,illustration3 ,,plate ,i ,,the ,,circulation ,,first ,,book ,,in ,,physiology ,,and ,,hygiene ,,by ,j4,h4 ,,kellogg1 ,m4,d4 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,medical ,,association1 ,,the ,,american ,,public ,,health ,,association1 ,,societe ,d',,hygiene ,,of ,,france1 ,,british ,,and ,,american ,,associations ,,for ,,the ,,advancement ,,of ,,science1 ,,michigan ,,state ,,board ,,of ,,health1 ,,etc4 ,,illustrated ,,new ,,and ,,revised ,,edition ,,new ,,york ,,cincinnati ,,chicago ,,american ,,book ,,company ,copyright1 #ahhg1 by ,,harper ,,brothers4 ,copyright1 #ahhh1 by ,,harper ,,brothers ,all rights reserved4 ,w4,p4 #g ,,to ,,the ,,teacher4 ,this book is intended for children4 ,the special objects which the author has aimed to accomplish in the preparation of the work have been3 #a4 ,to present as fully as possible and proper in a work of this character a statement of the laws of healthful living1 giving such special prominence to the subject of stimulants and narcotics as its recognized importance and the recent laws relating to the study of this branch of hygiene demand4 #b4 ,to present in a simple manner such anatomical and physiological facts as shall give the child a good fundamental knowledge of the structure and functions of the human body4 #c4 ,to present each topic in such clear and simple language as to enable the pupil to comprehend the subject-matter with little aid from the teacher2 and to observe in the manner of presentation the principle that the things to be studied should be placed before the mind of the child before they are named4 ,a natural and logical order has been observed in the sequence of topics4 ,technical terms have been used very sparingly1 and only in their natural order1 and are then fully explained and their pronunciation indicated1 so that it is not thought necessary to append a glossary4 #d4 ,to present the subjects of ,physiology and ,hygiene in the light of the most recent authentic researches in these branches of science1 and to avoid the numerous errors which have for many years been current in the school literature of these subjects4 ,there is no subject in the presentation of which object-teaching may be employed with greater facility and profit than in teaching ,physiology1 and none which may be more advantageously impressed upon the student's mind by means of simple experimentation than the subject of ,hygiene4 ,every teacher who uses this book is urgently requested to supplement each lesson by the use of object-teaching or experiments4 ,a great number of simple experiments illustrative of both ,physiology and ,hygiene may be readily arranged4 ,many little experiments are suggested in the text1 which should invariably be made before the class1 each member of which should also be encouraged to repeat them at home4 ,it is also most desirable that the teacher should have the aid of suitable charts and models4 ,in conclusion1 the author would acknowledge his indebtedness for a large number of useful suggestions and criticisms to several medical friends and experienced teachers1 and especially to ,prof4 ,henry ,sewall1 of the ,university of ,michigan1 for criticisms of the portions of the work relating to ,physiology4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,,to ,,the ,,teacher iii ,i4 ,,the ,,house ,,we ,,live ,,in #a ,,ii4 ,a ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,body #e ,,iii4 ,,the ,,inside ,,of ,,the ,,body #g ,,iv4 ,,our ,,foods #aa ,v4 ,,unhealthful ,,foods #ad ,,vi4 ,,our ,,drinks #ai ,,vii4 ,,how ,,we ,,digest #bg ,,viii4 ,,digestion ,,of ,a ,,mouthful ,,of ,,bread #ce ,,ix4 ,,bad ,,habits ,,in ,,eating #ci ,x4 ,a ,,drop ,,of ,,blood #df ,,xi4 ,,why ,,the ,,heart ,,beats #dh ,,xii4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,heart ,,and ,,the ,,blood ,,healthy #ef ,,xiii4 ,,why ,,and ,,how ,,we ,,breathe #fc ,,xiv4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,lungs ,,healthy #ge ,,xv4 ,,the ,,skin ,,and ,,what ,,it ,,does #ha ,,xvi4 ,,how ,,to ,,take ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,skin #hh ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,kidneys ,,and ,,their ,,work #ia ,,xviii4 ,,our ,,bones ,,and ,,their ,,uses #ic ,,xix4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,bones ,,healthy #ajj ,,xx4 ,,the ,,muscles1 ,,and ,,how ,,we ,,use ,,them #aje ,,xxi4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,muscles ,,healthy #aji ,,xxii4 ,,how ,,we ,,feel ,,and ,,think #aae ,,xxiii4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,brain ,,and ,,nerves ,,healthy #abf ,,xxiv4 ,,bad ,,effects ,,of ,,alcohol ,,upon ,,the ,,brain ,,and ,,nerves #acj ,,xxv4 ,,how ,,we ,,hear1 ,,see1 ,,smell1 ,,taste2 ,,and ,,feel #ach ,,xxvi4 ,,alcohol #aed ,,questions ,,for ,,review #agj ,,first ,,book ,,of ,,physiology ,,and ,,hygiene4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,house ,,we ,,live ,,in4 #a4 ,object of this ,book4--,the object of this book is to tell the little boys and girls who read it about a wonderful house4 ,you have all seen some very beautiful houses4 ,perhaps they were made of brick or stone1 with fine porches1 having around them tall shade trees1 smooth lawns1 pretty flower-beds1 walks1 and sparkling fountains4 #b4 ,perhaps some of you live in such a house1 or have visited some friend who does4 ,if so1 you know that the inside of the house is even more beautiful than the outside4 ,there are elegant chairs and sofas in the rooms1 rich carpets and rugs on the floors1 fine mirrors and beautiful pictures upon the walls--everything one could wish to have in a house4 ,do you not think such a house a nice one to live in8 #c4 ,the ,body is ,like a ,house4--,each of us has a house of his own which is far more wonderful and more curious than the grandest palace ever built4 ,it is not a very large house4 ,it has just room enough in it for one person4 ,this house1 which belongs to each one of us1 is called the body4 #d4 ,what is a ,machine8--,do you know what a machine is8 ,men make machines to help them work and to do many useful things4 ,a wheelbarrow or a wagon is a machine to carry loads4 ,a sewing-machine helps to make garments for us to wear4 ,clocks and watches are machines for keeping time4 #e4 ,a ,machine has ,different ,parts4--,a wheelbarrow has a box in which to carry things1 two handles to hold by1 and a wheel for rolling it along4 ,some machines1 like wheelbarrows and wagons1 have but few parts1 and it is very easy for us to learn how they work4 ,but there are other machines1 like watches and sewing-machines1 which have many different parts1 and it is more difficult to learn all about them and what they do4 #f4 ,the ,body is ,like a ,machine4--,in some ways the body is more like a machine than like a house4 ,it has many different parts which are made to do a great many different kinds of work4 ,we see with our eyes1 hear with our ears1 walk with our legs and feet1 and do a great many things with our hands4 ,if you have ever seen the inside of a watch or a clock you know how many curious little wheels it has4 ,and yet a watch or a clock can do but one thing1 and that is to tell us the time of day4 ,the body has a great many more parts than a watch has1 and for this reason the body can do many more things than a watch can do4 ,it is more difficult1 too1 to learn about the body than about a watch4 #g4 ,if we want to know all about a machine and how it works1 we must study all its different parts and learn how they are put together1 and what each part does4 ,then1 if we want the machine to work well and to last a long time1 we must know how to use it and how to take proper care of it4 ,do you think your watch would keep the time well if you should neglect to wind it1 or if you should break any of its wheels8 #h4 ,it is just the same with the human machine which we call the body4 ,we must learn its parts1 and what they are for1 how they are made1 how they are put together1 and how they work4 ,then we must learn how to take proper care of the body1 so that its parts will be able to work well and last a long time4 #i4 ,each part of the body which is made to do some special kind of work is called an organ4 ,the eye1 the ear1 the nose1 a hand1 an arm1 any part of the body that does something1 is an organ4 #aj4 ,the study of the various parts of the body and how they are put together is anatomy 7a-nat'-o-my74 ,the study of what each part of the body does is physiology 7phys-i-ol'-o-gy74 ,the study of how to take care of the body is hygiene 7hy'-jeen74 ,,summary4 #a4 ,the body is something like a house4 ,it has an outside and an inside2 it has hollow places inside of it1 and there are many wonderful things in them4 #b4 ,the body is also like a wonderful machine4 #c4 ,it is necessary to take good care of the body in order to keep it well and useful1 just as we would take good care of a machine to keep it from wearing out too soon4 #d4 ,the body has many different parts1 called organs1 each of which has some particular work to do4 #e4 ,in learning about the body1 we have to study anatomy1 physiology1 and hygiene4 #f4 ,the study of the various parts of the body1 how they are formed and joined together1 is anatomy4 ,physiology tells us what the body does1 hygiene tells us how to take care of it4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,a ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,body4 #a4 ,parts of the ,body4--,what do we call the main part of a tree8 ,the trunk1 you say4 ,the main part of the body is also called its trunk4 ,there are two arms and two legs growing out of the human trunk4 ,the branches of a tree we call limbs1 and so we speak of the arms and legs as limbs4 ,we sometimes call the arms the upper extremities1 and the legs the lower extremities4 ,at the top of the trunk is the head4 #b4 ,names of the ,parts4--,now let us look more closely at these different parts4 ,as we speak the name of each part1 let each one touch that part of himself which is named4 ,we will begin with the head4 ,the chief parts of the head are the skull and the face4 ,the forehead1 the temples1 the cheeks1 the eyes1 the ears1 the nose1 the mouth1 and the chin are parts of the face4 #c4 ,the chief parts of the trunk are the chest1 the abdomen 7ab-do'-men71 and the backbone4 ,the head is joined to the trunk by the neck4 #d4 ,each arm has a shoulder1 upper-arm1 fore-arm1 wrist1 and hand4 ,the fingers are a part of the hand4 #e4 ,each leg has a hip1 thigh1 lower leg1 ankle1 and foot4 ,the toes are a part of the foot4 #f4 ,our hands and face and the whole body are covered with something as soft and smooth as the finest silk4 ,it is the skin4 ,what is it that grows from the skin on the head8 and what at the ends of the fingers and the toes8 ,we shall learn more about the skin1 the hair1 and the nails in another lesson4 #g4 ,the body has two sides1 the right side and the left side1 which are alike4 ,we have two eyes1 two ears1 two arms1 etc4 ,we have but one nose1 one mouth1 and one chin1 but each of these organs has two halves1 which are just alike4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,the body has a head and trunk1 two arms1 and two legs4 #b4 ,the parts of the head are the skull and face4 ,the forehead1 temples1 cheeks1 eyes1 ears1 nose1 mouth and chin are parts of the face4 #c4 ,the parts of the trunk are1 the chest1 abdomen1 and backbone4 ,the neck joins the head and trunk4 #d4 ,each arm has a shoulder1 upper-arm1 fore-arm1 wrist1 and hand4 ,the fingers belong to the hand4 #e4 ,each leg has a hip1 thigh1 lower leg1 ankle1 and foot4 ,the toes belong to the foot4 #f4 ,the whole body is covered by the skin4 #g4 ,the two sides of the body are alike4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,inside ,,of ,,the ,,body4 #a4 ,thus far we have taken only a brief look at the outside of the body1 just as if we had looked at the case of a watch1 and of course we have found out very little about its many wonderful parts4 ,very likely you want to ask a great many questions1 such as1 ,how does the inside of the body look8 ,what is in the skull8 ,what is in the chest8 ,what is in the abdomen8 ,why do we eat and drink8 ,why do we become hungry and thirsty8 ,what makes us tired and sleepy8 ,how do we keep warm8 ,why do we breathe8 ,how do we grow8 ,how do we move about8 ,how do we talk1 laugh1 and sing8 ,how do we see1 hear1 feel1 taste1 and smell8 ,how do we remember1 think1 and reason8 ,all these1 and a great many more interesting questions1 you will find answered in the following lessons1 if you study each one well4 #b4 ,when we study the inside of the body1 we begin to understand how wonderfully we are made4 ,we cannot all see the inside of the body1 and it is not necessary that we should do so4 ,many learned men have spent their whole lives in seeking to find out all about our bodies and the bodies of various animals4 #c4 ,the ,bones4--,if you take hold of your arm1 it seems soft on the outside2 and if you press upon it1 you will feel something hard inside4 ,the soft part is called flesh4 ,the hard part is called bone4 ,if you wish1 you can easily get one of the bones of an animal at the butcher's shop1 or you may find one in the fields4 #d4 ,the ,skeleton4--,all the bones of an animal1 when placed properly together1 have nearly the shape of the body1 and are called the skeleton 7skel'-e-ton74 ,the skeleton forms the framework of the body1 just as the heavy timbers of a house form its framework4 ,it supports all the parts4 #e4 ,the ,skull4--,the bony part of the head is called the skull4 ,in the skull is a hollow place or chamber4 ,you know that a rich man often has a strong room or box in his fine house1 in which to keep his gold and other valuable things4 ,the chamber in the skull is the strong-room of the body4 ,it has strong1 tough walls of bone1 and contains the brain4 ,the brain is the most important1 and also the most tender and delicate organ in the whole body4 ,this is why it is so carefully guarded from injury4 #f4 ,the ,backbone4--,the framework of the back is called the backbone4 ,this is not a single bone1 but a row of bones arranged one above another4 ,each bone has a hole through it1 about as large as one of your fingers4 ,a large branch from the brain1 called the spinal cord1 runs down through the middle of the backbone1 so that the separate bones look as if they were strung on the spinal cord1 like beads on a string4 #g4 ,the ,trunk4--,the trunk of the body1 like the skull1 is hollow4 ,its walls are formed partly by the backbone and the ribs and partly by flesh4 ,a fleshy wall divides the hollow of the trunk into two parts1 an upper chamber called the chest1 and a lower called the abdomen4 #h4 ,the ,lungs and ,heart4--,the chest contains a pair of organs called the lungs1 with which we breathe4 ,it also contains something which we can feel beating at the left side4 ,this is the heart4 ,the heart lies between the two lungs1 and a little to the left side4 #i4 ,the ,stomach and ,liver4--,in the abdomen are some very wonderful organs that do different kinds of work for the body4 ,among them are the stomach1 the bowels1 and the liver4 ,there are1 also1 other organs whose names we shall learn when we come to study them4 #aj4 ,care of the ,body4--,we have only begun to study the beautiful house in which we live1 and yet have we not learned enough to show us how great and wise is the ,creator who made us and all the wonderful machinery within our bodies8 ,if some one should give you a beautiful present1 would you treat it carelessly and spoil it1 or would you take good care of it and keep it nice as long as possible8 ,ought we not to take such care of our bodies as to keep them in that perfect and beautiful condition in which our kind and good ,creator gave them to us8 ,,summary4 #a4 ,the body has a framework1 called the skeleton4 #b4 ,the skeleton is made up of many different parts1 each of which is called a bone4 #c4 ,the bones are covered by the flesh4 #d4 ,the bones of the head form the skull1 which is hollow and contains the brain4 #e4 ,a row of bones arranged in the back1 one above another1 forms the backbone4 ,the backbone has a canal running through it lengthwise1 in which lies the spinal cord4 #f4 ,the trunk is hollow1 and has two chambers1 one called the cavity of the chest1 and the other the cavity of the abdomen4 #g4 ,the chest contains the two lungs and the heart4 #h4 ,the abdomen contains the stomach1 liver1 and many other very important organs4 #i4 ,is it not our duty to take good care of our bodies as we would of some nice present from a friend8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,our ,,foods4 #a4 ,we all know very well that if we do not eat we shall rapidly lose in weight1 and become very weak and feeble4 ,did you ever think how much one eats in the course of a lifetime8 ,let us see if we can figure it up4 ,how much do you suppose a boy eats in a day8 ,let us say two pounds4 ,how much does he eat in a year8 ,there are three hundred and sixty-five days in a year2 #cfe multiplied by #b equals #gcj4 ,so a boy eats a good many times his own weight in a year4 ,how much would a person eat in fifty years8 #b4 ,our bodies are composed of what we eat4 ,if we eat bad food1 our bodies will be made out of poor material1 and will not be able to do their work well4 ,so you see how important it is to learn something about our foods4 ,we ought to know what things are good for us to eat1 and what will do us harm4 #c4 ,foods and ,poisons4--,foods are those substances which nourish the body and keep it in good working order4 #d4 ,our foods are obtained from both animals and plants4 ,all food really comes from plants1 however1 since those animals which we sometimes use as food themselves live upon the vegetables which they eat4 ,for example1 the ox and the cow eat grass and furnish us beef and milk4 ,chickens eat corn and other grains1 and supply us with eggs4 #e4 ,the principal animal foods are milk1 cheese1 eggs1 and the different kinds of flesh--beef1 mutton1 pork1 fish1 fowl1 and wild game4 ,we obtain a great many more kinds of food from plants than from animals4 ,most plant foods are included in three classes--fruits1 grains1 and vegetables4 #f4 ,fruits are the fleshy parts of plants which contain the seeds4 ,our most common fruits are apples1 pears1 peaches1 plums1 cherries1 and various kinds of nuts4 ,perhaps you know of some other kinds of fruits besides those mentioned4 ,your teacher will tell you that tomatoes1 watermelons1 and pumpkins are really fruits1 though they are not generally so called4 #g4 ,the seeds of grass-like plants are known as grains1 of which we have wheat1 rye1 barley1 corn1 and rice4 ,there are a few seeds that grow in pods1 such as pease and beans1 which somewhat resemble grains4 #h4 ,we eat the leaves1 stems1 or roots of some plants1 as cabbages1 celery1 turnips1 and potatoes4 ,foods of this kind are called vegetables4 #i4 ,there are other things1 which1 if we eat or drink them1 will make us sick or otherwise do us harm4 ,these are called poisons4 ,only such food as is pure and free from poisons is good or safe for us to use4 #aj4 ,narcotics and ,stimulants4--,there are a number of substances known as narcotics and stimulants1 which1 from their effects upon the body1 may be classed as poisons4 ,tobacco1 opium1 alcohol1 and chloral are included in this class4 ,death has often been caused by taking small quantities of any of these poisonous drugs4 ,we shall learn more of the effects of tobacco and alcohol in future lessons4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,our bodies are made of what we eat4 #b4 ,things which will help us to grow strong and well1 if we eat them1 are foods4 #c4 ,we get foods from plants and animals4 #d4 ,there are several kinds of animal foods1 and three classes of plant foods--fruits1 grains1 and vegetables4 #e4 ,things which make us sick when we eat them1 are poisons4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,unhealthful ,,foods4 #a4 ,most persons eat many things which are not good for them4 ,some people do not stop to think whether what they eat is good for them or likely to do them harm4 ,sometimes1 without knowing it1 we eat things which are harmful to us4 ,do you not think that we should try to learn what is good to eat and what is not good1 and then be very careful not to eat anything which is likely to do us harm8 #b4 ,diseased ,foods4--,when a person is sick1 he is said to be diseased4 ,animals are sometimes sick or diseased4 ,vegetables are also sometimes diseased4 ,animals and vegetables that are diseased are not good for food4 ,dishonest men1 however1 sometimes sell them to those who do not know that they are unfit to be eaten4 #c4 ,pork1 the flesh of the hog1 is more likely to be diseased than any other kind of animal food4 #d4 ,beef and mutton may be diseased also4 ,sheep and cattle are sometimes sick of diseases very much like those which human beings have4 ,meat which is pale1 yellowish1 or of a dark red color1 is unhealthful1 and should not be eaten4 ,meat should never be eaten raw4 ,it should always be well cooked4 #e4 ,unripe ,foods4--,most vegetable foods are unfit to be eaten when green or unripe1 especially if uncooked4 ,sometimes persons are made very sick indeed by eating such articles as green apples or unripe peaches4 #f4 ,stale or ,decayed ,foods4--,food which has been allowed to stand until it is spoiled1 or has become stale1 musty1 or mouldy1 such as mouldy bread or fruit1 or tainted meat1 is unfit to be eaten1 and is often a cause of very severe sickness4 ,canned fish or other meats spoil very quickly after the cans are opened1 and should be eaten the same day4 #g4 ,adulterated ,foods4--,many of our foods are sometimes spoiled or injured by persons who put into them cheap substances which are harmful to health4 ,they do this so as to make more money in selling them4 ,this is called adulteration4 ,the foods which are most likely to be injured by adulteration are milk1 sugar1 and butter4 #h4 ,milk is most often adulterated by adding water1 though sometimes other things are added4 ,sometimes the water is not pure1 and people are made sick and die4 ,the adulteration of milk or any other food is a very wicked practice4 #i4 ,butter is sometimes made almost wholly from lard or tallow4 ,this is called oleomargarine or butterine4 ,if the lard or tallow is from diseased animals1 the false butter made from it may cause disease4 #aj4 ,a great deal of the sugar and syrups which we buy is made from corn by a curious process1 which changes the starch of the corn into sugar4 ,sugar which has been made in this way is not so sweet as cane sugar1 and is not healthful4 #aa4 ,condiments or ,seasonings4--,these are substances which are added to our food for the purpose of giving to it special flavors4 ,condiments are not foods1 because they do not nourish the body in any way1 and are not necessary to preserve it in health4 #ab4 ,the most common condiments are1 mustard1 pepper1 pepper-sauce1 ginger1 cayenne-pepper1 and spices4 ,all these substances are irritating4 ,if we put mustard upon the skin1 it will make the skin red1 and in a little time will raise a blister4 ,if we happen to get a little pepper in the eye1 it makes it smart and become very red and inflamed4 ,when we take these things into the stomach1 they cause the stomach to smart1 and its lining membrane becomes red just as the skin or the eye does4 #ac4 ,nature has put into our foods very nice flavors to make us enjoy eating them4 ,condiments are likely to do us great harm1 and hence it is far better not to use them4 #ad4 ,tobacco4--,most of you know that tobacco is obtained from a plant which has long1 broad leaves4 ,these leaves are dried and then rolled up into cigars1 ground into snuff1 or prepared for chewing4 ,illustration3 ,tobacco-,plant4 #ae4 ,tobacco has a smarting1 sickening taste4 ,do you think it would be good to eat8 ,why not8 #af4 ,you know that tobacco makes people sick when they first begin to use it4 ,this is because it contains a very deadly poison1 called nicotine4 #ag4 ,if you give tobacco to a cat or a dog1 it will become very sick4 ,a boy once gave a piece of tobacco to a monkey1 which swallowed it not knowing what a bad thing it was4 ,the monkey soon became sick and died4 #ah4 ,many learned doctors have noticed the effects which come from using tobacco1 and they all say it does great harm to boys1 that it makes them puny and weak1 and prevents their growing up into strong and useful men4 ,if tobacco is not good for boys1 do you think it can be good for men8 ,certainly you will say1 ,no4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,both animals and plants are sometimes diseased4 ,flesh obtained from sick or diseased animals is unfit for food4 #b4 ,unripe1 stale1 and mouldy foods are unfit to be eaten and likely to cause severe illness4 #c4 ,foods are sometimes spoiled by having things mixed with them which are not food1 or which are poisonous4 #d4 ,the foods most liable to be adulterated in this way are milk1 sugar1 and butter4 #e4 ,tobacco1 while not actually eaten1 is thought by some persons to be a food1 but it is not4 ,it is a poison1 and injures all who use it4 #f4 ,boys who use tobacco do not grow strong in body and mind4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,our ,,drinks4 #a4 ,water is really the only drink4 ,it is the only substance which will satisfy thirst4 ,all other fluids which we drink consist mostly of water4 ,thus1 lemonade is lemon-juice and water4 ,milk is chiefly water4 ,wine1 beer1 cider1 and such liquids contain alcohol and many other things1 mixed with water4 #b4 ,why we ,need ,water4--,if we should wet a sponge and lay it away1 it would become dry in a few hours1 as the water would pass off into the air4 ,our bodies are losing water all the time1 and we need to drink to keep ourselves from drying up4 #c4 ,water is also very necessary for other purposes4 ,it softens our food so that we can chew and swallow it1 and helps to carry it around in the body after it has been digested1 in a way about which we shall learn in future lessons4 #d4 ,still another use for water is to dissolve and wash out of our bodies1 through the sweat of the skin1 and in other ways1 the waste and worn-out particles which are no longer of any use4 #e4 ,impure ,water4--,most waters have more or less substances dissolved in them4 ,water which has much lime in it is called hard water4 ,such water is not so good to drink1 or for use in cooking1 as soft water4 ,that water is best which holds no substances in solution4 ,well-water sometimes contains substances which soak into wells from vaults or cesspools4 ,slops which are poured upon the ground soak down out of sight2 but the foul substances which they contain are not destroyed4 ,they remain in the soil1 and when the rains come1 they are washed down into the well if it is near by4 ,you can see some of the things found in bad water in the illustration given on opposite page4 #f4 ,it is best not to drink iced water when the body is heated1 or during meals4 ,if it is necessary to drink very cold water1 the bad effects may be avoided by sipping it very slowly4 #g4 ,tea and ,coffee4--,many people drink tea or coffee at their meals1 and some persons think that these drinks are useful foods2 but they really have little or no value as foods4 ,both tea and coffee contain a poison which1 when separated in a pure form1 is so deadly that a very small quantity is enough to kill a cat or a dog4 ,this poison often does much harm to those who drink tea or coffee very strong for any great length of time4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,drop ,,of ,,impure ,,water ,,magnified4 #h4 ,alcohol 7al'-co-hol74--,all of you know something about alcohol4 ,perhaps you have seen it burn in a lamp4 ,it will burn without a lamp1 if we light it4 ,it is so clear and colorless that it looks like water4 ,the ,indians call it fire-water4 ,alcohol differs very much from foods4 ,it is not produced from plants1 as fruits and grains are2 neither is it supplied by ,nature ready for our use1 as are air and water4 #i4 ,fermentation4--,when a baker makes bread he puts some yeast in the dough to make it rise1 so the bread will be light4 ,the yeast destroys some of the sugar and starch in the flour and changes it into alcohol and a gas4 ,the gas bubbles up through the dough1 and this is what makes the bread light4 ,this is called fermentation 7fer-men-ta'-tion74 ,the little alcohol which is formed in the bread does no harm1 because it is all driven off by the heat when the bread is baked4 ,illustration3 ,,fermentation4 #aj4 ,any moist substance or liquid which contains sugar will ferment if yeast is added to it1 or if it is kept in a warm place4 ,you know that canned fruit sometimes spoils4 ,this is because it ferments4 ,fermentation is a sort of decay4 ,when the juice of grapes1 apples1 or other fruit is allowed to stand in a warm place it works1 or ferments1 and thus produces alcohol4 ,wine is fermented grape-juice2 hard cider is fermented apple-juice4 #aa4 ,beer1 ale1 and similar drinks are made from grains4 ,the grain is first moistened and allowed to sprout4 ,in sprouting1 the starch of the grain is changed to sugar4 ,the grain is next dried and ground1 and is then boiled with water4 ,the water dissolves the sugar4 ,the sweet liquid thus obtained is separated from the grain1 and yeast is added to it4 ,this causes it to ferment1 which changes the sugar to alcohol4 ,thus we see that the grain does not contain alcohol in the first place1 but that it is produced by fermentation4 #ab4 ,all fermented liquids contain more or less alcohol1 mixed with water and a good many other things4 ,rum1 brandy1 gin1 whiskey1 and pure alcohol are made by separating the alcohol from the other substances4 ,this is done by means of a still1 and is called distillation4 ,illustration3 ,,distillation4 #ac4 ,you can learn how a still