by the ,bibliotheque nationale de       
,france 7,bn,f_/,gallica7 at            
http3_/_/gallica4bnf4fr7                
,,smithsonian ,,institution----,,bureau 
,,of ,,ethnology4         99       99   
99       99       99                    
,a ,,study                         of   
,,pueblo ,,pottery                  ,,as
 ,,illustrative ,,of                    
,,zu,i ,,culture ,,growth4              
,,by               ,,frank ,,hamilton   
,,cushing4     ,,contents4              
,habitations affected by environment    
#dgc     ,rectangular forms developed   
from circular                           
#dge     ,flat and terraced roofs       
developed from sloping mesa-sites       
#dgg     ,added stories developed from  
limitations of cliff-house sites        
#dgi     ,communal pueblos developed    
from congregation of cliff-house tribes 
#dhj    ,pottery affected by environment
                                        
#dhb     ,anticipated by basketry       
#dhc     ,suggested by clay-lined       

basketry                                
#dhe     ,influenced by local minerals  
#dic     ,influenced by materials and   
methods used in burning                 
#die    ,evolution of forms             
#dig    ,evolution of decoration        
#ejf    ,decorative symbolism           
#eaj   ,,illustrations4    ,,fig4       
,page4   #dij4--;,a ,navajo hut or hogan
                                        
#dgc   #dia4--,perspective view of      
earliest or ,round-house structures of  
lava                                    
#dgd   #dib4--,plan of same             
#dge   #dic4--,section of same          
#dge   #did4--;,evolution of rectangular
 forms in primitive architecture        
#dgf   #die4--,section illustrating     
evolution of flat roof and terrace      
#dgg   #dif4--,perspective view of a    
typical solitary-house                  
#dgh   #dig4--,plan of a typical        
solitary-house                          
#dgh   #dih4--,typical cliff-dwelling   
#dgi   #dii4--,typical                  

terraced-pueblo--communal type          
#dhj   #ejj4--;,ancient gourd-vessel    
encased in wicker                       
#dhc   #eja4--;,havasupa roasting-tray1 
with clay lining                        
#dhd   #ejb4--,zui roasting-tray of     
earthenware                             
#dhe   #ejc4--;,havasupa boiling-basket 
#dhf   #ejd4--,sketch illustrating the  
first stage in manufacture of latter    
#dhf   #eje4--,sketch illustrating the  
second stage in manufacture of latter   
#dhf   #ejf4--,sketch illustrating the  
third stage in manufacture of latter    
#dhf   #ejg4--,typical example of basket
 decoration                             
#dhg   #ejh4--,typical example of basket
 decoration                             
#dhg   #eji4--,typical example of basket
 decoration                             
#dhg   #eaj4--,terraced lozenge         
decoration or                           
,double-splint-stitch-form4         7,sh
 k#8u tu lia ts nan7                    
#dhh   #eaa4--,terraced lozenge         

decoration or                           
,double-splint-stitch-form4         7,sh
 k#8u tu lia ts nan7                    
#dhh   #eab4--;,double-splint-stitch1   
from which same was elaborated          
#dhh   #eac4--;,double-splint-stitch1   
from which same was elaborated          
#dhh   #ead4--;,diagonal parallel-line  
decoration4 7,sh k#8ish pa ts nan7      
#dhh   #eae4--,study of splints at neck 
of unfinished basket illustrating       
evolution of latter                     
#dhi   #eaf4--;,example of indented     
decoration on corrugated ware           
#dij   #eag4--;,example of indented     
decoration on corrugated ware           
#dij   #eah4--;,cooking pot of spirally 
built or corrugated ware1 showing       
conical projections near rim            
#dij   #eai4--,the same1 illustrating   
modification of latter                  
#dia   #ebj4--,wicker water-bottle1     
showing double loops for suspension     
#dia   #eba4--,water-bottle of          
corrugated ware1 showing double handle  

#dib   #ebb4--,the same1 showing also   
plain bottom                            
#dib   #ebc4--;,food trencher or bowl of
 impervious wicker-work                 
#dig   #ebd4--,latter inverted1 as used 
in forming bowls                        
#dig   #ebe4--;,ancient bowl of         
corrugated ware1 showing comparative    
shallowness                             
#dih   #ebf4--;,basket-bowl as base-mold
 for large vessels                      
#dii   #ebg4--;,clay nucleus            
illustrating beginning of a vessel      
#dii   #ebh4--,the same shaped to form  
the base of a vessel                    
#dii   #ebi4--,the same as first placed 
in base-mold1 showing beginning of      
spiral building                         
#ejj   #ecj4--;,first form of vessel    
#ejj   #eca4--,secondary form in mold1  
showing origin of spheroidal type of    
jar                                     
#eja   #ecb4--,scrapers or trowels of   
gourd and earthen-ware for smoothing    
pottery                                 

#eja   #ecc4--;,finished form of a      
vessel in mold1 showing amount of       
contraction in drying                   
#eja   #ecd4--,profile of olla or modern
 water-jar                              
#ejb   #ece4--;,base of same1 showing   
circular indentation at bottom          
#ejb   #ecf4--,section of same1 showing 
central concavity and circular          
depression                              
#ejb   #ecg4--,milkmaid's boss1 or      
annular mat of wicker for supporting    
round vessels on the head in carrying   
#ejc   #ech4--,use of annular mat       
illustrated                             
#ejc   #eci4--,section of incipient     
vessel in convex-bottomed basket-mold   
#ejd   #edj4--,section of same as       
supported on annular mat and wad of soft
         substance1 for drying          
#ejd   #eda4--,modern base-mold as made 
from the bottom of water jar            
#ejd   #edb4--;,example of ,pueblo      
painted-ornamentation illustrating      
decorative value of open spaces  #ejf   

#edc and #edd4--;,amazonian             
basket-decorations1 illustrating        
evolution         of the above          
characteristic #ejg   #ede4--;,bowl1    
showing open or unjoined space in lines 
near rim        #eaj                    
#edf4--,water-jar1 showing open or      
unjoined space in lines near rim   #eaj 
#edg4--;,conical or flat-bellied canteen
                               #eab     
#edh and #edi4--,the same1 compared with
 human mammary gland           #eac     
#eej4--;,double-lobed or hunter canteen 
7,me wi k#8i lik ton ne71               
showing teat-like projections and open  
spaces of contiguous         lines      
#ead   #eea4--,native painting of deer1 
showing space-line from mouth to        
heart                                   
#eae   #eeb4--,native painting of sea   
serpent1 showing space-line from mouth  
to heart                                
#eae   #eec4--,the fret of basket       
decoration                              
#eaf   #eed4--,the fret of pottery      

decoration                              
#eaf   #eee4--,scroll as evolved from   
fret in pottery decoration              
#eaf   #eef4--;,ancient ,pueblo         
medicine-jar                            
#eag   #eeg4--;,decoration of above     
compared with modern ,moki rain symbol  
#eag   #eeh4--,zui prayer-meal bowl     
illustrating symbolism in form and      
decoration                              
#eah   #eei4--,native paintings of      
sacred butterfly                        
#eai   #efj4--,native painting of sacred
 migratory summer bird             #eai 
#efa4--,rectangular or ,iroquois type of
 earthen vessel                #eai     
#efb4--,kidney-shaped type of vessel of 
,nicaragua                     #ebj     
#efc4--;,iroquois bark vessel1 showing  
angles of juncture              #ebj    
#efd4--,porcupine quill decoration on   
bark vessel1 for comparison         with
 ,fig4 #efa                             
#eba         99       99       99       
99       99       ,a ,,study ,,of       

,,pueblo ,,pottery ,,as ,,illustrative  
,,of               ,,zu,i               
,,culture-,,growth4         99       99 
99       99       99                ,,by
 ,,frank ,h4 ,,cushing4         99      
99       99       99       99           
,,habitations ,,affected ,,by           
,,environment4   ,it is conceded that   
the peculiarities of a culture-status   
are due chiefly to the necessities      
encountered during its development4 ,in 
this sense the ,pueblo phase of life    
was1 like the ,egyptian1 the product of 
a desert environment4 ,given that a     
tribe or stock of people is weak1 they  
will be encroached upon by neighboring  
stronger tribes1 and driven to new      
surroundings if not subdued4 ,such we   
may believe was the influence which led 
the ancestors of the ,pueblo tribes to  
adopt an almost waterless area for their
 habitat4  ,it is apparent at least that
 they entered the country wherein their 
remains occur while comparatively a rude
 people1 and worked out there almost    

wholly their incipient civilization4 ,of
 this there is important linguistic     
evidence4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#dij4--;,a ,navajo hut4  ,a ,navajo     
hogan1 or hut1 is a beehive-shaped or   
conical structure 7see ,fig4 #dij7 of   
sticks and turf or earth1 sometimes even
 of stones chinked with mud4 ,yet its   
modern ,zui name is hm pon ne1 from ha  
we1 dried brush1 sprigs or leaves2 and p
 an ne1 covering1 shelter or roof 7po a 
to place over and ne the nominal        
suffix72 which1 interpreted1 signifies a
 brush or leaf shelter4 ,this leads to  
the inference that the temporary shelter
 with which the ,zuis were acquainted   
when they formulated the name here      
given1 presumably in their earliest     
condition1 was in shape like the ,navajo
 hogan1 but in material1 of brush or    
like perishable substance4  ,the archaic
 name for a building or walled inclosure
 is h sho ta1 a contraction of the now  
obsolete term1 h sho ta pon ne1 from h  
sho1 gum1 or resin-like2 sh tai e1      

leaned or placed together convergingly2 
and t po an ne1 a roof of wood or a roof
 supported by wood4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #dia4--,perspective view of      
earliest or ,round-house structure of   
lava4  ,the meaning of all this would be
 obscure did not the oldest remains of  
the ,pueblos occur in the almost        
inaccessible lava wastes bordering the  
southwestern deserts and intersecting   
them and were not the houses of these   
ruins built on the plan of shelters1    
round 7see ,figs4 #dia1 #dib1 #dic71    
rather than rectangular4 ,furthermore1  
not only does the lava-rock of which    
their walls have been rudely constructed
 resemble natural asphaltum 7h sho7 and 
possess a cleavage exactly like that of 
pion-gum and allied substances 7also h  
sho71 but some forms of lava are        
actually known as  he sho or gum-rock4  
,from these considerations inferring    
that the name h sho ta pon ne           
derivatively signifies something like a 
gum-rock shelter with roof supports of  

wood1 we may also infer that the        
,pueblos on their coming into the desert
 regions dispossessed earlier           
inhabitants or that they chose the      
lava-wastes the better to secure        
themselves from invasion2 moreover that 
the oldest form of building known to    
them was therefore an inclosure of      
lava-stones1 whence the application of  
the contraction h sho ta1 and its       
restriction to mean a walled inclosure4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dib4--,plan of   
,pueblo structure of lava4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dic4--,section of
 ,pueblo structure of lava4             
,,rectangular ,,forms ,,developed ,,from
 ,,circular4  ,it may be well in this   
connection to cite a theory entertained 
by ,mr4 ,victor ,mindeleff1 of the      
,bureau of ,ethnology1 whose wide       
experience among the southwestern ruins 
entitles his judgment to high           
consideration4 ,in his opinion the      
rectangular form of architecture1 which 
succeeds the type under discussion1 must

 have been evolved from the circular    
form by the bringing together1 within a 
limited area1 of many houses4 ,this     
would result in causing the wall of one 
circular structure to encroach upon that
 of another1 suggesting the partition   
instead of the double wall4 ,this       
partition would naturally be built      
straight as a twofold measure of        
economy4 ,supposing three such houses to
 be contiguous to a central one1 each   
separated from the latter by a straight 
wall1 it may be seen that 7as in the    
accompanying plan7 the three sides of a 
square are already formed1 suggesting   
the parallelogramic as a convenient     
style of sequent architecture4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #did4--;,evolution
 of rectangular forms in primitive      
architecture4  ,all this1 ,i need       
scarcely add1 agrees not only with my   
own observations in the field but with  
the kind of linguistic research above   
recorded4 ,it would also apparently     
explain the occurrence of the circular  

semisubterranean k wi tsi we1 or        
estufas4 ,these being sacred have       
retained the pristine form long after   
the adoption of a modified type of      
structure for ordinary or secular       
purposes1 according to the well known   
law of survival in ceremonial           
appurtenances4  ,in a majority of the   
lava ruins 7for example those occurring 
near ,prescott1 ,arizona71 ,i have      
observed that the sloping sides rather  
than the level tops of mesa headlands   
have been chosen by the ancients as     
building-sites4 ,here1 the rude1 square 
type of building prevails1 not1 however1
 to the entire exclusion of the circular
 type1 which1 is represented by loosely 
constructed walls1 always on the        
outskirts of the main ruins4 ,the       
rectangular rooms are1 as a rule1 built 
row above row4 ,some of the houses in   
the upper rows give evidence of having  
overlapped others below4 7,see section1 
,fig4 #die47   ,,flat ,,and ,,terraced  
,,roofs ,,developed ,,from ,,sloping    

