,,companion ,,to ,,the ,,bible4 ,,by ,,rev4 ,e4,p4 ,,barrows1 ,d4,d41 ,,professor ,,of ,,biblical ,,literature4 ,,general ,,preface4 ,the design of the present work1 as its title indicates1 is to assist in the study of ,god's word4 ,the author has had special reference to teachers of ,bible classes and ,sabbath-schools2 ministers of the gospel who wish to have ready at hand the results of biblical investigation in a convenient and condensed form2 and1 in general1 the large body of intelligent laymen and women in our land who desire to pursue the study of ,scripture in a thorough and systematic way4 ,the ,first ,part contains a concise view of the ,evidences of ,revealed ,religion4 ,here1 since ,christianity rests on a basis of historic facts1 special prominence has been given to the historic side of these evidences2 those1 namely1 which relate to the genuineness1 integrity1 authenticity1 and inspiration of the several books of the ,bible4 ,a brief view is added of the evidences which are of an internal and experimental character4 ,in the ,introductions to the ,old and ,new ,testament which follow in the ,second and ,third ,parts1 the general facts are first given2 then an account of the several divisions of each1 with their office and mutual relations1 and such a notice of each particular book as will prepare the reader to study it intelligently and profitably4 ,the ,fourth ,part is devoted to the ,principles of ,biblical ,interpretation4 ,here the plan is to consider the ,scriptures1 first1 on the human side1 as addressed to men in human language and according to human modes of thinking and speaking2 then1 on the divine side1 as containing a true revelation from ,god1 and differing in this respect from all other writings4 ,to this twofold view the author attaches great importance4 ,to the human side belong the ordinary principles of interpretation1 which apply alike to all writings2 to the divine side1 the question of the unity of revelation1 and the interpretation of types and prophecies4 ,in each of the abovenamed divisions the author has endeavored to keep prominently in view the unity of revelation and the inseparable connection of all its parts4 ,it is only when we thus contemplate it as a glorious whole1 having beginning1 progress1 and consummation1 that we can truly understand it4 ,most of the popular objections to the ,old ,testament have their foundation in an isolated and fragmentary way of viewing its facts and doctrines2 and they can be fairly met only by showing the relation which these hold to the entire plan of redemption4 ,the plan of the present work required brevity and condensation4 ,the constant endeavor has been to state the several facts and principles as concisely as could be done consistently with a true presentation of them in an intelligible form4 ,it may be objected that some topics1 those particularly which relate to the ,pentateuch1 are handled in too cursory a way4 ,the author feels the difficulty2 but to go into details on this subject would require a volume4 ,he has endeavored to do the best that was consistent with the general plan of the work4 ,the point of primary importance to be maintained is the divine authority and inspiration of the ,pentateuch--the whole ,pentateuch as it existed in our ,saviour's day and exists now4 ,there are difficult questions connected with both its form and the interpretation of certain parts of it in respect to which devout believers may honestly differ4 ,for the discussion of these the reader must be referred to the works professedly devoted to the subject4 ,the present volume is complete in itself2 yet it does not exhaust the circle of topics immediately connected with the study of the ,bible4 ,it is the author's purpose to add another volume on ,biblical ,geography and ,antiquities1 with a brief survey of the historic relations of the covenant people to the ,gentile world4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,a ,,concise ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,evidences ,,of ,,revealed ,,religion4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory ,,remarks4 #a4 ,christianity rests on a ,basis of ,historic ,facts inseparably connected from ,first to ,last--#b4 ,this ,basis to be maintained against ,unbelievers--#c4 ,general ,plan of ,inquiry--,christ's ,advent the ,central ,point--,from this ,we look forward and backward to the ,beginning--#d4 ,importance of viewing ,revelation as a ,whole--#e4 ,fragmentary ,method of ,objectors--,particular ,order of the ,parts in this ,investigation ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,genuineness ,,of ,,the ,,gospel ,,narratives4 #a4 ,terms defined--,necessity of knowing the ,authors of the ,gospels--#b4 ,remarks on their ,origin--,they were not written immediately1 but successively at ,intervals--,earlier ,documents noticed by ,luke--#c4 ,manner of ,quotation by the ,early ,church ,fathers--#d4 ,external ,evidences traced upward from the ,close of the ,second ,century--,testimony of ,irenaeus--,of ,tertullian--,of ,clement of ,alexandria--,letter of the ,churches of ,lyons and ,vienne--#e4 ,comprehensiveness and ,force of these ,testimonies--,freedom of ,judgment in the ,primitive ,churches--,this shown by the ,history of the ,disputed ,books--#f4 ,public ,character and ,use of the ,gospels--#g4 ,earlier ,testimonies--,justin ,martyr--,his ,designation of the ,gospels--,they are ,our ,canonical ,gospels--,explanation of his ,variations and ,additions--,his ,references to the ,gospel of ,john--#h4 ,testimony of ,papias--#i4 ,epistle to ,diognetus--#aj4 ,the ,apostolic ,fathers--,clement of ,rome--,ignatius ,polycarp--,the ,so-called ,epistle of ,barnabas--#aa4 ,the ,ancient ,versions and ,muratorian ,canon--,syriac ,peshito--,old ,latin--#ab4 ,testimony of the ,heretical ,sects--,marcion--,valentinus--,tatian-- #ac4 ,conclusiveness of the above ,external ,testimony--#ad4 ,internal ,evidences--,relation of the ,first ,three ,gospels to the ,last--,they differ in ,time--,the ,first ,three written before the ,destruction of ,jerusalem2 the ,fourth after that ,event--,they differ in ,character and ,contents--,yet were all alike received by the ,churches--#ae4 ,relation of the ,first ,three ,gospels to ,each ,other--,they have ,remarkable ,agreements and ,differences--,these and their ,general ,reception explained by their ,genuineness--#af4 ,the ,gospels contain no ,trace of ,later ,events--#ag4 ,or ,later ,modes of ,thought4 #ah4 ,from the ,character of the ,language ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,uncorrupt ,,preservation ,,of ,,the ,,gospel ,,narratives4 #a4 ,what is meant by an ,uncorrupt ,text--#b4 ,ancient ,materials for ,writing--,palimpsests--,uncial and ,cursive ,manuscripts--#c4 ,the ,apostolic ,autographs have perished1 but ,we have their ,contents--,this shown from the ,agreement of ,manuscripts--,from the ,quotations of the ,fathers--,from ,ancient ,versions--,character of the ,various ,readings--,they do not affect the ,substance of the ,gospel--#d4 ,the ,ancient ,versions made from a ,pure ,text--,this shown from the ,public ,reading of the ,gospels from the ,beginning--,from the ,multiplication of ,copies--,from the ,high ,value attached to the ,gospels--,from the ,want of ,time for ,essential ,corruptions--,from the ,absence of all ,proof of such ,corruptions--#e4 ,the ,above ,remarks apply essentially to the other ,new ,testament ,books ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,authenticity ,,and ,,credibility ,,of ,,the ,,gospel ,,narratives4 #a4 ,general ,remarks--#b4 ,their ,authors ,sincere and ,truthful--#c4 ,competent as ,men--#d4 ,and as ,witnesses--#e4 ,character of the ,works which they record-- ,supernatural ,character of our ,lord's ,miracles--,they were very ,numerous and ,diversified1 and performed openly--#f4 ,and in the ,presence of ,his ,enemies--#g4 ,the ,resurrection of ,jesus--,its ,vital ,importance--#h4 ,the ,character of ,jesus proves the ,truth of the ,record--,its ,originality and ,symmetry--,it unites ,tranquillity with ,fervor--,wisdom with ,freedom from ,guile--,prudence with ,boldness--,tenderness with ,severity--,humility with the ,loftiest ,claims--,he is ,heavenly-minded without ,asceticism--,his ,perfect ,purity--,his ,virtues ,imitable for ,all alike--,our ,lord's ,character as a ,teacher--,his ,freedom from the ,errors of ,his ,age and ,nation--,his ,religion ,one for ,all ,men and ,ages--,this explained by its ,divine ,origin--,our ,lord's ,manner of ,teaching--,his ,divine ,mission--,divinity of ,his ,person--,originality of its ,manifestations--,god ,his ,father in a ,peculiar ,sense--,he is the ,source of ,light and ,life--,he has ,inward ,dominion over the ,soul--,he dwells in ,believers1 and they in ,him--,the ,inference--,his ,power over the ,human ,heart--,supernatural ,character of the ,gospel--,a ,word on ,objections ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,acts ,,of ,,the ,,apostles ,,and ,,the ,,acknowledged ,,epistles4 #a4 ,these ,books a ,natural ,sequel to the ,gospels--#b4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles--,external ,testimonies--#c4 ,internal ,evidence--#d4 ,credibility--#e4 ,date of ,composition--#f4 ,the ,acknowledged ,epistles--,distinction of ,acknowledged and ,disputed ,books--#g4 ,first ,group of ,pauline ,epistles--,second ,group1 or the ,pastoral ,epistles--,their ,date--,their ,peculiar ,character--#h4 ,first ,epistles of ,peter and ,first of ,john--#i4 ,mutual ,relation between the ,gospels and ,later ,books--#aj4 ,argument from ,undesigned ,coincidences ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,disputed ,,books4 #a4 ,the ,question here simply concerning the ,extent of the ,canon--#b4 ,the ,primitive ,age ,one of ,free ,inquiry--#c4 ,its ,diversity of ,judgment no ,decisive ,argument against a ,given ,book--#d4 ,the ,caution of the ,early ,churches gives ,weight to their ,judgment--,this ,judgment ,negative as well as ,positive ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,inspiration ,,and ,,the ,,canon4 ,general ,remarks--#a4 ,rule of ,judgment determined--,it is the ,writer's ,relation to ,christ--#b4 ,christ ,himself ,infallible--#c4 ,the ,apostles--,they held the nearest ,relation to ,him--,their ,infallibility as ,teachers shown--,from the ,necessity of the ,case--,from ,christ's ,express ,promises--,from their ,own ,declarations-- ,summary of the ,argument in ,respect to the ,apostles--#d4 ,inspiration of the ,apostolic ,men--#e4 ,argument from the ,character of the ,books of the ,new ,testament--#f4 ,the ,inspiration of the ,sacred ,writers ,plenary-- #g4 ,principles on which the ,canon is formed ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,inseparable ,,connection ,,between ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,general ,remarks--#a4 ,previous ,revelations implied in ,christ's ,advent--#b4 ,in the ,character of the ,jewish ,people--#c4 ,proved from the ,new ,testament-- ,christ's ,explicit ,declarations--#d4 ,the ,new ,testament based on the ,facts of the ,old--,the ,fall of ,man--,the ,abrahamic ,covenant1 which was conditioned on ,faith alone1 and fulfilled in ,christ--,christ the ,end of the ,mosaic ,economy--,in its ,prophetical ,order--,in its ,kingly ,office--,in its ,priestly ,office--#e4 ,the ,new ,testament ,writers the ,interpreters of the ,old ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,authorship ,,of ,,the ,,pentateuch4 ,meaning of the ,term--#a4 ,it existed in its ,present ,form from ,ezra's ,day--#b4 ,the ,law ascribed to ,moses in the ,new ,testament--,how ,much is included in this ,term--#c4 ,force of the ,new ,testament ,testimony--#d4 ,the ,law of ,moses at the ,restoration--#e4 ,jewish ,tradition that ,ezra settled the ,canon of the ,old ,testament--,he left the ,pentateuch essentially as he found it--,references to the ,law in the ,books of ,kings and ,chronicles--#f4 ,the ,book of ,deuteronomy--,its ,mosaic ,authorship ,certain--#g4 ,the ,inference ,certain that he wrote the ,preceding ,laws--#h4 ,this corroborated by their ,form--#i4 ,by ,references in the ,new ,testament--,and the ,old also--#aj4 ,relation of ,deuteronomy to the ,earlier ,precepts--,in ,respect to ,time--,and ,design--,change in ,moses' ,personal ,relation to the ,people--,peculiarities of ,deuteronomy explained from the ,above ,considerations--,meaning of the ,words of this ,law in ,deuteronomy--#aa4 ,mosaic ,authorship of ,genesis shown--,from ,antecedent ,probability--,from its ,connection with the ,following ,books--,objections considered--,supposed ,marks of a ,later ,age--,and of ,different ,authors--#ab4 ,unity of the ,pentateuch ,,chapter ,x4 ,,authenticity ,,and ,,credibility ,,of ,,the ,,pentateuch4 #a4 ,its ,historic ,truth assumed in the ,new ,testament--,this shown by ,examples--#b4 ,it was the ,foundation of the ,whole ,jewish ,polity--,and could not have been imposed upon the ,people by ,fraud--,contrast between ,mohammed and ,moses--#c4 ,scientific ,difficulties connected with the ,pentateuch--#d4 ,alleged ,moral ,difficulties--,exclusiveness of the ,mosaic ,economy--,its ,restrictions on ,intercourse with ,other ,nations--#e4 ,its ,numerous ,ordinances--,the ,mosaic ,laws required ,spiritual ,obedience--#f4 ,objections from the ,toleration of ,certain ,usages--#g4 ,extirpation of the ,canaanites--#h4 ,the ,mosaic ,economy a ,blessing to the ,whole ,world ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,remaining ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 #a4 ,general ,remarks--#b4 ,the ,new ,testament assumes their ,divine ,authority--,historical ,books--#c4 ,books not strictly ,historical or ,prophetical--#d4 ,prophetical ,books--,argument from ,prophecy for the ,divine ,origin of the ,old ,testament--#e4 ,christ the ,fulfilment of ,prophecy--,in his ,office as a ,prophet--as a ,king--as a ,priest--#f4 ,the ,jewish ,institutions and ,history a ,perpetual ,adumbration of ,christ preparatory to ,his ,advent--#g4 ,remarks on the ,canon of the ,old ,testament--#h4 ,principle of its ,formation--#i4 ,inspiration of the ,old ,testament ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,evidences ,,internal ,,and ,,experimental4 #a4 ,external ,evidences ,important1 but not ,indispensable to ,true ,faith--#b4 ,internal ,evidences--,view which the ,bible gives of ,god's ,character--#c4 ,code of ,morals in the ,bible--,it is ,spiritual1 ,reasonable1 and ,comprehensive--,obedience to ,it the ,sum of all ,goodness--#d4 ,all ,parts of the ,bible in ,harmony with ,each ,other--#e4 ,power of the ,bible over the ,conscience--#f4 ,argument from ,personal ,experience--#g4 ,from the ,character of ,jesus--#h4 ,from ,general ,experience--,the ,love of ,jesus the ,mightiest ,principle of ,action--,persecution first winnows1 then strengthens the ,church--,the ,church corrupted and weakened by ,worldly ,alliances--#i4 ,the ,gospel gives an ,inward ,victory over ,sin--,it purifies and elevates ,society--#aj4 ,its ,self-purifying ,power--#aa4 ,the ,argument summed up 99 99 99 99 99 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 ,,first ,,division--,,general ,,introduction4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,names ,,and ,,external ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 #a4 ,origin and ,meaning of the ,word ,bible--,jewish ,designations of the ,old ,testament--#b4 ,origin of the ,terms ,old and ,new ,testament--,earlier ,latin ,term--#b4 ,the ,unity--,scripture has its ,ground in ,divine ,inspiration--,its ,great ,diversity in ,respect to ,human ,composition--#d4 ,classification and ,arrangement of the ,old ,testament ,books--,classification of the ,hebrew3 of the ,greek ,version of the ,seventy2 of the ,latin ,vulgate--,no ,one of these follows entirely the ,order of ,time--#e4 ,original ,mode of ,writing called ,continuous--#f4 ,ancient ,sections--,open and ,closed2 ,larger ,sections called ,parshiyoth and ,haphtaroth--#g4 ,chapters and ,verses--,caution in ,respect to our ,modern ,chapters ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,original ,,text ,,and ,,its ,,history4 #a4 ,chaldee ,passages in the ,hebrew ,scriptures--,divisions of the ,hebrew and ,cognate ,languages--#b4 ,the ,assyrian or ,square ,character not ,primitive--,jewish ,tradition respecting its ,origin--#c4 ,the ,hebrew ,alphabet and its ,character--#d4 ,change in the ,language of the ,hebrew ,nation--#e4 ,introduction of the ,vowel-,points and ,accents--,the ,question of their ,antiquity--#f4 ,jewish ,rules for the ,guidance of ,copyists--,their ,deep ,reverence for the ,sacred ,text--,its ,uncorrupt ,transmission to ,us--#g4 ,age and ,character of ,hebrew ,manuscripts--#h4 ,form of ,hebrew ,manuscripts--the ,public in ,rolls1 the ,private in the ,book ,form1 ,poetical ,passages1 ,columns1 ,pen and ,ink ,accompaniments--#i4 ,the ,samaritan ,pentateuch ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,formation ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,hebrew ,,canon4 ,i4 ,meaning of the ,word ,canon--,gradual ,formation of the ,hebrew ,canon--,its ,main ,divisions--#a4 ,the ,pentateuch--#b4 ,general ,remark on its ,hebrew ,name--#c4 ,the ,pentateuch forms the ,nucleus of the ,old ,testament ,canon--,it was given by ,divine ,authority1 committed to the ,charge of the ,priests1 kept by the ,side of the ,ark1 and to be publicly read at ,stated ,times--,,ii4 ,the ,historical ,books--#d4 ,the ,authors and ,exact ,date of ,many of them ,unknown--,important ,historical ,documents were deposited in the ,sanctuary--#e4 ,the ,authors of the ,books of ,joshua and ,judges made ,use of such ,documents--#f4 ,the ,author of the ,books of ,samuel also--#g4 ,original ,sources for the ,books of ,kings and ,chronicles--#h4 ,these ,two ,works refer not to ,each ,other1 but to a ,larger ,collection of ,original ,documents--#i4 ,character of these ,documents--,they were written1 in ,part at ,least1 by ,prophets1 and they all come to us with the ,stamp of ,prophetic ,authority4--#aj4 ,the ,books of ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 and ,esther--,,iii4 ,the ,prophetical ,books--#aa4 ,the ,books enumerated--,paucity of ,prophets before ,samuel--,schools of the ,prophets established by him--,the ,prophets a ,distinct ,order of ,men in the ,theocracy from his ,day onward--#ab4 ,the ,era of ,written ,prophecy--,,iv4 ,the ,poetical ,books--#ac4 ,their ,general ,character--,the ,book of ,job--#ad4 ,the ,book of ,psalms--#ae4 ,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 and ,canticles--,completion of the ,canon--#af4 ,preservation of the ,sacred ,books to the ,time of ,ezra--,the ,law2 the ,prophetical ,books2 the ,psalms and other ,canonical ,writings--#ag4 ,the ,completion of the ,canon ascribed by the ,jews to ,ezra and his ,coadjutors--,this ,tradition ,true for ,substance4--,no ,psalms written in the ,maccabean ,age--#ah4 ,contents of the ,hebrew ,canon--as given by ,jesus the ,son of ,sirach1 by ,josephus1 by ,origen and ,eusebius1 by ,jerome--#ai4 ,the ,apocryphal ,books ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,ancient ,,versions ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 ,i4 ,the ,greek ,version called the ,septuagint--#a4 ,its ,antiquity2 its ,great ,influence on the ,language of the ,new ,testament--#b4 ,jewish ,account of its ,origin--#c4 ,judgment of ,biblical ,scholars on this ,account--#d4 ,time occupied in the ,completion of the ,work--#e4 ,inequalities of this ,version--,its ,importance to the ,biblical ,student--#f4 ,its ,close ,connection with the ,new ,testament-- ,quotations from it by ,new ,testament ,writers--,their ,manner and ,spirit-- #g4 ,hebrew ,text from which this ,version was made--,,ii4 ,other ,greek ,versions--#h4 ,the ,septuagint originally in ,high ,esteem among the ,jews--,change in their ,feelings in ,regard to it1 and ,rise of ,new ,versions--#i4 ,aquila's ,version--#aj4 ,theodotion--#aa4 ,symniachus--#ab4 ,origen's ,labors on the ,text of the ,septuagint--the ,tetrapla and ,hexapla--,,iii4 ,the ,chaldee ,targums--#ac4 ,general ,remarks on these--#ad4 ,the ,targum of ,onkelos--,its ,general ,fidelity and ,excellence--,its ,peculiarities--,jewish ,tradition respecting ,onkelos--#ae4 ,the ,targum of ,jonathan ,ben ,uzziel--#af4 ,of ,pseudo-,jonathan and ,jerusalem--#ag4 ,other ,targums--,the ,samaritan ,version of the ,samaritan ,pentateuch--,,iv4 #ah4 ,the ,syriac ,peshito--,its ,age and ,character ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,criticism ,,of ,,the ,,sacred ,,text4 #a4 ,the ,object to ascertain its ,primitive ,form--#b4 ,means at ,our ,disposal--,ancient ,hebrew ,manuscripts--,remarks on their ,quality and ,age--#c4 ,ancient ,versions--#d4 ,primary ,printed ,editions--#e4 ,parallel ,passages--#f4 ,quotations from the ,old ,testament in the ,new--#g4 ,quotations in the ,talmud and by ,rabbinical ,writers--#h4 ,critical ,conjecture ,,second ,,division--,,particular ,,introduction4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,as ,a ,,whole4 #a4 ,province of ,particular ,introduction--,the ,necessity of ,understanding the ,unity of ,divine ,revelation--#b4 ,relation of the ,old ,testament as a ,whole to the ,system of ,revelation--,it is a ,preparatory1 ,introductory to a ,final ,revelation1 of which the ,gospel everywhere avails itself--the ,unity of ,god2 ,vicarious ,sacrifice2 ,general ,principles2 ,well-developed ,state of ,civilization-- ,connection of the ,hebrews with the ,great ,world ,powers--,their ,dispersion through the ,nations at our ,lord's ,advent--,relation of the ,gospel to ,civilization--#c4 ,a ,knowledge of the ,preparatory ,character of the ,old ,testament ,revelations enables us to judge correctly concerning them-- ,severity of the ,mosaic ,laws2 ,their ,burdensome ,multiplicity2 ,objection from their ,exclusive ,character answered--#d4 ,office of each ,division of the ,old ,testament ,revelations--the ,pentateuch2 the ,historical ,books2 the ,prophetical ,books--,character and ,officers of the ,hebrew ,prophets-- ,era of ,written ,prophecy--,the ,poetical ,books--#e4 ,each ,particular ,book has its ,office--#f4 ,the ,old ,testament was a ,revelation for the ,men of its ,own ,age1 as well as for those of ,future ,ages--the ,promise made to ,abraham2 the ,deliverance from ,egypt2 the ,mosaic ,law2 the ,words of the ,prophets2 the ,psalms of ,david3 the ,wisdom of ,solomon--#g4 ,value of the ,old ,testament ,revelations to us--the ,system of ,divine ,revelation can be understood only as a ,whole2 ,constant ,reference of the ,new ,testament to the ,old2 the ,old ,testament a ,record of ,god's ,dealings with ,men2 the ,principles embodied in the ,theocracy ,eternal2 the ,manifold ,wisdom of ,god seen only when the ,whole ,system of ,revelation is studied ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,pentateuch4 ,i4 ,its ,unity--,its ,fivefold ,division--#a4 ,genesis--#b4 ,its ,hebrew ,name--,its ,greek ,name--#c4 ,its ,office--,it is the ,introductory ,book of the ,pentateuch--,its ,connection with the ,following ,books--#d4 ,divisions of the ,book of ,genesis--,first ,part and its ,contents2 ,second ,part and its ,contents--#e4 ,its ,mosaic ,authorship--,supposed ,traces of a ,later ,hand--#f4 ,difficulties connected with the ,pentateuch--,scientific ,difficulties3 the ,six ,days of ,creation2 the ,age of the ,antediluvian ,patriarchs2 the ,unity of the ,human ,race2 the ,deluge--,historical ,difficulties3 the ,two ,accounts of the ,creation2 ,cain's ,wife-- ,chronological ,difficulties3 ,discrepancies between the ,masoretic ,hebrew1 the ,samaritan ,hebrew1 and the ,septuagint1 in ,respect to 7#a7 the ,antediluvian ,genealogy2 7#b7 the ,genealogy from ,noah to ,abraham--,remarks on these ,discrepancies--,,ii4 ,exodus--#g4 ,hebrew ,name of this ,book--,its ,unity--,its ,two ,chief ,divisions--,contents of the ,first ,division2 of the ,second ,division--#h4 ,time of the ,sojourn in ,egypt--,sojourn in the ,wilderness--,,iii4 ,leviticus--#i4 ,its ,character and ,contents--#aj4 ,the ,priestly ,office and ,sacrifices the ,central ,part of the ,mosaic ,law--,,iv4 ,numbers--#aa4 ,office and ,contents of this ,book--,the ,three ,epochs of its ,history3 the ,departure from ,sinai1 the ,rebellion of the ,people upon the ,report of the ,twelve ,spies1 the ,second ,arrival of ,israel at ,kadesh with the ,events that followed--,v4 ,deuteronomy--#ab4 ,its ,peculiar ,character1 ,divisions1 and ,contents--#ac4 ,it brings the ,whole ,pentateuch to a ,suitable ,close ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,historical ,,books4 #a and #b4 ,their ,office to ,unfold the ,history of ,god's ,dealings with the ,covenant ,people--,general ,remarks on the ,character of this ,history--,i4 ,joshua--#c4 ,contents of this ,book4 ,its ,immediate ,connection with the ,pentateuch--,its ,two ,divisions with their ,contents--#d4 ,its ,authorship--#e4 ,its ,authenticity and ,credibility--,the ,miracle of the ,arrest of the ,sun and ,moon in their ,course--,,ii4 ,judges and ,ruth--#f4 ,name of this ,book--,office of the ,judges whose ,history it records--,condition of the ,hebrew ,nation during the ,administration of the ,judges--,office of this ,book in the ,general ,plan of ,redemption--#g4 ,arrangement of its ,materials--its ,twofold ,introduction2 the ,body of its ,history2 its ,two ,appendixes--#h4 ,its ,date and ,authorship--#i4 ,uncertainty of its ,chronology--#aj4 ,the ,book of ,ruth4 ,its ,place in the ,history of ,redemption--,,iii4 ,the ,books of ,samuel--#aa4 ,the ,two ,books of ,samuel originally ,one ,work--,their ,name--#ab4 ,their ,office in the ,history of ,redemption--,eventful ,character of the ,period whose ,history they record--,change to the ,kingly ,form of ,government--,god's ,design in this--,the ,kingly ,office ,typical of ,christ--#ac4 ,contents of the ,books of ,samuel--,introductory ,division2 ,second ,division2 ,third ,division--#ad4 ,authorship and ,date of their ,composition--,,iv4 ,the ,books of ,kings--#ae4 ,they ,originally constituted a ,single ,book--,their ,names and ,office--,their ,manner of ,execution--,their ,main ,divisions--#af4 ,the ,first ,period--#ag4 ,the ,second ,period--#ah4 ,the ,third ,period--#ai4 ,chronology of the ,books of ,kings4 ,their ,date and ,authorship--,v4 ,the ,books of ,chronicles--#bj4 ,they originally constituted ,one ,work--,their ,various ,names--,they constitute an ,independent ,work--,their ,office different from that of the ,books of ,kings--,peculiarities which distinguish them from these ,books--,particular ,attention to the ,matter of ,genealogy2 ,fullness of ,detail in ,respect to the ,temple ,service2 ,omission of the ,history of the ,kingdom of ,israel2 other ,omissions--#ba4 ,position of the ,chronicles in the ,hebrew ,canon--,their ,authorship and ,date--,their ,relation to the ,books of ,kings--#bb4 ,difficulties connected with these ,books--,,vi4 ,ezra and ,nehemiah--#bc4 ,general ,remarks on these ,books--,change in the ,relation of the ,hebrews to the ,gentile ,nations--,gradual ,withdrawal of ,supernatural ,manifestations--#bd4 ,while the ,theocracy went steadily forward to the ,accomplishment of its ,end--,the ,jews reclaimed from ,idolatry in ,connection with the ,captivity--,establishment of the ,synagogue ,service and its ,great ,influence--#be4 ,the ,book of ,ezra--,its ,authorship--,parts written in ,chaldee--,persian ,monarchs mentioned by ,ezra and ,nehemiah--#bf4 ,the ,book of ,nehemiah--,its ,contents and ,divisions--,first ,division2 ,second ,division2 ,third ,division--#bg4 ,authorship and ,date of the ,book--,,vii4 ,esther--#bh4 ,contents of this ,book--,feast of ,purim--#bi4 ,the ,ahasuerus of this ,book--,remarks on its ,history ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,poetical ,,books 7,,including ,,also ,,ecclesiastes ,,and ,,canticles74 #a4 ,books reckoned as ,poetical by the ,hebrews--,hebrew ,system of ,accentuation--,a4 ,characteristics of ,hebrew ,poetry--,its ,spirit--,harmony with the ,spirit of the ,theocracy2 ,vivid ,consciousness of ,god's ,presence2 ,originality2 ,freshness and ,simplicity of ,thought2 ,variety--,job and ,isaiah4 ,david1 ,solomon2 ,diversity of ,themes2 ,oriental ,imagery2 ,theocratic ,imagery--,form of ,hebrew ,poetry--#c4 ,its ,rhythm that of ,clauses--,antithetic ,parallelism2 ,synonymous ,parallelism2 ,synthetic ,parallelism--,combinations of the above ,forms--,freedom of ,hebrew ,poetry--,peculiarities of ,diction--,office of ,hebrew ,poetry--#d4 ,the ,celebration of ,god's ,interpositions in ,behalf of the ,covenant ,people2 ,song for the ,sanctuary ,service2 ,didactic ,poetry2 ,prophetic ,poetry--,b4 ,the ,several ,poetical ,books--,i4 ,job--#a4 ,survey of its ,plan--#f4 ,its ,design to ,show the ,nature of ,god's ,providential ,government over ,men--#g4 ,age to which ,job belonged--,age and ,authorship of the ,book--#h4 ,its ,historic ,character--,,ii4 ,the ,book of ,psalms--#i4 ,its ,office--,authors of the ,psalms--,date of their ,composition--#aj4 ,external ,division of the ,psalms into five ,books--,first ,book2 ,second ,book2 ,third ,book2 ,fourth ,book2 ,fifth ,book--,subscription appended to the ,second ,book--,principle of ,arrangement--,attempted ,classification of the ,psalms--,frequent ,quotation of the ,psalms in the ,new ,testament--#aa4 ,titles of the ,psalms--the ,dedicatory ,title2 ,titles relating to the ,character of the ,composition to the ,musical ,instruments1 or the ,mode of ,musical ,performance--,these ,titles very ,ancient1 but not in all ,cases ,original--,,iii4 ,the ,proverbs of ,solomon--#ab4 ,place of this ,book in the ,system of ,divine ,revelation--#ac4 ,its ,outward ,form--,first ,part2 ,second ,part2 ,third ,part2 ,fourth ,part--#ad4 ,arrangement of the ,book in its ,present ,form--,,iv4 ,ecclesiastes--#ae4 ,authorship of this ,book and its ,view of ,life--#af4 ,summary of its ,contents--,v4 ,the ,song of ,solomon--#ag4 ,meaning of the ,title4 ,ancient ,jewish and ,christian ,view of this ,song--#ah4 ,it is not a ,drama1 but a ,series of ,descripture ,pictures--,its ,great ,theme--,caution in ,respect to the ,spiritual ,interpretation of it ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,the ,greater ,prophets4 #a4 ,general ,remarks on the ,prophetical ,writings--#b4 ,different ,offices of the ,prophets under the ,theocracy--,their ,office as ,reprovers--#c4 ,as ,expounders of the ,mosaic ,law in its ,spirituality--#d4 ,and of its ,end1 which was ,salvation through the ,future ,redeemer--,they wrote in the ,decline of the ,theocracy--,their ,promises fulfilled only in ,christ--,i4 ,isaiah--#e4 ,he is the ,first in ,order1 but not the ,earliest of the ,prophets--,his ,private ,history almost wholly ,unknown--,jewish ,tradition ,concerning him--,period of his ,prophetic ,activity--#f4 ,two ,great ,divisions of his ,prophecies--,plans for ,classifying the ,contents of the ,first ,part--,analysis of these ,contents--,general ,character of the ,second ,part1 and ,view of its ,contents--#g4 ,objections to the ,genuineness of the ,last ,part of ,isaiah and ,certain ,other ,parts--,general ,principle on which these ,objections are to be met--,previous ,preparation for the ,revelations contained in this ,part--,true ,significance of the ,promises which it contains--,form of these ,promises--,mention of ,cyrus by ,name--,objection from the ,character of the ,style considered--#h4 ,direct ,arguments for the ,genuineness of this ,part--,external ,testimony2 ,internal ,evidences--#i4 ,genuineness of the ,disputed ,passages of the ,first ,part--,,ii4 ,jeremiah--#aj4 ,contrast between ,isaiah and ,jeremiah in ,personal ,character and ,circumstances--,our ,full ,knowledge of his ,outward ,personal ,history and ,inward ,conflicts--#aa4 ,his ,priestly ,descent--,his ,native ,place--,period of his ,prophetic ,activity--,degeneracy of the ,age--,persecutions to which his ,fidelity subjected him--,he is more occupied than ,isaiah with the ,present--,his ,mission is emphatically to unfold the ,connection between ,national ,profligacy and ,national ,ruin2 yet he sometimes describes the ,glory of the ,latter ,days--#ab4 ,the ,chronological ,order not always followed in his ,prophecies--,general ,divisions of them--,first ,division2 ,second ,division2 ,appendix--,attempts to disprove the ,genuineness of ,certain ,parts of ,jeremiah--,the ,book of ,lamentations--#ac4 ,its ,hebrew ,name--,its ,authorship and the ,time of its ,composition--#ad4 ,structure of its ,poetry--,,iii4 ,ezekiel--#ae4 ,his ,priestly ,descent and ,residence--,notices of his ,personal ,history--,period of his ,prophetic ,activity--#af4 ,peculiarities of his ,style--#ag4 ,his ,allegoric and ,symbolic ,representations--,general ,remarks on the ,nature of ,allegories and ,symbols--#ah4 ,the ,two ,divisions of the ,book--,contents of the ,first ,part2 of the ,second ,part--,prophecies against ,foreign ,nations--,promises relating to the ,glory of the ,latter ,days--,ezekiel's ,vision of a ,new ,jerusalem with its ,temple--,meaning of this ,vision and ,principles according to which it is to be interpreted--,,iv4 ,daniel--#ai4 ,its ,place in the ,hebrew ,canon--,notices of ,daniel's ,personal ,history--#bj4 ,arrangement and ,contents of the ,book--,first ,series of ,prophecies2 ,second ,series--,intimate ,connection between the ,book of ,daniel and the ,apocalypse--#ba4 ,assaults made upon the ,book of ,daniel in ,respect to its ,genuineness and ,credibility--,grounds on which it is received as a ,part of the ,sacred ,canon--,its ,unity2 ,uniform ,tradition of the ,jews and its ,reliability2 ,testimony of ,josephus2 of the ,saviour2 ,language and ,style2 ,intimate ,acquaintance with the ,historical ,relations and ,manners and ,customs of the ,age--#bb4 ,insufficiency of the ,various ,objections urged against the ,book--,chronological and ,historical ,difficulties2 ,difficulties connected with the ,identification of ,belshazzar and ,darius the ,mede2 ,silence of ,jesus the ,son of ,sirach respecting ,daniel2 ,alleged ,linguistic ,difficulties2 ,commendations bestowed upon ,daniel--,the ,real ,objection to the ,book on the ,part of its ,opponents lies in the ,supernatural ,character of the ,events which it records--,remarks on this ,objection ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,twelve ,,minor ,,prophets--#a4 ,jewish ,arrangement of these ,books--,their ,order in the ,masoretic ,text and in the ,alexandrine ,version--#b4 ,general ,remarks on their ,character ,i4 ,hosea--#c4 ,period of his ,prophecying and its ,character--#d4 ,peculiarly of his ,style--,contents of the ,book ,,ii4 ,joel--#e4 ,place and ,date of his ,prophecies--#f4 ,character and ,contents of his ,book--,,iii4 ,amos--#g4 ,date of his ,prophecies--,notices of his ,person--,he was a ,jew1 not trained in any ,prophetical ,school1 and sent to prophesy against ,israel--,character and ,contents of his ,writings--,,iv4 ,obadiah--#h4 ,date and ,contents of his ,prophecy--,v4 ,jonah--#i4 ,his ,age--#aj4 ,remarks on the ,history of the ,book--#aa4 ,authorship and ,historic ,truth of the ,book--,,vi4 ,micah--#ab4 ,his ,residence and the ,time of his ,prophetic ,activity--,his ,prophecies directed against both ,israel and ,judah--#ac4 ,divisions of the ,book with the ,contents of ,each--,passages ,common to ,micah and ,isaiah--,general ,agreement between the ,two ,prophets--,,vii4 ,nahum--#ad4 ,his ,prophecy directed against ,nineveh--,its ,probable ,date--#ae4 ,contents of the ,book--,,viii4 ,habakkuk--#af4 ,date of the ,book and its ,contents--,remarks on the ,ode contained in the ,third ,chapter--,,ix4 ,zephaniah--#ag4 ,date and ,contents of his ,book--,x4 ,haggai--#ah4 ,date and ,scope of the ,book--#ai4 ,its ,different ,messages--,,xi4 ,zechariah--#bj4 ,his ,priestly ,descent--,date of his ,prophecies--#ba4 ,the ,three ,divisions of the ,book--,first ,division2 ,second ,division2 ,third ,division--#bb4 ,remarks on the ,character of ,zechariah's ,prophecies--,,xii4 ,malachi--#bc4 ,name of this ,prophet--,date of his ,prophecies1 and ,condition of the ,jewish ,people--#bd ,contents of the ,book ,,appendix ,,to ,,part ,,ii4 ,,the ,,apocryphal ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament--#a4 ,the ,term ,apocrypha and its ,origin--#b4 ,remarks on the ,date of the ,apocryphal ,books--,their ,reception by the ,alexandrine ,jews--#c4 ,history of these ,books in the ,christian ,church--#d4 ,their ,uses--,i4 ,the ,two ,books of ,esdras--#e4 ,name of this ,book--,its ,contents--,its ,date--#f4 ,the ,second ,book of ,esdras found only in ,versions--,remarks on these ,versions--#g4 ,its ,contents and ,date--,,ii4 ,tobit--#h4 ,accounts of the ,contents of this ,book--#i4 ,various ,texts in which this ,book is ,extant--,its ,general ,scope--,,iii4 ,judith--#aj4 ,contents of the ,book--#aa4 ,remarks on its ,character1 ,date1 and ,design--,,iv4 ,additions to the ,book of ,esther--#ab4 ,account of these--,v4 ,the ,wisdom of ,solomon--#ac4 ,its ,divisions and their ,contents--#ad4 ,authorship of the ,book--,its ,merits and ,defects--,,vi4 ,ecclesiasticus--#ae4 ,its ,titles and ,contents--#af4 ,date of the ,book and of its ,translation--,,vii4 ,baruch and the ,epistle of ,jeremiah--#ag4 ,character and ,contents of the ,book of ,baruch--#ah4 ,second1 or ,syriac ,book of ,baruch--#ai4 ,so-called ,epistle of ,jeremiah--,,viii4 ,additions to the ,book of ,daniel--#bj4 ,enumeration of these--,their ,authorship and ,date--,,ix4 ,the ,prayer of ,manasses--#ba4 ,remarks on this ,composition--,x4 ,the ,books of the ,maccabees--#bb4 ,number of these ,books--,remarks on their ,historic ,order--,origin of the ,name ,maccabee--#bc4 ,first ,book--,its ,genuineness and ,credibility--,its ,authorship and ,date--,original ,language--#bd4 ,second ,book--,its ,character and ,contents--#be4 ,third ,book--,its ,contents and ,character--,fourth ,book--,its ,stoical ,character--,its ,contents--,fifth ,book--,its ,original ,language and ,contents 99 99 99 99 99 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,,first ,,division--,,general ,,introduction4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,language of the ,new ,testament--#a4 ,god's ,providence as seen in the ,languages of the ,old and ,new ,testaments--,fitness of the ,hebrew for its ,office in ,history1 ,poetry1 and ,prophecy--#b4 ,adaptation of the ,greek to the ,wants of the ,new ,testament ,writers--#c4 ,providential ,preparation for a ,change in the ,language of the ,inspired ,writings--,cessation of the ,hebrew as the ,vernacular of the ,jews1 and ,withdrawal of the ,spirit of ,prophecy ,contemporaneous--#d4 ,introduction of the ,greek ,language into ,asia and ,egypt--,its ,use among the ,jews1 especially in ,egypt--,its ,general ,use in our ,lord's ,day--#e4 ,character of the ,new ,testament ,greek--,its ,basis the ,common ,hellenic ,dialect1 with an ,hebraic ,coloring received from the ,septuagint1 and an ,aramaic ,tinge also--,the ,writers of the ,new ,testament ,jews using the ,language of ,greece for the ,expression of ,christian ,ideas--,technical ,terms in the ,new ,testament--#f4 ,adaptation of the ,new ,testament ,greek to its ,office ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,external ,form of the ,new ,testament--#a4 ,the ,three ,main ,divisions of the ,new ,testament ,writings3 ,historical1 ,epistolary1 ,prophetical--#b4 ,natural ,order of these ,divisions--#c4 ,subdivisions--,in the ,historic ,part--,in the ,epistolary ,part--,diversity of ,arrangement in ,manuscripts--#d4 ,arrangement of the ,new ,testament ,writings not ,chronological--,importance of ,knowing this--#e4 ,continuous ,writing of the ,ancient ,uncial ,manuscripts-- ,stichometrical ,mode of ,writing--,this led gradually to the ,present ,system of ,interpunction ,cursive ,manuscripts--#g4 ,ancient ,divisions in the ,contents of the ,sacred ,text--,ammonian ,sections and ,eusebian ,canons-- #h4 ,divisions called ,titles--#i4 ,divisions of the ,other ,new ,testament ,books--#aj4 ,chapters and ,verses--,church ,lessons--#aa4 ,remarks on the above ,divisions--,paragraph ,bibles--#ab4 ,titles and ,subscriptions ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,new ,,testament ,,text ,,and ,,its ,,history--,i4 ,the ,manuscript ,text--#a and #b4 ,general ,remarks--#c4 ,origin of ,various ,readings and their ,classification--,substitutions1 ,insertions1 ,omissions--,arising from ,inadvertence1 or ,unskilful ,criticism--,wilful ,falsifications cannot be imputed to the ,copyists--#d4 ,materials for ,textual ,criticism--,general ,results--#e4 ,notice of some ,manuscripts--,the ,vatican1 ,sinai1 ,alexandrine1 ,ephraem1 ,palimpsest1 ,dublin ,palimpsest1 ,beza or ,cambridge 7,bilingual71 ,purple4 ,cursive ,manuscripts--,,ii4 ,the ,printed ,text--#f4 ,primary ,editions and their ,sources--,complutensian ,polyglott1 ,erasmian1 ,stephens'1 ,beza's1 ,elzevir ,editions--#g4 ,remarks on the ,received ,text--,,iii4 ,principles of ,textual ,criticism--#h4 ,its ,end--,sources of ,evidence--,greek ,manuscripts--,their varying ,value--#i4 ,ancient ,versions and their ,value--#aj4 ,citations of the ,church ,fathers--#aa4 ,canons of ,criticism ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,formation ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament ,,canon--#a4 ,general ,remarks--#b4 ,different ,periods to be noticed--#c4 ,apostolic ,age--#d4 ,age of the ,apostolic ,fathers--,remarks on their ,quotations--#e4 ,age of ,transition--,events of this ,age which awakened the ,christian ,church to a ,full ,consciousness of the ,divine ,authority of the ,apostolic ,writings--,execution of ,versions--#f4 ,age of the ,early ,church ,fathers--,they recognized a ,canon1 though not yet ,complete--,canon of the ,syriac ,peshito1 ,muratorian ,canon--,canon of the ,councils of ,laodicea and ,carthage--#g4 ,closing ,remarks ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,ancient ,,versions ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament--,i4 ,latin ,versions--#a4 ,interest attaching to these ,versions--#b4 ,the ,ante-,hieronymian or ,old ,latin ,version--#c4 ,its ,canon--,remarks on its ,text--,manuscripts containing it--#d4 ,jerome's ,revision of the ,old ,latin ,version--#e4 ,jerome's ,new ,version of the ,old ,testament--,books left untranslated--,the ,vulgate and its ,diversified ,character--,remarks on the ,history of the ,vulgate--,,ii4 ,syriac ,versions--#f4 ,the ,peshito--,it comprises the ,old and ,new ,testaments--,its ,date--,its ,name--#g4 ,character of the ,peshito--,the ,curetonian ,syriac--,its ,relation to the ,peshito--,its high ,critical ,value--#h4 ,the ,philoxenian ,syriac--,its extremely ,literal ,character--,hexaplar ,syriac--,remarks on these ,versions--,jerusalem ,syriac ,lectionary--,,iii4 ,egyptian and ,ethiopic ,versions--,memphitic ,version1 ,thebaic1 ,bashmuric--#aj4 ,ethiopic ,version--,,iv4 ,gothic and other ,versions--#aa4 ,gothic ,version of ,ulphilas--#ab4 ,palimpsest ,manuscripts of this ,version--#ac4 ,ancient ,armenian ,version ,,second ,,division--,,particular ,,introduction4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,historical ,,books--#a4 ,the ,new ,testament a ,necessary ,sequel to the ,old--,the ,two ,testaments interpret ,each ,other1 and can be truly understood only as an ,organic ,whole--#b4 ,remarks on the ,use ,made of the ,old ,testament by the ,writers of the ,new--,fundamental ,character of the ,gospel ,narratives--,i4 ,the ,gospel as a ,whole--#c4 ,signification of the ,word ,gospel--,its ,primary and ,secondary ,application--#d4 ,general ,remarks on the ,relation of the ,gospels to ,each ,other--#e4 ,agreements of the ,synoptic ,gospels--#f4 ,differences--#g4 ,theories of the ,origin of these ,three ,gospels3 ,that of ,mutual ,dependence2 ,that of ,original ,documents2 ,that of ,oral ,apostolic ,tradition--,remarks on this ,tradition--,its ,distinction from ,tradition in the ,modern ,sense--#h4 ,no ,one of the ,gospels gives the ,entire ,history of our ,lord1 nor always observes the ,strict ,chronological ,order of ,events--,remarks on our ,lord's ,life before his ,baptism--#i4 ,remarks on the ,peculiar ,character of the ,fourth ,gospel--,this and the other ,three mutually ,supplementary to ,each ,other--#aj4 ,harmonies of the ,gospels--,relative ,size of the ,gospels--,,ii4 ,matthew--#aa4 ,personal ,notices of ,matthew--#ab4 ,original ,language of his ,gospel--,the ,problem stated--#ac4 ,testimony of the ,ancients on this ,point--#ad4 ,various ,hypotheses considered--#ae4 ,primary ,design of this ,gospel to show that ,jesus of ,nazareth was the ,promised ,messiah--#af4 ,he is also exhibited as the ,saviour of the ,world--#ag4 ,fulness of ,matthew's ,record in ,respect to our ,lord's ,discourses--#ah4 ,he does not always follow the ,exact ,order of ,time--#ai4 ,place and ,date--#bj4 ,integrity--,genuineness of the ,first ,two ,chapters--,,iii4 ,mark--#ba4 ,personal ,notices of ,mark--,intimate ,relation of ,mark to ,peter and ,paul--#bb4 ,place--,date--,language--#bc4 ,design of this ,gospel to exhibit ,jesus as the ,son of ,god--,he makes the ,works of ,jesus more ,prominent than his ,discourses--#bd4 ,characteristics of ,mark as a ,historian--#be4 ,closing ,passage in ,mark's ,gospel--,,iv4 ,luke--#bf4 ,notices of ,luke in the ,new ,testament--#bg4 ,sources of his ,gospel--,his ,relation to ,paul--#bh4 ,date and ,place of ,writing--#bi4 ,universal ,aspect of ,luke's ,gospel--#cj4 ,its ,character and ,plan--,comparison of the ,gospels in ,respect to ,peculiar ,matter and ,concordances--#ca4 ,integrity of ,luke's ,gospel--,the ,two ,genealogies of ,matthew and ,luke--,v4 ,john--#cb4 ,john's ,manner of indicating himself--#cc4 ,personal ,notices of him--#cd4 ,late ,composition of his ,gospel and ,place of ,writing--#ce4 ,peculiarity of this ,gospel in ,respect to ,subject-,matter--,its ,relation to the ,first ,three ,gospels--#cf4 ,general ,design of this ,gospel--,it is peculiarly the ,gospel of ,christ's ,person--,,vi4 ,acts of the ,apostles--#cg4 ,author of this ,book--#ch4 ,plan of the ,book--,its ,first ,division2 ,second ,division--,notices of ,antioch--#ci4 ,office of this ,book--,portraiture of the ,apostolic ,age of ,christianity2 ,cursory ,view of the ,inauguration of the ,christian ,church2 ,various ,steps by which the ,abolition of the ,middle ,wall of ,partition between ,jews and ,gentiles was effected--#dj4 ,concluding ,remarks ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,epistles ,,of ,,paul--#a4 ,general ,remarks on the ,epistles--#b4 ,paul's ,epistles all written in the ,prosecution of his ,work as the ,apostle to the ,gentiles--,nature of this ,work--#c4 ,paul's ,peculiar ,qualifications for this ,work--,his ,mode of ,procedure--,union in him of ,firmness and ,flexibility--#d4 ,character of the ,apostle's ,style--#e4 ,points to be noticed in the ,separate ,epistles--,notices of ,paul's ,labors in the ,acts of the ,apostles--#f4 ,present ,arrangement of ,paul's ,epistles and of the ,epistles generally--,chronological ,order of ,paul's ,epistles--,four ,groups of these ,epistles--,i4 ,epistle to the ,romans--#g4 ,date and ,place of this ,epistle--#h4 ,composition of the ,roman ,church--#i4 ,occasion and ,design of the ,epistle--,its ,general ,outlines--#aj4 ,special ,office of this ,epistle--,,ii4 ,epistles to the ,corinthians--,first ,epistle--#aa4 ,place and ,time of its ,composition--#ab4 ,notices of the ,corinthian ,church--,occasion of the ,apostle's ,writing--#ac4 ,general ,tone of the ,epistle as contrasted with that to the ,galatians--,second ,epistle--#ad4 ,place and ,time of its ,composition--#ae4 ,its ,occasion--,prominence of the ,apostle's ,personality in this ,epistle and its ,ground--,peculiarities of its ,diction--,its ,office in the ,economy of ,revelation--,,iii4 ,epistle to the ,galatians--#af4 ,historical ,notice of ,galatia--,missionary ,visits of the ,apostle to that ,province--,date of the ,present ,epistle and ,place of ,composition--#ag4 ,occasion and ,design--#ah4 ,outlines of the ,epistle--,the ,historic ,part1 the ,argumentative1 the ,practical--,,iv4 ,epistles to the ,ephesians1 ,colossians1 and ,philemon--#ai4 ,contemporaneousness of these ,epistles--#bj4 ,place and ,date--#ba4 ,chronological ,order of the ,first ,two--,epistle to the ,colossians--#bb4 ,notices of ,colosse and the ,church there--,occasion of this ,epistle--,character of the ,false ,teachers at ,colosse--#bc4 ,outlines of the ,epistle--,its ,argumentative ,part1 its ,practical--,the ,epistle from ,laodicca--,epistle to the ,ephesians--#bd4 ,notices of ,ephesus--,labors of ,paul at ,ephesus--,occasion of the ,present ,epistle--,its ,general ,character--,various ,hypotheses respecting it--#be4 ,its ,outlines--,its ,argumentative ,part1 its ,practical--,epistle to ,philemon--#bf4 ,its ,occasion and ,design--,v4 ,epistle to the ,philippians--#bg4 ,notices of ,philippi and the ,formation of the ,church there--#bh4 ,occasion of this ,epistle--,place and ,date of its ,composition--#bi4 ,its ,character--,general ,view of its ,contents--,,vi4 ,epistles to the ,thessalonians--#cj4 ,notices of ,thessalonica and the ,apostle's ,labors there--,first ,epistle to the ,thessalonians--#ca4 ,date and ,place of its ,composition--#cb4 ,its ,occasion and ,design--,outlines of the ,epistle--,second ,epistle--#cc4 ,place of ,writing and ,date--,its ,design--,its ,general ,outlines--#cd4 ,comparison between the ,epistles to the ,thessalonians and that to the ,philippians--,,vii4 ,the ,pastoral ,epistles--#ce4 ,the ,date of these ,epistles and ,related ,questions--#cf4 ,character of the ,false ,teachers referred to in these ,epistles--#cg4 ,genuineness of the ,pastoral ,epistles--#ch4 ,their ,office--,first ,epistle to ,timothy--#ci4 ,its ,date and ,place of ,composition--,its ,occasion and ,design--,its ,contents--,scriptural ,notices of ,timothy--,epistle to ,titus--#dj4 ,its ,agreement with the ,preceding ,epistle--,the ,cretan ,church and ,titus--,second ,epistle1 to ,timothy--#da4 ,its ,occasion and ,character in ,contrast with the ,two ,preceding ,epistles--,its ,office--,epistle to the ,hebrews--#db4 ,question of its ,authorship--,how it was regarded in the ,eastern ,church--,how in the ,western--,general ,remark--#dc4 ,persons addressed in this ,epistle--,time and ,place of its ,composition--,manner of ,reference to the ,levitical ,priesthood and ,temple ,services--#dd4 ,central ,theme of this ,epistle--,dignity of ,christ's ,person in ,contrast with the ,ancient ,prophets1 with ,angels1 and with ,moses--,divine ,efficacy of his ,priesthood in ,contrast with that of the ,sons of ,aaron--,design of the ,epistle--,its ,office in the ,system of ,revelation ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,catholic ,,epistles--#a4 ,origin of the ,name ,catholic--#a4 ,epistle of ,james--#b4 ,question respecting the ,person of ,james--#c4 ,place of ,writing this ,epistle--,persons addressed--#d4 ,question of its ,date--#e4 ,its ,genuineness and ,canonical ,authority--#f4 ,its ,practical ,character--,alleged ,disagreement between ,paul and ,james without ,foundation--,,ii4 ,epistles of ,peter--,first ,epistle--#g4 ,its ,canonical ,authority always acknowledged--#h4 ,persons addressed--#i4 ,place of its ,composition--,its ,occasion and ,date--,traditions respecting ,peter--#aj4 ,outline of the ,epistle--,second ,epistle--#aa4 ,persons addressed--,time of ,writing--#ab4 ,question respecting the ,genuineness of this ,epistle--,external ,testimonies--,internal ,evidence--,general ,result--#ac4 ,object of the ,present ,epistle--,peculiar ,character of the ,second ,chapter--,its ,agreement with the ,epistle of ,jude--,,iii4 ,epistles of ,john--,first ,epistle of ,john--#ad4 ,its ,acknowledged ,canonicity--,time and ,place of its ,composition--,persons addressed--#ae4 ,general ,view of its ,contents--,second and ,third ,epistles--#af4 ,their ,common ,authorship--,their ,genuineness--#ag4 ,the ,occasion and ,office of ,each--,,iv4 ,epistle of ,jude--#ah4 ,question respecting ,jude's ,person--,time of the ,epistle1 and ,persons addressed--#ai4 ,its ,canonical ,authority--,its ,design ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,apocalypse--#a4 ,meaning of the ,word ,apocalypse--,abundance of ,external ,testimonies to this ,book--#b4 ,internal ,arguments considered--,use of the ,apostle's ,name1 ,devotional ,views1 ,spirit of the ,writer1 ,style and ,diction--,here must be taken into ,account the ,difference between this ,book and ,john's other ,writings in ,subject-,matter1 in the ,mode of ,divine ,revelation1 in the ,writer's ,mental ,state and ,circumstances2 also its ,poetic ,diction--,general ,results--#c4 ,date of the ,apocalypse and ,place of ,writing--#d4 ,different ,schemes of ,interpretation--,the ,generic--,the ,historic--#e4 ,symbolic ,import of the ,numbers in this ,book--,the number ,seven1 ,half of ,seven1 ,six2 ,the ,number ,four1 a ,third and ,fourth ,part2 the ,number ,twelve2 the ,number ,ten--#f4 ,office of the ,apocalypse in the ,system of ,revelation ,,appendix ,,to ,,part ,,iii4 ,,writings ,,of ,,the ,,apostolic ,,fathers1 ,,with ,,some ,,notices ,,of ,,the ,,apocryphal ,,new ,,testament ,,writings--#a4 ,the ,writings of the ,apostolic ,fathers distinguished from the ,proper ,new ,testament ,apocrypha--,some ,remarks on the ,character of these ,writings ,i4 ,writings of ,clement of ,rome--#b4 ,his ,epistle to the ,romans--,its ,genuineness ,character1 and ,age--#c4 ,its ,occasion1 with a ,notice of its ,contents--#d4 ,the so-called ,second ,epistle of ,clement to the ,corinthians--,its ,genuineness not admitted--,vague and ,general ,character of its ,contents--#e4 ,notice of some ,other ,writings falsely ascribed to ,clement--,recognitions of ,clement1 and the ,clementines1 with their ,plan and ,contents2 ,constitutions of ,clement1 and their ,contents2 ,apostolic ,canons ,,ii4 ,epistles of ,ignatius--#f4 ,notices of ,ignatius--,the ,seven ,genuine ,epistles that bear his ,name--,unsatisfactory ,state of the ,text--,syriac and ,armenian ,versions--,enumeration of these ,epistles--,their ,character--,strong ,ecclesiastical ,spirit that pervades them--,his ,letter to the ,romans--,the ,undue ,desire of ,martyrdom which it manifests--,his ,letter to ,polycarp--#g4 ,spurious ,epistles ascribed to ,ignatius1 and their ,character ,,iii4 ,epistle of ,polycarp--#h4 ,notices of ,polycarp--,his ,epistle to the ,philippians--,its ,character and ,contents--,time and ,occasion of its ,composition ,,iv4 ,writings of ,barnabas and ,hermas--#i4 ,their ,doubtful ,authority--#aj4 ,the ,so-called ,epistle of ,barnabas--,tischendorf's ,discovery of the ,original ,greek ,text--,the ,author and ,date of the ,work--,notice of its ,contents--,its ,fanciful ,method of ,interpretation--#aa4 ,the ,shepherd of ,hernias--,outward ,form of the ,work--,its ,internal ,character--,its ,author and ,age ,v4 ,the ,apostle's ,creed--#ab4 ,in what ,sense it belongs to the ,apostolic ,fathers--,apostolic ,character of its ,contents ,,vi4 ,apocryphal ,gospels and ,acts--#ac4 ,their ,number--,their ,worthless ,character in ,contrast with that of the ,canonical ,gospels and ,acts 99 99 99 99 99 ,,part ,,iv4 ,a ,,discussion ,,of ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,biblical ,,interpretation4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,introductory ,,remarks--#a4 ,definition of ,certain ,terms--,hermeneutics1 ,exegesis1 ,epexegesis--#b4 ,the ,expositor's ,office--,parallel between his ,work and that of the ,textual ,critic--#c4 ,qualifications of the ,biblical ,interpreter--,a ,supreme ,regard for ,truth--#d4 ,a ,sound ,judgment with the ,power of ,vivid ,conception--,office of ,each of these ,qualities and their ,relation to ,each ,other--#e4 ,sympathy with ,divine ,truth--#f4 ,extensive and ,varied ,acquirements--,the ,original ,languages of the ,bible2 ,sacred ,geography and ,natural ,history2 ,biblical ,antiquities2 ,ancient ,history and ,chronology--#g4 ,general ,remarks on the above ,qualifications--#h4 ,the ,human and ,divine ,side to ,biblical ,interpretation--,the ,importance of observing ,both ,,first ,,division--,,interpretation ,,viewed ,,on ,,the ,,human ,,side4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,general ,,principles ,,of ,,interpretation--#a4 ,signification of the ,terms employed how ascertained1 with some ,superadded ,remarks--#b4 ,on ,ascertaining the ,sense of ,scripture--#c4 ,the ,scope ,general and ,special--,its ,supreme ,importance illustrated--,how the ,scope is to be ascertained--,the ,author's ,statements2 ,inferential ,remarks2 ,historical ,circumstances--,important ,help derived from the ,repeated and ,careful ,perusal of a ,work--#d4 ,the ,context defined and distinguished from the ,scope--,indispensable ,necessity of attending to it--,this illustrated by ,examples--,question respecting the ,limits of the ,context--,in some ,cases no ,context exists--,on the ,use of ,biblical ,texts as ,mottoes--,various ,applications of the ,principle contained in a ,given ,passage a ,legitimate ,mode of ,exposition--#e4 ,parallelisms ,verbal and ,real--,help derived from the ,former--,subdivision of ,real ,parallelisms into ,doctrinal and ,historic--,importance of ,doctrinal ,parallelisms with ,illustrations--,value of ,historic ,parallelisms illustrated--,difficulties arising from them1 and the ,principle of their ,adjustment--,illustration--#f4 ,external ,acquirements--,various ,illustrations of the ,importance of these--#g4 ,sound ,judgment--,office of this ,quality illustrated--,inept ,interpretations3 ,interpretations ,contrary to the ,nature of the ,subject2 ,necessary ,limitations of an ,author's ,meaning2 ,reconciliation of ,apparent ,contradictions2 ,forced and ,unnatural ,explanations and the ,rejection of ,well-established ,facts--#h4 ,remarks on the ,proper ,office of ,reason in ,interpretation ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,figurative ,,language ,,of ,,scripture--#a4 ,figurative ,language defined and illustrated--,general ,remarks respecting it--#b4 ,rules for the ,ascertaining of ,figurative ,language--,nature of the ,subject2 ,scope1 ,context1 and ,analogy of ,scripture--,error of understanding ,literal ,language figuratively--,remark on the ,interpretation of ,prophecy--#c4 ,different ,kinds of ,figures--,the ,trope in its ,varieties of ,metonymy1 ,synecdoche1 and ,metaphor--,remarks on ,comparisons--,the ,allegory--,its ,definition and ,distinction from the ,metaphor--,distinction between ,true ,allegory and the ,allegorical ,interpretation of ,history--,the ,parable--,how distinguished from the ,allegory--,the ,fable--,the ,symbol--,its ,various ,forms--,the ,proverb--,it always embodies a ,general ,truth--,its ,various ,forms--,signification of the ,word ,myth--,it does not come within the ,sphere of ,scriptural ,interpretation--#d4 ,general ,remarks on the ,interpretation of the ,figurative ,language of ,scripture--#e4 ,its ,certainty and ,truthfulness--#f4 ,key to the ,interpretation of the ,allegory-- ,examples3 ,the ,vine ,transplanted from ,egypt1 ,psa4 #hj2 the two ,eagles and the ,cedar ,bough1 ,ezek4 #ag3c-aj2 ,the ,song of ,solomon2 the ,two ,allegories of ,ezekiel1 chaps41 #af and #bc-g4 ,the ,interpretation of the ,parable--,how it differs from that of the ,allegory--,point of ,primary ,importance--,how far the ,details are significant--,examples3 ,the ,sower1 ,matt4 #ac3c-h1 #ai-bc2 the ,tares in the ,field ,matt4 #ac3bd-cj1 #cg-dc2 the ,ten ,virgins1 ,matt1 #be3a-ac--,remark respecting the ,personages introduced in ,parables with ,illustrations--,the ,unforgiving ,servant1 ,matt4 #ah3 #bc-ce2 the ,importunate ,friend1 ,luke #aa3e-h2 the ,unjust ,judge1 ,luke #ah3a-h2 the ,unfaithful ,steward1 ,luke #af3a-i--h4 ,scriptural ,symbols-,how to determine whether they are ,real or ,seen in ,prophetic ,vision--,principles on which they are to be interpreted--,examples--#i4 ,remarks on the ,interpretation of ,numerical ,symbols ,,second ,,division--,,interpretation ,,viewed ,,on ,,the ,,divine ,,side4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,unity ,,of ,,revelation--#a4 ,essential ,unity between the ,old and the ,new ,testament--#b4 ,this ,unity one that coexists with ,great ,diversity-- ,illustrations from the ,analogy of ,god's ,works--#c4 ,unity in ,diversity in ,respect to the ,form of ,god's ,kingdom--#d4 ,the ,forms of ,public ,worship--#e4 ,forms of ,religious ,labor--#f4 ,spirit of ,revelation--#g4 ,way of ,salvation--#h4 ,sternness of the ,mosaic ,dispensation explained from its ,preparatory ,character--#i4 ,inferences from the ,unity of ,revelation--#i4 ,each ,particular ,revelation ,perfect in its ,measure--#aj4 ,the ,later ,revelations the ,exponents of the ,earlier2 ,christ and his ,apostles in a ,special ,sense the ,expositors of the ,new ,testament--#aa4 ,the ,extent of ,meaning in a ,given ,revelation that which the ,holy ,spirit intended--#ab4 ,the ,obscure ,declarations of ,scripture to be interpreted from the ,clear1 with ,illustrations--#ac4 ,remarks on the ,analogy of ,faith--,the ,term ,defined--,rules for its ,use ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,scriptural ,,types--#a4 ,types distinguished from ,analogy--#b4 ,and from the ,foreshadowing of ,future ,events by the ,present--#c4 ,the ,type defined in its ,three ,essential ,characters ,i4 ,historical ,types--#d4 ,in ,respect to these ,two ,extremes to be avoided--,typical ,history has a ,proper ,significance of its ,own--,this illustrated by ,examples3 ,the ,kingly ,office2 the ,prophetical ,office2 ,typical ,transactions--,remarks on the ,inadequacy of ,all ,types ,,ii4 ,ritual ,types--#e4 ,the ,sacrifices the ,essential ,part of the ,mosaic ,ritual--,what is implied in them--,the ,sanctuary ,god's ,visible ,dwelling-place where alone they could be offered--#f4 ,the ,mosaic ,tabernacle described--#g4 ,its ,general ,typical ,import--#h4 ,significance of its ,different ,parts and ,appointments--,preciousness of the ,materials2 ,gradation in this ,respect--#i4 ,the ,inner ,sanctuary with its ,appointments--#aj4 ,the ,outer ,sanctuary with its ,appointments--#aa4 ,the ,brazen ,altar with its ,laver--,the ,levitical ,priests typified ,christ--#ab4 ,the ,levitical ,sacrifices typified ,christ's ,offering of ,himself for the ,sins of the ,world--,this shown from ,scripture--,general ,remark respecting ,christ's ,propitiatory ,sacrifice--#ac4 ,characteristics of the ,types ,themselves--,the ,levitical ,priests had a ,common ,human ,nature with those for whom they officiated2 were appointed to their ,office by ,god2 were ,mediators between ,god and the ,people2 and ,mediators through ,propitiatory ,sacrifices--,points of ,dissimilarity between the ,type and the ,antitype--,remarks on the ,central ,idea of ,priesthood--#ad4 ,scriptural ,idea of ,sacrifice the ,offering of ,one ,life in ,behalf of ,another-- ,classification of the ,levitical ,sacrifices with the ,ideas belonging to ,each3 ,sin and ,trespass ,offerings2 ,burnt ,offerings2 ,peace-,offerings--,sacrificial ,nature of the ,passover--,other ,sacrifices of a ,special ,character--,all ,sacrificial ,victims to be without ,blemish--,the ,unbloody ,offerings and their ,signification--#ae4 ,typical ,transactions connected with the ,sacrifices and ,oblations3 ,the ,laying of the ,offerer's ,hands on the ,head of the ,victim2 the ,waving and ,heaving of ,offerings2 the ,sprinkling of the ,victim's ,blood2 the ,burning of the ,offering--#af4 ,typical ,meaning of the ,tabernacle as a ,whole--,the ,several ,points of ,adumbration considered3 ,adumbration of ,god's ,presence with ,men2 ,impossibility of approaching ,god without a ,mediator2 ,adumbration of ,christ's ,expiatory ,sacrifice and ,heavenly ,intercession on the ,great ,day of ,atonement2 ,burning of the ,victim without the ,camp--#ag4 ,distinctions between ,clean and ,unclean--,levitical ,view of ,bodily ,infirmities ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,interpretation ,,of ,,prophecy--#a4 ,general ,remarks ,i4 ,prophecies relating to the ,near ,future--#b4 ,their ,specific ,character--,examples ,,ii4 ,prophecies relating to the ,last ,days--#c4 ,meaning of the ,term ,last ,days1 and its ,equivalents--,general ,character of this ,class of ,prophecies--#d4 ,prophecies in which the ,order of ,events is indicated--,daniel's ,fourth ,monarchy2 the ,great ,red ,dragon of ,revelation1 the ,two ,beasts that succeeded to his ,power1 and the ,woman riding a ,scarlet-,colored ,beast--#e4 ,prophecies which give ,general ,views of the ,future--,examples--#f4 ,the ,prophets give an ,inward ,view of the ,vital ,forces which sustain and extend ,god's ,kingdom--,unity of the ,plan of ,redemption2 its ,continual ,progress2 ,indications of the ,end towards which it is tending2 the ,end ,itself the ,chief ,object of ,interest--,great ,crisis in the ,church's ,history--,spirit that should actuate the ,interpreter of ,prophecy ,,iii4 ,question of ,double ,sense--#g4 ,the ,term defined--#h4 ,examples of ,literal and ,typical ,sense--,melchizedek's ,priesthood2 the ,rest of ,canaan--#i4 ,the ,messianic ,psalms--,different ,principles on which they are interpreted3 ,exclusive ,application to ,christ2 ,reference to an ,ideal ,personage2 ,christ the ,head and his ,body the ,church2 ,typical ,view--#aj4 ,the ,principle of ,progressive ,fulfilment ,,iv4 ,question of ,literal and ,figurative ,meaning--#aa4 ,general ,remarks--#ab4 ,representative ,use in ,prophecy of ,past ,events--#ac4 ,of the ,institutions of the ,mosaic ,economy--#ad4 ,the ,principle of ,figurative ,interpretation not to be pressed as ,exclusive--#ae4 ,question of the ,literal ,restoration of the ,jews to the ,land of ,canaan--#af4 ,question of our ,lord's ,personal ,reign on ,earth during the ,millennium ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,quotations ,,from ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,in ,,the ,,new--#a4 ,general ,remarks on the ,authority of the ,new ,testament ,writers--#b4 ,outward ,form of their ,quotations--,its very ,free ,spirit--,this illustrated by ,example--#c4 ,contents of the ,new ,testament ,quotations--,the ,so-called ,principle of ,accommodation2 in what ,sense ,true1 and in what ,sense to be rejected--#d4 ,quotations by ,way of ,argument--#e4 ,quotations as ,prophecies of ,christ and his ,kingdom--,remarks on the ,formula3 ,that it might be fulfilled--#f4 ,prophecies referring immediately to ,christ--#g4 ,prophecies referring to ,christ under a ,type--,closing ,remark ,,part ,i4 ,,evidences ,,of ,,revealed ,,religion4 ,,prefatory ,,remarks4 ,many thousands of persons have a full and joyous conviction of the truth of ,christianity from their own experience1 who yet feel a reasonable desire to examine the historic evidence by which it is confirmed1 if not for the strengthening of their own faith1 yet for the purpose of silencing gainsayers1 and guarding the young against the cavils of infidelity4 ,it is our duty to give to those who ask us a reason of the hope that is in us2 and although our own personal experience may be to ourselves a satisfactory ground of assurance1 we cannot ask others to take the gospel on our testimony alone4 ,it is highly desirable that we understand and be able to set forth with clearness and convincing power the proofs that this plan of salvation has ,god for its author4 ,then there is a class of earnest inquirers who find themselves perplexed with the difficulties which they hear urged against the gospel1 and which they find themselves unable to solve in a satisfactory way4 ,it is of the highest importance that such persons be met in a candid spirit2 that the immense mass of evidence by which the ,christian religion is sustained be clearly set before them2 and that they understand that a religion thus supported is not to be rejected on the ground that there are difficulties connected with it which have not yet been solved--perhaps never can be solved here below4 ,are you1 reader1 such an earnest inquirer after truth8 ,we present to you in the following pages a brief summary of the historic evidence by which the ,bible1 with the plan of salvation which it reveals1 is shown to be the word of ,god2 and we wish1 here at the outset1 to suggest to you some cautions respecting the state of mind with which this great inquiry is to be pursued4 ,first of all1 we remind you that1 whatever else may be uncertain1 you know that you must soon die1 and try for yourself the realities of the unseen world4 ,the question now before you is1 ,whether ,god has spoken from heaven1 and made any revelations concerning that world4 ,if so1 they are more precious than gold2 for in the decisive hour of death you will wish to know not what man1 the sinner1 has reasoned and conjectured concerning a future judgment1 forgiveness of sin1 and the life to come2 but what ,god1 the ,judge1 has declared4 ,now the ,bible claims to contain such a message from ,god4 ,if its claims are valid1 it will not flatter you and speak to you smooth things1 but will tell you the truth4 ,and you must be prepared to receive the truth1 though it condemn you4 ,sooner or later you must meet the truth face to face3 be ready to do so now2 you have no interest in error2 falsehood and delusion cannot help you1 but will destroy you4 ,do not come to the examination of this great question with the idea that you must clear away all mysteries connected with the gospel before you believe it4 ,the world in which you live is full of mysteries4 ,one would think that if any thing could be fully comprehended1 it must be the acts of which we are ourselves the authors4 ,by a volition you raise your hand to your head2 but how is the act performed8 ,true1 there is in your body an apparatus of nerves1 muscles1 joints1 and the like2 but in what way does the human will have power over this apparatus8 ,no man can answer this question3 it is wrapped in deep mystery4 ,why be offended1 then1 because the way of salvation revealed in the ,bible has like mysteries--mysteries concerning not your duty1 but ,god's secret and inscrutable methods of acting8 ,and since the question now before you is not one of mere speculation1 but one that concerns your immediate duty1 be on your guard against the seductive influence of sinful passion and sinful habit4 ,there is a deep and solemn meaning in the words of ,jesus3 ,every one that doeth evil hateth the light1 neither cometh to the light1 lest his deeds should be reproved4 ,corrupt feeling in the heart and corrupt practice in the life have a terrible power to blind the mind4 ,the man who comes to the examination of the ,bible with a determination to persist in doing what he knows to be wrong1 or in omitting what he knows to be right1 will certainly err from the truth2 for he is not in a proper state of mind to love it and welcome it to his soul4 ,remember also that it is not the grosser passions and forms of vice alone that darken the understanding and alienate the heart from the truth4 ,pride1 vanity1 ambition1 avarice--in a word1 the spirit of self-seeking and self-exaltation in every form--will effectually hinder the man in whose bosom they bear sway from coming to the knowledge of the truth2 for they will incline him to seek a religion which flatters him and promises him impunity in sin1 and will fatally prejudice him against a system of doctrines and duties so holy and humbling as that contained in the ,bible4 ,take1 as a comprehensive rule for the investigation of this weighty question1 the words of the ,saviour3 ,if any man will do his will--the will of ,god--he shall know of the doctrine1 whether it be of ,god1 or whether ,i speak of myself4 ,so far as you already know the will of ,god1 do it2 do it sincerely1 earnestly1 and prayerfully1 and ,god will give you more light4 ,he loves the truth1 and sympathizes with all earnest and sincere inquirers after it4 ,he never leaves to fatal error and delusion any but those who love falsehood rather than truth1 because they have pleasure in unrighteousness4 ,open your heart to the light of heaven1 and ,god will shine into it from above2 so that1 in the beautiful words of our ,saviour1 the whole shall be full of light1 as when the bright shining of a candle doth give thee light4 ,,companion ,,to ,,the ,,bible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,evidences ,,of ,,revealed ,,religion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory ,,remarks4 ,i4 ,the ,christian religion is not a mere system of ideas1 like the philosophy of ,plato or ,aristotle4 ,it rests on a basis of historic facts4 ,the great central fact of the gospel is thus expressed by ,jesus himself3 ,god so loved the world that he gave his only begotten ,son1 that whosoever believeth in him should not perish1 but have everlasting life1 ,john #c3af2 and by the apostle ,paul thus3 ,this is a faithful saying1 and worthy of all acceptation1 that ,christ ,jesus came into the world to save sinners4 #a ,tim4 #a3ae4 ,with the appearance of ,god's ,son in human nature were connected a series of mighty works1 a body of divine teachings1 the appointment of apostles and the establishment of the visible ,christian church2 all which are matters of historic record4 ,nor is this all4 ,it is the constant doctrine of ,christ and his apostles that he came in accordance with the scriptures of the ,old ,testament1 and that his religion is the fulfilment of the types and prophecies therein contained3 ,think not that ,i am come to destroy the law1 or the prophets3 ,i am not come to destroy1 but to fulfil4 ,matt4 #e3ag4 ,all things must be fulfilled which were written in the law of ,moses1 and in the prophets1 and in the psalms concerning me4 ,luke #bd3dd4 ,the facts of the ,new ,testament connect themselves1 therefore1 immediately with those of the ,old1 so that the whole series constitutes an indivisible whole4 ,the ,bible is1 from beginning to end1 the record of a supernatural revelation made by ,god to men4 ,as such1 it embraces not only supernatural teachings1 but supernatural facts also2 and the teachings rest on the facts in such a way that both must stand or fall together4 ,,ii4 ,this basis of supernatural facts1 then1 must be firmly maintained against unbelievers whose grand aim is to destroy the historic foundation of the gospel1 at least so far as it contains supernatural manifestations of ,god to men4 ,thus they would rob it of its divine authority1 and reduce it to a mere system of human doctrines1 like the teachings of ,socrates or ,confucius1 which men are at liberty to receive or reject as they think best4 ,could they accomplish this1 they would be very willing to eulogize the character of ,jesus1 and extol the purity and excellence of his precepts4 ,indeed1 it is the fashion of modern unbelievers1 after doing what lies in their power to make the gospel a mass of cunningly-devised fables of human origin1 to expatiate on the majesty and beauty of the ,saviour's character1 the excellence of his moral precepts1 and the benign influence of his religion4 ,but the transcendent glory of our ,lord's character is inseparable from his being what he claimed to be--the ,son of ,god1 coming from ,god to men with supreme authority2 and all the power of his gospel lies in its being received as a message from ,god4 ,to make the gospel human1 is to annihilate it1 and with it the hope of the world4 ,,iii4 ,when the inquiry is concerning a long series of events intimately connected together so as to constitute one inseparable whole1 two methods of investigation are open to us4 ,we may look at the train of events in the order of time from beginning to end2 or we may select some one great event of especial prominence and importance as the central point of inquiry1 and from that position look forward and backward4 ,the latter of these two methods has some peculiar advantages1 and will be followed in the present brief treatise4 ,we begin with the great central fact of revelation already referred to1 that the ,father sent the ,son to be the ,saviour of the world4 #a ,john #d3ad4 ,when this is shown to rest on a foundation that cannot be shaken1 the remainder of the work is comparatively easy4 ,from the supernatural appearance and works of the ,son of ,god1 as recorded in the four gospels1 the supernatural endowment and works of his apostles1 as recorded in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 and their authoritative teachings1 as contained in their epistles1 follow as a natural and even necessary sequel4 ,since1 moreover1 the universal rule of ,god's government and works is1 first the blade1 then the ear1 after that the full corn in the ear1 7,mark #d3bh17 it is most reasonable to suppose that such a full and perfect revelation as that which ,god has made to us by his ,son1 which is certainly the full corn in the ear1 must have been preceded by exactly such preparatory revelations as we find recorded in the ,old ,testament4 ,now ,jesus of ,nazareth appeared among the ,jews1 the very people that had the scriptures of the ,old ,testament1 and had been prepared for his advent by the events recorded in them as no other nation was prepared4 ,he came1 too1 as he and his apostles ever taught1 to carry out the plan of redemption begun in them4 ,from the position1 then1 of ,christ's advent1 as the grand central fact of redemption1 we look backward and forward with great advantage upon the whole line of revelation4 ,,iv4 ,we cannot too earnestly inculcate upon the youthful inquirer the necessity of thus looking at revelation as a whole4 ,strong as are the evidences for the truth of the gospel narratives considered separately1 they gain new strength1 on the one side1 from the mighty revelations that preceded them and prepared the way for the advent of the ,son of ,god2 and on the other1 from the mighty events that followed his advent in the apostolic age1 and have been following ever since in the history of the ,christian church4 ,the divine origin of the ,mosaic institutions can be shown on solid grounds1 independently of the ,new ,testament2 but on how much broader and deeper a foundation are they seen to rest1 when we find 7as will be shown hereafter1 chap4 #h7 that they were preparatory to the incarnation of ,jesus ,christ4 ,as in a burning mass1 the heat and flame of each separate piece of fuel are increased by the surrounding fire1 so in the plan of redemption1 each separate revelation receives new light and glory from the revelations which precede and follow it4 ,it is only when we view the revelations of the ,bible as thus progressing from glory to glory1 that we can estimate aright the proofs of their divine origin4 ,if it were even possible to impose upon men as miraculous a particular event1 as1 for example1 the giving of the ,mosaic law on ,sinai1 or the stones of the day of ,pentecost1 the idea that there could have been imposed on the world a series of such events1 extending through many ages1 and yet so connected together as to constitute a harmonious and consistent whole1 is a simple absurdity4 ,there is no explanation of the unity that pervades the supernatural facts of revelation1 but that of their divine origin4 ,v4 ,in strong contrast with this rational way of viewing the facts of revelation as a grand whole1 is the fragmentary method of objectors4 ,a doubt here1 a cavil there1 an insinuation yonder2 a difficulty with this statement1 an objection to that1 a discrepancy here--this is their favorite way of assailing the gospel4 ,if one chooses to treat the ,bible in this narrow and uncandid way1 he will soon plunge himself into the mire of unbelief4 ,difficulties and objections should be candidly considered1 and allowed their due weight2 but they must not be suffered to override irrefragable proof1 else we shall soon land in universal skepticism3 for difficulties1 and some of them too insoluble1 can be urged against the great facts of nature and natural religion1 as well as of revelation4 ,to reject a series of events supported by an overwhelming weight of evidence1 on the ground of unexplained difficulties connected with them1 involves the absurdity of running into a hundred difficulties for the sake of avoiding five4 ,if we are willing to examine the claims of revelation as a whole1 its divine origin will shine forth upon us like the sun in the firmament4 ,our difficulties we can then calmly reserve for further investigation here1 or for solution in the world to come4 ,,vi4 ,when we institute an examination concerning the facts of revelation1 the first question is that of the genuineness and uncorrupt preservation of the books in which they are recorded2 the next1 that of their authenticity and credibility4 ,we may then conveniently consider the question of their inspiration4 ,in accordance with the plan marked out above1 7,no4 ,,iii417 the gospel narratives will be considered first of all2 then the remaining books of the ,new ,testament4 ,after this will be shown the inseparable connection between the facts of revelation recorded in the ,old ,testament and those of the ,new2 and finally1 the genuineness of the books which constitute the canon of the ,old ,testament1 with their authenticity and inspiration4 ,the whole treatise will be closed by a brief view of the internal and experimental evidences which commend the ,bible to the human understanding and conscience as the word of ,god4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,genuineness ,,of ,,the ,,gospel ,,narratives4 ,i4 ,preliminary ,remarks4 #a4 ,a book is genuine if written by the man whose name it bears1 or to whom it is ascribed2 or when1 as in the case of several books of the ,old ,testament1 the author is unknown1 it is genuine if written in the age and country to which it is ascribed4 ,a book is authentic which is a record of facts as opposed to what is false or fictitious2 and we call it credible when the record of facts which it professes to give is worthy of belief4 ,authenticity and credibility are1 therefore1 only different views of the same quality4 ,in the case of a book that deals mainly with principles1 the question of authorship is of subordinate importance4 ,thus the book of ,job1 with the exception of the brief narratives with which it opens and closes1 and which may belong to any one of several centuries1 is occupied with the question of ,divine providence4 ,it is not necessary that we know what particular man was its author1 or at what precise period he wrote4 ,we only need reasonable evidence 7as will be shown hereafter7 that he was a prophetical man1 writing under the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,but the case of the gospel narratives is wholly different4 ,they contain a record of the supernatural appearance and works of the ,son of ,god1 on the truth of which rests our faith in the gospel4 ,so the apostle ,paul reasons3 ,if ,christ be not risen1 then is our preaching vain1 and your faith is also vain4 #a ,cor4 #ae3ad4 ,it is1 then1 of vital importance that we know the relation which the authors of these narratives held to ,christ4 ,if they were not apostles or apostolic men1 that is1 associates of the apostles1 laboring with them1 enjoying their full confidence1 and in circumstances to obtain their information directly from them--but1 instead of this1 wrote after the apostolic age--their testimony is not worthy of the unlimited faith which the church in all ages has reposed in it4 ,the question1 then1 of the genuineness of the gospel narratives and that of their authenticity and credibility must stand or fall together4 #b4 ,in respect to the origin of the gospels1 as also of the other books of the ,new ,testament1 the following things should be carefully remembered3 ,first4 ,there was a period1 extending1 perhaps1 through some years from the day of ,pentecost1 when there were no written gospels1 their place being supplied by the living presence and teachings of the apostles and other disciples of our ,lord4 ,secondly4 ,when the need of written documents began to be felt1 they were produced1 one after another1 as occasion suggested them4 ,thus the composition of the books of the ,new ,testament extended through a considerable period of years4 ,thirdly4 ,besides the gospels universally received by the churches1 other narratives of our ,lord's life were attempted1 as we learn from the evangelist ,luke 7#a3a72 but those never obtained general currency4 ,the churches everywhere received the four gospels of ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john1 because of the clear evidence which they had of their apostolic origin and trustworthiness2 and because1 also1 these gospels1 though not professing to give a complete account of our ,lord's life and teachings1 were nevertheless sufficiently full to answer the end for which they were composed1 being not fragmentary sketches1 but orderly narratives1 each of them extending over the whole course of our ,lord's ministry4 ,the other narratives meanwhile gradually passed into oblivion4 ,the general reception of these four gospels did not1 however1 come from any formal concert of action on the part of the churches1 7as1 for example1 from the authoritative decision of a general council1 since no such thing as a general council of the churches was known till long after this period27 but simply from the common perception everywhere of the unimpeachable evidence by which their apostolic authority was sustained4 ,the narratives referred to by ,luke were earlier than his gospel4 ,they were not spurious1 nor1 so far as we know1 unauthentic2 but rather imperfect4 ,they must not be confounded with the apocryphal gospels of a later age4 #c4 ,in respect to the quotations of ,scripture by the early fathers of the church1 it is important to notice their habit of quoting anonymously1 and often in a loose and general way4 ,they frequently cite from memory1 blending together the words of different authors1 and sometimes intermingling with them their own words4 ,in citing the prophecies of the ,old ,testament in an argumentative way1 they are1 as might have been expected1 more exact1 particularly when addressing ,jews2 yet even here they often content themselves with the scope of the passages referred to1 without being particular as to the exact words4 ,with the above preliminary remarks1 we proceed to consider the evidences1 external and internal1 for the genuineness of the gospel narratives4 ,,ii4 ,external ,evidences4 #d4 ,here we need not begin at a later date than the last quarter of the second century4 ,this is the age of ,irenaeus in ,gaul1 of ,tertullian in ,north ,africa1 of ,clement of ,alexandria in ,egypt1 and of some other writers4 ,their testimony to the apostolic origin and universal reception of our four canonical gospels is as full as can be desired4 ,they give the names of the authors1 two of them--,matthew and ,john--apostles1 and the other two--,mark and ,luke--companions of apostles and fellow-laborers with them1 always associating ,mark with ,peter1 and ,luke with ,paul2 they affirm the universal and undisputed reception of these four gospels from the beginning by all the churches2 and deny the apostolic authority of other pretended gospels4 ,in all this1 they give not their individual opinions1 but the common belief of the churches4 ,it is conceded on all hands that in their day these four gospels were universally received by the churches as genuine and authoritative records of our ,lord's life and works1 to the exclusion of all others4 ,irenaeus was a native of ,asia ,minor1 of ,greek descent2 but the seat of his labors was ,lyons and ,vienne in ,gaul1 of the former of which places he became bishop after the martyrdom of ,pothinus1 about ,a4,d4 #agg4 ,he was born about ,a4,d4 #adj1 and suffered martyrdom under ,septimius ,severus ,a4,d4 #bjb4 ,in his youth he was a disciple of ,polycarp1 who was in turn a disciple of the apostle ,john4 ,in a letter to one ,florinus1 which ,eusebius has preserved1 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #e4 #bj17 he gives1 in glowing language1 his recollections of the person and teachings of ,polycarp1 and tells with what interest he listened as this man related his intercourse with the apostle ,john and the others who had seen the ,lord1 how he recounted their words1 and the things which he had heard from them concerning the ,lord1 and concerning his miracles and teaching4 ,and he adds that these things which ,polycarp had received from eye-witnesses he related all in agreement with the ,scriptures2 that is1 obviously1 with the gospel narratives4 ,pothinus1 the predecessor of ,irenaeus at ,lyons1 was ninety years old at the time of his martyrdom1 and must have been acquainted with many who belonged to the latter part of the apostolic age4 ,under such circumstances1 it is inconceivable that ,irenaeus1 who knew the ,christian traditions of both the ,east and the ,west1 should not have known the truth respecting the reception of the gospels by the churches1 and the grounds on which this reception rested1 more especially in the case of the gospel of ,john4 ,tischendorf1 after mentioning the relation of ,irenaeus to ,polycarp the disciple of ,john1 asks1 with reason3 ,are we1 nevertheless1 to cherish the supposition that ,irenaeus never heard a word from ,polycarp respecting the gospel of ,john1 and yet gave it his unconditional confidence--this man ,irenaeus1 who in his controversies with heretics1 the men of falsification and apocryphal works1 employs against them1 before all other things1 the pure ,scripture as a holy weapon8 7,essay1 ,when were ,our ,gospels ,written1 p4 #h47 ,the testimony of ,irenaeus is justly regarded as of the most weighty character4 ,the fact that he gives several fanciful reasons why there should be only four gospels1 7,against ,heresies1 #c4 #aa17 does not invalidate his statement of the fact that the churches had always received four1 and no more4 ,we always distinguish between men's testimony to facts of which they are competent witnesses1 and their philosophical explanations of these facts4 ,tertullian was born in ,carthage about ,a4,d4 #afj1 and died between ,a4,d4 #bbj and #bdj4 ,about ,a4,d4 #bjb he joined the sect of the ,montanists2 but this does not affect his testimony respecting the origin and universal reception of the four canonical gospels4 ,his works are very numerous1 and in them all he insists with great earnestness that the gospel narratives1 as also the other apostolic writings1 have been received without corruption1 as a sacred inheritance1 from the apostolic churches4 ,his work against ,marcion1 whom he accuses of employing a mutilated gospel of ,luke1 is particularly instructive as showing how deep and settled was the conviction of the early ,christians that nothing could be a gospel which did not proceed from apostles or apostolic men2 and how watchful they were against all attempts to mutilate or corrupt the primitive apostolic records4 ,in defending the true gospel of ,luke against the mutilated form of it employed by ,marcion1 he says3 ,i affirm that not in the apostolic churches alone1 but in all which are joined with them in the bond of fellowship1 that gospel of ,luke which we most firmly maintain1 has been valid from its first publication2 but ,marcion's gospel is unknown to most of them1 and known to none1 except to be condemned4 ,this testimony of ,tertullian is very important1 as showing his full conviction that ,marcion could not deny the universal reception1 from the beginning1 of the genuine gospel of ,luke4 ,and a little afterwards he adds3 ,the same authority of the apostolic churches will defend the other gospels also1 which we have in like manner through them1 and according to them1 7,against ,marcion1 #d4 #e47 ,many more quotations of like purport might be added4 ,clement of ,alexandria was a pupil of ,pantaenus1 and his successor as head of the catechetical school at ,alexandria in ,egypt4 ,he was of heathen origin1 born probably about the middle of the second century1 and died about ,a4,d4 #bbj4 ,he had a philosophical turn of mind1 and after his conversion to ,christianity made extensive researches under various teachers1 as he himself tells us1 in ,greece1 in ,italy1 in ,palestine1 and other parts of the ,east4 ,at last he met with ,pantaenus in ,egypt1 whom he preferred to all his other guides1 and in whose instructions he rested4 ,the testimony of ,clement to the universal and undisputed reception by the churches of the four canonical gospels as the writings of apostles or apostolic men1 agrees with that of ,tertullian4 ,and it has the more weight1 not only on account of his wide investigations1 but because1 also1 it virtually contains the testimony of his several teachers1 some of whom must have known1 if not the apostles themselves1 those who had listened to their teachings4 ,in connection with the testimony of the above-named writers1 we may consider that of the churches of ,lyons and ,vienne in ,gaul1 in a letter addressed by them to the churches of ,asia and ,phrygia1 which ,eusebius has preserved for us1 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #e4 #a17 and which describes a severe persecution through which they passed in the reign of ,antoninus ,verus1 about ,a4,d4 #agg4 ,in this they say3 ,so was fulfilled that which was spoken by our ,lord1 ',the time shall come in which whosoever killeth you shall think that he doeth ,god service4' ,in speaking again of a certain youthful martyr1 they first compare him to ,zacharias1 the father of ,john the ,baptist1 affirming1 in the very words of ,luke1 that he had walked in all the commandments and ordinances of the ,lord blameless1 7,luke #a3f27 and then go on to describe him as having the ,comforter in himself1 the ,spirit1 more abundantly than ,zacharias1 where they apply to the ,holy ,spirit a term peculiar to the apostle ,john4 ,here1 then1 we have indubitable testimony to the fact that the gospel of ,john1 as well as of ,luke1 was known to the churches of ,gaul in the west and ,asia ,minor in the east in the days of ,pothinus1 bishop of these churches1 who suffered martyrdom in this persecution4 ,but ,pothinus was ninety years old1 so that his knowledge of these gospels must have reached back to the first quarter of the second century1 when many who had known the apostles were yet living4 #e4 ,these testimonies1 let it be carefully remembered1 apply not to one part of ,christendom alone1 but to all its different and distant divisions2 and that1 too1 long before there was any attempt to bring the judgment of the churches into harmony by means of general councils4 ,the orthodox churches planted in the different provinces of the ,roman empire1 though in substantial harmony with each other1 had nevertheless their minor differences1 which were sometimes discussed with much warmth4 ,in their relation to each other1 they were jealous of their freedom and independence4 ,the history of the so-called ,antilegomena 7,disputed ,books of the ,new ,testament1 chap4 #f7 shows that the reception of a writing as apostolic in one division of ,christendom1 did not insure its reception elsewhere4 ,had it been possible that a spurious book should be imposed as genuine on the churches of one region1 it would certainly have met with opposition in other regions2 but our four canonical gospels were everywhere received without dispute as the writings of apostles or apostolic men4 ,this fact admits of but one explanation3 the churches had from their first appearance indubitable evidence of their genuineness4 #f4 ,let it be further remembered that this testimony relates not to books of a private character1 that might have lain for years hidden in some corner2 but to the public writings of the churches1 on which their faith was founded1 of which they all had copies1 and which it was the custom1 from the apostolic age1 to read in their assemblies along with the law and the prophets4 7,justin ,martyr ,apol41 #a4 #fg47 ,earnestness and sincerity are traits which will not be denied to the primitive ,christians1 and they were certainly not wanting in common discernment4 ,let any man show1 if he can1 how a spurious gospel1 suddenly appearing somewhere after the apostolic days1 could have been imposed upon the churches as genuine1 not only where it originated1 but everywhere else in ,christendom4 ,the difficulty with which some of the genuine books of the ,new ,testament gained universal currency sufficiently refutes such an absurd supposition4 #g4 ,we are now prepared to consider the testimonies of an earlier period4 ,here ,justin ,martyr is a very weighty witness1 since he lived so near the apostolic age1 and had every facility for investigating the history of the gospel narratives4 ,he was born near the beginning of the second century1 and his extant works date from about the middle of the same century4 ,before his conversion to ,christianity he was a heathen philosopher earnestly seeking for the truth among the different systems of the age4 ,of his undoubtedly genuine works1 there remain to us two ,apologies 7defences of ,christianity7 and a ,dialogue with ,trypho a ,jew1 designed to defend the ,christian religion against its ,jewish opponents4 ,in these he quotes the gospel of ,matthew very abundantly2 next in number are his quotations from ,luke4 ,his references to ,mark and ,john are much fewer1 but enough to show his acquaintance with them4 ,he never quotes the evangelists by name1 but designates their writings as ,the ,memoirs of the ,apostles2 and more fully1 ,the memoirs which ,i affirm to have been composed by his--our ,lord's--apostles and their followers1 ,dialog41 ch4 #ajc1 which1 he elsewhere says1 are called gospels1 ,apol4 #a4 #ff1 and in a collective sense1 the gospel1 ,dialog41 ch4 #aj4 ,it should be carefully noticed that he speaks in the plural number both of the apostles who composed the gospels and their followers4 ,this description applies exactly to our canonical gospels--two written by apostles1 and two by their followers4 ,the attempt has been made in modern times to set aside ,justin's testimony1 on the alleged ground that he quotes not from our canonical gospels1 but from some other writings4 ,the groundlessness of this supposition is manifest at first sight4 ,justin had visited the three principal churches of ,rome1 ,alexandria1 and ,ephesus4 ,it is certain that he knew what gospels were received by them in his day as authentic1 and that these are the very gospels which he quotes1 affirming that they were the writings of apostles and their followers4 ,now1 that the gospels which ,justin used should have been wholly supplanted by others in the days of ,irenaeus1 who was of full age at the time of ,justin's death1 is incredible4 ,but ,irenaeus1 in common with ,clement1 ,tertullian1 and others1 quotes our four canonical gospels as alone possessing apostolic authority1 and as having been always received by the churches4 ,it follows that the ,memoirs of ,justin must be the same gospels4 ,we cannot conceive that in this brief period an entire change of gospels should have been made throughout all the different and distant provinces of the ,roman empire1 at a time when concerted action through general councils was unknown2 and that1 too1 in so silent a manner that no record of it remains in the history of the church4 ,the supposition that the gospels known to ,justin were different from those received by ,irenaeus ought not to be entertained without irrefragable proof4 ,but no such proof exists4 ,an accurate examination in detail of his citations1 says ,semisch1 ,life of ,justin ,martyr1 #d4 #a1 has led to the result that this title--the ,memoirs of the ,apostles--designates the canonical gospels--a result in no way less certain because again called in question in modern days4 ,the agreement of his quotations with our present gospels is of such a character and extent as can be explained only from his use of them4 ,the variations are mainly due to his habit of quoting loosely from memory4 ,many of these citations1 says ,kirchhofer1 agree1 word for word1 with the gospels2 others with the substance1 but with alterations and additions of words1 with transpositions and omissions2 others give the thought only in a general way2 others still condense together the contents of several passages and different sayings1 in which case the historic quotations are yet more free1 and blend together1 in part1 the accounts of ,matthew and ,luke4 ,but some quotations are not found at all in our canonical gospels1 7see immediately below27 some1 on the contrary1 occur twice or thrice4 ,quellensammlung1 p4 #hi4 note4 ,two or three more important variations are1 perhaps1 due to the readings in the manuscripts employed by ,justin1 since the later church fathers1 who1 as we know1 employed the canonical gospels1 give the same variations4 ,finally1 ,justin gives a few incidents and sayings not recorded in our present gospels4 ,as he lived so near the apostolic times he may well have received these from tradition2 but if in any case he took them from written documents1 there is no proof that he ascribed to such documents apostolic authority4 ,in one passage1 he accurately distinguishes between what he gives from tradition or other written sources1 and what from the apostolic records4 ,when ,jesus came1 he says1 to the river ,jordan1 where ,john was baptizing1 as he descended to the water1 both was a fire kindled in the ,jordan1 and as he ascended from the water1 the apostles of this very ,christ of ours have written that the ,holy ,spirit as a dove lighted upon him4 ,dial41 ch4 #hh4 ,it has been doubted whether certain references to the gospel of ,john can be found in ,justin's writings2 but it seems plain that the following is a free quotation from chapter #c3c-e3 ,for ,christ said1 ,except ye be born again1 ye shall by no means enter into the kingdom of heaven4 ,but that it is impossible that they who have once been born should enter into the wombs of those who bare them is manifest to all4 ,apol4 #a4 #fa4 ,to affirm that a passage so peculiar as this was borrowed by both the evangelist ,john and ,justin from a common tradition1 is to substitute a very improbable for a very natural explanation4 ,besides1 ,justin uses phraseology peculiar to ,john1 repeatedly calling our ,saviour the ,word of ,god1 and the ,word made flesh2 affirming that he was in a peculiar sense begotten the only ,son of ,god1 an only begotten ,one to the ,father of all things1 being in a peculiar sense begotten of him as ,word and ,power1 and afterwards made man through the ,virgin2 and calling him the good ,rock that sends forth 7literally1 causes to bubble forth--compare ,john #d3ad7 living waters into the hearts of those who through him have loved the ,father of all things1 and that gives to all who will the water of life to drink4 ,these and other references to ,john may be seen in ,kirchhofer's ,quellensammlung1 pp4 #adf1 #adg4 #h4 ,another early witness is ,papias1 who was bishop of ,hierapolis1 in ,phrygia1 in the first half of the second century4 ,he wrote ,an ,exposition of the ,oracles of the ,lord1 in five books4 ,this work has perished2 but fragments of it1 with notices of its contents1 are preserved to us by ,eusebius and other writers4 ,as ,papias1 according to his own express testimony1 gathered his materials1 if not from apostles themselves1 yet from their immediate disciples1 his statements are invested with great interest4 ,of ,matthew he says1 ,eusebius ,hist4 ,eccl41 #e4 #ci1 that he wrote the oracles in the ,hebrew dialect1 and every one interpreted them as he could4 ,he speaks of this interpretation by each one as he could as something past1 implying that in his day our present ,greek gospel of ,matthew 7of the apostolic authority of which there was never any doubt in the early churches7 was in circulation1 whether it was or was not originally composed in ,hebrew1 a question on which learned men are not agreed4 ,of ,mark he affirms that1 having become ,peter's interpreter1 he wrote down accurately as many things as he remembered2 not recording in order the things that were said or done by ,christ1 since he was not a hearer or follower of the ,lord1 but afterwards--after our ,lord's ascension--of ,peter1 who imparted his teachings as occasion required1 but not as making an orderly narrative of the ,lord's discourses4 ,hist4 ,eccl41 #c4 #ci4 ,the fact that ,eusebius gives no statement of ,papias respecting the other two gospels is of little account1 since his notices of the authors to whom he refers1 and of their works1 are confessedly imperfect4 ,eusebius notices1 for example1 ,hist4 ,eccl4 #d4 #ad1 the fact that ,polycarp1 in his letter to the ,philippians1 has used certain testimonies from the ,first ,epistle of ,peter2 but says nothing of his many references1 in the same letter1 to the epistles of ,paul1 in some of which he quotes the apostle by name4 ,we have1 nevertheless1 through ,eusebius1 an indirect but valid testimony from ,papias to the authorship of the fourth gospel1 resting upon the admitted identity of the author of this gospel with the author of the first of the epistles ascribed to ,john4 ,speaking of ,papias1 ,eusebius says3 ,but the same man used testimonies from the ,first ,epistle of ,john4 ,hist4 ,eccl41 #c4 #ci1 end4 ,the ascription to ,john of this epistle1 is virtually the ascription to him of the fourth gospel also4 ,eusebius speaks of ,papias as a man of very small mind4 ,the correctness of this judgment is manifest from the specimens which he gives of his writings2 but it cannot invalidate the evidence we have from the above passages of the existence1 in ,papias' day1 of the gospels to which he refers4 ,as to the question whether these were our present canonical gospels of ,matthew and ,mark1 it is sufficient to say that neither ,eusebius nor any of the church fathers understood them differently4 #i4 ,a very interesting relic of antiquity is the ,epistle to ,diognetus1 of which the authorship is uncertain4 ,its date cannot be later than the age of ,justin ,martyr1 to whom it is ascribed by some4 ,it is1 notwithstanding some erroneous views1 a noble defence of ,christianity1 in which the author shows his acquaintance with the gospel of ,john by the use of terms and phrases peculiar to him4 ,thus he calls ,christ the ,word1 and the only begotten ,son1 whom ,god sent to men4 ,in the words1 not to take thought about raiment and food1 section #i1 there is an apparent reference to ,matt4 #f3be1 #ca4 ,in addition to the above testimonies might be adduced some fragments of early ,christian writers which have been preserved to us by those of a later day2 but for brevity's sake they are omitted4 #aj4 ,following up the stream of testimony1 we come now to that of the so-called apostolic fathers2 that is1 of men who were disciples of apostles1 and wrote in the age next following them4 ,holding1 as they do1 such a near relation to the apostles1 and familiar with the oral traditions of the apostolic age1 we cannot expect to find in them such frequent and formal references to the books of the ,new ,testament as characterize the works of later writers4 ,they quote1 for the most part1 anonymously1 interweaving with their own words those of the sacred writers4 ,one of the earliest among the apostolic fathers is ,clement of ,rome1 who died about ,a4,d4 #ajj4 ,of the numerous writings anciently ascribed to him1 his ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians is admitted1 upon good evidence1 to be genuine4 ,in this we find words which imply a knowledge of the first three gospels4 ,citing evidently from memory1 in a loose way1 he says3 ,for thus he--the ,lord ,jesus--spake1 ',be merciful1 that ye may obtain mercy2 forgive1 that ye may be forgiven2 as ye do1 so shall it be done to you2 as ye give1 so shall it be given to you2 as ye judge1 so shall ye receive judgment2 as ye are kind1 so shall ye receive kindness2 with what measure ye measure1 with that it shall be measured to you4' ,and again3 ,for he said1 ',woe unto that man2 it were better for him that he had not been born1 than that he should offend one of my elect4' ,ignatius was bishop of the church at ,antioch1 and suffered martyrdom ,a4,d4 #ajg1 or according to some accounts1 #aaf4 ,in his epistles1 which are received as genuine1 are manifest quotations from the gospel of ,matthew1 and some apparent though not entirely certain allusions to the gospel of ,john4 ,polycarp1 bishop of ,smyrna1 was a disciple of the apostle ,john4 ,he suffered martyrdom about the year #aff4 ,of his writings1 only one short epistle1 addressed to the ,philippians1 remains to us2 but this abounds in references to the books of the ,new ,testament1 especially the epistles of ,paul4 ,of quotations from the gospel of ,matthew1 the following are examples3 ,judge not1 that ye be not judged2 forgive1 and ye shall be forgiven2 be merciful1 that ye may obtain mercy2 with what measure ye mete1 it shall be measured to you again4 ,blessed are the poor in spirit1 and those that suffer persecution for righteousness' sake1 for theirs is the kingdom of heaven4 ,the spirit indeed is willing1 but the flesh is weak4 ,for the gospel of ,john1 ,polycarp's testimony1 though indirect1 is decisive4 ,in his letter to the ,philippians1 he quotes from the ,first ,epistle of ,john1 ,for every one who does not confess that ,jesus ,christ has come in the flesh1 is antichrist4 #a ,john #d3c4 ,but that the gospel of ,john and this first epistle both proceeded from the same author1 is a conceded fact4 ,the recently discovered ,sinai ,codex1 the oldest known codex in the world1 contains the entire ,epistle of ,barnabas in the original ,greek4 ,in this we find1 among other references to the first three gospels1 one to the written gospel of ,matthew of the most decisive character3 ,let us be mindful1 therefore1 lest perchance we be found as it is written1 ',many are called1 but few are chosen4' ,matt4 #bj3af2 #bb3ad4 ,the form of quotation1 as it is written1 is employed by the writers of the ,new ,testament only of citations from ,scripture4 ,in these words the writer places the gospel of ,matthew in the same rank as the ,scriptures of the ,old ,testament4 ,that he was the ,barnabas mentioned in the ,new ,testament as the companion of ,paul cannot be maintained2 but the composition of the epistle is assigned1 with probability1 to the beginning of the second century1 though some place it as late as its close4 ,the testimony of other apocryphal writings of early date might be adduced1 but for the sake of brevity it is here omitted4 ,it may be seen in the essay of ,tischendorf1 already referred to4 #aa4 ,a different class of witnesses will next be considered--the ancient ,syriac version1 the old ,latin version1 and the ,muratorian fragment on the canon of the ,new ,testament--all of which bear testimony to our canonical gospels4 ,the ancient ,syriac version1 commonly called the ,peshito--simple1 that is1 expressing simply the meaning of the original1 without allegorical additions and explanations1 after the manner of the ,jewish ,targums--is admitted by all to be of very high antiquity4 ,learned men are agreed that this version cannot well be referred to a later date than the close of the second century1 and some assign it to the middle of the second century1 at which time the ,syrian churches were in a very flourishing condition1 and cannot well be supposed to have been without a version of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,the ,peshito contains all the books of the ,new ,testament1 except the ,second ,epistle of ,peter1 the ,second and ,third ,epistles of ,john1 the ,epistle of ,jude1 and the ,apocalypse4 ,it testifies to the existence of our four gospels1 not only when it was made1 but at an earlier date2 since we must1 in all probability1 assume that some considerable time elapsed after the composition1 one by one1 of the books of the ,new ,testament1 before they were collected into a volume1 as in this ,syriac version4 ,respecting the ,old ,latin version1 7in distinction from ,jerome's revision1 commonly called the ,vulgate1 which belongs to the fourth century17 various opinions have been maintained4 ,some have assumed the existence of several independent ,latin versions of the ,new ,testament1 or of some of its books2 but the preferable opinion is that there were various recensions1 all having for their foundation a single version1 namely1 the ,old ,latin2 which1 says ,westcott1 ,canon of the ,new ,testament1 ch4 #c1 can be traced back as far as the earliest records of ,latin ,christianity4 ,every circumstance connected with it indicates the most remote antiquity4 ,it was current in north ,africa1 at least soon after the middle of the second century4 ,though it has not come down to us in a perfect form1 it contains1 along with most of the other books of the ,new ,testament1 our four canonical gospels2 and its testimony is of the greatest weight4 ,the ,muratorian ,fragment on the ,canon is the name given to a ,latin fragment discovered by the ,italian scholar1 ,muratori1 in the ,ambrosian ,library at ,milan1 in a manuscript bearing the marks of great antiquity4 ,its date is determined by its reference to the shepherd of ,hermas1 which1 says the ,fragment1 ,hermas wrote very recently in our times1 while the bishop ,pius1 his brother1 occupied the chair of the church at ,rome4 ,the later of the two dates given for the death of ,pius is ,a4,d4 #aeg4 ,the composition of the ,fragment must have followed soon afterwards4 ,though mutilated at the beginning1 as well as the end1 its testimony to the existence of the four canonical gospels is decisive4 ,in its present form1 it opens with the end of a sentence1 the beginning of which is lost4 ,it then goes on to say1 ,the third gospel according to ,luke4 ,after mentioning various particulars concerning ,luke1 as that he was a physician whom ,paul had taken with him1 that he did not himself see the ,lord in the flesh1 etc41 it adds1 ,the fourth of the gospels1 that of ,john1 of the number of the disciples1 to which it appends a traditional account of the circumstances of its composition4 ,with the truth or falsehood of this account we have at present no concern2 the important fact is that this very ancient canon recognizes the existence of our four canonical gospels4 #ab4 ,the heretical sects of the second century furnish testimony to the genuineness of our canonical gospels which is of the most weighty and decisive character4 ,though some of them rejected certain books of the ,new ,testament and mutilated others1 it was on doctrinal1 not on critical grounds4 ,had they attempted to disprove on historic grounds the genuineness of the rejected portions of ,scripture1 it is certain that the church fathers1 who wrote against them at such length1 would have noticed their arguments4 ,the fact that they did not1 is conclusive proof that no such attempt was made2 but from the position which the leaders of these heretical sects occupied1 it is certain that1 could the genuineness of the canonical gospels1 or any one of them1 have been denied on historic grounds1 the denial would have been made4 ,marcion1 one of the most distinguished leaders of those who separated themselves from the orthodox church1 came to ,rome in the second quarter of the second century4 ,he separated ,christianity from all connection with ,judaism1 making the ,jehovah of the ,old ,testament a different being from the ,god of the ,new ,testament4 ,his gospel1 called by the ancients the gospel of ,marcion1 is admitted to have been a mutilated copy of ,luke's gospel4 ,of course it became necessary that he should reject the first two chapters of this gospel1 7which alone he received17 since they contain our ,lord's genealogy in the line of ,abraham and ,david1 and should otherwise alter it to suit his views4 ,on the same grounds1 he altered the epistles of ,paul also4 ,that ,marcion was not ignorant of the other three gospels1 but rejected them1 is plain from the words of ,tertullian1 who accuses him1 ,against ,marcion1 #d4 #c1 of attempting to destroy the credit of those gospels which are properly such1 and are published under the name of apostles1 or also of apostolic men2 that he may invest his own gospel with the confidence which he withdraws from them4 ,his real ground for rejecting some books of the ,new ,testament and mutilating others was that he could judge better of the truth than the writers themselves1 whom he represented to have been misled by the influences of ,jewish prejudices4 ,accordingly ,irenaeus well says of the liberties taken by ,marcion1 ,against ,heresies1 #a4 #bg3 ,he persuaded his disciples that he was himself more trustworthy than the apostles who have delivered to us the gospel2 while he gave to them not the gospel1 but a fragment of the gospel4 ,a distinguished leader of the ,gnostics was ,valentinus1 who came to ,rome about ,a4,d4 #adj1 and continued there till the time of ,anicetus4 ,his testimony and that of his followers is1 if possible1 more weighty than even that of ,marcion4 ,his method1 according to the testimony of ,tertullian1 was not to reject and mutilate the ,scriptures1 but to pervert their meaning by false interpretations4 ,tertullian says1 ,against ,heretics1 ch4 #ch3 ,for though ,valentinus seems to use the entire instrument1 he has done violence to the truth with a more artful mind than ,marcion4 ,the entire instrument--,latin1 integro instrumento--includes our four canonical gospels4 ,clement of ,alexandria and ,hippolytus have preserved quotations from ,valentinus in which he refers to the gospels of ,matthew1 ,luke1 and ,john4 ,see ,westcott1 ,canon of the ,new ,testament1 #d4 #e4 ,respecting the gospel of ,john in particular1 ,irenaeus says1 ,against ,heresies1 #c4 #aa1 that the ,valentinians make the most abundant use of it4 ,heracleon1 whom ,origen represents as having been a familiar friend of ,valentinus1 wrote a commentary on ,john1 from which ,origen frequently quotes2 but if ,valentinus and his followers1 in the second quarter of the second century1 used the entire instrument1 they must have found its apostolic authority established upon a firm foundation before their day4 ,this carries us back to the age immediately succeeding that of the apostles1 when ,polycarp and others who had known them personally were yet living4 ,the testimony of the ,valentinians1 then1 is of the most decisive character4 ,another prominent man among the heretical writers was ,tatian1 a contemporary and pupil of ,justin ,martyr1 who1 according to the testimony of ,eusebius1 ,epiphanius1 and ,theodoret1 composed a ,diatessaron1 that is1 a four-fold gospel2 which can be understood only as a harmony of the four gospels which1 as has been shown1 were used by ,justin2 or of such parts of these gospels as suited his purpose2 for ,tatian1 like ,marcion1 omitted all that relates to our ,lord's human descent4 ,with this ,diatessaron1 ,theodoret was well acquainted2 for he found among his churches more than two hundred copies1 which he caused to be removed1 and their places supplied by the four canonical gospels4 ,as to other gospels of the second century1 which are occasionally mentioned by later writers1 as ,the ,gospel of ,truth1 ,the ,gospel of ,basilides1 etc41 there is no evidence that they professed to be connected histories of our ,lord's life and teachings4 ,they were rather1 as ,norton has shown1 ,genuineness of the ,gospels1 vol4 #c1 chap4 #d1 doctrinal works embodying the views of the sectaries that used them4 #ac4 ,we have seen how full and satisfactory is the external evidence for our four canonical gospels4 ,considering how scanty are the remains of ,christian writings that have come down to us from the first half of the same century1 we have all the external evidence for that period also that could be reasonably demanded1 and it is met by no rebutting testimony that rests on historic grounds4 ,the authorship of no ancient classical work is sustained by a mass of evidence so great and varied1 and the candid mind can rest in it with entire satisfaction4 ,,iii4 ,internal ,evidences4 #ad4 ,here we may begin with considering the relation of the first three gospels to the last1 in respect to both time of composition and character4 ,and first1 with respect to time4 ,the first three gospels--frequently called the synoptical gospels1 or the synoptics1 because from the general similarity of their plan and materials their contents are capable of being summed up in a synopsis--record our ,lord's prophecy of the overthrow of ,jerusalem4 ,the three records of this prediction wear throughout the costume of a true prophecy1 not of a prophecy written after the event4 ,they are occupied1 almost exclusively1 with the various signs by which the approach of that great catastrophe might be known1 and with admonitions to the disciples to hold themselves in readiness for it4 ,matthew1 for example1 devotes fifty verses to the account of the prophecy and the admonitions connected with it4 ,of these1 only four1 chap4 #bd3ai-bb1 describe the calamities of the scene1 and that in the most general terms4 ,now1 upon the supposition that the evangelist wrote before the event1 all this is natural4 ,our ,lord's design in uttering the prophecy was not to gratify the idle curiosity of the disciples1 but to warn them beforehand in such a way that they might escape the horrors of the impending catastrophe4 ,he dwelt1 therefore1 mainly on the signs of its approach2 and with these1 as having a chief interest for the readers1 the record of the prediction is mostly occupied4 ,it is impossible1 on the other hand1 to conceive that one who wrote years after the destruction of the city and temple should not have dwelt in more detail on the bloody scenes connected with their overthrow1 and have given in other ways also a historic coloring to his account4 ,we may safely say that to write a prophecy after the event in such a form as that which we have in either of the first three gospels1 transcends the power of any uninspired man2 and as to inspired narratives1 the objectors with whom we are now dealing deny them altogether4 ,but there are1 in the record of this prophecy1 some special indications of the time when the evangelists wrote4 ,according to ,matthew1 the disciples asked1 ver4 #c3 ,when shall these things--the destruction of the buildings of the temple--be8 and what shall be the sign of thy coming and of the end of the world8 ,these questions our ,lord proceeded to answer in such a way that the impression on the minds of the hearers 7to be rectified only by the course of future events7 must have been that the overthrow of the temple and city would be connected with his second coming and the end of the world4 ,immediately after the tribulation of those days1 says ,matthew1 shall the sun be darkened1 etc4 ,the probable explanation of this peculiar form of the prophecy is that it does actually include all three events2 the fulfilment which it had in the destruction of the city and temple by the ,romans being only an earnest of a higher fulfilment hereafter4 ,but however this may be1 it is important to notice that the evangelists1 in their record of the prophecy1 are evidently unconscious of any discrepancy1 real or apparent1 that needs explanation2 which could not have been the case had they written years after the event predicted4 ,it may be safely held1 says ,professor ,fisher1 ,supernatural ,origin of ,christianity1 p4 #agb1 that had the evangelist been writing at a later time1 some explanation would have been thrown in to remove the seeming discrepancy between prophecy and fulfilment4 ,it should be further noticed that the evangelists ,matthew and ,mark1 in reference to the abomination of desolation standing in the holy place1 throw in the admonitory words1 ,let him that readeth understand4 ,these are not the ,saviour's words1 but those of the narrators calling the attention of believers to a most important sign requiring their immediate flight to the mountains4 ,before the overthrow of the city these words had a weighty office2 after its overthrow they would have been utterly superfluous4 ,their presence in such a connection is proof that the record was written before the event to which it refers4 ,admitting the genuineness and authenticity of the book of ,acts1 7which will be considered hereafter17 we have a special proof of the early composition of the gospel according to ,luke4 ,the book of ,acts ends abruptly with ,paul's two years residence at ,rome1 which brings us down to ,a4,d4 #fe1 five years before the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,the only natural explanation of this fact is that here the composition of the book of ,acts was brought to a close4 ,the date of the gospel which preceded1 ,acts #a3a1 must therefore be placed still earlier4 ,if1 now1 we examine the gospel of ,john1 we find its internal character agreeing with the ancient tradition that it was written at ,ephesus late in the apostle's life4 ,that it was composed at a distance from ,judea1 in a ,gentile region1 is manifest from his careful explanation of ,jewish terms and usages1 which among his countrymen would have needed no explanation4 ,no man writing in ,judea1 or among the ,galileans who habitually attended the national feasts at ,jerusalem1 would have said1 ,and the passover1 a feast of the ,jews1 was nigh1 #f3d2 ,now the ,jews' feast of tabernacles was at hand1 #g3b1 etc4 ,the absence of all reference to the overthrow of the ,jewish polity1 civil and ecclesiastical1 may be naturally explained upon the supposition that the apostle wrote some years after that event1 when his mind had now become familiar with the great truth that the ,mosaic institutions had forever passed away to make room for the universal dispensation of ,christianity2 and that he wrote1 too1 among ,gentiles for whom the abolition of these institutions had no special interest4 ,in general style and spirit1 moreover1 the gospel of ,john is closely allied to his first epistle1 and cannot well be separated from it by a great interval of time2 but the epistle undoubtedly belongs to a later period of the apostle's life4 ,from the language of ,john1 chap4 #e3b1 ,now there is at ,jerusalem1 by the sheep-gate1 a pool1 which is called in the ,hebrew tongue1 ,bethesda1 having five porches1--it has been argued that1 when ,john wrote1 the city must have been still standing4 ,but ,eusebius speaks of the pool as remaining in his day1 and why may not the porches1 as useful to the ,roman conquerors1 have been preserved1 at least for a season8 ,we have seen the relation of ,john's gospel to the other three in respect to time4 ,it must have been written several years later than the last of them2 perhaps not less than fifteen years4 ,if1 now1 we look to its relation in regard to character1 we must say that it differs from them as widely as it well could while presenting to our view the same divine and loving ,saviour4 ,its general plan is different4 ,for reasons not known to us1 the synoptical gospels are mainly occupied with our ,lord's ministry in ,galilee4 ,they record only his last journey to ,jerusalem1 and the momentous incidents connected with it4 ,john1 on the contrary1 notices his visits to ,jerusalem year by year4 ,hence his materials are1 to a great extent1 different from theirs2 and even where he records the same events--as1 for example1 the miracle of the loaves and fishes1 and the last supper--he connects with them long discourses1 which the other evangelists have omitted4 ,particularly noticeable are our ,lord's oft-repeated discussions with the unbelieving ,jews respecting his ,messiahship1 and his confidential intercourse with his disciples1 in both of which we have such treasures of divine truth and love4 ,how strikingly this gospel differs from the others in its general style and manner every reader feels at once4 ,it bears throughout the impress of ,john's individuality1 and by this it is immediately connected with the epistles that bear his name4 ,it should be added that in respect to the time when our ,lord ate the passover with his disciples there is an apparent disagreement with the other three gospels1 which the harmonists have explained in various ways4 ,the essential point of the above comparison is this3 ,notwithstanding the striking difference between the later fourth gospel and the earlier three1 it was at once received by all the churches as of apostolic authority4 ,now upon the supposition of its genuineness1 both its peculiar character and its undisputed reception everywhere are easily explained4 ,john1 the bosom disciple of our ,lord1 wrote with the full consciousness of his apostolic authority and his competency as a witness of what he had himself seen and heard4 ,he therefore gave his testimony in his own independent and original way4 ,how far he may have been influenced in his selection of materials by a purpose to supply what was wanting in the earlier gospels1 according to an old tradition1 it is not necessary here to inquire2 it is sufficient to say that1 under the illumination of the ,holy ,spirit1 he marked out that particular plan which we have in his gospel1 and carried it out in his own peculiar manner1 thus opening to the churches new mines1 so to speak1 of the inexhaustible fulness of truth and love contained in him in whom dwelleth all the fulness of the godhead bodily4 ,and when this original gospel1 so different in its general plan and style from those that preceded1 made its appearance1 the apostolic authority of its author secured its immediate and universal reception by the churches4 ,all this is very plain and intelligible4 ,but upon the supposition that the gospel of ,john is a spurious production of the age succeeding that of the apostles1 let any one explain1 if he can1 how it could have obtained universal and unquestioned apostolic authority4 ,its very difference from the earlier gospels must have provoked inquiry and examination1 and these must have led to its rejection1 especially at a time when some who had known the apostle yet survived2 and no one now pretends to assign to it a later period4 #ae4 ,we will next consider the relation of the first three gospels to each other4 ,here we have remarkable agreements with remarkable differences4 ,the general plan of all three is the same4 ,it is manifest also1 at first sight1 that there lies at the foundation of each a basis of common matter--common not in substance alone1 but to a great extent in form also4 ,equally manifest is it that the three evangelists write independently of each other4 ,matthew1 for example1 did not draw his materials from ,luke2 for there is his genealogy of our ,lord1 and his full account of the sermon on the mount1 not to mention other particulars4 ,nor did ,luke take his materials from ,matthew2 for there is his genealogy also1 with large sections of matter peculiar to himself4 ,mark has but little matter that is absolutely new2 but where he and the other two evangelists record the same events1 if one compares his narratives with theirs1 he finds numerous little incidents peculiar to this gospel woven into them in a very vivid and graphic manner4 ,they come in also in the most natural and artless way1 as might be expected from one who1 if not himself an eye-witness1 received his information immediately from eye-witnesses4 ,the three writers1 moreover1 do not always agree as to the order in which they record events2 yet1 notwithstanding the diversities which they exhibit1 they were all received from the first as of equal authority4 ,the natural explanation of this is that all three wrote in the apostolic age1 and consequently had access1 each of them independently of the other two1 to the most authentic sources of information4 ,these sources 7so far as the evangelists were not themselves eye-witnesses7 lay partly1 perhaps1 in written documents like those referred to by ,luke1 #a3a1 partly in the unwritten traditions current in the apostolic churches1 and partly in personal inquiry from eye-witnesses1 especially1 in the case of ,mark and ,luke1 from apostles themselves4 ,from these materials each selected as suited his purposes1 and the churches everywhere unhesitatingly received each of the three gospels1 notwithstanding the above-named variations between them1 because they had undoubted evidence of their apostolic authority4 ,we cannot suppose that after the apostolic age three gospels1 bearing to each other the relation which these do1 could have been imposed upon the churches as all of them equally authentic4 ,we know from the history of ,marcion's gospel how fully alive they were to the character of their sacred records4 ,on apostolic authority they could receive--to mention a single example--both ,matthew's and ,luke's account of our ,lord's genealogy2 but it is certain that they would not have received the two on the authority of men who lived after the apostolic age4 #af4 ,in the gospel narratives are numerous incidental allusions to passing events without the proper sphere of our ,lord's labors1 to social customs1 and to the present posture of public affairs1 civil and ecclesiastical4 ,in all these the severest scrutiny has been able to detect no trace of a later age4 ,this is a weighty testimony to the apostolic origin of the gospels4 ,had their authors lived in a later age1 the fact must have manifested itself in some of these references4 ,the most artless writer can allude in a natural and truthful way to present events1 usages1 and circumstances2 but it transcends the power of the most skilful author to multiply incidental and minute references to a past age without betraying the fact that he does not belong to it4 #ag4 ,every age has1 also1 its peculiar impress of thought and reasoning in religious1 not less than in secular matters4 ,although the gospel itself remains always the same1 and those who sincerely embrace it have also substantially the same character from age to age1 there is1 nevertheless1 continual progress and change in men's apprehension of the gospel and its institutions1 and consequently in their manner of reasoning concerning them4 ,no man1 for example1 could write a treatise on ,christianity at the present day without making it manifest that he did not belong to the first quarter of the present century4 ,the primitive age of ,christianity is no exception to this universal law4 ,under the auspices of the apostles it began to move forward1 and it continued to move after their decease4 ,the pastoral epistles of ,paul bear internal marks of having been written in the later period of his life1 because they are adapted to the state of the ,christian church and its institutions that belonged to that1 and not to an earlier period4 ,if1 now1 we examine the writings of the so-called apostolic fathers--disciples of the apostles1 who wrote after their death--we find in them circles of thought and reasoning not belonging to the canonical writings of the ,new ,testament1 least of all to the canonical gospels1 though they are evidently derived from hints contained in these writings1 whether rightly or wrongly apprehended4 ,in this respect1 the works of the apostolic fathers are distinguished in a very marked way from those which bear the names of the apostles themselves or their associates4 #ah4 ,another decisive argument lies in the character of the ,greek employed by the evangelists1 in common with the other writers of the ,new ,testament4 ,it is the ,greek language employed by ,jews1 7or1 in the case of ,luke1 if his ,jewish origin be doubted--see ,col4 #d3aa1 #af--;by one who had received a ,jewish training under the influence of the ,greek version of the ,old ,testament17 and therefore pervaded and colored by ,hebrew idioms4 ,this peculiar form of the ,greek language belongs to the apostolic age1 when the teachers and writers of the church were ,jews4 ,after the overthrow of ,jerusalem1 the dispersion of the ,jewish nation1 and the death of the apostles and their associates1 it rapidly disappeared4 ,thenceforward the writers of the church were of ,gentile origin and training1 in accordance with the ,saviour's memorable words3 ,the kingdom of ,god shall be taken from you1 and given to a nation bringing forth the fruits thereof4 ,these internal proofs1 coinciding as they do with a mass of external evidences so great and varied1 place the genuineness of the four canonical gospels on a foundation that cannot be shaken4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,uncorrupt ,,preservation ,,of ,,the ,,gospel ,,narratives4 #a4 ,it is necessary1 first of all1 to define what is meant in the present connection by the uncorrupt preservation of the gospel narratives4 ,when a man1 whose business it is to examine and compare manuscripts or editions of a work1 speaks of a given text as corrupt1 he means one thing2 in a question concerning the truth of the ,christian system as given in the writings of the ,new ,testament1 a corrupt text means something very different4 ,the collator of manuscripts understands by a corrupt text one that has been marred by the carelessness or bad judgment of transcribers1 whence have arisen so many various readings1 though these do not change1 or essentially obscure the facts and doctrines of ,christianity1 as has been most conclusively shown by the results of modern textual criticism2 but in an inquiry whether we have in our canonical gospels the account of our ,lord's life and teachings as it was originally written by the evangelists in all essential particulars1 we have to do with the question1 not of various readings1 such as are incident to all manuscripts1 but of essential additions1 alterations1 or mutilations--like those1 for example1 which ,marcion attempted--by which the facts and doctrines themselves are changed or obscured4 ,it is against the charge of such essential corruptions that we maintain the integrity of the text in the gospels1 as in the other books of the ,new ,testament4 #b4 ,the most important materials for writing in ancient times were the paper made of the ,egyptian papyrus plant--whence the word paper--and parchment1 prepared from the skins of animals1 the finer kinds of which are called vellum4 ,both are of high antiquity4 ,the use of the above-mentioned paper was very common in the apostolic age2 and from an incidental notice in the ,new ,testament1 7#b ,john #ab compared with #c ,john #ac17 it appears to have been the material employed by the apostles themselves4 ,but the use of parchment became more common in the following centuries1 while that of papyrus-paper gradually ceased4 ,to this circumstance we owe1 in a great measure1 the preservation of our oldest manuscripts2 for the papyrus-paper was of a very perishable nature1 and the manuscripts written upon it that have come down to us from high antiquity have been kept in specially favorable circumstances1 as1 for example1 in the ancient ,egyptian tombs4 ,with the disuse of papyrus-paper ceased also the ancient form of the roll4 ,all manuscripts written on parchment are in the form of books with leaves4 ,from about the eleventh century1 paper made from cotton or linen came into common use4 ,the costliness of writing materials gave rise to a peculiar usage4 ,from the leaves of an ancient work the original writing was erased1 more or less perfectly4 ,they were then employed as the material for another work1 the latter being written over the former4 ,such manuscripts are called palimpsests--written again after erasure4 ,the original writing1 which is very often the sacred text1 can in general be deciphered1 especially by the aid of certain chemical applications4 ,some of our most precious manuscripts are of this character4 ,the existing manuscripts of the ,new ,testament are of two kinds4 ,first1 the uncial1 that is1 those written in capital letters4 ,here belong all the most ancient and valuable4 ,the writing is generally in columns1 from two to four to a page2 sometimes in a single column4 ,there is no division of the text into words2 the marks of interpunction are few and simple2 and till the seventh century there were no accents1 and breathings only in special cases4 ,secondly1 the cursive1 or those written in running-hand1 with division of the text into words1 capitals only for initial letters1 accents1 breathings1 etc41 and often with many contractions4 ,this is the common form of manuscripts after the tenth century1 the uncial being retained for some ages afterwards only in books designed for use in the church service4 ,in both the uncial and the cursive manuscripts1 each century has its peculiar style of writing4 ,from this1 as well as from the quality of the materials1 expert judges can determine the age of a given manuscript with a good degree of accuracy4 ,the details pertaining to the form of ancient manuscripts1 their number1 character1 etc41 belong to the department of textual criticism4 ,the above brief notices are given to prepare the way for a statement of the evidence that we have the gospel narratives1 as also the other books of the ,new ,testament1 without corruption in the form in which they were originally written4 ,see the ,,plates at the beginning of this book4 #c4 ,of the autograph manuscripts proceeding immediately from the inspired authors we find no trace after the apostolic age4 ,here1 as elsewhere1 the wisdom of ,god has carefully guarded the church against a superstitious veneration for the merely outward instruments of redemption4 ,we do not need the wood of the true cross that we may have redemption through the blood of ,christ2 nor do we need the identical manuscripts that proceeded from the apostles and their companions1 since we have the contents of these manuscripts handed down to us without corruption in any essential particular4 ,this appears from various considerations4 ,first4 ,several hundred manuscripts of the gospels1 or of portions of them1 7to confine our attention at present to these17 have been examined1 two of them belonging to the fourth century and two1 with some fragments1 to the fifth4 ,all these1 though written in different centuries and coming from widely different regions1 contain essentially the same text4 ,in them1 not one of the great facts or doctrines of the gospel history is mutilated or obscured4 ,secondly4 ,the quotations of the church fathers from the last part of the second to the end of the fourth century are so copious1 that from them almost the entire text of our present gospels could be reconstructed4 ,these quotations agree substantially with each other and with the text of our existing manuscripts2 only that the earlier fathers1 as already noticed1 chap4 #b4 #c1 often quote loosely from memory1 blend together different narratives1 and interweave with the words of ,scripture their own explanatory remarks4 ,thirdly4 ,we have two versions of the ,new ,testament--the ,old ,latin or ,italic1 and the ,syriac called ,peshito--which learned men are agreed in placing somewhere in the last half of the second century4 ,the testimony of these witnesses to the uncorrupt preservation of the sacred text1 from the time when they first appeared to the present1 is decisive2 for they also agree essentially with the ,greek text of the gospel as we now possess it4 ,nor is this all4 ,davidson affirms of the ,old ,latin version1 that the more ancient the ,greek manuscripts1 the closer is their agreement with it4 ,and ,tischendorf says of the oldest known manuscript of the ,bible--the ,greek ,sinai ,codex1 brought by him from the convent of ,st4 ,catharine1 ,mount ,sinai1 in #ahei--that its agreement1 in the ,new ,testament portion1 with the ,old ,latin version1 is remarkable4 ,through the joint testimony1 then1 on the one hand1 of the most ancient ,greek manuscripts1 especially the ,sinai ,codex1 which is the oldest of them all2 and on the other1 of the ,old ,latin version which belongs to the last half of the second century1 we are carried back to a very ancient and pure form of the ,greek text prevalent before the execution of this version1 that is1 about the middle of the second century4 ,tischendorf adds arguments to show that the ,syriac ,peshito version1 the text of which has not come down to us in so pure a state1 had for its basis substantially the same form of text as the ,old ,latin and the ,sinai ,codex4 ,the substantial identity of the sacred text1 as we now have it1 with that which has existed since about the middle of the second century1 is thus shown to be a matter not of probable conjecture1 but of certain knowledge4 ,here1 then1 we have a sure criterion by which to measure and interpret the complaints which textual critics1 ancient or modern1 have made1 sometimes in very strong language1 concerning the corruptions that have found their way into the text of the ,new ,testament4 ,these writers have reference to what are called various readings1 not to mutilations and alterations1 such as those charged by the ancients upon ,marcion1 by which he sought to change the facts and doctrines of the gospel4 ,that this must be their meaning we know2 for there are the manuscripts by hundreds as witnesses1 all of which1 the most corrupt as textual critics would call them1 as well as the purest1 give in the gospel narratives the same facts and doctrines without essential variation4 ,let not the inexperienced inquirer be misled into any wrong conclusion by the number of various readings1 amounting to many thousands1 which textual criticism has brought to light4 ,the greater the number of manuscripts collated1 the greater will be the number of these readings2 while1 at the same time1 we are continually making a nearer approach to the purity of the primitive text4 ,as a general rule these variations relate to trifling particulars2 as1 for example1 whether the conjunction and shall be inserted or omitted2 whether but or for is the true reading2 whether this or that order of words giving the same sense shall have the preference1 etc4 ,a few of the variations are of a more important character4 ,thus1 in ,john #a3ah1 some manuscripts and fathers instead of only begotten ,son1 read only begotten ,god4 ,but even here we may decide either way without changing or obscuring the great truths of the gospel narratives2 for these are not dependent on particular words or phrases1 but pervade and vivify the ,new ,testament1 as the vital blood does the body4 ,the same may be said of certain passages which1 on purely critical grounds--that is1 the authority of ancient manuscripts--some have thought doubtful2 as1 for example1 ,john #e3d1 and the narrative recorded in the beginning of the eighth chapter of the same gospel4 ,the insertion or omission of the passages concerning which any reasonable doubts can be entertained on critical grounds1 will not affect in the least the great truths of the gospel narratives4 #d4 ,but it may be asked1 ,was the text from which the ,old ,latin version was made1 and with which1 as we have seen1 the oldest manuscripts have a close agreement1 substantially the same as that which proceeded from the inspired authors8 ,here we must discard all groundless suppositions1 and adhere strictly to the known facts in the premises4 ,the first fact to be noticed is the public reading of the gospels in the ,christian churches1 a custom which prevailed from the earliest times4 ,justin ,martyr1 writing before the middle of the second century1 says of the memoirs written by the apostles or their followers and called gospels 7which have been shown to be our canonical gospels1 chap4 #b3g7 that either these or the writings of the ,jewish prophets were read in the ,christian churches on the first day of every week4 ,this is a fact of the highest importance2 for it shows that the witnesses and guardians of the sacred text were not a few individuals1 but the great body of believers1 and that no systematic corruption of their contents could have taken place without their knowledge and consent1 which would never have been given4 ,intimately connected with the above is a second fact1 that of the great multiplication of copies of the books of the ,new ,testament1 especially of the gospel narratives1 since these contain the great facts that lie at the foundation of the ,christian system4 ,every church would1 as a matter of course1 be anxious to possess a copy1 and ,christians who possessed the requisite means would furnish themselves with additional copies for their own private use4 ,if1 now1 we suppose one or more of these copies to have been essentially changed1 the corruption would not1 as in the case of a printed work1 extend to many hundreds of copies4 ,it would be confined to the manuscript or manuscripts into which it had been introduced and the copies made therefrom1 while the numerous uncorrupt copies would remain as witnesses of the fraud2 for the supposition of a very early corruption during the apostolic age1 before copies of the gospels had been to any considerable extent multiplied1 is utterly absurd4 ,a third fact is the high value attached by the primitive churches to the gospel narratives1 and their consequent zeal for their uncorrupt preservation4 ,no one will deny to them the qualities of earnestness and sincerity4 ,to them the gospels were the record of their redemption through the blood of ,christ4 ,for the truths contained in them they steadfastly endured persecution in every form1 and death itself4 ,could we even suppose1 contrary to evidence1 that private transcribers altered at pleasure their copies of the gospels1 it is certain that the churches would never have allowed their public copies to be tampered with4 ,the resistance which ,marcion met with in his attempt to alter the sacred text1 shows how watchful was their jealousy for its uncorrupt preservation4 ,a still further fact is the want of time for essential corruptions1 like those now under consideration4 ,that such corruptions could have taken place during the apostolic age1 no one will maintain4 ,equally certain is it that they could not have happened during the age next succeeding1 while many presbyters and private ,christians yet survived who had listened to the apostles1 and knew the history of the gospels written by them or their companions4 ,but this brings us down into the first part of the second century4 ,leaving out of view the apostle ,john1 who probably died near the close of the first century1 and assuming the martyrdom of ,peter and ,paul to have taken place somewhere between ,a4,d4 #fd and #fg1 we may place the beginning of the age now under consideration at ,a4,d4 #fe4 ,of the numerous ,christians who were then thirty years or less of age many must have survived till ,a4,d4 #aaj1 and even later4 ,polycarp1 a disciple of ,john1 suffered martyrdom ,a4,d4 #afg1 and doubtless many others of his hearers survived till the middle of the second century4 ,the time1 then1 during which such a corruption as that now under consideration can be supposed to have taken place is so narrowed down that it amounts to well-nigh nothing2 and it is1 moreover1 the very time during which ,justin ,martyr wrote his ,apologies1 and ,marcion made his unsuccessful attempt to mutilate the gospel history4 ,finally1 no evidence exists that the text of the gospel narratives has been essentially corrupted4 ,of ,marcion's abortive attempt we have abundant notices in the writings of the early fathers4 ,their silence in respect to other like attempts is conclusive proof that they were never made4 ,had we the autographs of the evangelists1 we should1 with reason1 attach to them a high value2 but there is no ground for supposing that their text would differ in any essential particular from that which we now possess4 ,they would present to our view the same ,saviour and the same gospel4 #e4 ,what has been said respecting the uncorrupt preservation of the gospel narratives applies essentially to the other books of the ,new ,testament2 so that in the consideration of them the above arguments will not need to be repeated4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,authenticity ,,and ,,credibility ,,of ,,the ,,gospel ,,narratives4 #a4 ,the genuineness and uncorrupt preservation of our four canonical gospels having been established1 the presumption in favor of their authenticity and credibility is exceedingly strong4 ,in truth1 few can be found who1 admitting their apostolic origin in essentially their present form1 will venture to deny that they contain an authentic and reliable record of facts4 ,we may dismiss at once the modern theory which converts the gospels into myths--pure ideas embodied in allegorical narratives which have no historic foundation4 ,myths do not turn the world upside down1 as did the preaching of ,christ and his apostles4 ,myths do not inspire the souls of men and women by thousands and tens of thousands with heroic zeal and courage1 enabling them steadfastly to endure persecution and death for the truth's sake4 ,it was love towards a crucified and risen ,saviour in deed and in truth1 not towards the mythical idea of such a ,saviour1 that made the primitive ,christians victorious alike over inward sinful affection and outward persecution4 ,to every one who reads the gospel narratives in the exercise of his sober judgment1 it is manifest that they are intended to be plain unvarnished statements of facts4 ,the question is1 ,are these statements reliable8 ,here new arguments can hardly be expected2 the old are abundantly sufficient4 ,reserving for another place those general arguments which apply to the gospel system as a whole1 let us here briefly consider the character of the authors and their records2 of the events which they record with the surrounding circumstances2 and especially of ,jesus1 their great theme4 #b4 ,it is natural to ask1 in the first place1 ,were these men sincere and truthful8 ,here we need not long delay4 ,their sincerity1 with that of their contemporaries who received their narratives as true1 shines forth like the sun in the firmament4 ,with reference to them1 the ,saviour's argument applies in all its force3 ,how can ,satan cast out ,satan8 ,if ,satan rise up against himself1 and be divided1 he cannot stand1 but hath an end4 ,the life-long work of the evangelists and their associates was to cast out of the world all fraud and falsehood4 ,if now they attempted to do this by the perpetration of a most astounding fraud1 we have the case of ,satan casting out ,satan4 ,but we need not argue the matter at length4 ,by what they did and suffered in behalf of their doctrines1 as well as by the artless simplicity of their narratives1 they give full proof of their sincerity and truthfulness4 #c4 ,we next inquire3 ,were they competent as men8 that is1 were they men of sober judgment1 able correctly to see and record the facts that came under their observation1 and not visionary enthusiasts who mistook dreams for realities8 ,this question admits of a short and satisfactory answer4 ,no proof whatever exists that they were visionary men1 but abundant proof to the contrary4 ,their narratives are calm1 unimpassioned1 and straightforward1 without expatiation on the greatness of ,christ's character and works and the wickedness of his enemies1 as is the way of all excited enthusiasts4 ,what ,paul said to ,festus applies in its full force to them and their writings3 ,i am not mad1 most noble ,festus1 but speak forth the words of truth and soberness4 ,if any one will condemn them as visionary1 it must be on the sole ground that all belief in the supernatural is visionary--a position that will be noticed hereafter4 #d4 ,a further inquiry is1 ,were these men competent as witnesses8 that is1 had they the requisite means of knowing the facts which they record8 ,with regard to the apostles ,matthew and ,john1 this matter need not be argued4 ,with regard to the other two1 ,luke states very fairly the position which they occupied3 ,it seemed good to me also1 having had perfect understanding of all things1 7having accurately traced out all things1 as the original signifies17 from the very beginning1 to write to thee1 in order1 etc4 ,luke had in abundance the means of accurately tracing out all things relating to our ,lord's life and works1 for he was the companion of apostles and others who from the beginning were eye-witnesses and ministers of the word2 and from them1 according to his own statement1 he drew his information4 ,the same is true of ,mark also4 #e4 ,we come now to consider the character of the works which they record1 and the circumstances in which they were performed4 ,here it may be remarked in the outset that it is not necessary to examine in detail all the miracles recorded in the gospel history4 ,though they all proceeded alike from the direct agency of ,god1 they are not all alike open to human inspection4 ,if upon examination we find the supernatural origin of many of them raised above all possibility of doubt1 it is a legitimate inference that the rest of them had the same divine origin4 ,not to insist then upon the miracles ascribed to our ,lord within the sphere of inanimate nature1 such as the conversion of water into wine1 the feeding of many thousands with a few loaves and fishes1 and walking upon the sea1 all of which were done in such circumstances that there is no room for questioning their reality1 let us examine some that were performed upon the persons of men4 ,palsy1 dropsy1 withered limbs1 blindness1 the want of hearing and speech1 leprosy1 confirmed lunacy--all these were as well known in their outward symptoms eighteen hundred years ago as they are to-day4 ,persons could not be afflicted with such maladies in a corner4 ,the neighbors must have known then1 as they do now1 the particulars of such cases1 and have been unexceptionable witnesses to their reality4 ,persons may feign blindness and other infirmities among strangers1 but no man can pass himself off as palsied1 deaf and dumb1 blind1 7especially blind from birth17 halt1 withered1 in his own community4 ,the reality of the maladies then is beyond all question2 and so is also the reality of their instantaneous removal by the immediate power of the ,saviour4 ,here we must not fail to take into account the immense number of our ,lord's miracles1 their diversified character1 and the fact that they were performed everywhere1 as well without as with previous notice1 and in the most open and public manner4 ,modern pretenders to miraculous power have a select circle of marvellous feats1 the exhibition of which is restricted to particular places4 ,no one of them would venture to undertake the cure of a man born blind1 or that had a withered limb1 or that had been a paralytic for thirty-eight years4 ,but ,jesus of ,nazareth went about the cities and villages of ,judea for the space of three years1 healing all manner of disease4 ,with him there was no distinction of easy and difficult1 since to ,divine power nothing is hard4 ,with the same word he rebuked a raging fever1 cleansed from leprosy1 gave strength to the paralytic1 healed the withered limb1 gave sight to the blind1 hearing to the deaf1 and speech to the dumb1 and raised the dead to life4 ,the same voice that said to the man at ,bethesda1 ,rise1 take up thy bed1 and walk1 said also to ,lazarus1 who had lain four days in the grave1 ,come forth4 #f4 ,it is with reason that we lay special stress upon the fact that ,christ performed many of his greatest miracles in the presence of his enemies1 who had both the means and the will to institute a searching investigation concerning them1 and who would have denied their reality had it been in their power to do so4 ,sad indeed is the record of the perverse opposition and calumny which our ,lord encountered on the part of the ,jewish rulers4 ,but even this has a bright side4 ,it shows us that the ,saviour's miracles could endure the severest scrutiny--that after every means which power and wealth and patronage and official influence could command had been used for their disparagement1 their divine origin still shone forth like the unclouded sun at noon-day4 ,if any one doubts this1 let him read attentively the ninth chapter of ,john's gospel1 which records the investigation instituted by the ,jewish rulers respecting the miracle of healing a man blind from his birth4 ,in no modern court of justice was a question of fact ever subjected to a severer scrutiny4 ,and the result was that they could not deny the miracle1 but said in their blind hatred of the ,redeemer1 ,give ,god the praise3 we know that this man is a sinner4 ,so when they could not deny that ,jesus cast out devils1 they alleged that he did it by the help of ,satan2 when it was manifest that he had by a word healed a man that had lain thirty-and-eight years a helpless paralytic1 they blamed him for working on the ,sabbath-day2 when ,lazarus had been called out of his grave in the presence of all the people1 they said1 ,what do we8 for this man doeth many miracles4 ,and then they consulted not to disprove these miracles1 but to put both him and ,lazarus to death4 ,thus1 in the good providence of ,god1 we have for the reality of our ,lord's miracles the testimony of his enemies and persecutors4 #g4 ,the resurrection of ,jesus is the miracle of miracles1 of which we may say with truth that it comprehends in itself all the other mighty works recorded in the gospel history4 ,we cannot but notice the condescending care with which our ,lord himself certified to his disciples its reality4 ,when he had suddenly appeared in the midst of them1 they were terrified and affrighted1 and supposed that they had seen a spirit4 ,to convince them of the reality of his bodily presence1 he said1 ,behold my hands and my feet1 that it is ,i myself3 handle me and see2 for a spirit hath not flesh and bones1 as ye see me have4 ,and when he had thus spoken1 he showed them his hands and his feet1 that they might see in them the prints of the nails4 ,finding them still incredulous1 believing not for joy and wondering1 he added another conclusive proof that he was not a spirit1 but a true man3 he asked for meat2 and they gave him a piece of a broiled fish1 and of an honeycomb2 and he took it1 and did eat before them4 ,luke #bd3cf-dc4 ,to the unbelieving ,thomas he offered the further proof which he had demanded3 ,reach hither thy finger1 and behold my hands2 and reach hither thy hand1 and thrust it into my side2 and be not faithless1 but believing4 ,the certainty of this great event the evangelist ,luke sets forth in his introduction to the ,acts of the ,apostles3 ,to whom also1 7to the apostles17 he showed himself alive after his passion1 by many infallible proofs1 being seen of them forty days1 and speaking of the things pertaining to the kingdom of ,god4 ,the apostle ,peter1 in his address to ,cornelius and his friends1 says3 ,him ,god raised up the third day1 and showed him openly2 not to all the people1 but unto witnesses chosen before of ,god1 even to us1 who did eat and drink with him after he rose from the dead4 ,acts #aj3dj1 #da4 ,the apostle ,paul1 in his enumeration of our ,lord's appearances to his disciples after his resurrection1 #a ,cor4 #e-h1 mentions that on one occasion he was seen of above five hundred brethren at once2 of whom1 he says1 the greater part remain unto this present1 but some are fallen asleep4 ,it was not the greatness of the miracle1 considered simply by itself1 but its relation to the gospel1 that made our ,lord's resurrection from the dead the central fact of the apostles' testimony4 ,it was1 so to speak1 the hinge on which the whole work of redemption turned4 ,our ,lord's expiatory death for the sins of the world and his resurrection from the dead were both alike parts of one indivisible whole4 ,it was not his claim to be the promised ,messiah alone that was involved in the fact of his resurrection4 ,his completion1 as the ,messiah1 of the work of man's redemption was also dependent on that great event4 ,if ,christ be not risen1 says the apostle1 then is our preaching vain1 and your faith is also vain2 and again1 ,if ,christ be not raised1 your faith is vain2 ye are yet in your sins4 #a ,cor4 #ae3ad1 #ag4 ,we need not wonder then that the apostles1 in their testimony to the people1 insisted so earnestly on this one great fact in our ,lord's history2 for by it ,god sealed him as the ,prince of life4 #h4 ,the character of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 as drawn by the four evangelists1 is the highest possible proof of the authenticity and credibility of the gospel narratives4 ,of this it has been justly said1 ,the character is possible to be conceived1 because it was actualized in a living example4 7,nature and the ,supernatural1 p4 #cbd47 ,the inapproachable excellence of ,christ's character places it high above all human praise4 ,the reverent mind shrinks instinctively from the idea of attempting to eulogize it1 as from something profane and presumptuous4 ,we do not eulogize the sun shining in his strength1 but we put a screen over our eyes when we would look at him1 lest we should be blinded by the brightness of his beams4 ,so must every man look at ,jesus of ,nazareth with reverence and awe1 who has any true sense of what is great and excellent4 ,what is now to be said of this character is not eulogy4 ,it is part of an argument for the reality of the events recorded in the gospel history4 ,here it is important to notice not only the character itself1 but the manner of the portraiture1 and its power over the human heart4 ,the character of ,jesus is perfectly original4 ,nothing like it was ever conceived of by the loftiest minds of antiquity4 ,nothing like it has appeared since his day1 in actual life1 or even in the conceptions of the most gifted writers4 ,as there is one sun in the firmament1 so there is one ,jesus ,christ in the history of the world4 ,his character has a human and a divine element2 and these two interpenetrate each other1 so as to constitute together one indivisible and glorious whole4 ,jesus could not be1 even in idea1 what he is as man1 unless he were ,god also4 ,and what he is as ,god1 he is as ,god made flesh1 and dwelling as man among men4 ,it is the ,god-man which the gospel narratives present to us4 ,if we consider the qualities which belong to our ,saviour as man1 we notice the union in full measure and just proportion of all those qualities which belong to perfect humanity4 ,in the case of mere men1 the abundant possession of one quality implies almost of necessity deficiency elsewhere1 and consequently one-sidedness of character4 ,not so in the case of ,jesus4 ,he has all the attributes of a perfect man in perfect fulness and in perfect harmony with each other4 ,let us reverently look at some particulars4 ,his character unites the deepest tranquillity with the deepest fervor of spirit4 ,our ,lord's tranquillity shines forth through the whole course of his ministry1 and manifests itself alike in great things and small4 ,it is evident to all who read the narratives of the evangelists that he performed his mighty works as one conscious that divine power belonged to him of right1 and that the exercise of it1 even in its highest forms1 was nothing new nor strange4 ,in connection with his greatest miracles he calmly gave directions1 as if they had been ordinary occurrences4 ,when he had fed many thousands with a few loaves and fishes1 he said1 ,gather up the fragments that remain1 that nothing be lost4 ,when he had raised from the dead the daughter of ,jairus1 he commanded that something should be given her to eat4 ,when he had called out of the grave one who had lain there four days1 he directed1 ,loose him and let him go4 ,even in ,gethsemane1 when oppressed with agony too great for human endurance1 his self-possession remained as perfect as his submission to his ,father's will4 ,that his serenity never left him for a moment during the process of his arrest1 trial1 sentence1 and lingering death on the cross1 is a truth which shines forth from the sacred narrative as his own raiment did on the mount of transfiguration1 white and glistering4 ,any attempt to describe it would be but mockery4 ,and yet this deep composure of spirit is not that of indifference or of a cold temperament4 ,it is the composure of one in whose bosom burns a steady and intense flame of zeal for the glory of ,god and good will towards men1 by which he is borne forward with untiring energy in the work committed to him from above4 ,it is the composure of a spirit whose depth of emotion none can measure4 ,we notice again the union in our ,lord of perfect wisdom with perfect freedom from guile and double dealing4 ,that his wisdom was never at fault all must admit4 ,he was surrounded by crafty adversaries1 who contrived all manner of plans to entangle him in his talk4 ,yet in the twinkling of an eye he turned their wiles against themselves1 and they found themselves taken in their own net4 ,meanwhile he always pursued the straightforward course of sincerity and truth4 ,not the slightest trace of deceit or cunning artifice appeared in his ministry from first to last4 ,closely allied to the above-named qualities are prudence and boldness1 both of which met in full measure in our ,lord's character4 ,that he feared no man and shrank from no peril when it was his duty to encounter it1 is too obvious to be insisted on4 ,yet he never needlessly encountered opposition and danger4 ,he was never bold for the purpose of making a show of boldness4 ,when the ,jews sought to kill him1 he walked in ,galilee to avoid their enmity4 ,when his brethren went up to the feast in ,jerusalem1 he would not go up with them1 but afterwards went up1 not openly1 but as it were in secret4 ,when1 at a later day1 after the resurrection of ,lazarus1 the ,jews sought his life1 he walked no more openly among the ,jews2 but went thence into a country near to the wilderness1 into a city called ,ephraim1 and there continued with his disciples4 ,not until the time had come that he should die for the sins of the world did he expose himself to the rage of his enemies2 and then he went boldly into ,jerusalem at the head of his disciples4 ,his own precept1 ,be ye wise as serpents and harmless as doves1 he perfectly exemplified throughout his ministry4 ,we cannot but notice once more the union in our ,lord's character of the greatest tenderness with unbending severity whenever the cause of truth demanded severity4 ,he opened his ministry at ,nazareth by reading from the prophet ,isaiah a portraiture of his own character3 ,the ,spirit of the ,lord ,god is upon me1 because he hath anointed me to preach the gospel to the poor2 he hath sent me to heal the broken-hearted1 to preach deliverance to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind1 to set at liberty them that are bruised1 to preach the acceptable year of the ,lord4 ,isa4 #fa3a1 #b4 ,the execution of this mission required a tender and forbearing spirit1 that would not break the bruised reed or quench the smoking flax2 and such was the spirit of his whole ministry4 ,for the penitent1 though publicans and sinners1 he had only words of kindness4 ,towards the infirmities and mistakes of his sincere disciples he was wonderfully forbearing4 ,when a strife had arisen among the apostles which of them should be the greatest1 instead of denouncing in severe terms their foolish ambition1 he called to himself a little child and set him in the midst1 and from him gave them a lesson on the duty of humility4 ,yet this tender and compassionate ,jesus of ,nazareth1 who took little children in his arms and blessed them1 who stood and cried1 ,come unto me1 all ye that labor and are heavy-laden1 and ,i will give you rest1 and who wept at the grave of ,lazarus--this same ,jesus could say to ,peter when he would deter ,him from the path of duty1 ,get thee behind me1 ,satan6 and could denounce in the presence of all the people the scribes and ,pharisees who sat in ,moses' seat4 ,in truth1 the most severe denunciations of hypocrisy and wickedness contained in the ,new ,testament and the most awful descriptions of the future punishment of the impenitent fell from our ,saviour's lips4 ,in his tenderness there was no element of weakness4 ,our ,lord's perfect meekness and humility need no human comment4 ,they shine forth with serene brightness through all his words and actions4 ,he described himself as meek and lowly in heart1 and his life was a perpetual illustration of these qualities4 ,when he was reviled1 he reviled not again2 when he suffered1 he threatened not2 but committed himself to him that judgeth righteously4 ,but the point to be particularly noticed is the wonderful harmony of this meek and lowly mind with claims more lofty than were ever conceived of by any man before him--claims everywhere boldly asserted1 and which1 as we shall see hereafter1 implied the possession of a divine nature4 ,it is not that he claimed and exercised power over nature or outward power over men1 even power to raise the dead1 that fills us with awe and amazement2 but that he went within the spirit1 and offered inward life1 light1 strength1 peace--in a word1 life eternal--to all who would come to him2 and that he asserted1 in a way as decisive as it was calm1 his absolute control over the everlasting destinies of all men4 ,when we read the account of these superhuman claims1 we have no feeling that they were incongruous or extravagant4 ,on the contrary1 they seem to us altogether legitimate and proper4 ,and yet1 as has been often remarked1 were any other person to advance a tithe of these pretensions1 he would be justly regarded as a madman4 ,the only possible explanation is1 that this meek and lowly ,jesus made good his claim to be the ,son of ,god by what he was and by what he did4 ,another quality very conspicuous in our ,lord's character is his perfect elevation above this world4 ,ye are from beneath1 said he to the ,jews2 ,i am from above3 ye are of this world2 ,i am not of this world4 ,it was not in his origin alone1 but in his spirit also that he was from above4 ,as he was from heaven1 so was he heavenly in all his affections4 ,his own precept to his disciples1 ,lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth1 but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven1 was the law of his own life4 ,he had no treasures here below but the souls of men2 and these are not earthly1 but heavenly treasures4 ,satan plied him in vain with the offer of all the kingdoms of the world1 and the glory of them4 ,in him the lust of the flesh1 and the lust of the eyes1 and the pride of life could find no place for a single moment4 ,he kept the world always and perfectly under his feet4 ,yet this perfect elevation above the world had in it no tinge of stoicism or asceticism4 ,he made no war upon the genuine passions and affections of human nature1 but simply subjected them all to his higher spiritual nature2 in other words to the law of ,god4 ,except temporarily for meditation and prayer1 he never withdrew himself1 nor encouraged his disciples to withdraw themselves from the cares and temptations of an active life1 under the false idea of thus rising to a state of superhuman communion with ,god4 ,he did not fast himself systematically1 nor enjoin upon his disciples systematic fastings1 but left fastings for special emergencies4 ,in a word1 he ate and drank like other men4 ,his heavenly mind lay not in the renunciation of ,god's gifts1 but in maintaining his affections constantly raised above the gifts themselves to the divine ,giver4 ,it took on a human1 and therefore an imitable form4 ,and what shall we say of our ,lord's spotless purity of heart and life8 ,we cannot eulogize it1 for it is above all human praise4 ,but we can refresh the eyes of our understanding by gazing upon it1 as upon a glorious sun1 until we feel its vivifying and transforming power in our own souls4 ,in contemplating the above qualities1 it is of the highest importance to notice that1 though they exist in such fulness and perfection1 they are yet human1 and therefore imitable4 ,they are not the virtues of an angel in heaven1 or of a king on the throne1 or of a philosopher in his school1 or of a monk in his cell2 but of a man moving among men in the sphere of common life1 and filling out common life with all the duties appropriate to it4 ,his example then is available for the imitation of the lowest not less than the highest4 ,it offers itself to all classes of men as a model of all that is good in human nature4 ,we may boldly affirm that such a character as this could never have been conceived of1 if it had not actually existed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if now we look at our ,lord's character as a teacher1 we find it equally original and wonderful4 ,writers on the gospel history have with reason laid great stress on the fact that he stood high above the errors and prejudices1 not only of his own age and nation1 but of all ages and nations4 ,he saw intuitively and perfectly what ,god is1 what man is1 and what are man's relations to ,god and to his fellow-men2 and was therefore able to establish a religion for men1 as men1 that needs no change for any age1 or nation1 or condition of life4 ,he has sometimes been called a ,galilean peasant4 ,the phrase sounds unpleasantly in the ears of those who adore him as their divine ,lord and ,master4 ,nevertheless it is in an important sense true4 ,he was educated among the common people of ,galilee1 and had no special human training4 ,it was an age of narrowness and formalism4 ,the scribes and ,pharisees1 who sat in ,moses' seat1 had covered up the true meaning and spirit of the ,old ,testament beneath a mass of human traditions that substituted mint1 and anise1 and cummin for the weightier matters of the law4 ,yet in such an age ,jesus came forth a perfect teacher of divine truth4 ,he swept away at once the glosses of the ,jewish doctors1 unfolded to the people the true meaning of the law and the prophets as preparatory to his coming1 and gave to the world a religion that meets the wants of all classes and conditions of men in all ages and nations4 ,considered as the good leaven which ,christ cast into the lump of humanity1 the gospel has continual progress4 ,but considered as the plan of salvation which he revealed1 it cannot have progress1 for it is perfect4 ,it needs no amendment or change1 that it may be adapted to our age or any other age4 ,as air and water and light meet the wants of all men in all ages1 so the gospel1 when freed from human additions and received in its original purity1 is all that fallen humanity needs4 ,here is a great fact to be explained4 ,the only reasonable explanation is that given by the ,saviour himself4 ,when the ,jews marvelled at his teaching1 saying1 ,how knoweth this man letters1 having never learned8 he answered1 ,my doctrine is not mine1 but his that sent me4 ,such a religion as that described in the gospels could not have been conceived of unless it had actually existed2 and it could not have existed without ,god for its author4 ,gifted men may be in advance of their own age2 that is1 they may see before others what is the next thing indicated by the present progress of society4 ,but mere men do not rise at once above all the errors and prejudices by which they are surrounded into the region of pure light and truth4 ,all the work that men do is imperfect1 and needs emendation by those who come after them4 ,a religion that remains from age to age as perfectly adapted to the wants of all men as it was at the beginning1 must be from ,god1 not from man4 ,our ,saviour's manner of teaching was also as original as the teaching itself4 ,he saw through the world of nature and mind at a glance1 and it stood always ready at hand to furnish him with arguments and illustrations--arguments and illustrations as simple and natural as they were profound1 and by means of which he unfolded the deepest truths in the plainest and most intelligible forms4 ,take1 for example1 the parables of the mustard-seed and the leaven4 ,they contain within themselves the whole history of ,christ's kingdom in its inward principle4 ,they unfold views of its steady progress from age to age1 as a growth from an inward vital force1 on which the most philosophical minds especially love to dwell2 and yet they are perfectly intelligible to the most unlettered man4 ,to teach by parables1 without any false analogies1 and in a way that interested and instructed alike the learned and the ignorant1 this was a wonderful characteristic of our ,lord's ministry4 ,in this respect no one of his apostles1 not even the bosom disciple1 attempted to imitate him4 ,yet in the great fact that his teaching was not for a select few1 but for the masses of mankind1 so that the common people heard him gladly1 all his servants can and ought to imitate him4 ,thus far we have considered mainly the human side of our ,lord's character1 though through it all his divinity shines forth4 ,let us now look more particularly at his divine mission and character4 ,on the fact that his mission was from ,god we need not dwell4 ,nicodemus expressed the judgment of every candid mind when he said1 ,rabbi1 we know that thou art a teacher come from ,god2 for no man can do these miracles that thou doest1 except ,god be with him4 ,if there is one truth which our ,lord asserted more frequently than any other1 it is that he came from ,god3 ,the works which the ,father hath given me to finish1 the same works that ,i do1 bear witness of me1 that the ,father hath sent me4 ,if ,god were your ,father1 ye would love me3 for ,i proceeded forth and came from ,god2 neither came ,i of myself1 but he sent me4 ,but ,jesus had not only a divine mission1 but a divine person also2 and the manner in which he manifested his divinity is1 if possible1 more original than any thing else in his history1 and bears in itself the impress of reality4 ,a company of men who should attempt to give a portraiture of a divine being simply from their own conceptions would doubtless put into his lips many direct assertions of his deity1 and make his life abound in stupendous miracles4 ,but it is not in any such crude way that our ,saviour's divinity manifests itself in the gospel narratives4 ,it is true indeed that in the manner of his miracles he everywhere makes the impression that he performs them by virtue of a power residing in himself2 that while the commission to do them comes from the ,father1 the power to do them belongs to his own person4 ,in this respect the contrast is very sharp between his manner and that of the prophets before him and the apostles after him4 ,in their case the power1 as well as the commission1 was wholly from ,god1 as they were careful to teach the people3 ,in the name of ,jesus ,christ of ,nazareth1 rise up and walk4 ,why look ye so earnestly on us1 as though by our own power or holiness we had made this man to walk8 ,his name1 through faith in his name1 hath made this man strong1 whom ye see and know4 ,eneas1 ,jesus ,christ maketh thee whole4 ,but not to dwell on this1 let us look at some very remarkable ways in which our ,saviour manifested his divine nature4 ,he called ,god his ,father in a peculiar and incommunicable sense4 ,he never said1 ,our ,father1 by which he would have classed himself with other men1 but always1 ,my ,father1 showing that thus he stood alone in his relation to ,god4 ,as the son has the same nature with the father1 and when acting under his authority1 the same prerogatives also2 so ,jesus1 as the ,son of ,god1 claimed the power and right to do whatever his ,father did1 and to receive the same honor as his ,father3 ,my ,father worketh hitherto1 and ,i work4 ,this the ,jews rightly understood to be an assertion of equality with the ,father2 for they sought the more to kill him1 because he not only had broken the ,sabbath1 but said also that ,god was his own ,father1 7so the original reads17 making himself equal with ,god4 ,to this the ,saviour answered3 ,the ,son can do nothing of himself--acting in his own name1 and without the concurrence of the ,father's will--but what he seeth the ,father do2 for what things soever he doeth1 these also doeth the ,son likewise4 ,for the ,father loveth the ,son1 and showeth him all things that himself doeth3 and he will show him greater works than these1 that ye may marvel4 ,for as the ,father raiseth up the dead1 and quickeneth them2 even so the ,son quickeneth whom he will4 ,for the ,father judgeth no man2 but hath committed all judgment unto the ,son3 that all men should honor the ,son1 even as they honor the ,father4 ,he that honoreth not the ,son1 honoreth not the ,father which hath sent him4 ,john #e3ag-bc4 ,here the ,son1 though acting under the ,father's commission1 claims equality with the ,father2 for without this he could neither share all the ,father's counsels1 nor do all the ,father's works1 nor receive from the ,father authority to judge all men--an office which plainly implies omniscience--nor be entitled to the same honor as the ,father4 ,the