the strings by means of plectra made of quill1 or some other flexible substance1 set in the upper end of a bit of wood called the jack1 which rested on the farther end of the key and moved through a slot in the sounding-board4 ,when the key was pressed down1 the jack moved upward past the string which was caught and twanged by the plectrum4 ,the blow of the clavichord tangent could be graduated like that of the pianoforte hammer1 but the quills of the other instruments always plucked the strings with the same force1 so that mechanical devices1 such as a swell-box1 similar in principle to that of the organ1 coupling in octaves1 doubling the strings1 etc41 had to be resorted to for variety of dynamic effects4 ,the character of tone thus produced determined the character of the music composed for these instruments to a great extent4 ,the brevity of the sound made sustained melodies ineffective1 and encouraged the use of a great variety of embellishments and the spreading out of harmonies in the form of arpeggios4 ,it is obvious enough that ,bach1 being one of those monumental geniuses that cast their prescient vision far into the future1 refused to be bound by such mechanical limitations4 ,though he wrote ,clavier1 he thought organ1 which was his true interpretative medium1 and so it happens that the greatest sonority and the broadest style that have been developed in the pianoforte do not exhaust the contents of such a composition as the ,chromatic ,fantasia and ,fugue4 ,sidenote3 ,scarlatti's sonatas4 ,the earliest music written for these instruments--music which does not enter into this study--was but one remove from vocal music4 ,it came through compositions written for the organ4 ,of ,scarlatti's music the pieces most familiar are a ,capriccio and ,pastorale which ,tausig rewrote for the pianoforte4 ,they were called sonatas by their composer1 but are not sonatas in the modern sense4 ,sonata means sound-piece1 and when the term came into music it signified only that the composition to which it was applied was written for instruments instead of voices4 ,scarlatti did a great deal to develop the technique of the harpsichord and the style of composing for it4 ,his sonatas consist each of a single movement only1 but in their structure they foreshadow the modern sonata form in having two contrasted themes1 which are presented in a fixed key-relationship4 ,they are frequently full of grace and animation1 but are as purely objective1 formal1 and soulless in their content as the other instrumental compositions of the epoch to which they belong4 ,sidenote3 ,the suite4 ,sidenote3 ,its history and form4 ,sidenote3 ,the bond between the movements4 ,the most significant of the compositions of this period are the ,suites1 which because they make up so large a percentage of ,clavier literature 7using the term to cover the pianoforte and its predecessors71 and because they pointed the way to the distinguishing form of the subsequent period1 the sonata1 are deserving of more extended consideration4 ,the suite is a set of pieces in the same key1 but contrasted in character1 based upon certain admired dance-forms4 ,originally it was a set of dances and nothing more1 but in the hands of the composers the dances underwent many modifications1 some of them to the obvious detriment of their national or other distinguishing characteristics4 ,the suite came into fashion about the middle of the seventeenth century and was also called ,sonata da ,camera and ,balletto in ,italy1 and1 later1 ,partita in ,france4 ,in its fundamental form it embraced four movements3 ,i4 ,allemande4 ,,ii4 ,courante4 ,,iii4 ,sarabande4 ,,iv4 ,gigue4 ,to these four were sometimes added other dances--the ,gavotte1 ,passepied1 ,branle1 ,minuet1 ,bourree1 etc4--but the rule was that they should be introduced between the ,sarabande and the ,gigue4 ,sometimes also the set was introduced by a ,prelude or an ,overture4 ,identity of key was the only external tie between the various members of the suite1 but the composers sought to establish an artistic unity by elaborating the sentiments for which the dance-forms seemed to offer a vehicle1 and presenting them in agreeable contrast1 besides enriching the primitive structure with new material4 ,the suites of ,bach and ,handel are the high-water mark in this style of composition1 but it would be difficult to find the original characteristics of the dances in their settings4 ,it must suffice us briefly to indicate the characteristics of the principal forms4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,allemande4 ,the ,allemande1 as its name indicates1 was a dance of supposedly ,german origin4 ,for that reason the ,german composers1 when it came to them from ,france1 where the suite had its origin1 treated it with great partiality4 ,it is in moderate tempo1 common time1 and made up of two periods of eight measures1 both of which are repeated4 ,it begins with an upbeat1 and its metre1 to use the terms of prosody1 is iambic4 ,the following specimen from ,mersenne's ,harmonie ,universelle1 #afcf1 well displays its characteristics3 ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,iambics in music and poetry4 ,robert ,burns's familiar iambics1 ,ye flowery banks o' bonnie ,doon1 ,how can ye bloom sae fair8 ,how can ye chant1 ye little birds1 ,and ,i sae fu' o' care6 might serve to keep the rhythmical characteristics of the ,allemande in mind were it not for the arbitrary changes made by the composers already hinted at4 ,as it is1 we frequently find the stately movement of the old dance broken up into elaborate1 but always quietly flowing1 ornamentation1 as indicated in the following excerpt from the third of ,bach's ,english suites3 ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,the ,courante4 ,the ,courante1 or ,corrente 7,teach lavoltas high and swift corantos1 says ,shakespeare71 is a ,french dance which was extremely popular in the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 and eighteenth centuries--a polite dance1 like the minuet4 ,it was in triple time1 and its movement was bright and brisk1 a merry energy being imparted to the measure by the prevailing figure1 a dotted quarter-note1 an eighth1 and a quarter in a measure1 as illustrated in the following excerpt also from ,mersenne3 ,music illustration ,the suite composers varied the movement greatly1 however1 and the ,italian ,corrente consists chiefly of rapid running passages4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,sarabande4 ,the ,sarabande was also in triple time1 but its movement was slow and stately4 ,in ,spain1 whence it was derived1 it was sung to the accompaniment of castanets1 a fact which in itself suffices to indicate that it was originally of a lively character1 and took on its solemnity in the hands of the later composers4 ,handel found the ,sarabande a peculiarly admirable vehicle for his inspirations1 and one of the finest examples extant figures in the triumphal music of his ,almira1 composed in #agjd3 ,sidenote3 ,a ,sarabande by ,handel4 ,music illustration ,seven years after the production of ,almira1 ,handel recurred to this beautiful instrumental piece1 and out of it constructed the exquisite lament beginning ,lascia ch'io pianga in his opera ,rinaldo4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,gigue4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,minuet4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,gavotte4 ,great ,britain's contribution to the ,suite was the final ,gigue1 which is our jolly and familiar friend the jig1 and in all probability is ,keltic in origin4 ,it is1 as everybody knows1 a rollicking measure in #f-h1 #ab-h1 or #d-d time1 with twelve triplet quavers in a measure1 and needs no description4 ,it remained a favorite with composers until far into the eighteenth century4 ,shakespeare proclaims its exuberant lustiness when he makes ,sir ,toby ,belch protest that had he ,sir ,andrew's gifts his very walk should be a jig4 ,of the other dances incorporated into the suite1 two are deserving of special mention because of their influence on the music of to-day--the ,minuet1 which is the parent of the symphonic scherzo1 and the ,gavotte1 whose fascinating movement is frequently heard in latter-day operettas4 ,the ,minuet is a ,french dance1 and came from ,poitou4 ,louis ,,xiv4 danced it to ,lully's music for the first time at ,versailles in #afec1 and it soon became the most popular of court and society dances1 holding its own down to the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,it was long called the ,queen of ,dances1 and there is no one who has grieved to see the departure of gallantry and grace from our ball-rooms but will wish to see ,her ,gracious ,majesty restored to her throne4 ,the music of the minuet is in #c-d time1 and of stately movement4 ,the ,gavotte is a lively dance-measure in common time1 beginning1 as a rule1 on the third beat4 ,its origin has been traced to the mountain people of the ,dauphine called ,gavots--whence its name4 ,sidenote3 ,technique of the ,clavier players4 ,sidenote3 ,change in technique4 ,the transferrence of this music to the modern pianoforte has effected a vast change in the manner of its performance4 ,in the period under consideration emotionality1 which is considered the loftiest attribute of pianoforte playing to-day1 was lacking1 except in the case of such masters of the clavichord as the great ,bach and his son1 ,carl ,philipp ,emanuel1 who inherited his father's preference for that instrument over the harpsichord and pianoforte4 ,tastefulness in the giving out of the melody1 distinctness of enunciation1 correctness of phrasing1 nimbleness and lightness of finger1 summed up practically all that there was in virtuosoship4 ,intellectuality and digital skill were the essential factors4 ,beauty of tone through which feeling and temperament speak now was the product of the maker of the instrument1 except again in the case of the clavichord1 in which it may have been largely the creation of the player4 ,it is1 therefore1 not surprising that the first revolution in technique of which we hear was accomplished by ,bach1 who1 the better to bring out the characteristics of his polyphonic style1 made use of the thumb1 till then considered almost a useless member of the hand in playing1 and bent his fingers1 so that their movements might be more unconstrained4 ,sidenote3 ,bach's touch4 ,sidenote3 ,handel's playing4 ,sidenote3 ,scarlatti's style4 ,of the varieties of touch1 which play such a role in pianoforte pedagogics to-day1 nothing was known4 ,only on the clavichord was a blow delivered directly against the string1 and1 as has already been said1 only on that instrument was the dynamic shading regulated by the touch4 ,practically1 the same touch was used on the organ and the stringed instruments with key-board4 ,when we find written praise of the old players it always goes to the fluency and lightness of their fingering4 ,handel was greatly esteemed as a harpsichord player1 and seems to have invented a position of the hand like ,bach's1 or to have copied it from that master4 ,forkel tells us the movement of ,bach's fingers was so slight as to be scarcely noticeable2 the position of his hands remained unchanged throughout1 and the rest of his body motionless4 ,speaking of ,handel's harpsichord playing1 ,burney says that his fingers seemed to grow to the keys4 ,they were so curved and compact when he played that no motion1 and scarcely the fingers themselves1 could be discovered4 ,scarlatti's significance lies chiefly in an extension of the technique of his time so as to give greater individuality to the instrument4 ,he indulged freely in brilliant passages and figures which sometimes call for a crossing of the hands1 also in leaps of over an octave1 repetition of a note by different fingers1 broken chords in contrary motion1 and other devices which prefigure modern pianoforte music4 ,sidenote3 ,the sonata4 ,that ,scarlatti also pointed the way to the modern sonata1 ,i have already said4 ,the history of the sonata1 as the term is now understood1 ends with ,beethoven4 ,many sonatas have been written since the last one of that great master1 but not a word has been added to his proclamation4 ,he stands1 therefore1 as a perfect exemplar of the second period in the scheme which we have adopted for the study of pianoforte music and playing4 ,in a general way a sonata may be described as a composition of four movements1 contrasted in mood1 tempo1 sentiment1 and character1 but connected by that spiritual bond of which mention was made in our study of the symphony4 ,in short1 a sonata is a symphony for a solo instrument4 ,sidenote3 ,haydn4 ,when it came into being it was little else than a convenient formula for the expression of musical beauty4 ,haydn1 who perfected it on its formal side1 left it that and nothing more4 ,mozart poured the vessel full of beauty1 but ,beethoven breathed the breath of a new life into it4 ,an old writer tells us of ,haydn that he was wont to say that the whole art of composing consisted in taking up a subject and pursuing it4 ,having invented his theme1 he would begin by choosing the keys through which he wished to make it pass4 ,his exquisite feeling gave him a perfect knowledge of the greater or less degree of effect which one chord produces in succeeding another1 and he afterward imagined a little romance which might furnish him with sentiments and colors4 ,sidenote3 ,beethoven4 ,sidenote3 ,mozart's manner of playing4 ,beethoven began with the sentiment and worked from it outwardly1 modifying the form when it became necessary to do so1 in order to obtain complete and perfect utterance4 ,he made spirit rise superior to matter4 ,this must be borne in mind when comparing the technique of the previous period with that of which ,i have made ,beethoven the representative4 ,in the little that we are privileged to read of ,mozart's style of playing1 we see only a reflex of the players who went before him1 saving as it was permeated by the warmth which went out from his own genial personality4 ,his manipulation of the keys had the quietness and smoothness that were praised in ,bach and ,handel4 ,delicacy and taste1 says ,kullak1 with his lifting of the entire technique to the spiritual aspiration of the idea1 elevate him as a virtuoso to a height unanimously conceded by the public1 by connoisseurs1 and by artists capable of judging4 ,clementi declared that he had never heard any one play so soulfully and charmfully as ,mozart2 ,dittersdorf finds art and taste combined in his playing2 ,haydn asseverated with tears that ,mozart's playing he could never forget1 for it touched the heart4 ,his staccato is said to have possessed a peculiarly brilliant charm4 ,sidenote3 ,clementi4 ,sidenote3 ,beethoven as a pianist4 ,the period of ,c4,p4,e4 ,bach1 ,haydn1 and ,mozart is that in which the pianoforte gradually replaced its predecessors1 and the first real pianist was ,mozart's contemporary and rival1 ,muzio ,clementi4 ,his chief significance lies in his influence as a technician1 for he opened the way to the modern style of play with its greater sonority and capacity for expression4 ,under him passage playing became an entirely new thing2 deftness1 lightness1 and fluency were replaced by stupendous virtuosoship1 which rested1 nevertheless1 on a full and solid tone4 ,he is said to have been able to trill in octaves with one hand4 ,he was necessary for the adequate interpretation of ,beethoven1 whose music is likely to be best understood by those who know that he1 too1 was a superb pianoforte player1 fully up to the requirements which his last sonatas make upon technical skill as well as intellectual and emotional gifts4 ,sidenote3 ,beethoven's technique4 ,sidenote3 ,expression supreme4 ,czerny1 who was a pupil of ,beethoven1 has preserved a fuller account of that great composer's art as a player than we have of any of his predecessors4 ,he describes his technique as tremendous1 better than that of any virtuoso of his day4 ,he was remarkably deft in connecting the full chords1 in which he delighted1 without the use of the pedal4 ,his manner at the instrument was composed and quiet4 ,he sat erect1 without movement of the upper body1 and only when his deafness compelled him to do so1 in order to hear his own music1 did he contract a habit of leaning forward4 ,with an evident appreciation of the necessities of old-time music he had a great admiration for clean fingering1 especially in fugue playing1 and he objected to the use of ,cramer's studies in the instruction of his nephew by ,czerny because they led to what he called a sticky style of play1 and failed to bring out crisp staccatos and a light touch4 ,but it was upon expression that he insisted most of all when he taught4 ,sidenote3 ,music and emotion4 ,more than anyone else it was ,beethoven who brought music back to the purpose which it had in its first rude state1 when it sprang unvolitionally from the heart and lips of primitive man4 ,it became again a vehicle for the feelings4 ,as such it was accepted by the romantic composers to whom he belongs as father1 seer1 and prophet1 quite as intimately as he belongs to the classicists by reason of his adherence to form as an essential in music4 ,to his contemporaries he appears as an image-breaker1 but to the clearer vision of to-day he stands an unshakable barrier to lawless iconoclasm4 ,says ,sir ,george ,grove1 quoting ,mr4 ,edward ,dannreuther1 in the passages within the inverted commas3 ,sidenote3 ,beethoven a ,romanticist4 ,that he was no wild radical altering for the mere pleasure of alteration1 or in the mere search for originality1 is evident from the length of time during which he abstained from publishing1 or even composing works of pretension1 and from the likeness which his early works possess to those of his predecessors4 ,he began naturally with the forms which were in use in his days1 and his alteration of them grew very gradually with the necessities of his expression4 ,the form of the sonata is 'the transparent veil through which ,beethoven seems to have looked at all music4' ,and the good points of that form he retained to the last--the 'triune symmetry of exposition1 illustration1 and repetition1' which that admirable method allowed and enforced--but he permitted himself a much greater liberty than his predecessors had done in the relationship of the keys of the different movements1 and parts of movements1 and in the proportion of the clauses and sections with which he built them up4 ,in other words1 he was less bound by the forms and musical rules1 and more swayed by the thought which he had to express1 and the directions which that thought took in his mind4 ,sidenote3 ,schumann and ,chopin4 ,it is scarcely to be wondered at that when men like ,schumann and ,chopin felt the full force of the new evangel which ,beethoven had preached1 they proceeded to carry the formal side of poetic expression1 its vehicle1 into regions unthought of before their time4 ,the few old forms had now to give way to a large variety4 ,in their work they proceeded from points that were far apart--,schumann's was literary1 ,chopin's political4 ,in one respect the lists of their pieces which appear most frequently on recital programmes seem to hark back to the suites of two centuries ago--they are sets of short compositions grouped1 either by the composer 7as is the case with ,schumann7 or by the performer 7as is the case with ,chopin in the hands of ,mr4 ,paderewski74 ,such fantastic musical miniatures as ,schumann's ,carnaval and ,papillons are eminently characteristic of the composer's intellectual and emotional nature1 which in his university days had fallen under the spell of literary romanticism4 ,sidenote3 ,jean ,paul's influence4 ,sidenote3 ,schumann's inspirations4 ,while ostensibly studying jurisprudence at ,heidelberg1 ,schumann devoted seven hours a day to the pianoforte and several to ,jean ,paul4 ,it was this writer who moulded not only ,schumann's literary style in his early years1 but also gave the bent which his creative activity in music took at the outset4 ,to say little1 but vaguely hint at much1 was the rule which he adopted2 to remain sententious in expression1 but give the freest and most daring flight to his imagination1 and spurn the conventional limitations set by rule and custom1 his ambition4 ,such fanciful and symbolical titles as ,flower1 ,fruit1 and ,thorn ,pieces1 ,titan1 etc41 which ,jean ,paul adopted for his singular mixtures of tale1 rhapsody1 philosophy1 and satire1 were bound to find an imitator in so ardent an apostle as young ,schumann1 and1 therefore1 we have such compositions as ,papillons1 ,carnaval1 ,kreisleriana1 ,phantasiestuecke1 and the rest4 ,almost always1 it may be said1 the pieces which make them up were composed under the poetical and emotional impulses derived from literature1 then grouped and named4 ,to understand their poetic contents this must be known4 ,sidenote3 ,chopin's music4 ,sidenote3 ,preludes4 ,chopin's fancy1 on the other hand1 found stimulation in the charm which1 for him1 lay in the tone of the pianoforte itself 7to which he added a new loveliness by his manner of writing71 as well as in the rhythms of the popular dances of his country4 ,these dances he not only beautified as the old suite writers beautified their forms1 but he utilized them as vessels which he filled with feeling1 not all of which need be accepted as healthy1 though much of it is4 ,as to his titles1 ,preludes is purely an arbitrary designation for compositions which are equally indefinite in form and character2 ,niecks compares them very aptly to a portfolio full of drawings in all stages of advancement--finished and unfinished1 complete and incomplete compositions1 sketches and mere memoranda1 all mixed indiscriminately together4 ,so1 too1 they appeared to ,schumann3 ,they are sketches1 commencements of studies1 or1 if you will1 ruins1 single eagle-wings1 all strangely mixed together4 ,nevertheless some of them are marvellous soul-pictures4 ,sidenote3 ,etudes4 ,sidenote3 ,nocturnes4 ,the ,etudes are studies intended to develop the technique of the pianoforte in the line of the composer's discoveries1 his method of playing extended arpeggios1 contrasted rhythms1 progressions in thirds and octaves1 etc41 but still they breathe poetry and sometimes passion4 ,nocturne is an arbitrary1 but expressive1 title for a short composition of a dreamy1 contemplative1 or even elegiac1 character4 ,in many of his nocturnes ,chopin is the adored sentimentalist of boarding-school misses4 ,there is poppy in them and seductive poison for which ,niecks sensibly prescribes ,bach and ,beethoven as antidotes4 ,the term ballad has been greatly abused in literature1 and in music is intrinsically unmeaning4 ,chopin's four ,ballades have one feature in common--they are written in triple time2 and they are among his finest inspirations4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,polonaise4 ,chopin's dances are conventionalized1 and do not all speak the idiom of the people who created their forms1 but their original characteristics ought to be known4 ,the ,polonaise was the stately dance of the ,polish nobility1 more a march or procession than a dance1 full of gravity and courtliness1 with an imposing and majestic rhythm in triple time that tends to emphasize the second beat of the measure1 frequently syncopating it and accentuating the second half of the first beat3 ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,the ,mazurka4 ,national color comes out more clearly in his ,mazurkas4 ,unlike the ,polonaise this was the dance of the common people1 and even as conventionalized and poetically refined by ,chopin there is still in the ,mazurka some of the rude vigor which lies in its