,,public ,,speaking ,,by ,,clarence ,,stratton2 ,,ph4,d4 ,,director ,,of ,,english ,,in ,,high ,,school ,,cleveland ,,new ,,york ,,henry ,,holt ,,and ,,company ,,copyright1 #aibj ,,by ,,henry ,,holt ,,and ,,company ,january1 #aibd ,,contents ,,chapter ,i4 ,,speech ,,ii4 ,,the ,,voice ,,iii4 ,,words ,,and ,,sentences ,,iv4 ,,beginning ,,the ,,speech ,v4 ,,concluding ,,the ,,speech ,,vi4 ,,getting ,,material ,,vii4 ,,planning ,,the ,,speech ,,viii4 ,,making ,,the ,,outline ,,or ,,brief ,,ix4 ,,explaining ,x4 ,,proving ,,and ,,persuading ,,xi4 ,,refuting ,,xii4 ,,debating ,,xiii4 ,,speaking ,,upon ,,special ,,occasions ,,xiv4 ,,dramatics ,,appendix ,a ,,appendix ,b ,,index ,to ,c4,c4,s4 ,,public ,,speaking ,,chapter ,i ,,speech ,importance of ,speech4 ,there never has been in the history of the world a time when the spoken word has been equaled in value and importance by any other means of communication4 ,if one traces the development of mankind from what he considers its earliest stage he will find that the wandering family of savages depended entirely upon what its members said to one another4 ,a little later when a group of families made a clan or tribe the individuals still heard the commands of the leader1 or in tribal council voiced their own opinions4 ,the beginnings of poetry show us the bard who recited to his audiences4 ,drama1 in all primitive societies a valuable spreader of knowledge1 entertainment1 and religion1 is entirely oral4 ,in so late and well-organized communities as the city republics of ,greece all matters were discussed in open assemblies of the rather small populations4 ,every great epoch of the world's progress shows the supreme importance of speech upon human action--individual and collective4 ,in the ,roman ,forum were made speeches that affected the entire ancient world4 ,renaissance ,italy1 imperial ,spain1 unwieldy ,russia1 freedom-loving ,england1 revolutionary ,france1 all experienced periods when the power of certain men to speak stirred other men into tempestuous action4 ,the history of the ,united ,states might almost be written as the continuous record of the influence of great speakers upon others4 ,the colonists were led to concerted action by persuasive speeches4 ,the ,colonial ,congresses and ,constitutional ,convention were dominated by powerful orators4 ,the history of the slavery problem is mainly the story of famous speeches and debates4 ,most of the active representative ,americans have been leaders because of their ability to impress their fellows by their power of expressing sentiments and enthusiasms which all would voice if they could4 ,presidents have been nominated and candidates elected because of this equipment4 ,during the ,great ,war the millions of the world were as much concerned with what some of their leaders were saying as with what their other leaders were doing4#a ,speech in ,modern ,life4 ,there is no aspect of modern life in which the spoken work is not supreme in importance4 ,representatives of the nations of the world deciding upon a peace treaty and deliberating upon a ,league of ,nations sway and are swayed by speech4 ,national assemblies--from the strangely named new ones of infant nations to the century-old organizations--speak1 and listen to speeches4 ,in state legislatures1 municipal councils1 law courts1 religious organizations1 theaters1 lodges1 societies1 boards of directors1 stockholders' meetings1 business discussions1 classrooms1 dinner parties1 social functions1 friendly calls--in every human relationship where two people meet there is communication by means of speech4 ,footnote #a3 ,see ,great ,american ,speeches1 edited by ,clarence ,stratton1 ,lippincott and ,company4 ,scientific invention keeps moving as rapidly as it can to take advantage of this supreme importance4 ,great as was the advance marked by the telegraph1 it was soon overtaken and passed by the convenience of the telephone4 ,the first conveys messages at great distance1 but it fails to give the answer at once4 ,it fails to provide for the rapid interchange of ideas which the second affords4 ,wireless telegraphy has already been followed by wireless telephony4 ,the rapid intelligent disposal of the complicated affairs of our modern world requires more than mere writing--it demands immediate interchange of ideas by means of speech4 ,many people who in their habitual occupations are popularly said to write a great deal do nothing of the sort4 ,the millions of typists in the world do no writing at all in the real sense of that word2 they merely reproduce what some one else has actually composed and dictated4 ,this latter person also does no actual writing4 ,he speaks what he wants to have put into writing4 ,dictating is not an easily acquired accomplishment in business--as many a man will testify4 ,modern office practice has intensified the difficulty4 ,it may be rather disconcerting to deliver well-constructed1 meaningful sentences to an unresponsive stenographer1 but at any rate the receiver is alive4 ,but to talk into the metallic receiver of a mechanical dictaphone has an almost ridiculous air4 ,men have to train themselves deliberately to speak well when they first begin to use these time-saving devices4 ,outside of business1 a great deal of the material printed in periodicals and books--sometimes long novels--has been delivered orally1 and not written at all by its author4 ,were anything more needed to show how much speech is used it would be furnished by the reports of the telephone companies4 ,in one table the number of daily connections in #ahie was #b1cea1dbj4 ,in #aiah this item had increased to #ca1bfc1faa4 ,in twenty-three years the calls had grown fifteen times as numerous4 ,in #ahhb there were #ajj1jjj subscriber stations4 ,in #aiah this number had swelled to #aa1jjj1jjj4 ,subordinates and executives in all forms of business could save incalculable time and annoyance by being able to present their material clearly and forcefully over the telephone1 as well as in direct face-to-face intercourse4 ,the ,director of high schools in a large municipality addressed a circular letter to the business firms of the city1 asking them to state what is most necessary in order to fit boys for success in business4 ,ninety-nine per cent laid stress on the advantage of being able to write and speak ,english accurately and forcibly4 ,testimony in support of the statement that training in speaking is of paramount importance in all careers might be adduced from a score of sources4 ,even from the seemingly far-removed phase of military leadership comes the same support4 ,the following paragraph is part of a letter issued by the office of the ,adjutant-,general during the early months of the participation of this country in the ,great ,war4 ,a great number of men have failed at camp because of inability to articulate clearly4 ,a man who cannot impart his idea to his command in clear distinct language1 and with sufficient volume of voice to be heard reasonably far1 is not qualified to give command upon which human life will depend4 ,many men disqualified by this handicap might have become officers under their country's flag had they been properly trained in school and college4 ,it is to be hoped therefore that more emphasis will be placed upon the basic principles of elocution in the training of our youth4 ,even without prescribed training in elocution a great improvement could be wrought by the instructors in our schools and colleges1 regardless of the subjects1 by insisting that all answers be given in a loud1 clear1 well rounded voice which1 of course1 necessitates the opening of the mouth and free movement of the lips4 ,it is remarkable how many excellent men suffer from this handicap1 and how almost impossible it is to correct this after the formative years of life4 ,perhaps the most concise summary of the relative values of exercise in the three different forms of communication through language was enunciated by ,francis ,bacon in his essay entitled ,studies1 published first in #aeig3 ,reading maketh a full man2 conference a ready man2 and writing an exact man4 ,speech and ,talk4 ,the high value here placed upon speech must not be transferred to mere talk4 ,the babbler will always be justly regarded with contempt4 ,without ideas1 opinions1 information1 talk becomes the most wasteful product in the world1 wasteful not only of the time of the person who insists upon delivering it1 but more woefully and unjustifiably wasteful of the time and patience of those poor victims who are forced to listen to it4 ,shakespeare put a man of this disposition into ,the ,merchant of ,venice and then had his discourse described by another4 ,gratiano speaks an infinite deal of nothing1 more than any man in all ,venice4 ,his reasons are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of chaff3 you shall seek all day 'ere you find them1 and when you have them1 they are not worth the search4 ,but the man who has ideas and can best express them is a leader everywhere4 ,he does the organizing1 he makes and imparts the plans1 he carries his own theories and beliefs into execution1 he is the intrusted agent1 the advanced executive4 ,he can act for himself4 ,he can influence others to significant and purposeful action4 ,the advantages that come to men who can think upon their feet1 who can express extempore a carefully considered proposition1 who can adapt their conversation or arguments to every changing condition1 cannot be emphasized too strongly4 ,speech an ,acquired ,ability4 ,we frequently regard and discuss speech as a perfectly natural attribute of all human beings4 ,in some sense it is4 ,yet an ,american child left to the care of deaf-mutes1 never hearing the speech of his own kind1 would not develop into a speaker of the native language of his parents4 ,he doubtless would be able to imitate every natural sound he might hear4 ,he could reproduce the cry or utterance of every animal or bird he had ever heard4 ,but he would no more speak ,english naturally than he would ,arabic4 ,in this sense1 language is not a natural attribute as is hunger4 ,it is an imitative accomplishment acquired only after long years of patient practice and arduous effort4 ,some people never really attain a facile mastery of the means of communication4 ,some mature men and women are no more advanced in the use of speech than children of ten or fifteen4 ,the practice is life-long4 ,the effort is unceasing4 ,a child seems to be as well adapted to learning one language as another4 ,there may be certain physical formations or powers inherited from a race which predispose the easier mastery of a language1 but even these handicaps for learning a different tongue can be overcome by imitation1 study1 and practice4 ,any child can be taught an alien tongue through constant companionship of nurse or governess4 ,the second generation of immigrants to this country learns our speech even while it may continue the tongue of the native land4 ,the third generation--if it mix continuously with speakers of ,english--relinquishes entirely the exercise of the mother tongue4 ,the succeeding generation seldom can speak it1 frequently cannot even understand it4 ,training to ,acquire ,speech ,ability4 ,the methods by which older persons may improve their ability to speak are analogous to those just suggested as operative for children1 except that the more mature the person the wider is his range of models to imitate1 of examples from which to make deductions2 the more resources he has within himself and about him for self-development and improvement4 ,a child's vocabulary increases rapidly through new experiences4 ,a mature person can create new surroundings4 ,he can deliberately widen his horizon either by reading or association4 ,the child is mentally alert4 ,a man can keep himself intellectually alert4 ,a child delights in his use of his powers of expression4 ,a man can easily make his intercourse a source of delight to himself and to all with whom he comes in contact4 ,a child's imagination is kept stimulated continually4 ,a man can consciously stimulate either his imagination or his reason4 ,in the democracy of childhood the ability to impress companions depends to a great extent upon the ability to speak4 ,there is no necessity of following the parallel any farther4 ,good speakers1 then1 are made1 not born4 ,training counts for as much as natural ability4 ,in fact if a person considers carefully the careers of men whose ability to speak has impressed the world by its preeminence he will incline to the conclusion that the majority of them were not to any signal extent born speakers at all4 ,in nearly all cases of great speakers who have left records of their own progress in this powerful art their testimony is that without the effort to improve1 without the unceasing practice they would have always remained no more marked for this so-called gift than all others4 ,overcoming ,drawbacks4 ,according to the regularly repeated tradition the great ,greek orator1 ,demosthenes1 overcame impediments that would have daunted any ordinary man4 ,his voice was weak4 ,he lisped1 and his manner was awkward4 ,with pebbles in his mouth he tried his lungs against the noise of the dashing waves4 ,this strengthened his voice and gave him presence of mind in case of tumult among his listeners4 ,he declaimed as he ran uphill4 ,whether these traditions be true or not1 their basis must be that it was only by rigorous training that he did become a tolerable speaker4 ,the significant point1 however1 is that with apparent handicaps he did develop his ability until he became great4 ,charles ,james ,fox began his parliamentary career by being decidedly awkward and filling his speeches with needless repetitions1 yet he became renowned as one of ,great ,britain's most brilliant speakers and statesmen4 ,henry ,clay clearly describes his own exercises in self-training when he was quite a grown man4 ,i owe my success in life to one single fact1 namely1 at the age of twenty-seven ,i commenced1 and continued for years1 the practice of daily reading and speaking upon the contents of some historical or scientific book4 ,these offhand efforts were made sometimes in a corn field1 at others in the forests1 and not infrequently in some distant barn with the horse and ox for my auditors4 ,it is to this early practice in the art of all arts that ,i am indebted to the primary and leading impulses that stimulated me forward1 and shaped and molded my entire destiny4 ,abraham ,lincoln never let pass any opportunity to try to make a speech4 ,his early employers1 when called upon after his fame was won to describe his habits as a young man1 admitted that they might have been disposed to consider him an idle fellow4 ,they explained that he was not only idle himself but the cause of idleness in others4 ,unless closely watched1 he was likely to mount a stump and1 to the intense delight of his fellow farm hands1 deliver a side-splitting imitation of some itinerant preacher or a stirring political harangue4 ,the ,american whose reputation for speech is the greatest won it more through training than by natural gift4 ,i could not speak before the school1 said ,daniel ,webster4 444 ,many a piece did ,i commit to memory and rehearse in my room over and over again1 but when the day came1 and the schoolmaster called my name1 and ,i saw all eyes turned upon my seat1 ,i could not raise myself from it4444 ,mr4 ,buckminster always pressed and entreated1 most winningly1 that ,i would venture1 but ,i could never command sufficient resolution4 ,when the occasion was over ,i went home and wept bitter tears of mortification4 ,results of ,training4 ,the significance of all these illustrations is that no great speaker has come by his ability without careful and persistent training4 ,no molder of the world's destinies springs fully equipped from the welter of promiscuous events4 ,he has been training for a long time4 ,on the other hand the much more practical lesson to be derived from these biographical excerpts is that these men started from ordinary conditions to make themselves into forceful thinkers with powers of convincing expression4 ,they overcame handicaps4 ,they strengthened their voices4 ,they learned how to prepare and arrange material4 ,they made themselves able to explain topics to others4 ,they knew so well the reasons for their own belief that they could convince others4 ,in a smaller way1 to a lesser degree1 any person can do the same thing1 and by the same or similar methods4 ,barring some people who have physical defects or nervous diseases1 any person who has enough brains to grasp an idea1 to form an opinion1 or to produce a thought1 can be made to speak well4 ,the preceding sentence says barring some people who have physical defects because not all so handicapped at the beginning need despair of learning to improve in speaking ability4 ,by systems in which the results appear almost miraculous the dumb are now taught to speak4 ,stutterers and stammerers become excellent deliverers of speeches in public4 ,weak voices are strengthened4 ,hesitant expressions are made coherent4 ,such marvels of modern science belong1 however1 to special classes and institutions4 ,they are cited here to prove that in language training today practically nothing is impossible to the teacher with knowledge and patience in educating students with alertness and persistence4 ,practical ,help4 ,this book attempts to provide a guide for such teachers and students4 ,it aims to be eminently practical4 ,it is intended to help students to improve in speech4 ,it assumes that those who use it are able to speak their language with some facility--at least they can pronounce its usual words4 ,that and the realization that one is alive1 as indicated by a mental openness to ideas and an intellectual alertness about most things in the universe1 are all that are absolutely required of a beginner who tries to improve in speaking4 ,practically all else can be added unto him4 ,as this volume has a definite aim it has a simple practical basis4 ,it will not soar too far above the essentials4 ,it tries not to offer an elaborate explanation of an enthymeme when the embryonic speaker's knees are knocking together so loudly that he can not hear the instructor's correcting pronunciation of the name4 ,it takes into account that when a beginner stands before an audience--and this is true not only the first time--even his body is not under his control4 ,lips grow cold and dry2 perspiration gushes from every pore of the brow and runs down the face2 legs grow weak2 eyes see nothing2 hands swell to enormous proportions2 violent pains shoot across the chest2 the breath is confined within the lungs2 from the clapper-like tongue comes only a faint click4 ,is it any wonder that under such physical agonies the mind refuses to respond--rather1 is incapable of any action whatever8 ,speech ,based on ,thought and ,language4 ,every speech is a result of the combination of thought and language1 of material and expression4 ,it would be quite possible to begin with considerations of the thought content of speeches--the material2 but this book begins with the other2--the language1 the expression4 ,if this order have no other advantage1 it does possess this one2--that during the informal discussions and expressions of opinion occasioned by the early chapters and exercises1 members of the class are attaining a feeling of ease in speaking among themselves which will later eradicate a great deal of the nervousness usually experienced when speaking before the class4 ,in addition1 some attention to such topics as voice1 tone1 pronunciation1 common errors1 use of the dictionary1 vocabulary1 may instil habits of self-criticism and observation which may save from doubt and embarrassing mistakes later4 ,,exercises #a4 ,recall some recent speech you heard4 ,in parallel columns make lists of its excellences and deficiencies4 #b4 ,give the class an account of the occasion1 the purpose of the speaker1 and his effect upon his audience1 or upon you4 #c4 ,explain how children learn to speak4 #d4 ,from your observation give the class an account of how young children enlarge their vocabularies4 #e4 ,using the material of this chapter as the basis of your remarks1 show the value of public speaking4 #f4 ,of what value is public speaking to women8 #g4 ,what effects upon speeches by women will universal suffrage have8 #h4 ,choose some profession--as law1 engineering--and show how an ability to speak may be of value in it4 #i4 ,choose some business position1 and show how an ability to speak is a decided advantage in it4 #aj4 ,what is the best method of acquiring a foreign language8 ,for example1 how shall the alien learn ,english8 #aa4 ,choose some great man whom you admire4 ,show how he became a speaker4 ,or give an account of one of his speeches4 #ab4 ,show the value of public speaking to a girl--in school2 in business2 in other careers4 #ac4 ,explain the operation of a dictaphone4 #ad4 ,how can training in public speaking help an applicant for a position8 #ae4 ,explain the sentence quoted from ,bacon's essay on studies4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,voice ,organs of ,speech4 ,although the effects produced by the human voice are myriad in their complexity1 the apparatus involved in making the sounds which constitute speech is extremely simple4 ,in construction it has been usually compared to an organ pipe1 a comparison justifiable for imparting a non-technical understanding of its operation4 ,an organ pipe is a tube in which a current of air passing over the edge of a piece of metal causes it to vibrate1 thus putting into motion the column of air in the pipe which then produces a note4 ,the operating air is forced across the sounding piece of metal from a bellows4 ,the tube in which the thin sounding plate and the column of air vibrate acts as a resonator4 ,the resulting sound depends upon various sizes of the producing parts4 ,if the tube is quite long the sound is low in pitch4 ,if the tube is short the sound is high4 ,stopping the end of the pipe or leaving it open alters the pitch4 ,a stopped pipe gives a note an octave lower than an open pipe of the same length4 ,the amount of the vibrating plate which is allowed to move also determines the pitch of a note4 ,if the air is under great pressure the note is loud4 ,if the air is under little pressure the note is soft4 ,it is quite easy to transfer this explanation to the voice-producing apparatus in the human body4 ,to the bellows correspond the lungs from which the expelled air is forced upwards through the windpipe4 ,the lungs are able to expel air regularly and gently1 with no more expense of energy than ordinary breathing requires4 ,but the lungs can also force air out with tremendous power--power enough to carry sound over hundreds of yards4 ,in ordinary repose the outward moving breath produces no sound whatever1 for it meets in its passage no obstruction4 ,producing ,tone4 ,at the upper end of the windpipe is a triangular chamber1 the front angle of which forms the ,adam's apple4 ,in this are the vocal cords4 ,these cords are two tapes of membrane which can be brought closely together1 and by muscular tension stretched until passing air causes them to vibrate4 ,they in turn cause the air above them to vibrate1 much as the air in an organ pipe vibrates4 ,thus tone is produced4 ,the air above the vocal cords may fill all the open spaces above the larynx--the throat1 the mouth1 the nasal cavity in the head1 the nostrils4 ,this rather large amount of air1 vibrating freely1 produces a sound low in pitch4 ,the larger the cavities are made the lower the pitch4 ,you can verify this by producing a note4 ,then place your finger upon your ,adam's apple4 ,produce a sound lower in pitch4 ,notice what your larynx does4 ,sing a few notes down the scale or up to observe the same principle of the change of pitch in the human voice4 ,producing ,vowels4 ,if the mouth be kept wide open and no other organ be allowed to modify or interrupt the sound a vowel is produced4 ,in speech every part of the head that can be used is brought into action to modify these uninterrupted vibrations of vocal cords and air4 ,the lips1 the cheeks1 the teeth1 the tongue1 the hard palate1 the soft palate1 the nasal cavity1 all coperate to make articulate speech4 ,as in its mechanism1 so in the essence of its modifications1 the human voice is a marvel of simplicity4 ,if the mouth be opened naturally and the tongue and lips be kept as much out of the way as in ordinary breathing1 and then the vocal cords be made to vibrate1 the resulting sound will be the vowel a as in father4 ,if now1 starting from that same position and with that same vowel sound1 the tongue be gradually raised the sound will be modified4 ,try it4 ,the sound will pass through other vowels4 ,near the middle position it will sound like a in fate2 and when the tongue gets quite close to the roof of the mouth without touching it the vowel will be the e of feet4 ,others--such as the i of it--can be distinguished clearly4 ,starting again from that same open position and with that same vowel sound1 ah1 if the tongue be allowed to lie flat1 but the lips be gradually closed and at the same time rounded1 the sound will pass from ah to the o of hope1 then on to the oo of troop4 ,the oa of broad and other vowels can be distinguished at various positions4 ,by moving lips and tongue at the same time an almost infinite variety of vowel sounds can be made4 ,producing ,consonants4 ,in order to produce consonant sounds the other parts of the speaking apparatus are brought into operation4 ,everyone of them has some function in the formation of some consonant by interrupting or checking the breath4 ,a student1 by observing or feeling the motions of his mouth can easily instruct himself in the importance of each part if he will carefully pronounce a few times all the various consonant sounds of the language4 ,the lips produce the sounds of p1 b1 wh1 and w4 ,the lips and teeth produce the sounds of f1 v4 ,the tongue and teeth together make the sounds of th and dh4 ,the tongue in conjunction with the forward portion of the hard palate produces several sounds--t1 d1 s1 z1 r1 and l4 ,the tongue operating against or near the rear of the hard palate pronounces ch1 j1 sh1 zh1 and a different r4 ,to make the consonant y the tongue1 the hard palate1 and the soft palate operate4 ,the tongue and soft palate make k and g4 ,a strong breathing makes the sound of h4 ,by including the nasal passages in conjunction with some of the other parts here listed the so-called nasals1 m1 n1 and ng1 are made4 ,according to the organ involved our consonant sounds are conveniently grouped as labials 7lips71 dentals 7teeth71 linguals 7tongue71 palatals 7palate71 and nasals 7nose74 ,the correct position and action of the vocal organs are of supreme importance to all speakers4 ,many an inveterate stammerer1 stutterer1 or repeater can be relieved1 if not cured1 of the embarrassing impediment by attention to the position of his speech organs and by careful1 persistent practice in their manipulation4 ,in fact every speaker must be cognizant of the placement of these parts if he desires to have control over his speech4 ,frequently it is such correct placement rather than loud noise or force which carries expressions clearly to listeners4 ,while it is true that singing will strengthen the lungs and help in control of breath1 it is not always the fact--as might be expected--that singing will develop the speaking voice4 ,not every person who can sing has a pleasant or forceful voice in ordinary discourse4 ,in singing1 to secure purity of musical tone1 the vowels are likely to be disproportionately dwelt upon4 ,thus we have the endless la-la-la and ah-ah of so many vocal show-pieces4 ,the same practice leads to the repeated criticism that it makes no difference whether a song be in ,english or a foreign language--the listeners understand just as much in either case4 ,in speaking effectively the aim and method are the exact opposite4 ,when a man speaks he wants to be listened to for the meaning of what he is uttering4 ,there are so many words in the language with the same or similar vowel sounds that only the sharpest discrimination by means of consonants permits of their being intelligible4 ,the speaker1 therefore1 will exercise the greatest care in pronouncing consonants distinctly4 ,as these sounds usually begin and end words1 and as they are produced by rather sudden checks or interruptions1 they can be made to produce a wave motion in the air which will carry the entire word safely and clearly beyond the ear into the understanding4 ,in public speaking no amount of care and attention bestowed upon pronouncing consonants can be spared4 ,tone4 ,the most marked quality of a person's voice is its tone4 ,it will be enough for the purposes of this manual to assert that the tone should be both clear and agreeable4 ,in public speaking the first of these is all important1 though an absence of the second qualification may almost neutralize all the advantages of the first4 ,clearness may be impaired by several causes4 ,the speaker may feel that his throat closes up1 that he becomes choked4 ,his tongue may become stiff and cleave to the roof of his mouth--as the feeling is popularly described4 ,he may breathe so energetically that the escaping or entering air makes more noise than the words themselves4 ,he may be more or less conscious of all these4 ,the others he may not discover for himself4 ,the instructor or members of the class will inform him of their presence4 ,set jaws will prevent him from opening his mouth wide enough and operating his lips flexibly enough to speak with a full tone4 ,a nasal quality results mainly from lack of free resonance in the head and nose passages4 ,adenoids and colds in the head produce this condition4 ,it should be eradicated by advice and practice4 ,usually whatever corrections will make the tone clearer will also make it more agreeable4 ,the nasal pessimistic whine is not a pleasant recommendation of personality4 ,high1 forced1 strident tones produce not only irritation in the listener but throat trouble for the speaker4 ,articulate--that is1 connected--speech may be considered with reference to four elements1 all of which are constantly present in any spoken discourse4 ,speed4 ,first1 there is the speed of delivery4 ,an angry woman can utter more words in a minute than any one wants to hear4 ,the general principle underlying all speech delivery is that as the audience increases in number the rapidity of utterance should be lessened4 ,those who are accustomed to addressing large audiences1 or to speaking in the open air1 speak very slowly4 ,a second consideration is the material being delivered4 ,easily grasped narrative1 description1 and explanation1 simply phrased and directly constructed1 may be delivered much more rapidly than involved explanation1 unfamiliar phraseology1 long and intricate sentence constructions1 unusual material1 abstract reasoning1 and unwelcome sentiments4 ,the beginnings of speeches move much more slowly than later parts4 ,a speaker who intends to lead an audience a long distance1 or to hold the attention for a long time1 will be extremely careful not to speak at the beginning so rapidly that he leaves them far behind4 ,this does not mean that a speaker must drawl his words4 ,one of our national characteristics is that we shorten our words in pronouncing them--ing generally loses the g1 does not has become doesn't and quite incorrectly don't1 yes is yeeh1 etc4 ,in many cases nothing more is required than the restoration of the word to its correct form4 ,some words can easily be lengthened because of the significance of their meanings4 ,others must be extended in order to carry4 ,the best method of keeping down the rate of delivery is by a judicious use of pauses4 ,pauses are to the listener what punctuation marks are to the reader4 ,he is not conscious of their presence1 but he would be left floundering if they were absent4 ,some of the most effective parts of speeches are the pauses4 ,they impart clearness to ideas1 as well as aiding in emphasis and rhythm4 ,pitch4 ,a second quality of speech is its pitch4 ,this simply means its place in the musical scale4 ,speaking voices are high1 medium1 or low4 ,unfortunate tendencies of ,americans seem to be for women to pitch their voices too high1 with resultant strain and unpleasantness1 and for men to pitch their voices too low1 with resultant growls and gruffness4 ,the voices of young children should be carefully guarded in this respect2 so should the changing voices of growing boys4 ,to secure a good pitch for the speaking voice the normal natural pitch of usual conversation should be found4 ,speech in that same pitch should be developed for larger audiences4 ,frequently a better pitch can be secured by slightly lowering the voice4 ,if the natural pitch be too low for clearness or agreeableness it should be slightly raised--never more than is absolutely necessary4 ,no connected group of words should be delivered in a monotonously level pitch4 ,the voice must rise and fall4 ,these changes must answer intelligently to the meaning of the material4 ,such variations are called inflections4 ,the most disagreeable violations of required inflections are raising the voice where it should fall--as at the completion of an idea1 and letting it drop where it should remain up--as before the completion of an idea1 frequently answering to a comma4 ,other variations of pitch depend upon emphasis4 ,emphasis4 ,emphasis is giving prominence to a word or phrase so that its importance is impressed upon a listener4 ,this result is most easily secured by contrast4 ,more force may be put into its delivery than the rest of the speech4 ,the word may be made louder or not so loud4 ,the voice may be pitched higher or lower4 ,the word may be lengthened4 ,pauses will make it prominent4 ,in speaking1 combinations of these are employed to produce emphasis4 ,while all qualities of speech are important1 emphasis is of cardinal value4 ,listeners will never recall everything that a speaker has said4 ,by a skilful employment of emphasis he will put into their consciousness the main theme of his message1 the salient arguments of his contention1 the leading motives of action4 ,here again is that close interdependence of manner and material referred to in the preceding chapter4 ,in later chapters will be discussed various methods of determining and securing emphasis of larger sections than mere words and phrases4 ,phrasing4 ,somewhat related to emphasis is phrasing4 ,this is the grouping together of words1 phrases1 clauses1 and other units so that their meaning and significance may be easily grasped by a listener4 ,as has been already said1 pauses serve as punctuation marks for the hearer4 ,short pauses correspond to commas1 longer ones to colons and semi-colons1 marked ones to periods4 ,speakers can by pauses clearly indicate the conclusions of sections1 the completion of topics1 the passage from one part of the material to another1 the transfer of attention from one subject to its opposite4 ,within smaller range pauses can add delightful variety to delivery as they can signally reinforce the interpretation4 ,no speaker should fall into the habit of monotonously letting his pauses mark the limit of his breath capacity1 nor should he take any regular phrase1 clause1 or sentence length to be indicated by pauses4 ,in this as in all other aspects variety is the charm of speech4 ,enunciation4 ,no matter what handicaps a person may have he may overcome them to secure a distinct1 agreeable enunciation4 ,care in enunciating words will enable a speaker to be heard almost anywhere4 ,it is recorded that ,john ,fox1 a famous preacher of ,south ,place ,chapel1 ,london1 whose voice was neither loud nor strong1 was heard in every part of ,covent ,garden ,theatre1 seating #cejj1 when he made anti-corn-law orations1 by the clearness with which he pronounced the final consonants of the words he spoke4 ,one of the orators best known to readers is ,edmund ,burke1 whose speeches are studied as models of argumentative arrangement and style4 ,yet in actual speech-making ,burke was more or less a failure because of the unfortunate method of his delivery4 ,many men markedly inferior in capacity to ,burke overcame disadvantageous accidents1 but he was frequently hurried and impetuous4 ,though his tones were naturally sonorous1 they were harsh2 and he never divested his speech of a strong ,irish accent4 ,then1 too1 his gestures were clumsy4 ,these facts will explain to us who read and study leisurely these masterpieces why they failed of their purpose when presented by their gifted but ineffective author4 ,pronunciation4 ,enunciation depends to a great degree upon pronunciation4 ,the pronunciation of a word is no fixed and unchangeable thing4 ,every district of a land may have its peculiar local sounds1 every succeeding generation may vary the manner of accenting a word4 ,english people today pronounce schedule with a soft ch sound4 ,program has had its accent shifted from the last to the first syllable4 ,many words have two regularly heard pronunciations--neither1 advertisement1 ,elizabethan1 rations1 oblique1 route1 quinine1 etc4 ,fashions come and go in pronunciation as in all other human interests4 ,some sounds stamp themselves as carelessnesses or perversions at once and are never admitted into educated1 cultured speech4 ,others thrive and have their day1 only to fade before some more widely accepted pronunciation4 ,the first rule in pronunciation is to consult a good dictionary4 ,this will help in most cases but not in all1 for a dictionary merely records all accepted sounds2 only partly can it point out the better of disputed sounds by placing it first4 ,secondly1 speech is a living1 growing1 changing thing4 ,dictionaries drop behind the times surprisingly rapidly4 ,the regularly accepted sound may have come into general use after the dictionary was printed4 ,new activities1 unusual phases of life may throw into general conversation thousands of unused1 unheard words4 ,this was true of the recent ,great ,war1 when with little or no preparation thousands of military1 industrial1 naval1 and aeronautical terms came into daily use4 ,discussions still flutter mildly around cantonment and rations1 and a score of others4 ,next to authoritative books1 the best models are to be secured from the speech of authorities in each branch to which the term specifically belongs4 ,thus the military leaders have made the pronunciation of oblique with the long i the correct one for all military usages4 ,the accepted sound of cantonments was fixed by the men who built and controlled them4 ,as it is not always possible for the ordinary person to hear such authorities deliver such terms in discourse one can merely say that a familiarity with correct pronunciation can be secured only like liberty--at the price of eternal vigilance4 ,constant consultation of the dictionary and other books of recognized reference value1 close observance of the speech of others1 scrutiny of one's own pronunciation1 mental criticism of others' slips1 and determination to correct one's own errors1 are the various methods of attaining certainty of correct delivery of word sounds4 ,poise4 ,when a speaker stands before an audience to address its members he should be perfectly at ease4 ,physical ease will produce an effect upon the listeners4 ,mental ease because of mastery of the material will induce confidence in the delivery4 ,bodily eccentricities and awkwardness which detract from the speech itself should be eradicated by strenuous practice4 ,pose and poise should first command respectful attention4 ,the body should be erect1 but not stiff4 ,most of the muscles should be relaxed4 ,the feet should be naturally placed1 not so far apart as to suggest straddling1 not so close together as to suggest the military stand at attention4 ,what should be done with the hands8 ,nothing4 ,they should not be clasped2 they should not be put behind the back2 they should not be jammed into pockets2 the arms should not be held akimbo2 they should not be folded4 ,merely let the arms and hands hang at the sides naturally4 ,gestures4 ,should a speaker make gestures8 ,certainly never if the gesture detracts from the force of an expression1 as when a preacher pounds the book so hard that the congregation cannot hear his words4 ,certainly yes1 when the feeling of the speaker behind the phrase makes him enforce his meaning by a suitable movement4 ,in speaking today fewer gestures are indulged in than years ago4 ,there should never be many4 ,senseless1 jerky1 agitated pokings and twitchings should be eradicated completely4 ,insincere flourishes should be inhibited4 ,beginners should beware of gestures until they become such practised masters of their minds and bodies that physical emphasis may be added to spoken force4 ,a speaker should feel perfectly free to change his position or move his feet during his remarks4 ,usually such a change should be made to correspond with a pause in delivery4 ,in this way it reinforces the indication of progress or change of topic1 already cited in discussing pauses4 ,delivery4 ,a speaker should never begin to talk the very instant he has taken his place before his audience4 ,he should make a slight pause to collect the attention before he utters his salutation 7to be considered later7 and should make another short pause between it and the opening sentences of his speech proper4 ,after he has spoken the last word he should not fling away from his station to his seat4 ,this always spoils the effect of an entire address by ruining the impression that the last phrase might have made4 ,as for the speech itself1 there are five ways of delivering it3 #a4 ,to write it out in full and read it4 #b4 ,to write it out in full and commit it to memory4 #c4 ,to write out and memorize the opening and closing sentences and other especially important parts1 leaving the rest for extempore delivery4 #d4 ,to use an outline or a brief which suggests the headings in logical order4 #e4 ,to speak without manuscript or notes4 ,reading the ,speech4 ,the first of these methods--to read the speech from a prepared manuscript--really changes the speech to a lecture or reading4 ,true1 it prevents the author from saying anything he would not say in careful consideration of his topic4 ,it assures him of getting in all he wants to say4 ,it gives the impression that all his utterances are the result of calm1 collected thinking4 ,on the other hand1 so few people can read from a manuscript convincingly that the reproduction is likely to be a dull1 lifeless proceeding in which almost anything might be said1 so little does the material impress the audience4 ,this method can hardly be considered speech-making at all4 ,memorizing the ,speech4 ,the second method--of repeating memorized compositions--is better4 ,it at least seems alive4 ,it has an appearance of direct address4 ,it possesses the other advantages of the first method--definite reasoning and careful construction4 ,but its dangers are grave4 ,few people can recite memorized passages with the personal appeal and direct significance that effective spoken discourse should have4 ,emphasis is lacking4 ,variety is absent4 ,the tone becomes monotonous4 ,the speech is so well committed that it flows too easily4 ,if several speakers follow various methods1 almost any listener can unerringly pick the memorized efforts4 ,let the speaker in delivery strive for variety1 pauses1 emphasis2 let him be actor enough to simulate the feeling of spontaneous composition as he talks1 yet no matter how successful he may be in his attempts there will still be slight inconsistencies1 trifling incongruities1 which will disturb a listener even if he cannot describe his mental reaction4 ,the secret lies in the fact that written and spoken composition differ in certain details which are present in each form in spite of the utmost care to weed them out4 ,memorizing ,parts4 ,the third manner can be made effective if the speaker can make the gap just described between written and spoken discourse extremely narrow4 ,if not1 his speech will appear just what it is--an incongruous patchwork of carefully prepared1 reconsidered writing1 and more or less spontaneously evolved speaking4 ,speaking from ,outline or ,brief4 ,the fourth method is by far the best for students training themselves to become public speakers4 ,after a time the brief or outline can be retained in the mind1 and the speaker passes from this method to the next4 ,a brief for an important law case in the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court is a long and elaborate instrument4 ,but a student speaker's brief or outline need not be long4 ,directions1 models1 and exercises for constructing and using outlines will be given in a later chapter4 ,the ,best ,method4 ,the last method is unquestionably the best4 ,let a man so command all the aspects of a subject that he fears no breakdown in his thoughts1 let him be able to use language so that he need never hesitate for the best expression1 let him know the effect he wants to make upon his audience1 the time he has to do it in1 and he will know by what approaches he can best reach his important theme1 what he may safely omit1 what he must include1 what he may hurry over1 what he must slowly unfold1 what he may handle lightly1 what he must treat seriously2 in short1 he will make a great speech4 ,this manner is the ideal towards which all students1 all speakers1 should strive4 ,attributes of the ,speaker4 ,attributes of the speaker himself will aid or mar his speech4 ,among those which help are sincerity1 earnestness1 simplicity1 fairness1 self-control1 sense of humor1 sympathy4 ,all great speakers have possessed these traits4 ,reports upon significant speakers describing their manner emphasize them4 ,john ,bright1 the famous ,english parliamentarian of the middle of the last century1 is described as follows3 ,his style of speaking was exactly what a conventional demagogue's ought not to be4 ,it was pure to austerity2 it was stripped of all superfluous ornament4 ,it never gushed or foamed4 ,it never allowed itself to be mastered by passion4 ,the first peculiarity that struck the listener was its superb self-restraint4 ,the orator at his most powerful passages appeared as if he were rather keeping in his strength than taxing it with effort4 ,,justin ,,mccarthy3 ,history of ,our ,own ,time ,in ,american history the greatest speeches were made by ,abraham ,lincoln4 ,in ,cooper ,union1 ,new ,york1 he made in #ahfj the most powerful speech against the slave power4 ,the ,new ,york ,tribune the next day printed this description of his manner4 ,mr4 ,lincoln is one of nature's orators1 using his rare powers solely to elucidate and convince1 though their inevitable effect is to delight and electrify as well4 ,we present herewith a very full and accurate report of this speech2 yet the tones1 the gestures1 the kindling eye1 and the mirth-provoking look defy the reporter's skill4 ,the vast assemblage frequently rang with cheers and shouts of applause1 which were prolonged and intensified at the close4 ,no man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a ,new ,york audience4 ,shakespeare's ,advice4 ,some of the best advice for speakers was written by ,shakespeare as long ago as just after #afjj1 and although it was intended primarily for actors1 its precepts are just as applicable to almost any kind of delivered discourse4 ,every sentence of it is full of significance for a student of speaking4 ,hamlet1 ,prince of ,denmark1 is airing his opinions about the proper manner of speaking upon the stage4 ,,hamlet',s ,,speech ,speak the speech1 ,i pray you1 as ,i pronounced it to you1 trippingly on the tongue2 but if you mouth it1 as many of your players do1 ,i had as lief the town-crier spoke my lines4 ,nor do not saw the air too much with your hand1 thus1 but use all gently2 for in the very torrent1 tempest1 and1 as ,i may say1 whirlwind of your passion1 you must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness4 ,oh1 it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters1 to very rags1 to split the ears of the groundlings1 who for the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumb-shows and noise4 ,i would have such a fellow whipped for o'erdoing ,termagant4 ,it out-herods ,herod4 ,pray you1 avoid it4 ,be not too tame neither1 but let your own discretion be your tutor4 ,suit the action to the word1 the word to the action2 with this special observance1 that you o'erstep not the modesty of nature4 ,for anything so overdone is from the purpose of playing1 whose end1 both at the first and now1 was and is1 to hold1 as 't were1 the mirror up to nature2 to show virtue her own feature1 scorn her own image1 and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure4 ,now this overdone1 or come tardy off1 though it make the unskilful laugh1 cannot but make the judicious grieve2 the censure of the which one must in your allowance o'erweigh a whole theater of others4 ,oh1 there be players that ,i have seen play1 and heard others praise1 and that highly1 not to speak it profanely1 that1 neither having the accent of ,christians nor the gait of ,christian1 pagan1 nor man1 have so strutted and bellowed that ,i have thought some of nature's journeymen had made men and not made them well1 they imitated humanity so abominably4 ,oh1 reform it altogether4 ,and let those that play your clowns speak no more than is set down for them2 for there be of them that will themselves laugh1 to set on some quantity of barren spectators to laugh too1 though in the meantime some necessary question of the play be then to be considered4 ,that's villainous1 and shows a most pitiful ambition in the fool that uses it4 ,go make you ready4 ,,exercises #a4 ',neath our feet broke the brittle bright stubble like chaff4 #b4 ,the first sip of love is pleasant2 the second1 perilous2 the third1 pestilent4 #c4 ,our ardors are ordered by our enthusiasms4 #d4 ,she's positively sick of seeing her soiled1 silk1 ,sunday dress4 #e4 ,the rough cough and hiccough plowed me through4 #f4 ,she stood at the gate welcoming him in4 #g4 ,five miles meandering with a mazy motion4 #h4 ,peter ,piper picked a peck of pickled peppers3 if ,peter ,piper picked a peck of pickled peppers1 where is the peck of pickled peppers that ,peter ,piper picked8 #i4 ,theophilus ,thistle1 the thistle-sifter1 sifted a sieve of unsifted thistles4 ,if ,theophilus ,thistle1 the thistle-sifter1 sifted a sieve of unsifted thistles1 where is the sieve of unsifted thistles that ,theophilus ,thistle1 the thistle-sifter1 sifted8 #aj4 ,alone1 alone1 all1 all alone1 ,alone on a wide1 wide sea6 #aa4 ,the splendor falls on castle walls1 ,and snowy summits old in story4 #ab4 ,tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow ,creeps in this petty pace from day to day ,to the last syllable of recorded time4 #ac4 ,the moan of doves in immemorial elms1 ,and murmurings of innumerable bees4 #ad4 ,the ,ladies' ,aid ladies were talking about a conversation they had overheard1 before the meeting1 between a man and his wife4 ,they must have been at the ,zoo1 said ,mrs4 ,a42 because ,i heard her mention 'a trained deer4' ,goodness me6 laughed ,mrs4 ,b4 ,what queer hearing you must have6 ,they were talking about going away1 and she said1 ',find out about the train1 dear4' ,well1 did anybody ever6 exclaimed ,mrs4 ,c4 ,i am sure they were talking about musicians1 for she said1 'a trained ear1' as distinctly as could be4 ,the discussion began to warm up1 and in the midst of it the lady herself appeared4 ,they carried the case to her promptly1 and asked for a settlement4 ,well1 well1 you do beat all6 she exclaimed1 after hearing each one4 ,i'd been out in the country overnight and was asking my husband if it rained here last night4 #ae4 ,learning condemns beyond the reach of hope ,the careless lips that speak of s7oap for soap2 ,her edict exiles from her fair abode ,the clownish voice that utters r7oad for road2 ,less stern to him who calls his coat a c7oat1 ,and steers his boat believing it a b7oat4 ,she pardoned one1 our classic city's boast1 ,who said at ,cambridge1 m7ost instead of most1 ,but knit her brows and stamped her angry foot ,to hear a ,teacher call a root a r7oot4 #af4 ,hear the tolling of the bells-- ,iron bells6 ,what a world of solemn thought their monody compels6 ,in the silence of the night1 ,how we shiver with affright ,at the melancholy menace of their tone6 ,for every sound that floats ,from the rust within their throats ,is a groan4 ,and the people--ah1 the people-- ,they that dwell up in the steeple1 ,all alone1 ,and who1 tolling1 tolling1 tolling1 ,in that muffled monotone1 ,feel a glory in so rolling ,on the human heart a stone-- ,they are neither man nor woman-- ,they are neither brute nor human-- ,they are ,ghouls3 ,and their king it is who tolls2 ,and he rolls1 rolls1 rolls1 ,rolls ,a ,paean from the bells6 ,and his merry bosom swells ,with the paean of the bells6 ,and he dances1 and he yells2 ,keeping time1 time1 time1 ,in a sort of ,runic rhyme1 ,to the paean of the bells-- ,of the bells4 #ag4 ,collecting1 projecting1 ,receding and speeding1 ,and shocking and rocking1 ,and darting and parting4 ,and threading and spreading1 ,and whizzing and hissing1 ,and dripping and skipping1 ,and hitting and splitting1 ,and shining and twining1 ,and rattling and battling1 ,and shaking and quaking1 ,and pouring and roaring1 ,and waving and raving1 ,and tossing and crossing1 ,and flowing and going1 ,and running and stunning1 ,and foaming and roaming1 ,and dinning and spinning1 ,and dropping and hopping1 ,and working and jerking1 ,and guggling and struggling1 ,and heaving and cleaving1 ,and moaning and groaning2 ,and glittering and frittering1 ,and gathering and feathering1 ,and whitening and brightening1 ,and quivering and shivering1 ,and hurrying and skurrying1 ,and thundering and floundering2 ,dividing and gliding and sliding1 ,and falling and brawling and sprawling1 ,and driving and riving and striving1 ,and sprinkling and twinkling and wrinkling1 ,and sounding and bounding and rounding1 ,and bubbling and troubling and doubling1 ,and grumbling and rumbling and tumbling1 ,and clattering and battering and shattering2 ,retreating and beating and meeting and sheeting1 ,delaying and straying and playing and spraying1 ,advancing and prancing and glancing and dancing1 ,recoiling1 turmoiling and toiling and boiling1 ,and gleaming and streaming and steaming and beaming1 ,and rushing and flushing and brushing and gushing1 ,and flapping and rapping and clapping and slapping1 ,and curling and whirling and purling and twirling1 ,and thumping and plumping and bumping and jumping1 ,and dashing and flashing and splashing and clashing2 ,and so never ending1 but always descending1 ,sounds and motions for ever and ever are blending1 ,all at once and all o'er1 with a mighty uproar2 ,and this way the water comes down at ,lodore4 #ah4 ,sister ,susie's sewing shirts for soldiers1 ,such skill at sewing shirts our shy young ,sister ,susie shows4 ,some soldiers send epistles ,say they'd rather sleep in thistles ,than the saucy1 soft1 short shirts for soldiers ,sister ,susie sews4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,words ,,and ,,sentences ,vocabularies4 ,the collection of words a person can command either in use or understanding is a vocabulary4 ,every person has three distinct ones3 his reading vocabulary1 his writing vocabulary1 his speaking vocabulary4 ,of these1 the reading vocabulary is the largest4 ,there are thousands of words he recognizes in reading and although he might not be able to construct a dictionary definition for everyone1 he has a sufficiently clear idea to grasp the meaning4 ,in this rude approximation to sense he is aided by the context1 but for all practical purposes he understands the word4 ,if he were writing1 carefully taking time to note exactly what he was expressing1 he might recall that word and so consciously put it into a sentence4 ,he might use it in exactly the same sense in which he had seen it in print4 ,but never in the rush of ideas and words in spoken discourse would he risk using a word he knew so slightly4 ,if nothing more1 he would beware of mispronunciation4 ,thus a person could easily deduce from his reading that a hangar is a building to house airplanes4 ,he might--to avoid repeating the word shed too frequently--use it in writing4 ,but until he was absolutely certain of its significance and its sound he would hardly venture to say it to other men4 ,spoken discourse is so alive1 it moves so rapidly1 that it is never so precise1 so varied in its choice of words1 as written material4 ,the phraseology of written discourse sounds slightly or markedly stilted1 bookish1 if repeated by the tongue4 ,this difference--though it may appear almost trifling--is apparent to everyone4 ,its recognition can be partly illustrated by the fact that after ,president ,lowell and ,senator ,lodge had debated on the topic1 the ,league of ,nations1 in ,boston and were shown the reports of their speeches1 each made changes in certain expressions4 ,the version for print and reading is a little more formal than the delivered sentences4 ,the ,senator said1 ,i want but preferred to write ,i wish2 then he changed has got to be into must1 and nothing to see into nothing visible4 ,one might say that all three vocabularies should correspond1 but there is no real need of this4 ,so long as people read they will meet thousands of words for which they have no need in speaking4 ,everybody must be able to understand the masterpieces of the past with their archaic 7old-fashioned7 words like eftsoons or halidom1 but no one need use such expressions now4 ,so there is no discredit in the fact that one's speaking vocabulary is more restricted than his reading vocabulary4 ,new ,ideas1 ,new ,words4 ,it is true1 however1 that an educated person should never rest content with the size of his usable speaking vocabulary4 ,the addition of every new word is likely to indicate the grasp of a new idea4 ,likewise1 every new idea is almost certain to require its individual terms for expression4 ,an enlarging vocabulary is the outward and visible sign of an inward and intellectual growth4 ,no man's vocabulary can equal the size of a dictionary1 the latest of which in ,english is estimated to contain some #dej1jjj words4 ,life may be maintained upon a surprisingly meager group of words1 as travelers in foreign lands can testify4 ,shakespeare's vocabulary is said to have included as many as #ae1jjj words4 ,figures for that of the average person vary considerably4 ,increasing the ,vocabulary4 ,the method of increasing a vocabulary is a quite simple process4 ,its procedure is a fascinating exercise4 ,it covers four steps4 ,when a new word is encountered it should be noticed with keen attention4 ,if heard1 its pronunciation will be fixed upon the ear4 ,if seen1 its spelling should be mastered at once4 ,the next step is to consult a dictionary for either spelling or pronunciation4 ,then all its meanings should be examined4 ,still the word is not yours until you have used it exactly4 ,this you should do at the first opportunity4 ,if the opportunity seems long in coming make it for yourself by discussing with some one the topic with which it was used or frankly discuss the word itself4 ,how many unfamiliar words have you heard or seen recently8 ,how many do you easily use now in your own remarks8 ,you might find it a good plan to take a linguistic inventory every night4 ,a little practice in this will produce amazingly interesting and profitable results in both use and understanding4 ,a keenness for words will be rapidly developed4 ,word-lists of all kinds will take on entirely new meanings4 ,a spontaneous receptivity will develop into permanent retention of words and phrases4 ,,exercises #a4 ,tell of some new word you have added to your vocabulary recently4 ,explain when you met it1 how it happened to impress you1 what you learned of it4 #b4 ,in studying a foreign language how did you fix in your mind the words which permanently stuck there8 #c4 ,look over a page in a dictionary4 ,report to the class on some interesting material you find4 #d4 ,make a list of ten slang or technical expressions4 ,explain them in exact1 clear language4 #e4 ,find and bring to class a short printed passage1 which because of the words1 you cannot understand4 ,unusual books1 women's fashion magazines1 technical journals1 books of rules for games1 financial reports1 contain good examples4 #f4 ,how much do you know about any of the following words8 chassis fuselage orthodox sable comptometer germicide plebescite self-determination covenant layman purloin soviet ethiopian morale querulous vers libre farce nectar renegade zoom #g4 ,comment on the words in the following extracts3 ,of enchanting crimson brocade is the slipover blouse which follows the lines of the ,french cuirasse4 ,charmingly simple1 this blouse1 quite devoid of trimming1 achieves smartness by concealing the waistline with five graceful folds4 ,the shift bid consists in bidding a suit1 of which you have little or nothing1 with the ultimate object of transferring later to another declaration1 which is perfectly sound4 ,the idea is to keep your adversaries from leading this suit up to your hand1 which they will likely avoid doing1 thinking that you are strong in it4 ,while sentiment is radically bearish on corn there is so little pressure on the market other than from shorts that a majority of traders are inclined to go slow in pressing the selling side on breaks until the situation becomes more clearly defined4 ,the weekly forecast for cool weather is regarded as favorable for husking and shelling1 and while there was evening up on the part of the pit operators for the double holiday1 some of the larger local professionals went home short expecting a lower opening ,tuesday4 #h4 ,make a list of ten new words you have learned recently4 ,suffixes and ,prefixes4 ,definite steps for continuous additions can be mapped out and covered4 ,careful attention to prefixes and suffixes will enlarge the vocabulary4 ,,prefixes #a4 a on1 in1 at1 to2 abed1 aboard1 afield1 afire #b4 ab 7a1 abs7 from1 away2 absent1 abstract1 abdicate #c4 ad1 etc4 to1 in addition to2 adapt1 admit1 adduce #d4 ante before1 anteroom1 antebellum #e4 anti against1 opposite2 anticlimax1 antipodes1 antipathy #f4 bi two2 bicycle1 biennial1 biped1 biplane #g4 circum around1 about2 circumnavigate1 circumscribe1 circumvent #h4 con 7col1 com1 co1 cor1 etc47 with1 together2 consent1 collect1 cordinate1 composite1 conspiracy #i4 contra 7counter7 against2 contradict1 counteract1 countermand #aj4 de down1 from1 away2 depose1 desist1 decapitate1 denatured #aa4 demi1 hemi1 semi half2 demi-tasse1 hemisphere1 semiannual1 semitransparent #ab4 di 7dis7 twice1 double2 dissyllable #ac4 dis 7di1 dif7 apart1 away1 not2 distract1 diverge1 diversion1 disparage #ad4 en 7em7 in1 on1 into2 engrave1 embody1 embrace #ae4 extra beyond2 extraordinary1 extravagant #af4 hyper above2 hypercritical #ag4 in 7il1 im1 ir7 in1 into1 not2 inclose1 illustrate1 irrigate1 inform1 illiterate1 impious1 irregular #ah4 ex 7e1 ec1 ef7 out of1 from1 beyond1 thoroughly1 formerly but not now2 exclude1 excel1 ex-senator4 #ai4 inter between1 among2 intercede1 interchange1 interfere1 interurban1 interlude #bj4 mis wrongly1 badly2 miscalculate1 misspell1 misadventure #ba4 mono one2 monoplane #bb4 per through1 thoroughly1 by2 perchance1 perfect1 per-adventure #bc4 poly many2 polygon1 polytheism #bd4 post behind1 after2 postgraduate1 post-mortem1 postlude1 postscript1 post-meridian 7,p4,m47 #be4 pre before 7in time1 place1 or order72 preminent1 predict1 prefer1 prefix1 prejudge1 prejudice #bf4 preter beyond2 preternatural #bg4 pro before1 forth1 forward2 proceed1 prosecute #bh4 pro siding with2 pro-ally #bi4 re back1 again2 recover1 renew1 recall #cj4 sub1 etc4 under2 submerge1 subscribe1 subterranean1 subterfuge #ca4 super 7sur7 over1 above2 superintend1 supercargo #cb4 trans 7tra7 across2 translate1 transmit1 transfer #cc4 vice 7vis7 instead of2 vice-president1 vice-admiral ,,suffixes #a4 ee1 er one who2 absentee1 profiteer1 mower #b4 ard1 art term of disparagement2 drunkard1 braggart #c4 esque like2 statuesque #d4 ism state of being2 barbarism1 atheism #e4 et1 let little2 brooklet1 bracelet1 eaglet #f4 ling little1 young2 duckling1 gosling #g4 kin little2 lambkin1 ,peterkin #h4 stead a place2 bedstead1 homestead1 instead #i4 wright a workman2 wheelwright ,thesaurus4 ,besides frequently consulting a good modern dictionary a student speaker should familiarize himself with a ,thesaurus of words and phrases4 ,this is a peculiarly useful compilation of expressions according to their meaning relations4 ,a dictionary lists words1 then gives their meanings4 ,a ,thesaurus arranges meanings1 then gives the words that express those ideas4 ,the value of such a book can be best illustrated by explaining its use4 ,suppose a speaker is going to attack some principle1 some act1 some party4 ,he knows that his main theme will be denunciation of something4 ,in the index of a ,thesaurus he looks under denunciation1 finding two numbers of paragraphs4 ,turning to the first he has under his eye a group of words all expressing shades of this idea4 ,there are further references to other related terms4 ,let us look at the first group1 taken from ,roget's ,thesaurus4 ,,maledicton1 curse1 imprecation1 denunciation1 execration1 anathema1 ban1 proscription1 excommunication1 commination1 fulmination4 ,cursing1 scolding1 railing1 ,billingsgate language4 ,v4 ,to curse1 accurse1 imprecate1 scold1 rail1 execrate4 ,to denounce1 proscribe1 excommunicate1 fulminate4 ,adj4 ,cursing1 c1 cursed1 c4 ,,threat1 menace1 defiance1 abuse1 commination1 intimidation4 ,v4 ,to threaten1 menace1 defy1 fulminate2 to intimidate4 ,adj4 ,threatening1 menacing1 minatory1 abusive4 ,the second reference leads us farther4 ,it presents the expressions dealing with the methods and results of denunciation1 providing hundreds of