,,mesa-,,sites4  ,we cannot fail to take
 notice of the indications which this   
brings before us4  7#a7 ,it is quite    
probable that the overlapping resulted  
from an increase in the numbers of the  
ancient builders relative to available  
area1 this1 as in the first instance1   
leading to a further massing together of
 the houses4 7#b7 ,it suggested the     
employment of rafters and the formation 
of the flat roof1 as a means of         
supplying a level entrance way and floor
 to rooms which1 built above and to the 
rear of a first line of houses1 yet     
extended partially over the latter4 7#c7
 ,this is ,i think the earliest form of 
the terrace4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#die4--,section illustrating evolution  
of flat roof and terrace  ,it is        
therefore not surprising that the flat  
roof of to-day is named t k#8os kwn ne1 
from te1 space1 region1 extension1 k#8os
 kwi e1 to cut off in the sense of      
closing or shutting in from one side1   
and kwn ne1 place of4 ,nor is it        

remarkable that no type of ruin in the  
,southwest seems to connect these first 
terraced towns with the later not only  
terraced but also literally cellular    
buildings1 which must be regarded       
nevertheless as developed from them4    
,the reason for this will become evident
 on further examination4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #dif4--,perspective view of a   
typical solitary house4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #dig4--,plan of a typical        
solitary house4  ,the modern name for   
house is k#8i kwn ne1 from k#8i we1     
water1 and kwin ne1 place of1 literally 
watering place2 which is evidence that  
the first properly so called houses     
known to the ,pueblos were solitary and 
built near springs1 pools1 streams1 or  
well-places4 ,the universal occurrence  
of the vestiges of single houses        
throughout the less forbidding tracts of
 the ,pueblo country 7see ,figs4 #dif   
and #dig7 leads to this inference and to
 the supposition that the necessity for 
protection being at last overcome1 the  

denizens of the lava-fields1 where      
planting was well-nigh impossible1      
descended1 building wherever conditions 
favored the horticulture which gradually
 came to be their chief means of        
support4 ,as irrigation was not known   
until long afterwards1 arable areas were
 limited1 hence they were compelled to  
divide into families or small clans1    
each occupying a single house4 ,the     
traces of these solitary farm-houses    
show that they were at first            
single-storied4 ,the name of an upper   
room indicates how the idea of the      
second or third story was developed1 as 
it is sh ten u thlan1 from sh ten1 a    
shallow cave1 or rock-shelter1 and  thla
 nai e1 placed around1 embracing1       
inclusive of4 ,this goes to show that it
 was not until after the building of the
 first small farm-houses 7which gave the
 name to houses7 that the caves or      
rock-shelters of the cliffs were        
occupied4 ,if predatory border-tribes1  
tempted by the food-stores of the       

horticultural farm-house builders1 made 
incursions on the latter1 they would    
find them1 scattered as they were1 an   
easy prey4   ,,added ,,stories ,,for    
,,cliff ,,dwellings ,,developed ,,from  
,,limitations ,,of ,,cliff-,,house      
,,sites4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#dih4--;,a typical cliff-dwelling4      
,this condition of things would drive   
the people to seek security in the      
neighboring cliffs of fertile canons1   
where not only might they build their   
dwelling places in the numerous         
rock-shelters1 but they could also      
cultivate their crops in comparative    
safety along the limited tracts which   
these eyries overlooked4 ,the narrow    
foothold afforded by many of these      
elevated cliff-shelves or shelters would
 force the fugitives to construct house 
over house2 that is1 build a second or  
upper story around the roof of the      
cavern4 ,what more natural than that    
this upper room should take a name most 
descriptive of its situation--as that   

portion built around the cavern-shelter 
or sh ten--or that1 when the            
intervention of peace made return to the
 abandoned farms of the plains or a     
change of condition possible1 the idea  
of the second story should be carried   
along and the name first applied to it  
survive1 even to the present day8 ,that 
the upper story took its name from the  
rock-shelter may be further illustrated4
 ,the word sh ten comes from  sho nan   
te1 the condition of being dusky1 dank1 
or mildewy2 clearly descriptive of a    
cavern1 but not of the most open1 best  
lighted1 and driest room in a ,pueblo   
house4  ,to continue1 we may see how the
 necessity for protection would drive   
the petty clans more and more to the    
cliffs1 how the latter at every         
available point would ultimately come to
 be occupied1 and thus how the          
,cliff-dwelling 7see ,fig4 #dih71 was   
confined to no one section but was as   
universal as the farm-house type of     
architecture itself1 so widespread1 in  

fact1 that it has been heretofore       
regarded as the monument of a great1 now
 extinct race of people6   ,,communal   
,,pueblos ,,developed ,,from            
,,congregation ,,of ,,cliff-,,house     
,,tribes4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#dii4--,typical terraced communal       
pueblo4  ,we may see1 finally1 how at   
last the caons proved too limited and in
 other ways undesirable for occupation1 
the result of which was the             
confederation of the scattered          
cliff-dwelling clans1 and the           
construction1 first on the overhanging  
cliff-tops1 then on mesas1 and farther  
and farther away1 of great1 many-storied
 towns1 any one of which was named1 in  
consequence of the bringing together in 
it of many houses and clans1 thlu l lon 
ne1 from thlu a1 many springing up1 and 
l lon a1 that which stands1 or those    
which stand2 in other words1 many built 
standing together4 ,this cannot be      
regarded as referring to the simple fact
 that a village is necessarily composed 

of many houses standing together4 ,the  
name for any other village than a       
communal pueblo is t na kwn ne1 from t  
na--many sitting around1 and kwn ne1    
place of4 ,this term is applied by the  
,zuis to all villages save their own and
 those of ourselves1 which latter they  
regard as ,pueblos1 in their acceptation
 of the above native word4  ,here1 then1
 in strict accordance with1 the         
teachings of myth1 folk-lore and        
tradition1 ,i have used the linguistic  
argument as briefest and most convincing
 in indicating the probable sequence of 
architectural types in the evolution of 
the ,pueblo2 from the brush lodge1 of   
which only the name survives1 to the    
recent and present terraced1            
many-storied1 communal structures1 which
 we may find throughout ,new ,mexico1   
,arizona1 and contiguous parts of the   
neighboring ,territories4#a     #a ,see 
for confirmation the last ,annual       
,report to the    ,archological         
,institute of ,america1 by ,adolph ,f4  

,bandelier1 one    of the most          
indefatigable explorers and careful     
students of early    ,spanish history in
 ,america4     ,,pottery ,,affected ,,by
 ,,environment4   ,there is no other    
section of the ,united ,states where the
 potter's art was so extensively        
practiced1 or where it reached such a   
degree of perfection1 as within the     
limits of these ancient ,pueblo regions4
 ,to this statement not even the        
prolific valleys of the ,mississippi and
 its tributaries form an exception4  ,on
 examining a large and varied collection
 of this pottery1 one would naturally   
regard it either as the product of four 
distinct peoples or as belonging to four
 different eras1 with an inclination to 
the chronologic division4  ,when we see 
the reasonable probability that the     
architecture1 the primeval arts and     
industries1 and the culture of the      
,pueblos are mainly indigenous to the   
desert and semi-desert regions of ,north
 ,america1 we are in the way towards an 

understanding of the origin and         
remarkable degree of development in the 
ceramic art4  ,in these regions water   
not only occurs in small quantities1 but
 is obtainable only at points separated 
by great distances1 hence to the        
,pueblos the first necessity of life is 
the transportation and preservation of  
water4 ,the skins and paunches of       
animals could be used in the effort to  
meet this want with but small success1  
as the heat and aridity of the          
atmosphere would in a short time render 
water thus kept unfit for use1 and the  
membranes once empty would be liable to 
destruction by drying4 ,so far as       
language indicates the character of the 
earliest water vessels which to any     
extent met the requirements of the ,zui 
ancestry1 they were tubes of wood or    
sections of canes4 ,the latter1 in      
ritualistic recitation1 are said to have
 been the receptacles that the          
creation-priests filled with the sacred 
water from the ocean of the cave-wombs  

of earth1 whence men and creatures were 
born1 and the name for one of these cane
 water vessels is sh tom me1 from sh e1 
cane or canes1 and tm me1 a wooden tube4
 ,yet1 although in the extreme western  
borders of the deserts1 which were      
probably the first penetrated by the    
,pueblos1 the cane grows to great size  
and in abundance along the two rivers of
 that country1 its use1 if ever         
extensive1 must have speedily given way 
to the use of gourds1 which grew        
luxuriantly at these places and were of 
better shapes and of larger capacity4   
,the name of the gourd as a vessel is   
sho tom me1 from sh e1 canes1 p pon nai 
e1 bladder-shaped1 and tm me1 a wooden  
tube2 a seeming derivation 7with the    
exception of the interpolated sound     
significant of form7 from sh tom me4    
,the gourd itself is called m thl 1 hard
 fruit4 ,the inference is that when used
 as a vessel1 and called sho tom me1 it 
must have been named after an older form
 of vessel1 instead of after the plant  

or fruit which produced it4  ,while the 
gourd was large and convenient in form1 
it was difficult of transportation owing
 to its fragility4 ,to overcome this it 
was encased in a coarse sort of         
wicker-work1 composed of fibrous yucca  
leaves or of flexible splints4 ,of this 
we have evidence in a series of         
gourd-vessels among the ,zuis1 into     
which the sacred water is said to have  
been transferred from the tubes1 and a  
pair of which one of the priests1 who   
came east with me two years ago1 brought
 from ,new ,mexico to ,boston in his    
hands--so precious were they considered 
as relics--for the purpose of           
replenishing them with water from the   
,atlantic4 ,these vessels are encased   
rudely but strongly in a meshing of     
splints 7see ,fig4 #ejj71 and while ,i  
do not positively claim that they have  
been piously preserved since the time of
 the universal use of gourds as         
water-vessels by the ancestry of this   
people1 they are nevertheless of        

considerable antiquity4 ,their origin is
 attributed to the priest-gods1 and they
 show that it must have once been a     
common practice to encase gourds1 as    
above described1 in osiery4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ejj4--;,gourd    
vessel enclosed in wicker4   ,,pottery  
,,anticipated ,,by ,,basketry4  ,this   
crude beginning of the wicker-art in    
connection with water-vessels points    
toward the development of the wonderful 
water-tight basketry of the southwest1  
explaining1 too1 the resemblance of many
 of its typical forms to the shapes of  
gourd-vessels4 ,were we uncertain of    
this1 we might again turn to language1  
which designates the impervious wicker  
water-receptacle of whatever outline as 
tm ma1 an evident derivation from the   
restricted use of the word tm me in     
connection with gourd or cane vessels1  
since a basket of any other kind is     
called ts  le4  ,it is readily          
conceivable that water-tight osiery1    
once known1 however difficult of        