propulsive rhythm3 ,music illustration or ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,the ,krakowiak4 ,the ,krakowiak 7,french ,cracovienne1 ,mr4 ,paderewski has a fascinating specimen in his ,humoresques de ,concert1 op4 #ad7 is a popular dance indigenous to the district of ,cracow1 whence its name4 ,its rhythmical elements are these3 ,music illustration and ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,idiomatic music4 ,sidenote3 ,content higher than idiom4 ,in the music of this period there is noticeable a careful attention on the part of the composers to the peculiarities of the pianoforte4 ,no music1 save perhaps that of ,liszt1 is so idiomatic4 ,frequently in ,beethoven the content of the music seems too great for the medium of expression2 we feel that the thought would have had better expression had the master used the orchestra instead of the pianoforte4 ,we may well pause a moment to observe the development of the instrument and its technique from then till now1 but as condemnation has already been pronounced against excessive admiration of technique for technique's sake1 so now ,i would first utter a warning against our appreciation of the newer charm4 ,idiomatic of the pianoforte is a good enough phrase and a useful1 indeed1 but there is danger that if abused it may bring something like discredit to the instrument4 ,it would be a pity if music1 which contains the loftiest attributes of artistic beauty1 should fail of appreciation simply because it had been observed that the pianoforte is not the most convenient1 appropriate1 or effective vehicle for its publication--a pity for the pianoforte1 for therein would lie an exemplification of its imperfection4 ,so1 too1 it would be a pity if the opinion should gain ground that music which had been clearly designed to meet the nature of the instrument was for that reason good pianoforte music1 i4e41 idiomatic music1 irrespective of its content4 ,sidenote3 ,development of the pianoforte4 ,in ,beethoven's day the pianoforte was still a feeble instrument compared with the grand of to-day4 ,its capacities were but beginning to be appreciated4 ,beethoven had to seek and invent effects which now are known to every amateur4 ,the instrument which the ,english manufacturer ,broadwood presented to him in #ahag had a compass of six octaves1 and was a whole octave wider in range than ,mozart's pianoforte4 ,in #agic ,clementi extended the key-board to five and a half octaves2 six and a half octaves were reached in #ahaa1 and seven in #ahea4 ,since #ahea three notes have been added without material improvement to the instrument4 ,this extension of compass1 however1 is far from being the most important improvement since the classic period4 ,the growth in power1 sonority1 and tonal brilliancy has been much more marked1 and of it ,liszt made striking use4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,pedals4 ,sidenote3 ,shifting pedal4 ,sidenote3 ,damper pedal4 ,very significant1 too1 in their relation to the development of the music1 were the invention and improvement of the pedals4 ,the shifting pedal was invented by a ,viennese maker named ,stein1 who first applied it to an instrument which he named ,saiten-harmonika4 ,before then soft effects were obtained by interposing a bit of felt between the hammers and the strings1 as may still be seen in old square pianofortes4 ,the shifting pedal1 or soft pedal as it is popularly called1 moves the key-board and action so that the hammer strikes only one or two of the unison strings1 leaving the other to vibrate sympathetically4 ,beethoven was the first to appreciate the possibilities of this effect 7see the slow movement of his concerto in ,g major and his last sonatas71 but after him came ,schumann and ,chopin1 and brought pedal manipulation to perfection1 especially that of the damper pedal4 ,this is popularly called the loud pedal1 and the vulgarest use to which it can be put is to multiply the volume of tone4 ,it was ,chopin who showed its capacity for sustaining a melody and enriching the color effects by releasing the strings from the dampers and utilizing the ethereal sounds which rise from the strings when they vibrate sympathetically4 ,sidenote3 ,liszt4 ,sidenote3 ,a dual character4 ,it is no part of my purpose to indulge in criticism of composers1 but something of the kind is made unavoidable by the position assigned to ,liszt in our pianoforte recitals4 ,he is relied upon to provide a scintillant close4 ,the pianists1 then1 even those who are his professed admirers1 are responsible if he is set down in our scheme as the exemplar of the technical cult4 ,technique having its unquestioned value1 we are bound to admire the marvellous gifts which enabled ,liszt practically to sum up all the possibilities of pianoforte mechanism in its present stage of construction1 but we need not look with unalloyed gratitude upon his influence as a composer4 ,there were1 ,i fear1 two sides to ,liszt's artistic character as well as his moral4 ,i believe he had in him a touch of charlatanism as well as a magnificent amount of artistic sincerity--just as he blended a laxity of moral ideas with a profound religious mysticism4 ,it would have been strange indeed1 growing up as he did in the whited sepulchre of ,parisian salon life1 if he had not accustomed himself to sacrifice a little of the soul of art for the sake of vainglory1 and a little of its poetry and feeling to make display of those dazzling digital feats which he invented4 ,but1 be it said to his honor1 he never played mountebank tricks in the presence of the masters whom he revered4 ,it was when he approached the music of ,beethoven that he sank all thought of self and rose to a peerless height as an interpreting artist4 ,sidenote3 ,liszt's ,hungarian ,rhapsodies4 ,sidenote3 ,gypsies and ,magyars4 ,liszt's place as a composer of original music has not yet been determined1 but as a transcriber of the music of others the givers of pianoforte recitals keep him always before us4 ,the showy ,hungarian ,rhapsodies with which the majority of pianoforte recitals end are1 however1 more than mere transcriptions4 ,they are constructed out of the folk-songs of the ,magyars1 and in their treatment the composer has frequently reproduced the characteristic performances which they receive at the hands of the ,gypsies from whom he learned them4 ,this fact and the belief to which ,liszt gave currency in his book ,des ,bohemiens et de leur musique en ,hongrie have given rise to the almost universal belief that the ,magyar melodies are of ,gypsy origin4 ,this belief is erroneous4 ,the ,gypsies have for centuries been the musical practitioners of ,hungary1 but they are not the composers of the music of the ,magyars1 though they have put a marked impress not only on the melodies1 but also on popular taste4 ,the ,hungarian folk-songs are a perfect reflex of the national character of the ,magyars1 and some have been traced back centuries in their literature4 ,though their most marked melodic peculiarity1 the frequent use of a minor scale containing one or even two superfluous seconds1 as thus3 ,sidenote3 ,magyar scales4 ,music illustration may be said to belong to ,oriental music as a whole 7and the ,magyars are ,orientals71 the songs have a rhythmical peculiarity which is a direct product of the ,magyar language4 ,this peculiarity consists of a figure in which the emphasis is shifted from the strong to the weak part by making the first take only a fraction of the time of the second1 thus3 ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,the ,scotch snap4 ,sidenote3 ,gypsy epics4 ,in ,scottish music this rhythm also plays a prominent part1 but there it falls into the beginning of a measure1 whereas in ,hungarian it forms the middle or end4 ,the result is an effect of syncopation which is peculiarly forceful4 ,there is an indubitable ,oriental relic in the profuse embellishments which the ,gypsies weave around the ,hungarian melodies when playing them2 but the fact that they thrust the same embellishments upon ,spanish and ,russian music1 in fact upon all the music which they play1 indicates plainly enough that the impulse to do so is native to them1 and has nothing to do with the national taste of the countries for which they provide music4 ,liszt's confessed purpose in writing the ,hungarian ,rhapsodies was to create what he called ,gypsy epics4 ,he had gathered a large number of the melodies without a definite purpose1 and was pondering what to do with them1 when it occurred to him that ,these fragmentary1 scattered melodies were the wandering1 floating1 nebulous part of a great whole1 that they fully answered the conditions for the production of an harmonious unity which would comprehend the very flower of their essential properties1 their most unique beauties1 and might be united in one homogeneous body1 a complete work1 its divisions to be so arranged that each song would form at once a whole and a part1 which might be severed from the rest and be examined and enjoyed by and for itself2 but which would1 none the less1 belong to the whole through the close affinity of subject matter1 the similarity of its inner nature and unity in development4,d ,sidenote3 ,the ,czardas4 ,the basis of ,liszt's ,rhapsodies being thus distinctively national1 he has in a manner imitated in their character and tempo the dual character of the ,hungarian national dance1 the ,czardas1 which consists of two movements1 a ,lassu1 or slow movement1 followed by a ,friss4 ,these alternate at the will of the dancer1 who gives a sign to the band when he wishes to change from one to the other4 ,,footnotes3 ,d ,weitzmann1 ,geschichte des ,clavierspiels1 p4 #aig4 ,,vii ,at the ,opera ,sidenote3 ,instability of taste4 ,sidenote3 ,the age of operas4 ,popular taste in respect of the opera is curiously unstable4 ,it is surprising that the canons of judgment touching it have such feeble and fleeting authority in view of the popularity of the art-form and the despotic hold which it has had on fashion for two centuries4 ,no form of popular entertainment is acclaimed so enthusiastically as a new opera by an admired composer2 none forgotten so quickly4 ,for the spoken drama we go back to ,shakespeare in the vernacular1 and1 on occasions1 we revive the masterpieces of the ,attic poets who flourished more than two millenniums ago2 but for opera we are bounded by less than a century1 unless occasional performances of ,gluck's ,orfeo and ,mozart's ,figaro1 ,don ,giovanni1 and ,magic ,flute be counted as submissions to popular demand1 which1 unhappily1 we know they are not4 ,there is no one who has attended the opera for twenty-five years who might not bewail the loss of operas from the current list which appealed to his younger fancy as works of real loveliness4 ,in the season of #ahie-if the audiences at the ,metropolitan ,opera ,house in ,new ,york heard twenty-six different operas4 ,the oldest were ,gluck's ,orfeo and ,beethoven's ,fidelio1 which had a single experimental representation each4 ,after them in seniority came ,donizetti's ,lucia di ,lammermoor1 which is sixty-one years old1 and has overpassed the average age of immortal operas by from ten to twenty years1 assuming ,dr4 ,hanslick's calculation to be correct4 ,sidenote3 ,decimation of the operatic list4 ,sidenote3 ,dependence on singers4 ,the composers who wrote operas for the generation that witnessed ,adelina ,patti's debut at the ,academy of ,music1 in ,new ,york1 were ,bellini1 ,donizetti1 ,verdi1 and ,meyerbeer4 ,thanks to his progressive genius1 ,verdi is still alive on the stage1 though nine-tenths of the operas which made his fame and fortune have already sunk into oblivion2 ,meyerbeer1 too1 is still a more or less potent factor with his ,huguenots1 which1 like ,lucia1 has endured from ten to twenty years longer than the average immortal2 but the continued existence of ,bellini and ,donizetti seems to be as closely bound up with that of two or three singers as was ,meleager's life with the burning billet which his mother snatched from the flames4 ,so far as the people of ,london and ,new ,york are concerned whether or not they shall hear ,donizetti more1 rests with ,mesdames ,patti and ,melba1 for ,donizetti spells ,lucia2 ,bellini pleads piteously in ,sonnambula1 but only ,madame ,nevada will play the mediator between him and our stiff-necked generation4 ,sidenote3 ,an unstable art-form4 ,sidenote3 ,carelessness of the public4 ,sidenote3 ,addison's criticism4 ,sidenote3 ,indifference to the words4 ,opera is a mixed art-form and has ever been1 and perhaps must ever be1 in a state of flux1 subject to the changes of taste in music1 the drama1 singing1 acting1 and even politics and morals2 but in one particular the public has shown no change for a century and a half1 and it is not quite clear why this has not given greater fixity to popular appreciation4 ,the people of to-day are as blithely indifferent to the fact that their operas are all presented in a foreign tongue as they were two centuries ago in ,england4 ,the influence of ,wagner has done much to stimulate a serious attitude toward the lyric drama1 but this is seldom found outside of the audiences in attendance on ,german representations4 ,the devotees of the ,latin exotic1 whether it blend ,french or ,italian 7or both1 as is the rule in ,new ,york and ,london7 with its melodic perfume1 enjoy the music and ignore the words with the same nonchalance that ,addison made merry over4 ,addison proves to have been a poor prophet4 ,the great-grandchildren of his contemporaries are not at all curious to know why their forefathers used to sit together like an audience of foreigners in their own country1 and to hear whole plays acted before them in a tongue which they did not understand4 ,what their great-grandparents did was also done by their grandparents and their parents1 and may be done by their children1 grandchildren1 and great-grandchildren after them1 unless ,englishmen and ,americans shall take to heart the lessons which ,wagner essayed to teach his own people4 ,for the present1 though we have abolished many absurdities which grew out of a conception of opera that was based upon the simple1 sensuous delight which singing gave1 the charm of music is still supreme1 and we can sit out an opera without giving a thought to the words uttered by the singers4 ,the popular attitude is fairly represented by that of ,boileau1 when he went to hear ,atys and requested the box-keeper to put him in a place where he could hear ,lully's music1 which he loved1 but not ,quinault's words1 which he despised4 ,sidenote3 ,past and present4 ,it is interesting to note that in this respect the condition of affairs in ,london in the early part of the eighteenth century1 which seemed so monstrously diverting to ,addison1 was like that in ,hamburg in the latter part of the seventeenth1 and in ,new ,york at the end of the nineteenth4 ,there were three years in ,london when ,italian and ,english were mixed in the operatic representations4 ,the king or hero of the play generally spoke in ,italian and his slaves answered him in ,english2 the lover frequently made his court and gained the heart of his princess in a language which she did not understand4 ,sidenote3 ,polyglot opera4 ,at length1 says ,addison1 the audience got tired of understanding half the opera1 and to ease themselves entirely of the fatigue of thinking1 so ordered it that the whole opera was performed in an unknown tongue4 ,sidenote3 ,perversions of texts4 ,there is this difference1 however1 between ,new ,york and ,london and ,hamburg at the period referred to3 while the operatic ragout was compounded of ,italian and ,english in ,london1 ,italian and ,german in ,hamburg1 the ingredients here are ,italian1 ,french1 and ,german1 with no admixture of the vernacular4 ,strictly speaking1 our case is more desperate than that of our foreign predecessors1 for the development of the lyric drama has lifted its verbal and dramatic elements into a position not dreamed of two hundred years ago4 ,we might endure with equanimity to hear the chorus sing ,sidenote3 ,robert le ,diable4 ,la soupe aux choux se fait dans la marmite1 ,dans la marmite on fait la soupe aux choux at the beginning of ,robert le ,diable1 as tradition says used to be done in ,paris1 but we surely ought to rise in rebellion when the chorus of guards change their muttered comments on ,pizarro's furious aria in ,fidelio from ,sidenote3 ,fidelio4 ,er spricht von ,tod und ,wunde6 to ,er spricht vom todten ,hunde6 as is a prevalent custom among the irreverent choristers of ,germany4 ,addison confesses that he was often afraid when seeing the ,italian performers chattering in the vehemence of action1 that they were calling the audience names and abusing them among themselves4 ,i do not know how to measure the morals and manners of our ,italian singers against those of ,addison's time1 but ,i do know that many of the things which they say before our very faces for their own diversion are not complimentary to our intelligence4 ,i hope ,i have a proper respect for ,mr4 ,gilbert's bashful young potato1 but ,i do not think it right while we are sympathizing with the gentle passion of ,siebel to have his representative bring an offering of flowers and1 looking us full in the face1 sing3 ,le patate d'amor1 ,o cari fior6 ,sidenote3 ,faust4 ,sidenote3 ,porpora's ,credo4 ,it isn't respectful1 and it enables the cynics of to-day to say1 with the poetasters and fiddlers of ,addison's day1 that nothing is capable of being well set to music that is not nonsense4 ,operatic words were once merely stalking-horses for tunes1 but that day is past4 ,we used to smile at ,brignoli's ,ah si6 ah si6 ah si6 which did service for any text in high passages2 but if a composer should1 for the accommodation of his music1 change the wording of the creed into ,credo1 non credo1 non credo in unum ,deum1 as ,porpora once did1 we should all cry out for his excommunication4 ,as an art-form the opera has frequently been criticised as an absurdity1 and it is doubtless owing to such a conviction that many people are equally indifferent to the language employed and the sentiments embodied in the words4 ,even so serious a writer as ,george ,hogarth does not hesitate in his ,memoirs of the ,opera to defend this careless attitude4 ,sidenote3 ,are words unessential8 ,the words of an air are of small importance to the comprehension of the business of the piece1 he says2 they merely express a sentiment1 a reflection1 a feeling2 it is quite enough if their general import is known1 and this may most frequently be gathered from the situation1 aided by the character and expression of the music4 ,sidenote3 ,il ,trovatore4 ,i1 myself1 have known an ardent lover of music who resolutely refused to look into a libretto because1 being of a lively and imaginative temperament1 she preferred to construct her own plots and put her own words in the mouths of the singers4 ,though a constant attendant on the opera1 she never knew what ,il ,trovatore was about1 which1 perhaps1 is not so surprising after all4 ,doubtless the play which she had fashioned in her own mind was more comprehensible than ,verdi's medley of burnt children and asthmatic dance rhythms4 ,madame de ,stael went so far as to condemn the ,german composers because they follow too closely the sense of the words1 whereas the ,italians1 who are truly the musicians of nature1 make the air and the words conform to each other only in a general way4 ,sidenote3 ,the opera defended as an art-form4 ,sidenote3 ,the classic tragedy4 ,now the present generation has witnessed a revolution in operatic ideas which has lifted the poetical elements upon a plane not dreamed of when opera was merely a concert in costume1 and it is no longer tolerable that it be set down as an absurdity4 ,on the contrary1 ,i believe that1 looked at in the light thrown upon it by the history of the drama and the origin of music1 the opera is completely justified as an art-form1 and1 in its best estate1 is an entirely reasonable and highly effective entertainment4 ,no mean place1 surely1 should be given in the estimation of the judicious to an art-form which aims in an equal degree to charm the senses1 stimulate the emotions1 and persuade the reason4 ,this1 the opera1 or1 perhaps ,i would better say the lyric drama1 can be made to do as efficiently as the ,greek tragedy did it1 so far as the differences between the civilizations of ancient ,hellas and the nineteenth century will permit4 ,the ,greek tragedy was the original opera1 a fact which literary study would alone have made plain even if it were not clearly of record that it was an effort to restore the ancient plays in their integrity that gave rise to the ,italian opera three centuries ago4 ,sidenote3 ,genesis of the ,greek plays4 ,every school-boy knows now that the ,hellenic plays were simply the final evolution of the dances with which the people of ,hellas celebrated their religious festivals4 ,at the rustic ,bacchic feasts of the early ,greeks they sang hymns in honor of the wine-god1 and danced on goat-skins filled with wine4 ,he who held his footing best on the treacherous surface carried home the wine as a reward4 ,they contended in athletic games and songs for a goat1 and from this circumstance scholars have surmised we have the word tragedy1 which means goat-song4 ,the choric songs and dances grew in variety and beauty4 ,finally1 somebody 7tradition preserves the name of ,thespis as the man7 conceived the idea of introducing a simple dialogue between the strophes of the choric song4 ,generally this dialogue took the form of a recital of some story concerning the god whose festival was celebrating4 ,then when the dithyrambic song returned1 it would either continue the narrative or comment on its ethical features4 ,sidenote3 ,mimicry and dress4 ,the merry-makers1 or worshippers1 as one chooses to look upon them1 manifested their enthusiasm by imitating the appearance as well as the actions of the god and his votaries4 ,they smeared themselves with wine-lees1 colored their bodies black and red1 put on masks1 covered themselves with the skins of beasts1 enacted the parts of nymphs1 fauns1 and satyrs1 those creatures of primitive fancy1 half men and half goats1 who were the representatives of natural sensuality untrammelled by conventionality4 ,sidenote3 ,melodrama4 ,next1 somebody 7,archilocus7 sought to heighten the effect of the story or the dialogue by consorting it with instrumental music2 and thus we find the germ of what musicians--not newspaper writers--call melodrama1 in the very early stages of the drama's development4 ,gradually these simple rustic entertainments were taken in hand by the poets who drew on the legendary stores of the people for subjects1 branching out from the doings of gods to the doings of god-like men1 the popular heroes1 and developed out of them the masterpieces of dramatic poetry which are still studied with amazement1 admiration1 and love4 ,sidenote3 ,factors in ancient tragedy4 ,the dramatic factors which have been mustered in this outline are these3 #a4 ,the choric dance and song with a religious purpose4 #b4 ,recitation and dialogue4 #c4 ,characterization by means of imitative gestures--pantomime1 that is--and dress4 #d4 ,instrumental music to accompany the song and also the action4 ,sidenote3 ,operatic elements4 ,sidenote3 ,words and music united4 ,all these have been retained in the modern opera1 which may be said to differ chiefly from its ancient model in the more important and more independent part which music plays in it4 ,it will appear later in our study that the importance and independence achieved by one of the elements consorted in a work by nature composite1 led the way to a revolution having for