words and phrases to use in various ways4 ,it does even more1 for in a parallel column it gives a list of opposites for the words indicating condemnation4 ,this more than doubles its value4 ,finally having reached the word punishment it lists its cognates until the idea penalty is reached1 where it balances that idea with reward and its synonyms4 ,a portion of this section follows4 ,,lawsuit1 suit1 action1 cause1 trial1 litigation4 ,denunciation1 citation1 arraignment1 persecution1 indictment1 impeachment1 apprehension1 arrest1 committal1 imprisonment4 ,pleadings1 writ1 summons1 plea1 bill1 affidavit1 c4 ,verdict1 sentence1 judgment1 finding1 decree1 arbitrament1 adjudication1 award4 ,v4 ,to go to law2 to take the law of2 to appeal to the law2 to join issue2 file a bill1 file a claim4 ,to denounce1 cite1 apprehend1 arraign1 sue1 prosecute1 bring to trial1 indict1 attach1 distrain1 to commit1 give in charge or custody2 throw into prison4 ,to try1 hear a cause1 sit in judgment4 ,to pronounce1 find1 judge1 sentence1 give judgment2 bring in a verdict2 doom1 to arbitrate1 adjudicate1 award1 report4 ,,acquittal1 absolution1 see ,pardon1 #iah1 clearance1 discharge1 release1 reprieve1 respite4 ,exemption from punishment2 impunity4 ,v4 ,to acquit1 absolve1 clear1 discharge1 release1 reprieve1 respite4 ,adj4 ,acquitted1 c4 ,uncondemned1 unpunished1 unchastised4 ,,condemnation1 conviction1 proscription2 death warrant4 ,attainder1 attainment4 ,v4 ,to condemn1 convict1 cast1 find guilty1 proscribe4 ,adj4 ,condemnatory1 c4 ,,punishment1 chastisement1 castigation1 correction1 chastening1 discipline1 infliction1 etc4 ,an observer will see at once just how far these lists go and what must supplement them4 ,they do not define1 they do not discriminate1 they do not restrict4 ,they are miscellaneous collections4 ,a person must consult the dictionary or refer to some other authority to prevent error or embarrassment in use4 ,for instance1 under the entry newspaper occurs the attractive word ephemeris4 ,but one should be careful of how and where he uses that word4 ,another exercise which will aid in fixing both words and meanings in the mind and also help in the power of recalling them for instant use is to make some kind of word-list according to some principle or scheme4 ,one plan might be to collect all the words dealing with the idea of book4 ,another might be to take some obvious word root and then follow it and other roots added to it through all its forms1 meanings1 and uses4 ,one might choose tel 7distant7 and graph 7record7 and start with telegraph4 ,telephone will introduce phone1 phonograph2 they will lead on to dictaphone1 dictagraph2 the first half links with dictation2 that may lead as far away as dictatorial4 ,in fact there is no limit to the extent1 the interest1 and the value of these various exercises4 ,the single aim of all of them should be1 of course1 the enlargement of the speaking vocabulary4 ,mere curiosities1 current slang1 far-fetched metaphors1 passing foreign phrases1 archaisms1 obsolete and obsolescent terms1 too new coinages1 atrocities1 should be avoided as a plague4 ,consistent1 persistent1 insistent word-study is of inestimable value to a speaker4 ,and since all people speak1 it follows that it would benefit everybody4 ,,exercises #a4 ,explain what is meant by each entry in the foregoing list4 #b4 ,list some verbal curiosities you have met recently4 ,examples3 ,mr4 ,have-it-your-own-way is the best husband4 ,he shows a great deal of stick-to-it-iveness4 #c4 ,what should be the only condition for using foreign expressions8 ,can you show how foreign words become naturalized8 ,cite some foreign words used in speech4 #d4 ,are archaic 7old-fashioned71 obsolete 7discarded71 and obsolescent 7rapidly disappearing7 terms more common in speech or books8 ,explain and illustrate4 ,synonyms4 ,as has already been suggested1 a copious vocabulary must not be idle in a person's equipment4 ,he must be able to use it4 ,he must be able to discriminate as to meaning4 ,this power of choosing the exact word results from a study of synonyms4 ,it is a fact that no two words mean exactly the same thing4 ,no matter how nearly alike the two meanings may appear to be1 closer consideration will unfailingly show at least a slight difference of dignity1 if nothing more--as red and crimson1 pure and unspotted4 ,synonyms1 then1 are groups of words whose meanings are almost the same4 ,these are the words which give so much trouble to learners of our language4 ,a foreigner is told that stupid means dull1 yet he is corrected if he says a stupid knife4 ,many who learn ,english as a native tongue fail to comprehend the many delicate shades of differences among synonyms4 ,in this matter1 also1 a dictionary goes so far as to list synonyms1 and in some cases1 actually adds a discussion to define the various limits4 ,for fuller1 more careful discrimination a good book of synonyms should be consulted4 ,except for some general consideration of words which everyone is certain to use or misuse1 it is better to consult a treatise on synonyms when need arises than to study it consecutively4 ,in consultation the material will be fixed by instant use4 ,in study it may fade before being employed2 it may never be required4 ,the subjoined paragraphs show entries in two different volumes upon synonyms3 ,adjacent1 adjoining1 contiguous4 ,adjacent1 in ,latin1 adjiciens1 participle of adjicio1 is compounded of ad and jacio1 to lie near4 ,adjoining1 as the word implies1 signifies being joined together4 ,contiguous1 in ,french contigu1 ,latin contiguus1 comes from contingo1 or con and tango1 signifying to touch close4 ,what is adjacent may be separated altogether by the intervention of some third object2 what is adjoining must touch in some part2 and what is contiguous must be fitted to touch entirely on one side4 ,lands are adjacent to a house or town2 fields are adjoining to each other2 and houses contiguous to each other4 ,,crabbe3 ,english ,synonyms ,victory3 ,synonyms3 achievement1 advantage1 conquest1 mastery1 success1 supremacy1 triumph4 ,victory is the state resulting from the overcoming of an opponent or opponents in any contest1 or from the overcoming of difficulties1 obstacles1 evils1 etc41 considered as opponents or enemies4 ,in the latter sense any hard-won achievement1 advantage1 or success may be termed a victory4 ,in conquest and mastery there is implied a permanence of state that is not implied in victory4 ,triumph1 originally denoting the public rejoicing in honor of a victory1 has come to signify also a peculiarly exultant1 complete1 and glorious victory4 ,compare conquer4 ,antonyms3 defeat1 destruction1 disappointment1 disaster1 failure1 frustration1 miscarriage1 overthrow1 retreat1 rout4 ,,fernald3 ,english ,synonyms1 ,antonyms and ,prepositions ,antonyms4 ,notice that this second paragraph adds a new word-list--antonyms4 ,to reinforce the understanding of what a thing is1 it is desirable to know what it is not1 or what its opposite is4 ,this kind of explanation or description is especially valuable to a speaker4 ,he can frequently impress an audience more definitely by explaining the opposite of what he wants them to apprehend4 ,at times the term is not the extreme opposite2 it is merely the negative of the other4 ,logically the other side of white is not white1 while the antonym is the extreme black4 ,trained speakers use with great effect the principle underlying such groups of words4 ,when ,burke argued before the ,house of ,commons for a plan to secure harmony with the ,american colonies he described the scheme he considered necessary by showing what it should not be4 ,no partial1 narrow1 contracted1 pinched1 occasional system will be at all suitable to such an object4 ,describing the peace he hoped would be secured he used this principle of opposites4 ,not peace through the medium of war2 not peace to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations1 not peace to arise out of universal discord1 fomented from principle in all parts of the empire2 not peace to depend on the juridical determination of perplexing questions1 or the precise marking the shadowy boundaries of a complex government4 ,we are told by an investigator that one of the reasons for a ,frenchman's keen insight into the capabilities of his language is the early training received in schools covering differences among words4 ,this continual weighing of the meaning or the suitability of an expression is bound to result in a delicate appreciation of its value as a means of effective communication4 ,in all mental action the sense of contrast is an especially lively one4 ,in a later chapter this principle1 as applied to explanation and argument1 will be discussed4 ,just here1 the point is that the constant study of contrasts will sharpen the language sense and rapidly enlarge the vocabulary4 ,,exercises #a4 ,put down a group of five words having similar meanings4 ,explain the differences among them4 #b4 ,choose any word4 ,give its exact opposite4 #c4 ,from any short paragraph copy all the nouns4 ,in a parallel column put opposites or contrasts4 #d4 ,do the same for the adjectives1 verbs1 and adverbs4 #e4 ,write down all the common nouns which correspond to a man1 a girl1 a leader1 a house1 a costume1 a crime4 ,composition of the ,english ,language4 ,turning now from the means of improving the speaker's language equipment let us pass to some remarks upon his use of words4 ,the ,english language is the largest1 the most varied in the universe4 ,almost entirely free from difficulties of inflection and conjugation1 with a simplified grammar1 and a great freedom of construction1 it suffers from only two signal drawbacks--its spelling and its pronunciation4 ,while it has preserved to a great degree its original ,anglo-,saxon grammar1 it has enriched its vocabulary by borrowings from everywhere4 ,its words have no distinctive forms1 so every foreign word can usually be naturalized by a mere change of sound4 ,no matter what their origin1 all belong to one family now2 gnu is as much ,english as knew1 japan as pogrom1 fte as papoose1 batik as radii1 ohm as marconigram1 macadamized as zoomed4 ,most of the modern borrowings--as just illustrated--were to serve for new things or ideas4 ,but there was one time when a great reduplication of the vocabulary occurred4 ,after the ,french conquered ,england in #ajff1 ,english and ,norman-,french were spoken side by side4 ,the resultant tongue1 composed of both1 offered many doubles for the same idea4 ,in some instances the fashionable and aristocratic ,french word marked a difference of meaning as is clearly indicated by such pairs as beef and ox1 veal and calf1 mutton and sheep1 pork and pig4 ,in many other cases words of ,french and ,english origin are separated by differences less distinct4 ,such are love and affection1 worship and adoration4 ,a speaker must take thought of such groups1 and consciously endeavor to use the more appropriate for his purpose4 ,anglo-,saxon and ,romance4 ,it may help him to remember that the ,anglo-,saxon words are the more homely1 the closer to our everyday feelings and experiences1 the expression of our deepest ideas and sentiments1 the natural outspoken response to keen emotion4 ,on the other hand1 the ,romance words--as they are called1 whether from the ,french or directly from the ,latin--are likely to be longer2 they belong generally to the more complicated relationships of society and government2 they are more intellectual in the sense that they represent the operations of the brain rather than the impulses of the heart4 ,they deal with more highly trained wills1 with more abstruse problems2 they reason1 they argue1 they consider2 they are philosophical1 scientific1 legal1 historical4 ,listen to a soldier relate his war experiences4 ,what will his vocabulary be8 ,listen to a diplomat explaining the ,league of ,nations4 ,what will his vocabulary be8 ,have you ever heard a speaker who gave you the impression that all his words ended in tion8 ,this was because his vocabulary was largely ,romance4 ,the inferences from the foregoing are perfectly plain4 ,subject and audience will determine to a large extent what kinds of words a speaker will choose4 ,the well-equipped speaker will be master of both kinds2 he will draw from either as occasion offers4 ,he will not insult one audience by talking below their intelligence1 nor will he bore another by speaking over their heads4 ,general and ,specific ,terms4 ,effective speaking depends to a large extent upon the inclusion of specific terms as contrasted with general terms4 ,glittering generalities never make people listen4 ,they mean nothing because they say too much4 ,study the following selections to see how the concrete phraseology used makes the material more telling1 how it enforces the meaning4 ,pick out the best expressions and explain why they are better than more general terms4 ,in the first1 note how the last sentence drives home the meaning of the first two4 ,listeners may understand the first two1 they remember the last4 ,civil and religious liberty in this country can be preserved only through the agency of our political institutions4 ,but those institutions alone will not suffice4 ,it is not the ship so much as the skilful sailing that assures the prosperous voyage4 ,,george ,,william ,,curtis3 ,the ,public ,duty of ,educated ,men1 #ahgg ,describe the significance of the best expressions in the following speech made in ,parliament by ,thomas ,babington ,macaulay4 ,all those fierce spirits whom you hallooed on to harass us now turn round and begin to worry you4 ,the ,orangeman raises his war-whoop2 ,exeter ,hall sets up its bray2 ,mr4 ,macneill shudders to see more costly cheer than ever provided for the ,priest of ,baal at the table of the ,queen2 and the ,protestant operatives of ,dublin call for impeachments in exceedingly bad ,english4 ,but what did you expect8 ,did you think when1 to serve your turn1 you called the devil up that it was as easy to lay him as to raise him8 ,did you think when you went on1 session after session1 thwarting and reviling those whom you knew to be in the right1 and flattering all the worst passions of those whom you knew to be in the wrong1 that the day of reckoning would never come8 ,it has come4 ,there you sit1 doing penance for the disingenuousness of years4 ,why was the style of the extract below especially good for the evident purpose and audience8 ,why did the author use names for the candidates8 ,when an ,american citizen is content with voting merely1 he consents to accept what is often a doubtful alternative4 ,his first duty is to help shape the alternative4 ,this1 which was formerly less necessary1 is now indispensable4 ,in a rural community such as this country was a hundred years-ago1 whoever was nominated for office was known to his neighbors1 and the consciousness of that knowledge was a conservative influence in determining nominations4 ,but in the local elections of the great cities of today1 elections that control taxation and expenditure1 the mass of the voters vote in absolute ignorance of the candidates4 ,the citizen who supposes that he does all his duty when he votes1 places a premium upon political knavery4 ,thieves welcome him to the polls and offer him a choice1 which he has done nothing to prevent1 between ,jeremy ,diddler and ,dick ,turpin4 ,the party cries for which he is responsible are3 ,turpin and ,honesty1 ,diddler and ,reform4 ,and within a few years1 as a result of this indifference to the details of public duty1 the most powerful politicians in the ,empire ,state of the ,union was ,jonathan ,wild1 the ,great1 the captain of a band of plunderers4 ,,george ,,william ,,curtis3 ,the ,public ,duty of ,educated ,men1 #ahgg ,appropriate ,diction4 ,the final test of any diction is its appropriateness4 ,the man who talks of dignified things as he would of a baseball game--unless he is doing it deliberately for humor1 caricature1 or burlesque--is ruining his own cause4 ,the man who discusses trifles in the style of philosophy makes himself an egregious bore4 ,as ,shakespeare said1 ,suit the action to the word1 the word to the action2 with this special observance1 that you o'erstep not the modesty of nature4 ,beware of the flowery expression2 avoid metaphorical speech2 flee from the lure of the overwrought style4 ,in the first place it is so old-fashioned that audiences suspect it at once4 ,it fails to move them4 ,it may plunge its user into ridiculous failure4 ,in the excitement of spontaneous composition a man sometimes takes risks4 ,he may--as ,pitt is reported to have said he did--throw himself into a sentence and trust to ,god ,almighty to get him out4 ,but a beginner had better walk before he tries to soar4 ,if he speaks surely rather than amazingly his results will be better4 ,the temptation to leave the ground is ever present in speaking4 ,a ,parliamentary debater describing the ,church of ,england wound up in a flowery conclusion thus3 ,i see the ,church of ,england rising in the land1 with one foot firmly planted in the soil1 the other stretched toward ,heaven6 ,an ,american orator discussing the character of ,washington discharged the following4 ,the higher we rise in the scale of being--material1 intellectual1 and moral--the more certainly we quit the region of the brilliant eccentricities and dazzling contrasts which belong to a vulgar greatness4 ,order and proportion characterize the primordial constitution of the terrestrial system2 ineffable harmony rules the heavens4 ,all the great eternal forces act in solemn silence4 ,the brawling torrent that dries up in summer deafens you with its roaring whirlpools in ,march2 while the vast earth on which we dwell1 with all its oceans and all its continents and its thousand millions of inhabitants1 revolves unheard upon its soft axle at the rate of a thousand miles an hour1 and rushes noiselessly on its orbit a million and a half miles a day4 ,two storm-clouds encamped upon opposite hills on a sultry summer's evening1 at the expense of no more electricity1 according to ,mr4 ,faraday1 than is evolved in the decomposition of a single drop of water1 will shake the surrounding atmosphere with their thunders1 which1 loudly as they rattle on the spot1 will yet not be heard at the distance of twenty miles2 while those tremendous and unutterable forces which ever issue from the throne of ,god1 and drag the chariot wheels of ,uranus and ,neptune along the uttermost path-ways of the solar system1 pervade the illimitable universe in silence4 ,of course1 today1 nobody talks like that4 ,at least no one should4 ,trite ,expressions4 ,less easily guarded against is the delivery of trite expressions4 ,these are phrases and clauses which at first were so eloquent that once heard they stuck in people's minds1 who then in an endeavor themselves to be emphatic inserted continually into their speeches these overworked1 done-to-death expressions1 which now having been used too frequently have no real meaning4 ,one of the most frequently abused is of the people1 by the people1 for the people4 ,others are words and phrases made popular by the war4 ,many are no more than jargon--meaningless counterfeits instead of the legal tender of real speech4 ,it is amazing to notice how persistently some of them recur in the remarks of apparently well-trained men who should know better than to insert them4 ,the following were used by a prominent ,united ,states political leader in a single speech4 ,he could2 easily have replaced them by living material or dispensed with them entirely4 ,jot or tittle2 the plain unvarnished truth2 ,god forbid2 the jackal press2 that memorable occasion2 tooth and nail2 the ,god of our fathers2 the awful horrors of ,valley ,forge2 the blood-stained heights of ,yorktown2 tell it not in ,gath2 proclaim it not in the streets of ,askalon2 peace with honor2 the ,arabian ,nights2 ,munchausen2 the fathers2 our globe-encircling domain2 ,i am a ,democrat2 the pirates of the ,barbary ,coast2 ,democratic gospel pure and undefiled2 ,janus-faced double2 ,good ,lord1 good devil2 all things to all men2 ,god-fearing patriots2 come what may2 all things are fair in love or war2 the silken bowstring2 the unwary voter2 bait to catch gudgeons2 to live by or to die by2 these obsequious courtiers2 ,guttenburg2 rubber stamp2 at all hazards2 the most unkindest cut of all4 ,with the artificiality1 the stiltedness of the foregoing contrast the simplicity1 the sincerity of these two extracts from ,abraham ,lincoln4 ,and now1 if they would listen--as ,i suppose they will not--,i would address a few words to the ,southern people4 ,i would say to them3 ,you consider yourselves a reasonable and a just people2 and ,i consider that in the general qualities of reason and justice you are not inferior to any other people4 ,still1 when you speak of us ,republicans1 you do so only to denounce us as reptiles1 or1 at the best1 as no better than outlaws4 ,you will grant a hearing to pirates or murderers1 but nothing like it to ,black ,republicans4 ,in all your contentions with one another1 each of you deems an unconditional condemnation of ,black ,republicanism as the first thing to be attended to4 ,indeed1 such condemnation of us seems to be an indispensable prerequisite--license1 so to speak--among you to be admitted or permitted to speak at all4 ,now can you or not be prevailed upon to pause and to consider whether this is quite just to us1 or even to yourselves8 ,bring forward your charges and specifications1 and then be patient long enough to hear us deny or justify4 ,cooper ,union ,speech1 #ahfj ,my ,friends3 ,no one1 not in my situation1 can appreciate my feeling of sadness at this parting4 ,to this place1 and the kindness of these people1 ,i owe everything4 ,here ,i have lived a quarter of a century1 and have passed from a young to an old man4 ,here my children have been born1 and one is buried4 ,i now leave1 not knowing when or whether ever ,i may return1 with a task before me greater than that which rested upon ,washington4 ,without the assistance of that ,divine ,being who ever attended him1 ,i cannot succeed4 ,with that assistance ,i cannot fail4 ,trusting in ,him who can go with me1 and remain with you1 and be everywhere for good1 let us confidently hope that all will yet be well4 ,to ,his care commending you1 as ,i hope in your prayers you will commend me1 ,i bid you an affectionate farewell4 ,farewell ,address at ,springfield1 #ahfa ,kinds of ,sentences4 ,what kinds of sentences shall a speaker construct as he speaks8 ,that there is a difference between those a person composes when he writes and those the same person is likely to evolve when he speaks is realized by everyone4 ,we hear that a speaker is booky1 or conversational1 that he is stilted or lively1 that he is too formal1 that his discourse is dull and flat4 ,to a great degree these criticisms are based upon the sentence structure4 ,the ,simple ,sentence4 ,the simple sentence contains only one subject and one predicate4 ,the complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause4 ,the compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses4 ,it would be good advice to urge the employment of the simple sentence were it not for the fact that a long succession of sentences constructed exactly alike1 making the same impression of form and sound and length1 is likely to produce a deadly monotony of emphasis and pause1 an impression of immaturity on the part of the speaker and of lack of skill in molding his phrases4 ,yet1 in the main1 the simple sentence is a valuable kind to know how to deliver4 ,containing but a single thought it is likely to make a definite impression upon a listener4 ,it offers him not too much to grasp4 ,it leads him a single step along the way4 ,it speaks clearly1 concisely4 ,its advantages follow from its qualities4 ,at the beginning of addresses it is especially efficient in leading the audience at the same rate--slowly1 it should be--as the speaker4 ,in intricate explanation1 in close reasoning1 in matters of paramount importance1 it should be employed4 ,management of the short1 simple sentence in written prose is difficult4 ,in spoken discourse1 as well1 it is so easy to fall into the ,first ,primer style that while the advantages of the use of the simple sentence are great1 the ability to produce good sentences in succession must be developed4 ,the ,complex ,sentence4 ,the complex sentence offers a good form for introducing pertinent1 minor details1 which are necessary1 yet which do not merit inclusion in the general level of the speech4 ,aided by proper pitch and inflection of the voice1 they can be skilfully subordinated to main ideas1 yet introduced so adroitly that they at times relieve attention1 at others briefly explain1 at others keep adding up in a series the effect of which is a large total4 ,frequently such sentences indicate clearly the progress of the discussion4 ,a topic introduced in a subordinate clause may later be raised to more importance without abruptness1 for hearers are already familiar with it4 ,a topic already treated may be recalled by citation in a later clause4 ,so various parts of a speech may be closely knit together to present a coherent1 progressive1 unified whole4 ,in easily grasped general1 descriptive1 narrative1 explanatory material1 complex sentences will allow the covering of a wide field1 or a long time1 in short order by condensing facts into the few words of subordinate clauses4 ,the ,compound ,sentence4 ,somewhat like the use of complex sentences for general material is the use of compound ones for informal topics1 familiar discourse1 easy address1 lighter material4 ,valuable1 too1 is this form for the speaker who knows accurately the meaning of conjunctions1 who can avoid the stringing together of what should be simple sentences by a dozen senseless ands4 ,a good rule for the beginner is to allow no ands in his speeches except those so imbedded in phrases--husband and wife1 now and then1 principal and interest--that he cannot avoid them4 ,let him never speak such sentences as1 ,i came to this meeting and discovered only when ,i got here that ,i was scheduled to speak4 ,let him be careful of beginning sentence's with and after he has made a pause4 ,the ,exclamatory ,sentence4 ,many speakers yield to the temptation to strive for effect by delivering exclamatory sentences--sometimes only clauses and phrases so enunciated4 ,the disposition to do this is born of the desire to be emphatic4 ,strong feeling makes one burst out in ejaculation4 ,used sparingly this form may be extremely effective4 ,used too frequently it reduces a speech to a mere series of ejaculations of little more value than a succession of grunts1 groans1 and sobs4 ,exclamatory sentences seldom convey much meaning4 ,they indicate emotion4 ,but a speech1 to be worth listening to1 must convey ideas4 ,the ,interrogative ,sentence4 ,a second sentence which may be classed with the preceding is the interrogative4 ,there is a disposition on the part of speakers to ask direct questions of the audience4 ,frequently the rhetorical question--which is one asked because the answer is the quite apparent fact the speaker wants to impress upon his hearers--is an effective method of making a seemingly personal appeal to sluggish intellects or lazy wills4 ,the interrogative form has the same disadvantage as the exclamatory4 ,except when its answer is perfectly plain it transfers no meaning4 ,it would be easily possible for a speaker with no ideas at all1 no knowledge of a topic1 to engage time and attention by merely constructing a series of questions4 ,at the conclusion the audience would wonder why in the world he spoke1 for he had so little to say4 ,long and ,short ,sentences4 ,so far as long and short sentences are concerned some general rules have already been hinted at in dealing with other kinds4 ,the advantages of the short sentence are mainly those of clearness1 directness1 emphasis4 ,its dangers are monotony1 bareness1 over-compactness4 ,the advantages of the long--that is1 quite long--sentence1 are rather difficult to comprehend4 ,a wordy sentence is likely to defeat its own purpose4 ,instead of guiding it will lose its hearer4 ,somewhat long sentences--as already said--will serve in general discussions1 in rapidly moving descriptive and narrative passages1 in rather simple explanation and argument4 ,no one can state at just what number of words a short sentence becomes medium1 and when the division of medium becomes long4 ,yet there must be some limits4 ,a sentence in ,les ,misrables includes nearly one thousand words in both ,french original and ,english translation4 ,john ,milton produced some extraordinarily long sentences4 ,but these are in written discourse4 ,some modern speakers have come dangerously near the limit4 ,in one printed speech one sentence has four hundred ten words in it2 a later one goes to five hundred forty4 ,this second would fill about half a column of the usual newspaper4 ,surely these are much too long4 ,a speaker can frequently make a long sentence acceptable by breaking it up into shorter elements by sensible pauses4 ,yet the general direction must surely be3 avoid sentences which are too long4 ,variety4 ,the paramount rule of sentence structure in speech-making is certainly3 secure variety4 ,long1 medium1 short2 declarative1 exclamatory1 interrogative2 simple1 loose1 periodic2 use them all as material permits and economy of time and attention prescribes4 ,with the marvelous variety possible in ,english sentence structure1 no person with ideas and language at command need be a monotonous speaker4 ,,exercises #a4 ,criticize this selection for its diction and sentence structure4 ,what excellences has it8 ,what can you find fault with8 ,does its date explain it8 ,the books in the library1 the portraits1 the table at which he wrote1 the scientific culture of the land1 the course of agricultural occupation1 the coming-in of harvests1 fruit of the seed his own hand had scattered1 the animals and implements of husbandry1 the trees planted by him in lines1 in copses1 in orchards by thousands1 the seat under the noble elm on which he used to sit to feel the southwest wind at evening1 or hear the breathings of the sea1 or the not less audible music of the starry heavens1 all seemed at first unchanged4 ,the sun of a bright day from which1 however1 something of the fervors of midsummer were wanting1 fell temperately on them all1 filled the air on all sides with the utterances of life1 and gleamed on the long line of ocean4 ,some of those whom on earth he loved best1 still were there4 ,the great mind still seemed to preside2 the great presence to be with you2 you might expect to hear again the rich and playful tones of the voice of the old hospitality4 ,yet a moment more1 and all the scene took on the aspect of one great monument1 inscribed with his name1 and sacred to his memory4 ,and such it shall be in all the future of ,america6 ,the sensation of desolateness1 and loneliness1 and darkness1 with which you see it now1 will pass away2 the sharp grief of love and friendship will become soothed2 men will repair thither as they are wont to commemorate the great days of history2 the same glance shall take in1 and same emotions shall greet and bless1 the ,harbor of the ,pilgrims and the ,tomb of ,webster4 ,,rufus ,,choate3 ,a ,discourse ,commemorative of ,daniel ,webster1 #ahec #b4 ,what is the effect of the questions in the following8 ,are the sentences varied8 ,if the occasion was momentous1 what is the style8 ,and judging by the past1 ,i wish to know what there has been in the conduct of the ,british ministry for the last ten years1 to justify those hopes with which gentlemen have been pleased to solace themselves and the house8 ,is it that insidious smile with which our petition has been lately received8 ,trust it not1 ,sir2 it will prove a snare to your feet4 ,suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss4 ,ask yourselves how this gracious reception of our petition comports with those warlike preparations which cover our water and darken our land4 ,are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love and reconciliation8 ,have we shown ourselves so unwilling to be reconciled that force must be called in to win back our love8 ,,patrick ,,henry3 ,speech in the ,virginia ,convention1 #agge #c4 ,list the concrete details given below4 ,what effect have they8 ,what elements give the idea of the extent of the ,colonies' fisheries8 ,are the sentences long or short8 ,does their success justify them8 ,look at the manner in which the people of ,new ,england have of late carried on the whale fishery4 ,whilst we follow them among the tumbling mountains of ice1 and behold them penetrating into the deepest frozen recess of ,hudson's ,bay and ,davis' ,straits1 whilst we are looking for them beneath the arctic circle1 we hear that they have pierced into the opposite region of polar cold1 that they are at the antipodes1 and engaged under the frozen ,serpent of the ,south4 ,falkland ,islands1 which seemed too remote and romantic an object for the grasp of national ambition1 is but a stage and resting-place in the progress of their victorious industry4 ,nor is the equinoctial heat more discouraging to them than the accumulated winter of both the poles4 ,we know that whilst some of them draw the line and strike the harpoon on the coast of ,africa1 others run the longitude and pursue their gigantic game along the coast of ,brazil4 ,no sea but what is vexed by their fisheries2 no climate that is not witness to their toil4 ,neither the perseverance of ,holland1 nor the activity of ,france1 nor the dexterous and firm sagacity of ,english enterprise ever carried this most perilous mode of hardy industry to the extent to which it has been pushed by1 this recent people2 a people who are still1 as it were1 but in the gristle1 and not yet hardened into the bone of manhood4 ,,edmund ,,burke3 ,conciliation with ,america1 #agge #d4 ,is the following clear8 ,what kind of sentence is it8 ,what minor phrase8 ,is this phrase important8 ,why8 ,why did ,lincoln repeat this sentence1 practically with no change1 twelve times in a single speech8 ,the sum of the whole is that of our thirty-nine fathers who framed the original ,constitution1 twenty-one--a clear majority of the whole--certainly understood that no proper division of local from ,federal authority1 nor any part of the ,constitution1 forbade the ,federal ,government to control slavery in the ,federal ,territories4 ,,abraham ,,lincoln3 ,cooper ,union ,speech1 #ahfj #e4 ,is the following well phrased8 ,what makes it so8 ,is any expression too strong8 ,do you object to any8 ,how many of the words would you be likely not to use8 ,it is but too true that there are many whose whole scheme of freedom is made up of pride1 perverseness1 and insolence4 ,they feel themselves in a state of thraldom2 they imagine that their souls are cooped and cabined in1 unless they have some man1 or some body of men1 dependent on their mercy4 ,the desire of having some one below them descends to those who are the very lowest of all2 and a ,protestant cobbler1 debased by his poverty1 but exalted by his share of the ruling church1 feels a pride in knowing it is by his generosity alone that the peer1 whose footman's instep he measures1 is able to keep his chaplain from a gaol4 ,this disposition is the true source of the passion which many men1 in very humble life1 have taken to the ,american war4 ,our subjects in ,america2 our colonies2 our dependents4 ,this lust of party power is the liberty they hunger and thirst for2 and this ,siren song of ambition has charmed ears that we would have thought were never organized to that sort of music4 ,,edmund ,,burke3 ,speech at ,bristol1 #aghj #f4 ,describe the effects of the questions in the next4 ,how is sentence variety secured8 ,what effects have the simple1 declarative sentences8 ,and from what have these consequences sprung8 ,we have been involved in no war4 ,we have been at peace with all the world4 ,we have been visited with no national calamity4 ,our people have been advancing in general intelligence1 and1 ,i will add1 as great and alarming as has been the advance of political corruption among the mercenary corps who look to government for support1 the morals and virtue of the community at large have been advancing in improvement4 ,what1 ,i again repeat1 is the cause8 ,,john ,c4 ,,calhoun3 ,speech on the ,force ,bill1 #ahcc #g4 ,what quality predominates in the following8 ,does it lower the tone of the passage too much8 ,is the interrogative form of the last sentence better than the declarative8 ,why8 ,has the last observation any close connection with the preceding portion8 ,can it be justified8 ,modesty is a lovely trait1 which sets the last seal to a truly great character1 as the blush of innocence adds the last charm to youthful beauty4 ,when1 on his return from one of his arduous campaigns in the ,seven ,years' ,war1 the ,speaker of the ,virginia ,assembly1 by order of the ,house1 addressed ,colonel ,washington in acknowledgment of his services1 the youthful hero rose to reply2 but humility checked his utterance1 diffidence sealed his lips4 ',sit down1 ,colonel ,washington1' said the ,speaker2 'the ,house sees that your modesty is equal to your merit1 and that exceeds my power of language to describe4' ,but who ever heard of a modest ,alexander or a modest ,caesar1 or a modest hero or statesman of the present day8--much as some of them would be improved by a measure of that quality4 ,,edward ,,everett3 ,character of ,washington1 #aheh #h4 ,look up the meaning of every unfamiliar expression in this extract4 ,is the quotation at the end in good taste8 ,give reasons for your answer4 ,for what kinds of audiences would this speech be fitting8 ,the remedy for the constant excess of party spirit lies1 and lies alone1 in the courageous independence of the individual citizen4 ,the only way1 for instance1 to procure the party nomination of good men1 is for every self-respecting voter to refuse to vote for bad men4 ,in the medieval theology the devils feared nothing so much as the drop of holy water and the sign of the cross1 by which they were exorcised4 ,the evil spirits of party fear nothing so much as bolting and scratching4 ,in hoc signo vinces4 ,if a farmer would reap a good crop1 he scratches the weeds out of his field4 ,if we would have good men upon the ticket1 we must scratch bad men off4 ,if the scratching breaks down the party1 let it break3 for the success of the party1 by such means would break down the country4 ,the evil spirits must be taught by means that they can understand4 ',them fellers1' said the captain of a canal-boat of his men1 ',them fellers never think you mean a thing until you kick 'em4 ,they feel that1 and understand4' ,,george ,,william ,,curtis3 ,the ,public ,duty of ,educated ,men1 #ahgg #i4 ,describe the quality of the next extract4 ,what is its style8 ,are repetitions allowable8 ,what then of variety8 ,point out contrasts of words and phrases4 ,what1 then it is said1 would you legislate in haste8 ,would you legislate in times of great excitement concerning matters of such deep concern8 ,yes1 ,sir1 ,i would2 and if any bad consequences should follow from the haste and excitement1 let those be answerable who1 when there was no need to haste1 when there existed no excitement1 refused to listen to any project of reform2 nay1 made it an argument against reform that the public mind was not excited4444 ,i allow that hasty legislation is an evil4 ,but reformers are compelled to legislate fast1 just because bigots will not legislate early4 ,reformers are compelled to legislate in times of excitement1 because bigots will not legislate in times of tranquillity4 ,,thomas ,,babington ,,macaulay3 ,on the ,reform ,bill1 #ahcb #aj4 ,describe the diction of the next extract4 ,describe the prevailing kind of sentences4 ,do you approve of these in such an instance8 ,explain your answer4 ,does it remind you--in tone--of any other passage already quoted in this book8 ,what is your opinion of the style8 ,there has been a change of government4 ,it began two years ago1 when the ,house of ,representatives became ,democratic by a decisive majority4 ,it has now been completed4 ,the ,senate about to assemble will also be ,democratic4 ,the offices of ,president and ,vice-,president have been put into the hands of ,democrats4 ,what does the change mean8 ,that is the question that is uppermost in our minds today4 ,that is the question ,i am going to try to answer in order1 if ,i may1 to interpret the occasion4 ,this is not a day of triumph2 it is a day of dedication4 ,here muster1 not the forces of party1 but the forces of humanity4 ,men's hearts wait upon us2 men's lives hang in the balance2 men's hopes call upon us to say what we will do4 ,who shall live up to the great trust8 ,who dares fail to try8 ,i summon all honest men1 all patriotic1 all forward-looking men to my side4 ,god helping me1 ,i will not fail them1 if they will but counsel and sustain me4 ,,woodrow ,,wilson3 ,inaugural1 #aiah #aa4 ,consider sentence length in the following3 ,which words are significant8 ,how is concreteness secured8 ,ours is a government of liberty by1 through1 and under the law4 ,no man is above it and no man is below it4 ,the crime of cunning1 the crime of greed1 the crime of violence1 are all equally crimes1 and against them all alike the law must set its face4 ,this is not and never shall be a government either of plutocracy or of a mob4 ,it is1 it has been1 and it will be a government of the people2 including alike the people of great wealth1 of moderate wealth1 the people who employ others1 the people who are employed1 the wage worker1 the lawyer1 the mechanic1 the banker1 the farmer2 including them all1 protecting each and everyone if he acts decently and squarely1 and discriminating against any one of them1 no matter from what class he comes1 if he does not act squarely and fairly1 if he does not obey the law4 ,while all people are foolish if they violate or rail against the law1 wicked as well as foolish1 but all foolish--yet the most foolish man in this ,republic is the man of wealth who complains because the law is administered with impartial justice against or for him4 ,his folly is greater than the folly of any other man who so complains2 for he lives and moves and has his being because the law does in fact protect him and his property4 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt at ,spokane1 #aijc ,,chapter ,,iv ,,beginning ,,the ,,speech ,speech-making a ,formal ,matter4 ,every speech is more or less a formal affair4 ,the speaker standing is separated from the other persons present by his prominence4 ,he is removed from them by standing while they sit1 by being further away from them than in ordinary conversation4 ,the greater the distance between him and his listeners the more formal the proceeding becomes4 ,when a person speaks from the floor as it is called1 that is1 by simply rising at his seat and speaking1 there is a marked difference in the manner of his delivery and also in the effect upon the audience4 ,in many gatherings1 speeches and discussions from the floor are not allowed at all1 in others this practice is the regular method of conducting business4 ,even in the schoolroom when the student speaks from his place he feels less responsibility than when he stands at the front of the room before his classmates4 ,as all formal exercises have their regular rules of procedure it will be well to list the more usual formulas for beginnings of speeches4 ,the ,salutation4 ,in all cases where speeches are made there is some person who presides4 ,this person may be the ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states presiding over the ,senate1 the ,speaker of the ,house of ,representatives1 the ,chief ,justice of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court1 the president of a city board of aldermen1 the judge of a court1 the president of a corporation1 of a lodge1 of a church society1 of a club1 the pastor of a church1 the chancellor or provost or dean of a college1 the principal of a school1 the chairman of a committee1 the toastmaster of a banquet1 the teacher of a class4 ,the first remark of a speaker must always be the recognition of this presiding officer4 ,then there are frequently present other persons who are distinct from the ordinary members of the audience1 to whom some courtesy should be shown in this salutation4 ,their right to recognition depends upon their rank1 their importance at the time1 some special peculiar reason for separating them from the rest of the audience4 ,the speaker will have to decide for himself in most cases as to how far he will classify his hearers4 ,in some instances there is no difficulty4 ,debaters must recognize the presiding officer1 the judges if they be distinct from the regular audience1 the members of the audience itself4 ,lawyers in court must recognize only the judge and the gentlemen of the jury4 ,in a debate on the first draft for the ,league of ,nations presided over by the ,governor of ,massachusetts1 ,senator ,lodge's salutation was ,your ,excellency1 ,ladies and ,gentlemen1 ,my ,fellow ,americans4 ,the last was added unquestionably because patriotic feeling was so strong at the time that reference to our nationality was a decidedly fitting compliment1 and also perhaps1 because the speaker realized that his audience might be slightly prejudiced against the view he was going to advance in criticizing the ,league ,covenant4 ,at times a formal salutation becomes quite long to include all to whom recognition is due4 ,at a university commencement a speaker might begin3 ,mr4 ,chancellor1 ,members of the ,board of ,trustees1 ,gentlemen of the ,faculty1 ,candidates for ,degrees1 ,ladies and ,gentlemen4 ,other salutations are ,your ,honor1 ,mr4 ,president1 ,mr4 ,speaker1 ,madame ,president1 ,madame ,chairman1 ,mr4 ,chairman1 ,mr4 ,stevenson1 ,sir1 ,mr4 ,toastmaster1 ,mr4 ,moderator1 ,honorable ,judges1 ,ladies1 ,gentlemen1 ,fellow ,citizens1 ,classmates1 ,fellow ,workers1 ,gentlemen of the ,senate1 ,gentlemen of the ,congress1 ,plenipotentiaries of the ,german ,empire1 ,my ,lord ,mayor and ,citizens of ,london2 ,mr4 ,mayor1 ,mr4 ,secretary1 ,admiral ,fletcher and ,gentlemen of the ,fleet2 ,mr4 ,grand ,master1 ,governor ,mc,millan1 ,mr4 ,mayor1 ,my ,brothers1 ,men and ,women of ,tennessee4 ,the most important thing about the salutation is that it should never be omitted4 ,to begin to speak without having first recognized some presiding officer and the audience stamps one immediately as thoughtless1 unpractised1 or worse still--discourteous4 ,having observed the propriety of the salutation the speaker should make a short pause before he proceeds to the introduction of his speech proper4 ,length of the ,introduction4 ,there was a time when long elaborate introductions were the rule1 and textbooks explained in detail how to develop them4 ,the main assumption seems to have been that the farther away from his topic the speaker began1 the longer and more indirect the route by which he approached it1 the more sudden and surprising the start with which it was disclosed to the audience1 the better the speech4 ,such views are no longer held4 ,one of the criticisms of the speeches of the ,english statesman1 ,burke1 is that instead of coming at once to the important matter under consideration--and all his speeches were upon paramount issues--he displayed his rhetorical skill and literary ability before men impatient to finish discussion and provide for action by casting their votes4 ,if a student will read the beginning of ,burke's famous ,speech on ,conciliation he will readily understand the force of this remark1 for instead of bringing forward the all-important topic of arranging for colonial adjustment ,burke uses hundreds of words upon the flight of a bill for ever1 his own pretended superstitiousness and belief in omens4 ,so strong is the recognition of the opposite practice today that it is at times asserted that speeches should dispense with introductions longer than a single sentence4 ,purpose of the ,introduction4 ,so far as the material of the speech is concerned the introduction has but one purpose--to bring the topic of the succeeding remarks clearly and arrestingly before the audience4 ,it should be clearly done1 so that there shall be no misunderstanding from the beginning4 ,it should be arrestingly done1 so that the attention shall be aroused and held from this announcement even until the end4 ,a man should not declare that he is going to explain the manufacture of paper-cutters1 and then later proceed to describe the making of those frames into which rolls of wrapping paper are fitted underneath a long cutting blade1 because to most people the expression paper-cutters means dull-edged1 ornamental knives for desks and library tables4 ,his introduction would not be clear4 ,on the other hand if a minister were to state plainly that he was going to speak on the truth that it is more blessed to give than to receive his congregation might turn its attention to its own affairs at once because the topic promises no novelty4 ,but if he declares that he is going to make a defense of selfishness he would surely startle his hearers into attention1 so that he could go on to describe the personal satisfaction and peace of mind which comes to the doers of good deeds4 ,a speaker could arrest attention by stating that he intended to prove the immorality of the principle that honesty is the best policy1 if he proceeded to plead for that virtue not as a repaying policy but as an innate guiding principle of right1 no matter what the consequences4 ,in humorous1 half-jesting1 ironical material1 of course1 clearness may be justifiably sacrificed to preserving interest4 ,the introduction may state the exact opposite of the real topic4 ,when nothing else except the material of the introduction need be considered1 it should be short4 ,even in momentous matters this is true4 ,notice the brevity of the subjoined introduction of a speech upon a deeply moving subject4 ,gentlemen of the ,congress3 ,the ,imperial ,german ,government on the #cast day of ,january announced to this ,government and to the ,governments of the other neutral nations that on and after the #ast day of ,february1 the present month1 it would adopt a policy with regard to the use of submarines against all shipping seeking to pass through certain designated areas of the high seas1 to which it is clearly my duty to call your attention4 ,,woodrow ,,wilson1 #aiag ,the following1 though much longer1 aims to do the same thing--to announce the topic of the speech clearly4 ,notice that in order to emphasize this endeavor to secure clearness the speaker declares that he has repeatedly tried to state his position in plain ,english4 ,he then makes clear that he is not opposed to a ,league of ,nations2 he is merely opposed to the terms already submitted for the one about to be formed4 ,this position he makes quite clear in the last sentence here quoted4 ,your ,excellency1 ,ladies and ,gentlemen1 ,my ,fellow ,americans3 ,i am largely indebted to ,president ,lowell for this opportunity to address this great audience4 ,he and ,i are friends of many years1 both ,republicans4 ,he is the president of our great university1 one of the most important and influential places in the ,united ,states4 ,he is also an eminent student and historian of politics and government4 ,he and ,i may differ as to methods in this great question now before the people1 but ,i am sure that in regard to the security of the peace of the world and the welfare of the ,united ,states we do not differ in purposes4 ,i am going to say a single word1 if you will permit me1 as to my own position4 ,i have tried to state it over and over again4 ,i thought ,i had stated it in plain ,english4 ,but there are those who find in misrepresentation a convenient weapon for controversy1 and there are others1 most excellent people1 who perhaps have not seen what ,i have said and who possibly have misunderstood me4 ,it has been said that ,i am against any ,league of ,nations4 ,i am not2 far from it4 ,i am anxious to have the nations1 the free nations of the world1 united in a league1 as we call it1 a society1 as the ,french call it1 but united1 to do all that can be done to secure the future peace of the world and to bring about a general disarmament4 ,,senator ,,henry ,,cabot ,,lodge in a debate in ,boston1 #aiai ,the ,introduction and the ,audience4 ,when we turn from the material of the introduction or the speech we naturally consider the audience4 ,just as the salutations already listed in this chapter indicate how careful speakers are in adapting their very first words to the special demands of recognition for a single audience1 so a study of introductions to speeches which have been delivered will support the same principle4 ,a speech is made to affect a single audience1 therefore it must be fitted as closely as possible to that audience in order to be effective4 ,a city official invited to a neighborhood gathering to instruct citizens in the method of securing a children's playground in that district is not only wasting time but insulting the brains and dispositions of his listeners if he drawls off a long introduction showing the value of public playgrounds in a crowded city4 ,his presence before that group of people proves that they accept all he can tell them on that topic4 ,he is guilty of making a bad introduction which seriously impairs the value of anything he may say later concerning how this part of the city can induce the municipal government to set aside enough money to provide the open space and the apparatus4 ,yet this speech was made in a large ,american city by an expert on playgrounds4 ,people remembered more vividly his wrong kind of opening remarks than they did his advice concerning a method of procedure4 ,effect of the ,introduction upon the ,audience4 ,many centuries ago a famous and successful ,roman orator stipulated the purpose of an introduction with respect to the audience4 ,cicero stated that an introduction should render its hearers benevolos1 attentos1 dociles2 that is1 kindly disposed towards the speaker himself1 attentive to his remarks1 and willing to be instructed by his explanations or arguments4 ,not everyone has a pleasing personality but he can strive to acquire one4 ,he can1 perhaps1 not add many attributes to offset those nature has given him1 but he can always reduce1 eradicate1 or change those which interfere with his reception by others4 ,education and training will work wonders for people who are not blessed with that elusive quality1 charm1 or that winner of consideration1 impressiveness4 ,self-examination1 self-restraint1 self-development1 are prime elements in such a process4 ,great men have not been beyond criticism for such qualities4 ,great men have recognized their value and striven to rid themselves of hindrances and replace them by helps4 ,every reader is familiar with ,benjamin ,franklin's account of his own method as related in his ,autobiography1 yet it will bear quotation here to illustrate this point3 ,while ,i was intent on improving my language1 ,i met with an ,english ,grammar 7,i think it was ,greenwood's71 at the end of which there were two little sketches of the arts of rhetoric and logic1 the latter finishing with a specimen of a dispute in the ,socratic method2 and soon after ,i procured ,xenophon's ,memorable ,things of ,socrates1 wherein there are many instances of the same method4 ,i was charmed with it1 adopted it1 dropt my abrupt contradiction and positive argumentation1 and put on the humble inquirer and doubter4444 ,i found this method safest for myself and very embarrassing to those against whom ,i used it2 therefore ,i took a delight in it1 practised it continually1 and grew very artful and expert in drawing people1 even of superior knowledge1 into concessions1 the consequences of which they did not foresee1 entangling them in difficulties out of which they could not extricate themselves1 and so obtaining victories that neither myself nor my cause always deserved4 ,i continued this method some few years1 but gradually left it1 retaining only the habit of expressing myself in terms of modest diffidence2 never using1 when ,i advanced anything that may possibly be disputed1 the words ,certainly1 ,undoubtedly1 or any others that give the air of positiveness to an opinion2 but rather say1 ,i conceive or apprehend a thing to be so and so2 it appears to me1 or ,i should think it so or so1 for such and such reasons2 or ,i imagine it to be so2 or it is so if ,i am not mistaken4 ,this habit1 ,i believe1 has been of great advantage to me when ,i have had occasion to inculcate my opinions1 and persuade men into measures that ,i have been from time to time engaged in promoting2 and as the chief ends of conversation are to inform or to be informed1 to please or to persuade1 ,i wish well-meaning1 sensible men would not lessen their power of doing good by a positive1 assuming manner1 that seldom fails to disgust1 tends to create opposition1 and to defeat everyone of those purposes for which speech was given to us1 to wit1 giving or receiving information or pleasure4 ,for if you would inform1 a positive and dogmatical manner in advancing your sentiments may provoke contradiction and prevent a candid attention4 ,if you wish information and improvement from the knowledge of others1 and yet at the same time express yourself as firmly fixed in your present opinions1 modest1 sensible men who do not love disputation will probably leave you undisturbed in the possession of your error4 ,and by such a manner you can seldom hope to recommend yourself in pleasing your hearers1 or to persuade those whose concurrence you desire4 ,pope says1 judiciously3 ,men should be taught as if you taught them not1 ,and things unknown propos'd as things forgot2 farther recommending to us ,to speak1 tho' sure1 with seeming diffidence4 ,of course an audience must be induced to listen4 ,the obligation is always with the speaker4 ,he is appealing for consideration1 he wants to affect the hearers1 therefore he must have at his command all the resources of securing their respectful attention4 ,he must be able to employ all the legitimate means of winning their attention4 ,a good speaker will not stoop to use any tricks or devices that are not legitimate4 ,a trick1 even when it is successful1 is still nothing but a trick1 and though it secure the temporary attention of the lower orders of intellect it can never hold the better minds of an audience4 ,surprises1 false alarms1 spectacular appeals1 may find their defenders4 ,one widely reputed ,united ,states lawyer in speaking before audiences of young people used to advance theatrically to the edge of the stage1 and1 then1 pointing an accusing finger at one part of the audience1 declare in loud ringing tones1 ,you're a sneak6 ,it is questionable whether any attempt at arousing interest could justify such a brusque approach4 ,only in broadly comic or genuinely humorous addresses can it be said that the end justifies the means4 ,when the audience has been induced to listen1 the rest should be easy for the good speaker4 ,then comes into action his skill at explanation1 his ability to reason and convince1 to persuade and sway1 which is the speaker's peculiar art4 ,if they will listen to him1 he should be able to instruct them4 ,the introduction must1 so far as this last is concerned1 clear the way for the remainder of the speech4 ,the methods by which such instruction1 reasoning1 and persuasion are effected best will be treated later in this book4 ,having covered the preceding explanation of the aims and forms of introductions1 let us look at a few which have been delivered by regularly practising speech-makers before groups of men whose interest1 concern1 and business it was to listen4 ,all men who speak frequently are extremely uneven in their quality and just as irregular in their success4 ,one of the best instances of this unevenness and irregularity was ,edmund ,burke1 whose career and practice are bound to afford food for thought and discussion to every student of the power and value of the spoken word4 ,some of ,burke's speeches are models for imitation and study1 others are warnings for avoidance4 ,at one time when he felt personally disturbed by the actions of the ,house of ,commons1 because he as a member of the minority could not affect the voting1 he began a speech exactly as no man should under any circumstances4 ,no man in a deliberative assembly can be excused for losing control of himself4 ,yet ,burke opened his remarks with these plain words4 ,mr4 ,speaker6 ,i rise under some embarrassment occasioned by a feeling of delicacy toward one-half of the ,house1 and of sovereign contempt for the other half4 ,this is childish1 of course4 ,a man may not infrequently be forced by circumstances to speak before an audience whose sentiments1 opinions1 prejudices1 all place them in a position antagonistic to his own4 ,how shall he make them well-disposed1 attentive1 willing to be instructed8 ,the situation is not likely to surround a beginning speaker1 but men in affairs1 in business1 in courts1 must be prepared for such circumstances4 ,one of the most striking instances of a man who attempted to speak before an antagonistic group and yet by sheer power of his art and language ended by winning them to his own party is in ,shakespeare's ,julius ,caesar when ,mark ,antony speaks over his dead friend's body4 ,brutus allows it1 but insists on speaking to the people first that he may explain why he and his fellow conspirators assassinated the great leader4 ,it was a mistake to allow a person from the opposite party to have the last word before the populace1 but that is not the point just here4 ,brutus is able to explain why a group of noble ,romans felt that for the safety of the state and its inhabitants1 they had to kill the rising favorite who would soon as ,king rule them all4 ,when he ceases speaking1 the citizens approve the killing4 ,mark ,antony perceives that1 so at the beginning of his speech he seems to agree with the people4 ,caesar was his friend1 yet ,brutus says he was ambitious1 and ,brutus is an honorable man4 ,thus the skilful orator makes the populace well-disposed towards him1 then attentive4 ,having secured those things he proceeds slowly and unobtrusively to instruct them4 ,it takes only a few lines until he has made them believe all he wants them to2 before the end of his oration he has them crying out upon the murderers of their beloved ,caesar1 for whose lives they now thirst4 ,yet only ten minutes earlier they were loudly acclaiming them as deliverers of their country4 ,the entire scene should be analyzed carefully by the student4 ,it is the second scene of the third act of the play4 ,in actual life a man would hardly have to go so far as seemingly to agree with such opposite sentiments as expressed in this situation from a stage tragedy4 ,it is general knowledge that during the early years of the ,american ,civil ,war ,england sympathized with the southern states1 mainly because the effective blockade maintained by the ,north prevented raw cotton from reaching the ,british mills4 ,henry ,ward ,beecher attempted to present the union cause to the ,english in a series of addresses throughout the country4 ,when he appeared upon the platform in ,liverpool the audience broke out into a riot of noise which effectively drowned all his words for minutes4 ,the speaker waited until he could get in a phrase4 ,finally he was allowed to deliver a few sentences4 ,by his patience1 his appeal to their ,english sense of fair play1 and to a large degree by his tolerant sense of humor1 he won their attention4 ,his material1 his power as a speaker did all the rest4 ,it is a matter of very little consequence to me1 personally1 whether ,i speak here tonight or not4 ,laughter and cheers4 ,but one thing is very certain1 if you do permit me to speak here tonight1 you will hear very plain talking4 ,applause and hisses4 ,you will not find me to be a man that dared to speak about ,great ,britain three thousand miles off1 and then is afraid to speak to ,great ,britain when he stands on her shores4 ,immense applause and hisses4 ,and if ,i do not mistake the tone and temper of ,englishmen they had rather have a man who opposes them in a manly way applause from all parts of the hall than a sneak that agrees with them in an unmanly way4 ,applause and ,bravo6 ,now1 if ,i can carry you with me by sound convictions1 ,i shall be immensely glad applause2 but if ,i cannot carry you with me by facts and sound arguments1 ,i do not wish you to go with me at all2 and all that ,i ask is simply fair play4 ,applause1 and a voice3 ,you shall have it too44 ,those of you who are kind enough to wish to favor my speaking--and you will observe that my voice is slightly husky1 from having spoken almost every night in succession for some time past--those who wish to hear me will do me the kindness simply to sit still and to keep still2 and ,i and my friends the ,secessionists will make the noise4 ,laughter4 ,,henry ,,ward ,,beecher1 in speech at ,liverpool1 #ahfc ,the beginning of one of ,daniel ,webster's famous speeches was a triumph of the deliverer's recognition of the mood of an audience4 ,in the ,senate in #ahcj feeling had been running high over a resolution concerning public lands4 ,innocent enough in its appearance1 this resolution really covered an attempt at the extension of the slavery territory4 ,both ,north and ,south watched the progress of the debate upon this topic with almost held breath4 ,hayne of ,south ,carolina had spoken upon it during two days when ,webster rose to reply to him4 ,the ,senate galleries were packed1 the members themselves were stirred up to the highest pitch of keen intensity4 ,nearly the entire effect of ,webster's statement and argument for the ,north depended upon the effect he could make upon the ,senators at the very opening of his speech4 ,webster began in a low voice1 with a calm manner1 to speak very slowly4 ,in a second he had