,,philebus  ,by ,plato   ,translat$ by  
,b5jam9 ,j[ett     ,,introduction ,,&   
,,analysis4  ,! ,philebus appe>s to be  
"o ( ! lat] writ+s ( ,plato1 9 :i* !    
/yle has begun to alt]1 & ! dramatic &  
poetical elem5t has become subord9ate to
 ! speculative & philosophical4 ,9 !    
developm5t ( ab/ract ?\ght great        
advances h be5 made on ! ,protagoras or 
! ,pha$rus1 & ev5 on ! ,republic4 ,b !re
 is a correspond+ dim9ution ( arti/ic   
skill1 a want ( "* 9 ! p]sons1 a lab\r$ 
m>* 9 ! dialogue1 & a degree ( confusion
 & incomplet5ess 9 ! g5]al design4 ,z 9 
! spee*es ( ,?ucydides1 ! multiplication
 ( ideas seems to int]f]e ) ! p[] (     
expression4 ,in/ead ( ! equally diffus$ 
grace & ease ( ! e>li] dialogues !re    
occur two or ?ree highly-wr\ght         
passages2 in/ead ( ! ev]-fl[+ play (    
hum\r1 n[ appe>+1 n[ conceal$1 b always 
pres5t1 are ins]t$ a good _m bad je/s1 z
 we may v5ture to t]m !m4 ,we may obs]ve
 an attempt at artificial ornam5t1 &    
f>-fet*$ modes ( expression2 also       

clamor\s dem&s on ! "p ( 8 companions1 t
 ,socrates %all answ] 8 own que/ions1 z 
well z o!r defects ( /yle1 :i* rem9d u (
 ! ,laws4 ,! connection is (t5 abrupt & 
inh>moni\s1 & f> f cle>4 ,_m po9ts      
require fur!r explanation2 e4g4 !       
ref]5ce ( pleasure to ! indef9ite class1
 comp>$ ) ! ass]tion :i* almo/          
imm$iately foll[s1 t pleasure & pa9     
naturally h _! seat 9 ! ?ird or mix$    
class3 ^! two /atem5ts are unreconcil$4 
,9 l mann]1 ! table ( goods does n      
di/+ui% betwe5 ! two heads ( measure &  
symmetry2 & ?\gh a h9t is giv5 t ! div9e
 m9d has ! fir/ place1 no?+ is said (   
?is 9 ! f9al summ+ up4 ,! relation ( !  
goods to ! sci5ces does n appe>2 ?\gh   
dialectic may be ?\ght to correspond to 
! highe/ good1 ! sci5ces & arts & true  
op9ions are enum]at$ 9 ! f\r? class4 ,we
 seem to h an intimation ( a fur!r      
discussion1 9 :i* "s topics lightly     
pass$ ov] 7 to receive a full]          
consid]ation4 ,! v>i\s uses ( ! ^w      
'mix$1' = ! mix$ life1 ! mix$ class (   

elem5ts1 ! mixture ( pleasures1 or (    
pleasure & pa91 are a fur!r s\rce (     
p]plexity4 ,our ignorance ( ! op9ions   
:i* ,plato is attack+ is also an elem5t 
( obscurity4 ,_m ?+s 9 a controv]sy     
might seem relevant1 if we knew to :at  
!y 7 int5d$ to ref]4 ,b no conjecture w 
enable u to supply :at ,plato has n told
 u2 or to expla91 f our fragm5t>y k (   
!m1 ! relation 9 :i* 8 doctr9e /ood to !
 ,eleatic ,be+ or ! ,meg>ian good1 or to
 ! !ories ( ,ari/ippus or ,anti/h5es    
respect+ pleasure4 ,nor are we able to  
say h[ f> ,plato 9 ! ,philebus conceives
 ! f9ite & inf9ite 7:i* occur bo? 9 !   
fragm5ts ( ,philolaus & 9 ! ,py?agorean 
table ( opposites7 9 ! same mann] z     
contempor>y ,py?agoreans4  ,!re is      
little 9 ! *>act]s :i* is wor?y ( rem>k4
 ,! ,socrates ( ! ,philebus is devoid ( 
any t\* ( ,socratic irony1 ?\gh "h1 z 9 
! ,pha$rus1 he twice attributes ! fl[ ( 
8 ideas to a sudd5 inspiration4 ,!      
int]locutor ,prot>*us1 ! son ( ,callias1
 :o has be5 a he>] ( ,gorgias1 is       

suppos$ to beg9 z a disciple ( !        
p>tisans ( pleasure1 b is drawn ov] to !
 opposite side by ! argum5ts (          
,socrates4 ,! in/9cts ( +5u\s y\? are   
easily induc$ to take ! bett] "p4       
,philebus1 :o has )drawn f ! argum5t1 is
 sev]al times br\ght back aga91 t he may
 support pleasure1 ( :i* he rema9s to ! 
end ! uncompromis+ advocate4 ,on ! o!r  
h&1 ! y\?ful gr\p ( li/5]s by :om he is 
surr\nd$1 ',philebus' boys' z !y are    
t]m$1 ^: pres5ce is sev]al times        
intimat$1 are describ$ z all ( !m at la/
 conv9c$ by ! argum5ts ( ,socrates4 ,!y 
be> a v fad$ resemblance to ! int]e/$   
audi5ces ( ! ,*>mides1 ,lysis1 or       
,protagoras4 ,o!r signs ( relation to   
ext]nal life 9 ! dialogue1 or ref]5ces  
to contempor>y ?+s & p]sons1 ) ! s+le   
exception ( ! allusions to ! anonym\s   
enemies ( pleasure1 & ! tea*]s ( ! flux1
 !re are none4  ,! omission ( ! doctr9e 
( recollection1 d]iv$ f a previ\s /ate (
 exi/5ce1 is a note ( progress 9 !      
philosophy ( ,plato4 ,! transc5d5tal    

!ory ( pre-exi/5t ideas1 :i* is *iefly  
discuss$ by him 9 ! ,m5o1 ! ,pha$o1 & ! 
,pha$rus1 has giv5 way to a psy*ological
 "o4 ,! omission is r5d]$ m significant 
by 8 hav+ occasion to speak ( memory z !
 basis ( desire4 ,( ! ideas he treats 9 
! same sceptical _s :i* appe>s 9 8      
criticism ( !m 9 ! ,p>m5ides4 ,he t\*es 
on ! same difficulties & he gives no    
answ] to !m4 ,8 mode ( speak+ ( !       
analytical & syn!tical processes may be 
comp>$ ) 8 discussion ( ! same subject 9
 ! ,pha$rus2 "h he dwells on !          
importance ( divid+ ! g5]a into all !   
species1 :ile 9 ! ,pha$rus he conveys ! 
same tru? 9 a figure1 :5 he speaks (    
c>v+ ! :ole1 :i* is describ$ "u ! image 
( a victim1 into p>ts or memb]s1        
'accord+ to _! natural articulation1 )\t
 break+ any ( !m4' ,!re is also a       
diff]5ce1 :i* may be not$1 betwe5 ! two 
dialogues4 ,= :]eas 9 ! ,pha$rus1 & also
 9 ! ,symposium1 ! dialectician is      
describ$ z a sort ( en?usia/ or lov]1 9 
! ,philebus1 z 9 all ! lat] writ+s (    

,plato1 ! elem5t ( love is want+2 !     
topic is only introduc$1 z 9 !          
,republic1 by way ( illu/ration4 ,on o!r
 subjects ( :i* !y treat 9 common1 su* z
 ! nature & k9ds ( pleasure1 true &     
false op9ion1 ! nature ( ! good1 ! ord] 
& relation ( ! sci5ces1 ! ,republic is  
less advanc$ ?an ! ,philebus1 :i*       
conta9s1 p]haps1 m metaphysical tru? m  
obscurely express$ ?an any o!r ,platonic
 dialogue4 ,"h1 z ,plato expressly tells
 u1 he is '=g+ weapons ( ano!r make1'   
i4e4 new categories & modes (           
conception1 ?\gh '"s ( ! old ones might 
d aga94'  ,b if sup]ior 9 ?\ght &       
dialectical p[]1 ! ,philebus falls v f> 
%ort ( ! ,republic 9 fancy & feel+4 ,!  
developm5t ( ! reason undi/urb$ by !    
emotions seems to be ! ideal at :i*     
,plato aims 9 8 lat] dialogues4 ,!re is 
no my/ic en?usiasm or raptur\s          
contemplation ( ideas4 ,:e!r we         
attribute ?is *ange to ! great]         
feebl5ess ( age1 or to ! developm5t ( ! 
qu>rel betwe5 philosophy & poetry 9     

,plato's own m9d1 or p]haps1 9 "s       
degree1 to a c>elessness ab\t arti/ic   
effect1 :5 he 0 absorb$ 9 ab/ract ideas1
 we c h>dly be wrong 9 assum+1 amid su* 
a v>iety ( indications1 d]iv$ f /yle z  
well z subject1 t ! ,philebus belongs to
 ! lat] p]iod ( 8 life & au?or%ip4 ,b 9 
?is1 z 9 all ! lat] writ+s ( ,plato1 !re
 are n want+ ?\ghts & expressions 9 :i* 
he rises to 8 highe/ level4  ,! plan is 
complicat$1 or r1 p]haps1 ! want ( plan 
r5d]s ! progress ( ! dialogue difficult 
to foll[4 ,a few lead+ ideas seem to    
em]ge3 ! relation ( ! "o & _m1 ! f\r    
orig9al elem5ts1 ! k9ds ( pleasure1 !   
k9ds ( k1 ! scale ( goods4 ,^! are only 
p>tially connect$ ) "o ano!r4 ,!        
dialogue is n rightly entitl$ ',conc]n+ 
pleasure' or ',conc]n+ good1' b %\ld r  
be describ$ z treat+ ( ! relations (    
pleasure & k1 aft] !y h be5 duly        
analyz$1 to ! good4 7#a7 ,! "q is ask$1 
:e!r pleasure or wisdom is ! *ief good1 
or "s nature high] ?an ei!r2 & if !     
latt]1 h[ pleasure & wisdom are relat$  

to ?is high] good4 7#b7 ,be=e we c reply
 ) exactness1 we mu/ "k ! k9ds (        
pleasure & ! k9ds ( k4 7#c7 ,b /ill we  
may affirm g5]ally1 t ! comb9$ life (   
pleasure & wisdom or k has m ( ! "* ( ! 
good ?an ei!r ( !m :5 isolat$4 7#d7 to  
det]m9e :i* ( !m p>takes mo/ ( ! high]  
nature1 we mu/ "k "u :i* ( ! f\r unities
 or elem5ts !y respectively fall4 ,^!   
are1 fir/1 ! inf9ite2 secondly1 ! f9ite2
 ?irdly1 ! union ( ! two2 f\r?ly1 !     
cause ( ! union4 ,pleasure is ( ! fir/1 
wisdom or k ( ! ?ird class1 :ile reason 
or m9d is ak9 to ! f\r? or highe/4  7#e7
 ,pleasures are ( two k9ds1 ! mix$ &    
unmix$4 ,( mix$ pleasures !re are ?ree  
classes--7a7 ^? 9 :i* bo? ! pleasures & 
pa9s are corporeal1 z 9 eat+ & hung]2   
7b7 ^? 9 :i* !re is a pa9 ( ! body &    
pleasure ( ! m9d1 z :5 y are hungry &   
are look+ =w>d to a fea/2 7c7 ^? 9 :i* !
 pleasure & pa9 are bo? m5tal4 ,( unmix$
 pleasures !re are f\r k9ds3 ^? ( sight1
 he>+1 smell1 k4  7#f7 ,! sci5ces are   
likewise divid$ into two classes1       

!oretical & productive3 ( ! latt]1 "o "p
 is pure1 ! o!r impure4 ,! pure "p      
consi/s ( ari?metic1 m5suration1 &      
weigh+4 ,arts l c>p5t]+1 :i* h an exact 
measure1 are to be reg>d$ z high] ?an   
music1 :i* = ! mo/ "p is m]e guess-"w4  
,b !re is also a high] ari?metic1 & a   
high] m5suration1 :i* is exclusively    
!oretical2 & a dialectical sci5ce1 :i*  
is high] /ill & ! true/ & pure/ k4  7#g7
 ,we are n[ able to det]m9e !           
composition ( ! p]fect life4 ,fir/1 we  
admit ! pure pleasures & ! pure sci5ces2
 secondly1 ! impure sci5ces1 b n !      
impure pleasures4 ,we h next to discov] 
:at elem5t ( goodness is conta9$ 9 ?is  
mixture4 ,!re are ?ree crit]ia (        
goodness--beauty1 symmetry1 tru?4 ,^!   
are cle>ly m ak9 to reason ?an to       
pleasure1 & w enable u to fix ! places (
 bo? ( !m 9 ! scale ( good4 ,fir/ 9 !   
scale is measure2 ! second place is     
assign$ to symmetry2 ! ?ird1 to reason &
 wisdom2 ! f\r?1 to k & true op9ion2 !  
fif?1 to pure pleasures2 & "h ! ,muse   

says ',en\gh4'  ',bidd+ f>ewell to      
,philebus & ,socrates1' we may n[       
consid] ! metaphysical conceptions :i*  
are pres5t$ to u4 ,^! are 7,i7 ! p>adox 
( unity & plurality2 7,,ii7 ! table (   
categories or elem5ts2 7,,iii7 ! k9ds ( 
pleasure2 7,,iv7 ! k9ds ( k2 7,v7 !     
conception ( ! good4 ,we may !n proce$  
to exam9e 7,,vi7 ! relation ( !         
,philebus to ! ,republic1 & to o!r      
dialogues4  ,i4 ,! p>adox ( ! "o & _m   
orig9at$ 9 ! re/less dialectic ( ,z5o1  
:o s\ght to prove ! absolute exi/5ce ( !
 "o by %[+ ! contradictions t are       
involv$ 9 admitt+ ! exi/5ce ( ! _m      
7comp>e ,p>m474 ,z5o illu/rat$ !        
contradiction by well-kn[n examples tak5
 f outw>d objects4 ,b ,socrates seems to
 intimate t ! "t _h arriv$ = disc>d+ ^! 
hackney$ illu/rations2 su* difficulties 
_h long be5 solv$ by common s5se        
7'solvitur ambul&o'72 ! fact ( !        
co-exi/5ce ( opposites 0 a suffici5t    
answ] to !m4 ,he w leave !m to ,cynics &
 ,eri/ics2 ! y\? ( ,a!ns may disc\rse ( 

!m to _! p>5ts4 ,to no rational man c\ld
 ! circum/ance t ! body is "o1 b has _m 
memb]s1 be any long] a /umbl+-block4    
,plato's difficulty seems to beg9 9 !   
region ( ideas4 ,he _c und]/& h[ an     
absolute unity1 su* z ! ,eleatic ,be+1 c
 be brok5 up into a numb] ( individuals1
 or be 9 & out ( !m at once4 ,philosophy
 _h s deep5$ or int5sifi$ ! nature ( "o 
or ,be+1 by ! ?\ghts ( successive       
g5]ations1 t ! m9d c\ld no long] imag9e 
',be+' z 9 a /ate ( *ange or division4  
,to say t ! v]b ( exi/5ce is ! copula1  
or t unity is a m]e unit1 is to u easy2 
b to ! ,greek 9 a p>ticul> /age ( ?\ght 
su* an analysis involv$ ! same k9d (    
difficulty z ! conception ( ,god exi/+  
bo? 9 & out ( ! _w w\ld to ourselves4   
,nor 0 he assi/$ by ! analogy ( s5sible 
objects4 ,! sph]e ( m9d 0 d>k & my/]i\s 
to him2 b in/ead ( be+ illu/rat$ by     
s5se1 ! greate/ light appe>$ to be ?r[n 
on ! nature ( ideas :5 !y 7 contra/$ )  
s5se4  ,bo? "h & 9 ! ,p>m5ides1 :]e     
simil> difficulties are rais$1 ,plato   

seems prep>$ to des]t 8 anci5t gr\nd4   
,he _c tell ! relation 9 :i* ab/ract    
ideas /& to "o ano!r1 & !re=e he        
transf]s ! "o & _m out ( 8 transc5d5tal 
_w1 & proce$s to lay d[n practical rules
 = _! application to diff]5t bran*es (  
k4 ,z 9 ! ,republic he supposes !       
philosoph] to proce$ by regul> /eps1    
until he arrives at ! idea ( good2 z 9 !
 ,sophi/ & ,politicus he insi/s t 9     
divid+ ! :ole into its p>ts we %\ld     
bisect 9 ! middle 9 ! hope ( f9d+       
species2 z 9 ! ,pha$rus 7see above7 he  
w\ld h 'no limb brok5' ( ! organism (   
k2--s 9 ! ,philebus he urges ! necessity
 ( fill+ up all ! int]m$iate l9ks :i*   
occur 7comp>e ,bacon's 'm$ia axiomata'7 
9 ! passage f unity to inf9ity4 ,) him !
 idea ( sci5ce may be said to anticipate
 sci5ce2 at a "t :5 ! sci5ces 7 n yet   
divid$1 he wants to impress ^u u !      
importance ( classification2 nei!r      
neglect+ ! _m individuals1 nor attempt+ 
to c\nt !m all1 b f9d+ ! g5]a & species 
"u :i* !y naturally fall4 ,"h1 !n1 & 9 !

 p>allel passages ( ! ,pha$rus & ( !    
,sophi/1 is f\nd ! g]m ( ! mo/ fruitful 
notion ( mod]n sci5ce4  ,plato describes
 ) ludicr\s exagg]ation ! influ5ce ex]t$
 by ! "o & _m on ! m9ds ( "y m5 9 _!    
fir/ f]v\r ( metaphysical en?usiasm     
7comp>e ,republic74 ,b !y are none !    
less an ev]la/+ quality ( reason or     
reason+ :i* nev] gr[s old 9 u4 ,at fir/ 
we h b a confus$ conception ( !m1       
analog\s to ! eyes bl9k+ at ! light 9 ! 
,republic4 ,to ?is ,plato opposes !     
revelation f ,heav5 ( ! real relations (
 !m1 :i* "s ,prome!us1 :o gave ! true   
fire f heav51 is suppos$ to h imp>t$ to 
u4 ,plato is speak+ ( two ?+s--7#a7 !   
crude notion ( ! "o & _m1 :i* p[]fully  
affects ! ord9>y m9d :5 fir/ beg9n+ to  
?9k2 7#b7 ! same notion :5 cle>$ up by !
 help ( dialectic4  ,to u ! problem ( ! 
"o & _m has lo/ its *ief int]e/ &       
p]plexity4 ,we readily ackn[l$ge t a    
:ole has _m p>ts1 t ! cont9u\s is also !
 divisible1 t 9 all objects ( s5se !re  
is a "o & _m1 & t a l pr9ciple may be   

appli$ to analogy to purely intellectual
 conceptions4 ,if we att5d to ! mean+ ( 
! words1 we are compell$ to admit t two 
contradictory /atem5ts are true4 ,b !   
ant9omy is s famili> z to be sc>cely    
obs]v$ by u4 ,our s5se ( !              
contradiction1 l ,plato's1 only beg9s 9 
a high] sph]e1 :5 we speak ( necessity &
 free-w1 ( m9d & body1 ( ,?ree ,p]sons &
 ,"o ,sub/ance1 & ! l4 ,! _w ( k is     
always divid+ m & m2 e tru? is at fir/ !
 enemy ( e o!r tru?4 ,yet )\t ?is       
division !re c be no tru?2 nor any      
complete tru? )\t ! reunion ( ! p>ts    
into a :ole4 ,& h5ce ! coexi/5ce (      
opposites 9 ! unity ( ! idea is reg>d$  
by ,hegel z ! supreme pr9ciple (        
philosophy2 & ! law ( contradiction1 :i*
 is affirm$ by logicians to be an       
ultimate pr9ciple ( ! human m9d1 is     
displac$ by ano!r law1 :i* ass]ts !     
coexi/5ce ( contradictories z imp]fect &
 divid$ elem5ts ( ! tru?4 ,)\t ent]+    
fur!r into ! dep?s ( ,hegelianism1 we   
may rem>k t ?is & all simil> attempts to

 reconcile ant9omies h _! orig9 9 ! old 
,platonic problem ( ! ',"o & ,_m4'      
,,ii4 #a4 ,! fir/ ( ,plato's categories 
or elem5ts is ! inf9ite4 ,?is is !      
negative ( measure or limit2 !          
un?9kable1 ! unkn[able2 ( :i* no?+ c be 
affirm$2 ! mixture or *aos :i* prec$$   
di/9ct k9ds 9 ! creation ( ! _w2 ! fir/ 
vague impression ( s5se2 ! m or less :i*
 refuses to be r$uc$ to rule1 hav+ c]ta9
 aff9ities ) evil1 ) pleasure1 )        
ignorance1 & :i* 9 ! scale ( be+ is f>!/
 remov$ f ! beautiful & good4 ,to a     
,greek ( ! age ( ,plato1 ! idea ( an    
inf9ite m9d w\ld h be5 an absurdity4 ,he
 w\ld h insi/$ t '! good is ( ! nature (
 ! f9ite1' & t ! inf9ite is a m]e       
negative1 :i* is on ! level ( s5sation1 
& n ( ?\ght4 ,he 0 aw>e t !re 0 a       
di/9ction betwe5 ! inf9itely great & !  
inf9itely small1 b he w\ld h equally    
d5i$ ! claim ( ei!r to true exi/5ce4 ,( 
t positive inf9ity1 or inf9ite reality1 
:i* we attribute to ,god1 he _h no      
conception4  ,! ,greek conception ( !   

inf9ite w\ld be m truly describ$1 9 our 
way ( speak+1 z ! indef9ite4 ,to u1 !   
notion ( inf9ity is subsequ5t r ?an     
prior to ! f9ite1 express+ n absolute   
vacancy or negation1 b only ! removal ( 
limit or re/ra9t1 :i* we suppose to exi/
 n be=e b aft] we h already set b\nds to
 ?\ght & matt]1 & divid$ !m aft] _!     
k9ds4 ,f diff]5t po9ts ( view1 ei!r !   
f9ite or inf9ite may be look$ ^u        
respectively bo? z positive & negative  
7comp>e ',omnis det]m9atio e/ negatio'7'
 & ! conception ( ! "o det]m9es t ( !   
o!r4 ,! ,greeks & ! mod]ns seem to be   
ne>ly at ! opposite poles 9 _! mann] (  
reg>d+ !m4 ,& bo? are surpris$ :5 !y    
make ! discov]y1 z ,plato has done 9 !  
,sophi/1 h[ l>ge an elem5t negation =ms 
9 ! framework ( _! ?\ghts4  #b1 #c4 ,!  
f9ite elem5t :i* m+les ) & regulates !  
inf9ite is be/ express$ to u by ! ^w    
'law4' ,x is t :i* measures all ?+s &   
assigns to !m _! limit2 :i* pres]ves !m 
9 _! natural /ate1 & br+s !m )9 ! sph]e 
( human cognition4 ,?is is describ$ by !

 t]ms h>mony1 heal?1 ord]1 p]fection1 & 
! l4 ,all ?+s1 9 z f> z !y are good1 ev5
 pleasures1 :i* are = ! mo/ "p          
indef9ite1 p>take ( ?is elem5t4 ,we %\ld
 be wrong 9 attribut+ to ,plato !       
conception ( laws ( nature d]iv$ f      
obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,& yet he has z  
int5se a conviction z any mod]n         
philosoph] t nature does n proce$ by    
*ance4 ,b obs]v+ t ! wond]ful           
con/ruction ( numb] & figure1 :i* he _h 
)9 himself1 & :i* seem$ to be prior to  
himself1 expla9$ a "p ( ! ph5om5a ( !   
ext]nal _w1 he ext5d$ _! pr9ciples to ! 
:ole1 f9d+ 9 !m ! true type bo? ( human 
life & ( ! ord] ( nature4  ,two o!r     
po9ts may be notic$ respect+ ! ?ird     
class4 ,fir/1 t ,plato seems to be      
unconsci\s ( any int]val or *asm :i*    
sep>ates ! f9ite f ! inf9ite4 ,! "o is 9
 v>i\s ways & degrees work+ 9 ! o!r4    
,h5ce he has implicitly answ]$ !        
difficulty ) :i* he />t$1 ( h[ ! "o c\ld
 rema9 "o & yet be divid$ among _m      
individuals1 or 'h[ ideas c\ld be 9 &   

out ( !mselves1' & ! l4 ,secondly1 t 9  
?is mix$ class we f9d ! idea ( beauty4  
,good1 :5 exhibit$ "u ! aspect ( measure
 or symmetry1 becomes beauty4 ,& if we  
translate 8 language into correspond+   
mod]n t]ms1 we %all n be f> wrong 9 say+
 t "h1 z well z 9 ! ,republic1 ,plato   
conceives beauty "u ! idea ( proportion4
  #d4 ,la/ & highe/ 9 ! li/ ( pr9ciples 
or elem5ts is ! cause ( ! union ( !     
f9ite & inf9ite1 to :i* ,plato ascribes 
! ord] ( ! _w4 ,reason+ f man to !      
univ]se1 he argues t z !re is a m9d 9 ! 
"o1 !re mu/ be a m9d 9 ! o!r1 :i* he    
id5tifies ) ! royal m9d ( ,zeus4 ,?is is
 ! fir/ cause ( :i* 'our ance/ors       
spoke1' z he says1 appeal+ to tradition1
 9 ! ,philebus z well z 9 ! ,timaeus4 ,!
 '"o & _m' is also suppos$ to h be5     
reveal$ by tradition4 ,= ! my?ical      
elem5t has n altoge!r disappe>$4  ,"s   
*>act]i/ic diff]5ces may "h be not$1 :i*
 di/+ui% ! anci5t f ! mod]n mode (      
conceiv+ ,god4  a4 ,to ,plato1 ! idea ( 
,god or m9d is bo? p]sonal & imp]sonal4 

,nor 9 ascrib+1 z appe>s to u1 bo? ^!   
attributes to him1 & 9 speak+ ( ,god bo?
 9 ! mascul9e & neut] g5d]1 did he seem 
to himself inconsi/5t4 ,= ! diff]5ce    
betwe5 ! p]sonal & imp]sonal 0 n m>k$ to
 him z to ourselves4 ,we make a         
fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 a ?+ & a    
p]son1 :ile to ,plato1 by ! help ( v>i\s
 int]m$iate ab/ractions1 su* z end1     
good1 cause1 !y appe> almo/ to meet 9   
"o1 or to be two aspects ( ! same4      
,h5ce1 )\t any reconciliation or ev5    
rem>k1 9 ! ,republic he speaks at "o "t 
( ,god or ,gods1 & at ano!r "t ( !      
,good4 ,s 9 ! ,pha$rus he seems to pass 
unconsci\sly f ! concrete to ! ab/ract  
conception ( ! ,ideas 9 ! same dialogue4
 ,nor 9 ! ,philebus is he c>eful to %[ 9
 :at relation ! idea ( ! div9e m9d /&s  
to ! supreme pr9ciple ( measure4  b4    
,aga91 to u !re is a /rongly-m>k$       
di/9ction betwe5 a fir/ cause & a f9al  
cause4 ,& we %\ld commonly id5tify a    
fir/ cause ) ,god1 & ! f9al cause ) !   
_w1 :i* is ,8 "w4 ,b ,plato1 ?\gh n a   

,pan!i/1 & v f> f conf\nd+ ,god ) ! _w1 
t5ds to id5tify ! fir/ ) ! f9al cause4  
,! cause ( ! union ( ! f9ite & inf9ite  
might be describ$ z a high] law2 ! f9al 
measure :i* is ! highe/ expression ( !  
good may also be describ$ z ! supreme   
law4 ,bo? ^! conceptions are realiz$    
*iefly by ! help ( ! mat]ial _w2 & !re=e
 :5 we pass into ! sph]e ( ideas c h>dly
 be di/+ui%$4  ,! f\r pr9ciples are     
requir$ = ! det]m9ation ( ! relative    
places ( pleasure & wisdom4 ,plato has  
be5 say+ t we %\ld proce$ by regul> /eps
 f ! "o to ! _m4 ,accord+ly1 be=e       
assign+ ! prec$5ce ei!r to good or      
pleasure1 he mu/ fir/ f9d out & arrange 
9 ord] ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ?+s4 ,m9d is 
asc]ta9$ to be ak9 to ! nature ( !      
cause1 :ile pleasure is f\nd 9 ! inf9ite
 or indef9ite class4 ,we may n[ proce$  
to divide pleasure & k aft] _! k9ds4    
,,iii4 #a4 ,plato speaks ( pleasure z   
indef9ite1 z relative1 z a g5]ation1 & 9
 all ^! po9ts ( view z 9 a category     
di/9ct f good4 ,= aga9 we mu/ repeat1 t 

to ! ,greek '! good is ( ! nature ( !   
f9ite1' &1 l virtue1 ei!r is1 or is     
ne>ly alli$ to1 k4 ,! mod]n philosoph]  
w\ld rem>k t ! indef9ite is equally real
 ) ! def9ite4 ,heal? & m5tal qualities  
are 9 ! concrete undef9$2 !y are        
nev]!less real goods1 & ,plato rightly  
reg>ds !m z fall+ "u ! f9ite class4     
,aga91 we are able to def9e objects or  
ideas1 n 9 s f> z !y are 9 ! m9d1 b 9 s 
f> z !y are manife/$ ext]nally1 & c     
!re=e be r$uc$ to rule & measure4 ,& if 
we adopt ! te/ ( def9it5ess1 ! pleasures
 ( ! body are m capable ( be+ def9$ ?an 
any o!r pleasures4 ,z 9 art & k g5]ally1
 we proce$ f )\t inw>ds1 beg9n+ ) facts 
( s5se1 & pass+ to ! m ideal conceptions
 ( m5tal pleasure1 happ9ess1 & ! l4  #b4
 ,pleasure is depreciat$ z relative1    
:ile good is exalt$ z absolute4 ,b ?is  
di/9ction seems to arise f an unfair    
mode ( reg>d+ !m2 ! ab/ract idea ( ! "o 
is comp>$ ) ! concrete exp]i5ce ( ! o!r4
 ,= all pleasure & all k may be view$   
ei!r ab/ract$ f ! m9d1 or 9 relation to 

! m9d 7comp>e ,ari/ot4 ,nic4 ,e?ics74 ,!
 fir/ is an idea only1 :i* may be       
conceiv$ z absolute & un*angeable1 & !n 
! ab/ract idea ( pleasure w be equally  
un*angeable ) t ( k4 ,b :5 we come to   
view ei!r z ph5om5a ( consci\sness1 !   
same defects are = ! mo/ "p incid5t to  
bo? ( !m4 ,our hold ^u !m is equally    
transi5t & unc]ta92 ! m9d _c be always 9
 a /ate ( intellectual t5sion1 any m ?an
 capable ( feel+ pleasure always4 ,! k  
:i* is at "o "t cle> & di/9ct1 at ano!r 
seems to fade away1 j z ! pleasure (    
heal? aft] sickness1 or ( eat+ aft]     
hung]1 soon passes into a neutral /ate (
 unconsci\sness & indiff]5ce4 ,*ange &  
alt]nation are necess>y = ! m9d z well z
 = ! body2 & 9 ?is is to be ackn[l$g$1 n
 an elem5t ( evil1 b r a law ( nature4  
,! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 subjective      
pleasure & subjective k 9 respect (     
p]man5ce is t ! latt]1 :5 our feeble    
faculties are able to grasp x1 /ill     
conveys to u an idea ( un*angeabl5ess   
:i* _c be got rid (4  #c4 ,9 ! language 

( anci5t philosophy1 ! relative "* (    
pleasure is describ$ z becom+ or        
g5]ation4 ,?is is relative to ,be+ or   
,ess5ce1 & f "o po9t ( view may be      
reg>d$ z ! ,h]aclitean flux 9 contra/ ) 
! ,eleatic ,be+2 f ano!r1 z ! transi5t  
enjoym5t ( eat+ & dr9k+ comp>$ ) !      
suppos$ p]man5ce ( intellectual         
pleasures4 ,b to u ! di/9ction is       
unmean+1 & belongs to a /age (          
philosophy :i* has pass$ away4 ,plato   
himself seems to h suspect$ t !         
cont9uance or life ( ?+s is q z mu* to  
be attribut$ to a pr9ciple ( re/ z (    
motion 7comp>e ,*>m4 ,cratyl474 ,a lat] 
view ( pleasure is f\nd 9 ,ari/otle1 :o 
agrees ) ,plato 9 _m po9ts1 e4g4 9 8    
view ( pleasure z a re/oration to       
nature1 9 8 di/9ction betwe5 bodily &   
m5tal1 betwe5 necess>y & non-necess>y   
pleasures4 ,b he is also 9 advance (    
,plato2 = he affirms t pleasure is n 9 !
 body at all2 & h5ce n ev5 ! bodily     
pleasures are to be spok5 ( z g5]ations1
 b only z accompani$ by g5]ation 7,nic4 

,e?474  #d4 ,plato attempts to id5tify  
vici\s pleasures ) "s =m ( error1 &     
insi/s t ! t]m false may be appli$ to   
!m3 9 ?is he appe>s to be c>ry+ out 9 a 
confus$ mann] ! ,socratic doctr9e1 t    
virtue is k1 vice ignorance4 ,he w all[ 
( no di/9ction betwe5 ! pleasures & !   
errone\s op9ions on :i* !y are f\nd$1   
:e!r aris+ out ( ! illusion ( di/ance or
 n4 ,b to ?is we naturally reply )      
,prot>*us1 t ! pleasure is :at x is1    
al?\gh ! calculation may be false1 or ! 
aft]-effects pa9ful4 ,x is difficult to 
acquit ,plato1 to use 8 own language1 ( 
be+ a 'tyro 9 dialectics1' :5 he        
ov]looks su* a di/9ction4 ,yet1 on ! o!r
 h&1 we are h>dly fair judges (         
confusions ( ?\ght 9 ^? :o view ?+s     
diff]5tly f ourselves4  #e4 ,!re appe>s 
also to be an incorrectness 9 ! notion  
:i* occurs bo? "h & 9 ! ,gorgias1 ( !   
simultane\sness ( m]ely bodily pleasures
 & pa9s4 ,we may1 p]haps1 admit1 ?\gh   
ev5 ?is is n free f d\bt1 t ! feel+ (   
pleasureable hope or recollection is1 or

 r may be1 simultane\s ) acute bodily   
suff]+4 ,b !re is no su* coexi/5ce ( !  
pa9 ( ?ir/ ) ! pleasures ( dr9k+2 !y are
 n really simultane\s1 = ! "o expels !  
o!r4 ,nor does ,plato seem to h consid]$
 t ! bodily pleasures1 except 9 c]ta9   
extreme cases1 are unatt5d$ ) pa94 ,few 
philosoph]s w d5y t a degree ( pleasure 
att5ds eat+ & dr9k+2 & yet surely we    
might z well speak ( ! pa9s ( dige/ion  
:i* foll[1 z ( ! pa9s ( hung] & ?ir/ :i*
 prec$e !m4 ,plato's conception is d]iv$
 p>tly f ! extreme case ( a man suff]+  
pa9 f hung] or ?ir/1 p>tly f ! image ( a
 full & empty vessel4 ,b ! tru? is r1 t 
:ile ! gratification ( our bodily       
desires con/antly af=ds "s degree (     
pleasure1 ! antec$5t pa9s are sc>cely   
p]ceiv$ by u1 be+ almo/ done away ) by  
use & regul>ity4  #f4 ,! desire to      
classify pleasures z accompani$ or n    
accompani$ by antec$5t pa9s1 has l$     
,plato to place "u "o head ! pleasures (
 smell & sight1 z well z ^? d]iv$ f     
s\nds ( music & f k4 ,he w\ld h done    

bett] to make a sep>ate class ( !       
pleasures ( smell1 hav+ no association (
 m9d1 or p]haps to h divid$ !m into     
natural & artificial4 ,! pleasures (    
sight & s\nd might !n h be5 reg>d$ z be+
 ! expression ( ideas4 ,b ?is high] &   
tru] po9t ( view nev] appe>s to h       
occurr$ to ,plato4 ,nor has he any      
di/9ction betwe5 ! f9e arts & !         
me*anical2 &1 nei!r "h nor any:]e1 an   
adequate conception ( ! beautiful 9     
ext]nal ?+s4  #g4 ,plato agrees p>tially
 ) c]ta9 'surly or fa/idi\s'            
philosoph]s1 z he t]ms !m1 :o def9$     
pleasure to be ! abs5ce ( pa94 ,!y are  
also describ$ z em95t 9 physics4 ,!re is
 un=tunately no s*ool ( ,greek          
philosophy kn[n to u :i* comb9$ ^! two  
*>act]i/ics4 ,anti/h5es1 :o 0 an enemy (
 pleasure1 0 n a physical philosoph]2 ! 
atomi/s1 :o 7 physical philosoph]s1 7 n 
enemies ( pleasure4 ,yet su* a          
comb9ation ( op9ions is f> f be+        
impossible4 ,plato's omission to m5tion 
!m by "n has creat$ ! same unc]ta9ty    

respect+ !m :i* also occurs respect+ !  
'fri5ds ( ! ideas' & ! 'mat]iali/s' 9 ! 
,sophi/4  ,on ! :ole1 ?is discussion is 
"o ( ! lea/ satisfactory 9 ! dialogues (
 ,plato4 ,:ile ! e?ical nature (        
pleasure is sc>cely consid]$1 & ! m]ely 
physical ph5om5on imp]fectly analys$1   
too mu* weight is giv5 to ideas (       
measure & numb]1 z ! sole pr9ciple (    
good4 ,! comp>ison ( pleasure & k is    
really a comp>ison ( two elem5ts1 :i* h 
no common measure1 & :i* _c be exclud$ f
 ea* o!r4 ,feel+ is n oppos$ to k1 & 9  
all consci\sness !re is an elem5t ( bo?4
 ,! mo/ ab/ract k9ds ( k are insep>able 
f "s pleasure or pa91 :i* accompanies ! 
acquisition or possession ( !m3 ! /ud5t 
is liable to gr[ we>y ( !m1 & soon      
discov]s t cont9u\s m5tal en]gy is n    
grant$ to m54 ,! mo/ s5sual pleasure1 on
 ! o!r h&1 is insep>able f !            
consci\sness ( pleasure2 no man c be    
happy :o1 to borr[ ,plato's illu/ration1
 is lead+ ! life ( an oy/]4 ,h5ce 7by 8 
own confession7 ! ma9 !sis is n wor?    

det]m9+2 ! real int]e/ lies 9 !         
incid5tal discussion4 ,we c no m sep>ate
 pleasure f k 9 ! ,philebus ?an we c    
sep>ate ju/ice f happ9ess 9 ! ,republic4
  ,,iv4 ,an int]e/+ acc\nt is giv5 9 !  
,philebus ( ! rank & ord] ( ! sci5ces or
 arts1 :i* agrees g5]ally ) ! s*eme ( k 
9 ! ,six? ,book ( ! ,republic4 ,! *ief  
diff]5ce is1 t ! position ( ! arts is m 
exactly def9$4 ,!y are divid$ into an   
empirical "p & a sci5tific "p1 ( :i* !  
fir/ is m]e guess-"w1 ! second is       
det]m9$ by rule & measure4 ,( ! m       
empirical arts1 music is giv5 z an      
example2 ?is1 al?\gh affirm$ to be      
necess>y to human life1 is depreciat$4  
,music is reg>d$ f a po9t ( view        
entirely opposite to t ( ! ,republic1 n 
z a sublime sci5ce1 coord9ate )         
a/ronomy1 b z full ( d\bt & conjecture4 
,accord+ to ! /&>d ( accuracy :i* is "h 
adopt$1 x is rightly plac$ l[] 9 ! scale
 ?an c>p5t]+1 because ! latt] is m      
capable ( be+ r$uc$ to measure4  ,!     
!oretical elem5t ( ! arts may also      

become a purely ab/ract sci5ce1 :5      
sep>at$ f matt]1 & is !n said to be pure
 & unmix$4 ,! di/9ction :i* ,plato "h   
makes seems to be ! same z t betwe5 pure
 & appli$ ma!matics1 & may be express$ 9
 ! mod]n =mula--sci5ce is art !oretical1
 art is sci5ce practical4 ,9 ! reason   
:i* he gives = ! sup]iority ( ! pure    
sci5ce ( numb] ov] ! mix$ or appli$1 we 
c only agree ) him 9 "p4 ,he says t !   
numb]s :i* ! philosoph] employs are     
always ! same1 :]eas ! numb]s :i* are   
us$ 9 practice repres5t diff]5t sizes or
 quantities4 ,he does n see t ?is p[] ( 
express+ diff]5t quantities by ! same   
symbol is ! *>act]i/ic & n ! defect (   
numb]s1 & is due to _! ab/ract          
nature2--al?\gh we admit ( c\rse :at    
,plato seems to feel 9 8 di/9ctions     
betwe5 pure & impure k1 t ! imp]fection 
( matt] ent]s into ! applications ( !m4 
,above ! o!r sci5ces1 z 9 ! ,republic1  
t[]s dialectic1 :i* is ! sci5ce ( et]nal
 ,be+1 appreh5d$ by ! pure/ m9d &       
reason4 ,! l[] sci5ces1 includ+ !       