its object a restoration of something like the ancient drama4 ,in this ancient drama and its precursor1 the dithyrambic song and dance1 is found a union of words and music which scientific investigation proves to be not only entirely natural but inevitable4 ,in a general way most people are in the habit of speaking of music as the language of the emotions4 ,the elements which enter into vocal music 7of necessity the earliest form of music7 are unvolitional products which we must conceive as co-existent with the beginnings of human life4 ,do they then antedate articulate speech8 ,did man sing before he spoke8 ,i shall not quarrel with anybody who chooses so to put it4 ,sidenote3 ,physiology of singing4 ,think a moment about the mechanism of vocal music4 ,something occurs to stir up your emotional nature--a great joy1 a great sorrow1 a great fear2 instantly1 involuntarily1 in spite of your efforts to prevent it1 maybe1 muscular actions set in which proclaim the emotion which fills you4 ,the muscles and organs of the chest1 throat1 and mouth contract or relax in obedience to the emotion4 ,you utter a cry1 and according to the state of feeling which you are in1 that cry has pitch1 quality 7timbre the singing teachers call it71 and dynamic intensity4 ,you attempt to speak1 and no matter what the words you utter1 the emotional drama playing on the stage of your heart is divulged4 ,sidenote3 ,herbert ,spencer's laws4 ,the man of science observes the phenomenon and formulates its laws1 saying1 for instance1 as ,herbert ,spencer has said3 ,all feelings are muscular stimuli2 and1 ,variations of voice are the physiological results of variations of feeling4 ,it was the recognition of this extraordinary intimacy between the voice and the emotions which brought music all the world over into the service of religion1 and provided the phenomenon1 which we may still observe if we be but minded to do so1 that mere tones have sometimes the sanctity of words1 and must as little be changed as ancient hymns and prayers4 ,sidenote3 ,invention of ,italian opera4 ,sidenote3 ,musical declamation4 ,the end of the sixteenth century saw a coterie of scholars1 art-lovers1 and amateur musicians in ,florence who desired to re-establish the relationship which they knew had once existed between music and the drama4 ,the revival of learning had made the classic tragedy dear to their hearts4 ,they knew that in the olden time tragedy1 of which the words only have come down to us1 had been musical throughout4 ,in their efforts to bring about an intimacy between dramatic poetry and music they found that nothing could be done with the polite music of their time4 ,it was the period of highest development in ecclesiastical music1 and the climax of artificiality4 ,the professional musicians to whom they turned scorned their theories and would not help them2 so they fell back on their own resources4 ,they cut the ,gordian knot and invented a new style of music1 which they fancied was like that used by the ancients in their stage-plays4 ,they abolished polyphony1 or contrapuntal music1 in everything except their choruses1 and created a sort of musical declamation1 using variations of pitch and harmonies built up on a simple bass to give emotional life to their words4 ,in choosing their tones they were guided by observation of the vocal inflections produced in speech under stress of feeling1 showing thus a recognition of the law which ,herbert ,spencer formulated two hundred and fifty years later4 ,sidenote3 ,the music of the ,florentine reformers4 ,sidenote3 ,the solo style1 harmony1 and declamation4 ,sidenote3 ,fluent recitatives4 ,the music which these men produced and admired sounds to us monotonous in the extreme1 for what little melody there is in it is in the choruses1 which they failed to emancipate from the ecclesiastical art1 and which for that reason were as stiff and inelastic as the music which in their controversies with the musicians they condemned with vigor4 ,yet within their invention there lay an entirely new world of music4 ,out of it came the solo style1 a song with instrumental accompaniment of a kind unknown to the church composers4 ,out of it1 too1 came harmony as an independent factor in music instead of an accident of the simultaneous flow of melodies2 and out of it came declamation1 which drew its life from the text4 ,the recitatives which they wrote had the fluency of spoken words and were not retarded by melodic forms4 ,the new style did not accomplish what its creators hoped for1 but it gave birth to ,italian opera and emancipated music in a large measure from the formalism that dominated it so long as it belonged exclusively to the composers for the church4 ,sidenote3 ,predecessors of ,wagner4 ,sidenote3 ,old operatic distinctions4 ,sidenote3 ,opera buffa4 ,sidenote3 ,opera seria4 ,sidenote3 ,recitative4 ,detailed study of the progress of opera from the first efforts of the ,florentines to ,wagner's dramas would carry us too far afield to serve the purposes of this book4 ,my aim is to fix the attitude proper1 or at least useful1 to the opera audience of to-day4 ,the excursion into history which ,i have made has but the purpose to give the art-form a reputable standing in court1 and to explain the motives which prompted the revolution accomplished by ,wagner4 ,as to the elements which compose an opera1 only those need particular attention which are illustrated in the current repertory4 ,unlike the opera audiences of two centuries ago1 we are not required to distinguish carefully between the various styles of opera in order to understand why the composer adopted a particular manner1 and certain fixed forms in each4 ,the old distinctions between ,opera seria1 ,opera buffa1 and ,opera semiseria perplex us no more4 ,only because of the perversion of the time-honored ,italian epithet buffa by the ,french mongrel ,opera bouffe is it necessary to explain that the classic ,opera buffa was a polite comedy1 whose musical integument did not of necessity differ from that of ,opera seria except in this--that the dialogue was carried on in dry recitative 7recitativo secco1 or parlante7 in the former1 and a more measured declamation with orchestral accompaniment 7recitativo stromentato7 in the latter4 ,so far as subject-matter was concerned the classic distinction between tragedy and comedy served4 ,the dry recitative was supported by chords played by a double-bass and harpsichord or pianoforte4 ,in ,london1 at a later period1 for reasons of doubtful validity1 these chords came to be played on a double-bass and violoncello1 as we occasionally hear them to-day4 ,sidenote3 ,opera semiseria4 ,sidenote3 ,don ,giovanni4 ,shakespeare has taught us to accept an infusion of the comic element in plays of a serious cast1 but ,shakespeare was an innovator1 a ,romanticist1 and1 measured by old standards1 his dramas are irregular4 ,the ,italians1 who followed classic models1 for a reason amply explained by the genesis of the art-form1 rigorously excluded comedy from serious operas1 except as intermezzi1 until they hit upon a third classification1 which they called ,opera semiseria1 in which a serious subject was enlivened with comic episodes4 ,our dramatic tastes being grounded in ,shakespeare1 we should be inclined to put down ,don ,giovanni as a musical tragedy2 or1 haunted by the ,italian terminology1 as ,opera semiseria2 but ,mozart calls it ,opera buffa1 more in deference to the librettist's work1 ,i fancy1 than his own1 for1 as ,i have suggested elsewhere1,e the musician's imagination in the fire of composition went far beyond the conventional fancy of the librettist in the finale of that most wonderful work4 ,sidenote3 ,an ,opera buffa4 ,sidenote3 ,french ,grand ,opera4 ,sidenote3 ,opera comique4 ,sidenote3 ,mignon4 ,sidenote3 ,faust4 ,it is well to remember that ,don ,giovanni is an ,opera buffa when watching the buffooneries of ,leporello1 for that alone justifies them4 ,the ,french have ,grand ,opera1 in which everything is sung to orchestra accompaniment1 there being neither spoken dialogue nor dry recitative1 and ,opera comique1 in which the dialogue is spoken4 ,the latter corresponds with the honorable ,german term ,singspiel1 and one will not go far astray if he associate both terms with the ,english operas of ,wallace and ,balfe1 save that the ,french and ,germans have generally been more deft in bridging over the chasm between speech and song than their ,british rivals4 ,opera comique has another characteristic1 its denouement must be happy4 ,formerly the ,theatre national de l',opera-,comique in ,paris was devoted exclusively to ,opera comique as thus defined 7it has since abolished the distinction and ,grand ,opera may be heard there now71 and1 therefore1 when ,ambroise ,thomas brought forward his ,mignon1 ,goethe's story was found to be changed so that ,mignon recovered and was married to ,wilhelm ,meister at the end4 ,the ,germans are seldom pleased with the transformations which their literary masterpieces are forced to undergo at the hands of ,french librettists4 ,they still refuse to call ,gounod's ,faust by that name2 if you wish to hear it in ,germany you must go to the theatre when ,margarethe is performed4 ,naturally they fell indignantly afoul of ,mignon1 and to placate them we have a second finale1 a denouement allemand1 provided by the authors1 in which ,mignon dies as she ought4 ,sidenote3 ,grosse ,oper4 ,sidenote3 ,comic opera and operetta4 ,sidenote3 ,opera bouffe4 ,sidenote3 ,romantic operas4 ,of course the ,grosse ,oper of the ,germans is the ,french ,grand ,opera and the ,english grand opera--but all the ,english terms are ambiguous1 and everything that is done in ,covent ,garden in ,london or the ,metropolitan ,opera ,house in ,new ,york is set down as grand opera1 just as the vilest imitations of the ,french vaudevilles or ,english farces with music are called comic operas4 ,in its best estate1 say in the delightful works of ,gilbert and ,sullivan1 what is designated as comic opera ought to be called operetta1 which is a piece in which the forms of grand opera are imitated1 or travestied1 the dialogue is spoken1 and the purpose of the play is to satirize a popular folly4 ,only in method1 agencies1 and scope does such an operetta 7the examples of ,gilbert and ,sullivan are in mind7 differ from comedy in its best conception1 as a dramatic composition which aims to chastise manners with a smile 7,ridendo castigat mores74 ,its present degeneracy1 as illustrated in the ,opera bouffe of the ,french and the concoctions of the would-be imitators of ,gilbert and ,sullivan1 exemplifies little else than a pursuit far into the depths of the method suggested by a friend to one of ,lully's imitators who had expressed a fear that a ballet written1 but not yet performed1 would fail4 ,you must lengthen the dances and shorten the ladies' skirts1 he said4 ,the ,germans make another distinction based on the subject chosen for the story4 ,spohr's ,jessonda1 ,weber's ,freischuetz1 ,oberon1 and ,euryanthe1 ,marschner's ,vampyr1 ,templer und ,juedin1 and ,hans ,heiling are ,romantic operas4 ,the significance of this classification in operatic literature may be learned from an effort which ,i have made in another chapter to discuss the terms ,classic and ,romantic as applied to music4 ,briefly stated1 the operas mentioned are put in a class by themselves 7and their imitations with them7 because their plots were drawn from the romantic legends of the ,middle ,ages1 in which the institutions of chivalry1 fairy lore1 and supernaturalism play a large part4 ,sidenote3 ,modern designations4 ,sidenote3 ,german opera and ,wagner4 ,these distinctions we meet in reading about music4 ,as ,i have intimated1 we do not concern ourselves much with them now4 ,in ,new ,york and ,london the people speak of ,italian1 ,english1 and ,german opera1 referring generally to the language employed in the performance4 ,but there is also in the use of the terms an underlying recognition of differences in ideals of performance4 ,as all operas sung in the regular seasons at ,covent ,garden and the ,metropolitan ,opera ,house are popularly spoken of as ,italian operas1 so ,german opera popularly means ,wagner's lyric dramas1 in the first instance1 and a style of performance which grew out of ,wagner's influence in the second4 ,as compared with ,italian opera1 in which the principal singers are all and the ensemble nothing1 it means1 mayhap1 inferior vocalists but better actors in the principal parts1 a superior orchestra and chorus1 and a more conscientious effort on the part of conductor1 stage manager1 and artists1 from first to last1 to lift the general effect above the conventional level which has prevailed for centuries in the ,italian opera houses4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner's ,musikdrama4 ,sidenote3 ,modern ,italian terminology4 ,in terminology1 as well as in artistic aim1 ,wagner's lyric dramas round out a cycle that began with the works of the ,florentine reformers of the sixteenth century4 ,wagner called his later operas ,musikdramen1 wherefore he was soundly abused and ridiculed by his critics4 ,when the ,italian opera first appeared it was called ,dramma per musica1 or ,melodramma1 or ,tragedia per musica1 all of which terms stand in ,italian for the conception that ,musikdrama stands for in ,german4 ,the new thing had been in existence for half a century1 and was already on the road to the degraded level on which we shall find it when we come to the subject of operatic singing1 before it came to be called ,opera in musica1 of which opera is an abbreviation4 ,now it is to be observed that the composers of all countries1 having been taught to believe that the dramatic contents of an opera have some significance1 are abandoning the vague term opera and following ,wagner in his adoption of the principles underlying the original terminology4 ,verdi called his ,aida an ,opera in quattro atti1 but his ,otello he designated a lyric drama 7,dramma lirico71 his ,falstaff a lyric comedy 7,commedia lirica71 and his example is followed by the younger ,italian composers1 such as ,mascagni1 ,leoncavallo1 and ,puccini4 ,sidenote3 ,recitative4 ,in the majority of the operas of the current list the vocal element illustrates an amalgamation of the archaic recitative and aria4 ,the dry form of recitative is met with now only in a few of the operas which date back to the last century or the early years of the present4 ,le ,nozze di ,figaro1 ,don ,giovanni1 and ,il ,barbiere di ,siviglia are the most familiar works in which it is employed1 and in the second of these it is used only by the bearers of the comedy element4 ,the dissolute ,don chatters glibly in it with ,zerlina1 but when ,donna ,anna and ,don ,ottavio converse1 it is in the recitativo stromentato4 ,sidenote3 ,the object of recitative4 ,sidenote3 ,defects of the recitative4 ,sidenote3 ,what it can do4 ,in both forms recitative is the vehicle for promoting the action of the play1 preparing its incidents1 and paving the way for the situations and emotional states which are exploited1 promulgated1 and dwelt upon in the set music pieces4 ,its purpose is to maintain the play in an artificial atmosphere1 so that the transition from dialogue to song may not be so abrupt as to disturb the mood of the listener4 ,of all the factors in an opera1 the dry recitative is the most monotonous4 ,it is not music1 but speech about to break into music4 ,unless one is familiar with ,italian and desirous of following the conversation1 which we have been often told is not necessary to the enjoyment of an opera1 its everlasting use of stereotyped falls and intervallic turns1 coupled with the strumming of arpeggioed cadences on the pianoforte 7or worse1 double-bass and violoncello71 makes it insufferably wearisome to the listener4 ,its expression is fleeting--only for the moment4 ,it lacks the sustained tones and structural symmetry essential to melody1 and therefore it cannot sustain a mood4 ,it makes efficient use of only one of the fundamental factors of vocal music--variety of pitch--and that in a rudimentary way4 ,it is specifically a product of the ,italian language1 and best adapted to comedy in that language4 ,spoken with the vivacity native to it in the drama1 dry recitative is an impossibility in ,english4 ,it is only in the more measured and sober gait proper to oratorio that we can listen to it in the vernacular without thought of incongruity4 ,yet it may be made most admirably to preserve the characteristics of conversation1 and even illustrate ,spencer's theory of the origin of music4 ,witness the following brief example from ,don ,giovanni1 in which the vivacity of the master is admirably contrasted with the lumpishness of his servant3 ,sidenote3 ,an example from ,mozart4 ,music illustration3 ,sempre sotto voce4 ,,don ,,giovanni4 ,,leporello4 ,le-po-rel-lo1 o-ve sei8 ,son qui per ,le-po-rel-lo1 where are you8 ,i'm here and ,d4,g4 ,,lep4 dis-gra-zi-a6 e vo-i8 ,son qui4 ,chi e more's the pit-y6 and you1 ,sir8 ,here too4 ,who's ,d4,g4 mor-to1 voi1 o il vec-chio8 ,che do- been killed1 you or the old one8 ,what a ,,lep4 man-da da bes-tia6 il vec-chio4 ,bra-vo6 ques-tion1 you boo-by6 the old one4 ,bra-vo6 ,sidenote3 ,its characteristics4 ,of course it is left to the intelligence and taste of the singers to bring out the effects in a recitative1 but in this specimen it ought to be noted how sluggishly the disgruntled ,leporello replies to the brisk question of ,don ,giovanni1 how correct is the rhetorical pause in you1 or the old one8 and the greater sobriety which comes over the manner of the ,don as he thinks of the murder just committed1 and replies1 the old one4 ,sidenote3 ,recitative of some sort necessary4 ,sidenote3 ,the speaking voice in opera4 ,i am strongly inclined to the belief that in one form or the other1 preferably the accompanied1 recitative is a necessary integer in the operatic sum4 ,that it is possible to accustom one's self to the change alternately from speech to song we know from the experiences made with ,german1 ,french1 and ,english operas1 but these were not true lyric dramas1 but dramas with incidental music4 ,to be a real lyric drama an opera ought to be musical throughout1 the voice being maintained from beginning to end on an exalted plane4 ,the tendency to drop into the speaking voice for the sake of dramatic effect shown by some tragic singers does not seem to me commendable4 ,wagner relates with enthusiasm how ,madame ,schroeder-,devrient in ,fidelio was wont to give supreme emphasis to the phrase immediately preceding the trumpet signal in the dungeon scene 7,another step1 and you are dead67 by speaking the last word with an awful accent of despair4 ,he then comments3 ,the indescribable effect of this manifested itself to all like an agonizing plunge from one sphere into another1 and its sublimity consisted in this1 that with lightning quickness a glimpse was given to us of the nature of both spheres1 of which one was the ideal1 the other the real4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner and ,schroeder-,devrient4 ,i have heard a similar effect produced by ,herr ,niemann and ,madame ,lehmann1 but could not convince myself that it was not an extremely venturesome experiment4 ,madame ,schroeder-,devrient saw the beginning of the modern methods of dramatic expression1 and it is easy to believe that a sudden change like that so well defined by ,wagner1 made with her sweeping voice and accompanied by her plastic and powerful acting1 was really thrilling2 but1 ,i fancy1 nevertheless1 that only ,beethoven and the intensity of feeling which pervades the scene saved the audience from a disturbing sense of the incongruity of the performance4 ,sidenote3 ,early forms4 ,sidenote3 ,the dialogue of the ,florentines4 ,the development which has taken place in the recitative has not only assisted in elevating opera to the dignity of a lyric drama by saving us from alternate contemplation of the two spheres of ideality and reality1 but has also made the factor itself an eloquent vehicle of dramatic expression4 ,save that it had to forego the help of the instruments beyond a mere harmonic support1 the stilo rappresentativo1 or musica parlante1 as the ,florentines called their musical dialogue1 approached the sustained recitative which we hear in the oratorio and grand opera more closely than it did the recitative secco4 ,ever and anon1 already in the earliest works 7the ,eurydice of ,rinuccini as composed by both ,peri and ,caccini7 there are passages which sound like rudimentary melodies1 but are charged with vital dramatic expression4 ,note the following phrase from ,orpheus's monologue on being left in the infernal regions by ,venus1 from ,peri's opera1 performed ,a4,d4 #afjj1 in honor of the marriage of ,maria de' ,medici to ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france3 ,sidenote3 ,an example from ,peri4 ,music illustration3 ,e voi1 deh per pie-ta1 del mio mar-ti-re ,che nel mi-se-ro cor di-mo-ra e-ter-no1 ,la-cri-ma-te al mio pian-to om-bre d'in-fer-no6 ,sidenote3 ,development of the arioso4 ,sidenote3 ,the aria supplanted4 ,sidenote3 ,music and action4 ,out of this style there grew within a decade something very near the arioso1 and for all the purposes of our argument we may accept the melodic devices by which ,wagner carries on the dialogue of his operas as an uncircumscribed arioso superimposed upon a foundation of orchestral harmony2 for example1 ,lohengrin's address to the swan1 ,elsa's account of her dream4 ,the greater melodiousness of the recitativo stromentato1 and the aid of the orchestra when it began to assert itself as a factor of independent value1 soon enabled this form of musical conversation to become a reflector of the changing moods and passions of the play1 and thus the value of the aria1 whether considered as a solo1 or in its composite form as duet1 trio1 quartet1 or ensemble1 was lessened4 ,the growth of the accompanied recitative naturally brought with it emancipation from the tyranny of the classical aria4 ,wagner's reform had nothing to do with that emancipation1 which had been accomplished before him1 but went1 as we shall see presently1 to a liberation of the composers from all the formal dams which had clogged the united flow of action and music4 ,we should1 however1 even while admiring the achievements of modern composers in blending these elements 7and ,i know of no more striking illustration than the scene of the fat knight's discomfiture in ,ford's house in ,verdi's ,falstaff7 bear in mind that while we may dream of perfect union between words and music1 it is not always possible that action and music shall go hand in hand4 ,let me repeat what once ,i wrote in a review of ,cornelius's opera1 ,der ,barbier von ,bagdad3,f ,sidenote3 ,how music can replace incident4 ,after all1 of the constituents of an opera1 action1 at least that form of it usually called incident1 is most easily spared4 ,progress in feeling1 development of the emotional element1 is indeed essential to variety of musical utterance1 but nevertheless all great operas have demonstrated that music is more potent and eloquent when proclaiming an emotional state than while seeking to depict progress toward such a state4 ,even in the dramas of ,wagner the culminating musical moments are predominantly lyrical1 as witness the love-duet in ',tristan1' the close of ',das ,rheingold1' ,siegmund's song1 the love-duet1 and ,wotan's farewell in ',die ,walkuere1' the forest scene and final duet in ',siegfried1' and the death of ,siegfried in ',die ,goetterdaemmerung4' ,it is in the nature of music that this should be so4 ,for the drama which plays on the stage of the heart1 music is a more truthful language than speech2 but it can stimulate