separates the alcohol by a little experiment4 ,when a tea-pot is boiling on the stove and the steam is coming out at the nozzle1 hold up to the nozzle a common drinking-glass filled with iced water1 first taking care to wipe the outside of the glass perfectly dry4 ,little drops of water will soon gather upon the side of the glass4 ,if you touch these to the tongue you will observe that they taste of the tea4 ,it is because a little of the tea has escaped with the steam and condensed upon the glass4 ,this is distillation4 #ad4 ,if the tea-pot had contained wine1 or beer1 or hard cider1 the distilled water would have contained alcohol instead of tea4 ,by distilling the liquid several times the alcohol may be obtained almost pure4 #ae4 ,alcohol kills ,animals and ,plants4--,strong alcohol has a deadly effect upon all living things4 ,once a man gave a dog a few tablespoonfuls of alcohol1 and in a little while the dog was dead4 ,if you should pour alcohol upon a plant it would die very soon4 #af4 ,a man once made a cruel experiment4 ,he put some minnows into a jar of water and then poured in a few teaspoonfuls of alcohol4 ,the minnows tried very hard to get out1 but they could not1 and in a little while they were all dead1 poisoned by the alcohol4 ,a ,frenchman once gave alcohol to some pigs with their food4 ,they soon became sick and died4 #ag4 ,alcohol not a ,food4--,there are some people who imagine that alcohol is good for food because it is made from fruits and grains which are good for food4 ,this is a serious mistake4 ,a person can live on the fruits or grains from which alcohol is made1 but no one would attempt to live upon alcohol4 ,if he did1 he would soon starve to death4 ,in fact1 men have often died in consequence of trying to use whiskey in place of food4 #ah4 ,we should remember1 also1 that people do not take alcohol as a food1 but for certain effects which it produces1 which are not those of a food1 but of a poison4 #ai4 ,many people who would not drink strong or distilled liquors1 think that they will suffer no harm if they use only wine1 beer1 or cider4 ,this is a great mistake4 ,these liquids contain alcohol1 as do all fermented drinks4 ,a person will become drunk or intoxicated by drinking wine1 beer1 or cider--only a larger quantity is required to produce the same effect as rum or whiskey4 #bj4 ,another very serious thing to be thought of is that if a person forms the habit of drinking wine1 cider1 or other fermented drinks1 he becomes so fond of the effect they produce that he soon wants some stronger drink1 and thus he is led to use whiskey or other strong liquors4 ,on this account it is not safe to use any kind of alcoholic drinks1 either fermented or distilled4 ,the only safe plan is to avoid the use of every sort of stimulating or intoxicating drinks4 #ba4 ,it has been found by observation that those persons who use intoxicating drinks are not so healthy as those who do not use them1 and1 as a rule1 they do not live so long4 #bb4 ,this is found to be true not only of those who use whiskey and other strong liquors1 but also of those who use fermented drinks1 as wine and beer4 ,beer drinkers are much more likely to suffer from disease than those who are strictly temperate4 ,it is often noticed by physicians that when a beer-drinker becomes sick or meets with an accident1 he does not recover so readily as one who uses no kind of alcoholic drinks4 #bc4 ,alcoholic drinks not only make people unhealthy and shorten their lives1 but they are also the cause of much poverty and crime and an untold amount of misery4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,water is the only thing that will satisfy thirst4 #b4 ,in going through our bodies1 water washes out many impurities4 ,we also need water to soften our food4 #c4 ,the purest water is the best4 ,impure water causes sickness4 #d4 ,good water has no color1 taste1 or odor4 #e4 ,tea and coffee are not good drinks4 ,they are very injurious to children1 and often do older persons much harm4 #f4 ,alcohol is made by fermentation4 #g4 ,pure alcohol and strong liquors are made by distillation4 #h4 ,alcohol is not a food1 it is a poison4 ,it kills plants and animals1 and is very injurious to human beings4 #i4 ,even the moderate use of alcoholic drinks produces disease and shortens life4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,how ,,we ,,digest4 #a4 ,did you ever see a ,venus's fly-trap8 ,this curious plant grows in ,north ,carolina4 ,it is called a fly-trap because it has on each of its leaves something like a steel-trap1 by means of which it catches flies4 ,you can see one of these traps in the picture4 ,when a fly touches the leaf1 the trap shuts up at once1 and the poor fly is caught and cannot get away4 ,the harder it tries to escape1 the more tightly the trap closes upon it1 until after a time it is crushed to death4 ,illustration3 ,,venus',s ,,fly-,,trap4 #b4 ,but we have yet to learn the most curious thing about this strange plant1 which seems to act so much like an animal4 ,if we open the leaf after a few days1 it will be found that the fly has almost entirely disappeared4 ,the fly has not escaped1 but it has been dissolved by a fluid formed inside of the trap1 and the plant has absorbed a portion of the fly4 ,in fact1 it has really eaten it4 ,the process by which food is dissolved and changed so that it can be absorbed and may nourish the body1 is called digestion 7di-ges'-tion74 #c4 ,the ,venus's fly-trap has a very simple way of digesting its food4 ,its remarkable little trap serves it as a mouth to catch and hold its food1 and as a stomach to digest it4 ,the arrangement by which our food is digested is much less simple than this4 ,let us study the different parts by which this wonderful work is done4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,digestive ,,tube4 #d4 ,the ,digestive ,tube4--,the most important part of the work of digesting our food is done in a long tube within the body1 called the digestive tube or canal4 #e4 ,this tube is twenty-five or thirty feet long in a full-grown man2 but it is so coiled up and folded away that it occupies but little space4 ,it begins at the mouth1 and ends at the lower part of the trunk4 ,the greater part of it is coiled up in the abdomen4 #f4 ,the ,mouth4--,the space between the upper and the lower jaw is called the mouth4 ,the lips form the front part and the cheeks the sides4 ,at the back part are three openings4 ,one1 the upper1 leads into the nose4 ,there are two lower openings4 ,one of these leads into the stomach1 and the other leads to the lungs4 ,the back part of the mouth joins the two tubes which lead from the mouth to the lungs and the stomach1 and is called the throat4 ,the mouth contains the tongue and the teeth4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,teeth4 #g4 ,the ,teeth4--,the first teeth1 those which come when we are small children1 are called temporary or milk teeth4 ,we lose these teeth as the jaws get larger and the second or permanent teeth take their place4 ,there are twenty teeth in the first set1 and thirty-two in the second4 ,very old persons sometimes have a third set of teeth4 ,illustration3 ,,salivary ,,glands4 #h4 ,the ,salivary 7sal'-i-vary7 ,glands4--,there are three pairs of salivary glands4 ,they form a fluid called the saliva 7sa-li'-va74 ,it is this fluid which moistens the mouth at all times4 ,when we eat or taste something which we like1 the salivary glands make so much saliva that we sometimes say the mouth waters4 ,one pair of the salivary glands is at the back part of the lower jaw1 in front of the ears4 ,the other two pairs of glands are placed at the under side of the mouth4 ,the saliva produced by the salivary glands is sent into the mouth through little tubes called ducts4 #i4 ,the ,gullet4--,at the back part of the throat begins a narrow tube1 which passes down to the stomach4 ,this tube is about nine inches long4 ,it is called the gullet1 food-pipe1 or oesophagus 7e-soph'-a-gus74 #aj4 ,the ,stomach4--,at the lower end of the oesophagus the digestive tube becomes enlarged1 and has a shape somewhat like a pear4 ,this is the stomach4 ,in a full-grown person the stomach is sufficiently large to hold about three pints4 ,at each end of the stomach is a narrow opening so arranged that it can be opened or tightly closed1 as may be necessary4 ,the upper opening allows the food to pass into the stomach1 the lower one allows it to pass out into the intestines4 ,this opening is called the pylorus 7py-lo'-rus71 or gate-keeper1 because it closes so as to keep the food in the stomach until it is ready to pass out4 #aa4 ,in the membrane which lines the stomach there are many little pocket-like glands1 in which a fluid called the gastric juice is formed4 ,this fluid is one of the most important of all the fluids formed in the digestive canal4 ,illustration3 ,,gastric ,,gland4 #ab4 ,the ,intestine7in-tes'-tine74--,at the lower end of the stomach the digestive canal becomes narrow again4 ,this narrow portion1 called the intestine1 is about twenty-five feet long in a grown person4 ,the last few feet of the intestine is larger than the rest1 and is called the colon4 ,this long tube is coiled up and snugly packed away in the cavity of the abdomen4 ,in the membrane lining the intestines are to be found little glands1 which make a fluid called intestinal juice4 #ac4 ,the ,liver4--,close up under the ribs1 on the right side of the body1 is a large chocolate-colored organ1 called the liver4 ,the liver is about half as large as the head1 and is shaped so as to fit snugly into its corner of the abdomen4 ,the chief business of the liver is to make a fluid called bile1 which is very necessary for the digestion of our food4 #ad4 ,the bile is a bitter fluid of a golden-brown color4 ,it is carried to the intestine by means of a little tube or duct1 which enters the small intestine a few inches below the stomach4 ,when the bile is made faster than it is needed for immediate use1 it is stored up in a little pear-shaped sac called the gall-bladder1 which hangs from the under side of the liver4 #ae4 ,the liver is a very wonderful organ1 and does many useful things besides making bile4 ,it aids in various ways in digesting the food1 and helps to keep the blood pure by removing from it harmful substances which are formed within the body4 #af4 ,the ,pancreas7pan'-cre-as74--,the pancreas is another large and very important gland which is found close to the stomach1 lying just behind it in the abdominal cavity4 ,the pancreas forms a fluid called the pancreatic juice1 which enters the small intestine at nearly the same place as the bile4 #ag4 ,the ,spleen4--,close to the pancreas1 at the left side of the body1 is a dark1 roundish organ about the size of the fist1 called the spleen4 ,it is not known that the spleen has much to do in the work of digestion1 but it is so closely connected with the digestive organs that we need to know about it4 #ah4 ,please note that there are five important organs of digestion4 ,the mouth1 the stomach1 the intestines1 the pancreas1 and the liver4 #ai4 ,also observe that there are five digestive fluids1 saliva1 gastric juice1 bile1 pancreatic juice1 and intestinal juice4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,the process of dissolving and changing the food so that it may be absorbed and may nourish the body is digestion4 #b4 ,the work of digestion is chiefly done in the digestive tube or canal1 which is about thirty feet in length4 #c4 ,the mouth contains the teeth1 and has three pairs of salivary glands connected with it1 which make saliva4 #d4 ,the gullet leads from the mouth to the stomach4 #e4 ,the stomach is pear-shaped1 and holds about three pints4 #f4 ,it has an upper and a lower opening1 each of which is guarded by a muscle1 which keeps its contents from escaping4 #g4 ,the lower opening of the stomach is called the pylorus4 #h4 ,the stomach forms the gastric juice4 #i4 ,the intestines are about twenty-five feet long4 ,they form the intestinal juice4 #aj4 ,the liver lies under the ribs of the right side4 ,it is about half as large as the head4 ,it makes bile4 #aa4 ,when not needed for immediate use1 the bile is stored up in a sac called the gall-bladder4 #ab4 ,the pancreas is a gland which lies just back of the stomach4 ,it makes pancreatic juice4 #ac4 ,the spleen is found near the pancreas4 #ad4 ,there are five important digestive organs--the mouth1 the stomach1 the intestines1 the liver1 and the pancreas4 #ae4 ,there are five digestive fluids--saliva1 gastric juice1 intestinal juice1 bile1 and pancreatic juice4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,digestion ,,of ,a ,,mouthful ,,of ,,bread4 #a4 ,let us suppose that we have eaten a mouthful of bread1 and can watch it as it goes through all the different processes of digestion4 #b4 ,mastication4--,first1 we chew or masticate the food with the teeth4 ,we use the tongue to move the food from one side of the mouth to the other1 and to keep the food between the teeth4 #c4 ,mouth ,digestion4--,while the bread is being chewed1 the saliva is mixed with it and acts upon it4 ,the saliva moistens and softens the food so that it can be easily swallowed and readily acted upon by the other digestive juices4 ,you have noticed that if you chew a bit of hard bread a few minutes it becomes sweet4 ,this is because the saliva changes some of the starch of the food into sugar4 #d4 ,after we have chewed the food1 we swallow it1 and it passes down through the oesophagus into the stomach4 #e4 ,stomach ,digestion4--,as soon as the morsel of food enters the stomach1 the gastric juice begins to flow out of the little glands in which it is formed4 ,this mingles with the food and digests another portion which the saliva has not acted upon4 ,while this is being done1 the stomach keeps working the food much as a baker kneads dough4 ,this is done to mix the gastric juice with the food4 #f4 ,after an hour or two the stomach squeezes the food so hard that a little of it1 which has been digested by the gastric juice and the saliva1 escapes through the lower opening1 the pylorus1 of which we have already learned4 ,as the action of the stomach continues1 more of the digested food escapes1 until all that has been properly acted upon has passed out4 #g4 ,intestinal ,digestion4--,we sometimes eat butter with bread1 or take some other form of fat in our food4 ,this is not acted upon by the saliva or the gastric juice4 ,when food passes out of the stomach into the small intestine1 a large quantity of bile is at once poured upon it4 ,this bile has been made beforehand by the liver and stored up in the gall-bladder4 ,the bile helps to digest fats1 which the saliva and the gastric juice cannot digest4 #h4 ,the pancreatic juice does the same kind of work that is done by the saliva1 the gastric juice1 and the bile4 ,it also finishes up the work done by these fluids4 ,it is one of the most important of all the digestive juices4 #i4 ,the intestinal juice digests nearly all the different elements of the food1 so that it is well fitted to complete the wonderful process by which the food is made ready to enter the blood and to nourish the body4 #aj4 ,while the food is being acted upon by the bile1 the pancreatic juice1 and intestinal juice1 it is gradually moved along the intestines4 ,after all those portions of food which can be digested have been softened and dissolved1 they are ready to be taken into the blood and distributed through the body4 #aa4 ,absorption4--,if you put a dry sponge into water1 it very soon becomes wet by soaking up the water4 ,indeed1 if you only touch a corner of the sponge to the water1 the whole sponge will soon become wet4 ,we say that the sponge absorbs the water4 ,it is in a somewhat similar way that the food is taken up or absorbed by the walls of the stomach and intestines4 ,when the food is absorbed1 the greater part of it is taken into the blood-vessels1 of which we shall learn in a future lesson4 #ab4 ,liver ,digestion4--,after the food has been absorbed1 the most of it is carried to the liver1 where the process of digestion is completed4 ,the liver also acts like an inspector to examine the digested food and remove hurtful substances which may be taken with it1 such as alcohol1 mustard1 pepper1 and other irritating things4 #ac4 ,the ,thoracic ,duct4--,a portion of the food1 especially the digested fats1 is absorbed by a portion of the lymphatic vessels called lacteals1 which empty into a small vessel called the thoracic duct4 ,this duct passes upward in front of the spine and empties into a vein near the heart4 ,,summary4 ,how a mouthful of food is digested3 #a4 ,it is first masticated--that is1 it is chewed and moistened with saliva4 #b4 ,then it is swallowed1 passing through the oesophagus to the stomach4 #c4 ,there it is acted upon1 and a part of it digested by the gastric juice4 #d4 ,it is then passed into the small intestine1 where it is acted upon by the bile1 the pancreatic fluid1 and the intestinal juice4 #e4 ,the digested food is then absorbed by the walls of the stomach and intestines4 #f4 ,the greater portion of the food is next passed through the liver1 where hurtful substances are removed4 #g4 ,a smaller portion is carried through the thoracic duct and emptied into a vein near the heart4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,bad ,,habits ,,in ,,eating4 #a4 ,eating too ,fast4--,a most common fault is eating too fast4 ,when the food is chewed too rapidly1 and swallowed too quickly1 it is not properly divided and softened4 ,such food cannot be easily acted upon by the various digestive juices4 #b4 ,eating too ,much4--,a person who eats food too rapidly is also very likely to injure himself by eating too much4 ,the digestive organs are able to do well only a certain amount of work4 ,when too much food is eaten1 none of it is digested as well as it should be4 ,food which is not well digested will not nourish the body4 #c4 ,eating too ,often--,many children make themselves sick by eating too often4 ,it is very harmful to take lunches or to eat at other than the proper meal-times4 ,the stomach needs time to rest1 just as our legs and arms and the other parts of the body do4 ,for the same reason1 it is well for us to avoid eating late at night4 ,the stomach needs to sleep with the rest of the body4 ,if one goes to bed with the stomach full of food1 the stomach cannot rest1 and the work of digestion will go on so slowly that the sleep will likely be disturbed4 ,such sleep is not refreshing4 #d4 ,if we wish to keep our digestive organs in good order1 we must take care to eat at regular hours4 ,we ought not to eat when we are very tired4 ,the stomach cannot digest well when we are very much fatigued4 #e4 ,sweet ,foods4--,we ought not to eat too much sugar or sweet foods1 as they are likely to sour or ferment in the stomach1 and so make us sick4 ,candies often contain a great many things which are not good for us1 and which may make us sick4 ,the colors used in candies are sometimes poisonous4 ,the flavors used in them are also sometimes very harmful4 #f4 ,fatty ,foods ,hurtful4--,too much butter1 fat meats1 and other greasy foods are hurtful4 ,cream is the most digestible form of fat1 because it readily dissolves in the fluids of the stomach1 and mixes with the other foods without preventing their digestion4 ,melted fats are especially harmful4 ,cheese1 fried foods1 and rich pastry are very poor foods1 and likely to cause sickness4 #g4 ,eating too many ,kinds of ,foods4--,children should avoid eating freely of flesh meats4 ,they ought also to avoid eating all highly-seasoned dishes1 and taking too many kinds of food at a meal4 ,a simple diet is much the more healthful4 ,milk and grain foods1 as oatmeal1 cracked wheat1 graham bread1 with such delicious fruits as apples1 pears1 and grapes1 are much the best food for children4 #h4 ,avoid ,use of ,cold ,foods4--,we ought not to take very cold foods or liquids with our meals4 ,cold foods1 ice-water1 and other iced drinks make the stomach so cold that it cannot digest the food4 ,for this reason it is very harmful to drink iced water or iced tea1 or to eat ice-cream at meals4 ,these things are injurious to us at any time1 but they do the greatest amount of harm when taken with the food4 #i4 ,things sometimes ,eaten which are not ,foods4--,things which are not foods are often used as foods1 such as mustard1 pepper1 and the various kinds of seasonings4 ,soda1 saleratus1 and baking-powders also belong to this class4 ,all of these substances are more or less harmful1 particularly mustard1 pepper1 and hot sauces4 #aj4 ,common ,salt4--,the only apparent exception to the general rule that all condiments and other substances which are not foods are harmful is in the case of common salt4 ,this is very commonly used among civilized nations1 although there are many barbarous tribes that never taste it4 ,it is quite certain that much more salt is used than is needed4 ,when much salt is added to the food1 the action of the digestive fluids is greatly hindered4 ,salt meats1 and other foods which have much salt added to them1 are hard to digest because the salt hardens the fibres of the meat1 so that they are not easily dissolved by the digestive fluids4 #aa4 ,care of the ,teeth4--,the teeth are the first organs employed in the work of digestion4 ,it is of great importance that they should be kept in health4 ,many persons neglect their teeth1 and treat them so badly that they begin to decay at a very early age4 #ab4 ,the mouth and teeth should be carefully cleansed immediately on rising in the morning1 and after each meal4 ,all particles of food should be removed from between the teeth by carefully rubbing both the inner and the outer surfaces of the teeth with a soft brush1 and rinsing very thoroughly with water4 ,a little soap may be used in cleansing the teeth1 but clear water is sufficient1 if used frequently and thoroughly4 ,the teeth should not be used in breaking nuts or other hard substances4 ,the teeth are brittle1 and are often broken in this way4 ,the use of candy and too much sweet food is also likely to injure the teeth4 #ac4 ,some people think that it is not necessary to take care of the first set of teeth4 ,this is a great mistake4 ,if the first set are lost or are unhealthy1 the second set will not be as perfect as they should be4 ,it is plain that we should not neglect our teeth at any time of life4 #ad4 ,tobacco4--,when a person first uses tobacco1 it is apt to make him very sick at the stomach4 ,after he has used tobacco a few times it does not make him sick1 but it continues to do his stomach and other organs harm1 and after a time may injure him very seriously4 ,smokers sometimes suffer from a horrible disease of the mouth or throat known as cancer4 #ae4 ,effects of ,alcohol upon the ,stomach4--,if you should put a little alcohol into your eye1 the eye would become very red4 ,when men take strong liquors into their stomachs1 the delicate membrane lining the stomach becomes red in the same way4 ,perhaps you will ask how do we know that alcohol has such an effect upon the stomach4 ,more than sixty years ago there lived in ,michigan a man named ,alexis ,st4 ,martin4 ,one day he was1 by accident1 shot in such a way that a large opening was made right through the skin and flesh and into the stomach4 ,the good doctor who attended him took such excellent care of him that he got well4 ,but when he recovered1 the hole in his stomach remained1 so that the doctor could look in and see just what was going on4 ,st4 ,martin sometimes drank whiskey1 and when he did1 the doctor often looked into his stomach to see what the effect was1 and he noticed that the inside of the stomach looked very red and inflamed4 #af4 ,if ,st4 ,martin continued to drink whiskey for several days1 the lining of the stomach looked very red and raw like a sore eye4 ,a sore stomach cannot digest food well1 and so the whole body becomes sick and weak4 ,what would you think of a man who should keep his eyes always sore and inflamed and finally destroy his eyesight by putting pepper or alcohol or some other irritating substance into them every day8 ,is it not equally foolish and wicked to injure the stomach and destroy one's digestion by the use of alcoholic drinks8 ,alcohol1 even when it is not very strong1 not only hurts the lining of the stomach1 but injures the gastric juice1 so that it cannot digest the food well4 #ag4 ,effects of ,alcohol upon the ,liver4--,the liver1 as well as the stomach1 is greatly damaged by the use of alcohol4 ,you will recollect that nearly all the food digested and absorbed is filtered through the liver before it goes to the heart to be distributed to the rest of the body4 ,in trying to save the rest of the body from the bad effects of alcohol1 the liver is badly burned by the fiery liquid1 and sometimes becomes so shrivelled up that it can no longer produce bile and perform its other duties4 ,even beer1 ale1 and wine1 which do not contain so much alcohol as do rum1 gin1 and whiskey1 have enough of the poison in them to do the liver a great deal of harm1 and to injure many other organs of the body as well4 ,,summary4 ,eating too fast4 ,eating too much4 ,eating too frequently4 ,eating irregularly4 #a4 ,,causes ,,of ,,indigestion4 ,eating when tired4 ,eating too much of sweet foods4 ,eating too many kinds of food at a meal4 ,using iced foods or drinks4 #b4 ,irritating substances and things which are not foods should not be eaten4 #c4 ,the teeth must be carefully used and kept clean4 #d4 ,tobacco-using does the stomach harm1 and sometimes causes cancer of the mouth4 #e4 ,alcohol injures the gastric juice1 and causes disease of the stomach and the liver4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,a ,,drop ,,of ,,blood4 #a4 ,the ,blood4--,did you ever cut or prick your finger so as to make it bleed8 ,probably you have more than once met with an accident of this sort4 ,all parts of the body contain blood4 ,if the skin is broken in any place the blood flows out4 #b4 ,how many of you know what a microscope is8 ,it is an instrument which magnifies objects1 or makes them look a great deal larger than they really are4 ,some microscopes are so powerful that they will make a little speck of dust look as large as a great rock4 #c4 ,the ,blood ,corpuscles4--,if you should look at a tiny drop of blood through such a microscope1 you would find it to be full of very small1 round objects called blood corpuscles4 #d4 ,you would notice also that these corpuscles are of two kinds4 ,most of them are slightly reddish1 and give to the blood its red color4 ,a very few are white4 #e4 ,use of the ,corpuscles4--,do you wonder what these peculiar little corpuscles do in the body8 ,they are very necessary4 ,we could not live a moment without them4 ,we need to take into our bodies oxygen from the air4 ,it is the business of the red corpuscles to take up the oxygen in the lungs and carry it round through the body in a wonderful way1 of which we shall learn more in a future lesson4 #f4 ,the white corpuscles have something to do with keeping the body in good repair4 ,they are carried by the blood into all parts of the body and stop where they are needed to do any kind of work4 ,they may be compared to the men who go around to mend old umbrellas1 and to do other kinds of tinkering4 ,it is thought that the white corpuscles turn into red ones when they become old4 #g4 ,the corpuscles float in a clear1 almost colorless fluid which contains the digested food and other elements by which the body is nourished4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,the blood contains very small objects called blood corpuscles4 #b4 ,there are two kinds of corpuscles1 red and white4 #c4 ,the red corpuscles carry oxygen4 #d4 ,the white corpuscles repair parts that are worn4 #e4 ,the corpuscles float in a clear1 almost colorless fluid1 which nourishes the body4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,why ,,the ,,heart ,,beats4 #a4 ,if you place your hand on the left side of your chest1 you will feel something beating4 ,if you cannot feel the beats easily1 you may run up and down stairs two or three times1 and then you can feel them very distinctly4 ,how many of you know the name of this curious machine inside the chest1 that beats so steadily8 ,you say at once that it is the heart4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,heart4 #b4 ,the ,heart4--,the heart may be called a live pump1 which keeps pumping away during our whole lives4 ,if it should stop1 even for a minute or two1 we would die4 ,if you will place your hand over your heart and count the beats for exactly one minute1 you will find that it beats about seventy-five or eighty times4 ,when you are older1 your heart will beat a little more slowly4 ,if you count the beats while you are lying down1 you will find that the heart beats more slowly than when you are sitting or standing4 ,when we run or jump1 the heart beats much harder and faster4 #c4 ,why the ,heart ,beats4--,we have learned in preceding lessons that the digested food is taken into the blood4 ,we have also learned that both water and oxygen are taken into the blood4 ,thus the blood contains all the materials that are needed by the various parts of the body to make good the wastes that are constantly taking place4 ,but if the blood were all in one place it could do little good1 as the new materials are needed in every part of the body4 ,there has been provided a wonderful system of tubes running through every part of the body4 ,by means of these tubes the blood is carried into every part where it is required4 ,these tubes are connected with the heart4 ,when the heart beats1 it forces the blood through the tubes just as water is forced through a pipe by a pump or by a fire-engine4 #d4 ,the ,heart ,chambers4--,the heart has four chambers1 two upper and two lower chambers4 ,the blood is received into