soothed the emotional tension1 set all the hearers quite at ease1 and by the time the ,secretary had read the resolution asked by ,webster1 he had them in complete control4 ,his task was to make them attentive1 but more especially1 ready to be instructed4 ,mr4 ,president3 ,when the mariner has been tossed for many days in thick weather and on an unknown sea1 he naturally avails himself of the first pause in the storm1 the earliest glance of the sun1 to take his latitude and ascertain how far the elements have driven him from his true course4 ,let us imitate this prudence2 and1 before we float farther on the waves of this debate1 refer to the point from which we departed1 that we may1 at least1 be able to conjecture where we now are4 ,i ask for the reading of the resolution before the ,senate4 ,,daniel ,,webster3 ,reply to ,hayne1 #ahcj ,linking the ,introduction to ,preceding ,speeches4 ,so many speeches are replies to preceding addresses that many introductions adapt themselves to their audiences by touching upon such utterances4 ,in debates1 in pleas in court1 in deliberative assemblies1 this is more usually the circumstance than not4 ,the following illustrates how courteously this may be done1 even when it serves merely to make all the clearer the present speaker's position4 ,in moments of tensest feeling great speakers skilfully move from any one position or attitude to another as ,patrick ,henry did4 ,while you are regarding these paragraphs as an example of introduction do not overlook their vocabulary and sentences4 ,mr4 ,president3 ,no man thinks more highly than ,i do of the patriotism1 as well as abilities1 of the very worthy gentlemen who have just addressed the house4 ,but different men often see the same subject in different lights2 and1 therefore1 ,i hope it will not be thought disrespectful to those gentlemen1 if1 entertaining as ,i do opinions of a character very opposite to theirs1 ,i shall speak forth my sentiments freely1 and without reserve4 ,this is no time for ceremony4 ,the question before the house is one of awful moment to the country4 ,for my own part1 ,i consider it as nothing less than a question of freedom or slavery4 ,and in proportion to the magnitude of the subject ought to be the freedom of the debate4 ,it is only in this way that we can hope to arrive at truth1 and fulfill the great responsibility which we hold to ,god and our country4 ,should ,i keep back my opinions at such a time1 through fear of giving offense1 ,i should consider myself as guilty of treason towards my country1 and of an act of disloyalty toward the ,majesty of ,heaven1 which ,i revere above all earthly things4 ,mr4 ,president1 it is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope4 ,we are apt to shut our eyes against a painful truth1 and listen to the song of that ,siren till she transforms us into beasts4 ,is this the part of wise men1 engaged in a great and arduous struggle for liberty8 ,are we disposed to be of the number of those who having eyes see not1 and having ears hear not1 the things which so nearly concern their temporal salvation8 ,for my part1 whatever anguish of spirit it may cost1 ,i am willing to know the whole truth2 to know the worst and to provide for it4 ,,patrick ,,henry in the ,virginia ,convention1 #agge ,difficulties of ,introductions4 ,people who are scheduled to make speeches are heard to declare that they know exactly what they want to say but they do not know how to begin4 ,another way they have of expressing this is that they do not know how to bring their material before their hearers4 ,undoubtedly the most difficult parts of speeches are the beginnings and conclusions4 ,in ,chapter ,,ii one of the methods of preparing for delivery recognized this difference by recording that one way is to memorize the beginning and ending1 the opening and closing sentences4 ,practised speakers are more likely not to fix too rigidly in their minds any set way for starting to speak4 ,they realize that a too carefully prepared opening will smack of the study4 ,the conditions under which the speech is actually delivered may differ so widely from the anticipated surroundings that a speaker should be able to readjust his ideas instantly1 seize upon any detail of feeling1 remark1 action1 which will help him into closer communication with his audience4 ,many practised speakers1 therefore1 have at their wits' ends a dozen different manners1 so that their appearance may fit in best with the circumstances1 and their remarks have that air of easy spontaneity which the best speaking should have4 ,thus1 sometimes1 the exactly opposite advice of the method described above and in ,chapter ,,ii is given4 ,a speaker will prepare carefully his speech proper1 but leave to circumstances the suggestion of the beginning he will use4 ,this does not mean that he will not be prepared--it means that he will be all the more richly furnished with expedients4 ,a speaker should carefully think over all the possibilities under which his speech will be brought forward1 then prepare the best introduction to suit each set4 ,spirit of the ,introduction4 ,the combination of circumstances and material will determine what we shall call the spirit of the introduction4 ,in what spirit is the introduction treated8 ,there are as many different treatments as there are human feelings and sentiments4 ,the spirit may be serious1 informative1 dignified1 scoffing1 argumentative1 conversational1 startling1 humorous1 ironic4 ,the student should lengthen this list by adding as many other adjectives as he can4 ,the serious treatment is always effective when it is suitable4 ,there is a conviction of earnestness and sincerity about the speech of a man who takes his subject seriously4 ,without arousing opposition by too great a claim of importance for his topic he does impress its significance upon listeners4 ,this seriousness must be justified by the occasion4 ,it must not be an attempt to bolster up weakness of ideas or commonplaceness of expression4 ,it must be straightforward1 manly1 womanly4 ,notice the excellent effect of the following which illustrates this kind of treatment4 ,,may ,,it ,,please ,,your ,,honor3 ,i was desired by one of the court to look into the books1 and consider the question now before them concerning ,writs of ,assistance4 ,i have accordingly considered it1 and appear not only in obedience to your order1 but likewise in behalf of the inhabitants of this town1 who have presented another petition1 and out of regard to the liberties of the subject4 ,and ,i take this opportunity to declare1 that whether under a fee or not 7for in such a cause as this ,i despise a fee7 ,i will to my dying day oppose with all the powers and faculties ,god has given me1 all such instruments of slavery on the one hand and villainy on the other1 as this ,writ of ,assistance is4 ,it appears to me the worst instrument of arbitrary power1 the most destructive of ,english liberty and the fundamental principles of law1 that ever was found in an ,english law-book4 ,,james ,o,t,is3 ,on ,writs of ,assistance1 #agfa ,informative and argumentative introductions are quite usual4 ,they abound in legislative bodies1 business organizations1 and courts of law4 ,having definite purposes to attain they move forward as directly and clearly as they can4 ,in such appearances a speaker should know how to lead to his topic quickly1 clearly1 convincingly4 ,introductions should be reduced to a minimum because time is valuable4 ,ideas count2 mere talk is worthless4 ,attempts at humorous speeches are only too often the saddest exhibitions of life4 ,the mere recital of funny stories in succession is in no sense speech-making1 although hundreds of misguided individuals act as though they think so4 ,nor is a good introduction the one that begins with a comic incident supposedly with a point pat to the occasion or topic1 yet so often miles wide of both4 ,the funny story which misses its mark is a boomerang4 ,even the apparently sure-fire one may deliver a disturbing kick to its perpetrator4 ,the grave danger is the o'er done or come tardy off of ,hamlet's advice to the players4 ,humor must be distinctly marked off from the merely comic or witty1 and clearly recognized as a wonderful gift bestowed on not too many mortals in this world4 ,the scoffing1 ironic introduction may depend upon wit and cleverness born in the head2 the humorous introduction depends upon a sympathetic instinct treasured in the heart4 ,look back at the remarks made by ,beecher to his turbulent disturbers in ,liverpool4 ,did he help his cause by his genial appreciation of their sentiments8 ,the student should study several introductions to speeches in the light of all the preceding discussions so that he may be able to prepare his own and judge them intelligently4 ,printed speeches will provide material for study1 but better still are delivered remarks4 ,if the student can hear the speech1 then see it in print1 so much the better1 for he can then recall the effect in sound of the phrases4 ,preparing and ,delivering ,introductions4 ,actual practice in preparation and delivery of introductions should follow4 ,these should be delivered before the class and should proceed no farther than the adequate introduction to the hearers of the topic of the speech4 ,they need not be so fragmentary as to occupy only three seconds4 ,by supposing them to be beginnings of speeches from six to fifteen minutes long these remarks may easily last from one to two minutes4 ,aside from the method of its delivery--pose1 voice1 speed1 vocabulary1 sentences--each introduction should be judged as an actual introduction to a real speech4 ,each speaker should keep in mind these questions to apply during his preparation4 ,each listener should apply them as he hears the introduction delivered4 ,is the topic introduced gracefully8 ,is it introduced clearly8 ,is the introduction too long8 ,does it begin too far away from the topic8 ,is it interesting8 ,has it any defects of material8 ,has it any faults of manner8 ,can any of it be omitted8 ,do you want to hear the entire speech8 ,can you anticipate the material8 ,is it adapted to its audience8 ,is it above their heads8 ,is it beneath their intelligences8 ,topics for these exercises in delivering introductions should be furnished by the interests1 opinions1 ideas1 experiences1 ambitions of the students themselves4 ,too many beginning speakers cause endless worry for themselves1 lower the quality of their speeches1 bore their listeners1 by hunting for things to talk about1 when near at hand in themselves and their activities lie the very best things to discuss4 ,the over-modest feeling some people have that they know nothing to talk about is usually a false impression4 ,in ,elizabethan ,england a young poet1 ,sir ,phillip ,sidney1 decided to try to tell his sweetheart how much he loved her4 ,so he sought fit words1 studying inventions fine1 turning others' leaves1 to see if thence would flow1 some fresh and fruitful showers upon my sunburnt brain4 ,but words came halting forth until he bit his truant pen and almost beat himself for spite4 ,then said the ,muse to him1 ,fool1 look in thy heart and write4 ,and without that first word1 this is the advice that should be given to all speakers4 ,look in your heart1 mind1 life1 experiences1 ideas1 ideals1 interests1 enthusiasms1 and from them draw the material of your speeches--yours because no one else could make that speech1 so essentially and peculiarly is it your own4 ,the following may serve as suggestions of the kind of topic to choose and the various methods of approaching it4 ,they are merely hints1 for each student must adapt his own method and material4 ,,exercises #a4 ,by a rapid historical survey introduce the discussion that women will be allowed to vote in the ,united ,states4 #b4 ,by a historical survey introduce the topic that war will cease upon the earth4 #c4 ,using the same method introduce the opposite4 #d4 ,using some history introduce the topic that equality for all men is approaching4 #e4 ,using the same method introduce the opposite4 #f4 ,starting with the amount used introduce an explanation of the manufacture of cotton goods4 ,any other manufactured article may be used4 #g4 ,starting with an incident to illustrate its novelty1 or speed1 or convenience1 or unusualness1 lead up to the description or explanation of some mechanical contrivance4 ,dictaphone ,adding machine ,comptometer ,wireless telegraph ,knitting machine ,moving picture camera ,moving picture machine ,self-starter ,egg boiler ,newspaper printing press ,power churn ,bottle-making machine ,voting machine ,storm in a play ,pneumatic tube ,periscope1 etc4 #h4 ,describe some finished product 7as a cup of tea1 a copper cent7 as introduction to an explanation of its various processes of development4 #i4 ,start with the opinion that reading should produce pleasure to introduce a recommendation of a book4 #aj4 ,start with the opinion that reading should impart information to introduce a recommendation of a book4 #aa4 ,start with the money return a business or profession offers to introduce a discussion advising a person to follow it or not4 #ab4 ,beginning with the recent war lead up to the topic that military training should be a part of all regular education4 #ac4 ,beginning from the same point introduce the opposite4 #ad4 ,beginning with an item--or a fictitious item--from a newspaper recounting an accident lead up to workmen's compensation laws1 or preventive protective measures in factories1 or some similar topic4 #ae4 ,using a personal or known experience introduce some topic dealing with the survival of superstitions4 #af4 ,choosing your own material and treatment introduce some theme related to the government1 or betterment of your community4 #ag4 ,introduce a topic dealing with the future policy of your city1 county1 state1 or nation4 #ah4 ,lead up to the statement of a change you would like to recommend strongly for your school4 #ai4 ,in as interesting a manner as possible lead up to a statement of the business or profession you would like to follow4 #bj4 ,introduce a speech in which you intend to condemn something1 by dealing with your introductory material ironically4 #ba4 ,imagine that you are presiding at a meeting of some club1 society1 or organization which has been called to discuss a definite topic4 ,choose the topic for discussion and deliver the speech bringing it before the session4 #bb4 ,you have received a letter from a member of some organization who suggests that a society to which you belong join with it in some kind of contest or undertaking4 ,present the suggestion to your society4 #bc4 ,you believe that soma memorial to the memory of some person should be established in your school1 lodge1 church1 club4 ,introduce the subject to a group of members so that they may discuss it intelligently4 #bd4 ,introduce some topic to the class1 but so phrase your material that the announcement of the topic will be a complete surprise to the members4 ,try to lead them away from the topic1 yet so word your remarks that later they will realize that everything you said applies exactly to the topic you introduce4 #be4 ,lead up to the recital of some mystery1 or ghostly adventure4 #bf4 ,lead up to these facts4 ,for each #aj1jjj ,american-born workmen in a steel plant in eight years1 #ba were killed2 and for each non-,english speaking foreign born1 #bf were killed4 ,non-,english speaking show #fe permanently disabled as compared with #bh who spoke ,english4 ,of temporarily disabled only #hef spoke ,english as compared with #bjce who did not4 #bg4 ,introduce the topic3 ,training in public speaking is valuable for all men and women4 #bh4 ,in a genial manner suitable to the season's feelings introduce some statement concerning ,new ,year's resolutions4 #bi4 ,frame some statement concerning aviation4 ,introduce it4 #cj4 ,introduce topics or statements related to the following3 ,the eight-hour day4 ,the principles of ,socialism4 ,legitimate methods of conducting strikes4 ,extending the ,monroe ,doctrine4 ,studying the classics1 or modern languages4 ,private fortunes4 ,college education for girls4 ,direct presidential vote4 ,a good magazine4 ,some great woman4 ,sensible amusements4 ,fashions4 ,agriculture4 ,business practice4 ,minimum wages4 ,equal pay for men and women4 ,,chapter ,v ,,concluding ,,the ,,speech ,preparing the ,conclusion4 ,no architect would attempt to plan a building unless he knew the purpose for which it was to be used4 ,no writer of a story would start to put down words until he knew exactly how his story was to end4 ,he must plan to bring about a certain conclusion4 ,the hero and heroine must be united in marriage4 ,the scheming villain must be brought to justice4 ,or if he scorn the usual ending of the lived happily ever after kind of fiction1 he can plan to kill his hero and heroine1 or both2 or he can decide for once that his story shall be more like real life than is usually the case1 and have wickedness triumph over virtue4 ,whatever he elects to do at the conclusion of his story1 whether it be long or short1 the principle of his planning is the same--he must know what he is going to do and adequately prepare for it during the course of1 previous events4 ,one other thing every writer must secure4 ,the ending of a book must be the most interesting part of it4 ,it must rise highest in interest4 ,it must be surest of appeal4 ,otherwise the author runs the risk of not having people read his book through to its conclusion1 and as every book is written in the hope and expectation that it will be read through1 a book which fails to hold the attention of its readers defeats its own purpose4 ,the foregoing statements are self-evident but they are set down because their underlying principles can be transferred to a consideration of the preparation of conclusions for speeches4 ,is a ,conclusion ,necessary8 ,but before we use them let us ask whether all speeches require conclusions4 ,there are some people--thoughtless1 if nothing worse--who habitually end letters by adding some such expression as ,having nothing more to say1 ,i shall now close4 ,is there any sense in writing such a sentence8 ,if the letter comes only so far and the signature follows1 do not those items indicate that the writer has nothing more to say and is actually closing8 ,why then1 when a speaker has said all he has to say1 should he not simply stop and sit down8 ,will that not indicate quite clearly that he has finished his speech8 ,what effect would such an ending have8 ,in the first place the speaker runs the risk of appearing at least discourteous1 if not actually rude1 to his audience4 ,to fling his material at them1 then to leave it so1 would impress men and women much as the brusque exit from a group of people in a room would or the slamming of a door of an office4 ,in the second place the speaker runs the graver risk of not making clear and emphatic the purpose of his speech4 ,he may have been quite plain and effective during the course of his explanation or argument but an audience hears a speech only once4 ,can he trust to their recollection of what he has tried to impress upon them8 ,will they carry away exactly what he wants them to retain8 ,has he made the main topics1 the chief aim1 stand out prominently enough8 ,can he merely stop speaking8 ,these are quite important aspects of a grave responsibility4 ,in the third place--though this may be considered less important than the preceding--the speaker gives the impression that he has not actually finished his speech4 ,no one cares for unfinished articles1 whether they be dishes of food1 pieces of furniture1 poems1 or speeches4 ,without unduly stressing the fact that a speech is a carefully organized and constructed product1 it may be stated that it is always a profitable effort to try to round off your remarks4 ,a good conclusion gives an impression of completeness1 of an effective product4 ,audiences are delicately susceptible to these impressions4 ,twenty-two centuries ago ,aristotle1 in criticizing ,greek oratory1 declared that the first purpose of the conclusion was to conciliate the audience in favor of the speaker4 ,as human nature has not changed much in the ages since1 the statement still holds true4 ,speakers1 then1 should provide conclusions for all their speeches4 ,although the entire matter of planning the speech belongs to a later chapter some facts concerning it as they relate to the conclusion must be set down here4 ,relation of the ,conclusion to the ,speech4 ,the conclusion should reflect the purpose of the speech4 ,it should enforce the reason for the delivery of the speech4 ,as it emphasizes the purpose of the speech it should be in the speaker's mind before he begins to plan the development of his remarks4 ,it should be kept constantly in his mind as he delivers his material4 ,a train from ,chicago bound for ,new ,york is not allowed to turn off on all the switches it meets in its journey4 ,a speaker who wants to secure from a jury a verdict for damages from a traction company does not discuss presidential candidates4 ,he works towards his conclusion4 ,a legislator who wants votes to pass a bill makes his conclusion and his speech conform to that purpose4 ,in all likelihood1 his conclusion plainly asks for the votes he has been proving that his fellow legislators should cast4 ,a school principal pleading with boys to stop gambling knows that his conclusion is going to be a call for a showing of hands to pledge support of his recommendations4 ,a labor agitator knows that his conclusion is going to be an appeal to a sense of class prejudice1 so he speaks with that continually in mind4 ,an efficiency expert in shop management knows that his conclusion is going to enforce the saving in damages for injury by accident if a scheme of safety devices be installed1 so he speaks with that conclusion constantly in his mind4 ,in court the prosecuting attorney tells in his introduction exactly what he intends to prove4 ,his conclusion shows that he has proved what he announced4 ,one is tempted to say that the test of a good speech1 a well-prepared speech1 is its conclusion4 ,how many times one hears a speaker floundering along trying to do something1 rambling about1 making no impression1 not advancing a pace1 and then later receives from the unfortunate the confession1 ,i wanted to stop but ,i didn't know how to do it4 ,no conclusion had been prepared beforehand4 ,it is quite as disturbing to hear a speaker pass beyond the place where he could have made a good conclusion4 ,if he realizes this he slips into the state of the first speaker described in this paragraph4 ,if he does not realize when he reaches a good conclusion he talks too long and weakens the effect by stopping on a lower plane than he has already reached4 ,this fault corresponds to the story teller whose book drops in interest at the end4 ,the son of a minister was asked whether his father's sermon the previous ,sunday had-not had some good points in it4 ,the boy replied1 ,yes1 three good points where he should have stopped4 ,length of the ,conclusion4 ,it must not be inferred from anything here stated concerning the importance of the conclusion that it need be long4 ,a good rule for the length of the conclusion is the same rule that applies to the length of the introduction4 ,it should be just long enough to do best what it is intended to do4 ,as in the case of the introduction1 so for the conclusion1 the shorter the better1 if consistent with clearness and effect4 ,if either introduction or conclusion must deliberately be reduced the conclusion will stand the most compression4 ,a conclusion will frequently fail of its effect if it is so long that the audience anticipates its main points4 ,it fails if it is so long that it adds nothing of clearness or emphasis to the speech itself4 ,it will end by boring if it is too long for the importance of its material4 ,it will often produce a deeper1 more lasting impression by its very conciseness4 ,brevity is the soul of more than mere humor4 ,a brief remark will cut deeper than a long involved sentence4 ,the speaker who had shown that the recent great war fails unless the reconstruction to be accomplished is worthy needed no more involved conclusion than the statement1 ,it is what we do tomorrow that will justify what we did yesterday4 ,coupled with this matter of effect is the length of the speech itself4 ,short speeches are likely to require only short conclusions4 ,long speeches more naturally require longer conclusions4 ,consider the following conclusions4 ,comment upon them4 ,it would be interesting to try to decide the length of the speeches from which they are taken1 then look at the originals1 all of which are easily procurable at libraries4 ,that is in substance my theory of what our foreign policy should be4 ,let us not boast1 not insult any one1 but make up our minds coolly what it is necesary to say1 say it1 and then stand to it1 whatever the consequences may be4 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt at ,waukesha1 #aijc ,the foregoing is quite matter-of-fact4 ,it contains no emotional appeal at all4 ,yet even a strong emotional feeling can be put into a short conclusion4 ,from the date and the circumstances surrounding the next the reader can easily picture for himself the intense emotion of the audience which listened to these words from the leader of the free states against the ,south4 ,neither let us be slandered from our duty by false accusations against us1 nor frightened from it by menaces of destruction to the government1 nor of dungeons to ourselves4 ,let us have faith that right makes might1 and in that faith let us to the end dare to do our duty as we understand it4 ,,abraham ,,lincoln3 ,cooper ,union ,speech1 #ahfj ,while the student planning his own speech must determine exactly what he shall put into his conclusion--depending always upon his material and his purpose--there are a few general hints which will help him4 ,the ,retrospective ,conclusion4 ,a conclusion may be entirely retrospective4 ,this means merely that it may refer back to the remarks which have been delivered in the body of the speech4 ,a speaker does this to emphasize something he has already discussed by pointing out to his audience that he wants them to remember that from what he has said4 ,conclusions of this kind usually have no emotional appeal4 ,they are likely to be found in explanatory addresses1 where the clearness of the exposition should make hearers accept it as true4 ,if a man has proven a fact--as in a law court--he does not have to make an appeal to feeling to secure a verdict4 ,juries are supposed to decide on the facts alone4 ,this kind of conclusion emphasizes1 repeats1 clarifies1 enforces4 ,the first of the following is a good illustration of one kind of conclusion which refers to the remarks made in the speech proper4 ,notice that it enforces the speaker's opinions by a calm explanation of his sincerity4 ,i want you to think of what ,i have said1 because it represents all of the sincerity and earnestness that ,i have1 and ,i say to you here1 from this platform1 nothing that ,i have not already stated in effect1 and nothing ,i would not say at a private table with any of the biggest corporation managers in the land4 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt at ,fitchburg1 #aijb ,the next1 while it is exactly the same kind in material1 adds some elements of stronger feeling4 ,yet in the main it also enforces the speaker's opinion by a clear explanation of his action4 ,from this conclusion alone we know exactly the material and purpose of the entire speech4 ,sir1 ,i will detain you no longer4 ,there are some parts of this bill which ,i highly approve2 there are others in which ,i should acquiesce2 but those to which ,i have now stated my objections appear to me so destitute of all justice1 so burdensome and so dangerous to that interest which has steadily enriched1 gallantly defended1 and proudly distinguished us1 that nothing can prevail upon me to give it my support4 ,,daniel ,,webster3 ,the ,tariff1 #ahbd ,the ,anticipatory ,conclusion4 ,just as a conclusion may be retrospective1 so it may be anticipatory4 ,it may start from the position defined or explained or reached by the speech and look forward to what may happen1 what must be done1 what should be instituted1 what should be changed1 what votes should be cast1 what punishment should be inflicted1 what pardons granted4 ,the student should make a list of all possible things in the future which could be anticipated in the conclusions of various speeches4 ,if one will think of the purposes of most delivered speeches he will realize that this kind of conclusion is much more frequent than the previous kind as so many speeches anticipate future action or events4 ,dealing with entirely different topics the three following extracts illustrate this kind of conclusion4 ,washington was arguing against the formation of parties in the new nation1 trying to avert the inevitable4 ,there is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful checks upon the administration of the government1 and serve to keep alive the spirit of liberty4 ,this within certain limits is probably true2 and in governments of a monarchical cast1 patriotism may look with indulgence if not with favor upon the spirit of party4 ,but in those of the popular character1 in governments purely elective1 it is a spirit not to be encouraged4 ,from their natural tendency it is certain there will always be enough of that spirit for every salutary purpose4 ,and there being constant danger of excess1 the effort ought to be by force of public opinion to mitigate and assuage it4 ,a fire not to be quenched1 it demands a uniform vigilance to prevent its bursting into a flame1 lest1 instead of warming1 it should consume4 ,,george ,,washington3 ,farewell ,address1 #agif ,with the dignity and the calmness of the preceding1 contrast the ,biblical fervor of the next--the magnanimous program of the reuniter of a divided people4 ,with malice toward none2 with charity for all2 with firmness in the right1 as ,god gives us to see the right1 let us strive on to finish the work we are in2 to bind up the nation's wounds2 to care for him who shall have borne the battle1 and for his widow and his orphan--to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves1 and with all nations4 ,,abraham ,,lincoln3 ,second ,inaugural1 #ahfe ,in totally different circumstances the next conclusion was delivered1 yet it bears the same aspect of anticipation4 ,there is not a single hint in it of the material of the speech which preceded it1 it takes no glance backward1 it looks forward only4 ,its effectiveness comes from the element of leadership1 that gesture of pointing the way for loyal ,americans to follow4 ,no nation as great as ours can expect to escape the penalty of greatness1 for greatness does not come without trouble and labor4 ,there are problems ahead of us at home and problems abroad1 because such problems are incident to the working out of a great national career4 ,we do not shrink from them4 ,scant is our patience with those who preach the gospel of craven weakness4 ,no nation under the sun ever yet played a part worth playing if it feared its fate overmuch--if it did not have the courage to be great4 ,we of ,america1 we1 the sons of a nation yet in the pride of its lusty youth1 spurn the teachings of distrust1 spurn the creed of failure and despair4 ,we know that the future is ours if we have in us the manhood to grasp it1 and we enter the new century girding our loins for the contest before us1 rejoicing in the struggle1 and resolute so to bear ourselves that the nation's future shall even surpass her glorious past4 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt at ,philadelphia1 #aijb ,grave times always make men look into the future4 ,all acts are judged and justified after they are performed4 ,all progress depends upon this straining the vision into the darkness of the yet-to-be4 ,upon the eve of great struggles anticipation is always uppermost in men's minds4 ,in the midst of the strife it is man's hope4 ,in the next extract1 only one sentence glances backward4 ,for us there is but one choice4 ,we have made it4 ,woe be to the man or group of men that seeks to stand in our way in this day of high resolution when every principle we hold dearest is to be vindicated and made secure for the salvation of the nations4 ,we are ready to plead at the bar of history1 and our flag shall wear a new luster4 ,once more we shall make good with our lives and fortunes the great faith to which we were born1 and a new glory shall shine in the face of our people4 ,,woodrow ,,wilson3 ,flag ,day ,address1 #aiag ,retrospective and ,anticipatory ,conclusion4 ,while it does not occur so frequently as the two kinds just illustrated it is possible for a conclusion to be both retrospective and anticipatory--to look both backward and forward4 ,the conclusion may enforce what the speech has declared or proved1 then using this position as a safe starting point for a new departure1 look forward and indicate what may follow or what should be done4 ,the only danger in such an attempt is that the dual aspect may be difficult to make effective4 ,either one may neutralize the other4 ,still1 a careful thinker and master of clear language may be able to carry an audience with him in such a treatment4 ,the division in the conclusion between the backward glance and the forward vision need not be equal4 ,here again the effect to be made upon the audience1 the purpose of the speech1 must be the determining factor4 ,notice how the two are blended in the following conclusion from a much read commemorative oration4 ,and now1 friends and fellow-citizens1 it is time to bring this discourse to a close4 ,we have indulged in gratifying recollections of the past1 in the prosperity and pleasures of the present1 and in high hopes for the future4 ,but let us remember that we have duties and obligations to perform1 corresponding to the blessings which we enjoy4 ,let us remember the trust1 the sacred trust1 attaching to the rich inheritance which we have received from our fathers4 ,let us feel our personal responsibility1 to the full extent of our power and influence1 for the preservation of the principles of civil and religious liberty4 ,and let us remember that it is only religion1 and morals1 and knowledge1 that can make men respectable1 under any form of government4444 ,,daniel ,,webster3 ,completion of ,bunker ,hill ,monument1 #ahdc ,conclusions are classified in general under three headings3 #a4 ,recapitulation2 #b4 ,summary2 #c4 ,peroration4 ,the ,recapitulation4 ,the first of these--recapitulation--is exactly defined by the etymology of the word itself4 ,its root is ,latin caput1 head4 ,so recapitulation means the repetition of the heads or main topics of a preceding discussion4 ,coming at the end of an important speech of some length1 such a conclusion is invaluable4 ,if the speaker has explained clearly or reasoned convincingly his audience will have been enlightened or convinced4 ,then at the end1 to assure them they are justified in their knowledge or conviction1 he repeats in easily remembered sequence the heads which he has treated in his extended remarks4 ,it is as though he chose from his large assortment a small package which he does up neatly for his audience to carry away with them4 ,frequently1 too1 the recapitulation corresponds exactly to the plan as announced in the introduction and followed throughout the speech4 ,this firmly impresses the main points upon the brains of the hearers4 ,a lawyer in court starts by announcing that he will prove a certain number of facts4 ,after his plea is finished1 in the conclusion of his speech1 he recapitulates1 showing that he has proved these things4 ,a minister1 a political candidate1 a business man1 a social worker--in fact1 every speaker will find such a clear-cut listing an informative1 convincing manner of constructing a conclusion4 ,this extract shows a clear1 direct1 simple recapitulation4 ,to recapitulate what has been said1 we maintain1 first1 that the ,constitution1 by its grants to ,congress and its prohibitions on the states1 has sought to establish one uniform standard of value1 or medium of payment4 ,second1 that1 by like means1 it has endeavored to provide for one uniform mode of discharging debts1 when they are to be discharged without payment4 ,third1 that these objects are connected1 and that the first loses much of its importance1 if the last1 also1 be not accomplished4 ,fourth1 that1 reading the grant to ,congress and the prohibition on the ,states together1 the inference is strong that the ,constitution intended to confer an exclusive power to pass bankrupt laws on ,congress4 ,fifth1 that the prohibition in the tenth section reaches to all contracts1 existing or future1 in the same way that the other prohibition1 in the same section1 extends to all debts1 existing or future4 ,sixth1 that1 upon any other construction1 one great political object of the ,constitution will fail of its accomplishment4 ,,daniel ,,webster3 ,ogden vs4 ,saunders1 #ahbg ,the ,summary4 ,the second kind--a summary--does somewhat the same thing that the recapitulation does1 but it effects it in a different matter4 ,note that the recapitulation repeats the main headings of the speech2 it usually uses the same or similar phrasing4 ,the summary does not do this4 ,the summary condenses the entire material of the speech1 so that it is presented to the audience in shortened1 general statements1 sufficient to recall to them what the speaker has already presented1 without actually repeating his previous statements4 ,this kind of conclusion is perhaps more usual than the preceding one4 ,it is known by a variety of terms--summing up1 resume1 epitome1 review1 precis1 condensation4 ,in the first of the subjoined illustrations notice that the words possible modes contain practically all the speech itself4 ,so the four words at the end1 faction1 corruption1 anarchy1 and despotism1 hold a great deal of the latter part of the speech4 ,these expressions do not repeat the heads of divisions2 they condense long passages4 ,the extract is a summary4 ,i have thus presented all possible modes in which a government founded upon the will of an absolute majority will be modified2 and have demonstrated that1 in all its forms1 whether in a majority of the people1 as in a mere democracy1 or in a majority of their representatives1 without a constitution1 to be interpreted as the will of the majority1 the result will be the same3 two hostile interests will inevitably be created by the action of the government1 to be followed by hostile legislation1 and that by faction1 corruption1 anarchy1 and despotism4 ,,john ,c4 ,,calhoun3 ,speech on the ,force ,bill1 #ahcc ,from the following pick out the expressions which summarize long passages of the preceding speech4 ,amplify them to indicate what they might cover4 ,i firmly believe in my countrymen1 and therefore ,i believe that the chief thing necessary in order that they shall work together is that they shall know one another--that the ,northerner shall know the ,southerner1 and the man of one occupation know the man of another occupation2 the man who works in one walk of life know the man who works in another walk of life1 so that we may realize that the things which divide us are superficial1 are unimportant1 and that we are1 and must ever be1 knit together into one indissoluble mass by our common ,american brotherhood4 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt at ,chattanooga1 #aijb ,the ,peroration4 ,a peroration is a conclusion which--whatever may be its material and treatment--has an appeal to the feelings1 to the emotions4 ,it strives to move the audience to act1 to arouse them to an expression of their wills1 to stir them to deeds4 ,it usually comes at the end of a speech of persuasion4 ,it appeals to sentiments of right1 justice1 humanity1 religion4 ,it seldom merely concludes a speech2 it looks forward to some such definite action as casting a vote1 joining an organization or movement1 contributing money1 going out on strike1 returning to work1 pledging support1 signing a petition4 ,these purposes suggest its material4 ,it is usually a direct appeal1 personal and collective1 to all the hearers4 ,intense in feeling1 tinged with emotion1 it justifies itself by its sincerity and honesty alone4 ,its apparent success is not the measure of its merit4 ,too frequently an appeal to low prejudices1 class sentiment and prejudice1 base motives1 mob instincts will carry a group of people in a certain direction with as little sense and reason as a flock of sheep display4 ,every student can cite a dozen instances of such unwarranted and unworthy responses to skilful perverted perorations4 ,answering to its emotional tone the style of a peroration is likely to rise above the usual1 to become less simple1 less direct4 ,in this temptation for the speaker lies a second danger quite as grave as the one just indicated4 ,in an attempt to wax eloquent he is likely to become grandiloquent1 bombastic1 ridiculous4 ,many an experienced speaker makes an unworthy exhibition of himself under such circumstances4 ,one specimen of such nonsense will serve as a warning4 ,when the terms for the use of the ,panama ,canal were drawn up there arose a discussion as to certain kinds of ships which might pass through the canal free of tolls4 ,a treaty with ,great ,britain prevented tolls-exemption for privately owned vessels4 ,in a speech in ,congress upon this topic one member delivered the following inflated and inconsequential peroration4 ,can any one with any sanity see any connection of the ,revolutionary ,war1 ,jefferson1 ,valley ,forge1 with a plain understanding of such a business matter as charging tolls for the use of a waterway8 ,to get the full effect of this piece of stupendous folly--to quote the speaker's own words--the student should declaim it aloud with as much attempt at oratorical effect as its author expended upon it4 ,now1 may the ,god of our fathers1 who nerved #c1jjj1jjj backwoods ,americans to fling their gage of battle into the face of the mightiest monarch in the world1 who guided the hand of ,jefferson in writing the charter of liberty1 who sustained ,washington and his ragged and starving army amid the awful horrors of ,valley ,forge1 and who gave them complete victory on the blood-stained heights of ,yorktown1 may ,he lead members to vote so as to prevent this stupendous folly--this unspeakable humiliation of the ,american republic4 ,when the circumstances are grave enough to justify impassioned language a good speaker need not fear its effect4 ,if it be suitable1 honest1 and sincere1 a peroration may be as emotional as human feelings dictate4 ,so-called flowery language seldom is the medium of deep feeling4 ,the strongest emotions may be expressed in the simplest terms4 ,notice how1 in the three extracts here quoted1 the feeling is more intense in each succeeding one4 ,analyze the style4 ,consider the words1 the phrases1 the sentences in length and structure4 ,explain the close relation of the circumstances and the speaker with the material and the style4 ,what was the purpose of each8 ,sir1 let it be to the honor of ,congress that in these days of political strife and controversy1 we have laid aside for once the sin that most easily besets us1 and1 with unanimity of counsel1 and with singleness of heart and of purpose1 have accomplished for our country one measure of unquestionable good4 ,,daniel ,,webster3 ,uniform ,system of ,bankruptcy1 #ahdj ,lord ,chatham addressed the ,house of ,lords in protest against the inhumanities of some of the early ,british efforts to suppress the ,american ,revolution4 ,i call upon that right reverend bench1 those holy ministers of the ,gospel1 and pious pastors of our ,church--,i conjure them to join in the holy work1 and vindicate the religion of their ,god4 ,i appeal to the wisdom and law of this learned bench1 to defend and support the justice of their country4 ,i call upon the ,bishops to interpose the unsullied sanctity of their lawn2 upon the learned ,judges1 to interpose their purity upon the honor of your ,lordships1 to reverence the dignity of your ancestors and to maintain your own4 ,i call upon the spirit and humanity of my country1 to vindicate the national character4 ,i invoke the genius of the ,constitution4 ,from the tapestry that adorns these walls the immortal ancestor of this noble ,lord frowns with indignation at the disgrace of his country4444 ,i again call upon your ,lordships1 and the united powers of the state1 to examine it thoroughly and decisively1 and to stamp upon it an indelible stigma of the public abhorrence4 ,and ,i again implore those holy prelates of our religion to do away with these iniquities from among us6 ,let them perform a lustration2 let them purify this ,house1 and this country1 from this sin4 ,my ,lords1 ,i am old and weak1 and at present unable to say more2 but my feelings and indignation were too strong to have said less4 ,i could not have slept this night in my bed1 nor reposed my head on my pillow1 without giving vent to my eternal abhorrence of such preposterous and enormous principles4 ,at about the same time the same circumstances evoked several famous speeches1 one of which ended with this well-known peroration4 ,it is in vain1 ,sir1 to extenuate the matter4 ,gentlemen may cry1 ,peace1 ,peace--but there is no peace4 ,the war is actually begun6 ,the next gale that sweeps from the ,north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms6 ,our brethren are already in the field6 ,why stand we here idle8 ,what is it that gentlemen wish8 ,what would they have8 ,is life so dear1 or peace so sweet1 as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery8 ,forbid it1 ,almighty ,god6 ,i know not what course others may take2 but as for me1 give me liberty or give me death6 ,,patrick ,,henry in the ,virginia ,convention1 #agge ,preparing and ,delivering ,conclusions4 ,students cannot very well be asked to prepare and deliver conclusions to speeches which do not yet exist1 so there is no way of devising conclusions until later4 ,but students should report upon conclusions to speeches they have recently listened to1 and explain to the class their opinions concerning their material1 methods1 treatment1 delivery1 effect4 ,the following questions will help in judging and criticizing3 ,was the conclusion too long8 ,was it so short as to seem abrupt8 ,did it impress the audience8 ,how could it have been improved8 ,was it recapitulation1 summary1 peroration8 ,was it retrospective1 anticipatory1 or both8 ,what was its relation to the main part of the speech8 ,did it refer to the entire speech or only a portion8 ,what was its relation to the introduction8 ,did the speech end where it began8 ,did it end as it began8 ,was the conclusion in bad taste8 ,what was its style8 ,what merits had it8 ,what defects8 ,what suggestions could you offer for its improvement8 ,with reference to the earlier parts of the speech1 how was it delivered8 ,the following conclusions should be studied from all the angles suggested in this chapter and previous ones4 ,an air of reality will be secured if they are memorized and spoken before the class4 ,,exercises #a4 ,there are many qualities which we need alike in private citizen and in public man1 but three above all--three for the lack of which no brilliancy and no genius can atone--and those three are courage1 honesty1 and common sense4 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt at ,antietam1 #aijc #b4 ,poor ,sprat has perished despite his splendid tomb in the ,abbey4 ,johnson has only a cracked stone and a worn-out inscription 7for the ,hercules in ,st4 ,paul's is unrecognizable7 but he dwells where he would wish to dwell--in the loving memory of men4 ,,augustine ,,birrell3 ,transmission of ,dr4 ,johnson's ,personality1 #ahhd #c4 ,so1 my fellow citizens1 the reason ,i came away from ,washington is that ,i sometimes get lonely down there4 ,there are so many people in ,washington who know things that are not so1 and there are so few people who know anything about what the people of the ,united ,states are thinking about4 ,i have to come away and get reminded of the rest of the country4 ,i have to come away and talk to men who are up against the real thing and say to them1 ,i am with you if you are with me4 ,and the only test of being with me is not to think about me personally at all1 but merely to think of me as the expression for the time being of the power and dignity and hope of the ,united ,states4 ,,woodrow ,,wilson3 ,speech to the ,american ,federation of ,labor1 #aiag #d4 ,but if1 ,sir ,henry1 in gratitude for this beautiful tribute which ,i have just paid you1 you should feel tempted to reciprocate by taking my horses from my carriage and dragging me in triumph through the streets1 ,i beg that you will restrain yourself for two reasons4 ,the first reason is--,i have no horses2 the second is--,i have no carriage4 ,,simeon ,,ford3 ,me and ,sir ,henry 7,irving71 #ahii #e4 ,literature has its permanent marks4 ,it is a connected growth and its life history is unbroken4 ,masterpieces have never been produced by men who have had no masters4 ,reverence for good work is the foundation of literary character4 ,the refusal to praise bad work or to imitate it is an author's professional chastity4 ,good work is the most honorable and lasting thing in the world4 ,four elements enter into good work in literature3-- ,an original impulse--not necessarily a new idea1 but a new sense of the value of an idea4 ,a first-hand study of the subject and material4 ,a patient1 joyful1 unsparing labor for the perfection of form4 ,a human aim--to cheer1 console1 purify1 or ennoble the life of the people4 ,without this aim literature has never sent an arrow close to the mark4 ,it is only by good work that men of letters can justify their right to a place in the world4 ,the father of ,thomas ,carlyle was a stone-mason1 whose walls stood true and needed no rebuilding4 ,carlyle's prayer was3 ,let me write my books as he built his houses4 ,,henry ,,van ,,dyke3 ,books1 ,literature and the ,people1 #aijj #f4 ,all this1 ,i know well enough1 will sound wild and chimerical to the profane herd of those vulgar and mechanical politicians who have no place among us--a sort of people who think that nothing exists but what is gross and material2 and who1 therefore1 far from being qualified to be directors of the great movement of empire1 are unfit to turn a wheel in the machine4 ,but to men truly initiated and rightly taught1 these ruling and master principles1 which in the opinion of such men as ,i have mentioned have no substantial existence1 are in truth everything and all in all4 ,magnanimity in politics is not seldom the truest wisdom3 and a great empire and little minds go ill together4 ,if we are conscious of our station1 and glow with zeal to fill our places as becomes our situation and ourselves1 we ought to auspicate all our public proceedings on ,america with the old warning of the church1 ,sursum corda6 ,we ought to elevate our minds to the greatness of that trust to which the order of ,providence has called us4 ,by adverting to the dignity of this high calling1 our ancestors have turned a savage wilderness into a glorious empire2 and have made the most extensive1 and the only honorable conquests1 not by destroying1 but by promoting the wealth1 the number1 the happiness of the human race4 ,let us get an ,american revenue as we have got an ,american empire4 ,english privileges have made it all that it is2 ,english privileges alone will make it all it can be4 ,in full confidence of this unalterable truth1 ,i now 7quod felix faustumque sit67 lay the first stone of the ,temple of ,peace2 and ,i move you2-- ,that the colonies and plantations of ,great ,britain in ,north ,america1 consisting of fourteen separate governments1 and containing two millions and upwards of free inhabitants1 have not had the liberty and privilege of electing and sending any knights and burgesses1 or others1 to represent them in the high court of ,parliament4 ,,edmund ,,burke3 ,conciliation with ,america1 #agge #g4 ,now1 ,mr4 ,speaker1 having fully answered all the arguments of my opponents1 ,i will retire to the cloak-room for a few moments1 to receive the congratulations of admiring mends4 ,,john ,,allen in a speech in ,congress #h4 ,relying then on the patronage of your good will1 ,i advance with obedience to the work1 ready to retire from it whenever you become sensible how much better choice it is in your power to make4 ,and may that ,infinite ,power which rules the destinies of the universe lead our councils to what is best1 and give them a favorable issue for your peace and prosperity4 ,,thomas ,,jefferson1 ,first ,inaugural1 #ahja #i4 ,my friends1 this is wholly an unprepared speech4 ,i did not expect to be called or to say a word when ,i came here4 ,i supposed ,i was merely to do something toward raising a flag4 ,i may1 therefore1 have said something indiscreet4 ,but ,i have said nothing but what ,i am willing to live by1 and1 if it be the pleasure of ,almighty ,god1 to die by4 ,,abraham ,,lincoln at ,philadelphia1 #ahfa #aj4 ,i have spoken plainly because this seems to me the time when it is most necessary to speak plainly1 in order that all the world may know that even in the heat and ardor of the struggle and when our whole thought is of carrying the war through to its end we have not forgotten any ideal or principle for which the name of ,america has been held in honor among the nations and for which it has been our glory to contend in the great generations that went before us4 ,a supreme moment of history has come4 ,the eyes of the people have been opened and they see4 ,the hand of ,god is laid upon the nations4 ,he will show them favor1 ,i devoutly believe1 only if they rise to the clear heights of ,his own justice and mercy4 ,,woodrow ,,wilson in a speech to ,congress1 #aiag #aa4 ,this is what ,i have to say--ponder it2 something you will agree with1 something you will disagree with2 but think about it1 if ,i am wrong1 the sooner the wrong is exposed the better for me--this is what ,i have to say3 ,god is bringing the nations together4 ,we must establish courts of reason for the settlement of controversies between civilized nations4 ,we must maintain a force sufficient to preserve law and order among barbaric nations2 and we have small need of an army for any other purpose4 ,we must follow the maintenance of law and the establishment of order and the foundations of civilization with the vitalizing forces that make for civilization4 ,and we must constantly direct our purpose and our policies to the time when the whole world shall have become civilized2 when men1 families1 communities1 will yield to reason and to conscience4 ,and then we will draw our sword ,excalibur from its sheath and fling it out into the sea1 rejoicing that it is gone forever4 ,,lyman ,,abbott3 ,international ,brotherhood1 #ahii #ab4 ,i give you1 gentlemen1 in conclusion1 this sentiment3 ,the ,little ,court-room at ,geneva--where our royal mother ,england1 and her proud though untitled daughter1 alike bent their heads to the majesty of ,law and accepted ,justice as a greater and better arbiter than ,power4 ,,william ,m4 ,,evarts3 ,international ,arbitration1 #ahgb #ac4 ,you recollect the old joke1 ,i think it began with ,preston of ,south ,carolina1 that ,boston exported no articles of native growth but granite and ice4 ,that was true then1 but we have improved since1 and to these exports we have added roses and cabbages4 ,mr4 ,president1 they are good roses1 and good cabbages1 and ,i assure you that the granite is excellent hard granite1 and the ice is very cold ice4 ,,edward ,,everett ,,hale3 ,boston1 #ahhj #ad4 ,long live the ,republic of ,washington6 ,respected by mankind1 beloved of all its sons1 long may it be the asylum of the poor and oppressed of all lands and religions--long may it be the citadel of that liberty which writes beneath the ,eagle's folded wings1 ,we will sell to no man1 we will deny to no man1 ,right and ,justice4 ,long live the ,united ,states of ,america6 ,filled with the free1 magnanimous spirit1 crowned by the wisdom1 blessed by the moderation1 hovered over by the guardian angel of ,washington's example2 may they be ever worthy in all things to be defended by the blood of the brave who know the rights of man and shrink not from their assertion--may they be each a column1 and altogether1 under the ,constitution1 a perpetual ,temple of ,peace1 unshadowed by a ,caesar's palace1 at whose altar may freely commune all who seek the union of ,liberty and ,brotherhood4 ,long live our ,country6 ,oh1 long through the undying ages may it stand1 far removed in fact as in space from the ,old ,world's feuds and follies1 alone in its grandeur and its glory1 itself the immortal monument of ,him whom ,providence commissioned to teach man the power of ,truth1 and to prove to the nations that their ,redeemer liveth4 ,,john ,w4 ,,daniel3 ,washington1 #ahhe #ae4 ,when that great and generous soldier1 ,u4,s4 ,grant gave back to ,lee1 crushed1 but ever glorious1 the sword he had surrendered at ,appomattox1 that magnanimous deed said to the people of the ,south3 ,you are our brothers4 ,but when the present ruler of our grand republic on awakening to the condition of war that confronted him1 with his first commission placed the leader's sword in the hands of those gallant ,confederate commanders1 ,joe ,wheeler and ,fitzhugh ,lee1 he wrote between the lines in living letters of everlasting light the words3 ,there is but one people of this ,union1 one flag alone for all4 ,the ,south1 ,mr4 ,toastmaster1 will feel that her sons have been well given1 that her blood has been well spilled1 if that sentiment is to be indeed the true inspiration of our nation's future4 ,god grant it may be as ,i believe it will4 ,,clare ,,howell3 ,our ,reunited ,country1 #ahih #af4 ,two years ago last autumn1 we walked on the sea beach together1 and with a strange and prophetic kind of poetry1 he likened the scene to his own failing health1 the falling leaves1 the withered sea-weed1 the dying grass upon the shore1 and the ebbing tide that was fast receding from us4 ,he told me that he felt prepared to go1 for he had forgiven his enemies1 and could even rejoice in their happiness4 ,surely this was a grand condition in which to step from this world across the threshold to the next6 ,,joseph ,,jefferson3 ,in ,memory of ,edwin ,booth1 #ahic #ag4 ,a public spirit so lofty is not confined to other lands4 ,you are conscious of its stirrings in your soul4 ,it calls you to courageous service1 and ,i am here to bid you obey the call4 ,such patriotism may be yours4 ,let it be your parting vow that it shall be yours4 ,bolingbroke described a patriot king in ,england2 ,i can imagine a patriot president in ,america4 ,i can see him indeed the choice of a party1 and called to administer the government when sectional jealousy is fiercest and party passion most inflamed4 ,i can imagine him seeing clearly what justice and humanity1 the national law and the national welfare require him to do1 and resolved to do it4 ,i can imagine him patiently enduring not only the mad cry of party hate1 the taunt of recreant and traitor1 of renegade and coward1 but what is harder to bear1 the amazement1 the doubt1 the grief1 the denunciation1 of those as sincerely devoted as he to the common welfare4 ,i can imagine him pushing firmly on1 trusting the heart1 the intelligence1 the conscience of his countrymen1 healing angry wounds1 correcting misunderstandings1 planting justice on surer foundations1 and1 whether his party rise or fall1 lifting his country heavenward to a more perfect union1 prosperity1 and peace4 ,this is the spirit of a patriotism that girds the commonwealth with the resistless splendor of the moral law--the invulnerable panoply of states1 the celestial secret of a great nation and a happy people4 ,,george ,,william ,,curtis3 ,the ,public ,duty of ,educated ,men1 #ahgg ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,getting ,,material ,the ,material of ,speeches4 ,so far this book has dealt almost entirely with the manner of speaking4 ,now it comes to the relatively more important consideration of the material of speech4 ,necessary as it is that a speaker shall know how to speak1 it is much more valuable that he shall know what to speak4 ,we frequently hear it said of a speaker1 ,it wasn't what he said1 it was the way he said it1 indicating clearly that the striking aspect of the delivery was his manner2 but even when this remark is explained it develops frequently that there was some value in the material1 as well as some charm or surprise or novelty in the method of expression4 ,in the last and closest analysis a speech is valuable for what it conveys to its hearers' minds1 what it induces them to do1 not what temporary effects of charm and entertainment it affords4 ,persons of keen minds and cultivated understandings have come away from gatherings addressed by men famous as good speech-makers and confessed to something like the following3 ,i was held spellbound all the time he was talking1 but for the life of me1 ,i can't tell you one thing he said or one idea he impressed upon me4 ,a student should judge speeches he hears with such things in mind1 so that he can hold certain ones up as models1 and discard others as horrible examples4 ,it should be the rule that before a man attempts to speak he should have something to say4 ,this is apparently not always the case4 ,many a man tries to say something when he simply has nothing at all to say4 ,recall the description of ,gratiano's talk1 quoted earlier in this book4 ,a speaker then must have material4 ,he must get material4 ,the clergyman knows that he must deliver about a hundred sermons a year4 ,the lawyer knows he must go into court on certain days4 ,the lecturer must instruct his various audiences4 ,the business man must address executive boards1 committees1 conventions1 customers4 ,the student must address classes1 societies4 ,the beginner in speech training must seize every opportunity to talk4 ,certainly the natural reserve stock of ideas and illustrations will soon be exhausted1 or it will grow so stale that it will be delivered ineffectively1 or it will be unsuitable to every occasion4 ,a celebrated ,frenchman1 called upon unexpectedly to speak1 excused himself by declaring1 ,what is suitable to say ,i do not know1 and what ,i know is not suitable4 ,getting ,material4 ,there are three ways of getting material4 ,the first is by observation1 the second by interview1 the third by reading4 ,observation4 ,the value of securing material by observation is apparent at first glance4 ,that which you have experienced you know4 ,that which you have seen with your own eyes you can report correctly4 ,that which has happened to you you can relate with the aspect of absolute truth4 ,that which you have done you can teach others to do4 ,that which has touched you you can explain correctly4 ,that which you know to be the fact is proof against all attack4 ,these are the apparent advantages of knowledge gained at first hand4 ,the faculty of accurate observation is one of the most satisfying that can enter into a person's mental equipment4 ,it can be trained1 broadened1 and made more and more accurate4 ,in some trades and professions it is an indispensable part of one's everyday ability4 ,the faculty may be easily developed by exercise and test for accuracy4 ,everyone acknowledges the weight and significance of material gained by observation4 ,in ,america especially we accord attention and regard to the reports and accounts made by men who have done things1 the men who have experienced the adventures they relate4 ,there is such a vividness1 a reality1 a conviction about these personal utterances that we must listen respectfully and applaud sincerely4 ,magazines and newspapers offer hundreds of such articles for avid readers4 ,hundreds of books each year are based upon such material4 ,with all its many advantages the field of observation is limited4 ,not every person can experience or see all he is interested in and wants to talk about4 ,we must choose presidents but we cannot observe the candidates themselves and their careers4 ,we must have opinions about the ,league of ,nations1 the ,mexican situation1 the radical labor movements1 the changing taxes1 but we cannot observe all phases of these absorbing topics4 ,if we restrict speeches to only what we can observe we shall all be uttering merely trivial personalities based upon no general knowledge and related to none of the really important things in the universe4 ,nor is it always true that the person who does a thing can report it clearly and accurately4 ,ask a woman or girl how she hemstitches a handkerchief1 or a boy how he swims or throws a curve1 and note the involved and inaccurate accounts4 ,if you doubt this1 explain one of these to the class4 ,it is not easy to describe exactly what one has seen1 mainly because people do not see accurately4 ,people usually see what they want to see1 what they are predisposed to see4 ,witnesses in court1 testifying upon oath concerning an accident1 usually produce as many different versions as there are pairs of eyes4 ,books upon psychology report many enlightening and amusing cases of this defect of accurate observation in people4#a ,the two negative aspects of material secured in this first manner--#a1 limited range of observation1 #b1 inaccuracy of observation--placed beside the advantages already listed will clearly indicate in what subjects and circumstances this method should be relied upon for securing material for speeches4 ,footnote #a3 ,good cases are related by ,swift1 ,e4,j43 ,psychology and the ,day's ,work4 ,,exercises #a4 ,make a list of recent articles based upon observation which you have seen or read in newspapers and magazines4 #b4 ,with what kind of material does each deal8 #c4 ,which article is best8 ,why8 #d4 ,list four topics upon which your observation has given