manufacture1 would displace the general 
use of gourd-vessels4 ,while the growth 
of the gourd was restricted to limited  
areas1 the materials for basketry were  
everywhere at hand4 ,not only so1 but   
basket-vessels were far stronger and    
more durable1 hence more readily        
transported full of water1 to any       
distance4 ,by virtue of their rough     
surfaces1 any leakage in such vessels   
was instantly stopped by a daubing of   
pitch or mineral asphaltum1 coated      
externally with sand or coarse clay to  
harden it and overcome its adhesiveness4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#eja4--;,havasupai clay-lined           
roasting-tray4  ,we may conclude1 then1 
that so long as the ,pueblo ancestry    
were semi-nomadic1 basketry supplied the
 place of pottery1 as it still does for 
the less advanced tribes of the         
,southwest1 except in cookery4 ,possibly
 for a time basketry of this kind served
 in place of pottery even for cookery1  
as with one of the above-mentioned      

tribes1 the ,ha va su pa or ,cooninos1  
of ,cataract ,caon1 ,arizona4 ,these    
people1 until recently1 were cut off    
from the rest of the world by their     
almost impenetrable caon1 nearly half a 
mile in depth at the point where they   
inhabit it4 ,for example1 when ,i       
visited them in #ahha1 they still hafted
 sharpened bits of iron1 like celts1 in 
wood4 ,they had not yet forgotten how to
 boil food in water-tight basketry1 by  
means of hot stones1 and continued to   
roast seeds1 crickets1 and bits of meat 
in wicker-trays1 coated inside with     
gritty clay4 7,see ,fig4 #eja47 ,the    
method of preparing and using these     
roasting-trays has an important bearing 
on several questions to which reference 
will be made further on4 ,a round       
basket-tray1 either loosely or closely  
woven1 is evenly coated inside with     
clay1 into which has been kneaded a very
 large proportion of sand1 to prevent   
contraction and consequent cracking from
 drying4 ,this lining of clay is        

pressed1 while still soft1 into the     
basket as closely as possible with the  
hands and then allowed to dry4 ,the tray
 is thus made ready for use4 ,the seeds 
or other substances to be parched are   
placed inside of it1 together with a    
quantity of glowing wood-coals4 ,the    
operator1 quickly squatting1 grasps the 
tray at opposite edges1 and1 by a rapid 
spiral motion up and down1 succeeds in  
keeping the coals and seeds constantly  
shifting places and turning over as they
 dance after one another around and     
around the tray1 meanwhile blowing or   
puffing1 the embers with every breath to
 keep them free from ashes and glowing  
at their hottest4  ,that this clay      
lining should grow hard from continual  
heating1 and in some instances separate 
from its matrix of osiers1 is apparent4 
,the clay form thus detached would      
itself be a perfect roasting-vessel4    
,,pottery ,,suggested ,,by              
,,clay-,,lined ,,basketry4  ,this would 
suggest the agency of gradual heat in   

rendering clay fit for use in cookery   
and preferable to any previous          
makeshift4 ,the modern ,zui name for a  
parching-pan1 which is a shallow bowl of
 black-ware1 is thl mon ne1 the name for
 a basket-tray being thl lin ne4 ,the   
latter name signifies a shallow vessel  
of twigs1 or thl we2 the former         
etymologically interpreted1 although of 
earthenware1 is a hemispherical vessel  
of the same kind and material4 ,all this
 would indicate that the thl lin ne1    
coated with clay for roasting1 had given
 birth to the thl mon ne1 or            
parching-pan of earthenware4 7,see ,fig4
 #ejb47  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#ejb4--,zui earthenware roasting tray4  
,among the ,havasupa1 still surviving as
 a sort of bucket1 is the basket-pot or 
boiling-basket1 for use with hot stones1
 which form ,i have also found in some  
of the cave deposits throughout the     
ancient ,zui country4 ,these vessels    
7see ,fig4 #ejc7 were bottle-shaped and 
provided near the rims of their rather  

narrow mouths with a sort of cord or    
strap-handle1 attached to two loops or  
eyes 7,fig4 #ejc a7 woven into the      
basket1 to facilitate handling when the 
vessel was filled with hot water4 ,in   
the manufacture of one of these vessels1
 which are good examples of the helix or
 spirally-coiled type of basket1 the    
beginning was made at the center of the 
bottom4 ,a small wisp of fine1 flexible 
grass stems or osiers softened in water 
was first spirally wrapped a little at  
one end with a flat1 limber splint of   
tough wood1 usually willow 7see ,fig4   
#ejd74 ,this wrapped portion was then   
wound upon itself2 the outer coil thus  
formed 7see ,fig4 #eje7 being firmly    
fastened as it progressed to the one    
already made by passing the splint      
wrapping of the wisp each time it was   
wound around the latter through some    
strands of the contiguous inner coil1   
with the aid of a bodkin4 7,see ,fig4   
#ejf47 ,the bottom was rounded upward   
and the sides were made by coiling the  

wisp higher and higher1 first outward1  
to produce the bulge of the vessel1 then
 inward1 to form the tapering upper part
 and neck1 into which1 the two little   
twigs or splint loop-eyes were firmly   
woven4 7,see again ,fig4 #ejc a47       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ejc4--;,havasupa 
boiling-basket4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#ejd4 ,,fig4 #eje4 ,,fig4 #ejf4         
,sketches illustrating manufacture of   
spirally-coiled basketry4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ejg4--,typical   
basket decoration4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #ejh4--,typical basket           
decoration4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#eji4--,typical basket decoration4      
,these and especially kindred forms of  
basket-vessels were often quite         
elaborately ornamented1 either by the   
insertion at proper points of dyed      
wrapping-splints1 singly1 in pairs1 or  
in sets1 or by the alternate painting of
 pairs1 sets1 or series of stitches4    
,thus were produced angular devices1    
like serrated bands1 diagonal or zigzag 

lines1 chevrons1 even terraces and      
frets4 7,see ,figs4 #ejg1 #ejh1 #eji47  
,there can be no doubt that these styles
 and ways of decoration were developed1 
along with the weaving of baskets1      
simply by elaborating on suggestions of 
the lines and figures unavoidably       
produced in wicker-work of any kind when
 strands of different colors happened to
 be employed together4 ,even slight     
discolorations in occasional splints    
would result in such suggestions1 for   
the stitches would here show1 there     
disappear4 ,the probability of this view
 of the accidental origin of            
basket-ornamentation may be enhanced by 
a consideration of the etymology of a   
few ,zui decorative terms1 more of which
 might be given did space admit4 ,a     
terraced lozenge 7see ,figs4 #eaj1      
#eaa71 instead of being named after the 
abstract word a wi thlui ap  p tchi na1 
which signifies a double terrace or two 
terraces joined together at the base1 is
 designated shu k#8u tu li a tsi nan1   

from shu e1 splints or fibers2 k#8u tsu1
 a double fold1 space1 or stitch 7see   
,figs4 #eab1 #eac72 li a1 an            
interpolation referring to form2 and tsi
 nan1 mark2 in other words1 the double  
splint-stitch-form mark4 ,likewise1 a   
pattern1 composed principally of a      
series of diagonal or oblique parallel  
lines en masse 7see ,fig4 #ead71 is     
called shu k#8ish pa ts nan1 from sh e1 
splints2 k#8ish pai e1 tapering 7k#8ish 
pon ne1 neck or smaller part of         
anything72 and ts nan1 mark2 that is1   
tapering or neck-splint mark4 ,curiously
 enough1 in a bottle-shaped basket as it
 approaches completion the splints of   
the tapering part or neck all lean      
spirally side by side of one another    
7see ,fig4 #eae71 and a term descriptive
 of this has come to be used as that    
applied to lines resembling it1 instead 
of a derivative from s sl lai e1        
signifying an oblique or leaning line4  
,where splints variously arranged1 or   
stitches1 have given names to           

decorations--applied even to painted and
 embroidered designs--it is not         
difficult for us to see that these same 
combinations1 at first unintentional1   
must have suggested the forms to which  
they gave names as decorations4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eaj4 ,,fig4 #eaa4
                ,terraced lozenge       
decoration1 or                          
double-splint-stitch-forms4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eab4 ,,fig4 #eac4
                ,double-splint-stitch4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ead4--;,diagonal 
parallel-line decoration4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eae4--,splints at
 neck of unfinished basket4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eaf4 ,,fig4 #eag4
                ,examples of indented   
decoration on corrugated ware4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#eah4--;,cooking-pot of corrugated ware1
 showing                conical         
projections near rim4  ,pueblo coiled   
pottery developed from                  
basketry4--,seizing the suggestion      

afforded by the rude tray-molded        
parching-bowls1 particularly after it   
was discovered that if well burned they 
resisted the effects of water as well as
 of heat1 the ancient potter would      
naturally attempt in time to reproduce  
the boiling-basket in clay4 ,she would  
find that to accomplish this she could  
not use as a mold the inside of the     
boiling-basket1 as she had the inside of
 the tray1 because its neck was smaller 
than its body4 ,nor could she form the  
vase by plastering the clay outside of  
the vessel1 not only for the same       
reason1 but also because the clay in    
drying would contract so much that it   
would crack or scale off4 ,naturally1   
then1 she pursued the process she was   
accustomed to in the manufacture of the 
basket-bottle4 ,that is1 she formed a   
thin rope of soft clay1 which1 like the 
wisp of the basket1 she coiled around   
and around a center to form the bottom1 
then spirally upon itself1 now widening 
the diameter of each coil more and more1

 then contracting as she progressed     
upward until the desired height and form
 were attained4 ,as the clay was        
adhesive1 each coil was attached to the 
one already formed by pinching or       
pressing together the connecting edges  
at short intervals as the winding went  
on4 ,this produced corrugations or      
indentations marvelously resembling the 
stitches of basket-work4 ,hence         
accidentally the vessel thus built up   
appeared so similar to the basket which 
had served as its model that evidently  
it did not seem complete until this     
feature had been heightened by art4 ,at 
any rate1 the majority of specimens     
belonging to this type of               
pottery--especially those of the older  
periods during which it was             
predominant--are distinguished by an    
indented or incised decoration exactly  
reproducing the zigzags1 serrations1    
chevrons1 terraces1 and other           
characteristic devices of water-tight   
basketry4 7,compare ,figs4 #eaf1 #eag   

with ,figs4 #ejg1 #ejh47 ,evidently with
 a like intention two little cone-like  
projections were attached to the neck   
near the rim of the vessel 7see ,fig4   
#eah7 which may hence be regarded as    
survivals of the loops whereby it has   
been seen the ends of the strap-handle  
were attached to the boiling-basket4    
7,see again ,fig4 #ejc1 a47 ,although   
varied in later times to form scrolls1  
rosettes1 and other ornate figures 7see 
,fig4 #eai71 they continued ever after  
quite faithful features of the spiral   
type of pot1 and may even sometimes be  
seen on the cooking-vessels of modern   
,zui4 ,to add yet another link to this  
chain of connection between the coiled  
boiling-basket and the spirally-built   
cooking-pot1 the names of the two kinds 
of vessels may be given4 ,the           
boiling-basket was known as w li a k#8ia
 ni tu li a tom me1 the corrugated      
cooking pot as wo li a k#8ia te ni tu li
 a ton ne1 the former signifying coiled 
cooking-basket1 the latter coiled       

earthenware cooking-basket4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#eai--;,cooking-pot of corrugated ware1 
showing                modified         
projections near rim4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #ebj4--,wicker water-bottle1     
showing double loops for                
suspension4  ,other very important types
 of vessels were made in a similar way4 
,i refer especially to canteens and     
water-bottles4 ,the water-bottle of     
wicker differed little from the         
boiling-basket4 ,it was generally       
rounder-bodied1 longer and narrower     
necked1 and provided at one side near   
the shoulders or rim with two loops of  
hair or strong fiber1 usually braided4  
7,see ,fig4 #ebj47 ,the ends of the     
burden-strap passed through these loops 
made suspension of the vessel easy1 or  
when the latter was used simply as a    
receptacle1 the pair of loops served as 
a handle4 ,sometimes these              
basket-bottles were strengthened at the 
bottom with rawhide or buckskin1 stuck  

on with gum4 ,when1 in the evolution of 
the pitcher1 this type of basket was    
reproduced in clay1 not only was the    
general form preserved1 but also the    
details above described4 ,that is1      
without reference to usefulness--in fact
 at no small expense of trouble--the    
handles were almost always made double  
7see ,fig4 #eba72 indeed1 often braided1
 although of clay4 ,frequently1         
especially as time went on1 the bottoms 
were left plain1 as if to simulate the  
smooth skin-bottoming of the            
basket-bottles4 7,see ,fig4 #ebb47 ,at  
first it seems odd that with all these  
points of similarity the two kinds of   
water-vessel should have totally        
dissimilar names2 the basket-bottle     
being known as the k#8i pu k#8ia tom me1
 from k#8i pu ka1 for carrying or       
placing water in1 and tm me2 the handled
 earthen receptacle1 as the  mush ton   
ne4 ,yet when we consider that the      
latter was designed not for transporting
 water1 for which it was less suited    

than the former1 but for holding it1 for
 which it was even preferable1 the      
discrepancy is explained1 since the name
  mush ton ne is from i mu1 to sit1 and 
tm me1 a tube4 ,this indicates1 too1 why
 the basket-bottle was not displaced by 
the earthen bottle4 ,while the former   
continued in use for bringing water from
 a distance1 the latter was employed for
 storing it4 ,as the fragile earthen    
vessels were much more readily made and 
less liable to become tainted1 they were
 exclusively used as receptacles1       
removing the necessity of the tedious   
manufacture of a large number of the    
basket-bottles4 ,again1 as the pitcher  
was thus used exclusively as a          
receptacle1 to be set aside in household
 or camp1 the name  mush ton ne sufficed
 without the interpolation              
te--earthenware--to distinguish it as of
 terra cotta1 instead of osiery4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#eba4--,water-bottle of corrugated ware1
 showing                double handle4  

