,illu/ration ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t ,,no4 #fcc ,,new ,,york1 ,,febru>y #ah1 #ahhh4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t4 ,vol4 ,,xxv41 ,no4 #fcc4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican e/abli%$ #ahde ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t1 #e a ye>4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican & ,supplem5t1 #g a ye>4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,i4 ,,ar*itecture4--,elem5ts ( ,ar*itectural ,design4--,by ,h4,h4 ,,/a?am4--,! comm5cem5t ( a s]ies ( lectures deliv]$ be=e ! ,london ,society ( ,arts1 giv+ ! l9e ( developm5t ( ! diff]5t /yles & ! aspirations ( _! orig9ators4 #cd illu/rations4 #ajajf ,,ii4 ,,a/ronomy4--,a ,fivefold ,comet4--,a curi\s a/ronomical d$uction2 ! probable division ( "o comet into five by ! di/urb+ effects ( ! sun4 #a illu/ration4 #ajaaf ,,iii4 ,,biography4--,l9nu4--,by ,c4,s4 ,,hallb]g4--,! life & "w ( ! great botani/1 8 portrait & bir?place4 #b illu/rations4 #ajaad ,,iv4 ,,*emi/ry4--,an ,app>atus = ,prep>+ ,sulphur\s1 ,c>bonic1 & ,phosphoric ,anhydrides4--,by ,h4,n4 ,,w>r54--,a simple app>atus = ?is purpose describ$ & illu/rat$4 #a illu/ration4 #ajaag ,! ,arrangem5t ( ,atoms 9 ,space 9 ,organic ,molecules4--,a review ( ,pr(4 ,,johannes ,,wislic5us' rec5t !ories on ?is ab/ract subject4 #ajaag ,! ,isolation ( ,fluor9e4--,note on ?is la/ isolation ( an elem5t1 ) ! prop]ties ( ! gas4 #a illu/ration4 #ajaag ,v4 ,,electricity4--,obs]vations on ,atmosph]ic ,electricity4--,by ,pr(4 ,l4 ,,web]4--,ab/ract ( a ,briti% ,association pap] on ?is important subject4 #ajaad ,! ,m5ges ,!rmo-,magnetic ,g5]ator & ,motor4--,! direct conv]sion ( electricity into heat2 ! g5]ator fully describ$4 #e illu/rations4 #ajaac ,,vi4 ,,eng9e]+4--,an ,inve/igation into ! ,int]nal ,/resses ,occurr+ 9 ,ca/ ,iron & ,/eel4--,by ,g5]al ,,ni*olas ,,kalak\tzky4--,fir/ in/allm5t ( an elaborate pap]1 giv+ !oretical & exp]im5tal exam9ation ( ?is subject4 #b illu/rations4 #ajaje ,h>greaves' ,!rmo-,motor4--,a new caloric eng9e4--,its con/ruction1 !ory1 & cyl9d] diagrams4 #f illu/rations4 #ajajd ,! ,comp\nd ,/eam ,turb9e4--,a description & discussion ( ?is motor1 9 :i* a s]ies ( =ty-five turb9es are act$ on by ! curr5t ( /eam4 #b illu/rations4 #ajajc ,,vii4 ,,miscellane\s4--,cold ,/orage = ,potatoes4--,! application ( artificial cold to pres]v+ potatoes4--,results obta9$ 9 actual exp]i5ce4--,a practical pap] by ,mr4 ,,edw9 ,,taylor4 #ajaae ,,viii4 ,,physics4--,on a ,me?od ( ,mak+ ! ,wave ,l5g? ( ,sodium ,light ! ,actual & ,practical ,/&>d ( ,l5g?4--,by ,,alb]t ,a4 ,,mi*elson & ,,edw>d ,w4 ,,morley4--,description ( ! new /&>d ( l5g? & outl9es ( ! practical me?od = its det]m9ation4--,! "q ( *eck det]m9ations4 #a illu/ration4 #ajaae ,,ix4 ,,te*nology4--,progress ( ! ,sorghum ,sug> ,indu/ry4-- ,elaborate report on ! diffusion process z develop$ at ! ,=t ,wor?1 ,kan41 /ation4 #b illu/rations4 #ajaaj ,! ,l[e ,inc&esc5t ,gas ,burn]4--,! well kn[n advanc$ type ( gas burn] describ$ & illu/rat$4 #a illu/ration4 #ajaaj 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,comp\nd ,,/eam ,,turb9e4 ,la/ ye> ! :ole ( ! light+ ( ! ,newca/le ,exhibition 0 effect$ by ! ag5cy ( sev5te5 ( ^! motors1 ( :i* f\r 7 sp>e1 giv+ 9 ! aggregate #bhj electrical horse p[]4 ,z ! /eam 0 provid$ by ! au?orities ( ! exhibition1 x 0 good pro( to ! public t !y _h satisfi$ !mselves t ! consumption w\ld n be extravagant1 z h[ev] favorable might be ! t]ms on :i* ! manufactur]s w\ld be will+ to l5d _! eng9es1 !y c\ld sc>cely be suffici5tly tempt+ to comp5sate = an outrage\s consumption ( coal1 ev5 9 ,newca/le4 ,at ! "t we gave an acc\nt ( ! result ( ! te/1 %[+ t ! /eam us$ 0 #fe lb4 p] electrical horse p[]1 a v satisfactory result1 & equal to #dc lb4 p] indicat$ horse p[] if comp>$ ) an ord9>y eng9e driv+ a g5]ator ?r\gh a belt4 ,rec5tly ,mr4 ,p>sons has giv5 an acc\nt ( ! !ory & con/ruction ( 8 motor be=e ! ,nor!a/ ,coa/ ,in/itution1 & has quot$ #eb lb4 ( /eam p] electric horse p[] z ! be/ result hi!rto atta9$ ) a /eam pressure ( #ij lb4 ,z n[ made !re are =ty-five turb9es ?r\gh :i* ! /eam passes 9 succession1 exp&+ 9 ea*1 until x is f9ally exhau/$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,comp\nd ,,/eam ,,turb9e4 ,! !oretical effici5cy ( a motor ( ?is k9d is arriv$ at by ,mr4 ,p>sons 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,! efflux ( /eam fl[+ f a vessel at #ae4f lb4 p] squ>e in* absolute pressure ?r\gh an orifice into ano!r vessel at #ae lb4 pressure absolute is #cff ft4 p] second1 ! drop ( pressure ( #j4f lb4 correspond+ to a dim9ution ( volume ( #d p] c5t4 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! :ole #de turb9es are s proportion$ t ea* "o1 />t+ f ! /eam inlet1 has #d p] c5t4 m blade area or capacity ?an t prec$+ x4 ,tak+ ! pressure at ! exhau/ end to be #ae lb4 absolute1 t at ! inlet end w be #fi lb4 above ! atmosph]e4 ,! /eam ent]s f ! /eam pipe at #fi lb4 pressure1 & 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! fir/ turb9e x falls #b4fe lb4 9 pressure1 its velocity due to ! fall be+ #chf ft4 p] second1 & its increase ( volume #c4he p] c5t4 ( its orig9al volume4 ,x !n passes ?r\gh ! second turb9e1 los+ #b4ee lb4 9 pressure1 & ga9+ #c4he p] c5t4 9 volume1 & s on until x rea*es ! la/ turb9e1 :5 its pressure is #ae4f lb4 be=e ent]+1 & #ae lb4 on leav+4 ,! velocity due to ! la/ drop is #cff ft4 p] second4 ,! velocity ( ! :eels at #i1bjj revolutions p] m9ute is #aej ft4 p] second1 or #ci4i p] c5t4 ( ! mean velocity due to ! head ?r\gh\t ! turb9es4 ,comp>+ ?is velocity ) ! results ( a s]ies ( exp]im5ts made by ,mr4 ,james ,b4 ,francis on a ,tremont turb9e at ,l[ell1 ,mass41 x appe>s t !re %\ld be an effici5cy ( #gb p] c5t4 if ! blades be equally well %ap$ 9 ! /eam z 9 ! wat] turb9e1 & t ! cle>ances be kept small & ! /eam dry4 ,fur!r1 z ea* turb9e dis*>ges )\t *eck into ! next1 ! residual en]gy aft] leav+ ! blades is n lo/ z x is 9 ! case ( ! wat] turb9e1 b cont9ues into ! next guide blades1 & is :olly utiliz$ !re4 ,?is ga9 %\ld be equal to #c to #e p] c5t4 ,z ea* turb9e ( ! set is assum$ to give #gb4e p] c5t4 effici5cy1 ! total numb] may be assum$ to give ! same result1 or1 9 o!r words1 ov] #gb p] c5t4 ( ! p[] d]iv$ f us+ ! /eam 9 a p]fect eng9e1 )\t losses due to cond5sation1 cle>ances1 friction1 & su* l4 ,a p]fect eng9e work+ ) #ij lb4 boil] pressure1 & exhau/+ into ! atmosph]e1 w\ld consume #bj4e lb4 ( /eam p] h\r = ea* horse p[]4 ,a motor giv+ #gj p] c5t4 effici5cy w\ld1 !re=e1 require #bi4bi lb4 ( /eam p] horse p[] p] h\r4 ,! be/ results hi!rto atta9$ h be5 #eb lb4 ( /eam p] h\r p] electrical horse p[]1 z /at$ above1 b x is anticipat$ t high] results w be atta9$ %ortly4 ,:e!r t be s or n1 ! motor has _m advantages to recomm5d x1 & among ^! is ! increas$ life ( ! lamps due to ! uni=m rotation ( ! dynamo4 ,at ! ,pho5ix ,mills1 ,newca/le1 an in/allation ( #aei ,edison-,swan lamps has be5 runn+1 on an av]age1 elev5 h\rs a day = two ye>s pa/1 yet 9 t "t only #id lamps h fail$1 ! rema9+ #fe be+ 9 good condition aft] #f1ejj h\rs' s]vice4 ,n[1 if ! lamps _h only la/$ #a1jjj h\rs on ! av]age1 z is commonly assum$1 ! r5ewals w\ld h am\nt$ to d\ble ! ye>'s co/ ( fuel1 z at pres5t consum$4 ,! pres5t con/ruction ( ! motor & dynamo is %[n 9 ! figures4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a ?\gh #f ,fig4 #b %[s ! arrangem5t ( #ij complete turb9es1 #de ly+ on ea* side ( ! c5tral /eam inlet4 ,! guide blades1 ,r1 are cut on ! int]nal p]iph]y ( brass r+s1 :i* are aft]w>d cut 9 halves & held 9 ! top & bottom halves ( ! cyl9d] by fea!rs4 ,! mov+ blades1 ,s1 are cut on ! p]iph]y ( brass r+s1 :i* are aft]w>d ?read$ & fea!r$ on to ! /eel %aft1 & reta9$ !re by ! end r+s1 :i* =m nuts screw$ on to ! sp9dle4 ,! :ole ( ?is sp9dle ) its r+s rotate toge!r 9 be>+s1 %[n 9 enl>g$ section1 ,fig4 #c4 ,/eam ent]+ at ! pipe1 ,o1 fl[s all r\nd ! sp9dle & passes along "r & left1 fir/ ?r\gh ! guide blades1 ,r1 by :i* x is ?r[n on to ! mov+ blades1 ,s1 !n back on to ! next guide blades1 & s on ?r\gh ! :ole s]ies on ea* h&1 & escapes by ! passages1 ,p1 at ea* end ( ! cyl9d] connect$ to ! exhau/ pipe at ! back ( cyl9d]4 ,! be>+s1 ,fig4 #c1 consi/ ( a brass bu%1 on :i* is ?read$ an arrangem5t ( wa%]s1 ea* successive wa%] alt]nately fitt+ to ! bu% & ! block1 :ile be+ alt]nately #a_/cb small] ?an ! block outside & #a_/cb l>g] ?an ! bu% 9 ! hole4 ,"o broad wa%] at ! end holds ! be>+s c5tral4 ,^! wa%]s are press$ toge!r by a spiral spr+1 ,n1 & nut1 &1 by friction aga9/ ea* o!r1 /eady or damp any vibration 9 ! sp9dle t may be set up by want ( balance or o!r cause at ! high rate ( spe$ t is necess>y = economical work+4 ,! be>+s are oil$ by a small screw propell]1 ,i1 atta*$ to ! %aft4 ,! oil 9 ! dra9 pipes1 ,d & ,f1 & ! oil tank1 ,d1 lies at a l[] level ?an ! screw1 b ! suction ( ! fan1 ,k1 raises x up into ! /& pipe1 ,h1 ov] & ar\nd ! screw1 :i* gripes x & circulates x along ! pipes to ! be>+s4 ,! c\rse ( ! oil is z foll[s3 ,! oil is =c$ by ! propell]1 ,i1 & oils ! be>+1 ,a4 ,! great] "p passes along ! pipe1 ,e1 to ! end be>+1 ,c2 "s aft] oil+ ! be>+1 ,c1 dra9s back by ! pipe1 ,f1 to ! res]voir1 ,d2 ! rema9+ oil passes along ?r\gh ! armature sp9dle1 oils ! be>+s1 ,b1 & dra9s into ! res]voir1 ,d1 f :i* ! oil is aga9 drawn along ! pipe1 ,g1 into ! /& pipe1 ,h1 by ! suction ( ! fan1 ,k4 ,! suction ( ! fan is also connect$ to ! diaphragm1 ,l1 & =ms1 ) x & ! spr+1 ,m1 ! pr9cipal "p ( ! gov]nor :i* actuates ! ?rottle valve1 ,v4 ,fig4 #d is ! electrical control gov]nor1 :i* w be fur!r describ$ 9 connection ) ! dynamo4 ,x acts directly ^u ! controll+ diaphragm1 ,l1 by admitt+ or clos+ a l>ge access ( air to x1 & ?us ex]cises a controll+ influ5ce ^u x4 ,! dynamo :i* =ms ! o!r portion ( ! electric g5]ator1 ,fig4 #a1 is c\pl$ to ! motor sp9dle by a squ>e tube c\pl+ fitt$ on to ! squ>e sp9dle ends4 ,! armature is ( ! drum type4 ,! body is built up ( ?9 iron disks ?read$ on to ! sp9dle & insulat$ f ea* o!r by trac+ pap]4 ,?is iron body is turn$ up & grooves mill$ out to receive ! conduct+ wires4 ,= pressures ( #fj to #hj volts !re are fifte5 convolutions ( wire1 or #cj grooves4 ,! wire />t+ at b1 ,fig4 #f1 is l$ a qu>t] ( a turn spirally1 c1 r\nd ! cyl9drical portion1 a1 !n pass+ along a groove longitud9ally is aga9 l$ a qu>t] turn spirally1 d1 r\nd ! cyl9drical portion1 a1 !n ?r\gh ! end wa%]1 & back simil>ly a qu>t] turn1 e1 !n l$ along ! diametrically opposite groove1 & la/ly a little ov] a qu>t] turn1 f1 back to g1 :]e x is c\pl$ to ! next convolution4 ,! commutator is =m$ ( r+s ( sections4 ,ea* section is =m$ ( %ort l5g?s4 ,ea* l5g? is dovetail$ & int]lock$ betwe5 conical /eel r+s4 ,! :ole is insulat$ ) asbe/os1 &1 :5 screw$ up by ! end nut1 =ms1 ) ! /eel bu%1 a compact :ole4 ,!re are fifte5 sections 9 ! commutator1 & ea* c\pl+ is connect$ to a section4 ,! :ole armature is b\nd ext]nally f end to end ) brass or pian(orte /eel wire4 ,! magnets are ( s(t ca/ iron & ( ! horse%oe type4 ,!y are %unt-w\nd only4 ,on ! top ( ! magnet yoke is ! electrical control gov]nor1 ,fig4 #d4 ,x consi/s ( "o mov+ sp9dle on :i* are key$ a small s(t iron b>1 & also a d\ble f+]1 ,t4 ,!re is also a spiral spr+1 ,x1 atta*$ at "o end to ! sp9dle1 & at ! o!r to an adju/able top head & clamp+ nut1 ,y4 ,! d\ble f+]1 ,t1 cov]s or op5s a small hole 9 ! face1 ,u1 communicat+ by ! pipe1 ,w1 to ! diaphragm1 ,l4 ,! action ( ! magnet yoke is to attract ! ne$le t[>d ! poles ( ! magnet1 :ile by turn+ ! head ! spiral spr+1 ,x1 is br\ght into t5sion to resi/ & balance ?is =ce1 & c be set & adju/$ to any degree ( t5sion4 ,! d\ble f+]1 ,t1 turns ) ! ne$le1 &1 by m or less cov]+ ! small air inlet hole1 ,u1 x regulates ! access ( air to ! regulat+ diaphragm1 ,l4 ,! second f+] is = safety 9 case ! bru%es get ?r[n (f1 or ! magnet circuit be brok51 9 :i* case ! ma*9e w\ld o!rwise ga9 a consid]able increase ( spe$ be=e ! diaphragm w\ld act4 ,9 ^! cases1 h[ev]1 ! ne$le ceases to be attract$1 falls back1 & ! safety f+] closes ! air inlet hole4 ,!re is no resi/ance to ! free movem5t ( ?is regulator4 ,a fraction ( a volt increase or decrease ( pot5tial produces a consid]able movem5t ( ! f+]1 suffici5t to gov]n ! /eam pressure1 & 9 ord9>y "w x is f\nd possible to ma9ta9 ! pot5tial )9 "o volt ( ! /&>d at all loads )9 ! capacity ( ! ma*9e1 except+ only a slight mom5t>y v>iation :5 a l>ge portion ( ! load is swit*$ on or (f4 ,! resi/ance ( ! armature f bru% to bru% is only #j4jjcb ohm1 ! resi/ance ( ! field magnets is only #ag4g ohms1 :ile ! normal output ( ! dynamo is #bjj amp]es at #hj volts4 ,?is1 exclud+ o!r losses1 gives an effici5cy ( #ig p] c5t4 ,! o!r losses are due to eddy curr5ts ?r\gh\t ! armature1 magnetic ret>dation1 & be>+ friction4 ,!y h be5 c>efully measur$4 ,by sep>ately excit+ ! field magnets f ano!r dynamo1 & obs]v+ ! increas$ /eam pressure requir$ to ma9ta9 ! spe$ con/ant1 ! correspond+ p[] 0 aft]w>d calculat$ 9 watts4 ,! comm]cial effici5cy ( ?is dynamo1 aft] all[+ = all losses1 is a little ov] #ij p] c5t4 ,9 ! l>g] sizes x rises to #id p] c5t4 ,assum+ ! comp\nd /eam turb9e to give a return ( #gj p] c5t4 ( ! total me*anical en]gy ( ! /eam1 & ! dynamos to conv]t #ij p] c5t ( ?is into electrical output1 gives a result+ effici5cy ( #fc p] c5t4 ,z /eam at #ij lb4 pressure above ! atmosph]e w ) a p]fect non-cond5s+ eng9e give a horse p[] = e #bj4e lb4 ( /eam consum$ p] h\r1 x foll[s t an electrical g5]ator ( #fc p] c5t4 effici5cy w consume #cb4e lb4 ( /eam = e electrical horse p[] p] h\r4 ,aga91 ) /eam at #aej lb4 pressure above ! atmosph]e1 a g5]ator ( ! same effici5cy w\ld consume only #bb4b lb4 ( /eam p] electrical horse p[] p] h\r4 ,! results s f> actually obta9$ are a consumption ( #eb lb4 p] h\r ( /eam = ea* electrical horse p[] ) a /eam pressure ( #ij lb4 above ! atmosph]e4--,eng9e]+4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,h>greaves' ,,!rmo-,,motor4 ,f ! rese>*es & inve/igations ( ,c>not1 ,j\le1 ,rank9e1 ,clausius1 & ,sir ,william ,?omson1 ! sci5ce ( !rmo-dynamics has n only be5 br\ght into exi/5ce1 b fully matur$4 ,we le>n f x t :]eas 9 ! /eam eng9e1 on acc\nt ( ! limit$ range ( temp]ature 9 ! work+ cyl9d] & ! rapid conduction ( /eam dur+ cond5sation1 no comb9ation ( cyl9d]s c mat]ially affect its pres5t effici5cy1 int]nally fir$ eng9es1 su* z gas & caloric eng9es--be+1 z x 71 less fett]$--c h _! already high effici5cy increas$ by simply ov]com+ me*anical difficulties4 ,to ?is fact is no d\bt due ! rec5t rem>kable developm5t ( gas & caloric eng9es4 ,! fir/ caloric or hot air eng9e 0 inv5t$ by ,sir ,george ,cayley 9 #ahjg1 & 9 #ahbg ,dr4 ,rob]t ,/irl+1 a ,scot* m9i/]1 took out 8 fir/ pat5t = a hot air eng9e1 :i* 0 ! f\ndation ( _m subsequ5t ma*9es1 & by ! inv5tion ( ! reg5]ator he conv]t$ :at 0 practically a sci5tific toy into an effici5t ma*9e4 ,"o ( ! mo/ ard5t work]s 9 ?is field at ! pres5t "t is ,mr4 ,james ,h>greaves1 ( ,widnes1 :o1 ) a ?or\gh !oretical k ( ! subject has1 aft] _m ye>s ( pati5t p]sev]ance1 ov] come _m ( ! me*anical difficulties1 & design$ ! eng9e ( :i* ! above is an illu/ration4 ,! sectional elevation1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #a1 is an exp&$ view ( ! ma*9e1 %[n ?us to enable ! action ( ! ma*9e to be m cle>ly und]/ood2 ! relative position ( ! diff]5t p>ts1 z actually made1 is %[n 9 ! side elevation 7,fig4 #d74 ,! pr9cipal work+ p>ts ( ! ma*9e are ! combu/ion *amb]1 ,d1 :i* is ( ! =m %[n1 l9$ ) fire brick1 & hav+ an entrance1 ) ! door screw$ d[n l a manhole lid2 ! work+ cyl9d]1 ,a1 surr\nd$ by ! wat] cas+1 ,k2 ! pi/on1 ,b1 ) a wat] l9+1 & c\pl$ to ! end ( ! work+ beam by a p>allel motion1 ! beam be+ support$ by two rock+ columns1 ,z1 z 9 eng9es ( ! gras%opp] type2 ! air compressor1 ,c1 c\pl$ directly to ! pi/on ( ! work+ cyl9d]2 ! injection pump1 ,f1 = supply+ ! fuel--creosote or coal t>--to ! combu/ion *amb]2 ! reg5]ator ,e2 ! receiv] & sep>ator1 ,v ,y2 ! fe$ & exhau/ valves1 ,m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a--,,sectional ,,elevation--,,h>greaves' ,,!rmo-,,motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,! action ( ! ma*9e is z foll[s3 ,assum+ ! eng9e to be 9 condition = />t+1 ! sides ( ! combu/ion *amb]1 ,d1 are r$ hot1 ! *amb] *>g$ ) air1 & ! spray ( creosote1 inject$ by ! pump1 ,f1 is ignit$2 ! expansion ( ! gases produc$ by ! combu/ion acts ^u ! bottom ( ! pi/on1 ,b1 =c+ x to ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 & ?us1 by int]m$iate me*anism1 caus+ ! crank %aft to revolve4 ,by ! same /roke a *>ge ( air is =c$ by ! compressor1 ,c1 into ! receiv] ?r\gh ! pipe1 ,r4 ,! cyl9d] is1 ( c\rse1 s+le act+1 & on ! d[n /roke ( ! pi/on1 ,b--:i* falls by its own weight & ! mom5tum ( ! fly :eel--! exhau/ gases are =c$ ?r\gh ! reg5]ator1 ,e1 :i* absorbs mo/ ( _! heat2 !y !n pass ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve1 plac$ imm$iately "u ! fe$ valve1 ,m1 along ! pipe1 ,q1 up ?r\gh ! pipes1 ,t1 fitt$ into ! receiv]1 ,v1 d[n ! pipes1 ,t1 fitt$ into ! saturator1 ,y1 & out ( ! funnel fix$ to ! bottom ( ,y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,! *>ge ( air = supply+ ! combu/ion *amb] is =c$ by ! compressor1 ,c1 ?r\gh ! pipe1 ,r1 outside ! tubes1 ,t1 9 ! *amb]s1 ,v & ,y1 along ! pipe1 ,p1 ?r\gh ! fe$ valve1 ,m1 & ! reg5]ator1 ,e1 into ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,9 its passage f ! compressor1 x fir/ picks up ! residual heat ( ! exhau/ gases 9 ! tubes1 ,t1 & f9ally ! heat absorb$ by ! reg5]ator1 ,e1 ?us ent]+ ! combu/ion *amb] 9 a highly heat$ /ate4 ,hav+ describ$ g5]ally ! passage ( ! air f ! compressor to ! work+ cyl9d]1 & back aga9 to ! funnel1 we w n[ describe ! details4 ,! work+ cyl9d]1 ,a1 is fitt$ into ! ca/+ :i* =ms ! wat] cas+1 ,k1 a space be+ left betwe5 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] & ! cas+1 :i* is fill$ ) a non-conduct+ mixture ( asbe/os to protect x f ! heat ( combu/ion2 ! bottom ( ! pi/on1 ,b1 has a simil> protection1 & ! reg5]ator has a l9+ ( ! same mixture1 to prev5t any heat f escap+ ?r\gh ! ca/+ :i* holds x4 ,! wat] 9 ! cas+1 ,k1 & 9 ! pi/on1 ,b1 is suppli$ by a small pump1 ,g1 :i* =ces ! wat] ?r\gh ! pipe1 ,p#d1 into ! telescopic pipe1 ,l ei!r into ! pi/on1 ,b1 or ?r\gh ! pipe1 ,p#f1 into ! cas+1 ,k--! bottom ( ! cas+ be+ connect$ by ! pipe1 ,p#aj1 ) ! auxili>y boil]1 ,w4 ,! /eam g5]at$ 9 ! cas+1 ,k1 is c>ri$ to ! boil]1 ,w1 by ! pipe1 ,p#c1 & f ! boil] x passes along ! pipe1 ,p#b1 ?r\gh ! valve1 ,a#b1 into ! *amb]1 ,v1 ?us giv+ up its heat to ! incom+ air1 ) :i* x mixes4 ,! vapor gradually cond5ses at ! bottom ( ! vessel1 ,y1 & ! wat] s =m$ is drawn by ! pump1 ,j1 along ! suction pipe1 ,p#i1 & =c$ ?r\gh ! pipe1 ,p#h1 back to ! *amb]1 ,y1 ?r\gh ! valve1 ,a#a1 & 9 ! =m ( spray plays on ! tubes1 ,t1 & absorb+ any residual heat4 ,! heat g5]at$ by compression 9 ! cyl9d]1 ,c1 is absorb$ by a spray ( wat] f ! pump1 ,h1 ! vapor be+ c>ri$ along ) ! air ?r\gh ! pipe1 ,r1 to ! *amb]1 ,y1 :]e x is sep>at$1 & fall+ to ! bottom is circulat$1 z j describ$1 by ! pump1 ,j4 ,x is a small auxili>y air compressor1 to obta9 ! necess>y compression to />t ! eng9e1 & is work$ f ! boil]1 ,w4 ,9 future eng9es ?is compressor w be sup]s$$ by a specially design$ injector1 :i* w produce ! necess>y pressure at a consid]able r$uction 9 co/4 ,:5 once ! eng9e is />t$1 ! fire ( ! auxili>y boil] c1 ( c\rse1 be drawn1 z ! ma9 eng9e aft]w>d makes its own /eam4 ,! reg5]ator1 ,e1 has circul> ends ( fire clay p]=at$1 ! body be+ fill$ ) fire clay spirals ( ! %ape cle>ly %[n 9 elevation 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,! injector valve = ! creosote is %[n to a l>g] scale 9 ,fig4 #c4 ,?is valve has1 h[ev]1 be5 s9ce consid]ably modifi$ & improv$4 ,! fe$ & exhau/ valves1 ,m1 are actuat$ by cams key$ to a c\nt]%aft driv5 by bevel :eels f ! ma9 %aft4 ,! creosote pump1 ,f1 is also work$ by a cam on ! same %aft1 b ! pumps1 ,g ,h ,j1 are work$ by ecc5trics4 ,a /op valve1 ,n1 is fix$ to ! supply pipe1 ,p1 "u :i* is place a back pressure valve to reta9 ! pressure 9 ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,! eng9e is regulat$ by an ord9>y ,port] gov]nor actuat+ ! ?rottle valve1 ,o4 ,an eng9e1 z describ$1 has be5 con/ruct$ by ,messrs4 ,adair ,co41 eng9e]s1 ,wat]loo ,road1 ,liv]pool1 & has be5 runn+ mo/ satisfactorily = sev]al weeks1 ! results be+ cle>ly %[n by ! indicator diagrams 7,figs4 #e & #f74 ,! results obta9$ by ?is motor are v rem>kable1 & are a long way 9 advance ( any previ\s p]=mance1 z only a little ov] lb4 ( fuel is us$ p] i4h4p4 p] h\r4 ,x may be m5tion$ t ! temp]ature ( ! combu/ion *amb] is calculat$ to be ab\t #b1ejj;,f41 & t ( ! exhau/ gases does n exce$ #ahj;,f4--,indu/ries4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram f cyl9d]--#be 94 diam1 #ah 94 /roke4 ,i4,h4,p41 #fc4 ,scale1 #a_/cj 94 ,mean pressure1 #bh4b lb4 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram f air pump--#ae 94 diam41 #ah 94 /roke4 ,i4,h4,p41 #bc4 ,scale1 #a_/cj 9--,mean pressure1 #bh4e lb4 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,diagrams ,,f ,,cyl9d] ,,& ,,air ,,pump4 ,net indicat$ horse p[]1 #dj2 revolutions p] m9ute1 #ajj2 coal t> consum$ p] h\r1 #bj4e lb42 coal t> p] ,i4,h4,p4 p] h\r1 #j4eab lb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,inve/igation ,,into ,,! ,,int]nal ,,/resses ,,occurr+ ,,9 ,,ca/ ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel4 ,,by ,,g5]al ,,ni*olas ,,kalak\tzky4 ,,no4 ,i4 ,det]m9ation ( ! ,influ5ce ( ,int]nal ,/resses on ! ,/r5g? ( ,mat]ials4--,we call int]nal /resses ^? :i* exi/ )9 ! mass ( any holl[ cyl9d] or o!r body1 :5 x appe>s to be 9 a /ate ( repose1 or n "u ! influ5ce ( ext]nal =ces4 ,:5 pressure is appli$ to a holl[ cyl9d]1 ei!r ext]nally or int]nally1 ! int]ior lay]s into :i* its walls may be conceiv$ to be divid$ are subject$ to a new s]ies ( /resses1 ! magnitude ( :i* is indep5d5t ( ^? already exi/+4 ,^! additional /resses comb9e ) ! =m] 9 su* a mann] t at e po9t ( ! ?ickness ( ! cyl9d] !y h common resultants act+ 9 v>i\s directions4 ,?us1 if we call t ! int]nal /ress exi/+ at a di/ance rx f ! axis ( ! cyl9d]1 & 9 a direction tang5tial to its cross section1 & ,t ! additional /ress due to pressure inside ! cyl9d] act+ at ! same po9t & 9 ! same direction1 !n ! newly develop$ /ress w be t ,t4 ,if ,r & r#j be ! ext]nal & int]nal radii ( ! cyl9d]1 & if we suppose ! ext]nal pressure nil1 !n1 if ! pressure inside ! bore be ,p#j1 ! /ress on ! radius rx is det]m9$ by ! foll[+ expression d$uc$ f ! well-kn[n fundam5tal =mul ( ,lame3#a r#j ,r 7rx7 ,t ,p#j ------- ------------- ,r-r#j 7rx7 ,f :i* we see t ,t is a maximum :5 rx r#j1 i4e41 = ! lay] imm$iately next to ! bore ( ! cyl9d]4 ,call+ t#j ! int]nal /ress 9 ?is lay]1 & ,t#j ! /ress result+ f ! action inside ! bore ( ! pressure ,p#j1 & all[+ t ! sum ( bo? ^! quantities mu/ n exce$ ! ela/ic limit ,u ( ! mat]ial1 we h--,t#j ,u - t#j4 ,& = ?is value ( ,t#j1 ! correspond+ pressure inside ! bore w be ,r - r#j ,p 7,u - t#j7 ----------4 ,r r#j ,?is pressure increases ) ! t]m 7,u - t#j74 ,) t#j positive1 i4e41 :5 ! int]nal /resses 9 ! ?ickness ( ! holl[ cyl9d] are su* t ! metal ( ! lay]s ne>e/ to ! bore is 9 a /ate ( t5sion & t ( ! out] lay]s 9 a /ate ( compression1 !n ! cyl9d] w h ! lea/ /r5g? :5 t#j has ! greate/ num]ical value4 ,su* /resses are t]m$ injuri\s or detrim5tal /resses4 ,) t#j negative1 ! /r5g? ( ! cyl9d] increases ) ! num]ical value ( t#j1 & ^? /resses :i* cause compression 9 ! lay]s ne>e/ to ! bore ( ! cyl9d] & t5sion 9 ! out] lay]s are t]m$ b5eficial or useful /resses4 ,footnote #a3 ,lame holds t 9 a homog5e\s tube subject$ to ! action ( two pressures1 ext]nal & int]nal1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! t5sion & ! compression develop$ at any po9t ( ! ?ickness ( ! tube is a con/ant quantity1 & t ! sum ( ^! two /resses is inv]sely proportional to ! squ>e ( ! radius ( ! lay] "u consid]ation4 ,let r#j1 ,r1 & rx be ! respective radii1 p#j1 p1 & px ! correspond+ pressures1 & ,t#j1 ,t1 & ,tx1 ! t5sions1 !n we h3 ,t#j - p#j ,tx - px 7#a7 7,t#j p#j7 r#j 7,tx px7 7rx7 7#b7 ,tx - px ,t - p 7#c7 7,tx px77rx7 7,t ,p7,r 7#d7 if ! radii are kn[n & p & p be giv51 !n d$uc+ f ! above equations ! values ,t#j & ,t1 & also ! v>iable pressure px1 we det]m9e-- p#j r#j7,r 7rx77 - p ,r77rx7 r#j7 ,tx ---------------------------------------- -- 7,r r#j7 7rx7 ,?is is ! =mula ( ,lame1 f :i*1 mak+ p #j1 we obta9 ! expression 9 ! text4 ,= ^! reasons1 & 9 ord] to increase ! p[] ( resi/ance ( a cyl9d]1 x is necess>y to obta9 on ! inn] lay] a /ate ( initial compression approa*+ z ne>ly z possible to ! ela/ic limit ( ! metal4 ,?is proposition is 9 reality no novelty1 s9ce x =ms ! basis ( ! !ory ( hoop$ guns1 by means ( :i* ! useful initial /resses :i* %\ld be imp>t$ to ! metal ?r\gh\t ! gun c be calculat$1 & ! ext5t to :i* ! gun is !reby /r5g!n$ det]m9$4 ,! /resses :i* arise 9 a holl[ cyl9d] :5 x is =m$ ( sev]al lay]s =c$ on "o ^u ano!r1 ) a def9ite am\nt ( %r9kage1 we call ! /ress ( built-up cyl9d]s1 9 ord] to di/+ui% !m f natural /resses develop$ 9 homog5e\s masses1 & :i* v>y 9 "* accord+ to ! conditions ( treatm5t :i* ! metal has und]gone4 ,if we conceive a holl[ cyl9d] made up ( a great numb] ( v ?9 lay]s--= in/ance1 ( wire w\nd on ) a def9ite t5sion--9 :i* case ! inn] lay] w\ld repres5t ! bore ( ! gun1 !n ! di/ribution ( ! int]nal /resses & _! magnitude w\ld v ne>ly approa* ! ideally p]fect useful /resses :i* %\ld exi/ 9 a homog5e\s cyl9d]2 b 9 holl[ cyl9d]s built up ( two1 ?ree1 & f\r lay]s ( great ?ickness1 !re w\ld be a consid]able deviation f ! conditions :i* %\ld be aim$ at4 ,! magnitude ( ! /resses 9 built-up cyl9d]s is det]m9$ by calculation1 on ! presumption t initial /resses d n exi/ 9 ! respective lay]s ( ! tube & ( ! hoops :i* make up ! walls ( ! cyl9d]4 ,nev]!less1 ,rodman1 z e>ly z ! ye> #aheg1 fir/ drew att5tion to ! fact t :5 metal is ca/ & !n cool$1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 int]nal /resses are necess>ily develop$2 & ^! consid]ations l$ him1 9 ! manufacture ( ca/ iron guns1 to cool ! bore ) wat] & to heat ! outside ( ! m\lds aft] ca/+4 ,al?