movement and prepare the mind for an incident better than it can accompany movement and incident4 ,yet music that has a high degree of emotional expressiveness1 by diverting attention from externals to the play of passion within the breasts of the persons can sometimes make us forget the paucity of incident in a play4 ',tristan und ,isolde' is a case in point4 ,practically1 its outward action is summed up in each of its three acts by the same words3 ,preparation for a meeting of the ill-starred lovers2 the meeting4 ,what is outside of this is mere detail2 yet the effect of the tragedy upon a listener is that of a play surcharged with pregnant occurrence4 ,it is the subtle alchemy of music that transmutes the psychological action of the tragedy into dramatic incident4 ,sidenote3 ,set forms not to be condemned4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner's influence4 ,sidenote3 ,his orchestra4 ,sidenote3 ,vocal feats4 ,for those who hold such a view with me it will be impossible to condemn pieces of set forms in the lyric drama4 ,wagner still represents his art-work alone1 but in the influence which he exerted upon contemporaneous composers in ,italy and ,france1 as well as ,germany1 he is quite as significant a figure as he is as the creator of the ,musikdrama4 ,the operas which are most popular in our ,italian and ,french repertories are those which benefited by the liberation from formalism and the exaltation of the dramatic idea which he preached and exemplified--such works as ,gounod's ,faust1 ,verdi's ,aida and ,otello1 and ,bizet's ,carmen4 ,with that emancipation there came1 as was inevitable1 new conceptions of the province of dramatic singing as well as new convictions touching the mission of the orchestra4 ,the instruments in ,wagner's latter-day works are quite as much as the singing actors the expositors of the dramatic idea1 and in the works of the other men whom ,i have mentioned they speak a language which a century ago was known only to the orchestras of ,gluck and ,mozart with their comparatively limited1 yet eloquent1 vocabulary4 ,coupled with praise for the wonderful art of ,mesdames ,patti and ,melba 7and ,i am glad to have lived in their generation1 though they do not represent my ideal in dramatic singing71 we are accustomed to hear lamentations over the decay of singing4 ,i have intoned such jeremiads myself1 and ,i do not believe that music is suffering from a greater want to-day than that of a more thorough training for singers4 ,i marvel when ,i read that ,senesino sang cadences of fifty seconds' duration2 that ,ferri with a single breath could trill upon each note of two octaves1 ascending and descending1 and that ,la ,bastardella's art was equal to a perfect performance 7perfect in the conception of her day7 of a flourish like this3 ,sidenote3 ,la ,bastardella's flourish4 ,music illustration ,sidenote3 ,character of the opera a century and a half ago4 ,sidenote3 ,music and dramatic expression4 ,i marvel1 ,i say1 at the skill1 the gifts1 and the training which could accomplish such feats1 but ,i would not have them back again if they were to be employed in the old service4 ,when ,senesino1 ,farinelli1 ,sassarelli1 ,ferri1 and their tribe dominated the stage1 it strutted with sexless ,agamemnons and ,caesars4 ,telemachus1 ,darius1 ,nero1 ,cato1 ,alexander1 ,scipio1 and ,hannibal ran around on the boards as languishing lovers1 clad in humiliating disguises1 singing woful arias to their mistress's eyebrows--arias full of trills and scales and florid ornaments1 but void of feeling as a problem in ,euclid4 ,thanks very largely to ,german influences1 the opera is returning to its original purposes4 ,music is again become a means of dramatic expression1 and the singers who appeal to us most powerfully are those who are best able to make song subserve that purpose1 and who to that end give to dramatic truthfulness1 to effective elocution1 and to action the attention which mere voice and beautiful utterance received in the period which is called the ,golden ,age of singing1 but which was the ,leaden ,age of the lyric drama4 ,sidenote3 ,singers heard in ,new ,york4 ,for seventy years the people of ,new ,york1 scarcely less favored than those of ,london1 have heard nearly all the great singers of ,europe4 ,let me talk about some of them1 for ,i am trying to establish some ground on which my readers may stand when they try to form an estimate of the singing which they are privileged to hear in the opera houses of to-day4 ,madame ,malibran was a member of the first ,italian company that ever sang here4 ,madame ,cinti-,damoreau came in #ahdd1 ,bosio in #ahdi1 ,jenny ,lind in #ahej1 ,sontag in #ahec1 ,grisi in #ahed1 ,la ,grange in #ahee1 ,frezzolini in #aheg1 ,piccolomini in #aheh1 ,nilsson in #ahgj1 ,lucca in #ahgb1 ,titiens in #ahgf1 ,gerster in #ahgh1 and ,sembrich in #ahhc4 ,i omit the singers of the ,german opera as belonging to a different category4 ,adelina ,patti was always with us until she made her ,european debut in #ahfa1 and remained abroad twenty years4 ,of the men who were the artistic associates of these prime donne1 mention may be made of ,mario1 ,benedetti1 ,corsi1 ,salvi1 ,ronconi1 ,formes1 ,brignoli1 ,amadeo1 ,coletti1 and ,campanini1 none of whom1 excepting ,mario1 was of first-class importance compared with the women singers4 ,sidenote3 ,grisi4 ,sidenote3 ,jenny ,lind4 ,sidenote3 ,lilli ,lehmann4 ,nearly all of these singers1 even those still living and remembered by the younger generation of to-day1 exploited their gifts in the operas of ,rossini1 ,bellini1 ,donizetti1 the early ,verdi1 and ,meyerbeer4 ,grisi was acclaimed a great dramatic singer1 and it is told of her that once in ,norma she frightened the tenor who sang the part of ,pollio by the fury of her acting4 ,but measured by the standards of to-day1 say that set by ,calve's ,carmen1 it must have been a simple age that could be impressed by the tragic power of anyone acting the part of ,bellini's ,druidical priestess4 ,the surmise is strengthened by the circumstance that ,madame ,grisi created a sensation in ,il ,trovatore by showing signs of agitation in the tower scene1 walking about the stage during ,manrico's ,ah6 che la morte ognora1 as if she would fain discover the part of the castle where her lover was imprisoned4 ,the chief charm of ,jenny ,lind in the memory of the older generation is the pathos with which she sang simple songs4 ,mendelssohn esteemed her greatly as a woman and artist1 but he is quoted as once remarking to ,chorley3 ,i cannot think why she always prefers to be in a bad theatre4 ,moscheles1 recording his impressions of her in ,meyerbeer's ,camp of ,silesia 7now ,l',etoile du ,nord71 reached the climax of his praise in the words3 ,her song with the two concertante flutes is perhaps the most incredible feat in the way of bravura singing that can possibly be heard4 ,she was credited1 too1 with fine powers as an actress2 and that she possessed them can easily be believed1 for few of the singers whom ,i have mentioned had so early and intimate an association with the theatre as she4 ,her repugnance to it in later life she attributed to a prejudice inherited from her mother4 ,a vastly different heritage is disclosed by ,madame ,lehmann's devotion to the drama1 a devotion almost akin to religion4 ,i have known her to go into the scene-room of the ,metropolitan ,opera ,house in ,new ,york and search for mimic stumps and rocks with which to fit out a scene in ,siegfried1 in which she was not even to appear4 ,that1 like her super-human work at rehearsals1 was for the good of the cause1 as she expressed it4 ,sidenote3 ,sontag4 ,most amiable are the memories that cluster around the name of ,sontag1 whose career came to a grievous close by her sudden death in ,mexico in #ahed4 ,she was a ,german1 and the early part of her artistic life was influenced by ,german ideals1 but it is said that only in the music of ,mozart and ,weber1 which aroused in her strong national emotion1 did she sing dramatically4 ,for the rest she used her light voice1 which had an extraordinary range1 brilliancy1 and flexibility1 very much as ,patti and ,melba use their voices to-day--in mere unfeeling vocal display4 ,she had an extensive soprano voice1 says ,hogarth2 not remarkable for power1 but clear1 brilliant1 and singularly flexible2 a quality which seems to have led her 7unlike most ,german singers in general7 to cultivate the most florid style1 and even to follow the bad example set by ,catalani1 of seeking to convert her voice into an instrument1 and to astonish the public by executing the violin variations on ,rode's air and other things of that stamp4 ,sidenote3 ,la ,grange4 ,sidenote3 ,piccolomini4 ,sidenote3 ,adelina ,patti4 ,sidenote3 ,gerster4 ,sidenote3 ,lucca and ,nilsson4 ,sidenote3 ,sembrich4 ,madame ,la ,grange had a voice of wide compass1 which enabled her to sing contralto roles as well as soprano1 but ,i have never heard her dramatic powers praised4 ,as for ,piccolomini1 read of her where you will1 you shall find that she was charming4 ,she was lovely to look upon1 and her acting in soubrette parts was fascinating4 ,until ,melba came ,patti was for thirty years peerless as a mere vocalist4 ,she belongs1 as did ,piccolomini and ,sontag1 to the comic genre2 so did ,sembrich and ,gerster1 the latter of whom never knew it4 ,i well remember how indignant she became on one occasion1 in her first ,american season1 at a criticism which ,i wrote of her ,amina in ,la ,sonnambula1 a performance which remains among my loveliest and most fragrant recollections4 ,i had made use of ,catalani's remark concerning ,sontag3 ,son genre est petit1 mais elle est unique dans son genre1 and applied it to her style4 ,she almost flew into a passion4 ,mon genre est grand6 said she1 over and over again1 while ,dr4 ,gardini1 her husband1 tried to pacify her4 ,come to see my ,marguerite next season4 ,now1 ,gounod's ,marguerite does not quite belong to the heroic roles1 though we can all remember how ,lucca thrilled us by her intensity of action as well as of song1 and how ,madame ,nilsson sent the blood out of our cheeks1 though she did stride through the opera like a combination of the grande dame and ,ary ,scheffer's spirituelle pictures2 but such as it is1 ,madame ,gerster achieved a success of interest only1 and that because of her strivings for originality4 ,sembrich and ,gerster1 when they were first heard in ,new ,york1 had as much execution as ,melba or ,nilsson2 but their voices had less emotional power than that of the latter1 and less beauty than that of the former--beauty of the kind that might be called classic1 since it is in no way dependent on feeling4 ,sidenote3 ,melba and ,eames4 ,sidenote3 ,calve4 ,sidenote3 ,dramatic singers4 ,sidenote3 ,jean de ,reszke4 ,sidenote3 ,edouard de ,reszke and ,plancon4 ,patti1 ,lucca1 ,nilsson1 and ,gerster sang in the operas in which ,melba and ,eames sing to-day1 and though the standard of judgment has been changed in the last twenty-five years by the growth of ,german ideals1 ,i can find no growth of potency in the performances of the representative women of ,italian and ,french opera1 except in the case of ,madame ,calve4 ,for the development of dramatic ideals we must look to the singers of ,german affiliations or antecedents1 ,mesdames ,materna1 ,lehmann1 ,sucher1 and ,nordica4 ,as for the men of yesterday and to-day1 no lover1 ,i am sure1 of the real lyric drama would give the declamatory warmth and gracefulness of pose and action which mark the performances of ,m4 ,jean de ,reszke for a hundred of the high notes of ,mario 7for one of which1 we are told1 he was wont to reserve his powers all evening71 were they never so lovely4 ,neither does the fine1 resonant1 equable voice of ,edouard de ,reszke or the finished style of ,plancon leave us with curious longings touching the voices and manners of ,lablache and ,formes4 ,other times1 other manners1 in music as in everything else4 ,the great singers of to-day are those who appeal to the taste of to-day1 and that taste differs1 as the clothes which we wear differ1 from the style in vogue in the days of our ancestors4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner's operas4 ,sidenote3 ,wagner's lyric dramas4 ,sidenote3 ,his theories4 ,sidenote3 ,the mission of music4 ,sidenote3 ,distinctions abolished4 ,sidenote3 ,the typical phrases4 ,sidenote3 ,characteristics of some motives4 ,a great deal of confusion has crept into the public mind concerning ,wagner and his works by the failure to differentiate between his earlier and later creations4 ,no injustice is done the composer by looking upon his ,flying ,dutchman1 ,tannhaeuser1 and ,lohengrin as operas4 ,we find the dramatic element lifted into noble prominence in ,tannhaeuser1 and admirable freedom in the handling of the musical factors in ,lohengrin1 but they must1 nevertheless1 be listened to as one would listen to the operas of ,weber1 ,marschner1 or ,meyerbeer4 ,they are1 in fact1 much nearer to the conventional operatic type than to the works which came after them1 and were called ,musikdramen4 ,music drama is an awkward phrase1 and ,i have taken the liberty of substituting lyric drama for it1 and as such ,i shall designate ,tristan und ,isolde1 ,die ,meistersinger1 ,der ,ring des ,nibelungen1 and ,parsifal4 ,in these works ,wagner exemplified his reformatory ideas and accomplished a regeneration of the lyric drama1 as we found it embodied in principle in the ,greek tragedy and the ,dramma per musica of the ,florentine scholars4 ,wagner's starting-point is1 that in the opera music had usurped a place which did not belong to it4,g ,it was designed to be a means and had become an end4 ,in the drama he found a combination of poetry1 music1 pantomime1 and scenery1 and he held that these factors ought to co-operate on a basis of mutual dependence1 the inspiration of all being dramatic expression4 ,music1 therefore1 ought to be subordinate to the text in which the dramatic idea is expressed1 and simply serve to raise it to a higher power by giving it greater emotional life4 ,so1 also1 it ought to vivify pantomime and accompany the stage pictures4 ,in order that it might do all this1 it had to be relieved of the shackles of formalism2 only thus could it move with the same freedom as the other elements consorted with it in the drama4 ,therefore1 the distinctions between recitative and aria were abolished1 and an endless melody took the place of both4 ,an exalted form of speech is borne along on a flood of orchestral music1 which1 quite as much as song1 action1 and scenery concerns itself with the exposition of the drama4 ,that it may do this the agencies1 spiritual as well as material1 which are instrumental in the development of the play1 are identified with certain melodic phrases1 out of which the musical fabric is woven4 ,these phrases are the much mooted1 much misunderstood leading motives--typical phrases ,i call them4 ,wagner has tried to make them reflect the character or nature of the agencies with which he has associated them1 and therefore we find the giants in the ,niblung tetralogy symbolized in heavy1 slowly moving1 cumbersome phrases2 the dwarfs have two phrases1 one suggesting their occupation as smiths1 by its hammering rhythm1 and the other their intellectual habits1 by its suggestion of brooding contemplativeness4 ,i cannot go through the catalogue of the typical phrases which enter into the musical structure of the works which ,i have called lyric dramas as contra-distinguished from operas4 ,they should1 of course1 be known to the student of ,wagner1 for thereby will he be helped to understand the poet-composer's purposes1 but ,i would fain repeat the warning which ,i uttered twice in my ,studies in the ,wagnerian ,drama3 ,sidenote3 ,the phrases should be studied4 ,it cannot be too forcibly urged that if we confine our study of ,wagner to the forms and names of the phrases out of which he constructs his musical fabric1 we shall1 at the last1 have enriched our minds with a thematic catalogue and--nothing else4 ,we shall remain guiltless of knowledge unless we learn something of the nature of those phrases by noting the attributes which lend them propriety and fitness1 and can recognize1 measurably at least1 the reasons for their introduction and development4 ,those attributes give character and mood to the music constructed out of the phrases4 ,if we are able to feel the mood1 we need not care how the phrases which produce it have been labelled4 ,if we do not feel the mood1 we may memorize the whole thematic catalogue of ,wolzogen and have our labor for our pains4 ,it would be better to know nothing about the phrases1 and content one's self with simple sensuous enjoyment than to spend one's time answering the baldest of all the riddles of ,wagner's orchestra--',what am ,i playing now8' ,sidenote3 ,the question of effectiveness4 ,the ultimate question concerning the correctness or effectiveness of ,wagner's system of composition must1 of course1 be answered along with the question3 ',does the composition1 as a whole1 touch the emotions1 quicken the fancy1 fire the imagination8' ,if it does these things1 we may1 to a great extent1 if we wish1 get along without the intellectual processes of reflection and comparison which are conditioned upon a recognition of the themes and their uses4 ,but if we put aside this intellectual activity1 we shall deprive ourselves1 among other things1 of the pleasures which it is the province of memory to give2 and the exercise of memory is called for by music much more urgently than by any other art1 because of its volatile nature and the role which repetition plays in it4 ,,footnotes3 ,e ,but no real student can have studied the score deeply1 or listened discriminatingly to a good performance1 without discovering that there is a tremendous chasm between the conventional aims of the ,italian poet in the book of the opera and the work which emerged from the composer's profound imagination4 ,da ,ponte contemplated a dramma giocoso2 ,mozart humored him until his imagination came within the shadow cast before by the catastrophe1 and then he transformed the poet's comedy into a tragedy of crushing power4 ,the climax of ,da ,ponte's ideal is reached in a picture of the dissolute ,don wrestling in idle desperation with a host of spectacular devils1 and finally disappearing through a trap1 while fire bursts out on all sides1 the thunders roll1 and ,leporello gazes on the scene1 crouched in a comic attitude of terror1 under the table4 ,such a picture satisfied the tastes of the public of his time1 and that public found nothing incongruous in a return to the scene immediately afterward of all the characters save the reprobate1 who had gone to his reward1 to hear a description of the catastrophe from the buffoon under the table1 and platitudinously to moralize that the perfidious wretch1 having been stored away safely in the realm of ,pluto and ,proserpine1 nothing remained for them to do except to raise their voices in the words of the old song1 ,questo e il fin di chi fa mal3 ,e dei perfidi la morte ,alla vita e sempre ugual4 ,new ,york ,musical ,season1 #ahhi-ij4 ,f ,review of the ,new ,york ,musical ,season1 #ahhi-ij1 p4 #ge4 ,g ,see ,studies in the ,wagnerian ,drama1 chapter ,i4 ,,viii ,choirs and ,choral ,music ,sidenote3 ,choirs a touchstone of culture4 ,sidenote3 ,the value of choir singing4 ,no one would go far astray who should estimate the extent and sincerity of a community's musical culture by the number of its chorus singers4 ,some years ago it was said that over three hundred cities and towns in ,germany contained singing societies and orchestras devoted to the cultivation of choral music4 ,in the ,united ,states1 where there are comparatively a small number of instrumental musicians1 there has been a wonderful development of singing societies within the last generation1 and it is to this fact largely that the notable growth in the country's knowledge and appreciation of high-class music is due4 ,no amount of mere hearing and study can compare in influence with participation in musical performance4 ,music is an art which rests on love4 ,it is beautiful sound vitalized by feeling1 and it can only be grasped fully through man's emotional nature4 ,there is no quicker or surer way to get to the heart of a composition than by performing it1 and since participation in chorus singing is of necessity unselfish and creative of sympathy1 there is no better medium of musical culture than membership in a choir4 ,it was because he realized this that ,schumann gave the advice to all students of music3 ,sing diligently in choirs2 especially the middle voices1 for this will make you musical4 ,sidenote3 ,singing societies and orchestras4 ,sidenote3 ,neither numbers nor wealth necessary4 ,there is no community so small or so ill-conditioned that it cannot maintain a singing society4 ,before a city can give sustenance to even a small body of instrumentalists it must be large enough and rich enough to maintain a theatre from which those instrumentalists can derive their support4 ,there can be no dependence upon amateurs1 for people do not study the oboe1 bassoon1 trombone1 or double-bass for amusement4 ,amateur violinists and amateur flautists there are in plenty1 but not amateur clarinetists and ,french-horn players2 but if the love for music exists in a community1 a dozen families shall suffice to maintain a choral club4 ,large numbers are therefore not essential2 neither is wealth4 ,some of the largest and finest choirs in the world flourish among the ,welsh miners in the ,united ,states and ,wales1 fostered by a native love for the art and the national institution called ,eisteddfod4 ,sidenote3 ,lines of choral culture in the ,united ,states4 ,the lines on which choral culture has proceeded in the ,united ,states are two1 of which the more valuable1 from an artistic point of view1 is that of the oratorio1 which went out from ,new ,england4 ,the other originated in the ,german cultivation of the ,maennergesang1 the importance of which is felt more in the extent of the culture1 prompted as it is largely by social considerations1 than in the music sung1 which is of necessity of a lower grade than that composed for mixed voices4 ,it is chiefly in the impulse which ,german ,maennergesang carried into all the corners of the land1 and especially the impetus which the festivals of the ,german singers gave to the sections in which they have been held for half a century1 that this form of culture is interesting4 ,sidenote3 ,church and oratorio4 ,sidenote3 ,secular choirs4 ,the cultivation of oratorio music sprang naturally from the ,church1 and though it is now chiefly in the hands of secular societies1 the biblical origin of the vast majority of the texts used in the works which are performed1 and more especially the regular performances of ,handel's ,messiah in the ,christmastide1 have left the notion1 more or less distinct1 in the public mind1 that oratorios are religious functions4 ,nevertheless 7or perhaps because of this fact7 the most successful choral concerts in the ,united ,states are those given by oratorio societies4 ,the cultivation of choral music which is secular in character is chiefly in the hands of small organizations1 whose concerts are of a semi-private nature and are enjoyed by the associate members and invited guests4 ,this circumstance is deserving of notice as a characteristic feature of choral music in ,america1 though it has no particular bearing upon this study1 which must concern itself with choral organizations1 choral music1 and choral performances in general4 ,sidenote3 ,amateur choirs originated in the ,united ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,the size of old