point to be especially noticed in the present connection is the originality of the way in which our ,lord here asserts his divine nature4 ,we cannot for a moment suppose that such a way would have occurred to one who was writing from his own invention4 ,the only possible explanation of the existence of such a passage in the gospel of ,john1 7and the same is true of many other passages17 is that it is a true record of what actually took place in our ,lord's history4 ,again3 our ,lord represents himself as the source of light and life to all mankind4 ,to the ,jews he said3 ,i am the light of the world3 he that followeth me shall not walk in darkness1 but shall have the light of life4 ,john #h3ab4 ,in comparison with what he here claims for himself1 the outward work of opening men's bodily eyes dwindles into nothing4 ,that was only the seal of his divine mission4 ,but in these and other like words1 he does1 as it were1 draw aside the veil of his humanity1 and give us a glimpse of the glory of the ,godhead that dwells within4 ,so too he says1 ,i am the living bread which came down from heaven3 if any man eat of this bread he shall live for ever2 and the bread that ,i will give is my flesh1 which ,i will give for the life of the world4 ,john #f3ea4 ,the resurrection of ,lazarus1 stupendous as that miracle was1 does not fill us with such awe and amazement as the mighty words which he uttered to ,martha3 ,i am the resurrection and the life3 he that believeth in me1 though he were dead1 yet shall he live3 and whosoever liveth1 and believeth in me1 shall never die1 ,john #aa3be1 #bf2 for in these words he represents himself as being to the whole human family the author of all life1 natural1 spiritual1 and eternal4 ,he connects the particular act of giving life which he is about to perform with the final resurrection1 when all that are in the graves shall hear his voice1 and shall come forth2 they that have done good1 unto the resurrection of life2 and they that have done evil1 unto the resurrection of damnation4 ,john #e3bh1 #bi4 ,these utterances1 so calm1 so lofty1 so original1 do not sound like the inventions of man4 ,they wear a heavenly costume4 ,when we read them1 we feel that the only explanation of their existence in the gospel narrative is the fact that they were actually uttered by our ,lord4 ,and the same is true of another kindred class of passages1 in which the ,saviour asserts his inward dominion over the human spirit4 ,hear him1 as he stands and proclaims3 ,come unto me1 all ye that labor and are heavy laden1 and ,i will give you rest4 ,matt4 #aa3bh4 ,peace ,i leave with you2 my peace ,i give unto you3 not as the world giveth1 give ,i unto you4 ,john #ad3bg4 ,the world gives peace at best outwardly1 and often only in empty words2 but ,jesus has direct access to the inmost fountains of feeling4 ,he gives peace inwardly and efficaciously4 ,when he turned into songs of joy the tears of the widow of ,nain by raising her son to life1 that was a wonderful instance of his giving peace2 but far greater and more glorious is the work when1 by his inward presence in the soul1 he makes it victorious over all the sufferings of this present time4 ,this is what he meant when he said to his disciples3 ,these things have ,i spoken unto you that in me ye might have peace4 ,in the world ye shall have tribulations2 but be of good cheer3 ,i have overcome the world4 ,john #af3cc4 ,in his name1 apostles raised the dead to life2 but no apostle--no mere man--would have ventured to say1 ,in me ye shall have peace4 ,these last words naturally lead to the consideration of another very peculiar form of speech first introduced by our ,lord1 and passing from him to the church2 that of the mutual indwelling of himself and his disciples3 ,abide in me1 and ,i in you4 ,as the branch cannot bear fruit of itself1 except it abide in the vine2 no more can ye1 except ye abide in me4 ,john #ae3a-g4 ,it is a vital union of the believer's soul with ,jesus1 through which he receives from ,jesus life and fruitfulness1 as the branch from its union with the vine4 ,here is an assertion of deity4 ,the ,jews regarded ,moses with the highest reverence2 but no one of them ever spoke of abiding in ,moses1 or having ,moses abiding in himself4 ,had any ,christian disciple represented himself as dwelling in ,peter or ,paul1 the apostle would have rent his clothes at the blasphemy of the words4 ,other peculiar ways in which our ,lord manifested his deity could be specified1 but the above will suffice as examples4 ,let any candid man consider all these examples in their connection1 each of them so original and so majestic1 so simple and natural1 and yet so far removed from anything that could have occurred to one sitting down to draw from his own imagination the picture of a divine person2 and he will be convinced that such a record as that contained in our four canonical gospels was possible only because it is a simple and truthful history of what ,jesus of ,nazareth was and did4 ,plain men can give a straightforward account of what they have seen or learned from eye-witnesses2 but it transcends the genius of any man to invent such narratives of such a character4 ,the gospel narratives are marked throughout by artless simplicity4 ,each of the writers goes straightforward with his story1 never thinking for a moment of what his own genius is to accomplish1 but intent only on exhibiting his ,lord and ,master as the ,saviour of the world4 ,the apostle ,john1 in giving the design of his own gospel1 gives that also of the other evangelists3 ,and many other signs truly did ,jesus in the presence of his disciples1 which are not written in this book4 ,but these are written1 that ye might believe that ,jesus is the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god2 and that believing ye might have life through his name4 ,john #bj3cj1 #ca4 ,and because this glorious and divine person is a living reality1 he possesses from age to age an undying power over the human heart4 ,love towards him is the mightiest principle on earth1 both for doing and for suffering4 ,it makes the soul of which it has taken full possession invincible4 ,when ,jesus of ,nazareth is enthroned in the castle of the human heart1 not all the powers of earth and hell can overcome it4 ,see farther1 chap4 #ab3h4 #i4 ,since1 as we have seen1 the gospel narratives are an authentic record of facts1 it follows that in the person and life of ,jesus of ,nazareth we have a supernatural revelation from ,god in the fullest sense of the words4 ,that his origin was both superhuman and supernatural1 the gospels teach us in the most explicit terms4 ,he says of himself3 ,i came forth from the ,father1 and am come into the world3 again1 ,i leave the world1 and go unto the ,father4 ,john #af3bh4 ,and now1 ,o ,father1 glorify thou me with thine own self1 with the glory which ,i had with thee before the world was4 ,john #ag3e4 ,that the appearance on earth of ,one who dwelt with the ,father in glory before the world was1 and after the fulfilment of his mission returned to the ,father again1 was supernatural1 is self-evident4 ,his person was1 as has been shown1 divine4 ,he was ,god manifest in the flesh2 and wherever he went1 his supernatural power displayed itself4 ,the miraculous element is so interwoven into the very substance of the gospel history1 that there is no possibility of setting it aside1 except by rejecting the history itself4 ,it is the fashion with a certain class of writers1 after denying our ,lord's divine nature and explaining away his supernatural works1 to be profuse in their eulogies of his character4 ,if they can first rid themselves of the obligation to believe on him and obey him as their divine ,lord1 they are willing to bestow upon him1 as a man like themselves1 the highest commendations4 ,but the attempt is hopeless4 ,what will they do with the fact of his resurrection from the dead--the most certain as well as the greatest miracle in his history1 and which includes in itself all the rest8 ,had ,jesus not risen from the dead1 as he so often affirmed that he should1 then he would have been what the ,jewish rulers called him--a deceiver1 and no ,saviour2 but since the miracle of his resurrection must be admitted by all who do not reject the whole gospel history as a fable1 why deny the lesser miracles connected with his history8 ,the assumption that miracles are impossible can only go with the denial of ,god's personality2 and this1 by whatever name it is called1 is atheism4 ,if there is a personal ,god1 who is before nature1 above nature1 and the author of nature in its inmost essence1 he can manifest himself within the sphere of nature in a supernatural way1 whenever he chooses to do so4 ,if ,god who made us cares for us1 and is indeed our ,father in heaven1 it is reasonable to suppose that he may reveal himself to us in supernatural forms1 when the end is our deliverance from the bondage of sin1 and our preparation for an eternity of holiness and happiness4 ,to deny this1 would be to make nature the highest end of ,god--to put the world of ,god's intelligent creatures under nature1 instead of making nature their servant and minister4 #aj4 ,the objections that have been urged against the gospel history are of two kinds4 ,the first class relates to its doctrines1 as1 for example1 that of demoniacal possessions1 that of eternal punishment1 etc4 ,to enlarge on this subject would be out of place here4 ,it is sufficient to say that the only reasonable rule is to argue from the certainty of the record to the truth of the doctrines in question4 ,he who first assumes that a certain doctrine cannot be true1 and then1 on the ground of this assumption1 sets aside a history sustained by overwhelming evidence1 exalts his own finite understanding to be the supreme rule of faith2 and to him an authoritative revelation becomes an impossibility4 ,the second class of objections relates to alleged contradictions and inconsistencies between the different writers4 ,the explanation and reconciliation of these is the work of the harmonist4 ,we need not wait1 however1 for the result of his labors1 that we may rest confidently on the truth of the record4 ,these apparent disagreements do not affect a single doctrine or duty of ,christianity4 ,they all relate to incidental matters1 such as the time and order of the events recorded1 the accompanying circumstances1 etc4 ,had we all the missing links of the evangelical history1 we might reconcile all these differences2 but without them1 it is not in all cases possible4 ,nor is it necessary2 since1 where different writers record the same transactions1 substantial agreement1 with diversity in respect to the details1 is everywhere the characteristic of authentic history4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,acts ,,of ,,the ,,apostles ,,and ,,the ,,acknowledged ,,epistles4 #a4 ,the genuineness1 uncorrupt preservation1 and credibility of the gospel narratives having been shown to rest on a firm foundation1 the principal part of our work is accomplished1 so far as the ,new ,testament is concerned4 ,we are prepared beforehand to expect some record of the labors of the apostles1 like that contained in the ,acts of the ,apostles2 and also discussions and instructions relating to the doctrines and duties of ,christianity1 such as we find in the apostolic epistles4 ,our ,saviour established his church only in its fundamental principles and ordinances4 ,the work of publishing his gospel and organizing churches among ,jews and ,gentiles he committed to his apostles4 ,before his crucifixion he taught them that the ,holy ,ghost could not come 7that is1 in his special and full influences as the administrator of the new covenant7 till after his departure to the ,father3 ,it is expedient for you that ,i go away3 for if ,i go not away1 the ,comforter will not come unto you2 but if ,i depart ,i will send him unto you4 ,john #af3g4 ,when the ,comforter is come1 whom ,i will send unto you from the ,father1 even the ,spirit of truth which proceedeth from the ,father1 he shall testify of me4 ,and ye also shall bear witness1 because ye have been with me from the beginning4 ,john #ae3bf1 #bg4 ,now we have1 in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 first an account of the fulfilment by the ,saviour of his promise that he would send the ,holy ,ghost2 then a record how the apostles1 thus qualified1 obeyed the ,saviour's command to preach the gospel to ,jews and ,gentiles--a record not1 indeed1 complete1 but sufficient to show the manner and spirit in which the work was performed4 ,some truths1 moreover1 of the highest importance the ,saviour gave only in outline1 because the time for their full revelation had not yet come4 ,john #af3ab1 #ac4 ,such were especially the doctrine of his atoning sacrifice on ,calvary with the connected doctrine of justification by faith2 and the divine purpose to abolish the ,mosaic economy1 and with it the distinction between ,jews and ,gentiles4 ,we have1 partly in the ,acts and partly in the epistles1 an account of the unfolding of these great truths by the apostles under the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit1 and of the commotions and contentions that naturally accompanied this work4 ,the practical application of the gospel to the manifold relations of life1 domestic1 social1 and civil1 with the solution of various difficult questions arising therefrom1 was another work necessarily devolved on the apostles1 and performed by them with divine wisdom for the instruction of all coming ages4 ,the book of ,acts and the epistles ascribed to the apostles being such a natural sequel to the ,redeemer's work1 as recorded by the four evangelists1 a briefer statement of the evidence for their genuineness and authenticity will be sufficient4 ,i4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles4 #b4 ,according to ,chrysostom1 ,first ,homily on ,acts1 this book was not so abundantly read by the early ,christians as the gospels4 ,the explanation of this comparative neglect is found in the fact that it is occupied with the doings of the apostles1 not of the ,lord himself4 ,passing by some uncertain allusions to the work in the writings of the apostolic fathers1 the first explicit quotation from it is contained in the letter heretofore noticed1 chap4 #b3d1 from the churches of ,vienne and ,lyons in ,gaul1 written about ,a4,d4 #agg1 in which they say3 ,moreover they prayed1 after the example of ,stephen the perfect martyr1 for those who inflicted upon them cruel torments1 ',lord1 lay not this sin to their charge4' ,irenaeus1 in the last part of the second century1 ,tertullian in the last part of the same century and the beginning of the third1 ,clement of ,alexandria about the end of the second century and onwards--all these bear explicit testimony to the book of ,acts1 ascribing it to ,luke as its author2 and from their day onward the notices of the work are abundant4 ,we may add the concurrent testimony of the ,muratorian canon and the ,syriac version1 called the ,peshito1 which belong to the last quarter of the second century1 and the still earlier testimony of the ,old ,latin version4 ,in a word1 the book is placed by ,eusebius among those that were universally acknowledged by the churches4 ,the rejection of the book by certain heretical sects1 as the ,ebionites1 ,marcionites1 ,manichaeans1 etc41 is of no weight1 as their objections rested not on historical1 but on doctrinal grounds4 ,as to the statement of ,photius that some call ,clement of ,rome the author1 some ,barnabas1 and some ,luke the evangelist1 it is to be remarked that he is giving not his own judgment1 for he expressly ascribes it to ,luke1 but the arbitrary opinions of certain persons2 and these are contradicted by the obvious fact that the third gospel1 which proceeded from the same hand as the ,acts of the ,apostles1 was never ascribed to any other person than ,luke4 #c4 ,the internal testimony to ,luke's authorship is decisive4 ,the writer himself1 in dedicating it to the same ,theophilus1 expressly identifies himself with the author of the third gospel3 ,the former treatise have ,i made1 ,o ,theophilus1 of all that ,jesus began both to do and to teach4 ,acts #a3a4 ,then there is a remarkable agreement in style and diction between the gospel of ,luke and the ,acts of the ,apostles1 as any one may learn who peruses them both together in the original ,greek4 ,davidson1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 #b1 p4 #h1 has collected forty-seven examples of terms that occur in both1 but nowhere else in the ,new ,testament4 ,luke1 moreover1 as the travelling companion of ,paul1 had all needed facilities for composing such a work4 ,with regard to the latter portion of the book1 this is denied by none4 ,his use of the first person plural1 we endeavored1 the ,lord had called us1 we came1 etc4--which first appears1 chap4 #af3aj1 and continues1 with certain interruptions1 through the remainder of the book--admits of but one natural and reasonable explanation1 namely1 that when he thus joins himself with the apostle he was actually in his company4 ,as it respects the first part of the book1 we notice that he visited ,caesarea with ,paul's company1 and tarried there many days1 chap4 #ba3h-aj2 afterwards he went up with him to ,jerusalem1 chap4 #ba3ae4 ,we find him again with ,paul at ,caesarea when he sets out for ,rome4 ,chap4 #bg3a4 ,now at such centres as ,jerusalem and ,caesarea he must have had abundant opportunities to learn all the facts recorded in the present book which could not be gathered from ,paul's own lips4 #d4 ,for the credibility of this book we have1 in general1 the same arguments which apply to the gospel narratives1 especially to the gospel of ,luke4 ,its author is evidently a sincere and earnest man1 who goes straight forward with his narrative2 and where he does not write as an eye-witness1 he had1 as we have seen1 abundant means of ascertaining the truth concerning the facts which he records4 ,his narrative is1 moreover1 corroborated in a very special way1 as will be shown hereafter--,no4 #h1 below--by its many undesigned coincidences with the events alluded to in the epistle of ,paul4 ,to admit the credibility of the gospel of ,luke and to deny that of this work would be altogether inconsistent4 ,in truth1 there is no ground for doubting the credibility of the ,acts of the ,apostles other than that which lies in the assumption that no record of miraculous events can be credible1 and this is no ground at all4 ,to some modern writers the narrative of the gift of tongues on the day of ,pentecost has seemed to present an insuperable difficulty4 ,undoubtedly it is above our comprehension how a man should suddenly become possessed of the ability to speak in a language before unknown to him2 but why should we doubt ,god's power to bestow such a gift8 ,can any one suppose for a moment that when our ,saviour met with a person deaf and dumb from birth1 he had1 for the first time1 a case beyond his healing power8 ,the gospel narrative plainly indicates the contrary4 ,mark #g3cb-cg1 upon which passage see ,meyer and ,alford4 ,the account of the sudden death of ,ananias and ,sapphira1 chap4 #e3a-aa1 is not contrary to the spirit of the gospel4 ,they died by the immediate act of ,god4 ,his wisdom judged such an example of severity to be necessary in the beginning of the gospel1 as a solemn warning against hypocrisy and falsehood in his service4 ,though the gospel is a system of mercy1 it takes1 as all admit1 a severe attitude towards those who reject it2 why not1 then1 towards those who make a hypocritical profession of it8 ,as ,nadab and ,abihu were consumed by fire from heaven at the beginning of the ,mosaic economy1 so the death of ,ananias and his wife came early in the dispensation of the ,holy ,ghost1 as a testimony to all future ages of ,christ's abhorrence of hypocrisy1 and consequently of the doom which hypocrites will receive from him at the last day4 ,matt4 #g3ba-bc4 ,the fact that ,luke has omitted some events in the history of ,paul1 as1 for example1 his journey into ,arabia1 which occurred during the three years that intervened between his conversion and his first visit to ,jerusalem1 ,acts #i3bb-bf compared with ,gal4 #a3ae-ah1 is no argument against the credibility of his narrative4 ,difficulties that arise simply from a writer's brevity must not be allowed to set aside satisfactory evidence of his competency and truthfulness4 ,the historical difficulties connected with ,stephen's address do not concern ,luke's credibility as a historian1 and the discussion of them belongs to the commentator4 #e4 ,the book of ,acts closes with a notice that ,paul dwelt two whole years in his own hired house1 and received all that came in unto him1 preaching the kingdom of ,god1 and teaching those things which concern the ,lord ,jesus1 with all confidence1 no man forbidding him4 ,as it adds no notice of the issue of his imprisonment1 or of what afterwards befell him1 we naturally infer that the book was written at ,rome about this time1 that is1 about ,a4,d4 #fc4 ,,ii4 ,the ,acknowledged ,epistles1 #f4 ,it is well known that doubts existed1 to a greater or less extent1 in the primitive churches before the fourth century1 respecting the apostolic origin and authority of certain books which now constitute a part of the ,new ,testament canon4 ,hence the distinction made by ,eusebius between the acknowledged books1 7homologoumena7 that is1 those that were universally received from the first1 and the disputed books1 7antilegomena17 books respecting which some entertained doubts4 ,the acknowledged books are1 the four gospels1 the ,acts of the ,apostles1 the thirteen epistles of ,paul which bear his name at the beginning1 the first epistle of ,peter1 and the first epistle of ,john2 twenty in all4 ,the disputed books are1 the epistle to the ,hebrews1 the epistle of ,james1 the second epistle of ,peter1 the second and third epistles of ,john1 the epistle of ,jude1 and the book of ,revelation2 seven in all4 ,the gospels and the ,acts have been already considered1 and the disputed books are reserved for the following chapter4 ,some remarks will here be made on the fifteen acknowledged epistles4 #g4 ,the epistles of ,paul may be conveniently distributed into two groups1 of which the second or smaller contains the three pastoral epistles1 and the former or larger1 the remaining ten4 ,of the apostolic origin of the larger group little needs to be said4 ,they bear throughout the impress of genuineness and authenticity4 ,no doubts were ever entertained concerning them in the ancient churches4 ,there is1 indeed1 some ground for suspecting that a few ancient copies of the epistle to the ,ephesians omitted the words at ,ephesus--more literally in ,ephesus--chap4 #a3a4 ,but the genuineness of these words is sustained by an overwhelming weight of evidence1 and that ,paul was the author of the epistle was never once doubted by the ancient churches4 ,the arguments of some modern writers against its apostolic origin have no real weight1 as will be shown hereafter in the introduction to the epistle4 ,respecting the apostolic authorship of the three pastoral epistles1 two to ,timothy and one to ,titus1 there was never any doubt in the ancient churches4 ,they are supported by the testimony of the ,peshito-,syriac version1 of the ,muratorian canon1 also1 7as appears from ,jerome's letter to ,marcella and the quotations of the church fathers before him17 of the ,old ,latin version2 of ,irenaeus1 ,tertullian1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 and a multitude of later writers4 ,there are also some allusions to these epistles in the apostolic fathers1 which seem to be decisive4 ,such are the following3 ,let us therefore approach to him in holiness of soul1 lifting up to him holy and unpolluted hands4 ,clement of ,rome1 ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 chap4 #bi4 ,but the beginning of all mischief is the love of money4 ,knowing1 therefore1 that we brought nothing into the world neither have power to carry any thing out1 let us arm ourselves with the armor of righteousness4 ,polycarp1 ,epistle to the ,philippians1 chap4 #d4 ,the student may see other supposed allusions in ,kirchhofer1 ,quellensammlung2 ,lardner1 #b3ci2 ,davidson's ,introduction1 #c1 p4 #aja seq42 ,alford's ,new ,testament1 ,introduction to the ,pastoral ,epistles1 etc4 ,respecting the date of the pastoral epistles very different opinions are held4 ,the whole discussion turns on the question whether they were written before or after ,paul's imprisonment at ,rome1 which is recorded in the last chapter of the ,acts of the ,apostles2 and this again is connected with the further question whether he underwent a second imprisonment at ,rome1 concerning which learned men are not agreed4 ,the full discussion of this matter belongs to the introduction to the pastoral epistles4 ,it may be simply remarked1 however1 that the internal arguments in favor of a late date are very strong1 and that its assumption accounts for the development of such a state of things at ,ephesus as appears in the two pastoral epistles to ,timothy--a state very different from that which existed when the epistle to the ,ephesians was written1 between ,a4,d4 #fj and #fd1 and which makes it necessary to separate the first epistle to ,timothy from that to the ,ephesians by a considerable interval of time4 ,the theme of the pastoral epistles is peculiar4 ,it is the affectionate counsel of an aged apostle to two young preachers and rulers in the church respecting the duties of their office4 ,from the peculiarity of the subject-matter naturally arises1 to some extent1 a peculiarity in the diction of these epistles2 yet the style and costume is throughout that of the apostle ,paul4 #h4 ,the testimony of the ancient church to the first epistle of ,peter and the first of ,john is very ample4 ,besides that of the ,peshito-,syriac version1 and of the church fathers ,irenaeus1 ,tertullian1 and ,clement of ,alexandria1 they have in addition that of ,papias and the apostolic father ,polycarp4 ,the first epistle of ,john is also included in the ,muratorian canon4 ,it scarcely needs1 however1 any external testimony4 ,the identity of its author with that of the fourth gospel is so manifest from its whole tone and style1 that it has been always conceded that if one of these writings came from the pen of the apostle ,john1 the other did also4 ,the testimony of ,papias to these two epistles1 though indirect1 is conclusive4 ,eusebius says1 ,hist4 ,eccl4 #c4 #ci1 ,the same ,papias has employed testimonies from the first epistle of ,john1 and in like manner of ,peter4 ,polycarp says1 ,epistle to the ,philippians1 ch4 #g1 ,for every one who confesseth not that ,jesus ,christ is come in the flesh1 is anti-,christ1 with evident reference to #a ,john #d3c4 ,eusebius says also1 ,hist4 ,eccl4 #d4 #ad1 that in the same epistle to the ,philippians ,polycarp has employed certain testimonies from the first epistle of ,peter2 and when we examine the epistle we find several certain references to it1 among which are the following3 ,in whom1 though ye see him not1 ye believe2 and believing1 ye rejoice with joy unspeakable1 and full of glory4 ,chap4 #a compared with #a ,pet4 #a3h4 ,believing in him who raised up our ,lord ,jesus ,christ from the dead1 and gave him glory1 and a seat at his right hand4 ,chap4 #b compared with #a ,pet4 #a3ba4 #i4 ,the relation of the gospel history to the writings now under consideration--the book of ,acts and the apostolic epistles--is of the most intimate and weighty character4 ,the truth of the earlier narratives contained in the gospels implies the truth of these later works2 for1 as already remarked1 they are the natural sequel of the events there recorded4 ,on the other hand1 the truth of these later writings implies the truth of the gospel history2 for in that history they find their full explanation1 and without it they are1 and must ever remain1 inexplicable4 ,all the parts of the ,new ,testament constitute one inseparable whole1 and they all shed light upon each other4 ,like a chain of fortresses in war1 they mutually command each other4 ,unless the whole can be overthrown1 no one part can be successfully assailed4 ,but to overthrow the whole is beyond the power of man2 for ,god has guarded it on every side by impregnable bulwarks of evidence4 #aj4 ,a special argument for the truth of the ,scripture history of the apostle ,paul may be drawn from the numerous undesigned coincidences between the events recorded in the book of ,acts and those referred to in the epistles4 ,this work has been accomplished with great ability and skill by ,paley in his ,horae ,paulinae1 to which the reader is referred4 ,the argument is very conclusive2 for when we consider the particularity of ,st4 ,paul's epistles1 the perpetual recurrence of names of persons and places1 the frequent allusions to the incidents of his private life1 and the circumstances of his condition and history1 and the connection and parallelism of these with the same circumstances in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 so as to enable us1 for the most part1 to confront them one with another1 we must be satisfied that the truth of the history can alone explain such a multitude of coincidences1 many of them of a minute character1 and all of them manifestly undesigned4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,disputed ,,books4 ,the grounds on which each of the disputed books--,antilegomena1 chap4 #e1 ,no4 #f--;is received into the canon of the ,new ,testament1 will be considered in the introduction to these books4 ,in the present chapter some general suggestions will be made which apply to them as a whole4 #a4 ,this is not a question concerning the truth of ,christianity1 but concerning the extent of the canon2 a distinction which is of the highest importance4 ,some persons1 when they learn that doubts existed in the early churches1 to a greater or less extent1 respecting certain books of the ,new ,testament1 are troubled in mind1 as if a shade of uncertainty were thereby cast over the whole collection of books4 ,but this is a very erroneous view of the matter4 ,the books of the ,new ,testament1 like those of the ,old1 were written one after another1 as occasion required2 and the churches received each of them separately on the evidence they had of its apostolic origin and authority4 ,at length collections of these books1 that is1 canons1 began to be formed4 ,such collections translators would of necessity make1 unless they found them ready at hand4 ,the earliest canons of which we have any knowledge are contained in the old ,latin version1 the ,syriac version called ,peshito1 and the ,muratorian canon2 each of which represented the prevailing judgment of the churches in the region where it was formed4 ,as this judgment differed in the different provinces of ,christendom in respect to the books in question1 so also do these canons4 ,the ,peshito contains the epistle to the ,hebrews and that of ,james1 but omits the other five books4 ,the ,muratorian canon omits the epistle to the ,hebrews1 the epistle of ,james1 and the second epistle of ,peter2 but contains the epistle of ,jude1 the book of ,revelation1 and apparently also the second and third of ,john1 though in respect to them its language is obscure and of doubtful interpretation4 ,the old ,latin version1 so far as we can judge from the quotations of the church fathers1 agreed in general with the ,muratorian canon4 ,it contained1 however1 the epistle of ,james1 7,codex ,corbeiensis1 ff17 and that to the ,hebrews2 and if1 as has been supposed1 this latter was a later addition1 it was yet earlier than the time of ,tertullian4 ,see ,westcott on the ,canon1 pp4 #bhb1 #bhc4 ,now this diversity of judgment with regard to particular books does not affect in the least the remaining books of the ,new ,testament1 which are sustained by the authority of all the above-named witnesses1 as well as by the undivided testimony of the ancient churches4 ,did the ,new ,testament claim to be the work of a single author1 the case would be different4 ,we should then have but one witness2 and if certain parts of his testimony could be successfully assailed1 this would throw a measure of suspicion on the whole4 ,but now we have in the separate books of the ,new ,testament a large number of witnesses1 most of whom are entirely independent of each other4 ,doubts respecting the testimony of one do not affect that of another4 ,we receive the seven books in question as a part of ,god's revelation on grounds which we judge adequate1 as will be shown in the introductions to the several books4 ,but if any one feels under the necessity of suspending his judgment with respect to one or more of these books1 let him follow the teachings of the other books1 which are above all doubt4 ,he will find in them all the truth essential to the salvation of his soul2 and he will then be in a position calmly to investigate the evidence for the canonical authority of the so-called disputed books4 #b4 ,the diversity of judgment which prevailed in the early churches in respect to certain books of the ,new ,testament1 is in harmony with all that we know of their character and spirit4 ,it was an age of free inquiry4 ,general councils were not then known1 nor was there any central power to impose its decisions on all the churches4 ,in the essential doctrines of the gospel there was everywhere an agreement1 especially in receiving the writings acknowledged to be apostolic1 as the supreme rule of faith and practice4 ,but this did not exclude differences on minor points in the different provinces of ,christendom2 and with respect to these the churches of each particular region were tenacious then1 as they have been in all ages since1 of their peculiar opinions and practices4 ,it is well known1 for example1 that the churches of ,asia ,minor differed from those of ,rome in the last half of the second century respecting the day on which the ,christian festival of the ,passover1 with the communion service connected with it1 should be celebrated2 the former placing it on the fourteenth of the month ,nisan1 the latter on the anniversary of the resurrection ,sunday4 ,nor could the conference between ,polycarp1 bishop of ,smyrna in ,asia ,minor1 and ,anicetus1 bishop of ,rome1 about ,a4,d4 #afb1 avail to change the usage of either party1 though it did not at that time break the bond of brotherhood between them4 ,we need not be surprised therefore to find a like diversity in different regions respecting certain books of the ,new ,testament4 ,the unanimous belief of the ,eastern and ,alexandrine churches ascribed to ,paul the authorship of the epistle to the ,hebrews2 but in the ,western churches its ,pauline authorship was not generally admitted till the fourth century4 ,the ,apocalypse1 on the contrary1 found most favor with the ,western or ,latin churches4 ,it has in its favor the testimony of the ,muratorian canon1 which is of ,latin origin1 and also--as appears from the citations contained in the commentaries of ,primasius--that of the old ,latin version4 ,other examples see above1 ,no4 #a4 #c4 ,although we cannot account for the universal and undisputed reception of the acknowledged books by all the churches1 except on the assumption of their genuineness1 the non-reception of a given book by some of the early churches is no conclusive argument against its apostolic origin4 ,from the influence of circumstances unknown to us1 it may have remained for a considerable period of time in comparative obscurity4 ,we have good ground for believing that some apostolic writings are utterly lost4 ,to deny the possibility of this would be to prejudge the wisdom of ,god4 ,as the apostles delivered many inspired discourses which it did not please the ,holy ,ghost to have recorded1 so they may have written letters which he did not judge needful to make the sacred volume complete4 ,the question is one of fact1 not of theory4 ,the most obvious interpretation of #a ,cor4 #e3i and ,col4 #d3af is that ,paul refers in each case to an epistle which has not come down to us4 ,and if an inspired epistle might be lost1 much more might the knowledge and use of it be restricted for a time to a narrow circle of churches4 ,when such an epistle--for example1 the second of ,peter--began to be more extensively known1 the general reception and use of it would be a slow process1 not only from the difficulty of communication in ancient as compared with modern times1 but also from the slowness with which the churches of one region received any thing new from those of other regions4 ,then again1 if a book were known1 there might be in some regions hesitancy in respect to receiving it1 from doubts in regard to its author1 as in the case of the epistle to the ,hebrews and the ,apocalypse2 or from the peculiarity of its contents also1 as in the case of the latter book4 ,in the influence of causes like the above named1 we find a reasonable explanation of the fact that some books1 which the mature judgment of the churches received into the canon of the ,new ,testament1 did not find at first a universal reception4 #d4 ,in the caution and hesitation of the early churches with respect to the books in question1 we have satisfactory evidence that1 in settling the canon of the ,new ,testament1 they acted with great deliberation and conscientiousness1 their rule being that no book should be received whose apostolic origin could not be established on solid grounds4 ,did the early history of the ,christian church present no such phenomenon as that of the distinction between acknowledged and disputed books1 we might naturally infer that all books that professed to have emanated from the apostles1 or to have had their sanction1 were received without discrimination4 ,but now the mature and final judgment of the churches is entitled to great consideration4 ,this judgment1 let it be remembered1 was not affirmative only1 but also negative4 ,while it admitted to the canon the seven books now under consideration1 it excluded others which were highly valued and publicly read in many of the churches4 ,on this ground it is entitled to still higher regard4 ,it is not1 however1 of binding authority1 for it is not the decision of inspired men4 ,we have a right to go behind it1 and to examine the facts on which it is based1 so far as they can be ascertained from existing documents4 ,but this work belongs to the introduction to the several books4 ,three books alone obtained a partial ecclesiastical currency1 through which they were not clearly separated at first from the disputed writings of the ,new ,testament4 ,westcott on the ,canon1 ,appendix ,b1 p4 #eej4 ,this was on the ground that they were written1 or supposed to be written1 by the immediate successors of the apostles4 ,the oldest known codex of the ,bible is the ,sinaitic1 discovered at mount ,sinai by ,tischendorf in #ahei1 and which belongs to the fourth century4 ,this contains the whole of the epistle of ,barnabas1 and the first part of the work called the ,shepherd of ,hermas4 ,the ,alexandrine codex1 belonging to the fifth century1 has appended to it the first epistle of ,clement of ,rome to the ,corinthians1 the genuineness of which is admitted1 and also a portion of the second or apocryphal epistle1 the remainder of it being lost4 ,the explanation is1 that these three books were read in some at least of the churches when these codices were formed4 ,but they never obtained any permanent authority as canonical writings1 and were excluded from the ,new ,testament by every council of the churches1 catholic or schismatic4 ,tertullian1 as quoted by ,westcott1 p4 #eea4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,inspiration ,,and ,,the ,,canon ,by the word inspiration1 when used in a theological sense1 we understand such an illumination and guidance of the ,holy ,spirit as raises a speaker or writer above error1 and thus gives to his teachings a divine authority4 ,if we attempt to investigate the interior nature of this superhuman influence1 its different degrees and modes of operation1 and the relation which the human mind holds to the divine in the case of those who receive it1 we find ourselves involved in many difficulties1 some of which at least are to our finite minds insuperable4 ,but if we look at it from a practical point of view1 restricting our inquiries to the end proposed by ,god in inspiration1 which is to furnish his church with an infallible and sufficient rule of faith and practice1 we find no difficulty in understanding the subject so far as our duty and welfare are concerned4 ,from such a practical position the question of inspiration will now be discussed2 and the inquiry will be1 at present1 restricted to the writings of the ,new ,testament4 ,in connection with this discussion will also be considered the subject of the canon1 not in its particular extent1 but in the principle upon which it is formed4 #a4 ,it is necessary1 first of all1 to find a sure rule by which we can try the claims of a given book to be inspired1 and consequently to be admitted into the canon of the ,new ,testament4 ,it cannot be simply the writer's own declaration4 ,it will be shown hereafter that1 in connection with other evidence1 his testimony concerning himself is of the highest importance4 ,but the point now is1 that no man's inspiration is to be acknowledged simply on his own word4 ,nor can we decide simply from the contents of the book4 ,very important indeed is the question concerning the contents of any book which claims to be a revelation from ,god4 ,yet we cannot take the naked ground that a given book is inspired because its contents are of a given character4 ,this would be virtually to set up our own reason as the supreme arbiter of divine truth1 which is the very position of rationalism4 ,nor can we receive a book as inspired on the so-called authority of the church1 whether this mean the authority of a man who claims to be its infallible head1 or the authority of a general council of the churches4 ,admitting for a moment the ,romish doctrine of the infallibility of the church1 we could know this infallibility not from the declaration of any man or body of men in the church1 but from ,scripture alone4 ,but this is assuming at the outset the infallibility of ,scripture1 and therefore its inspiration1 which is the very point at issue4 ,looking at the question on all sides1 we shall find for a given book of the ,new ,testament no valid test of the writer's inspiration except his relation to the ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,this presupposes our ,lord's divine mission and character1 and his supreme authority in the church4 ,it is necessary therefore to begin with the great central fact of the gospel1 that ,jesus of ,nazareth is the ,son of ,god1 and that through him ,god has made to men a revelation of his own character and will for their salvation4 ,this fact is to be first established according to the ordinary rules of human evidence1 as has been attempted in the preceding chapters4 ,after that we come naturally to the inspiration of the record1 and can establish it also on a sure foundation4 #b4 ,the great fundamental truth that ,jesus is the ,son of ,god1 who dwelt from eternity with the ,father1 knew all his counsels1 and was sent by him to this fallen world on a mission of love and mercy1 being established on an immovable foundation1 we have a sure point of departure from which to proceed in our inquiries respecting inspiration4 ,it becomes at once a self-evident proposition--the great axiom of ,christianity1 we may call it--that the teaching of ,jesus ,christ1 when he was on earth1 was truth unmixed with error4 ,this he himself asserted in the most explicit terms3 ,the ,father loveth the ,son1 and showeth him all things that himself doeth4 ,john #e3bj4 ,i am the light of the world3 he that followeth me shall not walk in darkness1 but shall have the light of life4 ,john #h3ab4 ,he that sent me is true2 and ,i speak to the world those things which ,i have heard of him4 ,john #h3bf4 ,i have not spoken of myself2 but the ,father which sent me1 he gave me a commandment1 what ,i should say1 and what ,i should speak4 ,and ,i know that his commandment is life everlasting3 whatsoever ,i speak therefore1 even as the ,father said unto me1 so ,i speak4 ,john #ab3di1 #ej4 ,proceeding then from the position of our ,lord's infallibility1 let us inquire whether any of his disciples1 and if so1 who among them1 were divinely qualified to teach1 and consequently to record1 without error1 the facts and doctrines of his gospel4 ,there are but two grades of relationship to ,christ with which we can connect such a high endowment3 that of apostles1 and that of their companions and fellow-laborers4 ,let us consider each of these in order4 #c4 ,early in our ,lord's ministry he chose twelve apostles1 that they should be with him1 and that he might send them forth to preach1 and to have power to heal sicknesses1 and to cast out devils4 ,mark #c3ad1 #ae4 ,in this brief notice we have all the distinguishing marks of an apostle4 ,he was chosen that he might be with ,christ from the beginning1 and thus be to the people an eye-witness of his whole public life4 ,when an apostle was to be chosen in the place of ,judas1 ,peter laid particular stress on this qualification3 ,wherefore of these men which have companied with us all the time that the ,lord ,jesus went in and out among us1 beginning from the baptism of ,john1 unto that same day that he was taken up from us1 must one be ordained to be a witness with us of his resurrection4 ,acts #a3ba1 #bb4 ,in the case of ,paul alone was this condition of apostleship wanting2 and this want was made up to him by the special revelation of ,jesus ,christ4 ,gal4 #a3aa1 #ab4 ,an apostle1 again1 was one who received his commission to preach immediately from the ,saviour1 a qualification which ,paul strenuously asserted in his own behalf3 ,paul an apostle1 not of men1 neither by man1 but by ,jesus ,christ1 and ,god the ,father1 who raised him from the dead4 ,gal4 #a3a4 ,an apostle1 once more1 was one who received directly from ,christ the power of working miracles4 ,this was the seal of his apostleship before the world4 ,in the three particulars that have been named the apostles held to ,christ the nearest possible relation1 and were by this relation distinguished from all other men4 ,have we evidence that they were divinely qualified1 through the indwelling of the ,holy ,spirit1 to preach and record the facts and doctrines of the gospel without error8 ,that they must have been thus qualified1 we have1 in the first place1 a strong presumption from the necessity of the case4 ,though our ,lord finished the work which the ,father gave him to do on earth1 he did not finish the revelation of his gospel4 ,on the contrary1 he said to his disciples just before his crucifixion1 ,i have yet many things to say unto you1 but ye cannot bear them now4 ,howbeit when he1 the ,spirit of truth is come1 he will guide you into all truth4 ,john #af3ab1 #ac4 ,let us look at some of these things which were reserved for future revelation4 ,the purely spiritual nature of ,christ's kingdom was not understood by the apostles till after the day of ,pentecost1 for we find them asking1 just before his ascension1 ,lord1 wilt thou at this time restore the kingdom to ,israel8 a question which he did not answer1 but referred them to the promised gift of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,acts #a3f-h4 ,another of the things which they could not bear was the abolition1 through ,christ's propitiatory sacrifice1 of the ,mosaic law1 and with it1 of the middle wall of partition between ,jews and ,gentiles4 ,this great truth was reserved to be revealed practically in the progress of the gospel1 as recorded in the book of ,acts1 and doctrinally in the epistles of ,paul4 ,then what a rich unfolding we have in the apostolic epistles of the meaning of our ,lord's death on ,calvary1 and in connection with this1 of the doctrine of justification by faith--faith not simply in ,christ1 but in ,christ crucified4 ,faith in ,christ's person the disciples had before his death2 but faith in him as crucified for the sins of the world they could not have till after his resurrection and exaltation to the right hand of ,god4 ,the abovenamed truths--not to specify others1 as1 for example1 what ,paul says of the resurrection1 #a ,cor41 ch4 #ae2 #a4 ,thess4 #d3ac-ah--;enter into the very substance of the gospel4 ,they are1 in fact1 integral parts of it4 ,can we suppose that our ,lord began the revelation of his gospel by his own infallible wisdom1 and then left it to be completed by the fallible wisdom of men8 ,if ,augustine and ,jerome in the latter period of the ,roman empire1 if ,anselm and ,bernard in the middle ages1 if ,luther and ,calvin at the era of the ,reformation1 if ,wesley and ,edwards in later days1 commit errors1 the mischief is comparatively small2 for1 upon the supposition that the apostles were qualified by the ,holy ,ghost to teach and write without error1 we have in their writings an infallible standard by which to try the doctrines of later uninspired men4 ,but if the apostles whom ,christ himself appointed to finish the revelation which he had begun1 and whom he endowed with miraculous powers1 as the seal of their commission1 had been left without a sure guarantee against error1 then there would be no standard of truth to which the church in later ages could appeal4 ,no man who believes that ,jesus is the ,son of ,god1 and that he came into the world to make to men a perfect revelation of the way of life1 can admit such an absurd supposition4 ,in the second place1 we have ,christ's express promises to his apostles that they should be divinely qualified for their work through the gift of the ,holy ,ghost3 ,but when they deliver you up1 take no thought--be not solicitous1 as the original signifies--how or what ye shall speak1 for it shall be given you in that same hour what ye shall speak4 ,for it is not ye that speak1 but the ,spirit of your ,father which speaketh in you4 ,matt4 #aj3ai1 #bj4 ,but when they shall lead you1 and deliver you up1 take no thought beforehand what ye shall speak1 neither do ye premeditate3 but whatsoever shall be given you in that hour1 that speak ye3 for it is not ye that speak1 but the ,holy ,ghost4 ,mark #ac3aa4 ,and when they bring you unto the synagogues1 and unto magistrates1 and powers1 take ye no thought how or what thing ye shall answer1 or what ye shall say3 for the ,holy ,ghost shall teach you in the same hour what ye ought to say4 ,luke #ab3aa1 #ab4 ,settle it therefore in your hearts not to meditate before what ye shall answer3 for ,i will give you a mouth and wisdom1 which all your adversaries shall not be able to gainsay nor resist4 ,luke #ba3ad1 #ae4 ,the above promises are perfectly explicit2 and although they refer primarily to a particular emergency1 in which the apostles would especially feel their need of divine guidance1 they cover1 in their spirit1 all other emergencies4 ,we cannot read them without the conviction that they contain the promise to the apostles of all needed help and guidance in the work committed to them4 ,if they were divinely qualified to defend the gospel before their adversaries without error--,i will give you a mouth and wisdom which all your adversaries shall not be able to gainsay nor resist--so were they also to record the facts of the gospel1 and to unfold in their epistles its doctrines4 ,the promises recorded in the gospel of ,john are more general and comprehensive in their character4 ,it will be sufficient to adduce two of them3 ,these things have ,i spoken unto you being yet present with you4 ,but the ,comforter1 which is the ,holy ,ghost1 whom the ,father will send in my name1 he shall teach you all things1 and bring all things to your remembrance1 whatsoever ,i have said unto you4 ,john #ad3be1 #bf4 ,i have yet many things to say unto you1 but ye cannot bear them now4 ,howbeit when he1 the ,spirit of truth1 is come1 he will guide you into all truth3 for he shall not speak of himself2 but whatsoever he shall hear1 that shall he speak3 and he will show you things to come4 ,he shall glorify me3 for he shall receive of mine1 and shall show it unto you4 ,all things that the ,father hath are mine3 therefore said ,i that he shall take of mine1 and shall show it unto you4 ,john #af3ab-ae4 ,in the former of these passages the special promise is that the ,holy ,spirit shall bring to the remembrance of the apostles and unfold to their understanding all ,christ's personal teachings2 so that they shall thus have a fuller apprehension of their meaning than they could while he was yet with them4 ,the second promise is introduced with the declaration that the ,saviour has yet many things to say to his apostles which they cannot now bear4 ,of course these things are reserved for the ministration of the ,spirit1 as he immediately proceeds to show3 ,when he1 the ,spirit of truth1 is come1 he will guide you into all truth4 ,the ,spirit shall glorify ,christ2 for he shall take of the things which are ,christ's1 and reveal them to the apostles4 ,and what are the things which are ,christ's8 ,all that the ,father hath2 for the ,father has given all things into the hands of the ,son4 ,john #ac3c4 ,among these all things are included all the ,father's counsels pertaining to the way of salvation through the ,son4 ,these are given to the ,son2 and the ,holy ,ghost shall take of them and reveal to the church1 through the apostles1 as much as it is needful for the church to know4 ,in these remarkable words we have at once a proof of our ,lord's deity1 and a sure guarantee to the apostles of supernatural illumination and guidance in the work committed to them--all the illumination and guidance which they needed1 that they might be qualified to finish without error the revelation of the gospel which ,christ had begun4 ,the question is often asked3 ,were these promises given to the apostles alone1 or through them to the church at large8 ,the answer is at hand4 ,they were given primarily and in a special sense to the apostles2 for they had reference to a special work committed to them1 which required for its performance special divine illumination and guidance4 ,they were also given1 in an important sense1 to the church at large2 since all believers enjoy1 through the teaching of the apostles1 the benefit of these revelations of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,they are not1 however1 made to all believers personally2 but were given1 once for all1 through the apostles to the church4 ,the gift of the ,holy ,spirit is indeed made to all believers personally3 through his enlightening and sanctifying power they have all needed help and guidance4 ,but they are not called1 as were the apostles1 to lay the foundations of the ,christian faith1 and have therefore no promise of new revelations from the ,spirit or of elevation above all error1 any more than they have of miraculous gifts4 ,we are now prepared to consider1 in the third place1 the claims which the apostles themselves made to speak and write with divine authority4 ,although their simple word as men could avail nothing1 yet this same word1 taken in connection with their known relation to ,christ1 with the work committed to them1 and with the promises made to them1 is of the most weighty import4 ,it was not indeed their custom to assert gratuitously their superhuman guidance and authority4 ,yet when occasions arose1 from the nature of the subject under discussion1 or from the opposition of false teachers1 they did so in unambiguous terms4 ,thus the apostle ,paul1 writing to the ,corinthians1 says1 ,now we have received not the spirit of the world1 but the ,spirit which is of ,god2 that we might know the things that are freely given to us of ,god4 ,which things also we speak1 not in the words which man's wisdom teacheth1 but which the ,holy ,ghost teacheth2 comparing spiritual things with spiritual1 #a ,cor4 #b3ab1 #ac3 and writing to the ,thessalonians concerning the resurrection1 ,for this we say unto you by the word of the ,lord1 that we which are alive and remain unto the coming of the ,lord shall not prevent them which are asleep1 etc4 #a ,thess4 #d3ae4 ,and again1 in writing to the ,galatians1 among whom his apostolic standing had been called in question by certain ,judaizing teachers1 he says1 ,i certify you1 brethren1 that the gospel which was preached of me is not after man3 for ,i neither received it of man1 neither was ,i taught it1 but by the revelation of ,jesus ,christ4 ,gal4 #a3aa1 #ab4 ,this language is explicit enough4 ,it could have been used only by one who was conscious of having been divinely qualified to teach the gospel without error4 ,accordingly1 in the same epistle1 he opposes his apostolic authority to these false teachers3 ,behold1 ,i ,paul say unto you1 that if ye be circumcised ,christ shall profit you nothing4 ,gal4 #e3b4 ,in the memorable letter of the apostles and elders to the ,gentile churches1 ,acts #ae3bc-bi1 they say1 ,it seemed good to the ,holy ,ghost and to us1 to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things4 ,to the ,holy ,ghost and to us can mean only1 to us under the guidance of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,besides such explicit assertions as the above1 there is a tone of authority running through the apostolic writings which can be explained only from their claim to speak with divine authority4 ,they assert the weightiest truths and make the weightiest revelations concerning the future1 as men who know that they have a right to be implicitly believed and obeyed4 ,what majesty of authority1 for example1 shines through ,paul's discussion of the doctrine of the resurrection1 #a ,cor41 ch4 #ae1 where he announces truths that lie wholly beyond the ken of human reason4 ,behold1 says he1 ,i show you a mystery2 we shall not all sleep1 but we shall all be changed1 as one who has perfect assurance that he speaks from ,god4 ,the same tone of certainty runs through all the remarks which the apostle ,john interweaves into his gospel1 as well as through his epistles1 and through the other apostolic writings4 ,to sum up in a single sentence what has been said respecting the apostles3 ,when we consider the strong presumption1 arising from the necessity of the case1 that they must have been divinely qualified to teach and write without error1 the explicit promises of ,christ that they should be thus qualified1 and their explicit claims under these promises1 we have full evidence that they wrote1 as well as spoke1 under the inspiration of the ,holy ,ghost1 and consequently that their writings are of divine authority4 #d4 ,in the second grade of relationship to ,christ stand men who1 like ,mark and ,luke1 were not themselves apostles1 but were the companions of apostles1 and their associates in the work of preaching the gospel4 ,we are not authorized to place them in the same rank with the apostles4 ,yet they had the gift of the ,holy ,spirit1 which was always given in connection with ordination at the hands of the apostles4 ,if1 in addition to this1 their connection with some of the apostles was of such an intimate nature that we cannot suppose them to have written without their knowledge and approbation1 we have for their writings all the apostolic authority that is needed4 ,the intimate relation of ,luke to the apostle ,paul has been already sufficiently shown4 ,we have good ground for believing that he was with him when he wrote both the gospel and the book of ,acts4 ,the intimate connection of ,mark with the apostle ,peter is shown by the unanimous testimony of the primitive churches1 and is confirmed1 moreover1 by an examination of the peculiarities of his gospel4 ,in entire harmony with the position of these two evangelists is the character of their writings4 ,they never assume the office of independent teachers1 but restrict themselves to a careful record of the works and words of ,christ and his apostles4 #e4 ,a final argument for the inspiration of the books of the ,new ,testament1 whether written by apostles or their companions1 may be drawn from their general character1 as contrasted with that of the writings which remain to us from the age next succeeding that of the apostles4 ,the more one studies the two classes of writings in connection1 the deeper will be his conviction of the distance by which they are separated from each other4 ,the descent from the majesty and power of the apostolic writings to the best of those which belong to the following age is sudden and very great4 ,only by a slow process did ,christian literature afterwards rise to a higher position through the leavening influence of the gospel upon ,christian society1 and especially upon ,christian education4 ,the contrast now under consideration is particularly important in our judgment of those books which1 like the second epistle of ,peter1 are sustained by a less amount of external evidence4 ,though we cannot decide on the inspiration of a book simply from the character of its contents1 we may be helped in our judgment by comparing these1 on the one hand1 with writings acknowledged to be apostolic1 and on the other1 with writings which we know to be of the following age4 #f4 ,the inspiration of the sacred writers was plenary in the sense that they received from the ,holy ,spirit all the illumination and guidance which they needed to preserve them from error in the work committed to them4 ,with regard to the degree and mode of this influence in the case of different books1 it is not necessary to raise any abstract questions4 ,that ,paul might make to the ,galatians a statement of his visits to ,jerusalem and the discussions connected with them1 ,galatians1 chaps4 #a1 #b1 or might give an account of his conversion before king ,agrippa1 ,acts1 ch4 #bf1 it was not necessary that he should receive the same kind and measure of divine help as when he unfolded to the ,corinthians the doctrine of the resurrection1 #a ,cor41 ch4 #ae4 ,and so in regard to the other inspired penmen4 ,whatever assistance each of them needed1 he received4 ,if his judgment needed divine illumination for the selection of his materials1 it was given him4 ,if he needed to be raised above narrowness and prejudice1 or to have the ,saviour's instructions unfolded to his understanding1 or to receive new revelations concerning the way of salvation or the future history of ,christ's kingdom--whatever divine aid was necessary in all these cases1 was granted4 ,thus the books of the ,new ,testament1 being written under the guidance of the ,holy ,ghost1 become to the ,christian church an infallible rule of faith and practice4 ,if there be any limitation connected with the inspiration of the sacred writers1 it is one of which the ,holy ,spirit is himself the author1 and which cannot therefore injuriously affect their testimony4 ,it did not please ,god1 for example1 that the exact order of time should always be kept in the gospel narratives2 nor that the identical forms of expression employed by the ,saviour on given occasions should always be preserved2 nor that the accompanying circumstances should in all cases be fully stated2 for in all these respects the evangelists frequently differ among themselves4 ,had the wisdom of ,god judged it best1 minute accuracy in these particulars might have been secured4 ,but the result would probably have been injurious1 by leading men to exalt the letter above the spirit of the gospel4 ,we should be glad to know with certainty which1 if any1 of the different ways that have been proposed for reconciling ,john's narrative with those of the other evangelists in respect to the day of the month on which our ,lord ate his last passover with his disciples1 is the true one4 ,it would give us pleasure were we able to arrange all the incidents connected with our ,lord's resurrection1 as recorded by the four evangelists1 in the exact order of their occurrence4 ,had we a full record of all the circumstances pertaining to these two transactions1 this might be accomplished4 ,but it would not make any essential addition to our knowledge of the gospel4 ,we should have1 in every jot and tittle1 the same way of salvation that we have now1 and the same duties in respect to it4 ,to all who1 on grounds like these1 find difficulty with the doctrine of plenary inspiration1 we may say1 in the words of the apostle1 ,brethren1 be not children in understanding2 howbeit1 in malice be ye children1 but in understanding be men4 #g4 ,the extent of the canon is determined by the extent of inspiration4 ,the question to be settled respecting each book of the ,new ,testament is1 ,was it written under the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit8 or1 which amounts to the same thing1 ,has it apostolic authority8 ,if it has1 it is to be received2 if not1 it is to be rejected4 ,there is no middle ground--no division of the canon into books of primary and of secondary authority4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,inseparable ,,connection ,,between ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,although the great central truth of redemption1 that the ,father sent the ,son to be the ,saviour of the world1 and that we have in the ,new ,testament a true record of this mission1 rests1 as has been shown1 upon an immovable foundation1 we have as yet seen the argument in only half its strength4 ,not until we consider the advent of ,christ in connection with the bright train of revelations that preceded and prepared the way for his coming1 do we see it in its full glory1 or comprehend the amount of divine testimony by which it is certified to us4 ,we have already seen1 chap4 #e4 #a1 how the events recorded in the ,acts of the ,apostles follow1 as a natural sequel1 from the truth of the gospel history2 how1 if we admit the former1 we ought1 for very consistency1 to admit the latter also1 since the two cling together as inseparable parts of one great plan4 ,it is now proposed to look backward from the ,saviour's advent to the preceding series of revelations1 and show how naturally in the plan of ,god they preceded that great event1 and how inseparably they were connected with it as parts of one great whole4 #a4 ,the supernatural mission of ,christ furnishes1 in and of itself1 a very strong presumption in favor of previous supernatural revelations4 ,that such a mighty event as this should have burst upon the world abruptly1 without any previous preparation1 is contrary to the whole order of providence as well as of nature1 which is1 first the blade1 then the ear1 after that the full corn in the ear4 ,and since the advent of ,christ was miraculous in the fullest sense of the term1 why should not the way for it have been prepared by miraculous revelations as well as by providential movements8 ,the natural sun does not emerge suddenly from the darkness of night3 his approach is preceded by the day-star and the dawn4 ,so were the revelations which ,god made to men from ,adam to ,malachi1 with the mighty movements of his providence that accompanied them1 the day-star and the dawn that ushered in upon the world the glorious sun of righteousness4 #b4 ,we have the great fact that the ,jewish people1 among whom our ,lord appeared1 and from among whom he chose the primitive preachers of the gospel1 possessed a firm and deeply-rooted belief in the unity of ,god and his infinite perfections4 ,that such a belief was a necessary foundation for the peculiar doctrines of ,christianity1 all of which are underlaid by that of trinity in unity1 is self-evident4 ,now1 this belief was peculiar to the ,jews1 as contrasted with other nations2 and it was held1 moreover1 not simply by a few philosophers and learned men among them1 but by the mass of the people4 ,no other example of a whole nation receiving and holding firmly this fundamental doctrine of religion existed then1 or had ever existed2 and no adequate explanation of this great fact has ever been given1 except that contained in the revelation of ,god to this people recorded in the ,old ,testament4 ,it was not by chance1 but in accordance with the eternal plan of redemption1 that the ,messiah appeared where as well as when he did2 not in ,egypt in the days of ,pharaoh1 nor in ,nineveh1 or ,babylon1 or ,greece1 or ,rome2 but among the ,jewish people1 when now the fulness of time was come4 #c4 ,the impossibility of any attempt to dissever the revelations of the ,old ,testament from those of the ,new appears most clearly when we consider the explicit declarations of our ,saviour1 and after him the apostles1 on this point4 ,if we know any thing whatever concerning the doctrines of our ,lord ,jesus1 we know that he constantly taught his disciples that he had come in accordance with the prophecies of the ,old ,testament4 ,if there were found in his discourses only one or two remote allusions to these prophecies1 there would be more show of reason in the favorite hypothesis of rationalists1 that the disciples misapprehended their ,lord's meaning4 ,but his teachings are so numerous and explicit on this point that1 even aside from the inspiration of the writers1 such an explanation is not to be thought of for a moment4 ,it was with two of them a matter of personal knowledge that beginning at ,moses and all the prophets1 he expounded unto them in all the ,scriptures the things concerning himself1 ,luke #bd3bg2 and with all of them that he said1 after his resurrection1 in reference to his past teachings3 ,these are the words which ,i spake unto you1 while ,i was yet with you1 that all things must be fulfilled which were written in the law of ,moses1 and in the prophets1 and in the psalms concerning me4 ,luke #bd3dd4 ,that in ,christ were fulfilled the prophecies of the ,old ,testament1 appears in every variety of form in the gospel narratives4 ,it constituted1 so to speak1 the warp into which the ,saviour wove his web of daily instruction4 ,now if a single thread1 unlike all the rest in substance and color1 had found its way into this warp1 we might1 perhaps1 regard it as foreign and accidental2 but to dissever from our ,lord's words all his references to the prophecies concerning himself in the ,old ,testament1 would be to take out of the web all the threads of the warp1 and then the web itself would be gone4 ,no unbiased reader ever did1 or ever could gain from the words of ,christ and his apostles any other idea than that ,jesus of ,nazareth came in accordance with a bright train of supernatural revelations going before and preparing the way for his advent4 ,this idea is so incorporated into the very substance of the ,new ,testament that it must stand or fall with it4 #d4 ,having contemplated the indivisible nature of revelation from the position of the ,new ,testament1 we are now prepared to go back and look at it from the platform of the ,old ,testament4 ,we shall find this thickly sown with those great principles which underlie the plan of redemption1 and bind it together as one glorious whole4 ,first of all1 we have in the narrative of ,adam's fall and the consequences thence proceeding to the race1 the substratum1 so to speak1 on which the plan of redemption is built4 ,from this we learn that alienation from ,god and wickedness is not the original condition of the race4 ,man was made upright and placed in communion with ,god4 ,from that condition he fell1 in the manner recorded in the ,old ,testament2 and to restore him1 through ,christ1 to his primitive state is the work which the gospel proposes to accomplish4 ,the great historic event of redemption is that the ,son of ,god was manifested that he might destroy the works of the devil2 and these are the very works described in the narrative now under consideration1 namely1 the seduction of man from his allegiance to ,god1 with the misery and death that followed4 ,the primitive history of man's apostacy contains1 then1 the very key to the plan of redemption4 ,so it is plainly regarded by the apostle ,paul4 ,he builds upon it arguments relating not to the outworks of redemption1 but to its inward nature4 ,he makes the universality of man's fallen condition through the sin of ,adam the platform on which is built the universality of the provisions of salvation through ,christ4 ,as by the offence of one judgment came upon all men to condemnation1 even so by the righteousness of one the free gift came upon all men unto justification4 ,for as by one man's disobedience many were made sinners1 so by the obedience of one shall many be made righteous4 ,rom4 #e3ah1 #ai4 ,since by man came death1 by man came also the resurrection of the dead4 ,for as in ,adam all die1 even so in ,christ shall all be made alive4 #a ,cor4 #ae3ba1 #bb4 ,how could the original transaction of the fall1 through the wiles of the devil1 and the manifestation of ,god's ,son to destroy the works of the devil1 be more indissolubly bound together as parts of one great whole than in these words of an inspired apostle8 ,secondly1 the ,abrahamic covenant connects itself immediately with the mission and work of ,christ4 ,it was made with ,abraham1 not for himself and his posterity alone1 but for all mankind3 ,in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed4 ,gen4 #bb3ah4 ,and if the ,abrahamic covenant had respect to the whole human family1 the same must be true of the ,mosaic economy in its ultimate design2 since this did not abrogate the covenant made with ,abraham1 as the apostle ,paul expressly shows1 ,gal4 #c3ag1 but rather came in as subordinate to it1 and with a view of preparing the way for the accomplishment of its rich provisions of mercy for all families of the earth4 ,the ,mosaic economy was then a partial subservient to a universal dispensation4 ,the ,abrahamic covenant was also purely spiritual in its character1 the condition of its blessings being nothing else than faith4 ,the apostle ,paul urges the fact that this covenant was made with ,abraham before his circumcision1 lest any should say that it was conditioned wholly or in part upon a carnal ordinance3 ,he received the sign of circumcision1 a seal of the righteousness of the faith which he had yet being uncircumcised4 ,rom4 #d3aa4 ,the seal of circumcision1 then1 did not make the covenant valid1 for the covenant existed many years before the rite of circumcision was instituted4 ,faith was the only condition of ,abraham's justification4 ,he believed in the ,lord1 and he counted it to him for righteousness4 ,gen4 #ae3f4 ,and if we look at the promise contained in the ,abrahamic covenant1 ,in thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed1 we find it to be the very substance of the gospel1 as the apostle ,paul says3 ,the ,scripture1 foreseeing that ,god would justify the heathen through faith1 preached before the gospel unto ,abraham1 saying1 ,in thee shall all nations be blessed4 ,gal4 #c3h4 ,the incarnation and work of ,christ are1 according to the uniform representation of the ,new ,testament1 nothing else but the carrying out of the covenant made with ,abraham1 for this covenant was made for all mankind1 was purely spiritual1 being conditioned on faith alone1 and its substance is ,christ1 in whom all nations are blessed4 ,and while ,god has thus indissolubly linked to the incarnation of his ,son this high transaction with ,abraham1 we see how he has at the same time connected it with the first promise made in ,eden1 and thus with the fall of man through the subtilty of ,satan4 ,the promise in ,eden is that the seed of the woman shall bruise the serpent's head4 ,the promise to ,abraham is that in his seed1 which is also the seed of the woman1 all the families of the earth shall be blessed4 ,now it is by the bruising of the serpent's head1 or1 in ,new ,testament language1 by destroying the works of the devil1 that ,abraham's seed blesses all the families of the earth4 ,the two promises1 then1 are in their inmost nature one and the same1 and their fulfilment constitutes the work of ,christ4 ,thirdly1 the end of the ,mosaic economy is ,christ4 ,its general scope is thus briefly summed up by ,paul3 ,the law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto ,christ1 that we might be justified by faith4 ,gal4 #c3be4 ,but not to insist on this1 let us contemplate its three great institutions--the prophetic1 the kingly1 and the priestly order4 ,the mode of communication which ,god employed on ,sinai the people could not endure1 and they besought him1 through ,moses1 that it might be discontinued3 ,speak them with us1 they said1 and we will hear3 but let not ,god speak with us1 lest we die4 ,ex4 #bj3ai4 ,of this request ,god approved1 and promised3 ,i will raise them up a ,prophet from among their brethren like unto thee4 ,deut4 #ah3ah4 ,the point of special emphasis is1 that the great ,prophet here promised1 who is ,christ1 should be one of their brethren1 as ,moses was4 ,his personal advent was for many ages delayed2 but in the meantime his office was foreshadowed by the prophetical order in ,israel1 consisting of men sent by ,god to address their brethren4 ,thus the old dispensation and the new are linked together by the great fundamental principle--that ,god should address man through man--which runs through both4 ,the whole series of ,old ,testament prophecies1 moreover1 point to ,christ as their end and fulfilment2 for the testimony of ,jesus is the spirit of prophecy4 ,rev4 #ai3aj4 ,the kingly office of the ,old ,testament connects itself with that of ,christ in a special way4 ,not only did the headship given to ,david and his successors over the covenant people of ,god adumbrate the higher headship of ,christ1 but ,david had from ,god the promise3 ,thine house and thy kingdom shall be established for ever before thee3 thy throne shall be established for ever4 #b ,sam4 #g3af4 ,this promise is fulfilled in ,jesus of ,nazareth1 the seed of ,david according to the flesh1 according to the express declaration of the ,new ,testament3 ,the ,lord ,god shall give unto him the throne of his father ,david1 and he shall reign over the house of ,jacob for ever1 and of his kingdom there shall be no end4 ,luke #a3cb1 #cc4 ,the priestly office1 with the blood of the sacrifices connected with it1 prefigured ,christ1 the ,lamb of ,god1 which taketh away the sin of the world4 ,by the stream of sacrificial blood that flowed for so many ages was set forth that great fundamental truth of redemption1 that without shedding of blood is no remission4 ,heb4 #i3bb4 ,the sacrifices of the ,mosaic law were continually repeated1 because it is not possible that the blood of bulls and of goats should take away sins4 ,heb4 #aj3d4 ,but when ,christ had offered his own blood on ,calvary for the sins of the world1 the typical sacrifices of the law ceased for ever1 having been fulfilled in the great ,antitype1 in whom we have redemption through his blood1 the forgiveness of sins4 ,ephes4 #a3g4 #e4 ,since the ,old ,testament and the ,new are thus inseparably connected as parts of one grand system of revelation1 of which the end is ,christ1 it follows that the later revelations of the ,new ,testament are the true interpreters of the earlier1 which are contained in the ,old4 ,this is only saying that the ,holy ,ghost is the true and proper expositor of his own communications to man4 ,from the interpretations of ,christ and his apostles1 fairly ascertained1 there is no appeal4 ,and they are fairly ascertained when we have learned in what sense they must have been understood by their hearers4 ,all expositions of the ,old ,testament that set aside1 either openly or in a covert way1 the supreme authority of ,christ and his apostles1 are false1 and only lead men away from the truth as it is in ,jesus4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,authorship ,,of ,,the ,,pentateuch4 ,the term ,pentateuch is composed of the two ,greek words1 pente1 five1 and teuchos1 which in later ,alexandrine usage signified book4 ,it denotes1 therefore1 the collection of five books2 or1 the five books of the law considered as a whole4 #a4 ,in our inquiries respecting the authorship of the ,pentateuch1 we begin with the undisputed fact that it existed in its present form in the days of ,christ and his apostles1 and had so existed from the time of ,ezra4 ,when the translators of the ,greek version1 called the ,septuagint1 began their work1 about #bhj ,b4,c41 they found the ,pentateuch as we now have it1 and no one pretends that it had undergone any change between their day and that of ,ezra1 about #dfj ,b4,c4 ,it was universally ascribed to ,moses as its author1 and was called in common usage the law1 or the law of ,moses4 #b4 ,that the authorship of the law in its written form is ascribed to ,moses in the ,new ,testament every one knows4 ,the law was given by ,moses2 ,did not ,moses give you the law8 ,had ye believed ,moses1 ye would have believed me2 for he wrote of me2 ,for the hardness of your heart he1 ,moses1 wrote you this precept2 ,master1 ,moses wrote unto us2 ,what is written in the law8 how readest thou8 etc4 ,since now the whole collection of books was familiarly known to the people as the law1 or the law of ,moses1 it is reasonable to infer that our ,saviour and his apostles use these terms in the same comprehensive sense1 unless there is a limitation given in the context4 ,such a limitation the apostle ,paul makes when he opposes to the ,mosaic law the previous promise to ,abraham3 ,the covenant that was confirmed before of ,god in ,christ1 the law1 which was four hundred and thirty years after1 cannot disannul1 that it should make the promise of none effect4 ,gal4 #c3ag1 and compare the following verses4 ,but in the following chapter ,paul manifestly employs the words the law of the whole ,pentateuch1 to every part of which he1 in common with the ,jewish people1 ascribed equal and divine authority3 ,tell me1 ye that desire to be under law--under a system of law1 the article being wanting in the original--do ye not hear the law8 ,for it is written1 that ,abraham had two sons2 the one by a bond-maid1 the other by a free woman1 etc41 ,gal4 #d3ba1 seq41 where the reference is to the narrative recorded in ,genesis1 as a part of the law4 ,so also in the following passage3 ,moses of old time hath in every city them that preach him1 being read in the synagogues every sabbath-day1 ,acts #ae3ba2 the term ,moses necessarily means the law of ,moses1 as comprehending the whole ,pentateuch1 for it was that which was read in the synagogues4 ,compare the words of ,luke3 ,after the reading of the law and the prophets1 ,acts #ac3ae4 ,and in general1 when ,christ and his apostles speak of ,moses or the law1 without any limitation arising from the context1 thus1 ,the law was given by ,moses2 ,they have ,moses and the prophets1 etc41 we are to understand them as referring to the ,pentateuch as a whole1 for such was the common usage of the ,jewish people1 and such must have been their apprehension of the meaning of the terms4 #c4 ,but it may be said1 ,christ and his apostles did not speak as critics1 but only in a popular way4 ,that they did not speak of the ,pentateuch as critics1 is certain4 ,they had no occasion for doing so1 since no ,jew doubted either its divine authority or its ,mosaic authorship4 ,but when we consider1 on the one side1 with what unsparing severity our ,lord set aside the traditions of the ,pharisees as the commandments of men1 and on the other1 how he and his apostles ascribed equal divine authority to every part of the ,pentateuch1 as will be shown in the next chapter1 and how unequivocally they sanctioned the universal belief that ,moses was its author1 we must acknowledge that we have the entire authority of the ,new ,testament for its ,mosaic authorship in every essential respect4 ,this is entirely consistent with the belief that inspired men1 like ,ezra1 and perhaps also prophetical men of an earlier age1 in setting forth revised copies of the ,pentateuch1 that is1 copies which aimed to give the true text with as much accuracy as possible1 may have added here and there explanatory clauses for the benefit of the readers of their day4 ,such incidental clauses1 added by men of ,god under the guidance of his ,spirit1 would not affect in the least the substance of the ,pentateuch4 ,it would still remain in every practical sense the work of ,moses1 and be so regarded in the ,new ,testament4 ,whether there are1 or are not1 in the ,pentateuch1 such clauses added by a later hand1 and not affecting either its essential contents or its ,mosaic authorship1 is an open question to be determined by impartial criticism4 ,at the present day editors carefully indicate their explanatory notes2 but this was not the usage of high antiquity4 ,at the close of the book of ,deuteronomy1 for example1 there is immediately added1 without any explanatory remark1 a notice of ,moses' death4 ,we are at liberty to assume1 if we have cogent reasons for so doing1 that brief explanatory clauses were sometimes interwoven into the ,mosaic text2 as1 for example1 the remark in ,gen4 #cf3ca1 which is repeated in #a ,chron4 #a3dc1 a book ascribed to ,ezra2 ,exod4 #af3ce1 #cf1 etc4 #d4 ,going back now to the days of the ,restoration under ,zerubbabel and his associates1 about #ecf ,b4,c41 we find that the very first act of the restored captives was to set up the altar of the ,god of ,israel1 to offer burnt-offerings thereon1 as it is written in the law of ,moses the man of ,god4 ,the narrative goes on to specify that they offered burnt-offerings thereon unto the ,lord1 even burnt-offerings morning and evening4 ,they kept also the feast of tabernacles1 as it is written1 and offered the daily burnt-offerings by number1 according to the custom1 as the duty of every day required2 and afterwards offered the continual burnt-offering1 both of the new moons1 and of all the set feasts of the ,lord that were consecrated1 and of every one that willingly offered a free-will offering unto the ,lord4 ,ezra #c3a-e4 ,about ninety years afterwards1 upon the completion of the walls of ,jerusalem under ,nehemiah1 about #dde ,b4,c41 we find ,ezra the priest--a ready scribe in the law of ,moses1 which the ,lord ,god of ,israel had given1 ,ezra #g3f--on the occasion of the feast of tabernacles bringing forth the book of the law of ,moses1 which the ,lord had commanded to ,israel1 and reading in it from the morning unto midday1 before the men and the women1 and those that could understand4 ,in this work he was assisted by a body of men1 who caused the people to understand the law2 and the reading was continued through the seven days of the feast3 day by day1 from the first day unto the last day1 he read in the book of the law of ,god4 ,neh4 ch4 #h4 ,it was not the book of ,deuteronomy alone that they read4 ,we might infer this from the extent of the reading1 which was sufficient for all the preceptive parts of the ,pentateuch4 ,but here we are not left to mere inference4 ,on the second day they found written in the law which the ,lord had commanded by ,moses1 that the children of ,israel should dwell in booths in the feast of the seventh month2 and that they should fetch olive-branches1 and pine-branches1 and myrtle-branches1 and palm-branches1 and branches of thick trees1 to make booths1 as it is written4 ,neh4 #h3ac-ag4 ,the precept concerning booths with boughs of trees occurs in ,lev4 #bc3dj-dc1 a passage which they might naturally enough reach on the second day4 ,ezra's assistants gave the sense not by labored expositions1 but by interpreting the ,hebrew in the ,chaldee vernacular of the people4 ,this would about double the time devoted to a given section4 ,all that pertained to the structure of the tabernacle was superseded by the first temple1 which served the returned captives as their model in the erection of the second4 ,we may well suppose that this was omitted4 ,there would then remain only four or five chapters in the book of ,exodus4 ,thus the passage in question would naturally fall on the second day4 #e4 ,jewish tradition ascribes to ,ezra the work of settling the canon of the ,old ,testament1 and setting forth a corrected edition of the same4 ,though some things included in this tradition are fabulous1 the part of it now under consideration is corroborated by all the scriptural statements concerning him1 nor is there any reasonable ground for doubting its correctness4 ,be this as it may1 it is admitted that from ,ezra's day onward the ,pentateuch existed in its present form4 ,we are sure1 therefore1 that the book of the law of ,moses1 out of which he read to the people1 was the book as we now have it--the whole ,pentateuch1 written1 according to uniform ,jewish usage1 on a single roll4 ,ezra belonged to the priestly order that had in charge the keeping of the sacred books1 ,deut4 #ca3be1 #bf1 compared with #b ,kings #bb3h1 and was moreover a ready scribe in the law of ,moses4 ,his zeal for the reestablishment of the ,mosaic law in its purity shines forth in his whole history4 ,in his competency and fidelity we have satisfactory evidence that the law of ,moses which he set forth was the very law which had been handed down from ancient times1 and of which we have frequent notices in the books of ,kings and ,chronicles4 ,it is generally supposed that ,ezra himself wrote the books of ,chronicles4 ,they were certainly composed about his time4 ,to admit1 as all do1 that in the books of ,ezra and ,nehemiah the law of ,moses means the ,pentateuch as a whole1 and to deny that it has the same meaning in the books of ,chronicles1 is very inconsistent4 ,certainly the book which ,ezra set forth was the book which he found ready at hand1 and therefore the book referred to in the ,chronicles1 and the ,kings also4 ,any explanatory additions which he may have made did not affect its substance4 ,it remains for the objector to show why it was not1 in all essential respects1 the book which ,hilkiah found in the temple1 #b ,chron4 #cd3ad1 and to which ,david referred in his dying charge to ,solomon1 #a ,kings #b3c4 #f4 ,passing by1 for the present1 the notices of the law of ,moses contained in the book of ,joshua1 we come to the testimony of the book of ,deuteronomy4 ,we have seen that the ,mosaic authorship of the book1 as a part of the ,pentateuch1 is everywhere assumed by the writers of the ,new ,testament4 ,but1 in addition to this1 they make quotations from it under the forms1 ,moses wrote1 ,moses truly said unto the fathers1 etc4 ,mark #aj3c-e2 ,acts #c3bb2 ,rom4 #aj3ai4 ,if we examine the book itself1 its own testimony is equally explicit4 ,in chap4 #ag3bd ,moses directs that when the ,israelites shall appoint a king1 he shall write him a copy of this law in a book out of that which is before the priests the ,levites4 ,in the opinion of some1 this language refers to the whole law of ,moses1 while others would restrict it to the book of ,deuteronomy2 but all are agreed that it includes the whole of the latter work1 with the exception of the closing sections4 ,by a comparison of this passage with chaps4 #bh3eh2 #ca3i1 #bd-bf1 the evidence is complete that ,moses wrote this law1 and delivered it to the priests1 to be laid up by the side of the ark in the tabernacle4 ,if this testimony needed any corroboration1 we should have it in the character of the work itself4 ,it is the solemn farewell of the aged lawgiver to the people whose leader he had been for the space of forty years4 ,in perfect harmony with this are the grandeur and dignity of its style1 its hortatory character1 and the exquisite tenderness and pathos that pervade every part of it4 ,it is every way worthy of ,moses2 nor can we conceive of any other ,hebrew who was in a position to write such a book4 #g4 ,the book of ,deuteronomy contains a renewal of the covenant which ,god made with the children of ,israel at ,sinai4 ,chap4 #bi3aj-ae4 ,moses himself distinguishes between the former and the latter covenant4 ,these are the words of the covenant which the ,lord commanded ,moses to make with the children of ,israel in the land of ,moab1 besides the covenant which he made with them in ,horeb4 ,chap4 #bi3a4 ,with each covenant was connected a series of laws2 those belonging to the latter being mainly1 but not entirely1 a repetition of laws given with the first covenant4 ,we have seen that ,moses wrote the second covenant1 and all the laws connected with it4 ,from ,exodus1 ch4 #bd1 we learn that he wrote also the book of the first covenant containing1 we may reasonably suppose1 all of ,god's legislation up to that time4 ,the inference is irresistible that he wrote also the laws that followed in connection with the first covenant4 ,it is an undeniable fact that these laws underlie the whole constitution of the ,israelitish nation1 religious1 civil1 and social4 ,they cannot1 then1 have been the invention of a later age2 for no such fraud can be imposed1 or was ever imposed upon a whole people4 ,they are their own witness also that they were given by the hand of ,moses1 for they are all prefaced by the words1 ,and the ,lord spake unto ,moses1 saying4 ,when we consider their fundamental character1 their extent1 and the number and minuteness of their details1 we cannot for a moment suppose that they were left unwritten by such a man as ,moses1 who had all the qualifications for writing them4 ,why should not the man who received them from the ,lord have also recorded them--this man educated at the court of ,egypt1 and learned in all the wisdom of the ,egyptians1 who had already written the book of the covenant1 and afterwards wrote the journeyings of the ,israelites1 ,numb4 ch4 #bc1 and the book of ,deuteronomy8 ,an express statement from ,moses himself is not needed4 ,the fact is to be understood from the nature of the case1 and to call it in question is gratuitous skepticism4 #h4 ,the form of the ,mosaic laws that precede the book of ,deuteronomy is in perfect harmony with the assumption that ,moses himself not only received them1 but wrote them4 ,they bear the impress of having been recorded not continuously1 but from time to time1 as they were communicated to him4 ,in this way the historical notices which are woven into them--the matter of the golden calf1 ,exodus1 ch4 #cb1 the death of ,nadab and ,abihu1 ,leviticus1 ch4 #aj1 the blasphemy of ,shelomith's son1 ,leviticus1 ch4 #bd1 and the numerous incidents recorded in the book of ,numbers--all these narratives find a perfectly natural explanation4 ,some of these incidents--as1 for example1 the blasphemy of ,shelomith's son--come in abruptly1 without any connection in the context2 and their position can be accounted for only upon the assumption that they were recorded as they happened4 ,in this peculiar feature of the ,mosaic code before ,deuteronomy1 we have at once a proof that ,moses was the writer1 and that the historical notices connected with it were also recorded by him4 ,the result at which we arrive is that the whole record from ,god's appearance to ,moses and his mission to ,pharaoh has ,moses himself for its author4 ,the authorship of the preceding part of the ,pentateuch will be considered separately4 #i4 ,the above result in reference to that part of the law which precedes ,deuteronomy1 is confirmed by the testimony of the ,new ,testament4 ,in disputing with the ,sadducees1 our ,lord appealed to the writings of ,moses1 which they acknowledged3 ,now that the dead are raised1 even ,moses showed at the bush1 when he calleth the ,lord the ,god of ,abraham1 and the ,god of ,isaac1 and the ,god of ,jacob4 ,luke #bj3cg4 ,it was by recording the words of ,god1 as given in ,exodus #c3f1 that ,moses called the ,lord the ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob4 ,the apostle ,paul1 again1 referring to ,lev4 #ah3e1 says3 ,moses describeth--literally1 writeth--the righteousness which is of the law1 ,that the man which doeth those things shall live by them4 ,rom4 #aj3e4 ,here also belong certain passages that speak of precepts in the law of ,moses1 as ,luke #b3bb-bd1 where the reference is to various precepts in ,exodus1 ,leviticus1 and ,numbers--,exod4 #ac3b2 #bb3bi2 #cd3ai2 ,lev4 #ab3b1 seq42 ,numb4 #c3ac2 #h3ag2 #ah3ae--;,john #g3bb1 #bc1 where the reference is to ,lev4 #ab3b2 for with the ,new ,testament writers the law of ,moses means the law written by ,moses4 ,in like manner we find references in the ,old ,testament to the books of the law of ,moses that precede ,deuteronomy--#b ,chron4 #bc3ah compared with ,numb4 #bh3b1 seq42 #b ,chron4 #bd3f compared with ,exod4 #cj3ab1 seq42 ,ezra #c3b-e compared with ,numb4 #bh3b1 seq41 and #bi3ab1 seq42 ,neh4 #h3ae compared with ,lev4 #bc3dj4 #aj4 ,the relation of the book of ,deuteronomy to the earlier portions of the law deserves a careful consideration4 ,and1 first1 in regard to time4 ,all that portion of the law which precedes the sixteenth chapter of the book of ,numbers was given in the first and second years after the exodus2 consequently thirty-eight years before the composition of the book of ,deuteronomy4 ,the four chapters of ,numbers that follow1 chaps4 #af-ai1 are generally dated about twenty years later--that is1 about eighteen years before the composition of ,deuteronomy4 ,only the last seventeen chapters of ,numbers1 which are mostly occupied with historical notices1 were written in the preceding year4 ,then1 as it respects general design4 ,at ,horeb the entire constitution of the theocracy was to be established4 ,this part of the law is1 therefore1 more formal and circumstantial4 ,it gives minute directions for the celebration of the passover2 for the construction of the tabernacle and its furniture2 for the dress1 consecration1 duties1 and perquisites of the priesthood and ,levitical order2 for the entire system of sacrifices2 for the distinction between clean and unclean animals2 for all those duties that were especially of a priestly character1 as judgment in the case of leprosy1 and purification from ceremonial uncleanness2 for the order of journeying and encamping in the wilderness1 etc4 ,in a word1 it gives more prominence to the forms of the law1 and the duties of those to whom its administration was committed4 ,not so on the plains of ,moab4 ,the theocracy had then been long in operation4 ,the details of its service were well understood1 and there was no need of formal and circumstantial repetition4 ,the work of ,moses now was not to give a new law1 but to enforce the law of ,horeb1 with such subordinate modifications and additions as were required by the new circumstances of the people1 now about to take possession of the promised land and change their wandering life for fixed abodes4 ,he had to do1 therefore1 more prominently not with the administrators of law1 but with the people2 and accordingly his precepts assume a hortatory character1 and his style becomes more diffuse and flowing4 ,the personal relation of ,moses to the people was also greatly changed4 ,at ,horeb he had the great work of his life before him1 but now it is behind him4 ,he is about to leave his beloved ,israel1 whom he has borne on his heart and guided by his counsels for forty years4 ,hence the inimitable tenderness and pathos that pervade the book of ,deuteronomy4 ,when now we take into account all these altered circumstances1 we have a full explanation of the peculiarities which mark the book of ,deuteronomy as compared with the preceding books4 ,were these peculiarities wanting1 we should miss a main proof of its genuineness4 ,nevertheless the book is thoroughly ,mosaic in its style1 and the scholar who reads it in the original ,hebrew can detect peculiar forms of expression belonging only to the ,pentateuch4 ,as to alleged disagreements between some of its statements and those of the earlier books1 it is sufficient to remark that upon a candid examination they mostly disappear2 and even where we cannot fully explain them1 this furnishes no valid ground for denying the genuineness of either portion of the law4 ,such seeming discrepancies are not uncommon when a writer of acknowledged credibility repeats what he has before written4 ,compare1 for example1 the three narratives of the apostle ,paul's conversion which are recorded in the book of ,acts4 ,the question as to the extent of meaning which should be given in ,deuteronomy to the expressions1 a copy of this law1 the words of this law1 this book of the law1 is one upon which expositors are not agreed1 nor is it essential2 since1 as we have seen1 the ,mosaic authorship of the former part of the law rests upon broader grounds4 ,in ,deut4 #bg3c1 #h1 it seems necessary to understand the expression1 all the words of this law1 which were to be written upon tables of stone set up on mount ,ebal1 of the blessings and curses--ver4 #ab1 #ac--;contained in this and the following chapter4 ,but elsewhere1 chs4 #ag3ah2 #ca3i1 #bd-bf1 we must certainly include at least the whole of ,deuteronomy4 ,if we suppose that it was ,moses' custom to write out the precepts of the law with the historical notices pertaining to them in a continuous roll1 which was enlarged from time to time1 and that he added to this roll the book of ,deuteronomy1 then the words in question must be understood of the entire body of precepts from the beginning4 ,but if1 as seems to be intimated in ,deut4 #ca3bd1 he wrote ,deuteronomy in a separate book1 7in a book1 without the article17 the words naturally refer to ,deuteronomy alone4 ,this work1 as containing a summary of the law--a second law1 as the word ,deuteronomy signifies--might well be spoken of as this law1 without any denial of an earlier law2 just as the covenant made with the people at this time is called this covenant1 ch4 #bi3ad1 without any denial of an earlier covenant4 ,the reverent scholar will be careful not to be wise above what is written4 ,it might gratify our curiosity to know exactly in what outward form ,moses left the ,law with the historical notices woven into it2 whether in one continuous roll1 or in several rolls which were afterwards arranged by some prophet1 perhaps with connecting and explanatory clauses2 but it could add nothing to our knowledge of the way of salvation4 ,in either case it would be alike the law of ,moses and the law which ,moses wrote1 invested with full divine authority4 #aa4 ,it being established that ,moses wrote the whole law with the historical notices appertaining to it1 we naturally infer that he must have written the book of ,genesis also1 which is introductory to the law4 ,for this work he had every qualification1 and we know of no other man that had the like qualifications4 ,on this ground alone the ,mosaic authorship of the book might be reasonably assumed1 unless decided proofs to the contrary could be adduced4 ,but we find1 upon examination1 that the book of ,genesis is so connected with the following books that without the knowledge of its contents they cannot be rightly understood4 ,the very first appearance of ,god to ,moses is introduced by the remark that he remembered his covenant with ,abraham1 with ,isaac1 and with ,jacob4 ,in addressing ,moses he calls the children of ,israel my people1 ,exod4 #c3f-aj2 and sends ,moses to ,pharaoh with the message1 ,let my people go4 ,all this implies a knowledge of the covenant which ,god made with ,abraham and his seed after him1 by virtue of which the ,israelites became his peculiar people4 ,it is not simply as an oppressed people that ,god undertakes to deliver them and give them possession of the land of ,canaan1 but as his people4 ,again and again does ,moses describe the promised land as the land which the ,lord sware unto your fathers ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 to give unto them and to their seed after them4 ,with the book of ,genesis these declarations are plain2 but without it they are unintelligible4 ,the ,abrahamic covenant1 which is recorded in the book of ,genesis1 is not a subordinate1 but an essential part of the history of the ,israelites4 ,it underlies the whole plan of redemption1 and upon it the ,mosaic economy1 as a part of that plan1 is erected4 ,why should any one suppose that ,moses1 who recorded the establishment of this economy with all its details1 omitted to record the great transactions with the patriarchs which lie at its foundation8 ,there are other references to the book of ,genesis in the law of ,moses4 ,the institution of the ,sabbath is expressly based on the order of creation recorded in the first two chapters2 and when the people leave ,egypt they carry with them the bones of ,joseph1 in accordance with the oath which he had exacted of them4 ,gen4 #ej3be1 compared with ,exod4 #ac3ai4 ,to the ,mosaic authorship of ,genesis it has been objected1 that it contains marks of a later age4 ,but these marks1 so far as they have any real existence1 belong not to the substance of the book4 ,they are restricted to a few explanatory notices1 which may well have been added by ,ezra or some prophetical man before him1 in setting forth a revised copy of the law4 ,see ,no4 #c1 above4 ,the passages which can1 with any show of probability1 be referred to a later age1 are1 taken all together1 very inconsiderable1 and they refer only to incidental matters1 while the book1 as a whole1 bears all the marks of high antiquity4 ,to the ,mosaic authorship of this book it has been objected again1 that it contains the writings of different authors4 ,this is especially argued from the diversity of usage in respect to the divine name1 some passages employing the word ,elohim1 ,god1 others the word ,jehovah1 or a combination of the two terms4 ,whatever force there may be in this argument1 the validity of which is denied by many who think that the inspired writer designedly varied his usage between the general term ,god and the special covenant name ,jehovah1 it goes only to show that ,moses may have made use of previously existing documents2 a supposition which we need not hesitate to admit1 provided we have cogent reasons for so doing4 ,whatever may have been the origin of these documents1 they received through ,moses the seal of ,god's authority1 and thus became a part of his inspired word4 ,several writers have attempted to distinguish throughout the book of ,genesis the parts which they would assign to different authors2 but beyond the first chapters they are not able to agree among themselves4 ,all attempts to carry the distinction of different authors into the later books rest on fanciful grounds4 #ab4 ,that the ,pentateuch1 as a whole1 proceeded from a single author1 is shown by the unity of plan that pervades the whole work4 ,the book of ,genesis constitutes1 as has been shown1 a general introduction to the account which follows of the establishment of the theocracy2 and it is indispensable to the true understanding of it4 ,in the first part of the book of ,exodus we have a special introduction to the giving of the law2 for it records the deliverance of the ,israelites from bondage in ,egypt1 and their journey to ,sinai4 ,the ,mosaic institutions presuppose a sanctuary as their visible material centre4 ,the last part of ,exodus1 after the promulgation of the ten commandments and the precepts connected with them1 is accordingly occupied with the construction of the tabernacle and its furniture1 and the dress and consecration of the priests who ministered there4 ,in ,leviticus1 the central book of the ,pentateuch1 we have the central institution of the ,mosaic economy1 namely1 the system of sacrifices belonging to the priesthood1 and also1 in general1 the body of ordinances intrusted to their administration4 ,the theocracy having been founded at ,sinai1 it was necessary that arrangements should be made for the orderly march of the people to the land of ,canaan4 ,with these the book of ,numbers opens1 and then proceeds to narrate the various incidents that befell the people in the wilderness1 with a record of their encampments1 and also the addition from time to time of new ordinances4 ,the book of ,deuteronomy contains the grand farewell address of ,moses to the ,israelites1 into which is woven a summary of the precepts already given which concerned particularly the people at large1 with various modifications and additions suited to their new circumstances and the new duties about to be devolved upon them4 ,we see then that the ,pentateuch constitutes a consistent whole4 ,unity of design1 harmony of parts1 continual progress from beginning to end--these are its grand characteristics2 and they prove that it is not a heterogeneous collection of writings put together without order1 but the work of a single master-spirit1 writing under ,god's immediate direction1 according to the uniform testimony of the ,new ,testament4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,authenticity ,,and ,,credibility ,,of ,,the ,,pentateuch4 #a4 ,the historic truth of the ,pentateuch is everywhere assumed by the writers of the ,new ,testament in the most absolute and unqualified manner4 ,they do not simply allude to it and make quotations from it1 as one might do in the case of ,homer's poems1 but they build upon the facts which it records arguments of the weightiest character1 and pertaining to the essential doctrines and duties of religion4 ,this is alike true of the ,mosaic laws and of the narratives that precede them or are interwoven with them4 ,in truth1 the writers of the ,new ,testament know no distinction1 as it respects divine authority1 between one part of the ,pentateuch and another4 ,they receive the whole as an authentic and inspired record of ,god's dealings with men4 ,a few examples1 taken mostly from the book of ,genesis1 will set this in a clear light4 ,in reasoning with the ,pharisees on the question of divorce1 our ,lord appeals to the primitive record3 ,have ye not read that he which made them at the beginning made them male and female1 and said1 ,for this cause shall a man leave father and mother1 and shall cleave to his wife3 and they twain shall be one flesh8 wherefore they are no more twain1 but one flesh4 ,what therefore ,god hath joined together1 let not man put asunder4 ,and when1 upon this1 the ,pharisees ask1 ,why did ,moses then command to give a writing of divorcement1 and to put her away8 ,deut4 #bd3a1 he answers in such a way as to recognize both the authority of the ,mosaic legislation and the validity of the ante-,mosaic record3 ,moses1 because of the hardness of your hearts1 suffered you to put away your wives3 but from the beginning it was not so4 ,he then proceeds to enforce the marriage covenant as it was from the beginning4 ,matt4 #ai3c-i1 compared with ,gen4 #b3bc1 #bd4 ,in like manner the apostle ,paul establishes the headship of the man over the woman3 ,he is the image and glory of ,god3 but the woman is the glory of the man4 ,for the man is not of the woman1 but the woman of the man4 ,neither was the man created for the woman1 but the woman for the man4 #a ,cor4 #aa3g-i1 compared with ,gen4 #b3ah-bb4 ,and again3 ,i suffer not a woman to teach1 nor to usurp authority over the man1 but to be in silence4 ,for ,adam was first formed1 then ,eve4 ,and ,adam was not deceived1 but the woman being deceived was in the transgression4 #a ,tim4 #b3ab-ad1 compared with ,gen4 #b3ah-bb2 #c3l-#f1 #ac4 ,so also he argues from the primitive record that1 as by one man sin and death came upon the whole human race1 so by ,christ ,jesus life and immortality are procured for all4 ,rom4 #e3ab-ba2 #a ,cor4 #ae3ba1 #bb1 compared with ,gen4 #b3ag2 #c3ai1 #bb4 ,the story of ,cain and ,abel1 ,gen4 #d3c-ab1 is repeatedly referred to by the ,saviour and his apostles as a historic truth3 ,matt4 #bc3ce2 ,luke #aa3ea2 ,heb4 #aa3d2 #ab3bd2 #a ,john #c3ab2 ,jude #aa4 ,so also the narrative of the deluge3 ,gen4 chs4 #f-h1 compared with ,matt4 #ad3cg-ci2 ,luke #ag3bf1 #bg2 ,heb4 #aa3g2 #a ,peter #c3bj2 #b ,peter #b3e2 and of the overthrow of ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 ,gen4 ch4 #ai1 compared with ,luke #ag3bh1 #bi2 #b ,peter #b3f2 ,jude #g4 ,it is useless to adduce further quotations4 ,no man can read the ,new ,testament without the profound conviction that the authenticity and credibility of the ,pentateuch are attested in every conceivable way by the ,saviour and his apostles4 ,to reject the authority of the former is to deny that of the latter also4 #b4 ,for the authenticity and credibility of the ,pentateuch we have an independent argument in the fact that it lay at the foundation of the whole ,jewish polity1 civil1 religious1 and social4 ,from the time of ,moses and onward1 the ,israelitish nation unanimously acknowledged its divine authority1 even when1 through the force of sinful passion1 they disobeyed its commands4 ,the whole life of the people was moulded and shaped by its institutions2 so that they became1 in a good sense1 a peculiar people1 with laws diverse from all people4 ,they alone1 of all the nations of the earth1 held the doctrine of ,god's unity and personality1 in opposition to all forms of polytheism and pantheism2 and thus they alone were prepared to receive and propagate the peculiar doctrines of ,christianity4 ,chap4 #h1 ,no4 #b4 ,if now we admit the truth of the ,mosaic record1 all this becomes perfectly plain and intelligible2 but if we deny it1 we involve ourselves at once in the grossest absurdities4 ,how could the ,jewish people have been induced to accept with undoubting faith such a body of laws as that contained in the ,pentateuch--so burdensome in their multiplicity1 so opposed to all the beliefs and practices of the surrounding nations1 and imposing such severe restraints upon their corrupt passions--except upon the clearest evidence of their divine authority8 ,such evidence they had in the stupendous miracles connected with their deliverance from ,egypt and the giving of the law on ,sinai4 ,the fact that ,moses constantly appeals to these miracles1 as well known to the whole body of the people1 is irrefragable proof of their reality4 ,none but a madman would thus appeal to miracles which had no existence2 and if he did1 his appeal would be met only by derision4 ,mohammed needed not the help of miracles1 for his appeal was to the sword and to the corrupt passions of the human heart2 and he never attempted to rest his pretended divine mission on the evidence of miracles4 ,he knew that to do so would be to overthrow at once his authority as the prophet of ,god4 ,but the ,mosaic economy needed and received the seal of miracles1 to which ,moses continually appeals as to undeniable realities4 ,but if the miracles recorded in the ,pentateuch are real1 then it contains a revelation from ,god1 and is entitled to our unwavering faith4 ,then too we can explain how1 in the providence of ,god1 the ,mosaic institutions prepared the way for the advent of ,him of whom ,moses in the law and the prophets did write4 ,thus we connect the old dispensation with the new1 and see both together as one whole4 ,other arguments might be adduced2 but upon these two great pillars--the authority1 on the one side1 of the ,new ,testament1 and1 on the other1 the fact that the ,pentateuch contains the entire body of laws by which the ,jewish nation was moulded and formed1 and that its character and history can be explained only upon the assumption of its truth--on these two great pillars the authenticity and credibility of the ,pentateuch rest1 as upon an immovable basis4 #c4 ,the difficulties connected with the ,pentateuch1 so far as its contents are concerned1 rest mainly on two grounds1 scientific and historical1 or moral4 ,the nature of the scientific difficulties forbids their discussion within the restricted limits of the present work4 ,it may be said1 however1 generally1 that so far as they are real1 they relate not so much to the truth of the ,mosaic record1 as to the manner in which certain parts of it should be understood4 ,how long1 for example1 that state of things continued which is described in ,gen4 #a3b1 or what particular results were produced by the operation of the divine ,spirit there recorded1 we do not know4 ,what extent of meaning should be assigned to the six days of creation--whether they should be understood literally or in a symbolical way1 like the prophetical days of ,daniel and ,revelation--,dan4 #g3be2 #i3bd-bg2 ,rev4 #i3ae2 #aa3c1 etc4--is a question on which devout believers have differed ever since the days of ,augustine4 ,see ,prof4 ,tayler ,lewis' ,six ,days of ,creation1 ch4 #ad4 ,but all who receive the ,bible as containing a revelation from ,god agree in holding the truth of the narrative4 ,so also in regard to the ,deluge and other events involving scientific questions which are recorded in the book of ,genesis4 ,some of these questions may perhaps be satisfactorily solved by further inquiry4 ,others will probably remain shrouded in mystery till the consummation of all things4 ,to the class of historical difficulties belong several chronological questions1 as1 for example1 that of the duration of the ,israelitish residence in ,egypt4 ,it is sufficient to say that however these shall be settled--if settled at all--they cannot with any reasonable man affect the divine authority of the ,pentateuch which is certified to us by so many sure proofs4 #d4 ,the difficulties which are urged against the ,pentateuch on moral grounds rest partly on misapprehension1 and are partly of such a character that1 when rightly considered1 they turn against the objectors themselves4 ,this will be illustrated by a few examples4 ,a common objection to the ,mosaic economy is drawn from its exclusiveness4 ,it contains1 it is alleged1 a religion not for all mankind1 but for a single nation4 ,the answer is at hand4 ,that this economy may be rightly understood1 it must be considered not separately and independently1 but as one part of a great plan4 ,it was1 as we have seen1 subordinate to the covenant made with ,abraham1 which had respect to all the families of the earth4 ,chap4 #h1 ,no4 #d4 ,it came in temporarily to prepare the way for the advent of ,christ1 through whom the ,abrahamic covenant was to be carried into effect4 ,it was a partial1 preparatory to a universal dispensation1 and looked1 therefore1 ultimately to the salvation of the entire race4 ,so far then as the benevolent design of ,god is concerned1 the objection drawn from the exclusiveness of the ,mosaic economy falls to the ground4 ,it remains for the objector to show how a universal dispensation1 like ,christianity1 could have been wisely introduced1 without a previous work of preparation1 or how any better plan of preparation could have been adopted than that contained in the ,mosaic economy4 ,if the laws of ,moses interposed1 as they certainly did1 many obstacles to the intercourse of the ,israelites with other nations1 the design was not to encourage in them a spirit of national pride and contempt of other nations1 but to preserve them from the contagious influence of the heathen practices by which they were surrounded4 ,on this ground the ,mosaic laws everywhere rest the restrictions which they impose upon the ,israelites3 ,thy daughter thou shalt not give unto his son1 nor his daughter shalt thou take to thy son4 ,for they will turn away thy son from following me1 that they may serve other gods4 ,deut4 #g3c1 #d4 ,how necessary were these restrictions was made manifest by the whole subsequent history of the people4 ,so far was the ,mosaic law from countenancing hatred towards the persons of foreigners1 that it expressly enjoined kindness3 ,if a stranger sojourn with thee in your land1 ye shall not vex him4 ,but the stranger that dwelleth with you shall be unto you as one born among you1 and thou shalt love him as thyself3 for ye were strangers in the land of ,egypt4 ,lev4 #ai3cd4 #e4 ,another ground of objection to the ,mosaic law has been the number and minuteness of its ordinances4 ,that this feature of the theocracy was1 absolutely considered1 an imperfection1 is boldly asserted in the ,new ,testament4 ,the apostle ,peter calls it a yoke which neither we nor our fathers were able to bear4 ,acts #ae3aj4 ,nevertheless the wisdom of ,god judged it necessary in the infancy of the nation1 that it might thus be trained1 and through it the world1 for the future inheritance of the gospel4 ,it is in this very aspect that the apostle ,paul says3 ,the law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto ,christ1 that we might be justified by faith4 ,but after that faith is come1 we are no longer under a schoolmaster4 ,gal4 #c3bd1 #be4 ,the divine plan was to prescribe minutely all the institutions of the ,mosaic economy1 leaving nothing to human discretion1 apparently to prevent the intermixture with them of heathenish rites and usages2 perhaps also that in this body of outward forms the faith of the ,israelites might have a needful resting-place1 until the way should be prepared for the introduction of a simpler and more spiritual system4 ,we must be careful1 however1 that we do not fall into the error of supposing that the ,mosaic law prescribed a religion of mere outward forms4 ,on the contrary1 it was pervaded throughout by an evangelical principle4 ,it knew nothing of heartless forms in which the religion of the heart is wanting4 ,the observance of all its numerous ordinances it enjoined on the spiritual ground of love1 gratitude1 and humility4 ,if any one would understand in what a variety of forms these inward graces of the soul1 which constitute the essence of religion1 are inculcated in the ,pentateuch1 he has but to read the book of ,deuteronomy2 there he will see how the law of ,moses aimed to make men religious not in the letter1 but in the spirit2 how1 in a word1 it rested the observance of the letter on the good foundation of inward devotion to ,god4 ,the summary which our ,saviour gave of the ,mosaic law1 and in it of all religion1 he expressed in the very words of the law3 ,thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart1 and with all thy soul1 and with all thy mind1 and with all thy strength1 ,deut4 #f3d1 #e2 this is the first and great commandment4 ,and the second is like1 namely this1 ,thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself4 ,lev4 #ai3ah4 ,nor is this love towards our neighbor restricted to a narrow circle2 for it is said of the stranger also sojourning in ,israel1 ,thou shalt love him as thyself4 ,lev4 #ai3cd4 #f4 ,of one usage which the ,mosaic law tolerated1 our ,saviour himself gives the true explanation when he says3 ,moses1 because of the hardness of your hearts1 suffered you to put away your wives2 but from the beginning it was not so4 ,matt4 #ai3h4 ,this general principle applies also to polygamy and the modified form of servitude which prevailed among the ,hebrew people4 ,that the ,mosaic economy suffered1 for the time being1 certain usages not good in themselves1 is no valid objection to it1 but rather a proof of the divine wisdom of its author4 ,though it was his purpose to root out of human society every organic evil1 he would not attempt it by premature legislation1 any more than he would send his ,son into the world until the way was prepared for his advent4 #g4 ,the extirpation of the ,canaanitish nations by the sword of the ,israelites was contemplated by the ,mosaic economy4 ,the names of these nations were carefully specified1 and they were peremptorily forbidden to molest other nations2 as1 for example1 the ,edomites1 ,moabites1 and ,ammonites4 ,deut4 #b3d1 #e1 #h1 #i1 #ah1 #ai4 ,the whole transaction is to be regarded as a sovereign act of ,jehovah1 which had in view the manifestation of his infinite perfections for the advancement of the cause of truth and righteousness in this fallen world4 ,though we may not presume to fathom all the divine counsels1 we can yet see how ,god1 by the manner in which he gave ,israel possession of the promised land1 displayed his awful holiness1 his almighty power1 and his absolute supremacy over the nations of the earth1 not only to the covenant people1 but also to the surrounding heathen world4 ,had the ,canaanites perished by famine1 pestilence1 earthquake1 or fire from heaven1 it might have remained doubtful to the heathen by whose anger their destruction had been effected1 that of the ,canaanitish gods1 or of the ,god of ,israel4 ,but now that ,god went forth with his people1 dividing the ,jordan before them1 overthrowing the walls of ,jericho1 arresting the sun and the moon in their course1 and raining down upon their enemies great hailstones from heaven1 it was manifest to all that the ,god of ,israel was the supreme ,lord of heaven and earth1 and that the gods of the gentile nations were vanity4 ,this was one of the great lessons which the ,theocracy was destined to teach the human family4 ,at the same time the ,israelites1 who executed ,god's vengeance on the ,canaanites1 were carefully instructed that it was for their sins that the land spewed out its inhabitants1 and that if they imitated them in their abominations1 they should in like manner perish4 #h4 ,the ,mosaic economy was but the scaffolding of the gospel4 ,god took it down ages ago by the hand of the ,romans4 ,it perished amid fire and sword and blood1 but not till it had accomplished the great work for which it was established4 ,it bequeathed to ,christianity1 and through ,christianity to all the families of the earth1 a glorious body of truth1 which makes an inseparable part of the plan of redemption1 and has thus blessed the world ever since1 and shall continue to bless it to the end of time4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,remaining ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 #a4 ,the divine authority of the ,pentateuch having been established1 it is not necessary to dwell at length on the historical books which follow4 ,the events which they record are a natural and necessary sequel to the establishment of the theocracy1 as given in the five books of ,moses4 ,the ,pentateuch is occupied mainly with the founding of the theocracy2 the following historical books describe the settlement of the ,israelitish nation under this theocracy in the promised land1 and its practical operation there for the space of a thousand years4 ,there is no history in the world so full of ,god's presence and providence4 ,it sets forth with divine clearness and power1 on the one side1 ,god's faithfulness in the fulfilment of the promises and threatenings contained in the ,mosaic law2 and on the other1 the perverseness and rebellion of the people1 and their perpetual relapses into idolatry1 with the mighty conflict thus inaugurated between the pure monotheism of the theocracy1 and the polytheism and image-worship of the surrounding heathen nations--a conflict which lasted through many ages1 which enlisted on both sides the great and mighty men of the world1 and which resulted in the complete triumph of the ,mosaic law1 at least so far as its outward form was concerned1 thus preparing the way for the advent of that great ,prophet in whom the theocracy had its end and its fulfilment4 #b4 ,how fully the divine authority of these books is recognized by ,christ and his apostles1 every reader of the ,new ,testament understands4 ,it is not necessary to establish this point by the quotation of particular passages4 ,though the writers of the historical books which follow the ,pentateuch are for the most part unknown1 the books themselves are put in the ,new ,testament on the same basis as the ,pentateuch4 ,to those who deny ,christ1 the ,mosaic economy1 with the history that follows1 is a mystery2 for when they read it the veil is upon their heart4 ,but to those who receive ,christ as the ,son of ,god1 and the ,new ,testament as containing a true record of his heavenly mission1 ,moses and the historical books that follow are luminous with divine wisdom and glory1 for they contain the record of the way in which ,god prepared the world for the manifestation of his ,son ,jesus ,christ4 #c4 ,the ,old ,testament contains a body of writings which are not historical2 neither are they prophetical1 in the restricted sense of the term1 although some of them contain prophecy4 ,the enumeration of these books1 prominent among which are ,job1 ,psalms1 and ,proverbs1 with an account of their contents and the place which each of them holds in the plan of revelation1 belongs to the ,introduction to the ,old ,testament4 ,it is sufficient to say here1 that they are precious offshoots of the ,mosaic economy1 that they contain rich and varied treasures of divine truth for the instruction and encouragement of ,god's people in all ages1 and that they are1 as a whole1 recognized in the ,new ,testament as part of ,god's revelation to men4 ,the book of ,psalms1 in particular1 is perpetually quoted by the writers of the ,new ,testament as containing prophecies which had their fulfilment in ,jesus of ,nazareth4 #d4 ,the prophetical books--according to our classification1 the ,jews having a different arrangement--are ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 ,daniel1 and the twelve minor prophets4 ,the vast body of prophecies contained in these books--the prophetical portions of the other books being also included--may be contemplated in different points of view4 ,many of these prophecies1 considered independently of the ,new ,testament1 afford conclusive proof that the ,old ,testament is the word of ,god1 for they bear on their front the signet of their divine origin4 ,they contain predictions of the distant future which lie altogether beyond the range of human sagacity and foresight4 ,such is the wonderful prophecy of ,moses respecting the history of the ,israelitish people through all coming ages1 ,lev4 ch4 #bf2 ,deut4 ch4 #bh1 a prophecy which defies the assaults of skepticism1 and which1 taken in connection with our ,lord's solemn declaration1 ,they shall fall by the edge of the sword1 and shall be led away captive into all nations3 and ,jerusalem shall be trodden down of the ,gentiles1 until the times of the ,gentiles be fulfilled1 ,luke #ba3bd1 marks both the ,old ,testament and the ,new as given by the same omniscient ,god1 who declares the end from the beginning4 ,such also are the predictions of the utter and perpetual desolation of ,babylon1 uttered ages beforehand1 and which presuppose a divine foresight of the course of human affairs to the end of time3 ,babylon1 the glory of kingdoms1 the beauty of the ,chaldees' excellency1 shall be as when ,god overthrew ,sodom and ,gomorrah4 ,it shall never be inhabited1 neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation4 ,i will also make it a possession for the bittern and pools of water3 and ,i will sweep it with the besom of destruction1 saith the ,lord of hosts4 ,isa4 #ac3ai1 #bj2 #ad3bc4 ,see also the prophecy of the overthrow of ,nineveh1 ,nahum1 chs4 #b1 #c1 and of ,tyre3 ,i will also scrape her dust from her1 and make her like the top of a rock4 ,it shall be a place for the spreading of nets in the midst of the sea4 ,i will make thee like the top of a rock3 thou shalt be a place to spread nets upon2 thou shalt be built no more4 ,ezek4 #bf3d1 #e1 #ad4 ,on all the above prophecies1 and many more that might be quoted1 the descriptions of modern travellers furnish a perfect comment4 #e4 ,but it is preeminently in ,christ that the prophecies of the ,old ,testament have their fulfilment4 ,as the rays of the sun in a burning-glass all converge to one bright focus1 so all the different lines of prophecy in the ,old ,testament centre in the person of ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,separated from him they have neither unity nor harmony2 but are1 like the primitive chaos1 without form and void4 ,but in him predictions1 apparently contradictory to each other1 meet with divine unity and harmony4 ,he is a great ,prophet1 like ,moses2 the ,mediator1 therefore1 of the new economy1 as ,moses was of the old1 and revealing to the people the whole will of ,god4 ,as a ,prophet1 the ,spirit of the ,lord rests upon him1 the spirit of wisdom and understanding1 the spirit of counsel and might1 the spirit of knowledge and the fear of the ,lord4 ,isa4 #aa3b4 ,as a ,prophet1 he receives from ,god the tongue of the learned1 that he should know how to speak a word in season to him that is weary4 ,isa4 #ej3d4 ,as a ,prophet1 the kings shall shut their mouths at him3 for that which had not been told them shall they see2 and that which they had not heard shall they consider4 ,isaiah #eb3ae4 ,he is also a mighty ,king1 to whom ,god has given the heathen for his inheritance1 and the uttermost parts of the earth for his possession4 ,he breaks the nations with a rod of iron2 he dashes them in pieces as a potter's vessel1 ,psa4 #b3h1 #i2 and yet he shall not cry1 nor lift up1 nor cause his voice to be heard in the street4 ,a bruised reed shall he not break1 and the smoking flax shall he not quench3 he shall bring forth judgment unto truth4 ,isa4 #db3b1 #c4 ,all kings shall fall down before him3 all nations shall serve him1 ,psa4 #gb3aa2 and yet he is despised and rejected of men2 a man of sorrows1 and acquainted with grief3 he is brought as a lamb to the slaughter1 and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb1 so he opened not his mouth4 ,isa4 #ec3c1 #g4 ,many other like contrasts could be added4 ,with the kingly he unites the priestly office4 ,sitting as a king upon the throne of ,david1 and upon his kingdom1 to order it1 and to establish it with judgment and with justice from henceforth even for ever1 ,isa4 #i3g1 he is yet a priest for ever after the order of ,melchizedek4 ,nor is his priestly office any thing of subordinate importance1 for he is inducted into it by the solemn oath of ,jehovah3 ,the ,lord hath sworn1 and will not repent1 ,thou art a priest for ever after the order of ,melchizedek4 ,psa4 #aaj3d4 ,as a priest he offers up himself an offering for sin3 he was wounded for our transgressions1 he was bruised for our iniquities2 the chastisement of our peace was upon him2 and with his stripes we are healed4 ,all we like sheep have gone astray2 we have turned every one to his own way2 and the ,lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all4 ,isa41 ch4 #ec4 ,when we find a key that opens all the intricate wards of a lock1 we know that the key and the lock have one and the same author1 and are parts of one whole4 ,the history of ,jesus of ,nazareth is the key which unlocks all the wards of ,old ,testament prophecy4 ,with this key ,moses and the prophets open to the plainest reader2 without it1 they remain closed and hidden from human apprehension4 ,we know1 therefore1 that he who sent his ,son ,jesus ,christ to be the ,saviour of the world1 sent also his prophets to testify beforehand of his coming1 and of the offices which he bears for our redemption4 #f4 ,to sum up all in a word1 we take the deepest1 and therefore the most scriptural view of the ,jewish institutions and history1 when we consider the whole as a perpetual adumbration of ,christ--not ,christ in his simple personality1 but ,christ in his body the church4 ,it is not meant by this that the ,mosaic economy was nothing but type4 ,apart from all reference to the salvation of the gospel1 it was to the ,israelitish people before the ,saviour's advent a present reality meeting a present want4 ,the deliverance of the people from the bondage of ,egypt1 their passage through the ,red sea1 the cloud which guided them1 the manna which fed them1 the water out of the rock which they drank--all these things were to them a true manifestation of ,god's presence and favor1 aside from their typical import1 the apprehension of which indeed was reserved for future ages4 ,so also the ,mosaic institutions were to them a true body of laws for the regulation of their commonwealth1 and in their judges1 kings1 and prophets they had true rulers and teachers4 ,but while all this is important to be remembered1 it is also true that the ,mosaic economy was thickly sown by ,god's own hand with the seeds of higher principles--those very principles which ,christ and his apostles unfolded out of the law and the prophets4 ,thus it constituted a divine training by which the people were prepared for that spiritual kingdom of heaven which in the fulness of time the ,saviour established4 ,all the prophets and the law prophesied until ,john--not the prophets and the law in certain separate passages alone1 but the prophets and the law as a whole4 ,they prophesied of ,christ1 and in ,christ their prophecy has its fulfilment4 #g4 ,the consideration of the extent of the canon of the ,old ,testament does not properly belong here4 ,it is sufficient to say that we have no valid reason for doubting the truth of the ,jewish tradition1 which assigns to ,ezra and the great synagogue the work of setting forth the ,hebrew canon as we now have it4 ,that this tradition is embellished with fictions must be conceded2 but we ought not1 on such a ground1 to deny its substantial truth1 confirmed as it is by all the scriptural notices of ,ezra's qualifications and labors4 ,it is certain that the canon of the ,jews in ,palestine was the same in our ,lord's day that it is now4 ,the ,greek version of the ,septuagint contains indeed certain apocryphal books not extant in the ,hebrew4 ,these seem to have been in use1 more or less1 among the ,alexandrine ,jews2 but there is no evidence that any canonical authority was ascribed to them1 and it is certain that the ,jews of ,palestine adhered strictly to the ,hebrew canon1 which is identical with our own4 #h4 ,the principle upon which the canon of the ,old ,testament was formed is not doubtful4 ,no books were admitted into it but those written by prophets or prophetical men4 ,as under the ,new ,testament the reception or rejection of a book as canonical was determined by the writer's relation to ,christ1 so was it under the ,old by his relation to the theocracy4 ,the highest relation was held by ,moses1 its mediator4 ,he accordingly had the prophetical spirit in the fullest measure3 ,if there be a prophet among you1 ,i the ,lord will make myself known unto him in a vision1 and will speak unto him in a dream4 ,my servant ,moses is not so1 who is faithful in all mine house4 ,with him will ,i speak mouth to mouth1 even apparently1 and not in dark speeches2 and the similitude of the ,lord shall he behold4 ,numb4 #ab3f-h4 ,the next place was held by prophets expressly called and commissioned by ,god1 some of whom also1 as ,samuel1 administered the affairs of the theocracy4 ,finally1 there were the pious rulers whom ,god placed at the head of the covenant people1 and endowed with the spirit of prophecy1 such as ,david1 ,solomon1 and ,ezra4 ,to no class of men besides those just mentioned do the ,jewish rabbins ascribe the authorship of any book of the ,old ,testament1 and in this respect their judgment is undoubtedly right4 #i4 ,the inspiration of the books of the ,old ,testament is everywhere assumed by our ,lord and his apostles2 for they argue from them as possessing divine authority4 ,what is written in the law8 ,what saith the scripture8 ,all things must be fulfilled which were written in the law of ,moses1 and in the prophets1 and in the psalms concerning me2 ,this scripture must needs have been fulfilled1 which the ,holy ,ghost spake before concerning ,judas2 ,the scripture cannot be broken--all these and other similar forms of expression contain the full testimony of our ,lord and his apostles to the truth elsewhere expressly affirmed of the ,old ,testament1 that all scripture is given by inspiration of ,god1 #b ,tim4 #c3af1 and that the prophecy came not in the old time by the will of man3 but holy men of ,god spake as they were moved by the ,holy ,ghost4 #b ,peter #a3ba4 ,when the ,saviour asks the ,pharisees in reference to ,psalm #aaj1 ,how then doth ,david in spirit call him ,lord8 he manifestly does not mean that this particular psalm alone was written in spirit1 that is1 under the inspiration of the ,holy ,spirit2 but he ascribes to it the character which belongs to the entire book1 in common with the rest of ,scripture1 in accordance with the express testimony of ,david3 ,the ,spirit of the ,lord spake by me1 and his word was in my tongue4 #b ,sam4 #bc3b4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,evidences ,,internal ,,and ,,experimental4 #a4 ,the external evidences of revealed religion are1 in their proper place and sphere1 of the highest importance4 ,christianity rests not upon theory1 but upon historical facts sustained by an overwhelming mass of testimony4 ,it is desirable that every ,christian1 so far as he has opportunity1 should make himself acquainted with this testimony for the strengthening of his own faith and the refutation of gainsayers4 ,nevertheless1 many thousands of ,christians are fully established in the faith of the gospel who have but a very limited knowledge of the historical proofs by which its divine origin is supported4 ,to them the ,bible commends itself as the word of ,god by its internal character1 and the gospel as ,god's plan of salvation by their inward experience of its divine power1 and their outward observation of its power over the hearts and lives of all who truly receive it4 ,this is in accordance with the general analogy of ,god's works4 ,we might be assured beforehand that a system of religion having ,god for its author1 would shine by its own light1 and thus commend itself at once to the human understanding and conscience1 irrespective of all outward testimony to its truth4 ,although the internal evidences of ,christianity have already been considered to some extent in connection with those that are outward and historical1 it is desirable in the present closing chapter to offer some suggestions pertaining to the internal character of the ,bible as a whole1 and also to the testimony of ,christian experience1 individual and general4 #b4 ,to every unperverted mind the ,bible commends itself at once as the word of ,god by the wonderful view which it gives of his character and providence4 ,it exhibits one personal ,god who made and governs the world1 without the least trace of polytheism on the one hand1 or pantheism on the other--the two rocks of error upon which every other system of religion in the world has made shipwreck4 ,and this great ,spirit1 infinite1 eternal1 and unchangeable in his being1 wisdom1 power1 holiness1 justice1 goodness1 and truth1 is not removed to a distance from us1 but is ever nigh to each one of his creatures4 ,he is our ,father in heaven1 who cares for us and can hear and answer our prayers4 ,his providence extends to all things1 great and small4 ,he directs alike the sparrow's flight1 and the rise and fall of empires4 ,to the perfect view of ,god's character and government which the pages of the ,bible unfold1 no man can add anything1 and whoever takes any thing away only mars and mutilates it4 ,how now shall we explain the great fact that the ,hebrew people1 some thousands of years ago1 had this true knowledge of ,god and his providence1 while it was hidden from all other nations8 ,the ,bible gives the only reasonable answer3 ,god himself revealed it to them4 ,the superficial view which accounts for the pure monotheism of the ,hebrews from their peculiar national character1 is sufficiently refuted by their history4 ,notwithstanding the severe penalties with which the ,mosaic code of laws visited idolatrous practices in every form1 the people were perpetually relapsing into the idolatry of the surrounding nations1 and could be cured of this propensity only by the oft-repeated judgments of their covenant ,god4 #c4 ,next we have the wonderful code of morals contained in the ,bible4 ,of its perfection1 we in ,christian lands have but a dim apprehension1 because it is the only system of morals with which we are familiar2 but the moment we compare it with any code outside of ,christendom1 its supreme excellence at once appears4 ,it is a spiritual code1 made for the heart4 ,it proposes to regulate the inward affections of the soul1 and through them the outward life4 ,thus it lays the axe at the root of all sin4 ,it is a reasonable code1 giving to ,god the first place in the human heart1 and to man only a subordinate place4 ,its first and great commandment is1 ,thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart2 its second1 ,thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself4 ,thus it lays broad and deep the foundations of a righteous character4 ,if any moral proposition is self-evident1 it is that such a code as this1 which exalts ,god to the throne of the human soul and humbles man beneath his feet1 is not the offspring of human self-love4 ,if any one would know the difference between the ,bible and a human code of morals1 let him read ,cicero's treatise on ,duties1 perhaps the best system of ethics which pure heathenism ever produced1 but from which man's relation to deity is virtually left out4 ,it is a comprehensive code1 not insisting upon one or two favorite virtues1 but upon all virtues4 ,just as the light of the sun is white and glistering because it contains in itself1 in due proportion1 all the different sorts of rays1 so the morality of the ,bible shines forth1 like the sun1 with a pure and dazzling brightness1 because it unites in itself1 in just proportion1 all the duties which men owe to ,god and each other4 ,many who outwardly profess ,christianity do not make the precepts of the ,bible their rule of life1 or they do so only in a very imperfect way1 and thus scandal is brought upon the name of ,christ1 whose servants they profess to be4 ,but it is self-evident that he who obeys the ,bible in sincerity and truth is thus made a thoroughly good man2 good in his inward principles and feelings1 and good in his outward life2 good in his relations to ,god and man2 good in prosperity and adversity1 in honor and dishonor1 in life and death2 a good husband and father1 a good neighbor1 a good citizen4 ,if there is ever to be a perfect state of society on earth1 it must come from simple obedience to the precepts of the ,bible1 obedience full and universal4 ,no man can conceive of any thing more glorious and excellent than this4 ,we may boldly challenge the unbeliever to name a corrupt passion in the heart or a vicious practice in the life that could remain4 ,let every man love ,god with all his heart and his neighbor as himself1 and bolts and bars1 prisons and penitentiaries1 would be unnecessary4 ,one might safely journey around the world unarmed and unattended1 for every man would be a friend and brother4 ,glory to ,god in the highest1 and on earth peace1 good-will towards men1 would reign from pole to pole4 ,the whole earth would be at rest and be quiet3 it would break forth into singing4 ,that such a glorious result would certainly come from simple obedience to the precepts of the ,bible is undeniable4 ,and can any man persuade himself that this perfect code of morals comes not from heaven1 but from sinful man8 #d4 ,we have1 once more1 the wonderful harmony between the different parts of the ,bible1 written as it was in different and distant ages1 and by men who differed widely from each other in natural character and education1 and lived in very different states of society4 ,in outward form and institutions the manifestation of ,god has indeed undergone great changes2 for it has existed successively under the patriarchal1 the ,mosaic1 and the ,christian dispensations4 ,but if we look beneath the surface to the substance of religion in these different dispensations1 we shall find it always the same4 ,the ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 the ,god of ,moses1 ,samuel1 and ,david1 is also the ,god of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,while he changes from time to time the outward ordinances of his people1 he remains himself the same yesterday and to-day and for ever4 ,under the ,old ,testament1 not less than under the ,new1 he is the ,lord1 the ,lord ,god1 merciful and gracious1 long-suffering and abundant in goodness and truth1 keeping mercy for thousands1 forgiving iniquity1 transgression1 and sin1 and that will by no means clear the guilty4 ,exod4 #cd3f1 #g1 etc4 ,under the ,new ,testament1 not less than under the ,old1 he is to all the despisers of his grace a consuming fire1 ,heb4 #ab3bi2 and his ,son ,jesus ,christ1 whom he sent to save the world1 will be revealed hereafter in flaming fire1 taking vengeance on them that know not ,god1 and that obey not the gospel of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 #a ,thess4 #a3g1 #h4 ,if the ,new ,testament insists on the obedience of the heart1 and not of the outward letter alone1 the ,old ,testament teaches the same doctrine3 ,behold1 to obey is better than sacrifice1 and to hearken than the fat of rams4 #a ,sam4 #ae3bb4 ,thou desirest not sacrifice2 else would ,i give it3 thou delightest not in burnt offering4 ,the sacrifices of ,god are a broken spirit2 a broken and a contrite heart1 ,o ,god1 thou wilt not despise4 ,psa4 #ea3af1 #ag4 ,i will praise the name of ,god with a song1 and will magnify him with thanksgiving4 ,this also shall please the ,lord better than an ox or bullock that hath horns and hoofs4 ,psa4 #fi3cj1 #ca4 ,take thou away from me the noise of thy songs2 for ,i will not hear the melody of thy viols4 ,but let judgment run down as waters1 and righteousness as a mighty stream4 ,amos #e3bc1 #bd4 ,if the ,old ,testament insists on obedience to all ,god's commandments as an indispensable condition of salvation1 so does the ,new3 ,whosoever shall keep the whole law1 and offend in one point1 he is guilty of all1 ,james #b3aj2 ,if thy right eye offend thee1 pluck it out1 and cast it from thee3 for it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish1 and not that thy whole body should be cast into hell4 ,matt4 #e3bi1 etc4 ,the ,old ,testament1 as well as the ,new1 teaches the doctrine of regeneration and sanctification by the ,holy ,ghost3 ,create in me a clean heart1 ,o ,god1 and renew a right spirit within me1 ,psa4 #ea3aj4 ,then will ,i sprinkle clean water upon you1 and ye shall be clean3 from all your filthiness1 and from all your idols will ,i cleanse you4 ,a new heart also will ,i give you1 and a new spirit will ,i put within you3 and ,i will take away the stony heart out of your flesh1 and ,i will give you a heart of flesh4 ,and ,i will put my ,spirit within you1 and cause you to walk in my statutes1 and ye shall keep my judgments and do them4 ,ezek4 #cf3be-bg4 ,the ,old ,testament1 as well as the ,new1 denounces self-righteousness in every form1 and teaches men that they are saved not for the merit of their good works1 but through ,god's free mercy3 ,not for thy righteousness1 or for the uprightness of thy heart dost thou go in to possess their land1 ,deut4 #i3e2 ,not for your sakes do ,i this1 saith the ,lord ,god1 be it known unto you3 be ashamed and confounded for your own ways1 ,o house of ,israel4 ,ezekiel #cf3cb4 ,when the holy men of the ,old ,testament so often beseech ,god to hear and answer their prayers for his name's sake1 they renounce all claim to be heard on the ground of their own merit4 ,faith that works by love and purifies the heart from sin--this is the substance of the religion taught in the ,bible from ,genesis to ,revelation4 ,this wonderful unity of doctrine and spirit that pervades the books of the ,bible from first to last1 finds its natural explanation in the fact that they were all written by inspiration of ,god4 #e4 ,the ,bible is distinguished from all other books by its power over the human conscience4 ,the apostle says3 ,the word of ,god is quick and powerful1 and sharper than any two-edged sword1 piercing even to the dividing asunder of soul and spirit1 and of the joints and marrow1 and is a discerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart1 ,heb4 #d3ab2 and this declaration is confirmed by the experience of every thoughtful reader4 ,whoever studies the pages of the ,bible in an earnest spirit1 feels that in them ,one speaks who has a perfect understanding of his heart in its inmost workings2 one who knows not only what he is1 but also what he ought to be1 and who therefore speaks to him with authority4 ,the young are sometimes advised to study certain authors1 that they may thus gain a knowledge of men4 ,it cannot be denied that1 within the sphere of this world1 the knowledge of men which some of these writers possess is admirable4 ,but the ,bible contains not only all this knowledge in its most complete and practical form1 but also1 what is wanting in the authors referred to1 a perfect knowledge of men in their higher relation to ,god4 ,with wonderful accuracy does the ,bible describe men's character and conduct as citizens of this world4 ,but here it does not stop4 ,it regards them as subjects of ,god's everlasting government1 and thus as citizens of eternity also2 and it portrays in vivid and truthful colors the way in which they harden their hearts1 blind their minds1 and stupefy their consciences by their continued wilful resistance of ,god's claim to their supreme love and obedience4 ,in a word1 it describes men in their relation to ,god as well as to their fellow-men2 and every man who reads the description1 hears within his soul the still small voice of conscience saying1 ,thou art the man4 ,whence this all-comprehensive knowledge of man contained in the ,bible8 ,the answer is3 ,he who made man has described man in his own word with infallible accuracy2 because he knew all men1 and needed not that any should testify of man2 for he knew what was in man4 #f4 ,we come now to the argument from personal experience4 ,to receive ,christ in sincerity and truth1 is to know that his salvation is from ,god4 ,many thousands have thus a full and joyous conviction of the truth of ,christianity4 ,they were oppressed with a deep consciousness of guilt1 which no tears of sorrow or supposed good works could remove4 ,but they read in the ,holy ,scriptures that ,jesus is the ,lamb of ,god which taketh away the sin of the world4 ,they put their trust in his atoning sacrifice1 and thus obtained peace of conscience1 and joyous access in prayer to ,god as their ,father in heaven4 ,they were earthly in their affections1 and able therefore to render to ,god's holy and spiritual law only an obedience of the letter1 which they knew would not be acceptable4 ,but through faith in ,christ they have been lifted up to a holy and blessed communion with ,god1 and thus enabled to render to ,god's law an obedience of love in the spirit and not in the letter4 ,they were oppressed with a painful sense of the empty and unsatisfying nature of every thing earthly2 but they have found in ,christ and his glorious service an all-sufficient portion4 ,in a word1 they are assured that the gospel is from ,god1 because it meets all their wants as sinners4 ,they have the same evidence that ,god made the gospel for the immortal soul1 as that he made bread for the stomach1 air for the lungs1 and light for the eyes4 ,the sincere believer has in himself the witness that the gospel is from heaven1 for he is daily experiencing its healing1 strengthening1 and purifying power4 ,to tell him that the ,bible is a cunningly devised fable1 is like telling a man who daily feeds on the finest of the wheat1 and is nourished and strengthened by it1 that the field of golden grain which waves before his door is only wormwood and gall2 or that the pure water from the bosom of the earth which daily quenches his thirst is a deadly poison2 or that the blessed air of heaven which fans his lungs is a pestilential vapor4 ,not until error becomes the nutriment of the soul and truth its destruction1 can this argument from personal experience be set aside or gainsaid4 #g4 ,the argument from the character of ,jesus has already been considered at length in chap1 #d1 ,no4 #h4 ,it is sufficient to repeat here that the very description of such a character1 so gloriously perfect1 so far above all that the greatest minds of antiquity ever conceived1 is itself a proof of its reality4 ,very plain men may describe what they have actually seen and heard4 ,but that any man left to himself--and ,god would not help in a work of error and delusion--should have conceived of such a character as that of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 without the reality before him1 is impossible2 how much more that four unlettered men should have consistently carried out the conception in such a life as that recorded by the four evangelists4 #h4 ,passing now from individual to general experience1 we find another proof of the divine origin of the ,bible in the power of the gospel--which includes in itself the whole word of ,god--over the human heart4 ,this is closely connected with the preceding head1 since the ,christian's religion takes the shape of personal love towards the ,saviour--love which is awakened in the sinner's soul1 as the ,new ,testament teaches1 by the ,holy ,spirit revealing to him his lost condition and the character and offices of the ,redeemer1 whereby he is drawn into an inward spiritual union with him4 ,this love of ,jesus is the mightiest principle on earth for both doing and suffering4 ,the man of whose soul it has taken full possession is invincible1 not in his own strength1 but in the strength of ,him to whom he has given his supreme confidence and affection4 ,no hardships1 privations1 or dangers can deter him from ,christ's service2 no persecutions can drive him from it4 ,in the early days of ,christianity1 at the period of the ,reformation1 in many missionary fields in our own time1 not only strong men1 but tender women and children1 have steadfastly endured shame and suffering in every form--banishment and the spoiling of their goods1 imprisonment1 torture1 and death--for ,christ's sake4 ,in times of worldly peace and prosperity1 the power of this principle is dimly seen2 but were the ,christians of this day required1 under penalty of imprisonment1 confiscation1 and death1 to deny ,christ1 it would at once manifest itself4 ,many would apostatize1 because they are believers only in name2 but true believers would remain steadfast1 as in the days of old4 ,it is a fact worthy of special notice1 that persecution not only fails to conquer those who love ,jesus1 but it fails also to hinder others from embracing his religion4 ,it has first a winnowing power4 ,it separates from the body of the faithful those who are ,christians only in name4 ,then the manifestation of ,christian faith and patience by those who remain steadfast1 draws men from the world without to ,christ4 ,hence the maxim1 as true as trite1 ,the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church4 ,the ,christian religion at the beginning had no worldly advantages1 and it was opposed by all the power of imperial ,rome in alliance with the heathen priesthood4 ,had it been possible that any combination of men should crush it1 it must have perished at the outset2 but it only grew stronger in the midst of its fierce and powerful enemies4 ,it went through ten bloody persecutions1 conquering and to conquer1 until it overthrew paganism1 and became the established religion of the ,roman empire4 ,then it was not strengthened by its alliance with the state1 but only corrupted and shorn of its true power4 ,and so it has been ever since4 ,the gospel has always shown itself mightiest to subdue men to ,christ1 when it has been compelled to rely most exclusively on its own divinely furnished strength4 ,what the apostle said of himself personally1 the gospel which he preached can say with equal truth3 ,when ,i am weak1 then am ,i strong4 ,how shall we account for this fact8 ,the only reasonable explanation is1 that ,god is the author of the gospel1 and his power is in it1 so that it is able to overcome the world without any help from without4 ,were it the invention of man1 we might reasonably expect that it would be greatly strengthened by an alliance with the kings and rulers of the world1 instead of being thereby corrupted and weakened1 as we find to be the invariable result4 ,because ,god made the gospel1 and not men1 when it is left free to work according to his appointment1 it is mighty in its power over the human heart2 but the moment worldly men take it under their patronage1 that they may make it subservient to their worldly ends1 they bind it in fetters1 and would kill it1 had it not a divine and indestructible life4 #i4 ,we notice1 further1 that the same love of ,jesus which makes men invincible to the world without1 also enables them to conquer their own corrupt passions1 and this is the greater victory of the two4 ,it is easy to declaim on the sins and inconsistencies of visible ,christians4 ,the church of ,christ1 like every thing administered by men1 is imperfect4 ,unworthy men find their way into it1 making it1 as the great ,master foretold1 a field in which wheat and tares grow together4 ,nevertheless1 wherever the gospel is preached in its purity1 bright examples are found of its power to reclaim the vicious1 to make the proud humble1 and the earthly-minded heavenly4 ,it draws all who truly receive it1 by a gradual but certain process1 into a likeness to ,christ1 which is the sum of all goodness4 ,in proportion also as the principles of the gospel gain ground in any community1 they ennoble it1 purify it1 and inspire it with the spirit of truth and justice4 ,very imperfectly is our country pervaded by this good leaven4 ,yet it is this1 small as is its measure1 which makes the difference between the state of society here at home and in ,india or ,china4 ,many thousands who do not personally receive the gospel thus experience its elevating power4 ,they receive at its hand innumerable precious gifts without understanding or acknowledging the source from which they come4 #aj4 ,as a final argument1 may be named the power of the ,christian religion to purify itself from the corruptions introduced into it by men4 ,it is not alone from the world without that ,christ's church has been assailed4 ,corrupt men have arisen within her pale who have set themselves to deny or explain away her essential doctrines1 to change her holy practice1 or to crush and overlay her with a load of superstitious observances4 ,but the gospel cannot be destroyed by inward any more than by outward enemies4 ,from time to time it asserts its divine origin and invincible power1 by bursting the bands imposed on it by men1 and throwing off their human additions1 thus reappearing in its native purity and strength4 ,so it did on a broad scale at the era of the ,reformation1 and so it has often done since in narrower fields4 #aj4 ,let now the candid inquirer ask himself whether a book which gives such gloriously perfect views of ,god's character and government2 whose code of morals is so spotlessly pure that simple obedience to it is the sum of all goodness1 and would1 if full and universal1 make this world a moral paradise2 all whose parts1 though written in different and distant ages by men of such diversified character and training1 are in perfect harmony with each other2 which displays such a wonderful knowledge of man in all his relations to ,god and his fellow-men1 and therefore speaks with such authority and power to his conscience2 which reveals a religion that satisfies all the wants of those who embrace it1 that makes them victorious alike over outward persecution and inward sinful passion1 and that asserts its invincible power by throwing off from itself the corrupt additions of men--whether such a book can possibly have man for its author4 ,assuredly in character it resembles not sinful man1 but the holy ,god4 ,it must be from heaven1 for it is heavenly in all its features4 ,,part ,,ii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,prefatory ,,remarks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to consider at length all the questions which the spirit of modern inquiry has raised concerning the books of the ,old ,testament--their genuineness1 integrity1 date1 chronology1 and credibility2 their relation to science1 to profane history1 to each other1 and to the ,new ,testament--would far exceed the limits allowed by the plan of the present work4 ,to the ,pentateuch alone1 or even a single book of it1 as ,genesis or ,deuteronomy2 to the books of ,chronicles2 to ,isaiah or ,daniel1 a whole volume might be devoted without exhausting the subject4 ,in the present ,introduction to the books of the ,old ,testament1 the aim has been to give the results of biblical research1 ancient and modern1 with a concise statement of the lines of argument employed1 wherever this could be done without involving discussions intelligible only to those who are familiar with the original languages of ,scripture and the ancient versions4 ,for such discussions the biblical student is referred to the more extended ,introductions which abound at the present day4 ,the author has endeavored1 first of all1 to direct the reader's attention to the unity of ,scripture4 ,known unto ,god are all his works from the beginning of the world4 ,the plan of ,redemption is the very highest of these works1 and it constitutes a gloriously perfect whole1 gradually unfolding itself from age to age4 ,the earliest revelations have reference to all that follow4 ,the later revelations shed light on the earlier1 and receive light from them in return4 ,it is only when the ,scriptures are thus studied as a whole1 that any one part of them can be truly comprehended4 ,the effort has accordingly been made to show the relation of the ,old ,testament1 considered as a whole1 to the ,new2 then1 the relation of the several great divisions of the ,old ,testament--the law1 the historical books1 the prophets1 the poetical books--to each other1 and the place which each holds in the system of revelation2 and finally1 the office of each particular book1 with such notices of its authorship1 date1 general plan1 and contents1 as will prepare the reader to study it intelligently and profitably4 ,to all who would have a thorough and comprehensive knowledge of the ,new ,testament1 the diligent study of the preparatory revelation contained in the ,old1 is earnestly commended4 ,the present ,introduction will be followed by one to the ,new ,testament on the same general plan4 ,it is hardly necessary to add that for much of the materials employed1 in these two parts1 particularly what relates to ancient manuscripts1 the author is dependent on the statements of those who have had the opportunity of making original investigations4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 ,,first ,,division1 ,,general ,,introduction4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,names ,,and ,,external ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament #a4 ,the word ,bible comes to us from the ,greek 7ta biblia1 the books2 that is1 emphatically1 the sacred canonical books7 through the ,latin and ,norman ,french4 ,in the ancient ,greek and ,latin churches1 its use1 as a plural noun applied to the whole collection of sacred books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 can be traced as far back as the fifth century4 ,in the ,english1 as in all the modern languages of ,europe1 it has become a singular noun1 and thus signifies ,,the ,,book--the one book containing in itself all the particular books of the sacred canon4 ,in very ancient usage1 the word ,law 7,heb4 ,torah7 was applied to the five books of ,moses2 but there was no general term to denote the whole collection of inspired writings till after the completion of the canon of the ,old ,testament1 when they were known in ,jewish usage as3 ,the ,law1 the ,prophets1 and the ,writings 7see below1 ,no4 #e74 ,in accordance with the same usage1 the writers of the ,new ,testament speak of the law and the prophets1 and more fully1 the law of ,moses1 and the prophets1 and the psalms1 ,luke #bd3dd4 ,and they apply to the collected writings of the ,old ,testament1 as well as to particular passages1 the term the ,scripture1 that is1 the writings1 thus3 ,the ,scripture saith1 ,john #g3ch1 etc4 ,or they employ the plural number3 ,ye do err1 not knowing the ,scriptures1 ,matt4 #bb3bi1 etc4 ,once the epithet holy is added1 #b ,tim4 #c3ae4 ,in #b ,pet4 #c3af1 the term ,scriptures is applied to at least the epistles of ,paul2 apparently also to the other canonical writings of the ,new ,testament then extant4 ,in the usage of ,christian writers1 the application of this term to the books of the ,new ,testament soon became well established2 but the above is the only example of such an application that occurs in the ,new ,testament itself4 #b4 ,the terms ,old and ,new ,testament arose in the following way3 ,god's dealings with the ,israelitish people1 under both the patriarchs and ,moses1 took the form of a covenant2 that is1 not a mutual agreement as between two equal parties1 but an arrangement or dispensation1 in which ,god himself1 as the sovereign ,lord1 propounded to the chosen people certain terms1 and bound himself1 upon condition of the fulfilment of these terms1 to bestow upon them blessings temporal and spiritual4 ,now the ,greek word diatheke1 by which the ,septuagint renders the ,hebrew word for covenant1 signifies both covenant1 in the general sense above given1 and testament1 as being the final disposition which a man makes of his worldly estate4 ,the new covenant introduced by ,christ is1 in a sense1 a testament1 as being ratified by his bloody death4 ,matt4 #bf3bh2 ,mark #ad3bd2 ,luke #bb3bj4 ,so it is expressly called in the epistle to the ,hebrews1 #i3ae-ag1 where the new covenant1 considered in the light of a testament1 is contrasted with the old4 ,it was probably in connection with this view that the ,old ,latin version of the ,bible 7made in the ,old ,testament not from the original ,hebrew1 but from the ,greek ,septuagint7 everywhere rendered the ,greek word diatheke by the ,latin testamentum4 ,when ,jerome undertook the work of correcting this version1 he did not everywhere pursue the same plan4 ,the books of the ,old ,testament he rendered in general from the ,hebrew2 and here he employed for the ,hebrew word denoting covenant the appropriate ,latin words foedus and pactum4 ,but in the ,psalms1 and the whole ,new ,testament1 from deference to established usage1 he gave simply a revision of the ,old ,latin1 leaving the word testamentum1 by which that version had rendered the word diatheke1 covenant1 untouched4 ,hence in ,latin usage we have in the ,new ,testament the two covenants1 the old and the new1 expressed by the terms old testament 7vetus testamentum1 prius or primum testamentum7 and new testament 7novum testamentum71 and sometimes in immediate contrast with each other1 as in #b ,cor4 #c3f1 #ad2 ,heb4 #i3ae-ah4 ,the transfer of these terms from the covenants themselves to the writings which give an account of them was easy1 and soon became established in general usage4 ,hence the terms ,old and ,new ,testament for the two great divisions of the ,bible4 ,another ,latin term for the two great divisions of the ,bible was instrumentum1 instrument1 document2 a term applied to the documents or body of records relating to the ,roman empire1 and very appropriate1 therefore1 to the records of ,god's dealings with men4 ,but as early as the time of ,tertullian1 about the close of the second century1 the word testamentum1 testament1 was more in use4 ,see ,tertullian against ,marcion1 #d4 #a4 ,a striking example of the superior accuracy of ,jerome's independent version above his simple revision of the old ,latin is the passage ,jer4 #ca3ca-cc as compared with the quotation of the same1 ,heb4 #h3h-aj4 ,in the former1 where the translation is made immediately from the ,hebrew1 we read3 ,behold the days shall come1 saith the ,lord1 that ,i will make for the house of ,israel and the house of ,judah a new covenant 7foedus73 not according to the covenant 7pactum7 which ,i made with their fathers1 etc4 ,in the same passage1 as quoted in the epistle to the ,hebrews1 where we have only a revision of the old ,latin1 we read3 ,behold the days shall come1 saith the ,lord1 that ,i will accomplish for the house of ,israel and for the house of ,judah a new testament 7testamentum73 not according to the testament 7testamentum7 which ,i made for their fathers1 etc4 #c4 ,the unity of the ,bible has its ground only in divine inspiration4 ,so far as human composition is concerned1 both parts of it have a great variety of authors4 ,the writers of the ,old ,testament1 especially1 lived in different1 and some of them in very distant ages4 ,they were widely separated from each other in native character and endowments1 in education1 and in their outward circumstances and position in life4 ,it is of the highest importance that the student of ,scripture not only know these facts1 but ponder them long and carefully1 till he fully understands their deep significance4 ,he has been accustomed from childhood to see all the books of the ,bible comprised within the covers of a single volume4 ,he can hardly divest himself of the idea that their authors1 if not exactly contemporary1 must yet somehow have understood each other's views and plans1 and acted in mutual concert4 ,it is only by long contemplation that he is able to apprehend the true position which these writers held to each other1 separated from each other1 as they often were1 by centuries of time1 during which great changes took place in the social and political condition of the ,hebrew people4 ,then1 for the first time1 he begins to discern1 in the wonderful harmony that pervades the writings of the ,old ,testament1 taken as a whole1 the clear proofs of a superintending divine ,spirit2 and learns to refer this harmony to its true ground1 that holy men of ,god spake as they were moved by the ,holy ,ghost4 #b ,peter #a3ba4 ,according to the received chronology1 ,moses wrote the book of ,deuteronomy about #adea ,b4,c1 and ,malachi1 the last of the prophets1 wrote about #cig ,b4,c4 ,the difference1 then1 between the time of these two authors is #ajed years2 or say1 in round numbers1 about #ajjj years4 ,from ,moses to the anointing of ,david is1 according to the shorter chronology1 #chh years2 and from ,moses to the composition of the books of ,kings1 nearly nine centuries4 ,from ,joel to ,malachi we must assume a period of about #djj years1 within which space our present prophetical books were composed4 ,the earlier of the psalms written by ,david differ in time from those composed at the close of the captivity by about #ecj years4 ,let the reader who has been in the habit of passing from one book of the ,bible to another1 as if both belonged to the same age1 ponder well the meaning of these figures4 ,they confirm the arguments already adduced 7ch4 #ab1 ,no4 #d7 that the unity of ,scripture has its ground not in human concert1 but in the inspiration of the ,holy ,spirit4 #d4 ,the books of the ,old ,testament have been differently classified and arranged4 ,but in no system of distribution has the chronological order been strictly observed4 7,a47 ,the ,jewish classification and arrangement is as follows4 ,they first distribute the books of the ,old ,testament into three great classes1 the ,law1 the ,prophets1 and the ,writings2 that is1 the canonical writings not included in the other two divisions--the ,hagiographa 7holy writings71 as they are commonly designated at the present day4 ,the ,law is then subdivided into five books1 as we now have them2 for the names of which see the introduction to the ,pentateuch4 ,chap4 #ai1 ,no4 #a4 ,with reference to this five-fold division of the ,law1 the ,rabbins call it the five-fifths of the ,law1 each book being reckoned as one-fifth4 ,this term answers to the word ,pentateuch1 that is1 the five-fold book4 ,chap4 #i1 beginning4 ,the second great class consists of the so-called ,prophets4 ,these are first divided into the former and the latter ,prophets4 ,the former ,prophets consist of the historical books3 ,joshua1 ,judges1 ,samuel1 and ,kings1 in the order named4 ,the latter comprise the prophetical books in the stricter sense of the word1 with the exception of ,daniel2 and these are subdivided into the greater and the less4 ,the greater ,prophets are ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 and ,ezekiel4 ,the less are the twelve ,minor ,prophets from ,hosea to ,malachi1 in the same order as that followed in our ,english version4 ,the remaining books of the ,old ,testament constitute the third great class1 under the name of ,writings1 ,hagiographa2 and they are commonly arranged in the following order3 ,psalms1 ,proverbs1 ,job1 ,canticles1 ,ruth1 ,lamentations1 ,ecclesiastes1 ,esther1 ,daniel1 ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 ,chronicles4 ,these books naturally fall into three groups4 ,first1 devotional and didactic--the three so-called poetical books of ,psalms1 ,proverbs1 and ,job1 which have in ,hebrew a stricter rhythm2 secondly1 the five rolls--,canticles1 ,ruth1 ,lamentations1 ,ecclesiastes1 ,esther2 so called because written on five separate rolls for use in the synagogue service on the occasion of special festivals2 thirdly1 books that are chiefly of an historical character--,daniel1 ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 and ,chronicles4 ,the ,talmud arranges the ,greater ,prophets thus3 ,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 ,isaiah4 ,of the ,hagiographa1 various other arrangements1 ,masoretic and ,talmudic1 are given1 which it is not necessary here to specify4 ,that the writing of sacred history belonged to the prophetical office is clear from various scriptural notices4 ,compare #a ,chron4 #bi3bi2 #b ,chron1 #i3bi2 #ab3ae2 #bj3cd2 #bf3bb2 #cb3cb1 #cc3ai4 ,the narrative concerning ,sennacherib inserted in the second book of ,kings 7#ah3ac-ai3cg7 is manifestly from the pen of ,isaiah4 ,the ,rabbins rightly ascribed the composition of the historical as well as the other books which compose1 according to their division1 the ,prophets1 to prophetical men4 ,but the grounds upon which they separated from these certain books1 as1 for example1 ,daniel1 and placed them among the ,hagiographa1 are not clear4 ,some of the rabbins made the distinction to lie in the degree of inspiration1 ,moses enjoying it in the fullest measure 7,numb4 #ab3f-h71 the authors of the books which are classed among the prophets having the ,spirit of prophecy1 and those of the books belonging to the ,hagiographa simply the ,holy ,spirit 7the ,holy ,spirit1 but not in the degree necessary for prophetic revelation74 ,but this distinction is untenable4 ,who had the spirit of prophecy if not ,daniel8 ,in the opinion of some modern scholars1 they reckoned to the ,prophets only books written by men who were prophets in the stricter sense of the term2 that is1 men trained to the prophetical office1 and exercising it as their profession2 while the writings of men like ,david1 ,solomon1 and ,daniel1 who though they had the ,spirit of prophecy1 were yet in their office not prophets1 but rulers and statesmen1 were assigned to the ,hagiographa4 ,but this is inconsistent with the fact that the book of ,ruth 7which in respect to authorship must go with that of ,judges7 and also the book of ,lamentations are in the ,hagiographa4 ,others1 with more probability1 find the main ground of classification in the character of the writings themselves--the ,law1 as the foundation of the ,theocracy2 the ,prophets1 that record the history of the ,theocracy and make prophetic revelations concerning it2 the sacred ,writings1 occupied with the personal appropriation of the truths of revelation1 and as such exhibiting the religious life of the covenant people in its inward and outward form4 ,but even here we do not find perfect consistency4 7,b47 ,classification of the ,greek ,version of the ,seventy4 ,the ancient ,greek version of the ,old ,testament1 called the ,septuagint 7,latin ,septuaginta1 seventy71 because1 according to ,jewish tradition1 it was the work of seventy men1 interweaves the apocryphal with the canonical books4 ,its arrangement is as follows1 the apocryphal books and parts of books being indicated by italic letters4 ,we follow the edition of ,van ,ess from the ,vatican manuscript1 which omits the apocryphal ,prayer of ,manasseh3 #a4 ,genesis4 #b4 ,exodus4 #c4 ,leviticus4 #d4 ,numbers4 #e4 ,deuteronomy4 #f4 ,joshua4 #g4 ,judges4 #h4 ,ruth4 #i4 #a ,kings 7our #a ,samuel74 #aj4 #b ,kings 7our #b ,samuel74 #aa4 #c ,kings 7our #a ,kings74 #ab4 #d ,kings 7our #b ,kings74 #ac4 #a ,chronicles4 #ad4 #b ,chronicles4 #ae4 #a ,esdras4 #af4 #b ,esdras 7our ,ezra74 #ag4 ,nehemiah4 #ah4 ,tobit4 #ai4 ,judith4 #bj4 ,esther1 with apocryphal additions4 #ba4 ,job4 #bb4 ,psalms4 #bc4 ,proverbs4 #bd4 ,ecclesiastes4 #be4 ,canticles4 #bf4 ,wisdom of ,solomon4 #bg4 ,ecclesiasticus4 #bh4 ,hosea4 #bi4 ,amos4 #cj4 ,micah4 #ca4 ,joel4 #cb4 ,obadiah4 #cc4 ,jonah4 #cd4 ,nahum4 #ce4 ,habakkuk4 #cf4 ,zephaniah4 #cg4 ,haggai4 #ch4 ,zechariah4 #ci4 ,malachi4 #dj4 ,isaiah4 #da4 ,jeremiah4 #db4 ,baruch4 #dc4 ,lamentations4 #dd4 ,epistle of ,jeremiah4 #de4 ,ezekiel4 #df4 ,daniel1 with apocryphal additions--,song of the ,three ,children in the ,furnace1 ,history of ,susannah1 ,story of ,bel and the ,dragon4 #dg4 #a ,maccabees4 #dh4 #b ,maccabees4 #di4 #c ,maccabees4 ,the arrangement of books in the ,latin ,vulgate agrees with that of the ,septuagint with the following exceptions3 the two canonical books of ,ezra and ,nehemiah appear together1 as in the ,septuagint1 but under the titles of #a ,esdras and #b ,esdras4 ,next follow the two apocryphal books of ,esdras 7the latter wanting in the ,septuagint71 under the titles of #c ,esdras and #d ,esdras4 ,the ,greater ,prophets1 with ,lamentations after ,jeremiah and ,daniel after ,ezekiel1 are inserted before the twelve ,minor ,prophets1 which last stand in the order followed in our version4 ,throwing out of account1 therefore1 the apocryphal books1 the order of the ,vulgate is that followed by our ,english ,bible4 ,from the above it is manifest that in neither the ,hebrew1 the ,greek1 nor the ,latin arrangement is the order of time strictly followed4 ,the ,hebrew1 for example1 to say nothing of the ,psalms1 which were written in different ages1 throws into the ,hagiographa ,ruth1 ,job1 ,proverbs1 etc41 which are older than any of the so-called latter prophets4 ,the ,hebrew places the books of ,kings1 and the ,greek and ,latin not only these1 but also the books of ,chronicles1 ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 and ,esther1 before all the proper prophetical books1 though it is well known that several of these were much earlier4 ,in the ,hebrew arrangement1 the three ,greater ,prophets precede all the ,minor ,prophets1 though several of the latter were earlier than ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel1 and even ,isaiah4 ,in the ,greek1 on the contrary1 ,isaiah and ,jeremiah1 as well as ,ezekiel1 are placed after even the prophets of the ,restoration4 ,the biblical student should carefully remember these facts4 ,he must not hastily assume that the books of the ,old ,testament stand in the order in which they were written1 but must determine the age of each for itself1 according to the best light that he can obtain4 ,see further in the introductions to the several books4 #e4 ,in high antiquity1 the continuous mode of writing1 7scriptio continua17 without divisions between the words1 was common4 ,we cannot indeed infer1 from the continuous writing of the oldest manuscripts of the ,new ,testament1 that the same method prevailed in the ancient ,hebrew writing2 for in very ancient inscriptions and manuscripts1 belonging to different languages1 the words are distinguished from each other more or less completely by points4 ,yet the neglect of these is common4 ,in most ,greek and ,phoenician inscriptions there is no division of words4 ,the translators of the ,septuagint may be reasonably supposed to have employed the best manuscripts at their command4 ,yet their version shows that in these the words were either not separated at all1 or only partially4 ,the complete separation of words by intervening spaces did not take place till after the introduction of the ,assyrian1 or square character4 ,ch4 #ad1 ,no4 #b4 ,with the separation is connected the use of the so-called final letters1 that is1 forms of certain letters employed exclusively at the ends of words4 #f4 ,a very ancient ,jewish division of the sacred text is into open and closed sections4 ,the former1 which are the larger of the two1 are so named because in the ,hebrew manuscripts1 and in some printed editions1 the remainder of the line at their close is left open1 the next section beginning with a new line4 ,the closed sections1 