ma!matical1 are ak9 to op9ion r ?an to  
reason1 & are plac$ toge!r 9 ! f\r?     
class ( goods4 ,! relation 9 :i* !y /&  
to dialectic is obscure 9 ! ,republic1 &
 is n cle>$ up 9 ! ,philebus4  ,v4 ,?us 
f> we h only atta9$ to ! ve/ibule or    
ante-*amb] ( ! good2 = !re is a good    
exce$+ k1 exce$+ ess5ce1 :i*1 l ,glaucon
 9 ! ,republic1 we f9d a difficulty 9   
appreh5d+4 ,?is good is n[ to be        
exhibit$ to u "u v>i\s aspects &        
gradations4 ,! relative dignity (       
pleasure & k has be5 det]m9$2 b !y h n  
yet receiv$ _! exact position 9 ! scale 
( goods4 ,"s difficulties occur to u 9 !
 enum]ation3 ,fir/1 h[ are we to di/+ui%
 ! fir/ f ! second class ( goods1 or !  
second f ! ?ird8 ,secondly1 :y is !re no
 m5tion ( ! supreme m9d8 ,?irdly1 !     
nature ( ! f\r? class4 ,f\r?ly1 ! mean+ 
( ! allusion to a six? class1 :i* is n  
fur!r inve/igat$4  7,i7 ,plato seems to 
proce$ 9 8 table ( goods1 f ! m ab/ract 
to ! less ab/ract2 f ! subjective to !  
objective2 until at ! l[] end ( ! scale 

we fairly desc5d into ! region ( human  
action & feel+4 ,to him1 ! great] !     
ab/raction ! great] ! tru?1 & he is     
always t5d+ to see ab/ractions )9       
ab/ractions2 :i*1 l ! ideas 9 !         
,p>m5ides1 are always appe>+ "o beh9d   
ano!r4 ,h5ce we f9d a difficulty 9      
foll[+ him into ! sph]e ( ?\ght :i* he  
is seek+ to atta94 ,fir/ 9 8 scale (    
goods he places measure1 9 :i* he f9ds !
 et]nal nature3 ?is w\ld be m naturally 
express$ 9 mod]n language z et]nal law1 
& seems to be ak9 bo? to ! f9ite & to ! 
m9d or cause1 :i* 7 two ( ! elem5ts 9 ! 
=m] table4 ,l ! supreme nature 9 !      
,timaeus1 l ! ideal beauty 9 !          
,symposium or ! ,pha$rus1 or l ! ideal  
good 9 ! ,republic1 ?is is ! absolute & 
unapproa*able be+4 ,b ?is be+ is        
manife/$ 9 symmetry & beauty ev]y:]e1 9 
! ord] ( nature & ( m9d1 9 ! relations (
 m5 to "o ano!r4 ,= ! ^w 'measure' he n[
 sub/itutes ! ^w 'symmetry1' z if int5d+
 to express measure conceiv$ z relation4
 ,he !n proce$s to reg>d ! good no long]

 9 an objective =m1 b z ! human reason  
seek+ to atta9 tru? by ! aid (          
dialectic2 su* at lea/ we naturally inf]
 to be 8 mean+1 :5 we consid] t bo? "h &
 9 ! ,republic ! sph]e ( n\s or m9d is  
assign$ to dialectic4 7#b7 ,x is        
rem>kable 7see above7 t ?is p]sonal     
conception ( m9d is conf9$ to ! human   
m9d1 & n ext5d$ to ! div9e4 7#c7 ,if we 
may be all[$ to int]pret "o dialogue (  
,plato by ano!r1 ! sci5ces ( figure &   
numb] are probably class$ ) ! arts &    
true op9ions1 because !y proce$ f       
hypo!ses 7comp>e ,republic74 7#d7 ,!    
six? class1 if a six? class is to be    
add$1 is playfully set aside by a       
quotation f ,orpheus3 ,plato means to   
say t a six? class1 if !re be su* a     
class1 is n wor? consid]+1 because      
pleasure1 hav+ only ga9$ ! fif? place 9 
! scale ( goods1 is already out ( !     
runn+4  ,,vi4 ,we may n[ endeav\r to    
asc]ta9 ! relation ( ! ,philebus to !   
o!r dialogues4 ,"h ,plato %[s ! same    
indiff]5ce to 8 own doctr9e ( ,ideas :i*

 he has already manife/$ 9 ! ,p>m5ides &
 ! ,sophi/4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! "o & _m (   
:i* he "h speaks1 is illu/rat$ by       
examples 9 ! ,sophi/ & ,/atesman4       
,not)/&+ ! diff]5ces ( /yle1 _m         
resemblances may be notic$ betwe5 !     
,philebus & ,gorgias4 ,! !ory ( !       
simultane\sness ( pleasure & pa9 is     
common to bo? ( !m 7,phil4 ,gorg472 !re 
is also a common t5d5cy 9 !m to take up 
arms aga9/ pleasure1 al?\gh ! view ( !  
,philebus1 :i* is probably ! lat] ( !   
two dialogues1 is ! m mod]ate4 ,!re     
seems to be an allusion to ! passage 9 !
 ,gorgias1 9 :i* ,socrates dilates on ! 
pleasures ( it*+ & scrat*+4 ,nor is !re 
any real discrepancy 9 ! mann] 9 :i*    
,gorgias & 8 art are spok5 ( 9 ! two    
dialogues4 ,= ,socrates is f> f imply+ t
 ! art ( rhetoric has a real sph]e (    
practical usefulness3 he only means t ! 
refutation ( ! claims ( ,gorgias is n   
necess>y = 8 pres5t purpose4 ,he is say+
 9 effect3 ',admit1 if y please1 t      
rhetoric is ! greate/ & usefulle/ (     

sci5ces3--?is does n prove t dialectic  
is n ! pure/ & mo/ exact4' ,f ! ,sophi/ 
& ,/atesman we "k t 8 ho/ility t[>ds !  
sophi/s & rhetoricians 0 n mitigat$ 9   
lat] life2 al?\gh bo? 9 ! ,/atesman &   
,laws he admits ( a high] use (         
rhetoric4  ,reasons h be5 already giv5 =
 assign+ a late date to ! ,philebus4 ,t 
! date is probably lat] ?an t ( !       
,republic1 may be fur!r argu$ on !      
foll[+ gr\nds3--#a4 ,! g5]al resemblance
 to ! lat] dialogues & to ! ,laws3 #b4  
,! m complete acc\nt ( ! nature ( good &
 pleasure3 #c4 ,! di/9ction betwe5      
p]ception1 memory1 recollection1 &      
op9ion :i* indicates a great progress 9 
psy*ology2 also betwe5 und]/&+ &        
imag9ation1 :i* is describ$ "u ! figure 
( ! scribe & ! pa9t]4 ,a sup]ficial     
notion may arise t ,plato probably wrote
 %ort] dialogues1 su* z ! ,philebus1 !  
,sophi/1 & ! ,/atesman1 z /udies or     
prep>ations = long] ones4 ,?is view may 
be natural2 b on fur!r reflection is se5
 to be fallaci\s1 because ^! ?ree       

dialogues are f\nd to make an advance ^u
 ! metaphysical conceptions ( !         
,republic4 ,& we c m easily suppose t   
,plato compos$ %ort] writ+s aft] long]  
ones1 ?an suppose t he lo/ hold ( fur!r 
po9ts ( view :i* he _h once atta9$4  ,x 
is m easy to f9d traces ( !             
,py?agoreans1 ,eleatics1 ,meg>ians1     
,cynics1 ,cyr5aics & ( ! ideas (        
,anaxagoras1 9 ! ,philebus1 ?an to say  
h[ mu* is due to ea* ( !m4 ,_h we full] 
records ( ^? old philosoph]s1 we %\ld   
probably f9d ,plato 9 ! mid/ ( ! fray   
attempt+ to comb9e ,eleatic &           
,py?agorean doctr9es1 & seek+ to f9d a  
tru? beyond ei!r ,be+ or numb]2 sett+ up
 8 own concrete conception ( good aga9/ 
! ab/ract practical good ( ! ,cynics1 or
 ! ab/ract intellectual good ( !        
,meg>ians1 & 8 own idea ( classification
 aga9/ ! d5ial ( plurality 9 unity :i*  
is also attribut$ to !m2 w>r+ aga9/ !   
,eri/ics z de/ructive ( tru?1 z he _h   
=m]ly f\ght aga9/ ! ,sophi/s2 tak+ up a 
middle position betwe5 ! ,cynics &      

,cyr5aics 9 8 doctr9e ( pleasure2 ass]t+
 ) m consi/5cy ?an ,anaxagoras ! exi/5ce
 ( an intellig5t m9d & cause4 ,( !      
,h]acliteans1 :om he is said by         
,ari/otle to h cultivat$ 9 8 y\?1 he    
speaks 9 ! ,philebus1 z 9 ! ,!aetetus & 
,cratylus1 ) irony & contempt4 ,b we h n
 ! k :i* w\ld enable u to pursue fur!r !
 l9e ( reflection "h indicat$2 nor c we 
expect to f9d p]fect cle>ness or ord] 9 
! fir/ ef=ts ( mank9d to und]/& ! work+ 
( _! own m9ds4 ,! ideas :i* !y are      
attempt+ to analyse1 !y are also 9      
process ( creat+2 ! ab/ract univ]sals ( 
:i* !y are seek+ to adju/ ! relations h 
be5 already exclud$ by !m f ! category (
 relation4  444  ,! ,philebus1 l !      
,cratylus1 is suppos$ to be !           
cont9uation ( a previ\s discussion4 ,an 
argum5t respect+ ! comp>ative claims (  
pleasure & wisdom to rank z ! *ief good 
has be5 already c>ri$ on betwe5         
,philebus & ,socrates4 ,! argum5t is n[ 
transf]r$ to ,prot>*us1 ! son (         
,callias1 a noble ,a!nian y\?1 sprung f 

a family :i* _h sp5t 'a _w ( money' on !
 ,sophi/s 7comp>e ,apol42 ,crat42       
,protag474 ,philebus1 :o appe>s to be ! 
tea*]1 or eld] fri5d1 & p]haps ! lov]1 (
 ,prot>*us1 takes no fur!r "p 9 !       
discussion beyond ass]t+ 9 ! /ronge/    
mann] 8 adh]5ce1 "u all circum/ances1 to
 ! cause ( pleasure4  ,socrates sugge/s 
t !y %all h a fir/ & second palm (      
victory4 ,= !re may be a good high] ?an 
ei!r pleasure or wisdom1 & !n nei!r ( !m
 w ga9 ! fir/ prize1 b :i*ev] ( ! two is
 m ak9 to ?is high] good w h a "r to !  
second4 ,!y agree1 & ,socrates op5s !   
game by enl>g+ on ! div]sity &          
opposition :i* exi/s among pleasures4 ,=
 !re are pleasures ( all k9ds1 good &   
bad1 wise & fooli%--pleasures ( !       
temp]ate z well z ( ! intemp]ate4       
,prot>*us replies t al?\gh pleasures may
 be oppos$ 9 s f> z !y spr+ f opposite  
s\rces1 nev]!less z pleasures !y are    
alike4 ,yes1 retorts ,socrates1 pleasure
 is l pleasure1 z figure is l figure &  
col\r l col\r2 yet we all "k t !re is   

great v>iety among figures & col\rs4    
,prot>*us does n see ! drift ( ?is      
rem>k2 & ,socrates proce$s to ask h[ he 
c h a "r to attribute a new pr$icate    
7i4e4 'good'7 to pleasures 9 g5]al1 :5  
he _c d5y t !y are diff]5t8 ,:at common 
prop]ty 9 all ( !m does he mean to      
indicate by ! t]m 'good'8 ,if he        
cont9ues to ass]t t !re is "s trivial   
s5se 9 :i* pleasure is "o1 ,socrates may
 retort by say+ t k is "o1 b ! result w 
be t su* m]ely v]bal & trivial          
conceptions1 :e!r ( k or pleasure1 w    
spoil ! discussion1 & w prove !         
incapacity ( ! two disputants4 ,9 ord]  
to avoid ?is dang]1 he proposes t !y    
%all beat a retreat1 &1 be=e !y proce$1 
come to an und]/&+ ab\t ! 'high argum5t'
 ( ! "o & ! _m4  ,prot>*us agrees to !  
proposal1 b he is "u ! impression t     
,socrates means to discuss ! common     
"q--h[ a s5sible object c be "o1 & yet h
 opposite attributes1 su* z 'great' &   
'small1' 'light' & 'heavy1' or h[ !re c 
be _m memb]s 9 "o body1 & ! l wond]s4   

,socrates has long ceas$ to see any     
wond] 9 ^! ph5om5a2 8 difficulties beg9 
) ! application ( numb] to ab/ract      
unities 7e4g4'man1' 'good'7 & ) !       
attempt to divide !m4 ,= h ^! unities ( 
idea any real exi/5ce8 ,h[1 if          
imp]i%able1 c !y ent] into ! _w (       
g5]ation8 ,h[1 z units1 c !y be divid$ &
 disp]s$ among diff]5t objects8 ,or d !y
 exi/ 9 _! entirety 9 ea* object8 ,^!   
difficulties are b imp]fectly answ]$ by 
,socrates 9 :at foll[s4  ,we speak ( a  
"o & _m1 :i* is ev] fl[+ 9 & out ( all  
?+s1 conc]n+ :i* a "y man (t5 runs wild 
9 8 fir/ metaphysical en?usiasm1 talk+  
ab\t analysis & syn!sis to 8 fa!r & "m &
 ! neighb\rs1 h>dly sp>+ ev5 8 dog4 ,?is
 '"o 9 _m' is a revelation ( ! ord] ( ! 
_w1 :i* "s ,prome!us fir/ made kn[n to  
our ance/ors2 & !y1 :o 7 bett] m5 & ne>]
 ! gods ?an we are1 h h&$ x d[n to u4   
,to "k h[ to proce$ by regul> /eps f "o 
to _m1 & f _m to "o1 is j :at makes !   
diff]5ce betwe5 eri/ic & dialectic4 ,& !
 "r way ( proce$+ is to look = "o idea  

or class 9 all ?+s1 & :5 y h f\nd "o to 
look = m ?an "o1 & = all t !re are1 & :5
 y h f\nd !m all & regul>ly divid$ a    
p>ticul> field ( k into classes1 y may  
leave ! fur!r consid]ation (            
individuals4 ,b y mu/ n pass at once    
ei!r f unity to inf9ity1 or f inf9ity to
 unity4 ,9 music1 = example1 y may beg9 
) ! mo/ g5]al notion1 b ?is alone w n   
make y a musician3 y mu/ "k also ! numb]
 & nature ( ! int]vals1 & ! sy/ems :i*  
are fram$ out ( !m1 & ! rhy?ms ( ! dance
 :i* correspond to !m4 ,& :5 y h a      
simil> k ( any o!r subject1 y may be    
said to "k t subject4 ,9 spee* aga9 !re 
are inf9ite v>ieties ( s\nd1 & "s "o :o 
0 a wise man1 or m ?an man1 compreh5d$  
!m all 9 ! classes ( mutes1 v[els1 &    
semiv[els1 & gave to ea* ( !m a "n1 &   
assign$ !m to ! art ( gramm>4  ',b :i!r1
 ,socrates1 are y go+8 ,& :at has ?is to
 d ) ! comp>ative eligibility ( pleasure
 & wisdom3' ,socrates replies1 t be=e we
 c adju/ _! respective claims1 we want  
to "k ! numb] & k9ds ( bo? ( !m4 ,:at   

are !y8 ,he is reque/$ to answ] ! "q    
himself4 ,t he w1 if he may be all[$ to 
make "o or two prelim9>y rem>ks4 ,9 !   
fir/ place he has a dreamy recollection 
( he>+ t nei!r pleasure nor k is !      
highe/ good1 = ! good %\ld be p]fect &  
suffici5t4 ,b is ! life ( pleasure      
p]fect & suffici5t1 :5 depriv$ ( memory1
 consci\sness1 anticipation8 ,is n ?is !
 life ( an oy/]8 ,or is ! life ( m9d    
suffici5t1 if devoid ( any p>ticle (    
pleasure8 ,mu/ n ! union ( ! two be     
high] & m eligible ?an ei!r sep>ately8  
,& is n ! elem5t :i* makes ?is mix$ life
 eligible m ak9 to m9d ?an to pleasure8 
,?us pleasure is reject$ & m9d is       
reject$4 ,& yet !re may be a life ( m9d1
 n human b div9e1 :i* conqu]s /ill4  ,b1
 if we are to pursue ?is argum5t fur!r1 
we %all require "s new weapons2 & by    
?is1 ,i mean a new classification (     
exi/5ce4 7#a7 ,!re is a f9ite elem5t (  
exi/5ce1 & 7#b7 an inf9ite1 & 7#c7 !    
union ( ! two1 & 7#d7 ! cause ( ! union4
 ,m may be add$ if !y are want$1 b at   

pres5t we c d )\t !m4 ,& fir/ ( !       
inf9ite or indef9ite3--,t is ! class :i*
 is d5ot$ by ! t]ms m or less1 & is     
always 9 a /ate ( comp>ison4 ,all words 
or ideas to :i* ! words 'g5tly1'        
'extremely1' & o!r comp>ative           
expressions are appli$1 fall "u ?is     
class4 ,! inf9ite w\ld be no long]      
inf9ite1 if limit$ or r$uc$ to measure  
by numb] & quantity4 ,! opposite class  
is ! limit$ or f9ite1 & includes all ?+s
 :i* h numb] & quantity4 ,& !re is a    
?ird class ( g5]ation into ess5ce by !  
union ( ! f9ite & inf9ite1 9 :i* ! f9ite
 gives law to ! inf9ite2--"u ?is are    
compreh5d$ heal?1 /r5g?1 temp]ate       
seasons1 h>mony1 beauty1 & ! l4 ,!      
goddess ( beauty saw ! univ]sal         
wantonness ( all ?+s1 & gave law & ord] 
to be ! salvation ( ! s\l4 ,b no effect 
c be g5]at$ )\t a cause1 & !re=e !re mu/
 be a f\r? class1 :i* is ! cause (      
g5]ation2 = ! cause or ag5t is n ! same 
z ! pati5t or effect4  ,& n[1 hav+      
obta9$ our classes1 we may det]m9e 9 :i*

 our conqu]or life is to be plac$3      
,cle>ly 9 ! ?ird or mix$ class1 9 :i* ! 
f9ite gives law to ! inf9ite4 ,& 9 :i*  
is pleasure to f9d a place8 ,z cle>ly 9 
! inf9ite or indef9ite1 :i* alone1 z    
,prot>*us ?9ks 7:o seems to confuse !   
inf9ite ) ! sup]lative71 gives to       
pleasure ! "* ( ! absolute good4 ,yes1  
retorts ,socrates1 & also to pa9 ! "* ( 
absolute evil4 ,& !re=e ! inf9ite _c be 
t :i* imp>ts to pleasure ! nature ( !   
good4 ,b :]e %all we place m9d8 ,t is a 
v s]i\s & awful "q1 :i* may be prefac$  
by ano!r4 ,is m9d or *ance ! "l ( !     
univ]se8 ,all philosoph]s w say ! fir/1 
& yet1 p]haps1 !y may be only magnify+  
!mselves4 ,& = ?is reason ,i %\ld l to  
consid] ! matt] a little m deeply1 ev5  
?\gh "s lov]s ( disord] 9 ! _w %\ld     
ridicule my attempt4  ,n[ ! elem5ts e>?1
 air1 fire1 wat]1 exi/ 9 u1 & !y exi/ 9 
! cosmos2 b !y are pur] & fair] 9 !     
cosmos ?an !y are 9 u1 & !y come to u f 
!nce4 ,& z we h a s\l z well z a body1 9
 l mann] ! elem5ts ( ! f9ite1 ! inf9ite1

 ! union ( ! two1 & ! cause1 are f\nd to
 exi/ 9 u4 ,& if !y1 l ! elem5ts1 exi/ 9
 u1 & ! ?ree fir/ exi/ 9 ! _w1 mu/ n !  
f\r? or cause :i* is ! noble/ ( !m1 exi/
 9 ! _w8 ,& ?is cause is wisdom or m9d1 
! royal m9d ( ,zeus1 :o is ! k+ ( all1 z
 !re are o!r gods :o h o!r noble        
attributes4 ,obs]ve h[ well ?is agrees )
 ! te/imony ( m5 ( old1 :o affirm$ m9d  
to be ! rul] ( ! univ]se4 ,& rememb] t  
m9d belongs to ! class :i* we t]m !     
cause1 & pleasure to ! inf9ite or       
indef9ite class4 ,we w exam9e ! place & 
orig9 ( bo?4  ,:at is ! orig9 (         
pleasure8 ,h] natural seat is ! mix$    
class1 9 :i* heal? & h>mony 7 plac$4    
,pa9 is ! violation1 & pleasure !       
re/oration ( limit4 ,!re is a natural   
union ( f9ite & inf9ite1 :i* 9 hung]1   
?ir/1 heat1 cold1 is impair$--?is is    
pa9ful1 b ! return to nature1 9 :i* !   
elem5ts are re/or$ to _! normal         
proportions1 is pleasant4 ,"h is our    
fir/ class ( pleasures4 ,& ano!r class (
 pleasures & pa9s are hopes & fe>s2 ^!  

are 9 ! m9d only4 ,& inasmu* z !        
pleasures are unalloy$ by pa9s & ! pa9s 
by pleasures1 ! exam9ation ( !m may %[ u
 :e!r all pleasure is to be desir$1 or  
:e!r ?is entire desirabl5ess is n r !   
attribute ( ano!r class4 ,b if pleasures
 & pa9s consi/ 9 ! violation &          
re/oration ( limit1 may !re n be a      
neutral /ate1 9 :i* !re is nei!r        
dissolution nor re/oration8 ,t is a     
fur!r "q1 & admitt+1 z we mu/1 !        
possibility ( su* a /ate1 !re seems to  
be no reason :y ! life ( wisdom %\ld n  
exi/ 9 ?is neutral /ate1 :i* is1        
moreov]1 ! /ate ( ! gods1 :o _c1 )\t    
indec5cy1 be suppos$ to feel ei!r joy or
 sorr[4  ,! second class ( pleasures    
involves memory4 ,!re are affections :i*
 are ext+ui%$ be=e !y rea* ! s\l1 & ( ^!
 !re is no consci\sness1 & !re=e no     
memory4 ,& !re are affections :i* ! body
 & s\l feel toge!r1 & ?is feel+ is t]m$ 
consci\sness4 ,& memory is ! pres]vation
 ( consci\sness1 & rem9isc5ce is !      
recov]y ( consci\sness4 ,n[ ! memory (  

pleasure1 :5 a man is 9 pa91 is ! memory
 ( ! opposite ( 8 actual bodily /ate1 & 
is !re=e n 9 ! body1 b 9 ! m9d4 ,& !re  
may be an int]m$iate /ate1 9 :i* a p]son
 is balanc$ betwe5 pleasure & pa92 9 8  
body !re is want :i* is a cause ( pa91 b
 9 8 m9d a sure hope ( repl5i%m5t1 :i*  
is pleasant4 7,b if ! hope be conv]t$   
into despair1 he has two pa9s & n a     
balance ( pa9 & pleasure47 ,ano!r "q is 
rais$3 ,may n pleasures1 l op9ions1 be  
true & false8 ,9 ! s5se ( be+ real1 bo? 
mu/ be admitt$ to be true3 nor c we d5y 
t to bo? ( !m qualities may be          
attribut$2 = pleasures z well z op9ions 
may be describ$ z good or bad4 ,& ?\gh  
we d n all ( u all[ t !re are true &    
false pleasures1 we all ackn[l$ge t !re 
are "s pleasures associat$ ) "r op9ion1 
& o!rs ) falsehood & ignorance4 ,let u  
endeav\r to analyze ! nature ( ?is      
association4  ,op9ion is bas$ on        
p]ception1 :i* may be correct or mi/ak54
 ,y may see a figure at a di/ance1 & say
 fir/ ( all1 ',?is is a man1' & !n say1 

',no1 ?is is an image made by !         
%eph]ds4' ,& y may affirm ?is 9 a       
proposition to y\r companion1 or make ! 
rem>k m5tally to y\rself4 ,:e!r ! words 
are actually spok5 or n1 on su*         
occasions !re is a scribe )9 :o regi/]s 
!m1 & a pa9t] :o pa9ts ! images ( ! ?+s 
:i* ! scribe has writt5 d[n 9 ! s\l1--at
 lea/ t is my own notion ( ! process2 & 
! words & images :i* are inscrib$ by !m 
may be ei!r true or false2 & !y may     
repres5t ei!r pa/1 pres5t1 or future4   
,&1 repres5t+ ! future1 !y mu/ also     
repres5t ! pleasures & pa9s (           
anticipation--! visions ( gold & o!r    
fancies :i* are nev] want+ 9 ! m9d (    
man4 ,n[ ^! hopes1 z !y are t]m$1 are   
propositions1 :i* are sometimes true1 & 
sometimes false2 = ! good1 :o are !     
fri5ds ( ! gods1 see true pictures ( !  
future1 & ! bad false ones4 ,& z !re may
 be op9ion ab\t ?+s :i* are n1 7 n1 & w 
n be1 :i* is op9ion /ill1 s !re may be  
pleasure ab\t ?+s :i* are n1 7 n1 & w n 
be1 :i* is pleasure /ill1--t is to say1 

false pleasure2 & only :5 false1 c      
pleasure1 l op9ion1 be vici\s4 ,aga9/   
?is conclusion ,prot>*us reclaims4      
,leav+ 8 d5ial = ! pres5t1 ,socrates    
proce$s to %[ t "s pleasures are false f
 ano!r po9t ( view4 ,9 desire1 z we     
admitt$1 ! body is divid$ f ! s\l1 &    
h5ce pleasures & pa9s are (t5           
simultane\s4 ,& we fur!r admitt$ t bo? (
 !m belong$ to ! inf9ite class4 ,h[1 !n1
 c we comp>e !m8 ,are we n liable1 or r 
c]ta91 z 9 ! case ( sight1 to be deceiv$
 by di/ance & relation8 ,9 ?is case !   
pleasures & pa9s are n false because    
bas$ ^u false op9ion1 b are !mselves    
false4 ,& !re is ano!r illusion3 pa9 has
 (t5 be5 said by u to arise out ( !     
d]angem5t--pleasure out ( !             
re/oration--( our nature4 ,b 9 pass+ f  
"o to ! o!r1 d we n exp]i5ce neutral    
/ates1 :i* al?\gh !y appe> pleasureable 
or pa9ful are really nei!r8 ,= ev5 if we
 admit1 ) ! wise man :om ,prot>*us loves
 7& only a wise man c\ld h ev] ent]ta9$ 
su* a notion71 t all ?+s are 9 a        

p]petual flux1 /ill ^! *anges are (t5   
unconsci\s1 & devoid ei!r ( pleasure or 
pa94 ,we assume1 !n1 t !re are ?ree     
/ates--pleasureable1 pa9ful1 neutral2 we
 may embelli% a little by call+ !m gold1
 silv]1 & t :i* is nei!r4  ,b !re are   
c]ta9 natural philosoph]s :o w n admit a
 ?ird /ate4 ,_! in/9ctive dislike to    
pleasure leads !m to affirm t pleasure  
is only ! abs5ce ( pa94 ,!y are noble   
fell[s1 &1 al?\gh we d n agree ) !m1 we 
may use !m z div9]s :o w indicate to u !
 "r track4 ,!y w say1 t ! nature ( any?+
 is be/ kn[n f ! exam9ation ( extreme   
cases1 e4g4 ! nature ( h>dness f !      
exam9ation ( ! h>de/ ?+s2 & t ! nature (
 pleasure w be be/ und]/ood f an        
exam9ation ( ! mo/ int5se pleasures4 ,n[
 ^! are ! pleasures ( ! body1 n ( ! m9d2
 ! pleasures ( disease & n ( heal?1 !   
pleasures ( ! intemp]ate & n ( !        
temp]ate4 ,i am speak+1 n ( ! frequ5cy  
or cont9uance1 b only ( ! int5sity ( su*
 pleasures1 & ?is is giv5 !m by contra/ 
) ! pa9 or sickness ( body :i* prec$es  

!m4 ,_! morbid nature is illu/rat$ by ! 
less] in/ances ( it*+ & scrat*+1        
respect+ :i* ,i swe> t ,i _c tell :e!r  
!y are a pleasure or a pa94 7#a7 ,"s (  
^! arise out ( a transition f "o /ate ( 
! body to ano!r1 z f cold to hot2 7#b7  
o!rs are caus$ by ! contra/ ( an int]nal
 pa9 & an ext]nal pleasure 9 ! body3    
sometimes ! feel+ ( pa9 pr$om9ates1 z 9 
it*+ & t+l+1 :5 !y are reliev$ by       
scrat*+2 sometimes ! feel+ ( pleasure3  
or ! pleasure :i* !y give may be q      
ov]p[]+1 & is !n accompani$ by all sorts
 ( unutt]able feel+s :i* h a dea? (     
delights 9 !m4 ,b !re are also mix$     
pleasures :i* are 9 ! m9d only4 ,= are n
 love & sorr[ z well z ang] 'sweet] ?an 
honey1' & also full ( pa98 ,is !re n a  
mixture ( feel+s 9 ! spectator ( trag$y8
 & ( com$y also8 ',i d n und]/& t la/4' 
,well1 !n1 ) ! view ( light+ up !       
obscurity ( ^! mix$ feel+s1 let me ask  
:e!r envy is pa9ful4 ',yes4' ,& yet !   
envi\s man f9ds some?+ pleas+ 9 !       
mis=tunes ( o!rs8 ',true4' ,& ignorance 

is a mis=tune8 ',c]ta9ly4' ,& "o =m (   
ignorance is self-conceit--a man may    
fancy himself ri*]1 fair]1 bett]1 wis]  
?an he is8 ',yes4' ,& he :o ?us deceives
 himself may be /rong or weak8 ',he     
may4' ,& if he is /rong we fe> him1 & if
 he is weak we laugh at him1 :i* is a   
pleasure1 & yet we envy him1 :i* is a   
pa98 ,^! mix$ feel+s are ! rationale (  
trag$y & com$y1 & equally ! rationale ( 
! great] drama ( human life4 7,!re      
appe>s to be "s confusion 9 ?is passage4
 ,!re is no difficulty 9 see+ t 9 com$y1
 z 9 trag$y1 ! spectator may view !     
p]=mance ) mix$ feel+s ( pa9 z well z ( 
pleasure2 nor is !re any difficulty 9   
und]/&+ t envy is a mix$ feel+1 :i*     
rejoices n )\t pa9 at ! mis=tunes (     
o!rs1 & laughs at _! ignorance (        
!mselves4 ,b ,plato seems to ?9k fur!r t
 he has expla9$ ! feel+ ( ! spectator 9 
com$y suffici5tly by a !ory :i* only    
applies to com$y 9 s f> z 9 com$y we    
laugh at ! conceit or weakness ( o!rs4  
,he has c]ta9ly giv5 a v p>tial         

explanation ( ! ridicul\s47 ,hav+ %[n h[
 sorr[1 ang]1 envy are feel+s ( a mix$  
nature1 ,i w res]ve ! consid]ation ( !  
rema9d] = ano!r occasion4  ,next foll[ !
 unmix$ pleasures2 :i*1 unlike !        
philosoph]s ( :om ,i 0 speak+1 ,i       
believe to be real4 ,^! unmix$ pleasures
 are3 7#a7 ,! pleasures d]iv$ f beauty (
 =m1 col\r1 s\nd1 smell1 :i* are        
absolutely pure2 & 9 g5]al ^? :i* are   
unalloy$ ) pa93 7#b7 ,! pleasures d]iv$ 
f ! acquisition ( k1 :i* 9 !mselves are 
pure1 b may be att5d$ by an accid5tal   
pa9 ( =gett+2 ?is1 h[ev]1 arises f a    
subsequ5t act ( reflection1 ( :i* we ne$
 take no acc\nt4 ,at ! same "t1 we admit
 t ! latt] pleasures are ! prop]ty ( a v
 few4 ,to ^! pure & unmix$ pleasures we 
ascribe measure1 :]eas all o!rs belong  
to ! class ( ! inf9ite1 & are liable to 
e species ( excess4 ,& "h sev]al        
que/ions arise = consid]ation3--,:at is 
! mean+ ( pure & impure1 ( mod]ate &    
immod]ate8 ,we may answ] ! "q by an     
illu/ration3 ,purity ( :ite pa9t consi/s

 9 ! cle>ness or quality ( ! :ite1 & ?is
 is di/9ct f ! quantity or am\nt ( :ite 
pa9t2 a little pure :ite is fair] ?an a 
great deal :i* is impure4 ,b !re is     
ano!r "q3--,pleasure is affirm$ by +5i\s
 philosoph]s to be a g5]ation2 !y say t 
!re are two natures--"o self-exi/5t1 !  
o!r dep5d5t2 ! "o noble & maje/ic1 ! o!r
 fail+ 9 bo? ^! qualities4 ',i d n      
und]/&4' ,!re are lov]s & !re are loves4
 ',yes1 ,i "k1 b :at is ! application8' 
,! argum5t is 9 play1 & desires to      
intimate t !re are relatives & !re are  
absolutes1 & t ! relative is = ! sake ( 
! absolute2 & g5]ation is = ! sake (    
ess5ce4 ,"u relatives ,i class all ?+s  
done ) a view to g5]ation2 & ess5ce is (
 ! class ( good4 ,b if ess5ce is ( !    
class ( good1 g5]ation mu/ be ( "s o!r  
class2 & our fri5ds1 :o affirm t        
pleasure is a g5]ation1 w\ld laugh at ! 
notion t pleasure is a good2 & at t o!r 
notion1 t pleasure is produc$ by        
g5]ation1 :i* is only ! alt]native (    
de/ruction4 ,:o w\ld pref] su* an       

alt]nation to ! equable life ( pure     
?\ght8 ,"h is "o absurdity1 & n ! only  
"o1 to :i* ! fri5ds ( pleasure are      
r$uc$4 ,= is !re n also an absurdity 9  
affirm+ t good is ( ! s\l only2 or 9    
decl>+ t ! be/ ( m51 if he be 9 pa91 is 
bad8  ,& n[1 f ! consid]ation (         
pleasure1 we pass to t ( k4 ,let u      
reflect t !re are two k9ds ( k--! "o    
creative or productive1 & ! o!r         
educational & philosophical4 ,( !       
creative arts1 !re is "o "p pur] or m   
ak9 to k ?an ! o!r4 ,!re is an elem5t ( 
guess-"w & an elem5t ( numb] & measure 9
 !m4 ,9 music1 = example1 especially 9  
flute-play+1 ! conjectural elem5t       
prevails2 :ile 9 c>p5t]+ !re is m       
application ( rule & measure4 ,( !      
creative arts1 !n1 we may make two      
classes--! less exact & ! m exact4 ,& ! 
exact] "p ( all ( !m is really ari?metic
 & m5suration4 ,b ari?metic & m5suration
 aga9 may be subdivid$ ) ref]5ce ei!r to
 _! use 9 ! concrete1 or to _! nature 9 
! ab/ract--z !y are reg>d$ popul>ly 9   

build+ & b9d+1 or !oretically by        
philosoph]s4 ,&1 borr[+ ! analogy (     
pleasure1 we may say t ! philosophical  
use ( !m is pur] ?an ! o!r4 ,?us we h   
two arts ( ari?metic1 & two (           
m5suration4 ,& true/ ( all 9 ! e/imation
 ( e rational man is dialectic1 or !    
sci5ce ( be+1 :i* w =get & dis[n u1 if  
we =get & dis[n h]4  ',b1 ,socrates1 ,i 
h he>d ,gorgias say t rhetoric is !     
greate/ & usefulle/ ( arts2 & ,i %\ld n 
l to qu>rel ei!r ) him or y4' ,nei!r is 
!re any inconsi/5cy1 ,prot>*us1 ) 8     
/atem5t 9 :at ,i am n[ say+2 = ,i am n  
ma9ta9+ t dialectic is ! greate/ or     
usefulle/1 b only t %e is ! true/ (     
arts2 my rem>k is n quantitative b      
qualitative1 & ref]s n to ! advantage or
 repetition ( ei!r1 b to ! degree ( tru?
 :i* !y atta9--"h ,gorgias w n c>e to   
compete2 ?is is :at we affirm to be     
possess$ 9 ! highe/ degree by dialectic4
 ,& d n let u appeal to ,gorgias or     
,philebus or ,socrates1 b ask1 on behalf
 ( ! argum5t1 :at are ! highe/ tru?s :i*

 ! s\l has ! p[] ( atta9+4 ,& is n ?is !
 sci5ce :i* has a firm] grasp ( !m ?an  
any o!r8 ,= ! arts g5]ally are only     
occupi$ ) matt]s ( op9ion1 & ) !        
production & action & passion ( ?is     
s5sible _w4 ,b ! highe/ tru? is t :i* is
 et]nal & un*angeable4 ,& reason &      
wisdom are conc]n$ ) ! et]nal2 & ^! are 
! v claimants1 if n = ! fir/1 at lea/ = 
! second place1 :om ,i propose z rivals 
to pleasure4  ,& n[1 hav+ ! mat]ials1 we
 may proce$ to mix !m--fir/ recapitulat+
 ! "q at issue4  ,philebus affirm$      
pleasure to be ! good1 & assum$ !m to be
 "o nature2 ,i affirm$ t !y 7 two       
natures1 & decl>$ t k 0 m ak9 to ! good 
?an pleasure4 ,i said t ! two toge!r 7 m
 eligible ?an ei!r tak5 s+ly2 & to ?is  
we adh]e4 ,reason intimates1 z at fir/1 
t we %\ld seek ! good n 9 ! unmix$ life1
 b 9 ! mix$4  ,! cup is ready1 wait+ to 
be m+l$1 & "h are two f\nta9s1 "o (     
honey1 ! o!r ( pure wat]1 out ( :i* to  
make ! faire/ possible mixture4 ,!re are
 pure & impure pleasures--pure & impure 

sci5ces4 ,let u consid] ! sections ( ea*
 :i* h ! mo/ ( purity & tru?2 to admit  
!m all indiscrim9ately w\ld be dang]\s4 
,fir/ we w take ! pure sci5ces2 b %all  
we m+le ! impure--! art :i* uses ! false
 rule & ! false measure8 ,t we mu/1 if  
we are any ( u to f9d our way home2 man 
_c live ^u pure ma!matics alone4 ,& mu/ 
,i include music1 :i* is admitt$ to be  
guess-"w8 ',yes1 y mu/1 if human life is
 to h any humanity4' ,well1 !n1 ,i w op5
 ! door & let !m all 92 !y %all m+le 9  
an ,hom]ic 'meet+ ( ! wat]s4' ,& n[ we  
turn to ! pleasures2 %all ,i admit !m8  
',admit fir/ ( all ! pure pleasures2    
secondly1 ! necess>y4' ,& :at %all we   
say ab\t ! re/8 ,fir/1 ask !            
pleasures--!y w be too happy to dwell ) 
wisdom4 ,secondly1 ask ! arts &         
sci5ces--!y reply t ! excesses (        
intemp]ance are ! ru9 ( !m2 & t !y w\ld 
r only h ! pleasures ( heal? &          
temp]ance1 :i* are ! h&maid5s ( virtue4 
,b /ill we want tru?8 ,t is n[ add$2 & s
 ! argum5t is complete1 & may be comp>$ 

to an incorporeal law1 :i* is to hold   
fair rule ov] a liv+ body4 ,& n[ we are 
at ! ve/ibule ( ! good1 9 :i* !re are   
?ree *ief elem5ts--tru?1 symmetry1 &    
beauty4 ,^! w be ! crit]ion ( !         
comp>ative claims ( pleasure & wisdom4  
,:i* has ! great] %>e ( tru?8 ,surely   
wisdom2 = pleasure is ! v]ie/ impo/or 9 
! _w1 & ! p]juries ( lov]s h pass$ into 
a prov]b4  ,:i* ( symmetry8 ,wisdom     
aga92 = no?+ is m immod]ate ?an         
pleasure4  ,:i* ( beauty8 ,once m1      
wisdom2 = pleasure is (t5 unseemly1 & ! 
greate/ pleasures are put out ( sight4  
,n pleasure1 !n1 ranks fir/ 9 ! scale ( 
good1 b measure1 & et]nal h>mony4       
,second comes ! symmetrical & beautiful 
& p]fect4  ,?ird1 m9d & wisdom4  ,f\r?1 
sci5ces & arts & true op9ions4  ,fif?1  
pa9less pleasures4  ,( a six? class1 ,i 
h no m to say4 ,?us1 pleasure & m9d may 
bo? r5\nce ! claim to ! fir/ place4 ,b  
m9d is t5 ?\s& times ne>] to ! *ief good
 ?an pleasure4 ,pleasure ranks fif? & n 
fir/1 ev5 ?\gh all ! animals 9 ! _w     

ass]t ! contr>y4  444  ,f ! days (      
,ari/ippus & ,epicurus to our own times 
! nature ( pleasure has occupi$ !       
att5tion ( philosoph]s4 ',is pleasure an
 evil8 a good8 ! only good8' are !      
simple =ms :i* ! enquiry assum$ among ! 
,socratic s*ools4 ,b at an e>ly /age ( !
 controv]sy ano!r "q 0 ask$3 ',d        
pleasures diff] 9 k9d8 & are "s bad1 "s 
good1 & "s nei!r bad nor good8' ,!re are
 bodily & !re are m5tal pleasures1 :i* 7
 at fir/ confus$ b aft]w>ds di/+ui%$4 ,a
 di/9ction 0 also made betwe5 necess>y &
 unnecess>y pleasures2 & aga9 betwe5    
pleasures :i* _h or _h n correspond+    
pa9s4 ,! anci5t philosoph]s 7 fond (    
ask+1 9 ! language ( _! age1 ',is       
pleasure a becom+ only1 & !re=e transi5t
 & relative1 or d "s pleasures p>take ( 
tru? & ,be+8' ,to ^! anci5t speculations
 ! mod]ns h add$ a fur!r "q3--',^:      
pleasure8 ,! pleasure ( y\rself1 or (   
y\r neighb\r1--( ! individual1 or ( !   
_w8' ,?is little addition has *ang$ !   
:ole aspect ( ! discussion3 ! same ^w is

 n[ suppos$ to include two pr9ciples z  
widely diff]5t z b5evol5ce & self-love4 
,"s mod]n writ]s h also di/+ui%$ betwe5 
pleasure ! te/1 & pleasure ! motive (   
actions4 ,= ! univ]sal te/ ( "r actions 
7h[ ,i "k !m7 may n always be ! highe/  
or be/ motive ( !m 7:y ,i d !m74        
,socrates1 z we le>n f ! ,memorabilia ( 
,x5ophon1 fir/ drew att5tion to !       
consequ5ces ( actions4 ,mank9d 7 said by
 him to act rightly :5 !y knew :at !y 7 
do+1 or1 9 ! language ( ! ,gorgias1 'did
 :at !y w\ld4' ,he seems to h be5 ! fir/
 :o ma9ta9$ t ! good 0 ! useful 7,mem474
 ,9 8 eag]ness = g5]alization1 seek+1 z 
,ari/otle says1 = ! univ]sal 9 ,e?ics   
7,metaph471 he took ! mo/ obvi\s        
intellectual aspect ( human action :i*  
occurr$ to him4 ,he meant to emphasize1 
n pleasure1 b ! calculation ( pleasure2 
nei!r is he argu+ t pleasure is ! *ief  
good1 b t we %\ld h a pr9ciple ( *oice4 
,he did n int5d to oppose '! useful' to 
"s high] conception1 su* z ! ,platonic  
ideal1 b to *ance & caprice4 ,!         