choirs4 ,organizations of the kind in view differ from instrumental in being composed of amateurs2 and amateur choir-singing is no older anywhere than in the ,united ,states4 ,two centuries ago and more the singing of catches and glees was a common amusement among the gentler classes in ,england1 but the performances of the larger forms of choral music were in the hands of professional choristers who were connected with churches1 theatres1 schools1 and other public institutions4 ,naturally1 then1 the choral bodies were small4 ,choirs of hundreds and thousands1 such as take part in the festivals of to-day1 are a product of a later time4 ,sidenote3 ,handel's choirs4 ,when ,bach and ,handel wrote their ,passions1 ,church ,cantatas1 and ,oratorios1 they could only dream of such majestic performances as those works receive now2 and it is one of the miracles of art that they should have written in so masterly a manner for forces that they could never hope to control4 ,who would think1 when listening to the ',hallelujah' of ',the ,messiah1' or the great double choruses of ',israel in ,egypt1' in which the voice of the composer is 'as the voice of a great multitude1 and as the voice of many waters1 and as the voice of many thunderings1 saying1 ,alleluia1 for the ,lord ,god ,omnipotent reigneth6' that these colossal compositions were never heard by ,handel from any chorus larger than the most modest of our church choirs8 ,at the last performance of ',the ,messiah' at which ,handel was advertised to appear 7it was for the benefit of his favorite charity1 the ,foundling ,hospital1 on ,may #c1 #agei--;he died before the time1 however71 the singers1 including principals1 numbered twenty-three1 while the instrumentalists numbered thirty-three4 ,at the first great ,handel ,commemoration1 in ,westminster ,abbey1 in #aghd1 the choir numbered two hundred and seventy-five1 the band two hundred and fifty2 and this was the most numerous force ever gathered together for a single performance in ,england up to that time4 ,sidenote3 ,choirs a century ago4 ,sidenote3 ,bach's choir4 ,in #agia the ,commemoration was celebrated by a choir of five hundred and a band of three hundred and seventy-five4 ,in ,may1 #aghf1 ,johann ,adam ,hiller1 one of ,bach's successors as cantor of the ,st4 ,thomas ,school in ,leipsic1 directed what was termed a ,massenauffuehrung of ',the ,messiah1' in the ,domkirche1 in ,berlin4 ,his 'masses' consisted of one hundred and eighteen singers and one hundred and eighty-six instrumentalists4 ,in ,handel's operas1 and sometimes even in his oratorios1 the tutti meant1 in his time1 little more than a union of all the solo singers2 and even ,bach's ,passion music and church cantatas1 which seem as much designed for numbers as the double choruses of ',israel1' were rendered in the ,st4 ,thomas ,church by a ludicrously small choir4 ,of this fact a record is preserved in the archives of ,leipsic4 ,in ,august1 #agcj1 ,bach submitted to the authorities a plan for a church choir of the pupils in his care4 ,in this plan his singers numbered twelve1 there being one principal and two ripienists in each voice2 with characteristic modesty he barely suggests a preference for sixteen4 ,the circumstance that in the same document he asked for at least eighteen instrumentalists 7two more if flutes were used71 taken in connection with the figures given relative to the ',messiah' performances1 gives an insight into the relations between the vocal and the instrumental parts of a choral performance in those days4,h ,sidenote3 ,proportion of voices and instruments4 ,this relation has been more than reversed since then1 the orchestras at modern oratorio performances seldom being one-fifth as large as the choir4 ,this difference1 however1 is due largely to the changed character of modern music1 that of to-day treating the instruments as independent agents of expression instead of using them chiefly to support the voices and add sonority to the tonal mass1 as was done by ,handel and most of the composers of his day4 ,sidenote3 ,glee unions and male choirs4 ,i omit from consideration the ,glee ,unions of ,england1 and the quartets1 which correspond to them1 in this country4 ,they are not cultivators of choral music1 and the music which they sing is an insignificant factor in culture4 ,the male choirs1 too1 need not detain us long1 since it may be said without injustice that their mission is more social than artistic4 ,in these choirs the subdivision into parts is1 as a rule1 into two tenor voices1 first and second1 and two bass1 first and second4 ,in the glee unions1 the effect of whose singing is fairly well imitated by the college clubs of the ,united ,states 7pitiful things1 indeed1 from an artistic point of view71 there is a survival of an old element in the male alto singing above the melody voice1 generally in a painful falsetto4 ,this abomination is unknown to the ,german part-songs for men's voices1 which are written normally1 but are in the long run monotonous in color for want of the variety in timbre and register which the female voices contribute in a mixed choir4 ,sidenote3 ,women's choirs4 ,there are choirs also composed exclusively of women1 but they are even more unsatisfactory than the male choirs1 for the reason that the absence of the bass voice leaves their harmony without sufficient foundation4 ,generally1 music for these choirs is written for three parts1 two sopranos and contralto1 with the result that it hovers1 suspended like ,mahomet's coffin1 between heaven and earth4 ,when a fourth part is added it is a second contralto1 which is generally carried down to the tones that are hollow and unnatural4 ,sidenote3 ,boys' choirs4 ,the substitution of boys for women in ,episcopal ,church choirs has grown extensively within the last ten years in the ,united ,states1 very much to the promotion of aesthetic sentimentality in the congregations1 but without improving the character of worship-music4 ,boys' voices are practically limitless in an upward direction1 and are naturally clear and penetrating4 ,ravishing effects can be produced with them1 but it is false art to use passionless voices in music conceived for the mature and emotional voices of adults2 and very little of the old ,english ,cathedral music1 written for choirs of boys and men1 is preserved in the service lists to-day4 ,sidenote3 ,mixed choirs4 ,the only satisfactory choirs are the mixed choirs of men and women4 ,upon them has devolved the cultivation of artistic choral music in our public concert-rooms4 ,as we know such choirs now1 they are of comparatively recent origin1 and it is a singular commentary upon the way in which musical history is written1 that the fact should have so long been overlooked that the credit of organizing the first belongs to the ,united ,states4 ,a little reflection will show this fact1 which seems somewhat startling at first blush1 to be entirely natural4 ,large singing societies are of necessity made up of amateurs1 and the want of professional musicians in ,america compelled the people to enlist amateurs at a time when in ,europe choral activity rested on the church1 theatre1 and institute choristers1 who were practically professionals4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of amateur singing societies4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,german record4 ,sidenote3 ,american priority4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,american record4 ,as the hitherto accepted record stands1 the first amateur singing society was the ,singakademie of ,berlin1 which ,carl ,friedrich ,fasch1 accompanist to the royal flautist1 ,frederick the ,great1 called into existence in #agia4 ,a few dates will show how slow the other cities of musical ,germany were in following ,berlin's example4 ,in #ahah there were only ten amateur choirs in all ,germany4 ,leipsic organized one in #ahjj1 ,stettin in #ahjj1 ,muenster in #ahjd1 ,dresden in #ahjg1 ,potsdam in #ahad1 ,bremen in #ahae1 ,chemnitz in #ahag1 ,schwaebisch-,hall in #ahag1 and ,innsbruck in #ahah4 ,the ,berlin ,singakademie is still in existence1 but so also is the ,stoughton ,musical ,society in ,stoughton1 ,mass41 which was founded on ,november #g1 #aghf4 ,mr4 ,charles ,c4 ,perkins1 historian of the ,handel and ,haydn ,society1 whose foundation was coincident with the sixth society in ,germany 7,bremen1 #ahae71 enumerates the following predecessors of that venerable organization3 the ,stoughton ,musical ,society1 #aghf2 ,independent ,musical ,society1 established at ,boston in the same year1 which gave a concert at ,king's ,chapel in #aghh1 and took part there in commemorating the death of ,washington 7,december #ad1 #agii7 on his first succeeding birthday2 the ,franklin1 #ahjd2 the ,salem1 #ahjf2 ,massachusetts ,musical1 #ahjg2 ,lock ,hospital1 #ahab1 and the ,norfolk ,musical1 the date of whose foundation is not given by ,mr4 ,perkins4 ,sidenote3 ,choirs in the ,west4 ,when the ,bremen ,singakademie was organized there were already choirs in the ,united ,states as far west as ,cincinnati4 ,in that city they were merely church choirs at first1 but within a few years they had combined into a large body and were giving concerts at which some of the choruses of ,handel and ,haydn were sung4 ,that their performances1 as well as those of the ,new ,england societies1 were cruder than those of their ,european rivals may well be believed1 but with this ,i have nothing to do4 ,i am simply seeking to establish the priority of the ,united ,states in amateur choral culture4 ,the number of ,american cities in which oratorios are performed annually is now about fifty4 ,sidenote3 ,the size of choirs4 ,sidenote3 ,large numbers not essential4 ,sidenote3 ,how divisions used to be sung4 ,in size mixed choirs ordinarily range from forty voices to five hundred4 ,it were well if it were understood by choristers as well as the public that numbers merely are not a sign of merit in a singing society4 ,so the concert-room be not too large1 a choir of sixty well-trained voices is large enough to perform almost everything in choral literature with good effect1 and the majority of the best compositions will sound better under such circumstances than in large rooms with large choirs4 ,especially is this true of the music of the ,middle ,ages1 written for voices without instrumental accompaniment1 of which ,i shall have something to say when the discussion reaches choral programmes4 ,there is music1 it is true1 like much of ,handel's1 the impressiveness of which is greatly enhanced by masses1 but it is not extensive enough to justify the sacrifice of correctness and finish in the performance to mere volume4 ,the use of large choirs has had the effect of developing the skilfulness of amateur singers in an astonishing degree1 but there is1 nevertheless1 a point where weightiness of tone becomes an obstacle to finished execution4 ,when ,mozart remodelled ,handel's ,messiah he was careful to indicate that the florid passages 7divisions they used to be called in ,england7 should be sung by the solo voices alone1 but nowadays choirs of five hundred voices attack such choruses as ,for unto us a ,child is ,born1 without the slightest hesitation1 even if they sometimes make a mournful mess of the divisions4 ,sidenote3 ,the division of choirs4 ,sidenote3 ,five-part music4 ,sidenote3 ,eight part4 ,sidenote3 ,antiphonal music4 ,sidenote3 ,bach's ,st4 ,matthew ,passion4 ,the normal division of a mixed choir is into four parts or voices--soprano1 contralto1 tenor1 and bass2 but composers sometimes write for more parts1 and the choir is subdivided to correspond4 ,the custom of writing for five1 six1 eight1 ten1 and even more voices was more common in the ,middle ,ages1 the palmy days of the a capella 7i4e41 for the chapel1 unaccompanied7 style than it is now1 and1 as a rule1 a division into more than four voices is not needed outside of the societies which cultivate this old music1 such as the ,musical ,art ,society in ,new ,york1 the ,bach ,choir in ,london1 and the ,domchor in ,berlin4 ,in music for five parts1 one of the upper voices1 soprano or tenor1 is generally doubled2 for six1 the ordinary distribution is into two sopranos1 two contraltos1 tenor1 and bass4 ,when eight voices are reached a distinction is made according as there are to be eight real parts 7a otto voci reali71 or two choruses of the four normal parts each 7a otto voci in due cori reali74 ,in the first instance the arrangement commonly is three sopranos1 two contraltos1 two tenors1 and one bass4 ,one of the most beautiful uses of the double choir is to produce antiphonal effects1 choir answering to choir1 both occasionally uniting in the climaxes4 ,how stirring this effect can be made may be observed in some of ,bach's compositions1 especially those in which he makes the division of the choir subserve a dramatic purpose1 as in the first chorus of ,the ,passion according to ,st4 ,matthew1 where the two choirs1 one representing ,daughters of ,zion1 the other ,believers1 interrogate and answer each other thus3 ,i4 ,come1 ye daughters1 weep for anguish2 ,see ,him6 ,,ii4 ,whom8 ,i4 ,the ,son of ,man4 ,see ,him6 ,,ii4 ,how8 ,i4 ,so like a lamb4 ,see it6 ,,ii4 ,what8 ,i4 ,his love untold4 ,look6 ,,ii4 ,look where8 ,i4 ,our guilt behold4 ,sidenote3 ,antiphony in a motet4 ,another most striking instance is in the same master's motet1 ,sing ye to the ,lord1 which is written for two choirs of four parts each4 7,in the example from the ,st4 ,matthew ,passion there is a third choir of soprano voices which sings a chorale while the dramatic choirs are conversing47 ,in the motet the first choir begins a fugue1 in the midst of which the second choir is heard shouting jubilantly1 ,sing ye6 ,sing ye6 ,sing ye6 ,then the choirs change roles1 the first delivering the injunction1 the second singing the fugue4 ,in modern music1 composers frequently consort a quartet of solo voices1 soprano1 contralto1 tenor1 and bass1 with a four-part chorus1 and thus achieve fine effects of contrast in dynamics and color1 as well as antiphonal4 ,sidenote3 ,excellence in choral singing4 ,sidenote3 ,community of action4 ,sidenote3 ,individualism4 ,sidenote3 ,dynamics4 ,sidenote3 ,beauty of tone4 ,sidenote3 ,contralto voices4 ,the question is near3 ,what constitutes excellence in a choral performance8 ,to answer3 ,the same qualities that constitute excellence in an orchestral performance1 will scarcely suffice1 except as a generalization4 ,a higher degree of harmonious action is exacted of a body of singers than of a body of instrumentalists4 ,many of the parts in a symphony are played by a single instrument4 ,community of voice belongs only to each of the five bodies of string-players4 ,in a chorus there are from twelve to one hundred and fifty voices1 or even more1 united in each part4 ,this demands the effacement of individuality in a chorus1 upon the assertion of which1 in a band1 under the judicious guidance of the conductor1 many of the effects of color and expression depend4 ,each group in a choir must strive for homogeneity of voice quality2 each singer must sink the ego in the aggregation1 yet employ it in its highest potency so far as the mastery of the technics of singing is concerned4 ,in cultivating precision of attack 7i4e41 promptness in beginning a tone and leaving it off71 purity of intonation 7i4e41 accuracy or justness of pitch--singing in tune according to the popular phrase71 clearness of enunciation1 and careful attention to all the dynamic gradations of tone1 from very soft up to very loud1 and all shades of expression between1 in the development of that gradual augmentation of tone called crescendo1 and the gradual diminution called diminuendo1 the highest order of individual skill is exacted from every chorister2 for upon individual perfection in these things depends the collective effect which it is the purpose of the conductor to achieve4 ,sensuous beauty of tone1 even in large aggregations1 is also dependent to a great degree upon careful and proper emission of voice by each individual1 and it is because the contralto part in most choral music1 being a middle part1 lies so easily in the voices of the singers that the contralto contingent in ,american choirs1 especially1 so often attracts attention by the charm of its tone4 ,contralto voices are seldom forced into the regions which compel so great a physical strain that beauty and character must be sacrificed to mere accomplishment of utterance1 as is frequently the case with the soprano part4 ,sidenote3 ,selfishness fatal to success4 ,sidenote3 ,tonal balance4 ,yet back of all this exercise of individual skill there must be a spirit of self-sacrifice which can only exist in effective potency if prompted by universal sympathy and love for the art4 ,a selfish chorister is not a chorister1 though possessed of the voice of a ,melba or ,mario4 ,balance between the parts1 not only in the fundamental constitution of the choir but also in all stages of a performance1 is also a matter of the highest consideration4 ,in urban communities1 especially1 it is difficult to secure perfect tonal symmetry--the rule is a poverty in tenor voices--but those who go to hear choral concerts are entitled to hear a well-balanced choir1 and the presence of an army of sopranos will not condone a squad of tenors4 ,again1 ,i say1 better a well-balanced small choir than an ill-balanced large one4 ,sidenote3 ,declamation4 ,sidenote3 ,expression4 ,sidenote3 ,the choruses in ,the ,messiah4 ,sidenote3 ,variety of declamation in ,handel's oratorio4 ,i have not enumerated all the elements which enter into a meritorious performance1 nor shall ,i discuss them all2 only in passing do ,i wish to direct attention to one which shines by its absence in the choral performances not only of ,america but also of ,great ,britain and ,germany4 ,proper pronunciation of the texts is an obvious requirement2 so ought also to be declamation4 ,there is no reason why characteristic expression1 by which ,i mean expression which goes to the genius of the melodic phrase when it springs from the verbal1 should be ignored1 simply because it may be difficult of attainment from large bodies of singers4 ,there is so much monotony in oratorio concerts because all oratorios and all parts of any single oratorio are sung alike4 ,only when the ,hallelujah is sung in ,the ,messiah at the gracious ,christmastide is an exaltation above the dull level of the routine performances noticeable1 and then it is communicated to the singers by the act of the listeners in rising to their feet4 ,now1 despite the structural sameness in the choruses of ,the ,messiah1 they have a great variety of content1 and if the characteristic physiognomy of each could but be disclosed1 the grand old work1 which seems hackneyed to so many1 would acquire amazing freshness1 eloquence1 and power4 ,then should we be privileged to note that there is ample variety in the voice of the old master1 of whom a greater than he said that when he wished1 he could strike like a thunderbolt4 ,then should we hear the tones of amazed adoration in ,music illustration3 ,be-hold the ,lamb of ,god6 of cruel scorn in ,music illustration3 ,he trust-ed in ,god that would de-li-ver ,him1 let him de-li-ver him if he de-light in him4 of boastfulness and conscious strength in ,music illustration3 ,let us break their bonds a-sun-der4 and learn to admire as we ought to admire the declamatory strength and truthfulness so common in ,handel's choruses4 ,sidenote3 ,mediaeval music4 ,sidenote3 ,madrigals4 ,there is very little cultivation of choral music of the early ecclesiastical type1 and that little is limited to the ,church and a few choirs specially organized for its performance1 like those that ,i have mentioned4 ,this music is so foreign to the conceptions of the ordinary amateur1 and exacts so much skill in the singing of the intervals1 lacking the prop of modern tonality as it does1 that it is seldom that an amateur body can be found equal to its performance4 ,moreover1 it is nearly all of a solemn type4 ,its composers were churchmen1 and when it was written nearly all that there was of artistic music was in the service of the ,church4 ,the secular music of the time consisted chiefly in ,madrigals1 which differed from ecclesiastical music only in their texts1 they being generally erotic in sentiment4 ,the choristers of to-day1 no less than the public1 find it difficult to appreciate them1 because they are not melodic in the sense that most music is nowadays4 ,in them the melody is not the privileged possession of the soprano voice4 ,all the voices stand on an equal footing1 and the composition consists of a weaving together1 according to scientific rules1 of a number of voices--counterpoint as it is called4 ,sidenote3 ,homophonic hymns4 ,sidenote3 ,calvin's restrictive influence4 ,our hymn-tunes are homophonic1 based upon a melody sung by one voice1 for which the other voices provide the harmony4 ,this style of music came into the ,church through the ,german ,reformation4 ,though ,calvin was a lover of music he restricted its practice among his followers to unisonal psalmody1 that is1 to certain tunes adapted to the versified psalms sung without accompaniment of harmony voices4 ,on the adoption of the ,genevan psalter he gave the strictest injunction that neither its text nor its melodies were to be altered4 ,those songs and melodies1 said he1 which are composed for the mere pleasure of the ear1 and all they call ornamental music1 and songs for four parts1 do not behoove the majesty of the ,church1 and cannot fail greatly to displease ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,luther and the ,german ,church4 ,under the influence of the ,german reformers music was in a very different case4 ,luther was not only an amateur musician1 he was also an ardent lover of scientific music4 ,josquin des ,pres1 a contemporary of ,columbus1 was his greatest admiration2 nevertheless1 he was anxious from the beginning of his work of ,church establishment to have the music of the ,german ,church ,german in spirit and style4 ,in #aebe he wrote3 ,sidenote3 ,a ,german mass4 ,i should like to have a ,german mass1 and ,i am indeed at work on one2 but ,i am anxious that it shall be truly ,german in manner4 ,i have no objection to a translated ,latin text and ,latin notes2 but they are neither proper nor just 7aber es lautet nicht artig noch rechtschaffen72 text and notes1 accent1 melodies1 and demeanor must come from our mother tongue and voice1 else will it all be but a mimicry1 like that of the apes4 ,sidenote3 ,secular tunes used4 ,sidenote3 ,congregational singing4 ,in the ,church music of the time1 composed1 as ,i have described1 by a scientific interweaving of voices1 the composers had got into the habit of utilizing secular melodies as the foundation on which to build their contrapuntal structures4 ,i have no doubt that it was the spirit which speaks out of ,luther's words which brought it to pass that in ,germany contrapuntal music with popular melodies as foundations developed into the chorale1 in which the melody and not the counterpoint was the essential thing4 ,with the ,lutheran ,church came congregational singing2 with congregational singing the need of a new style of composition1 which should not only make the participation of the people in the singing possible1 but should also stimulate them to sing by freeing the familiar melodies 7the melodies of folk-songs7 from the elaborate and ingenious1 but soulless1 counterpoint which fettered them4 ,sidenote3 ,counterpoint4 ,sidenote3 ,the first congregational hymns4 ,the ,flemish masters1 who were the musical law-givers1 had been using secular tunes for over a century1 but only as stalking-horses for counterpoint2 and when the ,germans began to use their tunes1 they1 too1 buried them beyond recognition in the contrapuntal mass4 ,the people were invited to sing paraphrases of the psalms to familiar tunes1 it is true1 but the choir's polyphony went far to stifle the spirit of the melody4 ,soon the free spirit which ,i have repeatedly referred to as ,romanticism1 and which was powerfully encouraged by the ,reformation1 prompted a style of composition in which the admired melody was lifted into relief4 ,this could not be done until the new style of writing invented by the creators of the opera 7see ,chapter ,,vii47 came in1 but as early as #aefh ,dr4 ,lucas ,ostrander published fifty hymns and psalms with music so arranged that the congregation may join in singing them4 ,this1 then1 is in outline the story of the beginning of modern hymnology1 and it is recalled to the patrons of choral concerts whenever in ,bach's ,passion ,music or in ,mendelssohn's ,st4 ,paul the choir sings one of the marvellous old hymns of the ,german ,church4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,church and conservatism4 ,sidenote3 ,harmony and emotion4 ,choral music being bound up with the ,church1 it has naturally participated in the conservatism characteristic of the ,church4 ,the severe old style has survived in the choral compositions of to-day1 while instrumental music has grown to be almost a new thing within the century which is just closing4 ,it is the severe style established by ,bach1 however1 not that of ,palestrina4 ,in the ,church compositions prior to ,palestrina the emotional power of harmony was but little understood4 ,the harmonies1 indeed1 were the accidents of the interweaving of melodies4 ,palestrina was among the first to feel the uplifting effect which might result from a simple sequence of pure consonant harmonies1 and the three chords which open his famous ,stabat ,mater ,sidenote3 ,palestrina's ,stabat ,mater4 ,sidenote3 ,characteristics of his music4 ,music illustration3 ,sta-bat ma-ter are a sign of his style as distinct in its way as the devices by means of which ,wagner stamps his individuality on his phrases4 ,his melodies1 too1 compared with the artificial motivi of his predecessors1 are distinguished by grace1 beauty1 and expressiveness1 while his command of aetherial effects1 due to the manner in which the voices are combined1 is absolutely without parallel from his day to this4 ,of the mystery of pure beauty he enjoyed a wonderful revelation1 and has handed it down to us in such works as the ,stabat ,mater1 ,missa ,papae ,marcelli1 and the ,improperia4 ,sidenote3 ,palestrina's music not dramatic4 ,sidenote3 ,a churchman4 ,sidenote3 ,effect of the ,reformation4 ,this music must not be listened to with the notion in mind of dramatic expression such as we almost instinctively feel to-day4 ,palestrina does not seek to proclaim the varying sentiment which underlies his texts4 ,that leads to individual interpretation and is foreign to the habits of churchmen in the old conception1 when the individual was completely resolved in the organization4 ,he aimed to exalt the mystery of the service1 not to bring it down to popular comprehension and make it a personal utterance4 ,for such a design in music we must wait until after the ,reformation1 when the ancient mysticism began to fall back before the demands of reason1 when the idea of the sole and sufficient mediation of the ,church lost some of its power in the face of the growing conviction of intimate personal relationship between man and his creator4 ,now idealism had to yield some of its dominion to realism1 and a more rugged art grew up in place of that which had been so wonderfully sublimated by mysticism4 ,sidenote3 ,the source of beauty in ,palestrina's music4 ,it is in ,bach1 who came a century after ,palestrina1 that we find the most eloquent musical proclamation of the new regime1 and it is in no sense disrespectful to the great ,german master if we feel that the change in ideals was accompanied with a loss in sensuous charm1 or pure aesthetic beauty4 ,effect has had to yield to idea4 ,it is in the flow of the voices1 the color effects which result from combination and registers1 the clarity of the harmonies1 the reposefulness coming from conscious ease of utterance1 the loveliness of each individual part1 and the spiritual exaltation of the whole that the aesthetic mystery of ,palestrina's music lies4 ,sidenote3 ,bach4 ,like ,palestrina1 ,bach is the culmination of the musical practice of his time1 but1 unlike ,palestrina1 he is also the starting-point of a new development4 ,with ,bach the old contrapuntal art1 now not vocal merely but instrumental also and mixed1 reaches its climax1 and the tendency sets in which leads to the highly complex and dramatic art of to-day4 ,palestrina's art is ,roman2 the spirit of restfulness1 of celestial calm1 of supernatural revelation and supernal beauty broods over it4 ,bach's is ,gothic--rugged1 massive1 upward striving1 human4 ,in ,palestrina's music the voice that speaks is the voice of angels2 in ,bach's it is the voice of men4 ,sidenote3 ,bach a ,german ,protestant4 ,sidenote3 ,church and individual4 ,sidenote3 ,ingenuousness of feeling4 ,bach is the publisher of the truest1 tenderest1 deepest1 and most individual religious feeling4 ,his music is peculiarly a hymning of the religious sentiment of ,protestant ,germany1 where salvation is to be wrought out with fear and trembling by each individual through faith and works rather than the agency of even a divinely constituted ,church4 ,it reflects1 with rare fidelity and clearness1 the essential qualities of the ,german people--their warm sympathy1 profound compassion1 fervent love1 and sturdy faith4 ,as the ,church fell into the background and the individual came to the fore1 religious music took on the dramatic character which we find in the ,passion ,music of ,bach4 ,here the sufferings and death of the ,saviour1 none the less an ineffable mystery1 are depicted as the most poignant experience of each individual believer1 and with an ingenuousness that must forever provoke the wonder of those who are unable to enter into the ,german nature4 ,the worshippers do not hesitate to say3 ,my ,jesus1 good-night6 as they gather in fancy around ,his tomb and invoke sweet rest for ,his weary limbs4 ,the difference between such a proclamation and the calm voice of the ,church should be borne in mind when comparing the music of ,palestrina with that of ,bach2 also the vast strides made by music during the intervening century4 ,sidenote3 ,the motet4 ,of ,bach's music we have in the repertories of our best choral societies a number of motets1 church cantatas1 a setting of the ,magnificat1 and the great mass in ,b minor4 ,the term ,motet lacks somewhat of definiteness of the usage of composers4 ,originally it seems likely that it was a secular composition which the ,netherland composers enlisted in the service of the ,church by adapting it to ,biblical and other religious texts4 ,then it was always unaccompanied4 ,in the later ,protestant motets the chorale came to play a great part2 the various stanzas of a hymn were given different settings1 the foundation of each being the hymn tune4 ,these were interspersed with independent pieces1 based on ,biblical words4 ,sidenote3 ,church cantatas4 ,the ,church ,cantatas 7,kirchencantaten7 are larger services with orchestral accompaniment1 which were written to conform to the various religious festivals and ,sundays of the year2 each has for a fundamental subject the theme which is proper to the day4 ,again1 a chorale provides the musical foundation4 ,words and melody are retained1 but between the stanzas occur recitatives and metrical airs1 or ariosos1 for solo voices in the nature of commentaries or reflections on the sentiment of the hymn or the gospel lesson for the day4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,passions4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of the ,passions4 ,sidenote3 ,early ,holy ,week services4 ,the ,passions are still more extended1 and were written for use in the ,reformed ,church in ,holy ,week4 ,as an art-form they are unique1 combining a number of elements and having all the apparatus of an oratorio plus the congregation1 which took part in the performance by singing the hymns dispersed through the work4 ,the service 7for as a service1 rather than as an oratorio1 it must be treated7 roots in the ,miracle plays and ,mysteries of the ,middle ,ages1 but its origin is even more remote1 going back to the custom followed by the primitive ,christians of making the reading of the story of the ,passion a special service for ,holy ,week4 ,in the ,eastern ,church it was introduced in a simple dramatic form as early as the fourth century ,a4,d41 the treatment being somewhat like the ancient tragedies1 the text being intoned or chanted4 ,in the ,western ,church1 until the sixteenth century1 the ,passion was read in a way which gave the service one element which is found in ,bach's works in an amplified form4 ,three deacons were employed1 one to read 7or rather chant to ,gregorian melodies7 the words of ,christ1 another to deliver the narrative in the words of the ,evangelist1 and a third to give the utterances and exclamations of the ,apostles and people4 ,this was the ,cantus ,passionis ,domini nostri ,jesu ,christe of the ,church1 and had so strong a hold upon the tastes of the people that it was preserved by ,luther in the ,reformed ,church4 ,sidenote3 ,the service amplified4 ,sidenote3 ,bach's settings4 ,under this influence it was speedily amplified4 ,the successive steps of the progress are not clear1 but the choir seems to have first succeeded to the part formerly sung by the third deacon1 and in some churches the whole ,passion was sung antiphonally by two choirs4 ,in the seventeenth century the introduction of recitatives and arias1 distributed among singers who represented the personages of sacred history1 increased the dramatic element of the service which reached its climax in the ,st4 ,matthew setting by ,bach4 ,the chorales are supposed to have been introduced about #agjd4 ,bach's ,passions are the last that figure in musical history4 ,that according to ,st4 ,john is performed occasionally in ,germany1 but it yields the palm of excellence to that according to ,st4 ,matthew1 which had its first performance on ,good ,friday1 #agbi1 in ,leipsic4 ,it is in two parts1 which were formerly separated by the sermon1 and employs two choirs1 each with its own orchestra1 solo singers in all the classes of voices1 and a harpsichord to accompany all the recitatives1 except those of ,jesus1 which are distinguished by being accompanied by the orchestral strings4 ,sidenote3 ,oratorios4 ,sidenote3 ,sacred operas4 ,in the nature of things passions1 oratorios1 and their secular cousins1 cantatas1 imply scenes and actions1 and therefore have a remote kinship with the lyric drama4 ,the literary analogy which they suggest is the epic poem as contra-distinguished from the drama4 ,while the drama presents incident1 the oratorio relates1 expounds1 and celebrates1 presenting it to the fancy through the ear instead of representing it to the eye4 ,a great deal of looseness has crept into this department of music as into every other1 and the various forms have been approaching each other until in some cases it is become difficult to say which term1 opera or oratorio1 ought to be applied4 ,rubinstein's sacred operas are oratorios profusely interspersed with stage directions1 many of which are impossible of scenic realization4 ,their whole purpose is to work upon the imagination of the listeners and thus open gate-ways for the music4 ,ever since its composition1 ,saint-,saens's ,samson and ,delilah has held a place in both theatre and concert-room4 ,liszt's ,st4 ,elizabeth has been found more effective when provided with pictorial accessories than without4 ,the greater part of ,elijah might be presented in dramatic form4 ,sidenote3 ,influence of the ,church plays4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of the oratorio4 ,sidenote3 ,the choral element extended4 ,sidenote3 ,narrative and descriptive choruses4 ,sidenote3 ,dramatization4 ,confusing and anomalous as these things are1 they find their explanation in the circumstance that the oratorio never quite freed itself from the influence of the people's ,church plays in which it had its beginning4 ,as a distinct art-form it began in a mixture of artistic entertainment and religious worship provided in the early part of the sixteenth century by ,filippo ,neri 7now a saint7 for those who came for pious instruction to his oratory 7whence the name74 ,the purpose of these entertainments being religious1 the subjects were ,biblical1 and though the musical progress from the beginning was along the line of the lyric drama1 contemporaneous in origin with it1 the music naturally developed into broader forms on the choral side1 because music had to make up for the lack of pantomime1 costumes1 and scenery4 ,hence we have not only the preponderance of choruses in the oratorio over recitative1 arias1 duets1 trios1 and so forth1 but also the adherence in the choral part to the old manner of writing which made the expansion of the choruses possible4 ,where the choruses left the field of pure reflection and became narrative1 as in ,israel in ,egypt1 or assumed a dramatic character1 as in the ,elijah1 the composer found in them vehicles for descriptive and characteristic music1 and so local color came into use4 ,characterization of the solo parts followed as a matter of course1 an early illustration being found in the manner in which ,bach lifted the words of ,christ into prominence by surrounding them with the radiant halo which streams from the violin accompaniment4 ,in consequence the singer to whom was assigned the task of singing the part of ,jesus presented himself to the fancy of the listeners as a representative of the historical personage--as the ,christ of the drama4 ,sidenote3 ,the chorus in opera and oratorio4 ,the growth of the instrumental art here came admirably into play1 and so it came to pass that opera and oratorio now have their musical elements of expression in common1 and differ only in their application of them--opera foregoing the choral element to a great extent as being a hindrance to action1 and oratorio elevating it to make good the absence of scenery and action4 ,while oratorios are biblical and legendary1 cantatas deal with secular subjects and1 in the form of dramatic ballads1 find a delightful field in the world of romance and supernaturalism4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,mass4 ,sidenote3 ,secularization of the ,mass4 ,transferred from the ,church to the concert-room1 and considered as an art-form instead of the eucharistic office1 the ,mass has always made a strong appeal to composers1 and half a dozen masterpieces of missal composition hold places in the concert lists of the singing societies4 ,notable among these are the ,requiems of ,mozart1 ,berlioz1 and ,verdi1 and the ,solemn ,mass in ,d by ,beethoven4 ,these works represent at one and the same time the climax of accomplishment in the musical treatment and the secularization of the missal text4 ,they are the natural outcome of the expansion of the office by the introduction of the orchestra into the ,church1 the departure from the a capella style of writing1 which could not be consorted with the orchestra1 and the growth of a desire to enhance the pomp of great occasions in the ,church by the production of masses specially composed for them4 ,under such circumstances the devotional purpose of the mass was lost in the artistic1 and composers gave free reign to their powers1 for which they found an ample stimulus in the missal text4 ,sidenote3 ,sentimental masses4 ,sidenote3 ,mozart and the ,mass4 ,sidenote3 ,the masses for the dead4 ,sidenote3 ,gossec's ,requiem4 ,the first effect1 and the one which largely justifies the adherents of the old ecclesiastical style in their crusade against the ,catholic ,church music of to-day1 was to make the masses sentimental and operatic4 ,so little regard was had for the sentiment of the words1 so little respect for the solemnity of the sacrament1 that more than a century ago ,mozart 7whose masses are far from being models of religious expression7 could say to ,cantor ,doles of a ,gloria which the latter showed him1 ,s'ist ja alles nix1 and immediately sing the music to ,hol's der ,geier1 das geht flink6 which words1 he said1 went better4 ,the liberty begotten by this license1 though it tended to ruin the mass1 considered strictly as a liturgical service1 developed it musically4 ,the masses for the dead were among the earliest to feel the spirit of the time1 for in the sequence1 ,dies irae1 they contained the dramatic element which the solemn mass lacked4 ,the ,kyrie1 ,credo1 ,gloria1 ,sanctus1 and ,agnus ,dei are purely lyrical1 and though the evolutionary movement ended in ,beethoven conceiving certain portions 7notably the ,agnus ,dei7 in a dramatic sense1 it was but natural that so far as tradition fixed the disposition and formal style of the various parts1 it should not be disturbed4 ,at an early date the composers began to put forth their powers of description in the ,dies irae1 however1 and there is extant in a ,french mass an amusing example of the length to which tone-painting in this music was carried by them4 ,gossec wrote a ,requiem on the death of ,mirabeau which became famous4 ,the words1 ,quantus tremor est futurus1 he set so that on each syllable there were repetitions1 staccato1 of a single tone1 thus3 ,music illustration3 ,quan-tus tre---mor1 tre-- etc4 ,this absurd stuttering ,gossec designed to picture the terror inspired by the coming of the ,judge at the last trumpet4 ,sidenote3 ,the orchestra in the ,mass4 ,sidenote3 ,beethoven and ,berlioz4 ,the development of instrumentation placed a factor in the hands of these writers which they were not slow to utilize1 especially in writing music for the ,dies irae1 and how effectively ,mozart used the orchestra in his ,requiem it is not necessary to state4 ,it is a safe assumption that ,beethoven's ,mass in ,d was largely instrumental in inspiring ,berlioz to set the ,requiem as he did4 ,with ,beethoven the dramatic idea is the controlling one1 and so it is with ,berlioz4 ,beethoven1 while showing a reverence for the formulas of the ,church1 and respecting the tradition which gave the ,kyrie a triple division and made fugue movements out of the phrases ,cum sancto spiritu in gloria ,dei patris--,amen1 ,et vitam venturi1 and ,osanna in excelsis1 nevertheless gave his composition a scope which placed it beyond the apparatus of the ,church1 and filled it with a spirit that spurns the limitations of any creed of less breadth and universality than the grand ,theism which affectionate communion with nature had taught him4 ,sidenote3 ,berlioz's ,requiem4 ,sidenote3 ,dramatic effects in ,haydn's masses4 ,sidenote3 ,berlioz's orchestra4 ,berlioz1 less religious1 less reverential1 but equally fired by the solemnity and majesty of the matter given into his hands1 wrote a work in which he placed his highest conception of the awfulness of the ,last ,judgment and the emotions which are awakened by its contemplation4 ,in respect of the instrumentation he showed a far greater audacity than ,beethoven displayed even in the much-mooted trumpets and drums of the ,agnus ,dei1 where he introduces the sounds of war to heighten the intensity of the prayer for peace1 ,dona nobis pacem4 ,this is talked about in the books as a bold innovation4 ,it seems to have escaped notice that the idea had occurred to ,haydn twenty-four years before and been realized by him4 ,in #agif ,haydn wrote a mass1 ,in ,tempore ,belli1 the ,french army being at the time in ,steyermark4 ,he set the words1 ,agnus ,dei qui tollis peccata mundi1 to an accompaniment of drums1 as if the enemy were already heard coming in the distance4 ,he went farther than this in a ,mass in ,d minor1 when he accompanied the ,benedictus with fanfares of trumpets4 ,but all such timid ventures in the use of instruments in the mass sink into utter insignificance when compared with ,berlioz's apparatus in the ,tuba mirum of his ,requiem1 which supplements the ordinary symphonic orchestra1 some of its instruments already doubled1 with four brass bands of eight or ten instruments each1 sixteen extra drums1 and a tam-tam4 ,,footnotes3 ,h ,notes on the ,cultivation of ,choral ,music1 by ,h4,e4 ,krehbiel1 p4 #ag4 ,,ix ,musician1 ,critic1 and ,public ,sidenote3 ,the newspapers and the public4 ,i have been told that there are many people who read the newspapers on the day after they have attended a concert or operatic representation for the purpose of finding out whether or not the performance gave them proper or sufficient enjoyment4 ,it would not be becoming in me to inquire too curiously into the truth of such a statement1 and in view of a denunciation spoken in the introductory chapter of this book1 ,i am not sure that it is not a piece of arrogance1 or impudence1 on my part to undertake in any way to justify any critical writing on the subject of music4 ,certain it is that some men who write about music for the newspapers believe1 or affect to believe1 that criticism is worthless1 and ,i shall not escape the charge of inconsistency1 if1 after ,i have condemned the blunders of literary men1 who are laymen in music1 and separated the majority of professional writers on the art into pedants and rhapsodists1 ,i nevertheless venture to discuss the nature and value of musical criticism4 ,yet1 surely1 there must be a right and wrong in this as in every other thing1 and just as surely the present structure of society1 which rests on the newspaper1 invites attention to the existing relationship between musician1 critic1 and public as an important element in the question ,how to ,listen to ,music4 ,sidenote3 ,relationship between musician1 critic1 and public4 ,sidenote3 ,the need and value of conflict4 ,as a condition precedent to the discussion of this new element in the case1 ,i lay down the proposition that the relationship between the three factors enumerated is so intimate and so strict that the world over they rise and fall together2 which means that where the people dwell who have reached the highest plane of excellence1 there also are to be found the highest types of the musician and critic2 and that in the degree in which the three factors1 which united make up the sum of musical activity1 labor harmoniously1 conscientiously1 and unselfishly1 each striving to fulfil its mission1 they advance music and further themselves1 each bearing off an equal share of the good derived from the common effort4 ,i have set the factors down in the order which they ordinarily occupy in popular discussion and which symbolizes their proper attitude toward each other and the highest potency of their collaboration4 ,in this collaboration1 as in so many others1 it is conflict that brings life4 ,only by a surrender of their functions1 one to the other1 could the three apparently dissonant yet essentially harmonious factors be brought into a state of complacency2 but such complacency would mean stagnation4 ,if the published judgment on compositions and performances could always be that of the exploiting musicians1 that class1 at least1 would read the newspapers with fewer heart-burnings2 if the critics had a common mind and it were followed in concert-room and opera-house1 they1 as well as the musicians1 would have need of fewer words of displacency and more of approbation2 if1 finally1 it were to be brought to pass that for the public nothing but amiable diversion should flow simultaneously from platform1 stage1 and press1 then for the