on the contrary1 are separated from each other only by a space in the middle of a line--shut in on either hand4 ,the origin of these sections is obscure4 ,they answer in a general way to our sections and paragraphs1 and are older than the ,talmud1 which contains several references to them1 belonging at least to the earliest time when the sacred books were read in public4 ,davidson1 ,biblical ,criticism1 vol4 #a1 ch4 #e4 ,different from these1 and later in their origin1 are the larger sections of the ,law1 called ,parshiyoth 7from the singular ,parashah1 section71 which have exclusive reference to the reading of the ,law in the synagogue service4 ,these are fifty-four in number1 one for each ,sabbath of the ,jewish intercalary year1 while on common years two of the smaller sections are united4 ,corresponding to these sections of the ,law are sections from the ,prophets1 7the former and latter1 according to the ,jewish classification17 called ,haphtaroth1 embracing1 however1 only selections from the prophets1 and not the whole1 as do the sections of the ,law4 ,the ,jewish tradition is that this custom was first introduced during the persecution of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 7about #afg ,b4,c417 because the reading of the ,law had been prohibited by him4 ,but this account of the matter is doubted by many4 ,in the ,pentateuch1 the smaller sections called open and closed are indicated1 the former by the ,hebrew letter ,hebrew3 ,p1 that is1 ,p1 the initial letter of the word pethuhah1 open2 the latter by the ,hebrew letter ,hebrew3 ,s,s1 the first letter of the word sethumah1 closed4 ,the larger sections1 arranged for the reading of the ,law in the synagogues1 are indicated by three ,hebrew3 ,p's or three ,hebrew3 ,s's1 according as they coincide at their beginning with an open or closed section4 ,in the other portions of the sacred text these divisions are simply indicated by the appropriate spaces4 ,but some printed editions do not observe the distinction between the two in respect to space1 so that the open and closed sections are confounded with each other4 #g4 ,chapters and ,verses4 ,the division of the poetical books and passages of the ,old ,testament into separate lines1 ,hebrew1 pesukim1 7answering in general to our half-verses1 sometimes to the third of a verse17 is very ancient1 if not primitive4 ,it is found in the poetical passages of the ,law and the historical books1 7,exod41 ch4 #ae2 ,deut41 ch4 #cb2 ,judges1 ch4 #e2 #b ,sam4 ch4 #bb17 and belonged originally to the three books of ,job1 ,psalms1 and ,proverbs1 which alone the ,hebrews reckon as poetical4 ,see below1 ,ch4 #ba1 ,no4 #a4 ,the division of the whole ,old ,testament into verses1 7likewise called by the ,hebrews pesukim17 is also the work of ,jewish scholars4 ,it existed in its completeness in the ninth century1 and must have had its origin much earlier in the necessity that grew out of the public reading and interpretation of the sacred books in the synagogue service4 ,in the ,hebrew text the verses are distinguished by two points called soph-pasuk 7371 except in the synagogue rolls1 where1 according to ancient usage1 this mark of distinction is omitted4 ,the present division into chapters is much later1 and is the work of ,christian scholars4 ,by some it is ascribed to ,stephen ,langton1 archbishop of ,canterbury1 who died in #abbg2 by others to ,cardinal ,hugo de ,st4 ,cher of the same century4 ,the ,jews transferred it from the ,latin ,vulgate to the ,hebrew text4 ,there are1 however1 some discrepancies between the chapters of the ,hebrew text and those of the ,vulgate and our ,english version4 ,the division of the sacred text into chapters and verses is indispensable for convenience of reference4 ,but the student should remember that these distinctions are wholly of human origin1 and sometimes separate passages closely connected in meaning4 ,the first verse1 for example1 of ,isaiah1 ch4 #d1 is immediately connected in sense with the threatenings against the daughters of ,zion contained in the close of the preceding chapter ,in the beginning of ch4 #aa of the same book1 the words3 ,and there shall come forth a rod out of the stem of ,jesse1 and a branch shall grow out of his roots1 contrast the ,branch of the ,messiah with the ,assyrian bough1 the lopping off of which has just been foretold2 chap4 #aj3cc1 #cd4 ,the last three verses1 again1 of ,isaiah1 ch4 #eb1 evidently belong to the following chapter4 ,the connections of the sacred text1 therefore1 must be determined independently of these human distinctions4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,original ,,text ,,and ,,its ,,history4 #a4 ,the original language of the ,old ,testament is ,hebrew1 with the exception of certain portions of ,ezra and ,daniel and a single verse of ,jeremiah1 7,ezra #d3h-f3ah2 #g3ab-bf2 ,dan4 #b3d1 from the middle of the verse to end of chap4 #g2 ,jer4 #aj3aa17 which are written in the cognate ,chaldee language4 ,the ,hebrew belongs to a stock of related languages commonly called ,shemitic1 because spoken mainly by the descendants of ,shem4 ,its main divisions are3 7#a17 the ,arabic1 having its original seat in the southeastern part of the ,shemitic territory1 and of which the ,a,ethiopic is a branch2 7#b17 the ,aramaean in the north and northeast1 comprising the eastern ,aramaean or ,chaldee1 and the western or ,syriac2 7#c17 the ,hebrew1 occupying a middle place between the two4 ,the ,samaritan is essentially ,aramaean1 but with an intermixture of ,hebrew forms2 the ,phoenician1 or ,punic1 on the other hand1 is most closely allied to the ,hebrew4 ,all these languages1 with the exception of the ,a,ethiopic1 are written from right to left1 and exhibit many peculiarities of orthography and grammatical forms and structure4 #b4 ,the ,hebrew characters in present use1 called the ,assyrian1 or square writing1 are not those originally employed4 ,the earlier form is undoubtedly represented by the inscriptions on the coins struck by the ,maccabees1 of which the letters bear a strong resemblance to the ,samaritan and ,phoenician characters4 ,the ,jewish tradition is that the present square character was introduced by ,ezra1 and that it was of ,assyrian origin4 ,the question of the correctness of this tradition has been much discussed4 ,some wholly reject it1 and hold that the present square writing came by a gradual process of change from a more ancient type4 ,see ,davidson's ,bib4 ,crit41 vol4 ,i1 ch4 #c4 ,that the present square writing existed in our ,saviour's day has been argued with much force from ,matth4 #e3ah1 where the ,saviour says3 ,till heaven and earth pass1 one jot 7iota7 or one tittle 7keraia7 shall in no wise pass from the law1 till all be fulfilled4 ,the iota 7,hebrew yod7 is the letter i or y1 which in the square writing is the smallest in the alphabet 7,hebrew3 y71 but not in the ancient ,hebrew1 ,phoenician1 or ,samaritan4 ,the keraia1 little turn1 is that which distinguishes one letter from another2 as ,hebrew3 d1 d1 from ,hebrew3 r1 r2 or ,hebrew3 b1 b1 from ,hebrew3 k1 k4 ,see ,alford on ,matth4 #e3ah4 7,the recent discovery in the ,crimea of inscriptions on the tombs of ,caraite ,jews1 some of them dating back1 it is alleged1 to the first century1 proves that the ,assyrian or square character was then in use4 ,in these inscriptions the ,yod 7iota7 is represented by a simple point4 ,see ,alexander's ,kitto1 vol4 #c1 p4 #aagc47 ,the ,rabbinic is a modification of the ,assyrian or square writing1 for the purpose of giving it a more cursive character4 #c4 ,the ,hebrew alphabet1 like all the other ,shemitic alphabets--with the exception of the ,a,ethiopic1 which is syllabic1 the vowels being indicated by certain modifications in the forms of the consonants--was originally a skeleton alphabet1 an alphabet of consonants1 in which1 however1 certain letters1 called vowel-letters1 performed in a measure the office of vowels4 ,the ,shemite did not separate the vowels from the consonants1 and express them1 as we do1 by separate signs4 ,he rather conceived of the vowels as inhering in the consonants--as modifications in the utterance of the consonants1 which the reader could make for himself4 ,various particulars in respect to the pronunciation of certain consonants were1 in like manner1 left to the reader's own knowledge4 ,for example1 the three ,hebrew letters1 ,hebrew3 sh1 sh2 ,hebrew3 m1 m2 ,hebrew3 r1 r1 7,hebrew3 shmr1 to be read from right to left17 might be pronounced1 shamar1 he kept2 shemor1 keep thou2 shomer1 keeping--the reader determining from the connection which of these forms should be used1 just as we decide in ,english between the different pronunciations of the word bow4 ,as long as the ,hebrew remained a living language1 that is1 the language of the masses of the people1 this outline alphabet was sufficient for all practical purposes4 ,the modern ,arabs read without difficulty their ordinary books1 which omit1 in like manner1 the signs for the vowels4 ,the regularity of structure which belongs to the ,shemitic languages generally1 makes this omission less inconvenient for them than a like omission would be for us in our western tongues4 #d4 ,during the long ,babylonish captivity the mass of the ,jewish people1 who were born and educated in ,babylon and the adjacent regions1 adopted of necessity the language of the country2 that is1 the ,aramaean or ,chaldee language4 ,after the exile1 the ,hebrew was indeed spoken and written by the prophets and learned men1 but not by the people at large4 ,in ,nehemiah #h3h we are told that they read in the book in the law of ,god distinctly1 and gave the sense1 and caused them to understand the reading4 ,this has been explained by some as meaning simply that they expounded to them the sense4 ,but the more natural meaning is that they interpreted to the people the words read from the law4 ,we find1 soon after the captivity at least1 the old ,hebrew supplanted as a living language among the people at large by the ,aramaean or ,chaldee4 ,why not date the change from the latter part of the captivity itself8 ,it was natural that the prophets and historians1 all of whom wrote soon after the exile1 should employ the sacred language of their fathers4 ,this fact cannot be adduced as a valid argument that the body of the people continued to speak ,hebrew4 ,the incorporation1 on the other hand1 of long passages in ,chaldee into the books of ,daniel and ,ezra implies at least that this language was known to the people at large4 ,as to the children spoken of in ,neh4 #ac3bd1 who could not speak in the ,jews' language1 but according to the language of each people--the people1 to wit1 to which their mothers belonged--the ,jews' language here is probably the language used by the ,jews1 as distinguished from that used by the people of ,ashdod1 ,ammon1 and ,moab4 ,keil1 ,introduction to ,old ,testament1 ,sec4 #ah4 #e4 ,after the ,hebrew had ceased to be the language of the common people1 its traditional pronunciation was carefully preserved for many successive centuries in the synagogue-reading4 ,it was not till several centuries after ,christ 7somewhere between the sixth and the tenth centuries7 that the vowel-signs and other marks of distinction were added in order to perpetuate1 with all possible accuracy1 the solemn traditional pronunciation of the synagogue4 ,this work is ascribed to learned ,jews of ,tiberias1 called ,masoretes1 from ,masora1 tradition2 and the ,hebrew text thus furnished by them is called the ,masoretic1 in distinction from the unpointed text1 which latter is1 according to ,jewish usage1 retained in the synagogue-rolls4 ,from reverence to the word of ,god1 the punctuators 7as these men are also called7 left the primitive text in all cases undisturbed1 simply superadding to it their marks of distinction4 ,after giving with great minuteness the different vowel-signs and marks 7commonly called diacritical7 for the varying pronunciation of the consonants1 they superadded a complicated system of accents4 ,these serve the threefold office of guides in cantillating the sacred text 7according to ancient usage in the synagogue-reading72 of indicating the connection in meaning among the words and clauses2 and of marking1 though with certain exceptions1 the tone-syllables of words4 ,in addition to all the above1 they added a mass of notes1 partly of a critical and partly of a grammatical character1 relating to various readings1 grammatical forms and connections1 modes of orthography1 and the like4 ,these are called collectively the ,masorah1 of which there is a fuller ,masorah called the greater 7found only in ,rabbinical ,bibles71 and a briefer1 called the less1 the main part of which is found in common editions of the ,hebrew ,bible4 ,to illustrate the ,masoretic as contrasted with the unpointed text1 we give the first verse of ,genesis1 first1 in its simple unpointed form2 secondly1 with the vowel-signs and diacritical marks for the consonants2 thirdly1 with both these and the accents1 the last being the complete ,masoretic text4 ,hebrew3 br'shit br' 'lhim et hshmym vet h'rts ,hebrew3 bere'shit bara' 'elohim et hashamayim veet ha'arets ,hebrew3 o bere'shit bara' 'elohim et hashamayim veet ha'arets ha-arets4 ve-eth hasshamayim eth elohim bara ,bereshith the-earth4 and-it the heavens them ,god created ,in-the-beginning ,the round circle above the initial letter in the third line refers to a marginal note of the ,masorah indicating that it is to be written large4 ,respecting the origin and antiquity of the ,hebrew points a warm controversy existed in former times4 ,some maintained that they were coeval with the language itself2 others that they were first introduced by ,ezra after the ,babylonish captivity4 ,but their later origin--somewhere between the sixth and tenth centuries--is now generally conceded4 ,it is further agreed that their inventors were able scholars1 thoroughly acquainted as well with the genius and structure of the language as with the traditional pronunciation of the synagogue2 and that they have given a faithful representation of this pronunciation1 as it existed in their day4 ,their judgment1 therefore1 though not invested with any divine authority1 is very valuable4 ,it represents a tradition1 it is true2 but a tradition of the oldest and most important character4 ,horne's ,introduction1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ae1 edition of #ahfj4 #f4 ,the deep reverence of the ,jews for their sacred books manifests itself in their numerous rules for the guidance of copyists in the transcription of the rolls designed for use in the synagogue service4 ,they extend to every minute particular--the quality of the ink and the parchment 7which latter must always be prepared by a ,jew from the skin of a clean animal1 and fastened by strings made from the skins of clean animals72 the number1 length1 and breadth of the columns2 the number of lines in each column1 and the number of words in each line4 ,no word must be written till the copyist has first inspected it in the example before him1 and pronounced it aloud2 before writing the name of ,god he must wash his pen2 all redundance or defect of letters must be carefully avoided3 prose must not be written as verse1 or verse as prose2 and when the copy has been completed1 it must be examined for approval or rejection within thirty days4 ,superstitious1 and even ridiculous1 as these rules are1 we have in them a satisfactory assurance of the fidelity with which the sacred text has been perpetuated4 ,though their date may be posterior to the age of the ,talmudists 7between #bjj and #ejj after ,christ71 the spirit of reverence for the divine word which they manifest goes far back beyond this age4 ,we see it1 free from these later superstitious observances1 in the transactions recorded in the eighth chapter of ,nehemiah1 when ,ezra opened the book of the law in the sight of all the people1 and when he opened it1 all the people stood up4 ,the early history of the sacred text is confessedly involved in great obscurity2 but in the profound reverence with which the ,jews have ever regarded it since the captivity1 we have satisfactory proof that it has come down to us1 in all essential particulars1 as ,ezra left it4 ,of the primitive text before the days of ,ezra and his associates we have but a few brief notices in the historical books4 ,but in the fidelity and skill of ,ezra1 who was a ready scribe in the law of ,moses1 which the ,lord ,god of ,israel had given1 as well as in the intelligence and deep earnestness of the men associated with him1 we have a reasonable ground of assurance that the sacred books which have come down to us through their hands contain1 in all essential particulars1 the primitive text in a pure and uncorrupt form4 #g4 ,as to the age of ,hebrew manuscripts1 it is to be noticed that not many have come down to us from an earlier century than the twelfth4 ,in this respect there is a striking difference between them and the ,greek and ,latin manuscripts of the ,new ,testament1 a few of which are as old as the fourth and fifth centuries1 and quite a number anterior to the tenth4 ,the oldest known ,hebrew manuscript1 on the contrary1 is a ,pentateuch roll on leather1 now at ,odessa1 which1 if the subscription stating that it was corrected in the year #ehj can be relied on1 belongs to the sixth century4 ,one of ,de ,rossi's manuscripts is supposed to belong to the eighth century1 and there are a few of the ninth and tenth1 and several of the eleventh4 ,bishop ,walton supposes that after the ,masoretic text was fully settled1 the ,jewish rulers condemned1 as profane and illegitimate1 all the older manuscripts not conformed to this3 whence1 after a few ages1 the rejected copies mostly perished4 ,the existing ,hebrew manuscripts give the ,masoretic text with but little variation from each other4 ,earnest effort has been made to find a reliable ante-,masoretic text1 but to no purpose4 ,the search in ,china has thus far been fruitless4 ,when ,dr4 ,buchanan in #ahjf brought from ,india a synagogue-roll which he found among the ,jews of ,malabar1 high expectations were raised4 ,but it is now conceded to be a ,masoretic roll1 probably of ,european origin4 ,respecting the manuscripts of the ,samaritan ,pentateuch1 see below1 ,no4 #i4 7,a synagogue-roll has recently been discovered in the ,crimea of the date answering to ,a4,d4 #dhi4 ,see ,alexander's ,kitto1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #aagb-e47 #h4 ,in respect to form1 ,hebrew manuscripts fall into two great divisions1 public and private4 ,the public manuscripts consist of synagogue-rolls carefully written out on parchment1 as already described1 without vowel-points or divisions of verses4 ,the ,law is written on a single roll2 the sections from the prophets 7,haphtaroth1 ch4 #ab4 #f7 and the ,five ,rolls--,canticles1 ,ruth1 ,lamentations1 ,ecclesiastes1 ,esther 7ch4 #ab4 #d7--;each on separate rolls4 ,the private manuscripts are written with leaves in book form--folio1 quarto1 octavo1 and duodecimo2 mostly on parchment1 but some of the later on paper4 ,the poetical passages are generally arranged in hemistichs2 the rest is in columns which vary according to the size of the page4 ,the text and points were always written separately2 the former with a heavier1 the latter with a lighter pen1 and generally with different ink4 ,the square or ,assyrian character is employed as a rule1 but a few are written in the rabbinic character4 ,the ,chaldee paraphrase 7less frequently some other version7 may be added4 ,the margin contains more or less of the ,masorah2 sometimes prayers1 psalms1 rabbinical commentaries1 etc4 #i4 ,there is also a ,samaritan ,pentateuch2 that is1 a ,hebrew ,pentateuch written in the ancient ,samaritan characters1 and first brought to light in #afaf1 respecting the origin of which very different opinions are held4 ,some suppose that the ,samaritans received it as an inheritance from the ten tribes2 others that it was introduced at the time of the founding of the ,samaritan temple on ,mount ,gerizim2 others that it was brought by the ,israelitish priest sent to instruct the ,samaritans in the knowledge of ,god1 #b ,kings #ag3bg1 #bh4 ,it is agreed among biblical scholars that its text has been subjected to many alterations which greatly impair its critical authority4 ,these1 however1 are not sufficient to account for its remarkable agreement with the ,septuagint version against the ,masoretic text1 in numerous readings1 some of them of importance4 ,the explanation of this phenomenon must be the agreement of the original ,samaritan codex with the manuscripts from which the ,alexandrine version was executed4 ,probably both were of ,egyptian origin4 ,see ,alexander's ,kitto1 art4 ,samaritan ,pentateuch4 ,in a brief compend1 like the present work1 it is not thought necessary to notice particularly the printed editions of the ,hebrew ,bible4 ,the reader will find an account of them in the ,bibliographical ,list appended to the fourth volume of ,horne's ,introduction1 edition of #ahfj4 ,the text of ,van der ,hooght's ,hebrew ,bible1 7,amsterdam and ,utrecht1 #agje17 which was chiefly based on the earlier text of ,athias1 7,amsterdam1 #affg17 is generally followed at the present day1 and may be regarded as the received text of the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,formation ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,hebrew ,,canon4 #a4 ,the ,greek word canon 7originally a straight rod or pole1 measuring-rod1 then rule7 denotes that collection of books which the churches receive as given by inspiration of ,god1 and therefore as constituting for them a divine rule of faith and practice4 ,to the books included in it the term canonical is applied4 ,the ,canon of the ,old ,testament1 considered in reference to its constituent parts1 was formed gradually2 formed under divine superintendence by a process of growth extending through many centuries4 ,the history of its formation may be conveniently considered under the following divisions3 7#a17 the ,pentateuch2 7#b17 the historical books2 7#c17 the prophetical books in the stricter sense of the term2 7#d17 a somewhat miscellaneous collection of books which may be designated in a general way as poetical4 ,i4 ,,the ,,pentateuch4 #b4 ,in the name applied to the ,pentateuch--the book of the law1 and more fully1 the book of the law of ,moses1 the book of the law of ,moses1 which the ,lord had commanded to ,israel--we have from the beginning the general idea of the canon4 ,a canonical writing is one that contains a communication from ,god to men1 and has therefore the impress of divine authority4 ,in its outward form it may be preceptive1 historical1 or meditative4 ,but in all these different modes it still reveals to men ,god's character1 and the duties which he requires of them4 ,the ,hebrews never admitted to the number of their sacred books a writing that was secular in its character4 ,even those who deny the canonical authority of certain parts of the ,old ,testament acknowledge that the ,jews received these parts because they believed them to be of a sacred character4 #c4 ,in ,deut4 #ca3i-ac1 #bd-bf2 #ag3ah1 #ai1 we read3 ,and ,moses wrote this law1 and delivered it unto the priests the sons of ,levi1 which bare the ark of the covenant of the ,lord1 and unto all the elders of ,israel4 ,and ,moses commanded them1 saying1 ,at the end of every seven years1 in the solemnity of the year of release1 in the feast of tabernacles1 when all ,israel is come to appear before the ,lord thy ,god in the place which he shall choose1 thou shalt read this law before all ,israel in their hearing4 ,gather the people together1 men1 and women1 and children1 and thy stranger that is within thy gates1 that they may hear1 and that they may learn1 and fear the ,lord your ,god1 and observe to do all the words of this law3 and that their children which have not known anything1 may hear1 and learn to fear the ,lord your ,god1 as long as ye live in the land whither ye go over ,jordan to possess it3 and it came to pass1 when ,moses had made an end of writing the words of this law in a book1 until they were finished1 that ,moses commanded the ,levites1 which bare the ark of the covenant of the ,lord1 saying1 ,take this book of the law1 and put it in the side 7that is1 not within1 but by the side4 ,compare ,josh4 #ab3i2 ,ruth #b3ad2 #a ,sam4 #bj3be2 ,psa4 #ia3g2 where the same word is used in the original7 of the ark of the covenant of the ,lord your ,god1 that it may be there for a witness against thee2 and it shall be when he--the king whom the ,israelites in some future age shall set over themselves--sitteth upon the throne of his kingdom1 that he shall write him a copy of this law in a book out of that which is before the priests the ,levites3 and it shall be with him1 and he shall read therein all the days of his life2 that he may learn to fear the ,lord his ,god1 to keep all the words of this law and the statutes1 to do them4 ,these passages are of the weightiest import2 for they teach us how the nucleus of the canon of the ,old ,testament was formed1 and give us all the particulars that enter into the idea of a canonical writing4 ,it is given by ,god as an authoritative rule of faith and practice2 it is committed to the custody of his people through their recognized officers1 and that for all future time2 it is to be published to the people at large1 and diligently studied by the rulers1 that they and the people together may know and do the will of ,god4 ,it is not necessary to decide the question how much is included in the words this book of the law1 ,deut4 #ca3bf1 whether the whole ,pentateuch1 or only the book of ,deuteronomy4 ,the arguments to show that the four preceding books came1 in all essential respects1 from the pen of ,moses have been already given 7,ch4 #i1 ,nos4 #g-i71 and need not be here repeated4 ,we only add that even if the reference is to ,deuteronomy alone1 as some suppose1 the rule for this book would naturally be the rule for all the previous writings4 ,they also would be laid up by the side of the ark2 for it is plain that the priests and ,levites1 who had charge of the sanctuary1 were made the keepers of the sacred writings generally4 ,as a matter of simple convenience the book of ,deuteronomy was written on a separate roll 7in a book1 ,deut4 #ca3bd74 ,but if this book1 when finished1 was laid up with the earlier portions of the law at the side of the ark1 so as to constitute with them a single collection1 and if1 as we may reasonably suppose1 ,moses1 in writing the book of ,deuteronomy1 contemplated such a collection of all the parts of the law into one whole2 then1 when the law is mentioned1 whether in ,deuteronomy or in the later books1 we are to understand the whole law1 unless there be something in the context to limit its meaning1 as there is1 for example1 in ,joshua #h3cb compared with ,deut4 #bg3a-h4 ,the command to read this law before all ,israel in their hearing1 at the end of every seven years1 in the solemnity of the year of release1 in the feast of tabernacles1 was understood in the days of ,ezra and ,nehemiah of the whole law1 and not of ,deuteronomy alone 7,ch4 #i1 ,no4 #d72 and so ,josephus plainly understood it3 ,but when the multitude is assembled in the holy city at the septennial sacrifices on the occasion of the feast of tabernacles1 let the high priest1 standing on a lofty stage whence he can be plainly heard1 read the laws to all4 ,antiq4 #d4h1 #ab4 ,the laws1 in the usage of ,josephus1 naturally mean the whole collection of laws4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,historical ,,books4 #d4 ,the history of these is involved in obscurity4 ,in respect to most of them we know not the authors1 nor the exact date of their composition4 ,there are1 however1 two notices that shed much light on the general history of the earlier historical books4 ,in the last chapter of the book of ,joshua1 after an account of the renewal of the covenant at ,shechem1 it is added3 ,and ,joshua wrote these words in the book of the law of ,god1 and took a great stone1 and set it up there under an oak that was by the sanctuary of the ,lord4 ,josh4 #bd3bf4 ,again1 upon the occasion of the establishment of the kingdom under ,saul1 we are told that ,samuel told the people the manner of the kingdom1 and wrote it in a book1 and laid it up before the ,lord4 #a ,sam4 #aj3be4 ,from the first of these passages we learn that a theocratic man after ,moses1 who had the spirit of prophecy1 connected his writings 7or at least one portion of them7 with the law4 ,this addition by ,joshua1 though never formally regarded as a part of the law1 virtually belonged to it1 since it contained a renewal of the covenant between ,god and his people4 ,from the second passage we learn that the place for other important documents pertaining to the theocracy was before the ,lord1 where the law was deposited4 ,hence we infer with much probability that1 besides the addition made to the book of the law of ,god1 important historical writings1 proceeding from prophetical men1 like ,joshua and ,samuel1 were in process of collection at the sanctuary all the time from ,moses to ,samuel4 #e4 ,if now we examine the books of ,joshua and ,judges1 we must be satisfied that the men who compiled them made use of such materials4 ,in the book of ,joshua is recorded1 with much detail1 the allotment of the land of ,canaan among the several tribes4 ,a document of this nature must have been written at the time1 and by ,joshua himself1 or under his immediate direction4 ,the same may be reasonably supposed of other portions of the book4 ,if then it was put into its present form after the death of ,joshua1 as some suppose1 the materials must still have been furnished by him to a great extent4 ,the book of ,judges covers a period of more than three centuries4 ,who composed it we do not know1 but the materials employed by him must have existed1 in part at least1 in a written form4 ,the book of ,ruth may be regarded as an appendix to that of the ,judges4 #f4 ,the two books of ,samuel 7which originally constituted one whole7 bring down the history of the ,theocracy from the birth of ,samuel to the close of ,david's reign--a period of about a century and a half4 ,the author1 therefore1 can have been1 upon any supposition1 only in part contemporary with the events which he records4 ,yet if we examine the biographical sketches of ,saul1 ,samuel1 and ,david contained in these books1 the conviction forces itself upon us that they must have been written by contemporaries4 ,their freshness1 minute accuracy of detail1 and graphic vividness of style mark them as coming from eye-witnesses1 or from writers who had received their accounts from eye-witnesses4 ,who were authors of these original documents we cannot determine4 ,it is certain that ,samuel was one of them4 #a ,chron4 #bi3bi4 ,who composed the books1 again1 is a question that we are unable to answer4 ,it was probably a prophet living not very long after the separation of the kingdoms of ,israel and ,judah4 ,from the days of ,samuel and onward there was a flourishing school of the prophets at hand which could furnish1 under the inspiration of the ,holy ,spirit1 both the writers of the original materials and the author of the books in their present form4 ,the attempt has been made to set aside the evidence that the writer of the books of ,samuel made use of earlier documents1 from the example of such men as ,swift and ,defoe1 who composed works of fiction with all the simplicity and circumstantial detail of those who write authentic history as eye-witnesses4 ,but1 unless the design be to class the books of ,samuel with ,gulliver's ,travels and ,robinson ,crusoe1 the argument is wholly irrelevant4 ,with ,swift and ,defoe simplicity and minuteness of detail were a matter of conscious effort--a work of art1 for which they naturally chose the region of fiction2 and here they1 and other men of genius1 have been eminently successful4 ,shakespeare has portrayed ideal scenes in the life of ,julius ,caesar with more vividness and circumstantiality than any authentic historian of ,caesar's age4 ,but real history1 written simply in the interest of truth1 never has the graphic character1 artless simplicity1 and circumstantiality of detail which belong to these inimitable narratives1 unless the writer be either an eye-witness1 or draw his materials from eye-witnesses4 #g4 ,we come next to the books of ,kings and ,chronicles1 the writers of which confessedly employed previously existing materials4 ,in the two books of ,kings 7which1 like the two of ,samuel and of ,chronicles1 originally constituted one work7 reference is made to the following sources3 ,for the reign of ,solomon1 the book of the acts of ,solomon 7#a ,kings #aa3da72 for the kingdom of ,judah after the revolt of the twelve tribes from ,rehoboam to ,jehoiakim1 the book of the chronicles of the kings of ,judah2 for the kingdom of ,israel1 the book of the chronicles of the kings of ,israel4 ,in the books of ,chronicles we have3 ,for the reign of ,david1 the book 7history7 of ,samuel the seer1 the book of ,nathan the prophet1 and the book of ,gad the seer 7#a ,chron4 #bi3bi72 for the reign of ,solomon1 the book of ,nathan the prophet1 the prophecy of ,ahijah the ,shilonite1 and the vision of ,iddo the seer against ,jeroboam the son of ,nebat 7#b ,chron4 #i3bi72 for the reign of ,rehoboam1 the book of ,shemaiah the prophet1 and of ,iddo the seer concerning genealogies1 that is1 in the manner of a genealogical record 7#b ,chron4 #ab3ae72 for the reign of ,abijah1 the story 7commentary7 of the prophet ,iddo 7#b ,chron4 #ac3bb72 for the reign of ,jehoshaphat1 the book of ,jehu the son of ,hanani1 who is mentioned 7rather1 who is inserted1 i4e41 as an author7 in the book of the kings of ,israel 7#b ,chron4 #bj3cd72 for the reign of ,uzziah1 the prophet ,isaiah 7#b ,chron4 #bf3bb72 for the reign of ,hezekiah in part1 the vision of ,isaiah the prophet 7#b ,chron4 #cb3cb72 for the reign of ,manasseh in part1 the sayings of the seers1 or1 as many prefer to render1 the words of ,hosai 7#b ,chron4 #cc3ah74 ,besides the above1 reference is made to the book of the kings of ,judah and ,israel1 the book of the kings of ,israel and ,judah1 the story of the book of the kings2 the book of the kings of ,israel4 ,these last are probably only different titles of the same collection of annals1 embracing in its contents the history of both kingdoms2 since the references to the book of the kings of ,israel are for the affairs of the kingdom of ,judah 7#b ,chron4 #bj3cd2 #cc3ah74 #h4 ,with regard to the above original sources1 it should be carefully noticed that the references in the books of ,kings are not to our present books of ,chronicles1 which did not exist when the books of ,kings were written4 ,chap4 #bj1 ,no4 #ba4 ,neither can the allusions in the books of ,chronicles be restricted to our present books of ,kings2 for 7#a7 they refer to matters not recorded in those books--for example1 to the wars of ,jotham1 #b ,chron4 #bg3g2 7#b7 they refer to the book of the kings of ,judah and ,israel for a full account of the acts of a given monarch first and last1 while the history of the same monarch in our present books of ,kings refers for further information to the book of the ,chronicles of the kings of ,judah4 ,it is plain that both writers had access to a larger collection of original documents1 which were in great part the same4 ,the chief difference in outward form is that1 when the books of ,chronicles were written1 the annals of the two kingdoms of ,judah and ,israel seem to have constituted a single collection1 whereas in the books of ,kings they are always mentioned as two separate works4 ,in making his selections from these annals1 each writer proceeded independently4 ,hence the remarkable agreements1 where both used the same materials2 and the remarkable differences1 where one employed documents1 or parts of documents1 which the other omitted to use4 #i4 ,as to the character of these original documents1 it is plain that a portion of them were written by prophets4 ,by some the books of the kings of ,israel and ,judah so often referred to1 have been regarded as simply the public annals of the two kingdoms written by the official annalists1 the scribes or recorders so often spoken of4 ,no doubt such annals existed1 and entered largely into the documents in question4 ,but the right interpretation of #b ,chron4 #bj3cd1 shows that1 in some cases at least1 the writings of prophets were incorporated into these annals4 ,the extended history of ,elijah and ,elisha cannot have been the work of the public scribes of the kingdom of ,israel1 but of prophets1 writing from the prophetic point of view4 ,the question1 however1 is not one of practical importance1 since1 whatever may have been the source or character of the materials employed1 the writers of the books now under consideration1 used them at their discretion under the guidance of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,to us1 therefore1 they come with the weight of prophetic authority4 ,the further consideration of the relation between the books of ,kings and ,chronicles is reserved for the special introductions to these books4 ,it may be added here that the probable date of the former is the first half of the ,babylonish captivity2 of the latter1 the time of ,ezra under the ,persian rule4 #aj4 ,the books of ,ezra and ,nehemiah constitute a continuation of the books of ,chronicles1 and need not be particularly noticed in the present connection4 ,for their authorship and date1 as also for the book of ,esther1 see the particular introductions to these books4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,prophetical ,,books4 #aa4 ,under the prophetical books1 in the stricter sense of the word1 may be included the three ,greater prophets--,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 and ,ezekiel--,daniel 7though largely historical71 and the twelve ,minor prophets4 ,these will all come up hereafter for separate consideration4 ,at present we view them simply with reference to the growth of the ,old ,testament ,canon4 ,from the settlement of the ,israelities in the land of ,canaan to the time of ,samuel1 a period of several centuries 7according to the chronology followed by the apostle ,paul1 ,acts #ac3bj1 four hundred and fifty years71 we read of several appearances of the angel of the ,lord4 ,judges #b3a2 #f3aa2 #ac3c4 ,the notices of prophets during the same period are only three in number4 ,judges #d3d2 #f3h2 #a ,sam4 #b3bg4 ,but with ,samuel began a new era4 ,he was himself one of the greatest of the prophets1 and he established a school of the prophets over which he himself presided4 #a ,sam4 #aj3e1 #aj2 #ai3bj4 ,from his day onward such schools seem to have flourished as a theocratic institution throughout the whole period of the kings1 though more vigorously at certain times4 #a ,kings #ah3d2 #bj3ce2 #b ,kings #b3c1 #e2 #d3a1 #ch1 #dc2 #e3bb2 #f3a2 #i3a4 ,so far as we have notices of these schools1 they were under the instruction of eminent prophets2 and the sons of the prophets assembled in them received such a training as fitted them1 so far as human instrumentality is concerned1 for the exercise of the prophetical office1 as well as for being1 in a more general sense1 the religious instructors of the people4 ,from these schools came1 apparently1 most of those whom ,god called to be his messengers to the rulers and people1 though with exceptions according to his sovereign wisdom4 ,amos #a3a2 #g3ad4 ,we find1 accordingly1 that from the days of ,samuel and onward the prophets were recognized as a distinct order of men in the ,jewish theocracy1 who derived their authority immediately from ,god1 and spoke by direct inspiration of his ,spirit1 as they themselves indicate by the standing formula3 ,thus saith the ,lord4 #ab4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 however1 that from ,samuel to about the reign of ,uzziah1 a period of some three centuries1 we have no books of prophecy written by these men1 if we except1 perhaps1 the book of ,jonah4 ,their writings seem to have been mainly historical 7like the historical notices incorporated into the books of ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 and ,daniel72 and what remains to us of them is preserved in the historical books of the ,old ,testament4 ,see above1 ,nos4 #f and #g4 ,but about the time of ,uzziah begins a new era1 that of written prophecy4 ,during his reign appeared ,hosea1 ,amos1 ,isaiah1 and probably ,jonah1 ,joel1 and ,obadiah4 ,micah followed immediately afterwards1 being contemporary in part with ,isaiah2 and then1 in succession1 the rest of the prophets whose writings have come down to us4 ,when the theocracy was now on its decline1 waxing old and destined to pass away for ever1 they felt themselves called to put on record1 for the instruction of all coming ages1 their words of warning and encouragement4 ,thus arose gradually our present collection of prophetical books2 that of ,lamentations included1 which is but an appendix to the writings of ,jeremiah4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,poetical ,,books4 #ac4 ,these are a precious outgrowth of the theocratic spirit1 in which the elements of meditation and reflection predominate4 ,concerning the date and authorship of the book of ,job1 which stands first in order in our arrangement1 we have no certain information4 ,learned men vary between the ante-,mosaic age and that of ,solomon4 ,its theme is divine providence1 as viewed from the position of the ,old ,testament4 ,see further in the introduction to this book4 #ad4 ,with the call of ,david to the throne of ,israel began a new and glorious era in the history of public worship1 that of the service of song in the house of the ,lord4 #a ,chron4 #f3ca4 ,as when ,moses smote the rock in the wilderness the water gushed forth in refreshing streams1 so the soul of ,david1 touched by the spirit of inspiration1 poured forth a rich and copious flood of divine song1 which has in all ages refreshed and strengthened ,god's people in their journey heavenward through this dark vale of tears4 ,nor was the fountain of sacred poetry confined to him alone4 ,god opened it also in the souls of such men as ,asaph1 ,ethan1 ,heman1 and the sons of ,korah2 nor did its flow wholly cease till after the captivity4 ,the ,psalms of ,david and his coadjutors were from the first dedicated to the service of the sanctuary2 and thus arose our canonical book of ,psalms1 although 7as will be hereafter shown7 it did not receive its present form and arrangement till the time of ,ezra and ,nehemiah4 #ae4 ,after ,david came ,solomon in the sphere of practical wisdom4 ,this1 according to the divine record1 he received as a special endowment from ,god1 though doubtless he had in a peculiar measure a natural capacity for such an endowment4 ,in ,gibeon the ,lord appeared to him in a dream by night1 and said3 ,ask what ,i shall give thee4 ,passing by wealth1 long life1 and the death of his enemies1 the youthful monarch besought ,god to give him an understanding heart1 that he might be qualified to judge the great people committed to his care4 ,the answer was3 ,behold1 ,i have done according to thy word3 lo1 ,i have given thee a wise and an understanding heart2 so that there was none like thee before thee1 neither after thee shall any arise like unto thee4 #a ,kings #c3e-ab4 ,thus divinely qualified1 he embodied1 in a vast collection of proverbs1 his observations on human life1 and the course of human affairs4 ,our canonical book of ,proverbs is a selection from these1 with some additions at the end from other sources4 ,for notices respecting the arrangement of these proverbs in their present form1 as well as respecting the books of ,ecclesiastes and ,canticles1 which are also ascribed to ,solomon1 the reader may consult the introductions to these books4 ,v4 ,,the ,,completion ,,of ,,the ,,canon4 ,the subject thus far before us has been the growth of the materials which constitute our canonical books4 ,the question of their preservation and final embodiment in their present form remains to be considered4 #af4 ,respecting the preservation of the sacred books till the time of ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 our information is very scanty4 ,each king was required to have at hand for his own personal use a transcript of the law of ,moses 7,deut4 #ag3ah71 the original writing being carefully laid up in the inner sanctuary1 where ,hilkiah1 the high priest1 found it in the reign of ,josiah4 #b ,kings #bb3h4 ,we cannot doubt that such kings as ,david1 ,solomon1 ,asa1 and ,hezekiah complied with this law3 though after the disorders connected with the reign of ,manasseh and his captivity1 the good king ,josiah neglected it4 ,jehoshaphat1 we are expressly told1 sent men to teach in the cities of ,judah1 who had the book of the law of the ,lord with them1 and went about throughout all the cities of ,judah1 and taught the people4 #b ,chron4 #ag3g-i4 ,of course it was a copy1 and not the original autograph1 which might not be removed from the sanctuary4 ,it is a natural supposition that other transcripts of the law were made under the direction of the high priest1 for the use of pious men1 especially pious prophets1 princes1 and ,levites1 who needed its directions for the right discharge of their official duties1 though on this point we can affirm nothing positively4 ,as to the prophetical books1 we know that ,jeremiah had access to the writings of ,isaiah1 for in repeated instances he borrowed his language4 ,we know again that ,daniel had at hand the prophecies of ,jeremiah2 for he understood by books 7literally by the books1 which may be well understood to mean that collection of sacred books of which the prophecies of ,jeremiah formed a part7 the number of the years whereof the word of the ,lord came to ,jeremiah the prophet1 that he would accomplish seventy years in the desolations of ,jerusalem4 ,dan4 #i3b4 ,the consecration of the ,psalms of ,david and his coadjutors to the public service of the sanctuary must have insured their careful preservation by the ,levites who had charge of the temple music2 and1 in general1 the deep reverence of the ,jews for their sacred writings is to us a reasonable evidence that they preserved them from loss and mutilation to the captivity1 and through that calamitous period4 #ag4 ,to ,ezra and his coadjutors1 the men of the ,great ,synagogue1 the ,jews ascribe the completion of the canon of the ,old ,testament4 ,their traditions concerning him are embellished with extravagant fictions2 yet we cannot reasonably deny that they are underlaid by a basis of truth4 ,all the scriptural notices of ,ezra attest both his zeal and his ability as a scribe of the words of the commandments of the ,lord1 and of his statutes to ,israel1 a man who had prepared his heart to seek the law of the ,lord1 and to do it1 and to teach in ,israel statutes and judgments4 ,ezra #g3aj1 #aa4 ,the work in which he and his associates were engaged was the reestablishment of the ,theocracy on its old foundation1 the law of ,moses1 with the ordinances pertaining to the sanctuary-service afterwards added by ,david2 and that too in the vivid consciousness of the fact that disobedience to the divine law had brought upon the nation the calamities of the captivity4 ,in such circumstances their first solicitude must have been that the people might have the inspired oracles given to their fathers1 and be thoroughly instructed in them4 ,the work1 therefore1 which ,jewish tradition ascribes to ,ezra and the men of the ,great ,synagogue was altogether appropriate to their situation1 nor do we know of any man or body of men afterwards so well qualified for its performance1 or upon whom it would so naturally have devolved4 ,that they arranged the inspired volume in substantially its present form1 we have no good reason for doubting4 ,but we should not1 perhaps1 be warranted in saying that they brought the canon of the ,old ,testament absolutely and formally to a close4 ,josephus 7against ,apion #a4 #h7 affirms that no book belongs to the sacred writings of his nation which are justly believed to be divine1 that had its origin after the reign of ,artaxerxes1 ,xerxes' son 7,artaxerxes ,longimanus1 under whom ,ezra led forth his colony1 ,ezra1 chap4 #g72 and that on the ground that from this time onward the exact succession of the prophets was wanting4 ,this declaration of the ,jewish historian is in all essential respects worthy of full credence4 ,we cannot1 however1 affirm with confidence that all the later historical books were put by ,ezra and his contemporaries into the exact form in which we now have them4 ,the book of ,nehemiah1 for example1 contains some genealogical notices 7chap4 #ab3aa1 #bb7 which1 according to any fair interpretation1 are of a later date4 ,we are at liberty to suppose that these were afterwards added officially and in good faith1 as matters of public interest2 or1 as some think1 that the book itself is an arrangement by a later hand of writings left by ,nehemiah1 perhaps also by ,ezra2 so that while its contents belong1 in every essential respect1 to them1 it received its present form after their death4 ,respecting the question when the canon of the ,old ,testament received its finishing stroke1 a question which the wisdom of ,god has left in obscurity1 we must speak with diffidence4 ,we know with certainty that our present ,hebrew canon is identical with that collection of sacred writings to which our ,saviour and his apostles constantly appealed as invested throughout with divine authority1 and this is a firm basis for our faith4 ,the attempt has been made1 but without success1 to show that a portion of the ,psalms belongs to the ,maccabean age4 ,the words of the ,psalmist 7,psa4 #gd3h7 rendered in our version3 ,they have burned up all the synagogues of ,god in the land1 have no reference to the synagogues of a later age1 as is now generally admitted4 ,the ,hebrew word denotes places of assembly1 and was never applied by the later ,jews to their synagogues4 ,the ,psalmist wrote1 moreover1 in immediate connection with the burning of the temple--they have cast fire into thy sanctuary1 they have defiled by casting down the dwelling-place of thy name to the ground--and this fixes the date of the ,psalm to the ,chaldean invasion 7#b ,kings #be3i72 for the temple was not burned1 but only profaned1 in the days of the ,maccabees4 ,by the assemblies of ,god1 we are probably to understand the ancient sacred places1 such as ,ramah1 ,bethel1 and ,gilgal1 where the people were accustomed to meet1 though in a somewhat irregular way1 for the worship of ,god4 ,but whether this interpretation be correct or not1 the words have no reference to the buildings of a later age called synagogues4 ,some of the apocryphal writings1 as1 for example1 the book of ,wisdom1 the book of ,ecclesiasticus1 the first book of ,maccabees1 were highly valued by the ancient ,jews4 ,but they were never received into the ,hebrew canon1 because their authors lived after the exact succession of the prophets1 which ended with ,malachi4 ,they knew how to make the just distinction between books of human wisdom and books written by inspiration of ,god4 #ah4 ,the earliest notice of the contents of the ,hebrew ,canon is that contained in the prologue to the ,greek translation of ,ecclesiasticus1 where it is described as the law1 the prophets1 and the other national books1 the law1 and the prophecies1 and the rest of the books1 according to the three-fold division already considered4 ,chap4 #ah1 ,no4 #d4 ,josephus1 in the passage already referred to 7against ,apion1 #a4 #h71 says3 ,we have not among us innumerable books discordant and contrary to each other1 but only two-and-twenty1 containing the history of all time1 which are justly believed to be divine4 ,and of these five belong to ,moses1 which contain the laws and the transmission of human genealogy to the time of his death4 ,this period of time wants but little of three thousand years 7the longer chronology followed by him74 ,but from the death of ,moses to the reign of ,artaxerxes1 who was king of the ,persians after ,xerxes1 the prophets after ,moses wrote the history of their times in thirteen books4 ,the remaining four contain hymns to ,god and precepts for human life4 ,from ,artaxerxes to our time various books have been written2 but they have not been esteemed worthy of credence like that given to the books before them1 because the exact succession of the prophets has been wanting4 ,in this list the books of the ,old ,testament are artificially arranged to agree with the number two-and-twenty1 that of the ,hebrew alphabet4 ,the four that contain hymns to ,god and precepts for human life are1 in all probability3 ,psalms1 ,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 ,canticles2 and the thirteen prophetical books 7see below7 are3 7#a7 ,joshua1 7#b7 ,judges and ,ruth1 7#c7 the two books of ,samuel1 7#d7 the two books of ,kings1 7#e7 the two books of ,chronicles1 7#f7 ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 7#g7 ,esther1 7#h7 ,isaiah1 7#i7 ,jeremiah and ,lamentations1 7#aj7 ,ezekiel1 7#aa7 ,daniel1 7#ab7 the book of the twelve ,minor ,prophets1 7#ac7 ,job4 ,see ,oehler in ,hertzog's ,encyclopaedia1 ,art4 ,canon of the ,old ,testament4 ,origen1 as quoted by ,eusebius 7,hist4 ,eccl4 #f4be71 and ,jerome 7both of whom drew their information concerning the ,hebrew ,canon immediately from ,jewish scholars1 and may1 therefore1 be regarded as in a certain sense the expositors of the above list of ,josephus7 make mention of the same number1 twenty-two4 ,origen's list unites ,ruth with ,judges1 puts together the first and second of ,samuel1 the first and second of ,kings1 the first and second of ,chronicles1 ,ezra and ,nehemiah 7under the names of the first and second of ,ezra71 and ,jeremiah and ,lamentations 7with the addition of the apocryphal ,epistle of ,jeremiah--an inconsistency1 or rather oversight1 to be explained from his constant habit of using the ,septuagint version74 ,in the present text of ,eusebius1 the book of the twelve ,minor ,prophets is wanting4 ,but this is simply an old error of the scribe1 since it is necessary to complete the number of twenty-two4 ,jerome's list 7,prologus galeatus7 is the same1 only that he gives the contents of the ,law1 the ,prophets1 and the ,hagiographa in accordance with the ,hebrew arrangement1 placing ,daniel in the last class1 and adding that whatever is without the number of these must be placed among the ,apocryphal writings4 ,smith's ,dict4 of the ,bible1 ,art4 ,canon4 ,the catalogue of these two distinguished ,christian scholars--,origen of the ,eastern church1 and ,jerome of the ,western1 both of whom drew their information immediately from ,hebrew scholars--is decisive1 and we need add nothing further4 #ai4 ,the ,apocryphal books of the ,old ,testament were incorporated into the ,alexandrine version called the ,septuagint2 but they were never received by the ,jews of ,palestine as a part of the sacred volume4 ,concerning them and their history1 see further in the ,appendix to this part4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,ancient ,,versions ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 ,in the present chapter only those versions of the ,old ,testament are noticed which were made independently of the ,new4 ,versions of the whole ,bible1 made in the interest of ,christianity1 are considered in the following part4 ,i4 ,,the ,,greek ,,version ,,called ,,the ,,septuagint4 #a4 ,this is worthy of special notice as the oldest existing version of the holy ,scriptures1 or any part of them1 in any language2 and also as the version which exerted a very large influence on the language and style of the ,new ,testament2 for it was extensively used in our ,lord's day not only in ,egypt1 where it originated1 and in the ,roman provinces generally1 but also in ,palestine2 and the quotations in the ,new ,testament are made more commonly from it than from the ,hebrew4 #b4 ,the ,jewish account of its origin1 first noticed briefly by ,aristobulus1 a ,jew 7as quoted by ,clement of ,alexandria and ,eusebius71 then given at great length in a letter which professes to have been written by one ,aristeas1 a heathen and a special friend of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 king of ,egypt1 and the main part of which ,josephus has copied 7,antiq4 #ab4 #b71 is for substance as follows3 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus 7who reigned from ,b4,c4 #bhe to #bdg71 at the suggestion of his librarian ,demetrius ,phalereus1 after having first liberated all the ,jewish captives found in his kingdom1 sent an embassy with costly gifts to ,eleazar the high priest at ,jerusalem1 requesting that he would send him chosen men1 six from each of the twelve tribes1 with a copy of the ,jewish law1 that it might be interpreted from the ,hebrew into the ,greek and laid up in the royal library at ,alexandria4 ,eleazar accordingly sent the seventy-two elders with a copy of the laws written on parchments in letters of gold1 who were received by the king with high honors1 sumptuously feasted1 and afterwards lodged in a palace on an island 7apparently ,pharos in the harbor of ,alexandria71 where they completed their work in seventy-two days1 and were then sent home with munificent gifts4 ,the story that they were shut up in seventy-two separate cells 7according to another legend two by two in thirty-six cells71 where they had no communication with each other and yet produced as many versions agreeing with each other word for word1 was a later embellishment designed 7as indeed were all the legends respecting the origin of this version7 to exalt its character in the apprehension of the people1 and to gain for it an authority equal to that of the inspired original4 #c4 ,the letter ascribed to ,aristeas is now generally admitted to be spurious4 ,it purports to have been written by a heathen scholar1 yet it bears throughout marks of a ,jewish origin4 ,it represents the translators as ,jewish elders sent by the high priest from ,jerusalem4 ,yet the version is acknowledged to be in the ,alexandrine ,greek dialect4 ,for these and other reasons learned men ascribe its authorship to a ,jew whose object was to exalt the merits of the ,alexandrine version in the estimation of his nation4 ,but we are not1 for this reason1 warranted to pronounce the whole account a pure fable1 as many have done4 ,we may well believe that the work was executed under the auspices of ,ptolemy1 and for the purpose of enriching his library4 ,but we must believe that it was executed by ,jews born in ,egypt to whom the ,greek language was vernacular1 and probably from manuscripts of ,egyptian origin4 ,thus much is manifest from the face of the version1 that it was made by different men1 and with different degrees of ability and fidelity4 ,the name ,septuagint 7,latin1 ,septuaginta71 seventy1 a round number for the more exact seventy-two1 probably arose from this tradition of the execution of the work by seventy-two elders in seventy-two days4 ,the story of the parchments sent from ,jerusalem for the use of the translators 7with the request that they might be returned with them7 has been rejected on the ground that the text used by them differs too widely from the ,palestinian text4 ,see further on this subject in ,no4 #e1 below4 ,it has been further affirmed that ,demetrius ,phalereus did not belong to the reign of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 but to that of his father ,ptolemy ,soter1 the son having banished him from court in the beginning of his reign4 ,for this reason some have proposed to assign the founding of the ,alexandrian library to the father and not the son4 ,but whatever be our judgment in respect to ,demetrius and his relation to the two ,ptolemies1 the voice of history is decisive in favor of the son and not the father1 as the patron of learning4 #d4 ,it has been a question whether the ,hebrew ,scriptures were translated at one time1 or in successive portions4 ,the tradition above considered speaks only of the law1 or1 in the plural1 the laws4 ,these might1 perhaps1 be understood as comprehensive terms for the whole ,old ,testament1 but they probably mean the ,pentateuch alone1 in which both the ,egyptian king and the ,jews of his realm would feel a special interest4 ,it is probable that the ,pentateuch--the ,law in the proper sense of the term--was first translated1 and afterwards the remaining books4 ,but how long a period of time was thus occupied cannot be determined4 ,respecting the incorporation into this version of the apocryphal book1 see in the appendix to this ,part1 ,no4 #b4 ,when the translator of the ,wisdom of ,jesus1 son of ,sirach 7,ecclesiasticus71 says in his prologue1 in immediate connection with his residence and labors in ,egypt1 that the law itself and the prophets1 and the rest of the books have no small difference as to force when read in their own tongue1 he plainly refers to the ,septuagint version as complete in his day4 ,he visited ,egypt under ,euergetes4 ,but to which of the two monarchs who bore that title he refers is uncertain4 ,if to the former1 it was between #bdf-bba ,b4,c42 if to the latter1 between #ade-aaf ,b4,c4 #e4 ,the version varies so much in its different parts that it is not easy to give its character as a whole4 ,it is agreed among biblical scholars that the translators of the ,pentateuch excelled in ability and fidelity1 according to the well-known judgment of ,jerome--which the books of ,moses we also acknowledge to agree more than the others with the ,hebrew4 ,among the historical books the translations of ,samuel and ,kings are the most faulty4 ,those of the prophets are in general poor1 especially that of ,isaiah4 ,that of ,daniel was so faulty that the ,christians in later times substituted for it the translation of ,theodotion4 ,see below1 ,no4 #aj4 ,among the poetical books that of ,proverbs is the best4 ,as a whole the ,septuagint version cannot for a moment enter into competition with the ,hebrew original4 ,yet1 as the most ancient of versions and one which also represents a text much older than the ,masoretic1 its use is indispensable to every scholar who would study the ,old ,testament in the original language4 #f4 ,independently of its critical value1 the ,septuagint must be regarded with deep interest from its close connection with the ,new ,testament4 ,in the days of ,christ and his apostles it was known and read throughout the whole ,roman empire by the ,hellenists2 that is1 by those ,jews and ,jewish proselytes who had the ,greek civilization and spoke the ,greek language4 ,as the ,alexandrine ,greek1 in which this version was made1 was itself pervaded throughout with the ,hebrew spirit1 and to a great extent also with ,hebrew idioms and forms of thought1 so was the language of the ,new ,testament1 in turn1 moulded and shaped by the dialect of the ,septuagint1 nor can the former be successfully studied except in connection with the latter4 ,then again the greatest number of quotations in the ,new ,testament from the ,old is made from the ,septuagint4 ,according to ,mr4 ,greenfield 7quoted in ,smith's ,bible ,dict41 art4 ,septuagint7 the number of direct quotations from the ,old ,testament in the ,gospels1 ,acts1 and ,epistles1 may be estimated at three hundred and fifty1 of which not more than fifty materially differ from the seventy4 ,but the indirect verbal allusions would swell the number to a far greater amount4 ,the discussion of the principles upon which the writers of the ,new ,testament quote from the ,old belongs to another part of this work4 ,it may be briefly remarked here that they quote in a free spirit1 not in that of servile adherence to the letter1 aiming to give the substance of the sacred writers' thoughts1 rather than an exactly literal rendering of the original word for word4 ,the prophecy of ,isaiah1 for example 7#f3i1 #aj71 is six times quoted in the ,new ,testament1 wholly or in part1 with very free variations of language4 ,matt4 #ac3ad1 #ae2 ,mark #d3ab2 ,luke #h3aj2 ,john #ab3dj2 ,acts #bh3 #bf1 #bg2 ,rom4 #aa3h4 ,from neither of these quotations1 nor from all of them combined1 could we draw a critical argument respecting either the ,hebrew or ,greek text of the passage quoted4 ,neither can we argue from the exact agreement of a quotation in the ,new ,testament with the ,septuagint where that differs from the ,hebrew1 that the ,hebrew text has been corrupted4 ,the ,new ,testament writers are occupied with the spirit of the passages to which they refer1 rather than with the letter4 #g4 ,the ,hebrew text from which the ,septuagint version was executed was unpointed and much older than the ,masoretic text4 ,were the version more literal and faithful1 and had its text come down to us in a purer form 7see below1 ,chap4 #ag1 ,no4 #b71 it would be of great service in settling the exact text of the original ,hebrew4 ,with its present character1 and in the present condition of its text1 it is of but comparatively small value in this respect4 ,yet its striking agreement with the text of the ,samaritan ,pentateuch 7,ch4 #ac1 ,no4 #h7 is a phenomenon worthy of special notice4 ,biblical scholars affirm that the two agree in more than a thousand places where they differ from the ,hebrew4 ,for the probable explanation of this see above1 ,ch4 #ad1 ,no4 #i4 ,the reader must be on his guard against the error of supposing that these more than a thousand variations from the ,hebrew text are of such a nature as to affect seriously the system of doctrines and duties taught in the ,pentateuch4 ,they are rather of a critical and grammatical character1 changes which leave the substance of revelation untouched4 ,see on this point ,ch4 #c4 ,there is one striking agreement between the ,samaritan text and that of the ,septuagint in which many biblical scholars think that the true ancient reading has been preserved4 ,it is that of ,gen4 #d3h3 ,and ,cain said to ,abel his brother1 ,let us go out into the field4 ,and it came to pass when they were in the field4 etc4 ,,ii4 ,,other ,,greek ,,versions4 #h4 ,in the beginning of ,christianity the ,septuagint enjoyed1 as we have seen1 a high reputation among the ,jews2 and as a natural consequence1 among the ,jewish converts also1 as well as the ,gentile ,christians4 ,to the great body of ,gentile believers it was for the ,old ,testament the only source of knowledge1 as they were ignorant of the ,hebrew original4 ,they studied it diligently1 and used it efficiently against the unbelieving ,jews4 ,hence there naturally arose in the minds of the latter a feeling of opposition to this version which became very bitter4 ,they began to disparage its authority1 and to accuse it of misrepresenting the ,hebrew4 ,the next step was to oppose to it another version made by ,aquila1 which was soon followed by two others1 those of ,theodotion and ,symmachus4 #i4 ,aquila is represented to have been a ,jewish proselyte of ,pontus1 and to have lived in the second century4 ,his version was slavishly literal1 following the ,hebrew idiom even where it is contrary to that of the ,greek4 ,for this very reason1 not withstanding all the barbarisms thus introduced1 the ,jews highly valued it1 calling it the ,hebrew verity4 ,all that remains of it to us is contained in the fragments of ,origen's ,hexapla4 ,see below1 ,no4 #ab4 ,had we the whole work1 its extremely literal character would give it great value in a critical point of view1 as it would shed much light on the state of the ,hebrew text when it was executed4 #aj4 ,theodotion was1 according to ,irenaeus1 an ,ephesian4 ,jerome calls him and ,symmachus ,ebionites1 ,judaizing heretics1 and semi-,christians4 ,he is supposed to have made his version in the last half of the second century4 ,according to the testimony of the ancients1 it had a close resemblance in character to the ,septuagint4 ,he seems to have had this version before him1 and to have made a free use of it4 ,of the three later versions1 that of ,theodotion was most esteemed by the ,christians1 and they substituted his translation of the book of ,daniel for that of the ,seventy4 #aa4 ,symmachus1 called by the church fathers an ,ebionite1 but by some a ,samaritan1 seems to have flourished not far from the close of the second century4 ,his version was free1 aiming to give the sense rather than the words4 ,his idiom was ,hellenistic1 and in this respect resembled the ,septuagint1 from the author's familiarity with which1 indeed1 it probably took its complexion4 ,of other ancient ,greek versions discovered by ,origen in his ,eastern travels and made by unknown authors it is not necessary to speak4 #ab4 ,the text of the ,septuagint was never preserved so carefully as that of the ,hebrew1 and in the days of ,origen it had fallen into great confusion4 ,to meet the objections of the ,jews1 as well as to help believers in their study of the ,old ,testament1 ,origen undertook first the work called the ,tetrapla 7,greek1 fourfold71 which was followed by the ,hexapla 7,greek1 sixfold74 ,to prepare himself he spent twenty-eight years1 travelling extensively and collecting materials4 ,in the ,tetrapla1 the text of the ,septuagint 7corrected by manuscripts of itself71 and those of ,aquila1 ,theodotion1 and ,symmachus were arranged side by side in four parallel columns4 ,in the ,hexapla there were six columns--7#a7 the ,hebrew in ,hebrew characters2 7#b7 the ,hebrew expressed in ,greek letters2 7#c7 ,aquila2 7#d7 ,symmachus2 7#e7 the ,septuagint2 7#f7 ,theodotion4 ,see ,davidson's ,bib4 ,crit41 #a1 p4 #bjc2 ,smith's ,bib4 ,diet41 #b1 p4 #abjb4 ,in some books he used two other ,greek versions1 and occasionally even a third1 giving in the first case eight1 in the second1 nine columns4 ,the great work1 says ,davidson1 consisting of nearly fifty volumes2 on which he had spent the best years of his life1 does not seem to have been transcribed--probably in consequence of its magnitude and the great expense necessarily attending a transcript4 ,it lay unused as a whole fifty years after it was finished1 till ,eusebius and ,pamphilus drew it forth from its concealment in ,tyre1 and placed it in the library of the latter in ,caesarea4 ,it is thought to have perished there when ,caesarea was taken and plundered by the ,saracens1 ,a4,d4 #fec4 ,bib4 ,criticism1 #a1 p4 #bjf4 ,well did ,origen merit by his vast researches and labors the epithet ,adamantinus ,adamantine bestowed on him by the ancients4 ,fragments of the ,hexapla1 consisting of extracts made from it by the ancients1 have been collected and published in two folio volumes by ,montfaucon1 ,paris1 #agac1 and reprinted by ,bahrdt in two volumes octavo1 ,leipzig and ,lubeck1 #agfi1 #aggj4 ,it is the hope of biblical scholars that these may be enriched from the ,nitrian manuscripts4 ,see further1 ,chap4 #bh1 ,no4 #h4 ,for the four ,standard ,text ,editions of the ,septuagint ,greek version1 with the principal editions founded on them1 the reader may consult the ,bibliographical ,list appended to the fourth volume of ,home's ,introduction1 edition of #ahfj4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,chaldee ,,targums4 #ac4 ,the ,chaldee word ,targum means interpretation1 and is applied to the translations or paraphrases of the ,old ,testament in the ,chaldee language4 ,when1 after the captivity1 the ,chaldee had supplanted the ,hebrew as the language of common life1 it was natural that the ,jews should desire to have their sacred writings in the language which was to them vernacular4 ,thus we account1 in a natural way1 for the origin of these ,targums1 of which there is a considerable number now extant differing widely in age as well as character4 ,no one of them extends to the whole ,old ,testament4 ,the question has been raised whether the ,targums have for their authors single individuals1 or are the embodiment of traditional interpretations collected and revised by one or more persons4 ,many biblical scholars of the present day incline strongly to the latter view1 which is not in itself improbable4 ,but the decision of the question1 in the case of each ,targum1 rests not on theory1 but on the character of its contents1 as ascertained by careful examination4 #ad4 ,the first place in worth1 and probably in time also1 belongs to the ,targum on the ,pentateuch which bears the name of ,onkelos4 ,it is a literal and1 upon the whole1 an able and faithful version 7not paraphrase7 of the ,hebrew text1 written in good ,aramaean1 and approaching in style to the ,chaldee parts of ,daniel and ,ezra4 ,in those passages which describe ,god in language borrowed from human attributes 7anthropomorphic1 describing ,god in human forms1 as having eyes1 hands1 etc42 anthropopathic1 ascribing to ,god human affections1 as repenting1 grieving1 etc471 the author is inclined to use paraphrases2 thus3 ,and ,jehovah smelled a sweet savor 7,gen4 #h3ba7 becomes in this ,targum3 ,and ,jehovah received the sacrifice with favor2 and ,jehovah went down to see 7,gen4 #aa3e71 ,jehovah revealed himself4 ,so also strong expressions discreditable to the ancient patriarchs are softened1 as3 ,rachel took instead of ,rachel stole4 ,gen4 #ca3ai4 ,in the poetical passages1 moreover1 the ,targum allows itself more liberty1 and is consequently less satisfactory4 ,according to a ,jewish tradition1 ,onkelos was a proselyte and nephew of the emperor ,titus1 so that he must have flourished about the time of the destruction of the second temple4 ,but all the notices we have of his person are very uncertain4 ,there is even ground for the suspicion that the above tradition respecting ,onkelos relates1 by a confusion of persons1 to ,aquila 7,chaldee ,akilas71 the author of the ,greek version already considered4 ,in this case the real author of the ,targum is unknown1 and we can only say that it should not probably be assigned to a later date than the close of the second century4 #ae4 ,next in age and value is the ,targum of ,jonathan ,ben ,uzziel on the ,prophets2 that is1 according to the ,jewish classification 7,chap4 #ac1 ,no4 #d71 ,joshua1 ,judges1 ,samuel1 ,kings1 ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 and the twelve ,minor ,prophets4 ,in the historical books1 this ,targum is in the main literal2 but in the prophets 7in the stricter sense of the term7 paraphrastic and allegorical4 ,the ,jewish tradition represents that ,jonathan wrote the paraphrase of the prophets from the mouth of ,haggai1 ,zechariah1 and ,malachi2 a mere fable4 ,who was the real author cannot be determined with certainty1 only that he lived after the so-called ,onkelos4 #af4 ,there are two other ,targums on the ,pentateuch1 one of them commonly known as the ,targum of the ,pseudo-,jonathan 7because falsely ascribed to the author of the preceding ,targum7 and the ,jerusalem ,targum4 ,the latter is of a fragmentary character2 and its agreement with the corresponding passages of the former is so remarkable that it is generally considered as consisting of extracts taken from it with free variations4 ,but according to ,davidson 7in ,alexander's ,kitto73 ,the ,jerusalem ,targum formed the basis of that of ,jonathan2 and its own basis was that of ,onkelos4 ,jonathan used both his predecessors' paraphrases2 the author of the ,jerusalem ,targum that of ,onkelos alone4 ,the style of ,pseudo-,jonathan is barbarous1 abounding in foreign words1 with the introduction of many legends1 fables1 and ideas of a later age4 ,he is assigned to the seventh century4 ,keil1 ,introduc4 to ,old ,testament1 ,sec4 #ahi4 #ag4 ,the ,targums on the ,hagiographa are all of late date4 ,there is one on ,psalms1 ,job1 and ,proverbs1 the last tolerably accurate and free from legendary and paraphrastic additions2 one on the five rolls--,ruth1 ,esther1 ,lamentations1 ,ecclesiastes1 ,canticles2 which is not a translation1 but rather a commentary in the ,talmudic style2 two on ,esther1 one on ,chronicles4 ,in the present connection1 though not belonging properly to the ,targums1 may be named the ,samaritan version of the ,samaritan ,pentateuch1 printed with the originals in the ,paris and ,london ,polyglotts4 ,it is a literal translation executed in the spirit of the ,targum of ,onkelos1 and admitting the same class of variations from the letter of the original4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,syriac ,,peshito4 #ah4 ,this is the oldest version made by ,christians from the original ,hebrew4 ,the word ,peshito signifies simple1 indicating that it gives the simple meaning of the original1 without paraphrastic and allegorical additions4 ,it is upon the whole an able and faithful version4 ,it often exhibits a resemblance to the ,alexandrine version4 ,we may readily suppose that the translator1 though rendering from the original ,hebrew1 was familiar with the ,septuagint1 and that this exerted upon his work a certain degree of influence4 ,the ,peshito was the standard version for the ,syriac ,christians1 being used alike by all parties2 a fact which is naturally explained by its high antiquity4 ,if it be of the same date as the ,new ,testament ,peshito1 it may be placed not far from the close of the second century4 ,the ,old ,latin1 and in connection with this1 the ,vulgate of ,jerome1 with some other ancient versions of the ,old ,testament1 will be considered in connection with the ,new ,testament4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,criticism ,,of ,,the ,,sacred ,,text4 #a4 ,the only legitimate criticism of the sacred text is that which has for its object to restore it1 as far as possible1 to its primitive form4 ,had we the autograph of ,moses in the exact form in which he deposited it in the sanctuary 7,deut4 #ca3bf71 this would be a perfect text2 and so of any other book of the ,old ,testament4 ,in the absence of the autographs1 which have all perished1 we are still able to establish the form of their text with a reasonable degree of certainty for all purposes of faith and practice4 ,the means of accomplishing this are now to be considered4 #b4 ,here ancient manuscripts hold the first place4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that in settling the true reading of a given passage we cannot look simply to the number of manuscript testimonies4 ,the quality of the manuscripts must also be taken into account4 ,here age is of primary importance4 ,other things being equal1 the oldest are the most worthy of credence1 as being nearest to the original sources4 ,but1 in estimating the testimony of a manuscript1 there are other qualities besides age that must be carefully considered--the care of the transcriber2 its freedom from interpolations by later hands 7which can1 however1 as a general rule1 be easily detected72 and especially its independence1 that is1 its independence as compared with other manuscripts4 ,we may have a group of manuscripts whose peculiar readings mark them as having come from a single source4 ,properly speaking1 their testimony is valid only for the text of their source4 ,the authority of a single independent manuscript may be equal in weight to their combined testimony4 ,then1 again1 the character of the different readings must be considered4 ,the easiest reading--that which most naturally suggests itself to the scribe--has less presumption in its favor than a more difficult reading2 and that on the simple ground that it is more likely that an easy should have been substituted for a difficult reading than the reverse4 ,there are many other points which would need discussion in a work designed for biblical critics2 but for the purposes of this work the above brief hints are sufficient4 ,the ,masoretic manuscripts have a great degree of uniformity1 and are all comparatively recent4 ,chap4 #ad1 ,no4 #g4 ,we have reason to believe that the ,hebrew text which they exhibit has a good degree of purity4 ,but we cannot consider these manuscripts as so many independent witnesses4 ,the text of the ,samaritan ,pentateuch is independent of the ,masoretic text4 ,could we believe that we possess it in a tolerably pure form1 its critical value would be very great4 ,but1 according to the judgment of the best biblical scholars1 it has been subjected to so many alterations1 that its critical authority is of small account4 #c4 ,next in order come ancient versions1 the value of which for critical purposes depends on their character as literal or free1 and also upon the state of their text as we possess it4 ,other things being equal1 the authority of a version is manifestly inferior to that of a manuscript of the original4 ,but a version may have been made from a more ancient form of the original text than any which we have in existing manuscripts2 and thus it may be indirectly a witness of great value4 ,the extremely literal version of ,aquila 7,chap4 #af1 ,no4 #i7 was made in the second century4 ,could we recover it1 its testimony to the ,hebrew text1 as it then existed1 would be of great value4 ,the ,septuagint version was made 7at least begun7 in the third century before ,christ4 ,but its free character diminishes1 and the impure state of its text greatly injures its critical authority4 ,of the ,targums1 those of ,onkelos and ,jonathan alone are capable of rendering any service in the line of sacred criticism1 and this is not of much account4 #d4 ,we have also primary-printed editions of the ,hebrew ,bible--those printed from ,hebrew manuscripts1 which the reader may see noticed in ,horne's ,bibliographical ,list1 ,appendix to vol4 #d4 ,the critical authority of these depends on that of the manuscripts used1 which were all of the ,masoretic recension4 #e4 ,parallel passages--parallel in a critical and not simply in a historical respect--are passages which profess not merely to give an account of the same transaction1 but to repeat the same text4 ,well known examples are3 the song of ,david recorded in the twenty-second chapter of the second book of ,samuel1 and repeated as the eighteenth psalm2 the fourteenth and fifty-third psalms1 etc4 ,such repetitions possess for every biblical student a high interest4 ,but in the critical use of them great caution is necessary4 ,it must be ascertained1 first of all1 whether they proceed from the same1 or from a different writer4 ,in the latter case they are only historical imitations4 ,if1 as in the case of the above-named passages1 they manifestly have the same author1 the inquiry still remains how the differences arose4 ,they may be different recensions of the same writer 7in this case1 of ,david himself71 or of another inspired writer1 who thus sought to adapt them more perfectly--the fifty-third psalm1 for example--to the circumstances of his own day4 ,the gift of inspiration made the later writer1 in this respect1 cooerdinate in authority with the earlier4 ,historical parallelism1 such as those in the books of ,chronicles1 as compared with the earlier historical books1 do not properly belong here4 ,yet these also sometimes furnish critical help1 especially in respect to names and dates4 #f4 ,the quotations from the ,old ,testament in the ,new have for every believer the highest authority2 more1 however1 in a hermeneutical than a critical respect4 ,for1 as already remarked 7,chap4 #af1 ,no4 #f71 the ,new ,testament writers quote mostly from the ,septuagint1 and in a very free way4 ,the whole subject of these quotations will come up hereafter under the head of ,biblical ,interpretation4 #g4 ,quotations from the ,old ,testament in the ,talmud and later rabbinical writers are another source of sacred criticism4 ,the ,talmud1 embodying the ecclesiastical and civil law of the ,jews according to their traditions1 consists of two parts1 the ,mishna1 or text1 generally referred to the last half of the second century1 and the ,gemara1 or commentary on the ,mishna4 ,the ,mishna is one2 but connected with this are two ,gemaras of later origin2 the more copious ,babylonian1 and the briefer ,jerusalem ,gemara2 whence the distinction of the ,babylonian and ,jerusalem ,talmud4 ,whether because the ,hebrew text was rigidly settled in its present form in the days of the ,talmudists1 or because their quotations have been made to agree with the ,masorah1 an examination of the ,talmud furnishes few various readings that are of any importance4 ,most of them relate to trifling particulars4 ,the quotations of later rabbinical writers are of small account in a critical respect4 #h4 ,it remains to speak of critical conjecture4 ,of this a wise and reverent scholar will make a very cautious use4 ,he will content himself with offering to the public his suggestions1 without venturing to incorporate them into the text itself4 ,the recklessness of some modern critics1 who make an abundance of conjectural emendations1 and then embody them in their versions1 with only a brief note1 deserves severe condemnation4 ,had the ancient critics generally adopted this uncritical method1 the sacred text would long ago have fallen into irretrievable confusion4 ,we add an example where critical conjecture is in place1 though it may not venture to alter the established reading4 ,in ,psalm #db1 the last clause of verse #f and the beginning of verse #g1 written continuously without a division of words 7,chap4 #ac1 ,no4 #e71 would read thus3 ,hebrew3 ky'od'odnu'sho'tpnyu'lhy'lynpshytshtvhh ,with the present division of words3 ,hebrew3 ky 'od 'odnu 'sho't pnyu 'lhy 'ly npshy tshtvhh the clauses are to be translated1 as in our version3 ,for ,i shall yet praise him for the salvation of his countenance4 ,o my ,god1 my soul is cast down within me4 ,divided as follows 7by the transfer of a single letter to the following word74 ,hebrew3 ky 'od 'odnu 'sho't pny u'lhy 'ly npshy tshtvhh the rendering would be3 ,for ,i shall yet praise him1 who is the salvation of my countenance and my ,god4 ,my soul is cast down within me4 ,thus the refrain would agree exactly with the two that follow 7ver4 #aa and #dc3e74 ,yet this conjecture1 however plausible1 is uncertain1 since we do not know that the sacred writer sought exact uniformity in the three refrains4 #i4 ,general remark on the various readings of the sacred text4 ,as a general rule1 the various readings with which textual criticism is occupied have respect to minor points--for the most part points of a trivial nature2 and even where the variations are of more importance1 they are not of such a character as to obscure1 much less change1 the truths of revelation in any essential respect4 ,biblical critics tell us1 for example1 that the ,samaritan ,pentateuch agrees with the ,septuagint version in more than a thousand places where they differ from the ,masoretic ,hebrew text4 ,chap4 #af1 ,no4 #g4 ,yet these three texts all exhibit the same ,god1 and the same system of doctrines and duties4 ,revelation does not lie in letters and syllables and grammatical forms1 but in the deep and pure and strong and broad current of truth given by inspiration of ,god4 ,reverence for the inspired word makes us anxious to possess the sacred text in all possible purity4 ,yet if we cannot attain to absolute perfection in this respect1 we have reasonable assurance that ,god1 who gave the revelation contained in the ,old ,testament1 has preserved it to us unchanged in any essential particular4 ,the point on which most obscurity and uncertainty rests is that of scriptural chronology2 and this is not one that affects ,christian faith or practice4 ,,second ,,division3 ,,particular ,,introduction4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,as ,a ,,whole4 #a4 ,the province of ,particular ,introduction is to consider the books of the ,bible separately1 in respect to their authorship1 date1 contents1 and the place which each of them holds in the system of divine truth4 ,here it is above all things important that we begin with the idea of the unity of divine revelation--that all the parts of the ,bible constitute a gloriously perfect whole1 of which ,god and not man is the author4 ,no amount of study devoted to a given book or section of the ,old ,testament1 with all the help that modern scholarship can furnish1 will give a true comprehension of it1 until we understand it in its relations to the rest of ,scripture1 ,we cannot1 for example1 understand the book of ,genesis out of connection with the four books that follow1 nor the book of ,deuteronomy separated from the four that precede4 ,nor can we fully understand the ,pentateuch as a whole except in the light of the historical and prophetical books which follow2 for these unfold the divine purpose in the establishment of the ,theocracy as recorded in the ,pentateuch4 ,the ,pentateuch itself gives us only the constitution of the ,theocracy4 ,the books that follow1 taken in connection with1 the ,new ,testament1 reveal its office in the plan of redemption2 and not till we know this can we be said to have an intelligent comprehension of the theocratic system4 ,the same is true of every other part of revelation4 ,the words of the apostle3 ,ever learning1 and never able to come to the knowledge of the truth 7#b ,tim4 #c3g71 apply to many learned commentaries4 ,their authors have brought to them much accurate scholarship and research2 but they have not seen the unity of divine truth4 ,they have written mainly in an antiquarian spirit and interest1 regarding the work under consideration simply as an ancient and venerable record4 ,they have diligently sought for connections in philology1 in antiquities1 and in history4 ,in these respects they have thrown much light on the sacred text4 ,but they have never once thought of inquiring what place the book which they have undertaken to interpret holds in the divine system of revelation--perhaps have had no faith in such a system4 ,consequently they cannot unfold to others that which they do not themselves apprehend4 ,on a hundred particulars they may give valuable information1 but that which constitutes the very life and substance of the book remains hidden from their view4 #b4 ,it is necessary that we understand1 first of all1 the relation of the ,old ,testament as a whole to the system of revealed truth4 ,it is a preparatory revelation introductory to one that is final4 ,this the ,new ,testament teaches in explicit terms4 ,when the fulness of the time was come1 ,god sent forth his ,son4 ,gal4 #d3d4 ,christ could not have come in the days of ,enoch before the flood1 nor of ,abraham after the flood1 because the fulness of the time had not yet arrived4 ,nor was the way for his advent prepared in the age of ,moses1 or ,david1 or ,isaiah1 or ,ezra4 ,the gospel everywhere assumes that when the ,saviour appeared1 men had attained to a state of comparative maturity in respect to both the knowledge of ,god and the progress of human society4 ,the attentive reader of the ,new ,testament cannot fail to notice how fully its writers avail themselves of all the revelations which ,god had made in the ,old ,testament of himself1 of the course of his providence1 and of his purposes towards the human family4 ,the unity of ,god1 especially1 is assumed as a truth so firmly established in the national faith of the ,jews1 that the doctrine of our ,lord's deity1 and that of the ,holy ,spirit1 can be taught without the danger of its being misunderstood in a polytheistic sense--as if the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,spirit were three gods4 ,it is certain that this could not have been done any time before the ,babylonish captivity4 ,the idea of vicarious sacrifice1 moreover--that great fundamental idea of the gospel that without shedding of blood there is no remission--the writers of the ,new ,testament found ready at hand1 and in its light they interpreted the mission of ,christ4 ,upon his very first appearance1 ,john the ,baptist1 his forerunner1 exclaimed to the assembled multitudes3 ,behold the ,lamb of ,god1 which taketh away the sin of the world4 ,to the ,jew1 with his training under the ,mosaic system of sacrifices1 how significant were these words6 ,without such a previous training1 how meaningless to him and to the world for which ,christ died6 ,then again the gospel1 in strong contrast with the ,mosaic law1 deals in general principles4 ,herein it assumes a comparative maturity of human thought--a capacity to include many particulars under one general idea4 ,a beautiful illustration of this is our ,lord's summary of social duties2 ,therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you1 do ye even so to them3 for this is the law and the prophets4 ,matt4 #g3ab4 ,we may add 7what is indeed implied in the preceding remark7 that the gospel required for its introduction a well-developed state of civilization and culture1 as contrasted with one of rude barbarism4 ,now the ,hebrews were introduced1 in the beginning of their national existence1 to the civilization of ,egypt2 which1 with all its defects1 was perhaps as good a type as then existed in the world4 ,afterwards they were brought successively into intimate connection with ,babylonian1 ,persian1 ,grecian1 and ,roman civilization2 particularly with the last two4 ,this was1 moreover1 at a time when their national training under the ,mosaic institutions had given them such maturity of religious character that they were not in danger of being seduced into the idolatrous worship of these nations4 ,dispersed throughout all the provinces of the ,roman empire1 they still maintained firmly the religion of their fathers2 and their synagogues everywhere constituted central points for the introduction of the gospel1 and its diffusion through the ,gentile world4 ,such are some of the many ways in which the world was prepared for the ,redeemer's advent4 ,this is a vast theme1 on which volumes could be written4 ,the plan of the present work will only admit of the above brief hints4 ,our ,lord's command is3 ,go ye into all the world1 and preach the gospel to every creature4 ,the history of missions shows that the gospel can be preached with success to the most degraded tribes--to the ,hottentots of ,south ,africa and the cannibals of the ,south sea islands1 and that this is the only remedy for their barbarism4 ,but the gospel did not begin among savages1 nor does it have its centres of power and influence among them4 ,christ came at the culminating point of ancient civilization and culture2 not that he might conform his gospel to existing institutions and ideas1 but that he might through his gospel infuse into them 7as far as they contained elements of truth7 the purifying and transforming leaven of divine truth4 ,as the gospel began in the midst of civilization1 so does its introduction among barbarous tribes always bring civilization in its train4 #c4 ,when we have learned to regard the revelation of which we have a record in the ,old ,testament as preparatory to the gospel1 we see it in its true light4 ,this view furnishes both the key to its character and the answer to the objections commonly urged against it4 ,it is not a revelation of abstract truths4 ,these would neither have excited the interest of the people1 nor have been apprehended by them4 ,god made known to the covenant people his character and the duties which he required of them by a series of mighty acts and a system of positive laws4 ,the ,old ,testament1 is1 therefore1 in an eminent degree documentary--a record not simply of opinions1 but rather of actions and institutions4 ,of these actions and institutions we are to judge from the character of the people and the age in connection with the great end proposed by ,god4 ,this end was not the material prosperity of ,israel1 but the preparation of the nation for its high office as the medium through which the gospel should afterwards be given to the world4 ,the people were rebellious and stiff-necked1 and surrounded by polytheism and idolatry4 ,their training required severity1 and all the severity employed by ,god brought forth at last its appropriate fruits4 ,the laws imposed upon them were stern and burdensome from their multiplicity4 ,but no one can show that in either of these respects they could have been wisely modified2 for the nation was then in its childhood and pupilage 7,gal4 #d3a-c71 and needed to be treated accordingly4 ,an objection much insisted on by some is the exclusive character of the ,mosaic institutions--a religion1 it is alleged1 for only one nation1 while all the other nations were left in ignorance4 ,to this a summary answer can be given4 ,in selecting ,israel as his covenant people1 ,god had in view the salvation of the whole world3 ,in thee shall all families of the earth be blessed 7,gen4 #ab3c7--such was the tenor of the covenant from the beginning4 ,his plan was to bring one nation into special relation to himself1 establish in it the true religion1 prepare it for the advent of ,christ1 and then propagate the gospel from it as a centre throughout all nations4 ,if men are to be dealt with in a moral way1 as free1 responsible subjects of law 7and this is the only way in which ,god deals with men under a system of either natural or revealed religion71 can the objector propose any better way8 ,he might as well object to the procedure of a military commander that1 instead of spreading his army over a whole province1 he concentrates it on one strong point4 ,let him wait patiently1 and he will find that in gaining this point the commander gains the whole country4 #d4 ,having seen the relation of the ,old ,testament as a whole to the system of divine revelation1 we are now prepared to consider the place occupied by its several divisions4 7#a47 ,to prepare the way for our ,lord's advent1 one nation was to be selected and trained up under a system of divine laws and ordinances--the theocracy established under ,moses4 ,the ,pentateuch records the establishment of the theocracy1 with the previous steps that led to it1 and the historical events immediately connected with4 it4 ,hence the five books of ,moses are called emphatically the ,law2 and as such1 their province in the ,old ,testament is clear and well defined4 7#b47 ,the end of the ,mosaic law being the preparation of the ,israelitish people1 and through them the world1 for ,christ's advent1 it was not the purpose of ,god that it should be hidden as a dead letter beside the ark in the inner sanctuary4 ,it was a code for practice1 not for theory4 ,it contained the constitution of the state1 civil as well as religious2 and ,god's almighty power and faithfulness were pledged that it should accomplish in a thorough way the office assigned to it4 ,the theocracy must therefore have a history2 and with the record of this the historical books are occupied4 7#c47 ,god did not leave the development of this history to itself4 ,he watched over it from the beginning1 and directed its course1 interposing from time to time1 not only in a providential way1 but also by direct revelation4 ,sometimes1 for specific ends1 he revealed himself immediately to particular individuals1 as to ,gideon1 and ,manoah and his wife4 ,but more commonly his revelations were made to the rulers or people at large through persons selected as the organs of his ,spirit2 that is1 through prophets4 ,the prophet held his commission immediately from ,god4 ,since ,god is the author1 not of confusion1 but of order1 he came to the people under the ,law1 not above it2 and his messages were to be tried by the ,law4 ,deut4 #ac3a-e4 ,no prophet after ,moses enjoyed the same fulness of access to ,god which was vouchsafed to him1 or received the same extent of revelation4 ,numb4 #ab3f-h2 ,deut4 #cd3aj-ab4 ,nevertheless1 the prophet came to rulers and people1 like ,moses1 with an authority derived immediately from ,god1 introducing his messages with the words3 ,thus saith the ,lord4 ,in ,god's name he rebuked the people for their sins2 explained to them the true cause of the calamities that befell them2 recalled them to ,god's service as ordained in the ,law1 unfolding to them at the same time its true nature as consisting in the spirit1 and not in the letter only--#a ,sam4 #ae3bb2 ,isa4 #a3aa-bj2 #eg3ae2 #ff3b2 ,jer4 #d3d2 ,ezek4 #ah3ca2 ,hosea #aj3ab2 #ad3b2 ,joel #b3ab1 #ac2 ,amos #e3 #ba-bd2 ,micah #f3 #f-h--;denounced upon them the awful judgments of ,god as the punishment of continued disobedience2 and promised them the restoration of his favor upon condition of hearty repentance4 ,in the decline of the ,theocracy1 it was the special province of the prophets to comfort the pious remnant of ,god's people by unfolding to them the future glory of ,zion--the true ,israel of ,god1 and her dominion over all the earth4 ,from about the reign of ,uzziah and onward1 as already remarked 7ch4 #ae4 #ab71 the prophets began1 under the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit1 to reduce their prophecies to writing1 and thus arose the series of prophetical books that form a prominent part of the ,old ,testament canon4 ,their office is at once recognized by every reader as distinct from that of either the ,pentateuch or the historical books2 although these latter were1 as a general rule1 written by prophets also4 7#d47 ,there is a class1 more miscellaneous in character1 that may be described in general terms as the poetical books1 in which the elements of meditation and reflection predominate4 ,it includes the book of ,job1 which has for its theme divine providence1 as viewed from the position of the ,old ,testament2 the book of ,psalms1 that wonderful treasury of holy thought and feeling embodied in sacred song for the use of ,god's people in all ages2 the book of ,proverbs1 with its inexhaustible treasures of practical wisdom2 the book of ,ecclesiastes1 having for its theme the vanity of this world when sought as a satisfying good2 and the book of ,canticles1 which the church has always regarded as a mystical song having for its ground-idea1 under the ,old ,testament1 that ,god is the husband of ,zion1 and under the ,new1 that the church is the bride of ,christ4 ,how high a place this division of the canon holds in the system of divine revelation every pious heart feels instinctively4 ,without it1 the revelation of the ,old ,testament could not have been complete for the work assigned to it4 #e4 ,we have seen the relation of the ,old ,testament as a whole to the entire system of revelation1 and also the place occupied by its several divisions4 ,it will further appear1 as we proceed1 that each particular book in these divisions contributes its share to the perfection of the whole4 #f4 ,although the revelation contained in the ,old ,testament was preparatory to the fuller revelation of the ,new1 we must guard against the error of supposing that it had not a proper significance and use for the men of its own time4 ,unto us1 says the apostle1 was the gospel preached1 as well as unto them4 ,heb4 #d3b4 ,and again3 ,these all died in faith1 not having received the promises1 but having seen them afar off1 and were persuaded of them1 and embraced them1 and confessed that they were strangers and pilgrims on the earth4 ,and these all1 having obtained a good report through faith1 received not the promise3 ,god having provided some better tiling for us1 that they without us should not be made perfect4 ,heb4 #aa3ac1 #ci1 #dj4 ,they had a part of the truth1 but not its fulness2 and the measure of revelation vouchsafed to them was given for their personal salvation1 as well as to prepare the way for further revelations4 ,the promise made to ,abraham--,in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed--was fulfilled in ,christ4 ,in this respect ,abraham received not the promise4 ,nevertheless1 it was a promise made for his benefit1 as well as for that of future ages4 ,into the bosom of the patriarch it brought light and joy and salvation4 ,your father ,abraham1 said ,jesus1 rejoiced to see my day2 and he saw it1 and was glad4 ,john #h3ef4 ,he believed in the ,lord1 says the inspired record1 and he counted it to him for righteousness4 ,gen4 #ae3f4 ,the deliverance of ,israel from ,egypt typified the redemption of ,christ2 and it was1 moreover1 one of the grand movements that prepared the way for his advent4 ,but it was neither all type nor all preparation4 ,to the covenant people of that day it was a true deliverance2 and to the believing portion of them1 a deliverance of soul as well as of body4 ,the law1 says ,paul1 was our school-master to bring us unto ,christ1 that we might be justified by faith4 ,gal4 #c3bd4 ,but while it had this preparatory office1 it was to the ,israelitish nation a true rule of life2 and under it many1 through faith1 anticipated its end4 ,the prophets prophesied for the men of their own age1 as well as for distant generations4 ,the sweet psalmist of ,israel1 while he foreshadowed the ,messiah's reign1 sung for the comfort and edification of himself and his contemporaries2 and ,solomon gave rules of practical wisdom as valid for his day as for ours4 ,the revelation of the ,old ,testament was not complete1 like that which we now possess2 but it was sufficient for the salvation of every sincere inquirer after truth4 ,when the rich man in hell besought ,abraham that ,lazarus might be sent to warn his five brethren on the ground that1 if one went to them from the dead they would repent1 ,abraham answered3 ,if they hear not ,moses and the prophets1 neither will they be persuaded though one rose from the dead4 #g4 ,there is another practical error against which ,christians of the present day need to be warned4 ,it is the idea that the full revelation of the ,new ,testament supersedes in a great measure the necessity of studying the previous revelation contained in the ,old ,testament4 ,few will openly avow this1 but too many inwardly cherish the delusion in a vague and undefined form2 and it exerts a pernicious influence upon them1 leading them to undervalue and neglect the ,old ,testament ,scriptures4 ,even if the idea under consideration were in accordance with truth1 it would still be to every earnest ,christian a matter of deep historical interest to study the way by which ,god prepared the world for the full light of the gospel4 ,but it is not true4 ,it rests on a foundation of error and delusion4 ,for1 7#a47 ,the system of divine revelation constitutes a whole1 all the parts of which are connected1 from beginning to end1 so that no single part can be truly understood without a knowledge of all the rest4 ,the impenetrable darkness that rests on some portions of ,scripture has its ground in the fact that the plan of redemption is not yet completed4 ,the mighty disclosures of the future can alone dissipate this darkness4 ,god is his own interpreter1 ,and he will make it plain4 7#b47 ,we know that the writers of the ,new ,testament constantly refer to the ,old for arguments and illustrations4 ,a knowledge of the ,old ,testament is necessary1 therefore1 for a full comprehension of their meaning4 ,how can the reader1 for example1 understand the epistles to the ,romans and ,galatians1 or that to the ,hebrews1 without a thorough acquaintance with ,moses and the prophets1 to which these epistles have such constant reference8 7#c47 ,the ,old ,testament is occupied with the record of ,god's dealings with men4 ,such a record must be a perpetual revelation of ,god's infinite attributes1 and of human character also1 and the course of human society1 every part of which is luminous with instruction4 7#d47 ,although the old theocracy1 with its particular laws and forms of worship1 has passed away1 yet the principles on which it rested1 which interpenetrated it in every part1 and which shone forth with a clear light throughout its whole history--these principles are eternal verities1 as valid for us as for the ancient patriarchs4 ,some of these principles--for example1 ,god's unity1 personality1 and infinite perfections2 his universal providence2 his supremacy over all nations2 the tendency of nations to degeneracy1 and the stern judgments employed by ,god to reclaim them--are so fully unfolded in the ,old ,testament that they needed no repetition in the ,new4 ,there they became axioms rather than doctrines4 7#e47 ,the manifold wisdom of ,god in adapting his dealings with men to the different stages of human progress cannot be seen without a diligent study of the ,old ,testament as well as the ,new4 ,whoever neglects the former1 will want breadth and comprehensiveness of ,christian culture4 ,all profound ,christian writers have been well versed in the whole instrument of each ,testament1 as ,tertullian calls the two parts of revelation4 ,chap4 #ac1 ,no4 #b4 ,modern skepticism begins with disparaging the ,old ,testament1 and ends with denying the divine authority of both the ,old and the ,new4 ,in this work it often unites a vast amount of learning in regard to particulars with principles that are superficial and false4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,pentateuch4 #a4 ,the unity of the ,pentateuch has already been considered 7,ch4 #i1 ,no4 #ab71 and will appear more fully as we proceed with the examination of the separate books included in it4 ,even if we leave out of view the authority of the ,new ,testament1 this unity is too deep and fundamental to allow of the idea that it is a patchwork of later ages4 ,under divine guidance the writer goes steadily forward from beginning to end1 and his work when finished is a symmetrical whole4 ,even its apparent incongruities1 like the interweaving of historical notices with the laws1 are marks of its genuineness2 for they prove that1 in those parts at least1 events were recorded as they transpired4 ,such a blending of history with revelation does not impair the unity of the work2 for it is a unity which has its ground not in severe logical arrangement and classification1 but in a divine plan historically developed4 ,whether the division of the ,pentateuch into five books 7whence its ,greek name ,pentateuchos1 fivefold book7 was original1 proceeding from the author himself1 or the work of a later age1 is a question on which biblical scholars are not agreed4 ,it is admitted by all that the division is natural and appropriate4 ,the ,hebrew titles of the several books are taken from prominent words standing at or near the beginning of each4 ,the ,greek names are expressive of their prominent contents2 and these are followed in the ,latin ,vulgate and in our ,english version1 only that the name of the fourth book is translated4 ,i4 ,,genesis4 #b4 ,the ,hebrews name this book ,bereshith1 in the beginning1 from the first word4 ,its ,greek name ,genesis signifies generation1 genealogy4 ,as the genealogical records with which the book abounds contain historical notices1 and are1 in truth1 the earliest form of history1 the word is applied to the history of the creation1 and of the ancient patriarchs1 as well as to the genealogical lists of their families4 ,gen4 #b3d2 #be3ai2 #cg3b etc4 ,in the same wide sense is it applied to the book itself4 #c4 ,genesis is the introductory book to the ,pentateuch1 without which our understanding of the following books would be incomplete4 ,let us suppose for a moment that we had not this book4 ,we open the book of ,exodus and read of the children of ,israel which came into ,egypt2 that ,joseph was in ,egypt already1 and that there arose up a new king over ,egypt1 which knew not ,joseph4 ,who were these children of ,israel8 we at once ask2 and how did they come to be in ,egypt8 ,who was ,joseph8 and what is the meaning of the notice that the new king knew not ,joseph8 ,all these particulars are explained in the book of ,genesis1 and without them we must remain in darkness4 ,but the connection of this book with the following is not simply explanatory2 it is organic also1 entering into the very substance of the ,pentateuch4 ,we are told 7,ex4 #b3bd1 #be7 that ,god heard the groaning of his people in ,egypt1 and ,god remembered his covenant with ,abraham1 with ,isaac1 and with ,jacob2 and ,god looked upon the children of ,israel1 and ,god had respect unto them4 ,the remembrance of his covenant with their fathers is specified as the ground of his interposition4 ,now the covenant made with ,abraham1 and afterwards renewed to ,isaac and ,jacob1 was not a mere incidental event in the history of the patriarchs and their posterity4 ,it constituted the very essence of ,god's peculiar relation to ,israel2 and1 as such1 it was the platform on which the whole theocracy was afterwards erected4 ,the nation received the law at ,sinai in pursuance of the original covenant made with their fathers2 and unless we understand the nature of this covenant1 we fail to understand the meaning and end of the law itself4 ,the very information which we need is contained in ,genesis2 for from the twelfth chapter onward this book is occupied with an account of this covenant1 and of ,god's dealings with the patriarchs in connection with it4 ,the story of ,joseph1 which unites such perfect simplicity with such deep pathos1 is not thrown in as a pleasing episode4 ,its end is to show how ,god accomplished his purpose1 long before announced to ,abraham 7ch4 #ae3ac71 that the ,israelites should be a stranger in a land not theirs4 ,but the ,abrahamic covenant itself finds its explanation in the previous history4 ,for two thousand years ,god had administered the government of the world without a visible church4 ,and what was the result8 ,before the flood the degeneracy of the human family was universal4 ,god1 therefore1 swept them all away1 and began anew with ,noah and his family4 ,but the terrible judgment of the deluge was not efficacious to prevent the new world from following the example of the old4 ,in the days of ,abraham the worship of ,god had been corrupted through polytheism and idolatry1 and ignorance and wickedness were again universal4 ,the time had manifestly come for the adoption of a new economy1 in which ,god should1 for the time being1 concentrate his special labors upon a single nation but with ultimate reference to the salvation of the whole world4 ,thus we have in the book of ,genesis in a certain measure 7for we may not presume to speak of ,god's counsels as fully apprehended by us7 an explanation of the ,abrahamic covenant1 and1 in this1 of the ,mosaic economy also4 #d4 ,in accordance with the above view1 the book of ,genesis falls into two unequal1 but natural divisions4 ,the first part extends through eleven chapters1 and is occupied with the history of the human family as a whole4 ,it is the oldest record in existence1 and its contents are perfectly unique4 ,it describes in brief terms3 the order of creation2 the institution of the ,sabbath and marriage2 the probation to which man was subjected1 with its disastrous result in his fall and expulsion from ,eden2 the murder of ,abel by ,cain1 and1 in connection with this1 the division of mankind into two families2 man's universal degeneracy2 the deluge2 the covenant made by ,god with the earth through ,noah1 and the law of murder2 the confusion of tongues at ,babel1 and the consequent dispersion of the different families of men1 a particular account of which is given by way of anticipation in the tenth chapter4 ,in addition to these notices there are two genealogical tables2 the first from ,adam to ,noah 7ch4 #e71 the second from ,shem to ,abraham 7ch4 #aa74 ,the second part comprises the remainder of the book4 ,in this we have no longer a history of the whole race1 but of ,abraham's family1 with only incidental notices of the nations into connection with whom ,abraham and his posterity were brought4 ,it opens with an account of the call of ,abraham and the covenant made with him2 notices the repeated renewal of this covenant to ,abraham1 with the institution of the rite of circumcision2 its subsequent renewal to ,isaac and ,jacob2 and the exclusion1 first of ,ishmael and afterwards of ,esau1 from a share in its privileges4 ,in immediate connection with the covenant relation into which ,god took ,abraham and his family1 we have the history of the patriarchs1 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 sometimes with much detail1 but always with reference to the peculiar prerogative conferred upon them4 ,the book closes with an account of the wonderful train of providences by which ,israel was brought into ,egypt4 ,though ,ishmael and ,esau were excluded from the covenant1 yet1 apparently in consequence of their near relation to the patriarchs1 genealogical tables are devoted to them2 to ,ishmael1 ch4 #be3ab-ah2 to ,esau1 the whole of ch4 #cf4 #e4 ,the ,mosaic authorship of ,genesis has already been considered2 and1 in connection with this1 the question whether the ,pentateuch1 and especially ,genesis1 contains any clauses of a later date1 ,ch4 #i1 ,no4 #aa4 ,some1 as ,hengstenberg and his followers1 deny the existence of such clauses2 but others think that a few must be admitted1 which were afterwards added1 as needful explanations1 by prophetical men4 ,we are at liberty to decide either way concerning them according to the evidence before us4 ,on the question whether ,moses made use of earlier written documents1 see ,ch4 #i1 ,no4 #aa4 ,the clauses for which a later date can with any show of reason be claimed are few in number1 and none of them enter essentially into the texture of the book4 ,they are just such extraneous remarks as the necessities of a later age required2 for example1 ,gen4 #cf3ca2 ,ex4 #af3ce4 ,on the last of these1 ,graves1 who considers it plainly a passage inserted by a later hand1 says3 ,i contend that the insertion of such notes rather confirms than impeaches the integrity of the original narrative4 ,if this were a compilation long subsequent to the events it records 7according to the false assumption of some respecting the origin of the ,pentateuch71 such additions would not have been plainly distinguishable1 as they now are1 from the main substance of the original4 ,on the ,pentateuch1 ,appendix1 sec4 #a1 ,no4 #ac4 #f4 ,the contents of the first part of this book are peculiar4 ,it is not strange1 therefore1 that we should encounter difficulties in the attempt to interpret them4 ,to consider these difficulties in detail would be to write a commentary on the first eleven chapters4 ,only some general remarks can here be offered4 ,some difficulties are imaginary1 the inventions of special pleading4 ,in these the commentaries of modern rationalists abound4 ,they are to be set aside by fair interpretation4 ,but other difficulties are real1 and should not be denied or ignored by the honest expositor4 ,if he can give a valid explanation of them1 well and good2 but if not1 let him reverently wait for more light1 in the calm assurance that the divine authority of the ,pentateuch rests on a foundation that cannot be shaken4 ,to deny a well-authenticated narrative of facts on the ground of unexplained difficulties connected with it is to build on a foundation of error4 7,a47 ,of the difficulties connected with the first part of ,genesis some are scientific4 ,such is the narrative of the creation of the world in six days4 ,respecting this it has already been remarked 7,ch4 #aj1 ,no4 #c7 that with all who believe in the reality of divine revelation the question is not respecting the truth of this narrative1 but respecting the interpretation of it4 ,as long ago as the time of ,augustine the question was raised whether these days are to be understood literally1 or symbolically of long periods of time4 ,the latter was his view1 and it is strengthened by the analogy of the prophetic days of prophecy4 ,another difficulty relates to the age of the antediluvian patriarchs1 which was about tenfold the present term of life for robust and healthful men4 ,according to the laws of physiology we must suppose that the period of childhood and youth was protracted in a corresponding manner2 since in man1 as in all the higher animals1 the time of physical growth--physical growth in the widest sense1 the process of arriving at physical maturity--has a fixed relation to the whole term of existence4 ,after the deluge1 in some way not understood by us1 the whole course of human life began to be gradually quickened--to run its round in a shorter time--till the age of man was at last reduced to its present measure4 ,all that we can say here is that we do not know how ,god accomplished this result4 ,he accomplished it in a secret and invisible way1 as he does so many other of his operations in nature4 ,on the discrepancy between the ,masoretic ,hebrew text1 the text of the ,samaritan ,pentateuch1 and that of the ,septuagint1 in respect to the genealogical tables in ,genesis1 see below4 ,the unity of the human race is everywhere assumed in ,scripture4 ,some modern scientific men have denied this1 but their arguments for a diversity of origin do not amount to positive proof4 ,they are theoretic rather than demonstrative1 and the weight of evidence is against them4 ,we must remember1 moreover1 that man lives under a supernatural dispensation4 ,the narrative in the eleventh chapter of ,genesis seems to imply that ,god interposed miraculously to confound human speech1 in accordance with his plan to scatter men abroad upon the face of all the earth4 ,in like manner he may have interposed in a secret way to intensify the diversity in the different races of men4 ,it does not appear certain1 however1 on physiological grounds1 that any miraculous interposition was needed2 and we may leave the question of the manner in which the present diversity among the children of ,adam was produced among the secret things of which it is not necessary that we should have an explanation4 ,the question of the universality of the deluge is with believers in revelation one of words only1 on which it is hardly necessary to waste time4 ,the end of the deluge was the complete destruction of the human race1 all but ,noah and his family4 ,this it accomplished1 and why need we raise any further inquiries2 as1 for example1 whether the polar lands1 where no man has ever trod1 were submerged also8 ,all the high hills under the whole heaven doubtless included all the high hills where man lived1 and which1 therefore1 were known to man4 7,b47 ,another class of difficulties is historical1 consisting in alleged inconsistencies and disagreements between different parts of the narrative4 ,for the details of these1 the reader must be referred to the commentaries4 ,one or two only can be noticed as specimens of the whole4 ,it is said that the second account of the creation 7,gen4 #b3d-be7 is inconsistent with the first2 the order of creation in the first being animals1 then man2 in the second1 man1 then animals4 ,but the answer is obvious4 ,in the first account1 the order of succession in the several parts of creation is one of the main features4 ,it distinctly announces that1 after ,god had finished the rest of his works1 he made man in his own image4 ,the second account1 on the other hand1 which is introductory to the narrative of man's sin and expulsion from ,eden1 takes no notice of the order of creation in its several parts4 ,in this1 man is the central object1 and other things are mentioned incidentally in their relation to man4 ,the writer has no occasion to speak of trees good for food till a home is sought for ,adam2 nor of beasts and birds till a companion is needed for him4 ,then each of these things is mentioned in connection with him4 ,no candid interpreter can infer from this that the second account means to give1 as the veritable order of creation--man1 the garden of ,eden1 beasts and birds6 ,a difficulty has been alleged1 also1 in regard to ,cain's wife4 ,but this grows simply out of the brevity of the sacred narrative4 ,the children of ,adam must have intermarried1 brothers and sisters4 ,the fact that no daughter is mentioned as born to ,adam before ,seth1 is no evidence against the birth of daughters long before4 ,in the fourth chapter no individuals are mentioned except for special reasons--,cain and ,abel1 with a genealogical list of ,cain's family to ,lamech1 because he was the head of one branch of the human race before the deluge4 ,in the fifth chapter none are named but sons in the line of ,noah1 with the standing formula of sons and daughters born afterwards4 ,we are not to infer from this that no sons or daughters were born before2 otherwise we should exclude ,cain and ,abel themselves4 ,at the time of the murder of ,abel1 the two brothers were adult men4 ,what was their age we cannot tell4 ,it may have been a hundred years or more2 for our first parents were created not infants1 but in the maturity of their powers1 and ,adam was one hundred and thirty years old when the next son after ,abel's murder was born4 ,gen4 #d3be4 ,at all events1 the interval between ,abel's birth and death must have been long1 and we cannot reasonably suppose that during this period no daughters were born to ,adam4 7,c47 ,the chronology of the book of ,genesis involves1 as is well known1 some difficult questions4 ,in the genealogical tables contained in the fifth and eleventh chapters1 the texts of the ,masoretic ,hebrew 7which is followed in our version71 ,hebrew-,samaritan1 and ,septuagint1 differ in a remarkable manner4 7#a47 ,antediluvian ,genealogy4 ,according to the ,septuagint1 no patriarch has a son before the age of one hundred years4 ,it adds to the age of each of the five patriarchs that preceded ,jared1 and also to the age of ,enoch1 one hundred years before the birth of his son1 deducting the same from his life afterwards4 ,to the age of ,lamech it adds six years before the birth of ,noah1 deducting thirty years afterwards4 ,in respect to the age of ,methuselah when ,lamech was born1 there is a difference of twenty years between the ,vatican and the ,alexandrine manuscripts4 ,the latter agrees with the ,masoretic text3 the former gives one hundred and sixty-seven instead of one hundred and eighty-seven4 ,thus the ,septuagint makes the period from the creation to the deluge #bbfb years 7according to the ,vatican manuscript #bbdb years7 against the #afef of our ,masoretic text4 ,the ,samaritan-,hebrew text agrees with the ,masoretic for the first five patriarchs and for ,enoch4 ,from the age of ,jared it deducts one hundred years2 from that of ,methuselah one hundred and twenty 7one hundred according to the ,vatican manuscript of the ,septuagint72 and from that of ,lamech1 one hundred and twenty-nine--three hundred and forty-nine years in all--before the birth of their respective sons4 ,this places the deluge in the year of the world #acjg4 7#b47 ,genealogy from ,noah to ,abraham4 ,chap4 #aa4 ,here the ,samaritan-,hebrew and the ,septuagint 7which ,josephus follows with some variations7 give a much longer period than the ,masoretic text4 ,they both add to the age of each of the six patriarchs after ,shem one hundred years before the birth of his son4 ,to the age of ,nahor the ,samaritan-,hebrew adds fifty1 and the ,septuagint one hundred and fifty years4 ,the latter also inserts after ,arphaxad a ,cainan who was one hundred and thirty years old at the birth of ,salah4 ,in respect to the variations in these two genealogical tables 7chaps4 #e and #aa7 it is to be remarked3 7#a7 that the authority of the ,masoretic text is1 on general grounds1 higher than that of the ,septuagint or ,samaritan ,pentateuch2 7#b7 that in the present case there is reason to suspect systematic change in these two latter texts2 strong external corroboration alone could warrant us in adopting the longer chronology of the ,septuagint2 7#c7 that any uncertainty which may rest on the details of numbers in the ,pentateuch ought not to affect our confidence in the ,mosaic record as a whole1 for here1 as it is well known1 there is a peculiar liability to variations4 ,with these brief remarks we must dismiss this subject4 ,the reader will find the question of scriptural chronology discussed at large in the treatises devoted to the subject4 ,for more compendious views1 see in ,alexander's ,kitto and ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible the articles entitled ,chronology4 ,,ii4 ,,exodus4 #g4 ,the ,hebrew name of this book is3 ,ve-elle shemoth1 ,now these are the names2 or more briefly3 ,shemoth1 names4 ,the word ,exodus 7,greek ,exodos1 whence the ,latin ,exodus7 signifies going forth1 departure1 namely1 of ,israel from ,egypt4 ,with the book of ,exodus begins the history of ,israel as a nation4 ,it has perfect unity of plan and steady progress from beginning to end4 ,the narrative of the golden calf is no exception2 for this records in its true order an interruption of the divine legislation4 ,the book consists of two parts essentially connected with each other4 ,the contents of the first part 7chaps4 #a-ah7 are briefly the deliverance of the ,israelites from ,egypt and their journey to ,sinai1 as preparatory to their national covenant with ,god there4 ,more particularly this part contains3 7#a7 an account of the multiplication of the people in ,egypt2 their oppression by the ,egyptians2 the birth and education of ,moses1 his abortive attempt to interpose in behalf of his people1 his flight to ,midian1 and his residence there forty years 7chaps4 #a1 #b72 7#b7 ,god's miraculous appearance to ,moses at ,horeb under the name ,,jehovah2 his mission to ,pharaoh for the release of ,israel1 in which ,aaron his brother was associated with him2 the execution of this mission1 in the progress of which the ,egyptians were visited with a succession of plagues1 ending in the death of all the first-born of man and beast in ,egypt2 the final expulsion of the people1 and in connection with this the establishment of the feast of the passover and the law respecting the first-born of man and beast 7chaps4 #c-ac72 7#c7 the journey of the ,israelites to the ,red sea under the guidance of a cloudy pillar2 their passage through it1 with the overthrow of ,pharaoh's host2 the miraculous supply of manna and of water2 the fight with ,amalek1 and ,jethro's visit to ,moses4 ,the second part contains the establishment of the ,mosaic economy with its tabernacle and priesthood4 ,at ,sinai ,god enters into a national covenant with the people1 grounded on the preceding ,abrahamic covenant2 promulgates in awful majesty the ten commandments1 which he afterwards writes on two tables of stone1 and adds a code of civil regulations4 ,chaps4 #ai-bc4 ,the covenant is then written and solemnly ratified by the blood of sacrifices4 ,chap4 #bd4 ,after this follows a direction which contains in itself the whole idea of the sanctuary3 ,let them make me a sanctuary2 that ,i may dwell among them4 ,chap4 #be3h4 ,the remainder of the book is mainly occupied with the structure of the tabernacle and its furniture1 and the establishment of the ,levitical priesthood4 ,directions are given for the priestly garments1 and the mode of inauguration is prescribed2 but the inauguration itself belongs to the following book4 ,the narrative is interrupted by the sin of the people in the matter of the golden calf1 with the various incidents and precepts connected with it 7chaps4 #cb-cd71 and a repetition of the law of the ,sabbath is added4 ,chap4 #ca3ab-ag4 ,the office1 then1 which the book of ,exodus holds in the ,pentateuch is definite and clear4 #h4 ,with regard to the time of the sojourn in ,egypt1 two opinions are held among biblical scholars4 ,the words of ,god to ,abraham3 ,know of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs1 and shall serve them2 and they shall afflict them four hundred years1 but in the fourth generation they shall come hither again 7,gen4 #ae3ac1 #af72 and also the statement of ,moses3 ,now the sojourning of the children of ,israel who dwelt in ,egypt1 was four hundred and thirty years 7,exod4 #ab3dj71 seem to imply that they spent four hundred and thirty years in ,egypt 7a round number being put in the former passage for the more exact specification of the latter74 ,it has been thought1 also1 that the vast increase of the people in ,egypt--to six hundred thousand men 7,exod4 #ab3cg71 which shows that the whole number of souls was over two millions--required a sojourn of this length4 ,on the other hand1 the apostle ,paul speaks of the law as given four hundred and thirty years after the promise to ,abraham4 ,gal4 #c3ag4 ,in this he follows the ,jewish chronology1 which is also that of the ,septuagint and ,samaritan ,pentateuch1 for they read in ,exod4 #ab3dj3 who dwelt in ,egypt and in the land of ,canaan4 ,the words1 in the land of ,canaan1 are undoubtedly an added gloss2 but the question still remains whether they are not a correct gloss4 ,the genealogy of ,levi's family 7,exod4 #f3af-bj7 decidedly favors the interpretation1 which divides the period of four hundred and thirty years between ,egypt and the land of ,canaan4 ,to make this table consistent with a sojourn of four hundred and thirty years in ,egypt1 it would be necessary to assume1 with some1 that it is an epitome1 not a full list1 which does not seem probable4 ,before we can draw any certain argument from the increase of the people in ,egypt1 we must know the basis of calculation4 ,it certainly includes not only the seventy male members of ,jacob's family1 with their wives and children1 but also the families of their male-servants 7circumcised according to the law1 ,gen4 #ag3ab1 #ac1 and therefore incorporated with the covenant people74 ,from the notices contained in ,genesis1 we learn that the families of the patriarchs were very numerous4 ,gen4 #ad3ad2 #bf3ad2 #cb3aj2 #cf3f1 #g4 ,if ,abraham was able to arm three hundred and eighteen trained servants born in his own house1 how large an aggregate may we reasonably assume for the servants connected with ,jacob's family1 now increased to seventy male souls8 ,we must not think of ,jacob going into ,egypt as a humble personage4 ,he was a rich and prosperous emir1 with his children and grandchildren1 and a great train of servants4 ,with the special blessing of ,god upon his children and all connected with them1 we need find no insuperable difficulty in their increase to the number mentioned at the exodus4 ,provision was made in a miraculous way for the sustenance of the ,israelites in the wilderness4 ,the question has been raised3 ,how were their flocks and herds provided for8 ,in answer to this1 the following remarks are in point3 7#a47 ,we are not to understand the word wilderness of an absolutely desolate region4 ,it affords pasturage in patches4 ,robinson describes ,wady ,feiran1 northwest of ,sinai1 as well watered1 with gardens of fruit and palm trees2 and he was assured by the ,arabs that in rainy seasons grass springs up over the whole face of the desert4 ,the whole northeastern part of the wilderness1 where the ,israelites seem to have dwelt much of the thirty-eight years1 is capable of cultivation1 and is still cultivated by the ,arabs in patches4 7#b47 ,the ,israelites undoubtedly marched not in a direct line1 but from pasture to pasture1 as the modern ,arabs do1 and spreading themselves out over the adjacent region4 ,when ,moses besought his father-in-law not to leave him1 but to go with him that he might be to the people instead of eyes 7,numb4 #aj3ca71 we may well suppose that he had in view ,hobab's knowledge of the places where water and pasturage were to be found4 7#c47 ,there is decisive evidence that this region was once better watered than it is now1 and more fruitful4 ,the planks of acacia-wood1 the shittim-wood1 which were employed in the construction of the tabernacle1 were a cubit and a half in width2 that is1 in ,english measure1 something more than two and a half feet4 ,no acacia-trees of this size are now found in that region4 ,the cutting away of the primitive forests seems to have been followed1 as elsewhere1 by a decrease in the amount of rain4 ,but1 however this may be1 we know that1 for some reason1 this part of ,arabia was once more fertile and populous4 ,in its northeastern part are extensive ruins of former habitations1 and enclosed fields4 ,the same is true of the region around ,beersheba and south of it4 ,here ,robinson found ruins of former cities1 as ,eboda and ,elusa4 ,of the latter place he says3 ,once1 as we judged upon the spot1 this must have been a city of not less than twelve or fifteen thousand inhabitants4 ,now1 it is a perfect field of ruins1 a scene of unutterable desolation2 across which the passing stranger can with difficulty find his way4 ,vol4 #a1 p4 #aig4 ,and of ,eboda1 farther south3 ,the large church marks a numerous ,christian population4 ,but the desert has resumed its rights2 the intrusive hand of cultivation has been driven back2 the race that dwelt here have perished2 and their works now look abroad in loneliness and silence over the mighty waste4 ,vol4 #a1 p4 #aid4 ,ritter1 the most accomplished of modern geographers1 affirms that from the present number of the thin and negligent population1 we can draw no certain conclusion respecting the former condition of the country4 ,erdkunde1 vol4 #ad1 p4 #ibg4 ,of the numerous objections urged by ,colenso against the ,pentateuch1 and the book of ,exodus in particular1 many are imaginary1 and vanish upon the fair interpretation of the passages in question4 ,others1 again1 rest on false assumptions in regard to facts4 ,for the details1 the reader is referred to the works written in reply4 ,,iii4 ,,leviticus4 #i4 ,the ,hebrews call this book ,vayyikra1 and ,god called4 ,later ,jewish designations are1 the law of priests1 and the law of offerings4 ,the ,latin name ,leviticus 7from the ,greek ,leuitikon1 ,levitical1 pertaining to the ,levites7 indicates that its contents relate to the duties of the ,levites1 in which body are included all the priests4 ,the book of ,leviticus is immediately connected with that which precedes1 and follows in the most natural order4 ,the tabernacle having been reared up and its furniture arranged1 the services pertaining to it are next ordained1 and in connection with these1 various regulations1 most of which come within the sphere of the priestly office4 ,hence we have 7#a7 the law for the various offerings1 followed by an account of the anointing of the tabernacle1 and the consecration of ,aaron and his sons to the priestly office1 with the death of ,nadab and ,abihu for offering strange fire before the ,lord 7chaps4 #a-aj72 7#b7 precepts concerning clean and unclean beasts1 and cleanness and uncleanness in men from whatever source1 followed by directions for the annual hallowing of the sanctuary on the great day of atonement1 and also in respect to the place where animals must be slain1 and the disposition to be made of their blood 7chaps4 #aa-ag72 7#c7 laws against sundry crimes1 which admitted1 in general1 of no expiation1 but must be visited with the penalty of the law 7chaps4 #ah-bj72 7#d7 various ordinances pertaining to the purity of the priestly office1 the character of the sacrifices1 the yearly festivals1 the arrangements for the sanctuary1 etc41 with the law for the sabbatical year and the year of jubilee 7chaps4 #bb-bf3b72 7#e7 a wonderful prophetic chapter1 announcing for all coming ages the blessings that should follow obedience1 and the curses which disobedience should bring upon the people 7chap4 #bf3c-df74 ,there is added1 as a sort of appendix1 a chapter concerning vows and tithes4 ,chap4 #bg4 #aj4 ,the priestly office1 with its sacrifices1 was the central part of the ,mosaic economy1 for it prefigured ,christ our great ,high ,priest1 with his all-perfect sacrifice on ,calvary for the sins of the world4 ,on this great theme much remains to be said in another place4 ,it is sufficient to remark here that the book of ,leviticus gives the divine view of expiation4 ,if the expiations of the ,levitical law were typical1 the types were true figures of the great ,antitype1 which is ,jesus ,christ1 the ,lamb of ,god4 which taketh away the sin of the world4 ,no view of his death can be true which makes these types empty and unmeaning4 ,,iv4 ,,numbers4 #aa4 ,bemidhbar1 in the wilderness1 is the ,hebrew name of this book1 taken from the fifth word in the original4 ,it is also called from the first word ,vayyedhabber1 and ,god spake4 ,the ,english version1 after the example of the ,latin1 translates the ,greek name ,arithmoi1 numbers1 a title derived from the numbering of the people at ,sinai1 with which the book opens1 and which is repeated on the plains of ,moab4 ,chap4 #bf4 ,this book records the journeyings of the ,israelites from ,sinai to the borders of the promised land1 and their sojourn in the wilderness of ,arabia1 with the various incidents that befell them1 and the new ordinances that were from time to time added1 as occasion required4 ,it embraces a period of thirty-eight years1 and its contents are necessarily of a very miscellaneous character4 ,the unity of the book is chronological1 history and legislation alternating with each other in the order of time4 ,a full enumeration of the numerous incidents which it records1 and of the new ordinances from time to time enacted1 is not necessary4 ,in the history of these thirty-eight years we notice three salient points or epochs4 ,the first is that of the departure from ,sinai4 ,of the preparations for this1 with the order of the march and whatever pertained to it1 a full account is given4 ,then follow the incidents of the journey to the wilderness of ,paran1 with some additional laws4 ,chaps4 #a-ab4 ,the second epoch is that of the rebellion of the people upon the report of the twelve spies whom ,moses had sent to search out the land1 for which sin the whole generation that came out of ,egypt1 from twenty years old and upward1 was rejected and doomed to perish in the wilderness4 ,chaps4 #ac1 #ad4 ,this was in the second year of the exodus4 ,of the events that followed to the thirty-eighth year of the exodus1 we have only a brief notice4 ,with the exception of the punishment of the ,sabbath-breaker1 ,korah's rebellion and the history connected with it1 and also a few laws 7chaps4 #ae-ai71 this period is passed by in silence4 ,the nation was under the divine rebuke1 and could fulfil its part in the plan of ,god only by dying for its sins with an unrecorded history4 ,the third epoch begins with the second arrival of ,israel at ,kadesh1 and this is crowded with great events--the death of ,miriam1 the exclusion of ,moses and ,aaron from the promised land1 with the death of the latter at ,mount ,hor1 the refusal of ,edom to allow a passage through his territory1 the wearisome journey of the people to compass the land of ,edom1 with their sins and sufferings1 the conquest of ,arad1 ,sihon1 and ,og1 and thus the arrival of the people at the plains of ,moab opposite ,jericho4 ,chaps4 #bj-bb3a4 ,then follows the history of ,balaam and his prophecies1 the idolatry and punishment of the people1 a second numbering of the people1 the appointment of ,joshua as the leader of the people1 the conquest of the ,midianites1 the division of the region beyond ,jordan to the tribes of ,reuben and ,gad and the half-tribe of ,manasseh1 and a review of the journeyings of the people4 ,with all this are intermingled various additional ordinances4 ,v4 ,,deuteronomy4 #ab4 ,the ,jewish name of this book is ,elle haddebharim1 these are the words4 ,the ,greek name ,deuteronomion1 whence the ,latin ,deuteronomium and the ,english ,deuteronomy1 signifies second law1 or repetition of the law1 as it is also called by the later ,jews4 ,the book consists of discourses delivered by ,moses to ,israel in the plains of ,moab over against ,jericho1 in the eleventh month of the fortieth year of the exodus4 ,deut4 #a3a1 #c4 ,the peculiar character of this book and its relation to the preceding books have been already considered in the first part of the present work 7,chap4 #i1 ,no4 #aj71 to which the reader is referred4 ,it is generally divided into three parts4 ,the first is mainly a recapitulation of the past history of ,israel under ,moses1 with appropriate warnings and exhortations1 followed by a notice of the appointment of three cities of refuge on the east side of ,jordan4 ,chaps4 #a-d4 ,the second discourse begins with a restatement of the law given on ,sinai4 ,exhortations to hearty obedience follow1 which are full of fatherly love and tenderness4 ,various precepts of the law are then added1 with some modifications and additions1 such as the altered circumstances of the people required4 ,chaps4 #e-bf4 ,in the third part the blessings and the curses of the law are prominently set forth as motives to obedience4 ,chaps4 #bg-cj4 ,the remainder of the book is occupied with ,moses' charge to ,joshua1 his direction for depositing the law in the sanctuary by the side of the ark1 his song written by divine direction1 his blessing upon the twelve tribes1 and the account of his death and burial on mount ,nebo4 #ac4 ,as the book of ,genesis constitutes a suitable introduction to the ,pentateuch1 without which its very existence1 as a part of the divine plan1 would be unintelligible1 so does the book of ,deuteronomy bring it to a sublime close4 ,from the goodness and faithfulness of ,god1 from his special favor bestowed upon ,israel1 from the excellence of his service1 from the glorious rewards of obedience and the terrible penalties of disobedience1 it draws motives for a deep and evangelical obedience--an obedience of the spirit and not of the letter only4 ,thus it adds the corner-stone to the whole system of legislation1 completing it on the side of the motives by which it challenges obedience1 and investing it with radiant glory4 ,the ,pentateuch1 then1 is a whole4 ,the first book is inseparable from it as an introduction2 the last as a close4 ,the three intermediate books contain the legislation itself1 and in this each of them has its appropriate province4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,historical ,,books4 #a4 ,in the ,pentateuch we have the establishment of the ,theocracy1 with the preparatory and accompanying history pertaining to it4 ,the province of the historical books is to unfold its practiced working1 and to show how1 under the divine superintendence and guidance1 it accomplished the end for which it was given4 ,they contain1 therefore1 primarily1 a history of ,god's dealings with the covenant people under the economy which he had imposed upon them4 ,they look at the course of human events on the divine rather than the human side1 and in this respect they differ widely from all other historical writings4 ,human histories abound with the endless details of court intrigues1 of alliances and wars1 of material civilization and progress1 and whatever else pertains to the welfare of men considered simply as the inhabitants of this world4 ,but the historical books of the ,old ,testament1 written by prophetical men illumined by the ,holy ,spirit1 unfold with wonderful clearness the mighty movements of ,god's providence1 by which the divine plan proposed in the ,mosaic economy was steadily carried forward1 alike through outward prosperity and adversity1 towards the fulfilment of its high office4 ,after a long series of bloody struggles1 the ,theocracy attained to its zenith of outward power and splendor under ,david and ,solomon4 ,from that time onward the power of the ,israelitish people declined1 till they were at last deprived of their national independence1 and subjected to the yoke of foreign conquerors4 ,but in both the growth of the national power under the ,theocracy1 and its decline1 the presence of ,god and his supremacy1 as well over the covenant people as over the surrounding nations1 were gloriously manifested1 and their training for the future advent of the ,messiah was steadily carried forward4 ,thus we have in these historical books a wonderful diversity of divine manifestations1 which alike charm and instruct the pious mind4 #b4 ,it has already been shown 7,chap4 #ae1 ,no4 #g7 that the books of ,kings and ,chronicles contain only selections from a large mass of materials4 ,the same is probably true of the books of ,judges and ,samuel4 ,the sacred writers did not propose to give a detailed account of all the events belonging to the periods over which their histories extended1 but only of those which were specially adapted to manifest ,god's presence and guidance in the affairs of the covenant people4 ,the history of some persons is given very fully2 of others with extreme brevity4 ,but we may say1 in general1 that this divine history1 extending over a period of a thousand years1 is the most condensed in the world1 as well as the most luminous with the divine glory4 ,the student rises from the perusal of it with such clear views of ,god's presence and supremacy in the course of human affairs1 as cannot be gained from all the ponderous tomes of secular history4 ,each book1 moreover1 presents some special phase of ,god's providential movements1 and contains1 therefore1 its special lessons of instruction4 ,with few exceptions1 the authors of the historical books are unknown4 ,we only know that they were prophetical men1 who wrote under the illumination and guidance of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,i4 ,,joshua4 #c4 ,this book records the conquest of the land of ,canaan by the ,israelites under ,joshua1 and its distribution by lot among the tribes that received their inheritance on the west side of the ,jordan4 ,it connects itself1 therefore1 immediately with the ,pentateuch2 for it shows how ,god fulfilled his promise to ,abraham that he would give to his posterity the land of ,canaan for an inheritance 7,gen4 #ag3h71 a promise often repeated afterwards1 and kept constantly in view in the whole series of ,mosaic legislation4 ,the book naturally falls into two parts4 ,the first twelve chapters contain the history of the conquest itself1 with the movements preparatory thereto4 ,joshua1 who had been previously designated as the leader of the people 7,numb4 #bg3ae-bc71 receives a solemn charge to pass over the ,jordan and take possession of the promised land2 the people prepare themselves accordingly2 two spies are sent out to take a survey of ,jericho2 the ,israelites pass over the ,jordan dry-shod1 its waters having been miraculously divided2 they encamp at ,gilgal1 and are there subjected to the rite of circumcision4 ,chaps4 #a-e4 ,then follows an account of the overthrow of ,jericho1 the trespass of ,achan with the calamity which it brought upon the people1 the conquest of ,ai1 the ratification of the law at mount ,ebal with the erection of the stones on which the law was written1 the artifice of the ,gibeonites by which they saved their lives1 the overthrow of the combined kings of the ,canaanites at ,gibeon1 and the conquest1 first of the southern and afterwards of the northern kings of ,canaan4 ,chaps4 #f-ab4 ,the second part gives an account of the division of the land by lot among the several tribes4 ,this work was begun as is described in chapters #ac-ag1 and after an interruption through the dilatoriness of the people1 for which ,joshua rebuked them1 was continued and completed at ,shiloh4 ,chaps4 #ah1 #ai4 ,six cities of refuge were then appointed1 three on each side of the ,jordan2 forty-eight cities were assigned by lot to the ,levites2 and the two and a half tribes that had received their inheritance on the east side of the ,jordan 7,numb41 chap4 #cb7 were sent home4 ,chaps4 #bj-bb4 ,the twenty-third chapter contains ,joshua's charge to the elders of ,israel1 and the twenty-fourth his final charge at ,shechem to the assembled tribes1 on which occasion there was a solemn renewal of the national covenant4 ,the whole book is brought to a close by a brief notice of the death of ,joshua and ,eleazar1 and the interment of the bones of ,joseph in ,shechem4 ,this brief survey of the contents of the book reveals at once its unity1 its orderly plan1 and the place which it holds in the history of the ,theocracy4 #d4 ,the authorship of the book cannot be determined from the title alone1 any more than that of the two books which bear the name of ,samuel4 ,jewish tradition ascribes it to ,joshua himself1 except the last five verses4 ,but it records some transactions which1 according to the most obvious interpretation of them1 occurred after ,joshua's death4 ,among these are the conquest of ,hebron 7chap4 #ae3af-ai1 compared with ,judges #a3ab-ae71 and especially the excursion of the ,danites 7chap4 #ai3dg71 which must be regarded as identical with that described in the eighteenth chapter of the book of ,judges4 ,unless we assume that this notice of the ,danites is an addition made by a later hand1 we must suppose that the book was written by some unknown prophetical man after ,joshua's death4 ,he may well have been one of the elders who overlived ,joshua1 since at the time of his writing ,rahab was yet living among the ,israelites4 ,chap4 #f3be4 ,the eighteenth chapter of the book of ,judges1 which records the invasion of the ,danites1 is evidently an appendix1 introduced by the words3 ,in those days there was no king in ,israel2 and that this invasion took place not long after the settlement of the people in ,canaan1 is manifest from the object proposed by it4 ,judges #ah3a4 ,at the time of the conquest1 ,rahab was a young woman1 and may well have survived that event forty years or more4 ,the only apparent indication of a still later composition of the book is that found in the reference to the book of ,jasher1 chap4 #aj3ac4 ,from #b ,sam4 #a3ah1 we learn 7according to the most approved interpretation of the passage7 that ,david's elegy on the death of ,saul and ,jonathan was written in the book of ,jasher4 ,but we are not warranted in affirming that this title was applied to a book of definitely determined contents4 ,it may have been a collection of national songs1 enlarged from age to age4 ,though ,joshua does not appear to have been the author of the book in its present form1 we may well suppose that the writer employed1 in part at least1 materials that came from ,joshua's pen4 ,when the land was divided by lot among the several tribes1 the boundaries of each inheritance1 with the cities pertaining to it1 must have been carefully described in writing by ,joshua himself1 or by persons acting under his direction4 ,it is probable that these descriptions were copied by the author of the book of ,joshua2 and this is sufficient to account for any diversity of diction that may exist in this part of the book as compared with the purely historic parts4 ,nothing in the style and diction of this book1 or in that of the two following books of ,judges and ,ruth1 indicates that they belong to a later age of ,hebrew literature4 ,certain peculiarities of expression which occasionally appear in them may be naturally explained as provincialisms1 or as belonging to the language of conversation and common life4 #e4 ,the book of ,joshua bears every internal mark of authenticity and credibility4 ,the main transaction which it records--the extirpation of the ,canaanites by the immediate help of ,jehovah1 and the gift of their country to the ,israelites--was contemplated from the very first by the ,abrahamic covenant 7,gen4 #ac3ad1 #ae2 #ae3ah-ba2 #ag3h1 etc471 and also by the entire body of the ,mosaic laws4 ,why ,god chose to accomplish this by the sword of his covenant people1 has been already sufficiently considered4 ,chap4 #aj1 ,no4 #g4 ,the stupendous miracles recorded in the book of ,joshua are in harmony with the entire plan of redemption1 the great and decisive movements of which have been especially marked by signal manifestations of ,god's presence and power4 ,the man who denies the credibility of this book on the ground of these miracles1 must1 for consistency's sake1 go much farther1 and deny altogether the supernatural manifestations of ,god recorded in the ,bible1 including the mission1 miraculous works1 resurrection1 and ascension of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ himself4 ,in chap4 #aj3ab-ad we read that1 at the word of ,joshua1 the sun stood still and the moon stayed in the midst of heaven about a whole day1 so that there was no day like that before it or after it1 that the ,lord hearkened unto the voice of a man4 ,some have sought to explain the whole passage as a quotation from the book of ,jasher expressed in the language of poetic hyperbole2 and they have compared with it such poetic amplifications as those contained in ,psa4 #ah3g-af2 ,hab41 chap4 #c1 etc4 ,but this interpretation is forced and unnatural2 and besides this1 there remains the analogous event of which we have a double record in #b ,kings #bj3h-aa2 ,isa4 #ch3 #g1 #h1 and which is expressly ascribed to divine power3 ,behold1 ,i will bring again the shadow of the degrees1 which is gone down in the sun-dial of ,ahaz1 ten degrees backward4 ,here it is manifest that to human vision the sun1 and with it the shadow1 went backward ten degrees4 ,how this was accomplished we need not attempt to determine4 ,we are not shut up to the supposition that the earth was turned back on her axis ten degrees1 nor that the rays of the sun were miraculously deflected ten degrees 7which would change his apparent position in the heavens ten degrees71 nor to any other particular hypothesis4 ,if ,god chose that the sun should to human vision go backward ten degrees1 he could accomplish it by means inscrutable to us2 and so also if he chose that it should stand still in the midst of heaven about a whole day4 ,,ii4 ,,judges ,,and ,,ruth4 #f4 ,the book of ,judges is so called because it is occupied with the history of the ,israelites during the period when they were under the general administration of ,judges4 ,these men are not to be confounded with the ordinary judges under the ,theocracy1 of the appointment of which we have an account in ,exodus1 chap4 #ah4 ,they were men specially raised up by ,god and endowed by him with extraordinary qualifications for their office1 which was general and political rather than municipal4 ,many of them were military leaders1 called to their work in times of national calamity4 ,in times of peace they stood at the head of public affairs1 although with regard to some of them it is generally thought that their jurisdiction extended to only a part of the ,israelitish people4 ,thus ,jephthah and the three succeeding judges seem to have exercised their office in northeastern ,israel1 while the scene of ,samson's exploits was southwestern ,israel1 and he was1 in the opinion of many1 contemporary with ,eli1 who judged ,israel at ,shiloh4 ,the condition of the nation during the period of the ,judges is described as one in which there was no king in ,israel4 ,chap4 #ah3a2 #ai3a4 ,there was no regularly organized central power which could give unity to the movements of the people4 ,the tribes seem to have acted in a great measure independently of each other1 as in the expedition of the ,danites4 ,chap4 #ah4 ,it was only on special occasions1 like that of the sin and punishment of the ,benjamites 7chaps4 #ai-ba71 that there was a general concert among them4 ,this state of affairs was not favorable to the development of the military power of the nation1 but it was well suited to the high moral and religious ends which the ,theocracy had in view2 for it compelled the people to feel their constant dependence on ,god's presence and help for defence against their enemies4 ,sin1 and oppression by the surrounding nations2 repentance1 and deliverance by ,god's immediate interposition--this is the oft-repeated story of the book of ,judges4 ,all this was in accordance with the promises and threatenings of the ,law1 and it illustrated alike the perverseness of the nation and ,god's faithfulness in the fulfilment of his covenant4 ,the incidents recorded in this book are of a peculiarly checkered character1 and many of them are full of romantic interest4 ,in the history of redemption1 the book of ,judges has a well-defined place4 ,it unfolds to our view the operation of the ,theocracy in the first stage of the nation's existence1 and under its first outward form of government4 #g4 ,as it respects the arrangement of materials1 the book of ,judges opens with a two-fold introduction1 giving1 first1 a brief notice of the wars carried on against the ,canaanites by certain tribes after ,joshua's death1 of the failure of the people to effect a complete extirpation of the ,canaanites1 and of the reproof administered to them by an angel of the ,lord 7chap4 #a-b3e72 secondly1 a survey of the course of events during the time of the judges1 with especial reference to ,god's faithfulness in the fulfilment of his promises and threatenings4 ,chap4 #b3f-c3f4 ,then follows the body of the work1 giving an account of the seven servitudes to which the people were subjected for their sins1 and of the judges raised up by ,god for their deliverance1 with some incidental notices1 as the history of ,abimelech1 7chap4 #i7 and the quarrel of the men of ,ephraim with ,jephthah4 ,chap4 #ab3a-f4 ,the book closes with a two-fold appendix1 recording1 first1 the conquest of ,laish by the ,danites1 and in connection with this the story of ,micah and his idolatrous establishment 7chaps4 #ag1 #ah72 secondly1 the punishment of the ,benjamites for espousing the cause of the wicked men of ,gibeah 7chaps4 #ai-ba74 ,these events are not to be conceived of as subsequent to those recorded in the body of the book1 but as contemporaneous with them4 #h4 ,the remark3 ,in those days there was no king in ,israel 7chaps4 #ah3a2 #ai3a7 plainly implies that the date of the book of ,judges must be assigned to a period after the establishment of the kingdom4 ,the statement1 on the other hand1 that the children of ,benjamin did not drive out the ,jebusites from ,jerusalem1 but the ,jebusites dwell with the children of ,benjamin in ,jerusalem unto this day 7chap4 #a3ba71 limits the time of its composition to the period before ,david's conquest of the city4 #b ,sam4 #e3f-i4 ,the author of the book is unknown4 ,jewish tradition ascribes it to ,samuel4 ,it may well have been written during his life1 and possibly under his supervision1 though on this point we can affirm nothing positively4 ,the writer must have availed himself of earlier written documents4 ,see ,chap4 #ae1 ,no4 #e4 #i4 ,the chronology of the book of ,judges is a matter of debate among biblical scholars4 ,some contend for a longer period1 in accordance with the reckoning of the apostle ,paul1 who says that after ,god had divided to the people the land of ,canaan by lot1 he gave unto them judges about the space of four hundred and fifty years1 until ,samuel the prophet4 ,acts #ac3bj4 ,others seek to reduce the period so as to bring it into harmony with the statement in #a ,kings #f3a1 that ,solomon began to build the temple in the four hundred and eightieth year after the children of ,israel were come out of the land of ,egypt4 ,if we suppose that the oppression of the ,israelites by the ,philistines1 described in the beginning of the first book of ,samuel1 is the same as the forty years' oppression mentioned in the book of ,judges1 and that the judgeship of ,samson falls within the same period 7,judges #ae3bj71 it is easy to make out the four hundred and fifty years of the apostle's reckoning4 ,from the beginning of the first servitude under ,cushan-rishathaim to the close of the last under the ,philistines1 we have1 reckoning the years of servitude and rest in succession1 and allowing three years for the reign of ,abimelech1 three hundred and ninety years4 ,for the remaining sixty years we have 7#a7 the time from the division of the land by lot to the death of the elders who overlived ,joshua2 7#b7 the time from the close of the last servitude to the establishment of the kingdom2 and possibly 7#c7 a further period for ,shamgar's judgeship1 though it is more probable that this falls within the eighty years of rest after the oppression of the ,moabites4 ,those who adopt a shorter chronology1 assume that the forty years' dominion of the ,philistines was contemporaneous with the oppression of the northeastern tribes by the ,ammonites and the period during which ,jephthah1 ,ibzan1 ,elon1 and ,abdon judged ,israel2 their jurisdiction being1 as they suppose1 restricted to the northeastern part of the land4 ,for both the longer and shorter chronology1 there are several variously modified schemes1 the details of which the student can find in works devoted to the subject of biblical chronology4 #aj4 ,the incidents of the book of ,ruth belong to the period of the ,judges1 so that it may be regarded as in some sort an appendix to the book of ,judges1 though probably not written by the same author4 ,it contains a beautiful sketch of domestic life in the early period of the ,theocracy1 written with charming simplicity and graphic vividness4 ,yet it is not on this ground alone or chiefly that it has a place in the sacred canon4 ,it records also the sublime faith of ,ruth the ,moabitess1 which led her to forsake her own country and kindred to trust under the wings of the ,lord ,god of ,israel 7ch4 #b3ab71 and which was rewarded by her being made the ancestress of ,david and of the ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,thus the book connects itself immediately with the house and lineage of ,david1 and may be regarded as supplementary to the history of his family4 ,it was evidently written after ,david was established on the throne4 ,further than this we have no certain knowledge respecting its date2 nor can its author be determined4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,samuel4 #aa4 ,the two books of ,samuel constituted originally one work4 ,the division was made by the ,greek translators as a matter of convenience1 so as to close the first book with the death of ,saul1 and begin the second with ,david's accession to the throne4 ,this division was followed by the ,vulgate1 and was introduced by ,daniel ,bomberg into the printed ,hebrew text4 ,to the original whole work the name of ,samuel was appropriately given2 for he is not only the central personage in the history which it records to the establishment of the kingdom1 but it was also through him1 as the acknowledged prophet of the ,theocracy1 that both ,saul and ,david were designated and anointed for the kingly office4 ,the ,greek ,septuagint designates these books from their contents1 ,first and ,second of the ,kingdoms1 and the ,vulgate1 ,first and ,second of ,kings4 #ab4 ,in the history of the plan of redemption these two books have a well-defined province4 ,they are occupied with the establishment1 under ,god's direction and guidance1 of the kingly form of government in the ,theocracy4 ,all the events recorded before the inauguration of ,saul were preparatory to that event and explanatory of it4 ,since1 moreover1 ,saul was afterwards rejected with his family on account of his disobedience1 and ,david and his family were chosen in his stead1 it was in the person of ,david that the kingdom was first fully established1 and with the close of his reign the work accordingly ends4 ,the period included in this history1 though comparatively brief1 was most eventful4 ,samuel1 himself one of the greatest of the prophets1 established a school of the prophets1 and from his day onward the prophetical order assumed an importance and permanency in the ,theocracy that was before unknown4 ,see above1 ,ch4 #ae1 ,no4 #aa4 ,the change to the kingly form of government constituted a new era in the ,hebrew commonwealth4 ,although the motives which led the people to desire a king were low and unworthy1 being grounded in worldliness and unbelief1 yet ,god1 for the accomplishment of his own purposes1 was pleased to grant their request4 ,the adumbration in the ,theocracy of the kingly office of the future ,messiah1 not less than of his priestly and prophetical office1 was originally contemplated in its establishment2 and now the full time for this had come4 ,while ,david and his successors on the throne were true civil and military leaders in a secular and earthly sense1 their headship over ,god's people also shadowed forth the higher headship of the long promised ,redeemer1 the great ,antitype in whom all the types contained in the ,mosaic economy find at once their explanation and their fulfilment4 ,under ,david the ,hebrew commonwealth was rescued from the oppression of the surrounding nations1 and speedily attained to its zenith of outward power and splendor4 #ac4 ,the contents of the books of ,samuel naturally fall under three main divisions4 ,the introductory part takes up the history of the commonwealth under ,eli and continues it to the time when the people demanded of ,samuel a king4 #a ,sam4 chaps4 #a-g4 ,this period properly belongs to that of the judges1 but its history is given here because of its intimate connection with the events that follow4 ,it describes the birth and education of ,samuel2 the disorders that prevailed under ,eli's administration1 for which ,god denounced upon his family severe judgments2 the invasion of the land by the ,philistines1 with the capture and restoration of the ark2 ,samuel's administration1 and the deliverance of the people under him from the oppression of the ,philistines4 ,the second part1 extending through the remainder of the first book1 opens with an account of the abuses which led the people to desire a king1 and then gives an account of the selection1 anointing1 and inauguration of ,saul as king of ,israel1 with a notice of his exploit in delivering the people of ,jabesh-gilead from the ,ammonites4 ,chaps #h-ab4 ,it then gives an account of his first sin at ,gilgal1 for which ,samuel threatened him with the loss of his kingdom1 and of his victory over the ,philistines1 with a general summary of the events of his reign4 ,chaps4 #ac1 #ad4 ,for his second sin in the matter of the ,amalekites ,saul is rejected1 and ,david is anointed by ,samuel as his successor2 the ,spirit of the ,lord forsakes ,saul1 and an evil spirit from ,god troubles him2 ,david becomes his minstrel1 is in high favor with him1 slays ,goliath in the presence of the two armies of ,israel and the ,philistines1 returns in triumph to the camp of ,saul1 marries ,michal his daughter1 but becomes an object of his jealousy and hatred because he has supplanted him in the affections of the people4 ,chaps4 #ae-ah3i4 ,the remainder of the first book is mainly occupied with an account of the persecutions to which ,david was subjected on the part of ,saul1 and of the wonderful way in which ,god delivered him4 ,it closes with an account of ,saul's distress through the invasion of the ,philistines1 of his resort in trouble to a woman that had a familiar spirit1 of the terrible message that he received at the lips of the risen ,samuel1 of the defeat of the armies of ,israel by the ,philistines1 and of the death of ,saul and his three sons on ,mount ,gilboa4 ,the third part occupies the whole of the second book4 ,it records the reign of ,david1 first at ,hebron over the tribe of ,judah1 with the accompanying war between the house of ,saul and the house of ,david1 and then1 after ,ishbosheth's death1 over all ,israel at ,jerusalem4 ,with the fidelity of truth the sacred historian describes not only ,david's many victories over the enemies of ,israel1 but also his grievous sin in the matter of ,uriah1 with the terrible chastisements that it brought upon him and his kingdom--,amnon's incest1 the murder of ,amnon by ,absalom1 ,absalom's rebellion1 pollution of his father's concubines1 and death in battle4 ,the closing years of ,david's reign were saddened also by ,david's sin in numbering the people1 for which there fell in pestilence seventy thousand of his subjects4 #ad4 ,for the evidence that the author of these books availed himself of the writings of the prophets contemporary with the events described1 see above1 ,chap4 #ae1 ,no4 #f4 ,in #a ,chron4 #bi3bi we read3 ,now the acts of ,david the king1 first and last1 behold they are written in the book of ,samuel the seer1 and in the book of ,nathan the prophet1 and in the book of ,gad the seer4 ,if1 as some think1 our present books of ,samuel were composed shortly after ,david's death1 the author may well have been one of the last two of the above-named prophets2 but there are some indications that he lived after the division of the ,israelitish people into the two kingdoms of ,judah and ,israel4 ,in #a ,sam4 #bg3f we read that ,achish gave ,ziklag to ,david2 wheretofore1 adds the sacred historian1 ,ziklag pertaineth unto the kings of ,judah unto this day4 ,the only natural interpretation of these words is that the kings of ,judah--not any particular king of ,judah1 but the kings of ,judah as a line--are named in contrast with the kings of ,israel4 ,in several other passages1 where he is speaking of events that occurred before the separation of the two kingdoms1 he puts ,judah and ,israel together4 #a ,sam4 #aa3h2 #ag3eb2 #ah3af2 #b ,sam4 #c3aj2 #bd3a4 ,but this can1 perhaps1 be explained from the fact that during the seven years of ,david's reign at ,hebron there was an actual separation of ,judah from the other tribes4 ,it is a remarkable fact that while the full term of ,david's reign is given 7#b ,sam4 #e3d1 #e71 which implies that the writer lived after its close1 no notice is taken of his death4 ,the reason of this omission cannot be known4 ,as the first book of ,kings opens with an account of ,david's last days and death1 some have conjectured that it was designedly omitted from the books of ,samuel as superfluous1 when the historical books were arranged in the sacred canon4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,kings4 #ae4 ,these two books1 like the two of ,samuel1 originally constituted a single work4 ,the division was first made by the ,greek translators1 was followed by the ,vulgate1 and was finally admitted by ,daniel ,bomberg into the printed ,hebrew text4 ,the ,greek version of the ,seventy and the ,latin version1 having called the books of ,samuel1 the former1 ,first and ,second of the ,kingdoms1 the latter1 ,first and ,second of the ,kings1 designate these books as ,third and ,fourth of the ,kingdoms or ,kings4 ,each of the historical books presents the covenant people under a new aspect1 and imparts new lessons of instruction4 ,in the book of ,joshua we see them taking triumphant possession of the promised land through the mighty assistance of ,jehovah2 the book of ,judges describes the course of affairs in the ,hebrew commonwealth before the existence of a central kingly government2 in the books of ,samuel we learn how such a central government was established1 and how under the reign of ,david the nation was raised from the deep degradation of servitude to the summit of worldly power4 ,but the ,theocracy was only a preparatory1 and therefore a temporary form of ,god's visible earthly kingdom4 ,from the days of ,david and ,solomon it began to decline in outward power and splendor1 and it is with the history of this decline that the books of ,kings are occupied4 ,in the view which they present of the divine plan they are in perfect harmony with the preceding books of ,samuel2 but in respect to the manner of execution they differ widely4 ,the books of ,samuel give the history of ,samuel1 ,saul1 and ,david1 with great fulness of detail1 and never refer the reader to other sources of information4 ,the books of ,kings1 on the contrary1 give professedly only certain portions of the history of the people under the successive kings1 always adding1 at the close of each monarch's reign after ,solomon1 that the rest of his acts may be found1 for the kings of ,judah1 in the book of the ,chronicles of the kings of ,judah2 and1 for the kings of ,israel1 in the book of the ,chronicles of the kings of ,israel4 ,the ,chronicles referred to are not our present books of ,chronicles1 as has been already shown1 ,chap4 #ae1 ,no4 #h1 but a larger collection of writings1 from which the authors both of the books of ,kings and ,chronicles drew materials1 in part at least1 for their respective works4 ,the history contained in the books of ,kings may be conveniently divided into three periods--7#a7 the reign of ,solomon over all ,israel2 7#b7 the history of the coexisting kingdoms of ,judah and ,israel2 7#c7 the history of the kingdom of ,judah after the extinction of the kingdom of ,israel4 #af4 ,the history of the first period opens with the reign of ,solomon1 which excelled that of ,david in outward magnificence1 as it did that of every succeeding king4 #a ,kings #c3ac4 ,the great event of his reign1 constituting an epoch in the history of the ,theocracy1 was the erection of the temple on ,mount ,moriah1 which took the place of the ancient tabernacle constructed by divine direction in the wilderness4 ,thus ,solomon added to the public services of the sanctuary an outward splendor and dignity corresponding with the increased wealth and glory of the nation4 ,but in the case of his kingdom1 as often elsewhere1 the zenith of magnificence came after the zenith of true power4 ,had his profuse expenditures ceased with the erection of the temple and his own house1 it would have been well2 but the maintenance of such a household as his1 embracing seven hundred wives1 princesses1 and three hundred concubines1 corrupted his religion and that of the nation1 burdened the people with heavy taxes1 and thus prepared the way for the division of his kingdom that followed immediately after his death1 as recorded in #a ,kings #ab4 #ag4 ,with the division of ,solomon's kingdom under his son ,rehoboam into two hostile nations begins the second period of the history4 ,this division was brought about by ,god's appointment as a chastisement for ,solomon's sins1 and in it the national power received a blow from which it never recovered4 ,the religious effect also was unspeakably calamitous so far as the kingdom of the ten tribes was concerned2 for ,jeroboam1 the first king of ,israel1 established idolatry as a matter of state policy1 thus corrupting the religion of his whole kingdom with a view to the establishment of his own power1 a sin in which he was followed by every one of his successors4 ,the sacred historian carries forward the history of these two kingdoms together with wonderful brevity and power4 ,sometimes1 as in the days of ,elijah and ,elisha1 the history of the ten tribes assumes the greater prominence1 because it furnishes the fuller illustrations of ,god's presence and power2 but as a general fact it is kept in subordination to that of ,judah4 ,it is a sad record of wicked dynasties1 each established in blood and ending in blood1 until the overthrow of the kingdom by the ,assyrians about two hundred and fifty-four years after its establishment4 ,meanwhile there was in ,judah an alternation of pious with idolatrous kings1 and a corresponding struggle between the true religion and the idolatry of the surrounding nations1 which the sacred writer also describes briefly but vividly4 #ah4 ,it was during the reign of the good king ,hezekiah that the extinction of the kingdom of ,israel took place1 and the third period of the history began4 ,hezekiah's efforts for the restoration of the true religion were vigorous and for the time successful4 ,but after his death the nation relapsed again into idolatry and wickedness4 ,the efforts of ,josiah1 the only pious monarch that occupied the throne after ,hezekiah1 could not avail to stay the progress of national degeneracy1 and the kingdom of ,judah was1 in its turn1 overthrown by the ,chaldeans1 and the people carried captive to ,babylon4 #ai4 ,the chronology of certain parts of the history embraced in the books of ,kings is perplexed and uncertain4 ,but the beginning of the ,babylonish captivity is generally placed ,b4,c4 #ehh1 three hundred and eighty-seven years after the beginning of ,rehoboam's reign1 and one hundred and thirty-three years after the extinction of the kingdom of ,israel4 ,reckoning in the forty years of ,solomon's reign1 we have for the period included in the books of ,kings to the beginning of the captivity four hundred and twenty-seven years4 ,to this must be added twenty-six more years for the thirty-seventh year of ,jehoiachin's captivity 7#b ,kings #be3bg71 the last date given by the sacred historian4 ,the author of the books of ,kings is unknown4 ,jewish tradition ascribes them to ,jeremiah1 perhaps on the ground that the last chapter of ,jeremiah is mostly a repetition of #b ,kings from chap4 #bd3ah to the end of the book4 ,but ,jeremiah and the author of these books may both have made use of common documents4 ,we only know that the writer lived after the accession of ,evil-merodach to the throne of ,babylon 7#b ,kings #be3bg71 and during the full pressure of the ,babylonish captivity1 since he nowhere gives any intimation of its approaching close4 ,v4 ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,chronicles4 #bj4 ,these books1 which originally constituted a single work1 are called by the ,hebrews3 ,words of the ,days2 that is1 ,history of the ,events of the ,times1 or ,chronicles1 as they were first called by ,jerome4 ,the ,greek name ,paraleipomena1 things omitted1 has its ground in the false supposition that they were designed to be supplementary to the books of ,kings1 whereas they constitute an independent work having its own plan and end4 ,the author of the books of ,kings doubtless looked forward to the future restoration of his nation2 but the time for that joyous event was yet distant1 and he could have no immediate reference to the wants of the returning exiles4 ,his aim was simply to set forth the course of events under the ,theocracy from ,solomon to the captivity as an illustration of ,god's faithfulness in the fulfilment of both his promises and his threatenings4 ,but the author of the books of ,chronicles wrote1 as all agree1 during the process of the restoration4 ,in addition to the common aim of all the historical writers1 he had a particular object in view1 which was to furnish the restored captives with such information as would be especially interesting and important to them1 engaged as they were in the reestablishment of the commonwealth4 ,hence we may naturally explain the peculiarities of these books as compared with the books of ,kings4 7#a47 ,the writer gives particular attention to the matter of genealogy4 ,the first nine chapters are occupied with genealogical tables interspersed with short historical notices1 which the author took1 for the most part at least1 from documents that have long since perished4 ,to the returning exiles the lineage of their ancestors must have been a matter of general interest4 ,a knowledge of the descent of the families of the different tribes would greatly facilitate the people in regaining their former inheritances4 ,to the priests and ,levites1 especially1 it was of the highest importance that they should be able to show their lineage1 since upon this depended their right to minister in holy things4 ,ezra #b3fa-fc4 7#b47 ,the books of ,chronicles are very full on all that pertains to the temple service4 ,the writer devotes1 for example1 eight chapters to an account of ,david's preparations for the erection of the temple1 and of his elaborate arrangements for all the different parts of the service pertaining to the sanctuary4 #a ,chron4 chaps4 #bb-bi4 ,he gives a particular description of the solemn covenant made by the people with ,jehovah under ,asa's direction1 #b ,chron4 #ae3a-ae2 of the reformatory labors and faith of ,jehoshaphat1 #b ,chron4 #ai1 #bj2 of ,hezekiah1 #b ,chron4 chaps4 #bi-ca2 and he adds to the account of ,josiah's efforts against the idolatrous practices of his day1 a notice of his solemn observance of the passover1 #b ,chron4 #ce3a-ai4 7#c47 ,he omits1 on the other hand1 the history of the kingdom of ,israel1 giving only a notice of its establishment1 and of certain parts of its history which were connected with that of the kingdom of ,judah4 ,the apparent ground of this is1 that the kingdom of the ten tribes furnished no example which could be available to the people in the work of reestablishing the commonwealth4 ,it is to be noticed1 moreover1 that he passes over in silence the adultery of ,david with its calamitous consequences1 and the idolatry of ,solomon4 ,this is1 perhaps1 due to the brevity of the history before the division of the kingdom2 for he does not spare the sins of the pious monarchs that followed4 ,see #b ,chron4 #af3g-ab2 #ai3b2 #cb3be1 #ca2 #ce3ba1 #bb4 #ba4 ,in the ,hebrew canon the books of ,chronicles stand last in order4 ,it is generally agreed that they were written1 after the return of the ,jews from the ,babylonish captivity1 by ,ezra1 who had all the qualifications for such a work4 ,whatever use he may have made of the earlier books of ,samuel and ,kings1 it is plain that these were not his chief sources1 for he records many things not found in