,platonic ,socrates pursues ! same ve9 (
 ?\ght 9 ! ,protagoras1 :]e he argues   
aga9/ ! s-call$ sophi/ t pleasure & pa9 
are ! f9al /&>ds & motives ( good &     
evil1 & t ! salvation ( human life      
dep5ds ^u a "r e/imate ( pleasures      
great] or less :5 se5 ne> & at a        
di/ance4 ,! te/imony ( ,x5ophon is ?us  
confirm$ by t ( ,plato1 & we are !re=e  
ju/ifi$ 9 call+ ,socrates ! fir/        
utilit>ian2 z inde$ !re is no side or   
aspect ( philosophy :i* may n ) reason  
be ascrib$ to him--he is ,cynic &       
,cyr5aic1 ,platoni/ & ,ari/otelian 9 "o4
 ,b 9 ! ,pha$o ! ,socratic has already  
pass$ into a m ideal po9t ( view2 & he1 
or r ,plato speak+ 9 8 p]son1 expressly 
repudiates ! notion t ! ex*ange ( a less
 pleasure = a great] c be an ex*ange (  
virtue4 ,su* virtue is ! virtue ( ord9>y
 m5 :o live 9 ! _w ( appe>ance2 !y are  
temp]ate only t !y may enjoy ! pleasures
 ( intemp]ance1 & c\rage\s f fe> (      
dang]4 ,:]eas ! philosoph] is seek+ aft]
 wisdom & n aft] pleasure1 :e!r ne> or  

di/ant3 he is ! my/ic1 ! initiat$1 :o   
has le>nt to despise ! body & is ye>n+  
all 8 life long = a tru? :i* w h]eaft]  
be reveal$ to him4 ,9 ! ,republic !     
pleasures ( k are affirm$ to be sup]ior 
to o!r pleasures1 because ! philosoph] s
 e/imates !m2 & he alone has _h exp]i5ce
 ( bo? k9ds4 7,comp>e a simil> argum5t  
urg$ by "o ( ! late/ def5d]s (          
,utilit>ianism1 ,mill's ,utilit>ianism74
 ,9 ! ,philebus1 ,plato1 al?\gh he      
reg>ds ! enemies ( pleasure )           
complac5cy1 /ill fur!r modifies !       
transc5d5talism ( ! ,pha$o4 ,= he is    
compell$ to confess1 r reluctantly1     
p]haps1 t "s pleasures1 i4e4 ^? :i* h no
 antec$5t pa9s1 claim a place 9 ! scale 
( goods4  ,!re h be5 _m reasons :y n    
only ,plato b mank9d 9 g5]al h be5      
unwill+ to ackn[l$ge t 'pleasure is !   
*ief good4' ,ei!r !y h he>d a voice     
call+ to !m out ( ano!r _w2 or ! life & 
example ( "s great tea*] has ca/ _!     
?\ghts ( "r & wrong 9 ano!r m\ld2 or !  
^w 'pleasure' has be5 associat$ 9 _! m9d

 ) m]ely animal enjoym5t4 ,!y c\ld n    
believe t :at !y 7 always /riv+ to      
ov]come1 & ! p[] or pr9ciple 9 !m :i*   
ov]came1 7 ( ! same nature4 ,! pleasure 
( do+ good to o!rs & ( bodily           
self-indulg5ce1 ! pleasures ( intellect 
& ! pleasures ( s5se1 are s             
diff]5t3--,:y !n %\ld !y be call$ by a  
common "n8 ,or1 if ! equivocal or       
metaphorical use ( ! ^w is ju/ifi$ by   
cu/om 7l ! use ( o!r words :i* at fir/  
ref]r$ only to ! body1 & !n by a figure 
h be5 transf]r$ to ! m9d71 /ill1 :y %\ld
 we make an ambigu\s ^w ! corn]-/one (  
moral philosophy8 ,to ! high] ?9k] !    
,utilit>ian or h$oni/ mode ( speak+ has 
be5 at v>iance ) religion & ) any high] 
conception bo? ( politics & ( morals4 ,x
 has n satisfi$ _! imag9ation2 x has    
(f5d$ _! ta/e4 ,to elevate pleasure1 '! 
mo/ fleet+ ( all ?+s1' into a g5]al idea
 seems to su* m5 a contradiction4 ,!y d 
n desire to br+ d[n _! !ory to ! level (
 _! practice4 ,! simplicity ( ! 'greate/
 happ9ess' pr9ciple has be5 acceptable  

to philosoph]s1 b ! bett] "p ( ! _w has 
be5 sl[ to receive x4  ,be=e proce$+1 we
 may make a few admissions :i* w n>r[ ! 
field ( dispute2 & we may z well leave  
beh9d a few prejudices1 :i* intellig5t  
oppon5ts ( ,utilit>ianism h by ?is "t   
'agre$ to disc>d'4 ,we admit t ,utility 
is coext5sive ) "r1 & t no action c be  
"r :i* does n t5d to ! happ9ess (       
mank9d2 we ackn[l$ge t a l>ge class (   
actions are made "r or wrong by _!      
consequ5ces only2 we say fur!r t mank9d 
are n too m9dful1 b t !y are f> too     
reg>dless ( consequ5ces1 & t !y ne$ to h
 ! doctr9e ( utility habitually         
inculcat$ on !m4 ,we recognize ! value (
 a pr9ciple :i* c supply a connect+ l9k 
betwe5 ,e?ics & ,politics1 & "u :i* all 
human actions are or may be includ$4 ,! 
desire to promote happ9ess is no mean   
pref]5ce ( exp$i5cy to "r1 b "o ( !     
highe/ & noble/ motives by :i* human    
nature c be animat$4 ,nei!r 9 ref]r+    
actions to ! te/ ( utility h we to make 
a labori\s calculation1 any m ?an 9 try+

 !m by o!r /&>ds ( morals4 ,= long ago  
!y h be5 classifi$ suffici5tly = all    
practical purposes by ! ?9k]1 by !      
legislator1 by ! op9ion ( ! _w4 ,:atev] 
may be ! hypo!sis on :i* !y are expla9$1
 or :i* 9 d\btful cases may be appli$ to
 ! regulation ( !m1 we are v r>ely1 if  
ev]1 call$ ^u at ! mom5t ( p]=m+ !m to  
det]m9e _! effect ^u ! happ9ess (       
mank9d4  ,!re is a !ory :i* has be5     
contra/$ ) ,utility by ,paley & o!rs--! 
!ory ( a moral s5se3 ,are our ideas ( "r
 & wrong innate or d]iv$ f exp]i5ce8    
,?is1 p]haps1 is ano!r ( ^? speculations
 :i* intellig5t m5 might 'agree to      
disc>d4' ,= x has be5 worn ?readb>e2 &  
ei!r alt]native is equally consi/5t ) a 
transc5d5tal or ) an eudaemoni/ic sy/em 
( e?ics1 ) a greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple  
or ) ,kant's law ( duty4 ,yet to avoid  
misconception1 :at appe>s to be ! tru?  
ab\t ! orig9 ( our moral ideas may be   
%ortly summ$ up z foll[s3--,to ea* ( u  
individually our moral ideas come fir/ (
 all 9 *ildhood ?r\gh ! m$ium (         

education1 f p>5ts & tea*]s1 assi/$ by !
 unconsci\s influ5ce ( language2 !y are 
impress$ ^u a m9d :i* at fir/ is l a    
wax5 tablet1 adapt$ to receive !m2 b !y 
soon become fix$ or set1 & 9 aft] life  
are /r5g!n$1 or p]haps weak5$ by ! =ce (
 public op9ion4 ,!y may be correct$ &   
enl>g$ by exp]i5ce1 !y may be reason$   
ab\t1 !y may be br\ght home to u by !   
circum/ances ( our lives1 !y may be     
int5sifi$ by imag9ation1 by reflection1 
by a c\rse ( action likely to confirm   
!m4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( religi\s feel+ or  
by an ef=t ( ?\ght1 any "o beg9n+ ) !   
ord9>y rules ( morality may create out (
 !m = himself ideals ( hol9ess & virtue4
 ,!y slumb] 9 ! m9ds ( mo/ m51 yet 9 all
 ( u !re rema9s "s t9cture ( affection1 
"s desire ( good1 "s s5se ( tru?1 "s fe>
 ( ! law4 ,( "s su* /ate or process ea* 
individual is consci\s 9 himself1 & if  
he comp>es 8 own exp]i5ce ) t ( o!rs he 
w f9d ! witness ( _! consci5ces to      
co9cide ) t ( 8 own4 ,all ( u h ent]$   
into an inh]itance :i* we h ! p[] (     

appropriat+ & mak+ use (4 ,no great ef=t
 ( m9d is requir$ on our "p2 we le>n    
morals1 z we le>n to talk1 in/9ctively1 
f conv]s+ ) o!rs1 9 an enlight5$ age1 9 
a civiliz$ c\ntry1 9 a good home4 ,a    
well-educat$ *ild ( t5 ye>s old already 
kn[s ! ess5tials ( morals3 ',?\ %alt n  
/eal1' '?\ %alt speak ! tru?1' '?\ %alt 
love ?y p>5ts1' '?\ %alt fe> ,god4' ,:at
 m does he want8  ,b :5ce comes ?is     
common inh]itance or /ock ( moral ideas8
 ,_! beg9n+1 l all o!r beg9n+s ( human  
?+s1 is obscure1 & is ! lea/ important  
"p ( !m4 ,imag9e1 if y w1 t ,society    
orig9at$ 9 ! h]d+ ( brutes1 9 _! p>5tal 
in/9cts1 9 _! rude attempts at          
self-pres]vation3--,man is n man 9 t he 
resembles1 b 9 t he diff]s f !m4 ,we mu/
 pass into ano!r cycle ( exi/5ce1 be=e  
we c discov] 9 him by any evid5ce       
accessible to u ev5 ! g]ms ( our moral  
ideas4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w1 :i* view$ f  
)9 is ! hi/ory ( ! human m9d1 !y h be5  
sl[ly creat$ by religion1 by poetry1 by 
law1 hav+ _! f\ndation 9 ! natural      

affections & 9 ! necessity ( "s degree (
 tru? & ju/ice 9 a social /ate2 !y h be5
 deep5$ & enl>g$ by ! ef=ts ( great     
?9k]s :o h idealiz$ & connect$ !m--by ! 
lives ( sa9ts & prophets :o h taught &  
exemplifi$ !m4 ,! s*ools ( anci5t       
philosophy :i* seem s f> f u--,socrates1
 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ! ,/oics1 !         
,epicureans1 & a few mod]n tea*]s1 su* z
 ,kant & ,b5?am1 h ea* ( !m suppli$     
'mom5ts' ( ?\ght to ! _w4 ,! life (     
,*ri/ has embodi$ a div9e love1 wisdom1 
pati5ce1 reasonabl5ess4 ,= 8 image1     
h[ev] imp]fectly h&$ d[n to u1 ! mod]n  
_w has receiv$ a /&>d m p]fect 9 idea   
?an ! societies ( anci5t times1 b also  
fur!r remov$ f practice4 ,= !re is      
c]ta9ly a great] int]val betwe5 ! !ory &
 practice ( ,*ri/ians ?an betwe5 ! !ory 
& practice ( ! ,greeks & ,romans2 !     
ideal is m above u1 & ! aspiration aft] 
good has (t5 l5t a /range p[] to evil4  
,& sometimes1 z at ! ,re=mation1 or     
,fr5* ,revolution1 :5 ! upp] classes ( a
 s-call$ ,*ri/ian c\ntry h become       

corrupt$ by prie/craft1 by casui/ry1 by 
lic5ti\sness1 by despotism1 ! l[] h ris5
 up & re-ass]t$ ! natural s5se (        
religion & "r4  ,we may fur!r rem>k t   
our moral ideas1 z ! _w gr[s old]1      
p]haps z we gr[ old] ourselves1 unless  
!y h be5 und]m9$ 9 u by false philosophy
 or ! practice ( m5tal analysis1 or     
infect$ by ! corruption ( society or by 
"s moral disord] 9 ! individual1 are    
con/antly assum+ a m natural & necess>y 
"*4 ,! habit ( ! m9d1 ! op9ion ( ! _w1  
famili>izes !m to u2 & !y take m & m !  
=m ( imm$iate intuition4 ,! moral s5se  
comes la/ & n fir/ 9 ! ord] ( _!        
developm5t1 & is ! in/9ct :i* we h      
inh]it$ or acquir$1 n ! nobl] ef=t (    
reflection :i* creat$ !m & :i* keeps !m 
alive4 ,we d n /op to reason ab\t common
 hone/y4 ,:5ev] we are n bl9d$ by       
self-deceit1 z = example 9 judg+ !      
actions ( o!rs1 we h no hesitation 9    
det]m9+ :at is "r & wrong4 ,! pr9ciples 
( morality1 :5 n at v>iance ) "s desire 
or worldly int]e/ ( our own1 or ) !     

op9ion ( ! public1 are h>dly p]ceiv$ by 
u2 b 9 ! conflict ( reason & passion !y 
ass]t _! au?ority & are n ov]come )\t   
remorse4  ,su* is a brief outl9e ( !    
hi/ory ( our moral ideas4 ,we h to      
di/+ui%1 fir/ ( all1 ! mann] 9 :i* !y h 
gr[n up 9 ! _w f ! mann] 9 :i* !y h be5 
communicat$ to ea* ( u4 ,we may repres5t
 !m to ourselves z fl[+ out ( ! b\ndless
 ocean ( language & ?\ght 9 little      
rills1 :i* convey !m to ! he>t & bra9 ( 
ea* individual4 ,b nei!r mu/ we conf\nd 
! !ories or aspects ( morality ) ! orig9
 ( our moral ideas4 ,^! are n ! roots or
 'orig9es' ( morals1 b ! late/ ef=ts (  
reflection1 ! lights 9 :i* ! :ole moral 
_w has be5 reg>d$ by diff]5t ?9k]s &    
successive g5]ations ( m54 ,if we ask3  
,:i* ( ^! _m !ories is ! true "o8 we may
 answ]3 ,all ( !m--moral s5se1 innate   
ideas1 a priori1 a po/]iori notions1 !  
philosophy ( exp]i5ce1 ! philosophy (   
intuition--all ( !m h add$ some?+ to our
 conception ( ,e?ics2 no "o ( !m is !   
:ole tru?4 ,b to decide h[ f> our ideas 

( morality are d]iv$ f "o s\rce or      
ano!r2 to det]m9e :at hi/ory1 :at       
philosophy has contribut$ to !m2 to     
di/+ui% ! orig9al1 simple elem5ts f !   
manifold & complex applications ( !m1   
w\ld be a long enquiry too f> remov$ f !
 "q :i* we are n[ pursu+4  ,be>+ 9 m9d !
 di/9ction :i* we h be5 seek+ to e/abli%
 betwe5 our e>lie/ & our mo/ mature     
ideas ( morality1 we may n[ proce$ to   
/ate ! !ory ( ,utility1 n exactly 9 !   
words1 b 9 ! _s ( "o ( its able/ & mo/  
mod]ate support]s 7,mill's              
,utilit>ianism73--',t :i* alone makes   
actions ei!r "r or desirable is _!      
utility1 or t5d5cy to promote ! happ9ess
 ( mank9d1 or1 9 o!r words1 to increase 
! sum ( pleasure 9 ! _w4 ,b all         
pleasures are n ! same3 !y diff] 9      
quality z well z 9 quantity1 & !        
pleasure :i* is sup]ior 9 quality is    
incomm5surable ) ! inf]ior4 ,nei!r is ! 
pleasure or happ9ess1 :i* we seek1 our  
own pleasure1 b t ( o!rs1--( our family1
 ( our c\ntry1 ( mank9d4 ,! desire (    

?is1 & ev5 ! sacrifice ( our own int]e/ 
to t ( o!r m51 may become a passion to a
 rightly educat$ nature4 ,! ,utilit>ian 
f9ds a place 9 8 sy/em = ?is virtue & = 
e o!r4'  ,good or happ9ess or pleasure  
is ?us reg>d$ z ! true & only end (     
human life4 ,to ?is all our desires w be
 f\nd to t5d1 & 9 accordance ) ?is all !
 virtues1 includ+ ju/ice1 may be        
expla9$4 ,admitt+ t m5 re/ = a "t 9     
inf]ior ends1 & d n ca/ _! eyes beyond  
!m1 ^! ends are really dep5d5t on !     
great] end ( happ9ess1 & w\ld n be      
pursu$1 unless 9 g5]al !y _h be5 f\nd to
 lead to x4 ,! exi/5ce ( su* an end is  
prov$1 z 9 ,ari/otle's "t1 s 9 our own1 
by ! univ]sal fact t m5 desire x4 ,!    
obligation to promote x is bas$ ^u !    
social nature ( man2 ?is s5se ( duty is 
%>$ by all ( u 9 "s degree1 & is capable
 ( be+ greatly fo/]$ & /r5g!n$4 ,s f> f 
be+ inconsi/5t ) religion1 ! greate/    
happ9ess pr9ciple is 9 ! highe/ degree  
agreeable to x4 ,= :at c be m reasonable
 ?an t ,god %\ld w ! happ9ess ( all 8   

creatures8 & 9 work+ out _! happ9ess we 
may be said to be 'work+ toge!r ) him4' 
,nor is x inconceivable t a new         
en?usiasm ( ! future1 f> /rong] ?an any 
old religion1 may be bas$ ^u su* a      
conception4  ,b !n = ! famili> phrase ( 
! 'greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple1' x seems z
 if we ought n[ to read '! noble/       
happ9ess pr9ciple1' '! happ9ess ( o!rs  
pr9ciple'--! pr9ciple n ( ! greate/1 b (
 ! highe/ pleasure1 pursu$ ) no m reg>d 
to our own imm$iate int]e/ ?an is       
requir$ by ! law ( self-pres]vation4    
,transf] ! ?\ght ( happ9ess to ano!r    
life1 dropp+ ! ext]nal circum/ances :i* 
=m s l>ge a "p ( our idea ( happ9ess 9  
?is1 & ! mean+ ( ! ^w becomes           
indi/+ui%able f hol9ess1 h>mony1 wisdom1
 love4 ,by ! slight addition '( o!rs1'  
all ! associations ( ! ^w are alt]$2 we 
seem to h pass$ ov] f "o !ory ( morals  
to ! opposite4 ,= all[+ t ! happ9ess (  
o!rs is reflect$ on ourselves1 & also t 
e man mu/ live be=e he c d good to o!rs1
 /ill ! la/ limitation is a v trifl+    

exception1 & ! happ9ess ( ano!r is v f> 
f comp5sat+ = ! loss ( our own4 ,accord+
 to ,mr4 ,mill1 he w\ld be/ c>ry out !  
pr9ciple ( utility :o sacrific$ 8 own   
pleasure mo/ to t ( 8 fell[-m54 ,b if s1
 ,hobbes & ,butl]1 ,%aftesbury & ,hume1 
are n s f> ap>t z !y & _! foll[]s       
imag9e4 ,! ?\ght ( self & ! ?\ght ( o!rs
 are alike sup]s$$ 9 ! m g5]al notion ( 
! happ9ess ( mank9d at l>ge4 ,b 9 ?is   
composite good1 until society becomes   
p]fect$1 ! fri5d ( man himself has      
g5]ally ! lea/ %>e1 & may be a great    
suff]]4  ,& n[ :at objection h we to    
urge aga9/ a sy/em ( moral philosophy s 
b5efic5t1 s enlight5$1 s ideal1 & at !  
same "t s practical1--s ,*ri/ian1 z we  
may say )\t exagg]ation1--& :i* has !   
fur!r advantage ( re/+ morality on a    
pr9ciple intelligible to all capacities8
 ,h we n f\nd t :i* ,socrates & ,plato  
'grew old 9 seek+'8 ,are we n desir\s ( 
happ9ess1 at any rate = ourselves & our 
fri5ds1 if n = all mank9d8 ,if1 z is    
natural1 we beg9 by ?9k+ ( ourselves    

fir/1 we are easily l$ on to ?9k ( o!rs2
 = we _c help ackn[l$g+ t :at is "r = u 
is ! "r & inh]itance ( o!rs4 ,we feel ! 
advantage ( an ab/ract pr9ciple wide    
en\gh & /rong en\gh to ov]ride all !    
p>ticul>isms ( mank9d2 :i* ackn[l$ges a 
univ]sal good1 tru?1 "r2 :i* is capable 
( inspir+ m5 l a passion1 & is ! symbol 
( a cause = :i* !y are ready to cont5d  
to _! life's end4  ,& if we te/ ?is     
pr9ciple by ! lives ( its pr(essors1 x  
w\ld c]ta9ly appe> inf]ior to none z a  
rule ( action4 ,f ! days ( ,eudoxus     
7,ari/4 ,e?ics7 & ,epicurus to our own1 
! vot>ies ( pleasure h ga9$ belief = _! 
pr9ciples by _! practice4 ,two ( !      
noble/ & mo/ dis9t]e/$ m5 :o h liv$ 9   
?is c5tury1 ,b5?am & ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ^:  
lives 7 a long devotion to ! s]vice ( _!
 fell[s1 h be5 among ! mo/ en?usia/ic   
support]s ( utility2 :ile among _!      
contempor>ies1 "s :o 7 ( a m my/ical    
turn ( m9d1 h end$ r 9 aspiration ?an 9 
action1 & h be5 f\nd unequal to ! duties
 ( life4 ,look+ back on !m n[ t !y are  

remov$ f ! sc5e1 we feel t mank9d has   
be5 ! bett] = !m4 ,! _w 0 aga9/ !m :ile 
!y liv$2 b ?is is r a reason = admir+   
?an = depreciat+ !m4 ,nor c any "o d\bt 
t ! influ5ce ( _! philosophy on         
politics--especially on =eign politics1 
on law1 on social life1 has be5 ^u !    
:ole b5eficial4 ,nev]!less1 !y w nev] h 
ju/ice done to !m1 = !y d n agree ei!r )
 ! bett] feel+ ( ! multitude or ) !     
idealism ( m ref9$ ?9k]s4 ,)\t ,b5?am1 a
 great ^w 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy w\ld h
 rema9$ unspok54 ,yet to ?is day x is   
r>e to he> 8 "n receiv$ ) any m>k (     
respect su* z w\ld be freely grant$ to !
 ambigu\s memory ( "s fa!r ( ! ,*ur*4 ,!
 odium :i* atta*$ to him :5 alive has n 
be5 remov$ by 8 dea?4 ,= he %ock$ 8     
contempor>ies by egotism & want ( ta/e2 
& ?is g5]ation :i* has reap$ ! b5efit ( 
8 lab\rs has inh]it$ ! feel+ ( ! la/4   
,he 0 be=e 8 own age1 & is h>dly        
rememb]$ 9 ?is4  ,:ile ackn[l$g+ !      
b5efits :i* ! greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple 
has conf]r$ ^u mank9d1 ! "t appe>s to h 

arriv$1 n = d5y+ its claims1 b =        
criticiz+ !m & comp>+ !m ) o!r pr9ciples
 :i* equally claim to lie at ! f\ndation
 ( e?ics4 ,any "o :o adds a g5]al       
pr9ciple to k has be5 a b5efactor to !  
_w4 ,b !re is a dang] t1 9 8 fir/       
en?usiasm1 he may n recognize !         
proportions or limitations to :i* 8 tru?
 is subject$2 he does n see h[ f> he has
 giv5 bir? to a truism1 or h[ t :i* is a
 tru? to him is a truism to ! re/ ( !   
_w2 or may deg5]ate 9 ! next g5]ation4  
,he believes t to be ! :ole :i* is only 
a "p1--to be ! necess>y f\ndation :i* is
 really only a valuable aspect ( ! tru?4
 ,! sy/ems ( all philosoph]s require !  
criticism ( '! morr[1' :5 ! heat (      
imag9ation :i* =g$ !m has cool$1 & !y   
are se5 9 ! temp]ate light ( day4 ,all (
 !m h contribut$ to enri* ! m9d ( !     
civiliz$ _w2 none ( !m occupy t supreme 
or exclusive place :i* _! au?ors w\ld h 
assign$ to !m4  ,we may preface !       
criticism ) a few prelim9>y rem>ks3--   
,mr4 ,mill1 ,mr4 ,au/91 & o!rs1 9 _!    

eag]ness to ma9ta9 ! doctr9e ( utility1 
are fond ( repeat+ t we are 9 a         
lam5table /ate ( unc]ta9ty ab\t morals4 
,:ile o!r bran*es ( k h made extraord9>y
 progress1 9 moral philosophy we are    
suppos$ by !m to be no bett] ?an *ildr51
 & ) few exceptions--t is to say1 ,b5?am
 & 8 foll[]s--to be no fur!r advanc$ ?an
 m5 7 9 ! age ( ,socrates & ,plato1 :o1 
9 _! turn1 are deem$ to be z backw>d 9  
e?ics z !y necess>ily 7 9 physics4 ,b   
?is1 ?\gh (t5 ass]t$1 is recant$ almo/ 9
 a brea? by ! same writ]s :o speak ?us  
depreciat+ly ( our mod]n e?ical         
philosophy4 ,= !y are ! fir/ to         
ackn[l$ge t we h n n[ to beg9 classify+ 
actions "u ! head ( utility2 !y w\ld n  
d5y t ab\t ! g5]al conceptions ( morals 
!re is a practical agreem5t4 ,!re is no 
m d\bt t falsehood is wrong ?an t a /one
 falls to ! gr\nd1 al?\gh ! fir/ does n 
admit ( ! same ocul> pro( z ! second4   
,!re is no great] unc]ta9ty ab\t ! duty 
( ob$i5ce to p>5ts & to ! law ( ! l& ?an
 ab\t ! prop]ties ( triangles4 ,unless  

we are look+ = a new moral _w :i* has no
 m>ry+ & giv+ 9 m>riage1 !re is no      
great] disagreem5t 9 !ory ab\t ! "r     
relations ( ! sexes ?an ab\t !          
composition ( wat]4 ,^! & a few o!r     
simple pr9ciples1 z !y h endless        
applications 9 practice1 s also may be  
develop$ 9 !ory into c\nsels (          
p]fection4  ,to :at !n is to be         
attribut$ ?is op9ion :i* has be5 (t5    
ent]ta9$ ab\t ! unc]ta9ty ( morals8     
,*iefly to ?is1--t philosoph]s h n      
always di/+ui%$ ! !oretical & !         
casui/ical unc]ta9ty ( morals f !       
practical c]ta9ty4 ,!re is an unc]ta9ty 
ab\t details1--:e!r1 = example1 "u giv5 
circum/ances su* & su* a moral pr9ciple 
is to be en=c$1 or :e!r 9 "s cases !re  
may n be a conflict ( duties3 ^! are !  
exceptions to ! ord9>y rules ( morality1
 important1 inde$1 b n ext5d+ to ! "o   
?\s&? or "o t5-?\s&? "p ( human actions4
 ,?is is ! doma9 ( casui/ry4 ,secondly1 
! aspects "u :i* ! mo/ g5]al pr9ciples (
 morals may be pres5t$ to u are _m &    

v>i\s4 ,! m9d ( man has be5 m ?an       
usually active 9 ?9k+ ab\t man4 ,!      
conceptions ( h>mony1 happ9ess1 "r1     
fre$om1 b5evol5ce1 self-love1 h all ( !m
 seem$ to "s philosoph] or o!r ! true/ &
 mo/ compreh5sive expression ( morality4
 ,!re is no diff]5ce1 or at any rate no 
great diff]5ce1 ( op9ion ab\t ! "r &    
wrong ( actions1 b only ab\t ! g5]al    
notion :i* furni%es ! be/ explanation or
 gives ! mo/ compreh5sive view ( !m4    
,?is1 9 ! language ( ,kant1 is ! sph]e (
 ! metaphysic ( e?ics4 ,b ^! two        
unc]ta9ties at ei!r end1 en tois mali/a 
ka?ol\ & en tois ka? eka/a1 leave space 
en\gh = an int]m$iate pr9ciple :i* is   
practically c]ta94  ,! rule ( human life
 is n dep5d5t on ! !ories ( philosoph]s3
 we "k :at our duties are = ! mo/ "p    
be=e we speculate ab\t !m4 ,& ! use (   
speculation is n to tea* u :at we       
already "k1 b to inspire 9 our m9ds an  
int]e/ ab\t morals 9 g5]al1 to /r5g!n   
our conception ( ! virtues by %[+ t !y  
confirm "o ano!r1 to prove to u1 z      

,socrates w\ld h said1 t !y are n _m1 b 
"o4 ,!re is ! same k9d ( pleasure & use 
9 r$uc+ morals1 z 9 r$uc+ physics1 to a 
few v simple tru?s4 ,& n unfrequ5tly ! m
 g5]al pr9ciple may correct prejudices &
 misconceptions1 & enable u to reg>d our
 fell[-m5 9 a l>g] & m g5]\s _s4  ,! two
 qualities :i* seem to be mo/ requir$ 9 
fir/ pr9ciples ( e?ics are1 7#a7 t !y   
%\ld af=d a real explanation ( ! facts1 
7#b7 t !y %\ld inspire ! m9d1--%\ld     
h>monize1 /r5g!n1 settle u4 ,we c h>dly 
e/imate ! influ5ce :i* a simple pr9ciple
 su* z ',act s z to promote ! happ9ess (
 mank9d1' or ',act s t ! rule on :i* ?\ 
acte/ may be adopt$ z a law by all      
rational be+s1' may ex]cise on ! m9d (  
an individual4 ,!y w (t5 seem to op5 a  
new _w to him1 l ! religi\s conceptions 
( fai? or ! _s ( ,god4 ,! difficulties (
 e?ics disappe> :5 we d n suff]         
ourselves to be di/ract$ betwe5 diff]5t 
po9ts ( view4 ,b to ma9ta9 _! hold on u1
 ! g5]al pr9ciples mu/ also be          
psy*ologically true--!y mu/ agree ) our 

exp]i5ce1 !y mu/ accord ) ! habits ( our
 m9ds4  ,:5 we are told t actions are "r
 or wrong only 9 s f> z !y t5d t[>ds    
happ9ess1 we naturally ask :at is meant 
by 'happ9ess4' ,= ! t]m 9 ! common use (
 language is only to a c]ta9 ext5t      
comm5surate ) moral good & evil4 ,we    
%\ld h>dly say t a good man c\ld be     
utt]ly mis]able 7,ari/4 ,e?ics71 or     
place a bad man 9 ! fir/ rank (         
happ9ess4 ,b yet1 f v>i\s circum/ances1 
! measure ( a man's happ9ess may be out 
( all proportion to 8 des]t4 ,& if we   
insi/ on call+ ! good man alone happy1  
we %all be us+ ! t]m 9 "s new &         
transc5d5tal s5se1 z synonym\s )        
well-be+4 ,we h already se5 t happ9ess  
includes ! happ9ess ( o!rs z well z our 
own2 we mu/ n[ compreh5d unconsci\s z   
well z consci\s happ9ess "u ! same ^w4  
,!re is no h>m 9 ?is ext5sion ( ! mean+1
 b a ^w :i* admits ( su* an ext5sion c  
h>dly be made ! basis ( a philosophical 
sy/em4 ,! exactness :i* is requir$ 9    
philosophy w n all[ u to compreh5d "u ! 

same t]m two ideas s diff]5t z !        
subjective feel+ ( pleasure or happ9ess 
& ! objective reality ( a /ate :i*      
receives our moral approval4  ,l        
,prot>*us 9 ! ,philebus1 we c give no   
answ] to ! "q1 ',:at is t common quality
 :i* 9 all /ates ( human life we call   
happ9ess8 :i* includes ! l[] & ! high]  
k9d ( happ9ess1 & is ! aim ( ! noble/1 z
 well z ( ! meane/ ( mank9d8' ,if we say
 ',n pleasure1 n virtue1 n wisdom1 nor  
yet any quality :i* we c ab/ract f      
^!'--:at !n8 ,aft] seem+ to hov] = a "t 
on ! v]ge ( a great tru?1 we h ga9$ only
 a truism4  ,let u ask ! "q 9 ano!r =m4 
,:at is t :i* con/itutes happ9ess1 ov] &
 above ! sev]al +r$i5ts ( heal?1 weal?1 
pleasure1 virtue1 k1 :i* are includ$ "u 
x8 ,p]haps we answ]1 ',! subjective     
feel+ ( !m4' ,b ?is is v f> f be+       
coext5sive ) "r4 ,or we may reply t     
happ9ess is ! :ole ( :i* ! above-m5tion$
 are ! p>ts4 ,/ill ! "q recurs1 ',9 :at 
does ! :ole diff] f all ! p>ts8' ,& if  
we are unable to di/+ui% !m1 happ9ess w 

be ! m]e aggregate ( ! goods ( life4    
,aga91 :ile admitt+ t 9 all "r action   
!re is an elem5t ( happ9ess1 we _c help 
see+ t ! utilit>ian !ory supplies a mu* 
easi] explanation ( "s virtues ?an (    
o!rs4 ,( _m patriotic or b5evol5t       
actions we c give a /raight=w>d acc\nt  
by _! t5d5cy to promote happ9ess4 ,= !  
explanation ( ju/ice1 on ! o!r h&1 we h 
to g a long way r\nd4 ,no man is        
indignant ) a ?ief because he has n     
promot$ ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/  
numb]1 b because he has done him a      
wrong4 ,!re is an immeasurable int]val  
betwe5 a crime aga9/ prop]ty or life1 & 
! omission ( an act ( *>ity or          
b5evol5ce4 ,yet ( ?is int]val !         
utilit>ian !ory takes no cognizance4 ,! 
greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple /r5g!ns our   
s5se ( positive duties t[>ds o!rs1 b    
weak5s our recognition ( _! rights4 ,to 
promote 9 e way possible ! happ9ess (   
o!rs may be a c\nsel ( p]fection1 b     
h>dly seems to (f] any gr\nd = a !ory ( 
obligation4 ,= admitt+ t our ideas (    

obligation are p>tly d]iv$ f religion & 
cu/om1 yet !y seem also to conta9 o!r   
ess5tial elem5ts :i* _c be expla9$ by ! 
t5d5cy ( actions to promote happ9ess4   
,:5ce comes ! necessity ( !m8 ,:y are "s
 actions r ?an o!rs :i* equally t5d to !
 happ9ess ( mank9d impos$ ^u u ) !      
au?ority ( law8 ',y ought' & 'y _h      
bett]' are fundam5tal di/9ctions 9 human
 ?\ght2 & hav+ su* di/9ctions1 :y %\ld  
we seek to efface & unsettle !m8  ,b5?am
 & ,mr4 ,mill are e>ne/ 9 ma9ta9+ t     
happ9ess includes ! happ9ess ( o!rs z   
well z ( ourselves4 ,b :at two notions c
 be m oppos$ 9 _m cases ?an ^!8 ,grant+ 
t 9 a p]fect /ate ( ! _w my own happ9ess
 & t ( all o!r m5 w\ld co9cide1 9 !     
imp]fect /ate !y (t5 div]ge1 & ,i _c    
truly bridge ov] ! difficulty by say+ t 
m5 w always f9d pleasure 9 sacrific+    
!mselves or 9 suff]+ = o!rs4 ,^u !      
greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple x is admitt$ t
 ,i am to h a %>e1 & 9 consi/5cy ,i %\ld
 pursue my own happ9ess z imp>tially z t
 ( my neighb\r4 ,b :o c decide :at      

proportion %\ld be m9e & :at 81 except  
on ! pr9ciple t ,i am mo/ likely to be  
deceiv$ 9 my own fav\r1 & _h !re=e bett]
 give ! l>g] %>e1 if n all1 to him8     
,fur!r1 x is admitt$ t utility & "r     
co9cide1 n 9 p>ticul> in/ances1 b 9     
classes ( actions4 ,b is x n di/ract+ to
 ! consci5ce ( a man to be told t 9 !   
p>ticul> case !y are oppos$8 ,happ9ess  
is said to be ! gr\nd ( moral           
obligation1 yet he mu/ n d :at cle>ly   
conduces to 8 own happ9ess if x is at   
v>iance ) ! good ( ! :ole4 ,nay1 fur!r1 
he w be taught t :5 utility & "r are 9  
app>5t conflict any am\nt ( utility does
 n alt] by a hair's-bread? ! morality ( 
actions1 :i* _c be all[$ to deviate f   
e/abli%$ law or usage2 & t !            
non-detection ( an immoral act1 say (   
tell+ a lie1 :i* may (t5 make ! greate/ 
diff]5ce 9 ! consequ5ces1 n only to     
himself1 b to all ! _w1 makes none      
:atev] 9 ! act itself4  ,aga91 if we are
 conc]n$ n ) p>ticul> actions b )       
classes ( actions1 is ! t5d5cy ( actions

 to happ9ess a pr9ciple ^u :i* we c     
classify !m8 ,!re is a univ]sal law :i* 
imp]atively decl>es c]ta9 acts to be "r 
or wrong3--c !re be any univ]sality 9 ! 
law :i* measures actions by _! t5d5cies 
t[>ds happ9ess8 ,= an act :i* is ! cause
 ( happ9ess to "o p]son may be ! cause (
 unhapp9ess to ano!r2 or an act :i* if  
p]=m$ by "o p]son may increase !        
happ9ess ( mank9d may h ! opposite      
effect if p]=m$ by ano!r4 ,"r c nev] be 
wrong1 or wrong "r1 t !re are no actions
 :i* t5d to ! happ9ess ( mank9d :i* may 
n "u o!r circum/ances t5d to _!         
unhapp9ess4 ,unless we say n only t all 
"r actions t5d to happ9ess1 b t !y t5d  
to happ9ess 9 ! same degree 9 :i* !y are
 "r 7& 9 t case ! ^w '"r' is pla9]71 we 
weak5 ! absolut5ess ( our moral /&>d2 we
 r$uce diff]5ces 9 k9d to diff]5ces 9   
degree2 we oblit]ate ! /amp :i* !       
au?ority ( ages has set ^u vice & crime4
  ,once m3 turn+ f !ory to practice we  
feel ! importance ( reta9+ ! receiv$    
di/9ctions ( morality4 ,words su* z     

tru?1 ju/ice1 hone/y1 virtue1 love1 h a 
simple mean+2 !y h become sacr$ to      
u1--'! ^w ( ,god' writt5 on ! human     
he>t3 to no o!r words c ! same          
associations be atta*$4 ,we _c expla9 !m
 adequately on pr9ciples ( utility2 9   
attempt+ to d s we rob !m ( _! true "*4 
,we give !m a mean+ (t5 p>adoxical &    
di/ort$1 & g5]ally weak] ?an _!         
signification 9 common language4 ,& z   
words influ5ce m5's ?\ghts1 we fe> t !  
hold ( morality may also be weak5$1 & ! 
s5se ( duty impair$1 if virtue & vice   
are expla9$ only z ! qualities :i* d or 
d n contribute to ! pleasure ( ! _w4 ,9 
t v expression we seem to detect a false
 r+1 = pleasure is individual n         
univ]sal2 we speak ( et]nal & immutable 
ju/ice1 b n ( et]nal & immutable        
pleasure2 nor by any ref9em5t c we avoid
 "s ta9t ( bodily s5se adh]+ to ! mean+ 
( ! ^w4  ,aga93 ! high] ! view :i* m5   
take ( life1 ! m !y lose sight ( _! own 
pleasure or int]e/4 ,true religion is n 
work+ = a rew>d only1 b is ready to "w  

equally )\t a rew>d4 ,x is n 'do+ ! w ( 
,god = ! sake ( et]nal happ9ess1' b do+ 
! w ( ,god because x is be/1 :e!r rew>d$
 or unrew>d$4 ,& ?is applies to o!rs z  
well z to ourselves4 ,= he :o sacrifices
 himself = ! good ( o!rs1 does n        
sacrifice himself t !y may be sav$ f !  
p]secution :i* he endures = _! sakes1 b 
r t !y 9 _! turn may be able to und]go  
simil> suff]+s1 & l him /& fa/ 9 ! tru?4
 ,to promote _! happ9ess is n 8 fir/    
object1 b to elevate _! moral nature4   
,bo? 9 8 own case & t ( o!rs !re may be 
happ9ess 9 ! di/ance1 b if !re 7 no     
happ9ess he w\ld equally act z he does4 
,we are speak+ ( ! highe/ & noble/      
natures2 & a pass+ ?\ght naturally      
arises 9 our m9ds1 ',:e!r t c be ! fir/ 
pr9ciple ( morals :i* is h>dly reg>d$ 9 
_! own case by ! greate/ b5efactors (   
mank9d8'  ,! admissions t pleasures     
diff] 9 k9d1 & t actions are already    
classifi$2 ! ackn[l$gm5t t happ9ess     
includes ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 z well z (  
ourselves2 ! confusion 7n made by       