,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ebb4--,water-bottle of corrugated ware1
 showing                plain bottom4   
,,pottery ,,influenced ,,by ,,local     
,,minerals4  ,before discussing the     
origin of other forms1 it may be well to
 consider briefly some influences1 more 
or less local1 which1 in addition to the
 general effect of gourd-forms in       
suggesting basket-types and of the      
latter in shaping earthenware1 had      
considerable bearing on the development 
of ceramic art in the ,southwest1       
pushing it to higher degrees of         
perfection and diversity in some parts  
than in others4  ,perhaps first in      
importance among these influences was   
the mineral character of a locality4    
,where clay occurred of a fine tough    
texture1 easily mined and manipulated1  
the work in terra cotta became          
proportionately more elaborate in       
variety and finer in quality4 ,there are
 to be found about the sites of some    
ancient pueblos1 potsherds incredibly   

abundant and indicating great           
advancement in decorative art1 while    
near others1 architecturally similar1   
even where evidence of ethnic connection
 is not wanting1 only coarse1           
crudely-molded1 and painted fragments   
are discoverable1 and these in limited  
quantity4  ,an example in point is the  
ruined pueblo of ,a wat u i or ,aguatbi1
 as it was known to the ,spaniards at   
the time of the conquest1 when it was   
the leading city of the ,province of    
,tusayan1 now ,moki4 ,over the entire   
extent of this ruin1 and to a           
considerable distance around it1        
fragments of the greatest variety in    
color1 shape1 size1 and finish of ware  
occur in abundance4 ,in the immediate   
neighborhood1 however1 are extensive1   
readily accessible formations producing 
several kinds of clay and nearly all the
 color minerals used in the ,pueblo     
potter's art4 ,yet at the greatest ruin 
on the upper ,colorado ,chiquito 7in an 
arm of the valley of which river ,a wat 

i itself occurs71 where the fallen walls
 betoken equal advancement in the status
 of the ancient builders and indicate by
 their vast extent many times the       
population of ,a wat u i1 the potsherds 
are coarse1 irregular in curvature1     
badly decayed1 and exceptionally scarce4
 ,in the immediate neighborhood of this 
ruin1 ,i need not add1 clay is of rare  
occurrence and poor in quality4  ,a more
 reliable example is furnished by the   
farming pueblos of ,zui4 ,at ,h sho ta  
ts nan or ,ojo del ,pescado1 fifteen    
miles east of ,zui1 clays of several    
varieties and color minerals are        
abundant4 ,the finest pottery of the    
tribe is made there in great quantity1  
while1 notwithstanding the facilities   
for transportation which the ,zuis now  
possess1 at the opposite farming town of
 ,k#8ip kwai na kwin1 or ,los ,ojos     
,calientes1 where clay is scarce and of 
poor texture1 the pottery1 although     
somewhat abundant1 is of miserable      
quality and of bad shape4  ,in quality  

of art quite as much as in that of      
material this local influence was great4
 ,in the neighborhood of ruined pueblos 
which occur near mineral deposits       
furnishing a great variety of           
pigment-material1 the decoration of the 
ceramic remains is so surprisingly and  
universally elaborate1 beautiful1 and   
varied as to lead the observer to regard
 the people who dwelt there as different
 from the people who had inhabited towns
 about the sites of which the sherds    
show not only meager skill and less     
profuse decorative variety1 but almost  
typical dissimilarity4 ,yet tradition   
and analogy1 even history in rare       
instances1 may declare that the         
inhabitants of both sections were of    
common derivation1 if not closely       
related and contemporaneous4 ,probably1 
at no one point in the ,southwest was   
ceramic decoration carried to a higher  
degree of development than at ,a wat u  
i1 yet the ,oraibes1 by descent the     
modern representatives of the ,a wat u i

 ans are the poorest potters and        
painters among the ,mokis4 ,near their  
pueblo the clay and other mineral       
deposits mentioned as abundant at ,a wat
 u i are meager and inaccessible4       
,still1 it may be urged that time may   
have introduced other than natural      
causes for change2 this could not be    
said of another example pertaining to   
one period and a single tribe4 ,i refer 
again to the ,zuis4 ,the manufactures of
 ,pescado probably surpass in decorative
 excellence all other modern ,pueblo    
pottery1 while both in their lack of    
variety and in delicacy of execution of 
their painted patterns the fictiles of  
,ojo ,caliente are so inferior and      
diverse from the other ,zui work that   
the future archologist will have need to
 beware1 or 7judging alone from the     
ceramic remains which he finds at the   
two pueblos7 he will attribute them at  
least to distinct periods1 perhaps to   
diverse peoples4   ,,pottery            
,,influenced ,,by ,,materials ,,and     

,,methods ,,used ,,in ,,burning4  ,other
 influences1 to a less extent local1 had
 no inconsiderable effect on primitive  
,pueblo pottery3 materials employed and 
methods resorted to in burning4  ,only  
one kind of fuel1 except for a single   
class of vessels1 is now used in        
pottery-firing2 namely1 dried cakes or  
slabs of sheep-dung4 ,anciently1 several
 varieties1 such as extremely dry       
sage-brush or grease-wood1 pion and     
other resinous woods1 dung of herbivora 
when obtainable1 charcoal1 and also     
bituminous or cannel-coal were employed4
 ,the principal agent seems1 however1 to
 have been dead-wood or spunk1          
pulverized and moistened with some      
adhesive mixture so that flat cakes     
could be formed of it4 ,i infer this not
 alone from ,zui tradition1 which is not
 ample1 but from the fact that the      
sheep-dung now used is called1 in the   
condition of fuel1 k ne a1 while its    
name in the abstract or as sheep-dung   
simply is m he4 ,dry-rot wood or spunk  

is known as k me4 ,in the shape of flat 
cakes it would be termed k mo we or k me
 a1 whence ,i doubt not the modern word 
k ne a is derived4  ,of methods1 four   
were in vogue4 ,the simplest and worst  
consisted in burying the vessel to be   
burned under hot ashes and building a   
fire around it1 or inverting it over a  
bed of embers and encircling it with a  
blazing fire of brush-wood1 as is still 
the practice of the ,maricopas and other
 sedentary tribes of the ,gila4 ,the    
most common was building a little cone  
or dome of fuel over the articles to be 
baked and firing2 the most perfect was  
to dig or construct under ground a      
little cist or kiln1 line it evenly with
 fuel1 leaving a central space for the  
green ware1 and slowly fire the whole   
mass4  ,irrespective of the kind of fuel
 used1 the baking by ash-burial made the
 ware gray1 cloudy1 or dingy1 and not   
very durable4 ,pottery burned with sage 
or grease-wood was firm1 light gray     
unless of ocherous clay1 less cloudy    

than if ash-baked1 yet mottled4 ,turf   
and dung1 although easily managed1 did  
not thoroughly harden the pottery1 but  
burned it very evenly2 dead wood or     
spunk-cakes baked as evenly as any of   
the materials thus far mentioned1 and   
more thoroughly than the others4        
,resinous or pitchy woods1 while they   
produced a much higher degree of heat1  
could be used only when color was       
unimportant1 as they still are used to  
some extent in the firing of black-ware 
or cooking pots4 ,the latter1 while     
still hot from a preliminary burning1 if
 coated externally with the mucilaginous
 juice of green cactus1 internally with 
pion gum or pitch1 and fired a second or
 even a third time with resinous        
wood-fuel1 are rendered absolutely      
fire-proof1 semi-glazed with a black    
gloss inside1 and wonderfully durable4  
,tradition represents that by far the   
most perfect fuel was found to be cannel
 coal1 and that1 where abundant1        
accessible1 and of an extremely         

bituminous quality1 it was much used4   
,the traces of little pit-kilns filled  
with1 cinders of mineral coal about many
 of the ruins in the northwestern       
portion of the ,pueblo region1 coupled  
with the semi-fusion and well-preserved 
condition of most of the ancient jars   
found associated with them1 certainly   
give support to this tradition4 ,happily
 ,i have additional confirmation4 ,when1
 two years ago1 ,i was engaged in making
 ethnologic collections at ,moki for the
 ,united ,states ,national ,museum1 some
 ,indians of the ,te wa pueblo brought  
me a quantity of pottery4 ,it had been  
made with the purpose of deceiving me1  
in careful imitation of ancient types1  
and was certainly equal to the latter in
 lightness and the condition of the     
burning4 ,i paid these enterprising     
,indians as good a price as they had    
been accustomed to getting for genuine  
ancient specimens1 but told them that1  
being a ,zui1 ,i was almost one of      
themselves1 hence they could not deceive

 me1 and asked them how they had so     
cleverly succeeded in burning the ware4 
,they laughingly replied that they had  
simply dug some bituminous coal 7u  ko7 
and used it in little pits4 ,when ,i    
further asked them why they did not burn
 their household utensils thus1 they    
said it was too uncertain2 representing 
that the pots did not like to be burned 
in the u  ko1 probably because it was so
 hot1 hence they broke more frequently  
than if fired in the common way with    
dried sheep-dung2 furthermore the latter
 was less troublesome1 requiring only to
 be dug from the corrals near at hand   
and dried to make it ready for use4     
,this partially explains why the art of 
water-tight basket-making has here      
gradually declined since the ,spanish   
conquest1 as the ceramic industry has   
increased with the introduction of the  
sheep1 which furnishes fuel for the     
burning1 and the horse1 before unknown1 
has facilitated transportation1 whereby 
trade for this class of basketry with   

the distant nomadic tribes who still    
make it is rendered easy4 ,withal1      
however1 the quality of pottery has not 
improved1 but has deteriorated2 as      
sheep-dung is but an inferior fuel for  
firing4     ,,evolution ,,of ,,forms4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ebc4--;,food     
trencher of wicker-work4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #ebd4--,latter inverted1 as used
 in forming bowls  ,bearing these       
statements in mind1 the discussion of   
the evolution as well as of the         
distribution of form1 and later of the  
evolution of decoration1 in pottery will
 become easier4 ,by lingering steps     
there was early developed a method of   
building up vessels by a process        
differing in part from the spiral4 ,as  
the parching-bowl had been evolved from 
the roasting-tray1 so1 we may infer1 the
 food-bowl was suggested by the         
hemispherical food-trencher of          
wicker-work4 7,see ,fig4 #ebc47 ,yet1   
curiously enough1 the inside of the     
latter seems not at first to have been  