them4 ,he and the author of the books of ,kings had access to the same public records1 and each of them made such selections from them as suited his purposes4 ,hence the matter contained in the two works agrees in part1 and is partly different4 ,see above1 ,chap4 #ae1 ,nos4 #g1 #h4 #bb4 ,that there are some discrepancies between the books of ,samuel and ,kings and the books of ,chronicles1 arising from errors in transcribing1 is generally admitted4 ,these relate1 however1 mainly to dates1 and do not affect the general integrity of the works4 ,but most of the disagreements between the earlier and later histories are only apparent1 arising from their brevity1 and from the fact that their authors frequently select from the same reign different events1 the one passing by in silence what the other records2 or that1 where they record the same events1 various accompanying circumstances are omitted4 ,an example of apparent error in transcription is #b ,sam4 #bd3ac compared with #a ,chron4 #ba3ab2 the former passage specifying seven years of famine1 the latter three years4 ,for other examples see #b ,sam4 #h3d compared with #a ,chron4 #ah3d2 #b ,sam4 #bc3h with #a ,chron4 #aa3aa2 #a ,kings #d3bf with #b ,chron4 #i3be4 ,we are not to infer1 however1 that all cases of apparent disagreement involve error in one or the other of the records4 ,when the events of a whole campaign1 for example1 are crowded into single sentences1 it is not surprising that the different narratives should contain seeming discrepancies which a full knowledge of the details would enable us to reconcile4 ,the separate discussion of the difficulties presented by the books of ,chronicles1 as compared with the earlier histories1 belongs to the commentator4 ,it is sufficient to remark here1 that independent parallel histories always exhibit1 with substantial agreement1 minor diversities which it is sometimes not easy to harmonize4 ,it has not pleased ,god that in this respect the sacred narratives of either the ,old or the ,new ,testament should constitute an exception to the general rule4 ,the parallel narratives of our ,lord's life contain as many and as great diversities as those of the old ,hebrew commonwealth4 ,though we may not always be able to show how these are to be brought into harmony1 they constitute no valid objection to the authenticity of the histories in the one case any more than in the other4 ,,vi4 ,,ezra ,,and ,,nehemiah4 #bc4 ,in the books of ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 which record the most important events connected with the restoration of the ,hebrew commonwealth1 we have unfolded to our view a new era in the history of the ,theocracy4 ,the contrast between the relation of the ,israelitish people to the heathen world in the days of ,joshua1 and of ,ezra and ,nehemiah is as great as possible4 ,under ,joshua the people marched1 sword in hand1 as invincible conquerors1 to the possession of the promised land1 while the hearts of their enemies melted before them4 ,after the captivity they returned in weakness and fear1 by the permission of their heathen rulers and under their patronage and protection4 ,but in the latter case1 not less than in the former1 the ,theocracy was steadily advancing under ,god's guidance towards the accomplishment of its high end1 which was the preparation of the ,jewish people1 and through them the world1 for the advent of the promised ,messiah4 ,in the beginning of the ,mosaic economy1 and during the earlier part of its course1 it was altogether appropriate that ,god should make stupendous supernatural manifestations of his infinite perfections and of his supreme power over the nations of the world4 ,thus he revealed himself as the only living and true ,god in the sight of all men4 ,but as the history of the covenant people went forward1 there was a gradual return to the ordinary providential administration of the divine government4 ,god's miraculous interventions were never made for mere display4 ,they always had in view a high religious end4 ,as that end approached its accomplishment1 they were more and more withdrawn1 and soon after the captivity they ceased altogether until the final and perfect manifestation of ,god in ,christ4 ,from ,malachi to ,christ was the last stage of the ,theocracy1 when1 in the language of the ,new ,testament1 it was waxing old and ready to vanish away4 ,heb4 #h3ac4 ,it was neither needful nor proper that its history should be dignified by such displays of ,god's miraculous power as marked its earlier periods4 #bd4 ,but1 although the age of miracles ceased after the ,babylonish captivity1 the ,theocracy went steadily forward in the accomplishment of its divine mission4 ,in truth it was now that it secured for the first time1 as a permanent result1 the high end proposed by it from the beginning1 that of rescuing a whole nation from idolatrous practices and making it steadfast in the worship of the true ,god1 at least so far as the outward life is concerned4 ,by the permanent subjection of the ,jewish people to heathen rulers1 their national pride was humbled1 and they were placed in such a relation to heathenism as inclined them to abhor rather than imitate its rites4 ,the fulfilment of the terrible threatenings contained in the law of ,moses in the complete overthrow1 first of the kingdom of ,israel1 and afterwards of that of ,judah1 and their long and bitter bondage in ,babylon1 administered to them severe but salutary lessons of instruction1 under the influence of which they were1 by ,god's blessing1 finally reclaimed from idolatrous practices4 ,in connection with the restoration1 the synagogue service was established1 in which the law and the prophets were regularly read and expounded to the people throughout the land4 ,to this1 more than to any other human instrumentality1 was due that steadfastness which the ,jewish people ever afterwards manifested in the worship of the true ,god4 ,thus1 while the outward glory of the ,theocracy declined1 it continued to accomplish the true spiritual end for which it was established4 #be4 ,the book of ,ezra embraces a period of about seventy-nine years1 from the accession of ,cyrus to the throne of ,persia to the close of ,ezra's administration1 or at least to the last transaction under it of which we have a record4 ,the first six chapters give a brief sketch of the course of events among the restored captives before ,ezra's arrival at ,jerusalem1 especially their activity in rebuilding the temple1 the formidable opposition which they encountered from the neighboring people1 and how that opposition was finally overcome4 ,the last four chapters contain the history of ,ezra's administration1 the chief event of which was the putting away by the princes and people of the heathen wives whom they had married4 ,that ,ezra was the author of this book is generally acknowledged4 ,the first three verses are a repetition1 with some unessential variations1 of the last two verses of ,chronicles1 of which he is also believed1 on good grounds1 to have been the author4 ,in certain passages he speaks of himself in the third person2 ,ch4 #g3a-bf2 ch4 #aj2 but there is no reason to deny1 on this ground1 that he was their author4 ,jeremiah changes1 in like manner1 employing sometimes the first and sometimes the third person4 ,certain parts of this book1 which are mainly occupied with public documents respecting the building of the temple and the orderly arrangement of its services1 are written in the ,chaldee language1 namely3 chaps4 #d3h-f3ah2 #g3ab-bf4 ,in respect to the ,persian monarchs mentioned in this and the two following books1 there is not an entire agreement among biblical scholars4 ,the following table1 formed in accordance with the views that seem to be best supported1 will be useful to the reader4 ,it contains1 arranged in three parallel columns1 first the names of the ,persian kings in their order of succession1 as given by profane historians2 secondly1 their scriptural names2 thirdly1 the dates of their accession to the throne1 according to the received chronology4 ,cyrus1 ,cyrus1 ,ezra #a3a1 etc41 ,b4,c4 #ecf4 ,cambyses1 ,ahasuerus1 ,ezra #d3f1 #ebi4 ,smerdis1#a ,artaxerxes1 ,ezra #d3g-bc1 #ebb4 ,darius ,hystaspis1 ,darius1 ,ezra #d3bd-f3ae1b #eba4 ,xerxes1 ,ahasuerus1 ,esther throughout1#c #dhe4 ,artaxerxes ,longimanus1 ,artaxerxes1 ,ezra #g3a1 etc42 ,neh4 #b3a1 etc4 #dfd4 ,footnote #a3 ,he was a usurper who reigned less than a year4 ,footnote #b3 ,but in ,neh4 #ab3bb1 ,darius ,nothus or ,darius ,codomanus must be referred to4 ,footnote #c3 ,some suppose ,darius1 others ,artaxerxes1 to have been the ,ahasuerus of ,esther4 #bf4 ,the book of ,nehemiah continues the history of the ,jewish people after the restoration1 beginning with the commission which ,nehemiah received from ,artaxerxes ,longimanus1 king of ,persia1 in the twentieth year of his reign 7,b4,c4 #ddf71 to go to ,jerusalem in the capacity of ,tirshatha1 or civil governor1 for the purpose of rebuilding the walls of ,jerusalem and setting in order the affairs of the commonwealth4 ,the book naturally falls into three divisions4 ,the first division contains the history of his labors in rebuilding the walls of the city and putting an end to the practice of usury1 and of the violent opposition and intrigues of the surrounding people4 ,chaps4 #a-g3d4 ,to this is appended a genealogical list1 which is the same for substance as that contained in the second chapter of ,ezra4 ,ch4 #g3e-gc4 ,upon a comparison of the two catalogues1 we find various differences in respect to names and numbers4 ,the differences of names may be explained from the fact that it was common for men to bear different titles1 particularly if they were persons of distinction2 as1 for example1 ,daniel and ,belteshazzar1 ,zerubbabel and ,sheshbazzar4 ,it is not certain upon what principle the differences in numbers are to be explained4 ,the sum total of both catalogues is the same1 namely1 #db1cfj2 from which it is plain that the lists are in both cases partial1 since neither of them amounts to this sum4 ,we add the following suggestion from ,grey's ,key as quoted by ,scott3 ,the sum of the numbers1 as separately detailed1 will correspond1 if to the #bi1hah specified by ,ezra1 we add the #a1gfe persons reckoned by ,nehemiah which ,ezra has omitted2 and1 on the other hand1 to the #ca1jhi enumerated by ,nehemiah1 add the #did1 which is an overplus in ,ezra1 not noticed by ,nehemiah2 both writers including in the sum total #aj1ggg of the mixed multitude1 not particularized in the individual detail4 ,in the second division we have an account of the solemn public reading of the law of ,moses at the feast of tabernacles1 and1 in connection with this1 of the renewal of the national covenant with ,jehovah through the signature and seal of the princes1 ,levites1 and priests1 in their own behalf and that of the people4 ,chaps4 #h-aj4 ,in this religious and ecclesiastical transaction1 ,ezra the priest was the leader2 ,nehemiah1 as the ,tirshatha1 or civil governor1 simply taking the lead of the princes in the act of sealing4 ,the third division contains1 along with some genealogical lists1 an account of the measures taken by ,nehemiah and the princes to increase the number of residents in ,jerusalem1 of the solemn dedication of the wall of ,jerusalem1 and of the rectification of various abuses which had crept in partly during ,nehemiah's absence at the court of ,persia4 ,chaps4 #aa-ac4 ,the date of ,nehemiah's commission to rebuild the walls of ,jerusalem is important on account of its connection with the seventy prophetic weeks of ,daniel1 which are reckoned from the going forth of the commandment to restore and to build ,jerusalem4 ,dan4 #i3be4 ,it cannot be considered as exactly ascertained1 but may be placed somewhere from ,b4,c4 #ded to ,b4,c4 #ddf4 ,see the commentators on ,dan4 #i3bd-bg4 ,how long ,nehemiah's administration continued after his visit to the court of ,persia1 in the twelfth year of his rule1 is not known4 #bg4 ,the book1 as its title testifies1 was written by ,nehemiah1 not earlier than his return from the court of ,persia 7ch4 #ac3f2 #e3ad72 how much later cannot be known4 ,from the general character of style and diction which belongs to the second division 7chaps4 #h-aj71 as well as from the absence of ,nehemiah's peculiar forms of speech1 some have thought that ,ezra1 as the chief actor in the reading of the law and renewal of the national covenant1 wrote the account of the transaction1 and that ,nehemiah incorporated it into his work4 ,to this supposition there is no serious objection4 ,we must remember1 however1 that arguments based on supposed differences of style cannot amount to much where the materials from which a conclusion is to be drawn are so scanty4 ,the genealogical notice in ch4 #ab3aj1 #aa1 which gives the lineage of the high priests from ,joshua to ,jaddua1 who is apparently the high priest described by ,josephus as having met ,alexander the ,great on his march to ,jerusalem1 is thought by many to be an addition made after ,nehemiah's death as a matter of public interest4 ,see above1 ,chap4 #ae1 ,no4 #ag4 ,the same judgment is passed by some on #a ,chron4 #c3ai-bd4 ,but the interpretation of this latter passage is very uncertain4 ,,vii4 ,,esther4 #bh4 ,this book1 the author of which is unknown1 records the wonderful manner in which the plot of ,haman the ,agagite to destroy the ,jews was not only overthrown1 but turned to their enlargement and honor4 ,it is remarkable that the author refrains throughout from mentioning the name of ,god1 although he manifestly designs to represent this deliverance as effected by his providence1 and that too in answer to the fervent prayers of the ,jews in connection with a fast of three days' continuance4 ,he prefers1 as it would seem1 to let the facts speak for themselves4 ,the book closes with an account of the establishment1 under the auspices of ,mordecai and ,esther1 of the feast of ,purim1 in commemoration of the deliverance which it records2 and we are perhaps warranted in saying that the immediate occasion of writing the book was to show the historic origin of that festival--a festival mentioned in the second book of ,maccabees1 under the title of ,mordecai's day 7chap4 #ae3cf71 and observed1 according to ,josephus1 by the ,jews throughout the whole world4 ,antiq41 #aa1 #f4 #ac4 #bi4 ,among the various opinions respecting the ,ahasuerus of this book1 the best sustained is that which identifies him with the celebrated ,xerxes of profane history4 ,with this agrees all that is said of the splendor and extent of his dominions1 extending from ,india even unto ,ethiopia1 over a hundred and seven and twenty provinces 7#a3a71 and of his passionate1 capricious1 and sensual character4 ,to us1 who are accustomed to a government of law1 in which the rulers are restrained from the exercise of arbitrary power1 and are kept under constant restraint by popular opinion1 the incidents recorded in this book seem very strange4 ,but it gives a true and faithful portraiture of the course of affairs at the court of a ,persian despot1 where the monarch knows no law but his own arbitrary will1 suddenly elevates his favorites to the highest places of power and trust1 as suddenly consigns them to the hand of the executioner1 and gives himself up to the unbridled indulgence of his passions4 ,the history of ,haman's sudden rise and fall is that of many an oriental courtier since his day4 ,the ,jews1 we are told1 slew of their foes seventy and five thousand4 ,this was a very great slaughter2 but we must remember that it was distributed through all the provinces of the kingdom4 ,ch4 #i3af4 ,the permission which they had received was in every city to gather themselves together1 and to stand for their life2 to destroy1 to slay1 and to cause to perish1 all the power of the people and province that would assault them1 both little ones and women1 and to take the spoil of them for a prey 7ch4 #h3aa72 all which1 except the last clause1 seems to have been carried into execution4 ,we are not required to vindicate the wisdom of this severe decree1 or to deny that the ,jews may have used to excess the terrible power thus conferred upon them4 ,on the side of ,god's providence1 the vengeance that fell upon the ,jews' enemies was righteous2 but on the side of the human instrumentalities employed by him1 there may have been much imperfection1 or even folly and wickedness4 ,so it has ever been in the history of human affairs1 and so it is at the present day4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,poetical ,,books 7,,including ,,also ,,ecclesiastes ,,and ,,canticles74 #a4 ,the ,hebrews reckon but three books as poetical1 namely3 ,job1 ,psalms1 and ,proverbs1 which are distinguished from the rest by a stricter rhythm--the rhythm not of feet1 but of clauses 7see below1 ,no4 #c7--;and a peculiar system of accentuation4 ,it is obvious to every reader that the poetry of the ,old ,testament1 in the usual sense of the word1 is not restricted to these three books4 ,but they are called poetical in a special and technical sense4 ,in any natural classification of the books of the ,old ,testament1 those of ,ecclesiastes and ,canticles will fall into the division which contains the books of ,job1 ,psalms1 and ,proverbs4 ,the ,hebrew system of accentuation is very subtle and complicated1 and there is nothing corresponding to it in our western languages4 ,these so-called accents are quite numerous1 one of them resting1 as a general rule1 upon each word4 ,certain of them are peculiar to the poetical books1 and are called poetical accents4 ,they serve a threefold office4 7#a47 ,they guide the modulated flow of the voice in cantillation1 thus serving1 in a certain sense1 as musical notes4 ,some think that this was their primary office4 7#b47 ,they indicate the logical relation to each other of the words and clauses1 thus performing the office of marks of interpunction4 7#c47 ,they rest1 with certain exceptions1 on the tone syllable1 and thus serve as accents in our restricted sense of the word4 ,in the first division of the present chapter1 the characteristics of ,hebrew poetry will be briefly considered in respect to its spirit1 its form1 and its offices4 ,then will follow1 in the second division1 a notice of the contents of the several books4 7,a47 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,hebrew ,,poetry4 #b4 ,as it respects the spirit of ,hebrew poetry1 we notice1 first of all1 its perfect harmony with the spirit of the ,theocracy4 ,it is1 in truth1 an outgrowth of the ,theocracy in the souls of holy men educated under its influence and thoroughly imbued with its spirit4 ,the ,god of ,moses and ,aaron is also the ,god of ,david1 ,asaph1 and ,solomon2 of ,hosea1 ,isaiah1 and ,habakkuk4 ,in his boldest flights the ,hebrew poet always remains loyal to the institutions of ,moses1 not in their letter alone1 but much more in their spirit1 of which he is the inspired interpreter4 ,the same ,jehovah who thundered from ,sinai and spake to the people by ,moses1 speaks also by the sweet psalmist of ,israel1 by the wisdom of ,solomon1 and by the whole succession of the prophets4 ,hence the poetry of the ,hebrews is radiant throughout with the pure monotheism of the ,theocracy4 ,it exhibits ,god in his infinite perfections1 as the ,creator and sovereign ,ruler of the world1 without a single taint of pantheism or polytheism1 and that in an age when pantheism and polytheism were the reigning forms of religion without the pale of the covenant people4 ,another distinguishing mark of ,hebrew poetry is the vivid consciousness of ,god's presence by which it is pervaded4 ,in this respect it runs entirely parallel with ,hebrew history4 ,it has already been remarked 7,ch4 #bj1 ,no4 #a7 that ,hebrew history differs widely from all other historical writings in its habit of looking at the course of human events from the ,divine side1 rather than the human2 that while secular history is mainly occupied with the endless details of human combinations and alliances1 and the progress of material civilization1 the historical books of the ,old ,testament unfold to us with wonderful clearness ,god's presence and power as shaping the course of human events in the interest of his great plan of redemption4 ,take1 for example1 that small section of ,hebrew history comprehended under the title1 ,affinity with ,ahab4 ,no ,christian can read it without feelings of holy awe1 for it is radiant throughout with the presence of that righteous ,god who renders to every man according to his works1 and visits the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth generation4 ,in it the retributive justice of ,god shines forth1 like the lightning1 from one end of heaven to the other4 ,just so is ,hebrew poetry also filled with the presence and glory of ,god4 ,when the ,hebrew bard sweeps his lyre1 all nature gives signs of her ,maker's presence4 ,the heavens rejoice before him1 the earth is glad1 the sea roars1 the mountains and hills break forth into singing1 and all the trees of the field clap their hands4 ,he looks on the earth1 and it trembles2 he touches the hills1 and they smoke4 ,nor less conspicuous is his presence in providence and in the human soul4 ,he is seen in awful majesty high above the tumult of the nations1 directing their movements to the accomplishment of his own infinitely wise purposes2 making the wrath of man to praise him1 and restraining the remainder of it4 ,meanwhile his presence shines in the believer's soul1 like the sun in his strength1 filling it with strength1 light1 and gladness4 ,in a word1 over the whole domain of ,hebrew poesy1 whether its theme be ,god or nature or human society or the human spirit1 is heard continually the solemn cry of the seraphim3 ,holy1 holy1 holy1 is the ,lord of hosts3 the whole earth is full of his glory4 ,originality is another feature of ,hebrew poetry4 ,it cannot indeed be said that this quality belongs to all the ,hebrew poets4 ,with such divinely perfect models as the later writers had before them1 models with which they had been familiar from childhood1 it was natural that they should imitate them4 ,the spirit of inspiration did not prevent this1 for it was not necessary to the ends of revelation that it should be prevented4 ,set even among the later poets we have some striking examples of originality2 and ,hebrew poetry1 taken as a whole1 is original in the fullest sense of the word1 borrowing nothing that we know of from any other nation4 ,not to anticipate the question of the age to which the book of ,job belongs1 and passing by some gems of poetry contained in the book of ,genesis1 we may say that the oldest recorded song of certain date which the world possesses is that of the ,israelites upon their deliverance at the ,red sea4 ,exod41 ch4 #ae4 ,next in order 7to pass by the poetic effusions of ,balaam1 and some other fragments1 ,numb41 chaps4 #ba-bd7 come the song which ,moses wrote for the children of ,israel just before his death 7,deut41 ch4 #cb71 and 7according to the title1 the genuineness of which there is no valid reason for doubting7 the prayer of ,moses the man of ,god1 contained in the ninetieth psalm4 ,in the period of the judges we have only the song of ,deborah and ,barak4 ,the perfect originality of all these primitive songs is acknowledged by all4 ,it constitutes indeed one of their chief charms4 ,with the sweet psalmist of ,israel began the era of lyric song2 with ,solomon that of didactic1 and with ,hosea1 ,joel1 ,isaiah1 and their contemporaries1 that of prophetic poetry4 ,the poets to whom1 under the illumination of the ,holy ,ghost1 these different forms of ,hebrew poetry owe their origin1 are all distinguished for their originality4 ,so is also the book of ,job1 that great didactic song so perfectly unique in its character4 ,the wonderful freshness and simplicity of thought in ,hebrew poetry is inseparably connected with its originality4 ,a thought is fresh when it bursts forth directly from the inner fountain of the soul just as it was conceived there4 ,but the moment the man pauses to remould it and shape it to some artificial standard of propriety1 it loses its originality and its freshness together4 ,it is no longer the living1 glowing conception as it existed in his bosom1 but rather what he thinks it ought to have been4 ,in the process of working it over he has killed1 if not its life1 at least its power4 ,but the ,hebrew poet opens1 so to speak1 the floodgates of his heart1 and pours forth the stream of his thoughts and emotions just as they have sprung into being there4 ,because he is under the sanctifying and illuminating influence of the divine ,spirit1 they are high and holy thoughts4 ,because they come forth in their primitive form1 they are natural and fresh2 and for this reason the lapse of ages does not diminish their power over the human spirit4 ,intimately connected also with the originality of ,hebrew poetry is its charming variety4 ,the ,hebrew poets are exceedingly unlike each other in native character1 in training1 in surrounding circumstances1 and in the nature of the work laid upon them by the ,spirit of inspiration4 ,and as they all write in a natural and appropriate way1 it follows that their writings must exhibit great diversities4 ,no two writers can well be more unlike each other than ,isaiah and the author of the book of ,job4 ,with ,isaiah the central object of thought is always ,zion1 in whose interest he sees ,god governing the world1 and whose future glory is revealed to him in prophetic vision4 ,but ,zion is not an individual4 ,she is a divine organization which ,god has destined to universal victory1 and around which revolve1 under his almighty guidance1 the great movements of the heathen nations4 ,the prophet1 accordingly1 has to do not so much with particular persons1 as with the destiny of society1 which is involved in that of ,zion4 ,he describes her present conflicts and her future triumphs in his own peculiar and gorgeous imagery4 ,but the problem before the author of the book of ,job is ,god's providence towards individuals1 as viewed from the position of the ,old ,testament before the fuller revelations of the ,new4 ,he is occupied with the destiny of particular persons1 rather than of nations or of human society at large4 ,to the solution of the question of ,god's justice towards individual man he directs all his energy1 and he discusses this great theme in a manner as effective as it is original4 ,his imagery is as forcible as that of ,isaiah1 but how different1 and how powerfully adapted to his end6 ,a few passages from each of these great poets1 set side by side1 will exhibit the contrast between them in a striking manner4 ,,job4 ,,isaiah ,,the ,,prosperity ,,of ,,the ,,righteous4 ,,the ,,prosperity ,,of ,,zion4 ,he shall deliver thee in six ,violence shall no more be heard in troubles3 yea1 in seven there shall thy land1 wasting nor destruction no evil touch thee4 ,in famine he within thy borders1 but thou shalt shall redeem thee from death3 and call thy walls ,salvation1 and thy in war from the power of the sword4 gates ,praise4 ,the sun shall be no ,thou shalt be hid from the scourge more thy light by day2 neither for of the tongue3 neither shalt thou brightness shall the moon give be afraid of destruction when it light unto thee2 but the ,lord shall cometh4 ,at destruction and famine be unto thee an everlasting light1 thou shalt laugh3 neither shalt and thy ,god thy glory4 ,thy sun thou be afraid of the beasts of the shall no more go down2 neither earth4 ,for thou shalt be in league shall thy moon withdraw itself2 for with the stones of the field3 and the ,lord shall be thine everlasting the beasts of the field shall be at light1 and the days of thy mourning peace with thee4 ,and thou shalt shall be ended4 ,thy people also know that thy tabernacle shall be shall be all righteous3 they shall in peace2 and thou shalt visit thy inherit the land forever1 the habitation1 and shalt not sin4 ,thou branch of my planting1 the work of shalt know also that thy seed shall my hands1 that ,i may be glorified4 be great1 and thine offspring as ,a little one shall become a the grass of the earth4 ,thou shalt thousand1 and a small one a strong come to thy grave in a full age1 nation3 ,i the ,lord will hasten it like as a shock of corn cometh in in his time4 ,ch4 #fj3ah-bb4 in his season4 ,ch4 #e3ai-bf4 ,,job4 ,,isaiah4 ,,the ,,overthrow ,,of ,,the ,,wicked4 ,,the ,,overthrow ,,of ,,zion',s ,,enemies4 ,he shall flee from the iron weapon1 ,for he bringeth down them that and the bow of steel shall strike dwell on high2 the lofty city1 he him through4 ,it is drawn1 and layeth it low2 he layeth it low1 cometh out of the body2 yea1 the even to the ground2 he bringeth it glittering sword cometh out of his3 even to the dust4 ,the foot shall gall3 terrors are upon him4 ,all tread it down1 even the feet of the darkness shall be hid in his secret poor1 and the steps of the needy4 places3 a fire not blown shall ,ch4 #bf3e1 #f4 ,for ,i will contend consume him2 it shall go ill with with him that contendeth with thee1 him that is left in his tabernacle4 and ,i will save thy children4 ,and ,the heaven shall reveal his ,i will feed them that oppress thee iniquity2 and the earth shall rise with their own flesh2 and they up against him4 ,the increase of shall be drunken with their own his house shall depart1 and his blood1 as with sweet wine3 and all goods shall flow away in the day of flesh shall know that ,i the ,lord his wrath4 ,ch4 #bj3bd-bh4 am thy ,savious and thy ,redeemer1 the mighty one of ,jacob4 ,ch4 #di3be1 #bf ,if now we open the book of ,psalms1 we find ourselves in a new world of poetry1 as different from that of ,isaiah as it is from that of the book of ,job4 ,david was anointed by ,god to be the head and leader of ,israel4 ,as such he had a perpetual outward conflict with powerful1 crafty1 and malicious foes1 who sought his life and his kingdom4 ,this brought to him a perpetual inward conflict with doubts and fears4 ,under the pressure of this double conflict he penned those wonderful psalms1 which are the embodiment of his whole religious life4 ,and since heart answers to heart1 as face to face in water1 they are the embodiment of religious life in all ages4 ,the songs of ,david and his illustrious collaborators1 ,asaph and the sons of ,korah1 are emphatically the poetry of religious experience4 ,as such they can never grow old4 ,they are as fresh to-day as when they were written4 ,god has given them to his church as a rich treasury for the service of song in the house of the ,lord1 in the family1 and in the closet4 ,if we turn from the book of ,psalms to the book of ,proverbs1 we have still another type of poetry1 unlike any one of the forms hitherto considered4 ,it is the poetry of reflection on the course of human life1 as seen in the light of ,god's law and ,god's providence4 ,it is1 therefore1 didactic in the highest sense of the word--the poetry of practical life4 ,the maxims of heavenly wisdom embodied in the book of ,proverbs will make all who study them1 believe them1 and obey them1 prosperous in this life and happy in the life to come4 ,this contrast between the great ,hebrew poets might be carried through the whole galaxy1 but the above hints must suffice4 ,diversity of themes often coincides with difference in the character of the poets4 ,where the theme is the same1 each writer will still pursue his own peculiar method4 ,if that theme be the vengeance of ,god on the wicked1 the style will naturally be rugged and abrupt4 ,yet the ruggedness and abruptness of ,david will not be that of ,hosea or ,nahum4 ,but where both the theme and the character of the poet differ1 there the diversity of style becomes very striking4 ,to illustrate this1 take the two following passages3 ,,david4 ,,nahum ,,god',s ,,favor ,,to ,,the ,,righteous4 ,,god',s ,,vengeance ,,on ,,the ,,wicked ,the ,lord is my shepherd2 ,i shall ,the mountains quake at him1 and not want4 ,he maketh me to lie the hills mels1 and the hearth is down in green pastures3 he leadeth burned at his presence1 yea1 the me beside the still waters4 ,he world1 and all that dwell therein4 restoreth my soul3 he leadeth me in ,who can stand before his the paths of righteousness for his indignation8 and who can abide in name's sake4 ,yea1 though ,i walk the fierceness of his anger8 his through the valley of the shadow of fury is poured out like fire1 and death1 ,i will fear no evil3 for the rocks are thrown down by him4 thou art with me2 thy rod and thy ,the ,lord is good1 a strong hold in staff they comfort me4 ,thou the day of trouble2 and he knoweth preparest a table before me in the them that trust in him4 ,but with presence of mine enemies3 thou an overrunning flood he will make anointest my head with oil2 my cup4 an utter end of the place thereof1 runneth over4 ,surely goodness and and darkness shall pursue his mercy shall follow me all the days enemies4 ,nahum #a3e-h of my life2 and ,i will dwell in the house of the ,lord for ever4 ,psa4 #bc4 ,the passage from ,nahum is like a pent-up mountain stream leaping from precipice to precipice4 ,the psalm is like the same stream escaped to the plain1 and winding its way gently and placidly through green meadows and shady groves vocal with the songs of birds4 ,this subject might be pursued to an indefinite extent4 ,suffice it to say that ,hebrew poetry has the charm of endless variety1 always with graceful adaptation to the nature of the theme4 ,the oriental imagery in which ,hebrew poetry abounds imparts to it a peculiar and striking costume4 ,palestine was1 in an emphatic sense1 the ,hebrew poet's world4 ,it was the land given by ,god to his fathers for an everlasting possession2 about which all his warm affections clustered2 with whose peculiar scenery and climate1 employments and associations1 all his thoughts and feelings had been blended from childhood4 ,it followed of necessity that these must all wear an oriental costume4 ,as soon as he opens his mouth there comes forth a stream of eastern imagery1 very natural and appropriate to him1 but much of it very strange to us of these western regions4 ,to understand the extent of this characteristic one has only to peruse the ,song of ,solomon4 ,the bride is black but comely as the tents of ,kedar1 as the curtains of ,solomon4 ,she is a dove in the clefts of the rock2 her hair is as a flock of goats1 that appear from ,mount ,gilead2 her teeth are like a flock of sheep which come from the washing2 her lips are like a thread of scarlet2 her temples are like a piece of a pomegranate2 her stature is like a palm tree1 and her breasts like clusters of grapes--all thoroughly oriental4 ,so also the bridegroom is like a roe or a young hart leaping upon the mountains2 his eyes are as the eyes of doves by the rivers of waters2 his cheeks are as a bed of spices2 his lips like lilies1 dropping sweet-smelling myrrh1 and his countenance as ,lebanon1 excellent as the cedars4 ,so also if we open the book of ,isaiah1 we find the ,messiah described as the shadow of a great rock in a weary land--a figure which could not well occur to an ,englishman or an ,american1 but was perfectly natural in the mouth of a ,hebrew familiar with the terrible sun of the ,asiatic deserts1 where neither tree nor cloud offers a shelter to the thirsty and fainting traveller4 ,precisely here lies much of the obscurity of which the expounders of ,hebrew poetry complain4 ,true1 there are other difficulties of a formidable character4 ,the theme is often vast1 stretching into the distant and dimly-revealed future2 the language rugged with abrupt transitions1 the historic allusions obscure1 and the meaning of the terms employed doubtful4 ,but aside from all these considerations the western scholar encounters a perpetual difficulty in the fact that he is not of oriental birth1 and can enter but imperfectly into the spirit and force of oriental imagery4 ,what costs him days of laborious investigation would open itself like a flash of lightning to his apprehension--all except that which remains dark from the nature of the prophetic themes--could he but have that perfect apprehension of the language1 the historic allusions1 the imagery employed1 and the modes of thought1 which was possessed by the contemporaries of the ,hebrew poet4 ,it remains that we notice in the last place what may be called the theocratic imagery of the ,hebrew poets2 that is1 imagery borrowed from the institutions of the ,mosaic law4 ,the intense loyalty of the ,hebrew poets to the ,mosaic law has already been noticed4 ,they were its divinely-appointed expositors and defenders1 and their whole religious life was moulded by it4 ,no wonder1 then1 that their writings abound with allusions to its rites and usages4 ,the sweet psalmist of ,israel will abide in ,god's tabernacle for ever1 and trust in the covert of his wings1 the literal tabernacle on ,zion representing ,god's spiritual presence here and his beatific presence hereafter 7,psa4 #fa3d and elsewhere72 he will have his prayer set forth before ,god as incense1 and the lifting up of his hands as the evening sacrifice 7,psa4 #ada3b72 he will be purged with hyssop that he may be clean1 and washed that he may be whiter than snow 7,psa4 #ea3 #g72 he will offer to ,god the sacrifice of a broken spirit 7,psa4 #ea3ag72 the people promise to render to ,god the calves of their lips 7,hosea #ad3b72 the vengeance of ,god upon ,edom is described as a sacrifice in ,bozrah1 and a great slaughter in the land of ,idumea1 in which the ,lord's sword shall be filled with the blood of lambs and goats and the fat of the kidneys of rams 7,isa4 #cd3 #f72 with allusions to the ,levitical sprinklings ,god promises that he will sprinkle upon his penitent and restored people clean water that they may be clean 7,ezek4 #cf3 #be72 and with allusion to the sacrificial flocks assembled at ,jerusalem on the occasion of her great festivals1 that he will increase them with men like a flock--as the holy flock1 as the flock of ,jerusalem in her solemn feasts2 so shall the waste cities be filled with flocks of men 7,ezek4 #cf3cg1 #ch74 ,how full the book of ,psalms is of allusions to the solemn songs of the sanctuary with their accompaniment of psaltery and harp1 trumpet and cornet1 every reader understands4 ,this subject might be expanded indefinitely1 but the above hints must suffice4 #c4 ,we come now to the form of ,hebrew poetry4 ,this is distinguished from the classic poetry of ,greece and ,rome1 as well as from all modern poetry by the absence of metrical feet4 ,its rhythm is that of clauses which correspond to each other in a sort of free parallelism1 as was long ago shown by ,bishop ,lowth in his ,prelections on the ,sacred ,poetry of the ,hebrews1 the matter of which has been revised and expanded in later treatises4 ,herein1 as elsewhere1 ,hebrew poetry asserts its originality and independence4 ,biblical scholars recognize three fundamental forms of parallelism in ,hebrew poetry1 which will be briefly considered1 first separately1 and then in their combinations4 ,the first is the antithetic form1 where two parallel members are contrasted in meaning1 a form peculiarly adapted to didactic poetry1 and therefore occurring most abundantly in the book of ,proverbs4 ,the following are examples of it3 ,the memory of the just is blessed3 ,but the name of the wicked shall rot 7,prov4 #aj3g72 where1 in the original ,hebrew1 each clause consists of three words4 ,in such an antithetic parallelism the words of one couplet1 at least1 must correspond in meaning1 as here memory and name2 while the others are in contrast--just and wicked1 is blessed and shall rot4 ,sometimes the two clauses are to be mutually supplied from each other1 thus3 ,a wise son maketh a glad father3 ,but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother 7,prov4 #aj3a72 where the reader understands that a wise son is the joy1 and a foolish son the grief of both father and mother4 ,the second form is the synonymous1 where the same general thought is repeated in two or more clauses4 ,it is found abundantly in the whole range of ,hebrew poetry1 but is peculiarly adapted to that which is of a placid and contemplative character4 ,sometimes the parallel clauses simply repeat the same thought in different words2 in other cases there is only a general resemblance4 ,examples are the following3 ,he that sitteth in the heavens shall laugh3 ,the ,lord shall have them in derision4 ,psa4 #b3d4 ,for thou1 ,lord1 wilt bless the righteous3 ,with favor wilt thou compass him as with a shield4 ,psa4 #e3ab4 ,perish the day wherein ,i was born2 ,and the night in which it was said1 ,there is a man child conceived4 ,job #c3c4 ,hear the word of the ,lord1 ye rulers of ,sodom3 ,give ear unto the law of our ,god1 ye people of ,gomorrah4 ,isa4 #a3aj4 ,in the following example we have a compound synonymous couplet3 ,give them according to their deeds1 ,according to the wickedness of their endeavors3 ,give them after the work of their hands1 ,render to them their desert4 ,psa4 #bh3d ,sometimes three or more parallel clauses occur1 thus3 ,when your fear cometh as desolation1 ,and your destruction cometh as a whirlwind2 ,when distress and anguish cometh upon you4 ,prov4 #a3bg4 ,who forgiveth all thine iniquities2 ,who healeth all thy diseases2 ,who redeemeth thy life from destruction2 ,who crowneth thee with loving-kindness and tender mercies2 ,who satisfieth thy mouth with good things2 ,thy youth is renewed like the eagle's4 ,psa4 #ajc3c-e4 ,in the preceding example1 synonymous parallelism passes into simple enumeration4 ,so often with a succession of short clauses1 or shorter and longer clauses1 where the poetry of the ,hebrews assumes the freedom of prose1 thus3 ,who hath woe8 ,who hath sorrow8 ,who hath contentions8 ,who hath babbling8 ,who hath wounds without cause8 ,who hath redness of eyes8 ,prov4 #bc3ci4 ,a sinful nation2 ,a people laden with iniquity2 ,a seed of evil-doers2 ,corrupt children3 ,they have forsaken the ,lord2 ,they have despised the ,holy ,one of ,israel2 ,they have gone away backward4 ,isa4 #a3d4 ,the parallel clauses are frequently introduced or followed by a single clause1 thus3 ,blessed is the man ,who walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly2 ,and standeth not in the way of sinners2 ,and sitteth not in the seat of scorners4 ,psa4 #a3a4 ,hear1 ,o heavens2 ,give ear1 ,o earth2 ,for the ,lord hath spoken4 ,isa4 #a3b4 ,the third form of parallelism is called synthetic 7,greek synthesis1 a putting together71 where one clause is necessary to complete the sense of the other1 as in the following examples3 ,better is a dinner of herbs where love is1 ,than a stalled ox and hatred therewith4 ,prov4 #ae3af4 ,every way of a man is right in his own eyes2 ,but the ,lord pondereth the hearts4 ,prov4 #ba3b4 ,whoso curseth his father and his mother1 ,his lamp shall be put out in obscure darkness4 ,prov4 #bj3bj4 ,the connection between the two clauses may be that of comparison1 cause1 effect1 etc4 ,sometimes it is not expressed1 but simply implied1 as in the following3 ,a whip for the horse1 ,a bridle for the ass1 ,and a rod for the fool's back4 ,prov4 #bf3c4 ,the combinations of the above forms in ,hebrew poetry are exceedingly varied and graceful4 ,here are examples of two synonymous couplets that are antithetic to each other3 ,the ox knoweth his owner1 ,and the ass his master's crib3 ,israel doth not know1 ,my people doth not consider4 ,isa4 #a3c4 ,the ,lord bringeth the counsel of the heathen to naught2 ,he maketh the devices of the people of none effect4 ,the counsel of the ,lord standeth for ever2 ,the thoughts of his heart to all generations4 ,psa4 #cc3aj1 #aa4 ,in the following example1 two synonymous couplets constitute together a synthetic parallelism3 ,because they regard not the works of the ,lord1 ,nor the operation of his hands1 ,he shall destroy them1 ,and not build them up4 ,psa4 #bh3e4 ,in the following1 three synthetic parallelisms make a synonymous triplet3 ,for as the heaven is high above the earth1 ,so great is his mercy toward them that fear him3 ,as far as the east is from the west1 ,so far hath he removed our transgressions from us3 ,like as a father pitieth his children1 ,so the ,lord pitieth them that fear him4 ,psa4 #ajc3aa-ac4 ,but our limits will not allow us to pursue this subject farther4 ,the freedom of the ,hebrew poet is one of his high prerogatives4 ,he is not a slave to form1 but uses form as it suits his purposes4 ,he blends together the different kinds of parallelism as he pleases4 ,often he breaks through all parallelism to the freedom of prose4 ,but he soon returns again1 because this measured rhythm of clauses is to him the natural costume of poetic thought1 which always seeks to embody itself in some form of rhythm4 ,to the form of ,hebrew poetry belongs also its peculiar diction4 ,to one who reads the ,hebrew poets in the original1 this is a striking characteristic4 ,he meets with words1 and sometimes with grammatical forms1 that do not occur in the prose writers4 ,many of these peculiar words are ,aramean2 that is1 they are words current in the ,aramean branch of the ,shemitic languages4 ,chap4 #ad1 ,no4 #a4 ,they are to be regarded as archaisms--old words that were once common alike to the ,hebrew and the kindred ,aramean1 but which have been dropped out of prose usage in ,hebrew4 ,they must not be confounded1 as has too often been done1 with true ,aramaisms1 that is1 ,aramean words and forms borrowed by later ,hebrew writers from their intercourse with those who spoke ,aramean4 #d4 ,as it respects the office of ,hebrew poetry1 it is throughout subservient to the interests of revealed religion4 ,this is implied in what has been already said of the loyalty of the ,hebrew poets to the institutions of the ,theocracy4 ,it follows that the poetry of the ,bible is all sacred in its character4 ,it contains no examples of purely secular poetry except here and there a short passage which comes in as a part of history2 for example1 the words of those that speak in proverbs1 ,numb4 #ba3bg-cj2 perhaps also the lament of ,david over ,saul and ,jonathan4 #b ,sam4 #a3ai-bg4 ,it is certain that the song contained in the forty-fifth psalm and that of the ,canticles were received into the canon solely on the ground that they celebrate the mutual love between ,god and the covenant people1 considered as his bride2 or1 in ,new ,testament language1 between ,christ and the bride1 the ,lamb's wife4 ,but sacred poetry has various uses4 ,one of its earliest offices was to celebrate the praises of ,god for his interposition in behalf of his covenant people1 as in the song of the ,israelites at the ,red sea1 and that of ,deborah and ,barak4 ,but when ,david was raised to the throne of ,israel1 the time had now come for introducing lyric poetry as a permanent part of the sanctuary service4 ,god accordingly bestowed upon this monarch the needful inward gifts1 and placed him in the appropriate outward circumstances2 when at once there gushed forth from his bosom1 smit by the spirit of inspiration1 that noble stream of lyric song1 which the congregation of the faithful immediately consecrated to the public service of the sanctuary1 and which1 augmented by the contributions of ,asaph1 the sons of ,korah1 and other inspired poets1 has been the rich inheritance of the church ever since4 ,in the book of ,job1 sacred poetry occupies itself with the mighty problem of the justice of ,god's providential government over men4 ,it is1 therefore1 essentially didactic in its character4 ,in the ,proverbs of ,solomon1 it becomes didactic in the fullest sense2 for here it moves in the sphere of practical life and morals4 ,the book of ,ecclesiastes has for its theme the vanity of this world1 considered as a satisfying portion of the soul2 and this it discusses in a poetic form4 ,finally1 the prophets of the ,old ,testament exhaust all the wealth of ,hebrew poetry in rebuking the sins of the present time1 foretelling the mighty judgments of ,god upon the wicked1 lamenting the present sorrows of ,zion1 and portraying her future glories in connection with the advent of the promised ,messiah4 ,the ,hebrew harp--whoever sweeps it1 and whether its strains be jubilant or sad1 didactic or emotional1 is ever consecrated to ,god and the cause of righteousness4 7,b47 ,,the ,,several ,,poetical ,,books4 ,i4 ,,job4 #e4 ,the design of the book of ,job will best appear if we first take a brief survey of its plan4 ,job1 a man eminent above all others for his piety and uprightness1 is accused by ,satan as serving ,god from mercenary motives4 ,to show the falsehood of this charge1 ,god permits ,satan to take from the patriarch his property and his children1 and afterwards to smite him with a loathsome and distressing disease4 ,thus stripped of every thing that could make life valuable1 he still holds fast his integrity1 and returns to his wife1 who counsels him to curse ,god and die1 the discreet and pious answer3 ,shall we receive good at the hand of the ,lord1 and shall we not receive evil8 ,his three friends1 who have come to comfort him1 amazed and confounded at the greatness of his calamities1 sit down with him in silence for seven days4 ,at last ,job opens his mouth with vehement expressions of grief and impatience1 and curses the day of his birth4 ,the three friends sharply rebuke him1 and in a threefold round of addresses 7only that the third time ,zophar fails to speak71 enter into an earnest controversy with him assuming the false ground that the administration of ,god's government over this world is strictly retributive1 so that special calamity comes only as a punishment for special wickedness1 and is therefore itself a proof of such wickedness4 ,they accordingly exhort him to repent of his sins1 and seek ,god's forgiveness1 as the sure means of removing his present misfortunes4 ,conscious of his integrity1 ,job1 with much warmth and asperity1 repels their unjust charges1 and refutes their false arguments by an appeal to facts4 ,the ground he takes is that1 by some inscrutable plan of ,god1 calamity comes alike upon good and bad men4 ,he passionately beseeches ,god to show him why he thus deals with him2 and1 according as faith or despondency prevails in his soul1 he sometimes expresses the hope that he shall come out of his troubles like gold tried in the fire2 and then1 again1 the fear that he shall speedily sink down to the grave under the weight of his sorrows1 and nevermore see good4 ,having put to silence his three friends by an array of facts to which they can make no reply1 he freely expresses the belief that the hypocrite's end shall be destruction 7chap4 #bg72 shows that the wisdom by which ,god governs the world is above man's comprehension1 whose true wisdom lies in fearing and obeying his ,maker 7chap4 #bh72 contrasts his present calamities with his former prosperity 7chaps4 #bi1 #cj72 and closes with a solemn protestation of his integrity 7chap4 #ca74 ,elihu1 a young man who has hitherto been a silent witness of the controversy1 now takes up the argument on the ground that trouble is sent by ,god upon men as a discipline1 that by it they may be made aware of their errors and infirmities2 and that1 if they make a right improvement of it1 by bearing it with patient submission and looking to ,god in penitence and prayer for its removal1 it will end in renewed and higher prosperity4 ,to show the unreasonableness of charging upon ,god injustice1 he dwells at length upon his infinite majesty and greatness4 ,the special ground of ,job's trial1 as given in the first two chapters1 ,elihu could not of course understand4 ,but his general position in regard to human afflictions is right2 and it should be carefully noticed that their issue as described by him in the case of a good man--an imperfectly good man under a system of grace--is precisely what happens to ,job when he humbles himself before his ,maker4 ,as ,elihu's discourse was drawing towards a close1 the signs of ,god's approach had already began to manifest themselves 7chap4 #cg74 ,now he addresses ,job out of the whirlwind1 rebuking him for his presumptuous language1 and setting before him ,his infinite perfections1 manifested in the creation and government of the world1 as a sufficient proof that to arraign ,his justice at the bar of human reason is folly and presumption4 ,job now humbles himself unconditionally before his ,maker4 ,upon this ,god publicly justifies him to his three friends1 while ,he condemns them1 declaring that he has spoken of ,him the thing which is right 7#db3h74 ,this is to be understood as referring not to the spirit manifested by ,job1 which ,god had sharply rebuked1 but rather to the ground taken by him in respect to ,god's dealings with men4 ,by ,god's direction the three friends now offer sacrifices for their folly1 which are accepted in answer to ,job's prayer in their behalf1 and his former prosperity is restored to him in double measure4 #f4 ,from the above sketch of the plan of the book its design is manifest4 ,it unfolds the nature of ,god's providential government over men4 ,it is not simply retributive1 as the three friends had maintained1 so that the measure of a man's outward sufferings is the measure of his sins2 nor is it simply incomprehensible1 so that there can be no reasoning about it2 but it is disciplinary1 in such a way that sorrow1 though always the fruit of sin1 comes upon good men as well as upon the wicked1 being a fatherly chastisement intended for their benefit1 and which1 if properly improved1 will in the end conduct them to a higher degree of holiness1 and therefore of true prosperity and happiness4 ,the three friends were right in maintaining ,god's justice2 but with respect to the manner of its manifestation their error was fundamental4 ,job's view was right1 but inadequate4 ,a disciplinary government1 administered over a world in which the wicked and the imperfectly good live together1 must be incomprehensible as it respects the particular distribution of good and evil4 ,elihu was right in the main position1 but he wanted authority4 ,the question was settled by ,god's interposition not before the human discussion1 nor without it1 but after it2 an interposition in which the three friends were condemned1 ,job approved1 and the argument of ,elihu left in its full force4 ,it has been the fashion with a certain class of critics to disparage ,elihu as a self-conceited young man1 and to deny the authenticity of his discourses4 ,but thus the plan of the book is fatally broken1 as must be evident from the account given of it above4 ,it was not necessary that ,elihu should be named in the prologue4 ,it is enough that he is described when he takes a part in the argument4 ,why he is not named in the closing chapter has been already indicated4 ,there was nothing in his argument to be censured4 ,as to the attacks made on other parts of the book as not authentic1 for example1 what is said of ,behemoth and ,leviathan1 they rest on no valid foundation4 ,they are only judgments of modern critics as to how and what the author of the book before us ought to have written4 ,the attempt to resolve into disconnected parts a book so perfect in its plan1 and which has come down to us by the unanimous testimony of antiquity in its present form1 is a most uncritical procedure4 #g4 ,job plainly belonged to the patriarchal period4 ,this appears from his longevity4 ,he lived after his trial a hundred and forty years 7#db3af71 and must have been then considerably advanced in life4 ,this points to a period as early as that of ,abraham4 ,to the same conclusion we are brought by the fact that no form of idolatry is mentioned in the book1 but only the worship of the heavenly bodies4 ,the simplicity of the patriarchal age appears1 moreover1 in all its descriptions4 ,but we need not from this infer that the book was written in the patriarchal age1 for the author may have received from the past the facts which he records4 ,the book is written in pure ,hebrew1 with all the freedom of an original work1 and by one intimately acquainted with both ,arabic and ,egyptian scenery4 ,some have supposed ,moses to be the author1 but this is very uncertain4 ,the prevailing opinion of the present day is that it was written not far from the age of ,solomon4 #h4 ,there is no ground for denying that the book of ,job has a foundation of true history4 ,he is mentioned by ,ezekiel with ,noah and ,daniel as a real person4 ,ezek4 #ad3ad1 #bj4 ,the apostle ,james also refers to the happy issue of his trials as a historic event calculated to encourage ,god's suffering children4 ,jas4 #e3aa4 ,but we need not suppose that all the details of the book are historic4 ,the inspired poet takes up the great facts of ,job's history and the great arguments connected with them1 and gives them in his own language2 probably also1 to a certain extent1 according to his own arrangement4 ,the scene of the first two chapters is laid in heaven4 ,undoubtedly they record a real transaction2 but it may be a transaction revealed to the author in an allegorical form1 like ,micaiah's vision 7#a ,kings #bb3ai-bb71 that it might be thus made level to human apprehension4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,psalms4 #i4 ,we have seen the office of the ,book of ,job in the system of divine revelation4 ,very different1 but not less important1 is that of the book of ,psalms4 ,it is a collection of sacred lyrics3 that is1 of poems expressive of religious feeling and adapted to the public worship of ,god4 ,in respect to subjects1 the ,psalms exhibit a wonderful diversity4 ,they cover the whole field of religious experience1 and furnish to the churches an inexhaustible treasury of sacred song for all ages4 ,seventy-three of the psalms are ascribed to ,david in their titles1 and the whole book1 as referred to in the ,new ,testament1 bears his name4 ,of the remaining psalms1 ,asaph is named as the author of twelve2 to the sons of ,korah eleven are ascribed2 to ,solomon two 7,psalms #gb and #abg72 to ,moses one 7,psalm #ij72 to ,ethan one 7,psalm #hi74 ,the remaining fifty are anonymous4 ,of these1 some appear from their contents to have been written as late as the era of the captivity and restoration4 ,some writers have referred certain psalms to the ,maccabean age4 ,but there is nothing in the contents of these psalms which makes such a reference necessary1 and we have decisive evidence that the ,hebrew canon was closed long before this period4 ,see below1 ,chap4 #bb1 ,no4 #ba4 #aj4 ,in regard to the external arrangement of the ,psalms1 which is generally ascribed to ,ezra1 and cannot be earlier than his day1 they are divided in the ,hebrew ,bible into five books1 each closing with a doxology except the last1 to which1 as well as to the whole collection1 the final psalm serves as a doxology4 ,the first book contains ,psalms #a-da4 ,of these forty-one psalms1 thirty-seven bear the name of ,david4 ,of the remaining four1 the second and tenth undoubtedly belong to him1 and in all probability the first and thirty-third also4 ,the psalms of this book are remarkable for the predominance of the name ,jehovah over ,elohim1 ,god4 ,the second book includes ,psalms #db-gb4 ,of these1 eighteen bear the name of ,david2 the first eight 7including ,psa4 #dc1 which is manifestly connected with the preceding psalm7 are ascribed to the sons of ,korah2 one to ,asaph 7,psa4 #ej72 one to ,solomon 7,psa4 #gb72 and the remaining three are without titles4 ,in this book the divine name ,elohim1 ,god1 greatly predominates over the name ,jehovah4 ,the third book includes ,psalms #gc-hi1 seventeen in all4 ,of these1 the first eleven are ascribed to ,asaph2 four to the sons of ,korah2 one to ,david 7,psa4 #hf72 and one to ,ethan the ,ezrahite 7,psa4 #hi74 ,in the psalms of ,asaph the divine name ,elohim1 ,god1 predominates2 in the remainder of the book the name ,jehovah4 ,the fourth book includes ,psalms #ij-ajf4 ,of these seventeen psalms1 only three bear titles2 the ninetieth being referred to ,moses1 the hundred and first and hundred and third to ,david4 ,this book is therefore emphatically one of anonymous psalms1 which are for the most part of a very general character1 being evidently arranged with reference to the service of song in the sanctuary4 ,throughout this book the divine name ,jehovah prevails2 the name ,elohim1 ,god1 being rarely used except in connection with a pronoun or some epithet--my ,god1 ,god of ,jacob1 etc4 ,the fifth book contains the remaining forty-four psalms4 ,of these1 fifteen are ascribed to ,david2 one to ,solomon 7,psa4 #abg72 and twenty-eight are anonymous4 ,in this book also the divine name ,jehovah prevails almost exclusively4 ,it is probable that these five books were arranged not simultaneously but successively1 with considerable intervals between some of them4 ,the subscription appended to the second book3 ,the prayers of ,david the son of ,jesse are ended1 may possibly be explained1 upon this supposition4 ,it may have been added as a subscription to the first two books1 before the others were arranged for the temple service4 ,although the psalms belonging to the respective books are not classified upon any strict principle1 yet their arrangement is not altogether fortuitous4 ,we find psalms with the same title grouped together--eleven psalms of ,asaph4 7#gc-hc72 eight of the sons of ,korah 7#db-di72 eight of ,david 7#aci-ade separated from his other psalms72 three psalms inscribed ,al-taschith 7#eg-ei72 the fifteen songs of degrees 7#abj-acd71 etc4 ,also we find psalms of similar contents grouped together--,psa4 #gi1 #hj2 #hh1 #hi2 #ia-ajj2 #aje-ajg2 etc4 ,various attempts have been made to classify the psalms according to their subjects4 ,but their very richness and variety makes this a very difficult undertaking4 ,they cover the whole field of religious experience for both individual believers and the church at large4 ,many of them--the so-called ,messianic psalms--are prophetic of the ,saviour's offices and work4 ,we need not wonder1 therefore1 that the ,psalms are quoted in the ,new ,testament oftener than any other book of the ,old ,testament1 ,isaiah not excepted4 #aa4 ,besides the names of the authors1 or the occasion of their composition1 many of the psalms bear other inscriptions4 ,of these the principal are the following3 7#a47 ,the dedicatory title3 ,to the chief musician1 prefixed to fifty-three psalms1 signifies that the psalm is assigned to him1 as the leader of the choir at the tabernacle or temple1 to be used in the public worship of ,god4 ,the title rendered in our version3 ,for the sons of ,korah1 is better translated1 as in the margin3 ,of the sons of ,korah2 that is1 written by one of their number4 7#b47 ,titles expressing the character of the composition4 ,here we have1 as the most common and general1 ,psalm1 a lyric poem to be sung2 ,song1 a title borne by sixteen psalms1 generally in connection with the word psalm1 where the rendering should be3 a psalm1 a song2 or1 a song1 a psalm4 ,all the psalms thus designated except two 7,psa4 #hc1 #hh7 are of a joyous character1 that is1 songs of praise2 ,song of degrees1 a title the meaning of which is disputed4 ,many render3 ,a song of ascents1 and suppose that the fifteen psalms which bear this title 7#abj-acd7 were so called because they were arranged to be sung on the occasion of the ascent of the people to ,jerusalem to keep the yearly festivals4 ,for other explanations1 the reader is referred to the commentaries4 ,the titles3 ,prayer 7,psa4 #ag1 #ij1 #ajb1 #adb71 and ,praise 7,psa4 #ade7 need no explanation4 ,besides these titles1 there are several others left untranslated in our version1 as3 ,maschil1 teaching1 that is1 a didactic psalm2 ,michtam 7,psa4 #af1 #ef-fj7 either a writing1 that is1 poem1 or a golden psalm4 7#c47 ,titles relating to the musical performance4 ,of these1 the most common is the much disputed word ,selah4 ,it is generally agreed that it signifies a rest1 either in singing for the purpose of an instrumental interlude1 or an entire rest in the performance4 ,as a general rule1 this title closes a division of a psalm4 ,of the titles supposed to indicate either musical instruments or modes of musical performance1 the following are examples3 ,neginath 7,psa4 #fa71 elsewhere ,neginoth1 stringed instruments2 ,nehiloth1 probably flutes 7,psa4 #e72 ,gittith 7,psa4 #h1 #ha1 #hd71 from the word ,gath1 which denotes a ,philistine city1 and also a wine-press4 ,gittith has been accordingly interpreted to mean 7#a7 a musical instrument or a melody brought from ,gath2 7#b7 a musical instrument in the form of a winepress1 or a melody used in treading the wine-press2 ,shoshannim1 lilies 7,psa4 #de1 #fi72 ,shushan-eduth1 lily of the testimony 7,psa4 #fj72 ,shoshannim-eduth1 lilies of the testimony 7,psa4 #hj71 either a musical instrument so named from its shape1 or a particular melody1 or1 as some think1 an emblematic term referring to the contents of the psalm2 ,sheminith1 the eighth1 or octave1 perhaps a musical key 7,psa4 #f1 #ab72 ,alamoth1 virgins1 probably denoting treble voices 7,psa4 #df72 ,al-taschith1 destroy not 7,psa4 #eg1 #eh1 #ei1 #ge71 according to some1 the name of an air taken from a well-known poem2 according to others1 an indication of the contents of the psalm4 ,for other titles1 occurring but once or twice1 the reader must be referred to the commentaries4 ,whether the titles constitute a part of the psalms2 that is1 whether they were prefixed by the writers themselves1 is a question that has been much debated1 and answered differently by different writers4 ,that they are very ancient--so ancient that the meaning of the terms employed had passed into oblivion when the ,alexandrine version was made--must be admitted4 ,but it would be too much to affirm that they are a part of the inspired word4 ,the correctness of some of them is doubtful4 ,if we admit their general correctness1 reserving for critical investigation the question of the historical validity of particular titles1 it is as far as we need go4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,proverbs ,,of ,,solomon4 #ab4 ,the place of the book of ,proverbs in the system of divine revelation is obvious at first sight4 ,it contains a complete code of practical rules for the regulation of life--rules that have a divine breadth and fulness1 and can make men wise not for time alone1 but also for eternity4 ,the principles embodied in them admit of endlessly varied applications1 so that the study of a life cannot exhaust them4 ,the more they are pondered1 and prayed over1 and reduced to practice1 the more are their hidden treasures of wisdom brought to light4 ,solomon lived himself in the sphere of practical life4 ,he had constantly to deal with men of all classes1 and he knew men and the course of human events most thoroughly4 ,his maxims are therefore adapted to the actual world1 not to some imaginary state of things2 and they contain those broad principles of action which meet the wants of all men in all circumstances and conditions of life4 ,whoever gives himself1 in the fear of ,god1 to the study of these proverbs1 and conforms his life to the principles which they set forth1 will be a truly happy and prosperous man4 ,whoever shapes his conduct by different principles will be compelled in the end to acknowledge his folly4 ,to the young1 for whose instruction they were especially intended1 they are affectionately commended as their manual of action4 #ac4 ,in respect to outward form1 the book of ,proverbs naturally falls into four parts4 ,of these1 the first nine chapters1 consisting of earnest and fatherly exhortations addressed to the young in a series of discourses1 of which the parts are more or less connected with each other1 constitute the first part4 ,the title prefixed to this part1 giving both the author's name and the end which he proposes 7#a3a-f7 refers perhaps to the book considered as a whole4 ,the second part1 introduced by the title3 ,the proverbs of ,solomon1 extends to the end of the twenty-fourth chapter4 ,of this1 the first section 7chaps4 #aj-bb3af7 consists of proverbs properly so called1 each verse constituting a separate maxim of heavenly wisdom for the regulation of the heart and life4 ,between the different verses there is either no connection1 or one of a slight and casual character1 consisting frequently in the common occurrence of the same word4 ,in the remaining section 7chap4 #bb3ag-bd3cd7 the method of exhortation in discourse more or less connected is resumed4 ,to the third part 7chaps4 #be-bi7 is prefixed the superscription3 ,these are also the proverbs of ,solomon which the men of ,hezekiah copied out4 ,the proverbs of this part are1 in general1 expressed in detached maxims1 as in the first section of the second part2 but occasionally there is a connection between adjacent verses4 ,there is also an effort to bring together related proverbs1 as those concerning rulers 7#be3a-h72 concerning fools 7#bf3a-ab72 concerning sluggards 7#bf3ac-af72 concerning busybodies and tale-bearers 7chap4 #bf3ag-bh74 ,in this part also a number of proverbs are repeated that have occurred elsewhere4 ,finally1 the fourth part1 which may be considered as a sort of appendix1 contains the words of ,agur 7chap4 #cj71 and of ,king ,lemuel 7chap4 #ca74 ,according to the most natural interpretation of the words prefixed to chap4 #bd3bc--these maxims also belong to the wise--the verses that follow to the end of the chapter contain also a short appendix of proverbs not belonging to ,solomon4 #ad4 ,from the above it is manifest that the book of ,proverbs was arranged in its present form as late1 at least1 as the days of ,hezekiah4 ,it contains not the whole of the three thousand proverbs which ,solomon spake 7#a ,kings #d3cb71 but only selections from them1 such as the wisdom of ,god judged needful for the edification of his people4 ,whether the proverbs contained in the first and second parts were arranged in their present form by ,solomon himself or by some other person1 we do not know2 but that all the proverbs of the book belong to him as their author1 except those which are expressly ascribed to others1 there is no valid reason for doubting4 ,,iv4 ,,ecclesiastes4 #ae4 ,the ,hebrew name of this book is ,koheleth1 respecting the meaning of which there has been much discussion4 ,the ,alexandrine rendering of this word1 ,ecclesiastes1 one who gathers or addresses an assembly1 and the ,english rendering1 ,preacher1 express for substance its probable meaning2 or rather1 since the form of the word is feminine1 it is ,wisdom as a preacher1 ,solomon being regarded as her impersonation4 ,the uniform belief of the ancient church was that ,solomon wrote this book in his old age1 when brought to repentance for the idolatrous practices into which his heathen wives had seduced him4 ,he had thoroughly tried the world in all its forms of honor1 wealth1 pleasure1 and the pursuit of wisdom--speculative wisdom--and found it only vanity and vexation of spirit1 when sought as the supreme good4 ,the conclusion to which he comes is that in such an empty and unsatisfying world1 where disappointment and trouble cannot be avoided1 the cheerful enjoyment of ,god's present gifts is the part of wisdom1 for thus we make the best of things as we find them4 ,but this enjoyment must be in the fear of ,god1 who will bring all our works into judgment2 and accompanied1 moreover1 by deeds of love and charity1 as we have opportunity4 ,he explicitly asserts a judgment to come2 yet his general view of life is that expressed in the ,saviour's words3 ,the night cometh1 when no man can work2 words which imply that ,god's earthly service1 as well as the enjoyment of his earthly gifts1 will come to a close at death4 ,this view of the ,preacher is not a denial of the future life1 as some have wrongly maintained1 but implies rather a less full revelation of it than is given in the ,new ,testament4 ,many evangelical men1 as ,hengstenberg1 ,keil1 and others1 interpret the first verse of this book as meaning not that ,solomon was himself the author1 or that the writer meant to pass himself off as ,solomon1 but simply that he wrote in ,solomon's name1 as assuming his character2 that monarch being to the ancient ,hebrews the impersonation of wisdom4 ,their reasons for this view are chiefly two3 ,first1 that the state of things described in the book of ,ecclesiastes does not suit ,solomon's age1 the picture being too dark and sombre for his reign2 secondly1 that the language differs widely from that of the book of ,proverbs and of the ,canticles4 ,whether we adopt this view1 or that above given1 the canonical authority of the book of ,ecclesiastes remains as a well-established fact4 ,it always held a place in the ,hebrew canon1 and existed there in its present form in the days of ,christ and his apostles4 #af4 ,the following summary of the ,preacher's argument is condensed from ,scott4 ,he had evidently two objects in view4 ,first1 to show where happiness could not be found2 and secondly1 where it might4 ,the first six chapters are principally employed on the former part of the argument1 yet with counsels interspersed tending to show how the vanity1 or at least the vexation of earthly pursuits may be abated4 ,the remaining six chapters gradually unfold the latter part of the argument1 teaching us how to make the best of things as we find them1 how to live comfortably and usefully in this evil world1 and how to derive benefit from the changing events of life4 ,in respect to outward things1 the sacred writer inculcates a cheerful1 liberal1 and charitable use of them1 without expecting from them permanent or satisfying delight4 ,he counsels us to take the transient pleasure which agreeable circumstances can afford1 as far as consists with the fear of ,god2 to be patient under unavoidable evil2 not to aim at impracticable results2 to fill up our allotted station in a peaceable1 equitable1 and prudent manner2 to be contented1 meek1 and affectionate2 and to do good abundantly as we have opportunity1 in the expectation of a gracious reward4 ,these general rules are interspersed with warnings and counsels to princes and great men1 and to subjects in respect to their rulers4 ,v4 ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,solomon4 #ag4 ,the title of this book3 ,the ,song of songs1 that is1 the most excellent of songs1 indicates its application to the heavenly ,solomon1 and his spouse the church4 ,so the ,jews from the most ancient times have interpreted it4 ,looking at this song from the position of the ,old ,testament1 its ground-idea is3 ,thy ,maker is thy husband4 ,identical with this is the ,new ,testament idea3 ,the bride1 the ,lamb's wife4 ,the germ of this representation exists in the ,pentateuch1 where idolatry is regarded as spiritual adultery4 ,exod4 #cd3ae2 ,deut4 #ca3af4 ,we find it fully developed in the forty-fifth ,psalm1 which probably belongs to ,solomon's age1 and which is expressly quoted in the epistle to the ,hebrews as a description of the ,messiah4 ,the same figure occurs in many passages of the prophets who lived after ,solomon's day4 ,isa4 #ed3e2 #fb3e2 ,jer4 #b3b2 #c3ad2 ,hos4 #b3af1 #ai1 #bj4 ,in the book of ,revelation this imagery is repeated and amplified4 #ah4 ,this song is not a dramatic representation1 in which the action steadily advances to the end1 but a series of descriptive pictures1 the great theme of which is the separation of the bride from her beloved--the heavenly ,bridegroom--for her sins1 and her reunion with him by repentance4 ,in the spiritual application of its rich and gorgeous imagery we should confine ourselves to the main scope1 rather than dwell on particulars4 ,thus the fruitfulness of the church is set forth under the image of a garden filled with spices and precious fruits4 ,but we are not to seek for a hidden meaning in each particular spice or fruit--the saffron1 the spikenard1 the myrrh1 the pomegranate1 the apple1 the nut2 and the same is true with respect to the descriptions of the bride and bridegroom with which the book abounds4 ,the book has always constituted a part of the ,hebrew canon4 ,the language of this book is pure and elegant1 with all the freshness and energy of the best age of ,hebrew poetry4 ,its most striking peculiarity is the uniform use 7except once in the title7 of the abbreviated form of the relative pronoun as a prefix--shekkullam for asher kullam2 shehammelek for asher hammelek1 etc4--which is manifestly a dialectic peculiarity of the living ,hebrew adopted by ,solomon for the purpose of giving to his song a unique costume4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,greater ,,prophets4 #a4 ,we have already seen 7,chap4 #ae1 ,nos4 #aa and #ab7 that from ,moses to ,samuel the appearances of prophets were infrequent2 that with ,samuel and the prophetical school established by him there began a new era1 in which the prophets were recognized as a distinct order of men in the ,theocracy2 and that the age of written prophecy did not begin till about the reign of ,uzziah1 some three centuries after ,samuel4 ,the ,jewish division of the latter prophets--prophets in the more restricted sense of the word--into the greater1 including ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 and ,ezekiel1 chronologically arranged2 and the less1 or twelve ,minor ,prophets1 arranged also1 in all probability1 according to their view of their order in time1 has also been explained4 ,chap4 #ac1 ,no4 #d4 ,respecting the nature of prophecy and the principles upon which it is to be interpreted1 much remains to be said in another place4 ,in the present connection1 a brief account will be given of the place which the prophets held in the ,theocracy1 followed by a notice1 in this and the following chapter1 of the separate books of prophecy belonging to the ,hebrew canon1 according to the order in our ,english version1 ,daniel being reckoned with the greater prophets1 ,lamentations considered as an appendix to ,jeremiah1 and the minor prophets arranged by themselves4 #b4 ,the office of the prophets under the ,theocracy1 which we first notice1 was that of bold reprovers4 ,they came to rulers and people with an immediate commission from ,god to rebuke them for their sins2 and as the contents of their messages were received from ,god himself1 they exposed the hypocrisy and wickedness of their times in the pure sunlight of truth1 denouncing upon great and small alike the awful judgments of ,jehovah if they persisted in their impenitence4 ,if we except the preaching of ,christ and his apostles1 the history of the world furnishes no such bright examples of faithful dealing with men's consciences4 ,they never spare kings and princes from fear of their power and patronage4 ,they never go round about men's sins1 but declare them directly and faithfully4 ,with what majesty of severity did ,samuel reprove ,saul1 and ,nathan ,david1 and ,elijah ,ahab1 and ,elisha ,jehoram1 and ,jehu ,jehoshaphat6 ,and if we open the books of ,hebrew prophecy which have come down to us from distant ages and from a very different civil and social order1 we find them not in the least antiquated1 but fresh as yesterday1 instinct with life and power4 ,they are a mirror of terrible brightness in which we may see reflected our pride1 self-sufficiency1 vain ostentation1 and worldliness2 our avarice1 fraud1 overreaching artifices1 breaches of trust1 bribery1 oppression of the weak1 and corrupt combinations for the amassing of filthy lucre2 our ambition1 slander1 falsehood1 intrigues1 hypocrisy1 and vain pretensions2 our luxury1 prodigality1 sensuality1 and intemperance2 our profaneness1 ,sabbath-breaking1 neglect of ,god's ordinances and contempt of his written word--a mirror too in which we can see in the background dark clouds of judgment1 big with awful thunder1 such as have already come forth upon our land from the inexhaustible storehouse of divine justice1 and are ready to come forth again1 but over which hangs the rainbow of mercy for all that will repent and humble themselves before ,god4 #c4 ,we may next consider the office of the ,hebrew prophets as expounders of the ,mosaic law--the ,mosaic law in its substance1 as distinguished from its outward form4 ,they never undervalued the letter of the law1 since that too was of divine appointment2 but they taught men that true obedience must rise above the letter to its spirit4 ,when ,saul excused himself to ,samuel for disobeying ,god's command on the ground that the people had spared the best of the sheep and oxen to sacrifice to the ,lord1 the prophet indignantly answered3 ,hath the ,lord as great delight in burnt-offerings and sacrifices1 as in obeying the voice of the ,lord8 ,behold1 to obey is better than sacrifice1 and to hearken than the fat of rams4 #a ,sam4 #ae3bb4 ,bring no more vain oblations1 says ,god to the ,jews whose hands were full of oppression and blood2 incense is an abomination unto me3 the new moons and ,sabbaths1 the calling of assemblies1 ,i cannot away with2 it is iniquity1 even the solemn meeting4 ,your new moons and your appointed feasts my soul hateth3 they are a trouble unto me2 ,i am weary to bear them4 ,and his direction is3 ,wash you1 make you clean3 put away the evil of your doings from before mine eyes2 cease to do evil2 learn to do well2 seek judgment1 relieve the oppressed1 judge the fatherless1 plead for the widow4 ,isaiah #a3ac-ag4 ,i hate1 says ,god to the covenant people through ,amos1 ,i despise your feast-days1 and ,i will not smell in your solemn assemblies4 ,though ye offer me burnt-offerings and your meat-offerings1 ,i will not accept them2 neither will ,i regard the peace-offerings of your fat beasts4 ,take thou away from me the noise of thy songs2 for ,i will not hear the melody of thy viols4 ,but let judgment run down as waters1 and righteousness as a mighty stream4 ,amos #e3ba-bd4 ,wherewith1 says ,micah1 shall ,i come before the ,lord1 and bow myself before the high ,god8 ,shall ,i come before him with burnt-offerings1 with calves of a year old8 ,will the ,lord be pleased with thousands of rams1 or with ten thousands of rivers of oil8 shall ,i give my first-born for my transgression1 the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul8 ,he hath showed thee1 ,o man1 what is good2 and what doth the ,lord require of thee1 but to do justly1 and to love mercy1 and to walk humbly with thy ,god8 ,micah #f3f-h4 ,under the ,old ,testament1 outward forms of divine service were required1 and they are necessary1 to a certain extent1 under the ,new also4 ,but if any man puts his trust for salvation in these1 to the neglect of inward faith1 love1 and obedience1 he stands condemned at the bar of ,moses and the prophets1 not less than at the bar of ,christ and his apostles1 ,under the ,mosaic economy1 both the rites of divine service and the succession of the priesthood were definitively prescribed by ,god himself1 and therefore to all of binding authority4 ,but the man who placed his religion in these outward observances1 to the neglect of his heart and life1 was to ,god an object of abhorrence1 and the severest judgments were denounced against him4 ,it cannot be1 then1 that under the gospel any system of outward forms1 however right and proper in itself1 can bring salvation to the soul1 where inward faith1 love1 and obedience are wanting4 #d4 ,the last and highest office of the prophets was to direct men's thoughts to the end of the ,mosaic economy1 which was the salvation of the world through the promised ,messiah4 ,the ,spirit of ,christ that spoke through them1 testified beforehand the sufferings of ,christ and the glory that should follow4 #a ,pet4 #a3aa4 ,it does not appear that they understood the divine purpose to abolish the ,mosaic economy1 and with it the middle wall of partition between ,jews and ,gentiles--that great mystery1 the revelation of which was reserved for the days of the apostles2 but they did have glorious visions of the latter days1 when the law should go forth from ,zion1 and the word of the ,lord from ,jerusalem1 to all nations2 when the whole world should submit itself to ,jehovah under the administration of the ,messiah2 and the earth should be filled with the knowledge of the glory of ,god1 as the waters cover the sea4 ,their glowing descriptions of the future enlargement and glory of ,zion have been the stay and solace of ,god's people in all succeeding ages4 ,the student of the ,bible should not fail to notice that these bright visions of the future were vouchsafed to the ,hebrew prophets1 and through them to the church universal1 not when the ,theocracy was in the zenith of its outward power and splendor1 as in the days of ,david and ,solomon1 but in the time of its decline and humiliation4 ,the hopes so ardently cherished by the covenant people of a return of the outward glory of ,solomon's reign were destined to utter and final disappointment4 ,it was not to feed their national pride1 but to prepare the way for ,christ's advent1 that ,god established the ,theocracy4 ,now that its outward glory was departing1 it was suitable that the hopes of the pious should be turned from the darkness of the present to the brightness of the last days that awaited ,zion in the distant future4 ,when ,isaiah began his prophecies1 the kingdom of ,israel was tottering to its fall1 and before he had finished them it had suffered an utter overthrow4 ,the invasion of ,judah by the allied kings of ,israel and ,syria1 in the reign of ,ahaz1 and by ,sennacherib king of ,assyria1 in the reign of ,hezekiah1 furnished an occasion for predicting not only the present deliverance of ,god's people1 but also the future triumph of ,zion over all her enemies1 and the extension of her dominion over all the earth4 ,in his present interpositions in behalf of ,zion1 ,god mirrored forth his purpose to give her a final and universal victory4 ,and so it was with all the other prophets4 ,with their backs towards the gloom and distraction of the present1 and their faces steadfastly turned towards the glory of the latter days1 they uttered words of promise and comfort that can have their fulfilment only in ,christ's kingdom1 which is the true heir to all the promises made to the ancient ,zion4 ,out of ,christ these promises are vain and delusory4 ,in ,christ their fulfilment has been begun1 and shall be completed in the appointed time4 ,out of ,christ no amount of learning will enable a man to understand the ,hebrew prophets2 for the veil is on his face1 which can be done away only in ,christ4 ,what if more than eighteen centuries have elapsed since our ,lord's advent1 and the domain of his kingdom is yet very limited8 ,in the divine reckoning1 one day is with the ,lord as a thousand years1 and a thousand years as one day4 ,if it took four of these days to prepare the world for ,christ's advent1 can we not allow two days and more for the complete establishment of his kingdom8 ,we add a notice of each separate book of the ,greater prophets4 ,i4 ,,isaiah4 #e4 ,according to the ,hebrew arrangement already noticed 7,no4 #a1 above71 the book of ,isaiah1 as the first of those belonging to the greater prophets1 stands at the head of the whole collection of prophetical books2 although ,hosea1 ,amos1 and ,jonah1 and in all probability ,joel also1 entered upon their prophetical office before him4 ,micah was contemporary with him4 ,of the private history of ,isaiah we know almost nothing1 except that he was the son of ,amoz 7chap4 #a3a71 and that he was married and had sons 7chap4 #h3a-d74 ,the ,jewish tradition is that he was sawn asunder under the reign of ,manasseh1 to which it has been supposed that there is a reference in the epistle to the ,hebrews 7chap4 #aa3cg72 but all such traditions are uncertain4 ,isaiah prophesied in the days of ,uzziah1 ,jotham1 ,ahaz1 and ,hezekiah1 kings of ,judah4 ,chap4 #a3a4 ,if1 with many1 we suppose him to have entered upon his office in the last year of ,uzziah1 we have sixty-two years to the close of ,hezekiah's reign4 ,he certainly exercised the prophetical office to the fifteenth year of ,hezekiah's reign1 and possibly through the remaining fourteen years4 ,as the superscription is silent respecting any prophecies uttered in ,manasseh's reign1 we are not warranted to extend the period of his activity beyond that of ,hezekiah1 although he may have survived him1 and have perished in the way indicated by the ,jewish tradition4 #f4 ,the book of ,isaiah naturally falls into two great divisions4 ,the first1 after an introductory chapter1 contains a great variety of prophetic messages1 delivered on special occasions4 ,chaps4 #b-ci4 ,the second division1 comprising the remaining twenty-seven chapters1 seems to have had no special occasion1 but to have been written after the overthrow of ,sennacherib's army1 probably in the old age of the prophet1 for the comfort and encouragement of ,god's people in all coming ages4 ,comfort ye1 comfort ye my people1 saith your ,god--this is its great theme as expressed in the introductory verse4 ,of the various plans for classifying the contents of the first part1 all that rest upon the rationalistic view that the book is a collection of writings belonging to different authors and ages are false and groundless4 ,among evangelical men1 who hold the unity of the book and its authorship by ,isaiah1 there have been various schemes of classification4 ,it has been proposed by ,drechsler and others to arrange all of ,isaiah's prophecies around two great central events in the history of his times2 namely1 the invasion of ,judah in the reign of ,ahaz by the allied forces of ,israel and ,syria 7chap4 #g71 and in ,hezekiah's reign by ,sennacherib1 king of ,assyria 7chaps4 #cf1 #cg74 ,that these were the two great crises of ,isaiah's age1 and that many of his prophecies had reference to them directly or indirectly1 cannot be denied2 but to affirm that all his prophecies1 extending over a period of from forty-eight to sixty-two years1 were connected with those two events1 either directly or by way of anticipation beforehand and natural sequence afterwards1 is more than can be established by any probable arguments4 ,we must be careful not to thrust upon the prophet a systematic arrangement beyond any that ever existed in his own consciousness4 ,the following brief analysis will be sufficient for the general reader4 ,the title prefixed to the first chapter refers certainly to the first part1 and probably to the whole book4 ,the contents of the first chapter are well suited to constitute a general introduction to the book1 and there is much ground for the opinion that the prophet prefixed them1 as such an introduction1 to the whole collection of prophecies4 ,the four chapters that follow were evidently written during a period of great worldly prosperity4 ,they contain visions against ,judah and ,jerusalem of a threatening character1 but interspersed with glorious promises to the true ,israel4 ,the sixth chapter records a vision which the prophet had of ,jehovah in the temple1 with the awful message to the people which he received from ,his lips4 ,many regard this as the prophet's inauguration to his office1 and consequently as the first of his prophecies in order of time4 ,the four preceding chapters will then naturally fall into the reign of ,jotham4 ,there is no decisive ground1 however1 for understanding the words1 ,whom shall ,i send1 and who will go for us8 7verse #h17 as containing the original call of ,isaiah to the prophetical office4 ,they may have reference to the special message which he immediately receives2 a message of the most weighty import1 and often quoted in the ,new ,testament4 ,the confession of ,isaiah1 moreover1 that he is a man of unclean lips1 may be very naturally referred to his previous exercise of the prophetic office4 ,according to this view1 the preceding four chapters belong to the latter part of ,uzziah's reign4 ,the series of prophecies that follows 7chaps4 #g-ab7 is connected with the invasion of ,judah by the allied kings of ,israel and ,syria4 ,in this emergency ,ahaz1 instead of seeking help from ,jehovah1 had hired the ,assyrians to defend him against the confederate forces4 ,the prophet predicts the overrunning of the land by these same ,assyrians in whom the ,jews had reposed their confidence2 and afterwards the overthrow of the ,assyrians themselves1 and the universal establishment of the ,messiah's kingdom1 who is foretold under the name of ,immanuel4 ,the series closes with the millennial song of ,zion4 ,next we have a series of prophecies relating mainly to the heathen world 7chaps4 #ac-bc71 through all of which the prophet keeps prominently in view the great truth that the nation which will not acknowledge ,jehovah and minister to the welfare of his people must perish4 ,he begins with ,babylon1 and passes in order to ,philistia1 ,moab1 ,syria 7with which as a confederate nation ,ephraim is joined71 ,ethiopia and ,egypt 7first separately and then conjointly71 ,babylon again under the enigmatical name of the desert of the sea1 ,edom1 and ,arabia4 ,next follows a prophecy against the valley of vision1 that is1 ,jerusalem1 to which is appended one against ,shebna4 ,the prophet then passes to ,tyre1 and so he brings this series to a close4 ,the four chapters that follow 7#bd-bg7 are general in their character4 ,they exhibit ,jehovah as the avenger and deliverer of his people1 who abases the proud and destroys sinners as well within the pale of ,zion as without in the heathen world1 while he exalts his true worshippers to honor and salvation4 ,the next series of prophecies 7chaps4 #bh-ce7 was apparently delivered in view of the approaching invasion of the ,assyrians1 by which the destruction of the kingdom of ,israel was completed1 and ,judah was overrun and desolated2 but which ended in the overthrow of the invading army1 and the deliverance of ,hezekiah and his kingdom4 ,the prophet denounces1 first upon ,ephraim and then upon ,judah and ,jerusalem1 ,god's heavy judgments for their iniquities1 especially for the sin of making ,egypt instead of ,jehovah their confidence2 foretells the utter and perpetual desolation of ,edom1 which here represents all the powers that array themselves in hostility against ,god's people2 and describes in glowing language the glory and peace of ,zion under the future reign of the ,messiah4 ,next follows the history of ,sennacherib's invasion and overthrow2 of ,hezekiah's sickness and miraculous recovery1 and of his sin in connection with the mission of ,merodach-baladan's servants4 ,chaps4 #cf-ci4 ,in the second part of ,isaiah1 which includes the last twenty-seven chapters1 the prophet is occupied with the future redemption and glory of ,zion4 ,in the clear light of inspiration1 and in accordance with the explicit prophecy that has just been quoted1 he takes his stand in the future of ,babylon's supremacy1 and of the captivity of ,zion and the dispersion of her children2 and he comforts the true ,israel by the promise of restoration and elevation to a greater than the former glory1 when all nations shall submit themselves to ,jehovah1 and shall minister to the peace and welfare of ,zion4 ,if we divide these twenty-seven chapters into three equal sections of nine chapters each1 the first and second close with the words3 ,there is no peace1 saith my ,god1 to the wicked 7chaps4 #dh3bb2 #eg3ba72 while the third ends with a more extended1 threatening against the wicked 7chap4 #ff3bd74 ,the prominent characteristics of these three sections are thus given by ,keil3 ,the first of these sections 7chaps4 #dj-dh7 portrays the relation of ,israel to the heathen nations2 and from the redemption of ,israel effected through ,cyrus1 the servant of ,god1 it unfolds the certain victory of the ,theocracy over the gods and powers of the heathen world4 ,the second section 7chaps4 #di-eg7 exhibits ,israel as the seat of salvation for the world4 ,this it does by carrying out the thought that1 just as ,cyrus is to redeem ,israel from the ,babylonish captivity1 so must the true servant of ,jehovah1 by his vicarious suffering and death1 make expiation for sin1 raise the covenant people to true glory1 and make them1 through the establishment of 'the sure mercies of ,david' 7#ee3c71 the centre of salvation for the whole world4 ,finally in the third section 7chaps4 #eh-ff71 after an exhortation in which the sins of the people are acknowledged and rebuked 7chaps4 #eh1 #ei71 the prophet foretells1 in a series of majestic images1 how the ,theocracy shall be glorified when it shall become1 in connection with the creation of a new heaven and a new earth1 the perfected kingdom of ,god4 ,introduction to the ,old ,testament1 ,sec4 #fe4 ,this view of the glorification of the ,theocracy in the latter days is preeminently just1 provided only that we do not understand the ,theocracy in a gross literal sense4 ,it is the true kingdom of ,god1 once embodied in the old ,theocracy1 but now existing under the freer forms of ,christianity1 that is heir to all this glory4 #g4 ,as ,isaiah holds the first place among the ,hebrew prophets in the canon1 in the extent of his writings1 and in the fulness of his prophecies concerning the ,messiah and his kingdom1 so has he been first also in receiving the assaults of those who deny the supernatural character of revelation4 ,since the last quarter of the last century persistent attempts have been made to show that the whole of the second part 7chaps4 #dj-ff7 and various sections of the first part1 particularly all those that relate to the overthrow of ,babylon1 belong not to ,isaiah1 but to an unknown prophet who lived about the close of the exile4 ,in support of this view many arguments have been adduced2 but the real argument which lies at the foundation of the whole is the belief that no such insight into the future is possible as that which this part of the book manifests1 upon the supposition that ,isaiah was himself the author of it4 ,the denial of the genuineness of the chapters in question began and has always gone hand in hand with the denial of the reality of prophetic inspiration4 ,in the view of rationalists prophecy is no revelation of the future through the illumination of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,it is only anticipation and shrewd conjecture of the future from the course of the present4 ,the possibility of prophecy1 therefore1 is limited by the possibility of human foresight4 ,reasoning from this false position1 the critic first assumes that ,isaiah cannot have been the author of the last part of the book which bears his name1 and then proceeds to find arguments against its genuineness4 ,to meet him we must plant our feet firmly on the great historic truth that ,god has made to men a supernatural revelation1 of which prophecy in the proper sense of the word--the revelation of the future by his ,spirit--constitutes an important part4 ,we do indeed find that in the matter of prophecy1 as in all other parts of ,god's operations1 the great law is3 ,first the blade1 then the ear1 after that the full corn in the ear4 ,the way for the fuller revelations is prepared by previous intimations of a more general character4 ,precisely so was it in the present case4 ,moses himself had more than once predicted the captivity of the covenant people and the desolation of their land as the punishment of their foreseen apostacy from ,god's service1 and also the preservation of a remnant and its restoration upon repentance4 ,lev41 chap4 #bf2 ,deut41 chaps4 #bh-cb4 ,when ,solomon had dedicated the temple1 and his kingdom was at the zenith of its glory1 he received from the mouth of ,god himself the solemn warning3 ,if ye shall at all turn from following me1 ye or your children1 and will not keep my commandments and my statutes which ,i have set before you1 but go and serve other gods and worship them2 then will ,i cut off ,israel out of the land which ,i have given them2 and this house1 which ,i have hallowed for my name1 will ,i cast out of my sight2 and ,israel shall be a proverb and a by-word among all people4 #a ,kings #i3f1 #g4 ,when the prophet wrote1 these awful threatenings had been fulfilled upon the kingdom of the ten tribes1 and he had been commissioned to announce their approaching fulfilment upon ,judah also1 and that in the form of a captivity in ,babylon3 ,behold1 the days come1 that all that is in thy house1 and that which thy fathers have laid up in store until this day1 shall be carried to ,babylon3 nothing shall be left1 saith the ,lord4 ,and of thy sons which shall issue from thee1 which thou shalt beget1 shall they take away2 and they shall be eunuchs in the palace of the king of ,babylon 7#ci3f1 #g74 ,micah also had foretold1 in express terms1 both the ,babylonish captivity1 and the subsequent delivery of ,god's people 7#d3aj74 ,we see1 then1 what a full preparation had been made for the revelations vouchsafed to ,isaiah in the chapters now under consideration4 ,they relate not to something new and unheard of1 but to a captivity which he had himself foretold in accordance with the threatenings of ,god by former prophets4 ,under the illumination of the ,holy ,spirit he is carried into the future of ,zion4 ,in prophetic vision he sees her land wasted1 her temple burned1 and her children groaning in captivity4 ,as the nearest interposition of ,god in her behalf1 he foretells her liberation by ,cyrus1 the anointed of the ,lord1 and her restoration to the promised land4 ,but this is only the earnest and pledge of a higher redemption through the ,messiah1 the true servant of ,jehovah1 under whom she shall be glorified with a perpetual salvation1 and her dominion extended over all the earth4 ,to limit the prophet's vision to the deliverance from ,babylon would be to make him a messenger of glad tidings which mocked the hopes of the covenant people2 for this deliverance did not fulfil the just expectations which his lofty promises awakened in the bosoms of the pious remnant of ,israel4 ,no2 it is in ,christ's redemption alone1 of which that of ,cyrus was only a shadow1 that ,zion receives in full measure the glorious promises which shine forth in this part of ,isaiah4 ,if now we consider the form of these promises1 we find that they bear throughout the stamp of true prophecy1 as distinguished from history4 ,they have neither the dress of prose history1 with its dates and circumstantial details1 such as we find in the books of ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 nor of historic poetry1 like the song of ,deborah and ,barak2 like the seventy-eighth hundred and fifth1 and hundred and sixth psalms4 ,they are expressed in a series of poetic images1 in which1 with the exception of the name of ,cyrus1 all is general2 images1 moreover1 drawn for the most part1 not from the great events connected with the conquests of ,cyrus1 but from the earlier history of ,israel4 ,let any one read1 for example1 the forty-sixth and forty-seventh chapters of ,isaiah1 and ask himself whether a writer who lived in ,cyrus' day could have described the fall of ,babylon without specific allusions to the agencies by which it was brought to pass4 ,as to the historic references which some find to the march of the ,jewish caravans of returning captives through the desert that lay between ,babylon and ,palestine1 whoever reads the passages in question without a previously formed conclusion1 must be satisfied that they are poetic descriptions of the redemption and restoration of ,god's people borrowed mainly from the primitive journey of ,israel from ,egypt to ,canaan through the wilderness of ,arabia4 ,god1 as then1 goes before his people1 opening for them in their extremity rivers in high places1 and fountains in the midst of the valleys2 making the wilderness a pool of water1 and the dry land springs of water4 ,even ,cyrus is mentioned not as the king of ,persia1 but as a man raised up from the east to execute ,god's vengeance on the oppressors of his people4 ,according to ,ctesias and ,plutarch1 the name ,cyrus signifies sun4 ,strabo says that his name1 before ascending the throne of ,persia1 was ,agradales4 ,some are of opinion that the word ,cyrus 7,heb4 ,koresh7 was an appellation common to the kings of ,persia4 ,we do not need1 however1 the help of this hypothesis4 ,god himself explains the ground on which he is mentioned by name3 ,for ,jacob my servant's sake1 and ,israel mine elect1 have ,i even called thee by thy name3 ,i have surnamed thee1 though thou hast not known me 7#de3d74 ,according to ,josephus 7,antiq4 #aa4 #a1 #b71 ,cyrus was moved to issue his decree for the liberation of the ,jews by a knowledge of the prophecies of ,isaiah in which he is mentioned by name4 ,with this agree the terms of the edict3 ,the ,lord ,god of heaven hath given me all the kingdoms of the earth1 and he hath charged me to build him a house at ,jerusalem1 which is in ,judah4 ,ezra #a3b1 compared with ,isa4 #dd3bh4 ,if this view be correct1 the mention of ,cyrus by name was a part of ,god's plan for the restoration of the covenant people4 ,it is not true1 as has been asserted1 that the prophet follows ,cyrus in the details of his conquests4 ,on the contrary1 his notices of him are few and general4 ,as to the sins of the people which he rebukes1 they may be all naturally referred to the times of ,isaiah1 while some of them1 as the neglect of the established sacrifices and oblations 7#dc3bc1 #bd71 and the offering of sacrifices in connection with an impure heart and life 7#ff3c71 presuppose the existence of the temple and altar at ,jerusalem1 where alone sacrifices could be lawfully offered4 ,the sin of seeking heathen alliances 7#eg3i7 points also unmistakably to the same period4 ,although the prophet is carried forward in vision to the future of the covenant people1 he does not wholly forget the men of his own generation1 but occasionally administers to them severe rebukes1 thus mingling the present with the future1 after the manner of all the prophets4 ,the other arguments which have been urged against the genuineness of this part of ,isaiah are only of secondary importance1 and can readily be answered4 ,it is said that the style is more diffuse and flowing than in the first part4 ,the answer is that this agrees well with both the altered circumstances of the prophet and the altered character of his theme4 ,most of his earlier prophecies were delivered under the pressure and excitement of public life1 when he went before rulers and people charged with specific messages from ,jehovah1 and these1 too1 mostly of a denunciatory character4 ,but the part now under consideration was written in the serenity of retirement1 with the general purpose of comforting ,god's people by a view of the future glory in reserve for them4 ,it is entirely natural1 then1 that the style of the first part should be more concise and abrupt1 that of the latter more diffuse and flowing2 even if we do not make allowance for the influence of age4 ,but notwithstanding this difference between the two parts1 both have the same general costume1 and the same peculiar expressions and turns of thought1 by which they are sufficiently marked as the productions of the same pen4 ,it should be added that the ,hebrew of this second part of ,isaiah is in general as pure as that of the first part4 ,the few ,chaldaisms which it exhibits may be explained as belonging to the poetic diction4 ,such ,chaldaisms exist1 moreover1 in the earlier books4 ,some words1 as seganim 7princes1 #da3be71 may be explained by the intercourse of the ,jews with the ,assyrians in the days of ,isaiah4 ,davidson's ,introduction to the ,old ,testament1 p4 #heg4 #h4 ,it has been shown that the arguments against the genuineness of this part of ,isaiah 7and by parity of reason against certain sections of the first part7 have their ground in the denial of prophetic inspiration1 and cannot endure the test of sober criticism4 ,the evidence1 then1 for the genuineness of these chapters remains in its full force1 and it is of the most weighty character4 ,if we look to external testimony1 there is the undeniable fact that1 as far back as we can trace the history of the book of ,isaiah1 they have constituted an integral part of it4 ,they are recognized as such by ,josephus 7,antiq4 #aa4 #a1 #b72 by ,jesus the son of ,sirach1 in the book called ,ecclesiasticus 7#dh3bd1 #be72 and always in the ,new ,testament when quotations are made from them--,matt4 #c3c2 #h3ag2 #ab3ag-ba2 ,luke #c3d2 #d3ag-ai2 ,john #a3bc2 #ab3ch-da1 where a quotation from the last part of ,isaiah is joined with one from the first part2 ,acts #h3bh-cc2 ,rom4 #aj3af1 #bj1 #ba4 ,that they were appended by fraud and forgery no one pretends to affirm4 ,the character of this part of the book1 not less than the character of those who had the ,jewish canon in custody1 is a sufficient protection against such a supposition4 ,that they should have been appended through ignorance is inconceivable4 ,how can the name of so great a prophet have remained unknown8 ,according to the hypothesis in question1 he lived about the close of the ,babylonish captivity4 ,he was contemporary1 therefore1 with ,daniel2 with ,zerubbabel also1 ,jeshua1 and the other chiefs of the restoration4 ,did no one of these know who was the man that prophesied so abundantly of the work which they had so much at heart8 ,and did his name indeed escape the knowledge of the learned scribe ,ezra8 ,and if they did not know his name1 why did they append his writings to those of the true ,isaiah1 thus tacitly ascribing to him their authorship8 ,why did they not leave them without a name1 as they did the books of ,judges1 ,ruth1 ,samuel1 ,kings1 and ,chronicles8 ,that these chapters have always constituted a part of the book of ,isaiah1 and been acknowledged as such1 is a fact which admits of but one explanation2 that1 namely1 of their genuineness4 ,the ,great ,unknown1 as he is called1 is no other than ,isaiah himself1 whom the principles of certain critics do not allow them to acknowledge as ,isaiah4 ,the internal evidence for the genuineness of these chapters has already been partly considered in an incidental way4 ,it is found in the purity of the ,hebrew1 which belongs to the age of ,isaiah1 not of ,cyrus2 in the undeniable allusions to the temple sacrifices and oblations as then existing 7#dc3bc1 #bd71 and to the sin of seeking heathen alliances 7#eg3i72 and especially in the fact that a writer living near the close of the exile must have referred in a more particular and historic way to the great events connected with ,cyrus' conquests4 ,it may be added that there are in the later prophets some clear allusions to this part of ,isaiah4 ,jeremiah1 who undeniably made use of prophecies contained in the first part of ,isaiah1 was acquainted with the second part also4 ,compare ,jer4 #aj3c1d1 with ,isa4 #dj3ai1 #bj2 #da3g2 ,jer4 #ca3ce1 with ,isa4 #ea3ae1 where a whole clause is repeated from ,isaiah1 which agrees in the ,hebrew to every letter2 ,jer4 #ej3b1 with ,isa4 #df3a1 #b4 ,compare also ,zeph4 #b3ae1 with ,isa4 #dg3h2 ,nah4 #a3ae1 with ,isa4 #eb3g4 #i4 ,the arguments urged against the genuineness of certain sections of the first part of ,isaiah are for substance the same as these that have now been examined1 and need not a separate consideration4 ,we come on solid grounds to the conclusion that ,isaiah was the author of the whole collection of prophecies which bear his name1 and that the arrangement of these prophecies in their present form also proceeded from him4 ,,ii4 ,,jeremiah ,,and ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,lamentations4 #aj4 ,in passing from ,isaiah to ,jeremiah1 the contrast is as great as it can well be2 and yet it is a contrast necessary to the completeness of divine revelation1 which employs men of all characters and temperaments1 and living in every variety of outward circumstances4 ,isaiah1 like the apostle ,john1 seems to have lived above his personal relations in the sphere of divine truth4 ,he never alludes to his private history1 except where the nature of a given narrative requires it4 ,it is not probable that he was subjected to such an ordeal of persecution as that through which ,jeremiah passed4 ,however this may be1 we gain almost no knowledge of his private life from the book of his prophecies4 ,but ,jeremiah1 like the apostle ,paul1 unfolds to us very fully the history of his inward and outward life4 ,with his peculiarly tender and sensitive mind it could not have been otherwise4 ,if he had not woven into his prophecies his own inner and outer life1 he would not have written naturally1 and therefore truthfully4 ,through this interweaving of biography with revelation1 ,god has given in the case of ,jeremiah1 as in that of the great apostle to the ,gentiles1 a rich storehouse of truth for the instruction and comfort of his persecuted and suffering servants in all ages4 ,with the simplicity of truth1 the prophet informs us how the men of ,anathoth1 his native place1 conspired to take away his life 7#aa3ah-bc2 #ab3f72 how ,pashur1 the son of ,immer1 smote him and put him in the stocks 7#bj3a-f72 how in the beginning of ,jehoiakim's reign he was accused before the princes by the priests and false prophets as a man worthy of death1 but acquitted by them 7chap4 #bf72 how afterwards he and ,baruch were hidden by ,jehovah 7chap #cf72 how under ,zedekiah he was repeatedly imprisoned 7chaps4 #cb3b2 #cc3a71 and thrust into dungeons 7chaps4 #cg1 #ch72 how upon the conquest of the city by the ,chaldeans he was released from his fetters and honorably treated 7chs4 #ci3aa-ad2 #dj3a-d72 and how afterwards he was forced to go into ,egypt with the fugitive ,jews 7chaps4 #db1 #dc74 ,in connection with this external history1 we have a vivid portraiture of his inward conflicts4 ,most deeply does he sympathize with his countrymen in the calamities which their sins have brought upon them2 yet he is rewarded only with curses1 because he faithfully forewarns them of the judgments of heaven which are fast approaching1 and which can be averted only by hearty repentance and reformation4 ,woe is me1 my mother1 he cries out in his anguish1 that thou hast borne me a man of strife and a man of contention to the whole earth6 ,i have neither lent on usury1 nor men have lent to me on usury2 yet every one of them doth curse me 7#ae3aj72 and like ,job he loses all composure under the pressure of his sorrows1 and bitterly curses the day of his birth 7#bj3ad-ah74 ,again we see him in the hands of his persecutors serenely committing himself to ,god1 and calmly warning them against the guilt of shedding his blood 7#bf3ab-ae74 ,in such alternations of impatience and faith we have a true portraiture of the struggle of grace against the weakness of nature2 and it is this which gives it especial value as a part of revelation1 which never exhibits good men in a fictitious light1 but always in the sober livery of truth4 #aa4 ,jeremiah was of priestly descent 7#a3a72 but that ,hilkiah1 his father1 was identical with the high priest who found in the temple the book of the law 7#b ,kings #bb3h71 rests upon mere conjecture4 ,anathoth1 his native place1 was in the land of ,benjamin1 about four miles north of ,jerusalem4 ,he was called to the prophetical office in his youth1 and exercised it in his native land from the thirteenth year of ,josiah to the close of ,zedekiah's reign1 through a period of about forty-one years 7chap4 #a3c72 and afterwards in ,egypt1 whither he was carried by the rebellious remnant of the people 7chaps4 #dc1 #dd74 ,his first appearance1 therefore1 was about one hundred and thirty-one years after that of ,isaiah1 if we reckon from the last year of ,uzziah1 and some seventy or more after the close of ,isaiah's prophecies4 ,during all this time the religious and moral condition of the ,jewish nation had been steadily changing for the worse under such kings as ,manasseh and ,amon2 nor could the zealous efforts of ,josiah avail to check the swelling tide of idolatry and profligacy4 ,sent by ,jehovah in such a degenerate age to rebuke the wicked rulers and people for their sins1 and to forewarn them of ,god's impending judgments1 he was necessarily subjected to much persecution4 ,isaiah had administered stern rebukes to ,ahaz and his people1 but he had encouraged them with the hope of successful resistance to the ,assyrian power4 ,but from the ,chaldeans1 who had succeeded the ,assyrians as the ruling monarchy of the world1 ,jeremiah could promise no deliverance4 ,in the name of the ,lord he counselled submission1 solemnly assuring the kings and princes of ,judah that their reliance on ,egyptian help would end in shame and disappointment 7#cg3e-aj74 ,this brought upon him a load of calumny1 insult1 and persecution1 which he keenly felt1 but bore with fortitude1 never swerving from the path of strict fidelity towards ,god4 ,the prophecies of ,jeremiah do not contain so many animating visions of the distant future as are found in ,isaiah4 ,he is more occupied with the sins of his own age1 and the heavy judgments of ,god that impend over his countrymen4 ,his mission is emphatically to unfold the connection between national profligacy and national ruin4 ,this he does with a masterly hand1 holding up to the world1 in the character and fate1 of his countrymen1 a mirror for all time1 in which wicked nations may see themselves and the ruin which awaits them4 ,the whole compass of profane history does not contain so much clear instruction on this point as is crowded into the few pages of the weeping prophet4 ,if the book of ,god's revelation could not have been complete without the ecstatic visions of ,isaiah1 so neither could it have spared ,jeremiah's vivid delineation of a profligate nation plunging itself into remediless ruin by its iniquities4 ,at times1 however1 we find in ,jeremiah also joyous anticipations of the good reserved for ,god's people in the latter days4 ,he predicted not only the ,babylonish captivity1 but its termination at the end of seventy years1 and the perpetual overthrow of ,babylon and the ,chaldean power 7#be3ab-ad2 #bi3aj-ad74 ,see also chapters #cj-cc1 where he describes1 after the manner of ,isaiah1 the glory of the latter days4 ,in ,jeremiah we have an illustrious example of one whose reputation after death became as high and lasting1 as the reproach which he endured before death was deep and protracted4 ,the men of his generation could not appreciate his worth4 ,his messages they treated with scorn1 and him with contumely4 ,through a long life of faithful labor it was his lot to endure reproach and calumny4 ,but neither their unbelief1 nor the burning of the roll of his prophecies by ,jehoiakim could hinder the fulfilment of his words4 ,when the captivity had come1 as he had predicted1 and especially when ,god's promise through him that it should end after seventy years had been fulfilled1 he was honored as among the greatest of the prophets1 and from that day onward his name became as ointment poured forth4 ,the history of ,jeremiah is also peculiarly encouraging to ,god's faithful servants who labor on for years amid difficulties and discouragements1 and see no fruits of their toils4 ,when he died it seemed as if all his solemn messages had been wasted upon that ungodly generation4 ,but they were not lost to the ,jews who lived to witness the fulfilment of his predictions in their captivity4 ,in connection with the labors of ,ezekiel and ,daniel they contributed greatly to bring about that change for the better which took place during the exile4 ,through them1 moreover1 ,god provided a treasury of instruction and comfort for his people in all coming ages4 ,how forcible a comment are his life and labors upon the apostolic declaration made many centuries afterwards3 ,let us not be weary in well-doing3 for in due season we shall reap if we faint not4 #ab4 ,of the prophecies of ,jeremiah some are without date1 and where the date is given the chronological order is not always observed4 ,in the fourth year of ,jehoiakim the prophet1 by ,god's direction1 dictated to ,baruch1 and he wrote in a roll of a book all the prophecies which ,god had communicated to him from the days of ,josiah to that time 7#cf3a-d74 ,when the king had destroyed this roll1 he was directed to prepare another containing the same prophecies1 and there were added besides unto them many like words 7#cf3bg-cb74 ,whatever use may have been made of this manuscript in the compilation of our present book1 it is plain that it has not come down to us in its original form as a constituent part of ,jeremiah's prophecies2 since in these1 as we now have them1 there is an intermingling of messages before and after the fourth year of ,jehoiakim4 ,we cannot tell the origin of the present order1 nor is it a matter of importance1 so far as the instructions to be derived from ,jeremiah's writings are concerned4 ,following the ,hebrew order 7see below7 we have the following general divisions3 7#a47 ,prophecies addressed to ,judah1 with which are connected many notices of ,jeremiah's personal history1 and at the close of which stands a message to ,baruch4 ,chaps4 #a-de4 7#b47 ,prophecies against foreign nations4 7#c47 ,an appendix taken almost verbatim from #b ,kings #bd3ah-bj and chap4 #be1 and which seems to have been added by some later writer1 as ,ezra 7chap4 #eb47 ,it is not necessary to consider particularly the attempt made to disprove the genuineness of certain parts of ,jeremiah's prophecies1 since they all rest1 not on critical grounds1 but on the false principle that has been already considered--the denial of the reality of prophetic inspiration4 ,men who deny that ,isaiah could foresee the restoration of the ,jews from the ,babylonish captivity1 must deny also that ,jeremiah could limit the duration of that captivity to seventy years4 ,but with those who believe that holy men of ,god spake as they were moved by the ,holy ,ghost1 such arguments cannot have weight4 ,it is well known that ,jeremiah1 particularly in his prophecies against foreign nations1 made use of earlier prophecies1 as those of ,isaiah and ,obadiah4 ,compare ,isa4 chaps4 #ae1 #af with ,jer4 chap4 #dh2 ,obadiah with ,jer4 #di3g-ag4 ,the ,alexandrine version differs unaccountably from the ,hebrew text in its arrangement of the prophecies of ,jeremiah4 ,those against foreign nations come after chap4 #be3ac1 and also follow a very different order4 ,besides this1 the ,alexandrine exhibits a number of variations larger and smaller from the ,hebrew text4 ,the explanation of these differences in arrangement and in the text is a matter of uncertain conjecture4 #ac4 ,the book of ,lamentations is designated in ,hebrew by the opening word ,echa1 how4 ,the unanimous voice of antiquity ascribes it to ,jeremiah1 and with this tradition agree its internal character and style4 ,it was written in view of the desolation of ,judah and ,jerusalem by the ,chaldeans1 by an eye-witness of all the unutterable miseries connected with that catastrophe4 ,while it laments1 in strains of the deepest anguish1 the desolation of ,jerusalem with the slaughter and captivity of its inhabitants1 and heaps together images of horror1 it ascribes righteousness to ,god1 and acknowledges the manifold sins of the rulers and people as the cause of the overwhelming calamities that had come upon them4 ,we see throughout the feelings of a tender-hearted and compassionate man1 of a sincere patriot1 and of a devout worshipper of ,jehovah beautifully blended together4 ,sad as is the picture1 it is to us who contemplate it in the light of history1 not without its lessons of comfort as well as of warning4 ,it teaches us that in the midnight of ,zion's adversity her covenant ,god is with her1 and that she has an indestructible life4 ,the prerogative which the ,roman bard applied to his country3 ,plunge her in the deep1 she comes out the stronger--this high prerogative belongs to the true spiritual ,jerusalem1 which no fire can destroy1 nor floods overwhelm4 ,the structure of this book is peculiar4 ,its five chapters constitute five poetical compositions1 each complete in itself so far as outward form is concerned1 but the whole inwardly bound together as parts of one great theme4 ,the first and second chapters consist each of twenty-two verses1 arranged in the order of the twenty-two letters of the ,hebrew alphabet2 that is1 the first verse beginning with the first letter1 the second with the second1 and so on4 ,each of the verses1 moreover1 contains as a rule three clauses4 ,the third chapter contains sixty-six short verses of one clause each1 the first three beginning with the first letter of the alphabet1 the next three with the second1 and so throughout4 ,in this central chapter1 therefore1 the alphabetic structure reaches its culmination4 ,the fourth chapter is like the first and second1 with the exception that the verses generally consist of two clauses each4 ,the fifth chapter contains twenty-two short verses of one clause each1 like those of the third1 but not arranged alphabetically4 ,the more artificial structure of the third chapter marks it at once as peculiar4 ,in this the prophet1 as the representative of the pious part of the nation1 bewails the calamities that have come upon himself and his country1 expresses his firm confidence in ,god and his purpose to wait for deliverance in patient submission to his will1 exhorts his countrymen to repentance1 and offers up his fervent prayer to ,god that he would remember his suffering people and punish their persecutors4 ,the fifth chapter is a complaint of ,zion in prayer to ,god in view of the terrible calamities that have come upon her4 ,the other three chapters 7the first1 second1 and fourth7 are occupied mainly with a description of these calamities4 ,,iii4 ,,ezekiel4 #ae4 ,ezekiel was especially the prophet of the captivity4 ,daniel1 his contemporary1 received in ,babylon glorious revelations respecting the future history of ,god's kingdom2 but he was a statesman1 exercising the prophetical office1 like ,david1 only in an incidental way4 ,ezekiel1 on the contrary1 was expressly called and consecrated1 like his predecessors ,isaiah and ,jeremiah1 to the prophetical office4 ,like ,isaiah1 he has given us but few particulars concerning his personal history4 ,he was the son of ,buzi1 and of priestly descent 7#a3c72 belonged to that company of captives of the better class of the people who had been carried away with ,jehoiachin by the king of ,babylon when he made ,zedekiah king in his stead 7#b ,kings #bd3h-af72 and lived with other captives at ,tell-abib on the ,chebar 7perhaps the ancient ,chaboras1 a branch of the ,euphrates71 where he had a house and was married 7#a3a-c2 #c3ae2 #h3a2 #bd3ae-ah74 ,that he was held in high honor by his fellow-captives1 as a true prophet of ,god1 is manifest from the manner in which they assembled at his house to inquire of the ,lord through him 7#h3a2 #ad3a2 #bj3a74 ,of his personal standing and reputation1 as well as of the character of his hearers1 we have an interesting notice in chap4 #cc3cj-cb1 where instead of talking against thee 7verse #cj7 we may better render1 as in the margin of our ,english version1 talking of thee3 ,also1 thou son of man1 the children of thy people are still talking of thee by the walls and in the doors of the houses1 and speak one to another1 every one to his brother1 saying1 ,come1 ,i pray you1 and hear what is the word that cometh forth from the ,lord4 ,and they come unto thee as the people cometh1 and they sit before thee as my people1 and they hear thy words1 but they will not do them3 for with their mouth they show much love1 but their heart goeth after their covetousness4 ,and lo1 thou art unto them as a very lovely song of one that hath a pleasant voice1 and can play well on an instrument3 for they hear thy words1 but they do them not4 ,ezekiel was called to the prophetical office in the fifth year of king ,jehoiachin's captivity 7#a3b71 from which date he constantly reckons4 ,jeremiah's activity as a prophet continued not only through the eleven years of ,zedekiah's reign1 but for a considerable period afterwards2 so that the two prophets were for some time contemporary1 the one prophesying in ,jerusalem and afterwards in ,egypt1 the other among the captives in ,mesopotamia4 ,the latest date which the prophecies of ,ezekiel furnish is the twenty-seventh year of ,jehoiachin's captivity1 about twenty-two years from the time when he was called to his office4 ,how much longer he prophesied we have no means of determining4 ,the date with which the book of ,ezekiel opens is the thirtieth year1 in the fourth month1 in the fifth day of the month1 which was also the fifth year of king ,jehoiachin's captivity 7verse #b71 or five hundred and ninety-five years before ,christ4 ,reckoning back from this date thirty years1 we come to the eighteenth year of ,josiah1 when he repaired the temple1 and solemnly renewed the worship of ,god2 and also to the first year of ,nabopolassar1 the father of ,nebuchadnezzar1 who made ,babylon independent of the ,assyrian monarchy1 and thus established a new era4 ,some have assumed the former of these two eras as that from which the prophet reckons2 but the latter is more probable4 ,writing1 as he does1 under the ,chaldean monarchy1 it is natural that he should give1 at the outset1 a date by which the chronology of the whole series of his prophecies may be determined in reference to ,chaldean history4 ,elsewhere he dates from ,jehoiachin's captivity4 #af4 ,it is not worth while to raise any questions concerning the purity of ,ezekiel's ,hebrew1 as compared with that of the earlier writers4 ,the ,holy ,spirit is not concerned about the classic style of a prophet4 ,he selects men whose natural qualities1 providential training1 and sanctified hearts fit them for the work assigned to them2 and under his inspiration they speak and write in the dialect to which they and their hearers are accustomed4 ,ezekiel's style is marked by ,chaldaisms1 as might have been expected from the circumstances in which he wrote4 ,at the same time it is as forcible as it is peculiar1 a style every way adapted to the work laid upon him4 ,he was sent to a rebellious nation2 to impudent children and stiff-hearted1 with the charge3 ,be not afraid of them1 neither be afraid of their words1 though briers and thorns be with thee1 and thou dost dwell among scorpions3 be not afraid of their words1 nor be dismayed at their looks1 though they be a rebellious house 7#b3c1 #d1 #f74 ,how well he fulfilled his mission his prophecies show1 in which there is a wonderful fire and vehemence1 joined with a wonderful variety of representation and imagery4 ,proverbs1 parables1 riddles1 symbolic actions1 vivid portraitures of human wickedness1 terrible denunciations of ,god's approaching judgments1 and glorious visions of future peace and prosperity in reserve for the true ,israel--these are all familiar to him1 and are set forth often with an exuberant fulness of imagery4 ,when summoned by ,god to judge the bloody city of ,jerusalem1 ripe for the judgments of heaven1 he heaps one upon another the black crimes of which she is guilty 7#bb3f-ab74 ,the repetitions so remarkably characteristic of his style are those of energy1 not of weakness4 ,they are the repetitions of a battering-ram that gives blow upon blow till the wall crumbles before it4 ,the same may be said of his amplifications1 as in chaps4 #a1 #af1 #bc1 #bg1 etc4 ,he had a remarkable adaptation to his office2 and his influence must have been very great in bringing about the reformation of the nation which took place during the captivity4 #ag4 ,ezekiel abounds in allegoric and symbolic representations4 ,these give to many of his prophecies a dark and mysterious character1 and make them difficult of interpretation4 ,jerome long ago called the book an ocean and labyrinth of the mysteries of ,god4 ,nevertheless1 the common reader finds in him much that is plain of apprehension1 and full of weighty instruction4 ,reserving the general subject of the interpretation of prophecy for another place1 we add here a few words respecting the nature of allegories and symbols1 and the principles upon which they are to be interpreted4 ,an allegory is a narrative of a real event expressed in figurative language2 that is1 where one historic transaction is described under the image of another4 ,thus in chap4 #ag3a-aj1 the two great eagles are ,nebuchadnezzar and ,pharaoh2 the highest branch of the cedar is ,jehoiachin2 the cropping off and carrying away of this branch is his removal by ,nebuchadnezzar to ,babylon1 etc4 ,so also the extended descriptions of ,jerusalem in chap4 #af1 and of ,jerusalem and ,samaria in chap4 #bc1 under the figure of lewd women4 ,for other beautiful examples of allegory see ,judges #i3h-ae2 ,isa4 #e3a-f2 ,psa4 #hj2 ,mark #ab3a-i4 ,in scriptural usage parables are not always distinguished from allegories4 ,but properly speaking parables are narratives of supposed incidents--at least of incidents the reality of which is of no consequence--for the purpose of illustrating important truths2 while allegories are figurative descriptions of actual events4 ,a symbol represents some great truth or event of the future under the form of an action1 or some material structure or arrangement4 ,prophetic symbols take the form of actions1 and are of two kinds3 ,first1 actual1 where the prophet himself performs some action before the eyes of his countrymen2 as in chap4 #bd3ah1 where ,ezekiel1 in obedience to ,god's command1 refrains from all expressions of grief at the death of his wife2 and chap1 #cg3af1 #ag1 where he joins together two sticks to represent the reunion of the ten tribes with ,judah and ,benjamin4 ,see also ,jer4 #bg3b compared with #bh3aj4 ,secondly1 ideal2 that is1 seen only in vision2 like ,ezekiel's prophecy upon the dry bones1 chap4 #cg3a-aj1 and his measurements of the ,new ,jerusalem with its temple1 porches1 etc4 ,chaps4 #dj-dh4 ,it is often difficult to determine to which of these two classes a given symbol belongs4 ,did ,jeremiah1 for example1 actually go to ,euphrates to bury the linen girdle there1 or only in prophetic ecstacy8 ,jer4 #ac3a-aa4 ,did ,ezekiel perform the acts recorded in chap4 #d in reality or in vision8 ,the answer to such questions is not of great importance1 since either way the meaning of the symbols and the instructions which they furnish are the same4 #ah4 ,if we divide the book of ,ezekiel into two equal parts of twenty-four chapters each1 the first part contains prophecies delivered before the overthrow of ,jerusalem4 ,these are arranged in chronological order4 ,after an introductory chapter describing the vision of the glory of ,god which the prophet had when called to his office1 there follows1 in the form of visions1 allegories1 symbolic actions1 and direct addresses1 a series of vivid descriptions of the sins of ,jerusalem and the judgments of heaven that are about to fall upon her4 ,with these are interspersed denunciations of the false prophets that flatter the people in their sins1 and fervent addresses to his fellow-captives remarkable for their plainness and evangelical spirit4 ,the second part opens with a series of prophecies against seven foreign nations1 in which the order of time is not observed--first1 short prophecies against the four neighboring nations1 ,ammon1 ,moab1 ,edom1 ,philistia 7chap4 #be72 secondly1 a series of prophecies against ,tyre1 to which is appended a short prophecy against ,sidon 7chaps4 #bf-bh72 thirdly1 a like series of prophecies against ,egypt 7chaps4 #bi-cb74 ,these prophecies were fulfilled through the same ,chaldean power that executed ,god's righteous vengeance on the covenant people4 ,as the number seven is made out by separating ,sidon from ,tyre to which it properly belonged1 it is rightly held to be a symbolic number1 as in the book of ,revelation and elsewhere1 seven being the well-known symbol of completeness4 ,with the announcement of the fall of ,jerusalem 7#cc3ba7 the thunders of ,god's wrath that had so long rolled over her die away2 and the series of prophecies that follows is mainly occupied1 like the last part of ,isaiah1 with predictions of the future glory of ,zion1 in connection with ,god's awful judgments upon the wicked within and without her borders4 ,of these the last nine chapters contain a description of the vision which ,god vouchsafed to the prophet of a new ,jerusalem1 with its temple1 priests and altars1 rising out of the ruins of the former1 of larger extent and in a more glorious form4 ,he sees the land of ,canaan also divided out to the returning captives by lot1 as it was in the days of ,joshua1 but upon an entirely different plan4 ,the general plan of the temple is after the model of ,solomon's2 yet this vision is not to be understood as a mere prophecy of the rebuilding of ,solomon's temple with the city in which it stood1 and of the repossession of the land after the ,babylonish captivity4 ,several particulars in the description make it plain that it was not intended to be literally understood4 ,see chaps4 #db3ae-bj2 #de3a-h2 #dg3a-ab2 and the whole of chap4 #dh4 ,it is rather a symbolical representation of the coming deliverance and enlargement of the true spiritual ,zion1 which is ,god's church1 the same in all ages4 ,the resettlement of the land of ,canaan1 and the rebuilding of the temple and city after the captivity1 were a part indeed1 but only a very small part of the good things to come which the vision shadowed forth4 ,its fulfilment belongs to the entire history of the church from ,ezekiel's day onward1 and it will be completed only in her final triumph over the kingdom of ,satan1 and her establishment in permanent peace and holiness4 ,as the time had not yet come for the old covenant to pass away1 ,ezekiel1 who was himself a priest under the law of ,moses1 saw the future enlargement of ,god's kingdom under the forms of this covenant4 ,the ,new ,jerusalem which ,god revealed to him had its temple1 priests1 altar1 and sacrifices4 ,all these were shadows of ,christ's perfect priesthood1 of the spiritual temple of which he is the chief corner-stone1 and of the spiritual priesthood of his people4 #a ,peter #b3e-i4 ,the literal priesthood1 altar1 and sacrifices are for ever done away in ,christ's one perfect offering for the sins of the world on ,calvary4 ,heb4 chaps4 #i1 #aj4 ,in interpreting the vision before us we should not curiously inquire after the meaning of every particular chamber and pillar and door1 but rather look to the general meaning of the whole4 ,the angel measures1 and the prophet records all the parts of the building4 ,this signifies1 in general1 that ,god's care extends to all parts of his spiritual temple1 and that he will see that they are in due time made perfect4 ,the ,new ,jerusalem described by the apostle ,john has much in common with this4 ,it is1 in truth1 a vision of the same spiritual city1 whose builder and maker is ,god4 ,but it differs from ,ezekiel's vision in two respects4 ,first1 it belongs apparently to the glorified state of the church after the resurrection2 secondly1 it has nothing ,jewish in it1 neither temple nor altar4 ,these shadows have for ever passed away4 ,,iv4 ,,daniel4 #ai4 ,the book of ,daniel is assigned in the ,hebrew canon to the third division1 called ,hagiographa4 ,for the supposed grounds of this1 see above1 ,chap4 #ac1 ,no4 #d4 ,daniel1 like ,jeremiah1 has interwoven into his writings so many biographical notices of himself1 that we gather from them a pretty full history of his life4 ,he belonged to the royal family of ,judah1 being one of the number of the king's seed and of the princes1 whom ,nebuchadnezzar had carried captive to ,babylon in an invasion not recorded in the books of ,kings or ,chronicles 7#a3a-c74 ,thus was fulfilled the prophecy recorded in ,isa4 #ci3g4 ,but ,god graciously turned this into a rich blessing to the ,hebrew nation2 for ,daniel1 having been educated with his three companions1 ,hananiah1 ,mishael1 and ,azariah1 in the learning and the tongue of the ,chaldeans1 and having understanding in all visions and dreams1 a remarkable proof of which he gave by relating to ,nebuchadnezzar the dream which had gone from him1 with its interpretation1 was made ruler over the whole province of ,babylon1 and chief of the governors over all the wise men of ,babylon1 and at his request his three companions were also set over the affairs of the province of ,babylon 7chaps4 #a1 #b74 ,he continued in high honor at the court of ,babylon as a wise and incorruptible statesman1 and a prophet who had the gift of interpreting dreams1 till the overthrow of the ,chaldean empire by the ,medes and ,persians4 ,by ,darius the ,mede he was treated with like honor 7perhaps in connection with his interpretation of ,belshazzar's dream1 chap4 #e71 being made chief of the three presidents whom he set over his whole realm1 and a plot formed to destroy him was frustrated through ,god's miraculous interposition and turned to the increase of his honor and influence2 so that he continued to prosper in the reign of ,darius1 and in the reign of ,cyrus the ,persian 7chap4 #f74 ,he lived1 therefore1 to see the release of his countrymen from their long captivity1 though it does not appear that he himself returned to his native land4 ,probably he continued in the service of the ,persian court to the day of his death4 #bj4 ,the first chapter is introductory to the whole book1 giving an account of the selection and education of ,daniel and his three companions by direction of the king of ,babylon4 ,the prophecies that follow naturally fall into two series4 ,the first1 occupying chaps4 #b-g1 is written in ,chaldee from the middle of the fourth verse of chap4 #b4 ,it unfolds the relation which ,god's kingdom holds to the heathen powers as seen 7#a17 in a twofold vision of the four great monarchies of the world1 in the form first of an image consisting of four parts1 and then of four great beasts rising up out of the sea1 the last monarchy being succeeded by the kingdom of the ,god of heaven1 which shall never be destroyed 7chaps4 #b1 #g72 7#b17 in the protection and deliverance of ,god's faithful servants from the persecution of heathen kings and princes 7chaps4 #c1 #f72 7#c17 in the humbling of heathen monarchs for their pride1 idolatry1 and profanation of the sacred vessels belonging to the sanctuary 7chaps4 #d1 #e74 ,thus we see that the first three of these six chapters 7#b-g7 correspond to the last three taken in an inverse order--the second to the seventh1 the third to the sixth1 and the fourth to the fifth4 ,the second series1 consisting of the remaining five chapters1 is written in ,hebrew4 ,this also exhibits the conflict between ,god's kingdom and the heathen world1 taking up the second and third monarchies under the images of a ram and a he-goat4 ,chap4 #h4 ,there follow some special details relating to the nearer future1 with some very remarkable revelations respecting the time of the ,messiah's advent1 the destruction of the holy city by the ,romans1 the last great conflict between the kingdom of ,god and its enemies1 and the final resurrection4 ,the intimate connection between the book of ,daniel and the ,revelation of ,john must strike every reader of the holy ,scriptures4 ,they mutually interpret each other1 and together constitute one grand system of prophecy extending down to the end of the world4 ,both also contain predictions1 the exact interpretation of which is extremely difficult1 perhaps impossible1 till the mystery of ,god shall be finished4 #ba4 ,that they who deny the reality of miracles and prophecy should receive the book of ,daniel as genuine and authentic is impossible4 ,to review the history of the assaults made by them upon it1 or of the volumes written in reply1 is foreign to the plan of the present work4 ,a brief summary only will be given of the grounds on which its claim to a place in the canon of the ,old ,testament is vindicated4 7#a47 ,the unity of the book of ,daniel is now conceded4 ,the two leading divisions are so related that the one implies the existence of the other4 ,both have the same characteristics of manner and style1 though a considerable portion of the book is in ,chaldee1 and the remainder in ,hebrew4 ,davidson after ,keil and others1 ,introduction to the ,old ,testament1 p4 #iaf4 ,this being admitted1 the book as a whole claims ,daniel for its author2 for in it he often speaks in the first person1 and in the last chapter the book is manifestly ascribed to him 7#ab3d1 #i74 7#b47 ,the uniform tradition of the ,jews ascribed the book to ,daniel4 ,it was on this ground that they received it into the canon of the ,old ,testament4 ,the objection that they did not class ,daniel with the prophets1 but with the ,hagiographa 7see above1 ,chap4 #ac1 ,no4 #d7 is of no account4 ,had the book belonged1 as the objectors claim1 to the ,maccabean age1 it would not have found a place in the ,hagiographa any more than in the prophets4 ,the first book of ,maccabees1 which contains authentic history1 was never received into the ,hebrew canon1 because1 as the ,jews rightly judged1 it was written after the withdrawal of the spirit of prophecy4 ,much less would they have received1 under the illustrious name of ,daniel1 a book written as late as the time of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 more than three centuries and a half after ,daniel4 ,that they should have done this through ignorance is inconceivable2 that they could have done it through fraud is a supposition not to be admitted for a moment1 for it is contrary to all that we know of their conscientious care with regard to the sacred text4 ,it may be added that the book of ,baruch1 which cannot be placed later than the ,maccabean age1 and is perhaps earlier1 makes abundant use of the book of ,daniel2 and that the author of the first book of ,maccabees had this book in the ,alexandrine version1 as is plain from the peculiar expressions employed by him in chap4 #a3ed--they built the abomination of desolation upon the altar4 ,compare ,dan4 #i3bg of the ,alexandrine version4 7#c47 ,josephus relates1 ,antiq4 #aa4 #h4 #e1 among the other particulars of the visit which ,alexander the ,great made to ,jerusalem1 that the high priest ,jaddus 7,jaddua7 showed him the book of ,daniel in which he signified that a certain one of the ,greeks should destroy the empire of the ,persians2 and that this1 in connection with other extraordinary circumstances narrated by ,josephus1 had the effect of assuaging the king's wrath which had been excited against the ,jewish high priest and people by their refusal to render him assistance against ,darius1 and of disposing him to bestow upon them great favors4 ,respecting the authenticity of this narrative there has been much discussion2 but there is no ground for denying its substantial truth4 ,it bears the stamp of reality1 and it accounts1 moreover1 for the extraordinary privileges conferred upon the ,jews by ,alexander1 which otherwise remain inexplicable4 7#d47 ,christ himself recognizes ,daniel as a true prophet4 ,he refers to the future fulfilment of one of his prophecies as a most important sign for his disciples3 ,when ye therefore shall see the abomination of desolation1 spoken of by ,daniel the prophet1 standing in the holy place 7whoso readeth1 let him understand71 then let them which be in ,judea flee into the mountains4 ,matt4 #bd3ae1 #af2 ,mark #ac3ad4 ,de ,wette says indeed3 ,in the nature of the case ,christ neither would nor could be a critical authority4 ,that our ,lord did not assume to be a critical authority in the ordinary sense of the term is evident2 for in this very case he referred to the ,alexandrine version1 without pausing to notice its variation from the ,hebrew4 ,but our ,lord knew whether the book of ,daniel is a collection of real prophecies1 or a spurious work composed several centuries after ,daniel1 imposing upon the world in ,daniel's name pretended prophecies written after the events4 ,far be it from any one who believes in the reality of ,christ's supernatural mission thus to make him set the seal of his divine authority to the work of an impostor4 ,heb4 #aa3cc1 #cd also refers undeniably to ,daniel1 chaps4 #f and #c4 7#e47 ,the language of the book agrees with the age of ,daniel4 ,the writer employs both ,hebrew and ,chaldee1 thus indicating that he lives during the period of transition from the former to the latter language4 ,his ,chaldee1 moreover1 like that of ,ezra1 contains ,hebrew forms such as do not occur in the earliest of the ,targums4 ,his ,hebrew1 on the other hand1 agrees in its general character with that of ,ezekiel and ,ezra4 ,though the ,hebrew survived as the language of the learned for some time after the captivity1 we cannot suppose that so late as the age of ,antiochus ,epiphanes and the ,maccabees a ,jewish author could have employed either such ,hebrew as ,daniel uses1 or such ,chaldee4 7#f47 ,the author manifests intimate acquaintance with the historical relations1 manners1 and customs belonging to ,daniel's time4 ,under this head writers have specified the custom of giving new names to those taken into the king's service 7#a3g72 the threat that the houses of the magi should be made a dunghill 7#b3e72 the different forms of capital punishment in use among the ,chaldeans and ,medo-,persians2 the dress of ,daniel's companions 7#c3ba72 the presence of women at the royal banquet 7#e3b71 etc4 ,see ,davidson's ,introduction1 p4 #ibj1 who sums up the argument thus3 ,it is improbable that an author in the ,maccabean times should have been so uniformly accurate in his narrative1 without having been in ,babylon itself4 #bb4 ,the objections urged against the book of ,daniel are not of a nature to overthrow the mass of evidence in its favor4 ,they may be considered under the following heads3 7#a47 ,various chronological and historical difficulties4 ,it is said that ,jewish history knows no expedition of ,nebuchadnezzar against ,jerusalem in the third year of ,jehoiakim4 ,the answer is that an expedition which apparently fell about this time is mentioned in #b ,kings #bd3a4 ,the actual capture of the city1 however1 seems not to have taken place before the fourth year of ,jehoiakim2 for ,jeremiah1 in a prophecy dated in this fourth year1 speaks in terms which imply that the threatened blow had not yet fallen4 ,jer4 #be3i4 ,perhaps ,daniel1 chap4 #a3a1 dates from the beginning of the expedition1 so that it fell partly in the third and partly in the fourth year of ,jehoiakim4 ,it was in connection with this expedition of ,nebuchadnezzar that he overthrew the army of ,pharaoh-necho at ,carchemish on the ,euphrates2 for that event also took place in the fourth year of ,jehoiakim4 ,jer4 #df3b4 ,we learn from ,berosus1 as quoted by ,josephus 7,antiq4 #aj4 #aa4 #a71 that when ,nebuchadnezzar was engaged in this expedition1 and had already conquered the ,egyptians1 he received tidings that the throne of ,babylon was made vacant by the death of his father4 ,upon this he hastened with his light troops across the desert to ,babylon1 leaving the body of his army to return by the ordinary route4 ,it is said again that the dates given in ,jer4 #be3a and ,dan1 #b3a cannot be reconciled with each other4 ,in the former of these the first year of ,nebuchadnezzar is the fourth of ,jehoiakim1 in which year1 or at all events in the preceding year1 ,daniel with his three companions was taken captive4 ,yet after they have been transported to ,babylon and received an education there extending through three years 7,dan4 #a3e71 we find ,daniel interpreting ,nebuchadnezzar's dream in the second year of his reign4 ,to this it can be answered in part that in the second book of ,kings and in ,jeremiah the years of ,nebuchadnezzar are obviously reckoned from the time when he was placed by his father1 who was now old and infirm1 at the head of his army1 the title of king being applied to him by way of anticipation4 #b ,kings #bd3ab2 #be3h2 ,jer4 #be3a4 ,in the book of ,daniel1 on the contrary1 his years are reckoned from his actual accession to the throne4 ,but even then it is necessary to assume a considerable delay between his return from his ,egyptian expedition and his formal investiture with the kingdom4 ,the grounds of such a delay we can only conjecture4 ,it may have been connected with the settlement of the affairs of the realm1 which he found1 ,berosus tells us1 administered by the ,chaldeans1 the kingdom being kept for him by the chief man among them2 or the statement of ,berosus may be wanting in fulness and accuracy4 ,an argument from our ignorance cannot be urged against the authenticity of ,daniel any more than in its favor4 ,as to the acknowledged difficulties connected with the identification of ,belshazzar and ,darius the ,median 7chap4 #e71 it is sufficient to say that the notices which we have of the ,chaldean monarchy after ,nebuchadnezzar are so fragmentary and contradictory that no valid argument can be drawn from such difficulties against the authenticity of the book of ,daniel4 ,an old opinion identifies ,belshazzar with ,nabonnedus1 who was either a son of ,nebuchadnezzar or a grandson--called his son1 ,dan4 #e3bb1 in the sense of his descendant4 ,but ,rawlinson 7as quoted in ,smith's ,bible ,dictionary7 informs us that from inscriptions deciphered by him it appears that the eldest son of ,nabonnedus was called ,bel-shar-ezer,belshazzar4 ,he thinks that as joint king with his father he may have been governor of ,babylon1 when the city was taken by the ,medes and ,persians1 and have perished in the assault1 while1 in accordance with the statements of ,berosus1 ,nabonnedus himself survived4 ,upon either of the above suppositions1 ,darius the ,median will be ,cyaxares ,,ii41 son of ,astyages and uncle to ,cyrus1 who succeeded to the title of king--took the kingdom 7,dan #e3ca and chap4 #f7--though the conquest of ,babylon was due to ,cyrus himself1 who not long afterwards ascended the throne of the united kingdoms of ,media and ,persia4 ,another view makes ,belshazzar the same as ,evil-merodach1 son and successor of ,nebuchadnezzar1 and identifies ,darius the ,median with ,astyages4 ,it is not necessary to decide which1 if either of these two views1 is correct4 7#b47 ,an argument has been drawn from the fact that ,jesus1 the son of ,sirach1 does not mention the name of ,daniel in the catalogue of his worthies 7chap4 #di74 ,such negative arguments are at best weak1 and this loses all its force from the circumstance that he omits others1 as ,ezra and ,mordecai 7the twelve minor prophets also1 since chap4 #di3aj is regarded as spurious74 7#c47 ,the alleged linguistic difficulties have been reduced1 so far as the date of the book is concerned1 to three or four ,greek names of musical instruments2 all of which--the instruments and their names--may naturally enough have been brought from ,greece1 the home of musical art1 in the way of ordinary commercial intercourse4 ,we are not called upon to defend the classic purity of ,daniel's style4 ,a ,hebrew and educated at the court of ,babylon1 it was natural that his ,chaldee should be colored with ,hebrew forms1 and his ,hebrew with ,chaldaisms4 ,the argument from the general style of the book is in favor of its genuineness1 not against it4 7#d47 ,the commendations bestowed upon ,daniel are thought to be inconsistent with his being the author of the book4 ,some1 who admit its authenticity and its right to a place in the sacred canon1 have been led by this consideration to adopt the opinion that ,daniel1 though essentially the author of the book1 did not himself put it into its present form1 but that some one of his countrymen put together his prophecies1 prefixing to them introductory notices respecting the author4 ,so far as the canonical authority of the book is concerned there are no serious objections to this hypothesis2 but we may well ask whether undue weight is not given to the objection under consideration4 ,throughout the whole book these commendatory notices are underlaid by the idea that ,daniel's wisdom is not his own1 but is given him by ,god1 and for purposes connected with the welfare of the covenant people4 ,by revealing to his servant secrets beyond the ken of all the wise men of ,babylon1 he manifests at once his own infinite perfections and the vanity of the ,chaldean gods2 and this ,daniel records to the glory of the ,god of ,israel4 7#e47 ,the real objection to the book lies1 as already intimated1 in the supernatural character of its contents--in the remarkable miracles and prophecies which it records4 ,the miracles of this book are of a very imposing character1 especially adapted to strike the minds of the beholders with awe and wonder4 ,but so are those also recorded in the beginning of the book of ,exodus4 ,in both cases they were alike fitted to make upon the minds of the heathen1 in whose presence they were performed1 the impression of ,god's power to save and deliver in all possible circumstances4 ,the prophecies are mostly in the form of dreams and visions2 and they are in wonderful harmony with ,daniel's position as a minister of state at the court of ,babylon1 and also with the relation of ,judaism to the heathen world4 ,in the providence of ,god1 the history of his covenant people1 and through them of the visible kingdom of heaven1 had become inseparably connected with that of the great monarchies of the world4 ,how appropriate1 then1 that ,god should reveal1 in its grand outlines1 the course of these monarchies to the final and complete establishment of the kingdom of heaven 7#b3dd1 #de2 #g3bf1 #bg74 ,in all this we find nothing against the general analogy of prophecy1 but every thing in strict conformity with it4 ,in the seventh chapter there appears1 for the first time1 an interpreting angel communicating to the prophet1 in connected discourse1 the meaning of the vision which he has just seen4 ,so also in the eighth chapter and onward4 ,such a mode of revelation is peculiarly adapted to the communication of details1 and in the eleventh chapter these are given to an unparalleled extent4 ,but this constitutes no ground for denying the reality of the prophecy4 ,though the spirit of prophecy does not1 as a general rule1 give future events in their succession1 this is sometimes done4 ,so it is in ,god's announcement to ,abraham of the bondage of his posterity 7,gen4 #ae3ac-af72 and also in our ,lord's prophecy of the overthrow of ,jerusalem 7,matt41 chap4 #bd74 ,in this respect it does not become us to prescribe rules for the wisdom of ,god4 ,we need not pursue this subject any farther4 ,no one of the above difficulties1 nor all combined1 can outweigh the evidence we have for the genuineness and authenticity of the book of ,daniel4 ,on the contrary1 the hypothesis that it belongs to so late an age as that of the ,maccabees is beset with difficulties inconceivably greater4 ,it has for its foundation not sober criticism1 but the denial of the supernatural4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,twelve ,,minor ,,prophets4 #a4 ,by the ,jewish arrangement1 which places together the twelve minor prophets in a single volume1 the chronological order of the prophets as a whole is broken up4 ,the three greater prophets1 ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 and ,ezekiel1 stand in the true order of time4 ,daniel began to prophesy before ,ezekiel1 but continued1 many years after him4 ,the ,jewish arrangement of the twelve minor prophets is in a sense chronological2 that is1 they put the earlier prophets at the beginning1 and the later at the end of the collection4 ,it does not appear1 however1 that they intended to follow the order of time with exactness4 ,if they did1 then in the judgment of many they committed errors4 ,the particulars must be discussed as the books come up separately for consideration4 ,in regard to the first six1 the arrangement of the ,septuagint differs from the ,masoretic1 which is followed in our version1 as follows3 ,,masoretic ,,text4 ,,septuagint ,,version4 #a4 ,hosea4 #a4 ,hosea4 #b4 ,joel4 #b4 ,amos4 #c4 ,amos4 #c4 ,micah4 #d4 ,obadiah4 #d4 ,joel4 #e4 ,jonah4 #e4 ,obadiah4 #f4 ,micah4 #f4 ,jonah4 #b4 ,this precious collection contains the earliest as well as the latest writings of the ,hebrew prophets1 except such as are embodied in the historical books2 for ,hosea1 ,joel1 and ,amos1 at least1 are older than ,isaiah1 and the three prophets of the restoration are younger than ,ezekiel and ,daniel4 ,the minor prophets exhibit a great diversity of manner and style--the rugged and sententious1 the full and flowing1 the oratorical1 and the simple and unadorned4 ,in them are passages attaining to the sublimity of ,isaiah1 to the tenderness and pathos of ,jeremiah1 and to the vehemence of ,ezekiel4 ,nowhere do we find sin rebuked with more awful severity1 the true meaning of the law more clearly expounded1 or the future glory of ,zion more confidently predicted4 ,that some of these writings are obscure and of difficult interpretation cannot be denied4 ,this arises partly from the character of the style1 as in the case of ,hosea and others2 partly from the nature of the themes discussed1 as in ,zechariah2 partly from our ignorance of the times and circumstances of the writers4 ,nevertheless the prayerful student will find in them a rich treasury of divine truth1 which will abundantly reward the labor bestowed upon it4 ,i4 ,,hosea4 #c4 ,the prophecies of ,hosea were addressed immediately to the kingdom of the ten tribes1 yet so that he did not overlook ,judah2 for he considered the two kingdoms of ,judah and ,israel as constituting together the covenant people of ,god4 ,of his personal history we know nothing except that he was the son of ,beeri1 for the transactions of the first three chapters may be best understood as symbolic acts seen only in vision4 ,see above1 ,chap4 #bb1 ,no4 #ag4 ,for any thing that appears to the contrary1 he was of ,israelitish descent4 ,as it is generally agreed that ,isaiah began to prophesy in the last year of ,uzziah's reign1 or but a few years before his death1 while ,hosea prophesied in the reign of ,jeroboam ,,ii41 the great-grandson of ,jehu 7#b ,kings #ad3bc71 who died about twenty-six years before ,uzziah1 it follows that ,hosea1 though partly contemporary with ,isaiah1 was called to the prophetical work at an earlier period4 ,if we suppose him to have commenced prophesying two years before the death of ,jeroboam1 and then add the twenty-six remaining years of ,uzziah's reign1 the sixteen of ,jotham1 the sixteen of ,ahaz1 and two of the first years of ,hezekiah1 we shall have a period of sixty-two years4 ,to ,israel this was a calamitous period1 embracing four usurpations and murders of the reigning sovereigns1 and three invasions of the ,assyrians4 ,see the history in #b ,kings #ae3h-ca1 and #ag3a-f4 ,in the last of these ,hosea1 king of ,israel1 became tributary to ,shalmaneser1 king of ,assyria2 but he proved unfaithful to his master1 and sought the alliance of ,so1 king of ,egypt4 #b ,kings #ag3d4 ,for this the ,assyrian king besieged him in ,samaria1 and after a siege of three years1 took him with the city1 and put an end to the kingdom of ,israel in the fifth year of ,hezekiah1 king of ,judah4 ,hosea seems to have closed his writings when ,hoshea was seeking the help of ,egypt1 while he had at the same time a covenant with ,assyria 7#ab3a71 consequently somewhere early in ,hezekiah's reign4 #d4 ,hosea's style is very concise and sententious1 and his diction impresses even the casual reader as original and peculiar4 ,a remarkable feature of his book is the constancy with which he sets forth the relation of ,israel to ,jehovah under the figure of the marriage-covenant2 thus making unfaithfulness to ,god1 and especially idolatry and idolatrous alliances1 to be spiritual adultery and whoredom4 ,this fact affords a key to the interpretation of the first three chapters1 where the nature of the transactions requires that we understand them not as historic events1 but as prophetic symbols occurring only in vision4 ,the remaining eleven chapters contain perhaps a summary of the prophet's discourses to the people1 written by himself near the close of his ministry4 ,the prophecies of ,hosea are repeatedly referred to in the ,new ,testament as a part of the oracles of ,god4 ,matt4 #b3ae2 #i3ac2 #ab3g2 ,rom4 #i3be1 #bf2 and an allusion in #a ,cor4 #ae3ee4 ,the prophet brings his book to a close with a delightful and refreshing view of the future prosperity and peace of the true ,israel1 chap4 #ad4 ,,ii4 ,,joel4 #e4 ,the prophecies of ,joel1 the son of ,pethuel1 give no specifications of place or time4 ,but all the internal indications of the book point to ,judea--probably ,jerusalem1 with its temple1 altar1 priesthood1 and solemn assemblies--as the sphere of his labors1 and to the date as among the earliest of those belonging to written prophecy4 ,the coincidences between ,joel and ,amos cannot well be regarded as accidental4 ,compare ,joel #c3af with ,amos #a3b2 ,joel #c3ah with ,amos #i3ac2 and notice the striking similarity in the close of the two prophecies4 ,if we may assume that one of these prophets borrowed expressions from the other1 the priority will naturally be given to ,joel1 from whose closing address 7#c3af7 ,amos takes the opening words of his prophecies4 ,he must then be placed as early1 at least1 as the reign of ,uzziah1 and perhaps earlier4 ,from the fact that ,joel does not mention as among the enemies of ,judah the ,syrians who invaded ,judah in the reign of ,joash1 the grandfather of ,uzziah1 some have placed him as early as the reign of ,joash before this ,syrian invasion4 ,there is no ground for placing him after ,uzziah2 for his writings contain no allusion to the ,assyrian power1 which became so formidable soon after ,uzziah's time4 #f4 ,the writings of ,joel bear the full impress of culture in a prophetic school4 ,his ,hebrew is of the purest kind2 his style is easy1 flowing1 elegant1 and adorned with magnificent imagery2 and for vividness and power of description he is not surpassed by any of the prophets4 ,the immediate occasion of his prophecies is a double plague of drought and locusts1 which has already invaded the land1 and whose desolating progress he describes in poetic strains of matchless elegance and power4 ,he summons the people of all classes to repentance1 and promises1 upon this condition1 not only the restoration of the land to its former fruitfulness1 but also the outpouring of ,god's ,spirit upon all flesh1 the triumph of the covenant people over all their foes1 and an era of universal holiness and peace4 ,in this respect he is a model for all the prophets that come after him4 ,they all with one accord look forward beyond the calamities of the present time1 and the heavier impending calamities which they are commissioned to foretell in the near future1 to the glory of the latter days1 when ,zion shall be made triumphant over all her foes1 and the whole earth shall be given her for her inheritance4 ,the apostle ,peter1 in his address on the day of ,pentecost1 quotes a remarkable prophecy of ,joel 7#b3bh-cb1 compared with ,acts #b3af-ba74 ,the opinion of some commentators1 that under the figure of locusts are represented simply hostile armies1 must be regarded as forced and unnatural4 ,more probable is the opinion of ,henderson and others1 that the prophet uses an actual invasion of the land by locusts as the type of a more formidable invasion of foreign foes4 ,but there does not seem to be any valid reason for departing from the simple interpretation above given4 ,,iii4 ,,amos4 #g4 ,amos prophesied concerning ,israel in the days of ,uzziah king of ,judah1 and in the days of ,jeroboam son of ,joash king of ,israel1 two years before the earthquake 7#a3a74 ,the time of this earthquake1 which is simply mentioned by ,zechariah 7#ad3e7 as occurring in ,uzziah's reign1 cannot be determined4 ,we only know that ,amos must have prophesied somewhere during the last part of the reign of ,jeroboam ,,ii41 when he was contemporary with ,uzziah4 ,amos was thus contemporary with ,hosea1 and was a considerable number of years earlier than ,isaiah1 who began to prophesy near the close of ,uzziah's long reign of fifty-two years4 ,the very specific date two years before the earthquake indicates that his whole mission to ,israel was executed within a single year1 perhaps within a few months4 ,it seems to have been after his return to ,judah1 when at least two years had elapsed1 that he collected his prophecies and put them into their present form4 ,amos describes himself as one of the herdmen of ,tekoa1 a small town southeast of ,bethlehem on the border of the wilderness of ,judah4 #b ,chron4 #bj3bj4 ,it belonged to ,judah1 whence we infer that ,amos was himself a ,jew1 a supposition which agrees well with the advice of ,amaziah3 ,o thou seer1 go1 flee thee away into the land of ,judah1 and there eat bread1 and prophesy there 7#g3ab74 ,he speaks of himself as no prophet1 neither a prophet's son 7#g3ad72 which means that he had not been trained up for the prophetical office in any school of the prophets1 as were the sons of the prophets4 #a ,kings #bj3ce2 #b ,kings #b3c1 etc4 ,god took him from following the herd1 and gave him a commission to prophesy to ,his people ,israel1 an office which he executed at ,bethel1 where one of the golden calves erected by ,jeroboam the son of ,nebat was worshipped 7#g3aj-ag compared with #a ,kings #ab3bi74 ,in entire harmony with this historical notice is the character of his prophecies4 ,his style has not the flowing fulness of ,joel1 but charms the reader by its freshness and simplicity4 ,his writings abound in images taken from rural scenes and employments1 some of which are very unique and striking in their character4 ,see chaps4 #b3ac2 #c3ab2 #e3ai2 #f3ab2 #i3b1 #c1 #i4 ,he opens his prophecies by a solemn annunciation of the approaching judgments of heaven upon the nations bordering on ,israel1 specifying in each case the sin which has provoked ,god's wrath4 ,the storm passes1 without pausing in its course1 over ,syria1 ,philistia1 ,tyre1 ,edom1 ,ammon1 ,moab1 ,judah1 till at last it reaches ,israel4 ,here it rests1 gathers blackness1 and thunders long and loud4 ,the reign of ,jeroboam ,,ii was one of much outward prosperity4 #b ,kings #ad3be-bh4 ,the vices which ,amos rebukes are those which belong to such a period--avarice1 violence1 oppression of the poor1 perversion of justice1 luxury1 lewdness--all these joined with the idolatrous worship established by ,jeroboam the son of ,nebat4 ,for such multiplied transgressions ,god will cause the sun to go down at noon1 and darken the earth in the clear day4 ,their feasts shall be turned into mourning1 their songs into lamentation1 and they shall go into captivity beyond ,damascus4 ,but while all the sinners among ,god's people thus perish by the sword1 he will remember his true ,israel for good4 ,he will rear up again the fallen tabernacle of ,david1 bring again the captivity of his people of ,israel1 and plant them for ever in their own land in peace and prosperity4 ,thus do the visions of ,amos1 like those of ,hosea and ,joel1 close with a cheering view of the future glory of ,zion4 ,amos is twice quoted in the ,acts of the ,apostles 7,acts #g3db1 #dc2 #ae3af1 #ag74 ,,iv4 ,,obadiah4 #h4 ,the short prophecy of ,obadiah is directed against ,edom4 ,the ,edomites were conspicuous for their hatred of the covenant people4 ,see ,ezek4 #be3ab2 #ce3e-ae2 ,joel #c3ai2 ,amos #a3aa1 and the parallel prophecy of ,jer4 #di3g-bb4 ,accordingly they stand here1 in respect to both their guilt and punishment1 as the representatives of ,zion's enemies in all ages4 ,in like manner the promised victory of ,god's people over them shadows forth the universal triumph of the kingdom of heaven which is reserved for the last days4 ,concerning the date of ,obadiah's prophecy expositors are not agreed4 ,the whole question turns upon the interpretation of verses #aa-ad4 ,that these contain an historic allusion to the exultation of the ,edomites over the capture and plunder of ,jerusalem cannot well be doubted4 ,if this was the final capture of the city by the ,chaldeans1 then ,obadiah's place will be after the beginning of the ,babylonish captivity4 ,but since no mention is made of the burning of ,jerusalem1 some suppose that the prophet refers to an earlier capture1 as that by the ,philistines and ,arabians under ,jehoram4 #b ,chron4 #ba3af1 #ag4 ,in favor of this view is urged the fact that ,jeremiah1 who was in the habit of using the writings of the earlier prophets1 has much in common with ,obadiah4 ,that ,jeremiah borrowed the language of ,obadiah is far more probable than that both prophets availed themselves of an older document1 as some have conjectured4 ,since1 however1 ,jerusalem was taken more than once by the ,chaldeans before its final overthrow 7#b ,kings chap4 #bd2 ,dan4 #a3a71 ,obadiah may have referred to one of these earlier captures1 and yet have written before ,jeremiah penned his prophecy against ,edom4 ,v4 ,,jonah4 #i4 ,we learn from #b ,kings #ad3be that ,jonah1 the son of ,amittai1 was of ,gath-hepher1 which is undoubtedly the same as ,gittah-hepher1 a town of the tribe of ,zebulun in the northern part of ,palestine 7,josh4 #ai3ac72 and that he predicted the successes of ,jeroboam ,,ii4 ,according to the general analogy of ,scripture1 prophecies like this1 relating to one particular event1 are not separated by any great space of time from their fulfilment4 ,he belongs1 therefore1 in all probability1 to the days of ,jeroboam ,,ii1 when ,amos also flourished4 ,there is no valid reason for assigning him1 as some do1 to an earlier date4 #aj4 ,the story of the book of ,jonah is too simple to need any analysis4 ,his act in fleeing from ,god's presence1 when commissioned to go to ,nineveh with a threatening message1 is very extraordinary2 but such is the inconsistency and folly of human passion4 ,the conduct of the mariners when overtaken by a tempest is not wonderful3 it is in harmony with all that we know of ancient habits of thinking and acting4 ,but what befell ,jonah1 when cast into the sea1 is more than wonderful3 it is miraculous4 ,that there exist in the ,mediterranean fish capable of swallowing a man entire is a well-attested fact4 ,the original ,hebrew mentions only1 a great fish4 ,the ,alexandrine version1 and after that the ,new ,testament1 use the word whale apparently in the sense of any great sea monster4 ,but whatever the fish may have been1 his preservation alive in its body for the space of three days1 and his subsequent ejection upon the dry land1 can be accounted for only by reference to the immediate power of ,god1 with whom nothing is impossible4 ,the effect of his preaching upon the ,ninevites was remarkable2 but much more so was his grief at its success1 whereby ,god was moved to spare the city4 ,the common opinion is that he feared for his reputation as a true prophet2 but a deeper ground of his anger may have been that he rightly understood the design of his mission to the ,ninevites to be that through repentance they might be saved from impending destruction2 while he regarded them as the enemies of ,god's people1 and unworthy of his mercy4 ,however this may be1 ,jonah's mission to the ,ninevites foreshadowed ,god's purposes of mercy towards the heathen world1 and that too at a very suitable time1 when the history of the covenant people1 and through them of ,god's visible earthly kingdom1 was about passing into lasting connection with that of the great monarchies of the earth4 #aa4 ,the authorship of the book of ,jonah is not expressly given2 but may be most naturally referred to the prophet himself4 ,the few alleged ,chaldaisims found in it may be explained as belonging to the provincial dialect of the prophet2 since we have but an imperfect knowledge of the variations which the living ,hebrew language admitted in this respect4 ,in ,matt4 #ab3ci-da2 ,luke #aa3bi-cb the ,saviour refers in explicit terms to events recorded in this book as being true history2 nor can the historic character of the narrative as a whole be denied except on the ground that all records of the supernatural are unhistoric4 ,,vi4 ,,micah4 #ab4 ,micah is called the ,morasthite1 probably because he was a native of ,moresheth-gath1 a small town of ,judea1 which1 according to ,eusebius and ,jerome1 lay in a southwesterly direction from ,jerusalem1 not far from ,eleutheropolis on the plain1 near the border of the ,philistine territory4 ,with this agrees the connection in which it is named 7#a3ac-ae72 for ,lachish1 ,mareshah1 and ,adullam also lay in that direction4 ,he prophesied in the days of ,jotham1 ,ahaz1 and ,hezekiah1 kings of ,judah4 ,his prophetic activity began1 therefore1 soon after that of ,isaiah1 and he was contemporary with him1 as well as with ,hosea and ,amos4 ,his prophecies related to ,samaria1 the capital city of the kingdom of ,israel1 and to ,jerusalem 7#a3a74 ,we find accordingly denunciations against ,samaria intermingled with his prophecies concerning ,judah and ,jerusalem4 ,the people1 moreover1 are spoken of under the name of ,jacob and ,israel where1 sometimes at least1 as in chap4 #c3i1 ,judah must be included4 ,it is generally thought that the book of ,micah contains only a summary of his prophecies1 prepared perhaps in the days of ,hezekiah4 ,but this is not certain2 for the reference in ,jeremiah #bf3ah obviously relates only to the particular prophecy quoted there4 #ac4 ,the book is commonly distributed into three sections3 chaps4 #a and #b2 chaps4 #c1 #d1 and #e2 and chaps4 #f and #g4 ,each of these opens with a summons to hear ,god's message1 and then proceeds with expostulations and threatenings1 which are succeeded by glorious promises4 ,the second of these sections1 which is the largest and contains the most extended promises1 is addressed more particularly to the rulers of the people4 ,the style of ,micah is bold1 vehement1 and abrupt4 ,his sudden transitions sometimes make his writings difficult of interpretation4 ,he abounds in striking images1 taken to a great extent1 like those of ,amos1 from pastoral and rural life4 ,micah has one remarkable prophecy common to him with ,isaiah4 ,chap4 #d3a-c compared with ,isaiah #b3b-d4 ,from the connection of the context the passage in ,micah is generally thought to be the original4 ,besides this there is a general agreement between the two prophets in their representations2 and especially in the manner in which they perpetually mingle stern rebukes and threatenings with glorious promises relating to the ,messiah and his kingdom4 ,the remarkable prophecy concerning the ,messiah's birth 7chap4 #e3b7 is quoted with some variations in ,matt4 #b3e1 #f1 and referred to in ,john #g3db4 ,the ,saviour's words1 as recorded in ,matt4 #aj3ce1 #cf2 ,mark #ac3ab2 ,luke #ab3ec contain an obvious reference to ,micah #g3f4 ,,vii4 ,,nahum4 #ad4 ,nahum is called the ,elkoshite1 probably from ,elkosh1 a village of ,galilee1 which ,jerome 7,introduction to ,nahum7 mentions as pointed out to him by his guide4 ,the tradition which assigns for the place of his birth and residence the modern ,alkush1 an ,assyrian village on the east side of the ,tigris1 a few miles above the site of the ancient ,nineveh1 rests on no good foundation4 ,the prophecy of ,nahum is directed against ,nineveh1 the capital of the ,assyrian empire4 ,when the prophet wrote1 this city was still in the height of its power 7chap4 #a3ab2 #b3h72 oppressing the nations and purposing the conquest of ,judah 7chap4 #a3i1 #aa2 #c3a1 #d74 ,from chap4 #a3ab1 #ac it appears that the ,assyrians had already afflicted ,judah1 and laid their yoke upon her4 ,all these particulars point to the reign of ,hezekiah as the probable date of the book4 #ae4 ,the first chapter opens with a description of ,god's awful majesty and power1 which nothing created can withstand4 ,these attributes shall be directed to the utter and perpetual overthrow of ,nineveh and the salvation of ,god's afflicted people4 ,the second chapter begins a sublime description of the process of this destruction by the invasion of foreign armies4 ,the third continues the account of the desolation of ,nineveh by her foes4 ,for her innumerable sins she shall be brought to shame before the nations of the earth1 and made like populous ,no1 that is1 ,no-amon1 the celebrated metropolis of upper ,egypt1 also called ,thebes1 whose children were dashed in pieces and her great men laid in chains4 ,the present condition of ,nineveh1 a mass of uninhabitable ruins1 is a solemn comment upon the closing words of the prophecy2 ,there is no healing of thy bruise2 thy wound is grievous3 all that hear the report of thee shall clap their hands over thee3 for upon whom hath not thy wickedness passed continually8 ,,viii4 ,,habakkuk4 #af4 ,respecting ,habakkuk's personal history we have no information4 ,the apocryphal notices of him are unworthy of credence4 ,from the fifth and sixth verses of the first chapter it is evident that he prophesied not long before that series of invasions by the ,chaldeans which ended in the destruction of ,jerusalem and the captivity of the people2 that is1 somewhere between #fdj and #faj years before ,christ1 so that he was contemporary with ,jeremiah and ,zephaniah4 ,the theme of his prophecy is1 first1 the overthrow of ,judea by the ,chaldeans1 and then the overthrow in turn of the ,chaldean monarchy1 each power in turn for its sins4 ,in the first chapter he predicts in a dramatic form--that of expostulation with ,god on the part of the prophet1 and ,god's answer--the approaching desolation of the land by the ,chaldean armies1 whose resistless power he describes in bold and striking imagery4 ,in the second chapter the prophet appears standing on his watch to see what answer ,jehovah will give to the expostulation with which the preceding chapter closes4 ,he receives a comforting message1 but one that will try the faith of ,god's people by its delay4 ,verse #c4 ,it is an announcement of the overthrow of the ,chaldean oppressor1 carried out in a series of bold and vivid descriptions in which woe upon woe is pronounced against him for his rapine1 covetousness1 iniquitous oppression1 and idolatry4 ,the third chapter is a lyric ode in which the prophet1 in view of both the judgments that ,god is about to execute on his countrymen through the ,chaldeans 7chap4 #a71 and the promised deliverance from them at a future period 7chap4 #b71 supplicates and celebrates the future interposition of ,jehovah for the redemption of his people in language borrowed from their past history4 ,thus this sublime song is both a prayer for the renewal of ,god's wondrous works in the days of old and a prophecy of such a renewal4 ,the apostle ,paul quotes the words of ,habakkuk3 ,the just shall live by his faith 7#b3d71 and applies them to all believers 7,rom4 #a3ag74 ,the language of chap4 #a3e implies that the desolation of the land by the ,chaldeans would be a surprising event1 which could not have been the case after the victory of ,nebuchadnezzar over the ,egyptians and his capture of ,jerusalem in the fourth year of ,jehoiakim1 ,b4,c4 #fjf4 ,it was also to be in the day of that generation--in your days4 ,consequently we cannot date the prophecy earlier than ,b4,c4 #fdj1 probably not before ,b4,c4 #fcj4 ,the dedication of ,habakkuk's ode 7#c3ai7 to the chief musician--the ,hebrew word is the same that so often occurs in the titles of the ,psalms--implies that this ode was to be used in the solemn worship of ,god4 ,the added words1 on my stringed instruments1 are most naturally understood of those under his charge as a leader in the service of song in the sanctuary4 ,hence we infer with probability that ,habakkuk was a ,levite4 ,,ix4 ,,zephaniah4 #ag4 ,zephaniah prophesied in the reign of ,josiah 7#a3a71 apparently while his work of reformation was in progress and not yet completed 7#a3d-f1 #h1 #i72 that is1 somewhere between his twelfth and his eighteenth year 7#b ,chron4 #cd3c-ac74 ,in the first chapter he predicts the utter desolation of ,judah1 and with it the destruction of all the patrons of idolatry and the rich and presumptuous sinners in ,jerusalem4 ,in the second chapter he exhorts the covenant people to repentance in view of the judgments that are coming upon them 7verses #a-c71 threatens the surrounding nations--,philistia1 ,moab1 and ,ammon--with desolation 7verses #d-aa71 and denounces the judgments of ,god upon the ,ethiopians and ,assyrians 7verses #ab-ae74 ,in the third chapter1 after a severe rebuke of ,jerusalem for her incorrigible rebellion against ,god 7verses #a-g71 he foretells in glowing language the future purification and enlargement of ,zion1 and the destruction of all her enemies 7verses #h-bj74 ,the style of ,zephaniah is clear and flowing1 having a general resemblance to that of ,jeremiah4 ,he has frequent allusions to the earlier prophets4 ,chap4 #a3g compared with ,isa4 #cd3f2 chap4 #b3ac-ae compared with ,isa4 #ac3ba1 #bb2 #cd3ac-ae2 chap4 #a3ad1 #ae with ,joel #b3a1 #b2 chap4 #a3ac with ,amos #e3aa1 etc4 ,the genealogy of ,zephaniah is given through ,cushi1 ,gedaliah1 and ,amariah to ,hezekiah2 for in the original ,hebrew the words ,hizkiah and ,hezekiah are the same4 ,as it is not usual that the descent of prophets should be given with such particularity1 it has been assumed1 with some probability1 that this ,hezekiah was the king of that name2 though in this case we should have expected the addition king of ,judah4 ,the chemarim1 verse #d1 are the idol-priests2 that is1 priests devoted to idol worship4 ,in #b ,kings #cc3e1 where the writer is speaking of the reformation under ,josiah1 the word is translated idolatrous priests2 in ,hosea #aj3e simply priests1 which is its meaning in the ,syriac language4 ,some have maintained that the invasion of ,judah to which ,zephaniah refers was that of the ,scythians described by ,herodotus1 #a4 #aje2 but this is very improbable4 ,from the fact that the king's children are included in the threatened visitation--in the ,hebrew1 ,i will visit upon the princes and the king's children 7#a3h7--some have inferred that they must have been already grown and addicted to idolatrous practices2 consequently that ,zephaniah wrote later than the eighteenth year of ,josiah4 ,but1 as ,keil and others have remarked1 the mention of the king's children may have been added simply to indicate the universality of the approaching visitation2 not to say that the prophetic vision of ,zephaniah may have anticipated the sin and punishment of these king's children--,jehoahaz and ,jehoiakim4 ,x4 ,,haggai4 #ah4 ,haggai is the first of the three prophets after the captivity1 who are commonly called ,prophets of the ,restoration4 ,his four short messages to the people were all delivered in the space of three months1 and they all had reference to the rebuilding of the temple4 ,by the slanderous representations of the ,jews' enemies this work had been interrupted1 as we learn from the fourth chapter of ,ezra4 ,meanwhile the ,jews1 having yielded to the spirit of unbelief1 had lost their zeal for ,god's cause and grown cold and indifferent4 ,for this the prophets ,haggai and ,zechariah were sent to reprove them1 while at the same time they encouraged them to resume the work1 a mission which they successfully accomplished4 ,ezra #e3a1 #b4 #ai4 ,the first message is dated in the second year of ,darius the king--,darius ,hystaspes1 who ascended the throne of ,persia ,b4,c4 #eba--;in the sixth month1 in the first day of the month4 ,chap4 #a3a4 ,in this message the prophet sharply reproves the people for their indifference to the cause of ,god's house and their selfish devotion to their own private interests1 which have brought upon them the divine rebuke4 ,chap4 #a3b-aa4 ,the effect of his words in exciting both rulers and people to renew the work upon the temple is added4 ,chap4 #a3ab-ae4 ,the second message in the one and twentieth day of the same month is throughout of an encouraging character4 ,the elders who had seen the first house in its glory1 were despondent in view of the comparative meanness of the new edifice4 ,jehovah promises them that the ,desire of all nations shall come1 that he will fill this house with glory1 so that the glory of this latter house shall be greater than of the former 7#b3a-i74 ,this promise was fulfilled in a material way in the second temple as renewed by ,herod the ,great4 ,but the real reference is to its spiritual glory4 ,it was honored by the presence of the ,son of ,god1 who is the brightness of the ,father's glory4 ,in the third message1 in the four and twentieth day of the ninth month1 the prophet in a sort of parable1 rebukes the people for their heartless formality1 which1 like the touch of a dead body1 defiles all their offerings and services1 yet promises them ,god's blessing upon their repentance4 ,chap4 #b3aj-ai4 ,the last message1 which was delivered on the same day1 is wholly occupied with the future4 ,amid commotions and overturnings ,god will destroy the power of the heathen nations1 and make ,zerubbabel as a signet4 ,the reference is to a seal-ring1 and the promise is that ,god will preserve ,zerubbabel from all the assaults of the wicked4 ,zerubbabel was one of the ,messiah's ancestors 7,matt4 #a3ab2 ,luke #c3bg71 and since the prophecy reached far beyond his day1 the promise made to him extends to all faithful rulers whom ,god sets over his church but can have its perfect fulfilment only in the ,messiah himself1 of whom ,zerubbabel was a type4 ,,xi4 ,,zechariah4 #bj4 ,zechariah1 the second and greatest prophet of the ,restoration1 calls himself the son of ,berechiah1 the son of ,iddo 7#a3a74 ,but in ,ezra the name of the father is omitted1 perhaps as being less known1 and he is called simply the son of ,iddo 7chaps4 #e3a2 #f3ad71 the word son being used in the general sense of descendant4 ,there is no reason to doubt the identity of this ,iddo with the priest of that name who went up from ,babylon with ,zerubbabel and ,jeshua 7,neh4 #ab3d72 so that ,zechariah1 like ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel1 was of priestly descent4 ,he began to prophesy two months after ,haggai 7chap4 #a3a compared with ,hag4 #a3a71 and the two prophets were contemporary1 at least for a short time4 #ba4 ,the book of ,zechariah may be naturally divided1 according to its contents1 into three parts4 ,the first six chapters constitute the first of these parts4 ,after a short introductory message 7#a3a-f7 there follows a very remarkable series of visions relating to the reestablishment of the ,jews in their own land1 and the future dispensations of ,god towards them2 the whole being closed by a symbolic prophecy of ,christ as both priest and king upon the throne of ,david4 ,to the second part belong the prophecies contained in the seventh and eighth chapters4 ,the occasion of the first of these was a question proposed to the prophet concerning the observance of a certain fast4 ,he first rebukes the people for their formality1 and then proceeds to encourage them in the way of duty1 adding glorious promises respecting the future prosperity of ,judah and ,jerusalem4 ,the remaining six chapters1 constituting the third part1 appear to have been written at a later time4 ,they all relate to the future destinies of the covenant people1 and1 through them1 of the visible kingdom of ,god on earth4 ,but the first three of these chapters are mainly occupied with the nearer future1 yet with glimpses at the final consummation in the latter days4 ,they are generally understood to predict the conquests of ,alexander the ,great 7#i3a-h71 the conflict of the ,jews with their enemies in the ,maccabean age 7#i3ac-af71 the advent of ,christ 7#i3i71 the corrupt and rapacious character of the ,jewish rulers at that era1 their rejection of ,christ1 and the consequent rejection of the nation by ,god 7chap4 #aa74 ,they also contain a prediction of the final reunion and restoration of the house of ,judah and the house of ,joseph 7ch4 #aj74 ,the remaining three chapters are occupied with the great and decisive conflict of the last days1 which is to usher in the era of millennial glory4 #bb4 ,the prophecies of ,zechariah1 containing as they do a portraiture of the destiny of ,god's people to the end of time1 and comprehending so many mighty events which yet await their fulfilment1 present to the interpreter many difficulties1 some of which have hitherto been found insoluble1 and will probably remain unsolved till the mystery of ,god contained in them shall have been fulfilled4 ,one thing1 however1 they clearly reveal to us3 that the future triumph of ,god's kingdom is certain1 and that all the great movements in the history of the nations1 however unpropitious they may seem at the time1 are parts of the mighty plan of divine providence which shall end in making the kingdoms of this world the kingdoms of our ,lord and of his ,christ4 ,in ,matt4 #bg3i1 #aj1 there is a quotation for substance of the words of ,zechariah #aa3ac1 but they are ascribed to ,jeremiah the prophet4 ,of this discrepancy various explanations have been proposed4 ,some have suspected an early error in the manuscript of ,matthew's gospel2 but of this there is no satisfactory proof4 ,others have thought that the part of our present book of ,zechariah which contains the prophecy in question actually belongs to ,jeremiah2 but upon this hypothesis it remains a mystery how it should have been attached to the writings of ,zechariah4 ,upon the ground of diversity of style and other alleged internal marks1 it has been maintained by some biblical scholars that the whole of the last part of ,zechariah belongs to an earlier age2 but the validity of this conclusion is denied by others4 ,to give even a summary of the opposing arguments would exceed the limits of the present work4 ,the internal proofs being very nearly balanced against each other1 the fact that these chapters have always been connected with the writings of ,zechariah ought to be allowed a decisive influence in favor of their genuineness4 ,,xii4 ,,malachi4 #bc4 ,in ,hebrew ,malachi signifies my messenger1 being the very word employed in chap4 #c3a4 ,hence some have supposed that this is not the prophet's name1 but a description of his office4 ,such a supposition1 however1 is contrary to scriptural usage1 which in every other case prefixes to each of the prophetical books the author's proper name4 ,malachi has not given the date of his prophecies1 but it can be determined with a good degree of certainty from their contents4 ,the people had been reinstated in the land1 the temple rebuilt1 and its regular services reestablished4 ,yet they were in a depressed condition1 dispirited1 and disposed to complain of the severity of ,god's dealings towards them4 ,their ardently cherished expectation of seeing the ,theocracy restored to its former glory was not realized4 ,instead of driving their enemies before them sword in hand1 as in the days of ,joshua1 or reigning triumphantly over them in peace1 as in the days of ,solomon1 they found themselves a handful of weak colonists under the dominion of foreigners1 and returning to the land of their fathers solely by their permission4 ,all this was extremely humiliating to their worldly pride1 and a bitter disappointment of their worldly hopes4 ,hence they had fallen into a desponding and complaining state of mind4 ,while rendering to ,god a service that was not cheerful but grudging1 complaining of its wearisomeness1 withholding the tithes required by the law of ,moses1 and offering in sacrifice the lame and the blind1 they yet complained that he did not notice and requite these heartless services1 and talked as if he favored the proud and wicked4 ,ye have said1 ,it is vain to serve ,god3 and what profit is it that we have kept his ordinance1 and walked mournfully before him8 ,and now we call the proud happy2 yea1 they that work wickedness are set up2 yea1 they that tempt ,god are even delivered 7#c3ad1 #ae74 ,to these sins they had added that of putting away their ,hebrew wives1 that they might marry foreign women 7#b3aj-af74 ,all these circumstances point to the administration of ,nehemiah1 probably the latter part of it2 for after his visit to ,babylon in the thirty-second year of ,artaxerxes 7,neh4 #ac3f71 he found upon his return1 and has described in the last chapter of his book precisely the same state of affairs4 ,malachi is thus the last of all the prophets4 #bd4 ,he opens his prophecies by reminding the people of ,god's great and distinguishing love towards them and their fathers1 which they were so slow to acknowledge4 ,he then reproves them sharply for the sins above referred to1 and forewarns them that the ,lord1 of whose delay they complain1 will suddenly come to his temple to sit in judgment there--an advent which they will not be able to endure2 for it will consume the wicked root and branch1 while it brings salvation to the righteous 7#c3a-e2 #d3a-c74 ,in view of the fact that the revelations of the ,old ,testament are now closing1 he admonishes the people to remember the law of ,moses1 and closes with a promise of the mission of ,elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the ,lord 7#d3e1 #f74 ,this promise1 with that contained in chap4 #c3a1 is repeatedly referred to in the ,new ,testament1 and applied to the coming of ,john the ,baptist as our ,lord's forerunner4 ,the opening words of the prophecy1 chap4 #a3b1 are quoted by the apostle ,paul 7,rom4 #i3ac74 ,,appendix4 ,,the ,,apocryphal ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 #a4 ,the ,greek word ,apocrypha1 hidden1 that is1 hidden or secret books1 was early applied by the fathers of the ,christian church to anonymous or spurious books that falsely laid claim to be a part of the inspired word4 ,by some1 as ,jerome1 the term was extended to all the books incorporated by the ,alexandrine ,jews1 in their ,greek version1 into the proper canon of the ,old ,testament1 a few of which books1 though not inspired1 are undoubtedly genuine4 ,another designation of the books in question was ecclesiastical1 books to be read in the churches for edification1 but not as possessing authority in matters of faith4 ,but at the era of the ,reformation1 when these books were separated by the ,protestant churches from the true canon1 and placed by themselves between the books of the ,old and the ,new ,testament1 ,jerome's old epithet ,apocrypha1 or the ,apocryphal books1 was applied to the entire collection4 ,how the term ,apocrypha1 hidden1 became associated with the idea of spurious or anonymous is doubtful4 ,according to ,augustine1 it was because the origin of these books was not clear to the church fathers4 ,a later conjecture1 expressed by the translators of the ,english ,bible1 is because they were wont to be read not openly and in common1 but as it were in secret and apart4 ,still more probable is the opinion that they were so called from their close relation to the secret books containing the mysteries--secret doctrines--of certain heretical sects4 #b4 ,the date of several of the apocryphal books is very uncertain2 but none of them can well be placed as early as the beginning of the third century before ,christ4 ,though some of them were originally written in ,hebrew or ,aramean1 they have been preserved to us only in ,greek or other versions4 ,none of them were ever admitted into the ,hebrew canon4 ,the ground of their rejection is well stated by ,josephus 7,against ,apion #a1 #h71 namely1 that from the time of ,artaxerxes1 ,xerxes' son 7,artaxerxes ,longimanus1 under whom ,ezra led forth his colony1 ,ezra #g3a1 #h71 the exact succession of the prophets was wanting4 ,the ,alexandrine ,jews1 however1 who were very loose in their ideas of the canon1 incorporated them into their version of the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,how far the mass of the people distinguished between their authority and that of the books belonging to the ,hebrew canon is a question not easily determined4 ,but ,josephus1 as we have seen1 clearly recognized their true character4 ,philo also1 as those who have examined the matter inform us1 though acquainted with these books1 never cites any one of them as of divine authority4 ,the judgment of these two men doubtless represents that of all the better informed among the ,alexandrine ,jews1 as it does that of the ,saviour and his apostles1 who never quote them as a part of the inspired word4 #c4 ,during the first three centuries of the ,christian era very few of the church fathers had any knowledge of ,hebrew4 ,the churches received the ,scriptures of the ,old ,testament through the medium of the ,alexandrine ,greek version1 which contained the apocryphal books4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the distinction between these and the canonical books was not clearly maintained1 and that we find in the writings of the church fathers quotations from them even under the name of divine scripture4 ,but ,jerome1 who translated the ,old ,testament from the ,hebrew1 understood perfectly the distinction between the canonical and the apocryphal books4 ,the canon which he has given agrees with that of the ,palestine ,jews4 ,he says 7,prologus ,galeatus7 of the apocryphal books ,wisdom1 ,ecclesiasticus1 ,judith1 ,tobit1 and ,maccabees1 that the church reads these for the edification of the people1 not for authority in establishing church doctrines4 ,the same distinction is made by ,rufinus1 the contemporary and antagonist of ,jerome4 ,the language of ,augustine was more wavering and uncertain4 ,at the ,council of ,hippo1 ,a4,d4 #cic1 at which he was present1 the ecclesiastical books1 as the apocryphal books are called1 were included in the catalogue of sacred books2 and from that day to the time of the ,reformation the extent of the ,old ,testament canon was regarded as an open question4 ,but the ,romish ,council of ,trent included the apocryphal books in the canon of the ,old ,testament1 with the exception of ,esdras and the prayer of ,manasseh1 pronouncing an anathema on all who should hold a contrary opinion4 ,the ,protestant churches1 on the other hand1 unanimously adhered to the ,hebrew canon1 separating from this the apocryphal books as useful for reading1 but of no authority in matters of faith4 #d4 ,although the ,protestant churches rightly reject the apocryphal books as not belonging to the inspired word1 the knowledge of their contents is nevertheless a matter of deep interest to the biblical scholar4 ,the first book of ,maccabees is in the main authentic1 and it covers an important crisis of ,jewish history4 ,all of the apocryphal books1 moreover1 throw much light on the progress of ,jewish thought1 especially in the two directions of ,grecian culture and a rigid adherence to the forms of the ,mosaic law4 ,keil divides the apocryphal books into historical1 didactic1 and prophetic1 but with the remark that this division cannot be rigidly carried out4 ,in the following brief notice of the several books the arrangement of the ,english ,bible is followed4 ,i4 ,,the ,,two ,,books ,,of ,,esdras4 #e4 ,the first two in order of the apocryphal books in the ,english version bear the title of ,esdras1 that is1 ,ezra4 ,the ,greek ,bible has only the first1 which stands sometimes before our canonical book of ,ezra1 and sometimes after ,nehemiah4 ,in the former case it is called the first book of ,esdras1 that is1 ,ezra2 in the latter the third1 ,nehemiah being reckoned as the continuation of ,ezra1 and called the second book of ,ezra4 ,it gives the history of the temple and its service from ,josiah to ,ezra--its restoration by ,josiah1 destruction by the ,chaldees1 rebuilding and reestablishment through ,zerubbabel and ,ezra4 ,its original and central part is a legend from an unknown source respecting a trial of wisdom between ,zerubbabel and two other young men1 made in the presence of ,darius1 king of ,persia1 which resulted in ,zerubbabel's favor1 and so pleased the king that he issued letters for the rebuilding of ,jerusalem1 and conferred many other favors on the ,jews4 ,chaps4 #c1 #d4 ,the preceding and following parts are made up of extracts from #b ,chronicles1 ,ezra1 and ,nehemiah1 in which the compiler has made a free use of his biblical sources1 at one time abridging the narrative1 at another making explanatory additions1 and again transposing the order of events contrary to historical truth4 ,some1 as ,keil1 think that the writer made use of the ,alexandrine version2 others1 that he drew from the original ,hebrew4 ,his design was to exhibit the liberality of ,cyrus and ,darius towards the ,jews as a pattern for the heathen rulers of ,judea in his own day4 7,keil47 ,neither the author nor the date of the book is known1 but it cannot be placed earlier than the second century before ,christ4 #f4 ,the second book of ,esdras 7called also the fourth1 when the first is reckoned as the third7 is extant in a ,latin1 an ,arabic1 and an ,ethiopic version4 ,the ,greek original has not thus far been found4 ,the ,arabic and ,ethiopic are thought to represent the primitive text more correctly than the ,latin3 as they want the two introductory and closing chapters of the latter1 which are generally admitted to be spurious additions by a later hand2 and contain1 on the contrary1 a long passage after chap4 #g3ce1 which is not found in the ,latin1 and is thought to be genuine4 #g4 ,if we reject the first two and last two chapters of the ,latin version1 which do not belong to the original work1 the remainder of the book has entire unity from beginning to end4 ,it consists of a series of pretended visions vouchsafed to ,ezra through the angel ,uriel in the thirtieth year after the destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,chaldees1 while he mourned over the desolate and distressed condition of the covenant people with fasting and prayer4 ,of these visions1 the first six1 which are preparatory to the last1 pertain mainly to the method of ,god's dealing with men1 the end of the present age1 the introduction of the coming age1 and the glorification of ,zion1 with the heavy judgments of ,god that shall accompany these events4 ,many of these revelations are made through the medium of symbols4 ,in the seventh and last revelation1 a voice addresses ,ezra out of a bush1 as it did ,moses of old4 ,upon his complaining that the law has been burnt1 he is directed to take five ready scribes1 with a promise that the holy writings which are lost shall be restored to his people4 ,the next day the voice calls to him again1 commanding him to open his mouth and drink the cup which is offered to him1 full as it were with water1 but the color of it was like fire4 ,upon this he is filled with the spirit of inspiration1 and dictates to his five scribes in forty days #bjd books 7according to some #id74 ,of these the last #gj are secret1 to be delivered only to such as be wise among the people4 ,the rest are to be published openly1 that the worthy and unworthy may read them4 ,the historic truth underlying this fabulous revelation seems to be the revision of the canon of the ,old ,testament by ,ezra and his associates4 ,chap4 #ae1 ,no4 #ag4 ,it is agreed that this book is the production of a ,jew1 but the date of its composition is a disputed point4 ,some assign it to the first century after ,christ2 others to the century preceding our ,lord's advent1 but with interpolations that manifestly belong to the ,christian era4 ,,ii4 ,,tobit4 #h4 ,the book of ,tobit contains a narrative of the piety1 misfortunes1 and final prosperity of ,tobit1 an ,israelite of the tribe of ,naphtali1 who was among the captives brought to ,assyria by ,enemessar 7,shalmaneser7 king of ,assyria4 ,with ,enemessar he was in favor1 became his purveyor1 and was able to deposit ten talents of silver with ,gabael at ,rages1 a city of ,media4 ,but ,sennacherib1 the successor of ,enemessar1 persecuted him1 especially for his pious care in burying the bodies of his ,jewish brethren whom that king had slain1 and he was obliged to flee with his wife ,anna and his son ,tobias1 leaving all his goods as plunder to the ,assyrian king4 ,under ,sarchedonus 7,esarhaddon7 he returned again to his home1 but soon a new misfortune overtook him4 ,as he lay one night by the wall of his courtyard1 being unclean from the burial of a ,jew whom his son had found strangled in the market-place1 the sparrows muted warm dung into his eyes1 which deprived him of sight4 ,wishing now to send his son ,tobias for the ten talents of silver deposited with ,gabael at ,rages in ,media1 he directs him to seek a guide for the way2 when the angel ,raphael offers himself under the name of ,azarias the son of ,ananias the great1 one of ,tobit's brethren4 ,as the angel and ,tobias journey together1 they come one evening to the river ,tigris4 ,as the young man goes down to the river to bathe1 a fish assaults him2 but by the angel's direction he seizes him1 drags him on shore1 and takes for future use his heart1 liver1 and gall4 ,on their way to ,rages they come to ,ecbatane1 a city of ,media1 where resides ,raguel1 the cousin of ,tobias1 whose only daughter1 ,sara1 has lost seven husbands on the night of their marriage1 through the power of ,asmodeus1 an evil spirit4 ,tobias being her nearest surviving kinsman1 marries her according to the law of ,moses4 ,by the angel's direction1 upon entering the marriage-chamber1 he lays the heart and liver of the fish upon embers4 ,the evil spirit1 at the smell of the smoke1 flees away into the utmost parts of ,egypt1 where the angel binds him4 ,the angel goes to ,rages and brings the ten talents and ,gabael himself to the wedding feast2 the wedded pair return in safety to ,tobit with the silver1 and also the half of ,raguel's goods1 which ,sara receives as her wedding portion4 ,finally ,tobias1 by the angel's direction1 anoints his father's eyes with the gall of the fish2 whereupon he recovers his sight1 and lives in honor and prosperity to a good old age4 ,such is a brief outline of the story1 which is told in an interesting and attractive style4 ,how much historic truth lies at its foundation1 it is impossible to determine4 ,the introduction of the angelic guide may well be regarded as a mythical embellishment4 #i4 ,the book of ,tobit is extant in various texts--,greek1 ,latin1 ,syriac1 and ,hebrew1 the ,hebrew forms being all translations from the ,greek or ,latin4 ,these texts differ in minor details1 but have all sprung directly or indirectly from one original1 which was probably ,hebrew or ,aramaic1 though some maintain that it was ,greek4 ,the book is thoroughly ,jewish in its spirit4 ,the date of its composition is uncertain4 ,the common opinion of biblical scholars is that it was composed about #bej-bjj ,b4,c4 ,in its general scope the book has a resemblance to that of ,job4 ,a good man encounters suffering in the way of piety1 but is finally delivered1 lives in prosperity1 and dies in a good old age4 ,the portraiture which it gives of domestic piety is very pleasing1 and affords an instructive insight into the spirit of the age in which it was written4 ,it gives great prominence to deeds of charity2 but the alms on which it insists so earnestly flow from inward faith and love4 ,in this respect they are distinguished from the dead works of the late ,scribes and ,pharisees4 ,,iii4 ,,judith4 #aj4 ,this book relates the exploit of ,judith1 a ,jewish widow distinguished alike for beauty1 courage1 and devotion to her country4 ,when ,holofernes1 one of ,nebuchadnezzar's generals1 was besieging ,bethulia1 a city of ,judea1 she went over to his camp with her maid in the character of a deserter1 promised to guide him to ,jerusalem1 and by her flattery and artful representations so insinuated herself into his favor that he entertained her with high honor4 ,at last1 being left alone with him at night in his tent1 she beheaded him with his own falchion as he lay asleep and intoxicated1 and going forth gave his head to her maid1 who put it in her bag1 and they two passed the guards in safety under the pretext of going out for prayer1 as had been their nightly custom4 ,the head of ,holofernes was suspended from the wall of the city1 and when the warriors within sallied forth1 the besieging army fled in consternation4 ,judith receives as a reward all the stuff of ,holofernes1 lives at ,bethulia as a widow in high honor1 and dies at the age of one hundred and five4 #aa4 ,the historical and geographical contradictions of this book are too many and grave to allow the supposition that it contains an authentic narrative of facts4 ,it was manifestly written after the return of the ,jews from the ,babylonish captivity and the rebuilding of the city and temple 7chaps4 #d3c2 #e3ah1 #ai71 when the nation was governed1 not by a king1 but by a high priest and ,sanhedrim4 ,chap4 #d3f1 #h2 #ae3h4 ,yet it makes ,nebuchadnezzar1 who reigned in ,babylon long before1 king in ,nineveh in the eighth year of his reign1 whereas his father had destroyed ,nineveh4 ,the attempts that have been made to reconcile these and other inconsistencies with true history are forced and unnatural4 ,whatever historical truth may lie at the basis of the story1 it is so interwoven with fiction that the two elements cannot be separated from each other4 ,it was probably written by a ,palestinian ,jew in ,hebrew or ,aramaic somewhere about the second century before ,christ4 ,the design of the book is to excite the people to faith and courage in their severe conflicts with foreign persecutors2 but its morality is of a very questionable character4 ,judith1 its heroine1 while she adheres with great punctiliousness to the ,mosaic ritual1 does not scruple to employ hypocrisy and falsehood that she may prepare the way for assassination1 being evidently persuaded that in the service of the covenant people the end sanctifies the means4 ,,iv4 ,,additions ,,to ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,esther4 #ab4 ,these are printed by themselves in our ,english version1 and entitled3 ,the rest of the chapters of the ,book of ,esther1 which are found neither in the ,hebrew1 nor in the ,chaldee2 but in the ,septuagint and old ,latin they are dispersed through the canonical book so as to form with it a consistent whole4 ,they profess to supply deficiencies in the canonical ,esther--a dream of ,mordecai with its interpretation2 an account of the conspiracy of the two eunuchs to destroy ,ahasuerus2 a pretended copy of the king's edict for the destruction of the ,jews2 the prayer of ,mordecai and of ,esther in view of this edict2 various details of ,esther's visit to the king2 and the pretended edict of ,artaxerxes 7,ahasuerus7 revoking the former edict1 and giving the ,jews liberty to destroy all who should assault them--into which the name of ,god1 which nowhere appears in the genuine book of ,esther1 is abundantly introduced4 ,the origin of these legends is unknown4 ,v4 ,,the ,,wisdom ,,of ,,solomon4 #ac4 ,the author of this book personages ,solomon1 and speaks in his name1 ,solomon being to the ancient ,jews the representative of all wisdom4 ,keil gives the summary of its contents in three divisions1 as follows2 7#a47 ,the book begins with a forcible exhortation to the rulers of the earth to strive after wisdom as the fountain of righteousness and the guide to immortality and happiness4 ,with this it connects a warning against the folly of unbelieving men who rebel against the law1 oppress the righteous1 and thus bring upon themselves just punishment1 distraction1 and everlasting shame4 ,chaps4 #a-f4 7#b47 ,after the example of ,king ,solomon1 who is introduced as speaking1 the way to obtain wisdom is next pointed out1 and she is described in her nature as the spirit that formed and sustains the world1 and is the author of all that is good1 true1 and great4 ,chaps4 #g-i4 7#c47 ,then follows a long historical discourse 7interrupted in chaps4 #ac-ae by a copious discussion concerning the origin and nature of idolatry71 in which the blessed effects of wisdom and the fear of ,god1 and the unhappy consequences that come from the folly of idolatry are illustrated by the opposite fortunes of the righteous and the wicked of past ages1 especially of the people of ,god as contrasted with the idolatrous ,canaanites and ,egyptians4 ,the different parts of the book constitute a well connected whole4 #ad4 ,the book was originally composed in ,greek by an ,alexandrine ,jew1 who is generally placed by biblical scholars somewhere in the second century before ,christ4 ,though possessing no canonical authority1 it is very interesting and valuable for the view which it gives of the progress of ,jewish thought in both religion and philosophy4 ,this writer is the first who expressly identifies the serpent that deceived ,eve with the devil3 ,through envy of the devil came death into the world4 ,chap4 #b3bd4 ,he teaches also the doctrine of the immortality of the soul and of a future judgment4 ,in a passage of great beauty he personifies ,wisdom1 after the example of the book of ,proverbs1 as the worker of all things1 and the teacher and guide1 of men4 ,she is the breath of the power of ,god1 and a pure efflux from the glory of the ,almighty2 therefore nothing defiled can find entrance into her4 ,for she is the effulgence of the everlasting light1 and the unspotted mirror of the divine might1 and the image of his goodness4 ,and being but one she can do all things2 and remaining in herself unchanged she makes all things new4 ,from age to age entering into holy souls1 she makes them friends of ,god and prophets4 ,chap4 #g3be-bg4 ,but along with this true development of doctrine on the basis of the ,old ,testament he holds the unscriptural doctrine of the preexistence of souls 7chap4 #h3bj71 whether borrowed from the ,platonists1 or taken from some other source4 ,some have thought that he also holds matter to be eternal4 ,but when he speaks of ,god's almighty hand as having created the world out of formless matter 7chap4 #aa3ag71 he may have reference simply to the chaotic state described in ,gen4 #a3b4 ,jerome left the ,latin translation of this book unrevised4 ,the text1 therefore1 of our ,latin ,bibles is that of the ,old ,latin version1 as it existed before his day4 ,,vi4 ,,ecclesiasticus4 #ae4 ,the ,greek title of this book is1 ,the ,wisdom of ,jesus the son of ,sirach1 or more briefly3 ,the ,wisdom of ,sirach4 ,the ,latin title1 ,ecclesiasticus1 that is1 ,ecclesiastical book1 designates it as a book that was read for edification in the churches1 though not included in the ,hebrew canon4 ,we give1 mainly from ,keil1 the summary of its contents3 ,this copious book is rich in its contents1 embracing the whole domain of practical wisdom1 and1 what is inseparable from this1 the fear of ,god4 ,these virtues it describes1 commends1 and inculcates according to their origin and nature1 their characteristics and results1 and their realization in life1 in a rich collection of proverbs1 with rules and counsels for the regulation of life in all its manifold relations4 ,the whole is after the manner of the ,proverbs of ,solomon1 only with much greater particularity of details1 extending to all the spheres of religious1 civil1 and domestic life1 and giving rules of conduct for the regulation of the same4 ,this collection of wise maxims1 moral precepts1 and rules of life constitutes a united whole1 in which the particular proverbs1 counsels1 and warnings are strung together in accordance with an association of ideas that is often quite loose4 ,interwoven with these are a number of connected discussions and prayers4 ,the author closes his instructions with two extended discourses1 in the former of which he celebrates the works of ,god in creation 7chaps4 #db3ae-dc3cc72 in the latter1 the praises of the famous men of ,scripture from ,enoch to ,simon the high priest1 the son of ,onias 7chaps4 #dd-ej74 ,he then adds in the final chapter a thanksgiving and prayer 7chap4 #ea74 ,this book1 like that of ,wisdom1 is of great value for the insight which it gives into the theology and ethics of the ,jews at the time of its composition4 #af4 ,it is undoubtedly genuine1 having been written in ,hebrew by the man whose name it bears1 and translated into ,greek in ,egypt by his grandson1 as stated in the prologue4 ,but the age of the translator1 and consequently of the author1 is a matter of dispute4 ,the last of the worthies described by him is ,simon1 the son of ,onias1 the high priest4 ,there were two high priests of this name1 both sons of ,onias1 but the author's eulogy is applicable only to the former1 who flourished about #caj-bij ,b4,c4 ,it is a natural inference that ,jesus1 the son of ,sirach1 wrote not many years afterwards4 ,the translator1 again1 speaks of himself as coming into ,egypt in the eight and thirtieth year1 when ,euergetes was king4 ,does he mean the eight and thirtieth year of his own life1 or of ,euergetes' reign8 ,if the latter1 then of the two kings that bore the surname ,euergetes the latter only 7,b4,c4 #agj-aag7 can be understood1 since the former reigned only twenty-five years4 ,if the former1 as is most probable1 then we naturally understand ,euergetes ,i41 who reigned ,b4,c4 #bag-bbb1 during which period the translation must have been executed4 ,the ,greek text1 as exhibited in manuscripts1 is in a very corrupt and confused state1 with many variations and transpositions4 ,the ,latin text is that of the ,old ,latin1 which ,jerome left1 as he did that of the book of ,wisdom1 without revision4 ,,vii4 ,,baruch ,,and ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,jeremiah4 #ag4 ,this is the only apocryphal book which assumes the character of prophecy4 ,it is formed after the model of ,jeremiah1 and ascribed to ,baruch his friend4 ,but its spuriousness is generally admitted4 ,besides historical inaccuracies1 such as are not conceivable in the case of ,baruch1 the fact that its author employed the ,septuagint translation of ,jeremiah and ,daniel mark it as of a later date4 ,keil assigns it to about the middle of the second century ,b4,c4 ,the book professes to be a letter written by ,baruch in the name of the captive ,jews in ,babylon to their brethren at ,jerusalem1 and consists of two well-marked divisions1 the first of which1 extending to chap4 #c3h1 is1 in the opinion of some1 a translation from an original ,hebrew document4 ,this part contains1 after an introductory notice1 a confession of sin with prayer for deliverance4 ,the second part begins with an address to the covenant people1 in which they are rebuked for neglecting the teachings of divine wisdom1 and encouraged with the hope of returning prosperity when they shall obey her voice4 ,chaps4 #c3i-d3h4 ,zion is then introduced lamenting over the desolations which ,god has brought upon her and her children 7chap4 #d3i-d3bi71 and afterwards comforting them with the hope of certain deliverance and enlargement 7chaps4 #d3cj-e3i74 ,it is generally agreed that the second part was originally written in ,greek1 and some think that the same is true of the first part also4 #ah4 ,there is another ,epistle of ,baruch preserved to us in the ,syriac1 which is inserted in the ,london and ,paris ,polyglotts4 ,it is addressed to the nine and a half tribes1 and made up of commonplaces of warning1 encouragement1 and exhortation4 ,smith's ,bib4 ,dict41 ,art4 ,baruch4 #ai4 ,there is a spurious ,epistle of ,jeremiah which appears in the ,vulgate and our ,english version as the sixth chapter of ,baruch4 ,it is entitled3 ,copy of an epistle which ,jeremiah sent to those who were to be led captives into ,babylon by the king of the ,babylonians to make announcement to them1 as it was commanded him by ,god4 ,it purports to be a warning to these captives against the idolatrous practices which they shall witness in ,babylon1 and is made up of a long discourse on the impotence of the idols which the heathen worship1 written in a rhetorical style1 in imitation of ,jer4 #aj3a-af4 ,its author is supposed to have been a ,hellenistic ,jew who lived towards the end of the ,maccabean period4 ,,viii4 ,,additions ,,to ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,daniel4 #bj4 ,the ,greek version of the book of ,daniel1 besides many departures from the ,hebrew and ,chaldee original1 contains three large additions4 ,the first of these is3 ,the ,prayer of ,azarias1 and the ,song of the ,three ,children in the ,fiery ,furnace1 which is appended to the third chapter4 ,the second is3 ,the ,history of ,susanna1 who is exhibited as a pattern of chastity1 and was delivered from the machinations of her enemies through the wisdom of ,daniel4 ,this is placed sometimes before the first chapter of ,daniel1 and sometimes after chapter #ab4 ,the third addition is3 ,the ,story of ,bel and the ,dragon1 which stands at the end of the book1 and is falsely ascribed in the ,septuagint to the prophet ,habakkuk4 ,its design is to show the folly of idolatry4 ,according to ,keil1 these three pieces were composed in ,egypt towards the end of the third1 or the beginning of the second century before ,christ4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,prayer ,,of ,,manasses4 #ba4 ,a genuine prayer of ,manasseh1 king of ,judah1 existed at the time when the books of ,chronicles were composed4 #b ,chron4 #cc3ah1 #ai4 ,but the existing prayer of the ,apocrypha1 though upon the whole beautiful and appropriate1 cannot claim to be a true representative of that prayer4 ,the author1 says ,keil1 was a pious ,jew who lived at all events before ,christ1 though his age cannot be more accurately determined4 ,x4 ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,maccabees4 #bb4 ,these are five in number4 ,the first two passed from the ,greek into the early ,latin versions1 and thence into the ,vulgate and the ,english versions1 and were received as canonical by the ,council of ,trent4 ,two others are found in some manuscripts of the ,septuagint4 ,the fifth exists only in ,arabic4 ,if the historic order were observed1 the so-called third book would come first1 the fourth would be an appendix to the second1 which would retain its place1 and the first would come last2 but it will be more convenient to examine the books in the order in which they are found in the ,,mss41 which was probably decided by some vague tradition of their relative antiquity4 ,smith's ,bible ,dict41 ,art4 ,maccabees4 ,the name ,maccabees is applied to the family and posterity of the illustrious ,jewish priest ,mattathias1 who maintained a long and successful struggle with the ,syrian kings1 and finally succeeded in establishing for a period the independence of the ,jews4 ,the origin of the term has been variously explained2 but the most common account of it is1 that it comes from a ,hebrew word signifying hammer1 so that the adjective ,maccabee 7,greek ,greek3 ,makkabaios7 will denote ,hammerer4 ,according to ,josephus 7,antiq4 #ab1 #f1 #a7 ,mattathias was descended from one ,asmonaeus3 ,hence the family of the ,maccabees are also called ,asmoneans4 #bc4 ,the first book of the ,maccabees4 ,this is one of the most important of all the apocryphal books4 ,it contains a narrative of the long and bloody struggle of the ,jews1 under their ,maccabean leaders1 for the preservation of their religion1 and the deliverance of the nation from the yoke of their ,syrian oppressors4 ,the history bears the internal marks of authenticity and credibility1 being distinguished by simplicity and candor4 ,it is only when speaking of foreign nations that the writer falls into some inaccuracies4 ,these do not detract from his trustworthiness in relating the affairs of his own nation through a period of forty years of the most eventful character 7,b4,c4 #age-ace74 ,the book is pervaded throughout by the ,jewish spirit1 and must have been written by a ,palestinian ,jew4 ,its date is uncertain1 but may probably be placed somewhere during the government of the high priest ,john ,hyrcanus 7,b4,c4 #ace-ajf74 ,according to the testimony of ,origen1 the book was originally written in ,hebrew4 ,with this agrees its internal character2 for the ,greek version of it contains many ,hebraisms1 as well as difficulties which are readily accounted for upon the supposition of a ,hebrew original4 #ba4 ,the second book of ,maccabees4 ,this book opens with two letters purporting to have been written by the ,jews of ,palestine to their brethren in ,egypt1 in which the former invite the latter to join with them in the celebration of the feast of tabernacles in the month ,caslen1 that is1 the feast of dedication established to commemorate the purification of the temple after its pollution by ,antiochus ,epiphanes4 ,to the latter of these is appended an epitome of the five books of ,jason of ,cyrene1 containing the history of the ,maccabean struggle1 beginning with ,heliodorus' attempt to plunder the temple1 about ,b4,c4 #ahj1 and ending with the victory of ,judas ,maccabeus over ,nicanor1 ,b4,c4 #afa4 ,both of the letters are regarded as spurious4 ,the second of them abounds in marvellous legends--how1 upon the destruction of the first temple1 the sacred fire of the altar was hid in a hollow pit without water2 how1 at the close of the captivity1 it was found in the form of thick water1 which being by the command of ,nehemiah sprinkled on the wood of the altar and the sacrifices1 there was kindled1 when the sun shone upon it1 a great fire1 so that all men marvelled2 how ,jeremiah1 at ,god's command1 carried the tabernacle1 the ark1 and the altar of incense to the mountain which ,moses ascended and saw the heritage of ,god1 that is1 mount ,nebo 7,deut4 #cd3a71 and hid them there in a hollow cave1 where they are to remain until the time that ,god shall gather his people together again1 and be gracious to them4 ,the epitome of ,jason's history begins some five years earlier than the history contained in the first book1 and covers a period of about nineteen years2 so that it is partly anterior to that history1 partly supplementary1 and partly parallel4 ,alexander's ,kitto1 ,art4 ,maccabees4 ,the two books are entirely independent in their sources of information2 and although the second cannot lay claim to the same degree of trustworthiness as the first1 yet the general judgment of biblical scholars is that it is1 in its main facts1 authentic4 ,but these are set forth with embellishments and exaggerations1 in which the author manifests his love for the marvellous4 ,where the history of the two books is parallel1 it agrees in its general outlines1 but the details are almost always different1 and sometimes they present irreconcilable discrepancies4 ,in its religious aspect this book is very interesting4 ,in the account of the martyrdom of a mother and her seven sons for their refusal to eat swine's flesh 7chap4 #g7 the doctrine of the resurrection is plainly announced3 ,it is a thing to be desired1 says the fourth son to the king ,antiochus1 that one being put to death by men should wait for the hope of ,god that he shall be again raised up by him2 but for thee there is no resurrection unto life 7v4 #ad74 ,where ,jason composed his work cannot be determined4 ,he cannot have lived long after the events which he describes1 else he would have taken notice of the important events that followed4 ,the author of the epitome contained in this book is believed to have been a ,hellenistic ,jew living in ,palestine1 who probably wrote in the first century before ,christ4 #be4 ,the third book of ,maccabees4 ,this book does not belong to the ,maccabean age1 but to the earlier time of ,ptolemy ,philopator 7,b4,c4 #bba-bjd74 ,its title seems to have come simply from the similarity of its contents4 ,it relates in a pompous and oratorical style how ,ptolemy ,philopator1 being enraged at his failure to enter the sanctuary at ,jerusalem1 determined to wreak his vengeance on the ,jews in ,egypt1 and assembled them for this purpose in the circus1 that they might be trampled under foot by drunken elephants1 but was hindered by the miraculous interposition of ,god2 whereupon the king liberated the ,jews1 prepared for them a sumptuous feast1 and gave them permission to take vengeance on their apostate countrymen4 ,the narrative probably has a groundwork of truth with legendary embellishments1 after the manner of the later ,jews4 ,its author is believed to have been an ,alexandrine ,jew1 but his age cannot be determined4 ,it was never admitted into the ,romish canon4 #bf4 ,the fourth book of ,maccabees opens with a philosophical discussion respecting the supremacy of devout reason over the passions1 which is then illustrated by the history of the martyrdom of ,eleazar and the mother with her seven sons1 an account of which we have in #b ,macc41 chaps4 #f and #g4 ,the author of this book was a ,jew imbued with the spirit of the stoical philosophy4 ,it has been falsely ascribed to ,josephus4 #bg4 ,the fifth book of ,maccabees exists only in ,arabic4 ,we draw our notice of it from ,alexander's ,kitto1 according to which it contains the history of the ,jews from ,heliodorus' attempt to plunder the treasury at ,jerusalem till the time when ,herod revelled in the noblest blood of the ,jews2 that is1 from #ahd-hf ,b4,c41 thus embracing a period of #ih years4 ,the book is a compilation made in ,hebrew1 by a ,jew who lived after the destruction of ,jerusalem1 from ancient ,hebrew memoirs or chronicles1 which were written shortly after the events transpired4 ,in the absence of the original ,hebrew1 the ,arabic versions of it1 printed in the ,paris and ,london ,polyglotts1 give the text upon which we must rely4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,,first ,,division1 ,,general ,,introduction4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,language ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament4 #a4 ,in the character of the original languages of the ,bible1 as in every thing else pertaining to the plan of redemption1 ,god's hand is to be reverently acknowledged4 ,it was not by chance1 but through the provident care of ,him who sees the end from the beginning1 that the writers of the ,old ,testament found the ,hebrew1 and those of the ,new ,testament the ,greek language ready at hand1 each of them so singularly adapted to the high office assigned to it4 ,the stately majesty1 the noble simplicity1 and the graphic vividness of the ,hebrew fitted it admirably for the historical portions of the ,old ,testament1 in which1 under the illumination of the ,holy ,spirit1 the direct intuition of ,god's purposes and of the deep springs of human action superseded the necessity of philosophical argument and deduction4 ,the historians of the ,old ,testament did not pause to argue concerning their statements of men's motives and ,god's designs4 ,they saw both with wonderful clearness of vision2 and they found in the simplicity and directness of the ,hebrew syntax1 so far removed from all that is involved and complex1 a suitable vehicle for their simple and direct statements of truth4 ,how congenial the ,hebrew language is to poetic composition1 as well in its rugged and sublime forms as in its tender and pathetic strains1 every reader of the ,old ,testament in the original understands4 ,the soul is not more at home in the body than is sacred poetry in the language of the covenant people4 ,as the living spirit of the cherubim animated and directed the wheels of the chariot in ,ezekiel's vision1 so does the spirit of inspired poesy animate and direct the words and sentences of the ,hebrew language3 ,when the cherubim went1 the wheels went by them2 and when the cherubim lifted up their wings to mount up from the earth1 the same wheels also turned not from beside them4 ,when they stood1 these stood2 and when they were lifted up1 these lifted up themselves also3 for the spirit of the living creatures was in them4 ,ezek4 #aj3af1 #ag4 ,the same characteristics fitted the ,hebrew language most perfectly for prophetic vision1 in which the poetic element so largely prevails4 #b4 ,turning now from the ,hebrew of the ,old ,testament to the ,greek of the ,new1 we have a language very different in its structure2 elaborate in its inflections and syntax1 delicate and subtle in its distinctions1 rich in its vocabulary1 highly cultivated in every department of writing1 and flexible in an eminent degree2 being thus equally adapted to every variety of style--plain unadorned narrative1 impassioned oratory1 poetry of every form1 philosophical discussion1 and severe logical reasoning3 in a word1 a language every way fitted to the wants of the gospel1 which is given not for the infancy of the world but for its mature age1 and which deals not so much with the details of particulars as with great principles1 which require for their full comprehension the capacity of abstraction and generalization4 ,in the historical records of the ,old ,testament1 and in its poetic and prophetic parts1 the ,hebrew language was altogether at home4 ,but for such compositions as the epistle to the ,romans the ,greek offered a more perfect medium2 and here1 as everywhere else ,god's providence took care that the founders of the ,christian church should be furnished in the most complete manner4 #c4 ,we find1 accordingly1 that centuries before our ,lord's advent1 preparation began to be made in the providence of ,god for this change in the language of the inspired writings4 ,one result of the ,babylonish captivity was that ,hebrew ceased to be the vernacular of the masses of the people1 and a form of ,aramaean took its place4 ,chap4 #ad1 ,no4 #d4 ,after the return of the ,jews from this same captivity and their reestablishment in their own land1 the spirit of prophecy was also withdrawn1 and the canon of the ,old ,testament brought to a close4 ,thus the cessation of ,hebrew as the spoken language of the people1 and the withdrawal of the spirit of prophecy were contemporaneous events4 ,the canon was locked up in the sacred language1 and the interpreter took the place of the prophet4 ,the providential change of language suggested a general limit within which the voice of inspiration might be heard1 as the fearful chastisements of the captivity turned men's minds to the old ,scriptures with a devotion unknown before4 ,westcott's ,introduc4 to the ,study of the ,gospels1 chap4 #a4 #d4 ,but the conquests of ,alexander the ,great 7,b4,c4 #ccd-cbc7 brought the ,greek language and the ,greek civilization into ,asia and ,egypt1 as a sure leaven destined to leaven the whole mass4 ,to this influence the ,jews could not remain insensible4 ,it reached even ,palestine1 where they naturally clung most tenaciously to the ,aramaean language and to the customs of their fathers4 ,but out of ,palestine1 where the ,jews were dispersed in immense numbers1 it operated more immediately2 especially in ,egypt1 whose metropolis ,alexandria was1 after the age of ,alexander its founder1 one of the chief seats of ,grecian learning4 ,to the ,jews of ,alexandria the ,greek language was vernacular4 ,by them was executed1 as we have seen1 under the patronage of the ,egyptian king1 the first version ever made of the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 namely1 that called the ,septuagint 7,chap4 #af1 ,nos4 #a-g71 which was begun1 if not completed1 in the latter part of the third century before ,christ4 ,though this version encountered bitter opposition on the part of the unbelieving ,jews after the establishment of the ,christian church1 in consequence of the effective use made of it against them by ,christian writers1 it was received from its first appearance and onward with general favor4 ,the ,hellenistic ,jews--those using the ,greek language and conforming themselves to ,grecian civilization--made constant use of it1 and the knowledge of it was very widely diffused beyond the boundaries of ,egypt4 ,in our ,saviour's day it was in very general use1 as the abundant quotations from it in the ,new ,testament show2 and it must have contributed largely to the spread of the knowledge of the ,greek language among the ,jewish people in and out of ,palestine4 ,though the ,roman empire succeeded to that of the ,greeks1 the ,roman could not supplant the more polished ,greek tongue1 with its immense and varied literature4 ,on the contrary1 the ,greek language penetrated into ,italy1 and especially into ,rome1 the metropolis of the civilized world1 where1 in our ,saviour's day1 ,greek literature was in high repute1 and the ,greek language was very generally understood4 ,thus1 in the good providence of ,god1 the writers of the ,new ,testament1 also1 found ready at hand a language singularly adapted to their service4 ,biblical scholars have noticed the significant fact that of the long list of names in the sixteenth chapter of ,romans1 the greater number belongs to the ,greek language1 not to the ,latin4 ,the flexibility of the ,greek language gained for it in ancient time a general currency similar to that which ,french enjoys in modern ,europe2 but with this important difference1 that ,greek was not only the language of educated men1 but also the language of the masses in the great centres of commerce4 ,westcott in ,smith's ,bible ,dict41 ,art4 ,hellenist4 #e4 ,respecting the character of the ,new ,testament ,greek there was in former times much controversy1 often accompanied with unnecessary heat and bitterness4 ,one class of writers seemed to think that the honor of the ,new ,testament was involved in their ability to show the classic purity and elegance of its style2 as if1 forsooth1 the ,spirit of inspiration could only address men through the medium of language conformed to the classic standard of propriety4 ,another class went to the opposite extreme1 speaking in exaggerated terms of the ,hebraisms and solecisms of the ,new ,testament writers4 ,the truth lies between these extremes4 ,the style of the ,new ,testament is neither classical nor barbarous4 ,its characteristics are strictly conformable to the history of its origin4 7#a47 ,its basis is not the ,greek of ,plato and ,xenophon1 but the so-called ,hellenic or common dialect which arose in the age of ,alexander the ,great1 when the previously distinct dialects1 spoken by the various sections of the ,hellenic nation1 were blended into a popular spoken language4 ,winer1 ,gram1 of the ,new ,test41 sec4 #b4 ,the ,alexandrine ,jews doubtless learned it not so much from books as from the daily intercourse of life1 and it probably had its provincial peculiarities in ,alexandria and the adjacent region4 7#b47 ,in ,jewish usage this common ,greek dialect received an ,hebraic coloring from the constant use of the ,septuagint version1 which is a literal rendering of the ,hebrew ,scriptures into ,greek1 of course with the retention of many ,hebrew idioms4 ,only such thorough ,greek scholars as ,josephus and ,philo could rise above this influence4 ,the ,new ,testament writers manifest its power in different degrees2 for1 as it respects ,hebraisms1 they do not by any means stand on a common level4 7#c47 ,as the ,aramaic--the so-called ,syro-,chaldaic--was the language of the mass of the people1 the style of the ,new ,testament writers received a tinge from this also4 7#d47 ,more than all1 the style of the ,new ,testament receives a peculiar impress from the fact that the authors were ,jews writing under the full influence of a ,jewish education and a ,jewish faith1 with the superadded element of ,christianity4 ,it is the phenomenon of the spirit and thoughts of ,jewish ,christians embodied in the language of ,greece2 and this at once separates the writings of the ,new ,testament by a wide interval from all purely classic compositions4 ,the apostolic writers imposed on the ,greek language an arduous task1 that of expressing ideas foreign to the conceptions of the most cultivated among the pagan authors2 ideas partly common to the old ,jewish and the ,christian religions1 partly peculiar to ,christianity4 ,this could only be done by giving to existing terms a new and higher meaning1 whereby they assumed a technical character wholly unknown to the classic writers4 ,compare particularly the words3 works 7to work1 ,rom4 #d3d71 faith1 to believe in ,christ1 or to believe absolutely1 confession1 righteousness1 to be justified1 to be chosen1 the called1 the chosen1 the saints 7for ,christians71 edification and to edify in a figurative sense1 apostle1 to publish the good tidings and to publish absolutely for ,christian preaching1 the adoption of baptisma1 baptism1 for ,christian baptism1 perhaps to break bread for the holy repast 7the ,agape with the communion71 the world1 the flesh1 fleshly1 in the known theological sense1 etc4 ,winer's ,gram1 of the ,new ,test41 sec4 #c4 #f4 ,from all the abovenamed causes the language of the ,new ,testament received a form differing widely from the classic style1 but admirably adapted to the high office assigned to it4 ,to those who study the ,new ,testament in the original1 the peculiarities of its language offer a wide and interesting field of inquiry4 ,but for the common reader the above hints will be sufficient4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,external ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament4 #a4 ,the writings of the ,new ,testament fall into three main divisions2 the historical1 the epistolary1 and the prophetical1 the latter including only the ,apocalypse4 ,this distinction is not to be understood in an absolute sense2 since1 as every reader knows1 there are prophetical passages in the historical books1 and both historical and prophetical in the epistles2 but it gives with accuracy the general character of each division4 ,in outward form the ,apocalypse is epistolary1 being addressed1 with the apostolic greeting1 to the seven churches of ,asia1 and containing messages to each4 ,but its contents1 after the first three chapters1 are so wholly prophetical1 that it is entitled to stand by itself in any general division4 #b4 ,the order of these main divisions is natural and appropriate4 ,the gospel1 as was remarked at the outset 7,chap4 #a1 ,no4 #a71 is not a mere system of philosophy or ethics1 but rests on a basis of historic facts4 ,on these its whole system of doctrines and duties is built2 so that to destroy the foundation would be to destroy the superstructure also4 ,it is suitable1 therefore1 that the record of the facts should hold the first place4 ,the apostolic epistles1 which unfold the doctrines and duties involved in the gospel1 and make a practical application of them to all the manifold relations of life1 naturally follow the historic record4 ,the mighty system of prophecies contained in the book of ,revelation1 which stretches over the whole future history of the church to the end of time1 forms an appropriate close to the entire collection of writings4 #c4 ,equally appropriate is the order of the two subdivisions of the historic part--first1 the four ,gospels1 containing the history of our ,lord's life2 secondly1 the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,in the general arrangement of the epistles1 the thirteen which bear the name of ,paul stand first in order4 ,the seven so-called catholic epistles occupy the last place4 ,intermediate between these two subdivisions stands the epistle to the ,hebrews1 which is anonymous1 though generally ascribed to ,paul4 ,the epistles which bear the name of ,paul fall into two groups--nine addressed to ,christian churches1 which occupy the first place2 then four to particular persons4 ,of these last1 the first three1 being addressed to ,timothy and ,titus1 the apostle's companions in travel and in the gospel ministry1 are appropriately named from their contents the pastoral epistles4 ,the letter to ,philemon1 a private member of the church in ,colosse1 naturally stands last of all4 ,we add from ,bleek 7,introduc4 to ,new ,test41 secs4 #ah and #bed7 the following additional notices3 ,the present order of the ,gospels is very ancient4 ,only in some manuscripts of the ,old ,latin version1 in one ,greco-,latin manuscript 7the so-called ,codex ,bezae or ,cambridge ,codex71 and in the manuscript of the ,gothic version1 the two apostles ,matthew and ,john stand first2 then the two companions of apostles1 ,luke and ,mark1 or sometimes ,mark and ,luke4 ,in the very ancient ,curetonian-,syrian manuscript the order is ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,john1 ,luke4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles stand in some manuscripts after the ,pauline or after the catholic epistles4 ,in the oldest ,greek manuscripts1 and generally in the greatest number of ,greek manuscripts which contain the whole ,new ,testament1 the catholic epistles stand before the ,pauline2 an arrangement which some modern editors1 as ,lachmann and ,tischendorf1 have followed4 ,in many manuscripts1 the oldest ,greek included1 the epistle to the ,hebrews stands after #b ,thessalonians1 immediately before the pastoral epistles4 ,luther placed together1 at the end of his version1 the epistles to the ,hebrews1 the epistles of ,james and ,jude1 and the ,apocalypse4 ,but this arrangement rested on no authority of manuscripts4 ,it was only an expression of his private judgment respecting their canonical authority1 which he placed below that of the other books of the ,new ,testament4 #d4 ,we have seen 7,chap4 #ac1 ,no4 #d7 that in the arrangement of the books of the ,old ,testament1 the order of time is followed only very partially4 ,the same is true respecting the order of books in the ,new ,testament1 a fact which the biblical student ought always to bear in mind4 ,if we look to the several divisions and subdivisions of the ,new ,testament writings1 it is obvious that the arrangement is not chronological4 ,it is generally admitted that the ,gospel according to ,john was written after the death of ,peter and ,paul2 consequently1 after the ,acts of the ,apostles 7which were written during the life of ,paul1 ,chap4 #e1 ,no4 #e71 after all the ,pauline epistles1 and probably after all the ,catholic epistles except those which are ascribed to ,john himself4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles1 again1 are of later date than several of ,paul's epistles4 ,finally1 neither the ,pauline nor the catholic epistles are arranged in chronological order4 ,see below1 ,chap4 #cj1 ,no4 #f4 ,the intelligent student of the ,new ,testament will avail himself of all the means at his command to ascertain the date1 proximately at least1 of each particular book2 that he may thus connect it with the development of ,christianity in the threefold line of doctrine1 practice1 and polity4 #e4 ,the present distinction of large letters 7capitals7 and small did not come into use before the ninth century4 ,in conformity with ancient usage1 the manuscripts executed before this period are written in large disconnected letters 7the so-called uncial71 without any marks of interpunction1 or even division of words4 ,this is called the continuous writing 7scriptio continua71 in which it is left to the reader's discretion to make the necessary division of words and sentences2 as if the beginning of the ,gospel according to ,john were written thus in ,latin and ,english3 ,latin4 ,english4 ,,inprincipioeratverbumet ,,inthebeginningwasthewordand ,,verbumeratapuddeumetdeuse ,,thewordwaswithgodandgodw ,,ratverbumhoceratinprincipi ,,asthewordthesamewasinthebegin ,,oapuddeumomniaperipsumfa ,,ningwithgodallthingsbyhimwerema ,writers before our ,saviour's time do indeed speak of signs of interpunction2 but they seem to have been in use only in the grammatical schools1 and with a limited application to certain doubtful passages in the ancient writers4 ,that they were unknown in the older manuscripts of the ,new ,testament is evident from the discussions that arose among the church fathers respecting the right division of certain passages1 in which they never appeal to the authority of manuscripts1 but argue solely from the nature of the connection4 ,the reader may see a collection of examples in ,hug's ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 ,sec4 #dc1 where are also some curious examples of the wrong division of words4 #f4 ,to obviate the inconvenience of this continuous mode of writing1 there was introduced1 about the middle of the fifth century1 what is called the stichometrical mode 7,greek stichos1 a row or line1 and metron1 a measure74 ,this consisted in arranging in a single line only so many words as could be read1 consistently with the sense1 at a single inspiration4 ,the invention of stichometry has been generally ascribed to ,euthalius1 a deacon in ,alexandria1 who1 in the year #deh1 set forth a copy of ,paul's epistles stichometrically arranged2 but ,tregelles is inclined to the opinion that he borrowed the system from an earlier writer1 ,pamphilus the martyr4 ,however this may be1 the original conception doubtless came from the stichometry of ,hebrew poetry4 ,hug 7,sec4 #dd7 and ,tregelles 7,horne's ,introduct41 vol4 #d1 chap4 #d7 give an example in ,greek from a fragment of the ,pauline epistles4 ,this example 7,titus #b3b1 #c71 when literally translated into ,english according to the ,greek order of words1 reads as follows3 ,,theagedmentobesober ,,grave ,,soberminded ,,soundinthefaith ,,inlove ,,inpatience ,,theagedwomenlikewise ,,inbehaviorasbecomesholywomen ,,notslanderers ,,notgiventomuchwine ,,teachersofgoodthings ,though the design of stichometry was not interpunction according to the connection of thought1 yet it seems to have led to this result4 ,the expensiveness of this mode of writing1 owing to the waste of parchment1 naturally suggested the idea of separating the lines by a simple point1 thus3 ,,theagedmentobesober4 ,,grave4 ,,soberminded4 ,,soundinthefaith4 ,,inlove4 ,,inpatience4 ,,theaged ,,womenlikewise4 ,,inbehavioras ,,becomethholywomen4 ,,notslan ,,derers4 ,,notgiventomuchwine4 ,,teachersofgoodthings4 ,as these divisions were mainly rhythmical1 and often broke the true connection of thought1 men sought to introduce a more logical system of interpunction4 ,thus was laid the foundation of our present system2 which1 however1 was not perfected till after the invention of the art of printing4 ,in the opinion of some1 the use of the dot1 at least to some extent1 was earlier than stichometry4 ,from the eighth or ninth century punctuation in manuscripts became more common and systematic4 ,in cursive manuscripts--those that employ the running hand with large and small letters and the separation of the words1 a style of writing that became the common one from the ninth century and onward--punctuation also prevails1 though not according to any one established system4 ,tregelles1 ubi sup4 ,various other particulars interesting to those who study the ,greek text in the original1 as those relating to the accents1 the smooth and rough breathing1 and the iota subscript1 are here omitted4 #g4 ,we come next to consider the ancient divisions made in the contents of the sacred text4 ,chapters are very early mentioned1 as by ,tertullian and ,dionysius of ,alexandria4 ,but it is uncertain whether any thing more is meant than parts or sections of given contents4 ,the earliest formal division of the four gospels that has come down to us consists of the ,ammonian sections 7,greek kephalaia1 heads or chapters71 so named from ,ammonius of ,alexandria1 who1 about the middle of the third century1 prepared a harmony of the four gospels--the ,gospel by four1 as ,eusebius calls it4 ,his plan was1 to arrange in the order of ,matthew the parallel passages side by side1 interpolating those that were wanting in ,matthew4 ,to this end1 he divided each of the gospels into sections the length of which was very various1 being wholly determined by the parallelisms of the other gospels4 ,of these sections ,matthew contained #cee2 ,mark1 #bcd 7in ,wordsworth's ,greek ,testament1 #bcf are given72 ,luke1 #cdb2 ,john1 #bca 7in ,wordsworth's ,greek ,testament1 #bcb74 ,the infelicity of this arrangement was that1 with the exception of the first gospel1 the true order of the evangelists was broken up--,the train of sequence of the three was destroyed in respect to the orderly course of reading1 as ,eusebius says 7,letter to ,carpianus1 given in ,wordsworth's ,greek ,testament74 ,to remedy this evil1 ,eusebius1 bishop of ,caesarea1 in the following century connected with these ,ammonian sections his ten canons4 ,these are ten tables1 arranged according to the order of ,matthew1 or where sections are wanting in ,matthew1 according to the order of the next evangelist that contains them1 in such a way as to show at a glance what sections of the other evangelists answer to any given section of that gospel which stands first in order in each canon4 ,numbering the four gospels in order--#a1 #b1 #c1 #d--the ten canons of ,eusebius contain as follows3 ,i4 ,sections common to #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,,ii4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,,iii4 #a1 #c1 #d4 ,,iv4 #a1 #b1 #d4 ,v4 #a1 #c4 ,,vi4 #a1 #b4 ,,vii4 #a1 #d4 ,,viii4 #b1 #c4 ,,ix4 #c1 #d4 ,x4 ,sections peculiar to one4 ,a couple of examples will make this matter plain4 ,turning to what is now the beginning of the thirteenth chapter of ,matthew1 we find 7the ,greek numerals being exchanged for those in common use7 the sign #aca_/;,,ii that is1 the #acast ,ammonian section of ,matthew with the second canon of ,eusebius4 ,turning to the table of the second canon1 we find1 corresponding to the #acast section of ,matthew1 the #cfth of ,mark and the #gfth of ,luke1 which contain the parallel passages concerning the sower4 ,again1 connected with ,mark #a3bc1 is the sign1 #ad_/,,viii whence we learn1 by reference to the eighth canon1 that the fourteenth section of ,mark answers to the #beth of ,luke4 ,by a repetition of the canons as often as necessary1 so as to allow each gospel in turn to take the lead1 ,wordsworth has greatly facilitated the work of comparing parallel passages4 ,the ,codex ,vaticanus ,b1 contains a distribution into sections wholly peculiar4 ,of these1 ,st4 ,matthew contains #agj1 ,st4 ,mark #fa1 etc4 ,the length of these divisions is very unequal2 the sense being the reason of the breaks occurring when they do4 ,in the gospels1 at least1 the sections are perhaps the best that were ever devised2 and this system of capitulary division is probably the earliest of which we have the means of knowing any thing4 ,horne's ,introduction1 vol4 #d1 chap4 #d1 revised edition1 #ahfj4 #h4 ,different from the ,ammonian-,eusebian sections1 and later in their origin1 are the divisions of the gospels called titles1 because each of them received a title from one of the first or principal subjects mentioned in it4 ,they are thought to have been connected with the public reading of the gospels4 ,of these1 ,matthew contains #fh2 ,mark1 #dh2 ,luke1 #hc2 ,john1 #ah4 ,they are1 therefore1 larger than the ,ammonian sections1 and resemble more nearly our modern chapters4 ,these titles are called by the ,latins briefs 7breves71 and the tables of their contents breviaries 7breviaria74 ,they did not come into common use before the fifth century1 and are commonly annexed to manuscripts along with the ,ammonian-,eusebian sections4 ,but they are the only divisions known to some of the church fathers1 as ,euthymius and ,theophylact4 #i4 ,the divisions of the other books of the ,new ,testament are thought to be of later origin4 ,euthalius introduced into a copy1 which he sent to ,athanasius the younger1 divisions called chapters4 ,he has sometimes been considered the author of those in the ,acts and catholic epistles2 but he probably took them from an older source4 ,those in the ,pauline epistles he expressly ascribed to one of the wisest and most ,christ-loving of our fathers4 ,he also gave headings to the chapters1 descriptive of their contents1 but collected from previous sources4 ,the ,apocalypse was divided into twenty-four larger sections and seventy-two smaller--a work ascribed to ,andreas of ,caesarea in ,cappadocia4 ,tregelles1 in ,horne's ,introduction1 vol4 #d1 chap4 #d4 #aj4 ,our present division of chapters was made in the thirteenth century1 by ,cardinal ,hugo1 from whom proceeded also that in the ,old ,testament4 ,it was first introduced into the ,latin copies1 and afterwards into the ,greek4 ,our present division of verses was made by ,robert ,stephens1 in #aeea4 ,it was preceded by some earlier divisions1 as that of ,pagninus1 in which the verses were longer than those of ,stephens4 ,distinct from all the above divisions are the church-lessons1 made very early1 in imitation of the ,jewish ,haphtaroth1 or sections from the prophets4 ,chap4 #ac1 ,no4 #f4 ,the beginning of these seems to have been in special selections for the church festivals4 ,but the usage was afterwards extended so as to include selections for all the ,sabbaths and feast-days of the year4 ,hence from the fifth century and onward the whole ,new ,testament was no longer publicly read1 as in the primitive days of ,christianity1 according to the free judgment of those who conducted the church-services2 but these selected sections 7pericopae74 ,collections of these lessons were called by the general name of lectionaries 7lectionaria74 ,those from the gospels or ,acts and epistles received special names indicative of their contents4 ,see ,bleek1 ,sec4 #bfe2 ,horne's ,introduction1 vol4 #d1 chap4 #d1 end4 #aa4 ,from the above brief survey1 it is manifest that none of the external divisions of the sacred text rest on any divine authority4 ,they are the work of uninspired men1 and are to be treated accordingly4 ,for convenience of reference1 a division of the ,scriptures into chapters and verses is indispensable2 and we may well rest contented with that which now prevails1 though it cannot claim perfection4 ,but in the interpretation of the inspired word we must go behind human divisions1 carefully inquiring after the true connection of thought1 according to the acknowledged laws of interpretation4 ,to give one example out of many1 we must not infer that the last verse of the eleventh chapter of the book of ,revelation belongs to the preceding and not the following context1 because of its separation from the latter in the division of chapters2 but we must determine its true connection independently of this division4 ,a very good arrangement is that of ,paragraph ,bibles1 in which the distinctions of chapter and verse are thrown into the margin1 the text being broken into longer or shorter sections according to the true course of thought4 ,yet this mode of division also is human1 and cannot be infallible4 #ab4 ,the titles of the several books of the ,new ,testament did not proceed immediately from the authors themselves4 ,in form they present some diversity2 for example3 ,the ,gospel according to ,matthew2 according to ,matthew2 the holy ,gospel according to ,matthew1 etc41 the shorter and simpler titles being1 as a rule1 the more ancient4 ,for substance1 however1 the different forms are the same4 ,they represent the ancient church tradition1 and are of very high authority4 ,the subscriptions1 on the other hand1 which stand at the end of the epistles of ,paul1 that to the ,hebrews included--are confessedly the work of later copyists4 ,they are of no authority1 and are sometimes manifestly incorrect4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,new ,,testament ,,text ,,and ,,its ,,history4 ,the history of the ,new ,testament text naturally falls into two main divisions1 that of the manuscript text1 and that of the printed text4 ,a few remarks will be added on the principles of textual criticism4 ,see ,,plates at the beginning of this book4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,transcriptions of the ,plates are at the end of this e-book4 ,i4 ,,the ,,manuscript ,,text4 #a4 ,the preservation of the primitive text of the gospels from all essential corruptions1 additions1 and mutilations has already been shown at some length 7,part #a1 ,chap4 #c74 ,the same line of argument applies substantially to the other books of the ,new ,testament4 ,though the text of different books varies in respect to purity1 there is no ground for supposing that if we had the autographs of the evangelists and other sacred writers1 they would present to us a gospel differing in any essential particular from that which we now possess4 ,we should see in them the same glorious ,saviour1 and the same holy system of doctrines and duties4 #b4 ,but it has not pleased ,god to interpose in a miraculous way for the purpose of keeping the primitive text in a state of immaculate purity4 ,he has left it subject to those common influences which produce what are called various readings in all works that are perpetuated from age to age by transcription4 ,compared indeed with any other ancient writings1 the text of the ,new ,testament has immensely the advantage in regard to uncorruptness of preservation and means of verification4 ,this arises from the early multiplication of copies1 as well as from the high value attached by the primitive churches to their sacred books1 and their consequent zeal for their uncorrupt preservation4 ,but the same multiplication of copies which constitutes a sure guarantee against essential mutilations and corruptions increases also the number of various readings4 ,suppose1 for example1 that of two books equal in size the second has been1 from the first1 copied a hundred-fold oftener than the first4 ,it is plain that1 while the means of ascertaining and verifying the true text of the second will abound1 the number of variations among the different manuscripts will abound also4 ,the greater the number of copies1 the greater will be the number of various readings1 but this will make the true text not more but less uncertain2 for by diligent collation a text may be produced which1 though not absolutely immaculate1 is very near to the primitive autograph1 and which can be certainly known to agree with it in every essential respect4 ,god does not rain down upon men bread and raiment from heaven1 as he could do with infinite ease2 but he imposes upon them the necessity of gaining both by hard labor4 ,in the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread is the stern law4 ,god does not miraculously communicate to the missionary who goes to ,syria or ,india or ,china a knowledge of the vernacular in his field of labor2 but he must learn it by years of patient study4 ,and when he begins the work of translating1 ,god does not keep him in a supernatural way from all errors4 ,he must find out and correct his errors by the diligent use of the means at his disposal4 ,just so it is the will of ,god that we should have a pure text of the ,new ,testament--pure in a critical sense--not without hard labor1 but by years of patient toil in the study and collation of the abundant materials which his good providence has preserved for us4 #c4 ,various readings have arisen in the manuscripts of the ,new ,testament1 as elsewhere1 from the mistakes1 and sometimes from the unskilful corrections of the copyists and those subsequently employed to compare and correct the copies4 ,they are commonly divided into the three classes of substitutions1 insertions1 and omissions4 ,substitutions from similarity of sound would naturally arise among the vowels when1 as was sometimes the case1 the copyist wrote from dictation1 being guided by the ear instead of the eye4 ,most of these1 however1 are mere matters of orthography4 ,it is only when they affect the sense that they come under the head of various readings4 ,synonymous words1 or those of kindred meaning1 are frequently put for one another1 or the order of words is altered2 sometimes a different word is made through inadvertence by the change of a single letter or a couple of letters2 compound words are interchanged with simple2 contracted words are confounded with each other2 plainer or more grammatical readings are substituted for those that are difficult or less grammatical1 etc4 ,especially are parallel passages in one writer altered1 so as to be brought into conformity with the same in another4 ,insertions are the most frequent mode of variation4 ,the copyist fills out the text of his author from a parallel passage1 inserts marginal notations in the text1 repeats clauses through inadvertence1 etc4 ,of amplification from parallel passages many undoubted examples could be given4 ,a single one must suffice4 ,in ,acts #i3e1 the words1 ,it is hard for thee to kick against the pricks1 have been added from ,acts #bf3ad4 ,the most fruitful source of omissions is the similar termination of two adjacent words1 lines1 or sentences1 causing the eye of the copyist to overlook the word1 line1 or sentence intervening between the two similar endings4 ,the same error may be caused by the circumstance of two sentences beginning in the same way4 ,it should be remembered that in the ancient manuscripts the text was written continuously in uncial--that is1 capital--letters1 without any division between the words1 which made it more difficult for the copyist to follow the manuscript before him1 and for both the copyist and collater to discover the errors made in transcription4 ,by far the greatest number of various readings had their origin in simple inadvertence4 ,some of them1 however1 are due to unskilful criticism2 as when the copyist or the corrector sought to bring a passage in one writer into more exact agreement with the corresponding passage in another1 to supply supposed deficiencies or correct supposed errors in his copy1 or to substitute smoother and more grammatical forms of expression4 ,wilful falsifications in the interest of a particular sect or party cannot with any show of justice be imputed to the men who have perpetuated to us the text of the ,new ,testament4 #d4 ,the materials for textual criticism are much more abundant in the case of the ,new ,testament than of the ,old4 ,a vast mass of manuscripts has been collected from different and distant regions1 dating from the fourth century and onward4 ,of these1 part are in the original ,greek1 part in ancient versions1 or bilingual1 that is1 containing the original and a version of it side by side4 ,in addition to these are the quotations of the early fathers1 which are so abundant that a large part of the ,new ,testament text might be collected from them alone4 ,the question of the history of the text1 as gathered from this rich mass of materials1 is very interesting1 but is foreign to the plan of the present work4 ,to give even a history of the controversies respecting the proper classification of the manuscripts of the ,new ,testament according to their characteristic readings would require a volume1 and the question must be regarded as yet unsettled4 ,there are1 however1 some general results1 a few of the more important of which are here given from ,tregelles 7in ,horne1 vol4 #d1 chap3 #h74 ,the variations in the form of the sacred text are not due to any general recensions or revisions by ecclesiastical authority1 but arose gradually from the causes above considered 7,no4 #c74 ,these variations exhibit such gradations of text that it is impossible to draw definite lines of classification1 without admitting so many exceptions as almost to destroy the application of such a system4 ,there is a general difference in characteristic readings between the more ancient manuscripts1 versions1 and citations1 and the copies of general circulation in more recent times4 ,this gives rise to the general line of demarcation between the more ancient and the more recent texts2 each of these two classes1 however1 having1 in turn1 its own points of difference among the texts belonging to it4 ,the more ancient manuscripts1 versions1 and citations which we possess range themselves under what we know from their combined testimony to be the more ancient text4 ,among the manuscripts and documents so allied there are such shades of difference and characteristic peculiarities1 that the versions and manuscripts might be easily contemplated as ramifying into two subclasses4 ,the most ancient documents in general are sufficiently dissimilar to enable us to regard their testimony1 when combined1 as cumulative4 #e4 ,respecting the materials for writing in ancient times--papyrus and parchment1 afterwards paper made from linen or cotton2 the form of manuscripts--the roll with papyrus1 and the book-form with leaves when parchment was used2 the use of palimpsests2 the uncial and cursive styles of writing2 and the means of determining the age of manuscripts1 see in ,chap4 #c1 ,no4 #b4 ,the existing manuscripts have been all numbered and catalogued4 ,the custom since the time of ,wetstein has been to mark the uncial manuscripts by capital letters1 and the cursives by numbers or small letters4 ,we append a brief notice of a few of the more celebrated manuscripts4 ,there are four very ancient and important manuscripts1 all of which originally contained the entire ,greek ,bible of the ,old and ,new ,testament1 and which belong to a time when the arrangements of ,euthalius1 especially his stichometrical mode of writing 7,chap4 #be1 ,nos4 #f-i71 had either not been introduced or not come into common use4 ,these are the following3 7#a47 ,the ,codex ,vaticanus1 ,vatican manuscript1 marked by the letter ,b1 and so called from the ,vatican library at ,rome to which it belongs4 ,it is written continuously 7without any division of words7 on very fine vellum--one of the marks of high antiquity--in small but neat uncial letters1 very much like those of the manuscript rolls of ,herculaneum1 and has three columns to the page1 which is of the quarto size4 ,originally it had at the end of particular sections a small empty space of the breadth of a letter or half a letter1 but no ornamental capitals1 marks of punctuation1 or accents1 though some of these have been added by later hands4 ,the divisions into sections made by the empty spaces above named are peculiar to this codex1 not agreeing with those of any other system4 ,of these ,matthew has #agj2 ,mark1 #fb 7so says ,cardinal ,mai1 but others say #gb or #fa72 ,luke1 #aeb2 ,john1 #hj4 ,most of the books have also brief titles and subscriptions4 ,the manuscript contained originally the whole ,bible1 the ,apocrypha included1 as also the epistle of ,clement to the ,corinthians4 ,the order of the books in the ,new ,testament1 if entire1 would be the same as in the ,alexandrine manuscript1 the ,catholic epistles preceding the ,pauline1 and the epistle to the ,hebrews coming in between #b ,thessalonians and #a ,timothy4 ,see below4 ,at present the ,old ,testament wants the greater part of ,genesis and a part of the ,psalms4 ,in the ,new ,testament the epistle to ,philemon1 the three pastoral epistles1 the latter part of the epistle to the ,hebrews1 and the ,apocalypse are wanting4 ,this manuscript is generally referred to the fourth century4 ,its authority is very high1 but through the jealousy of its ,roman conservators it has been of late years1 for all practical purposes1 inaccessible to biblical scholars4 ,cardinal ,mai's edition of it in #aheh1 and the revision of this in #ahei1 are unreliable4 ,tischendorf has published an edition of the ,new ,testament part of it4 ,no4 7#c7 ,,plate ,,ii4 7#b47 ,the ,codex ,sinaiticus1 ,sinai manuscript1 designated by ,tischendorf1 its discoverer1 by the ,hebrew letter aleph 7,hebrew3 ,a74 ,one of the most interesting events of the present century1 in the department of biblical science1 is the very unexpected discovery of a complete manuscript of the ,new ,testament1 belonging1 as is generally agreed1 to the fourth century2 therefore as old1 at least1 as the ,vatican manuscript1 perhaps older1 and of very high authority in biblical criticism4 ,in a visit to ,mount ,sinai in #ahdd1 ,tischendorf had found at the convent of ,st4 ,catharine on ,mount ,sinai forty-three beautiful parchment leaves belonging to a manuscript of the ,septuagint not before known to biblical scholars4 ,in a subsequent visit to the same convent in ,february1 #ahei1 it was his high privilege to find of the same manuscript all the ,greek ,new ,testament entire1 part of the ,old1 the so-called epistle of ,barnabas1 and part of the writing called the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 the whole contained in one hundred and thirty-two thousand columnar lines1 written on three hundred and forty-six leaves4 ,this precious manuscript ,tischendorf managed to obtain for the emperor ,alexander of ,russia as the great patron of the ,greek church1 and it is now at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,it is written on parchment of a fine quality in large plain uncial letters1 with four columns to a page4 ,it contains1 as is commonly the case with ancient manuscripts1 revisions and so-called corrections by a later hand2 but1 as it proceeded from the pen of the original writer1 it had neither ornamented capitals1 accents1 nor divisions of words or sentences4 ,the style of writing is plain1 and every thing about it bears the marks of high antiquity4 ,the order of the books is as follows3 7#a7 the gospels2 7#b7 the epistles of ,paul1 that to the ,hebrews included1 which stands after #b ,thessalonians2 7#c7 the ,acts of the ,apostles2 7#d7 the ,catholic epistles2 7#e7 the ,apocalypse4 ,it has the ,ammonian sections and ,eusebian canons1 but whether from the first or a subsequent hand is doubtful4 ,a splendid edition of this ,codex was published at ,st4 ,petersburg in #ahfb1 which seeks to preserve with the greatest possible accuracy the form of writing1 columns1 corrections1 etc4 ,the ,leipsic edition is adapted to popular use4 ,see ,no4 7#a71 ,,plate ,i4 7#c47 ,we will consider next in order the ,codex ,alexandrinus1 ,alexandrine manuscript1 placed first in the list of uncial manuscripts1 and accordingly marked ,a4 ,it is now in the ,british ,museum1 ,london4 ,in the year #afbh it was sent as a present to ,charles ,i41 king of ,england1 by ,cyrillus ,lucaris1 patriarch of ,constantinople1 by whom it was brought from ,alexandria in ,egypt1 where ,cyrillus had formerly held the same office4 ,hence the name ,alexandrine4 ,cyrillus himself1 in a notice attached to it1 says that tradition represented a noble ,egyptian woman of the fourth century named ,thecla as the writer of it 7an ,arabic subscription makes her to have been ,thecla the martyr74 ,these external notices are not so reliable as the internal marks1 all of which show it to be of a great age4 ,some assign it to the fourth century1 but it is more commonly assigned to the fifth1 and ,egypt is generally regarded as the place where it was written4 ,it is on parchment in uncial letters1 without divisions of words1 accents1 or breathings1 and with only occasional marks of interpunction--a dot to indicate a division in the sense4 ,the lines are arranged in two columns1 and the sections begin with large letters1 placed a little to the left of the column--outside the measure of the column4 ,the order of the books is3 7#a7 the gospels2 7#b7 the ,acts of the ,apostles2 7#c7 the ,catholic epistles2 7#d7 the epistles of ,paul1 with that to the ,hebrews between #b ,thessalonians and #a ,timothy2 7#e7 the ,apocalypse4 ,in the gospels1 the ,ammonian sections with the ,eusebian canons are indicated1 and at the top of the pages the larger sections or titles4 ,in the ,old ,testament it is defective in part of the ,psalms4 ,in the ,new it wants all of ,matthew as far as chap4 #be3f2 also from ,john #f3ej to #h3eb2 and from #b ,cor4 #d3ac to #ab3f4 ,it has appended at the end the genuine letter of ,clement of ,rome to the ,corinthians1 and a fragment of a second spurious letter4 ,to these apocryphal additions we owe the preservation of the ,apocalypse in an entire state4 ,until the discovery of the ,sinai codex1 the ,alexandrine exhibited the text of the ,new ,testament in far the most entire state of all the uncial manuscripts4 ,see ,no4 7#b71 ,,plate ,i4 7#d7 ,the fourth manuscript of this group is the celebrated palimpsest called ,codex ,ephraemi1 ,ephraem manuscript1 preserved in the ,imperial library of ,paris1 and marked in the list of uncials with the letter ,c4 ,originally it contained the whole of the ,new ,testament1 and apparently the ,old also1 elegantly written on thin vellum1 with a single column to a page4 ,the writing is continuous1 without accents or breathings1 and the letters are rather larger than in the ,alexandrian manuscript1 the first letter of each section being of larger size than the rest1 and standing1 as in that manuscript1 a little to the left of the column4 ,the ,ammonian sections stand in the margin1 but without the ,eusebian canons4 ,the gospels were preceded by the list of titles1 or larger sections1 of which those of ,luke and ,john alone are preserved4 ,the titles and subscriptions are short and simple4 ,the date of the manuscript is supposed to be the first half of the fifth century4 ,it has undergone corrections at the hand of at least two persons1 possibly a third4 ,these can be readily distinguished from the original writing4 ,the critical authority of this codex is very high4 ,tregelles 7in ,horne1 vol4 #d1 chap4 #ac7 places it next to the ,vatican manuscript4 ,a few words on its history4 ,about the thirteenth century1 being regarded as a worn-out and obsolete manuscript1 the vellum on which it was written was taken for a new purpose1 that of receiving the ,greek works of ,ephraem the ,syrian saint1 a celebrated theologian of the old ,syrian church1 who flourished in the fourth century4 ,for this purpose the leaves were taken promiscuously1 without any regard to their proper original order1 and sewed together at hap-hazard1 sometimes top end down1 and front side behind1 just as if they had been mere blanks1 the sermons of ,ephraem being the only matter regarded in the book4 ,stowe1 ,hist4 of the ,books of the ,bible1 p4 #ge4 ,in the latter part of the seventeenth century1 ,allix first observed the older writing under the works of ,ephraem4 ,it was very illegible1 but a chemical preparation applied in #ahcd-e revivified it to a certain extent4 ,it has been diligently collated by eminent scholars1 and in #ahdb ,tischendorf printed an edition of it page for page and line for line4 ,of the two hundred and nine leaves contained in this manuscript1 one hundred and forty-five belong to the ,new ,testament1 containing not quite two-thirds of the sacred text4 ,the order of the books is the same as in the ,alexandrine codex4 ,see ,no4 7#d71 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,besides the abovenamed four manuscripts1 a few others may be briefly noticed4 ,an interesting palimpsest of great critical value is the ,codex ,dublinensis rescriptus1 ,dublin palimpsest manuscript1 in the library of ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 designated by the letter ,z4 ,it contains with other writings thirty-two leaves of the gospel by ,matthew4 ,they were edited1 as far as legible1 in #ahja1 by ,dr4 ,john ,barrett1 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college4 ,in #ahec ,dr4 ,tregelles made a new and thorough examination of the manuscript1 and1 by the aid of a chemical process1 brought all that exists of the gospel text to a legible condition4 ,this manuscript is assigned to the sixth century4 ,its letters are written in a singularly bold style1 which unites the three qualities of ease1 elegance1 and symmetry4 ,a celebrated bilingual manuscript 7in this case ,graeco-,latin1 containing the ,greek and ,latin texts7 is the ,codex ,bezae1 ,beza's manuscript1 called also ,codex ,cantabrigiensis1 ,cambridge manuscript1 from the place of its deposit1 which is the public library of the ,university of ,cambridge1 ,england4 ,it is designated by the letter ,d1 and contains the four gospels and ,acts of the ,apostles in ,greek and ,latin on opposite pages1 stichometrically written4 ,the account of ,theodore ,beza1 its former possessor1 was that he found it during the ,french civil wars in #aefb1 in the monastery of ,st4 ,irenaeus1 at ,lyons4 ,in #aeha he sent it as a present to the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,the interest felt in this manuscript arises in great part from the very peculiar character of its readings4 ,the text of this codex1 says ,bleek 7,introduc4 to ,new ,test41 sec4 #bgj71 presents much that is peculiar--many additions and alterations that have even an apocryphal character1 but are yet not uninteresting4 ,its native country is the ,west1 and more definitely the south of ,gaul4 ,see ,no4 7#e71 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,among the fragments of manuscripts of high antiquity is one called ,codex purpureus1 ,purple manuscript4 ,four leaves of this are in the ,cotton ,library in the ,british ,museum1 six in the ,vatican1 two in the ,imperial ,library at ,vienna4 ,the manuscript to which they belonged was written in silver letters 7the names of ,god and ,christ in gold7 on purple vellum4 ,the writing is in two columns with large and round letters4 ,it is referred to the end of the sixth or beginning of the seventh century4 ,many other uncial manuscripts1 or fragments of manuscripts1 some of them of great critical value1 might be described2 but the above brief notices must suffice4 ,of those which contain ancient versions1 a few of the more important will be noticed in the following chapter4 ,the cursive manuscripts of the ,now ,testament are numbered by hundreds4 ,in general their authority is less than that of the more ancient uncials4 ,but a cursive manuscript may give indirectly a very ancient text4 ,there are some cursives which1 from their characteristic readings1 were manifestly executed from codices of high antiquity1 and are for this reason very valuable4 ,as such ,tregelles specifies those numbered #a and #cc4 ,for further notices of these1 as also of the lectionaries1 containing selections for church readings1 the reader may consult the works devoted to biblical criticism4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,printed ,,text4 #f4 ,the primary editions of the ,greek ,new ,testament1 whence is derived what is called the received text 7,textus receptus7 are the following3 7#a7 the ,complutensian2 7#b7 the ,erasmian2 7#c7 those of ,robert ,stephens2 7#d7 those of ,beza and ,elzevir4 ,their authority in textual criticism depends wholly upon that of the manuscripts from which their text was formed4 ,as no stream can rise higher than its fountains1 so no printed text can obtain a just weight of influence above that of its manuscript sources4 ,it becomes1 then1 a matter of interest to inquire what was the basis of these early printed editions4 7#a47 ,the entire ,new ,testament was printed for the first time in ,greek in the fifth volume of the ,complutensian ,polyglott 7so called from ,complutum1 that is ,alcala in ,spain1 where it was printed under the patronage of ,cardinal ,ximenes74 ,it bears the date of #aead1 but was not published until #aebb1 when ,erasmus had already printed three editions of his ,greek ,testament4 ,its editors professed to have formed their text from manuscripts sent to them from the papal library at ,rome4 ,what these manuscripts were cannot now be ascertained2 but that they were very ancient and correct1 as alleged by these editors1 is contradicted by the character of the text1 which agrees with the modern in opposition to the most ancient manuscripts4 7#b47 ,at the request of ,froben1 a celebrated printer and publisher of ,basle1 ,erasmus1 who was then in ,england1 where he had devoted some time to a revised ,latin translation of the ,new ,testament with annotations1 went to ,basle in #aeae1 and began the work of editing a ,greek ,new ,testament4 ,by the beginning of ,march1 #aeaf1 says ,tregelles1 the whole volume1 including the annotations as well as the ,greek and ,latin texts1 was complete2 in less1 in fact1 than six months from the time that the first sheet was begun4 ,the design of this haste was to anticipate the publication of the ,complutensian edition4 ,the critical apparatus in ,erasmus' possession was quite slender4 ,it consisted of such manuscripts as he found at ,basle1 with the help of the revised ,latin translation already prepared in ,england and ,brabant4 ,for the ,apocalypse he had but one manuscript1 and that defective at the end4 ,in his four subsequent editions--#aeai1 #aebb1 #aebg1 #aece--;he made many corrections4 ,in that of #aebg he availed himself of the ,complutensian text4 ,this edition1 from which the fifth and last published during his life differs but slightly1 is the basis of the common text now in use4 7#c47 ,in #aedf1 #aedi1 #aeej1 appeared the three editions of ,robert ,stephens1 the celebrated ,parisian printer4 ,in the first two of these the text is said to have been formed from the ,complutensian and ,erasmian4 ,in the third edition1 although he had the aid of thirteen ,greek manuscripts1 his text is almost identical with that of ,erasmus' fifth edition4 7#d47 ,in #aefe1 ,theodore ,beza published at ,geneva his first edition of the ,greek ,testament with his own ,latin version1 and also the ,vulgate with annotations4 ,three other editions followed in #aegf1 #aehb1 #aehh-i4 ,he had the use of the ,codex ,bezae above described1 the ,codex ,claromontanus 7an ancient ,graeco-,latin manuscript of the ,pauline epistles71 the ,syriac version then recently published by ,tremellius1 with a close ,latin translation1 and ,stephens' collations4 ,but he is said not to have made much use of these helps4 ,the first of the ,elzevir editions1 so celebrated for their typographical beauty1 was issued in #afbd1 its text being mainly copied from that of ,beza4 ,this is the text that has acquired the name of ,textus receptus1 the ,received ,text1 as it was for more than a century the basis of almost all subsequent editions4 ,the genealogy of this ,textus receptus is thus succinctly given by ,bishop ,marsh3 ,the ,textus receptus1 therefore1 or the text in common use1 was copied1 with a few exceptions1 from the text of ,beza4 ,beza himself closely followed ,stephens2 and ,stephens 7namely1 in his third and chief edition7 copied solely from the fifth edition of ,erasmus1 except in the ,revelation1 where he followed sometimes ,erasmus1 sometimes the ,complutensian edition4 ,the text1 therefore1 in daily use1 resolves itself at last into the ,complutensian and the ,erasmian editions4 ,divinity ,lectures1 part ,i1 p4 #aaa4 #g4 ,it requires but a moderate acquaintance with the history of textual criticism to understand that the ,elzevir text is not only not perfect1 but is more imperfect than that which has been elaborated by the help of the abundant manuscripts1 versions1 and citations of the early fathers1 of which modern criticism has availed itself4 ,it is no reproach to the editors of the primary editions that1 with their comparatively scanty materials1 they could not accomplish as much as we can with the rich and varied means at our disposal4 ,the essential integrity of the received text1 we do indeed thankfully acknowledge and firmly maintain4 ,our fathers had presented to them in this text the same divine and glorious ,saviour1 the same way of salvation1 the same holy system of doctrines and duties1 as we now find in the most carefully revised modern text4 ,nevertheless1 a true reverence for the inspired word must impel us to the diligent use of all the means at our command for setting forth a pure text1 that is1 a text conformed as nearly as possible to that of the original autographs4 ,viewed in this light the modern critical editions of the ,new ,testament must possess a deep interest for all who are able to read it in the original tongue4 ,but to discuss the merits of these would be foreign to the design of the present work4 ,examples of the more important various readings occur in ,john #a3ah2 ,acts #bj3bh2 #a ,tim4 #c3af4 ,the passage #a ,john #e3g1 #h1 in heaven--in earth1 is generally rejected on the testimony of the manuscripts 7see the full discussion in ,horne1 vol4 #d1 ch4 #cf74 ,among the passages which are regarded as more or less doubtful may be mentioned ,john #e3d2 #h3c-aa2 ,acts #h3cg4 ,in regard to all these the biblical scholar must be referred to the critical commentaries4 ,so also for the questions connected with the text of ,mark #af3i-bj1 which are of a peculiar character4 ,,iii4 ,,principles ,,of ,,textual ,,criticism4 #h4 ,the end proposed by textual criticism is to restore the sacred text as nearly as possible to its primitive purity 7,chap4 #g1 ,no4 #a74 ,to this work the biblical scholar should come in a candid and reverential spirit1 prepared to weigh carefully all the evidence which is accessible to him1 and decide1 not as an advocate1 but as a judge1 in the simple interest of truth4 ,the three great sources of evidence for the original text of the ,new ,testament are ,greek manuscripts1 versions1 and the citations of the fathers4 ,of these1 ,greek manuscripts hold the first place4 ,but all manuscripts are not of equal value4 ,other things being equal1 the oldest manuscripts have the highest authority4 ,if the multiplication of copies of the ,new ,testament had been uniform1 it is evident that the number of later copies preserved from the accidents of time would have far exceeded that of the earlier1 yet no one would have preferred the fuller testimony of the thirteenth to the scantier documents of the fourth century4 ,some changes are necessarily introduced in the most careful copying1 and these are rapidly multiplied4 ,westcott in ,smith's ,bible ,dict42 ,art4 ,new ,test4 ,yet1 as the same writer remarks1 we may have evidence that a recent manuscript has been copied from one of great antiquity1 and thus has preserved to us very ancient readings4 ,revisions and corrections by a later hand are to be carefully distinguished from the primitive writing4 ,yet these may be valuable1 as testifying to the prevailing reading of the age to which they belong4 ,the general class or family to which a given manuscript belongs is also to be taken into the account4 ,in a word1 so many elements of judgment are to be taken into account in determining the relative weight of authority that belongs to a given manuscript1 that the right decision of the question requires large observation combined with much critical tact4 #i4 ,ancient versions are of great value in textual criticism2 for some of them1 as the old ,latin and ,syriac1 to which may be added the old ,egyptian versions1 are based on a text more ancient than that preserved to us in any manuscript4 ,in textual criticism1 the testimony of a version is valuable in proportion to its antiquity1 its fidelity--not its elegance or even its correctness of interpretation1 but its literal closeness--and the purity of its text4 ,versions are liable to all the corruptions of text incident to ,greek manuscripts1 and far more liable to interpolations by explanatory glosses4 ,the difference of idiom1 moreover1 frequently prevents such a literal rendering as shall be a sure indication of the form belonging to the original text4 #aj4 ,the citations of the church fathers1 which are immensely numerous1 constitute another source of testimony4 ,but less authority belongs in general to these1 because they are often made loosely from memory alone4 ,their testimony is chiefly valuable as corroborative4 ,patristic citations alone have very little weight2 such citations1 even when in accordance with a version1 have but little more2 but when a citation is in accordance with some ancient ,,mss4 and translations1 it possesses great corroborative value4 ,it is as confirming a reading known independently to exist1 that citations are of the utmost importance4 ,if alone1 or nearly alone1 they may be looked at as mere casual adaptations of the words of the ,new ,testament4 ,tregelles in ,horne1 vol4 #d1 ch4 #cd4 #aa4 ,the application of the above sources of criticism to the sacred text demands very extensive research and much sound judgment4 ,canons of criticism1 as they are called are valuable in their proper sphere2 but1 as ,westcott remarks 7ubi supra71 they are intended only to guide and not to dispense with the exercise of tact and scholarship4 ,the student will judge for himself how far they are applicable in every particular case2 and no exhibition of general principles can supersede the necessity of a careful examination of the characteristics of separate witnesses1 and of groups of witnesses4 ,we bring this subject to a close by an enumeration of the last six of the thirteen rules laid down by ,westcott4 #h4 ,the agreement of ancient ,,mss41 or of ,,mss4 containing an ancient text1 with all the ancient versions and citations marks a certain reading4 #i4 ,the disagreement of the most ancient authorities often marks the existence of a corruption anterior to them4 #aj4 ,the argument from internal evidence is always precarious4 ,this canon he illustrates by several examples3 ,if a reading is in accordance with the general style of the writer1 it may be said on the one side that this fact is in its favor1 and on the other that an acute copyist probably changed the exceptional expression for the more usual one1 c4 #aa4 ,the more difficult reading is preferable to the simpler4 ,this canon rests on the obvious ground that a copyist would be more apt to substitute an easy reading for a difficult than the reverse4 #ab4 ,the shorter reading is generally preferable to the longer4 ,because of all corruptions of the text1 additions from parallel passages1 or to meet its supposed wants1 are the most common4 #ac4 ,that reading is preferable which explains the origin of the others4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,formation ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament ,,canon4 #a4 ,respecting the canon of the ,new ,testament there are two distinct but related fields of inquiry4 ,the first has reference to the origin and gradual accumulation1 of the materials which enter into the canon2 the second1 to the collection of these materials into a volume or series of volumes possessing cooerdinate authority with the books of the ,old ,testament1 and constituting with them the sum of written revelation4 ,the first of these questions has been already discussed in great measure4 ,in ,chs4 #b-d1 the genuineness1 uncorrupt preservation1 authenticity1 and credibility of the four gospels were shown at some length2 in ,ch4 #e the same was done in respect to the ,acts of the ,apostles and the acknowledged epistles2 in ,ch4 #f was considered the position of the disputed books in respect to the canon2 and in ,ch4 #g the inspiration of the canon was demonstrated4 ,connected with these inquiries were some general notices respecting the date of the several books of the ,new ,testament2 but the fuller consideration of this latter question is reserved for the second division of the present ,part--that of ,particular ,introduction4 ,it will be sufficient to state here in a general way that1 if we leave out of account the writings of the ,apostle ,john1 the remaining books of the ,new ,testament were written somewhere between ,a4,d4 #de-gj 7according to the commonly received opinion1 between ,a4,d4 #ej-gj72 while the most probable date of ,john's writings is ,a4,d4 #gj-ajj4 ,the composition of the books of the ,new ,testament1 then1 spreads itself over a period of about half a century4 #b4 ,turning our attention1 now1 to the second question1 that of the collection and arrangement of these writings in a volume or series of volumes cooerdinate in authority with the books of the ,old ,testament1 we have a succession of periods1 not sharply separated from each other1 but each of them possessing1 nevertheless1 its prominent characteristics in relation to the canonical writings4 #c4 ,first in order is the apostolic age1 extending to about ,a4,d4 #ajj1 especially the first half of it when many of the apostles still survived4 ,this is the period of the composition of the books of the ,new ,testament1 but we have no certain evidence that they were then collected into a whole4 ,the writings of apostles and apostolic men had of course the same authority as their spoken word3 that is1 an authority that was supreme and decisive1 according to the principle laid down by the ,saviour3 ,he that receiveth you1 receiveth me2 and he that receiveth me1 receiveth him that sent me4 ,matt4 #aj3dj4 ,but so long as the churches had the presence of the apostles they could not feel1 as we do now1 the need of an authoritative written rule of faith and practice2 nor is there any proof that the apostles themselves understood in the beginning of the gospel ,god's purpose to add1 through them1 a second part to the canon of revelation that had been for so many centuries closed4 ,a considerable number of years elapsed after the ascension before it was thought necessary to give to the churches under apostolic sanction a written account of our ,lord's life and teachings4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles were not composed till about ,a4,d4 #fa-fc4 ,the apostolic epistles were for the most part written on special occasions and to meet special exigencies1 the greater number of them not till between ,a4,d4 #ej-gj1 those of ,john still later4 ,the ,christians of this age drew their knowledge of the gospel mainly from the same sources to which ,luke refers in the preface to his gospel2 from oral tradition1 namely1 received directly or indirectly from them who from the beginning were eye-witnesses and ministers of the word4 #d4 ,after the death of the apostles came what may be called the age of the apostolic fathers2 men who1 like ,ignatius1 ,polycarp1 and others whose names have not come down to us1 had been the disciples of the apostles4 ,ignatius suffered martyrdom at ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #ajg or #aaf4 ,polycarp survived beyond the middle of the second century4 ,the literary remains of this period are very scanty1 the genuine writings of the apostolic fathers being confined to a few epistles--one of ,clement of ,rome to the ,corinthians1 seven of ,ignatius1 one of ,polycarp to the ,philippians1 to which we may add the so-called epistle of ,barnabas2 since whoever was the author1 it does not date from later than the early part of the second century4 ,from these writings we gather in general that the gospels and apostolic epistles were in current use in the churches1 but nothing definite in regard to the collection of these writings into a whole4 ,with the exception of the epistles of ,jude1 #b ,peter and #b1 #c ,john1 with which no coincidences occur1 and #a1 #b ,thessalonians1 ,colossians1 ,titus1 and ,philemon1 with which the coincidences are very questionable1 all the other epistles were clearly known1 and used by them2 but still they are not quoted with the formulas which preface citations from the ,old ,testament 7,the ,scripture saith1 ,it is written1 c471 nor is the famous phrase of ,ignatius 7,to the ,philadelphians #e3 ,betaking myself to the gospel1 as to the flesh of ,christ1 and to the apostles1 as the eldership of the church7 sufficient to prove the existence of a collection of apostolic records as distinct from the sum of apostolic teaching4 ,the coincidences with the gospels on the other hand are numerous and interesting1 but such as cannot be referred to the exclusive use of our present written gospels4 ,westcott1 in ,smith's ,bible ,dict42 ,art4 ,canon4 ,the reason of this1 as the writer goes on to show1 was that the details of the life of ,christ were still too fresh to be sought for only in written records4 ,there is1 however1 one remarkable passage in the epistle of ,barnabas1 the ,greek text of which has been recently discovered appended to the ,sinaitic manuscript1 in which he says 7ch4 #d73 ,let us take care that we be not found as it is written1 many are called1 but few are chosen4 ,this formula1 as it is written1 distinguishes the gospel from which it is quoted as a part of the inspired word2 for it is the customary formula employed by ,christ and his apostles in accordance with the usage of their age1 when they appeal to the ,old ,testament as of divine authority2 and is never applied to writings of mere human authority4 #e4 ,next in order comes what may be called the period of transition between the age of the apostolic and that of the early church fathers4 ,the most distinguished writer of this period is ,justin ,martyr4 ,it is now generally conceded that the ,memoirs of which he so often speaks were our canonical gospels4 ,chap4 #b1 ,no4 #g4 ,besides the abundant use of these he mentions the ,apocalypse by name1 and ascribes it expressly to the apostle ,john--a certain man among us named ,john1 one of the apostles of ,christ1 prophesied1 in the revelation given him1 that those who have believed in our ,christ will spend a thousand years in ,jerusalem1 etc4 ,dialogue with ,trypho1 chap4 #ha4 ,he has also some apparent allusions to the ,pauline epistles1 but how far he possessed and used a collection of the ,new ,testament writings1 we have no means of judging4 ,towards the middle of the second century1 however1 events occurred which had a powerful influence1 not indeed1 for establishing the authority of the apostolic writings 7since that existed from the beginning71 but for bringing home to the consciousness of the churches their supreme importance as an authoritative rule of faith and practice1 and also the necessity of carefully defining their extent as well as their true interpretation4 ,heretical teachers arose who sowed in the ,christian church the seeds of gnosticism4 ,of these some1 as ,marcion1 rejected on dogmatical grounds a portion of the apostolic writings1 and mutilated those which they retained2 others1 as ,valentinus1 sought by fanciful principles of interpretation to explain away their true meaning4 ,chap4 #b1 ,no4 #ab4 ,the reaction upon the churches was immediate and effectual4 ,they set themselves at once to define and defend the true apostolic writings as well against ,marcion's false and mutilated canon1 if canon it may be called1 as against the false interpretations of ,valentinus1 ,heracleon and others4 ,the occasion had now come for the recognition of a ,new ,testament canon cooerdinate in authority with that of the ,old ,testament1 and from this time onward we find the idea of such a canon clearly developed in the writings of the church fathers4 ,what aided essentially in this work was the execution1 about this time1 of versions of the ,new ,testament books1 such as the ,old ,latin and ,syriac2 for the authors of these versions must of necessity have brought together the writings1 which1 in their judgment1 proceeded from the apostles and their companions4 #f4 ,we find1 accordingly1 when the age of the early church fathers opens1 about ,a4,d4 #agj1 a clearly recognized canon--sometimes described in two parts1 the gospels and the apostles--which is placed on a level with that of the ,old ,testament as the inspired word of ,god1 and cited in common with it as the ,scriptures1 the divine ,scriptures1 the ,scriptures of the ,lord1 etc4 ,both canons are mentioned together as ,the entire ,scriptures both prophetical and evangelical2 ,the prophets1 the gospel1 and the blessed apostles2 the law and the prophets1 with the evangelical and apostolical writings2 the ,old and the ,new ,testament2 the entire instrument of each ,testament1 etc4 ,irenaeus1 against heresies1 #b4 #df2 #e4 #bj2 ,letter to ,florinus in ,eusebius' ,hist4 ,eccl41 #e4 #bj3 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,strom41 #g1 p4 #geg2 ,tertullian1 against heretics1 chap4 #cj4 #cf3 against ,marcion1 #d4 #f1 etc4 ,the canon was not1 however1 completed in its present form2 for the right of certain books--the so-called antilegomena1 chap4 #f4 #f4--to a place in it remained for a considerable time an open question1 which1 in its application to particular books was answered differently in the ,east and the ,west4 ,see chap4 #f4 ,on the other hand1 certain writings of the apostolic fathers 7as the so-called epistle of ,barnabas1 the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 the epistle of ,clement of ,rome to the ,corinthians71 being read in certain of the early churches1 found their way into some codices of the ,new ,testament4 ,chap4 #f1 ,no4 #d4 ,to the latter part of the second century belong two important canons1 that of the ,syriac ,peshito1 and the ,muratorian canon4 ,the former of these represents the judgment of the ,eastern churches2 the latter apparently that of the ,western4 ,the canon of the ,peshito has1 of the seven disputed books1 ,hebrews and ,james4 ,it wants the other five1 namely1 #b ,peter1 #b1 #c ,john1 ,jude1 ,revelation4 ,the ,muratorian canon is in such an imperfect state that its testimony on some points is doubtful4 ,it contains ,jude and ,revelation2 perhaps also #b1 #c ,john4 ,it wants ,hebrews1 and #b ,peter1 and it adds the apocryphal book called the ,apocalypse of ,peter4 ,origen in the third century 7as quoted by ,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 #f4 #be7 and ,eusebius in the fourth1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 #c4 #be1 give each a review of the ,new ,testament canon with a statement of the differing judgments as to the disputed books4 ,the details will come up hereafter in connection with the books in question4 ,the ,synodical ,council of ,loadicea1 which was probably held between ,a4,d4 #cdc-cha1 gives in its #fjth canon 7the genuineness of which1 however1 has been called in question by some7 a list of the books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,that of the ,new ,testament wants the ,apocalypse4 ,the third ,council of ,carthage1 held ,a4,d4 #cig1 contains all the books of our present canon4 ,so also the ,latin fathers1 as ,jerome1 ,rufinus1 etc4 ,but the ,syrian churches still adhered to the canon of the ,peshito4 #g4 ,the history of ,christian opinion in regard to the canon of the ,new ,testament1 of which a very brief outline has been given1 has all the marks of naturalness and truthfulness4 ,the ,biblical student should carefully remember the two following important considerations3 7#a47 ,the books of the ,new ,testament were not received as a whole1 but separately upon the evidence that each gave of its apostolic origin4 ,doubts in respect to certain books throw no shadow of suspicion upon the rest1 the genuineness and authenticity of which were acknowledged by all from the beginning4 ,the question1 therefore1 is not concerning the truth of revelation1 but simply concerning the claims of certain books to be a part of the record of revelation4 ,however it may be decided in particular cases1 the apostolic authority of the universally acknowledged books1 which constitute the main body of the ,new ,testament1 remains perfectly sure4 7#b47 ,the early diversities of judgment in respect to certain books furnish satisfactory evidence of the freedom of thought and discussion among the primitive ,christians1 and of the sincerity and earnestness of their investigations4 ,it was precisely because they would not accept any book without full evidence of its apostolic authority1 that these diversities of judgment prevailed4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,ancient ,,versions ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,in the present chapter those versions of the ,old ,testament also that were made in connection with versions of the ,new1 and in the interest of ,christianity1 will be briefly considered4 ,i4 ,,latin ,,versions4 #a4 ,a peculiar interest attaches to the early ,latin versions4 ,the ,old ,latin translation of the ,new ,testament1 in connection with which one of the ,old ,testament was executed from the ,septuagint1 is perhaps the earliest that exists in any language4 ,the ,old ,syriac alone can rival it in antiquity1 and if either may claim the precedence1 it is probably the ,latin4 ,this version1 and afterwards the revision of it by ,jerome1 was the grand medium through which the ,holy ,scriptures were known to the ,western or ,latin churches for more than twelve centuries4 ,it has exercised no small influence on the popular modern versions of ,christendom1 and it is the great storehouse of theological terms for both ,catholic and ,protestant ,christianity4 ,the ,english version of ,wiclif 7#acbd-achd7 is a literal translation of the current text of the ,latin ,vulgate4 ,the ,psalter of the ,english ,prayer ,book is taken from ,cranmer's ,bible called the ,great ,english ,bible3 and the version of the ,psalms follows the ,gallican ,psalter1 the second of the revisions made by ,jerome from the ,old ,latin4 ,see below1 ,no4 #d4 #b4 ,how early the ante-,hieronymian ,latin version 7that current before the days of ,hieronymus1 that is1 ,jerome71 was executed is unknown2 but the writings of ,tertullian furnish satisfactory proof that it was in popular use in ,north ,africa 7the place where it was made7 in the last quarter of the second century4 ,according to the testimony of the ancient church fathers1 its text existed in a great variety of forms1 and the same variety has come down to us in the old manuscripts that contain it4 ,some1 indeed1 have maintained that several independent versions existed4 ,but the sum of the evidence from both the early fathers and the manuscripts goes to show that there was never more than one that could be called independent4 ,the copies of this were subjected to multiplied emendations or revisions from the ,greek original1 till the text had fallen in the days of ,augustine and ,jerome into a state of great confusion4 ,the language of ,augustine is very strong3 ,the translators of the ,scriptures from the ,hebrew tongue into the ,greek can be numbered1 but the ,latin interpreters can by no means be numbered4 ,for whenever1 in the first ages of ,christianity1 any one had gained possession of a ,greek manuscript1 and imagined himself to possess some little skill in the two languages1 he ventured to become an interpreter4 ,de ,doct4 ,christ4 #b4 #af4 ,according to the received opinion the so-called ,itala 7,italian7 was not an independent version1 but one of these revisions1 apparently made in ,italy1 and as some think1 under ecclesiastical auspices4 ,this1 ,augustine recommends as more faithful and perspicuous than the rest4 #c4 ,the canon of the ,old ,latin version seems to have wanted1 in the ,new ,testament1 ,hebrews1 ,james1 and #b ,peter4 ,in the ,old ,testament it followed the ,septuagint4 ,it contained1 therefore1 the apocryphal books of that version1 to which was also added the second of ,esdras4 ,appendix to ,pt4 #b1 ,no4 #f4 ,the text of this version is known to us from two sources1 quotations and manuscripts4 ,for our knowledge of the ,old ,testament we are dependent mainly on the quotations of the early ,latin fathers1 since only a few fragments remain in the shape of manuscripts4 ,the same is true of some parts of the ,new ,testament1 particularly the ,apocalypse4 ,but of the gospels as well as other parts of the ,new ,testament1 we have some very ancient manuscripts which are of high value in textual criticism4 ,the agreement of this version in many characteristic readings with the oldest known ,greek manuscripts has already been noticed4 ,chap4 #c1 ,no4 #c4 ,such agreement is the strongest possible testimony for the genuineness of the readings in question4 ,chap4 #bf1 ,no4 #b4 ,the ,codex ,vercellensis1 belonging to the fourth century1 and said to have been written by ,eusebius1 bishop of ,vercellae 7now ,vercelli7 in ,northern ,italy where the manuscript is preserved1 is one of the oldest manuscripts of the sacred text in existence4 ,the ,codex ,veronensis at ,verona1 the ,graeco-,latin ,codex ,claromontanus in the ,imperial ,library at ,paris1 the ,codex ,vindobonensis at ,vienna1 the ,codex ,bobbiensis at ,turin1 and others that might be named1 are also very ancient4 ,among the codices that contain what is called the ,italic version1 is the ,brixianus of the sixth century4 #d4 ,about ,a4,d4 #chh1 ,jerome at the solicitation of ,damasus1 bishop of ,rome1 undertook the arduous task of revising the ,old ,latin version by a comparison with the original ,greek text4 ,in this work he proceeded very cautiously1 being well aware of the prejudices which he must encounter on the part of multitudes who could not discriminate between the authority of the original ,greek text and that of the ,latin version made from it4 ,he began with the four gospels4 ,according to his own testimony1 he selected ancient ,greek manuscripts1 but such as did not differ much from the ,latin usage2 and in the use of these he so restrained his pen that1 when he had corrected those things only which seemed to change the sense1 he suffered the rest to remain as they were4 7,preface to the four gospels addressed to ,damasus47 ,his work of revision was afterwards extended to the remaining books of the ,new ,testament2 a revision which ,tregelles describes as less complete and uniform than that of the gospels1 and in which many parts seem to have received hardly any alterations from his hand4 ,in ,horne1 vol4 #d1 ch4 #bc4 ,about the same time he turned his attention to the ,latin version of the ,old ,testament1 which had been made1 not from the original ,hebrew1 but from the ,greek ,septuagint4 ,of this he first revised the ,psalter1 but not very thoroughly2 in his own words1 cursorily for the most part4 ,this first revision is known by the name of the ,roman ,psalter4 ,a later and more thorough revision1 executed by ,jerome at ,bethlehem between ,a4,d4 #chd-cia1 is called the ,gallican ,psalter4 ,there is good reason to believe that ,jerome's revision extended to all the remaining books of the ,old ,testament1 though we have positive evidence in respect to only a part of them--,job1 ,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 ,canticles1 ,chronicles4 ,gregory of ,tours is said to have introduced ,jerome's second revision of the ,psalter into the public service in ,france2 whence its name ,gallican4 ,the ,roman ,psalter was retained in ,italy till the time of ,pius ,v41 who introduced the ,gallican generally4 ,but three churches1 one of them that of the ,vatican1 continued to use the ,roman ,psalter4 ,westcott in ,smith's ,bible ,dict42 ,art4 ,vulgate4 #e4 ,jerome was soon convinced of the necessity of undertaking a new translation of the ,old ,testament from the original ,hebrew4 ,to this arduous task he addressed himself with great earnestness1 availing himself of the help of ,jewish scholars to complete his knowledge of the ,hebrew4 ,the whole work occupied his time1 with periods of intermission1 from ,a4,d4 #che to ,a4,d4 #dje4 ,see in ,horne1 vol4 #b1 p4 #hi4 ,he did not venture1 however1 to make a new version from the ,hebrew of the book of ,psalms1 the constant use of which in the church service was a barrier to the substitution of a new translation4 ,he accordingly retained his second revision from the ,septuagint1 which is called the ,gallican ,psalter4 ,of the ,apocryphal books he translated only two1 ,judith and ,tobit4 ,the remaining ,apocryphal writings were retained in their old form4 ,the ,latin bible thus in part revised and in part translated by ,jerome 7most of the ,apocryphal writings being left unrevised7 is called the ,vulgate1 that is common or current version1 although this term belonged1 before the days of ,jerome1 to the ,old ,latin itself4 ,its diversified character is thus briefly indicated by ,westcott4--7#a47 ,unrevised ,old ,latin3 ,wisdom1 ,eccl41 #a1 #b ,macc41 ,baruch4 7#b47 ,old ,latin revised1 from the ,,lxx43 ,psalter4 7#c47 ,jerome's free translation from the original text3 ,judith1 ,tobit4 7#d47 ,jerome's translation from the original3 ,old ,testament except ,psalter4 7#e47 ,old ,latin revised from ,greek ,,mss43 ,gospels4 7#f47 ,old ,latin cursorily revised3 the remainder of ,new ,testament4 ,in ,smith's ,bible ,dict42 ,art4 ,vulgate4 ,it is not necessary to follow the history of the text of the ,vulgate since ,jerome's day4 ,suffice it to say that the simultaneous use of the ,old ,latin and ,vulgate led to a corruption of both texts1 which has not yet been thoroughly removed4 ,the present standard text is that called the ,clementine1 from ,pope ,clement ,,viii41 under whose auspices the ,vulgate was edited in #aeib4 ,this is better than the preceding ,sixtine edition1 ,a4,d4 #aeij1 but not by any means the pure text of ,jerome1 as it might be recovered1 proximately at least1 by a careful collation of ancient manuscripts and quotations4 ,the oldest and best manuscript of the ,latin ,vulgate ,old and ,new ,testaments1 is the ,codex ,amiatinus in the ,laurentian ,library at ,florence4 ,it belongs to the sixth century1 and exhibits the text of ,jerome in a very pure form1 carrying us back to about #abj years from ,jerome's death4 ,the ,codex ,fuldensis is said to belong to the same century4 ,there are other good manuscripts more or less complete of the eighth and ninth centuries4 ,many other ,latin versions have appeared in modern times1 sometimes in connection with the original text1 and sometimes separately1 which it is not necessary to notice in detail4 ,,ii4 ,,syriac ,,versions4 #f4 ,the ancient ,syriac version called the ,peshito belongs1 in the judgment of biblical scholars1 to the second century4 ,it comprises the ,old ,testament as well as the ,new4 ,the version of the ,old ,testament was made from the original ,hebrew1 and thus has the honor of being the oldest translation of the ,hebrew ,scriptures for ,christian use1 the ,old ,latin version having been made from the ,septuagint4 ,the version of the ,new ,testament was made in connection with that of the ,old1 so that both together constitute one work4 ,syrian tradition makes extravagant claims in respect to the antiquity of the ,peshito1 telling us that it was executed by men sent to ,palestine by the apostle ,thaddeus 7whom tradition connects with the founding of the church at ,edessa71 and by ,abgarus1 ,king of ,edessa1 a contemporary of the ,saviour4 ,the ,old ,testament was sometimes referred to a still earlier age--that of ,solomon and ,hiram1 or that of the captivity of the ten tribes4 ,without giving credence to such traditions1 we may well believe that it belongs to the earliest period of the ,syrian churches1 and cannot be placed later than the last part of the second century4 ,of the term ,peshito1 that is1 simple1 there are different explanations4 ,the most usual is that it denotes a simple and literal version1 free from glosses and allegorical interpretations4 ,tregelles suggests that it was called simple in contrast with the translation made by ,paul of ,tela from the ,hexaplar text of ,origen 7see below1 ,no4 #h71 which was replete with asterisks and obeli to mark ,origen's revisions1 and had also marginal references4 ,it is agreed that the ,old ,testament was translated from the original ,hebrew and ,chaldee1 though the translators seem to have had before them the ,greek version of the ,seventy1 and to have consulted it in the progress of their work #g4 ,the ,peshito is a free1 and at the same time1 a faithful version of ,scripture1 holding the first place among the ancient versions for its general excellence1 while it ranks with the ,old ,latin in antiquity4 ,its authority in both textual criticism and interpretation is deservedly high4 ,as it regards textual criticism1 however1 its value is diminished by the fact that its text has not come down to us in a pure state4 ,it has suffered in the same way as the text of the ,old ,latin1 though not to the same extent4 ,among the manuscripts brought from the ,nitrian monasteries1 and deposited in the ,british ,museum1 is one of great antiquity1 containing large portions of the four gospels in ,syriac4 ,dr4 ,cureton published in #aheh the text of this manuscript as ,remains of a very ancient ,syriac recension of the four gospels in ,syriac1 hitherto unknown in ,europe1 with an ,english translation and preface4 ,its appearance was hailed with lively interest and has excited warm discussions4 ,the manuscript itself is assigned to the fifth century1 but it presents a text which1 in the judgment of competent scholars1 is older than the current text of the ,peshito4 ,whether it is an older form of the ,peshito version1 or another and earlier version of the gospels1 is a question that has been differently answered4 ,it is maintained1 on the one hand1 that the ,peshito is a revision of the ,curetonian text1 replete with readings unknown in the second century 7,tregelles in ,smith's ,bible ,dict472 on the other1 that it is an older version than the ,peshito2 which the author or authors of the latter consulted throughout4 ,davidson in ,alexander's ,kitto4 ,its great value for critical purposes must be acknowledged by all4 ,in many characteristic readings it agrees with the oldest manuscripts and quotations4 ,it has also some erroneous readings known to be of great antiquity4 ,in a word1 the high antiquity of its text cannot be reasonably questioned4 ,drs4 ,cureton and ,tregelles think that the gospel of ,matthew may be a translation from the apostle's ,hebrew copy4 ,but this is denied by ,davidson and others4 #h4 ,the ,philoxenian ,syriac version was executed ,a4,d4 #ejh1 under the auspices of ,philoxenus1 or ,xenaias1 bishop of ,hierapolis or ,mabug in ,syria4 ,philoxenus belonged to the sect of the ,monophysites1 and it is generally thought that the version was made in the interest of that sect4 ,the translator's name was ,polycarp1 one of ,philoxenus' rural bishops4 ,with the exception1 perhaps1 of certain books 7see below71 the text of this version has not come down to us in its original form4 ,we have only a revision of it made ,a4,d4 #faf by ,thomas of ,harkel in a monastery of ,alexandria1 whence this version is also called the ,harclean ,syriac4 ,the characteristic of this version is its extremely literal character4 ,it is the translator's aim to represent every ,greek word1 even the article1 by a corresponding ,syriac word1 even where the idiom of the language must thereby be violated4 ,hence its style is of necessity barbarous4 ,but this very character of literalness gives to the ,philoxenian version high authority in respect to textual criticism4 ,so far as it has come down to us in its primitive form1 it is1 in truth1 equal to the ,greek text of its own time4 ,about the time that ,thomas of ,harkel revised the ,philoxenian version of the ,new ,testament1 ,paul of ,tela1 another ,monophysite1 executed what is called the ,hexaplar ,syriac version of the ,old ,testament1 because it was made from the text of ,origen's ,hexaplar4 ,chap4 #af1 ,no4 #ab4 ,it coincides with the ,philoxenian version of the ,new ,testament in respect to its character as well as the time of its appearance1 being made on the principle of following the ,greek text word for word as exactly as possible4 ,thus the ,hexaplar version of the ,old1 and the ,philoxenian version of the ,new1 constitute together a whole of like character throughout4 ,after the example of ,origen1 ,paul introduced into his version asterisks and obeli2 the asterisk 7997 to indicate insertions made in the text on the authority of manuscripts and other versions2 the obelus 7_/71 to mark passages of doubtful character4 ,thus it supplies1 as far as a version can1 the ,hexaplar of ,origen1 of which only a few fragments remain4 ,the ,philoxenian version of the ,new ,testament1 as revised by ,thomas of ,harkel1 contains also the same asterisks and obeli4 ,critical marks and marginal readings also appear in most of the manuscripts4 ,this critical apparatus is generally thought to have proceeded from ,thomas himself1 in imitation of the ,hexaplar ,syriac of the ,old ,testament2 but whether to indicate comparison with the ,peshito1 or with the ,greek manuscripts employed by ,thomas is not certain4 ,there is a version of the ,catholic epistles wanting in the ,peshito--#b ,pet41 #b1 #c ,john1 ,jude--existing in two forms1 one of which is thought to be the unrevised ,philoxenian text4 ,there is a codex at ,rome containing the four gospels which has also been supposed to contain the same unrevised text4 ,the ,jerusalem ,syriac ,lectionary1 containing simply lessons from the four gospels1 is a peculiar version known to us from a single manuscript in the ,vatican ,library which belongs to the eleventh century4 ,the version itself is referred by some to the sixth century1 by others to a later date4 ,its dialect is barbarous1 being a mixture of ,chaldee and ,syriac1 but its readings are said often to coincide with the oldest and best authorities4 ,,iii4 ,,egyptian ,,and ,,ethiopic ,,versions4 #i4 ,formerly but one version was known to exist in the language of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,this1 which was made in the dialect of lower ,egypt1 was naturally called ,coptic4 ,when it was discovered that another version existed in the dialect of upper ,egypt1 the ,arabic term ,sahidic was applied to it4 ,but since the word ,coptic is generic1 applying to both dialects alike1 it has been proposed to call the former version ,copto-,memphitic or simply ,memphitic1 from ,memphis1 the ancient capital of lower ,egypt2 and the latter ,copto-,thebaic or ,thebaic1 from ,thebes1 the celebrated capital of ancient upper ,egypt4 ,when these versions were executed cannot be determined with certainty4 ,but they existed in the fourth century1 and probably in the latter part of the third century4 ,their high antiquity gives to them great value in textual criticism4 ,the latter of them1 however1 exists only in a fragmentary form4 ,some fragments of a third version1 differing from both the ,memphitic and the ,thebaic1 have been discovered4 ,to this1 the epithet ,bashmuric has been applied1 from the ,arabian name ,bashmur1 a district of lower ,egypt in the ,delta to the ,east4 ,but ,egyptian scholars doubt whether the term is well applied1 as the version is said to have stronger affinity to the ,thebaic than to the ,memphitic version4 ,the ,memphitic and ,thebaic versions are said to have contained the whole ,bible1 that of the ,old ,testament being made from the ,septuagint4 ,the whole ,memphitic ,new ,testament has been several times published1 but never in such a manner as to meet the wants of ,biblical criticism4 ,of the ,thebaic version only some fragments have been published4 #aj4 ,an ,ethiopic version of the whole ,bible exists in the ancient dialect of ,axum4 ,that of the ,old ,testament was made from the ,septuagint2 that of the ,new is a close version of the original ,greek4 ,the age to which it belongs is not known4 ,many of the readings of its text are said to show an affinity with the older class of ,greek manuscripts1 while others are of a later character4 ,this leads to the suspicion that the version has undergone revision by the aid of later ,greek manuscripts4 ,an edition of the whole ,bible is in process of publication in ,germany4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,gothic ,,and ,,other ,,versions4 #aa4 ,the first information which ,european scholars had of the existence of a ,gothic version of the ,new ,testament was in the sixteenth century1 when one ,morillon copied from a ,gothic manuscript in the library of the ,monastery of ,werden in ,westphalia the ,lord's ,prayer and some other parts1 which were afterwards published4 ,when the ,swedes1 in #afdh1 took ,prague1 among the spoils sent to ,stockholm was the celebrated ,codex ,argenteus1 ,silver manuscript1 containing a copy of the ,gothic gospels written on purple vellum in silver letters1 except the beginnings of the sections which are in gold4 ,when entire the manuscript is said to have contained #cbj leaves1 but when found it had but #ahh in quarto size4 ,in its present state it wants parts of all the gospels4 ,the letters are deeply furrowed1 and beautifully regular4 ,it is thought that this manuscript was executed for the use of some ,gothic king4 ,after various changes of place1 it was finally deposited in the library of the ,university of ,upsal in ,sweden1 where it is now preserved enclosed in a silver case4 ,the ,gothic version1 of which the ,codex ,argenteus is a transcript1 was made in the fourth century by ,ulphilas1 second bishop of the ,goths in ,moesia 7the so-called ,moeso-,goths74 ,the manuscript itself belongs1 it is thought1 to the sixth century4 #ab4 ,in #agfb a palimpsest was discovered by ,knittel at ,wolfenbuettel1 a city of the duchy of ,brunswick in ,germany1 containing1 as the earlier writing1 part of the epistle to the ,romans in ,gothic and ,latin1 the versions standing side by side4 ,in #ahag the late ,cardinal ,mai discovered in the ,ambrosian ,library at ,milan five palimpsests1 from which1 in connection with the ,wolfenbuettel palimpsest1 the ,gothic text of the greater part of the ,pauline epistles 7that to the ,hebrews not included7 has been recovered1 as also some fragments of the gospels1 and of the books of ,ezra and ,nehemiah4 ,all that has been recovered of the ,gothic version was edited in #ahce-f by ,gabelentz and ,loebe with a ,latin translation1 notes1 and a ,gothic dictionary and grammar4 ,there are several later editions partly of the ,codex ,argenteus1 and partly of all the ,gothic remains of the ,scriptures4 ,thus this interesting version1 which represents the text of the ,new ,testament in the fourth century as it was known to ,ulphilas1 is made available for the purposes of ,biblical criticism4 #ac4 ,there is an ancient ,armenian version unaccompanied as yet by any ,latin translation2 and thus available for critical purposes only through the help of those who know the language4 ,by means of such help ,dr4 ,tregelles used it for his critical edition of the ,new ,testament1 and he speaks of its value as a critical witness as to the general reading of certain ,greek copies existing in the former half of the fifth century4 ,in ,smith's ,bible ,dict41 ,art4 ,armenian ,version4 ,other ancient versions1 as the ,arabic and ,slavonic1 we pass by2 as their comparatively late date makes them of little importance for critical studies4 ,the history of modern versions1 among which is our own authorized version1 presents a wide and interesting field of inquiry1 but it does not come within the scope of the present work4 ,,second ,,division1 ,,particular ,,introduction ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,historical ,,books4 #a4 ,the ,new ,testament1 like the ,old1 is not an abstract system of doctrines and duties1 but a record of facts involving doctrines and duties of the highest import4 ,this record does not constitute an independent history1 complete in itself1 and to be explained in its own light4 ,it is rather the necessary sequel to the record of the ,old ,testament4 ,it interprets the ,old ,testament1 and is itself interpreted by it4 ,the two constitute together an organic whole1 and can be truly understood only in their mutual connection4 ,to discard the ,old ,testament whether formally or in practice1 is to throw away the key which unlocks to us the treasures of the ,new2 for the writers of the ,new ,testament continually reason out of the ,scriptures of the ,old4 ,if we cannot truly comprehend the ,old ,testament except when we view it as preparatory to the revelation contained in the ,new1 so neither can we have a full understanding of the ,new except as the completion of the revelation begun in the ,old4 ,in a word1 we understand revelation aright only in its unity4 #b4 ,the ,new ,testament uses all the teachings of the ,old1 but it does not repeat them all4 ,the unity1 personality1 and infinite perfections of ,god2 his universal providence1 and his supremacy as well over nations as individuals2 the duties that men owe to ,god and each other1 as embodied for substance in the ten commandments and expanded in the teachings of ,moses and the prophets2 the indissoluble connection1 on the one hand1 between righteousness and true prosperity1 and on the other1 between sin and ruin--all these great truths are so fully unfolded in the ,old ,testament that they need no formal repetition in the ,new4 ,the person and office of the ,messiah--as that great prophet1 like unto ,moses1 whom ,god should raise up for his people in the latter days2 as that mighty king of ,david's line1 who should sit on his throne and in his kingdom to order it and to establish it with judgment and with justice forever2 as that high priest after the order of ,melchisedec whom ,god should establish forever with a solemn oath--had been prefigured in the institutions of ,moses1 in the ,psalms1 and in the writings of the prophets4 ,some other important truths not so fully revealed in the ,old ,testament but deducible in a legitimate way either from its general scope or from some brief hints in its teachings1 had become firmly established in the faith of the ,jewish people during the long interval that elapsed between ,malachi and ,christ4 ,such particularly were the doctrines of the resurrection of the dead and of future rewards and punishments4 ,these truths1 also1 as well as those more directly and fully taught in the ,old ,testament1 were assumed by the ,saviour and his apostles as a platform for the peculiar revelations of the gospel1 the sum of which is ,jesus ,christ crucified for the salvation of the world4 ,the four gospels1 then1 as containing the history of our ,lord's appearance and works1 lie at the foundation of the revelation contained in the ,new ,testament4 ,to these1 then1 our attention must first be given2 after which the history of the apostolic labors1 as given in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 will naturally follow4 ,i4 ,,the ,,gospels ,,as ,a ,,whole4 #c4 ,the word gospel 7,anglo-,saxon1 god1 good1 and spell1 history or tidings7 answers to the ,greek word euangelion1 good-tidings1 whence comes the ,latin evangelium1 with the derived words in use among us1 as evangelist1 evangelical1 etc4 ,it properly signifies the good message itself1 and it is only by a secondary usage that it is applied to the written histories of the ,saviour's life1 as being the embodiment of this message4 ,the titles prefixed to these gospels from the beginning2 ,the ,gospel according to ,matthew1 ,the ,gospel according to ,mark1 etc41 indicate that the written record is not itself the gospel1 but rather an account of the gospel according to these different writers4 ,christ himself is the author of the gospel4 ,it existed and was received by many thousands before a line of it was put upon record on the written page4 #d4 ,the genuineness1 uncorrupt preservation1 and authenticity of the four canonical gospels have already been shown at some length4 ,chaps4 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,in connection with the argument for their genuineness1 their natural division into two parts--the first three1 commonly called the synoptical gospels1 and the gospel according to ,john2 the remarkable agreements and differences of the three synoptical gospels among themselves2 and the remarkable contrast which the fourth gospel presents to all three of the synoptical gospels1 have also been considered simply as existing facts4 ,chap4 #b1 ,nos4 #ad and #ae4 ,but when we seek an explanation of these remarkable phenomena1 we enter upon a very difficult problem1 one on which the ingenuity of ,biblical scholars has exhausted itself for several successive generations without reaching thus far a result that can be regarded as perfectly satisfactory4 ,almost all conceivable theories and combinations of theories have been proposed1 some of which1 however1 are now generally abandoned as untenable1 and need not be considered at large4 #e4 ,looking at the three synoptical gospels1 ,matthew1 ,mark1 and ,luke1 we find a remarkable agreement not only in their general plan1 but in many of their details also4 ,with the exception of our ,lord's last journey to ,jerusalem and the history of his passion there1 they are mainly occupied with his ministry in ,galilee4 ,the selection of incidents is also to a great extent the same4 ,the most remarkable differences lie in the presence of a long series of events connected with the ,galilean ministry1 which are peculiar to ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,mark 7,matt4 #ad3bb-af3ab2 ,mark #f3de-h3bf71 and a second series of events connected with the journey to ,jerusalem 7,luke #i3ea-ah3ad71 which is peculiar to ,st4 ,luke4 ,westcott1 ,introduct4 to the ,study of the ,gospels1 chap4 #c4 ,the coincidences of language1 as well as incident1 are also remarkable2 and here the general law prevails that these coincidences are more common1 as has been shown by ,norton and others1 in the recital of the words of others than in the narrative parts of the gospels1 and most common when our ,lord's own words are recited4 #f4 ,but with these remarkable agreements coexist equally remarkable differences4 ,each writer has his own peculiarities of style1 which appear more distinctly in the original than they can in any version4 ,it has been noticed also by ,biblical scholars that these peculiarities are more marked in the narrative than in the recitative parts of the gospels in question4 ,each writer1 moreover1 brings in incidents peculiar to himself1 not in the form of patchwork1 but as parts of a self consistent whole4 ,so far is he from exact outward conformity to either of the other gospels1 in respect to arrangement and circumstantial details1 that the diversity between him and them in these particulars1 sometimes creates serious difficulties when we attempt to arrange the three different narratives in the form of a harmony4 #g4 ,no theory of the origin of these three gospels can be true which does not explain both their coincidences and their differences4 ,hence we may set aside at once the hypothesis of their mutual dependence on each other--that the later evangelists used the writings of the earlier4 ,by the different advocates of this theory1 each of the three synoptic gospels has been made in turn the primary record from which the others drew2 but no one of them has been able1 upon this hypothesis1 to account for the omissions or insertions of the supposed later evangelists1 much less for the remarkable fact already noticed1 that the peculiarities of each writer appear more fully in the narrative than in the recitative part of his gospel4 ,the later evangelists may1 indeed1 have been acquainted with the writings of the earlier and have consulted them1 but this supposition alone does not explain their peculiar coincidences and differences4 ,another hypothesis is that of an original document or documents1 from which all three are supposed to have drawn4 ,the assumption of a single original written gospel1 as the basis of our first three canonical gospels1 is manifestly untenable4 ,had a primitive gospel existed of such compass and authority as to be the common source of our three synoptic gospels1 it is inconceivable that the churches1 which carefully preserved these three gospels1 though two of them proceeded not from apostles themselves but only from their companions1 should have allowed the original gospel so speedily and utterly to perish1 that no traces of it remained in the days of ,irenaeus1 ,tertullian1 and ,clement of ,alexandria4 ,besides1 this hypothesis1 as it was soon seen1 does not explain the peculiar relation of these gospels to each other in respect to coincidences and differences4 ,hence various modifications were proposed--an original ,aramaic gospel with various ,greek translations1 this original ,aramaic gospel variously increased with new matter1 etc4 ,in a word1 the form of these assumed original documents was hypothetically explained from the actual form of our three synoptic gospels2 the very reverse of the true problem1 which was to explain1 from some reliable data1 the form of the canonical gospels themselves4 ,the remaining hypothesis is that of oral tradition emanating from the apostles themselves1 and maintained in its purity during their lives by their personal presence and teaching4 ,that the gospel existed in this form alone for some years after the beginning of ,christianity is admitted by all4 ,the apostles were ,christ's chosen witnesses of his life and teachings4 ,from their lips proceeded the tradition which now constitutes our written gospels4 ,the necessity of embodying this tradition in the form of permanent records was not felt at the beginning4 ,but1 as the churches were multiplied1 oral tradition became liable to corruption in many ways through the multiplicity of the organs employed in its transmission4 ,then the need of written gospels began to manifest itself1 and it was natural that the apostles should look to the supply of this need either by their own direct agency1 or by that of men writing with their knowledge and approbation4 ,how many years elapsed before the appearance of the earliest of our canonical gospels1 which is commonly supposed to have been that of ,matthew1 we have no means of ascertaining with accuracy4 ,but we may reasonably suppose that the period was long enough to allow the apostolic tradition of our ,lord's life and teachings to assume a somewhat definite shape in respect to both matter and outward form4 ,first1 in respect to matter4 ,as their public instructions could not cover the whole of our ,saviour's history 7,john #bj3cj2 #ba3 #be71 they naturally selected1 under the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit1 those parts of it which embodied the spirit and meaning of the whole4 ,since1 moreover1 the apostles remained together at ,jerusalem for some time after our ,lord's ascension 7,acts #h3a2 #ae3f71 it is highly reasonable to suppose that in a matter of such moment they had a mutual understanding--an understanding which1 while it interfered with the freedom of no one1 secured a general agreement as to the points in our ,lord's history and teachings which should be especially insisted on4 ,secondly in respect to outward form4 ,while the apostles were preserved by the illumination of the ,holy ,spirit from any superstitious regard to the letter of our ,lord's teachings1 their reverence for him as a perfect teacher1 whose words were truth unmixed with error1 must have made them anxious to put the oral tradition of his sayings into as perfect a form as possible2 whence the tradition of our ,saviour's words would assume from the first a more fixed form than that of his life generally4 ,it is supposed by many that the writers of the first three gospels drew each from this common body of oral tradition such materials as suited his general plan2 no one of them proposing to give the whole of our ,lord's history1 or even to observe a strict chronological order in the events recorded by him1 any farther than such order was rendered necessary by their nature and essential connection4 ,in the case of ,matthew1 who was one of the twelve apostles1 it might be thought that he wrote simply from his own personal knowledge2 but his gospel could not cover all the ground of our ,lord's history as known to him1 and we may well suppose that in the selection of his materials he had regard--not a servile1 but a free regard--to the common oral tradition of the apostles1 which was1 in fact1 the embodiment of their united wisdom under the illumination of the ,divine ,spirit4 ,each evangelist1 as well ,mark and ,luke who were not apostles1 as ,matthew who belonged to the number of the twelve1 wrote independently of the other two4 ,the later writers may1 indeed1 have been acquainted with the writings of the earlier1 but a bare inspection of the three gospels shows that there was no labored effort on the part of one evangelist to adjust his work to those of the others4 ,hence arise apparent discrepancies1 as in the two genealogies of our ,lord1 which it is sometimes hard to explain4 ,but these very difficulties witness to the independent truthfulness of the writers4 ,had they written in concert1 or borrowed systematically from each other1 such difficulties would not have existed4 ,although apostolic oral tradition is thus made the main source whence the writers of these gospels drew their materials1 it is not necessary to affirm or deny their use1 in a subordinate way1 of written documents4 ,that such documents existed in the time of ,luke we know from his own words1 chap4 #a3a4 ,he does not condemn them1 but neither does he rely upon them4 ,his gospel is not derived from them1 but from his own accurate investigations2 ,it seemed good to me also1 having accurately traced out all things from the beginning 7as the original ,greek means71 to write to thee in order1 most excellent ,theophilus4 ,chap4 #a3c4 ,and if ,luke1 the companion of ,paul1 was not dependent for his materials on any previously existing writings1 neither was ,mark1 the companion of both ,peter and ,paul1 nor ,matthew1 who was himself an apostle4 ,nor can the incorporation of such writings into the synoptic gospels be shown with any degree of probability4 ,if it cannot be claimed for this hypothesis of a primitive apostolic tradition1 as the source whence the writers of the synoptic gospels drew their materials1 that it explains all the phenomena of their mutual relation to each other1 it is1 nevertheless1 more satisfactory than any other that has been proposed1 and may be regarded as a near approximation to the actual facts in the case4 ,between the traditions of which the apostle ,paul speaks 7#b ,thess4 #b3ae2 #c3f2 also1 according to the original1 #a ,cor4 #aa3b7 received immediately from his mouth or pen1 and the pretended traditions of later days1 handed down from century to century through a succession of uninspired men1 the difference is that between light and darkness1 between truth and fiction4 ,we have in the writings of the ,new ,testament the genuine apostolic tradition1 at first oral1 but put into a written form during the lifetime of the apostles4 ,these traditions are the gold1 silver1 precious stones of divine truth4 ,all other traditions are the wood1 hay1 stubble of human origin4 ,in settling the question respecting the genuineness of the ,new ,testament writings1 we proceed as in the case of any other writings4 ,we avail ourselves of all the evidence within our reach1 external and internal4 ,we take the testimony of ,irenaeus and ,tertullian1 and also of ,marcion and ,valentinus2 though none of them were inspired1 and the two latter were heretical4 ,but when we have once determined what books were written by apostles or apostolic men1 these contain for us the only authoritative tradition1 as defined by the apostle3 ,therefore1 brethren1 stand fast1 and hold the traditions which ye have been taught1 whether by word or our epistle4 #b ,thess4 #b3ae4 #h4 ,in comparing the synoptic gospels with each other and with the fourth gospel1 we must ever bear in mind that no one of them professes to give a complete history of our ,lord's life1 or to arrange all the incidents which he relates in the exact order of time4 ,under the guidance of the divine ,spirit each one pursues his own course1 independently of the others1 here inserting what one or more of the rest have omitted1 or omitting what one or more of them have inserted2 and here1 again1 bringing in incidents without regard to their exact chronological order1 with some general preface like the following3 at that time1 ,matt4 #ab3a2 and he began again1 ,mark #d3a2 and it came to pass as he was alone praying1 ,luke #i3ah2 and it came to pass as they went in the way1 ,luke #i3eg2 etc4 ,thus the wisdom of ,god has given us1 not all the particulars of our ,lord's history1 but such a selection from both the incidents of his public life and his public and private teachings as best embodies the great facts of the gospel1 and the doctrines and duties connected with them4 ,in the four canonical gospels the church has1 not all of our ,lord's history and teachings1 but all that the ,holy ,ghost judged needful for her establishment and edification to the end of time4 ,of our ,lord's history before his baptism we have only his genealogy in a twofold form2 some notices of his miraculous conception2 an account of his birth and circumcision1 with the visions and prophecies connected with them2 a history of his preservation from ,herod's attempt to destroy him2 the subsequent residence of his parents in ,nazareth1 with a single incident of his childhood4 ,luke #b3dj-eb4 ,all these particulars have1 in one way or another1 a bearing on his divine mission and work as the ,son of ,god4 ,the apocryphal gospels on the contrary1 as1 for example1 the ,gospel of the ,infancy1 and the ,gospel of ,nicodemus1 abound in frivolous stories relating to our ,lord's infancy and later life1 which have no connection with the great work of redemption4 #i4 ,the peculiarities of the fourth gospel1 as well as its relation to the three preceding gospels1 will come up for consideration hereafter4 ,at present we only remark that ,john wrote many years after the appearance of the synoptic gospels1 and that1 whatever reference he may have had to them1 his gospel constitutes1 in the plan of revelation1 a true complement to the other three4 ,for 7#a7 if we except the narrative of our ,lord's passion1 it covers1 for the most part1 ground not occupied by them4 ,they give mainly the history of the ,saviour's ministry in ,galilee 7,luke also1 at some length1 that of his last journey to ,jerusalem72 the scene of much of ,john's gospel1 on the contrary1 is ,jerusalem and its near vicinity4 7#b7 ,john unfolds more fully the nature of our ,lord's person1 and his peculiar relation to the ,father and to his church4 ,this he does1 more especially1 in his prologue 7chap4 #a3a-ah72 in the record of the ,saviour's discussions with the ,jews 7chaps4 #c1 #e-ab72 and in that of his discourses addressed in private to the circle of the apostles1 chaps4 #ac-ag4 ,thus ,john's gospel is emphatically that of ,christ's person1 as illustrated by his works and words2 while the three earlier evangelists give rather the gospel of his public ministry1 through which his divine person everywhere shines forth4 ,this deeper view of our ,lord's person and office which the gospel of ,john unfolds met the wants of the primitive church in a more advanced stage1 when false teachers were already beginning to sow the seeds of those errors which1 in the next generation1 brought forth such a rank and poisonous harvest4 ,the same great characteristics adapt it to the wants of the church in all ages4 ,without the fourth gospel she could not be completely furnished to meet the assaults of error1 which1 from one generation to another1 makes1 with unerring instinct1 its main assault upon the person and office of the ,son of ,god4 ,but if the evangelical narrative would not be complete without the fourth gospel1 neither would it be perfect for the use of the church with this alone4 ,the record of our ,lord's life and teachings as given in the first three gospels is preeminently adapted to popular instruction4 ,it is precisely such a record as the preachers of the gospel need in their public ministrations4 ,with it they can use the fourth gospel with effect2 but without it they would want the natural preparation for and introduction to those deep and spiritual views of ,christ's person and office which the bosom-disciple unfolds4 ,it is not in the three synoptic gospels1 nor in the gospel of ,john taken separately1 that we find the complete evangelical armor1 but in the perfect whole of the four4 #aj4 ,very numerous attempts have been made to construct harmonies of the four gospels4 ,one plan is to form out of the whole1 in what is supposed to be the true chronological order1 a continuous narrative embracing all the matter of the four1 but without repetitions of the same or similar words4 ,another plan is to exhibit in chronological order1 the entire text of the four gospels arranged in parallel columns1 so far as two or more of them cover the same ground4 ,the idea is very imposing1 but the realization of it is beset with formidable if not insurmountable difficulties4 ,it is certain that the evangelists do not always follow the exact order of time1 and it is sometimes impossible to decide between the different arrangements of events in their records4 ,in the four narratives of the events connected with the resurrection all harmonists find themselves baffled4 ,had we a full account of all the particulars of that exciting scene1 we might undoubtedly assign to the different parts of each narrative its true place in the order of time4 ,but with our present means of information this is impossible4 ,experience shows that the most profitable way of studying the evangelical narrative is to take each gospel as a whole1 but with continual reference to the parallel parts of the other gospels1 so far as they can be ascertained4 ,in this work a good harmony1 like that of ,robinson1 may render essential service1 though its arrangements must in many cases be regarded only as tentative--essays at obtaining the true order1 rather than the certain determination of it4 ,the relative number of chapters in the different gospels does not give their true relation in respect to size4 ,the chapters are respectively #bh1 #af1 #bd1 #ba2 which are to each other in the proportion of #g1 #d1 #f1 #e #a_/d4 ,but estimating according to the number of pages 7in an edition without breaks for the verses71 it will be found that the gospel of ,luke holds the first place1 its size being to that of the other gospels nearly as #fj to #eg1 #ce1 #df4 ,the relation of ,matthew's gospel to that of ,mark1 in respect to the quantity of matter is then nearly that of #h to #e4 ,in the notices of the separate gospels which follow it is not thought necessary to give an elaborate analysis of their contents4 ,the aim will be rather to exhibit the prominent characteristics of each1 and its special office in the economy of divine revelation4 ,,ii4 ,,matthew4 #aa4 ,the unanimous testimony of the ancient church is that the first gospel was written by the apostle ,matthew1 who is also called ,levi4 ,with his call to the apostleship he may have assumed the name of ,matthew1 as ,saul took that of ,paul4 ,he was of ,hebrew origin1 the son of ,alphaeus1 and a tax-gatherer under the ,roman government1 ,matt4 #aj3c2 ,mark #b3ad2 #c3ah2 ,luke #e3bg1 #bi2 #f3ae2 ,acts #a3ac4 ,he was evidently a man of some means 7,luke #e3bi71 and his office must have required for its proper discharge a knowledge of the ,greek as well as of his native ,hebrew2 that is1 ,aramaean1 as the word ,hebrew means in the ,new ,testament1 when applied to the vernacular of the ,palestine ,jews4 #ab4 ,the question respecting the original language of ,matthew's gospel has been1 since the time of ,erasmus1 a matter of controversy1 in which eminent biblical scholars have been found on different sides4 ,the problem is to find a solution which shall bring into harmony the following well-established facts3 7#a7 that1 according to the united testimony of the early church fathers1 ,matthew originally wrote his gospel in ,hebrew2 7#b7 that our present ,greek gospel has all the freedom of an original work1 that it has remarkable coincidences in language with the second and third gospels1 and especially that the citations from the ,old ,testament which stand in our ,lord's discourses follow as a rule the ,greek version of the ,seventy2 7#c7 that all the early writers1 those who testify to the ,hebrew original of this gospel included1 receive and use our present ,greek gospel as the genuine and authoritative gospel of ,matthew2 7#d7 that the original ,hebrew gospel1 to the existence of which there is such abundant testimony1 was allowed utterly to perish1 while the ,greek form of it alone was preserved and placed at the head of the canonical books of the ,new ,testament4 #ac4 ,the testimony from ,papias1 in the beginning of the second century1 and onward to the fourth century1 has often been quoted and discussed4 ,it is not necessary to adduce it here at length4 ,it may be found in ,kirchhofer1 in the critical commentaries and introductions1 and also in the modern ,bible dictionaries4 ,the words of ,papias1 as preserved to us by ,eusebius 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #c4 #ci7 are as follows3 ,matthew therefore wrote the oracles in the ,hebrew dialect1 and every one interpreted them as he was able4 ,if there were any ground for doubting what ,papias meant by the oracles1 it would be removed by the testimony of the later writers1 as ,pantaenus and ,origen 7in ,eusebius' ,hist4 ,eccl41 #e4 #aj2 #f4 #be71 ,irenaeus 7,against ,heresies1 #c4 #a71 ,eusebius himself 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #c4 #bd71 ,epiphanius 7,heresies1 #bi4 #i2 #cj4 #c71 and others4 ,they who maintain that ,matthew wrote originally in ,greek suppose that the early fathers confounded an apocryphal gospel1 the so-called gospel according to the ,hebrews1 with the true gospel of ,matthew4 ,others think1 perhaps with more reason1 that the gospel according to the ,hebrews was a corrupted form1 or1 what amounts to nearly the same thing1 a close imitation of the true ,hebrew gospel of ,matthew4 ,the ,ebionites and ,nazarenes used each apparently a different form of a ,hebrew gospel which is sometimes called the gospel according to ,matthew1 but more properly the gospel according to the ,hebrews 7once by ,jerome the gospel according to the apostles74 ,according to ,epiphanius that in use among the ,ebionites was not entire and full1 but corrupted and abridged4 ,heresies1 #cj4 #ac4 ,jerome says3 ,matthew1 who is called ,levi1 having become from a publican an apostle1 first composed in ,judea1 for the sake of those who had believed from among the circumcision1 a gospel of ,christ in ,hebrew letters and words4 ,who was the person that afterwards translated it into ,greek is not certainly known4 ,moreover1 the ,hebrew copy itself is at this day preserved in the library of ,caesarea which ,pampilus the ,martyr collected with much diligence4 ,the ,nazarenes1 who live in ,beroca1 a city of ,syria1 and use this volume1 gave me the opportunity of writing it out4 ,de ,vir4 ,illustr41 #c4 ,here he certainly identifies this gospel1 which1 as he repeatedly informs us1 he translated1 with the true ,hebrew gospel of ,matthew4 ,but he afterwards speaks of it more doubtfully1 as the gospel according to the ,hebrews1 and more fully as the gospel according to the ,hebrews1 which is written indeed in the ,chaldee and ,syriac language1 but in ,hebrew letters1 which the ,nazarenes use to the present day1 being the gospel according to the apostles1 or1 as most think1 according to ,matthew 7,against the ,pelagians1 #c72 the gospel which the ,nazarenes and ,ebionites use1 which we have lately translated from the ,hebrew language into the ,greek1 and which is called by most the authentic gospel of ,matthew4 ,comment4 in ,matt4 #ab3ac4 ,the most probable supposition is that ,jerome1 knowing that ,matthew originally wrote his gospel in ,hebrew1 hastily assumed at first that the copy which he obtained from the ,nazarenes was this very gospel4 ,the character of the quotations which he and ,epiphanius give from it forbids the supposition that it was the true ,hebrew gospel of ,matthew4 ,it may have been a corrupted form of it1 or an imitation of it4 #ad4 ,of those who1 in accordance with ancient testimony1 believe that the original language of ,matthew's gospel was ,hebrew1 some assume that the apostle himself afterwards gave a ,greek version of it4 ,in itself considered this hypothesis is not improbable4 ,matthew1 writing primarily for his countrymen in ,palestine1 might naturally employ the language which was to them vernacular4 ,but afterwards1 when ,christianity had begun to spread through the ,roman empire1 and it became evident that the ,greek language was the proper medium for believers at large2 and when also1 as is not improbable1 some of the existing canonical books of the ,new ,testament had appeared in that language1 we might well suppose that1 in view of these circumstances1 the apostle himself put his gospel into the present ,greek form4 ,but it is certainly surprising that1 in this case1 no one of the ancient fathers should have had any knowledge of the matter4 ,in view of their ignorance it seems to be the part of modesty as well as prudence that we also should say with ,jerome3 ,who was the person that afterwards translated it into ,greek is not known with certainty4 ,the universal and unhesitating reception of this gospel by the early ,christians in its present ,greek form can be explained only upon the supposition that it came to them with apostolic authority2 that it received this form at the hand1 if not of ,matthew himself1 yet of an apostle or an apostolic man1 that is1 a man standing to the apostles in the same relation as ,mark and ,luke4 ,this supposition will explain the freedom of ,matthew's gospel and its coincidences in language with the gospels of ,mark and ,luke4 ,an apostle or apostolic man would give a faithful1 but not a servile version of the original4 ,the oral tradition of our ,lord's life and teachings from which the first three evangelists drew1 as from a common fountain 7see above1 ,no4 #g71 must have existed in ,palestine in a twofold form1 ,aramaean and ,greek4 ,the translator would naturally avail himself of the ,greek phraseology1 so far as the oral tradition coincided with that embodied in ,matthew's gospel4 ,those who have carefully examined the subject affirm that the citations from the ,old ,testament adduced by ,matthew himself in proof of our ,lord's ,messiahship are original renderings1 with more or less literalness1 from the ,hebrew4 ,the citations1 on the contrary1 embodied in the discourses of our ,lord himself follow1 as a rule1 the ,greek version of the ,seventy2 probably because the translator took these citations as they stood in the oral tradition of these discourses4 ,meanwhile the original ,hebrew form of the gospel1 being superseded by the ,greek in all the congregations of believers except those that used exclusively the vernacular language of ,palestine1 gradually fell into disuse4 ,the gospel according to the ,hebrews1 noticed above1 may have been a corrupted form of this gospel or an imitation of it4 ,as ,marcion chose the ,greek gospel of ,luke for the basis of his revision1 so the ,ebionites and ,nazarenes would naturally use the ,hebrew gospel of ,matthew for their purposes4 #ae4 ,the gospel of ,matthew opens with the words3 ,the book of the generation of ,jesus ,christ1 the son of ,david1 the son of ,abraham4 ,in accordance with this announcement1 it traces back our ,lord's lineage through ,david to ,abraham1 giving1 after the manner of the ,jews1 an artificial arrangement of the generations from ,abraham to ,christ in three sets of fourteen each1 chap4 #a3ag4 ,to effect this1 certain kings of ,david's line are omitted--between ,joram and ,ozias 7the ,uzziah of the ,hebrews71 ,ahaziah1 ,joash1 and ,amaziah2 between ,josias and ,jechonias1 ,eliakim--and ,david is reckoned twice2 once as the last of a set of fourteen1 then as the first of the following fourteen4 ,the thoroughly ,jewish form of this introduction indicates the primary design of ,matthew's gospel1 which was to exhibit to his countrymen ,jesus of ,nazareth as their long promised ,messiah and king4 ,to this he has constant reference in the facts which he relates1 and which he connects with the prophecies of the ,old ,testament by such forms of quotation as the following3 that it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the ,lord by the prophet1 chaps4 #a3bb2 #b3ae1 #bc2 #ac3ce2 #ba3d2 #bg3ce2 that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by ,esaias the prophet1 chaps4 #d3aa2 #h3ag2 #ab3ag2 then was fulfilled that which was spoken by ,jeremy the prophet1 chap4 #b3ag2 etc4 ,his direct references to the ,old ,testament in proof of our ,lord's ,messiahship are more numerous than those of either of the other evangelists4 ,peculiar to him is the expression the kingdom of heaven1 to signify1 in accordance with ,rabbinic usage1 the kingdom which the ,messiah was to establish in accordance with the prophecies of the ,old ,testament2 though he takes a spiritual view of its character1 and not the earthly and political view of the ,jewish doctors4 ,another designation of the same idea1 common to him with the other evangelists1 is the kingdom of ,god1 which also was current among the ,rabbins4 ,this kingdom of heaven and kingdom of ,god is also the kingdom of the ,messiah4 ,chaps4 #ac3da2 #bj3ba4 #af4 ,but precisely because ,jesus of ,nazareth is the promised ,messiah1 his mission is not to the ,jews only1 but to all mankind1 in accordance with the original promise to ,abraham3 ,in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed4 ,gen4 #bb3ah4 ,while he records the fact that our ,lord's personal ministry was restricted to the ,jews 7chaps4 #aj3e1 #f2 #ae3bd71 he also shows from our ,lord's own words that the unbelieving children of the kingdom--the ,jews as the natural heirs to the ,messiah's kingdom--shall be cast out1 and the believing ,gentiles received into it 7chaps4 #h3aa1 #ab2 #ba3dc72 and he brings his gospel to a close with the great commission3 ,go ye1 therefore1 and teach all nations1 baptizing them in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost2 teaching them to observe all things whatsoever ,i have commanded you1 and