,ari/otle7 betwe5 consci\s & unconsci\s 
happ9ess1 or betwe5 happ9ess ! en]gy &  
happ9ess ! result ( ! en]gy1 introduce  
unc]ta9ty & inconsi/5cy into ! :ole     
enquiry4 ,we reason readily & *e]fully f
 a greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple4 ,b we f9d 
t utilit>ians d n agree among !mselves  
ab\t ! mean+ ( ! ^w4 ,/ill less c !y    
imp>t to o!rs a common conception or    
conviction ( ! nature ( happ9ess4 ,!    
mean+ ( ! ^w is always ins5sibly slipp+ 
away f u1 into pleasure1 out ( pleasure1
 n[ appe>+ z ! motive1 n[ z ! te/ (     
actions1 & sometimes v>y+ 9 successive  
s5t5ces4 ,& z 9 a ma!matical            
demon/ration an error 9 ! orig9al numb] 
di/urbs ! :ole calculation :i* foll[s1  
?is fundam5tal unc]ta9ty ab\t ! ^w      
vitiates all ! applications ( x4 ,mu/ we
 n admit t a notion s unc]ta9 9 mean+1 s
 void ( cont5t1 s at v>iance ) common   
language & op9ion1 does n comply        
adequately ) ei!r ( our two requirem5ts8
 ,x c nei!r /rike ! imag9ative faculty1 
nor give an explanation ( ph5om5a :i* is

 9 accordance ) our individual exp]i5ce4
 ,x is indef9ite2 x supplies only a     
p>tial acc\nt ( human actions3 x is "o  
among _m !ories ( philosoph]s4 ,x may be
 comp>$ ) o!r notions1 su* z ! *ief good
 ( ,plato1 :i* may be be/ express$ to u 
"u ! =m ( a h>mony1 or ) ,kant's ob$i5ce
 to law1 :i* may be summ$ up "u ! ^w    
'duty1' or ) ! ,/oical ',foll[ nature1' 
& seems to h no advantage ov] !m4 ,all (
 ^! pres5t a c]ta9 aspect ( moral tru?4 
,none ( !m are1 or inde$ pr(ess to be1 !
 only pr9ciple ( morals4  ,& ?is br+s u 
to speak ( ! mo/ s]i\s objection to !   
utilit>ian sy/em--its exclusiv5ess4 ,!re
 is no place = ,kant or ,hegel1 = ,plato
 & ,ari/otle alongside ( x4 ,!y d n     
reject ! greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple1 b x 
rejects !m4 ,n[ ! ph5om5a ( moral action
 diff]1 & "s are be/ expla9$ ^u "o      
pr9ciple & "s ^u ano!r3 ! virtue (      
ju/ice seems to be naturally connect$ ) 
"o !ory ( morals1 ! virtues ( temp]ance 
& b5evol5ce ) ano!r4 ,! *>act]s ( m5    
also diff]2 & "s are m attract$ by "o   

aspect ( ! tru?1 "s by ano!r4 ,! firm   
/oical nature w conceive virtue "u !    
conception ( law1 ! philan?ropi/ "u t ( 
do+ good1 ! quieti/ "u t ( resignation1 
! en?usia/ "u t ( fai? or love4 ,!      
upright man ( ! _w w desire above all   
?+s t morality %\ld be pla9 & fix$1 &   
%\ld use language 9 its ord9>y s5se4    
,p]sons ( an imag9ative temp]am5t w     
g5]ally be dissatisfi$ ) ! words        
'utility' or 'pleasure'3 _! pr9ciple (  
"r is ( a f> high] "*--:at or :]e to be 
f\nd !y _c always di/9ctly tell2--d$uc$ 
f ! laws ( human nature1 says "o2 re/+  
on ! w ( ,god1 says ano!r2 bas$ ^u "s   
transc5d5tal idea :i* animates m worlds 
?an "o1 says a ?ird3       on nomoi     
proke9tai upsipodes1 ouranian      di   
ai!ra tekno!ntes4  ,to satisfy an       
imag9ative nature 9 any degree1 !       
doctr9e ( utility mu/ be s transfigur$ t
 x becomes altoge!r diff]5t & loses all 
simplicity4  ,b :y1 s9ce !re are diff]5t
 *>act]s among m51 %\ld we n all[ !m to 
envisage morality accord+ly1 & be       

?ankful to ! great m5 :o h provid$ = all
 ( u modes & in/rum5ts ( ?\ght8 ,w\ld ! 
_w h be5 bett] if !re _h be5 no ,/oics  
or ,kanti/s1 no ,platoni/s or           
,c>tesians8 ,no m ?an if ! o!r pole (   
moral philosophy _h be5 exclud$4 ,all m5
 h pr9ciples :i* are above _! practice2 
!y admit premises :i*1 if c>ri$ to _!   
conclusions1 are a suffici5t basis (    
morals4 ,9 ass]t+ lib]ty ( speculation  
we are n enc\rag+ individuals to make "r
 or wrong = !mselves1 b only conc$+ t !y
 may *oose ! =m "u :i* !y pref] to      
contemplate !m4 ,nor d we say t "o ( ^! 
aspects is z true & good z ano!r2 b t !y
 all ( !m1 if !y are n m]e sophisms &   
illusions1 def9e & br+ into relief "s "p
 ( ! tru? :i* w\ld h be5 obscure )\t _! 
light4 ,:y %\ld we endeav\r to b9d all  
m5 )9 ! limits ( a s+le metaphysical    
conception8 ,! necess>y imp]fection (   
language seems to require t we %\ld view
 ! same tru? "u m ?an "o aspect4  ,we   
are liv+ 9 ! second age ( utilit>ianism1
 :5 ! *>m ( novelty & ! f]v\r ( ! fir/  

disciples has pass$ away4 ,! doctr9e is 
no long] /at$ 9 ! =cible p>adoxical     
mann] ( ,b5?am1 b has to be adapt$ to   
meet objections2 its corn]s are rubb$   
(f1 & ! mean+ ( its mo/ *>act]i/ic      
expressions is s(t5$4 ,! array ( ! enemy
 melts away :5 we approa* him4 ,!       
greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] 0 a  
great orig9al idea :5 enunciat$ by      
,b5?am1 :i* leav5$ a g5]ation & has left
 its m>k on ?\ght & civilization 9 all  
succe$+ times4 ,8 grasp ( x _h !        
int5sity ( g5ius4 ,9 ! _s ( an anci5t   
philosoph] he w\ld h d5i$ t pleasures   
diff]$ 9 k9d1 or t by happ9ess he meant 
any?+ b pleasure4 ,he w\ld p]haps h     
revolt$ u by 8 ?or\ghness4 ,!           
'gu>dian%ip ( 8 doctr9e' has pass$ into 
o!r h&s2 & n[ we seem to see its weak   
po9ts1 its ambiguities1 its want (      
exactness :ile assum+ ! highe/          
exactness1 its "o-sid$ness1 its         
p>adoxical explanation ( sev]al ( !     
virtues4 ,no philosophy has ev] /ood ?is
 criticism ( ! next g5]ation1 ?\gh !    

f\nd]s ( all ( !m h imag9$ t !y 7 built 
^u a rock4 ,& ! utilit>ian sy/em1 l     
o!rs1 has yield$ to ! inevitable        
analysis4 ,ev5 9 ! op9ion ( 'h] admir]s 
%e has be5 t]ribly damag$' 7,phil471 &  
is no long] ! only moral philosophy1 b  
"o among _m :i* h contribut$ 9 v>i\s    
degrees to ! intellectual progress (    
mank9d4  ,b because ! utilit>ian        
philosophy c no long] claim '! prize1'  
we mu/ n refuse to ackn[l$ge ! great    
b5efits conf]r$ by x on ! _w4 ,all      
philosophies are refut$ 9 _! turn1 says 
! sceptic1 & he looks =w>d to all future
 sy/ems %>+ ! fate ( ! pa/4 ,all        
philosophies rema91 says ! ?9k]2 !y h   
done a great "w 9 _! own day1 & !y      
supply po/]ity ) aspects ( ! tru? & )   
in/rum5ts ( ?\ght4 ,?\gh !y may be %orn 
( _! glory1 !y reta9 _! place 9 !       
organism ( k4  ,& /ill !re rema9 _m     
rules ( morals :i* are bett] expla9$ & m
 =cibly inculcat$ on ! pr9ciple (       
utility ?an on any o!r4 ,! "q ,w su* &  
su* an action promote ! happ9ess (      

myself1 my family1 my c\ntry1 ! _w8 may 
*eck ! ris+ feel+ ( pride or hon\r :i*  
w\ld cause a qu>rel1 an e/rangem5t1 a   
w>4 ',h[ c ,i contribute to ! greate/   
happ9ess ( o!rs8' is ano!r =m ( ! "q :i*
 w be m attractive to ! m9ds ( _m ?an a 
d$uction ( ! duty ( b5evol5ce f a priori
 pr9ciples4 ,9 politics especially h>dly
 any o!r argum5t c be all[$ to h weight 
except ! happ9ess ( a p4 ,all p>ties    
alike pr(ess to aim at ?is1 :i* ?\gh (t5
 us$ only z ! disguise ( self-int]e/ has
 a great & real influ5ce on ! m9ds (    
/atesm54 ,9 religion1 aga91 no?+ c m t5d
 to mitigate sup]/ition ?an ! belief t !
 good ( man is also ! w ( ,god4 ,?is is 
an easy te/ to :i* ! prejudices &       
sup]/itions ( m5 may be br\ght3--:atev] 
does n t5d to ! good ( m5 is n ( ,god4  
,& ! ideal ( ! greate/ happ9ess (       
mank9d1 especially if believ$ to be ! w 
( ,god1 :5 comp>$ ) ! actual fact1 w be 
"o ( ! /ronge/ motives to d good to     
o!rs4  ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! temptation is 
to speak falsely1 to be di%one/ or      

unju/1 or 9 any way to int]f]e ) !      
rights ( o!rs1 ! argum5t t ^! actions   
reg>d$ z a class w n conduce to !       
happ9ess ( mank9d1 ?\gh true en\gh1     
seems to h less =ce ?an ! feel+ :i* is  
already implant$ 9 ! m9d by consci5ce & 
au?ority4 ,to resolve ?is feel+ into !  
greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple takes away f  
its sacr$ & au?oritative "*4 ,! m>tyr w 
n g to ! /ake 9 ord] t he may promote ! 
happ9ess ( mank9d1 b = ! sake ( ! tru?3 
nei!r w ! soldi] advance to ! cannon's  
m\? m]ely because he believes milit>y   
discipl9e to be = ! good ( mank9d4 ,x is
 bett] = him to "k t he w be %ot1 t he w
 be disgrac$1 if he runs away--he has no
 ne$ to look beyond milit>y hon\r1      
patriotism1 ',engl& expects e man to d 8
 duty4' ,^! are /rong] motives ?an !    
greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]1 :i* 
is ! !sis ( a philosoph]1 n ! wat*word (
 an army4 ,= 9 human actions m5 d n     
always require broad pr9ciples2 duties  
(t5 come home to u m :5 !y are limit$ & 
def9$1 & sanction$ by cu/om & public    

op9ion4  ,la/ly1 if we turn to ! hi/ory 
( e?ics1 we %all f9d t our moral ideas h
 orig9at$ n 9 utility b 9 religion1 9   
law1 9 conceptions ( nature1 ( an ideal 
good1 & ! l4 ,& _m may be incl9$ to ?9k 
t ?is conclusively disproves ! claim (  
utility to be ! basis ( morals4 ,b !    
utilit>ian w fairly reply 7see above7 t 
we mu/ di/+ui% ! orig9 ( e?ics f !      
pr9ciples ( !m--! hi/orical g]m f ! lat]
 gr[? ( reflection4 ,& he may also truly
 add t = two ?\s& ye>s & m1 utility1 if 
n ! orig9at+1 has be5 ! great corrective
 pr9ciple 9 law1 9 politics1 9 religion1
 lead+ m5 to ask h[ evil may be dim9i%$ 
& good increas$--by :at c\rse ( policy !
 public int]e/ may be promot$1 & to     
und]/& t ,god wills ! happ9ess1 n ( "s (
 8 creatures & 9 ?is _w only1 b ( all ( 
!m & 9 e /age ( _! exi/5ce4  ',:at is ! 
place ( happ9ess or utility 9 a sy/em ( 
moral philosophy8' is analog\s to ! "q  
ask$ 9 ! ,philebus1 ',:at rank does     
pleasure hold 9 ! scale ( goods8'       
,admitt+ ! greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple to 

be true & valuable1 & ! necess>y        
f\ndation ( t "p ( morals :i* relates to
 ! consequ5ces ( actions1 we /ill h to  
consid] :e!r ?is or "s o!r g5]al notion 
is ! highe/ pr9ciple ( human life4 ,we  
may try !m 9 ?is comp>ison by ?ree      
te/s--def9it5ess1 compreh5siv5ess1 &    
motive p[]4  ,!re are ?ree subjective   
pr9ciples ( morals1--sympa?y1 b5evol5ce1
 self-love4 ,b sympa?y seems to re/     
morality on feel+s :i* diff] widely ev5 
9 good m52 b5evol5ce & self-love torture
 "o half ( our virtu\s actions into !   
lik5ess ( ! o!r4 ,! greate/ happ9ess    
pr9ciple1 :i* includes bo?1 has !       
advantage ov] all ^! 9 compreh5siv5ess1 
b ! advantage is pur*as$ at ! exp5se (  
def9it5ess4  ,aga91 !re are ! legal &   
political pr9ciples ( morals--fre$om1   
equality1 rights ( p]sons2 ',e man to   
c\nt = "o & no man = m ?an "o1' ',e man 
equal 9 ! eye ( ! law & ( ! legislator4'
 ,!re is also ! o!r sort ( political    
morality1 :i* if n beg9n+ ) ',might is  
"r1' at any rate seeks to d$uce our     

ideas ( ju/ice f ! necessities ( ! /ate 
& ( society4 ,accord+ to ?is view !     
greate/ good ( m5 is ob$i5ce to law3 !  
be/ human gov]nm5t is a rational        
despotism1 & ! be/ idea :i* we c =m ( a 
div9e be+ is t ( a despot act+ n :olly  
)\t reg>d to law & ord]4 ,to su* a view 
! pres5t mix$ /ate ( ! _w1 n :olly evil 
or :olly good1 is suppos$ to be a       
witness4 ,m we might desire to h1 b are 
n p]mitt$4 ,?\gh a human tyrant w\ld be 
intol]able1 a div9e tyrant is a v       
tol]able gov]nor ( ! univ]se4 ,?is is ! 
doctr9e ( ,?rasyma*us adapt$ to ! public
 op9ion ( mod]n times4  ,!re is yet a   
?ird view :i* comb9es ! two3--fre$om is 
ob$i5ce to ! law1 & ! greate/ ord] is   
also ! greate/ fre$om2 ',act s t ?y     
action may be ! law ( e intellig5t be+4'
 ,?is view is noble & elevat+2 b x seems
 to err1 l o!r transc5d5tal pr9ciples ( 
e?ics1 9 be+ too ab/ract4 ,= !re is !   
same difficulty 9 connect+ ! idea ( duty
 ) p>ticul> duties z 9 bridg+ ! gulf    
betwe5 pha9om5a & onta2 & :51 z 9 !     

sy/em ( ,kant1 ?is univ]sal idea or law 
is held to be indep5d5t ( space & "t1   
su* a mataion eidos becomes almo/       
unmean+4  ,once m !re are ! religi\s    
pr9ciples ( morals3--! w ( ,god reveal$ 
9 ,scripture & 9 nature4 ,no philosophy 
has suppli$ a sanction equal 9 au?ority 
to ?is1 or a motive equal 9 /r5g? to !  
belief 9 ano!r life4 ,yet ab\t ^! too we
 mu/ ask ,:at w ( ,god8 h[ reveal$ to u1
 & by :at pro(s8 ,religion1 l happ9ess1 
is a ^w :i* has great influ5ce ap>t f   
any consid]ation ( its cont5t3 x may be 
= great good or = great evil4 ,b true   
religion is ! syn!sis ( religion &      
morality1 beg9n+ ) div9e p]fection 9 :i*
 all human p]fection is embodi$4 ,x     
moves among ideas ( hol9ess1 ju/ice1    
love1 wisdom1 tru?2 ^! are to ,god1 9   
:om !y are p]sonifi$1 :at ! ,platonic   
ideas are to ! idea ( good4 ,x is !     
consci\sness ( ! w ( ,god t all m5 %\ld 
be z he is4 ,x lives 9 ?is _w & is kn[n 
to u only ?r\gh ! ph5om5a ( ?is _w1 b x 
ext5ds to worlds beyond4 ,ord9>y        

religion :i* is alloy$ ) motives ( ?is  
_w may easily be 9 excess1 may be       
fanatical1 may be int]e/$1 may be ! mask
 ( ambition1 may be p]v]t$ 9 a ?\s&     
ways4 ,b ( t religion :i* comb9es ! w ( 
,god ) our highe/ ideas ( tru? & "r !re 
c nev] be too mu*4 ,?is impossibility ( 
excess is ! note ( div9e mod]ation4  ,s 
!n1 hav+ briefly pass$ 9 review ! v>i\s 
pr9ciples ( moral philosophy1 we may n[ 
arrange our goods 9 ord]1 ?\gh1 l !     
read] ( ! ,philebus1 we h a difficulty 9
 di/+ui%+ ! diff]5t aspects ( !m f "o   
ano!r1 or def9+ ! po9t at :i* ! human   
passes into ! div9e4  ,fir/1 ! et]nal w 
( ,god 9 ?is _w & 9 ano!r1--ju/ice1     
hol9ess1 wisdom1 love1 )\t succession ( 
acts 7ou* e g5esis prose/971 :i* is kn[n
 to u 9 "p only1 & rev]5c$ by u z div9e 
p]fection4  ,secondly1 human p]fection1 
or ! fulfilm5t ( ! w ( ,god 9 ?is _w1 & 
co-op]ation ) 8 laws reveal$ to u by    
reason & exp]i5ce1 9 nature1 hi/ory1 & 9
 our own m9ds4  ,?irdly1 ! elem5ts (    
human p]fection1--virtue1 k1 & "r       

op9ion4  ,f\r?ly1 ! ext]nal conditions (
 p]fection1--heal? & ! goods ( life4    
,fif?ly1 beauty & happ9ess1--! inw>d    
enjoym5t ( t :i* is be/ & faire/ 9 ?is  
_w & 9 ! human s\l4  444  ,! ,philebus  
is probably ! late/ 9 "t ( ! writ+s (   
,plato ) ! exception ( ! ,laws4 ,we h 9 
x !re=e ! la/ developm5t ( 8 philosophy4
 ,! extreme & "o-sid$ doctr9es ( !      
,cynics & ,cyr5aics are includ$ 9 a l>g]
 :ole2 ! relations ( pleasure & k to ea*
 o!r & to ! good are au?oritatively     
det]m9$2 ! ,eleatic ,be+ & ! ,h]aclitean
 ,flux no long] divide ! empire ( ?\ght2
 ! ,m9d ( ,anaxagoras has become ! ,m9d 
( ,god & ( ! ,_w4 ,! great di/9ction    
betwe5 pure & appli$ sci5ce = ! fir/ "t 
has a place 9 philosophy2 ! natural     
claim ( dialectic to be ! ,que5 ( !     
,sci5ces is once m affirm$4 ,?is latt]  
is ! bond ( union :i* p]vades ! :ole or 
ne>ly ! :ole ( ! ,platonic writ+s4 ,& "h
 z 9 sev]al o!r dialogues 7,pha$rus1    
,republic1 etc47 x is pres5t$ to u 9 a  
mann] playful yet also s]i\s1 &         

sometimes z if ! ?\ght ( x 7 too great =
 human utt]ance & came d[n f heav5      
direct4 ,x is ! organization ( k        
wond]ful to ?9k ( at a "t :5 k itself   
c\ld h>dly be said to exi/4 ,x is ?is m 
?an any o!r elem5t :i* di/+ui%es ,plato1
 n only f ! presocratic philosoph]s1 b f
 ,socrates himself4  ,we h n yet rea*$ !
 conf9es ( ,ari/otle1 b we make a       
some:at ne>] approa* to him 9 !         
,philebus ?an 9 ! e>li] ,platonic       
writ+s4 ,! g]ms ( logic are beg9n+ to   
appe>1 b !y are n collect$ into a :ole1 
or made a sep>ate sci5ce or sy/em4 ,_m  
?9k]s ( _m diff]5t s*ools h to be       
int]pos$ betwe5 ! ,p>m5ides or ,philebus
 ( ,plato1 & ! ,physics or ,metaphysics 
( ,ari/otle4 ,x is ?is int]val ^u :i* we
 h to fix our m9ds if we w\ld rightly   
und]/& ! "* ( ! transition f "o to !    
o!r4 ,plato & ,ari/otle d n dovetail    
into "o ano!r2 nor does ! "o beg9 :]e ! 
o!r ends2 !re is a gulf betwe5 !m n to  
be measur$ by "t1 :i* 9 ! fragm5t>y /ate
 ( our k x is impossible to bridge ov]4 

,x foll[s t ! "o _c be int]pret$ by !   
o!r4 ,at any rate1 x is n ,plato :o is  
to be int]pret$ by ,ari/otle1 b         
,ari/otle by ,plato4 ,( all philosophy &
 ( all art ! true und]/&+ is to be s\ght
 n 9 ! aft]?\ghts ( po/]ity1 b 9 !      
elem5ts out ( :i* !y h aris54 ,= !      
previ\s /age is a t5d5cy t[>ds ! ideal  
at :i* !y are aim+2 ! lat] is a         
decl9ation or deviation f !m1 or ev5 a  
p]v]sion ( !m4 ,no man's ?\ghts 7 ev] s 
well express$ by 8 disciples z by       
himself4  ,b al?\gh ,plato 9 ! ,philebus
 does n come into any close connexion ) 
,ari/otle1 he is n[ a long way f himself
 & f ! beg9n+s ( 8 own philosophy4 ,at !
 "t ( 8 dea? he left 8 sy/em /ill       
incomplete2 or he may be m truly said to
 h _h no sy/em1 b to h liv$ 9 !         
successive /ages or mom5ts (            
metaphysical ?\ght :i* pres5t$ !mselves 
f "t to "t4 ,! e>li] discussions ab\t   
univ]sal ideas & def9itions seem to h   
di$ away2 ! correlation ( ideas has tak5
 _! place4 ,! fl[]s ( rhetoric & poetry 

h lo/ _! fre%ness & *>m2 & a te*nical   
language has begun to sup]s$e & ov]gr[  
!m4 ,b ! p[] ( ?9k+ t5ds to increase )  
age1 & ! exp]i5ce ( life to wid5 &      
deep54 ,! good is summ$ up "u categories
 :i* are n summa g5]a1 b heads or       
gradations ( ?\ght4 ,! "q ( pleasure & !
 relation ( bodily pleasures to m5tal1  
:i* is h>dly treat$ ( else:]e 9 ,plato1 
is "h analys$ ) great subtlety4 ,! mean 
or measure is n[ made ! fir/ pr9ciple ( 
good4 ,"s ( ^! que/ions reappe> 9       
,ari/otle1 z does also ! di/9ction      
betwe5 metaphysics & ma!matics4 ,b !re  
are _m ?+s 9 ,plato :i* h be5 lo/ 9     
,ari/otle2 & _m ?+s 9 ,ari/otle n to be 
f\nd 9 ,plato4 ,! mo/ rem>kable         
defici5cy 9 ,ari/otle is ! disappe>ance 
( ! ,platonic dialectic1 :i* 9 !        
,ari/otelian s*ool is only us$ 9 a      
comp>atively unimportant & trivial s5se4
 ,! mo/ rem>kable additions are !       
inv5tion ( ! ,syllogism1 ! conception ( 
happ9ess z ! f\ndation ( morals1 !      
ref]5ce ( human actions to ! /&>d ( !   

bett] m9d ( ! _w1 or ( ! "o 's5sible    
man' or 'sup]ior p]son4' ,8 conception (
 ousia1 or ess5ce1 is n an advance ^u   
,plato1 b a return to ! poor & meagre   
ab/ractions ( ! ,eleatic philosophy4 ,! 
dry attempt to r$uce ! presocratic      
philosophy by 8 own r arbitr>y /&>d ( ! 
f\r causes1 contra/s unfav\rably )      
,plato's g5]al discussion ( ! same      
subject 7,sophi/74 ,to attempt fur!r to 
sum up ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! two great   
philosoph]s w\ld be out ( place "h4 ,any
 real discussion ( _! relation to "o    
ano!r mu/ be prec$$ by an exam9ation    
into ! nature & "* ( ! ,ari/otelian     
writ+s & ! =m 9 :i* !y h come d[n to u4 
,?is enquiry is n really sep>able f an  
inve/igation ( ,!ophra/us z well z      
,ari/otle & ( ! rema9s ( o!r s*ools (   
philosophy z well z ( ! ,p]ipatetics4   
,b1 )\t ent]+ on ?is wide field1 ev5 a  
sup]ficial consid]ation ( ! logical &   
metaphysical works :i* pass "u ! "n (   
,ari/otle1 :e!r we suppose !m to h come 
directly f 8 h& or to be ! tradition ( 8

 s*ool1 is suffici5t to %[ h[ great 0 ! 
m5tal activity :i* prevail$ 9 ! latt]   
half ( ! f\r? c5tury ,b4,c42 :at eddies 
& :irlpools ( controv]sies 7 surg+ 9 !  
*aos ( ?\ght1 :at trans=mations ( ! old 
philosophies 7 tak+ place ev]y:]e1 :at  
eclecticisms & syncretisms & realisms & 
nom9alisms 7 affect+ ! m9d ( ,hellas4 ,!
 decl9e ( philosophy dur+ ?is p]iod is  
no less rem>kable ?an ! loss ( fre$om2 &
 ! two are n unconnect$ ) ea* o!r4 ,b ( 
! multitud9\s sea ( op9ions :i* 7 curr5t
 9 ! age ( ,ari/otle we h no exact      
acc\nt4 ,we "k ( !m f allusions only4 ,&
 we _c ) advantage fill up ! void ( our 
k by conjecture3 we c only make all[ance
 = our ignorance4  ,!re are sev]al      
passages 9 ! ,philebus :i* are v        
*>act]i/ic ( ,plato1 & :i* we %all d    
well to consid] n only 9 _! connexion1 b
 ap>t f _! connexion z inspir$ say+s or 
oracles :i* receive _! full             
int]pretation only f ! hi/ory (         
philosophy 9 lat] ages4 ,! m s]i\s      
attacks on traditional beliefs :i* are  

(t5 veil$ "u an unusual simplicity or   
irony are ( ?is k9d4 ,su*1 = example1 is
 ! excessive & m ?an human awe :i*      
,socrates expresses ab\t ! names ( !    
gods1 :i* may be n unaptly comp>$ ) !   
importance atta*$ by mank9d to !ological
 t]ms 9 o!r ages2 = ?is also may be     
compreh5d$ "u ! satire ( ,socrates4 ,let
 u obs]ve ! religi\s & intellectual     
en?usiasm :i* %9es =? 9 ! foll[+1 ',!   
p[] & faculty ( lov+ ! tru?1 & ( do+ all
 ?+s = ! sake ( ! tru?'3 or1 aga91 !    
s+ul> ackn[l$gm5t :i* may be reg>d$ z ! 
anticipation ( a new logic1 t ',9 go+ to
 w> = m9d ,i mu/ h weapons ( a diff]5t  
make f ^? :i* ,i us$ be=e1 al?\gh "s ( !
 old ones may d aga94' ,let u pause     
a:ile to reflect on a s5t5ce :i* is full
 ( mean+ to re=m]s ( religion or to !   
orig9al ?9k] ( all ages3 ',%all we !n   
agree ) !m ( old "t1 & m]ely reass]t !  
notions ( o!rs )\t risk to ourselves2 or
 %all we v5ture also to %>e 9 ! risk &  
be> ! reproa* :i* w await u'3 i4e4 if we
 ass]t m9d to be ! au?or ( nature4 ,let 

u note ! rem>kable words1 ',t 9 ! div9e 
nature ( ,zeus !re is ! s\l & m9d ( a   
,k+1 because !re is 9 him ! p[] ( !     
cause1' a say+ 9 :i* !ology & philosophy
 are bl5d$ & reconcil$2 n omitt+ to     
obs]ve ! deep insight into human nature 
:i* is %[n by ! repetition ( ! same     
?\ght ',all philosoph]s are agre$ t m9d 
is ! k+ ( heav5 & e>?' ) ! ironical     
addition1 '9 ?is way truly !y magnify   
!mselves4' ,nor let u pass unhe$$ !     
indignation felt by ! g5]\s y\? at !    
'blasphemy' ( ^? :o say t ,*aos & ,*ance
 ,m$ley creat$ ! _w2 or ! significance (
 ! words '^? :o said ( old "t t m9d     
rules ! univ]se'2 or ! pregnant         
obs]vation t 'we are n always consci\s (
 :at we are do+ or ( :at happ5s to u1' a
 *ance expression to :i* if philosoph]s 
_h att5d$ !y w\ld h escap$ _m errors 9  
psy*ology4 ,we may contra/ ! contempt   
:i* is p\r$ ^u ! v]bal difficulty ( ! "o
 & _m1 & ! s]i\sness ) ! unity (        
opposites is reg>d$ f ! high] po9t (    
view ( ab/ract ideas3 or comp>e ! simple

 mann] 9 :i* ! "q ( cause & effect & _! 
mutual dep5d5ce is reg>d$ by ,plato 7to 
:i* mod]n sci5ce has return$ 9 ,mill &  
,bacon71 & ! cumbr\s f\rfold division ( 
causes 9 ! ,physics & ,metaphysics (    
,ari/otle1 = :i* x has puzzl$ ! _w to   
f9d a use 9 s _m c5turies4 ,:5 we       
consid] ! backw>dness ( k 9 ! age (     
,plato1 ! boldness ) :i* he looks =w>d  
into ! di/ance1 ! _m que/ions ( mod]n   
philosophy :i* are anticipat$ 9 8       
writ+s1 may we n truly describe him 9 8 
own words z a 'spectator ( all "t & (   
all exi/5ce'8     ,,philebus   ,,p]sons 
,,( ,,! ,,dialogue3 ,socrates1          
,prot>*us1 ,philebus4   ,,socrates3     
,obs]ve1 ,prot>*us1 ! nature ( !        
position :i* y are n[ go+ to take f     
,philebus1 & :at ! o!r position is :i*  
,i ma9ta91 & :i*1 if y d n approve ( x1 
is to be controv]t$ by y4 ,%all y & ,i  
sum up ! two sides8  ,,prot>*us3 ,by all
 means4  ,,socrates3 ,philebus 0 say+ t 
enjoym5t & pleasure & delight1 & ! class
 ( feel+s ak9 to !m1 are a good to e    

liv+ be+1 :]eas ,i cont5d1 t n ^!1 b    
wisdom & intellig5ce & memory1 & _!     
k9dr$1 "r op9ion & true reason+1 are    
bett] & m desirable ?an pleasure = all  
:o are able to p>take ( !m1 & t to all  
su* :o are or ev] w be !y are ! mo/     
advantage\s ( all ?+s4 ,h ,i n giv51    
,philebus1 a fair /atem5t ( ! two sides 
( ! argum5t8  ,,philebus3 ,no?+ c\ld be 
fair]1 ,socrates4  ,,socrates3 ,& d y1  
,prot>*us1 accept ! position :i* is     
assign$ to y8  ,,prot>*us3 ,i _c d      
o!rwise1 s9ce our excell5t ,philebus has
 left ! field4  ,,socrates3 ,surely !   
tru? ab\t ^! matt]s ought1 by all means1
 to be asc]ta9$4  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4 
,,socrates3 ,%all we fur!r agree--      
,,prot>*us3 ,to :at8  ,,socrates3 ,t y &
 ,i mu/ n[ try to indicate "s /ate &    
disposition ( ! s\l1 :i* has ! prop]ty (
 mak+ all m5 happy4  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1  
by all means4  ,,socrates3 ,& y say t   
pleasure1 & ,i say t wisdom1 is su* a   
/ate8  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3  
,& :at if !re be a ?ird /ate1 :i* is    

bett] ?an ei!r8 ,!n bo? ( u are         
vanqui%$--are we n8 ,b if ?is life1 :i* 
really has ! p[] ( mak+ m5 happy1 turn  
out to be m ak9 to pleasure ?an to      
wisdom1 ! life ( pleasure may /ill h !  
advantage ov] ! life ( wisdom4          
,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3 ,or     
suppose t ! bett] life is m ne>ly alli$ 
to wisdom1 !n wisdom conqu]s1 & pleasure
 is defeat$2--d y agree8  ,,prot>*us3   
,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& :at d y say1  
,philebus8  ,,philebus3 ,i say1 & %all  
always say1 t pleasure is easily !      
conqu]or2 b y mu/ decide = y\rself1     
,prot>*us4  ,,prot>*us3 ,y1 ,philebus1 h
 h&$ ov] ! argum5t to me1 & h no long] a
 voice 9 ! matt]8  ,,philebus3 ,true    
en\gh4 ,nev]!less ,i w\ld cle> myself & 
deliv] my s\l ( y2 & ,i call ! goddess  
h]self to witness t ,i n[ d s4          
,,prot>*us3 ,y may appeal to u2 we too w
 be ! witnesses ( y\r words4 ,& n[1     
,socrates1 :e!r ,philebus is pleas$ or  
displeas$1 we w proce$ ) ! argum5t4     
,,socrates3 ,!n let u beg9 ) ! goddess  

h]self1 ( :om ,philebus says t %e is    
call$ ,aphrodite1 b t h] real "n is     
,pleasure4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v good4        
,,socrates3 ,! awe :i* ,i always feel1  
,prot>*us1 ab\t ! names ( ! gods is m   
?an human--x exce$s all o!r fe>s4 ,& n[ 
,i w\ld n s9 aga9/ ,aphrodite by nam+ h]
 amiss2 let h] be call$ :at %e pleases4 
,b ,pleasure ,i "k to be manifold1 & )  
h]1 z ,i 0 j n[ say+1 we mu/ beg91 &    
consid] :at h] nature is4 ,%e has "o "n1
 & !re=e y w\ld imag9e t %e is "o2 & yet
 surely %e takes ! mo/ v>i$ & ev5 unlike
 =ms4 ,= d we n say t ! intemp]ate has  
pleasure1 & t ! temp]ate has pleasure 9 
8 v temp]ance1--t ! fool is pleas$ :5 he
 is full ( fooli% fancies & hopes1 & t !
 wise man has pleasure 9 8 wisdom8 & h[ 
fooli% w\ld any "o be :o affirm$ t all  
^! opposite pleasures are sev]ally      
alike6  ,,prot>*us3 ,:y1 ,socrates1 !y  
are oppos$ 9 s f> z !y spr+ f opposite  
s\rces1 b !y are n 9 !mselves opposite4 
,= mu/ n pleasure be ( all ?+s mo/      
absolutely l pleasure1--t is1 l itself8 