used in molding the food-bowl1 as1 it   
will be remembered1 the tray had been in
 forming the parching-pan4 ,on the      
contrary1 the clay was coiled around and
 around the outside of the bottom of an 
inverted basket bowl 7see ,fig4 #ebd71  
instead of being pressed evenly into it4
 ,as with the cooking pot1 so with this2
 as the coiling progressed it was       
corrugated1 not so much1 however from   
necessity1 as from habit4 ,in           
consequence of the difficulty           
experienced in removing these bowl-forms
 from the bottoms of the baskets--which 
had to be done while they were still    
plastic1 to keep them from              
cracking--they were made very shallow4  
,hence the specimens found among the    
older ruins and graves are not only     
corrugated outside1 but are also very   
wide in proportion to their height4     
7,see ,fig4 #ebe47 ,as time went on it  
was found that bowls might be made      
deeper1 and yet readily be taken off    
from the basket bottoms1 if slightly    

moistened outside and pressed evenly all
 around1 or1 better still1 scraped2 for1
 being plastic1 this proceeding caused  
them to grow thinner1 consequently      
larger1 thereby to loosen from the      
basket over which they had been molded4 
,as a result of this scraping1 however1 
the corrugated surface was destroyed1   
nor could it easily be restored4        
,therefore bowls when made deep were1 as
 a rule1 smooth on the outside as well  
as on the interior surface4 ,when by a  
perfectly natural sequence of events--as
 will be shown further on--ornamentation
 by painting came to be applied first to
 the plain interiors of the bowls1 the  
smooth outer surface was found          
preferable to the corrugated surface1   
not only because it took paint more     
readily1 but also because the bowl1 when
 painted outside as well as inside1     
formed a far handsomer utensil for      
household use than if simply decorated  
by the older methods4 ,as a consequence1
 we find that1 while the larger vessels 

continued to be corrugated and indented1
 the smoothed and painted bowl came into
 general use4 ,associated later on with 
this secondary type of bowls occurred   
the larger vessels plain at the bottoms1
 still corrugated at the sides4 ,nor is 
this surprising1 as the bowl1 molded on 
the basket bottom and there smoothed1   
could be afterward built up by the      
spiral process4 ,when in time the huge  
hemispherical canteens or water carriers
 of earthen-ware replaced the basket    
bottles1 so also the water jar or olla  
replaced the handled sitter or pitcher1 
since it could be made larger to receive
 more copious supplies of water than the
 strength of the frail handles on the   
pitchers would warrant4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #ebe4--;,ancient bowl of         
corrugated ware4  ,the water jar1 like  
the food-bowl1 is a conspicuous         
household article2 for which reason the 
,zui woman expends all her ability to   
render them handsome4 ,judging by this1 
the desire to decorate the water-vessel 

with paint1 like its constant companion 
the food-bowl1 would early lead to the  
attempt to make its surface smooth4     
,this would need to be effected while   
the article was still soft2 which       
necessity probably led to the discovery 
that ajar of the corrugated or simply   
coiled type may be smoothed while still 
plastic without danger of distortion1 no
 matter what its size1 if supported at  
the bottom in a basket or other mold so 
that it may be shifted or turned about  
without direct handling4 7,see ,fig4    
#ebf47  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#ebf4--;,basket-bowl as base-mold for   
large vessels4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#ebg4--;,clay nucleus for a vessel4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ebh4--;,clay     
nucleus shaped to form the base of a    
vessel4  ,after this discovery was made1
 the molding of large vessels was no    
longer accomplished by the spiral method
 exclusively4 ,a lump of clay1 hollowed 
out 7see ,fig4 #ebg71 was shaped how    
rudely so ever on the bottom of the     

basket or in the hand 7see ,fig4 #ebh71 
then placed inside of a hemispherical   
basket-bowl and stroked until pressed   
outward to conform with the shape1 and  
to project a little above the edges of  
its temporary mold1 whence it was built 
up spirally 7see ,fig4 #ebi7 until the  
desired form had been attained1 after   
which it was smoothed by scraping 7see  
,fig4 #ecj74  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#ebi4--;,clay nucleus in base-mold1 with
 beginning                of spiral     
building4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#ecj4--;,first form of vessel4  ,the    
necks and apertures of these earliest   
forms of the water jar were made very   
small in proportion to their other      
dimensions1 presumably on account of the
 necessity of often carrying them full  
of water over steep and rough mesa      
paths1 coupled perhaps with the         
imitation of other forms4 ,to render    
them as light as possible they were also
 made very thin4 ,one of the            
consequences of all this was that when  

large they could not be stroked inside1 
as the shoulders or uttermost upper     
peripheries of the vessel could not be  
reached with the hand or scraper through
 the small openings4 ,the effect of the 
pressure exerted in smoothing them on   
the outside1 therefore1 naturally caused
 the upper parts to sink down1          
generating the spheroidal shape of the  
jar4 7see ,fig4 #eca71 one of the most  
beautiful types of the olla ever known  
to the ,pueblos4 ,at ,zui1 wishing to   
have an ancient jar of this form which  
,i had seen1 reproduced1 ,i showed a    
drawing of it to a woman expert in the  
manufacture of pottery4 ,without any    
instructions from me beyond a mere      
statement of my wishes1 she proceeded at
 once to sprinkle the inside of a       
basket-bowl with sand1 managing the clay
 in a way above described and continuing
 the vessel-shaping upward by spiral    
building4 ,she did not at first make the
 shoulders low or sloping1 but rounded  
or arched them upward and outward 7see  

again ,fig4 #ebi74 ,at this ,i          
remonstrated1 but she gave no heed other
 than to ejaculate w na ni1 n6 which    
meant just wait1 will you6 ,when she had
 finished the rim1 she easily caused the
 shoulders to sink1 simply by stroking  
them--more where uneven than            
elsewhere--with a wet scraper of gourd  
7see ,fig4 #ecb1 a7 until she had       
exactly reproduced the form of the      
drawing4 ,she then set the vessel aside 
in the basket4 ,within two days it      
shrank by drying at the rate of about   
one inch in twelve1 leaving the basket  
far too large4 7,see ,fig4 #ecc47 ,it   
could hence be removed without the      
slightest difficulty4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #eca4--,secondary form1 in the   
mold4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4            
#ecb4--,scrapers of gourd and           
earthenware for                smoothing
 pottery4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#ecc4--;,finished form of vessel in     
mold1 showing                amount of  
contraction in drying4  ,the sand had   

prevented contact with the basket which 
would have caused the clay vessel to    
crack as the latter was very thin4 ,this
 process exists in full force to-day    
with the ,oraibes in the modeling of    
convex-bottomed vessels1 and the ,zuis  
thus make their large bowls and huge    
drum-jars4  ,upon the bottoms of many   
jars of these forms1 ,i have observed   
the impressions of the wicker bowls in  
which they had been molded--not entirely
 to be removed1 it seems1 by the most   
assiduous smoothing before burning2 for1
 however smooth any exceptional specimen
 may appear1 a squeeze in plaster will  
still reveal traces of these            
impressions4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#ecd4--,profile of olla1 or modern      
water-jug4  ,a characteristic of these  
older forms of the water-jar is that    
they are invariably flat or             
round-bottomed1 while more recent and   
all modern types of the olla 7see ,fig4 
#ecd7 are concave or hollowed at the    
base 7see ,fig4 #ece7 to facilitate     

balancing on the head4 ,outside of this 
concavity and entirely surrounding it   
7,fig4 #ecf1 a7 is often to be observed 
an indentation 7see ,fig4 #ecf1 b7      
usually slight although sometimes       
pronounced4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#ece4--;,base of olla4  ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #ecf4--,section of olla4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ecg4--;,annular  
mat of wicker1 or milkmaid's boss4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ech4--,use of    
annular mat illustrated4  ,this has no  
use1 but there is of course a reason for
 its occurrence which1 if investigated1 
may throw light on the origin of the    
modern type of the olla itself4 ,the    
older or round-bottomed jars were       
balanced on the head in carrying1 by    
means of a wicker-work ring1 a kind of  
milk-maid's boss4 7,see ,fig4 #ecg47    
,these annular mats are still found     
among the ruins and cave-deposits1 and  
continue in use with the modern ,pueblos
 for supporting convex-bottom cooking   
pots on the floor as well as for        

facilitating the balancing of large     
food-bowls on the head4 7,see ,fig4     
#ech47 ,obviously the latter dishes have
 never been hollowed as the ollas have  
been1 because1 since they were used as  
eating-bowls1 the food could be removed 
from a plain bottom more easily than    
from a convex surface1 which would      
result from the hollowing underneath4   
,supposing that a water-jar chanced to  
be modeled in one of the convex-bottom  
bread-baskets 7see ,fig4 #eci71 it would
 become necessary1 on account of the    
thickness of these wicker bowls1 to     
remove the form from the mold before it 
dried4 ,by absorption it would dry so   
rapidly that it would crack1 especially 
in contracting against the convexity in 
the center of the basket-bottom4 7,see  
,fig4 #eci1 a47 ,in order that this form
 might be supported in an upright       
position until dry1 it would naturally  
be placed on one of the wicker-rings4   
,moreover1 that the bottom might not    
sink down or fall out1 a wad of some    

soft substance would be placed within   
the ring4 7,see ,fig4 #edj1 a47 ,as a   
consequence the weight of the plastic   
vessel would press the still soft bottom
 against the central wad1 7,fig4 #edj1  
a7 and the wicker ring 7,fig4 #edj1 c7  
sufficiently to cause the rounding      
upward of the cavity 7,fig4 #edj1 b7    
first made by the convex-bottom of the  
basket-mold1 as well as form the        
encircling indentation 7,fig4 #edj1 c74 
,thus by accident1 probably1 only       
possibly by intention1 was evolved the  
most useful and distinctive feature of  
the modern water-jar or olla1 the       
concave bottom4 ,this1 once produced1   
would be held to be peculiarly          
convenient1 dispensing with the use of a
 troublesome auxiliary4 ,its            
reproduction would present grave        
difficulties unless the bottom of the   
first vessel1 thickly coated with sand  
to prevent cracking1 was employed as a  
mold1 instead of the absorbent          
convex-centered basket-bowl4            