public would the millennium be come4 ,a religious philosopher can transmute ,adam's fall into a blessing1 and we can recognize the wisdom of that dispensation which put enmity between the seed of ,jubal1 who was the father of all such as handle the harp and pipe1 and the seed of ,saul1 who1 ,i take it1 is the first critic of record 7and a vigorous one1 too1 for he accentuated his unfavorable opinion of a harper's harping with a javelin thrust74 ,sidenote3 ,the critic an ,ishmaelite4 ,sidenote3 ,the critic not to be pitied4 ,sidenote3 ,how he might extricate himself4 ,sidenote3 ,the public like to be flattered4 ,we are bound to recognize that between the three factors there is1 ever was1 and ever shall be in saecula saeculorum an irrepressible conflict1 and that in the nature of things the middle factor is the ,ishmaelite whose hand is raised against everybody and against whom everybody's hand is raised4 ,the complacency of the musician and the indifference1 not to say ignorance1 of the public ordinarily combine to make them allies1 and the critic is1 therefore1 placed between two millstones1 where he is vigorously rasped on both sides1 and whence1 being angular and hard of outer shell1 he frequently requites the treatment received with complete and energetic reciprocity4 ,is he therefore to be pitied8 ,not a bit2 for in this position he is performing one of the most significant and useful of his functions1 and disclosing one of his most precious virtues4 ,while musician and public must perforce remain in the positions in which they have been placed with relation to each other it must be apparent at half a glance that it would be the simplest matter in the world for the critic to extricate himself from his predicament4 ,he would only need to take his cue from the public1 measuring his commendation by the intensity of their applause1 his dispraise by their signs of displeasure1 and all would be well with him4 ,we all know this to be true1 that people like to read that which flatters them by echoing their own thoughts4 ,the more delightfully it is put by the writer the more the reader is pleased1 for has he not had the same idea8 ,are they not his8 ,is not their appearance in a public print proof of the shrewdness and soundness of his judgment8 ,ruskin knows this foible in human nature and condemns it4 ,you may read in ,sesame and ,lilies3 ,very ready we are to say of a book1 ',how good this is--that's exactly what ,i think6' ,but the right feeling is1 ',how strange that is6 ,i never thought of that before1 and yet ,i see it is true2 or if ,i do not now1 ,i hope ,i shall1 some day4' ,but whether thus submissively or not1 at least be sure that you go at the author to get at his meaning1 not to find yours4 ,judge it afterward if you think yourself qualified to do so1 but ascertain it first4 ,sidenote3 ,the critic generally outspoken4 ,as a rule1 however1 the critic is not guilty of the wrong of speaking out the thought of others1 but publishes what there is of his own mind1 and this ,i laud in him as a virtue1 which is praiseworthy in the degree that it springs from loftiness of aim1 depth of knowledge1 and sincerity and unselfishness of purpose4 ,sidenote3 ,musician and ,public4 ,sidenote3 ,the office of ignorance4 ,sidenote3 ,popularity of ,wagner's music not a sign of intelligent appreciation4 ,let us look a little into the views which our factors do and those which they ought to entertain of each other4 ,the utterances of musicians have long ago made it plain that as between the critic and the public the greater measure of their respect and deference is given to the public4 ,the critic is bound to recognize this as entirely natural2 his right of protest does not accrue until he can show that the deference is ignoble and injurious to good art4 ,it is to the public that the musician appeals for the substantial signs of what is called success4 ,this appeal to the jury instead of the judge is as characteristic of the conscientious composer who is sincerely convinced that he was sent into the world to widen the boundaries of art1 as it is of the mere time-server who aims only at tickling the popular ear4 ,the reason is obvious to a little close thinking3 ,ignorance is at once a safeguard against and a promoter of conservatism4 ,this sounds like a paradox1 but the rapid growth of ,wagner's music in the admiration of the people of the ,united ,states might correctly be cited as a proof that the statement is true4 ,music like the concert fragments from ,wagner's lyric dramas is accepted with promptitude and delight1 because its elements are those which appeal most directly and forcibly to our sense-perception and those primitive tastes which are the most readily gratified by strong outlines and vivid colors4 ,their vigorous rhythms1 wealth of color1 and sonority would make these fragments far more impressive to a savage than the suave beauty of a symphony by ,haydn2 yet do we not all know that while whole-hearted1 intelligent enjoyment of a ,haydn symphony is conditioned upon a considerable degree of culture1 an equally whole-hearted1 intelligent appreciation of ,wagner's music presupposes a much wider range of sympathy1 a much more extended view of the capabilities of musical expression1 a much keener discernment1 and a much profounder susceptibility to the effects of harmonic progressions8 ,and is the conclusion not inevitable1 therefore1 that on the whole the ready acceptance of ,wagner's music by a people is evidence that they are not sufficiently cultured to feel the force of that conservatism which made the triumph of ,wagner consequent on many years of agitation in musical ,germany8 ,sidenote3 ,ahead of one's time4 ,in one case the appeal is elemental2 in the other spiritual4 ,he who wishes to be in advance of his time does wisely in going to the people instead of the critics1 just as the old fogy does whose music belongs to the time when sensuous charm summed up its essence4 ,there is a good deal of ambiguity about the stereotyped phrase ahead of one's time4 ,rightly apprehended1 great geniuses do live for the future rather than the present1 but where the public have the vastness of appetite and scantness of taste peculiar to the ostrich1 there it is impossible for a composer to be ahead of his time4 ,it is only where the public are advanced to the stage of intelligent discrimination that a ,ninth ,symphony and a ,nibelung ,tetralogy are accepted slowly4 ,sidenote3 ,the charlatan4 ,sidenote3 ,influencing the critics4 ,why the charlatan should profess to despise the critic and to pay homage only to the public scarcely needs an explanation4 ,it is the critic who stands between him and the public he would victimize4 ,much of the disaffection between the concert-giver and the concert-reviewer arises from the unwillingness of the latter to enlist in a conspiracy to deceive and defraud the public4 ,there is no need of mincing phrases here4 ,the critics of the newspaper press are besieged daily with requests for notices of a complimentary character touching persons who have no honest standing in art4 ,they are fawned on1 truckled to1 cajoled1 subjected to the most seductive influences1 sometimes bribed with woman's smiles or manager's money--and why8 ,to win their influence in favor of good art1 think you8 ,no2 to feed vanity and greed4 ,when a critic is found of sufficient self-respect and character to resist all appeals and to be proof against all temptations1 who is quicker than the musician to cite against his opinion the applause of the public over whose gullibility and ignorance1 perchance1 he made merry with the critic while trying to purchase his independence and honor8 ,sidenote3 ,the public an elemental force4 ,sidenote3 ,critic and public4 ,sidenote3 ,schumann and popular approval4 ,it is only when musicians divide the question touching the rights and merits of public and critic that they seem able to put a correct estimate upon the value of popular approval4 ,at the last the best of them are willing1 with ,ferdinand ,hiller1 to look upon the public as an elemental power like the weather1 which must be taken as it chances to come4 ,with modern society resting upon the newspaper they might be willing to view the critic in the same light2 but this they will not do so long as they adhere to the notion that criticism belongs of right to the professional musician1 and will eventually be handed over to him4 ,as for the critic1 he may recognize the naturalness and reasonableness of a final resort for judgment to the factor for whose sake art is 7i4e41 the public71 but he is not bound to admit its unfailing righteousness4 ,upon him1 so he be worthy of his office1 weighs the duty of first determining whether the appeal is taken from a lofty purpose or a low one1 and whether or not the favored tribunal is worthy to try the case4 ,those who show a willingness to accept low ideals cannot exact high ones4 ,the influence of their applause is a thousand-fold more injurious to art than the strictures of the most acrid critic4 ,a musician of ,schumann's mental and moral stature could recognize this and make it the basis of some of his most forcible aphorisms3 ',it pleased1' or ',it did not please1' say the people2 as if there were no higher purpose than to please the people4 ,the most difficult thing in the world to endure is the applause of fools6 ,sidenote3 ,depreciation of the critic4 ,sidenote3 ,value of public opinion4 ,the belief professed by many musicians--professed1 not really held--that the public can do no wrong1 unquestionably grows out of a depreciation of the critic rather than an appreciation of the critical acumen of the masses4 ,this depreciation is due more to the concrete work of the critic 7which is only too often deserving of condemnation7 than to a denial of the good offices of criticism4 ,this much should be said for the musician1 who is more liable to be misunderstood and more powerless against misrepresentation than any other artist4 ,a line should be drawn between mere expression of opinion and criticism4 ,it has been recognized for ages--you may find it plainly set forth in ,quintilian and ,cicero--that in the long run the public are neither bad judges nor good critics4 ,the distinction suggests a thought about the difference in value between a popular and a critical judgment4 ,the former is1 in the nature of things1 ill considered and fleeting4 ,it is the product of a momentary gratification or disappointment4 ,in a much greater degree than a judgment based on principle and precedent1 such as a critic's ought to be1 it is a judgment swayed by that variable thing called fashion--,qual pium' al vento4 ,sidenote3 ,duties of the critic4 ,sidenote3 ,the musician's duty toward the critic4 ,but if this be so we ought plainly to understand the duties and obligations of the critic2 perhaps it is because there is much misapprehension on this point that critics' writings have fallen under their own condemnation4 ,i conceive that the first1 if not the sole1 office of the critic should be to guide public judgment4 ,it is not for him to instruct the musician in his art4 ,if this were always borne in mind by writers for the press it might help to soften the asperity felt by the musician toward the critic2 and possibly the musician might then be persuaded to perform his first office toward the critic1 which is to hold up his hands while he labors to steady and dignify public opinion4 ,no true artist would give up years of honorable esteem to be the object for a moment of feverish idolatry4 ,the public are fickle4 ,the garlands they twine1 says ,schumann1 they always pull to pieces again to offer them in another form to the next comer who chances to know how to amuse them better4 ,are such garlands worth the sacrifice of artistic honor8 ,if it were possible for the critic to withhold them and offer instead a modest sprig of enduring bay1 would not the musician be his debtor8 ,sidenote3 ,the critic should steady public judgment4 ,sidenote3 ,taste and judgment must be achieved4 ,another thought4 ,conceding that the people are the elemental power that ,hiller says they are1 who shall save them from the changeableness and instability which they show with relation to music and her votaries8 ,who shall bid the restless waves be still8 ,we1 in ,america1 are a new people1 a vast hotch-potch of varied and contradictory elements4 ,we are engaged in conquering a continent2 employed in a mad scramble for material things2 we give feverish hours to win the comfort for our bodies that we take only seconds to enjoy2 the moments which we steal from our labors we give grudgingly to relaxation1 and that this relaxation may come quickly we ask that the agents which produce it shall appeal violently to the faculties which are most easily reached4 ,under these circumstances whence are to come the intellectual poise1 the refined taste1 the quick and sure power of analysis which must precede a correct estimate of the value of a composition or its performance8 ,a taste or judgment1 said ,shaftesbury1 does not come ready formed with us into this world4 ,whatever principles or materials of this kind we may possibly bring with us1 a legitimate and just taste can neither be begotten1 made1 conceived1 or produced without the antecedent labor and pains of criticism4 ,sidenote3 ,comparative qualifications of critic and public4 ,grant that this antecedent criticism is the province of the critic and that he approaches even remotely a fulfilment of his mission in this regard1 and who shall venture to question the value and the need of criticism to the promotion of public opinion8 ,in this work the critic has a great advantage over the musician4 ,the musician appeals to the public with volatile and elusive sounds4 ,when he gets past the tympanum of the ear he works upon the emotions and the fancy4 ,the public have no time to let him do more2 for the rest they are willing to refer him to the critic1 whose business it is continually to hear music for the purpose of forming opinions about it and expressing them4 ,the critic has both the time and the obligation to analyze the reasons why and the extent to which the faculties are stirred into activity4 ,is it not plain1 therefore1 that the critic ought to be better able to distinguish the good from the bad1 the true from the false1 the sound from the meretricious1 than the unindividualized multitude1 who are already satisfied when they have felt the ticklings of pleasure8 ,sidenote3 ,the critic's responsibilities4 ,sidenote3 ,toward the musician4 ,sidenote3 ,position and power of the newspaper4 ,but when we place so great a mission as the education of public taste before the critic1 we saddle him with a vast responsibility which is quite evenly divided between the musician and the public4 ,the responsibility toward the musician is not that which we are accustomed to hear harped on by the aggrieved ones on the day after a concert4 ,it is toward the musician only as a representative of art1 and his just claims can have nothing of selfishness in them4 ,the abnormal sensitiveness of the musician to criticism1 though it may excite his commiseration and even honest pity1 should never count with the critic in the performance of a plain duty4 ,this sensitiveness is the product of a low state in music as well as criticism1 and in the face of improvement in the two fields it will either disappear or fall under a killing condemnation4 ,the power of the press will here work for good4 ,the newspaper now fills the place in the musician's economy which a century ago was filled in ,europe by the courts and nobility4 ,its support1 indirect as well as direct1 replaces the patronage which erstwhile came from these powerful ones4 ,the evils which flow from the changed conditions are different in extent but not in kind from the old4 ,too frequently for the good of art that support is purchased by the same crookings of the pregnant hinges of the knee that were once the price of royal or noble condescension4 ,if the tone of the press at times becomes arrogant1 it is from the same causes that raised the voices and curled the lips of the petty dukes and princes1 to flatter whose vanity great artists used to labor4 ,sidenote3 ,the musician should help to elevate the standard of criticism4 ,sidenote3 ,a critic must not necessarily be a musician4 ,sidenote3 ,pedantry not wanted4 ,the musician knows as well as anyone how impossible it is to escape the press1 and it is1 therefore1 his plain duty to seek to raise the standard of its utterances by conceding the rights of the critic and encouraging honesty1 fearlessness1 impartiality1 intelligence1 and sympathy wherever he finds them4 ,to this end he must cast away many antiquated and foolish prejudices4 ,he must learn to confess with ,wagner1 the arch-enemy of criticism1 that blame is much more useful to the artist than praise1 and that the musician who goes to destruction because he is faulted1 deserves destruction4 ,he must stop the contention that only a musician is entitled to criticise a musician1 and without abating one jot of his requirements as to knowledge1 sympathy1 liberality1 broad-mindedness1 candor1 and incorruptibility on the part of the critic1 he must quit the foolish claim that to pronounce upon the excellence of a ragout one must be able to cook it2 if he will not go farther he must1 at least1 go with the elder ,d',israeli to the extent of saying that the talent of judgment may exist separately from the power of execution4 ,one need not be a composer1 but one must be able to feel with a composer before he can discuss his productions as they ought to be discussed4 ,not all the writers for the press are able to do this2 many depend upon effrontery and a copious use of technical phrases to carry them through4 ,the musician1 alas6 encourages this method whenever he gets a chance2 nine times out of ten1 when an opportunity to review a composition falls to him1 he approaches it on its technical side4 ,yet music is of all the arts in the world the last that a mere pedant should discuss4 ,but if not a mere pedant1 then neither a mere sentimentalist4 ,sidenote3 ,intelligence versus emotionalism4 ,if ,i had to choose between the merits of two classes of hearers1 one of whom had an intelligent appreciation of music without feeling emotion2 the other an emotional feeling without an intelligent analysis1 ,i should unhesitatingly decide in favor of the intelligent non-emotionalist4 ,and for these reasons3 ,the verdict of the intelligent non-emotionalist would be valuable as far as it goes1 but that of the untrained emotionalist is not of the smallest value2 his blame and his praise are equally unfounded and empty4 ,sidenote3 ,personal equation4 ,sidenote3 ,exact criticism4 ,so writes ,dr4 ,stainer1 and it is his emotionalist against whom ,i uttered a warning in the introductory chapter of this book1 when ,i called him a rhapsodist and described his motive to be primarily a desire to present himself as a person of unusually exquisite sensibilities4 ,frequently the rhapsodic style is adopted to conceal a want of knowledge1 and1 ,i fancy1 sometimes also because ill-equipped critics have persuaded themselves that criticism being worthless1 what the public need to read is a fantastic account of how music affects them4 ,now1 it is true that what is chiefly valuable in criticism is what a man qualified to think and feel tells us he did think and feel under the inspiration of a performance2 but when carried too far1 or restricted too much1 this conception of a critic's province lifts personal equation into dangerous prominence in the critical activity1 and depreciates the elements of criticism1 which are not matters of opinion or taste at all1 but questions of fact1 as exactly demonstrable as a problem in mathematics4 ,in musical performance these elements belong to the technics of the art4 ,granted that the critic has a correct ear1 a thing which he must have if he aspire to be a critic at all1 and the possession of which is as easily proved as that of a dollar-bill in his pocket1 the questions of justness of intonation in a singer or instrumentalist1 balance of tone in an orchestra1 correctness of phrasing1 and many other things1 are mere determinations of fact2 the faculties which recognize their existence or discover their absence might exist in a person who is not moved by concord of sweet sounds at all1 and whose taste is of the lowest type4 ,it was the acoustician ,euler1 ,i believe1 who said that he could construct a sonata according to the laws of mathematics--figure one out1 that is4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,rhapsodists4 ,sidenote3 ,an ,english exemplar4 ,because music is in its nature such a mystery1 because so little of its philosophy1 so little of its science is popularly known1 there has grown up the tribe of rhapsodical writers whose influence is most pernicious4 ,i have a case in mind at which ,i have already hinted in this book--that of a certain ,english gentleman who has gained considerable eminence because of the loveliness of the subject on which he writes and his deftness in putting words together4 ,on many points he is qualified to speak1 and on these he generally speaks entertainingly4 ,he frequently blunders in details1 but it is only when he writes in the manner exemplified in the following excerpt from his book called ,my ,musical ,memories1 that he does mischief4 ,the reverend gentleman1 talking about violins1 has reached one that once belonged to ,ernst4 ,this1 he says1 he sees occasionally1 but he never hears it more except ,sidenote3 ,ernst's violin4 ,in the night 444 under the stars1 when the moon is low and ,i see the dark ridges of the clover hills1 and rabbits and hares1 black against the paler sky1 pausing to feed or crouching to listen to the voices of the night4444 ,by the sea1 when the cold mists rise1 and hollow murmurs1 like the low wail of lost spirits1 rush along the beach4444 ,in some still valley in the ,south1 in midsummer4 ,the slate-colored moth on the rock flashes suddenly into crimson and takes wing2 the bright lizard darts timorously1 and the singing of the grasshopper-- ,sidenote3 ,mischievous writing4 ,sidenote3 ,musical sensibility and sanity4 ,well1 the reader1 if he has a liking for such things1 may himself go on for quantity4 ,this is intended1 ,i fancy1 for poetical hyperbole1 but as a matter of fact it is something else1 and worse4 ,mr4 ,haweis does not hear ,ernst's violin under any such improbable conditions2 if he thinks he does he is a proper subject for medical inquiry4 ,neither does his effort at fine writing help us to appreciate the tone of the instrument4 ,he did not intend that it should1 but he probably did intend to make the reader marvel at the exquisite sensibility of his soul to music4 ,this is mischievous1 for it tends to make the injudicious think that they are lacking in musical appreciation1 unless they1 too1 can see visions and hear voices and dream fantastic dreams when music is sounding4 ,when such writing is popular it is difficult to make men and women believe that they may be just as susceptible to the influence of music as the child ,mozart was to the sound of a trumpet1 yet listen to it without once feeling the need of taking leave of their senses or wandering away from sanity4 ,moreover1 when ,mr4 ,haweis says that he sees but does not hear ,ernst's violin more1 he speaks most undeserved dispraise of one of the best violin players alive1 for ,ernst's violin now belongs to and is played by ,lady ,halle--she that was ,madame ,norman-,neruda4 ,sidenote3 ,a place for rhapsody4 ,sidenote3 ,intelligent rhapsody4 ,is there1 then1 no place for rhapsodic writing in musical criticism8 ,yes1 decidedly4 ,it may1 indeed1 at times be the best1 because the