\gh ,rodman's me?od 0 adopt$ ev]y:]e1 yet up to ! pres5t "t no exp]im5ts ( importance h be5 made ) ! view ( inve/igat+ ! int]nal /resses :i* he _h drawn att5tion to1 & 9 ! transition f ca/ iron to /eel guns ! "q has be5 p]si/5tly %elv$1 & has only v lately attract$ s]i\s att5tion4 ,) ! aid ( ! accept$ !ory relat+ to ! int]nal /resses 9 ! metal ( hoop$ guns1 we c =m a cle> idea ( ! mo/ advantage\s "* = !m to assume bo? 9 homog5e\s & 9 built-up holl[ cyl9d]s4 ,9 pro( ( ?is1 we c adduce ! labors ( ,colonels ,pa%kevit* & ,du*5e1 ! =m] ( :om publi%$ an acc\nt ( 8 inve/igations 9 ! ,artill]y ,j\rnal = #ahhd--,/4 ,pet]sburg--& ! latt] 9 a "w entitl$ ,basis ( ! ,!ory ( ,hoop$ ,guns1 f :i* we borr[ "s ( ! foll[+ in=mation4 ,! maximum resi/ance ( a tube or holl[ cyl9d] to ext]nal /resses w be atta9$ :5 all ! lay]s are exp&$ simultane\sly to ! ela/ic limit ( ! mat]ial employ$4 ,9 t case1 obs]v+ ! same notation z t already adopt$1 we h-- ,r - r#j ,p#j ,t -------- 7#a7 r#j ,b s9ce ! initial int]nal /resses be=e fir+1 t is previ\s to ! action ( ! pressure inside ! bore1 %\ld n exce$ ! ela/ic limit1#b ! value ( ,r w dep5d ^u ?is condition4 ,footnote #b3 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 rem>k t 9 a built-up holl[ cyl9d] ! compression ( ! metal at ! surface ( ! bore may exce$ ! ela/ic limit4 ,?is _c occur 9 ! case ( natural /resses4 ,9 a holl[ cyl9d] :i* 9 a /ate ( re/ is free f initial /resses1 ! fib] ( :i*1 "u fire1 w und]go ! maximum ext5sion1 w be t ne>e/ to ! int]nal surface1 & ! am\nt ( ext5sion ( all ! rema9+ lay]s w decrease ) ! increase ( ! radius4 ,?is ext5sion is ?us repres5t$-- 7r#j7 7rx7 ,r 7tx7 ,p#j ------------ 4 ------------ ,r - 7r#j7 7rx7 ,!re=e1 to obta9 ! maximum resi/ance 9 ! cyl9d]1 ! value tx ( ! initial /ress w be det]m9$ by ! diff]5ce 7,t - t'x7199ne$ to *eck ! prime ) libr>y or "w out ! equations & s9ce ,p#j is giv5 by ,equation 7#a71 !n _/ r#j 7rx7 ,r tx ,t 7 #a - ---------- ------------- 7 7#b7 ,r#j r#j 7rx7 _/ ,! greate/ value tx t#j corresponds to ! surface ( ! bore & mu/ be t#j -,t1 !re=e r#j ,r --------------- #b r#j 7,r r#j7 :5ce ,p#j ,t sqrt7#b7 #a4da ,t4 ,f ! :ole ( ! prec$+1 x foll[s t 9 a homog5e\s cyl9d] "u fire we c only atta9 simultane\s expansion ( all ! lay]s :5 c]ta9 relations betwe5 ! radii obta91 & on ! assumption t ! maximum pressure admissible 9 ! bore does n exce$ #a4da ,u4 ,equation 7#b7 may be writt5 ?us-- ,r rx - ,rr tx ,t -------- 4 ---------- 7#c7 ,r r#j 7rx7 ,sub/itut+ successively rx r#j & rx ,r1 we obta9 expressions = ! /resses on ! ext]nal & int]nal radii-- ,r - r#j ,r ,r - r#j t,r ,t -------- & tr#j -,t ---- -------- ,r r#j r#j ,r r#j ,!re=e1 9 a homog5e\s holl[ cyl9d]1 9 :i* ! int]nal /resses are !oretically mo/ advantage\s1 ! lay] situat$ next to ! bore mu/ be 9 a /ate ( compression1 & ! am\nt ( compression relative to ! t5sion 9 ! ext]nal lay] is measur$ by ! inv]se ratio ( ! radii ( ^! lay]s4 ,x is fur!r evid5t t ! int]nal /resses w obey a def9ite b v simple law1 namely1 !re w be 9 ! holl[ cyl9d] a lay] ^: radius is sqrt7,r r#j71 9 :i* ! /ress is nil2 f ?is lay] ! /resses increase t[>d ! ext]nal & ! int]nal radii ( ! cyl9d]1 :]e !y atta9 a maximum1 be+ 9 compression 9 ! int]nal lay]s & 9 t5sion 9 ! ext]nal ones4 ,! int]nal pressures correspond+ to ^! /resses may be f\nd by means ( v simple calculations4 ,! expression = ?is purpose1 r$uc$ to its mo/ conv5i5t =m1 is z foll[s3 ,r _/ ,r _/ r#j px ,t -------- 7 --- - #a 7 7 #a - ----- 7 7#d7 ,r r#j rx _/ rx _/ ,9 ord] to repres5t m cle>ly ! di/ribution ( /resses & pressures 9 ! metal ( a homog5e\s ideally p]fect holl[ cyl9d]1 let u take1 z an example1 ! b>rel ( a #f 94 gun--#aec mm4 ,let u suppose ,t #c1jjj atmosph]es2 !re=e1 "u ! mo/ favorable conditions1 ,p#j #a4da ,t1 or #d1bcj atmosph]es4 ,f ,equation 7#a7 we det]m9e ,r #ahd4cf mm4 ,) ^! data 7 calculat$ ! int]nal /resses & ! pressures f :i* ! curve repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #a is con/ruct$4 ,! /resses develop$ "u fire ) a pressure 9 ! bore ( #d1bcj atmosph]es are repres5t$ by a l9e p>allel to ! axis ( ! absciss1 s9ce _! value is ! same ?r\gh\t all ! lay]s ( metal & equal to ! ela/ic limit1 #c1jjj atmosph]es4 ,if1 previ\s to fir+1 ! metal ( ! tube 7 free f any int]nal /resses1 !n ! resi/ance ( ! tube w\ld be ,r - r#j ,p#j ,u ----------- 1 ,r r#j or #b1aae atmosph]es--t is1 "o-half t 9 ! ideally p]fect cyl9d]4 ,f ?is we p]ceive ! great advantage ( develop+ useful initial /resses 9 ! metal & ( regulat+ ! conditions ( manufacture accord+ly4 ,unless due att5tion be paid to su* precautions1 & injuri\s /resses be p]mitt$ to develop !mselves 9 ! metal1 !n ! resi/ance ( ! cyl9d] w always be less ?an #b1aae atmosph]es2 besides :i*1 :5 ! initial /resses exce$ a c]ta9 int5sity1 ! ela/ic limit w be exce$$1 ev5 )\t ! action ( ext]nal pressures1 s t ! bore ( ! gun w n be 9 a condition to )/& any pressure because ! t5sile /ress due to su* pressure1 & :i* acts tang5tially to ! circumf]5ce1 w increase ! /ress1 already excessive1 9 ! lay]s ( ! cyl9d]2 & ?is w occur1 not)/&+ ! circum/ance t ! metal1 accord+ to ! indications ( te/ pieces tak5 f ! bore1 possess$ ! high ela/ic limit ( #c1jjj atmosph]es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a ,9 ord] to und]/& m ?or\ghly ! diff]5ce ( ! law ( di/ribution ( useful int]nal /resses z appli$ to homog5e\s or to built-up cyl9d]s1 let u imag9e ! latt] hav+ ! ext]nal & int]nal radii ( ! same l5g? z 9 ! fir/ case1 b z be+ compos$ ( two lay]s--t is to say1 made up ( a tube ) "o hoop %runk on "u ! mo/ favorable conditions--:5 ! int]nal radius ( ! hoop sqrt7,r v#j7 or #aah4g mm41 ,fig4 #b1 has be5 trac$1 aft] calculat+1 by means ( ! usual well kn[n =mul1 ! am\nt ( pressure ex]t$ by ! hoop on ! tube1 z well z ! /resses & pressures inside ! tube & ! hoop1 be=e & aft] fir+4 ,a comp>ison ( ^! curves ) ^? on ,fig4 #a w %[ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! int]nal /resses 9 a homog5e\s & 9 a built-up cyl9d]4 ,9 ! case ( ! hoop$ gun1 ! /resses 9 ! lay]s be=e fir+1 bo? 9 ! tube & 9 ! hoop1 dim9i% 9 int5sity f ! inside ( ! bore outw>d2 b ?is decrease is comp>atively small4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! lay] 9 :i* ! /resses are #j :5 ! gun is 9 a /ate ( re/ does n exi/4 ,secondly1 "u ! pressure produc$ by ! dis*>ge1 all ! lay]s d n acquire simultane\sly a /ra9 equal to ! ela/ic limit4 ,only two ( !m1 situat$ on ! int]nal radii ( ! tube & hoop1 rea* su* a /ress2 :5ce x foll[s t a cyl9d] s con/ruct$ possesses less resi/ance ?an "o :i* is homog5e\s & at ! same "t end[$ ) ideally p]fect useful initial /resses4 ,! "w done by ! =ces act+ on a homog5e\s cyl9d] is repres5t$ by ! area a b c d1 & 9 a built-up cyl9d] by ! two areas a' b' c' d' & a b c d4 ,calculation %[s also t ! resi/ance ( ! built-up cyl9d] is only #c1bfb atmosph]es1 or #gb p] c5t4 ( ! resi/ance ( a homog5e\s cyl9d]4 ,by increas+ ! numb] ( lay]s or r[s ( hoops %runk on1 :ile ! total ?ickness ( metal & ! calib] ( ! gun rema9s ! same1 we also increase ! numb] ( lay]s p>ticipat+ equally 9 ! total resi/ance to ! pressure 9 ! bore1 & tak+ up /ra9s :i* are n only equal ?r\gh\t1 b are also ! greate/ possible4 ,we see an endeavor to realize ?is idea 9 ! sy/ems advocat$ by ,longridge1 ,s*ultz1 & o!rs1 ei!r by envelop+ ! inn] tubes 9 num]\s coils ( wire1 or1 z 9 ! lat] imitations ( ?is sy/em1 by con/ruct+ guns ) a great] numb] ( ?9 hoops %runk on 9 ! cu/om>y mann]4 ,b 9 wire guns1 z well z 9 ^? ) a l>g] numb] ( hoops--f f\r to six r[s & m--! increase 9 /r5g? anticipat$ is ackn[l$g$ to be obta9$ 9 spite ( a dep>ture f "o ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! !ory ( hoop+1 s9ce 9 ! majority ( guns ( ?is type ! initial compression ( ! metal at ! surface ( ! bore exce$s its ela/ic limit4#c ,we h ^! examples ( dep>ture f fir/ pr9ciples1 c\pl$ ) ! assumption t initial /resses d n exi/ 9 any =m 9 ! metal ( ! inn] tube previ\s to ! hoops hav+ be5 %runk on2 b if ! tube happ5 to be "u ! influ5ce ( ! mo/ advantage\s initial /resses1 & we proce$ ei!r to hoop x or to envelope x ) wire1 accord+ to ! pr9ciples at pres5t 9 vogue1 !n1 )\t d\bt1 we %all injure ! metal ( ! tube2 its p[]s ( resi/ance w be dim9i%$ in/ead ( increas$1 because ! metal at ! surface ( ! bore w\ld be compress$ to an am\nt exce$+ twice its ela/ic limit4 ,an example ( injury inflict$ 9 ?is way is to be f\nd 9 ! me?od adopt$ = hoop+ ca/ iron tubes ca/ by ,rodman's process4 ,if we take into consid]ation ! und\bt$ fact ( ! exi/5ce to a consid]able ext5t ( useful initial /resses 9 ^! tubes1 !n ! hoops %\ld be put on !m ei!r ) v little %r9kage or none at all1 :]eas ordnance au?orities ev]y:]e h appli$ to ?is case me?ods :i* are only correct = tubes :i* are free f initial /resses4 ,footnote #c3 ,9 c]ta9 cases ?is1 ( c\rse1 may be an advantage1 z1 = in/ance1 :5 ! inn] tube is "u injuri\s initial /resses2 b !n1 9 ord] to be able to apply ! necess>y %r9kage1 we mu/ "k ! magnitude ( ^! /resses4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b ,dur+ ! process ( hoop+ guns x is v important to "k h[ to take into acc\nt ! value & mode ( di/ribution ( ! prejudicial /resses 9 ! inn] tube1 %\ld su* exi/4 ,kn[+ ^! /resses1 x is possible1 by regulat+ ! t5sion ( ! hoops1 to r$uce ! compression ( ! metal at ! surface ( ! bore to ! prop] ext5t1 ?us do+ away ) ! previ\sly exi/+ t5sion1 & by t means remov+ a s\rce ( weakness 9 ! tube4 ,9 precisely ! same way 9 ! %r9kage ( gun hoops att5tion mu/ be paid to ! "* & value ( ! /resses :i* arise 9 ! c\rse ( _! manufacture2 o!rwise x w be impossible to hoop ! b>rel ?r\gh\t 9 a prop] mann]4 ,if prejudicial /resses exi/ 9 ! metal ( a hoop be=e x is put 9 its place1 !n1 :5 ! gun is fir$1 if x _h be5 %runk on ) ! degree ( t5sion usually all[$1 ! lay] situat$ 9 ! int]nal radius w be ext5d$ beyond admissible limits1 !reby caus+ ! resi/ance ( ! gun to be less ?an t prescrib$4#d ,footnote #d3 ,:5 ! inn] tube is /r5g!n$ by means ( wire1 ! initial or natural /resses 9 ! latt] may be neglect$ on acc\nt ( its ?9ness2 b :5 ! ?ickness ( ! hoops is r$uc$1 & ! numb] ( lay]s !reby increas$1 !n ! value ( ! initial /resses 9 ^! hoops is a v important factor ) respect to ! decrease or increase ,( ! p[]s ( resi/ance ( ! gun4 ,x is evid5t1 f :at has be5 said1 t 9 ord] to det]m9e precisely ! resi/ance ( holl[ cyl9d]s to int]nal pressures1 & to make ! correct calculations = hoop+ tubes1 x is absolutely necess>y to "k :e!r int]nal initial /resses exi/ 9 ! tube & 9 ! hoops1 & to asc]ta9 :at _! nature & int5sity may be--t is to say1 :e!r !y are useful or detrim5tal2 yet x is inconte/able t 9 ! con/ruction ( mod]n ordnance no att5tion has be5 paid to ! inve/igations indicat$4 ,if x be possible to ignore ^! consid]ations 9 ! manufacture ( guns ( small calib]1 & :]e ! ?ickness ( metal is n suffici5tly great to admit ( /rongly develop$ int]nal /resses1 su* is by no means ! case ) ! colossal & co/ly weapons ( ! pres5t day4 ,9 ^! ! ?ickness ( metal 9 ! tube & hoops is v great2 h5ce ! extreme probability ( v consid]able int]nal /resses develop+ !mselves4 ,t ! /r5g? ( l>ge guns is (t5 f> bel[ t anticipat$ is demon/rat$1 ye> by ye>1 by ! repeat$ cases ( failure4 ,consci\sness z to ! want ( /r5g? 9 su* guns is made evid5t by ! precaution>y measures z to _! use ev]y:]e adopt$4 ,! heavy artill]y produc$ 9 ! gun factories ( ,europe is con/ruct$ ) all ! skill1 sci5ce1 & exp]i5ce :i* eng9e]s & artill]i/s c comm&1 & !re=e x w\ld seem t in/ances ( defective /r5g? %\ld n arise4 ,su* cases1 h[ev]1 d occur ev]y:]e1 & irresi/ibly give rise to ! suspicion t n only is ! sy/em ( con/ruction ( guns ( l>ge calib] faulty1 b also t ! conditions ( _! manufacture mu/ be consid]$ z defective4 ,be>+ 9 m9d ! enorm\s sums ( money exp5d$ by e nation 9 ord] to secure an armam5t ( completely tru/wor?y guns1 ?is "q dem&s spe$y & se>*+ inve/igation4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 ?is direction is ! /udy ( ! int]nal /resses inh]5t 9 ! metal2 because1 if su* exi/1 & are capable ( atta9+1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 consid]able magnitudes1 !n x is absolutely necess>y to take advantage ( !m 9 ord] to increase ! resi/ance ( ! metal1 in/ead ( all[+ !m to act to its detrim5t4 ,! /udy ( natural int]nal /resses is ( importance1 n only ) ref]5ce to gun mak+1 b also 9 respect ( o!r /ructures :]e great resi/ance is requir$4 ,all h he>d ( ! sudd5 failure ( crank %afts & pi/on rods1 ( ! bur/+ ( boil] %ells & tubes1 ( ! break+ ( tires1 etc4 ,9 ! majority ( cases ! inve/igations into ! causes ( su* sudd5 failures h n l$ to any def9ite results4 ,x has usually be5 f\nd t ! metal possess$ a satisfactory ela/ic resi/ance1 & satisfi$ all ! conditions set d[n 9 ! specifications4 ,_h att5tion be5 paid dur+ ^! inve/igations to ! /ate ( ! int]nal /resses 9 ! metal1 ! cause ( unlook$-= accid5ts might h be5 expla9$1 & /eps w\ld consequ5tly h be5 tak5 to avoid !m 9 future4 ,we are also famili> ) ! developm5t ( consid]able int]nal /resses 9 v>i\s k9ds ( /eel articles :i* are subject$ to h>d5+ & temp]+2 = example1 z dies1 tools ( v>i\s description1 sword blades1 & ?9 plates roll$ at a l[ temp]ature or subject$ to cold hamm]+4 ,9 ! f\ndry ! appe>ance ( int]nal /resses is ( /ill m frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,! neglect ( c]ta9 practical rules 9 ca/+1 & dur+ ! subsequ5t cool+1 leads to ! spontane\s breakage ( ca/+s aft] a few h\rs or days1 al?\gh tak5 out ( ! s& app>5tly p]fectly s\nd4 ,projectiles = p5etrat+ armor plate1 & made ( ca/ /eel1 z well z %ells :i* h be5 =g$ & h>d5$1 & 9 :i* ! metal possess$ an ultimate resi/ance ( ov] twelve ?\s& 7#ab1jjj7 atmosph]es1 ) an ela/ic limit ( m ?an six or sev5 ?\s& atmosph]es1 w crack to a s]i\s ext5t1 & ev5 break up 9 ! la!1 :ile ! recess = ! copp] r+ is be+ turn$ out4 ,9 %ell ( ?is nature1 z well z 9 *ill$ ca/ iron %ell1 ! heads are apt to fly (f spontane\sly ei!r :ile !y are ly+ 9 /ore or dur+ transport4 ,su* ph5om5a1 x seems to me1 demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( int]nal /resses ( consid]able magnitude 9 ! metal ( ! projectiles1 & x is highly probable t ! manufacture ( _m articles w\ld h approa*$ ne>] to p]fection _h m att5tion be5 be/[$ ^u ! /udy ( ! int]nal /resses :i* !y 7 liable to4 ,hav+ ?us expla9$ ! nature & importance ( ! subject1 ,i w proce$ to describe ! exp]im5ts :i* ,i h made ) a view to its illu/ration4--,london ,eng9e]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,ar*itectural ,,design4#a ,footnote #a3 ,deliv]$ be=e ! ,society ( ,arts1 ,london1 ,novemb] #bh1 #ahhg4 ,f ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,society4 ,,by ,h4,h4 ,,/a?am4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,judg+ f ! nature ( ! correspond5ce on ar*itecture & ! duty ( ar*itects :i* is frequ5tly se5 9 ! columns ( ! daily pap]s1 ! ,times especially1 x w\ld seem t ! popul> notion ( ar*itecture n[ is t x is a /udy ma9ly ( ?+s connect$ ) sanit>y eng9e]+--( ! be/ =ms ( dra9 pipes & int]cept+ traps4 ,?is is inde$ a v important "p ( s\nd build+1 & x is "o t has be5 v mu* neglect$1 & has be51 9 fact1 9 a comp>atively primitive /ate until v rec5t times2 & !re=e x is n surpris+ t !re %\ld be a reaction 9 reg>d to x1 & t newspap]s :i* foll[ e movem5t ( public op9ion1 & try to keep pace ) x1 %\ld speak z if ! dra9 pipe 7 ! true f\ndation ( ar*itecture4 ,i h a great respect = ! dra9 pipe1 & wi% to see x z well laid & int]cept$ z possible2 b ,i ?9k1 = all t1 t !re is some?+ 9 ar*itecture high] ?an sanit>y eng9e]+4 ,i wi% to consid] x 9 ^! lectures z :at ,i ?9k x ess5tially is1 :at x has evid5tly be5 9 ! eyes ( all ^? ( pa/ days :o h produc$ :at we n[ reg>d z great ar*itectural monum5ts1 namely1 z an intellectual art1 ! object ( :i* is to s treat ! build+s :i* we are oblig$ to raise = %elt] & conv5i5ce z to r5d] !m objects ( int]e/ & beauty1 & n m]e utilit>ian floors1 walls1 & ro(s to %elt] a race :o c>e no?+ = beauty1 & :o only want to h _! physical com=t provid$ =4 ,ar*itecture1 !n1 f ! po9t ( view f :i* ,i am ask+ y to reg>d x--& ! only po9t ( view 9 :i* x is wor? ! s]i\s reg>d ( ?\ghtful p--is ! art ( erect+ expressive & beautiful build+s4 ,i say expressive & beautiful1 & ,i put expressive fir/1 because x is ! *>act]i/ic :i* we c at lea/ realize ev5 :5 we _c realize :at c fairly be call$ beauty1 & x is ! *>act]i/ic :i* comes fir/ 9 ! ord] ( ?+s4 ,a build+ may be expressive & !reby h int]e/1 )\t ris+ into beauty2 b x c nev] be1 ar*itecturally speak+1 beautiful unless x has expression4 ,& :at d we mean by expression 9 a build+8 ,t br+s u to ! v pi? ( ! matt]4 ,we "k pretty well :at we mean :5 we say t a pa9t$ or sculptur$ figure is expressive4 ,we mean t1 :ile correctly repres5t+ ! /ructure ( ! human figure1 x also conveys to our m9ds a di/9ct idea ( a special emotion or s5tim5t1 su* z human be+s are capable ( feel+ & express+ by looks & actions4 ,expression 9 ?is s5se a build+ _c be said to h4 ,x is incapable ( emotion1 & x has no mobility ( surface or feature4 ,yet ,i ?9k we %all see t x is capable ( expression 9 m s5ses ?an "o4 ,x may1 9 ! fir/ place1 express or reflect ! emotion ( ^? :o design$ x1 or x may express ! facts ( its own int]nal /ructure & arrangem5t4 ,! =m]1 h[ev]1 c only1 ,i ?9k1 be said to be realiz$ 9 ! case ( ar*itecture ( ! highe/ class1 & :5 tak5 collectively z a typical /yle4 ,= in/ance1 we c all pretty well agree t ! m$ival ca!dral expresses an emotion ( aspiration on ! "p ( its build]s4 ,! age t built ! ca!drals long$ to so> 9 "s way1 & ?is 0 ! way !n op5 to x1 & x s5t up its s\l 9 spread+ vaults1 & 9 p9nacles & spires4 ,s also we c nev] look at ,greek ar*itecture )\t see+ 9 x ! reflection ( a nature ref9$1 precise1 & critical2 lov+ grace & f9i%1 b cont5t to live ) ! graces & ! muses )\t any aspirations t spurn$ ?is e>?4 ,we c h>dly g fur!r ?an ?is 9 attribut+ emotional expression to ar*itecture4 ,b 9 a m re/rict$ s5se ( ! ^w expression1 a build+ may express v def9itely its ma9 con/ructive facts1 its plan & arrangem5t1 to a c]ta9 ext5t ev5 its purpose1 s f> at lea/ t we may be able to id5tify ! class ( /ructure to :i* x belongs4 ,x n only may1 b x ought to d ?is1 unless ! ar*itecture is to be a m]e ornam5tal scre5 = conceal+ ! prosaic facts ( ! /ructure4 ,!re is a good deal ( ar*itecture 9 ! _w :i* is 9 fact ( ?is k9d--an ornam5tal scre5 unconnect$ ) ! con/ructional arrangem5t ( ! build+4 ,nor is su* ar*itecture to be entirely sc\t$4 ,x may be a v *>m+ piece ( sc5]y 9 itself1 & y may ev5 make a v good !oretical def5se = x1 f a c]ta9 po9t ( view4 ,b on ! :ole1 ar*itecture on t pr9ciple becomes un9t]e/+4 ,y v soon tire ( x4 ,x is a mask r ?an a c\nt5ance1 & t5ds to ! production ( a dull uni=mity ( conv5tional design4 ,= we mu/ rememb] t ar*itecture1 al?\gh a =m ( arti/ic expression1 is n1 l pa9t+ & sculpture1 unfett]$ by practical consid]ations4 ,x is an art inextricably b\nd up ) /ructural conditions & practical requirem5ts4 ,a build+ is erect$ fir/ = conv5i5ce & %elt]2 secondly only = appe>ance1 except 9 ! case ( su* works z monum5ts1 triumphal ar*es1 etc41 :i* repres5t ar*itectural effect pure & simple1 uncontroll$ by practical requirem5ts4 ,) su* exceptions1 !re=e1 a build+ ought to express 9 its ext]nal design its int]nal plann+ & arrangem5t2 9 o!r words1 ! ar*itectural design %\ld arise out ( ! plan & disposition ( ! int]ior1 or be c>ri$ on concurr5tly ) x1 n design$ z a sep>ate problem4 ,!n a design is dep5d5t on /ructural conditions also1 & if ^! are n obs]v$1 ! build+ does n /&1 & h5ce x is obvi\s t ! ar*itectural design mu/ express ^! /ructural conditions4 ,x mu/ n appe> to /& or be con/ruct$ 9 a way 9 :i* x c\ld n /& 7l ! mod]n %ops :i* are suppos$ to /& on %eets ( plate glass71 & its :ole ext]ior appe>ance ought to be 9 accordance )1 & convey ! idea (1 ! mann] & pr9ciple on :i* x is con/ruct$4 ,! mo/ important portions ( ! int]ior mu/ be %[n z su* ext]nally by ! great] elaboration & emphasis ( _! ar*itectural treatm5t4 ,if ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! plan is symmetrical1 on ei!r side ( a c5t] 7:i*1 h[ev]1 x _c (t5 be except 9 ! l>ge/ type ( monum5tal or public build+s71 ! ar*itectural treatm5t mu/ be symmetrical4 ,if ! build+ is necess>ily arrang$1 9 accordance ) ! requirem5ts ( ! plan1 unsymmetrically1 ! ar*itectural treatm5t mu/ foll[ suit1 & ! same pr9ciple mu/ be c>ri$ out ?r\gh all ! details4 ,n[ ?is dep5d5ce ( ar*itectural design ^u plan & con/ruction is "o ( ! conditions :i* is (t5 ov]look$ by amateurs 9 =m+ a judgm5t ^u ar*itectural design2 & ! ov]look+ ( ?is is "o reason ( ! unc]ta9ty ( op9ion ab\t ar*itecture z comp>$ ) su* arts z sculpture & pa9t+4 ,few p "k or c>e mu* ab\t ! /ructure & plann+ ( build+s except ^? ^: bus9ess x is to c>e ab\t ?is2 & consequ5tly !y d n realize :at x is :i* !y %\ld look = 9 ! ar*itectural design4 ,!y l x or d n l x1 & !y reg>d ?is z :at is call$ a m]e "q ( ta/e1 :i*1 accord+ to ! prov]b1 is n to be disput$ ab\t4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 ! good or bad ta/e ( an ar*itectural design1 say1 if y l1 its correctness or incorrectness1 is to a consid]able ext5t a matt] ( logical reason+1 ( :i* y mu/ accurately "k ! premises be=e y c =m a j conclusion4 ,b !re is ano!r reason = ?is preval5t unc]ta9ty & vagu5ess ( op9ion1 aris+ out ( ! v nature ( ar*itectural art itself1 z comp>$ ) ! imitative arts4 ,a pa9t+ ( a figure on a l&scape is prim>ily a direct imitation ( ! physical facts ( nature4 ,i d n = a mom5t say x is only t1 = !re is f> m involv$ 9 pa9t+ ?an ! imitation ( nature2 b ! imm$iate ref]5ce to nature does give a /&>d ( comp>ison :i* to a c]ta9 ext5t e eye c appreciate4 ,b ar*itecture is n an art :i* imitates natural =ms at all1 except z m9or decorations1 & x !n does s1 or %\ld d s1 only 9 a conv5tionaliz$ mann]1 = reasons :i* we %all consid] lat] on4 ,ar*itecture is1 l music1 a metaphysical art4 ,x deals ) ! ab/ract qualities ( proportion1 balance ( =m1 & direction ( l9e1 b )\t any imitation ( ! concrete facts ( nature4 ,! comp>ison betwe5 ar*itecture & music is an ex]cise ( ! fancy :i* may inde$ be pu%$ too f>1 b !re is really a def9ite simil>ity betwe5 !m :i* x is useful to notice4 ,= in/ance1 ! regul> rhy?m1 or succession ( acc5tuat$ po9ts 9 equal times1 :i* plays s important a "p 9 musical =m1 is disc]nible 9 ar*itecture z a rhy?m 9 space4 ,we may treat a cottage type ( design1 no d\bt1 ) a playful irregul>ity1 especially if ?is foll[s & is sugge/$ by an irregul>ity1 ( plan4 ,b 9 ar*itecture on a gr& scale1 :e!r x be 9 a ,greek colonnade or a ,go?ic arcade1 we _c tol]ate irregul>ity ( spac+ except :]e "s con/ructive necessity af=ds an obvi\s & high] reason = x4 ,!n1 aga91 we f9d ! unwritt5 law runn+ ?r\gh\t all ar*itecture t a progress ( l9e 9 "o direction requires to be /opp$ 9 a m>k$ & di/9ct mann] :5 x has run its c\rse1 & we f9d a simil>ly felt necessity 9 reg>d to musical =m4 ,! repetition s common at ! close ( a piece ( music ( ! same *ord sev]al times 9 succession is exactly analog\s to ! repetition ( cross l9es at ! neck+ ( a ,doric column to /op ! v]tical l9es ( ! flut+1 or to ! /rongly m>k$ horizontal l9es ( a cornice :i* =m ! t]m9ation ( ! height or upw>d progress ( an ar*itectural design4 ,! analogy is "h v close4 ,a less close analogy may also be felt betwe5 an ar*itectural & a musical composition reg>d$ z a :ole4 ,a fugue ( ,ba*'s is really a built-up /ructure ( tones 7z ,br[n+ has s f9ely put x 9 8 poem1 ,abt ,vogl]71 9 accordance ) c]ta9 ideas ( relation & proportion1 j z a temple or a ca!dral is a built-up /ructure ( l9es & spaces 9 accordance ) ideas ( relation & proportion4 ,bo? appeal to ! same s5se ( proportion & con/ruction 9 ! bra92 ! "o ?r\gh ! e>1 ! o!r ?r\gh ! eye4 ,!n1 9 reg>d to ar*itecture aga91 we h fur!r limit+ conditions aris+ n only out ( ! pr9ciple ( con/ruction employ$1 b out ( ! physical prop]ties ( ! v mat]ial we employ4 ,a treatm5t t is suitable & expressive = a /one con/ruction is q unsuitable = a timb] con/ruction4 ,details :i* are effective & p]man5t 9 m>ble are ineffective & p]i%able 9 /one1 & s2 on & ! outcome ( all ?is is t all ar*itectural design has to be judg$1 n by any easy & ready ref]5ce to ext]ior physical nature1 ) :i* x has no?