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eci4--,section of
 incipient vessel in basket-mold4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #edj4--,section of
 vessel supported for drying4  ,i infer 
this because1 to-day1 a ,zui woman is   
quite at a loss how to hollow the bottom
 of a water-jar if she does not possess 
a form or mold made from the base of    
some previously broken jar of the same  
type4 ,she therefore1 carefully         
preserves these precious bottoms of her 
broken ollas1 even cementing together   
fractured ones1 when not too badly      
shivered1 with a mixture of pitch or    
mineral asphaltum and sand4 ,i have seen
 as many as a dozen or more of these    
molds 7see ,fig4 #eda7 in a single store
 room4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#eda4--;,base-mold 7bottom of           
water-jar74  ,as the practice of molding
 all new vessels of this class in the   
bottoms of older ones was general--,i   
might say invariable--any peculiarities 
of form in the originals must have been 
communicated to those ensuing2 from the 

latter to others1 and so on1 though in  
less and less degree1 to the present    
time4 ,this theory is but tentative1 yet
 it would also explain1 on the score of 
association1 why the ,pueblo women      
slightly prefer the jars showing the    
indentation in question to more regular 
ones4 ,with the change from elevated    
cliff or mesa habitations to more       
accessible ones1 the ,pueblo ,indians   
were enabled to enlarge the apertures of
 their water-jars1 since not only did   
the concave bases of the latter make the
 balancing of them more secure1 but the 
trails over which they had to be carried
 from watering place to habitation were 
less rugged4 ,a natural result of this  
enlargement of the openings1 which      
admitted access with the scraper to the 
interior peripheries of the thin-walled 
jars1 was the rounding upward of their  
shoulders1 making them taller in        
proportion to their diameters4 ,this    
modification of form in the water-jar1  
taken in connection with the fact that  

thus changed1 it displaced the daily use
 of the canteen1 explains the totally   
dissimilar names which were applied to  
the two types4 ,the older1 or spheroidal
 olla1 was known as the k#8ip ton ne1   
from k#8ia pu1 to place or carry water  
in1 and tm me2 while the newer olla is  
called k#8i wih na k#8ia t le1 from k#8i
 wih na ki#8a na ki#8a1 for bringing of 
water3 t1 earthen-ware1 and  le or l lai
 e1 to stand or standing4 ,the latter   
term1 t  le1 is generic1 being applied  
to nearly all terra cotta vessels which 
are taller than they are broad4 ,t1     
earthen ware1 is derived from t'eh1 the 
root also of t ne a1 to resound1 to     
sound hollow2 while  le1 from l le or l 
lai 1 to stand1 is obviously applied in 
significance of comparative height as   
well as of function4  ,thus ,i have     
thrown together a few conjectures and   
suggestions relative to the origin of   
the ,southwestern pottery and the       
evolution of its principal forms4       
,,evolution ,,of ,,decoration   ,i might

 go on1 appealing to language to account
 for nearly every variety of pottery    
found existing as a type throughout the 
region referred to2 but a subject       
inseparably connected with this1        
throwing light on it in many ways1 and  
possessing in itself great interest1    
claims treatment on the few remaining   
pages of this essay4 ,i refer to the    
evolution and significance or symbolism 
of ,pueblo ceramic decorations4  ,before
 proceeding with this1 however1 ,i must 
acknowledge that ,i am as much indebted 
to the teachings of ,mr4 ,e4,b4 ,tylor1 
in his remarkable works on ,man's ,early
 ,history and ,primitive ,culture1 to   
,lubbock1 ,daniel ,wilson1 ,evans1 and  
others1 for the direction or impetus of 
these inquiries1 as ,i am to my own     
observations and experiments for its    
development4  ,the line of gradual      
development in ceramic decorations1     
especially of the symbolic element1     
treated as a subject1 is wider in its   
applicability to the study of primitive 

man1 because more clearly illustrative  
of the growth of culture4 ,i regret1    
therefore1 that it must here be dealt   
with only in a most cursory manner4     
,large collections for illustration     
would be essential to a fuller          
treatment1 even were space unlimited4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #edb4--;,example  
of ,pueblo painted ornamentation4       
,decoratively1 ,pueblo pottery is       
characterized by two marked features3   
angular designs predominate and         
ornamental effect depends as much on the
 open or undecorated space as on the    
painted lines and areas in the devices4 
7,see ,fig4 #edb47 ,while this is true  
of recent and modern wares1 it is more  
and more notably the case with other    
specimens in a ratio increasing in      
proportion to their antiquity4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #edc4  ,,fig4     
#edd4--;,amazonian basket decorations4  
,we cannot explain these                
characteristics1 and the conventional   
aspect of the higher and symbolic       

,pueblo ceramic decorations which grew  
out of them1 in a better way than to    
suppose them1 like the forms of this    
pottery1 to be the survivals of the     
influence of basketry4 7,see1 for       
comparison1 ,figs4 #edc1 #edd47 ,i shall
 be pardoned1 therefore1 for elaborating
 suggestions already made in this       
direction1 in the paragraphs which      
treated of the ornamentation of spiral  
ware1 and of the derivation of basket   
decorations from stitch- and            
splint-suggested figures4 ,all students 
of early man understand his tendency to 
reproduce habitual forms in accustomed  
association4 ,this feeling1 exaggerated 
with savages by a belief in the actual  
relationship of resemblance1 is shown in
 the reproduction of the decorations of 
basket vessels on the clay vessels made 
from them or in imitation of them4  ,in 
entire conformity with this1 the        
succession in the methods of the        
ornamentation of ,pueblo pottery seems  
to have been first by incision or       

indentation2 then by relief2 afterward  
by painting in black on a natural or    
light surface2 finally1 by painting in  
color on a white or colored surface4    
,as before suggested1 the patterns on   
the coiled1 regularly indented pottery  
7which came to be first known to the    
world as a type1 the corrugated1 through
 the earlier explorations and reports of
 ,mr4 ,william ,h4 ,holmes7 were        
produced simply by emphasized           
indentation1 more rarely by incision1   
and were almost invariably angular1     
reproducing exactly the designs on      
wicker work4 ,even in comparatively     
recent examples of the corrugated ware  
this is true2 for1 once connected with a
 type1 a style of decoration1 both seem 
to have been ever after inseparable1    
with at most but slight modification of 
the latter4 ,one of these modifications1
 in both method and effect1 was in the  
adoption of the raised or relief style  
of ornamentation found1 with rare       
exceptions in the ,southwest1 only on   

corrugated ware1 and on the class which 
in modern times has replaced it there1  
vessels used in cookery4 ,although never
 universal1 this style deserves passing 
attention as the outgrowth of an effort 
to attain the effect of contrast        
produced by dyed or painted splints on  
wicked work before the use of paint was 
known in connection with pottery4 ,the  
same kind of investigation indicates    
that the ,pueblos largely owed their    
textile industries and designs1 as well 
as their potter's art1 to the necessity 
which gave rise to the making of        
water-tight basketry4 ,the terms        
connected with the rudimentary processes
 of weaving and embroidery1 and the     
principal patterns of both 7on1 for     
example1 blankets1 kirtles1 sacred      
girdles1 and women's belts71 are mostly 
susceptible of interpretation1 like the 
terms in pottery1 as having a meaning   
connected with the processes of basket  
plaiting and painting4 ,this renders the
 conventional character of ,pueblo      

textile ornaments easy of comprehension1
 as well1 as the very early1 if not the 
earliest1 origin of loom-weaving among  
our ,indians in the desert regions of   
,america4  ,henceforward1 then1 we have 
only to consider decoration by painting4
 ,the probability is that this began as 
soon as the smooth surface in pottery   
was generally made2 evidence of which   
seemingly exists2 as eating bowls are1  
even to the present day1 decorated      
principally on the interior2 not1 as may
 be supposed1 because the exterior is   
more hidden from view1 but because1 as  
we have seen on a former page1 bowls    
were made plain inside before the       
corrugated type formed on basket bottoms
 had been displaced by the smoothed     
type2 and were naturally first decorated
 there with paint4 ,it must be          
constantly borne in mind that a style of
 decoration once coupled with a kind of 
ware1 or even a portion of a vessel1    
retained its association permanently4   
,it must have been early observed that  

clay of one kind1 applied even thinly to
 the exterior of a vessel of another    
kind1 produced1 when burned1 a different
 color4 ,with the discovery that clays  
of different kinds burned in a variety  
of colors1 to some extent irrespective  
of the methods and the materials used in
 firing1 there must likewise have been  
hinted1 we may safely conclude1 the     
efficacy of clay washes as paint1 and of
 paint as a decorative agent4  ,among   
the ceramic remains from the oldest     
pueblo sites of the ,southwest1 pottery 
occurs1 mostly in four varieties3 the   
corrugated or spiral2 the plain1 yet    
rough gray2 white decorated with        
geometric figures in black2 and red1    
either plain or decorated with geometric
 devices in black and white4 ,the gray  
or dingy brown1 rough variety1 resulted 
when a corrugated or coiled jar had been
 simply smoothed with the fingers and   
scraper before it was fired4 ,a step in 
advance1 easily and soon taken1 was the 
additional smoothing of the vessel by   

slightly wetting and rubbing its outer  
surface4 ,even this was productive only 
of a moderately smooth surface1 since1  
as learned by the ,indian potters long  
before1 in their experience with the    
clay-plastered parching-tray1 it was    
necessary to mix the clay of vessels    
with a tempering of sand1 crushed       
potsherds1 or the like1 to prevent it   
from cracking while drying2 this1 of    
course1 no amount of rubbing would      
remove4 ,hence1 by another easy step1   
clay unmixed with a grit-tempering1 made
 into a thin paste with water1 and      
thickly applied to the half-dried jar   
with a dab or brash of soft fiber1 gave 
a beautifully smooth surface1 especially
 if polished afterward by rubbing with  
water-worn pebbles4 ,the vessel thus    
prepared1 when burned1 assumed          
invariably a creamy1 pure white1        
red-brown or1 other color1 according to 
the quality or kind of the clay used in 
making the paste with which it had been 
smoothed or washed4  ,thus was achieved 

the art of producing at will fictiles of
 different colors1 with which simple    
suggestion painting also became easy4   
,black1 aside from clay paste1 was      
almost the first pigment discovered2    
quite likely because the mineral blacks 
from iron ores1 coal1 and the various   
rocks used universally among ,indians   
for staining splints1 etc41 would be the
 earliest tried1 and then adopted1 as   
they remained unchanged by firing4 ,thus
 it came about1 as evidenced by the     
sequence of early remains in the        
,southwest1 that the white and black    
varieties of pottery were the first     
made1 then the red and black1 and later 
the red with white and black decoration4
 ,take1 as an example1 the latter4 ,of  
course it was a simple mode to employ   
the red 7ocherous7 clay for the wash1   
the blue clay 7which burned white7 for  
the white pigment in making lines1 and  
any of the black minerals above         
mentioned for other marking4  ,in these 
earliest kinds of painted pottery the   

angular decorations of the corrugated   
ware or of basketry were repeated1 or at
 the farthest only elaborated1 although 
on some specimens the suggestions of the
 curved ornament already occurred4      
,these resulted1 ,i may not fear to     
claim1 from carelessness or awkwardness 
in drawing1 for instance1 the corners of
 acute angles1 which1 cutting across-lot
 would1 it may be seen1 produce the wavy
 or meandering line from the zigzag1 the
 ellipsoid from the rectangle1 and so   
on4  ,precisely in accordance with this 
theory were the studies of my preceptor1
 the lamented ,prof4 ,charles ,fred4    
,hartt4 ,in a paper ,on ,evolution in   
,ornament1 published in several         
periodicals1 among them the ,popular    
,science ,monthly of ,january1 #ahge1   
this gifted naturalist illustrated his  
studies by actual examples found on     
decorated burial urns from ,maraj       
,island4 ,i must take the liberty of    
suggesting1 however1 that upon some     
antecedent kind of vessel1 the eyes of  

the ,amazonian ,islanders may have been1
 to give ,professor ,hartt's idea1      
trained to take physiological and       
sthetic delight in regularly recurring  
lines and dots2 not on the pottery      
itself1 as he seemed to think1 for      
decoration was old in basketry and the  
textiles when pottery was first made4   
,,decorative ,,symbolism4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ede4--;,food-bowl4  ,,fig4             
#edf4--,water-jar4                      
7,showing open or joined space in line  
near rim47  ,on every class of food- and
 water-vessels1 in collections of both  
ancient and modern ,pueblo pottery      
7except1 it is important to note1 on    
pitchers and some sacred receptacles71  
it may be observed as a singular1 yet   
almost constant feature1 that encircling
 lines1 often even ornamental zones1 are
 left open or not as it were closed at  
the ends4 7,see ,figs4 #ede1 a1 #edf1   
a47 ,this is clearly a conventional     
quality and seemingly of intentional    

significance4 ,an explanation must be   
sought in various directions1 and once  
found will be useful in guiding to an   
understanding of the symbolic element in
 ,pueblo ceramic art4 ,i asked the      
,indian women1 when ,i saw them making  
these little spaces with great care1 why
 they took so much pains to leave them  
open4 ,they replied that to close them  
was ak ta ni1 fearful6--that this little
 space through the line or zone on a    
vessel was the exit trail of life or    
being1 o ne ythl kwi na1 and this was   
all4 ,how it came to be first left open 
and why regarded as the exit trail1 they
 could not tell4 ,if one studies the    
mythology of this people and their ways 
of thinking1 then watches them closely1 
he will1 however1 get other clews4 ,when
 a woman has made a vessel1 dried1      
polished1 and painted it1 she will tell 
you with an air of relief that it is a  
,made ,being4 ,her statement is         
confirmed as a sort of article of faith1
 when you observe that as she places the