you material which could be used in a speech4 #e4 ,what kind of speech8 ,a speech for what purpose8 #f4 ,consider and weigh the value of your material4 #g4 ,why is it good8 #h4 ,what limits1 or drawbacks has it8 #i4 ,what could be said against it from the other side8 ,interview4 ,if a person cannot himself experience or observe all he wants to use for material his first impulse will be to interview people who have had experience themselves4 ,in this circumstance the speaker becomes the reporter of details of knowledge furnished by others4 ,the value of this is apparent at once4 ,next to first-hand knowledge1 second-hand knowledge will serve admirably4 ,every newspaper and magazine in the world uses this method because its readers' first query1 mental or expressed1 of all its informative articles is ,is this true8 ,if the author is merely repeating the experience of an acknowledged expert in the field under discussion1 the value of the interview cannot be questioned4 ,in this case the resulting report is almost as good as the original testimony or statement of the man who knows4 ,the first requisite1 therefore1 of material gathered in such a manner is that it be reproduced exactly as first delivered4 ,the man who told a woman that a critic had pronounced her singing heavenly had good intentions but he was not entirely accurate in changing to that nattering term the critic's actual adjective unearthly4 ,the frequency with which alleged statements published in the daily press are contradicted by the supposed utterers indicates how usual such misrepresentation is1 though it may be honestly unintentional4 ,the speaker before an audience must be scrupulously correct in quoting4 ,this accuracy is not assured unless a stenographic transcript be taken at the time the information is given1 or unless the person quoted reads the sentiments and statements credited to him and expresses his approval4 ,signed statements1 personal letters1 printed records1 photographs1 certified copies1 and other exhibits of all kinds are employed to substantiate material secured from interviews and offered in speeches4 ,if you notice newspaper accounts of lectures1 political speeches1 legislative procedure1 legal practice1 you will soon become familiar with such usages as are described by the expressions1 filing as part of the record1 taking of a deposition in one city for use in a lawsuit in another1 ,exhibit ,a1 photograph of an account book1 statement made in the presence of a third party1 as recorded by a dictaphone1 etc4 ,the first danger in securing material by the personal interview is the natural error of misunderstanding4 ,the second danger is the natural desire--not necessarily false1 at that--to interpret to the user's benefit1 the material so secured1 or to the discredit of all views other than his own4 ,it is so easy1 so tempting1 in making out a strong case for one's own opinions to omit the slight concession which may grant ever so little shade of right to other beliefs4 ,judicious manipulation of any material may degenerate into mere juggling for support4 ,quotations and reports1 like statistics1 can be made to prove anything1 and the general intellectual distrust of mere numbers is cleverly summed up in the remark1 ,figures can't lie1 but liars can figure4 ,to have the material accepted as of any weight or value the person from whom it is secured must be recognized as an authority4 ,he must be of such eminence in the field for which his statements are quoted as not only to be accepted by the speaker using his material but as unqualifiedly recognized by all the opponents of the speaker4 ,his remarks must have the definiteness of the expert witness whose testimony in court carries so much weight4 ,to secure due consideration1 the speaker must make perfectly clear to his audience the position of his authority1 his fitness to be quoted1 his unquestioned knowledge1 sincerity1 and honesty4 ,knowledge secured in this manner may be used with signal effect in a speech1 either to supply all the material or to cover certain portions4 ,if you listen to many speeches 7and you should71 notice how often a speaker introduces the result of his interviews--formal or merely conversational--with persons whose statement he is certain will impress his audience4 ,,exercises #a4 ,make a list of five topics of which you know so little that you would have to secure information by interviews4 #b4 ,of these choose two1 define your opinion or feeling in each1 and tell to whom you could apply for material4 #c4 ,choose one dealing with some topic of current interest in your locality2 define your own opinion or feeling1 and tell to whom you could apply for material4 #d4 ,explain exactly why you name this person4 #e4 ,prepare a set of questions to bring out material to support your position4 #f4 ,prepare some questions to draw out material to dispose of other views4 #g4 ,interview some person upon one of the foregoing topics or a different one1 and in a speech present this material before the class4 #h4 ,in general discussion comment on the authorities reported and the material presented4 ,reading4 ,the best way and the method most employed for gathering material is reading4 ,every user of material in speeches must depend upon his reading for the greatest amount of his knowledge4 ,the old expression reading law shows how most legal students secured the information upon which their later practice was based4 ,nearly all real study of any kind depends upon wide and careful reading4 ,reading1 in the sense here used1 differs widely from the entertaining perusal of current magazines1 or the superficial skimming through short stories or novels4 ,reading for material is done with a more serious purpose than merely killing time1 and is regulated according to certain methods which have been shown to produce the best results for the effort and time expended4 ,the speaker reads for the single purpose of securing material to serve his need in delivered remarks4 ,he has a definite aim4 ,he must know how to serve that end4 ,not everyone who can follow words upon a printed page can read in this sense4 ,he must be able to read1 understand1 select1 and retain4 ,the direction is heard in some churches to read1 mark1 learn1 and inwardly digest4 ,this is a picturesque phrasing of the same principles4 ,you must know how to read4 ,have you often in your way through a book suddenly realized at the bottom of a page that you haven't the slightest recollection of what your eye has been over8 ,you may have felt this same way after finishing a chapter4 ,people often read poetry in this manner4 ,this is not really reading4 ,the speaker who reads for material must concentrate4 ,if he reaches the bottom of a page without an idea1 he must go back to get it4 ,it is better not to read too rapidly the first time1 in order to save this repetition4 ,the ability to read is trained in exactly the same way as any other ability4 ,accuracy first1 speed later4 ,perhaps the most prevalent fault of students of all kinds is lack of concentration4 ,understanding4 ,after reading comes understanding4 ,to illustrate this1 poetry again might be cited1 for any one can read poetry1 though many declare they cannot understand it4 ,the simplest looking prose may be obscure to the mind which is slow in comprehending4 ,when we read we get general ideas1 cursory impressions2 we catch the drift of the author's meaning4 ,reading for material must be more thorough than that4 ,it must not merely believe it understands2 it must preclude the slightest possibility of misunderstanding4 ,a reader who finds in a printed speech approval of a system of representation but a condemnation of a system of representatives must grasp at once1 or must work out for himself1 the difference between these two3 the first meaning a relationship only1 the second meaning men serving as delegates4 ,when he meets an unusual word like mandatory1 he must not be content to guess at its significance by linking it with command and mandate1 for as used in international affairs it means something quite definite4 ,to secure this complete understanding of all his reading he will consult consistently every book of reference4 ,he should read with a good dictionary at his elbow1 and an atlas and an encyclopedia within easy reach4 ,if he is able to talk over with others what he reads1 explaining to them what is not clear1 he will have an excellent method of testing his own understanding4 ,the old-fashioned practice of saying lessons over at home contributed to this growth of a pupil's understanding4 ,selecting4 ,third1 the reader for material must know how to select4 ,as he usually reads to secure information or arguments for a certain definite purpose1 he will save time by knowing quickly what not to read4 ,all that engages his attention without directly contributing to his aim is wasting time and energy4 ,he must learn how to use books4 ,if he cannot handle alphabetized collections quickly he is wasting time4 ,if he does not know how material is arranged he will waste both time and energy4 ,he must know books4 ,every printed production worthy of being called a book should have an index4 ,is the index the same as the table of contents8 ,the table of contents is printed at the beginning of the volume4 ,it is a synopsis1 by chapter headings or more detailed topics1 of the plan of the book4 ,it gives a general outline of the contents of the book4 ,you are interested in public speaking4 ,you wonder whether a book contains a chapter on debating4 ,does this one8 ,you notice that a speaker used a series of jerky gesticulations4 ,you wonder whether this book contains a chapter upon gestures4 ,does it8 ,the table of contents is valuable for the purposes just indicated4 ,it appears always at the beginning of a work4 ,if the work fills more than one volume1 the table of contents is sometimes given for all of them in the first2 sometimes it is divided among the volumes2 sometimes both arrangements are combined4 ,the table of contents is never so valuable as the index4 ,this always comes at the end of the book4 ,if the work is in more than one volume the index comes at the end of the last volume4 ,what did you learn of the topic gestures in this book from your reference to the table of contents8 ,now look at the index4 ,what does the index do for a topic8 ,if a topic is treated in various parts of a long work the volumes are indicated by ,roman numerals1 the pages by ordinary numerals4 ,interpret this entry taken from the index of ,a ,history of the ,united ,states by ,h4,w4 ,elson4 ,slavery1 introduced into ,virginia1 i1 #ic2 in ,south ,carolina1 #abb2 in ,georgia1 #acc2 in ,new ,england1 #bgf2 in the ,south1 #bgf2 during colonial period1 iii1 #fi1 #gj2 in ,missouri1 #gb2 attacked by the ,abolitionists1 #adb-f2 excluded from ,california1 #ahd2 character of1 in the ,south1 #bjh seq42 population1 iv1 #hb2 abolished in ,district of ,columbia1 in new territories1 #bjh2 abolished by ,thirteenth ,amendment1 #cbj1 #cba4 ,retaining ,knowledge4 ,the only valid test of the reader's real equipment is what he retains and can use4 ,how much of what you read do you remember8 ,the answer depends upon education1 training in this particular exercise1 and lapse of time4 ,what method of remembering do you find most effective in your own case8 ,to answer this you should give some attention to your own mind4 ,what kind of mind have you8 ,do you retain most accurately what you see8 ,can you reproduce either exactly or in correct substance what you read to yourself without any supporting aids to stimulate your memory8 ,if you have this kind of mind develop it along that line4 ,do not weaken its power by letting it lean on any supports at all4 ,if you find you can do without them1 do not get into the habit of taking notes4 ,if you can remember to do everything you should do during a trip downtown don't make a list of the items before you go4 ,if you can retain from a single reading the material you are gathering1 don't make notes4 ,impress things upon your memory faculty4 ,develop that ability in yourself4 ,have you a different kind of mind1 the kind which remember best what it tells1 what it explains1 what it does8 ,do you fix things in your brain by performing them8 ,does information become rooted in your memory because you have imparted it to others8 ,if so you should secure the material you gather from your reading by adapting some method related to the foregoing4 ,you may talk it over with some one else1 you may tell it aloud to yourself1 you may imagine you are before an audience and practise impressing them with what you want to retain4 ,any device which successfully fixes knowledge in your memory is legitimate4 ,you should know enough about your own mental processes to find for yourself the best and quickest way4 ,it is often said of teachers that they do not actually feel that they know a subject until they have tried to teach it to others4 ,taking ,notes4 ,another kind of mind recalls or remembers material it has read when some note or hint suggests all of it4 ,this kind of mind depends upon the inestimably valuable art of note-taking1 a method quite as worthy as the two just considered if its results justify its employment4 ,note-taking does not mean a helter-skelter series of exclamatory jottings4 ,it means a well-planned1 regularly organized series of entries so arranged that reference to any portion recalls vividly and exactly the full material of the original4 ,books and speeches are well planned4 ,they follow a certain order4 ,notes based upon them should reproduce that plan and show the relative value of parts4 ,when completed1 such notes1 arranged in outline form1 should enable the maker to reproduce the extended material from which they were made4 ,if he cannot do that1 his reading and his note-taking were to little purpose4 ,a speaker who has carefully written out his full speech and delivers it form the manuscript can use that speech over and over again4 ,but that does not indicate that he really knows much about the topic he is discussing4 ,he did know about it once4 ,but the man who from a series of notes can reconstruct material worked up long before proves that he has retained his knowledge of it4 ,besides1 this method gives him the chance to adapt his presentation to the changing conditions and the new audience4 ,in using this method1 when a particularly important bit of information is met1 it should be set down very carefully1 usually verbatim1 as it may be quoted exactly in the speech4 ,this copy may be made upon the paper where the regular notes are being entered so that it may be found later embodied in the material it supports4 ,or it may later be cut from this sheet to be shifted about and finally fixed when planning the speech1 or preparing the outline 7discussed in the next two chapters74 ,many practised speech-makers copy such material upon the regularly sized library catalog cards 7#c by #e inches71 some distinguishing by the colors of cards the various kinds of material1 such as arguments supporting a position1 opposite arguments1 refutation1 statistics1 court judgments1 etc4 ,the beginner will find for himself what methods he can use best4 ,of course he must never let his discriminating system become so elaborate that he consumes unjustifiable time and thought in following its intricate plan4 ,in all cases of quotations--either verbatim or in resume--the authority must be noted4 ,author1 official title or position1 title of work1 circumstances1 date1 volume1 page1 etc41 should be clearly set down4 ,in law cases the date is especially important as so frequently the latest decision reverses all the earlier ones4 ,for convenience of filing and handling these items are placed at the top of the card4 ,monroe ,doctrine--,meaning ,w4 ,wilson--,hist4 ,amer4 ,people1 ,v1 #bde ,the ,u4,s4 had not undertaken to maintain an actual formal protectorate over the ,s4 ,amer4 states1 but it did frankly undertake to act as their nearest friend in the settlement of controversies with ,european nations1 and no ,president1 whether ,rep4 or ,dem41 had hesitated since this critical dispute concerning the boundaries of ,brit4 ,guiana arose to urge its settlement upon terms favorable to ,venezuela4 ,the following notes were made by a student in preparation for a speech upon the opposition to the ,covenant of the ,league of ,nations4 ,these excerpts are from the notes upon the newspaper reports of the debate in ,boston in #aiai between ,senator ,lodge and ,president ,lowell of ,harvard4 ,notice how accurately they suggest the material of the original4 ,the numbers represent the paragraph numbers4 ,sidenote3 ,monroe ,doctrine4 #ce4 ,monroe ,doctrine a fence that cannot be extended by taking it down4 #cf4 ,monroe ,doctrine a corollary of ,washington's foreign policy4 #cg4 ,geographical considerations on which ,monroe ,doctrine rested still obtain4 #ch4 ,systems of morality and philosophy are not transient1 because they rest on verities4 #ci4 ,monroe ,doctrine rests on law of self-preservation4 #dj4 ,offers a larger reservation of ,monroe ,doctrine as third constructive criticism4 ,,senator ,,lodge ,sidenote3 ,what a ,league should provide4 #c4 ,wants to consider what such a league must contain4 #d4 ,must have provision for obligatory arbitration4 #e4 ,obligation not to resort to war must be compulsory4 #f4 ,compulsion must be such that no nation will venture to incur it4 #g4 ,nation that does not submit to arbitration must be treated as outlaw4 #h4 ,if decisions of arbitrations are clear and generally considered just1 a nation desiring to wage war should be prevented4 #i4 ,points of contact are not points of friction except when made too infrequent4 #aj4 ,travel1 intercourse1 frequent meetings help amicable adjustments4 #aa4 ,league should provide councils where men can meet and talk over differences4 #ab4 ,penalty for violating agreements should be automatic4 #ac4 ,all should be obliged to make war on attacking nation4 ,,president ,,lowell4 ,using the ,library4 ,a reader must know how to use libraries4 ,this means he must be able to find books by means of the card catalogs4 ,these are arranged by both authors and subjects4 ,if he knows the author of a book or its title he can easily find the cards and have the book handed to him4 ,very often he will seek information upon topics entirely new to him4 ,in this case he must look under the entry of the topic for all the books bearing upon his4 ,from the titles1 the brief descriptions1 and 7sometimes7 the tables of contents upon the cards he can select intelligently the books he needs4 ,for instance1 if he is searching for arguments to support a new kind of city government he could discard at once several books cataloged as follows1 while he could pick unerringly the four which might furnish him the material he wants4 ,these books are listed under the general topic ,cities4 ,the ,spirit of ,youth and the ,city ,streets4 ,old ,english ,towns4 ,municipal ,administration4 ,the ,modern ,city and its ,problems4 ,personality of ,american ,cities4 ,historic ,towns of the ,southern ,states4 ,romantic ,germany4 ,cities of ,italy4 ,american ,municipal ,progress4 ,cross references are also valuable4 ,in addition to books cataloged under the topic consulted1 others grouped under other subjects may contain related information4 ,here are three actual cross references taken from a library catalog4 ,land3 ,ownership1 rights1 and rent4 ,see also conservation1 production1 agriculture4 ,laboring classes3 ,morals and habits4 ,see also ethics1 amusements1 ,sunday4 ,church4 ,see also church and state1 persecutions4 ,the continual use of a library will familiarize a student with certain classes of books to which he may turn for information4 ,if he is permitted to handle the books themselves upon the shelves he will soon become skilful in using books4 ,many a trained speaker can run his eye over titles1 along tables of contents1 scan the pages1 and unerringly pick the heart out of a volume4 ,nearly all libraries now are arranged according to one general plan1 so a visitor who knows this scheme can easily find the class of books he wants in almost any library he uses4 ,this arrangement is based upon the following decimal numbering and grouping of subject matter4 ,,library ,,classification #jjj to #jij1 ,general works4 ,bibliography4 ,library economy4 ,cyclopedias4 ,collections4 ,periodicals4 ,societies1 museums4 ,journalism1 newspapers4 ,special libraries1 polygraphy4 ,book rarities4 #ajj to #aij1 ,philosophy4 ,metaphysics4 ,special topics4 ,mind and body4 ,philosophic systems4 ,mental faculties1 psychology4 ,logic1 dialectics4 ,ethics4 ,ancient philosophers4 ,modern4 #bjj to #bij1 ,religion4 ,natural ,theology4 ,bible4 ,doctrinal dogmatics1 theology4 ,devotional1 practical4 ,homiletic1 pastoral1 parochial4 ,church1 institutions1 work4 ,religious history4 ,christian churches and sects4 ,ethnic1 non-christian4 #cjj to #cij1 ,sociology4 ,statistics4 ,political science4 ,political economy4 ,law4 ,administration4 ,associations1 institutions4 ,education4 ,commerce1 communication4 ,customs1 costumes1 folklore4 #djj to #dij1 ,philology4 ,comparative4 ,english4 ,german4 ,french4 ,italian4 ,spanish4 ,latin4 ,greek4 ,minor literatures4 #ejj to #eij1 ,natural science4 ,mathematics1 ,astronomy4 ,physics4 ,chemistry4 ,geology4 ,paleontology4 ,biology4 ,botany4 ,zology4 #fjj to #fij1 ,useful arts4 ,medicine4 ,engineering4 ,agriculture4 ,domestic economy4 ,communication1 commerce4 ,chemic technology4 ,manufactures4 ,mechanic trades4 ,building4 #gjj to #gij1 ,fine arts4 ,landscape gardening4 ,architecture4 ,sculpture4 ,drawing1 decoration1 design4 ,painting4 ,engraving4 ,photography4 ,music4 ,amusements4 #hjj to #hij1 ,literature 7same order as under ,philology1 #djj74 #ijj to #iij1 ,history4 ,geography and travels4 ,biography4 ,ancient history4 ,modern ,europe4 ,asia4 ,africa4 ,north ,america4 ,south ,america4 ,oceanica and polar regions4 ,m4 ,,dewey3 ,decimal ,classification ,using ,periodicals4 ,in the section on taking notes the direction was given that in citing legal decisions the latest should be secured4 ,why8 ,that same principle applies to citing any kind of information in a speech4 ,science1 history1 politics1 government1 international questions1 change so rapidly in these times that the fact of yesterday is the fiction of today1 and vice versa4 ,a speaker must be up to date in his knowledge4 ,this he can be only by consulting current periodicals4 ,he cannot read them all so he must use the aids provided for him4 ,the best of these is the ,reader's ,guide to ,periodical ,literature issued every month and kept in the reference room of all libraries4 ,in it1 arranged under both subject and author's name1 are listed the articles which have appeared in the various magazines4 ,the ,december issue contains the entries for the entire year4 ,a group of topics from a recent monthly issue will show its value to the speaker securing material4 ,eastern ,question4 ,british case in the ,east4 ,h4 ,sidebotham1 ,asia #ai3bfa-abfc ,mr '#ai4--;,england and her eastern policy4 ,h4 ,sidebotham4 ,asia1 #ai3aeh-afa4 ,f '#ai4--,khanates of the ,middle ,east4 ,ikbal ,ali ,shah4 ,contemp4 #aae3ahc-ahg ,f '#ai4--,more secret treaties in the ,near ,east4 ,l4 ,stoddard4 ,maps4 ,world's ,work4 #cg3 #ehi-eia4 ,mr '#ai4--,part of the ,united ,states in the ,near ,east4 ,r of ,rs #ei3cje-cjf ,mr '#ai4--,should ,america act as trustee of the ,near ,east8 ,asia1 #ai3ada-add ,f'#ai4 ,by this time the student speaker will have that mental alertness referred to early in this book4 ,he will be reading regularly some magazine--not to pass the time pleasantly--but to keep himself posted on current topics and questions of general interest1 in which the articles will direct him to other periodicals for fuller treatment of the material he is gathering4 ,the nature of some of these is suggested here4 ,the ,outlook1 ,an illustrated weekly journal of current events4 ,current ,opinion1 ,monthly4 ,review of the ,world1 ,persons in the ,foreground1 ,music and ,drama1 ,science and ,discovery1 ,religion and ,social ,ethics1 ,literature and ,art1 ,the ,industrial ,world1 ,reconstruction4 ,the ,literary ,digest1 ,weekly4 ,topics of the ,day1 ,foreign ,comment1 ,science and ,invention1 ,letters and ,art1 ,religion and ,social ,service1 ,current ,poetry1 ,miscellaneous1 ,investments and ,finance4 ,the ,independent1 an illustrated weekly4 ,,exercises #a4 ,describe to the class the contents of a recent issue of a magazine4 ,concentrate upon important departments1 articles1 or policies1 so that you will not deliver a mere list4 #b4 ,tell how an article in some periodical led you to read more widely to secure fuller information4 #c4 ,explain why you read a certain periodical regularly4 #d4 ,speak upon one of the following topics3 ,freak magazines4 ,my magazine4 ,policies of magazines4 ,great things magazines have done4 ,technical magazines4 ,adventures at a magazine counter4 ,propaganda periodicals4 #e4 ,explain exactly how you study4 #f4 ,how would you secure an interview with some person of prominence8 #g4 ,is the cramming process of studying a good one8 #h4 ,is it ever justifiable8 #i4 ,explain how1 why1 and when it may be used by men in their profession4 #aj4 ,give the class an idea of the material of some book you have read recently4 #aa4 ,explain how reading a published review or hearing comments on a book induced you to read a volume which proved of value to you4 #ab4 ,can you justify the reading of the last part only of a book8 ,consider non-fiction4 #ac4 ,for preserving clippings1 notes1 etc41 which method is better--cards filed in boxes or drawers1 scrap-books1 or slips and clippings grouped in envelopes8 #ad4 ,report to the class some information upon one of the following4 ,tell exactly how and where you secured your information4 ,opium traffic in ,china4 ,morphine habit in the ,united ,states4 ,women in literature4 ,a drafted army as compared with a volunteer army4 ,orpheum as a theater name4 ,prominent business women4 ,war time influence of ,d',annunzio4 ,increasing cost of living4 ,secretarial courses4 ,the most beautiful city of the ,american continent4 ,alfalfa4 ,women surgeons4 ,the blimp4 ,democracy in ,great ,britain compared with that of the ,united ,states4 ,the root of the ,mexican problem4 ,san ,marino4 ,illiteracy in the ,united ,states4 ,how women vote4 7,,note4--,the teacher should supply additions1 substitutes1 and modifications47 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,planning ,,the ,,speech ,selecting ,material4 ,it can be assumed1 by the time you have reached this point in the study and practice of making speeches1 that you have words to express your thoughts and some fair skill of delivery1 that you know something about preparing various kinds of introductions and conclusions1 that you know how your own mind operates in retaining new information1 and that you know how to secure material for various purposes4 ,either clearly assimilated in your brain or accurately noted upon paper you have all the ideas that are to appear in your speech4 ,the ,length of the ,speech4 ,look over this material again4 ,consider it carefully in your thoughts1 mentally deciding how long a time or how many words you will devote to each topic or entry4 ,can you from such a practical consideration determine how long in time your speech will be8 ,are you limited by requirements to a short time as were the ,four ,minute ,speakers8 ,have you been allotted a half hour8 ,will you hold your audience longer8 ,these may appear simple things1 but they cover the first essential of planning any speech4 ,it should be just the correct length--neither too long nor too short4 ,many beginners--timid1 hesitant1 untrained--will frequently fill too short a time1 so that they must drill themselves into planning longer productions4 ,on the other hand1 it may be stated1 as a general criticism1 that many speakers talk too long4 ,a ,united ,states ,senator1 in order to block the vote on a bill he was opposing1 decided to speak until ,congress had to adjourn1 so he deliberately planned to cover a long time4 ,he spoke for some twenty-two hours4 ,of course he did not say much1 nor did he talk continuously2 to get rests1 he requested the clerk to call the roll1 and while the list was being marked1 he ate and drank enough to sustain him4 ,technically his speech was uninterrupted1 for he still had the floor4 ,though we may not approve of such methods of legislative procedure we must see that for this speech the first element of its plan was its length4 ,keep this consideration of time always in mind4 ,speakers always ask how long they are to speak1 or they stipulate how much time they require4 ,legislative bodies frequently have limiting rules4 ,courts sometimes allow lawyers so much time4 ,a minister must fit his sermon to the length of the service4 ,a business man must not waste his hearers' time4 ,a lecturer must not tire his audience4 ,in ,congress members must be given chances to eat4 ,in ,parliament1 which meets in the evening1 men grow anxious for bed4 ,making the ,speech too ,long4 ,the rule is fundamental1 yet it is violated continually4 ,i have known of instances when four men1 asked to present material in a meeting announced months in advance as lasting two hours1 have totally disregarded this fact1 and prepared enough material to consume over an hour each4 ,in such cases the presiding officer should state to each that he will be allowed exactly thirty minutes and no more4 ,he may tap on the table after twenty-five have elapsed to warn the speaker to pass to his conclusion1 and at the expiration of the time make him bring his remarks to a close and give way to the next speaker4 ,there is no unfairness in this4 ,the real offense is committed by the speaker who proves himself so inconsiderate1 so discourteous of the conditions that he places himself in such an embarrassing circumstance4 ,he deserves only justice tempered by no mercy4 ,i have heard the first of two speakers who were to fill an hour of a commemorative service in a church talk on for an hour and ten minutes1 boring the congregation to fidgety restlessness and completely preventing the second speaker--the more important--from delivering a single word4 ,mark ,twain tells how he went to church one hot night to hear a city mission worker describe his experiences among the poor people of the crowded districts who1 though they needed help1 were too modest or proud to ask for it4 ,the speaker told of the suffering and bravery he found4 ,then he pointed out that the best gifts to charity are not the advertised bounties of the wealthy but the small donations of the less fortunate4 ,his appeals worked ,mark ,twain up to great enthusiasm and generosity4 ,he was ready to give all he had with him--four hundred dollars--and borrow more4 ,the entire congregation wanted to offer all it had4 ,but the missionary kept on talking4 ,the audience began to notice the heat4 ,it became hotter and hotter4 ,they grew more and more uncomfortable4 ,mark's generosity began to shrink4 ,it dwindled to less and less as the speech lengthened until when the plate did finally reach him1 he stole ten cents from it4 ,he adds that this simply proves how a little thing like a long-winded speech can induce crime4 ,plan your speech so that it will be the proper length4 ,discarding ,material4 ,this first consideration very likely indicates to you that you have much more material than you can use in the time allowed or assigned you4 ,you must discard some4 ,strange as it may seem1 this is one of the must difficult directions to carry out4 ,it seems such a waste of time and material to select for actual presentation so small a part of all you have carefully gathered4 ,there is always the temptation to get it all in somehow4 ,yet the direction must remain inflexible4 ,you can use only part of it4 ,you must carefully select what will serve your purpose4 ,what is the purpose of your speech8 ,what is the character of your audience8 ,these two things will determine to a large extent1 what and how much you must relinquish4 ,your finished speech will be all the better for the weeding-out process4 ,better still1 in all your preliminary steps for subsequent speeches you will become skilful in selecting while you are gathering the material itself4 ,finally you will become so practised that you will not burden yourself with waste1 although you will always secure enough to supply you with a reserve supply for assurance and emergency4 ,relation of ,material to the ,purpose of the ,speech4 ,a few examples will show the wide application of this principle4 ,a boy who has explained to his father the scholarship rules of his school concerning athletes will discard a great deal of that material when he addresses a student gathering4 ,a speaker on child labor in a state where women have voted for a long time will discard much of the material presented in a neighboring state where general franchise has just been granted4 ,if in a series of remarks you want to emphasize the thrilling experience you have had with a large fish which jerked you out of a boat1 you would not include such material as the trip on the train to the lake where you had your adventure4 ,why not8 ,these are humble instances1 but the principle of selection is the same for all speeches4 ,a man who was asked to lecture on ,mark ,twain knew the contents of the thirty published volumes written by him1 all the biographies1 practically every article written about him2 he had conversed with people who had known him2 he had visited scenes of his life2 yet when he planned to talk for an hour he had to reject everything except two striking periods of his life with their effects upon his writing4 ,burke1 in one great effort1 declared he had no intention of dealing with the right of taxation2 he confined himself merely to the expediency of ,great ,britain's revenue laws for ,america4 ,other great speakers have--in their finished speeches--just as clearly indicated the plans they have decided to follow4 ,such definite announcements determine the material of many introductions4 ,my task will be divided under three different heads3 first1 ,the ,crime ,against ,kansas1 in its origin and extent2 secondly1 ,the ,apologies for the ,crime2 and1 thirdly1 ,the ,true ,remedy4 ,,charles ,,sumner3 ,the ,crime against ,kansas1 #ahef ,mr4 ,president and ,fellow ,citizens of ,new ,york3 ,the facts with which ,i shall deal this evening are mainly old and familiar2 nor is there anything new in the general use ,i shall make of them4 ,if there shall be any novelty1 it will be in the mode of presenting the facts1 and the inferences and observations following that presentation4 ,in his speech last autumn at ,columbus1 ,ohio1 as reported in the ,new ,york ,times1 ,senator ,douglas said3 ,our fathers1 when they framed the government under which we live1 understood this question just as well1 and even better1 than we do now4 ,i fully indorse this1 and ,i adopt it as a text for this discourse4 ,i so adopt it because it furnishes a precise and an agreed starting-point for a discussion between ,republicans and that wing of the ,democracy headed by ,senator ,douglas4 ,it simply leaves the inquiry3 ,what was the understanding those fathers had of the question mentioned8 ,,abraham ,,lincoln3 ,cooper ,union ,speech1 #ahfj ,indicating the ,plan in the ,speech4 ,in some finished and long speeches parts of the plan are distributed to mark the divisions in the progress of the development4 ,the next quotation shows such an insertion4 ,and now sir1 against all these theories and opinions1 ,i maintain-- #a4 ,that the ,constitution of the ,united ,states is not a league1 confederacy1 or compact between the people of the several ,states in their sovereign capacities2 but a government proper1 founded on the adoption of the people1 and creating direct relations between itself and individuals4 #b4 ,that no ,state authority has power to dissolve these relations2 that nothing can dissolve them but revolution2 and that1 consequently1 there can be no such thing as secession without revolution4 #c4 ,that there is a supreme law1 consisting of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 and acts of ,congress passed in pursuance of it1 and treaties2 and that1 in cases not capable of assuming the character of a suit in law or equity1 ,congress must judge of1 and finally interpret1 this supreme law so often as it has occasion to pass acts of legislation2 and in cases capable of assuming1 and actually assuming1 the character of a suit1 the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states is the final interpreter4 #d4 ,that an attempt by a ,state to abrogate1 annul1 or nullify an act of ,congress1 or to arrest its operation within her limits1 on the ground that1 in her opinion1 such law is unconstitutional1 is a direct usurpation on the just powers of the general ,government1 and on the equal rights of other ,states2 a plain violation of the ,constitution1 a proceeding essentially revolutionary in its character and tendency4 ,,daniel ,,webster3 ,the ,constitution ,not a ,compact between ,sovereign ,states1 #ahcc ,such a statement to the audience is especially helpful when the speaker is dealing with technical subjects1 or material with which most people are not usually and widely conversant4 ,scientific considerations always become clearer when such plans are simply constructed1 clearly announced1 and plainly followed4 ,so far as ,i know1 there are only three hypotheses which ever have been entertained1 or which well can be entertained1 respecting the past history of ,nature4 ,i will1 in the first place1 state the hypotheses1 and then ,i will consider what evidence bearing upon them is in our possession1 and by what light of criticism that evidence is to be interpreted4 ,upon the first hypothesis1 the assumption is1 that phenomena of ,nature similar to those exhibited by the present world have always existed2 in other words1 that the universe has existed from all eternity in what may be broadly termed its present condition4 ,the second hypothesis is1 that the present state of things has had only a limited duration2 and that1 at some period in the past1 a condition of the world1 essentially similar to that which we now know1 came into existence1 without any precedent condition from which it could have naturally proceeded4 ,the assumption that successive states of ,nature have arisen1 each without any relation of natural causation to an antecedent state1 is a mere modification of this second hypothesis4 ,the third hypothesis also assumes that the present state of things has had but a limited duration2 but it supposes that this state has been evolved by a natural process from an antecedent state1 and that from another1 and so on2 and1 on this hypothesis1 the attempt to assign any limit to the series of past changes is1 usually1 given up4 ,,thomas ,h4 ,,huxley3 ,lectures on ,evolution1 #ahgf ,,exercises #a4 ,according to what methods are the foregoing plans arranged8 ,which division in ,sumner's speech was the most important8 ,was he trying to get his listeners to do anything8 ,what do you think that object was8 #b4 ,in ,lincoln's speech do you think he planned the material chronologically8 ,historically8 ,what reasons have you for your answer8 #c4 ,which of ,webster's four parts is the most important8 ,give reasons for your answer4 #d4 ,which hypothesis 7what does the word mean87 did ,huxley himself support8 ,what induces you to think thus8 ,is this plan in any respect like ,sumner's8 ,explain your answer4 #e4 ,make a list of the ways in which material of speeches may be arranged4 ,arrangement4 ,importance4 ,if you have several topics to cover in a single speech where would you put the most important8 ,first or last8 ,write upon a piece of paper the position you choose4 ,you have given this plan some thought so you doubtlessly put down the correct position4 ,what did you write8 ,first8 ,that is usually the answer of nine pupils out of every ten4 ,are you with the majority8 ,if you wrote that the most important topic should be treated first1 you are wrong4 ,the speech would be badly planned4 ,think for a moment4 ,which should be the most important part of a story or a play8 ,the beginning or the ending8 ,if it is the early part1 why should any one read on to the end or stay for the curtain to come down the last time8 ,so in speeches the importance of topics should always increase as the speech proceeds4 ,this1 then1 is a principle of planning4 ,arrange your topics in an ascending order of importance4 ,work up to what is called the climax4 ,the list you made in response to direction #e given above should now be presented to the class and its contents discussed4 ,what kind of material is likely to be arranged according to each of your principles8 ,you have put down the chronological order1 or the order of time1 or some similar phrase4 ,just what do you mean by that8 ,do you mean1 begin with the earliest material and follow in chronological order down to the latest8 ,could the reverse order ever be used8 ,can you cite some instance8 ,is contrast a good order to follow in planning8 ,cite material which could be so arranged4 ,would an arrangement from cause to effect be somewhat like one based on time8 ,explain your answer4 ,under what circumstances do you think the opposite might be used--from effect to cause8 ,while there are almost countless methods of arrangements--for any one used in one part of a speech may be combined with any other in some different portion--the plan should always be determined by three fundamental matters2 the material itself1 the audience to which it is to be presented1 and the effect the speaker wants to produce4 ,even during this preliminary planning of the speech the author must be careful that when his arrangement is decided upon it possesses the three qualities necessary to every good composition4 ,these three are unity1 coherence1 and emphasis4 ,unity4 ,unity explains itself4 ,a speech must be about one single thing4 ,a good speech produces one result4 ,it induces action upon one single point4 ,it allows no turning aside from its main theme4 ,it does not stray from the straight and narrow road to pick flowers in the adjacent fields1 no matter how enticing the temptation to loiter may be4 ,in plain terms it does not admit as part of its material anything not closely and plainly connected with it4 ,it does not step aside for everything that crops into the speaker's mind4 ,it advances steadily1 even when not rapidly4 ,it does not back water4 ,it goes somewhere4 ,to preserve unity of impression a speaker must ruthlessly discard all material except that which is closely associated with his central intention4 ,he must use only that which contributes to his purpose4 ,the same temptation to keep unrelated material--if it be good in itself--will be felt now as when the other unsuitable material was set aside4 ,this does not prevent variety and relief4 ,illustrative and interesting minor sections may be1 at times must be1 introduced4 ,but even by their vividness and attractiveness they must help the speech1 not hinder it4 ,the decorations and ornaments must never be allowed to detract from the utility of the composition4 ,unity may be damaged by admitting parts not in the direct line of the theme4 ,it may be violated by letting minor portions become too long4 ,the illustration may grow so large by the introduction of needless details that it makes the listeners forget the point it was designed to enforce4 ,or it may be so far-fetched as to bear no real relation to the thread of development4 ,here lies the pitfall of the overworked funny1 story1 introduced by that reminds me4 ,too often it is not humorous enough to justify repetition2 or--what is worse--it does not fit into the circumstances4 ,another fault of many speakers is over-elaboration of expression1 not only for non-essentials1 but in the important passages as well4 ,involved language demands explanation4 ,the attempts to clear up what should have been simply said at first may lead a speaker to devote too many words to a single point4 ,this matter of unity must not be misunderstood as prohibiting the inclusion of more than one topic in a speech4 ,a legislator in urging the repeal of a law might have several topics1 such as how the law was passed1 its first operations1 its increasing burdens upon people1 the disappearance of the necessity for it1 better methods of securing the same or better results1 etc41 yet all grouped about the motivating theme of securing the repeal of the law4 ,to emphasize the greatness of a man's career a speaker might introduce such topics as his obscure origin1 his unmarked youth1 the spur that stimulated his ambition1 his early reverses1 provided that they contribute to the impression intended1 to make vivid his real achievements4 ,in early attempts at delivering speeches don't be afraid to pause at certain places to consider whether what you are about to say really contributes to the unity or destroys it4 ,aside from helping you to think upon your feet1 this mental exercise will help your speech by making you pause at times--a feature of speaking often entirely disregarded by many persons4 ,coherence4 ,the second quality a finished composition should have is coherence4 ,if you know what cohere and cohesion mean 7perhaps you have met these words in science study7 you have the germ of the term's meaning4 ,it means stick-together-itive-ness4 ,the parts of a speech should be so interrelated that every part leads up to all that follows4 ,likewise every part develops naturally from all that goes before1 as well as what immediately precedes4 ,there must be a continuity running straight through the material from start to finish4 ,parts should be placed where they fit best4 ,each portion should be so placed--at least1 in thought--that all before leads naturally and consistently up to it1 and it carries on the thread to whatever follows4 ,this prevents rude breaks in the development of thought4 ,skilfully done1 it aids the hearer to remember1 because so easily did the thought in the speech move from one point to another1 that he can carry the line of its progression with him long after4 ,so the attainment of coherence in a speech contributes directly to that desired end--a deep impression4 ,incoherent speeches are so mainly because of absence of plan1 whether they be short or long1 conversational or formal4 ,emphasis4 ,the third quality a speech should have is emphasis4 ,applied to a connected sequence of words this means that what is of most importance shall stand out most forcefully2 that what is not so important shall show its subordinate relation by its position1 its connection with what goes before and after2 that what is least important shall receive no emphasis beyond its just due4 ,such manipulation requires planning and rearranging1 careful weighing of the relative importance of all portions4 ,recall what was said of the place of the most important part4 ,throughout the speech there must also be variety of emphasis4 ,it would not be fitting to have everything with a forceful emphasis upon it4 ,to secure variation in emphasis you must remember that in speeches the best effects will be made upon audiences by offering them slight relief from too close attention or too impressive effects4 ,if you observe the plans finally followed by good speakers you will be able to see that they have obeyed this suggestion4 ,they have the power to do what is described as swaying the audience4 ,in its simplest form this depends upon varying the emphasis4 ,in making an appeal for funds for destitute portions of ,europe a telling topic would surely be the sufferings of the needy4 ,would it be wise to dwell upon such horrors only8 ,would a humorous anecdote of the happy gratitude of a child for a cast-off toy be good to produce emphasis8 ,which would make the most emphatic ending--the absolute destitution1 the amount to be supplied1 the relief afforded1 or the happiness to donors for sharing in such a worthy charity8 ,you can see how a mere mental planning1 or a shuffling of notes1 or a temporary numbering of topics will help in clearing up this problem of how to secure proper and effective emphasis4 ,making the ,first ,plan4 ,it would be a helpful thing at this point in the planning to make a pencil list of the topics to be included4 ,this is not a final outline but a mere series of jottings to be changed1 discarded1 and replaced as the author considers his material and his speech4 ,it is hardly more than an informal list1 a scrap of paper4 ,in working with it1 don't be too careful of appearances4 ,erase1 cross out1 interline1 write in margins1 draw lines and arrows to carry portions from one place to another1 crowd in at one place1 remove from another1 cut the paper sheets1 paste in new parts1 or pin slips together4 ,manipulate your material4 ,mold it to suit your purposes4 ,make it follow your plan4 ,by this you will secure a good plan4 ,if this seems a great deal to do1 compare it with the time and energy required to learn how to swim1 how to play a musical instrument1 how to shoot in basketball1 how to act a part in a play4 ,knowing how to speak well is worth the effort4 ,every time you plan a speech these steps will merge into a continuous process while you are gathering the material4 ,in informal discussion upon topics you are familiar with1 you will become able to arrange a plan while you are rising to your feet4 ,transitions4 ,as this preliminary plan takes its form under your careful consideration of the material you will decide that there are places between topics or sections which will require bridging over in order to attain coherence and emphasis4 ,these places of division should be filled by transitions4 ,a transition is a passage which carries over the meaning from what precedes to what follows4 ,it serves as a connecting link4 ,it prevents the material from falling apart4 ,it preserves the continuity of ideas4 ,a transition may be as short as a single word1 such as however1 consequently1 nevertheless4 ,it may be a sentence4 ,it may grow into a paragraph4 ,the purpose of transitions--to link parts together--may induce beginners to consider them as of little importance since they manifestly add no new ideas to the theme4 ,this opinion is entirely erroneous4 ,even in material for reading1 transitions are necessary4 ,in material to be received through the ear they are the most valuable helps that can be supplied to have the listener follow the development4 ,they mark the divisions for him4 ,they show that a certain section is completed and a new one is about to begin4 ,they show the relation in meaning of two portions4 ,the shorter forms of transitions--words and phrases--belong rather to the expression1 the language1 of the speech than to this preliminary planning4 ,a speaker should never fail to use such phrases as on the other hand1 continuing the same line of reasoning1 passing to the next point1 from a different point of view1 because they so clearly indicate the relation of two succeeding passages of a speech4 ,in planning1 the speaker frequently has to consider the insertion of longer transitions--paragraphs or even more extended passages4 ,just how such links appear in finished speeches the following extracts show4 ,in the first selection ,washington when he planned his material realized he had reached a place where he could conclude4 ,he wanted to add more4 ,what reason should he offer his audience for violating the principle discussed in the chapter on conclusions8 ,how could he make clear to them his desire to continue8 ,we cannot assert that he actually did this1 but he might have jotted down upon the paper bearing a first scheme of his remarks the phrase1 my solicitude for the people4 ,that1 then1 was the germ of his transition paragraph4 ,notice how clearly the meaning is expressed4 ,could any hearer fail to comprehend8 ,the transition also announces plainly the topic of the rest of the speech4 ,here1 perhaps1 ,i ought to stop4 ,but a solicitude for your welfare1 which cannot end but with my life1 and the apprehension of danger1 natural to that solicitude1 urge me on an occasion like the present1 to offer to your solemn contemplation1 and to recommend to your frequent review1 some sentiments which are the result of much reflection1 of no inconsiderable observation1 and which appear to me all-important to the permanency of your felicity as a people4 ,these will be offered to you with the more freedom1 as you can only see in them the disinterested warnings of a parting friend1 who can possibly have no personal motive to bias his counsels4 ,nor can ,i forget1 as an encouragement to it1 your indulgent reception of my sentiment on a former and not dissimilar occasion4 ,,george ,,washington3 ,farewell ,address1 #agif ,the next selection answers to a part of the plan announced in a passage already quoted in this chapter4 ,notice how this transition looks both backward and forward3 it is both retrospective and anticipatory4 ,if you recall that repetition helps to emphasize facts1 you will readily understand why a transition is especially valuable if it adheres to the same language as the first statement of the plan4 ,in a written scheme this might have appeared under the entry1 pass from #a to #b2 list #d apologies for crime4 ,this suggests fully the material of the passage4 ,and with this exposure ,i take my leave of the ,crime against ,kansas4 ,emerging from all the blackness of this ,crime1 where we seem to have been lost1 as in a savage wood1 and turning our backs upon it1 as upon desolation and death1 from which1 while others have suffered1 we have escaped1 ,i come now to the ,apologies which the ,crime has found4444 ,they are four in number1 and fourfold in character4 ,the first is the ,apology tyrannical2 the second1 the ,apology imbecile2 the third1 the ,apology absurd2 and the fourth1 the ,apology infamous4 ,that is all4 ,tyranny1 imbecility1 absurdity1 and infamy all unite to dance1 like the weird sisters1 about this ,crime4 ,the ,apology tyrannical is founded on the mistaken act of ,governor ,reeder1 in authenticating the ,usurping ,legislature1 etc4 ,,charles ,,sumner3 ,the ,crime against ,kansas1 #ahef ,the beginning speaker should not hesitate to make his transitions perfectly clear to his audience4 ,when they add to the merely bridging use the additional value of serving as short summaries of what has gone before and as sign posts of what is to follow1 they are trebly serviceable4 ,the attempt to be clear will seldom be waste of time or effort4 ,the obvious statements of the preceding selections1 the use of figures1 are excellent models for speakers to imitate4 ,with practice will come skill in making transitions of different kinds1 in which the same purposes will be served in various other ways1 in what may be considered more finished style4 ,the next extracts represent this kind of transition4 ,sir1 like most questions of civil prudence1 this is neither black nor white1 but gray4 ,the system of copyright has great advantages and great disadvantages2 and it is our business to ascertain what these are1 and then to make an arrangement under which the advantages may be as far as possible secured1 and the disadvantages as far as possible excluded4 ,the charge which ,i bring against my honorable and learned friend's bill is this1 that it leaves the advantages nearly what they are at present1 and increases the disadvantages at least fourfold4 ,,thomas ,b4 ,,macaulay3 ,copyright ,bill1 #ahda ,one-third of the population of the ,south is of the ,negro race4 ,no enterprise seeking the material1 civil1 or moral welfare of this section can disregard this element of our population and reach the highest success4 ,i but convey to you1 ,mr4 ,president and ,directors1 the sentiment of the masses of my race when ,i say that in no way have the value and manhood of the ,american ,negro been more fittingly and generously recognized than by the managers of this magnificent ,exposition at every stage of its progress4 ,it is a recognition that will do more to cement the friendship of the two races than any occurrence since the dawn of our freedom4 ,,booker ,t4 ,,washington in a speech at the ,atlanta ,exposition1 #ahie ,thinking before ,you ,speak4 ,while students may feel that the steps outlined here demand a great deal of preparation before the final speech is delivered1 the explanation may be given that after all1 this careful preparation merely carries out the homely adage--think before you speak4 ,if there were more thinking there would be at once better speaking4 ,anybody can talk4 ,the purpose of studying is to make one a better speaker4 ,the anticipation of some relief may be entertained1 for it is comforting to know that after one has followed the processes here explained1 they move more rapidly1 so that after a time they may become almost simultaneous up to the completion of the one just discussed--planning the speech4 ,it is also worth knowing that none of this preliminary work is actually lost4 ,nor is it unseen4 ,it appears in the speech itself4 ,the reward for all its apparent slowness and exacting deliberation is in the clearness1 the significance of the speech1 its reception by the audience1 its effect upon them1 and the knowledge by the speaker himself that his efforts are producing results in his accomplishments4 ,all speakers plan carefully for speeches long in advance4 ,a famous alumnus of ,yale was invited to attend a banquet of ,harvard graduates4 ,warned that he must speak for his dinner he prepared more than a dozen possible beginnings not knowing of course1 in what manner the toastmaster would call upon him4 ,the remainder of his speech was as carefully planned1 although not with so many possible choices4 ,note that from each possible opening to the body of the speech he had to evolve a graceful transition4 ,edmund ,burke1 in his great speech on conciliation with the ,american colonies1 related that some time before1 a friend had urged him to speak upon this matter1 but he had hesitated4 ,true1 he had gone so far as to throw my thoughts into a sort of parliamentary form--that is1 he made a plan or an outline1 but the passage of a certain bill by the ,house of ,commons seemed to have taken away forever the chance of his using the material4 ,the bill1 however1 was returned from the ,house of ,lords with an amendment and in the resulting debate he delivered the speech he had already planned4 ,daniel ,webster said that his reply to ,hayne had been lying in his desk for months already planned1 merely waiting the opportunity or need for its delivery4 ,henry ,ward ,beecher1 whose need for preliminary preparation was reduced to its lowest terms1 and who himself was almost an instantaneous extemporizer1 recognized the need for careful planning by young speakers and warned them against the temptation to slovenliness in workmanship1 to careless and inaccurate statement1 to repetition1 to violation of good taste4 ,slovenliness in planning is as bad as slovenliness in expression4 ,,exercises ,choose any topic suggested in this book4 ,make a short preliminary plan of a speech upon it4 ,present it to the class4 ,consider it from the following requirements3 #a4 ,does it show clearly its intention8 #b4 ,how long will the speech be8 #c4 ,too long8 ,too short8 #d4 ,for what kind of audience is it intended8 #e4 ,has it unity8 #f4 ,has it coherence8 #g4 ,where are transitions most clearly needed8 #h4 ,what suggestions would you make for rearranging any parts8 #i4 ,what reasons have you for these changes8 #aj4 ,is proper emphasis secured8 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,making ,,the ,,outline ,,or ,,brief ,orderly ,arrangement4 ,a speech should have an orderly arrangement4 ,the effect upon an audience will be more easily made1 more deeply impressed1 more clearly retained1 if the successive steps of the development are so well marked1 so plainly related1 that they may be carried away in a hearer's understanding4 ,it might be said that one test of a good speech is the vividness with which its framework is discernible4 ,hearers can repeat outlines of certain speeches4 ,those are the best4 ,of others they can give merely confused reports4 ,these are the badly constructed ones4 ,the way to secure in the delivered speech this delight of orderly arrangement is by making an outline or brief4 ,most pupils hate to make outlines4 ,the reason for this repugnance is easily understood4 ,a teacher directs a pupil to make an outline before he writes a composition or delivers a speech4 ,the pupil spends hours on the list of entries1 then submits his finished theme or address4 ,he feels that the outline is disregarded entirely4 ,sometimes he is not even required to hand it to the instructor4 ,he considers the time he has spent upon the outline as wasted4 ,it is almost impossible to make him feel that his finished product is all the better because of this effort spent upon the preliminary skeleton1 so that in reality his outline is not disregarded at all1 but is judged and marked as embodied in the finished article4 ,most students carry this mistaken feeling about outlines to such an extent that when required to hand in both an outline and a finished composition they will write in haphazard fashion the composition first1 and then from it try to prepare the outline1 instead of doing as they are told1 and making the outline first4 ,it is easier--though not as educating or productive of good results--to string words together than it is to do what outline-making demands--to think4 ,professional ,writers' ,use of ,outlines4 ,professional writers realize the helpfulness of outline-making and the time it saves4 ,many a magazine article has been sold before a word of the finished manuscript was written4 ,the contributor submitted an outline from which the editor contracted for the finished production4 ,many a play has been placed in the same form4 ,books are built up in the same manner4 ,the ubiquitous moving-picture scenario is seldom produced in any other manner4 ,macaulay advised a young friend who asked how to keep his brain active to read a couple of solid books1 making careful outlines of their material at the same time4 ,one of these should be--if possible--a work in a foreign tongue1 so that the strangeness of the language would necessitate slow1 careful reading and close thinking4 ,all good students know that the best way to prepare for an examination is to make outlines of all the required reading and study4 ,it is just because the making of the outline demands such careful thinking that it is one of the most important steps in the production of a speech4 ,the ,outline in the ,finished ,speech4 ,if the outline really shows in the finished speech1 let us see if we can pick the entries out from a portion of one4 ,edmund ,burke in #agge tried to prevent ,great ,britain from using coercive measures against the restive ,american colonies4 ,many ,englishmen were already clamoring for war when ,burke spoke in ,parliament upon conciliating the ,colonies4 ,i am sensible1 ,sir1 that all which ,i have asserted in my detail1 is admitted in the gross2 but that quite a different conclusion is drawn from it4 ,america1 gentlemen say1 is a noble object4 ,it is an object well worth fighting for4 ,certainly it is1 if fighting a people be the best way of gaining them4 ,gentlemen in this respect will be led to their choice of means by their complexions and their habits4 ,those who understand the military art1 will of course have some predilection for it4 ,those who wield the thunder of the state1 may have more confidence in the efficacy of arms4 ,but ,i confess1 possibly for want of this knowledge1 my opinion is much more in favor of prudent management1 than of force2 considering force not as an odious1 but a feeble instrument1 for preserving a people so numerous1 so active1 so growing1 so spirited as this1 in a profitable and subordinate connexion with us4 ,first1 ,sir1 permit me to observe1 that the use of force alone is but temporary4 ,it may subdue for a moment2 but it does not remove the necessity of subduing again2 and a nation is not governed which is perpetually to be conquered4 ,my next objection is its uncertainty4 ,terror is not always the effect of force2 and an armament is not a victory4 ,if you do not succeed1 you are without resource2 for1 conciliation failing1 force remains2 but1 force failing1 no further hope of reconciliation is left4 ,power and authority are sometimes bought by kindness2 but they can never be begged as alms by an impoverished and defeated violence4 ,a further objection to force is1 that you impair the object by your very endeavors to preserve it4 ,the thing you fought for is not the thing which you recover2 but depreciated1 sunk1 wasted1 and consumed in the contest4 ,nothing less will content me1 than whole ,america4 ,i do not choose to consume its strength along with our own2 because in all parts it is the ,british strength that ,i consume4 ,i do not choose to be caught by a foreign enemy at the end of this exhausting conflict1 and still less in the midst of it4 ,i may escape2 but ,i can make no assurance against such an event4 ,let me add1 that ,i do not choose wholly to break the ,american spirit2 because it is the spirit that has made the country4 ,lastly1 we have no sort of experience in favor of force as an instrument in the rule of our colonies4 ,their growth and their utility has been owing to methods altogether different4 ,our ancient indulgence has been said to be pursued to a fault4 ,it may be so4 ,but we know if feeling is evidence that our fault was more tolerable than our attempt to mend it2 and our sin far more salutary than our penitence4 ,these1 ,sir1 are my reasons for not entertaining that high opinion of untried force1 by which many gentlemen1 for whose sentiments in other particulars ,i have great respect1 seem to be so greatly captivated4 ,but there is still behind a third consideration concerning this object1 which serves to determine my opinion on the sort of policy which ought to be pursued in the management of ,america1 even more than its population