lo1 ,i am with you alway1 even unto the end of the world4 ,chap4 #bh3ai1 #bj4 #ag4 ,a striking characteristic of this gospel is the fulness and orderly manner with which it records our ,lord's discourses4 ,striking examples of this are the ,sermon on the ,mount 7chaps4 #e-g71 his awful denunciation of the ,scribes and ,pharisees 7chap4 #bc71 and the majestic series of parables 7chap4 #be74 ,doubtless1 ,matthew had by nature a peculiar endowment for this work1 which the ,holy ,spirit used to preserve for the church much of our ,lord's teachings which would otherwise have been lost4 ,the narrative part of this gospel1 on the other hand1 has not the circumstantial fulness of the following gospel4 ,as already remarked1 the field covered by ,matthew's narrative is mainly that of our ,lord's ,galilean ministry1 with the great events connected with his final visit to ,jerusalem1 though he gives indications of repeated visits to that city4 ,chap4 #bc3cg-ci4 #ah4 ,it has been assumed by some that ,matthew follows1 as a general rule1 the order of time4 ,but others deny this1 thinking that his arrangement is according to subject-matter rather than chronological sequence1 especially in the first part 7,alexander's ,kitto72 and this appears to be the correct judgment4 ,he follows the exact order of time only when the nature of the events recorded requires him to do so4 #ai4 ,it is universally admitted that ,matthew wrote his gospel in ,palestine4 ,this fact accounts for the absence of explanatory clauses relating to ,jewish usages1 such as are not unfrequent in the gospel of ,mark4 ,as to the interpretation of ,hebrew words1 as ,immanuel 7chap4 #a3bc72 and the words on the cross 7chap4 #bg3df71 that belongs to the ,greek form of the gospel4 ,the date of this gospel is doubtful4 ,according to the tradition of the ancient church it was written first of the four gospels4 ,assuming that it originally appeared in ,hebrew1 we may reasonably suppose that a period of some years elapsed before it was put into its present ,greek form4 #bj4 ,the integrity of this gospel is unquestionable4 ,in modern times the genuineness of the first two chapters has been called in question by various writers1 but the insufficiency of their arguments has been shown by many1 among whom may be mentioned ,davidson1 ,introduction to ,new ,testament1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #aaa-abg4 ,in the words of this writer the chapters in question are found in all unmutilated ,greek ,,mss41 and in all ancient versions2 the earliest fathers had them in their copies1 and received them as a part of the gospel2 the ancient heretics and opponents of ,christianity were acquainted with this portion of the first gospel2 the commencement of the first chapter is closely connected with something preceding2 and the diction of these two chapters bears the same impress and character which belong to the remainder of the gospel1 proving that the gospel1 as we now have it1 proceeded from one author4 ,,iii4 ,,mark4 #ba4 ,there is no valid ground for doubting the correctness of the ancient tradition which identifies the author of the second gospel with ,john whose surname was ,mark 7,acts #ab3ab1 #be2 #ae3cg71 who is called simply ,john 7,acts #ac3e1 #ac71 and ,marcus or ,mark 7,acts #ae3ci2 ,col4 #d3aj2 #b ,tim4 #d3aa2 perhaps also #a ,peter #e3ac74 ,he was cousin to ,barnabas 7,col4 #d3aj1 not sister's son1 as in our version71 which relationship may explain ,barnabas' earnest defence of him 7,acts #ae3cg-ci74 ,his mother ,mary resided in ,jerusalem1 and it was to her house that ,peter resorted immediately upon his miraculous deliverance from prison 7,acts #ab3ab74 ,the intimacy of ,peter with ,mary's family must have brought about an early acquaintance between the apostle and ,mark4 ,ancient tradition uniformly affirms a close relation between ,peter and ,mark1 representing the latter to have been the disciple and interpreter of the former4 ,see below4 ,papias 7in ,eusebius' ,hist4 ,eccl4 #c4 #ci7 says1 upon the authority of ,john the ,presbyter1 ,mark being ,peter's interpreter1 wrote down accurately as many things as he remembered2 not1 indeed1 as giving in order the things which were spoken or done by ,christ4 ,for he was neither a hearer nor a follower of the ,lord1 but1 as ,i said1 of ,peter1 who gave his instructions as occasion required1 but not as one who was composing an orderly account of our ,lord's words4 ,mark1 therefore1 committed no error when he thus wrote down certain things as he remembered them4 ,for he was careful of one thing1 to omit nothing of the things which he heard and to make no false statements concerning them4 ,these words of ,papias are somewhat loose and indefinite4 ,but1 when fairly interpreted1 they seem to mean that as ,peter taught according to the necessities of each occasion1 not aiming to give a full history of our ,lord in chronological order1 so ,mark wrote not all things pertaining to our ,lord's life and ministry1 but certain things1 those namely that he had learned from ,peter's discourses1 without always observing the strict order of time4 ,we need not press the words in order and certain things1 as if ,papias meant to say that ,mark's gospel is only a loose collection of fragments4 ,it is a connected and self-consistent whole2 but it does not profess to give in all cases the exact chronological order of events1 nor to be an exhaustive account of our ,saviour's life and teachings4 ,eusebius has preserved for us in his ,ecclesiastical ,history the testimony of ,irenaeus on the same point 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #e4 #h72 also of ,clement of ,alexandria 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #f4ad72 and of ,origen 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #f4 #be74 ,he also gives his own 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #b4 #e74 ,we have besides these1 the statements of ,tertullian 7,against ,marcion1 #f4 #be72 and ,jerome 7,epist4 ad ,hedib4 ,quaest41 #b74 ,all these witnesses1 though not consistent among themselves in respect to several minor details1 yet agree in respect to the two great facts1 7#a7 that ,mark was the companion of ,peter and had a special relation to him1 7#b7 that he was the author of the gospel which bears his name4 ,we add from ,meyer 7,introduction to ,commentary on ,mark7 the following exposition of the word interpreter as applied to ,mark in his relation to ,peter3 ,no valid ground of doubt can be alleged against it1 provided only we do not understand the idea contained in the word interpreter to mean that ,peter1 not having sufficient mastery of the ,greek1 delivered his discourses in ,aramaean1 and had them interpreted by ,mark into ,greek2 but rather that the office of a secretary is indicated1 who wrote down the oral communications of his apostle 7whether from dictation1 or in the freer exercise of his own activity7 and so became in the way of writing his interpreter to others4 ,mark's connection with the apostle ,paul1 though interrupted by the incident recorded in the ,acts of the ,apostles 7#ae3cg-ci71 was afterwards renewed and he restored to the apostle's confidence1 as is manifest from the way in which he notices him4 ,col4 #d3aj2 #b ,tim4 #d3aa4 ,if1 as is probable 7see below1 ,no4 #bb71 ,mark wrote between ,a4,d4 #fj and #gj1 his long intimacy with ,peter and ,paul qualified him in a special manner for his work4 #bb4 ,ancient tradition favors the idea that ,mark wrote his gospel in ,rome4 ,had he written in ,egypt1 as ,chrysostom thinks1 we can hardly suppose that ,clement of ,alexandria would have been ignorant of the fact1 as his testimony shows that he was4 ,in respect to date1 the accounts of the ancients differ so much among themselves that it is difficult to arrive at any definite conclusion4 ,we may probably place it between ,a4,d4 #fd and #gj4 ,the language in which ,mark wrote was ,greek4 ,this is attested by the united voice of antiquity4 ,the subscriptions annexed to some manuscripts of the ,old ,syriac1 and that in the ,philoxenian ,syriac version1 to the effect that ,mark wrote in ,roman1 that is1 in ,latin1 are of no authority4 ,they are the conjectures of ignorant men1 who inferred from the fact that ,mark wrote in ,rome that he must have used the ,latin tongue4 ,the story of the pretended ,latin autograph of ,mark's gospel preserved in the ,library of ,st4 ,mark at ,venice is now exploded4 ,the manuscript to which this high honor was assigned is part of the ,codex ,forojuliensis1 which gives the text of the ,latin ,vulgate4 ,the text was edited by ,blanchini in the appendix to his ,evangeliarium ,quadruplex1 ,fourfold ,gospel4 ,the gospel of ,mark having been cut out and removed to ,venice was exalted to be the autograph of ,mark4 ,see ,tregelles in ,horne1 vol4 #d1 chap4 #bc4 ,the fact that ,mark wrote out of ,palestine and for ,gentile readers at once accounts for the numerous explanatory clauses by which his gospel is distinguished from that of ,matthew4 ,examples are3 chaps4 #g3c1 #d2 #ab3db2 #ac3c2 #ad3ab2 #ae3db2 and the frequent interpretations of ,aramaean words3 #c3ag2 #e3da2 #g3aa1 #cd2 #aj3df2 #ad3cf2 #ae3cd4 #bc4 ,the opening words of ,matthew's gospel are3 ,the book of the generation of ,jesus ,christ1 the son of ,david1 the son of ,abraham1 by which1 as already remarked1 he indicates his purpose to show that ,jesus of ,nazareth is the long promised ,messiah of ,david's line1 and the seed of ,abraham1 in whom all nations are to be blessed4 ,mark1 on the contrary1 passing by our ,lord's genealogy1 commences thus3 ,the beginning of the gospel of ,jesus ,christ1 the ,son of ,god4 ,he recognizes him1 indeed as the son of ,david1 and the promised ,messiah and king of ,israel4 ,chaps4 #aj3dg1 #dh2 #aa3aj2 #ae3cb4 ,but1 writing among ,gentiles and for ,gentiles1 the great fact which he is intent on setting forth is the person and character of ,jesus as the ,son of ,god4 ,matthew gives special attention to the ,saviour's discourses4 ,with these considerably more than a third of his gospel is occupied4 ,mark1 on the contrary1 devotes himself mainly to the narrative of our ,lord's works4 ,with this is interwoven a multitude of his sayings2 since it was the ,saviour's custom to teach in connection with surrounding incidents4 ,but if we compare the set discourses of our ,lord recorded by ,mark with those which ,matthew gives1 they will hardly amount to a fifth part in quantity4 ,between the narrative parts of ,matthew and ,mark1 on the contrary1 there is not a very great disparity in respect to the space occupied by each4 #bd4 ,though ,mark has but little matter that is absolutely new1 he yet handles his materials in an original and independent way1 weaving into the narratives which he gives in common with one or more of the other evangelists numerous little incidents in the most natural and artless way4 ,his characteristics as a historian are graphic vividness of description and circumstantiality of detail4 ,if we except some striking passages of ,john's gospel1 he brings us nearer to our ,lord's person and the scenes described than either of the other evangelists4 ,he brings before us1 as in a picture1 not only our ,lord's words and works1 but his very looks and gestures4 ,it is he that records as has been often noticed1 how the ,saviour looked round about him with anger on the unbelieving multitudes and on ,peter 7chap4 #c3e2 #h3cc72 with complacency on his disciples 7chap4 #c3cd2 #aj3bg72 and with the piercing look of inquiry 7chap4 #e3cb72 how he looked up to heaven and sighed when he healed one who was deaf and dumb 7chap4 #g3cd72 and how he sighed deeply in spirit at the perverseness of the ,pharisees 7chap4 #h3ab74 ,he sometimes gives us the very words of the ,saviour when he performed his mighty works--,talitha cumi 7#e3da71 ,ephphatha 7#g3cd74 ,his narratives are remarkable for bringing in little incidents which can have come from none but an eyewitness1 but which add wonderfully to the naturalness as well as the vividness of his descriptions4 ,when the storm arises he is asleep on a pillow 7chap4 #d3ch72 ,jairus' daughter arises and walks1 for she was of the age of twelve years 7chap4 #e3db72 the multitudes that are to be fed sit down in ranks by hundreds and by fifties 7chap4 #f3dj71 etc4 ,as examples of vivid description may be named the account of the demoniac 7chap4 #e3b-bj71 and the lunatic4 ,chap4 #i3ad-bg4 ,it is not necessary to assume that ,mark was himself a disciple of our ,lord4 ,if1 as ancient tradition asserts1 he was the disciple and interpreter of ,peter he could receive from his lips those circumstantial details with which his narrative abounds4 #be4 ,the closing passage of this gospel1 chap4 #af3i-bj1 is wanting in a number of important manuscripts1 among which are the ,vatican and ,sinaitic4 ,the same was the case also in the days of ,eusebius and ,jerome4 ,but it was known to ,irenaeus1 and quoted by him and many others after him4 ,the reader must be referred to the critical commentaries and introductions for the discussion of the difficult questions concerning it4 ,tregelles1 who1 in his account of the printed text has given a full statement of the case1 thus expresses his judgment 7in ,horne1 vol4 #d1 p4 #dcf73 ,it is perfectly certain that from the second century and onward1 these verses have been known as part of this gospel 7whoever was their author74 ,he thinks that the book of ,mark himself extends no farther than 'for they were afraid1' chap4 #af3h2 but that the remaining twelve verses1 by whomsoever written1 have a full claim to be received as an authentic part of the second gospel1 and that the full reception of early testimony on this question does not in the least involve their rejection as not being a part of canonical ,scripture4 ,,iv4 ,,luke4 #bf4 ,the unanimous voice of antiquity ascribes the third gospel with the ,acts of the ,apostles to ,luke4 ,he first appears as the travelling companion of ,paul when he leaves ,troas for ,macedonia 7,acts #af3aj72 for the use of the first person plural--we endeavored1 the ,lord had called us1 we came1 etc4--which occurs from that point of ,paul's history and onward1 with certain interruptions1 through the remainder of the ,acts of the ,apostles1 admits of no other natural and reasonable explanation4 ,there is good reason to believe that he is identical with ,luke1 the beloved physician1 who was with ,paul when a prisoner at ,rome4 ,col4 #d3ad2 ,philemon #bd2 #b ,tim4 #d3aa4 ,from the first of these passages it has been inferred that he was not a ,jew by birth1 since he is apparently distinguished from those who are of the circumcision1 v4 #aa4 ,tradition represents him to have been by birth a ,syrian of ,antioch 7,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 #c4 #d2 ,jerome1 ,preface to ,matt41 and elsewhere71 and a ,jewish proselyte 7,jerome1 ,quest4 on ,gen41 chap4 #df72 and it adds various other legends which are not worth repeating4 #bg4 ,the evangelist himself1 in his dedicatory address to ,theophilus 7chap4 #a3a-d71 gives us clear and definite information respecting the sources of his gospel4 ,he does not profess to have been himself an eye-witness1 but has drawn his information from those who from the beginning were eye-witnesses and ministers of the word4 ,his investigations have been accurate and thorough3 having accurately traced out all things from the beginning 7as the original words mean71 he writes to ,theophilus in order2 that is1 in an orderly and connected way4 ,he proposes to give not some loose fragments1 but a connected narrative2 although1 as we have seen above 7,no4 #aj71 his order is not always that of strict chronological sequence4 ,from the long and intimate connection of ,luke with ,paul it is reasonable to suppose that the latter must have exerted an influence on the composition of this gospel4 ,luke1 however1 did not draw the materials of his narrative from ,paul 7at least not principally71 but1 as he expressly states1 from those who from the beginning were eye-witnesses and ministers of the word4 ,he did not write from ,paul's dictation1 but in a free and independent way2 though there is no reasonable ground for doubting that it was with ,paul's knowledge and approbation4 ,the eye-witnesses and ministers of the word are those who 7#a7 were from the beginning eye-witnesses of our ,lord's public ministry2 7#b7 were intrusted with the work of preaching the word2 that is1 the apostles and such of their associates as had companied with them all the time that the ,lord ,jesus went in and out among them4 ,acts #a3ba4 ,the words of ,luke must not be strained2 for he records some incidents of our ,lord's history before his public appearance which could have been learned only from ,mary and her circle4 ,the remarkable agreement between ,luke's account of the institution of the ,lord's ,supper 7,luke #bb3i1 #bj71 and ,paul's 7#a ,cor4 #aa3bh-be7 has often been noticed4 ,it is most naturally explained by the supposition that ,luke recorded the transaction in the form in which he had often heard it from the lips of ,paul4 ,but there is nothing in the character of this gospel which can warrant the supposition that the apostle exercised a formal supervision over its composition4 ,such a procedure would be contrary to the spirit of the apostolic age4 ,the apostle himself wrote by an amanuensis4 ,but when one of his associates in the ministry wrote1 in whom he had full confidence1 he left him to the free exercise of his judgment under the illumination of the ,holy ,spirit4 #bh4 ,in respect to the date of this gospel1 if we assume that the ,acts of the ,apostles were written at ,rome about ,a4,d4 #fc-fe 7,chap4 #e1 ,no4 #e71 it is reasonable to suppose that the gospel1 which is dedicated to the same personage1 was composed not very long before1 perhaps even during the two years of ,paul's imprisonment at ,rome1 in which case ,rome would also be the place of its composition4 ,whether ,luke wrote before or after ,mark is a question that has been differently answered1 and cannot be determined with certainty4 ,the proof that all three of the first evangelists wrote before the destruction of ,jerusalem has been already given4 ,chap4 #c1 ,no4 #ad4 #bi4 ,though ,luke dedicates his gospel to ,theophilus 7chap1 #a3a-d71 it is not to be supposed that it was written for his use alone4 ,he had a more general end in view1 and that is indicated by the form of our ,lord's genealogy as given by him4 ,while ,matthew traces the ,saviour's lineage through ,david to ,abraham1 in conformity with his design to show that he is the promised seed of ,abraham and king of ,israel1 ,luke traces it back through ,david and ,abraham to ,adam the son of ,god4 ,he identifies ,jesus of ,nazareth not with the ,messiah alone of ,abraham's and ,david's line1 but with man as man4 ,he is the second ,adam1 and as such the ,saviour of the race4 ,this universal aspect of the gospel1 as a gospel not for one nation but for all mankind1 shines forth indeed in all the gospels1 but it appears with wonderful sweetness and power in some of the parables which are peculiar to ,luke1 as those of the good ,samaritan 7chap4 #aj3cj-cg71 the lost sheep 7chap4 #ae3c-g71 the lost pieces of silver 7chap4 #ae3h-aj71 the prodigal son 7chap4 #ae3aa-cb72 in all which ,jesus is set forth as the ,saviour of suffering humanity4 #cj4 ,as it respects the character and plan of ,luke's gospel1 the following particulars are to be noticed4 ,in the distribution of matter between the narration of events and the recital of our ,lord's discourses it holds a position between the first and the second gospel2 being less full in the latter respect than ,matthew1 but far more full than ,mark4 ,in the narrative part there is an easy and graceful style which charms every reader4 ,in the introduction of minute incidents he goes beyond ,matthew1 though he has not the circumstantial exactness of ,mark4 ,the agreement of ,luke's gospel with the two preceding in its general plan is recognized at once by every reader4 ,like them it is mainly occupied with our ,lord's ,galilean ministry4 ,in regard to the ,saviour's infancy he is more full than ,matthew1 the matter of the first three chapters being in a great measure peculiar to him4 ,he omits a long series of events recorded by the first two evangelists4 ,matt4 #ad3bb-af3ab2 ,mark #f3de-h3bf4 ,on the other hand he introduces 7chap4 #i3dc-ah3cj7 a remarkable series of acts and discourses which are grouped together in connection with the last journey to ,jerusalem4 ,some of the incidents occur in different connections in the other evangelists2 and the whole section proves1 by the absence of historical data and the unity of its general import1 that a moral and not a temporal sequence is the law of the gospels4 ,westcott1 ,introduct4 to ,gospel1 chap4 #g4 ,very much of the matter in this remarkable section is peculiar to ,luke1 and contains passages of wonderful beauty and sweetness which would have been lost to the church but for the record of this gospel4 ,among these are the mission of the seventy1 several miracles1 some striking lessons of instruction from passing incidents1 and no less than twelve parables3 the good ,samaritan1 the unfortunate friend1 the unclean spirit1 the rich fool1 the barren fig-tree1 the lost sheep1 the lost pieces of silver1 the prodigal son1 the unfaithful steward1 the rich man and ,lazarus1 the unjust judge1 the ,pharisee and publican4 ,while the attentive reader perceives the very near relationship of the third gospel to the first and second1 he notices also the fact that it differs from both of them more than they do from each other4 ,if the total contents of the several gospels be represented by #ajj1 the following table is obtained3 ,peculiarities4 ,concordances4 ,st4 ,mark14444444444444444444444444#g4444444 44444444444444444ic ,st4 ,matthew1444444444444444444444#db4444444 44444444444444444eh ,st4 ,luke1444444444444444444444444#ei4444444 44444444444444444da ,st4 ,john1444444444444444444444444#ib4444444 444444444444444444h ,from this it appears that the several gospels bear almost exactly an inverse relation to one another1 ,st4 ,mark and ,st4 ,john occupying the extreme positions1 the proportion of original passages in one balancing the coincident passages in the other4 ,if again the extent of all the coincidences be represented by #ajj1 their proportionate distribution will be3 ,st4 ,matthew1 ,st4 ,mark1 ,st4 ,luke1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ec ,st4 ,matthew1 ,st4 ,luke1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aa ,st4 ,matthew1 ,st4 ,mark1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bj ,st4 ,mark1 ,st4 ,luke1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #f ,westcott1 after ,stroud and ,norton4 ,of absolutely new matter in ,mark a striking example is the beautiful parable1 chap4 #d3bf-bi4 ,the two miracles peculiar to him 7chap4 #g3ca-cg2 #h3bb-bf7 are both of a very striking character1 and related with circumstantial minuteness of detail4 ,where his narratives coincide with those of the other evangelists1 they are characterized by the addition of details1 which1 as already remarked1 add much to the vivedness and graphic power of his descriptions4 #ca4 ,the integrity of the third gospel has been recently assailed in ,germany in the way of attempting to show that the gospel of ,luke1 as we now have it1 is corrupted by interpolations1 and that ,marcion had it in its true form4 ,see ,chap4 #b1 ,no4 #ab4 ,but the result of a voluminous discussion is that ,marcion's gospel is now acknowledged to have been a mutilated form of the canonical gospel1 in accordance with the testimony of the ancient fathers4 ,on the relation to each other of the two genealogies of our ,lord given by ,matthew and ,luke respectively1 and the different modes of bringing them into harmony with each other1 many volumes have been written4 ,two different principles of interpretation are proposed4 ,according to the first1 the genealogies of both ,matthew and ,luke are those of ,joseph1 the legal father of ,jesus1 and the only one that could be known in this relation in the public registers4 ,the second view is that ,matthew gives the genealogy of ,joseph1 and ,luke that of ,mary1 ,joseph being called the son of ,heli1 in the sense of son-in-law2 and being perhaps also legal heir to ,heli through ,mary in the absence of brothers4 ,the reader will find statements of these two views1 the former in ,smith's ,bible ,diet41 the latter in ,alexander's ,kitto1 ,art4 ,genealogy of ,jesus ,christ2 also in the commentaries generally4 ,we only add that though we may not be able to determine with certainty what is the true solution of the difficulty1 no one can show that such a solution is impossible4 ,the reverent believer will quietly wait for more light1 if it shall please ,god to give it2 otherwise he will be content to remain without it4 ,v4 ,,john4 #cb4 ,though the writer of the fourth gospel everywhere refrains from mentioning his own name1 he clearly indicates himself as the bosom disciple4 ,when he speaks of two disciples that followed ,jesus1 afterwards adding that one of the two was ,andrew1 ,simon ,peter's brother 7chap4 #a3cg1 #dj72 of one of his disciples1 whom ,jesus loved 7chap4 #ac3bc2 #ba3g1 #bj72 and of another disciple in company with ,simon ,peter 7chap4 #ah3ae1 #af2 #bj3b-h71 the only natural explanation of these circumlocutions is that he refers to himself4 ,even if we suppose1 with some1 that the two closing verses of chapter #ba 7the former of which ascribes this gospel directly to ,john7 are a subscription by another hand1 their authenticity is unquestionable1 sustained as it is by the uniform testimony of antiquity1 and by the internal character of the gospel4 #cc4 ,the ,scriptural notices of ,john are few and simple4 ,he was the son of ,zebedee1 a fisherman of ,bethsaida on the ,western shore of the sea of ,galilee not far from ,capernaum4 ,matt4 #d3ba2 ,mark #a3ai1 #bj2 ,luke #e3aj1 #aa4 ,his mother's name was ,salome4 ,matt4 #bg3ef compared with ,mark #ae3dj4 ,his parents seem to have been possessed of some property1 since ,zebedee had hired servants 7,mark #a3bj71 and ,salome was one of the women who followed ,jesus in ,galilee1 and ministered to him4 ,mark #ae3dj1 #da4 ,from the order in which he and his brother ,james are mentioned--,james and ,john1 except ,luke #i3bh--;he is thought to have been the younger of the two4 ,early in our ,lord's ministry he was called to be one of his followers2 was one of the three who were admitted to special intimacy with him1 they alone being permitted to witness the raising of ,jairus' daughter1 the transfiguration1 and the agony of ,gethsemane 7,matt #ag3a2 #bf3cg2 ,mark #e3cg2 #i3b2 #ad3cc2 ,luke #h3ea2 #i3bh72 and of the three was1 though not first in place1 first in the ,lord's love and confidence--the disciple whom ,jesus loved1 and to whose tender care he committed his mother as he was about to expire on the cross4 ,by his natural endowments1 as well as by his loving and confidential intercourse with the ,saviour1 he was prepared to receive and afterwards to publish to the world1 those deep and spiritual views of ,christ's person and office which so remarkably characterize his gospel4 ,so far as we have any notices of ,john in the ,acts of the ,apostles and epistles of ,paul1 his residence after our ,lord's ascension was at ,jerusalem4 ,but1 according to the unanimous testimony of antiquity1 he spent the latter part of his life in ,ephesus1 where he died at a very advanced age1 not far from the close of the first century4 ,the subject of his banishment to the isle of ,patmos will come up in connection with the ,apocalypse4 ,there is a mass of traditions respecting the latter years of this apostle1 which are1 however1 of a very uncertain character4 ,among the more striking of these are3 his being taken to ,rome during the persecution under ,domitian1 and there thrown into a caldron of boiling oil1 whence he escaped unhurt2 his refusal to remain under the same roof with the heretic ,cerinthus1 lest it should fall upon him and crush him2 his successful journey on horseback into the midst of a band of robbers to reclaim a fallen member of the church who had become their leader2 and especially1 that during the last days of his life1 he was customarily carried into the assembly of the church1 where he simply repeated the words3 ,little children1 love one another4 #cd4 ,the arguments for the late composition of this gospel--after the destruction of ,jerusalem--have already been given4 ,chap4 #b1 ,no4 #ad4 ,if we say between ,a4,d4 #gj and #ajj1 it will be as near an approximation to the time as we can make4 ,the place1 according to ,irenaeus 7in ,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl4 #e4 #h7 was ,ephesus1 with which statement all that we know of his later life is in harmony4 #ce4 ,from the beginning of our ,lord's ministry ,john was1 as we have seen1 admitted to his intimate companionship and friendship4 ,he was not therefore1 dependent on tradition4 ,his gospel is the testimony of what he had himself seen and heard4 ,yet it covers only a part of the ,saviour's ministry2 and the question remains why1 with the exception of the closing scenes of our ,lord's life on earth1 that part should be to so remarkable an extent precisely what the earlier evangelists have omitted4 ,in answer to this question it might be said that those actions and discourses of our ,lord which ,john selected most clearly exhibit his person and office as the son of ,god2 and that these were especially1 7#a7 his encounters with the ,jewish rulers at ,jerusalem1 7#b7 his private confidential intercourse with his disciples4 ,whatever weight we may allow to this consideration1 it cannot be regarded as a full explanation of the difference between ,john and the other evangelists in the selection of materials4 ,with the exception of the miracle of the loaves and fishes and the incidents connected with it 7chap4 #f3a-ba7 his notices of our ,lord's ministry in ,galilee relate almost entirely to incidents and discourses omitted by the other evangelists4 ,it is altogether probable that1 although ,john did not write his gospel simply as supplementary to the earlier gospels1 he yet had reference to them in the selection of his materials4 ,his own statement3 ,many other signs truly did ,jesus in the presence of his disciples1 which are not written in this book4 ,but these are written1 that ye might believe that ,jesus is the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 and that believing ye might have life through his name 7chap4 #bj3cj1 #ca71 is not inconsistent with such a supposition4 ,the many other signs he may have omitted1 in part at least1 because he judged that a sufficient account of them had been given by the earlier evangelists1 of whose writings1 when we consider the time that in all probability intervened between their composition and that of his gospel1 we cannot suppose him to have been ignorant4 ,such a reference to these writings does not in any way exclude the general design which he had1 in common with the earlier evangelists1 to show that ,jesus is the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 through faith in whose name eternal life is received4 ,ancient tradition represents1 in a variety of forms1 that ,john intended to complete the evangelical history1 as given by the other evangelists1 in the way of furnishing additional events and discourses omitted by them4 ,the citations may be seen in ,davidson's ,introduct4 to ,new ,test41 vol4 #a1 pp4 #cbj-bb4 ,though the statements of the fathers on this point cannot be accepted without qualification1 there is no valid ground for denying the general reference above assumed4 #cf4 ,in writing his gospel ,john had not a polemical1 but a general end in view4 ,it was not his immediate aim to refute the errors and heresies of his day2 but1 as he tells us1 to show that ,jesus is the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 in order that men1 through faith in his name1 may have eternal life4 ,yet1 like every wise and practical writer1 he must have had regard to the state of the churches in his day and the forms of error by which they were assailed4 ,in the latter part of the apostolic age the seeds of those heresies which in the following century yielded such a rank and poisonous harvest1 had already begun to be sown4 ,like all the heresies which have troubled the ,christian church to the present day1 they consisted essentially in false views respecting our ,saviour's person and office4 ,the beloved disciple who followed ,jesus through the whole of his ministry and leaned on his bosom at the last supper1 has given us an authentic record of the ,redeemer's words and works1 in which1 as in a bright untarnished mirror1 we see both the divine dignity of his person and the true nature of his office as the ,redeemer of the world4 ,such a record was especially adapted to refute the errors of his day1 as it is those of the present day4 ,it is preeminently the gospel of our ,lord's person4 ,it opens with an account of his divine nature and eternal coexistence with the ,father2 his general office as the creator of all things1 and the source of light and life to all men and his special office as the word made flesh1 whom the ,father sent for the salvation of the world1 and by whom alone the ,father is revealed to men4 ,equality with the ,father in nature1 subordination to the ,father in office1 union with human nature in the work of redeeming and judging men1 and in all these perfect union with the ,father in counsel and will--such are the great doctrines that run through our ,lord's discussions with the unbelieving ,jews1 as recorded by this evangelist4 ,in the same discussions1 but more especially in his private confidential intercourse with his disciples1 he adds deep views of his relation to the world1 as the only revealer of ,god's truth1 the only source of spiritual life1 and the only way of access to the ,father2 and to believers1 as the true vine1 through vital union with which they have life1 nourishment1 and fruitfulness4 ,he unfolds also more fully than the other evangelists the office of the ,comforter1 whom the ,father shall send to make good to the church the loss of his personal presence4 ,thus the gospel of ,john becomes at once an inexhaustible storehouse of spiritual food for the nourishment of the believer's own soul1 and a divine armory1 whence he may draw polished shafts in his warfare against error4 ,this last record of our ,lord's life and teachings owes its present form1 under the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit1 partly to the peculiar character of the writer1 and partly to the lateness of the period when it was composed4 ,in both these respects we ought devoutly to recognize the superintending providence of him who sees the end from the beginning4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,acts ,,of ,,the ,,apostles4 #cg4 ,the author of the ,acts of the ,apostles is identical with that of the third gospel1 as we learn from the dedication to the same ,theophilus4 ,chap4 #a3a4 ,both are ascribed to ,luke by the unanimous testimony of the ancient church4 ,the genuineness of this book1 its credibility1 and the time of its composition--about ,a4,d4 #fc-fe--;have been already shown4 ,chap4 #e1 ,nos4 #b-e4 ,it remains to consider its plan and its office in the system of revelation4 #ch4 ,in respect to plan this book naturally falls into two main divisions1 the former embracing the first twelve chapters1 the latter the remainder of the work4 ,the first division contains the history of the apostolic labors after the ascension1 in ,jerusalem and from ,jerusalem as a centre4 ,here1 if we except the events connected with the martyrdom of ,stephen 7chs4 #f1 #g71 the conversion of ,saul 7chap4 #i3a-ca71 and the ,ethiopian eunuch 7chap4 #h3bf-dj71 ,peter everywhere appears as the chief speaker and actor1 being first among the twelve1 though possessing no official authority over them4 ,it is he that proposes the choice of one to supply the place of ,judas1 and that is the foremost speaker on the day of ,pentecost1 at the gate of the temple1 before the ,jewish ,sanhedrim1 and in the assembly of the church4 ,chaps4 #a3ae-bb2 #b3ad-dj2 #c3d-bf2 #d3h-ab2 #e3c-aa1 #bi-cb4 ,associated with him we often find the apostle ,john4 ,chaps4 #c3a2 #d3ac1 #ai2 #h3ad4 ,when the ,samaritans are to receive the gift of the ,holy ,spirit1 ,peter and ,john are sent to them from ,jerusalem4 ,chap4 #h3ad-be4 ,when the gospel is to be carried for the first time to the ,gentiles1 ,peter is sent by the ,holy ,ghost to the house of ,cornelius in ,cesarea 7chap4 #aj71 for which mission he afterwards vindicates himself before the brethren at ,jerusalem4 ,chap4 #aa3a-ah4 ,further notices of ,peter we have in chaps4 #i3cb-dc2 #ab3c-ai4 ,we know that the other apostles must have been actively and successfully employed in prayer and the ministry of the word 7chap4 #f3d71 but it does not come within the plan of this narrative to give a particular account of their labors4 ,the second division is occupied with the history of ,paul's missionary labors among the ,gentiles1 from ,antioch as a centre4 ,he had already been sent from that city with ,barnabas to carry alms to the brethren in ,jerusalem and ,judea 7chaps4 #aa3bg-cj2 #ab3be71 when the ,holy ,ghost said1 ,separate me ,barnabas and ,saul for the work whereunto ,i have called them2 and they were sent1 with fasting and prayer and the solemn laying on of hands1 on their great mission to the ,gentiles4 ,chap4 #ac3a-c4 ,thenceforward the narrative is occupied with an account of the labors of ,paul among the ,gentiles4 ,the fifteenth chapter is no exception2 for the convocation of the apostles and elders at ,jerusalem was occasioned by the missionary labors of ,paul1 and had especial reference to them4 ,two cities are mentioned in the ,new ,testament which have the name of ,antioch--,antioch of ,pisidia so-called1 though situated in the southern part of ,phrygia near the border of ,pisidia 7,acts #ac3ad2 #ad3ai1 #ba2 #b ,tim4 #c3aa72 and ,antioch of ,syria1 situated on the southern bank of the ,orontes about fifteen miles from its mouth4 ,acts #aa3ai-bg2 #ac3a2 #ad3bf2 #ae3bb-ce2 #ah3bb2 ,gal4 #b3aa4 ,the latter city was the centre of ,gentile ,christianity4 ,it was the metropolis of ,syria1 the residence of the ,syrian kings1 and afterwards the capital of the ,roman provinces in ,asia4 ,here the first ,gentile church was gathered1 and the disciples first received the name of ,christians4 ,acts #aa3ai-bf4 ,hence ,barnabas and ,saul were sent to ,jerusalem to bear alms 7,acts #aa3bi1 #cj2 #ab3be72 and afterwards to consult the apostles and elders at ,jerusalem on the question of imposing the ,mosaic law on the ,gentile converts4 ,from this city also the apostle started on his three missionary journeys1 and to it he returned from his first and second journey4 ,acts #ac3a-c2 #ad3bf2 #ae3cf1 #dj2 #ah3bb1 #bc4 ,from the time that ,barnabas first brought the apostle to ,antioch 7,acts #aa3bf7 to that of his seizure at ,jerusalem and subsequent imprisonment1 most of his time not occupied in missionary journeys was spent at ,antioch4 ,acts #aa3bf2 #ab3be2 #ad3bf-bh2 #ae3cj1 #ce2 #ah3bb1 #bc4 ,as ,jerusalem was the centre for the apostles of the circumcision1 so was ,antioch in ,syria for the apostle of the ,gentiles4 #ci4 ,this brief survey of the plan of this book gives us also an insight into its office4 ,first of all it gives us a fresh and vivid portraiture of the apostolic labors and the spirit of the apostolic church1 as pervaded and quickened by the presence of the promised ,comforter4 ,on the side of the apostles1 we see a boldness and ardor that no persecution can check1 united with simplicity and godly sincerity4 ,on the side of the brethren1 we see a whole-hearted devotion to the ,saviour1 under the mighty impulse of faith and love1 which opens their hearts in liberality and causes them to have all things in common4 ,on the side of both the apostles and the brethren1 we see untiring activity and patient endurance in the ,master's service1 such as make the primitive church a bright illustration of the promise3 ,thou shalt be like a watered garden1 and like a spring of water1 whose waters fail not4 ,and they that be of thee shall build the old waste places4 ,isa4 #eh3aa1ab4 ,on the side of the unbelieving ,jews and ,gentiles1 on the contrary1 we behold1 as ever since1 a series of unsuccessful efforts to hinder the work of ,god2 the very ringleader of the persecutors being called1 in the midst of his heat and fury against ,christianity1 to be the ringleader of the sect of the ,nazarenes4 ,such an authentic record of apostolic times is of immense value to the church in all ages4 ,it gives the true standard of enlightened ,christian zeal and activity1 and the true exhibition of what constitutes the real strength and prosperity of the ,christian church4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles give also a cursory view of the inauguration of the ,christian church1 by the descent of the ,holy ,spirit in his plenary influences 7chap4 #b71 by the appointment of deacons 7chap4 #f71 and the ordination of elders1 though these last are only mentioned incidentally 7chaps4 #ad3bc2 #bj3ag71 the office being understood of itself from the usages of the ,jewish ,synagogue4 ,the scantiness of the information which we have on this matter of church organization is a part of the wisdom of the ,holy ,ghost1 and is full of instruction to the church in all ages4 ,once more1 the ,acts of the ,apostles give a most interesting and instructive account of the way in which the middle wall of partition between ,jews and ,gentiles was gradually broken down4 ,the full import of the ,saviour's last command3 ,go ye into all the world1 and preach the gospel to every creature1 seems to have been at first but dimly apprehended by the apostles4 ,for some time their labors were restricted to their own countrymen4 ,but when1 upon the dispersion of the disciples in the persecution that arose in connection with ,stephen's martyrdom1 the gospel had been preached to the ,samaritans1 the apostles ,peter and ,john were sent to them1 and they in common with the ,jews received the gift of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,chap4 #h3e-be4 ,this was an intermediate step4 ,afterwards ,peter was sent among the ,gentiles proper1 and they also received the ,holy ,spirit1 to the astonishment of the ,jewish brethren who had accompanied ,peter4 ,chap4 #aj4 ,the same thing happened also at ,antioch 7chap4 #aa3bj71 where the true reading is ,hellenas1 ,greeks1 that is1 ,gentiles1 not ,hellenistas1 ,hellenists4 ,but the work was not yet finished4 ,it remained that the believing ,gentiles should be1 by the solemn and formal judgment of the assembled apostles and elders1 released from the yoke of the ,jewish law4 ,of this we have an account in the fifteenth chapter4 ,thus was the demolition of the middle wall of partition completed4 ,of the greatness of this work and the formidable difficulties by which it was beset--difficulties having their ground in the exclusive spirit of ,judaism in connection with the false idea that the ,mosaic law was to remain in force under the ,messiah's reign--we who live so many centuries after its accomplishment can form but a feeble conception4 #dj4 ,brief and imperfect as is the sketch which ,luke has given us1 it is sufficient for the instruction of the churches in subsequent ages4 ,god deals with them not as with children1 to whom the command1 ,touch not1 taste not1 handle not1 must continually be repeated2 but as with full-grown men1 who need general principles rather than specific and minute directions4 ,the facts recorded in the ,acts of the ,apostles are of a representative character4 ,they embody the spirit of apostolic times1 and the great principles upon which the cause of ,christ must ever be conducted4 ,fuller information in respect to details might gratify our curiosity1 but it is not necessary for our edification4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,epistles ,,of ,,paul4 #a4 ,the apostolic epistles are a natural sequence of the office and work committed by the ,saviour to the apostles4 ,they were the primitive preachers of the gospel1 and1 under ,christ1 the founders of the ,christian church4 ,from the necessity of the case they had a general supervision of all the local churches1 and their authority in them was supreme in matters of both faith and practice4 ,it was to be expected1 therefore1 that they should teach by writing1 as well as by oral instruction4 ,it does not appear1 however1 that epistolary correspondence entered originally into their plan of labor4 ,their great ,master taught by word of mouth only1 and they followed his example4 ,we1 said the twelve1 will give ourselves continually to prayer1 and to the ministry of the word4 ,acts #f3d4 ,it was only when circumstances made it necessary1 that some of them took up the pen to write to the churches4 ,passing by for the present the disputed question of the time when the epistle of ,james was written1 and assuming that the conversion of ,paul took place about ,a4,d4 #cf1 we have an interval of at least sixteen years between this event and the date of his earliest epistles1 those to the ,thessalonians1 written about ,a4,d4 #ec4 ,the apostles did not regard themselves as letter-writers1 but as preachers of the word4 ,they took up the pen only when some special occasion made it necessary4 ,the apostolic epistles are incidental2 and for this very reason they are eminently life-like and practical4 ,in respect to themes1 and the manner of handling them1 they present a rich variety4 ,all the great questions of faith and practice that have agitated the ,christian church since the apostolic age come up for discussion in these letters1 not indeed1 in their ever-varying outward forms1 but in their great underlying principles4 ,thus the providence of ,god has provided in them a rich storehouse of truths for the instruction and edification of believers to the end of time4 #b4 ,of the twenty-one epistles contained in the ,new ,testament fourteen belong to ,paul 7if we include the anonymous letter to the ,hebrews71 all written in the prosecution of his great work as the apostle to the ,gentiles4 ,the ,saviour's personal ministry was restricted to the ,jews1 and so was that of the twelve apostles and the seventy disciples whom he sent forth before his crucifixion4 ,matt4 #aj3e1 #f2 #ae3bd2 ,luke #aj3a4 ,but his last command was3 ,go ye1 therefore1 and teach all nations1 baptizing them in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,matt4 #bh3ai4 ,in carrying into execution this command1 which involved such an immense change in the outward form of ,god's visible earthly kingdom1 it was necessary-- 7#a7 ,that the apostles should insist very earnestly and fully on the great fundamental doctrine of the gospel1 that men have justification and eternal life1 not through the law of ,moses1 or any other possible system of works1 but through faith in ,jesus ,christ2 a doctrine which cuts up ,pharisaism by the roots4 7#b7 ,that1 since faith in ,christ is the common ground of justification for ,jews and ,gentiles1 both were to be admitted upon equal terms to all the rights and privileges of the ,christian church2 the ancient prerogative of the ,jews above the ,gentiles being done away in ,christ4 7#c7 ,still further1 that since the ,gentiles had justification and salvation not through the law of ,moses1 but through faith alone1 the ,mosaic law was not to be imposed upon them4 ,this was virtually announcing its abolition1 its types and shadows having been fulfilled in ,christ4 7#d7 ,that this removal of the middle wall of partition between the ,jews and ,gentiles was in accordance with ,moses and the prophets--not a change of ,god's original plan1 but only the full accomplishment of it4 ,acts #ae3ae-ah2 ,rom4 #c3ba1 #ca2 #d3f-be2 ,gal4 #c3f-i4 ,we have seen how this great work was begun by the gift of the ,holy ,spirit1 in connection with the preaching of the gospel1 first to the ,samaritans 7,acts #h3e-ag71 and afterwards to the ,gentiles 7,acts #aj2 #aa3bj-bf1 etc472 and how it was completed1 so far as concerns the principles involved in it1 by the solemn decree of the apostles and the elders 7,acts #ae3a-bi74 #c4 ,but for the realization of these principles in the actual preaching of the gospel to the ,gentile nations1 and the establishment of ,christian churches among them which should embrace on equal terms ,jews and ,gentiles1 a man of very peculiar qualifications was raised up in the providence of ,god4 ,saul of ,tarsus was a ,jew1 brought up in ,jerusalem at the feet of ,gamaliel1 thoroughly instructed in the law and the prophets1 and able therefore to speak with authority concerning the ,old ,testament to both ,jews and ,gentiles4 ,his indomitable energy and fiery zeal1 united with rare practical wisdom1 had made him the foremost man in persecuting the ,christians4 ,when the proper time had come ,jesus met him on the road to ,damascus with converting power1 and all his superior education and endowments were thenceforth consecrated to the work of preaching the faith which once he destroyed1 especially to the ,gentile world4 ,but in this matter he felt and acted as a ,jew4 ,he did not separate himself abruptly from his countrymen4 ,cherishing towards them the tenderest affection1 they were everywhere the first objects of his ,christian effort4 ,into whatever city he went1 he first sought the ,jewish synagogue1 and there he reasoned with them out of the ,scriptures1 ,acts #ac3ad2 #ad3a2 #ag3b1 #aj2 #ah3d2 #ai3h4 ,it was only when they persisted in opposing and blaspheming1 that he desisted from further effort among them and turned to the ,gentiles4 ,acts #ac3de-dg2 #ah3f2 #ai3i4 ,wherever he went he encountered the bitterest persecution on the part of his own countrymen1 because of the prominence which he gave to the great evangelical principles above considered--that men have justification not wholly or in part through the ,mosaic law1 but simply through faith in ,christ1 and that in him the distinction between ,jews and ,gentiles is abolished4 ,even the believing ,jews found it hard to apprehend these truths in their fullness4 ,in the narrowness of their ,jewish prejudices they were anxious to impose on the ,gentile converts the yoke of the ,mosaic law4 ,this1 ,paul steadfastly resisted1 and it is to his defence of ,gentile liberty that we owe1 in great measure1 those masterly discussions on the ground of justification1 and the unity of ,jews and ,gentiles in ,christ1 which are so prominent in his epistles4 ,yet with his uncompromising firmness of principle he united remarkable flexibility in regard to the means of success4 ,to those who would impose circumcision on the ,gentiles he gave place by subjection1 no1 not for an hour4 ,gal4 #b3e4 ,but where no great principle was concerned1 he was willing to circumcise ,timothy1 out of regard to the feelings of the ,jews2 thus becoming1 in his own words1 all things to all men4 #a ,cor4 #i3bb4 #d4 ,the peculiar character of the apostle's style is obvious to every reader4 ,it is in an eminent degree argumentative4 ,he reasoned with them1 says ,luke1 out of the ,scriptures4 ,these words describe accurately the character of both his epistles and his addresses to the ,jews as recorded in the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,in addressing a ,gentile audience at ,athens1 he still reasoned with them2 but it was now from the inscription on one of their altars1 from certain of their own poets1 and from the manifestations in nature of ,god's power and ,godhead4 ,his reasoning takes occasionally the form of an argument within an argument4 ,he pauses by the way to expand some thought1 and does not return again to complete in grammatical form the sentence which he had begun2 so that his style sometimes becomes complex and obscure4 ,the versatility of the apostle's mind1 which made him equally at home in discussing subjects the most varied1 appears in his style also4 ,it naturally takes the complexion of his themes4 ,to understand this one has only to compare the epistle to the ,romans with those to the ,corinthians2 the epistle to the ,galatians with that to the ,ephesians2 and all these with the epistles to the ,philippians and ,thessalonians4 ,his style may be compared to a clear window1 which shows with fidelity the ever varying forms and scenes that pass before it4 #e4 ,the commentaries that have been written on the epistles of ,paul would themselves constitute a large library4 ,our own century has been very fruitful in them1 and some of them are accessible to every reader4 ,for this reason our notice of the separate epistles may well be brief4 ,our aim will be to give the occasion of each1 its chronological order in the series1 its connection with the apostle's missionary labors1 its scope1 and the office which it accomplishes in the plan of revelation4 ,in connection with ,paul's epistles the reader should carefully study the history of his life and labors1 as given in the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,from ,acts #i3bc-bf compared with ,gal4 #a3af-ah1 we learn that the first three years after ,paul's conversion were spent at ,damascus and in ,arabia4 ,then he went up to ,jerusalem1 but after a short sojourn there was driven away by the persecution of the ,jews1 and retired to his native city1 ,tarsus in ,cilicia4 ,acts #i3bi1 #cj4 ,after an interval of some time1 which he spent in the regions of ,syria and ,cilicia 7,gal4 #a3ba71 ,barnabas departed to ,tarsus1 for to seek ,saul4 ,and when he had found him1 he brought him unto ,antioch4 ,acts #aa3be1 #bf4 ,this is supposed to have been about ,a4,d4 #dc1 seven or eight years after his conversion4 ,here begins his recorded public ministry in ,antioch and from ,antioch as a centre4 ,see above1 ,chap4 #bi1 ,no4 #ch4 ,it embraces three great missionary tours 7,acts #ac3a1 etc42 #ae3cf1 etc42 #ah3bc1 etc471 and four visits to ,jerusalem besides that already noticed4 ,acts #aa3bg-cj compared with #ab3be2 #ae3b2 #ah3bb2 #ba3ae4 ,the last of these ended in his captivity and imprisonment1 first at ,cesarea and afterwards at ,rome1 with an intervening perilous voyage and shipwreck4 ,acts chap4 #ba-bh4 ,see the incidents of ,paul's life chronologically arranged in ,davidson's ,introduct4 to ,new ,test41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #aaj-aab1 with the annexed table2 in ,horne's ,introduct41 vol4 #d1 pp4 #dij-die2 in ,conybeare and ,howson1 vol4 #b1 ,appendix #b2 and in the commentaries of ,hackett1 ,alford1 ,wordsworth1 etc4 #f4 ,as the epistles of ,paul stand in the ,new ,testament1 they are not arranged in chronological order4 ,the principle of arrangement seems to have been1 first1 those to churches1 then1 those to individuals2 the further order being that of relative size1 with this modification2 that two epistles addressed to the same church should stand together1 and that the last of them1 which is always the shorter1 should determine their place in the series4 ,where the epistles are about equal in size1 it seems to have been the design to arrange them chronologically4 ,the catholic epistles are arranged upon the same plan4 ,the epistle to the ,hebrews1 as being anonymous1 now stands after those which bear the name of ,paul4 ,but in many ,greek manuscripts it is placed after #b ,thessalonians1 consequently between the epistles addressed to churches and those to individuals4 ,the student of these epistles should carefully note the chronological order1 because1 as ,wordsworth remarks 7,preface to ,commentary on the ,epistles71 the mutual illustration which the ,acts of the ,apostles and the apostolic epistles receive from each other is much impaired if the apostolic epistles are not studied in connection with and in the order of the apostolic history4 ,the following is the chronological order of the epistles1 as far as it can be ascertained1 though 7as will hereafter appear7 some uncertainty exists in respect to several of them3 #a ,thessalonians 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #ec #b ,thessalonians 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #ec ,galatians 4 4 4 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #ef or #eg #a ,corinthians 4 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #eg #b ,corinthians 4 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #eg ,romans 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #eh ,ephesians 4 4 4 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #fb ,colossians 4 4 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #fb ,philemon 4 4 4 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #fb ,philippians 4 4 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #fc ,hebrews 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 uncertain4 #a ,timothy 4 4 4 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #fe ,titus 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #fe #b ,timothy 4 4 4 4 4 4 about ,a4,d4 #ff ,arranged according to the order of time the thirteen epistles which bear the name of ,paul naturally fall into four groups3 7#a7 the two epistles to the ,thessalonians1 written during the apostle's second missionary journey recorded ,acts #ae3cf-ah3bb2 7#b7 the epistles to the ,galatians1 ,corinthians1 and ,romans1 written during his third missionary journey1 ,acts #ah3bc-ba3ae2 7#c7 the epistles to the ,ephesians1 ,colossians1 ,philemon1 and ,philippians1 written during ,paul's imprisonment in ,rome1 ,acts #bh3af-ca 7some suppose the first three to have been written during his imprisonment at ,cesarea1 ,acts #bc3ce-bf3cb72 7#d7 the pastoral epistles1 the first and third probably written after his recorded imprisonment in ,rome1 and the second during a second imprisonment after the publication of the ,acts of the ,apostles1 and which ended in his martyrdom ,a4,d4 #fg or #fh4 ,the epistles of ,paul will now be considered in the usual order1 except that the three to the ,ephesians1 ,colossians4 and ,philemon1 which are contemporaneous1 will be taken together4 ,i4 ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,romans4 #g4 ,the date of the epistle to the ,romans1 as well as the place where it was written1 can be gathered with much certainty from the epistle itself1 taken in connection with other notices respecting ,paul found in the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,he was about to bear alms to his brethren in ,judea from ,macedonia and ,achaia4 ,chap4 #ae3be1 #bf4 ,he had previously exhorted the church of ,corinth in ,achaia to make this very collection1 which he was to receive of them when he came to them through ,macedonia4 #a ,cor4 #af3a-f4 ,that he was also to bring with him a collection from the ,macedonian churches is manifest from #b ,cor4 #h3a-d2 #i3a-d4 ,he wrote1 moreover1 from ,corinth2 for among the greetings at the close of the epistle is one from ,gaius mine host 7chap4 #af3bc71 a ,corinthian whom he had baptized 7#a ,cor4 #a3ad72 he commends to them ,phebe1 a deaconess of the church at ,cenchrea1 the eastern port of ,corinth1 chap4 #af3a2 and he speaks of the city where he is as well known 7chap4 #af3bc71 which can be no other than ,corinth4 ,now by comparing ,acts #ai3ba2 #bj3a-c2 #bd3ag1 we find that he was then on his way to ,jerusalem through ,macedonia and ,greece1 for the last time recorded in the ,new ,testament4 ,the epistle to the ,romans1 then1 was written from ,corinth during the apostle's third missionary tour and second abode in that city1 about ,a4,d4 #eh4 ,it is the sixth of his epistles in the order of time1 and stands in near connection with those to the ,galatians and ,corinthians1 which were apparently written during the previous year4 #h4 ,concerning the founding of the church at ,rome we have no information4 ,at the date of this epistle ,paul had not visited it4 ,chaps4 #a3aj-ae2 #ae3bc1 #bd4 ,of its composition1 however1 we have more certain knowledge4 ,founded in the metropolis of the ,roman empire1 where1 as we know from many notices of ancient writers1 many ,jews resided1 it must have been of a mixed character1 embracing both ,jews and ,gentiles2 with this agree the contents of the present epistle4 ,that the ,gentile element largely predominated in the church at ,rome appears from the general tenor of the epistle4 ,chaps4 #a3ac2 #aa3ac-be1 #cj1 #ca2 #ae3af4 ,that it had also a ,jewish element is plain from the whole of chap #b1 and the precepts in chap4 #ad4 #i4 ,the occasion of writing seems to have been of a general character4 ,the apostle had often purposed to visit ,rome1 but had been as often hindered4 ,chap4 #a3ac4 ,to compensate in part for this failure1 he wrote the present epistle1 having1 as it appears1 an opportunity to send it by ,phebe1 a deaconess of the church at ,cenchrea4 ,chap4 #af3a4 ,the apostle's design1 like the occasion of his writing1 was general4 ,it was natural that1 in addressing a church which he had long desired to visit1 he should lay himself out to unfold the gospel of ,christ in its deep foundation principles1 as a plan of salvation provided for the whole world1 and designed to unite ,jews and ,gentiles in one harmonious body1 on the common platform of faith in ,christ4 ,he first shows that the ,gentiles are under the dominion of sin 7chap4 #a3ah-cb71 and the ,jews also 7chap4 #b71 so that both alike are shut up to salvation by grace4 ,chap4 #c4 ,he connects the gospel plan of salvation immediately with the ,old ,testament by showing that ,abraham1 the father of the ,israelitish people1 was justified by faith1 not by the works of the law or any outward rite2 so that he is the father of all who walk in the steps of his faith1 whether ,jews or ,gentiles4 ,chap4 #d4 ,he then sets forth the love of ,god in ,christ1 who is the second ,adam1 sent to restore the race from the ruin into which it was brought by the sin of the first ,adam 7chap4 #e72 and shows that to fallen sinful men the law cannot give deliverance from either its condemnatory sentence or the reigning power of sin1 so that its only effect is to work wrath1 while the righteousness which ,god gives through faith in ,christ sets men free from both the curse of the law and the inward power of sin1 thus bringing them into a blessed state of justification1 sanctification1 and holy communion with ,god here1 with the hope of eternal glory hereafter4 ,chaps4 #f-h4 ,since the doctrine of the admission of the ,gentiles to equal privileges with the ,jews1 and the rejection of the unbelieving part of the ,jewish nation1 was exceedingly offensive to his countrymen1 the apostle devotes three entire chapters to the discussion of this momentous theme4 ,chaps4 #i-aa4 ,he then proceeds to draw from the whole subject1 as he has unfolded it1 such practical exhortations in respect to daily life and conduct as were adapted to the particular wants of the ,roman ,christians--entire consecration of soul and body to ,god in each believer's particular sphere 7chap4 #ab72 obedience to magistrates 7chap4 #ac3a-g72 love and purity 7chap4 #ac3h-ad72 mutual respect and forbearance 7chaps4 #ad3a-ae3g74 ,he then returns to the great theme with which he began1 that ,christ is the common ,saviour of ,jews and ,gentiles1 in connection with which he refers to his office and labors as the minister of ,jesus ,christ to the ,gentiles 7chap4 #ae3h-ba71 and closes with miscellaneous notices and salutations 7chaps4 #ae3bb-af3bg74 #aj4 ,from the above brief survey the special office of the epistle to the ,romans is manifest4 ,in no book of the ,new ,testament is the great doctrine of justification by faith so fully unfolded4 ,the apostle sets it in vivid contrast with the ,pharisaical idea of justification by the ,mosaic law1 and1 by parity of reason1 of justification by every other system of legalism2 showing that it is only by grace through ,christ that men can be delivered from either the guilt of sin or its reigning power in the soul1 while the effect of the law is only to excite and irritate men's corrupt passions without the power to subdue them4 ,the place1 therefore1 which this epistle holds in the understandings and affections of believers must be a good measure of their progress in the ,christian life4 ,,ii4 ,,epistles ,,to ,,the ,,corinthians4 #aa4 ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,corinthians was written from ,ephesus1 not far from the time of ,pentecost 7chap4 #af3h72 not from ,philippi1 according to the subscription appended to it4 ,it was during ,paul's second and last visit to that city1 as we learn from his directions concerning a collection for the saints at ,jerusalem1 and his promise to come to the ,corinthians through ,macedonia 7chap4 #af3a-e72 for when ,paul left ,ephesus after his second sojourn there he went by ,macedonia and ,achaia 7of which province ,corinth was the capital7 to ,jerusalem to bear alms4 ,acts #ai3ba2 #bj3a-c2 #bd3ag4 ,paul's second stay in ,ephesus1 during which time some think that he made a short visit to ,corinth not mentioned in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 which would be the second in order1 that promised in this and the second epistle being the third 7#b ,cor4 #ab3ad2 #ac3a71 extended over the space of about three years4 ,acts #ai3a-aj2 #bj3ca4 ,from his words 7chap4 #af3c-h71 we gather that the epistle was written not long before the close of this period4 ,chronologists generally place it about ,a4,d4 #eg4 #ab4 ,the occasion of his writing was more specific than when he penned his epistle to the ,romans4 ,corinth1 the renowned capital of the ,roman province ,achaia1 situated on the isthmus that connects the southern peninsula of ,greece--the ancient ,peleponnesus and the modern ,morea1 and enjoying the advantage of two ports was alike distinguished for its wealth and progress in the arts1 and for its luxury and dissoluteness of morals4 ,here the apostle had labored a year and six months1 and gathered a flourishing church embracing some ,jews1 but consisting mostly of ,gentiles4 ,acts #ah3a-aa2 #a ,cor4 #ab3b4 ,these ,gentile converts1 having just emerged from the darkness and corruption of heathenism 7chap4 #f3i-aa71 and living in the midst of a dissolute community 7chap4 #e3i1 #aj71 did not wholly escape the contamination of heathenish associations and heathenish vices4 ,chaps4 #e1 #f1 #h1 #aj4 ,taking a low and worldly view of the ,christian church and the spiritual endowments of its several members1 they were led into party strifes and rivalries4 ,chaps4 #a3aa-ac2 #c3c-g4 ,certain vain-glorious teachers1 moreover1 had come in among them with a great show of worldly wisdom1 who disparaged ,paul's apostolical standing1 taught the people to despise the simplicity of his teachings1 and sought to supplant him in the confidence and affections of the ,corinthian church4 ,chaps4 #d1 #i2 #b ,cor4 #aj-ac4 ,in addition to this1 certain disorders and abuses had crept into their public assemblies 7chaps4 #aa1 #ab1 #ad71 and some among them denied the doctrine of the resurrection4 ,chap4 #ae4 ,according to the most probable interpretation of chap4 #e3i1 the apostle had already written them a letter on some of these points which has not come down to us1 and the ,corinthians themselves had written to the apostle1 asking his advice on some points of a practical character1 particularly in respect to the marriage relation in their present state of trial4 ,chap4 #g3a4 ,the occasion1 then1 of writing this epistle1 which gives also its scope and office1 was to correct the above named errors and abuses1 of which he had received accurate information1 and also to answer the inquiries of the ,corinthians in their letter4 ,in this work the apostle employs now sharp rebuke1 now tender expostulation1 and now earnest and impassioned argument4 ,the party strifes among the ,corinthians he meets by showing that ,christ himself is the only head of the church1 that all gifts are from him1 and are to be used to his glory in the edification of believers4 ,chaps4 #a3ac1 #ad1 #cj1 #ca2 #c3e-bc4 ,the vain-glorious boasting of their leaders he exposes by showing the emptiness and impotence of their pretended wisdom in comparison with the doctrine of ,christ crucified1 who is the power of ,god and the wisdom of ,god for the salvation of all that believe1 without regard to the distinctions of worldly rank4 ,chaps4 #a3ah-b3af2 #c3ah-bj4 ,the abuses and disorders that had crept into the church he rebukes with apostolical severity2 and in correcting them1 as well as in answering the questions of the ,corinthians1 he makes an application of the general principles of the gospel to the several cases before him which is full of practical wisdom--the incestuous person 7chap4 #e3h71 companionship with the vicious 7chap4 #e3i-ac71 litigation among brethren 7chap4 #f3a-h71 fleshly indulgence 7chap4 #f3i-bj71 the inquiries of the ,christians in respect to marriage 7chap4 #g71 meats offered to idols and sundry questions connected with them 7chaps4 #h1 #aj71 disorders in the public assemblies 7chap4 #aa71 spiritual gifts with a beautiful eulogy on love 7chaps4 #ab-ad71 the doctrine of the resurrection 7chap4 #ae74 ,he also defends his apostolical character and standing against his opposers1 though by no means so earnestly and fully as in the following epistle4 ,chaps4 #d1 #i4 ,thus it comes to pass that the present epistle contains a remarkable variety of topics1 and gives us a fuller and clearer insight into the practical working of ,christianity in the primitive apostolic churches than that furnished by any other of ,paul's epistles1 or1 indeed1 any other book of the ,new ,testament4 ,the great principles1 moreover1 which he lays down in meeting the particular wants of the ,corinthian church remain valid for all time2 shedding from age to age a clear and steady light1 by which every tempest-tossed church may1 ,god helping it by his grace1 steer its way into the haven of peace and prosperity4 #ac4 ,the reader cannot fail to notice the remarkable contrast between the tone of this epistle and that to the ,galatians1 which belongs in the order of time to the same group4 ,see above1 ,no4 #f4 ,the errors of the ,corinthians were not fundamental1 like those of the ,galatians4 ,they built upon the true foundation1 ,jesus ,christ2 but marred the building by the introduction of base materials--the wood1 hay1 stubble of human wisdom1 instead of the gold1 silver1 precious stones of the truth as ,paul had taught it4 ,the false teachers among the ,galatians1 on the contrary1 sought to subvert the very foundations of ,christianity by bringing in a system of legal justification4 ,in writing to the ,galatians1 therefore1 ,paul contends1 with apostolic severity1 for the very substance of the gospel1 but in addressing the ,corinthians1 he seeks only to purify the gospel from the admixture of human additions4 #ad4 ,,the ,,second ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,corinthians was written not many months after the first1 from ,macedonia1 where the apostle was occupied in completing a collection for the poor saints at ,jerusalem1 with the purpose of afterwards proceeding to ,corinth that he might receive the contribution of the ,corinthian church also4 ,chaps4 #h3a-d2 #i3a-e4 ,whether he wrote from ,philippi1 according to the subscription of the epistle1 or from some other place in ,macedonia1 cannot be determined4 #ae4 ,the occasion of writing was manifestly the report which he had received from ,titus 7and as is generally inferred from #a ,cor4 #d3ag2 #af3aj1 from ,timothy also74 ,he had sent ,titus to ,corinth with the expectation that he would bring tidings thence to ,troas1 where he hoped to find him on his way from ,ephesus to ,macedonia4 ,but in this he was disappointed4 ,he therefore hastened from ,troas to ,macedonia1 where he met ,titus and learned from him the effect of his first epistle4 ,chaps4 #b3ab1 #ac2 #g3f2 #ab3ah4 ,so far as the main body of the ,corinthian ,christians was concerned1 this was highly favorable1 and for it the apostle devoutly thanks ,god 7chap4 #g3f1 #g72 commends their prompt obedience 7chap4 #g3aa72 directs them to restore the excommunicated person 7chap4 #b3e-aj72 and discusses very fully the matter of the collection for the poor ,christians at ,jerusalem 7chaps4 #h1 #i74 ,but the very success of his first epistle with the better part of the church had embittered his enemies1 and made them more determined in their opposition to him4 ,they accused him of levity in changing his original plan of visiting the ,corinthian church on his way to ,macedonia 7chap4 #a3ae-ag72 of uttering threats which he would not dare to execute when present among them 7chap4 #aj3i-aa72 of making a gain of them by indirect means 7chap4 #ab3af-ah72 and sought in various ways to disparage his apostolical character and standing4 ,this led him to dwell with great earnestness on the fullness of his apostolic credentials1 the purity of his apostolic life1 and the abundance of his labors and sufferings in behalf of ,christ's cause1 always with reference more or less direct to his enemies4 ,with these personal notices of himself are interwoven exalted views of the dignity of the ministerial office1 and the true spirit and manner in which its weighty duties are to be performed4 ,see chaps4 #b3ad-g3af2 chaps4 #aj-ac4 ,the prominence which the apostle is thus forced to give to his own person and labor constitutes the most remarkable feature of the present epistle4 ,to the same cause are due the peculiarities of its diction1 and its rapid transitions from one theme and tone to another4 ,consolation and rebuke1 gentleness and severity1 earnestness and irony1 succeed one another at very short intervals and without notice4 ,alford1 ,introduction to this ,epistle4 ,all this came about by the wisdom of ,god1 who placed his servant in such circumstances that fidelity to the cause of truth compelled him unwillingly to set forth in himself the character of a true minister of the gospel in bright contrast with that of those vain-glorious and selfish men1 who under a show of great worldly wisdom1 seek to create parties in the church of ,christ for their own private honor and emolument4 ,the particular occasion which called forth this epistle soon passed away2 but the epistle itself remains a rich treasure for all believers1 especially for all ,christian teachers4 ,,iii4 ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,galatians4 #af4 ,galatia is the ,greek word answering to the ,roman ,gallia1 that is1 ,gaul4 ,it was one of the central provinces of ,asia ,minor1 and received its name from the circumstance of its being inhabited by a people of ,gallic origin who came by the way of ,byzantium and the ,hellespont in the third century before ,christ4 ,two visits of the apostle to ,galatia are recorded in the ,acts of the ,apostles2 the first1 during his second missionary journey 7,acts #af3f72 and the second1 at the beginning of his third journey 7,acts #ah3bc74 ,after which of these visits the present epistle was written is a question that has been much discussed1 and answered in different ways4 ,the most natural interpretation1 however1 of chapter #d3ac-af leads to the conclusion that it was after his second visit4 ,the course of the events seems to have been as follows3 ,he was suffering from an infirmity of the flesh when he preached the gospel to the ,galatians at the first1 that is1 upon the first visit 7verse #ac74 ,then they received him as an angel of ,god1 even as ,jesus ,christ1 and were filled with holy joy through simple faith in ,christ's name 7verses #ad1 #ae74 ,upon his second visit he found it necessary to warn them in very plain terms against the seductions of false teachers1 who were seeking to draw them away from the simplicity of the gospel to faith in a system of works4 ,but after his departure these false teachers had great success2 and the result was that the affections of the ,galatians were alienated from ,paul1 who was their spiritual father4 ,in view of this fact he asks 7as we may render v4 #af1 after ,ellicott1 in perfect accordance with the idiom of the ,greek73 ,so then1 am ,i become your enemy1 by speaking to you the truth8 that is because in my recent visit ,i told you the truth4 ,according to this view the epistle belongs to the second group1 and was written about ,a4,d4 #ef or #eg4 ,farther than this we cannot go in determining the time4 ,the place is uncertain4 ,it may have been ,ephesus1 or ,corinth1 which cities ,paul visited in his third and last missionary journey1 but it cannot have been ,rome1 as the subscription erroneously gives it4 ,the subscriptions are of no authority4 ,that to the present epistle probably had its ground mainly in chapter #f3ag1 where the writer was erroneously supposed to allude to the bodily sufferings that he endured in connection with his last recorded imprisonment4 #ag4 ,the occasion of this epistle1 which gives also its design1 was very specific4 ,the ,galatian churches had begun well 7chap4 #e3g72 but soon after ,paul's departure ,judaizing teachers had drawn them away to the very form of error noticed in the ,acts of the ,apostles 7chap4 #ae3a72 ,except ye be circumcised after the manner of ,moses ye cannot be saved4 ,they sought to impose on all the ,gentile converts circumcision as essential to salvation4 ,thus they placed justification on a legal ground1 and made faith in ,christ a subordinate matter4 ,this error was fundamental4 ,paul therefore attacks it with unsparing severity1 with which1 however1 he mingles a wonderful tenderness of spirit4 ,his argument is for substance the same as that in the epistle to the ,romans1 only that it takes from necessity a more controversial form1 and is carried out with more warmth and vehemence of expression4 ,it is a divine model of the way in which fundamental error should be dealt with4 #ah4 ,the epistle naturally falls into three divisions4 ,the first is mainly historic4 ,chaps4 #a1 #b4 ,the false teachers had disparaged ,paul's apostolical standing1 on the ground1 apparently1 that he was not one of the original twelve1 and had not been called immediately by ,christ to the apostleship1 but had received his gospel from men4 ,it would seem also that they labored to make it appear that ,paul's doctrine respecting circumcision and the ,mosaic law was contrary to that of ,peter and the other apostles of the circumcision4 ,paul accordingly devotes these two introductory chapters to a vindication of his full apostolic standing4 ,he shows that his apostleship is not of man neither by man1 but by ,jesus ,christ and ,god the ,father 7chap4 #a3a72 that the gospel which he preaches he neither received of man1 nor was taught by man but by the revelation of ,jesus ,christ 7verses #aa1 #ab72 that1 accordingly1 upon his call to the apostleship1 he went not up to ,jerusalem to receive instruction from those who were apostles before him1 but into ,arabia1 whence he returned to ,damascus 7verses #ae-ag72 that after three years he made a brief visit of fifteen days to ,peter1 where he also saw ,james1 but had no personal acquaintance with the churches in ,judea 7verses #bj-bd72 that fourteen years afterwards he went up to ,jerusalem by revelation1 not to be instructed by the apostles there1 but to confer with them respecting the gospel of the uncircumcision which was committed to him1 and that he obtained the full recognition of ,james1 ,cephas1 and ,john1 who were reckoned as pillars 7chap4 #b3a-aj72 and that afterwards1 when ,peter was come to ,antioch he withstood him to the face on this very question of circumcision1 because1 through fear of his ,jewish brethren1 he had dissembled and drawn others into dissimulation1 adding also the substance of the rebuke administered by him to ,peter1 which contains an argument 7drawn in part from ,peter's own practice7 against compelling the ,gentiles to live as do the ,jews 7verses #aa-ba74 ,having thus vindicated his apostolic authority against the false teachers in ,galatia1 he proceeds1 in the second part of the epistle1 to unfold the great argument for justification by faith in ,christ4 ,the ,galatians have received the ,holy ,spirit1 with the accompanying miraculous gifts1 not by the works of the law1 but by faith in ,christ 7chap4 #c3a-e72 ,abraham was justified by faith1 as an example for all future ages 7verses #f-i1ah72 the law cannot bring justification to sinners1 but only condemnation 7verses #aj-ab72 from this condemnation ,christ delivers us1 and makes us through faith the children of ,abraham1 and heirs to all the promises which ,god made to him 7verses #ac1 #ad72 the ,abrahamic covenant1 conditioned on faith alone1 is older than the ,mosaic law and cannot be disannulled by it 7verses #ae-ag72 the true office of the law was to prepare men for the coming of ,christ1 in whom all distinction between ,jew and ,gentile is abolished 7verses #ai-bi72 before ,christ the people of ,god were like a child that has not yet received the inheritance1 but is kept under tutors and governors1 but through ,christ they are like the same child arrived at full age1 and put in possession of the inheritance 7chap4 #d3a-g74 ,the apostle adds 7chaps4 #d3h-e3ab7 various arguments and illustrations1 with pointed allusions to the false teachers who were subverting the simplicity of their faith in ,christ2 and he solemnly warns the ,galatian ,christians that by receiving circumcision they bind themselves to do the whole law--the whole law as the ground of their justification4 ,they have left ,christ1 and thus fallen away from grace--forsaken a system of grace for one of works1 so that ,christ is become of no effect to them4 ,chap4 #e3c1 #d4 ,the third part 7chaps4 #e3ac-f3ah7 is of a practical character4 ,the apostle affectionately exhorts the ,galatians to use their ,christian liberty in a worthy manner1 mortifying fleshly lusts1 restoring fallen brethren in meekness1 bearing one another's burdens1 and being diligent in every good work4 ,in bringing the epistle to a close he contrasts the vain-glory and hypocrisy of these ,judaizing false teachers with his steadfast purpose to glory only in the cross of ,christ1 in whom neither circumcision availeth any thing1 nor uncircumcision1 but a new creature4 ,,iv4 ,,epistles ,,to ,,the ,,colossians1 ,,ephesians1 ,,and ,,philemon4 #ai4 ,these three epistles are contemporaneous1 in the sense that they were written on the same general occasion1 and forwarded at the same time1 though some days may have intervened between the composition of the first and the last of them4 ,they were all written when ,paul was a prisoner 7,eph4 #c3a2 #d3a2 #f3bj2 ,col4 #d3aj2 ,philemon #a1 #i1 #aj1 #bc71 and all sent virtually by ,tychicus2 for ,onesimus1 a servant whom ,paul sent back to his master1 ,philemon of ,colosse1 with a commendatory letter1 went in company with ,tychicus4 ,eph4 #f3ba1 #bb2 ,col4 #d3g-i4 ,the epistle to the ,ephesians contains no salutations2 but those of the other two1 are1 with a single exception1 sent from the same persons--,aristarchus1 ,marcus1 ,epaphras1 ,luke1 and ,demas4 ,if any further argument for their contemporaneousness were needed1 it could be found in the remarkable agreement between the contents of the epistles to the ,ephesians and ,colossians1 extending not only to the thoughts but to the phraseology also4 #bj4 ,it is agreed that these three epistles were written during the apostle's imprisonment in either ,cesarea or ,rome2 but from which of these two places is a question on which biblical scholars differ1 and which cannot be answered with certainty1 though the common opinion has been that the apostle wrote from ,rome4 ,it is not necessary to review the arguments advanced on the two sides4 ,the reader who wishes to investigate the matter will find them in commentaries and bible dictionaries4 #ba4 ,another question is3 ,in what order were the epistles to the ,ephesians and ,colossians written8 ,here we have only indirect indications1 and these not decisive4 ,it is manifest1 however1 from a comparison of the two epistles1 that the apostle had a more specific occasion for writing to the ,colossians than to the ,ephesians4 ,it is natural1 therefore1 to suppose that he first penned his letter to the former church1 and very soon afterwards1 while his heart was yet warm with the great theme of that letter--the personal glory and dignity of ,christ1 and the union through him of both ,jews and ,gentiles in one holy family--he wrote to the ,ephesians among whom he had so long labored1 going over the same general course of thought1 but with more fulness and in a less argumentative tone4 ,however this may be1 it is certain that the most convenient order of studying these two closely related epistles is to begin with that to the ,colossians and thence proceed to the other4 ,we propose to consider them in this order4 #bb4 ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,colossians4 ,colosse was a city lying in the southwestern part of ,phrygia1 in ,asia ,minor1 in the neighborhood of ,laodicea and ,hierapolis4 ,chap4 #d3ac1 #af4 ,respecting the founding of the church there we have no information4 ,according to the most natural interpretation of chap4 #b3a1 ,paul had not visited ,colosse in person when he wrote the present epistle4 ,the occasion of his writing seems to have been information received by him that false teachers were troubling the ,colossian church4 ,that these men were ,jews is plain from chap4 #b3af1 #bj1 #ba2 where the reference is to ,jewish ordinances4 ,but their doctrine was not simple ,phariseeism1 like that of the false teachers among the ,galatians4 ,they did not seek directly to substitute circumcision and the ,mosaic law for faith in ,christ1 as the ground of justification4 ,they seem rather to have been ,christian ,jews of an ascetic turn of mind1 and imbued with the semi-oriental philosophy of that day1 which contained in itself the seeds of the later ,gnostic systems4 ,having no clear apprehension of the glory of ,christ's person and the fulness of the salvation which his gospel offers to men1 they sought to supplement the ,christian system by their ascetic practices and their speculations concerning the orders of angels1 whom they seem to have regarded as mediators between ,god and men4 ,to all this human philosophy the apostle opposes directly the divine dignity and glory of ,christ's person1 and the completeness of the redemption which he has provided for men4 ,the ,jewish character of these false teachers appears in their insisting on meats and drinks1 holy-days1 new moons1 and ,sabbaths 7chap4 #b3af1 #bj1 #ba72 their ascetic character1 in their doctrine concerning the mortification of the body 7chap4 #b3bc72 their speculations concerning angels1 in the fact that they are described as delighting in humility and the worship of angels 7chap4 #b3ah1 #bc74 ,the apostle apparently refers to a false humility which1 under the pretence that ,god is too great to be approached except through the mediation of angels1 made them instead of ,christ the way of access to him1 thus disparaging the ,redeemer's person and office4 #bc4 ,in respect to plan1 the epistle naturally falls into two parts of about equal length4 ,the first is argumentative4 ,chaps4 #a1 #b4 ,after an introduction1 in which the apostle thanks ,god that the ,colossians have been made partakers of the gospel1 commends them for the fruitfulness of their faith1 and assures them of his incessant prayers in their behalf 7chap4 #a3a-ab71 and passes to his great theme1 which is to set forth the divine dignity and glory of ,christ's person4 ,he is the image of the invisible ,god1 existing before all things1 and the creator and upholder of all things1 those angelic orders included whom the false teachers regarded as objects of worship 7verses #ae-ag74 ,he is also the head of the church1 and as such unites under himself all holy beings in heaven and earth in one happy family 7verses #ah-bb74 ,in him all fulness dwells1 and all believers are complete in him2 receiving through him a spiritual circumcision which brings to them holiness of heart1 forgiveness of sins1 and life from the dead 7verses #aa-ac74 ,christ has abolished by his death on the cross the handwriting of ordinances--the ,mosaic ordinances under the figure of a bond which was before of binding force1 but which he has annulled--so that the former ground of separation between ,jews and ,gentiles is done away 7#b3ad74 ,by the same death on the cross he has spoiled principalities and powers--the powers of darkness1 of which ,satan is the head--openly triumphing over them 7verse #ae74 ,the ,colossians1 then1 have all that they need in ,christ1 and the apostle affectionately warns them against being spoiled through the philosophy of these false teachers1 which is a compound of ignorance1 self-conceit1 and will-worship1 void alike of reality and power4 ,the second part is practical4 ,chaps4 #c1 #d4 ,the duties on which the apostle insists come mainly under two general heads4 ,the first is that of a heavenly temper of mind growing out of their resurrection with ,christ who sits at the right hand of ,god1 and who shall appear again to receive his disciples to himself1 that they also may appear with him in glory4 ,in view of this animating hope he exhorts the ,colossians to put away all the sins belonging to their former state of heathenism4 ,chap4 #c3a-h4 ,the second is that of mutual love and harmony arising from their union with each other in ,christ1 whereby they have been made one holy body1 in which outward distinctions are nothing but ,christ is all and in all4 ,on this ground they are urged to cultivate all the graces of the ,spirit1 the chief of which is love1 and faithfully to discharge1 each one in his station1 the mutual duty which they owe as husbands and wives1 as parents and children1 as masters and servants4 ,chaps4 #c3i-d3a4 ,they are admonished1 moreover1 to let the word of ,christ dwell in them richly for their mutual edification 7chap4 #c3af72 to be single-hearted in their aim to please ,christ 7verse #ag72 to be prayerful and vigilant 7chap4 #d3b-d72 and wise in their intercourse with unbelievers 7verses #e1 #f74 ,the epistle closes with notices of a personal character intermingled with salutations 7verses #g-ah74 ,in chap4 #d3af the apostle directs that this epistle be read also in the church of the ,laodiceans1 and that the ,colossians likewise read the epistle from ,laodicea4 ,what was this epistle from ,laodicea8 7#a7 ,some think it was a letter written by the church of ,laodicea to ,paul1 and forwarded by him to the ,colossians4 7#b7 ,others understand it of an epistle of ,paul to the ,laodiceans 7perhaps forwarded along with the three epistles now under consideration7 and which the ,colossians were to obtain from ,laodicea4 ,this is the most probable supposition4 ,on the attempt to identify this epistle with our canonical epistle to the ,ephesians see below4 #bd4 ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,ephesians4--,ephesus1 the metropolis of ,proconsular ,asia1 which comprehended the western provinces of ,asia ,minor1 lay on the coast of the ,a,egean sea between ,smyrna on the north and ,miletus on the south4 ,in the apostolic age it was a flourishing city1 and renowned for the temple of the heathen goddess ,diana4 ,two visits of the apostle to ,ephesus are recorded in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 the latter of which was prolonged through most of three years4 ,acts #ah3ai-ba2 chaps4 #ai2 #bj3ca4 ,the occasion of writing this epistle seems to have been of a very general nature4 ,the apostle was sending a letter by ,tychicus to the ,colossians1 and embraced the opportunity to write to the ,ephesians also4 ,in entire accordance with this supposition is the general character of the epistle4 ,the apostle has no particular error to combat1 as he had in the case of the ,colossians4 ,he proceeds1 therefore1 in a placid and contemplative frame of mind to unfold the great work of ,christ's redemption2 and then makes a practical application of it1 as in the epistle to the ,colossians1 but with more fulness1 and with some important additions4 ,it has seemed surprising to many that the apostle should have written in so general a strain to a church on which he had bestowed so much labor1 and where he had so many personal friends2 particularly that he should have omitted at the close all salutations4 ,to account for this various hypotheses have been proposed4 ,the words in ,ephesus are omitted in the ,sinai and ,vatican manuscripts1 and there is reason for believing that they were wanting in some other ancient manuscripts not now extant4 ,see the quotations from ,basil the ,great1 and other fathers in ,alford1 ,ellicott1 ,meyer1 and other critical commentators4 ,on this ground some have supposed that the present epistle was intended to be encyclical--an epistle for general circulation among the churches2 others1 that it is the ,laodicean epistle referred to in ,col4 #d3af4 ,but in favor of the words in ,ephesus there is an overwhelming weight of evidence4 ,they are sustained by all the versions and all the manuscripts except the above4 ,besides1 as every ,greek scholar knows1 if these words are omitted1 it compels the omission from the original of the two preceding words which are found in every manuscript and version--unless1 indeed1 we adopt the far-fetched hypothesis that the apostle furnished ,tychicus with two or more copies of the epistle for different churches1 leaving a blank space to be filled as occasion should require2 and then it becomes impossible to explain how the reading in ,ephesus should have been so universal in the manuscripts and versions4 ,there is no occasion for any of this ingenuity4 ,the omission of these words from single manuscripts is not wonderful4 ,it finds a parallel1 as ,alford remarks1 in the omission of the words in ,rome 7,rom4 #a3g7 from one manuscript1 whether from oversight or for the purpose of generalizing the reference of its contents4 ,nor can any valid objection be drawn from the general character of the epistle4 ,that depended much on the occasion which called it forth1 which we have seen to have been general1 and the frame of mind in which the apostle wrote4 ,as to the omission of salutations1 we shall find upon examination that the measure of ,paul's personal acquaintance with the churches was not that of his personal greetings4 ,these abound most of all in the epistle to the ,romans whom he had never visited4 ,rom4 #af4 ,they are found also in the epistle to the ,colossians to whom ,paul was personally a stranger4 ,col4 #d3aj-ad4 ,on the contrary they are wanting1 except in a general form1 in the epistles to the ,corinthians1 ,galatians1 ,philippians1 ,thessalonians 7in #b ,thessalonians wholly wanting as in this epistle71 ,titus1 and the first to ,timothy4 ,the other objections are founded on misinterpretation1 as when it is inferred from chap1 #a3ae that the author had never seen those to whom he wrote2 and from chap1 #c3b that they had no personal acquaintance with him4 ,but in the former passage the apostle speaks simply of the good report which had come to him from the ,ephesian church since he left it2 and1 in the latter1 the words3 if ye have heard imply no doubt 7compare #a ,peter #b3c71 and cannot be fairly adduced to prove that the writer was personally unknown to his readers4 #be4 ,this epistle1 like that to the ,colossians1 naturally falls into two divisions of about equal size2 the first argumentative1 the second practical4 ,the argumentative part occupies the first two chapters4 ,full of the great theme with which the epistle to the ,colossians is occupied--the personal dignity and glory of ,christ1 the greatness of his salvation1 and especially the union through him of all holy beings in heaven and earth in one family of ,god--the apostle begins1 immediately after the apostolic greeting1 by pouring out his heart in thanksgiving to ,god for his rich mercy1 which has made him and his beloved ,ephesians partakers of ,christ's redemption1 the greatness and glory of which he describes in glowing terms1 bringing in1 as he proceeds1 the thought with which his mind is filled1 that it is ,god's purpose to gather together in one all things in ,christ1 both which are in heaven1 and which are on earth4 ,chap4 #a3aj4 ,he then adds a fervent prayer for the growth of the ,ephesians in the knowledge of ,christ1 whom ,god has raised above all principality and power and made head over all things to his body the church4 ,returning in the second chapter to the theme with which he began1 he contrasts with the former wretched condition of the ,ephesians1 when they had no hope and were without ,god in the world1 their present blessed state1 as fellow-citizens with the saints and of the household of faith2 ,god having through ,christ broken down the middle wall of partition between ,jews and ,gentiles1 and built them all into a holy temple upon one common foundation1 of which ,jesus ,christ is the chief corner stone4 ,in the third chapter he dwells upon the grace of ,god which had committed to him1 in a special sense1 the office of preaching among the ,gentiles the unsearchable riches of ,christ2 and adds a rapturous prayer for the strengthening of the ,ephesians through the ,spirit in the inner man1 for their establishment in faith and love1 and their illumination in the love of ,christ which passes knowledge1 that they may be filled with all the fulness of ,god4 ,then follows a doxology in which the apostle labors to find words wherewith to express his conception of the greatness of ,god's power and grace through ,jesus ,christ4 ,with the fourth chapter begins the practical part of the epistle4 ,he begins with an exhortation to unity1 the argument for which cannot be abridged3 ,there is one body1 and one ,spirit1 even as ye are called in one hope of your calling3 one ,lord1 one faith1 one baptism1 one ,god and ,father of all1 who is above all1 and through all1 and in you all4 ,chap4 #d3d-f4 ,he next speaks of the diversity of gifts among believers1 all of which come from ,christ1 and have for their end the unity of the church in faith and knowledge1 and thus her stability 7verses #g-af74 ,then follow earnest admonitions to shun the vices of their former state of heathenism1 and cultivate all the graces of the ,spirit4 ,the mutual relations of life are then taken up1 as in the epistle to the ,colossians4 ,here occurs that grand digression in which the love of ,christ towards his church is compared with that of the husband towards his wife4 ,chap4 #e3bc-cb4 ,the closing exhortation1 in which the ,christian is compared to a warrior wrestling not with flesh and blood but with the powers of darkness1 and his heavenly panoply is described at length1 is 7with the exception of the brief figure1 #a ,thess4 #e3h7 peculiar to this epistle and is very striking4 #bf4 ,,epistle ,,to ,,philemon4--,this short epistle is essentially of a private character4 ,it was sent to ,colosse by ,onesimus at the same time with the epistle to the ,colossians1 of which ,tychieus was the bearer4 ,col4 #d3g-i4 ,the epistle itself plainly indicates its object4 ,it is a plea for ,onesimus1 the servant of ,philemon1 who had left his master and apparently defrauded him 7verse #ah71 but now returns to him a ,christian4 ,as a model of ,christian delicacy and courtesy it has been the admiration of all ages4 ,v4 ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,philippians4 #bg4 ,the ancient name of ,philippi was ,crenides 7,fountains72 but ,philip of ,macedon fortified the place and called it after his own name4 ,it lay along the bank of a river on a plain in the eastern border of ,proconsular ,macedonia1 and was made a colony by ,augustus in memory of his victory gained there over ,brutus and ,cassius4 ,compare ,acts #af3ab4 ,its port was ,neapolis on the ,a,egean sea about twelve ,roman miles to the southeast of it4 ,philippi was the first place in ,europe where the gospel was preached by ,paul1 who had been summoned across the sea to ,macedonia by a vision4 ,acts #af3i4 ,this was during his second missionary journey1 about ,a4,d4 #ec4 ,a record of his labors and sufferings on that occasion is given in ,acts #af3ab-dj4 ,in his third missionary journey he twice visited ,macedonia1 sailing the second time from ,philippi1 that is1 from its port ,neapolis4 ,acts #bj3a1 #c-f4 #bh4 ,the occasion of this epistle seems to have been the contribution made by the ,philippians to supply the apostle's necessities while a prisoner in ,rome4 ,chap4 #d3aj-ah4 ,that he was a prisoner is plain from chap4 #a3ac1 #ad1 #af4 ,that the place of imprisonment was ,rome is inferred from the general tone of the epistle1 which shows that the apostle was awaiting a decision of his case1 in accordance with his appeal to ,caesar1 with the confident expectation of a favorable result 7chaps4 #a3ai-be2 #b3bc1 #bd71 and especially from the mention of ,caesar's household 7chap4 #d3bb74 ,from chap4 #b3bc1 #bd we infer1 moreover1 that the time for a decision of his case was at hand4 ,the date of this epistle1 then1 was about ,a4,d4 #fc4 ,the apostle speaks very confidently of a speedy release and restoration to the work of his apostolic office4 ,chaps4 #a3ai1 #be1 #bf2 #b3bd4 ,this language is important in connection with the two closely related questions1 that of a second imprisonment at ,rome and that of the date of the pastoral epistles4 ,see below1 ,no4 #ce4 #bi4 ,the character of this epistle answers well to its occasion4 ,it is a free outpouring of the apostle's heart towards his beloved ,philippians1 who had remembered him in his bonds and sent ,epaphroditus to supply his wants4 ,he bestows upon them no censure1 unless the suggestion to ,euodias and ,syntyche be regarded as such1 but commends them for their liberality1 exhorts them to steadfastness in the endurance of persecution1 and admonishes them to maintain a deportment which shall be in all things such as becomes the gospel1 the several parts of which he specifies in the course of the epistle1 but not in any very exact order4 ,it is in connection with these admonitions that the apostle1 while insisting on the duty of humility and self-sacrificing love1 brings in that sublime description of the ,saviour's original glory and equality with ,god1 which he laid aside for our redemption1 taking upon himself the form of a servant and submitting to the death of the cross2 for which act of self-abasement he is now exalted to be ,lord of heaven and earth4 ,chap4 #b3e-aa4 ,intermingled with the above named commendations1 exhortations1 and counsels1 are frequent notices respecting himself1 introduced in the most natural and artless manner1 and unfolding for our edification some of the deepest principles of ,christian character4 ,his faith in ,christ and love for ,his cause raise him above the sphere of human jealousies4 ,he rejoices that ,christ is preached1 whether of good-will or of envy1 knowing that this shall turn to his salvation through the prayers of the ,philippians and the supply of ,christ's ,spirit4 ,chap4 #b3ae-ai4 ,he knows that for himself personally it is better to depart and be with ,christ3 but to continue in the flesh is more needful for the ,philippians4 ,he cannot1 therefore1 choose between life and death4 ,chap4 #a3ba-be4 ,how different this from the spirit of some1 who think of death only in connection with their own personal comfort1 and how much higher the type of religion which it reveals6 ,so far as outward advantages are concerned1 no man can have more occasion than he to glory in the flesh4 ,but all these he has renounced and counted loss for ,christ4 ,his one ambition is to know ,christ1 and be united with him in his death and resurrection4 ,his present attainments he forgets in his single purpose of pressing towards the goal for the prize of ,god's heavenly calling in ,christ ,jesus4 ,chap4 #c3d-ad4 ,he warmly commends the ,philippians for their liberality1 but wishes them to understand that he does not speak in respect to personal want2 for every where and in all things he has been taught the lesson of contentment with present circumstances4 ,chap4 #d3aj-ad4 ,,vi4 ,,epistles ,,to ,,the ,,thessalonians4 #cj4 ,the original name of ,thessalonica was ,therme1 whence the gulf at the head of which it is situated1 was called the ,thermaic gulf4 ,the modern name of the city is ,saloniki1 and of the gulf1 the gulf of ,saloniki4 ,in the apostolic age it was a large and wealthy city1 and the metropolis of the second district of ,macedonia4 ,at the present day it is second only to ,constantinople in ,european ,turkey4 ,then as now a large number of ,jews resided in it4 ,in his second missionary tour the apostle1 when driven from ,philippi1 went through ,amphipolis and ,apollonia to ,thessalonica4 ,after his usual manner he first resorted to the ,jewish synagogue and three ,sabbath days reasoned with them out of the ,scriptures4 ,after this a tumult was raised at the instigation of the unbelieving ,jews1 and the apostle was sent away by night to ,berea4 ,acts #ag3a-aj4 ,we cannot affirm that his stay at ,thessalonica was limited to three weeks2 yet it was very brief1 and for this reason he was anxious to return again that he might impart further instruction and consolation to the converts there1 who were undergoing a severe ordeal of temptation through persecution4 ,chaps4 #b3ag-c3e4 ,his labors at ,thessalonica were not confined to the ,sabbath-day and the ,jewish synagogue4 ,he preached the gospel to the ,gentiles also1 and his chief success seems to have been among them4 #a ,thess4 #a3i2 #b3ad1 #af4 #ca4 ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,thessalonians was written during the apostle's second missionary journey1 the same journey in which he first visited ,thessalonica4 ,this we gather from the fact that ,silvanus 7,silas7 was with him 7chap4 #a3a71 for ,silas was ,paul's travelling companion only during that journey 7,acts #ae3dj2 #af3ai1 #be1 #bi2 #ag3d1 #aj1 #ad1 #ae2 #ah3e72 also from the notice of his being at ,athens 7chap4 #c3a compared with ,acts #ag3ae1 #af74 ,he did not1 however1 write from ,athens1 as the subscription erroneously states1 but from ,corinth2 for it was at this place that ,silas and ,timotheus rejoined him1 bringing good tidings from ,macedonia respecting the church in ,thessalonica4 ,chap4 #c3a-f compared with ,acts #ah3a-e4 ,this is1 then1 the earliest of ,paul's epistles1 having been written about ,a4,d4 #ec4 #cb4 ,the epistle clearly indicates its occasion4 ,in consideration of the brief time which the apostle had been able to spend at ,thessalonica1 and of the severe persecution to which the converts in that city were exposed1 he was very desirous to make them a second visit4 ,but having been twice frustrated in this purpose1 he sent ,timothy and ,silas to learn the condition of the ,thessalonian church and bring him word concerning it1 which they did while he was at ,corinth4 ,chaps4 #b3ag-c3f4 ,the letter is an affectionate outpouring of his heart in view of the good tidings received through these brethren1 into which are interwoven encouragements1 instructions1 and admonitions adapted to the circumstances of the brethren at ,thessalonica1 with abundant references to the apostle's own labors there4 ,in the first chapter he commends1 with devout thanksgiving to ,god1 the faith and love and patience of the ,thessalonian ,christians4 ,the second and third chapters are mainly occupied with a notice of his own labors and those of his colleagues at ,thessalonica1 of his strong desire to revisit them which he had thus far been hindered from carrying into execution1 and of his joy at the good tidings brought by ,timothy1 the whole closed with a fervent prayer in their behalf4 ,the two remaining chapters contain miscellaneous instructions suited to the condition of a church that had been recently gathered in great part from the ranks of heathenism4 ,in the course of these he corrects an error into which the ,thessalonian believers had fallen from the idea that they who should die before ,christ's second coming might fail of their share in its glory and blessedness4 ,chap4 #d3ac-ah4 ,in both of the epistles he admonishes the ,thessalonians against the neglect of their proper worldly business1 a fault that was apparently connected with visionary ideas respecting the speedy second coming of our ,lord1 and which he rebukes in severe terms4 #a ,thess4 #d3aa2 #b ,thess4 #c3aj-ab4 #cc4 ,,the ,,second ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,thessalonians1 like the first1 is written in the name of ,paul1 and ,silvanus1 and ,timotheus1 and seems to have been sent from ,corinth not many months after the first4 ,the apostle's main design was to correct a pernicious error respecting the time of our ,lord's second advent1 which some at ,thessalonica seem to have been strenuously engaged in propagating1 and to give them further instruction respecting this great doctrine and their duty in relation to it4 ,after the apostolic salutation he expresses his gratitude to ,god for the growth of their ,christian faith and love1 and comforts them under the pressure of the persecution to which they were subjected with the assurance of our ,lord's second coming in glory to destroy his and their enemies and give rest to his suffering servants2 but proceeds in the second chapter to show that this day is not yet at hand1 and cannot come till there has first been a great apostacy1 the characteristic features of which he proceeds to give 7verses #c-ab74 ,the remainder of the epistle is occupied with commendations and encouragements to perseverence1 mingled with admonitions4 ,the latter have special reference to certain idle and disorderly members of the church1 whom the apostle describes as some which walk among you disorderly1 working not at all1 but are busy bodies 7chap4 #c3aa71 and who also set themselves in opposition to his apostolic authority 7verse #ad74 ,these disorderly persons seem to have been the same as those who were engaged in propagating erroneous notions respecting the time of our ,lord's second advent4 ,their visionary views on this subject made them self-conceited1 talkative1 and self-willed1 and led them to neglect the sober duties of daily life4 ,the apostle beseeches the ,thessalonians not to be soon shaken in mind1 or troubled1 neither by spirit1 nor by word1 nor by letter as from us1 as that the day of ,christ is at hand4 ,and he adds3 ,let no man deceive you in any way--in any of the ways specified or any other way4 ,chap4 #b3b1 #c4 ,there were then persons at ,thessalonica busily occupied in misleading the ,thessalonians3 7#a7 by spirit1 that is1 by prophesies which they professed to have received from the ,holy ,spirit2 7#b7 by word1 by oral teaching2 7#c7 by letter as from us1 that is1 purporting to come from the apostle4 ,or1 perhaps1 we should render3 nor by word nor by letter as from us3 that is1 neither by oral teaching nor by written communication alleged to have come from me4 ,we can well understand how the unwritten words of the apostle should have been perverted by these false teachers4 ,the question remains3 ,did they pervert the meaning of his language in the first epistle1 or did they employ an epistle forged in his name8 ,the latter has been from ancient times a common interpretation of this clause1 and it is favored by the words3 ,the salutation of ,paul with mine own hand1 which is the token in every epistle3 so ,i write4 ,chap4 #c3ag4 ,yet the supposition of such a forged epistle is something so improbable that many are inclined to adopt the former supposition4 ,the question respecting the man of sin belongs to the commentator4 ,in a brief introduction like the present1 we cannot enter upon it farther than to say that1 though we are not warranted in affirming that it has its exhaustive fulfilment in the ,papacy1 yet its chief embodiment thus far has been in that corrupt and persecuting power whose character answers so remarkably to the apostle's description4 #cd4 ,the epistles to the churches of ,philippi and ,thessalonica1 both lying within the bounds of ancient ,macedonia1 have a remarkable agreement in their general tone and manner4 ,in both cases we have the same affectionate outpouring of the apostle's heart towards the brethren to whom he writes1 and the same abundant personal notices respecting himself and his ministry4 ,yet they differ precisely as we might suppose they would in view of the fact that the two to the ,thessalonians are the earliest of ,paul's writings1 and are separated from that to the ,philippians by an interval of ten eventful years4 ,in writing to the ,thessalonians he gives peculiar prominence to the doctrine of our ,lord's second coming1 perhaps because1 in the persecutions which they were undergoing1 they especially needed its strengthening and consolatory influence2 perhaps also because in the continual maltreatment which he had encountered ever since he entered ,macedonia--at ,philippi 7,acts #af3ai-dj2 #a ,thess4 #b3b71 at ,thessalonica 7,acts #ag3e-aj71 at ,berea 7,acts #ag3ac1 #ad71 at ,corinth 7,acts #ah3f-ag7--;he was staying his own soul on the same glorious hope4 ,on the contrary1 we find in these earlier epistles no mention of ,judaizing ,christians1 nor any contrast between the two opposite systems of justification by faith and by the works of the ,mosaic law1 such as appears in his later epistles1 that to the ,philippians included4 ,phil4 #c3d-i4 ,his opponents at ,thessalonica are not ,judaizing ,christians1 but unconverted ,jews1 whose malignant opposition he describes in strong terms4 #a ,thess4 #b3ae1 #af4 ,to the ,thessalonians the apostle speaks of himself2 but it is of his ministry1 and the manner in which he has discharged its duties among them4 ,to the ,philippians he also speaks of himself2 but then it is from a prison1 with a trial for life or death before him1 and the retrospect of a long ministry behind him4 ,he unfolds1 therefore1 as is natural1 his deep experiences as a ,christian and an apostle of ,christ4 ,see above1 ,no4 #bi4 ,in this contrast between the earlier and the later epistles we have an evidence of their genuineness which is all the stronger because of its indirectness4 ,it is such a mark of truth as no falsifier has power to imitate4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,pastoral ,,epistles4 #ce4 ,the attempt to find for the pastoral epistles a place in ,paul's ministry as far as recorded in the ,acts of the ,apostles is beset with difficulties which amount to impossibilities4 ,among these difficulties are the following3 7#a47 ,whoever carefully studies these three epistles in their connection with each other1 and in contrast with the other ,pauline epistles1 must be profoundly impressed with the conviction that they all belong1 as it respects style and tone of thought1 to the same period of the apostle's life2 and1 as it respects subject-matter1 to the same era when the churches were troubled by the same forms of error4 ,but if we assume that they were written during that part of ,paul's ministry of which ,luke has left us the record1 the second to ,timothy must be widely separated from the other two4 ,that was certainly written during ,paul's last imprisonment near the close of his life4 ,but when he wrote the first to ,timothy and that to ,titus he was at liberty and prosecuting his missionary labors in ,asia ,minor and the vicinity4 ,it must have been then1 upon this assumption1 during his third missionary tour 7when ,apollos appears for the first time1 ,acts #ah3bd compared with ,titus #c3ac71 and before his last recorded journey to ,jerusalem1 his arrest there1 his two years' imprisonment at ,cesarea1 his voyage to ,rome1 and his imprisonment there for the space of at least two more years4 7#b47 ,there is no part of ,paul's history between his first visit to ,ephesus and his ,roman imprisonment1 which satisfies the historical conditions implied in the statements of any one of these epistles4 ,conybeare and ,howson1 vol4 #b1 ,appendix #a4 ,the student may see the arguments on one side in ,davidson's ,introduction to the ,new ,testament2 and on the other in ,alford1 and other critical commentators4 ,reference may also be made to the biblical dictionaries4 7#c47 ,upon the assumption that the first epistle to ,timothy1 whom ,paul had left in charge of the ,ephesian church1 was written before his recorded imprisonments at ,cesarea and ,rome1 it must be earlier than his farewell address to the elders of ,ephesus1 and also his epistle to the ,ephesians4 ,but the contents of the epistle manifestly point to a later period1 when the errors in doctrine and practice which he had predicted 7,acts #bj3bi1 #cj71 but of which he takes no notice in his epistle to the ,ephesians1 had already begun to manifest themselves4 ,the more one compares with each other these two epistles1 the deeper must his conviction be that the first to ,timothy is not the earlier but the later of the two4 7#d47 ,the peculiar tone and diction of the pastoral epistles and the peculiar character of the errors combated in them all indicate a later period in the apostle's life1 and a later stage in the history of the churches4 ,to place the first and third of these among those to the ,galatians1 ,corinthians1 and ,romans1 and the second1 among those to ,philemon1 the ,colossians1 ,ephesians1 and ,philippians1 must appear forced and unnatural4 ,it is much easier to assume the lapse of some years4 ,even then the contrast between these and the other epistles of ,paul in respect to tone and diction is very striking4 ,but it may be explained partly from the peculiar theme of the pastoral epistles1 partly from the change which the lapse of time with its manifold experiences had brought to the apostle's style and diction4 ,we assume1 therefore1 that the apostle was released from the ,roman imprisonment recorded by ,luke2 and that1 not very long before his second imprisonment which was terminated by his martyrdom at ,rome1 he wrote the three epistles now under consideration4 ,it is well known that this is in accordance with ancient tradition4 ,see the testimonies in ,conybeare and ,howson1 chap4 #bg2 in ,alford1 and in other commentators4 ,against this view is urged the apostle's declaration to the elders of ,ephesus that they should see his face no more2 whereas1 according to the present supposition1 he visited ,ephesus again after his first imprisonment4 ,as a fair offset to this may be urged on the other side his equally strong declaration to the ,philippians that his present imprisonment should have a favorable issue 7,phil4 #a3be72 which was not the case upon the hypothesis of a single imprisonment at ,rome4 ,such declarations1 where no doctrine or fact of ,christianity is concerned1 are not to be taken as revelations of the ,spirit4 ,we know1 for example1 from ,paul's own words1 that he changed his declared purpose respecting a visit to ,corinth1 for which his enemies accused him of using lightness4 #b ,cor4 #a3ae-ah4 ,it is urged again that when ,paul wrote the pastoral epistles ,timothy was a young man4 #a ,tim4 #d3ab2 #b ,tim4 #b3bb4 ,but according to ancient ideas one might be called a young man at any age under thirty-five or even forty years4 ,paul found ,timothy in his second missionary journey1 about ,a4,d4 #eb4 ,it is not necessary to assume that he was then more than twenty years old4 ,at the time of ,paul's martyrdom1 then1 about ,a4,d4 #fg or #fh1 he may have been1 for anything that appears to the contrary1 a young man in the ancient sense of the word4 #cf4 ,the false teachers with whom the apostle deals in these epistles are corrupt in practice as well as in doctrine4 #a ,tim4 #a3f2 #f3e2 #b ,tim4 #b3af1 #ag2 #c3f1 #h2 ,titus #a3ae1 #af4 ,they were chiefly ,jews 7#a ,tim4 #a3g2 ,titus #a3aj1 #ad2 #c3i72 but not ,jews who held to simple ,phariseeism1 like the false teachers among the ,galatians4 ,they more nearly resembled those who troubled the ,colossians--,jews of a speculative turn of mind1 who sought to bring into ,judaism the semi-oriental philosophy of that day4 ,they were not ,gnostics2 for ,gnosticism was essentially anti-,judaistic1 separating the ,god of the ,jews from the ,god of ,christianity1 and placing the two in antagonism to each other4 ,the speculations of these false teachers took a direction which was in some respects akin to the ,gnosticism of the second century2 but the allegation that they were themselves ,gnostics rests upon the misinterpretation of certain passages in these epistles1 or unwarrantable inferences from them4 #cg4 ,the genuineness of these epistles is sustained by the unanimous testimony of the ancient church4 ,only in modern times has it been called in question by certain writers1 who rest their arguments wholly on alleged internal evidence4 ,so far as their objections are founded on the assumed early date of the pastoral epistles--before the close of ,paul's imprisonment at ,rome recorded by ,luke1 on their peculiar tone and diction1 or on the supposed references in them to the ,gnosticism of the second century1 they have already been considered4 ,but it is further alleged3 7#a47 ,that they reveal a hierarchical spirit foreign to the character of the apostle ,paul4 ,the answer is that no trace of such a spirit is discernible in them4 ,the churches had from the first their officers--bishops or elders and deacons2 and the apostle simply gives the necessary directions for the selection of these1 with a few brief hints respecting the line of conduct to be observed towards them4 #a ,tim4 #e3a1 #ag1 #ai1 #bb4 7#b47 ,that the institution of widows 7#a ,tim4 #e3i-af7 belongs to a later age4 ,respecting the exact position of those who were enrolled in the class of widows there have been different opinions4 ,one is that this class consisted of those who were to receive relief from the funds of the church2 another1 that they were matrons set apart for special service in the church1 performing for their own sex duties analogous to those which the presbyters performed for the church generally4 ,the latter opinion is the more probable of the two1 as it explains the conditions insisted on by the apostle4 ,but according to either view there is no difficulty in admitting the existence in apostolic times of such an arrangement4 #ch4 ,in these pastoral epistles we have the affectionate counsels of the great apostle to the ,gentiles1 when he was now ripe in years and ,christian experience and about to close his earthly ministry1 addressed to two young men whom the ,holy ,ghost had made overseers of the churches4 ,they are a rich storehouse of instruction for all to whom ,god has committed the ministry of reconciliation4 ,let them1 as they hope at last to render up an account of their stewardship with joy and not with grief1 prayerfully study and reduce to daily practice these precepts of heavenly wisdom given by the ,holy ,spirit through the pen of ,paul the aged4 #ci4 ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,to ,,timothy4--,the time of this epistle lies1 as we have seen1 beyond the recorded history of the apostle1 and before his second and final imprisonment at ,rome1 perhaps about ,a4,d4 #fe or #ff4 ,it was addressed to ,timothy at ,ephesus not long after the apostle had left that city to go into ,macedonia 7chap4 #a3c71 but whether from ,macedonia or some other province of the ,roman empire cannot be determined4 ,the occasion we learn from the epistle4 ,paul had left ,timothy in charge of the ,ephesian church1 and1 being apprehensive of a protracted absence1 he sends him these written instructions relating partly to his own personal demeanor as a ,christian minister1 but chiefly to his office as the overseer of the ,ephesian church4 ,in the discharge of this office he is 7#a7 to withstand and keep down the growing heresies of the day2 7#b7 to superintend the government of the church in various particulars which the apostle specifies4 ,the contents of the epistle though not arranged in systematic order1 are in harmony with its occasion and design4 ,into the first chapter1 which is of an introductory character1 the apostle1 in the free intercourse of confiding affection1 inserts a personal notice of himself1 which breathes the spirit of devout gratitude and deep humility4 ,he then proceeds to give directions pertaining to the public worship of ,god--prayer1 the costume of women1 and their place in the public assembly 7chap4 #b72 and to the choice of bishops and deacons 7chap4 #c74 ,after a digression in the fourth chapter respecting the character of the coming apostacy foretold by the ,spirit1 which is followed by admonitions to ,timothy of a personal character1 he proceeds in the fifth chapter to give directions respecting the appointment and treatment of elders1 of the elder and younger women1 and especially of widows1 with personal counsel to ,timothy4 ,then follows an admonition to servants1 a notice of the false teachers1 a warning to the rich with further counsels to ,timothy1 and an animating glance at the second coming of our ,lord4 ,eunice1 the mother of ,timothy1 was a ,jewess distinguished for her piety1 as was also his grandmother ,lois4 ,acts #af3a2 #b ,tim4 #a3e4 ,by them he was carefully trained in the knowledge of the holy ,scriptures 7#b ,tim4 #c3ae71 and had a good reputation among the brethren when ,paul found him at ,derbe and ,lystra 7,acts #af3a1 #b74 ,his father being a ,greek1 he had never been subjected to the rite of circumcision4 ,but in consideration of his mixed descent ,paul1 to allay the prejudices of his countrymen1 took and circumcised him1 while he would not allow this rite to be imposed on ,titus1 who was of unmixed ,gentile origin4 ,timothy was one of the most trusty and beloved of ,paul's fellow-laborers1 as we learn from these and his other epistles1 and he naturally desired the comfort and help of his presence in his final imprisonment at ,rome4 #b ,tim4 #d3i1 #ba4 ,his health was feeble 7#a ,tim4 #e3bc71 and there are in ,paul's epistles some indications that he was naturally timid and diffident 7#a ,cor4 #af3aj1 #aa2 #b ,tim4 #a3g1 #h2 #b3c74 ,but grace made him faithful to the end4 #dj4 ,,the ,,epistle ,,to ,,titus which comes next in chronological order1 has a remarkable agreement with the first to ,timothy in both subject-matter and style4 ,with the exception of what relates to widows and the demeanor of women in the public assemblies1 it contains the same general precepts1 with additional exhortations that young men be sober-minded1 and that the ,cretan ,christians obey magistrates and be meek and gentle in their deportment4 ,with these counsels the apostle interweaves1 as in the first epistle to ,timothy1 exhortations to ,titus of a personal character1 and animating notices of ,god's grace in the gospel and of the second coming of our ,lord4 ,respecting the founding of the ,cretan churches we have no information in the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,the only time mentioned by ,luke when ,paul touched at ,crete was on his voyage to ,rome as a prisoner 7,acts #bg3h72 and then he had neither time nor liberty for the work of preaching the gospel in that island4 ,crete contained many ,jews1 some of whom were present at ,jerusalem on the day of ,pentecost 7,acts #b3aa74 ,the apostle's visit to ,crete referred to in this epistle we assume to have taken place between his first and second imprisonment at ,rome4 ,whether the churches of the island were then founded for the first time or had previously existed1 it is certain that ,paul left them in an imperfect state of organization4 ,for this reason he requested ,titus to remain1 that he might set in order the things that were wanting1 and ordain elders in every city4 ,chap4 #a3e4 ,it is remarkable that we have no notice of ,titus in the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,from the epistles of ,paul we learn that he was his companion in travel1 and intrusted by him at different times with missions to the churches4 ,he accompanied ,paul and ,barnabas to the so-called ,council of the ,apostles and ,elders at ,jerusalem1 where1 being a ,greek1 he was exempted from the necessity of circumcision4 ,gal4 #b3a1 #c4 ,for other notices of him see #b ,cor4 #b3ac2 #g3f1 #ac1 #ad2 #h3f1 #af1 #bc2 #ab3ah4 ,his stay in ,crete was not to be permanent2 for the apostle directs that upon the arrival from him of ,artemas or ,tychicus he should rejoin him at ,nicopolis--probably ,nicopolis in ,epirus4 ,chap4 #c3ab4 #da4 ,,second ,,epistle ,,to ,,timothy4--,the first epistle to ,timothy and that to ,titus are in a certain sense official2 that is1 they are largely occupied with apostolic counsels and directions to these two men respecting the administration of the churches which ,paul had committed to their care4 ,the present epistle is of a more private and personal character4 ,it was written from ,rome when ,paul was a prisoner there 7chaps4 #a3h1 #af1 #ag2 #b3i71 and expecting soon to seal his testimony with his blood 7chap4 #d3f74 ,in his extremity1 when fidelity to him could be shown only at the hazard of life1 many of his friends had forsaken him4 ,chaps4 #a3ae2 #d3aj4 ,he needed the presence and help of ,timothy1 and wrote urging him to come speedily1 and to bring certain articles which he had left at ,troas4 ,feeling that his end was near1 he improved the occasion to give ,timothy his affectionate apostolic counsel and encouragement4 ,hence the present epistle differs strikingly in its preceptive part from the other two4 ,they contain specific directions for ordaining officers and managing the affairs of the churches2 for in them the apostle writes to men in charge of specific fields of labor4 ,in the second epistle to ,timothy1 on the contrary1 the apostle's exhortations are general1 for he is summoning him away from his particular field to give attendance upon himself at ,rome4 ,but all three of the pastoral epistles agree remarkably1 as well in their general style and diction as in their description of existing errors and false teachers4 ,it is generally thought that ,timothy was at ,ephesus2 and with this opinion agrees the salutation to the household of ,onesiphorus1 who was at ,ephesus4 ,chap4 #d3ai compared with #a3ah4 ,the words of chap4 #d3ab1 however1 ,tychicus have ,i sent to ,ephesus1 do not favor this supposition4 ,hence some have thought that ,timothy was not in that city1 but only in its vicinity4 ,the present is undoubtedly the last of ,paul's epistles in the order of time4 ,as such we cannot but peruse it with solemnity1 as the closing testimony of one who has fought the good fight1 finished the appointed course1 and kept the faith2 and who here instructs all1 especially all preachers of the gospel1 how they may do the same4 ,and thus we possess an epistle calculated for all ages of the church2 and in which while the maxims cited and encouragements given apply to all ,christians1 and especially ministers of ,christ1 in their duties and difficulties--the affecting circumstances in which the writer himself is placed carry home to every heart his earnest and impassioned eloquence4 ,alford1 ,introduction to #b ,timothy4 ,,viii4 ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,hebrews4 #db4 ,in regard to the authorship of this epistle biblical scholars are not agreed4 ,each of the thirteen preceding epistles bears the name of ,paul4 ,but the present epistle is without either name or address1 and it omits also at the beginning the apostolic salutation4 ,thus it commences in the form of an essay1 though it closes in that of an epistle4 ,these circumstances1 in connection with its peculiar style and diction and the peculiar range of the topics discussed in it1 have produced a diversity of opinion on the question whether ,paul was its author1 at least its author in the immediate sense in which he was the author of the preceding epistles4 ,for the full discussion of the arguments on both sides the reader must be referred to the commentaries1 some of which are accessible to all4 ,our limits will only permit us to indicate certain facts and principles which have a bearing on the authorship of the epistle and its canonical authority4 ,the unanimous belief of the ,eastern church1 where we must suppose that it was first received and whence the knowledge of it was spread abroad1 ascribed it to ,paul as its author either immediately or virtually2 for some1 as ,origen 7in ,eusebius' ,hist4 ,eccl41 #f4 #ad7 accounted for its peculiar diction by the supposition that ,paul furnished the thoughts1 while they were reduced to form by the pen of some other person4 ,another opinion was that ,paul wrote in ,hebrew1 and that our present canonical epistle is a translation into ,greek 7,eusebius' ,hist4 ,eccl41 #c4 #ch2 ,clement of ,alexandria in ,eusebius' ,hist4 ,eccl41 #f4 #ad74 ,in the ,western church ,clement of ,rome did indeed refer to the epistle as authoritative1 but without naming the author4 ,yet its ,pauline authorship was not generally admitted1 nor was it received as a part of the sacred canon till the fourth century1 when here too the opinion of the ,eastern church was adopted4 ,the ,muratorian canon1 which represents the belief of the ,western church before the fourth century1 omits this epistle4 ,the ,syriac ,peshito1 on the other hand1 inserts it in accordance with its uniform reception by the ,eastern church4 ,this uniformity of belief in the ,eastern church must have had for its starting point the ,hebrews to whom the epistle was sent2 and it is a strong argument for the supposition that it did originally come to them under the sanction of ,paul's name and authority2 whether dictated to an amanuensis1 as were most of his epistles1 or written with his knowledge and approbation by some inspired man among his attendants and fellow-laborers who was thoroughly conversant with his views on the subjects treated of in the epistle4 ,this is as far as we have any occasion to go1 since we know that the gift of inspiration was not confined to the circle of the apostles4 ,as we cannot affirm that all who were associated with the apostles in the work of the ministry had the gifts needful for the composition of writings that should be given to the churches as the authoritative word of ,god1 so neither can we deny to some the possession of these gifts1 as is plain from the examples of ,mark and ,luke4 ,when men who stood in the second grade of relation to ,christ--apostolic men1 as we may conveniently call them--composed their works1 it is not necessary to assume that they wrote under a formal apostolic supervision4 ,the discerning of spirits is a gift which we must concede to all of the apostles4 ,if1 then1 an associate of one of the apostles had such relations to him and wrote in such circumstances that we cannot suppose it to have been done without his knowledge and approbation formal or implied1 we have for his work all needful authority4 ,what further connection the apostle may have had with it in the way of suggestion or supervision is a question which we may well leave undetermined4 ,in judging of this matter we consider first of all the testimony of the early churches1 since they enjoyed the best means of ascertaining the origin of a writing2 and then the character of the writing itself4 ,proceeding in this way we come to the full conviction of the canonical authority of the epistle to the ,hebrews1 whether we believe1 with many1 that ,paul was its immediate author1 or1 with ,origen1 that the ancients not without reason have handed it down as ,paul's2 but on the question who wrote the epistle ,god only knows the truth4 #dc4 ,that the apostle wrote for the instruction of ,jewish ,christians is manifest4 ,the uniform tenor of the epistle indicates1 moreover1 that they were ,jewish ,christians without any admixture of a ,gentile element4 ,the salutations at the end further imply that the epistle addresses not ,hebrew ,christians in general1 but some particular community of them1 which is most naturally to be sought in ,palestine1 perhaps in ,jerusalem4 ,as to the time of the epistle1 the manner in which it refers to the temple and its services makes it certain that the author wrote before the overthrow of ,jerusalem1 that is1 before ,a4,d4 #gj4 ,the arguments adduced to show that ,paul was its author1 either immediately or virtually1 carry it back beyond ,a4,d4 #fg or #fh1 when1 according to ancient tradition1 the apostle suffered martyrdom4 ,it was probably written not many years before that event2 but a more exact determination of the time is impossible4 ,according to the most probable interpretation of chap4 #ac3bd1 the epistle was written from ,italy4 ,but that ,timothy was not the bearer of it1 as the subscription states1 is plain from the preceding verse1 in which he conditionally promises to come with ,timothy at a future time4 ,the references in the epistle to the ,levitical priesthood and the temple services connected with it are in the present or perfect tenses--is ordained1 is encompassed1 he ought1 taketh this honor1 have a commandment to take tithes receive tithes hath given attendance at the altar 7chap4 #g3ac71 have become 7chap4 #g3ba1 #bc71 maketh men high priests1 who serve1 hath made the first old 7the references in chap4 #i3a-e are to the ancient tabernacle71 enter always into the first tabernacle 7chap4 #i3f71 which he offers 7verse #g71 the ,holy ,ghost this signifying that the way into the holiest places has not yet been made manifest1 while the first tabernacle is as yet standing 7verse #h71 gifts and sacrifices are offered 7verse #i71 sanctifieth1 are by the law purged1 can never1 standeth4 ,it is to be regretted that our version has not in all cases observed this distinction of tenses4 #dd4 ,the central theme of this book is the superiority of the ,christian over the ,mosaic dispensation considered on the side of its divine ,mediator and ,high-priest4 ,in unfolding this great theme the writer dwells on the glory and dignity of ,christ's person in contrast with the ancient prophets1 with the angels1 and with ,moses1 all of whom were connected with the first economy4 ,he then proceeds to exhibit the divine efficacy of ,christ's priesthood4 ,this is the substance1 of which the ,levitical priesthood1 with its altar1 its offerings and all the temple-services connected with it1 was only the shadow4 ,in no book of the ,new ,testament is our ,lord's priestly office set forth with such fullness and rich variety of illustrations1 always with reference to its divinely appointed type1 the ,levitical priesthood4 ,this was especially needful to fortify the ,hebrew ,christians1 who had been educated and lived under the constant impression of the splendid ,mosaic ritual with its magnificent temple1 against the danger of being turned from the simplicity of the gospel to reliance on the carnal ordinances of ,judaism1 which would have been virtual apostacy from ,christ4 ,this magnificent epistle constitutes in some sense a solemn requiem to the old temple service with its altar and priesthood1 where the blood of bulls and goats that can never take away sin had flowed for so many centuries4 ,this service had accomplished its end in prefiguring ,christ the true ,lamb of ,god which taketh away the sin of the world1 and it was destined soon to pass away forever with tumult1 with shouting1 with the sound of the trumpet--to pass away forever1 that men might give their undivided faith to ,christ1 our great ,high-priest1 who ministers for us in the heavenly tabernacle1 presenting there before his ,father's throne his own blood shed on ,calvary to make propitiation for the sins of the world4 ,to the argumentative part of this epistle are appended exhortations 7partly1 indeed1 anticipated in the preceding part7 to constancy in the ,christian profession1 drawn from the awful doom that awaits apostates1 from the examples of faith furnished by ancient worthies1 and especially from the example of ,christ himself and the glorious fellowship to which his gospel introduces us4 ,to these are added some admonitions of a more special character4 ,thus the present epistle performs an office in the general system of revelation which is supplied by no other book of the ,old or ,new ,testament4 ,to the book of ,leviticus it may be said to hold the relation of substance to shadow1 and it is its divinely appointed expositor4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,catholic ,,epistles4 #a4 ,seven epistles1 that of ,james and the six that follow1 are called ,catholic1 that is1 general or universal1 as not being directed to any particular church4 ,they were not all1 however1 addressed originally to believers generally1 but some of them to particular classes of believers1 or even to individuals1 as the introductory words show4 ,i4 ,,epistle ,,of ,,james4 #b4 ,the question respecting the person of ,james who wrote this epistle is one of great difficulty4 ,that ,james the ,lord's brother1 whom ,paul names as one of the apostles 7,gal4 #a3ai71 is identical with the ,james mentioned by ,luke in ,acts #ab3ag2 #ae3ac2 #ba3ah1 and is the author of the present epistle1 is admitted by most writers1 though not by all4 ,that this ,james of ,gal4 #a3ai was the ,james who is named with ,joses1 ,simon1 and ,judas1 as one of our ,lord's brethren 7,matt4 #ac3ee2 ,mark #f3c71 must be received as certain4 ,but whether he was identical with ,james the son of ,alpheus1 who was one of the twelve 7,matt4 #aj3c2 ,mark #c3ah2 ,luke #f3ae2 ,acts #a3ac71 is a question which has been much discussed and on which eminent biblical scholars are found arrayed on opposite sides4 ,the question turns very much on the interpretation of the words brother1 and brethren and sisters1 in the passages above referred to4 ,if we take them in their literal sense1 as some do1 then ,james the son of ,alpheus and ,james the ,lord's brother are different persons4 ,but others understand them in the general sense of kindred or cousins1 believing that our ,saviour was the only child of ,mary4 ,a statement at length of the arguments and objections that are urged on both sides does not come within the compass of the present work4 ,nor is it necessary4 ,the author of the present epistle is beyond all reasonable doubt the ,james who gave the final opinion in the assembly of the apostles and elders at ,jerusalem 7,acts #ae3ac-ba71 whom ,paul names with ,cephas and ,john as one of the pillars there 7,gal4 #b3i71 and who elsewhere appears as a man of commanding influence in the church at ,jerusalem 7,acts #ba3ah2 ,gal4 #b3ab74 ,if any one doubts his identity with ,james the son of ,alpheus1 who was one of the twelve1 this cannot affect the canonical authority of the epistle4 ,the position of this ,james in the church at ,jerusalem and his relation to the apostolic college is such that1 even upon the supposition that he did not belong to the number of the twelve1 his writings must have to us the full weight of apostolic authority4 ,see above chap4 #cj1 ,no4 #db4 #c4 ,the place where this epistle was written was manifestly ,jerusalem1 where ,james always resided2 and the persons addressed are the twelve tribes who are in the dispersion 7chap4 #a3a72 that is1 as the nature of the case and the tenor of the epistle make manifest1 that part of them who had embraced ,christianity4 ,there is no allusion in the epistle to ,gentile believers4 ,the dispersion is a technical term for the ,jews living out of ,palestine among the ,gentiles4 ,we need not hesitate to understand it here literally4 ,the apostle wrote to his ,jewish brethren of the dispersion because he could not visit them and superintend their affairs as he could those of the ,jewish ,christians in and around ,jerusalem4 ,some take the term in a wider sense of the ,jewish ,christians scattered abroad in and out of ,palestine1 but this is not necessary4 #d4 ,with regard to the date of this epistle also different opinions are held4 ,some place it early in the history of the church--earlier1 in fact1 than any other of the apostolic epistles--before the origin of the controversy respecting circumcision and the ,mosaic law recorded in ,acts1 chap4 #ae2 others quite late1 not long before the destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,romans4 ,the latter view best agrees with the contents of the epistle4 ,the doctrine of justification by faith1 for which ,paul had contended1 would naturally be abused precisely in the way here indicated1 by the substitution of a barren speculative faith1 for the true faith that works by love and purifies the heart and life from sin4 ,the age preceding the destruction of ,jerusalem was one of abounding wickedness1 especially in the form of strife and faction4 ,it had been predicted by our ,lord that the effect of this would be to chill the love of many of his visible followers and withdraw them from his service4 ,in truth the descriptions of these unworthy members of the ,jewish ,christian community which we find in this epistle1 in the second of ,peter1 and in that of ,jude1 are but the realization1 in most particulars1 of the state of things foretold in the following remarkable words of the ,saviour3 ,and then shall many be offended1 and shall betray one another1 and shall hate one another4 ,and many false prophets shall arise and shall deceive many4 ,and because iniquity shall abound the love of many shall wax cold4 ,but he that shall endure unto the end1 the same shall be saved4 ,matt4 #bd3aj-ac4 #e4 ,for the genuineness and canonical authority of the present epistle we have a very important testimony in the ,old ,syriac version 7,peshito71 which represents the judgment of the ,eastern churches where the epistle was originally circulated4 ,the remaining testimonies prior to the fourth century are scanty and some of them not very decisive4 ,they may be all seen in ,davidson's ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 and in the critical commentaries generally4 ,it cannot be reasonably doubted that the words of ,irenaeus1 ,abraham himself1 without circumcision and without the observance of ,sabbaths1 believed in ,god1 and it was counted to him for righteousness1 and he was called the friend of ,god 7,against ,heresies1 #d4cj71 refer to ,james #b3bc4 ,origen quotes the epistle as current under the name of ,james1 and intimates that some did not acknowledge its apostolic authority4 ,but he elsewhere cites it as that of ,james the ,lord's brother1 the apostle ,james1 the apostle1 and simply ,james4 ,see in ,kirchhofer ,quellensamlung1 pp4 #bfc1 #bfd4 ,eusebius reckons the epistle among the books that were disputed1 but known nevertheless to many4 ,hist4 ,eccl41 #c1 #be4 ,elsewhere he says3 ,it is regarded as spurious2 at least not many of the ancients have made mention of it4 ,hist4 ,eccl41 #b4 #bc4 ,but these words cannot be regarded as expressing ,eusebius' own opinion2 for he himself quotes him as the holy apostle1 and his words as ,scripture4 ,see in ,davidson's ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 #c1 p4 #ccf2 ,kirchhofer ,quellensamlung1 p4 #bfd4 ,in the course of the fourth century the canonical authority of this epistle was gradually more and more acknowledged1 and in the fifth its reception in the churches of both the ,east and the ,west became universal4 ,this is just what we might expect3 a writing little known at first1 obtains a more general circulation1 and the knowledge of the writing and its reception go almost together4 ,the contents entirely befit the antiquity which the writing claims2 no evidence could be given for rejecting it2 it differs in its whole nature from the foolish and spurious writings put forth in the name of this ,james2 and thus its gradual reception is to be accounted for from its having1 from early times1 been known by some to be genuine 7as shown by the ,syraic version71 and this knowledge being afterwards spread more widely4 ,tregelles in ,horne1 vol4 #d1 chap4 #be4 ,davidson suggests that differences of opinion and perplexities respecting the number of the persons called ,james in the apostolic period1 and the relation they bore to one another1 and also the fact that the epistle was addressed solely to ,jewish ,christians1 may have made its early circulation comparatively limited4 ,perhaps we may also add1 as he does1 its apparent contrariety to the ,pauline doctrine of justification by faith1 but this is by no means certain4 #f4 ,this epistle is eminently practical4 ,if any part of it can be called argumentative1 it is that in which the apostle shows that faith without works is dead4 ,chap4 #b3ad-bf4 ,the sins which he rebukes with such graphic vividness and power were all preeminently the sins of his countrymen at that age--hearing ,god's word without doing it1 resting in an empty faith that does not influence the life1 inordinate love of worldly possessions and a self-confident spirit in the pursuit of them1 wanton revelling in worldly pleasures1 partiality towards the rich and contempt of the poor1 defrauding the poor of their wages1 ambition to assume the office of teaching1 censoriousness1 a lawless and slanderous tongue1 bitter envying and strife1 mutual grudging and murmuring1 wars and fightings2 all these with an unbelieving and complaining spirit towards ,god4 ,but these are not merely ,jewish vices4 ,they are deeply rooted in man's fallen nature1 and many a nominal ,christian community of our day may see its own image by looking into the mirror of this epistle4 ,the alleged disagreement between ,paul and ,james is unfounded4 ,paul's object is to show that the ground of men's justification is faith in ,christ1 and not the merit of their good works4 ,the object of ,james is to show that faith without good works1 like the body without the spirit1 is dead4 ,paul argues against dead works2 ,james against dead faith4 ,here we have no contradiction1 but only two different views of truth that are in entire harmony with each other1 and both of which are essential to true godliness4 ,,ii4 ,,epistles ,,of ,,peter4 #g4 ,the ,first ,epistle of ,peter was unanimously received by the primitive church as the genuine work of the man whose name it bears4 ,polycarp1 in his epistle to the ,philippians1 made numerous citations from it4 ,it was also referred to by ,papias1 according to the testimony of ,eusebius4 ,hist4 ,eccl4 #c4 #ci4 ,irenaeus1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,tertullian1 ,origen1 etc4 all quote it expressly4 ,it is found in the ,syriac ,peshito version which contains but three of the catholic epistles4 ,it is wanting in the ,muratorian canon1 but to this circumstance much weight cannot be attached when we consider how dark and confused is the passage referring to the catholic epistles4 #h4 ,the readers addressed in the epistle are the elect sojourners of the dispersion1 of ,pontus1 ,galatia1 ,cappadocia1 ,asia1 and ,bithynia1 all provinces of ,asia ,minor4 ,the words sojourners--or strangers as rendered in our ,english version--and dispersion are both the appropriate terms for the ,jews living in dispersion4 ,that the apostle1 in an introduction of this kind1 should have used the word sojourners in a simply figurative sense1 to describe ,christians as pilgrims and strangers on the earth1 is very improbable1 especially in immediate connection with the word dispersion1 which must be understood literally4 ,we must rather understand the apostle as recognizing in the ,christian churches scattered throughout the world the true ,israel of ,god1 having for its framework the believing portion of the covenant people1 into which the ,gentile ,christians had been introduced through faith1 and thus made the children of ,abraham4 ,compare ,rom4 #d3ab-ag2 ,gal4 #c3g-i2 and especially ,rom4 #aa3ag-bd4 ,hence it comes to pass that while ,peter addresses them as the ancient people of ,god1 he yet includes ,gentile ,christians in his exhortations1 as is manifest from various passages1 especially from chap4 #d3c4 #i4 ,according to chap4 #e3ac the place from which this epistle was written was ,babylon4 ,no valid reason exists why we should not understand here the literal ,babylon4 ,the old opinion that the apostle used the word enigmatically to signify ,rome is nothing more than a conjecture in itself improbable4 ,it has been urged not without reason that ,peter names the provinces of ,asia ,minor in the order which would be natural to one writing from ,babylon2 naming ,pontus first1 which lay nearest to ,babylon1 and ,asia and ,bithynia1 which were the most remote1 last4 ,the question of the date of this epistle is connected with that of its occasion4 ,this seems to have been a fiery trial of persecution that had already begun to come upon the ,christians of the provinces named in the introductory address4 ,chaps4 #a3f1 #g2 #b3ab1 #ai1 #bj2 #c3ad1 #af1 #ag2 #d3a1 #ab-ai2 #e3i1 #aj4 ,the exact date and character of this persecution cannot be determined4 ,the majority of commentators assign it to the latter years of ,nero's reign1 which ended ,a4,d4 #fh4 ,the second epistle of ,peter was written not long before the apostle's death1 and after the epistles of ,paul had become generally known in ,asia ,minor4 ,as we cannot reasonably separate the two epistles by a great space of time 7see below1 ,no4 #aa71 we infer that the first was written after ,paul's first imprisonment in ,rome1 say somewhere between ,a4,d4 #fc and #fg4 #aj4 ,the general tone of the first epistle is in harmony with its occasion4 ,the apostle seeks to animate and strengthen his brethren in view of the fiery trial of persecution that had already begun to come upon them4 ,to this end he sets before them in glowing language the greatness and glory of the heavenly inheritance in reserve for them1 which was purchased by the precious blood of ,christ1 and the dignity and blessedness of suffering for ,christ's sake1 with the assurance of ,god's faithful presence and protection4 ,with these encouragements he intermingles admonitions suited to their circumstances4 ,he exhorts them as strangers and pilgrims to abstain from fleshly lusts and all the other vices of their former life in ignorance2 to commend their religion by a holy deportment which shall put to shame the calumnies of their adversaries2 to perform faithfully all the duties of their several stations in life2 to be humble1 sober1 vigilant1 and ready always to give a reason of their ,christian hope2 and above all things to have fervent charity among themselves4 ,the fervent spirit of the great apostle of the circumcision1 chastened and mellowed by age1 shines forth conspicuously in this epistle4 ,the closing chapter1 where he addresses first the elders1 then the younger1 then the whole body of believers1 charms the reader by the holy tranquillity which pervades it throughout--a tranquillity deeply grounded in that faith which is the substance of things hoped for1 the evidence of things not seen4 #aa4 ,,the ,,second ,,epistle ,,of ,,peter4 ,the address of this epistle is general 7chap4 #a3a72 yet the reference which it contains to the first 7chap4 #c3a7 shows that the apostle had in mind primarily the same circle of churches4 ,the character of this reference--,this second epistle1 beloved1 ,i now write unto you1 in which two epistles ,i stir up your pure minds by way of reminding you--indicates that the second was not separated from the first by a very great space of time1 certainly not many years4 ,the apostle wrote with the conviction that his decease was near at hand 7chap4 #a3ac-ae74 ,there is a tradition1 the correctness of which1 however1 is doubted by many1 that he suffered martyrdom at ,rome under the persecution raised by ,nero against the ,christians4 ,this would be about ,a4,d4 #fg4 ,as to the place from which the epistle was written we have no information4 #ab4 ,the present epistle is one of the disputed books4 ,chap4 #e1 ,no4 #g1 and ,chap4 #f4 ,the question respecting its genuineness may be conveniently considered under the two heads of external and internal evidence4 ,the external testimony to the present epistle is scanty4 ,passing by some doubtful references we come first to ,origen who says 7in ,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 #f4 #be73 ,but ,peter1 upon whom is built the church of ,christ1 against which the gates of hell shall not prevail1 has left one acknowledged epistle2 a second also1 if you will1 for it is doubted of4 ,in those of his works which are extant only in the ,latin version of ,rufinus1 ,origen in a number of passages quotes the present epistle as ,scripture4 ,it has been suspected that these passages were interpolated by ,rufinus1 who took many liberties with the text of ,origen2 but one of them1 which occurs at the beginning of his seventh homily on ,joshua1 is so peculiar that we cannot well doubt that ,origen himself was its author4 ,in allusion to the procession of priests blowing with trumpets when the ,israelites compassed the walls of ,jericho 7,josh4 chap4 #f71 he compares the writers of the ,new ,testament to so many sacerdotal trumpeters1 assigning to them trumpets for each book1 and mentioning every book1 as well the disputed as the acknowledged3 ,first ,matthew in his gospel1 gave a blast with his sacerdotal trumpet4 ,mark also1 ,luke1 and ,john1 sounded with their single sacerdotal trumpets4 ,peter also sounds aloud with the two trumpets of his epistles2 ,james also1 and ,jude4 ,but ,john adds yet again to blow with the trumpet through his epistles and ,apocalypse2 ,luke1 also1 narrating the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,but last of all that man came1 who said3 ',i think that ,god has set forth us apostles last1' and thundering with the fourteen trumpets of his epistles1 overthrew to their foundations the walls of ,jericho1 and all the engines of idolatry and dogmas of philosophers4 ,the epistles through which the apostle ,john sounds are obviously his three epistles4 ,the fourteen trumpets upon which ,paul blows include the epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,in this remarkable passage1 then1 we have an exhaustive list of our present canonical books2 and there is no ground for imputing any interpolation to the translator4 ,it may be said1 indeed1 that this enumeration of the books of the ,new ,testament is made in a popular way1 and does not imply ,origen's deliberate judgment that they were all of apostolic authority4 ,if this be granted1 it still remains evident from the form of the passage that all the books of our present canon were in current ecclesiastical use in ,origen's day1 whatever doubts he may have had respecting some of them1 and that they constituted1 along with the writings of the ,old ,testament1 that whole of divine revelation which the ,christian churches employed in assaulting the kingdom of ,satan4 ,the testimony of ,eusebius himself is of the same general import as that of ,origen--that the first epistle of ,peter has been universally acknowledged2 but that the one current as the second has not been received as a part of the ,new ,testament2 but yet1 appearing useful to many1 has been studied with the other ,scriptures 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #c4 #c72 that among the writings which are disputed1 yet known to many1 are the epistles current as those of ,james and ,jude1 and the second epistle of ,peter 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #c4 #be74 ,jerome says that ,peter wrote two epistles that are called catholic1 of which the second is denied by most persons on account of its disagreement in style with the first4 ,scrip4 ,eccl41 #a4 ,but he himself received the epistle1 and explained the difference in style and character and structure of words by the assumption that ,peter used different interpreters in the composition of the two epistles 7,epist4 #abj ad ,hedib41 chap4 #aa72 and from his time onward the epistle was generally regarded as a part of the ,new ,testament4 ,the reader who wishes to investigate farther the question of external testimonies will find them all given in ,davidson's ,introduct4 to ,new ,test42 and ,alford's ,commentary1 ,introduction to #b ,peter4 ,we simply repeat the remark already made 7,chap4 #f1 ,no4 #c7 that although the universal and undisputed reception of a book by all the early churches cannot be explained except on the assumption of its genuineness1 its non-reception by some is no conclusive argument against it4 ,it may have remained 7as seems to have been peculiarly the case with some of the catholic epistles7 for a considerable period in obscurity4 ,when it began to be more extensively known1 the general reception and use of it would be a slow process both from the difficulty of communication in ancient as compared with modern times1 and especially from the slowness and hesitancy with which the churches of one region received anything new that came from another region4 ,chap4 #b1 ,no4 #e4 ,jerome does indeed mention the objection from the difference of style between this epistle and the first of ,peter2 but it is doubtful whether in this matter he speaks for the early churches generally4 ,the obscurity in which the epistle had remained1 partly at least because it was not addressed to the guardianship of any particular church1 seems to have been the chief ground of doubt4 ,the internal testimony for and against the genuineness of this epistle has been discussed at great length by many writers4 ,the reader will find good summaries of them in the two works above referred to1 also in the critical commentaries generally and the modern ,bible dictionaries4 ,if one would come to true results in this field of investigation it is important that he begin with true principles4 ,there are what may be called staple peculiarities1 which mark the style of one writer as compared with that of another--that of ,john1 for example1 in contrast with that of ,paul4 ,we cannot conceive of these as being wanting4 ,but then we must allow to one and the same writer a considerable range of variation in style and diction1 dependent partly on difference of subject matter1 and partly on varying frames of mind of which no definite account can be given4 ,if one would be convinced of this1 he has only to read side by side the epistle of ,paul to the ,romans and his second to the ,corinthians4 ,reserving now the second chapter of the present epistle for separate consideration1 we do not find in the two remaining chapters1 as compared with the first epistle1 any such fundamental differences of style and diction as can constitute a just ground for denying the common authorship of the two epistles4 ,for the particulars1 as well as for the examination of other objections of an internal character1 the reader must be referred to the sources above named4 ,it is certainly remarkable that ,peter should refer to the writings of ,paul in such terms as to class them with the ,scriptures of the ,old ,testament4 ,chap4 #c3af4 ,but1 as ,alford remarks1 this implies not that the canon of the ,new ,testament had been settled when the present epistle was written1 but only that there were certain writings by ,christian teachers1 which were reckoned on a level with the ,old ,testament ,scriptures1 and called by the same name4 ,and that that was not the case1 even in the traditional lifetime of ,peter1 it would be surely unreasonable to deny4 ,we close this part of the discussion with the following words from the same author3 ,our general conclusion from all that has preceded must be in favor of the genuineness and canonicity of this second epistle2 acknowledging at the same time1 that the subject is not without considerable difficulty4 ,that difficulty however is lightened for us by observing that on the one hand1 it is common to this epistle with some others of those called catholic1 and several of the later writings of the ,new ,testament2 and on the other1 that no difference can be imagined more markedly distinctive1 than that which separates all those writings from even the earliest and best of the post-apostolic period4 ,our epistle is one of those latter fruits of the great outpouring of the ,spirit on the apostles1 which1 not being intrusted to the custody of any one church or individual1 required some considerable time to become generally known2 which when known1 were suspected1 bearing1 as they necessarily did traces of their late origin1 and notes of polemical argument2 but of which as apostolic and inspired writings1 there never was1 when once they became known1 any general doubt2 and which1 as the sacred canon became fixed1 acquired1 and have since maintained1 their due and providential place among the books of the ,new ,testament4 #ac4 ,the object of the present epistle is to warn believers against being led away with the error of the wicked so as to fall from their own steadfastness4 ,chap4 #c3ag4 ,it contains accordingly extended notices of the gross errors in doctrine and morals which1 as we know from the ,new ,testament1 abounded in the ,christian church near the close of the apostolic period4 ,the second chapter1 which is occupied with a vivid description of the false teachers that had crept in unawares 7chap4 #b3a2 ,jude #d71 is very peculiar in its contents2 and its agreement with the epistle of ,jude is of such a character as leads to the inference that the two writings are somehow connected with each other4 ,it has been supposed that both writers drew from a common source unknown to us4 ,more probable is the opinion that one of them had in view the words of the other4 ,a comparison of the two writings will perhaps lead to the belief that ,jude's was the original1 though on this point biblical scholars differ4 ,it matters not to us whether1 under the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit1 ,peter employed1 in a free and independent way1 the words of ,jude1 or ,jude those of ,peter4 ,upon either supposition his writing is as much inspired as if he had written independently4 ,the most prominent idea of ,peter's first epistle is patience and steadfastness in the endurance of suffering for ,christ's sake2 that of this second epistle is caution against the seductions of false teachers4 ,thus each epistle fills an important place in the entire economy of revelation4 ,,iii4 ,,epistles ,,of ,,john4 #ad4 ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,of ,,john bears throughout the impress of its authorship4 ,that it was written by the same man who wrote the fourth gospel is too evident to be reasonably controverted4 ,on this ground alone its genuineness and authenticity may be regarded as established on a firm basis4 ,but the external testimonies to its authorship are also abundant from ,polycarp1 the disciple of the apostle1 and onward4 ,it is unnecessary to enumerate them4 ,in respect to the date of this epistle we have no certain knowledge4 ,the common opinion is that it was written after the gospel1 and towards the close of the first century4 ,with this supposition the contents agree4 ,it contains the affectionate counsel of an aged apostle to his younger brethren1 whom he addresses as his little children4 ,he writes1 moreover1 in the last time1 when1 according to the prediction of our ,lord and his apostles1 many antichrists and false prophets are abroad in the world 7chaps4 #b3ah2 #d3a-c71 and there are some who deny that ,jesus ,christ is come in the flesh 7chap4 #d3b1 #c74 ,as to the place of the apostle's writing1 if we follow ancient tradition1 which makes ,ephesus his home in his old age1 we may well believe that he wrote from that city1 and that the epistle was addressed primarily to the circle of churches which had ,ephesus for a centre4 ,some of the ancients refer to the present epistle as written to the ,parthians4 ,but this is a very improbable assumption1 and rests apparently on some mistake4 ,the apostle evidently writes to those who are under his spiritual care2 and these are not the ,parthians1 but the ,christians of ,asia1 to whom also the seven letters of the ,apocalypse are addressed4 #ae4 ,the epistle has unity throughout1 but not the unity of systematic logical arrangement4 ,its unity consists rather in the fact that all its thoughts revolve around one great central truth1 the incarnation of the ,son of ,god in the person of ,jesus ,christ for the salvation of the world4 ,with this truth he begins1 and he affirms it authoritatively1 as one of the primitive apostolic witnesses3 ,that which we have seen and heard declare we unto you4 ,chaps4 #a3c2 #d3f4 ,he guards it also against perversion1 when he insists upon the reality of our ,lord's incarnation3 ,every spirit that confesseth that ,jesus ,christ is come in the flesh1 is of ,god3 and every spirit that confesseth not that ,jesus ,christ is come in the flesh1 is not of ,god 7chap4 #d3b1 #c71 words which are with good reason understood as referring to a very ancient form of error1 that of the ,docetoe1 who maintained that the ,son of ,god had not a real1 but only an apparent body4 ,the reception through faith of this great truth1 that the ,son of ,god has come in the flesh for man's salvation1 brings us into blissful union and communion with the ,father and the ,son1 and thus into the possession of sonship and eternal life4 ,chaps4 #a3c2 #c3a1 #b2 #d3ae2 #e3a1 #ac1 #bj4 ,the rejection of this truth is the rejection of ,god's own testimony concerning his ,son 7chaps4 #b3bb2 #e3i1 #aj71 and thus the rejection of eternal life2 for out of ,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 there is no life 7chap4 #e3aa1 #ab74 ,but this reception of ,christ is not a matter of mere theoretic belief4 ,it is a practical coming to the ,father and the ,son1 and a holy union with them4 ,the proof of such union with ,god and ,christ is likeness to ,god and obedience to ,god's commandments4 ,they who profess to know ,god and to be in him1 while they walk in darkness and allow themselves in sin1 are liars and the truth is not in them4 ,chaps4 #a3e-g2 #b3d-f2 #c3e-aj1 #bd2 #e3d1 #e1 #ah4 ,the sum of all ,god's attributes is love2 and the sum of ,christian character is love also4 ,chap4 #d3af4 ,but there can be no true love towards ,god where there is none towards the brethren2 and such love must manifest itself not in word1 neither in tongue2 but in deed and in truth4 ,chaps4 #c3aa-ah2 #d3g-aa1 #bj1 #ba2 #e3a4 ,he that loves his brother abides in the light2 but he that hates him abides in darkness and death4 ,chaps4 #b3i-aa2 #c3ad1 #ae4 ,all believers have an abiding unction of the ,spirit1 which enables them to distinguish between truth and falsehood1 and keeps them from the seductions of the many antichrists that are abroad4 ,chap4 #b3ah-bg4 ,such true believers1 whose hearts are filled with love1 are raised above fear1 and have confidence in prayer1 and may look forward with joyful confidence to the day of judgment4 ,chaps4 #b3bh2 #c3ah-bj2 #d3ag1 #ah2 #e3ad1 #ae4 ,these fundamental truths the apostle reiterates in various forms and connections1 intermingling with them various admonitions and promises of a more particular character4 ,he dwells with especial fulness on the evidences of discipleship as manifested in the daily spirit and life4 ,there is perhaps no part of ,god's word so directly available to the anxious inquirer who wishes to know what true religion is1 and whether he possesses it4 ,he who1 in humble reliance on the illumination of the divine ,spirit1 applies to himself this touchstone of ,christian character1 will know whether he is of ,god1 or of the world that lies in wickedness4 #af4 ,,second ,,and ,,third ,,epistles ,,of ,,john4 ,these two short epistles are so closely related to each other in style and manner that they have always been regarded as written by one and the same person4 ,in considering1 therefore1 the question of their authorship we take them both together4 ,though reckoned by ,origen 7in ,eusebius' ,hist4 ,eccl41 #f4 #be7 and by ,eusebius himself 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #c4 #be2 ,demonstratio ,evangel4 #c4 #e7 among the disputed writings1 the external testimony to their apostolic authorship is upon the whole satisfactory1 embracing the names of ,irenaeus1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,dionysius of ,alexandria1 ,jerome1 etc4 ,when we take into account the small extent of these epistles it is plain that no unfavorable inference can be drawn from the silence of ,tertullian and others4 ,nor is there any internal evidence against them4 ,that the man who1 in his gospel1 studiously avoids the mention of his own name1 describing himself as the disciple whom ,jesus loved1 and1 in his first epistle1 simply classes himself with the other apostles--that which we have seen and heard1 etc4--should in these epistles1 where some designation of himself was necessary1 speak of himself as the elder is not surprising4 ,compare #a ,peter #e3a4 #ag4 ,concerning the date of these two epistles we know nothing4 ,the object of the first seems to have been to set before the lady to whom it was addressed the importance of a discriminating love1 which distinguishes between truth and falsehood1 and does not allow itself to aid and abet error by misplaced kindness towards its teachers4 ,in the second the apostle1 writing to ,gaius1 commends to his hospitality1 certain missionary brethren1 who were strangers in the place where this disciple lived4 ,it would seem that the design of these brethren was to preach the gospel to the ,gentiles without charge2 that he had in a former letter1 commended them to the church where ,gaius resided2 but that ,diotrephes had hindered their reception1 and persecuted those who favored them4 ,short as these epistles are1 then1 each of them contains weighty instruction--the first1 in reference to ill-timed kindness and liberality towards the teachers of error2 the second1 concerning the character and conduct of those who love to have the preeminence1 and the abhorrence in which they ought to be held by all who love the purity and peace of the churches4 ,,iv4 ,,epistle ,,of ,,jude4 #ah4 ,the writer of this epistle styles himself the servant of ,jesus ,christ1 and brother of ,james4 ,chap4 #a3a4 ,this ,james is undoubtedly the same man who held so conspicuous a place in the church at ,jerusalem1 and was the author of the epistle which bears his name4 ,whether ,jude was an apostle1 or an apostolic man1 like ,mark and ,luke1 depends upon the question respecting the relation which his brother ,james held to ,christ1 concerning which see the introduction to the epistle of ,james4 ,in either case the canonical authority of the epistle holds good4 ,the close relation between this epistle and the second chapter of ,peter's second epistle has already been noticed4 ,see above1 ,no4 #ac4 ,it was probably anterior in time to that epistle1 but not separated from it by a great number of years4 ,if we may infer anything from the abundant use made by the writer of ,jewish history and tradition1 the persons addressed are ,jewish ,christians4 #ai4 ,eusebius classes this epistle also among the disputed writings 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #b4 #bc2 #c4 #be71 yet the testimonies to its genuineness are ample--the ,muratorian canon1 ,tertullian1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,origen1 ,jerome1 etc4 ,it was objected to this epistle in ancient times that the writer quotes from the apocryphal book of ,enoch 7verses #ad1 #ae74 ,to this it may be answered--7#a7 that1 if this be the case1 ,jude does not sanction the book of ,enoch as a whole1 but only this particular tradition embodied in it2 7#b7 that the writer of the book of ,enoch manifestly made use of a current tradition1 and that1 for anything that appears to the contrary1 ,jude may have availed himself of the same tradition1 independently of the book of ,enoch4 ,that an inspired writer should refer to a traditional history not recorded in the ,old ,testament ought not to give offence4 ,the apostle ,paul does the same 7#b ,tim4 #c3h1 #i72 and ,jude himself in another passage 7verse #i74 #bj4 ,the design of the epistle ,jude himself gives in explicit terms 7verses #c1 #d74 ,it is to guard believers against the seductions of false teachers1 corrupt in practice as well as doctrine2 whose selfishness1 sensuality1 and avarice2 whose vain-glorious1 abusive1 and schismatic spirit1 he describes in vivid language1 denouncing upon them at the same time the awful judgment of ,god4 ,the apostolic portraiture has not yet become antiquated in the history of ,christ's church4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,apocalypse4 #a4 ,the word ,apocalypse 7,greek ,apokalupsis7 signifies ,revelation1 the title given to the book in our ,english version as well from its opening word as from its contents4 ,of all the writings of the ,new ,testament that are classed by ,eusebius among the disputed books 7,antilegomena1 chap4 #e4 #f71 the apostolic authorship of this is sustained by the greatest amount of external evidence2 so much so that ,eusebius acknowledges it as doubtful whether it should be classed among the acknowledged or the disputed books4 ,it was known to ,papias1 to ,melito bishop of ,sardis1 and to ,theophilus of ,antioch2 is quoted as a part of ,scripture by the churches of ,vienne and ,lyons in the last quarter of the second century2 and is expressly ascribed to the apostle ,john by ,justin ,martyr1 ,irenaeus1 ,tertullian1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 the ,muratorian canon1 ,hippolytus1 ,origen1 ,jerome1 etc4 ,the testimonies may be seen in ,davidson's ,introduction to the ,new ,test41 in ,alford1 and in the other works already frequently referred to4 ,eusebius1 after giving a list of the acknowledged books1 adds3 ,after these should be placed1 if it be thought proper1 the ,revelation of ,john1 concerning which we shall give the opinions at the proper time4 ,then1 at the end of a list of the disputed and rejected books he adds3 ,and moreover1 as ,i said1 the ,revelation of ,john1 if it be thought proper1 which some1 as ,i said1 reject1 but others reckon among the acknowledged books 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #c4 #be72 and again1 after mentioning with approbation the account of those who said that there were at ,ephesus two who bore the name of ,john 7,john the apostle1 and the so-called presbyter ,john71 he adds3 ,for it is probable that the second1 if any one be not willing to allow that it was the first1 saw the ,revelation current under the name of ,john 7,hist4 ,eccl41 #c4 #ci74 ,those who denied the apostolic authorship of the book generally referred it to this latter1 ,john the presbyter4 ,so ,dionysius of ,alexandria and others4 ,but for this they adduced no historic proof4 ,their arguments were drawn wholly from considerations relating to its internal character1 especially in the case of some1 its supposed millenarian views4 ,upon any fair principle of judging1 we must concede that the apostolic authorship of this book is sustained by a mass of ancient testimony not rebutted by any contrary testimony which rests on a historic basis4 #b4 ,in modern1 as in ancient times1 the main arguments against the apostolic authorship of the ,apocalypse have been drawn from its internal character1 especially as contrasted with that of the fourth gospel and the first epistle of ,john4 ,on this ground the assaults upon the book have been many and strong1 and they have been met with vigorous resistance4 ,to review the arguments on both sides would exceed our limits4 ,many of them1 moreover1 presuppose a knowledge of the original languages of both the ,old and the ,new ,testament4 ,we can only indicate some considerations of a general nature4 7#a47 ,no valid argument against the apostolic authorship of this book can be drawn from the fact that the writer specifies his name in the introduction and elsewhere4 ,chaps4 #a3a1 #d1 #i2 #ba3b2 #bb3h4 ,it may surprise us that the man who studiously avoids mentioning his name in the fourth gospel1 and who describes himself in his second and third epistles as the elder1 should here directly introduce his name at the beginning and in the progress of the book4 ,but for this difference he may have had a good reason1 whether we can discover it or not4 ,the direct command1 addressed to him personally1 that he should write down his visions and send them to the seven churches of ,asia would seem to imply the propriety1 if not the necessity1 of his connecting his own name with the record of them4 ,he addressed the churches immediately and authoritatively in the name of the risen and glorified ,saviour4 ,what more natural and proper than that he should inform them directly who he was that had received this heavenly message4 7#b47 ,the doctrinal views of the ,apocalypse afford no argument against its apostolic authorship4 ,the writer1 it is true1 moves to a great extent in a new and peculiar sphere of truth2 but there is nothing in it contradictory to the teachings of ,john's gospel and epistles4 ,on the contrary1 the great central truths that relate to ,christ's person and office are in perfect harmony with those teachings4 7#c47 ,the spirit of the ,apocalypse is not contradictory to that of the gospel and epistles4 ,a writer in ,alexander's ,kitto says3 ,quiet contemplation has full scope in the evangelist2 mildness and love find utterance in affectionate discourse4 ,but the spirit of the apocalyptist is stern and revengeful1 with cutting reproofs1 calls to repentance1 commands and threatenings4 ,the answer to all this is that1 just as the human body has bones and muscles as well as fluids and soft tissues1 so the mediatorial government of ,christ has a stern as well as a mild side2 and that the very nature of the visions contained in the apocalypse gives prominence to this side4 7#d47 ,the main objections are based on diversity of style and diction4 ,notwithstanding all the true points of resemblance in this respect that have been adduced by various writers1 the difference between the ,apocalypse1 on the one hand1 and the gospel and epistles of ,john1 on the other1 is very striking4 ,but here we must take into account1 first of all1 the great difference in the subject-matter1 which naturally brings a corresponding difference of language4 ,next1 the difference in the mode of divine communication4 ,the gospel and epistles were written under that constant tranquil illumination of the ,holy ,spirit which all the apostles enjoyed4 ,the subject-matter of the ,apocalypse was given in direct vision--much of it1 moreover1 through the medium of oral address4 ,to one who believes in the reality of the revelations here recorded it is vain that an opponent urge the difference in style between the first epistle of ,john and the epistles to the seven churches of ,asia2 since these latter are expressed in the very words of ,christ4 ,inseparably connected with the peculiar mode of revelation in the ,apocalypse are the peculiar mental state and circumstances in which the apostle wrote4 ,he composed the gospel and epistles in the calmness of tranquil contemplation and reminiscences of the past4 ,the visions of the ,apocalypse he received in the ,spirit 7chap4 #a3aj2 #d3b72 that is1 in a state of ecstacy2 and1 according to the plain language of the book1 he wrote them down at the time1 beginning1 as we must suppose1 with the second chapter1 the introductory chapter and some closing remarks having been added afterwards4 ,the direction3 ,what thou seest write in a book 7chap4 #a3aa1 #ai71 does not indeed imply that he should write upon the spot2 but that he did so is plainly indicated elsewhere3 ,when the seven thunders had uttered their voices1 ,i was about to write3 and ,i heard a voice from heaven saying unto me1 ,seal up those things which the seven thunders uttered1 and write them not 7chap4 #aj3d74 ,in entire harmony with this is another passage3 ,and ,i heard a voice from heaven saying unto me1 ,write1 ,blessed are the dead which die in the ,lord from henceforth1 etc4 7chap4 #ad3ac72 that is1 ,write down now these words of comfort4 ,the apostle1 therefore1 wrote down his visions one after another immediately after they were received4 ,when he wrote he was not in a state of unconsciousness1 but of mental and spiritual exaltation above his ordinary condition4 ,to affirm that he could not have received this series of visions without being deprived of the capacity to record them at the time1 would be to limit the modes of divine revelation by our ignorance4 ,if we cannot understand how the apostle could hear in the ,spirit the voices of the seven thunders1 and immediately prepare to write down their utterances1 we ought1 at least1 reverently to receive