truest1 writing4 ,one would convey but a sorry idea of a composition were he to confine himself to a technical description of it--the number of its measures1 its intervals1 modulations1 speed1 and rhythm4 ,such a description would only be comprehensible to the trained musician1 and to him would picture the body merely1 not the soul4 ,one might as well hope to tell of the beauty of a statue by reciting its dimensions4 ,but knowledge as well as sympathy must speak out of the words1 so that they may realize ,schumann's lovely conception when he said that the best criticism is that which leaves after it an impression on the reader like that which the music made on the hearer4 ,read ,dr4 ,john ,brown's account of one of ,halle's recitals1 reprinted from ,the ,scotsman1 in the collection of essays entitled ,spare ,hours1 if you would see how aptly a sweetly sane mind and a warm heart can rhapsodize without the help of technical knowledge3 ,sidenote3 ,dr4 ,brown and ,beethoven4 ,beethoven 7,dr4 ,brown is speaking of the ,sonata in ,d1 op4 #aj1 ,no4 #c7 begins with a trouble1 a wandering and groping in the dark1 a strange emergence of order out of chaos1 a wild1 rich confusion and misrule4 ,wilful and passionate1 often harsh1 and1 as it were1 thick with gloom2 then comes1 as if 'it stole upon the air1' the burden of the theme1 the still1 sad music--,largo e mesto--so human1 so sorrowful1 and yet the sorrow overcome1 not by gladness but by something better1 like the sea1 after a dark night of tempest1 falling asleep in the young light of morning1 and 'whispering how meek and gentle it can be4' ,this likeness to the sea1 its immensity1 its uncertainty1 its wild1 strong glory and play1 its peace1 its solitude1 its unsearchableness1 its prevailing sadness1 comes more into our minds with this great and deep master's works than any other4 ,that is ,beethoven4 ,sidenote3 ,apollo and the critic--a fable4 ,sidenote3 ,the critic's duty to admire4 ,sidenote3 ,a mediator between musician and public4 ,sidenote3 ,essential virtues4 ,once upon a time--it is an ancient fable--a critic picked out all the faults of a great poet and presented them to ,apollo4 ,the god received the gift graciously and set a bag of wheat before the critic with the command that he separate the chaff from the kernels4 ,the critic did the work with alacrity1 and turning to ,apollo for his reward1 received the chaff4 ,nothing could show us more appositely than this what criticism should not be4 ,a critic's duty is to separate excellence from defect1 as ,dr4 ,crotch says2 to admire as well as to find fault4 ,in the proportion that defects are apparent he should increase his efforts to discover beauties4 ,much flows out of this conception of his duty4 ,holding it the critic will bring besides all needful knowledge a fulness of love into his work4 ,where sympathy is lacking1 correct judgment is also lacking1 said ,mendelssohn4 ,the critic should be the mediator between the musician and the public4 ,for all new works he should do what the symphonists of the ,liszt school attempt to do by means of programmes2 he should excite curiosity1 arouse interest1 and pave the way to popular comprehension4 ,but for the old he should not fail to encourage reverence and admiration4 ,to do both these things he must know his duty to the past1 the present1 and the future1 and adjust each duty to the other4 ,such adjustment is only possible if he knows the music of the past and present1 and is quick to perceive the bent and outcome of novel strivings4 ,he should be catholic in taste1 outspoken in judgment1 unalterable in allegiance to his ideals1 unswervable in integrity4 ,,plates ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i ,,violin--7,,clifford ,,schmidt7 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii ,,violoncello--7,,victor ,,herbert7 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii ,,piccolo ,,flute--7,c4 ,,kurth1 ,,jun47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv ,,oboe--7,,joseph ,,eller7 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v ,,english ,,horn--7,,joseph ,,eller7 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi ,,bassoon--7,,fedor ,,bernhardi7 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii ,,clarinet--7,,henry ,,kaiser7 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii ,,bass ,,clarinet--7,,henry ,,kaiser7 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix ,,french ,,horn--7,,carl ,,pieper7 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x ,,trombone--7,j4 ,,pfeiffenschneider7 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi ,,bass ,,tuba--7,,anton ,,reiter7 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii ,,the ,,conductor',s ,,score ,,index ,absolute music1 #cf ,academy of ,music1 ,new ,york1 #bjc ,adagio1 in symphony1 #acc ,addison1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjh ,allegro1 in symphony1 #acb ,allemande1 #agc1 #agd ,alto clarinet1 #ajd ,alto1 male1 #bfj ,amadeo1 #bda ,ambros1 ,august ,wilhelm1 #di ,antiphony1 #bfg ,archilochus1 #bac ,aria1 #bce ,arioso1 #bce ,asaph1 #aae ,bach1 ,c4,p4,e41 #ahj1 #ahe ,bach1 ,johann ,sebastian1 #fi1 #hc1 #adh1 #afg1 #afi1 #agj1 #aga1 #agd1 #agf1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahd1 #aib1 #beg1 #bei1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bgh1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhf1 #bhg1 #bhi2 his music1 #bha et seq42 his technique as player1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahd2 his choirs1 #beg1 #bei2 compared with ,palestrina1 #bgh2 ,magnificat1 #bhc2 ,mass in ,b minor1 #bhc2 ,chromatic ,fantasia and ,fugue1 #aga2 ,suites1 #agd1 #agf2 ,st4 ,matthew ,passion1 #bfg1 #bgh1 #bhb1 #bhf1 #bhi2 ,motet1 ,sing ye to the ,lord1 #bfh2 ,st4 ,john ,passion1 #bhf ,balancement1 #agj ,balfe1 #bbc ,ballade1 #aib ,ballet music1 #aeb ,balletto1 #agc ,bass clarinet1 #ajd ,bass trumpet1 #ha1 #hb ,basset horn1 #hb ,bassoon1 #gd1 #hb1 #ii1 #aja et seq4 ,bastardella1 ,la1 #bci ,bayreuth ,festival orchestra1 #ha1 #hb ,bebung1 #afi1 #agj ,beethoven1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 #dd1 #df1 #dg1 #di1 #ec1 #fj1 #fb1 #fc1 #gj1 #ib1 #id1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #aac1 #abj1 #abe1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach1 #adj1 #ada1 #adf1 #adg1 #aea1 #afg1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #aic1 #aie1 #aif1 #bjc1 #bjh1 #bcb1 #bib1 #cba1 #cbb2 likenesses in his melodies1 #cc1 #cd2 unity in his works1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi2 his chamber music1 #dg2 his sonatas1 #ahb2 his democracy1 #df2 not always idiomatic1 #aic2 his pianoforte1 #aie2 his pedal effects1 #aif2 missal compositions1 #bib1 #bid2 his overtures1 #adg2 his free fantasias1 #aca2 his technique as a player1 #ahf2 ,eroica symphony1 #ajj1 #acb1 #acf2 ,fifth symphony1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #ib1 #ajc1 #abj1 #abe1 #acc2 ,pastoral symphony1 #dd1 #di1 #ec1 #fb1 #fc1 #id1 #ajb1 #acb1 #adj1 #ada2 ,seventh symphony1 #ca1 #cb1 #acb1 #acc2 ,eighth symphony1 #aac2 ,ninth symphony1 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 #id1 #acc1 #acf1 #ach1 #cje2 ,sonata1 op4 #aj1 ,no4 #c1 #cba2 ,sonata1 op4 #ca1 ,no4 #b1 #bi2 ,sonata ,appassionata1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca2 ,pianoforte concerto in ,g1 #ca2 ,pianoforte concerto in ,e-flat1 #adf2 ,violin concerto1 #adf2 ,becalmed at ,sea1 #fj2 ,fidelio1 #bjc1 #bjh1 #bcb2 ,mass in ,d1 #fj1 #bib1 #bid2 ,serenade1 op4 #h1 #aea ,bell chime1 #gd ,bellini1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bdb1 #bde2 ,la ,sonnambula1 #bjd1 #bde2 ,norma1 #bdb ,benedetti1 #bdb ,berlin ,singakademie1 #bfb ,berlioz1 #di1 #hj1 #hg1 #hi1 #ij1 #id1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajd1 #aac1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci1 #bid1 #bie2 ,l'idee fixe1 #acg2 ,symphonie ,fantastique1 #acg2 ,romeo and ,juliet1 #ij1 #id1 #aci2 ,requiem1 #aac1 #bid1 #bie ,bizet1 ,carmen1 #bch1 #bdb ,boileau1 #bjf ,bosio1 #bda ,boston ,symphony ,orchestra1 #ha1 #hb1 #ajh ,bottesini1 #id ,bourree1 #agc ,brahms's ,academic overture1 #aja ,branle1 #agc ,brass instruments1 #gd1 #ajd et seq4 ,brignoli1 #bji1 #bdb ,broadwood's pianoforte1 #aie ,brown1 ,dr4 ,john1 #cba ,bully ,bottom in music1 #fa ,bunner1 ,h4,c41 #acf ,burns's ,ye flowery banks1 #age ,caccini1 ,eurydice1 #bcd ,cadences1 #bc ,cadenzas1 #ade ,calve1 ,emma1 #bdb1 #bdg ,calvin and music1 #bge ,campanini1 #bdb ,cantatas1 #bij ,cat's mew in music1 #eb ,catalani1 #bde1 #bdf ,chaconne1 #aec ,chamber music1 #cf1 #dd et seq41 #add ,chicago ,symphony ,orchestra1 #ha1 #hb1 #ajh ,choirs1 #bec et seq42 size of1 #beg et seq41 #bfd1 #bga2 men's1 #bee1 #bfj2 boys'1 #bfa2 women's1 #bfa2 mixed1 #bfb1 #bfd2 division of1 #bfj1 #bff2 growth of1 in ,germany1 #bfb2 history of1 in ,america1 #bfc2 in ,cincinnati1 #bfd2 contralto voices in1 #bgj ,choirs1 orchestral1 #gd ,chopin1 #afg1 #ahh1 #aij1 #aia1 #aib1 #aif2 his romanticism1 #ahh2 ,preludes1 #aij2 ,etudes1 #aia2 ,nocturnes1 #aia2 ,ballades1 #aib2 ,polonaises1 #aib2 ,mazurkas1 #aib2 his pedal effects1 #aif ,choral music1 #bec et seq42 antiphonal1 #bfg2 mediaeval1 #bgd2 ,calvin on1 #bge2 ,luther's influence on1 #bgf2 congregational1 #bgg2 secular tunes in1 #bgf1 #bgg2 ,romanticism1 influence on1 #bgg2 preponderance in oratorio1 #bhi2 dramatic and descriptive1 #bhi ,chorley1 ,h4,f41 on ,jenny ,lind's singing1 #bdc ,church cantatas1 #bhd ,cicero1 #cji ,cincinnati1 choirs in1 #bfd ,cinti-,damoreau1 #bda ,clarinet1 #dg1 #gd1 #gh1 #hb1 #ajc et seq41 #aea ,classical concerts1 #abb et seq4 ,classical music1 #cf1 #fd1 #abb et seq4 ,clavichord1 #afh1 #aha ,clavier1 #aga1 #agc ,clementi1 #ahe1 #aie ,cock1 song of the1 #ea1 #ec1 #ed ,coleridge1 #aa1 #add ,coletti1 #bdb ,comic opera1 #bbd ,composers1 how they hear music1 #dj ,concerto1 #abh1 #add et seq4 ,conductor1 #aad et seq4 ,content of music1 #cf et seq4 ,contra-bass trombone1 #ha1 #hb ,contra-bass tuba1 #ha1 #hb ,co-ordination of tones1 #ag ,coranto1 ,corrente1 #agc1 #agf ,cornelius1 ,barbier von ,bagdad1 #bcf ,cornet1 #gc1 #hb1 #ajh ,corno di bassetto1 #ha1 #hb ,corsi1 #bdb ,couperin1 #afh ,courante1 #agc1 #agf ,covent ,garden ,theatre1 ,london1 #bbd1 #bbf ,cowen1 ,welsh and ,scandinavian symphonies1 #acb ,cracovienne1 #aic ,creole tune analyzed1 #bc1 #bd ,critics and criticism1 #ac1 #big et seq4 ,crotch1 ,dr41 #cbb ,cuckoo1 #ea1 #eb1 #ec ,cymbals1 #gd1 #hb ,czardas1 #bja ,czerny1 #ahf ,dactylic metre1 #ca ,dance1 the ancient1 #dc1 #bab ,dannreuther1 ,edward1 #abi1 #add1 #ahg ,depth1 musical delineation of1 #ei1 #fj ,de ,reszke1 ,edouard1 #bdh ,de ,reszke1 ,jean1 #bdg ,descriptive music1 #ea et seq4 ,design and form1 #af ,de ,stael1 ,madame1 #baj ,d',israeli1 #cae ,distance1 musical delineation of1 #fj ,dithyramb1 #bab1 #bac ,divisions1 #bfe ,doles1 ,cantor1 #bib ,donizetti1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bdb2 ,lucia1 #bjc1 #bjd ,double-bass1 #gd1 #gh1 #hb1 #id ,double-bassoon1 #ajc ,dragonetti1 #id ,dramatic ballads1 #bij ,dramatic orchestras1 #ha1 #hb ,dramma per musica1 #bbg1 #bdi ,drummers1 #aac ,drums1 #gc1 #gd1 #hb1 #aaj et seq4 ,duality of music1 #ae ,dump and ,dumka1 #aea ,durchfuehrung1 #aca ,dvorak1 symphonies1 ,from the ,new ,world1 #acb1 #ach2 in ,g major1 #acf ,eames1 ,emma1 #bdg ,edwards1 ,g4 ,sutherland1 #ab ,elements of music1 #ae1 #ai ,emotionality in music1 #dc ,english horn1 #hb1 #ii1 #ajj ,english opera1 #bbc ,ernst's violin1 #cbj ,esterhazy1 ,prince1 #df ,euler1 acoustician1 #cag ,expression1 words of1 #dc ,familiar music best liked1 #ba ,fancy1 #ae1 #af1 #eh ,farinelli1 #bdj ,fasch1 ,c4,f41 #bfb ,feelings1 their relation to music1 #ch et seq41 #bae1 #baf ,ferri1 #bci1 #bdj ,finale1 symphonic1 #ace ,first movement in symphony1 #aca ,flageolet tones1 #hi ,florentine inventors of the opera1 #bag1 #bbg1 #bcd1 #bdi ,flute1 #gc1 #gd1 #gh1 #hb1 #ie et seq4 ,form1 #af1 #ag1 #bb1 #ce ,formes1 #bdb1 #bdh ,frederick the ,great1 #bfc ,free ,fantasia1 #aca ,french horn1 #dg1 #ajf et seq4 ,frezzolini1 #bdb ,friss1 #bja ,frogs1 musical delineation of1 #eh1 #fb ,gallina et ,gallo1 #ec ,gavotte1 #agc1 #agi ,german opera1 #bbf ,gerster1 ,etelka1 #bdb1 #bde ,gesture1 #dc ,gigue1 #agc1 #agd1 #agh ,gilbert1 ,w4,s41 #bjh1 #bbd ,gilbert and ,sullivan's operettas1 #bbd ,glockenspiel1 #aaj ,gluck1 #hd1 #adh1 #aec1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bch2 his dancers1 #aec2 his orchestra1 #bch2 ,alceste1 #adh2 ,iphigenie en ,aulide1 #aec2 ,orfeo1 #bjb1 #bjc ,goethe1 #cd1 #adj1 #bbc ,goldmark1 ,sakuntala overture1 #adi ,gong1 #aaj ,gossec1 ,requiem1 #bic ,gounod1 ,faust1 #bji1 #bbd1 #bch1 #bdf ,grand ,opera1 #bbc1 #bbd ,greek ,tragedy1 #baa et seq4 ,grisi1 #bda1 #bdb ,grosse ,oper1 #bbd ,grove1 ,sir ,george1 #cc1 #fc1 #ada1 #ahg ,gypsy music1 #aih et seq4 ,halle1 ,lady1 #cbj ,hamburg1 opera in1 #bjf1 #bjg ,handel1 #eh1 #fj1 #fb1 #hc1 #ajb1 #abf1 #adh1 #agd1 #agg1 #agh1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #bef1 #beg1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfe1 #bgb2 his orchestra1 #hd2 his suites1 #agd2 his overtures1 #adh2 his technique as a player1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahd2 his choirs1 #beg2 ,commemoration1 #beh2 his tutti1 #beh2 ,messiah1 #fj1 #abf1 #bef1 #beg1 #bfe1 #bgb2 ,saul1 #ajb2 ,almira1 #agg2 ,rinaldo1 #agh2 ,israel in ,egypt1 #eh1 #fb1 #beg1 #bei1 #bhi2 ,lascia ch'io pianga1 #agh ,hanslick1 ,dr4 ,eduard1 #bjc ,harmonics1 on violin1 #hi ,harmony1 #ai1 #ba1 #bb1 #bah ,harp1 #hb ,harpsichord1 #afh1 #agj ,hauptmann1 ,m41 #da ,hautboy1 #ii ,haweis1 the ,rev4 ,mr41 #cah et seq4 ,haydn1 #df1 #hd1 #ajj1 #abg1 #afh1 #ahc1 #bie2 his manner of composing1 #ahc2 dramatic effects in his masses1 #bie2 ,seasons1 #ajj ,hebrew music1 #aad2 poetry1 #be ,height1 musical delineation of1 #ei1 #fj ,heman1 #aae ,hen1 song of1 in music1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed ,herbarth1 philosopher1 #ci ,hiller1 ,ferdinand1 #cjg1 #caj ,hiller1 ,johann ,adam1 #beh ,hogarth1 ,geo41 ,memoirs of the ,opera1 #baj1 #bde ,horn1 #hb1 #aje1 #ajf et seq41 #aea ,hungarian music1 #aih et seq4 ,hymn-tunes1 history of1 #bge ,iambics1 #age ,idee fixe1 ,berlioz's1 #acg ,identification of themes1 #ce ,idiomatic pianoforte music1 #aic1 #aid ,idioms1 musical1 #dd1 #ea1 #ee ,imagination1 #ae1 #af1 #eh ,imitation of natural sounds1 #ea ,individual attitude of man toward music1 #cg ,instrumental musicians1 former legal status of1 #hc ,instrumentation1 #ga et seq42 in the mass1 #bic et seq4 ,intelligent hearing1 #af1 #ah1 #cg ,intermediary necessary1 #bj ,intermezzi1 #bba ,interrelation of musical elements1 #bb ,janizary music1 #ig ,jean ,paul1 #fg1 #ahi1 #aij ,jeduthun1 #aae ,jig1 #agi ,judgment1 #caa ,kalidasa1 #adi ,kettle-drums1 #aaa et seq4 ,key relationship1 #bf1 #abi ,kinds of music1 #cf et seq4 ,kirchencantaten1 #bhd ,krakowiak1 #aic ,kullak1 #ahd ,lablache1 #bdh ,la ,grange1 #bda1 #bde ,lamb1 ,charles1 #aj ,language of tones1 #db1 #dc ,lassu1 #bja ,laws1 musical1 mutability of1 #fi ,lehmann1 ,lilli1 #bcc1 #bdd1 #bdg ,lenz1 #cc ,leoncavallo1 #bbh ,lind1 ,jenny1 #bda1 #bdc ,liszt1 #acb1 #adj1 #adb1 #adc1 #afg1 #afh1 #aic1 #aig1 #aih1 #bbh2 his music1 #afh1 #aic1 #aig2 his transcriptions1 #afg2 his rhapsodies1 #afg1 #aih2 his symphonic poems1 #adb2 ,faust symphony1 #acb1 #adj2 ,concerto in ,e-flat1 #adc2 ,st4 ,elizabeth1 #bhh ,literary blunders concerning music1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab ,local color1 #aeb1 #aec ,london opera1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bbf ,louis ,,xiv41 #agi ,lucca1 ,pauline1 #bdb1 #bdf1 #bdg ,lully1 his overtures1 #adh2 minuet1 #agi2 ,atys1 #bjf ,luther1 ,martin1 #bgf ,lyric drama1 #bca1 #bcd1 #bcg1 #bea ,madrigal1 #bgd ,magyar music1 #aih et seq4 ,major mode1 #eg ,male alto1 #bfj ,male chorus1 #bee1 #bfj ,malibran1 #bda ,maennergesang1 #bee1 #bfj ,marie ,antoinette1 #aec ,mario1 #bdb1 #bdg1 #bga ,marschner1 ,hans ,heiling1 #bbe2 ,templer und ,juedin1 #bbe2 ,vampyr1 #bbe2 his operas1 #bdh ,mascagni1 #bbh ,mass1 the1 #bij et seq4 ,massenet1 ,le ,cid1 #aeb ,materials of music1 #af ,materna1 ,amalia1 #bdg ,matthews1 ,brander1 #aa ,mazurka1 #aib ,melba1 ,nellie1 #bjd1 #bch1 #bde1 #bdg1 #bga ,melody1 #ai1 #ba1 #bb1 #bd ,memory1 #ai1 #ba1 #gc ,mendelssohn1 #da1 #db1 #di1 #ei1 #fa1 #fg1 #ajb1 #aji1 #acb1 #aci1 #adj1 #adi1 #afh1 #bdc1 #bgh1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #cbb2 on the content of music1 #da1 #db2 his ,romanticism1 #fg2 on the use of the trombones1 #aji2 opinion of ,jenny ,lind1 #bdc2 ,songs without ,words1 #da2 ,hebrides overture1 #ei1 #adi2 ,midsummer ,night's ,dream1 #fa1 #ajb2 ,scotch symphony1 #acb1 #aci2 ,italian symphony1 #acb2 ,hymn of ,praise1 #adj2 ,st4 ,paul1 #bgh2 ,elijah1 #bhh1 #bhi ,mersenne1 ,harmonie universelle1 #age1 #agf ,metropolitan ,opera ,house1 ,new ,york1 #bjc1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #bdd ,meyerbeer1 #hi1 #ajb1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bjh1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdd2 ,l',africaine1 #hi2 ,robert le ,diable1 #ajb1 #bjh1 #bdd2 ,huguenots1 #bjd2 ,l',etoile du ,nord1 #bdc ,military bands1 #abc ,minor mode1 #eg ,minuet1 #acd1 #aea1 #agc1 #agi ,mirabeau1 #bic ,model1 none in nature for music1 #h1 #ahj ,monteverde1 ,orfeo1 #hg ,moscheles1 on ,jenny ,lind's singing1 #bdc ,motet1 #bhc ,motives1 #bb1 #bd ,mozart1 #hd1 #aji1 #acb1 #ade1 #aea1 #afh1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #aie1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bba1 #bbd1 #bbh1 #bcj1 #bch1 #bdd1 #bfe1 #bib2 his pianoforte technique1 #ahd2 on ,doles's mass1 #bib2 his orchestra1 #bch2 his edition of ,handel's ,messiah1 #bfe2 on cadenzas1 #ade2 his pianoforte1 #aie2 his serenades1 #aea2 ,don ,giovanni1 #aji1 #bjb1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbh1 #bcj2 ,magic ,flute1 #bjc2 ,g-minor symphony1 #acb2 ,figaro1 #bjb1 #bbh ,musica parlante1 #bcd ,musical instruction1 deficiencies in1 #i ,musician1 ,critic1 and ,public1 #big ,musikdrama1 #bbg1 #bch1 #bdi ,neri1 ,filippo1 #bhh ,nevada1 ,emma1 #bjd ,newspaper1 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#bdb1 #bde ,senesino1 #bci1 #bdj ,sense-perception1 #ah ,serenade1 #adi et seq4 ,shaftesbury1 ,lord1 #caa ,shakespeare1 his dances1 #aec1 #agi2 his dramas1 #bjb2 a ,romanticist1 #bba2 ,two ,gentlemen of ,verona1 #aej2 ,queen ,mab1 #ij ,singing1 physiology of1 #bae1 #bah2 operatic1 #bci2 choral1 #bfh ,singing ,societies1 #bec et seq4 ,singspiel1 #bbc ,smith1 ,f4 ,hopkinson1 #aa ,sonata da ,camera1 #agc ,sonata1 #abg1 #ahb1 #ahc ,sonata form1 #abg et seq4 ,sontag1 #bda1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bdf ,sordino1 #ij ,space1 music has no place in1 #ei ,speech and music1 #dc ,spencer1 ,herbert1 #ci1 #dc1 #baf1 #bah1 #bcj ,spinet1 #afh1 #agj ,spohr1 ,jessonda1 #bbe ,stainer1 ,dr41 #ci1 #caf ,stein1 pianoforte maker1 #aif ,stilo rappresentativo1 #bcd ,stories1 in music1 #dj ,strings1 orchestral1 #gd1 #hb1 #hf et seq41 #ajb ,sucher1 ,rosa1 #bdg ,suite1 #abi1 #aeb1 #agc et seq4 ,symphonic poem1 #adb ,symphonic prologue1 #adh ,symphony1 #abd et seq41 #ahc ,syrinx1 #ih ,talent in listening1 #d ,tambourine1 #aaj 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#ij ,vile1 the1 unfit for music1 #ej ,viola1 #gd1 #gg1 #hb1 #ib1 #ic ,viole da braccio1 #ic ,viole da gamba1 #ic ,violin1 #gc1 #gd1 #gg1 #hb1 #hf et seq41 #add1 #afb ,violin concertos1 #ade ,violoncello1 #gd1 #gg1 #hb1 #ib1 #ic1 #id ,virginal1 #afh1 #agj ,vocal music1 #fa1 #bae ,vorspiel1 #adh ,wagner1 #da1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #hh1 #hi1 #id1 #aaa1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bai1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bcb1 #bce1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bdd1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bej1 #bea1 #cjc1 #cje1 #cad2 on the content of music1 #da2 his instrumentation1 #hj1 #aaa2 his dramas1 #bai1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bdh2 ,musikdrama1 #bbg1 #bdi2 his dialogue1 #bce2 his orchestra1 #bch1 #bej2 his operas1 #bdh2 his theories1 #bdi2 endless melody1 #bej2 typical phrases1 #bej2 leading motives1 #bej2 popularity of his music1 #cjc2 on criticism1 #cad2 ,flying ,dutchman1 #bdh2 ,tannhaeuser1 #bdh2 ,lohengrin1 #gi1 #hh1 #bce1 #bdh2 ,die ,meistersinger1 #bdi2 ,tristan und ,isolde1 #hg1 #bcg1 #bdi2 ,rheingold1 #bcg2 ,die ,walkuere1 #id1 #bcg2 ,siegfried1 #bcg1 #bdd2 ,die ,goetterdaemmerung1 #bcg2 ,ring of the ,nibelung1 #bdi1 #bea1 #cje2 ,parsifal1 #bdi ,waldhorn1 #ajg ,wallace1 ,w4,v41 #bbc ,walter1 ,jacob1 #ec ,water1 musical delineation of1 #eh1 #ei ,weber1 #fg1 #if1 #bdd1 #bdh2 his ,romanticism1 #fg2 ,der ,freischuetz1 #if1 #bbe2 ,oberon1 #bbe2 ,euryanthe1 #bbe ,weitzmann1 ,geschichte des ,clavierspiels1 #bja ,welsh choirs1 #bee ,wood-wind instruments1 #gd1 #gg1 #gh1 #ie ,xylophone1 #aaa ,ysaye1 on ,cadenzas1 #adf ,,some ,,musical ,,books ,,the ,,letters ,,of ,,franz ,,liszt4 ,edited and collected by ,,la ,,mara4 ,with portraits4 ,crown #hvo1 #b vols41 #f4jj4 ,,richard ,,wagner',s ,,letters to his ,dresden ,friends--,theodore ,uhlig1 ,wilhelm ,fischer1 and ,ferdinand ,heine4 ,translated by ,j4,s4 ,,shedlock4 ,crown #hvo1 #c4ej4 ,,jenny ,,lind ,,the ,,artist1 #ahbj-ahea4 ,memoir of ,madame ,jenny ,lind-,goldschmidt4 ,her ,art ,life and ,dramatic ,career1 from original documents1 etc4 ,by ,,canon ,h4,s4 ,,holland and ,w4,s4 ,,rockstro4 ,with illustrations1 #abmo1 #b4ej4 ,,wagner ,,and ,,his ,,works4 ,the ,story of his ,life1 with ,critical ,comments4 ,by ,,henry ,t4 ,,finck4 ,third edition4 ,with portraits4 #b vols41 #abmo1 #d4jj4 ,,chopin ,,and ,,other ,,musical ,,essays4 ,by ,,henry ,t4 ,,finck4 #abmo1 #a4ej4 ,a ,,concise ,,history ,,of ,,music1 from the ,commencement of the ,christian ,era to the present time4 ,by ,h4,g4,b4 ,,hunt4 ,with numerous tables4 #abmo1 #a4jj4 ,,charles ,,gounod1 ,,autobiographical ,,reminiscences1 with ,family ,letters and ,notes on ,music4 ,translated by the ,,hon4 ,w4 ,,hutchinson4 ,with portrait4 #hvo1 #c4jj4 ,,the ,,great ,,musicians ,,series4 ,edited by ,f4 ,,hueffer4 #ad vols41 #abmo1 each1 #a4jj4 ,,the ,,student',s ,,helmholtz4 ,musical ,acoustics1 or the ,phenomena of ,sound4 ,by ,,john ,,broadhouse4 ,with musical illustrations and examples4 #abmo1 #c4jj4 ,,cyclopedia ,,of ,,music ,,and ,,musicians4 ,edited by ,,john ,,denison ,,champlin1 ,,jr4 ,critical editor1 ,w4,f4 ,,apthorp4 ,popular edition4 ,large octavo1 #c vols41 #ae4jj net4 ,,letters ,,of ,a ,,baritone4 ,by ,,francis ,,walker4 #afmo1 #a4be4 ,,musicians ,,and ,,music ,,lovers1 ,,and ,,other ,,essays4 ,by ,w4,f4 ,,apthorp4 #abmo1 #a4ej4 ,,the ,,wagner ,,story ,,book4 ,firelight ,tales of the ,great ,music-,dramas4 ,by ,w4,h4 ,,frost4 ,illustrated4 #abmo1 #a4ej4 ,,masters ,,of ,,contemporary ,,music4 #d vols41 #abmo4 ,illustrated4 ,each1 #a4ge4 ,masters of ,english ,music1 by ,charles ,willeby2 ,masters of ,french ,music1 by ,arthur ,hervey2 ,masters of ,german ,music1 by ,j4,a4 ,fuller-,maitland2 ,masters of ,italian ,music1 by ,r4,a4 ,streatfield4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,church ,,music4 ,by ,rev4 ,f4,l4 ,,humphreys1 #abmo1 #a4ge net4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,british ,,music1 from the ,earliest ,times to the ,tudor ,period4 ,by ,f4,j4 ,,crowest4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 #c4ej4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,music1 from the ,earliest ,times to the ,time of the ,troubadours4 ,by ,j4,f4 ,,rowbotham4 #abmo1 #b4ej4 ,,the ,,legends ,,of ,,the ,,wagner ,,drama4 ,studies in ,mythology and ,romance4 ,by ,,jessie ,l4 ,,weston4 #abmo1 #b4be4 ,a ,descriptive ,list of ,musical ,books 7#aab pages7 sent upon application4 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 ,publishers1 #aec-aeg ,fifth ,ave41 ,new ,york4