and its commerce1 ,i mean its temper and character4 ,,edmund ,,burke3 ,conciliation with ,america1 #agge ,reconstructing the ,outline4 ,in the preliminary arrangement ,burke knew that he was going to give his reasons against the use of military force4 ,in his first plan he may not have decided just where he was going to place his four arguments4 ,so they very likely appeared as four topic entries3 ,against use of force4 #a4 temporary #b4 uncertain #c4 damages ,america #d4 no experience ,notice that these are jottings to suggest the germs of the arguments4 ,when ,burke revised this section he may have changed the expression to indicate more certainty4 ,force should not be used against the colonies1 because3 #a4 it is only temporary #b4 it is uncertain in its results #c4 it would damage the wealth of the colonies #d4 it is based on no experience of ,great ,britain with colonies ,of course1 a practised statesman would not have to analyze farther1 perhaps not so far1 but to illustrate for a student how he might build up his outline1 let us analyze one degree farther4 ,just what is meant by such terms as temporary1 uncertain8 ,under each statement1 then1 might be added a detailed explanation4 ,the finished part of the outline would then appear somewhat like this4 ,force should not be used against the colonies1 because3 #a4 it is only temporary1 for a4 though it subdue for a time1 it would have to be used again4 #b4 it is uncertain in its results1 for a4 ,great ,britain might not subdue the colonies4 #c4 it would damage the wealth of the colonies1 for a4 we would fight to retain a wealthy land1 yet after the war we should have a ruined one4 #d4 it is based on no experience of ,great ,britain with colonies1 for a4 ,great ,britain has always been indulgent rather than severely strict4 ,speaking or writing from such a detailed outline as this1 consider how much thinking has already been done4 ,with these entries under his eye the speaker need think only of the phrasing of his remarks4 ,he would feel perfectly certain that he would not wander from his theme4 ,notice how the ideas can be emphasized4 ,the suggestion of damage can be expressed in impair the object1 and in depreciated1 sunk1 wasted1 consumed4 ,so far this outline--though it covers all its own material--does not indicate the place at which it shall be used in the speech4 ,it could be used near the conclusion where ,burke planned to answer all the supporters of plans other than his own4 ,that would be a good place for it4 ,but ,burke found a better one4 ,he separated this from his other remarks against his opponents1 and brought it in much earlier1 thereby linking it with what it most concerned1 emphasizing it1 and disposing of it entirely so far as his speech was concerned4 ,he had just enumerated the wealth of the colonies as represented by their commerce4 ,he knew that the war party would argue1 ,if ,america is so wealthy1 it is worth fighting for4 ,that was the place1 then1 to refute them4 ,to introduce his material he had to make clear the transition from the colonial wealth to his arguments4 ,notice how plainly the first paragraph quoted here does this4 ,having given his four reasons against the use of force1 notice that he must bring his audience back to the theme he has been discussing4 ,the last paragraph does this in a masterly manner4 ,he has cited two facts about the colonies4 ,to make understanding doubly certain he repeats them--population and commerce--and passes to the next1 plainly numbering it as the third4 ,this recital of the process is not an account of what actually took place in ,burke's preparation1 but it will give to the student the method by which great speakers may have proceeded2 we do know that many did follow such a scheme4 ,no amateur who wants to make his speeches worth listening to should omit this helpful step of outline or brief making4 ,whether he first writes out his speeches in full1 or composes them upon his feet1 every speaker should prepare an outline or brief of his material4 ,this is a series of entries1 so condensed and arranged as to show the relative significance of all the parts of the speech in the proper order of development4 ,outline1 ,brief1 ,legal ,brief4 ,an outline contains entries which are merely topics1 not completed statements or sentences4 ,a brief contains completed statements 7sentences74 ,a legal brief is a formally prepared document 7often printed7 submitted to a certain court before a case is tried1 showing the material the lawyer intends to produce1 citing all his authorities1 suggesting interpretations of laws and legal decisions to support his contentions1 and giving all his conclusions4 ,it is prepared for the use of the court1 to reduce the labor in examining records1 etc4 ,practice in the drawing up of such briefs is an important phase of legal study4 ,the ,outline4 ,an outline may recall to a person's mind what he already has learned1 but it is seldom definite and informative enough to be as helpful as a brief4 ,a good distinction of the two--besides the one respecting the forms already given--is that the outline represents the point of view of the speaker while the brief represents that of the hearer4 ,consider again the analyses of ,burke in this chapter4 ,notice that the first list does not give nearly so clear an idea of what ,burke actually said as the third4 ,a person seeing only the first might guess at what the speaker intended to declare4 ,a person who looked at the third could not fail to know exactly the opinions of the speaker and the arguments supporting them4 ,pupils frequently make this kind of entry3 ,introduction--,time ,place ,characters ,the main objections to such an outline are that it tells nothing definite1 and that it might fit a thousand compositions4 ,even an outline should say more than such a list does4 ,in one edition of ,burke's speech the page from which the following is quoted is headed ,brief4 ,is it a brief8 ,part ,,ii4 ,how to deal with ,america4 ,a4 ,introduction4 ,b4 ,first alternative and objections4 ,c4 ,second alternative and objections4 ,d4 ,third alternative4 ,e4 ,introduction4 ,f4 ,considerations4 #a4 ,question one of policy1 not of abstract right4 #b4 ,trade laws4 #c4 ,constitutional precedents4 #d4 ,application of these4 ,the ,brief4 ,one of the shortest briefs on record was prepared by ,abraham ,lincoln for use in a suit to recover #bjj for the widow of a ,revolutionary veteran from an agent who had retained it out of #djj pension money belonging to her4 ,it formed the basis of his speech in court4 ,no contract4--,not professional services4--,unreasonable charge4--,money retained by ,def't not given to ,pl'ff4--,revolutionary ,war4--,describe ,valley ,forge privations4--,pl'ff's husband4--,soldier leaving for army4--,skin ,def't4--,close4 ,the following will give some idea of the form and definiteness of briefs for debate4 ,,capital ,,punishment ,resolved3 ,that capital punishment should be abolished4#a ,brief for the ,affirmative ,i4 ,capital punishment is inexpedient4 7a7 ,it is contrary to the tendency of civilization4 7b7 ,it fails to protect society4 7#a7 ,it does not prevent murder4 7#b7 ,new crimes follow hard on executions4 7c7 ,it makes punishment uncertain4 7#a7 ,many criminals are acquitted who would be convicted if the penalty were imprisonment4 7d7 ,it is not reformatory4 ,,ii4 ,capital punishment is immoral4 7a7 ,it rests on the old idea of retribution4 7b7 ,it tends to weaken the sacredness of human life4 7c7 ,it endangers the lives of innocent people4 7d7 ,executions and the sensational newspaper accounts which follow have a corrupting influence4 ,,iii4 ,capital punishment is unjust4 7a7 ,its mistakes are irremediable4 7b7 ,many men are criminals from force of circumstances4 7#a7 ,from heredity4 7#b7 ,from environment4 7c7 ,inequalities in administration are marked4 7#a7 ,in some states men are hung1 in others imprisoned for the same crime4 ,footnote #a3 ,taken from ,brookings and ,ringwalt3 ,briefs for ,debate1 ,longmans1 ,green and ,co41 where specific references of material for many of the topics are given1 as well as general references for the entire subject4 7#b7 ,many jurors have conscientious scruples against condemning a man to death4 7#c7 ,men of wealth and influence are rarely convicted4 ,,iv4 ,the abolition of capital punishment has been followed by satisfactory results1 7a7 ,in ,europe4 7#a7 ,russia4 7#b7 ,switzerland4 7#c7 ,portugal4 7#d7 ,belgium4 7#e7 ,holland4 7#f7 ,finland4 7b7 ,in the ,united ,states4 7#a7 ,michigan4 7#b7 ,rhode ,island4 7#c7 ,maine4 7#d7 ,wisconsin4 ,brief for the ,negative ,i4 ,capital punishment is permissible4 7a7 ,it has the sanction of the ,bible4 7#a7 ,genesis ix1 #b-f4 7b7 ,it has the sanction of history4 7#a7 ,it has been in vogue since the beginning of the world4 7c7 ,it has the sanction of reason4 7#a7 ,the most fitting punishment is one equal and similar to the injury inflicted4 ,,ii4 ,capital punishment is expedient4 7a7 ,it is necessary to protect society from anarchy and private revenge4 7#a7 ,death is the strongest preventative of crime4 7b7 ,no sufficient substitute has been offered4 7#a7 ,life imprisonment is a failure4 7#b7 ,few serve the sentence4 7c7 ,its abolition has not been successful4 7#a7 ,in ,rhode ,island4 7#b7 ,in ,michigan4 ,,iii4 ,the objections made to capital punishment are not sound4 7a7 ,prisons are not reformatory4 7b7 ,the fact that crimes have decreased in some places where executions have stopped is not a valid argument4 7#a7 ,all causes which increase the moral well-being of the race decrease crime4 7c7 ,the objection that the innocent suffer is not strong4 7#a7 ,the number of innocent thus suffering is inconsiderable when compared with the great number of murders prevented4 7d7 ,the objection that the penalty is uncertain may be overcome by making it certain4 ,a few paragraphs back it was said that an outline or brief shows the relative significance of all the parts of a speech4 ,this is done by a systematic use of margins and symbols4 ,from the quoted forms in this chapter certain rules can easily be deduced4 ,margins4 ,the speech will naturally divide into a few main parts4 ,these can be designated by spaces and general titles such as introduction1 body1 development1 main argument1 answer to opposing views1 conclusion4 ,other captions will be suggested by various kinds of material4 ,main topics next in importance are placed the farthest to the left1 making the first margin4 ,a reader can run his eye down this line and pick out all the main topics of equal importance4 ,entries just subordinate to these are put each on a separate line1 starting slightly to the right4 ,this separation according to connection and value is continued as long as the maker has any minor parts to represent in the brief4 ,it should not be carried too far1 however1 for the purpose of the entries is to mark clearness and accuracy4 ,if the helping system becomes too elaborate and complicated it destroys its own usefulness4 ,it is perfectly plain that such an outline might be made and be quite clear1 without the addition of any symbols at all1 especially if it was short4 ,discrimination in the use of words is secured by ,the study of synonyms antonyms homonyms and care in employing them4 ,symbols4 ,some scheme of marking the entries is a great help4 ,there is no fixed system4 ,every student may choose from among the many used4 ,if there are many main topics it might be a mistake to use ,roman numerals 7,i1 ,,xviii7 as few people can read them quickly enough to follow their sequence4 ,capital letters may serve better to mark the sequences1 but they do not indicate the numerical position4 ,for instance1 most of us do not know our alphabets well enough to translate a main topic marked ,n into the fourteenth point4 ,by combinations of ,roman numerals1 capitals1 usual 7,arabic7 numerals1 small letters1 parentheses1 enough variety to serve any student purpose can easily be arranged4 ,the following are samples of systems used4 ,specimen #a ,introduction ,argument ,i-------------------------------------- ------------ ,a-------------------------------------- ---------- #a-------------------------------------- -------- a--------------------------------------- ----- b--------------------------------------- ----- c--------------------------------------- ----- 7#a7------------------------------------ ---- 7#b7------------------------------------ ---- 7#c7------------------------------------ ---- #b-------------------------------------- -------- ,b-------------------------------------- ---------- #a-------------------------------------- -------- #b-------------------------------------- -------- ,,ii------------------------------------ ------------- ,conclusion ,specimen #b ,a-------------------------------------- ------------ ,i-------------------------------------- ---------- a--------------------------------------- ------- #a-------------------------------------- ------ #b-------------------------------------- ------ b--------------------------------------- ------- ,,ii------------------------------------ ----------- a--------------------------------------- ------- b--------------------------------------- ------- c--------------------------------------- ------- #a-------------------------------------- ------ #b-------------------------------------- ------ #c-------------------------------------- ------ ,specimen #c #a-------------------------------------- ------------ #aa------------------------------------- --------- #ba------------------------------------- --------- a#a------------------------------------- ------- b#a------------------------------------- ------- c#a------------------------------------- ------- #b-------------------------------------- ------------ #ab------------------------------------- --------- #bb------------------------------------- --------- a#b------------------------------------- ------- b#b------------------------------------- ------- c#b------------------------------------- ------- #c-------------------------------------- ------------ #ac------------------------------------- --------- #bc------------------------------------- --------- ,tabulations4 ,with unusual kinds of material and for special purposes there may be value in evolving other forms of outlines4 ,a technically trained person accustomed to reading tabulated reports with hosts of figures to interpret might find a statistical statement at times better suited to his needs4 ,such tabulations are not any easier to prepare than the regular brief4 ,in fact to most people they are infinitely more difficult to get into form and almost beyond speedy comprehension afterwards4 ,the following is a good illustration of a simple one well adapted to the speaker's purpose--a report of the objections to the first published covenant of the ,league of ,nations4 ,he knew the material of his introduction and conclusion so well that he did not represent them in his carefully arranged sheet4 ,the form was submitted as regular work in a public speaking class and was spoken from during more than forty minutes4 ,,criticisms ,,of ,,proposed ,,covenant ,,of ,,league ,,of ,,nations #a4--;,draft indefinite and loosely written4 ,lg ,lo ,sp ,tt ,br ,hu #b4--,should have clause-limiting powers to those specifically granted4 ,lo #c4--,proportion of votes required for action of ,council not generally stated--should be unanimous4 ,lg ,sp ,tt ,hu #d4--,should have clause reserving the ,monroe ,doctrine4 ,lg ,lo ,sp ,tt ,br ,hu #e4--,should state that no nation can be required to become a mandatory without its consent4 ,lg ,lo ,br ,hu #f4--,should have provision for withdrawals4 ,lg ,lo ,sp ,tt ,hu #g4--;,jurisdiction of ,league over internal affairs 7immigration1 tariffs1 coastwise trade7 should be expressly excluded4 ,lg ,br ,hu #h4--,terms of admission of other nations too strict4 ,br #i4--;,basis of representation not fair4 ,br #aj4--,provision should be made for expansion of nations by peaceable means4 ,br #aa4--;,each nation should have right to decide whether it will follow advice of ,council as to use of force4 ,br #ab4--;,each nation should have right to determine whether it will boycott delinquent nations4 ,br ,note3--items #aa and #ab are apparently directed against ,art4 ,,xvi containing the ,ipso ,facto clause and ,art4 ,x4 #ac4--,should not guarantee the integrity and independence of all members of the league4 ,lg ,hu ,above criticisms taken from published statements of ,messrs4 ,lodge ,lowell ,spencer ,taft ,bryan ,hughes 7denoted respectively ,lg1 ,lo1 ,sp1 ,tt1 ,br and ,hu74 ,authorities in the ,brief4 ,authorities for the statements made in the brief may be put into parentheses1 if they are to be included4 ,such further devices will suggest themselves to students4 ,in addition to such markings as here listed1 some men who use many outlines emphasize upon them details which they may have to find quickly by underlining the symbol or first word with colored pencil4 ,such a device is especially valuable to a technical expert whose system could be uniform through the outlines of all his reports1 etc4 ,or a lecturer with so much time to fill may mark upon the outline #a_/d1 #a_/b1 #c_/d1 to indicate to himself that his material is being covered at a proper rate to correspond with the time4 ,he might put in #ae min4 or #cj min4 or #de min4 if he was to speak for an hour4 ,the first division is the better1 for he might be required to condense a twenty-minute speech to ten4 ,selections for ,briefing4 ,before the student makes many briefs of his own he should work in the other direction by outlining material already in existence so that he can be assured he knows main topics from minor ones1 important issues from subordinate reasons1 headings from examples4 ,if all the members of the class outline the same material the resulting discussion will provide additional exercise in speaking in explanation or support of an interpretation4 ,after the teacher and class together have made one1 the students should work independently4 ,,exercises ,besides the extracts quoted here others should be supplied4 ,editorials from a single issue of a newspaper can easily be secured by the entire class for this work4 ,a chapter from a book may be assigned4 #a4 ,,incidents ,,of ,,government ,,trading ,an expert before the ,president's street railway commission of inquiry testified that he disapproved of public ownership and operation theoretically1 but approved it practically1 because it was the quickest and surest way of making people sick of it4 ,otherwise he thought that education of the public out of its favor for high costs and low profits by public utilities would require a generation1 and the present emergency calls for prompt relief4 ,new ,york ,city has just resolved to build with its own funds a ,coney ,island bathhouse1 and has on file an offer to build it with private money at a cost of #cjj1jjj1 with a guarantee of #ae-;cent baths4 ,accepting no responsibility for the merits of the private bidder's proposal1 it does not appear likely that the city can supply cheaper baths or give more satisfaction to bathers than a management whose profits were related to its efforts to please patrons4 ,on the other hand1 it is sure that the city's financial embarrassment is due to supplying many privileges at the cost of the taxpayers1 which might have been supplied both more cheaply and better by private enterprise with profit than by the city without profit1 and with the use of ill-spared public funds4 ,new ,york does not stand alone in these misadventures1 which are warnings against trading by either local or national government4 ,take1 for example1 the manner in which the army is disposing of its surplus blankets1 as reported from ,boston4 ,a ,chicago firm which wished to bid was permitted to inspect three samples of varying grades1 but a guarantee that the goods sold would correspond to the samples was refused4 ,the bales could neither be opened nor allowed to be opened1 nor would information be given whether the blankets in the bales were cotton1 wool1 or mixed1 whether single or double1 whether bed blankets or regulation army blankets4 ,the likelihood that the ,government will get the worth of its blankets is small4 ,there may be unknown reasons for such uncommercial procedure1 but what shall be said of the fact that at the same time that these blankets are being sold the ,interior ,department is asking for bids to supply #aj1jjj blankets for the ,indians8 ,the reason for buying more when there is an embarrassing over-supply is that the specifications call for the words ,interior ,department to be woven into the blankets4 ,to an outsider it would seem that the words might be indelibly stamped on the old blankets of similar description1 and that the departure from custom would be better than the loss on the old blankets and the increased expenditure for the new blankets4 ,the reason for mentioning such incidents is that there are so many more of which the public never hears4 ,their combined educative effect would be great1 but it is wasted without publicity4 ,since the public is not unanimous against public ownership and operation1 there must be a considerable number of persons who are proof against anything but a catastrophe greater than the prostration of the railway and utility industries4 ,that is an expansive way of education1 but perhaps ,dr4 ,cooley1 ,dean of the ,university of ,michigan1 is right in his view that the method is necessary to prevent a greater calamity by persistence in the error4 ,new ,york ,times1 ,july #ba1 #aiai #b4 ,fourscore and seven years ago our ,fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation1 conceived in liberty1 and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal4 ,now we are engaged in a great civil war1 testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived or so dedicated1 can long endure4 ,we are met on a great battlefield of that war4 ,we have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live4 ,it is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this4 ,but1 in a larger sense1 we cannot dedicate--we cannot consecrate--we cannot hallow this ground4 ,the brave men1 living and dead1 who struggled here1 have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract4 ,the world will little note nor long remember what we say here1 but it can never forget what they did here4 ,it is for us1 the living1 rather1 to be here dedicated to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced4 ,it is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us--that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion2 that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain2 that this nation1 under ,god1 shall have a new birth of freedom2 and that government of the people1 by the people1 for the people1 shall not perish from the earth4 ,,abraham ,,lincoln3 ,gettysburg ,address1 #ahfe #c4 ,every thoughtful and unprejudiced mind must see that such an evil as slavery will yield only to the most radical treatment4 ,if you consider the work we have to do1 you will not think us needlessly aggressive1 or that we dig down unnecessarily deep in laying the foundations of our enterprise4 ,a money power of two thousand millions of dollars1 as the prices of slaves now range1 held by a small body of able and desperate men2 that body raised into a political aristocracy by special constitutional provisions2 cotton1 the product of slave labor1 forming the basis of our whole foreign commerce1 and the commercial class thus subsidized2 the press bought up1 the pulpit reduced to vassalage1 the heart of the common people chilled by a bitter prejudice against the black race2 our leading men bribed1 by ambition1 either to silence or open hostility2--in such a land1 on what shall an ,abolitionist rely8 ,on a few cold prayers1 mere lip-service1 and never from the heart8 ,on a church resolution1 hidden often in its records1 and meant only as a decent cover for servility in daily practice8 ,on political parties1 with their superficial influence at best1 and seeking ordinarily only to use existing prejudices to the best advantage8 ,slavery has deeper root here than any aristocratic institution has in ,europe2 and politics is but the common pulse-beat1 of which revolution is the fever-spasm4 ,yet we have seen ,european aristocracy survive storms which seemed to reach down to the primal strata of ,european life4 ,shall we1 then1 trust to mere politics1 where even revolution has failed8 ,how shall the stream rise above its fountain8 ,where shall our church organizations or parties get strength to attack their great parent and moulder1 the slave power8 ,shall the thing formed say to him that formed it1 ,why hast thou made me thus8 ,the old jest of one who tried to lift himself in his own basket1 is but a tame picture of the man who imagines that1 by working solely through existing sects and parties1 he can destroy slavery4 ,mechanics say nothing1 but an earthquake strong enough to move all ,egypt can bring down the pyramids4 ,experience has confirmed these views4 ,the ,abolitionists who have acted on them have a short method with all unbelievers4 ,they have but to point to their own success1 in contrast with every other man's failure4 ,to waken the nation to its real state1 and chain it to the consideration of this one duty1 is half the work4 ,so much have we done4 ,slavery has been made the question of this generation4 ,to startle the ,south to madness1 so that every step she takes1 in her blindness1 is one step more toward ruin1 is much4 ,this we have done4 ,witness ,texas and the ,fugitive ,slave ,law4 ,,wendell ,,phillips3 ,the ,abolition ,movement1 #ahec #d4 ,until just a few years ago flying was popularly regarded as a dangerous hobby and comparatively few had faith in its practical purposes4 ,but the phenomenal evolutions of the aircraft industry during the war brought progress which would otherwise have required a span of years4 ,with the cessation of hostilities considerable attention has been diverted to the commercial uses of aircraft1 which may conveniently be classified as mail-and passenger-service4 ,men who first ventured the prediction that postal and express matter would one day be carried through the air were branded as dreamers4 ,parts of that dream became a reality during #aiah1 and a more extensive aerial-mail program will be adopted this year4 ,the dispatch with which important communications and parcels are delivered between large cities has firmly established its need4 ,large passenger-carrying aircraft are now receiving pronounced attention4 ,lately developed by the ,navy is a flying-boat having a wing area of #b1djj square feet1 equipped with three ,liberty motors and weighing #bb1jjj pounds with a full load4 ,it is the largest seaplane in the world1 and on a recent test-trip from ,virginia to ,new ,york carried fifty-one passengers4 ,at the present moment the public is awaiting the thrilling details of the first flight between ,europe and ,america1 which has just occurred as a result of the keen international rivalry involved between the various entrants4 ,the ,british are now constructing a super-triplane fitted with six #ejj horse-power engines4 ,originally intended to carry #aj1jjj pounds of bombs and a crew of eight over a distance of #a1bjj miles1 the converted machine is claimed to be able to carry approximately one hundred passengers4 ,it has a wing span of #ada feet and a fuselage length of #he feet4 ,what about the power plants of the future aircraft8 ,will the internal-combustion engine continue to reign supreme1 or will increasing power demands of the huge planes to come lead to the development of suitable steam-engines8 ,will the use of petroleum continue to be one of the triumphs of aviation1 or will the time come when substitutes may be successfully utilized8 ,for aerial motive-power1 the principal requirements are3 great power for weight with a fairly high factor of safety1 compactness1 reliability of operation under flying conditions1 and safety from fire4 ,bulk and weight of steam-driven equipment apparently impose severe restrictions upon its practical development for present aircraft purposes1 but who is willing to classify its future use as an absurdity8 ,steam operation in small model airplanes is no innovation4 ,langley1 in #ahia-ahie1 built four model airplanes1 one driven by carbonic-acid gas and three by steam-engines4 ,one of the steam-driven models weighed thirty pounds1 and on one occasion flew a distance of about three thousand feet4 ,in #aiac an ,englishman constructed a power plant weighing about two pounds which consisted of a flash boiler and single-acting engine4 ,this unit employed benzolin1 impure benzine1 as fuel1 and propelled a model plane weighing five pounds4 ,power ,plant ,engineering1 ,chicago1 ,june #a1 #aiai ,making a ,brief4 ,the next step after making outlines or briefs of material already organized is to make your own from material you gather4 ,speeches you have already prepared or considered as fit for presentation will supply you with ideas if you cannot work up new material in a short time4 ,at first you will be more concerned with the form than the meaning of the entries1 but even from the first you should consider the facts or opinions for which each topic or statement stands4 ,weigh its importance in the general scheme of details4 ,consider carefully its suitability for the audience who may be supposed to hear the finished speech4 ,discard the inappropriate4 ,replace the weak4 ,improve the indefinite4 ,be sure your examples and illustrations are apt4 ,be wary about statistics4 ,in listening to an address many people begin to distrust as soon as figures are mentioned4 ,statistics will illustrate and prove assertions1 but they must be used judiciously4 ,do not use too many statistics4 ,never be too detailed4 ,in a speech1 #d1jjj1jjj sounds more impressive than #d1bcb1aif4if4 ,use round numbers4 ,never let them stand alone4 ,show their relationship4 ,burke quotes exact amounts to show the growth of the commerce of ,pennsylvania1 but he adds that it had increased fifty fold4 ,a hearer will forget the numbers2 he will remember the fact4 ,similar reasons will warn you concerning the use of too many dates4 ,they can be easily avoided by showing lapses of time--by saying1 fifty years later1 or when he was forty-six years old1 or this condition was endured only a score of months4 ,the chapters on introductions1 conclusions1 and planning material will have suggested certain orders for your briefs4 ,glance back at them for hints before you attempt to make the general scheme4 ,let two factors determine your resultant development--the nature of the material itself and the effect you want to produce4 ,in argumentative speeches a usual1 as well as excellent1 order is this3 #a4 ,origin of the question4 ,the immediate cause for discussion4 #b4 ,history of the question4 #c4 ,definition of terms4 #d4 ,main arguments4 #e4 ,conclusion4 ,why is the proposition worth discussing at this present time8 ,why do you choose it8 ,why is it timely8 ,what is its importance8 ,why is a settlement needed8 ,any of these would fall under the first heading4 ,has the matter engaged attention prior to the present8 ,has it changed8 ,was any settlement ever attempted8 ,what was its result8 ,are any of the words and phrases used likely to be misunderstood8 ,are any used in special senses8 ,do all people accept the same meaning8 ,good illustrations of this last are the ideas attached to socialism1 anarchist1 soviet1 union4 ,to illustrate3 the question of woman suffrage was brought into public interest once more by the advance woman has made in all walks of life and by the needs and lessons of the great war4 ,to make clear how its importance had increased a speaker might trace its history from its first inception4 ,as applied to women1 what does suffrage mean exactly--the right to vote in all elections1 or only in certain ones8 ,does it carry with it the right to hold office8 ,would the voting qualifications be the same for women as for men8 ,then would follow the arguments4 ,how could this scheme be used for a discussion of the ,monroe ,doctrine8 ,for higher education8 ,for education for girls8 ,for child working laws8 ,for a league of nations8 ,for admitting ,asiatic laborers to the ,united ,states8 ,for advocating the study of the sciences8 ,for urging men to become farmers8 ,for predicting aerial passenger service8 ,for a scholarship qualification in athletics8 ,for abolishing railroad grade crossings8 ,for equal wages for men and women8 ,,exercises ,make the completed brief for one or more of the preceding4 ,briefs should be made for propositions selected from the following list4 #a4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states should be elected by the direct vote of the people4 #b4 ,the ,states should limit the right of suffrage to persons who can read and write4 #c4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states should be elected for a term of seven years1 and be ineligible to relection4 #d4 ,a great nation should be made the mandatory over an inferior people4 #e4 ,students should be allowed school credit for outside reading in connection with assigned work1 or for editing of school papers1 or for participation in dramatic performances4 #f4 ,this state should adopt the short ballot4 #g4 ,the present rules of football are unsatisfactory4 #h4 ,coaching from the bench should be forbidden in baseball4 #i4 ,compulsory military drill should be introduced into all educational institutions4 #aj4 ,participation in athletics lowers the scholarship of students4 #aa4 ,pupils should receive credit in school for music lessons outside4 #ab4 ,the ,united ,states should abandon the ,monroe ,doctrine4 #ac4 ,in jury trials1 a three-fourths vote should be enough for the rendering of a verdict4 #ad4 ,strikes are unprofitable4 #ae4 ,commercial courses should be offered in all high schools4 #af4 ,employers of children under sixteen should be required to provide at least eight hours of instruction a week for them4 #ag4 ,current events should be studied in all history or civics courses4 #ah4 ,the practice of ,christmas giving should be discontinued4 #ai4 ,school buildings should be used as social centers4 #bj4 ,bring to class an editorial and an outline of it4 ,put the outline upon the board1 or read it to the class4 ,then read the editorial4 ,speaking from the ,brief4 ,now that the brief is finished so that it represents exactly the material and development of the final speech1 how shall it be used8 ,to use it as the basis of a written article to be memorized is one method4 ,many speakers have employed such a method1 many today do4 ,the drawbacks of such memorizing have already been hinted at in an early chapter4 ,if you want to grow in mental grasp1 alertness1 and power as a result of your speech training avoid this method4 ,no matter how halting your first attempts may be1 do not get into the seemingly easy1 yet retarding habit of committing to memory4 ,memorizing has a decided value1 but for speech-making the memory should be trained for larger matters than verbal reproduction4 ,it should be used for the retention of facts while the other brain faculties are engaged in manipulating them for the best effect and finding words to express them forcefully4 ,memory is a helpful faculty4 ,it should be cultivated in connection with the powers of understanding and expression1 but it is not economical to commit a speech verbatim for delivery4 ,the remarks will lack flexibility1 spontaneity1 and often direct appeal4 ,there is a detached1 mechanical air about a memorized speech which helps to ruin it4 ,with the outline before you1 go over it carefully and slowly1 mentally putting into words and sentences the entries you have inserted4 ,you may even speak it half aloud to yourself1 if that fixes the treatment more firmly in your mind4 ,then place the brief where you can reach it with your eye1 and speak upon your feet4 ,some teachers recommend doing this before a mirror1 but this is not always any help1 unless you are conscious of awkward poses or gestures or movements1 or facial contortions4 ,say the speech over thus1 not only once but several times1 improving the phraseology each time1 changing where convenient or necessary1 the emphasis1 the amount of time1 for each portion4 ,self-criticism4 ,try to criticize yourself4 ,this is not easy at first1 but if you are consistent and persistent in your efforts you will be able to judge yourself in many respects4 ,if you can induce some friend whose opinion is worth receiving either to listen to your delivery or to talk the whole thing over with you1 you will gain much4 ,in conference with the teacher before your delivery of the speech such help will be given4 ,as you work over your brief in this manner you will be delighted to discover suddenly that you need refer to it less and less frequently4 ,finally1 the outline will be in your mind1 and when you speak you can give your entire attention to the delivery and the audience4 ,do not be discouraged if you cannot retain all the outline the first times you try this method4 ,many a speaker has announced in his introduction1 ,i shall present four reasons1 and often has sat down after discussing only three4 ,until you can dispense entirely with the brief keep it near you4 ,speak from it if you need it4 ,portions which you want to quote exactly 7such as quotations from authorities7 may be memorized or read4 ,in reading be sure you read remarkably well4 ,few people can read interestingly before a large audience4 ,keep your papers where you can get at them easily4 ,be careful not to lose your place so that you will have to shuffle them to get the cue for continuing4 ,pauses are not dangerous when they are made deliberately for effect1 but they are ruinous when they betray to the audience forgetfulness or embarrassment on the part of the speaker4 ,anticipate your need4 ,get your help before you actually need it1 so that you can continue gracefully4 ,results4 ,this method1 followed for a few months1 will develop speaking ability4 ,it produces results suited to modern conditions of all kinds of life4 ,it develops practically all the mental faculties and personal attributes4 ,it puts the speaker directly in touch with his audience4 ,it permits him to adapt his material to an occasion and audience4 ,it gives him the opportunity to sway his hearers and used legitimately for worthy ends1 this is the most worthy purpose of any speech4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,explaining ,the part which explanation plays in all phases of life is too apparent to need any emphasis here4 ,it is to a great extent the basis of all our daily intercourse1 from explaining to a teacher why a lesson has not been prepared1 to painstakingly explaining to a merchant why a bill has not been paid4 ,an instructor patiently explains a problem to a class1 and a merchant explains the merits of an article or the operation of a device to his customers4 ,the politician explains why he should be elected4 ,the financier explains the returns from stock and bond purchases4 ,the ,president explains to the ,senate the reason for treaty clauses4 ,the minister explains the teachings of his faith to his congregation4 ,you can make this list as long as the varied activities of all life4 ,exposition4 ,this kind of discourse1 the purpose of which is explanation1 is also called exposition4 ,has it any relation to the underlying idea of the term exposition as applied to a great exhibition or fair8 ,its purpose is plainly information1 the transmission of knowledge4 ,while description and narration exist primarily to entertain1 exposition exists to convey information4 ,description and narration may be classed as literature of entertainment2 exposition as literature of knowledge4 ,it answers such questions as how8 why8 for what purpose8 in what manner8 by what method8 ,it can sometimes be used to convince a person with opposing views1 for frequently you hear a man to whom the explanation of a belief has been made1 exclaim1 ,oh1 if that's what you mean1 ,i agree with you entirely4 ,all instruction1 all directions of work1 all scientific literature1 are in foundation expository4 ,in its simplest1 most disconnected form1 exposition gives its value to that most essential volume1 the dictionary4 ,make a list of other kinds of books which are mainly or entirely expository in character4 ,difficulties in ,exposition4 ,such are the purpose and use of exposition4 ,the difficulty of producing good exposition is evident from those two factors4 ,as it1 exists everywhere1 as it purposes to inform1 its first requisite is clearness4 ,without that quality it is as nothing4 ,when you direct a stranger how to reach a certain building in your town1 of what value are your remarks unless they are clear8 ,when a scientist writes a treatise on the topic of the immortality of man1 of what value are his opinions unless his statements are clear8 ,all the other qualities which prose may and should possess sink into subordinate value in exposition when compared with clearness4 ,because of all three phases of exposition--its universal use1 its informative purpose1 its essential clarity--exposition is an all-important topic for the consideration and practice of the public speaker4 ,in its demand for clearness lies also its difficulty4 ,is it easy to tell the exact truth1 not as a moral exercise1 but merely as a matter of exactness8 ,why do the careless talkers speak so often of a sort of pink or a kind of revolving shaft or tack on at the end of phrases the meaningless something or everything except that even in their unthinking minds there is the hazy impression--they really never have a well-defined idea--that they have not said exactly what they want to say8 ,clear ,understanding4 ,here then is the first requisite for the public speaker4 ,he must have no hazy impressions1 no unthinking mind1 no ill-defined ideas1 no inexactness4 ,he must have a clear understanding of all he tries to tell to others4 ,without this the words of a speaker are as sounding brass and tinkling cymbals4 ,or he may deliver a great roar of words signifying nothing4 ,this is the fault with most recitations of pupils in school--they do not get a clear understanding of the material assigned to them for mastery4 ,as a test of the degree of understanding1 the recitation method serves admirably4 ,the lecture method of instruction--clear though the presentation may be--offers no manner of finding out1 until the final examination1 how much the pupil actually understands4 ,so far1 in public speaking1 the only way of learning that the student understands the principles and can apply them is to have him speak frequently to indicate his ability4 ,can you not name among your associates and friends those whose explanations are lucid1 concise1 direct1 unconfusing1 and others whose attempts at exposition are jumbled1 verbose1 unenlightening8 ,have you not criticized certain teachers by remarking they may know their own subjects all right1 but they couldn't impart their knowledge to the class8 ,command of ,language4 ,what was lacking in their case8 ,certainly1 to be charitable1 we cannot say they lacked a clear understanding of their own topic4 ,it must have been something else4 ,that second element1 which is at times almost entirely absent when the first is present1 is the command of language4 ,many a man knows a great deal but is incapable of transmitting his knowledge4 ,he lacks the gift of expression4 ,he has not cultivated it--for it can be cultivated4 ,the man whose desire or vocation forces him to make the effort to speak will train himself in methods of communication1 until he arrives at comfort and fluency4 ,the district manager of a large electric company related that as he would sit at a meeting of the directors or committee of a large corporation and realized that the moment was approaching when he would be called upon to speak he would feel his senses grow confused1 a sinking feeling amounting almost to faintness would sweep over him4 ,strong in his determination to do the best he could for his company he would steady his nerves by saying to himself1 ,you know more about this matter than any of these men4 ,that's why you are here4 ,tell them what you know so plainly that they will understand as well as you do4 ,there was1 you see1 the reassurance of complete understanding of the subject coupled with the endeavor to express it clearly4 ,these two elements1 then1 are of supreme significance to the public speaker4 ,even to the person who desires to write well1 they are all-important4 ,to the speaker they are omnipresent4 ,the effect of these two upon the intellectual development is marked4 ,the desire for clear understanding will keep the mind stored with material to assimilate and communicate4 ,it will induce the mind continually to manipulate this material to secure clarity in presentation4 ,this will result in developing a mental adroitness of inestimable value to the speaker1 enabling him to seize the best method instantaneously and apply it to his purposes4 ,at the same time1 keeping always in view the use of this material as the basis of communicating information or convincing by making explanations1 he will be solicitous about his language4 ,words will take on new values4 ,he will be continually searching for new ones to express the exact differences of ideas he wants to convey4 ,he will try different expressions1 various phrases1 changed word orders1 to test their efficacy and appropriateness in transferring his meaning to his hearers4 ,suggestions offered in the chapter of this book on words and sentences will never cease to operate in his thinking and speaking4 ,there will be a direct result in his ability as a speaker and a reflex result upon his ability as a thinker4 ,what is more encouraging1 he will realize and appreciate these results himself1 and his satisfaction in doing better work will be doubled by the delight in knowing exactly how he secured the ends for which he strove4 ,methods of ,explaining4 ,in order to make a matter clear1 to convey information1 a speaker has at his disposal many helpful ways of arranging his material4 ,not all topics can be treated in all or even any certain one of the following manners1 but if the student is familiar with certain processes he will the more easily and surely choose just that one suited to the topic he intends to explain and the circumstances of his exposition4 ,division4 ,one of these methods is by division4 ,a speaker may separate a topic or term into the parts which comprise it4 ,for instance1 a scientist may have to list all the kinds of electricity2 a ,red ,cross instructor may divide all bandages into their several kinds2 an athletic coach may have to explain all the branches of sports in order to induce more candidates to appear for certain events2 a banker may have to divide financial operations to make clear an advertising pamphlet soliciting new lines of business1 such as drawing up of wills4 ,the ability to do this is a valuable mental accomplishment as well as an aid to speaking4 ,in dividing1 care must be taken to make the separations according to one principle for any one class4 ,it would not result in clearness to divide all men according to height1 and at the same time according to color4 ,this would result in confusion4 ,divide according to height first1 then divide the classes so formed according to color if needed--as might be done in military formation4 ,each group1 then1 must be distinctly marked off from all other groups4 ,in scientific and technical matters such division may be carried to the extreme limit of completeness4 ,complete division is called classification4 ,partition4 ,in non-scientific compositions such completeness is seldom necessary4 ,it might even defeat the purpose by being too involved1 by including too many entries1 and by becoming difficult to remember4 ,speakers seldom have need of classification1 but they often do have to make divisions for purposes of explanation4 ,this kind of grouping is called partition4 ,it goes only so far as is necessary for the purpose at the time4 ,it may stop anywhere short of being complete and scientifically exact4 ,all members of the large class not divided and listed are frequently lumped together under a last heading such as all others1 miscellaneous1 the rest1 those not falling under our present examination4 ,,exercises #a4 ,classify games4 ,which principle will you use for your first main division--indoor and outdoor games1 or winter and summer games1 or some other8 #b4 ,classify the races of men4 ,what principle would you use8 #c4 ,how would you arrange the books in a private library8 #d4 ,classify the forms of theatrical entertainments4 ,is your list complete8 #e4 ,classify branches of mathematics4 ,the entries may total over a hundred4 #f4 ,classify the pupils in your school4 #g4 ,classify the people in your school4 ,is there any difference8 #h4 ,classify the following3 ,the political parties of the country4 ,methods of transportation4 ,religions4 ,magazines4 ,the buildings in a city4 ,aircraft4 ,desserts4 ,canned goods4 ,skill in division is valuable not only as a method of exposition but it is linked closely with an effective method of proving to be explained in the next chapter--the method of residues4 ,can you recall any extracts given in this book in which some form of division is used8 ,is this form of material likely to be more important in preparation or in the finished speech8 ,explain your opinion--in other words1 present a specimen of exposition4 ,definition4 ,one of the simplest ways of explaining is to define a term4 ,dictionary definitions are familiar to everyone4 ,in a great many instances the dictionary definition is by means of synonyms4 ,while this is a convenient1 easy method it is seldom exact4 ,why8 ,recall what you learned concerning the meanings of synonyms4 ,do they ever exactly reproduce one another's meanings8 ,there is always a slight degree of inaccuracy in definition by synonym1 sometimes a large margin of inexactness4 ,is the following a good definition8 ,a visitor to a school began his address3 ,this morning1 children1 ,i propose to offer you an epitome of the life of ,st4 ,paul4 ,it may be perhaps that there are among you some too young to grasp the meaning of the word epitome4 ,epitome1 children1 is in its signification synonymous with synopsis6 ,london ,tid-,bits ,logical ,definition4 ,an exact definition is supplied by the logical definition4 ,in this there are three parts--the term to be defined1 the class 7or genus7 to which it belongs1 and the distinguishing characteristics 7differentia7 which mark it off from all the other members of that same class4 ,you can represent this graphically by inclosing the word term in a small circle4 ,around this draw a larger circle in which you write the word class4 ,now what divides the term from the class in which it belongs8 ,indicate the line around the term as distinguishing characteristics1 and you will clearly see how accurate a logical definition is4 ,the class should be just larger than the term itself4 ,the main difficulty is in finding exact and satisfying distinguishing characteristics4 ,there are some terms which are so large that no classes can be found for them4 ,others cannot be marked by acceptable distinguishing characteristics1 so it is not possible to make logical definitions for all terms4 ,consider such words as infinity1 electricity1 gravity1 man4 ,the words of the definition should be simple1 more readily understood than the term to be defined4 ,term ,class ,distinguishing characteristics ,a biplane is an airplane with two sets of supporting surfaces4 ,a waitress is a woman who serves meals4 ,narration is that form of discourse which relates events4 ,a word is a combination of suggesting an idea4 letters ,a dictionary is a book of definitions4 ,a corporal is an army officer just higher than a private4 ,,exercises #a4 ,make logical definitions for the following3 ,a dynamo ,a circle ,a hammer ,a curiosity ,lightning ,a trip-hammer ,moving picture camera ,democracy ,a lady ,curiosity ,an anarchist ,a ,lady ,a door ,a sky-scraper ,man #b4 ,analyze and comment on the following definitions3 ,man is a two-legged animal without feathers4 ,life is an epileptic fit between two nothings4 ,genius is an infinite capacity for taking pains4 ,the picture writings of the ancient ,egyptians are called hieroglyphics4 ,a fly is an obnoxious insect that disturbs you in the morning when you want to sleep4 ,real bravery is defeated cowardice4 ,a brigantine is a small1 two-masted vessel1 square rigged on both masts1 but with a fore-and-aft mainsail and the mainmast considerably longer than the foremast4 ,a mushroom is a cryptogamic plant of the class ,fungi2 particularly the agaricoid fungi and especially the edible forms4 ,language is the means of concealing thought4 ,a rectangle of equal sides is a square4 ,hyperbole is a natural exaggeration for the purpose of emphasis4 ,amplified ,definition4 ,while such definitions are the first positions from which all interpretations must proceed1 in actual speech-making explanations of terms are considerably longer4 ,yet the form of the true logical definition is always imbedded--in germ at least--in the amplified statement4 ,again1 democracy will be1 in a large sense1 individualistic4 ,that ideal of society which seeks a disciplined1 obedient people1 submissive to government and unquestioning in its acceptance of orders1 is not a democratic ideal4 ,you cannot have an atmosphere of implicit obedience to authority and at the same time and in the same place an atmosphere of democratic freedom4 ,there is only one kind of discipline that is adequate to democracy and that is self-discipline4 ,an observant foreigner has lately remarked1 somewhat paradoxically1 that the ,americans seemed to him the best disciplined people in the world4 ,in no other country does a line form itself at a ticket office or at the entrance to a place of amusement with so little disorder1 so little delay1 and so little help from a policeman4 ,in no other country would an appeal of the government for self-control in the use of food or fuel1 for a restriction of hours of business1 for gas-less ,sundays1 have met with so ready1 so generous and so sufficient a response4 ,our ,american lads1 alert1 adaptable1 swiftly-trained1 self-directed1 have been quite the equal of the continental soldiers1 with their longer technical training and more rigorous military discipline4 ,in these respects the ,english1 and especially the ,british colonial soldiers have been much like our own4 ,democracy1 whether for peace or for war1 in ,america or in ,england1 favors individuality4 ,independence of thought and action on the part of the mass of the people are alike the result of democracy and the condition of its continuance and more complete development1 and it is visibly growing in ,england as the trammels of old political and social class control are being thrown off4 ,,edward ,p4 ,,cheyney3 ,historical ,tests of ,democracy ,what is a constitution8 ,certainly not a league1 compact1 or confederacy1 but a fundamental law4 ,that fundamental regulation which determines the manner in which the public authority is to be executed1 is what forms the constitution of a state4 ,those primary rules which concern the body itself1 and the very being of the political society1 the form of government1 and the manner in which power is to be exercised--all1 in a word1 which form together the constitution of a state--these are the fundamental laws4 ,this1 ,sir1 is the language of the public writers4 ,but do we need to be informed1 in this country1 what a constitution is8 ,is it not an idea perfectly familiar1 definite1 and well settled8 ,we are at no loss to understand what is meant by the constitution of one of the ,states2 and the ,constitution of the ,united ,states speaks of itself as being an instrument of the same nature4 ,,daniel ,,webster3 ,the ,constitution ,not a ,compact between ,sovereign ,states1 #ahcc ,particulars of a ,general ,statement4 ,a general statement made at the beginning of a paragraph or section1 serving as the topic sentence1 may then be explained by breaking the general idea up into details and particulars4 ,this may partake of the nature of both definition and partition1 as the terms may be explained and their component parts listed4 ,note that in the following selection the first sentences state the topic of the passage which the succeeding sentences explain by discussing the phrase variety of evils4 ,so likewise a passionate attachment of one nation for another produces a variety of evils4 ,sympathy for the favorite nation1 facilitating the illusion of an imaginary common interest1 in cases where no real common interest exists1 and infusing into one the enmities of the other1 betrays the former into a participation in the quarrels and wars of the latter1 without adequate inducement or justification4 ,it leads also to concessions to the favorite nation of privileges denied to others1 which is apt doubly to injure the nation making the concessions2 by unnecessarily parting with what ought to have been retained1 and by exciting jealousy1 ill-will1 and a disposition to retaliate1 in the parties from whom equal privileges are withheld1 and it gives to ambitious1 corrupted1 or deluded citizens 7who devote themselves to the favorite nation71 facility to betray1 or sacrifice the interests of their own country1 without odium1 sometimes even with popularity2 gilding with the appearances of a virtuous sense of obligation1 a commendable deference for public opinion1 or a laudable zeal for public good1 the base or foolish compliances of ambition1 corruption or infatuation4 ,,george ,,washington3 ,farewell ,address1 #agif ,examples4 ,a statement may be explained by giving examples4 ,the speaker must be sure that his example fits the case exactly2 that it is typical--that is1 it must serve as a true instance of all cases under the statement1 not be merely an exception2 that it is perfectly clear2 that it impresses the audience as unanswerable4 ,the example may be either actual or suppositious1 but it must illustrate clearly and accurately4 ,the use of examples is a great aid in explanation4 ,john ,c4 ,calhoun expressed the value very distinctly in one of his speeches4 ,i know how difficult it is to communicate distinct ideas on such a subject1 through the medium of general propositions1 without particular illustration2 and in order that ,i may be distinctly understood1 though at the hazard of being tedious1 ,i will illustrate the important principle which ,i have ventured to advance1 by examples4 ,by the use of an example he does make himself distinctly understood4 ,let us1 then1 suppose a small community of five persons1 separated from the rest of the world2 and1 to make the example strong1 let us suppose them all to be engaged in the same pursuit1 and to be of equal wealth4 ,let us further suppose that they determine to govern the community by the will of a majority2 and1 to make the case as strong as possible1 let us suppose that the majority1 in order to meet the expenses of the government1 lay an equal tax1 say of one hundred dollars on each individual of this little community4 ,their treasury would contain five hundred dollars4 ,three are a majority2 and they1 by supposition1 have contributed three hundred as their portion1 and the other two 7the minority71 two hundred4 ,the three have the right to make the appropriations as they may think proper4 ,the question is1 ,how would the principle of the absolute and unchecked majority operate1 under these circumstances1 in this little community8 ,,john ,c4 ,,calhoun3 ,speech on ,the ,force ,bill1 #ahcc ,the example should be taken from the same phase of life as the proposition it explains4 ,as ,calhoun was discussing governmental regulation he supposed an example from majority rule4 ,in the next the topic is copyright1 so the illustration is not taken from patents4 ,in introducing your own examples avoid the trite1 amateurish expression take1 for instance4 ,now1 this is the sort of boon which my honorable and learned friend holds out to authors4 ,considered as a boon to them1 it is a mere nullity2 but1 considered as an impost on the public1 it is no nullity1 but a very serious and pernicious reality4 ,i will take an example4 ,dr4 ,johnson died fifty-six years ago4 ,if the law were what my honorable and learned friend wishes to make it1 somebody would now have the monopoly of ,dr4 ,johnson's works4 ,who that somebody would be it is impossible to say2 but we may venture to guess4 ,i guess1 then1 that it would have been some bookseller1 who was the assign of another bookseller1 who was the grandson of a third bookseller1 who had bought the copyright from ,black ,frank1 the doctor's servant and residuary legatee1 in #aghe or #aghf4 ,now1 would the knowledge that this copyright would exist in #ahda have been a source of gratification to ,johnson8 ,would it have stimulated his exertions8 ,would it have once drawn him out of his bed before noon8 ,would it have once cheered him under a fit of the spleen8 ,would it have induced him to give us one more allegory1 one more life of a poet1 one more imitation of ,juvenal8 ,i firmly believe not4 ,i firmly believe that a hundred years ago1 when he was writing our debates for the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 he would very much rather have had twopence to buy a plate of shin of beef at a cook's shop underground4 ,,thomas ,,babington ,,macaulay3 ,copyright1 #ahda ,comparison4 ,unfamiliar matter may be made plain by showing how it resembles something already clearly understood by the audience4 ,this is comparison4 ,it shows how two things are alike4 ,the old geographies used to state that the earth is an oblate spheroid1 then explain that term by comparison with an orange1 pointing out the essential flattening at the poles4 ,in any use of comparison the resemblance must be real1 not assumed4 ,many a speaker has been severely criticized for his facts because he asserted in comparison similarities that did not exist4 ,contrast4 ,when the differences between two things are carefully enumerated the process is termed contrast4 ,this is often used in combination with comparison1 for no two things are exactly alike4 ,they may resemble each other in nearly all respects1 so comparison is possible and helpful up to a certain limit4 ,to give an exact idea of the remainder the differences must be pointed out2 that requires contrast4 ,in contrast the opposing balance of details does not have to depend necessarily on a standard familiar to the audience4 ,it may be an arrangement of opposite aspects of the same thing to bring out more vividly the understanding4 ,in his ,history of the ,english ,people1 ,green explains the character of ,queen ,elizabeth by showing the contrasted elements she inherited from her mother1 ,anne ,boleyn1 and her father1 ,henry ,,viii4 ,such a method results not only in added clearness1 but also in emphasis4 ,the plan may call for half a paragraph on one side1 the second half on the other2 or it may cover two paragraphs or sections2 or it may alternate with every detail--an affirmative balanced by a negative1 followed at once by another pair of affirmative and negative1 or statement and contrast1 and so on until the end4 ,the speaker must consider such possibilities of contrast1 plan for his own1 and indicate it in his brief4 ,nearly any speech will provide illustrations of the methods of comparison and contrast4 ,burke's ,conciliation with ,america has several passages of each4 ,cause to ,effect4 ,explanations based on progressions from cause to effect and the reverse are admirably suited to operations1 movements1 changes1 conditions1 elections4 ,an exposition of a manufacturing process might move from cause to effect4 ,a legislator trying to secure the passage of a measure might explain its operation by beginning with the law 7the cause7 and tracing its results 7the effect74 ,so1 too1 a reformer might plead for a changed condition by following the same method4 ,a speaker dealing with history or biography might use this same plan4 ,effect to ,cause4 ,in actual events1 the cause always precedes the effect1 but in discussion it is sometimes better not to follow natural or usual orders4 ,many explanations gain in clearness and effect by working backwards4 ,a voter might begin by showing the condition of a set of workmen 7an effect71 then trace conditions backward until he would end with a plea for the repeal of a law 7the cause74 ,a student might explain a low mark on his report by starting with the grading 7the effect7 and tracing backwards all his struggles to an early absence by which he missed a necessary explanation by the teacher4 ,a doctor might begin a report by stating the illness of several persons with typhus2 then trace preceding conditions step by step until he reached the cause--oysters eaten by them in a hotel were kept cool by a dealer's letting water run over them4 ,this water in its course had picked up the disease germs--the cause4 ,many crimes are solved by moving from effect to cause4 ,a lawyer in his speeches1 therefore1 frequently follows this method4 ,both these methods are so commonly employed that the student can cite instances from many speeches he has heard or books he has read4 ,time ,order4 ,somewhat similar to the two preceding arrangements of exposition are the next two based on time4 ,the first of these is the natural time order1 or chronological order4 ,in this the details follow one another as events happened4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that not any group of succeeding details will make a good exposition of this sort4 ,the parts must be closely related4 ,they must be not merely sequential but consequential4 ,dictionary definitions will explain the difference in meaning of those two words4 ,this method is somewhat like the order from cause to effect1 but it is adapted to other kinds of topics and other purposes of explanation4 ,it is excellently suited to historical material1 or any related kind4 ,it is the device usually employed in explaining mechanical or manufacturing processes4 ,in mere frequency of occurrence it is doubtlessly the most common4 ,time ,order ,reversed4 ,the student who starts to cast his expositions into this scheme should judge its fitness for his particular purpose at the time4 ,it will often become apparent upon thought that instead of the natural chronological order the exact opposite will suit better4 ,this--time order reversed--explains itself as the arrangement from the latest occurrence back through preceding events and details until the earliest time is reached4 ,it is quite like the arrangement from effect back to cause4 ,it might be used to explain the legal procedure of a state or nation1 to explain treaty relations1 to explain the giving up of old laws4 ,the movements of a man accused of crime might be explained in this way4 ,an alibi for a person might be built up thus4 ,the various versions of some popular story told over and over again through a long period of years might be explained after such a manner4 ,although the time order reversed is not so common as the chronological order it does occur many times4 ,place4 ,certain material of exposition demands the order of place4 ,this means that the details of the explanation are arranged according to the position of objects4 ,if you have written many descriptions you are familiar with the problems brought up by such an order4 ,a few illustrations will make it clear4 ,a man on the street asks you how to reach a certain point in the city4 ,on what plan do you arrange your directions8 ,according to their place8 ,you start to explain to a friend the general lay-out of ,new ,york1 or ,chicago1 or ,san ,francisco4 ,how do you arrange the details of your exposition8 ,you attempt to convey to another person the plan of some large building4 ,what arrangement is inevitable8 ,how do books on sports explain the baseball field1 the football gridiron1 the tennis court1 the golf links8 ,when specifications for a building are furnished to the contractor1 what principle of arrangement is followed8 ,if an inventor gives instructions to a pattern-maker for the construction of a model1 what plan does he follow8 ,would a man discussing drawings for a new house be likely to formulate his explanations on this scheme8 ,you see1 then1 how well suited such an arrangement is to a variety of uses4 ,in such expository passages the transition and connecting words are mainly expressions of place and relative position such as to the right1 above1 below1 to the rear1 extending upwards at an angle of sixty degrees1 dividing equally into three sections4 ,such indications must never be slighted in spoken explanations4 ,they keep the material clear and exact in the hearer's comprehension4 ,the speaker1 remember1 can never assume that his audience is bound to understand him4 ,his task is to be so clear that no single individual can fail to understand him4 ,importance4 ,it has already been stated--in the chapter on planning--that topics may be arranged in the order of their importance4 ,this same scheme may be used in delivery of expository matter4 ,a hearer will follow the explanation if he be led gradually up the ascent2 he will remember most clearly the latter part of the passage4 ,if this include the prime factor of the information he will retain it longest and most clearly4 ,you should listen to speeches of explanations critically to judge whether the plans are good4 ,should you make a list of the number of times any of the plans here set down appears you will be struck by the fact that while other orders are quite frequent1 this last principle of leading up to the most important outranks all the others4 ,it may be simply a form of one of the others previously enumerated in which time order1 or contrast1 or cause to effect is followed simply because that does bring the most important last in the discussion4 ,such an arrangement answers best to the response made to ideas by people in audiences4 ,it is a principle of all attempts to instruct them1 to appeal to them1 to stimulate them1 to move them1 that the successive steps must increase in significance and impressiveness until the most moving details be laid before them4 ,analyze for yourself or for the class a few long explanations you have listened to1 and report whether this principle was followed4 ,does it bear any relation to concluding a speech with a peroration8 ,combinations of ,methods4 ,while any one of the foregoing methods may be used for a single passage it is not usual in actual practice to find one scheme used throughout all the explanatory matter of the speech4 ,in the first place1 the attention of the audience would very likely become wearied by the monotony of such a device4 ,certain parts of the material under explanation seem to require one treatment1 other portions require different handling4 ,therefore good speakers usually combine two or more of these plans4 ,partition could hardly be used throughout an entire speech without ruining its interest4 ,it occurs usually early to map out the general field or scope4 ,definition also is likely to be necessary at the beginning of an explanation to start the audience with clear ideas4 ,it may be resorted to at various times later whenever a new term is introduced with a meaning the audience may not entirely understand4 ,both partition and definition are short1 so they are combined with other forms4 ,examples1 likewise1 may be introduced anywhere4 ,the two most frequently closely combined are comparison and contrast4 ,each seems to require the other4 ,having shown how two things or ideas are alike1 the speaker naturally passes on to secure more definiteness by showing that with all their likenesses they are not exactly the same1 and that the differences are as essential to a clear comprehension of them as the similarities4 ,so usual are they that many people accept the two words as meaning almost the same thing1 though in essence they are opposites4 ,the other orders cannot be used in such close combinations but they may be found in varying degrees in many extended speeches of explanation as the nature of the material lends itself to one treatment or another4 ,a twelve-hundred word discussion of ,the ,future of ,food uses examples1 contrasted examples1 effect to cause1 cause to effect 7the phrase beginning a paragraph is there is already evidence that this has resulted in a general lowering 71 while the succeeding parts grow in significance until the last is the most important4 ,a great ,english statesman in a speech lasting some three hours on a policy of government employed the following different methods at various places where he introduced expository material--partition 7he claimed it was classification1 but he listed for consideration only three of the essential five choices71 contrast1 comparison1 time1 example1 place1 cause to effect4 ,some of these methods of arranging explanatory matter were used several times4 ,,exercises #a4 ,explain a topic by giving three examples4 ,the class should comment upon their value4 #b4 ,explain to the class some mechanical operation or device4 ,the class after listening should decide which method the speaker used4 #c4 ,explain some principle of government or society following the time order4 #d4 ,with a similar topic follow time reversed4 #e4 ,with a similar topic use comparison only4 #f4 ,follow an arrangement based on contrast only4 #g4 ,in explaining a topic combine comparison and contrast4 #h4 ,explain some proverb1 text1 or quotation4 ,the class should discuss the arrangement4 #i4 ,choose some law or government regulation4 ,condemn or approve it in an explanation based on cause to effect4 #aj4 ,with the same or a similar topic use effect to cause4 #aa4 ,explain to the class the plan of some large building or group of buildings4 ,is your explanation easily understood8 #ab4 ,explain why a certain study fits one for a particular vocation4 ,use the order of importance4 #ac4 ,give an idea of two different magazines1 using comparison and contrast4 #ad4 ,explain some game4 ,time order8 #ae4 ,how is a jury trial conducted8 #af4 ,explain the principles of some political party4 #ag4 ,speak for four minutes upon exercise in a gymnasium4 #ah4 ,tell how a school paper1 or daily newspaper1 or magazine is conducted4 #ai4 ,what is slang8 #bj4 ,explain one of your hobbies4 #ba4 ,classify and explain the qualities of a good speaker4 ,order of importance8 #bb4 ,explain some natural phenomenon4 #bc4 ,explain the best method for studying4 #bd4 ,contrast business methods4 #be4 ,from some business 7as stock selling7 or industry 7as automobile manufacturing7 or new vocation 7as airplaning7 or art 7as acting7 or accomplishment 7as cooking7 choose a group of special terms and explain them in a connected series of remarks4 #bf4 ,why is superstition so prevalent8 ,the class should discuss the explanations presented4 #bg4 ,the point that always perplexes me is this3 ,i always feel that if all the wealth was shared out1 it would be all the same again in a few years' time4 ,no one has ever explained to me how you can get over that4 ,explain clearly one of the two views suggested here4 #bh4 ,explain the failure of some political movement1 or the defeat of some nation4 #bi4 ,select a passage from some book1 report1 or article1 couched in intricate technical or specialized phraseology4 ,explain it clearly to the class4 #cj4 ,ben ,jonson1 a friend of ,shakespeare's1 wrote of him1 ,he was not of an age1 but for all time4 ,what did he mean8 ,,chapter ,x ,,proving ,,and ,,persuading ,what ,argumentation ,is4 ,it is an old saying that there are two sides to every question4 ,any speaker who supports some opinion before an audience1 who advances some theory1 who urges people to do a certain thing1 to vote a certain way1 to give money for charitable purposes1 recognizes the opposite side4 ,in trying to make people believe as he believes1 to induce them to act as he advises1 he must argue with them4 ,argumentation1 as used in this book1 differs widely from the informal exchange of opinions and views indulged in across the dinner table or on the trolley car4 ,it does not correspond with the usual meaning of argue and argument which both so frequently suggest wrangling and bickering ending in ill-tempered personal attacks4 ,argumentation is the well-considered1 deliberate means employed to convince others of the truth or expediency of the views advocated by the speaker4 ,its purpose is to carry conviction to the consciousness of others4 ,this is its purpose4 ,its method is proof4 ,proof is the body of facts1 opinions1 reasons1 illustrations1 conclusions1 etc41 properly arranged and effectively presented which makes others accept as true or right the proposition advanced by the speaker4 ,of course1 argumentation may exist in writing but as this volume is concerned with oral delivery1 the word speaker is used in the definition4 ,so much for the purpose and nature of argumentation4 ,use of ,argumentation4 ,where is it used8 ,everywhere1 in every form of human activity4 ,argumentation is used by a youngster trying to induce a companion to go swimming and by a committee of world statesmen discussing the allotment of territory4 ,in business a man uses it from the time he successfully convinces a firm it should employ him as an office boy until he secures the acceptance of his plans for a combination of interests which will control the world market4 ,lawyers1 politicians1 statesmen1 clergymen1 live by argumentation4 ,in the life of today1 which emphasizes so markedly the two ideas of individuality and efficiency1 argumentation is of paramount importance4 ,any person can argue1 in the ordinary sense of stating opinions and views1 in so far as any one can converse4 ,but to produce good1 convincing argumentation is not so easy as that4 ,the expression of personal preferences1 opinions1 ideas1 is not argumentation1 although some people who advance so far as to become speakers before audiences seem never to realize that truth1 and display themselves as pretending to offer argumentation when they are in reality doing no more than reciting personal beliefs and suggestions4 ,cite instances of speakers who have indulged in such personal opinions when they might or should have offered arguments4 ,while argumentation is not so easily assembled as running conversation is1 it may be made quite as fascinating as the latter1 and just as surely as a person can have his conversational ability developed so can a person have his argumentative power strengthened4 ,conviction4 ,what should be the first requisite of a speaker of argumentation8 ,should it be conviction in the truth or right of the position he takes and the proposition he supports8 ,at first thought one would answer emphatically yes4 ,a great deal of discredit has been brought upon the study of argumentation by the practice of speakers to pretend to have opinions which in reality they do not sincerely believe4 ,the practical instance is the willingness of paid lawyers to defend men of whose guilt they must be sure4 ,such criticism does not apply to cases in which there are reasonable chances for opposing interpretations1 nor to those cases in which our law decrees that every person accused of crime shall be provided with counsel1 but to those practices to which ,lincoln referred when he recommended the lawyer not to court litigation4 ,nor should this criticism deter a student of public speaking from trying his skill in defense of the other side1 when he feels that such practice will help him in weighing his own arguments4 ,in every instance of this highly commendable double method of preparation which the author has seen in classrooms1 the speaker1 after his speech has been commented upon1 has always declared his real position and explained why he advocated the opposite4 ,even school and college debating has been criticized in the same way for becoming not an attempt to discover or establish the truth or right of a proposition1 but a mere game with formal rules1 a set of scoring regulations1 and a victory or defeat with consequent good or bad effects upon the whole practice of undergraduate debating4 ,if such contests are understood in their true significance1 as practice in training1 and the assumption of conviction by a student is not continued after graduation so that he will in real life defend and support opinions he really does not believe1 the danger is not so great4 ,the man who has no fixed principles1 who can argue equally glibly on any side of a matter1 whose talents are at any man's command of service1 is untrustworthy4 ,convictions are worthy elements in life4 ,a man must change his stand when his convictions are argued away1 but the man whose opinions shift with every new scrap of information or influence is neither a safe leader nor a dependable subordinate4 ,for the sake of the training1 then1 a student may present arguments from attitudes other than his own sincere conviction1 but the practice should be nothing more than a recognized exercise4 ,because of its telling influence upon the opinion of others let us1 without further reservation1 set down that the first essential of a good argument is the ability to convince others4 ,aside from the language and the manner of delivery--two elements which must never be disregarded in any speech--this ability to convince others depends upon the proof presented to them in support of a proposition4 ,the various kinds and methods of proof1 with matters closely related to them1 make up the material of this chapter4 ,the ,proposition4 ,in order to induce argument1 there must be a proposition4 ,a proposition in argument is a statement--a declarative sentence--concerning the truth or expediency of which there may be two opinions4 ,notice that not every declarative statement is a proposition for argument4 ,the sun rises is not a statement about which there can be any varying opinions4 ,it is not a proposition for argument4 ,but ,missionaries should not be sent to ,china1 and ,john ,doe killed ,simon ,lee1 are statements admitting of different opinions and beliefs4 ,they are propositions for argument4 ,no sane person would argue about such a statement as ,missionaries are sent to ,china1 nor would any one waste time on such a statement as ,some day a man named ,john ,doe will kill a man named ,simon ,lee4 ,although in common language we speak of arguing a question the student must remember that such a thing is impossible4 ,you cannot argue about a question4 ,nor can you argue about a subject or a topic4 ,the only expression about which there can be any argument is a proposition4 ,the question must be answered4 ,the resulting statement is then proved or disproved4 ,the topic must be given some definite expression in a declarative sentence before any real argument is possible4 ,even when the matter of argument is incorrectly phrased as a topic or question you will find almost immediately in the remarks the proposition as a sentence4 ,should women vote8 may be on the posters announcing an address1 but the speaker will soon declare1 ,women should vote in all elections in the ,united ,states upon the same conditions that men do4 ,that is the proposition being argued2 the question has been answered4 ,kinds of ,propositions4 ,certain kinds of propositions should never be chosen for argumentation4 ,many are incapable of proof1 so any speech upon them would result in the mere repetition of personal opinions4 ,such are3 ,the pen is mightier than the sword2 ,business men should not read poetry2 ,every person should play golf2 ,ancient authors were greater than modern authors4 ,others are of no interest to contemporary audiences and for that reason should not be presented4 ,in the ,middle ,ages scholars discussed such matters as how many angels could stand on the point of a needle1 but today no one cares about such things4 ,propositions of ,fact4 ,propositions fall into the two classes already illustrated by the statements about missionaries in ,china and the killing of ,simon ,lee4 ,the second--,john ,doe killed ,simon ,lee--is a proposition of fact4 ,all argument about it would tend to prove either the affirmative or the negative4 ,one argument would strive to prove the statement a fact4 ,the other argument would try to prove its opposite the actual fact4 ,facts are accomplished results or finished events4 ,therefore propositions of fact refer to the past4 ,they are the material of argument in all cases at law1 before investigation committees1 and in similar proceedings4 ,lincoln argued a proposition of fact when he took ,douglas's statement1 ,our fathers1 when they framed the government under which we live1 understood this question just as well1 and even better1 than we do now1 and then proved by telling exactly how they voted upon every measure dealing with slavery exactly what the thirty-nine signers of the ,constitution did believe about national control of the practice4 ,courts of law demand that pleadings shall set forth with certainty and with truth the matters of fact or of law1 the truth or falsity of which must be decided to decide the case4 ,propositions of ,policy4 ,notice that the other proposition--,missionaries should not be sent to ,china--is not concerned with a fact at all4 ,it deals with something which should or should not be done4 ,it deals with future conduct4 ,it depends upon the value of the results to be secured4 ,it looks to the future4 ,it deals with some principle of action4 ,it is a question of expediency or policy4 ,it induces argument to show that one method is the best or not the best4 ,propositions of expediency or policy are those which confront all of us at every step in life4 ,which college shall a boy attend8 ,what kind of work shall a woman enter8 ,how large shall taxes be next year8 ,which candidate shall we elect8 ,how shall we better the city government8 ,how shall ,i invest my money8 ,what kind of automobile shall ,i buy8 ,what kind of will shall ,i make8 ,the answers to all such questions make propositions of expediency or policy upon which arguments are being composed and delivered every day4 ,in choosing propositions for argument avoid1 #a1 those which are obviously truth2 #b1 those in which some ambiguous word or term covers the truth2 #c1 those in which the truth or error is practically impossible of proof2 #d1 those involving more than one main issue2 #e1 those which do not interest the audience4 ,wording the ,proposition4 ,the proposition should be accurately worded4 ,in law if the word burglary is used in the indictment1 the defense1 in order to quash the charge1 need show merely that a door was unlocked4 ,the phrasing should be as simple and concise as possible4 ,the proposition should not cover too wide a field4 ,although these directions seem self-evident they should be kept in mind continually4 ,when the proposition is satisfactory to the maker of the argument he is ready to begin to build his proof4 ,in actual speech-making few arguments can be made as convincing as a geometrical demonstration but a speaker can try to make his reasoning so sound1 his development so cogent1 his delivery so convincing1 that at the end of his speech1 he can exclaim triumphantly1 ,quod erat demonstrandum4 ,burden of ,proof4 ,every argument presupposes the opposite side4 ,even when only one speaker appears his remarks always indicate the possibility of opposite views in the minds of some of the hearers4 ,the affirmative and negative are always present4 ,it is frequently asserted that the burden of proof is on the negative4 ,this is no more correct than the opposite statement would be4 ,the place of the burden of proof depends entirely upon the wording of the proposition and the statement it makes4 ,in general the burden of proof is upon the side which proposes any change of existing conditions1 the side which supports innovations1 which would introduce new methods4 ,with the passage of time the burden of proof may shift from one side to the other4 ,there was a time when the burden of proof was upon the advocates of woman suffrage2 today it is undoubtedly upon the opponents4 ,at one period the opponents of the study of ,latin and ,greek had the burden of proof1 now the supporters of such study have it4 ,other topics upon which the burden of proof has shifted are popular election of ,senators1 prohibition1 ,league of ,nations1 self-determination of small nations1 the study of vocations1 civics1 and current topics in schools1 an all-year school term1 higher salaries for teachers1 the benefits of labor unions1 ,americanization of the foreign born4 ,evidence4 ,one of the best ways of proving a statement is by giving evidence of its truth4 ,evidence is made up of facts which support any proposition4 ,in court a witness when giving testimony 7evidence7 is not allowed to give opinions or beliefs--he is continually warned to offer only what he knows of the fact4 ,it is upon the facts marshaled before it that the jury is charged to render its verdict4 ,direct ,evidence4 ,evidence may be of two kinds--direct and indirect4 ,this second1 especially in legal matters1 is termed circumstantial evidence4 ,direct evidence consists of facts that apply directly to the proposition under consideration4 ,if a man sees a street car passenger take a wallet from another man's pocket and has him arrested at once and the wallet is found in his pocket1 that constitutes direct evidence4 ,outside criminal cases the same kind of assured testimony can be cited as direct evidence4 ,circumstantial ,evidence4 ,in most cases in court such direct evidence is the exception rather than the rule1 for a man attempting crime would shun circumstances in which his crime would be witnessed4 ,indirect evidence--circumstantial evidence--is much more usual4 ,it lacks the certainty of direct evidence1 yet from the known facts presented it is often possible to secure almost the same certainty as from direct evidence4 ,in serious crimes1 such as murder1 juries are extremely cautious about convicting upon circumstantial evidence4 ,there are many chances of error in making chains of evidence4 ,in indirect evidence a group of facts is presented from which a conclusion is attempted4 ,suppose a boy had trouble with a farmer and had been heard to threaten to get even4 ,one day the man struck him with a whip as he passed on the road4 ,that night the farmer's barn was set on fire4 ,neighbors declared they saw some one running from the scene4 ,next day the boy told his companions he was glad of the loss4 ,circumstantial evidence points to the boy as the culprit4 ,yet what might the facts be8 ,in presenting arguments get as much direct evidence as possible to prove your statements4 ,when direct evidence cannot be secured1 link your indirect evidence so closely that it presents not a single weak link4 ,let the conclusion you draw from it be the only possible one4 ,make certain no one else can interpret it in any other way4 ,when you present evidence be sure it completely covers your contention4 ,be sure it is clear4 ,be sure it fits in with all the other facts and details presented4 ,do not let it conflict with usual human experience4 ,consider the sources of your evidence4 ,if you do not1 you can be certain your audience will4 ,are your sources reliable8 ,is the information authoritative8 ,is it first-hand material1 or merely hearsay8 ,is it unprejudiced8 ,many of the other facts for evidence have already been suggested in the chapter on getting material4 ,two ,general ,methods of ,reasoning4 ,frequently the evidence to be used in argumentation must be interpreted before it can be of any value1 especially when dealing with propositions of expediency or policy4 ,there are two general methods of reasoning4 ,one is the inductive method1 the other the deductive4 ,inductive ,reasoning4 ,when we discover that a certain operation repeated many times always produces the same result we feel justified in concluding that we can announce it as a universal law4 ,after thousands of falling bodies have been measured and always give the same figures1 scientists feel that they may state the law that all falling bodies acquire an acceleration of #cb4b feet per second4 ,this illustrates the inductive method of reasoning4 ,in this system we reason from the specific instance to the general law1 from the particular experiment to the universal theory1 from the concrete instance to the wide principle4 ,all modern science is based upon this method--the experimental one4 ,all general theories of any kind today must--to be accepted--be supported by long and careful consideration of all possible and probable circumstances4 ,the theory of evolution as applied to the living things upon the earth is the result of countless observations and experiments4 ,hasty ,generalization4 ,the speaker cannot himself examine all the specific instances1 he cannot consider all the illustrations which might support his position1 but he must be careful of a too hasty generalization4 ,having talked with a dozen returned soldiers he may not declare that all ,american army men are glad to be out of ,france1 for had he investigated a little further he might have found an equal number who regret the return to this land4 ,he must base his general statement on so many instances that his conclusion will convince not only him1 but people disposed to oppose his view4 ,he must be better prepared to show the truth of his declaration than merely to dismiss an example which does not fit into his scheme by glibly asserting that exceptions prove the rule4 ,he must show that what seems to contradict him is in nature an exception and therefore has nothing at all to do with his rule4 ,beginning speakers are quite prone to this fault of too hasty generalization4 ,,exercises #a4 ,write down five general theories or statements which have been established by inductive reasoning4 #b4 ,is there any certainty that they will stand unchanged forever8 #c4 ,under what circumstances are such changes made8 #d4 ,can you cite any accepted laws or theories of past periods which have been overturned8 ,deductive ,reasoning4 ,after general laws have been established1 either by human experience or accepted inductive reasoning1 they may be cited as applying to any particular case under consideration4 ,this passing from the general law to the particular instance is deductive reasoning4 ,deductive reasoning has a regular form called the syllogism4 ,major premise4 ,all men are mortal4 ,minor premise4 ,socrates is a man4 ,conclusion4 ,therefore1 ,socrates is mortal4 ,if the three parts of a syllogism are correct it has absolute convincing power4 ,most attempts to disprove its statement attack the first two statements4 ,although it carries such an air of certainty it is likely to many errors in use4 ,an error like this is common3 ,all horses are animals4 ,all cows are animals4 ,therefore1 all cows are horses4 ,explain the fallacy in this syllogism4 ,quite as frequently the incorrect syllogism is of this kind4 ,the edge of a stream is a bank4 ,a bank is a financial institution4 ,therefore1 the edge of a stream is a financial institution4 ,you will comment upon this that its evident silliness would prevent any speaker from using such a form in serious argument4 ,but recall that in the discussion of any idea a term may get its meaning slightly changed4 ,in that slight change of meaning lurks the error illustrated here1 ready to lead to false reasoning and weakening of the argument4 ,certain words of common use are likely to such shifting meanings--republic1 equality1 representative1 monarchy1 socialistic4 ,any doubtful passage in which such an error is suspected should be reduced to its syllogistic form to be tested for accuracy4 ,a representative of the people must vote always as they would vote4 ,a ,congressman is a representative of the people4 ,therefore1 ,congressmen must vote always as the people who elect them would vote4 ,is not the expression1 representative of the people1 here used in two different senses8 ,when an argument is delivered1 one of the premises--being a statement which the speaker assumes everyone will admit as true--is sometimes omitted4 ,this shortened form is called an enthymeme4 ,smith will be a successful civil engineer for he is a superior mathematician4 ,supply the missing premise4 ,which is it8 ,in the bald1 simple forms here set down1 the syllogism and enthymeme are hardly suited to delivery in speeches4 ,they must be amplified1 explained1 emphasized1 in order to serve a real purpose4 ,the following represent better the way a speaker uses deductive reasoning4 ,the appointing power is vested in the ,president and ,senate2 this is the general rule of the ,constitution4 ,the removing power is part of the appointing power2 it cannot be separated from the rest4 ,,daniel ,,webster3 ,the ,appointing and ,removing ,power1 #ahce ,then ,daniel ,webster stated in rather extended form the conclusion that the ,senate should share in the removing proceedings4 ,sir1 those who espouse the doctrines of nullification reject1 as it seems to me1 the first great principle of all republican liberty2 that is1 that the majority must govern4 ,in matters of common concern1 the judgment of a majority must stand as the judgment of the whole4 ,,daniel ,,webster3 ,reply to ,calhoun1 #ahec ,then1 he argues1 as these revenue laws were passed by a majority1 they must be obeyed in ,south ,carolina4 ,methods of ,proof4 ,in extended arguments1 just as in detailed exposition1 many different methods of proof may be employed4 ,explanation4 ,often a mere clear explanation will induce a listener to accept your view of the truth of a proposition4 ,you have heard men say1 ,oh1 if that is what you mean1 ,i agree with you entirely4 ,i simply didn't understand you4 ,when you are about to engage in argument consider this method of exposition to see if it will suffice4 ,in all argument there is a great deal of formal or incidental explanation4 ,authority4 ,when authority is cited to prove a statement it must be subjected to the same tests in argument as in explanation4 ,is the authority reliable8 ,is he unprejudiced8 ,does his testimony fit in with the circumstances under consideration8 ,will his statements convince a person likely to be on the opposing side8 ,why has so much so-called authoritative information concerning conditions in ,europe been so discounted8 ,is it not because the reporters are likely to be prejudiced and because while what they say may be true of certain places and conditions it does not apply to all the points under discussion8 ,the speaker who wants the support of authority will test it as carefully as though its influence is to be used against him--as indeed1 it frequently is4 ,examples4 ,where examples are used in argumentation they must serve as more than mere illustrations4 ,in exposition an illustration frequently explains1 but that same example would have no value in argument because while it illustrates it does not prove4 ,a suppositious example may serve in explanation2 only a fact will serve as proof4 ,the more inevitable its application1 the more clinching its effect1 the better its argumentative value4 ,notice how the two examples given below prove that the heirs of a literary man might be the very worst persons to own the copyrights of his writings since as owners they might suppress books which the world of readers should be able to secure easily4 ,while these examples illustrate1 do they not also prove8 ,i remember ,richardson's grandson well2 he was a clergyman in the city of ,london2 he was a most upright and excellent man2 but he had conceived a strong prejudice against works of fiction4 ,he thought all novel-reading not only frivolous but sinful4 ,he said--this ,i state on the authority of one of his clerical brethren who is now a bishop--he said that he had never thought it right to read one of his grandfather's books4 ,i will give another instance4 ,one of the most instructive1 interesting1 and delightful books in our language is ,boswell's ,life of ,johnson4 ,now it is well known that ,boswell's eldest son considered this book1 considered the whole relation of ,boswell to ,johnson1 as a blot in the escutcheon of the family4 ,,thomas ,,babington ,,macaulay3 ,copyright1 #ahda ,analogy4 ,in argument by analogy the speaker attempts to prove that because certain things are known to be true in something that can be observed they are likely to be true in something else which in so far as it can be observed is quite like the first4 ,we continually argue by analogy in daily life4 ,lincoln was really using analogy when he replied to the urging to change his army leaders during the ,civil ,war1 that he didn't think it wise to swap horses while crossing a stream4 ,scientists use this method to draw conclusions when it is impossible to secure from actual observation or experiment a certain last step in the reasoning4 ,the planet ,mars and the earth are similar in practically all observable matters2 they are about the same distance from the sun1 they have the same surface conditions4 ,the earth has living creatures upon it4 ,hence--so goes the reasoning of analogy--,mars is probably inhabited4 ,reasoning by analogy is used to prove that universal suffrage is good for the ,united ,states because it has been good for one particular state4 ,a student may argue by analogy that the elective system should be introduced into all high schools1 because it has been followed in colleges4 ,it may be asserted that a leading bank president will make a good university president1 because he has managed one complex institution4 ,the essence of all good reasoning by analogy is that the two things considered must be so nearly alike in all that is known that the presumption of belief is that they must also be alike in the one point the arguer is trying to establish4 ,this is the test he must apply to his own analogy arguments4 ,our community frowns with indignation upon the profaneness of the duel1 having its rise in this irrational point of honor4 ,are you aware that you indulge the same sentiment on a gigantic scale1 when you recognize this very point of honor as a proper apology for war8 ,we have already seen that justice is in no respect promoted by war4 ,is true honor promoted where justice is not8 ,,charles ,,sumner3 ,the ,true ,grandeur of ,nations1 #ahde ,residues4 ,the method of residues is frequently employed when the speaker is supporting a policy to be carried out1 a measure to be adopted1 a change to be instituted1 or a law to be passed4 ,granting the assumption that something must be done he considers all the various methods which may be employed1 disposes of them one by one as illegal1 or unsuited1 or clumsy1 or inexpedient1 leaving only one1 the one he wants adopted1 as the one which must be followed4 ,this is a good practical method of proof1 provided the speaker really considers all the possible ways of proceeding and does show the undesirability of all except the one remaining4 ,a speaker pleading for the installation of a commission form of city control might list all the possible ways of city government1 a business manager1 a mayor1 a commission4 ,by disposing completely of the first two1 he would have proven the need for the last4 ,a good speaker will aways go farther than merely to reach this kind of conclusion4 ,he will1 in addition to disproving the unworthy choices1 strongly support his residue1 the measure he wants adopted4 ,in supporting amounts of taxes1 assessments1 etc41 this method may be used4 ,one amount can be proven so large as to cause unrest1 another so small as to be insufficient1 a third to produce a total just large enough to meet all anticipated expenses with no surplus for emergencies2 therefore the correct amount must be just larger than this but not reaching an amount likely to produce the result caused by the first considered4 ,used in trials of criminal cases it eliminates motives until a single inevitable remainder cannot be argued away4 ,this may be the clue to follow1 or it may be the last one of all suspected persons4 ,burke considered several possible ways of dealing with the ,american colonies2 one he dismissed as no more than a sally of anger1 a second could not be operated because of the distance1 a scheme of ,lord ,north's he proved would complicate rather than settle matters1 to change the spirit of ,america was impossible1 to prosecute it as criminal was inexpedient1 therefore but one way remained1 to conciliate the spirit of discontent by letting the colonies vote their own taxes4 ,it is interesting that what ,burke described as the sally of anger was the way the matter was actually settled--,great ,britain had to give up the ,american colonies4 ,this method is also called elimination4 ,cause to ,effect4 ,just as the explainer may pass from cause to effect so may the arguer4 ,other names for this method are antecedent probability and a priori argument4 ,in argument from a known cause an effect is proven as having occurred or as likely to occur4 ,in solving crime this is the method which uses the value of the motives for crime as known to exist in the feelings or sentiments of a certain accused person4 ,a person trying to secure the passage of a certain law will prove that it as the cause will produce certain effects which make it desirable4 ,changed conditions in the ,united ,states will be brought forward as the cause to prove that the ,federal government must do things never contemplated by the framers of the ,constitution4 ,great military organization as the cause of the recent war is used now in argument to carry on the plea for the securing of peace by disarmament4 ,the main difficulty in reasoning from cause to effect is to make the relationship so clear and so close that one thing will be accepted by everybody as the undisputed cause of the alleged effect4 ,effect to ,cause4 ,in reasoning from effect to cause the reverse method is employed4 ,this is also termed argument from sign or the a posteriori method4 ,in it1 from some known effect the reasoning proves that it is the result of a certain specified cause4 ,statistics indicating business prosperity might be used as the effect from which the arguer proves that they are caused by a high protective tariff4 ,a speaker shows the good effects upon people to prove that certain laws--claimed as the causes--should be extended in application4 ,arguments from effect to cause may be extremely far reaching2 as every effect leads to some cause1 which is itself the effect of some other cause1 and so on almost to infinity4 ,the good speaker will use just those basic causes which prove his proposition--no more4 ,in actual practice the two forms of reasoning from cause to effect and from effect to cause are frequently combined to make the arguments all the more convincing4 ,grouped together they are termed causal relations4 ,persuasion4 ,when a speaker has conclusively proven what he has stated in his proposition1 is his speech ended8 ,in some cases1 yes2 in many cases1 no4 ,mere proof appeals to the intellect only2 it settles matters perhaps1 but leaves the hearer cold and humanly inactive4 ,he may feel like saying1 ,well1 even if what you say is true1 what are you going to do about it8 ,mathematical and scientific proofs exist for mere information1 but most arguments delivered before audiences have a purpose4 ,they try to make people do something4 ,a group of people should be aroused to some determination of purposeful thought if not to a registered act at the time4 ,in days of great stress the appeal to action brought the immediate response in military enlistments2 in enrollment for war work2 in pledges of service2 in signing membership blanks and subscription blanks2 in spontaneous giving4 ,persuasion ,produces a ,response4 ,the end of most argumentative speaking is to produce a response4 ,it may be the casting of a vote1 the joining of a society1 the repudiation of an unworthy candidate1 the demonstrating of the solidarity of labor1 the affiliating with a religious sect1 the changing of a mode of procedure1 the purchasing of a new church organ1 the wearing of simpler fashions1 or any of the thousand and one things a patient listener is urged to do in the course of his usual life4 ,when the speaker passes on from mere convincing to appealing for some response he has passed from argumentation to persuasion4 ,nearly every argumentative speech dealing with a proposition of policy shows first what ought to be done1 then tries to induce people to do it1 by appealing as strongly as possible to their practical1 esthetic1 or moral interests4 ,all such interests depend upon what we call sentiments or feelings to which worthy--note the word worthy--appeals may legitimately be addressed4 ,attempts to arouse unworthy motives by stirring up ignorance and prejudice are always to be most harshly condemned4 ,such practices have brought certain kinds of so-called persuasion into well-deserved contempt4 ,the high sounding spell-binder with his disgusting spread-eagleism cannot be muzzled by law1 but he may be rendered harmless by vacant chairs and empty halls4 ,real eloquence is not a thing of noise and exaggeration4 ,beginning speakers should avoid the tawdry imitation as they would a plague4 ,elements of ,persuasion4 ,what elements may aid the persuasive power of a speech8 ,first of all1 the occasion may be just the right one4 ,the surroundings may have prepared the audience for the effect the speaker should make if he knows how to seize upon the opportunity for his own purpose4 ,the speaker must know how to adapt himself to the circumstances present4 ,in other cases1 he must be able to do the much more difficult thing--adapt the circumstances to his purpose4 ,secondly1 the subject matter itself may prepare for the persuasive treatment in parts4 ,everyone realizes this4 ,when emotional impulses are present in the material the introduction of persuasion is inevitable and fitting1 if not overdone4 ,thirdly1 the essence of persuasion depends upon the speaker4 ,all the good characteristics of good speaking will contribute to the effect of his attempts at persuasion4 ,a good speaker is sincere to the point of winning respect even when he does not carry conviction4 ,he is in earnest4 ,he is simple and unaffected4 ,he has tact4 ,he is fair to every antagonistic attitude4 ,he has perfect self-control4 ,he does not lose his temper4 ,he can show a proper sense of humor4 ,he has genuine sympathy4 ,and finally--perhaps it includes all the preceding--he has personal magnetism4 ,with such qualities a speaker can make an effective appeal by means of persuasion4 ,if upon self-criticism and self-examination1 or from outside kindly comment1 he concludes he is lacking in any one of these qualities he should try to develop it4 ,,exercises ,prepare and deliver speeches upon some of the following or upon propositions suggested by them4 ,if the speech is short1 try to employ only one method of proof1 but make it convincing4 ,where suitable1 add persuasive elements4 #a4 ,make a proposition from one of the following topics4 ,deliver an argumentative speech upon it4 ,the next election4 ,entrance to college4 ,child labor4 ,the study of the classics4 ,the study of science4 #b4 ,recommend changes which will benefit your school1 your club or society1 your church1 your town1 your state4 #c4 ,the ,japanese should be admitted to the ,united ,states upon the same conditions as other foreigners4 #d4 ,men and women should receive the same pay for the same work done4 #e4 ,all church property should be taxed4 #f4 ,all laws prohibiting secular employment on ,sunday should be repealed4 #g4 ,the purely protective tariff should be withdrawn from goods the manufacture of which has been firmly established in this country4 #h4 ,large incomes should be subject to a graduated income tax4 #i4 ,employers should not be forced to recognize labor unions4 #aj4 ,immigration into the ,united ,states of persons who cannot read or write some language should be prohibited1 except dependents upon such qualified entrants4 #aa4 ,an amendment should be added to the ,constitution providing for uniform marriage and divorce laws throughout the entire country4 #ab4 ,a city is the best place for a college4 #ac4 ,military training should be obligatory in all public schools4 #ad4 ,colleges and universities should reduce the attention paid to athletics4 #ae4 ,the negro in the ,south should be disfranchised4 #af4 ,the number of ,representatives in ,congress should be reduced4 #ag4 ,moving pictures should be used in schools4 #ah4 ,street car systems should be owned and operated by municipalities4 #ai4 ,education should be compulsory until the completion of high school4 #bj4 ,athletes whose grade is below #ge should be debarred from all participation until the marks are raised4 #ba4 ,the ,federal government should own and operate the telegraph and telephone systems4 #bb4 ,the state should provide pensions for indigent mothers of children below the working age4 #bc4 ,the study of algebra 7or some other subject7 in the high school should be elective4 #bd ,the initiative should be adopted in all states4 #be4 ,the referendum should be adopted in all states4 #bf4 ,all governmental officials should be subject to recall4 #bg4 ,the public should support in all ways the movement of labor to secure the closed shop system4 #bh4 ,railroad crossings should be abolished4 #bi4 ,the ,federal government should pass laws controlling all prices of foodstuffs4 #cj4 ,a trial before a group of competent judges should be substituted for trial by jury4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,refuting ,answering the ,other ,side4 ,it has been said already that even in a single argumentative speech some account must be taken of the possibility among the audience of the belief in other views4 ,a speaker must always assume that people will believe otherwise than he does4 ,in such cases as debate or questioning after a speech is made1 this opposing side will very clearly be brought out1 so that any person training for any kind of public speaking will give much attention to the contentions of others in order to strengthen his own convictions as displayed in his speeches4 ,a sincere thinker may believe that trial before a group of competent judges is a better procedure than trial by jury4 ,were he to speak upon such a proposition he would realize that he would meet at once the solid opposition of the general opinion that jury trials1 sanctioned by long practice1 are in some mysterious way symbolic of the liberty and equality of mankind4 ,before he could expect to arouse sympathetic understanding he would have to answer all the possible objections and reasons against his new scheme4 ,this he would do by refutation1 by disproving the soundness of the arguments against his scheme4 ,he could cite the evident and recorded injustices committed by juries4 ,he could bring before them the impossibility of securing an intelligent verdict from a group of farmers1 anxious to get to their farms for harvest1 sitting in a case through ,july1 while the days passed in lengthy examinations of witnesses--one man was on the stand eight days--and the lawyers bandied words and names like socialist1 pagan1 bolsheviki1 anarchy1 ideal republic1 ,aristotle1 ,plato1 ,herbert ,spencer1 ,karl ,marx1 ,tolstoi1 ,jane ,addams1 ,lenin4 ,then when he felt assured he had removed all the reasons for supporting the present jury system he could proceed to advance his own substitute4 ,need and ,value of ,refutation4 ,in all argumentation1 therefore1 refutation is valuable and necessary4 ,by it opposing arguments are reasoned away1 their real value is determined1 or they are answered and demolished if they are false or faulty4 ,to acquire any readiness as a speaker or debater a person must pay a great deal of attention to refutation4 ,it has also an additional value4 ,it has been stated that every argumentative speaker must study the other side of every question upon which he is to speak4 ,one great debater declared that if he had time to study only one side of a proposition or law case he would devote that time to the other side4 ,study your own position from the point of view of the other side4 ,consider carefully what arguments that side will naturally advance4 ,in fact1 try to refute your own arguments exactly as some opponent would1 or get some friend to try to refute your statements4 ,many a speaker has gained power in reasoning by having his views attacked by members of his family who would individually and collectively try to drive him into a corner4 ,in actual amount1 perhaps you will never deliver as much refutation of an opponent as you will conjure up in your mind against your own speeches4 ,perhaps1 also1 this great amount advanced by you in testing your own position will prevent your opponents from ever finding in your delivered arguments much against which they can pit their own powers of refutation4 ,in judging your own production you will have to imagine yourself on the other side1 so the methods will be the same for all purposes of self-help or weakening of an opponent's views4 ,contradiction ,is ,not ,refutation4 ,in the first place contradiction is not refutation4 ,no unsupported fact or statement has any value in argumentation4 ,such expressions as ,i don't believe1 ,i don't think so1 ,i don't agree introduce not arguments1 but personal opinions4 ,you must1 to make your refutation valuable1 prove your position4 ,never allow your attempts at refutation to descend to mere denial or quibbling4 ,be prepared to support1 to prove everything you say4 ,three ,phases of ,refutation4 ,in general1 refutation consists of three phases3 #a4 ,the analysis of the opposite side4 #b4 ,the classification of the arguments according to importance4 #c4 ,the answering of only the strongest points4 ,analysis of ,opposing ,side for ,accuracy4 ,in the first analysis1 you will probably examine the opposing statements to test their accuracy4 ,mere slips1 so evident that they deceive no one1 you may disregard entirely1 but gross error of fact or conclusion you should note and correct in unmistakably plain terms4 ,the kind of statement which gives insufficient data should be classed in analysis with this same kind of erroneous statement4 ,a shoe dealer in arguing for increased prices might quote correctly the rising cost of materials1 but if he stopped there1 you in refutation should be able to show that profits had already risen to #eg1 and so turn his own figures against him4 ,another class of refutation similar to this is the questioning of authorities4 ,something concerning this has already been said4 ,in a recent trial a lawyer cast doubt upon the value of a passage read from a book by declaring its author could never have written such a thing4 ,in refutation the opposing lawyer said1 ,you will find that passage on page #bec of his ,essays and ,letters4 ,public speakers1 realizing that errors of statement are likely to be the first to be picked out for correction1 and recognizing the damaging effect of such conviction in error of fact and testimony1 are extremely careful not to render themselves liable to attack upon such points4 ,yet they may4 ,we are told by ,webster's biographers that in later periods of his life he was detected in errors of law in cases being argued before the court1 and refuted in statement4 ,to catch such slips requires two things of the successful speaker4 ,he must be in possession of the facts himself4 ,he must be mentally alert to see the falsity and know how to answer it4 ,begging the ,question4 ,the expression begging the question is often heard as a fallacy in argument4 ,in its simplest form it is similar to inaccurate statement1 for it includes assertions introduced without proof1 and the statement of things as taken for granted without attempting to prove them1 yet using them to prove other statements4 ,sometimes1 also1 a careless thinker1 through an extended group of paragraphs will end by taking as proven exactly the proposition he started out to prove1 when close analysis will show that nowhere during the discussion does he actually prove it4 ,as this is frequent in amateur debates1 students should be on their guard against it4 ,ignoring the ,question4 ,the same kind of flimsy mental process results in ignoring the question4 ,instead of sticking closely to the proposition to be proved the speaker argues beside the point1 proving not the entire proposition but merely a portion of it4 ,or in some manner he may shift his ground and emerge1 having proven the wrong point or something he did not start out to consider4 ,an amateur theatrical producer whose playhouse had been closed by the police for violating the terms of his license started out to defend his action1 but ended by proving that all men are equal4 ,in fact he wound up by quoting the poem by ,burns1 ,a ,man's a ,man for ,a' ,that4 ,such a shifting of propositions is a frequent error of speakers4 ,it occurs so often that one might be disposed to term it a mere trick to deceive1 or a clever though unscrupulous device to secure support for a weak claim4 ,one of the first ways for the speaker to avoid it is to be able to recognize it when it occurs4 ,one of the most quoted instances of its effective unmasking is the following by ,macaulay4 ,the advocates of ,charles1 like the advocates of other malefactors against whom overwhelming evidence is produced1 generally decline all controversy about the facts1 and content themselves with calling testimony to character4 ,he had so many private virtues6 ,and had ,james the ,second no private virtues6 ,was ,oliver ,cromwell1 his bitterest enemies themselves being judges1 destitute of private virtues8 ,and what1 after all1 are the virtues ascribed to ,charles8 ,a religious zeal1 not more sincere than that of his son1 and fully as weak and narrow-minded1 and a few of the ordinary household decencies which half the tombstones in ,england claim for those who lie beneath them4 ,a good father6 ,a good husband6 ,ample apologies indeed for fifteen years of persecution1 tyranny1 and falsehood6 ,we charge him with having broken his coronation oath2 and we are told that he kept his marriage vow6 ,we accuse him of having given up his people to merciless inflictions of the most hot-headed and hard-hearted of prelates2 and the defence is1 that he took his little son on his knee and kissed him6 ,we censure him for having violated the articles of the ,petition of ,right1 after having1 for good and valuable consideration1 promised to observe them2 and we are informed that he was accustomed to hear prayers at six o'clock in the morning6 ,it is to such considerations as these1 together with his ,vandyke dress1 his handsome face1 and his peaked beard1 that he owes1 we verily believe1 most of his popularity with the present generation4 ,appealing to ,prejudice or ,passions4 ,the question is also ignored when the speaker appeals to the prejudices or passions of his audience 7argumentum ad populum74 ,persons of some intellect resent this as almost an insult if they are in the audience1 yet it is often resorted to by speakers who would rather produce the effect they desire by the use of any methods1 right or wrong4 ,its use in court by unscrupulous lawyers to win decisions is checked by attempts on the part of judges to counteract it in their charges to the jury1 but its influence may still persist4 ,mark ,antony in ,shakespere's play1 ,julius ,caesar1 used it in his oration over the dead body of ,caesar to further his own ends4 ,taking ,advantage of ,ignorance4 ,just as a speaker may take advantage of the prejudices and passions of an audience1 so he may take advantage of their ignorance4 ,against the blankness of their brains he may hurl unfamiliar names to dazzle them1 cite facts of all kinds to impress them1 show a wide knowledge of all sorts of things1 play up to them in every way1 until they become so impressed that they are ready to accept as truth anything he chooses to tell them4 ,any daily paper will provide examples of the sad results of the power of this kind of fallacious reasoning4 ,the get-rich-quick schemes1 the worthless stock deals1 the patent medicine quacks1 the extravagantly worded claims of new religions and faddist movements1 all testify to the power this form of seemingly convincing argument has over the great mass of the ignorant4 ,the ,fallacy of ,tradition4 ,in discussing the burden of proof it was said that such burden rests upon the advocate of change1 or novel introductions1 etc4 ,this tendency of the people at large to be rather conservative in practice links with the fallacy of tradition1 the belief that whatever is1 is right4 ,in many cases such a faith is worse than wrong1 it is pernicious4 ,many of the questions concerning relations of modern society--as capital and labor--are based upon this fallacy4 ,henry ,clay was guilty of it when he announced1 ,two hundred years of legislation have sanctioned and sanctified negro slaves as property4 ,the successful way to dispose of such a fallacy is illustrated by ,william ,ellery ,channing's treatment of this statement4 ,but this property1 we are told1 is not to be questioned on account of its long duration4 ,two hundred years of legislation have sanctioned and sanctified negro slaves as property4 ,nothing but respect for the speaker could repress criticism on this unhappy phraseology4 ,we will trust it escaped him without thought4 ,but to confine ourselves to the argument from duration2 how obvious the reply6 ,is injustice changed into justice by the practice of the ages8 ,is my victim made a righteous prey because ,i have bowed him to the earth till he cannot rise8 ,for more than two hundred years heretics were burned1 and not by mobs1 not by lynch law1 but by the decrees of the councils1 at the instigation of theologians1 and with the sanction of the laws and religions of nations2 and was this a reason for keeping up the fires1 that they had burned two hundred years8 ,in the ,eastern world successive despots1 not for two hundred years1 but for twice two thousand have claimed the right of life and death over millions1 and1 with no law but their own will1 have beheaded1 bowstrung1 starved1 tortured unhappy men without number who have incurred their wrath2 and does the lapse of so many centuries sanctify murder and ferocious power8 ,attacking a ,speaker's ,character or ,principles4 ,sometimes a speaker who finds himself unable to attack the truth of a proposition1 or the arguments cited to support it1 changes his tactics from the subject-matter to the opponent himself and delivers an attack upon his character1 principles1 or former beliefs and statements4 ,this is called the argumentum ad hominem4 ,in no sense is it really argument2 it is irrelevant attack1 and should be answered in a clear accurate demonstration of its unsuitability to the topic under consideration4 ,it is unworthy1 of course1 but it is a tempting device for the speaker who can combine with it an appeal to the prejudices or passions of his audience4 ,the author has seen the entire population of ,rome agitated because in a ,senatorial debate one speaker attacked the family reputation of one of his opponents--a matter which1 even if true1 certainly had nothing to do with the bill under discussion4 ,political campaigns used to be disgraced by a prevalence of such appeals for votes4 ,we may pride ourselves upon an advance in such matters1 but there is still too much of it to let us congratulate ourselves upon our political good manners4 ,you cannot ascribe bad faith to a man who argues now from a different attitude from the one he formerly supported4 ,changes of conviction are frequent in all matters4 ,a man must be judged by the reasons he gives for his position at any one time4 ,many a person1 who ten years ago would have argued against it1 now believes a ,league of ,nations possible and necessary4 ,many a person who a few years back could see no advantage in labor organizations is anxious now to join an affiliated union4 ,if you find the suggestion of such an attack in any of your own speeches1 cast it out4 ,if it is ever used against you1 refute it by the strength of arguments you deliver in support of your position4 ,remove all assertions which do not relate to the debated topic4 ,make your audience sympathize with your repudiation of the remarks of your opponent1 even though he has succeeded in delivering them4 ,fallacies of ,causal ,relationship4 ,the various fallacies that may be committed under the relation of cause and effect are many4 ,just because something happened prior to something else 7the effect71 the first may be mistakenly quoted as the cause4 ,or the reverse may be the error--the second may be assumed to be the effect of the first4 ,the way to avoid this fallacy was suggested in the discussion of explanation by means of cause and effect where the statement was made that two events must not be merely sequential1 they must be consequential4 ,in argument the slightest gap in the apparent relationship is likely to result in poor reasoning1 and the consequent fallacy may be embodied in the speech4 ,when people argue to prove that superstitions have come true1 do they present clear reasoning to show conclusively that the alleged cause--such as sitting thirteen at table--actually produced the effect of a death8 ,do they establish a close causal relationship1 or do they merely assert that after a group of thirteen had sat at table some one did die8 ,mathematically1 would the law of chance or probability not indicate that such a thing would happen a little less surely if the number had been twelve1 a little more surely if fourteen8 ,common sense1 clear headedness1 logical reasoning1 and a wide knowledge of all kinds of things will enable a speaker to recognize these fallacies1 anticipate them1 and successfully refute them4 ,methods of ,refuting4 ,having found the fallacies in an argument you should proceed to refute them4 ,just how you can best accomplish your purpose of weakening your opponent's position1 of disposing of his arguments1 of answering his contentions1 must depend always upon the particular circumstances of the occasion1 of the material presented1 of the attitude of the judges or audience1 of your opponent himself1 and of the purpose you are striving to accomplish4 ,practice1 knowledge1 skill1 will in such cases all serve your end4 ,you should be able to choose1 and effectively use the best4 ,it is impossible to anticipate and provide for all the possibilities1 but a few of the most common probabilities and the methods of dealing with them can be here set down4 ,courteous ,correction4 ,in case of apparent error or over-sight you will do well to be courteous rather than over-bearing and dictatorial in your correction4 ,never risk losing an advantage by driving your audience into sympathy for your opponent by any manner of your own4 ,a newspaper discussing the objections made to the covenant of the ,league of ,nations points out an over-sight in this way3 ,how did ,senator ,knox happen to overlook the fact that his plan for compulsory arbitration is embodied in ,article ,,xii of the proposed covenant8 ,refuting ,incorrect ,analogy4 ,the caution was given that reasoning from analogy must show the complete correspondence in all points possible of the known from which the reasoning proceeds to the conclusion about the unknown1 which then is to be accepted as true4 ,unless that complete correspondence is established firmly the speaker is likely to have his carefully worked out analogy demolished before his eyes4 ,notice how such refutation is clearly demonstrated in the following4 ,so it does2 but the sophistry here is plain enough1 although it is not always detected4 ,great genius and force of character undoubtedly make their own career4 ,but because ,walter ,scott was dull at school1 is a parent to see with joy that his son is a dunce8 ,because ,lord ,chatham was of a towering conceit1 must we infer that pompous vanity portends a comprehensive statesmanship that will fill the world with the splendor of its triumphs8 ,because ,sir ,robert ,walpole gambled and swore and boozed at ,houghton1 are we to suppose that gross sensuality and coarse contempt