the fact as stated by him4 ,to expect from one writing in such circumstances careful attention to the rules of ,greek syntax and the idioms of the ,greek language would be absurd4 ,undoubtedly ,plato in a like situation would have written pure ,attic ,greek1 because that would have been to him the most natural mode of writing4 ,but the ,galilean fisherman1 a ,jew by birth and education1 fell back upon the ,hebrew idioms with which he was so familiar4 ,finally we must remember that1 after the analogy of the ,old ,testament prophecies1 this prophetic book is expressed in poetic diction4 ,it is full of images borrowed from the old ,hebrew prophets1 often spiritualized and applied in a higher sense4 ,looking to the imagery alone1 one may well call this book a grand anthology of the old ,hebrew poets4 ,but the poetic diction of one and the same writer may differ widely from his prose style1 as we see in the case of ,moses1 ,isaiah1 and ,jeremiah4 ,if the above considerations do not wholly remove the difficulty under consideration they greatly relieve it4 ,the apostolic authorship of the fourth gospel and the first epistle of ,john is sustained by a mass of evidence that cannot be set aside4 ,that the same ,john also wrote the visions of the ,apocalypse is attested1 as we have seen1 by the almost unanimous voice of antiquity4 ,far greater difficulties are involved in the denial of the ancient tradition of the church than in the admission of it4 #c4 ,the date of the ,apocalypse has been a matter of much discussion1 the great question being whether it was written before or after the destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,romans4 ,the external testimony strongly preponderates on the side of a late date2 for the great body of this tradition represents the banishment of the apostle to the isle of ,patmos as having taken place under ,domitian who succeeded ,titus1 and reigned from ,a4,d4 #ha to #if4 ,this supposition also agrees with the fact that the recipients of our ,lord's seven messages 7chaps4 #b1 #c7 are the seven churches of ,proconsular ,asia1 among whom1 according to the unanimous testimony of the primitive church1 the apostle spent the latter years of his life4 ,the hypothesis of an earlier date is but feebly supported by external testimony4 ,it rests mainly on the alleged reference of the writer to the overthrow of ,jerusalem as an event yet future1 and as being the main subject of the prophesies contained in the book4 ,but this reference has never been clearly established1 and is contradicted by the general analogy of prophecy1 by the contents of the book1 and by its manifest relation to the prophecies of ,daniel4 ,a few only of the briefer prophetic books1 as those of ,jonah and ,nahum1 confine themselves to one particular event lying in the near future4 ,all the more extended among them1 and many of the shorter1 look forward undeniably to the distant future4 ,the book of ,daniel can be interpreted only as containing a great scheme of prophecy stretching forward into the distant future1 and with this the revelation of ,john has the closest connection4 ,the place where the revelation was received was the isle of ,patmos1 one of the group called ,sporades in the ,a,egean sea off the southwestern corner of ,asia ,minor1 where the apostle represents himself to have been for the word of ,god1 and for the testimony of ,jesus ,christ 7chap4 #a3i73 that is1 in accordance with ancient tradition1 banished to that isle on account of the gospel4 #d4 ,for the interpretation of this book many and very discordant plans have been proposed4 ,setting aside at the outset all those schemes which do not find in the ,apocalypse a view of the conflicts of ,christ's people to the end of time and their final victory over their enemies1 there remain two general principles of interpretation4 ,the first may be called the generic principle4 ,those who adopt it inquire only after the general import of the symbols employed1 without attempting any particular application of them to the history of the church in connection with that of the world4 ,thus1 the white horse of the first seal 7chap4 #f3b7 denotes in general the conquests of ,christ through his gospel2 the red horse of the second seal 7chap #f3d71 war and carnage1 as accompanying the progress of the truth2 and so on throughout the other symbols of the book4 ,but when we come to the most important part of the prophecies1 those concerning the two beasts 7chap4 #ac71 and that concerning the woman riding on the scarlet-colored beast 7chap4 #ag71 this principle utterly fails4 ,it cannot be that so many specific and very peculiar marks mean only persecuting powers in general4 ,they point with wonderful clearness and precision to that grand combination of the civil with the ecclesiastical power of which papal ,rome has ever been the chief representative4 ,we come1 then1 for the true key to the ,apocalypse1 to the other principle1 which may be called the historic4 ,this seeks in the history of the church and of the world for the great events foretold in this book4 ,it is no valid objection to this principle1 that in the attempt to apply it interpreters find great1 and in many cases insuperable difficulties4 ,the mystery of ,god is not yet finished4 ,it may be that the mighty events of the future can alone throw a clear light on the entire plan of the book4 ,meanwhile we must wait in reverential expectation1 having in the plain fulfilment of that part of its prophecies which describes the rise and character of the combined ecclesiastical and political power which1 under the name of ,christianity1 persecutes the true servants of ,christ1 a certain pledge that all the rest will be accomplished in due season4 ,expositors are agreed that the predictions of the book do not run on in chronological order from beginning to end4 ,most find in chaps4 #f3a-aa3ah 7with an episode1 chaps4 #aj3a-aa3ac7 one series relating more to the outward history of the world in its relations to ,god's people2 while in chap4 #ab the writer returns to the primitive days of ,christianity1 and gives a more interior and spiritual view of the conflicts of ,god's people along the track of ages and their final triumph1 adding at the close various supplementary views of the same mighty struggle and victory4 #e4 ,on the symbolic import of the numbers in the ,apocalypse a few words may be added4 ,seven is the well known symbol of completeness1 and this is the most prominent number in the book4 ,thus we have the seven churches of ,asia represented by the seven golden candlesticks1 and their seven angels represented by seven stars 7chap4 #a3d1 #ab1 #af1 #bj72 the seven lamps of fire burning before the throne which are the seven spirits of ,god 7chap4 #d3e72 the seven seals 7chap4 #e3a72 the seven trumpets 7chap4 #h3b72 the seven thunders 7chap4 #aj3d72 the seven last plagues 7chap4 #ae3a72 to which may be added the seven ascriptions of praise--power1 riches1 wisdom1 strength1 honor1 glory1 blessing 7chap4 #e3ab71 blessing1 glory1 wisdom1 thanksgiving1 honor1 power1 might 7chap4 #g3ab74 ,lastly1 we have the seven heads of the persecuting beast in all its various forms4 ,chaps4 #ab3c2 #ac3a2 #ag3c4 ,so far as the number seven has its fulfilment in the history of the world1 we are at liberty to suppose that this is accomplished1 in part at least1 by the manner in which the wisdom of ,god has been pleased to group together the events of prophecy--a grouping which is always appropriate1 but might have been different had the plan of representation so required4 ,the final judgments which precede the millennium1 for example1 which in chaps4 #ae and #af are set forth under the figure of seven vials full of the wrath of ,god1 might have been1 by another mode of distribution1 represented under the number two4 ,many think they are thus represented in chap4 #ad3ad-bj4 ,another prophetic number1 occurring in ,daniel and the ,apocalypse1 always as a designation of time1 is the half of seven4 ,thus we have a time1 and times1 and half a time1 that is1 three years and a half 7chap4 #ab3ad72 or in months1 forty and two months 7chaps4 #aa3b2 #ac3e72 or in days1 a thousand two hundred and threescore days 7chaps4 #aa3c2 #ab3f74 ,compare ,daniel #g3be4 ,again1 answering to these three years and a half1 we have the three days and a half during which the two witnesses lie dead4 ,chap4 #aa3i1 #aa4 ,the number six1 moreover1 from its peculiar relation to seven1 represents the preparation for the consummation of ,god's plans4 ,hence the sixth seal 7chap4 #f3ab-ag71 the sixth trumpet 7chap4 #i3ad-ba71 and the sixth vial 7chap4 #af3ab-af7 are each preeminent in the series to which they belong4 ,they usher in the awful judgments of ,heaven which destroy the wicked4 ,here1 perhaps1 we have the key to the symbolic import of the number of the beast1 #fff4 ,while it represents1 according to the principles of ,greek numeration1 the number of a man1 it seems to indicate that upon him fall all the judgments of the sixth seal1 the sixth trumpet1 and the sixth vial4 ,four is the natural symbol for universality4 ,thus we have the four living creatures round about the throne 7chap4 #d3f71 perhaps as symbols of the agencies by which ,god administers his universal providential government 7chaps4 #f3a1 #c1 #e1 #g2 #ae3g72 the four angels standing on the four corners of the earth and holding the four winds 7chap4 #g3a72 and the four angels bound in the river ,euphrates 7chap4 #i3ad74 ,so also in the fourfold enumeration1 kindred1 and tongue1 and people1 and nation1 or its equivalent4 ,chaps4 #e3i2 #aj3aa2 #aa3i2 #ad3f2 #ag3ae4 ,a third and a fourth part1 on the contrary1 represent what is partial4 ,chaps4 #f3h2 #h3ab2 #i3ah4 ,twelve is the well-known signature of ,god's people4 ,compare the twelve tribes of the ,old ,testament and the twelve apostles of the ,new2 the woman with a crown of twelve stars 7chap4 #ab3a72 the twelve gates1 twelve angels1 twelve foundations of the ,new ,jerusalem1 the twelve times twelve cubits of its wall1 and its tree of life that yields twelve harvests a year 7chaps4 #ba3ab1 #ad2 #bb3b74 ,we have also the same number combined with a thousand1 the general symbol for a great number4 ,from each of the twelve tribes of ,israel are sealed twelve thousand 7chap4 #g3d-h71 making for the symbolical number of the redeemed twelve times twelve thousand 7chap4 #ad3a1 #c72 and the walls of the ,new ,jerusalem are in every direction twelve thousand furlongs 7chap4 #ba3af74 ,ten is possibly only a symbol of diversity1 as in the case of the ten horns of the beast 7chaps4 #ab3c2 #ac3a2 #ag3c72 though some take a literal view of it4 #f4 ,dark as are many parts of the ,apocalypse and difficult of interpretation1 the book as a whole is radiant with the promise to ,god's people of a final and complete victory in their conflict with the kingdom of ,satan4 ,though long delayed1 as we mortals reckon time1 it shall come at last with a splendor above the brightness of the sun1 and the earth be lighted from pole to pole with its glory4 ,amen4 ,even so1 come1 ,lord ,jesus6 ,,appendix ,,to ,,part ,,iii4 ,,writings ,,of ,,the ,,apostolic ,,fathers1 ,,with ,,some ,,notices ,,of ,,the ,,apocryphal ,,new ,,testament ,,writings4 #a4 ,a wide distinction should be made between the writings of the apostolic fathers which are acknowledged to be genuine1 or the genuineness of which may be maintained on more or less probable grounds1 and the large mass of spurious works afterwards palmed upon the ,christian world as the productions of apostles or their contemporaries4 ,the latter constitute properly the ,new ,testament ,apocrypha1 though the term is sometimes applied in a loose way to both classes of writings4 ,the writings of the apostolic fathers1 though possessing no divine authority1 are valuable as showing the state of the ,christian churches at the time when they were composed in respect to both doctrine and discipline1 as well as the various errors and divisions by which they were troubled4 ,their testimonies to the genuineness of the ,new ,testament have been already considered4 ,chap4 #b1 ,no4 #aj4 ,some of the apocryphal works also1 worthless as they are for instruction in the doctrines and duties of ,christianity1 throw much light on the religious spirit1 tendencies1 and heretical sects of the times to which they belong4 ,others of these writings are unutterably absurd and puerile1 worthy of notice only as showing the type of the puerilities current in the age of their composition4 ,i4 ,,writings ,,of ,,clement4 #b4 ,appended to the ,alexandrine manuscript 7,chap4 #bf1 ,no4 #e7 is an epistle of ,clement of ,rome to the ,corinthians1 followed by part of a so-called second epistle to the same church4 ,the first of these epistles is acknowledged to be genuine4 ,it was known to the ancient fathers as the work of ,clement of ,rome1 and highly commended by them4 ,their quotations from it agree with the contents of the epistle as we now have it1 nor does it exhibit any marks of a later age2 for the author's reference to the well-known fable of the phoenix as a type of the resurrection 7chap4 #be71 constitutes no real difficulty4 ,it may prove that he was credulous1 but not that he belonged to a later than the apostolic age4 ,the ancients represent this ,clement to have been identical with ,clement bishop of ,rome4 ,whether he was also identical with the ,clement named by the apostle ,paul 7,phil4 #d3c71 is a question that we may well leave undecided4 ,the epistle was written shortly after some persecution 7chap4 #a71 which ,grabe1 ,hefele1 and others suppose to have been that under ,nero2 ,lardner1 ,cotelerius1 and others1 that under ,domitian4 ,upon the former supposition it was written about ,a4,d4 #fh--;a supposition apparently favored by the way in which he refers to the temple and service at ,jerusalem as still in existence 7chaps4 #dj1 #da72 upon the latter1 about ,a4,d4 #if or #ig4 #c4 ,the occasion of the epistle1 which ,clement writes in the name of the church at ,rome1 is easily gathered from its contents4 ,as in the days of ,paul1 so now1 the ,corinthian church was troubled by a wicked and unholy sedition1 fomented by a few rash and self-willed men1 who had proceeded so far as to thrust out of their ministry some worthy men4 ,chap4 #dd4 ,it would seem1 also1 from chaps4 #bd-bg that there were among them those who denied the doctrine of the resurrection4 ,to restore in the ,corinthian church the spirit of love and unity is the grand scope of the epistle4 ,the author commends them for their orderly and holy deportment before their present quarrel arose1 traces it to its true source in the pride gendered by the honor and enlargement granted them by ,god1 and urges them to lay aside their contentions by every motive that the gospel offers--the mischiefs that strife occasions1 the rules of their religion1 the example of the ,saviour and holy men of all ages1 the relation of believers to ,god1 his high value of the spirit of love and unity1 the reward of obedience and punishment of disobedience1 etc4 ,comparing the church to an army1 he insists earnestly on the necessity of different ranks and orders1 and the spirit of obedience4 ,comparing it again to the human body1 he shows that all the particular members1 each in his place1 should conspire together for the preservation of the whole4 ,clement's style has not the merit of compactness and conciseness4 ,he is1 on the contrary1 diffuse and repetitious4 ,but a thoroughly evangelical spirit pervades the present epistle1 and it is1 moreover1 characterized by a noble fervor and simplicity4 ,it evinces the calm dignity and the practical executive wisdom of the ,roman church in her original apostolic simplicity1 without the slightest infusion of hierarchical arrogance4 ,schaff1 ,hist4 ,christ4 ,church1 vol4 #a1 p4 #dfj4 ,in its internal character1 as in the time of its composition1 it approaches the canonical writings of the ,new ,testament more nearly than any other remains of antiquity4 #d4 ,the second epistle ascribed to ,clement is not mentioned by any of the fathers before ,eusebius1 who speaks of it doubtingiy3 ,but it should be known that there is said to be also a certain second epistle of ,clement4 ,but it is clear to us that this is not equally known with the first1 for we know that the ancients have not made use of it4 ,hist4 ,eccles4 #c4 #ch4 ,it is generally acknowledged to be spurious1 and is1 perhaps1 as ,hefele suggests1 one of the homilies falsely ascribed to ,clement4 ,with this supposition its contents well agree2 for it does not seem to have1 like the first1 a definite end to accomplish4 ,it opens with a general exhortation that the ,corinthians should think worthily of ,christ in view of the great work which he has wrought in their behalf1 and urges upon them a steadfast confession of him before men1 not by empty words1 but by a life of holy obedience4 ,it sets before them the incompatibility of the service of ,god and mammon1 and dwells with especial earnestness on the high rewards of eternity in comparison with the pleasures and pains of the present life2 as if the writer had in mind those who were exposed to the double peril of substituting an empty profession for the living spirit of obedience1 and of apostatizing from ,christ through fear of persecution and martyrdom4 #e4 ,besides the above1 there is a mass of writings current in ancient days under the name of ,clement which are acknowledged by all to be spurious4 ,among these are3 ,the ,recognitions of ,clement2 ,the ,clementines1 or1 according to the ,greek title1 ,clement's ,epitome of ,peter's ,discourses in ,travel2 ,clement's ,epitome concerning the ,acts and ,discourses of ,peter in ,travel--three forms of substantially the same work4 ,it will be sufficient to give a brief notice of the ,recognitions4 ,the author1 apparently a ,jew by birth and a philosopher of the ,alexandrine school1 has embraced a form of ,christianity mixed up with the dogmas of his philosophy4 ,for the purpose of attacking and overthrowing the false religious notions of his age1 he invents an ingenious historic plot4 ,clement1 a ,roman citizen1 who1 as appears in the sequel1 has been separated in early life from his father1 mother1 and two brothers1 whom he supposes to be dead1 is introduced as sending to ,james1 who presides over the church at ,jerusalem1 with an accompanying letter1 an account of his early education2 his acquaintance with the apostle ,peter1 who chooses him to be his companion in travel2 ,peter's conversations with himself and the rest of the company2 his public addresses and acts2 especially his famous encounters with ,simon ,magus1 whom he overthrows and puts to public shame4 ,in the course of their journeying they visit a certain island1 where they meet with a poor woman begging alms1 who is found1 upon the relation of her history1 to be the mother of ,clement4 ,upon farther inquiry it appears that two of ,peter's company1 ,nicetus and ,aquila1 are her sons and the brothers of ,clement4 ,finally1 ,peter encounters on the sea-shore1 whither he had gone to perform for the newly discovered mother and sons the rite of baptism1 an old man who is found to be the long lost husband and father4 ,from these recognitions the work receives its title4 ,but this historic plot is only the occasion of introducing the writer's theological and philosophical opinions1 with especial reference to the prevailing errors of his day4 ,any page of the work is sufficient to show that ,peter and ,clement had nothing to do with its composition4 ,it cannot be placed earlier than the close of the second or the beginning of the third century4 ,prefixed to these ,clementine writings1 and having reference to them1 are two spurious epistles1 one from ,peter to ,james1 president of the church at ,jerusalem1 with the proceedings of ,james consequent upon the reception of it1 and one from ,clement to ,james4 ,these it is not necessary to notice4 ,the so-called ,constitutions of ,clement in eight books1 embracing1 as their name indicates1 a system of rules pertaining to church order and discipline1 were certainly not the work of ,clement4 ,it is not certain that they had their origin as a whole in the same age2 but the judgment of learned men is that no part of them is older than the second half of the third century4 ,the eighty-five so-called ,apostolic ,canons have prefixed to them the spurious title3 ,ecclesiastical ,rules of the ,holy ,apostles promulgated by ,clement ,high ,priest 7,pontifex7 of the ,church of ,rome4 ,the origin of these canons is uncertain4 ,they first appear as a collection with the above title in the latter part of the fifth century4 ,how much older some of them may be cannot be determined with certainty4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,epistles ,,of ,,ignatius4 #f4 ,ignatius was bishop of the church at ,antioch1 and suffered martyrdom at ,rome by exposure to wild beasts ,a4,d4 #ajg1 or according to some accounts1 ,a4,d4 #aaf4 ,of the fifteen epistles ascribed to him1 it is agreed among biblical scholars that eight are spurious and of later origin4 ,the remaining seven are generally regarded as genuine1 but the text of these1 as of all the rest1 is in a very unsatisfactory condition4 ,there are two ,greek recensions1 a longer and a shorter1 the latter containing approximately the true text1 though not without the suspicion of interpolations4 ,there is a ,syriac version containing but three of ,ignatius' epistles1 and these in a much reduced form 7which some are inclined to regard as the only genuine epistles72 also an ,armenian version containing thirteen epistles4 ,see further ,schaff1 ,hist4 ,chris4 ,church1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #dfi-dga4 ,as the question now stands1 we may with good reason receive as genuine the seven mentioned by ,eusebius 7,hist4 ,eccl4 #c4 #cf7 and ,jerome 7,de ,viris illust4 #af74 ,they were all written on his last journey to ,rome2 four from ,smyrna1 where ,polycarp was the bishop1 to the ,ephesians1 ,magnesians1 ,trallians1 and ,romans2 three after his departure from ,smyrna1 to the churches of ,philadelphia and ,smyrna1 and to ,polycarp bishop of ,smyrna4 ,the native vigor and energy of ,ignatius1 as also the depth and sincerity of his piety1 shine forth conspicuously in these letters2 but they differ from the epistle of ,clement in the manifestation of an intense ecclesiastical spirit1 by which1 indeed1 they are marked as belonging to a later era of the church4 ,if we except the epistle to the ,romans1 they all abound in exhortations to render implicit obedience to their spiritual rulers as to ,christ himself4 ,to these precepts he adds exhortations to maintain unity1 and to avoid false doctrines1 specifying particularly ,judaizing teachers and such as deny our ,lord's proper humanity4 ,we cannot read his letter to the ,romans1 among whom he expected shortly to lay down his life for ,christ's sake1 without deep interest4 ,but it is marred by the manifestation of an undue desire to obtain the crown of martyrdom1 which leads him to protest against any interposition of the ,roman brethren in his behalf4 ,i beseech you1 says he1 show no unseasonable good-will towards me4 ,suffer me to be the food of wild beasts1 by means of which ,i may attain to ,god4 ,i am the wheat of ,god1 and am ground by the teeth of wild beasts1 that ,i may be found the pure bread of ,god4 ,chap4 #d4 ,his letter to ,polycarp1 a fellow bishop1 abounds in precepts for the right discharge of his duties4 ,it is interesting as showing ,ignatius' idea1 on the one side1 of the office with its high responsibilities1 and1 on the other1 of the duties which the churches owe to those who are set over them in the ,lord4 #g4 ,there are some spurious epistles ascribed to ,ignatius which it is sufficient simply to name4 ,these are3 ,a letter to one ,maria a proselyte of ,cilicia in answer to her request that certain young men might be sent to her people as their spiritual guides2 epistles to the church of ,tarsus1 of ,antioch1 and of ,philippi--theological dissertations mostly made up of texts of ,scripture2 a letter to ,hero a deacon1 containing precepts for the right discharge of his office1 and abounding1 like those just named1 in quotations from ,scripture3 two pretended letters of ,ignatius to the apostle ,john2 one to the ,virgin ,mary1 with her reply4 ,finally1 there are some fragments of ,ignatius' writings preserved to us in the quotations of the ancients1 which it is not necessary to notice4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,polycarp4 #h4 ,polycarp was a disciple of the apostle ,john1 and presided over the church in ,smyrna4 ,he suffered martyrdom about the year #aff4 ,of his writings only one short epistle remains1 addressed by him to the ,philippians soon after the martyrdom of ,ignatius1 who passed through ,smyrna on his way to ,rome4 ,this we gather from the letter itself2 for in this he assumes that ,ignatius has already suffered 7chap4 #i71 and yet he has not heard the particulars concerning his fate and that of his companions4 ,chap4 #ad4 ,this brief epistle is marked by a fervor and simplicity worthy of an apostolic man4 ,the writer commends the ,philippians for the love manifested by them towards the suffering servants of ,christ1 exhorts them to steadfastness1 reminds them of ,paul's precepts in his epistle to them1 and proceeds to unfold and inculcate the duties belonging to the officers and several classes of members in the church4 ,the immediate occasion of the letter seems to have been his transmission to the ,philippians1 in compliance with their request1 of ,ignatius' epistle to himself1 with such others of his epistles as had come into his hands4 ,chap4 #ac4 ,the preservation of the present epistle is probably due to this its connection with the epistles of ,ignatius forwarded by him to the ,philippians4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,writings ,,of ,,barnabas ,,and ,,hermas4 #i4 ,the writings current under the names of ,barnabas and ,hermas have by no means the outward testimony in their favor by which the preceding epistles of ,clement1 ,ignatius1 and ,polycarp are supported2 nor the inward evidence arising from the consideration of their contents4 ,we will consider them briefly in the order abovenamed4 #aj4 ,until recently the first part of the ,epistle of ,barnabas existed only in a ,latin version4 ,but in #ahei ,tischendorf discovered at ,mount ,sinai the ,sinai ,codex 7,chap4 #bf1 ,no4 #e71 which contains the entire epistle in the original ,greek4 ,that the writer was the ,barnabas mentioned in the ,new ,testament as the companion of ,paul in preaching the gospel1 cannot be maintained on any firm basis of evidence4 ,as to the date of its composition learned men differ4 ,hefele places it between the years #ajg and #abj4 ,apostolic ,fathers1 ,prolegomena1 p4 #ae4 ,the writer was apparently a ,hellenistic ,jew of the ,alexandrine school1 and he wrote for the purpose of convincing his brethren1 mainly from the ,old ,testament1 that ,jesus is the ,messiah1 and that in him the rites of the ,mosaic law are done away4 ,his quotations from the ,old ,testament are numerous1 and his method of interpretation is allegorical and sometimes very fanciful1 as in the following passage1 for the right understanding of which the reader should know that the two ,greek letters ,greek3 ,,ie1 which stand first in the name ,greek3 ,,iesous1 ,,jesus1 and represent that name by abbreviation1 signify as numerals1 the first ten1 the second1 eight2 also that the ,greek letter ,greek3 ,t 7the sign of the cross7 denotes as a numeral1 three hundred4 ,the ,scripture says1 argues ,barnabas1 that ,abraham circumcised of his house three hundred and eighteen men4 ,what was the knowledge communicated to him in this fact8 ,learn first the meaning of the eighteen1 then of the three hundred4 ,now the numeral letters ,greek3 ,i1 ten1 ,greek3 ,e1 eight1 make eighteen4 ,here you have ,jesus 7,greek ,greek3 ,,iesoun1 of which the abbreviation is ,greek3 ,,ie74 ,and because the cross1 which lies in the letter ,greek3 ,t1 was that which should bring grace1 he says also three hundred4 ,chap4 #i4 ,the ,rabbinic system of interpretation in which the writer was educated furnishes an explanation1 indeed1 of this and other like puerilities1 but no vindication of them4 #aa4 ,the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 as the work current under the name of ,hermas is called1 consists of three books--his ,visions1 his ,commands1 and his ,similitudes4 ,the four visions are received through the ministry of an aged woman1 who is the church of ,christ4 ,the twelve commands and ten similitudes are received from one who appears to him in the habit of a shepherd1 clothed with a white cloak1 having his bag upon his back1 and his staff in his hand1 whence the title ,the ,shepherd of ,hermas4 ,all these are intended to unfold the truths of ,christianity with its doctrines and duties4 ,the writer has a most luxuriant imagination4 ,in reading his books1 particularly the first and the third1 one sometimes finds himself bewildered in a thicket of images and similitudes1 some of them grotesque and not altogether congruous4 ,yet the work throws much light on the religious ideas and tendencies of its age4 ,the ancients speak doubtingly of the authority of this work4 ,origen1 whom ,eusebius and ,jerome follow1 ascribes it to the ,hermas mentioned in the epistle to the ,romans 7chap4 #af3ad72 though it does not appear that he had any other ground for this than the identity of the name4 ,the ,muratorian canon names as its author ,hermas the brother of ,pius bishop of ,rome4 ,according to this1 which is the more probable view1 the date of its composition would be about the middle of the second century4 ,v4 ,,the ,,apostles' ,,creed4 #ab4 ,we put this among the remains of the apostolic fathers1 not because there is any doubt as to its containing the substance of the doctrines taught by the apostles1 but because1 as is generally admitted1 it did not receive its present form at their hand4 ,though not traceable in its present shape before the third century1 and found in the second in different longer or shorter forms1 it is in substance altogether apostolic1 and exhibits an incomparable summary of the leading facts in the revelation of the triune ,god from the creation of the world to the resurrection of the body2 and that in a form intelligible to all1 and admirably suited for public worship and catechetical use4 ,schaff1 ,hist4 ,chris4 ,church1 pp4 #aba1 #abb4 ,,vi4 ,,apocryphal ,,gospels ,,and ,,acts4 #ac4 ,these are very numerous4 ,under the head of ,apocryphal ,gospels4 ,tischendorf has published twenty-two works2 under that of ,apocryphal ,acts of the ,apostles1 thirteen4 ,to the student of church history they are not without value2 for they illustrate the origin of many ancient traditions and some ritual observances4 ,but if we look to their intrinsic character1 they may be described as a mass of worthless legends abounding in absurd and puerile stories4 ,the contrast between the miracles which they relate and the true miracles recorded in the canonical gospels and ,acts is immense1 and such as makes the darkness of these spurious writings more visible4 ,the miracles of the canonical books have always a worthy occasion1 and are connected with the ,saviour's work of redemption4 ,but the pretended miracles of the apocryphal writings are1 as a general rule1 wrought on trivial occasions1 with either no end in view but the display of supernatural power1 or with a positively unlawful end1 whence it not unfrequently happens that their impiety rivals their absurdity4 ,many samples of both these characters could be given1 but the general reader may well remain ignorant of them4 ,,principles ,,of ,,biblical ,,interpretation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,introductory ,,remarks4 #a4 ,the term ,hermeneutics 7,greek1 hermeneuo1 to interpret7 is commonly employed to denote the principles of scriptural interpretation4 ,the ,greek word exegesis--that is1 exposition--denotes the actual work of interpretation4 ,hermeneutics is1 therefore1 the science of interpretation2 ,exegesis1 the application of this science to the word of ,god4 ,the hermeneutical writer lays down general principles of interpretation2 the exegetical writer uses these principles in the exposition of ,scripture4 ,the terms epexegesis and epexegetical are used by expositors in a special sense to denote something explanatory of the immediate context4 #b4 ,the expositor's office is1 to ascertain and unfold the true meaning of the inspired writers1 without adding to it1 subtracting from it1 or changing it in any way4 ,here we may draw an instructive parallel between his work and that of the textual critic4 ,the textual critic aims to give1 not what some one might think the inspired penman should have written1 but what he actually did write4 ,so the true expositor1 taking the very words of ,scripture1 seeks not to force upon them a meaning in harmony with his preconceived opinions1 but to take from them the very ideas which the writer intended to express4 ,it is pertinent1 therefore1 to consider at the outset the qualifications which belong to the biblical interpreter4 ,these include high moral and intellectual qualities1 as well as varied and extensive acquirements4 #c4 ,foremost among the qualities that belong to the interpreter is a supreme regard for truth4 ,a general conviction and acknowledgment of the duty of truthfulness will not be sufficient to guard him against all the seductive influences that beset his path4 ,though he may be a sincere ,christian1 he will still be in danger of being misled by the power of preconceived opinions and party connections4 ,he will need a constant and vivid apprehension of the sacredness of all truth1 more especially of scriptural truth1 which ,god has revealed for the sanctification and salvation of men4 ,sanctify them through thy truth3 thy word is truth4 ,these words of the ,saviour he will do well to ponder night and day1 till they become a part of his spiritual life2 and to remember always that1 if such be the divine origin and high office of scriptural truth1 ,god will not hold guiltless any who tamper with it in the interest of preconceived human opinions1 thus substituting the folly of man for the wisdom of ,god4 #d4 ,the interpreter further needs a sound judgment1 combined with the power of vivid conception4 ,these two qualities are named together1 because they mutually supplement each other4 ,a large part of the ,bible is occupied with description4 ,here the interpreter needs the power of conception1 that he may bring before his mind a vivid picture of the scenes described1 with the relations of their several parts to each other4 ,another large part of the ,bible contains the language of poetry and impassioned feeling4 ,in the interpretation of this1 the faculty of conception is especially necessary1 that we may place ourselves as fully as possible in the circumstances of the writers1 and form a true idea of the emotions which filled their minds and gave form and complexion to their utterances4 ,pure cold logic1 with the addition of any amount of human learning1 will not enable us to comprehend and expound aright the forty-second ,psalm4 ,by the power of imagination1 we must go with the poet1 in his exile from the sanctuary at ,jerusalem1 across the ,jordan to the land of the ,hermonites2 must see his distressed and forsaken condition2 must hear the bitter taunts of his enemies2 must witness the inward tempest of his feelings--a continual conflict between nature and faith--before we can have a true understanding of his words4 ,the same might be said of innumerable other passages of ,scripture4 ,but this power of vivid conception1 when not held in check by a sound judgment1 will lead the expositor of ,scripture into the wildest vagaries of fancy4 ,disregarding the plainest rules of interpretation1 he will cover up the obvious sense of ,scripture with a mass of allegorical expositions1 under color of educing from the words of inspiration a higher and more edifying meaning4 ,that high natural endowments1 united with varied and solid learning and indefatigable zeal for the gospel1 do not of themselves constitute a safeguard against this error1 we learn from the example of ,origen and many others4 ,not content to let the simple narratives of ,scripture speak for themselves and convey their proper lessons of instruction1 these allegorical expositors force upon them a higher spiritual sense4 ,in so doing1 they unsettle the very principles by which the spiritual doctrines of ,scripture are established4 ,origen1 for example1 in commenting on the meeting between ,abraham's servant and ,rebecca at the well in ,haran1 says3 ,rebecca came every day to the wells4 ,therefore she could be found by ,abraham's servant1 and joined in marriage with ,isaac4 ,thus he gives the literal meaning of this transaction4 ,but he then goes on to show1 among other things1 that ,rebecca represents the human soul1 which ,christ wishes to betroth to himself1 while ,abraham's servant is the prophetic word1 which unless you first receive1 you cannot be married to ,christ4 ,see in ,davidson's ,sacred ,hermeneutics1 pp4 #ajc1 #ajd4 #e4 ,another indispensable qualification of scriptural interpretation is sympathy with divine truth2 in other words1 that harmony of spirit with the truths of revelation which comes from a hearty reception of them1 and a subjection of the whole life1 inward and outward1 to their control4 ,if any man1 said our ,saviour1 will do his will1 he shall know of the doctrine1 whether it be of ,god1 or whether ,i speak of myself4 ,john #g3ag4 ,in these words our ,lord proposed to the unbelieving ,jews the true remedy for their ignorance and error respecting his person and office1 which had their ground not in the want of evidence1 but in their perverse and guilty rejection of evidence4 ,their moral state was one of habitual rebellion against the truth of ,god2 and they could not1 therefore1 have sympathy with the ,saviour's doctrine4 ,they hated the light1 and would not come to the light1 because their deeds were evil4 ,john #c3bj4 ,what they needed was not more light1 but that obedient spirit which loves the light1 and allows it to shine through the soul4 ,the man who would be a successful interpreter of ,god's word must begin where the ,saviour directed these ,jews to begin4 ,so far as he knows the truth1 he must give it a hearty reception not in theory alone1 but in daily practice4 ,then he will be prepared to make further progress in the knowledge of it1 and to unfold its heavenly treasures to his fellow-men4 ,but if he comes to the study of ,god's word with a heart habitually at variance with its holy precepts1 and an understanding darkened by the power of sinful affections1 no amount of scholarship or critical sagacity will avail to make him a true expositor of its contents4 ,having no sympathy with the great foundation doctrines of the gospel1 but regarding them with positive aversion1 he will neither be able to apprehend them in their true light1 nor to explain them aright to his fellow-men4 ,in the work of interpretation1 a good heart--good in the scriptural sense--is not less important than a clear understanding and well-furnished mind4 #f4 ,how extensive and varied should be the acquirements of the able interpreter will be manifest to any one who considers the extent and variety of the fields of knowledge covered by the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,the languages in which they are written are no longer spoken4 ,the knowledge of them1 like that of all dead languages1 is locked up in books--grammars1 lexicons1 ancient versions1 and various subsidiary helps--and can be mastered only by severe and protracted study4 ,it is not indeed necessary that the great body of ,christians1 or even all preachers of the gospel1 should be able to read the ,bible in the original languages4 ,but it is a principle of ,protestantism1 the soundness of which has been confirmed by the experience of centuries1 that there should always be in the churches a body of men able to go behind the current versions of ,scripture to the original tongues from which these versions were executed4 ,the commentator1 at least1 must not take his expositions at second hand2 and a healthy tone of feeling in regard to the sacredness and supreme authority of the inspired word will always demand that there should be a goodly number of scholars scattered through the churches who can judge from the primitive sources of the correctness of his interpretations4 ,the ,scriptures are crowded with references to the cities1 mountains1 plains1 deserts1 rivers1 and seas of ,palestine and the surrounding regions2 to their climate1 soil1 animals1 and plants2 to their agricultural products and mineral treasures2 to the course of travel and commerce between the different nations2 in a word1 to those numerous particulars which come under the head of geography and natural history4 ,the extended investigations of modern times in these departments of knowledge have shed a great light over the pages of inspiration1 which no expositor who is worthy of the name will venture to neglect4 ,and if one collect and illustrate the various allusions of ,scripture to the manners and customs of the ancient ,hebrews1 to their civil institutions and their religious rites and ceremonies1 he will compose a volume on biblical antiquities4 ,the connection1 moreover1 which the covenant people had with the surrounding nations1 especially the great monarchies which successively held sway over the civilized world--,egypt1 ,assyria1 ,chaldea1 ,greece1 ,rome--requires an extended knowledge of ancient history1 and1 as inseparably connected with this1 of ancient chronology4 ,biblical chronology constitutes1 indeed1 a science of itself1 embracing some very perplexed and difficult questions1 the solution of which has an important bearing upon the passages of ,scripture to which they have reference4 #g4 ,we do not affirm that all the above-named qualifications are necessary to a saving knowledge of ,god's word4 ,its great essential doctrines and precepts are so plain that the unlettered reader1 who brings to the work an honest heart1 cannot fail to understand them4 ,in this respect ,god has made the vision so plain that he may run that readeth it2 and the road to heaven so direct that the wayfaring men1 though fools1 shall not err therein4 ,but the interpreter of ,scripture is expected to unfold the meaning of the difficult passages also1 as far as human investigation will enable him to do so4 ,they are a part of all ,scripture given by inspiration of ,god1 which the apostle affirms to be profitable for doctrine1 for reproof1 for correction1 for instruction in righteousness4 ,he should spare no effort1 therefore1 to ascertain their exact sense1 and to expound this sense to others with all possible fidelity and clearness4 #h4 ,there is a human and a divine side to biblical interpretation--a human side1 because the ,scriptures address men in human language1 and according to human modes of thinking and speaking2 a divine side1 because they contain a true revelation from ,god to men1 and differ in this respect from all other writings4 ,the neglect of the human side leads to visionary schemes of interpretation1 in which the writer's fancy is substituted for the sober rules of criticism1 and the word of ,god accommodated to his preconceived opinions4 ,the rejection1 open or covert1 of the divine side1 manifests itself in a cold1 skeptical criticism1 which denies or explains away all that is supernatural in the ,bible2 which1 instead of seeking to discover and unfold that unity of plan and harmony of parts which belong to every work of ,god1 delights rather in exaggerating the supposed inconsistencies and contradictions of the sacred writers1 and in arraying one part of ,scripture against another2 and which1 having no faith itself in the ,bible as containing a revelation from ,god1 infuses doubts respecting its divine origin into the mind of the reader4 ,it is only by keeping steadily in view these two sides of revelation1 which mutually supplement each other1 that we can attain to a true knowledge of the inspired word4 ,,first ,,division4 ,,interpretation ,,viewed ,,on ,,the ,,human ,,side4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,general ,,principles ,,of ,,interpretation4 #a4 ,since the ,bible addresses men in human language1 and according to human modes of thinking and speaking1 the interpreter's first work is to ascertain the meaning of the terms employed4 ,here he must proceed as in the case of other writings1 seeking by the aid of grammars1 lexicons1 cognate languages1 ancient versions1 ancient interpreters1 and whatever other outward helps are available1 to gain a thorough knowledge of the language employed by the ,holy ,spirit in his revelations to men4 ,to these external sources of knowledge he will add all the internal light which comes from a careful consideration of the context1 of the author's known use of terms1 of parallel passages1 etc4 ,in the case of the ,new ,testament1 a knowledge of classical ,greek will not be sufficient4 ,the interpreter must superadd a thorough acquaintance with the peculiar dialect of the ,new ,testament 7,chap4 #bd1 ,no4 #e71 and also the special usages of particular writers4 ,the apostle ,john1 to adduce a single instance1 applies the term ,logos1 ,word1 to the ,son of ,god4 ,but we cannot argue from this for a like usage by other writers2 as1 for example1 in the well-known passage3 ,the word of ,god is quick and powerful1 etc4 ,heb4 #d3ab4 ,usage alone is often insufficient to determine the meaning of a word in a particular passage2 for 7#a7 the term may occur nowhere else1 7#b7 it may have in current usage two or more different significations4 ,in the former case1 the interpreter must avail himself of all the external helps above specified1 and especially of the light shed upon the meaning of the term in question by the context4 ,in the latter case1 the context must be his chief guide4 ,the same ,greek word1 for example1 signifies stature 7,luke #ai3c7 and age 7,heb4 #aa3aa74 ,in the interpretation of ,matt4 #f3bg1 where our version reads3 ,which of you by taking thought can add one cubit unto his stature8 the question may naturally enough arise in which of these two senses the ,saviour employed it4 ,whatever may be the decision1 it must have for its basis not simple usage1 which is ambiguous1 but the connection of the word in the context4 ,many like examples might be adduced4 ,it has been already remarked 7,chap4 #bd1 ,no4 #e7 that in ,new ,testament usage many words have a technical and therefore peculiar meaning4 ,we are not at liberty1 however1 to determine such technical meanings at random1 or in accordance with any preconceived opinions4 ,it can only be done1 as in the case of all other writings1 in accordance with the acknowledged laws of interpretation4 ,the general result1 then1 at which we arrive is1 that in determining the meaning of scriptural terms we must be guided by the same rules which we follow in the interpretation of other writings4 #b4 ,from the signification of particular words we proceed to the consideration of the sense embodied in the language of the sacred writers4 ,a knowledge of the words which enter into the composition of a sentence does not of itself give us a true apprehension of the sense which the writer seeks to convey4 ,we must know the writer's aim1 the shape and course of his argument1 the ideas which he is combating as well as those which he seeks to establish1 the emphatic words of the sentence1 whether he wishes to be understood literally or figuratively1 and various other particulars2 all which are to be ascertained by the same rules which we employ in the interpretation of language generally4 #c4 ,the scope or design of the inspired writer may be general or special2 the former being his design in writing the whole work in question1 the latter1 his design in particular sections of it4 ,the scope1 it has been well observed1 is the soul or spirit of a book2 and1 that being once ascertained1 every argument and every word appears in its right place1 and is perfectly intelligible2 but if the scope be not duly considered1 every thing becomes obscure1 however clear and obvious its meaning may really be4 ,horne's ,introduct41 vol4 #b1 p4 #bfe1 edit4 of #ahfj4 ,this language is not too strong4 ,it is by a neglect or perversion of the scope that the meaning of the inspired writers is perverted1 and they are made to contradict one another4 ,the apostle ,paul says1 for example3 ,therefore we conclude that a man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law4 ,rom4 #c3bh4 ,the apostle ,james3 ,ye see then how that by works a man is justified1 and not by faith only4 ,james #b3bd4 ,if one insists on leaving out of account the separate and distinct design which each of these two writers had in view respectively1 he can easily bring their words into contradiction4 ,had the scope of ,paul's argument been to show that faith in ,christ releases men from the obligation of obeying the divine law1 and thus makes good works unnecessary2 or had ,james been laboring to prove that good works are the meritorious ground of men's forgiveness1 then the doctrines of the two apostles would have been irreconcilably at variance4 ,but we know that neither of these suppositions is true4 ,paul was combating the error of the ,pharisees who trusted in themselves that they were righteous--righteous on the ground of the deeds of the law--and despised others4 ,his aim was to show that men receive forgiveness and salvation neither wholly nor in part on the ground of the supposed merit of their good works1 but wholly through faith in ,christ2 as he elsewhere argues that if it be by grace1 then it is no more of works3 otherwise grace is no more grace4 ,rom4 #aa3f4 ,we know also1 from the whole tenor of his writings1 that he condemned as spurious that pretended faith which does not manifest itself in good works4 ,in this very epistle1 where the question is not concerning the meritorious ground of justification1 but concerning that character which ,god will accept1 the apostle lays down the great principle3 ,unto them that are contentious1 and do not obey the truth1 but obey unrighteousness1 indignation and wrath1 tribulation and anguish1 upon every soul of man that doeth evil2 of the ,jew first1 and also of the ,gentile2 but glory1 honor1 and peace to every man that worketh good2 to the ,jew first1 and also to the ,gentile3 for there is no respect of persons with ,god4 ,rom4 #b3h-aa4 ,if now we turn to the epistle of ,james1 we find that the faith without works which he condemns as dead is one of mere empty notions--an inoperative belief about ,christ instead of that hearty trust in him which brings the heart and life into subjection to his authority4 ,in a word1 ,paul condemns1 as dead1 works without faith2 ,james1 faith without works4 ,the one rejects dead works 7,heb4 #i3ad72 the other1 dead faith4 ,between these two judgments there is no contradiction4 ,we have dwelt somewhat at large upon this example of alleged contradiction for the purpose of full illustration4 ,the same mode of reasoning might be applied to many other passages1 where a knowledge of the writer's design is essential to the true apprehension of his meaning4 ,such being the importance of the scope1 the question arises3 ,how shall it be ascertained8 ,here mechanical rules will be of little avail4 ,the attentive and judicious reader will be able1 in general1 to gather it from the various indications given by the writer himself1 or from the known circumstances in which he wrote1 just as in the case of other writings4 ,sometimes an author directly states his general end1 or his design in writing a particular section of his work4 ,an example of the former kind is ,john #bj3ca3 ,these things are written that ye might believe that ,jesus is the ,son of ,god2 and that believing ye might have life through his name2 of the latter kind1 #a ,cor4 #g3a3 ,now concerning the things whereof ye wrote unto me1 etc42 whence we learn that in this particular chapter the apostle's design is to answer certain inquiries of the ,corinthian ,christians in regard to the relation of marriage4 ,more commonly the writer's scope is indicated indirectly by various inferential remarks1 as in the passage already quoted3 ,therefore we conclude that a man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law1 which is in fact a statement of the apostle's design in the preceding argument4 ,see ,horne's ,introduct41 vol4 #b1 pp4 #bff1 #bfg1 where the author follows ,morus1 ,hermeneutica1 #a4b4b4 ,sometimes a clear light is shed upon the design of a writer or speaker by a knowledge of historical circumstances2 especially1 of his own position and that of his opponents4 ,the twenty-third chapter of ,matthew1 in which the ,saviour exposes the wickedness and doctrinal errors of the scribes and ,pharisees1 and denounces upon them the judgments of heaven1 cannot be thoroughly understood without a knowledge of the system of ,pharisaism1 and the high position of authority and influence which the ,pharisees held2 sitting1 as they did1 in ,moses' seat1 imposing upon the people their human traditions in place of ,god's commandments1 substituting a religion of outward forms for one of inward faith1 love1 and obedience1 and thus taking away from the people the key of divine knowledge4 ,it was necessary that the ,son of ,god1 to whom the church belonged1 who came to shed his blood for her redemption1 and to establish her in the principles of truth and holiness1 should expose with unsparing severity the wickedness and ignorance of these scribes and ,pharisees1 for the instruction of his people in all coming ages4 ,a knowledge of the same historical circumstances throws a strong light on the apostle's aim in writing to the ,romans and ,galatians4 ,had we fuller information respecting the false teachers referred to in the epistle to the ,colossians and the pastoral epistles1 we should understand more clearly the apostle's arguments against them4 ,but the surest means of ascertaining a writer's scope is the repeated and careful perusal of his words4 ,the biblical student should early form the habit of reading over with earnest attention a whole book at a sitting--the epistle to the ,romans1 for example1 or that to the ,hebrews--without pausing to investigate particular questions2 his aim being to throw himself as fully as possible into the general current of thought1 and to be carried forward by it to the writer's final conclusions4 ,when he has thus made himself familiar with the scope of the work as a whole1 he will be better prepared for the examination of the particular difficulties that offer themselves in the course of the author's argument4 #d4 ,the word context 7,latin1 contextus7 signifies literally a weaving together2 and is appropriately used1 therefore1 to denote the web of a writer's discourse4 ,the scope is the end which a writer proposes to accomplish3 the context gives the form and manner of its accomplishment4 ,with reference to a given passage1 the context has been loosely defined to be that which immediately precedes and follows4 ,more accurately1 it is the series of statements1 arguments1 and illustrations connected with the passage whose meaning is sought1 including all the various connections of thought4 ,the sober interpreter1 then1 must have constant reference to the context1 as well for the signification of particular terms as for the general sense of the passage under consideration4 ,to interpret without regard to the context is to interpret at random2 to interpret contrary to the context is to teach falsehood for truth4 ,the necessity of having constant reference to the context for the determination of the sense1 as well as of the particular terms employed1 admits of innumerable illustrations4 ,from these we select a few examples3 ,in ,rom4 #ad3bc the apostle lays down the following maxim3 ,he that doubteth is damned literally1 condemned if he eat1 because he eateth not of faith3 for whatsoever is not of faith is sin4 ,the context relates not to the ,lord's supper1 but to scruples in respect to the use of particular kinds of food3 ,one believeth that he may eat all things2 another who is weak--over-scrupulous in respect to distinctions of food--eateth herbs 7ver4 #b74 ,consequently there is no reference here to the personal qualifications requisite for partaking of that ordinance1 or to the consequence of eating unworthily4 ,the apostle means to say that whoever has scruples about the lawfulness of using a particular article of food is condemned if he eat it1 because he eateth not of faith4 ,he acts contrary to his persuasion of duty4 ,thus he violates1 in this particular case1 that general law of faith which requires that in all things we keep a conscience void of offence towards ,god and man1 subjecting ourselves in loving confidence to ,christ's authority1 and doing in all things what we believe to be right in his sight4 ,again we read in ,gal4 #e3d the words3 ,ye are fallen from grace4 ,taken out of their connection1 these words are ambiguous in their application4 ,but the context makes all plain4 ,the apostle is addressing those who are inclined to substitute a system of justification by works for the grace of the gospel3 ,christ is become of no effect unto you1 whosoever of you are justified by the law2 ye are fallen from grace--fallen away from grace1 as the original word means4 ,ye have abandoned the system of grace revealed in the gospel for one of works4 ,the psalmist says3 ,my soul thirsteth for ,god1 for the living ,god3 when shall ,i come and appear before ,god8 ,psa4 #db3b4 ,taken out of their connection1 these words might be understood of his desire to enjoy the beatific vision of ,god in heaven4 ,but the context shows that the writer had in mind ,god's earthly sanctuary1 from which he was banished3 ,my tears have been my meat day and night1 while they continually say unto me1 ,where is thy ,god8 ,when ,i remember these things1 ,i pour out my soul in me3 for ,i had gone with the multitude1 ,i went with them to the house of ,god1 with the voice of joy and praise1 with a multitude that kept holy-day 7ver4 #c1 #d74 ,again the psalmist says3 ,the king's daughter is all glorious within 7,psa4 #de3ac72 words that have more than once been applied directly to the inward spiritual beauty of the church1 the bride of ,christ4 ,this is1 indeed1 the idea that we gain from a true interpretation of them4 ,but it comes not directly1 but through a beautiful figure4 ,the primary meaning of the words is1 that the royal bride appearing within the palace in raiment of wrought gold is all glorious to the beholder's view4 ,undoubtedly she represents the church espoused to ,christ2 dwelling1 so to speak1 in his kingly mansion1 and gloriously adorned with his righteousness4 ,rev4 #ai3h4 ,the question may naturally occur to the reader3 ,within what limits is the context to be consulted8 ,the answer must be1 that no definite limits can be prescribed4 ,the entire web of discourse must be carefully studied1 including the more remote as well as the nearer context2 for the inspired writers do not1 as a general rule1 proceed according to formal divisions and subdivisions4 ,the train of argument is often interrupted by parenthetical remarks1 particularly in the writings of the apostle ,paul1 or it is resumed in an informal way after extended digressions4 ,the true connection of thought1 then1 is to be gathered not so much from our modern notions of what logical accuracy would require1 as from the repeated and careful perusal of the writing in question4 ,in this way alone can we place ourselves in the author's position1 and look at the subject under discussion from his point of view2 that is to say1 in this way alone can we enter into his modes of thinking and reasoning1 and thus qualify ourselves to be the expounders of them to others4 ,in some cases no context exists1 and none is to be sought4 ,in a large part of the book of ,proverbs1 for example1 each separate aphorism shines by its own light4 ,if it have any connection with what precedes or follows1 it is only casual or superficial4 ,in some books1 again1 like that of ,ecclesiastes1 the transitions are rapid1 and often difficult to explain4 ,here we should be careful not to force upon the author a logical connection of which he never thought4 ,systematic arrangement is good in its place2 but the ,holy ,spirit did not think it needful to secure it in the case of all who spake as he moved them4 ,some religious teachers are fond of employing scriptural texts simply as mottoes1 with little or no regard to their true connection4 ,thus they too often adapt them to their use by imparting to them a factitious sense foreign to their proper scope and meaning4 ,the seeming gain in all such cases is more than counterbalanced by the loss and danger that attend the practice4 ,it encourages the habit of interpreting ,scripture in an arbitrary and fanciful way1 and thus furnishes the teachers of error with their most effective weapon4 ,the practice cannot be defended on any plea of necessity4 ,the plain words of ,scripture1 legitimately interpreted according to their proper scope and context1 contain a fulness and comprehensiveness of meaning sufficient for the wants of all men in all circumstances4 ,that piety alone is robust and healthful which is fed1 not by the fancies and speculations of the preacher who practically puts his own genius above the word of ,god1 but by the pure doctrines and precepts of the ,bible1 unfolded in their true connection and meaning4 ,it is important to remark1 however1 that when the general principle contained in a given passage of ,scripture has been once fairly explained1 it admits of innumerable applications which are in the highest sense legitimate and proper4 ,the principle1 for example1 that whatsoever is not of faith is sin1 which the apostle ,paul announces in connection with the question of using or abstaining from particular kinds of food1 may be applied to the settlement of cases of conscience arising in widely different relations and spheres of action4 ,the preacher's power lies very much in the ability of unfolding to the understanding and applying to the conscience the general principles involved in the passage of ,scripture which he undertakes to expound4 #e4 ,we may next consider the help to be derived from parallel passages4 ,the ordinary division of parallelisms is into verbal and real3 verbal1 where the same word or phrase occurs2 real1 where the same thought is expressed or the same subject discussed4 ,verbal parallelisms often shed much light on the meaning of particular words or phrases1 because what is obscure in one passage is made plain in another by some explanatory addition4 ,an example is the use of the expression my glory 7,english version1 my honor71 in ,gen4 #di3f3 ,o my soul1 come not thou into their secret 7their secret conclave72 unto their assembly1 my glory1 be not thou united4 ,a comparison of the parallel passages1 ,psa4 #g3e2 #af3i2 #cj3ab2 #eg3h2 #ajh3a1 leads to the conclusion that in such a connection the expression is substantially equivalent to my soul1 the soul being made in the image of ,god1 and thus the seat of man's glory4 ,by a like process of comparison1 we arrive at the true signification of the phrase1 the righteousness of ,god1 or more fully1 the righteousness which is of ,god by faith when used with reference to the way of salvation through ,christ2 at the meaning of the ,greek terms translated propitiation1 etc4 ,in the same way1 as already remarked 7,no4 #a1 above71 the interpreter ascertains the different significations in which words are employed1 and determines which of these is appropriate to any given passage4 ,real parallelisms are subdivided1 again1 into doctrinal and historic2 doctrinal1 where the same truth is inculcated2 historic1 where the same event or series of events is recorded4 ,the supreme importance of doctrinal parallelisms will appear most fully when we come to look at revelation on the divine side1 as constituting a grand system of truth harmonious in all its parts4 ,at present we regard them simply as among the means of ascertaining the sense of a given passage4 ,presuming that every author means to be self-consistent1 it is our custom to place side by side his different statements which relate to the same subject1 that they may mutually explain each other4 ,the same reasonable method should be pursued with the writings of ,isaiah and ,jeremiah in the ,old ,testament1 and of ,paul and ,john in the ,new4 ,what is obscure is to be interpreted by what is clear2 what is briefly hinted1 by what is more fully expressed4 ,different writers1 moreover1 belonging to the same age1 animated by the same spirit1 and confessedly governed by the same general rules of faith and practice1 mutually explain each other4 ,thus the prophets ,isaiah1 ,hosea1 ,joel1 ,amos1 and ,micah1 who belong to the same century1 and in a less degree ,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 and the other prophets of a later age1 shed each a light on the pages of all the rest4 ,the same is true of all the epistolary writers of the ,new ,testament1 notwithstanding their marked differences of style1 and the different aspects also in which they respectively contemplate ,christian doctrine and duty4 ,our ,saviour says of those who claimed to be1 before his advent1 the shepherds and leaders of ,god's spiritual fold3 ,all that ever came before me are thieves and robbers2 but the sheep did not hear them4 ,john #aj3h4 ,yet according to this same evangelist he honored ,abraham1 ,moses1 and the prophets1 as true leaders and teachers of ,god's people4 ,chaps4 #h3ci1 #dj1 #ef2 #e3de-dg2 #ab3ch-da4 ,we know1 then1 that the ,saviour's words must be restricted to such spiritual thieves and robbers as the scribes and ,pharisees of his day1 who under the leadership of ,satan 7chap4 #h3da1 #dd7 climbed up some other way into the fold4 ,the apostle ,paul says 7,rom4 #b3g7 that ,god shall render to them who by patient continuance in well-doing seek for glory1 and honor1 and immortality1 eternal life4 ,we know at once1 without reference to the context1 that he does not mean1 in opposition to the whole tenor of his epistles1 to affirm that men can obtain eternal life by their own well-doing1 without respect to the righteousness of ,god1 which is by faith of ,jesus ,christ1 unto all and upon all them that believe4 ,but if we examine the context1 this shows that here the apostle is not speaking of the meritorious ground of justification1 but of ,god's impartial regard to a righteous character in both ,jews and ,gentiles4 ,historical parallelisms hold of necessity a prominent place in the interpretation of both the ,old and the ,new ,testament4 ,in the ,old ,testament we have the two parallel histories of the ,hebrew commonwealth1 first in the books of ,samuel and the ,kings1 then in the books of ,chronicles4 ,in the ,new1 the four gospels are four parallel accounts of our ,lord's life and teachings4 ,then there are several parallelisms of less extent2 as1 for example1 ,isaiah's account of ,sennacherib's war upon ,hezekiah1 and ,hezekiah's sickness 7,isa4 chaps4 #cf-ci1 compared with #b ,kings #ah3ac-bj3ba1 and the briefer notice of #b ,chron4 chap4 #cb72 the three accounts of ,paul's conversion 7,acts #i3a-bb2 #bb3a-ba2 #bf3a-bj72 and other passages which will readily occur to the reader4 ,to the work of comparing and harmonizing these parallel histories biblical students have with reason devoted much labor1 since they mutually supplement and illustrate each other in many ways4 ,we understand the books of ,samuel and ,kings more fully by comparison with the books of ,chronicles1 and the reverse4 ,each of the four gospels sheds light on the other three4 ,it is by placing the three accounts of ,paul's conversion side by side that we gain the most perfect knowledge of this event4 ,the numerous coincidences between the ,acts of the ,apostles and the ,pauline epistles1 give us a fuller idea of the apostle's inward life and outward labors than we could otherwise gain4 ,without the epistles the biographical notices of the ,acts would be very incomplete2 without the narrative of the ,acts many references in the epistles would remain obscure4 ,yet these same historic parallelisms1 which are the source of so much light1 are the occasion of difficulties also1 which require for their adjustment a comprehensive view of the spirit of inspiration4 ,in respect to all essential matters of faith and practice1 a divine unity pervades the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,but this essential unity does not exclude diversity of conception and representation4 ,though all the holy men of ,god spake as they were moved by the ,holy ,ghost1 it pleased the divine ,spirit to leave them free to speak each in accordance with his individual peculiarities of thought and language4 ,a page from the writings of the apostle ,john1 taken anywhere at random1 can be at once distinguished from a page of ,paul or ,luke4 ,in relating the same transaction1 two inspired writers often select different materials1 or handle them in a different way4 ,the narrative of each is truthful1 but not exhaustive4 ,it gives a correct view of the thing related1 but not all the particulars connected with it4 ,the omission from two or more parallel narratives of concomitant circumstances1 or the neglect of exact chronological order1 sometimes makes the work of harmonizing them a very difficult matter4 ,we feel confident that each separate narrative is correct1 and that1 had we all the accompanying circumstances in the true order of time1 we could see how they are consistent with each other2 but for want of this light the exact mode of reconciliation remains doubtful4 ,such difficulties are incident to all parallel histories4 ,had the ,holy ,spirit seen good1 he could have excluded them from the pages of inspiration2 but herein he chose to deal with us not as children1 but rather as men of full age1 even those who1 by reason of use1 have their senses exercised to discern both good and evil4 ,it is worthy of special notice1 that where two or more evangelists record the same words of our ,saviour1 they are solicitous only about their substance4 ,in the three parallel accounts of the storm on the sea of ,galilee1 the disciples say according to ,matthew 7#h3be73 ,lord save us1 we perish2 according to ,mark 7#d3ch73 ,master1 carest thou not that we perish8 according to ,luke 7#h3bd73 ,master1 master1 we perish4 ,and the ,lord answers according to ,matthew 7v4 #bf73 ,why are ye fearful1 ,o ye of little faith8 according to ,mark 7v4 #dj73 ,why are ye so fearful8 how is it that ye have no faith8 according to ,luke 7v4 #be73 ,where is your faith8 ,on the variations in the words of the disciples ,augustine well remarks 7and the same remarks hold good of our ,lord's answer73 ,the disciples have one and the same meaning in thus awaking the ,lord and desiring salvation4 ,nor is it necessary to inquire which of these addresses1 rather than the others1 contains the exact words spoken to him4 ,for whether they uttered one of the three1 or other words which no one of the evangelists has mentioned1 which yet have the same force in respect to the truth of the thought1 what matters it8 ,harmony of the ,gospels #b4bd1 quoted by ,alford on ,matth4 #h3be4 ,on the relation of the books of ,chronicles to those of ,kings and the difficulties connected with them1 see ,chap4 #bj1 ,nos4 #ba1 #bb4 ,on the relation of the four gospels to each other1 see ,chap4 #bi1 ,nos4 #d-aj4 ,we cannot here go into particulars4 ,it must suffice to indicate the general principle by which the harmonist must be guided4 #f4 ,the external acquirements necessary to constitute the well-furnished expositor of ,god's word--the scribe which is instructed unto the kingdom of heaven--have been already briefly noticed4 ,chap4 #cc1 ,no4 #f4 ,not only are the ,scriptures in their original form locked up in dead languages which the interpreter must thoroughly master1 but they are1 so to speak1 embedded in ancient history1 chronology1 and archaeology4 ,illustrations of this point are so numerous that the only difficulty is in the selection4 ,the servitude of the ,israelites under the ,egyptians1 their captivity in ,babylon1 their deliverance under ,cyrus1 and their subsequent history till the time of our ,lord's advent1 connect themselves immediately1 as all know1 with the general history of the ancient heathen world4 ,but there are many illustrations of a more special character4 ,the difficulty of the position in which our ,lord was placed by the ensnaring question of the ,pharisees and ,herodians respecting the lawfulness of paying tribute to ,caesar1 and the divine wisdom of his answer 7,matt4 #bb3ae-bb3 ,mark #ab3ac-ag2 ,luke #bj3bj-bf7 cannot be perfectly understood without a knowledge1 on the one hand1 of the political condition and feeling of the ,jews as subjected to the dominion of the ,romans1 which they thoroughly detested1 and of which dominion the tribute money daily reminded them2 and1 on the other1 of the hatred which both ,pharisees and ,herodians bore towards ,christ1 and their anxiety to find a pretext for accusing him to the people or before this same ,roman government4 ,to apprehend the force of our ,lord's argument from the ,pentateuch against the error of the ,pharisees3 ,have ye not read that which was spoken unto you by ,god1 saying1 ,i am the ,god of ,abraham1 and the ,god of ,isaac1 and the ,god of ,jacob8 ,god is not the ,god of the dead1 but of the living 7,matt4 #bb3ca1 #cb71 we must understand the form in which the ,sadducees denied the doctrine of the resurrection4 ,they denied1 namely1 the existence of spirits separated from bodies4 ,acts #bc3h4 ,to them1 consequently1 the death of the body was the annihilation of the whole man1 which made the very idea of a future resurrection an absurdity4 ,our ,saviour showed from the writings of ,moses1 whose authority they acknowledged1 the error of their assumption that the spirit dies with the body4 ,thus he demolished the ground on which their denial of a future resurrection rested4 ,the psalmist says of those who hate ,zion3 ,let them be as the grass upon the house-tops1 which withereth before one plucketh it 7,eng4 version1 before it groweth up73 wherewith the mower filleth not his hand1 nor he that bindeth sheaves his bosom4 ,psa4 #abi3f1 #g4 ,for the illustration of these words we need a double reference1 7#a7 to the oriental custom of constructing flat roofs covered with earth1 on which grass readily springs up2 7#b7 to the division of the year into two seasons1 the rainy and the dry1 upon the commencement of which latter such grass speedily withers4 ,another reference to the same oriental roofs we have in the words of ,solomon3 ,the contentions of a wife are a continual dropping2 a continual dropping in a very rainy day and a contentious woman are alike 7chaps4 #ai3ac2 #bg3ae71 where we are to understand a continual dropping through of water from the roof1 which makes every thing within uncomfortable4 ,our ,lord's parable of the ten virgins 7,matt4 #be3a-ac7 requires for its illustration a knowledge of the oriental customs connected with marriage3 the transaction recorded by ,luke1 where a woman came behind ,jesus as he reclined at the table1 washed his feet with her tears1 and wiped them with her hair 7,luke #g3cg1 #ch71 and the position of ,john when at the last supper he leaned on ,jesus' bosom 7,john #ac3bc1 #be71 cannot be made intelligible without a knowledge of the reclining posture in which meals were then taken3 one familiar only with the use of glass or earthen bottles cannot comprehend the force of our ,lord's maxim respecting the necessity of putting new wine into new bottles 7,matt4 #i3ag71 till he is informed that oriental bottles are made of leather4 ,we might go on multiplying illustrations indefinitely1 but the above must suffice4 ,we may affirm1 without fear of contradiction1 that the study of the ,holy ,scriptures has contributed more than all other causes to the diffusion among the masses of the community of a knowledge of ancient history and antiquities4 ,to say that a congregation has a thorough knowledge of the ,bible is equivalent to affirming that it has an enlarged acquaintance with the ancient world in its spirit as well as in its outward institutions and forms4 #g4 ,that the interpreter may make a wise and effective use of all the helps that have been enumerated1 he needs especially that sound and practical judgment which is called in ordinary discourse good sense4 ,investigations respecting the meaning of terms1 inquiries concerning the scope1 reasonings from the context1 the comparison of parallel passages1 the use of ancient history1 chronology1 and archaeology--that any one or all of these processes combined may lead to valuable results they must be under the guidance of that sound judgment and practical tact by which the interpreter is enabled to seize the true meaning of his author and unfold it with accuracy1 or is at least kept from far-fetched and fanciful expositions where the author's real sense is involved in obscurity4 7#a47 ,this quality of sound judgment will preserve the interpreter from inept expositions for which a plausible reason many be assigned4 ,thus1 when the ,saviour says to ,martha1 who was cumbered about much serving3 ,one thing is needful1 these words have been interpreted to mean one dish--not many and elaborate preparations1 but a single dish4 ,a sound judgment rejects at once this interpretation as below the dignity of the occasion1 and not in agreement with what immediately follows3 ,mary hath chosen that good part1 which shall not be taken away from her4 ,the one thing needful is such a devotion of the soul to ,christ as ,mary manifested4 ,so the words3 ,simon1 son of ,jonas1 lovest thou me more than these8 7,john #ba3ae71 have been explained to mean3 more than these fish1 or the employment and furniture of a fisherman--an ingenious substitution1 one must say1 of a low and trivial meaning for the common interpretation3 more than these thy fellow-disciples love me1 which accords so perfectly with ,peter's former profession3 ,though all men shall be offended because of thee1 yet will ,i never be offended4 ,matt4 #bf3cc2 ,mark #ad3bi4 ,interpreters who ordinarily manifest sound judgment and skill are sometimes betrayed into inept expositions through the influence of some preconceived opinion4 ,the psalmist says1 for example 7,psa4 #ag3ae73 ,as for me1 in righteousness shall ,i behold thy face3 ,i shall be satisfied upon awaking with thy likeness2 that is1 with the contemplation of thy likeness1 with apparent reference to ,numb4 #ab3h3 ,the likeness of the ,lord shall he behold4 ,this passage is ordinarily interpreted correctly of the vision of ,god upon awaking in the world to come4 ,and this view is sustained by other like passages3 ,in thy presence is fulness of joy2 at thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore 7,psa4 #af3aa72 ,truly ,god shall redeem my soul from the power of ,sheol2 for he shall take me1 7,psa4 #di3ae71 where ,tholuck well says3 ,he who took an ,enoch and a ,moses to himself1 the ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 will also take me to himself2 ,thou shalt guide me by thy counsel1 and afterwards take me to glory4 ,whom have ,i in heaven but thee8 and there is none upon earth that ,i desire besides thee4 ,my flesh and my heart faileth3 ,god is the strength of my heart1 and my portion for ever 7,psa4 #gc3bd-bf7--words that are inexplicable except as containing the anticipation of a blessed immortality with ,god in heaven2 ,the wicked is driven away in his wickedness2 but the righteous hath hope in his death 7,prov4 #ad3cb72 etc4 ,but there is a class of interpreters who1 having adopted the maxim that the ,old ,testament1 at least in its earlier writings1 contains no anticipations of a blessed life with ,god after death1 are constrained to give to the passage in question the frigid meaning3 ,i shall be satisfied with thy likeness when ,i awake to-morrow1 as if the psalm were intended to be an evening song or prayer2 or1 whenever ,i awake1 that is1 from natural sleep4 7#b47 ,a sound judgment will also keep the biblical scholar from interpretations that are contrary to the known nature of the subject4 ,a familiar example is the declaration made by ,moses of ,god's view of man's wickedness3 ,and it repented the ,lord that he had made man on the earth1 and it grieved him at his heart4 ,gen4 #f3f4 ,the robust common sense of any plain reader will at once adjust the interpretation of these words to ,god's known omniscience and immutability2 just as he will the prayer of the psalmist3 ,search me1 ,o ,god1 and know my heart2 try me1 and know my thoughts2 and see if there be any wicked way in me1 and lead me in the way everlasting4 ,psa4 #aci3bc1 #bd4 ,the immutable ,god does nothing which is not in accordance with his eternal counsels4 ,the omniscient ,god1 to whom all truth is ever present1 does not literally institute a process of searching that he may know what is in man4 ,but in these and numberless other passages1 he condescends to speak according to human modes of thought and action4 ,when it is said1 again1 that the ,lord hardened the heart of ,pharaoh2 that ,god sent an evil spirit between ,abimelech and the men of ,shechem 7,judg4 #i3bc72 that he sent a lying spirit to deceive ,ahab through his prophets 7#a ,kings #bb3ba-bc72 that he sent ,isaiah with the command3 ,make the heart of this people fat1 and make their ears heavy1 and shut their eyes 7,isa4 #f3aj72 that he made the covenant people to err from his ways1 and hardened their heart from his fear 7,isa4 #fc3ag71 we instinctively interpret these and other like passages in harmony with the fundamental principle announced by the apostle3 ,let no man say when he is tempted1 ,i am tempted of ,god2 for ,god cannot be tempted of evil1 neither tempteth he any man4 ,but every man is tempted1 when he is drawn away of his own lust1 and enticed4 ,jas4 #a3ac1 #ad4 ,the ,scriptures ascribe every actual event to ,god in such a sense that it comes into the plan of his universal providence2 but they reject with abhorrence the idea that he can excite wicked thoughts in men1 or prompt them to wicked deeds4 ,when it is said1 once more1 that men are drawn to ,christ 7,john #f3dd71 or driven to worship the heavenly bodies 7,deut4 #d3ai71 we understand at once a drawing and a driving that are in accordance with their free intelligent and responsible nature4 ,other illustrations of this principle will be given in the following chapter1 which treats of the figurative language of ,scripture4 7#c47 ,the same quality of good sense will enable the interpreter to make those limitations in the language of the sacred writers which are common in popular discourse4 ,in the language of daily life many statements are made in general terms that require for their exact truthfulness various qualifications which the readers or hearers can readily supply for themselves4 ,honest men1 addressing honest men1 are not in the habit of guarding their words against every possible misconstruction4 ,it is enough if they speak so that all who will can understand them4 ,it is said1 for example 7,gen4 #da3eg71 that all countries 7literally1 all the earth7 came into ,egypt to ,joseph for to buy corn2 because the famine was sore in all the earth4 ,it would be only trifling to ask whether all the earth included the people of ,europe and ,india4 ,the reader naturally understands all the lands around ,egypt1 since they only could come thither for corn4 ,so when it is said in the account of the deluge that all the high hills that were under the whole heaven were covered 7,gen4 #g3ai71 it is straining the sacred writer's words to give them a rigid geographical application1 as if they must needs include the mountains about the ,north pole4 ,all the high hills under the whole heaven were those where man dwelt1 and which were consequently known to man4 ,the ,holy ,ghost1 says ,john1 was not yet given1 because that ,jesus was not yet glorified4 ,john #g3ci4 ,yet ,david prayed ages before3 ,take not thy ,holy ,spirit from me 7,psa4 #ea3aa72 ,isaiah says of ancient ,israel that they rebelled and vexed his ,holy ,spirit 7,isa4 #fc3aj72 the ,saviour1 long before his glorification1 promised the ,holy ,spirit to all that should ask for him 7,luke #aa3ac72 and it is a fundamental article of our faith that from ,abel to the archangel's trump all holiness is the fruit of the ,spirit4 ,but ,john's readers1 who lived after the plenary gift of the ,holy ,spirit from the day of ,pentecost and onward1 could not fail to understand him as referring to the gift of the ,spirit in that special sense4 ,the apostle ,paul says 7#a ,tim4 #b3d7 that ,god will have all men to be saved1 and to come unto the knowledge of the truth4 ,yet the same apostle teaches that some will remain in ignorance of the truth1 and thus perish4 #b ,thess4 #a3 #h1 #i2 #b3aa1 #ab4 ,the reader's good sense readily reconciles the former with the latter passages4 ,he understands ,god's will to have all men saved as the will of benevolent desire2 just as ,god says of ancient ,israel 7,psa4 #ha3ac74 ,oh that my people had hearkened unto me1 and ,israel had walked in my ways6 but because they would not do this1 he gave them up to their own heart's lust1 and they walked in their own counsels 7ver4 #ab74 ,many like illustrations might be added4 7#d47 ,hence we readily infer the office of a sound judgment in reconciling apparent contradictions1 since these arise mainly from the neglect1 in one or both of the passages between which the contradiction is said to exist1 of reasonable qualifications and limitations4 ,a striking illustration of this is found in the two accounts of the creation4 ,gen4 chaps4 #a-b3c and chap4 #b3d-be4 ,in the former narrative the order of time is an essential element4 ,not so in the latter1 where man is the central object1 and the different parts of creation are mentioned only as the writer has occasion to speak of them in connection with him4 ,hence we have in this latter passage the creation of the man 7ver4 #g71 the planting of the garden for his use with its trees and rivers 7ver4 #h-ad71 the placing of the man in the garden and the law imposed upon him 7ver4 #ae-ag71 the defective condition of the man 7ver4 #ah71 the notice in connection with this of the creation of beasts and fowls and their being brought to the man to receive names 7ver4 #ai1 #bj71 the creation of the woman and the primitive condition of the pair 7ver4 #ba-be74 ,this simple statement of the course of narration sufficiently refutes the allegation that the second account is inconsistent with the first4 ,in the first account of ,paul's conversion it is said that the men which journeyed with him stood speechless1 hearing a voice but seeing no man4 ,acts #i3g4 ,in the second ,paul says3 ,they that were with me saw indeed the light1 and were afraid2 but they heard not the voice of him that spake to me4 ,acts #bb3i4 ,there is no valid ground for doubting that the first narrative1 as well as the other two1 came from the lips of the apostle himself1 and the assumption of any essential contradiction is unreasonable and unnecessary4 ,in regard to the light1 it is certain that ,paul saw the person of the ,saviour1 and was made blind by the glory of the vision 7,acts #i3ag1 #bg2 #bb3ad2 #a ,cor4 #i3a71 while his companions saw only the light that shone around them1 which did not make them blind4 ,in regard to the voice1 it is a fair interpretation that they heard a voice only1 but no intelligible words4 ,how this difference of perception between ,paul and his companions in regard to both the light and the voice was effected we do not know1 nor is it necessary that we should4 ,the first account1 again1 represents ,paul's companions as having stood speechless1 while in the third the apostle says3 ,when we were all fallen to the earth1 ,acts #bf3ad4 ,the most natural explanation here is that the third narrative gives the posture with accuracy1 while the first lays stress only upon the amazement which fixed them in a motionless attitude4 ,the apparent discrepancies in these three parallel histories are peculiarly instructive1 because they all proceed from the pen of the same author1 and must all have been derived from the same source4 ,such circumstantial differences have the stamp of reality4 ,instead of throwing any discredit upon the transaction1 they only establish its truth upon a firmer basis4 ,many like illustrations might be added4 7#e47 ,finally1 where the means of reconciling discrepancies are not apparent1 the same quality of a sound judgment will keep us from the two extremes of seeking1 on the one hand1 forced and unnatural explanations1 and1 on the other1 of discrediting well-attested transactions on account of these discrepancies4 ,in the scriptural narratives there are some difficulties 7relating mostly to numbers1 dates1 and the chronological order of events7 which we find ourselves unable1 with our present means of knowledge1 to solve in a satisfactory way4 ,it is the part of sober reason to reserve these difficulties for further light1 not to set aside1 in view of them1 facts attested by irrefragable proof4 ,nothing in the evangelic record is more certain1 for example1 than the fact of our ,lord's resurrection4 ,yet to harmonize the four accounts which we have of it in all their details is a work of extreme difficulty4 ,supposing us to be acquainted with every thing said and done1 in its order and exactness1 we should doubtless be able to reconcile1 or account for1 the present forms of the narratives2 but not having this key to the harmonizing of them1 attempts to do so in minute particulars carry no certainty with them4 ,alford on ,matt4 #bh3a-aj4 ,the same general principle applies to other difficulties--in the ,old ,testament1 that respecting the duration of the sojourn in ,egypt1 and other chronological questions2 in the ,new1 that of the two genealogies given of our ,lord by ,matthew and ,luke1 that of the day when our ,lord ate the passover with his disciples1 etc4 ,see further in ,chaps4 #ai1 ,nos4 #f and #h2 #bj1 ,no4 #bb2 #bi1 ,nos4 #h-aj4 #h4 ,in bringing this chapter to a conclusion1 we add a few words on the office of reason in the interpretation of ,scripture4 ,it is admitted by all that we have certain primitive intuitions which lie at the foundation of all knowledge4 ,that an immutable obligation1 for example1 rests on all men to be truthful1 just1 benevolent1 and grateful1 is a truth which we see by the direct light of conscience4 ,there are certain moral axioms1 also1 outside of the direct sphere of conscience1 which shine by their own light4 ,such is that fundamental truth of theology thus announced by the apostle ,john3 ,god is light1 and in him is no darkness at all 7#a ,john #a3e72 where light and darkness are both taken in a moral sense1 as the context shows2 and thus by the apostle ,james3 ,god cannot be tempted with evil1 neither tempteth he any man 7,jas4 #a3ac72 and thus1 ages before1 by ,moses3 ,he is the ,rock1 his work is perfect3 for all his ways are judgment3 a ,god of truth and without iniquity1 just and right is he 7,deut4 #cb3d72 and still earlier by ,abraham3 ,shall not the ,judge of all the earth do right8 7,gen4 #ah3be74 ,we are sure that no declaration of ,god's word1 properly interpreted1 will contradict these necessary and universal convictions4 ,but there are many weighty truths that lie wholly above the sphere of our direct intuitions on which the infinite understanding of ,god is alone competent to pass an infallible judgment4 ,such are the following3 ,if it be ,god's will to create a race of intelligent beings1 what shall be the compass of their faculties1 moral1 intellectual1 and physical8 ,in what circumstances and relations shall he place them1 to what probation shall he subject them1 and what scope shall he allow to their finite freedom8 ,if they sin1 what plan shall he devise for their redemption1 and by what processes shall he reveal and execute this plan8 ,these1 and many other questions involving man's highest interests1 lie above the sphere of simple intuition4 ,god alone1 who looks through eternity at a glance1 can fully comprehend them1 for they are all constituent parts of his eternal plan4 ,that human reason1 which cannot see the whole of truth1 should affect to sit in judgment upon them1 and to pronounce authoritatively what ,god may1 and what he may not do1 is the height of presumption and folly4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,the ,,figurative ,,language ,,of ,,scripture4 #a4 ,when the psalmist says3 ,the ,lord ,god is a sun and shield 7,psa4 #hd3aa71 he means that ,god is to all his creatures the source of life and blessedness1 and their almighty protector2 but this meaning he conveys under the figure of a sun and a shield4 ,when1 again1 the apostle ,james says that ,moses is read in the synagogues every ,sabbath-day 7,acts #ae3ba71 he signifies the writings of ,moses under the figure of his name4 ,in these examples the figure lies in particular words4 ,but it may be embodied in a sentence1 thus3 ,it is hard for thee to kick against the pricks 7,acts #bf3ad71 where ,saul's conduct in persecuting ,christ's disciples is represented under the form of an ox kicking against the ploughman's goad only to make the wounds it inflicts deeper4 ,figurative language1 then1 is that in which one thing is said under the form or figure of another thing4 ,in the case of allegories and parables1 it may take the form1 as we shall hereafter see1 of continuous discourse4 ,a large proportion of the words in all languages1 in truth all that express intellectual and moral ideas1 were originally figurative1 the universal law being to represent immaterial by material objects4 ,examples are the words exist1 existence1 emotion1 affliction1 anguish1 etc4 ,but in these1 and innumerable other words1 the primitive physical meaning has become obsolete1 and thus the secondary spiritual meaning is to us literal4 ,or1 what often happens1 while the original physical signification is retained1 a secondary figurative meaning of the word has become so common that its use hardly recalls the physical meaning1 and it may therefore be regarded as literal2 as in the words hard1 harsh1 rough1 when applied to character4 ,in the first of the above examples3 ,it is hard for thee to kick against the pricks1 the transfer of the word hard from what is physically hard to what is painful or difficult1 is so common that it can hardly be regarded as figurative4 ,but the expression that follows is figurative in the fullest sense of the word4 ,rhetoricians divide figures into two general classes1 figures of words1 and figures of thought1 and they give elaborate definitions1 classifications1 and rules for their use4 ,the interpreter of ,scripture1 however1 need not encumber himself with any rhetorical system4 ,the general rules of interpretation already considered will be1 for the most part1 a sufficient guide to the meaning of the rich variety of figures contained in the ,bible1 especially in its poetical parts4 ,it is only necessary to add a few words in reference to the ascertaining of figurative language2 the most prominent classes of figures2 and some principles to be observed in their interpretation4 #b4 ,the question may arise whether a writer is to be understood literally or figuratively4 ,for the ascertaining of figurative language1 a few simple rules will be1 in general1 sufficient4 7#a47 ,multitudes of cases can be decided at once by considering the nature of the subject4 ,thus1 when the apostle calls ,jesus ,christ a foundation1 and speaks of building upon this foundation gold1 silver1 precious stones1 wood1 hay1 stubble1 adding that every man's work shall be revealed by fire2 and the fire shall try every man's work of what sort it is2 and1 further1 that if any man's work abide this fire1 he shall receive a reward1 but if any man's work be burned he shall suffer loss 7#a ,cor4 #c3aa-ae71 we know at once1 from the nature of the subject1 that he speaks figuratively4 ,he compares the church of ,god to a temple1 of which ,jesus ,christ is the foundation1 while her teachers and preachers are the builders4 ,the gold1 silver1 precious stones1 wood1 hay1 stubble1 represent primarily the materials with which they build2 that is1 the character of their doctrines and precepts1 and secondarily1 the character of those whom they bring into the ,christian fold4 ,the fire1 again1 is the trial and judgment of the last day4 ,the apostle says of the ancient ,israelites that they drank of that spiritual ,rock that followed them2 and that ,rock was ,christ4 #a ,cor4 #aj3d4 ,so also ,christ is called to believers a chief corner-stone1 elect1 precious2 but to unbelievers a stone of stumbling and a rock of offence 7#a ,pet4 #b3f-h72 the ,lion of the tribe of ,judah1 the ,root of ,david 7,rev4 #e3e72 the ,lamb of ,god and simply the ,lamb 7,john #a3bi1 #cf2 ,rev4 #e3ab2 #f3a2 etc472 the door of the sheep 7,john #aj3g1 #i72 the true vine 7,john #ae3a72 and the living bread which came down from heaven 7,john #f3ea74 ,he himself says3 ,whoso eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood hath eternal life2 and ,i will raise him up at the last day4 ,john #f3ed4 ,there is no more ground for understanding the last of these passages literally than the preceding1 that is1 there is no ground whatever4 ,the dogma of the ,romish church1 which teaches that the consecrated bread and wine are literally converted into the body and blood of ,jesus1 violates alike sound reason and every sound principle of interpretation4 ,as the words1 ',this is my body1' and ',this is my blood1' were spoken ,,before ,christ's body was broken upon the cross1 and ,,before his blood was shed1 he could not pronounce them with the intention that they should be taken and interpreted literally by his disciples4 ,he could not take his body in his hands1 nor offer them his blood in the cup2 for it had not yet been shed4 ,horne1 vol4 #b1 p4 #cai4 7#b47 ,in ascertaining figurative language1 the interpreter will naturally take into account the scope1 the context1 and the general analogy of scriptural teaching4 ,if the literal sense1 though possible in the nature of things1 is inept or contrary to the general tenor of ,scripture1 it must be rejected4 ,the prophet ,isaiah tells us that1 under the future reign of the ,messiah1 the wolf shall dwell with the lamb1 the leopard lie down with the kid1 the lion eat straw like the ox1 and the child play with impunity on the hole of the asp4 ,isa4 #aa3f-h4 ,it is possible to conceive of this state of things as effected by a change in the physical nature of all noxious animals4 ,but the writer immediately adds3 ,they shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain2 for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the ,lord1 as the waters cover the sea 7ver4 #i74 ,since then the change is effected by the universal diffusion of the knowledge of the ,lord1 it must be a moral change--a transformation of the character of wicked men figuratively described as wolves1 leopards1 bears1 lions1 and vipers4 ,the general analogy of prophetic language1 which1 as will be hereafter shown1 abounds in figurative forms of representation1 strengthens this conclusion4 ,by the prophet ,haggai1 again1 ,god says3 ,yet once1 it is a little while1 and ,i will shake the heavens1 and the earth1 and the sea1 and the dry land4 ,chap4 #b3f4 ,the key to the meaning of these words is given in the following verse3 ,and ,i will shake all nations1 and the ,desire of all nations shall come3 and ,i will fill this house with glory1 saith the ,lord of hosts4 ,in such a connection1 and with such a result1 nothing could be more vapid than to understand this shaking of heaven and earth1 sea and land1 in a physical sense4 ,it is the mighty overturnings among the nations1 social1 moral1 and political1 that are here predicted1 as ,jehovah says by ,ezekiel3 ,i will overturn1 overturn1 overturn it1 and it shall be no more1 until he come whose right it is1 and ,i will give it to him4 ,chap4 #ba3bg4 ,compare ,isa4 #ac3ac2 ,jer4 #d3bd2 ,ezek4 #ch3bj2 ,joel #c3af4 ,so when ,god announces that he will cause the sun to go down at noon1 and darken the earth in the clear day 7,amos #h3i71 we understand at once that under this figure he forewarns the covenant people of the sudden approach of great calamity4 ,compare ,deut4 #bh3bi2 ,job #e3ad2 ,isa4 #ac3aj2 ,jer4 #d3bc-bh2 ,ezek4 #cb3g1 #h2 ,joel #b3ca2 #c3ae2 etc4 ,this subject will be further discussed under the head of the interpretation of prophecy4 ,in the sermon on the mount1 the ,saviour says3 ,whosoever shall smite thee on the right cheek1 turn to him the other also 7,matt4 #e3ci72 but the preceding context gives the scope of this and the other particular precepts that follow1 which is that ,christ's followers should resist not evil1 that is1 by rendering evil for evil4 ,it is the spirit of meekness and forbearance that he inculcates1 not a slavish regard to this and that particular form of manifesting it4 ,so when he says3 ,give to him that asketh of thee1 and from him that would borrow of thee turn not thou away 7ver4 #db71 he cannot mean1 consistently with the scope of the passage and his teachings elsewhere1 that we should stultify ourselves by literally giving to every asker and borrower1 without regard to his necessities1 real or alleged4 ,he means rather to inculcate that liberal spirit which never withholds such help as it is able to give from those who need it4 ,when the ,saviour says again3 ,if thy right eye offend thee1 pluck it out and cast it from thee1 etc41 both the preceding context and the general tenor of the ,scriptures teach us that he means what is expressed by the apostle in another form3 ,mortify1 therefore1 your members which are upon the earth4 ,col4 #c3e4 ,to mortify is to deprive of life1 make dead4 ,we mortify our members which would seduce us into sin1 not by destroying them1 but by keeping them in subjection to the law of the spirit of life in ,christ ,jesus4 7#c47 ,if the interpreter is liable to err by taking figurative language in a literal sense1 so is he also by regarding as figurative what should be understood literally4 ,a favorite expedient with those who deny the supernatural character of revelation is to explain the miraculous transactions recorded in the ,bible as figurative or mythical4 ,when ,david says that in answer to his prayer the earth shook and trembled1 the foundations also of the hills moved and were shaken1 because he was wroth2 that ,god bowed the heavens also and came down1 and darkness was under his feet2 that the ,lord thundered in the heavens1 and the ,highest gave his voice1 hailstones and coals of fire2 that he sent out his arrows and scattered them1 and he shot out lightnings and discomfited them1 all acknowledge that the language is to be figuratively taken4 ,why then1 an objector might ask1 not understand the account of the giving of the law on ,sinai amid thunderings and lightnings as figurative also8 ,the answer of every plain reader would be--and it is the answer of unsophisticated common sense--that the former passage occurs in a lyric poem1 where such figurative descriptions are entirely in place2 the latter in a plain narrative1 which professes to give throughout historic facts with names and dates2 that no reader1 who had not a preconceived opinion to maintain1 ever did or could think of interpreting the passage in ,exodus in any other than a literal way1 while every reader understands at once that the poetic description in the eighteenth psalm is to be taken figuratively4 ,the attempt has been made to interpret the gospel history as a myth--the embodiment of a system of pure ideas in the garb of history4 ,it is difficult to refute an assumption which has no foundation to rest upon4 ,this mythical theory may1 nevertheless1 be disposed of in a very short and simple way4 ,the great central truth of the gospel history is the death and resurrection of ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,if any one would know how the apostle ,paul regarded this1 let him read the fifteenth chapter of the first epistle to the ,corinthians1 where he pledges his veracity as a witness on its historic reality 7ver4 #ae74 ,if1 now1 ,paul so regarded it1 ,luke1 his companion in travel and labor1 cannot have taken a different view of it1 nor any other of the evangelists4 ,but if the death and resurrection of ,jesus are recorded as true historic events1 the whole mythical theory vanishes at once into thin air4 7#d47 ,in regard to those prophecies which relate to the distant future1 it may sometimes be difficult to determine whether we are to look for a literal or a figurative fulfilment of them4 ,but this subject will come up for consideration in another place4 #c4 ,in regard to the different kinds of figures a few words may be in place4 7#a47 ,the term trope 7,greek1 tropos1 a turn7 is applied1 in a general sense1 to figures of words and speech of every variety2 but1 in stricter usage1 to a word or sentence turned from its literal signification to a figurative sense4 ,quintilian adds 7,inst4 ,orator4 #h4 #f4 #a7 that this must be with good effect 7cum virtute72 that is1 it must add clearness1 force1 or beauty to the thought4 ,the principal varieties of the trope are the metonymy and the metaphor4 ,the metonymy is founded on the relation of one thing to another4 ,thus when ,abraham says to the rich man3 ,they have ,moses and the prophets1 let them hear them 7,luke #af3bi71 ,moses and the prophets are put for their writings2 that is1 the authors for their works4 ,a soft tongue1 says the wise man1 breaketh the bone4 ,prov4 #be3ae4 ,here the word tongue is put for speech1 the instrument for the thing effected1 and this metonymy is joined with a metaphor4 7,see below47 ,the synecdoche1 in which a part is put for the whole1 as the sword for war1 is in its nature essentially a metonymy4 ,rhetoricians give elaborate classifications of metonymies1 but they are of little value to the scriptural student1 since all are interpreted according to the few simple principles given in the preceding chapter4 ,the metaphor is founded on the resemblance of one thing to another2 as in the examples already given3 ,the ,lord ,god is a sun and shield 7,psa4 #hd3aa72 ,i am the true vine and my ,father is the husbandman4 ,john #ae3a4 ,it may lie not in a single word1 but in an entire expression1 thus3 ,it is hard for thee to kick against the pricks 7,acts #bf3ad72 ,i counsel thee to buy of me gold tried in the fire1 that thou mayest be rich2 and white raiment1 that thou mayest be clothed1 and that the shame of thy nakedness do not appear2 and anoint thine eyes with eye-salve1 that thou mayest see4 ,rev4 #c3ah4 ,the metaphor and metonymy may be joined1 as in the words already quoted3 ,a soft tongue breaketh the bone2 or they may blend themselves with each other1 as when ,nahum says of the princes of ,nineveh3 ,the sword shall devour thy young lions4 ,chap4 #b3ac4 ,in this last example1 as often elsewhere1 personification1 which is properly a figure of thought1 is added1 the sword being represented as a beast of prey4 ,the grand and gorgeous personifications of ,scripture naturally clothe themselves in tropical language of inimitable beauty and exhaustless variety4 ,o thou sword of the ,lord1 says ,jeremiah1 how long will it be ere thou be quiet8 put up thyself into thy scabbard1 rest1 and be still4 ,how can it be quiet1 seeing the ,lord hath given it a charge against ,ashkelon1 and against the sea-shore8 ,there hath he appointed it4 ,chap4 #dg3f1 #g4 ,the prophet ,habakkuk represents ,god as coming forth in his glory for the salvation of his people3 ,the mountains saw thee1 says he1 and they trembled3 the overflowing of the water passed by3 the deep uttered his voice1 and lifted up his hands on high3 the sun and moon stood still in their habitation4 ,chap4 #c3aj1 #aa4 ,god's promise to his redeemed is3 ,ye shall go out with joy1 and be led forth with peace3 the mountains and the hills shall break forth before you into singing1 and all the trees of the field shall clap their hands4 ,isa4 #ee3ab4 ,metonymies1 metaphors1 and sometimes personifications--the books of the ,new ,testament sparkle with these figures1 and they are used always for effect1 not empty show4 ,they are like the flaming bolts of heaven1 which rend and burn as well as shine4 ,beware of false prophets1 says the ,saviour1 which come to you in sheep's clothing1 but inwardly they are ravening wolves4 ,ye shall know them by their fruits3 do men gather grapes of thorns or figs of thistles8 ,matt4 #g3ae1 #af4 ,how effectually does he by these metaphors strip off the mask from false teachers6 ,if the foot shall say1 ,because ,i am not the hand1 ,i am not of the body2 is it therefore not of the body8 ,and if the ear shall say1 ,because ,i am not the eye1 ,i am not of the body2 is it therefore not of the body8 #a ,cor4 #ab3ae1 #af4 ,here is personification without a trope4 ,o death1 where is thy sting8 ,o grave1 where is thy victory8 7#a ,cor4 #ae3ee71 here is a majestic personification in metaphorical form4 ,as resemblance lies at the foundation of the metaphor1 it may be called an abbreviated form of comparison1 the thing with which the comparison is made being directly predicated of that which is compared4 ,thus1 when we say3 ,a sluggard is vinegar to the teeth and smoke to the eyes of those who send him1 we have a metaphor1 the sluggard being directly called vinegar and smoke4 ,but if we say3 ,as vinegar to the teeth1 and as smoke to the eyes1 so is the sluggard to them that send him 7,prov4 #aj3bf71 we have a comparison1 and the language ceases to be tropical4 ,the metaphor is thus a more vivid form of expression than the comparison4 ,a common mode of comparison in the book of ,proverbs is simply to put together the object compared and the thing or things with which it is compared1 thus3 ,a whip for the horse1 a bridle for the ass1 and a rod for the fool's back 7chap4 #bf3c72 that is1 ,as a whip is appropriate for1 the horse1 and a bridle for the ass1 so is a rod for the fool's back4 ,again1 ,where there is no wood the fire goeth out1 and where there is no tale-bearer the strife ceaseth 7,prov4 #bf3bj72 ,charcoal to live coals1 and wood to fire2 and a man of strife to kindle strife 7,prov4 #bf3 #ba72 ,silver dross spread over an earthen sherd--burning lips lips glowing with professions of love and a wicked heart 7,prov4 #bf3 #bc72 in all which cases our version has supplied particles of comparison4 7#b47 ,an allegory is the narrative of a spiritual transaction under the figure of something lower and earthly1 the lower transaction representing directly the higher4 ,we have in the eightieth ,psalm an exquisite example of the allegory3 ,thou hast brought a vine out of ,egypt3 thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it4 ,thou preparedst room before it1 and didst cause it to take deep root1 and it filled the land4 ,the hills were covered with the shadow of it1 etc4 7ver4 #h-af72 where the transfer of the ,israelitish people from ,egypt to the land of ,canaan1 with their subsequent history1 is described under the figure of a vine4 ,the metaphor and allegory have this in common1 that the foundation of both is resemblance1 and in both the lower object is put directly for the higher4 ,yet the metaphor cannot be properly called a condensed allegory1 nor the allegory an extended metaphor2 for it is essential to the allegory that it have the form of a narrative1 and that it contain real history--in the case of prophecy it may be future history--under a figure4 ,hence it admits of indefinite extension1 as in the ,pilgrim's ,progress2 and we may add the ,canticles1 which the ,christian church from the earliest times has regarded as an allegory of which the subject is1 in ,old ,testament language1 ,god and his covenant people1 but1 according to the representation of the ,new ,testament1 ,christ and his church4 ,we must carefully distinguish between true allegory and the allegorical or mystical application of real history4 ,in the former case it is not the literal meaning1 but the higher sense represented by it1 which constitutes the historic truth4 ,god1 for example1 never transferred a vine from ,egypt to ,palestine1 but he did the covenant people4 ,the story of ,sarai and ,hagar1 on the contrary 7,gen41 chap4 #af71 is true history4 ,the apostle ,paul makes an allegorical application of it to the two covenants1 that on ,sinai and that in ,christ1 which is very beautiful and appropriate2 yet the story itself is not allegory1 but plain history4 ,see further1 in ,chap4 #cg1 ,no4 #d4 7#c47 ,a parable is the narrative of a supposed event for the purpose of illustrating a spiritual truth or principle4 ,the office of the narrative is to embody the principle4 ,it should1 therefore1 be natural and probable2 but its literal truth is of no consequence4 ,in our ,lord's parable of the unjust steward1 for example 7,luke #af3a-i71 the incidents of the narrative may or may not have been historically true2 but either way the great principle which it illustrates 7ver4 #aj7 remains the same4 ,allegories and parables pass into each other by insensible degrees4 ,some of our ,lord's so-called parables are rather allegories2 as that of the vineyard let out to husbandmen 7,matt4 #ba3cc-da71 which is founded on the beautiful allegory of ,isaiah 7chap4 #e3a-g72 so also that of the good shepherd 7,john #aj3a-ah74 ,in their pure form1 however1 the allegory and the parable are easily distinguished from each other4 ,in the allegory1 the figure represents directly the higher transaction4 ,hence the incidents introduced in the figure--at least all the main incidents--must have something corresponding to them in the spiritual transaction which the figure represents4 ,the case of the parable is different4 ,here the spiritual truth is not directly described in terms of the figure1 but simply illustrated from it4 ,the incidents and characters of the story are separable from the general principle which it inculcates1 and are sometimes formally separated by the speaker himself2 as when our ,lord says3 ,the kingdom of heaven is likened unto a man which sowed good seed in his field1 etc4 ,matt4 #ac3bd4 ,for this reason they may belong more or less to the mere drapery of the parable1 so that to press them in its interpretation would lead to error instead of truth4 ,see further below1 ,no4 #g4 7#d47 ,the fable is related to the parable1 but it differs from it in two respects4 ,first1 it moves in a worldly sphere1 having to do with prudential maxims rather than spiritual truth4 ,secondly1 it allows1 in harmony with this its lower nature1 irrational objects as speakers and actors1 which would be contrary to the dignity of the parable4 ,our ,lord never employed fables as vehicles of instruction4 ,there are two examples of them in the ,old ,testament2 neither of them1 however1 coming from the lips of prophetical men4 ,the first is that of ,jotham3 ,the trees went forth on a time to anoint a king over them2 and they said unto the olive-tree1 ,reign thou over us1 etc4 ,judg4 #i3h-ae4 ,the second is that of ,jehoash3 ,the thistle that was in ,lebanon sent to the cedar that was in ,lebanon1 saying1 ,give thy daughter to my son to wife3 and there passed by a wild beast that was in ,lebanon1 and trode down the thistle4 #b ,kings #ad3i4 7#e47 ,a symbol is a material object1 a transaction in the material world1 or sometimes a number1 to represent some higher spiritual truth4 ,ritual symbols1 like the ark of the covenant1 the high-priest's dress1 the sacrifices1 and1 in general1 the whole tabernacle and temple service1 will be considered hereafter under the head of types4 ,we speak of symbols now1 only so far as they belong to the human side of interpretation4 ,we have a beautiful example of a symbolic transaction in the seventeenth chapter of the book of ,numbers1 where the princes of ,israel1 by ,god's direction1 take twelve rods1 write each man his name upon his rod1 and lay them up in the tabernacle before the ,lord1 whereupon ,aaron's rod budded1 and brought forth buds1 and blossomed blossoms1 and yielded almonds2 a symbol that ,god would make the priesthood to flourish in his family4 ,scriptural symbols exhibit a wonderful variety4 ,sometimes they are seen in dreams1 as in ,jacob's dream of a ladder reaching to heaven 7,gen4 #bh3ab-ae72 ,pharaoh's two dreams of the fat and lean kine1 and the good and thin ears 7,gen4 #da3a-g72 or in prophetic vision1 like ,jeremiah's vision of a seething pot with the face towards the north 7,jer4 #a3ac72 ,ezekiel's vision of the cherubim 7chap4 #a72 and ,amos' vision of a basket of summer fruit 7chap4 #h3b74 ,at other times they are actual transactions4 ,so the false prophet ,zedekiah made him horns of iron3 and he said1 ,thus saith the ,lord1 with these shalt thou push the ,syrians till thou have consumed them 7#a ,kings #bb3aa72 the true prophet ,jeremiah wore a yoke upon his neck as a sign that ,god would subject the nations to ,nebuchadnezzar's power1 and the false prophet ,hananiah broke it1 that he might thus signify the deliverance of the people from ,nebuchadnezzar's rule4 ,jer4 #bg3a-h1 compared with #bh3aj1 #aa4 7#f47 ,a proverb is a short maxim relating to practical life4 ,it may be expressed literally or figuratively1 but in either case it must contain a general truth4 ,a scorner loveth not one that reproveth him2 neither will he go unto the wise 7,prov4 #ae3ab71 is a proverb expressed in plain language4 ,the name of the ,lord is a strong tower3 the righteous runneth into it1 and is safe 7,prov4 #ah3aj71 is a proverb under a beautiful figure4 ,the foolish young men counselled ,rehoboam to say to the ,israelites3 ,my little finger shall be thicker than my father's loins4 #a ,kings #ab3aj4 ,this is not a proverb1 because it contains only the figurative statement of a particular fact4 ,but if we change the form1 and say3 ,the little finger of a foolish ruler is thicker than the loins of a wise king1 we make it general1 and thus it becomes a proverb4 ,the ,hebrew word for a proverb 7mashal7 denotes a similitude1 this being one of its most common forms4 ,examples occur in abundance in the book of ,proverbs4 ,we have them in the form of direct comparison3 ,as in water face answereth to face1 so the heart of man to man 7chap4 #bg3ai72 ,a continual dropping in a very rainy day and a contentious woman are alike 7chap4 #bg3ae72 ,better is a dinner of herbs where love is1 than a stalled ox and hatred therewith 7chap4 #ae3ag74 ,we have them also in the form of metaphor3 ,the contentions of a wife are a continual dropping 7chap4 #ai3ac72 ,the lips of knowledge are a precious jewel 7chap4 #bj3ae74 ,but most frequently the comparison appears in the form of contrast1 thus3 ,a wise son heareth his father's instruction2 but a scorner heareth not rebuke 7chap4 #ac3a72 ,a faithful witness will not lie2 but a false witness will utter lies 7chap4 #ad3e74 ,the signification of the word proverb is then extended to short sententious maxims of every form1 even where comparison is excluded1 thus3 ,a wicked man taketh a gift out of the bosom to pervert the ways of judgment 7chap4 #ag3bc74 7#g47 ,the word myth 7,greek muthos7 was applied by the ,greeks to a legend or story of early times1 then to a fable1 like those of ,a,esop4 ,in modern usage it is defined to be a story in which there is an unconscious blending of the deeper meaning with the outward symbol1 the two being separate and separable in the parable4 ,the mythic narrative presents itself not merely as the vehicle of the truth1 but as itself being the truth2 while in the parable there is a perfect consciousness in all minds of the distinctness between form and essence1 shell and kernel1 the precious vessel and yet more precious wine that it contains4 ,trench1 ,notes on the ,parables1 chap4 #a4 ,a good illustration of this we have in the tales of ,grecian mythology1 once received by the masses of the people as literally true2 but which a later and more reflective age than that in which the mythus had birth learned to regard as only the vehicle of certain ideas respecting deity4 ,the myth1 as thus defined1 does not come within the sphere of biblical interpretation4 ,the historic events recorded in the ,old ,testament may1 and often do1 shadow forth something higher4 ,in that case they are not myths1 but typical history4 ,chap4 #cg1 ,no4 #d4 ,all the scriptural narratives1 on the contrary1 which are true1 not in their literal meaning1 but in a higher sense1 come under the head of allegories1 parables1 or symbolic representations4 #d4 ,in the interpretation of figurative language we must be guided1 in general1 by the principles considered in the preceding chapter4 ,to lay down special rules for the interpretation of the rich and endlessly varied figures which adorn the pages of ,holy ,writ would be as impracticable as useless4 ,the history of ,biblical exegesis1 however1 shows that some general cautions are much needed4 #e4 ,the youthful student of ,scripture should be reminded1 first of all1 that its figurative language is no less certain and truthful than its plain and literal declarations4 ,the figures of the ,bible are employed not simply to please the imagination and excite the feelings1 but to teach eternal verities4 ,the ,lord ,jesus1 the faithful and true ,witness1 said3 ,heaven and earth shall pass away3 but my words shall not pass away4 ,mark #ac3ca4 ,yet there is a class of interpreters who seem to think that if they can show in any given case that his language is figurative1 its meaning is well nigh divested of all certainty and reality4 ,thrice in immediate succession did he solemnly warn his hearers to cut off an offending hand or foot1 and to pluck out an offending eye1 rather than be cast with the whole body into hell1 into the fire that never shall be quenched3 where their worm dieth not1 and the fire is not quenched4 ,mark #i3dc-dh4 ,but1 says one of this class of expositors1 the maiming of the body is figurative language1 and so is the representation of the worm that never dies4 ,undoubtedly the maiming of the body is so2 and how far the unquenchable fire may also be a figure for the dread reality that awaits the incorrigibly impenitent in the world to come we pretend not to know4 ,but in the lips of ,jesus figures teach truth1 not fiction4 ,the unhappy sinner who despises the grace of the gospel will find the reality not less terrible than the figures by which ,christ has represented it4 ,the story of the rich man and ,lazarus is a parable2 but we cannot on this ground set aside the solemn lessons which it inculcates4 ,what these lessons are1 it requires only candor and faith to receive4 ,they teach us that ,god's suffering children go immediately1 upon death1 to a state of conscious blessedness2 and the men of the world1 which have their portion in this life1 to a place of unmitigated suffering4 ,whatever be the comprehension of the word ,hades 7rendered in our version by the word hell71 there is an impassable gulf between ,lazarus in ,abraham's bosom and the rich man in torment4 ,the great gulf fixed may be a figure2 but it represents an awful reality2 and that reality is1 that there is no transition from the one state to the other4 #f4 ,in the allegory the higher spiritual transaction is1 as we have seen1 directly represented by the lower4 ,when we know1 therefore1 what the allegory represents1 we have the key to its interpretation1 and all its incidents fall naturally into place4 ,if the sphere of the allegory be the outward history of ,god's people1 all its incidents--at least all its main incidents--ought to have a significance4 ,if its sphere be that of inward spiritual experience1 as in the ,song of ,solomon1 more latitude must be allowed for the drapery of the story2 yet here also the essential parts will each correspond to something in the higher object represented4 ,an example of pure historic allegory is that of the vine transplanted from ,egypt 7,psa4 #hj71 where the higher object1 which gives the key to the meaning1 is ,god's covenant people4 ,the casting out of the heathen 7ver4 #h71 is literally expressed1 but in the verses following1 the figure is beautifully carried out4 ,this vine takes deep root and fills the land2 the hills are covered with its shadow1 and its boughs are like the goodly cedar2 it sends out its boughs to the sea1 and its branches to the river 7ver4 #i-aa74 ,here we have one main incident1 the increase of the people in the land of ,canaan4 ,then ,god breaks down its hedges1 so that every passer-by plucks it2 the boar out of the wood wastes it1 and the wild beast of the field devours it 7ver4 #ab1 #ac74 ,this is another main incident1 the withdrawal of ,god's protection from his people1 and their oppression by their heathen neighbors4 ,the prayer that follows in behalf of this vine 7ver4 #ad-af7 represents the love which ,god's people bear to his church4 ,all these parts of the allegory have their proper significance4 ,the rest of the imagery--the hills overshadowed by it1 the boughs like the goodly cedar1 the wild boar wasting it1 etc4--is but the drapery of the allegory2 and an attempt to find a spiritual meaning for each of these particulars--the boar out of the wood1 for example1 and the beast of the field--would but mar its beauty and force4 ,we give from ,ezekiel 7chap4 #ag3c-aj7 another example of historic allegory1 in which the essential parts can be readily distinguished from the luxuriant imagery of the prophet3 ,a great eagle with great wings1 long-winged1 full of feathers1 which had divers colors ,nebuchadnezzar1 came unto ,lebanon1 and took the highest branch of the cedar ,jehoiachin1 whom ,nebuchadnezzar dethroned and carried to ,babylon4 ,the cedar of ,lebanon represents the royal family1 and ,jehoiachin1 as the reigning monarch1 its highest branch3 he cropped off the top of his young twigs the same as3 he took the highest branch of the cedar1 and carried it into a land of traffic ,chaldea2 he set it in a city of merchants ,babylon4 ,he took also of the seed of the land the king's seed1 meaning ,zedekiah1 whom ,nebuchadnezzar made king in the place of ,jehoiachin1 and planted it in a fruitful field2 he placed it by great waters1 and set it as a willow-tree established ,zedekiah on the throne1 and gave him the means of prosperity as his vassal4 ,and it grew1 and became a spreading vine of low stature not a lofty cedar1 but a low vine2 that is1 a tributary king1 whose branches turned towards him towards ,nebuchadnezzar1 as dependent upon him1 and the roots thereof were under him under ,nebuchadnezzar1 as subject to his power3 so it became a vine1 and brought forth branches1 and shot forth twigs4 ,there was also another great eagle with great wings and many feathers ,pharaoh1 king of ,egypt3 and behold this vine did bend her roots towards him ,zedekiah turned away his confidence from ,nebuchadnezzar to ,pharaoh1 and shot forth her branches towards him1 that he might water it by the furrows of her plantation4 ,it was planted had been planted by ,nebuchadnezzar in a good soil by great waters1 that it might bring forth branches1 and that it might bear fruit1 that it might be a goodly vine fidelity to ,nebuchadnezzar would have made ,zedekiah prosperous4 ,say thou1 ,thus saith the ,lord ,god3 ,shall it prosper8 now that it bends towards the second eagle shall he ,nebuchadnezzar not pull up the roots thereof1 that it wither8 ,it shall wither in all the leaves of her spring1 even without great power or many people to pluck it up by the roots thereof the work of plucking it up will be easy1 not requiring a numerous force4 ,yea1 behold1 being planted shall it prosper8 shall it not utterly wither when the east wind toucheth it8 a new figure to represent its destruction it shall wither in the furrows where it grew4 ,there is a class of allegories in the ,old ,testament which represent the relation of ,god to his people under the figure of husband and wife4 ,such are the ,song of ,solomon1 and the two remarkable allegories in ,ezekiel 7chapters #af and #bc74 ,the luxuriant fulness of imagery in these allegories does not admit of interpretation in detail4 ,the general scope only of the images is to be taken into account1 since this contains the essential idea4 ,in the free style of the scriptural writers the allegory admits of the introduction of literal clauses 7,thou hast cast out the heathen1 and planted it1 ,psa4 #hj3h71 and also of explanatory clauses1 though not so readily as the parable4 ,see examples in ,isa4 #e3g2 ,john #aj3i1 #aa1 #ad4 #g4 ,the scriptural parables have a rich variety of form1 sometimes approaching to that of the allegory1 when the interpretation must be upon the same general principle4 ,in its pure form1 however1 the parable does not1 like the allegory1 represent directly the higher spiritual truth1 but is simply a narrative to illustrate it4 ,it may be introduced in the absolute form1 like the parable of the barren fig-tree 7,luke #ac3f-i72 or1 more commonly1 in the shape of a similitude1 thus3 ,the kingdom of heaven is likened unto a man which sowed good seed in his field 7,matt4 #ac3bd72 ,whereunto shall we liken the kingdom of ,god8 or with what comparison shall we compare it8 ,mark #d3cj4 ,it may be left without explanation1 but more commonly an explanatory remark is added4 ,so to the parable of the two sons whom the father asked to work in his vineyard is added the application3 ,verily ,i say unto you1 that the publicans and the harlots go into the kingdom of ,god before you 7,matt4 #ba3bh-ca72 and the parable of the ,pharisee and publican is both introduced and followed by an explanatory clause 7,luke #ah3i-ad74 ,all such clauses are of the highest importance for the interpretation of the parables to which they are annexed4 ,in the interpretation of a parable1 the first and most important thing is to ascertain the spiritual truth which it is intended to inculcate4 ,how far a spiritual significance is to be sought for the particular incidents of parables is a question to be determined separately for each1 according to its nature4 ,in the parable of the sower1 which our ,lord himself interpreted 7,matt4 #ac3c-h1 #ai-bc71 all the parts are essential1 since the four different kinds of soil represent four different classes of hearers4 ,so in the parable of the tares in the field 7,matt4 #ac3bd-cj1 #cg-dc71 the good seed sown by the owner of the field1 the tares sown by his enemy1 the separation1 at the time of harvest1 of the tares from the wheat1 the burning of the tares1 and the gathering of the wheat into the barn1 are all main incidents in its spiritual application4 ,not so in the parable of the ten virgins 7,matt4 #be3a-ac71 of which our ,lord himself has given the scope1 and1 so far as we can see the only scope3 ,watch1 therefore1 for ye know neither the day nor the hour wherein the ,son of man cometh4 ,if we go farther1 and inquire what is the spiritual meaning of the lamps and oil-vessels1 of the equal division of the virgins into five wise and five foolish1 of the request of the foolish virgins that the wise would give them oil1 and the answer of the wise virgins1 we run into useless speculations4 ,all these particulars belong to the drapery of the parable1 and are intended to make the story natural and probable4 ,in the pure form of the parable1 the personages introduced to illustrate ,god's ways of providence and grace do not1 as in the allegory1 directly represent ,god himself4 ,it is not necessary1 therefore1 that there be in all cases a correspondence between their character and that of the holy ,god4 ,it is sufficient if the words and deeds ascribed to them truly illustrate the spiritual principle in question4 ,in the parable of the unforgiving servant 7,matt4 #ah3bc-ce71 his lord commanded him to be sold1 and his wife and children1 and all that he had1 and payment to be made 7ver4 #be72 and afterwards he was wroth1 and delivered him to the tormentors1 till he should pay all that was due unto him 7ver4 #cd74 ,we need not trouble ourselves about the reasonableness of these acts on the part of an earthly lord4 ,it is sufficient for the end of the parable that they were in accordance with the usages of the age1 and thus illustrated the great truth which the parable was intended to enforce3 ,so likewise shall my heavenly ,father do also unto you1 if ye from your hearts forgive not every one his brother their trespasses 7ver4 #ce74 ,we have still more forcible illustrations of this principle in such parables as those of the importunate friend 7,luke #aa3e-h71 the unjust judge 7,luke #ah3a-h71 and the unfaithful steward 7,luke #af3a-i74 ,the ,saviour does not compare ,god to an indolent friend1 who will not arise to accommodate his neighbor with bread till he is forced to do so by his importunity2 nor to an unjust judge1 who fears not ,god nor regards men4 ,but he draws illustrations from their conduct of the efficacy of importunate prayer2 adding1 at the conclusion of each parable1 its scope3 ,and ,i say unto you1 ,ask1 and it shall be given you2 seek1 and ye shall find2 knock1 and it shall be opened unto you 7,luke #aa3i72 ,and shall not ,god avenge his own elect1 which cry day and night unto him1 though he bear long with them8 ,luke #ah3g4 ,in the parable of the unfaithful steward1 our ,lord introduces a fraudulent transaction--a transaction so manifestly fraudulent that there is no danger of our thinking that it could have his approbation--that he may thus illustrate the importance of prudent provision for the future4 ,by allowing each of his lord's debtors to diminish the amount due from him1 he gains their favor1 that in time of need he may be received into their houses4 ,for the right apprehension of the parable1 the words of the eighth verse are of primary importance3 ,and the lord the master of the steward commended the unjust steward1 because he had done wisely prudently1 as the ,greek word means4 ,unjust as the steward's conduct was1 he could not but commend it as a prudent transaction for the end which he had in view4 ,our ,saviour adds3 ,for the children of this world are in their generation more exactly1 towards or in respect to their own generation2 that is1 in dealing with men of their own sort wiser than the children of light4 ,the steward and his lord's debtors were all children of this world1 and the transaction between them was conducted upon worldly principles4 ,our ,saviour would have the children of light--,god's holy children1 who live and act in the sphere of heavenly light--provident of their everlasting welfare in the use which they make of this world's goods1 as this steward was of his earthly welfare when he should be put out of his stewardship4 ,he accordingly adds1 as the scope of the parable 7ver4 #i73 ,make to yourselves friends of by the right use of the mammon of unrighteousness so called as being with unrighteous men the great object of pursuit1 and too commonly sought1 moreover1 by unrighteous means2 that when ye fail are discharged from your stewardship by death1 they may receive you that is1 the friends whom ye have made by bestowing your earthly riches in deeds of love and mercy into everlasting habitations4 ,our ,lord uses the words1 they may receive you1 in allusion to the steward's language3 they may receive me into their houses4 ,they do not receive us by any right or authority of their own1 for this belongs to ,christ alone2 but they receive us in the sense that they bear witness before the throne of ,christ to our deeds of love and mercy1 by which is manifested the reality of our faith1 and thus our title1 through grace1 to everlasting habitations4 ,compare the remarkable passage in ,matt4 #be3cd-df1 which furnishes a true key to the present parable4 #h4 ,to determine whether a symbol is a real transaction or seen only in vision1 we must consider both its nature and the context4 ,when ,ezekiel1 at ,god's command1 visits the temple-court1 digs in its wall1 and sees the abominations practised there 7chap4 #h71 we know from his own words 7ver4 #c7 that the whole transaction was in the visions of ,god4 ,so also the remarkable vision of dry bones4 ,chap4 #cg3a-ad4 ,but the symbolical action that follows--the joining of two sticks into one--seems to be represented as real2 for the people ask concerning it3 ,wilt thou not tell us what thou meanest by these8 7ver4 #ah71 and the two sticks are in the prophet's hand before their eyes 7ver4 #bj74 ,the nature of the symbolical transaction recorded in ,jer4 #cb3f-ab--the purchase of ,hanameel's field--with the accompanying historical circumstances1 shows that it was real4 ,from the nature of the vision of the chariot of ,god1 on the contrary1 which ,ezekiel saw 7chap4 #a3aj71 as well as from the accompanying notices 7chaps4 #a3a2 #h3a-d71 we know that it was represented to the prophet's inner sense1 not seen with his outward eyes4 ,the moral character of the transactions recorded by ,hosea 7chaps4 #a-c7 has led commentators to decide against their literal occurrence4 ,in some cases we must remain in doubt whether the symbolical transactions are real or seen in vision4 ,how are we to understand1 for example1 the transactions recorded in ,isa4 chap4 #bj2 in ,jer4 chap4 #ac3a-aa2 in ,ezek4 chap4 #d8 ,concerning such examples expositors will judge differently2 but in either way of understanding them1 their meaning and the instructions which they furnish are the same4 ,the subject of symbols will come up again in connection with that of prophecy4 ,at present we consider simply the general principles upon which they are to be interpreted4 ,here we are to be guided first of all by the writer's own explanations4 ,where these are wanting we must carefully study the nature of the figures used1 and the connections in which they occur4 ,the sacred writers very commonly indicate the meaning of the symbols which they employ4 ,thus the prophet ,isaiah is directed to loose the sackcloth from his loins1 and put off his shoe from his foot1 walking naked and barefoot4 ,chap4 #bj3b4 ,then follows the explanation of this symbolical transaction3 ,like as my servant ,isaiah hath walked naked and barefoot three years for a sign and wonder upon ,egypt and ,ethiopia2 so shall the king of ,assyria lead away the ,egyptians prisoners1 and the ,ethiopians captives1 young and old1 naked and barefoot1 etc4 7ver4 #c1 #d74 ,for other examples see the symbol of the girdle 7,jer4 #ac3a-g compared with ver4 #h-aa72 of the purchase of ,hanameel's field 7,jer4 #cb3f-ab compared with ver4 #ac-ae72 of the removal of household stuff 7,ezek4 #ab3c-g compared with ver4 #h-ab72 of the plumb-line 7,amos #g3g1 #h72 of the four horns and four smiths 7,zech4 #a3ah-ba72 and many other symbolical transactions which will readily occur to the student of ,scripture4 ,but sometimes the symbol is given without an explanation1 or with only an obscure intimation of its meaning4 ,the prophet ,amos has a vision of grasshoppers1 and afterwards of a devouring fire1 with only a general intimation that they denote heavy calamities1 which the ,lord in his pity will avert in answer to prayer4 ,amos #g3a-f4 ,here the nature of the symbols1 in connection with the known situation of the ,israelitish people1 shows that they represent the general desolation of the land by foreign enemies4 ,the prophet ,ezekiel adds no interpretation to his vision of the ,lord enthroned in glory upon the firmament above the chariot with four cherubim and four living wheels full of eyes1 in the midst of which a bright fire glows and lightnings blaze4 ,chaps4 #a1 #aj4 ,from a careful study of the nature of this magnificent imagery we may infer with probability that the cherubim with their wheels1 moving every way with the rapidity of a flash of lightning1 denote all the agencies and instrumentalities by which ,god administers his government over the world1 which are absolutely at his command1 and execute with unerring certainty all his high purposes4 ,the four faces of the cherubim1 moreover1 which answer to the four principal divisions of living beings among the ,hebrews1 seem to represent the fulness of their endowments4 ,the meaning of ,ezekiel's vision of a ,new ,jerusalem1 with its temple and altar1 comes more properly under the head of prophecy4 ,some of the symbols in the book of ,zechariah are expounded with beautiful clearness1 as that of the two olive-trees4 ,chap4 #d3a-aj4 ,of others the meaning is only hinted at in an enigmatical way2 so that their interpretation is a matter of great difficulty and uncertainty4 ,as examples we may refer to the symbol of the ephah 7chap4 #e3e-aa72 of the four chariots coming out from between two mountains of brass with horses of different colors 7chap4 #f3a-i72 of the two staves1 ,beauty and ,bands1 with which the prophet in vision is commanded to feed the flock of the slaughter1 and which he is afterwards to break 7chap4 #aa3d-ad74 ,for the details in the interpretation of these and other difficult symbols the reader must be referred to the commentaries4 ,our limits will only allow us to indicate the general principles upon which the expositor must proceed4 #i4 ,there is a class of scriptural symbols which may be called numerical4 ,thus seven is the well-known symbol of completeness1 four of universality1 twelve of ,god's people4 ,see ,chap4 #cb1 ,no4 #e4 ,under this head fall also those passages in which a day is put for a year1 or for an indefinitely long period of time4 ,one of the most certain examples is ,daniel's prophecy of the seventy weeks that were to precede the death of the ,messiah 7chap4 #i3bd-bg71 for the details of which the reader is referred to the commentators4 ,upon the same principle we must1 in all probability1 interpret the time and times and dividing of time1 that is1 three and a half years 7,dan4 #g3be72 the forty and two months 7,rev4 #aa3b2 #ac3e72 and the thousand two hundred and threescore days 7,rev4 #aa3c2 #ab3f74 ,compare ,ezekiel #d3d-h1 in which symbolical transaction a day is expressly put as the symbol of a year4 ,on the symbolical interpretation of the six days of creation1 see in ,chap4 #ai1 ,no4 #f4 ,,second ,,division4 ,,interpretation ,,viewed ,,on ,,the ,,divine ,,side 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,the ,,unity ,,of ,,revelation4 #a4 ,known unto ,god are all his works from the beginning of the world2 and therefore they constitute together a self-consistent whole4 ,to receive the ,holy ,scriptures as containing a revelation from ,god is to acknowledge that they possess an essential and all-pervading unity4 ,whoever speaks timidly and hesitatingly of the essential harmony between the ,old ,testament and the ,new1 either refuses to acknowledge both as given by inspiration of ,god1 or he apprehends this great fundamental truth only in a confused and imperfect manner4 ,if ,god spake by ,moses and the prophets1 as well as by ,christ and his apostles1 it is vain to allege any contradiction in doctrine or spirit between the former and the latter4 ,so absolutely certain is it that the ,saviour and his apostles built on the foundation of the ,old ,testament1 that to deny its divine authority is to deny that of the ,new ,testament also4 #b4 ,but the unity of revelation1 like that which pervades all the other works of ,god1 is a unity in the midst of diversity--diversity in its contemporaneous parts1 but especially in its progress4 ,illustrations without number are at hand4 ,the history of a plant of wheat1 from the time when the kernel is sown in the earth to the harvest1 has perfect unity of plan4 ,but how unlike in outward form are the tender blade1 the green stalk1 and the ripened ear6 ,the year constitutes a self-consistent whole4 ,but can any thing be more dissimilar in form than spring and autumn8 ,yet no one thinks of finding a want of harmony between the fragrant blossoms of the former1 and the ripened fruit of the latter4 ,the path to the harvest lies through the blossoms4 ,geologists dwell at great length on the varied conditions through which our planet has passed1 and the wonderfully diversified forms of vegetable and animal life corresponding to these several conditions4 ,yet in this endless diversity of outward form they recognize from first to last a deep underlying unity of plan4 ,we might1 then1 reasonably infer beforehand that if ,god should make a revelation of himself to men1 it would have not only unity but diversity of outward form1 especially diversity of progress4 ,the fact that the revelation contained in the ,bible has such diversity is one of the seals of its genuineness4 #c4 ,we may consider this unity in diversity in respect to the form of ,god's kingdom4 ,from ,adam to ,abraham ,god administered the affairs of the human family as a whole1 without any visible organization of a church as distinct from the world at large4 ,from ,abraham to ,moses his church--using the term church in a general sense--existed in a patriarchal form4 ,with the beginning of the ,mosaic dispensation he put it into the form of a state1 of which he was the supreme head and lawgiver1 while its earthly rulers exercised under him all the functions of civil offices1 the bearing of the sword included4 ,when ,christ came1 he separated the church from the state1 and gave it its present spiritual and universal organization4 ,in all this diversity of outward form we recognize the progress of one grand self-consistent plan4 #d4 ,we may now go back again to the beginning1 and consider the diversity in the forms of public worship--the simple offering of ,abel1 who brought of the firstlings of his flock1 and of the fat thereof1 the altars of the patriarchs1 the gorgeous ceremonial of the ,mosaic economy with its priesthood and sacrifices1 the service of song in the house of the ,lord added by ,david1 the synagogue service of later times1 and1 finally1 the spiritual priesthood of believers under the ,new ,testament1 whose office is to offer up spiritual sacrifices acceptable to ,god by ,jesus ,christ 7#a ,pet4 #b3e72 and show that through all this variety of outward form the essence of ,god's service has ever remained unchanged1 so that the example of primitive believers is a model for our imitation4 ,heb4 chap4 #aa4 #e4 ,we may show1 again1 that the same manifoldness belongs to the forms of labor devolved on ,god's servants in different ages4 ,the work assigned to ,noah was not that of ,abraham2 nor was ,abraham's work that of ,moses2 nor the work of ,moses that of ,david2 nor ,david's work that of ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 and ,ezekiel2 nor did any one of the ,old ,testament believers receive the broad commission3 ,go ye into all the world2 and preach the gospel to every creature4 ,they could not receive such a commission1 for the way was not yet prepared4 ,abraham must sojourn in the land of promise as in a strange country1 dwelling in tabernacles with ,isaac and ,jacob 7,heb4 #aa3i72 ,moses must lead ,israel out of ,egypt1 and be ,god's mediator for the law given on ,sinai2 ,joshua must take possession of the land of promise and ,david maintain it1 sword in hand2 the prophets must foretell the future glories of ,christ's kingdom1 not preach it1 as did the apostles1 to all nations4 ,but in the divine plan this manifoldness of service constitutes a self-consistent and harmonious whole4 #f4 ,the same unity in diversity belongs to the spirit of revelation4 ,failing to apprehend the character of ,god in its entireness1 ,marcion rent the seamless garment of divine perfection into two parts1 the one consisting of justice1 which he assigned to the ,demiurge of the ,old ,testament1 the other of goodness1 as the attribute of the supreme ,god of the ,new ,testament4 ,he did not see that ,god's character is alike infinite on both sides2 that his justice is a justice of infinite goodness1 and his goodness a goodness of infinite justice4 ,hence he arrayed in opposition to each other two caricatures of deity1 the one drawn from the ,old ,testament1 the other from the ,new2 an error in which he has had too many imitators in modern times4 ,to see the harmony of the spirit that pervades the ,holy ,scriptures from beginning to end in respect to the ,divine character1 we should take a comprehensive instead of a partial view of their representations4 ,it is true that the ,old ,testament describes ,god as infinite in holiness and inflexibly just4 ,but it also describes him as the ,lord ,god1 merciful and gracious1 long-suffering1 and abundant in goodness and truth1 keeping mercy for thousands1 forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin4 ,it is true that ,god's covenant under the ,old ,testament was restricted to a single nation2 but this was1 as has been heretofore shown1 preparatory to a universal dispensation of mercy1 as when a general seizes one strong position with a view to the conquest of an entire region4 ,chap4 #ah4 ,it is true1 on the other hand1 that the ,new ,testament is1 in a peculiar sense1 a revelation of ,god's mercy through ,jesus ,christ4 ,but it is a discriminating mercy1 through which ,god's awful holiness and justice shine with dazzling brightness4 ,it is a mercy shown not at the expense of justice1 but in perfect harmony with it2 a mercy sternly restricted1 moreover1 to those who comply with the conditions on which it is offered4 ,the gospel is a plan of salvation1 not of condemnation2 for ,god sent not his ,son into the world to condemn the world1 but that the world through him might be saved4 ,john #c3ag4 ,yet it brings condemnation to those who reject it2 for the ,saviour immediately adds 7ver4 #ah73 ,he that believeth on him1 is not condemned2 but he that believeth not is condemned already1 because he hath not believed in the name of the only begotten ,son of ,god4 ,it is in the ,new ,testament1 not in the ,old1 that we find the most awful declarations of ,god's wrath against the finally impenitent1 some of them proceeding1 too1 from the lips of the compassionate ,saviour3 ,the ,lord ,jesus shall be revealed from heaven1 with his mighty angels1 in flaming fire1 taking vengeance on them that know not ,god1 and that obey not the gospel of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ3 who shall be punished with everlasting destruction from the presence of the ,lord1 and from the glory of his power 7#b ,thess4 #a3g1 #i72 ,he that believeth not the ,son1 shall not see life2 but the wrath of ,god abideth on him 7,john #c3cf72 ,these shall go away into everlasting punishment1 but the righteous into life eternal 7,matt4 #be3df74 #g4 ,the same harmony of spirit pervades both ,testaments in respect to the way of salvation4 ,on this momentous question the teachings of the ,new ,testament are fuller than those of the ,old1 but never in contradiction with them4 ,the ,old ,testament teaches that men are saved1 not from the merit of their good works1 but from ,god's mercy3 the ,new ,testament adds a glorious revelation respecting the ground of this mercy in ,jesus ,christ4 ,to exhibit in a clear light the reality of this harmony1 let us take a passage of the ,new ,testament which embodies in itself the substance of the way of salvation1 and compare with it the declarations of the ,old ,testament4 ,the following will be appropriate3 ,not by works of righteousness which we have done1 but according to his mercy he saved us1 by the washing of regeneration1 and renewing of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,titus #c3e4 ,not by works of righteousness which we have done1 but according to his mercy he saved us4 ,the ,lord did not set his love upon you1 nor choose you1 because ye were more in number than any people2 for ye were the fewest of all people3 but because the ,lord loved you1 and because he would keep the oath which he had sworn unto your fathers1 hath the ,lord brought you out with a mighty hand1 and redeemed you out of the house of bondmen1 from the hand of ,pharaoh king of ,egypt 7,deut4 #g3g1 #h72 ,for thy name's sake1 ,o ,lord1 pardon mine iniquity1 for it is great 7,psa4 #be3aa72 ,have mercy upon me1 ,o ,god1 according to thy loving-kindness2 according unto the multitude of thy tender mercies blot out my transgressions 7,psa4 #ea3a72 ,i do not this for your sakes1 ,o house of ,israel1 but for my holy name's sake1 which ye have profaned among the heathen whither ye went 7,ezek4 #cf3bb72 ,we do not present our supplications before thee for our righteousness1 but for thy great mercies 7,dan4 #i3ah74 ,by the washing of regeneration1 and renewing of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,behold thou desirest truth in the inward parts2 and in the hidden part thou shalt make me to know wisdom4 ,purge me with hyssop and ,i shall be clean2 wash me1 and ,i shall be whiter than snow4 ,create in me a clean heart1 ,o ,god2 and renew a right spirit within me4 ,cast me not away from thy presence2 and take not thy ,holy ,spirit from me 7,psa4 #ea3f1 #g1 #aj1 #aa72 ,i will put my law in their inward parts1 and write it in their hearts2 and will be their ,god1 and they shall be my people 7,jer4 #ca3cc72 ,then will ,i sprinkle clean water upon you1 and ye shall be clean3 from all your filthiness1 and from all your idols1 will ,i cleanse you4 ,a new heart also will ,i give you1 and a new spirit will ,i put within you3 and ,i will take away the stony heart out of your flesh1 and ,i will give you a heart of flesh4 ,and ,i will put my ,spirit within you1 and cause you to walk in my statutes1 and ye shall keep my judgments1 and do them 7,ezek4 #cf3be-bg74 #h4 ,the stern character of the ,mosaic dispensation is freely admitted4 ,as a preparatory dispensation1 severity belonged appropriately to it4 ,the law1 says ,paul1 was our schoolmaster to bring us unto ,christ1 that we might be justified by faith4 ,gal4 #c3bd4 ,its office was to educate the human conscience to such a point that it should be prepared for the full revelation of ,god's mercy in ,christ4 ,we may concede the prominence of ,god's justice in the ,old ,testament1 and his mercy in the ,new2 but we must never forget that neither part of divine revelation is complete in itself4 ,it is only when we view them in their connection with each other1 as parts of one great whole1 that we discern in them an all-pervading unity and harmony of spirit4 ,from the unity of revelation some inferences may be drawn of a very practical character1 especially in reference to the interpretation of the ,old ,testament4 #i4 ,each particular communication from ,god to man must be1 in its place and measure1 perfect4 ,for it proceeded from the infinite mind of ,god1 who understood at the beginning the whole plan of redemption1 and who1 when he made the first revelation concerning it1 knew all that was afterwards to follow1 and said and did1 in the most perfect way1 what was proper to be said and done at the time4 ,the revelations of the ,holy ,spirit1 therefore1 admit of a stupendous development1 but no rectification or improvement4 ,the very earliest of them contain the germs of all that is to follow without any admixture of falsehood4 ,there is a holding back of the full light reserved for future ages1 but no mist of error--nothing which1 fairly interpreted1 will ever need to be retracted4 ,for this reason the very earliest of ,god's communications to men retain for us1 who live in these latter days1 their pristine freshness and power4 ,take1 for example1 the great primitive prophecy3 ,i will put enmity between thee and the woman1 and between thy seed and her seed2 it shall bruise thy head1 and thou shalt bruise his heel4 ,gen4 #c3ae4 ,we can find no words more pertinent to describe the mighty conflict now going on between the kingdom of ,god and that of ,satan4 ,what are they but a condensation into one sentence of the history of redemption--a flash of light from the third heavens1 which discloses at a glance man's destiny from ,eden to the trump of the archangel8 ,and so is it also with the later prophecies concerning ,christ and his kingdom4 ,what is true of the revelations of the ,old ,testament holds good of all its institutions4 ,in their place1 and with reference to the end which they proposed to accomplish1 they were all perfect2 were the best that could be given under existing circumstances4 ,at the foundation of all our reasonings concerning the appointments of the ,old ,testament must lie the axiom3 ,as for ,god his way is perfect4 #aj4 ,the later revelations must he taken as the true exponents of the earlier4 ,this is but saying that the ,holy ,spirit is the true and proper expositor of his own communications to men4 ,since1 as we have seen1 the first revelations were made in full view of all that was to follow1 the later revelations must be considered not as a mass of foreign and heterogeneous materials superadded to the original prophecies1 but as a true expansion of the earlier prophecies out of their own proper substance4 ,for example1 the promise made to ,abraham3 ,in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed 7,gen4 #bb3ah71 is not so much a new promise as a further unfolding of the original one3 ,it shall bruise thy head4 ,a further development of the same promise we have in ,nathan's words to ,david3 ,thine house and thy kingdom shall be established for ever before thee1 thy throne shall be established for ever2 and in all the bright train of prophecies in which the glory and universal dominion of the ,messiah's kingdom are foretold down to the day of ,gabriel's announcement to ,mary3 ,he shall be great1 and shall be called the ,son of the ,highest2 and the ,lord ,god shall give unto him the throne of his father ,david4 ,and he shall reign over the house of ,jacob for ever2 and of his kingdom there shall be no end4 ,luke #a3cb1 #cc4 ,and since the manifestation of ,god in the flesh is the culminating point of revelation1 it follows that the ,lord ,jesus and his apostles1 whom he authoritatively commissioned to unfold the doctrines of the gospel1 must be1 in a special sense1 the expositors of the ,old ,testament1 from whose interpretations1 when once fairly ascertained1 there is no appeal4 ,the attempt of some to make a distinction between ,christ's authority and that of his apostles is nugatory4 ,as it is certain that our ,lord himself could not have been in error1 so it is certain also that he would not have commanded his apostles to teach all nations concerning himself and his doctrines1 and have further given them1 in the possession of miraculous powers1 the broad seal of their commission1 only to leave them subject to the common prejudices and errors of their age4 ,see further in ,chap4 #g1 ,nos4 #c1 #d4 #aa4 ,the extent of meaning contained in a given revelation must be that which the ,holy ,spirit intended4 ,it is not to be limited1 then1 by the apprehension of those to whom it was originally made4 ,earlier prophecy is1 at least in many cases1 framed with a view to the subsequent development of its meaning4 ,until such development is made by ,god himself1 either in the way of further revelations1 or indirectly by the course of his providence1 men's apprehension of its meaning1 though it may be true as far as it goes1 must yet be inadequate4 ,to cite a single passage from one of the ,old ,testament prophecies3 ,it hath pleased the ,lord to bruise him2 he hath put him to grief2 when thou shalt make his soul an offering for sin1 he shall see his seed1 he shall prolong his days1 and the pleasure of the ,lord shall prosper in his hand4 ,isa4 #ec3aj4 ,no one will maintain that the ,jews before our ,lord's advent 7all carnal prejudices aside7 could have had that apprehension of its deep meaning which it is our privilege to enjoy4 ,this meaning was contained in the promise from the first1 but in an undeveloped form4 ,accordingly the prophets themselves inquired and searched diligently concerning the import of their utterances and the time of their fulfilment4 #a ,pet4 #a3aa4 ,they who deny the reality of prophetic inspiration are necessitated1 for consistency's sake1 to deny also the principle now laid down4 ,but if revelation be a true communication from ,god to men1 it is reasonable to believe that it should have contained from the beginning the germs of mighty events in the distant future1 the realization of which in history should be1 in connection with further revelations from ,god1 its true expositor4 #ab4 ,the more obscure declarations of ,scripture are to be interpreted from the clearer4 ,a single passage of ,god's word occasionally gives us a glimpse of some great truth nowhere else referred to in ,scripture4 ,of this we have a remarkable example in what the apostle says of ,christ's delivering up the kingdom to the ,father upon the completion of the work of redemption4 #a ,cor4 #ae3bd-bh4 ,but no great truth relating to the way of salvation through ,christ is thus taught obscurely and in some single passage of ,scripture4 ,every such truth pervades the broad current of revelation1 and shines forth from its pages so clearly that no candid inquirer can fail to apprehend its true meaning4 ,if1 then1 we find in the ,bible dark and difficult passages1 they must1 if interpreted at all1 be explained1 not in contradiction with what is clearly and fully taught1 but in harmony with it4 ,this is but saying that1 instead of using what is obscure to darken what is clearly revealed1 we should1 as far as possible1 illustrate that which is dark by that which is clear4 ,the ,scriptures teach1 for example1 with abundant clearness1 that ,christ is the only foundation on which the church can rest4 ,isa4 #bh3af2 #a ,cor4 #c3aa2 ,ephes4 #b3bj2 #a ,pet4 #b3f4 ,this is1 indeed1 an office which plainly requires for its exercise that omnipotence1 and that supreme power in heaven and earth which are expressly ascribed to him4 ,matt4 #aa3bg2 #bh3ah2 ,john #e3ai-cj2 #ag3b2 #a ,cor4 #ae2 #bd-bh2 ,ephes4 #a3bj-bc2 ,phil4 #b3i-aa2 ,col4 #a3ae-ai2 ,heb4 #a3c4 ,when1 therefore1 our ,lord says to ,peter3 ,thou art ,peter that is1 as the word ,peter means in the original1 ,thou art ,rock1 and upon this rock will ,i build my church 7,matt4 #af3ah71 to understand ,peter1 or any pretended successor of ,peter1 as a rock in any other sense than as an eminent instrument in ,christ's hand for the establishment of his church1 is absurd and blasphemous4 ,again3 ,christ gives to ,peter the keys of the kingdom of heaven1 with power to bind and loose 7,matt4 #af3ai71 and elsewhere the same power is conferred upon all the apostles 7,matt4 #ah3ah74 ,that ,peter and his associates in the apostleship had the keys of the kingdom of heaven in any such sense as that in which ,christ has them 7,rev4 #c3g72 that is1 that they had authoritative power to admit their fellow-sinners to heaven1 or exclude them from heaven1 is contrary to the whole tenor of the ,new ,testament1 which everywhere represents ,christ as the supreme ,judge1 upon whose decision depends the everlasting destiny of every child of ,adam4 ,matt4 #g3ba1 #bb2 #af3bg2 #be3ca-df2 ,john #ag3b2 ,acts #ag3ca2 #b ,cor4 #e3aj4 ,christ's words concerning the keys may be best understood of the special authority which he bestowed on the apostles1 as inspired teachers and guides of his primitive church1 to settle all questions respecting her4 ,for eminent examples of the exercise of this power1 see the decisions concerning ,gentile converts1 ,acts #aa3a-ah2 #ae3a-bi4 ,in this sense the gift of the keys ceased with that of inspiration4 ,but if1 as some think1 the words may be understood of the common power conferred by ,christ on his churches to regulate their own affairs1 to administer discipline1 and to admit or exclude from their communion1 the power continues in this sense in the visible church1 and is valid so far as it is exercised in accordance with ,god's word4 ,so also must we interpret the words of ,christ recorded by the apostle ,john3 ,and when he had said this1 he breathed on them1 and said unto them1 ,receive ye the ,holy ,ghost2 whosesoever sins ye remit1 they are remitted unto them2 and whosesoever sins ye retain1 they are retained4 ,chap4 #bj3bb1 #bc4 ,the authoritative forgiveness of sin is a prerogative of ,god alone1 the exercise of which implies omniscience as well as supreme authority in heaven and earth4 ,the prerogative of remitting and retaining men's sins here conferred on the apostles is part of the general power of binding and loosing already considered4 ,it was exercised in the sphere of the visible church on earth4 ,as it respects the actual forgiveness of sin and consequent admission of the soul to communion with ,god here and eternal life hereafter1 ,god's ministers can only declare the terms of salvation as they are set forth in the gospel4 ,the same general principle is applicable to the interpretation of all passages containing things hard to be understood4 ,the unlearned and unstable wrest them1 by taking them out of their connection and in contradiction to the general tenor of ,god's word4 ,but the candid student of ,scripture never uses that which is difficult in revelation to obscure that which is plain4 ,he seeks1 on the contrary1 to illumine what is dark by that which shines with a clear and steady light4 #ac4 ,as a fitting close to this part of our subject we add some remarks on the analogy of faith4 ,we may define it to be that general rule of doctrine which is deduced1 not from two or three parallel passages1 but from the harmony of all parts of ,scripture in the fundamental points of faith and practice4 ,horne's ,introduct41 vol4 #a4 p4 #bfi1 edit4 #ahfj4 ,it is based on two fundamental principles2 first1 that all ,scripture is given by inspiration of ,god1 and therefore constitutes a self-consistent whole1 no part of which may be interpreted in contradiction with the rest2 secondly1 that the truths to which ,god's word gives the greatest prominence1 and which it inculcates in the greatest variety of forms1 must be those of primary importance4 ,thus understood1 the analogy of faith is a sure guide to the meaning of the inspired volume4 ,he who follows it will diligently and prayerfully study the whole word of ,god1 not certain selected parts of it2 since it is from the whole ,bible that we gather the system of divine revelation in its fulness and just proportions4 ,if we come to the ,scriptures with any preconceived opinions1 and are more desirous to put that sense upon the text which coincides with our sentiments rather than with the truth1 it then becomes the analogy of our faith rather than that of the whole system4 ,horne1 ubi supra4 ,in this substitution of the analogy of our faith for the analogy of ,scripture lies the foundation of sectarian controversy4 ,again2 he who follows the true analogy of faith will not allow a doctrine which runs through the whole tenor of divine revelation to be weakened or set aside in the interest of some other scriptural doctrine4 ,the ,scriptures teach1 for example1 with great frequency and clearness that men are saved1 not from the merit of their good works1 but solely by ,god's free grace through faith in ,jesus ,christ4 ,they teach also with equal frequency and clearness that without repentance and obedience to the divine law there is no salvation4 ,these two deductions are not contradictory1 but supplementary to each other4 ,they present two sides of one and the same way of salvation4 ,yet it may happen that a ,biblical student will find himself unable to reconcile in a logical way two such deductions as the following3 ,therefore we conclude that a man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law 7,rom4 #c3bh72 ,not every one that saith unto me1 ,lord1 ,lord1 shall enter into the kingdom of heaven2 but he that doeth the will of my ,father which is in heaven 7,matt4 #g3ba74 ,what then shall we counsel him to do8 ,plainly it is his duty1 first of all1 to receive and hold both doctrines4 ,afterwards he may properly seek to reconcile them with each other in a logical way2 but if he fails to accomplish this task to his satisfaction1 he must not deny one truth1 or sink its importance1 in the interest of the other4 ,the same general principle applies to various other doctrinal difficulties1 which need not be here specified4 ,finally1 a true regard to the analogy of faith will make our system of belief and practice entire and well proportioned in all its parts4 ,every declaration of ,god's word is to be received in a reverent and obedient spirit4 ,but inasmuch as the ,scriptures insist much more earnestly and fully on some things than on others1 it is our wisdom to follow1 in this respect1 the leadings of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,it will be the aim of the enlightened believer to give to each doctrine and precept of revelation the place and prominence assigned to it in the ,bible4 ,especially will he be careful that no obscure or doubtful passage of ,scripture be allowed to contradict the plain teachings of inspiration4 ,the practical study of the ,bible1 that is1 the study of it as profitable for doctrine1 for reproof1 for correction1 for instruction in righteousness1 resolves itself in a great measure into the comparison of ,scripture with ,scripture1 especially the comparison of doctrinal parallelisms4 ,all that the ,bible teaches from ,genesis to ,revelation concerning ,god's being and attributes1 his providential government over man1 the person and offices of ,christ and the way of salvation through him1 and the final destiny of the righteous and the wicked1 should be diligently compared1 that from the whole we may gather a full and well-proportioned system of faith and practice as it is contained in the pages of inspiration4 ,so far as we fail to do this our view of divine truth is defective and disproportioned4 ,the solemn warning in respect to the last book of revelation applies with equal force to revelation as a whole3 ,if any man shall add unto these things1 ,god shall add unto him the plagues that are written in this book3 and if any man shall take away from the words of the book of this prophecy1 ,god shall take away his part out of the book of life1 and out of the holy city1 and from the things that are written in this book4 ,rev4 #bb3ah1 #ai4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,scriptural ,,types4 #a4 ,the material world is full of analogies adapted to the illustration of spiritual things4 ,no teacher ever drew from this inexhaustible storehouse such a rich variety of examples as our ,saviour4 ,his disciples are the salt of the earth1 the light of the world1 and a city set on a hill4 ,from the ravens which ,god feeds and the lilies which ,god clothes1 he teaches the unreasonableness of worldly anxiety4 ,the kingdom of heaven is like seed sown in different soils1 like a field of wheat and tares growing together1 and like seed that springs up and grows the sower knows not how4 ,again it is like a net cast into the sea1 like a grain of mustard seed1 and like leaven hid in three measures of meal4 ,when the ,saviour opens his lips the whole world of nature stands ready to furnish him with arguments and illustrations2 as well it may1 since the ,god of nature is also the ,god of revelation4 ,the world of secular activity abounds in like analogies1 on which another class of our ,lord's parables is based2 like that of the vineyard let out to husbandmen1 the servants intrusted with different talents1 the ten virgins1 the importunate friend1 the unjust judge1 the unfaithful steward1 the prodigal son1 and others that need not be enumerated4 ,analogies like these1 however1 do not properly constitute types4 ,types rest on a foundation of analogy1 but do not consist in analogy alone4 #b4 ,in the history of ,god's people1 moreover1 as well as of the world which he governs with reference to them1 the present is continually foreshadowing something higher in the future4 ,this must be so1 because the train of events in their history constitutes1 in the plan of ,god1 neither a loose and disconnected series nor a confused jumble of incidents1 like a heap of stones thrown together without order or design1 but a well-ordered whole4 ,it is a building1 in which the parts now in progress indicate what is to follow4 ,it is the development of a plant1 in which the blade foreshadows the ear1 and the ear1 the full corn in the ear4 ,the primal murder1 when ,cain rose up against ,abel his brother1 and slew him1 because his own works were evil and his brother's righteous1 was the inauguration of the great conflict between the seed of the woman and the seed of the serpent--the forerunner of the higher struggle in ,egypt between ,pharaoh on the side of the devil1 and the covenant people on the side of the seed of the woman4 ,this struggle in ,egypt1 again1 foreshadowed the still higher contest between truth and error in the land of ,canaan--a contest which endured through so many centuries1 and enlisted on both sides so many kings and mighty men2 and which1 in its turn1 ushered in the grand conflict between the kingdom of ,christ and that of ,satan1 a conflict that began on the day of ,pentecost1 and is yet in progress4 ,this continual foreshadowing of the future by the present is essentially of a typical nature1 yet it does not constitute1 in and of itself1 what we understand by a type in the ordinary usage of the term4 #c4 ,a type is a symbol appointed by ,god to adumbrate something higher in the future1 which is called the antitype4 ,this definition includes three particulars3 7#a47 ,the type must be a true adumbration of the thing typified1 though1 from the very nature of the case1 the adumbration must be inadequate--a shadow only of the antitype1 and not its substance4 ,thus the paschal lamb was a type of ,christ1 though there is infinitely more in the antitype than in the type4 7#b47 ,the symbol must be of divine appointment1 and as such1 designed by ,god to represent the antitype4 ,we must carefully remember1 however1 that1 from the very nature of the case1 the divine intention cannot be clearly announced when the type is instituted4 ,the paschal lamb typified the ,lamb of ,god1 which taketh away the sin of the world2 but it was not till centuries after the institution of the passover that ,god began to intimate by the prophets the approaching sacrifice of the great ,antitype 7,isa4 chap4 #ec2 ,zech4 #ac3g71 and the full import of the type was revealed only when the sacrifice of ,christ our passover had been accomplished on ,calvary4 7#c47 ,since the type is a shadow of good things to come1 it follows that the antitype must belong to the future4 ,a pure symbol may belong to the present or the near future4 ,it may represent something that now exists1 or is coming into existence1 in respect to which concealment is not necessary4 ,hence we find the sacred writers freely explaining the meaning of the symbols which they employ 7,numb4 chap4 #ag2 ,josh4 #d3a-g2 #a ,sam4 #g3ab2 #aj3a1 and the same symbol of anointing often elsewhere2 #a ,kings #aa3bi-ci2 #bb3aa1 where a false prophet uses a symbol2 ,isa4 chap4 #bj2 ,jer4 #a3aa-ad2 #ac3a-aa1 and elsewhere2 ,ezek4 chap4 #c1 and in many other passages2 ,amos #g3a-i2 #h3a-c2 ,zech4 #a3h-aa1 and elsewhere74 ,the true type1 on the contrary1 reckoned from the time of its institution1 looks forward to the distant future4 ,the high reality which it foreshadows may be intimated by the prophets as in a glass darkly1 but the appearance of the antitype can alone furnish a full explanation of its meaning4 ,the types of the ,old ,testament have been variously classified4 ,we propose to consider them under the two divisions of historical and ritual types4 ,i4 ,,historical ,,types4 #d4 ,the extravagance of a class of ,biblical expositors in converting the ,old ,testament history into allegory typical of persons and events under the gospel dispensation has produced a strong reaction1 leading some to deny altogether the existence of historical types4 ,but this is going to the other extreme of error4 ,no man who acknowledges the writers of the ,new ,testament to be true expositors of the meaning of the ,old can consistently deny the existence in the ,old ,testament of such types1 for they interpret portions of its history in a typical way4 ,but it is of the highest importance that we understand1 in respect to such history1 that it has a true and proper significance of its own1 without respect to its typical import4 ,it is not allegory1 which has1 literally taken1 no substance4 ,it is not mere type1 like the rites of the ,mosaic law1 the meaning of which is exhausted in their office of foreshadowing the antitype4 ,it is veritable history1 valid for the men of its own day1 fulfilling its office in the plan of ,god's providence1 and containing1 when we look at it simply as history1 its own lessons of instruction4 ,we call it typical history because1 following the guidance of the ,new ,testament writers1 we are constrained to regard it as so ordered and shaped by ,god's providence as to prefigure something higher in the ,christian dispensation4 ,no careful student of the ,new ,testament can for a moment doubt that ,david's kingdom typified the kingdom of ,christ4 ,there is1 indeed1 a very important sense in which ,david's kingdom was identical with that of ,christ2 for its main element was the visible church of ,god1 founded on the covenant made with ,abraham1 and therefore in all ages one and indivisible4 ,rom4 #aa3ag-bd2 ,gal4 #c3ad-ah2 ,ephes4 #b3bj4 ,but we now speak of ,david's kingdom in its outward form1 which was temporary and typical of something higher4 ,in this sense it is manifest that ,god appointed it to foreshadow that of the ,messiah4 ,david's headship adumbrated the higher headship of the ,redeemer2 his conflicts with the enemies of ,god's people and his final triumph over them1 ,christ's conflicts and victories4 ,the same thing was true of ,solomon1 and in a measure of all the kings of ,david's line1 so far as they were true to their office as the divinely appointed leaders of the covenant people4 ,unless we adopt this principle1 the view which the ,new ,testament takes of a large number of ,psalms--the so-called ,messianic psalms--becomes utterly visionary4 ,but neither ,david's kingdom nor his headship over it was mere type4 ,the nation over which he presided was a historic reality1 a true power among the other nations of the earth4 ,his leadership also1 with its conflicts and triumphs1 belongs to true history4 ,it brought to the people of his own day true deliverance from the power of their enemies2 and it contains1 when we study it without reference to its typical character1 true lessons of instruction for all ages4 ,the declarations of ,scripture in respect to the typical nature of the prophetical office are not so numerous and decisive as those which relate to the kingly office4 ,there is1 however1 a remarkable passage in the book of ,deuteronomy1 from which we may legitimately infer that it was truly typical of ,christ4 ,when ,god had addressed the people directly from the midst of the cloud and fire on ,sinai1 unable to endure this mode of communication between ,god and man1 they besought ,god that he would henceforth address them through the ministry of ,moses3 ,speak thou with us1 and we will hear3 but let not ,god speak with us1 lest we die4 ,exod4 #bj3ai4 ,with reference to this request1 ,god said to ,moses3 ,they have well spoken that which they have spoken4 ,i will raise them up a prophet from among their brethren1 like unto thee1 and will put my words in his mouth3 and he shall speak unto them all that ,i shall command him4 ,and it shall come to pass1 that whosoever will not hearken unto my words which he shall speak in my name1 ,i will require it of him4 ,deut4 #ah3ag-ai4 ,the essential points of this promise are1 that the promised prophet shall be like ,moses1 one whose words shall be invested with supreme authority2 and1 especially1 that he shall be raised up from among their brethren1 and shall therefore be a man like themselves4 ,the promise was manifestly intended to meet the wants of the covenant people from that day and onward4 ,yet the great ,prophet in whom it was fulfilled did not appear till after the lapse of fifteen centuries or more4 ,but in the mean time the promise was truly fulfilled to ,god's people in a typical way through the succession of prophets1 who spake in ,god's name1 and who were men like their brethren to whom they were sent4 ,in these two essential particulars the prophetical office truly prefigured ,christ1 its great ,antitype4 ,the ,old ,testament contains not only typical orders of men1 but typical transactions also2 that is1 transactions which1 while they had their own proper significance as a part of the history of ,god's church1 were yet so ordered by ,god as to shadow forth with remarkable clearness and force the higher truths of ,christ's kingdom4 ,such are the transactions between ,melchizedek and ,abraham recorded in the fourteenth chapter of ,genesis4 ,considered simply in itself1 ,melchizedek's priesthood belongs to the class of ritual types4 ,but in the record of his intercourse with ,abraham there is an accumulation of historic circumstances arranged by ,god's providence to shadow forth the higher priesthood of ,christ4 7#a47 ,he united in his person the kingly and priestly offices1 as does the ,messiah4 ,in the hundred and tenth ,psalm it is1 in like manner1 a king invested by ,god with universal sovereignty1 to whom the declaration is made3 ,the ,lord hath sworn1 and will not repent1 ,thou art a priest for ever1 after the order of ,melchizedek4 7#b47 ,in official dignity he was higher than ,abraham1 and thus higher than any of ,abraham's descendants by natural generation2 for ,abraham paid tithes to him1 and received from him the priestly blessing 7,gen4 #ad3ai1 #bj72 ,and without all contradiction the less is blessed of the better4 ,heb4 #g3g4 7#c47 ,his priesthood was without limitation1 and had thus the attribute of universality4 ,it was not restricted in its exercise by nationality1 for ,abraham was not one of his people4 7#d47 ,he did not belong to a line of priests1 who transmitted their office from father to son4 ,he was1 so far as we know from the record1 without predecessors1 and had no successor in his priesthood4 ,the author of the epistle to the ,hebrews describes him as one who is without father1 without mother1 without pedigree 7marginal rendering71 having neither beginning of days nor end of life3 but made like unto the ,son of ,god2 abideth a priest continually4 ,heb4 #g3c4 ,in the interpretation of this difficult passage1 we must begin with the axiomatic principle that ,melchizedek was a human being4 ,he could not have been1 as some have thought1 the ,son of ,god himself2 for how could the ,son of ,god be made like unto the ,son of ,god8 ,nor could he have been an angel2 for angels are not partakers of human nature1 and cannot therefore typify him who came in human nature to deliver those who are partakers of flesh and blood4 ,heb4 #b3ad-ah2 #d3ae2 #e3a1 #b4 ,and if he was a proper man1 then he was without father1 without mother1 without pedigree1 not in an absolute sense1 but with reference to his priesthood4 ,he was a priest whose genealogy is not mentioned1 because his priesthood was not restricted1 like that of the ,levitical priests1 to any particular line of descent4 ,he held his priesthood from ,god1 without predecessors or successors4 ,the words that follow--having neither beginning of days nor end of life3 but made like unto the ,son of ,god2 abideth a priest continually--are more difficult4 ,it is certain1 however1 that they cannot be understood absolutely4 ,they are commonly interpreted upon the same principle as the preceding words2 namely1 that in omitting from the inspired record every limitation of ,melchizedek's life as well as descent1 it was ,god's purpose to shadow forth the unlimited nature of ,christ's priesthood2 that1 in truth1 the apostle describes ,melchizedek1 the type1 in terms which hold good in their full meaning only of ,christ the great ,antitype4 ,they who1 admitting that ,melchizedek was a human being1 find the interpretation unsatisfactory1 must leave the apostle's words shrouded in mystery4 ,but whatever obscurity there is in the scriptural notices of ,melchizedek1 they abundantly affirm the typical