the upper chambers1 and is then passed down into the lower chambers4 ,from the lower chambers it is sent out to various parts of the body4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,inside ,,of ,,the ,,heart4 #e4 ,the ,blood-,vessels4--,the tubes through which the blood is carried are called blood-vessels4 ,there are three kinds of blood-vessels4 ,one set carry the blood away from the heart1 and are called arteries 7ar'-te-ries74 ,another set return the blood to the heart1 and are called veins4 ,the arteries and veins are connected at the ends farthest from the heart by many very small vessels4 ,these minute1 hairlike vessels are called capillaries 7cap'-il-la-ries74 #f4 ,the ,arteries4--,an artery leads out from the lower chamber of each side of the heart4 ,the one from the right side of the heart carries the blood only to the lungs4 ,the one from the left side of the heart carries blood to every part of the body4 ,it is the largest artery in the body1 and is called the aorta4 ,soon after it leaves the heart the aorta begins to send out branches to various organs4 ,these divide in the tissues again and again until they become so small that only one corpuscle can pass through at a time1 as shown in the colored plate4 7,frontispiece47 #g4 ,the ,veins4--,these very small vessels now begin to unite and form larger ones1 the veins4 ,the small veins join to form larger ones1 until finally all are gathered into two large veins which empty into the upper chamber of the right side of the heart4 ,the veins which carry blood from the lungs to the heart empty into the upper chamber of the left side of the heart4 #h4 ,what is ,done in the ,blood-,vessels4--,while the blood is passing through the small blood-vessels in the various parts of the body1 each part takes out just what it needs to build up its own tissues4 ,at the same time1 the tissues give in exchange their worn-out or waste matters4 ,the red blood corpuscles in the capillaries give up their oxygen1 and the blood receives in its stead a poisonous substance called carbonic-acid gas4 #i4 ,red and ,blue ,blood4--,while in the arteries the blood is of a bright red color2 but while it is passing through the capillaries the color changes to a bluish red or purple color4 ,the red blood is called arterial blood1 because it is found in the arteries4 ,the purple blood is called venous blood1 because it is found in the veins4 ,the loss of oxygen in the corpuscles causes the change of color4 #aj4 ,change of ,blood in the ,lungs4--,exactly the opposite change occurs in the blood when it passes through the lungs4 ,the blood which has been gathered up from the various parts of the body is dark1 impure blood4 ,in the lungs this dark blood is spread out in very minute capillaries and exposed to the air4 ,while passing through the capillaries of the lungs1 the blood gives up some of its impurities in exchange for oxygen from the air4 ,the red corpuscles absorb the oxygen and the color of the blood changes from dark purple to bright red again4 ,the purified blood is then carried back to the upper chamber of the left side of the heart through four large veins4 ,the blood is now ready to begin another journey around the body4 #aa4 ,the ,pulse4--,if you place your finger on your wrist at just the right spot1 you can feel a slight beating4 ,this beating is called the pulse4 ,it is caused by the movement of the blood in the artery of the wrist at each beat of the heart4 ,the pulse can be felt at the neck and in other parts of the body where an artery comes near to the surface4 #ab4 ,how much ,work the ,heart ,does4--,the heart is a small organ1 only about as large as your fist1 and yet it does an amount of work which is almost beyond belief4 ,each time it beats1 it does as much work as your arm would do in lifting a large apple from the ground to your mouth4 ,it beats when we are asleep as well as when we are awake4 ,when we run we know by the way in which it beats that it is working very fast4 ,do you know how much a ton is8 ,well1 in twenty-four hours the heart does as much work as a man would do in lifting stones enough to weigh more than one hundred and twenty tons4 #ac4 ,the ,lymphatics4--,while the blood is passing through the capillaries1 some of the white corpuscles escape from the blood-vessels4 ,what do you suppose becomes of these runaway corpuscles8 ,nature has provided a way by which they can get back to the heart4 ,in the little spaces among the tissues outside of the blood-vessels very minute channels called lymph channels or lymphatics 7lym--phat'-ics7 begin4 ,the whole body is filled with these small channels1 which run together much like the meshes of a net4 ,in the centre of the body the small lymphatics run into large ones1 which empty into the veins near the heart4 ,this is the way the stray white blood corpuscles get back into the blood4 #ad4 ,the ,lymph4--,in the lymph channels the white corpuscles float in a colorless fluid called lymph4 ,the lymph is composed of the fluid portion of the blood which has soaked through the walls of the small vessels4 ,the chief purpose of the lymphatics is to carry the lymph from the tissues back to the heart4 #ae4 ,lymphatic ,glands4--,here and there1 scattered through the body1 are oval structures into each of which many lymphatic vessels are found to run1 as shown in the illustration4 ,these are called lymphatic glands4 ,illustration3 ,,lymph ,,gland ,,and ,,vessels4 #af4 ,the heart and blood-vessels are among the most wonderful structures in the body4 ,it is no wonder1 then1 that alcohol1 tobacco1 and other narcotics and stimulants produce their most deadly effects upon these delicate organs4 ,what these effects are we shall learn more fully in the next chapter4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,the heart beats to circulate the blood4 #b4 ,the heart has four chambers1 two upper and two lower4 #c4 ,there are tubes called blood-vessels which carry the blood to all parts of the body4 #d4 ,these tubes are connected with the heart4 #e4 ,the vessels which carry blood away from the heart are called arteries1 and those which carry blood back to the heart are called veins4 #f4 ,the arteries and veins are connected by small tubes called capillaries4 #g4 ,the blood found in the arteries is red2 that in the veins is dark blue or purple4 #h4 ,the color of the blood changes from red to blue in going through the capillaries4 ,the change is due to the loss of oxygen4 #i4 ,in the circulation of the lungs1 the blood in the arteries is blue1 that in the veins1 red4 #aj4 ,the change from blue to red takes place while the blood is passing through the capillaries of the lungs4 ,the change is due to the oxygen which the corpuscles of the blood take up in the lungs4 #aa4 ,the pulse is caused by the beating of the heart4 #ab4 ,the heart does a great deal of work every day in forcing the blood into different parts of the body4 #ac4 ,some of the white blood corpuscles escape from the blood-vessels through the thin walls of the capillaries4 #ad4 ,these corpuscles return to the heart through small vessels called lymph channels or lymphatics4 #ae4 ,the lymphatics in many parts of the body run into small roundish bodies called lymphatic glands4 #af4 ,the object of the lymphatics is to remove from the tissues and return to the general circulation the lymph and white blood corpuscles which escape through the walls of the capillaries4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,heart ,,and ,,the ,,blood ,,healthy4 #a4 ,the heart is one of the most important of all the organs of the body4 ,if we take good care of it1 it will do good service for us during a long life4 ,let us notice some ways in which the heart is likely to be injured4 #b4 ,violent ,exercise4--,did you ever run so hard that you were out of breath8 ,do you know why you had to breathe so fast8 ,it was because the violent exercise made your heart beat so rapidly that the blood could not get out of the lungs as fast as the heart forced it in4 ,the lungs became so filled with blood that they could not do their work well4 ,sometimes1 when a person runs very fast or takes any kind of violent exercise1 the lungs become so filled with blood that a blood-vessel is broken4 ,the person may then bleed to death4 ,it is very unwise to overtax the heart in any way1 for it may be strained or otherwise injured1 so that it can never again do its work properly4 #c4 ,effects of ,bad ,air4--,bad air is very harmful to the heart and to the blood also4 ,we should always remember that the blood of the body while passing through the lungs is exposed to the air which we breathe4 ,if the air is impure1 the blood will be poisoned4 ,in churches and in other places where the air becomes foul1 people often faint from the effects of the impure air upon the heart4 ,it is important that the air of the rooms in which we live and sleep should be kept very pure by good ventilation4 #d4 ,effects of ,bad ,food4--,the blood is made from what we eat1 and if we eat impure and unwholesome food1 the blood becomes impure4 ,we ought to avoid the use of rich or highly-seasoned foods1 candies1 and all foods which are not nutritious4 ,they not only injure the blood by making it impure1 but they cause poor digestion4 #e4 ,plenty of ,sleep ,necessary4--,if we should take a drop of blood from the finger of a person who had not had as much sleep as he needed1 and examine it with a microscope1 we should find that there were too few of the little red-blood corpuscles4 ,this is one reason why a person who has not had sufficient sleep looks pale4 #f4 ,proper ,clothing4--,we should be properly clothed1 according to the weather4 ,in cold weather we need very warm clothing4 ,in warm weather we should wear lighter clothing4 ,our clothing should be so arranged that it will keep all parts of the body equally warm1 and thus allow the blood to circulate properly4 ,the feet are apt to be cold1 being so far away from the heart1 and we should take extra pains to keep them warm and dry4 #g4 ,effects of ,excessive ,heat4--,in very hot weather1 many persons are injured by exposing themselves to the sun too long at a time4 ,persons who drink intoxicating liquors are very often injured in this way1 and sometimes die of sunstroke4 #h4 ,effects of ,anger4--,when a person gets very angry1 the heart sometimes almost stops beating4 ,indeed1 persons have died instantly in a fit of passion4 ,so you see it is dangerous for a person to allow himself to become very angry4 #i4 ,effects of ,alcohol upon the ,blood4--,if you should take a drop of blood upon your finger1 and put it under the microscope1 and then add a little alcohol to it1 you would see that the corpuscles would be quickly destroyed4 ,in a few seconds they would be so shrivelled up that no one could tell that they had ever been the beautiful little corpuscles which are so necessary to health4 ,when alcohol is taken as a drink1 it does not destroy the corpuscles so quickly1 but it injures them so that they are not able to do their work of absorbing and carrying oxygen well4 ,this is one reason why the faces of men who use alcoholic drinks often look so blue4 #aj4 ,alcohol ,overworks the ,heart4--,dr4 ,parkes1 a very learned ,english physician1 took the pains to observe carefully the effects of alcohol upon the heart of a soldier who was addicted to the use of liquor4 ,he counted the beats of the soldier's pulse when he was sober2 and then counted them again when he was using alcohol1 and found that when the soldier took a pint of gin a day his heart was obliged to do one fourth more work than it ought to do4 #aa4 ,effects of ,alcohol upon the ,blood-,vessels4--,if you put your hands into warm water1 they soon become red4 ,this is because the blood-vessels of the skin become enlarged by the heat1 so that they hold more blood4 ,alcohol causes the blood to come to the surface in the same way4 ,it is this that causes the flushed cheeks and the red eyes of the drunkard4 ,sometimes1 after a man has been using alcohol a long time1 the blood-vessels of his face remain enlarged all the time4 ,this makes his nose grow too fast1 and so in time it gets too large1 and then he has a rum-blossom4 #ab4 ,effects of ,tobacco on the ,heart and the ,blood4--,when a boy first tries to use tobacco1 it makes him feel very sick4 ,if you should feel his pulse just then1 you would find it very weak4 ,this means that the heart is almost paralyzed by the powerful poison of the tobacco4 ,tobacco also injures the blood corpuscles4 #ac4 ,tea and coffee also do their share of mischief to the heart4 ,those who use them very strong often complain of palpitation1 or heavy and irregular beating of the heart4 #ad4 ,taking ,cold4--,people usually catch cold by allowing the circulation to become disturbed in some way1 as by getting the feet wet1 being chilled from not wearing sufficient clothing1 sitting in a draught1 and in other similar ways4 ,it is very important for you to know that a cold is a serious thing1 and should be carefully avoided4 #ae4 ,hemorrhage 7hem'-or-rhage7 or ,loss of ,blood4--,a severe loss of blood is likely to occur as the result of accidents or injuries of various sorts1 and it is important to know what to do at once1 as there may not be time to send for a doctor before it will be too late to save the injured person's life4 ,here are a few things to be remembered in all such cases3 #af4 ,if the blood from a cut or other wound flows in spurts1 and is of a bright red color1 it is from an artery4 ,if it is dark-colored1 and flows in a steady stream1 it is from a vein4 #ag4 ,how to ,stop the ,bleeding of ,wounds4--,if the bleeding vessel is an artery1 apply pressure on the side of the wound next to the heart4 ,if the bleeding is from a vein1 apply it on the opposite side4 ,it is generally best to apply pressure directly over the wound or on both sides4 ,the pressure can be made with the thumbs or with the whole hand4 ,grasp the part firmly and press very hard1 or tie a handkerchief or towel around the wounded part and twist it very tight4 ,if an arm or limb is the part injured1 the person should be made to lie down1 and the injured part should be held up4 ,this is of itself an excellent means of stopping hemorrhage4 #ah4 ,nose-,bleed4--,for nose-bleed a very good remedy is holding one or both hands above the head4 ,the head should be held up instead of being bent forward1 and the corner of a dry handkerchief should be pressed into the bleeding nostril4 ,it is well to bathe the face with very hot water1 and to snuff hot water into the nostril if the bleeding is very severe4 ,if the bleeding is very bad or is not readily stopped1 a physician should be called4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,violent exercise is likely to injure the heart4 #b4 ,bad air makes the blood impure and disturbs the action of the heart4 #c4 ,unwholesome food produces bad blood4 #d4 ,too little sleep makes the blood poor4 #e4 ,proper clothing is necessary to make the blood circulate equally in different parts of the body4 #f4 ,violent anger may cause death by stopping the beating of the heart4 #g4 ,alcohol injures the blood4 #h4 ,alcohol overworks the heart4 #i4 ,alcohol enlarges the blood-vessels4 #aj4 ,tobacco injures the blood4 #aa4 ,tobacco weakens the heart and makes the pulse irregular4 #ab4 ,the use of strong tea and coffee causes palpitation of the heart4 #ac4 ,a cold is caused by a disturbance of the circulation4 ,a cold should never be neglected4 #ad4 ,when an artery is wounded1 the blood is bright red and flows in spurts4 #ae4 ,when a vein is wounded1 the blood is purple and flows in a steady stream4 #af4 ,to stop bleeding from an artery1 press on the side of the wound towards the heart1 or on both sides of the wound4 #ag4 ,when a vein is wounded1 press on the side away from the heart4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,why ,,and ,,how ,,we ,,breathe4 #a4 ,an ,experiment4--,let us perform a little experiment4 ,we must have a small bit of candle1 a fruit jar1 or a bottle with a large mouth1 and a piece of wire about a foot long4 ,let us notice carefully what we are about to do and what happens4 #b4 ,we will fasten the candle to the end of the wire4 ,now we will light it1 and next we will let it down to the bottom of the jar4 ,now place the cover on the top of the jar and wait the results4 ,soon the candle burns dimly and in a little time the light goes out altogether4 #c4 ,what do you think is the reason that the candle will not burn when shut up in a bottle8 ,a candle uses air when it burns4 ,if shut up in a small1 tight place1 it soon uses up so much air that it can burn no longer4 ,try the experiment again1 and when the candle begins to burn dimly1 take it out quickly4 ,we see that at once the light burns bright again4 #d4 ,suppose we shut the stove draught tight1 what is the result8 ,the fire will burn low1 and after a time it will probably go out4 ,why is this8 ,evidently the stove needs air to make the wood or coal burn1 just as the candle needs air to make it burn4 #e4 ,animals ,die without ,air4--,if you should shut up a mouse or any other small animal in a fruit-jar1 its life would go out just as the light of the candle went out4 ,the little animal would die in a short time4 ,a child shut up in a close place would die from the same cause in a very little time4 ,in fact1 many children are dying every day for want of a sufficient supply of pure air4 #f4 ,oxygen4--,the reason why animals need air1 and why the fire will not burn without it1 is that the air contains oxygen1 and it is the oxygen of the air which burns the wood or coal and produces heat4 ,so it is the oxygen that burns in our bodies and keeps us warm4 #g4 ,when wood and coal are burned1 heat is produced2 but some parts of the fuel are not made into heat4 ,while the fire burns1 smoke escapes through the pipe or chimney2 but a part of the fuel remains in the stove in the form of ashes4 ,smoke and ashes are the waste parts of the fuel4 #h4 ,poison in the ,breath4--,the burning which takes place in our bodies produces something similar to the smoke and ashes produced by the fire in a stove4 ,the smoke is called carbonic-acid gas1,a an invisible vapor1 and escapes through the lungs4 ,the ashes are various waste and poisonous matters which are formed in all parts of the body4 ,these waste matters are carried out of the body through the skin1 the kidneys1 the liver1 and other organs4 #i4 ,another ,experiment4--,we cannot see the gas escape from our lungs1 but we can make an experiment which will show us that it really does pass out4 ,get two drinking-glasses and a tube4 ,a glass tube is best1 but a straw will do very well4 ,put a little pure water into one glass and the same quantity of lime-water into the other glass4 ,now put one end of the tube into the mouth and place the other end in the pure water4 ,breathe through the tube a few times4 ,look at the water in the glass and see that no change has taken place4 ,now breathe through the lime-water in the same way4 ,after breathing two or three times1 you will notice that the lime-water begins to look milky4 ,in a short time it becomes almost as white as milk4 ,this is because the lime-water catches the carbonic-acid gas which escapes from our lungs with each breath1 while the pure water does not4 #aj4 ,why we ,breathe4--,by this experiment we learn another reason why we breathe4 ,we must breathe to get rid of the carbonic-acid gas1 which is brought to the lungs by the blood to be exchanged for oxygen4 ,there are two reasons then why we breathe3 7a7 to obtain oxygen2 7b7 to get rid of carbonic-acid gas4 #aa4 ,how a ,frog ,breathes4--,did you ever see a frog breathe8 ,if not1 improve the first opportunity to do so4 ,you will see that the frog has a very curious way of breathing4 ,he comes to the top of the water1 puts his nose out a little1 and then drinks the air4 ,you can watch his throat and see him swallowing the air1 a mouthful at a time1 just as you would drink water4 #ab4 ,if you had a chance to see the inside of a frog you would find there a queer-shaped bag4 ,this is his air-bag4 ,this bag has a tube running up to the throat4 ,when the frog comes to the surface of the water he fills this bag with air4 ,then he can dive down into the mud out of sight until he has used up the supply of air4 ,when the air has been changed to carbonic-acid gas1 he must come to the surface to empty his air-bag and drink it full again4 #ac4 ,the ,lungs4--,we do not drink air as the frog does1 but like the frog we have an air-bag in our bodies4 ,our air-bag has to be emptied and filled so often that we cannot live under water long at a time1 as a frog does4 ,we call this air-bag the lungs4 ,we have learned before that the lungs are in the chest4 ,we need so much air and have to change the air in our lungs so often that we would not have time to swallow it as a frog does4 ,so nature has made for us a breathing apparatus of such a kind that we can work it like a pair of bellows4 ,let us now study our breathing-bellows and learn how they do their work4 #ad4 ,the ,windpipe and ,air-tubes4--,a large tube called the windpipe extends from the root of the tongue down the middle of the chest4 ,the windpipe divides into two main branches1 which subdivide again and again1 until the finest branches are not larger than a sewing-needle4 ,the branches are called bronchial tubes4 ,at the end of each tube is a cluster of small cavities called air-cells4 ,the air-tubes and air-cells are well shown on the following page4 #ae4 ,the ,voice-box4--,if you will place the ends of your fingers upon your throat just above the breast-bone1 you will feel the windpipe1 and may notice the ridges upon it4 ,these are rings of cartilage1 a hard substance commonly called gristle4 ,the purpose of these rings is to keep the windpipe open4 ,close under the chin you can find something which feels like a lump1 and which moves up and down when you swallow4 ,illustration3 ,,air-,,tubes ,,and ,,air-,,cells4 ,this is a little box made of cartilage1 called the voice-box1 because by means of this curious little apparatus we are able to talk and sing4 ,two little white bands are stretched across the inside of the voice-box4 ,when we speak1 these bands vibrate just as do the strings of the piano4 ,these bands are called the vocal cords4 #af4 ,the ,epiglottis4--,at the top of the voice-box is placed a curious trap-door which can be shut down so as to close the entrance to the air-passages of the lungs4 ,this little door has a name rather hard to remember4 ,it is called the epiglottis 7ep-i-glot'-tis74 ,the cover of the voice-box closes whenever we swallow anything4 ,this keeps food or liquids from entering the air passages4 ,if we eat or drink too fast the voice-box will not have time to close its little door and prevent our being choked4 ,persons have been choked to death by trying to swallow their food too fast4 ,do you not think this is a very wonderful door that can open and shut just when it should do so without our thinking anything about it8 #ag4 ,the ,nostrils and the ,soft ,palate4--,the air finds its way to the lungs through the mouth or through the two openings in the nose called the nostrils4 ,from each nostril1 three small passages lead backward through the nose4 ,at the back part of the nasal cavity the passages of the two sides of the nose come together in an open space1 just behind the soft curtain which hangs down at the back part of the mouth4 ,this curtain is called the soft palate4 ,through the opening behind this curtain the air passes down into the voice-box and then into the lungs4 #ah4 ,the ,pleura4--,in the chest the air tubes and lung of each side are enclosed in a very thin covering1 called the pleura4 ,the cavity of the chest in which the lungs are suspended is also lined by the pleura4 ,a limpid fluid exudes from the pleura which keeps it moist1 so that when the two surfaces rub together1 as the lungs move1 they do not become chafed and irritated4 #ai4 ,walls of the ,chest4--,the ribs form a part of the framework of the chest4 ,the ribs are elastic4 ,the spaces between them are filled up with muscles1 some of which draw the ribs together1 while others draw them apart4 ,can you tell any reason why the walls of the chest are elastic8 ,the lower wall or floor of the chest cavity is formed by a muscle called the diaphragm1 which divides the trunk into two cavities1 the chest and the abdomen4 #bj4 ,how we ,use the ,lungs4--,now let us notice how we use the lungs and what takes place in them4 ,when we use a pair of bellows1 we take hold of the handles and draw them apart4 ,the sides of the bellows are drawn apart so that there is more room between the sides4 ,the air then rushes in to fill the space4 ,when the bellows are full1 we press the handles together and the air is forced out4 #ba4 ,it is in just this way that we breathe4 ,when we are about to take a long breath1 the muscles pull upon the sides of the chest in such a way as to draw them apart4 ,at the same time the diaphragm draws itself downward4 ,by these means1 the cavity of the chest is made larger and air rushes in through the nose or mouth to fill the space4 ,when the muscles stop pulling1 the walls of the chest fall back again to their usual position and the diaphragm rises4 ,the cavity of the chest then becomes smaller and the air is forced out through the nose or mouth4 ,this process is repeated every time we breathe4 #bb4 ,we breathe once for each four heart-beats4 ,small children breathe more rapidly than grown persons4 ,we usually breathe about eighteen or twenty times in a minute4 #bc4 ,how ,much the ,lungs ,hold4--,every time we breathe1 we take into our lungs about two thirds of a pint of air and breathe out the same quantity4 ,our lungs hold1 however1 very much more than this amount4 ,a man1 after he has taken a full breath1 can breathe out a gallon of air1 or more than ten times the usual amount4 ,after he has breathed out all he can1 there is still almost half a gallon of air in his lungs which he cannot breathe out4 ,so you see the lungs hold almost a gallon and a half of air4 #bd4 ,do you think you can tell why ,nature has given us so much more room in the lungs than we ordinarily use in breathing8 ,if you will run up and down stairs three or four times you will see why we need this extra lung-room4 ,it is because when we exercise vigorously the heart works very much faster and beats harder1 and we must breathe much faster and fuller to enable the lungs to purify the blood as fast as the heart pumps it into them4 #be4 ,the ,two ,breaths4--,we have learned that the air which we breathe out contains something which is not found in the air which we breathe in4 ,this is carbonic-acid gas4 ,how many of you remember how we found this out8 ,we can also tell this in another way4 ,if we put a candle down in a wide jar it will burn for some time4 ,if we breathe into the jar first1 however1 the candle will go out as soon as we put it into the jar4 ,this shows that the air which we breathe out contains something which will put a candle out4 ,this is carbonic-acid gas1 which is a poison and will destroy life4 #bf4 ,other ,poisons4--,the air which we breathe out also contains other invisible poisons which are very much worse than the carbonic-acid gas4 ,these poisons make the air of a crowded or unventilated room smell very unpleasant to one who has just come in from the fresh air4 ,such air is unfit to breathe4 #bg4 ,the ,lungs ,purify the ,blood4--,we have learned that the blood becomes dark in its journey through the body4 ,this is because it loses its oxygen and receives carbonic-acid gas4 ,while passing through the capillaries of the lungs1 the blood gives out the carbonic-acid gas which it has gathered up in the tissues1 and takes up a new supply of oxygen1 which restores its scarlet hue4 #bh4 ,how the ,air is ,purified4--,perhaps it occurs to you that with so many people and animals breathing all the while1 the air would after a time become so filled with carbonic-acid gas that it would be unfit to breathe4 ,this is prevented by a wonderful arrangement of ,nature4 ,the carbonic-acid gas which is so poisonous to us is one of the most necessary foods for plants4 ,plants take in carbonic-acid gas through their leaves1 and send the oxygen back into the air ready for us to use again4 #bi4 ,we have already learned that the oxygen taken in by the lungs is carried to the various parts of the body by the little blood corpuscles4 ,the effect of strong liquors is to injure these corpuscles so that they cannot carry so much oxygen as they ought to do4 ,for this reason1 the blood of a drunkard is darker in color than that of a temperate person1 and contains more carbonic-acid gas4 ,the drunkard's lungs may supply all the air he needs1 but his blood has been so damaged that he cannot use it4 ,excessive smoking has a similar effect4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,our bodies need air1 just as a candle or a fire does4 #b4 ,a small animal shut up in a close jar soon dies for want of air4 ,we need the oxygen which the air contains4 #c4 ,oxygen causes a sort of burning in our bodies4 #d4 ,the burning in our bodies keeps us warm1 and destroys some of the waste matters4 #e4 ,the breathing organs are the windpipe and bronchial tubes1 the voice-box1 the epiglottis1 the nostrils1 the soft palate1 the lungs1 the air-cells1 the pleura1 the diaphragm1 and the chest walls4 #f4 ,when we breathe we use our lungs like a pair of bellows4 #g4 ,a man's lungs hold nearly one and a half gallons of air4 #h4 ,in ordinary breathing we use less than a pint of air1 but when necessary we can use much more4 #i4 ,the air we breathe out contains carbonic-acid gas and another invisible poison4 #aj4 ,a candle will not burn in air which has been breathed1 and animals die when confined in such air4 #aa4 ,the lungs purify the blood4 ,while passing through