of human nature are the essential secrets of a power that defended liberty against tory intrigue and priestly politics8 ,was it because ,benjamin ,franklin was not college-bred that he drew the lightning from heaven and tore the scepter from the tyrant8 ,was it because ,abraham ,lincoln had little schooling that his great heart beat true to ,god and man1 lifting him to free a race and die for his country8 ,because men naturally great have done great service in the world without advantages1 does it follow that lack of advantage is the secret of success8 ,,george ,,william ,,curtis3 ,the ,public ,duty of ,educated ,men1 #ahgg ,reducing ,proof to ,absurdity4 ,a very good way of showing the unreliability of an opposing argument is to pretend to accept it as valid1 then carrying it on to a logical conclusion1 to show that its end proves entirely too much1 or that it reduces the entire chain of reasoning to absurdity4 ,this is1 in fact1 called reductio ad absurdum4 ,at times the conclusion is so plainly going to be absurd that the refuter need not carry its successive steps into actual delivery4 ,in speaking to large groups of people nothing is better than this for use as an effective weapon4 ,it gives the hearers the feeling that they have assisted in the damaging demonstration4 ,it almost seems as though the speaker who uses it were merely using--as he really is--material kindly presented to him by his opponent4 ,so the two actually contribute in refuting the first speaker's position4 ,congress only can declare war2 therefore1 when one ,state is at war with a foreign nation1 all must be at war4 ,the ,president and the ,senate only can make peace2 when peace is made for one ,state1 therefore1 it must be made for all4 ,can anything be conceived more preposterous1 than that any ,state should have power to nullify the proceedings of the general government respecting peace and war8 ,when war is declared by a law of ,congress1 can a single ,state nullify that law1 and remain at peace8 ,and yet she may nullify that law as well as any other4 ,if the ,president and ,senate make peace1 may one ,state1 nevertheless1 continue the war8 ,and yet1 if she can nullify a law1 she may quite as well nullify a treaty4 ,,daniel ,,webster3 ,the ,constitution ,not a ,compact between ,sovereign ,states1 #ahcc ,lincoln could always use this method of reductio ad absurdum most effectively because he seldom failed to accentuate the absurdity by some instance which made clear to the least learned the force of his argument4 ,many of his best remembered quaint and picturesque phrases were embodied in his serious demolition of some high-handed presumption of a political leader4 ,under all these circumstances1 do you really feel yourselves justified to break up this government unless such a court decision as yours is shall be at once submitted to as a conclusive and final rule of political action8 ,but you will not abide the election of a ,republican ,president6 ,in that supposed event1 you say1 you will destroy the ,union2 and then1 you say1 the great crime of having destroyed it will be upon us6 ,that is cool4 ,a highwayman holds a pistol to my ear1 and mutters through his teeth1 ,stand and deliver1 or ,i shall kill you1 and then you will be a murderer6 ,,abraham ,,lincoln3 ,cooper ,union ,speech1 #ahfj ,amplifying and ,diminishing4 ,finally a good method of refuting the claim of importance made for an opposing proposition is by amplifying and diminishing4 ,in plain terms this depends upon contrast in which you reduce the value of the opposing idea and emphasize the value of your own4 ,an excellent use for this is as a rapid summary at the end of your speech1 where it will leave in the hearer's mind an impression of the comparative value of the two views he has heard discussed1 with an inevitable sense of the unquestioned worth of one above the other4 ,burke sums up his extended refutations of ,lord ,north's plan for dealing with ,america in these telling contrasts4 ,compare the two4 ,this ,i offer to give you is plain and simple2 the other full of perplexed and intricate mazes4 ,this is mild2 that harsh4 ,this found by experience effectual for its purposes2 the other is a new project4 ,this is universal2 the other calculated for certain colonies only4 ,this is immediate in its conciliatory operation2 the other remote1 contingent1 full of hazard4 ,mine is what becomes the dignity of a ruling people--gratuitous1 unconditional--and not held out as a matter of bargain and sale4 ,,edmund ,,burke3 ,conciliation with ,america1 #agge ,position of ,refutation in the ,speech4 ,the position of refutation in the finished speech will depend always upon the nature of the proposition1 the exact method of the refutation1 and the audience4 ,if you are making the only speech upon the proposition and you feel that the audience may have a slight prejudice against what you are about to urge1 you may gain adherents at once by refuting at the beginning the possible arguments in their minds4 ,by this procedure you will clear the field for your own operations4 ,to change the figure of speech1 you erase from the slate what is already written there1 so that you may place upon it your own speech and its convictions4 ,if you are debating and the speaker just before you has evidently made the judges accept his arguments1 again you might remove that conviction by refutation before you proceed to build up your own side4 ,if your regular arguments meet his squarely1 proceed as you had planned1 but be sure when any reasoning you offer nullifies any he has delivered1 that you call the attention of the audience to the fact that you have wiped out his score4 ,in this way your constructive argument and refutation will proceed together4 ,you will save valuable time4 ,constructive ,argument ,is ,more ,valuable than ,refutation4 ,often the rebuttal speeches of debate1 coming at the close of the regular debate speeches1 seem reserved for all the refutation4 ,this is certainly the place for much refutation1 certainly not all4 ,the last speakers of the rebuttal speeches should never rest content with leaving only refutation in the hearers' minds4 ,if they do1 the debate may leave the condition entirely where it was at the beginning1 for theoretically every argument advanced by either side has been demolished by the other4 ,after the rebuttal the last points left with the judges should be constructive arguments4 ,in a single speech the refutation may be delivered in sections as the demands of coherence and the opportunities for emphasis may suggest4 ,here again1 always make the last section a constructive one with arguments in support of your proposition4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,debating ,the ,ideal of ,debating4 ,a long time ago so admirable a man as ,william ,penn stated the high ideal of all real debating whether practised in the limited range of school interests or in the extended field of life's activities4 ,in all debates let truth be thy aim1 not victory1 or an unjust interest2 and endeavor to gain1 rather than to expose thy antagonist4 ,the quotation states exactly the true aim of all debating--the conclusion of the right1 the truth rather than the securing of a decision over an opponent4 ,the same rules which animate the true lover of sports1 the clear distinction which is instilled into all participants of amateur athletics of the meanings and significance of the two terms sportsman and sport1 can be carried over to apply to school activities in debating4 ,honest differences of opinion among people upon countless questions will always furnish enough material for regular debating so that no one need ever do violence to his convictions4 ,value of ,debate4 ,one of the greatest educational values of practice in debate is that the ability it develops can be applied instantly in the life beyond the schoolroom1 that it operates in every person's daily life4 ,there are differences in the manner in which debating is carried on in the two places1 but practice in the earlier will result in skill and self-confidence in the second4 ,debate in ,actual ,life4 ,the most marked difference between debates in the two phases of life is the difference of form4 ,in academic circles debate is a well-regulated game between matched sides4 ,in actual life only in certain professions are the rules well defined4 ,in most cases the debating is disguised under different forms1 though the essential purposes and methods are the same4 ,debate between lawyers in courts--technically termed pleading--is the most formal of all professional debating4 ,its regulations are found in the stabilized court procedure which every lawyer must master and obey4 ,much looser than the formal debate of the court room is the speech-making of the legislative organization from the lowest township board meeting up to the ,senate of the ,united ,states4 ,of course the members of such bodies are regulated by certain restrictions1 but the speeches are not likely to be curbed in time as are academic performances1 nor are the speakers likely to follow a prearranged order1 nor are they always equally balanced in number1 nor do they agree so carefully upon team work4 ,sometimes in a legislative body the first speaker may be on the negative side1 which is quite contrary to all the rules of regularly conducted debates4 ,all the speakers may also be on one side of a measure1 the opposing side not deigning to reply1 resting secure in the knowledge of how many votes they can control when the real test of power comes4 ,most informal of all are the general discussions in which business matters are decided4 ,in these the speeches are never so set as in the two preceding kinds4 ,the men are less formal in their relations and addresses to one another4 ,the steps are less marked in their changes4 ,yet underneath the seeming lack of regulation there is the framework of debate1 for there is always present the sense of two sides upon every proposition1 whether it be the purchase of new office equipment for a distant agent1 an increase of salary for employees1 or the increase of capitalization4 ,certain speakers support some proposition4 ,others oppose it until they are convinced and won over to the affirmative side1 or until they are out-voted4 ,two men seated in an office may themselves be debaters1 audience1 and judges of their own argumentative opinions4 ,they may in themselves fill all the requirements of a real debate4 ,they deliver the speeches on the affirmative and negative sides4 ,each listens to the arguments of his opponent4 ,and finally1 the pair together give a decision upon the merits of the arguments presented4 ,on all such occasions the speakers need and use just those qualities which classroom training has developed in them--knowledge of material1 plan of presentation1 skill in expression1 conviction and persuasion of manner1 graceful acceptance of defeat4 ,debating ,demands a ,decision4 ,debating goes one step farther than merely argumentative speaking4 ,debating demands a decision upon the case1 it requires a judgment1 a registered action4 ,again in this respect it is like a game4 ,,exercises #a4 ,make a list of propositions which have been debated or might be debated in a courtroom4 #b4 ,make another list of propositions which have been debated or might be debated in legislative bodies4 #c4 ,make a list of propositions which might be debated in business4 #d4 ,as far as is possible1 indicate the decisions upon them4 #e4 ,choose some proposition on which there is considerable difference of opinion in the class4 ,make a list of those who favor and those who oppose4 ,speak upon the proposition1 alternating affirmative and negative4 #f4 ,discuss the speeches delivered in the fifth exercise4 ,persons ,involved in a ,debate4 ,who are the persons involved in a regular debate8 ,they are the presiding officer1 the speakers themselves1 the audience1 the judges4 ,the ,presiding ,officer4 ,every debate has a presiding officer4 ,the ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states is the presiding officer of the ,senate4 ,the ,speaker is the presiding officer of the ,house of ,representatives4 ,if you will refer to ,chapter ,,iv on ,beginning the ,speech you will see several other titles of presiding officers4 ,in school debates the head of the institution may act in that capacity1 or some person of note may be invited to preside4 ,in regular classroom work the instructor may serve as presiding officer1 or some member of the class may be chosen or appointed4 ,the latter method is the best--after the instructor has shown by example just what the duties of such a position are4 ,the presiding officer should announce the topic of debate in a short introductory speech4 ,he should read the names of the speakers on the affirmative and those on the negative side4 ,he should stipulate the terms of the debate--length of each speech1 time for rebuttal1 order of rebuttal1 method of keeping speakers within time limits1 conditions of judgment 7material1 presentation1 etc471 announce the judges1 and finally introduce the first speaker2 then the subsequent speakers4 ,at the close he might refer to the fact of the debate's being ended1 he might rehearse the conditions of judgment1 and request the judges to retire to consider their decision4 ,practice varies as to who shall deliver the decision of the judges to the audience4 ,sometimes the chairman elected by the judges announces the decision4 ,sometimes the judges hand the decision to the presiding officer who announces it4 ,the ,debaters4 ,beyond saying that the speakers must do their best1 there is nothing to be added here about their duty in the debate except to issue one warning to them in connection with the next personal element to be considered--the audience4 ,the ,audience4 ,debaters must remember that in practically no circumstances outside legislative bodies are the audience and the judges ever the same4 ,debaters argue to convince the judges--not the entire audience1 who are really as disconnected from the decision of the debate as are the straggling spectators and listeners in a courtroom detached from the jury who render the verdict of guilty or not guilty4 ,the debater must therefore speak for the judges1 not for his audience4 ,many a debating team has in the course of its speeches won all the applause only to be bitterly disappointed in the end by hearing the decision awarded to the other side4 ,recall the warnings given in the previous chapters against the tempting fallacies of appealing to crowd feelings and prejudices4 ,in classroom debates it is a good distribution of responsibility to make all the members not participating in the speaking act as judges and cast votes in rendering a decision4 ,this makes the judges and the audience one4 ,moreover it changes the mere listener into a discriminating judge4 ,if the instructor cares to carry this matter of responsibility one step farther1 he can ask the members of the class to explain and justify their votes4 ,the audience1 when it is also the judge1 has the responsibility of careful attention1 analysis1 and comparison4 ,it is too much to expect usual general audiences to refuse to be moved by unworthy pleas and misrepresentations1 to accord approval only to the best speakers and the soundest arguments4 ,but surely in a class of public speakers any such tricks and schemes should be received with stolid frigidity4 ,nothing is so damaging to appeals to prejudice1 spread-eagleism1 and fustian bombast as an impassive reception4 ,the ,judges4 ,in any debate the judges are of supreme importance4 ,they decide the merits of the speakers themselves4 ,the judges are of infinitely more importance than the audience4 ,in interscholastic debates men of some prominence are invited to act as judges4 ,in the instructions to them it should be made clear that they are not to decide which side of a proposition they themselves approve4 ,they are to decide which group of speakers does the best work4 ,they should try to be merely the impersonal registers of comparative merit4 ,they should sink their own feelings as every teacher must when he hears a good speech from one of his own students supporting something to which the instructor is opposed4 ,good judges of debates realize this and frequently award decisions to speakers who support opposite positions to their personal opinions4 ,they must not be like the judges in an interscholastic debate who announced their decision thus1 ,the judges have decided that ,china must not be dismembered4 ,that was an interesting fact perhaps1 but it had nothing to do with their duty as judges of that debate4 ,in business1 the buyer1 the head of the department1 the board of directors1 constitute the judges who render the decision4 ,in legislative assemblies the audience and judges are practically identical1 for after the debate upon a measure is concluded1 those who have listened to it render individual verdicts by casting their votes4 ,in such cases we frequently see decisions rendered not upon the merits of the debate1 but according to class prejudice1 personal opinion1 or party lines4 ,this is why so many great argumentative speeches were accounted failures at the time of their delivery4 ,delivered to secure majority votes they failed to carry conviction to the point of changing immediate action1 and so in the small temporary sense they were failures4 ,in legal trials the jury is the real judge1 although by our peculiar misapplication of the term a different person entirely is called judge4 ,in court the judge is in reality more often merely the presiding officer4 ,he oversees the observance of all the rules of court practice1 keeps lawyers within the regulations1 instructs the jury1 receives the decision from them1 and then applies the law4 ,every lawyer speaks--not to convince the judge--but to convince the jury to render a decision in his favor4 ,scholastic ,debating4 ,choosing the ,proposition4 ,in school debating the proposition may be assigned by the instructor or it may be chosen by him from a number submitted by the class4 ,the class itself may choose by vote a proposition for debate4 ,in interscholastic debating the practice now usually followed is for one school to submit the proposition and for the second school to decide which side it prefers to support4 ,in any method the aim should be to give neither side any advantage over the other4 ,the speakers upon the team may be selected before the question of debate is known4 ,it seems better1 when possible1 to make the subject known first and then secure as speakers upon both sides1 students who have actual beliefs upon the topic4 ,such personal conviction always results in keener rivalry4 ,time ,limits4 ,since no debate of this kind must last too long1 time restrictions must be agreed upon4 ,in every class1 conditions will determine these terms4 ,three or four speakers upon each side make a good team4 ,if each is allowed six minutes the debate should come well within an hour and still allow some time for voting upon the presentations4 ,it should be distinctly understood that a time limit upon a speaker must be observed by him or be enforced by the presiding officer4 ,the speakers upon one side will arrange among themselves the order in which they will speak but there should be a clear understanding beforehand as to whether rebuttal speeches are to be allowed4 ,rebuttal ,speeches4 ,rebuttal speeches are additional speeches allowed to some or all the speakers of a debating team after the regular argumentative speeches have been delivered4 ,in an extended formal debate all the speakers may thus appear a second time4 ,in less lengthy discussions only some of them may be permitted to appear a second time4 ,as the last speaker has the advantage of making the final impression upon the judges it is usual to offset this by reversing the order of rebuttal4 ,in the first speeches the negative always delivers the last speech4 ,sometimes the first affirmative speaker is allowed to follow with the single speech in rebuttal4 ,if the team consist of three speakers and all are allowed to appear in rebuttal the entire order is as follows4 ,first ,part ,rebuttal ,first affirmative ,first negative ,first negative ,first affirmative ,second affirmative ,second negative ,second negative ,second affirmative ,third affirmative ,third negative ,third negative ,third affirmative ,if not all the speakers are to speak in rebuttal the team itself decides which of its members shall speak for all4 ,preparation4 ,the proposition should be decided on and the teams selected long enough in advance to allow for adequate preparation4 ,every means should be employed to secure sufficient material in effective arrangement4 ,once constituted1 the team should consider itself a unit4 ,work should be planned in conference and distributed among the speakers4 ,at frequent meetings they should present to the side all they are able to find4 ,they should lay out a comprehensive plan of support of their own side4 ,they should anticipate the arguments likely to be advanced by the other1 and should provide for disposing of them if they are important enough to require refuting4 ,it is a good rule for every member of a debating team to know all the material on his side1 even though part of it is definitely assigned to another speaker4 ,this preliminary planning should be upon a definite method4 ,a good outline to use1 although some parts may be discarded in the debate itself1 is the following simple one4 ,i4 ,state the proposition clearly4 #a4 ,define the terms4 #b4 ,explain it as a whole4 ,,ii4 ,give a history of the case4 #a4 ,show its present bearing or aspect4 ,,iii4 ,state the issues4 ,,iv4 ,prove4 ,v4 ,refute4 ,,vi4 ,conclude4 ,finding the ,issues4 ,in debating1 since time is so valuable1 a speaker must not wander afield4 ,he must use all his ability1 all his material to prove his contention4 ,it will help him to reject material not relevant if he knows exactly what is at issue between the two sides4 ,it was avoiding the issue to answer the charge that ,charles ,i was a tyrant by replying that he was a good husband4 ,unless debaters realize exactly what must be proven to make their position secure1 there will be really no debate1 for the two sides will never meet in a clash of opinion4 ,they will pass each other without meeting1 and instead of a debate they will present a series of argumentative speeches4 ,this failure to state issues clearly and to support or refute them convincingly is one of the most common faults of all debating4 ,in ordinary conversation a frequently heard criticism of a discussion or speech or article is ,but that was not the point at issue at all4 ,these issues must appear in the preliminary plans1 in the finished brief1 and in the debate itself4 ,the only point in issue between us is1 how long after an author's death the ,state shall recognize a copyright in his representatives and assigns2 and it can1 ,i think1 hardly be disputed by any rational man that this is a point which the legislature is free to determine in the way which may appear to be most conducive to the general good4 ,,thomas ,,babington ,,macaulay3 ,copyright1 #ahda ,mr4 ,president1 the very first question that challenges our attention in the matter of a league of nations is the question of whether a war in ,europe is a matter of concern to the ,united ,states4 ,the ultraopponents of any league of nations assert that ,european quarrels and ,european battles are no concern of ours4 ,if that be true1 we may well pause before obligating ourselves to make them our concern4 ,is it true8 ,,senator ,p4,j4 ,,mccumber3 ,the ,league of ,nations1 #aiai ,the best method of finding the issues is to put down in two columns the main contentions of both sides4 ,by eliminating those entries which are least important and those which have least bearing upon the present case the issues may be reduced to those which the debate should cover4 ,any possible attempt to cloud the issues on the part of the opposing side can thus be forestalled4 ,all the speakers on one side should participate in this analysis of the proposition to find and state the issues4 ,the ,new ,york ,tribune1 by parallel columns1 brought out these chief points of difference between the ,paris plan and ,senator ,knox's for the ,league of ,nations4 ,,the ,,knox ,,plan ,,the ,,paris ,,plan ,league formed of all1 not ,under ,article ,,vii it is provided a portion1 of the nations of that no state shall be the world4 admitted unless it is able to give guaranties of its intention to observe its international obligations and conform to the principles prescribed by the ,league in regard to it's naval and military forces and armaments4 ,war to be declared an ,article ,,xvi provides that international crime1 and any should any of the high nation engaging in war1 except contracting parties break in self-defense when covenants under ,article ,,xii actually attacked1 to be punished 7relating to arbitration7 it by the world as an shall be deemed to have committed international criminal4 an act of war against the ,league1 which undertakes to exercise economic pressure2 and it is to be the duty of the executive council to recommend what military or naval force the members of the ,league shall contribute to be used to protect the covenants of the ,league4 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine to ,none of these matters is be safeguarded2 also our mentioned specifically1 but immigration policy and our ,president ,wilson has said right to expel aliens4 that the ,league will extend the ,monroe ,doctrine to the whole world and that domestic and internal questions are not a concern of the ,league4 ,our right to maintain military ,article ,,viii says3 ,the and naval establishments executive council shall also and coaling stations1 determine for the consideration and our right to fortify the and action of the several ,panama ,canal and our governments what military frontiers to be safeguarded4 equipment and armament is fair and reasonable and in proportion to the scale of forces laid down in the program of disarmament1 and these limits when adopted shall not be exceeded without the permission of the executive council4 ,an international court to ,article ,,xiv provides for be empowered by the ,league the establishment of a permanent to call upon the signatory court of international ,powers to enforce its decrees justice1 but its powers are against unwilling states by limited to hearing and determining force1 economic pressure1 or any matter otherwise4 ,the constitution which the parties recognize of the ,league to provide1 as suitable for submission to however1 that decrees against it for arbitration under an ,american ,power shall be ,article ,,xiii4 enforced by the nations of this hemisphere1 and decrees against a country of the eastern hemisphere by the ,powers of that hemisphere4 ,team ,work4 ,with the plan agreed upon by the speakers1 the brief made out1 and the material distributed1 each speaker can go to work in earnest to prepare his single speech4 ,the best method has been outlined in this book4 ,his notes should be accurate1 clear1 easily manipulated4 ,his quotations should be exact1 authoritative4 ,by no means should he memorize his speech4 ,such stilted delivery would result in a series of formal declamations4 ,with his mind stocked with exactly what his particular speech is to cover1 yet familiar enough with the material of his colleagues to use it should he need it1 the debater is ready for the contest4 ,manipulating ,material4 ,the speakers on a side should keep all their material according to some system4 ,if cards are used1 arguments to be used in the main debate might be arranged in one place1 material for rebuttal in another1 quotations and statistics in still another4 ,then if the other side introduces a point not anticipated it should be easy to find the refuting or explaining material at once to counteract its influence in the next speech1 if it should be disposed of at once4 ,if slips of paper are used1 different colors might indicate different kinds of material4 ,books1 papers1 reports1 to be used should always be within available distance4 ,while a speaker for the other side is advancing arguments the speaker who will follow him should be able to change1 if necessary1 his entire plan of defense or attack to meet the manoeuver4 ,he should select from the various divisions upon the table the material he needs1 and launch at once into a speech which meets squarely all the contentions advanced by his predecessor4 ,this instantaneous commandeering of material is likely to be most usual in rebuttal1 but a good debater must be able to resort to it at a second's notice4 ,the ,first ,affirmative ,speaker4 ,the first affirmative speaker must deliver some kind of introduction to the contentions which his side intends to advance4 ,it is his duty to be concise and clear in this4 ,he must not use too much time4 ,if the proposition needs defining and applying he must not fail to do it4 ,he must not give the negative the opportunity to explain and apply to its own purposes the meaning of the proposition4 ,he should state in language which the hearers will remember exactly what the issues are4 ,he can help his own side by outlining exactly what the affirmative intends to prove4 ,he may indicate just what portions will be treated by his colleagues4 ,he should never stop with merely introducing and outlining4 ,every speaker must advance proof1 the first as well as the others4 ,if the preliminary statements by the first affirmative speaker are clearly and convincingly delivered1 and if he places a few strong1 supporting reasons before the judges1 he will have started his side very well upon its course of debating4 ,the last sentences of his speech should drive home the points he has proved4 ,the ,first ,negative ,speaker4 ,the first negative speaker either agrees with the definitions and application of the proposition as announced by the first affirmative speaker or he disagrees with them4 ,if the latter1 the mere statement of his disagreement is not sufficient4 ,contradiction is not proof4 ,he must refute the definition and application of the proposition by strong reasoning and ample proof4 ,if his side does not admit the issues as already presented he must explain or prove them away and establish in their place the issues his side sees in the discussion4 ,when the two sides disagree concerning the issues there is a second proposition erected for discussion at once and the argument upon this second matter may crowd out the attempted argument upon the main proposition4 ,to obviate such shifting many schools have the sides exchange briefs or statements of issues before the debate so that some agreement will be reached upon essentials4 ,in addition to the matters just enumerated the first negative speaker should outline the plan his side will follow1 promising exactly what things will be established by his colleagues4 ,if he feels that the first affirmative speaker has advanced proofs strong enough to require instant refutation he should be able to meet those points at once and dispose of them4 ,if they do not require immediate answering1 or if they may safely be left for later refutation in the regular rebuttal1 he may content himself with simply announcing that they will be answered4 ,he should not allow the audience to believe that his side cannot meet them4 ,he must not give the impression that he is evading them4 ,if he has to admit their truth1 let him frankly say so1 showing1 if possible1 how they do not apply or do not prove all that is claimed for them1 or that though they seem strong in support of the affirmative the negative side has still stronger arguments which by comparison refute at least their effect4 ,the first negative speaker should not stop with mere refutation4 ,if the first affirmative has advanced proofs1 and the first negative disposes of them1 the debate is exactly where it was at the beginning4 ,the negative speaker must add convincing arguments of his own4 ,it is a good thing to start with one of the strongest negative arguments in the material4 ,the ,second ,affirmative and ,second ,negative ,speakers4 ,the second affirmative and the second negative speakers have very much the same kind of speech to make4 ,taking the immediate cues from the preceding speaker each may at first pay some attention to the remarks of his opponent4 ,here again there must be quickly decided the question already brought up by the first negative speech--shall arguments be refuted at once or reserved for such treatment in rebuttal8 ,when this decision is made the next duty of each of these second speakers is to advance his side according to the plan laid down by his first colleague4 ,he must make good the advance notice given of his team4 ,each position of a debater has its peculiar tasks4 ,the middle speaker must not allow the interest aroused by the first to lag4 ,if anything1 his material and manner must indicate a rise over the opening speech4 ,he must start at the place where the first speaker stopped and carry on the contention to the place at which it has been agreed he will deliver it to the concluding speaker for his side4 ,if this connection among all the speeches of one side is quite plain to the audience an impression of unity and coherence will be made upon them4 ,this will contribute to the effect of cogent reasoning4 ,they will realize that instead of listening to a group of detached utterances they have been following a chain of reasoning every link of which is closely connected with all that precedes and follows4 ,the ,concluding ,affirmative ,speaker4 ,the concluding affirmative speaker must not devote his entire speech to a conclusion by giving an extensive summary or recapitulation4 ,he must present arguments4 ,realizing that this is the last chance for original argument from his side he may be assigned the very strongest argument of all to deliver1 for the effect of what he says must last beyond the concluding speech of the negative4 ,it would likewise be a mistake for him to do nothing more than argue in his concluding speech4 ,several persons have intervened since his first colleague outlined their side and announced what they would prove4 ,it is his duty to show that the affirmative has actually done what it set out to do4 ,by amplifying and diminishing he may also show how the negative had not carried out its avowed intention of disproving the affirmative's position and proving conclusively its own4 ,the concluding speech for the affirmative is an excellent test of a debater's ability to adapt himself to conditions which may have been entirely unforeseen when the debate began1 of his keenness in analyzing the strength of the affirmative and exposing the weakness of the negative1 of his power in impressing the arguments of his colleagues as well as his own upon the audience1 and of his skill in bringing to a well-rounded1 impressive conclusion his side's part in the debate4 ,the ,concluding ,negative ,speaker4 ,the concluding negative speaker must judge whether his immediate predecessor1 the concluding affirmative speaker1 has been able to gain the verdict of the judges4 ,if he fears that he has1 he must strive to argue that conviction away4 ,he too must advance proof finally to strengthen the negative side4 ,he must make his speech answer to his first colleague's announced scheme1 or if some change in the line of development has been necessitated1 he must make clear why the first was replaced by the one the debaters have followed4 ,if the arguments of the negative have proved what it was declared they would1 the last speaker should emphasize that fact beyond any question in any one's mind4 ,finally he should save time for a fitting conclusion4 ,this brings the debate proper to a close4 ,restrictions in ,rebuttal4 ,in rebuttal--if it be provided--the main restrictions are two4 ,the speeches are shorter than the earlier ones4 ,no new lines of argument may be introduced4 ,only lines of proof already brought forward may be considered4 ,since the speeches are shorter and the material is restricted there is always the disposition to use rebuttal speeches for refutation only4 ,this is a mistake4 ,refute1 but remember always that constructive argument is more likely to win decisions than destructive4 ,dispose of as many points of the opponents as possible1 but reiterate the supporting reasons of your own4 ,many speakers waste their rebuttals by trying to cover too many points4 ,they therefore have insufficient time to prove anything1 so they fall back upon bare contradiction and assertion4 ,such presentations are mere jumbles of statements4 ,choose a few important phases of the opposing side's contention4 ,refute them4 ,choose the telling aspects of your own case4 ,emphasize them4 ,manner in ,debating4 ,be as earnest and convincing in your speeches as you can4 ,never yield to the temptation to indulge in personalities4 ,recall that other speakers should never be mentioned by name4 ,they are identified by their order and their side1 as ,the first speaker on the affirmative or ,the speaker who preceded me1 or ,my colleague1 or ,my opponent4 ,avoid using these with tones and phrases of sarcasm and bitterness4 ,be fair and courteous in every way4 ,never indulge in such belittling expressions as ,no one understands what he is trying to prove4 ,he reels off a string of figures which mean nothing4 ,never indulge in cheap wit or attempts at satiric humor4 ,prepare so adequately1 analyze so keenly1 argue so logically1 speak so convincingly1 that even when your side loses1 your opponents will have to admit that you forced them to do better than they had any idea they could4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,speaking ,,upon ,,special ,,occasions ,speech-making in the ,professions4 ,if a student enter a profession in which speech-making is the regular means of gaining his livelihood--as in law1 religion1 or lecturing--he will find it necessary to secure training in the technical methods applying to the particular kind of speech-making in which he will indulge4 ,this book does not attempt to prepare any one for mastery of such special forms4 ,the student will1 however1 be helping himself if he examines critically every delivery of a legal argument1 sermon1 or lecture he hears1 for many of the rules illustrated by them and the impressions made by their speakers1 can be transferred as models to be imitated or specimens to be avoided in his own more restricted and less important world4 ,speaking upon ,special ,occasions4 ,every ,american may be called upon to speak upon some special occasion4 ,if he does well at his first appearance he may be invited or required by circumstances to speak upon many occasions4 ,the person who can interest audiences by effective delivery of suitable material fittingly adapted to the particular occasion is always in demand4 ,within the narrower confines of educational institutions the opportunities for the student to appear before his schoolmates are as numerous as in real life4 ,some preliminary knowledge coupled with much practice will produce deep satisfaction upon successful achievement and result in rapid steps of self-development4 ,without pretending to provide for all possible circumstances in which students and others may be called upon to speak1 this chapter will list some of the special occasions for which speeches should be prepared4 ,speeches of ,presiding ,officers4 ,on practically all occasions there is a presiding officer whose chief duty is to introduce to the audience the various speakers4 ,the one great fault of speeches of introduction is that they are too long4 ,the introducer sincerely means not to consume too much time1 but in the endeavor to do justice to the occasion or the speaker he becomes involved in his remarks until they wander far from his definite purpose4 ,he wearies the audience before the important speaker begins4 ,an introducer should not become so unconscious of his real task as to fall into this error4 ,in other cases the fault is not so innocent4 ,many a person called upon to introduce a speaker takes advantage of the chance to express his own opinions4 ,he drops into the discourtesy of using for his own ends a condition of passive attention which was not created for him4 ,one large audience which had assembled to hear a lecturer was kept from listening to him while for twenty minutes the introducer aired his own pet theories4 ,of course members of the audience discussed among themselves the inappropriateness of such remarks1 but it is doubtful whether any criticism reached the offender4 ,a newspaper recently had the courage to voice the feelings of audiences4 ,it seems that a good deal of the time of the audience at the ,coliseum the other night was taken by those who introduced the speakers of the evening4 ,we are told in one account of the meeting that the audience was at times impatient of these preliminaries and even howled once or twice for those it had come to hear4444 ,we are informed that all those introducing the speakers said something about not having risen to speak at length1 and that one of them protested his inability to speak with any facility4 ,both these professions are characteristic of those introducing speakers of the evening4 ,yet1 strangely enough1 the same always happens4 ,that is1 the preliminaries wear the audience out before the people it came to hear can get at it4 ,in introducing a speaker never be too long-winded4 ,tactfully1 gracefully1 courteously1 put before the audience such facts as the occasion1 the reason for the topic of the speech1 the fitness and appropriateness of the choice of the speaker1 then present the man or woman4 ,be extremely careful of facts and names4 ,a nominating speaker at a great political convention ruined the effect of a speech by confusedly giving several first names to a distinguished man4 ,it is embarrassing to a speaker to have to correct at the very beginning of his remarks a misstatement made by the presiding officer4 ,but a man from one university cannot allow the audience to identify him with another4 ,the author of a book wants its title correctly given4 ,a public official desires to be associated in people's minds with the department he actually controls4 ,the main purpose of a speech of introduction is to do for the succeeding speaker what the chapter on beginning the speech suggested--to render the audience attentive and well-disposed1 to introduce the topic1 and in addition to present the speaker4 ,choosing a ,theme4 ,the speaker at a special occasion must choose the theme with due regard to the subject and the occasion4 ,frequently his theme will be suggested to him1 so that it will already bear a close relation to the occasion when he begins its preparation4 ,the next matter he must consider with extreme care is the treatment4 ,shall it be serious1 informative1 argumentative1 humorous1 scoffing1 ironic8 ,to decide this he must weigh carefully the significance of the occasion4 ,selecting the inappropriate manner of treatment means risking the success of the speech4 ,recall how many men and speeches you have heard criticized as being out of harmony with the meeting1 or not in spirit with the proceedings1 and you will realize how necessary to the successful presentation is this delicate adjustment of the speech to the mood of the circumstances4 ,the ,after-dinner ,speech4 ,when men and women have met to partake of good food under charming surroundings and have enjoyed legitimate gastronomic delights it is regrettable that a disagreeable element should be added by a series of dull1 long-winded1 un-appropriate after-dinner speeches4 ,the preceding adjectives suggest the chief faults of those persons who are repeatedly asked to speak upon such occasions4 ,they so often miss the mark4 ,because after-dinner speaking is so informal it is proportionally difficult4 ,when called upon1 a person feels that he must acknowledge the compliment by saying something4 ,this1 however1 is not really enough4 ,he must choose his theme and style of treatment from the occasion4 ,if the toastmaster assign the topic he is safe so far as that is concerned1 but he must still be careful of his treatment4 ,a speaker at a dinner of the ,phi ,beta ,kappa ,society1 in which membership is awarded for rank in cultural as contrasted with practical1 technical studies1 seized upon the chance to deliver a rather long1 quite detailed legal explanation of the parole system for convicted offenders against laws4 ,at a dinner given by the ,pennsylvania ,society in a state far from their original homes the members were praised to the skies for preserving the love of their native state and marking their identity in a district so distant and different4 ,this was quite appropriate for an introduction but the speaker then turned abruptly to one of his political speeches and berated the foreigner in ,america for not becoming at once an entirely made-over citizen4 ,the speech contradicted its own sentiments4 ,a wrong emphasis was placed upon its material4 ,a disquieting impression was made upon the ,pennsylvanians4 ,at the conclusion they felt that they were guilty for having kept the love of their native soil2 according to the tone of the speaker they should have accepted their new residence and wiped out all traces of any early ties4 ,an after-dinner speaker should remember that dinners are usually marks of sociability1 goodfellowship1 congratulation1 celebration1 commemoration4 ,speeches should answer to such motives4 ,the apt illustration1 the clever twist1 the really good story or anecdote1 the surprise ending1 all have their places here1 if they are used with grace1 good humor1 and tact4 ,this does not preclude elements of information and seriousness1 but such matters should be introduced skilfully1 discussed sparingly1 enforced pointedly4 ,the ,commemorative ,speech4 ,besides dinners1 other gatherings may require commemorative addresses4 ,these speeches are longer1 more formal4 ,the success of a debating team1 the successful season of an athletic organization1 the termination of a civic project1 the election of a candidate1 the celebration of an historic event1 the tribute to a great man1 suggest the kinds of occasions in which commemorative addresses should be made4 ,chosen with more care than the after-dinner speaker1 the person on such an occasion has larger themes with which to deal1 a longer time for their development1 and an audience more surely attuned to sympathetic reception4 ,he has more time for preparation also4 ,in minor circumstances1 such as the first three or four enumerated in the preceding paragraph1 the note is usually congratulation for victory4 ,except in tone and length these speeches are not very different from after-dinner remarks4 ,but when the occasion is more dignified1 the circumstances more significant1 addresses take on a different aspect4 ,they become more soberly judicial1 more temperately laudatory1 more feelingly impressive4 ,at such times public speaking approaches most closely to the old-fashioned idea of oratory1 now so rapidly passing away1 in its attempt to impress upon the audience the greatness of the occasion in which it is participating4 ,the laying of a corner-stone1 the completion of a monument or building1 a national holiday1 the birthday of a great man1 the date of an epoch-marking event1 bring forth eulogistic tributes like ,webster's speech at ,bunker ,hill1 ,lincoln's ,gettysburg ,address1 ,secretary ,lane's ,flag ,day speech4 ,false ,eloquence4 ,the beginner will not have many opportunities of delivering such remarkable addresses1 but in his small sphere he will have chances to do similar things4 ,he must beware of several faults of which the unwary are usually guilty4 ,recognizing the wonderful eloquence of the masterpieces of such kinds of address he may want to reproduce its effects by imitating its apparent methods4 ,nothing could be worse4 ,the style of the great eulogy1 born of the occasion and the speaker1 becomes only exaggerated bombast and nonsense from the lips of a student4 ,exaggeration1 high sounding terms1 flowery language1 involved constructions1 do not produce eloquence in the speaker4 ,they produce discomfort1 often smiles of ridicule1 in the audience4 ,many a student intending to cover himself with glory by eulogizing the martyred ,mc,kinley or the dead ,roosevelt has succeeded only in covering himself with derision4 ,simplicity1 straightforwardness1 fair statement1 should be the aims of beginning speakers upon such occasions4 ,speeches of ,presentation and ,acceptance4 ,standing between the two classes of speeches just discussed are speeches of presentation and acceptance4 ,in practically all circumstances where such remarks are suitable there are present mingled feelings of celebration and commemoration4 ,there is joy over something accomplished1 and remembrance of merit or success4 ,so the person making a speech of presentation must mingle the two feelings as he and the audience experience them4 ,taking his cue from the tone of the occasion he must fit his remarks to that mood4 ,he may be as bright and sparkling and as amusing as a refined court jester4 ,he may be as impressive and serious as a judge4 ,the treatment must be determined by the circumstances4 ,the speaker who replies must take his cue from the presenter4 ,while the first has the advantage of carrying out his plan as prepared1 the second can only dimly anticipate the theme he will express4 ,at any rate he cannot so surely provide his beginning4 ,that must come spontaneously from the turn given the material by his predecessor1 although the recipient may pass by a transition to the remarks he prepared in advance4 ,the observations which obtain in the presentation and acceptance of a material object--as a book1 a silver tea set1 a medal1 an art gallery--apply just as well to the bestowal and acceptance of an honor1 such as a degree from a university1 an office1 an appointment as head of a committee or as foreign representative1 or membership in a society4 ,speeches upon such occasions are likely to be more formal than those delivered upon the transfer of a gift4 ,the bestower may cite the reasons for the honor1 the fitness of the recipient1 the mutual honors and obligations1 and conclude with hopes of further attainments or services4 ,the recipient may reply from a personal angle1 explaining not only his appreciation1 but his sense of obligation to a trust or duty1 his methods of fulfilling his responsibilities1 his modestly phrased hope or belief in his ultimate success4 ,the ,inaugural ,speech4 ,in this last-named respect the speech of the recipient of an honor is closely related to the speech of a person inaugurated to office4 ,this applies to all official positions to which persons are elected or appointed4 ,the examples which will spring into students' minds are the inaugural speeches of ,presidents of the ,united ,states4 ,a study of these will furnish hints for the newly installed incumbent of more humble positions4 ,in material they are likely to be retrospective and anticipatory4 ,they trace past causes up to present effects1 then pass on to discuss future plans and methods4 ,every officer in his official capacity has something to do4 ,newspaper articles will give you ideas of what officials should be doing4 ,the office holder at the beginning of his term should make clear to his constituency1 his organization1 his class1 his society1 his school1 just what he intends to try to do4 ,he must be careful not to antagonize possible supporters by antagonistic remarks or opinions4 ,he should try to show reason and expediency in all he urges4 ,he should temper satisfaction and triumph with seriousness and resolve4 ,facts and arguments will be of more consequence than opinions and promises4 ,the speech should be carefully planned in advance1 clearly expressed1 plainly delivered4 ,its statements should be weighed1 as everyone of them may be used later as reasons for support or attack4 ,to avoid such consequences the careful politician often indulges in glittering generalities which mean nothing4 ,a student in such conditions should face issues squarely1 and without stirring up unnecessary antagonism1 announce his principles clearly and firmly4 ,if he has changed his opinion upon any subject he may just as well state his position so that no misunderstanding may arise later4 ,in the exercise of his regular activities a person will have many opportunities to deliver this kind of speech4 ,the ,nominating ,speech4 ,recommendation of himself by a candidate for office does not fall within the plan of this book4 ,students1 however1 may indulge in canvassing votes for their favorite candidates1 and this in some instances1 leads to public speaking in class and mass meetings1 assemblies1 and the like4 ,of similar import is the nominating speech in which a member of a society1 committee1 meeting1 offers the name of his candidate for the votes of as many as will indorse him4 ,in nominating1 it is a usual trick of arrangement to give first all the qualifications of the person whose election is to be urged1 advancing all reasons possible for the choice1 and uttering his name only in the very last words of the nominating speech4 ,this plan works up to a cumulative effect which should deeply impress the hearers at the mention of the candidate's name4 ,in nominating speeches and in arguments supporting a candidate the deliverer should remember two things4 ,constructive proof is better than destructive attack2 assertion of opinion and personal preference is not proof4 ,if it seems necessary at times to show the fitness of one candidate by contrast with another1 never descend to personalities1 never inject a tone of personal attack1 of cheap wit1 of ill-natured abuse4 ,if such practices are resorted to by others1 answer or disregard them with the courteous attention they deserve1 no more4 ,do not allow yourself to be drawn into any discussion remote from the main issue--the qualifications of your own candidate4 ,if you speak frequently upon such a theme--as you may during an extended campaign--notice which of your arguments make the strongest impressions upon the hearers4 ,discard the weaker ones to place more and more emphasis upon the convincing reasons4 ,never fail to study other speakers engaged in similar attempts4 ,american life every day provides you with illustrations to study4 ,the ,speech in ,support of a ,measure4 ,when1 instead of a candidate1 you are supporting some measure to be adopted1 some reform to be instituted1 some change to be inaugurated1 your task is easier in one respect4 ,there will be less temptation to indulge in personal matters4 ,you will find it easier to adhere to your theme4 ,in such attempts to mold public opinion--whether it be the collective opinion of a small school class1 or a million voters--you will find opportunities for the inclusion of everything you know of the particular subject and of all human nature4 ,convinced yourself of the worthiness of your cause1 bend every mental and intellectual effort to making others understand as you do1 see as you do4 ,if your reasoning is clear and converting1 if your manner is direct and sincere1 you should be able to induce others to believe as you do4 ,the ,persuasive ,speech4 ,in public speaking upon occasions when votes are to be cast1 where reforms are to be instituted1 where changes are to be inaugurated1 you have not finished when you have turned the mental attitude1 and done no more4 ,you must arouse the will to act4 ,votes must be cast for the measure you approve4 ,the reform you urge must be financed at once4 ,the change must be registered4 ,to accomplish such a purpose you must do more than merely prove2 you must persuade4 ,in the use of his power over people to induce them to noble1 high-minded action lies the supreme importance of the public speaker4 ,,exercises #a4 ,choose some recent event which you and your friends might celebrate by a dinner4 ,as toastmaster1 deliver the first after-dinner remarks drawing attention to the occasion and introducing some one to speak4 #b4 ,deliver the after-dinner speech just introduced4 #c4 ,introduce some other member of the class1 who is not closely connected with the event being celebrated1 and who therefore is a guest4 #d4 ,deliver this speech1 being careful to make your remarks correspond to the preceding4 #e4 ,a debating team has won a victory4 ,deliver the speech such a victory deserves4 #f4 ,an athletic team has won a victory4 ,as a non-participant1 present the trophy4 #g4 ,an athletic team has finished a season without winning the championship4 ,speak upon such a result4 #h4 ,the city or state has finished some great project4 ,speak upon its significance4 #i4 ,address an audience of girls or women upon their right to vote4 #aj4 ,speak in approval of some recently elected official in your community4 #aa4 ,choose some single event in the history of your immediate locality4 ,speak upon it4 #ab4 ,deliver a commemorative address suitable for the next holiday4 #ac4 ,bring into prominence some man or woman connected with the past of your community4 #ad4 ,an unheralded hero4 #ae4 ,they also serve who only stand and wait4 #af4 ,peace hath her victories no less renowned than war4 #ag4 ,deliver the speech to accompany the presentation of a set of books4 #ah4 ,present to your community some needed memorial park1 building1 or other monument4 #ai4 ,accept the gift for the community4 #bj4 ,challenge another class to debate4 #ba4 ,urge upon some organization support of some civic measure4 #bb4 ,as a representative of the students present some request to the authorities4 #bc4 ,a meeting has been called to hear you because of your association with some organization or movement4 ,deliver the speech4 #bd4 ,some measure or movement is not being supported as it should be4 ,a meeting of people likely to be interested has been called4 ,address the meeting4 #be4 ,appeal to your immediate associates to support some charitable work4 #bf4 ,some organization has recently started a new project4 ,speak to it upon its task4 #bg4 ,an organization has successfully accomplished a new project4 ,congratulate it4 #bh4 ,some early associate of yours has won recognition or success or fame away from home4 ,he is about to return4 ,speak to your companions showing why they should honor him4 #bi4 ,choose some person or event worthy of commemoration4 ,arrange a series of detailed topics and distribute them among members of the class4 ,set a day for their presentation4 #cj4 ,choose a chairman4 ,on the appointed day have him introduce the topic and the speakers4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,dramatics ,difference between ,public ,speaking and ,acting4 ,in practically all the aspects of public speaking you deliver your own thoughts in your own words4 ,in dramatic presentation you deliver the words already written by some one else2 and in addition1 while you are delivering these remarks you speak as though you were no longer yourself1 but a totally different person4 ,this is the chief distinction between speaking in public and acting4 ,while you must memorize the lines you deliver when you try to act like a character other than yourself1 speeches in dramatic production are not like usual memorized selections4 ,usually a memorized selection does not express the feelings or opinions of a certain character1 but is likely to be descriptive or narrative4 ,both prose and verse passages contain more than the uttered words of a single person4 ,as preparation for exercise in dramatics1 whether simple or elaborate1 training in memorizing and practice in speaking are extremely valuable4 ,memorizing may make the material grow so familiar that it loses its interest for the speaker4 ,pupils frequently recite committed material so listlessly that they merely bore hearers4 ,such a disposition to monotony should be neutralized by the ability to speak well in public4 ,naturalness and ,sincerity4 ,when you speak lines from a play inject as much naturalness and sincerity into your delivery as you can command4 ,speak the words as though they really express your own ideas and feelings4 ,if you feel that you must exaggerate slightly because of the impression the remark is intended to make1 rely more upon emphasis than upon any other device to secure an effect4 ,never slip into an affected manner of delivering any speech4 ,no matter what kind of acting you have seen upon amateur or professional stage1 you must remember that moderation is the first essential of the best acting4 ,recall what ,shakespeare had ,hamlet say to the players4 ,nor do not saw the air too much with your hand1 thus3 but use all gently2 for in the very torrent1 tempest1 and1 as ,i may say1 whirlwind of your passion1 you must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness4 ,oh1 it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious1 periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters1 to very rags1 to split the ears of the groundlings1 who for the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumb-shows and noise4 ,character ,delineation4 ,in taking part in a play you must do more than simply recite words spoken by some one other than yourself4 ,you must really act like that person4 ,this adds to the simple delivery of speeches all those other traits by which persons in real life are different from one another4 ,such complete identification of your personality with that of the person you are trying to represent in a play is termed character delineation1 or characterization4 ,you may believe that you cannot represent an ,indian chief or a ,british queen1 or an ,egyptian slave1 or a secret service agent1 but if you will recall your childish pastime of day-dreaming you will see at once that you have quite frequently identified yourself with some one else1 and in that other character you have made yourself experience the strangest and most thrilling adventures4 ,when you study a rle in a scene or play1 use your imagination in that same manner4 ,in a short time it will be easy for you to think as that other character would4 ,then you have become identified with him4 ,the first step in your delineation has been taken4 ,visualize in your mind's eye--your imagination--the circumstances in which that character is placed in the play4 ,see yourself looking1 moving1 acting as he would4 ,then talk as that character would in those circumstances4 ,make him react as he would naturally in the situations in which the dramatist has placed him4 ,let us try to make this more definite4 ,suppose a boy is chosen to act the part of an old man4 ,an old man does not speak as rapidly as a boy does4 ,he will have to change the speed of his speech4 ,but suppose the old man is moved to wrath1 would his words come slowly8 ,would he speak distinctly or would he almost choke8 ,the girl who is delineating a foreign woman must picture her accent and hesitation in speaking ,english4 ,she would give to her face the rather vacant questioning look such a woman would have as the ,english speech flits about her1 too quickly for her to comprehend all of it4 ,the girl who tries to present a ,british queen in a ,shakespeare play must not act as a pupil does in the school corridor4 ,yet if that queen is stricken in her feelings as a mother1 might not all the royal dignity melt away1 and her ,majesty act like any sorrowing woman8 ,,exercises ,you are sitting at a table or desk4 ,the telephone rings4 ,you pick up the receiver4 ,a person at the other end invites you to dinner4 ,deliver your part of the conversation4 #a4 ,speak in your own character4 #b4 ,speak as a busy1 quick-tempered old man in his disordered office4 #c4 ,speak as a tired wife who hasn't had a relief for weeks from the drudgery of house-work4 #d4 ,speak as a young debutante who has been entertained every day for weeks4 #e4 ,speak as the office boy4 #f4 ,speak as an over-polite foreigner4 #g4 ,delineate some other kind of person4 ,improvisations are here given first because such exercises depend upon the pupil's original interpretation of a character4 ,the pupil is required to do so much clear thinking about the character he represents that he really creates it4 ,dialogues4 ,as it is easier to get two people to speak naturally than where more are involved we shall begin conversation with dialogues4 ,each character will find the lines springing spontaneously from the situation4 ,in dramatic composition any speech delivered by a character is called a line1 no matter how short or long it is4 ,as you deliver the dialogues suggested by the exercises try to make your speeches sound natural4 ,talk as real people talk4 ,make the remarks conversational1 or colloquial1 as this style is also termed4 ,what things will make conversation realistic8 ,in actual talk1 people anticipate4 ,speakers do not wait for others to finish4 ,they interrupt4 ,they indicate opinions and impressions by facial expression and slight bodily movements4 ,tone changes as feelings change4 ,try to make your remarks convey to the audience the circumstances surrounding the dialogue4 ,let the conversation make some point clear4 ,before you begin1 determine in your own mind the characterization you intend to present4 ,situation4 ,a girl buys some fruit from the keeper of a stand at a street corner4 ,what kind of girl8 ,age8 ,manner of speaking8 ,courteous8 ,flippant8 ,well-bred8 ,slangy8 ,working girl8 ,visitor to town8 ,what kind of man8 ,age8 ,american8 ,foreigner8 ,from what country8 ,dialect8 ,disposition8 ,suspicious8 ,sympathetic8 ,weather8 ,season of year8 ,do they talk about that8 ,about themselves8 ,does the heat make her long for her home in the country8 ,does the cold make him think of his native ,italy or ,greece8 ,will her remarks change his short1 gruff answers to interested questions about her home8 ,will his enthusiasm for his native land change her flippancy to interest in far-off romantic countries8 ,how would the last detail impress the change1 if you decide to have one8 ,might he call her back and force her to take a gift8 ,might she deliver an impressive phrase1 then dash away as though startled by her exhibition of