,,socrates3 ,yes1 my good fri5d1 j z    
col\r is l col\r2--9 s f> z col\rs are  
col\rs1 !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 !m2 & 
yet we all "k t black is n only unlike1 
b ev5 absolutely oppos$ to :ite3 or     
aga91 z figure is l figure1 = all       
figures are compreh5d$ "u "o class2 &   
yet p>ticul> figures may be absolutely  
oppos$ to "o ano!r1 & !re is an inf9ite 
div]sity ( !m4 ,& we might f9d simil>   
examples 9 _m o!r ?+s2 !re=e d n rely ^u
 ?is argum5t1 :i* w\ld g to prove !     
unity ( ! mo/ extreme opposites4 ,& ,i  
suspect t we %all f9d a simil>          
opposition among pleasures4  ,,prot>*us3
 ,v likely2 b h[ w ?is invalidate !     
argum5t8  ,,socrates3 ,:y1 ,i %all      
reply1 t dissimil> z !y are1 y apply to 
!m a new pr$icate1 = y say t all        
pleasant ?+s are good2 n[ al?\gh no "o c
 argue t pleasure is n pleasure1 he may 
argue1 z we are do+1 t pleasures are    
(t5] bad ?an good2 b y call !m all good1
 & at ! same "t are compell$1 if y are  
press$1 to ackn[l$ge t !y are unlike4 ,&

 s y mu/ tell u :at is ! id5tical       
quality exi/+ alike 9 good & bad        
pleasures1 :i* makes y designate all (  
!m z good4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at d y mean1  
,socrates8 ,d y ?9k t any "o :o ass]ts  
pleasure to be ! good1 w tol]ate !      
notion t "s pleasures are good & o!rs   
bad8  ,,socrates3 ,& yet y w ackn[l$ge t
 !y are diff]5t f "o ano!r1 & sometimes 
oppos$8  ,,prot>*us3 ,n 9 s f> z !y are 
pleasures4  ,,socrates3 ,t is a return  
to ! old position1 ,prot>*us1 & s we are
 to say 7are we87 t !re is no diff]5ce 9
 pleasures1 b t !y are all alike2 & !   
examples :i* h j be5 cit$ d n pi]ce our 
dull m9ds1 b we g on argu+ all ! same1 l
 ! weake/ & mo/ inexp]i5c$ reason]s8    
7,probably corrupt47  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at d
 y mean8  ,,socrates3 ,:y1 ,i mean to   
say1 t 9 self-def5ce ,i may1 if ,i l1   
foll[ y\r example1 & ass]t boldly t !   
two ?+s mo/ unlike are mo/ absolutely   
alike2 & ! result w be t y & ,i w prove 
ourselves to be v tyros 9 ! art (       
disput+2 & ! argum5t w be bl[n away &   

lo/4 ,suppose t we put back1 & return to
 ! old position2 !n p]haps we may come  
to an und]/&+ ) "o ano!r4  ,,prot>*us3  
,h[ d y mean8  ,,socrates3 ,%all ,i1    
,prot>*us1 h my own "q ask$ ( me by y8  
,,prot>*us3 ,:at "q8  ,,socrates3 ,ask  
me :e!r wisdom & sci5ce & m9d1 & ^? o!r 
qualities :i* ,i1 :5 ask$ by y at fir/  
:at is ! nature ( ! good1 affirm$ to be 
good1 are n 9 ! same case ) ! pleasures 
( :i* y spoke4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at d y    
mean8  ,,socrates3 ,! sci5ces are a     
num]\s class1 & w be f\nd to pres5t     
great diff]5ces4 ,b ev5 admitt+ t1 l !  
pleasures1 !y are opposite z well z     
diff]5t1 %\ld ,i be wor?y ( ! "n (      
dialectician if1 9 ord] to avoid ?is    
difficulty1 ,i 7 to say 7z y are say+ ( 
pleasure7 t !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 "o
 sci5ce & ano!r2--w\ld n ! argum5t f\nd]
 & disappe> l an idle tale1 al?\gh we   
might ourselves escape dr[n+ by cl++ to 
a fallacy8  ,,prot>*us3 ,may none ( ?is 
befal u1 except ! deliv]ance6 ,yet ,i l 
! ev5-h&$ ju/ice :i* is appli$ to bo?   

our argum5ts4 ,let u assume1 !n1 t !re  
are _m & div]se pleasures1 & _m &       
diff]5t sci5ces4  ,,socrates3 ,& let u h
 no concealm5t1 ,prot>*us1 ( ! diff]5ces
 betwe5 my good & y\rs2 b let u br+ !m  
to ! light 9 ! hope t1 9 ! process (    
te/+ !m1 !y may %[ :e!r pleasure is to  
be call$ ! good1 or wisdom1 or "s ?ird  
quality2 = surely we are n n[ simply    
cont5d+ 9 ord] t my view or t y\rs may  
prevail1 b ,i presume t we ought bo? ( u
 to be fight+ = ! tru?4  ,,prot>*us3    
,c]ta9ly we ought4  ,,socrates3 ,!n let 
u h a m def9ite und]/&+ & e/abli% !     
pr9ciple on :i* ! argum5t re/s4         
,,prot>*us3 ,:at pr9ciple8  ,,socrates3 
,a pr9ciple ab\t :i* all m5 are always 9
 a difficulty1 & "s m5 sometimes aga9/  
_! w4  ,,prot>*us3 ,speak pla9]4        
,,socrates3 ,! pr9ciple :i* has j turn$ 
up1 :i* is a m>vel ( nature2 = t "o %\ld
 be _m or _m "o1 are wond]ful           
propositions2 & he :o affirms ei!r is v 
op5 to attack4  ,,prot>*us3 ,d y mean1  
:5 a p]son says t ,i1 ,prot>*us1 am by  

nature "o & also _m1 divid+ ! s+le 'me' 
into _m 'me's1' & ev5 oppos+ !m z great 
& small1 light & heavy1 & 9 t5 ?\s& o!r 
ways8  ,,socrates3 ,^?1 ,prot>*us1 are !
 common & ackn[l$g$ p>adoxes ab\t ! "o &
 _m1 :i* ,i may say t ev]ybody has by   
?is "t agre$ to dismiss z *ildi% &      
obvi\s & detrim5tal to ! true c\rse (   
?\ght2 & no m fav\r is %[n to t o!r     
puzzle1 9 :i* a p]son proves ! memb]s & 
p>ts ( any?+ to be divid$1 & !n confess+
 t !y are all "o1 says laugh+ly 9       
dispro( ( 8 own words3 ,:y1 "h is a     
miracle1 ! "o is _m & inf9ite1 & ! _m   
are only "o4  ,,prot>*us3 ,b :at1       
,socrates1 are ^? o!r m>vels connect$ ) 
?is subject :i*1 z y imply1 h n yet     
become common & ackn[l$g$8  ,,socrates3 
,:51 my boy1 ! "o does n belong to !    
class ( ?+s t are born & p]i%1 z 9 !    
in/ances :i* we 7 giv+1 = 9 ^? cases1 & 
:5 unity is ( ?is concrete nature1 !re  
is1 z ,i 0 say+1 a univ]sal cons5t t no 
refutation is ne$$2 b :5 ! ass]tion is  
made t man is "o1 or ox is "o1 or beauty

 "o1 or ! good "o1 !n ! int]e/ :i*      
atta*es to ^! & simil> unities & !      
attempt :i* is made to divide !m gives  
bir? to a controv]sy4  ,,prot>*us3 ,(   
:at nature8  ,,socrates3 ,9 ! fir/      
place1 z to :e!r ^! unities h a real    
exi/5ce2 & !n h[ ea* individual unity1  
be+ always ! same1 & incapable ei!r (   
g5]ation or ( de/ruction1 b reta9+ a    
p]man5t individuality1 c be conceiv$    
ei!r z disp]s$ & multipli$ 9 ! inf9ity (
 ! _w ( g5]ation1 or z /ill entire & yet
 divid$ f itself1 :i* latt] w\ld seem to
 be ! greate/ impossibility ( all1 = h[ 
c "o & ! same ?+ be at ! same "t 9 "o & 
9 _m ?+s8 ,^!1 ,prot>*us1 are ! real    
difficulties1 & ?is is ! "o & _m to :i* 
!y relate2 !y are ! s\rce ( great       
p]plexity if ill decid$1 & ! "r         
det]m9ation ( !m is v helpful4          
,,prot>*us3 ,!n1 ,socrates1 let u beg9  
by cle>+ up ^! que/ions4  ,,socrates3 ,t
 is :at ,i %\ld wi%4  ,,prot>*us3 ,& ,i 
am sure t all my o!r fri5ds w be glad to
 he> !m discuss$2 ,philebus1 =tunately =

 u1 is n dispos$ to move1 & we _h bett] 
n /ir him up ) que/ions4  ,,socrates3   
,good2 & :]e %all we beg9 ?is great &   
multif>i\s battle1 9 :i* su* v>i\s po9ts
 are at issue8 ,%all we beg9 ?us8       
,,prot>*us3 ,h[8  ,,socrates3 ,we say t 
! "o & _m become id5tifi$ by ?\ght1 & t 
n[1 z 9 "t pa/1 !y run ab\t toge!r1 9 & 
out ( e ^w :i* is utt]$1 & t ?is union (
 !m w nev] cease1 & is n n[ beg9n+1 b   
is1 z ,i believe1 an ev]la/+ quality (  
?\ght itself1 :i* nev] gr[s old4 ,any "y
 man1 :5 he fir/ ta/es ^! subtleties1 is
 delight$1 & fancies t he has f\nd a    
treasure ( wisdom2 9 ! fir/ en?usiasm ( 
8 joy he leaves no /one1 or r no ?\ght  
unturn$1 n[ roll+ up ! _m into ! "o1 &  
knead+ !m toge!r1 n[ unfold+ & divid+   
!m2 he puzzles himself fir/ & above all1
 & !n he proce$s to puzzle 8 neighb\rs1 
:e!r !y are old] or y\ng]1 or ( 8 own   
age--t makes no diff]5ce2 nei!r fa!r nor
 "m does he sp>e2 no human be+ :o has   
e>s is safe f him1 h>dly ev5 8 dog1 & a 
b>b>ian w\ld h no *ance ( escap+ him1 if

 an int]pret] c\ld only be f\nd4        
,,prot>*us3 ,consid]+1 ,socrates1 h[ _m 
we are1 & t all ( u are "y m51 is !re n 
a dang] t we & ,philebus may all set ^u 
y1 if y abuse u8 ,we und]/& :at y mean2 
b is !re no *>m by :i* we may dispel all
 ?is confusion1 no m excell5t way (     
arriv+ at ! tru?8 ,if !re is1 we hope t 
y w guide u into t way1 & we w d our be/
 to foll[1 = ! enquiry 9 :i* we are     
engag$1 ,socrates1 is n unimportant4    
,,socrates3 ,! rev]se ( unimportant1 my 
boys1 z ,philebus calls y1 & !re nei!r  
is nor ev] w be a bett] ?an my own      
fav\rite way1 :i* has nev]!less already 
(t5 des]t$ me & left me helpless 9 ! h\r
 ( ne$4  ,,prot>*us3 ,tell u :at t is4  
,,socrates3 ,"o :i* may be easily po9t$ 
out1 b is by no means easy (            
application2 x is ! p>5t ( all !        
discov]ies 9 ! arts4  ,,prot>*us3 ,tell 
u :at x is4  ,,socrates3 ,a gift (      
heav51 :i*1 z ,i conceive1 ! gods toss$ 
among m5 by ! h&s ( a new ,prome!us1 &  
!re) a blaze ( light2 & ! anci5ts1 :o 7 

our bett]s & ne>] ! gods ?an we are1 h&$
 d[n ! tradition1 t :atev] ?+s are said 
to be are compos$ ( "o & _m1 & h ! f9ite
 & inf9ite implant$ 9 !m3 see+1 !n1 t   
su* is ! ord] ( ! _w1 we too ought 9 e  
enquiry to beg9 by lay+ d[n "o idea ( t 
:i* is ! subject ( enquiry2 ?is unity we
 %all f9d 9 ev]y?+4 ,hav+ f\nd x1 we may
 next proce$ to look = two1 if !re be   
two1 or1 if n1 !n = ?ree or "s o!r      
numb]1 subdivid+ ea* ( ^! units1 until  
at la/ ! unity ) :i* we began is se5 n  
only to be "o & _m & inf9ite1 b also a  
def9ite numb]2 ! inf9ite mu/ n be suff]$
 to approa* ! _m until ! entire numb] ( 
! species int]m$iate betwe5 unity &     
inf9ity has be5 discov]$1--!n1 & n till 
!n1 we may re/ f division1 & )\t fur!r  
tr\bl+ ourselves ab\t ! endless         
individuals may all[ !m to drop into    
inf9ity4 ,?is1 z ,i 0 say+1 is ! way (  
consid]+ & le>n+ & tea*+ "o ano!r1 :i* !
 gods h h&$ d[n to u4 ,b ! wise m5 ( our
 "t are ei!r too quick or too sl[ 9     
conceiv+ plurality 9 unity4 ,hav+ no    

me?od1 !y make _! "o & _m anyh[1 & f    
unity pass at once to inf9ity2 !        
int]m$iate /eps nev] occur to !m4 ,&    
?is1 ,i repeat1 is :at makes ! diff]5ce 
betwe5 ! m]e art ( disputation & true   
dialectic4  ,,prot>*us3 ,i ?9k t ,i     
p>tly und]/& y ,socrates1 b ,i %\ld l to
 h a cle>] notion ( :at y are say+4     
,,socrates3 ,i may illu/rate my mean+ by
 ! lett]s ( ! alphabet1 ,prot>*us1 :i* y
 7 made to le>n z a *ild4  ,,prot>*us3  
,h[ d !y af=d an illu/ration8           
,,socrates3 ,! s\nd :i* passes ?r\gh !  
lips :e!r ( an individual or ( all m5 is
 "o & yet inf9ite4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v true4
  ,,socrates3 ,& yet n by kn[+ ei!r t   
s\nd is "o or t s\nd is inf9ite are we  
p]fect 9 ! art ( spee*1 b ! k ( ! numb] 
& nature ( s\nds is :at makes a man a   
gramm>ian4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v true4        
,,socrates3 ,& ! k :i* makes a man a    
musician is ( ! same k9d4  ,,prot>*us3  
,h[ s8  ,,socrates3 ,s\nd is "o 9 music 
z well z 9 gramm>8  ,,prot>*us3         
,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& !re is a high]

 note & a l[] note1 & a note ( equal    
pit*3--may we affirm s mu*8  ,,prot>*us3
 ,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,b y w\ld n be a    
real musician if ?is 0 all t y knew2    
?\gh if y did n "k ?is y w\ld "k almo/  
no?+ ( music4  ,,prot>*us3 ,no?+4       
,,socrates3 ,b :5 y h le>n$ :at s\nds   
are high & :at l[1 & ! numb] & nature ( 
! int]vals & _! limits or proportions1 &
 ! sy/ems comp\nd$ out ( !m1 :i* our    
fa!rs discov]$1 & h h&$ d[n to u :o are 
_! desc5dants "u ! "n ( h>monies2 & !   
affections correspond+ to !m 9 !        
movem5ts ( ! human body1 :i* :5 measur$ 
by numb]s ought1 z !y say1 to be call$  
rhy?ms & measures2 & !y tell u t ! same 
pr9ciple %\ld be appli$ to e "o &       
_m2--:51 ,i say1 y h le>n$ all ?is1 !n1 
my de> fri5d1 y are p]fect2 & y may be  
said to und]/& any o!r subject1 :5 y h a
 simil> grasp ( x4 ,b ! inf9ity ( k9ds &
 ! inf9ity ( individuals :i* !re is 9   
ea* ( !m1 :5 n classifi$1 creates 9 e "o
 ( u a /ate ( inf9ite ignorance2 & he :o
 nev] looks = numb] 9 any?+1 w n himself

 be look$ = 9 ! numb] ( fam\s m54       
,,prot>*us3 ,i ?9k t :at ,socrates is n[
 say+ is excell5t1 ,philebus4           
,,philebus3 ,i ?9k s too1 b h[ d 8 words
 be> ^u u & ^u ! argum5t8  ,,socrates3  
,philebus is "r 9 ask+ t "q ( u1        
,prot>*us4  ,,prot>*us3 ,inde$ he is1 & 
y mu/ answ] him4  ,,socrates3 ,i w2 b y 
mu/ let me make "o little rem>k fir/    
ab\t ^! matt]s2 ,i 0 say+1 t he :o beg9s
 ) any individual unity1 %\ld proce$ f  
t1 n to inf9ity1 b to a def9ite numb]1 &
 n[ ,i say conv]sely1 t he :o has to    
beg9 ) inf9ity %\ld n jump to unity1 b  
he %\ld look ab\t = "s numb] repres5t+ a
 c]ta9 quantity1 & ?us out ( all end 9  
"o4 ,& n[ let u return = an illu/ration 
( our pr9ciple to ! case ( lett]s4      
,,prot>*us3 ,:at d y mean8  ,,socrates3 
,"s god or div9e man1 :o 9 ! ,egyptian  
leg5d is said to h be5 ,!u?1 obs]v+ t ! 
human voice 0 inf9ite1 fir/ di/+ui%$ 9  
?is inf9ity a c]ta9 numb] ( v[els1 & !n 
o!r lett]s :i* _h s\nd1 b 7 n pure v[els
 7i4e41 ! semiv[els72 ^! too exi/ 9 a   

def9ite numb]2 & la/ly1 he di/+ui%$ a   
?ird class ( lett]s :i* we n[ call      
mutes1 )\t voice & )\t s\nd1 & divid$   
^!1 & likewise ! two o!r classes ( v[els
 & semiv[els1 into ! individual s\nds1 &
 told ! numb] ( !m1 & gave to ea* & all 
( !m ! "n ( lett]s2 & obs]v+ t none ( u 
c\ld le>n any "o ( !m & n le>n !m all1 &
 9 consid]ation ( ?is common bond :i* 9 
a mann] unit$ !m1 he assign$ to !m all a
 s+le art1 & ?is he call$ ! art ( gramm>
 or lett]s4  ,,philebus3 ,! illu/ration1
 ,prot>*us1 has assi/$ me 9 und]/&+ !   
orig9al /atem5t1 b ,i /ill feel ! defect
 ( :i* ,i j n[ compla9$4  ,,socrates3   
,are y go+ to ask1 ,philebus1 :at ?is   
has to d ) ! argum5t8  ,,philebus3 ,yes1
 t is a "q :i* ,prot>*us & ,i h be5 long
 ask+4  ,,socrates3 ,assur$ly y h       
already arriv$ at ! answ] to ! "q :i*1 z
 y say1 y h be5 s long ask+8            
,,philebus3 ,h[ s8  ,,socrates3 ,did we 
n beg9 by enquir+ into ! comp>ative     
eligibility ( pleasure & wisdom8        
,,philebus3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& we

 ma9ta9 t !y are ea* ( !m "o8           
,,philebus3 ,true4  ,,socrates3 ,& !    
precise "q to :i* ! previ\s discussion  
desires an answ] is1 h[ !y are "o & also
 _m 7i4e41 h[ !y h "o g5us & _m         
species71 & are n at once inf9ite1 & :at
 numb] ( species is to be assign$ to    
ei!r ( !m be=e !y pass into inf9ity     
7i4e4 into ! inf9ite numb] (            
individuals74  ,,prot>*us3 ,t is a v    
s]i\s "q1 ,philebus1 to :i* ,socrates   
has +5i\sly br\ght u r\nd1 & please to  
consid] :i* ( u %all answ] him2 !re may 
be some?+ ridicul\s 9 my be+ unable to  
answ]1 & !re=e impos+ ! task ^u y1 :5 ,i
 h und]tak5 ! :ole *>ge ( ! argum5t1 b  
if nei!r ( u 7 able to answ]1 ! result  
me?9ks w\ld be /ill m ridicul\s4 ,let u 
consid]1 !n1 :at we are to              
d3--,socrates1 if ,i und]/ood him       
rightly1 is ask+ :e!r !re are n k9ds (  
pleasure1 & :at is ! numb] & nature (   
!m1 & ! same ( wisdom4  ,,socrates3 ,mo/
 true1 ,o son ( ,callias2 & ! previ\s   
argum5t %[$ t if we are n able to tell !

 k9ds ( ev]y?+ t has unity1 lik5ess1    
sam5ess1 or _! opposites1 none ( u w be 
( ! smalle/ use 9 any enquiry4          
,,prot>*us3 ,t seems to be v ne> ! tru?1
 ,socrates4 ,happy w\ld ! wise man be if
 he knew all ?+s1 & ! next be/ ?+ = him 
is t he %\ld "k himself4 ,:y d ,i say s 
at ?is mom5t8 ,i w tell y4 ,y1          
,socrates1 h grant$ u ?is opportunity ( 
conv]s+ ) y1 & are ready to assi/ u 9   
det]m9+ :at is ! be/ ( human goods4 ,=  
:5 ,philebus said t pleasure & delight &
 enjoym5t & ! l 7 ! *ief good1 y        
answ]$--,no1 n ^?1 b ano!r class (      
goods2 & we are con/antly rem9d+        
ourselves ( :at y said1 & v prop]ly1 9  
ord] t we may n =get to exam9e & comp>e 
! two4 ,& ^! goods1 :i* 9 y\r op9ion are
 to be designat$ z sup]ior to pleasure1 
& are ! true objects ( pursuit1 are m9d 
& k & und]/&+ & art1 & ! l4 ,!re 0 a    
dispute ab\t :i* 7 ! be/1 & we playfully
 ?reat5$ t y %\ld n be all[$ to g home  
until ! "q 0 settl$2 & y agre$1 & plac$ 
y\rself at our disposal4 ,& n[1 z *ildr5

 say1 :at has be5 fairly giv5 _c be tak5
 back2 cease !n to fight aga9/ u 9 ?is  
way4  ,,socrates3 ,9 :at way8           
,,philebus3 ,d n p]plex u1 & keep ask+  
que/ions ( u to :i* we h n z yet any    
suffici5t answ] to give2 let u n imag9e 
t a g5]al puzzl+ ( u all is to be ! end 
( our discussion1 b if we are unable to 
answ]1 d y answ]1 z y h promis$4        
,consid]1 !n1 :e!r y w divide pleasure &
 k accord+ to _! k9ds2 or y may let !   
matt] drop1 if y are able & will+ to f9d
 "s o!r mode ( cle>+ up our controv]sy4 
,,socrates3 ,if y say t1 ,i h no?+ to   
appreh5d1 = ! words 'if y are will+'    
dispel all my fe>2 &1 moreov]1 a god    
seems to h recall$ some?+ to my m9d4    
,,philebus3 ,:at is t8  ,,socrates3 ,i  
rememb] to h he>d long ago c]ta9        
discussions ab\t pleasure & wisdom1 :e!r
 awake or 9 a dream ,i _c tell2 !y 7 to 
! effect t nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r ( !m 0 !
 good1 b "s ?ird ?+1 :i* 0 diff]5t f !m1
 & bett] ?an ei!r4 ,if ?is be cle>ly    
e/abli%$1 !n pleasure w lose ! victory1 

= ! good w cease to be id5tifi$ )       
h]3--,am ,i n "r8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4    
,,socrates3 ,& !re w cease to be any ne$
 ( di/+ui%+ ! k9ds ( pleasures1 z ,i am 
incl9$ to ?9k1 b ?is w appe> m cle>ly z 
we proce$4  ,,prot>*us3 ,capital1       
,socrates2 pray g on z y propose4       
,,socrates3 ,b1 let u fir/ agree on "s  
little po9ts4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at are !y8 
,,socrates3 ,is ! good p]fect or        
imp]fect8  ,,prot>*us3 ,! mo/ p]fect1   
,socrates1 ( all ?+s4  ,,socrates3 ,& is
 ! good suffici5t8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1   
c]ta9ly1 & 9 a degree surpass+ all o!r  
?+s4  ,,socrates3 ,& no "o c d5y t all  
p]cipi5t be+s desire & hunt aft] good1 &
 are eag] to cat* & h ! good ab\t !m1 & 
c>e n = ! atta9m5t ( any?+ :i* is n     
accompani$ by good4  ,,prot>*us3 ,t is  
und5iable4  ,,socrates3 ,n[ let u "p (f 
! life ( pleasure f ! life ( wisdom1 &  
pass !m 9 review4  ,,prot>*us3 ,h[ d y  
mean8  ,,socrates3 ,let !re be no wisdom
 9 ! life ( pleasure1 nor any pleasure 9
 ! life ( wisdom1 = if ei!r ( !m is !   

*ief good1 x _c be suppos$ to want      
any?+1 b if ei!r is %[n to want any?+1  
!n x _c really be ! *ief good4          
,,prot>*us3 ,impossible4  ,,socrates3 ,&
 w y help u to te/ ^! two lives8        
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,!n  
answ]4  ,,prot>*us3 ,ask4  ,,socrates3  
,w\ld y *oose1 ,prot>*us1 to live all   
y\r life long 9 ! enjoym5t ( ! greate/  
pleasures8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly ,i     
%\ld4  ,,socrates3 ,w\ld y consid] t !re
 0 /ill any?+ want+ to y if y _h p]fect 
pleasure8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly n4      
,,socrates3 ,reflect2 w\ld y n want     
wisdom & intellig5ce & =e?\ght1 & simil>
 qualities8 w\ld y n at any rate want   
sight8  ,,prot>*us3 ,:y %\ld ,i8 ,hav+  
pleasure ,i %\ld h all ?+s4  ,,socrates3
 ,liv+ ?us1 y w\ld always ?r\gh\t y\r   
life enjoy ! greate/ pleasures8         
,,prot>*us3 ,i %\ld4  ,,socrates3 ,b if 
y _h nei!r m9d1 nor memory1 nor k1 nor  
true op9ion1 y w\ld 9 ! fir/ place be   
utt]ly ignorant ( :e!r y 7 pleas$ or n1 
because y w\ld be entirely devoid (     

intellig5ce4  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4     
,,socrates3 ,& simil>ly1 if y _h no     
memory y w\ld n recollect t y _h ev] be5
 pleas$1 nor w\ld ! slighte/            
recollection ( ! pleasure :i* y feel at 
any mom5t rema9 ) y2 & if y _h no true  
op9ion y w\ld n ?9k t y 7 pleas$ :5 y 72
 & if y _h no p[] ( calculation y w\ld n
 be able to calculate on future         
pleasure1 & y\r life w\ld be ! life1 n (
 a man1 b ( an oy/] or 'pulmo m>9us4'   
,c\ld ?is be o!rwise8  ,,prot>*us3 ,no4 
,,socrates3 ,b is su* a life eligible8  
,,prot>*us3 ,i _c answ] y1 ,socrates2 ! 
argum5t has tak5 away f me ! p[] (      
spee*4  ,,socrates3 ,we mu/ keep up our 
spirits2--let u n[ take ! life ( m9d &  
exam9e x 9 turn4  ,,prot>*us3 ,& :at is 
?is life ( m9d8  ,,socrates3 ,i want to 
"k :e!r any "o ( u w\ld cons5t to live1 
hav+ wisdom & m9d & k & memory ( all    
?+s1 b hav+ no s5se ( pleasure or pa91 &
 :olly unaffect$ by ^! & ! l feel+s8    
,,prot>*us3 ,nei!r life1 ,socrates1     
appe>s eligible to me1 nor is likely1 z 

,i %\ld imag9e1 to be *os5 by any "o    
else4  ,,socrates3 ,:at w\ld y say1     
,prot>*us1 to bo? ( ^! 9 "o1 or to "o t 
0 made out ( ! union ( ! two8           
,,prot>*us3 ,out ( ! union1 t is1 (     
pleasure ) m9d & wisdom8  ,,socrates3   
,yes1 t is ! life :i* ,i mean4          
,,prot>*us3 ,!re c be no diff]5ce (     
op9ion2 n "s b all w\ld surely *oose ?is
 ?ird r ?an ei!r ( ! o!r two1 & 9       
addition to !m4  ,,socrates3 ,b d y see 
! consequ5ce8  ,,prot>*us3 ,to be sure  
,i d4 ,! consequ5ce is1 t two out ( !   
?ree lives :i* h be5 propos$ are nei!r  
suffici5t nor eligible = man or =       
animal4  ,,socrates3 ,!n n[ !re c be no 
d\bt t nei!r ( !m has ! good1 = ! "o :i*
 _h w\ld c]ta9ly h be5 suffici5t &      
p]fect & eligible = e liv+ creature or  
?+ t 0 able to live su* a life2 & if any
 ( u _h *os5 any o!r1 he w\ld h *os5    
contr>y to ! nature ( ! truly eligible1 
& n ( 8 own free w1 b ei!r ?r\gh        
ignorance or f "s unhappy necessity4    
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly t seems to be true4

  ,,socrates3 ,& n[ h ,i n suffici5tly  
%[n t ,philebus' goddess is n to be     
reg>d$ z id5tical ) ! good8  ,,philebus3
 ,nei!r is y\r 'm9d' ! good1 ,socrates1 
= t w be op5 to ! same objections4      
,,socrates3 ,p]haps1 ,philebus1 y may be
 "r 9 say+ s ( my 'm9d'2 b ( ! true1 :i*
 is also ! div9e m9d1 f> o!rwise4       
,h[ev]1 ,i w n at pres5t claim ! fir/   
place = m9d z aga9/ ! mix$ life2 b we   
mu/ come to "s und]/&+ ab\t ! second    
place4 ,= y might affirm pleasure & ,i  
m9d to be ! cause ( ! mix$ life2 & 9 t  
case al?\gh nei!r ( !m w\ld be ! good1  
"o ( !m might be imag9$ to be ! cause ( 
! good4 ,& ,i might proce$ fur!r to     
argue 9 opposition to ,philebus1 t !    
elem5t :i* makes ?is mix$ life eligible 
& good1 is m ak9 & m simil> to m9d ?an  
to pleasure4 ,& if ?is is true1 pleasure
 _c be truly said to %>e ei!r 9 ! fir/  
or second place1 & does n1 if ,i may    
tru/ my own m9d1 atta9 ev5 to ! ?ird4   
,,prot>*us3 ,truly1 ,socrates1 pleasure 
appe>s to me to h _h a fall2 9 fight+ = 

! palm1 %e has be5 smitt5 by ! argum5t1 
& is laid l[4 ,i mu/ say t m9d w\ld h   
fall5 too1 & may !re=e be ?\ght to %[   
discretion 9 n putt+ =w>d a simil>      
claim4 ,& if pleasure 7 depriv$ n only (
 ! fir/ b ( ! second place1 %e w\ld be  
t]ribly damag$ 9 ! eyes ( h] admir]s1 = 
n ev5 to !m w\ld %e /ill appe> z fair z 
be=e4  ,,socrates3 ,well1 b _h we n     
bett] leave h] n[1 & n pa9 h] by apply+ 
! crucial te/1 & f9ally detect+ h]8     
,,prot>*us3 ,nons5se1 ,socrates4        
,,socrates3 ,:y8 because ,i said t we _h
 bett] n pa9 pleasure1 :i* is an        
impossibility8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 & m   
?an t1 because y d n seem to be aw>e t  
none ( u w let y g home until y h f9i%$ 
! argum5t4  ,,socrates3 ,heav5s6        
,prot>*us1 t w be a t$i\s bus9ess1 & j  
at pres5t n at all an easy "o4 ,= 9 go+ 
to w> 9 ! cause ( m9d1 :o is aspir+ to !
 second prize1 ,i ought to h weapons (  
ano!r make f ^? :i* ,i us$ be=e2 "s1    
h[ev]1 ( ! old ones may d aga94 ,& mu/  
,i !n f9i% ! argum5t8  ,,prot>*us3 ,(   

c\rse y mu/4  ,,socrates3 ,let u be v   
c>eful 9 lay+ ! f\ndation4  ,,prot>*us3 
,:at d y mean8  ,,socrates3 ,let u      
divide all exi/+ ?+s into two1 or r1 if 
y d n object1 into ?ree classes4        
,,prot>*us3 ,^u :at pr9ciple w\ld y make
 ! division8  ,,socrates3 ,let u take "s
 ( our newly-f\nd notions4  ,,prot>*us3 
,:i* ( !m8  ,,socrates3 ,7 we n say+ t  
,god reveal$ a f9ite elem5t ( exi/5ce1 &
 also an inf9ite8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4
  ,,socrates3 ,let u assume ^! two      
pr9ciples1 & also a ?ird1 :i* is        
comp\nd$ out ( !m2 b ,i fe> t ,i am     
ridicul\sly clumsy at ^! processes (    
division & enum]ation4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at
 d y mean1 my good fri5d8  ,,socrates3  
,i say t a f\r? class is /ill want$4    
,,prot>*us3 ,:at w t be8  ,,socrates3   
,f9d ! cause ( ! ?ird or comp\nd1 & add 
?is z a f\r? class to ! ?ree o!rs4      
,,prot>*us3 ,& w\ld y l to h a fif?     
class or cause ( resolution z well z a  
cause ( composition8  ,,socrates3 ,n1 ,i
 ?9k1 at pres5t2 b if ,i want a fif? at 

"s future "t y %all all[ me to h x4     
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,let 
u beg9 ) ! fir/ ?ree2 & z we f9d two out
 ( ! ?ree greatly divid$ & disp]s$1 let 
u endeav\r to reunite !m1 & see h[ 9 ea*
 ( !m !re is a "o & _m4  ,,prot>*us3 ,if
 y w\ld expla9 to me a little m ab\t !m1
 p]haps ,i might be able to foll[ y4    
,,socrates3 ,well1 ! two classes are !  
same :i* ,i m5tion$ be=e1 "o ! f9ite1 & 
! o!r ! inf9ite2 ,i w fir/ %[ t !       
inf9ite is 9 a c]ta9 s5se _m1 & ! f9ite 
may be h]eaft] discuss$4  ,,prot>*us3 ,i
 agree4  ,,socrates3 ,& n[ consid] well2
 = ! "q to :i* ,i invite y\r att5tion is
 difficult & controv]t$4 ,:5 y speak (  
hott] & cold]1 c y conceive any limit 9 
^? qualities8 ,does n ! m & less1 :i*   
dwells 9 _! v nature1 prev5t _! hav+ any
 end8 = if !y _h an end1 ! m & less w\ld
 !mselves h an end4  ,,prot>*us3 ,t is  
mo/ true4  ,,socrates3 ,ev]1 z we say1  
into ! hott] & ! cold] !re ent]s a m & a
 less4  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4  ,,socrates3  
,!n1 says ! argum5t1 !re is nev] any end

 ( !m1 & be+ endless !y mu/ also be     
inf9ite4  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 ,socrates1 t
 is exce$+ly true4  ,,socrates3 ,yes1 my
 de> ,prot>*us1 & y\r answ] rem9ds me t 
su* an expression z 'exce$+ly1' :i* y h 
j utt]$1 & also ! t]m 'g5tly1' h ! same 
significance z m or less2 = :5ev] !y    
occur !y d n all[ ( ! exi/5ce (         
quantity--!y are always introduc+       
degrees into actions1 in/itut+ a        
comp>ison ( a m or a less excessive or a
 m or a less g5tle1 & at ea* creation ( 
m or less1 quantity disappe>s4 ,=1 z ,i 
0 j n[ say+1 if quantity & measure did n
 disappe>1 b 7 all[$ to intrude 9 !     
sph]e ( m & less & ! o!r comp>atives1 ^!
 la/ w\ld be driv5 out ( _! own doma94  
,:5 def9ite quantity is once admitt$1   
!re c be no long] a 'hott]' or a 'cold]'
 7= ^! are always progress+1 & are nev] 
9 "o /ay72 b def9ite quantity is at re/1
 & has ceas$ to progress4 ,:i* proves t 
comp>atives1 su* z ! hott] & ! cold]1   
are to be rank$ 9 ! class ( ! inf9ite4  
,,prot>*us3 ,y\r rem>k c]ta9ly has !    

look ( tru?1 ,socrates2 b ^! subjects1 z
 y 7 say+1 are difficult to foll[ at    
fir/4 ,i ?9k h[ev]1 t if ,i c\ld he> !  
argum5t repeat$ by y once or twice1 !re 
w\ld be a sub/antial agreem5t betwe5 u4 
,,socrates3 ,yes1 & ,i w try to meet y\r
 wi%2 b1 z ,i w\ld r n wa/e "t 9 !      
enum]ation ( endless p>ticul>s1 let me  
"k :e!r ,i may n assume z a note ( !    
inf9ite--  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at8            
,,socrates3 ,i want to "k :e!r su* ?+s z
 appe> to u to admit ( m or less1 or are
 d5ot$ by ! words 'exce$+ly1' 'g5tly1'  
'extremely1' & ! l1 may n be ref]r$ to !
 class ( ! inf9ite1 :i* is _! unity1 =1 
z 0 ass]t$ 9 ! previ\s argum5t1 all ?+s 
t 7 divid$ & disp]s$ %\ld be br\ght     
toge!r1 & h ! m>k or seal ( "s "o       
nature1 if possible1 set ^u !m--d y     
rememb]8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4  ,,socrates3
 ,& all ?+s :i* d n admit ( m or less1 b
 admit _! opposites1 t is to say1 fir/ (
 all1 equality1 & ! equal1 or aga91 !   
d\ble1 or any o!r ratio ( numb] &       
measure--all ^! may1 ,i ?9k1 be rightly 

reckon$ by u 9 ! class ( ! limit$ or    
f9ite2 :at d y say8  ,,prot>*us3        
,excell5t1 ,socrates4  ,,socrates3 ,& n[
 :at nature %all we ascribe to ! ?ird or
 comp\nd k9d8  ,,prot>*us3 ,y1 ,i ?9k1 w
 h to tell me t4  ,,socrates3 ,r ,god w 
tell y1 if !re be any ,god :o w li/5 to 
my pray]s4  ,,prot>*us3 ,(f] up a pray]1
 !n1 & ?9k4  ,,socrates3 ,i am ?9k+1    
,prot>*us1 & ,i believe t "s ,god has   
befri5d$ u4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at d y mean1 
& :at pro( h y to (f] ( :at y are say+8 
,,socrates3 ,i w tell y1 & d y li/5 to  
my words4  ,,prot>*us3 ,proce$4         
,,socrates3 ,7 we n speak+ j n[ ( hott] 
& cold]8  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4            
,,socrates3 ,add to !m dri]1 wett]1 m1  
less1 swift]1 sl[]1 great]1 small]1 &   
all t 9 ! prec$+ argum5t we plac$ "u !  
unity ( m & less4  ,,prot>*us3 ,9 !     
class ( ! inf9ite1 y mean8  ,,socrates3 
,yes2 & n[ m+le ?is ) ! o!r4            
,,prot>*us3 ,:at is ! o!r4  ,,socrates3 
,! class ( ! f9ite :i* we ought to h    
br\ght toge!r z we did ! inf9ite2 b1    

p]haps1 x w come to ! same ?+ if we d s 
n[2--:5 ! two are comb9$1 a ?ird w      
appe>4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at d y mean by !  
class ( ! f9ite8  ,,socrates3 ,! class (
 ! equal & ! d\ble1 & any class :i* puts
 an end to diff]5ce & opposition1 & by  
introduc+ numb] creates h>mony &        
proportion among ! diff]5t elem5ts4     
,,prot>*us3 ,i und]/&2 y seem to me to  
mean t ! v>i\s opposites1 :5 y m+le ) !m
 ! class ( ! f9ite1 takes c]ta9 =ms4    
,,socrates3 ,yes1 t is my mean+4        
,,prot>*us3 ,proce$4  ,,socrates3 ,does 
n ! "r p>ticipation 9 ! f9ite give      
heal?--9 disease1 = in/ance8            
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,&   
:]eas ! high & l[1 ! swift & ! sl[ are  
inf9ite or unlimit$1 does n ! addition (
 ! pr9ciples a=esaid introduce a limit1 
& p]fect ! :ole frame ( music8          
,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 
,or1 aga91 :5 cold & heat prevail1 does 
n ! introduction ( !m take away excess &
 indef9it5ess1 & infuse mod]ation &     
h>mony8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4          