+ to d1 b by a process ( logical reason+ z to ! relation ( ! design to ! practical conditions1 fir/1 :i* are its basis1 & z to ! relation ( ! p>ts to ea* o!r4 ,( c\rse beyond all ?is !re is 9 ar*itecture1 z 9 music1 some?+ :i* defies analysis1 :i* appeals to our s5se ( delight we "k n h[ or :y1 & probably we d n want to "k2 ! *>m might be dissolv$ if we did4 ,b up to ?is po9t ar*itectural design & expression are bas$ on reason+ f c]ta9 premises4 ,! design is good or bad z x recognizes or ignores ! logic ( ! case1 & ! criticism ( x mu/ re/ on a simil> basis4 ,x is a matt] ( ?\ght 9 bo? cases1 & )\t ?\ght x c nei!r be design$ nor appreciat$ to any purpose1 & ?is is ! lead+ idea :i* ,i wi% to urge & to illu/rate 9 ^! lectures4 ,y may say3 ,may n a design satisfy all ^! logical conditions1 & yet be cold & un9t]e/+1 & give "o no pleasure8 ,c]ta9ly x may4 ,inde$1 we ref]r$ j n[ to t la/ elem5t ( beauty :i* is beyond analysis4 ,b1 if we _c analyze ! result1 ,i r ?9k we c express :at x is :i* ! design] mu/ ev9ce1 beyond cle> reason+1 to give ! highe/ int]e/ to 8 ar*itecture4 ,he mu/ h tak5 an int]e/ 9 x himself4 ,t seems a little ?+ to say1 b mu* lies 9 x4 ,z ,mat!w ,arnold has said ( poetry3 ,:at poets feel n1 :5 !y make ,a pleasure 9 creat+1 ,! _w1 9 its turn1 w n take ,pleasure 9 contemplat+4 ,! tru? runs ?r\gh all art4 ,!re are1 alas1 s _m p :o d n seem to h ! faculty ( tak+ pleasure1 & !re is s mu* ar*itecture ab\t our /reets :i* x is impossible to suppose any "o took pleasure 9 creat+4 ,:5 a feature is put into a design1 n because ! design] lik$ x1 b because x is ! usual ?+ & x saves tr\ble1 x always proclaims t melan*oly tru?4 ,b :]e some?+ is design$ because ! design] lik$ do+ x1 & 0 try+ to please 8 own fancy in/ead ( copy+ :at a hundr$ o!r m5 h done be=e1 x w g h>d b he w give "s pleasure to ! spectator4 ,x is f ?is bless$ faculty t a design becomes inspir$ ) :at is be/ describ$ z "*4 ,x is n ! same ?+ z /yle4 ,i h some?+ to say 9 my next lecture z to :at ,i ?9k /yle means1 b x is c]ta9 t a build+ may h /yle & yet want "*1 & x may h a good deal ( "* & yet be faulty or contradictory 9 /yle4 ,we _c def9e "*1 b :5 we feel t x is pres5t we may rely ^u x t x is because ! design] took int]e/ & pleasure 9 8 "w1 0 n do+ x m]ely s*ola/ically--9 %ort1 he put some?+ ( 8 own "* into x1 :i* means t he _h "s to put4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #a ?r\gh #c ,n[1 com+ back to ! axiom be=e m5tion$1 t ar*itectural design %\ld express & emphasize ! practical requirem5ts & physical conditions ( ! build+1 let u look a little m 9 detail into ! mann] 9 :i* ?is may be done4 ,we w take1 to beg9 )1 ! v simple/ /ructure we c possibly build--a pla9 wall 7,fig4 #a74b ,"h !re is no expression at all2 only /ones pil$ "o on ano!r1 ) suffici5t c>e 9 c\rs+ & jo9t+ to give /ability to ! /ructure4 ,x is bett] = ! wall1 con/ructively1 h[ev]1 t x %\ld h a wid] base1 to give x m solidity ( f\ndation1 & t ! cop+ %\ld project beyond ! face ( ! wall1 9 ord] to ?r[ ! ra9 (f1 & ^! two requirem5ts may be treat$ s z to give ar*itectural expression to our "w 7,fig4 #b74 ,x n[ consi/s ( ?ree di/9ct portions--a pl9?1 or base1 a sup]ficies ( wall1 & a cop+4 ,we w m>k ! ?ick5+ at ! base by a m\ld+1 :i* w give a few horizontal l9es 7at ,b71 & ! cop+ 9 ! same way4 ,! m\ld+ ( ! cop+ mu/ also be s design$ z to h a holl[ ?roat+1 :i* w act z a drip1 to keep ! ra9 f runn+ r\nd ! "u side ( ! cop+ & d[n ! wall4 ,we may !n break up ! sup]ficies by ins]t+ a b& ( s+le ornam5t 9 "o c\rse ( ?is portion ( ! wall--n half way1 = to divide any portion ( a build+ into m]e halves has usually a weak & monoton\s effect1 b ab\t two ?irds ( ! di/ance f ! base l9e2 & ?is b& ( ornam5t n only breaks up ! pla9 surface a little1 b also1 by c>ry+ ano!r horizontal l9e along ! wall1 emphasizes its horizontality4 ,always emphasize t :i* is ! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( y\r /ructure4 ,a wall ( ?is k9d is ess5tially a long horizontal b\nd>y4 ,emphasize its l5g? & horizontality4 ,footnote #b3 ,! d>k %ad$ portion 9 ?is & ! next two diagrams %[ ! section ( ! wall z se5 if we cut x ?r\gh & look at x endwise4 ,if we are millionaires1 & c af=d to sp5d a great deal on a wall1 we may n only 7,fig4 #c7 c>ry fur!r ! treatm5t ( ! cop+ & base1 by giv+ !m ornam5tal adjuncts z well z m\ld+s1 b we might treat ! :ole wall sup]ficies z a space = surface c>v+1 n me*anically repeat$1 b ) cont9ual v>iation ( e portion1 s z to r5d] our wall a matt] ( int]e/ & beauty :ile reta9+ all its usefulness z a b\nd>y1 obs]v+ t su* surface ornam5t %\ld be design$ s z to fulfill a d\ble object3 #a1 to give g5]al relief to ! surface ( ! wall2 #b1 to af=d matt] ( int]e/ to ! eye on close inspection & 9 detail4 ,t is ! d\ble function ( ne>ly all ar*itectural ornam5t4 ,x is1 9 ! fir/ place1 to aid ! g5]al expression & balance ( ! build+1 & give po9t & emphasis :]e ne$$2 &1 9 ! second place1 to furni% some?+ to ! eye = /udy on its own acc\nt :5 view$ m closely4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #d ?r\gh #i ,we w take ano!r typical & simple erection1 a /one pill> to support ! ends ( two l9tels or beams4 ,?is may be simply a long squ>$ piece set on end 7,fig4 #d71 & w p]=m its con/ructive functions p]fectly well 9 t =m2 b x is n only absolutely expressionless1 b is 9 "o s5se clumsy & inconv5i5t1 z tak+ up m space ?an ne$ be1 pres5t+ an unwieldy-look+ mass :5 view$ at an angle1 & %utt+ out a good deal ( light 7if t happ5 to be a matt] ( practical consequ5ce 9 ! case74 ,cutt+ (f ! angles 7,fig4 #e7 does n weak5 x mu*1 & r5d]s x mu* less unwieldy-look+1 besides giv+ x a c]ta9 degree ( v]ticality ( expression1 & r5d]+ x m conv5i5t z tak+ up less room & ob/ruct+ less light4 ,b ?\gh ! column is q /rong en\gh1 ! octagonal top does n make s good a seat or be>+ = ! ends ( ! l9tels4 ,we w !re=e put a flat squ>e /one on ! top ( x 7,fig4 #f71 :i* w s]ve z a b$ = ! l9tels to re/ on securely4 ,b ! angles ( ?is b$ plate1 :]e !y project beyond ! face ( ! column1 appe> r weak1 & are s actually to "s ext5t--a d\ble defect1 = x is n en\gh 9 ar*itecture t a ?+ %\ld be /rong en\gh1 x is necess>y t x %\ld appe> s1 ar*itecture hav+ to d ) expression z well z ) fact4 ,we w1 !re=e1 /r5g!n ?is project+ angle1 & correct ! abruptness ( transition betwe5 ! column & ! b$ plate1 by brackets 7,fig4 #g7 project+ f ! alt]nate faces ( ! column to ! angles ( ! b$ plates4 ,z ?is r emphasizes f\r planes ( ! octagon column at ! exp5se ( ! o!r f\r1 we w b9d ! :ole toge!r j "u ! brackets by a ?9 b& ( ornam5t con/itut+ a neck+1 & ?us we h some?+ l a capital develop$1 a def9itely design$ f9i% to our column1 expressive ( its purpose4 ,?is treatm5t ( ! upp] end1 h[ev]1 w\ld make ! l[] end ris+ abruptly f ! gr\nd seem v b>e4 ,we w accord+ly emphasize ! base ( ! column1 j z we emphasiz$ ! base ( ! wall1 by a project+ m\ld+1 n only giv+ expression to ?is connection ( ! column ) ! gr\nd1 b also giv+ x ! appe>ance1 & to "s ext5t ! reality1 ( great] /ability1 by giv+ x a wid] & m spread+ base to re/ on4 ,we h "h /ill left ! l9es ( "o column v]tically p>allel1 & !re is no con/ructive reason :y !y %\ld n rema9 s4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a g5]al impression to ! eye bo? ( great] /ability & m grace aris+ f a slight dim9ution upw>d4 ,x is difficult to acc\nt = ?is on any metaphysical pr9ciple1 b ! fact has be5 felt by mo/ nations :i* h us$ a column> ar*itecture1 & we w accept x & dim9ute 7s to speak7 our column 7,fig4 #h74 ,we h "h tak5 a fur!r /ep by treat+ ! %aft ( ! column 9 two heights1 keep+ ! l[] portion octagonal & r$uc+ ! upp] portion to a circle1 & we n[ f9d x easi] to treat ! capital s z to h a direct & complete connection ) ! column1 ! capital be+ "h m]ely a spread+ out ( ! column into a bracket =m all r\nd1 runn+ x into ! squ>e ( ! b$ plate4#c ,! spread+ portion is emphasiz$ by surface ornam5t1 & ! neck+ is aga9 emphasiz$1 ?is "t m decisively1 by a m\ld+1 =m+ a s]ies ( p>allel r+s r\nd ! column4 ,if we wi% to give our column an expression ( m grace & elegance1 we c fur!r r$uce ! ?ickness ( x 7,fig4 #i71 & give m spread to ! capital1 always tak+ c>e to be sure t ! /r5g? ( ! column is n r$uc$ bel[ :at ! weight :i* x has to c>ry requires4 ,9 ?is case a bracket is %[n above ! capital1 project+ longitud9ally only 79 ! direction ( ! l9tel be>+71 a me?od ( giv+ a l>g] be>+ surface = ! ends ( ! l9tels1 %ort5+ _! actual be>+#d 79 o!r words1 wid5+ ! space :i* c be bridg$ betwe5 column & column7 & giv+ a workmanlike appe>ance ( /ability to ! con/ruction at ?is po9t4 ,! idea ( ! division ( ! column into two sections1 sugge/$ 9 ,fig4 #h1 is kept up 9 ,fig4 #i by treat+ ! l[] portion up to ! same height ) incis$ decorative c>v+4 ,! dott$ l9es on ea* side 9 ,fig4 #i give ! outl9e ( ! orig9al squ>e column z %[n 9 ,fig4 #d4 ,! f9i%$ column 0 )9 t block2 x is ! bus9ess ( ! ar*itectural design] to get x out4#e ,footnote #c3 ,?is is ! feature call$ abacus 7i4e41 tile7 9 ,greek ar*itecture1 b ,i am "h consid]+ x ap>t f any special /yle or nom5clature4 ,footnote #d3 ,be>+1 9 build+ language1 is us$ 9 a d\ble s5se1 = ! di/ance betwe5 ! po9ts ( support1 & ! ext5t to :i* ! beam re/s on ! walls4 ,?us a beam :i* ext5ds #bj feet betwe5 ! po9ts ( support is a beam ( #bj feet be>+4 ,if ! beam is #bb feet long1 s t #a foot re/s on ! walls at ea* end1 x has #a foot be>+ on ! wall4 ,footnote #e3 ,none ( ! =ms ( column sket*$ "h h any exi/5ce 9 reality4 ,!y are purposely kept ap>t f imitation ( accept$ =ms to get rid ( ! idea t ar*itecture consi/s 9 ! acceptance ( any p>ticul> =m sanction$ by prec$5t4 ,let u see if we c apply ! same k9d ( process ( evolv+ expression 9 reg>d to a build+4 ,we w take aga9 ! v simple/ =m ( build+ 7,fig4 #aj71 a squ>e h\se ) a door 9 ! c5t] & uni=m r[s ( w9d[s4 ,!re _c be said to be any ar*itectural expression 9 ?is4 ,!re is no base or pl9? at all1 no treatm5t ( ! wall4 ,! slight projection at ! eaves is only :at is necess>y to keep ! ra9 f runn+ d[n ! walls1 & facilitate ! empty+ ( ! gutt]s1 & ! ev5 spac+ ( ! w9d[s is ess5tial = con/ructive reasons1 to keep ! masses ( wall ov] ea* o!r1 & keep ! :ole 9 a /ate ( equally balanc$ pressure4 ,! fir/ ?+ we %\ld d 9 endeavor+ to give "s expression to ! build+ w\ld be to give x a base or pl9? 7,fig4 #aa71 & to m>k t & ! cornice a little m decid$ly by m\ld+s & a l9e ( panel+ at ! pl9?4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #aj & #aa ,! h\se be+ obvi\sly 9 ?ree /ories1 we %\ld give x "s e*o ext]nally ( ?is division into horizontal /ages by horizontal m\ld+s1 or :at are call$ 9 ar*itectural phraseology /r+ c\rses1 n necess>ily exactly at ! floor levels1 b s z to convey ! idea ( horizontal division2 obs]v+ "h1 z 9 ! case ( ! wall & column1 t we %\ld take c>e n to divide ! height into equal p>ts1 :i* is v expressionless4 ,9 ?is case we w keep ! l[] /r+ close d[n on ! gr\nd floor w9d[s1 & keep ^! r l[1 ?us %[+ t ! gr\nd floor ap>tm5ts are n ! mo/ important2 :ile ! fact t ! fir/ floor ones are s is conv]sely made app>5t by keep+ ^! w9d[s r high]1 putt+ a d\ble /r+ c\rse ov] !m1 & a slight extra dep? ( m\ld+1 =m+ a k9d ( cornice ov] ea*4 ,! space left betwe5 ^! & ! ro(1 9 :i* ! attic w9d[s are plac$1 is treat$ ) a s]ies ( mullions & panel+s1 into :i* ! attic w9d[s are work$1 z "p ( ! s]ies ( op5+s2 ?is gives a little ri*ness ( effect to ! top /ory1 & a cont9uity ( treatm5t1 :i* b9ds ! :ole s]ies ( w9d[s toge!r4 ,to h treat$ ! :ole ( ! walls & w9d[s 9 ?is way w\ld h be5 m]ely ?r[+ away labor2 :at little effect x has consi/s 9 ! "* giv5 by ! contra/ ( ?is top /ory treatm5t ) ! pla9 wall surfaces bel[4 ,! la/ ?+ is to emphasize ! door1 z ! pr9cipal op5+ 9 ! walls1 & q di/9ct 9 use & mean+ f ! o!r op5+s1 by giv+ x a little ar*itectural frame or sett+1 :i* may be done 9 _m ways1 b 9 ?is case is done by ! old fa%ion$ device 7n v logical c]ta9ly7 ( putt+ a little entablature ov] x1 & a column on ei!r side2 !re is1 h[ev]1 ?is to be said = x1 t ! project+ tablature =ms a semi-por*1 protect+ ^? at ! door some:at f ra92 x mu/ be c>ri$ 9 "s way1 & columns are ! readie/ & mo/ seemly mann] ( do+ x1 & !y also =m1 practically1 some?+ ( a wea!r scre52 ! bases on :i* !y /& also =m a framework or inclos+ wall = ! /eps1 :i* are ?us made "p ( ! ar*itectural design1 in/ead ( /&+ out z an eyesore1 z on ,fig4 #aj4 ,we h n[ giv5 ! h\se a little g5]al expression1 b x /ill is vague 9 its design z f> z reg>ds ! di/ribution ( ! int]ior2 we d n "k :e!r ! fir/ floor1 = in/ance1 is "o l>ge room1 or two or m rooms1 or h[ !y are divid$2 & ! little h\se is v squ>e & prim 9 effect4 ,let u try gr\p+ ! w9d[s a little1 & at ! same "t break+ up ! flat surface ( ! front wall 7,fig4 #ab74 ,"h1 z be=e1 we h divid$ ! build+ by a horizontal /r+1 b only by "o ma9 "o on ! fir/ floor level1 keep+ ! same contra/1 h[ev]1 betwe5 a ri*] portion above & a pla9] portion bel[2 we h divid$ ! build+ v]tically1 also1 by two project+ bays f9i%+ 9 gables1 ?us break+ also ! skyl9e ( ! ro(1 & giv+ x a little picturesqu5ess1 & we h gr\p$ ! w9d[s1 in/ead ( leav+ !m z s _m holes 9 ! wall at equal di/ances4 ,! contra/ betwe5 ! gr\nd & fir/ floor w9d[s is m emphatic2 & x is n[ ! m evid5t t ! upp] floor rooms are ! be/ ap>tm5ts1 f _! ample w9d[s2 x is also pretty evid5t t ! fir/ floor is divid$ into two ma9 rooms ) l>ge bay w9d[s1 & a small] room or a /aircase w9d[1 betwe5 !m2 ! second floor w9d[s are also %ift$ up high]1 ! two pr9cipal ones go+ 9 to ! gables1 %[+ t ! rooms bel[ !m h be5 rais$ 9 height4 ,w9d[s c>ri$ up ! full height ( ^! rooms1 h[ev]1 might be too l>ge ei!r = repose int]nally or = appe>ance ext]nally1 s ! wall int]v5+ betwe5 ! top ( ^! & ! sill ( ! gables is a good field = "s decorative treatm5t1 conf9$ to ! bays1 s z to assi/ 9 sep>at+ !m f ! /raight wall :i* =ms ! backgr\nd to !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab ,s f> we h treat$ our build+ only z a private h\se4 ,)\t alt]+ its g5]al scale & %ape we may sugge/ some?+ entirely diff]5t f a private h\se4 ,on ,fig4 #ac1 we h tri$ to give a municipal appe>ance to x1 z if x 7 ! guild hall ( a small c\ntry t[n4 ,! pla9 basem5t & ! wide pr9cipal doorway1 & ! r[ ( ?ree v l>ge equal-spac$ w9d[s above1 r5d] x unque/ionable t ?is is a build+ ) a l[ gr\nd /ory1 & "o l>ge room above4 ,a c]ta9 public build+ effect is giv5 to x by ! l>ge & enri*$ cornice ) balu/rade above & panel+ bel[1 & by ! acc5tuation ( ! angles by project+ pi]s1 & by ! turrets ov] !m1 :i* give x q a diff]5t "* f t ( a private h\se4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! build+ 7 ! free libr>y & read+ room ( ! same small c\ntry t[n1 we %\ld h little d\bt ( ?is if we saw x z 9 ,fig4 #ad1 ) ! walls all blank 7%[+ t !y are want$ = rang+ some?+ aga9/1 & _c be pi]c$ = w9d[s71 & w9d[s only 9 ! upp] portion4 ,simil>ly1 if we want to build x z ! c\ntry bank1 we %\ld h to put ! l>ge w9d[s on ! gr\nd floor1 bank cl]ks want+ pl5ty ( light1 & ! gr\nd /ory be+ always ! pr9cipal "o2 & we might indulge ! humor ( giv+ x a grim =tress-l /r5g? by a ru/icat$ pl9? 7i4e41 /ones left or work$ r\gh & rock-l7 & by v massive pi]s betwe5 ! w9d[s1 & a heavy cornice ov] !m2 ! resid5tial upp] floor =m+ a l[ /ory subord9ate to ! bank /ory4 ,x is true ?is w\ld n satisfy a bank]1 :o always wants classic pila/]s /uck aga9/ ! walls1 t be+ 8 h]$it>y idea ( bank expression 9 ar*itecture4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #ad & #ae ,n[ if we proce$ to take to pieces ! idea ( ar*itectural design1 & consid] :]e9 ! problem ( x consi/s1 we %all f9d t x falls into a f\rfold %ape4 ,x consi/s fir/ 9 arrang+ ! plan2 secondly1 9 c>ry+ up ! b\nd>y l9es ( ?is plan v]tically 9 ! %ape ( walls2 ?irdly1 9 ! me?od ( cov]+ 9 ! space :i* we h ?us def9$ & inclos$2 &1 f\r?ly1 9 ! details ( ornam5tation :i* give to x ! la/ & conclud+ grace & f9i%4 ,all build+1 :5 x gets beyond ! m]e wall ) :i* we began1 is really a me?od ( cov]+ 9 a space1 or1 if we may put x s1 a collection ( spaces1 m>k$ out & arrang$ = c]ta9 purposes4 ,! fir/ ?+ t ! ar*itect has to d is to arrange ^! spaces on ! gr\nd s t !y may conv5i5tly meet ! necess>y requirem5ts ( ! build+4 ,conv5i5ce & practical usefulness come fir/2 b 9 any build+ :i* is wor? ! "n ( ar*itecture some?+ m ?an m]e conv5i5ce has to be kept 9 m9d1 ev5 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! plan ^u ! site4 ,x is to be a comb9ation ( conv5i5ce ) effectiv5ess ( arrangem5t4 ,we %all probably f9d t "s "o comp>tm5t ( ! plan is ( p>am\nt importance4 ,we h to arrange ! int]ior s t ?is mo/ important comp>tm5t %all be ! climax ( ! plan4 ,! entrance & ! o!r subsidi>y comp>tm5ts mu/ be kept subord9ate to x1 & mu/ lead up to x 9 su* a mann] t ! spectator %all be l$ by a natural gradation f ! subsidi>y comp>tm5ts up to ! ma9 "o1 :i* is ! c5t] & raison d'etre ( ! :ole--ev]y?+ 9 ! l9es ( ! plan %\ld po9t to t4 ,?is is ! great crux 9 ! plann+ ( complicat$ public build+s4 ,a visitor to su* a build+1 unacqua9t$ ) x previ\sly1 ought to h no difficulty 9 f9d+ out f ! disposition ( ! int]ior :i* are ! ma9 l9es ( r\te1 & :5 he is on ! l9e lead+ him up to ! c5tral feature ( ! plan4 ,!re are public build+s to be f\nd arrang$ on :at may be call$ ! rabbit w>r5 sy/em1 9 :i* p]haps a great numb] ( ap>tm5ts are got ^u ! gr\nd1 b :i* ! visitor is oblig$ labori\sly to le>n be=e he c f9d 8 way ab\t !m4 ,t is n only inconv5i5t b in>ti/ic plann+1 & %[s a want ( logic & consid]ation1 &1 9 addition to ?is1 a want ( feel+ = arti/ic effect4 ,i saw n long ago1 = in/ance1 9 a set ( competitive designs = an important public build+1 a design exhibit+ a great deal ( grace & elegance 9 ! ext]ior ar*itectural embelli%m5t1 b 9 :i* ! pr9cipal entrance l$ "r up to a blank wall fac+ ! entrance1 & ! spectator _h to turn aside to ! left & !n to ! "r be=e f9d+ himself on ! pr9cipal axis ( ! plan4 ,t is :at ,i %\ld call in>ti/ic or un>*itectural plann+4 ,! build+ may be j z conv5i5t :5 y once "k its dodges1 b x does n appe> s1 & x loses ! great effect ( direct vi/a & climax4 ,an able ar*itect1 :o _h giv5 mu* ?\ght to a plan ( a l>ge build+ ( ?is k9d1 said to me1 9 %[+ me 8 plan1 ) a ju/ifiable gratification 9 x1 ,x has co/ me endless tr\ble1 b x is a satisfaction to feel t y h got a plan ) backbone 9 x4 ,t is a v good expression ( :at is requir$ 9 plann+ a complicat$ build+1 b few outsid]s h any notion ( ! am\nt ( ?\ght & contrivance :i* goes to ! production ( a plan ) backbone2 a plan 9 :i* all ! subord9ate & m]ely practical dep>tm5ts %all be 9 ! mo/ conv5i5t position 9 reg>d to ea* o!r1 & yet %all all appe> z if symmetrically & naturally subord9ate to ! c5tral & lead+ feature2 & if ! public _h a little m idea :at is ! difficulty ( produc+ su* a plan1 !y w\ld p]haps d a little m ju/ice to ! labors ( ! man :o contrives ! plan1 :i* !y ?9k su* an easy bus9ess2 & no d\bt x may appe> an easy bus9ess1 because ! v *>act]i/ic ( a really good plan is t x %\ld appe> z if x 7 q a natural & almo/ inevitable arrangem5t4 ,j z x is said 9 reg>d to lit]ature t easy writ+ is h>d read+1 s1 9 reg>d to plann+1 x is ! complicat$ & rabbit w>r5 plans t are ! easie/ to make1 because x is j do+ :at y please2 x is ! app>5tly p]fectly simple & natural plan :i* spr+s f ?\ght & contrivance4 ,!n !re is ! next /ep ( rais+ ! walls on ! plan1 & giv+ !m ar*itectural expression4 ,?is mu/ n be ?\ght ( z an entirely sep>ate problem1 = no truly ar*itectural intellect w ev] arrange a plan )\t see+ g5]ally1 9 8 m9d's eye1 ! sup]/ructure :i* he int5ds to re> ^u x2 b ! detail$ treatm5t ( ?is =ms a sep>ate bran* ( ! design4 ,!n comes ! ?ird & v important problem--! cov]+ 9 ( ! space4 ,next to ! plan1 ?is is ! mo/ important4 ,all build+ is ! cov]+ ov] ( a space1 & ! me?od ( cov]+ x ov] mu/ be =ese5 & provid$ = f ! outset4 ,x l>gely influ5ces ! arrangem5t ( ! plan4 ,if !re 7 no ro(+1 y c\ld arrange ! walls & c>ry !m up pretty mu* z y *ose1 b ! ro(+ ( a l>ge space is ano!r matt]4 ,x requires extra /r5g? at c]ta9 po9ts1 :]e ! weight ( ! ro( is conc5trat$1 & x has to be det]m9$ :e!r y w employ a me?od ( ro(+ :i* ex]cises only a v]tical pressure on ! walls1 l ! lid ( a box1 or "o :i*1 l an ar*1 or a vault1 or a dome1 is abutt+ aga9/ ! walls1 & requires c\nt]=ts to resi/ ! outw>d ?ru/ ( ! ro(4 ,we %all come ^u ?is subject ( ! influ5ce ( ! ro( on ! design ( ! sub/ructure m 9 detail lat] on4 ,!n1 if ! plan is conv5i5t & effective1 ! walls c>ri$ up ) ! ar*itectural expression aris+ f ! plac+ & gr\p+ ( ! op5+s1 & ! prop] emphasiz+ ( ! base & ! cornice1 & ! horizontal /ages 7if any7 ( ! /ructure1 & ! ro( firmly & sci5tifically seat$ on ! walls2 aft] all ^! ma9 portions ( ! /ructure are design$ logically & 9 accordance ) "o ano!r & ) ! lead+ idea ( ! build+1 !n ! f9i%+ t\*es ( expression & int]e/ are giv5 by well design$ & effective ornam5tal detail4 ,"h ! design] may indulge 8 fancy z he pleases1 z f> z ! nature ( ! design is conc]n$1 b n1 if y please1 z f> z its position & di/ribution are conc]n$4 ,!re ! logic ( ar*itecture /ill pursues u4 ,we may n place ornam5t any:]e at haphaz>d on a build+ simply because x looks pretty4 ,at lea/1 to d s is to ?r[ away great "p ( its value4 ,= ev]y?+ 9 ar*itectural design is relative2 x is to be consid]$ 9 relation to ! expression & design ( ! :ole1 & ornam5t is to be plac$ :]e x w emphasize c]ta9 po9ts or c]ta9 features ( ! build+4 ,x mu/ =m a "p ( ! gr\p+ ( ! :ole1 & be all ref]able to a c5tral & pr$om9at+ idea4 ,a build+ s plann$1 built1 & decorat$ becomes1 9 fact1 :at all ar*itecture--:at e arti/ic design 9 fact %\ld be--an organiz$ :ole1 ( :i* e "p has its relation to ! re/1 & f :i* no feature c be remov$ )\t impair+ ! unity & consi/5cy ( ! design4 ,y may h a v good1 ev5 an expressive1 build+ ) no ornam5t at all if y l1 b y may n h misplac$ ornam5t4 ,t is only an excresc5ce on ! design1 n an organic portion ( x4 ,i h ?