sympathetic feeling8 ,these are mere suggestions4 ,two pupils might present the scene as indicated by these questions4 ,two others might show it as broadly comic1 and end by having the girl--at a safe distance--triumphantly show that she had stolen a second fruit4 ,that might give him the cue to end in a tirade of almost inarticulate abuse1 or he might stand in silence1 expressing by his face the emotions surging over him4 ,and his feeling need not be entirely anger1 either4 ,it might border on admiration for her amazing audacity1 or pathetic helplessness1 or comic despair1 or determination to get even next time4 ,before you attempt to present any of the following suggestive exercises you should consider every possibility carefully and decide definitely and consistently all the questions that may arise concerning every detail4 ,,exercises #a4 ,let a boy come into the room and try to induce a girl 7the mistress of a house7 to have a telephone installed4 ,make the dialogue realistic and interesting4 #b4 ,let a girl demonstrate a vacuum cleaner 7or some other appliance7 to another girl 7mistress of a house74 #c4 ,let a boy apply for a position to a man in an office4 #d4 ,let a boy dictate a letter to a gum-chewing1 fidgety1 harum-scarum stenographer4 #e4 ,let this stenographer tell the telephone girl about this4 #f4 ,show how a younger sister might talk at a baseball or football game to her slightly older brother who was coerced into bringing her with him4 #g4 ,show a fastidious woman at a dress goods counter1 and the tired1 but courteous clerk4 ,do not caricature1 but try to give an air of reality to this4 #h4 ,show how two young friends who have not seen each other for weeks might talk when they meet again4 #i4 ,deliver the thoughts of a pupil at eleven o'clock at night trying to choose the topic for an ,english composition due the next morning4 ,have him talk to his mother1 or father1 or older brother1 or sister4 #aj4 ,a foreign woman speaking and understanding little ,english1 with a ticket to ,springfield1 has by mistake boarded a through train which does not stop there4 ,the conductor1 a man1 and woman try to explain to her what she must do4 #aa4 ,let three different pairs of pupils represent the girl and the fruit seller cited in the paragraphs preceding these exercises4 #ab4 ,a young man takes a girl riding in a new automobile4 ,reproduce parts of the ride4 #ac4 ,two graduates of your school meet after many years in a distant place4 ,reproduce their reminiscenses4 #ad4 ,a woman in a car or coach has lost or misplaced her transfer or ticket4 ,give the conversation between her and the conductor4 #ae4 ,let various pairs of pupils reproduce the conversations of patrons of moving pictures4 #af4 ,suggest other characters in appropriate situations4 ,present them before the class4 ,characters ,conceived by ,others4 ,in all the preceding exercises you have been quite unrestricted in your interpretation4 ,you have been able to make up entirely the character you presented4 ,except for a few stated details of sex1 age1 occupation1 nature1 no suggestions were given of the person indicated4 ,delineation is fairly easy to construct when you are given such a free choice of all possibilities4 ,the next kind of exercise will involve a restriction to make the acting a little more like the acting of a rle in a regular play4 ,even here1 however1 a great deal is left to the pupil's thought and decision4 ,how much chance there may be for such individual thought and decision in a finished play written by a careful dramatist may be illustrated by ,fame and the ,poet by ,lord ,dunsany4 ,one of the characters is a ,lieutenant-,major who calls upon a poet in ,london4 ,nothing is said about his costume4 ,in one city an actor asked the ,british consul4 ,he said officers of the army do not wear their uniforms except when in active service1 but on the ,british stage one great actor had by his example created the convention of wearing the uniform4 ,in another city at exactly the same time the author himself was asked the same question4 ,he said that by no means should the actor wear a uniform4 ,in the next exercises you are to represent characters with whom you have become acquainted in books4 ,you will therefore know something about their dispositions1 their appearance1 and their actions4 ,your task will be to give life-like portraits which others will recognize as true to their opinions of these same people4 ,for all who have read the books the general outlines will be identical4 ,the added details must not contradict any of the traits depicted by the authors4 ,otherwise they may be as original as you can imagine4 ,in the ,odyssey1 the great old ,greek poem by ,homer1 the wandering hero1 ,odysseus 7also called ,ulysses71 is cast up by the sea upon a strange shore4 ,here he meets ,nausicaa 7pronounced ,nau-si'-ca-a7 who offers to show him the way to the palace of her father1 the ,bang4 ,but as she is betrothed she fears that if she is seen in the company of an unknown man some scandalous gossip may be carried to her sweetheart4 ,so she directs that when they near the town ,odysseus shall tarry behind1 allowing her to enter alone4 ,in this naive incident this much is told in detail by the poet4 ,we are not told whether any gossip does reach the lover's ears4 ,he does not appear in the story4 ,we are not told even his name4 ,nor are we told how either she or he behaved when they first met1 after she had conducted the stranger to the palace4 ,if you enact this scene of their meeting you will first have to find a name for him4 ,you are free to create all the details of their behavior and conversation4 ,was he angry8 ,was he cool towards her8 ,had he heard a false account8 ,before attempting any of the following exercises decide all the matters of interpretation as already indicated in this chapter4 ,,exercises #a4 ,molly ,farren tries to get news of ,godfrey ,cass from a ,stable-boy4 ,silas ,marner4 #b4 ,the two ,miss ,gunns talk about ,priscilla ,lammeter4 ,silas ,marner4 #c4 ,the ,wedding ,guest meets one of his companions4 ,the ,ancient ,mariner4 #d4 ,nausicaa tells her betrothed about ,odysseus4 ,odyssey4 #e4 ,reynaldo in ,paris tries to get information about ,laertes4 ,hamlet4 #f4 ,fred tells his wife about ,scrooge and ,crachit4 ,a ,christmas ,carol4 #g4 ,jupiter tells a friend of the finding of the treasure4 ,the ,gold ,bug4 #h4 ,two women who know ,david ,copperfield talk about his second marriage4 ,david ,copperfield4 ,memorized ,conversations4 ,you can approach still more closely to the material of a play if you offer in speech before your class certain suitable portions from books you are reading or have read4 ,these selections may be made from the regular class texts or from supplementary reading assignments4 ,in studying these passages with the intention of offering them before the class you will have to think about two things4 ,first of all1 the author has in all probability1 somewhere in the book1 given a fairly detailed1 exact description of the looks and actions of these characters4 ,if such a description does not occur in an extended passage1 there is likely to be a series of statements scattered about1 from which a reader builds up an idea of what the character is like4 ,the pupil who intends to represent a person from a book or poem must study the author's picture to be able to reproduce a convincing portrait4 ,the audience will pass over mere physical differences4 ,a young girl described in a story as having blue eyes may be acted by a girl with brown1 and be accepted4 ,but if the author states that under every kind remark she made there lurked a slight hint of envy1 that difficult suggestion to put into a tone must be striven for1 or the audience will not receive an adequate impression of the girl's disposition4 ,so1 too1 in male characters4 ,a boy who plays old ,scrooge in ,a ,christmas ,carol may not be able to look like him physically1 but in the early scenes he must let no touch of sympathy or kindness creep into his voice or manner4 ,it is just this inability or carelessness in plays attempting to reproduce literary works upon the stage that annoys so many intelligent1 well-read people who attend theatrical productions of material which they already know4 ,when ,vanity ,fair was dramatised and acted as ,becky ,sharp1 the general comment was that the characters did not seem like ,thackeray's creations4 ,this was even more apparent when ,pendennis was staged4 ,if you analyze and study characters in a book from this point of view you will find them becoming quite alive to your imagination4 ,you will get to know them personally4 ,as you vizualize them in your imagination they will move about as real people do4 ,thus your reading will take on a new aspect of reality which will fix forever in your mind all you glance over upon the printed page4 ,climax4 ,the second thing to regard in choosing passages from books to present before the class is that the lines shall have some point4 ,conversation in a story is introduced for three different purposes4 ,it illustrates character4 ,it exposes some event of the plot4 ,it merely entertains4 ,such conversation as this last is not good material for dramatic delivery4 ,it is hardly more than space filling4 ,the other two kinds are generally excellent in providing the necessary point to which dramatic structure always rises4 ,you have heard it called a climax4 ,so then you should select from books passages which provide climaxes4 ,one dictionary defines climax3 the highest point of intensity1 development1 etc42 the culmination2 acme2 as1 he was then at the climax of his fortunes4 ,in a play it is that turning-point towards which all events have been leading1 and from which all following events spring4 ,many people believe that all climaxes are points of great excitement and noise4 ,this is not so4 ,countless turning-points in stirring and terrible times have been in moments of silence and calm4 ,around them may have been intense suspense1 grave fear1 tremendous issues1 but the turning-point itself may have been passed in deliberation and quiet4 ,,exercises #a4 ,choose from class reading--present or recent--some passage in conversation4 ,discuss the traits exhibited by the speakers4 ,formulate in a single statement the point made by the remarks4 ,does the interest rise enough to make the passage dramatic8 #b4 ,several members of the class should read certain passages from books1 poems1 etc4 ,the class should consider and discuss the characterization1 interest1 point1 climax4 #c4 ,read ,chapters ,,vi and ,,vii of ,silas ,marner by ,george ,eliot4 ,are the characters well marked8 ,is the conversation interesting in itself8 ,does the interest rise8 ,where does the rise begin8 ,is there any suspense8 ,does the scene conclude properly8 ,if this were acted upon a stage would any additional lines be necessary or desirable8 #d4 ,read the last part of ,chapter ,,xi of ,silas ,marner4 ,what is the point8 #e4 ,memorize this dialogue and deliver it before the class4 ,did the point impress the class8 #f4 ,consider1 discuss1 and test passages from any book which the members of the class know4 #g4 ,present before the class passages from any of the following3 ,dickens ,a ,christmas ,carol ,a ,tale of ,two ,cities ,david ,copperfield ,george ,eliot ,silas ,marner ,the ,mill on the ,floss ,scott ,ivanhoe ,kenilworth ,the ,lady of the ,lake ,mark ,twain ,huckleberry ,finn ,the ,prince and the ,pauper ,o4 ,henry ,short ,stories ,thackeray ,vanity ,fair ,henry ,esmond ,pendennis ,kipling ,captains ,courageous ,stalkey and ,co4 ,hugo ,les ,misrables ,tennyson ,idylls of the ,king ,the ,princess ,arnold ,sohrab and ,rustum ,stevenson ,treasure ,island ,gaskell ,cranford ,carroll ,alice in ,wonderland ,kingsley ,westward ,ho6 ,barrie ,sentimental ,tommy ,characters in ,plays4 ,in acting regular plays you may find it necessary to follow either of the preceding methods of characterization4 ,the conception of a character may have to be supplied almost entirely by some one outside the play4 ,or the dramatist may be very careful to set down clearly and accurately the traits1 disposition1 actions of the people in his plays4 ,in this second case the performer must try to carry out every direction1 every hint of the dramatist4 ,in the first case1 he must search the lines of the play to glean every slightest suggestion which will help him to carry out the dramatist's intention4 ,famous actors of characters in ,shakespeare's plays can give a reason for everything they show--at least1 they should be able to do so--and this foundation should be a compilation of all the details supplied by the play itself1 and stage tradition of its productions4 ,in early plays there are practically no descriptions of the characters4 ,questions about certain ,shakespeare characters will never be solved to the satisfaction of all performers4 ,for instance1 how old is ,hamlet in the tragedy8 ,how close to madness did the dramatist expect actors to portray his actions8 ,during ,hamlet's fencing match with ,laertes in the last scene the ,queen says1 ,he's fat1 and scant of breath4 ,was she describing his size1 or meaning that he was out of fencing trim8 ,shakespeare puts into the mouth of ,julius ,caesar a detailed description of the appearance and manner of acting of one of the chief characters of the tragedy4 ,let me have men about me that are fat2 ,sleek-headed men and such as sleep o' nights3 ,yond ,cassius has a lean and hungry look2 ,he thinks too much3 such men are dangerous4 99 99 99 99 99 ,would he were fatter6 ,but ,i fear him not3 ,yet if my name were liable to fear1 ,i do not know the man ,i should avoid ,so soon as that spare ,cassius4 ,he reads much2 ,he is a great observer1 and he looks ,quite through the deeds of men2 he loves no plays1 ,as thou dost1 ,antony2 he hears no music2 ,seldom he smiles1 and smiles in such a sort ,as if he mock'd himself and scorn'd his spirit ,that could be mov'd to smile at any thing4 ,in ,as ,you ,like ,it when the two girls are planning to flee to the forest of ,arden1 ,rosalind tells how she will disguise herself and act as a man4 ,this indicates to the actress both costume and behavior for the remainder of the comedy4 ,were it not better1 ,because that ,i am more than common tall1 ,that ,i did suit me all points like a man8 ,a gallant curtle-axe upon my thigh1 ,a boar-spear in my hand2 and--in my heart ,lie there what hidden woman's fear there will-- ,we'll have a swashing and a martial outside1 ,as many other mannish cowards have ,that do outface it with their semblances4 ,in many cases ,shakespeare clearly shows the performer exactly how to carry out his ideas of the nature of a man during part of the action4 ,one of the plainest instances of this kind of instruction is in ,macbeth4 ,the ambitious thane's wife is urging him on to murder his king4 ,her advice gives the directions for the following scenes4 ,o never ,shall sun that morrow see6 ,your face1 my thane1 is as a book where men ,may read strange matters4 ,to beguile the time1 ,look like the time2 bear welcome in your eye1 ,your hand1 your tongue3 look like the innocent flower1 ,but be the serpent under't4 ,he that's coming ,must be provided for3 and you shall put ,this night's great business into my dispatch2 ,which shall to all our nights and days to come ,give solely sovereign sway and masterdom4 ,modern dramatists are likely to be much more careful in giving advice about characterization4 ,they insert a large number of stage directions covering this matter4 ,speed of delivery1 tone and inflection1 as well as underlying feeling and emotion are minutely indicated4 ,,duchess ,,of ,,berwick ,mr4 ,hopper1 ,i am very angry with you4 ,you have taken ,agatha out on the terrace1 and she is so delicate4 ,,hopper ,at left of center ,awfully sorry1 ,duchess4 ,we went out for a moment and then got chatting together4 ,,duchess ,at center ,ah1 about dear ,australia1 ,i suppose8 ,,hopper ,yes4 ,,duchess ,agatha1 darling6 ,beckons her over4 ,,agatha ,yes1 mamma6 ,,duchess ,aside ,did ,mr4 ,hopper definitely-- ,,agatha ,yes1 mamma4 ,,duchess ,and what answer did you give him1 dear child8 ,,agatha ,yes1 mamma4 ,,duchess ,affectionately ,my dear one6 ,you always say the right thing4 ,mr4 ,hopper6 ,james6 ,agatha has told me everything4 ,how cleverly you have both kept your secret4 ,,hopper ,you don't mind my taking ,agatha off to ,australia1 then1 ,duchess8 ,,duchess ,indignantly ,to ,australia8 ,oh1 don't mention that dreadful vulgar place4 ,,hopper ,but she said she'd like to come with me4 ,,duchess ,severely ,did you say that1 ,agatha8 ,,agatha ,yes1 mamma4 ,,duchess ,agatha1 you say the most silly things possible4 ,descriptions of ,characters4 ,in addition to definite directions at special times during the course of the dialogue1 modern writers of plays describe each character quite fully at his first entrance into the action4 ,this gives the delineator of each rle a working basis for his guidance4 ,such directions carefully followed out assure the tone for the whole cast4 ,they keep a subordinate part always in the proper relation to all others4 ,they make certain the impression of the whole story as a consistent artistic development4 ,they prevent misunderstandings about the author's aim4 ,they provide that every character shall appear to be swayed by natural motives4 ,they remove from the performance all suggestions of unregulated caprice4 ,dramatists vary in the exactness and minuteness of such descriptive character sketches1 but even the shortest and most general is necessary to the proper appreciation of every play1 even if it is being merely read4 ,when a student is assimilating a rle for rehearsing or acting1 these additions of the author are as important as the lines themselves4 ,,exercises ,analyze the following4 ,discuss the suitability of various members of the class for each part4 ,which details do you think least essential8 #a4 ,he is a tall1 thin1 gaunt1 withered1 domineering man of sixty4 ,when excited or angry he drops into dialect1 but otherwise his speech1 though flat1 is fairly accurate4 ,he sits in an arm-chair by the empty hearth working calculations in a small shiny black notebook1 which he carries about with him everywhere1 in a side pocket4 #b4 ,when the curtain rises a man is seen climbing over the balcony4 ,his hair is close cut2 his shirt dirty and blood-stained4 ,he is followed by another man dressed like a sailor with a blue cape1 the hood drawn over his head4 ,moonlight4 #c4 ,enter ,dinah ,kippen quickly1 a dingy and defiant young woman carrying a tablecloth4 ,she is a nervous creature1 driven half-mad by the burden of her cares4 ,conceiving life1 necessarily1 as a path to be traversed at high speed1 whenever she sees an obstacle in her way1 whether in the physical or in the moral sphere1 she rushes at it furiously to remove it or destroy it4 #d4 ,mrs4 ,rhead1 a woman of nearly sixty1 is sitting on the sofa1 crocheting some lace1 which is evidently destined to trim petticoats4 ,her hair is dressed in the style of #ahdj1 though her dress is of the #ahfj period4 #e4 ,the song draws nearer and ,patricia ,carleon enters4 ,she is dark and slight1 and has a dreamy expression4 ,though she is artistically dressed1 her hair is a little wild4 ,she has a broken branch of some flowering tree in her hand4 #f4 ,enter a ,neat-herd1 followed by ,king ,alfred1 who is miserably clad and shivering from cold2 he carries a bow and a few broken arrows4 ,a log fire is burning smokily in a corner of the hut4 #g4 ,enter from the right ,ito1 the cynic philosopher1 book in hand4 #h4 ,the rising of the curtain discovers the two ,miss ,wetherills--two sweet old ladies who have grown so much alike it would be difficult for a stranger to tell the one from the other4 ,the hair of both is white1 they are dressed much alike1 both in some soft lavender colored material1 mixed with soft lace4 #i4 ,newte is a cheerful person1 attractively dressed in clothes suggestive of a successful follower of horse races4 ,he carries a white pot hat and tasselled cane4 ,his gloves are large and bright4 ,he is smoking an enormous cigar4 #aj4 ,she is young1 slender1 graceful2 her yellow hair is in disorder1 her face the color of ruddy gold1 her teeth white as the bones of the cuttle-fish1 her eyes humid and sea-green1 her neck long and thin1 with a necklace of shells about it2 in her whole person something inexpressibly fresh and glancing1 which makes one think of a creature impregnated with sea-salt dipped in the moving waters1 coming out of the hiding-places of the rocks4 ,her petticoat of striped white and blue1 torn and discolored1 falls only just below the knees1 leaving her legs bare2 her bluish apron drips and smells of the brine like a filter2 and her bare feet in contrast with the brown color that the sun has given her flesh1 are singularly pallid1 like the roots of aquatic plants4 ,and her voice is limpid and childish2 and some of the words that she speaks seem to light up her ingenuous face with a mysterious happiness4 ,studying ,plays4 ,in nearly every grade of school and college1 plays are either read or studied4 ,the usual method of study is to read the lines of the play in rotation about the class1 stopping at times for explanations1 definitions1 impressions1 general discussions4 ,such minute analysis may extend to the preparation of outlines and diagrams4 ,the methods used to get pupils to know plays are almost as varied as teachers4 ,after such analytical study has been pursued it is always a stimulating exercise to get another impression of the play--not as mere poetry or literature1 but as acted drama4 ,this may be accomplished in a short time by very simple means4 ,pupils should memorize certain portions and then recite them before the class4 ,neither costumes nor scenery will be required4 ,all the members of the class have in their minds the appearances of the surroundings and the persons4 ,what they need is to hear the speeches the dramatist put into the hearts and mouths of his characters4 ,the best presentation would be the delivery of the entire play running through some four or five class periods4 ,if so much time cannot be allotted to this1 only certain scenes need be delivered4 ,the teacher might assign the most significant ones to groups of pupils1 allowing each group to arrange for rehearsals before appearing before the class4 ,in some classes the pupils may be trusted to arrange the entire distribution of scenes and rles4 ,when their preliminary planning has been finished1 they should hand to the teacher a schedule of scenes and participants4 ,whenever a play is read or studied1 pupils will be attracted more by some passages than by others4 ,a teacher may dispense with all assignments4 ,the pupils could be directed merely to arrange their own groups1 choose the scenes they want to offer1 and to prepare as they decide4 ,in such a voluntary association some members of the class might be uninvited to speak with any group4 ,these then might find their material in prologue1 epilogue1 chorus1 soliloquy1 or inserted songs4 ,nearly every play contains long passages requiring for their effect no second speaker4 ,shakespeare's plays contain much such material4 ,all the songs from a play would constitute a delightful offering4 ,nothing in all the acted portion of ,henry ,v is any better than the stirring speeches of the ,chorus4 ,hamlet has three great soliloquies for boys4 ,macbeth contains the sleepwalking scene for girls4 ,milton's ,comus is made up of beautiful poetic passages4 ,every drama studied or read for school contains enough for every member of a class4 ,some pupils may object that unless an exact preliminary assignment is made1 two or more groups may choose the same scene4 ,such a probable happening1 far from being a disadvantage to be avoided1 is a decided advantage worthy of being purposely attempted4 ,could anything be more stimulating than to see and hear two different casts interpret a dramatic situation8 ,each would try to do better than the other4 ,each would be different in places4 ,from a comparison the audience and performers would have all the more light thrown upon what they considered quite familiar4 ,it would be a mistake to have five quartettes repeat the same scene over and over again4 ,yet if twenty pupils had unconsciously so chosen1 three presentations might be offered for discriminating observation4 ,then some other portion could be inserted and later the first scene could be gone through twice4 ,assigning ,rles4 ,teacher and pupils should endeavor to secure variety of interest in rles4 ,at first1 assignments are likely to be determined by apparent fitness4 ,the quiet boy is not required to play the part of the braggart4 ,the retiring girl is not expected to impersonate the shrew4 ,in one or two appearances it may be a good thing to keep in mind natural aptitude4 ,then there should be a departure from this system4 ,educational development comes not only from doing what you are best able to do1 but from developing the less-marked phases of your disposition and character4 ,the opposite practice should be followed1 at least once4 ,let the prominent class member assume a rle of subdued personality4 ,let the timid take the lead4 ,induce the silent to deliver the majority of the speeches4 ,you will be amazed frequently to behold the best delineations springing from such assignments4 ,such rehearsing of a play already studied should terminate the minute analysis in order to show the material for what it is--actable drama4 ,it will vivify the play again1 and make the characters live in your memory as mere reading never will4 ,you will see the moving people1 the grouped situations1 the developed story1 the impressive climax1 and the satisfying conclusion4 ,in dealing with scenes from a long play--whether linked or disconnected--pupils will always have a feeling of incompleteness4 ,in a full-length play no situation is complete in itself4 ,it is part of a longer series of events4 ,it may finish one part of the action1 but it usually merely carries forward the plot1 passing on the complication to subsequent situations4 ,short ,plays4 ,to deal with finished products should be the next endeavor4 ,there are thousands of short plays suitable for class presentation in an informal manner4 ,most of them do not require intensive study1 as does a great ,greek or ,english drama1 so their preparation may go on entirely outside the classroom4 ,it should be frankly admitted that the exercises of delivering lines in character as here described is not acting or producing the play4 ,that will come later4 ,these preliminary exercises--many or few1 painstaking or sketchy--are processes of training pupils to speak clearly1 interestingly1 forcefully1 in the imagined character of some other person4 ,the pupil must not wrongly believe that he is acting4 ,though the delivery of a complete short play may seem like a performance1 both participants and audience must not think of it so4 ,it is class exercise1 subject to criticism1 comment1 improvement1 exactly as all other class recitations are4 ,since the entire class has not had the chance to become familiar with all the short plays to be presented1 some one should give an introductory account of the time and place of action4 ,there might be added any necessary comments upon the characters4 ,the cast of characters should be written upon the board4 ,this exercise should be exactly like the preceding1 except that it adds the elements of developing the plot of the play1 creating suspense1 impressing the climax1 and satisfactorily rounding off the play4 ,in order to accomplish these important effects the participants will soon discover that they must agree upon certain details to be made most significant4 ,this will lead to discussions about how to make these points stand out4 ,in the concerted attempt to give proper emphasis to some line late in the play it will be found necessary to suppress a possible emphasis of some line early in the action4 ,to reinforce a trait of some person1 another character may have to be made more self-assertive4 ,to secure this unified effect which every play should make the persons involved will have to consider carefully every detail in lines and stage directions1 fully agree upon what impression they must strive for1 then heartily coperate in attaining it4 ,they must forget themselves to remember always that the play's the thing4 ,the following list will suggest short plays suitable for informal classroom training in dramatics4 ,most of these are also general enough in their appeal to serve for regular production upon a stage before a miscellaneous audience4 ,aldrich1 ,t4,b4 ,pauline ,pavlovna ,baring1 ,m4 ,diminutive ,dramas ,butler1 ,e4,p4 ,the ,revolt ,cannan1 ,g4 ,everybody's ,husband ,dunsany1 ,lord ,tents of the ,arabs ,the ,lost ,silk ,hat ,fame and the ,poet ,fenn and ,pryce4 ',op-o-,me-,thumb ,gale1 ,z4 ,neighbors ,gerstenberg1 ,a4 ,overtones ,gibson1 ,w4 ,w4 ,plays in ,collected ,works ,gregory1 ,lady4 ,spreading the ,news ,the ,workhouse ,ward ,coats1 etc4 ,houghton1 ,s4 ,the ,dear ,departed ,jones1 ,h4 ,a4 ,her ,tongue ,kreymborg1 ,a4 ,mannikin and ,minnikin ,moeller1 ,p4 ,pokey ,quintero1 ,j4 and ,s4,a4 ,a ,sunny ,morning ,rice1 ,c4 ,the ,immortal ,lure ,stevens1 ,t4,w4 ,ryland ,sudermann1 ,h4 ,the ,far-,away ,princess ,tchekoff1 ,a4 ,a ,marriage ,proposal ,torrence1 ,r4 ,the ,rider of ,dreams ,walker1 ,s4 ,never-the-,less ,yeats1 ,w4,b4 ,cathleen ,ni ,houlihan ,producing ,plays4 ,any class or organization which has followed the various forms of dramatics outlined thus far in this chapter will find it an easy matter to succeed in the production of a play before an audience4 ,the ,play4 ,the first thing to decide upon is the play itself4 ,this choice should be made as far in advance of performance as is possible4 ,most of the work of producing a play is in adequate preparation4 ,up to this time audiences have been members of the class1 or small groups with kindly dispositions and forbearing sympathies4 ,a general audience is more critical4 ,it will be led to like or dislike according to the degree its interest is aroused and held4 ,it will be friendly1 but more exacting4 ,the suitability of the play for the audience must be regarded4 ,a comedy by ,shakespeare which delights and impresses both performers and audience is much more stimulating and educating than a ,greek tragedy which bores them4 ,the ,stage4 ,the second determining factor is the stage4 ,what is its size8 ,what is its equipment8 ,some plays require large stages2 others fit smaller ones better4 ,a large stage may be made small1 but it is impossible to stretch a small one4 ,equipment for a school stage need not be elaborate4 ,artistic ingenuity will do more than reckless expenditure4 ,the simplest devices can be made to produce the best effects4 ,the lighting system should admit of easy modification4 ,for example1 it should be possible to place lights in various positions for different effects4 ,it should be possible to get much illumination or little4 ,scenery4 ,no scenery should be built when the stage is first erected4 ,if a regular scene painter furnishes the conventional exterior1 interior1 and woodland scenery1 the stage equipment is almost ruined for all time4 ,it is ridiculous that a lecturer1 a musician1 a school principal1 and a student speaker1 should appear before audiences in the same scenery representing a park or an elaborate drawing-room4 ,the first furnishings for a stage should be a set of beautiful draped curtains4 ,these can be used1 not only for such undramatic purposes as those just listed1 but for a great many plays as well4 ,no scenery should be provided until the first play is to be presented4 ,certain plays can be adequately acted before screens arranged differently and colored differently for changes4 ,when scenery must be built it should be strongly built as professional scenery is4 ,it should also be planned for future possible manipulation4 ,every director of school dramatics knows the delight of utilizing the same material over and over again4 ,here is one instance4 ,an interior set1 neutral in tones and with no marked characteristics of style and period1 was built to serve in ,acts ,i and ,v of ,a ,midsummer ,night's ,dream4 ,hangings1 furniture1 costumes gave it the proper appearance4 ,later it was used in ,ulysses4 ,it has also housed ,molire's ,doctor in ,spite of ,himself 7,le ,medecin ,malgr ,lui7 and ,the ,wealthy ,upstart 7,le ,bourgeois ,gentilhomme71 ,carrion and ,aza's ,zarageta1 ,sudermann's ,the ,far-,away ,princess1 ,houghton's ,the ,dear ,departed4 ,the wooden frames on the rear side were painted black1 the canvas panels tan1 to serve in ,twelfth ,night for the drinking scene1 ,act ,,ii1 scene #c4 ,with ,greek shields upon the walls it later pictured the first scene of ,the ,comedy of ,errors4 ,with colorful border designs attached and oriental furniture it set a ,chinese play4 ,a definite series of dimensions should be decided upon1 and all scenery should be built in relation to units of these sizes4 ,as a result of this1 combinations otherwise impossible can be made4 ,beginners should avoid putting anything permanent upon a stage4 ,the best stage is merely space upon which beautiful pictures may be produced4 ,beware of adopting much lauded new features such as cycloramas1 horizonts1 until you are assured you need them and can actually use them4 ,in most cases it is wise to consult some one with experience4 ,in considering plays for presentation you will have to think of whether your performers and your stage will permit of convincing production4 ,remembering that suggestion is often better than realism1 and knowing that beautiful curtains and colored screens are more delightful to gaze upon than cheap-looking canvas and paint1 and knowing that action and costume produce telling effects1 decide what the stage would have to do for the following scenes4 ,,exercises #a4 ,read scene #b of ,comus by ,milton4 ,should the entire masque be acted out-of-doors8 ,if presented on an indoors stage what should the setting be8 ,inside the palace of ,comus8 ,how then do the ,brothers get in8 ,how do ,sabrina and her ,nymphs arise8 ,from a pool1 a fountain8 ,might the stage show an exterior8 ,would the palace be on one side8 ,the edge of the woods on the other8 ,would the banks of the river be at the rear8 ,would such an arrangement make entrances1 exits1 acting1 effective8 ,explain all your opinions4 ,read one of the following4 ,devise a stage setting for it4 ,describe it fully4 ,if you can1 make a sketch in black and white or in color1 showing it as it would appear to the audience4 ,or make a working plan1 showing every detail4 ,or construct a small model of the set1 making the parts so that they will stand4 ,or place them in a box to reproduce the stage4 ,use one-half inch to the foot4 #b4 ,a ,midsummer ,night's ,dream1 scene #a4 ,interior8 ,exterior8 ,color8 ,lighting8 #c4 ,hamlet1 ,act ,i1 scene #e4 ,castle battlements8 ,a graveyard8 ,open space in country some distance from castle8 #d4 ,comus1 scene #c4 #e4 ,the ,tempest1 ,act ,i1 scene #a4 #f4 ,twelfth ,night1 ,act ,,ii1 scene #c4 #g4 ,romeo and ,juliet1 ,act ,i1 scene ,i4 #h4 ,julius ,caesar1 ,act ,,iii1 scene #b4 #i4 ,in a long1 high-vaulted room1 looking out upon a ,roman garden where the cypresses rise in narrowing shafts from thickets of oleander and myrtle1 is seated a company of men and women1 feasting4 ,,william ,,sharp3 ,the ,lute-,player #aj4 ,a room1 half drawing-room1 half study1 in ,lewis ,davenant's house in ,rockminister4 ,furniture eighteenth century1 pictures1 china in glass cases4 ,an ,april afternoon in #ahfj4 ,,george ,,moore3 ,elizabeth ,cooper #aa4 ,an ,island off the ,west of ,ireland4 ,cottage kitchen1 with nets1 oil-skins1 spinning wheel1 some new boards standing by the wall1 etc4 ,j4,m4 ,,synge3 ,riders to the ,sea #ab4 ,loud music4 ,after which the ,scene is discovered1 being a ,laboratory or ,alchemist's work-house4 ,vulcan looking at the registers1 while a ,cyclope1 tending the fire1 to the cornets began to sing4 ,,ben ,,jonson3 ,mercury ,vindicated #ac4 ,rather an awesome picture it is with the cold blue river and the great black cliffs and the blacker cypresses that grow along its banks4 ,there are signs of a trodden slope and a ferry1 and there's a rough old wooden shelter where passengers can wait2 a bell hung on the top with which they call the ferryman4 ,,calthrop ,,and ,,barker3 ,the ,harlequinade ,long before any play is produced there should be made a sketch or plan showing the stage settings4 ,if it is in color it will suggest the appearance of the actual stage4 ,one important point is to be noted4 ,your sketch or model is merely a miniature of the real thing4 ,if you have a splotch of glaring color only an inch long it will appear in the full-size setting about two feet long4 ,a seemingly flat surface three by five inches in the design will come out six by ten feet behind the footlights4 ,casting the ,play4 ,when the play is selected1 the rles must be cast4 ,to select the performers1 one of many different methods may be followed4 ,the instructor of the class or the director of the production may assign parts to individuals4 ,when this person knows the requirements of the rles and the abilities of the members1 this method always saves time and effort4 ,by placing all the responsibility upon one person it emphasizes care in choosing to secure best results4 ,at times a committee may do the casting4 ,such a method prevents personal prejudice and immature judgments from operating4 ,it splits responsibility and requires more time than the first method4 ,it is an excellent method for seconding the opinions of a director who does not know very well the applicants for parts4 ,the third method is by try-outs4 ,in this the applicants show their ability4 ,this may be done by speaking or reciting before an audience1 a committee1 or the director4 ,it may consist of acting some rle4 ,it may be the delivery of lines from the play to be acted4 ,it may be in a cast reading in which persons stand about the stage or room and read the lines of characters in the play4 ,if there are three or four applicants for one part1 each is given a chance to act some scene4 ,in this manner all the rles are filled4 ,there are two drawbacks to this scheme which is the fairest which can be devised4 ,it consumes a great deal of time4 ,some member of the class or organization best fitted to play a rle may not feel disposed to try for it4 ,manifestly he should be the one selected4 ,but it appears unfair to disregard the three boys who have made the effort while he has done nothing4 ,yet every rle should be acted in the very best manner4 ,for the play's sake1 the best actor should be assigned the part4 ,a pupil may try for a part for which he is not at all suited1 while he could fill another rle better than any one who strives to get it4 ,in a class which has been trained in public speaking or dramatics as this book suggests1 it should be no difficult task to cast any play1 whether full-length or one act4 ,performers must always be chosen because of the possible development of their latent abilities rather than for assured attainments4 ,these qualities must be sought for in performers of roles--obedience1 dependableness1 mobility1 patience1 endurance4 ,rehearsing4 ,a worthy play which is well cast is an assured success before its first rehearsal4 ,the entire group should first study the whole play under the director's comment4 ,it is best to have each actor read his own part4 ,the behavior of a minor character in the second act may depend upon a speech in the first4 ,the person playing that rle must seize upon that hint for his own interpretation4 ,it might be a good thing to have every person letter perfect1 that is1 know all his speeches1 at the first rehearsal4 ,practically1 this never occurs4 ,reading from the book or the manuscript1 a performer walks through his part1 getting at the same time an idea of where he is to stand1 how to move1 how to speak1 what to do1 where to enter1 when to cross the stage4 ,all such directions he should jot down upon his part4 ,then memorizing the lines will fix these stage directions in his mind4 ,he will be assimilating at the same time lines and business4 ,business on the stage is everything done by a character except speaking lines4 ,at all rehearsals the director is in absolute charge4 ,his word is final law4 ,this does not mean that members of the cast may not discuss things with him1 and suggest details and additions4 ,they must be careful to choose a proper time to do such things4 ,they should never argue1 but follow directions4 ,time outside rehearsals may be devoted to clearing up points4 ,of course an actor should never lose his temper4 ,neither should the director4 ,both of these bits of advice are frequently almost beyond observation of living human beings4 ,yet they are the rules4 ,rehearsals should be frequent rather than long4 ,acts should be rehearsed separately4 ,frequently only separate portions should be repeated4 ,combinations should be made so as not to keep during long waits characters with only a few words4 ,early portions will have to be repeated more frequently than later ones to allow the actors to get into their characterizations4 ,tense1 romantic1 sentimental1 comic scenes may have to be rehearsed privately until they are quite good enough to interest other members of the cast4 ,the time for preparation will depend upon general ability of the cast1 previous training1 the kind of play1 the amount of leisure for study and rehearsing4 ,in most schools a full-length play may be crowded into four weeks4 ,six or seven weeks are a better allowance4 ,during first rehearsals changes and corrections should be made when needed4 ,interruptions should be frequent4 ,later there should be no interruptions4 ,comments should be made at the end of a scene and embodied in an immediate repetition to fix the change in the actors' minds4 ,other modifications should be announced before rehearsal1 and embodied in the acting that day4 ,the acting should be ready for an audience a week before the date set for the performance4 ,during the last rehearsals1 early acts should be recalled and repeated in connection with later ones1 so that time and endurance may be counted and estimated4 ,during these days rehearsals must go forward without any attention from the director4 ,he must be giving all his attention to setting1 lighting1 costumes1 properties1 furniture1 and the thousand and one other details which make play producing the discouraging yet fascinating occupation it is4 ,such repetition without constant direction will develop a sense of independence and coperation in the actors and assistants which will show in the enthusiasm and ease of the performance4 ,stage hands and all other assistants must be trained to the same degree of reliability as the hero and heroine4 ,nothing can be left to chance4 ,nothing can be unprovided until the last minute4 ,the dress rehearsal must be exactly like a performance1 except that the audience is not present1 or if present1 is a different one4 ,in schools1 an audience at the dress rehearsal is usually a help to the amateur performers4 ,results4 ,a performance based on such principles and training as here suggested should be successful from every point of view4 ,the benefits to the participants are many4 ,they include strengthening of the power to memorize1 widening of the imagination through interpretation of character1 familiarity with a work of art1 training in poise1 utilization of speaking ability1 awakening of self-confidence1 and participation in a worthy coperative effort4 ,in a broader sense such interest in good1 acted plays is an intellectual stimulus4 ,as better plays are more and more effectively presented the quality of play production in schools will be improved1 and both pupils and communities will know more and more of the world's great dramatic literature4 ,,appendices ,,appendix ,a ,additional ,exercises in ,exposition #a4 ,the value of public speaking4 #b4 ,how ,lincoln became a great speaker4 #c4 ,studies in a good school course4 #d4 ,purposes of studying geometry4 #e4 ,explain the reasons for studying some subject4 #f4 ,an ideal school4 #g4 ,foreign language study4 #h4 ,forming habits4 #i4 ,sailing against the wind4 #aj4 ,how to play some game4 ,give merely the rules or imagine the game being played4 #aa4 ,difference between football in ,america and in ,england4 #ab4 ,exercise or athletics8 #ac4 ,results of military training4 #ad4 ,the gambling instinct4 #ae4 ,parliamentary practice4 #af4 ,how to increase one's vocabulary4 #ag4 ,is the story of ,the ,vicar of ,wakefield too good to be true8 #ah4 ,the defects of some book4 #ai4 ,reading fiction4 #bj4 ,magazines in ,america4 #ba4 ,explain fully what a novel is1 or a farce1 or an allegory1 or a satire4 #bb4 ,why slang is sometimes justifiable4 #bc4 ,a modern newspaper4 #bd4 ,select two foreign magazines4 ,compare and contrast them4 #be4 ,essential features of a good short story4 #bf4 ,why evening papers offer so many editions4 #bg4 ,how to find a book in a public library4 #bh4 ,the difference between public speaking and oratory4 #bi4 ,public speaking for the lawyer1 the clergyman1 the business man4 #cj4 ,qualities of a book worth reading4 #ca4 ,some queer uses of ,english4 #cb4 ,history in the plays of ,shakespeare4 #cc4 ,how to read a play4 #cd4 ,mistakes in books or plays4 #ce4 ,defects of translations4 #cf4 ,one touch of nature makes the whole world kin4 #cg4 ,an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure4 #ch4 ,you never miss the water till the well runs dry4 #ci4 ,penny wise1 pound foolish4 #dj4 ,select any proverb4 ,explain it4 #da4 ,choose a short quotation from some poem4 ,explain it4 #db4 ,explain some technical operation4 #dc4 ,explain some mechanical process4 #dd4 ,a range factory4 #de4 ,making electric bulbs4 #df4 ,how moving pictures are made and reproduced4 #dg4 ,explain some simple machine4 #dh4 ,a new application of electricity4 #di4 ,weather forecasting4 #ej4 ,scientific or practical value of polar expeditions4 #ea4 ,changes of the tide4 #eb4 ,an eclipse4 #ec4 ,the principle of some such appliance as the thermometer1 the barometer1 the microscope1 the air-brake1 the block signal4 #ed4 ,developing a negative4 #ee4 ,how the player piano is operated4 #ef4 ,how the cash register prevents dishonesty4 #eg4 ,how a new fruit is produced--as seedless orange4 #eh4 ,mimeographing4 #ei4 ,the value of ,latin for scientific terms4 #fj4 ,the value of certain birds1 worms1 insects4 #fa4 ,the life history of some queer animal1 or insect1 or plant4 #fb4 ,how accuracy is secured4 #fc4 ,the human eye and the camera4 #fd4 ,the fireless cooker4 #fe4 ,choose some half dozen terms from any trade or business and explain them4 ,to sell short1 margin1 bull1 bear1 lamb4 ,proscenium1 apron1 flies1 baby spot1 strike4 ,fold in eggs1 bring to a boil1 simmer1 percolate1 to ,french4 ,file1 post1 carry forward1 remit1 credit1 receivership4 ,baste1 hem1 rip1 overcast1 box pleat1 batik1 ,valenciennes4 #ff4 ,building a musical program4 #fg4 ,commercial art4 #fh4 ,catch phrases in advertising4 #fi4 ,principles of successful advertising4 #gj4 ,the ,linotype machine4 #ga4 ,how ,i made my first appearance as a public speaker4 #gb4 ,real conversation4 #gc4 ,mere talk4 #gd4 ,the business woman4 #ge4 ,a slump in a certain business or industry4 #gf4 ,the ,red ,cross in war4 #gg4 ,the ,red ,cross in peace4 #gh4 ,compare the principles of two political parties4 #gi4 ,a fire alarm4 #hj4 ,why automobiles are licensed4 #ha4 ,the powers and duties of some city or county official4 #hb4 ,the advantages that this locality offers for certain industries or kinds of agriculture4 #hc4 ,society fads4 #hd4 ,the ideal office holder4 #he4 ,new systems of government4 #hf4 ,various forms of socialism4 #hg4 ,collecting a debt by law4 #hh4 ,explain some legal procedure as suggested by some term1 as mandamus1 injunction1 demurrer1 habeas corpus1 nolle prosequi4 #hi4 ,explain the composition and work of the ,grand ,jury4 #ij4 ,the efficiency expert4 #ia4 ,a new profession4 #ib4 ,the advantages of a trolley car with both entrance and exit at the front end4 #ic4 ,labor-saving devices4 #id4 ,a supercargo4 #ie4 ,scientific shop management4 #if4 ,hiring and discharging employees4 #ig4 ,applying for a business position4 #ih4 ,causes of some recent labor strike4 #ii4 ,a labor union operates as a trust4 #ajj4 ,efficiency in the kitchen4 #aja4 ,speeding up the work4 #ajb4 ,planning a factory4 #ajc4 ,making cheap automobiles4 #ajd4 ,uses of paper4 #aje4 ,new methods of furnishing houses4 #ajf4 ,making the home beautiful4 #ajg4 ,new building materials4 #ajh4 ,designing and building a boat4 #aji4 ,the lay-out of a shipyard4 #aaj4 ,rules for planting4 #aaa4 ,city government4 #aab4 ,better methods of city government4 #aac4 ,how a trial is conducted4 #aad4 ,the juvenile court4 #aae4 ,post office savings banks4 #aaf4 ,geographic advantages of this locality4 #aag4 ,results of irrigation4 #aah4 ,how the farmer controls world prices4 #aai4 ,relation between some distant event and the price of some article in the corner store4 #abj4 ,new businesses in ,america with their reasons for existence4 #aba4 ,the latest improvement in this locality4 #abb4 ,why certain cities are destined to increase in population4 #abc4 ,model homes4 #abd4 ,housing the inhabitants of large cities4 #abe4 ,the operation of a subway4 #abf4 ,automobile trucks instead of freight trains4 #abg4 ,how ,lincoln became ,president4 #abh4 ,why ,webster did not become ,president4 #abi4 ,the dead-letter office4 #acj4 ,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states and the ,constitution of ,great ,britain4 #aca4 ,how the ,united ,states secured ,porto ,rico4 #acb4 ,a free trade policy4 #acc4 ,commercial reciprocity4 #acd4 ,the protective tariff4 #ace4 ,explain the application of some tax1 as income1 single1 inheritance4 #acf4 ,how the constitutionality of a law is determined4 #acg4 ,how laws are made by ,congress4 #ach4 ,the ,congressional ,record4 #aci4 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine4 #adj4 ,the attitude of foreign nations toward the ,monroe ,doctrine4 #ada4 ,differences between the ,chinese and the ,japanese4 #adb4 ,the failure of the ,hague ,tribunal4 #adc4 ,the part of the ,united ,states in a league of nations4 #add4 ,reasons for the conditions in ,mexico4 #ade4 ,our country's duty toward ,mexico4 #adf4 ,the so-called ,yellow ,peril4 #adg4 ,trans-oceanic air travel4 #adh4 ,evolution of the airship4 #adi4 ,the geodetic survey4 #aej4 ,the census bureau4 ,,appendix ,b ,additional ,exercises in ,argumentation #a4 ,find in a magazine or newspaper some article in which conviction is the prime factor4 #b4 ,find in a magazine or newspaper some article in which persuasion is most used4 #c4 ,give examples from recent observation of discussions which were not argument as the term is used in this book4 #d4 ,explain how arguments upon a topic of current interest would differ in material and treatment for three kinds of audiences4 #e4 ,the education of the ,american negro should be industrial not cultural4 #f4 ,to the ,cabinet of the ,united ,states there should be added a ,secretary of ,education with powers to control all public education4 #g4 ,separate high schools for boys and girls should be maintained4 #h4 ,it is better to attend a small college than a large one4 #i4 ,women should be eligible to serve as members of the school board4 #aj4 ,pupils should be marked by a numerical average rather than by a group letter4 #aa4 ,at least two years of ,latin should be required for entrance to college4 #ab4 ,the honor system should be introduced in all examinations in high schools and colleges4 #ac4 ,the study of algebra should be compulsory in high school4 #ad4 ,courses in current topics1 based upon material in newspapers1 should be offered in all high schools4 #ae4 ,every high school should require the study of local civics or local industries4 #af4 ,regular gymnastic work is more beneficial than participation in organized athletics4 #ag4 ,girls should study domestic science4 #ah4 ,the kindergarten should be removed from our educational system4 #ai4 ,coeducation in schools and colleges is better than segregation4 #bj4 ,secret societies should be prohibited in high schools4 #ba4 ,a magazine or newspaper which copies material from one in which it first appears should be required by law to compensate the author4 #bb4 ,moving picture exhibitions should be more strictly regulated4 #bc4 ,an exposition produces decided advantages for the city in which it is held4 #bd4 ,a county fair is a decided benefit to a rural community4 #be4 ,all young men in this country should receive military training for a period of one year4 #bf4 ,this city should provide employment for the unemployed4 #bg4 ,motor delivery trucks should be substituted for horse-drawn wagons4 #bh4 ,labor unions are justified in insisting upon the re-employment of members discharged for a cause which they deem unjust4 #bi4 ,farmers should study scientific agriculture4 #cj4 ,capital and labor should be required by law to settle their disputes by appeals to a legally constituted court of arbitration whose decisions should be enforced4 #ca4 ,in time of peace no member of a labor union should be a member of a regularly organized military force4 #cb4 ,overtime work should be paid for at the same rate as regular work4 #cc4 ,all work should be paid for according to the amount done rather than by time4 #cd4 ,employers are justified in insisting upon the open shop4 #ce4 ,trade unions are justified in limiting the number of persons allowed to enter a trade4 #cf4 ,this state should establish a minimum working wage for women4 #cg4 ,the street railway company should pave and keep in repair all streets in which its cars are operated4 #ch4 ,more definite laws concerning the sale of milk should be passed4 #ci4 ,this city should institute government by a commission4 #dj4 ,this city should institute and maintain an adequate system of public playgrounds4 #da4 ,this city should provide more free recreations for its citizens4 #db4 ,city government should be conducted by a highly paid municipal expert hired for the purpose of controlling city affairs exactly as he would a large business organization4 #dc4 ,a public building for community interests is a better memorial for a city to erect than the usual monument or statue4 #dd4 ,voting machines should be used in all cities4 #de4 ,all public utilities should be owned and operated by the city4 #df4 ,judges should not be elected by popular vote4 #dg4 ,a representative should vote according to the opinions of his constituency4 #dh4 ,this state should provide old-age pensions4 #di4 ,laws should be passed making it impossible to dispose of more than one million dollars by will4 #ej4 ,the pure food law should be strictly enforced4 #ea4 ,every state should have a state university in which tuition for its inhabitants should be absolutely free4 #eb4 ,the ,governor of a state should not have the pardoning power4 #ec4 ,no children below the age of sixteen should be allowed to work in factories4 #ed4 ,laws concerning the sale of substitutes for butter should be made more stringent4 #ee4 ,sunday closing laws should be repealed4 #ef4 ,the railroads of the ,united ,states should be allowed to pool their interests4 #eg4 ,the present method of amending the ,constitution of the ,united ,states should be changed4 #eh4 ,this government should insist upon a strict adherence to the ,monroe ,doctrine4 #ei4 ,the ,american ,indian has been unjustly treated4 #fj4 ,railroads should be under private ownership but subject to government control4 #fa4 ,an educational test should be required of all persons desiring to enter this country4 #fb4 ,the ,united ,states should own and control the coal mines of the country4 #fc4 ,members of the ,house of ,representatives should be chosen to represent industries1 workers1 and professions1 rather than geographical divisions4 #fd4 ,woman suffrage carries with it the right to hold office except where expressly forbidden in existing laws and constitutions4 #fe4 ,instead of an extension of suffrage to all women there should be a restriction from the previous inclusion of all men4 #ff4 ,all raw materials should be admitted to this country free of duty4 #fg4 ,all departments of the government should be under the ,civil ,service ,act4 #fh4 ,the ,civil ,war pension policy was a wise one4 #fi4 ,the ,united ,states should build and maintain a large navy4 #gj4 ,a high protective tariff keeps wages high4 #ga4 ,letter postage should be reduced to one cent4 #gb4 ,laws governing marriage and divorce should be made uniform by ,congress4 #gc4 ,the present restriction upon ,chinese immigration should be modified to admit certain classes4 #gd4 ,the standing army of the ,united ,states should be increased4 #ge4 ,this government should establish a system of shipping subsidies4 #gf4 ,repeated failure to vote should result in the loss of the right of suffrage4 #gg4 ,the ,united ,states should not enter into any league of nations4 #gh4 ,the defeated central powers of ,europe should be admitted to full membership in the ,league of ,nations4 #gi4 ,japan should be prevented from owning or controlling any territory upon the continent which belonged to ,china4 #hj4 ,great ,britain should establish ,egypt as an independent country4 #ha4 ,ireland should be organized as a ,dominion similar to ,canada and ,australia4 #hb4 ,the ,united ,states should establish a protectorate over ,mexico4 #hc4 ,this country should demand from ,germany an indemnity equal to our expenses in the war4 #hd4 ,the former ,kaiser of ,germany and his state officials responsible for the ,world ,war of #aiad should be tried by an international court4 #he4 ,all ,european nations should agree to disarmament4 #hf4 ,foreign missions should be discontinued4 #hg4 ,the ,jews of the world should colonize ,palestine4 #hh4 ,commercial reciprocity should be established between the ,united ,states and ,south ,america4 #hi4 ,this country has no need to fear any aggression from any ,asiatic race4 #ij4 ,the government system of ,great ,britain is more truly representative than that of the ,united ,states4 #ia4 ,a railroad should pay ten thousand dollars to the family of any employee who meets death by accident while on duty4 #ib4 ,there is no such thing possible as ,christian warfare4 #ic4 ,vivisection should be prohibited4 #id4 ,the dead should be cremated4 #ie4 ,cigarettes should not be sold to boys under eighteen4 #if4 ,children under fourteen should not be allowed to appear upon the stage4 #ig4 ,socialism is the best possible solution of all labor problems4 #ih4 ,the ,soviet system of government has details applicable to certain conditions in ,america4 #ii4 ,no person should be forced to undergo vaccination4 #ajj4 ,labor interests can be served best by the formation of a separate political party4 ,,index ,,abbott1 ,lyman1 #aah ,abolition ,movement1 ,the1 #ahe acceptance1 speech of1 #bhd acquired ability1 #f acting1 #bia after-dinner speech1 #bha ,allen1 ,john1 #aaf amplified definition1 #bjc amplifying and diminishing1 #bee analogy1 #bcc analogy1 incorrect1 #beb analysis1 #bdd ,anglo-,saxon1 #ea anticipatory conclusion1 #ajb1 #aje ,antony1 ,mark1 #ha antonyms1 #dh a posteriori argument1 #bcg appealing to prejudice or passions1 #bdg appropriate diction1 #ed a priori argument1 #bcf argumentation1 #bah argumentum ad hominem1 #bdi argumentum ad populum1 #bdg ,aristotle1 #ig arrangement1 #aea1 #afd assigning rles1 #cab attacking speaker's character1 #bdi attributes of speaker1 #bi audience in debate1 #bfb authorities1 #ahj1 #bcb ,,bacon1 #e ,beecher1 ,henry ,ward1 #hb1 #hc1 #afb begging the question1 #bde ,birrell1 ,augustine1 #aad brief1 #bh1 #agj brief1 making a1 #ahg brief1 speaking from the1 #aia briefing1 selections for1 #ahj ,bright1 ,john1 #bi burden of proof1 #bbe ,burke1 ,edmund1 #bc1 #fe1 #ff1 #hj1 #aaf1 #afb1 #afg1 #agb1 #bee business1 #cbb ,,calhoun1 ,john ,c41 #ff1 #ajh1 #bjf capital punishment1 brief1 #agc cards1 #acd-e casting a play1 #cbj causal relation1 #bcg cause to effect1 #bji1 #bcf ,channing1 ,william ,ellery1 #bdi character delineation1 #bib characters1 description of1 #cjg characters in plays1 #cjc ,chatham1 ,lord1 #aaa ,cheyney1 ,edward ,p41 #bjd ,choate1 ,rufus1 #fc choosing a theme1 #bha ,cicero1 #gg circumstantial evidence1 #bbf classification1 #aii ,clay1 ,henry1 #bdi climax1 #cja coherence1 #aed commemorative speech1 #bhc comparison1 #bjh complex sentence1 #ei composition of the ,english language1 #ej compound sentence1 #fj conclusion1 length1 #ii consonants1 #ag constructive argument1 #bef contradiction1 #bdd contrast1 #bjh conversations1 memorized1 #cjj conviction1 #bbj ,crabbe1 ,english ,synonyms1 #dh cross references1 #acg ,curtis1 ,george ,william1 #eb1 #ed1 #fg1 #abj1 #bec ,,daniel1 ,john ,w41 #aai debaters1 #bfb debating1 #beh decision in debate1 #bfj deductive reasoning1 #bbi definition1 #bja delineation of character1 #bib delivery1 #bf delivery of introductions1 #hi ,demosthenes1 #h description of characters1 #cjg ,dewey1 ,m41 #aci dialogue1 #bid differentia1 #bja diminishing1 amplifying and1 #bee direct evidence1 #bbf discarding material1 #adf division1 #aii dramatics1 #bia drawbacks1 #h dress rehearsal1 #cbc ,dunsany1 ,lord1 #bih ,,effect to cause1 #baj1 #bcg elimination1 #bcf eloquence1 false1 #bhd ,elson1 ,h4,w41 #aca emphasis1 #bb1 #aee enthymeme1 #bca enunciation1 #bc ,evarts1 ,william ,m41 #aah ,everett1 ,edward1 #fg evidence1 #bbf examples1 #bjf1 #bcb exclamatory sentence1 #fj explaining1 #aid explanation1 #bcb exposition1 #aid experience1 #abb ,,fallacies1 #bea false eloquence1 #bhd ,fernald1 ,english ,synonyms1 ,antonyms1 and ,prepositions1 #dh finding the issues1 #bfg ,ford1 ,simeon1 #aad ,fox1 ,charles ,james1 #i ,fox1 ,john1 #bc ,franklin1 ,benjamin1 #gg ,,general terms1 #eb genus1 #bja gestures1 #bf getting material1 #abb ,gettysburg ,address1 #ahc ,gratiano1 #f ,,hale1 ,edward ,everett1 #aah ,hamlet's advice to players1 #ca hasty generalization1 #bbh ,hayne1 #afb ,henry1 ,patrick1 #fd1 #hd1 #he1 #aab ,homer1 #bih ,howell1 ,clark1 #aai ,huxley1 ,thomas ,h41 #aej ,,ideas and words1 #ch ignoring the question1 #bdf importance1 #bab importance of speech1 #a improvisation1 #bid inaugural speech1 #bhe ,incidents of ,government ,trading1 #aha incorrect analogy1 #beb increasing the vocabulary1 #ci index1 #acj inductive reasoning1 #bbh interrogative sentence1 #fa interview1 #abe introduction1 length1 #gb introduction1 purpose1 #gc introduction and audience1 #gf invention and speech1 #c issues1 #bfg ,,jefferson1 ,joseph1 #abj ,jefferson1 ,thomas1 #aag judges1 #bfh ,julius ,caesar1 #ha ,,kinds of propositions1 #hbb ,knox1 ,philander1 #bfi ,,language1 #ab1 #aig ,league of ,nations1 #bfi legal brief1 #agj length of speech1 #adc library1 #acf library classification1 #ach ,lincoln1 ,abraham1 #i1 #cj1 #eg1 #fe1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #aag1 #adh1 #agb1 #ahc1 #bee list of short plays1 #cad long sentences1 #fa ,lodge1 ,henry ,cabot1 #gf1 #ace logical definition1 #bja ,lowell1 ,abbott ,lawrence1 #acf ,,macaulay1 ,thomas ,babington1 #eb1 #fh1 #afj1 #bjh1 #bcc1 #bdf1 #bfh making a brief1 #ahg manner in debate1 #bgg margins1 #age material of speeches1 #aba ,mc,cumber1 ,p4,j41 #bfh memorized conversations1 #cjj memorizing1 #bh1 #aia methods of explaining1 #aih military leadership1 #e ,,naturalness1 #bib nominating speech1 #bhg notes1 #acc ,,observation1 #abb organs of speech1 #ad organ pipe1 #ad ,otis1 ,james1 #hh outline1 #bh1afd ,,panama ,canal1 #aaj particulars of general statement1 #bje partition1 #aii ,penn1 ,william1 #beh periodicals1 #aci peroration1 #aji persuading1 #bah persuasion1 #bcg persuasive speech1 #bhh ,phillips1 ,wendell1 #ahe phrasing1 #bb pitch1 #ba place1 #baa plan1 #aef plays1 characters in1 #cjc plays1 producing1 #cae plays1 short1 #cac plays1 studying1 #caj poise1 #be pose1 #be ,power ,plant ,engineering1 #ahg prefixes1 #da preparation for debate1 #bff preparing introductions1 #hi preparing the conclusion1 #ie presentation and acceptance1 speeches of1 #bhd presiding officer1 #bfa presiding officers1 #bgi producing plays1 #cae pronunciation1 #bd proof1 #bcb proposition1 #bba1 #bfe propositions of fact1 #bbc propositions of policy1 #bbc proving1 #bah ,,reading1 #abh reading the speech1 #bg rebuttal1 restrictions1 #bgf rebuttal speeches1 #bff recapitulation1 #ajf reducing to absurdity1 #beh reductio ad absurdum1 #bec refuting1 #bdb1 #bea rehearsing1 #cba residues1 #bcd results of training1 #aj retrospective conclusion1 #aja1 #aje ,roget's ,thesaurus1 #dc rles1 assigning1 #cab ,romance1 #ea ,roosevelt1 ,theodore1 #fi1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajd1 #aji1 #aad ,,sanitation1 #gj scenery1 #haf scholastic debating1 #bfe selecting material1 #acj selections for briefing1 #ahj self-criticism1 #aib sentences1 #eh ,shakespeare1 #cjd short plays1 #cac short sentences1 #fa ,sidney1 ,sir ,phillip1 #ij simple sentence1 #eh sincerity1 #bib singing1 #ah speakers in debate1 #bgb speaking from the brief1 #aia speaking from the floor1 #gj special occasions1 speaking upon1 #bgh specific terms1 #eb specimen brief1 capital punishment1 #agc speech in modern life1 #b speed1 #bj stage1 #caf statistics1 #ahg studying plays1 #caj suffixes1 #dc summary1 #ajg ,sumner1 ,charles1 #adh1 #afj1 #bcd support of a measure1 #bhh syllogism1 #bbi symbols1 #agf synonyms1 #df ,,table of contents1 #acj tabulations1 #agh talk1 #e taking notes1 #acc team work1 #bga theme1 choosing a1 #bha ,thesaurus1 #dc thinking1 #afa thought1 #ab time limit in debates1 #bfe time order1 #baj time order reversed1 #baa tone1 #ae1 #ai tradition1 #bdh transitions1 #aeg trite expressions1 #ee ,twain1 ,mark1 #ade ,,understanding1 #abi1 #aif unity1 #aeb ,,van ,,dyke1 ,henry1 #aae vocabularies1 #cg voice1 #ad vowels1 #af ,,washington1 ,booker ,t41 #afa ,washington1 ,george1 #ajc1 #aei1 #bjf ,webster1 ,daniel1 #aj1 #hc1 #hd1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aaa1 #adi1 #bje1 #bca1 #bed ,wilson1 ,woodrow1 #fi1 #ge1 #aje1 #aad1 #aag wording the proposition1 #bbd