 vessel in the kiln1 she also places in 
and beside it food4 ,evidently she      
vaguely gives something about the vessel
 a personal existence4 ,the question    
arises how did these people come to     
regard food-receptacles or              
water-receptacles as possessed of or    
accompanied by conscious existences4 ,i 
have found that the ,zui argues actual  
and essential relationship from         
similarity in the appearance1 function1 
or other attributes of even generically 
diverse things4#b     #b ,i would refer 
those1 who may wish to find this        
characteristic    more fully set forth1 
to the introductory pages of my essay on
    ,zui ,fetiches1 published in the    
second volume of ,contributions to      
,north ,american ,ethnology by the      
,bureau of ,ethnology2 also to a        
paper read before the ,american ,academy
 of ,sciences on the    ,relations to   
one another of the ,zui ,mythologic and 
,sociologic    ,systems1 published1 ,i  
regret to say1 without my revision1 in  

the    ,popular ,science ,monthly1 for  
,july1 #ahhb4  ,i here allude to this   
mental bias because it has both         
influenced the decoration of pottery and
 has been itself influenced by it4 ,in  
the first place1 the noise made by a pot
 when struck or when simmering on the   
fire is supposed to be the voice of its 
associated being4 ,the clang of a pot   
when it breaks or suddenly cracks in    
burning is the cry of this being as it  
escapes or separates from the vessel4   
,that it has departed is argued from the
 fact that the vase when cracked or     
fragmentary never resounds as it did    
when whole4 ,this vague existence never 
cries out violently unprovoked2 but it  
is supposed to acquire the power of     
doing so by imitation2 hence1 no one    
sings1 whistles1 or makes other strange 
or musical sounds resembling those of   
earthenware under the circumstances     
above described during the smoothing1   
polishing1 painting1 or other processes 
of finishing4 ,the being thus incited1  

they think1 would surely strive to come 
out1 and would break the vessel in so   
doing4 ,in this we find a partial       
explanation of the native belief that a 
pot is accompanied by a conscious       
existence4 ,the rest of the solution of 
this problem in belief is involved in   
the native philosophy and worship of    
water4 ,water contains the source of    
continued life4 ,the vessel holds the   
water2 the source of life accompanies   
the water1 hence its dwelling place is  
in the vessel with the water4 ,finally1 
the vessel is supposed to contain the   
treasured source1 irrespective of the   
water--as do wells and springs1 or even 
the places where they have been4 ,if the
 encircling lines inside of the eating  
bowl1 outside of the water jar1 were    
closed1 there would be no exit trail for
 this invisible source of life or for   
its influence or breath4 ,yet1 why1 it  
maybe asked1 must the source of life or 
its influence be provided with a trail  
by which to pass out from the vessel8   

,in reply to this ,i will submit two    
considerations4 ,it has been stated that
 on the earliest ,southwestern potteries
 decoration was effected by incised or  
raised ornamentation4 ,any one who has  
often attempted to make vessels         
according to primitive methods as ,i    
have has found how difficult it is to   
smoothly join a line incised around a   
still soft clay pot1 and that this      
difficulty is even greater when the     
ornamental band is laid on in relief4   
,it would be a natural outgrowth of this
 predicament to leave the ends unjoined1
 which indeed the savage often did4     
,when paint instead of incision or      
relief came to be the decorative agent1 
the lines or bands would be left        
unjoined in imitation4 ,as those        
acquainted with ,tylor's ,early ,history
 will realize1 and myth of observation  
like the above would come to be assigned
 in after ages4 ,this may or may not be 
true of the case in question2 for1 as   
before observed1 some classes of sacred 

receptacles1 as well as the most ancient
 painted bowls1 are not characterized by
 the unjoined lines4 ,whether true or   
not1 it is an insufficient solution of  
the problem4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#edg4--;,conical or flat-bellied        
canteen4  ,it is natural for the ,pueblo
 to consider water as the prime source  
of life1 or as accompanied by it1 for   
without the presence of living water    
very few things grow in his desert land4
 ,during many a drought chronicled in   
his oral annals1 plants1 animals1 and   
men have died as of a contagious        
scourge4 ,naturally1 therefore1 he has  
come to regard water as the milk of     
adults1 to speak of it as such1 and as  
the all-sufficient nourishment which the
 earth 7in his conception of it as the  
mother of men7 yields4 ,in the times    
when his was a race of cliff and mesa   
dwellers1 the most common vessel        
appertaining to his daily life was the  
flat-bellied canteen or water-carrier4  
7,see ,fig4 #edg47 ,this was suspended  

by a band across the forehead1 so as to 
hang against the back1 thus leaving the 
hands as well as the feet free for      
assistance in climbing4 ,it now survives
 only for use on long journeys or at    
camps distant from water4 ,the original 
suggestion of its form seems to have    
been that of the human mammary gland1 or
 perhaps its peculiar form may have     
suggested a relationship between the    
two4 7,compare ,figs4 #edh1 #edi47 ,at  
any rate1 its name in ,zui is me he ton 
ne1 while me ha na is the name of the   
human mammary gland4 ,me he ton ne is   
from me ha na1 mamma1 e ton nai e1      
containing within1 and tom me4 ,from me 
ha na comes wo ha na1 hanging or placed 
against anything1 obviously because the 
mammaries hang or are placed against the
 breast2 or1 possibly1 m ha na may be   
derived from w ha na by a reversal of   
reasoning1 which view does not affect   
the argument in question4 ,it is        
probable that the me he ton was at first
 left open at the apex 7,fig4 #edi4;a7  

instead of at the top 7,fig4 #edi4;b72  
but1 being found liable to leak when    
furnished with the aperture so low1 this
 was closed4 ,a surviving superstition  
inclines me to this view4 ,when a ,zui  
woman has completed the me he ton nearly
 to the apex1 by the coiling-process1   
and before she has inserted the nozzle  
7,fig4 #edi4;b71 she prepares a little  
wedge of clay1 and1 as she closes the   
apex with it1 she turns her eyes away4  
,if you ask her why she does this1 she  
will tell you that it is ak ta ni       
7fearful7 to look at the vessel while   
closing it at this point2 that1 if she  
look at it during this operation1 she   
will be liable to become barren2 or     
that1 if children be born to her1 they  
will die during infancy2 or that she    
maybe stricken with blindness2 or those 
who drink from the vessel will be       
afflicted with disease and wasting away6
 ,my impression is that1 reasoning from 
analogy 7which with these people means  
actual relationship or connection1 it   

will be remembered71 the ,zui woman     
supposes that by closing the apex of    
this artificial mamma she closes the    
exit-way for the source of life2        
further1 that the woman who closes this 
exit-way knowingly 7in her own sight1   
that is7 voluntarily closes the exit-way
 for the source of life in her own mamm2
 further still1 that for this reason the
 privilege of bearing infants may be    
taken away from her1 or at any rate     
7experience showing the fallacy of this 
philosophy7 she deserves the loss of the
 sense 7sight7 which enabled her to     
knowingly close the exit-way of the     
source of life4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#edh4  ,,fig4 #edi4                     
,conical canteen compared with human    
mammary gland4  ,by that tenacity of    
conservative reasoning which is a marked
 mental characteristic of the sedentary 
,pueblo1 other types of the canteen1 of 
later origin1 not only retained the     
name-root of this primeval form1 but    
also its attributed functions4 ,for     

example1 the me wi k#8i lik ton ne 7,see
 ,fig4 #eej7 is named thus from me we1  
mammaries1 i k lk to e1 joined together 
by a neck1 and tom me4  ,now1 when      
closing the ends 7,fig4 #eej1 c1 c7 of  
this curious vessel in molding it1 the  
women are as careful to turn the eyes   
away as in closing the apex of the older
 form4 ,as the resemblance of either of 
the ends of this vessel to the mamma is 
not striking1 they place on either side 
of the nozzle a pair of little conical  
projections1 resembling the teats1 and  
so called4 7,fig4 #eej1 b47 ,there are  
four of these1 instead of1 as we might  
reasonably expect1 two4 ,the reason for 
this seems to be that the me wi k'i lik 
ton ne is the canteen designed for use  
by the hunter in preference to all other
 vessels1 because it may be easily      
wrapped in a blanket and tied to the    
back4 ,other forms would not do1 as the 
hunter must have the free use not only  
of his hands but also of his head1 that 
he may turn quickly this way or that in 

looking for or watching game4 ,the      
proper nourishment of the hunter is the 
game he kills2 hence1 the source of his 
life1 like that of the young of this    
game1 is symbolized in the canteen by   
the mammaries1 not of human beings1 but 
of game-animals4 ,a feature in these    
canteens dependent upon all this brings 
us nearer to an understanding of the    
question under discussion4 ,when        
ornamental bands are painted around     
either end of the neck of one of them   
7,fig4 #eej1 b71 they are interrupted at
 the little projections 7,fig4 #eej1    
b174 ,indeed1 ,i have observed specimens
 on which these lines1 if placed farther
 out1 were interrupted at the top 7,fig4
 #eej1 a a7 opposite the little         
projections4 ,so1 by analogy1 it would  
seem the ,pueblos came to regard paint1 
like clay1 a barrier to the exit of the 
source of life4 ,this idea of the source
 of life once associated with the       
canteen would readily become connected  
with the water-jar1 which1 if not the   

offspring of the canteen1 at least      
usurped its place in the household      
economy of these people4 ,from the      
water-jar it would pass naturally to    
drinking-vessels and eating-bowls1      
explaining the absence of the           
interrupted lines on the oldest of these
 and their constant occurrence on recent
 and modern examples2 for the painted   
lines being left open at the apexes1 or 
near the projections on the canteens1   
they should also be unjoined on other   
vessels with which the same ideas were  
associated4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#eej4--;,double lobed or hunter canteen4
  ,so1 also1 it will be observed that in
 paintings of animals there is not only 
a line drawn from the mouth to the      
plainly depicted heart1 but a little    
space is left down the center or either 
side of this line 7see ,figs4 #eea1     
#eeb71 which is called the o ne ythl kwa
 to na1 or the entrance trail 7of the   
source or breath of life74              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eea4--,painting  

of deer4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#eeb4--,painting of sea-serpent4  ,by   
this long and involved examination of   
one element in the symbolism of ,pueblo 
ceramic decoration1 we gain some idea   
how many others not quite so striking1  
yet equally curious1 grew up2 how1 also1
 they might be explained4 ,their        
investigation1 however1 would be        
attended with such intricate studies1   
involving so many subjects not at sight 
related to the one in hand1 that ,i must
 hasten to present two other points4    
,much wonder has been expressed that the
 ,pueblos1 so advanced in pottery       
decoration1 have not attempted more     
representations of natural objects4     
,there is less ground for this wonder   
than at first appears4 ,it should be    
remembered that the original angular    
models which the ,pueblo had1 out of    
which to develop his art1 bequeathed to 
him an extremely conventional conception
 of things4 ,this1 added to his peculiar
 way of interpreting relationship and   

personifying phenomena and even         
functions1 has resulted in making his   
depictions obscure4 ,in point of fact1  
in the decoration of certain classes of 
his pottery he has attempted the        
reproduction of almost everything and of
 every phenomenon in nature held as     
sacred or mysterious by him4 ,on certain
 other classes he has developed1        
imitatively1 many typical decorations   
which now have no special symbolism1 but
 which once had definite significance2  
and1 finally1 he has sometimes relegated
 definite meanings to designs which at  
first had no significance1 except as    
decorative agents1 after ward using them
 according to this interpretation in his
 attempts to delineate natural objects1 
their phenomena1 and functions4 ,i will 
illustrate by examples1 the last point  
first4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#eec4--,the fret of basket decoration4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eed4--,the fret  
of pottery decoration4  ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #eee4--,scroll as evolved from   