\ght t x w\ld be ( use to ^? :o are unacqua9t$ ) ar*itectural proc$ure 9 del9eat+ ar*itecture by geometrical draw+s if ,i took ! opportunity ( illu/rat+ v briefly ! philosophy ( elevations1 plans1 & sections1 :i* _m non-pr(essional p c]ta9ly d n und]/&4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #af ?r\gh #be ,a simple model ( a build+1 l t 9 ,fig4 #af1 w s]ve ! purpose1 z ! pr9ciple is ! same 9 ! mo/ complicat$ z 9 ! simple/ build+4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! object ( ar*itectural draw+s on ! geometrical sy/em is n to %[ a picture ( ! build+1 b to enable ! design] to put toge!r 8 design accurately 9 all its p>ts1 accord+ to scale1 & to convey intelligible & precise in=mation to ^? :o h to erect ! build+4 ,a p]spective draw+ l ,fig4 #af is ( no use = ?is purpose4 ,x %[s g5]ally :at ! design is1 b x is impossible to asc]ta9 ! size ( any "p by scale f x1 except t if ! l5g? ( "o l9e 7 giv5 x w\ld be possible1 by a long process ( projection & calculation1 to asc]ta9 ! o!r sizes4 ,! rationale ( ! ar*itect's geometrical draw+s is t on !m ea* plane ( ! build+ 7! front1 ! side1 ! plan1 etc47 is %[n sep>ately & )\t any di/ortion by p]spective1 & 9 su* a mann] t e portion is suppos$ to be opposite to ! eye at once4 ,only ! wid? ( any object on "o side c be %[n 9 ?is way at "o view2 = ! wid? ( ! return side y h to look to ano!r draw+2 y mu/ comp>e ! draw+s 9 ord] to f9d out ^? relative proportions :i* ! p]spective view indicates to ! eye at a glance2 b ea* portion ( ea* side c be measur$ by ref]5ce to a scale1 & its precise size obta9$1 :i* c only be guess$ at r\ghly f ! p]spective draw+4 ,?us ! side ( ! model is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ai1 ! end 9 ,fig4 #ag2 ! two toge!r give ! precise size & proportions ( ev]y?+ outside to scale1 except ! projection ( ! pila/]s4 ,?is has to be got at f ! plan & section4 ,ev]y?+ be+ drawn on "o plane1 ( c\rse surfaces :i* are slop+ on "o elevation are repres5t$ z flat 9 ! o!r4 ,= in/ance1 on ,no4 #ag ! rak+ l9e ( ! slop+ ro( is %[n at ,n4 ,s we "k ! slope ( ! ro(1 b we d n "k to :at l5g? x ext5ds ! o!r way4 ,?is is %[n on ,fig4 #ai1 :]e ! portion %[+ ! ro( is also m>k$ ,n1 & x w be se5 t ! surface :i* is slop+ 9 ,fig4 #ag is se5 9 ! side elevation only z a space betwe5 a top & bottom l9e4 ,we see ! l5g? ( ! ro( "h1 & its height1 b = its slope we g to ! end elevation4 ,nei!r elevation tells u1 h[ev]1 :at is inside ! build+2 b ! section 7,fig4 #ah7 %[s u t x has an ar*$ ceil+1 & two /ories1 a l[] & a high] "o4 ,! section is ! build+ cut 9 half1 %[+ ! end ( ! walls1 ! height & dep? ( ! w9d[ op5+s1 ! ?ickness ( ! floor1 etc41 & z all p>ts :i* are opposite ! eye are %[n 9 ! draw+1 ! inside ( ! cross wall at ! end ( ! build+ is %[n z a "p ( ! section draw+1 betwe5 ! sectional walls4 ,9 ,fig4 #bc ! section is sket*$ 9 p]spective1 to %[ m cle>ly :at x means4 ,ano!r section is made l5g?wise ( ! build+ 7,fig4 #bj74 ,x is cu/om>y to indicate on ! plan by dott$ l9es ! portion ?r\gh :i* ! section is suppos$ to be made4 ,?us on ! plans ! l9es ,a ,b & ,c ,d are drawn1 & ! correspond+ sections are label$ ) ! same l9es4 ,z ) ! elevation1 "o section mu/ be comp>$ ) ano!r to get ! full in=mation f !m4 ,?us 9 ,fig4 #ah1 ! ceil+1 ,m1 is %[n z a semicircle2 9 ,fig4 #bj1 x is only a space betwe5 ! top & bottom l9es4 ,x is1 c]ta9ly1 %ad$ "h to give ! effect ( rotundity1 b t is q a sup]fluity4 ,on ,fig4 #ah ! height ( ! side w9d[s is %[n at ,f1 & ! ?ickness ( ! wall 9 :i* !y are made4 ,9 ,fig4 #bj 7,f7 _! wid? & spac+ are %[n4 ,9 ,fig4 #ah "s l9es drawn across1 "o ov] ! o!r1 are %[n at ,h4 ,^! are ! /airs1 ( :i* 9 ?is section we see only ! fronts1 or ris]s1 s t !y appe> m]ely z l9es 7%[+ ! edge ( ea* /ep7 drawn "o ov] ! o!r4 ,at ,h on ! plan1 ,fig4 #ba1 we aga9 see !m repres5t$ z a s]ies ( l9es1 b "h we are look+ d[n on ! top ( !m1 & see only ! upp] surfaces1 or treads1 ! edges aga9 appe>+ z a s]ies ( l9es4 ,at ,h on ! longitud9al section1 we see ! same /eps 9 section1 & consequ5tly _! actual slope1 :i*1 h[ev]1 c\ld h be5 calculat$ f ,figs4 #ah & #ba1 by putt+ ! heights %[n 9 section ) ! wid? %[n 9 plan4 ,! plan1 ,fig4 #ba1 %[s ! ?ickness & position on ! floor ( ! pill>s1 ,g ,g4 ,_! height is %[n 9 ! sections4 ,! plan ( a build+ is m]ely a horizontal section1 cutt+ (f ! top1 & look+ d[n on ! sectional top ( ! walls1 s z to see all _! ?icknesses4 ,i h drawn 7,fig4 #bd7 a p]spective sket* ( "o end ( ! plan 7,fig4 #bb7 ( ! build+1 on ! same pr9ciple z 0 done ) ! section 7,fig4 #bc71 9 ord] to %[ m intelligibly exactly :at x is t a plan repres5ts--! build+ ) ! upp] "p lift$ (f4 ,return+ = a mom5t to ! subject ( ! relation betwe5 ! plan & ! ext]ior design1 x %\ld be not$ t ! plan ( a build+ be+ practically ! fir/ consid]ation1 & ! basis ( ! :ole design1 ! latt] %\ld be 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciple ( disposition ( ! plan4 ,= example1 if we h an elevation 7%[n 9 diagram7 %[+ two w+s ( simil> design on ei!r side ( a c5t]1 design$ s z to convey ! idea ( a gr& gall]y1 ) a suite ( ap>tm5ts on ei!r side ( simil> importance--if ! "o side only ( ! plan conta9s su* a suite1 & ! opposite side is 9 reality divid$ up into small & inf]ior rooms1 fill$ 9 z well z may be beh9d ! ar*itectural design--! :ole design is 9 t case only a bl9d or scre51 giv+ a false ext]ior symmetry to a build+ :i* is n s plann$4 ,?is is an extreme case 7or might be call$ s if x 7 n actually ( pretty frequ5t occurr5ce72 b x illu/rates 9 a broad s5se a pr9ciple :i* mu/ be c>ri$ out 9 all cases1 if ! ar*itecture is to be a real expression ( ! facts ( ! build+4 ,9 ?is lecture1 :i* is conc]n$ ) g5]al pr9ciples1 a ^w may fitt+ly be said z to ! subject ( proportion1 conc]n+ :i* !re are _m misappreh5sions4 ,! ^w may be1 & is1 us$ 9 two s5ses1 fir/ 9 reg>d to ! g5]al idea sugge/$ 9 ! words a well proportion$ build+4 ,?is expression1 (t5 vaguely us$1 seems to signify a build+ 9 :i* ! balance ( p>ts is su* z to produce an agreeable impression ( complet5ess & repose4 ,!re is a curi\s k9d ( popul> fallacy 9 reg>d to ?is subject1 illu/rat$ 9 ! rem>k :i* us$ to be (t5 made ab\t ,/4 ,pet]'s1 t x is s well proportion$ t y are n aw>e ( its great size1 etc4--a criticism :i* has be5 sla9 ov] & ov] aga91 b cont9ues to come to life aga94 ,! fact t ?is build+ does n %[ its size is true4 ,b ! inf]5ce drawn is ! v rev]se ( ! tru?4 ,"o object 9 ar*itectural design is to give full value to ! size ( a build+1 ev5 to magnify its app>5t size2 & ,/4 ,pet]'s does n %[ its size1 because x is ill proportion$1 be+ m]ely l a small] build+1 ) all its p>ts magnifi$4 ,h5ce ! deception to ! eye1 :i* sees details :i* x is accu/om$ to see on a small] scale1 & und]rates _! actual size1 :i* is only to be asc]ta9$ by delib]ate inve/igation4 ,?is confusion z to scale is a weakness inh]5t 9 ! classical =ms ( column> ar*itecture1 9 :i* ! scale ( all ! p>ts is always 9 ! same proportion to ea* o!r & to ! total size ( ! build+ s t a l>ge ,doric temple is 9 mo/ respects only a small "o magnifi$4 ,9 ,go?ic ar*itecture ! scale is ! human figure1 & a l>g] build+ is treat$1 n by magnify+ its p>ts1 b by multiply+ !m4 ,_h ?is proc$ure be5 adopt$ 9 ! case ( ,/4 ,pet]'s1 in/ead ( m]ely treat+ x ) a column> ord] ( va/ size1 ) all its details magnifi$ 9 proportion1 we %\ld n h ! fault to f9d ) x t x does n produce ! effect ( its real size4 ,9 ano!r s5se1 ! ^w proportion 9 ar*itecture ref]s to ! sy/em ( design+ build+s on "s def9ite geometrical sy/em ( regulat+ ! sizes ( ! diff]5t p>ts4 ,! ,greeks c]ta9ly employ$ su* a sy/em1 ?\gh !re are n suffici5t data = u to judge exactly on :at pr9ciple x 0 work$ out4 ,9 reg>d to ! ,p>!non1 & "s o!r ,greek build+s1 ,mr4 ,watkiss ,lloyd has work$ out a v probable !ory1 :i* w be f\nd /at$ 9 a pap] 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,in/itute ( ,ar*itects4 ,vitruvius gives elaborate directions = ! proportion+ ( ! size ( all ! details 9 ! v>i\s ord]s2 & ?\gh we may d\bt :e!r 8 sy/em is really a correct repres5tation ( ! ,greek "o1 we c h no d\bt t "s su* sy/em 0 employ$ by !m4 ,v>i\s !ori/s h endeavor$ to %[ t ! sy/em has prevail$ ( proportion+ ! pr9cipal heights & wid?s ( build+s 9 accordance ) geometrical figures1 triangles ( v>i\s angles especially2 & v probably ?is sy/em has f "t to "t be5 appli$1 9 ,go?ic z well z 9 classical build+s4 ,?is idea is op5 to two criticisms1 h[ev]4 ,fir/1 ! facts & measurem5ts :i* h be5 adduc$ 9 support ( x1 especially 9 reg>d to ,go?ic build+s1 are commonly f\nd on inve/igation to be only approximately true4 ,! diagram ( ! section ( ! build+ has ne>ly always1 accord+ to my exp]i5ce1 to be coax$ a little 9 ord] to fit ! !ory2 or x is f\nd t ?\gh ! geometrical figure sugge/$ corresponds exactly ) "s po9ts on ! plan or section1 ^! are really ( no m importance ?an o!r po9ts :i* might j z well h be5 tak54 ,! !ori/ draws our att5tion to ^? po9ts 9 ! build+ :i* correspond ) 8 geometry1 & leaves on "o side ^? :i* d n4 ,n[ x may c]ta9ly be assum$ t any build]s int5d+ to lay out a build+ on ! basis ( a geometrical figure w\ld h done s ) precise exactitude1 & t !y w\ld h select$ ! mo/ obvi\sly important po9ts ( ! plan or section = ! geometrical spac+4 ,9 illu/ration ( ?is po9t1 ,i h giv5 7,fig4 #be7 a skeleton diagram ( a ,roman ar*1 suppos$ to be set out on a geometrical figure4 ,! c5t] ( ! circle is on ! int]section ( l9es connect+ ! out] projection ( ! ma9 cornice ) ! p]p5dicul>s f ^? po9ts on ! gr\nd l9e4 ,?is po9t at ! int]section is also ! c5t] ( ! circle ( ! ar*way itself4 ,b ! upp] "p ( ! imag9>y circle beyond cuts ! middle ( ! attic cornice4 ,if ! ar* 7 to be reg>d$ z set out 9 ref]5ce to ?is circle1 x %\ld c]ta9ly h giv5 ! mo/ important l9e--! top l9e1 ( ! upp] cornice1 n an inf]ior & less important l9e2 & t is pretty mu* ! case ) all ^! proportion !ories 7except 9 reg>d to ,greek ,doric temples72 !y are "r z to "o or two po9ts ( ! build+1 b break d[n :5 y attempt to apply !m fur!r4 ,x is exce$+ly probable t _m ( ^! app>5t geometric co9cid5ces really arise1 q naturally1 f ! employm5t ( "s fix$ measure ( division 9 sett+ out build+s4 ,?us1 if an ap>tm5t ( some:]e ab\t #cj feet by #be feet is to be set out1 ! build] employ+ a foot measure naturally sets out exactly #cj feet "o way & #be feet ! o!r way4 ,x is easi] & simpl] to d s ?an to take *ance fractional measurem5ts4 ,!n comes y\r geometrical !ori/1 & obs]ves t ! ap>tm5t is plann$ precisely 9 ! proportion ( six to five4 ,s x is1 b x is only ! philosophy ( ! measur+-tape1 aft] all4 ,secondly1 x is a "q :e!r ! value ( ?is geometrical basis is s great z has sometimes be5 argu$1 see+ t ! results ( x 9 mo/ cases _c be judg$ by ! eye4 ,if1 = in/ance1 ! room we are 9 7 ne>ly 9 ! proportion ( sev5 9 l5g? to five 9 wid?1 ,i d\bt :e!r any ( u "h c\ld tell by look+ at x :e!r x 7 truly s or n1 or ev51 if x 7 a foot out "o way or ! o!r1 9 :i* direction ! excess lay2 & if ?is be ! case1 ! advantage ( su* a geometrical basis mu/ be r imag9>y ?an real4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #bf ?r\gh #bh ,hav+ spok5 ( plan z ! basis ( design1 ,i %\ld wi% to conclude ?is lecture by sugge/+ also1 :at has nev] to my k be5 prom95tly br\ght =w>d1 t ! plan itself1 ap>t f any consid]ation ( :at we may build up ^u x1 is actually a =m ( arti/ic ?\ght1 ( ar*itectural poetry1 s to speak4 ,if we take ?ree su* plans z ^? %[n 9 ,figs4 #bf1 #bg1 & #bh1 typical =ms respectively ( ! ,egyptian1 ,greek1 & ,go?ic plans1 we c]ta9ly c di/+ui% a special imag9ative feel+ or t5d5cy 9 ea* ( !m4 ,9 ! ,egyptian1 :i* ,i h call$ ! type ( my/]y1 ! plan cont9ually dim9i%es z we proce$ inw>d4 ,9 ! ?ird great comp>tm5t ! columns are plant$ ?ick & close1 s z to leave no possibility ( see+ ?r\gh ! build+ except along a s+le av5ue ( columns at a "t4 ,! gloom & my/]y ( a deep =e/ are 9 x1 & ! plan f9ally ends1 /ill less5+ z x goes1 9 ! small & presumably sacr$ comp>tm5t to :i* all ?is s]ies ( colonnad$ halls leads up4 ,9 ! ,greek plan !re is nei!r climax nor anti-climax1 only ! picturesque feature ( an ext]ior colonnade encircl+ ! build+ & surr\nd+ a s+le oblong comp>tm5t4 ,x is a rationali/ic plan1 aim+ nei!r at my/]y nor aspiration4 ,9 ! plan ( ,rheims 7,fig4 #bh7 we h ! plan ( climax or aspiration2 z 9 ! ,egyptian1 we approa* ! sacr$ portion ?r\gh a long av5ue ( pi]s2 b in/ead ( n>r[+1 ! plan ext5ds z we approa* ! %r9e4 ,i ?9k x w be recogniz$1 putt+ aside all consid]ations ( ! /yle ( ! sup]/ructure on ^! plans1 t ea* ( !m 9 itself repres5ts a di/9ct arti/ic conception4 ,s 9 ! plan ( ! ,pan!on 7,fig4 #bi71 ?is entrance ?r\gh a colonnad$ por* into a va/ circul> comp>tm5t is 9 itself a great ar*itectural idea1 indep5d5tly ( ! mann] 9 :i* x is built up4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #bi ?r\gh #cd ,we may c>ry out ?is a little fur!r by imag9+ a v>i$ treatm5t on plan ( a m>k$-out space ( a c]ta9 size & proportion1 on :i* a *ur* ( "s k9d1 = in/ance1 is to be plac$4 ,! simple/ idea is to inclose x r\nd ) f\r walls z a p>allelogram 7,fig4 #cj71 only ?ick5+ ! walls :]e ! weight ( ! ro( pr9cipals comes4 ,b ?is is a plan )\t an idea 9 x4 ,! c5tral or sacr$ space at ! end is n express$ 9 ! plan1 b is m]ely a rail$-(f portion ( ! floor4 ,! entrance is utt]ly )\t effect z well z )\t %elt]4 ,if we lay out our plan z 9 ,fig4 #ca1 we see t !re is n[ an idea 9 x4 ,! two t[]s1 z !y mu/ evid5tly be1 =m an advanc$ gu>d ( ! plan1 ! recess$ c5tral "p connect+ !m gives an effective entrance to ! int]ior2 ! arrangem5t 9 ?ree aisles gives l5g?1 ! apse at ! end incloses & expresses ! sacr>ium1 :i* is ! climax & object ( ! plan4 ,! %ape ( ! gr\nd1 h[ev]1 is n favorable to ! employm5t ( a long or av5ue type ( plan1 x is too %ort & squ>e2 let u r try a plan ( ! op5 area ord]1 su* z ,fig #cb4 ,?is is bas$ on ! %ort-arm$ ,greek cross1 ) an op5 c5t] area2 aga9 !re is an advanc$ gu>d 9 ! %ape ( an entrance block ) a por*2 & ! ?ree apses at ! end give ar*itectural emphasis to ! sacr>ium4 ,fig4 #ce is ano!r idea1 ! special object ( :i* is to give an effect ( contra/ betwe5 ! entrance1 approa*$ fir/ ?r\gh a colonnad$ portico1 !n ?r\gh an int]nal ve/ibule1 light$ f above1 & flank$ by r[s ( small c\pl$ columns2 !n ?r\gh ^! colonnad$ entrances1 ! inn] "o kept purposely r d>k1 we come into an int]ior exp&+ 9 e direction2 an effect ( /rong contra/ & climax4 ,if our plot ( gr\nd aga9 be s situat$ t "o angle ( x is opposite ! vi/a ( two or m l>ge /reets1 !re & n[h]e else w be ! sali5t angle1 s to speak1 ( ! plan1 & we c place !re a circul> por*--:i* may1 x is evid5t1 rise into a t[]--& ent] ! int]ior at ! angle in/ead ( 9 ! c5t]2 n an effective mann] ( ent]+ z a rule1 b q legitimate :5 !re is an obvi\s motive = x 9 ! nature & position ( ! site4 ,a new feature is "h introduc$ 9 ! circul> colonnade divid+ ! int]ior into a c5tral area & an aisle4 ,ea* ( ^! plans might be susceptible ( _m diff]5t /yles ( ar*itectural treatm5t2 b q indep5d5tly ( t1 x w be recogniz$ t ea* ( !m repres5ts 9 itself a di/9ct idea or inv5tion1 a =m ( arti/ic arrangem5t ( spaces1 :i* is :at plan1 9 an ar*itectural s5se1 really means4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,l[e ,,inc&esc5t ,,gas ,,burn]4 ,?is burn] is 9 ! =m ( a cyl9d] made ( a composition 9 :i* magnesium pr$om9ates1 & gives a light ( #baj c&le p[] ) a consumption ( ?ree & "o-half cubic feet ( gas p] h\r4 ,illu/ration ,! cyl9d] to be heat$ to inc&esc5ce is firmly held 9 place on a metal sp9dle1 :i* is sl[ly revolv$ by means ( an +5i\s clock-"w 9 ! base ( ! fixture4 ,! arrangem5t is su* t by turn+ (f ! gas ! clock-"w is /opp$1 & by ! turn+ on ( ! gas1 x is aga9 set 9 motion4 ,! movem5t ( ! sp9dle is s sl[ t a casual obs]v] w\ld n notice x1 !re be+ only "o revolution made 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! object ( ?is movem5t is to cont9ually pres5t new surface to be heat$1 z t :i* is expos$ to ! high temp]ature we>s away1 simil>ly to ! c>bons us$ 9 electric light+1 ?\gh mu* m sl[ly4 ,^! burn]s c be made ( #b1jjj c&le p[]1 d[n to fifty c&le p[]4 ,pure oxyg5 c n[ be obta9$ f ! atmosph]e at a co/ ( ab\t tw5ty-five c5ts p] #a1jjj cubic feet1 & ! small am\nt requir$ to supplem5t ! fuel wat] gas 9 produc+ ?is light c be suppli$ "u prop] pressure f a v small pipe1 :i* c be laid 9 ! same tr5* ) ! fuel gas pipe1 at mu* less co/ ?an is requir$ to c>ry an electric wire to produce an equal am\nt ( light4 ,! oxyg5 pipe necess>y to c>ry ! gas "u pressure ne$ n exce$ an in* & a half 9 diamet] to supply #e1jjj lamps ( #b1jjj c&le p[] ea*4 ,! only reason :y ?is burn] has n be5 fur!r p]fect$ & plac$ ^u ! m>ket is because ( ! cont9ual preoccupation ( ,pr(4 ,l[e 9 o!r l9es ( inv5tion1 & ! am\nt ( att5tion requir$ by 8 l>ge bus9ess int]e/s4 ,besides1 ! field = its usefulness has be5 limit$1 z *eap fuel gas has only j begun to be g5]ally introduc$4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 t ext5sive prep>ations are be+ made = ! rapid introduction ( ! ,l[e fuel gas sy/em into v>i\s cities1 ?is burn] w receive suffici5t att5tion to %ortly complete x = g5]al use 9 l>ge quantities4 ,x is a m p[]ful & at ! same "t a s(t] light ?an is ! electric inc&esc5t or ! arc light4 ,! light-giv+ prop]ty ( a burn] ( #a1jjj c&le p[] w\ld n co/ m ?an "o c5t = t5 h\rs' light+1 & ! cyl9d] w\ld only require to be *ang$ once a week2 :]eas ! c>bons ( arc lights are *ang$ daily4 ,! co/ ( ! gas requir$ to ma9ta9 su* a lamp t5 h\rs w\ld be six c5ts1 all[+ ! same pr(it on ! gas z :5 x is sold = o!r heat+ purposes4 ,! lamps complete w co/ mu* less ?an ! pres5t electric lamps1 & aft] all[+ a l>ge pr(it to companies supply+ !m1 w n co/ consum]s m ?an "o-f\r? z mu* z arc lamps1 & w give a mu* cle>] & /eadi] light4 ,s9ce ,pr(4 ,l[e p]fect$ 8 fir/ inc&esc5t burn] great progress has be5 made 9 ?is l9e ( inv5tion1 & x is no wond] t ! att5tion ( ! :ole gas frat]nity ( ! c\ntry has be5 drawn to ! subject ( *eap fuel wat] gas1 :i* is s admirably adapt$ to all purposes ( heat1 light1 & p[]4 ,:ile !re is no d\bt t light c be m *eaply produc$ by inc&esc5ce obta9$ by ! use ( fuel wat] gas ?an by any o!r means1 /ill a l>ge am\nt ( electric light+ w cont9ue to hold its position1 & ! electric sy/em w ga9 gr\nd = _m uses4 ,b ! electric light also c be m economically produc$ :5 fuel wat] gas is us$ z p[] to revolve ! dynamos4 ,!re=e1 we believe x to be = ! be/ int]e/s ( e gas company t w\ld move 9 ! l9e ( progress to comm5ce )\t delay to make prep>ations = ! introduction ( fuel wat] gas1 if1 at fir/1 only z supplem5t>y to _! pres5t illum9at+ gas bus9ess4-,progressive ,age4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,progress ,,( ,,! ,,sorghum ,,sug> ,,indu/ry4 ,we are indebt$ to ,pr(4 ,e4,b4 ,c[gill1 ( ,kansas1 = a copy ( 8 rec5t report to ! ,kansas ,/ate ,bo>d ( ,agriculture conc]n+ ! op]ations ( ! ,p>k9son ,sug> ,works1 at ,=t ,scott1 ,kansas4 ,! report conta9s an int]e/+ hi/orical sket* ( ! v>i\s ef=ts h]et(ore made to produce sug> f sorghum1 none ( :i* prov$ remun]ative until #ahhg1 :5 ! p]sev]+ ef=ts ( a few en]getic individuals1 enc\rag$ & assi/$ by a small pecuni>y aid f gov]nm5t1 7 cr[n$ ) success1 & gave bir?1 x may ju/ly be said1 to a new indu/ry :i* seems de/9$ %ortly to assume gigantic proportions & increase ! weal? ( ! c\ntry4 ,we make ! foll[+ ab/racts f ! report3 ,! sorghum plant 0 introduc$ into ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #ahec-ed1 by ! ,pat5t ,(fice1 :i* !n embrac$ all !re 0 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,its juice 0 kn[n to be sweeti%1 & *emi/s 7 n long 9 discov]+ t x conta9$ a consid]able p]c5tage ( "s sub/ance giv+ ! reactions ( cane sug>4 ,! op9ion t ! reactions 7 due to cane sug> receiv$ repeat$ confirmations 9 ! =mation ( true cane sug> cry/als 9 sirups made f sorghum4 ,yet ! small am\nts t 7 cry/alliz$1 comp>$ ) ! am\nts pres5t 9 ! juices z %[n by ! analyses1 l$ _m to believe t ! reactions 7 l>gely due to "s o!r sub/ance ?an cane sug>4 ,dur+ ! ye>s #ahgh to #ahhb1 inclusive1 :ile ,dr4 ,pet] ,colli] 0 *ief *emi/ ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 mu* att5tion 0 giv5 to ! /udy ( sorghum juices f canes cultivat$ 9 ! g>d5s ( ! dep>tm5t at ,wa%+ton4 ,dr4 ,colli] became an en?usia/ic believ] 9 ! future greatness ( sorghum z a sug> produc+ plant1 & ! ext5sive s]ies ( analyses publi%$ by him attract$ mu* att5tion4 ,z a result l>ge sug> factories 7 erect$ & provid$ ) co/ly appliances4 ,hon4 ,john ,b5nywor? erect$ "o ( ^! at ,l>n$1 9 ,kansas4 ,s4,a4 ,liebold ,co4 subsequ5tly erect$ "o at ,great ,b5d4 ,/]l+ & ,hut*9son foll[$ ) factories :i* made consid]able am\nts ( m]*antable sug> at no pr(it4 ,! factory at ,/]l+ 0 erect$ by ,r4,m4 ,s&y ,co41 ( ,new ,orleans1 & :ile ! sirup produc$ paid ! exp5ses ( ! factory1 n a cry/al ( sug> 0 made4 ,! factory !n1 9 #ahhc1 *ang$ h&s1 & pass$ "u ! sup]9t5d5cy ( ,pr(4 ,m4,a4 ,scovell1 !n ( ,*ampaign1 ,ill9ois1 :o1 ) ,pr(4 ,webb]1 _h work$ out1 9 ! laboratories ( ! ,ill9ois ,indu/rial ,univ]sity1 a practical me?od = obta9+ sug> f sorghum 9 quantities :i* at prices !n preval5t w\ld pay a pr(it on ! bus9ess4 ,b prices decl9$1 & aft] mak+ sug> = two ye>s 9 succession1 ! ,/]l+ factory succumb$4 ,! ,hut*9son factory at fir/ made no sug>1 b subsequ5tly pass$ "u ! managem5t ( ,pr(4 ,m4 ,sw5son1 :o _h successfully made sug> 9 ! laboratory ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,wiscons94 ,l>ge am\nts ( sug> 7 made at a loss1 & ! ,hut*9son factory clos$ its doors4 ,9 #ahhd1 ,hon4 ,w4,l4 ,p>k9son fitt$ up a complete sug> factory at ,ottawa1 & = two ye>s made sug> at a loss4 ,mr4 ,p>k9son 0 assi/$ dur+ ! fir/ ye> by ,dr4 ,wilcox1 & dur+ ! second ye> by ,pr(4 ,sw5son4 ,mu* valuable in=mation 0 develop$ by ! exp]i5ce 9 ^? sev]al factories1 b ! mo/ important ( all 0 ! fact t1 ) ! be/ cru%]s1 ! av]age extraction did n exce$ half ( ! sug> conta9$ 9 ! cane4 ,x 0 kn[n to sci5ti/s & well in=m$ sug> mak]s 9 ?is c\ntry t ! process ( diffusion 0 !oretically effici5t = ! extraction ( sug> f plant cells1 & t x _h be5 successfully appli$ by ! beet sug> mak]s ( ,europe = ?is purpose4 ,9 #ahhc1 ,pr(4 ,h4,w4 ,wiley1 *ief *emi/ ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 made an exhau/ive s]ies ( practical exp]im5ts 9 ! laboratories ( ! dep>tm5t on ! extraction ( ! sug>s f sorghum by ! diffusion process1 by :i* ! extraction ( at lea/ #he p] c5t4 ( ! total sug>s pres5t 0 secur$4 ,! ,kansas delegation 9 ,congress became int]e/$4 ,s5ator ,plumb made a ?or\gh /udy ( ! entire subject1 &1 ) ! =esight ( /atesman%ip1 gave 8 en]gies to ! "w ( secur+ an appropriation ( #ej1jjj = ! developm5t ( ! sug> indu/ry1 :i* 0 grant$ 9 #ahhd1 & fifty ?\s& doll>s m 0 add$ 9 #ahhe to ! agricultural appropriation bill4 ,?is 0 exp5d$ at ,ottawa1 ,kansas1 & 9 ,l\isiana4 ,9 t ye> ,judge ,p>k9son1 at ,=t ,scott1 organiz$ ! ,p>k9son ,sug> ,company4 ,tak+ up ! "w :5 all o!rs _h fail$1 ?is company has tak5 a full %>e ( ! responsibilities & losses1 until x has at la/ se5 ! ,nor!rn sug> indu/ry made a f9ancial success4 ,! report ( #ahie %[$ su* favorable results t 9 #ahhf ! ,h\se made an appropriation ( #ij1jjj1 to be us$ 9 ,l\isiana1 ,new ,j]sey1 & ,kansas4 ,a new batt]y & complete c>bonatation app>atus 7 erect$ at ,=t ,scott4 ,ab\t #fj1jjj ( ! appropriation 0 exp5d$ "h 9 exp]im5ts 9 diffusion & c>bonatation4 ,la/ ye> 7#ahhg7 ! ,=t ,scott managem5t made c>eful selection ( ess5tial p>ts ( ! processes already us$1 omitt$ non-ess5tial & cumbr\s processes1 avail$ !mselves ( all ! exp]i5ce ( ! pa/ 9 ?is c\ntry1 & secur$ a fre% infusion ( exp]i5ce f ! beet sug> factories ( ,g]many1 & atta9$ ! success :i* f9ally places sorghum sug> mak+ among ! pr(itable indu/ries ( ! c\ntry4 ,! success has be5 due1 fir/1 to ! almo/ complete extraction ( ! sug>s f ! cane by ! diffusion process2 second1 ! prompt & prop] treatm5t ( ! juice 9 defecat+ & evaporat+2 ?ird1 ! effici5t mann] 9 :i* ! sug> 0 boil$ to gra9 9 ! /rike pan4 ,total numb] tons ( cane b\ght #c1hdj se$ tops b\ght #dcg ----- ,total numb] tons ( field cane #d1bgg ,!re 0 some?