,,socrates3 ,& f a l admixture ( ! f9ite
 & inf9ite come ! seasons1 & all !      
delights ( life8  ,,prot>*us3 ,mo/ true4
  ,,socrates3 ,i omit t5 ?\s& o!r ?+s1  
su* z beauty & heal? & /r5g?1 & ! _m    
beauties & high p]fections ( ! s\l3 ,o  
my beautiful ,philebus1 ! goddess1      
me?9ks1 see+ ! univ]sal wantonness &    
wick$ness ( all ?+s1 & t !re 0 9 !m no  
limit to pleasures & self-indulg5ce1    
devis$ ! limit ( law & ord]1 :]eby1 z y 
say1 ,philebus1 %e torm5ts1 or z ,i     
ma9ta91 deliv]s ! s\l4--,:at ?9k y1     
,prot>*us8  ,,prot>*us3 ,h] ways are mu*
 to my m9d1 ,socrates4  ,,socrates3 ,y w
 obs]ve t ,i h spok5 ( ?ree classes8    
,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 ,i ?9k t ,i und]/& y3 
y mean to say t ! inf9ite is "o class1 &
 t ! f9ite is a second class ( exi/5ces2
 b :at y w\ld make ! ?ird ,i am n s     
c]ta94  ,,socrates3 ,t is because !     
amaz+ v>iety ( ! ?ird class is too mu* =
 y1 my de> fri5d2 b !re 0 n ?is         
difficulty ) ! inf9ite1 :i* also        
compreh5d$ _m classes1 = all ( !m 7     

seal$ ) ! note ( m & less1 & !re=e      
appe>$ "o4  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4          
,,socrates3 ,& ! f9ite or limit _h n _m 
divisions1 & we readily ackn[l$g$ x to  
be by nature "o8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4     
,,socrates3 ,yes1 inde$2 & :5 ,i speak (
 ! ?ird class1 und]/& me to mean any    
(fspr+ ( ^!1 be+ a bir? into true be+1  
effect$ by ! measure :i* ! limit        
introduces4  ,,prot>*us3 ,i und]/&4     
,,socrates3 ,/ill !re 01 z we said1 a   
f\r? class to be inve/igat$1 & y mu/    
assi/ 9 ! inve/igation2 = does n ev]y?+ 
:i* comes into be+1 ( necessity come    
into be+ ?r\gh a cause8  ,,prot>*us3    
,yes1 c]ta9ly2 = h[ c !re be any?+ :i*  
has no cause8  ,,socrates3 ,& is n !    
ag5t ! same z ! cause 9 all except "n2 !
 ag5t & ! cause may be rightly call$ "o8
  ,,prot>*us3 ,v true4  ,,socrates3 ,& !
 same may be said ( ! pati5t1 or effect2
 we %all f9d t !y too diff]1 z ,i 0     
say+1 only 9 "n--%all we n8  ,,prot>*us3
 ,we %all4  ,,socrates3 ,! ag5t or cause
 always naturally leads1 & ! pati5t or  

effect naturally foll[s x8  ,,prot>*us3 
,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,!n ! cause & :at
 is subord9ate to x 9 g5]ation are n !  
same1 b diff]5t8  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4    
,,socrates3 ,did n ! ?+s :i* 7 g5]at$1 &
 ! ?+s out ( :i* !y 7 g5]at$1 furni% all
 ! ?ree classes8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4     
,,socrates3 ,& ! creator or cause ( !m  
has be5 satisfactorily prov5 to be      
di/9ct f !m1--& may !re=e be call$ a    
f\r? pr9ciple8  ,,prot>*us3 ,s let u    
call x4  ,,socrates3 ,q "r2 b n[1 hav+  
di/+ui%$ ! f\r1 ,i ?9k t we _h bett]    
refre% our memories by recapitulat+ ea* 
( !m 9 ord]4  ,,prot>*us3 ,by all means4
  ,,socrates3 ,!n ! fir/ ,i w call !    
inf9ite or unlimit$1 & ! second ! f9ite 
or limit$2 !n foll[s ! ?ird1 an ess5ce  
comp\nd & g5]at$2 & ,i d n ?9k t ,i %all
 be f> wrong 9 speak+ ( ! cause (       
mixture & g5]ation z ! f\r?4            
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly n4  ,,socrates3 ,& 
n[ :at is ! next "q1 & h[ came we hi!r8 
,7 we n enquir+ :e!r ! second place     
belong$ to pleasure or wisdom8          

,,prot>*us3 ,we 74  ,,socrates3 ,& n[1  
hav+ det]m9$ ^! po9ts1 %all we n be     
bett] able to decide ab\t ! fir/ &      
second place1 :i* 0 ! orig9al subject ( 
dispute8  ,,prot>*us3 ,i d>e say4       
,,socrates3 ,we said1 if y rememb]1 t ! 
mix$ life ( pleasure & wisdom 0 !       
conqu]or--did we n8  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4 
,,socrates3 ,& we see :at is ! place &  
nature ( ?is life & to :at class x is to
 be assign$8  ,,prot>*us3 ,beyond a     
d\bt4  ,,socrates3 ,?is is evid5tly     
compreh5d$ 9 ! ?ird or mix$ class2 :i*  
is n compos$ ( any two p>ticul> +r$i5ts1
 b ( all ! elem5ts ( inf9ity1 b\nd d[n  
by ! f9ite1 & may !re=e be truly said to
 compreh5d ! conqu]or life4  ,,prot>*us3
 ,mo/ true4  ,,socrates3 ,& :at %all we 
say1 ,philebus1 ( y\r life :i* is all   
sweetness2 & 9 :i* ( ! a=esaid classes  
is t to be plac$8 ,p]haps y w all[ me to
 ask y a "q be=e y answ]8  ,,philebus3  
,let me he>4  ,,socrates3 ,h pleasure & 
pa9 a limit1 or d !y belong to ! class  
:i* admits ( m & less8  ,,philebus3 ,!y 

belong to ! class :i* admits ( m1       
,socrates2 = pleasure w\ld n be p]fectly
 good if %e 7 n inf9ite 9 quantity &    
degree4  ,,socrates3 ,nor w\ld pa91     
,philebus1 be p]fectly evil4 ,& !re=e ! 
inf9ite _c be t elem5t :i* imp>ts to    
pleasure "s degree ( good4 ,b           
n[--admitt+1 if y l1 t pleasure is ( !  
nature ( ! inf9ite--9 :i* ( ! a=esaid   
classes1 ,o ,prot>*us & ,philebus1 c we 
)\t irrev]5ce place wisdom & k & m9d8 ,&
 let u be c>eful1 = ,i ?9k t ! dang] w  
be v s]i\s if we err on ?is po9t4       
,,philebus3 ,y magnify1 ,socrates1 !    
importance ( y\r fav\rite god4          
,,socrates3 ,& y1 my fri5d1 are also    
magnify+ y\r fav\rite goddess2 b /ill ,i
 mu/ beg y to answ] ! "q4  ,,prot>*us3  
,socrates is q "r1 ,philebus1 & we mu/  
submit to him4  ,,philebus3 ,& did n y1 
,prot>*us1 propose to answ] 9 my place8 
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly ,i did2 b ,i am n[ 
9 a great /rait1 & ,i mu/ entreat y1    
,socrates1 to be our spokesman1 & !n we 
%all n say any?+ wrong or disrespectful 

( y\r fav\rite4  ,,socrates3 ,i mu/ obey
 y1 ,prot>*us2 nor is ! task :i* y      
impose a difficult "o2 b did ,i really1 
z ,philebus implies1 disconc]t y ) my   
playful solemnity1 :5 ,i ask$ ! "q to   
:at class m9d & k belong8  ,,prot>*us3  
,y did1 inde$1 ,socrates4  ,,socrates3  
,yet ! answ] is easy1 s9ce all          
philosoph]s ass]t ) "o voice t m9d is ! 
k+ ( heav5 & e>?--9 reality !y are      
magnify+ !mselves4 ,& p]haps !y are "r4 
,b /ill ,i %\ld l to consid] ! class (  
m9d1 if y d n object1 a little m fully4 
,,philebus3 ,take y\r own c\rse1        
,socrates1 & nev] m9d l5g?2 we %all n   
tire ( y4  ,,socrates3 ,v good2 let u   
beg9 !n1 ,prot>*us1 by ask+ a "q4       
,,prot>*us3 ,:at "q8  ,,socrates3 ,:e!r 
all ?is :i* !y call ! univ]se is left to
 ! guidance ( unreason & *ance m$ley1   
or1 on ! contr>y1 z our fa!rs h decl>$1 
ord]$ & gov]n$ by a m>vell\s intellig5ce
 & wisdom4  ,,prot>*us3 ,wide asund] are
 ! two ass]tions1 illu/ri\s ,socrates1 =
 t :i* y 7 j n[ say+ to me appe>s to be 

blasphemy2 b ! o!r ass]tion1 t m9d ord]s
 all ?+s1 is wor?y ( ! aspect ( ! _w1 & 
( ! sun1 & ( ! moon1 & ( ! />s & ( !    
:ole circle ( ! heav5s2 & nev] w ,i say 
or ?9k o!rwise4  ,,socrates3 ,%all we !n
 agree ) !m ( old "t 9 ma9ta9+ ?is      
doctr9e1--n m]ely reass]t+ ! notions (  
o!rs1 )\t risk to ourselves1--b %all we 
%>e 9 ! dang]1 & take our "p ( ! reproa*
 :i* w await u1 :5 an +5i\s individual  
decl>es t all is disord]8  ,,prot>*us3  
,t w\ld c]ta9ly be my wi%4  ,,socrates3 
,!n n[ please to consid] ! next /age ( !
 argum5t4  ,,prot>*us3 ,let me he>4     
,,socrates3 ,we see t ! elem5ts :i* ent]
 into ! nature ( ! bodies ( all animals1
 fire1 wat]1 air1 &1 z ! /orm-toss$     
sailor cries1 'l&' 7i4e41 e>?71 reappe> 
9 ! con/itution ( ! _w4  ,,prot>*us3 ,! 
prov]b may be appli$ to u2 = truly !    
/orm ga!rs ov] u1 & we are at our wit's 
end4  ,,socrates3 ,!re is some?+ to be  
rem>k$ ab\t ea* ( ^! elem5ts4           
,,prot>*us3 ,:at is x8  ,,socrates3     
,only a small fraction ( any "o ( !m    

exi/s 9 u1 & t ( a mean sort1 & n 9 any 
way pure1 or hav+ any p[] wor?y ( its   
nature4 ,"o in/ance w prove ?is ( all ( 
!m2 !re is fire )9 u1 & 9 ! univ]se4    
,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3 ,& is n 
our fire small & weak & mean8 ,b ! fire 
9 ! univ]se is wond]ful 9 quantity &    
beauty1 & 9 e p[] t fire has4           
,,prot>*us3 ,mo/ true4  ,,socrates3 ,&  
is ! fire 9 ! univ]se n\ri%$ & g5]at$ & 
rul$ by ! fire 9 u1 or is ! fire 9 y &  
me1 & 9 o!r animals1 dep5d5t on !       
univ]sal fire8  ,,prot>*us3 ,t is a "q  
:i* does n des]ve an answ]4  ,,socrates3
 ,"r2 & y w\ld say ! same1 if ,i am n   
mi/ak51 ( ! e>? :i* is 9 animals & ! e>?
 :i* is 9 ! univ]se1 & y w\ld give a    
simil> reply ab\t all ! o!r elem5ts8    
,,prot>*us3 ,:y1 h[ c\ld any man :o gave
 any o!r be deem$ 9 8 s5ses8            
,,socrates3 ,i d n ?9k t he c\ld--b n[ g
 on to ! next /ep4 ,:5 we saw ^? elem5ts
 ( :i* we h be5 speak+ ga!r$ up 9 "o1   
did we n call !m a body8  ,,prot>*us3   
,we did4  ,,socrates3 ,& ! same may be  

said ( ! cosmos1 :i* = ! same reason may
 be consid]$ to be a body1 because made 
up ( ! same elem5ts4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v    
true4  ,,socrates3 ,b is our body n\ri%$
 :olly by ?is body1 or is ?is body      
n\ri%$ by our body1 !nce d]iv+ & hav+ ! 
qualities ( :i* we 7 j n[ speak+8       
,,prot>*us3 ,t aga91 ,socrates1 is a "q 
:i* does n des]ve to be ask$4           
,,socrates3 ,well1 tell me1 is ?is "q   
wor? ask+8  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at "q8        
,,socrates3 ,may our body be said to h a
 s\l8  ,,prot>*us3 ,cle>ly4  ,,socrates3
 ,& :5ce comes t s\l1 my de> ,prot>*us1 
unless ! body ( ! univ]se1 :i* conta9s  
elem5ts l ^? 9 our bodies b 9 e way     
fair]1 _h also a s\l8 ,c !re be ano!r   
s\rce8  ,,prot>*us3 ,cle>ly1 ,socrates1 
t is ! only s\rce4  ,,socrates3 ,:y1    
yes1 ,prot>*us2 = surely we _c imag9e t 
( ! f\r classes1 ! f9ite1 ! inf9ite1 !  
composition ( ! two1 & ! cause1 ! f\r?1 
:i* ent]s into all ?+s1 giv+ to our     
bodies s\ls1 & ! art ( self-managem5t1 &
 ( heal+ disease1 & op]at+ 9 o!r ways to

 heal & organize1 hav+ too all !        
attributes ( wisdom2--we _c1 ,i say1    
imag9e t :]eas ! self-same elem5ts exi/1
 bo? 9 ! entire heav5 & 9 great prov9ces
 ( ! heav51 only fair] & pur]1 ?is la/  
%\ld n also 9 t high] sph]e h design$ ! 
noble/ & faire/ ?+s8  ,,prot>*us3 ,su* a
 supposition is q unreasonable4         
,,socrates3 ,!n if ?is be d5i$1 %\ld we 
n be wise 9 adopt+ ! o!r view & ma9ta9+ 
t !re is 9 ! univ]se a mighty inf9ite & 
an adequate limit1 ( :i* we h (t5 spok51
 z well z a presid+ cause ( no mean p[]1
 :i* ord]s & arranges ye>s & seasons &  
mon?s1 & may be ju/ly call$ wisdom &    
m9d8  ,,prot>*us3 ,mo/ ju/ly4           
,,socrates3 ,& wisdom & m9d _c exi/ )\t 
s\l8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly n4           
,,socrates3 ,& 9 ! div9e nature ( ,zeus 
w\ld y n say t !re is ! s\l & m9d ( a   
k+1 because !re is 9 him ! p[] ( !      
cause8 ,& o!r gods h o!r attributes1 by 
:i* !y are pleas$ to be call$4          
,,prot>*us3 ,v true4  ,,socrates3 ,d n  
!n suppose t ^! words are ra%ly spok5 by

 u1 ,o ,prot>*us1 = !y are 9 h>mony ) ! 
te/imony ( ^? :o said ( old "t t m9d    
rules ! univ]se4  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4    
,,socrates3 ,& !y furni% an answ] to my 
enquiry2 = !y imply t m9d is ! p>5t ( t 
class ( ! f\r :i* we call$ ! cause (    
all2 & ,i ?9k t y n[ h my answ]4        
,,prot>*us3 ,i h inde$1 & yet ,i did n  
obs]ve t y _h answ]$4  ,,socrates3 ,a   
je/ is sometimes refre%+1 ,prot>*us1 :5 
x int]rupts e>ne/4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v true4
  ,,socrates3 ,i ?9k1 fri5d1 t we h n[  
pretty cle>ly set =? ! class to :i* m9d 
belongs & :at is ! p[] ( m9d4           
,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3 ,& !    
class to :i* pleasure belongs has also  
be5 long ago discov]$8  ,,prot>*us3     
,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,& let u rememb]1    
too1 ( bo? ( !m1 7#a7 t m9d 0 ak9 to !  
cause & ( ?is family2 & 7#b7 t pleasure 
is inf9ite & belongs to ! class :i*     
nei!r has1 nor ev] w h 9 itself1 a      
beg9n+1 middle1 or end ( its own4       
,,prot>*us3 ,i %all be sure to rememb]4 
,,socrates3 ,we mu/ next exam9e :at is  

_! place & "u :at conditions !y are     
g5]at$4 ,& we w beg9 ) pleasure1 s9ce h]
 class 0 fir/ exam9$2 & yet pleasure _c 
be rightly te/$ ap>t f pa94  ,,prot>*us3
 ,if ?is is ! road1 let u take x4       
,,socrates3 ,i wond] :e!r y w\ld agree )
 me ab\t ! orig9 ( pleasure & pa94      
,,prot>*us3 ,:at d y mean8  ,,socrates3 
,i mean to say t _! natural seat is 9 ! 
mix$ class4  ,,prot>*us3 ,& w\ld y tell 
me aga91 sweet ,socrates1 :i* ( !       
a=esaid classes is ! mix$ "o8           
,,socrates3 ,i w1 my f9e fell[1 to ! be/
 ( my ability4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v good4    
,,socrates3 ,let u !n und]/& ! mix$     
class to be t :i* we plac$ ?ird 9 ! li/ 
( f\r4  ,,prot>*us3 ,t :i* foll[$ !     
inf9ite & ! f9ite2 & 9 :i* y rank$      
heal?1 &1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 h>mony4    
,,socrates3 ,capital2 & n[ w y please to
 give me y\r be/ att5tion8  ,,prot>*us3 
,proce$2 ,i am att5d+4  ,,socrates3 ,i  
say t :5 ! h>mony 9 animals is dissolv$1
 !re is also a dissolution ( nature & a 
g5]ation ( pa94  ,,prot>*us3 ,t is v    

probable4  ,,socrates3 ,& ! re/oration (
 h>mony & return to nature is ! s\rce ( 
pleasure1 if ,i may be all[$ to speak 9 
! fewe/ & %orte/ words ab\t matt]s ( !  
greate/ mom5t4  ,,prot>*us3 ,i believe t
 y are "r1 ,socrates2 b w y try to be a 
little pla9]8  ,,socrates3 ,d n obvi\s &
 e-day ph5om5a furni% ! simple/         
illu/ration8  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at ph5om5a d
 y mean8  ,,socrates3 ,hung]1 = example1
 is a dissolution & a pa94  ,,prot>*us3 
,true4  ,,socrates3 ,:]eas eat+ is a    
repl5i%m5t & a pleasure8  ,,prot>*us3   
,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,?ir/ aga9 is a      
de/ruction & a pa91 b ! effect ( moi/ure
 repl5i%+ ! dry place is a pleasure3    
once m1 ! unnatural sep>ation &         
dissolution caus$ by heat is pa9ful1 & !
 natural re/oration & refrig]ation is   
pleasant4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v true4         
,,socrates3 ,& ! unnatural freez+ ( !   
moi/ure 9 an animal is pa91 & ! natural 
process ( resolution & return ( !       
elem5ts to _! orig9al /ate is pleasure4 
,& w\ld n ! g5]al proposition seem to y 

to hold1 t ! de/roy+ ( ! natural union (
 ! f9ite & inf9ite1 :i*1 z ,i 0 obs]v+  
be=e1 make up ! class ( liv+ be+s1 is   
pa91 & t ! process ( return ( all ?+s to
 _! own nature is pleasure8  ,,prot>*us3
 ,grant$2 :at y say has a g5]al tru?4   
,,socrates3 ,"h !n is "o k9d ( pleasures
 & pa9s orig9at+ sev]ally 9 ! two       
processes :i* we h describ$8            
,,prot>*us3 ,good4  ,,socrates3 ,let u  
next assume t 9 ! s\l h]self !re is an  
antec$5t hope ( pleasure :i* is sweet & 
refre%+1 & an expectation ( pa91 fe>ful 
& anxi\s4  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes2 ?is is     
ano!r class ( pleasures & pa9s1 :i* is (
 ! s\l only1 ap>t f ! body1 & is produc$
 by expectation4  ,,socrates3 ,"r2 = 9 !
 analysis ( ^!1 pure1 z ,i suppose !m to
 be1 ! pleasures be+ unalloy$ ) pa9 & ! 
pa9s ) pleasure1 me?9ks t we %all see   
cle>ly :e!r ! :ole class ( pleasure is  
to be desir$1 or :e!r ?is quality (     
entire desirabl5ess is n r to be        
attribut$ to ano!r ( ! classes :i* h be5
 m5tion$2 & :e!r pleasure & pa91 l heat 

& cold1 & o!r ?+s ( ! same k9d1 are n   
sometimes to be desir$ & sometimes n to 
be desir$1 z be+ n 9 !mselves good1 b   
only sometimes & 9 "s in/ances admitt+ (
 ! nature ( good4  ,,prot>*us3 ,y say   
mo/ truly t ?is is ! track :i* !        
inve/igation %\ld pursue4  ,,socrates3  
,well1 !n1 assum+ t pa9 ensues on !     
dissolution1 & pleasure on ! re/oration 
( ! h>mony1 let u n[ ask :at w be !     
condition ( animat$ be+s :o are nei!r 9 
process ( re/oration nor ( dissolution4 
,& m9d :at y say3 ,i ask :e!r any animal
 :o is 9 t condition c possibly h any   
feel+ ( pleasure or pa91 great or small8
  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly n4  ,,socrates3  
,!n "h we h a ?ird /ate1 ov] & above t (
 pleasure & ( pa98  ,,prot>*us3 ,v true4
  ,,socrates3 ,& d n =get t !re is su* a
 /ate2 x w make a great diff]5ce 9 our  
judgm5t ( pleasure1 :e!r we rememb] ?is 
or n4 ,& ,i %\ld l to say a few words   
ab\t x4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at h y to say8   
,,socrates3 ,:y1 y "k t if a man *ooses 
! life ( wisdom1 !re is no reason :y he 

%\ld n live 9 ?is neutral /ate4         
,,prot>*us3 ,y mean t he may live nei!r 
rejoic+ nor sorr[+8  ,,socrates3 ,yes2 &
 if ,i rememb] rightly1 :5 ! lives 7    
comp>$1 no degree ( pleasure1 :e!r great
 or small1 0 ?\ght to be necess>y to him
 :o *ose ! life ( ?\ght & wisdom4       
,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 c]ta9ly1 we said s4   
,,socrates3 ,!n he w live )\t pleasure2 
& :o kn[s :e!r ?is may n be ! mo/ div9e 
( all lives8  ,,prot>*us3 ,if s1 ! gods1
 at any rate1 _c be suppos$ to h ei!r   
joy or sorr[4  ,,socrates3 ,c]ta9ly     
n--!re w\ld be a great impropriety 9 !  
assumption ( ei!r alt]native4 ,b :e!r ! 
gods are or are n indiff]5t to pleasure 
is a po9t :i* may be consid]$ h]eaft] if
 9 any way relevant to ! argum5t1 &     
:atev] is ! conclusion we w place x to !
 acc\nt ( m9d 9 h] conte/ = ! second    
place1 %\ld %e h to resign ! fir/4      
,,prot>*us3 ,j s4  ,,socrates3 ,! o!r   
class ( pleasures1 :i* z we 7 say+ is   
purely m5tal1 is entirely d]iv$ f       
memory4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at d y mean8     

,,socrates3 ,i mu/ fir/ ( all analyze   
memory1 or r p]ception :i* is prior to  
memory1 if ! subject ( our discussion is
 ev] to be prop]ly cle>$ up4            
,,prot>*us3 ,h[ w y proce$8  ,,socrates3
 ,let u imag9e affections ( ! body :i*  
are ext+ui%$ be=e !y rea* ! s\l1 & leave
 h] unaffect$2 & aga91 o!r affections   
:i* vibrate ?r\gh bo? s\l & body1 &     
imp>t a %ock to bo? & to ea* ( !m4      
,,prot>*us3 ,grant$4  ,,socrates3 ,& !  
s\l may be truly said to be oblivi\s ( !
 fir/ b n ( ! second8  ,,prot>*us3 ,q   
true4  ,,socrates3 ,:5 ,i say oblivi\s1 
d n suppose t ,i mean =getfulness 9 a   
lit]al s5se2 = =getfulness is ! exit (  
memory1 :i* 9 ?is case has n yet ent]$2 
& to speak ( ! loss ( t :i* is n yet 9  
exi/5ce1 & nev] has be51 is a           
contradiction2 d y see8  ,,prot>*us3    
,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,!n j be s good z to 
*ange ! t]ms4  ,,prot>*us3 ,h[ %all ,i  
*ange !m8  ,,socrates3 ,in/ead ( !      
oblivion ( ! s\l1 :5 y are describ+ !   
/ate 9 :i* %e is unaffect$ by ! %ocks ( 

! body1 say unconsci\sness4  ,,prot>*us3
 ,i see4  ,,socrates3 ,& ! union or     
communion ( s\l & body 9 "o feel+ &     
motion w\ld be prop]ly call$            
consci\sness8  ,,prot>*us3 ,mo/ true4   
,,socrates3 ,!n n[ we "k ! mean+ ( ! ^w8
  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,&     
memory may1 ,i ?9k1 be rightly describ$ 
z ! pres]vation ( consci\sness8         
,,prot>*us3 ,"r4  ,,socrates3 ,b d we n 
di/+ui% memory f recollection8          
,,prot>*us3 ,i ?9k s4  ,,socrates3 ,& d 
we n mean by recollection ! p[] :i* !   
s\l has ( recov]+1 :5 by h]self1 "s     
feel+ :i* %e exp]i5c$ :5 9 company ) !  
body8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4            
,,socrates3 ,& :5 %e recov]s ( h]self ! 
lo/ recollection ( "s consci\sness or k1
 ! recov]y is t]m$ recollection &       
rem9isc5ce8  ,,prot>*us3 ,v true4       
,,socrates3 ,!re is a reason :y ,i say  
all ?is4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at is x8        
,,socrates3 ,i want to atta9 ! pla9e/   
possible notion ( pleasure & desire1 z  
!y exi/ 9 ! m9d only1 ap>t f ! body2 & !

 previ\s analysis helps to %[ ! nature (
 bo?4  ,,prot>*us3 ,!n n[1 ,socrates1   
let u proce$ to ! next po9t4            
,,socrates3 ,!re are c]ta9ly _m ?+s to  
be consid]$ 9 discuss+ ! g5]ation & :ole
 complexion ( pleasure4 ,at ! outset we 
mu/ det]m9e ! nature & seat ( desire4   
,,prot>*us3 ,ay2 let u enquire into t1 =
 we %all lose no?+4  ,,socrates3 ,nay1  
,prot>*us1 we %all surely lose ! puzzle 
if we f9d ! answ]4  ,,prot>*us3 ,a fair 
retort2 b let u proce$4  ,,socrates3    
,did we n place hung]1 ?ir/1 & ! l1 9 ! 
class ( desires8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4 
,,socrates3 ,& yet !y are v diff]5t2 :at
 common nature h we 9 view :5 we call !m
 by a s+le "n8  ,,prot>*us3 ,by heav5s1 
,socrates1 t is a "q :i* is n easily    
answ]$2 b x mu/ be answ]$4  ,,socrates3 
,!n let u g back to our examples4       
,,prot>*us3 ,:]e %all we beg98          
,,socrates3 ,d we mean any?+ :5 we say  
'a man ?ir/s'8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4       
,,socrates3 ,we mean to say t he 'is    
empty'8  ,,prot>*us3 ,( c\rse4          

,,socrates3 ,& is n ?ir/ desire8        
,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 ( dr9k4  ,,socrates3  
,w\ld y say ( dr9k1 or ( repl5i%m5t )   
dr9k8  ,,prot>*us3 ,i %\ld say1 (       
repl5i%m5t ) dr9k4  ,,socrates3 ,!n he  
:o is empty desires1 z w\ld appe>1 !    
opposite ( :at he exp]i5ces2 = he is    
empty & desires to be full8  ,,prot>*us3
 ,cle>ly s4  ,,socrates3 ,b h[ c a man  
:o is empty = ! fir/ "t1 atta9 ei!r by  
p]ception or memory to any appreh5sion (
 repl5i%m5t1 ( :i* he has no pres5t or  
pa/ exp]i5ce8  ,,prot>*us3 ,impossible4 
,,socrates3 ,& yet he :o desires1 surely
 desires some?+8  ,,prot>*us3 ,( c\rse4 
,,socrates3 ,he does n desire t :i* he  
exp]i5ces1 = he exp]i5ces ?ir/1 & ?ir/  
is empt9ess2 b he desires repl5i%m5t8   
,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3 ,!n !re 
mu/ be some?+ 9 ! ?ir/y man :i* 9 "s way
 appreh5ds repl5i%m5t8  ,,prot>*us3 ,!re
 mu/4  ,,socrates3 ,& t _c be ! body1 = 
! body is suppos$ to be empti$8         
,,prot>*us3 ,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,! only  
rema9+ alt]native is t ! s\l appreh5ds !

 repl5i%m5t by ! help ( memory2 z is    
obvi\s1 = :at o!r way c !re be8         
,,prot>*us3 ,i _c imag9e any o!r4       
,,socrates3 ,b d y see ! consequ5ce8    
,,prot>*us3 ,:at is x8  ,,socrates3 ,t  
!re is no su* ?+ z desire ( ! body4     
,,prot>*us3 ,:y s8  ,,socrates3 ,:y1    
because ! argum5t %[s t ! endeav\r ( e  
animal is to ! rev]se ( 8 bodily /ate4  
,,prot>*us3 ,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,& !     
impulse :i* leads him to ! opposite (   
:at he is exp]i5c+ proves t he has a    
memory ( ! opposite /ate4  ,,prot>*us3  
,true4  ,,socrates3 ,& ! argum5t1 hav+  
prov$ t memory attracts u t[>ds !       
objects ( desire1 proves also t !       
impulses & ! desires & ! mov+ pr9ciple 9
 e liv+ be+ h _! orig9 9 ! s\l4         
,,prot>*us3 ,mo/ true4  ,,socrates3 ,!  
argum5t w n all[ t our body ei!r hung]s 
or ?ir/s or has any simil> exp]i5ce4    
,,prot>*us3 ,q "r4  ,,socrates3 ,let me 
make a fur!r obs]vation2 ! argum5t      
appe>s to me to imply t !re is a k9d (  
life :i* consi/s 9 ^! affections4       

,,prot>*us3 ,( :at affections1 & ( :at  
k9d ( life1 are y speak+8  ,,socrates3  
,i am speak+ ( be+ empti$ & repl5i%$1 & 
( all t relates to ! pres]vation &      
de/ruction ( liv+ be+s1 z well z ( ! pa9
 :i* is felt 9 "o ( ^! /ates & ( !      
pleasure :i* succe$s to x4  ,,prot>*us3 
,true4  ,,socrates3 ,& :at w\ld y say ( 
! int]m$iate /ate8  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at d y
 mean by 'int]m$iate'8  ,,socrates3 ,i  
mean :5 a p]son is 9 actual suff]+ & yet
 rememb]s pa/ pleasures :i*1 if !y w\ld 
only return1 w\ld relieve him2 b z yet  
he has !m n4 ,may we n say ( him1 t he  
is 9 an int]m$iate /ate8  ,,prot>*us3   
,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,w\ld y say t he 
0 :olly pa9$ or :olly pleas$8           
,,prot>*us3 ,nay1 ,i %\ld say t he has  
two pa9s2 9 8 body !re is ! actual      
exp]i5ce ( pa91 & 9 8 s\l long+ &       
expectation4  ,,socrates3 ,:at d y mean1
 ,prot>*us1 by ! two pa9s8 ,may n a man 
:o is empty h at "o "t a sure hope ( be+
 fill$1 & at o!r times be q 9 despair8  
,,prot>*us3 ,v true4  ,,socrates3 ,& has

 he n ! pleasure ( memory :5 he is hop+ 
to be fill$1 & yet 9 t he is empty is he
 n at ! same "t 9 pa98  ,,prot>*us3     
,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,!n man & ! o!r  
animals h at ! same "t bo? pleasure &   
pa98  ,,prot>*us3 ,i suppose s4         
,,socrates3 ,b :5 a man is empty & has  
no hope ( be+ fill$1 !re w be ! d\ble   
exp]i5ce ( pa94 ,y obs]v$ ?is & inf]r$ t
 ! d\ble exp]i5ce 0 ! s+le case         
possible4  ,,prot>*us3 ,q true1         
,socrates4  ,,socrates3 ,%all ! enquiry 
into ^! /ates ( feel+ be made ! occasion
 ( rais+ a "q8  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at "q8    
,,socrates3 ,:e!r we ought to say t !   
pleasures & pa9s ( :i* we are speak+ are
 true or false8 or "s true & "s false8  
,,prot>*us3 ,b h[1 ,socrates1 c !re be  
false pleasures & pa9s8  ,,socrates3 ,& 
h[1 ,prot>*us1 c !re be true & false    
fe>s1 or true & false expectations1 or  
true & false op9ions8  ,,prot>*us3 ,i   
grant t op9ions may be true or false1 b 
n pleasures4  ,,socrates3 ,:at d y mean8
 ,i am afraid t we are rais+ a v s]i\s  

enquiry4  ,,prot>*us3 ,!re ,i agree4    
,,socrates3 ,& yet1 my boy1 = y are "o (
 ,philebus' boys1 ! po9t to be consid]$1
 is1 :e!r ! enquiry is relevant to !    
argum5t4  ,,prot>*us3 ,surely4          
,,socrates3 ,no t$i\s & irrelevant      
discussion c be all[$2 :at is said %\ld 
be p]t95t4  ,,prot>*us3 ,"r4            
,,socrates3 ,i am always wond]+ at ! "q 
:i* has n[ be5 rais$4  ,,prot>*us3 ,h[  
s8  ,,socrates3 ,d y d5y t "s pleasures 
are false1 & o!rs true8  ,,prot>*us3 ,to
 be sure ,i d4  ,,socrates3 ,w\ld y say 
t no "o ev] seem$ to rejoice & yet did n
 rejoice1 or seem$ to feel pa9 & yet did
 n feel pa91 sleep+ or wak+1 mad or     
lunatic8  ,,prot>*us3 ,s we h always    
held1 ,socrates4  ,,socrates3 ,b 7 y "r8
 ,%all we enquire into ! tru? ( y\r     
op9ion8  ,,prot>*us3 ,i ?9k t we %\ld4  
,,socrates3 ,let u !n put into m precise
 t]ms ! "q :i* has aris5 ab\t pleasure &
 op9ion4 ,is !re su* a ?+ z op9ion8     
,,prot>*us3 ,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,& su* a 
?+ z pleasure8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4       

,,socrates3 ,& an op9ion mu/ be (       
some?+8  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3
 ,& a man mu/ be pleas$ by some?+8      
,,prot>*us3 ,q correct4  ,,socrates3 ,& 
:e!r ! op9ion be "r or wrong1 makes no  
diff]5ce2 x w /ill be an op9ion8        
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& he
 :o is pleas$1 :e!r he is rightly pleas$
 or n1 w always h a real feel+ (        
pleasure8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes2 t is also q
 true4  ,,socrates3 ,!n1 h[ c op9ion be 
bo? true & false1 & pleasure true only1 
al?\gh pleasure & op9ion are bo? equally
 real8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes2 t is ! "q4    
,,socrates3 ,y mean t op9ion admits (   
tru? & falsehood1 & h5ce becomes n m]ely
 op9ion1 b op9ion ( a c]ta9 quality2 &  
?is is :at y ?9k %\ld be exam9$8        
,,prot>*us3 ,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,& fur!r1
 ev5 if we admit ! exi/5ce ( qualities 9
 o!r objects1 may n pleasure & pa9 be   
simple & devoid ( quality8  ,,prot>*us3 
,cle>ly4  ,,socrates3 ,b !re is no      
difficulty 9 see+ t pleasure & pa9 z    
well z op9ion h qualities1 = !y are     

great or small1 & h v>i\s degrees (     
int5sity2 z 0 inde$ said long ago by u4 
,,prot>*us3 ,q true4  ,,socrates3 ,& if 
badness atta*es to any ( !m1 ,prot>*us1 
!n we %\ld speak ( a bad op9ion or ( a  
bad pleasure8  ,,prot>*us3 ,q true1     
,socrates4  ,,socrates3 ,& if rightness 
atta*es to any ( !m1 %\ld we n speak ( a
 "r op9ion or "r pleasure2 & 9 l mann] (
 ! rev]se ( rightness8  ,,prot>*us3     
,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& if ! ?+ op9$  
be errone\s1 might we n say t ! op9ion1 
be+ errone\s1 is n "r or rightly op9$8  
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& if
 we see a pleasure or pa9 :i* errs 9    
respect ( its object1 %all we call t "r 
or good1 or by any hon\rable "n8        
,,prot>*us3 ,n if ! pleasure is mi/ak52 
h[ c\ld we8  ,,socrates3 ,& surely      
pleasure (t5 appe>s to accompany an     
op9ion :i* is n true1 b false8          
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly x does2 & 9 t case1
 ,socrates1 z we 7 say+1 ! op9ion is    
false1 b no "o c\ld call ! actual       
pleasure false4  ,,socrates3 ,h[ eag]ly1

 ,prot>*us1 d y ru% to ! def5ce (       
pleasure6  ,,prot>*us3 ,nay1 ,socrates1 
,i only repeat :at ,i he>4  ,,socrates3 
,& is !re no diff]5ce1 my fri5d1 betwe5 
t pleasure :i* is associat$ ) "r op9ion 
& k1 & t :i* is (t5 f\nd 9 all ( u      
associat$ ) falsehood & ignorance8      
,,prot>*us3 ,!re mu/ be a v great       
diff]5ce1 betwe5 !m4  ,,socrates3 ,!n1  
n[ let u proce$ to contemplate ?is      
diff]5ce4  ,,prot>*us3 ,lead1 & ,i w    
foll[4  ,,socrates3 ,well1 !n1 my view  
is--  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at is x8            
,,socrates3 ,we agree--d we n8--t !re is
 su* a ?+ z false1 & also su* a ?+ z    
true op9ion8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4         
,,socrates3 ,& pleasure & pa91 z ,i 0 j 
n[ say+1 are (t5 consequ5t ^u ^!--^u    
true & false op9ion1 ,i mean4           
,,prot>*us3 ,v true4  ,,socrates3 ,& d n
 op9ion & ! endeav\r to =m an op9ion    
always spr+ f memory & p]ception8       
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3      
,might we imag9e ! process to be some?+ 
( ?is nature8  ,,prot>*us3 ,( :at       

nature8  ,,socrates3 ,an object may be  
(t5 se5 at a di/ance n v cle>ly1 & ! se]
 may want to det]m9e :at x is :i* he    
sees4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v likely4           
,,socrates3 ,soon he beg9s to int]rogate
 himself4  ,,prot>*us3 ,9 :at mann]8    
,,socrates3 ,he asks himself--',:at is t
 :i* appe>s to be /&+ by ! rock "u !    
tree8' ,?is is ! "q :i* he may be       
suppos$ to put to himself :5 he sees su*
 an appe>ance4  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4      
,,socrates3 ,to :i* he may guess ! "r   
answ]1 say+ z if 9 a :isp] to           
himself--',x is a man4'  ,,prot>*us3 ,v 
good4  ,,socrates3 ,or aga91 he may be  
misl$1 & !n he w say--',no1 x is a      
figure made by ! %eph]ds4'  ,,prot>*us3 
,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,& if he has a       
companion1 he repeats 8 ?\ght to him 9  
articulate s\nds1 & :at 0 be=e an       
op9ion1 has n[ become a proposition4    
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,b if
 he be walk+ alone :5 ^! ?\ghts occur to
 him1 he may n unfrequ5tly keep !m 9 8  
m9d = a consid]able "t4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v 

true4  ,,socrates3 ,well1 n[1 ,i wond]  
:e!r y w\ld agree 9 my explanation ( ?is
 ph5om5on4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at is y\r     
explanation8  ,,socrates3 ,i ?9k t ! s\l
 at su* times is l a book4  ,,prot>*us3 
,h[ s8  ,,socrates3 ,memory & p]ception 
meet1 & !y & _! att5dant feel+s seem to 
almo/ to write d[n words 9 ! s\l1 & :5 !
 inscrib+ feel+ writes truly1 !n true   
op9ion & true propositions :i* are !    
expressions ( op9ion come into our      
s\ls--b :5 ! scribe )9 u writes falsely1
 ! result is false4  ,,prot>*us3 ,i q   
ass5t & agree to y\r /atem5t4           
,,socrates3 ,i mu/ bespeak y\r fav\r    
also = ano!r arti/1 :o is busy at ! same
 "t 9 ! *amb]s ( ! s\l4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:o
 is he8  ,,socrates3 ,! pa9t]1 :o1 aft] 
! scribe has done 8 "w1 draws images 9 !
 s\l ( ! ?+s :i* he has describ$4       
,,prot>*us3 ,b :5 & h[ does he d ?is8   
,,socrates3 ,:5 a man1 besides receiv+ f
 sight or "s o!r s5se c]ta9 op9ions or  
/atem5ts1 sees 9 8 m9d ! images ( !     
subjects ( !m2--is n ?is a v common     

m5tal ph5om5on8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  
,,socrates3 ,& ! images answ]+ to true  
op9ions & words are true1 & to false    
op9ions & words false2 are !y n8        
,,prot>*us3 ,!y are4  ,,socrates3 ,if we
 are "r s f>1 !re arises a fur!r "q4    
,,prot>*us3 ,:at is x8  ,,socrates3     
,:e!r we exp]i5ce ! feel+ ( :i* ,i am   
speak+ only 9 relation to ! pres5t & !  
pa/1 or 9 relation to ! future also8    
,,prot>*us3 ,i %\ld say 9 relation to   
all times alike4  ,,socrates3 ,h n      
purely m5tal pleasures & pa9s be5       
describ$ already z 9 "s cases           
anticipations ( ! bodily ones2 f :i* we 
may inf] t anticipatory pleasures & pa9s
 h to d ) ! future8  ,,prot>*us3 ,mo/   
true4  ,,socrates3 ,& d all ^? writ+s & 
pa9t+s :i*1 z we 7 say+ a little :ile   
ago1 are produc$ 9 u1 relate to ! pa/ & 
pres5t only1 & n to ! future8           
,,prot>*us3 ,to ! future1 v mu*4        
,,socrates3 ,:5 y say1 ',v mu*1' y mean 
to imply t all ^! repres5tations are    
hopes ab\t ! future1 & t mank9d are     

fill$ ) hopes 9 e /age ( exi/5ce8       
,,prot>*us3 ,exactly4  ,,socrates3      
,answ] me ano!r "q4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at   
"q8  ,,socrates3 ,a j & pi\s & good man 
is ! fri5d ( ! gods2 is he n8           
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly he is4  ,,socrates3
 ,& ! unju/ & utt]ly bad man is !       
rev]se8  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3
 ,& all m51 z we 7 say+ j n[1 are always
 fill$ ) hopes8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  
,,socrates3 ,& ^! hopes1 z !y are t]m$1 
are propositions :i* exi/ 9 ! m9ds ( ea*
 ( u8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,&
 ! fancies ( hope are also pictur$ 9 u2 
a man may (t5 h a vision ( a heap (     
gold1 & pleasures ensu+1 & 9 ! picture  
!re may be a lik5ess ( himself mightily 
rejoic+ ov] 8 good =tune4  ,,prot>*us3  
,true4  ,,socrates3 ,& may we n say t ! 
good1 be+ fri5ds ( ! gods1 h g5]ally    
true pictures pres5t$ to !m1 & ! bad    
false pictures8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  
,,socrates3 ,! bad1 too1 h pleasures    
pa9t$ 9 _! fancy z well z ! good2 b ,i  
presume t !y are false pleasures4       