the lungs1 the color of the blood changes from purple to bright red4 #ab4 ,plants purify the air by removing the carbonic-acid gas4 #ac4 ,alcohol and tobacco injure the blood corpuscles so that they cannot take up the oxygen from the air which the lungs receive4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,lungs ,,healthy4 #a4 ,pure ,air ,necessary4--,a person may go without eating for a month1 or without drinking for several days1 and still live2 but a strong man will die in a few moments if deprived of air4 ,it is very important that we breathe plenty of pure air4 ,there are many ways in which the air becomes impure4 #b4 ,bad ,odors4--,anything which rots or decays will in so doing produce an unpleasant odor4 ,bad odors produced in this way are very harmful and likely to make us sick4 ,many people have rotting potatoes and other vegetables in their cellars1 and swill barrels1 and heaps of refuse in their back yards4 ,these are all dangerous to health1 and often give rise to very serious disease4 ,we should always remember that bad odors caused by decaying substances are signs of danger to health and life1 and that these substances should be removed from us1 or we should get away from them1 as soon as possible4 #c4 ,germs4--,the chief reason why bad odors are dangerous is that they almost always have with them little living things called germs4 ,germs are so small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye3 it takes a strong microscope to enable us to see them1 but they are so powerful to do harm that if we receive them into our bodies they are likely to make us very sick1 and they often cause death4 #d4 ,contagious ,diseases4--,you have heard about diphtheria and scarlet fever and measles1 and other catching diseases4 ,when a person is sick with one of these diseases1 the air about him is poisoned with germs or something similar1 which may give the same disease to other persons who inhale it4 ,so when a person is sick from one of these diseases1 it is very important that he should be put in a room by himself and shut away from every one but the doctor and the nurse4 ,it is also necessary that all the clothing and bedding used by the sick person1 and everything in the room1 as well as the room itself1 should be carefully cleansed and disinfected when the person has recovered1 so as to wipe out every trace of the disease4 ,the writer has known many cases in which persons who have been sick with some of these diseases were careless and gave the disease to others who died of it1 although they themselves recovered4 ,do you not think it very wrong for a person to give to another through carelessness a disease which may cause his death8 #e4 ,unhealthful vapors and odors of various sorts arise from cisterns and damp1 close places under a house4 ,rooms which are shaded and shut up so closely that fresh air and sunshine seldom get into them should be avoided as dangerous to health4 #f4 ,breath-,poisoned ,air4--,the most dangerous of all the poisons to which we are exposed through the air are those of the breath1 of which we learned in a preceding lesson4 ,we need plenty of fresh air to take the place of the air which we poison by our breath4 ,every time we breathe1 we spoil at least half a barrelful of air4 ,we breathe twenty times a minute1 and hence spoil ten barrels of air in one minute4 ,how many barrels would this make in one hour8 ,we need an equal quantity of pure air to take the place of the spoiled air1 or not less than ten barrels every minute1 or six hundred barrels every hour4 #g4 ,ventilation4--,the only way to obtain the amount of fresh air needed1 when we are shut up in-doors1 is to have some means provided by which the fresh air shall be brought in and the old and impure air carried out4 ,changing the air by such means is called ventilation4 ,every house1 and especially every sleeping-room1 should be well ventilated4 ,school-houses1 churches1 and other places where many people gather1 need perfect ventilation4 ,ask your teacher to show you how the school-room is ventilated2 and when you go home1 talk to your parents about the ventilation of the house in which you live4 #h4 ,many people ventilate their houses by opening the doors and windows4 ,this is a very good way of ventilating a house in warm weather1 but is a very poor way in cold weather1 as it causes cold draughts1 and makes the floor cold1 so that it is difficult to keep the feet warm4 ,it is much better to have the air warmed by a furnace or some similar means1 before it enters the rooms4 ,there ought also to be in each room a register to take the foul air out1 so that it will not be necessary to open the windows4 ,this register should be placed at the floor1 because when the pure air enters the room warm1 it first rises to the upper part of the room1 and then as it cools and at the same time becomes impure1 it settles to the floor1 where it should be taken out by the register4 #i4 ,how to ,breathe4--,we should always take pains to expand the lungs well in breathing1 and to use the entire chest1 both the upper and the lower part4 ,clothing should be worn in such a way that every portion of the chest can be expanded4 ,for this reason it is very wrong to wear the clothing tight about the waist4 ,clothing so worn is likely to cause the lungs to become diseased4 #aj4 ,bad ,habits4--,students are very apt to make themselves flat-chested and round-shouldered by leaning over their desks while writing or studying4 ,this is very harmful4 ,we should always use great care to sit erect and to draw the shoulders well back4 ,then1 if we take pains to fill the lungs well a great many times every day1 we shall form the habit of expanding the lungs1 and shall breathe deeper1 even when we are not thinking about doing so4 #aa4 ,breathing through the ,nose4--,in breathing1 we should always take care to draw the air in through the nose1 and not through the mouth4 ,the nose acts as a strainer1 to remove particles of dust which might do harm if allowed to enter the lungs4 ,it also warms and moistens the air in cold weather4 ,the habit of breathing through the mouth often gives rise to serious disease of the throat and lungs4 #ab4 ,effects of ,alcohol and ,tobacco upon the ,lungs4--,both alcohol and tobacco produce disease of the breathing organs4 ,smoking injures the throat and sometimes causes loss of smell4 ,serious and even fatal diseases of the lungs are often caused by alcohol4 #ac4 ,many people suppose that the use of alcohol will save a man from consumption4 ,this is not true4 ,a man may become a drunkard by the use of alcohol1 and yet he is more likely to have consumption than he would have been if he had been a total abstainer4 ,drunkard's consumption is one of the most dreadful forms of this disease4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,pure air is as necessary as food and drink4 #b4 ,anything which is rotting or undergoing decay causes a bad odor1 and thus makes the air impure4 #c4 ,foul air contains germs which cause disease and often death4 #d4 ,persons sick with catching diseases should be carefully avoided4 ,such persons should be shut away from those who are well1 and their rooms and clothing should be carefully cleansed and disinfected4 #e4 ,the breath poisons the air about us4 ,each breath spoils half a barrelful of air4 #f4 ,we should change the air in our houses1 or ventilate them1 so that we may always have pure air4 #g4 ,we should always keep the body erect1 and expand the lungs well in breathing4 #h4 ,the clothing about the chest and waist should be loose1 so that the lungs may have room to expand4 #i4 ,always breathe through the nose4 #aj4 ,tobacco causes disease of the throat and nose4 #aa4 ,alcohol causes consumption and other diseases of the lungs4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,skin ,,and ,,what ,,it ,,does4 #a4 ,the ,skin4--,the skin is the covering of the body4 ,it fits so exactly that it has the precise shape of the body1 like a closely fitting garment4 ,if you will take up a little fold of the skin you will see that it can be stretched like a piece of india-rubber4 ,like rubber1 when it is released it quickly contracts and appears as before4 #b4 ,the ,bark of ,trees4--,did you ever peel the bark off of a young tree8 ,if so1 you have noticed that there were really two barks1 an outer bark1 as thin as paper1 through which you could almost see1 and an inner and much thicker bark1 which lay next to the wood of the tree4 ,you can peel the outer bark off without doing the tree much harm4 ,indeed1 if you will notice some of the fruit or shade trees in the yard1 at home1 you will see that the outer bark of the tree peels itself off1 a little at a time1 and that new bark grows in its place4 ,if you tear off the inner bark1 however1 it will injure the tree4 ,it will make it bleed1 or cause the sap to run4 ,the sap is the blood of the tree4 ,the bark is the skin of the tree4 ,when the bare place heals over1 an ugly scar will be left4 #c4 ,the ,cuticle4--,our bodies1 like trees1 have two skins1 or really one skin with an outer and an inner layer4 ,when a person burns himself so as to make a blister1 the outer skin1 called the cuticle1 is separated from the inner by a quantity of water or serum poured out from the blood4 ,this causes the blister to rise above the surrounding skin4 ,if you puncture the blister the water runs out4 ,now we may easily remove the cuticle and examine it4 ,the cuticle1 we shall find1 looks very much like the skin which lines the inside of an egg-shell1 and it is almost as thin4 #d4 ,the cuticle is very thin in most parts of the body1 but in some places1 as the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet1 it is quite thick4 ,this is because these parts of the skin come in contact with objects in such a way as to be liable to injury if not thus protected4 ,the cuticle has no blood-vessels and very few nerves4 ,with a fine needle and thread you can easily take a stitch in it without making it bleed or causing any pain4 #e4 ,the ,pigment4--,the under side of the cuticle is colored by little particles of pigment or coloring matter4 ,the color of this pigment differs in different races4 ,in the negro1 the color of the pigment is black4 ,in some races the pigment is brown4 ,in white persons there is very little pigment1 and in some persons1 called albinos1 there is none at all4 #f4 ,the ,inner or ,true ,skin4--,the inner skin1 like the inner bark of a tree1 is much thicker than the outer skin4 ,it is much more important1 and for this reason is sometimes called the true skin4 ,it contains nerves and blood-vessels4 ,illustration3 ,,skin ,,of ,,palm ,,of ,,hand ,,magnified4 #g4 ,the ,sweat ,glands4--,if you look at the palm of the hand you will see many coarse lines1 and by looking much closer you will see that the palm is completely covered with very fine ridges and furrows4 ,now1 if you examine these ridges with a magnifying-glass1 you will find arranged along each ridge a number of little dark spots4 ,each of these points is the mouth of a very small tube4 ,this is called a sweat duct4 ,these ducts run down through both the outer and inner layers of the skin4 ,at the under side of the true skin the end of the tube is rolled up in a coil1 as you can see by looking at the illustration on the following page4 ,the coiled parts of the tubes are called sweat glands1 because they separate from the blood the fluid which we call sweat or perspiration4 #h4 ,the ,oil ,glands4--,there are other little glands in the skin which make fat or oil4 ,the oil is poured out upon the skin to keep it soft and smooth4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 #i4 ,the ,hair4--,there are some curious little pockets in the skin4 ,out of each of these pockets grows a hair4 ,on some parts of the body the hairs are coarse and long2 on other parts they are fine and short4 #aj4 ,many of the ducts leading from the oil glands open into the pockets or pouches from which the hairs grow4 ,the oil makes the hair soft and glossy4 ,nature has thus provided an excellent means for oiling the hair4 #aa4 ,the hair is chiefly useful as a protection4 ,it is also an ornament4 #ab4 ,the ,nails4--,the nails of the fingers and the toes grow out of little pockets in the skin just as the hairs do4 ,both the hair and the nails are really parts of the outer skin1 which is curiously changed and hardened4 ,the nails lie upon the surface of the true skin and grow from the under side as well as from the little fold of skin at the root of the nail4 ,they are made to give firmness and protection to the ends of the fingers and toes4 ,the nails of the fingers are also useful in picking up small objects and in many other ways4 #ac4 ,uses of the ,skin4--,the skin is useful in several ways3 7#a7 ,it ,removes ,waste4--,the sweat glands and ducts are constantly at work removing from the blood particles which have been worn out and can be of no further use4 ,if we get very warm1 or if we run or work very hard1 the skin becomes wet with sweat4 ,in a little while1 if we stop to rest1 the sweat is all gone4 ,what becomes of it8 ,you say it dries up1 which means that it has passed off into the air4 ,sweating is going on all the time1 but we do not sweat so much when we are quiet and are not too warm1 and so the sweat dries up as fast as it is produced1 and we do not see it4 ,nearly a quart of sweat escapes from the skin daily4 7#b7 ,breathing through the ,skin4--,we breathe to a slight extent through the skin4 ,there are some lower animals which breathe with their skins altogether4 ,a frog can breathe with its skin so well that it can live for some time after its lungs have been removed4 ,breathing is an important part of the work of the skin1 and we should be careful1 by keeping it clean and healthy1 to give it a good chance to breathe all that it can4 7#c7 ,the ,skin ,absorbs4--,the skin absorbs many substances which come in contact with it1 and hence should be kept clean4 ,if the foul substances which are removed in the sweat are allowed to remain upon the skin1 they may be taken back into the system and thus do much harm4 7#d7 ,the ,skin has ,feeling4--,when anything touches the skin we know it by the feeling4 ,we can tell a great many things about objects by feeling of them4 ,if we happen to stick a pin into the skin we feel pain4 ,we are also able to tell the difference between things which are hot and those which are cold4 ,thus the sense of feeling which the skin has is very useful to us4 7#e7 ,the ,skin ,protects the ,body4--,the skin is a natural clothing which protects us much better than any other kind of clothing could4 ,it is so soft and pliable that it cannot hurt the most delicate part which it covers1 yet it is very strong and tough4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,the skin is the covering of the body4 ,it has two layers1 the outer1 called the cuticle1 and the inner1 called the true skin4 #b4 ,a substance called pigment is found between the two skins4 ,this gives the skin its color4 #c4 ,the true skin has blood-vessels and nerves1 but the cuticle has no blood-vessels and very few nerves4 #d4 ,in the true skin are glands which produce sweat1 and others which make fat1 or oil4 #e4 ,the nails are really a part of the skin4 ,they are firm and hard1 and protect the ends of the fingers and the toes4 #f4 ,the hair grows from the true skin4 ,the hair is made soft and glossy by oil from the oil glands of the skin4 #g4 ,the skin is a very useful organ4 ,it removes waste matters1 it breathes1 it absorbs1 it has feeling1 and it protects the body4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,how ,,to ,,take ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 #a4 ,uses of the ,pores of the ,skin4--,many years ago1 at a great celebration1 a little boy was covered all over with varnish and gold leaf1 so as to make him represent an angel4 ,the little gilded boy looked very pretty for a short time1 but soon he became very sick1 and in a few hours he was dead4 ,can you guess what made him die8 ,he died because the pores of his skin were stopped up1 and the sweat glands could not carry off the poisonous matter from his body4 #b4 ,cleanliness4--,did you ever know of a boy who had his skin varnished8 ,not exactly1 perhaps2 but there are many boys who do not have their skins washed as often as they ought to be1 and the sweat and oil and dead scales form a sort of varnish which stops up the little ducts and prevents the air from getting to the skin1 almost as much as a coat of varnish would do4 #c4 ,the ,sweat ,glands4--,the sweat glands and ducts are like little sewers1 made to carry away some of the impurities of the body4 ,there are so many of them that1 if they were all put together1 they would make a tube two or three miles long4 ,these little sewers drain off almost a quart of impurities in the form of sweat every day4 ,so you see that it is very important for the skin to be kept clean and healthy4 #d4 ,bathing4--,a bird takes a bath every day4 ,dogs and many other animals like to go into the water to bathe4 ,some of you have seen a great elephant take a bath by showering the water over himself with his trunk4 ,to keep the skin healthy we should bathe frequently4 #e4 ,when we take a bath for cleanliness it is necessary to use a little soap1 so as to remove the oil which is mixed up with the dry sweat1 dead scales1 and dirt which may have become attached to the skin4 #f4 ,it is not well to take hot baths very often1 as they have a tendency to make the skin too sensitive4 ,bathing in cool water hardens the skin1 and renders one less likely to take cold4 #g4 ,the ,clothing4--,the skin should be protected by proper clothing1 but it is not well to wear more than is necessary1 as it makes the skin so sensitive that one is liable to take cold4 #h4 ,the ,proper ,temperature of ,rooms4--,it is also very unwise for a person to keep the rooms in which he lives too warm1 and to stay too much in-doors1 as it makes him very liable to take cold when he goes out-of-doors4 ,one who is out of doors in all kinds of weather seldom takes cold4 #i4 ,care of the ,hair and the ,nails4--,the scalp should be kept clean by thorough and frequent washing and daily brushing4 ,hair oils are seldom needed4 ,if the skin of the head is kept in a healthy condition1 the hair requires no oil4 #aj4 ,the habit of biting and picking the fingernails is a very unpleasant one1 and keeps the nails in a broken and unhealthy condition4 ,the nails should be carefully trimmed with a sharp knife or a pair of scissors4 #aa4 ,effects of ,narcotics and ,stimulants upon the ,skin4--,alcohol1 tobacco1 opium1 and all other narcotics and stimulants have a bad effect upon the skin4 ,alcohol often causes the skin to become red and blotched1 and tobacco gives it a dingy and unhealthy appearance4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,if the pores of the skin are closed1 a person will die4 #b4 ,we should bathe often enough to keep the skin clean4 #c4 ,we should not keep our rooms too warm1 and should avoid wearing too much clothing4 #d4 ,alcohol1 tobacco1 and other stimulants and narcotics injure the skin4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,kidneys ,,and ,,their ,,work4 #a4 ,the ,kidneys4--,the kidneys are among the most important organs of the body4 ,they are in the cavity of the abdomen1 near the back-bone1 up under the lower border of the ribs4 ,perhaps you have seen the kidneys of a sheep or a hog4 ,if you have1 you know very nearly how the kidneys of our own bodies appear4 ,illustration3 ,,kidney4 #b4 ,the ,work of the ,kidneys4--,the work of the kidneys is to separate from the blood certain very poisonous substances1 which would soon cause our death if they were not removed4 ,it is very important to keep these useful organs in good health1 because a person is certain to die very soon when the kidneys are in any way seriously injured4 #c4 ,how to ,keep the ,kidneys ,healthy4--,one way of keeping the kidneys in good health is to drink plenty of pure water1 and to avoid eating too much meat and rich food4 ,pepper1 mustard1 and other hot sauces are very harmful to the kidneys4 #d4 ,importance of ,keeping the ,skin ,clean4--,the work of the kidneys is very similar to that of the skin2 and when the skin does not do its full duty1 the kidneys have to do more than they should1 and hence are likely to become diseased4 ,for this reason1 persons who allow their skins to become inactive by neglecting to bathe frequently are apt to have disease of the kidneys4 #e4 ,effects of ,alcohol and ,tobacco upon the ,kidneys4--,a piece of beef placed in alcohol soon becomes dry and hard1 and shrivels up as though it had been burned4 ,the effect upon the kidneys of drinking strong liquor is almost the same4 ,beer and hard cider also do the kidneys harm1 sometimes producing incurable disease of these important organs4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,the kidneys somewhat resemble the skin in their structure and in their work4 #b4 ,the kidneys remove from the blood some poisonous substances4 #c4 ,to keep the kidneys healthy we should drink plenty of water1 avoid irritating foods and drinks1 and keep the skin in health by proper bathing4 #d4 ,the drinking of strong liquors often causes incurable disease of the kidneys4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,our ,,bones ,,and ,,their ,,uses4 #a4 ,the ,bones4--,in an earlier chapter we learned something about the bones4 ,this we must try to recall4 ,you will remember that we called the bones the framework of the body1 just as the timbers which are first put up in building a house are called its frame4 #b4 ,the ,skeleton4--,all the bones together make up the skeleton4 7,see page #ie47 ,there are about two hundred bones in all4 ,they are of many different shapes4 ,they vary in size from the little bones of the ear1 which are the smallest1 to the upper bone of the leg1 which is the largest in the body4 #c4 ,the skeleton is divided into four parts3 the skull1 the trunk1 the arms1 and the legs4 ,we must learn something more about the bones of each part4 #d4 ,the ,skull4--,the skull is somewhat like a shell4 ,it is made of a number of bones joined together in such a way as to leave a hollow place inside to hold the brain4 ,the front part of the skull forms the framework of the face and the jaws4 ,in each ear there are three curious little bones1 which aid us in hearing4 #e4 ,the ,trunk4--,the bones of the trunk are1 the ribs1 the breast-bone1 the pelvis1 and the back-bone4 ,the bones of the trunk form a framework to support and protect the various organs within its cavities4 #f4 ,the ,ribs4--,there are twelve ribs on each side4 ,the ribs join the back-bone at the back4 ,they are connected by cartilage to the breast-bone in front4 ,they look somewhat like the hoops of a barrel4 ,with the breast-bone and the back-bone they form a bony cage to contain and protect the heart and the lungs4 #g4 ,the ,pelvis4--,the pelvis is at the lower part of the trunk4 ,it is formed by three bones1 closely joined together4 ,the large bones at either side are called the hip-bones4 ,each hip-bone contains a deep round cavity in which the upper end of the thigh-bone rests4 #h4 ,the ,back-bone4--,the back-bone1 or spinal column1 is made up of twenty-four small bones1 joined together in such a way that the whole can be bent in various directions4 ,the skull rests upon the upper end of the spinal column4 ,the lower end of the back-bone forms a part of the pelvis4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,man4 #i4 ,the ,spinal ,canal4--,each of the separate bones that make up the back-bone has an opening through it1 and the bones are so arranged1 one above another1 that the openings make a sort of canal in the back-bone4 ,by the connection of the spinal column to the head1 this canal opens into the cavity of the skull4 ,through this canal there passes a peculiar substance called the spinal cord1 of which we shall learn more at another time4 #aj4 ,the ,arms4--,each of the arms has five bones1 besides the small bones of the hand4 ,they are the collar-bone1 which connects the shoulder to the breast-bone1 the shoulder-blade1 at the back of the shoulders1 the upper arm-bone1 between the shoulder and the elbow1 and the two lower arm-bones1 between the elbow and the wrist4 ,there are eight little bones in the wrist1 five in that part of the hand next to the wrist1 and fourteen in the fingers and thumb4 #aa4 ,the ,legs4--,the bones of the leg are the thigh or upper leg-bone1 the knee-pan or knee-cap1 which covers the front of the knee1 the two bones of the lower leg1 the heel-bone and six other bones in the ankle1 five bones in that part of the foot next to the ankle1 and fourteen bones in the toes4 #ab4 ,use of the ,bones4--,the skeleton is not only necessary as a framework for the body1 but it is useful in other ways4 ,some of the bones1 as the skull1 protect delicate parts4 ,the brain is so soft and delicate that it would be very unsafe without its solid bony covering4 ,the spinal cord also needs the protection which it finds in the strong but flexible back-bone4 ,the bones help to move our hands and arms1 and assist us in walking4 #ac4 ,the ,joints4--,the places where two or more bones are fastened together are called joints4 ,some joints we can move very freely1 as those of the shoulder and the hip4 ,others have no motion at all1 as those of the bones of the skull4 #ad4 ,cartilage4--,the ends of bones which come together to form a joint are covered with a smooth1 tough substance1 which protects the bone from wear4 ,this is called gristle or cartilage4 ,you have1 no doubt1 seen the gristle on the end of a soup-bone or on one of the bones of a joint of beef4 #ae4 ,the joint contains a fluid to oil it1 so that the ends of the bones move upon each other very easily4 ,if the joints were dry1 every movement of the body would be very difficult and painful4 #af4 ,the bones are held together at the joints by means of strong bands called ligaments4 #ag4 ,how the ,bones are ,made4--,the bones are not so solid as they seem to be4 ,the outside of most bones is much harder and firmer than the inside4 ,long bones1 like those of the arms and the legs1 are hollow4 ,the hollow space is filled with marrow1 in which are the blood-vessels which nourish the bone4 #ah4 ,an ,experiment4--,if you will weigh a piece of bone1 then burn it in the fire for several hours1 and then weigh it again1 you will find that it has lost about one third of its weight4 ,you will also notice that it has become brittle1 and that it seems like chalk4 #ai4 ,why the ,bones are ,brittle4--,the hard1 brittle portion of a bone which is left after it has been burned contains a good deal of chalk and other earthy substances1 sometimes called bone-earth4 ,it is this which makes the bones so hard and firm that they do not bend by the weight of the body4 ,when we are young1 the bones have less of this bone-earth1 and so they bend easily1 and readily get out of shape4 ,when we get old1 they contain so much bone-earth that they become more brittle1 and often break very easily4 #bj4 ,a person's height depends upon the length of his bones4 ,the use of alcohol and tobacco by a growing boy has a tendency to stunt the growth of his bones1 so that they do not develop as they should4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,there are about two hundred bones in the body4 #b4 ,all together they are called the skeleton4 #c4 ,the skeleton is divided as follows3 a4 ,the skull4 ,ribs4 b4 ,the trunk4 ,breast-bone4 ,pelvis4 ,back-bone4 ,collar-bone4 ,shoulder-blade4 ,upper arm-bones4 c4 ,the arms4 ,lower arm-bones4 ,wrist4 ,hand and fingers4 ,thigh4 ,knee-pan4 d4 ,the legs4 ,lower-leg bones4 ,ankle1 including heel-bone4 ,foot and toes4 #d4 ,the bones are useful for support1 protection1 and motion4 #e4 ,the place where two bones join is called a joint4 #f4 ,the tough substance which covers the ends of many bones is called cartilage or gristle4 #g4 ,the joints are enabled to work easily by the aid of a fluid secreted for that purpose4 #h4 ,the ends of the bones are held together in a joint by means of ligaments4 #i4 ,bones are about two thirds earthy matter and one third animal matter4 #aj4 ,the use of alcohol and tobacco may prevent proper development of the bones4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,bones ,,healthy4 #a4 ,composition of the ,bones4--,our bones1 like the rest of our bodies1 are made of what we eat4 ,if our food does not contain enough of the substances which are needed to make healthy bone1 the bones will become unhealthy4 ,they may be too soft and become bent or otherwise misshapen4 ,this is one of the reasons why bread made from the whole grain is so much more healthful than that made from very fine white flour4 ,in making fine white flour the miller takes out the very best part of the grain1 just what is needed to make strong and healthy bones4 ,oatmeal is a very good food for making healthy bones4 #b4 ,bones of ,children4--,sometimes little children try to walk before the bones have become hard enough to support the weight of the body4 ,this causes the legs to become crooked4 ,in some countries young children work in factories and at various trades4 ,this is wrong1 because it dwarfs their growth1 and makes them puny and sickly4 #c4 ,improper ,positions4--,the bones are so soft and flexible when we are young that they are very easily bent out of shape if we allow ourselves to take improper positions in sitting1 lying1 or standing4 ,this is the way in which flat and hollow chests1 uneven shoulders1 curved spines1 and many other deformities are caused4 ,illustration3 ,,improper ,,position4 #d4 ,in sitting1 standing1 and walking1 we should always take care to keep the shoulders well back and the chest well expanded1 so that we may not grow misshapen and deformed4 ,many boys and girls have ugly curves in