+ ov] #ejj acres plant$4 ,"s ( x fail$ to come at all1 "s fell ^u ! rocky places1 :]e !y _h n mu* e>?1 & :5 ! sun 0 ris5 !y 7 scor*$2 s t1 z ne>ly z we c e/imate1 ab\t #dej acres ( cane 7 actually h>ve/$ & deliv]$ at ! works4 ,?is w\ld make ! av]age yield ( cane #i tons p] acre1 or #ai p] acre 9 doll>s & c5ts4 ,,total ,,product ,,( ,,! ,,season1 #ahhg4 ,sug>1 #bce1hbf lb41 #e;c #ac1eei #ih ,/ate b\nty1 #b;c #d1gaf #ec --------- #ag1bgf #ej ,sirups1 #ea1jjj gals17e/imat$7 #bj;c4 #aj1bjj #jj ,se$ 7e/imat$7 #g1jjj #jj -------- ,value ( total product #cd1dgf #ej ,,total ,,co/4 ,cane1 #c1hdj tons1 #b #g1fhj ,se$1 #ifg tons1 #c #a1icd ------- #i1fad #jj ,labor bill f ,augu/ #ae to ,octob] #ae1 includ+ labor = dep>tm5t exp]im5ts #e1gcg #af ,coal1 includ+ all exp]im5ts #a1cie #gg ,sal>ies1 etc4 #c1ejj #jj ,insurance1 sundries1 etc4 #a1ejj #jj ---------- ,total #ba1gdf #ic ,total value #cd1dgf #ej ,total co/ #ca1bdh #ic ---------- ,net #ac1cbi #eg ,to be paid by ! dep>tm5t #f1ecd #ge ---------- ,total pr(it = season's "w1 #ahhg #ai1gfd #cb ,,outl9e ,,( ,,! ,,processes ,,( ,,sorghum ,,sug> ,,mak+4 ,z n[ develop$1 ! processes ( mak+ sug> f sorghum are z foll[s3 ,fir/1 ,! topp$ cane is deliv]$ at ! factory by ! f>m]s :o c gr[ x4 ,second1 ,! cane is cut by a ma*9e into pieces ab\t "o & a qu>t] in*es long4 ,?ird1 ,! leaves & %ea?s are sep>at$ f ! cut cane by fann+ mills4 ,f\r?1 ,! clean$ cane is cut into f9e bits call$ *ips4 ,fif?1 ,! *ips are plac$ 9 iron tanks1 & ! sug> diffus$1 soak$ out ) hot wat]4 ,six?1 ,! juice obta9$ by diffusion has its acids ne>ly or q neutraliz$ ) milk ( lime1 & is heat$ & skimm$4 ,sev5?1 ,! defecat$ or cl>ifi$ juice is boil$ to a semi-sirup 9 vacuum pans4 ,eigh?1 ,! semi-sirup is boil$ to gra9 9 a high vacuum 9 ! /rike pan4 ,n9?1 ,! mixture ( sug> & molasses f ! /rike pan is pass$ ?r\gh a mix+ ma*9e into c5trifugal ma*9es :i* ?r[ out ! molasses & reta9 ! sug>4 ,! process ( ! =mation ( sug> 9 ! cane is n fully det]m9$1 b analyses ( canes made at diff]5t /ages ( gr[? %[ t ! sap ( gr[+ cane conta9s a soluble sub/ance hav+ a composition & giv+ reactions simil> to />*4 ,z maturity approa*es1 grape sug> is also f\nd 9 ! juice4 ,a fur!r advance t[>d maturity discloses cane sug> ) ! o!r sub/ances1 & at full maturity p]fect canes conta9 mu* cane sug> & little grape sug> & />*y matt]4 ,9 sweet fruits ! *ange f grape sug> to cane sug> does n take place1 or takes place b sp>+ly4 ,! grape sug> is v sweet1 h[ev]4 ,cane sug>1 call$ also sucrose or cry/allizable sug>1 :5 9 dilute solution is *ang$ v readily into grape sug> or glucose1 a sub/ance :i* is mu* m difficult ?an cane sug> to cry/allize4 ,?is *ange1 call$ inv]sion1 takes place 9 ov]-ripe canes4 ,x sets 9 v soon aft] cutt+ 9 any cane dur+ w>m wea!r2 x occurs 9 cane :i* has be5 injur$ by bl[+ d[n1 or by insects1 or by fro/1 & x probably occurs 9 cane :i* takes a second gr[? aft] ne>ly or q rea*+ maturity4 ,to insure a successful outcome f ! op]ations ( ! factory1 ! cane mu/ be s plant$1 cultivat$ & matur$ z to make ! sug> 9 its juice4 ,x mu/ be deliv]$ to ! factory v soon aft] cutt+1 & x mu/ be tak5 c>e ( be=e ! season ( heavy fro/s4 ,,! ,,"w ,,at ,,! ,,factory4 ,! op]ations ( ! factory are illu/rat$ 9 ! l>ge diagram4 ,! fir/ cutt+ is accompli%$ 9 ! ensilage or fe$ cutt] at ,e4 ,?is cutt] is provid$ ) ?ree knives fa/5$ to ! ?ree spokes ( a ca/ iron :eel :i* makes ab\t #bej revolutions p] m9ute1 c>ry+ ! knives ) a %e>+ motion pa/ a dead knife4 ,by a =c$ fe$ ! cane is s f$ z to be cut into pieces ab\t "o & a qu>t] in*es long4 ,?is cutt+ frees ! leaves & ne>ly ! entire %ea?s f ! pieces ( cane4 ,by a suitable elevator1 ,f1 ! pieces ( cane1 leaves & %ea?s are c>ri$ to ! second floor4 ,! elevator empties into a hopp]1 bel[ :i* a s]ies ( f\r or five fans1 ,g1 is arrang$ "o bel[ ! o!r4 ,by pass+ d[n ?r\gh ^! fans ! cane is sep>at$ f ! light] leaves1 mu* z gra9 is sep>at$ f *aff4 ,! leaves are bl[n away1 & f9ally tak5 f ! build+ by an exhau/ fan4 ,?is sep>ation ( ! leaves & o!r refuse is ess5tial to ! success ( ! sug> mak+1 = 9 !m ! l>ge/ "p ( ! color+ & o!r delet]i\s matt]s are conta9$4 ,if c>ri$ into ! diffusion batt]y1 ^! matt]s are extract$ 7see reports ( ,*emical ,division1 ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture71 & g into ! juice ) ! sug>4 ,z already /at$1 ! process ( manufactur+ sug> is ess5tially "o ( sep>ation4 ,! me*anical elim9ation ( ^! delet]i\s sub/ances at ! outset at once obviates ! necessity ( sep>at+ !m lat] & by m difficult me?ods1 & relieves ! juice ( _! h>mful influ5ces4 ,f ! fans ! pieces ( cane are deliv]$ by a screw c>ri] to an elevator :i* dis*>ges into ! f9al cutt+ ma*9e on ! ?ird floor4 ,?is ma*9e consi/s ( an eight in* ca/ iron cyl9d]1 ) knives l ^? ( a plan+ ma*9e4 ,x is really ?ree cyl9d]s plac$ end to end 9 ! same %aft1 mak+ ! entire l5g? eighte5 in*es4 ,! knives are ins]t$ 9 slots & held 9 place ) set screws4 ,! cyl9d] revolves at ! rate ( ab\t twelve hundr$ p] m9ute1 c>ry+ ! knives pa/ an iron dead knife1 :i* is set s close t no cane c pass )\t be+ cut into f9e *ips4 ,f ?is cutt] ! *ips ( cane are tak5 by an elevator & a convey]1 ,k1 to cells1 ,,mm1 ( ! diffusion batt]y4 ,! convey] passes above & at "o side ( ! batt]y1 & is provid$ ) an op5+ & a sp\t opposite ea* cell ( ! batt]y4 ,! op5+s are clos$ at pleasure by a slide4 ,a movable sp\t completes ! connection ) any cell :i* x is desir$ to fill ) *ips4 ,,:at ,,is ,,diffusion8 ,! condition 9 :i* ! sug>s & o!r soluble sub/ances exi/ 9 ! cane is t ( solution 9 wat]4 ,! sweeti% liquid is conta9$1 l ! juices ( plants g5]ally1 9 cells4 ,! walls ( ^! cells are por\s4 ,x has long be5 kn[n t if a solution ( sug> 9 wat] be plac$ 9 a por\s or membrane\s sack1 & ! sack plac$ on wat]1 an action call$ osmosis1 :]eby ! wat] f ! outside & ! sug> solution f ! inside ( ! sack ea* pass ?r\gh1 until ! liquids on ! two sides ( ! membrane are equally sweet4 ,o!r sub/ances soluble 9 wat] behave simil>ly1 b sug> & o!r readily cry/allizable sub/ances pass ?r\gh mu* m readily ?an uncry/allizable or difficultly cry/allizable4 ,to apply ?is prop]ly to ! extraction ( sug>1 ! cane is fir/ cut into f9e *ips1 z already describ$1 & put into ! diffusion cells1 :]e wat] is appli$ & ! sug> is displac$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a--;,,app>atus ,,= ,,manufacture ,,( ,,sorghum ,,by ,,! ,,diffusion ,,process4 ,,! ,,diffusion ,,batt]y1 z us$ at ! ,p>k9son factory1 consi/s ( twelve iron tanks4 7,see diagram47 ,!y are arrang$ 9 a l9e1 z %[n 9 diagram1 ,fig4 #a4 ,ea* has a capacity ( sev5ty-five cubic feet1 & by a little pack+ holds a ton ( cane *ips4 ,! cells are support$ by brackets ne> ! middle1 :i* re/ on iron joi/s4 ,ea* cell is provid$ ) a heat]1 ?r\gh :i* ! liquid is pass$ 9 ! op]ation ( ! batt]y4 ,! cells are s connect$ by pipes & valves t ! liquid c be pass$ into ! cells1 & f cell to cell1 at ! pleasure ( ! op]ator4 ,! bottom ( ea* cell consi/s ( a door1 :i* closes on an annul> rubb] hose plac$ 9 a groove1 & fill$ ) wat]1 "u a pressure great] ?an t ev] giv5 to ! liquids 9 ! cell4 ,?is makes a wat] tight jo9t :5ev] ! trap door bottom is drawn up firmly aga9/ x4 ,! upp] "p is ( ca/ iron & is jug %ap$1 & is cov]$ ) a lid :i* is held ) a screw on rubb] pack+4 ,9 ! jug neck & ne> ! bottom ! sides are d\ble1 ! inn] plates be+ p]=at$ ) small holes to let wat] 9 & out4 ,! bottoms are d\ble1 ! inn] plates be+ p]=at$ l ! neighbor+ sides1 & = ! same purpose4 ,! cells1 ( ^: appe>ance a fair idea may be _h f diagram1 ,fig4 #b1 are connect$ ) a wat] pipe1 a juice pipe1 a compress$ air pipe1 & ! heat]s1 by suitable valves4 ,! heat]s are connect$ ) a /eam pipe4 ,?is1 & ! compress$ air pipe1 are n %[n 9 ! diagram4 ,! wat] pipe is f$ f an elevat$ tank1 :i* gives a pressure ( twelve p\nds p] squ>e in* ,! valve connections enable ! op]ator to pass wat] into ! cells at ei!r ! top or ! bottom2 to pass ! liquid f any cell to ! next1 or to ! juice pipe ?r\gh ! heat]2 to sep>ate any cell f any or all o!rs1 & to turn 9 compress$ air4 ,n[ let ! read] ref] to ,fig4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b--;,,diffusion ,,process--,,manufacture ,,( ,,sorghum ,,sug>4 ,! cutt]s are />t$1 & cell #a is fill$ ) *ips4 ,?is done1 ! *ips f ! cutt]s are turn$ into cell #b2 cell #a is clos$1 & cut (f f ! o!rs1 & wat] is turn$ into x by op5+ valve1 c1 ( cell #a 7see ,fig4 #b7 until x is fill$ ) wat] among ! *ips4 ,:5 #b is fill$ ) *ips1 its valve1 a1 is rais$ to all[ ! liquid to pass d[n into ! juice pipe4 ,valve a ( #c is also rais$4 ,n[ ! juice pipe fills1 & :5 x is full ! liquid fl[s ?r\gh valve1 a1 ( #c1 & into ! heat] betwe5 #b & #c1 & into ! bottom ( #b1 until #b is full ( wat] among ! *ips4 7,?is may be und]/ood by foll[+ ! c\rse ( ! arr[s %[n 9 ! diagrams ( #i & #aj74 ,valve a ( #b is n[ screw$ d[n2 c is d[n & b is op5$4 ,x w be readily se5 by att5tion to ! diagram t ?is *anges ! c\rse ( ! fl[ s t x w no long] ent] at ! bottom1 b at ! top ( #b1 z %[n by ! arr[s at cell #b4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t ! wat] is cont9ually press+ 9 at ! top ( #a1 & driv+ ! liquid =w>d :5ev] a valve is op5$ to admit x to ano!r cell1 heat]1 or pipe4 ,:5 cell #c is full ( *ips1 its valves are manipulat$ j z 7 ^? ( #b4 ,s z ea* succe$+ cell is fill$1 ! manipulation ( valves is repeat$ until cell #f is fill$ ) liquid4 ,aft] pass+ ?r\gh six cells ( fre% *ips1 ?is liquid is v sweet1 & is drawn (f into ! measur+ tank %[n at p 9 diagram1 ,fig4 #a1 & is !nce convey$ = subsequ5t treatm5t 9 ! factory4 ,to draw ?is juice f #f1 valve a ( #g is rais$ to connect ! heat] betwe5 #f & #g ) ! juice pipe4 ,a gate valve 9 ! juice pipe is op5$ into ! measur+ tank1 & ! pressure ( wat] into ! top ( #a drives ! liquid =w>d ?r\gh ! bottom ( #a1 ?r\gh ! heat]1 into ! top ( #b1 out f ! bottom ( #b1 ?r\gh ! heat] into ! top ( #c1 out f ! bottom ( #c1 ?r\gh ! heat] into ! top ( #d1 out f ! bottom ( #d1 ?r\gh ! heat]1 into ! top ( #e1 out f ! bottom ( #e1 ?r\gh ! heat]1 into ! top ( #f1 & n[ out f ! bottom ( #f1 ?r\gh ! heat]1 into ! juice pipe1 & f ! juice pipe into ! measur+ tank4 ,x w be und]/ood t ! liquid :i* is drawn f #f is *iefly t :i* 0 pass$ into #a :5 x 0 fill$ ) *ips4 ,!re is d\btless a little mix+ z ! pressure drives ! liquid =w>d4 ,b ! light] liquid is always press$ 9 at ! top ( ! cells1 s t ! mix+ is ! lea/ possible4 ,! am\nt ( liquid1 n[ call$ juice1 :i* is drawn f #f is #a1aaj lit]s1 or #bia gallons4 ,:5 ?is quantity has be5 drawn into ! measur+ tank1 ! gate valve is clos$1 & ! valves connect+ ) #g are manipulat$ z 7 ^? ( #f1 a measure ( juice be+ drawn 9 ! same way4 ,all ?is "t ! wat] has be5 pass$ into ! top ( #a1 & ?is is cont9u$ until ! juice has be5 drawn f #i4 ,valve c to cell #a is n[ clos$1 & compress$ air is turn$ into ! top ( #a to drive ! liquid =w>d into #aj4 ,aft] ! wat] has ?us be5 ne>ly all expell$ f #a1 valve a ( cell #b is l[]$ s z to %ut (f communication ) ! juice pipe1 & b1 ( cell #b is clos$4 a & b ( cell #a h1 x w be obs]v$1 be5 clos$ or d[n f ! beg9n+4 ,cell #a is n[ isolat$ f all o!rs4 ,its *ips h be5 exhau/$ ( sug>1 & are ready to be ?r[n out4 ,! bottom ( #a is op5$1 & ! *ips fall out into ! c>1 o 7see diagram1 ,fig4 #a71 & are convey$ away4 ,imm$iately on clos+ valves a & b ( cell #b1 c is op5$1 & ! wat] presses into ! top ( #b1 z be=e into ! top ( #a1 & ! circulation is precisely simil> to t already describ$1 #b hav+ tak5 ! place ( #a1 #c ( #b1 & s on4 ,:5 #b is empti$1 #c takes ! fir/ place 9 ! s]ies & s on4 ,:5 #ab has be5 fill$1 x takes ! l#c? place4 7,! juice pipe returns f ! t]m9ation ( ! s]ies1 & connects ) #a1 mak+ ! circuit complete47 ,! process is cont9u\s1 & ! be/ & mo/ economical results are obta9$ if !re is no int]mission4 ,"o cell %\ld be fill$ & ano!r empti$ e eight m9utes1 s t 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs ! numb] ( cells diffus$ %\ld be "o hundr$ & eighty4 ,,:at ,,has ,,tak5 ,,place ,,9 ,,! ,,diffusion ,,cells4 ,= ! purpose ( illu/ration1 let u assume t :5 x has be5 fill$ ) *ips j z mu* wat] is pass$ into ! cell z !re 0 juice 9 ! *ips4 ,! process ( osmosis or diffusion sets 91 & 9 a few m9utes !re is z mu* sug> 9 ! liquid outside ( ! cane cells z 9 ! juice 9 ^! cane cells2 i4e41 ! wat] & ! juice h divid$ ! sug> betwe5 !m1 ea* tak+ half4 ,aga91 assume t z mu* liquid c be drawn f #a z !re 0 wat] add$4 ,x is pla9 t if ! osmotic action is complete1 ! liquid drawn (f w be half z sweet z cane juice4 ,x has n[ rea*$ fre% *ips 9 #b1 & aga9 equalization takes place4 ,half ( ! sug> f #a 0 br\ght into #b1 s t x n[ conta9s "o & a half portions ( sug>1 dissolv$ 9 two portions ( liquid1 or ! liquid has ris5 to ?ree qu>t]s ( ! /r5g? ( cane juice4 ,?is liquid hav+ ?ree f\r?s /r5g? passes to #c1 & we h 9 #c "o & ?ree f\r?s portions ( liquid1 or aft] ! action has tak5 place ! liquid 9 #c is sev5 eigh?s /r5g?4 ,"o portion ( ?is liquid passes to #d1 & we h "o & sev5 eigh?s portions ( sug> 9 two portions ( liquid1 or ! liquid becomes #ae_/af /r5g?4 ,"o portion ( ?is liquid passes to #e1 & we h 9 #e "o & fifte5 sixte5?s portions ( sug> 9 two portions ( liquid1 or ! liquid is #ca_/cb /r5g?4 ,x is n[ call$ juice4 ,f ?is "t =w>d a cell is empti$ = e "o fill$4 ,?r\gh\t ! op]ation1 ! temp]ature is kept z ne> ! boil+ po9t z c be done conv5i5tly )\t dang] ( fill+ "s ( ! cells ) /eam4 ,diffusion takes place m rapidly at high ?an at l[ temp]atures1 & ! dang] ( f]m5tation1 ) ! consequ5t loss ( sug>1 is avoid$4 ,,:at ,,has ,,happ5$ ,,to ,,! ,,*ips4 ,by ! fir/ action ( wat] 9 #a1 ( ! sug> 0 left 9 cell #a2 by ! second 0 left1 by ! ?ird #a_/h 0 left1 by ! f\r? #a_/af 0 left1 by ! fif? #a_/cb 0 left1 by ! six? #a_/fd 0 left1 by ! sev5? #a_/abh 0 left1 by ! eigh? #a_/bef 0 left1 by ! n9? #a_/eab 0 left4 ,! fractions repres5t+ ! /r5g? ( ! juice on ! "o h& & ! sug> left 9 ea* cell on ! o!r h&1 aft] ! batt]y is fully 9 op]ation1 are n s readily d$uc$4 ,! !ory is easily und]/ood1 h[ev]1 al?\gh ! computation is some:at intricate4 ,^? :o desire to foll[ ! process by ma!matical =mula are ref]r$ to pages #i & #aj1 ,bullet9 ,no4 #b1 ,*emical ,division ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 :]e w be f\nd ! =mula furni%$ by ,pr(essor ,h>kness1 ( ! ,u4,s4 ,naval ,obs]vatory4 ,= ! sake ( simplify+ ! explanation1 x 0 assum$ t ! wat] add$ is equal 9 volume to ! juice 9 a cellful ( cane *ips4 ,9 practice m wat] is add$1 to secure m p]fect exhau/ion ( ! *ips1 & ) ! result ( yield+ ab\t ?irte5 volumes ( juice = e n9e volumes z x exi/s 9 ! cane1 & ( extract+ #ib4jd p] c5t4 ( all ! sug>s f ! cane1 z %[n by ! report ( ,dr4 ,c4,a4 ,crampton1 ,assi/ant ,*emi/ ( ! ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,,inv]sion ,,( ,,sug> ,,9 ,,! ,,diffusion ,,cells4 ,9 ! exp]im5ts at ,=t ,scott 9 #ahhf1 mu* difficulty 0 exp]i5c$ on acc\nt ( inv]sion ( ! sug> 9 ! diffusion batt]y4 ,! report %[s t ?is result$ f ! use ( s\r$ cane & f delays 9 ! op]ation ( ! batt]y on acc\nt ( ! imp]fect work+ ( ! cutt+ & elevat+ ma*9]y1 mu* ( :i* 0 !re exp]im5tal4 ,"u ! circum/ances1 h[ev]1 x became a matt] ( ! grave/ importance to f9d a me?od ( prev5t+ ?is inv]sion )\t 9 any mann] int]f]+ ) ! o!r processes4 ,on ! sugge/ion ( ,pr(4 ,sw5son1 a portion ( fre%ly precipitat$ c>bonate ( lime 0 plac$ ) ! *ips 9 ea* cell4#a ,9 ! case ( s\r$ cane1 ?is took up ! acid :i* o!rwise produc$ inv]sion4 ,9 case no h>mful acids 7 pres5t1 ?is *alk 0 entirely inactive4 ,s\r$ canes are n desirable to "w "u any circum/ances1 & %\ld be reject$ by ! *emi/1 & n all[$ to ent] ! factory4 ,s1 also1 delays on acc\nt ( imp]fect ma*9]y are disa/r\s to pr(itable manufactur+1 & mu/ be avoid$4 ,b = ^? :o desir$ to exp]im5t ) det]iorat$ canes & untri$ cutt+ ma*9es1 ! addition ( ! calcium c>bonate provides aga9/ disa/r\s results :i* w\ld o!rwise be inevitable4 ,footnote #a3 ,= ?is improvem5t ,pr(4 ,sw5son obta9$ a pat5t ,oct4 #aa1 #ahhg1 ! grant ( :i* 0 rec5tly made ! subject ( congressional inquiry4 ,imm$iately aft] x is drawn f ! diffusion batt]y ! juice is tak5 f ! measur+ tanks into ! defecat+ tanks or pans4 ,^! are l>ge1 deep vessels1 provid$ ) copp] /eam coils 9 ! bottom = ! purpose ( heat+ ! juice4 ,suffici5t milk ( lime is add$ "h to ne>ly or q neutralize ! acids 9 ! juice1 ! te/ be+ made ) litmus pap]4 ,! juice is br\ght to ! boil+ po9t1 & z mu* ( ! scum is remov$ z c be tak5 quickly4 ,! scum is return$ to ! diffusion cells1 & ! juice is s5t by a pump to ! top ( ! build+1 :]e x is boil$ & ?or\ghly skimm$4 ,^! skimm+s are also return$ to ! diffusion cells4 ,?is me?od ( dispos+ ( ! skimm+s 0 sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,p>k9son4 ,x is bett] ?an ! old plan ( ?r[+ !m away to decompose & create a /5* ab\t ! factory4 ,probably a bett] me?od w\ld be to pass ^! skimm+s ?r\gh "s sort ( filt]1 or1 p]haps bett] /ill1 to filt] ! juice & avoid all skimm+4 ,aft] ?is la/ skimm+ ! juice is ready to be boil$ d[n to a ?9 sirup 9 ,,! ,,d\ble ,,effect ,,evaporators4 ,^! consi/ ( two l>ge clos$ pans provid$ )9 ) /eam pipes ( copp]1 :]eby ! liquid is heat$4 ,!y are also connect$ ) ea* o!r & ) pumps 9 su* a way z to r$uce ! pressure 9 ! fir/ to ab\t ?ree fif?s & 9 ! second to ab\t "o fif? ! normal atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! juice boils rapidly 9 ! fir/ at some:at bel[ ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]1 & 9 ! second at a /ill l[] temp]ature4 ,! exhau/ /eam f ! eng9es is us$ = heat+ ! fir/ pan1 & ! vapor f ! boil+ juice 9 ! fir/ pan is hot en\gh to d all ! boil+ 9 ! second1 & is tak5 into ! copp] pipes ( ! second = ?is purpose4 ,9 ?is way ! evaporation is effect$ )\t s great exp5diture ( fuel z is necess>y 9 op5 pans1 or 9 s+le effect vacuum pans1 & ! delet]i\s influ5ces ( long cont9u$ high temp]ature on ! cry/alliz+ p[]s ( ! sug> are avoid$4 ,f ! d\ble effects ! sirup is /or$ 9 tanks ready to be tak5 into ! /rike pan1 :]e ! sug> is cry/alliz$4 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,*ance ,,to ,,pause4 ,at ?is po9t ! juice has j rea*$ a condition 9 :i* x w keep4 ,f ! mom5t ! cane is cut 9 ! fields until n[1 e delay is liable to entail loss ( sug> by inv]sion4 ,aft] ! wat] is put into ! cells ( ! batt]y ) ! *ips1 ! temp]ature is c>efully kept above t at :i* f]m5tation takes place mo/ readily1 & ! dang] ( inv]sion is !reby r$uc$4 ,b ) all ! precautions kn[n to sci5ce up to ?is po9t ! utmo/ cel]ity is necess>y to secure ! be/ results4 ,!re is "h1 h[ev]1 a natural division 9 ! process ( sug> mak+1 :i* w be fur!r consid]$ "u ! head+ ( ,auxili>y ,factories4 ,any "p ( ! process h]et(ore describ$ may be le>n$ 9 a few days by workm5 ( intellig5ce & obs]vation :o w give c>eful att5tion to _! respective duties4 ,,boil+ ,,! ,,sirup ,,to ,,gra9 ,,! ,,sug>4 ,?is op]ation is ! next 9 c\rse1 & is p]=m$ 9 :at is kn[n at ! sug> factory z ! /rike pan1 a l>ge air tight iron vessel f :i* ! air & vapor are almo/ exhau/$ by means ( a suitable pump & cond5s+ app>atus4 ,z is ! case ) ! sac*>9e juices ( o!r plants1 ! sug> f sorghum cry/allizes be/ at m$ium temp]ature4 ,! process ( boil+ to gra9 may be describ$ z foll[s3 ,a portion ( ! sirup is tak5 into ! pan1 & boil$ rapidly 9 vacuo to ! cry/alliz+ d5sity4 ,if 9 a sirup ! molecules ( sug> are br\ght suffici5tly ne> to ea* o!r ?r\gh conc5tration--! removal ( ! dissolv+ liquid--^! molecules attract ea* o!r s /rongly z to ov]come ! sep>at+ p[] ( ! solv5t1 & !y unite to =m cry/als4 ,sug> is mu* m soluble at high ?an at l[ temp]atures1 ! heat act+ 9 ?is z 9 almo/ all cases z a repulsive =ce among ! molecules4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to ma9ta9 a high vacuum 9 ord] to boil at a l[ temp]ature1 9 boil+ to gra94 ,:5 ! prop] d5sity is rea*$ ! cry/als sometimes fail to appe>1 & a fre% portion ( cold sirup is all[$ to ent] ! pan4 ,?is mu/ n be suffici5t 9 am\nt to r$uce ! d5sity ( ! cont5ts ( ! pan bel[ t at :i* cry/allization may take place4 ,?is cold sirup causes a sudd5 ?\gh slight r$uction 9 temp]ature1 :i* may s r$uce ! repulsive =ces z to all[ ! attraction among ! molecules to prevail1 result+ 9 ! inception ( cry/allization4 ,to discov] ?is requires ! ke5e/ obs]vation4 ,:5 beg9n+ to =m1 ! cry/als are too m9ute to %[ ei!r =m or size1 ev5 :5 view$ ?r\gh a /rong magnify+ glass4 ,!re is to be se5 simply a v delicate cl\d4 ,! inexp]i5c$ obs]v] w\ld entirely ov]look ?is cl\d1 8 att5tion probably be+ direct$ to "s curi\s globul> & annul> objects1 :i* ,i h n[h]e se5 expla9$4 ,v soon aft] ! sample f ! pan is plac$ ^u glass = obs]vation1 ! surface becomes cool$ & some:at h>d5$4 ,z ! cool+ proce$s bel[ ! surface1 contraction ensues1 & consequ5tly a wr9kl+ ( ! surface1 caus+ a %imm] ( ! light 9 a v attractive mann]4 ,?is1 too1 is likely to attract m att5tion ?an ! delicate1 ?9 cl\d ( cry/als1 & may be ev5 conf\nd$ ) ! reflection & refraction ( light1 by :i* alone ! m9ute cry/als are det]m9$4 ,! practical op]ator le>ns to disreg>d all o!r attractions1 & to look = ! cl\d & its peculi>ities4 ,:5 ! cont5ts ( ! pan h aga9 rea*$ ! prop] d5sity1 ano!r portion ( sirup is add$4 ,! sug> :i* ?is conta9s is attract$ to ! cry/als already =m$1 & goes to enl>ge ^! r ?an to =m new cry/als1 provid$ ! fir/ are suffici5tly num]\s to receive ! sug> z rapidly z x c cry/allize4 ,! cont5ts ( ! pan are repeat$ly br\ght to ! prop] d5sity1 & fre% sirup add$ z above describ$ until ! desir$ size ( gra9 is obta9$1 or until ! pan is full4 ,good managem5t %\ld br+ ab\t ^! two conditions at ! same "t4 ,if a suffici5t numb] ( cry/als has n be5 />t$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! op]ation to receive ! sug> f ! sirup add$1 a fre% crop ( cry/als w be />t$ at su* "t z ! cry/allization becomes too rapid to be accommodat$ on ! surfaces ( ! gra9 already =m$4 ,! old] & l>g] cry/als gr[ m rapidly1 by reason ( _! great] attractive =ce1 ?an ! new] & small] ones on succe$+ additions ( sirup1 s t ! disp>ity 9 size w increase z ! "w proce$s4 ,?is condition is by all means to be avoid$1 s9ce x entails s]i\s difficulties on ! process ( sep>at+ ! sug> f ! molasses4 ,9 case ?is second crop ( cry/als1 call$ false gra9 or mu% sug> has appe>$1 ! sug> boil] mu/ act ^u 8 judgm5t1 guid$ by 8 exp]i5ce z to :at is to be done4 ,he may take en\gh ?9 sirup into ! pan to dissolve all ( ! cry/als & beg9 aga91 or1 if v skillful1 he may s =ce ! gr[? ( ! false gra9 z to br+ x up to a size t c be work$4 ,! completion ( ! "w 9 ! /rike pan leaves ! sug> mix$ ) molasses4 ,?is mixture is call$ malada or masscuite4 ,x may be drawn (f into iron sug> wagons & set 9 ! hot room above m5tion$1 9 :i* case /ill m ( ! sug> :i* rema9s 9 ! uncry/alliz$ /ate g5]ally jo9s ! cry/als1 some:at increas+ ! yield ( fir/ sug>s4 ,at ! prop] "t ^! sug> wagons are empti$ into a mix+ ma*9e1 :]e ! mass is br\ght to a uni=m consi/5cy4 ,if ! sug> wagons are n us$1 ! /rike pan is empti$ directly into ! mix]4 ,,! ,,c5trifugal ,,ma*9es4 ,f ! mix] ! melada is drawn into ! c5trifugal ma*9es4 ,^! consi/1 fir/1 ( an iron case resembl+ 9 =m ! husk ( mill /ones4 ,a sp\t at ! bottom ( ! husk connects ) a molasses tank4 ,)9 ?is husk is plac$ a metallic vessel ) p]=at$ sides4 ,?is vessel is ei!r m\nt$ or hung on a v]tical axis1 & is l9$ ) wire clo?4 ,hav+ tak5 a prop] portion ( ! melada into ! c5trifugal1 ! op]ator />ts x to revolv+1 & by means ( a friction clut* makes su* connection ) ! eng9e z gives x ab\t #a1ejj revolutions p] m9ute4 ,! c5trifugal =ce develop$ drives ! liquid molasses ?r\gh ! me%es ( ! wire clo?1 & out aga9/ ! husk1 f :i* x fl[s (f into a tank4 ,! sug>1 be+ solid1 is reta9$ by ! wire clo?4 ,if !re is 9 ! melada ! false gra9 already m5tion$1 x passes into ! me%es ( ! wire clo?1 & prev5ts ! passage ( ! molasses4 ,aft] ! molasses has be5 ne>ly all ?r[n out1 a small quantity ( wat] is spray$ ov] ! sug> :ile ! c5trifugal is 9 motion4 ,?is is =c$ ?r\gh ! sug>1 & c>ries ) x mu* ( ! molasses :i* w\ld o!rwise adh]e to ! sug>1 & discolor x4 ,if ! sug> is to be ref9$1 ?is wa%+ ) wat] is omitt$4 ,:5 ! sug> has be5 suffici5tly dri$1 ! ma*9e is /opp$1 ! sug> tak5 out1 & put into b>rels = m>ket4 ,simple z ! op]ation ( ! c5trifugals is1 ! direction ( ! sug> boil] z