,,prot>*us3 ,!y are4  ,,socrates3 ,! bad
 !n commonly delight 9 false pleasures1 
& ! good 9 true pleasures8  ,,prot>*us3 
,d\btless4  ,,socrates3 ,!n ^u ?is view 
!re are false pleasures 9 ! s\ls ( m5   
:i* are a ludicr\s imitation ( ! true1 &
 !re are pa9s ( a simil> "*8            
,,prot>*us3 ,!re are4  ,,socrates3 ,&   
did we n all[ t a man :o _h an op9ion at
 all _h a real op9ion1 b (t5 ab\t ?+s   
:i* _h no exi/5ce ei!r 9 ! pa/1 pres5t1 
or future8  ,,prot>*us3 ,q true4        
,,socrates3 ,& ?is 0 ! s\rce ( false    
op9ion & op9+2 am ,i n "r8  ,,prot>*us3 
,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,& mu/ we n attribute
 to pleasure & pa9 a simil> real b      
illusory "*8  ,,prot>*us3 ,h[ d y mean8 
,,socrates3 ,i mean to say t a man mu/  
be admitt$ to h real pleasure :o is     
pleas$ ) any?+ or anyh[2 & he may be    
pleas$ ab\t ?+s :i* nei!r h nor h ev] _h
 any real exi/5ce1 &1 m (t5 ?an n1 are  
nev] likely to exi/4  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 
,socrates1 t aga9 is und5iable4         
,,socrates3 ,& may n ! same be said ab\t

 fe> & ang] & ! l2 are !y n (t5 false8  
,,prot>*us3 ,q s4  ,,socrates3 ,& c     
op9ions be good or bad except 9 z f> z  
!y are true or false8  ,,prot>*us3 ,9 no
 o!r way4  ,,socrates3 ,nor c pleasures 
be conceiv$ to be bad except 9 s f> z !y
 are false4  ,,prot>*us3 ,nay1          
,socrates1 t is ! v opposite ( tru?2 =  
no "o w\ld call pleasures & pa9s bad    
because !y are false1 b by reason ( "s  
o!r great corruption to :i* !y are      
liable4  ,,socrates3 ,well1 ( pleasures 
:i* are corrupt & caus$ by corruption we
 w h]eaft] speak1 if we c>e to cont9ue !
 enquiry2 = ! pres5t ,i w\ld r %[ by    
ano!r argum5t t !re are _m false        
pleasures exi/+ or com+ into exi/5ce 9  
u1 because ?is may assi/ our f9al       
decision4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v true2 t is to 
say1 if !re are su* pleasures4          
,,socrates3 ,i ?9k t !re are1 ,prot>*us2
 b ?is is an op9ion :i* %\ld be well    
assur$1 & n re/ ^u a m]e ass]tion4      
,,prot>*us3 ,v good4  ,,socrates3 ,!n   
n[1 l wre/l]s1 let u approa* & grasp ?is

 new argum5t4  ,,prot>*us3 ,proce$4     
,,socrates3 ,we 7 ma9ta9+ a little :ile 
s9ce1 t :5 desires1 z !y are t]m$1 exi/ 
9 u1 !n ! body has sep>ate feel+s ap>t f
 ! s\l--d y rememb]8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 
,i rememb] t y said s4  ,,socrates3 ,& !
 s\l 0 suppos$ to desire ! opposite ( ! 
bodily /ate1 :ile ! body 0 ! s\rce ( any
 pleasure or pa9 :i* 0 exp]i5c$4        
,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3 ,!n n[ y
 may inf] :at happ5s 9 su* cases4       
,,prot>*us3 ,:at am ,i to inf]8         
,,socrates3 ,t 9 su* cases pleasures &  
pa9s come simultane\sly2 & !re is a     
juxtaposition ( ! opposite s5sations :i*
 correspond to !m1 z has be5 already    
%[n4  ,,prot>*us3 ,cle>ly4  ,,socrates3 
,& !re is ano!r po9t to :i* we h agre$4 
,,prot>*us3 ,:at is x8  ,,socrates3 ,t  
pleasure & pa9 bo? admit ( m & less1 & t
 !y are ( ! class ( inf9ites4           
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly1 we said s4        
,,socrates3 ,b h[ c we rightly judge (  
!m8  ,,prot>*us3 ,h[ c we8  ,,socrates3 
,is x our int5tion to judge ( _!        

comp>ative importance & int5sity1       
measur+ pleasure aga9/ pa91 & pa9 aga9/ 
pa91 & pleasure aga9/ pleasure8         
,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 su* is our int5tion1 &
 we %all judge ( !m accord+ly4          
,,socrates3 ,well1 take ! case ( sight4 
,does n ! ne>ness or di/ance (          
magnitudes obscure _! true proportions1 
& make u op9e falsely2 & d we n f9d !   
same illusion happ5+ 9 ! case (         
pleasures & pa9s8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1    
,socrates1 & 9 a degree f> great]4      
,,socrates3 ,!n :at we are n[ say+ is ! 
opposite ( :at we 7 say+ be=e4          
,,prot>*us3 ,:at 0 t8  ,,socrates3 ,!n !
 op9ions 7 true & false1 & infect$ !    
pleasures & pa9s ) _! own falsity4      
,,prot>*us3 ,v true4  ,,socrates3 ,b n[ 
x is ! pleasures :i* are said to be true
 & false because !y are se5 at v>i\s    
di/ances1 & subject$ to comp>ison2 !    
pleasures appe> to be great] & m vehem5t
 :5 plac$ side by side ) ! pa9s1 & !    
pa9s :5 plac$ side by side ) !          
pleasures4  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly1 & = ! 

reason :i* y m5tion4  ,,socrates3 ,&    
suppose y "p (f f pleasures & pa9s !    
elem5t :i* makes !m appe> to be great]  
or less ?an !y really are3 y w ackn[l$ge
 t ?is elem5t is illusory1 & y w nev]   
say t ! correspond+ excess or defect (  
pleasure or pa9 is real or true4        
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly n4  ,,socrates3    
,next let u see :e!r 9 ano!r direction  
we may n f9d pleasures & pa9s exi/+ &   
appe>+ 9 liv+ be+s1 :i* are /ill m false
 ?an ^!4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at are !y1 & h[ 
%all we f9d !m8  ,,socrates3 ,if ,i am n
 mi/ak51 ,i h (t5 repeat$ t pa9s & a*es 
& suff]+ & uneas9ess ( all sorts arise  
out ( a corruption ( nature caus$ by    
concretions1 & dissolutions1 &          
repletions1 & evacuations1 & also by    
gr[? & decay8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 t has  
be5 (t5 said4  ,,socrates3 ,& we h also 
agre$ t ! re/oration ( ! natural /ate is
 pleasure8  ,,prot>*us3 ,"r4            
,,socrates3 ,b n[ let u suppose an      
int]val ( "t at :i* ! body exp]i5ces    
none ( ^! *anges4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:5 c t  

be1 ,socrates8  ,,socrates3 ,y\r "q1    
,prot>*us1 does n help ! argum5t4       
,,prot>*us3 ,:y n1 ,socrates8           
,,socrates3 ,because x does n prev5t me 
f repeat+ m9e4  ,,prot>*us3 ,& :at 0 t8 
,,socrates3 ,:y1 ,prot>*us1 admitt+ t   
!re is no su* int]val1 ,i may ask :at   
w\ld be ! necess>y consequ5ce if !re 78 
,,prot>*us3 ,y mean1 :at w\ld happ5 if !
 body 7 n *ang$ ei!r = good or bad8     
,,socrates3 ,yes4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:y !n1  
,socrates1 ,i %\ld suppose t !re w\ld be
 nei!r pleasure nor pa94  ,,socrates3 ,v
 good2 b /ill1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 y d   
ass]t t we mu/ always be exp]i5c+ "o (  
!m2 t is :at ! wise tell u2 =1 say !y1  
all ?+s are ev] fl[+ up & d[n4          
,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 & _! words are ( no   
mean au?ority4  ,,socrates3 ,( c\rse1 = 
!y are no mean au?orities !mselves2 & ,i
 %\ld l to avoid ! brunt ( _! argum5t4  
,%all ,i tell y h[ ,i mean to escape f  
!m8 ,& y %all be ! p>tn] ( my flight4   
,,prot>*us3 ,h[8  ,,socrates3 ,to !m we 
w say3 ',good2 b are we1 or liv+ ?+s 9  

g5]al1 always consci\s ( :at happ5s to  
u--= example1 ( our gr[?1 or ! l8 ,are  
we n1 on ! contr>y1 almo/ :olly         
unconsci\s ( ?is & simil> ph5om5a8' ,y  
mu/ answ] = !m4  ,,prot>*us3 ,! latt]   
alt]native is ! true "o4  ,,socrates3   
,!n we 7 n "r 9 say+1 j n[1 t motions   
go+ up & d[n cause pleasures & pa9s8    
,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3 ,a bett]
 & m unexceptionable way ( speak+ w be--
  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at8  ,,socrates3 ,if we 
say t ! great *anges produce pleasures &
 pa9s1 b t ! mod]ate & less] ones d     
nei!r4  ,,prot>*us3 ,t1 ,socrates1 is ! 
m correct mode ( speak+4  ,,socrates3 ,b
 if ?is be true1 ! life to :i* ,i 0 j n[
 ref]r+ aga9 appe>s4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at  
life8  ,,socrates3 ,! life :i* we       
affirm$ to be devoid ei!r ( pa9 or (    
joy4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v true4  ,,socrates3 
,we may assume !n t !re are ?ree lives1 
"o pleasant1 "o pa9ful1 & ! ?ird :i* is 
nei!r2 :at say y8  ,,prot>*us3 ,i %\ld  
say z y d t !re are ?ree ( !m4          
,,socrates3 ,b if s1 ! negation ( pa9 w 

n be ! same ) pleasure4  ,,prot>*us3    
,c]ta9ly n4  ,,socrates3 ,!n :5 y he> a 
p]son say+1 t always to live )\t pa9 is 
! pleasante/ ( all ?+s1 :at w\ld y      
und]/& him to mean by t /atem5t8        
,,prot>*us3 ,i ?9k t by pleasure he mu/ 
mean ! negative ( pa94  ,,socrates3 ,let
 u take any ?ree ?+s2 or suppose t we   
embelli% a little & call ! fir/ gold1 ! 
second silv]1 & !re %all be a ?ird :i*  
is nei!r4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v good4         
,,socrates3 ,n[1 c t :i* is nei!r be    
ei!r gold or silv]8  ,,prot>*us3        
,impossible4  ,,socrates3 ,no m c t     
neutral or middle life be rightly or    
reasonably spok5 or ?\ght ( z pleasant  
or pa9ful4  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly n4     
,,socrates3 ,& yet1 my fri5d1 !re are1 z
 we "k1 p]sons :o say & ?9k s4          
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& d 
!y ?9k t !y h pleasure :5 !y are free f 
pa98  ,,prot>*us3 ,!y say s4            
,,socrates3 ,& !y mu/ ?9k or !y w\ld n  
say t !y h pleasure4  ,,prot>*us3 ,i    
suppose n4  ,,socrates3 ,& yet if       

pleasure & ! negation ( pa9 are ( di/9ct
 natures1 !y are wrong4  ,,prot>*us3 ,b 
!y are und\bt$ly ( di/9ct natures4      
,,socrates3 ,!n %all we take ! view t !y
 are ?ree1 z we 7 j n[ say+1 or t !y are
 two only--! "o be+ a /ate ( pa91 :i* is
 an evil1 & ! o!r a cessation ( pa91 :i*
 is ( itself a good1 & is call$         
pleasant8  ,,prot>*us3 ,b :y1 ,socrates1
 d we ask ! "q at all8 ,i d n see !     
reason4  ,,socrates3 ,y1 ,prot>*us1 h   
cle>ly nev] he>d ( c]ta9 enemies ( our  
fri5d ,philebus4  ,,prot>*us3 ,& :o may 
!y be8  ,,socrates3 ,c]ta9 p]sons :o are
 reput$ to be ma/]s 9 natural           
philosophy1 :o d5y ! v exi/5ce (        
pleasure4  ,,prot>*us3 ,inde$6          
,,socrates3 ,!y say t :at ! s*ool (     
,philebus calls pleasures are all ( !m  
only avoidances ( pa94  ,,prot>*us3 ,&  
w\ld y1 ,socrates1 h u agree ) !m8      
,,socrates3 ,:y1 no1 ,i w\ld r use !m z 
a sort ( div9]s1 :o div9e ! tru?1 n by  
rules ( art1 b by an in/9ctive          
repugnance & extreme dete/ation :i* a   

noble nature has ( ! p[] ( pleasure1 9  
:i* !y ?9k t !re is no?+ s\nd1 & h]     
s$uctive influ5ce is decl>$ by !m to be 
wit*craft1 & n pleasure4 ,?is is ! use  
:i* y may make ( !m4 ,& :5 y h consid]$ 
! v>i\s gr\nds ( _! dislike1 y %all he> 
f me :at ,i deem to be true pleasures4  
,hav+ ?us exam9$ ! nature ( pleasure f  
bo? po9ts ( view1 we w br+ h] up =      
judgm5t4  ,,prot>*us3 ,well said4       
,,socrates3 ,!n let u ent] into an      
alliance ) ^! philosoph]s & foll[ 9 !   
track ( _! dislike4 ,i imag9e t !y w\ld 
say some?+ ( ?is sort2 !y w\ld beg9 at !
 beg9n+1 & ask :e!r1 if we want$ to "k !
 nature ( any quality1 su* z h>dness1 we
 %\ld be m likely to discov] x by look+ 
at ! h>de/ ?+s1 r ?an at ! lea/ h>d8 ,y1
 ,prot>*us1 %all answ] ^! sev]e g5tlem5 
z y answ] me4  ,,prot>*us3 ,by all      
means1 & ,i reply to !m1 t y %\ld look  
at ! greate/ in/ances4  ,,socrates3 ,!n 
if we want to see ! true nature (       
pleasures z a class1 we %\ld n look at !
 mo/ dilut$ pleasures1 b at ! mo/       

extreme & mo/ vehem5t8  ,,prot>*us3 ,9 t
 e "o w agree4  ,,socrates3 ,& ! obvi\s 
in/ances ( ! greate/ pleasures1 z we h  
(t5 said1 are ! pleasures ( ! body8     
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,&   
are !y felt by u to be or become great]1
 :5 we are sick or :5 we are 9 heal?8 ,&
 "h we mu/ be c>eful 9 our answ]1 or we 
%all come to grief4  ,,prot>*us3 ,h[ w t
 be8  ,,socrates3 ,:y1 because we might 
be tempt$ to answ]1 ',:5 we are 9       
heal?4'  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 t is !       
natural answ]4  ,,socrates3 ,well1 b are
 n ^? pleasures ! greate/ ( :i* mank9d h
 ! greate/ desires8  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4 
,,socrates3 ,& d n p :o are 9 a fev]1 or
 any simil> illness1 feel cold or ?ir/  
or o!r bodily affections m int5sely8 ,am
 ,i n "r 9 say+ t !y h a deep] want &   
great] pleasure 9 ! satisfaction ( _!   
want8  ,,prot>*us3 ,t is obvi\s z soon z
 x is said4  ,,socrates3 ,well1 !n1 %all
 we n be "r 9 say+1 t if a p]son w\ld   
wi% to see ! greate/ pleasures he ought 
to g & look1 n at heal?1 b at disease8  

,& "h y mu/ di/+ui%3--d n imag9e t ,i   
mean to ask :e!r ^? :o are v ill h m    
pleasures ?an ^? :o are well1 b und]/& t
 ,i am speak+ ( ! magnitude ( pleasure2 
,i want to "k :]e pleasures are f\nd to 
be mo/ int5se4 ,=1 z ,i say1 we h to    
discov] :at is pleasure1 & :at !y mean  
by pleasure :o d5y h] v exi/5ce4        
,,prot>*us3 ,i ?9k ,i foll[ y4          
,,socrates3 ,y w soon h a bett]         
opportunity ( %[+ :e!r y d or n1        
,prot>*us4 ,answ] n[1 & tell me :e!r y  
see1 ,i w n say m1 b m int5se &         
excessive pleasures 9 wantonness ?an 9  
temp]ance8 ,reflect be=e y speak4       
,,prot>*us3 ,i und]/& y1 & see t !re is 
a great diff]5ce betwe5 !m2 ! temp]ate  
are re/ra9$ by ! wise man's aphorism (  
',nev] too mu*1' :i* is _! rule1 b      
excess ( pleasure possess+ ! m9ds (     
fools & wantons becomes madness & makes 
!m %\t ) delight4  ,,socrates3 ,v good1 
& if ?is be true1 !n ! greate/ pleasures
 & pa9s w cle>ly be f\nd 9 "s vici\s    
/ate ( s\l & body1 & n 9 a virtu\s /ate4

  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& 
ought we n to select "s ( ^! =          
exam9ation1 & see :at makes !m !        
greate/8  ,,prot>*us3 ,to be sure we    
ought4  ,,socrates3 ,take ! case ( !    
pleasures :i* arise out ( c]ta9         
disord]s4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at disord]s8   
,,socrates3 ,! pleasures ( unseemly     
disord]s1 :i* our sev]e fri5ds utt]ly   
dete/4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at pleasures8     
,,socrates3 ,su*1 = example1 z ! relief 
( it*+ & o!r ailm5ts by scrat*+1 :i* is 
! only rem$y requir$4 ,= :at 9 ,heav5's 
"n is ! feel+ to be call$ :i* is ?us    
produc$ 9 u8--,pleasure or pa98         
,,prot>*us3 ,a villa9\s mixture ( "s    
k9d1 ,socrates1 ,i %\ld say4            
,,socrates3 ,i did n introduce !        
argum5t1 ,o ,prot>*us1 ) any p]sonal    
ref]5ce to ,philebus1 b because1 )\t !  
consid]ation ( ^! & simil> pleasures1 we
 %all n be able to det]m9e ! po9t at    
issue4  ,,prot>*us3 ,!n we _h bett]     
proce$ to analyze ?is family (          
pleasures4  ,,socrates3 ,y mean !       

pleasures :i* are m+l$ ) pa98           
,,prot>*us3 ,exactly4  ,,socrates3 ,!re 
are "s mixtures :i* are ( ! body1 & only
 9 ! body1 & o!rs :i* are ( ! s\l1 &    
only 9 ! s\l2 :ile !re are o!r mixtures 
( pleasures ) pa9s1 common bo? to s\l & 
body1 :i* 9 _! composite /ate are call$ 
sometimes pleasures & sometimes pa9s4   
,,prot>*us3 ,h[ is t8  ,,socrates3      
,:5ev]1 9 ! re/oration or 9 ! d]angem5t 
( nature1 a man exp]i5ces two opposite  
feel+s2 = example1 :5 he is cold & is   
gr[+ w>m1 or aga91 :5 he is hot & is    
becom+ cool1 & he wants to h ! "o & be  
rid ( ! o!r2--! sweet has a bitt]1 z !  
common say+ is1 & bo? toge!r fa/5 ^u him
 & create irritation & 9 "t drive him to
 di/raction4  ,,prot>*us3 ,t description
 is v true to nature4  ,,socrates3 ,& 9 
^! sorts ( mixtures ! pleasures & pa9s  
are sometimes equal1 & sometimes "o or  
o!r ( !m pr$om9ates8  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4
  ,,socrates3 ,( cases 9 :i* ! pa9      
exce$s ! pleasure1 an example is af=d$  
by it*+1 ( :i* we 7 j n[ speak+1 & by ! 

t+l+ :i* we feel :5 ! boil+ & fi]y      
elem5t is )91 & ! rubb+ & motion only   
relieves ! surface1 & does n rea* ! p>ts
 affect$2 !n if y put !m to ! fire1 & z 
a la/ resort apply cold to !m1 y may (t5
 produce ! mo/ int5se pleasure or pa9 9 
! inn] p>ts1 :i* contra/s & m+les ) !   
pa9 or pleasure1 z ! case may be1 ( !   
out] p>ts2 & ?is is due to ! =cible     
sep>ation ( :at is unit$1 or to ! union 
( :at is sep>at$1 & to ! juxtaposition (
 pleasure & pa94  ,,prot>*us3 ,q s4     
,,socrates3 ,sometimes ! elem5t (       
pleasure prevails 9 a man1 & ! slight   
und]curr5t ( pa9 makes him t+le1 &      
causes a g5tle irritation2 or aga91 !   
excessive infusion ( pleasure creates an
 excitem5t 9 him1--he ev5 leaps = joy1  
he assumes all sorts ( attitudes1 he    
*anges all mann] ( col\rs1 he gasps =   
brea?1 & is q amaz$1 & utt]s ! mo/      
irrational exclamations4  ,,prot>*us3   
,yes1 inde$4  ,,socrates3 ,he w say (   
himself1 & o!rs w say ( him1 t he is dy+
 ) ^! delights2 & ! m dissipat$ &       

good-=-no?+ he is1 ! m vehem5tly he     
pursues !m 9 e way2 ( all pleasures he  
decl>es !m to be ! greate/2 & he reckons
 him :o lives 9 ! mo/ con/ant enjoym5t (
 !m to be ! happie/ ( mank9d4           
,,prot>*us3 ,t1 ,socrates1 is a v true  
description ( ! op9ions ( ! majority    
ab\t pleasures4  ,,socrates3 ,yes1      
,prot>*us1 q true ( ! mix$ pleasures1   
:i* arise out ( ! communion ( ext]nal & 
int]nal s5sations 9 ! body2 !re are also
 cases 9 :i* ! m9d contributes an       
opposite elem5t to ! body1 :e!r (       
pleasure or pa91 & ! two unite & =m "o  
mixture4 ,conc]n+ ^! ,i h already       
rem>k$1 t :5 a man is empty he desires  
to be full1 & has pleasure 9 hope & pa9 
9 vacuity4 ,b n[ ,i mu/ fur!r add :at ,i
 omitt$ be=e1 t 9 all ^! & simil>       
emotions 9 :i* body & m9d are oppos$ 7& 
!y are innum]able71 pleasure & pa9      
coalesce 9 "o4  ,,prot>*us3 ,i believe t
 to be q true4  ,,socrates3 ,!re /ill   
rema9s "o o!r sort ( admixture (        
pleasures & pa9s4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at is  

t8  ,,socrates3 ,! union :i*1 z we 7    
say+1 ! m9d (t5 exp]i5ces ( purely m5tal
 feel+s4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at d y mean8    
,,socrates3 ,:y1 d we n speak ( ang]1   
fe>1 desire1 sorr[1 love1 emulation1    
envy1 & ! l1 z pa9s :i* belong to ! s\l 
only8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,&
 %all we n f9d !m also full ( ! mo/     
wond]ful pleasures8 ne$ ,i rem9d y ( !  
ang]  ',:i* /irs ev5 a wise man to      
viol5ce1 ,& is sweet] ?an honey & !     
honeycomb8'  ,& y rememb] h[ pleasures  
m+le ) pa9s 9 lam5tation & b]eavem5t8   
,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 !re is a natural      
connexion betwe5 !m4  ,,socrates3 ,& y  
rememb] also h[ at ! sight ( trag$ies ! 
spectators smile ?r\gh _! te>s8         
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly ,i d4  ,,socrates3 
,& are y aw>e t ev5 at a com$y ! s\l    
exp]i5ces a mix$ feel+ ( pa9 & pleasure8
  ,,prot>*us3 ,i d n q und]/& y4        
,,socrates3 ,i admit1 ,prot>*us1 t !re  
is "s difficulty 9 recogniz+ ?is mixture
 ( feel+s at a com$y4  ,,prot>*us3 ,!re 
is1 ,i ?9k4  ,,socrates3 ,& ! great] !  

obscurity ( ! case ! m desirable is !   
exam9ation ( x1 because ! difficulty 9  
detect+ o!r cases ( mix$ pleasures &    
pa9s w be less4  ,,prot>*us3 ,proce$4   
,,socrates3 ,i h j m5tion$ envy2 w\ld y 
n call t a pa9 ( ! s\l8  ,,prot>*us3    
,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,& yet ! envi\s man  
f9ds some?+ 9 ! mis=tunes ( 8 neighb\rs 
at :i* he is pleas$8  ,,prot>*us3       
,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& ignorance1 &  
:at is t]m$ cl[ni%ness1 are surely an   
evil8  ,,prot>*us3 ,to be sure4         
,,socrates3 ,f ^! consid]ations le>n to 
"k ! nature ( ! ridicul\s4  ,,prot>*us3 
,expla94  ,,socrates3 ,! ridicul\s is 9 
%ort ! specific "n :i* is us$ to        
describe ! vici\s =m ( a c]ta9 habit2 & 
( vice 9 g5]al x is t k9d :i* is mo/ at 
v>iance ) ! inscription at ,delphi4     
,,prot>*us3 ,y mean1 ,socrates1 ',"k    
?yself4'  ,,socrates3 ,i d2 & ! opposite
 w\ld be1 ',"k n ?yself4'  ,,prot>*us3  
,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& n[1 ,o        
,prot>*us1 try to divide ?is into ?ree4 
,,prot>*us3 ,inde$ ,i am afraid t ,i _c4

  ,,socrates3 ,d y mean to say t ,i mu/ 
make ! division = y8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 
& :at is m1 ,i beg t y w4  ,,socrates3  
,are !re n ?ree ways 9 :i* ignorance (  
self may be %[n8  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at are  
!y8  ,,socrates3 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ab\t  
money2 ! ignorant may fancy himself ri*]
 ?an he is4  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 t is a v 
common error4  ,,socrates3 ,& /ill m (t5
 he w fancy t he is tall] or fair] ?an  
he is1 or t he has "s o!r advantage (   
p]son :i* he really has n4  ,,prot>*us3 
,( c\rse4  ,,socrates3 ,& yet surely by 
f> ! greate/ numb] err ab\t ! goods ( ! 
m9d2 !y imag9e !mselves to be mu* bett] 
m5 ?an !y are4  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 t is  
by f> ! commone/ delusion4  ,,socrates3 
,& ( all ! virtues1 is n wisdom ! "o :i*
 ! mass ( mank9d are always claim+1 &   
:i* mo/ ar\ses 9 !m a _s ( cont5tion &  
ly+ conceit ( wisdom8  ,,prot>*us3      
,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& may n all ?is 
be truly call$ an evil condition8       
,,prot>*us3 ,v evil4  ,,socrates3 ,b we 
mu/ pursue ! division a /ep fur!r1      

,prot>*us1 if we w\ld see 9 envy ( !    
*ildi% sort a s+ul> mixture ( pleasure &
 pa94  ,,prot>*us3 ,h[ c we make ! fur!r
 division :i* y sugge/8  ,,socrates3    
,all :o are silly en\gh to ent]ta9 ?is  
ly+ conceit ( !mselves may ( c\rse be   
divid$1 l ! re/ ( mank9d1 into two      
classes--"o hav+ p[] & might2 & ! o!r ! 
rev]se4  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4          
,,socrates3 ,let ?is1 !n1 be ! pr9ciple 
( division2 ^? ( !m :o are weak & unable
 to rev5ge !mselves1 :5 !y are laugh$   
at1 may be truly call$ ridicul\s1 b ^?  
:o c def5d !mselves may be m truly      
describ$ z /rong & =midable2 = ignorance
 9 ! p[]ful is hateful & horrible1      
because hurtful to o!rs bo? 9 reality & 
9 fiction1 b p[]less ignorance may be   
reckon$1 & 9 tru? is1 ridicul\s4        
,,prot>*us3 ,t is v true1 b ,i d n z yet
 see :]e is ! admixture ( pleasures &   
pa9s4  ,,socrates3 ,well1 !n1 let u     
exam9e ! nature ( envy4  ,,prot>*us3    
,proce$4  ,,socrates3 ,is n envy an     
unrighte\s pleasure1 & also an          

unrighte\s pa98  ,,prot>*us3 ,mo/ true4 
,,socrates3 ,!re is no?+ envi\s or wrong
 9 rejoic+ at ! mis=tunes ( enemies8    
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly n4  ,,socrates3 ,b 
to feel joy in/ead ( sorr[ at ! sight ( 
our fri5ds' mis=tunes--is n t wrong8    
,,prot>*us3 ,und\bt$ly4  ,,socrates3    
,did we n say t ignorance 0 always an   
evil8  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3  
,& ! ?ree k9ds ( va9 conceit 9 our      
fri5ds :i* we enum]at$--! va9 conceit ( 
beauty1 ( wisdom1 & ( weal?1 are        
ridicul\s if !y are weak1 & dete/able :5
 !y are p[]ful3 ,may we n say1 z ,i 0   
say+ be=e1 t our fri5ds :o are 9 ?is    
/ate ( m9d1 :5 h>mless to o!rs1 are     
simply ridicul\s8  ,,prot>*us3 ,!y are  
ridicul\s4  ,,socrates3 ,& d we n       
ackn[l$ge ?is ignorance ( !irs to be a  
mis=tune8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4        
,,socrates3 ,& d we feel pa9 or pleasure
 9 laugh+ at x8  ,,prot>*us3 ,cle>ly we 
feel pleasure4  ,,socrates3 ,& 0 n envy 
! s\rce ( ?is pleasure :i* we feel at ! 
mis=tunes ( fri5ds8  ,,prot>*us3        

,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,!n ! argum5t %[s
 t :5 we laugh at ! folly ( our fri5ds1 
pleasure1 9 m+l+ ) envy1 m+les ) pa91 = 
envy has be5 ackn[l$g$ by u to be m5tal 
pa91 & laught] is pleasant2 & s we envy 
& laugh at ! same in/ant4  ,,prot>*us3  
,true4  ,,socrates3 ,& ! argum5t implies
 t !re are comb9ations ( pleasure & pa9 
9 lam5tations1 & 9 trag$y & com$y1 n    
only on ! /age1 b on ! great] /age (    
human life2 & s 9 endless o!r cases4    
,,prot>*us3 ,i d n see h[ any "o c d5y  
:at y say1 ,socrates1 h[ev] eag] he may 
be to ass]t ! opposite op9ion4          
,,socrates3 ,i m5tion$ ang]1 desire1    
sorr[1 fe>1 love1 emulation1 envy1 &    
simil> emotions1 z examples 9 :i* we    
%\ld f9d a mixture ( ! two elem5ts s (t5
 nam$2 did ,i n8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4     
,,socrates3 ,we may obs]ve t our        
conclusions hi!rto h _h ref]5ce only to 
sorr[ & envy & ang]4  ,,prot>*us3 ,i    
see4  ,,socrates3 ,!n _m o!r cases /ill 
rema98  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4           
,,socrates3 ,& :y d y suppose me to h   

po9t$ out to y ! admixture :i* takes    
place 9 com$y8 ,:y b to conv9ce y t !re 
0 no difficulty 9 %[+ ! mix$ nature (   
fe> & love & simil> affections2 & ,i    
?\ght t :5 ,i _h giv5 y ! illu/ration1 y
 w\ld h let me (f1 & h ackn[l$g$ z a    
g5]al tru? t ! body )\t ! s\l1 & ! s\l  
)\t ! body1 z well z ! two unit$1 are   
susceptible ( all sorts ( admixtures (  
pleasures & pa9s2 & s fur!r discussion  
w\ld h be5 unnecess>y4 ,& n[ ,i want to 
"k :e!r ,i may dep>t2 or w y keep me "h 
until midnight8 ,i fancy t ,i may obta9 
my release )\t _m words2--if ,i promise 
t to-morr[ ,i w give y an acc\nt ( all  
^! cases4 ,b at pres5t ,i w\ld r sail 9 
ano!r direction1 & g to o!r matt]s :i*  
rema9 to be settl$1 be=e ! judgm5t c be 
giv5 :i* ,philebus dem&s4  ,,prot>*us3  
,v good1 ,socrates2 9 :at rema9s take   
y\r own c\rse4  ,,socrates3 ,!n aft] !  
mix$ pleasures ! unmix$ %\ld h _! turn2 
?is is ! natural & necess>y ord]4       
,,prot>*us3 ,excell5t4  ,,socrates3 ,^!1
 9 turn1 !n1 ,i w n[ endeav\r to        

indicate2 = ) ! ma9ta9]s ( ! op9ion t   
all pleasures are a cessation ( pa91 ,i 
d n agree1 b1 z ,i 0 say+1 ,i use !m z  
witnesses1 t !re are pleasures :i* seem 
only & are n1 & !re are o!rs aga9 :i* h 
great p[] & appe> 9 _m =ms1 yet are     
int]m+l$ ) pa9s1 & are p>tly            
alleviations ( agony & di/ress1 bo? (   
body & m9d4  ,,prot>*us3 ,!n :at        
pleasures1 ,socrates1 %\ld we be "r 9   
conceiv+ to be true8  ,,socrates3 ,true 
pleasures are ^? :i* are giv5 by beauty 
( col\r & =m1 & mo/ ( ^? :i* arise f    
smells2 ^? ( s\nd1 aga91 & 9 g5]al ^? ( 
:i* ! want is pa9less & unconsci\s1 & ( 
:i* ! fruition is palpable to s5se &    
pleasant & unalloy$ ) pa94  ,,prot>*us3 
,once m1 ,socrates1 ,i mu/ ask :at y    
mean4  ,,socrates3 ,my mean+ is c]ta9ly 
n obvi\s1 & ,i w endeav\r to be pla9]4  
,i d n mean by beauty ( =m su* beauty z 
t ( animals or pictures1 :i* ! _m w\ld  
suppose to be my mean+2 b1 says !       
argum5t1 und]/& me to mean /raight l9es 
& circles1 & ! plane or solid figures   

:i* are =m$ out ( !m by turn+-la!s &    
rul]s & measur]s ( angles2 = ^! ,i      
affirm to be n only relatively          
beautiful1 l o!r ?+s1 b !y are et]nally 
& absolutely beautiful1 & !y h peculi>  
pleasures1 q unlike ! pleasures (       
scrat*+4 ,& !re are col\rs :i* are ( !  
same "*1 & h simil> pleasures2 n[ d y   
und]/& my mean+8  ,,prot>*us3 ,i am try+
 to und]/&1 ,socrates1 & ,i hope t y w  
try to make y\r mean+ cle>]4            
,,socrates3 ,:5 s\nds are smoo? & cle>1 
& h a s+le pure tone1 !n ,i mean to say 
t !y are n relatively b absolutely      
beautiful1 & h natural pleasures        
associat$ ) !m4  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 !re  
are su* pleasures4  ,,socrates3 ,!      
pleasures ( smell are ( a less e!real   
sort1 b !y h no necess>y admixture (    
pa92 & all pleasures1 h[ev] & :]ev]     
exp]i5c$1 :i* are unatt5d$ by pa9s1 ,i  
assign to an analog\s class4 ,"h !n are 
two k9ds ( pleasures4  ,,prot>*us3 ,i   
und]/&4  ,,socrates3 ,to ^! may be add$ 
! pleasures ( k1 if no hung] ( k & no   

pa9 caus$ by su* hung] prec$e !m4       
,,prot>*us3 ,& ?is is ! case4           
,,socrates3 ,well1 b if a man :o is full
 ( k loses 8 k1 are !re n pa9s ( =gett+8
  ,,prot>*us3 ,n necess>ily1 b !re may  
be times ( reflection1 :5 he feels grief
 at ! loss ( 8 k4  ,,socrates3 ,yes1 my 
fri5d1 b at pres5t we are enum]at+ only 
! natural p]ceptions1 & h no?+ to d )   
reflection4  ,,prot>*us3 ,9 t case y are
 "r 9 say+ t ! loss ( k is n att5d$ )   
pa94  ,,socrates3 ,^! pleasures ( k1 !n1
 are unmix$ ) pa92 & !y are n !         
pleasures ( ! _m b ( a v few4           
,,prot>*us3 ,q true4  ,,socrates3 ,& n[1
 hav+ fairly sep>at$ ! pure pleasures & 
^? :i* may be rightly t]m$ impure1 let u
 fur!r add to our description ( !m1 t ! 
pleasures :i* are 9 excess h no measure1
 b t ^? :i* are n 9 excess h measure2 ! 
great1 ! excessive1 :e!r m or less      
frequ5t1 we %all be "r 9 ref]r+ to !    
class ( ! inf9ite1 & ( ! m & less1 :i*  
p\rs ?r\gh body & s\l alike2 & ! o!rs we
 %all ref] to ! class :i* has measure4  

,,prot>*us3 ,q "r1 ,socrates4           
,,socrates3 ,/ill !re is some?+ m to be 
consid]$ ab\t pleasures4  ,,prot>*us3   
,:at is x8  ,,socrates3 ,:5 y speak (   
purity & cle>ness1 or ( excess1         
abundance1 greatness & suffici5cy1 9 :at
 relation d ^! t]ms /& to tru?8         
,,prot>*us3 ,:y d y ask1 ,socrates8     
,,socrates3 ,because1 ,prot>*us1 ,i %\ld
 wi% to te/ pleasure & k 9 e possible   
way1 9 ord] t if !re be a pure & impure 
elem5t 9 ei!r ( !m1 ,i may pres5t ! pure
 elem5t = judgm5t1 & !n !y w be m easily
 judg$ ( by y & by me & by all ( u4     
,,prot>*us3 ,mo/ true4  ,,socrates3 ,let
 u inve/igate all ! pure k9ds2 fir/     
select+ = consid]ation a s+le in/ance4  
,,prot>*us3 ,:at in/ance %all we select8
  ,,socrates3 ,suppose t we fir/ ( all  
take :it5ess4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v good4     
,,socrates3 ,h[ c !re be purity 9       
:it5ess1 & :at purity8 ,is t pure/ :i*  
is greate/ or mo/ 9 quantity1 or t :i*  
is mo/ unadult]at$ & free/ f any        
admixture ( o!r col\rs8  ,,prot>*us3    

,cle>ly t :i* is mo/ unadult]at$4       
,,socrates3 ,true1 ,prot>*us2 & s !     
pure/ :ite1 & n ! greate/ or l>ge/ 9    
quantity1 is to be deem$ true/ & mo/    
beautiful8  ,,prot>*us3 ,"r4            
,,socrates3 ,& we %all be q "r 9 say+ t 
a little pure :ite is :it] & fair] &    
tru] ?an a great deal t is mix$4        
,,prot>*us3 ,p]fectly "r4  ,,socrates3  
,!re is no ne$ ( adduc+ _m simil>       
examples 9 illu/ration ( ! argum5t ab\t 
pleasure2 "o su* is suffici5t to prove  
to u t a small pleasure or a small am\nt
 ( pleasure1 if pure or unalloy$ ) pa91 
is always pleasant] & tru] & fair] ?an a
 great pleasure or a great am\nt (      
pleasure ( ano!r k9d4  ,,prot>*us3      
,assur$ly2 & ! in/ance y h giv5 is q    
suffici5t4  ,,socrates3 ,b :at d y say (
 ano!r "q3--h we n he>d t pleasure is   
always a g5]ation1 & has no true be+8 ,d
 n c]ta9 +5i\s philosoph]s tea* ?is     
doctr9e1 & ought n we to be grateful to 
!m8  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at d !y mean8        
,,socrates3 ,i w expla9 to y1 my de>    

,prot>*us1 :at !y mean1 by putt+ a "q4  
,,prot>*us3 ,ask1 & ,i w answ]4         
,,socrates3 ,i assume t !re are two     
natures1 "o self-exi/5t1 & ! o!r ev] 9  
want ( some?+4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at mann] (
 natures are !y8  ,,socrates3 ,! "o     
maje/ic ev]1 ! o!r inf]ior4  ,,prot>*us3
 ,y speak riddles4  ,,socrates3 ,y h se5
 loves good & fair1 & also brave lov]s (
 !m4  ,,prot>*us3 ,i %\ld ?9k s4        
,,socrates3 ,se>* ! univ]se = two t]ms  
:i* are l ^! two & are pres5t ev]y:]e4  
,,prot>*us3 ,yet a ?ird "t ,i mu/ say1  
,be a little pla9]1 ,socrates4          
,,socrates3 ,!re is no difficulty1      
,prot>*us2 ! argum5t is only 9 play1 &  
ins9uates t "s ?+s are = ! sake ( some?+
 else 7relatives71 & t o!r ?+s are !    
ends to :i* ! =m] class subs]ve         
7absolutes74  ,,prot>*us3 ,y\r _m       
repetitions make me sl[ to und]/&4      
,,socrates3 ,z ! argum5t proce$s1 my    
boy1 ,i d>e say t ! mean+ w become      
cle>]4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v likely4          
,,socrates3 ,"h are two new pr9ciples4  