their backbones which have been caused by sitting at high desks with one elbow on the desk1 thus raising the shoulder of that side so high that the spine becomes crooked4 ,the illustrations on this and the following page show good and bad positions and also the effects of bad positions4 ,illustration3 ,,proper ,,position4 #e4 ,seats and ,desks4--,the seats and desks of school-children should be of proper height4 ,the seats should be low enough to allow the feet to rest easily upon the floor1 but not too low4 ,the desk should be of such a height that1 in writing1 one shoulder will not be raised above the other4 ,if a young person bends the body forward1 he will1 after a time1 become round-shouldered and his chest will become so flattened that the lungs cannot be well expanded4 ,illustration3 ,,desk ,,too ,,high4 #f4 ,standing on one foot1 sitting bent forward when reading or at work1 sleeping with the head raised high upon a thick pillow or bolster1 are ways in which young persons often grow out of shape4 ,illustration3 ,,seat ,,too ,,high4 #g4 ,the ,clothing4--,wearing the clothing tight about the waist often produces serious deformities of the bones of the trunk1 and makes the chest so small that the lungs have not room to act properly4 ,tight or high-heeled shoes also often deform and injure the feet and make the gait stiff and awkward4 #h4 ,broken ,bones4--,by rough play or by accident the bones may be broken in two just as you might break a stick4 ,if the broken parts are placed right1 ,nature will cement them together and make the bone strong again2 but sometimes the bones do not unite1 and sometimes they grow together out of proper shape1 so that permanent injury is done4 #i4 ,sprains4--,in a similar manner the ligaments which hold the bones together1 in a joint1 are sometimes torn or over-stretched4 ,such an accident is called a sprain4 ,a sprain is a very painful accident1 and a joint injured in this way needs to rest quite a long time so that the torn ligaments may grow together4 #aj4 ,bones out of ,joint4--,sometimes the ligaments are torn so badly that the ends of the bones are displaced1 and then we say they are put out of joint4 ,this is a very bad accident indeed1 but it often happens to boys while wrestling or playing at other rough games4 #aa4 ,children sometimes have a trick of pulling the fingers to cause the knuckles to crack4 ,this is a very foolish and harmful practice4 ,it weakens the joints and causes them to grow large and unsightly4 #ab4 ,when a man uses alcohol and tobacco1 their effects upon the bones are not so apparent as are the effects upon the blood1 the nerves1 and other organs2 but when the poisonous drugs are used by a growing boy1 their damaging influence is very plainly seen4 ,a boy who smokes cigars or cigarettes1 or who uses strong alcoholic liquors1 is likely to be so stunted that even his bones will not grow of a proper length and he will become dwarfed or deformed4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,to keep the bones healthy they must have plenty of healthful food4 #b4 ,the whole-grain preparations furnish the best food for the bones4 #c4 ,walking at too early an age often makes the legs crooked4 #d4 ,hard work at too early an age stunts the growth4 #e4 ,bad positions and tight or poorly-fitting clothing are common causes of flat chests1 round shoulders1 and other deformities4 #f4 ,tight or high-heeled shoes deform the feet and make the gait awkward4 #g4 ,the bones may be easily broken or put out of joint1 or the ligaments may be torn by rough play4 #h4 ,alcohol prevents healthy growth4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,muscles ,,and ,,how ,,we ,,use ,,them4 #a4 ,the ,muscles4--,where do people obtain the beefsteak and the mutton-chops which they eat for breakfast8 ,from the butcher1 you will say2 and the butcher gets them from the sheep and cattle which he kills4 ,if you will clasp your arm you will notice that the bones are covered by a soft substance1 the flesh4 ,when the skin of an animal has been taken off1 we can see that some of the flesh is white or yellow and some of it is red4 ,the white or yellow flesh is fat4 ,the red flesh is lean meat1 and it is composed of muscles4 #b4 ,the ,number of ,muscles4--,we have about five hundred different muscles in the body4 ,they are arranged in such a way as to cover the bones and make the body round and beautiful4 ,they are of different forms and sizes4 #c4 ,with a very few exceptions the muscles are arranged in pairs2 that is1 we have two alike of each form and size1 one for each side of the body4 #d4 ,how a ,muscle is ,formed4--,if you will examine a piece of corned or salted beef which has been well boiled1 you will notice that it seems to be made up of bundles of small fibres or threads of flesh4 ,with a little care you can pick one of the small fibres into fine threads4 ,now1 if you look at one of these under a microscope you find that it is made of still finer fibres1 which are much smaller than the threads of a spider's web4 ,one of these smallest threads is called a muscular fibre4 ,many thousands of muscular fibres are required to make a muscle4 ,illustration3 ,,muscular ,,fibres4 #e4 ,most of the muscles are made fast to the bones4 ,generally1 one end is attached to one bone1 and the other to another bone4 ,sometimes one end is made fast to a bone and the other to the skin or to other muscles4 #f4 ,the ,tendons4--,many of the muscles are not joined to the bones directly1 but are made fast to them by means of firm cords called tendons4 ,if you will place the thumb of your left hand upon the wrist of the right hand1 and then work the fingers of the right hand1 you may feel these cords moving underneath the skin4 #g4 ,what the ,muscles ,do4--,with the left hand grasp the right arm just in front of the elbow4 ,now shut the right hand tightly4 ,now open it4 ,repeat several times4 ,the left hand feels something moving in the flesh4 ,the motion is caused by the working of the muscles1 which shorten and harden when they act4 #h4 ,all the movements of the body are made by means of muscles4 ,when we move our hands1 even when we close the mouth or the eyes1 or make a wry face1 we use the muscles4 ,we could not speak1 laugh1 sing1 or breathe without muscles4 #i4 ,self-acting ,muscles4--,did you ever have a fit of sneezing or hiccoughing8 ,if you ever did1 very likely you tried hard to stop but could not4 ,do you know why one cannot always stop sneezing or hiccoughing when he desires to do so8 ,it is because there are certain muscles in the body which do not act simply when we wish them to act1 but when it is necessary that they should4 ,the muscles which act when we sneeze or hiccough are of this kind4 ,the arm and the hand do not act unless we wish them to do so4 ,suppose it were the same with the heart4 ,we should have to stay awake all the while to keep it going1 because it would not act when we were asleep4 ,the same is true of our breathing4 ,we breathe when we are asleep as well as when we are awake1 because the breathing muscles work even when we do not think about them4 #aj4 ,the stomach1 the intestines1 the blood-vessels1 and many other organs within the body have this kind of muscles4 ,the work of these self-acting muscles is very wonderful indeed4 ,without it we could not live a moment4 ,this knowledge should lead us to consider how dependent we are1 each moment of our lives1 upon the delicate machinery by which the most important work of our bodies is performed1 and how particular we should be to keep it in good order by taking proper care of ourselves4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,the flesh1 or lean meat1 is composed of muscles4 #b4 ,there are five hundred muscles in the body4 #c4 ,muscles are composed of many small threads called muscular fibres4 #d4 ,many of the muscles are joined to the bones by strong white cords called tendons4 #e4 ,muscular fibres can contract so as to lessen their length4 ,it is in this way that the muscles perform their work4 #f4 ,all bodily motions are due to the action of the muscles4 #g4 ,most of the muscles act only when we wish them to do so4 ,some muscles1 however1 act when it is necessary for them to do so1 whether we will that they should act or not1 and when we are asleep as well as when we are awake4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,muscles ,,healthy4 #a4 ,how to ,make the ,muscles ,strong4--,with which hand can you lift the more8 with the right hand or with the left8 ,why do you think you can lift more with the right hand than with the left8 ,a blacksmith swings a heavy hammer with his right arm1 and that arm becomes very large and strong4 ,if we wish our muscles to grow large and strong1 so that our bodies will be healthy and vigorous1 we must take plenty of exercise4 #b4 ,effects of ,idleness4--,if a boy should carry one hand in his pocket all the time1 and use only the other hand and arm1 the idle arm would become small and weak1 while the other would grow large and strong4 ,any part of the body which is not used will after a time become weak4 ,little boys and girls who do not take plenty of exercise are likely to be pale and puny4 ,it is important that we should take the proper amount of exercise every day1 just as we take our food and drink every day4 #c4 ,healthful ,exercise4--,some kinds of play1 and almost all kinds of work which children have to do1 are good ways of taking exercise4 ,a very good kind of exercise for little boys and girls is that found in running errands or doing chores about the house4 #d4 ,food and ,strength4--,a great part of our food goes to nourish the muscles4 ,some foods make us strong1 while others do not4 ,plain foods1 such as bread1 meat1 potatoes1 and milk1 are good for the muscles2 but cakes and pies1 and things which are not food1 such as mustard1 pepper1 and spices1 do not give us strength1 and are likely to do us harm4 #e4 ,over-,exertion4--,we ought not to exert ourselves too much in lifting heavy weights1 or trying to do things which are too hard for us4 ,sometimes the muscles are permanently injured in this way4 #f4 ,the ,clothing4--,we ought not to wear our clothing so tight as to press hard upon any part of the body4 ,if we do1 it will cause the muscles of that part to become weak4 ,if the clothing is worn tight about the waist1 great mischief is often done4 ,the lungs cannot expand properly1 the stomach and liver are pressed out of shape1 and the internal organs are crowded out of their proper places4 #g4 ,tight ,shoes4--,people are often made very lame from wearing tight shoes4 ,their muscles cannot act properly1 and their feet grow out of shape4 #h4 ,in ,china1 it is fashionable for rich ladies to have small feet1 and they tie them up in cloths so that they cannot grow4 ,the foot is squeezed out of shape4 ,here is a picture of a foot which has been treated in this way4 ,it does not look much like a human foot1 does it8 ,a woman who has such feet finds it so difficult to walk that she has to be carried about much of the time4 ,do you not think it is very wrong and foolish to treat the feet so badly8 ,you will say1 ,yes2 but the ,chinese woman thinks it is a great deal worse to lace the clothing tight about the body so as to make the waist small4 ,illustration3 ,,foot ,,of ,,chinese ,,woman4 #i4 ,effects of ,alcohol upon the ,muscles4--,when an intemperate man takes a glass of strong drink1 it makes him feel strong2 but when he tries to lift1 or to do any kind of hard work1 he cannot lift so much nor work so hard as he could have done without the liquor4 ,this is because alcohol poisons the muscles and makes them weak4 #aj4 ,effects of ,drunkenness4--,when a man has become addicted to strong drink1 his muscles become partly paralyzed1 so that he cannot walk as steadily or speak as readily or as clearly as before4 ,his fingers are clumsy1 and his movements uncertain4 ,if he is an artist or a jeweller1 he cannot do as fine work as when he is sober4 ,when a man gets very drunk1 he is for a time completely paralyzed1 so that he cannot walk or move1 and seems almost like a dead man4 #aa4 ,if you had a good horse that had carried you a long way in a carriage1 and you wanted to travel farther1 what would you do if the horse were so tired that he kept stopping in the road8 ,would you let him rest and give him some water to drink and some nice hay and oats to eat1 or would you strike him hard with a whip to make him go faster8 ,if you should whip him he would act as though he were not tired at all1 but do you think the whip would make him strong1 as rest and hay and oats would8 #ab4 ,when a tired man takes alcohol1 it acts like a whip2 it makes every part of the body work faster and harder than it ought to work1 and thus wastes the man's strength and makes him weaker1 although for a little while his nerves are made stupid1 so that he does not know that he is tired and ought to rest4 #ac4 ,when you grow up to be men and women you will want to have strong muscles4 ,so you must be careful not to give alcohol a chance to injure them4 ,if you never taste it in any form you will be sure to suffer no harm from it4 #ad4 ,effects of ,tobacco on the ,muscles4--,boys who smoke cigars or cigarettes1 or who chew tobacco1 are not likely to grow up to be strong and healthy men4 ,they do not have plump and rosy cheeks and strong muscles like other boys4 #ae4 ,the evil effect of tobacco upon boys is now so well known that in many countries and in some states of this country laws have been made which do not allow alcohol or tobacco to be sold or given to boys4 ,in ,switzerland1 if a boy is found smoking upon the streets1 he is arrested just as though he had been caught stealing4 ,and is not this really what a boy does when he smokes8 ,he robs his constitution of its vigor1 and allows tobacco to steal away from him the strength he will need when he becomes a man4 #af4 ,tea and ,coffee4--,strong tea and coffee1 while by no means so bad as alcohol and tobacco1 may make us weak and sick4 ,a person who drinks strong tea or coffee feels less tired while at work than if he had not taken it1 but he is more tired afterwards4 ,so you see that tea and coffee are also whips1 small whips we might call them1 and yet they really act in the same way as do other narcotics and stimulants4 ,they make a person feel stronger than he really is1 and thus he is led to use more strength than he can afford to do4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,we must use the muscles to make them grow large and strong4 #b4 ,exercise should be taken regularly4 #c4 ,exercise makes the muscles strong1 the body beautiful1 the lungs active1 the heart vigorous1 and the whole body healthy4 #d4 ,things we ought not to do3 ,to run or play hard just before or after eating2 to strain our muscles by lifting too heavy weights2 to exercise so violently as to get out of breath2 to lie1 sit1 stand1 or walk in a cramped position1 or awkward manner2 to wear the clothing so tight as to press hard upon the muscles4 #e4 ,good food is necessary to make the muscles strong and healthy4 #f4 ,alcohol makes the muscles weak1 although at first it makes us feel stronger4 #g4 ,a boy who uses tobacco will not grow as strong and well as one who does not4 #h4 ,the use of strong tea and coffee may injure the muscles4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,how ,,we ,,feel ,,and ,,think4 #a4 ,how we ,think4--,with what part of the body do we think8 ,you will at once say that we think with the head2 but we do not think with the whole head4 ,some parts of the head we use for other purposes1 as the mouth to eat and speak with1 and the nose to smell and breathe with4 ,the part we think with is inside of the skull1 safely placed in a little room at the top and back part of the head4 ,do you remember the name of this organ which fills the hollow place inside of the skull8 ,we learned some time ago that it is called the brain4 ,it is with the brain that we study and remember and reason4 ,so the brain is one of the most important organs in our body1 and we must try to learn all we can about it4 #b4 ,the ,brain4--,you cannot see and examine your own brain because it is shut up in the skull2 but perhaps you can find the brain of a sheep or a calf at the meat market4 ,the brain of one of these animals looks very nearly like your own4 #c4 ,the ,large ,brain and the ,small ,brain4--,in examining a brain we should notice first of all that there are really two brains1 a large brain and a small brain4 ,the large brain is in the top and front of the skull1 and the small one lies beneath the back part of the larger one1 ,if we look again we shall see that each brain is divided in the middle into a right and a left half4 ,each half is1 in fact1 a complete brain1 so that we really have two pairs of brains4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,brain4 #d4 ,brain ,cells4--,the brain is a curious organ of a grayish color outside and white inside4 ,it is soft1 almost like jelly1 and this is why it is placed so carefully in a strong1 bony box4 ,if we should put a little piece of the brain under a microscope1 we should find that it is made up of a great number of very small objects called nerve or brain cells4 ,in the illustration you can see some of these brain cells4 ,illustration3 ,,brain ,,cells4 #e4 ,the ,nerves4--,each cell has one or more branches4 ,some of the branches are joined to the branches of other cells so as to unite the cells together1 just as children take hold of one another's hands4 ,other branches are drawn out very long4 #f4 ,the long branches are such slender threads that a great number of them together would not be as large as a fine silk thread4 ,a great many of these fine nerve threads are bound up in little bundles which look like white cords4 ,these are called nerves4 #g4 ,the nerves branch out from the brain through openings in the skull1 and go to every part of the body4 ,every little muscle fibre1 the heart1 the stomach1 the lungs1 the liver1 even the bones--all have nerves coming to them from the brain4 ,so you see that the brain is not wholly shut up in the skull1 because its cells have slender branches running into all parts of the body2 and thus the brain itself is really in every part of the body1 though we usually speak of it as being entirely in the skull4 #h4 ,the ,spinal ,cord4--,there are a number of small holes in the skull through which the nerves pass out1 but most of the nerves are bound up in one large bundle and pass out through an opening at the back part of the skull and runs downward through a long canal in the backbone4 ,this bundle of nerves forms the spinal cord4 ,the spinal cord contains cells also1 like those of the brain4 ,it is really a continuation of the brain down through the backbone4 ,illustration3 ,,brain ,,and ,,spinal ,,cord4 #i4 ,nerves from the ,spinal ,cord4--,the spinal cord gives off branches of nerves which go to the arms1 the chest1 the legs1 and other parts4 ,one of the branches which goes to the hand runs along the back side of the arm1 passing over the elbow4 ,if we happen to strike the elbow against some sharp object1 we sometimes hit this nerve4 ,when we do so1 the under side of the arm and the little finger feel very numb and strange4 ,this is why you call this part of the elbow the funny or crazy bone4 ,the cells of the spinal cord also send out branches to the body and to other cells in the brain4 #aj4 ,how we ,feel4--,if we cut or burn ourselves we suffer pain4 ,can you tell why it hurts us to prick the flesh with a pin1 or to pinch or burn or bruise it8 ,it is because the flesh contains a great many nerve-branches from the brain4 ,when we hurt the skin or the flesh1 in any way1 these nerves are injured4 ,there are so many of these little nerves in the flesh and skin that we cannot put the finest needle into the flesh without hurting some of them4 #aa4 ,the ,use of ,pain4--,it is not pleasant for us to have pain1 but if the nerves gave us no pain when we are hurt we might get our limbs burned or frozen and know nothing about it until too late to save them4 #ab4 ,nerves of ,feeling4--,we have different kinds of nerves of feeling4 ,those we have learned about feel pain4 ,others feel objects4 ,if you take a marble or a pencil in the hand you know what it is by the feeling of the object4 ,this kind of feeling is called the sense of touch4 #ac4 ,there are other nerves of feeling by means of which we are able to hear1 see1 taste1 and smell1 of which we shall learn in another lesson4 ,besides these we have nerves which tell us whether objects are cold or hot1 and heavy or light4 ,nerves of feeling also tell us when we are hungry1 or thirsty1 or tired1 and when we need more air to breathe4 #ad4 ,nerves of ,work4--,there are other nerves which are made just like the nerves of feeling1 but which do not feel4 ,these nerves have a very different use4 ,they come from cells in the brain which have charge of the different kinds of work done in the body1 and they send their branches to the parts which do the work2 hence we call them nerves of work4 #ae4 ,one set of cells sends nerves to the heart1 and these make it go fast or slow as is necessary4 ,another sends nerves to the liver1 stomach1 and other digestive organs1 and causes them to do their part in the digestion of the food4 ,other cells send branches to the muscles and make them act when we wish them to do so4 ,thus you see how very useful the brain and nerves are4 ,they keep all the different parts of the body working together in harmony1 just like a well-trained army1 or a great number of workmen building a block of houses4 ,without the brain and nerves the body would be just like an army without a commander1 or a lot of workmen without an overseer4 #af4 ,how we ,use the ,nerves4--,if you happen to touch your hand to a hot stove1 what takes place8 ,you will say that your arm pulls the hand away4 ,do you know why8 ,let us see4 ,the nerves of feeling in the hand tell the nerve cells in the brain from which they come that the hand is being burned4 ,the cells which feel cannot do anything for the hand1 but some of their branches run over to another part of the brain1 which sends nerves down to the muscles of the arm4 ,these cells1 through their nerve branches1 cause the muscles to contract4 ,the cells of feeling ask the cells which have charge of the muscles to make the muscles of the arm pull the hand away1 which they do very quickly4 #ag4 ,so you see the nerves are very much like telegraph or telephone wires4 ,by means of them the brain finds out all about what is happening in the body1 and sends out its orders to the various organs1 which may be called its servants4 #ah4 ,an ,experiment4--,a man once tried an experiment which seemed very cruel4 ,he took a dove and cut open its skull and took out its large brain4 ,what do you think the effect was8 ,the dove did not die at once1 as you would expect4 ,it lived for some time1 but it did not know anything4 ,it did not know when it was hungry1 and would not eat or drink unless the food or water was placed in its mouth4 ,if a man gets a blow on his head1 so hard as to break his skull1 the large brain is often hurt so badly that its cells cannot work1 and so the man is in the same condition as the poor dove4 ,he does not know anything4 ,he cannot think or talk1 and lies as though he were asleep4 #ai4 ,by these and many other facts we know that the large brain is the part with which we remember1 think1 and reason4 ,it is the seat of the mind4 ,we go to sleep because the large brain is tired and cannot work any longer4 ,we stop thinking when we are sound asleep1 but sometimes we do not sleep soundly1 and then the large brain works a little and we dream4 #bj4 ,what the ,little ,brain ,does4--,the little brain,b thinks too1 but it does not do the same kind of thinking as the large brain4 ,we may use our arms and legs and many other parts when we wish to do so2 and if we do not care to use them we may allow them to remain quiet4 ,this is not the case with some other organs4 ,it is necessary1 for example1 that the heart1 the lungs1 and many other organs of the body should keep at work all the time4 ,if the large brain had to attend to all of these different kinds of work besides thinking about what we see1 hear1 and read1 and other things which we do1 it would have too much work to do1 and would not be able to do it all well4 ,besides1 the large brain sometimes falls asleep4 ,so the large brain lets the little brain do the kinds of work which have to be attended to all the time1 and the little brain keeps steadily at work when we are asleep as well as when we are awake4 #ba4 ,what the ,spinal ,cord ,does4--,if you tickle a person's foot when he is asleep1 he will pull it up just as he would if he were awake1 only not quite so quickly4 ,what do you suppose makes the muscles of the leg contract when the brain is asleep and does not know that the foot is being tickled8 ,and here is another curious fact4 ,when you were coming to school this morning you did not have to think about every step you took4 ,perhaps you were talking or looking over your lessons2 but your legs walked right along all the time1 and without your thinking about them4 ,can you tell how8 #bb4 ,it would be too much trouble for the large brain to stop to think every time we step1 and the little brain has work enough to do in taking care of the heart and lungs and other organs1 without keeping watch of the feet when we are asleep1 so as to pull them up if some mischievous person tickles them4 ,so ,nature puts a few nerve cells in the spinal cord which can do a certain easy kind of thinking4 ,when we do things over and over a great many times1 these cells1 after a time1 learn to do them without the help of the large brain4 ,this is the way a piano-player becomes so expert4 ,he does not have to think all the time where each finger is to go4 ,after the tunes have been played a great many times1 the spinal cord knows them so well that it makes the hands play them almost without any effort of the large brain4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,the part of the body with which we think is the brain4 #b4 ,the brain is found filling the hollow place in the skull4 #c4 ,there are two brains1 the large brain and the small brain4 #d4 ,each brain is divided into two equal and complete halves1 thus making two pairs of brains4 #e4 ,the brain is largely made up of very small objects called nerve or brain cells4 #f4 ,the nerve cells send out very fine branches which form the nerves4 #g4 ,the nerve branches or fibres run to every part of the body4 ,they pass out from the brain to the rest of the body through a number of openings in the skull4 #h4 ,most of the nerve branches pass out through a large opening at the back of the skull1 in one large bundle called the spinal cord4 #i4 ,the spinal cord runs down through a canal in the backbone1 and all along gives off branches to the various parts of the body4 #aj4 ,it gives us pain to prick or hurt the flesh in any way1 because when we do so we injure some of the little nerve branches of the brain cells4 #aa4 ,when we suffer1 we really feel a pain in the brain4 ,we know this because if a nerve is cut in two1 we may hurt the part to which it goes without giving any pain4 #ab4 ,we have different kinds of nerves of feeling4 #ac4 ,there are other nerves besides those of feeling4 ,these are nerves of work4 #ad4 ,the nerves of work have charge of the heart1 the lungs1 the muscles1 the liver1 the stomach1 and every part of the body which can work or act4 #ae4 ,the brain and nerves control the body and make all the different parts work together in harmony1 just as a general controls an army4 #af4 ,the brain uses the nerves very much as a man uses the telephone or telegraph wires4 #ag4 ,with the large brain we remember1 think1 and reason4 #ah4 ,the little brain does the simple kind of thinking1 by means of which the heart1 lungs1 and other vital organs are kept at work even when we are asleep4 #ai4 ,the spinal cord does a still more simple kind of work4 ,it enables us to walk and to do other familiar acts without using the large brain to think every moment just what we are doing4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,brain ,,and ,,nerves ,,healthy4 #a4 ,uses of the ,brain4--,what do you think a boy or girl would be good for without any brain or nerves8 ,such a boy or girl could not see1 hear1 feel1 talk1 run about1 or play1 and would not know any more than a cabbage or a potato knows4 ,if the brain or nerves are sick1 they cannot work well1 and so are not worth as much as when they are healthy4 #b4 ,the ,brain ,sympathizes with ,other ,organs4--,did you ever have a headache8 ,did you feel happy and good-natured when your head ached hard1 and could you study and play as well as when you are well8 ,it is very important that we should keep our brain and nerves healthy1 and to do this we must take good care of the stomach and all other organs1 because the brain sympathizes with them when they are sick4 #c4 ,we must have ,pure ,air4--,how do you feel when the school-room is too warm and close8 ,do you not feel dull and sleepy and so stupid that you can hardly study8 ,this is because the brain needs good1 pure blood to enable it to work well4 ,so we must always be careful to have plenty of pure air to breathe4 #d4 ,we should ,exercise the ,brain4--,what do we do when we want to strengthen our muscles8 ,we make them work hard every day1 do we not8 ,the exercise makes them grow large and strong4 ,it is just the same with our brains4 ,if we study hard and learn our lessons well1 then our brains grow strong1 and study becomes easy4 ,but if we only half study1 and do not learn our lessons perfectly1 then the study does not do our brains very much good4 #e4 ,we should ,take ,muscular ,exercise4--,when you get tired of study1 an hour's play1 or exercise of some sort1 