to ! special treatm5t ( ea* /rike is necess>y1 s9ce he1 bett] ?an any "o else1 kn[s :at difficulties are to be expect$ on acc\nt ( ! condition 9 :i* ! melada left ! /rike pan4 ,,capacity ,,( ,,! ,,sug> ,,factory4 ,a plant hav+ a batt]y l t at ,=t ,scott1 9 :i* ! cells are ea* capable ( conta9+ a ton ( cane *ips1 %\ld h a capacity ( #ahj tons ( clean$ cane1 or #bjj tons ( cane ) leaves1 or #bdj tons ( cane z x gr[s 9 ! field1 p] day ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,^? :o h giv5 mo/ att5tion to ! subject ?9k t a batt]y compos$ ( "o & a half ton cells may be op]at$ q z successfully z a batt]y ( "o ton cells4 ,su* a batt]y w\ld h a capacity ( #cfj tons ( field cane p] day4 ,,! ,,cutt+ ,,& ,,clean+ ,,app>atus4 ,?is consi/s ( modifications ( appliances :i* h long be5 us$4 ,simple z x is1 & pres5t+ only me*anical problems1 ! cutt+1 clean+1 & evaporat+ app>atus is likely to be ! s\rce ( m delays & p]plexities 9 ! op]ation ( ! sug> factory ?an any o!r "p4 ,! diffusion batt]y 9 good h&s works p]fectly2 ! cl>ification ( ! juice causes no delays2 ! conc5tration to ! condition ( semi-sirup may be readily1 rapidly1 & surely effect$ 9 app>atus :i* has be5 br\ght to great p]fection by long exp]i5ce1 & 9 _m =ms2 ! "w at ! /rike pan requires only to be plac$ 9 ! h&s ( an exp]t2 ! mix] nev] fails to d its duty2 !re are v>i\s =ms ( c5trifugal ma*9es on ! m>ket1 "s ( :i* are ne>ly p]fect4 ,if1 !n1 ! me*anical "w ( deliv]+1 cutt+1 clean+1 & elevat+ ! cane c be accompli%$ ) regul>ity & rapidity1 ! op]ation ( a well adju/$ sug> factory %\ld proce$ )\t int]ruption or delay f ,monday morn+ to ,saturday night4 ,,! ,,future ,,( ,,! ,,sorghum ,,sug> ,,indu/ry4 ,an acre ( l& cultivat$ 9 sorghum yields a great] tonnage ( valuable products ?an 9 any o!r crop1 ) ! possible exception ( hay4 ,"u ord9>y me?ods ( cultivation1 t5 tons ( clean$ cane p] acre is some:at above ! av]age1 b "u ! be/ cultivation ! l>g] v>ieties (t5 exce$ twelve1 :ile ! small e>ly amb] sometimes goes bel[ eight tons p] acre4 ,let sev5 & a half tons ( clean$ cane p] acre be assum$ = ! illu/ration4 ,?is corresponds to a gross yield ( t5 tons = ! f>m]1 & at two doll>s p] ton gives him tw5ty doll>s p] acre = 8 crop4 ,^! sev5 & a half tons ( clean cane w yield3 #gej p\nds ( sug>4 #a1jjj p\nds ( molasses4 #ijj p\nds ( se$4 #a1ejj p\nds ( fodd] 7gre5 leaves74 #a1ejj p\nds ( exhau/$ *ips 7dri$74 ,a total ( #e1fej p\nds4 ,! fir/ ?ree items1 :i* are z likely to be transport$ z :eat or corn1 aggregate #b1fej p\nds p] acre4 ,sorghum w yield sev5 & a half tons ( clean$ cane p] acre m surely ?an corn w yield ?irty bu%els or :eat fifte5 bu%els p] acre4 ,9 ! comp>ison1 !n1 ( products :i* be> transportation1 ^! crops /& z foll[s3 ,sorghum1 at #g tons1 #b1fej p\nds p] acre4 ,corn1 at #cj bu%els1 #a1fhj p\nds p] acre4 ,:eat1 at #ae bu%els1 #ijj p\nds p] acre4 ,! sug> f ! sorghum is wor? say #e c5ts p] p\nd2 ! molasses1 #a c5ts p] p\nd2 ! se$1 c5t p] p\nd4 ,! sorghum products give m>ket values z foll[s3 #gej p\nds sug> at say #e c5ts1#b #cg4ej4 #a1jjj p\nds molasses at say #a c5ts1#b #ag4ej4 #ijj p\nds se$ at say c5t1#b #d4ej4 ,total value ( sorghum1 less fodd]1 #ei4ej4 ,! corn crop gives #a1fhj p\nds1 at c5t #h4dj4 ,! :eat crop gives #ijj p\nds1 at #a c5t1 #i4 ,footnote #b3 ,! sug> sold ?is ye> at #e c5ts p] p\nd1 ! molasses at #bj c5ts p] gallon1 & ! se$ at ---- p] bu%el ( #ef p\nds4 ,! se$ is ( ab\t equal value ) corn = fe$+ /ock4 ,?us x w be se5 t ! sorghum yields to ! f>m] m ?an twice z mu* p] acre z ei!r ( ! lead+ c]eals1 & z a gross product ( agriculture & manufacture on our own soil m ?an six times z mu* p] acre z is usually realiz$ f ei!r ( ^! /&>d crops4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a new process = produc+ iron & /eel direct f ! ore has be5 br\ght out 9 ,russia4 ,"u ! new process iron ore1 aft] be+ submitt$ to ! smelt+ processes1 is tak5 direct f ! furnace to ! roll+ mill & turn$ into ?9 %eets ( ! f9e/ *>coal iron4 ,at pres5t ! process has only be5 comm]cially appli$ ) *>coal fuel1 b exp]im5ts are /at$ to h %[n t equal success c be obta9$ ) coke4 ,! secret ( ! process lies 9 ! con/ruction ( ! furnace1 :i* is said to be simple & inexp5sive4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,m5ges ,,!rmo-,,magnetic ,,g5]ator ,,& ,,motor4 ,we h receiv$ f ,m4 ,m5ges 7( ! ,hague7 a mo/ int]e/+ description ( an app>atus on :i* he has be5 at "w = "s "t pa/1 ) ! object ( g5]at+ electricity by ! direct conv]sion ( heat1 or1 z x might be m accurately describ$1 by a m direct conv]sion ?an t ( an ord9>y dynamo4 ,m4 ,m5ges' app>atus dep5ds1 l t ( ,edison1 ^u ! fact t ! magnetic metals lose _! magnetic p]meability at a c]ta9 temp]ature4 ,x diff]s greatly1 h[ev]1 f its pr$ecessor 9 important po9ts1 especially 9 ! fact t x does n require ! aid ( any ext]nal s\rce ( motive p[]4 ,9 ,edison's pyromagnetic dynamo x w be rememb]$ t x is necess>y to provide "s small am\nt ( motive p[] f an extrane\s s\rce 9 ord] to revolve ! %ield by :i* ! heat is alt]nately direct$ on "o half or ! o!r ( ! armature cores4 ,m4 ,m5ges' app>atus is1 on ! contr>y1 :olly automatic4 ,we proce$ to give a free translation ( ! description furni%$ u by ! inv5tor4 ,9 attempt+ to employ ! !rmo-magnetic prop]ties ( iron or nickel 9 ! con/ruction ( ma*9es = ! g5]ation ( electricity ^u an indu/rial scale1 we are met ) ! difficulty t ! heat+ & cool+ ( l>ge masses ( metal n only involves great loss ( heat1 b also requires mu* "t4 ,h5ce1 to obta9 a useful effect ( any importance1 x w\ld appe> necess>y to employ ma*9es ( dim5sions altoge!r impracticable4 ,by ! device & me?od ( con/ruction n[ to be expla9$ ?is difficulty has1 h[ev]1 be5 completely ov]come4 ,! action ( a magnetic pole dim9i%es s rapidly ) ! increase ( di/ance t x may suffice to remove ! armature to a di/ance relatively small comp>$ ) its own dim5sions1 or ) ^? ( ! magnet1 9 ord] to r$uce ! action to a negligible value4 ,b if ! magnet1 ,n ,s1 & ! armature1 ,a1 be+ at a c]ta9 di/ance1 we br+ betwe5 !m a piece ( iron or nickel1 d1 !n ! magnetic =ce ^u ,a is imm$iately & v consid]ably increas$4 ,9 mod]n language1 ! resi/ance ( ! magnetic circuit has be5 r$uc$ by ! introduction ( a bett] magnetic conductor1 & ! numb] ( l9es ( =ce pass+ ?r\gh ,a is proportionately increas$4 ,! mass ( ! piece1 d1 may1 moreov]1 be relatively small comp>$ ) t ( ,n ,s & ,a4 ,if d be aga9 )drawn1 ! magnetic resi/ance is increas$1 & ! l9es ?r\gh ,a are aga9 a m9imum4 ,n[1 x is evid5t t we c also obta9 ! same effect by suffici5tly heat+ & cool+ ! int]m$iate piece1 d2 & aga91 ) a broad field we c alt] ! di/ribution ( ! l9es at w by heat+ or cool+ "o side ( ?is piece or ! o!r4 ,= ?is reason we w call ! piece d ! !rmo-magnetic di/ributor1 or1 briefly1 ! di/ributor4 ,we w n[ describe ! mann] 9 :i* ?is pr9ciple has be5 realiz$ 9 ! practical con/ruction ( bo? a !rmo-magnetic g5]ator & motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #a %[s an elevation & "p section ( "o ( ! arrangem5ts employ$4 ,fig4 #b is a plan ( ! same ma*9e 79 ! latt] ! r+1 a a1 appe>+ on a high] plane ?an x actually occupies74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,n ,s is an electro-magnet1 a a ! armature1 w\nd z a ,gramme r+1 & fix$ to a frame ) f\r arms1 :i* c turn freely ^u a pivot midway betwe5 ! poles4 ,! cross arms ( ! frame are atta*$ at #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 ,fig4 #b4 ,betwe5 ! magnets & ! armature is plac$ ! di/ributor1 d d1 :]e x occupies an annul> space op5 above & bel[4 ,bo? ! magnets & ! armature are coat$ on ! sides fac+ ! di/ributor ) mica or "s o!r non-conductor ( heat & electricity4 ,! di/ributor is atta*$ to & support$ by ! cross arms1 s t x turns ) ! armature4 ,! di/ributor is compos$ ( a ribbon ( iron or nickel1 b5t into a cont9u\s zigzag4 ,?is =m has ! advantage ( pres5t+1 9 ! cool "p ( ! di/ributor1 an almo/ direct road = ! l9es ( =ce betwe5 ! poles & ! armature1 ?us dim9i%+ ! magnetic resi/ance z f> z possible4 ,at ! same "t ! ,f\cault curr5ts are m9imiz$4 ,to ! same end x is useful to slit ! ribbon1 z 9 ,fig4 #c4 ,?is also facilitates ! fold+ into zigzags4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,! di/ributor is heat$ at two opposite po9ts on a diamet] by ! burn]s1 b b1 above :i* are ! *imneys1 e e4 ,! cool+ ( ! alt]nate section is aid$ by ! circulation ( cold air1 :i* is effect$ by means ( ! draught 9 ! *imneys1 e e4 ,at ! po9ts ( l[e/ temp]ature a jet ( air or wat] is ma9ta9$4 ,! cross arms are insulat$ ) mica or asbe/os at ! po9ts :]e !y ext5d f ! armature to ! di/ributor4 ,x w n[ be evid5t t :ile ! di/ributor is entirely cool1 _m ( ! l9es ( =ce pass f ,n to ,s )\t ent]+ ! armature core2 b if heat is appli$ at ! po9ts #a & #b 9 ! figure1 s z to increase ! magnetic resi/ance at ^! po9ts1 !n a great portion ( ! l9es w leave ! di/ributor1 & pass ?r\gh ! armature core4 ,"u ^! conditions1 s long z heat is appli$ at two po9ts equidi/ant f ,n & ,s1 we might1 if we s pleas$1 cause ! armature to be rotat$ by an ext]nal s\rce ( p[]1 & we %\ld !n h an ,e4,m4,f4 g5]at$ 9 ! armature coils--t is to say1 ! ma*9e w\ld "w z an ord9>y dynamo1 & ! p[] exp5d$ 9 driv+ ! armature w\ld be proportionate to ! output4 ,suppose next t ! po9ts ( heat+1 & ) !m ! alt]nate po9ts ( cool+ #ij deg4 ap>t1 are %ift$ r\nd ab\t #de deg41 s t ! two hot regions are no long] symmetrically situat$ 9 respect to ea* pole ( ! field4 ,! di/ribution ( ! magnetization has !re=e become unsymmetrical1 & ! iron core is no long] 9 equilibrium 9 ! magnetic field4 ,we h1 9 fact1 ! conditions ( ,s*w$(f's exp]im5t ^u a l>g] scale1 & if ! =ces are suffici5t to ov]come ! frictional resi/ance1 a rotation ( ! r+ ensues 9 ! endeavor to re/ore equilibrium4 ,! regions ( heat+ & cool+ be+ fix$ 9 space1 ?is rotation is cont9u\s s long z ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature is ma9ta9$4 ,! r+ 9 rotat+ c>ries ) x ! armature coils1 & ( c\rse an ,e4,m4,f4 is g5]at$ 9 ! same way z if ! motive p[] came f an ext]nal s\rce4 ,9 ?is respect ! ma*9e !re=e resembles a motor g5]ator1 & ! rotation is entirely automatic4 ,! armature coils are connect$ ) a commutator 9 ! usual way1 & ! field may1 ( c\rse1 be excit$ ei!r 9 %unt or 9 s]ies4 ,m4 ,m5ges says t ! residual magnetization is suffici5t 9 8 ma*9e to />t ! rotation by itself4 ,:5 ! ma*9e is to be us$ z a motor1 x is evid5t t ! w9d+s on ! armature core ne$ only be suffici5t to supply curr5t to excite ! field1 or by ! use ( p]man5t magnets !y may be disp5s$ ) altoge!r4 ,m4 ,m5ges has fur!r design$ a l>ge numb] ( v>iations on ! orig9al type1 v>y+ ! arrangem5t ( ! sev]al p>ts1 & employ+ armatures & fields ( _m diff]5t types1 su* z are already 9 use = dynamos4 ,9 ,fig4 #d a ma*9e is repres5t$ 9 :i* ! field is ext]nal to ! armature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,9 ,fig4 #e we h a !rmo-magnetic g5]ator1 :i* corresponds to ! disk ma*9e 9 dynamos4 ,simil> p>ts are indicat$ by ! same lett]s 9 ea* ( ^! figures1 s t no fur!r detail$ description is necess>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,9 ano!r modification ,m4 ,m5ges proposes to rotate ! burn]s & leave ! armature & di/ributor at re/4 ,b 9 ?is case x is evid5t t ! ,e4,m4,f4 produc$ w\ld be mu* less1 because ! magnetization ( ! core w\ld only und]go a v>iation ( int5sity1 & w\ld n[h]e be rev]s$1 except1 p]haps1 j 9 front ( ! poles4 ,9 ma*9es model$ on ! ,bru% type x is evid5t t ! di/ributor ne$ n be cont9u\s4 ,en\gh has1 h[ev]1 be5 said to indicate ! ext5t ( ! field ^u :i* ! pr9ciple may be appli$4--,! ,electrician4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,obs]vations ,,on ,,atmosph]ic ,,electricity4#a ,footnote #a3 ,ab/ract ( a pap] read be=e ! ,briti% ,association meet+ at ,man*e/]1 ,septemb]1 #ahhg4 ,,by ,,pr(4 ,l4 ,,web]4 ,i w try to give a %ort report ( "s exp]im5ts ,i h made dur+ ! la/ ye> 9 reg>d to atmosph]ic electricity4 ,x 0 =m]ly unc]ta9 :e!r ! electro/atic pot5tial w\ld increase by ris+ f ! surface ( ! e>? to m elevat$ region ( ! atmosph]e or n1 & also :e!r ! pot5tial 9 a normal--t is1 cl\dless--/ate ( ! atmosph]e 0 always positive or sometimes negative4 ,sir ,william ,?omson f\nd by exact me?ods ( measur+ t ! increase ( ! pot5tial ) elevation is v important1 & values ab\t #ajj volts p] met]4 ,t fact is prov$ by _m o!r obs]v]s1 especially lately by ,mr4 ,f4 ,exn]1 at ,vi5na1 :o f\nd an increase ( #fj to #fjj volts p] met]4 ,! obs]vations 7 made by means ( an electromet]4 ,9 respect ( _m inconv5i5ces :i* are connect$ ) ! use ( an electromet]1 ,i h tri$ ! measurem5ts ) a v s5sitive galvanomet]4 ,9 ?is case x is necess>y to apply a sep>at+ air exhau/ app>atus1 = example flame1 or a sy/em ( po9ts at ! upp] end ( ! conductor1 :i* is elevat$ 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,9 ord] to get a con/ant app>atus1 ,i h us$ #djj ( ! f9e/ ne$les ins]t$ 9 a metallic ribbon4 ,?is sy/em ,i h rais$ 9 ! air by means ( a captive balloon1 or by a kite1 :i* 0 atta*$ to a conductor ( tw9e or to a twi/$ l9e ( ! f9e/ /eel wire4 ,9 ?is way ,i h atta9$ a height ( #ajj to #cjj met]s4 ,:5 ! l[] end ( ! kite l9e 0 communicat+ ) ! galvanomet] ^: o!r t]m9al 0 9 contact ) ! e>?1 a curr5t pass$ ?r\gh ! galvanomet]4 ,= det]m9+ ! /r5g? ( ?is curr5t ,i propos$ to call$ a micro-amp]e ! #aj-i "p ( an amp]e4 ,at ! height ( ab\t #ajj met]s 9 ! av]age ! curr5t beg9s to be regul>1 & increases at ! height ( #cjj met]s to #d1jjj or #e1jjj ( ^! units4 ,! increase is v regul>1 & seems to be a l9e> function ( ! height4 ,i h1 nev]!less1 f\nd ! smalle/ quantities ( du/ conta9$ 9 ! atmosph]e or ! lighte/ veil ( cirrus di/urb$ ! measurem5t v mat]ially1 & g5]ally made ! pot5tial l[]4 ,9 negative exp]im5ts ( ?is nature ,i h made at ,breslau1 at ! ,sohneekoppe1 & at ! ,reis5gebirge1 especially at ! la/ /ation1 an increase ( pot5tial 0 obs]v$1 n only by reason ( ! p]p5dicul> height1 b also by rea*+ su* regions ( ! atmosph]e z 7 situat$ horizontally to ab\t #bjj met]s f ! utmo/ /eep ( ! same m\nta91 ,sohneekoppe4 ,!re=e x mu/1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,exn]1 be assum$ t ! surface ( ! air pres5ts a surface ( equal pot5tial1 & t ! fall+ surfaces ( high pot5tial 7 /ret*$ p>allel ov] ! plane cont\rs ( ! air1 & m ?9ly or n>r[ ly+ ov] all ! elevat$ po9ts1 z1 = example1 m\nta9s1 *ur* t[]s1 etc4 ,on ! basis ( ^! facts ,i ?9k x easy to expla9 ! electricity ( ?und] /orm cl\ds1 9 fact e cl\d1 or e "p ( a cl\d1 may be consid]$ z a lead+ conductor1 su* cl\ds z h = ! mo/ "p p]p5dicul> height4 ,aft] be+ induc$ ! *ange results by suppos+ ! conduction ( electricity ei!r f ! upp] or f ! l[] side1 accord+ to great] or small] spe$ ( ! air 9 ! height4 ,9 ! fir/ case ! cl\ds w be *>g$ positive1 9 ! o!r negative4 ,i am incl9$1 !re=e1 to /ate t ! electricity ( ?und] /orm cl\ds mu/ be consid]$ z a special b di/urb$ case ( ! normal electric /ate ( ! atmosph]e1 & t all attempts to expla9 ?und] /orm electricity mu/ be bas$ on ! /udy ( ! normal electric /ate ( ! atmosph]e4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,l9n,,u4#a ,footnote #a3 ,= ! illu/rations & _m facts 9 ! life ( ,l9nu we are indebt$ to ! ,illu/rat$ ,tidn+1 ,/ockholm4 ,,by ,c4,s4 ,,hallb]g4 ,at int]vals 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 long p]iods ( comp>ative in]tia h att5d$ ! dea? ( its m di/+ui%$ work]s4 ,z "t progresses & ! numb] ( work]s increases1 !re is a correspond+ increase 9 ! numb] ( m5 ^: labors m]it di/9ction 9 ! lit]ature ( e language2 b z ^! accessions necessitate 9 mo/ cases fur!r division ( ! honors1 _m names conspicu\sly id5tifi$ ) mod]n sci5ce fail ( _! j relative rank1 & fade into unm]it$ obscurity4 ,?us ! e>li] work]s 9 sci5ce1 l ,s*eele1 ,liebig1 ,humboldt1 & o!rs ( t & lat] p]iods1 h won imp]i%able fame1 to :i* we all delight to pay homage1 :ile o!rs ( m rec5t times1 ^: contributions h p]haps be5 equally valuable = _! respective p]iods1 are giv5 /9t$ recognition ( _! s]vices1 if inde$ _! names are n q =gott54 ,no?+ illu/rates s cle>ly ! /eps 9 ! evolution ( sci5ce z a review ( ! relative /atus ( its repres5tatives4 ,z 9 ! political hi/ory ( ! _w an epo* l t ( ! ,fr5* revolution /&s out l a m\nta9 peak1 s 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce an epo* occurs r by evolution ?an revolution1 :5 a hi!rto *aotic1 het]og5e\s mass ( k is rapidly giv5 %ape & sy/ematiz$4 ,previ\s to ! sev5te5? c5tury an imm5se mass ( facts _h accumulat$ ?r\gh ! labors ( inve/igators work+ "u ! ,baconian philosophy1 b ^! facts _h be5 ?r[n toge!r 9 a confus$1 unsy/ematic mann]4 ,a man ( ma/] m9d 0 !n ne$$ to grasp ! wond]s ( nature & =mulate ! exi/+ k ( !m into a sci5tific sy/em ) a natural basis4 ,su* a sy/em 0 giv5 by ,l9nu1 & s great 7 its m]its t x cont9ues ! f\ndation ( all exi/+ sy/ems ( classification4 ,*>les ,l9nu 0 born ,may #ac1 #agjg1 9 a c\ntry place nam$ ,ro%ult 9 ,smal&1 ne> ,skane1 ,sw$54 ,he 0 call$ ,*>les aft] ! well kn[n ,sw$i% knight errant1 ,k+ ,*>les ,,xii41 !n at ! height ( 8 r5[n4 ,! natural beauty ( 8 native place1 ) its v]dure-clad hills1 its /ately trees1 & sp>kl+ brooks fr+$ ) mosses & fl[]s1 inspir$ ! boy ,l9nu ) a love ( nature & a devotion to h] tea*+s :i* t+$ ! curr5t ( 8 :ole life4 ,he 0 de/9$ by 8 p>5ts = ! m9i/ry1 & 9 accordance ) _! wi% 0 s5t to ! ,vexio ,academy 7gymnasium74 ,"h ! dull !ological /udies int]f]$ s mu* ) 8 /udy ( nature t he w\ld h felt lo/ b = ! sympa?y ( ,dr4 ,ro?man1 "o ( 8 tea*]s1 a graduate ( ,h>d]wyk ,univ]sity1 ,holl&1 :o _h be5 a pupil ( ,bo]haave 7! mo/ em95t physician & sci5ti/ ( 8 day71 & be5 mu* impress$ by 8 sci5tific tea*+s4 ,illu/ration ,dr4 ,ro?man took a great int]e/ 9 ,l9nu1 & assur$ 8 fa!r t he w\ld prove a great success f9ancially & o!rwise z a physician 7an occupation ^: duties !n includ$ a /udy ( all exi/+ sci5ces74 ,! fa!r 0 satisfi$1 b dread$ ! effect ! ann\ncem5t ( su* a c>e] w\ld h on ! "m1 ^: ambition _h be5 to see h] son's "n among ! long li/ ( cl]gym5 ( ! family :o _h be5 m9i/]s to ! neighbor+ *ur* ( ,/5trohult4 ,%e f9ally yield$1 & ! be/ possible use 0 made by ,l9nu ( ,dr4 ,ro?man's tuition4 ,lat91 !n ! "m tongue ( all sci5ti/s & s*ol>s1 he wrote & spoke flu5tly4 ,at ! age ( tw5ty ,l9nu ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,lund1 & rema9$ !re a ye>4 ,"h he =m$ ! acqua9tance ( a m$ical man1 a tea*] 9 ! univ]sity1 :o op5$ 8 home & 8 libr>y to him1 & took him on 8 botanical excursions & pr(essional visits4 ,"s "t lat]1 on ,dr4 ,ro?man's advice1 ,l9nu ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,upsala1 !n ! mo/ celebrat$ univ]sity ( ,nor!rn ,europe4 ,8 p>5ts 7 able to sp>e him b "o hundr$ silv] ?al]s = 8 exp5ses4 ,at ! end ( a ye> 8 money 0 sp5t1 8 clo?+ & %oes 7 worn out1 & he 0 )\t prospects ( obta9+ a s*ol>%ip4 ,:5 ?+s 7 at _! gloomie/ he accid5tally ent]$ into a discussion ) a /rang] 9 ! botanical g>d51 :o turn$ out to be a cl]gyman sci5ti/ nam$ ,celsius4 ,celsius1 :ile /ay+ at ,upsala1 _h conceiv$ ! plan ( giv5 a botanical description ( biblical plants4 ,hav+ le>n$ t ,l9nu _h a h]b>ium ( #fjj plants1 he took ! "y man "u 8 protection1 & op5$ up to him 8 home & libr>y4 ,:ile /udy+ 9 ?is libr>y1 8 obs]vations reg>d+ ! sexes 9 plants1 hi!rto 9 a *aotic /ate1 took =m1 /imulat$ by an ab/ract publi%$ 9 a ,g]man j\rnal ( ,vaillant's views1 & be=e ! end ( #agbi ! basis ( ! sexual sy/em _h appe>$ 9 manuscript4 ,?is treatise hav+ be5 se5 by a memb] ( ! univ]sity faculty1 ,l9nu 0 invit$ to fill a tempor>y vacancy1 & lectur$ ) great success !re9 "o & a half ye>s4 ,mean:ile ! f\ndation ( ! celebrat$ treatises aft]w>d publi%$ on ! sexual sy/em ( classification & on plant nom5clature _h be5 laid4 ,z 9 ! hi/ory ( mo/ great m51 a seem+ly great mis=tune prov$ to be a turn+ po9t 9 8 c>e]4 ,! position he _h tempor>ily fill$ ) su* cr$it to himself & pr(it to ! /ud5ts 0 claim$ by its regul> occupant1 &1 despite ! opposition ( ! faculty1 ,l9nu _h to rel9qui% x4 ,! two subsequ5t ye>s 7 sp5t 9 botanical inve/igations "u ! patronage ( v>i\s em95t m54 ,dur+ "o ( ^! he travel$ ?r\gh ,lapl& to ! %ores ( ! ,pol> ,sea1 & ! results ( ?is exp$ition 7 embodi$ 9 8 ,lapl& ,flora1 ! fir/ flora f\nd$ on ! sexual sy/em4 ,he deliv]$ a p]ipatetic c\rse ( lectures1 & dur+ "o ( ^! he =m$ ! acqua9tance ( ,dr4 ,moru1 a pupil ( ! great ,bo]haave4 ,dr4 ,moru took ,l9nu into p>tn]%ip ) him4 ,"h aga9 a seem+ mis=tune prov$ to be a great advantage4 ,l9nu fell 9 love ) ! elde/ daught] ( ,dr4 ,moru1 b 0 d5i$ h] h& until he %\ld graduate 9 m$ic9e4 ,l9nu1 to complete 8 /udies z a physician1 !n ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,h>d]wyk1 ,holl&1 ! alma mat] ( 8 fir/ b5efactor1 ,dr4 ,ro?man1 & ( ! great ,bo]haave4 ,aft] two ye>s' /udy he 0 graduat$ 9 m$ic9e ) high honors4 ,8 !sis1 ,! ,cause ( ,*ills1 receiv$ special comm5dation4 ,he visit$ all ! botanical g>d5s & o!r sci5tific in/itutions = :i* ,holl& 0 !n r5[n$4 ,a le>n$ & weal?y burgoma/]1 ,gronovius1 hav+ read 8 ,sy/ema ,natur 9 manuscript1 n only defray$ ! co/ ( its publication1 b secur$ him ! high honor ( an int]view ) ! great ,bo]haave--an honor = :i* ev5 ! ,cz> ,pet] ! ,great _h to beg4 ,bo]haave's int]e/ 0 at once awak5$1 & he gave ,l9nu s /rong a recomm5dation to ,dr4 ,burman1 ( ,am/]dam1 t ! influ5ce ( ! sci5tific circles ( ! ,dut* metropolis 0 ex]t$ 9 behalf ( ,l9nu1 & he 0 soon (f]$ ! position ( physician sup]9t5d5t ( a magnific5t botanical g>d5 own$ by a millionaire horticultural en?usia/1 ,clif=d1 a director ( ! ,dut* ,ea/ ,india ,company4 ,l9nu' f9ancial & sci5tific future 0 n[ secure4 ,publication ( 8 works 0 insur$1 & 8 position af=d$ him e opportunity = botanical rese>*4 ,aft] five ye>s' resid5ce 9 ,holl&1 dur+ :i* he decl9$ sev]al positions ( tru/1 he det]m9$ to return to ,sw$54 ,8 fame _h become s widespread 9 ,we/]n ,europe t 8 sy/em 0 already adopt$ by sci5ti/s & made ! basis ( lectures at ! ,dut* univ]sities4 ,9 ! ,fr5* metropolis he 0 greatly e/eem$1 & dur+ a visit !reto he 0 a highly di/+ui%$ gue/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ro%ult1 ,,sw$51 ,,bir?place ,,( ,,l9n,,u4 ,8 reception 9 ,sw$5 0 r frigid1 & b = ! he>ty welcome by 8 family & betro!d he w\ld probably h return$ to ,holl&4 ,8 am\r propre 0 also d\btless w\nd$1 & he det]m9$ to rema9 & fight 8 way into ! magic circle ( ! gilt-edg$ ari/ocracy :i* !n monopoliz$ all sci5tific honors 9 ,/ockholm & ! univ]sities4 ,he acquir$ a great reputation = ! treatm5t ( lung disease1 & 0 popul>ly cr$it$ ) ! ability to cure consumption4 ,?is rea*$ ! e>s ( ! que5 7a suff]] f ! disease71 :o direct$ "o ( h] c\ncilors to s5d = ,l9nu4 ,he soon recogniz$ ! "n ( ,l9nu z "o ( great r5[n on ! ,cont95t1 & at once took him "u 8 protection4 ,! /> ( ,l9nu 0 n[ 9 ! asc5dant4 ,he 0 soon delegat$ to v>i\s pleasant duties1 among :i* 0 ! deliv]y ( lectures on botany & m9]alogy 9 ! auditorium illu/re at ,/ockholm4 ,he at ?is "t f\nd$ ! ,sw$i% ,sci5tific ,academy1 & 0 its fir/ presid5t4 ,9 #agda he 0 elect$ pr(essor ( m$ic9e 9 ,upsala ,univ]sity1 :i* *air he ex*ang$ = t ( botany & ! position ( director ( ! botanical g>d54 ,?is op5$ up a new era = sci5ce 9 ,sw$54 ,he :o 0 reg>d$ z ! _w's greate/ botani/ abroad _h at la/ be5 simil>ly ackn[l$g$ 9 8 native l&4 ,) ! indomitable c\rage & tact *>act]i/ic ( ! man1 he set on foot a gigantic sci5tific popul> educational project4 ,! gov]nm5t1 "u 8 direction1 e/abli%$ a sy/em ( explor+ exp$itions into ! fauna1 flora1 & m9]alogy ( ! :ole ,sw$i% p59sula1 p>tly = ! purpose ( develop+ ! res\rces ( ! c\ntry1 p>tly 9 ! int]e/ ( sci5ce1 b m especially to int]e/ ! mass ( ! p 9 sci5tific rese>*4 ,! va/ majority ( ! p ( ,sw$51 l ^? ( o!r c\ntries1 7 dom9at$ by feti*ic sup]/itions & absurd notions ab\t plants & vegetables1 :i* 7 indors$ to a c]ta9 ext5t by popul> h&books devot$ m to ! dissem9ation ( m>vels ?an facts4 ,a popul> cl]gyman1 = in/ance1 /at$ 9 a description ( ! m>itime prov9ces t c]ta9 ducks grew ^u trees4 ,! va/ /ride :i* 0 made by ! populace 9 ! k ( nature 0 due to ^! ef=ts ( ,l9nu1 :o1 9 ord] to fur!r popul>ize sci5ce1 e/abli%$ & edit$1 9 conjunction ) ,salvius1 a j\rnal devot$ to ! discussion ( natural hi/ory4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod1 on ! fir/ ( ,may1 semi-weekly excursions 7 made f ! univ]sity1 ! public be+ invit$ to att5d4 ,! p came to ^! excursions by hundr$s1 & all classes 7 repres5t$ 9 !m--physicians1 apo!c>ies1 prea*]s1 m]*ants1 & me*anics1 all jo9$ ! procession1 :i* left ! univ]sity at sev5 9 ! morn+1 to return at eve lad5 ) zoological1 botanical1 & m9]alogical specim5s4 ,a man :o c\ld ?us ar\se popul> en?usiasm = sci5ce a c5tury & a half ago mu/ h be5 a rem>kable g5ius4 ,tru/$ /ud5ts ( ,l9nu 7 s5t on botanical explor+ exp$itions ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,! high r5[n 9 :i* ,l9nu 0 held 0 %[n 9 ! significant title1 almo/ univ]sally be/[$ ^u him1 ( ,! ,fl[] ,k+4--,we/]n ,druggi/4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,a ,,me?od ,,( ,,mak+ ,,! ,,wave ,,l5g? ,,( ,,sodium ,,light ,,! ,,actual ,,& ,,practical ,,/&>d ,,( ,,l5g?4 ,,by ,,alb]t ,a4 ,,mi*elson ,,& ,,edw>d ,w4 ,,morley4 ,! fir/ actual attempt to make ! wave l5g? ( sodium light a /&>d ( l5g? 0 made by ,peirce4#a ,?is me?od involves two di/9ct measurem5ts3 fir/1 t ( ! angul> displacem5t ( ! image ( a slit by a diffraction grat+1 &1 second1 t ( ! di/ance betwe5 ! l9es ( ! grat+4 ,bo? ( ^! are subject to errors due to *anges ( temp]ature & to in/rum5tal errors4 ,! results ( ?is "w h n z yet be5 publi%$2 b x is n probable t ! degree ( accuracy atta9$ is mu* great] ?an "o "p 9 fifty or a hundr$ ?