,,prot>*us3 ,:at are !y8  ,,socrates3   
,"o is ! g5]ation ( all ?+s1 & ! o!r is 
ess5ce4  ,,prot>*us3 ,i readily accept f
 y bo? g5]ation & ess5ce4  ,,socrates3  
,v "r2 & w\ld y say t g5]ation is = !   
sake ( ess5ce1 or ess5ce = ! sake (     
g5]ation8  ,,prot>*us3 ,y want to "k    
:e!r t :i* is call$ ess5ce is1 prop]ly  
speak+1 = ! sake ( g5]ation8            
,,socrates3 ,yes4  ,,prot>*us3 ,by !    
gods1 ,i wi% t y w\ld repeat y\r "q4    
,,socrates3 ,i mean1 ,o my ,prot>*us1 to
 ask :e!r y w\ld tell me t %ip-build+ is
 = ! sake ( %ips1 or %ips = ! sake (    
%ip-build+8 & 9 all simil> cases ,i %\ld
 ask ! same "q4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:y d y n  
answ] y\rself1 ,socrates8  ,,socrates3  
,i h no objection1 b y mu/ take y\r "p4 
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,my  
answ] is1 t all ?+s in/rum5tal1 rem$ial1
 mat]ial1 are giv5 to u ) a view to     
g5]ation1 & t ea* g5]ation is relative  
to1 or = ! sake (1 "s be+ or ess5ce1 & t
 ! :ole ( g5]ation is relative to ! :ole
 ( ess5ce4  ,,prot>*us3 ,assur$ly4      

,,socrates3 ,!n pleasure1 be+ a         
g5]ation1 mu/ surely be = ! sake ( "s   
ess5ce8  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3
 ,& t = ! sake ( :i* some?+ else is done
 mu/ be plac$ 9 ! class ( good1 & t :i* 
is done = ! sake ( some?+ else1 9 "s o!r
 class1 my good fri5d4  ,,prot>*us3 ,mo/
 c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,!n pleasure1 be+
 a g5]ation1 w be rightly plac$ 9 "s o!r
 class ?an t ( good8  ,,prot>*us3 ,q "r4
  ,,socrates3 ,!n1 z ,i said at fir/1 we
 ought to be v grateful to him :o fir/  
po9t$ out t pleasure 0 a g5]ation only1 
& _h no true be+ at all2 = he is cle>ly 
"o :o laughs at ! notion ( pleasure be+ 
a good4  ,,prot>*us3 ,assur$ly4         
,,socrates3 ,& he w\ld surely laugh also
 at ^? :o make g5]ation _! highe/ end4  
,,prot>*us3 ,( :om are y speak+1 & :at d
 !y mean8  ,,socrates3 ,i am speak+ ( ^?
 :o :5 !y are cur$ ( hung] or ?ir/ or   
any o!r defect by "s process ( g5]ation 
are delight$ at ! process z if x 7      
pleasure2 & !y say t !y w\ld n wi% to   
live )\t ^! & o!r feel+s ( a l k9d :i*  

might be m5tion$4  ,,prot>*us3 ,t is    
c]ta9ly :at !y appe> to ?9k4            
,,socrates3 ,& is n de/ruction          
univ]sally admitt$ to be ! opposite (   
g5]ation8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4        
,,socrates3 ,!n he :o *ooses ?us1 w\ld  
*oose g5]ation & de/ruction r ?an t ?ird
 sort ( life1 9 :i*1 z we 7 say+1 0     
nei!r pleasure nor pa91 b only ! pure/  
possible ?\ght4  ,,prot>*us3 ,he :o w\ld
 make u believe pleasure to be a good is
 involv$ 9 great absurdities1 ,socrates4
  ,,socrates3 ,great1 inde$2 & !re is   
yet ano!r ( !m4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at is x8 
,,socrates3 ,is !re n an absurdity 9    
argu+ t !re is no?+ good or noble 9 !   
body1 or 9 any?+ else1 b t good is 9 !  
s\l only1 & t ! only good ( ! s\l is    
pleasure2 & t c\rage or temp]ance or    
und]/&+1 or any o!r good ( ! s\l1 is n  
really a good8--& is !re n yet a fur!r  
absurdity 9 our be+ compell$ to say t he
 :o has a feel+ ( pa9 & n ( pleasure is 
bad at ! "t :5 he is suff]+ pa91 ev5    
?\gh he be ! be/ ( m52 & aga91 t he :o  

has a feel+ ( pleasure1 9 s f> z he is  
pleas$ at ! "t :5 he is pleas$1 9 t     
degree excels 9 virtue8  ,,prot>*us3    
,no?+1 ,socrates1 c be m irrational ?an 
all ?is4  ,,socrates3 ,& n[1 hav+       
subject$ pleasure to e sort ( te/1 let u
 n appe> to be too sp>+ ( m9d & k3 let u
 r+ _! metal bravely1 & see if !re be   
uns\ndness 9 any "p1 until we h f\nd out
 :at 9 !m is ( ! pure/ nature2 & !n !   
true/ elem5ts bo? ( pleasure & k may be 
br\ght up = judgm5t4  ,,prot>*us3 ,"r4  
,,socrates3 ,k has two p>ts1--! "o      
productive1 & ! o!r educational8        
,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3 ,& 9 !  
productive or h&icraft arts1 is n "o "p 
m ak9 to k1 & ! o!r less2 & may n ! "o  
"p be reg>d$ z ! pure1 & ! o!r z !      
impure8  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4          
,,socrates3 ,let u sep>ate ! sup]ior or 
dom9ant elem5ts 9 ea* ( !m4  ,,prot>*us3
 ,:at are !y1 & h[ d y sep>ate !m8      
,,socrates3 ,i mean to say1 t if        
ari?metic1 m5suration1 & weigh+ be tak5 
away f any art1 t :i* rema9s w n be mu*4

  ,,prot>*us3 ,n mu*1 c]ta9ly4          
,,socrates3 ,! re/ w be only conjecture1
 & ! bett] use ( ! s5ses :i* is giv5 by 
exp]i5ce & practice1 9 addition to a    
c]ta9 p[] ( guess+1 :i* is commonly     
call$ art1 & is p]fect$ by att5tion &   
pa9s4  ,,prot>*us3 ,no?+ m1 assur$ly4   
,,socrates3 ,music1 = in/ance1 is full (
 ?is empiricism2 = s\nds are h>moniz$1 n
 by measure1 b by skilful conjecture2 ! 
music ( ! flute is always try+ to guess 
! pit* ( ea* vibrat+ note1 & is !re=e   
mix$ up ) mu* t is d\btful & has little 
:i* is c]ta94  ,,prot>*us3 ,mo/ true4   
,,socrates3 ,& ! same w be f\nd to hold 
good ( m$ic9e & husb&ry & pilot+ &      
g5]al%ip4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v true4         
,,socrates3 ,! art ( ! build]1 on ! o!r 
h&1 :i* uses a numb] ( measures &       
in/rum5ts1 atta9s by _! help to a great]
 degree ( accuracy ?an ! o!r arts4      
,,prot>*us3 ,h[ is t8  ,,socrates3 ,9   
%ip-build+ & h\se-build+1 & 9 o!r       
bran*es ( ! art ( c>p5t]+1 ! build] has 
8 rule1 la!1 compass1 l9e1 & a mo/ +5i\s

 ma*9e = /raight5+ wood4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v
 true1 ,socrates4  ,,socrates3 ,!n n[   
let u divide ! arts ( :i* we 7 speak+   
into two k9ds1--! arts :i*1 l music1 are
 less exact 9 _! results1 & ^? :i*1 l   
c>p5t]+1 are m exact4  ,,prot>*us3 ,let 
u make t division4  ,,socrates3 ,( !    
latt] class1 ! mo/ exact ( all are ^?   
:i* we j n[ spoke ( z prim>y4           
,,prot>*us3 ,i see t y mean ari?metic1 &
 ! k9dr$ arts ( weigh+ & measur+4       
,,socrates3 ,c]ta9ly1 ,prot>*us2 b are n
 ^! also di/+ui%able into two k9ds8     
,,prot>*us3 ,:at are ! two k9ds8        
,,socrates3 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ari?metic  
is ( two k9ds1 "o ( :i* is popul>1 & !  
o!r philosophical4  ,,prot>*us3 ,h[ w\ld
 y di/+ui% !m8  ,,socrates3 ,!re is a   
wide diff]5ce betwe5 !m1 ,prot>*us2 "s  
ari?meticians reckon unequal units2 z = 
example1 two armies1 two ox51 two v l>ge
 ?+s or two v small ?+s4 ,! p>ty :o are 
oppos$ to !m insi/ t e unit 9 t5 ?\s&   
mu/ be ! same z e o!r unit4  ,,prot>*us3
 ,und\bt$ly !re is1 z y say1 a great    

diff]5ce among ! vot>ies ( ! sci5ce2 &  
!re may be reasonably suppos$ to be two 
sorts ( ari?metic4  ,,socrates3 ,& :5 we
 comp>e ! art ( m5suration :i* is us$ 9 
build+ ) philosophical geometry1 or !   
art ( computation :i* is us$ 9 trad+ )  
exact calculation1 %all we say ( ei!r ( 
! pairs t x is "o or two8  ,,prot>*us3  
,on ! analogy ( :at has prec$$1 ,i %\ld 
be ( op9ion t !y 7 sev]ally two4        
,,socrates3 ,"r2 b d y und]/& :y ,i h   
discuss$ ! subject8  ,,prot>*us3 ,i ?9k 
s1 b ,i %\ld l to be told by y4         
,,socrates3 ,! argum5t has all along be5
 seek+ a p>allel to pleasure1 & true to 
t orig9al design1 has gone on to ask    
:e!r "o sort ( k is pur] ?an ano!r1 z "o
 pleasure is pur] ?an ano!r4            
,,prot>*us3 ,cle>ly2 t 0 ! int5tion4    
,,socrates3 ,& has n ! argum5t 9 :at has
 prec$$1 already %[n t ! arts h diff]5t 
prov9ces1 & v>y 9 _! degrees ( c]ta9ty8 
,,prot>*us3 ,v true4  ,,socrates3 ,& j  
n[ did n ! argum5t fir/ designate a     
p>ticul> art by a common t]m1 ?us mak+ u

 believe 9 ! unity ( t art2 & !n aga91 z
 if speak+ ( two diff]5t ?+s1 proce$ to 
enquire :e!r ! art z purs$ by           
philosoph]s1 or z pursu$ by             
non-philosoph]s1 has m ( c]ta9ty &      
purity8  ,,prot>*us3 ,t is ! v "q :i* ! 
argum5t is ask+4  ,,socrates3 ,& h[1    
,prot>*us1 %all we answ] ! enquiry8     
,,prot>*us3 ,o ,socrates1 we h rea*$ a  
po9t at :i* ! diff]5ce ( cle>ness 9     
diff]5t k9ds ( k is enorm\s4            
,,socrates3 ,!n ! answ] w be ! easi]4   
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly2 & let u say 9     
reply1 t ^? arts into :i* ari?metic &   
m5suration ent]1 f> surpass all o!rs2 & 
t ( ^! ! arts or sci5ces :i* are animat$
 by ! pure philosophic impulse are      
inf9itely sup]ior 9 accuracy & tru?4    
,,socrates3 ,!n ?is is y\r judgm5t2 &   
?is is ! answ] :i*1 ^u y\r au?ority1 we 
w give to all ma/]s ( ! art (           
mis9t]pretation8  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at      
answ]8  ,,socrates3 ,t !re are two arts 
( ari?metic1 & two ( m5suration2 & also 
sev]al o!r arts :i* 9 l mann] h ?is     

d\ble nature1 & yet only "o "n4         
,,prot>*us3 ,let u boldly return ?is    
answ] to ! ma/]s ( :om y speak1         
,socrates1 & hope = good luck4          
,,socrates3 ,we h expla9$ :at we t]m !  
mo/ exact arts or sci5ces4  ,,prot>*us3 
,v good4  ,,socrates3 ,& yet1 ,prot>*us1
 dialectic w refuse to ackn[l$ge u1 if  
we d n aw>d to h] ! fir/ place4         
,,prot>*us3 ,& pray1 :at is dialectic8  
,,socrates3 ,cle>ly ! sci5ce :i* has to 
d ) all t k ( :i* we are n[ speak+2 = ,i
 am sure t all m5 :o h a gra9 (         
intellig5ce w admit t ! k :i* has to d )
 be+ & reality1 & sam5ess &             
un*angeabl5ess1 is by f> ! true/ ( all4 
,b h[ w\ld y decide ?is "q1 ,prot>*us8  
,,prot>*us3 ,i h (t5 he>d ,gorgias      
ma9ta91 ,socrates1 t ! art ( p]suasion  
f> surpass$ e o!r2 ?is1 z he says1 is by
 f> ! be/ ( !m all1 = to x all ?+s      
submit1 n by compulsion1 b ( _! own free
 w4 ,n[1 ,i %\ld n l to qu>rel ei!r ) y 
or ) him4  ,,socrates3 ,y mean to say t 
y w\ld l to des]t1 if y 7 n a%am$8      

,,prot>*us3 ,z y please4  ,,socrates3   
,may ,i n h l$ y into a misappreh5sion8 
,,prot>*us3 ,h[8  ,,socrates3 ,de>      
,prot>*us1 ,i nev] ask$ :i* 0 ! greate/ 
or be/ or usefulle/ ( arts or sci5ces1 b
 :i* _h cle>ness & accuracy1 & ! greate/
 am\nt ( tru?1 h[ev] humble & little    
useful an art4 ,& z = ,gorgias1 if y d n
 d5y t 8 art has ! advantage 9          
usefulness to mank9d1 he w n qu>rel ) y 
= say+ t ! /udy ( :i* ,i am speak+ is   
sup]ior 9 ?is p>ticul> ( ess5tial tru?2 
z 9 ! comp>ison ( :ite col\rs1 a little 
:it5ess1 if t little be only pure1 0    
said to be sup]ior 9 tru? to a great    
mass :i* is impure4 ,& n[ let u give our
 be/ att5tion & consid] well1 n !       
comp>ative use or reputation ( !        
sci5ces1 b ! p[] or faculty1 if !re be  
su*1 :i* ! s\l has ( lov+ ! tru?1 & (   
do+ all ?+s = ! sake ( x2 let u se>*    
into ! pure elem5t ( m9d & intellig5ce1 
& !n we %all be able to say :e!r !      
sci5ce ( :i* ,i h be5 speak+ is mo/     
likely to possess ! faculty1 or :e!r !re

 be "s o!r :i* has high] claims4        
,,prot>*us3 ,well1 ,i h be5 consid]+1 & 
,i c h>dly ?9k t any o!r sci5ce or art  
has a firm] grasp ( ! tru? ?an ?is4     
,,socrates3 ,d y say s because y obs]ve 
t ! arts 9 g5]al & ^? engag$ 9 !m make  
use ( op9ion1 & are resolutely engag$ 9 
! inve/igation ( matt]s ( op9ion8 ,ev5  
he :o supposes himself to be occupi$ )  
nature is really occupi$ ) ! ?+s ( ?is  
_w1 h[ creat$1 h[ act+ or act$ ^u4 ,is n
 ?is ! sort ( enquiry 9 :i* 8 life is   
sp5t8  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3  
,he is lab\r+1 n aft] et]nal be+1 b ab\t
 ?+s :i* are becom+1 or :i* w or h      
become4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v true4           
,,socrates3 ,& c we say t any ( ^! ?+s  
:i* nei!r are nor h be5 nor w be        
un*angeable1 :5 judg$ by ! /rict rule ( 
tru? ev] become c]ta98  ,,prot>*us3     
,impossible4  ,,socrates3 ,h[ c any?+   
fix$ be conc]n$ ) t :i* has no fix$ness8
  ,,prot>*us3 ,h[ inde$8  ,,socrates3   
,!n m9d & sci5ce :5 employ$ ab\t su*    
*ang+ ?+s d n atta9 ! highe/ tru?8      

,,prot>*us3 ,i %\ld imag9e n4           
,,socrates3 ,& n[ let u bid f>ewell1 a  
long f>ewell1 to y or me or ,philebus or
 ,gorgias1 & urge on behalf ( ! argum5t 
a s+le po9t4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at po9t8    
,,socrates3 ,let u say t ! /able & pure 
& true & unalloy$ has to d ) ! ?+s :i*  
are et]nal & un*angeable & unmix$1 or if
 n1 at any rate :at is mo/ ak9 to !m    
has2 & t all o!r ?+s are to be plac$ 9 a
 second or inf]ior class4  ,,prot>*us3  
,v true4  ,,socrates3 ,& ( ! names      
express+ cognition1 ought n ! faire/ to 
be giv5 to ! faire/ ?+s8  ,,prot>*us3 ,t
 is natural4  ,,socrates3 ,& are n m9d &
 wisdom ! names :i* are to be hon\r$    
mo/8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,& 
^! names may be said to h _! true/ & mo/
 exact application :5 ! m9d is engag$ 9 
! contemplation ( true be+8  ,,prot>*us3
 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& ^! 7 ! names 
:i* ,i adduc$ ( ! rivals ( pleasure8    
,,prot>*us3 ,v true1 ,socrates4         
,,socrates3 ,9 ! next place1 z to !     
mixture1 "h are ! +r$i5ts1 pleasure &   

wisdom1 & we may be comp>$ to arti/s :o 
h _! mat]ials ready to _! h&s4          
,,prot>*us3 ,yes4  ,,socrates3 ,& n[ we 
mu/ beg9 to mix !m8  ,,prot>*us3 ,by all
 means4  ,,socrates3 ,b _h we n bett] h 
a prelim9>y ^w & refre% our memories8   
,,prot>*us3 ,( :at8  ,,socrates3 ,( t   
:i* ,i h already m5tion$4 ,well says !  
prov]b1 t we ought to repeat twice & ev5
 ?rice t :i* is good4  ,,prot>*us3      
,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,well !n1 by     
,zeus1 let u proce$1 & ,i w make :at ,i 
believe to be a fair summ>y ( ! argum5t4
  ,,prot>*us3 ,let me he>4  ,,socrates3 
,philebus says t pleasure is ! true end 
( all liv+ be+s1 at :i* all ought to    
aim1 & moreov] t x is ! *ief good ( all1
 & t ! two names 'good' & 'pleasant' are
 correctly giv5 to "o ?+ & "o nature2   
,socrates1 on ! o!r h&1 beg9s by d5y+   
?is1 & fur!r says1 t 9 nature z 9 "n !y 
are two1 & t wisdom p>takes m ?an       
pleasure ( ! good4 ,is n & 0 n ?is :at  
we 7 say+1 ,prot>*us8  ,,prot>*us3      
,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& is !re n & 0  

!re n a fur!r po9t :i* 0 conc$$ betwe5  
u8  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at 0 x8  ,,socrates3  
,t ! good diff]s f all o!r ?+s4         
,,prot>*us3 ,9 :at respect8  ,,socrates3
 ,9 t ! be+ :o possesses good always    
ev]y:]e & 9 all ?+s has ! mo/ p]fect    
suffici5cy1 & is nev] 9 ne$ ( any?+     
else4  ,,prot>*us3 ,exactly4            
,,socrates3 ,& did we n endeav\r to make
 an imag9>y sep>ation ( wisdom &        
pleasure1 assign+ to ea* a di/9ct life1 
s t pleasure 0 :olly exclud$ f wisdom1 &
 wisdom 9 l mann] _h no "p :atev] 9     
pleasure8  ,,prot>*us3 ,we did4         
,,socrates3 ,& did we ?9k t ei!r ( !m   
alone w\ld be suffici5t8  ,,prot>*us3   
,c]ta9ly n4  ,,socrates3 ,& if we err$ 9
 any po9t1 !n let any "o :o w1 take up !
 enquiry aga9 & set u "r2 & assum+      
memory & wisdom & k & true op9ion to    
belong to ! same class1 let him consid] 
:e!r he w\ld desire to possess or       
acquire1--,i w n say pleasure1 h[ev]    
abundant or int5se1 if he has no real   
p]ception t he is pleas$1 nor any       

consci\sness ( :at he feels1 nor any    
recollection1 h[ev] mom5t>y1 ( !        
feel+1--b w\ld he desire to h any?+ at  
all1 if ^! faculties 7 want+ to him8 ,& 
ab\t wisdom ,i ask ! same "q2 c y       
conceive t any "o w\ld *oose to h all   
wisdom absolutely devoid ( pleasure1 r  
?an ) a c]ta9 degree ( pleasure1 or all 
pleasure devoid ( wisdom1 r ?an ) a     
c]ta9 degree ( wisdom8  ,,prot>*us3     
,c]ta9ly n1 ,socrates2 b :y repeat su*  
que/ions any m8  ,,socrates3 ,!n !      
p]fect & univ]sally eligible & entirely 
good _c possibly be ei!r ( !m8          
,,prot>*us3 ,impossible4  ,,socrates3   
,!n n[ we mu/ asc]ta9 ! nature ( ! good 
m or less accurately1 9 ord]1 z we 7    
say+1 t ! second place may be duly      
assign$4  ,,prot>*us3 ,"r4  ,,socrates3 
,h we n f\nd a road :i* leads t[>ds !   
good8  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at road8           
,,socrates3 ,suppos+ t a man _h to be   
f\nd1 & y c\ld discov] 9 :at h\se he    
liv$1 w\ld n t be a great /ep t[>ds !   
discov]y ( ! man himself8  ,,prot>*us3  

,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,& n[ reason     
intimates to u1 z at our fir/ beg9n+1 t 
we %\ld seek ! good1 n 9 ! unmix$ life b
 9 ! mix$4  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4          
,,socrates3 ,!re is great] hope ( f9d+ t
 :i* we are seek+ 9 ! life :i* is well  
mix$ ?an 9 t :i* is n8  ,,prot>*us3 ,f> 
great]4  ,,socrates3 ,!n n[ let u m+le1 
,prot>*us1 at ! same "t (f]+ up a pray] 
to ,dionysus or ,hephae/us1 or :oev] is 
! god :o presides ov] ! c]emony ( m+l+4 
,,prot>*us3 ,by all means4  ,,socrates3 
,are n we ! cup-be>]s8 & "h are two     
f\nta9s :i* are fl[+ at our side3 "o1   
:i* is pleasure1 may be lik5$ to a      
f\nta9 ( honey2 ! o!r1 wisdom1 a sob]   
draught 9 :i* no w9e m+les1 is ( wat]   
unpleasant b heal?ful2 out ( ^! we mu/  
seek to make ! faire/ ( all possible    
mixtures4  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4        
,,socrates3 ,tell me fir/2--%\ld we be  
mo/ likely to succe$ if we m+l$ e sort (
 pleasure ) e sort ( wisdom8            
,,prot>*us3 ,p]haps we might4           
,,socrates3 ,b ,i %\ld be afraid ( !    

risk1 & ,i ?9k t ,i c %[ a saf] plan4   
,,prot>*us3 ,:at is x8  ,,socrates3 ,"o 
pleasure 0 suppos$ by u to be tru] ?an  
ano!r1 & "o art to be m exact ?an ano!r4
  ,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3    
,!re 0 also suppos$ to be a diff]5ce 9  
sci5ces2 "s ( !m reg>d+ only ! transi5t 
& p]i%+1 & o!rs ! p]man5t & imp]i%able &
 ev]la/+ & immutable2 & :5 judg$ by !   
/&>d ( tru?1 ! latt]1 z we ?\ght1 7 tru]
 ?an ! =m]4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v good & "r4  
,,socrates3 ,if1 !n1 we 7 to beg9 by    
m+l+ ! sections ( ea* class :i* h ! mo/ 
( tru?1 w n ! union suffice to give u ! 
lovelie/ ( lives1 or %all we /ill want  
"s elem5ts ( ano!r k9d8  ,,prot>*us3 ,i 
?9k t we ought to d :at y sugge/4       
,,socrates3 ,let u suppose a man :o     
und]/&s ju/ice1 & has reason z well z   
und]/&+ ab\t ! true nature ( ?is & ( all
 o!r ?+s4  ,,prot>*us3 ,we w suppose su*
 a man4  ,,socrates3 ,w he h en\gh ( k  
if he is acqua9t$ only ) ! div9e circle 
& sph]e1 & kn[s no?+ ( our human sph]es 
& circles1 b uses only div9e circles &  

measures 9 ! build+ ( a h\se8           
,,prot>*us3 ,! k :i* is only sup]human1 
,socrates1 is ridicul\s 9 man4          
,,socrates3 ,:at d y mean8 ,d y mean t y
 are to ?r[ into ! cup & m+le ! impure &
 unc]ta9 art :i* uses ! false measure & 
! false circle8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 we   
mu/1 if any ( u is ev] to f9d 8 way     
home4  ,,socrates3 ,& am ,i to include  
music1 :i*1 z ,i 0 say+ j n[1 is full ( 
guesswork & imitation1 & is want+ 9     
purity8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 ,i ?9k t y   
mu/1 if human life is to be a life at   
all4  ,,socrates3 ,well1 !n1 suppose t  
,i give way1 &1 l a doorkeep] :o is pu%$
 & ov]borne by ! mob1 ,i op5 ! door     
wide1 & let k ( e sort /ream 91 & ! pure
 m+le ) ! impure8  ,,prot>*us3 ,i d n   
"k1 ,socrates1 t any great h>m w\ld come
 ( hav+ !m all1 if only y h ! fir/ sort4
  ,,socrates3 ,well1 !n1 %all ,i let !m 
all fl[ into :at ,hom] poetically t]ms  
'a meet+ ( ! wat]s'8  ,,prot>*us3 ,by   
all means4  ,,socrates3 ,!re--,i h let  
!m 91 & n[ ,i mu/ return to ! f\nta9 (  

pleasure4 ,= we 7 n p]mitt$ to beg9 by  
m+l+ 9 a s+le /ream ! true portions (   
bo? accord+ to our orig9al int5tion2 b !
 love ( all k con/ra9$ u to let all !   
sci5ces fl[ 9 toge!r be=e ! pleasures4  
,,prot>*us3 ,q true4  ,,socrates3 ,& n[ 
! "t has come = u to consid] ab\t !     
pleasures also1 :e!r we %all 9 l mann]  
let !m g all at once1 or at fir/ only ! 
true ones4  ,,prot>*us3 ,x w be by f> ! 
saf] c\rse to let fl[ ! true ones fir/4 
,,socrates3 ,let !m fl[1 !n2 & n[1 if   
!re are any necess>y pleasures1 z !re 7 
arts & sci5ces necess>y1 mu/ we n m+le  
!m8  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes2 ! necess>y       
pleasures %\ld c]ta9ly be all[$ to m+le4
  ,,socrates3 ,! k ( ! arts has be5     
admitt$ to be innoc5t & useful always2 &
 if we say ( pleasures 9 l mann] t all (
 !m are good & innoc5t = all ( u at all 
times1 we mu/ let !m all m+le8          
,,prot>*us3 ,:at %all we say ab\t !m1 & 
:at c\rse %all we take8  ,,socrates3 ,d 
n ask me1 ,prot>*us2 b ask ! daught]s ( 
pleasure & wisdom to answ] = !mselves4  

,,prot>*us3 ,h[8  ,,socrates3 ,tell u1  
,o belov$--%all we call y pleasures or  
by "s o!r "n8--w\ld y r live ) or )\t   
wisdom8 ,i am ( op9ion t !y w\ld c]ta9ly
 answ] z foll[s3  ,,prot>*us3 ,h[8      
,,socrates3 ,!y w\ld answ]1 z we said   
be=e1 t = any s+le class to be left by  
itself pure & isolat$ is n good1 nor    
altoge!r possible2 & t if we are to make
 comp>isons ( "o class ) ano!r & *oose1 
!re is no bett] companion ?an k ( ?+s 9 
g5]al1 & likewise ! p]fect k1 if t may  
be1 ( ourselves 9 e respect4            
,,prot>*us3 ,& our answ] w be3--,9 t ye 
h spok5 well4  ,,socrates3 ,v true4 ,&  
n[ let u g back & int]rogate wisdom &   
m9d3 ,w\ld y l to h any pleasures 9 !   
mixture8 ,& !y w reply3--',:at pleasures
 d y mean8'  ,,prot>*us3 ,likely en\gh4 
,,socrates3 ,& we %all take up our      
p>able & say3 ,d y wi% to h ! greate/ & 
mo/ vehem5t pleasures = y\r companions 9
 addition to ! true ones8 ',:y1         
,socrates1' !y w say1 'h[ c we8 see+ t  
!y are ! s\rce ( t5 ?\s& h9drances to u2

 !y tr\ble ! s\ls ( m51 :i* are our     
habitation1 ) _! madness2 !y prev5t u f 
com+ to ! bir?1 & are commonly ! ru9 ( !
 *ildr5 :i* are born to u1 caus+ !m to  
be =gott5 & unhe$$2 b ! true & pure     
pleasures1 ( :i* y spoke1 "k to be ( our
 family1 & also ^? pleasures :i*        
accompany heal? & temp]ance1 & :i* e    
,virtue1 l a goddess1 has 9 h] tra9 to  
foll[ h] ab\t :]ev] %e goes1--m+le ^! & 
n ! o!rs2 !re w\ld be great want ( s5se 
9 any "o :o desires to see a fair &     
p]fect mixture1 & to f9d 9 x :at is !   
highe/ good 9 man & 9 ! univ]se1 & to   
div9e :at is ! true =m ( good--!re w\ld 
be great want ( s5se 9 8 all[+ !        
pleasures1 :i* are always 9 ! company ( 
folly & vice1 to m+le ) m9d 9 !         
cup4'--,is n ?is a v rational & suitable
 reply1 :i* m9d has made1 bo? on h] own 
behalf1 z well z on ! behalf ( memory & 
true op9ion8  ,,prot>*us3 ,mo/ c]ta9ly4 
,,socrates3 ,& /ill !re mu/ be some?+ m 
add$1 :i* is a necess>y +r$i5t 9 e      
mixture4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at is t8        

,,socrates3 ,unless tru? ent] into !    
composition1 no?+ c truly be creat$ or  
subsi/4  ,,prot>*us3 ,impossible4       
,,socrates3 ,q impossible2 & n[ y &     
,philebus mu/ tell me :e!r any?+ is /ill
 want+ 9 ! mixture1 = to my way ( ?9k+ !
 argum5t is n[ complet$1 & may be comp>$
 to an incorporeal law1 :i* is go+ to   
hold fair rule ov] a liv+ body4         
,,prot>*us3 ,i agree ) y1 ,socrates4    
,,socrates3 ,& may we n say ) reason t  
we are n[ at ! ve/ibule ( ! habitation (
 ! good8  ,,prot>*us3 ,i ?9k t we are4  
,,socrates3 ,:at1 !n1 is !re 9 ! mixture
 :i* is mo/ preci\s1 & :i* is ! pr9cipal
 cause :y su* a /ate is univ]sally      
belov$ by all8 ,:5 we h discov]$ x1 we w
 proce$ to ask :e!r ?is omnipres5t      
nature is m ak9 to pleasure or to m9d4  
,,prot>*us3 ,q "r2 9 t way we %all be   
bett] able to judge4  ,,socrates3 ,& !re
 is no difficulty 9 see+ ! cause :i*    
r5d]s any mixture ei!r ( ! highe/ value 
or ( none at all4  ,,prot>*us3 ,:at d y 
mean8  ,,socrates3 ,e man kn[s x4       

,,prot>*us3 ,:at8  ,,socrates3 ,he kn[s 
t any want ( measure & symmetry 9 any   
mixture :atev] mu/ always ( necessity be
 fatal1 bo? to ! elem5ts & to ! mixture1
 :i* is !n n a mixture1 b only a confus$
 m$ley :i* br+s confusion on ! possessor
 ( x4  ,,prot>*us3 ,mo/ true4           
,,socrates3 ,& n[ ! p[] ( ! good has    
retir$ into ! region ( ! beautiful2 =   
measure & symmetry are beauty & virtue  
all ! _w ov]4  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4       
,,socrates3 ,also we said t tru? 0 to =m
 an elem5t 9 ! mixture4  ,,prot>*us3    
,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,!n1 if we are n 
able to hunt ! good ) "o idea only1 )   
?ree we may cat* our prey2 ,beauty1     
,symmetry1 ,tru? are ! ?ree1 & ^! tak5  
toge!r we may reg>d z ! s+le cause ( !  
mixture1 & ! mixture z be+ good by      
reason ( ! infusion ( !m4  ,,prot>*us3  
,q "r4  ,,socrates3 ,& n[1 ,prot>*us1   
any man c\ld decide well en\gh :e!r     
pleasure or wisdom is m ak9 to ! highe/ 
good1 & m hon\rable among gods & m54    
,,prot>*us3 ,cle>ly1 & yet p]haps !     

argum5t _h bett] be pursu$ to ! end4    
,,socrates3 ,we mu/ take ea* ( !m       
sep>ately 9 _! relation to pleasure &   
m9d1 & pron\nce ^u !m2 = we ought to see
 to :i* ( ! two !y are sev]ally mo/ ak94
  ,,prot>*us3 ,y are speak+ ( beauty1   
tru?1 & measure8  ,,socrates3 ,yes1     
,prot>*us1 take tru? fir/1 &1 aft] pass+
 9 review m9d1 tru?1 pleasure1 pause    
a:ile & make answ] to y\rself--z to :e!r
 pleasure or m9d is m ak9 to tru?4      
,,prot>*us3 ,!re is no ne$ to pause1 = !
 diff]5ce betwe5 !m is palpable2        
pleasure is ! v]ie/ impo/or 9 ! _w2 & x 
is said t 9 ! pleasures ( love1 :i*     
appe> to be ! greate/1 p]jury is excus$ 
by ! gods2 = pleasures1 l *ildr51 h n ! 
lea/ p>ticle ( reason 9 !m2 :]eas m9d is
 ei!r ! same z tru?1 or ! mo/ l tru?1 & 
! true/4  ,,socrates3 ,%all we next     
consid] measure1 9 l mann]1 & ask :e!r  
pleasure has m ( ?is ?an wisdom1 or     
wisdom ?an pleasure8  ,,prot>*us3 ,"h is
 ano!r "q :i* may be easily answ]$2 = ,i
 imag9e t no?+ c ev] be m immod]ate ?an 

! transports ( pleasure1 or m 9 con=mity
 ) measure ?an m9d & k4  ,,socrates3 ,v 
good2 b !re /ill rema9s ! ?ird te/3 ,has
 m9d a great] %>e ( beauty ?an pleasure1
 & is m9d or pleasure ! fair] ( ! two8  
,,prot>*us3 ,no "o1 ,socrates1 ei!r     
awake or dream+1 ev] saw or imag9$ m9d  
or wisdom to be 9 aught unseemly1 at any
 "t1 pa/1 pres5t1 or future4            
,,socrates3 ,"r4  ,,prot>*us3 ,b :5 we  
see "s "o indulg+ 9 pleasures1 p]haps 9 
! greate/ ( pleasures1 ! ridicul\s or   
disgraceful nature ( ! action makes u   
a%am$2 & s we put !m out ( sight1 &     
consign !m to d>kness1 "u ! idea t !y   
ought n to meet ! eye ( day4            
,,socrates3 ,!n1 ,prot>*us1 y w proclaim
 ev]y:]e1 by ^w ( m\? to ?is company1 & 
by mess5g]s be>+ ! tid+s f> & wide1 t   
pleasure is n ! fir/ ( possessions1 nor 
yet ! second1 b t 9 measure1 & ! mean1 &
 ! suitable1 & ! l1 ! et]nal nature has 
be5 f\nd4  ,,prot>*us3 ,yes1 t seems to 
be ! result ( :at has be5 n[ said4      
,,socrates3 ,9 ! second class is conta9$

 ! symmetrical & beautiful & p]fect or  
suffici5t1 & all :i* are ( t family4    
,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3 ,& if y 
reckon 9 ! ?ird class m9d & wisdom1 y w 
n be f> wrong1 if ,i div9e aright4      
,,prot>*us3 ,i d>e say4  ,,socrates3 ,& 
w\ld y n put 9 ! f\r? class ! goods :i* 
we 7 affirm+ to app]ta9 specially to !  
s\l--sci5ces & arts & true op9ions z we 
call$ !m8 ,^! come aft] ! ?ird class1 & 
=m ! f\r?1 z !y are c]ta9ly m ak9 to    
good ?an pleasure is4  ,,prot>*us3      
,surely4  ,,socrates3 ,! fif? class are 
! pleasures :i* 7 def9$ by u z pa9less1 
be+ ! pure pleasures ( ! s\l h]self1 z  
we t]m$ !m1 :i* accompany1 "s ! sci5ces1
 & "s ! s5ses4  ,,prot>*us3 ,p]haps4    
,,socrates3 ,& n[1 z ,orpheus says1     
',) ! six? g5]ation cease ! glory ( my  
song4'  ,"h1 at ! six? aw>d1 let u make 
an end2 all t rema9s is to set ! cr[n on
 our disc\rse4  ,,prot>*us3 ,true4      
,,socrates3 ,!n let u sum up & reass]t  
:at has be5 said1 ?us (f]+ ! ?ird       
libation to ! savi\r ,zeus4  ,,prot>*us3

 ,h[8  ,,socrates3 ,philebus affirm$ t  
pleasure 0 always & absolutely ! good4  
,,prot>*us3 ,i und]/&2 ?is ?ird         
libation1 ,socrates1 ( :i* y spoke1     
meant a recapitulation4  ,,socrates3    
,yes1 b li/5 to ! sequel2 conv9c$ ( :at 
,i h j be5 say+1 & feel+ indignant at ! 
doctr9e1 :i* is ma9ta9$1 n by ,philebus 
only1 b by ?\s&s ( o!rs1 ,i affirm$ t   
m9d 0 f> bett] & f> m excell5t1 z an    
elem5t ( human life1 ?an pleasure4      
,,prot>*us3 ,true4  ,,socrates3 ,b1     
suspect+ t !re 7 o!r ?+s :i* 7 also     
bett]1 ,i w5t on to say t if !re 0 any?+
 bett] ?an ei!r1 !n ,i w\ld claim !     
second place = m9d ov] pleasure1 &      
pleasure w\ld lose ! second place z well
 z ! fir/4  ,,prot>*us3 ,y did4         
,,socrates3 ,no?+ c\ld be m             
satisfactorily %[n ?an ! unsatisfactory 
nature ( bo? ( !m4  ,,prot>*us3 ,v true4
  ,,socrates3 ,! claims bo? ( pleasure &
 m9d to be ! absolute good h be5        
entirely disprov5 9 ?is argum5t1 because
 !y are bo? want+ 9 self-suffici5cy &   

also 9 adequacy & p]fection4            
,,prot>*us3 ,mo/ true4  ,,socrates3 ,b1 
?\gh !y mu/ bo? resign 9 fav\r ( ano!r1 
m9d is t5 ?\s& times ne>] & m ak9 to !  
nature ( ! conqu]or ?an pleasure4       
,,prot>*us3 ,c]ta9ly4  ,,socrates3 ,&1  
accord+ to ! judgm5t :i* has n[ be5     
giv51 pleasure w rank fif?4  ,,prot>*us3
 ,true4  ,,socrates3 ,b n fir/2 no1 n   
ev5 if all ! ox5 & horses & animals 9 ! 
_w by _! pursuit ( enjoym5t proclaim h] 
to be s2--al?\gh ! _m tru/+ 9 !m1 z     
div9]s tru/ 9 birds1 det]m9e t pleasures
 make up ! good ( life1 & deem ! lu/s ( 
animals to be bett] witnesses ?an !     
inspirations ( div9e philosophy4        
,,prot>*us3 ,& n[1 ,socrates1 we tell y 
t ! tru? ( :at y h be5 say+ is approv$  
by ! judgm5t ( all ( u4  ,,socrates3 ,& 
w y let me g8  ,,prot>*us3 ,!re is a    
little :i* yet rema9s1 & ,i w rem9d y ( 
x1 = ,i am sure t y w n be ! fir/ to g  
away f an argum5t4