fret in pottery                         
decoration4  ,going back to basketry1 we
 find already the fully developed fret4 
7,see ,fig4 #eec47 ,i doubt not that    
from this was evolved1 in accordance    
with ,professor ,hartt's theory1 the    
scroll or volute as it appears later on 
pottery4 7,see ,figs4 #eed1 #eee47 ,to  
both of these designs1 and modifications
 of them ages later1 the ,pueblo has    
attached meanings4 ,those who have      
visited the ,southwest and ridden over  
the wide1 barren plains1 during late    
autumn or early spring1 have been       
astonished to find traced on the sand by
 no visible agency1 perfect concentric  
circles and scrolls or volutes yards    
long and as regular as though drawn by a
 skilled artist4 ,the circles are made  
by the wind driving partly broken       
weed-stalks around and around their     
places of attachment1 until the fibers  
by which they are anchored sever and the
 stalks are blown away4 ,the volutes are
 formed by the stems of red-top grass   

and of a round-topped variety of the    
chenopodium1 drifted onward by the      
whirlwind yet around and around their   
bushy adhesive tops4 ,the ,pueblos1     
observing these marks1 especially that  
they are abundant after a wind storm1   
have wondered at their similarity to the
 painted scrolls on the pottery of their
 ancestors4 ,even to-day they believe   
the sand marks to be the tracks of the  
whirlwind1 which is a ,god in their     
mythology of such distinctive           
personality that the circling eagle is  
supposed to be related to him4 ,they    
have naturally1 therefore1 explained the
 analogy above noted by the inference   
that their ancestors1 in painting the   
volute1 had intended to symbolize the   
whirlwind by representing his tracks4   
,thenceforward the scroll was drawn on  
certain classes of pottery to represent 
the whirlwind1 modifications of it 7for 
instance1 by the color-sign belonging to
 any one of the six regions7 to signify 
other personified winds4 ,so1 also1 the 

semicircle is classed as emblematic of  
the rainbow 7a mi to lan ne72 the obtuse
 angle1 as of the sky 7a po yan ne72 the
 zigzag line as lightning 7wi lo lo an  
ne72 terraces as the sky horizons 7awi  
thlui a we71 and modifications of the   
latter as the mythic ancient sacred     
place of the spaces 7,te thl shi na     
kwn71 and so on4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#eef4--;,ancient ,pueblo medicine-jar4  
,by combining several of these          
elementary symbols in a single device1  
sometimes a mythic idea was beautifully 
expressed4 ,take1 as an example1 the    
rain totem adopted by the late ,lewis   
,h4 ,morgan as a title illumination1    
from ,maj4 ,j4,w4 ,powell1 who received 
it from the ,moki4 ,pueblos of ,arizona 
as a token of his induction into the    
rain gens of that people4 7,see ,fig4   
#eeg1 a47 ,an earlier and simpler form  
of this occurs on a very ancient sacred 
medicine jar which ,i found in the      
,southwest4 7,see ,fig4 #eef47 ,by      
reference to an enlarged drawing of the 

chief decoration of this jar 7see ,fig4 
#eeg71 it may be seen that the sky1 a1  
the ancient place of the spaces 7region 
of the sky gods71 b1 the cloud lines1 c1
 and the falling rain1 d1 are combined  
and depicted to symbolize the storm1    
which was the objective of the          
exhortations1 rituals1 and ceremonials  
to which the jar was an appurtenance4   
,illustration3     a4 ,modern ,moki rain
 symbol4                    b4 ,enlarged
 decoration of medicine-jar4            
,,fig4 #eeg4--;,decoration of ancient   
medicine-jar compared                   
with rain symbol of modern ,moki totem4 
,thus1 upon all sacred vessels1 from the
 drums of the esoteric medicine         
societies of the priesthood and all     
vases pertaining to them to the keramic 
appurtenances of the sacred dance or ,k 
k1 all decorations were intentionally   
emblematic4 ,of this numerous class of  
vessels1 ,i will choose but one for     
illustration--the prayer-meal-bowl of   
the ,k k4 ,in this1 both form and       

ornamentation are significant4 7,see    
,fig4 #eeh47 ,in explaining how the form
 of this vessel is held to be symbolic  
,i will quote a passage from the        
creation myth as ,i rendered it in an   
article on the origin of corn1 belonging
 to a series on ,zui ,breadstuff1       
published this year in the ,millstone of
 ,indianapolis1 ,indiana4 ,is not the   
bowl the emblem of the earth1 our       
mother8 ,for from her we draw both food 
and drink1 as a babe draws nourishment  
from the breast of its mother2 and      
round1 as is the rim of a bowl1 so is   
the horizon1 terraced with mountains    
whence rise the clouds4 ,this alludes to
 a medicine bowl1 not to one of the     
handled kind1 but ,i will apply it as   
far as it goes to the latter4 ,the two  
terraces on either side of the handle   
7,fig4 #eeh1 a a7 are in representation 
of the ancient sacred place of the      
spaces1 the handle being the line of the
 sky1 and sometimes painted with the    
rainbow figure4 ,now the decorations are

 a trifle more complex4 ,we may readily 
perceive that they represent tadpoles   
7,fig4 #eeh1 b b71 dragonflies 7,fig3   
#eeh1 c c71 with also the frog or toad  
7,fig4 #eeh72 all this is of easy       
interpretation4 ,as the tadpole         
frequents the pools of spring time he   
has been adopted as the symbol of spring
 rains2 the dragon-fly hovers over pools
 in summer1 hence typifies the rains of 
summer2 and the frog1 maturing in them  
later1 symbolizes the rains of the later
 seasons2 for all these pools are due to
 rain fall4 ,when1 sometimes1 the figure
 of the sacred butterfly 7see ,fig4     
#eei1 a b7 replaces that of the         
dragon-fly1 or alternates with it1 it   
symbolizes the beneficence of summer2   
since1 by a reverse order of reasoning1 
the ,zuis think that the butterflies and
 migratory birds 7see ,fig4 #efj7 bring 
the warm season from the ,land of       
everlasting summer4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #eeh4--,zui prayer-meal-bowl4    
,upon vessels of special function1 like 

these we have just noticed1 peculiar    
figures may be regarded as emblematic2  
on other classes1 no matter how         
evidently conventional and expressive   
decorations may seem1 excepting always1 
totemic designs1 it is wise to use great
 caution in their interpretation as     
intentional and not merely imitative4   
,a general examination1 even of the most
 modern of ,pueblo pottery1 shows us    
that certain types of decoration have   
once been confined to certain types of  
vessels1 all which has its due          
signification but an examination of     
which would properly form the subject of
 another essay4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#eei4--,paintings of sacred butterfly4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #efj4--,painting  
of summer-bird4  ,happily1 a work       
collateral to the one which ,i have here
 merely begun1 will1 ,i have reason to  
hope1 be carried to a high degree of    
perfection in the forthcoming monographs
 on the exhaustless ceramic collections 
of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum

 by ,mr4 ,william ,h4 ,holmes4 ,this    
author and artist will approach his task
 from a standpoint differing from mine1 
reaching thereby1 it may be1 conclusions
 at variance with the foregoing2 but by 
means of his wealth of material and     
illustration students will have         
opportunity of passing a judgment upon  
the merits of not only his work1 but of 
my own4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#efa4--,rectangular type of earthen     
vessel4  ,in conclusion1 let me very    
briefly refer to two distinctive        
,american types of pottery1 unconnected 
with the ,southwestern1 which1          
considered in conjunction with those of 
the latter region1 seem to me to        
indicate that the ceramic art has had   
independent centers of origin in        
,america4 ,for the sake of convenience1 
,i may name these types the rectangular 
7see ,fig4 #efa7 or ,iroquois1 and the  
bisymmetrical or kidney-shaped 7see     
,fig4 #efb71 of ,nicaragua4 ,the one is 
almost constant in the lake regions of  

the ,united ,states1 the other equally  
constant in sections of ,central        
,america4 ,in collections gathered from 
any tribe of our ,algonquin or ,iroquois
 ,indians1 one may observe vessels of   
the tough birch- or linden-bark1 some of
 which are spherical or hemispherical4  
,to produce this form of utensil from a 
single piece of bark1 it is necessary to
 cut pieces out of the margin and fold  
it4 ,each fold1 when stitched together  
in the shaping of the vessel1 forms a   
corner at the upper part4 7,see ,fig4   
#efc47 ,these corners and the borders   
which they form are decorated with short
 lines and combinations of lines1       
composed of coarse embroideries with    
dyed porcupine quills4 7,see ,fig4 #efd7
 ,may not the bark vessel have given    
rise to the rectangular type of pottery 
and its quill ornamentation to the      
incised straight-line decorations8      
7,compare ,fig4 #efa47  ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #efb4--,kidney-shaped vessel1    
,nicaragua4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      

#efc4--;,iroquois bark-vessel4  ,so1    
too1 in the unsymmetrical urns of       
,central and ,isthmean ,america1 which  
are characterized by the location of the
 aperture at the upper part of one of   
the extremities and by streak-like      
decorations1 we have a decided          
suggestion of the animal paunch or      
bladder and of the visible veins on its 
surface when distended4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #efd4--,porcupine quill          
decoration4  ,if these conjectures be   
accepted as approximately correct1 even 
in tendency1 we may hope by a patient   
study of the ceramic remains of a       
people1 no matter where situated1 to    
discover what was the type of their     
pre-ceramic vessels1 and thereby we     
might also learn whether1 at the time of
 the origin of the potter's art or      
during its development1 they had1 like  
the ,pueblos1 been indigenous to the    
areas in which they were found1 or      
whether they had1 like some of the      
,central ,americans1 7to make a concrete

 example and judge it by this method7   
apparently immigrated in part from      
desert ,north ,america1 in part from the
 wilderness of an equatorial region in  
,south ,america4         99       99    
99       99       99    ,,index         
,awatui pottery                         
#dic  ,basketry anticipated pottery     
#dhc-dhe ,basketry cooking utensils     
#dhd-dhf ,basketry copied in pottery    
#ddi ,basketry declined1 ,manufacture of
 watertight                       #dif  
,boiling basket                         
#dhe ,burning influence pottery1        
,materials and methods used in          
#die1 #dif  ,cane tubes to carry water  
#dhb ,cliff-dwellings                   
#dgh1 #dgi-dhj ,coal used in pottery    
firing1 ,mineral                        
#die-dif ,coiled pottery1 how made      
#ejj ,communal ,pueblos                 
#dhj1 #dha  ,environments affecting     
habitations                             
#dgc ,environments affecting pottery    
#dhb  ,flat and terraced roofs          

#dgg ,form evolved in pottery from      
basketry                                
#dig ,fuel used in pottery firing       
#die  ,gourd vessels to carry water     
#dhb1 #dhc  ,habitations affected by    
environment                             
#dgc ,hogan1 or hut1 ,navajo            
#dgc ,houses built near water1 ,pueblo  
#dgg  ,lava inclosure earliest form of  
,navajo hut                         #dge
 ,linguistic indications as to          
habitations                             
#dgd ,linguistic indications as to      
primitive water vessels                 
#dhb  ,mindeleff1 ,victor1 on           
development of rectangular architecture 
#dge ,minerals influencing pottery      
#dic ,mode of making pottery vessels    
#dii-ejj ,moki pottery                  
#dic  ,navajo hogan1 or hut             
#dgc  ,ojo ,caliente pottery            
#dia ,ollas                             
#dih1 #ejj ,ornament1 ,ceramic          
#dhh ,ornamentation of coiled basketry  
#dhg  ,pescado pottery                  

#did ,pottery affected by environment   
#dhb ,pottery anticipated by basketry   
#dhc-dhe ,pottery declined in quality   
with introduction of domestic animals   
#dif ,pottery developed from basketry   
#dhe ,pueblo primitive habitations      
#dge ,pueblos1 ,communal                
#dhj1 #dha  ,rectangular forms developed
 from circular in architecture          
#dge ,roasting tray                     
#dhd  ,stories added in cliff-buildings 
#dgi  ,tusayan1 ,province of            
#dic  ,water important to ,pueblos1     
,transportation and preservation of     
#dhb ,wicker cover for gourd vessels    
#dhc  ,zui priests' journey to the      
,atlantic                               
#dhc ,zui skill on water jars           
#dih1 #ejj