\s&4 ,m rec5tly1 ,mr4 ,bell1 ( ! ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity1 us+ ,r[l&'s grat+s1 has made a det]m9ation ( ! l5g? ( ! wave ( sodium light :i* is claim$ to be accurate to "o two hundr$ ?\s&? "p#b4 ,if ?is claim is ju/ifi$1 x is probably v ne> ! limit ( accuracy ( :i* ! me?od admits4 ,a %ort "t be=e ?is1 ano!r me?od 0 propos$ by ,mace de ,lep9ay4#c ,?is consi/s 9 ! calculation ( ! numb] ( wave l5g?s betwe5 two surfaces ( a cube ( qu>tz4 ,besides ! spectroscopic obs]vations ( ,talbot's fr+es1 ! me?od involves ! measurem5t ( ! index ( refraction & ( ! d5sity ( qu>tz1 & x is n surpris+ t ! degree ( accuracy atta9$ 0 only "o 9 fifty ?\s&4 ,footnote #a3 ,nature1 xx1 #ii1 #ahgi2 ?is ,j\rnal1 ,,iii1 xviii1 #ea1 #ahgi4 ,footnote #b3 ,on ! absolute wave l5g?s ( light1 ?is ,j\rnal1 ,,iii1 xxxiii1 #afg1 #ahhg4 ,footnote #c3 ,comptes ,r5dus1 cii1 #aaec1 #ahhf2 ,j\rnal1 de ,phys41 ,,ii1 v1 #daa1 #ahhf4 ,sev]al ye>s ago1 a me?od sugge/$ itself :i* seem$ likely to furni% results mu* m accurate ?an ei!r ( ! =ego+1 & "s prelim9>y exp]im5ts made 9 ,june h confirm$ ! anticipation4 ,! app>atus = obs]v+ ! int]f]5ce ph5om5a is ! same z t us$ 9 ! exp]im5ts on ! relative motion ( ! e>? & ! lum9if]\s e!r4 ,light f ! s\rce at s 7,fig4 #a71 a sodium flame1 falls on ! plane p>allel glass1 a1 & is divid$1 "p go+ to ! plane mirror1 c1 & "p to ! plane mirror1 b4 ,^! two p5cils are return$ along cae & bae1 & ! int]f]5ce ( ! two is obs]v$ 9 ! telescope at e4 ,if ! di/ances1 ac & ab1 are made equal1 ! plane1 c1 made p>allel ) t ( ! image ( b1 & ! comp5sat+ glass1 d1 int]pos$1 ! int]f]5ce is at once se54 ,if ! adju/m5t be exact1 ! :ole field w be d>k1 s9ce "o p5cil exp]i5ces ext]nal reflection & ! o!r int]nal4 ,if n[ b be mov$ p>allel ) itself a measur$ di/ance by means ( ! micromet] screw1 ! numb] ( alt]nations ( light & d>kness is exactly twice ! numb] ( wave l5g?s 9 ! measur$ di/ance4 ,?us ! det]m9ation consi/s absolutely ( a measurem5t ( a l5g? & ! c\nt+ ( a numb]4 ,! degree ( accuracy dep5ds on ! numb] ( wave l5g?s :i* x is possible to c\nt4 ,fizeau 0 unable to obs]ve int]f]5ce :5 ! diff]5ce ( pa? am\nt$ to #ej1jjj wave l5g?s4 ,x seem$ probable t ) a small] d5sity ( sodium vapor ?is numb] might be increas$1 & ! exp]im5t 0 tri$ ) metallic sodium 9 an exhau/$ tube provid$ ) alum9um electrodes4 ,x 0 f\nd possible to increase ?is numb] to m ?an #bjj1jjj4 ,n[ x is v easy to e/imate t5?s or ev5 tw5tie?s ( a wave l5g?1 :i* implies t x is possible to f9d ! numb] ( wave l5g?s 9 a giv5 fix$ di/ance betwe5 two planes ) an error less ?an "o "p 9 two millions & probably "o 9 t5 millions4 ,b ! di/ance correspond+ to #djj1jjj wave l5g?s is r\ghly a decimet]1 & ?is _c be det]m9$ or reproduc$ m accurately ?an say to "o "p 9 #ejj1jjj4 ,s x w\ld be necess>y to increase ?is di/ance4 ,?is c be done by us+ ! same in/rum5t toge!r ) a comp>]4 ,! int]m$iate /&>d decimet]1 lm 7,fig4 #b71 is put 9 place ( ! mirror1 b4 ,x consi/s ( a prism ( glass "o decimet] long ) "o end1 l1 plane1 & ! o!r slightly convex1 s t :5 x t\*es ! plane1 m1 ,newton's r+s appe>1 & ^! s]ve to control any *ange 9 ! di/ance1 lm1 :i* has be5 previ\sly det]m9$ 9 wave l5g?s4 ,! end1 l1 is n[ adju/$ s t color$ fr+es appe> 9 :ite light4 ,^! c be measur$ to )9 "o-tw5tie? ( a wave l5g?1 & probably to )9 "o-fiftie?4 ,! piece1 lm1 is !n mov$ =w>d till ! fr+es aga9 appe> at m4 ,!n ! refractomet] is mov$ 9 ! same direction till ! fr+es appe> aga9 at l1 & s on till ! :ole met] has be5 /epp$ (f4 ,suppos+ t 9 ?is op]ation ! error 9 ! sett+ ( ! fr+es is always 9 ! same direction1 ! :ole error 9 /epp+ (f ! met] w\ld be "o "p 9 two millions4 ,by repetition ?is c\ld ( c\rse be r$uc$4 ,a microscope rigidly atta*$ to ! c>riage hold+ ! piece1 lm1 w\ld s]ve to comp>e1 & a diamond atta*$ to ! same piece w\ld be us$ to produce copies4 ,all measurem5ts w\ld be made ) ! app>atus surr\nd$ by melt+ ice1 s t no temp]ature corrections w\ld be requir$4 ,probably !re w\ld be consid]able difficulty 9 actually c\nt+ #djj1jjj wave l5g?s1 b ?is c be avoid$ by fir/ c\nt+ ! wave l5g?s & fractions 9 a l5g? ( "o millimet] & us+ ?is to /ep (f a c5timet]4 ,?is w give ! ne>e/ :ole numb] ( wave l5g?s1 & ! fractions may be obs]v$ directly4 ,! c5timet] is !n us$ 9 ! same way to /ep (f a decimet]1 :i* aga9 det]m9es ! ne>e/ :ole numb]1 ! fraction be+ obs]v$ directly z be=e4 ,! fractions are det]m9$ z foll[s3 ,! fr+es obs]v$ 9 ! refractomet] "u ! conditions above m5tion$ c readily be %[n to be conc5tric circles4 ,! c5t] has ! m9imum int5sity :5 ! diff]5ce 9 ! di/ances1 ab1 ac1 is an exact numb] ( wave l5g?s4 ,! diamet]s ( ! consecutive circles v>y z ! squ>e roots ( ! correspond+ numb] ( waves4 ,!re=e1 if x is ! fraction ( a wave l5g? to be det]m9$1 & y ! diamet] ( ! fir/ d>k r+1 d be+ ! diamet] ( ! r+ correspond+ to "o wave l5g?1 !n x y_/d4 ,illu/ration3 ----- --- c ------------------------- ------------------------- l #b4 m --- ------------- --- _/ _/ ----------- - a_/ _/ _/ _/ b ,s----------_/_/d_/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/----- ------------ _/ 3 --------------- m e 3 ----------------------- 3 #a4 ,u ,!re is a slight difficulty to be not$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! fact t !re are two s]ies ( waves 9 sodium light4 ,! result ( ?is sup]position ( ^! is t z ! diff]5ce ( pa? increases1 ! int]f]5ce becomes less di/9ct & f9ally disappe>s1 reappe>s1 & has a maximum ( di/9ctness aga91 :5 ! diff]5ce ( pa? is an exact multiple ( bo? wave l5g?s4 ,?us !re is an alt]nation ( di/9ct int]f]5ce fr+es ) uni=m illum9ation4 ,if ! l5g? to be measur$1 ! c5timet] = in/ance1 is su* t ! int]f]5ce does n fall exactly at ! maximum--to "o side by1 say1 "o-t5? ! di/ance betwe5 two maxima1 !re w\ld be an error ( "o-tw5tie? ( a wave l5g? requir+ an ari?metical correction4 ,among o!r sub/ances tri$ 9 ! prelim9>y exp]im5ts 7 ?allium1 li?ium1 & hydrog54 ,all ( ^! gave int]f]5ce up to fifty to "o hundr$ ?\s& wave l5g?s1 & c\ld !re=e all be us$ z *ecks on ! det]m9ation ) sodium4 ,x may be not$ t 9 case ( ! r$ hydrog5 l9e1 ! int]f]5ce ph5om5a disappe>$ at ab\t #ae1jjj wave l5g?s1 & aga9 at ab\t #de1jjj wave l5g?s2 s t ! r$ hydrog5 l9e mu/ be a d\ble l9e ) ! compon5ts ab\t "o-sixtie? z di/ant z ! sodium l9es4--,am]4 ,j\r4 ,sci5ce4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,rural ,,new ,,york] ,,cold ,,/orage ,,= ,,potatoes4 ,^u ?is subject ,i am able to speak ) ! fre$om habitually enjoy$ by "s volum9\s agricultural writ]s--my imag9ation w n be hamp]$ by my k4 ,9 debatable climates1 l ,ohio1 ,ill9ois1 ,kansas & s\?w>d1 x is conc$$ t a great po9t w\ld be ga9$ by ! discov]y ( "s plan--n too exp5sive--t w\ld make x safe to put away potatoes 9 ! summ]1 z soon z ripe1 s t !y w\ld g ?r\gh ! w9t] )\t spr\t+ & pres]ve _! eat+ qualities till potatoes come aga94 ,z x is1 digg+ mu/ be def]r$ till late1 = fe> ( rot2 ! fields ( e>ly v>ieties gr[ up ) we$s aft] !y are laid by4 ,9 ! spr+ a long int]regnum is left betwe5 old potatoes fit to eat & ! new crop1 & ! se$ /ock ( ! c\ntry loses mu* ( its vigor ?r\gh spr\t+ 9 cell>s & pits4 ,mo/ f>m]s h _h occasion to notice ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! yield f crisp1 unspr\t$ se$ potatoes & t f ! wilt$1 spr\t$ tub]s s (t5 us$4 ,"s ye>s ago ,pr(essor ,beal made a te/ ( ?is diff]5ce4 ,i speak f recollection1 b ?9k ,i am "r 9 say+ t1 accord+ to ! publi%$ acc\nt :i* ,i saw1 he f\nd "o spr\t+ ( se$ potatoes l[]$ ! yield #aj p] c5t42 ea* additional spr\t+ /ill fur!r r$uc$ ! crop1 till f9ally !re 0 no yield at all4 ,ev5 a #aj p] c5t4 %r9kage 9 all t portion ( ! annual potato crop gr[n f spr\t$ se$ w\ld result 9 an aggregate loss ( millions ( bu%els4 ,! "q h[ to /ore potatoes & n h !m spr\t ,i h se5 answ]$ 9 ! pap]s by recomm5d+ a cold cell>1 ( ab\t #dj degrees temp]ature4 ,if !re are cell>s t are cold 9 w>m wea!r1 )\t ! use ( "s artificial process1 ,i h n se5 !m4 ,! temp]ature ( well wat] is ab\t #de degrees only1 & anybody kn[s h[ mu* cold] a well is ?an a cell>4 ,b ! greate/ difficulty comes 9 f ! fact t potatoes are su* a prolific s\rce ( heat 9 !mselves4 ,if a #dj degree cell> c\ld be f\nd & be fill$ ) potatoes1 ! temp]ature w\ld at once beg9 to rise1 & ! lat] 9 ! season1 ! fa/] x w\ld g up4 ,i repeat t a cell> fill$ ) potatoes w h a mu* high] temp]ature ?an ! same cell> w\ld h if empty4 ,?is ,i h le>n$ z ,nimbus le>n$ tobacco gr[+--by 'sposure4 ,i hope ,i won't be ask$ :y4 ,i don't "k4 ,! reason is unimportant4 ,! rem$y is ! ?+4 ,! only help = x t ,i "k ( is to give ! cell> pl5ty ( v5tilation1 put ! potatoes 9 z clean z possible1 & !n %ovel !m ov] e mon? or two4 ,?is w keep ! spr\t+ t5d5cy 9 *eck v l>gely2 b x won't make x practicable to beg9 /or+ potatoes 9 ,july or cause !m to keep 9 good flavor till ,june4 ,sev]al ye>s ago ,i plac$ "s b>rels ( e>ly ,ohio potatoes 9 ! ,kansas ,city cold /orage w>eh\ses f ,m>* till ,july4 ,!y 7 kept 9 a temp]ature ( #ch degrees1 & came out crisp & v little spr\t$4 ,! plan ( ?is /ructure 0 v simple3 a ?ree-/ory brick build+ s l9$ ) mat*$ lumb] & t>r$ pap] z to make ?ree air-spaces ar\nd ! wall4 ,9 ! top /ory 0 a great bulk ( ice1 :i* 0 freely accessible to ! air t1 :5 cool$1 pass$ ?r\gh ducts to ! diff]5t cool rooms4 ,! results 7 satisfactory1 b ! sy/em seem$ too exp5sive = potatoes4 ,i h wond]$ :e!r x 0 necess>y = potatoes to be kept z cold z #ch degrees4 ,w\ld n a curr5t ( air pass+ ?r\gh pipes %[]$ ) well wat] keep !m cold en\gh8 ,w9e vaults1 ,i believe1 are sometimes cool$ by air curr5ts =c$ ?r\gh a cold wat] spray4 ,if ! air bla/ ( well wat] temp]ature w\ld be suffici5t1 ! app>atus = produc+ x w\ld be comp>atively inexp5sive--or at lea/ mu* *eap] ?an ^? plans ( cold /orage :]e ice is /or$ 9 quantity ov] ! cool room4 ,h[ev]1 any process t c\ld be devis$ w\ld probably be unpr(itable to ! small cropp]1 & ! l>g] ! bus9ess done1 ! less ! co/ p] bu%el4 ,if x %\ld be f\nd t individual op]ators c\ld n rea* su* an improvem5t on a pr(itable scale1 :y c\ld n sev]al ( !m pool _! issues suffici5tly to build1 jo9tly1 a potato elevator8 ,!re are at lea/ #ej1jjj bu%els ( potatoes held 9 /ore by f>m]s )9 ?ree miles ( :]e ,i live4 ,x seems to me !re w\ld be _m advantages & economies 9 hav+ t l>ge /ock "u "o ro(1 "o insurance1 "o managem5t2 on a side track :]e !y c\ld be load$ 9 any wea!r or /ate ( ! roads1 besides ! great item t ! temp]ature c\ld be controll$1 by artificial means1 9 "o l>ge build+ mu* *eap] ?an 9 sev]al small ones4 ,,edw9 ,,taylor4 ,edw>dsville1 ,kans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,k4 ,a ,,fivefold ,,comet4 ,! figure illu/rat+ ?is article is tak5 f ,l',a/ronomie1 & repres5ts ! rem>kable s\!rn comet ( ,janu>y1 #ahhg1 z drawn on successive days by ,mr4 ,f9lay1 ( ,cape ,t[n4 ,! comet 0 fir/ se5 by a f>m] & a fi%]man ( ,blauwb]g1 ne> ,cape ,t[n1 on ! night ( ,janu>y #ah-ai4 ,! same night x 0 se5 at ! ,cordoba ,obs]vatory by ,m4 ,?ome4 ,on ! next ,mr4 ,todd discov]$ x indep5d5tly at ! ,adelaide ,obs]vatory1 & wat*$ x till ! #bg?4 ,on ! #bb;d ,mr4 ,f9lay detect$ ! comet1 & 0 able to wat* x till ! #bi?4 ,at ,rio de ,janeiro ,m4 ,cruls obs]v$ x f ! #bc;d to ! #be?2 & at ,w9dsor1 ,new ,s\? ,wales1 ,mr4 ,tebbutt obs]v$ ! comet on ! #bh? & #cj?4 ,moonlight int]f]$ ) fur!r obs]vations4 ,! comet's appe>ance 0 rem>kable4 ,its tail1 long & /raight1 ext5d$ ov] an arc ( #cj degrees1 b !re 0 no appreciable cond5sation :i* c\ld be call$ ! comet's head4 ,! long tra9 ( light1 describ$ z ne>ly equal 9 brightness to ! ,magellanic cl\ds1 seem$ to be simply cut (f at t end :]e 9 mo/ comets a nucleus & coma are %[n4 ,?is comet has help$ to ?r[ light on "o ( ! mo/ p]plex+ puzzles :i* ^? mo/ p]plex+ ( all ! heav5ly bodies1 comets1 h pres5t$ to a/ronom]s4 ,9 ! ye> #affh a comet 0 se5 9 ! s\!rn skies :i* attract$ v little notice at ! "t1 & w\ld probably h be5 little ?\ght ( s9ce _h n att5tion be5 direct$ to x by ! appe>ance & behavior ( c]ta9 comets se5 dur+ ! la/ half c5tury4 ,visible = ab\t ?ree weeks1 & discov]$ aft] x _h already pass$ ! po9t ( its ne>e/ approa* to ! sun1 ! comet ( #affh 0 n obs]v$ s satisfactorily t its orbit c\ld be precisely det]m9$4 ,9 fact1 two entirely diff]5t orbits w\ld satisfy ! obs]vations fairly1 ?\gh "o only c\ld be reg>d$ z satisfy+ !m well4 ,?is orbit1 h[ev]1 0 s rem>kable t a/ronom]s 7 l$ to pref] ! o!r1 less satisfactory ?\gh x 01 9 expla9+ ! obs]v$ motions ( ! comet4 ,= ! orbit :i* be/ expla9$ ! comet's movem5ts c>ri$ ! comet s close to ! sun z actually to graze 8 visible surface4 ,moreov]1 !re 0 ?is rem>kable1 &1 inde$1 absolutely unique peculi>ity ab\t ! orbit ?us assign$3 ! comet 7^: p]iod ( revolution 0 to be measur$ by hundr$s ( ye>s7 actually pass$ ?r\gh ! :ole ( t "p ( its c\rse dur+ :i* x 0 nor? ( our e>?'s orbit plane 9 less ?an two h\rs & a half6 ?\gh ?is "p ( its c\rse is a half circuit ar\nd ! sun1 s f> z direction 7n di/ance ( travel7 is conc]n$4 ,t comet1 :5 at its ne>e/ to ! sun1 0 travel+ at ! rate ( ab\t #ccj miles p] second4 ,x pass$ ?r\gh regions ne> ! sun's surface commonly suppos$ to be occupi$ by atmosph]ic matt]4 ,n[1 _h ! comet be5 s f> *eck$ 9 its swift ru% ?r\gh ^? regions z to lose "o ?\s&? "p ( its velocity1 x w\ld h return$ 9 less ?an a ye>4 ,b ! way 9 :i* ! comet retreat$ %[$ t no?+ ( ?is sort 0 to be expect$4 ,i am n aw>e1 inde$1 t any anticipations 7 ev] sugge/$ 9 reg>d to ! return ( ! comet ( #affh to our neighborhood4 ,x 0 n till ! "t ( ,halley's comet1 #afhb1 t mod]n a/ronomy began to consid] ! "q ( ! possibly p]iodic "* ( cometic motions ) att5tion4 7,= my own "p1 ,i reject z altoge!r improbable ! /atem5t ( ,s5eca t ! anci5t ,*aldean a/ronom]s c\ld calculate ! return ( comets47 ,! comet ( #afhj1 call$ ,newton's1 0 ! v fir/ ^: orbital motions 7 dealt ) on ! pr9ciples ( ,newtonian a/ronomy1 & ,halley's 0 ! fir/ ^: p]iodic "* 0 recogniz$4 ,9 #ahdc ano!r comet came up f ! s\?1 & pres5tly return$ ?i!r4 ,x 01 inde$1 only se5 dur+ its return1 hav+1 l ! comet ( #affh1 be5 only discov]$ a day or two aft] p]ihelion passage4 ,a/ronom]s soon began to notice a curi\s resemblance betwe5 ! orbits ( ! two comets4 ,rememb]+ ! comp>ative r\ghness ( ! obs]vations made 9 #affh1 x may be said t ! two comets mov$ 9 ! same orbit1 s f> z c\ld be judg$ f obs]vation4 ,! comet ( #ahdc came along a pa? incl9$ at app>5tly ! same angle to ! e>?'s orbit plane1 cross$ t plane asc5d+ly at appreciably ! same po9t1 swept r\nd 9 ab\t two h\rs & a half t "p ( its angul> circuit :i* lay nor? ( ! e>?'s orbit plane1 &1 cross+ t plane desc5d+ly at ! same po9t z ! comet ( #affh1 pass$ along appreciably ! same c\rse t[>d ! s\!rn /ell> regions6 ,! close resemblance ( two pa?s1 ea* s /rik+ly rem>kable 9 itself1 c\ld n well be reg>d$ z a m]e accid5tal co9cid5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,con/ellations1 ?\gh unnam$1 c readily be id5tifi$1 :5 x is not$ t ! ,comet's c\rse1 z "h repres5t$1 began 9 ! con/ellation ( ! ,crane4 ,h[ev]1 at t "t no v special att5tion 0 direct$ to ! resemblance betwe5 ! pa?s ( ! comets ( #ahdc & #affh4 ,x 0 n reg>d$ z any?+ v new or /rik+ t a comet %\ld return aft] mak+ a wide excursion r\nd ! sun2 & ^? :o notic$ t ! two comets really _h trav]s$ appreciably ! same pa? ar\nd ! imm$iate neighborhood ( ! sun1 simply conclud$ t ! comet ( #affh _h come back 9 #ahdc1 aft] #age ye>s1 & n necess>ily = ! fir/ "t4 ,x mu/ be notic$1 h[ev]1 be=e leav+ ?is "p ( ! record1 t ! comet ( #ahdc 0 suspect$ ( behav+ 9 a r /range way :5 ne> ! sun4 ,= ! fir/ obs]vation1 made r r\ghly1 inde$1 ) a sextant1 by a man :o _h no idea ( ! int]e/ 8 obs]vation might aft]w>d h1 c\ld n be reconcil$ by ma!maticians 7includ+ ! well-kn[n ma!matician1 ,b5jam9 ,pi]ce7 ) ! movem5t ( ! comet z subsequ5tly obs]v$4 ,x seem$ z ?\gh :5 9 ! sun's neighborhood ! comet _h und]gone "s di/urbance1 possibly int]nal1 :i* _h 9 slight degree affect$ its subsequ5t c>e]4 ,accord+ to "s calculations1 ! comet ( #ahdc seem$ to h a p]iod ( ab\t ?irty-five ye>s1 :i* accord$ well ) ! idea t x 0 ! comet ( #affh1 return$ aft] five circuits4 ,nor 0 x deem$ at all surpris+ t ! comet1 conspicu\s ?\gh x is1 _h n be5 detect$ 9 #agac1 #agdh1 #aghc1 & #ahah1 = its pa? w\ld c>ry x :]e x w\ld be v apt to escape notice except 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 & ev5 !re x might q readily be miss$4 ,! appe>ance ( ! comet ( #affh correspond$ well ) t ( ! comet ( #ahdc4 ,ea* 0 rem>kable = its extremely long tail & = ! comp>ative insignificance ( its head4 ,9 ! nor!rn skies1 inde$1 ! comet ( #ahdc %[$ a v /raight tail1 & x is usually depict$ 9 t way1 :]eas ! comet ( #affh _h a tail %[+ curvature4 ,b pictures ( ! comet ( #ahdc1 z se5 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 %[ x ) a curv$ tail1 & also ! tail appe>$ =k$ t[>d ! end dur+ t "p ( ! comet's c>e]4 ,h[ev]1 ! be/ obs]vations1 & ! calculations bas$ on !m1 seem$ to %[ t ! p]iod ( ! comet ( #ahdc c\ld n be less ?an #ejj ye>s4 ,a/ronom]s 7 r />tl$1 !re=e1 :51 9 #ahhj1 a comet appe>$ 9 ! s\!rn skies :i* trav]s$ appreciably ! same c\rse z ! comets ( #affh & #ahdc4 ,:5 ,i 0 9 ,au/ralia1 9 #ahhj1 a few mon?s aft] ! great comet _h pass$ out ( view1 ,i met sev]al p]sons :o _h se5 bo? ! comet ( t ye> & ! comet ( #ahdc4 ,!y all agre$ 9 say+ t ! resemblance betwe5 ! two comets 0 v close4 ,l ! comet ( #ahdc1 t ( #ahhj _h a s+ul>ly long tail1 & bo? comets 7 rem>kable = ! smallness & dimness ( _! heads4 ,"o obs]v] told me t at times ! head ( ! comet ( #ahhj c\ld b>ely be disc]n$4 ,l ! comets ( #affh & #ahdc1 ! comet ( #ahhj graz$ close pa/ ! sun's surface4 ,l !m1 x 0 b ab\t two h\rs & a half nor? ( ! e>?'s orbit place4 ,_h x only resembl$ ! o!r two 9 ^! rem>kable *>act]i/ics1 ! co9cid5ce w\ld h be5 rem>kable4 ,b ( c\rse ! real evid5ce by :i* ! association betwe5 ! comets 0 %[n 0 ( a m decisive k9d4 ,x 0 n 9 g5]al "* only1 b 9 details1 t ! pa? ( ! comet ( #ahhj resembl$ ^? on :i* ! o!r two comets _h travel$4 ,its pa? _h almo/ exactly ! same slant to ! e>?'s orbit plane z !irs1 cross$ t plane asc5d+ly & desc5d+ly at almo/ exactly ! same po9ts1 & made its ne>e/ approa* to ! sun at v ne>ly ! same place4 ,to ! a/ronom] su* evid5ce is decisive4 ,mr4 ,h9d1 ! sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,nautical ,almanac1 & z s\nd & cauti\s a /ud5t ( cometic a/ronomy z any man liv+1 rem>k$1 s soon z ! resemblance ( ^! comets' pa?s _h be5 asc]ta9$1 t if x 7 m]ely accid5tal1 ! case 0 mo/ unusual2 nay1 x might be describ$ z unique4 ,&1 be x notic$1 he 0 ref]r+ only to ! resemblance betwe5 ! comets ( #ahhj & #ahdc4 ,_h he recall$ at ! "t ! comet ( #affh1 & its closely simil> orbit1 he w\ld h admitt$ t ! d\ble co9cid5ce c\ld n possibly be m]ely casual4 ,b ?is 0 by no means ! end ( ! matt]4 ,inde$1 ?us f>1 al?\gh ! circum/ances 7 /rik+1 !re 0 no?+ to prev5t a/ronom]s f int]pret+ !m z o!r cases ( co9cid5t1 or ne>ly co9cid5t1 cometic pa?s _h be5 int]pret$4 ,h9d & o!rs1 myself includ$1 inf]r$ t ! comets ( #ahhj1 #ahdc1 & #affh 7 simply "o & ! same comet1 ^: return 9 #ahhj probably foll[$ ! return 9 #ahdc aft] a s+le revolution4 ,9 #ahhb1 h[ev]1 two ye>s & a half aft] ! appe>ance ( ! comet ( #ahhj1 ano!r comet came up f ! s\?1 :i* foll[$ 9 ! sun's neighborhood almo/ ! same c\rse z ! comets ( #affh1 #ahdc1 & #ahhj4 ,! pa? x foll[$ 0 n q s close to ^? foll[$ by ! o!r ?ree z ^! _h be5 to ea* o!r1 b yet 0 f> too close to indicate possibly a m]e casual resemblance2 on ! contr>y1 ! resemblance 9 reg>d to %ape1 slope1 & ^? peculi>ities :i* r5d] ?is family ( comets unique 9 ! comet>y sy/em1 0 ( ! close/ & mo/ /rik+ k9d4 ,_m w rememb] ! />tl+ ideas :i* 7 sugge/$1 by ,pr(essor ,piazzi ,smy? respect+ ! port5t\s significance ( ! comet ( #ahhb4 ,he reg>d$ x z confirm+ ! great pyramid's tea*+ 7accord+ to ! views ( or?odox pyramidali/s7 respect+ ! approa*+ end ( ! ,*ri/ian disp5sation4 ,x 0 se5 "u v rem>kable circum/ances1 blaz+ close by ! sun1 )9 a =tnight or ?ree weeks ( ! precise date :i* _h be5 ann\nc$ z m>k+ t critical epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,moreov]1 ev5 view+ ! matt] f a sci5tific /&po9t1 ,pr(essor ,smy? 7:o1 outside 8 pyramidal p>adoxes1 is an a/ronom] ( well des]v$ repute7 c\ld recognize suffici5t reason = reg>d+ ! comet z port5t\s4 ,_m o!rs1 inde$1 bo? 9 ,am]ica & 9 ,europe1 %>$ 8 op9ion 9 ?is respect4 ,a v slight ret>dation ( ! c\rse ( ! comet ( #ahhj1 dur+ its passage close by ! surface ( ! sun1 w\ld h suffic$ to alt] its p]iod ( revolution f ! ?irty-sev5 ye>s assign$ on ! supposition ( its id5tity ) ! comet ( #ahdc to ! two & a half ye>s indicat$ by its app>5t return 9 #ahhb1 & if ?is _h occurr$ 9 #ahhj1 a simil> int]ruption 9 #ahcb w\ld h caus$ its return 9 less ?an two & a half ye>s4 ,?us1 circl+ 9 an ev] n>r[+ 7or r %ort5+7 orbit1 x w\ld pres5tly1 )9 a qu>t] ( a c5tury or s p]haps1 h become s f> entangl$ among ! atmosph]ic matt] ar\nd ! sun t x w\ld h be5 unable to resi/ absolute absorption4 ,:at ! consequ5ces to ! sol> sy/em might h be51 none v5tur$ to sugge/4 ,newton _h express$ 8 belief t ! effects ( su* absorption w\ld be disa/r\s1 b ! physici/s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 bett] acqua9t$ ) ! laws associat+ heat & motion1 7 n s despond5t4 ,only ,pr(essor ,smy? seems to h felt assur$ 7n be+ despond5t1 b confid5t7 t ! comet port5d$1 9 a v decisive way1 ! beg9n+ ( ! end4 ,h[ev]1 we 7 all mi/ak54 ,! comet ( #ahhb retreat$ on su* a c\rse1 & ) su* v>iation ( velocity1 z to %[ t its real p]iod mu/ be measur$1 n by mon?s1 z _h be5 suppos$1 nor ev5 by ye>s1 b by c5turies4 ,probably x w n return till #fjj or #gjj ye>s h pass$4 ,_h ?is n be5 prov$1 we might h be5 n a little p]plex$ by ! return ( app>5tly ! same comet 9 ?is pres5t ye>4 ,a comet 0 discov]$ 9 ! s\? e>ly 9 ,janu>y1 ^: c\rse1 dealt ) by ,pr(essor ,krug]1 "o ( ! mo/ zeal\s ( our comet calculators1 is f\nd to be p>tially id5tical ) t ( ! f\r rem>kable comets we h be5 consid]+4 ,a/ronom]s h n be5 mov$ by ?is new visitant on ! well-worn track z we 7 by ! arrival ( ! comet ( #ahhb1 or z we %\ld h be5 if ei!r ! comet ( #ahhb _h nev] be5 se5 or its pa? _h n be5 %[n to be s wide rang+4 ,:atev] ! comet ( ! pres5t ye> may be1 x 0 n ! comet ( #ahhb return$4 ,no "o ev5 supposes t x 0 ! comet ( #ahhj1 or #ahdc1 or #affh4 ,nev]!less1 rightly appreh5d$1 ! appe>ance ( a comet travel+ on appreciably ! same track z ^? f\r o!r comets is ( extreme int]e/1 & inde$ practically decisive z to ! int]pretation we mu/ place on ^! repeat$ co9cid5ces4 ,obs]ve1 we are absolutely c]ta9 t ! five comets are associat$ toge!r 9 "s way2 b we are z absolutely c]ta9 t !y are n "o & ! same comet :i* _h travel$ along ! same track & return$ aft] a c]ta9 numb] ( circuits4 ,we ne$ n tr\ble ourselves ) ! "q :e!r two or m ( ! comets may n h be5 9 reality "o & ! same body at diff]5t returns4 ,x suffices t !y all five 7 n "o2 s9ce we d$uce precisely ! same conclusion :e!r we reg>d ! five z 9 reality b f\r or ?ree or two4 ,b x may be m5tion$ 9 pass+ z appe>+ altoge!r m probable1 :5 all ! evid5ce is consid]$1 t !re 7 no few] ?an five di/9ct comets1 all travel+ on :at 0 practically ! selfsame track :5 9 ! neighborhood ( ! sun4 ,!re c be b "o int]pretation ( ?is rem>kable fact--a fact really prov$1 be x notic$ 7z ,i & o!rs h ma9ta9$ s9ce ! retreat ( ! comet ( #ahhb71 indep5d5tly ( ! evid5ce suppli$ by ! great s\!rn comet ( ! pres5t ye>4 ,^! comets mu/ all orig9ally h be5 "o comet1 ?