nature of his priesthood as distinguished from that of the ,levitical priests4 ,he was a type of ,christ not simply as a priest1 but also in the peculiar character of his priesthood4 ,he united with his priesthood the kingly office2 was superior in dignity to ,abraham himself1 and thus to the ,levitical priests2 and his priesthood had the attribute of universality4 ,here1 then1 we have an undoubted example of a historic type4 ,it is not without reason that the deliverance of the covenant people from ,egypt1 their journey through the wilderness of ,arabia under ,god's guidance1 and their final settlement in the land of promise1 have been regarded as typical of the higher redemption1 guidance1 and salvation received through ,christ4 ,from the earliest ages of the ,christian church this wonderful history has been an inexhaustible storehouse of analogies for the illustration of ,christian experience4 ,in his pilgrimage through this vale of tears1 the believer instinctively turns to it for instruction and encouragement4 ,the mighty interposition of ,god when the ,israelites were yet without strength in their bondage2 their protection through the blood of the paschal lamb sprinkled on the doors of their houses when the destroyer passed through ,egypt2 the opening of a way through the ,red sea when all human means of escape failed them2 the journey through the wilderness2 the pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night to guide1 the water from the rock to refresh1 the manna from heaven morning by morning to feed them2 ,god's faithful discipline in contrast with human unbelief1 waywardness1 and folly2 the final preparation for the conquest of ,canaan and its successful accomplishment--this whole series of events is wonderfully adapted to illustrate the course of ,christian experience1 and who shall say that ,god did not order it with a view to this end8 ,we do not resolve it into mere type4 ,we acknowledge it to be true history1 valid to the men of that age--a true earthly deliverance1 guidance1 and sustenance in the wilderness1 conducting to the possession of a true earthly inheritance4 ,but we say that it is a history so ordered by ,god as to typify the higher pilgrimage of the believer to the heavenly ,canaan4 ,it is undeniable that the writer to the ,hebrews regards the rest of the covenant people in the land of promise as a type of the rest of heaven4 ,heb4 #c3g-d3aa4 ,and if that part of the history was typical1 it is reasonable to infer that the whole was typical4 ,it belongs to the nature of a type that it should1 on the one hand1 come short of the fulness of meaning that belongs to the antitype1 and1 on the other1 should contain some things which find no correspondence in that which it adumbrates4 ,the priesthood of the sons of ,aaron1 as we shall see1 typified ,christ's priesthood1 but only inadequately1 as a shadow represents the substance2 while sinfulness1 which belonged to all the priests of ,aaron's line1 not only did not correspond to the character of the ,antitype1 but was in contradiction with it4 ,so is it also with the historical types that have been under consideration4 ,they represent the antitype inadequately1 and only in certain respects4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ii4 ,,ritual ,,types4 #e4 ,the sacrifices were the central part of the ,jewish ritual4 ,but sacrifices imply offerers1 a personal ,god to whom the offering is made1 and a priesthood through which it is presented4 ,in the primitive ages of the world1 men offered sacrifices in their own behalf and that of their household in whatever place it was their chance to sojourn4 ,gen4 #d3d2 #h3bj2 #ab3g1 #h2 #ca3ed2 #cc3bj2 #ce3a1 #g2 #df3a2 ,job #a3e2 #db3h4 ,but upon the establishment of the ,mosaic economy1 the priestly office was restricted to the family of ,aaron4 ,thenceforward all who wished to offer sacrifices must bring them through the mediation of the priests of ,aaron's line4 ,it belonged to the nature of the ,mosaic economy1 that ,god should have a visible dwelling-place among the ,israelites4 ,the directions for the construction of the tabernacle with its furniture are introduced by the words3 ,let them make me a sanctuary2 that ,i may dwell among them4 ,exod4 #be3h4 ,the material sanctuary1 then1 was ,god's visible dwelling-place1 where he manifested himself to his people1 and received their worship according to the rites of his own appointment2 the whole being1 as we shall see1 typical of higher realities pertaining to our redemption through ,christ4 ,and as this earthly sanctuary was ,god's chosen dwelling-place1 it followed1 as a necessary consequence1 that after its erection all the sacrifices must be brought to its altar1 and presented there to ,god through the priesthood of his appointment4 #f4 ,the ,mosaic tabernacle was a movable structure very simple in its plan4 ,its frame-work on three sides consisted of upright boards1 or rather timbers 7for1 according to the unanimous representation of the ,jewish rabbins1 they were a cubit in thickness71 standing side by side1 and kept in position by transverse bars passing through golden rings4 ,thus was formed an enclosure ten cubits in height1 thirty cubits in length from east to west1 and ten cubits in width2 the eastern end1 which constituted the front1 having only a vail suspended from five pillars of shittim-wood4 ,over this enclosure1 and hanging down on either side1 was spread a rich covering formed by coupling together ten curtains of fine-twined linen1 and blue1 and purple1 and scarlet1 with cherubim of cunning work4 ,over this was another covering1 formed from the union of eleven curtains of goats' hair2 and above two other coverings1 the one of rams' skins dyed red1 and the other1 or outermost1 of badgers' skins4 ,surrounding the tabernacle was a court one hundred cubits long and fifty wide1 enclosed by curtains of fine-twined linen supported on pillars five cubits high4 ,the tabernacle itself was divided by a vail supported on four pillars into two parts2 the inner sanctuary1 or holy of holies1 ten cubits every way1 and the outer1 or holy place1 twenty cubits long by ten in breadth and height4 ,in a wider sense the whole movable structure within the court is called the tabernacle4 ,but in a stricter sense the rich inner curtain is distinguished in the ,mosaic description as the tabernacle1 while the curtain of goats' hair is called the tent4 ,exod4 #bf3a1 #g2 #cf3h1 #ad1 #ai4 ,the true meaning of the word rendered in our version badgers is uncertain4 ,some think that the seal is referred to4 #g4 ,we have seen that the tabernacle was ,god's visible dwelling-place4 ,but the palace of a king has its audience-rooms1 where he receives his subjects and attends to their petitions4 ,in like manner the ,mosaic tabernacle1 and afterwards the temple1 had its holy of holies and its holy place1 the former being in a special sense the abode of ,israel's ,god4 ,the tabernacle1 with its furniture1 priesthood1 and services1 is declared in the ,new ,testament to have been a shadow of good things to come4 ,heb4 #aj3a1 and elsewhere4 ,unless we understand this its typical character1 we fail to gain any true apprehension of its meaning4 #h4 ,in contemplating the truths which the ,mosaic tabernacle shadowed forth1 we begin with the materials used in its construction4 ,here we notice two things2 their preciousness1 and the gradation observed in this respect4 7#a47 ,their preciousness4 ,all the materials were of the most durable and costly character--gold1 silver1 fine-twined linen of blue and purple and scarlet1 acacia-wood 7the shittim-wood of our version71 brass being allowed only in the external appointments4 ,this obviously represented the glory and excellence of ,god's service1 and the corresponding obligation on the part of the worshippers to give to ,god the best of all that they had4 7#b47 ,the gradation in the preciousness of the materials had reference to the inner sanctuary1 where1 as will presently be shown1 ,god dwelt between the cherubim that overshadowed the mercy-seat4 ,the rule of gradation was this3 the nearer to ,god's dwelling-place the greater the glory2 and hence1 as shadowing forth this glory1 the more precious the materials4 ,the mercy-seat1 where ,god dwelt between the cherubim1 was accordingly of pure gold4 ,all the woodwork pertaining to the tabernacle and its furniture was overlaid with gold4 ,the inner or proper covering of the tabernacle1 as also the vail that hung before the ark1 separating the holy from the most holy place1 was of fine-twined linen1 and blue1 and purple1 and scarlet1 with cherubim of cunning work4 ,the outer vail1 at the entrance of the outer sanctuary1 was of the same materials1 but without the cherubim2 while the curtains of the court were made simply of fine-twined linen1 suspended from pillars of shittim-wood not overlaid with gold4 ,the sockets1 again1 that supported the timbers of the tabernacle and the inner row of pillars before the ark were of silver2 but those beneath the outer pillars of the sanctuary1 and all the pillars of the court1 were of brass4 #i4 ,passing to the appointments of the tabernacle1 we naturally begin with the inner sanctuary4 ,here between the wings of the cherubim that overshadowed the mercy-seat1 or lid of the ark1 was the ,shekinah1 or visible dwelling-place of ,jehovah4 ,in the ark beneath the mercy-seat were placed1 by ,god's direction1 the two tables of the law4 ,exod4 #be3af compared with #a ,kings #h3i4 ,this was their appropriate place4 ,it shadowed forth the great truth that ,god is the fountain of law1 and that they who approach him must come in the spirit of true obedience4 ,that ,god's dwelling-place was between the cherubim we learn from the original direction for the construction of the ark3 ,and thou shalt put the mercy-seat above upon the ark2 and in the ark thou shalt put the testimony that ,i shall give thee4 ,and there will ,i meet with thee1 and ,i will commune with thee from above the mercy-seat1 from between the two cherubim which are upon the ark of the testimony1 of all things which ,i will give thee in commandment unto the children of ,israel4 ,exod4 #be3ba1 #bb4 ,in accordance with these words ,god repeatedly promised that he would meet with ,moses at the mercy-seat 7,exod4 #cj3cf2 ,lev4 #af3b2 ,numb4 #ag3d72 and after the dedication of the tabernacle and its altar1 it is recorded that when ,moses was gone into the tabernacle of the congregation to speak with ,him1 then he heard the voice of one speaking unto him from off the mercy-seat that was upon the ark of testimony1 from between the two cherubim4 ,numb4 #g3hi4 ,hence ,jehovah is described in the ,old ,testament as he that dwells between the cherubim4 #a ,sam4 #d3d2 #b ,sam4 #f3b2 #b ,kings #ai3ae2 ,psa4 #hj3a2 #ii3a2 ,isa4 #cg3af4 #aj4 ,in the outer sanctuary1 before the vail that separated it from the holy of holies1 stood1 on the south side1 the golden candlestick1 with its seven lamps burning always before the ,lord 7,exod4 #bg3bj2 #dj3bd1 #be2 ,lev4 #bd3be71 and on the north side the table of show-bread1 with its twelve loaves renewed every week 7,exod4 #be3cj2 #dj3bb1 #bc2 ,lev4 #bd3e-i74 ,these typified the light and the life that come from ,god's presence through the ordinances of his appointment2 and since the end of these ordinances is ,jesus ,christ1 they shadowed him forth as the light of the world and the bread of life4 ,john #h3ab2 #ab3df2 #f3ce-eh2 and especially ,john #a3d4 ,between the golden candlestick and the table of show-bread1 consequently directly in front of the ark1 and separated from it by the inner vail1 was the golden altar of incense1 on which the priests burned sweet incense every morning and evening before the ,lord 7,exod4 #cj3f-h2 #dj3bf1 #bg71 whereby was shadowed forth ,christ's intercession1 through which the prayers of saints are made acceptable to ,god4 ,in the book of ,revelation an angel is represented as offering upon this golden altar much incense with the prayers of all saints4 ,and the smoke of the incense1 which came with the prayers of the saints1 ascended up before ,god out of the angel's hand4 ,rev4 #h3c1 #d4 ,this passage seems to warrant the interpretation above given to this symbol2 not that the ancient covenant people understood fully its meaning1 or that of the other symbolic rites1 but that such was the mind of the ,spirit1 to be made manifest in due time4 ,there is a view of the ,mosaic ceremonial1 which makes it simply a scenic representation of a king's court2 in which the tabernacle represents the royal palace1 the incense the homage rendered to the monarch 7compare ,dan4 #b3df71 the sacrifices1 show-bread1 and other unbloody offerings the provision made for his table1 the priests his ministering servants1 etc42 by which the whole is reduced to the idea of service rendered to ,jehovah as the national monarch1 and all typical representation of the provision made by ,god for man's spiritual wants is excluded4 ,this interpretation of the ,mosaic ritual is as superficial as it is false4 ,in this ritual1 service is indeed rendered to ,god2 but it is a service which typically shadows forth the provision which ,god makes for man's wants as a fallen being--light for his darkened understanding1 life for his spiritual nature dead in trespasses and sins1 and reconciliation to ,god through the blood of ,christ4 ,this is the constant interpretation given in the ,new ,testament of the carnal ordinances of the ,old4 #aa4 ,in the court before the tabernacle stood the brazen altar with its laver4 ,here the blood of the sacrifices flowed from age to age--a lamb every morning and evening1 and on the ,sabbath day two lambs morning and evening1 besides all the public sacrifices connected with the national festivals1 and the private sacrifices of individuals4 ,the ,new ,testament teaches us that the ,levitical priests who ministered at the ,jewish altar typified ,christ1 our great ,high ,priest4 ,in the one hundred and tenth psalm1 which the ,saviour himself quotes as written by ,david in spirit1 and as referring to himself 7,matt4 #bb3da-de2 ,mark #ab3ce-cg7 the ,messiah is represented as uniting in himself the kingly and the priestly office4 ,there is a remarkable symbolical transaction in ,zechariah 7chap4 #f3i-ad7 which contains the same representation4 ,the prophet is directed1 in the presence of competent witnesses1 to take silver and gold1 and make crowns1 and set them upon the head of ,joshua the ,hebrew word answering to the ,greek ,jesus1 which stands in the ,septuagint rendering of this passage the son of ,josedech1 the high priest4 ,in his office as high priest ,joshua typifies ,christ our great ,high ,priest4 ,by the symbolical act of crowning ,joshua is typified the kingly office of ,christ as united with the priestly4 ,hence the prophet is directed by ,god to add3 ,thus speaketh the ,lord of hosts1 saying1 ,behold the man whose name is the ,,branch 7compare chap4 #c3h1 and ,isa4 #aa3a2 ,jer4 #bc3d-f2 #cc3ae1 #af72 and he shall grow up out of his place1 and he shall build the temple of the ,lord3 even he shall build the temple of the ,lord2 and he shall bear the glory1 and shall sit and rule upon his throne2 and he shall be a priest upon his throne3 and the counsel of peace shall be between them both4 ,in accordance with these representations a large part of the epistle to the ,hebrews is occupied with a discussion of our ,lord's priestly office1 in which1 beyond contradiction1 he is exhibited as the great antitype of both ,melchizedec and the ,levitical priests4 #ab4 ,if the ,levitical priests typified ,christ1 it follows that the sacrifices which they offered were also typical of ,christ's sacrifice for the sins of the world4 ,so the epistle to the ,hebrews argues3 ,every high priest is ordained to offer gifts and sacrifices3 wherefore it is of necessity that this man have somewhat also to offer4 ,chap4 #h3c4 ,the ,levitical priests stood daily ministering1 and offering oftentimes the same sacrifices1 which can never take away sins4 ,chap4 #aj3aa4 ,their offerings were only typical of expiation1 and needed therefore to be continually repeated till the ,antitype itself should appear4 ,but ,christ offered his own blood on ,calvary1 by which he obtained eternal redemption for us1 so that his sacrifice needs no repetition4 ,he was once offered to bear the sins of many2 and by this one offering he hath perfected for ever them that are sanctified4 ,chaps4 #i3aa-ad1 #be1 #bf2 #aj3aj-ad4 ,but this doctrine respecting the typical character of the ,levitical sacrifices is not restricted to the epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,the ,new ,testament is full of it4 ,john the ,baptist1 the ,saviour's forerunner1 announced him as the ,lamb of ,god which taketh away the sin of the world4 ,john #a3bi4 ,whether we render1 as in the margin of our version1 which beareth the sin of the world1 or1 as in the text1 which taketh away the sin of the world1 the words contain the idea of a propitiatory sacrifice1 or1 which amounts to the same thing1 an expiatory sacrifice2 since it is by expiating our sin that ,christ propitiates the ,father4 ,by bearing the sin of the world ,christ expiates it1 and thus takes it away4 ,thus he is the propitiation for our sins1 and not for ours only1 but also for the sins of the whole world4 #a ,john #b3b4 ,the ,saviour himself announced his purpose to die for his people3 ,i lay down my life for the sheep4 ,therefore doth my ,father love me because ,i lay down my life1 that ,i might take it again4 ,no man taketh it from me1 but ,i lay it down of myself4 ,i have power to lay it down1 and ,i have power to take it again4 ,this commandment have ,i received of my ,father4 ,john #aj3ae1 #ag1 #ah4 ,and lest any should think that he died simply in the character of a martyr1 he elsewhere explains that the ,son of man came not to be ministered unto1 but to minister1 and to give his life a ransom for many--more literally1 a ransom instead of many 7,matt4 #bj3bh2 ,mark #aj3de71 where the sacrificial and vicarious nature of our ,lord's death is explicitly affirmed4 ,but it was after our ,lord's resurrection that the sacrificial and propitiatory character of his death was most fully revealed4 ,we have seen the view taken of it in the epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,with this the other writers of the ,new ,testament are in harmony4 ,jesus ,christ is the great sufferer foretold in the fifty-third chapter of ,isaiah1 who was wounded for our transgressions1 bruised for our iniquities3 the chastisement of our peace was upon him2 and with his stripes we are healed2 upon whom the ,lord laid the iniquity of us all2 who was brought as a lamb to the slaughter1 and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb1 so he opened not his mouth2 whose soul ,god made an offering for sin2 who was numbered with the transgressors1 and bare the sins of many1 and made intercession for the transgressors4 #a ,pet4 #b3bd1 #be2 ,acts #h3cb-ce2 ,mark #ae3bh2 ,luke #bb3cg4 ,he hath once suffered for sins1 the just for the unjust1 that he might bring us to ,god 7#a ,pet4 #c3ah72 ,he has redeemed us to ,god by his blood 7,rev4 #e3i72 has loved us and washed us from our sins in his own blood 7,rev4 #a3e72 and his redeemed have washed their robes1 and made them white in the blood of the ,lamb 7,rev4 #g3ad74 ,to recite all the declarations of the apostle ,paul on this great theme would be a superfluous work4 ,it is not through ,christ's example or teachings1 but through his blood that we have redemption1 the forgiveness of sins4 ,ephes4 #a3g4 ,christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law1 being made a curse for us 7,gal4 #c3ac71 words which teach as explicitly as human language can1 that ,christ has delivered us from the penalty of the divine law1 which is its curse1 by bearing the curse in our behalf4 ,this he did when he was hanged on the tree4 ,his death on the cross was1 then1 vicarious1 a death in our stead2 and propitiatory1 for in view of it ,god releases us from the curse of the law4 ,this is what is meant by a propitiatory sacrifice4 ,finally1 as if to cut off all ground for the assertion that the efficacy of ,christ's death lies wholly in its moral influence upon the human heart--its humbling1 softening1 and winning power--the apostle teaches that ,god has set forth ,christ ,jesus as a propitiation through faith in his blood for a manifestation of his righteousness1 that he might be just1 and the justifier of him that believeth in ,jesus4 ,rom4 #c3be1 #bf4 ,every word of this weighty passage deserves serious consideration4 ,we give by the side of the ,english version another translation1 intended to be somewhat more literal3 ,whom ,god hath set forth to ,whom ,god hath set forth1 a be a propitiation1 through propitiation1 through faith1 faith in his blood1 to declare in his blood1 for the his righteousness for the manifestation of his passing over marginal righteousness in respect to rendering of sins that are the overlooking of sins that past1 through the forbearance are past1 through the of ,god4 ,to declare1 ,i say1 forbearance of ,god--a at this time1 his manifestation of his righteousness2 that he might righteousness at the present be just1 and the justifier of time2 in order that he may be him which believeth in ,jesus4 just1 and the justifier of him that believeth in ,jesus4 ,from these words we learn3 7#a47 ,that ,god has publicly set forth ,christ as a propitiatory sacrifice4 ,the following paraphrase gives the probable connection of the words of the first clause3 ,whom ,god1 by means of his blood1 hath set forth as a propitiation through faith4 ,but if we take the connection as given in our version1 the propitiation is still through ,christ's blood1 and is thus a propitiatory or expiatory sacrifice4 7#b47 ,that the appropriation to individual sinners of this propitiation is conditioned on personal faith4 ,christ's propitiatory sacrifice does not1 in and of itself1 justify any man2 but it provides a ground whereby all may be justified1 if they will believe in ,jesus4 7#c47 ,that through ,christ's propitiatory sacrifice ,god makes a public manifestation of his righteousness in showing mercy to sinners4 ,the phrase1 the righteousness of ,god1 may mean1 in the usage of ,paul1 the righteousness--justification--which he gives through faith4 ,but in connection with the words that follow1 that he might be just1 and the justifier of him that believeth in ,jesus1 it can only mean righteousness as an attribute of ,god1 his public justice1 namely1 as the lawgiver and governor of the world4 7#d47 ,that ,christ's propitiatory sacrifice was necessary in order that ,god might show mercy to sinners consistently with the demands of his justice4 ,for when the apostle says that ,god might be just1 and the justifier of him that believeth in ,jesus1 the words necessarily imply that1 without this sacrifice1 he could not have been just in justifying sinners4 ,christ's propitiation was not needed to make ,god more merciful in his nature2 for in this respect he is unchangeably the same yesterday1 to-day1 and for ever4 ,but it opens a way by which he may show mercy consistently with his justice and the sanctity of his law4 ,when we raise inquiries concerning the interior nature of the atonement1 we meet with deep mysteries1 some of which are1 perhaps1 above the comprehension of finite human understanding4 ,but we can comprehend1 and believe upon ,god's testimony1 the great central fact of the gospel1 that ,christ offered himself to the ,father to bear in human nature the curse of the divine law in behalf of sinners2 and that ,god accepted this propitiatory offering as a satisfaction to his justice in such a sense that he can pardon all who believe in ,christ without dishonor to himself or injury to his moral government4 #ac4 ,we have considered ,christ as the great ,antitype of the ,levitical priests and sacrifices4 ,let us now go back and consider the characteristics belonging to the types themselves1 beginning with the priesthood4 7#a47 ,the first point in which the ,levitical priests typified ,christ was in their possession of the same common human nature as those in whose behalf they acted4 ,for both he that sanctifieth ,christ and they who are sanctified believers are all of one one ,father1 having a common sonship as members of the same family of ,adam3 for which cause he is not ashamed to call them brethren 7,heb4 #b3aa72 and again3 ,forasmuch then as the children are partakers of flesh and blood1 he also himself likewise took part of the same 7ver4 #ad72 and still further3 ,wherefore in all things it behooved him to be made like unto his brethren2 that he might be a merciful and faithful ,high ,priest in things pertaining to ,god1 to make reconciliation for the sins of the people4 ,for in that he himself hath suffered1 being tempted1 he is able to succor them that are tempted 7ver4 #ag1 #ah2 and compare #d3ae74 ,accordingly the priests who typified ,christ were taken from among men1 not angels2 and able to have compassion on the ignorant1 and on them that are out of the way1 being themselves compassed with infirmity4 ,heb4 #e3a1 #b4 7#b47 ,the ,levitical priests1 again1 were appointed to their office by ,god3 ,and no man taketh this honor upon himself1 but he that is called of ,god1 as was ,aaron4 ,so also ,christ glorified not himself to be made a high priest2 but he that said unto him1 ,thou art my ,son1 to-day have ,i begotten thee4 ,as he saith also in another place1 ,thou art a priest for ever after the order of ,melchizedec4 ,heb4 #e3d-f4 7#c47 ,the ,levitical priests1 once more1 were mediators between ,god and the people4 ,after the establishment of their priesthood1 no ,israelite or sojourner in the land could approach ,god with sacrifices and oblations in his own right1 and be his own priest4 ,he must come to ,god through the priesthood of his appointment--an expressive type of the great truth announced by ,christ2 ,i am the way1 and the truth1 and the life3 no man cometh unto the ,father but by me4 ,john #ad3f4 7#d47 ,finally1 the ,levitical priests were not only mediators between ,god and men1 but mediators through propitiatory sacrifices4 ,they were ordained to offer both gifts and sacrifices for sins4 ,heb4 #e3a2 #h3c4 ,wherefore1 adds the writer1 it is of necessity that this man ,christ have somewhat also to offer4 ,heb4 #h3c4 ,they offered the blood of bulls and goats1 which made expiation only in a typical way2 he offered to ,god his own blood as a real propitiation for sin4 ,heb4 #g3bg2 #i3ab-bh2 #aj3aj-ad4 ,the points of dissimilarity between the ,levitical priests and ,christ1 as stated in the epistle to the ,hebrews1 all serve to illustrate the superior dignity and efficacy of his priesthood4 ,they were sinful men1 and as such needing to offer sacrifice first for their own sins 7chap4 #e3c72 but he is holy1 harmless1 undefiled1 separate from sinners1 and made higher than the heavens 7chap4 #g3bf74 ,they were many1 because they were not suffered to continue1 by reason of death3 but he1 because he continueth ever1 hath an unchangeable priesthood4 ,chap4 #g3bc1 #bd4 ,their offerings could not take away sin4 ,they were only typical of expiation1 and therefore needed to be continually repeated4 ,but ,christ has by his one offering perfected for ever them that are sanctified--perfected them in respect to the expiation of sin1 which is the foundation on which the work of personal sanctification rests4 ,heb4 #aj3aa1 #ab4 ,mediatorship between ,god and man through propitiatory sacrifice constitutes the central idea of priesthood4 ,the ,levitical priests did indeed make intercession for the people in the burning of sweet incense 7see above1 ,no4 #h71 and in presenting to ,god their unbloody offerings1 but all this was done through the blood of atonement4 ,we see1 then1 how false and mischievous is the idea that there can be true mediating priests under the ,new ,testament dispensation4 ,christ appeared once for all to put away sin by the sacrifice of himself 7,heb4 #i3be-bh2 #aj3aj-ab71 since which no further sacrifice is needed1 or can be lawfully offered4 ,christ also opened to all believers through his blood a new and living way of access to ,god1 through which they can come boldly to the throne of grace1 having no need of human mediators4 ,heb4 #aj3ah-bb4 ,believers as a body are a holy priesthood1 to offer up spiritual sacrifices1 acceptable to ,god by ,jesus ,christ4 #a ,pet4 #b3e4 ,they present themselves to ,god a living sacrifice1 holy1 acceptable to ,god4 ,rom4 #ab3a4 ,they offer the sacrifice of praise to ,god continually1 that is1 the fruit of their lips1 giving thanks to his name4 ,heb4 #ac3ae4 ,these spiritual sacrifices offered by the body of believers through ,christ1 their glorified ,high ,priest1 are the only sacrifices known to the ,new ,testament church4 ,of the high priest's garments1 made by divine direction for glory and for beauty1 we cannot here speak in detail4 ,suffice it to say that they represented in general the dignity and excellence of his office1 as the divinely appointed mediator between ,god and the covenant people4 ,the golden plate with the inscription ,,holiness ,,to ,,the ,,lord is its own interpreter4 ,the twelve names of the tribes of ,israel1 graven on two precious stones1 and borne on the shoulders of the high priest1 six on each shoulder1 and then the same twelve graven on twelve gems1 and borne on his breast as he ministered before the ,lord1 beautifully typify ,christ our great ,high ,priest1 who bears his people on his shoulders by his almighty power and efficacious atonement1 and on his heart by his everlasting love4 #ad4 ,from the typical priests we naturally pass to the consideration of the typical sacrifices offered by them4 ,upon ,noah's leaving the ark1 ,god prohibited the eating of blood on the ground that it is the life of the animal4 ,gen4 #i3d4 ,the reason of this prohibition is unfolded in a passage of the ,mosaic law1 which clearly sets forth the nature and design of bloody offerings3 ,and whatsoever man there be of the house of ,israel1 or of the strangers that sojourn among you1 that eateth any manner of blood1 ,i will even set my face against that soul that eateth blood1 and will cut him off from among his people4 ,for the life of the flesh is in the blood2 and ,i have given it to you upon the altar to make an atonement for your souls3 ,,for ,,it ,,is ,,the ,,blood ,,that ,,maketh ,,an ,,atonement ,,for ,,the ,,soul4 ,lev4 #ag3aj1 #aa4 ,hence the sprinkling of the sacrificial blood by the priest as a sign of expiation1 a rite that will be more particularly considered hereafter 7,no4 #ae74 ,the reason that the blood makes the atonement is that the life of the flesh is in the blood4 ,the scriptural idea1 then1 of a sacrifice is the offering to ,god of one life in behalf of another that has been forfeited by sin--the life of the innocent beast instead of the life of the guilty offerer4 ,this general idea of the vicarious and propitiatory nature of sacrifices comes out with beautiful simplicity and clearness in the book of ,job3 ,and it was so when the days of their feasting were gone about1 that ,job sent and sanctified them1 and rose up early in the morning1 and offered burnt offerings according to the number of them all3 for ,job said1 ,it may be that my sons have sinned1 and cursed ,god in their hearts4 ,chap4 #a3e4 ,and again3 ,my wrath is kindled against thee1 and against thy two friends2 for ye have not spoken of me the thing that is right1 as my servant ,job hath4 ,therefore take unto you now seven bullocks and seven rams1 and go to my servant ,job1 and offer up for yourselves a burnt-offering2 and my servant ,job shall pray for you3 for him will ,i accept3 lest ,i deal with you after your folly4 ,chap4 #db3g1 #h4 ,the sacrifices of the ,mosaic law were of various kinds1 implying various accessory ideas4 ,but underlying them all was the fundamental idea of propitiation through blood4 ,hence the writer to the ,hebrews1 when commenting on the transaction recorded in ,exodus1 chap4 #bd3d-h1 says3 ,and almost all things are by the law purged with blood2 and without shedding of blood is no remission4 ,heb4 #i3bb4 ,the only exception was in the case of the poor man who was not able to bring two turtle doves or two young pigeons4 ,he was allowed to bring for his offering the tenth part of an ephah of fine flour for a sin-offering 7,lev4 #e3aa71 upon the principle that ,god will have mercy and not sacrifice4 ,no orderly classification of sacrifices is to be sought without the pale of the ,jewish ceremonial4 ,the burnt-offerings1 for example1 mentioned in the book of ,job1 had the force of proper sin-offerings4 ,chaps4 #a3e2 #db3h4 ,the classification in the book of ,leviticus is into burnt-offerings1 sin-offerings1 trespass-offerings1 and peace-offerings4 ,but they may be most conveniently considered in the order of their presentation1 when two or more of them were offered on the same occasion1 as when ,aaron and his sons were consecrated to the priesthood1 and the people sanctified in connection with this transaction 7,lev4 chaps #h1 #i71 and in the offerings of the great day of atonement 7,lev4 chap4 #af74 ,here the sin-offering naturally held the first place2 for this1 as its name indicates1 was wholly expiatory and propitiatory1 bringing the offerer into a state of forgiveness and divine favor4 ,the sin-offerings had reference 7#a7 to sin generally1 as when ,aaron and his sons were consecrated and the people sanctified1 and when1 on the annual day of atonement1 expiation was made for the sins of the past year2 7#b7 to specific offences 7,lev4 chaps4 #d1 #e71 ,the exact distinction between the sin-offering and the trespass-offering is of difficult determination4 ,both were alike expiatory1 were in fact subdivisions of the same class of offerings4 ,a comparison of the passages in which trespass-offerings are prescribed 7,lev4 #e3a2 #f3a-g2 ,numb4 #e3f-h7 seems to indicate that they belonged especially to trespasses for which restitution could be made4 ,next in the order of sacrifices1 though first in dignity1 came the burnt-offering1 also called holocaust 7,heb4 kalil7 that is1 whole burnt-offering1 the characteristic mark of which was the consuming of the whole by fire 7,lev4 chap4 #a74 ,it is conceded by all that this was a symbol of completeness2 but in what respect is a question that has been answered in different ways4 ,some refer the completeness to the offering itself1 as that form of sacrifice which embraces in itself all others 7,rosenmueller on ,deut4 #cc3aj72 or1 as the most perfect offering1 inasmuch as it exhibits the idea of offering in its completeness and generality1 and so concentrates in itself all worship4 ,baehr1 ,symbolik1 vol4 #b1 p4 #cfb4 ,but we cannot separate1 in the intention of ,god1 the completeness of the form from the state of the offerer's mind4 ,the burnt-offering was indeed1 in its outward form1 the most perfect of all sacrifices1 for which reason it excluded female victims1 as relatively inferior to the male sex4 ,but because of this its completeness and generality it signified the entire self-consecration of the offerer to ,god4 ,winer and others after ,philo4 ,but this1 let it be carefully remembered1 was a self-consecration that could be made only through the blood of expiation1 to indicate which1 the blood of the burnt-offering was sprinkled by the priest round about upon the altar2 or1 in the case of a bird1 where the quantity was too small to be thus sprinkled1 was wrung out at the side of the altar4 ,the peace-offering 7more literally1 offering of renditions2 that is1 offering in which the offerer rendered to ,god the tribute of praise and thanksgiving which was his due7 was in all its different subdivisions--thank-offering1 votive offering1 free-will offering 7,lev4 #g3aa-af7--;a eucharistic offering4 ,hence its social character4 ,after the sprinkling of the blood1 the burning of the prescribed parts on the altar1 and the assignment to the priest of his portion1 the offerer and his friends feasted joyfully before the ,lord on the remainder4 ,lev4 chap4 #c compared with chap4 #g3aa-ah4 ,in the case of monarchs1 like ,david and ,solomon1 the whole nation was feasted4 #b ,sam4 #f3ag-ai2 #a ,kings #h3fb-ff4 ,hence the ,messiah1 as the great ,king of all nations1 is beautifully represented as paying his peace-offerings to ,god for the deliverance granted him from his foes1 and as summoning all nations to the sacrificial feast3 ,my praise shall be of thee in the great congregation2 ,i will pay my vows vows in the form of peace-offerings before them that fear him4 ,the meek shall eat and be satisfied3 they shall praise the ,lord that seek him3 your heart shall live for ever4 ,all the ends of the world shall remember and turn unto the ,lord1 etc4 ,psa4 #bb3be-ca4 ,the peace-offering naturally followed the burnt-offering1 as that did the sin-offering in the sanctification of the ,israelitish congregation4 ,lev4 #i3ae-ah4 ,it signified joyful communion with ,god in thanksgiving and praise2 but this1 too1 only through the blood of the victim sprinkled upon the altar as a sign of expiation4 ,lev4 chap4 #c4 ,in these three classes of offerings1 then1 we have typically set forth1 first1 expiation restoring man to ,god's favor1 then self-consecration1 then holy communion in thanksgiving and praise--,,all ,,three ,,only ,,through ,,the ,,sprinkling ,,of ,,the ,,blood ,,of ,,christ1 the great ,antitype of the ,levitical priests and sacrifices4 ,the sacrificial nature of the passover appears in the direction given at its institution that the blood of the paschal lamb should be sprinkled on the lintel and two side-posts of the house where it was eaten as a protection against the destroyer of the first-born 7,exod4 #ab3bb1 #bc72 and in the ordinance afterwards established1 requiring that it should be slain at the sanctuary 7,deut4 #af3a-h71 and its blood sprinkled upon the altar4 #b ,chron4 #cj3af2 #ce3aa4 ,its character approached very near to that of the peace-offerings4 ,it was a joyous festival1 commemorative of the deliverance of ,israel from ,egyptian bondage2 and thus typically shadowing forth the higher redemption of ,god's people from the bondage of sin4 ,as the blood of the paschal lamb sprinkled on the doors of the houses protected the inmates from the destroyer of the first-born1 so does the blood of ,christ protect all who through faith receive its expiatory power from the wrath to come4 ,as the ,israelites feasted joyfully on the flesh of the paschal lamb1 so does the church feed by faith on the great antitypal ,lamb of ,god1 who is the true ,passover sacrificed for us4 #a ,cor4 #e3g4 ,there were some other sacrifices of a special character1 such as those by which the covenant between ,god and the people was ratified 7,exod4 #bd3c-h72 the ram of consecration1 when ,aaron and his sons were inducted into the priesthood 7,lev4 #h3bb-cj72 the sacrifice and other rites connected with the cleansing of the leper 7,lev4 #ad3a-cb72 the sacrifice of the red heifer from which were prepared the ashes of purification 7,numb4 chap4 #ai72 the sacrifice of the heifer in the case of an uncertain murder 7,deut4 #ba3a-i74 ,respecting these1 it is only necessary to remark generally that1 whatever other ideas were typified by them1 that of expiation through blood was not wanting4 ,it was required by the law that all the sacrificial victims should be without blemish1 not only because the offering to ,god of an imperfect victim would have been an affront to his majesty 7,mal4 #a3h1 #ac1 #ad71 but especially because a perfect victim could alone typify the ,lamb of ,god1 without blemish and without spot1 who was offered on ,calvary as the propitiation for the sins of the whole world4 #a ,pet4 #a3ai1 #bj4 ,of the unbloody offerings oblations1 called in our version meat-offerings1 some were supplementary to the sacrifices1 being necessary to their completeness4 ,such was the salt which1 as a symbol of purity and friendship1 was prescribed for all meat offerings 7,lev4 #b3ac71 and seems to have been used with all sacrifices also4 ,ezek4 #dc3bd compared with ,mark #i3di4 ,such1 also were the flour1 wine1 and oil offered with the daily sacrifice 7,exod4 #bi3dj71 and in certain other cases4 ,lev4 #h3bf2 #i3ag2 #ad3aj1 etc4 ,other oblations1 like those prescribed in the second chapter of ,leviticus1 were presented by themselves1 as expressions of love1 gratitude1 and devotion to ,god on the part of the offerers4 ,after a portion of them1 including all the frankincense1 had been burned on the altar1 the rest went to ,aaron and his sons as their portion4 ,the priests also received specified portions from the peace-offerings of the people1 the trespass-offerings1 and the sin-offerings the blood of which was not carried into the sanctuary4 ,see ,lev4 chap4 #f3bd-g3cd4 #ae4 ,of the typical transactions connected with the offering of sacrifices and oblations we notice the following3 7#a47 ,in all cases the offerer laid his hands upon the head of the victim4 ,the meaning of this act may be inferred from the first mention of it in the ,levitical ceremonial3 ,and he shall put his hand upon the head of the burnt-offering2 and it shall be accepted for him to make atonement for him4 ,lev4 #a3d4 ,the act in question was1 then1 the solemn dedication to ,jehovah of the victim for the end proposed4 ,by the laying on of his hands1 he presented it to ,god as his offering to make atonement for his soul1 and ,god accepted it as such4 ,from the very nature of the offering1 this act of presentation contained an acknowledgment of guilt that needed expiation1 but there was no formal transfer of his sins to the victim1 as in the case of the scape-goat4 ,see below1 ,no4 #af4 7#b47 ,the waving and heaving of offerings belonged to the priests alone4 ,both were manifestly acts of presentation and dedication to ,god4 ,for example1 the loaf of bread1 cake of oiled bread1 and wafer of unleavened bread employed upon the occasion of ,aaron's consecration were first placed in his hands to be waved before the ,lord1 and then burned by ,moses on the altar of burnt-offering4 ,exod4 #bi3bc-be4 ,so also the breast of the ram of consecration was waved1 and the right shoulder heaved1 before they were eaten by ,aaron and his sons 7,exod4 #bi3bf-bh72 the lamb of the leper who had been healed1 with the accompanying oblation1 was waved by the priest before the ,lord before slaying it4 ,lev4 #ad3ab1 seq4 ,according to the rabbins1 the waving consisted of a movement forwards and backwards4 ,some think that there was also a lateral motion from right to left and the reverse4 ,the heaving was a movement upwards and downwards4 ,the ground of the distinction between these two forms of presentation to ,jehovah is uncertain4 ,we only know that the ceremony of heaving was restricted to certain cases4 ,thus the breast of the peace-offerings was always waved1 and the right shoulder heaved1 before they were given to the priests as their portion4 ,lev4 #g3bh-cd4 7#c47 ,the sprinkling of the victim's blood was a most weighty part of the ceremonial1 for by this expiation was symbolized4 ,it was accordingly restricted to the priest1 who was the appointed mediator between ,god and the people4 ,the sevenfold sprinkling of the blood that was carried into the sanctuary 7,lev4 #d3f1 #ag2 #af3ad1 #ai71 and in certain other cases 7,lev4 #h3aa2 #ad3g1 #ea7 denoted the completeness of the expiation1 seven being the well-known symbol of perfection4 ,hence the ,new ,testament beautifully represents believers as purified from sin by the sprinkling of the blood of ,christ1 the great ,antitype of the ,mosaic sacrifices4 ,heb4 #i3ac1 #ad2 #aj3bb2 #ab3bd2 #a ,pet4 #a3b4 ,kindred to the rite of sprinkling was the application of the victim's blood to the horns of the altar and to the person of the offerer4 ,exod4 #bi3ab1 #bj2 ,lev4 #d3g1 #ah1 #be1 #cj2 #h3ae1 #bd2 #ad3ad1 etc4 7#d47 ,the burning of the offering1 or of certain specified parts of it1 upon the altar1 whereby its odor ascended up to heaven1 was a natural expression of dedication to ,god4 ,compare ,gen4 #h3ba1 ,lev4 #a3i1 etc4 #af4 ,we have seen the typical import of the furniture of the tabernacle 7,nos4 #h and #i above74 ,that the tabernacle itself1 considered generally1 had also a typical meaning1 is admitted by all who believe in revelation4 ,but when we come to the consideration of details1 we encounter diversities of interpretation which cannot be here considered4 ,we notice only the following points3 7#a47 ,the ,mosaic tabernacle was1 as we have seen1 ,god's visible earthly dwelling-place4 ,as such1 it shadowed forth his real presence and glory1 first1 in the church of the redeemed on earth through ,jesus ,christ2 secondly1 in the glorified church in heaven4 ,some think that the outer sanctuary1 with its altar of incense1 its golden candlestick1 and its table of show-bread1 typified ,god's presence with the church militant1 through her divinely-appointed ordinances2 and the inner sanctuary1 his presence with the church triumphant in heaven4 7#b47 ,under the ,mosaic economy1 the people were not admitted to either sanctuary4 ,they could approach ,god only through the mediation of the priests4 ,the priests themselves entered the outer sanctuary daily to burn incense and perform the other prescribed services2 but the high priest alone was permitted to enter the most holy place once every year with the blood of the sin-offering4 ,this represented that1 under the old dispensation1 the way of access to ,god on the part of sinners was not yet made manifest4 ,in respect to the holy of holies1 we have the express statement of inspiration3 ,but into the second went the high priest alone once every year1 not without blood1 which he offered for himself1 and for the errors of the people3 the ,holy ,ghost this signifying1 that the way into the holiest of all was not yet made manifest1 while as the first tabernacle was yet standing4 ,heb4 #i3g1 #h4 ,by parity of reason1 the principle holds good in respect to the exclusion of the people from the outer sanctuary4 ,we are informed1 accordingly1 that when ,christ cried upon the cross with a loud voice1 ,it is finished1 and gave up the ghost1 the vail of the temple was rent in twain from the top to the bottom4 ,matt4 #bg3ej1 #ea2 ,mark #ae3cg1 #ch2 ,luke #bc3de1 #df4 ,by this was signified that now the way of access to ,god was opened through ,christ's blood to all believers2 so that they constitute a spiritual priesthood1 having access to ,god within the vail without the help of any earthly mediation1 that they may there offer up spiritual sacrifices1 acceptable to ,god by ,jesus ,christ4 ,heb4 #g3be2 #aj3ai1 #bj2 #a ,pet4 #b3e1 #i2 ,rev4 #a3f4 7#c47 ,the typical character of the tabernacle appears very strikingly in the ceremonies of the great day of atonement4 ,lev4 chap4 #af4 ,after the high-priest had first offered a sin-offering for himself1 and sprinkled its blood in the inner sanctuary upon and before the mercy-seat seven times1 he brought the two goats that had been appointed for the expiation of the people1 one for a sin-offering1 the other for a scape-goat1 the office of each being determined by lot4 ,when he had slain the goat of the sin-offering1 he carried its blood into the most holy place1 and sprinkled it also seven times upon and before the mercy-seat1 to make an atonement for the holy place1 because of the uncleanness of the children of ,israel1 and because of their transgressions in all their sins 7ver4 #af74 ,then it was directed that the live goat should be brought3 ,and ,aaron shall lay both his hands upon the head of the live goat1 and confess over him all the iniquities of the children of ,israel1 and all their transgressions in all their sins1 putting them upon the head of the goat1 and shall send him away by the hand of a fit man into the wilderness4 ,and the goat shall bear upon him all their iniquities into a land not inhabited2 and he shall let go the goat in the wilderness4 ,ver4 #ba1 #bb4 ,by this double ceremonial was signified1 first1 that ,christ should expiate our sins by his own blood2 secondly1 that through this expiation he should bear them in his own person1 and thus remove them far away from us4 ,the ,jewish high priest entered year by year through the earthly tabernacle into ,god's presence with the blood of the sin-offering1 that he might sprinkle it before the mercy-seat4 ,but ,christ1 our great ,high ,priest1 has entered by a greater and more perfect tabernacle not made with hands into heaven itself1 to present his own blood before the throne of ,god as a perfect propitiation for our sins4 ,heb #i3aa1 #ab1 #bd4 ,the striking ceremonial connected with the scape-goat on the great day of atonement 7,lev4 chap4 #af7 is never to be interpreted separately1 but always in connection with the other goat1 which was slain as a sin-offering1 and its blood carried within the vail into the most holy place4 ,the inadequacy of the type made it necessary that two goats should be used in this one service1 one to represent the expiation of the people's sin through the sprinkling of its blood2 the other1 the vicarious bearing and taking away of their sin4 ,whatever difficulties are connected with the interpretation of the ,hebrew word rendered in our version for a scape-goat 7,hebrew1 la-azazel71 the typical meaning of the transaction is clear1 and it has its fulfilment only in ,christ1 who has expiated1 and so taken away1 the sin of the world4 7#d47 ,in the case of the more solemn sacrifices--the sin-offerings for the high-priest and for the congregation 7,lev4 #d3a-ba2 chap4 #af7--the expiatory blood was carried into the sanctuary to be presented before ,god4 ,but the victim was in all cases slain without the sanctuary2 and when its blood was carried into the sanctuary1 its body typically bearing the curse of the violated law1 was burned without the camp4 ,in correspondence with this1 the writer to the ,hebrews reminds us that ,jesus also1 that he might sanctify the people with his own blood1 suffered without the gate4 ,heb4 #ac3aa1 #ab4 ,he suffered without the gate in a two-fold sense4 ,as a condemned malefactor1 he was thrust out of the holy city1 which answered to the ancient ,israelitish camp1 and there he expiated on the cross the sin of the world4 ,he also suffered without the gate of the true holy city1 the heavenly ,jerusalem1 which he left that he might tabernacle among men and die for their redemption2 and having accomplished this work1 he went by his own blood into the heavenly holy of holies1 there to make intercession for us4 ,the dignity and sacredness of these solemn sin-offerings made it necessary that a clean place should be selected for the burning of the flesh2 but inasmuch as they were typically laden with the curse of sin1 they were carried without the precincts of the camp where ,god dwelt1 and there consumed1 where the ashes of all the bloody offerings were poured out4 ,lev4 #d3aa1 #ab1 #ba2 #af3bg4 ,the man1 moreover1 who performed the service of burning the sin-offering on the day of atonement1 having been typically defiled by contact with it1 was required to wash his clothes and bathe his flesh in water before coming into the camp4 ,lev4 #af3bh4 ,in the case of the scape-goat1 the wilderness1 the land not inhabited1 answered to the place without the camp where the sin-offering was burned2 and the man that led him away was1 in like manner1 required to wash his clothes and bathe his flesh in water before reentering the camp4 ,lev4 #af3bf4 #ag4 ,the distinctions between clean and unclean in respect to articles of food and various other particulars1 had also a typical meaning4 ,that the regulations in regard to these matters were promotive of physical purity and health is undoubtedly true2 yet we are not to consider them as simply a sanitary code4 ,they reached to the inner man4 ,through these physical distinctions of clean and unclean ,god educated the people to an apprehension of the difference between moral purity and impurity4 ,the ,levitical view of sickness and every bodily infirmity is deep and fundamental4 ,all is referred to sin as the primal cause4 ,the sufferer from leprosy and various other infirmities 7,lev4 chaps4 #ab-ae7 is regarded not as a sinner above other men 7,luke #ac3a-e71 but yet as suffering in the character of a sinner4 ,hence the ceremonial uncleanness of such persons1 and the expiatory offerings required in the case of those who have been healed4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,interpretation ,,of ,,prophecy4 #a4 ,the scriptural idea of prophecy is widely removed from that of human foresight and presentiment4 ,it is that of a revelation made by the ,holy ,spirit respecting the future1 always in the interest of ,god's kingdom4 ,it is no part of the plan of prophecy to gratify vain curiosity respecting the times or the seasons which the ,father hath put in his own power4 ,acts #a3g4 ,comfort ye1 comfort ye my people1 saith your ,god--this is its key-note4 ,in its form it is carefully adapted to this great end4 ,its notices of the future are interwoven with exhortations and admonitions1 encouragements and warnings1 promises and threatenings4 ,these constitute1 indeed1 the great bulk of the prophetical writings that have come down to us4 ,the subject of the interpretation of prophecy may be conveniently considered under the following heads3 prophecies relating to the near future2 prophecies relating to the last days2 the question of double sense2 the question of literal and figurative meaning4 ,i4 ,,prophecies ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,near ,,future4 #b4 ,the ,bible contains many prophecies relating to the comparatively near future4 ,these are all specific in their character1 and have a single exhaustive fulfilment4 ,examples are3 the prediction to ,noah of the approaching deluge1 and to ,abraham of the bondage of his posterity in a strange land2 the disclosure through ,pharaoh's dreams of the coming famine in ,egypt2 ,joseph's announcement of the future deliverance of ,israel from ,egypt2 the token given to ,moses that ,god had sent him3 ,when thou hast brought forth the people out of ,egypt1 ye shall serve ,god upon this mountain 7,exod4 #c3ab72 ,god's threatened judgments upon the house of ,eli with the accompanying sign 7#a ,sam4 #b3cd72 the warning that ,david received by ,urim and ,thummim of ,saul's approach to destroy him 7#a ,sam4 #bc3i-ab72 the prediction that ,josiah should defile ,jeroboam's altar at ,bethel with men's bones 7#a ,kings #ac3b72 etc4 ,minute events1 in themselves unimportant1 sometimes come within the sphere of prophetic revelation1 but always in connection with and subserviency to important transactions affecting the interests of ,god's people4 ,thus when ,samuel anointed ,saul as the future king of ,israel1 he foretold to him the incidents of his journey homeward 7#a ,sam4 #aj3b-g74 ,but this was in order that ,saul might be assured of ,samuel's prophetic office1 and consequently of the divine sanction to the transaction4 ,an event in the immediate future is frequently predicted as a pledge that some prophecy of more distant fulfilment shall be accomplished4 ,thus the death of ,eli's two sons in one day was to be a token of the fulfilment of all the evils threatened against his house4 ,the same end may be accomplished by a miraculous sign4 #a ,kings #ac3c2 #b ,kings #bj3i1 #aa4 ,prophecies of the kind now under consideration are in general very plain and simple1 and their recorded fulfilment is to us a sufficient interpreter of their meaning4 ,,ii4 ,,prophecies ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,last ,,days4 #c4 ,in ,old ,testament usage1 the last days1 or the latter days 7in the latter years1 ,ezek4 #ch3h7 denote not simply the distant future1 but that future as including the kingdom of the ,messiah1 which extends to the consummation of all things ,gen4 #di3a2 ,numb4 #bd3ad2 ,deut4 #d3cj2 #ca3bi2 ,isa4 #b3b2 ,jer #bc3bj2 #cj3bd2 #dh3dg2 #di3ci2 ,ezek4 #ch3af2 ,dan4 #aj3ad2 ,hos4 #c3e2 ,mic4 #d3a4 ,we are not1 however1 to conceive of these last days as totally separated from the preceding ages4 ,in the plan of ,god the history of the world constitutes a whole1 all the parts of which are closely connected4 ,hence the prophecies relating to the latter days include1 more or less distinctly1 the events which precede them1 and prepare the way for them4 ,in such prophecies we are not to look for exhaustive details4 ,they give1 as a rule1 only general views relating to the conflicts of ,god's people and their final triumph4 ,where minute incidents are introduced 7,psa4 #bb3ah2 #fi3ba2 ,zech4 #i3i2 #aa3ac7 it is apparently for the purpose of identifying to future generations the ,messiah as their main subject4 ,see below1 ,no4 #i4 ,prophecies relating to the days of the ,messiah are introduced in other more indefinite ways1 thus3 ,behold the days come 7,jer4 #bc3e2 #ca3ca2 etc473 ,and it shall come to pass afterward 7,joel #b3bh72 ,in that day 7,isa4 #d3b1 ,jer4 #cj3h2 ,ezek4 #ci3aa2 ,amos #i3aa1 and elsewhere72 or they are sufficiently indicated by their contents1 as ,isa4 chaps4 #dj-ff4 ,these prophecies naturally fall into two classes3 those in which the succession of events is distinctly indicated1 and those which give only general views of the future1 without any clear order of succession4 #d4 ,to the first and smaller class belong especially certain of ,daniel's prophecies4 ,the four great monarchies1 for example1 that are to bear rule over the earth are symbolized first by a great image 7,dan4 chap4 #b71 then by four beasts rising out of the sea 7,dan4 chap4 #g74 ,of these monarchies the fourth1 represented by the legs of iron and feet part of iron and part of clay 7,dan4 #b3cc71 and by the fourth beast with his ten horns 7,dan4 #g3g71 belongs in part to the latter days of the ,messiah4 ,the fourth kingdom1 represented by the legs of iron and feet part of iron and part of clay1 is at the beginning strong as iron 7chap4 #b3dj72 afterwards it is partly strong and partly broken 7ver4 #db72 it is1 moreover1 the last great monarchy that oppresses the world4 ,all these characters point to the ,roman empire1 first in its pagan1 afterwards in its papal form4 ,from the nature of the symbol1 the prophet sees the whole image standing till it is smitten in its feet of iron and clay4 ,this does not mean that the four monarchies are contemporaneous1 but that they constitute one great system of oppression1 in which the power passes successively down from the head to the feet4 ,it is in its feet that the stone smites it1 for it is in this its last form that the kingdom set up by the ,god of heaven shall encounter and destroy it4 ,the toes1 part of iron and part of clay1 well represent the kingdoms that grew up out of the old ,roman empire1 with an intermixture of the northern nations4 ,these could never unite into a compact whole1 like the original pagan empire1 yet they constituted a continuation of it in a divided form4 ,that the fourth beast again 7chap4 #g3g-ad1 #ai-bh7 represents the same ,roman empire appears from the following considerations3 7#a47 ,both here and in the second chapter a succession of four great monarchies is represented1 of which the first three are admitted to have been universal4 ,it is altogether reasonable1 therefore1 to look for a universal empire in the fourth2 but that empire can be no other than the ,roman4 7#b47 ,the fourth beast is represented as the strongest and most terrible of them all1 which cannot apply to any other than the ,roman power4 7#c47 ,all its characters agree with those of the ,roman empire1 and cannot be made to agree with those of any other power4 ,those who understand by the little horn of the fourth beast ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 must consider the fourth beast as representing the ,syrian monarchy1 or perhaps ,syria and ,egypt4 ,but these belong to the third beast4 ,they are two of the four divisions into which his empire was broken1 and which have just been represented by the four heads and four wings of the leopard4 7#d47 ,no persecuting power comes after this beast4 ,its dominion is destroyed by that of the ,messiah1 who takes the kingdom and holds it for ever4 ,this can apply only to the ,roman power as perpetuated in its papal form in the ten horns1 which correspond to the ten toes of the image4 ,chap4 #b3da-dc4 ,all the characters of the little horn agree with those of the papal power2 and considering the vast influence which this has wielded1 and still wields1 over ,god's church1 we should naturally expect that it would be included in a comprehensive view like this of the world's history4 ,the prophecies of the book of ,revelation relative to the great red dragon--pagan ,rome 7chap4 #ab71 the two beasts that succeeded to his seat and power 7chap4 #ac71 and 7what is identical with these two beasts7 the woman riding upon a scarlet-colored beast 7chap4 #ag71 are so intimately related to the fourth kingdom of ,daniel1 that whatever view be taken of this kingdom must apply to them also4 ,in these prophetic symbols we have again all the characters of pagan ,rome as continued in papal ,rome4 ,chap4 #cb1 ,no4 #d4 ,to the class of prophecies now under consideration belong also1 according to the most probable principle of interpretation1 those of the seven seals1 the seven trumpets included under the last seal1 and the seven vials of the last trumpet 7,rev4 #f3a seq472 for in these the succession of events is distinctly marked4 ,the numbers of the books of ,daniel and ,revelation1 particularly the time and times and dividing of time--three years and a half--during which the little horn is to have dominion 7,dan4 #g3be71 and 7what is equivalent to this number7 the forty-and-two months during which the ,gentiles are to tread down the holy city 7,rev4 #aa3b71 and the beast that succeeds to the dragon is to have power 7,rev4 #ac3e72 or in days1 the thousand two hundred and threescore days of the two witnesses 7,rev4 #aa3c71 and of the woman's sojourn in the wilderness 7,rev4 #ab3f71 have furnished for centuries matter of curious speculation and computation1 upon the assumption that a day here represents a year 7,chap4 #ce1 ,no4 #i72 but hitherto history has not verified the results as to time which the students of these prophecies have given4 ,the failure of their computations might have been anticipated4 ,it seems to be the plan of ,god to throw such a vail over even exact dates of prophecy1 that their place in a chronological chart of history cannot be accurately marked out beforehand4 ,either the time from which the reckoning is to proceed1 or the symbolism of the dates1 or the place which the whole series holds in relation to other prophecies1 is left in obscurity4 ,the experience of those who have busied themselves with the computation of these dates teaches1 not that we should wholly withdraw ourselves from inquiries of this kind1 but that to pursue them in a confident and dogmatic spirit1 as if we had been admitted to the council-chamber of heaven1 and had there learned the exact day and hour on which the papal throne must fall1 or our ,lord reappear on earth1 is a mark1 not of wisdom1 but of weakness and folly4 #e4 ,in the second and larger class of prophecies relating to the last days1 the element of time1 and especially that of succession in time1 is either wholly wanting1 or is indicated in only a vague and general way4 ,examples of this class of prophecies are almost innumerable4 ,a remarkable specimen is found in the fourth chapter of ,isaiah1 viewed in connection with the preceding context4 ,the prophet's position is that of his own day4 ,he writes at a time when heavy calamities are impending over his countrymen4 ,with these calamities he begins3 ,behold the ,lord1 the ,lord of hosts1 doth take away from ,judah and ,jerusalem the stay and the staff1 the whole stay of bread1 and the whole stay of water1 the mighty man1 and the man of war1 the judge1 and the prophet1 and the prudent1 and the ancient1 the captain of fifty1 and the honorable man1 and the counsellor1 and the cunning artificer1 and the eloquent orator4 ,chap4 #c3a-c4 ,so he proceeds1 in terms which must apply primarily to the ,babylonish captivity1 to the end of the third chapter1 which closes with the terrible denunciation3 ,thy men shall fall by the sword1 and thy mighty men in war4 ,and her gates shall lament and mourn2 and she1 being desolate1 shall sit upon the ground 7ver4 #be1 #bf74 ,to complete the picture of desolation1 it is added in the beginning of the fourth chapter3 ,and in that day seven women shall take hold of one man1 saying1 ,we will eat our own bread1 and wear our own apparel3 only let us be called by thy name to take away our reproach4 ,the obvious meaning of this last threatening is1 that the mass of the men shall perish in war1 so that the surviving women cannot find husbands4 ,seven of them1 therefore1 ask of one man the privilege of being called each his wife1 while they offer to forego all the usual advantages of that relation4 ,thus far the prophet proceeds in a strain of threatening4 ,but now1 with the single formula1 in that day1 there is a sudden transition to promise1 and promise of such a character that it must cover the whole future period of the ,messiah's kingdom3 ,in that day shall the branch of the ,lord be beautiful and glorious1 and the fruit of the earth shall be excellent and comely for them that are escaped of ,israel 7chap4 #d3b72 and so he goes on to describe the glory of the latter days1 when the ,lord1 having purged the blood of ,jerusalem from the midst thereof by the spirit of judgment1 and by the spirit of burning1 will create upon every dwelling-place of ,mount ,zion1 and upon her assemblies1 a cloud and smoke by day1 and the shining of a flaming fire by night3 for upon all the glory shall be a defence 7ver4 #d1 #e74 ,here we have1 in a certain sense1 an indication of time1 but it is wholly indefinite4 ,no date is given for the fulfilment of the prophecy1 nor any exact chronological order of succession4 ,the prophet began with the judgments that impended over his countrymen4 ,he ends with the full glory of the ,messiah's reign1 without any indication of the intervening interval of time4 ,another striking example is furnished by the eleventh chapter of ,isaiah in connection with the preceding context4 ,the tenth chapter of ,isaiah contains an account of the ,assyrian monarch's progress through the land of ,judea1 ending with a figurative account of his overthrow3 ,behold the ,lord1 the ,lord of hosts1 shall lop the bough with terror2 and the high ones of stature shall be hewn down1 and the haughty shall be humbled4 ,and he shall cut down the thickets of the forest with iron1 and ,lebanon shall fall by a mighty one 7ver4 #cc1 #cd74 ,immediately upon this prediction1 and with reference to the ,assyrian bough and the thickets of ,lebanon--,sennacherib with his host--that have been hewn down1 follows a prophecy of the ,messiah's advent3 ,and there shall come forth a rod out of the stem of ,jesse1 and a branch shall grow out of his roots4 ,chap4 #aa3a4 ,the prophet represents these two events1 the overthrow of the ,assyrian and the advent of the ,messiah1 as so connected that the latter follows as a natural sequel to the former1 passing over in silence the many intervening centuries4 ,he represents1 again1 the ,messiah's kingdom as one of continuous victorious progress1 till the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the ,lord1 as the waters cover the sea1 without pausing to indicate any intervening period of darkness and depression4 ,still a third pure specimen of this form of prophecy occurs in the fifty-ninth and sixtieth chapters of ,isaiah4 ,the former of these two chapters is occupied with a description in very dark lines of the sins of ,god's covenant people 7ver4 #a-ae71 and of ,god's interposition in awful majesty to vindicate his own cause 7ver4 #af-ba74 ,immediately upon this follows1 in the sixtieth chapter1 a vision of the latter-day glory that has no parallel in the ,old ,testament for brightness1 extending down to the full establishment of the millennial age4 ,but when shall these things be8 ,how long shall the present age of iniquity endure8 ,and when ,jehovah appears to save the cause of truth and righteousness1 shall it be by a single interposition or a series of interpositions8 ,if by the latter1 how widely shall they be separated1 and what dark scenes shall intervene8 ,when shall the promised ,redeemer appear1 and how long shall his work be in progress before that blessed consummation contained in the promise3 ,thy sun shall no more go down2 neither shall thy moon withdraw itself3 for the ,lord shall be thine everlasting light1 and the days of thy mourning shall be ended8 ,on all these points which involve the element of time the prophecy maintains a majestic silence4 ,the closing promise indeed is3 ,i the ,lord will hasten it in his time2 but with the ,lord one day is as a thousand years1 and a thousand years as one day4 ,the time for the consummation of ,god's plan to rescue this apostate world from the dominion of ,satan--how many slowly revolving centuries may it include1 and what fierce and bloody assaults of the adversary1 compelling ,god's suffering people to cry out3 ,o ,lord1 how long6 ,the whole of the prophecy of ,joel belongs to the class now under consideration4 ,it begins with impending judgments1 and closes with the conflict and triumph of the last times3 ,multitudes1 multitudes in the valley of decision3 for the day of the ,lord is near in the valley of decision4 ,the sun and the moon shall be darkened1 and the stars shall withdraw their shining4 ,the ,lord also shall roar out of ,zion1 and utter his voice from ,jerusalem2 and the heavens and the earth shall shake2 but the ,lord shall be the hope of his people1 and the strength of the children of ,israel4 ,so shall ye know that ,i am the ,lord your ,god dwelling in ,zion1 my holy mountain2 then shall ,jerusalem be holy1 and there shall no strangers pass through her any more4 ,chap4 #c3ad-ag4 ,many more examples might be adduced from the other prophets1 but the above will be sufficient4 #f4 ,but let no one infer1 from this absence of dates and of the exact succession of events1 that the view which the prophet gives of the future is loose and confused4 ,times and successions belong rather to the outward machinery of ,god's providential government4 ,they are1 so to speak1 the wheels and bands and shafts which connect the different movements4 ,but the perpetual living power that dwells in the church is above all time and succession4 ,in this lies the guarantee of her final triumph1 and with this the prophets are mainly occupied4 ,they take the deepest view of the progress of ,god's kingdom1 for they unfold to our view the indestructible divine life and power which animate it throughout1 and which are steadily bearing it onward towards its final destiny--victory complete and eternal over all the powers of darkness4 ,if we examine more particularly the manner in which the prophets of the ,old ,testament represent the future of the kingdom of heaven1 we shall find that it has its foundation in the unity of the plan of redemption1 the end towards which it is tending1 the indications of that end which are perpetually given in its progress1 and the fact that the end itself is the chief object of interest in prophetic vision4 7#a47 ,the unity of the plan of redemption lies not in its times and seasons1 but in the higher connections of cause and effect1 which1 under ,god's supernatural presence and agency1 bind the whole together laterally1 so to speak1 as well as backward and forward4 ,it may be compared to the unity of a web1 in which each thread of the warp extends from its beginning to its end1 and each thread of the woof from one margin to the other2 so that every part of the texture is connected with every other part without respect to nearness or distance4 ,so in the plan of redemption1 events thousands of years apart and taking place in regions thousands of miles from each other1 are as really connected as if they belonged to the same year and country4 ,and since they are thus connected in ,god's plan1 it is natural that prophecy should exhibit them in this connection1 passing over1 it may be1 many centuries in silence2 for it is the salient points of the church's future history1 the great crises in the process of her development1 that the spirit of inspiration will naturally bring to view4 ,prophecy relating to the last times is not a map1 in which the distance from one point to another1 with all the intervening mountains1 rivers1 and towns1 is accurately marked2 but rather a prospective view1 which exhibits only the great features of the region that lies before the traveller4 ,he sees far off in the horizon the goodly mountains rising one behind another1 and bathed in the pure light of heaven1 with no ability to discern1 much less to measure1 the intervening valleys and plains4 ,nay more1 mountain ranges that are widely separated may appear to his eye as one and indivisible4 7#b47 ,the plan of redemption has not only complete unity1 but continual progress towards a high end4 ,it may be compared to a majestic river1 fed by thousands of perennial springs1 that cannot stay a moment in its course towards the ocean4 ,its path is not always straight1 but it is always onward4 ,its current is not always rapid and broken1 for it is not always obstructed4 ,sometimes1 like the ,arar described by ,caesar1 it winds through level plains with a current so gentle and noiseless1 that the eye cannot discern its direction4 ,then it plunges over some ,niagara1 roaring1 boiling1 and foaming1 and shaking the very earth with its mighty cataracts4 ,but it has all the power in the level meadows that it manifests on the fearful brink of the precipice4 ,to arrest its current in one place is as impossible as in the other4 ,resistance cannot overcome its strength1 but only bring it to view4 ,let any number of ,titans build up ever so high a wall across the level meadow1 and the stream1 every particle of which is pressed forward by an inward force1 will quietly rise above their vain rampart1 and then it will begin to thunder4 ,since then ,god's kingdom--this river of ,god that is full of water--is continually tending towards a high end1 and since every event of his providence contributes something towards its progress1 what wonder if we find in prophecy events separated by many centuries of time immediately connected as cause and effect8 ,does the prophet predict the overthrow of ,sennacherib's army1 or the coming desolation of ,jerusalem by the ,chaldean armies2 he connects these calamities immediately with the advent of ,christ1 for this is the end towards which they look4 ,desolating judgments prepare the way for the ,king of glory to appear4 ,after the storm of thunder and hail there follows a serene light1 as the light of the morning when the sun riseth1 even a morning without clouds2 as the tender grass springing out of the earth by clear shining after rain4 ,the mind of the inspired bard hastens onward towards the glorious end of ,god's judgments1 without pausing to give us1 what it is not necessary that we should know1 the chronological distance of that end4 7#c47 ,the progress of ,god's kingdom gives continual indications of the end towards which it is tending4 ,the first great interposition of ,god in behalf of ,israel contained in itself a pledge of all needful help for the future1 and thus of a final triumph in the future2 for it was a manifestation of both ,god's absolute power to save his people1 and his absolute purpose to save them4 ,the full idea embodied in this interposition is summed up in the closing words of their triumphal song on the shore of the ,red sea3 ,the ,lord shall reign for ever and ever4 ,what was true of this deliverance was true of every subsequent deliverance4 ,in each of them separately1 and in the whole of them collectively1 lay the promise3 ,fear not1 thou worm ,jacob1 and ye men of ,israel2 ,i will help thee1 saith the ,lord1 and thy ,redeemer1 the ,holy ,one of ,israel4 ,behold ,i will make thee make thee to be a new sharp threshing instrument having teeth3 thou shalt thresh the mountains1 and beat them small1 and shalt make the hills as chaff4 ,thou shalt fan them1 and the wind shall carry them away1 and the whirlwind shall scatter them3 and thou shalt rejoice in the ,lord1 and shalt glory in the ,holy ,one of ,israel4 ,isa4 #da3ad-af4 ,the chastisements1 moreover1 which ,god inflicted on the covenant people through the temporary ascendency of their enemies1 and in other ways1 gave in like manner indications of a final triumph of the cause of truth and righteousness4 ,however great their severity1 they were always so ordered that ,god's people were never destroyed1 but always purified by their power1 and thus the way was prepared for their future enlargement4 ,this purifying tendency the divinely illumined eye of the ,hebrew prophet clearly discerned4 ,what wonder1 then1 that he should have constantly connected with present or impending judgments glorious promises respecting the future4 ,the destruction of ,sennacherib's army by the destroying angel1 and afterwards of ,jerusalem itself by the ,chaldean armies--the former event so joyous in its outward form1 the latter so sad--these were both alike to the prophet's vision parts of the preparation through which ,god was carrying his people for the future glory and blessedness of the latter days4 ,he accordingly connected both with bright visions of the future1 without pausing to notice the intervening centuries1 respecting the duration of which he had no commission to speak4 7#d47 ,the end itself towards which the plan of redemption tends is the chief object of interest in prophetic representation4 ,to nourish the faith and hope of the church1 to invigorate her in her present struggles by the assurance of final victory--this1 and not the gratification of a prurient curiosity respecting the exact dates of times and seasons1 is the main design of prophecy4 ,that it has other subordinate ends need not be denied4 ,it challenges for itself the attribute of omniscience1 and its fulfilment is1 to those who live after it1 a proof of the validity of its claim4 ,but to become absorbed in calculations beforehand respecting its dates is to elevate the subordinate and circumstantial in prophecy to the place of the essential4 ,the bright end of the present conflict with the powers of darkness is what prophetic vision is continually presenting for our encouragement4 ,to those who love ,god1 this is the point of chief interest2 and accordingly the prophets make it1 not the exact number of years that is to elapse before the final consummation with the details of their history1 the prominent point4 ,some great crises in the church's history are indicated so clearly that they who can discern the signs of the times may understand beforehand that they are near4 ,the general expectation of the ,messiah's advent at the time when he actually appeared had its foundation in a sober comparison of the prophecies with the existing condition of the covenant people4 ,the present universal belief among ,christians that the time for the final overthrow of the triple league between ,satan1 wicked kings1 and wicked priests for the suppression of the gospel is at hand rests1 we doubt not1 on the same solid ground4 ,but farther than this we cannot go4 ,we cannot say that it shall be in such a year of the present century1 or even in the century1 in harmony with the true spirit of prophecy4 ,it is enough for us to know that ,god will hasten it in his time--that the victory is certain1 and that every believer from ,abel to the trump of the archangel shall have his share in it4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,question ,,of ,,double ,,sense4 #g4 ,the so-called double sense of ,scripture1 especially of prophecy1 concerning which there has been so much discussion among biblical writers1 must be distinguished from the double sense of pure allegory1 which all admit4 ,in allegory1 the first or literal meaning is only a cover for the higher spiritual sense1 which alone is of importance4 ,that we may have a true example of double sense1 the obvious literal meaning must have its own proper significance1 irrespective of the higher sense belonging to it1 and this higher sense must be intended by the ,spirit of inspiration4 ,the question now to be considered is3 ,do such examples occur in ,scripture1 by whatever term we may choose to designate them8 ,to avoid logomachy1 arising from the use of the same phrase in different senses1 we prefer the expression literal and typical sense4 #h4 ,if1 as has been shown above 7chap4 #cg1 ,no4 #d71 examples of historic types are found in the ,old ,testament1 these contain a twofold sense4 ,the priesthood of ,melchizedek and the transactions between him and ,abraham were true historic realities1 having their own proper office and meaning4 ,yet the word of inspiration teaches us that the circumstances connected with ,melchizedek's priesthood and his meeting with ,abraham were intended by ,god to shadow forth the higher priesthood of ,melchizedek's great ,antitype4 ,he brought forth bread and wine1 the very symbols that should afterwards represent ,christ crucified as our spiritual food and drink1 blessed him that had the promises1 and received at his hand tithes of all 7,gen4 #ad3ah-bj71 thus exercising the prerogatives of one higher than ,abraham1 and consequently higher than all his posterity4 ,heb4 #g3d-aj4 ,in the intention of the ,holy ,ghost1 the higher typical meaning lay in this transaction from the beginning1 but it was not revealed to the apprehension of believers till the ,christian dispensation had begun4 ,so also the rest of the covenant people in the land of ,canaan is represented in the ,new ,testament as typical of the true heavenly rest4 ,heb4 #d3g-aa4 ,other examples might be adduced1 but these will serve as an illustration of the principle now under consideration4 #i4 ,the most striking examples of a literal covering a typical meaning are furnished by the so-called ,messianic psalms1 a part of which describe the victories and universal dominion of a mighty ,king whom ,jehovah himself establishes on ,zion to reign there for ever 7,psalms #b1 #de1 #gb1 #aaj1 etc472 another part1 the deep afflictions of a mighty ,sufferer and his subsequent deliverance1 which has for its result the conversion of all nations to the service of ,jehovah4 ,psalms #bb1 #dj1 #fi1 #aji1 etc4 ,that such psalms as the second and seventy-second1 the twenty-second1 fortieth1 and sixty-ninth 7not to mention others71 have a true reference to ,christ's person and work1 cannot be denied without imputing either error or fraud to the writers of the ,new ,testament4 ,nay more1 our ,lord himself said1 after his resurrection3 ,these are the words which ,i spake unto you1 while ,i was yet with you1 that all things must be fulfilled which were written in the law of ,moses1 and in the prophets1 and in the psalms1 concerning me 7,luke #bd3dd72 whence we learn that it was our ,lord's custom to refer to the psalms as containing prophecies of himself4 ,if the psalms1 when legitimately interpreted1 contain no such prophecies1 then1 when the writers of the ,new ,testament quoted them as referring to ,christ1 they either believed that they were making a true application of them according to the mind of the ,holy ,spirit1 or they simply accommodated themselves to what they knew to be the groundless prejudices of the age4 ,upon the former supposition they were in error2 upon the latter1 they were guilty of fraud4 ,such is the dishonor which the modern principles of rationalism put upon the word of ,god4 ,in the interpretation of these psalms1 then1 we must assume as a fundamental truth that they contain a true reference to ,christ4 ,the only question is1 whether they contain a lower reference also4 7#a47 ,one class of interpreters understand these psalms simply of ,christ2 that is1 they assume that the writer speaks wholly in the name of ,christ1 without reference to himself or any merely human personage4 ,there are psalms--the hundred and tenth1 for example--that may be very well explained in this way4 ,the opening words of that psalm--,the ,lord said unto my lord--seem to exclude ,david as the subject1 and it is difficult to see in what sense ,david could speak of himself as made by a divine oath a priest for ever after the order of ,melchizedek 7ver4 #d74 ,but in the attempt to carry this principle consistently through all the ,messianic psalms1 one meets with serious difficulties4 ,they contain1 at least some of them1 historic allusions of a character so marked and circumstantial that it is hard to believe that the writer had not in view his own personal situation4 ,in some of them1 moreover1 the writer makes confession to ,god of his sins4 ,psa4 #dj3ab2 #fi3e4 ,they who apply these psalms exclusively to ,christ assume that these confessions of sin are made in a vicarious way1 the ,messiah assuming the character of a sinner because the ,lord hath laid on him the iniquities of us all4 ,isa4 #ec3f4 ,but the form of these confessions forbids such an interpretation4 ,when the psalmist says3 ,mine iniquities have taken hold upon me2 ,o ,god1 thou knowest my foolishness1 and my sins are not hid from thee1 we cannot understand such language of any thing else than personal sinfulness4 ,it is true that the ,messiah bore our iniquities1 and that ,god made him to be sin for us1 who knew no sin2 but the ,saviour nowhere speaks or can speak of mine iniquities1 my foolishness1 and my sins4 7#b47 ,according to another class of interpreters1 the subject of these psalms1 particularly of those which describe the ,messiah as a sufferer1 is an ideal personage1 namely1 the congregation of the righteous considered not separately from ,christ1 but in ,christ their head2 or1 which amounts to the same thing1 ,christ considered1 not in his simple personality apart from the church1 but ,christ with his body the church4 ,the contents of these psalms are then applied1 according to their nature1 to ,christ alone1 to believers alone who are his members1 or to ,christ in the fullest sense and believers in a subordinate sense4 ,much might be said in favor of this view2 yet it labors under the difficulty already indicated1 that one cannot well read the psalms in question1 with their marked historic allusions1 without the conviction that the author had in view--not indirectly1 but immediately--his own personal situation4 7#c47 ,there remains a third1 and perhaps preferable view1 which may be called the typical view1 maintained1 as is well known1 by ,melanchthon1 ,calvin1 and many later expositors4 ,this begins with the well-established principle that ,david 7in a less eminent degree his successors also on the throne1 so far as they were true to their office7 was a divinely-constituted type of the ,messiah1 not only in his office as the earthly head of ,god's kingdom1 but in the events of his history also2 that the psalms in question1 whether they describe his victorious might or his deep suffering at the hand of his enemies1 had a true historic origin2 that their first and immediate reference was to the writer's own situation and the events which befell him2 but that1 under the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit1 he was carried beyond himself to describe the office and history of the ,messiah2 that consequently these psalms have a lower fulfilment in ,david the type 7the seventy-second in ,solomon71 and a higher in ,christ the ,antitype4 ,the second psalm1 for example1 which describes the vain conspiracy of the heathen rulers against the ,lord's anointed king1 and ,god's purpose to give him the uttermost ends of the earth for his possession1 may have had its occasion in the combination of the surrounding heathen nations against ,david4 ,in the victorious might with which ,god endowed him1 it had a lower fulfilment2 and this was1 so to speak1 the first sheaf of the harvest of victories that was to follow4 ,it was an earnest and pledge of the complete fulfilment of the psalm in ,christ1 in whom alone the promise made to ,david3 ,thine house and thy kingdom shall be established for ever before thee3 thy throne shall be established for ever 7#b ,sam4 #g3af71 could have its real accomplishment4 ,luke #a3 #cb1 #cc4 ,the second class of psalms1 of which the twenty-second is a well-known example1 may have had1 in like manner1 a true historic origin4 ,when the psalmist began with the exclamation3 ,my ,god1 my ,god1 why hast thou forsaken me8 he may have had immediate reference to his own distressed condition4 ,but since he was the divinely appointed head of the line of kings which should end in ,christ1 and was thus in his office a type of ,christ1 ,god had so ordered the circumstances of his history as to shadow forth in them the sufferings and final triumph of the ,messiah4 ,writing under the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit1 he was led1 through these circumstances1 to say many things which applied to himself only in a lower and often figurative sense1 but which were appointed to have a complete fulfilment in ,christ his ,antitype 7,psa4 #bb3a1 #g1 #h1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ah2 #dj3f-aj2 #fi3d1 #g-i1 #ba2 #aji3a-bj71 and which point to ,christ as the chief subject of the prophecies4 ,how far the psalmist understood this higher reference of his words is a question difficult to be determined4 ,with regard to the sixteenth psalm1 the apostle ,peter tells us that ,david1 being a prophet1 and knowing that ,god had sworn with an oath to him1 that of the fruit of his loins1 according to the flesh1 he would raise up ,christ to sit on his throne2 he seeing this before1 spake of the resurrection of ,christ1 that his soul was not left in hell1 neither his flesh did see corruption 7,acts #b3cj1 #ca72 whence we infer that in penning this psalm ,david was conscious of its higher application to ,christ4 ,the spirit of the ,new ,testament quotations from the psalms indicates that he had a deeper insight into the prophetic meaning of his words than many modern expositors are willing to admit4 ,but however this may be1 the ,spirit of inspiration had in view the fulfilment of these psalms in ,christ2 and his intention1 clearly revealed to us in the ,new ,testament1 is our rule of interpretation4 #aj4 ,different from the above literal and typical sense1 yet closely related to it in principle1 is that of the progressive fulfilment of prophecy1 which has a wide application in the interpretation of those prophecies which relate to the last days4 ,by the progressive fulfilment of prophecy is meant1 a fulfilment not exhaustively accomplished at one particular era or crisis in the church's history1 but successively from age to age2 a fulfilment repeated1 it may be1 many times1 and ending only with the final consummation of the ,messiah's kingdom4 ,an undeniable example of such a prophecy is ,god's message by ,isaiah to the covenant people3 ,go and tell this people1 ,hear ye indeed1 but understand not2 and see ye indeed1 but perceive not1 etc1 with the threatened desolation that should follow 7chap4 #f3i-ac74 ,this prophecy had a true fulfilment in the ancient ,jewish people before the ,babylonish captivity4 ,for their blindness of mind and hardness of heart1 they were given over to the power of ,nebuchadnezzar1 who wasted their land1 destroyed their city and temple1 and carried the remnant of the people into captivity4 ,but the same prophecy had1 in both its parts1 a more awful fulfilment in the generation of ,jews who rejected and crucified our ,lord1 and were destroyed with their city and temple by the armies of ,rome 7,matt4 #ac3ad1 #ae2 ,mark #d3ab2 ,luke #h3aj2 ,john #ab3ci-da2 ,acts #bh3be-bg2 ,rom4 #aa3h72 and its fulfilment is yet in progress4 ,joel's prophecy of the outpouring of the ,spirit in the last days upon all flesh1 with the mighty accompanying judgments 7chap4 #b3 #bh-cb71 and ,amos' prediction of the raising up of ,david's fallen tabernacle 7chap4 #i3aa1 #ab71 had both their initial fulfilment in the outpouring of the ,holy ,spirit on the day of ,pentecost and the triumphs of the gospel that followed4 ,acts #b3af-ba2 #ae3af1 #ag4 ,but the blessings which they promised were not exhausted in the apostolic age4 ,the church has had rich instalments of them1 but richer still are reserved for the future of millennial glory4 ,a large part of the prophecies of the ,old ,testament indicate in their very structure that they are not to be understood of particular events1 but of the development of ,god's kingdom from age to age4 ,the reader may take1 as a single example among many others1 the prediction of ,isaiah and ,micah concerning the establishment of the ,lord's house in the last days in the top of the mountains1 the resort of all nations to it1 and the universal peace that shall follow4 ,isa4 #b3b-d2 ,micah #d3a-d4 ,that particularism which seeks for the fulfilment of every prophecy in some one specific event of history must go widely astray in its interpretation of ,scripture4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,question ,,of ,,literal ,,and ,,figurative ,,meaning4 #aa4 ,on this question expositors are1 as is well known1 much divided2 one class adopting1 as far as possible1 the literal meaning of the prophetic announcements1 the other freely employing the principle of figurative interpretation4 ,a full discussion of the claims of these two methods of interpretation1 on which so many volumes have been written1 would far exceed the limits of the present work4 ,all that can be done is1 to indicate some well-established principles which may help to guide the biblical student in the study of prophecy4 #ab4 ,we begin by calling attention to the representative use which the ,old ,testament prophets make of the events of the past history of ,israel2 that is1 to their habit of representing the future under the imagery of this history4 ,when ,israel journeyed from ,egypt to ,palestine through the wilderness of ,arabia1 ,god dried up the tongue of the ,egyptian sea before the people1 guided them miraculously by the cloudy pillar1 fed them with manna1 made streams of water to burst forth from the rock for their refreshment1 and finally divided the waters of the ,jordan to give them a passage into the promised land4 ,this primitive history of ,israel furnishes for the prophets who lived in later ages a rich treasury of images which it would be absurd to interpret in a literal way4 ,thus ,isaiah1 speaking of the future gathering together of the outcasts of ,israel and the dispersed of ,judah from the four corners of the earth 7chap4 #aa3aa1 #ab71 says3 ,and the ,lord shall utterly destroy the tongue of the ,egyptian sea1 and with his mighty wind shall he shake his hand over the river the ,euphrates1 and shall smite it in the seven streams1 and make men go over dry shod 7ver4 #ae74 ,to suppose that the prophet foretells a literal repetition of the miracles wrought upon the ,red sea and the ,jordan is unnecessary and most improbable4 ,the meaning is1 that ,god shall remove all obstacles which hinder the return of his people to their own land1 as he originally removed all obstacles which opposed their entrance into it4 ,this is1 indeed1 the very idea of the following verse3 ,and there shall be a highway for the remnant of his people1 which shall be left1 from ,assyria2 like as it was to ,israel in the day that he came up out of the land of ,egypt4 ,again1 the prophet foretells that in the latter day glory the ,lord will create upon every dwelling-place of mount ,zion1 and upon her assemblies1 a cloud and smoke by day1 and the shining of a flaming fire by night3 for upon all the glory shall be a defence4 ,isa4 #d3e4 ,here the figurative reference is to the pillar of cloud and the pillar of fire in which the ,lord went before the ,israelites in the wilderness1 and to the glory which rested upon the tabernacle4 ,henderson4 ,god will give to his church in the latter day that which the pillar of cloud and of fire signified1 his glorious presence and protection4 ,a literal repetition of the miracle is not to be thought of4 ,once more1 ,god promises to his weary people1 on their pilgrimage to ,zion1 that in the wilderness shall waters break out1 and streams in the desert 7,isa4 #ce3f1 and often elsewhere71 with obvious allusion to the miraculous supplies of water furnished to the ,israelites in their journey through the ,arabian desert to the land of ,canaan4 ,the water here promised is the water of life1 and not literal fountains in the desert4 ,upon the same principle are we to interpret the river that flows out from under the threshold of the temple1 and flows down eastward to the ,dead sea1 growing broader and deeper in its course1 and imparting life to everything which comes within its influence4 ,ezek4 #dg3a-ab1 and compare ,psa4 #df3d2 ,joel #c3ah2 ,zech4 #ad3h4 #ac4 ,the same representative use is made by the prophets of the institutions of the ,mosaic economy4 ,one of their offices was1 to foretell the extension of the true religion over all the earth2 the conversion of all nations to the faith of the covenant people1 and their peaceful subjection to ,jehovah who reigned in ,zion4 ,in what form should this be done while the theocracy was yet in full force8 ,the disclosure of ,god's purpose to abolish this theocracy in the interest of a simpler and more spiritual dispensation1 which should know no distinction between ,jews and ,gentiles1 would have been a premature act4 ,it would1 so far as we can judge1 have led to much error and misapprehension2 and it must have had the effect of disparaging the existing economy before the world was prepared to receive any thing better in its place4 ,god1 therefore1 allowed his prophets to portray the glories of the latter day1 when all nations should come to the knowledge and obedience of the truth1 under the forms of the ,jewish dispensation1 with its temple1 sacrifices1 and solemn festivals4 ,a striking example is the bright portraiture of two contemporary prophets3 ,but in the last days it shall come to pass1 that the mountain of the house of the ,lord shall be established in the top of the mountains1 and it shall be exalted above the hills2 and people ,hebrew peoples1 that is1 as ,isaiah1 all the nations shall flow unto it4 ,and many nations shall come1 and say1 ,come1 and let us go up to the mountain of the ,lord1 and to the house of the ,god of ,jacob2 and he will teach us of his ways1 and we will walk in his paths3 for the law shall go forth of ,zion1 and the word of the ,lord from ,jerusalem4 ,and he shall judge among many people1 and rebuke strong nations afar off2 and they shall beat their swords into ploughshares1 and their spears into pruning-hooks3 nation shall not lift up sword against nation1 neither shall they learn war any more4 ,but they shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig-tree2 and none shall make them afraid3 for the mouth of the ,lord of hosts hath spoken it4 ,micah #d3a-d1 compared with ,isa4 #b3b-d4 ,the temple at ,jerusalem1 with its altar and priesthood1 was the central point of the old theocracy4 ,there all the sacrifices were to be offered1 there was the seat of royal authority1 and consequently of public justice1 and thither all the males among the people were required to repair three times a year at the great national festivals4 ,deut4 #af3af4 ,a ,jew could conceive of the conversion of all nations only in the form of their subjecting themselves to the theocracy1 and coming up to ,jerusalem for worship and the administration of justice4 ,accordingly the ,spirit of prophecy here represents the mountain of the ,lord's house as established in the top of the mountains1 a conspicuous object to all nations1 who resort thither for worship1 submit themselves to the authority of the great king who reigns there1 and thus have universal peace and happiness4 ,to insist on the literal interpretation of these words is contrary to the general analogy of prophecy4 ,it is an attempt to bring back the outward sensuous form of the kingdom of heaven which the gospel dispensation has abolished4 ,there is another celebrated passage in ,zechariah 7#ad3af-ba7 which is intensely ,jewish in its costume4 ,after describing the judgments of ,god upon the nations that have fought against ,jerusalem1 the prophet goes on to say3 ,and it shall come to pass that every one that is left of all the nations which came against ,jerusalem1 shall even go up from year to year to worship the ,king1 the ,lord of hosts1 and to keep the feast of tabernacles4 ,and it shall be1 that whoso will not come up1 of all the families of the earth1 unto ,jerusalem to worship the ,king1 the ,lord of hosts1 even upon them shall be no rain4 ,and if the family of ,egypt go not up1 and come not1 that have no rain2 there shall be the plague1 wherewith the ,lord will smite the heathen that come not up to keep the feast of tabernacles4 ,this shall be the punishment of ,egypt1 and the punishment of all nations that come not up to keep the feast of tabernacles4 ,in that day there shall be upon the bells of the horses1 ,,holiness ,,unto ,,the ,,lord2 and the pots in the ,lord's house shall be like the bowls before the altar4 ,yea1 every pot in ,jerusalem and in ,judah shall be holiness unto the ,lord of hosts2 and all they that sacrifice shall come and take of them and seethe therein3 and in that day there shall be no more the ,canaanite in the house of the ,lord of hosts4 ,the prophet's care to include all the families of the earth in this ordinance is very noticeable4 ,whatever nation refuses to observe it shall have no rain4 ,but1 recollecting that for ,egypt this can be no punishment1 he appoints for that country the plague instead of the absence of rain4 ,is it so1 then1 that in the last days all the families of the earth are to go up year by year to worship at ,jerusalem8 ,if so1 they are to sacrifice also2 for the prophecy is a homogeneous whole1 of which1 if the beginning is to be understood literally1 so is the end also4 ,the reference is to the peace-offerings of the people1 on which1 after certain prescribed portions had been burned on the altar1 the offerer feasted with his friends2 and a special provision is made for the multitude of these sacrifices4 ,every pot in ,judah and ,jerusalem1 as well as the pots in the ,lord's house1 shall be holiness unto the ,lord of hosts1 that it may be used for boiling the flesh of the peace-offerings1 precisely as we find done in the days of ,eli4 #a ,sam4 #b3ac-af4 ,but all sacrifices are done away for ever in ,christ4 ,heb4 #aj3aj-ah4 ,this part of the prophecy must clearly be understood figuratively1 and therefore the whole4 ,the future reception of the true religion by all nations is foretold under the symbols of the ,mosaic economy1 with its ritual1 its yearly feasts1 and its central place of worship4 ,for this principle of interpretation we have the warrant of the ,new ,testament4 ,did the law of ,moses prescribe a literal priesthood with literal sacrifices2 believers1 under the new dispensation1 are a spiritual priesthood1 presenting their bodies as living sacrifices4 ,rom4 #ab3a2 #a ,pet4 #b3e4 ,did the ,mosaic economy have a central metropolis1 a literal ,zion1 whither all the tribes went up2 believers in ,christ have come to the spiritual ,mount ,zion which this shadowed forth1 where the great ,antitype of ,david reigns1 that all nations may resort to him1 and he may teach them his laws4 ,upon the same principle1 as well as for other very obvious reasons 7see chaps4 #db3ae-bj2 #de3a-h2 #dg3a-ab1 and the whole of chap4 #dh71 ,ezekiel's minute description of a ,new ,jerusalem1 with its territory1 its temple1 and its ,jewish appointments 7chaps4 #dj-dh71 is to be understood not literally but figuratively4 ,this temple has also its ,levitical priesthood1 its altar1 and its sacrifices 7chap4 #dc3ac-bg71 all which are done away in ,christ4 ,there are other passages kindred to the above which it is not necessary to consider separately1 as they all come under the same general principle of interpretation4 #ad4 ,in the classes of prophecies that have been considered1 the principle of figurative interpretation can be maintained upon solid grounds4 ,but it would be wrong to press it as of universal and exclusive application4 ,where no reasons to the contrary exist1 the literal interpretation1 as the most natural and obvious1 deserves the preference4 ,to draw the limits between the literal and the figurative in prophecy is difficult1 and in some cases impossible4 ,in this respect it has pleased the wisdom of ,god that a vail should rest on some unfulfilled predictions which his own hand alone has power to remove4 ,there are two questions1 especially1 respecting which interpreters have long been divided1 and will probably continue to be divided1 till ,god himself shall decide them4 ,the first is that of the literal restoration of the ,jews to the promised land2 the second1 that of our ,lord's personal reign on earth during the promised age of millennial glory4 ,to enter upon the full discussion of either would require a volume4 ,we must dismiss both with some brief hints4 #ae4 ,the original promise to ,abraham included the grant of the land of ,canaan to him and his seed for an everlasting possession4 ,gen4 #ab3g2 #ac3ae2 #ae3ah2 #ag3h2 #bf3c2 #bh3ac4 ,it is expressed in the plainest terms1 the boundaries of the promised territory are defined1 and the nations inhabiting it enumerated 7,gen4 #ae3ah-ba72 in a word1 every thing indicates the literal as the true interpretation4 ,the remarkable words of the ,saviour3 ,and they shall fall by the edge of the sword1 and shall be led away captive into all nations3 and ,jerusalem shall be trodden down of the ,gentiles1 until the times of the ,gentiles be fulfilled 7,luke #ba3bd71 have had a literal fulfilment in the awful judgments which they foretell2 and it seems reasonable to believe that the promise implied in the last clause1 until the times of the ,gentiles be fulfilled shall have a literal fulfilment also in their repossession of ,jerusalem and the ,holy ,land4 ,the wonderful preservation of the ,jewish nation through so many centuries of dispersion points in the same direction4 ,all these things1 taken in connection with the numerous and very explicit prophecies of their captivity and dispersion for their sins1 and their subsequent restoration upon repentance 7,lev4 chap4 #bf2 ,deut4 chaps1 #bh-cj3 #a ,kings #h3df-ej2 ,isa4 chaps4 #f1 #aa1 #ff2 ,jer4 chaps4 #cj1 #ca2 ,ezek4 chaps4 #cf-ci2 ,hosea #a3aj1 #aa2 ,joel4 chap4 #c2 ,amos chap4 #i2 ,micah #g3h-bj2 ,zeph4 #c3h-bj71 seem to warrant the expectation of a literal fulfilment hereafter of the promise made to ,abraham that his seed should inherit the land of ,canaan for ever4 #af4 ,that ,christ will come again in glory to raise the dead1 change the living1 and judge all nations1 is a fundamental article of the ,christian faith4 ,but the doctrine that the fleshly and sublunary state is not to terminate with the coming of ,christ1 but to be then set up in a new form2 when1 with his glorified saints1 the ,redeemer will reign in person on the throne of ,david at ,jerusalem for a thousand years1 over a world of men yet in the flesh1 eating and drinking1 planting and building1 marrying and giving in marriage1 under this mysterious sway 7,brown on the ,second ,advent1 who correctly states the fundamental principle of the system71 cannot lay claim to an irrefragable basis of scriptural teaching4 ,the arguments relied on by its advocates are drawn in part from the very passages that have been considered above 7,micah #d3a-d2 ,zech4 #ad3af-ba74 ,how little support the theory derives from these passages1 when fairly interpreted1 we have seen4 ,nor is it favored by the references to our ,lord's second coming in the gospels and epistles1 for they clearly connect it with the final consummation of all things4 ,our ,saviour says3 ,the hour is coming1 in the which all that are in the graves shall hear his voice1 and shall come forth2 they that have done good unto the resurrection of life2 and they that have done evil1 unto the resurrection of damnation4 ,john #e3bh1 #bi4 ,he plainly represents these two resurrections as simultaneous2 nor is there in the record of his words any hint of a partial resurrection ages before the reign of death in this world shall close4 ,the resurrection at the last trump to which the apostle ,paul refers 7#a ,cor4 chap4 #ae2 #a ,thess4 #d3ac-ah2 #b ,thess4 #a3g-aj7 is universal4 ,it expressly includes all the dead in ,christ and the change of all ,christ's living disciples4 ,if nothing is said of the resurrection of the wicked1 it is because the apostle has in mind only the resurrection of life1 and has no occasion to speak of the simultaneous resurrection of damnation which the ,saviour himself connects with it4 ,this resurrection at the last trump is also the annihilation of the reign of death2 for when it happens1 then shall be brought to pass the saying that is written1 ,death is swallowed up in victory4 #a ,cor4 #ae3ed4 ,but the last enemy that shall be destroyed is death1 and then cometh the end4 #a ,cor4 #ae3bd-bf4 ,the ,saviour teaches1 moreover1 that his personal presence on earth is inconsistent with the dispensation of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,it is expedient for you that ,i go away2 for if ,i go not away the ,comforter will not come unto you2 but if ,i depart1 ,i will send him unto you4 ,john #af3g4 ,it is expedient1 doubtless1 because the dispensation of the ,spirit is better adapted to our present state of flesh and blood than his personal presence could be4 ,this dispensation of the ,spirit must1 from the nature of the case1 be continued in its full force throughout the millennial era1 when the generations of men will succeed each other as at present4 ,but the ,new ,testament knows nothing of the dispensation of the ,holy ,spirit existing contemporaneously with ,christ's personal reign on earth4 ,its constant doctrine is that the salvation of men is effected by ,christ's intercession in heaven conjointly with the gift of the ,holy ,spirit on earth4 ,the passage mainly relied upon by the advocates of this theory is the twentieth chapter of the book of ,revelation1 which speaks of the first and second resurrection4 ,but the first resurrection there described cannot be identical with the resurrection described by ,paul at our ,lord's advent4 ,the resurrection described by ,paul includes in express terms all the righteous1 whereas this first resurrection of the ,apocalypse is restricted to a certain class1 namely1 the martyrs and confessors for ,christ's sake 7ver4 #d71 while the rest of the dead live not till the thousand years are over 7ver4 #e74 ,then there is a general resurrection 7ver4 #aa-ae71 which1 from its very terms1 includes the righteous and the wicked2 for among the books then opened is the book of life4 ,the risen dead are judged every man according to his works1 and all whose names are not found in the book of life are cast into the lake of fire4 ,at the same time death and hell 7,hades71 personified as two enemies of the human race1 are cast into the lake of fire1 and thus death1 the last enemy1 is destroyed1 and death is swallowed up in victory4 #a ,cor4 #ae3bf1 #ed4 ,this is the resurrection which takes place upon our ,lord's advent at the last trump1 not a thousand years after his advent2 the resurrection and judgment1 when the wicked shall go away into everlasting punishment1 but the righteous into life eternal4 ,we venture not to interpret the meaning of the first resurrection1 believing that it is one of the mysteries which ,god alone will reveal in its fulfilment4 ,but whether it should be taken literally or figuratively1 after the analogy of the resurrection of the two witnesses 7chap4 #aa3aa71 it does not seem reasonable to build upon this obscure and difficult passage a doctrine respecting our ,lord's pre-millennial advent and personal reign on earth which is so decidedly at variance with the general tenor of ,scripture4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,quotations ,,from ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,in ,,the ,,new4 #a4 ,as it respects inspiration1 and consequent infallible authority1 the quotations of the ,new ,testament stand on a level with the rest of the apostolic writings4 ,the ,saviour's promise was3 ,when he1 the ,spirit of truth1 is come1 he will guide you into all truth2 literally1 into all the truth1 that is1 as immediately explained1 all the truth pertaining to the ,redeemer's person and work4 ,when1 therefore1 after the fulfilment of this promise1 ,peter and the other apostles expounded to their brethren the ,scriptures of the ,old ,testament1 wherein the ,spirit of ,christ testified beforehand the sufferings of ,christ1 and the glory that should follow1 the same ,spirit of ,christ guided them to a true apprehension of their meaning4 ,if we cannot trust ,peter and ,paul1 whom ,christ himself personally commissioned to preach his gospel1 qualified for this work by the gift of the ,holy ,spirit1 and endowed with miraculous powers as the seal of their commission--if we cannot trust these men to interpret the words of the ,old ,testament1 then we cannot trust the guidance of the ,divine ,spirit himself4 ,but when we have admitted1 as we must1 the authority of the ,new ,testament writers as interpreters of the ,old ,testament1 a very important question remains to be considered2 and that is the manner of their quotations4 ,this question we propose briefly to examine in respect to both outward form and inward contents4 #b4 ,as it respects outward form1 we cannot but notice at once the very free spirit of these quotations4 ,it is manifest that these inspired penmen are not anxious about the verbal accuracy of the words cited4 ,the spirit and scope of a passage1 which constitute its true life and meaning1 are what they have in view1 not the exact number of words literally translated from ,hebrew into ,greek4 ,it is well known that a very large part of their quotations is made from the ,greek version of the seventy1 called the ,septuagint1 which was in common use in their day4 ,no one pretends that the translators who made the ,septuagint were inspired1 or that they always succeeded in hitting the exact meaning of the ,hebrew original4 ,yet1 under the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit1 the robust good sense of the ,new ,testament writers went straight forward without stopping to notice or criticise deviations from the ,hebrew1 provided they did not affect the use which they wished to make of the passages quoted4 ,but the ,new ,testament writers do not always conform their quotations to the ,septuagint4 ,they frequently follow the ,hebrew wholly or in part where the ,greek version departs from it4 ,matthew1 in particular1 follows the ,hebrew in the ,messianic quotations4 ,chap4 #bi1 ,no4 #ai4 ,yet in these cases also they cite in the same free manner1 abridging sometimes the ,hebrew passage quoted1 or giving only its general sense4 ,it may be that thus the wisdom of ,god intended to bear testimony against the undue exaltation of the letter of inspiration above its spirit4 ,from a list of some two hundred and fifty citations placed side by side with the original ,hebrew passages and the ,septuagint version of the same we select the following as illustrations of the above remarks1 each passage being literally translated4 ,the words in brackets are regarded by some as not belonging to the true text4 ,hebrew4 ,the ,spirit of the ,lord ,god is upon me2 because the ,lord hath anointed me to preach good tidings to the meek3 he hath sent me to bind up the broken-hearted1 to proclaim liberty to the captives1 and the opening of the prison to the bound2 to proclaim a year of acceptance to the ,lord4 ,isa4 #fa3a1b4 ,septuagint4 ,the ,spirit of the ,lord is upon me2 because he hath anointed me to preach good tidings to the poor2 he hath sent me to heal the broken-hearted1 to proclaim release to the captives1 and recovery of sight to the blind2 to proclaim the acceptable year of the ,lord4 ,isa4 #fa3a1 #b4 ,new ,testament4 ,the ,spirit of the ,lord is upon me2 because he hath anointed me to preach good tidings to the poor1 he hath sent me to heal the broken-hearted1 to proclaim release to the captives1 and recovery of sight to the blind1 to send away free the bruised 7perhaps from the ,greek of ,isa4 #eh3f72 to proclaim the acceptable year of the ,lord4 ,luke #d3ah1 #ai4 ,hebrew4 ,rejoice greatly1 ,o daughter of ,zion2 shout1 ,o daughter of ,jerusalem3 behold thy king shall come to thee3 he is just and endowed with salvation2 lowly1 and riding upon an ass1 and upon a colt the foal of an ass4 ,zech4 #i3i4 ,septuagint4 ,rejoice greatly1 ,o daughter of ,zion2 proclaim1 ,o daughter of ,jerusalem3 behold the king cometh to thee1 just and exercising salvation2 he is meek1 and mounted on an ass and a young colt4 ,zech4 #i3i4 ,new ,testament4 ,say ye to the daughter of ,zion 7,isa4 #fb3aa73 ,behold thy king cometh to thee1 meek1 and mounted upon an ass1 and upon a colt the foal of an ass4 ,matt4 #ba3e4 ,fear not1 ,o daughter of ,zion2 behold thy king cometh sitting upon an ass's colt4 ,john #ab3ae4 ,hebrew4 ,in hearing hear ye1 but understand not2 and in seeing see ye1 but perceive not4 ,make fat the heart of this people1 and their ears make heavy1 and their eyes cover over3 lest they see with their eyes1 and with their ears hear1 and with their heart understand1 and turn1 and one heal them4 ,isa4 #f3i1aj4 ,septuagint4 ,in hearing ye shall hear1 but understand not2 and in seeing ye shall see1 but perceive not4 ,for the heart of this people became gross1 and with their ears they heard heavily1 and the eyes they closed2 lest at any time they should see with the eyes1 and with the ears should hear1 and with the heart should understand1 and should turn1 and ,i should heal them4 ,isa4 #f2i1 #aj4 ,new ,testament4 ,in hearing ye shall hear1 but understand not2 and in seeing ye shall see1 but perceive not4 ,for the heart of this people became gross1 and with the ears they heard heavily1 and their eyes they closed2 lest at any time they should see with the eyes1 and with the ears should hear1 and with the heart should understand1 and should turn1 and ,i should heal them4 ,matt4 #ac3ad1 #ae2 also ,acts #bh3bf1 #bg4 ,that in seeing they may see and not perceive1 and in hearing they may hear and not understand2 lest at any time they should turn1 and their sins should be forgiven them4 ,mark #d3ab4 ,that in seeing they may not see1 and in hearing they may not understand4 ,luke #h3aj4 ,he hath blinded their eyes1 and hardened their heart2 that they might not see with the eyes1 and understand with the heart1 and be turned1 and ,i should heal them4 ,john #ab3dj4 ,these quotations of the same passage by different ,new ,testament writers furnish a remarkable example of their free manner1 while the spirit and scope of the prophet are kept by all4 ,in ,heb4 #aj3e we have a quotation from the ,septuagint where it differs widely from the ,hebrew of ,psa4 #dj3g4 ,this reads3 ,sacrifice and offering thou didst not desire2 mine ears hast thou opened 7,heb4 bored or digged74 ,but the apostle quotes after the ,septuagint3 ,sacrifice and offering thou wouldest not1 but a body hast thou prepared for me4 ,the attempted explanations of this difference are not very satisfactory4 ,it is to be noticed1 however1 that the apostle builds no essential part of his argument upon the clause in question4 ,in the long quotation from ,jeremiah in ,heb4 #h3h-ab1 the clause1 and ,i regarded them not 7ver4 #i71 is perhaps correct for substance2 since many prefer to render the corresponding ,hebrew clause not as in our version--though ,i was a husband unto them1--but1 and ,i rejected them4 ,when1 on the contrary1 the spirit and scope of a passage are lost in the version of the ,seventy1 the ,new ,testament writers quote directly from the ,hebrew4 ,examples are the following3 ,when ,israel was a child1 then ,i loved him1 and called my son out of ,egypt4 ,hosea #aa3a1 quoted in ,matt4 #b3ae4 ,here the ,seventy render3 ,out of ,egypt ,i called my children1 a variation from the original which makes the passage inapplicable2 since ,israel1 as ,god's first-born son 7,exod4 #d3bb1 #bc71 was the type of ,christ1 and not the individual ,israelites4 ,again1 to the passage ,isa4 #db3a-d1 quoted in ,matt4 #ab3ah-ba1 the ,septuagint gives a wrong turn by the introductory words3 ,jacob my son1 ,i will help him3 ,israel my chosen1 my soul hath accepted him3 ,i have put my ,spirit upon him2 he shall bring forth judgment to the ,gentiles1 etc42 whereas the ,hebrew speaks not of ,jacob and ,israel1 but of ,god's servant3 ,behold my servant1 whom ,i uphold2 my chosen1 in whom my soul delighteth1 etc4 ,matthew accordingly follows the ,hebrew1 yet in a very free manner3 ,behold my servant1 whom ,i have chosen2 my beloved1 in whom my soul delighteth1 etc4 ,for other examples see ,mal4 #c3a1 as quoted by ,matt4 #aa3aj2 ,mark #a3b2 ,luke #g3bg2 ,isa4 #i3a1 #b1 as quoted by ,matt4 #d3ae1 #af4 #c4 ,passing now to the consideration of the ,new ,testament citations on the side of their inward contents1 the first question1 that arises has respect to the so-called principle of accommodation4 ,there is a sense in which the writers of the ,new ,testament sometimes employ the language of the ,old in the way of accommodation2 that is1 they use its phraseology1 originally applied in a different connection1 simply as expressing in an apt and forcible manner the thoughts which they wish to convey4 ,of this we have a beautiful example in ,rom4 #aj3ah1 where the apostle says1 in reference to the proclamation of the gospel3 ,but ,i say1 ,have they not heard8 ,yes verily1 their sound went into all the earth1 and their words unto the ends of the world1 meaning that what the psalmist says of the instruction given by the heavens1 ,psa4 #ai3a-d1 is true of the preaching of the word2 so that none are excusable for their unbelief4 ,another striking example is found in the same chapter 7ver4 #f-h71 where phraseology originally used by ,moses to express the way of justification contained in the law 7,deut4 #cj3aa-ad7 is adapted to the gospel as properly descriptive of the salvation propounded in it4 ,davidson's ,hermeneutics1 p4 #dga4 ,but that the ,saviour and his apostles used accommodation in the commonly received sense of the term2 that is1 that they quoted1 in accommodation to the ideas of their age1 passages from the ,old ,testament as applicable to the ,messiah and his kingdom1 which they knew to have no such application when fairly and legitimately interpreted2 that1 for example1 they used the hundred and tenth psalm as a prophecy of the ,messiah 7,matt4 #bb3da-df2 ,mark #ab3ce-cg2 ,luke #bj3da-dd2 ,acts #b3cd1 #ce2 ,heb4 #a3ac71 simply because this was the current interpretation of their times--this is not to be admitted for a moment4 ,that the ,saviour dealt prudently with the prejudices of his age is admitted2 but he did not build upon them his claim to be the ,messiah1 nor solemnly appeal to the authority of ,moses and the prophets knowing this to be only a dream of fanciful interpretation4 ,if ,christ and his apostles taught any thing1 it was that he had come in accordance with the prophecies of the ,old ,testament1 and in fulfilment of these prophecies4 ,did they indeed1 in all this1 only act upon the maxim which ,paul rejects with abhorrence as damnable8 ,if the truth of ,god hath more abounded through my lie unto his glory2 why yet am ,i also judged as a sinner8 ,and not rather 7as we be slanderously reported1 and as some affirm that we say71 ,let us do evil that good may come8 whose damnation is just4 #d4 ,the writers of the ,new ,testament often cite the ,old by way of argument4 ,thus the ,saviour argues against divorce at the husband's will for every cause by an appeal to the original institution of marriage 7,matt4 #ai3c-f72 and ,paul proves that the man is the head of the woman1 and that she owes subjection to him1 from the order of creation and its accompanying circumstances4 #a ,cor4 #aa3h1 #i2 #a ,tim4 #b3aa-ad4 ,respecting this class of quotations1 it is only necessary to remark that the validity of the arguments depends on the historic truth and divine authority of the passages adduced4 ,the ,saviour and his apostles professedly build their arguments on the record of the ,old ,testament4 ,if this is sand--mythical quicksand--their house falls1 and their authority with it4 ,but if the foundation is rock--an inspired record of facts--their house stands1 and with it their character as truthful teachers4 #e4 ,far more numerous are the passages which are cited as prophecies of ,christ and his kingdom4 ,these are introduced by various formulas3 ,that it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the ,lord by the prophet2 that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by ,esaias the prophet2 in them is fulfilled the prophecy of ,esaias2 this day is this ,scripture fulfilled in your ears2 this ,scripture must needs have been fulfilled2 it is contained in ,scripture2 another ,scripture saith2 this that is written must yet be accomplished in me1 etc4 ,the common formula1 that it might be fulfilled1 means that the event recorded took place in order that the purpose of ,god announced in the prophecy might be accomplished4 ,the prophecy was not the main thing1 but the purpose of ,god contained in it4 ,for the accomplishment of this purpose1 and thus of the prophecy which revealed it1 ,god's truth was pledged4 ,in the same way are to be understood the words of ,john 7chap4 #ab3ci1 #dj73 ,therefore they could not believe because that ,esaias saith again1 ,he hath blinded their eyes1 etc4 ,the hinderance to their belief lay not in the prophecy1 but in that which the prophecy announced4 #f4 ,of the prophecies quoted1 some refer immediately to ,christ4 ,such are the following3 ,the ,lord said unto my ,lord1 ,sit thou on my right hand1 till ,i make thine enemies thy footstool 7,matt4 #bb3dd1 from ,psa4 #aaj3a72 ,the ,lord sware and will not repent1 ,thou art a priest for ever after the order of ,melchizedek 7,heb4 #g3ba1 from ,psa4 #aaj3d72 ,he was led as a sheep to the slaughter2 and like a lamb dumb before his shearer1 so opened he not his mouth1 etc4 7,acts #h3cb1 #cc1 from ,isa4 #ec3g1 #h72 ,a ,prophet shall the ,lord your ,god raise up unto you of your brethren1 like unto me2 him shall ye hear1 etc4 7,acts #c3bb1 #bc2 #g3cg1 from ,deut4 #ah3ae1 #ah1 #ai74 #g4 ,others refer ultimately to ,christ1 but under a type4 ,an undeniable example is the following3 ,a bone of him shall not be broken 7,john #ai3cf1 from ,exod4 #ab3df2 ,numb4 #i3ab72 words originally spoken of the paschal lamb1 which was the type of ,christ1 and now fulfilled in the great ,antitype4 ,again1 we read in ,hosea 7chap4 #aa3a73 ,when ,israel was a child1 then ,i loved him1 and called my son out of ,egypt2 words which ,matthew quotes as fulfilled in ,christ 7chap4 #b3ae74 ,it was the purpose of ,god1 namely1 that the history of ,israel1 ,god's first-born son 7,exod4 #d3bb1 #bc71 in his national childhood1 should foreshadow that of ,jesus1 the only begotten ,son of ,god4 ,to the same class belongs apparently the following citation3 ,what is man1 that thou art mindful of him8 or the son of man1 that thou visitest him8 ,thou madest him a little lower than the angels2 thou crownedst him with glory and honor1 and didst set him over the works of thy hands3 thou hast put all things in subjection under his feet4 ,heb4 #b3f-h1 from ,psa4 #h3d-f4 ,it seems impossible to deny that the immediate reference of the psalm is to man's exalted dignity and high prerogatives as the lord of this lower world4 ,but1 as the writer to the ,hebrews argues1 the words have no complete fulfilment in man considered apart from ,christ4 ,it is in the person of ,christ alone that the high destiny of human nature finds its full realization4 ,he is made ,lord of all1 and crowned with glory and honor for himself and for all his disciples also1 who shall reign with him in glory for ever4 ,we add one more example from ,heb4 #a3e1 where the writer quotes and applies to ,christ the words of ,nathan to ,david3 ,i will be to him a ,father1 and he shall be to me a ,son4 #b ,sam4 #g3ad4 ,the promise undeniably had immediate respect to ,solomon2 not to ,solomon1 however1 in his simple personality1 but to ,solomon as the first after ,david of a line of kings that should end in ,christ1 in whom alone it has its true fulfilment4 ,god took ,solomon1 and in him the whole line of kings on ,david's throne1 into the relation of sonship1 and thus of heirship4 ,rom4 #h3ag2 ,gal4 #d3g4 ,to ,solomon1 as ,god's son1 the kingdom was confirmed for ever through ,christ2 and ,solomon's lower sonship1 moreover1 adumbrated the higher sonship of the last and greatest of his sons1 to whom the promise was3 ,he shall be great1 and shall be called the ,son of the ,highest2 and the ,lord ,god shall give unto him the throne of his father ,david3 and he shall reign over the house of ,jacob for ever2 and of his kingdom there shall be no end4 ,luke #a3cb1 #cc4 ,to draw the exact line of separation between the two above named classes of citations is difficult1 and in some cases perhaps impossible4 ,nor is it necessary1 since the essential truth is1 that all these prophecies find their accomplishment in ,christ2 those of the former class directly1 those of the latter through types of divine appointment4 ,the exegesis of the ,new ,testament quotations presents many difficult questions1 relating partly to the true rendering of the original words1 partly to the deviations of the ,septuagint from the ,hebrew1 and the citations from both the ,septuagint and the ,hebrew2 partly to the original application of the passages cited and the use made of them in the ,new ,testament4 ,for the details the student must be referred to the commentators4 ,all that has been here attempted is a statement of the general principles that must govern us in interpreting the quotations from the ,old ,testament which are found in the ,new4 ,,index ,,of ,,subjects4 99 99 99 99 99 ,n4,b4 ,,the ,,figures ,,refer ,,to ,,the ,,pages4 ,a4 ,abrahamic covenant1 the ground work of the ,pentateuch1 #bbe2 of the gospel1 #aaf1 seq4 ,adam1 his apostasy the key to the plan of redemption1 #aae4 ,accentuation1 ,hebrew system of1 #bfe4 ,acknowledged epistles1 #ia1 seq4 ,accommodation1 principle of1 #fce4 ,acts of the ,apostles1 a natural sequel to the ,gospels1 #hg2 external testimonies to the book1 #hh2 internal evidences1 #hi2 its credibility1 #ij2 coincidences with the ,pauline epistles1 #ij2 its plan and divisions1 #ddj2 its offices1 #ddb1 seq4 ,ahasuerus1 the ,xerxes of history1 #bfa4 ,alamoth1 #bhh4 ,alexander the ,great1 his visit to ,jerusalem1 #bfc1 #cbe4 ,alexandria1 the ,septuagint version made here1 #aii4 ,alexandrine ,jews1 their use of the ,greek language1 #cfi4 ,alexandrine manuscript1 #che4 ,allegorical applications of ,scripture1 #eec4 ,allegories2 their interpretation1 #eeh1 seq4 ,altar1 of incense1 #ehi2 of burnt-offering1 #eij4 ,al-taschith1 #bhh4 ,ammonian sections1 #cge4 ,amos1 #ccf2 book of1 #ccf1 seq4 ,analogy of faith1 #egf1 seq4 ,antilegomena1 #ia1 #if1 seq4 ,antioch in ,pisidia1 #ddb4 ,antioch in ,syria1 the centre of ,paul's missionary labors1 #dda1 #ddb1 #ddi4 ,apocalypse1 meaning of the term1 #ejc2 its apostolic authorship1 #ejc2 its date1 #ejf2 various schemes of interpretation1 #ejg2 symbolic import of its numbers1 #ejh1 seq4 ,apocrypha1 meaning of the word1 #cej4 ,apocryphal books of the ,old ,testament1 #aih1 #cej1 seq42 uncertainty of their dates1 #cej2 none of them exist in ,hebrew or were received into the ,hebrew canon1 #cej2 received by the ,alexandrine ,jews1 #cea2 estimation by the early ,christians and by ,protestants1 #cea4 ,apocryphal ,gospels and ,acts1 #eag4 ,apostolic canons1 so-called1 #ead4 ,apostolic epistles1 a natural sequel to the ,gospels1 #dde2 their occasions and offices1 #dde1 seq4 ,apostolic men1 #aji2 their writings1 #dhc4 ,apostolic fathers1 #eaa1 seq4 ,apostles1 their peculiar office1 #ajc2 their inspiration1 #ajd1 seq4 ,apostle's ,creed1 #eag4 ,aquila and his version1 #bjd4 ,aramaean or ,aramaic and its branches1 #age2 became the language of the ,jews after the captivity1 #agg1 #cfi4 ,ark of the covenant1 #ehh4 ,aristeas' account of the ,septuagint version1 #aii4 ,aristobulus' account of the same1 #aii4 ,armenian version1 #dji4 ,artaxerxes1 #bfa2 ,artaxerxes ,longimanus1 #bfa1 #cdi4 ,assyrian or square character1 #agb1 #age4 ,atonement1 great day of1 #fjc4 ,authenticity of the ,gospels1 #ff1 seq42 of the ,pentateuch1 #abj1 seq4 ,see further under the several books4 ,autographs of the sacred writers1 their early disappearance1 #fa1 #bji4 ,b4 ,babylon1 church in1 #dib4 ,babylonish captivity1 #bee4 ,barnabas1 his relation to ,mark1 #dbg4 ,barnabas1 so-called ,epistle of1 #df1 #ajj1 #eaf4 ,baruch1 apocryphal book of1 #ceh4 ,bashmuric version1 #djg4 ,belshazzar1 identification of1 #cbg4 ,berosus' account of ,nebuchadnezzar1 #cbh4 ,beza's1 or the ,cambridge manuscript1 #chg4 ,bible1 meaning of the word1 #afe2 variety of its authors and dates of its books1 #afh1 #cgb1 seq42 their arrangement1 #afi1 seq41 #cga1 seq42 different designations of1 #afe1 seq42 its code of morals1 #aej1 seq42 harmony of its parts1 #aeb1 #aed2 its power over the conscience and life1 #aed4 ,blood1 sacrificial1 the atonement lay in it1 #eig2 sprinkling of1 #fja1 #fjc2 when carried into the sanctuary1 #fjd4 ,books of the ,new ,testament1 public reading of1 #fc4 ,see further under ,new ,testament and the several books4 ,books of the ,old ,testament4 ,see under ,bible and ,old ,testament4 ,branch as a designation of the ,messiah1 #eij4 ,briefs1 #cgg4 ,burning of sacrifices1 signification of1 #fjb2 without the camp1 #fje4 ,burnt-offerings1 #eih4 ,c4 ,cambyses1 #bfa4 ,canaanites1 their extirpation1 #adj1 #bdd4 ,candlestick1 golden1 #ehi4 ,canon1 meaning of the word1 #ahc2 its extent1 #aab4 ,canon of the ,new ,testament1 its gradual formation1 #cid1 seq42 first recognition of a canon1 #cih2 the books received separately and on full evidence1 #cii2 completion of the present canon1 #cih2 important ancient canons1 #cih4 ,canon of the ,old ,testament1 settled by ,ezra1 #abc1 #aic1 seq42 principle of its settlement1 #adg2 ,josephus' account of1 #aig2 ,origen's and ,jerome's1 #aig2 canon of the ,pentateuch1 #ahc1 seq42 of the historical books1 #ahe1 seq42 of the prophetical and poetic books1 #aij1 seq4 ,canticles1 #bib4 ,chaldaisms1 #cjg4 ,chaldee language1 parts of the ,old ,testament written in it1 #age4 ,see further under ,targums4 ,chapters1 origin of1 #agd1 #cgg4 ,cherubim over the ark1 ,god's dwelling-place1 #ehh4 ,christ1 his person and advent the central point of ,christianity1 #cb1 #daa2 his character verifies itself1 #ga1 seq42 manner of his teaching1 #gg1 seq42 manner in which he manifested his deity1 #gi1 seq42 his infallibility an axiom of ,christianity1 #ajb2 preparation for his advent1 #aad2 union of the kingly and priestly offices in his person1 #eij2 question of his second advent and personal reign on earth1 #fbi1 seq44 ,christian church1 inauguration of1 #ddc4 ,christianity1 its historic basis1 #ca1 #daj4 ,chronicles1 books of1 originally one #bee12 meaning of the name1 #bee2 their characteristics1 #bef2 their place in the ,hebrew canon1 #beg2 difficulties connected with them1 #beg1 seq44 ,chronology1 of the ,old ,testament1 #bcj2 of the book of ,judges1 #bdg2 of the books of ,kings1 #bee2 of the book of ,ezra1 #bfj4 ,church lessons1 #cgh4 ,clean and unclean1 ,mosaic distinctions of1 #fje4 ,clement of ,alexandria1 #dj4 ,see further under various ,new ,testament books4 ,clement of ,rome1 first epistle of1 #ajj1 #eaa1 seq42 its occasion1 scope1 and style1 #eab2 its reference to the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 #dhc2 second ,epistle of1 not genuine1 #eab2 so-called ,clementines1 or ,recognitions of ,clement1 #eac2 so-called ,constitutions of ,clement1 and apostolic canons1 #ead4 ,codex ,vaticanus1 #chd2 ,sinaiticus1 #che2 ,alexandrinus1 #che1 seq42 ,ephraemi1 #chf2 ,dublinensis1 #chg2 ,bezae1 #chg2 ,purpureus1 #chh4 ,see further on pages #djb1 #djd4 ,colosse and church of the ,colossians1 #dfc4 ,colossians1 epistle to the1 its relation to the epistle to the ,ephesians1 #dfa2 its occasion1 scope1 and plan1 #dfd4 ,comparisons1 #eeb4 ,context1 definition of1 #eca2 its importance1 #eca4 ,continuous writing1 #agb1 #cgc4 ,contradictions1 apparent1 reconciliation of1 #edc4 ,coptic version1 #djg4 ,corinth and the ,corinthian church1 #ded4 ,corinthians1 first epistle to the1 date and place of writing1 #dec3 occasion and scope1 #ded2 contents1 #dee2 contrast with the epistle to the ,galatians1 #def4 ,corinthians1 second epistle to the1 date and place of writing1 #def2 occasion1 contents1 and peculiar character1 #deg4 ,cornelius1 #dda4 ,councils1 general1 their later introduction1 #da1 #ig4 ,council of ,laodicea1 its canon1 #cii4 ,credibility of the gospels4 ,see gospel narratives4 ,crete and the ,cretan churches1 #dhj4 ,criticism of the sacred text1 its office1 #bji2 of the ,old ,testament text1 its sources1 manuscripts1 #bji2 ancient versions1 #baj2 primary editions1 #baj2 parallel passages1 #baa2 quotations in the ,new ,testament1 #baa1 #fcb1 seq42 criticism of the ,new ,testament text1 its state1 #chj1 seq42 various readings1 #cha2 materials for correction1 #chc2 manuscripts1 #chd1 seq42 primary editions1 #chh2 the received text1 #chi1 seq42 principles of textual criticism1 #cia1 seq4 ,cursive manuscripts1 #fj1 #cge1 #chh4 ,cyrus1 signification of the name1 #cjf his decree for liberating the ,jews1 #cjf ,d4 ,damasus1 his agency with respect to the vulgate1 #djb4 ,daniel1 #cbb4 ,daniel1 book of1 its place in the ,jewish canon1 #cbb2 arrangement and contents1 #cbc2 genuineness1 #cbd1 seq42 unity1 #cbd2 testimonies to it1 ,josephus1 #cbe2 the ,saviour1 #cbe1 seq42 its language1 #cbf1 #cbi2 difficulties connected with its chronology and history1 #cbg2 its supernatural contents1 #ccj4 ,daniel1 apocryphal additions to1 #cei4 ,danites1 their conquest of ,laish1 #bdc1 #bde4 ,darius ,hystaspes1 #bfa1 #cde4 ,darius the ,median1 #cbh4 ,david1 #bdi1 seq42 typical character of his kingdom and office1 #ehb4 ,deluge1 #bbi4 ,demetrius ,phalerens1 his agency in the ,septuagint version1 #bja4 ,deuteronomy1 book of1 meaning of the name1 #bch2 its authorship1 #abd1 seq42 its relation to the earlier parts of the law1 #abg2 design1 #abh2 peculiar character1 #abi2 contents1 #bch1 seq4 ,diatesseron of ,tatian1 #ej4 ,difficulties1 treatment of1 #cd1 #he2 of the ,mosaic economy1 #ach1 #ega2 of the book of ,genesis1 #bbi1 seq4 ,diognetus1 epistle to1 #de4 ,disputed books4 ,see ,antilegomena4 ,double sense1 question of1 #fah1 seq42 in the historic types1 #fah2 in the ,messianic ,psalms1 #fai4 ,dublin manuscript1 #chg4 ,e4 ,ebionites1 their gospel1 #dbb4 ,ecclesiastes1 book of1 #bij1 seq4 ,ecclesiasticus1 apocryphal book of1 #ceg4 ,elihu1 #bhc4 ,egypt1 the sojourn in1 #bcc4 ,eleazar1 martyrdom of1 #cfa4 ,enoch1 apocryphal book of1 #eja4 ,ephesus and the ,ephesian church1 #dfe1 #dgi4 ,ephesians1 ,epistle to the1 #dfb1 #dfe1 seq42 its relation to the epistle to the ,colossians1 #dfb2 occasion and general character1 #dff2 address and authorship1 #dff2 contents and divisions1 #dfg1 seq4 ,ephraem manuscript1 #chf4 ,epistles1 apostolic1 #dde2 ,pauline1 #ddf4 ,see further under the several epistles4 ,esdras1 apocryphal books of1 #ceb4 ,esther1 book of1 #bfc4 ,esther1 apocryphal additions to1 #cee4 ,ethiopian version1 #djh4 ,eusebius1 account of the ,new ,testament canon1 #cih4 ,see further under the various ,new ,testament books4 ,eusebian canons1 #cgf4 ,euthalius and stichometry1 #cgd4 ,evidences of ,christianity1 internal and experimental1 #adi1 seq4 ,for the historic see gospel narratives1 ,pentateuch1 etc4 ,exodus1 meaning of the word1 #bcb2 unity1 divisions1 and contents of the book1 #bcb2 time of the sojourn in ,egypt1 #bcc4 ,exegesis defined1 #eba4 ,expositions1 inept1 #edj2 incompatible1 #eda2 forced1 #edd4 ,expositor1 his office1 #eba2 qualifications1 #ebb1 seq4 ,ezekiel1 #caf1 seq4 ,ezekiel1 book of1 #cbj1 seq4 ,ezra1 his work in the restoration1 #beh2 in settling the ,hebrew canon1 #abc1 #adg4 ,ezra1 book of1 #beh2 its chronology1 #bfj4 ,f4 ,fables1 distinguished from parables1 #eed4 ,figurative language1 #edf2 its ascertainment1 #edg1 seq42 its interpretation1 #eeg1 seq4 ,figures1 different kinds of1 #eej1 seq4 ,g4 ,galatia and the ,galatian church1 #deh4 ,galatians1 ,epistle to the1 date and place of writing1 #deh2 occasion and scope1 #dei2 contents and divisions1 #dfj1 seq4 ,genesis1 book of1 meaning of the word1 #bbd2 its relation to the following books1 #acj2 authorship1 #acb1 #bbg2 introductory office1 #bbe2 divisions1 #bbf1 seq42 contents and difficulties1 #bbg1 seq4 ,gentiles1 their reception of the gospel1 and introduction to the church1 #ddc1 #ddg4 ,genuineness4 ,see under the several divisions and books of the ,bible4 ,gittith1 #bhg4 ,gnosticism1 #dgg4 ,gospel1 meaning and different uses of the word1 #daa4 ,gospel of the ,ebionites1 #dbb4 ,gospels1 relation to each other1 #dag2 chronology1 #dai2 relative size of1 #dbj4 ,gospels1 synoptical1 #ej2 their earlier composition1 #ea2 their agreements1 #dab2 differences1 #dac2 theories of their origin1 that of mutual dependence1 #dac2 of an original document1 #dac2 of apostolic tradition1 #dad1 seq42 their incomplete character1 #dag2 relation to the fourth gospel1 #dai4 ,gospels1 the several4 ,see under the head of each4 ,gospel narratives1 their genuineness1 #cf1 seq42 written successively at intervals1 #cg2 earlier histories of our ,lord1 #cg2 external evidences considered1 #ch1 seq42 internal1 #ej1 seq42 their uncorrupt preservation1 #ei1 seq42 their authenticity and credibility1 character of the writers1 #fg1 seq42 of the works recorded1 #fh2 certainty of our ,lord's resurrection1 #gj2 the character of ,jesus verifies itself1 #ga1 seq42 supernatural character of the facts recorded in the gospels1 #hd2 objections considered1 #he4 ,gospel harmonies1 #dai4 ,gothic version1 #djh4 ,greek of the ,new ,testament1 its peculiar character1 #eg1 #cfh its adaptation to the wants of the ,new ,testament writers1 #cff2 its introduction into ,asia and ,egypt1 #cfg4 ,h4 ,habakkuk1 book of1 #cdb4 ,haggai1 book of1 #cde4 ,hagiographa1 #afi2 ,targums on the1 #bjh4 ,haman1 #bfc4 ,haphtaroth1 #agc4 ,harmony between the ,old and ,new ,testament1 in spirit1 #efh1 seq42 in doctrine1 #egj4 ,harmonies of the gospels1 #dai1 #ecg4 ,heave-offerings1 #fja4 ,hebrew alphabet1 #agf2 vowel points and accents1 #agh4 ,hebrew commonwealth1 its establishment under ,joshua1 #bda2 its condition under the ,judges1 #bde2 the ,kings1 #bdi1 #bec2 at the restoration1 #bef1 #beh1 #bfa4 ,hebrew language1 #age1 #cff2 its disuse after the captivity1 #agg1 #cfg2 succeeded by the ,aramaean1 #cfg4 ,hebrew text1 ,jewish divisions of1 #agc2 manuscripts1 #ahi4 ,hebrews1 ,epistle to the1 #dhb2 question of its authorship1 #dhb2 date1 and persons addressed1 #dhd2 its central theme1 #dhe4 ,hellenistic ,jews1 #cfh4 ,hermas1 ,shepherd of1 #ajj1 #eag4 ,hermeneutics defined1 #eba4 ,heretics1 their testimony to the gospels1 #dh1 seq4 ,hexapla of ,origen1 #bje4 ,hexaplar1 ,syriac version1 #djf4 ,historical books of the ,old ,testament1 #bdj1 seq42 of the ,new ,testament1 #daj1 seq4 ,historical types1 #eha1 seq4 ,holocausts1 or burnt-offerings1 #eih4 ,homologoumena1 #ia4 ,hosea1 book of1 #ccc4 ,hugo1 ,cardinal1 divides the ,bible into chapters1 #agd1 #cgg4 ,i4 ,ignatius and his testimony1 #df2 his epistles1 #ead4 ,infidelity1 its fragmentary method of argument1 #cd4 ,inspiration of the ,new ,testament1 the term defined1 #aja1 tests of1 #ajb1 seq42 in what sense plenary1 question of its limitation1 #aaa2 inspiration of the ,old ,testament books1 #acd1 #adb1 #adh1 #aie1 seq41 #bae1 etc4 ,interpretation1 its human and divine sides1 #ebf2 of figurative language1 #ebg1 seq4 ,interpreter1 his office1 #eba2 qualifications1 #ebb1 seq4 ,irenaeus and his testimony1 #ci4 ,see further under the several books4 ,isaiah1 his age and prophetical activity1 #bii4 ,isaiah1 book of1 its two main parts1 #bii2 contents and divisions of the first part1 #bii1 seq42 the second part1 #cjb2 its genuineness1 #cjc1 seq42 its form that of true prophecy1 #cje4 ,j4 ,james the apostle1 and ,james the ,lord's brother1 question respecting1 #dhg4 ,james1 ,epistle of1 its author1 date1 and place of writing1 #dhh2 genuineness and reception into the canon1 #dhi1 seq42 practical character1 #dij2 alleged disagreement with the ,pauline doctrine of justification1 #dia4 ,jasher1 book of1 #bdc4 ,jason1 his five books1 #cfj4 ,jeremiah1 sketch of his life1 #caj4 ,jeremiah1 book of1 #cji1 seq42 general character of his prophecies1 #cab2 their arrangement1 #cac2 arrangement of the ,alexandrine version1 #cad4 ,jeremiah1 apocryphal epistle of1 #ceh4 ,jeroboam1 his sinful policy and its results1 #bed4 ,jerome1 his account of the ,old ,testament canon1 #aig2 of the ,new ,testament canon1 #cii2 revision of the ,latin ,bible1 #djj1 seq4 ,see further under the several books of the ,new ,testament4 ,jerusalem1 the first centre of ,christianity1 #ddj4 ,jerusalem ,targum1 #bjg4 ,jesus4 ,see ,christ4 ,jews1 their preparation for ,christ's advent1 #aad2 their institutions typical of ,christ as well as preparatory1 #adf4 ,job1 book of1 its plan1 #bhj2 design1 #bhb2 age of ,job and of the book1 #bhc2 question of its authorship1 #bhc2 its historic character1 #bhd4 ,joel1 book of1 #ccd4 ,john the apostle1 notices of1 #dcf1 seq4 ,john's gospel1 its later composition1 #ec2 #dcg2 sources1 #dch2 peculiarity in respect to matter1 #dch1 seq42 general scope and special office1 #dah1 #dci4 ,john's epistles1 the first epistle1 #ic1 #dig1 seq42 the second and third1 #ejj4 ,john the ,presbyter1 #ejc4 ,jonah1 book of1 #cch4 ,jonathan1 ,targum of1 #bjg4 ,josephus1 his account of the ,old ,testament canon1 #aie1 #aig2 testimony to the book of ,daniel1 #cbe2 account of the feast of ,purim1 #bfc4 ,joshua1 book of1 its office and contents1 #bda2 age and authorship1 #bdc2 authenticity and credibility1 #bdd4 ,joshua the high-priest1 as a type of ,christ1 #eij4 ,judaizing teachers1 #ddh2 in ,galatia1 #dei2 among the ,colossians1 #dfc2 of the ,pastoral ,epistles1 #dgg4 ,jude1 ,epistle of1 #eja1 seq4 ,judges of the ,old ,testament1 their character and office1 #bde4 ,judges1 book of1 #bde1 seq42 its chronology1 #bdg4 ,k4 ,kephalaia1 #cge4 ,keys of the kingdom of heaven1 #ege4 ,kingdom of ,israel1 its establishment1 #bdi2 division1 #bed2 extinction of the kingdom of the ten tribes1 #bed4 ,kingdom of ,judah1 its origin1 #bed2 its extinction1 #bee4 ,kingly office1 typical of ,christ1 #aah1 #bdi1 #ehb4 ,kings1 books of1 originally one1 #beb1 their contents and office1 #beb2 chronology1 #bee4 ,l4 ,lamentations of ,jeremiah1 #cad2 peculiar structure of the book1 #cae4 ,laodiceans1 epistle to the1 #dfe4 ,last days1 meaning of the term1 #fjh2 prophecies concerning1 #faa1 seq4 ,law4 ,see ,pentateuch4 ,lectionaries1 #cgh4 ,leviticus1 book of1 meaning of the word1 #bce2 its contents1 #bce1 seq4 ,limitations in the interpretation of languages1 #edb4 ,luke the ,evangelist1 his origin and relation to ,paul1 #dca2 his sources of information1 #dcb2 his identity with the author of the ,acts of the ,apostles1 #ddj4 ,luke's gospel1 its date1 #dcb2 plan and character1 #dcc2 peculiar matter1 #dcd2 its integrity1 #dce2 its genealogy of our ,lord1 #dcc1 #dce4 ,lyons and ,vienne1 letter of the churches of1 #dj1 #hh1 #ejc4 ,m4 ,maccabees1 family of1 #cei2 origin of the name1 #cfj4 ,maccabees1 apocryphal books of1 #cfj1 seq4 ,malachi1 book of1 #cdh4 ,manasses1 apocryphal prayer of1 #cei4 ,manuscripts1 ancient mode of writing1 #fj1 #agb1 #cgc1 #chb4 ,manuscripts of the ,old ,testament1 their age and form1 #ahj2 synagogue rolls1 #aha4 ,manuscripts of the ,new ,testament1 their early multiplication1 #fd2 noted manuscripts1 ,vatican1 #chd2 ,sinai1 #che2 ,alexandrine1 #che1 seq42 ,ephraem1 #chf1 ,dublin palimpsest1 #chg2 ,beza's1 #chg1 seq42 purple1 #chh2 cursive manuscripts1 #chh4 ,manuscripts of the old ,latin1 #djb2 of the vulgate1 #djd4 ,manuscript of the ,gothic version called the ,silver manuscript1 #djh4 ,marcion and his gospel1 #di1 #dce4 ,mark the ,evangelist1 notices of1 #dbg2 his relation to ,peter and ,paul1 #dbg1 seq42 in what sense he was ,peter's interpreter1 #dbh4 ,mark's gospel1 place1 time of writing1 and language1 #dbh2 its design1 #dbi2 its peculiarities1 #dcj2 question respecting its closing passage1 #dcj1 seq4 ,maschil1 #bhg4 ,masora and ,masoretic text1 #agh1 seq4 ,mattathias1 #cei4 ,matthew the ,evangelist1 #dbj4 ,matthew's gospel1 its original language1 #dba2 present ,greek form1 #dbb2 primary design1 #dbd2 characteristics1 #dbe2 chronology1 #dbf2 place and time of writing1 #dbf2 integrity1 #dbf2 its genealogy of our ,lord1 #dbd1 #dce4 ,meat-offerings1 #fjj4 ,melchizedek1 his person and typical character1 #ehc4 ,memphitic version1 #djg4 ,messiah4 ,see ,christ4 ,messianic ,psalms1 different principles of interpretation1 that of exclusive reference to ,christ1 #fbj2 that of an ideal personage1 #fbj1 seq42 the typical view1 #fba4 ,metaphor1 #eea4 ,metonymy1 #eea4 ,micah1 book of1 #cdj4 ,michtam1 #bhg4 ,mosaic economy1 ,christ its end1 #aah2 its preparatory character1 #ach2 objections to it considered1 #ach1 #ega2 its spirit was love1 #aci1 seq4 ,mottoes1 remarks respecting1 #ecc ,muratorian canon1 #dh1 #hi1 #ic1 #cih1 etc4 ,myths1 remarks concerning1 #eef1 #efj4 ,n4 ,nahum1 ,prophecy of1 #cda4 ,nathan's writings1 #bea4 ,nazarenes1 their gospel1 #dbb4 ,nebuchadnezzar1 his expeditions to ,judea1 #cbg4 ,neginah and ,neginoth1 #bhg4 ,nehemiah1 his work in the restoration1 #bfa4 ,nehemiah1 book of1 #bfa1 seq4 ,nehiloth1 #bhg4 ,new ,jerusalem of ,ezekiel's vision1 #cba1 #fbg4 ,nineveh4 ,see ,nahum4 ,nitrian desert1 ,syriac manuscripts from1 #dje4 ,numbers1 book of1 #bcg4 ,numbers1 symbolical1 #ejh1 #efd1 #faj4 ,o4 ,obadiah1 ,prophecy of1 #cch4 ,oblations1 or unbloody offerings1 #fjj4 ,old ,latin4 ,see versions1 ,latin4 ,onkelos1 ,targum of1 #bjf4 ,origen1 his account of the ,old ,testament canon1 #aig2 of the ,new ,testament canon1 #cih2 his ,hexapla1 #bje4 ,see further under the several ,new ,testament books4 ,p4 ,paley's ,horae ,paulinae1 #id4 ,palimpsests1 #fj1 #chd2 examples of1 #chf4 ,pantaenus1 #dj4 ,papias1 #dd4 ,see also under the several books of the ,new ,testament4 ,papyrus1 #ei2 rolls of1 #chd4 ,parables1 #eec2 their interpretation1 #efj1 seq4 ,paragraph ,bibles1 #cgh4 ,parallelisms1 #baa1 #ecd2 real and verbal1 #ecd2 doctrinal and historic1 #ece1 seq4 ,parallelisms1 poetic1 #bgd1 seq4 ,parchments1 #ei1 seq4 ,parshiyoth1 #agc4 ,particular ,introduction1 its province #bad4 ,passover1 its sacrificial and typical character1 #eii4 ,pastoral epistles1 #ib2 their place in ,paul's history1 #dge1 seq42 character of the false teachers described in them1 #dgg2 their genuineness and peculial tone1 #dgh ,paul1 the apostle of the ,gentiles1 and his peculiar qualifications1 #ddg2 his style1 #ddh2 three missionary journeys1 #ddi4 ,pauline epistles1 #ddf2 commentaries on them1 #ddi2 their connection with ,paul's history contained in the ,acts1 #ddi2 principle of their arrangement1 and groups into which they fall1 #dej4 ,pentateuch1 meaning of the term1 #abj2 its admitted existence from ,ezra's time1 #abj2 its authorship1 #abj1 seq42 relation of ,deuteronomy to the preceding books1 #abf1 #bci2 of ,genesis to the following1 #acj1 #bbe2 unity of its plan1 #acb1 #bbd2 its authenticity1 #acd1 seq42 the ,jewish polity presupposes it1 #ace2 difficulties connected with it1 #acg1 seq42 its preparatory office1 #ada2 constitutes a ,jewish division of the ,old ,testament1 #afi4 ,personal reign of ,christ1 question concerning the1 #fbi1 seq4 ,personification1 #eea4 ,peshito4 ,see ,syriac versions4 ,peter1 his leadership among the apostles1 #dda2 in what sense a rock1 #ege4 ,peter1 first epistle of1 #dia4 ,peter1 second epistle of1 #dic2 question of its genuineness1 #did1 seq42 its design1 #dig4 ,philemon1 ,epistle to1 #dfi4 ,philoxenian4 ,see ,syriac versions4 ,philippi and the ,philippian church1 #dfi4 ,philippians1 ,epistle to the1 date1 occasion1 and place of writing1 #dfi2 contents and peculiar character1 #dgj4 ,phoenician language1 #age4 ,plan of redemption1 its unity and progress1 #fad2 its foreshadowings1 #faf2 its end1 #fag4 ,poetry1 ,hebrew1 its characteristics1 #bff1 seq42 its outward form1 #bgd1 seq42 its diction1 #bgh2 its offices1 #bgi4 ,poetical books1 so-called ,hebrew1 #afi1 #bfe4 ,polycarp1 #df4 ,polycarp1 epistle of1 #eae4 ,pothinus1 #dj4 ,priesthood of our ,lord1 #dhe4 ,priesthood1 ,levitical1 typical of ,christ1 #aai1 #bcf2 points of agreement specified1 a common human nature1 appointment by ,god1 mediatorship between ,god and the people through propitiatory sacrifice1 #eid1 seq42 points of disagreement incident to the type1 #eie1 seq42 central idea of priesthood1 #eif4 ,priesthood of ,melchizedek1 #ehc1 seq4 ,priestly garments1 #eif4 ,prophecy1 interpretation of1 #fjg1 seq42 its progressive fulfilment1 #fbb2 question of its literal and figurative meaning1 #fbd1 seq42 its representative use of ,old ,testament history and institutions1 #fbd4 ,prophecies1 specific1 #fjg2 generic1 #fjh2 with the succession of events1 #fji2 without it1 #faa2 their inward view of ,god's kingdom1 #fac1 seq4 ,prophetical books and their office1 #adc1 seq4 ,prophetical office1 typical of ,christ1 #aah1 #ehb4 ,prophets1 ,hebrew1 their office and character1 #bid1 seq4 ,prophets1 as a ,jewish division of the ,old ,testament canon1 #afi2 greater prophets1 #afi1 #bid2 less or minor1 #afi1 #ccb2 ,masoretic and ,septuagint arrangement of1 #ccb4 ,proverbs1 #eee4 ,proverbs1 book of1 its office1 #bhh2 outward form and divisions1 #bhi2 arrangement in its present form1 #bij4 ,psalms1 book of1 its character and office1 #bhd2 fivefold division1 #bhe1 seq42 titles1 #bhf1 seq2 ,messianic psalms1 #fai4 ,psalms1 alleged ,maccabean1 #aif4 ,psalters1 ,gallican and ,roman1 #djj1 #djc4 ,pseudo-,jonathan1 ,targum of1 #bjg4 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 his agency in respect to the ,septuagint version1 #aii4 ,punic language1 #age4 ,purple manuscript1 #chh4 ,purim1 feast of1 #bfc4 ,q4 ,quotations of the early fathers1 #cg4 ,quotations from the ,old ,testament in the ,new1 their use in sacred criticism1 #baa2 authority1 #fcb2 outward form1 #fcc2 free spirit1 #fce2 principle of accommodation considered1 #fce2 quotations for argument1 #fcg2 of ,old ,testament prophecies referring to ,christ--directly1 #fch2 in a typical way1 #fch4 ,see further under ,septuagint4 ,quotations from the ,old ,testament in the ,talmud and ,rabbinic writers1 #baa1 seq4 ,r4 ,rabbinic writers1 #baa1 seq4 ,rabbinic mode of writing1 #agf4 ,reason1 its office in interpretation1 #edd4 ,restoration of the ,jews1 question concerning the1 #fbh4 ,resurrection of ,jesus1 #gj4 ,resurrection1 first and second1 #fcj4 ,revelation1 its unity1 #cc1 #eff1 #efh2 diversity1 #eff1 seq42 each particular revelation perfect in its place1 #ega2 the later revelations interpret the earlier1 #egb4 ,revelation1 book of4 ,see ,apocalypse4 ,ritual types1 #ehe1 seq4 ,romans and ,roman church1 #dea4 ,romans1 ,epistle to the1 its date and place of writing1 #dea2 occasion and contents1 #deb2 office1 #dec4 ,ruth1 book of1 #bdh2 supplementary to the history of ,david's family4 #bdh4 ,s4 ,sacrifices1 typical of ,christ1 #eia1 seq42 their essential character1 #eig1 seq42 ,mosaic classification of them1 sin-offerings and trespass-offerings1 #eih2 burnt-offerings1 #eih2 peace-offerings1 #eii2 sacrificial victims1 #fjj4 ,sahidic version1 #djg4 ,salome1 #dcf4 ,samaritans1 their language1 #age2 their ,pentateuch and its version1 #aha1 #bjh4 ,samuel1 he establishes the school of the prophets and the kingly office1 #bdi4 ,samuel1 books of1 their original unity1 #bdh2 contents1 office1 and divisions1 #bdi1 seq42 age and sources1 #bea4 ,sanctuary1 ,mosaic1 its general idea1 #ehe2 structure1 divisions1 and furniture1 #ehf1 seq42 typical character1 #ehg1 seq4 ,saul1 #bej4 ,scape-goat1 #fjc4 ,scope1 defined1 #ebh2 its primary importance1 #ebi2 how ascertained1 #ecj4 ,scriptio continua1 #agb1 #cgc4 ,sense1 distinguished from signification1 #ebh4 ,sense of ,scripture1 its extent1 #egc2 the clearer statements of ,scripture interpret the more obscure1 #egd4 ,selah1 #bhg4 ,septuagint1 ,greek version of1 its antiquity1 #aii2 ,jewish account of its origin1 #aii1 seq42 character and critical value1 #bja2 influence on the ,new ,testament language1 #bjb2 ,hebrew text from which it was made1 #bjc2 history of its text1 #bje2 ,origen's ,hexapla1 #bje2 ,jewish estimates of it1 #bjc1 #cfh2 quotations from it in the ,new ,testament1 #fcc1 seq4 ,septuagint arrangement of the ,old ,testament books1 #aga4 ,seventy4 ,see ,septuagint4 ,shalmaneser1 #ccd4 ,sheminith1 #bhh4 ,shemitic languages1 #age4 ,shoshannim1 ,shushan1 and ,shushaneduth1 #bhg1 seq4 ,show-bread1 #ehi4 ,signification of words1 #ebg4 ,sinai manuscript1 #che4 ,sirach1 ,jesus son of4 ,see ,ecclesiasticus4 ,six days of creation1 #acg1 #bbh4 ,smerdis1 #bfa4 ,so1 #ccd4 ,sojourn in the wilderness1 its typical import1 #ehd4 ,solomon1 his temple1 #bec2 his splendor and profuse expenditures1 #bec4 ,solomon1 ,song of1 #bib1 seq4 ,songs of degrees1 #bhg4 ,sprinkling of the sacrificial blood1 #fja1 #fjc4 ,stevens1 ,robert1 author of the modern division of verses in the ,new ,testament1 #cgg4 ,subscriptions to the ,new ,testament books1 #cgi4 ,symbols1 #cai1 #eed2 numerical1 #ejh1 #efd1 #faj2 distinguished from types1 #eee2 real and seen in visions1 #efb1 seq4 ,symmachus1 his version1 #bjd4 ,synagogue1 the great1 #aid4 ,synagogue rolls1 #agi4 ,synagogues1 ,jewish1 as places of preaching1 #ddg4 ,synoptical gospels4 ,see ,gospels4 ,syriac language1 #age4 ,syriac versions4 ,see ,versions4 ,syro-chaldaic1 #cfi4 ,t4 ,tabernacle1 ,mosaic1 #ehe1 seq42 its typical character1 #fjb1 seq4 ,targum of ,onkelos1 #bjf2 of ,jonathan1 #bjg2 of ,pseudo-,jonathan1 #bjg2 ,jerusalem ,targum1 #bjg2 ,targums on the ,hagiographa1 #bjh4 ,tatian and his ,diatessaron1 #ej4 ,temple of ,solomon1 #bec4 ,tent1 ,mosaic1 as distinguished from the tabernacle1 #ehg4 ,testament1 various ancient designations of1 #afe2 origin and meaning of the term1 #aff4 ,testament1 ,old1 its inseparable connection with the ,new1 #aac1 seq42 its inspiration1 #acd1 #adb1 #adh1 #aie1 seq42 various arrangements of its books1 #afh1 seq42 ,old ,testament text1 ,jewish divisions of1 #agc2 modern1 #agc1 seq42 original languages1 #age2 criticism of its text1 #bji2 preparatory character of its revelations1 #bae2 office of its several divisions1 #bah2 its significance to the covenant people1 #bbj2 to the ,christian church1 #bbb4 ,testament1 ,new1 the natural sequel to the ,old1 #aac1 seq42 and its interpreter1 #aai2 its language1 #cfe1 seq42 main divisions of its books and their order1 #cga2 subdivisions1 of the historic part1 #cga2 of the epistolary1 #cgb2 various arrangements of the gospels1 #cgb2 arrangement of the epistles1 #cgc2 titles and subscriptions1 #cgh2 ,new ,testament text1 its essential integrity1 #fe1 #cij2 uncial and cursive modes of writing1 #cgc2 continuous writing1 #cgc2 stichometry1 #cgd2 ancient divisions of the text1 #cge1 seq42 modern1 #cgg1 seq42 criticism of the text1 #chj2 the manuscript text1 #chj1 seq42 various readings1 #cha1 seq42 manuscripts1 #chd2 the printed text1 #chh2 primary editions1 #chh1 seq42 remarks on the received text1 #cij4 ,tertullian1 #ci4 ,see also under the several ,new ,testament books4 ,thebaic version1 #djg4 ,theocracy1 its establishment under ,moses1 #bcb2 ,christ its end1 #aah2 and typified by it1 #adf2 alleged objections to it1 #ach1 seq42 its preparatory character and practical working1 #ada1 seq42 its condition at the restoration1 #bei4 ,theodotion's version1 #bjd4 ,thessalonica and the ,thessalonian church1 #dga4 ,thessalonians1 first epistle to the1 #dgb2 its early date1 occasion1 and contents1 #dgb1 seq4 ,thessalonians1 second epistle to the1 date1 design1 and contents1 #dgc2 question respecting our ,lord's second advent1 #dgd2 epistles to the ,thessalonians and ,philippians contrasted1 #dgd1 seq4 ,timothy1 notices of1 #dgi4 ,timothy1 first epistle to1 time of writing1 occasion1 and contents1 #dgi4 ,timothy1 second epistle to1 its peculiar tone and character1 #dha2 its late date1 #dhb4 ,titus1 notices of1 #dhj4 ,titus1 epistle to1 #dhj4 ,tobit1 apocryphal book of1 #cec4 ,tradition1 different senses of1 #dag4 ,tropes1 #eej1 seq4 ,types1 distinguished from analogies and from simple foreshadowings1 #egi2 their essential character1 #ehj2 different kinds of types1 historical1 #eha1 seq41 #fah2 ritual1 #ehe1 seq4 ,typical orders of men1 #eha1 seq42 typical historic transactions1 #ehc2 typical ritual acts1 laying on of the offerer's hands1 waving and heaving1 sprinkling of the sacrificial blood1 and burning on the altar1 #fja1 seq42 burning of incense1 #ehi2 ceremonies connected with the great day of atonement1 #fjc2 with the scape-goat1 #fjd4 ,u4 ,uncial manuscripts1 #fj1 #cgc1 #chd4 ,uncleanness1 ,levitical1 #fjf4 ,v4 ,vail of the tabernacle1 #ehf1 seq4 ,vail of the temple1 rending of the1 #fjc4 ,valentinus1 #di4 ,various readings of the gospels1 #fc2 of the ,new ,testament text generally1 #chj2 examples of the more important1 #cij4 ,verses1 of the ,old ,testament1 #agc2 of the ,new ,testament1 #cgg4 ,version1 ,armenian1 #dji2 ,english of ,wiclif1 #djj2 ,ethiopic1 #djh2 ,gothic1 #dji2 ,septuagint1 see under this title4 ,versions1 ,latin1 the old ,latin1 #dg1 #fb1 #hi1 #djj2 age1 place of execution1 and variety of text1 #djj2 its canon1 #dja2 made in the ,old ,testament from the ,septuagint3 the vulgate1 its arrangement of the ,old ,testament books1 #aga2 in the ,new ,testament a revision of the old ,latin1 #djb2 in the ,old ,testament mostly a new translation1 #djc2 its diversified character1 #djc2 history of its text1 #djd2 manuscripts of it1 #djd4 ,versions1 ,syriac3 the ,peshito version of the ,new ,testament1 #dg1 #fb1 #hi2 of the ,old ,testament1 #bjh2 its canon1 #cih2 made in the ,old ,testament from the original ,hebrew1 #djd2 its age and character1 #djd1 seq42 the ,cureton ,syriac1 #dje2 the ,philoxenian1 #djf2 the ,hexapla1 #djf1 seq42 the ,jerusalem ,syriac ,lectionary1 #djg4 ,versions1 ancient1 their testimony to the genuineness of the gospels1 #dg2 and to their integrity1 #fb2 their use in sacred criticism1 #baj1 #cib4 ,vulgate4 ,see ,versions1 ,latin4 ,w4 ,wave-offerings1 #fja4 ,whale1 #cci4 ,wilderness1 sojourn in the1 #bcd4 ,wisdom1 apocryphal book of1 #cef4 ,wisdom of the son of ,sirach4 ,see ,ecclesiasticus4 ,writing1 ancient mode of1 #agb1 seq42 materials for1 #ei1 #agi1 #chd4 ,x4 ,xerxes1 #bfa1 #bfc4 ,z4 ,zebedee1 #dcf4 ,zechariah1 ,prophecies of1 #cdf1 seq42 question respecting the last part of1 #cdh2 ,matthew's quotation from ,zechariah1 #cdh4 ,zephaniah1 ,prophecies of1 #cdd4 ,,index ,,of ,,texts4 ,n4,b4 ,texts not specified in this ,index will be found on the pages of the general references1 prefixed to the lists from the several books4 ,,genesis4 ,,page4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#bbe-bca 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#ac3ba1 #bb44444444444444444cdd #ad3bc444444444444444444444add ,chs4#ae1 #af44444444444444444444cad ,ch4 #bj4444444444444444444efc1 #eha #bj3b-d44444444444444444444efc #bh3af444444444444444444444ege #cb3b4444444444444444444444bgc #cd3f1 #ac-ae4444444444bgd1 #cdd #ce3f4444444444444444444444fbe #ce3h4444444444444444444444ebf ,chs4#cf-ci4444444444444444cjb1 #ecf #cg3af444444444444444444444ehi #ch3g1 #h4444444444444444444bdd #ci3f1 #g44444444444444cje1 #cbb ,chs4 #dj-ff444444444444444cjb1 #fji #dj3a44444444444444444bii1 #fjg #dj3ai1 #bj44444444444444444cji #da3g4444444444444444444444cji #da3ad-af444444444444444444faf #da3ah444444444444444444444cjf #da3be444444444444444444444cjg #db3a-d444444444444444ade1 #fce #dc3bc1 #bd444444444444cjg1 #cji #dd3bh2 #de3d444444444444444cjf #df3a1 #b2 #dg3h4444444444444cji #dh3bb444444444444444444444cjb ,ch4 #di3be1 #bf44444444444444444bgj #ej3d4444444444444444444444ade #ea3ae2 #eb3g444444444444444cji #eb3ac-ae4444444444444ade1 #agd ,ch4 #ec44444444444444adf1 #ehj1 #eib #ec3c-g44444444444444444444ade #ec3f4444444444444444444444fbj #ec3g1 #h4444444444444444444fch #ec3aj444444444444444444444egd #ed3e4444444444444444444444bib #ee3c4444444444444444444444cjc #ee3ab444444444444444444444eeb #eg3i4444444444444444444444cji #eg3ae444444444444444444444bai #eg3ba444444444444444444444cjb #eh3f4444444444444444444444fcd #eh3aa1 #ab44444444444444444ddb ,chs4 #ei1 #fj4444444444444444444fab #fj3ah-bb4444444444444bgj1 #fac #fa3a1b4444444444444444gd1 #fcc #fb3e4444444444444444444444bib #fb3aa444444444444444444444fcd #fc3aj444444444444444444444edb #fc3ag444444444444444444444eda ,ch4 #ff444444444444444444444444fbi #ff3b4444444444444444444444bai #ff3c4444444444444444444444cjg #ff3bd444444444444444444444cjb ,,jeremiah4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#caj-cad #a3a1 #c44444444444444444444caa #a3aa-ad4444444444444444444eha #a3ac-444444444444444444444eee #b3b2 #c3ad44444444444444444bib #d3bc-bh44444444444444edh1 #edi #aj3c1 #d4444444444444444444cji #aj3a-af4444444444444444444cei #aj3aa444444444444444444444age #aa3ah-bc2 #ab3f444444444444caj #ac3a-aa444444444cbj1 #efc1 #eha #ae3aj444444444444444444444caa #bj3a-f1 #ad-ah44444444caj1 #caa #bc3d-f44444444444444444444eij #bc3e1 #bj4444444444444fjh1 #fji #be3a1 #i44444444444444cbg1 #cbh #be3ab-ad444444444444444444cab #be3ac444444444444444444444cad #bf3ab-ae444444444444444444caa ,ch4 #bf3ah444444444444444444444cdj #bg3b2 #bh3aj444444444444444cai #bg3a-h2 #bh3aj1 #aa444444444eee #bi3aj-ad444444444444444444cab ,chs4 #cj1 #ca4444444444444444444fbi #cj3h2 #ba3ca444444444444444fji #cj3bd444444444444444444444fjh #ca3ca-cc4444444444444afg1 #ega #ca3ce444444444444444444444cji #cb3b2 #cc3a4444444444444444caj #cb3f-ae4444444444444444444efc #cc3ae1 #af44444444444444444eij #cf3a-d1 #bg-cb4444444444444cac #cg3e-aj4444444444444444444cab #ci3aa-ad-dj3a-d44444444444caj #df3b4444444444444444444444cbg #dg3f1 #g4444444444444444444eea #dh3dg2 #di3ci44444444444444fjh #di3g-bb44444444444444cad1 #cch #ej3b4444444444444444444444cji ,,lamentations4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#cad-caf ,,ezekiel4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#caf-cbb ,ch4 #a4444444444cah1 #eee1 #efc1 #efd #a3a-c2 #b3c1 #d1 #f2 #c3ae444caf-cah ,ch4 #c4444444444444444444444444eha ,ch4 #d44444444444444444444cbj1 #efc #d3d-h444444444444444444444efe #h3a44444444444444444444444caf #h3a-d4444444444444444efb1 #efc ,ch4 #aj4444444444444444444efc1 #efd #ab3c-ab4444444444444444444efc #ad3a4444444444444444444444caf #ad3ad1 #bj44444444444444444bhd ,ch4 #af44444444444444cah1 #cai1 #efj #ag3a-aj44444444444444cai1 #eei #ah3ca444444444444444444444bai #bj3a4444444444444444444444caf #ba3bg444444444444444444444edh #bb3f-ab4444444444444444444cah ,ch4 #bc44444444444444cah1 #cai1 #efj #bd3ae-ah4444444444444caf1 #cai #be3ab444444444444444444444cch #bf3d1 #e1 #ad444444444444444add #cb3g1 #h4444444444444444444edi #cc3ba444444444444444444444cbj ,ch4 #cc3cj-cb444444444444444444caf #ce3e-ae4444444444444444444cch ,chs4 #cf-ci44444444444444444444fbi #cf3bb444444444444444444444egj #cf3be-bg4444444444444aeb1 #ega #cf3be4 #cg1 #ch4444444444444bgd #cf3cb444444444444444444444aed #cg3a-ad44444444444444cai1 #efb #cg3af-bj4444444444444cai1 #efc #ch3h1 #af444444444444444444fjh #ch3bj444444444444444444444edh #ci3aa444444444444444444444fji ,chs4 #dj-dh444444444444444cai1 #fbg #db3ae-bj2 #dc3ac-bg444cba1 #fbg #dc3bd444444444444444444444fjj #de3a-h444444444444444cba1 #fbg #dg3a-ab444444444cba1 #fbe1 #fbg ,ch4 #dh4444444444444444444cba1 #fbg ,,daniel4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#cbb-cbd #a3a44444444444444444444444cch #a3e44444444444444444444444cbh #a3g44444444444444444444444cbf #b3a-e444444444444444444444cch #b3d-g3bh444444444444444444age #b3cc1 #dj-de44444ccj1 #fji1 #faj #b3df4444444444444444444444ehi ,ch4 #c44444444444444444444cbc1 #cbf #c3ba4444444444444444444444cbg ,ch4 #e44444444444444444444cbc1 #cbh #e3b44444444444444444444444cbg #e3bb1 #ca4444444444444cbh1 #cbi ,ch4 #f444444444444444cbc1 #cbf1 #cbi #g3g-bh4444444444ccj1 #fji1 #faj #g3be444444444444eji1 #efe1 #faj #i3b44444444444444444444444aid #i3ah4444444444444444444444egj #i3bd-bg444444444acg1 #bfb1 #efe #i3bg4444444444444444444444cbe #aj3ad444444444444444444444fjh ,,hosea4 ,chs4 #a-c4444444444444444444444efc #a3aj1aa4444444444444444444fbi #b3af1 #ai1 #bj44444444444444bib #c3e44444444444444444444444fjh #aj3ab444444444444444444444bai #aa3a44444444444444444fce1 #fch #ab3a4444444444444444444444ccd ,ch4 #ad444444444444444444444444ccd #ad3b44444444444444444bai1 #bgd ,,joel4 #b3a1 #b44444444444444444444cdd #b3ab1 #ac444444444444444444bai #b3bh4444444444444444444444fji #b3bh-cb44444444444444ccf1 #fbc #b3ca4444444444444444444444edi ,ch4 #c4444444444444444444444444fbi #c3ad-ag4444444444444444444fac #c3ae1 #af44444444cce1 #edh1 #edi #c3ah44444444444444444cce1 #fbe #c3ai4444444444444444444444cch ,,amos4 ,ch4 #a1 seq444444444444444#ccf1 #ccg #a3a444444444444444444aia1 #ccf #a3b44444444444444444444444cce #a3aa4444444444444444444444cch #e3aa4444444444444444444444cdd #e3ba-bd444444444aec1 #bai1 #bif #g3a-i4444444444444444efd1 #eha #g3ad44444444444444444aia1 #ccf #h3a-c444444444444444444444eha #h3b44444444444444444444444eee #h3i44444444444444444444444edh ,ch4 #i4444444444444444444444444fbi #i3aa4444444444444444444444fji #i3aa1 #ab444444444444444444fbc #i3ac4444444444444444444444cce ,,obadiah44444444444444444444444#cch ,,jonah4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#cch-cdj ,,micah4 ,ch4 #a1 seq444444444444444#cdj1 #cda #d3a44444444444444444444444fjh #d3a-d44444444444fbc1 #fbf1 #fbi #f3f-h4444444444444444bai1 #bif #g3h-bj44444444444444444444fbi ,,nahum4 ,ch4 #a1 seq444444444444444#cda1 #cdb #a3e-h444444444444444444444bgb #a3ae4444444444444444444444cji ,chs4#b1 #c4444444444444444444444add #b3ac4444444444444444444444eea ,,habakkuk4 ,ch4 #a1 seq444444444444444#cdb1 #cdc #b3b44444444444444444444444ebf ,ch4 #c4444444444444444444444444bdd #c3aj1 #aa444444444444444444eea ,,zephaniah4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#cdc-cde #b3ae4444444444444444444444cji ,,haggai4 ,ch4 #a1 seq444444444444444#cde1 #cdf #b3f1 #g44444444444444444444eah ,,zechariah4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#cdf-cdh #a3h-aa44444444444444444444eha #a3ah-ba4444444444444444444efd #c3h44444444444444444444444eij #c3h-bj44444444444444444444fbi #d3a-aj2 #e3e-aa2 #f3a-i2 #aa3d-ad4444444444444444444efd #f3i-ad44444444444444444444eij #i3i4444444444444cdg1 #fji1 #fcd #aa3ac4444444444444444cdh1 #fji #ac3g4444444444444444444444eha #ad3e4444444444444444444444ccf #ad3h4444444444444444444444fbe #ad3af-ba4444444444444fbf1 #fbi ,,malachi4 ,ch4 #a1 seq444444444444444#cdh1 #cdi #a3h1 #ac1 #ad444444444444444fjj #c3a4444444444444cdh1 #cdi1 #fce #a ,,esdras4444444444444444444444#ceb #b ,,esdras44444444444444444#ceb1 #cec #g3c44444444444444444444444cec ,,tobit44444444444444444444#cec1 #ced #b3aj4444444444444444444444cec ,,judith4444444444444444444#ced1 #cee #d3c44444444444444444444444cee #d3f1h2 #e3ah1 #ai2 #ae3h44444cec ,,wisdom ,,of ,,solomon4 ,ch4 #a1 seq444444444444444#cef1 #ceg ,,ecclesiasticus44444444444#ceg1 #eeh #dh3bd1 #be44444444444444444cjh #di3a1 seq44444444444444444#cbi ,,bakuch1 ,,and ,,epistle ,,of ,,jeremiah44#ceh1 #cei ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,maccabees4444#cei-cfb #a ,mac #a3ed44444444444444444444cbe #b ,mac #g3ad44444444444444444444cfa ,,matthew4 ,,page4 ,ch4 #a1 seq444444444444444#dbj1 #dbf #a3ab4444444444444444444444cdf #a3ag1 #bb444444444444444444dbd #a3bc4444444444444444444444dbf #b3e1 #f44444444444444444444cda #b3ae444444444444ccd1 #fce1 #fch #b3ag4444444444444444444444dbd #c3c44444444444444444444444cjh #d3ad4444444444444444444444dbd #d3ae1 #af444444444444444444fce #d3ba4444444444444444444444dcf #e3ag44444444444444444444444ca #e3bi1 seq44444444444444444#aec #f3ai1 #bj4444444444444444444gf #f3be1 #ca4444444444444444444de #f3bg4444444444444444444444ebh #g3ab4444444444444444444444baf #g3ae1 #af444444444444444444eeb #g3ba-bc4444444444ia1 #ege1 #egg #h3aa1 #ab444444444444444444dbe #h3ag4444444444444444444444cjh #h3be1 #bf444444444444444444ecg #i3ac4444444444444444444444ccd #i3ag4444444444444444444444eci #aj3c44444444444444444dbj1 #dhg #aj3e1 #f44444444444444dbe1 #ddf #aj3af4444444444444444444444gd #aj3ai1 #bj44444444444444444aje #aj3ce1 #cf44444444444444444cda #aj3dj444444444444444444444cie #aa3aj444444444444444444444fce #aa3ac444444444444444444444adg #aa3bg444444444444444444444ege #aa3bh-cj444444444444444ge1 #hb #ab3a4444444444444444444444dag #ab3g4444444444444444444444ccd #ab3ac444444444444444444444dbb #ab3ag444444444444444444444dbd #ab3ag-ba4444444444444cjh1 #fce #ab3ci-da444444444444444444cdj #ac3c-h1 #ai-bc4444444444444efj #ac3ad1 #ae4444444bjc1 #fbc1 #fcd #ac3bd444444444444444444444eed #ac3bd-cj1 #cg-dc44444444444efa #ac3ce444444444444444444444dbd #ad3bb-af3ab4444444444dab1 #dcd #ad3cg-ci444444444444444444ace #ae3bd4444444444444444dbe1 #ddf ,ch4 #af3ah1 #ai1 #bg4444444444444ege #ag3a4444444444444444444444dcf #ah3ah444444444444444444444ege #ah3bc-ce444444444444444444eja #ai3c-i444444444444444ace1 #fcg #bj3af4444444444444444444444dg #bj3ba444444444444444444444dbe #bj3bh444444444444444444444eib #ba3d4444444444444444444444dba #ba3e4444444444444444444444fca #ba3bh-ca444444444444444444efj #ba3cc-da444444444444444444eed #ba3dc444444444444444444444dbe #bb3ad4444444444444444444444dg #bb3ae-bb1 #ca1 #cb4444444444ech #bb3bi444444444444444444444aff #bb3cg-dj444444444444444444aea #bb3da-df444444444444444444eij #bb3dd444444444444444444444fch #bc3ce444444444444444444444ace #bc3cg-ci444444444444444444dbe ,ch4 #bd444444444444444444444444cca #bd3c1 #ai-bb1 #bi444444444444ea #bd3aj-ac444444444444444444dhi #bd3ae1 #af44444444444444444cbf #be3a-ac44444444444444eci1 #efa #be3cd-df4444444444444efb1 #ege #be3df444444444444444444444egj #bf3bf-bh4444444444444aff1 #edh #bf3cc444444444444444444444edj #bf3cg444444444444444444444dcf #bg3i1 #aj444444444444444444cdh #bg3ce444444444444444444444dbd #bg3df444444444444444444444dbf #bg3ej1 #ea44444444444444444fjc #bg3ef444444444444444444444dcf 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#b3a-c444444444444444444444dha #b3e44444444444444444444444ddh #b3i1ab44444444444444444444dhh #b3aa4444444444444444444444ddb #c3f-i1ah44444444ddf1 #dfa1 #dib #c3h1 #ag44444444444444aag1 #bcc #c3aj-bi4444444444444444444dfa #c3ac4444444444444444444444eib #c3ad-ah4444444444444444444ehb #c3ae4444444444444444444444egb #c3bd1be4444aah1 #acj1 #bba1 #ega #d3a-c444444444444444444444bag #d3d44444444444444444444444bae #d3g44444444444444444444444fci #d3h-f3ah444444444444444444dfa #d3ac-af44444444444444deh1 #dei #d3ba1 seq44444444444444444#aba #e3b44444444444444444444444ajh #e3c1d444444444444444444444dfa #e3d44444444444444444444444ecb #e3g44444444444444444444444dei #f3f44444444444444444444444cac #f3ag4444444444444444444444dei ,,ephesians4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#dfc-dfi #a3a444444444444444444444444ib #a3g44444444444444444444444eib #a3aj4444444444444444444444dfg #a3bj-bc4444444444444444444ege #b3bj44444444444444444ege1 #ehb #c3a2d3a4444444444444444444dfb #e3bc-cb4444444444444444444dfh #f3bj-bb4444444444444444444dfb ,,philippians4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#dfi-dga #a3be4444444444444444444444dgg #b3i-aa44444444444444444444ege #d3c44444444444444444444444eab ,,colossians4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#dfc-dfe #a3aj4444444444444444444444dfg #a3ae-ai4444444444444444444ege #c3e44444444444444444444444edi #d3aj1ac1af4444444444444444dfb #d3aa444444444444444444eg1 #dca #d3ad4444444444444444444444dca #d3af4444444444444ii1 #dfe1 #dff #d3ah4444444444444444444444dfi #a ,,thessalonians4 ,ch4 #a1 seq444444444444444#dga1 #dgb #a3g1h444444444444444444444aeb #b3b1ae1af44444444444444444dge #d3aa4444444444444444444444dgc #d3ac-ah444444444aje1 #dgc1 #fbi #d3ae4444444444444444444444ajh #e3h44444444444444444444444dfh #b ,,thessalonians4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#dgc-dge #a3g-aj4444444444edb1 #efi1 #fbi #b3b1c444444444444444444444dgd #b3aa1 #ab444444444444444444edb #b3ae4444444444444444444444dag #a ,,timothy4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#dgf-dhj #b3d44444444444444444444444edb #b3aa-ad4444444444444ace1 #fcg #c3af44444444444444444cij1 #ebf #b ,,timothy4 ,ch4 #a1 seq444444#dgf-dgh1 #dha1 #dhb #c3f1 #h44444444444444444444dgg #c3g44444444444444444444444bad #c3h1 #i44444444444444444444eja #c3aa4444444444444444444444ddb #c3ae4444444444444444444444aff #c3af44444444444444444adh1 #egg #d3i1 #ba4444444444444444444dhj #d3aa444444444444dbg1 #dbh1 #dca ,,titus4 ,ch4 #a1 seq444444444444444#dhj1 #dha #a3aj1 #ad-af444444444444444dgg #b3b1 #c44444444444444444444cgd #c3e44444444444444444444444egj #c3i44444444444444444444444dgg #c3ac4444444444444444444444dgf ,,philemon4 ,ver4l1 #i1 #aj1 #bc4444444444dfb #ah444444444444444444444444dfi #bd444444444444444444444444dca ,,hebrews4 ,,page4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#dhb-dhf #a3c44444444444444444444444ege ,ch4 #a3e44444444444444444444444fci #a3ac4444444444444444444444fcf #b3f-h444444444444444444444fch #b3aa1 #ad1 #ag1 #ah44444eid1 #eie #b3ad-ah4444444444444444444ehd #c3g-d3aa444444444444444444ehe #d3b44444444444444444444444bbj #d3g-aa4444444444444444 444#fai #d3ab44444444444444444aed1 #ebg #d3ae44444444444444444ehd1 #eie #e3a-f4444444444444444dhd1 #eie #g3c44444444444444444444444ehd #g3e1 #h1 #ac1 #ba1 #bc1 #bh4444dhd #g3d-aj44444444444444444444fah #g3g44444444444444444444444ehc #g3bc1 #bd1 #bf44444444444444eif #g3be4444444444444444444444fjc #g3bg4444444444444444444444eie #h3c4444444444444dhd1 #eia1 #eie #h3e1 #ac4444444444444444444dhd #h3h-aj44444444444444444444afg #h3i44444444444444444444444fce ,chs4 #i1 #aj44444444444444444444cba #i3a-i1 #ac1 #bb4444444444444dhd #i3g1 #h44444444444444444444fjc #i3aa-ad1 #be-bh4444444eia1 #eif #i3ab-bh4444444444444444444eie #i3ac1 #ad444444444444444444fjb #i3ad4444444444444444444444ebi #i3ae-ag44444444444444aff1 #afg #i3bb44444444444444444aai1 #eih #aj3a444444444444dhe1 #eha1 #ehg #aj3e4444444444444444444444fce #aj3aj-bb444dhe1 #eia1 #eif1 #fbg #aj3ai1 #bj1 #bb44444444fjb1 #fjc ,ch4 #aa444444444444444444444444efh #aa3d1 #g4444444444444444444ace #aa3i4444444444444444444444efh #aa3aa444444444444444444444ebh #aa3ac1 #ci1 #dj4444444444444bba #aa3cc1 #cd44444444444444444cbf #aa3cg444444444444444444444bii #ab3bd4444444444444444ace1 #fjb #ab3bi444444444444444444444aeb #ac3aa1 #ab44444444444444444fje #ac3ae444444444444444444444eif #ac3bd444444444444444444444dhd ,,james4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#dhg-dia #a3ac1 #ad4444444444444eda1 #ede #b3aj4444444444444444444444aec #b3ad-bf4444444444444444444dij #b3bd4444444444444444444444ebi #e3aa4444444444444444444444bhd #a ,,peter4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#dia-dic #a3a1 #b44444444444444444444fjb #a3f1 #g44444444444444444444dib #a3h1 #ba44444444444444444444id #a3aa44444444444444444big1 #egd #a3ai1 #bj444444444444444444fjj #b3c44444444444444444444444dfg #b3e-i44cba1 #efh1 #eif1 #fjc1 #fbg #b3f1 #h444444444444444edg1 #ege #b3bc44444444444444444444444ge #b3bd1 #be444444444444444444eib #c3ah4444444444444444444444eib #c3bj4444444444444444444444ace #e3a44444444444444444444444ejj #e3ac4444444444444444444444dbg #b ,,peter4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#dic-dig #a3ba44444444444444444adh1 #afh #b3a44444444444444444444444dig #b3e1 #f44444444444444444444ace #c3af44444444444444444aff1 #dif #a ,,john4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#dig-dii #a3e44444444444444444444444ede #b3b44444444444444444444444eia #c3h44444444444444444444444aaf #c3ab4444444444444444444444ace #d3c44444444444444444444df1 #id #d3ad44444444444444444444444cc #e3g1 #h44444444444444444444cij #b ,,and #c ,,john4 ,ver4 #a1 seq44444444444444#ejj1 #eja #b ,john #ab2 #c ,john #ac44444444444fj ,,jude4 ,ver4 #a1 seq44444444444444#eja1 #ejb #d4444444444444444444444444dig #g1 #aa444444444444444444444ace ,,revelation4 ,ch4 #a1 seq4444444444444444#ejc-eaj #a3e44444444444444444444444eib #c3g44444444444444444444444ege #c3ah4444444444444444444444eea #e3e1 #ab4444444444444444444edg #e3i444444444444444444eaj1 #eib #f3a444444444444444444edg1 #faj #g3ad4444444444444444444444eib #h3c1 #d44444444444444444444ehi #i3ae4444444444444444444444acg #aa3b1 #c4444acg1 #eji1 #efe1 #faj #aa3aa4444444444444444eji1 #fca #ab3f444444444444eji1 #efe1 #faj #ac3e44444444444444444eji1 #efe #ai3h4444444444444444444444ecb #ai3aj444444444444444444444aah #bj3d1 #e1 #aa-ae444444444444fcj #ba3i4444444444444444444444bib #bb3ah1 #ai44444444444444444egh ,,fac-,,similes ,,of ,,ancient ,,new ,,testament ,,manuscripts1 ,,to ,,illustrate ,,chapter ,,xxvi41 ,,page #chj4 ,most of the following specimens of ancient manuscripts are taken from ,scrivener's ,introduction to the ,criticism of the ,new ,testament4 ,no4 7#a7 is from ,tischendorf s ,novum ,testamentum ,graece ex ,sinaitico ,codice2 ,nos4 7#b7 and 7#aa7 from ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible2 and ,no4 7#e7 from ,horne's ,introduction1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,no4 7#a74 ,,plate ,i4 ,,sinai ,,codex1 ,century ,,iv4 ,heb4 #ab3bg-bi4 ,notice the occasional use of very small letters4 ,in line #c the article ,greek3 taen is inserted by correction in its proper place1 while it is left standing where it should not at the beginning of line #b4 ,no4 7#b74 ,,plate ,i4 ,,alexandrine ,,codex1 ,century ,v4 ,jno4 #a3a-e4 ,in the margin stands the first ,ammonian section 7,a71 and under it the tenth ,eusebian canon 7,i74 ,no4 7#c74 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,vatican ,,codex1 ,century ,,iv4 ,psa4 #a3a1 #b and part of verse #c2 called by ,scrivener a tolerable fac-simile4 ,no4 7#d74 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,codex ,,ephraemi1 palimpsest of ,century ,v4 #a ,tim4 #c3af1 and end of verse #ae4 ,the heavier upper writing in two columns 7cursive7 is a translation from ,ephraem the ,syrian4 ,the paler underneath is the ,greek text4 ,no4 7#e74 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,codex ,,bezae1 ,century ,,vi4 ,matt4 #e3a-c4 ,from the type cast for ,kipling's edition1 which give a good idea of the manuscript4 ,it is bilingual1 the ,greek and ,latin stichometrically written and on opposite pages4 ,in the present specimen the ,latin is placed below the ,greek4 ,on the left margin of the ,greek are the ,ammonian sections4 ,no4 7#f74 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,codex ,,purpureus1 ,century ,,vi4 ,part of ,jno4 #ae3bj4 ,in the margin the ,ammonian section #aci 7,greek3 ,r,a,th71 and under it the third ,eusebian canon 7,greek3 ,g74 ,no4 7#g74 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,codex ,,laudianus1 ,century ,,vi4 ,part of ,acts #bj3bh4 ,bilingual and stichometrically written1 the ,latin on the left and the ,greek on the right4 ,no4 7#h74 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,codex ,,monacensis1 ,century ,x4 ,luke #g3 end of verse #be and beginning of verse #bf4 ,no4 7#i74 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,codex ,,basilensis 7cursive71 ,century ,x4 ,matt4 #ae3a1 and part of verse #b4 ,no4 7#aj74 ,,plate ,v4 ,,codex ,,ruber 7cursive1 in bright red ink71 ,century ,x4 #b ,cor4 #a3d1 with end of verse #c1 and beginning of verse #e4 ,no4 7#aa74 ,,plate ,v4 ,part of ,luke #bj3i1 #aj1 from a fragmentary ,palimpsest of century ,,vi41 brought in #ahdg from the ,nitrian desert1 and now in the ,british ,museum1 add4 #ag1baa4 ,it is covered by ,syrian writing of ,century ,,ix4 or ,x4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4 7l74 ,,sinai ,,codex4 7#b74 ,,alexandrine ,,codex4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 7#c74 ,,vatican ,,codex4 7#f74 ,,codex ,,purpureus4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 7#d74 ,,codex ,,ephraemi4 7#g74 ,,codex ,,laudianus4 7#h74 ,,codex ,,monacensis4 7#i74 ,,codex ,,basilensis4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 7#e74 ,,codex ,,bezae4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4 7#aj74 ,,codex ,,ruber4 7#aa74 ,a ,,palimpsest ,,from ,,the ,,nitrian ,,desert4