rests you and makes you feel brighter1 so that you can learn more easily4 ,this is because exercise is necessary to make the blood circulate well4 ,it will then carry out the worn-out particles and supply the brain and nerves with fresh1 pure blood4 ,so the same exercise which makes our muscles strong makes our brains healthier also4 #f4 ,we should be ,careful of our ,diet4--,we ought to eat plenty of good1 simple food1 such as milk1 fruits1 grains1 and vegetables4 ,it is not well for children to eat freely of meat1 as it is very stimulating and likely to excite the brain and make the nerves irritable4 ,mustard1 pepper1 and all hot sauces and spices have a tendency to injure the brain and nerves4 #g4 ,we should ,allow the ,brain to ,rest at the ,proper ,time4--,when we are tired and sleepy we cannot think well1 and cannot remember what we learn if we try to study4 ,if we have plenty of sleep1 free from bad or exciting dreams1 we awake in the morning rested and refreshed1 because while we have been asleep ,nature has put the brain and nerves in good repair for us4 ,we ought not to stay up late at night4 ,we should not eat late or hearty suppers1 as this will prevent our sleeping well4 #h4 ,we ,ought ,not to ,allow ,ourselves to ,become ,angry4--,when a person flies into a passion he does his brain and nerves great harm4 ,it is really dangerous to get angry4 ,persons have dropped dead instantly in a fit of anger4 #i4 ,we should ,shun ,bad ,habits4--,bad habits are very hard to give up1 and hence we should be careful to avoid them4 ,when a child learns to swear1 or to use slang phrases1 the brain after a while will make him swear or use bad words before he thinks4 ,in a similar manner other bad habits are acquired4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,a person without a brain or nerves would be of no more account than a vegetable4 #b4 ,when the brain or nerves are sick they cannot perform their duties properly4 #c4 ,to keep the brain and nerves in good health1 we must take good care of the stomach and all other important organs of the body4 #d4 ,there are many things which we may do to keep the brain and nerves strong and well4 #e4 ,the brain needs pure blood1 and so we must be careful to breathe pure air4 #f4 ,the brain gets strength by exercise1 just as the muscles do4 ,hence1 study is healthful1 and makes the brain strong4 #g4 ,a good memory is very necessary1 but we should not try to remember everything4 #h4 ,it is very important that we learn how to observe things closely4 #i4 ,exercise in the open air rests and clears the brain by helping the blood to circulate4 #aj4 ,plenty of wholesome and simple food is necessary to keep the brain and nerves in good health4 ,spices1 condiments1 and rich foods in general are stimulating and harmful4 #aa4 ,plenty of sleep is needed to rest the brain and nerves4 #ab4 ,it is dangerous as well as wicked to become very angry4 #ac4 ,we should be careful to avoid forming bad habits of any sort1 as they are hard to break1 and often adhere to one through life4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,bad ,,effects ,,of ,,alcohol ,,upon ,,the ,,brain ,,and ,,nerves4 #a4 ,drunkenness4--,did you ever see a man who was drunk8 ,if you live in a city it is very likely that you have4 ,how did the drunken man behave8 ,perhaps he was noisy and silly4 ,perhaps he was angry and tried to pick a quarrel with some one4 #b4 ,what made the man drunk8 ,you say whiskey1 but it may have been wine1 or beer1 or hard cider that he drank4 ,anything that contains alcohol will make a man drunk1 for it is the alcohol which does all the mischief4 #c4 ,the ,whiskey ,flush4--,you can almost always tell when a man has been drinking1 even when he has not taken enough to make him drunk4 ,you know by his flushed face and red eyes4 ,when a man's face blushes from the use of alcohol1 his whole body blushes at the same time4 ,his muscles1 his lungs1 and his liver blush2 his brain and spinal cord blush also4 #d4 ,when a man has taken just enough alcohol to make his face blush a little1 the extra amount of blood in the brain makes him think and talk more lively1 and he is very jolly and gay4 ,this makes many people think that alcohol does them good4 ,but if we notice what a man says when he is excited by alcohol1 we shall find that his remarks are often silly and reckless4 ,he says very unwise and foolish things1 for which he feels sorry when he becomes sober4 #e4 ,alcohol ,paralyzes4--,how does a drunken man walk8 ,let us see why he staggers4 ,when a man takes a certain amount of alcohol his small brain and spinal cord become partly paralyzed1 so that they cannot do their duty well2 and so1 when he tries to walk he reels and stumbles along1 often falling down1 and sometimes hurting himself very much4 ,the fact is that the alcohol has put his spinal cord and small brain to sleep so that he cannot make his legs do what he wants them to do4 ,now1 if still more alcohol is taken the whole brain becomes paralyzed1 and then the man is so nearly dead that we say he is dead drunk4 ,it is exceedingly dangerous to become dead drunk1 as the brain may be so completely paralyzed that it will not recover4 #f4 ,a small amount of alcohol does not make a man dead drunk1 but it poisons and paralyzes his brain and nerves just according to the quantity he takes4 #g4 ,if a person holds a little alcohol in his mouth for a few moments1 the tongue and cheeks feel numb4 ,this is because the alcohol paralyzes them so that they cannot feel or taste4 ,when taken into the stomach it has much the same kind of effect upon the nerves of the whole body4 #h4 ,alcohol a ,deceiver4--,a hungry man takes a drink of whiskey and benumbs the nerves of his stomach so that he does not feel hungry4 ,alcohol puts to sleep the sentinels which ,nature has set in the body to warn us of danger4 ,a man who is cold takes alcohol and feels warm1 though he is really colder4 ,he lies down in his false comfort and freezes to death4 ,a tired man takes his glass of grog and feels rested and strong1 though he is really weaker than before4 ,a poor man gets drunk and feels so rich that he spends what little money he has4 ,the alcohol paralyzes his judgment and steals away his good sense4 ,thus alcohol is always a deceiver4 #i4 ,delirium ,tremens4 7,de-lir'-i-um ,tre'-mens47--,when a man takes strong liquors regularly he very soon injures his brain and nerves so that they do not get quiet1 as they should1 at night1 and he does not sleep well4 ,he has frightful dreams4 ,he sees all sorts of wild animals and horrid shapes in his dreams4 ,perhaps you have sometimes had such dreams from eating late suppers or indigestible food4 #aj4 ,did you ever have a dream when you were awake8 ,if a man drinks a great deal he is likely to have a terrible disease known as delirium tremens1 in which he sees the same frightful things when he is wide awake that he dreams about when he is asleep4 ,this is one of the terrible effects of alcohol upon the brain and nerves4 #aa4 ,alcohol ,paralysis4--,you have seen how a drunken man staggers when he walks4 ,did you ever see a man who walked just as though he were drunk when he was really sober8 ,this is because a part of the brain or spinal cord has been permanently injured or paralyzed4 ,alcohol is not the only cause of this disease1 and so you must not think every person who staggers is or has been a drunkard2 but alcohol is a very frequent cause of paralysis4 #ab4 ,effects of ,alcohol upon the ,mind and ,character4--,when a man is under the influence of alcohol is his character good or bad8 ,is a man likely to be good1 or to be bad1 when he is drunk or excited by drink8 ,most men behave badly when they are drunk1 and after they have been drunk a great many times they often behave badly all the time4 ,a great many of the men who are shut up in prisons would not have been sent there if they had never learned to drink4 #ac4 ,a ,legacy4--,do you know what a legacy is8 ,if your father should die and leave to you a fine house or farm1 or money in the bank1 or books1 or horses1 or any other kind of property to have for your own1 it would be a legacy4 ,when a person gets anything in this way from a parent we say that he inherits it4 #ad4 ,we inherit a great many things besides houses and lands and other kinds of property4 ,for instance1 perhaps you remember hearing some one say that you have eyes and hair the same color as your mother's1 and that your nose and chin are like your father's4 ,so you have inherited the color of your hair and eyes from your mother and the shape of your chin and nose from your father4 #ae4 ,the ,alcohol ,legacy4--,the inside of a boy's head is just as much like his parents' as the outside of it4 ,in other words1 we inherit our brains just as we do our faces4 ,so1 if a man spoils his brain with alcohol and gets an alcohol appetite1 his children will be likely to have unhealthy brains and an appetite for alcohol also1 and may become drunkards4 ,is not that a dreadful kind of legacy to inherit8 #af4 ,a child that has no mind is called an idiot4 ,such a child cannot talk1 or read1 or sing1 and does not know enough to take proper care of itself4 ,this is one of the bad legacies which drunken parents sometimes leave to their children4 #ag4 ,effects of ,tobacco on the ,brain and ,nerves4--,the effects of tobacco upon the brain and nerves are much the same as those of alcohol4 ,tobacco1 like alcohol1 is a narcotic4 ,it benumbs and paralyzes the nerves1 and it is by this means that it obtains such an influence over those who use it4 #ah4 ,the hand of a man or boy who uses tobacco often becomes so unsteady that he can scarcely write4 ,do you know what makes it so unsteady8 ,it is because the cells which send nerves to the muscles of the hand are diseased4 ,when a person has a trembling hand you say he is nervous4 ,if you feel his pulse you will find that it does not beat steadily and regularly as it ought to do4 ,the heart is nervous and trembles just the same as the muscles do4 ,this shows that the tobacco has poisoned the cells in the brain which regulate the heart4 #ai4 ,wise physicians will tell you that one reason why tobacco is bad for boys is that it hurts their brains so that they cannot learn well1 and do not become as useful and successful men as they might be4 #bj4 ,students in the naval and military schools of this country are not allowed to use tobacco on account of its bad effects upon the mind4 ,in ,france the use of tobacco is forbidden to all students in the public schools4 #ba4 ,tobacco ,leads to ,vice4--,boys who use tobacco are more liable to get into company with boys who have other bad habits1 and so are apt to become bad in many other ways4 ,the use of tobacco often makes men want strong drink1 and thus leads to drunkenness4 ,if you wish to grow up with a steady hand1 a strong heart1 and a good character you will never touch tobacco4 #bb4 ,effects of ,tea and ,coffee on the ,nerves4--,people who use strong tea and coffee are often inclined to be nervous4 ,this shows that strong tea and coffee1 like alcohol and tobacco1 are very injurious to the nerves4 #bc4 ,opium1 ,chloral1 etc4--,there are several drugs which are given by physicians to relieve pain or to produce sleep4 ,they are sometimes helpful1 but their use is very dangerous4 ,opium and chloral belong to this class of medicines4 ,the danger is that1 after a person has used the medicine a little while1 he will continue to use it4 ,if a person takes a poisonous drug every time he has a little pain1 he will soon form the habit of using it1 and may never break it off4 ,there are many thousands of people who use opium all the time1 and they are very much injured by it in mind and body4 ,the mind becomes dull and stupid and the body weak and feeble4 ,no medicine of this sort should ever be taken unless prescribed by a physician4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,in order to be well and useful we must keep the brain and nerves healthy4 #b4 ,to keep the brain healthy we need plenty of pure air to breathe2 proper exercise of the brain by study2 sufficient exercise of the muscles in play and work2 plenty of good food to make pure blood2 a proper amount of rest and sleep4 #c4 ,there are several things we ought not to do4 ,we should not read or study too much4 ,we should not allow ourselves to become excited or angry4 ,we should avoid learning bad habits4 #d4 ,alcohol paralyzes the brain and nerves4 #e4 ,alcohol deceives a person who takes it by making him feel strong when he is weak2 warm when he is cold2 rich when he is poor2 well when he is sick4 #f4 ,alcohol makes men wicked4 ,most men who commit crimes are men who use liquor4 #g4 ,the effects of tobacco upon the brain and nerves are much the same as those of alcohol4 ,tobacco is very injurious to the mind4 #h4 ,tobacco-using often leads boys to drunkenness and other vices4 #i4 ,the use of opium and chloral produces even worse effects than the use of alcohol or tobacco4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,how ,,we ,,hear1 ,,see1 ,,smell1 ,,taste1 ,,and ,,feel4 #a4 ,the ,senses4--,we have five senses--hearing1 seeing1 smelling1 tasting1 and feeling4 ,these are called special senses because they are very different from each other4 ,they also differ from the general sense of feeling by means of which we feel pain when any part is hurt4 #b4 ,organs of the ,special ,senses4--,each of the special senses has a special set of nerves and also special cells in the brain which have charge of them4 ,we say that we see with our eyes1 hear with our ears1 feel with our fingers1 etc42 but1 really1 we see1 hear1 taste1 and smell in the brain just as we feel in the brain4 ,the eyes1 ears1 nose1 and other organs of the special senses are the instruments by means of which the brain sees1 hears1 smells1 etc4 #c4 ,sound and the ,vibrations which it ,causes4--,all sounds are made by jars or vibrations of objects4 ,sounds cause objects to vibrate or tremble4 ,a loud sound sometimes jars a whole house1 while other sounds are so gentle and soft that we cannot feel them in the same way that we feel loud sounds4 ,but ,nature has made for us an ingenious organ by means of which we can feel these very fine vibrations as well as loud ones4 ,we call this organ the ear4 #d4 ,the ,ear4--,the part of the ear which we can see is shaped somewhat like a trumpet4 ,the small opening near the middle of the ear leads into a canal or tube which extends into the head about an inch4 ,at the inner end there is a curious little chamber4 ,this is called the drum of the ear1 because between it and the canal of the ear there is stretched a thin membrane like the head of a drum4 ,the ear-drum is also called the middle ear4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ear4 #e4 ,bones of the ,ear4--,within the drum of the ear there are three curious little bones which are joined together so as to make a complete chain1 reaching from the drum-head to the other side of the drum4 ,the last bone fits into a little hole which leads into another curious chamber4 ,this chamber1 which is called the inner ear1 is filled with fluid1 and in this fluid the nerve of hearing is spread out4 ,a part of the inner ear looks very much like a snail shell4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,inside ,,of ,,the ,,ear4 #f4 ,how we ,hear4--,scratch with a pin upon one end of a long wooden pole4 ,have some one listen with the ear placed close against the other end of the pole4 ,he will tell you that he hears the scratching of the pin very plainly4 ,this is because the scratching jars the ear and especially the drum-head1 which vibrates just as the head of a drum does when it is beaten with a drum-stick4 ,when the drum-head vibrates it moves the bones of the ear1 and these carry the vibration to the nerves of hearing in the inner chamber4 ,we hear all sounds in the same way1 only most sounds come to the ear through the air4 ,the snail-shell of the inner part of the ear hears musical sounds4 ,the rest of the inner ear hears ordinary sounds or noises4 #g4 ,how to ,keep the ,ears ,healthy4--,the ears are very delicate organs and must be carefully treated4 ,the following things about the care of the ears should never be forgotten3 7#a47 ,never use a pin1 toothpick1 or any other sharp instrument to clean out the ear4 ,there is great danger that the drum-head will be torn1 and thus the hearing will be injured4 ,neither is it ever necessary to use an ear-spoon to remove the wax4 ,working at the ear causes more wax to form4 7#b47 ,do not allow cold water to enter the ear or a cold wind to blow directly into it4 7#c47 ,if anything accidentally gets into the ear1 do not work at it1 but hold the head over to one side while water is made to run in from a syringe4 ,if an insect has gone into the ear1 pour in a little oil4 ,this will kill the insect or make it come out4 7#d47 ,never shout into another person's ear4 ,the ear may be greatly injured in this way4 7#e47 ,boxing or pulling the ears is likely to produce deafness1 and ought never to be done4 #h4 ,the ,eye4--,the eye is one of the most wonderful organs in the whole body4 ,it enables us to know what is going on at some distance from us1 and to enjoy many beautiful things which our sense of hearing and other senses can tell us nothing about4 ,it also enables us to read4 ,let us learn how this wonderful organ is made4 #i4 ,the ,eyeball4--,looking at the eye1 we see first a round part which rolls in different directions4 ,this is the eyeball4 ,we see only the front side of the eyeball as it fits into a hollow in the skull4 ,being thus in a safe place1 it is not likely to get hurt4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,eye4 ,the eyeball is mostly filled with a clear substance very much like jelly4 ,it is so clear that the light can shine through it just as easily as it can shine through water4 #aj4 ,the ,pupil4--,if you look sharply at the eyeball you will see a small black hole just in the centre4 ,this is a little window which lets the light into the inside of the eyeball4 ,we call this the pupil4 ,just around the pupil is a colored ring which gives the eye its color4 ,we say a person has blue or brown or gray eyes according as this ring is blue or brown or gray4 ,this colored ring is a kind of curtain for the window of the eye4 #aa4 ,if you observe the pupil closely1 you will see that it is sometimes larger and sometimes smaller4 ,if you look at the light the pupil is small2 if you turn away from the light the pupil grows larger at once4 ,this is because the curtain closes when in a bright light and opens in the darkness4 ,it does this of itself without our thinking about it4 ,in this way the eye is protected from too strong a light1 which would do it great harm4 #ab4 ,if you look a little sidewise at the eyeball1 you will see that the curtain has something in front of it which is clear as glass4 ,it is about the shape of a watch crystal1 only very much smaller4 ,this is to the eye what the glass is to the windows of a house4 ,it closes the opening in the front of the eyeball and yet lets the light shine in4 #ac4 ,the ,white of the ,eye4--,the white of the eye is a tough1 firm membrane which encloses the eyeball and keeps it in a round shape4 #ad4 ,the ,lens4--,do you know what a lens is8 ,perhaps you do not know it by this name1 but you are familiar with the spectacles which people sometimes wear to help their eyes4 ,the glasses in the spectacle frames are called lenses4 ,well1 there is something in the eye almost exactly like one of these lenses1 only smaller4 ,it is also called a lens4 ,if some one will get the eye of an ox for you1 you can cut it open and find this part4 ,the lens is placed in the eyeball just behind the pupil4 7,see picture47 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,inside ,,of ,,the ,,eye4 #ae4 ,the ,nerves of ,sight4--,but a person might have an eyeball with all the parts we have learned about and yet not be able to see4 ,can you tell what more is needed8 ,there must be a nerve4 ,this nerve comes from some little nerve cells in the brain and enters the eyeball at the back of the eye2 there it is spread out on the inside of the black lining of the white of the eye4 #af4 ,the ,eyelids4--,now we know all that it is necessary for us to learn about the eyeball1 so let us notice some other parts about the eye4 ,first there are the eyelids4 ,they are little folds of skin fringed with hairs1 which we can shut up so as to cover the eyeball and keep out the light when we want to sleep or when we are in danger of getting dust or smoke into the eye4 ,the hairs placed along the edge of the lids help to keep the dust out when the eyes are open4 #ag4 ,the ,eyebrows4--,the row of hairs placed above the eye is called the eyebrow4 ,like the eyelids1 the eyebrows catch some substances which might fall into the eye1 and they also serve to turn off the perspiration and keep it out of the eyes4 #ah4 ,the ,tear ,gland4--,do you know where the tears come from8 ,there is a little gland snugly placed away in the socket of the eye just above the eyeball1 which makes tears in the same way that the salivary glands make saliva4 ,it is called the tear gland4 ,the gland usually makes just enough tears to keep the eye moist4 ,there are times when it makes more than enough1 as when something gets into the eye1 or when we suffer pain or feel unhappy4 ,then the tears are carried off by means of a little tube which runs down into the nose from the inner corner of the eye4 ,when the tears are formed so fast that they cannot all get away through this tube1 they pass over the edge of the lower eyelid and flow down the cheek4 #ai4 ,muscles of the ,eyes4--,by means of little muscles which are fastened to the eyeball1 we are able to turn the eye in almost every direction4 #bj4 ,how we ,see4--,now we want to know how we see with the eye4 ,this is not very easy to understand1 but we can learn something about it4 ,let us make a little experiment4 ,here is a glass lens4 ,if we hold it before a window and place a piece of smooth white paper behind it1 we can see a picture of the houses and trees and fences1 and other things out-of-doors4 ,the picture made by the lens looks exactly like the view out-of-doors1 except that it is upside down4 ,this is one of the curious things that a lens does4 ,the lens of the eye acts just like a glass lens4 ,it makes a picture of everything we see1 upon the ends of the nerves of sight which are spread out at the back of the eyeball4 ,the nerves of sight tell their nerves in the brain about the picture1 just as the nerves of feeling tell their cells when they are touched with a pin2 and this is how we see4 #ba4 ,did you ever look through a spyglass or an opera-glass8 ,if so1 you know you must make the tube longer or shorter according as you look at things near by or far away4 ,the eye also has to be changed a little when we look from near to distant objects4 ,look out of the window at a tree a long way off4 ,now place a lead pencil between the eyes and the tree4 ,you can scarcely see the pencil while you look sharply at the tree1 and if you look at the pencil you cannot see the tree distinctly4 #bb4 ,there is a little muscle in the eye which makes the change needed to enable us to see objects close by as well as those which are farther away4 ,when people grow old the little muscles cannot do this so well1 and hence old people have to put on glasses to see objects near by1 as in reading4 ,children should not try to wear old persons' glasses1 as this is likely to injure their eyes4 #bc4 ,how to ,keep the ,eyes ,healthy4--7#a47 ,never continue the use of the eyes at fine work1 such as reading or fancy-work1 after they have become very tired4 7#b47 ,do not try to read or to use the eyes with a poor light--in the twilight1 for instance1 before the gas or lamps are lighted4 7#c47 ,in reading or studying1 do not sit with the light from either a lamp or a window shining directly upon the face4 ,have the light come from behind and shine over the left shoulder if possible4 7#d47 ,never expose the eyes to a sudden1 bright light by looking at the sun or at a lamp on first awaking in the morning1 or by passing quickly from a dark room into a lighted one4 7#e47 ,do not read when lying down1 or when riding on a street car or railway train4 7#f47 ,if any object gets into the eye have it removed as soon as possible4 7#g47 ,a great many persons hurt their eyes by using various kinds of eye-washes4 ,never use anything of this kind unless told to do so by a good physician4 #bd4 ,how we ,smell4--,if we wish to smell anything very strongly1 we sniff or suddenly draw the air up through the nose4 ,we do this to bring more air to the nerves of smell1 which are placed at the upper part of the inside of the nose4 ,illustration3 ,,inside ,,of ,,the ,,nose4 #be4 ,smelling is a sort of feeling4 ,the nerves of smell are so sensitive that they can discover things in the air which we cannot taste or see4 ,an ,indian uses his sense of smell to tell him whether things are good to eat or not4 ,he knows that things which have a pleasant smell are likely to be good for him and not likely to make him sick4 ,we do not make so much use of the sense of smell as do the savages and many lower animals1 and hence we are not able to smell so acutely4 ,many persons lose the sense of smell altogether1 from neglecting colds in the head4 #bf4 ,how we ,taste4--,the tongue and the palate have very delicate nerves by means of which we taste4 ,we cannot taste with the whole of the tongue4 ,the very tip of the tongue has only nerves of touch or feeling4 #bg4 ,the use of the sense of taste is to give us pleasure and to tell us whether different substances are healthful or injurious4 ,things which are poisonous and likely to make us sick almost always have an unpleasant taste as well as an unpleasant odor4 ,things which have a pleasant taste are usually harmless4 #bh4 ,bad ,tastes4--,people sometimes learn to like things which have a very unpleasant taste4 ,pepper1 mustard1 pepper-sauce1 and other hot sauces1 alcohol1 and tobacco are harmful substances of this sort4 ,when used freely they injure the sense of taste so that it cannot detect and enjoy fine and delicate flavors4 ,these substances1 as we have elsewhere learned1 also do the stomach harm and injure the nerves and other parts of the body4 #bi4 ,the ,sense of ,touch4--,if you put your hand upon an object you can tell whether it is hard or soft1 smooth or rough1 and can learn whether it is round or square1 or of some other shape4 ,you are able to do this by means of the nerves of touch1 which are found in the skin in all parts of the body4 ,if you wished to know how an object feels1 would you touch it with the elbow1 or the knee1 or the cheek8 ,you will say1 ,no4 ,you would feel of it with the hand1 and would touch it with the ends of the fingers4 ,you can feel objects better with the ends of the fingers because there are more nerves of touch in the part of the skin covering the ends of the fingers than in most other parts of the body4 #cj4 ,the sense of touch is more delicate in the tip of the tongue than in any other part4 ,this is because it is necessary to use the sense of touch in the tongue to assist the sense of taste in finding out whether things are good to eat or not4 ,the sense of touch is also very useful to us in many other ways4 ,we hardly know how useful it really is until we are deprived of some of our other senses1 as sight or hearing4 ,in a blind man the sense of touch often becomes surprisingly acute4 #ca4 ,effects of ,alcohol and ,tobacco on the ,special ,senses4--,all the special senses--hearing1 seeing1 smelling1 tasting1 feeling--depend upon the brain and nerves4 ,whatever does harm to the brain and nerves must injure the special senses also4 ,we have learned how alcohol and tobacco1 and all other narcotics and stimulants1 injure and sometimes destroy the brain cells and their nerve branches1 and so we can understand that a person who uses these poisonous substances will1 by so doing1 injure the delicate organs with which he hears1 sees1 smells1 etc4 #cb4 ,persons who use tobacco and strong drink sometimes become blind1 because these poisons injure the nerves of sight4 ,the ears are frequently injured by the use of tobacco4 ,smoking cigarettes and snuff-taking destroy the sense of smell4 ,the poison of the tobacco paralyzes the nerves of taste so that they cannot detect flavors4 ,tea-tasters and other persons who need to have a delicate sense of taste do not use either alcohol or tobacco4 ,,summary4 #a4 ,we have five special senses--hearing1 seeing1 smelling1 tasting1 and feeling4 #b4 ,the ear is the organ of hearing1 and has three parts1 called the external ear1 the middle ear1 and the inner ear4 ,the inner ear contains the nerve of hearing4 #c4 ,the middle ear is separated from the external ear by the drum-head4 ,the drum-head is connected with the inner ear by a chain of bones4 #d4 ,sounds cause the drum-head to vibrate4 ,the ear-bones convey the vibration from the drum-head to the nerve of hearing4 #e4 ,to keep the ear healthy we must avoid meddling with it or putting things into it4 #f4 ,the eye is the organ of sight4 ,the chief parts of the eye are the eyeball1 the socket1 and the eyelids4 #g4 ,in the eyeball are the pupil1 the lens1 and the nerve of sight4 #h4 ,the eyeball is moved in various directions by six small muscles4 #i4 ,the eye is moistened by tears from the tear-gland4 #aj4 ,when we look at an object the lens of the eye makes a picture on the nerve of sight1 at the back part of the eyeball4 #aa4 ,to keep the eyes healthy we should be careful not to tax them long at a time with fine work1 or to use them in a poor light4 #ab4 ,the nerves of smell are placed in the upper part of the inside of the nose4 #ac4 ,colds often destroy the sense of smell4 #ad4 ,the nerves of taste are placed in the tongue