\gh n[ !y are di/9ct bodies4 ,= !re is no reasonable way 7inde$1 no possible way7 ( imag9+ ! sep>ate =mation ( two or m comets at diff]5t times :i* %\ld !reaft] travel 9 ! same pa?4 ,no !ory ( ! orig9 ( comets ev] sugge/$1 none ev5 :i* c be imag9$1 c\ld acc\nt = su* a peculi>ity4 ,:]eas1 on ! o!r h&1 we h direct evid5ce %[+ h[ a comet1 orig9ally s+le1 may be trans=m$ into two or m comets travel+ on ! same1 or ne>ly ! same1 track4 ,! comet call$ ,biela's1 :i* _h circuit$ z a s+le comet up to ! ye> #ahdf 7dur+ a p]iod ( unkn[n duration 9 ! pa/--probably dur+ millions ( ye>s71 divid$ !n into two1 & has s9ce brok5 up into s _m p>ts t ea* cometic fragm5t is sep>ately undisc]nible4 ,! two comets into :i* ,biela's divid$1 9 #ahdf1 7 wat*$ long en\gh to %[ t _h _! sep>ate exi/5ce cont9u$ 7visibly71 !y w\ld h be5 f\nd1 9 ! fullness ( "t1 travel+ at di/ances v f> ap>t1 ?\gh on ne>ly ! same orbit4 ,! di/ance betwe5 !m1 :i* 9 #ahdf _h increas$ only to ab\t a qu>t] ( a million ( miles1 _h 9 #aheb increas$ to five times t space4 ,probably a few ?\s&s ( ye>s w\ld h suffic$ to set ^! comets s f> ap>t 7ow+ to "s slight diff]5ce ( velocity1 initiat$ at ! mom5t ( _! sep>ation7 t :5 "o w\ld h be5 at its ne>e/ to ! sun1 ! o!r w\ld h be5 at its f>!/ f him4 ,if we c\ld n[ disc]n ! sep>ate fragm5ts ( ! comet1 we %\ld d\btless recognize a process 9 progress by :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( _m c5turies1 ! sep>ate cometic bodies w be dissem9at$ all r\nd ! common orbit4 ,we "k1 fur!r1 t already su* a process has be5 at "w on portions remov$ f ! comet _m c5turies ago1 = z our e>? passes ?r\gh ! track ( ?is comet %e enc\nt]s millions ( meteoric bodies :i* are travel+ 9 ! comet's orbit1 & once =m$ "p ( ! sub/ance ( a comet d\btless mu* m di/+ui%$ 9 appe>ance ?an ,biela's4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ?is is ! true explanation ( ! orig9 ( t family ( comets1 five ( ^: memb]s return$ to ! neighborhood ( ! sun 7possibly _! p>5t7 9 ! ye>s #affh1 #ahdc1 #ahhj1 #ahhb1 & #ahhg4a ,footnote #a3 ,x may be int]e/+ to comp>e ! orbital elem5ts ( ! five comets above dealt )4 ,!y may be pres5t$ z foll[s2 b x %\ld be notic$ t ! det]m9ations mu/ be reg>d$ z r\gh 9 ! case ( ,comets ,i4 & ,v41 z ! obs]vations 7 insuffici5t = exact det]m9ation ( ! elem5ts3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ #affh4 #ahdc4 #ahhj4 #ahhb4 #ahhg4 ,p]ih4 ,passage4 ,feb4 #bi ,feb4 #bg ,jan4 #bg ,sep4 #ag ,jan4 #aa ,log4 ,p]4 ,di/4 #g4fgba #g4hcie #g4ggad #g4hhie #h4afdd ,long4 ,p]4 #hj #ae' #gc #cj' #df #gd #aa' #ac #ee #cg' #bi #hi #da' ,long4 ,node4 #ceg #ag'cee #df' #dhcef #ag' #dcdf #a' #bgcei #da' ,incl9ation4 #abe #eh'adc #a' #caadc #g' #caada #ei' #djada #af' ,ecc5tricity4 #j4iiii #j4iiia #j4iiie #j4iii 444444 ,calculator4 ,h5d]son ,plantam\r ,mey] ,kreutz ,f9lay ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,b x is n m]ely z ?us expla9+ :at _h be5 a mo/ p]plex+ problem t ,i h dealt ) ! evid5ce suppli$ by ! practical id5tity ( ^! five comets' orbits4 ,:5 once we recognize t ?is1 & ?is only1 c be ! explanation ( ! associat$ gr\p ( five comets1 we p]ceive t v int]e/+ & important light has be5 ?r[n on ! subject ( comets g5]ally4 ,to beg9 )3 :at an amaz+ comet t mu/ h be5 f :i* ^! five1 & we "k n h[ _m m1 7 =m$ by disaggregative processes--probably by ! divell5t action ( repulsive =ces ex]t$ by ! sun6 ,^? :o rememb] ! comets ( #ahdc & #ahhb z !y appe>$ :5 at _! full spl5dor w be able to imag9e h[ noble an appe>ance a comet w\ld pres5t :i* 0 =m$ ( ^! comb9$ toge!r 9 "o4 ,b ! comet ( #ahhj 0 describ$ by all :o saw x 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e z mo/ rem>kable 9 appe>ance1 despite ! fa9tness ( its head4 ,! great s\!rn comet ( ! pres5t ye> 0 a /rik+ object 9 ! skies1 ?\gh x %[$ ! same weakness ab\t ! head4 ,t ( #affh 0 probably z rem>kable 9 appe>ance z ev5 ! comet ( #ahhb4 ,a comet =m$ by comb9+ all ^! toge!r w\ld c]ta9ly surpass 9 magnific5ce all ! comets ev] obs]v$ by a/ronom]s4 ,& !n1 :at enorm\s p]iods ( "t mu/ h be5 requir$ to di/ribute ! fragm5ts ( a s+le comet s widely t "o w\ld be f\nd return+ to its p]ihelion m ?an two c5turies aft] ano!r6 ,:5 ,i spoke ( "o memb] ( ! ,biela gr\p be+ 9 aphelion :5 ano!r w\ld be 9 p]ihelion1 ,i 0 speak+ ( a diff]5ce ( only ?ree & "o-?ird ye>s 9 "t2 & ev5 t w\ld require ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,b ! scatt]$ cometic bodies :i* return$ to ! sun's neighborhood 9 #affh & #ahhg speak probably ( millions ( ye>s :i* h pass$ s9ce fir/ ?is comet 0 =m$4 ,x w\ld be a matt] ( curi\s inquiry to det]m9e :at may h be5 ! condition ( our sun1 :at ev5 8 volume1 at t remote epo* 9 hi/ory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,isolation ,,( ,,fluor9e4 ,! elem5t fluor9e has at la/ be5 successfully isolat$1 & its *ief *emical & physical prop]ties det]m9$4 ,_m *emi/s1 notably ,f>aday1 ,gore1 ,pflaund]1 & ,braun]1 h endeavor$ to prep>e ?is elem5t 9 ! free /ate1 b all attempts h hi!rto prov$ futile4 ,m4 ,moissau1 aft] a long s]ies ( rese>*es ) ! fluorides ( phosphorus1 & ! highly poison\s ars5ic trifluoride1 has f9ally be5 able to lib]ate fluor9e 9 ! gase\s /ate f anhydr\s hydr(luoric acid by electrolysis4 ,?is acid 9 ! pure /ate is n an electrolyte1 b :5 potassium fluoride is dissolv$ 9 x1 a curr5t f n9ety ,buns5 elem5ts decomposes x1 evolv+ hydrog5 f ! negative & fluoride f ! positive electrode4 ,illu/ration3 77 7-7 _/,a _/,a _/ ---- ----- _/_/ ,f ,h - -- - - -- - - - - - - -- - _/ - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - _/_/ _/ ,! app>atus employ$ 9 ?is process is con/ruct$ ( plat9um1 & is made 9 ! =m ( a ,u tube1 z %[n 9 ! accompany+ illu/ration1 ) fluorsp> /opp]s1 ?r\gh :i* ! batt]y t]m9als1 made ( plat9um iridium alloy1 are l$4 ,! gas is lib]at$ at ab\t ! rate ( two lit]s p] h\r1 & has v p[]ful *emical prop]ties4 ,x smells some:at l hypo*lor\s acid1 et*es dry glass1 & decomposes wat]1 lib]at+ ozone1 & =m+ hydr(luoric acid4 ,! non-metallic elem5ts1 ) ! exception ( *lor9e1 oxyg51 nitrog51 & c>bon1 comb9e directly ) x1 evolv+ 9 mo/ cases bo? light & heat4 ,x comb9es ) hydrog51 ev5 9 ! d>k1 )\t ! addition ( any ext]nal en]gy1 & conv]ts mo/ metals into _! fluorides4 ,gold & plat9um are n attack$ 9 ! cold1 b :5 g5tly heat$ are easily corrod$4 ,m]cury readily dissolves ! gas1 =m+ ! proto*loride2 iron wire also completely absorbs ! gas1 :ile p[d]$ antimony & lead take fire 9 x4 ,x is necess>y 9 ! electrolysis ( ! liquid hydr(luoric acid to cool ! electrolytic cell by means ( me?yl *loride to -#ej ,c4 ,fluor9e appe>s to ?us fully confirm ! pr$ictions :i* h be5 made by *emi/s conc]n+ its prop]ties4 ,x is by f> !1 mo/ en]getic ( all ! kn[n elem5ts1 & its position 9 ! halog5 s]ies is e/abli%$ by its prop]ty ( n lib]at+ iod9e f ! iodides ( potassium1 m]cury1 & lead1 & also ( sett+ free *lor9e f potassium *loride4 ,) iod9e x appe>s to =m a fluoride4 ,no comp\nd ) oxyg5 has yet be5 obta9$4--,indu/ries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,app>atus ,,= ,,prep>+ ,,sulphur\s1 ,,c>bonic1 ,,& ,,phosphoric ,,anhydrides4 ,,by ,h4,n4 ,,w>r51 ,,rese>* ,,analy/4 ,hav+ _h occasion to prep>e a quantity ( sulphur\s anhydride1 = ! purpose ( r$uc+ *romates previ\s to _! analysis1 ,i made use ( ! foll[+ app>atus1 z repres5t$ 9 ! accompany+ figure4 ,x consi/s ( a glass vessel1 ,a1 provid$ ) ?ree tubul>s1 o!rwise resembl+ a l>ge ,wolff bottle1 ! l>ge tube1 ,b1 be+ provid$ ) a /opp] = ! purpose ( introduc+ pieces ( sulphur f "t to "t into ! small di%1 ,c1 int5d$ = its reception1 & f$ ) air by means ( ! deliv]y tube1 ,d1 ?us all[+ ! /ream ( gas caus$ by ! consumption ( ! sulphur to escape by means ( ! exit tube1 ,e1 to ! vessel desir$ to receive x4 ,illu/ration ,9 us+ ! app>atus ! sulphur is fir/ k9dl$ by introduc+ a r$ hot wire ?r\gh ! tube1 ,b1 & replac+ ! /opp] t has be5 mom5t>ily remov$ = ! introduction ( ! same4 ,a slight bla/ is n[ ma9ta9$ f ! bell[s t are 9 connection ) ! pipe1 ,d1 until ! :ole ( ! sulphur is ?or\ghly k9dl$1 :5 a some:at m p[]ful bla/ may be appli$4 ,:5 ! app>atus above describ$ is 9 full work+ ord]1 f #b to #c lb4 ( sodium c>bonate may be conv]t$ into sodium sulphite 9 less ?an half an h\r1 or sev]al gallons ( wat] saturat$4 ,i h also on connect+ ! app>atus ) a p[]ful refrig]ator obta9$ 9 a %ort "t a l>ge quantity ( liquid ,,s#b4 ,x w be f\nd advantage\s1 h[ev]1 dur+ ! prep>ation ( sulphur\s anhydride1 to employ a lay] ( wat] cov]+ ! bottom ( ! vessel to ab\t #a in* 9 dep?4 ,c>bonic anhydride & phosphoric anhydride may also be readily obta9$ 9 any desir$ quantity by slight alt]ation2 b 9 case ( phosphorus ! air mu/ be all[$ to ent] only g5tly1 s9ce a rapid curr5t w\ld at all times det]m9e ! fracture ( ! vessel4--,*em4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,atoms ,,9 ,,space ,,9 ,,organic ,,molecules4#a ,footnote #a3 ,ueb] die raumli*e ,anordnung d] ,atome 9 organis*5 ,molekul51 & ihre ,be/immung 9 geometris*-isom]5 ungesattigt5 ,v]b9dung54 ,von ,johannes ,wislic5us4--,abh&lung5 d] ma!malis*-physis*5 ,klasse d] ,konigl4 ,sa*sis*5 ,gesells*aft d] ,wiss5e*aft54 ,b& ,,xiv41 ,no4 #a4 ,! expression *emical /ructure1 z commonly us$ by *emi/s1 has1 z is well kn[n1 no?+ to d ) ! arrangem5t ( atoms 9 space4 ,! /ructural =mula does n pr(ess to repres5t spatial relations1 b simply ! connections :i*1 aft] a c>eful /udy ( ! trans=mations & modes ( =mation ( ! comp\nd repres5t$1 are believ$ to exi/ betwe5 ! atoms4 ,nev]!less1 al?\gh we d n commonly consid] ! "q ( space relations1 x is cle> t atoms mu/ h "s def9ite positions 9 space 9 ! molecules1 & ! only reason :y we d n repres5t ^! positions is because we "k practically no?+ ab\t !m4 ,! mo/ def9ite sugge/ion conc]n+ space relations ( atoms :i* has be5 made is t ( ,le ,bel & ,van't ,h(f4 ,! well kn[n hypo!sis ( ^! au?ors 0 put =w>d to acc\nt = a c]ta9 k9d ( s-call$ physical isom]ism :i* %[s itself 9 ! action ( sub/ances ^u pol>iz$ light4 ,s9ce ?is hypo!sis 0 propos$1 ! numb] ( cases ( abnormal isom]ism1 t is to say1 ( cases ( isom]ism :i* _c be acc\nt$ = by ! commonly accept$ me?od ( expla9+ /ructure1 has increas$ to a consid]able ext5t1 & ! necessity = "s new hypo!sis1 or = "s modification ( ! old ones1 has come to be pretty g5]ally recogniz$4 ,among ! cases ( isom]ism :i* x is at lea/ difficult to expla9 by ! aid ( ! prevail+ views are ^? ( maleic & fum>ic acids2 citraconic & mesaconic acids2 c]ta9 halog5 d]ivatives ( crotonic acid & ( c9namic acid2 & c\m>ic & c\m>9ic acids4 ,m ?an "o hypo!sis has be5 propos$ to acc\nt = ^! cases ( isom]ism1 b no "o has %[n itself to be entirely satisfactory4 ,q rec5tly ,johannes ,wislic5us1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,liepsic1 has made :at has ! appe>ance ( be+ an important contribution t[>d ! solution ( ! problem ref]r$ to4 ,! au?or %[s t _m ( ! facts kn[n 9 reg>d to ! relations betwe5 maleic & fum>ic acids1 & ! o!r sub/ances :i* furni% examples ( abnormal isom]ism1 may be expla9$ by ! aid ( an ext5sion ( ! ,le ,bel-,van't ,h(f hypo!sis4 ,x is difficult )\t ! aid ( models to give a cle> idea conc]n+ ! hypo!sis ( ,wislic5us1 b "s idea ( x may be ga9$ f ! foll[+4 ,if we suppose a c>bon atom to ex]t its aff9ities 9 ! directions ( ! solid angles ( a tetrah$ron1 z is done 9 ! ,le ,bel-,van't ,h(f hypo!sis1 !n1 :5 two c>bon atoms unite1 z 9 e?ane1 ! union w be betwe5 two solid angles ( two tetrah$rons4 ,if ! two c>bon atoms unite by ! e?yl5e k9d ( union1 ! union w be along a l9e correspond+ to "o ( ! edges ( ea* tetrah$ron4 ,9 ! =m] case1 9 :i* s+le union exi/s1 ! two p>ts ( ! molecule repres5t$ by ! two tetrah$rons c be suppos$ to be capable ( revolv+ ar\nd an axis ei!r 9 ! same direction or 9 opposite directions4 ,?is axis corresponds to ! /raight l9e jo9+ ! two c>bon atoms4 ,9 ! case 9 :i* d\ble union exi/s no su* revolution is possible4 ,aga91 if1 by addition to an unsaturat$ comp\nd l e?yl5e1 a saturat$ comp\nd is =m$1 ! k9d ( union betwe5 ! c>bon atoms is *ang$1 & ! possibility ( revolution ( ! two p>ts ( ! comp\nd is giv54 ,:e!r su* revolution take place or n w be det]m9$ l>gely by ! /ructure ( ! comp\nd4 ,! t5d5cy w be = ^? p>ts ( ! molecule :i* h ! greate/ specific aff9ity = "o ano!r to take ^? positions 9 :i* !y are ne>e/ to "o ano!r4 ,?us1 suppose t *lor9e is add$ to e?yl5e4 ,by foll[+ ! *ange on ! model1 x is se5 t 9 ! result+ figure ! two *lor9e atoms 9 e?yl5e *loride are situat$ at angles ( ! two tetrah$rons :i* are ne>e/ ea* o!r4 ,b *lor9e has a /rong] aff9ity = hydrog5 ?an x has = *lor9e1 & !re=e ea* *lor9e atom w\ld t5d to get z ne> a hydrog5 atom z possible4 ,?is involves a p>tial revolution ( ! two tetrah$rons 9 opposite directions ar\nd _! common axis4 ,s also hydrog5 w\ld t5d to take a position z ne> z possible to hydroxyl & to c>boxyl1 :ile hydroxyl w\ld avoid hydroxyl1 & c>boxyl w\ld avoid c>boxyl4 ,^! views are sugge/$ z a result ( a c>eful application ( ! orig9al ,le ,bel-,van't ,h(f hypo!sis1 & are1 ( c\rse1 ( little value unless !y c be %[n to be 9 accordance ) ! facts4 ,! *ief m]it ( ! "w ( ,wislic5us consi/s 9 ! fact t he has %[n t a l>ge numb] ( ph5om5a :i* h be5 obs]v$ 9 ! /udy ( su* cases ( isom]ism z 7 m5tion$ above f9d a ready explanation 9 t]ms ( ! new hypo!sis1 :]eas = mo/ ( ^! ph5om5a no explanation :atev] has ?us f> be5 pres5t$4 ,! mo/ m>k$ case pres5t$ is t ( maleic & fum>ic acids4 ,"o by "o1 ! au?or discusses ! trans=mations ( ^! acids & _! sub/itution products1 & becomes to ?is conclusion3 ,!re is n to my k a s+le fact kn[n 9 reg>d to ! relations betwe5 fum>ic & maleic acids :i* is n expla9$ by ! aid ( ! above geometrical consid]ations1 n "o :i* does n cle>ly support ! new hypo!sis4 ,among ! facts :i* he discusses 9 ! light ( ! hypo!sis are ^!3 ,! =mation ( fum>ic & maleic acids f malic acid2 ! quantitative trans=mation ( maleic into fum>ic acid by contact ) /rong acids2 ! trans=mation ( ! e!real salts ( maleic acid into ^? ( fum>ic acid by ! action ( a m9ute quantity ( free iod9e2 ! =mation ( brommaleic acid & hydrobromic acid f ! dibromsucc9ic acid =m$ by ! addition ( two brom9e atoms to fum>ic acid2 ! =mation ( dibromsucc9ic acid f brommaleic acid & ( isodibromsucc9ic acid f bromfum>ic acid by ! action ( fum+ hydrobromic acid2 ! conv]sion ( brommaleic acid into fum>ic & !n into succ9ic acid by ! action ( sodium amalgam2 ! =mation ( "o & ! same tribromsucc9ic acid by ! action ( brom9e on brommaleic & on bromfum>ic acid2 & f9ally1 ! conv]sion ( maleic into inactive t>t>ic acid1 & ( fum>ic into racemic acid by potassium p]manganate4 ,all ^! facts are %[n to f9d a ready explanation by ! aid ( ! new hypo!sis4 ,fur!r1 x is %[n t ! decompositions ( ! salts ( c]ta9 halog5 d]ivatives ( organic acids1 :i* give up halog5 salt & c>bon dioxide1 z well z ! =mation ( lactones & ( anhydrides ( dibasic acids1 are 9 p]fect h>mony ) ! hypo!sis4 ,b ! only way to get a cle> conception 9 reg>d to ! mass ( mat]ial :i* ! au?or has br\ght toge!r & :i* he has %[n to support 8 hypo!sis is by a c>eful /udy ( ! orig9al pap]1 & ! object ( ?is notice is ma9ly to call ! att5tion ( ,am]ican *emi/s to x4 ,z to ! "q :at value to atta* to ! speculations :i* ,wislic5us has br\ght to our notice1 x is difficult to give any b a g5]al answ]4 ,no "o c well h a great] fe> ( m]e speculation1 :i* is indulg$ 9 indep5d5tly ( ! facts1 ?an ! writ] ( ?is notice4 ,great h>m has be5 done *emi/ry1 & probably e o!r bran* ( k1 by unw>rant$ speculation1 & e "o :o has look$ into ! matt] kn[s h[ extremely difficult x is to emancipate "o's self f ! influ5ce ( a plausible hypo!sis1 ev5 :5 x c be %[n t x is n 9 accordance ) ! facts4 ,x behooves e "o1 !re=e1 be=e accept+ a new hypo!sis1 no matt] h[ fasc9at+ x may appe> at fir/ sight1 to look c>efully into ! facts1 & to endeavor to det]m9e indep5d5tly :e!r x is well f\nd$ or n4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is "s dang] to be appreh5d$ f a t5d5cy1 sometimes obs]v$1 to d5\nce ev]y?+ speculative1 no matt] h[ broad ! basis ( facts ^u :i* x re/s may be4 ,)\t legitimate speculation1 x is cle> t !re c\ld be no great progress 9 any subject4 ,z f> z ! hypo!sis "u consid]ation is conc]n$1 ! writ] is firmly ( ! op9ion t x is likely to prove ( great value 9 deal+ ) a l>ge numb] ( *emical facts1 & t1 z x sugge/s _m l9es ( rese>*1 x w und\bt$ly 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s ex]t a pr(\nd influ5ce on *emi/ry4 ,:e!r ! evid5ce :i* w be accumulat$ w or w n confirm ! view t ! tetrah$ron =m is *>act]i/ic ( ! simple/ molecules ( c>bon comp\nds is n ! mo/ important "q to be ask$ "u ! circum/ances4 ,we %\ld r ask :e!r ! te/+ ( ! hypo!sis is or is n likely to br+ u ne>] to ! tru?4 ,x is a proposition t admits ( no d5ial t a hypo!sis :i* c be te/$ by exp]im5t1 & :i* sugge/s l9es ( "w & /imulates work]s to foll[ !m1 is a ga9 to sci5ce1 no matt] :at ! ultimate fate ( ! hypo!sis may be4--,am]4 ,*em4 ,j\r4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,great ,,w>m? ,,9 ,,pap]4 ,x %\ld be ?or\ghly und]/ood by all t any common pap]1 co>se wrapp+ pap]1 new or old newspap]s1 etc41 are admirable to keep out cold or keep 9 w>m?4 ,! blood ( all dome/ic animals1 z well z ( human be+s1 mu/ be always kept v ne> #ih degrees1 j z mu* 9 w9t] z 9 summ]4 ,& ?is heat always comes f )9 ! body1 :5ev] ! atmosph]e is n above #ih degrees temp]ature4 ,s long z ! air is cool] ?an ?is1 ! heat produc$ inside ! body is escap+4 ,heat seeks a level4 ,if !re is m 9 "o ( two bodies or sub/ances side by side1 ! heat w pass f ! w>m] into ! cold]1 until !y are bo? ( ! same temp]ature4 ,mov+ air c>ries away va/ly m heat ?an /ill air4 ,! ?9 film ( air next to ! body soon gets w>m f x4 ,b if t air is mov$ along1 sl[ly or swiftly1 by a breeze1 be x ev] s g5tle1 new cool] air takes its place1 & ab/racts m heat f ! body4 ,any?+ t keeps ! air next to ! bodies ( m5 & ( animals f mov+1 *ecks ! escape ( heat4 ,! ?9ne/ pap] s]ves to keep ! air quiet4 ,a newspap] laid on a b$ acts mu* z a cov]lid to keep a film or lay] ( air quiet1 & ?us less heat escapes f ! bodies ( ! sleep]s4 ,if pap] is pa/$ up ov] ! cracks ( a h\se1 or ( a b>n or /able1 or "u ! joi/s ( a h\se floor1 x has j ! same effect4 ,e p]son :o keeps animals w f9d x a wond]ful & pay+ protection to !m1 to put aga9/ ! walls "o1 two1 ?ree1 or m lay]s ( newspap]s dur+ cold wea!r4 ,if a p]son 9 rid+ f9ds 8 g>m5ts too cool1 a newspap] plac$ "u ! coat or ve/1 or "u or ov] ! tr\s]s1 ev5 if only on ! side next ! w9d1 w d a great deal to *eck ! outfl[ ( heat1 & keep him w>m4 ,two or ?ree ?icknesses ( newspap] crumpl$ a little1 & put "u ! coat or ov]coat1 are almo/ z effective 9 keep+ 9 w>m? z an extra g>m5t4 ,a slight crumpl+ keeps !m a little sep>ate1 & makes additional ?9 lay]s ( air4 ,fur!r3 ,heat does n pass ?r\gh films ( /ill air4 ,fibr\s wool5s1 furs1 loosely wov5 cotton1 d[n1 & ! l1 conta9 a great deal ( air conf9$ 9 ! me%es1 & are !re=e excell5t cons]v]s ( heat4 ,d\ble walls ( /one1 brick1 or wood1 or ev5 ( wall or ro(+ pap]1 d\ble glass1 d\ble lay]s ( any?+ t w h ?9 lay]s ( /ill air betwe5 !m1 prev5t ! escape ( heat greatly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,ar*itects ,,& ,,build]s ,,edition4 #b4ej ,a ,ye>4 ,s+le ,copies1 #be ,cts4 ,?is is a ,special ,edition ( ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican1 issu$ mon?ly--on ! fir/ day ( ! mon?4 ,ea* numb] conta9s ab\t =ty l>ge qu>to pages1 equal to ab\t two hundr$ ord9>y book pages1 =m+1 practically1 a l>ge & spl5did ,,magaz9e ,,( ,,ar*itecture1 ri*ly adorn$ ) elegant plates 9 colors & ) f9e engrav+s1 illu/rat+ ! mo/ int]e/+ examples ( mod]n ,ar*itectural ,con/ruction & alli$ subjects4 ,a special feature is ! pres5tation 9 ea* numb] ( a v>iety ( ! late/ & be/ plans = private resid5ces1 city & c\ntry1 includ+ ^? ( v mod]ate co/ z well z ! m exp5sive4 ,draw+s 9 p]spective & 9 color are giv51 toge!r ) full ,plans1 ,specifications1 ,co/s1 ,bills ( ,e/imate1 & ,%eets ( ,details4 ,no o!r build+ pap] conta9s s _m plans1 details1 & specifications regul>ly pres5t$ z ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican4 ,hundr$s ( dwell+s h already be5 erect$ on ! v>i\s plans we h issu$ dur+ ! pa/ ye>1 & _m o!rs are 9 process ( con/ruction4 ,ar*itects1 ,build]s1 & ,own]s w f9d ?is "w valuable 9 furni%+ fre% & useful sugge/ions4 ,all :o contemplate build+ or improv+ homes1 or erect+ /ructures ( any k9d1 h be=e !m 9 ?is "w an almo/ endless s]ies ( ! late/ & be/ examples f :i* to make selections1 ?us sav+ "t & money4 ,_m o!r subjects1 includ+ ,sew]age1 ,pip+1 ,light+1 ,w>m+1 ,v5tilat+1 ,decorat+1 ,lay+ out ( ,gr\nds1 etc41 are illu/rat$4 ,an ext5sive ,comp5dium ( ,manufactur]s' ,ann\ncem5ts is also giv51 9 :i* ! mo/ reliable & approv$ ,build+ ,mat]ials1 ,goods1 ,ma*9es1 ,tools1 & ,appliances are describ$ & illu/rat$1 ) addresses ( ! mak]s1 etc4 ,! fullness1 ri*ness1 *eapness1 & conv5i5ce ( ?is "w h won = x ! ,,l>ge/ ,,circulation ( any ,ar*itectural publication 9 ! _w4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publi%]s1 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,a ,catalogue ( valuable books on ,ar*itecture1 ,build+1 ,c>p5try1 ,masonry1 ,heat+1 ,w>m+1 ,light+1 ,v5tilation1 & all bran*es ( indu/ry p]ta9+ to ! art ( ,build+1 is suppli$ free ( *>ge1 s5t to any address4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,build+ ,,plans ,,& ,,specifications4 ,9 connection ) ! publication ( ! ,,build+ ,,edition ( ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican1 ,messrs4 ,munn ,co4 furni% plans & specifications = build+s ( e k9d1 includ+ ,*ur*es1 ,s*ools1 ,/ores1 ,dwell+s1 ,c>riage ,h\ses1 ,b>ns1 etc4 ,9 ?is "w !y are assi/$ by able & exp]i5c$ ar*itects4 ,full plans1 details1 & specifications = ! v>i\s build+s illu/rat$ 9 ?is pap] c be suppli$4 ,^? :o contemplate build+1 or :o wi% to alt]1 improve1 ext5d1 or add to exi/+ build+s1 :e!r w+s1 por*es1 bay w9d[s1 or attic rooms1 are invit$ to communicate ) ! und]sign$4 ,our "w ext5ds to all p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,e/imates1 plans1 & draw+s promptly prep>$4 ,t]ms mod]ate4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t4 ,,publi%$ ,,weekly4 ,t]ms ( ,subscription1 #e a ye>4 ,s5t by mail1 po/age prepaid1 to subscrib]s 9 any "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or ,canada4 ,six doll>s a ye>1 s5t1 prepaid1 to any =eign c\ntry4 ,all ! back numb]s ( ,,! ,,supplem5t1 f ! comm5cem5t1 ,janu>y #a1 #ahgf1 c be _h4 ,price1 #aj c5ts ea*4 ,all ! back volumes ( ,,! ,,supplem5t c likewise be suppli$4 ,two volumes are issu$ ye>ly4 ,price ( ea* volume1 #b4ej /it*$ 9 pap]1 or #c4ej b\nd 9 /iff cov]s4 ,,comb9$ ,,rates4--,"o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican & "o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t1 "o ye>1 po/paid1 #g4jj4 ,a lib]al disc\nt to booksell]s1 news ag5ts1 & canvass]s4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publi%]s1 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pat5ts4 ,9 connection ) ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,,co4 are solicitors ( ,am]ican & ,=eign ,pat5ts1 h _h #db ye>s' exp]i5ce1 & n[ h ! l>ge/ e/abli%m5t 9 ! _w4 ,pat5ts are obta9$ on ! be/ t]ms4 ,a special notice is made 9 ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ( all inv5tions pat5t$ ?r\gh ?is ,ag5cy1 ) ! 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