and palate4 #ae4 ,many things which we think we taste we really do not taste1 but smell or feel4 #af4 ,objects which have a pleasant taste are usually healthful1 while those which have a bad taste are usually harmful4 #ag4 ,pepper1 mustard1 etc41 as well as alcohol and tobacco1 have an unpleasant taste1 and are not healthful4 ,if we use them we shall injure the nerves of taste as well as other parts of the body4 #ah4 ,we feel objects by means of the sense of touch4 #ai4 ,the sense of touch is most acute at the tip of the tongue and the ends of the fingers4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,alcohol4 #a4 ,as we learned in the early part of our study of this subject1 alcohol is produced by fermentation4 ,it is afterwards separated from water and other substances by distillation4 ,we will now learn a few more things about alcohol4 #b4 ,alcohol ,burns4--,if alcohol is placed in a lamp1 it will burn much like kerosene oil4 ,indeed1 it does not need a lamp to help it burn as does oil4 ,if a few drops of alcohol are placed upon a plate1 it may be lighted with a match1 and will burn with a pale blue flame4 ,thus you see that alcohol is a sort of burning fluid4 #c4 ,the vapor of alcohol will burn also1 and under some circumstances it will explode4 ,on this account it is better not to try any experiments with it unless some older person is close by to direct you1 so that no harm may be done4 ,alcohol is really a dangerous substance even though we do not take it as a drink4 #d4 ,an ,interesting ,experiment4--,we have told you that all fermented drinks contain alcohol4 ,you will remember that wine1 beer1 ale1 and cider are fermented drinks4 ,we know that these drinks contain alcohol because the chemist can separate the alcohol from the water and other substances1 and thus learn just how much alcohol each contains4 #e4 ,if we should remove all the alcohol from wine1 no one would care to drink it4 ,the same is true of beer and cider4 ,it is very easy to remove the alcohol by the simple process of heating4 ,this is the way the chemist separates it4 ,the heat drives the alcohol off with the steam4 ,if the heating is continued long enough1 all the alcohol will be driven off4 ,the ,chinaman boils his wine before drinking it4 ,perhaps this is one reason why ,chinamen are so seldom found drunken4 #f4 ,by a simple experiment which your parents or your teacher can perform for you1 it can be readily proven that different fermented drinks contain alcohol1 and also that the alcohol may be driven off by heat4 ,place a basin half full of water upon the stove where it will soon boil4 ,put into a glass bottle enough beer or cider so that when the bottle stands up in the basin the liquid in the bottle will be at about the same height as the water in the basin4 ,now place in the neck of the bottle a closely fitting cork in which there has been inserted a piece of the stem of a clay pipe or a small glass tube4 ,place the bottle in the basin4 ,watch carefully until the liquid in the bottle begins to boil4 ,now apply a lighted match to the end of the pipe-stem or glass tube4 ,perhaps you will observe nothing at first1 but continue placing the match to the pipe-stem1 and pretty soon you will notice a little blue flame burning at the end of the stem4 ,it will go out often1 but you can light it again4 ,this is proof that alcohol is escaping from the liquid in the bottle4 ,after the liquid has been boiling for some time1 the flame goes out1 and cannot be re-lighted1 because the alcohol has been all driven off4 ,illustration3 ,alcohol experiment4 #g4 ,the ,alcohol ,breath4--,you have doubtless heard that a person who is under the influence of liquor may be known by his breath4 ,his breath smells of alcohol4 ,this is because his lungs are trying to remove the alcohol from his blood as fast as possible1 so as to prevent injury to the blood corpuscles and the tissues of the body4 ,it is the vapor of alcohol mixed with his breath that causes the odor4 #h4 ,you may have heard that sometimes men take such quantities of liquor that the breath becomes strong with the vapor of alcohol and takes fire when a light is brought near the mouth4 ,these stories are probably not true1 although it sometimes happens that persons become diseased in such a way that the breath will take fire if it comes in contact with a light4 ,alcohol may be a cause of this kind of disease4 #i4 ,making ,alcohol4--,it may be that some of our young readers would like to find out for themselves that alcohol is really made by fermentation4 ,this may be done by an easy experiment4 ,you know that yeast will cause bread to rise or ferment4 ,as we have elsewhere learned1 a little alcohol is formed in the fermentation of bread1 but is driven off by the heat of the oven in baking1 so that we do not take any of it into our stomachs when we eat the bread4 ,if we place a little baker's yeast in sweetened water1 it will cause it to ferment and produce alcohol4 ,to make alcohol1 all we have to do is to place a little yeast and some sweetened water in a bottle and put it away in a warm place for a few hours until it has had time to ferment4 ,you will know when fermentation has taken place by the great number of small bubbles which appear4 ,when the liquid has fermented1 you may prove that alcohol is present by means of the same experiment by which you found the alcohol in cider or wine4 7,see page #afj47 #aj4 ,alcohol is made from the sweet juices of fruits by simply allowing them to ferment4 ,wine1 as you know1 is fermented grape juice4 ,cider is fermented apple juice4 ,the strong alcoholic liquor obtained by distilling wine1 cider1 or any kind of fermented fruit juice1 is known as brandy4 #aa4 ,how ,beer is ,made4--,beer is made from grain of some sort4 ,the grain is first moistened and kept in a warm place for a few days until it begins to sprout4 ,the young plant needs sugar for its food2 and so while the grain is sprouting1 the starch in the grain is changed into sugar by a curious kind of digestion4 ,this1 as you will remember1 is the way in which the saliva acts upon starch4 ,so far no very great harm has been done1 only sprouted grain1 though very sweet1 is not so good to eat as grain which has not sprouted4 ,nature intends the sugar to be used as food for the little sproutlet2 but the brewer wants it for another purpose1 and he stops the growth of the plant by drying the grain in a hot room4 #ab4 ,the next thing the brewer does is to grind the sprouted grain and soak it in water4 ,the water dissolves out the sugar4 ,next he adds yeast to the sweet liquor and allows it to ferment1 thus converting the sugar into alcohol4 ,potatoes are sometimes treated in a similar way4 #ac4 ,by distilling beer1 a strong liquor known as whiskey is obtained4 ,sometimes juniper berries are distilled with the beer4 ,the liquor obtained is then called gin4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 on the great sugar plantations1 large quantities of liquor are made from the skimmings and cleanings of the vessels in which the sweet juice of the sugar-cane is boiled down4 ,these refuse matters are mixed with water and fermented1 then distilled4 ,this liquor is called rum4 #ad4 ,now you have learned enough about alcohol to know that it is not produced by plants in the same way that food is1 but that it is the result of a sort of decay4 ,in making alcohol1 good food is destroyed and made into a substance which is not fit for food1 and which produces a great amount of sickness and destroys many lives4 ,do you not think it a pity that such great quantities of good corn and other grains should be wasted in this way when they might be employed for a useful purpose8 #ae4 ,the ,alcohol ,family4--,scientists tell us that there are several different kinds of alcohol4 ,naphtha is a strong-smelling liquid sometimes used by painters to thin their paint and make it dry quickly4 ,it does not have the same odor as alcohol1 but it looks and acts very much like it4 ,it will burn as alcohol does4 ,it kills animals and plants4 ,it will make a person drunk if he takes a sufficient quantity of it4 ,indeed1 it is so like alcohol that it really is a kind of alcohol4 #af4 ,there are also other kinds of alcohol4 ,fusel-oil1 a deadly poison1 is an alcohol4 ,a very small amount of this alcohol will make a person very drunk4 ,fusel-oil is found in bad whiskey4 7,all whiskey is bad1 but some kinds are worse than others47 ,this is why such whiskey makes men so furiously drunk4 ,it also causes speedy death in those who use it frequently4 ,there are still other kinds of alcohol1 some of which are even worse than fusel-oil4 ,so you see this is a very bad family4 #ag4 ,like most other bad families1 this alcohol family has many bad relations4 ,you have heard of carbolic acid1 a powerful poison4 ,this is one of the relatives of the alcohol family4 ,creosote is another poisonous substance closely related to alcohol4 ,ether and chloroform1 by which people are made insensible during surgical operations1 are also relatives of alcohol4 ,they are1 in fact1 made from alcohol4 ,these substances1 although really useful1 are very poisonous and dangerous4 ,do you not think it will be very wise and prudent for you to have nothing to do with alcohol in any form1 even wine1 beer1 or cider1 since it belongs to such a bad family and has so many bad relations8 #ah4 ,some persons think that they will suffer no harm if they take only wine or beer1 or perhaps hard cider4 ,this is a great mistake4 ,a person may get drunk on any of these drinks if a sufficient amount be taken4 ,besides1 boys who use wine1 beer1 or cider1 rarely fail to become fond of stronger liquors4 ,a great many men who have died drunkards began with cider4 ,cider begins to ferment within a day or two after it is made1 and becomes stronger in alcohol all the time for many months4 #ai4 ,bitters4--,there are other liquids not called drinks which contain alcohol4 ,bitters usually contain more alcohol than is found in ale or wine1 and sometimes more than in the strongest whiskey4 ,jamaica ginger is almost pure alcohol4 ,hence1 it is often as harmful for a person to use these medicines freely as to use alcoholic liquors in any other form4 #bj4 ,alcoholic liquors of all kinds are often adulterated4 ,that is1 they contain other poisons besides alcohol4 ,in consequence of this1 they may become even more harmful than when pure2 but this does not make it safe to use even pure liquor4 ,alcohol is itself more harmful than the other drugs usually added in adulteration4 ,it is important that you should know this1 for many people think they will not suffer much harm from the use of alcohol if they are careful to obtain pure liquors4 #ba4 ,some ,experiments4--,how many of you remember what you have learned in previous lessons about the poisonous effects of alcohol8 ,do people ever die at once from its effects8 ,only a short time ago a man made a bet that he could take five drinks of whiskey in five seconds4 ,he dropped dead when he had swallowed the fourth glass4 ,no one ever suffered such an effect from taking water or milk or any other good food or drink4 #bb4 ,a man once made an experiment by mistake4 ,he was carrying some alcohol across a lawn4 ,he accidentally spilled some upon the grass4 ,the next day he found the grass as dead and brown as though it had been scorched by fire4 #bc4 ,mr4 ,darwin1 the great naturalist1 once made a curious experiment4 ,he took a little plant with three healthy green leaves1 and shut it up under a glass jar where there was a tea-spoonful of alcohol4 ,the alcohol was in a dish by itself1 so it did not touch the plant2 but the vapor of the alcohol mixed with the air in the jar so that the plant had to breathe it4 ,in less than half an hour he took the plant out4 ,its leaves were faded and somewhat shrivelled4 ,the next morning it appeared to be dead4 ,do you suppose the odor of milk or meat1 or of any good food1 would affect a plant like that8 ,animals shut up with alcohol die in just the same way4 #bd4 ,a ,drunken ,plant4--,how many of you remember about a curious plant that catches flies8 ,do you remember its name8 ,what does the ,venus's fly-trap do with the flies after it catches them8 ,do you say that it eats them8 ,really this is what it does1 for it dissolves and absorbs them4 ,in other words1 it digests them4 ,this is just what our stomachs do to the food we eat4 #be4 ,a few years ago ,mr4 ,darwin thought that he would see what effect alcohol would have upon the digestion of a plant4 ,so he put a fly-catching plant in a jar with some alcohol for just five minutes4 ,the alcohol did not touch the plant1 because the jar was only wet with the alcohol on the inside4 ,when he took the plant out1 he found that it could not catch flies1 and that its digestion was spoiled so that it could not even digest very tender bits of meat which were placed on its leaves4 ,the plant was drunk4 #bf4 ,mr4 ,darwin tried a great many experiments with various poisons1 and found that the plants were affected in much the same way by ether and chloroform1 and also by nicotine1 the poisonous oil of tobacco4 ,sugar1 milk1 and other foods had no such effect4 ,this does not look much as though alcohol would help digestion2 does it8 #bg4 ,effects of ,alcohol on ,digestion4--,dr4 ,roberts1 a very eminent ,english scientist1 made many experiments1 a few years ago1 to ascertain positively about the effect of alcohol upon digestion4 ,he concluded that alcohol1 even in small doses1 delays digestion4 ,this is quite contrary to the belief of very many people1 who suppose that wine1 cider1 or stronger liquors aid digestion4 ,the use of alcohol in the form of beer or other alcoholic drinks is often a cause of serious disease of the stomach and other digestive organs4 #bh4 ,effects of ,alcohol on ,animal ,heat4--,a large part of the food we eat is used in keeping our bodies warm4 ,most of the starch1 sugar1 and fat in our food serves the body as a sort of fuel4 ,it is by this means that the body is kept always at about the same temperature1 which is just a little less than one hundred degrees4 ,this is why we need more food in very cold weather than in very warm weather4 #bi4 ,when a person takes alcohol1 it is found that instead of being made warmer by it1 he is not so warm as before4 ,he feels warmer1 but if his temperature be ascertained by means of a thermometer placed in his mouth1 it is found that he is really colder4 ,the more alcohol a person takes the colder he becomes4 ,if alcohol were good food would we expect this to be the case8 ,it is probably true that the alcohol does make a little heat1 but at the same time it causes us to lose much more heat than it makes4 ,the outside of the body is not so warm as the inside4 ,this is because the warm blood in the blood-vessels of the skin is cooled more rapidly than the blood in the interior of the body4 ,the effect of alcohol is to cause the blood-vessels of the outside of the body to become much enlarged4 ,this is why the face becomes flushed4 ,a larger amount of warm blood is brought from the inside of the body to the outside1 where it is cooled very rapidly2 and thus the body loses heat1 instead of gaining it1 under the influence of alcohol4 ,this is not true of any proper food substance4 #cj4 ,alcohol in the ,polar ,regions4--,experience teaches the same thing as science respecting the effect of alcohol4 ,captain ,ross1 ,dr4 ,kane1 ,captain ,parry1 ,captain ,hall1 ,lieutenant ,greely1 and many other famous explorers who have spent long months amid the ice and snow and intense cold of the countries near the ,north ,pole1 all say that alcohol does not warm a man when he is cold1 and does not keep him from getting cold4 ,indeed1 alcohol is considered so dangerous in these cold regions that no ,arctic explorer at the present time could be induced to use it4 ,the ,hudson ,bay ,company do not allow the men who work for them to use any kind of alcoholic liquors4 ,alcohol is a great deceiver1 is it not8 ,it makes a man think he is warmer1 when he is really colder4 ,many men are frozen to death while drunk4 #ca4 ,alcohol in ,hot ,regions4--,bruce1 ,livingstone1 and ,stanley1 and all great ,african travellers1 condemn the use of alcohol in that hot country as well as elsewhere4 ,the ,yuma ,indians1 who live in ,arizona and ,new ,mexico1 where the weather is sometimes much hotter than we ever know it here1 have made a law of their own against the use of liquor4 ,if one of the tribe becomes drunk1 he is severely punished4 ,this law they have made because of the evil effects of liquor which they noticed among the members of their tribe who used to become intoxicated4 ,do you not think that a very wise thing for ,indians to do8 #cb4 ,sunstroke4--,do you know what sunstroke is8 ,if you do not1 your parents or teacher will tell yow that persons exposed to the heat of the sun on a hot summer day are sometimes overcome by it4 ,they become weak1 giddy1 or insensible1 and not infrequently die4 ,scores of people are sometimes stricken down in a single day in some of our large cities4 ,it may occur to you that if alcohol cools the body1 it would be a good thing for a person to take to prevent or relieve an attack of sunstroke4 ,on the contrary1 it is found that those who use alcoholic drinks are much more liable to sunstroke than others4 ,this is on account of the poisonous effects of the alcohol upon the nerves4 ,no doctor would think of giving alcohol in any form to a man suffering with sunstroke4 #cc4 ,effects of ,alcohol upon the ,tissues4--,here are two interesting experiments which your teacher or parents can make for you4 ,experiment #a4 ,place a piece of tender beefsteak in a saucer and cover it with alcohol4 ,put it away over night4 ,in the morning the beefsteak will be found to be shrunken1 dried1 and almost as tough as a piece of leather4 ,this shows the effect of alcohol upon the tissues1 which are essentially like those of lower animals4 ,experiment #b4 ,break an egg into a half glassful of alcohol4 ,stir the egg and alcohol together for a few minutes4 ,soon you will see that the egg begins to harden and look just as though it had been boiled4 #cd4 ,this is the effect of strong alcohol4 ,the alcohol of alcoholic drinks has water and other things mixed with it1 so that it does not act so quickly nor so severely as pure alcohol2 but the effect is essentially the same in character4 ,it is partly in this way that the brain1 nerves1 muscles1 and other tissues of drinking men and women become diseased4 ,eminent physicians tell us that a large share of the unfortunate persons who are shut up in insane asylums are brought there by alcohol4 ,is it not a dreadful thing that one's mind should be thus ruined by a useless and harmful practice8 ,,summary4 #a4 ,alcohol is produced by fermentation1 and obtained by distillation4 ,it will burn like kerosene oil and other burning fluids4 #b4 ,the vapor of alcohol will burn and will sometimes explode4 #c4 ,alcohol may be separated from beer and other fermented liquids by boiling4 #d4 ,brandy is distilled from fermented fruit juice1 whiskey and gin from beer or fermented grains1 rum from fermented molasses4 #e4 ,alcohol is the result of a sort of decay1 and much good food is destroyed in producing it4 #f4 ,besides ordinary alcohol1 there are several other kinds4 ,naphtha and fusel-oil are alcohols4 #g4 ,all the members of the alcohol family are poisons2 all will burn1 and all will intoxicate4 ,the alcohol family have several bad relations1 among which are carbolic acid1 ether1 and chloroform4 #h4 ,cider1 beer1 and wine are harmful and dangerous as well as strong liquors4 ,bitters often contain as much alcohol as the strongest liquors1 and sometimes more4 #i4 ,alcoholic liquors are sometimes adulterated1 but they usually contain no poison worse than alcohol4 ,pure alcohol is scarcely less dangerous than that which is adulterated4 #aj4 ,death sometimes occurs almost instantly from taking strong liquors4 #aa4 ,alcohol will kill grass and other plants1 if poured upon them or about their roots4 #ab4 ,mr4 ,darwin proved that the vapor of alcohol will kill plants2 also that plants become intoxicated by breathing the vapor of alcohol4 #ac4 ,alcohol1 even in small quantities1 hinders digestion4 #ad4 ,alcohol causes the body to lose heat so rapidly that it becomes cooler instead of warmer4 #ae4 ,the danger of freezing to death when exposed to extreme cold is greatly increased by taking alcohol4 #af4 ,stanley1 and other ,african explorers1 say that it is dangerous to use alcoholic drinks in hot climates4 #ag4 ,in very hot weather1 persons who use alcoholic drinks are more subject to sunstroke than those who do not4 #ah4 ,beefsteak soaked in alcohol becomes tough like leather4 ,an egg placed in alcohol is hardened as though it had been boiled4 #ai4 ,the effect of alcohol upon the brain1 nerves1 and other tissues of the body is much the same as upon the beefsteak and the egg4 ,,questions ,,for ,,review4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,house ,,we ,,live ,,in4--,what is the body like8 ,does the body resemble anything else besides a house8 ,how is it like a machine8 ,name the different parts of the body4 ,what is anatomy8 physiology8 hygiene8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,a ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,body4--,what are the main parts of the body8 ,name the different parts of the head2 of the trunk2 of each arm2 of each leg4 ,what covers the body8 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,inside ,,of ,,the ,,body4--,what is the name of the framework of the body8 ,what is the skull8 ,how is the back-bone formed8 ,name the two cavities of the trunk4 ,what does the chest contain8 the abdomen8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,our ,,foods4--,of what are our bodies made8 ,what are foods8 ,where do we get our foods8 ,name some animal foods2 some vegetable foods4 ,what are poisons8 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,unhealthful ,,foods4--,is the flesh of diseased animals good for food8 ,what can you say about unripe1 stale1 or mouldy foods8 ,what is adulteration of foods8 ,what foods are most likely to be adulterated8 ,are pepper1 mustard1 and other condiments proper foods8 ,what about tobacco8 ,what is the effect of tobacco upon boys8 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,our ,,drinks4--,what is the only thing that will satisfy thirst8 ,why do we need water8 ,how does water sometimes become impure8 ,what is the effect of using impure water8 ,what are the properties of good water8 ,are tea and coffee good drinks8 ,how is alcohol made8 ,give familiar examples of fermentation4 ,how are pure alcohol and strong liquors made8 ,is alcohol a food8 ,why do you think it is a poison8 ,do you think moderate drinking is healthful8 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,how ,,we ,,digest4--,what is digestion8 ,what is the digestive tube8 ,name the different digestive organs4 ,how many sets of teeth has a person in his lifetime8 ,how many teeth in each set8 ,how many pairs of salivary glands8 ,what do they form8 ,what is the gullet8 ,describe the stomach4 ,what is the gastric juice8 ,how long is the intestinal canal8 ,what fluid is formed in the intestines8 ,where is the liver found1 and how large is it8 ,what does the liver produce8 ,what is the gall-bladder1 and what is its use8 ,what does the liver do besides producing bile8 ,what and where is the pancreas8 ,what does the pancreas do8 ,where is the spleen8 ,how many important organs of digestion are there8 ,how many digestive fluids8 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,digestion ,,of ,a ,,mouthful ,,of ,,bread4--,name the different processes of digestion mastication1 action of saliva1 swallowing1 action of stomach and gastric juice1 action of bile1 action of pancreatic juice1 action of intestines and intestinal juice1 absorption1 liver digestion4 ,describe the digestion of a mouthful of bread4 ,where is the food taken after it has been absorbed8 ,what are the lacteals8 ,what is the thoracic duct8 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,bad ,,habits ,,in ,,eating4--,what is indigestion8 ,mention some of the causes of indigestion4 ,how does eating too fast cause indigestion8 ,eating too much8 too frequently8 ,irregularly8 when tired8 ,how do tea and coffee impair digestion8 ,why is it harmful to use iced foods and drinks8 ,why should we not eat pepper and other hot and irritating things8 ,how should the teeth be cared for8 ,how does tobacco-using affect the stomach8 ,what dreadful disease is sometimes caused by tobacco8 ,how does alcohol affect the gastric juice8 the stomach8 the liver8 ,,chapter ,x4 ,a ,,drop ,,of ,,blood4--,what does the blood contain8 ,how many kinds of blood corpuscles are there8 ,what work is done for the body by each kind of corpuscles8 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,why ,,the ,,heart ,,beats4--,where is the heart8 ,why does the heart beat8 ,how many chambers has the heart8 ,what are the blood-vessels8 ,how many kinds of blood-vessels are there8 ,name them4 ,what is the difference between venous blood and arterial blood8 ,what change occurs in the blood in the lungs8 ,what is the pulse8 ,how much work does the heart do every twenty-four hours8 ,what are the lymphatics8 ,what do they contain1 and what is their purpose8 ,what are lymphatic glands8 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,heart ,,and ,,blood ,,healthy4--,name some things likely to injure the heart or the blood4 ,what is the effect of violent exercise8 of bad air8 of bad food8 of loss of sleep8 of violent anger8 ,what can you say about clothing8 ,what is the effect of alcohol upon the blood8 the heart8 the bodily heat8 ,what is the effect of tobacco upon the heart8 the pulse8 the blood8 ,what is the effect of tea and coffee upon the heart8 ,what is a cold8 ,in a case of bleeding from a wound1 how can you tell whether a vein or an artery is cut8 ,how would you stop the bleeding from an artery8 from a vein8 ,how would you stop nose-bleed8 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,why ,,and ,,how ,,we ,,breathe4--,what happens to a lighted candle if shut up in a small1 close place8 to a mouse8 ,why is air so necessary for a burning candle and for animals8 ,how is the heat of our bodies produced8 ,name the principal organs of breathing4 ,describe each4 ,how do we use the lungs in breathing8 ,how much air will a man's lungs hold8 ,how much air do we use with each breath8 ,what poisonous substance does the air which we breathe out contain8 ,will a candle burn in air which has been breathed8 ,what happens to animals placed in such air8 ,what change takes place in the blood as it passes through the lungs8 ,how do plants purify the air8 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,lungs ,,healthy4--,what is the thing most necessary to preserve life8 ,name some of the ways in which the blood becomes impure4 ,why is bad-smelling air dangerous to health8 ,what are germs8 ,why are some diseases catching8 ,name some such diseases4 ,what should be done with a person who has a catching disease8 ,what is the effect of the breath upon the air8 ,how much air is poisoned and made unfit to breathe by each breath8 ,how much air do we spoil every minute8 every hour8 ,how much pure air does each person need every minute8 every hour8 ,how do we get fresh air into our houses8 ,why are windows and doors not good means of ventilating in cold weather8 ,how should a room be ventilated8 ,how should we use the lungs in breathing8 ,what about the clothing in reference to the lungs8 ,why is it injurious to breathe habitually through the mouth8 ,what is the effect of alcohol upon the lungs8 ,what is the effect of tobacco-using upon the throat and nose8 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,skin ,,and ,,what ,,it ,,does4--,how many layers in the skin8 ,what is each called8 ,to what is the color of the skin due8 ,what glands are found in the true skin8 ,what are the nails and what is their purpose8 ,how does the hair grow8 ,name the different uses of the skin8 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,how ,,to ,,take ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,skin4--,what happened to the little boy who was covered with gold leaf8 ,why did he die8 ,what is the effect of neglecting to keep the skin clean8 ,what is the effect of wearing too much clothing and living in rooms which are too warm8 ,how should the hair be cared for8 the nails8 ,what is the effect of alcohol1 tobacco1 and other narcotics upon the skin8 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,kidneys ,,and ,,their ,,work4--,what is the work of the kidneys8 ,how may we keep these organs healthy8 ,what is the effect of alcohol upon the kidneys8 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,our ,,bones ,,and ,,their ,,uses4--,how many bones in the body8 ,what are the bones called when taken all together8 ,name the principal parts of the skeleton4 ,name the bones of the trunk1 of the arms1 of the legs4 ,what are the uses of the bones8 ,what is a joint8 ,what is cartilage8 ,by what are the bones held together8 ,of what are the bones largely composed8 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,bones ,,healthy4--,what sort of bread is best for the bones8 ,why8 ,if a child tries to walk too early why are its legs likely to become crooked8 ,what are the effects of sitting or lying in bad positions8 ,of wearing tight or poorly-fitting clothing8 ,of tight or high-heeled shoes8 ,what injuries are likely to happen to the bones and joints by accident or rough play8 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,muscles ,,and ,,how ,,we ,,use ,,them4--,how many muscles in the body8 ,of what are the muscles composed8 ,how are many of the muscles connected to the bones8 ,to what are all bodily movements due8 ,how do the muscles act8 ,what causes the muscles to act8 ,do all muscles act only when we will to have them act8 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,muscles ,,healthy4--,what makes the right arm of the blacksmith stronger than the left one8 ,how should exercise be taken8 ,mention some things in relation to the use of the muscles which we ought not to do1 and state the reasons why4 ,what is the effect of alcohol upon the muscles8 of tobacco8 of tea and coffee8 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,how ,,we ,,feel ,,and ,,think4--,with what part of the body do we think8 ,how many brains does a man have8 ,how is each brain divided8 ,of what is the brain largely composed8 ,where do the nerves begin8 ,what is the spinal cord8 ,why does it cause pain to prick the finger8 ,how many kinds of nerves are there8 7,ans4 ,two2 nerves of feeling and nerves of work47 ,name some of the different kinds of nerves of feeling8 ,name some of the different kinds of work controlled by the nerves of work4 ,of what use to the body are the brain and nerves8 ,how does the brain use the nerves8 ,of what use is the large brain8 ,what does the little brain do8 ,of what use is the spinal cord8 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,brain ,,and ,,nerves ,,healthy4--,mention some things which we need to do to keep the brain and nerves healthy4 ,mention some things which we ought not to do4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,bad ,,effects ,,of ,,alcohol ,,upon ,,the ,,brain ,,and ,,nerves4--,what is the effect of alcohol upon the brain and nerves8 ,does alcohol produce real strength8 ,does it produce real warmth8 ,does alcohol make people better or worse8 ,what is the effect of tobacco upon the brain and nerves8 ,does the use of tobacco lead to other evil habits8 ,what about the effect of opium and other narcotics8 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,how ,,we ,,hear1 ,,see1 ,,smell1 ,,taste1 ,,and ,,feel4--,how many senses have we8 ,what is the ear8 ,name the three parts of the ear4 ,how do we hear8 ,how should we treat the ear8 ,name the principal parts of the eye8 ,what are found in the eyeball8 ,how is the eyeball moved in the socket8 ,how is the eye moistened8 ,of what use is the lens of the eye8 ,of what use is the pupil of the eye8 ,how may we preserve the eyesight8 ,where are the nerves of smell located8 ,of what use is the sense of smell8 ,where are the nerves of taste found8 ,how is the sense of taste sometimes injured or lost8 ,what do we detect with the sense of taste8 ,of what use to us is the sense of taste8 ,with what sense do we feel objects8 ,in what parts of the body is this sense most delicate8 ,upon what do all the special senses depend8 ,does anything that injures the brain and nerves also injure the special senses8 ,what is the effect of alcohol and tobacco upon the sense of sight8 ,how is the hearing affected by tobacco-using8 ,the sense of smell8 ,the sense of taste8 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,alcohol4--,how is alcohol produced8 ,in what respect is alcohol like kerosene oil8 ,is alcohol a dangerous thing even if we do not drink it8 ,how can you prove that there is alcohol in wine1 beer1 cider1 and other fermented drinks8 ,can you tell by the odor of his breath when a person has been drinking8 ,why8 ,does the breath ever take fire8 ,may alcohol be a cause8 ,from what is brandy made8 ,how are whiskey1 gin1 and rum made8 ,is alcohol a result of growth1 like fruits and grains1 or of decay8 ,is there more than one kind of alcohol8 ,mention some of the members of the alcohol family4 ,in what ways are the members of this family alike8 ,name some of the bad relations4 ,are cider and beer1 as well as whiskey1 dangerous8 ,why8 ,mention some other things1 besides drinks1 which contain alcohol4 ,are alcoholic drinks adulterated8 ,is pure alcohol safe8 ,is instant death ever produced by alcohol8 ,will alcohol kill plants8 ,describe ,mr4 ,darwin's experiment which proved this4 ,can plants be made drunk by alcohol8 ,describe the experiment which proves this4 ,what has ,dr4 ,roberts proven concerning the influence of alcohol upon digestion8 ,how are our bodies kept warm8 ,explain how alcohol makes the body cooler8 ,do ,arctic explorers use alcohol8 ,why not8 ,does the use of alcohol prevent sunstroke8 ,what do ,stanley and ,livingstone say about the use of alcohol in ,africa8 ,what is the effect of using alcohol upon meat and eggs8 ,what is the effect of alcohol upon the brain and other tissues of the body8 ,does alcohol cause insanity and other diseases of the brain and nerves8 ,,footnotes3 ,a ,more properly ,carbonic dioxid4 ,b ,for the sake of brevity and clearness the author has included under the term little brain the medulla oblongata as well as the cerebellum4 ,,the ,,end4 ,aids to ,field and ,laboratory ,work in ,botany ,apgars' ,plant ,analysis4 ,by ,e4,a4 and ,a4,c4 ,,apgar4 ,cloth1 small #dto1 #abd pages #ee cents ,a book of blank schedules1 adapted to ,gray's ,botanies1 for pupils' use in writing and preserving brief systematic descriptions of the plants analyzed by them in field or class work4 ,space is allowed for descriptions of about one hundred and twenty-four plants with an alphabetical index4 ,an analytical arrangement of botanical terms is provided1 in which the words defined are illustrated by small wood cuts1 which show at a glance the characteristics named in the definition4 ,by using the ,plant ,analysis1 pupils will become familiar with the meaning of botanical terms1 and will learn how to apply these terms in botanical descriptions4 ,apgar's ,trees of the ,northern ,united ,states ,their ,study1 ,description1 and ,determination4 ,for the use of ,schools and ,private ,students4 ,by ,,austin ,c4 ,,apgar4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #bbd pages4 ,copiously ,illustrated #a4jj ,this work has been prepared as an accessory to the study of ,botany1 and to assist and encourage teachers in introducing into their classes instruction in ,nature ,study4 ,the trees of our forests1 lawns1 yards1 orchards1 streets1 borders and parks afford a most favorable and fruitful field for the purposes of such study4 ,they are real objects of nature1 easily accessible1 and of such a character as to admit of being studied at all seasons and in all localities4 ,besides1 the subject is one of general and increasing interest1 and one that can be taught successfully by those who have had no regular scientific training4 ,copies of either of the above books will be sent1 prepaid1 to any address on receipt of the price by the ,publishers3 ,american ,book ,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,cincinnati 4 ,,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,,storer ,,and ,,lindsay',s ,elementary ,manual of ,chemistry ,by ,f4,h4 ,,storer1 ,s4,b41 ,a4,m41 and ,w4,b4 ,,lindsay1 ,a4,b41 ,b4,s4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #dec pages4 ,illustrated4 ,price1 #a4bj ,this work is the lineal descendant of the ,manual of ,inorganic ,chemistry of ,eliot and ,storer1 and the ,elementary ,manual of ,chemistry of ,eliot1 ,storer and ,nichols4 ,it is in fact the last named book thoroughly revised1 rewritten and enlarged to represent the present condition of chemical knowledge and to meet the demands of ,american teachers for a class book on ,chemistry1 at once scientific in statement and clear in method4 ,the purpose of the book is to facilitate the study and teaching of ,chemistry by the experimental and inductive method4 ,it presents the leading facts and theories of the science in such simple and concise manner that they can be readily understood and applied by the student4 ,the book is equally valuable in the class-room and the laboratory4 ,the instructor will find in it the essentials of chemical science developed in easy and appropriate sequence1 its facts and generalizations expressed accurately and scientifically as well as clearly1 forcibly and elegantly4 ,it is safe to say that no text-book has exerted so wide an influence on the study of chemistry in this country as this work1 originally written by ,eliot and ,storer4 ,its distinguished authors were leaders in teaching ,chemistry as a means of mental training in general education1 and in organizing and perfecting a system of instructing students in large classes by the experimental method4 ,as revised and improved by ,professor ,nichols1 it continued to give the highest satisfaction in our best schools and colleges4 ,after the death of ,professor ,nichols1 when it became necessary to revise the work again1 ,professor ,lindsay1 of ,dickinson ,college1 was selected to assist ,dr4 ,storer in the work4 ,the present edition has been entirely rewritten by them1 following throughout the same plan and arrangement of the previous editions1 which have been so highly approved by a generation of scholars and teachers4 ,if a book1 like an individual1 has a history1 certainly the record of this one1 covering a period of nearly thirty years1 is of the highest and most honorable character4--,from ,the ,american ,journal of ,science4 ,copies of this book will be sent prepaid to any address1 on receipt of the price1 by the ,publishers3 ,american ,book ,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,cincinnati 4 ,,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,chemistry ,,text-,,books ,,and ,,laboratory ,,methods ,storer and ,lindsay's ,elementary ,manual of ,chemistry ,by ,f4,h4 ,,storer1 ,a4,m41 ,s4,b41 and ,w4,b4 ,,lindsay1 ,ph4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #dec pages #a4bj ,a standard manual for secondary schools and colleges4 ,clarke's ,elements of ,chemistry ,by ,f4,w4 ,,clarke4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #cgi pages #a4bj ,a scientific book for high schools and colleges4 ,cooley's ,new ,elementary ,chemistry for ,beginners ,by ,,leroy ,c4 ,,cooley1 ,ph4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #cjj pages #gb cents ,a book of experimental chemistry for beginners4 ,steele's ,popular ,chemistry ,by ,j4 ,,dorman ,,steele1 ,ph4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #cdc pages #a4jj ,a popular treatise for schools and private students4 ,youmans's ,class-,book of ,chemistry ,by ,e4,l4 ,,youmans1 ,m4,d4 ,revised by ,w4,j4 ,youmans1 ,m4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #djd pages #a4bb ,for schools1 colleges1 and general reading4 ,brewster's ,first ,book of ,chemistry ,by ,,mary ,,shaw-,,brewster4 ,boards1 #abmo1 #add pages #ff cents ,an elementary class-book for beginners in the study4 ,armstrong and ,norton's ,laboratory ,manual of ,chemistry ,by ,,james ,e4 ,,armstrong and ,,james ,h4 ,,norton4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #add pages #ej cents ,a brief course of experiments in chemistry1 covering about forty weeks' work in the laboratory4 ,cooley's ,laboratory ,studies in ,chemistry ,by ,,leroy ,c4 ,,cooley1 ,ph4,d4 ,cloth1 #hvo1 #add pages #ej cents ,a carefully selected series of #aea experiments1 designed to teach the fundamental facts and principles of chemistry for secondary schools4 ,keiser's ,laboratory ,work in ,chemistry ,by ,,edward ,h4 ,,keiser1 ,ph4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #aai pages #ej cents ,a series of experiments in general inorganic chemistry1 intended to illustrate and supplement the work of the class-room4 ,qualitative ,chemical ,analysis of ,inorganic ,substances ,as practiced in ,georgetown ,college1 ,d4,c4 ,cloth1 #dto1 #fa pages #a4ej ,designed to serve as both text-book and laboratory manual in ,qualitative ,analysis4 ,copies of any of the above books will be sent prepaid to any address1 on receipt of the price1 by the ,publishers3 ,american ,book ,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,cincinnati 4 ,,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,physics ,cooley's ,student's ,manual of ,physics ,for the ,study ,room and ,laboratory4 ,by ,l4,c4 ,,cooley1 ,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,mathematics in ,vassar ,college4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #ddh pages4 ,illustrated #a4jj ,a new text-book in ,physics for high schools1 academies1 and colleges4 ,it embodies a full and thorough treatment of the laws of physics1 the best methods in science teaching1 the latest discoveries and applications in physics1 and a full course in laboratory practice4 ,special care has been taken to select experiments which will not overtax the capacities of beginners nor require expensive apparatus1 but which at the same time will call for systematic and original work and lead to accurate results4 ,harrington's ,physics for ,grammar ,schools ,,by ,c4,l4 ,,harrington1 ,m4,a4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #abc pages4 #ej cents ,a practical text-book based on the natural or experimental method1 elementary enough for pupils in grammar schools1 and affording a thorough preparation for advanced study4 ,appletons' ,school ,physics ,cloth1 #abmo1 #eeb pages #a4bj ,a thoroughly modern text-book on ,natural ,philosophy1 which reflects the most advanced pedagogical methods and the latest laboratory practice4 ,steele's ,popular ,physics ,by ,j4 ,,dorman ,,steele1 ,ph4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #cib pages #a4jj ,a popular text-book1 in which the principles of the science are presented in such an attractive manner as to awaken and fix the attention of every pupil4 ,trowbridge's ,new ,physics ,by ,,john ,,trowbridge1 ,s4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #chg pages #a4bj ,a thoroughly modern work1 intended as a class manual of ,physics for colleges and advanced preparatory schools4 ,hammel's ,observation ,blanks in ,physics ,by ,,william ,c4,a4 ,,hammel4 ,flexible1 quarto1 #db pages4 ,illustrated #cj cents ,a pupil's laboratory manual and notebook for the first term's work4 ,blanks are left in which the pupil writes his observations and the principles illustrated4 ,copies of any of these books will be sent1 prepaid1 to any address on receipt of the price by the ,publishers3 ,american ,book ,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,cincinnati 4 ,,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,laboratory ,physics ,hammel's ,observation ,blanks in ,physics ,by ,,william ,c4,a4 ,,hammel1 ,professor of ,physics in ,maryland ,state ,school1 ,boards1 ,quarto1 #db pages4 ,illustrated #cj cents ,these ,observation ,blanks are designed for use as a ,pupil's ,laboratory ,manual and ,note ,book for the first term's work in the study of ,physics4 ,they combine in convenient form descriptions and illustrations of the apparatus required for making experiments in ,physics1 with special reference to the elements of ,air1 ,liquids1 and ,heat2 directions for making the required apparatus from simple inexpensive materials1 and for performing the experiments1 etc4 ,the book is supplied with blanks for making drawings of the apparatus and for the pupil to record what he has observed and inferred concerning the experiment and the principle illustrated4 ,the experiments are carefully selected in the light of experience and arranged in logical order4 ,the treatment throughout is in accordance with the best laboratory practice of the day4 ,hon4 ,w4,t4 ,harris1 ,u4,s4 ,commissioner of ,education1 says of these ,blanks3 ,i have seen several attempts to assist the work of pupils engaged in the study of ,physics1 but ,i have never seen anything which promises to be of such practical assistance as ,hammel's ,observation ,blanks4 ,specimen copies of the above book will be sent prepaid to any address1 on receipt of the price1 by the ,publishers3 ,american ,book ,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,cincinnati 4 ,,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,burnet's ,zooelogy ,,for ,,high ,,schools ,,and ,,academies ,,by ,,margaretta ,,burnet ,teacher of ,zooelogy1 ,woodward ,high ,school1 ,cincinnati1 ,o4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #baf pages4 ,illustrated4 ,price1 #ge cents ,this new text-book on ,zooelogy is intended for classes in ,high ,schools1 ,academies1 and other ,secondary ,schools4 ,while sufficiently elementary for beginners in the study it is full and comprehensive enough for students pursuing a regular course in the ,natural ,sciences4 ,it has been prepared by a practical teacher1 and is the direct result of school-room experience1 field observation and laboratory practice4 ,the design of the book is to give a good general knowledge of the subject of ,zooelogy1 to cultivate an interest in nature study1 and to encourage the pupil to observe and to compare for himself and then to arrange and classify his knowledge4 ,only typical or principal forms are described1 and in their description only such technical terms are used as are necessary1 and these are carefully defined4 ,each subject is fully illustrated1 the illustrations being selected and arranged to aid the pupil in understanding the structure of each form4 ,copies of ,burnet's ,school ,zooelogy will be sent prepaid to any address1 on receipt of the price1 by the ,publishers3 ,american ,book ,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,cincinnati 4 ,,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,zooelogy and ,natural ,history ,burnet's ,school ,zooelogy ,by ,,margaretta ,,burnet4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #baf pages #ge cents ,a new text-book for high schools and academies1 by a practical teacher2 sufficiently elementary for beginners and full enough for the usual course in ,natural ,history4 ,needham's ,elementary ,lessons in ,zooelogy ,by ,,james ,g4 ,,needham1 ,m4,s4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #cjb pages #ij cents ,an elementary text-book for high schools1 academies1 normal schools and preparatory college classes4 ,special attention is given to the study by scientific methods1 laboratory practice1 microscopic study and practical zooetomy4 ,cooper's ,animal ,life ,by ,,sarah ,,cooper4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #dbg pages #a4be ,an attractive book for young people4 ,admirably adapted for supplementary readings in ,natural ,history4 ,holders' ,elementary ,zooelogy ,by ,c4,f4 ,,holder1 and ,j4,b4 ,,holder1 ,m4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #dja pages #a4bj ,a text-book for high school classes and other schools of secondary grade4 ,hooker's ,natural ,history ,by ,,worthington ,,hooker1 ,m4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #cid pages #ij cents ,designed either for the use of schools or for the general reader4 ,morse's ,first ,book in ,zooelogy ,by ,,edward ,s4 ,,morse1 ,ph4,d4 ,boards1 #abmo1 #bjd pages #hg cents ,for the first study of animal life4 ,the examples presented are such as are common and familiar4 ,nicholson's ,text-,book of ,zooelogy ,by ,h4,a4 ,,nicholson1 ,m4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #dba pages #a4ch ,revised edition4 ,adapted for advanced grades of high schools or academies and for first work in college classes4 ,steele's ,popular ,zooelogy ,by ,j4 ,,dorman ,,steele1 ,ph4,d41 and ,j4,w4,p4 ,,jenks4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #cfi pages #a4bj ,for academies1 preparatory schools and general reading4 ,this popular work is marked by the same clearness of method and simplicity of statement that characterize all ,prof4 ,steele's text-books in the ,natural ,sciences4 ,tenneys' ,natural ,history of ,animals ,by ,,sanborn ,,tenney and ,,abbey ,a4 ,,tenney4 ,revised ,edition4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #bha pages #a4bj ,this new edition has been entirely reset and thoroughly revised1 the recent changes in classification introduced1 and the book in all respects brought up to date4 ,treat's ,home ,studies in ,nature ,by ,mrs4 ,,mary ,,treat4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #bdd pages #ij cents ,an interesting and instructive addition to the works on ,natural ,history4 ,copies of any of the above books will be sent prepaid to any address1 on receipt of the price1 by the ,publishers3 ,american ,book ,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,cincinnati 4 ,,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,text-,books in ,geology ,dana's ,geological ,story ,briefly ,told ,by ,,james ,d4 ,,dana4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #cjb pages #a4ae ,a new edition of this popular work for beginners in the study and for the general reader4 ,the book has been entirely rewritten1 and improved by the addition of many new illustrations and interesting descriptions of the latest phases and discoveries of the science4 ,in contents and dress it is an attractive volume either for the reader or student4 ,dana's ,revised ,text-,book of ,geology ,edited by ,,william ,,north ,,rice1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,geology1 ,wesleyan ,university4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #dhb pages4 #a4dj ,this is the standard text-book for high school and elementary college work4 ,the book has been thoroughly revised1 enlarged1 and improved1 while the general and distinctive features of the former work have been preserved4 ,as now published1 it combines the results of the life experience and observation of its distinguished author with the latest discoveries and researches in the science4 ,dana's ,manual of ,geology ,by ,,james ,d4 ,,dana4 ,cloth1 #hvo1 #ajhg pages4 #aege illustrations #e4jj ,this great work was thoroughly revised and entirely rewritten under the direct supervision of its author1 just before his death4 ,it is recognized as a standard authority1 and is used as a manual of instruction in all higher institutions of learning4 ,le ,conte's ,compend of ,geology ,by ,,joseph ,,le ,,conte1 ,,ll4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #cii pages #a4bj ,designed for high schools1 academies1 and all secondary schools4 ,steele's ,fourteen ,weeks in ,geology ,by ,j4 ,,dorman ,,steele1 ,ph4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #bhj pages #a4jj ,a popular book for elementary classes and the general reader4 ,andrews's ,elementary ,geology ,by ,e4,b4 ,,andrews1 ,,ll4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #bhc pages #a4jj ,adapted for elementary classes4 ,contains a special treatment of the geology of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,copies of any of the above books will be sent1 prepaid1 to any address on receipt of the price by the ,publishers3 ,american ,book ,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,cincinnati 4 ,,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,new ,astronomy ,,by ,,david ,p4 ,,todd1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d4 ,professor of ,astronomy and ,director of the ,observatory1 ,amherst ,college4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #dhj pages4 ,illustrated ,price1 #a4cj ,this book is designed for classes pursuing the study in ,high ,schools1 ,academies1 and ,colleges4 ,the author's long experience as a director in astronomical observatories and in teaching the subject has given him unusual qualifications and advantages for preparing an ideal text-book4 ,the noteworthy feature which distinguishes this from other text-books on ,astronomy is the practical way in which the subjects treated are enforced by laboratory experiments and methods4 ,in this the author follows the principle that ,astronomy is preeminently a science of observation and should be so taught4 ,by placing more importance on the physical than on the mathematical facts of ,astronomy the author has made every page of the book deeply interesting to the student and the general reader4 ,the treatment of the planets and other heavenly bodies and of the law of universal gravitation is unusually full1 clear1 and illuminative4 ,the marvelous discoveries of ,astronomy in recent years1 and the latest advances in methods of teaching the science1 are all represented4 ,the illustrations are an important feature of the book4 ,many of them are so ingeniously devised that they explain at a glance what pages of mere description could not make clear4 ,copies of ,todd's ,new ,astronomy will be sent1 prepaid1 to any address on receipt of the price by the ,publishers3 ,american ,book ,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,cincinnati 4 ,,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,laboratory ,manual in ,practical ,botany ,for use in ,secondary ,schools and for ,elementary ,work in ,colleges ,by ,,charles ,h4 ,,clark1 ,a4,m41 ,d4,sc41 ,principal of ,windsor ,hall ,school1 ,waban1 ,mass4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #bgb pages4 ,illustrated #if cents ,the course of botanical study outlined in this book is intended to give the student a general view of the subject1 and at the same time to lay a foundation upon which more advanced studies may be built4 ,the book is primarily a laboratory manual and follows the method recommended by the ,committee of ,ten and employed by the best teachers4 ,so pursued1 the study of botany provides the means of developing habits of close and accurate observation and of cultivating the reasoning powers that can scarcely be claimed for any other subject taught in the schools4 ,it provides a systematic outline of classification to serve as a guide in laboratory work and in the practical study of the life histories of plants1 their modes of reproduction1 manner of life1 etc4 ,the treatment is suggestive and general to adapt it to the courses of study in different schools1 and to allow the teacher to follow his own ideas in selecting the work of his class4 ,clark's ,laboratory ,manual in ,practical ,botany will be sent1 prepaid1 to any address on receipt of the price by the ,publishers3 ,american ,book ,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,cincinnati 4 ,,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,important ,new ,books ,crockett's ,plane and ,spherical ,trigonometry ,by ,c4,w4 ,,crockett1 ,c4,e41 ,professor of ,mathematics and ,astronomy in ,rensselaer ,polytechnic ,institute1 ,troy1 ,new ,york4 ,with ,tables4 ,cloth1 #hvo4 #caj pages #a4be ,the ,same4 ,without ,tables #a4jj ,logarithmic and ,trigonometric ,tables 7separate7 #a4jj ,a clear analytic treatment of the elements of ,plane and ,spherical ,trigonometry and their practical applications to ,surveying1 ,geodesy1 and ,astronomy1 with convenient and accurate five place tables for the use of the student1 engineer1 and surveyor4 ,designed for ,high ,schools1 ,colleges1 and ,technical ,institutions4 ,raymond's ,plane ,surveying ,by ,w4,g4 ,,raymond1 ,c4,e41 ,member ,american ,society of ,civil ,engineers1 ,professor of ,geodesy1 ,road ,engineering1 and ,topographical ,drawing in ,rensselaer ,polytechnic ,institute4 ,cloth1 #hvo4 #dhe pages4 ,with ,tables and ,illustrations #c4jj ,a modern text-book for the study and practice of ,land1 ,topographical1 ,hydrographical1 and ,mine ,surveying4 ,special attention is given to such practical subjects as system in office work1 to labor-saving devices1 to cooerdinate methods1 and to the explanation of difficulties encountered by young surveyors4 ,the appendix contains a large number of original problems1 and a full set of tables for class and field work4 ,todd's ,new ,astronomy ,by ,,david ,p4 ,,todd1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,astronomy and ,director of the ,observatory1 ,amherst ,college4 ,cloth1 #abmo4 #ejj pages4 ,illustrated #a4cj ,a new ,astronomy designed for classes pursuing the study in ,high ,schools1 ,academies1 and other ,preparatory ,schools4 ,the treatment throughout is simple1 clear1 scientific1 and deeply interesting4 ,the illustrations include sketches from the author's laboratory and expeditions1 and numerous reproductions from astronomical photographs4 ,copies of the above books will be sent1 prepaid1 to any address on receipt of the price by the ,publishers3 ,american ,book ,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,cincinnati 4 ,,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,birds of the ,united ,states ,a ,manual for the ,identification of ,species ,east of the ,rocky ,mountains ,by ,,austin ,c4 ,,apgar ,author of ,trees of the ,northern ,united ,states1 etc4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #dae pages1 with numerous illustrations4 ,price1 #b4jj ,the object of this book is to encourage the study of ,birds by making it a pleasant and easy task4 ,the treatment1 while thoroughly scientific and accurate1 is interesting and popular in form and attractive to the reader or student4 ,it covers the following divisions and subjects3 ,,part ,i4 ,a general description of ,birds and an explanation of the technical terms used by ornithologists4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,classification and description of each species with ,key4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,the study of ,birds in the field1 with ,key for their identification4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,preparation of ,bird specimens4 ,the descriptions of the several species have been prepared with great care and present several advantages over those in other books4 ,they are short and so expressed that they may be recalled readily while looking at the bird4 ,they are thus especially adapted for field use4 ,the illustrations were drawn especially for this work4 ,their number1 scientific accuracy1 and careful execution add much to the value and interest of the book4 ,the general ,key to ,land and ,water ,birds and a very full index make the book convenient and serviceable both for the study and for field work4 ,apgar's ,birds of the ,united ,states will be sent1 prepaid1 to any address on receipt of the price by the ,publishers3 ,american ,book ,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,cincinnati 4 ,,chicago